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 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
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 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPAEDIA: 
 
 OR 
 
 DICTIONARY 
 
 OF 
 
 BIBLICAL, UISTORICAL, DOCTRINAL, AND PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 
 
 BASED ON THE REAL-ENGYKLOPADIE OF HERZOG, PUTT AND HAUCK. 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 PHILIP SCHAFF, D.D., LL.D., 
 
 Professor in the Union Tlieological Seminary, Neio York. 
 
 ASSOCIATE EDITORS : 
 
 REV. SAMUEL M. JACKSON and REV. D. S. SCHAFF, 
 
 TOGETHKIl WITH AN 
 
 EICYCLOPiEDlA OF LIVING DIVINES 
 
 AND 
 
 CHRISTIAN WORKERS 
 
 OF ALL DENOMINATIONS IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 REV. PHILIP SCHAFF, D.D., LL.D., 
 
 AND 
 
 REV. SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON, M.A. 
 
 THIRD EDITION REVISED AND ENLARGED. 
 Vol. I. 
 
 FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY, 
 
 Toronto. ^^^^' London. 
 
 New YoiiK.
 
 CoPYitiGiiT, 18S2, uY Funk & Wagnalls.
 
 
 V. 
 
 PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. 
 
 r I "'HE third edition of tliis Encyclopajdia is at the same time a second revision, and 
 differs from the previous editions in the following particulars : 
 
 1. A number of errors in the minor biographical articles, which had been derived 
 from other books of reference, have been corrected by the use of either the original 
 biographies or Leslie Stephen's monumental Dictionary of National Biofjraphy. 
 
 2. The EncyclopoBdia of Living Divines and Christian Workers, edited by me 
 in conjunction with the Kev. Samuel M. Jackson, which was formerly published sepa- 
 rately, has been incorporated with the main work, so that it now embraces four volumes 
 instead of three. 
 
 3. A large addition has been made to the appended portion, forming a second 
 appendix, by noting in alphabetical and chronological order all important changes in 
 the lives of the respective subjects and additions to their publications from 188G down 
 to the end of December, 1890. 
 
 My recent protracted stay in Europe has given me rare facilities for acquiring au- 
 thentic information concerning the latest as well as prospective literary enterprises, 
 and various items of personal interest. The junior editor has utilized all the biblio- 
 graphical data published down to date. 
 
 This resume of the most recent biography and bibliography will be welcomed 
 by all who have already learned to prize the rich fund of knowledge about living 
 divines contained in the incorporated work and obtainable nowhere else. It greatly 
 increases the value of the main Encyclopaedia, which has been so favorably received 
 by scholars of all denominations in Europe and America, and has taken its place 
 among the reference books of a theological library. 
 
 Philip ScnAFF. 
 New York, March, 1891.
 
 PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION. 
 
 AN encyclopsedia must be reproduced, and adapted to the latest stage of 
 knowledge and literature, at least every ten years. Thanks to a kind public, 
 I am able to issue this Encyclopcedia two years after its completion, in a revised 
 and improved form. 
 
 I sent to nearly all the foreign contributors copies of their articles (besides 
 honorarium., and forty-three complete sets of the Encyclopedia free of charge), with 
 the request to revise them and to bring them down to the present date. In most 
 cases this was done satisfactorily.^ 
 
 The original American articles have also undergone many improvements, with- 
 out materially increasing the size of the work. 
 
 In the mean time, the new edition of Herzog has been nearly completed ; the 
 seventeenth volume (beginning with Westphal) is now in press. 
 
 At the close of the first volume will be found a condensed translation of 
 Harnack's important article upon the DidacliS, which appears in the appendix to 
 Herzog, together with statistics and errata for vols. ii. and iii., which came too late 
 to be used in this edition. 
 
 It is to me a matter of special satisfaction, that the American condensation has 
 not injured, but rather enlarged, the circulation of the German work, so that my 
 friend, the publisher in Leipzig, had to issue recently a new impression of twenty-five 
 hundred copies, and was enabled to send additional honorarium to the contributors. 
 
 Simultaneously with this revised edition appears a Dictionary of Contemporary 
 Divines, as an independent sujiplement, which contains reliable information on 
 living theological writers and Christian workers of Europe and America, kindly 
 furnished by themselves. 
 
 May the revised edition of this Encyclopa;dia, with the supplementary volume, 
 be received with the same favor as the first, and prolong its usefulness until it is 
 superseded by a better work. 
 
 Philip Schaff- 
 
 Nkw York, November, 188G. 
 
 > Of the numerous letters of approval and encouragement received from German scholars and 
 contributors to Herzog, I may be permitted to quote one from the octogenarian Nestor of biblical science 
 in Germany and France, —Professor Reuss, D.D., of Strassburg. 
 
 Stbabsbubo, Feb. 13, 1S35. 
 
 Much esteemed Professor, — I rpccntly received from the Hinrichs' publishing house the set of your Eucyclopadia 
 which you were so liind as to send me. Accept my warmest thanl<s for this worlj, so rich in contents and so beautifully gotten 
 np. It is especially welcome lo me on account of its literary enrichments. My few suggestions touching the revision of my 
 own articles must have reached you some time ago : I sent them off Dec. 27. 
 
 I can only repeat that I am more and more amazed at the literary activity of the English and Anglo-Americans, whici 
 not only pursues independent paths of investigation in the department of theology, but allows not even the least thing to eii? 
 rhat is done in Germany. We must confess, with a blush, that in this latter particular we are far behind you ; and our only 
 eicnse is that English books are for the mo.?t part inaccessible to us on the Continent, on account of the price. 
 
 To wish your EnnjclopaJla merited success, were superfluous. It will without fail lind its own paths, and the first 
 edition will certainly not be suflicient. For my part, I must content myself with the wish ; for I shall see little more of 
 wbut takes place ou earth. 
 
 Accept ray l^indest regards. I remain with sincere and immutable esteem. 
 
 Very cordially yours, EDWARD REC8S.
 
 <ii
 
 PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION 
 
 'T^HE object of the Religious Encyclopedia is to give, in alphabetical order, 
 a summary of the most important information on all branches and topics of 
 theological learning, — exegetical, historical, biographical, doctrinal, and practical, 
 — for the use of ministers, students, and intelligent laymen of all denominations. 
 It will be completed in three volumes. 
 
 The Encyclopedia was suggested by the Real-Unci/Hopadie fiir protestanfische 
 Theologie und Kirche, edited by Drs. J. J. HePvZOG, G. L. Putt, and A. Hauck 
 (Leipzig, 1877 sqq.). This work, with which I have been familiar from its start, as 
 one of the contributors, is universally acknowledged to be an invaluable thesaurus 
 of solid information in all departments of biblical and ecclesiastical learning, under 
 the responsible names of a large number of eminent German and other European 
 scholars. The first edition, edited by Dr. Herzog alone, was begun in 1854, and 
 completed in 1868, in twenty-two volumes. The second edition, thoroughly re- 
 vised and partly rewritten, is now in course of publication, and will be completed 
 in not less than fifteen volumes. A mere translation of this ojnis magnum would 
 not answer the wants of the English and American reader.* While many articles 
 are very long, and of comparatively little interest outside of German}', the depart- 
 ment of English and American church history and biography is, naturally, too 
 limited. For instance, the art. Brilder des gemeinsamen Lebens has 82 pages ; 
 JSherecJit, 35 ; Gnosis, 43 ; Jerusalem, 37 ; Liturgie, 36 ; Luther, 36 ; Mandiier, 17 ; 
 Mani, 36 ; Melanchthon, 54. These articles are all very good ; but a proportionate 
 treatment of important English and American topics which are barely mentioned 
 or altogether omitted, would require a much more voluminous encyclopaedia than 
 the original. In the present work few articles exceed four pages ; but the reader 
 is throughout referred to books where fuller information can be obtained. 
 
 My esteemed friend Dr. Herzog, and his editorial colleagues, — the late Di-. 
 Plitt, who died Sept. 10, 1880, and Professor A. Hauck, who has taken his place, 
 as also the publisher, Mr. H. Rost, who issued the German edition of my Church 
 History — have kindly given me full liberty to make such use of their work in 
 English as I may deem best. It is needless to say that I would not have under- 
 
 * a condensed translation of the first edition was begun in 18G0, in Philadelpliia, but given up with 
 the publication of the second volume, and is now superseded by the reconstrnctiou of the original.
 
 viii PREFACE. 
 
 taken the task without a previous honorable understanding with the German 
 editors and publislier. 
 
 This ExcrcLOPiEDiA, therefore, is not a translation, but a condensed repro- 
 duction and adaptation of all the important German articles, with necessary addi- 
 tions, especially in the literature, and with a large number of new articles by the 
 editors and special contributors. IMore than one-tliird of the work is original. 
 Every article is credited to its author, except the majority of editorial articles, 
 which are unsigned. An apology may be due the German authors for abridging 
 their contributions, but we have studied to give all the essential facts. Dissent- 
 ing opinions, or material additions, are included in brackets. The bibliography 
 has been largely increased throughout, especially by English and American works. 
 Living celebrities are excluded. Denominational articles have been assigned to 
 scholars who represent their denomination in a liberal Christian spirit. On im- 
 portant topics of controversy both sides are given a hearing. It has been the 
 desire of the editors to allow a wide latitude of opinion within the limits of 
 evangelical Christianity. 
 
 All important encyclopaedias besides that of Dr. Herzog, and a large number 
 of books in different languages, have been carefully consulted, but never used 
 without due acknowledgment. Tlie assistant editors have devoted their whole 
 time and strength to the work, in my libraiy, and under my direction. 
 
 I have been fortunate in securing the hearty co-operation of a number of 
 eminent American and English scholars of different denominations and schools 
 of thought, who can speak with authority on the topics assigned them, and will 
 largely increase the original value of this Encyclopedia. 
 
 Philip Sciiafi'-. 
 
 New Youk, September, 1882. 
 
 AUTHORIZATIOK. 
 
 AVE tlie undersigned, Editors .iml Publisher of tlie " Rcal-Encyklopiidio fiir Prot. Tlicologie 
 
 iind Kirche," hereby authorize the Rev. Dr. Schaff of New York to make free use of tliis work 
 
 for the preparation and publication, in the United States and in England, of a similar allhougli 
 
 much sliorter work, under the title "A Religious Eucyclopa;dia, based on the Real-Eucyklopiidie of 
 
 Ilorzog, Plilt, and Ilauck. 
 
 (Signed) 
 
 
 Kid SN'iKN und I,K.ii'/.i(i, DcceiiilifT, 1881.
 
 CONTENTS, 
 
 VOLUME I. 
 
 rAOEfl. 
 
 LrsT OP Wkiters, , XI.-XVL 
 
 Index to the Four Voldmes, XVII. -XLI. 
 
 Index to Encyclopaedia of Living Divines, XLIII.-XLVIII. 
 
 A to D 9-G79 
 
 The DiDACHfi Following 67!) 
 
 VOLUME II. 
 E TO L, 680-1378 
 
 VOLUME III. 
 M TO R, . • 1379-208C 
 
 VOLUME IV. 
 
 S TO Z 20S7-2580 
 
 Appendix to Rbliqious Encyclopaedia 3581-2610 
 
 Analysis 2611-2623 
 
 Pbonouncing Vocabolary, 262.V2629 
 
 Enctclop/Edia of Living Divines: 
 
 Explanatory Note, VIL 
 
 A to Z, 1-250 
 
 First Appendix, 251-271 
 
 Second Appendix 373-296
 
 LIST OF WRITERS. 
 
 The special contributors to the American edition of this work are distinguished by a star. 
 
 •ABBOT, Ezra, D.D., LL.D,, Professor in the Di- 
 vinity School of Harvard University, Cambridge, 
 Mass. (D. 1.S84.) 
 
 ACQUOY, J. G. R., D.D., Profe.s.sor in Leyden. 
 
 •ALEXANDER, Archibald, Ph.D., Professor in 
 Columbia College, New-York City. 
 
 ALT, Heinrich, D.D., Pastor in Berlin. 
 
 •APPLE, Thomas Gilmoke, D.D., President of 
 Franklin and Marshall College, Lancaster, Penn. 
 
 ARCHINARD, Andre, Pastor in Geneva. 
 
 ARNOLD, Friedrich August, D.D., Professor in 
 Halle. (D. 18(J'J.) 
 
 •ATTERBURY, William Wallace, D.D., Secre- 
 tary of the Sabbath Committee, New-York City. 
 
 AUBERLEN, Carl August, D.D., Professor of The- 
 ology in Basel. (D. 1804.) 
 
 •AVERY, Giles B., Mount Lebanon, Columbia 
 County, N.Y. 
 
 •AYRES, Anne, Miss, St. Johnsland, N.Y. 
 
 BACHMANN, Johann, D.D.. Professor in Rostock. 
 
 •BAIRD, Henry Maktyn, D.D., LL.D., Professor 
 in tlie University of the City of New York. 
 
 BALOGH, Franz, D.D., Professor in Debreczin. 
 
 BARDE, Edward, Pastor in Vandoeuvre. 
 
 BAUDISSIN, Count Wolf Wilhelm Friedrich, 
 D.D., Professor of Theology in Marburg. 
 
 BAUR, Wilhelm, Gen. Superintendent, Coblenz. 
 
 BAXMANN, Rudolf, Inspector at Bonn. 
 
 BECK, Carl, Pralat in Schwiibisch Hall. 
 
 BECK, Hermann, Pastor in Osternohe. 
 
 •BEDELL, Gregory Thurston, D.D., Bishop of 
 the Protestant-Episcopal Diocese of Ohio, Cleve- 
 land. 
 
 •BEECHER, Edward, D.D., Brooklyn, N.Y. 
 
 •BEECHER, Willis Jodson, D.D., Professor of He- 
 brew, Theological Seminary, Auburn, N.Y. 
 
 BENBATH, Carl, Ph.D., Professor iu Bonn. 
 
 •BERGER, Daniel, D.D., Dayton, O. 
 
 BERTHEAU, Carl, D.D., Pastor in Hamburg. 
 
 BERTHEAU, Ernst, D.D., Professor of Oriental 
 Pl)ilology in Gijttingen. 
 
 •BEVAN, Llewelyn D., D.D., Pastor in Melbourne, 
 Australia. 
 
 BEYER, JoHANN Heinrich Franz, Pastor in Ned- 
 demin. 
 
 BEYSCHLAG, Willibald, D.D., Professor of The- 
 ology in Halle. 
 
 •BIRD, Frederic Mayer, Rev., Professor in Lehigh 
 University, South Bethlehem, Penn. 
 
 •BJERRING, Nicholas, Rev., New-York City. 
 
 •BLAIKIE, William Garden, D.D., LL.D., Profes- 
 sor in New College, Edinburgh. 
 
 •BLAIR, William, D.D., Dunblane, Scotland. 
 
 •BLISS, George Ripley, D.D., LL.D., Professor of 
 Biblical Exegesis, Crozer Theological Seminary, 
 Chester, Penn. 
 
 BOEHMEB, Eduard, Ph.D., Professor in Strass- 
 burg. 
 
 »B0MBERGER, J. H. a., D.D., Presideotof Ursinns 
 
 College, Freeland, Penn. 
 BONNET, L., Ph.D., Pa.stor in Frankfurt-am-M. 
 •BRIGGS, Charles Augustus, D.D., Professor of 
 
 Hebrew in the Union Theological Seminary, 
 
 New- York City. 
 •BROADUS, John Albert, D.D., LL.D., Professor 
 
 of Theology in the Soutliern Baptist Theological 
 
 Seminary, Louisville, Ky. 
 BROCKHAUS, Carl, Leipzig. 
 *BROWN, Francis, D.D., Professor in the Union 
 
 Tlieological Seminary, New- York City. 
 •BROWNE, John, Rev., Wrentham, Suffolk, Eng. 
 BUCHRUCKER, Dekan in Munich. 
 BUCHSENSCHUTZ, Georg, Pastor in St. Denis. 
 BUNZ, Georu, Ph.D., Pastor in Ohmenhausen. 
 BURGER, C. H. A. von, D.D., Oberlioiisistorialrath 
 
 in Munich. (D. 18»i.) 
 BURGER, Karl, Pastor in Kempten. 
 BUBK, Carl, Pastor in Stuttgart, Wiirttemberg. 
 
 *CAIRNS, John, D.D., Principal of the United Pres- 
 liyterian College, Edinburgh. 
 
 CALAMINUS, Pastor in Elberfeld. 
 
 *CALDERWOOD, Henry, D.D., LL.D., Professor 
 of Moral Philosophy, University of Edinburgh. 
 
 •CALDWELL, Samuel Lunt, D.D., Ex-President 
 of Vassar College, Pouglikeepsie, N.Y. 
 
 •CAPEN, Elmer Hewitt, D.D., President of Tufts 
 College, College Hill, Mass. 
 
 *CARROLL, Henry King, LL.D., New-York City. 
 
 CARSTENS, Propst in Tondern. 
 
 CASSEL, Paulus, D.D., Professor in Berlin. 
 
 •CATTELL, J. P., Miss, Philadelpliia. 
 
 •CATTELL, William Cassiday, D.D., LL.D., Ex- 
 President of Lafayette College, Easton, Penn. 
 
 •CHAMBERS, Talbot Wilson, D.D., LL.D., Col- 
 legiate Reformed Dutch Church, New-York City. 
 
 •CHASE, Thomas, LL.D., President of Haverford 
 College, Montgomery Co., Penn. 
 
 CHRISTLIEB, Theodor, D.D., Professor of Prac- 
 tical Theology in Bonn. 
 
 •CLIFFORD, John, D.D., London. 
 
 •COIT, Thomas Winthrop, D.D., LL.D., Profes.sor 
 in the Berkeley Divinity School, Connecticut. 
 (D. 1885.) 
 
 COMBA, Emilio, D.D., Professor in Florence. 
 
 •COOK, Albert S., Professor in the University of 
 California. 
 
 •CORNING, J. Leonard, Morristown, N.J. 
 
 •COXE, Arthur Cleveland, D.D., LL.D., Bishop 
 of Western New York, Buffalo, N.Y. 
 
 •CREIGHTON, Mandell, D.D., Professor of Church 
 History, University of Camljridge, Eng. 
 
 CREMER, Hermann, D.D., Professor of Theology 
 in Greifswald. 
 
 •CROOKS, George R., D.D., LL.D., Professor of 
 Church History in Drew Theological Seminary, 
 Madison, N.J.
 
 LIST OF WRITERS. 
 
 CUNITZ, E., D.D., Professor of Theology in Strass- 
 
 burK. (D. 1S86.) 
 •CURTISS, Samltel Ives, Ph.D., D.D., Professor of 
 
 Old-Testament Literature, Theological (Congre- 
 
 gatioual) Seminary, Chicago, 111. 
 
 •DABXEY, Robert Lewis, D.D., LL.D., Professor 
 of Philosophy, University of Texas, Austin. 
 
 •DALE, J.iMEs WiLKi.ssoN, D.D., Media, Penn. 
 (D. 18S1.) 
 
 •DALES, John Bl.\kely, D.D., Philadelphia. 
 
 •DE COSTA, Be-njajiI-S Franklin, D.D., New-York 
 City. 
 
 •DEE.MS, C. F.,D.D., LL.D., New-York City. 
 
 DE HOOP SCHEFFER, J. G., D.D., Professor in 
 Amsterdam. 
 
 DELITZSCH, Franz, D.D., Professor of Theology 
 in Leipzig. 
 
 DELITZSCH. Feiedrich, Ph.D., Professor in Leipzig 
 
 •DEMAREST, David D., D.D., Professor in the 
 Theological Seminary, New Brunswick, N.J. 
 
 •DE SCHWEINITZ, Euuard, D.D., Bishop of the 
 Moravian Church, Bethlehem, Penn. 
 
 •DEXTER, Hknry Martyn, D.D., Editor of The 
 Conrjreijalionalist, Boston. 
 
 DIBELIUS, FuANZ, D.D., Konsistorialrath in Dres- 
 den. 
 
 DIESTEL, LuDwio, D.D., Professor of Theology in 
 Tubingen. (D. 1879.) 
 
 DILL.MANN, Christian Fkiedeich Ausust, D.D., 
 Professor of Theology in Berlin. 
 
 DILTHEY, Wilhel3!,D.D., Professor of Philosophy 
 in Berlin. 
 
 DORNER, August, Ph.D., Professor in the Theo- 
 logical Seminary at Wittenberg. 
 
 DORNER, Isaac .Vuoust, D.D., Professor of Theol- 
 ogy in Berlin. (D. 1884.) 
 
 DOfiSCHLAG. Oeoiu;, Pa.stor in Velgast. 
 
 DORTEXRACH, F., Ileidenheim. (D. 186.5.) 
 
 DRYANDER, Hermann, Superintendent in Halle. 
 
 •DUBBS, Josei'H Hknkv, D.D., Professor in Frank- 
 lin and Marshall College, Lancaster, Penu. 
 
 DUCHEMIN, Pastor in Lyons. 
 
 •DUFF, Robert S., M.A., P.istor in Glasgow. 
 
 •DUFFIELD, Samuel \f., Pastor of the Westmin- 
 ster Presbyterian Church, Bloomfield, N.J. 
 
 DU.STERDIECK, Franz, D.D., Oberkonsistorial- 
 rath in Uanover. 
 
 •E.\STON, Pktkii Zaccheus, Missionary in Persia. 
 EBERT, Adolpii, I'h.D., Professor of Philology in 
 
 Ijclpz.lg. 
 EIiR.\RI), .ToiiANN Ilt-iNRirii August, D.D., Pastor 
 
 and Konsistorialrath in Erlangen. 
 KIBACH, R., Pastor In Neuteroth. 
 ENOELHARDT, J. O. v., D.D., Professor of The- 
 ology in Erlangen. (D. 18.W.) 
 ERBKAM, Hkinrk'ii Wii.iiKLM, D.D., Profe.«or of 
 
 Theology in Kiiiilgsberg. (D. Jan. !), 1884.) 
 ERDMANN, CiiiiisiiAN Frikorich David, D.D., 
 
 General Superintendent of the Province of Silc- 
 
 Hia in Tiresjau. 
 EUCKEN, II., Ph.D., Professor of Philosophy in 
 
 .lena. 
 EULEB, Carl, Ph.D., Berlin. 
 
 •FISHER, George Paek, D.D., LL.D., Professor of 
 Church History in Yale Theological Seminary, 
 New Haven, Conn. 
 
 •FLEMING, D. Hat, Aberdeen. 
 
 •FLICHTNER, George Frederick, Rev., Secre- 
 tary for Domestic Missions (Protestant-Episcopal 
 Church), New-York City. 
 
 FLIEDNER, Fritz, Missionary in Madrid. 
 
 •FLINT, Robert, D.D , LL.D., Professor of The- 
 ology in the University of Edinburgh. 
 
 FLOTO, Hartwiq, D.D., Berlin. 
 
 •FOSTER, Robert Verrell, Professor in the Theo- 
 logical School, Cumberland University, Lebanon, 
 Teun. 
 
 •FOX, Norman, Rev., New-York City. 
 
 FR.ANK, Franz Hermann Reinhold, D.D., Pro- 
 fessor of Theology in Erlangen. 
 
 FRANK, Gustav Wilhelm, D.D., Professor of The- 
 ology in Vienna. 
 
 FREYBE, Albert, Ph.D., Gymnasium Upper-class 
 Teacher in Parchim. 
 
 FRIEDBERG, Emil, Ph.D., Professor of Canon Law 
 in Leipzig. 
 
 FRITZSCHE, Otto Fridolin, D.D., Profes.sor of 
 Theology in Ziirich. 
 
 FRONMULLER, P. F. C, Pastor in Reutlingen. 
 (D. 1877.) 
 
 •FROTHINGHAM, Octavius Brooks, Rev., Boston, 
 Mass. 
 
 GALIFFE, Eduard, D.D., Professor in Geneva. 
 GASS, Wilhelm, D.D., Professor of Theology in 
 
 Heidelberg. 
 •G.'VST, Frederick Augustus, D.D., Professor in 
 
 the Theological Seminary, Lancaster, Penn. 
 GEBH.A.RDT, Oskar von, D.D., Librarian of the 
 
 Royal Library, Berlin. 
 GEFFCKEN, Johann, Ph.D., Pastor in Hamburg. 
 
 (D. -.) 
 GELPKE, E. T., D.D., Professor of Theology in Bern. 
 •GERHART, Emanuel Vooel, D.D., Professor in 
 
 the Theological Seminary, Lancaster, Penn. 
 GERM.ANN, WiLHELM, Pli.D., Pastor in Winds- 
 
 heim. 
 GERTH VAN WIJK, J. A., Pastor at The Hague. 
 •GILES, Chauncey, Rev., Philadelphia. 
 •GILFILLAN, Joseph A., Rev., Protestant-Episco- 
 
 p.al Missionary to the Indians, Minnesota. 
 GILLET, J. F. A., D.D., Court-Preacher in Breslau. 
 •OILMAN, Arthur, M.A., Cambriilgc, Mass. 
 •OILMAN, Daniel Coit, LL.D., President of Johns 
 
 Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. 
 •OILMAN, Edward Whitino, D.D., Secretary of 
 
 the American Bible Society, New-York City. 
 •GOEBEL, Julius, Ph.D., New-York City. 
 GOEBEL, Karl, Ph.D., Konsistorialrath in Posen. 
 
 (D. 1881.) 
 GOEBEL, Maximilian. (D. — .) 
 •G()1>ET, FRfcofeuic, D.D., I'rofcssor of Theology In 
 
 Neuchfttel. 
 GOLTZ, von deb, Heinricii, D.D., I'rofessor of 
 
 Theology in Berlin. 
 •GOOD, Jeremiah Haak, D.D., Professor in Heidel- 
 berg Thcologii'al ScMuiiiary, Tiliin, O. 
 •GOODSPKED, Thomas Wakkkikld, D.D., Secre- 
 tary of Ba|itisl Theological Union, Chicago, III.
 
 LIST OF WRITERS. 
 
 xm 
 
 •GOODWIN, Daniel Raynks, D.D., LI,.D., Proffis- 
 sor in tlin Tlieological Seminary (Episcopal) in 
 PIiilaclel|iliia. 
 
 GOSCHE, K. A., I'li.D., Professor of Oriental Lan- 
 guages in Halle. 
 
 GOSCHEL, Karl Fhiehuich, Ph.D., President of 
 the Consistory of Magdeburg. (D. 18(J1.) 
 
 •GRAHAM, William, D D., Professor of Church 
 History in the English I'resbyteriau Theological 
 College, London. 
 
 •GRAY, Gi'.oitGE Zabriskie, D.D., Professor in the 
 Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge, Mass. 
 
 •GREEN, Samiel Gosnei.l, D.D., Secretary of Re- 
 ligious Tract Society, London. 
 
 •GREEN, William Henry, D.D., LL.D., Professor 
 of Hebrew, Theological Seminary, Princetou, 
 N.J. 
 
 GREGORY, Caspar Rene, Ph.D., Leipzig. 
 
 •GRIFFIS, William Elliot, D.D., Boston, Mass. 
 
 GRUNDEMANN, Ueinhold, Ph.D., D.D., Pastor in 
 Mijrz, Prussia. 
 
 GRUNEISEN, Carl von, D. D., Chief Court- 
 Preacher in Stuttgart. (D. 1878.) 
 
 GUDER, Eduard, D.D., Pastor in Bern. (D. 1882.) 
 
 GUNDERT, Hermann, Ph.D., in Calw. 
 
 •GUNTHER, Martin, Professor in the Concordia 
 Theological Seminary, St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 GUTHE, Heinrich, Ph.D., Professor iu Leipzig. 
 
 HACKENSCHMIDT, Karl, Pastor in Jiigerthal 
 (Elsass). 
 
 HAENCHEN, PniLipr E., Pastor in Erlangen. 
 
 HAGENBACH, Karl Ridolph, D.D., Professor of 
 Theology in Basel. (D. 1874.) 
 
 HAHN, Heinrich Augi'st, D.D. (D. — .) 
 
 •HALL, Isaac Hollister, Ph.D., New-York City. 
 
 •HALL, .John, D.D., Pastor of the Fifth Avenue 
 Presbyterian Cliurch, New-York City. 
 
 •HALL, Robert W., New- York City. 
 
 HAMBERGER, Julius, Ph.D. (D. 1885.) 
 
 HARNACK, Adolk, D.D., Professor of Theology in 
 Marburg. 
 
 •HARPER, Jai\ies, D.D., Xenia, O. 
 
 •HARRIS, J. Renuel, Professor in Haverford Col- 
 lege, Montgomery County, Penn. 
 
 •HARSHA, W. W., D.D., Bellevue, Neb. 
 
 •HASTINGS, Thomas Samuel, D.D., Professor of 
 Sacred Rhetoric, Union Theological Seminary, 
 New- York City. 
 
 •HATFIELD, Edwin Francis, D.D., New-York 
 City. (D. 18S:!.) 
 
 HAUCK, Albert, D.D., Professor of Theology in 
 Erlangen. 
 
 HEER, Justus, Pastor in Erlenbach, Canton Ziirich. 
 
 HELLER, LuDwiG, Pastor in Travemiinde. (D. — .) 
 
 HEMAN, C. F., Ph.D., Missions In.spector, Basel. 
 
 HENKE, Ernst Ludwig Tiieodor, D.D., Professor 
 of Theology in Marburg. (D. 1872.) 
 
 HEPPE, Heinrich Ludwig Julius, D.D., Professor 
 of Theology in Marburg. (D. 1879.) 
 
 HEROLD, Max, Pastor in Schwabach. 
 
 HERRLTNGER, Diakonus in Niirtingen. 
 
 HERZOG, JoHANN Jakob, D.D., Professor of The- 
 ology in Erlangen. (D. 1882.) 
 
 HEYD, Wilhelm, Ph.D., Chief Librarian iu Stutt- 
 gart. 
 
 HEYDER, Karl Ludwig Wilhelm, Pli.D., Profes- 
 sor of Philosophy in Erlangen. 
 
 HINSCHIUS, Paul, Ph.D., Profe.s.sor of Canon Law 
 in Berlin. 
 
 •HITCHCOCK, RoswELL Dwight, D.D., LL.D., 
 President, and Professor of Church History, in 
 the Union Tlieological Seminary, New-York City. 
 
 HOCHHUTH, C. W. H., Ph.D., in Cassel. 
 
 •HODGE, Archibald Ale.xander, D. D., LL.D., 
 Professor of Theology, Theological Seminary, 
 Princeton, N.J. (D. 1880.) 
 
 •HOFFMAN, Eugene Augustus, D.D., Dean of the 
 General (Episcopal) Theological Seminary, New- 
 York City. 
 
 HOFFMANN, J. A. G., D.D., Professor of Theology 
 in Jena. (D. 18G4.) 
 
 HOFMANN, Rudolf, D.D., Professor of Theology 
 in Leipzig. 
 
 •HOGE, MosES D., D.D., Rielnnond, Va. 
 
 •HOLLAND, Henry Scott, M.A.. Senior Student, 
 Christ Church, O.xford Universitj'. 
 
 HOLLENBERG, W. A., Ph.D., Director of the Gym- 
 nasium in Saarbriicken. 
 
 HOLTZMANN, Hei.nrich, D.D., Professor of Tlie- 
 ology in Strassburg. 
 
 HOPE, Georg Wilhelm, Ph.D., Rector in Nurem- 
 berg. 
 
 •HOPKINS, E. W., Professor iu Columbia College, 
 New-York City. 
 
 •HOPKINS, Samuel Miles, D.D., Professor of 
 Church History in Auburn Theological Semi- 
 nary, Auburn, N.Y. 
 
 •HOVEY, Alvah, D.D., President of Newton Theo- 
 logical Seminary, Massachusetts. 
 
 HUNDESHAGEN, Carl Bernhard, D.D., Profes- 
 sor of Tlieology in Heidelberg. (D. 1873.) 
 
 HUPFELD, David, Ph.D., Superintendent in Schleu- 
 singen. 
 
 •JACKSON, George Thomas, M.D., New-York City. 
 
 •JACKSON, Samuel Macauley, Rev., New-York 
 City. 
 
 JACOBI, Justus Ludwig, D.D., Professor of Tlie- 
 ology in Halle. 
 
 •JACOBS, Henry Eyster, D.D., Professor in the 
 Lutheran Theological Seminary, Philadelphia. 
 
 JACOBSON, Heinrich Franz, Ph.D., Professor of 
 Law in Kijuigsberg. (D. — .) 
 
 "JESSUP, Henry Harris, D.D., Missionary of the 
 Presbyterian Board in Syria. 
 
 JUNDT, A., Gymnasium-Professor in Stra-ssburg. 
 
 KAHLER, Martin, D.D., Professor of Theology in 
 
 Halle. 
 KAHNIS, Karl Friedrich August, D.D., Professor 
 
 of Theology in Leipzig. 
 KAMPHAUSEN, Adolph Hermann Heinrich, 
 
 D.D., Professor of Theology in Bonn. 
 KAUTZSCH, Emil Friedrich, D.D., Professor of 
 
 Theology in Tiibingen. . 
 KEIM, Carl Theodor, D.D., Professor of Theology 
 
 in G lessen. (D. 1870.) 
 •KELLOGG, Samuel Henry, D.D., Presbyterian 
 
 Pastor in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. 
 KESSLER, K., Ph.D., Professor in Greifswald. 
 •KINGSLEY, William L., New Haven, Conn.
 
 XIT 
 
 LIST OF WRITERS. 
 
 KIRCHHOFER, G., Professor in Scbaffhausen. 
 
 KLAIBER, Karl Friedrich, Ph.D., Goppingen. 
 
 KLEIN ERT, IIiGO WiLHELM Paul, D.D., Professor 
 of Theology in Berlin. 
 
 KLING, CHRISTU.N Friedkich, D.D., Dekan in Mar 
 bach. (D. 1861.) 
 
 KLIPPEL, Geokg Heixeich, Ph.D., Rector of the 
 Gymnasium in Verden. 
 
 KLOSE, Caul Rudolph Wilhelm, Ph.D., Librarian, 
 Hamburg. 
 
 KLOSTERMANN, August, D.D., Professor of The- 
 ology in Kiel. 
 
 KLUCKHOHN, August, Ph.D., Professor and Di- 
 rector of Polyteclinic Institute in Munich. 
 
 KLiJPFEL, Kaisl Ph.D., Librarian in Tiibingen. 
 » KNAPP, Joseph, Diakonus in Stuttgart. 
 
 KOGEL, Rudolf, D.D., Court-Preacher in Berlin. 
 
 KOHLER, August, D.D., Professor of Theology in 
 Erlangen. 
 
 KOHLER, Karl, D.D., Professor in Friedberg, 
 Hesse. 
 
 KOLBE, Alexander, Ph.D., Professor in Gymna- 
 sium at Stettin. 
 
 KONIG, Friedrich Eduard, Ph.D., Professor of 
 Theology in Leipzig. 
 
 KOSTER, Adolph, Ph.D., Pastor in Erlangen. 
 (D.-.) 
 
 KOSTLIN, Julius, D.D., Professor of Theology in 
 Halle. 
 
 KRAFFT, C, Pastor in Elberfeld. 
 
 KRAFFT, Wilhelm Ludwig, D.D., Professor of 
 Church Historj' in Bonn. 
 
 KRAMER. Ph.D., Professor and Director of 
 Francke's Institution in Halle. 
 
 KiJBEL, RoBKRT Be.njamln, D.D., Professor of The- 
 ology in Tiibingen. 
 
 LANDERER, Max Albert von, D.D., Professor of 
 
 Theology in Tiibingen. (D. 1ST8.) 
 LAJNGE, Johaxn Peter, D.D., Professor of Theology 
 
 in Bonn. (D. 1884.) 
 LAUBM.VXN, G., Ph.D., Director of the City Li- 
 brary, Munich. 
 L.\UXM.-\.NN, Stitt-sdiakonus in Stuttgart. 
 LECHLER, GoTTLou Viktor, D.D., Professor of 
 
 Theology in Leipzig. 
 •LEE, Willia.m, D.D., Professor of Ecclesiastical 
 
 Hi-story, University of Glasgow. (D. 1886.) 
 LEIMBACH, C. L., Ph.D., Director in Goslar. 
 LEPSUT.S, Karl Richard, Ph.D. (D. 1884.) 
 LEYRER, E., Pastor at Plochingen in Wiirttem- 
 
 berg. 
 LIST, Fra.vz, Ph.D., Professor in Munich. 
 •LIVER.MORE, Adiel Abbot, Rev., President of 
 
 the Tlicologlcal School, Meadville, Penn. 
 •LOYD, H. S., Rev., Secret.ary of the Theological 
 
 Seminary, Hamilton, N.Y. 
 LiJIIRS, Fii. 
 LUTII.VRDT, CniiisTopii EnxsT, D.D., Professor of 
 
 Theology In Leipzig. 
 LiJTTICE. .MoRiTZ, 1'a.stor in Schkeudltz. 
 M.\IJ.,ET, Hermann, Pastor in Bremen. 
 MANtJOLD, Wii.iiKLM Julius, D.D., Professor of 
 
 Tlii^ology In Bonn. 
 •MANN", William .Titliuh, D.D., Professor in the 
 
 Lutheran Thcol. Seminary, Philadelphia, Penn. 
 
 •MARLING, Francis H., Rev., New- York City. 
 
 »MATHEWS, George D., D.D., Quebec, Can. 
 
 M.iTTER, Jacques, Professor in Paris. (D. 18fi4.) 
 
 •MAXSON, D.iRwiN E., D.D., Alfred Centre, N.Y. 
 
 *McCOSH, James, D.D., LL.D., President of the Col- 
 lege of New Jersey, Princeton, N.J. 
 
 •McFARLAND, Henry Horace, Rev., New-York 
 City. 
 
 *McKm, Randolph H., D.D., New- York City. 
 
 MEJER, Otto, Ph.D., Professor of Canon Law in 
 Gottingen. 
 
 MERKEL, Paul Johannes, Ph.D., Professor of Law 
 in Halle. (D. 1861.) 
 
 MERZ, Heinkich von, D.D., Priilat in Stuttgart. 
 
 MEURER, MoRiTZ, Licentiate, Pastor in Callenberg, 
 Saxony. 
 
 MEYER V. KNONAU, Ph.D., Professor in Zurich. 
 
 5IICHAEL, Superintendent in Chemnitz. 
 
 MICHELSEN, Alexander, Pastor in Liibec. (D.1885.) 
 
 ♦MITCHELL, Alexander F., D.D., Professor in 
 the University of St. Andrews, Scotland. 
 
 MOLLER, Wilhelm Ernst, D.D., Professor of The- 
 ology in Kiel. 
 
 *MOMBERT, Jacob Isidor, D.D., Paterson, N.J. 
 
 •MOORE, DuNLOP, D.D., New Brighton, Penn. 
 
 •MORRIS, Edward Dafydd, D.D., Professor of 
 Theology, Lane Seminary, Cincinnati, O. 
 
 •MORSE, Richard C, Rev., Secretary of the Inter- 
 national Committee of Y. M. C. A., New- York 
 City. 
 
 MULLER, Carl, Ph.D., Professor in H.ane. 
 
 SliJLLER, Iwan, Ph.D., Professor of Philology in 
 Erlangen. 
 
 MULLEE, Johann Georg, D.D., Professor of The- 
 ology in Basel. (D. — .) 
 
 NAGELSBACH, Eduard, D.D., Pastor in Bayreuth. 
 
 NESTLE, Eberhard, Ph.D., Professor at Ulm. 
 
 NEUDECKER, Christian G., D.D., Schuldirector 
 in Gotha. (D. 1866.) 
 
 NEY, Pastor in Speier. 
 
 •NINDE, William Xavier, President of the Gar- 
 rett Biblical Institute, Evanston, 111. 
 
 NITZSCH, Fkif.drich August Bertuold, D.D., 
 Professor of Theology in Kiel. 
 
 •NOTT, Henry J., Rev., Bowmanville, Ontario. 
 
 •NUTTING, Mary O., Miss, Librariau of Mount 
 Holyoke Female Seminary. 
 
 OEHLER, Gustav Friedrich, D.D., Professor of 
 Theology in Tubingen. (D. 1876.) 
 
 OLDEN BKRG, F., Berlin. 
 
 OOSTEUZEE, Jan Jakob van, D.D., Professor of 
 Tlicology in Utrecht. (D. 1882.) 
 
 ORELLI, Carl von. Professor of Theology in Basel. 
 
 •ORMISTON, William, D.D., LL.D., Collegiate Re- 
 formed Dutch t;imrch. New- York City. 
 OSGOOD, Howard, D.D., LL.D., Professor of He- 
 brew, Theological Seminary, Rochester, N.Y. 
 
 OSI.VNDER, Ernst, Ph.D., Diakonus in Goppingen. 
 
 OVERBEtMC, Joseph, Ph.D., Profes.sor of German 
 ill the ISritish Military Collcgi-, Sandhurst. 
 
 •PACKARD, JoHi'.i-ii, D.D., Professor in Theological 
 SeTiiiuary of Episco|ial Church, Alexandria, Va. 
 
 PALMER, Christian von, D. I), Professor of The- 
 ology in Tubingen. (I). ISTB.)
 
 LIST OF WRITERS. 
 
 XV 
 
 PARET, Heinrich, Diakonus in Brackenheiin. 
 (D.-.) 
 
 'PARK, Edwards Amasa, D.D., LL.D., Professor 
 of Theology, Theological Seminary, Andover, 
 Mass. 
 
 •PATTERSON, R. M., D.D., Philadelphia. 
 
 •PATTON, Francis Landey, D.D., LL.D., Professor 
 in the Theological Seminary, Princeton, N.J. 
 
 *PEAI50DY, Andrew Preston, D.D., LL.D., Cam- 
 bridge, Mass. 
 
 PEIP, Albert, Ph.D., Professor of Philosophy in 
 Giittingen. 
 
 PELT, A. F. L. A., Ph.D., Superintendent in Kem- 
 nitz. (D. 186L) 
 
 PENTZ, A., Jabel. 
 
 PESTALOZZI, Karl, Pastor in Zurich. 
 
 PETERM.VNN, Juliis Heinrich, Ph.D., Professor 
 in Berlin. (D. 1876.) 
 
 •PETERSEN, Clemens, M.A., New- York City. 
 
 PFENDER, Carl, Pastor in Paris. 
 
 PFLEIDERER, J. G., Ph.D., Bern. 
 
 •PICK, Bernhard, Rev., Ph.D., Allegheny, Penn. 
 
 PIPER, KarlWii.helm Ferdinand, D.D., Professor 
 of Theology in Berlin. 
 
 PLITT, Gustav Leopold, D.D., Professor of Theol- 
 ogy in Erlangen. (D. 1880.) 
 
 PLITT, Theodor. D.D., Pastor at Dossenheim in 
 Baden. 
 
 POHLMANN, R., Ph.D., Decent in Erlangen. 
 
 POLENZ, Gottlob von, in Halle. 
 
 »POOR, Dauiel AVarren, D.D., Secretary of the 
 Presbyterian Board of Education, Philadelphia. 
 
 *POPOFF, P. J., Ph.D., New-York City. 
 
 •POWER, Frederick Dunglison, Pastor of the 
 "Christian" Church, Washington, D.C. 
 
 PREGER, Wilhelm, D.D., Professor at the Gymna- 
 sium in Munich. 
 
 •PRENTISS, George Lewis, D.D., Professor of Pas- 
 toral Theology in the Union Theological Semi- 
 nary, New-York City. 
 
 PRESSEL, Theodor, Ph.D., Archdeacon in Tubing- 
 en. (D.— .) 
 
 PRESSEL, Wilhelm, Pastor near Tubingen. 
 
 •RAND, William Wilberforce, D.D., Secretary 
 
 American Tract Society, New- York City. 
 RANKE, Ernst, D.D., Professor of Theology in 
 
 Marburg. 
 •RAYMOND, Rossiter Worthington, Ph.D., 
 
 Brooklyn, N.Y. 
 REUCHLIN, Hermann, Ph.D., in Stuttgart. 
 
 (D. 1873.) 
 REUSS, Eduard Wilhelm Eugen, D.D., Professor 
 
 of Theology in Strassburg. 
 REUTER, Hermann Ferdinand, D.D., Professor 
 
 of Theology in Gottingen. 
 REVECZ, E.merich, Pastor in Debreczin, Hungary. 
 •RICE, Edwin Wilbur, D.D., Editor of the Ameri- 
 can Sunday School Union, Philadelphia. 
 •RIDDLE, Matthew Brown, D.D., Professor of 
 
 New-Testament Exegesis, Theological Seminary, 
 
 Hartford, Conn. 
 RIGGENBACH, Bernhard, Pastor in Arisdorf, 
 
 Canton Baselland. 
 RITSCHL, Albrecht, D.D., Professor of Theology 
 
 in Gottingen. 
 
 •ROBERTS, Wn.LiA.M Henrv, D.D., Professor in 
 Lane Tlieological Seminary, Cincinnati, O. 
 
 RODIGER, Emil, Ph.D., Professor of Oriental Lan- 
 guages in Berlin. (D. 1874.) 
 
 RONNEKE, K., German Chaplain, Rome. 
 
 RiJETSCUI, Rudolf, D.D., Professor in Bern. 
 
 •SABINE, William T., Rev., New-York City. 
 
 SACK, Karl Heinrich, D.D., Professor of Theology 
 in Bonn. (D. 1875.) 
 
 •SAVAGE, George S. F., D.D., Secretary of the 
 Chicago Congregational Theological Seminary. 
 
 SCHAARSCHMIDT, Carl, Ph.D., Professor of 
 Philosophy in Bonn. 
 
 •SCHAFF, David Schley, Rev., Kansas City, Mo. 
 
 SCH.\FF, Philip, D.D., LL.D., Professor in the 
 Union Theological Seminary, New- York City. 
 
 SCHERER, Edmond, Ph.D., Professor in Paris. 
 
 SCHEURL, C. T. Gottlob, Ph.D., Professor of 
 Canon Law in Erlangen. 
 
 SCHMID, Heinrich, D.D., Professor of Theology in 
 Erlangen. (D. 1883.) 
 
 SCHMIDT, Carl Wilhelm Adolf, D.D., Professor 
 of Theology in Strassburg. 
 
 SCHMIDT, Hermann, Professor of Theology in 
 Breslau. 
 
 SCHMIDT, J., Frauenfeld. 
 
 SCHMIDT, Karl, Privatdocent of Theology in 
 Erlangen. 
 
 SCHMIDT, Oswald Gottlob, D.D., Superintendent 
 in Wenlau. (D. 1882.) 
 
 SCHMIDT, WOLDEMAR Gottlob, D.D., Professor of 
 Theology in Leipzig. 
 
 SCHMIEDER, H. E., D.D., Professor and Director 
 in Wittenberg. 
 
 SCHNEIDER, J., Pastor in Finkenbach(Rheinpfalz). 
 
 SCHOBERLEIN, Ludwig, D.D., Professor of Theol- 
 ogy in Gottingen. (D. 1881.) 
 
 •SCHODDE, George H., Ph.D., Professor of Greek, 
 Capital University, Columbus, O. 
 
 SCHOELL, Carl, Ph.D., Pastor of Savoy Church in 
 London. 
 
 SCHOTT, Theodor, Librarian in Stuttgart. 
 
 SCHULTZ, Friedrich Wilhelm, D.D., Professor of 
 Theology in Breslau. 
 
 SCHURER, Emil, D.D., Professor of Theology in 
 Giessen. 
 
 SCHWARZ, JOHANN Karl Eduard, D.D., Professor 
 of Theology in Jena. (D. 1870.) 
 
 SCHWEIZER, Alexander, D.D., Professor of The- 
 ology in Zurich. 
 
 •SCOVEL, Sylvester Fithian, Rev., President of 
 Wooster University, Wooster, O. 
 
 SEMISCH, Carl .Enotheus, D.D., Professor of The- 
 ology in Berlin. 
 
 •SHEA, John Gilmary, LL.D., Elizabeth, N.J. 
 
 •SHEDD, William Gree.vough Thayer, D.D., 
 LL.D., Professor of Systematic Theology in the 
 Union Theological Seminary, New-York City. 
 
 •SHIELDS, Charles Woodruff, D.D., LL.D., Pro- 
 fessor of Philosophy in the College of New Jer- 
 sey, Princeton, N.J. 
 
 SIEFFERT, Friedrich Ludwig, Ph.D., Professor of 
 Theology in Erlangen. 
 
 SIGWART, Christian, Ph.D., Professor of Philosa 
 phy in Tiibingen.
 
 XVI 
 
 LIST OF WllITERS. 
 
 •SLOANE, J. R. W., D.D., Professor o( Theology, 
 Pittsburgh, Penn. (D. 1886.) 
 
 •SMYTH, Egbkut Coffin, D.D., Professor of Cliureh 
 History, Theological Seminary, Anilover, Mass. 
 
 •SMYTH, Newman, D.D., New Haven, Conn. 
 
 SPIEGEL, Friedrich, Ph.D., Frankfiirt-am-Main. 
 
 •SPR.A.GUE, Edward E., New-York City. 
 
 STAHELIN, Ernst, D.D., Pastor in Ba-sel. 
 
 STAHELIN, Rudolf, D.D., Professor in Basel. 
 
 STAHLIN, Adolf, D.D., President of the Upper 
 Consistory, Munich. 
 
 •STEARNS, Lewis Fkench, D.D., Professor of 
 Theology, Theological Seminary, Bangor, Me. 
 
 •STEELE, David, D.D., Philadelphia. 
 
 STEITZ, Georg Edi!ard, D.D., Konsistorialrath at 
 Frankfurt-am-Main. (D. 1879.) 
 
 •STEVENS, WiLLi.\M Bacon, D.D., LL.D., Bishop 
 of P. E. Diocese of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. 
 
 •STILLE, Charles Janewav, LL.D., Philadelphia. 
 
 •STOUGHTON, John, D.D., London. 
 
 STR.\CK, Hermann Lebrecht, D.D., Professor of 
 Theology in Berlin. 
 
 •STRIEBY, MiCH.\EL E., D.D., Corresponding Sec- 
 retary of the American Missionary Association, 
 New- York City. 
 
 •STRONG, James, S. T. D., LL.D., Professor of He- 
 brew, Drew Theological Seminary, Madison, N.J. 
 
 SUDHOFF, Carl, Pastor in Frankfurt-am-Main. 
 (D. 1865.) 
 
 •TAYI^OR, William Mackekgo,D.D., LL.D., Minis- 
 ter of the Broadway Tabernacle, New- York City. 
 
 THELE.MANN, Karl Otto, Konsistorialrath in 
 Detmold. 
 
 THIERSCH, Heinrich, D.D., in Basel. (D. 1885.) 
 
 THOLUCK, FuiEDUiCH August Gotttrec, D.D., 
 Professor of Theology in Halle. (D. 1877.) 
 
 •THO.MSON, William McClurk, D.D., Author of 
 The Land and the Hook, New-York City. 
 
 •TILLETT, Wilbur Fisk, A.M., Rev., Professor of 
 Systematic Theology in Vanderbilt University, 
 Nashville, Term. 
 
 TISCHENDORF, Lobeoott Friedrich Constan- 
 TIN, VON, D.D., etc.. Professor of Bil)lii;al Pale- 
 ography in Leipzig. (D. 1874.) 
 
 •TOY, CuAWFOKD Howell, D.D., LL.D., Professor 
 of Hebrew in Harvard University. 
 
 TRECHSEL, Friedrich, Pastor in Bern. (D. 1885.) 
 
 •TRUE, Benjamin Os(!ood, D.D., Professor in the 
 Theological Seminary, Rochester, N-Y. 
 
 •TRU.MAN, JosKfii M., Jun., Philadelphia. 
 
 •TRUMBULI.,, Henry Clay, D.D., Editor of the 
 Sundai/S'hool Times, Philadelphia. 
 
 TSCHACKERT, Paul Mokitz Roiiert, D.n., Pro- 
 fessor of Theology in Kijnigsberg. 
 
 •TUTTLE, Daniel Sylvester, D.D., Bishop pf 
 MisHouri. 
 
 •TYI>KR, William Seymour, D.D., Professor in 
 Amherst College, MaHHachusetta. 
 
 TZSCIIUINER, P. >!., Ph.D., Leipzig. 
 
 (;ifT,lIORN, .loHANN Oeiiiiard Wiliielm, D.D., 
 
 ObirknnsiHtorialnith in Hanover. 
 ULLMANN, Carl, I), I)., Karlsruhe. (D. IHWi.) 
 VLHWA, Hermann, Ph.D., Professor of Philosophy 
 
 in Halle. (D. 1884.) 
 
 VAIHINGER, J. G., Pastor in Wurttemherg. 
 (D. 1879.) 
 
 •VANDYKE, Henry J.\CKsoN, Jun., D.D., Pastor of 
 the Brick (Presbyterian) Church, New- York City. 
 
 •VINCENT, J. H., D.D., New Haven, Conn. 
 
 •VINCENT, Marvin Richardson, D.D., Pastor of 
 the Church of the Covenant (Presbyterian), 
 New- York City. 
 
 VOGEL, Carl Albrecht, D.D., Professor of The- 
 ology in Vienna. 
 
 VOIGT, G., Ph.D., Professor of History in Leipzig. 
 
 VOLCK, Wilhelm, D.D., Professor of Theology in 
 Dorpat. 
 
 WACKERNAGEL, K. H. Wilhelm, Ph.D., Pro- 
 fessor in Basel. (D. 1869.) 
 
 WAGENMANN, Julius August, D.D., Professor of 
 Theology in Giittingen. 
 
 WANGEMANN, Ph.D., Missionsdirector in Berlin. 
 
 •WARD, William Hayes, D.D., Editor of The In- 
 dependent, New-York City. 
 
 •WARFIELD, Benjamin Breckinridge, D.D., Pro- 
 fessor of New-Testament Exegesis in the Theo- 
 logical Seminary, Allegheny, Penn. 
 
 WARNECK, G., Ph.D., Pastor in Rotheuschirmbach. 
 
 •WARREN, William Fairfield, D.D., LL.D., 
 President of Boston University, Boston, Mass. 
 
 •WASHBURN, George, D.D., President of Robert 
 College, Constantinople, Turkey. 
 
 WASSERSCHLEBEN, F. W. H. von, Ph.D., Pro- 
 fessor of Jurisprudence in Giessen. 
 
 WEINGARTEN, Hermann, D.D., Professor of The- 
 ology in Breslau. 
 
 WEIZSACKER, Carl Heinrich, D.D., Professor of 
 Theology in Tubingen. 
 
 WEIZSACKER, Julius, Ph.D., Professor of His- 
 tory in Gottingen. 
 
 WERNER, August, Pastor in Guben. 
 
 •WHIPPLE, Hknuy Benjamin, D.D., Bishop of 
 P. E. Diocese of Minnesota, Faribault, Minn. 
 
 •WHITFIELD, Edward E., M.A., O.\ford. 
 
 WIESELER, Karl, D.D., Professor of Theology in 
 Greifswald. (D. 1881!.) 
 
 WILCKEN, Ph.D., Stralsund. 
 
 •WILLIAMS, Samuel Wki.ls, LL.D., Professor of 
 Chinese, Yale Coll., New Haven, Conn. (D. 1884.) 
 
 •WILSON, JosEi-H R., D.D., Wilmington, N.C. 
 
 •WILSON, Samuel Jennings, D.D., LL.D., Pro- 
 fessor of Church History, Theological Seminary, 
 Allegheny, Penn. (D. 18S:i.) 
 
 •WOLF, Edmund Jacob, D.D., Professor in the 
 Theological Seminary, Gettysburg, Penn. 
 
 WOLFFLIN, Eduaki), I'll. I)., Professor in Erlangen. 
 
 •WOOLSEY, Theodore Dwioiit, D.D., LL.D., Ex- 
 Presidcnt of Yale College, New Haven, Conn. 
 
 •WRIGHT, George Frederick, Ph.D., Professor ia 
 the Theological Seminary, Oberlin, O. 
 
 ZAHN, Theodou, D.D., Professor of Theology in 
 Erlangen. 
 
 ZEZSCHWITZ, Gerhard von, D.D., Professor of 
 Theology in Erlangen. (D. 1886.) 
 
 ZIMMERMANN, Karl, D.D., Priilat in Darmstadt. 
 
 Z01;KLER, Oiro, D.D., Professor of Theology in 
 Greifswald. 
 
 ZOPFFKL, UiciiARD Otto, Ph.D., Professor of The- 
 ology iu Strussburg.
 
 I isr D E X 
 
 VOLUME I. 
 
 A. 
 
 A and Q, 0. 
 
 Aaron, 9. 
 
 Anroii ben-Asbcr, 9. 
 
 Abaddon, ID. 
 
 Abnna and Phurpar, 10. 
 
 Abarbanei. Sec Abrabancl. 
 
 Abarim, 10. 
 
 Abaiizit, 10. 
 
 Abba, 10. 
 
 Abbadie, 10. 
 
 Abbesa, 10. 
 
 Abbey, 10. 
 
 »^bbo, 10. 
 
 Abbot, 10. 
 
 Abbot, Georgt>, 11. 
 
 Abbot, Robert, U. 
 
 Abbot, Robert, H. 
 
 Abbott, .T.icob, 11. 
 
 Abbreviators, VZ. 
 
 Abbuna, 12. 
 
 Abdias, 12. 
 
 Abdon, 12. 
 
 Abcjccdarian llj'rane, 12. 
 
 Abecl, David, 12. 
 
 Abel, 12. 
 
 Abel (1-5), 12. 
 
 AbeUrd, 12. 
 
 AbelUes, or AbelonianH, 14. 
 
 Abelii, Louis, 14. 
 
 Abcn-Ezra, 14. 
 
 Abercrombie, .Tohn, 14. 
 
 Abernethy, John, 14. 
 
 Abgarus, 14. 
 
 Abiathar, 14. 
 
 Abijah, 14. 
 
 Abilene, 14. 
 
 Abimelech, 15. 
 
 Abinhag, 15. 
 
 Abiahai, 15. 
 
 Ablon, Id. 
 
 Abner, 15. 
 
 Abrabanel, 15. 
 
 Abraham, 15. 
 
 Abraham's Bosom, 16. 
 
 Abraham-a-Sanctta-Clara, 16. 
 
 Abrahacniten, Itt. 
 
 Abraxiia, 16. 
 
 Absalom, 17. 
 
 Ab.'salon, 17. 
 
 -Vbsoiulion, 17. 
 
 Abstinence, 17. 
 
 Abukara. See Theodorus Abukara. 
 
 Abulfaraj, 17. 
 
 Abyssinian Church, 17- 
 
 AcaciU8, 19. 
 
 Acceplanta, 20. 
 — AccesH, 20. 
 
 Accoiti, Peter, 20. 
 - Accommodation, 20. 
 
 Acephali, 20. 
 
 Achery, Jean Liic d', 20. 
 
 Achterfeldt, Johanu Ileinrlcb, 21. 
 
 Acocnu-tae, 21. 
 
 Acolyths, 21. 
 
 Acueta, Uriel. 21. 
 
 Acta Martyrum .ind Acta Sanctorum, 
 
 Act;* of the Apostles, 22. 
 
 Adalbert (1,2), :il. 
 
 Adalt;ar, 24. 
 
 Adalbard, 24. 
 
 Adam, 24. 
 
 Adam, Melchior, 55. 
 
 Adam of Bremen, 25. 
 
 Adam of 8t. Victor, 25. 
 
 Adamannus, 25. 
 
 Adamites, 25. 
 
 Adams, Thomas, 25. 
 
 AdatHH, William, 26. 
 
 AdamsoHi Patrick, 26. 
 
 Addai, 2G. 
 
 Addison, Joseph, 26, 
 
 Adelbert. 26. 
 
 Adeodatus, 26. 
 
 Adiaphora, 26. 
 
 Ado, 27. 
 
 Adonai, 27. 
 
 Adonijah, 27. 
 
 Adoption, 2S. 
 
 Adoptionisra, 28. 
 
 Adramnielech, 29. 
 
 Adrian (popes), 29. 
 
 Adullam, 30. 
 
 Adultery, 31. 
 
 Advent, 31. 
 
 Adventisis, 32. 
 
 Advocate of ihe Church, ^ 
 
 Advocatus Dei, Diaboli, 32. 
 
 jE'4\d\m, Z-2. 
 
 ^■Elfric, 32. 
 
 yEneas (1,2), 32. 
 
 j^ipinus, 32. 
 
 Aeriue, 33. 
 
 Aeliua, 33. 
 ■-:.'\ffection8, 33. 
 
 Affre, Denis Auffuttte, 33. 
 
 Africa, Church of. 33. 
 
 African M. E. Church. 8ee Methodism. 
 
 Africanufi, 33. 
 
 Aifape, 34. 
 
 A^apetus (1, 2), 34. 
 
 Aitalha,35. 
 
 A|L(athiae, 35. 
 
 A^atho. 35. 
 
 -Age (ecclesiastical), 35. 
 
 A^ellius, 35. 
 
 Agenda, 35. 
 
 Agier, Pierre Jean, 36. 
 
 Agnee.^O. 
 
 Agnoelae, 36. 
 -^Agnosticism, 36. 
 
 Agnus Dei, 39. 
 
 Agobard, 39. 
 
 Agreda, Maria de, 39. 
 
 Agricola, Johann, 39. 
 -Agriculture, 39. 
 
 Agrippa, Herod (1,2), 41. 
 
 Agrip|)a, Heinrich Cornelius, 41. 
 
 Aguiire, Joseph Saenz d', 41. 
 
 Agur. See Solomon, Proverbs. 
 
 Ahab, 41. 
 
 Ahasuerus, 42. 
 
 Ahaz, 42. 
 
 Ahaziah. 42. 
 
 Abimelech, 43. 
 
 Ahithophel, 43. 
 
 Aidan,43. 
 
 AigraduSf 43. 
 
 Aiili. Pierre d', 43. 
 
 Ailredus, 44. 
 
 Aimoin, 44. 
 
 Ainsworih, TTenrv, 44. 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, 44. 
 
 Akiba, 44. 
 
 Akoinicloi. See AcseraetiE. 
 
 A'Lasco. See Lasco. 
 
 Alaims, 45. 
 
 Alb, 45. 
 
 Alban, St., 45. 
 
 Albanenses, 45. 
 
 Alber, P^rasmus, 45. 
 
 Alber. Matlba?us, 45. 
 
 Albert of liiL'a, 46. 
 
 Albert the tlreat, 46. 
 
 Albert! (1,2), 40. 
 
 Albertlni, Johami Baptist von, 46. 
 
 AlberluH Magnus. See Albert the Great. 
 
 Albigenses, 46. 
 
 Albizzi (1,2). 48. 
 
 Albo, Joseph, 48. 
 
 Albright, Jacob, 48. 
 
 Albright Brethren. See Evangelical A*- 
 
 Bociation. 
 Alcantara, Order of, 4S. 
 Alcimus, 49. 
 Alcuin, 49. 
 AI<lfrilh,49. 
 Aidhelm,49. 
 Aleander, 50. 
 Alegambe, 50. 
 Alemarmi, 50, 
 Alesius, Alexander, 50. 
 Alexander (popes, 1-8), 50. 
 Alexander of Alexandria, 53. 
 Alexander, Archibald, 53. 
 Alexander, J. A., 53. 
 Alexander, J. W., .53. 
 Alexander Balas, 54. 
 Alexander Jannffius, 54. 
 Alexander Nevski, ^. 
 Alexander of Hales, 54. 
 Alexander the Great, 54. 
 Alexandria, 55. 
 Alexians, 56. 
 Alford, Henry, 56. 
 Alfred the Great. 57. 
 Alger of Liege, 57. 
 Allan, William, 57. 
 
 Allegorical Interpretation of the BiMc, 68. 
 Allegory, 59. 
 Allegri, Gregoria, 59. 
 Allen, Dsivid Oliver, 59. 
 Allen, John, 59. 
 Allen, John, 59. 
 Allen, Willi.im, 59. 
 Allenites, 59. 
 Alley, William. 60. 
 Alliance, Evangelical, 60. 
 Alliance of Reformed Churches, 63. 
 Alliance, the Holy, 64. 
 Allix, Peter. 64. 
 Allocution, 64. 
 All-Saints' Day, 64. 
 All-Souls' Day. 64. 
 Almain, Jacques, 64. 
 Almeida, Emmanuel, 64. 
 Almericians. Sec Amalric. 
 Almoner, G-l. 
 ' -JVIms, 65. 
 Alogi. 65. 
 Alombradofl, 65. 
 Aloysius of Gonzaga, 65. 
 Alphonsua Maria de Liguori. Seo Li 
 
 guori. 
 Alsted, Johann Heinrich, 65. 
 -Altar, 66. 
 
 Althamer, Andreas, 67. 
 Alting (1,2), 67. 
 Alypius, 67. 
 
 Alzog, Johann Baptist, 68. 
 AmalariuH, 6S. 
 Amalek, 6S. 
 Amalekites, 6S. 
 Amalric of Bena, 69. 
 Amandus, 69. 
 Amasa, 69. 
 Aroaziah, 69. 
 Ambo, 69. 
 
 Ambrose of Alexandiia, 70. 
 Ambrose of Milan, 70. 
 Ambrose the Canialdulc, 71. 
 Ambrose, Isaac. 71. 
 "Ambrosian Music, 71.
 
 XTlll 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Ambrosiftstcr, '1. 
 
 - Anieii, 71. 
 Anuricau and Foreign Christi:in Union, 
 
 72. 
 
 American and Foi-eign Biblv Society. 
 Se« Bible SocicUea. 
 
 American ISibio Union. See Bible Socie- 
 iie», An*'-'rican. 
 
 American Bible Society. See Bible Soci- 
 etied. 
 
 American Baptist Missionary Union. Sec 
 Missiuni , Baptist. 
 
 American Baptist Publication Society. 
 See Baptists. 
 
 American Board of Commissioners for 
 Foreign JJissions. See Missions (A. 
 B. C. F. M.). 
 
 American Home Missionary Society. See 
 Missions, American Home Socicly. 
 
 American Reform Tract and Boob, Soci- 
 ety. See Tract Societies. 
 
 American Siniday-Scbool Union, See 
 Sunday ScboolB. 
 
 American Tract Society. See Tract So- 
 cieties. 
 
 Ames, William, 72. 
 
 Araling. Woir^ansr, 72. 
 
 Ammianus Maicellinne, 72. 
 
 Ammon, Christof Friedricb von, 73. 
 
 Ammonites, 73. 
 
 Aramonius, 73. 
 
 Ammonius, Saccas, 73. 
 
 Amolo, 73. 
 
 Amon, 74. 
 
 Amorites, 74. 
 
 Amortization. See Mortmain. 
 
 Am 08, 74. 
 
 Ampbibaliim, 74. 
 
 Ampbilocliius, 75. 
 
 Amsdorf, Xikolaus von, 75. 
 
 Amulets, 7o. 
 
 Amyot, joeejih, 76. 
 
 Amyniut, Moise, 76. 
 
 Anabaptixts, 76. 
 
 AnaclioriteH. Sec Anchorites. 
 
 Anaclelus (popes), 77. 
 
 Aiiaf^nott. See Lector. 
 
 - Analogy of Fiiitb. See Faitb, Hcrmcneu- 
 
 tics. 
 Anammelcch, 77. 
 Anar.iae, 7S. 
 Anaphora, 78. 
 Ananiasiuit, 73. 
 AnaMtJistuii Sinnita, 7S. 
 AnaMtasiua (popes), 78. 
 Anantai^tns of Laodicca, 70. 
 An:i«tai*iuH of Antioch, 79. 
 AnaHtJUtiiiH of Constantinople, 79. 
 Aniiftasius of l^me, 79. 
 Anatliemii, 79. 
 Anatoliuit, 79. 
 Anatollus, 79. 
 Anchieia, .Ioi«6 de, 80. 
 Anchorites. 8U. 
 Anclllon, David, 80. 
 Ancillon. (;barleH, 80. 
 Anclllon, Jean Tierrc FrWCric, 80. 
 Anderiton, Ijirn, HO. 
 Anderson, Uiifu**, 81. 
 Andover Seminary, 81. 
 Andrada, Antonio d\ 82. 
 Andrnda, S2. 
 Andrea*, dakob, 82. 
 Andrcio, .Toharin Valentin, 63. 
 AndreOJ, Abraham, 83. 
 AndreaN CreieiiKin, 83. 
 j\ndreaii of (^^ipsjirea, 83. 
 Andrean of Crain, 83. 
 AndreweH, I/mcelot, S3. 
 Anuarifc. S<>e Kanls. 
 Aiiif<-la M<-ricl.S3. 
 Anifol of the Chnrch, 8&. 
 AnKellcOnU-r, M. 
 Anif«-lkii, (Itrolnmu, 84. 
 Amk.-U, 81. 
 Aiiift'U and Archangels In ChrUtlao Art, 
 
 S.'i. 
 Ancllhrrt, St.. 8.V 
 Atifrilnini. HS. 
 Aniflo-Haxuni), their ConTemioo to Chris* 
 
 tintiily. Hty 
 Atntium, Thnmoi, 84. 
 Aiil'i-itm, H7, 
 AnImniN, 87. 
 Anna. 8H. 
 AnnaM, 88. 
 
 AniiiitA. Soc Taxch, Bcclcilullcal. 
 AnnilitlallonUm, 80. 
 
 Anniversariua (sc. dies), 89. 
 
 Anni Cleri, S9. 
 
 AnnuiuR flscatorius, 89. 
 
 Annunciade, S9. 
 
 Annunciation, Feast of, 89. 
 
 Annus Carcntise, 89. 
 
 Annus Claustralis, 89. 
 
 Annus Decrelorius, 89. 
 
 Annus Deservitus, or Annus Gratis, 89. 
 
 Annus Luctus, 89. 
 
 Ansegis, 89. 
 
 Ansefm of Canterbury, 90. 
 
 Anselrn of Havelbeig, M). 
 
 Anselm, St., 90. 
 
 Anselm of I^ou, 90. 
 
 Ansgar, 90. 
 
 Anso, 91. 
 
 Anterus, 91. 
 
 Anthoiogiura, 91. 
 
 Anthony, St., 91. 
 
 Anthony, Order of St., 91. 
 
 Anthony de Dominis, 91. 
 
 Antlioiiy of Padua, 92. 
 
 Anthony of Lebrija, 92. 
 . -Anthropology. See Tbeologj-. 
 
 Antbropomolphism, AnthropopathiBm, 
 92. 
 
 Anthroporaorphites. See Audians. 
 
 Anticlirist, 92. 
 
 Antidicoraarianites, 92. 
 
 Anlilegoinena. See Canon. 
 
 Antimensjum, 93. 
 
 Antinoraianism, 93. 
 
 Antioch, 93. 
 
 Antioch, School of, 94. 
 
 Antiochus (Kings of Syria), 95. 
 
 Aniiochus IV., King of Comniagene, 96. 
 
 Antiochus, 96. 
 -'Antiphon, 96. 
 
 Antipope, 97. 
 
 Aniiiaclffl. See Gnosticism. 
 
 Anlitrinitarianism, 97. 
 
 Anton, 97. 
 
 Anlonelli, Giacomo, 97. 
 
 Antonians, 98. 
 
 Anloniium Pius, 9S. 
 
 Antoninus, St., 93. 
 
 Antonio de Dominis. See Anthony de 
 Duininis. 
 
 Aphursites. 98. 
 
 Apharsiithcbites, 98. 
 
 Aplieli, 9S. 
 
 Aphihariodocetffi. See Monophysites. 
 
 Aphraatcs, 99. 
 
 .■\pion, 99. 
 
 Apis, 99. 
 
 Apocalypse. See Revelation, Book of. 
 
 ApncaU'isiasia. ;?ee -Vpokatastasia. 
 
 Apocrisiarius, 99. 
 
 Apocrypha of the Old Testament, 99. 
 
 Apc)ci vi)lia of the New Testament, 105. 
 
 Apuk:iiastasi8, 107. 
 
 Apoliiiiiiis, 109. 
 
 Aiiollinarianism, 109. 
 
 Apollonia. St., 100. 
 
 ApolloniuM of Tyann, 109. 
 
 ApolloniUH, 110, 
 
 ApolloH, 110. 
 
 ApoloireticM, 110. 
 
 A[)i>NtaHy, 114. 
 
 ApoMtle, 114. 
 
 Apustk'd'Crccd, 115. 
 
 ApoKtolic BroihcTH, 116. 
 
 Apostolical Canons, 116. 
 
 ApoHtollcal Churcli Directory, 116. 
 
 AtM'Ntolieal ConsiitutionH, 116. 
 
 ApoKlulic Council al Jerusalem, 117. 
 
 ApoMtolii: Kalhers, 119. 
 
 Aj)OHtuIlc King, 120. 
 
 Apotaclici, 120. 
 
 Appeals, 120. 
 
 AppetlanlH, 120. 
 
 AppU-ton, JeHMe, 120. 
 
 Approbuilon of Bookn, 120. 
 
 Apse, 120. 
 
 AonnvlvH, ClnndluH, 121. 
 
 Aqttllaand PrUcllta, 121. 
 
 Aqulla, 121. 
 
 Arpilla, Johannes Kanpar, 121. 
 
 Aqnilela. 121. 
 
 ArJulnaN. See ThoroaH AquinaH. 
 
 Arabia. 122. 
 
 ArahianA, 124. 
 
 Antd, 124. 
 
 Aram, 124. 
 
 Ararat, 125. 
 
 Aratiir, 12.'i. 
 
 Arcant Dleclpllna, 125. 
 
 Archaeology, Biblical, 126. 
 
 Archaeology, Ecclesiiisiical, 127. 
 
 Archbishop. See Bishoi). 
 
 Archdeacons and Arcbpresbyters, 127. 
 
 Archelaus, 128. 
 
 Archevites, 128. 
 
 Archicapellanus, 128. 
 
 Archiraandiite, 129. 
 
 Architecture, Hebrew, 129. 
 
 Architecture, Christian, 130. 
 
 Arcbonlici. 133. 
 
 Archprcsbyter. Sec Archdeacons. 
 
 Arciraboldi, Giovanni Angelo, 133. 
 
 Arcosoliiim, 133. 
 
 Aretas, 133. 
 
 Aretius, Bonedictua, 133. 
 
 Argentine Republic, 133. 
 
 Arianism, 134. 
 
 Arias Montanus, Bonedictua, 137. 
 
 Ariniathoa, 137. 
 
 Aristarclnis, 137. 
 
 Aristeas, 138. 
 
 Aristides, 138. 
 
 Arisiobulue, 138. 
 
 Aristobulus, 138. 
 
 Aristotle, 138. 
 
 Arius, 139. 
 
 Ark of the Covenant, 139. 
 
 Arkile, 140. 
 
 Armenia, 140. 
 
 Arminianism, Historical, 143. 
 
 Arminianisra, Five .'\rlicles of, 144. 
 
 Arminianiem, Wesleyan, 14j. 
 
 Army, 146. , 
 
 Arnaud, Henri, 147. 
 
 Arnauld, Angelique, 147. 
 
 Arnauld. Antoiiie, 147. 
 
 Arnauld. Henri. 148. 
 
 Arnauld, Jacqueline Mario, 148. 
 
 Arnauld d'Andllly, Robert, 148. 
 
 Arndt, Jolianu, 148. 
 
 Arno, 148. 
 
 Arnobius, 148. 
 
 Arnobius the Younger, 148. 
 
 Arnold of Brescia, 149. 
 
 Arnohl. Gottfried, 149. 
 
 Arnohi, Nicolaus, 149. 
 
 Arnold, Thomas. 150. 
 
 Arnold), Barlholemaeus, 150. 
 
 Arnoldists, 150. 
 
 Arnon, 1:)0. 
 
 Arnot, William, 150. 
 
 Arnulph. 160. 
 
 Arnidphus, St., 150. 
 
 Arphaxad, 151. 
 
 Ariowfiiiiith, .lohn, 151. 
 
 Areenius of Konio, 151. 
 
 Arsenius of Nicxa, 151. 
 
 Artaxerxes, 151. 
 
 Artcrnon, 151. 
 
 Articles of Failh, 152. 
 
 Articles of Religion, Thirty-Nine, 152. 
 
 Articles of Religion, Irish, 153. 
 
 Articles of Religion, I.anibelb, 153. 
 
 Arundel, Tliomas, 153. 
 
 Asa, 153. 
 
 Asapb, 154. 
 
 Asbury, Francis, 154. 
 
 Asceticism. 154. 
 
 Ascidas. See Theodore At>cldaa. 
 
 Asluiod. 154. 
 
 Asher. Ben. See Aaron ben Asher. 
 
 Asherah. Sec Astaile. 
 
 Anhima, 155. 
 
 Ashkelon, 155. 
 
 Ashloreth. See Aslarto. 
 
 ANh-Wednesday, 156. 
 
 AHiiiarli, 155. 
 
 Asniodeus, 155. 
 
 Ass, 155. 
 
 Ahs, Feast of the, 156. 
 
 Assehurg, Rosaniunde Jullane von, 156. 
 
 Asseniani, 156. 
 
 An«enibly, General, 157. 
 
 Aufcmbly of Divines. See Westminstei' 
 
 AnHyria, 157. 
 
 Astarte and .Asherab, 159. 
 
 Asteriurt. 159. 
 
 Astrology, 160, 
 
 Astronomy, 100. 
 
 .\t.truc,.I«"an, 100. 
 
 Asylum, 100. 
 
 Aiargails. 161, 
 
 AthanasiuH, 161. 
 
 Atbaniisian Creed, lUS. 
 
 Atheism, 163. 
 
 AlbeniigoraH. 163, 
 
 Albeuit. See Gruoo«.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 XIX 
 
 Athos. 164. 
 
 Atonement, 165. 
 
 Atonemt'iit, Day of, 166. 
 
 Atrimii, 168. 
 
 Attf rbury. Francis, 168. 
 
 Atticus, 168. 
 
 Atlo, 169. 
 
 Attritio. Spc Penance. 
 
 Aiibcrien,K. A., 169. 
 
 Aubertin, Edme, 169. 
 
 Aubign^. Theodore-Agrippa d', 169. 
 
 Auburn Serainaiy, 169. 
 
 Auburn Declaratiun, 170. 
 
 Audianr*. 171. 
 
 Audentia Episcopnlie, 171. 
 
 Audin, Vincent, 171. 
 
 Auger, Edmond, 171. 
 
 Augsburg, ConlVseion of, 172. 
 
 Augsburg Confession, Apology (»f, 172. 
 
 Augsburg. Interim of, 172. 
 
 Augsburg, Peace of, 172. 
 
 Augusti, Johann Christian Wilhelm, 172. 
 
 Augustine, St., 172. 
 
 Augustine, Sister, 173. 
 
 Augusiiiiian Monks and Xuns, 17S. 
 
 Augustinus, 174. 
 
 Aurelian, 177. 
 
 Aurelius, Marcus. See Marcus Aurcliue. 
 
 Auricular Confession, 177. 
 
 Aurifaber, Juhanii, 177. 
 
 Austin, St., 177. 
 
 Australasia, 177. 
 
 Austria, ISO, 
 / Autbert. See Ansgar. 
 
 Authorized Versiou. See Engheh Bible 
 Versions. 
 - Auto-da-fe, 182. 
 
 Autpertus, Ambroaius, 1S2. 
 
 Ave Maria, 1S2. 
 
 Avignon, 1S2. 
 
 Avis, the Order of, 182. 
 
 Avitus, Alcimus Ecdidius, 182. 
 
 Awakening. 183. 
 
 Aylmer, John, 183. 
 
 Azazel, 183. 
 
 Azymitcs, 133. 
 
 B. 
 
 Baader, Frantz Xavier, 1S4. 
 
 Baal and Bel, 184. 
 
 Baalbek, 18.i. 
 
 Baanites. See Paulicians. 
 
 Baasha, 186. 
 
 Baba. See Mishna. 
 
 Babylon, 186. 
 
 Babylonia, 187. 
 
 Baccalaureus, 189. 
 
 Baccanarists, 189. 
 
 Bach, Johann Sebastian, 189. 
 
 Bacon, Roger, 189. 
 
 Bacon, Francis. 190. 
 
 Bacon, Leonard, 191. 
 
 Bader, Johannes, 191 
 
 Badgers' Skins, 191. 
 
 Bagnolensea. See Cathari. 
 
 Bahrdt, Karl Fricdricb; 191. 
 
 Baillct, Adrian, 192. 
 
 Baillie, Robert. 192. 
 
 Baird, Robert, 192. 
 
 Bajus, Michel, 192. 
 
 Baker, Daniel, 193. 
 
 Baking, Bread, 193. 
 
 Baalam, 193. 
 
 Baladan . See Merodach-Baladau . 
 
 Balde, Jacob, 193. 
 
 Baldwin, Thomas, 194. 
 
 Bale, John, 194. 
 
 Ball, John, 194. 
 
 Ballanche, Pierre Simon, T94. 
 
 Balle, Nicolai Edinger, 194. 
 
 Balierini, 194. 
 
 Biillou, Hosea, 19o. 
 
 Balm, 19;'). 
 
 Balmes, Jaime T.ncio, 195. 
 
 Balsamon, Theodore, 19-i. 
 
 Baltue, Jean Francois, 195. 
 
 Baluze, Etienne. 19-5. 
 
 Bambas, Neophytos, 196, 
 
 Bampton Lectures, 196. 
 
 Ban, 196. 
 
 Bancroft, Richard, 196. 
 
 Bangorian Controversy. See Hoadley. 
 
 Bannez, Domiuioo, 196. 
 
 Banns, 196. 
 
 Banquet. See MeaU. 
 
 Bapbomet, 196. 
 
 Baptism, I'edobaptist view, 196. 
 
 Baptism, Ha|»tiMt view, 198. 
 
 liapiism. General article, 199. 
 
 r.;.ptism of Infants, 209. 
 
 llaptisteries, 210. 
 
 Baj. lists, 210. 
 
 Barabbas, 212. 
 
 Baraga, Friedrich, 212. 
 
 Barak. 212. 
 
 Barbara, St., 212. 
 
 Barbarian, 212. 
 
 Barbauld, Anna LetJtIa, 212. 
 
 Barbeyrac, Jean, 212. 
 
 Barbier, Jo8u6, 213. 
 
 Harckhausen Controversy, 213. 
 
 Barclay, Alexander, 213. 
 
 Itarclay, Robert, 213. 
 
 Bar-cocheba, 213. 
 
 Pardesanes, 214. 
 
 Barlaam, 214. 
 
 Barletta, 214. 
 
 Barnabas, 214. 
 
 Barnabites, 215. 
 
 Barnard, John, 215. 
 
 Barnes, Albert, 215 
 
 Barneveld. See Arminlanism. 
 
 Bare, or Baron, Pierre, 216. 
 
 Baronius, Cajsar, 216. 
 
 Barrow, I»*aac, 216. 
 
 Barrowe, Henry, 216. 
 
 Barruel, Augustin, 216. 
 
 Barsumas (archimandrite), 217. 
 
 Barsumas, Bishop of Nisibis, 217. 
 
 Barth, Christian Gottlob, 217. 
 
 BartholomEBUs, 217. 
 
 Bartholmess, 217. 
 
 Bartholomew, 217. 
 
 Bartholomew, Massacre of St., 217. 
 
 Bartholomites, 21S. 
 
 Barloli, Daniel, 218. 
 
 Barton, Elizabeth, 218. 
 
 Baruch, 218. 
 
 Baruch, Apocalj-psis of. See Pseudepi- 
 
 graphs of the O. T. 
 Baruch, Book of. See Apocrypha of the 
 
 O. T. 
 Barzillai,218. 
 
 Bascom, Henry Bidleman, 218. 
 Basedow, Johannes Bernbard, 218 
 Basel, Confession of, 218. 
 BafeU Council of, 219. 
 Bashan, 220. 
 Basil, a physician, 220. 
 Basil. Bishop, 220. 
 Basil the Great, 221. 
 Basilians, 221. 
 Basilica. See Architecture. 
 Basilides, 222. 
 Basnage, 222. 
 Bastbolm. Christian, 222. 
 Bates, AVilliara, 222. 
 Bath, 222. 
 Bath-Kol. 223. 
 
 Baumgarten, Siegniund Jacob, 223. 
 Bauragarten-Crusins, 224. 
 Baur, Ferdinand Christian, 224. 
 Bausset, Louis Francois de, 224. 
 Bautain, Louis, 22o. 
 Bavaria, 22.i. 
 Baxter. Richard, 225. 
 Baxlerians. See above. 
 Bayle, Pierre, 227. 
 Bay ley, James Roosevelt, 228. 
 Bayly, Lewis, 228. 
 Bdellium, 228. 
 Beard, 228. 
 Beard, Richard, 228. 
 -Beatific Vision, 228. 
 Beatification. 229. 
 Beaton, David, 229. 
 Beattie, James, 229. 
 Beausobre, Isaac de, 229. 
 Behcnburg, Lupoid, 229. 
 Bee, Abbey of, 229. 
 Becan, Martin, 229. 
 Beecarelli. See Quietiste. 
 Beccus. See John X. of Constantinople. 
 Beck, Johann Tobias, 229. 
 Becket, Thomas, 230. 
 B.de, 232. 
 
 R.-dell. William. 232. 
 Beecher, Lyman, 233. 
 Bee-culture among the Hebrewe, 233. 
 Beelzebub, 233. 
 Beer, 234. 
 Beeroth, 234. 
 Beersheba, 234. 
 Begbards and Boguince, 234. 
 
 Bekker, Balthnsar, 234. 
 
 Bel. See Baal. 
 
 Bel and Dragon. See Apocryplia. 
 
 Belgic ConfeHsion, 234. 
 
 Belgium, 235. 
 
 Belial, 236. ' 
 
 Belknap, Jeremy, 236. 
 
 Bellamy, Joseph, 236. 
 
 Bellarmine. R. F. K., 237. 
 
 Bellows, Henry. Sec Appendix. 
 
 Bells. 237. 
 
 Belsham, Thomas, 238. 
 
 BeUhazzar, 238. 
 
 Bema, 238. 
 
 Benaiah, 238. 
 
 Benedicite, 238. 
 
 Benedict (popes), 239. 
 
 Benedict of Nursia, 240. 
 
 Benedict of i\mane, 241. 
 
 Benedictine Editors, Editiona of the 
 
 Fathers, 241. 
 Benedictines, 242. 
 Benediction, 242. 
 Benehce, 242. 
 
 Benefit of Clergy. See Clergy, Benefit of. 
 Benevolence, 243. 
 Benczet, 243. 
 
 Bengel, Johann Albrecht, 243. 
 Ben-hadad, 244. 
 Benjamin of Tudela, 244. 
 Bennett, James, 244. 
 Benno, St., 244. 
 Benoit, Rene, 244. 
 Benoit, Elie, 24.5. 
 Bentham, Thomas, 245. 
 Bentley, Richard, 245. 
 Beowulf, 245. 
 Berceans. 245. 
 Berengarius, 245. 
 Bergier, Nicolas Sylvestrc, 246. 
 Bergius, Johannes, 246. 
 Berkeley. George, 246. 
 Berleburg Bible, 247. 
 Born, Disputatiun of, 248. 
 Bern, Synod of, 248. 
 Bernard of Clairvaux, 248. 
 Bernard of Mentone, 249. 
 Bernard of Toledo, 249. 
 Bernard de Botono, 249. 
 Bernard, Claude, 250. 
 Bernard of Cluny, 250. 
 Bernardin, 250. 
 Bernice, 250. 
 Berno, 251. 
 
 Berno, Abbot. See Clugny. 
 Berquin, Louis de, 251. 
 Berruyer, Joseph Isaac, 251. 
 Berlhier, Guillaume P'raiKjois, 261. 
 Berthold the Franciscan, 251. 
 Berthold of Chiemsee. 251. 
 Berthold, Leonhard, 251. 
 Berthold of Livonia, 252. 
 Berthold, Founder of the Carmelit^^n. 
 
 See Carmelites, 
 Berthold, Archbishop of Mainz. Pee 
 
 Mainz. 
 BeruUe, Pierre de, 252. 
 Beryllus, 252. 
 Beschitzi, Elijah, 252. 
 Bessarion, 252. 
 Beeeel, Gottfried, 252, 
 Bethabara. 252. 
 Bethany, 252. 
 Bethel, 253. 
 Betbesda, 253. 
 Beth-boron, 253. 
 Bethlehem, 253. 
 Belhlehemites, 254. 
 Bethphage, 254. 
 Betliphaiiy, 254. 
 Bethsaida, 254, 
 Beth-shean, 254. 
 Beth-sheraesh, 255. 
 Bethulia, 255. 
 
 Bethune, George "Washington, 2.^&. 
 Beth-zur, 255. 
 Betkius, Joachim, 205. 
 Beveridge, William, 255. 
 Beza, Theodore, 255. 
 Bibles, 257. 
 Bible Christians, 257. 
 Bibles, Pictured, 257. 
 Bible-reading in Latin and Greek Ch. ,25a 
 Bible SocieliVs, 259. 
 Bible Text, O. T., 2(M. 
 Bible Text, N. T., 268. 
 Bible Versions, or -Translations of the 
 
 Bible, 
 
 2 — 1
 
 INDEX. 
 
 BlblLinder, WO. 
 
 Boyse, John, 316. 
 
 ■Burial, 341. 
 
 Uiblla Fanperiim, 290. 
 
 Bradford, John, 316. 
 
 Buridau, Jean, 343. 
 
 Biblical Aichawloi;}-. Bcc Archfflolog}-, 
 
 Braiishaw, William, 315. 
 
 Burkitt, William, 344. 
 
 BiUlical. 
 
 Bradwardine, Thomas, 316. 
 
 Burmah, 344. 
 
 Biblicil Canon. Si-e Canon, 0. and N.T. 
 
 Brady, Xicholae, 316. 
 
 Burmann, Franz, 344. 
 
 Biblical Hei-racneutic**. fcite Hcimeueu- 
 
 Brahma. See Brabmanism. 
 
 Burn, Richard, 344. 
 
 Ura. 
 
 Brahmanism, 316. 
 
 Burnet, Gilbert, 344. 
 
 Biblical History. Sl-o Liraol. 
 
 Brahmo Soraaj, 319. 
 
 Burnet, Thomas, 344. 
 
 Bibli'jal l'l)ilolo^'j-. -*<>■ 
 
 Brainerd, David, 320. 
 
 Burnett I'rizes, 345. 
 
 Biblical Theology; •£111. 
 
 Braincrd, John, 321. 
 
 Burns, W. C, 345. 
 
 BibliciKU. 2^*2. 
 
 Br.ainerd, Thomas, 321. 
 
 Burns, J. D., 34.i. 
 
 Bibliography, 292. 
 Bibliumancy, 2D5. 
 BickL-U, Johann Williclm, 2ei. 
 
 Bramhall, John, 321. 
 
 Burnt Offerings. See Saerifiees. 
 
 Brandenbui-g. See Prussia. 
 
 Burritt, Elihu^ .345. 
 
 Brandt, Gerard, 321. 
 
 Burroughes, Jeremiah, 3J6. 
 
 BicktTaleth, Edward, i-Jb. 
 
 Brant, Sebastian, 321. 
 
 Burroughs, George, 346. 
 
 Bidding-I'i-aycri*, 'iJi. 
 
 Bray, Thomas, 321. 
 
 Burton, ,\sa, 346. 
 
 Biddlf, John,2«>. 
 
 Brazil, 321. 
 
 Burton, Edward, 346. 
 
 Biel. (iabliel, 2«6. 
 
 Bread. See Baking. 
 
 Burton, Robert, 346. 
 
 Billican, Theobald, 203. 
 
 Breckenridge, John, 322. 
 
 Busch, Johannes, 347. 
 
 bilney, Thomas, 2,! i. 
 Bilsou, Thomas, •-•VO. 
 
 Breckenridge, Koberl J., 322. 
 
 Busenbaum, Hcrmuiin, :i47. 
 
 Bi-eekling, Friedricb, 322. 
 
 Bush, George, 347. 
 
 Bingham, Joseph, 2'i6. 
 
 Breithaupt, Joachim Justus, 322. 
 
 Bushnell, Horace, 347. 
 
 Binnoy, Thoina**, 2J6. 
 
 Breitinger, Johann Jacob, 322. 
 
 Butler, Joseph, 348. 
 
 Birch, Thomas. 2;i7. 
 
 Bremen. 323. 
 
 Butler, ."ilban, 350. 
 
 BirRilla, Si., 297. 
 
 Brenz. Johann, 323. 
 
 Butler, Charles, 360. 
 
 Birgittineu, Oidir of, «37. 
 
 Brethren of the Common Life, 323. 
 
 Butler, W. A., 360. 
 
 Bishop, 297. 
 BUhopric, MO. 
 
 Brethren of the Free Spirit, 324. 
 
 Buttlar, Eva von, 350. 
 
 Brethren, riymoutb. See Plymouth 
 
 Butzer, Martin, 360. 
 
 Bi.-.h[)ps' Book, tho, •■500. 
 
 Brethren. 
 
 Buxtorf, 351. 
 
 Bi-!hop. Nalhan,3W. 
 
 Brethren, United. See United Brethren. 
 
 Byblus, 351. 
 
 Bithynia, .■»!. 
 
 Brethren, United, in Cbi-ist. See United 
 
 Byfield, Nicholas, 351. 
 
 Blatlifnara, 501. 
 
 Brethren in Christ. 
 
 Bylield, Adonl.nm, 351. 
 
 Blair, iIu!;h,3U1. 
 
 Bretschneider, Karl Gottlieb, 324. 
 
 BynasuB, Anthony, 352. 
 
 BliUr, James, 3U1. 
 
 Breviary, 324. 
 
 
 Bbiir, liobert, 301. 
 
 Brewster, William, 325. 
 
 
 Blair, Samuel, 301. 
 
 Bri<;onnet, Guillaume, 325, 
 
 c. 
 
 BiandraUi, Oeorj, 301. 
 
 Bridaine, .Jacques, 325. 
 
 
 Bi^wphi-my, 302. 
 
 Bridge, William, 325. 
 
 Cah, 353. 
 
 Bla^tJirea, MatthaUB, 302. 
 
 Bridget, St., 325. 
 
 Cabala, 353. 
 
 Blaiircr, ,\nibro.siU8, 302, 
 
 Bridgcwatcr Treatises, 326. 
 
 Cab.'isilas, Nilus, 555. 
 
 Blaynev, Benjamin, 302. 
 
 Briefs and Bulls, Papal, 326. 
 
 Cabaslhis, Nicol.-uis, 355. 
 
 Bleek, t~riedrich, 302. 
 
 Brigham, Charles Henry, 326. 
 
 Cabral, Frangois, 366. 
 
 Blenimydes, or Blemmlda, 302. 
 
 Brigittinos. See Birgiliines. ^^ 
 
 Caecilia, St., 356. 
 
 Bloiiitield, CharleH Jaine», 303. 
 
 Brightman, Thomas, 326. 
 
 Cascilianus. Sec Donatista. 
 
 Bloiidel, David, 303. 
 
 Brill, Jacob, 327. 
 
 Cffidmon, 356. 
 
 Blood, Revenger of, 303. 
 
 Brittinians, 327. 
 
 ClBiularius, UicbacI, 356. 
 
 Bloody-Marriage. See Coligny. 
 
 Brochmand. Jesper Itasraussen, 327. 
 
 Cajsarea, 357. 
 
 Bloody.Bweat, 303. 
 
 Bromley, Thomas, 327. 
 
 Ca;s:iriiis of Aries, 357. 
 
 Blount, Charles, 303. 
 
 Brooks, Elbridge Gerry, 327. 
 
 Caesarius of Heisterbach, 357. 
 
 Blumhardt, Christian Ootlllcb, 304. 
 
 Brorson, Hans Adolf. 327. 
 
 Caiaphas. 357. 
 
 Blunt, John .James. 304. 
 
 Broughton, Hugh, 327. 
 
 Cain and the Calnitcs, 358. 
 
 Boardinnn. Henry .-Vu^uslus, 804. 
 
 BrouMson, Clamle, 32S. 
 
 Caius, 358. 
 
 Bochart, 8arauel, 304. 
 
 Brown, John, 328. 
 
 Cnjetan,358. 
 
 Bockhold, Johann. .304. 
 
 Brown, .John, 328. 
 
 Calamou. See Sycainina. 
 Calamy, Edmund, S.SO. 
 
 Bodenstein. Bee Carlsladt. 
 
 Brown, J. N., 328. 
 
 Body, Natural, Spiritual, and Myutical, 
 
 Browne, Robert, 328. 
 
 Calainy, Benjamin, 359. 
 
 304. 
 
 Browne, Sir Thomas, 330. 
 
 Calamy, Edmund, 369. 
 
 Boehme, Jacob, 305. 
 
 Brownists. See Browne. 
 
 CaloB, Jean, 359. 
 
 Boiithius, :iOj. 
 
 Jirownlee, William C, 3.30. 
 
 Calatrava, the Knights of, 360. 
 
 Bopitiky, Karl Ilclnrlch von, 306. 
 
 Brownsoii, Orestes Augustus, .330. 
 
 Calrterwood, David, 380. 
 
 Bogcrraiinn, Jan, 30(3. 
 
 Bruegglers, 330. 
 
 Caleb, 300. 
 
 BoKomllce, 306. 
 
 Bruis, Pierre dc. Sec Peter of Bniys 
 
 Calendai-, 360. 
 
 BoEorla. Bee Cyril and Methodius. 
 Bohemlii, 306. 
 
 and Petrobrusslans. 
 
 (Jalendar Brethicil, 302. 
 
 Brully, Pierre, 331. 
 
 Calf, 362. 
 
 Bohenilan BrelhrcD, 303. 
 
 Bruno, 331. 
 
 Calhoun, S. H., 303. 
 
 Bolivia, 309. 
 
 Bruno, Apostle of the Prussiiins, 331. 
 
 Calixtlnes, 363. 
 
 Bollandinlii, 309. 
 
 Bruno, Giordano, 331. 
 
 Culixtus 1., 363. 
 
 BoUec, Jeromi* FTermc*. 309. 
 
 Brunswick, 331. 
 
 Calixtus (popes), 363. 
 
 Bulzano, Bernlmrd, 309. 
 
 Bruys, I'eter. See Peter of Bruys and 
 
 Calixtus, Georg, 3(M. 
 
 Bona, Giovanni, 310. 
 
 Petrohrusslans. 
 
 Callenberg. Johann Hcini'ich, 364. 
 
 Bonald, L. (}. A., Vlcomtc dc, 310. 
 
 Bryan, Rev. W. Sec Bible Christians. 
 
 Calling, 3(14. 
 
 Bonarentura, 310, 
 
 Bryant, Jacob, 332. 
 
 Ctilniet, .\ugusllne, 365. 
 
 Boniface (popes), 310. 
 H.HiUace, Winfild, 311. 
 
 Bucer. See Bulzer. 
 
 Calogerl. See .\tIios. 
 
 Buchanan, Clauillus. 332, 
 
 Calovius, Abraham, 365. 
 
 Moiinlvard. 312. 
 
 Buchanan, George, 332. 
 
 Caloyers, 365. 
 
 Bonner, Kdmund, 312. 
 
 Buck, Charles. 332. 
 
 Calvarlsts, 365. 
 
 Bunosus, 312. 
 
 BuckmitiHter, .Josepit, 332. 
 
 Calvary See Holy Sepulchre. 
 
 Boos, Manln,313. 
 
 Huckmlnsler, J. 8.. 332. 
 
 (Calvin, John, 365." 
 
 B.i()uln. nerre.313. 
 
 Bnddeus, .Johann Frnnz, 332. 
 
 Calvinism, 3IV.1. 
 
 Bora, Oiitharin,. von, 313. 
 
 Buddha. Buddhism, 333. 
 
 Camiildilles, 373. 
 
 Horborltes, 313. 
 
 Bude, <}ulllannle, ;J35. 
 
 Canibriilge Plntforni. Sec Congregation 
 
 Rordas-Demoulln, .Tenn Baptlsto, 313. 
 
 Budlngton, William Ives, 331>. 
 
 alism. 
 
 Bordclominn Heel, 313. 
 
 Bugenhngen, Johann, 335. 
 
 Camel, 374. 
 
 Borel, Ailnin, 313. 
 
 Bulgaria, :i.35. 
 
 Cainerarlus, .Jonchlm, 374. 
 
 Bornla. Men A lexnnder VI., Jcnulta. 
 
 Bulgarls, Engine, ."136. 
 
 Cainero, or Camei'on, John, 375. 
 
 Borrhnus. H<-e Cellnrius. 
 
 Bull, George, 336. 
 
 (Cameron, Andrew, 375. 
 
 Bomimco, (Jarlo, 31:1. 
 
 Bull, Papal. Sec Briefs nnd Bulhl, 
 
 Canicninlans, 376. 
 
 Borrow, Oeorue, 314. 
 
 Bulllnger, Hilnrleh, 337. 
 
 Camisnrds, 375. 
 
 BoMllrl, .Incflilen BenlKTIO, 314. 
 
 Bungener, l''elix, 337. 
 
 <.:aiiipaliella, Thomas, ,176. 
 
 Bust, I'aill Ami Isaac David, 314. 
 
 Bunsen, ChrlKllan Knrl Joslui, 337. 
 
 Campanus. Jcdiannes, .377. 
 
 B<Mitott, Thoinits, Ml',. 
 
 Bunting, Jahez, :UK. 
 
 Caiupbell, .Mcxander. .377. 
 
 KuiidlMot, Klliia, 31,'i. 
 
 Bunyan, John, ,'138. 
 
 Camiibell, Ge<irge, 377. 
 
 I^Mirdnlolie, fjiuls, 316. 
 
 Bnrges, Cornelius, 340. 
 
 Campbell. J. .MM,eod,.378. 
 
 Butirigiioii, Anlulnrltj', SlTj. 
 
 Burgess, Anthony, :i4l. 
 
 Ciimpe, Joac lilm Heln|-loh, S78. 
 
 l«<iw. r, .Vrchlbald, .".!.'.. 
 
 Burgess, l)anlil,34I. 
 
 (Jamjieglils, 37S. 
 
 UowrhiK. HIr John, 316. 
 
 Burgess, George, 341. 
 
 (^iiniphin, I'Minund, 378. 
 
 HorBl.bop, 316. 
 
 Bnrgher-Heceder. 8co Scccdcra. 
 
 (^amp-meetings, 378. 
 
 Uoylf<, Boyle U^nroa, Sl!>. 
 
 Burguudluns, 341. 
 
 Cunius, Jean Pierre, 379.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 XXI 
 
 Cnna, 379. 
 
 Cattle-raisinir among the Hebrews, 423. 
 
 Chrlsto Sacrum, 467. 
 
 Canaan, 379. 
 
 Caussln, Nicholas, 424. 
 
 Chrodegang, 407. 
 
 Canada, Uurainion of, 380. 
 
 Cavalier, .lean. See Camisards. 
 
 Chromatins, 468. 
 
 Oandacc-, 38U. 
 
 Cave, William, 424. 
 
 Chronicles, Books of, 468. 
 
 CaniliilUB, 3S3. 
 
 Cawdrey, Daniel, 424. 
 
 Chronology. Bee Kl-a. 
 
 CanillLiDHB, 383. 
 
 Cayet, 424. 
 
 ChrysologuB, 468. 
 
 CandlcH, 383. 
 
 Cazalla, Augnstln, 424. 
 
 Chrysoston), 469. 
 
 OndliBtick, tlie Golden, 883. 
 
 Cecil, Klcbard, 424. 
 
 Chubb, Thomas, 470. 
 
 Canrtlish, Hubert Smith, aS4. 
 
 Ceillier, Uemi. 425. 
 
 Church, 470. 
 
 (iinisiuB, IVlcr, 381. 
 
 CV'lestine (popes), 425. 
 
 Church. Diet. See Kiicbentag. 
 
 Cannon, James Spencer, 386. 
 
 Celestiues, the, 425. 
 
 Church-Property, 475. 
 
 Canon, 385. 
 
 ('elibacy, 425. 
 
 -Church-ltate, 476. 
 
 Canon, O. T., 3S5. 
 
 Ccllarius. See Chapter. 
 
 -Church- llegisters, 476. 
 
 Ciwion of the N. T., 389. 
 
 Cellarius, Martin, 426. 
 
 -Church-Wardens, 476. 
 
 Canon Tjaw, 392. 
 
 Cellitai. See Alexians. 
 
 -Churching of Women, 476. 
 
 <..\inonlcal HuurB, 395. 
 
 Olnius, Olaus, 426. 
 
 -Church and State, 477. 
 
 Cinonlzation, 396. 
 
 Celsus, 426. 
 
 •Church Discipline. See Discipline. 
 
 <JanunB, Regular. .396. 
 
 Celtic Church. See Keltic Church. 
 
 Church Government. See Polity. 
 
 CnnHU'in, Karl Uildebrand, 396. 
 
 Cenchrea), 426. 
 
 Church lllstory, 480. 
 
 Canterbury, 396. 
 
 -Censer, 426. 
 
 Church Jurisdiction. Bee Jurisdiction, 
 
 Canlhnrus, 396. 
 
 Censer, in lioman-Catholic Worship. See 
 
 Ecclesiafctical. 
 
 Cantielcs, 397. 
 
 Thurible. 
 
 Church Polity. See Polity. 
 
 CanU)r, 399. 
 
 Censorship of Books, 428. 
 
 Church, States of the, 483. 
 
 Canus, Melchlor, 399. 
 
 Census, 427. 
 
 Churton, Ualph, 485. 
 
 C-apernaum, 399. 
 
 Central .\merica, 427. 
 
 ChytrasuB, David, 485. 
 
 Caphtor, 400. 
 
 Centurioe Magdeburgenses, 427. 
 
 Ciboriuni, 486. 
 
 Capislranna, 400. 
 
 Centurion, 428. 
 
 Cilicia, 486. 
 
 Capito, WolfK.mg, 400. 
 
 Ceolfrfd,428. 
 
 Circumceliianfl. Bee Donatists. 
 
 C-apitularies, 4U0. 
 
 Cerdo, 423. 
 
 Circumcision, 486. 
 
 Cappadueia, 400. 
 
 Cerinthus, 428. 
 
 Circumcision. Feast of. See Octave. 
 
 Cappel, Jacques, 401. 
 
 CcKtius (jallus, 428, 
 
 Cistercians, 487. 
 
 Cappel, Louis, 401. 
 
 <'hadcrton, Laurence, 428, 
 
 Cities, 488. 
 
 Captive. Hee War. 
 
 Cliiildaians, 428. 
 
 Cities of Refuge, 48*. 
 
 Captivity of the Jewe, 401. 
 
 Cllalcedon, 428. 
 
 Citizenship, 488. 
 
 Capuchina, 402. 
 
 Chalmers, Thomas, 428. 
 
 Clap, Thomas, 488. 
 
 Caputiati. 402. 
 
 Chamier, Daniel, 430. 
 
 Clarendon, Constitutions of, 489. 
 
 'Jaraccioii, Oaleazzo, 402. 
 
 Chandieu, 430. 
 
 Clare, St., Nuns of, 489. 
 
 <Iaranza. Bee C'arranza. 
 
 Chandler, Edward, 430. 
 
 Clarke, Adam, 489. 
 
 Car.avanflerai. Bee Kbau. 
 
 Chandler, Samuel, 430. 
 
 Clarke, .John, 489. 
 
 Carc;is8, 4(J3. 
 
 Charming, William Ellery, 430. 
 
 Clarke, Samuel, 489. 
 
 C.-trcliemi^li, 403. 
 
 Chapel, 432. 
 
 Clarke, Samuel, 490. 
 
 Carilinal. 403. 
 
 Chapin, E. II., 432. 
 
 Clarkson, Thomas, 400. 
 
 Cai-ev, William, 404. 
 
 Chaplain, 432. 
 
 Class-Meetings, 490. 
 
 Cnrgill, Donald, 404. 
 
 Chapters, 432. 
 
 Claude, Jean, 490. 
 
 Carlatadt, A. K. Bodenstciu, 404. 
 
 Chapters and Verses, 433. 
 
 Claudianus, 491. 
 
 Oarlyle, Tliomas, 405. 
 
 Chapters, the Three. See Three Chap- 
 
 Claudius (emperor), 491. 
 
 Carmel, Mount, 406. 
 
 ters. 
 
 Claudius of 'i'urin, 491. 
 
 CarmelileB, 407. 
 
 Chariots, 435. 
 
 Cliiudius, Matthias, 491. 
 
 Carnahan, .James, 407. 
 
 CharismaU. See Gifts, Spiritual. 
 
 Clean and Unclean, 492. 
 
 Carnival, 407. 
 
 Charity, Brothers of, 435. 
 
 Clemanges, Nicolas de, 492. 
 
 Caroline Books, 407. 
 
 Charity, Sisters of, 435. 
 
 Clemens Roraanus, 492, 
 
 Carpenter, Ijuit, 40S. 
 
 Charlemagne, 436. 
 
 Clemens, Titus Flavins, 494. 
 
 iiirpenter. Wary, 408. 
 
 Charles V., 437. 
 
 Clement (popes), 494. 
 
 Carpocratians, 408. 
 
 Charnock, Stephen, 438. 
 
 Clementines, 497. 
 
 Carpzov, 408. 
 
 Charron, Pierre, 438. 
 
 Clericns, 498. 
 
 <l.*arranza, Bartolom6 de, 408. 
 
 Chase, Irah, 438. 
 
 Clergy, Benefit of, 498. 
 
 Carrasco, .Antonio, 409. 
 
 Chassidim, 433. 
 
 Clergy, Biblical, 498. 
 
 Carroll, John, 409. 
 
 Chastity, 439. 
 
 Clerk, 500. 
 
 Oirtfon, Alexander, 409. 
 
 Chasuble, 439. 
 
 Cletus, 600. 
 
 Carstaree, William, 409. 
 
 Chaucer, Geoffrey, 440. 
 
 Clinic Baptism, 600. 
 
 Carthaaie, 410. 
 
 Chauncy, Charles. 440. 
 
 Cloister, 600. 
 
 Carthusians, 410. 
 
 Chaur.cy, Isaac, 440. 
 
 Clothing and Ornaments of the Hebrews, 
 
 Cartwright, Thomas, 410. 
 
 Chauncy, Charles, 440. 
 
 600. 
 
 Cartwrinht, Peter, 412. 
 
 Chautauqua, 441. 
 
 Clothing and Insignia of the Chri«U.aii 
 
 Cary, Henry Francis, 412. 
 
 Cheke, Sir John, 441. 
 
 Clergy. See Vestments. 
 
 Caryl, Joseph, 412. 
 
 Chemnitz, Martin, 442. 
 
 Clovis, 601. 
 
 Casaw, Bartolemeo de las, 412. 
 
 (^^lieniosh, 442. 
 
 Clugnv, 601. 
 
 Casanbon, Isaac, 412. 
 
 (Mierub, Cherubim, 442. 
 
 Coadjutor, 602. 
 
 Caselius, Jobann, 412. 
 
 Cheyuell, Francis, 443. 
 
 Cobb, Sylvanus, 602. 
 
 Oassimder, Georg, 413. 
 
 CliiUlermas Day. See Innocents' Day. 
 
 Cobham, Lord, 602. 
 
 Cassel, Conf-rence of, 413. 
 
 Chili, 443. 
 
 Cocceius, 603. 
 
 Cassiauuw, .Toh.muefi, 413. 
 
 Chiliasm. See Millenariauisra. 
 
 Cochljeus, Johannes, 504. 
 
 CassiaiiiiB. ,luliua,413. 
 
 Cliilliugworth, William, +43. 
 
 Ccelestius, 504. 
 
 CassiodnliiN, Maj^mis Aurelius, 413. 
 
 <;liina. Christian Missions in, 444. 
 
 Cielesvria, 604. 
 
 CasU-ll, Edmund, 414. 
 
 Choir, 447. 
 
 Ccelicolae, 605. 
 
 Castellio, or Castalio, Sebastian, 414. 
 
 Chorazin, 447. 
 
 Ctenobites. See Monasticisra. 
 
 Casuistry, 414. 
 
 Chorcpiscopi, 448. 
 
 Coffin. See Burial. 
 
 Casus Ri-servati, 415. 
 
 (•hrism, 448. 
 
 Coffin, Charles, 605. 
 
 Catacombs, 415. 
 
 Chrismal, 448. 
 
 Cularbasians. See Gnosticism. 
 
 Catafalco, 417. 
 
 ChriBom, 448. 
 
 Coke, Thomas, 605. 
 
 CaUlduB, St., 417. 
 
 < 'hrist .lesus. See Jesus Christ. 
 
 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 605. 
 
 Catechetics, Catechisms, ct^., 417. 
 
 Christ, Monogram of, 448. 
 
 Coleridge, Hartley, 507. 
 
 Catena, 419. 
 
 Christ, Offices of. See Jesns Christ, 
 
 Coleridge, Sara, 608. 
 
 Cathari, 420. 
 
 Offices of 
 
 Coleridge, Sir John Taylor, 508. 
 
 Calharina, St., 421. 
 
 Christ, Sinlessness of. See Christology. 
 
 Colet, John, 608. 
 
 Catharina of Bologna, 421. 
 
 Christ, the Order of, 448. 
 
 Coligny, Gaspard de, 608. 
 
 Catharina of (Jenoa, 421. 
 
 Christ, Pictures of, 448. 
 
 Collation, 509. 
 
 Catharina of Sienna, 421. 
 
 <'liriHtian, Oiigin of the Name, 449. 
 
 Collect, 509. 
 
 Catharina of Sweden, 422. 
 
 Christian Commission, IJ. S., 449. 
 
 College, 609. 
 
 Cmharina Kieci.422. 
 
 Christian Connection. 449. 
 
 Collegia Natlonalln, 611. 
 
 Catharinus, Anibrosius, 422. 
 
 Christian Union Churches of the West, 
 
 Collegial or Collegiate Churches, 611. 
 
 <?alhedra and Cathedral, 422. 
 
 460. 
 
 Collegialism, 612. 
 
 Catholic, 422. 
 
 Christians of St. .Tohn, 450. 
 
 Collegiants, 512. 
 
 Catholic Apostolic Charch, 422. 
 
 Christians of St. Thomas, 450. 
 
 Collier, Jeremy, S12. 
 
 Catholic Emancip.ation, 423. 
 
 Christmas, 4.'j0. 
 
 Collins, Anthony, 612. 
 
 Catholic Epistles, 423. 
 
 ChristoloKy, 451. 
 
 Colin, Daniel Georg Conrad von, 514. 
 
 (tatholic or United CopU, 423. 
 
 Christopher, St., 467. 
 
 Collyridi.ms, 513. 
 
 Catholieus, 423. 
 
 Christophorus, 467. 
 
 Colman, 613.
 
 JCSU 
 
 Cclman, Benjaroin, 613. 
 
 Cologne, 513. 
 
 Oolombift, United States of, 517. 
 
 Colors ill the Bible, 614. 
 
 Cbloss®. 515. 
 
 Colossians, Epistle to. See Paul. 
 
 Columha, St., •''lo. 
 
 Columbiinus, 517. 
 
 Combefi3, Fiangoia, 617. 
 
 Coinenius, 517. 
 
 Ooniniciida, 51S. 
 
 Oomraerce among the Hebrews, 518. 
 
 — (Tonimination Ser\'ice, 518. 
 Oommoiiianus, 518. 
 ComnioduH, 51S. 
 
 Common Lift*. Brelhreti of. See Breth- 
 
 ren of the Common Life. 
 Common Pnij-er. See Liturgies. 
 Comraunicatio Idiomatura, 519. 
 Gbmmuniun. See Lord's Supper. 
 
 — Communion of the Dead. See Dead, 
 
 Communion of. 
 — l^mraunion of Saints, 519. 
 —Communism, 519. 
 Competcntcs. Sec Catecbetics. 
 Compline, 519. 
 Compoatella, Order of, 619. 
 Compton. Henry, 520. 
 Oomte, Aiignste, 5*20. 
 Conception, FeaHt of, 521. 
 (inception of our Lady, Nuns of the 
 
 Order of, 521. 
 Conceptualism, 621. 
 Conclave, 521. 
 Concomilaiiee, 521, 
 Concord, Fonnulu of, 621. 
 Concordance. 522. 
 Concordat, 526. 
 Concubinage amon^ the Hebrews. See 
 
 Marriage among the Hebrews. 
 Coiicubiiiftg".', 527. 
 Conrursua Divinus, 528. 
 Condignity and Consruity, 523. 
 Cone, Spencer Houglitou, 528. 
 Conference, 52S. 
 
 OunfeHSiion of Faith. Sec Creed. 
 Confei*(>ioii of tiiiw, 530. 
 Contirniation, 530. 
 Contlict of Duties. See Duties, ConlUel 
 
 of. 
 Confucius, 531. 
 Congregatio de AuxIllU Divince Gratise, 
 
 532. 
 Congregation, 533. 
 
 Congregationalism, English, 534. 
 CotigregatioiiaUnia in the United States, 
 63.-*. 
 
 ('onnexa, 541. 
 
 C'jtinotiita, 541. 
 
 <'-oiion, 512. 
 Coiioniles, 542. 
 
 Conrad of Marburg. See Konrad of 
 Marburs- 
 
 Conring, Hermann, 642. 
 
 Cbnitalvi, Krcole, 542. 
 
 ConHcienwf, 542. 
 
 Cbnsclenliarli, 543. 
 ■^ Connecratiun, 543. 
 
 ConaenHus Genevensls, 644. 
 
 CunnenflUH Tignrlnus. 544. 
 
 CoHHllia Kvimgidica, 644. 
 
 Con-Utente«. Sec Penitents. 
 
 Contittlory, 54.'i 
 
 0>nNlaiice, (^Hlllcil of, 516. 
 
 Contitantine (popcn), 516. 
 
 Conntantlne the Great and his Sons, 646. 
 
 Cunnliintinopli?, 547. 
 
 Connlantinople, Mudcrn, 548. 
 
 ConntaniinopolitAii Creed. 8co Nlccnc 
 Creed. 
 ' GonMubHlAntlatlon, 619. 
 
 CbnlArinl, Ganparo, 610. 
 
 Convent, 5-'>0. 
 
 Oonvcnilcic, 550. 
 ..Convcnlielu Act, 650. 
 
 Convorfiion, bM. 
 
 Convorathtn, 551. 
 
 CunvulfilonlNlM. 551. 
 
 Conylnare. Wimam I>fin1cl, 652. 
 
 Ojnvbfarr, William John, 553. 
 
 CortK, <rhftrle<», 5.'>2. 
 
 Ciok, Kmlln K.. 0.2. 
 
 Oioke, Henry, 5'i2. 
 
 Cooltman, (|/-or((n ftrlmston, 663. 
 
 OKiktnnn, Alfred, 653. 
 
 Cop*-, r.vt. 
 
 Coplmton, Kdwnr<1,6&S. 
 
 Cvppitig, jubn, 653. 
 
 IXDEX. 
 
 Copts and the Coptic Church, 553. 
 
 Coquerel, Athanase, 555. 
 
 Coquerel, Albanaae Jusue, 555. 
 
 Coran. See Koran. 
 
 Corban, 555. 
 
 Corbinian, 555. 
 
 Cordeliers, 555. 
 
 Cordova, 555. 
 
 Codnlh, 556. 
 
 Corinthians, Epistles to the. See PauL 
 
 Cornelius, 556. 
 
 Cornelins k Lapide, 556. 
 
 Coronati Quatuor, 556. 
 
 Corporal, 556. 
 
 Corpus Catholicorum, 656. 
 
 Corpus Christ! , 556. 
 
 Corpus Doctrinae, 557. 
 
 Corpus Evangelicorum, 557. 
 
 Correspondences. See Swedenborgian- 
 
 ism. 
 Corrodi, Heinrich, 557. 
 Corvey, 557. 
 
 Corvinufl, Antonius, 558. 
 Cosin, John, 55S. 
 Cosmas and Damianus, 558. 
 Cosmas Indicopleueics, 558. 
 Cossit, Franceway Ranna, 558. 
 Costume. See Clothing among the He- 
 brews, Dress ainong the Early Chris- 
 tians, Vestments of the Clergy. 
 Cotelerius, Jean Baptii^te, 559. 
 Cotton, George Edward Lynch, 559 
 Cotton, John, 559. 
 Council, 559. 
 
 Courayer, Pierre Francois Le, 561. 
 Courcelles, Etienne de, 561. 
 Court among the Hebrews, 661. 
 Court, Antoiue, 561. 
 Cousin, Victor, 562. 
 Covenant, 562. 
 Covenanters, 563. 
 Coverdale, Miles, 564. 
 Cowl, 565. 
 Cowles, Henry, 565. 
 Cowper, William, 565. 
 Cox, Samuel Hanson, 566. 
 Crabbe, George, 566. 
 Cradock, Samuel, 566. 
 Craig, John, 566. 
 Craig, John, 566. 
 Crakenlliorpe, Richard, 566. 
 Cramer, Joliann Andreas, 566. 
 Cranmer, Thomae, 567. 
 Crashaw, Richard, 567. 
 
 Crato von (-raffiheiin, 567. 
 
 Crawford, Thomas J., 568. 
 
 Creation, 568. 
 
 Creationiein, 569. 
 
 Credence Table, 570. 
 
 Crediier, Karl August, 570. 
 
 Creed. 570. 
 
 C'respin. Jean, 571. 
 
 Criminal, Hebrew. See Court among 
 Hebrews. 
 
 Crifp, Tobias, 571. 
 
 OIwpinuB, 571. 
 
 CriticlSacri, 572. 
 
 Criticism, Textual. See Bible Text. 
 
 Crocius, Johann, 572. 
 
 Cromwell, Gliver, 672. 
 
 Crosier, 573. 
 
 Cross, 573. 
 
 Crueiger, Kaspar, 575. 
 
 ('ruden, Alexander, 576. 
 
 Crusades. 578. 
 
 CrusluH, CliriHtian August, 578. 
 
 Crypt, 578. 
 
 Crvplo-Calvlnism, 578. 
 
 Cudworth, Ralph, 670. 
 
 Culdees, 579. 
 
 Cullen. Paul, 581. 
 
 Cimiberland Presbyterian Church, 581, 
 
 Cumming, John, 5K2. 
 
 Cummiim, George David, 582. 
 
 Cuneiform Insnrintlons, 583. 
 
 Cnnidnifham, William, 585. 
 
 Ciir'^ellajus, Stephanus. Sec Courcelles. 
 
 Curate, 586. 
 
 Ciirnie, Perpetual. See Curate. 
 
 Ciirelon, William. 586. 
 
 ('urouB, Joacldm, 580. 
 
 Curhi Koinanii, 586, 
 
 Cnrlo, CfplltiM HecunduB, 687. 
 
 CurttuH, Videiilln, 588. 
 
 CuRannx, Nlcolaus, 688. 
 
 Cush, 5H9. 
 
 Culhbert, St., 500. 
 
 Culty-Btool, 691. 
 
 Cyaxarcs. See Darius. 
 
 Cycle. See Era. 
 
 Cyelopiedias. See Dictionaries. 
 
 Cyprian, Ernst Salomon, 591. 
 
 Cyprianus, Tbascius CEecilius, 591. 
 
 Cyprus, 593. 
 
 Cyrene, 593. 
 
 Cyrenius. See Quirinius. 
 
 Cyriacus, 593. 
 
 Cyril of Alexandria, 594. 
 
 Cyril Lucar, 594. 
 
 Cyril of Jerusalem, 595. 
 
 Cyrillus and Methodius, 595. 
 
 Cyrus the Great, 597. 
 
 Dach, Simon, 599. 
 D'Achery. See Achery, D*. 
 Da Costa, Isaak, 599. 
 Daggett, Oliver Ellsworth, 599. 
 Dagon, 599. 
 
 DafUe, Jean, 599. 
 
 D'Alli, or D'Ailly. See AIIH. 
 Dalberg, Karl Tlu-odor. 599. 
 
 Dale, James Wilkinson, 600. 
 
 Dalmatia, 600. 
 
 Dalmatio* 6(J0. 
 
 Damascus, 600. 
 
 Damasus (popes), 601. 
 
 Damianus, Peter, 601. 
 
 Damianus, St. See Cosmas and Damia- 
 nus. 
 
 Damianus of Alexandria, 601. 
 
 Dan. See Tribes of Israel. 
 
 Danaeus, Lambert, 6ul. 
 
 Dance among the Hebrews, 601. 
 
 Dancers, 602. 
 
 Daniel, 602. 
 
 Daniel, Book of, 602. 
 
 Daniel, Apocryphal Additions to, 606. 
 
 Dannhauer, Konrad, 606. 
 
 Dante, 607. 
 
 Danz, Johann Andreas, 609. 
 
 Danz, Johann Traugotl Leberecht, 609. 
 
 Darboy, Georges, 609. 
 
 Darbyites. See Plymouth Brethren. 
 
 Daric. See Money. 
 
 Darius, 609. 
 
 Datarius. See Curia. 
 
 Dathe, Johann August, 609. 
 
 Daub, Karl, 610. 
 
 D'Aubigne. See Merle D'Aubigo6. 
 
 Daunt, Achilles, 610. 
 
 Davenant, Jolin. 610. 
 
 Davenport, Christoplier, 610. 
 
 Davenport, John, 010. 
 
 David, 611, 
 
 David. St., 612. 
 
 David, Christian. See Moravians. 
 
 David-ha-Cohen, 612. 
 
 David George. See Joris. 
 
 I>avid Xicetas. See Nicetaa. 
 
 Davidistft. See Joris. 
 
 David of Dinanto. 612. 
 
 Davies, David, 612. 
 
 Davies. Samuel. 612. 
 
 Day, 013. 
 
 Day, Jeremiah, 613. 
 
 Deacon, 613. 
 
 l^eaconcss, 015. 
 
 I>eaconc9seH, Institution of, 616. 
 
 Dead, Communion of, 617. 
 
 Dead, Prayers for the. See Purgatory. 
 
 Dean, 617. 
 
 Death, 017. 
 
 Death, Dance of, 619. 
 
 Deborah, 619. 
 
 Decalogue, 619. 
 
 Decapolis. 620. 
 
 Decius, 620. 
 
 Decree, Decretal, 620. 
 
 Decretals, pHeudo-Inidorian. See Pseudo- 
 Iwldorlan Decretals. 
 
 Decretum, Gratiani. See Canon Law. 
 
 Dedication, Feast of, 020. 
 
 De Dieu. See Dicu, de. 
 
 I)e I)omlnift. See Anthony de Domiidr*. 
 
 DefectUB Sacramenll, 021. 
 
 l^efender of the Fallh, 021. 
 
 Defensor Matrimonii, 621. 
 
 Degradation. 021. 
 
 Degrees, Sonift* of. See I'^salmA. 
 
 Di-giH'ert, Academic, 021. 
 
 Del Gratia, 021. 
 
 DelMrn,02l. 
 
 Do Koven, JumciH, 6*28.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 XXlll 
 
 Deliig^e. See Noah. 
 
 Deraetrius, 623. 
 
 DenieLiius of Alexandria, 623. 
 
 Dunictiius OydoiiiuB, &2'i. 
 
 Deniirtsioi), Gli3. 
 
 Demiurge. See Gnoflticism. 
 
 Demmu, Chiirk'S Uialolph, 623. 
 
 Demon, 6;i3. 
 
 Demoniacs, 624. 
 
 Dempster, Julin, 625. 
 
 DemjistLM', Thonms, 625. 
 
 Deimrius. St-e Money. 
 
 Denck, Joh:iiin, \J2o. 
 
 Deni8, .St., 62">. 
 
 Denmark, 626. 
 
 Dens, IV'ter, 627. 
 
 DeniMiciatio Evangelica, 627, 
 
 Depositiuii, 627. 
 
 Depriviition, 627. 
 
 Deput.iUis. 627. 
 
 DercHtT, Thiuidiiiis Anton, 627. 
 
 Derhiim, Willium, 628. 
 
 Dervish, 628. 
 
 De Hacy. See Sncy, de. 
 
 De BaU's. Si-e ISiiltiB, de. 
 
 Descartes, 628. 
 
 Deefit, 629. 
 
 Deseit, Church of the. See Camieards, 
 
 IlubTiienols. 
 Des Maryts, Samuel, 629. 
 Destnarcts de Saint-Sorlin, 629. 
 Desservunt, 629. 
 DcBubas, 6*29. 
 Determinism, 629. 
 Deurhoff, William, 630. 
 Deusdedit, 630. 
 Deusing, Herman, 630. 
 DeutiMo-Canonical. See Apocrypha. 
 Deuti'ronomy. Sec Pentateuch. 
 Deuisch. Emanuel O. M., 630. 
 DeutHchmann, Johann, 630. 
 D6viiy, Milly^B Bird, 630. 
 DeveUipment, Thuoiogical, 631. 
 Development, Scientilic. See Evolution. 
 Devil. 631. 
 Devotion, 633. 
 Dewid, St. See David, St. 
 De Wette. See Wette, de. 
 De Witt, Thomas, 633. 
 Diabolus. See Devil. 
 Diaconicum, 633. 
 Diana of the Ephesiane, 633. 
 Diaspora, 633. 
 
 Diatee.saron, 633. -^ 
 
 Diaz, Francisco, 634. 
 Diaz, Juan, 634. 
 Dibon, 634. 
 Dick, John, 634. 
 Dick, Thomas, 634. 
 Dickinson. Jonathan, 634. 
 Dickson, David, 635. 
 Dictates of I*ope Gregory, 635. 
 Dictionaries and Cyclopiedias, 635. 
 Diderot, Denye, 637. 
 Didymus of Alexandria, 637. 
 Didymus, Gabriel, 637. 
 Diepenbrock, Melchior, 63S. 
 ■ Dies Irae, 638. 
 Diestel. Ludwig von, 63S. 
 Diet, 638. 
 
 Dietrich, Veit, 638. 
 Dietrich of Niem, 639. 
 Dieu, Louis de (Lodewyk), 639. 
 Digby, Sir Kent* Im, 639. 
 Diman, Jeremiali Lewis, 639. 
 DimiHsory Letters, 639. 
 Dimo^rites, 639. 
 
 Pinter, (Justav Frledrich, C39. 
 
 DiofCHe. 639. 
 
 Diocletian, or Diocletianus, 640. 
 
 Diodati, Giovanni, 640. 
 
 Diodorus, 6iO. 
 
 Diognetus, lipirtlle to, 641. 
 
 DIonysius Areopaglla, 641. 
 
 Dionyt^ius of Alexandria, 042. 
 
 IMonysius of Corinth, 643. 
 
 DionyeluB of Kome, C43. 
 
 Dioiiysiiis Exigutis, 643. 
 
 I)ioiiy(*iu8 the Carthusian, 643. 
 
 Dioscuros, Bishop of Alexandria, 643. 
 
 Dippel, Johann Konrad, 643. 
 
 Diptychs, 643. 
 
 Directory of Worship. See Worship. 
 
 Discalceati, 643. 
 
 Disciples of Christ, 644. 
 
 Uisciplina Arcani. See Arcani Dtscipliiia. 
 
 Discipline, 645. 
 
 Discipline, Book of, 647. 
 
 Discipline, Kirst and Second Books of, 
 
 647. 
 Disease. Sec Medicine. 
 Dismes, 647. 
 Dispensation, 647. 
 
 Dispersed. See Diaspora, Captivity. 
 Dissenter, 647. 
 Distaff's Day, St., 647. 
 ^pistinctio Kaiioiiis Uatiocinantis, 647. 
 ' 1)ivination. See Magic. 
 J>ivorce. 647. 
 Dixon, James, 6.')0. 
 Doane. George Washington, 650. 
 Dobritzhofter, Martin, 650. 
 Docetism. See Doketism. 
 Doctor. 650. 
 Doctrinaires. 651. 
 Doctrines, HiMory of, 651. 
 Dod, Albert Baldwin, 652. 
 Dod. John, 652. 
 Dodanim, 652. 
 Doddridije. Tliilip. 652, 
 Dodwell, Henry, 652. 
 Doederlein, J. C, 652. 
 Doeg, 652. 
 Dogma, 653. 
 Dogmatics, 653. 
 Dogs, 656. 
 Doketism, 655. 
 Dolcino, 657. 
 
 Domicella. See Chapter. 
 Dominic, St., and the Dominicans, 657. 
 Dominical Letter, 663. 
 Dominica in Albis, 658. 
 Doniincale, 658. 
 
 DomitneusLoricatus. See Damiani, Peter. 
 Dominis, de. Marc Anthony. See An- 
 thony de Dominis. 
 Domiiian, 658. 
 Domitilla, 659. 
 Domnus. See Donus. 
 Donaldson, John William, 659. 
 Donati. See Monasticism. 
 Donation of Constantine, 659. 
 Donatiets, 659. 
 Donative, 661. 
 Donatus Vesontiensis, 661. 
 Donatus of Casae Nigras. See Donatietfl. 
 Donctus the Great. See Donatista. 
 Donne, John, 661. 
 Donnell, Robert, 661. 
 Donnellan Lecture, 661. 
 Donoso-Cortes, Juan, 661. 
 DoiuiB L, 661. 
 Doolittle, Justus, 661. 
 Doolittle, Thomas, 662. 
 
 Dinant, or Dinanto, David of. See Davidl Doorkeepers. See Ustiarii. 
 of Dinanto. [ Dora, Sister, 662. 
 
 DorcnB, 662. 
 
 Dorumus, Mrs. T. C. 8ee Appendix. 
 
 Dorothea, 662. 
 
 Dorotheus, 662. 
 
 Dort, Synod of, 662. 
 
 Dositheus, 663. 
 
 Douar, or Douay, 663. 
 
 Dove, 6(14. 
 
 Dow, Lorenzo, 664. 
 
 Dowling, John, 664. 
 
 Doxology, 664. 
 
 D'Gyly, George, 664. 
 
 DrabiciuB, Nicol, 665. 
 
 Drachm, Dr.Tchma. See Money. 
 
 Draconites, Johannes, 665. 
 
 Dracontius. 665. 
 
 DrjEseke, Joliann Heinrich Bernhardt. 
 
 665. 
 ■Dragon, 665. 
 Dram. Bee Money. 
 Dreams, 665. 
 Drelincourt, Charles, 666. 
 l>reHden Council, See rinlippista. 
 Dri-Hs of the Hebrews. See Clothing and 
 
 Ornaments among the Hebrews. 
 Dress of the Early Christians. 666. 
 DresB of the Clergy. See Vestments. 
 Drew Tiieological Seminary, 667, 
 Drey, Johann Sebastian, 667. 
 Drontheim. 667. 
 Droste zu Vischering, 667. 
 Drnz. Framjois Xavier Joseph, 667. 
 Druidism, 667. 
 Druses, 668. 
 Drusilla, 669. 
 Drnsius, Johannes, 669. 
 Druthmar, Christian, 669. 
 I^rvander. See Enzinas, Francisco de. 
 DuRlism, 669. 
 
 Du Bartas, Guillaume Sallustc, 669. 
 DuboBc, Pierre, 670. 
 Dubourg, Anne, 670. 
 Du Cange, Charles da Fresne, 670. 
 Dnchobortzi, 671. 
 
 J^uchowny Christiany. See Molokans. 
 Dudiih, Andreas, 671. 
 Dutf, Alexander, 671. 
 Dufresne. See Du Cange. 
 Duguet, Jacques Joseph, 672, 
 Du Halde, 672. 
 Dnicinists. Se Dolcino. 
 Duli;t, 672. 
 
 Du Moulin, Charles, 672. 
 Du Moulin, Pierre, 672. 
 Duncan, John, 673. 
 Dungal, 673. 
 Dunin, Martin von, 673. 
 Dtmkers. See Tunkers. 
 Duns Scotus, Johannes, 674. 
 Dunstan. St.. 674. 
 Dunster, Henry, 675. 
 Dupanioup, Felix A. P., 675. 
 Duperron, Jacques Davy, 676. 
 Du I*in, Louis Eliies, 675. 
 Du Plessis-Mornay, 675. 
 Dupreau, Gabriel, 676. 
 Durand of St. I'ourgain. 676. 
 Durand, Guillaume, 677. 
 Durbin, John Price, 677. 
 Dury, John, 677. 
 
 Dutch. See Holland; Reformed Church, 
 Duties, Contlict of. 678. 
 Dutoit, or Dutoit-Membrini, 678. 
 Duty. See Etliics. 
 Duveil, Charles Maria, 678. 
 Duveigier, Jean de Hauranne, 678. 
 Dwitrht, Timothy, 678. 
 Dwigbt, Sereno Edwards, 679, 
 
 VOLUME IL 
 
 E. 
 
 Eachni-d, John, 680. 
 
 Kadfrid, r.80. 
 
 Eadio, Jolin, 680. 
 
 Eadrac-r, 8S1. 
 
 Eadmuiid. King, 681. 
 
 E.ldniund, St., 681. 
 
 Jlildw.ird, 681. 
 
 Ear-rins:. See Clothing and Ornnmcnta 
 
 amoiit; tlie Hebrewe. 
 KiiBt, 681. 
 ■ Kaet, pruvin*; towards the, 681. 
 
 Easter, 681. 
 
 Eastern Church, 682. 
 
 Katon, George W., 682. 
 
 Elial, 682. 
 
 Ebbo, 682. 
 
 Ebed .Tesu, 683. 
 
 Ebel, .lohannes Wilhelm, 683. 
 
 Eber, Paul, 684. 
 
 Eberiin, Johann, 684. 
 
 Ehionites, 684. 
 
 Ebiaiii ot' Bclhune, 685. 
 
 Ecbalana. 68-5. 
 
 Ecee Homo, 68-5. 
 
 Eccheltensifl, Abraham, 685. 
 
 Ecclesia. 8ee Clmrch. 
 
 Ecclesiastes, 6S.i. 
 
 Ecciesiastical History. SeeChnreh ni» 
 
 tory. 
 Ecclesiastical Polity. See Polity. 
 Eeclesiaslicua. See .Apocrypha. 
 Erhmiedzin. See Etsbmiudzin. 
 Eck, Johann, 687. 
 Eclihart, 688. 
 Eclecticism, 689. 
 Kctliesis. See Monothclitr*. 
 Ecu.ador, the Kepulilic of, 689.
 
 XX17 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Kdclmnnn, Jutiujin Christian, 689. 
 
 Kden, 6S9. 
 
 KUen (a people), €92. 
 
 Kdict, 693. 
 
 Kdictof Naniee. See HugmonoU, Nantes. 
 
 K»lict of Worms. Bee Luther, Worms. 
 
 Kdifiauion. 69G. 
 
 Kdmiind (I) and (2). See Eadraund. 
 
 K4lom, Kdomile, Idumsea, Jdumteau, 693. 
 
 Kdrci, 694. 
 — Kducatioj: among the Hebrews, 694. 
 — -Kducation, Ministerial, 695. 
 
 Edwards, Bcia Bates, 697. 
 
 Kdwarda, John, 697. 
 
 Kdwardp, Jonathan, the Elder, 697. 
 
 fidwardp, Jonathan, the Younger, 699. 
 
 Kdwards, Justin, 701. 
 
 Kdzardi, Ezra, 7U1. 
 
 Kdzardi, Sebastian, 701. -^ 
 
 Ktleciual (Jailing. See Call. — 
 
 Egbert, St., 7U1. 
 
 Kgbert, Arcbbisbop, 702. 
 
 Egedc, Hans, 702, 
 
 Eginbard, or Einhard, 703. 
 
 Kglinus. Raphael, 703. 
 
 Eglon, 703. 
 
 Kgjpt, 703. 
 
 KK}-ptian Chrletiane. See Coptic Church. 
 
 Egyptian Versiuiii?. See Bible VersiutiH. 
 
 Ebrenfeuchier, Fricdrich Aug. Edu., 710. 
 
 Kicbhorn, Johaim Gottfried, 711. 
 
 Eichhorn, Karl Friedrich, 711. 
 
 Kinhard. See Kginimrd. 
 
 KInsiedeln. 711. 
 
 EiMeumcnger, Johann Andreas, 711. 
 
 Kkkt»hard;7n. 
 
 Klagabftlus. Sec Hcliogabalus. 
 Elam, 712. 
 
 Klath, orEloth, 712. 
 
 Elcesailefi. Hie Elkesailes. 
 Elder. See rrcMbyter. 
 KIders among the Hebrews, 712. 
 Elect, Election. See PrudeelinaUoD. 
 Elements, 712. 
 Eleulheropolis, 712. 
 KIcuihernt- (river), 713. 
 Kleutherus (biHhop), 713. 
 - Elevation of the Host. Sec Mass. 
 EH, 713. 
 
 Elias r>cvlta, 713. 
 Ellgiiis, 713. 
 Elijah, 714. 
 Kltm, 716. 
 Eliot, John, 715. 
 Klisreus, 716. 
 Klinba, 716. 
 Kli;£abetb, Queen 
 
 of. 
 Klizabclh, St., of TTungary 
 Kllzabi^^th Alberliue, 717. 
 ElkeKalte», 717. 
 Kllcr, EllaM, 718. 
 Elliott, Charl.t*. 718. 
 KIlia, William. 718. 
 Ellwood, Thomas, 71S. 
 Kluhlm, 718. 
 Elulh. See RIath. 
 Elvira, Council of, 719. 
 Kly,7I9. 
 Emanation, 710. 
 Kmbiiliniiig, 719. 
 Ember Uayn, 719. 
 Embury, I'hlllp, 719. 
 Kmernon, Uulph, 720. 
 Emmauh, 720. 
 Kmmerain, or Ilalmarem 
 EmmonH, Naibanael, 72'>. 
 Emory, John, 7Jl. 
 Kmory, Kobeit, 721. 
 Em*er, IfleronymnH, 722. 
 Km«, ( 'onffreMMor, 722. 
 KncnititCH. 72:1. 
 
 See England, Church 
 
 716. 
 
 720. 
 
 Kncyetlral Ix'ttrrn, 72.1. 
 Kncyclupndla of Theolosr)', 723. 
 KncyclohscdlaM, Tliuological. See Dlc- 
 
 UonarM-N. 
 KneyclotHMllnlii, 724. 
 Enditr, Witch of. 8€o Haul. 
 F.n<Tgument, 724. 
 ICngedl, 7Z'>. 
 Kngelbrecht, Ilnnn, 72.V 
 Kn({vlhardt, JfJmnn Hvnrfc Veil, 725. 
 KiiglaiMl, Chiirrh <pf, 725. 
 Kiivllnh lllble Virm\nt}m, 731. 
 ICnnodlitN, Miigtiu* Kellx, 739. 
 
 Knoch, 739. ^^...,„.,^.„ 
 
 )Cnoeh. llr»ok of. Sec I'»ondepIgrii|ths of I Kn^ehiiM of Vercel'll7773^ 
 
 lh€ O. T. I ICuMtuehlus, 773. 
 
 — -Enthusiasm, 740. 
 
 Enzinas, Francisco de, 740. 
 Enzinas, Jaques do. 740. 
 Eon, or Eudo de Stella, 740. 
 Eon. See Era, Gnosticism. 
 Ep.ion, the Council of, 741. 
 
 Eparchy, 741. 
 
 Ephesians, Epistle to the. See Paul. 
 
 Ephesus, 741. 
 
 Ephesus, Councils of, 741. 
 
 Ephesus, the Seven Sleepers of, 742. 
 Ephod. See High Priest. 
 
 Ephraem, 742. 
 
 Epliraim. See Tribes of Israel, 
 
 Kpictetus, 743. 
 Bplcureanism, 743. 
 
 Epiphnnius of Constantla, 74o. 
 
 Epiphanius of Pavia, 744. 
 
 Epiphanius Scholaslicus, 744. 
 
 Epiphany, 744. 
 
 Episcopacy, 744. 
 
 Episcopal Church, Protestant, 746. 
 
 Episcopal Church, Ueformed, 74Ji. 
 
 EpiscopiuB, 750. 
 
 Episcopus in Partibus, 750. 
 
 Epistles, the, 751. 
 
 EpiPtolffi Obscurorum Virorum, 751. 
 
 Equitius, 752. 
 
 Era, 752. 
 
 Erasmns, St., 753. 
 
 Erasmus, Desiderius, 753. 
 
 Eiastianism. See Erastue. 
 
 Erastus, Thomas, 755. 
 
 Ercmile. See Anchorites. 
 I Erncsti, Johann August, 755. 
 
 Erpenius, Thomas, T'.ie. 
 
 Erskinc, Ebenezer, 760. — 
 
 Rrskine. John, 756. 
 
 Krskine, lijilph, 757. 
 
 Erskine, Thomas, 757. 
 
 Esarhaddon, 758. 
 
 Esau. See Edora, Jacob. 
 
 Escbatology, 758. 
 
 Escobar y Meiidoza, Antonio, 759. 
 
 Eacorial, or Escurial, 759. 
 
 Esdras. See Apocryplia. 
 
 Esdraelon. See Jezrecl. 
 
 Esnik, 760. 
 
 Espen, Zeger Bernhard van, 760. 
 Ess, van, Karl, 760. 
 Ess, van Leander, 760. 
 
 Essence, 7rt0. 
 
 Essenes, 760. 
 Esther, 762. 
 
 Eatius, Gullelmufl, 763. 
 Eternal I.ife. See Immortality. 
 Eternal I'uuishment. See i'uuisbment. 
 Future. 
 i Elhelbert. 763. 
 Kthehliedn, St., 7C3. 
 Etheridge. John Wesley, 763. 
 1 Ethics, 764. 
 Ethiopia. See Abypslnia. Egj-pt. 
 Ethiopic Version. See Bible Versions, 
 
 Vll. 
 Ethnarch, 767. 
 
 Etshmiadzin, or Echroicdzin, 767, 
 Ettwein, .John, 767. 
 Euchartus, 767. 
 Euchelalon, 767. 
 Eucherius, St., 767. 
 Euchites. Bee Messalia 
 Euchologlon, 767. 
 
 KudLomonism. Sec Epicureanism. 
 Kudes, Jean. 767. 
 Eudoela, 7G8. 
 Kudoxia, 768. 
 KudoxluH, 768. 
 EugeniuH (popes), 768, 
 KnglppiiiH, 768. 
 Kuhcmi-ruK, 768. 
 Kiilalius, 769. 
 Kulogin, im. 
 
 EulogluH of Cordova, 769. 
 Eunnmlus and the Kunoniians, 760. 
 Eunuch, j6it. 
 Euphriiten, 770. 
 EuMcblus (bl«liop),770. 
 EusebluH of Alexandria, 771. 
 EuKebltiH, Bruno, 771. 
 KuiieblUH of CojMnrea, 771. 
 Eitseblun of Doiylmum, 772 
 KuNehluH of Emenn, 772. 
 KufchliiN of Laofllcea, 772. 
 Eu»<ebhm of Nitomedia, 772. 
 KuHebluN of Hnmosaln, 773. 
 Enneblun of Thenmitonlca, 773. 
 
 Eustathlus of Antioch, TT^J. 
 
 Eustathius of Scbaste, 773. 
 
 EustathiuB of Thessalonica, 773. 
 
 Eusiochium, 773. 
 
 Euthalius, 774. 
 
 Eutliymius Zigndenun, 774. 
 
 Eulychcs and Eutychianism, 774. 
 
 Eutycliiaiius, 775. 
 
 Eulyehius of Alexandria, 775. 
 
 Eutychiue of Constantinople, 775. 
 
 Evagrius Ponlicus, 775. 
 
 Evagrius Scholasticus, 776. 
 
 Evangelical Alliance. See Allianee, 
 
 Evangelical. 
 Evangelical Association. 776. 
 Evangelical Church Conference. Seo 
 
 Kirchentag. 
 Evangelical Counsels. See Consilia 
 
 Evangelica. 
 Evangelical Society of Geneva. See So- 
 
 ciet6 Evangelique de Geuev*. 
 Evangelical Union, 776. 
 Evangelist, 776. 
 Evangelistary. 776. 
 Evangeliuni vEltrnum, 777. 
 Evans, Chvisim.i8, 777, 
 Evans, John, 777. 
 Evans, John, 777. 
 Evanson, Edwaid, 777, 
 Eve, 777. 
 
 Evelyn, John, 778. 
 Everlasting Gospel. See Evangelium 
 
 ./Eteinuni. 
 Eves. See Vigils. 
 
 Evidences, Christian. See Apologetics. 
 Evilnurodach, 778. 
 Evolution and Development, 779. 
 Ewald. Georg Heiniich August, 781. 
 Ewing, Alexander, 782. 
 Ewine, Finis, 782. 
 Exactions. Exactioues, TaUlae, 782, 
 Exarch, 7S2. 
 Exclusiva, 782. 
 Excommunication, 782. 
 Exegesis, 78.?. 
 Exemption, 786. 
 Exercises, Spiritual, 786. 
 I'lxeter, 786. 
 Exile. See Cnplivity. 
 Exodus, Book nf. See Pentatonch. 
 Exodus of tiie Children of Israel, 786. 
 Exorcimn, 788. 
 Expectancy, 788. 
 Expiation. See Atonement. 
 Ex|)iation, Feast of. See Atonement, 
 
 U.iy of. 
 Exsuperins, 788. 
 ICxtreuie Unction, 789. 
 Eylert, Kuhlcuiauu Frledrlch, 789. 
 Ezekiel, 7tiO. 
 Ezekiel, Book of, 700. 
 Ezion-gaber, or geber, 791. 
 I'^zra, 7«1. 
 Ezra, Book of, 792, 
 
 Faber, nnsllius, 793, 
 
 Faber, Felix, 7V»3. 
 
 Faber, Frederick W., 703. 
 
 Faber, George Stanley, 793. 
 
 Faber, Johnnnes, 793. 
 
 Faber, Pierre l''?an5olM, 794. 
 
 Faber HtnpulenHiH, Jaeolms. 794. 
 
 Faber Tanaquil. See Lefebvre Taon^ 
 
 Fabian, 794. 
 
 Fabrica Ecrlesiw, 794. 
 
 [''nbricius, Johann, 794. 
 
 FabriciuH. Johannes Albert, 794. 
 
 Faculty, 705. 
 
 Facinidus, 705. 
 
 [''agluH, I'aul, 705, 
 
 Fagniini, Pi"0(4per, 7!15. 
 
 Faiibairn, Patrick, 795. 
 
 Faith, 79.'i. 
 
 I'"nith, Pule of. See Begula Fidel. 
 
 Fakir, 7Hrt. 
 
 Falashns, 796. 
 
 FalU I-awH, 707. 
 
 Fall of Man. Hee Sin. 
 
 Familiar SplrltH, 797. 
 
 Fmnillares, 797. 
 
 Fumlllars of the InqnlMllion, 797. 
 
 iMinilllHtH, 797. 
 
 Fatiatlelfm, 798. 
 
 Fiiril, Guiilaume, 798. 
 
 Farfn, 798.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 XXV 
 
 I'Viiindon. Anlliony, 798. 
 
 FiirincT» lIuL'li, 798. 
 
 ^'iirnoviuB, IMiK 
 
 Farthing. St-e Money. 
 
 KiiHtidiuB, 799. 
 
 FitHling, ittnonR the Hebrews. 708. 
 "^^'^isting, in the- Cbristiaii C'Luich, 789. 
 •^ KatiiliBm. KOO. 
 
 F:iUiera of the Church, 800. 
 
 F;iuchet, Cliivjde. SOO. 
 
 Fiiiicheur, Michel le, 800. 
 
 FmistinuH. 800. 
 
 Fjuistns Rcjcnuis, or Reelf^nfiie, 801. 
 
 FiiiiHtui" tile Manichaean, 801. 
 
 Fawkes, Guy. Set- Gunpowder Plot. 
 
 Ftjaat of Asses. See Asses, Feast of. 
 
 Feast of Fools, 801. 
 
 I'Vasts. Hec Festivals. 
 
 I'Vathers' Tavern Association, 801. 
 
 Featly, Daniel, 801. 
 
 Federal Theolotry. See Coccelus. 
 
 Fehm Court. See Velim Court. 
 
 Felitenhiiuer, Paul, 801. - 
 
 Felicissiinue, 802. 
 
 Felicitos (saint), 802. 
 
 Felieitas (martyr), 802. 
 
 Felix and Feetus, 802. 
 
 I'-elix the ManichEcan, 802. 
 
 Felix the Maitvr, 802. 
 
 Felix of Nola, 802. 
 
 Felix of Urgel. See Adoptlonlsm. 
 
 Felix (popes), 802. 
 
 Fell, John, 803. 
 
 It'eller, Francois Xnvier de, 803. 
 
 FelLhrini, Owen, 803. * 
 
 T^VIton, Henry, 803. 
 
 Fenced Cities. See Fortifications. 
 "^Kencius; the T.ables, 803. 
 
 Fenelon, Francois d. S. d. la Motbc, 803. 
 
 Fergueeon, David, 80.*). 
 
 Fenuentarians. See Azymites, 806. 
 
 Ferrar, Nicholas. 806. 
 
 Furr.ir, Robert, 806. 
 
 yerrara-Florence, Council of, 806. 
 
 Kerrara, Renata, 807. 
 
 Ferrer, Vinceiitius, 807. 
 
 I'Y'rricr, Jeiemie, 807. 
 
 F'uiris, Isaac, 807. 
 
 Ferry, Paul, 807. 
 
 Ferry Law, the, 807. 
 
 Fe*.ch, .Jose[.ii,807. 
 
 F'estivals of the Jews, 808. 
 
 Festus. See Felix aiid Festua. 
 
 Fetichism, 808. 
 
 Feuerbach, Ludwig Andreas, 808. 
 
 Feuillants, the, 808. 
 
 F'ew, Ignatius A., 809. 
 
 F'iacre, St.. 809. 
 
 F'ichte, Johann Gottlieb, 809. 
 
 FicIUe, Immanue) Hermann, 809. 
 
 Ficinus, Marsilius, 810. 
 
 Fuldes, Richard, 810. 
 
 Fidelis. St.. 810. 
 
 Field, Richard, 810. 
 
 Fifth-Monarchy Men, 810, 
 
 Fiji Islands, HIO. 
 — Filioque Controversy, 811. 
 
 Fillan, St., 812. 
 
 Finland, the Chriatianization of, 812. 
 
 Finley, James Bradley, 813. 
 
 Finley, Robert, 813. 
 
 Finley, Samuel, 813. 
 
 Finnan, 813. 
 
 Finney, Charles G., 813. 
 
 Kintan, 814. 
 
 Fire, Pillar of. See Pillar of Cloud and 
 Fire. 
 
 Fire, Baptism of. See Martyrs. 
 
 Fire-worehip. See Parseeisra. 
 
 Mrkowitsch, Abraham, 814. 
 
 Firmilian, 814. 
 
 First-born, 814. 
 
 First-fruits, 814. 
 -— Fiist-fruits, Ecclesiastical. See Taxes. 
 ^ Fisch, George. 815. 
 
 Fish, Henry C, 815. 
 
 Fish (emblem). See Ichthus. 
 
 Fisher's Ring. See Anuutus Piscatorius. 
 
 Fisher, John, 815. 
 
 Fisk, Pliny, 816. 
 
 Fisk. Wilbur, 816. 
 
 Five-Mile Act, 816. 
 
 Five Points of Calvinism, 816. 
 
 Flacius, Matthias, 810. 
 
 Flagellants, 817. 
 
 Flnvel, John, 818. 
 Flavianus of Antioch, 813. 
 
 PtavianuB of ConstauLiaupIe, 818. 
 
 FI<5chior, Eepiit, 818. 
 
 Fleetwood,. tnhn, 818. 
 
 Fleetwood, William, 818. 
 
 Flesh, 818. 
 
 Fletcher, Giles, 819. 
 
 Fletcher, John William, 819. 
 
 Fletcher, Joseph, 820. 
 
 Fleury, Abbey of, 820. 
 
 Fleury, Claude, 820. 
 
 Fliedner, Thendor, 820. 
 
 Flodoard of Uheims, 821. 
 
 Flood. See Noah. 
 
 Flore, Order of. 821. 
 
 Florence, Council of. See Fcrrara-FIor- 
 cnce. Council of. 
 
 Florian, 821. 
 
 Florus, 821. 
 
 Florus, Oessius, 822. 
 
 Fliie, Niklaufl von, 822. 
 
 Fonseca, Pedro da, 822. 
 
 Font, 822. 
 
 Fontevraud, Order of, 822. 
 
 Foot-washing, 823. 
 
 Forbes, Alexander Penrose, 823, 
 
 Forbes, John, 823. 
 
 Forbes, Patrick, 823. 
 
 Forbes, William, 823. 
 
 Foreiro, Francisco, 823. 
 
 Formosufl, 823. 
 
 Forster, Johann, 824. 
 
 Fortilicalions among the Hebrews, 824. 
 
 Kortunatus, 824. 
 
 FuBcarari, 824. 
 
 Foster, James, 824. 
 
 Foster, John, 824. 
 
 Foundling Hospitals. See Infanticide. 
 
 Fox, George, 825. 
 
 Fox (or Foxe), .Tobu, 826. 
 
 Fox, Richard, 826. 
 
 Fragments, Wolfenbuttel. See Wolfcn- 
 blittel Fragments. 
 
 France, Eecfcsiaetical Statitstics of, 826. 
 
 France, Protestantism iu, 828. 
 
 Fiancifl of Assisi, 830. 
 
 Francis of Paula, 830. 
 
 Francis of Sales, 831. 
 
 Francis Xavier, 831. 
 
 Francis, Convers, 831. 
 
 Franciscans, 8.S1. 
 
 Franck, Sebastian. 832. 
 
 Francke, August Heimann, 832. 
 
 Frank, Jacob Joseph, 833. 
 
 Frankenberg, Juhann Heinrich, 833. 
 
 Frankfurt Concordat. See Concordat. 
 
 Frankfurt, Council of, 833. 
 
 Fiankincense, 833. 
 
 Franks, the, 833. 
 
 Fraternities, 834. 
 
 Fratricelli, Fralicelli, R34, 
 
 Frayssinous, Denys, 834. 
 
 Frederick III., the Wise, !34. 
 
 Frederick III., the Pious, 835. 
 
 Free Church of Scotland. See Scotland, 
 Free Church of. 
 
 Free Congregations, 835. 
 
 Free Religious Association, SS.'J. 
 
 Free Spirit. See Brethren of the Free 
 Spirit. 
 
 Fi"eeman, James, 836, 
 
 Freethinkers, 836. 
 
 Freewill Baptists, 836. 
 
 Frelinghuysen, Hon. Theodore, S36, 
 
 French Confession of Faith. See Galil- 
 ean Confession. 
 
 French Prophets, 837. 
 
 French Prolestautism. See France, Prot- 
 estantism in. 
 
 French Versions of the Bible. See Bible 
 Versions, p. 288. 
 
 Fresenius, Johann Philipp, 837. 
 
 Fresne, l)u. See Du Cange. 
 
 Freylinghauscn, Johuun Auastasius, 837 
 
 Fridolin, 837. 
 
 Friendly Islands, 838. 
 
 Fi-iends, Society of. 838. 
 
 Friends of God, 841. 
 
 Friends of Light. See Free Congrega- 
 tions. 
 
 Frisians, the, 841. 
 
 Frith, John. 841. 
 
 Fritzsche, Karl Friedrich August, 841. 
 
 Froment, Antoine, 842. 
 
 Fronton le Due, 842. 
 
 Frossard. Benjimiin Sigismond, 842. 
 
 Fronde, Richard Hurrcll, 842. 
 
 Frucluosus, 842. 
 
 Frumentius. See Abj-esinian Church. 
 
 Frv. Kiizabeth, 842. 
 
 Fulbert of Chart res, 843, 
 
 Fulcher of Clmrtres, 843, 
 
 Fulcu, 843. 
 
 Fulda, the Monastery of, 843, 
 
 Fulgentius Feirandus. 844. 
 
 Fulgentin.s of Kuspe, 844. 
 
 Fiilke, William, 844. 
 
 Fuller, Andrew, S44. 
 
 Fuller, Richard. 844. 
 
 Fuller, Thf.mjw, 845. 
 
 Funck, Johann, 845. 
 
 Fundamental Doctrines of Chrletinnlt^ 
 
 845. 
 Funeral. See Burial. 
 Furseufl, 847. 
 Flirst, Julius, 847. 
 
 Future Pumshment. Sec Punishmeol. 
 Future Suite. See Eschatology. 
 
 Gabbatha, 849. 
 
 Gabler, Joliann Philipp, 849. 
 
 Gabriel, 849. 
 
 Cabricl Sionita. 849. 
 
 Gad, 849. 
 
 Gad. See Tribes of Israel, 
 
 Gadara, 849. 
 
 Galatia, 850. 
 
 Galatians, Epistle to the. See Paul. 
 
 Galhanum, S5t). 
 
 Gale, Thcophilus, 850. 
 
 Gale, Thomas, 850. 
 
 Galfrid of Monmouth. See Geoffrey of 
 
 Monmouth. 
 Galilee. See Palestine. 
 Gall, St., the Monastery of, 850. 
 Galland, .Vndrea, 850. 
 Gallaudct, Thomas Hopkins, 851, 
 GulUiudet, Thomas, 851. 
 Gallaudct, Edward Miner, 851. 
 Galilean Confession, 851. 
 Gallicanism, 851. 
 Gallienus, Publiua Licinius, 852. 
 Gallio, 852. 
 
 Gallitzin, Demetrius Augustine, 852. 
 Gallus, C. Vibius Trebonianus, 852. 
 Gamaliel, 853. 
 Gamaliel of Jabneh, 853. 
 Games among the Hebrews, 853. 
 Gangra, 853. 
 Garaese, Francois, 853. 
 Gardiner. Col. James, 853. 
 Gardiner. Stephen, 853. 
 Garissoles, Antoine, 853. 
 Garnet, Henry Highland, 854. 
 Garnicr, Jean, S54. 
 Garnier. Julien, 854. 
 Garve, Karl Bcruhard, 8M. 
 Gasparin, Agenor, Cumte de, 854- 
 Gabparin, Madame, 854. 
 Gataker, Thomas, 854. 
 Gauden, John, 855. 
 Gaudenlius, 855. 
 Gaul- 855. , 
 
 Gaussen, Etienne, 855. 
 Gaussen, Fran9oi;a Samuel Robert Louis, 
 
 855, 
 Gautama. See Buddhism. 
 Gaza, 856. 
 Gebhard II., 856. 
 Geddes, Alexander, 856. 
 Geddes, Janet, or Jenny, 856. 
 Gehenna, 856. 
 Geibel, Johannes, 857. 
 Geiger, Abraham. 857. 
 Geiger, Franz Tiburtius, 857. 
 Geilcr, Johann, 857. 
 Gelasius (popes), 857. 
 GelasiuB of Cyzicus. 853. 
 Gellcrt, Christian FUrchtcgott, 858, 
 Gem. See Precious Stones. 
 Gemara. Sec Talmud. 
 Genealogy, 853. 
 Genesis. See Pentateuch. 
 Gene^ius, 800. 
 Geneva, 860. 
 Genevieve, St., 861. 
 Genevieve, Canons of St., 861. 
 Gennadius Massilicnsis, 861. 
 Gennadius, Patriarch of Constantinople, 
 
 861. 
 Gennesaret, 862. 
 Genonde, Engine do, 862. 
 Gentilis, Giovanni Viilentino, 862. 
 Gentiliet, lunucenc, 862,
 
 IXDEX. 
 
 Gontilly. Council of. 862. 
 
 Gc'iiuflcctcntcs. Sl-c C'atechctics. 
 
 Geoffrey of Monmouth, 862. 
 
 George, St., 8G2. 
 
 George III., S63. 
 
 George, Margrave of Brandeziburg-Aiis- 
 bach, S63. 
 
 George of Polentz. 863. 
 
 George, Duke of Saxony, S63. 
 
 George of Trebizond, 863. 
 
 George of Cappadocia, 863. 
 
 George the Pisidian, 863. 
 
 Georgian Versions. Sec Bible Vorslona. 
 
 Georgius, 8G3. 
 
 Georgius Svncellua, 864. 
 
 Gerberou. Gabriel, 864. 
 
 Ocrbcrt, Martin, 864. 
 
 Gerdes, Daniel, 864. 
 
 Gergesa. See Gadara. 
 
 Gerhard, Johann, 864. 
 
 Gerhard, St.. 864. 
 
 Gcrbardt, Paul, 864. 
 
 Gerhoch, 865. 
 
 Gerizini, 8G5. 
 
 Gcrlacb, Otto von, 865. 
 
 Ucrlc, Christoplie Antoine, 865. 
 
 Germain d'Auxcrre, St., 865. 
 
 Germain de Paris, St., 865. 
 
 German Catholics, 865. 
 
 German Reformed Church. See Re- 
 formed Church, German. 
 
 German Translations of the Bible, 866. 
 
 Germany, 868. 
 
 Gcrson, John Charlier, 868. 
 
 Gertrude (saints), 869. 
 
 Oencaijsc, Francois Armand, 869, 
 
 Gervaeius and ProtasiuB, 869. 
 
 Gcsenius, Jutitus, 870. 
 
 Gcaenius, Wilhelm, 870. 
 
 Gesta Ilomanorum, 870. 
 
 GcthHcniane, 870. 
 
 Gfrocrcr, August Friedrich, 870. 
 
 Gbibc-tlines. See Guelphu. 
 
 Giants, 371. 
 
 Gibbon, Edward, 871. 
 
 Giberti, Giovanni Matteo, 871. 
 
 Gibson, Edmund. STl. 
 
 (tichtel, Johuiin Georg, 872. 
 
 (iideon, 872. 
 
 Gieseler, Johann Karl Ludwig, 872. 
 ^Gifts. Spiritual, 872. 
 
 Giathi-il. Ludwig Friedrich, 873. 
 
 Gihon. See Kdcn, Jerubalcm. 
 
 Gilbert de la Porree, 873. 
 
 Gilbert of Sempringham, 873. 
 
 Gilboa, 873. 
 
 Gildas, 873. 
 
 Giicad. See Palestine. 
 
 Giles, St., 873. 
 
 Gillill.an, George, 874. 
 
 Gill. John, 874. 
 
 Gillespie, George, 874. 
 
 Gillespie. Tlionms, 874. 
 
 Oilk'tl, Ezra Hall, 874. 
 
 Gilpin, Bernard. 875. 
 
 Gir:ildu8 Cambrintiis, 875. 
 
 Girdle, among the Hebrews, 875. 
 
 Glanvil, Josepli, 875. 
 
 (}]nHH, John, 876. 
 
 GlnKsiuB, Satomo, 876. 
 
 Glebe. 876. 
 
 <Jlorla in Kxcelnis. Sec Doxology. 
 
 Gloria Patrl. S»to Doxology. 
 
 Glory. Sett NimbuH. 
 
 GloHnes. BIblieiil. 876. 
 
 GloRscH and (Moptsatorcs, 876. 
 
 Gloucester, 877. 
 
 Gniipbo^UH, Wilhelmus, 877. 
 
 GnoHtlclsini 877. 
 
 Goar, St.. 881. 
 
 Gobat, Samuel, 881. 
 
 God), Jolianru-H, 8H2. 
 Mlod (German aiiicle),882. 
 ^Ood (editorial arilcle), 884. 
 
 Godunu, Antoine, 880. 
 
 Oodebard, St., 880. 
 
 Godfrey of Bouillon, 880. 
 
 Godwin, I'rrinelK. 887. 
 
 Godwin, 'l"Iioinii», 8H7. 
 
 Goepp, Jejui Jacques, 887. 
 
 Gocrrns, Joluiim J<»fteph, 887. 
 
 Gorsrhcl, Karl Krledrkh, 887. 
 
 Goezf', Johann Melcblur, 867. 
 
 Gog and Mngog. 888. 
 
 Gogerly, Daniel Jr>hn, 888. 
 
 Golden <'nir. See Calf. 
 
 Golden Jx;Kend,88H. 
 
 Gotdun Number, 688. 
 
 Goiaen Rose. £S5. 
 
 Golgotha. See Holy Sepulchre. 
 
 Gomarus, Francis, 888. 
 
 Gomcr, SS8. 
 
 Gomorrah. See Sodom. 
 
 Gondulf, 889. 
 
 Gouesius, Pctrus, 889. 
 
 Good Friday, 889. 
 
 Goodcll, William, 8S9. 
 
 Goodwin, Charles Wycliffo, 890. 
 
 Goodwin, John, 8i!0. 
 
 Goodwin, Thomas, 890. 
 
 Gorbam Case, 890. 
 
 Goriun, 890. 
 
 Gorton, Samuel. 890. 
 
 Goshen. See Egyjit. 
 
 Gospel and Gospels, 691. 
 
 Gospeller, 892. 
 
 Gossner, Johannes Evangclisto, 892. 
 
 Golama. See Buddhism. 
 
 Gothic Architecture. See Architecture 
 
 Gothic Versions. See Bible Versions. 
 
 Goths, the, 893. 
 
 Gotlsclialk (monk), 894. 
 
 Gottschalk, 894. 
 
 Goudimel, Claude, 894. 
 
 Gouge, Thomas, 894. 
 
 Gouge, William, S94. 
 
 Goulart, Simon. 895. 
 
 Govinda. See Sikhs. 
 
 Gozan, 895. 
 
 Graal, the Holy, 895. 
 
 Grabe, Johann" Ernst, 895. 
 
 Grace, 896. 
 
 Gradual, 896. 
 
 Graham, Isabella, 896. 
 
 Graharae, James, 8i)7. 
 
 Grandmont, or Griuumont, Order of, 897 
 
 Grant, Aeahel, 897. 
 
 Gratian (emperor), S97. 
 
 Gratian, 897. 
 
 Gratry, Father, 897. 
 
 Graul, Karl, 898. 
 
 Graven Images. Pec Idolatry. 
 
 Graves, Richai-d, 898. 
 
 Greece, the Kingdom of, 898. 
 
 Greek Church, the. 899. 
 
 Greek Versiuns. See Bible Versions. 
 
 Green, Ashbel, 905. 
 
 Green. Joseph Henry, 905. 
 
 Greenlield, William, 905. 
 
 Greenhill. William, 905, 
 
 Gregir, John. 906. 
 
 Gregoire, Henri, 905. 
 
 Gregttr von Heimburg, 905. 
 
 Gregorian Chant. See Music. 
 
 Gregorius Agrigentmus, 906. 
 
 Grcgorius Auiiochensis, 906. 
 
 Gregorius is'eu-Csosarensis Thauroatur- 
 
 gus, 906. 
 Gregory the Iljumlnator. See Armenia. 
 Gregory Nazianzen, 9U6. 
 Gregory of Nys-sa, 907. 
 Gregory of Tours, 908. 
 Gregory of Utrecht, 908. 
 Gregory (popes), 908. 
 Gregory, Ulinthus Gilbert, 912. 
 Grellet, Stephen, 913. 
 Greswell, Edward, 913. 
 Gretser, Jaliob, Ul3. 
 Griesbach. Johann Jakob, 913, 
 Griflin, Edward Dorr, 913. 
 Grindal, Edmund, 914. 
 Groen van Prinsierer, tiuillaume, 914. 
 Grout, (ieert. See Brethren of tlie Com- 
 mon Elfe. 
 Groppi-r, Johann, 914. 
 GroB»eU-ste, Hubert, 914. 
 Groiius. Hugo, 916. 
 GrovtH and Ti ees, .Sacred, 916. 
 Grundivlg, Nicolal Fredcrik Soverln, 
 
 917. 
 OrynflDus, Simon, 917. 
 Orynojus, Juhaini Jacob, 917. 
 Gualberl, (iiovannl, 917. 
 (iudiile, St.. 918. 
 Guelf and Ghibelline. 918. 
 Gutin<ju, Antoine, 918. 
 Guerieke, lleiuricli Krnsl Ferdinand, 
 
 918. 
 Gulbertoi Nogent, 918. 
 Gulberl of Parma, 918. 
 Guldo of Arezzo,918. 
 Guldode Brew, 919. 
 
 (jullberl of Sempringham. 8co Gilbert. 
 GulldH,9l9. 
 
 Gulllou, Mario Nicolas Sylveiilrc, 919. 
 Gulnu, ihu UuuHU uf, 919. 
 
 Guizot, Fran9ois l*ierre Guillaume, 920. 
 
 Gundulph, 920. 
 
 Gunpowder Plot, 920. 
 
 Guntlier, Anton, 921. 
 
 Gurnall, William, 921. 
 
 Guiney, Joseph John, 921. 
 
 Gury, Joseph Pierre, 921. 
 
 Gustavus Adolphus. See Thirtv-Year»' 
 
 War. 
 GuslaTus-Adolphus-Association, 921. 
 Guthlac, St., 921. 
 Guthrie, Thomas. 922. 
 Giitzlafl", Karl Friedrich August, 922. 
 Guy on, Jeanne Marie Bouvier de la 
 
 Mothe, 922. 
 Guyse, John, 924. 
 Gyrovagi, 924. 
 
 H. 
 
 Haa^ AssociaUon, 925. 
 
 Habakkuk, 'J2i. 
 
 Habuikorn, Peter, 925. 
 
 HabcTt, Isaac, 926. 
 
 Hacki't, John, 926. 
 
 UaokuU, lloiatio Balcb,92a. 
 
 Hailaii, 926. 
 
 Hadad-Itlinmon, 926. 
 
 Haddan, .-Vrlhur M'est, 926. 
 
 Hades, 928. 
 
 Hadrach, 928. 
 
 Hadrian, P. ^liue, 92S. 
 
 Hadrian (popes). See .Adrian, 
 
 Haeretico Conibureiido, 928. 
 
 Haelzer, Ludwi«, 928. 
 
 Hafenreffer, Maubias, 923. 
 
 Hagar, 928. 
 
 Hagarites, or Ilagarencs, 920. 
 
 Hageiiau, Conference of, 929. 
 
 Hagenbach, Karl Rudolf, 929. 
 
 llagt;adah. 929. 
 
 Ilaagai, 929. 
 
 Hasioglaplia, 930. 
 
 Hahu, August, 930. 
 
 Hahu, .]oliann Miehael, 930. 
 
 Ilaiino, 931). 
 
 Hair, among the Hebrews, 930. 
 
 llalacbab.yai). 
 
 IlaM.i'ie, James Alexander, 93(1 
 
 Ilaldatie, Uoberl, 9oU. 
 
 Hale, Matthew, Sir, 931. 
 
 Hales, John, 931. 
 
 Hales, Wim.im,931. 
 
 Half-Communion, 931. 
 
 Half-way Covenant, 931, 
 
 Hall, (iordon, 931. 
 
 Hall, John Vine, 931: 
 
 Hall, Joseph, 931. 
 
 Hall, liobert, 932. 
 
 -Hallel, 933. 
 
 Hallelujah, 933. 
 
 llaller, Albrecht von, 033. 
 
 Ilaller, Berthold, 933. 
 
 Halley, Kubert, 9;B. 
 
 Halloek, William .\llen, 933. 
 
 Halsey, Luther, 933. 
 
 Halyburton, Thoinas, 934. 
 
 Ham. See Noah and his 8on». 
 
 Hatnan the Agagite. See Ksther. 
 
 llainann, Johutni Georg, 934. 
 
 Hamath, 934. 
 
 Hamburg, 934. 
 
 Hamel. See Ui^ns. 
 
 Hamelmann, Hermann, 934. 
 
 llitmllton, .lames, 934. 
 
 Hamilton, Patriek,935. 
 
 Hamilton. ,Sir William, 938. 
 
 Hammond, Henry, 938. 
 
 Hampden, Hciin l)ieksun, 038. 
 
 llamon, Jean, 93S. 
 
 Hiindel, Ueoi-g Krledrlch, 038. 
 
 Handicrafts among the Hebrews, 039. 
 
 Hands, Laying on of. See Intposltiun of 
 
 Hands. 
 Hanging. See I'unlabments among the 
 
 Hebrews. 
 Hannah, 030. 
 Ilannuver. See Pruasla. 
 Haiislz, Markus, 039. 
 Ilaphurah, 939. 
 Halan, 039. 
 
 Harbaiigh, Henry, 9,W. 
 Harding, Blenhen, 939. 
 Hurdwiek, (;lijirleM, 939. 
 Har<]ouin, .lean, 940. 
 Uardt, Herman)) v. d. 8co Horinann v. d. 
 
 llardt. 
 Hardy, Itobert Spenee, 040.
 
 Hare, Augustas William, 940. 
 
 Hate, Julius C'lmrles, lt-10. 
 
 lluiiuy, Fiaii^oiH de, 1141. 
 
 Ilanncr, Tliornas, 941. 
 
 llarmoriists. Kt-t^ UiippiHts. 
 
 Harmony of tlio Goepcln, 041. 
 
 JtiirmB, Claus, 943. 
 
 Harms, Georg Ludwig Detlev Theodor, 
 
 944. 
 Harp. See Music among tbe Hubrcws. 
 
 Harris, Howel, 945. 
 
 Harris, John, U45. 
 Harris, Samuel, 945. 
 
 Harvard, John. Hee Harvard University. 
 
 Harvard Univfrsity, 945. 
 
 Harvest amonLf the Hebrews, Q40. 
 Hascnkatnp, Jiilmnn Gerhard, 947, 
 
 Hasenliamp, Friediiob Arnold, 947. 
 
 Hasenkamp, Johann Heinrich, 947. 
 
 ilasse, Friedricli Kudolf, 947. 
 
 jllatteniiPts, 947. 
 
 Tlalto (hi^liop), 947. 
 
 Hattu {aicliliisli()p),947. 
 
 Haui;, Martin, 947. 
 
 Haugc, Hans Nielsen, 948, 
 
 Hauran. See Bashan. 
 
 Hausmann, Xicolaus, 94S. 
 
 Havelock, Henry, Sir, 943. 
 
 Haven, P^rawtus Otis, 048. 
 
 Haven, Gilbert, 94S, 
 
 Havergal, Frances Ridley, 948. 
 
 Havernick, Heinrich Andreas Christoph, 
 943. 
 
 Havilah. See Eden. 
 
 Hawaiian Islands. Sec Sandwich Isl- 
 ands. 
 
 Hawes, Joel, 949. 
 
 Hawker, Robert, 949. 
 
 Hawker, Robert Stephen, 949. 
 
 Hawks, Francis Lister, 949. 
 
 Hawley, Gideon, 949. 
 
 Haydn, Joseph, 949. 
 
 Haymo. See Hainio. 
 
 Hazael,949. 
 
 Heart of Jesus, Society of. See Jesus* 
 Heart, Society of. 
 
 Heave-Ofterings. See Offerings. 
 • — Heaven, 949. 
 
 Heber. Reginald, 950. 
 
 Hel>rew Language, the, 951. 
 
 Hebrew Toetry, 963. 
 
 Hebrews, Name and History. See Is- 
 rael. 
 
 Hebrews, Epistle to the, 955. 
 
 Hebrews, Gospel according to the. See 
 Apocrypha. 
 
 Hebron, 957. 
 
 Heckewelder, John Gottlieb Ernestus, 
 957. 
 
 Hedio, Kaspar, 957. 
 
 Hedwig, St., 907. 
 
 Heerbrand, Jakob, 957. 
 
 Heerraann, Johann, 958. 
 
 Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, O'lB. 
 
 Hegesippus, 959. 
 
 Hegira, 959. 
 
 Heidanus, Abraham, 959. 
 
 Heidegger, Johann Heinrich, 959. 
 
 Heidelberg. See Universities, German. 
 
 Heidelberg Catechism. 959. 
 
 Heimburg. See Gregor von Heimburg. 
 
 Heincccius, Johann Michael, 960. 
 
 Helding, Mioliael. See Sidonius. 
 
 Helena, St., 960. 
 
 Heliand, 961. 
 
 Heliodorns, 961. 
 
 Heliodorus (bishop), 961. 
 
 Heliogabalus, 961. 
 — Hell, 961. 
 — Hell, Descent into, the, 962. 
 
 Hell, Punishments of. 
 
 Hcllenititic Idiom, 963. 
 
 Helk-ni-^ts, 965. 
 
 Hehetic Confessions, 966. 
 
 Helvetic Consensus, 967. 
 
 Helvetius, Claude Adrien, 967. 
 
 Helvicus, Clnistoph, 968. 
 
 Hdvidius, 968. 
 
 Helyot, Pierre, 968. 
 
 Henian. See I'salras. 
 
 Hemtnerlin, Felix, 9G8. 
 
 Henuningsen, Niels, 968. 
 
 Henderson, Alexander, 968. 
 
 Henderson, Ebene2er, '.'To. 
 
 Hcngstcnberg, Ernst Wilhelm, 070. 
 
 HenhiJfer, Aloye, 971. 
 
 Henke, Heinrich Pliilijjp Ivonrad,971. 
 
 Heukc, Ernst Ludwig Theodor, 972. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Henotikon, the, 972. 
 
 Henry of CIngny. See Henry of Lau- 
 sanne. 
 
 Henry of Ghent, 072. 
 
 Henry of Goreuni, 972. 
 
 Henry of Hnnlingdon, 972. 
 
 Henry of Keltenbaeh. See Ketleiibach. 
 
 Henry of Laiigensleln, 972. 
 
 Henry of Lanbaune, 972. 
 
 Henry of NUrdlingen. See John of 
 Rut berg. 
 
 Henry of ZUlpben. See MoIIcr. 
 
 Henry IV.. 972. 
 
 lleniy VHL of Enf,dand. See England, 
 Church of. 
 
 Henry, Matthew, 973. 
 
 Henry, Paul Emile, 973. 
 
 Henry, Philip, 973. 
 
 Henscben, Gottfried, 973. 
 
 Heppe, Heinrich Ludwig Julius, 974. 
 
 Heraclas, 974. 
 
 Heracleon. See Gnosticism. 
 
 Herberger, Valeiius, 974. 
 
 Herbelot, Barllielemy d', 974. 
 
 Herbert, Edward. See Deism. 
 
 Herbert, George, 974. 
 
 Herder, JohauQ Gottfried, 974. 
 
 Hereford, 975. 
 -^-Heresy, 975. 
 
 Heretical Baptism. See Baptism by 
 Heretics. 
 
 Heriger, 976. 
 
 Herimann Contractus. See Hermann. 
 
 Herle, Charles, 976. .^ 
 
 Herman, Nicolaus, 976. 
 
 Hermann Contractus, 977. 
 
 Hermarm of Frilzlar, 977. 
 
 Hermann von der Hardt, 977. 
 
 Hermann von Wied, 977. 
 
 Hernias, 977. ^ 
 
 HermeneuiicH, Biblical, 978. 
 
 Hermes and the Ilerniesians, 980. 
 
 Hermias, 9a0. 
 
 Hermogenes, 980. 
 
 Hermon, 980. 
 
 Herod, 980. 
 
 Herodians, 983. 
 
 Herodias, 983. 
 
 Herrnliut, 9S3. 
 
 Hervseus, 9S:',. 
 
 Hervacus, Natalie, 983. 
 
 Hervey, James, 983. 
 
 Hess, Johann Jakob, 983. 
 
 Hesse, 983. 
 
 Hesslmsen, Tilemann, 9S4. 
 
 Hesychasts. liie, 9S4. 
 
 Heayehius, 084. 
 
 HeticrisB, 9s;j. 
 
 Hctherini,'tori, William M., 985. 
 
 Heuniann, ('hristoph August, 985. 
 
 HeussLT, Mrs. Meta, 985. 
 
 Hewit, Natlianiel, 985. ' 
 
 Heylyn, Peter. 085. 
 
 Hcynlin de Lapidc, Johannes, 986. 
 
 Hezekiah, 9SG. 
 
 Hicks, Elias, 9S7. 
 
 Hicksites. See Hicka and Friends. 
 
 Hiddekcl. See Tigris. 
 
 Hierapolis, 037. 
 
 Hierarchy, 937. 
 
 Hieracas, or Hierax, 987. 
 
 Hieruclos, 9S7. 
 
 Hieroglyphics, 987. 
 
 Hieronyniites, 9S7. 
 
 Hiernnymus. See Jerome. 
 
 High Church, 9SS. 
 
 High Places, 988. 
 
 High Priest, 991. 
 
 Hilarion, St., 901. 
 
 Hilary of Aries, St., 991. 
 See PunishmeoL \ Hilary the Deacon, 991. 
 
 Hilary, Bishop of Rome, 992. 
 
 Hilary, Bisliop of Poitiers, 992. 
 
 Hilda, St., 993. 
 
 Hildebert, 993. 
 
 Hildogarde, St., 993. 
 
 Hill, Rowland, 993. 
 
 Hillel, 993. 
 
 Hiller, Philipp Friedrich, 994. 
 
 Himyarites. See Arabia. 
 
 Hin. See Weiglits and Measures. 
 
 Illncks, Edward, 994. 
 
 Ilincniar of Laon, 994. 
 
 Hineniar of Rheims, 094. 
 
 Hinds, Samuel, 094. 
 
 Hinton, John Howard, 995. 
 
 Hlnton, Jaujes, 005. 
 
 Hippi>, 995. 
 
 xxvu 
 
 Hippolytus, 905. 
 Hirschau, or Hirs-au, 996. 
 Hirscher, Johann Bapti-^t, 995. 
 
 Hitchcock, Edward, 09G. 
 
 Hittites, the, 900. 
 
 Hitzig, Ferdinand, 997. 
 
 Hivite. See ('anaan. 
 
 Hoadly, Benjamin, 998. 
 
 Hubart, Jolni Henry, 093. 
 
 Hobbes, Thoman, 0'-)9. 
 
 Ihu-limann, Erniit Christof, 099. 
 
 Hi.chstratetj. See Hoogrttraten. 
 
 Hudge, Charles, 990. 
 
 Hody, HnMiphr--y, IDOO. 
 
 Hoe von Iloheni'iji;, 1 ;()i). 
 
 Hofacker, Ludwig, JOIJO. 
 
 Hofacker, Wilhelm G., 1000. 
 
 Hofl'maun, Andreas GoUlieb, 1000. 
 
 Holfmann, Daniel, 1001. 
 
 HoU'niann, Ludwig Friedrich Wilhelm, 
 lOOI. 
 
 Hull'mann, Melcbolr, 1001. 
 
 Hiilling, Juhaun Wilhelm Friedrich, 
 1001. 
 
 Hofinann, Johann Chr. Karl, 1001. 
 j Hofmeister, Sebastian, 10J2. 
 j Ho<(e, Moses, 1002. 
 
 j Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingwrurfit. 
 j Alexander Leopold Franz Enierich, 
 ! Prince of, 1002. 
 
 Holliach, Paul Heinrich Dietrich, Baron 
 d', 1003. 
 
 Holiness. See Sanctification. 
 
 Holiness of Gud, 1003. 
 
 Holland, 1003. 
 
 Holiaz, David, 1007. 
 
 Holmes, Robert, 1007. 
 
 Holofernes. See Judith. 
 
 Holste. or Holstenlus, Lucas, 1008. 
 
 Holy Fire, lOOS. 
 
 Holy League. 1008. 
 
 Holy Sepulcln-e, the, 1008. 
 
 Holy Spirit, 1009. 
 
 Holy Water, the Use of, 1010. 
 
 Holy Week, 1010. 
 
 Holzhauser. See Barlholomitee. 
 
 Homer, William Bradford, 1010. 
 
 Homiletics (from the German point of 
 
 view), 1011. 
 Homiletics (from the Anglo- American 
 
 point of view), 1014. 
 Homiliarum, 1016. 
 
 Homily. See H*imi)eties. 
 Homologounienannd Ant ilf'gomena, 1016. 
 
 Homoiousian and Homoousian, 1016. 
 
 Hone, William, 1016. 
 
 Honey. See Bee-Culture among the 
 
 Hebrews. 
 Honorius (emperor), 1016. 
 Honoiius (popes), 1016. 
 Honter, Joliaun, 1017. 
 Hontbeim, Johann Nicolaus von, 1017. 
 Hooght, Eberhard van der, 1017- 
 Hooijstraten, Jacob van, 1017. 
 Hook, Walter Farquhar, 1017. 
 Hooker, Richard, 1017. 
 Hooper, John, lOlS. 
 Hnomheek. Joiiaiinoa, 1019. 
 Hopital, Mich'.-l de 1', 1019. 
 Hopkins, Albert, 1019. 
 Hopkins, John Henry, 1019. 
 Hopkins, Samuel, 1020. 
 Hnjikinsianism, 1021. 
 Hor, Mount, 1022. 
 Horh'f', Johann Heinrich, 1022. 
 Hnrcbe, Heinrich, 1022. 
 Hnreb. See Sinai. 
 Ilnrniisdas, 1022. 
 Home, George, 1022. 
 Home, Thomas Hartwell, 1022. 
 Horney, or Hornejus, Conrad, 1023. 
 Horologium, 1023. 
 Horsley, Samuel, 1023. 
 Hosea, 1023. 
 Ho.^hea. 1024. 
 Hosius, 1024. 
 Hosiu8, Stanislaus, 1024. 
 Hospinian, Rudolph, 1024. 
 Hospitality among tbe Hebrpws, 1025. 
 Hospitallers, or HospiuU Brethren, 1025. 
 Hospital, Michel de 1'. See Hopital. 
 Hospitals, 1025. 
 
 Hosjiital Sisters. See Hospitallers. 
 lloMsbach, Peter Wilhelm, 1025. 
 Host. See Mass. 
 Hottentots, Christian Missions among 
 
 the, 1026. 
 Hottinger, Johann Heinrich, 1026.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 nottinerer, Johaiin Jacob (1,2). 1026. 
 Iloubi^ant, Charles Francois, 1026. 
 
 Jlluminati, 1061. 
 J"lmai:e of God, lOGl. 
 
 — llourfi, Canonical. See Canonical Hours. ^-imai;c*-Worfiliip, 1062. 
 
 See Ar 
 
 House among the Hebrewe, 
 chitecture, Hebrew. 
 
 llouse-Coniinunion, or Frivatc Commu- 
 nion, 1023. 
 
 Howard, John, 1025. 
 
 Howe, John, 1027. ^ 
 
 Howie. John, 10-28. 
 
 Hoyle, Joshua, 1028. 
 
 Hrabanu*. See liabanus. 
 
 Hroswitha, 1028. 
 
 Huber, .lohattnee Xcpomuk, 1028. 
 
 Iluber, Samuel, 1028. 
 
 lluberinus. Caspar, 1028, 
 
 Hubert, St., 1028. 
 
 HLibmaiur, 1029. .^ 
 
 Hue, Evariste It^^is, 1029, 
 
 Hucariuii. See Canon Lixw. 
 
 Hucbald, 1029. 
 
 Hue(, Francois, 1029. 
 
 Iluet, Pierre Baniel, 1029. 
 
 Hug, Jolianu Leonard, 1029. 
 
 Hughes, John, 1020. 
 
 HujjheB, JoBcph, 1030. 
 
 Hu;^o of Aiuient^, 1030. 
 
 Hugo of Lincohi, 10;i0. 
 
 Hugo of St. Cher, 1030. ^^ 
 
 Hugo of St. Victor. 1030. 
 
 Huguenote, 1031. 
 
 Huinscau, Isaac d', 1037. ■ 
 
 Hulse, Johti, 1037. 
 
 HuUcan Lectures. See Hulee, John. 
 
 HiiUemann, Johaun, 1037. 
 
 Humanist, 1037. 
 
 HumaniUirians, 1038. 
 
 Home, David, 1038. 
 
 Humcrale. See Vestments. 
 
 Hnniiliali, 1040. 
 
 Humiliation of Christ. Sec Chrietology. 
 - Humility, 1040. 
 
 Humphrey, Hcraan, 1040, 
 
 Humphrey, Zenhnniah Moore, 1040. 
 
 IIundefih;igen, Karl Bcrnhard, 1040. 
 
 Hungary, the Kingdom of, 1041. 
 
 Hutinius, ^f^i^idius, 1012. 
 
 HunniuH, Nicolaus, 1042. 
 
 Huntini; among tlie Hebrews, 1042. 
 
 Huntingdon, Selina, Countess of, 1042. 
 
 Hnpfeld, Hermann, 1042. 
 
 Hurd, Richard. 1043. 
 
 Hiirter, Fri<;dnch Emanuel von, 1043. 
 
 Hu»*, John, 1043. 
 
 HuKNiU'N, 1045. 
 
 Hutchinson, Anne, 1040. 
 
 Huictiinson, John, 1046. 
 
 Jlulten, IJhicli von, 1046. 
 
 Hutter, Klias, KMT. 
 
 Hutter. l^'onhard, 1047. 
 
 Hy<I;isne8. See HysUispes, 
 
 Hyde, Thomiis, 1U47. 
 
 Hyginuw, 1047. 
 
 Ilyle, 1047. 
 
 Ilylozoihm, 1047. 
 'Ilymnology, 1047. ' 
 
 Hymnology, Knglibli and Amerlcafl^-i 
 1052. * ' 
 
 Hypatin, 10.'»5. 
 
 HyperluH, AndrcaB Gerhard, 1055, 
 
 llypoHtasirt, lO&.'i. 
 
 HypBiHtarians, 10.'»5. 
 IlyrcjuiUH I., John, 105.1. 
 HyramuH II., 1055. 
 HyvUutpeH. 1056. 
 
 I. 
 
 Ibaii, 1057. 
 
 Ibn E7.rn. See Aben BziiL — 
 
 Iceland, 10.'t7. 
 
 Ichlhyft, 1057. 
 
 Ironiuin, 1057. 
 
 IconochiMt, 1U57. 
 
 IctmoHiiiHlii, 1U57. 
 
 Idol and Idolatry, 1057. 
 
 Iiliimioa. Hec iCdoni. 
 
 Ipmitlan £pl«tlefi. See Ignnllus of An* 
 
 tloch. 
 iKnnlhjH of Anlloch, lO.'iS. 
 Igniitiud, I'ulriarch of CunittAntlnoplo. 
 
 IO*v>, 
 Itfnatliifi I^iyoln. 1060. 
 IgnorantlneH, 1001. 
 I. II. H., 1061. 
 llderonNUH. St., 1061. 
 lHK«n,Chn6llaii Friedrich, 10«:. 
 
 Imam, 1064. 
 
 immaculate Conception of the Virgin 
 Mary, 1064. 
 j: -^mra.nnuel. 1065. 
 
 Immersion. See Baptifcra. 
 .Immortality, IOCS. 
 Immunity, 1006. 
 Impanatio, 1007. 
 Imposition of Hands, 1067. 
 Impostoribus, Da Tribus, 1067. 
 Imputafion of Sin and of RIghtcouB- 
 
 nese, 106S. 
 Inability, 1069. 
 Incapacity, 1069. 
 Incarnation, 1069. 
 Incenee, 1070. 
 Incest, 1070. 
 
 Incbofer, Melchior, 1070. 
 In Coena Domini, 1070. 
 Incorporatiuu, luTl. 
 
 Independents. See Congregationalism. 
 Index IJbrorum Prohibitorum, 1071. 
 India, Religions of, y^-e Brahmanism, 
 
 Brahmo Somaj, Buddhism. 
 India, 1071. 
 Induction, 1076. 
 Indulgences, 1076. 
 
 Infallibilist. 1077. — 
 
 Infallibility of the Pope, 1077. 
 Infant Baptism. See Baptism of In- 
 fants. 
 Infant Communion, 107S. 
 Infant Jesus, the Congregation of the 
 
 Daughters of the, 1079. 
 Inf.mt Salvation, 1079. 
 Infanticide, 1081. 
 Infidelity, 1081. 
 
 Infralajjsarians. See Sublapsarians. 
 Infula, 1057. 
 InL'athering, Feast of. See TabernacleB, 
 
 Feast of. 
 Ingham. Benjamin, 10S8. 
 Inglis, David. 1068. 
 Ingulphus, or Ingulf, 30S8. 
 Inheritance among the Hebrews, 1088. 
 Inner Mission, the, 1089. 
 Innocent I., 10.50. 
 Innocent IT., 1090. 
 Innocent III., 1091. 
 Innocent in. (Lothajr), 1091. 
 Innocent IV., 1005. 
 Innocent V., 1096. 
 
 InnocentXn. , 1096. — 
 
 Innocent VII., 1096. 
 'nnocent VIII., 1097. 
 Innocent IX., 1097. 
 Innocent X., 1097. 
 Innocent XI., 1098. 
 Innocent XII., 1098. 
 Innocent XIII., 1098. 
 Innocents' Day, 1099. 
 Imis among the Hebrews, 1099. 
 Inquisition, 1099. 
 'nspiration, 1101. 
 Inspired, the, 1106. 
 Inslallalion, 1106. 
 Itibiitiition, imo. 
 
 tercension, 1106. — 
 
 IliterdieL, 1107. 
 
 Interim, I1U7. 
 
 Interpretation. See Exegeste, Hurinc- 
 
 neullcs. 
 Interstitia Temporum, 1107. 
 Inlinction, 1107. 
 ntonation, 1107. 
 Iiitroducih>n, 1107. 
 Iniruit, 1110. 
 
 Invention of the Cross. See Crosfl. 
 Investiture, 1110 
 Invocation of Saints. Sec Image-Wor- 
 
 shi]), Intercession. 
 Io[ia, nil. 
 
 helaiid, 1112. 
 Iiehmd, Juhn, 1116. 
 IrentcuH, Bisliop of Lyonn. 1116. 
 IrenajUH of Tyre, 1118. 
 Iretiiius, Christoph, 1118. 
 Irene, 1118. 
 
 Irenical Theology, 1118. 
 Irrcgularitlert, 1119. 
 living, Edward, UIO. 
 Irvlngltes. See Catholic ApostoHo 
 Church. 
 (laac, 1120. 
 Ibuuc uf Aiitiocb, 1120. 
 
 Isaac lyivita, 1120." 
 
 Isaiah, 1120. 
 
 Ishboshetb, 1122. 
 
 Ishmael, 1123. 
 
 Isidore Mereator, 1123. 
 
 Isidore of Moscow, 1123. 
 
 Isidore of Pehisium, 1123. 
 
 Isidore of Seville, 1123. 
 
 Islam. See Mohammedanism. 
 
 Israel, Biblical History of, 1124. 
 
 Israel, Post-Biblic;il History of, 1128. 
 
 Issacbar. See Tribes of Israel. 
 
 Italic Version. See Bible Versions. 
 
 Italy, Ecclesiastical Statistics of, 1130. 
 
 Itjily, Protestantism iu, 1131. 
 
 Itinerancy, 1133. 
 
 Ituiasa, ll:i:3, 
 
 Jves, Rt. Rev. Levi Silliman, 1133. 
 
 ivo of Cbartres, 1133. 
 
 Jabbok, 1134. 
 
 Jablonwki. Daniel Enist, 1134, 
 
 Jackson, Arthur, 1134. 
 
 Jackson, John, 1134. 
 
 Jackson, 'i'hoinas, 1134. 
 
 Jackson, Thomas (Methodist), 1134. 
 
 Jacob, 1134. 
 
 Jacob's Well, 1135. 
 
 Jacob Bnrndaens, 1135. 
 
 Jacob of Edessa, 1135. 
 
 Jacob of Jiiterbogk, 1136. 
 
 Jacob of Mar Maitai. See Aphraates. 
 
 Jacob of Misa, 1136. 
 
 Jacob of Nisibis, 1136. 
 
 Jacob of Sarilg, 1136. 
 
 Jacob of Vitry, 1136. 
 
 Jacobi, Friedrich Heinrich, 1136. 
 
 Jacobites, 1137. 
 
 Jacobus de Voragine, 1137. 
 
 Jacobus, Melanctiion Williams, 1138. 
 
 Jacorab, Thomas, 1138. 
 
 Jacopone da Todi, 1138. 
 
 Jael, 1138. 
 
 Jafle, Philipp, 1139. 
 
 Jabn. Johann. 1139. 
 
 Jains, 1139. 
 
 James, 1139. 
 
 James, the Epistle of, 1141. 
 
 James, John Antrell, 1142. 
 
 Jameson (Anna Murphy), Mrs., 1142. 
 
 Janes, Edmund Storer, 1142. 
 
 Juni;way, Jacob Jones, 1143. 
 
 Jannes and Jauibres, 1143. 
 
 Janow, MaWhbis von, 1143. 
 
 Janneu, <.'ornelius, 1143. 
 
 Jansenism, 1144. 
 
 Januarius, St., 1145. 
 
 Japan, Christianity In, 1145. 
 
 Jacfiuelot, If;uie, 1148. 
 
 Jarclii. See It;ihhi. 
 
 Jarvis, Samuel Farmer, 1149, 
 
 Jaslier, Book of, 1149. 
 
 Jason (1-0, 1149. 
 
 Jaulfiet, tjaapard Jean Audrd Joseph, 
 
 1149. 
 Jftvan. 1149. 
 Jay, William, 1150. 
 ■Jealousy, the Trial of, 1150, 
 Jeanne d'Albret, 1150. 
 Jehb, John, 1151. 
 Jebus and jebusitcs, 1161, 
 Jehoiachin, 1151. 
 Jehoiada, 1151. 
 Jrliniiikim, 1151. 
 Jrliuram, or Joram, 1151, 
 JehoHhaphat. 1152. 
 Jehovah, 1152. 
 Jehu, 1153. 
 
 Jehudnh (Ha-Ievi) Bon Sumuol, UW. 
 Jenks, Benjamin, 1154. 
 Jenks, VVilliani, 1154. 
 Jenkyn, William. 1154. 
 .N'liiiingM, David, 1154. 
 Jephthidi, 1154. 
 •lereniiah, 1155. 
 Jeremiah, Kplsilo of. See Apocrypha, 
 
 Old Testament. 
 Jeremiah, Eameiitallons of. See I>iimen- 
 
 tatioiis. 
 Jeremiah II., ll.'.e. 
 Jericho, tln! Clly of, 1157. 
 Jeroboam, 1157. 
 Jerome (llicronymus) SophronlUM Ku. 
 
 Htdilun, 1 157. 
 Jerome uf Pra{[uc, 1158.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 JcrUBalcm, 1150. 
 
 .Judges of Israel, 1208. 
 
 Kiss of Peace, the, 1252. 
 
 
 Jerusalfm, tliu Episcopal See of St. 
 
 Judg.-s, Book of, 1209. 
 
 Kilto, .John, 1252. 
 
 
 Jiimt'B ill, lltU. 
 
 Ju<U'nient, the Divine, 1210. 
 
 Klarenbach, Adolf, 1254. 
 
 
 Jeruaiileni, tlie I'atriarchate of, 1165. 
 
 Judith. Bee Ajioeryplia, Old Testament. 
 Judson, Ado:iirani, 1211. 
 
 Klee, Heinrich, 1254. 
 
 
 Jerusalem, Synotl of, 1165. 
 
 Kleuker, Johann Fricdrlch, 1254. 
 
 
 Jerusalem, Juluuin Fricdrlch Wilheim, 
 
 Juggernaut, 1212. 
 
 Kling, Christian Friedrieti. 1254. 
 
 
 1166. 
 
 Julian, 1212. 
 
 Klopstock, Friedrieli Gottlieb, 12 
 
 .4. 
 
 Jerusalem Chamber, 1166. 
 
 Julian CsBsarint, or Cesaiinl, 1213. 
 
 Kliipfel, Kngelbert, 1255. 
 
 
 Jesuits, 1166. 
 
 .lulius (popes), 1213. 
 
 Knapp, Albert, 1255. 
 
 
 -.Tesus Christ, 1170. 
 
 Juli:is Afrieanus, Sextus, 1214. 
 
 Knapp, Ueorg Christian, 1256. 
 
 
 Jesus Christ, Three Offices of, 1170. 
 
 Jumpers, 1214. 
 
 Knatclibull, Sir Norton, 1256. 
 
 
 Jesus, Society of the tiacred Heart of, 
 
 Junilius, 1215. 
 
 Kneeland, Abncr, 1256. 
 
 
 1177. 
 
 Junius, Frunciscns, 1215. 
 
 Kneeling, 1256. 
 
 
 .Tctcr, Jeremiah U., 1177. 
 
 Junkin, George, 1215. 
 
 Knipperdoiling, Bernard. Sec MUtister. 
 
 Jethro. See Moses. 
 
 Jurieu, Pierre, 1215. 
 
 Knijislro, Johann, 1256. 
 
 
 Jew, the Wandering, 1177. 
 
 Jurisdiction, Eecleoiaatical, 121.5. 
 
 Knobel, Karl August, 1256. 
 
 
 Jewel, John, 1178. 
 
 Jlistitiealion, 1217. 
 
 Knollys, Hanserd, 1256. 
 
 
 -Jewish Christians, 1179. 
 
 Justin Martyr, 1219. 
 
 Known. Men, 1257. 
 
 
 Jews. See Israel. 
 
 Justinian I., 1220. 
 
 Knox, John, 1257. 
 
 
 Jews, Missions amongst the, 1179. 
 
 Juvencus, Cajus Veltlus AqulUus, 1221. 
 
 Knox, Vicesimus, 1259. 
 
 
 Jezebel, 1182. 
 
 
 Kohath, 1260. 
 
 
 Jezreel, the City of, 1182. 
 
 
 Kohlbriiggc, Hermann Fricdrlch, 
 
 1230. 
 
 Jimenes, Cartlinal. See Xlmcncs. 
 
 K. 
 
 Kohier, (;hristian and Ilieronymus, lilM. 
 
 Joab, 1182. 
 
 
 Kollenbusch, Samuel, 1260. 
 
 
 Joachim of Floris, 1183. 
 
 Knaba, 1222. 
 
 Kol Nidre, 1290. 
 
 
 Joan, Tope, 11S3. 
 
 K.adesh, 1222. , 
 
 Komander, Johann, 1261. 
 
 
 Joan of Arc, 11^3. 
 
 K.adi, 1223. 
 
 Kiinig, Johann Friedrieli, 1261. 
 
 
 Job, 1185. 
 
 KallV.ari.i, 122.3. 
 
 Kiinig, Samuel, 1201. 
 
 
 Jobson, FredericlE Jaracs, 1187. 
 
 Kaldi. Oeorg, 122.3. 
 
 Konrad of M"arhurg, 1261. 
 
 
 Joel, 1187. 
 
 Kalleisen, Heinrich, 1223. 
 
 Koolhaas, Kaspar, 1262. 
 
 
 Jolin the Apostle and his Writings, 1188. 
 
 Kunt. Immanuel, 1223. 
 
 Koppe, Johann Benjamin, 1262. 
 
 
 John the Baptist, ll'Jl. 
 
 Kapff, Sixt Karl, 1225. — 
 
 -Korah, 1262. 
 
 
 John (popes), 1192. 
 
 Karaite Jews. 1225. 
 
 Korahites, 1262. 
 
 
 John, l*opess. See Joan, Pope, 
 
 Karens, 1226. 
 
 Koran. See Mohammed. 
 
 
 John IV., Jeiunator, 1193. 
 
 Karg, George, 1226, 
 
 Kornthal, 1262. 
 
 
 John X., 1193. 
 
 K.'iterkami), Joiiann Tlieodor Ilerraanii 
 
 Kortholt, Christian, 1263. 
 
 
 John of Antioeh. 1193. 
 
 1227. 
 
 Krafft, Joliaim . Christian Gottio 
 
 b Lud- 
 
 John of .\vila, 1193. 
 
 Kautz, Jakob, 1227. 
 
 wig, 1263. 
 Kraliz, 1263. 
 
 
 John of Chur, 1193. 
 
 Kaye, John, 1227. 
 
 
 John of Damascus, 1193. 
 
 Keaeh, Benjamin, 1227. 
 
 Krantz, Albert, 1263. 
 
 
 John, Bishop of Epliesus, 1194. 
 
 Kehle, John, 1227. 
 
 Krasinski, Count Valerian, 1263. 
 
 
 John of Monte Coivino, 1194. 
 
 Keckermann, Bartholomaus, 1223. 
 
 Krauth, Ciiarlcs Philip, 1263. 
 
 
 John of Salisbury, 119.i. 
 
 Kedron, or Kidron, 122S. 
 
 Kiebs,.Jolin Micliael, 1204. 
 
 
 John, Patriarch of Tlieasalonioa, 1195. 
 
 Keil, Karl August Gottlieb, 1228. 
 
 Krell, or Crell, Nikolans, 1264. 
 
 
 John (Eleemosynarius), 1195. 
 
 Keim, Carl Theodor. VsiH. 
 
 Kriidener, Barbara Juliane, B 
 
 aronesa 
 
 John rrederick, 119.5. 
 
 Keith, Alexander, 1229. 
 
 von, 1264. 
 
 
 John (Lackland), 1195. 
 
 Keith, George, 1230. 
 
 Krug, Wilheim Traugott, 1264. 
 
 
 John Nepomuk, 1195. 
 
 Kells, the Synod of, 1230. 
 
 Krummncher, Fricdrlch .Vdolf, 12 
 
 64. 
 
 John Philoponus, 1196. 
 
 Kelly, Thomas, 12::0. 
 
 Krummacher, Friedrieli Wilheim 
 
 , 1263. 
 
 John Scholasticus, 1196. 
 
 Keltic Church. 1230. 
 
 Kriiminacher, Gottfried lianicl, 1 
 
 285. 
 
 John the Constant, 1196. 
 
 Keinpis, Thomas a. 1237. 
 
 Kuinol, Christian, 1266. 
 
 
 John the Little, 1196. 
 
 Ken, Thomas, 1239. 
 
 Kuiize, John Cliristoplier, 1266. 
 
 
 John the Presbyter, 1197. 
 
 Kenites, the, 1239. 
 
 Kurtz, .John N'icholas, 1266. 
 
 
 John, St., Eve of, 1197. 
 
 Kennet, White, 1239. 
 
 Kurtz, John Daniel, 1266. 
 
 
 John, Knight of St. See Military 
 
 Kennieott, Benjamin, 1239^ 
 Kenosis, See Ohristologv. 
 
 Kurtz, Benjamin, 1266. 
 
 
 Orders. 
 
 Kyrie Elcyson, 1260. 
 
 
 Johnson, Samuel (Cong.), 1197. 
 
 Kenrick, Francis Patrick, 1240. 
 
 
 Jolinson, Samuel (Unitarian), 1197. 
 
 Kentigern, St., 1240. 
 
 
 
 Jol;tan, 1197. 
 
 Kerckhaven, Jan van den, 1240. 
 
 L. 
 
 
 Jonah, 1197. 
 
 Keri and Ketldbh, 1240. 
 
 
 
 Jonas, 119S. 
 
 Kero, 1240. 
 
 Labadle, Jean dc, 1267. 
 
 
 Jon-as, Justus, 1198. 
 
 Kessler, .Johannes, 1240. 
 
 Labadisls. See Labadie. 
 
 
 Joncourt, Pierre de, 1198. 
 
 Ketteler, Wilheim Emanuel, Baron von, 
 
 Labarum, 1267. 
 
 
 Jones, Jeremiah, 1198. 
 
 1241. 
 
 Labat, Jean Baptiste, 1267. 
 
 
 Joppa, 1198. 
 
 Ketlenbach, Heinrich von, 1241. 
 
 Labbc, Philippe, 1208. 
 
 
 Jordan, the, 1199. 
 
 Keys, the Power of tlic, 1241. 
 
 La Chaise, F'ranqois de, 1268. 
 
 
 Joris, Johann David, 1199. 
 
 Klian. See Inn. 
 
 Lachish, 1268. 
 
 
 Jortin, John, 1199. 
 
 KhIesI, Mclchoir, 1243. 
 
 Lachmann, Karl, 1268. 
 
 
 Joseelin, 1199. 
 
 Kidroii. See Kedron. 
 
 Lacordaire, Jean Baptiste Henri, 
 
 1263. 
 
 Joseph, 1199. 
 
 Kief, 1244. 
 
 Lacroix, John Power, 1268. 
 
 
 Joseph II., 1209. 
 
 Kierkegaard, Siiren Aaby, 1244. 
 
 Lactantius Firmianiis, 1269. 
 
 
 Joseph of Ariniathffia, 1201. 
 
 Kilham, Alexander, 1244. 
 
 Lacticinia, 1269. 
 
 
 Joaepliinism. Sec Joseph II. 
 
 Kilian, St., 1244. 
 
 Laelare Sunday, 1209. 
 
 
 Josephus, Flavins, 1291. 
 
 Kimehi, 1244. 
 
 Laliteau, Joseph Francjois, 7269. 
 
 
 Joshua, 1202. 
 
 King, John, 1245. 
 
 Laidlie, Archibald, 1209. 
 
 
 Joeliua, Book of, 1203. 
 
 King, Jonas, 1245. 
 
 Lainez, lago, 1269. 
 
 
 Joshua, Spurious Bool: of, 120X 
 
 King, Thora.as Starr, 1245. 
 
 Laity, 1270. 
 
 
 Josiah, 12U3. 
 
 King, William, 1245. 
 
 Lamaism, 1270. 
 
 
 Jost, Isaac Marcus, 1204. 
 
 Kingdom of God, the, 1246. 
 
 Lamb of God. See Agnus Dei. 
 
 
 Jotham, 1204. 
 
 Kingly Office of Christ. See Jesus 
 
 Lambert of Hersfeid, 1270. 
 
 
 Jovianus, B'lavius Cl.audlus, 1204. 
 
 Christ, Three Offices of. 
 
 Lambert, FraiiQois, 1271. 
 
 
 Joviiiian, 1204. 
 
 Kingo, Thom.as, 1247. 
 
 Lambetli Articles. See Arliclce 
 
 , I-jim- 
 
 Jubilee, Year of, among the Hebrews. 
 
 Kings of Israel, the, 1247. 
 
 betli. 
 
 
 See Sabbatical Year. 
 
 Kings, First and Second Book of, 1249. 
 
 Lambrnschini, Lnigi, 1271. 
 
 
 Jubilee, or Jubilee Year, 1205. 
 
 King's Evil, 1250. 
 
 Lainech. See Cain. 
 
 
 Jubilees, Book of. Bee Pseudepigraphs, 
 
 Kingsley, Calvin, 12.50. 
 
 Lamennais, Ungues F^licitu Itobert dc. 
 
 Old Testament. 
 
 Kingsley, Charles, 1250. 
 
 1271. 
 
 
 Jud, 1205. 
 
 Kippis, -Vndrew, 1251. 
 
 Lamentations, 1271. 
 
 
 Judaja, 1205. 
 
 Kir. 1251. 
 
 L;inii, Bernard, 1272. 
 
 
 Jlnlah, 1206. 
 
 Kirchentag. 1251. 
 
 Lammas. Day, or Lammas-Tide, 1 
 
 272. 
 
 Judah, Kingdom of. See Israel. 
 
 Kircher, Athanasius, 1251. 
 
 Lampe, Fricdrlch Adolf, 1272. 
 
 
 fludah, Ti-ibe of. See Tribes of Israel. 
 
 Kirchhofer, Mclchior, 1251. 
 
 Lampetians. See Mcssalians. 
 
 
 Judaizers. See Jewish Christians. 
 
 Kirk. Edward Norris, 1252. 
 
 Lance, the Holy, 1272. 
 
 
 Judas, 1206. 
 
 Kirkland, Samuel, 1252. 
 
 I-auccIotl, Joannes Paulus, 1273. 
 
 
 Judas Iscariot, 1206. 
 
 Kii khiiul, John Thoruton, 12.52. 
 
 Landcrer, Maximilian Albert von 
 
 12T3- 
 
 Judas of Oalilee, 1207. 
 
 Kirk-Se.<sion, 1252. 
 
 Lando, 1273. 
 
 
 Judas Maccabieus. See Maccabee. 
 
 Ivirwan, Walter Blake, 12-52. 
 
 Lane Theological Seminary, 1273 
 
 
 Jude, the Kpiotle of, 1207. 
 
 Kishon, 1252. 
 
 Lanfranc, 1274. 

 
 XXX 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Lanfr, Heinricli, 1275. 
 
 J^iiig, John Dunmore, 1275. 
 
 Langf, JuJichiin, 1275, 
 
 Ijinit,Mn, John, 1276. 
 
 Langrt'B, Synod of, 1276. 
 
 Langton, 6if|>ln;n, 1276. 
 
 Languct, Hubert, 1276. 
 
 Laodicea, 1277. 
 
 Laodict-a, ibu Kpietle from, 1277. 
 
 L-ios, 1277. 
 
 Lao-i6ze, 1277. 
 
 I*-iplace, Josue de. See Placeeus. ^ 
 
 Lapland. See Sweden, Thomas of Wcs- 
 ten. 
 
 Lapse, 127S. 
 
 Lapsed, Ihe, 1278. 
 
 Lardner, Nathaniel. 1279. 
 
 La Salle, Jean Baptiste de, 1279. 
 
 La Sauesaye, Duniul Chantepic de, 1279. 
 
 Jjiia Catas. See Casas. 
 
 X^asitius, Johannes, 1279. 
 
 Lasco, Johannes a, 1279. 
 
 Latemn Church and Councils, 12S0. 
 
 I^lhrop, Joseph. 12S0. 
 
 Latimer. Ihmh, 12S0. 
 
 Latin Lani:uagc, Use of the, in the Chris- 
 tian Church, 12S1. 
 
 Latin Verf^iuns. See Bible Vertsions. 
 
 Latitudinarians, 1282. 
 
 LalomuB, Jacobus, 1282. 
 
 LatonuKu, Barlholomaeus, 12S2. 
 
 Latter-TJav Saints. See Mormons, 
 
 Laud. William. 1282. 
 
 J>aunay, I'icrre de, 1286. 
 
 Liiunoi, Jean de, 1286. 
 
 Iniura, I2S6. 
 
 Uiurentius, St., 12S6. 
 
 I>aurentiu8 (antipope), 128G. 
 
 1-iurentius Valla, 12S6. 
 
 Kivaier, Juhann Kaspar, 1287. 
 
 l--iver. 12H8. 
 
 l«a\v of Mosee. See Moses, Thorah. 
 
 Iaiw, Niitural. See Natural Law. 
 
 l^iw, William, 1288. 
 
 Ijiy Abbots. See Abbots. 
 
 Ijjiy Kaptirtin. Pee Baptism. 
 
 ]*ay Brothers. Sec Mouasticism. 
 
 l*iy (Communion, 1288. 
 
 J.^iy rreachini?, 1288. 
 
 l^-iy Ilepresentation, 1289. 
 
 l^yinti on uf Hands. See Imposition. 
 Hands. 
 
 I<nzaritit8, 1290. 
 
 ]x.'Hdc, Jane, 1290. 
 
 Leaders, and Leaders' and Stewards' 
 MeetinKs, 1290. 
 
 l^ander, St., 1290. 
 
 Leander van Ess. See Eas, van. 
 
 Iveavcn, 1290. 
 
 lA-aviil, Joshua, 1291. 
 
 I-ebanon, 1291. 
 
 lA-hliajus. See Judas. 
 
 I^ehrija, .^lius Antoulus do, 1291. 
 
 lA:buin, or Liafwiii, 1291. 
 
 J^H-ccne, Charles, 1291. 
 
 iAi Clerc, Jean. See (;icricu8. 
 
 J<eetern, or Ix-cturn, 1292. 
 
 lx,>ctlonarieK, 1292. 
 
 lyuetor, 1292. 
 
 1.4-ctur<-i«, Ix'clnre Courses. See Bamp- 
 um, Boyle, llulttcan, etc., and Appen- 
 dix. 
 
 Ix-'e, Ann, 1292. 
 
 Lee, Jesse, 1293. 
 
 Ixe. Samuel, 1293. 
 
 1^ Kcvre. Sec Kabcr StapulensU. 
 
 Ia'KiUvh and Nuncios in the Koman- 
 Catholic Church, 1293. 
 
 IjC|;end, 1294. 
 
 Ix-Kenda Aurca. Bee Jacobus do Vora- 
 ffine. 
 
 Ix'tfcr, Jean, 1294. 
 
 LtkIo Kulniltiatrix. Bee Legion, ThuQ- 
 4lerinK- 
 
 Ix.'Kiun, tlic Thcban, 1294. 
 
 Legion, the Thundering, 1295. 
 
 Leibnitz, Gottfried Wilhclm, 1295. 
 
 Leigh, Edward, 1296. 
 
 Leighton, Robert, 1296. 
 
 Leipzig, the Colloquy of, 1298. 
 
 Leipzig Disputation. See Eck, Karl- 
 6l4idt, Luther. 
 
 Leipzig Interim, the, 1299. 
 
 Leland", John, 1299. 
 
 Lelong, Jacques, 1209. 
 
 Le Maitre, Louis Isaac, 1299. 
 
 Lenfant, Jacques, 12yy. 
 
 Lent, 1299. 
 
 Lentulus, Epistle of. Sec Christ, Pic- 
 lures of. 
 
 Leo (popesl, 1299. 
 
 Leon, Luis de, 1304. 
 
 Leoiitius of Byzantium, 1304. 
 
 Leonlius of I^eapolis. See Lcontiue of 
 Byzantium. 
 
 Leprosy, 1304. 
 
 Lerins, Convent of, 1307. 
 
 Lesley, John, 1307. 
 
 Leslie, Charles, 1307. 
 
 Less, Gottfried, 1308. 
 'Lessing, Gotlhold Ei)hraim, 1308. 
 
 Lessius, Leonhard, 1309. 
 
 Lestinee, Synod of, 1309. 
 
 Leusden, Joliannes, 1309. 
 
 Levi. Sec Tribes of Israel. 
 
 Leviathan, 1309. 
 
 Levirate Marriage, 1309. 
 
 Levites, 1310. 
 
 Leviticus. See Pentateuch. 
 
 Lewis, Tayler, 1312. 
 
 Leydecker, Melchior, 1312. 
 
 Leyden, John of. See Bockhold. 
 
 Leyser. Polykarp, 1313. 
 
 Liaswin. See Lebuin. 
 
 Libanius, 1313. 
 
 Libellatici. See I.^i>8i. 
 
 Libelli Pacis. See I^apei. 
 
 Liber Diurnus Xtomanorura Pontilicura, 
 1313. 
 
 Liber Pontificalie, 1313. 
 
 Liber Sextus. See Canon Law. 
 
 Liberia, 1314. 
 
 Libcrius, 1314. 
 
 Libertines, 1315. 
 
 Liberty, Religious, 1316. 
 
 Libri Carolini. See Caroline Books. 
 
 License, 1318. 
 
 Lichfield, 1319. 
 
 Liebner, Karl Theodor Albert, 1319. 
 
 Lightfoot, John, 1319. 
 
 Lights, the Ceremonial Use of, 1320. 
 
 Liguori, Alfonso Maria da, 1320. 
 
 Ligure. 1321. 
 
 Lillie, John, 1321. 
 
 Lily, 1321. 
 
 Limboreh, Philipp van, 1321. 
 
 Limbus, or Limbo, 1322. 
 
 Lincoln, 1322. 
 
 Llndsey, Theophilus, 1322. 
 
 Lindsley, Philip, 1322. 
 
 Linen, 1322. 
 
 Lingard, John, 1822. 
 
 Linus, 1323. 
 
 Linz, the Peace of, 1323. 
 
 Lions, 1323. 
 
 Liptines. See Lcstines. 
 
 Litany, 1323. 
 
 Literos Formato?, 1324. 
 
 Lithuania. See IluHsia. 
 
 ijturgicH. Sec Woisldp. 
 
 Liturgy, 1324. See also Praycr-Book. 
 
 Liudgcrus, St., 1329. 
 
 Liudprnnd, 1330. 
 
 Liverpool, 1330. 
 
 LivingNion, John Henry, 13.30. 
 
 Livingstone. David, 13:m. 
 
 Llorenie, Dun Juan Antonio, 1332. 
 
 Lloyd. William, 1332. 
 
 I.^)bo, Jeronlmo, 1332. 
 
 Lubwasser, Ambrosius, 1332. 
 
 Local Preachers, 1332. 
 
 Loci Theologici, 1332. 
 
 Locke, John, 1333. 
 
 Locust, 1334. 
 
 Lodenstein, Jodokus von, 1335. 
 
 Loijn, Juhann Michael von, 1335. 
 
 Logan, John, 1335. 
 
 Logos, 1335. 
 
 Liihe, Juhann Konrad Wilhelm, 1336. 
 
 Lollards, 1337, 
 
 Lombards, the, 1341. 
 
 Lombardus, Petrus, 1341. 
 
 Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 1342. 
 
 Lunyobards. Seo Lombards. 
 
 Lord, 1342. 
 
 Lord, Nathan. 1343. 
 
 Lord's Day, 1343. 
 
 Lord's Prayer, the, 1343. 
 
 Ix)rd'6 Supper, 1344. 
 
 Lord's Supper, Controversies respecting. 
 
 See Bereiigar, Lanfranc, Paschasius 
 
 R;idbertus, J.,uthei-, Zwingli, etc. 
 Loreto, or Loretto, 1352. 
 Lorimer, Peter, 1352. 
 Loscher, Valentin Ernst, 1353. 
 Lot, 1353. 
 Lot, the Use of the, among the Hebrews, 
 
 1353. 
 Lotze, Hermann Rudolf, 1354, 
 Louis, St., 1354. 
 -Love, 1355. 
 
 Love. Family of. See Faniilista. 
 Love-Feasts. See Agape. 
 Love, Christopher, 1355. 
 Low Church, 1356. 
 Lowder, Cliarlus Fuge, 1356. 
 Lowell, John, 1357. 
 Lowman, Moses, 1357. 
 Low-Sunday, 1357. 
 Lowth, Robert. 1357. 
 Lowth, William, 1357. 
 Loyola. See Ignatius Loyola. 
 Lucian the Martyr, 1357. 
 Lueian of Samosata, 1358. , 
 
 Lucidus, 1358. 
 Lucifer, 1358. 
 
 Lucifer and the Luciferlans, 1358. 
 Lucius (popes), 1350. 
 Liieke, Gottfried Christian Friedrlch, 
 
 1359. 
 Lud, 1359. 
 
 Ludgerus. Sec Liudgerua. 
 Luditu. See Lud. 
 Ludlow, John, 1359. 
 Ludolf, Hiob, 1359. 
 Luitprand. See Liutprand. 
 Lukaa of Tuy, 1359. 
 Luke, 1359. 
 Luiceof Prague, 13G2. 
 Lullus, 1302. 
 
 Lullufl, lUyniundus, 1362. 
 Luna, Peter de. See Benedict XIII. 
 Lupus, Servatup, 1363. 
 Luther, Martin, 1303. 
 Luther's Two Catechisms, 1369. 
 Lutheran C-hurch (in Europe), 1370. 
 Lutheran Church (in tlic United Stales), 
 
 1372. 
 Lutherans, Separate, i;".70. 
 Lutz, Juhann Ludwig Samuel, 1377. 
 Lutz, Samuel, 1377. 
 Luz, 1377. 
 Lycaunia, 1377. 
 Lycia, i:;77. 
 Lydda, 1377. 
 Lydia. See Lud. 
 Lydius, Martin, 1377. 
 LydiUB, Ballhasar, 1377. 
 Lyon, Mary, 1377. 
 Lyra, Nlcolaus de. 1378. 
 LyHaniiiri. See Abilene. 
 Lystra, 137K. 
 
 Lyte, Henry FrancU. 1378. 
 Lyttlyt*jn. George, 137«. 
 
 VOLUJIE III. 
 
 M. 
 
 Mnbllinn, .Tcun, 137(1. 
 MH<!iiniui.. Hve MiicnriliB (IV.)* 
 M;iciiiii. (1-1), i;;;ii. 
 
 Mii(:l>i'i<lL', .lolin UuvlJ, 1.170. 
 
 MuccHbtM-A, 1:t70. 
 
 MiuurHbi'L'H, Uuuk. of. Hcc Apocr^'pha. 
 
 MaccabcpB, Fcstlvnl of tlic, 13SI, 
 MaccovluH, .TdiiiitirH, Vim. 
 Maccdo, Antonio, 1^81. 
 Miiccdo, KriiMciMCu, 1^1. 
 Miiccdonlii, l;)81. 
 Miicijdi>nluH, I»81. 
 Miichipl'uit, I^1H2. 
 MacUulo, Jubn, 1382. 
 
 Miiclipcluli, 1.182. 
 
 Mui-k.'iizb., Clmrlcii Frederick, 13S2. 
 
 M:ickiilKlil, .liunen, MK;,!. 
 
 Miieliiurin. .loliii, 13S'.>. 
 
 Miiele<i<l, Noniiiili, 13N3. 
 
 Mm'iU'lle. Hugh, 1383. 
 
 MAeun, l:W3. 
 
 Mudugtuicar, 1364.
 
 INDKX. 
 
 Maduiinn, 1384. 
 
 MiiftVi, Fiiiiic'CBCO Scipioiip, 1384. 
 
 MailVi, Gioviiniii Pietro, 1384. 
 
 Miirtci, Vegio, 1385. 
 
 MiigiiriUi, Magarites, 1385. 
 
 Wagdala, 138/). 
 
 Magdalen, Order of, 1385. 
 
 Magoe, Willimn, 1385. 
 
 Magi, 1385. 
 
 Magic, 1386. 
 
 Magister Sacri Palatii, 1386. 
 
 Magiiilicat, 1386. 
 
 MagnuB, 1386. 
 
 Magog. See Gog and Magog. 
 
 Mnhan, Miio, 1386. 
 
 Mahaiiaim, 1387. 
 
 MahoniL't. St,-e Mohammed. 
 
 Mai. Angelo, 1387. 
 
 Maillard, Olivier, 1387. 
 
 Mainibourg, Louis, 1387. 
 
 Maiiuuuidcs, Moees, 1387. 
 
 Maistre, Count Marie Joseph de, 1388. 
 
 Maitland, San:iuel Roffey, 1388. 
 
 Major, 1389. 
 
 Majorini Pars. See Donatists. 
 
 Majoriftiic Controversy. See Major. 
 
 Makemie, B'rancia, 1389. 
 
 Makriiia. 1389. 
 
 Makowsky, Johann. See Maccoviua. 
 
 Mahicbi, 1389. 
 
 Malachy, St., 1390. 
 
 MaLikanes, 1301. 
 
 Malan, Cesar Henn Abraham, 1391. 
 
 Mnl.iy Archipelago, 1391. 
 
 Malcom, Howard, 1392. 
 
 Maldonatus, Joannes, 1392. 
 
 Malebranche, Nicolas, 1392. 
 
 Malmesbury, William of. See ■William 
 of Malmcsbury. 
 
 Malvenda, Thomas, 1392. 
 
 Mamachi, Thomas Maria, 1393. 
 
 Mamertus. See Ilogalions. 
 
 Mamertus Claudianus. See Claudianus. 
 
 Mammon, 1393. 
 
 Mamre, 1393. 
 
 Man, 1393. 
 
 Manasselj, 1395. 
 
 Manasseh, Prayer of. See Apocrypha. 
 
 Manasseh, Tribe of. See Tribes of IS' 
 rael. 
 
 Mandseans. See Mendaeans. 
 
 Mandeville, Bernard de, 1395. 
 
 Mandrake, 1395. 
 
 Mandyas, 1395. 
 
 Manetho, 1395. 
 
 Mangey, Thomas, 1395. 
 
 Mani. See Manichaeiam. 
 
 ManichseiKm. 1396. 
 
 Maniple, 1398. 
 
 Manna, 1398. 
 
 Manning, James, 1398. 
 
 Manse, 1398. 
 
 Manscl. Henry Longuevillc, 1398. 
 
 Mansi, Giovanni Dominico, 1399. 
 
 Mant, Iliehard, 1399. 
 
 Manton, Thomas, 1399. 
 
 Manuel, Niklaiis, 1400. 
 
 Manuscripts. See Bible-Text- 
 Maori. See New Zealand. 
 
 Mappa, UitO. 
 
 Marah, 1400. 
 
 Maranatha, 1400. 
 
 Marunos, 1400. 
 
 Maranus, Prudentius, 1400. 
 
 Marbaeh, Johann, 1400. 
 
 Marburg Bible, the, 1400. 
 
 Marburg, (.'unfcreiice of, 1400. 
 
 Marbury, Kdward, 1401. 
 
 Marca, Petrus de, 1401. 
 
 Marcellians and Mareellinists, 1401. 
 
 Marcellinus, 1401. 
 
 Mareellus (popes), 1401. 
 
 Mareellus (1-5J, 1401. 
 
 Mareellus, 1402. 
 
 Marchetti, Giovanni, 1402. 
 
 Marciun, 1402. 
 
 Marcus, 1403. 
 
 Marcus Aurelius, 1403. 
 
 Marcus Eremita, 1403. 
 
 Marcus Eugeuicus, 1404. 
 
 Maresius, Jean de. See Desmnret*. 
 
 MarcHius, Samuel. See Dcsniarets. 
 
 Maru':irct's Day, St., 1404. 
 
 Mar^raiila, 1404. 
 
 M:ii-oli,Mnh, Moses, 1404. 
 
 MailR-iiieke, Philipp Konrad, 1404. 
 
 Mari;iiniii', 14O0. 
 
 Uuiiana, Juan, 1405. 
 
 Marianists, 1405. 
 
 Mariazell, 14U5. 
 
 Marie a la (.-'uque, 1405. 
 
 MariiiUB (i)ope«), 1405. 
 
 Mariolatry. See Mary. 
 
 Marius of Aventicuni, 1406. 
 
 MariuM Mercator, 1406. 
 
 Mark, 1406. 
 
 Mark's Day, St., 1408. 
 
 Marlorat, AugUKlin, 1408. 
 
 Marnix, Philii)p van, 1409. 
 
 Maronites^ 1409. 
 
 Marot, ('lenient, 1411. 
 
 Marriage, 1411, 
 
 Marriage among the Tlehrcwn, 1415. 
 
 Marriott, Wharton Booth, 1416. 
 
 Marrow Contioverwy, 1416. 
 
 Marsay, Charles Hector de St. George, 
 
 Marquis de, 1417. 
 Marsden, Samuel, 1417. 
 Mars' Hill, 1417. 
 Marsh, Herbert. 1417. 
 Marsh, James, 1417. 
 Marshall. Su-phen, 1417. 
 Marshniaii, Jnsluia, 1418. 
 MarsiliUH PaUivimis, 1418. 
 Marlene. E.iMiond, 1419. 
 Martiaiiay, Jean, 1419. 
 Martin (popes), 1419. 
 Martin ot Braga or Duniia, 1420. 
 Martin of Tours, St., 1420. 
 Martin, David, 1420. 
 Mailin Marprelate Controversy, the, 
 
 1420. 
 Martin, Sarah, 1421. 
 Marlinalia. See Mai'tiniliaB. 
 Martinius, Mntlhia>. 1421. 
 Martinmas, l-'e^lival of, 1421. 
 Martyn, Henry, 1421. 
 Martyr and Confesr-oi-, 1422. 
 Martyrs, the Forty, 1422. 
 Maruthas, 1422. 
 Mary, 14:^:;. 
 Mary (Tudor), Queen. See England, 
 
 Church of. 
 Masada, 1425. 
 
 Masch, Andreas Golllicb, 1425. 
 Mabou, Erskine, 1420. 
 Ma&oM, Francis, 1425, 
 Mason, John, 1425. 
 Masun, Jolm Milcliell, 1425. 
 Mason, Lowell, 1420. 
 Masorah. See Massora. 
 Mass, the, 1426. 
 Massa Candida, 1429. 
 Massalians. See Messaliane, 1429. 
 Massillon, Jean Bap^i^te, 142;i. 
 Massiiigberd, Francis Charles, 1430. 
 Massora, 1430. 
 Mass-Priests, 1431. 
 Massuet, Kene, 1431. 
 Matamoros, Manuel, 1431. 
 Mater Dolorosa, 1431. 
 Materialism, 1431. 
 MaternuB, Julius Firmicus, 1433, 
 Mather, Richard, 14;i3. 
 Mather, Samuel, 1433. 
 Mather, Nathaniel, 1433. 
 Mather, Eleazer, 1433. 
 Mather, Increase, 1433. 
 Mather, Cotton, 1434. 
 Mathesius, Johann, 14.34. 
 Maihew, Theobald, 14:^14. 
 Mathilda, Couutesw of Tuscany, 1436. 
 Mathurins. See Trinitarian Brothers. 
 Malins. See Canonical Hours. 
 Matter, Jacques, 1435. 
 Matthew, 1435. 
 
 Matthew Blaatarc?. See Blastares. 
 Matthew's Day, St., 1437. 
 Matthew of Bassi. See Capuchins. 
 Matthew of Paris, 1437. 
 Matthew of Westminster, 1437. 
 Matthew of York, 1437. 
 Matthew, Thomas. See English Bible 
 
 Versions, and Rogers, Juhn. 
 Malllhesen. See Bockhold. 
 Maulhroim, 1437. 
 Maimdy Thursday, 14.3S. 
 Maur, Congregation of St., 1438. 
 Maurice of Sa.Kony, 1439. 
 Maurice, John Frederic Doniscm, 1439. 
 Mauritius. See Legion, the Thebaic. 
 Maiirns, 1440. 
 Maury, Jean Siffrein, 1440. 
 Maxeiitius. See Conslanline. 
 Maximilian H., 1441. 
 Maximinus 'J'hrax, 1441. 
 
 Maximus Confessor, 1441. 
 
 Maxinius, 1443. 
 
 Maxwell, Lady Darcy, 144.1. 
 
 May, Samuel Juseph, 1443. 
 
 Mayence. 1443. 
 
 Mayer, Johann Frlcdrich, 1443. 
 
 Mayer, Lewis, 1444. 
 
 Mayhew, Experience, 1444. 
 
 Maylu'W, Jonathan, 1444. 
 
 Mayuooth, 1444. 
 
 Ma/.arin, .Tules, 1444. 
 
 Mazaiine Bible, the, 1444. 
 
 M'All Mission in Paris, 1444. 
 
 Mc(Jaul, Alexander, 1445. 
 
 McAuley, Catharine E.. 1445. 
 
 Mc(?heync Robert Murray, 1445. 
 
 McCleriand, Alexander, 1440. 
 
 McClintock, John, 144fi. 
 
 McCiure, Alexander Wilson, 1447. 
 
 McCrie, Thomas, 1447. 
 
 McCrie, Thomas, jun., 1447. 
 
 McDowell, John, 1447. 
 
 McDowell, William Anderson, 1448. 
 
 Mcllvaine, Charles Petlit. 1448. 
 
 McKendree, William, 1450. 
 
 McLeod, .Mexander, 1450. 
 
 McVickar, John, 1450. 
 
 McWhorter, Alexander, 1450. 
 
 Meade, William, 1450. 
 
 Meals and Banquets among the Hebrews, 
 
 1451. 
 Means of Grace, 1451. 
 Measures. See Weights and Mt-asuren. 
 Meat, Meat Ollerings, 1452. 
 Mecca, 1452. 
 Mechitar, Mechitarists. See Mekhita- 
 
 rists. 
 Mechthildis of Hackeborn, 1452. 
 Mechthildis of Magdeburg, 1452. 
 Mecklenburg, 1452. 
 Medardus, St., 1452. 
 Mede, Joseph, 1453. 
 Medes. See Mcdii. 
 Medhurst, Walter Henry, 1453. 
 Media, 1453. 
 
 Mediator, Mediation, 1454. 
 Medicine of the Hebrews, 1454. 
 Medinah, 1456. 
 Medler, Nikoiaus. 1456. 
 Meeting. See Friends. 
 Meg;mdor, Kaspar, 1456. 
 Megapoleiisis, Joannes, 1456, 
 Me^iddo, 1457. 
 Meisn.-r. B.iUhasar, 1457. 
 Mrkhit:insts, the, 1457. 
 i\I.-l;tm-hth.,n, Philipp, 1457. 
 Melchiades, or Miltiades, 1402. 
 Melchiles, 1462. 
 Mclchizcdck. 1462. 
 Meldenius, Rupcrtus, 1463. 
 Melctian Schism. See Mclethis of Anti- 
 
 och and Meletius of I^ycopolis. 
 Meletius of Antioch, 1463. 
 Meletius of Lycopolis, 1463. 
 Melita, 1464. 
 Melito of Sardcs. 1464. 
 Melvill, Henry, 1464. 
 Melville, Andrew, 1464. 
 Memi)his. See Noph. 
 Men of Understanding, 1466. 
 Meneea, or Menaion, 1466. 
 Menahem, 1466. 
 Menander, 1467. 
 
 MenilEeans.orChristlansofSt. John, 1467. 
 Mendelssohn, Moses, 1469. 
 Mendicant Orders, or Begging Friars, 
 
 1469. 
 Meni. 1470. 
 Meiiius, Justus, 1470. 
 Menken, Gottfried, 1470. 
 Meniias, 1470. 
 Menmi Simons. 1470. 
 Meiinunites, 1471. 
 Menologion, 14T2. 
 Menot, Michel, 1472. 
 Menses Papales, 1473. 
 Menlzer, Balthasar, 1473. 
 Mercersburg Theology, 1473. 
 Mercy. 1475. 
 Mercv, Sisters of, or Order of Our Uady 
 
 of Mercv, 1476. 
 Mercy-Seat. See Ark of the Covenani. 
 Meribab. 1476. 
 
 Meritum de Condicno, de Congrno, 14.(1 
 Merle d'Aubigne, Jean Henri, 1476. 
 Merudach. 1477. 
 Merndach-Baladan, 1477. 
 Merom, Waters of, 1477.
 
 xxxu 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Merewin, Rulman. See Rulraan Mere- 
 win. 
 Mesopotamia, 1478. 
 Mesrob, or M;ishto2, 1478. 
 Mees-ilians, 147S. 
 
 Messiah, Messianic Prophecy, 1479. 
 McBtrezal, Jean, 14S4. 
 Metals in the Bible, 1484. 
 Mctnplirnsites, Simeon, 1484. 
 Meth. Ezechiel. and Stiefel, Esaias, 14S4. 
 Methodism, 1485. 
 Metliodism in America, 14S9. 
 Methodius (bishop), 1494. 
 Methodius. See Cyrillus and Methodius. 
 Methodology, 1494. 
 Metrophanes Critopolus, 1495. 
 Metropohtan, 1495. 
 Mcusel, Wolfgang. See Museulus. 
 Mexico, 1495. 
 
 Meyer, Ileinrich Autjiist Wilhclm, 1496. 
 Meyer, Johann Friedrich von. 1497. 
 Mcyfart, or May fart, Johann MalLbaus, 
 
 1497. 
 Mezuzah, 1498. 
 
 Mezzofnnti, Giuseppe Caspar, 1498. 
 Micah, 1498. 
 Michael, 1499. 
 
 Michael Palieologus. See Caerularius. 
 Michael VIIL, 1499. 
 Michael Scotus. Sec Scotns, Michael. 
 Michaeiis, Johann Heiiirich, 1500. 
 Michachs, Christian Bencdikt, 1500. 
 Michaeiis, Johann David, 1500. 
 Michaelmas, 15U0. 
 Middle Age, the, 1500. 
 Middlcton, Conyers. 1503. 
 Middlcton, Thomas Fanshaw, 1504. 
 Midian, 1504. 
 Midrash, 1504. 
 Migne, Jacques Paul, 1507. 
 Mikkelscn, Hans. 1507. 
 Milan, the Churcli of, 1507. 
 Mildraay Conference, 1508. 
 Miletus, 1508. 
 Milicz of Kremeicr, 1508. 
 Military Religious Orders, 1509. 
 Mill, John, 1513. 
 Mill, John Smart, 1513. 
 Millcdoler, Philip, 1514. 
 Millenarianism, 1514. 
 Millenary Petition, 1516. 
 Millennium. See Millenarianism. 
 Miller, Hugh, 1517. 
 Miller. Samuel, 1517. 
 Miller, William, 1517. 
 Milleriles. See AdvcnliBts. 
 Millit nmonj? the Hebrews, 1517. 
 Mills, Samuel John. 1517. 
 Milman, Henry Hart, 1518. 
 Milner, Joseph, 1518. 
 Milner, Inaac, 1518, 
 Milnor, James, 1519. 
 Miltiades, 1510. 
 
 Miliiades. Pope. Sec Melchlades. 
 
 Miititz. Sec Luther. 
 
 Milton. John, 1519. 
 
 Minims, the Order of, 1520. 
 
 Mining Operations of the Hebrews. Bee 
 Melals. 
 
 Minif^ler. Ministry. See Clerev. 
 
 MinUterial Education. See Education, 
 MiniHterial. 
 
 MlnlKterium, 1-520. 
 
 Minor Canons, 1520. 
 
 Minor I'rophelM, the, l.'i20. 
 
 Minorlteii. See Franclhcann. 
 
 MInuclun Felix, Marcus, 1521. 
 
 Mlracle-riavK. See Kuligious Dramas. 
 
 Miracles, 1521. 
 
 Mirucles. Hlmorlcal View of, 1525. 
 
 Miraiidula. Giovanni Pico delta, 1527. 
 
 Miserere, 1527. 
 
 Mishna, 1527. 
 
 Mlssa. See Ma^s. 
 
 Mlsna C'nleehuinenorum and Mlssa Fids- 
 Hum, 1527. 
 
 MiKiut I'rwHnnrtincatoruro, 1527. 
 
 MlBsa Sicca, 1.527. 
 
 MlMal, \:>'2H. 
 
 Mlsnlon. 1528. 
 
 MIsKJon, Inner. See Inner Mission. 
 
 MlMion.SchoolK, 1528. 
 
 MiiNtons, Protestant, amongthc licathce, 
 lf»28. 
 
 Mil*'. 1539. 
 
 Mil re. 1539. 
 
 Mixed Marriages, flee Mnrringc. 
 
 Mixed Multitude, 1539. 
 
 Mizpah, or Mizpeh, 1539. 
 
 Mizpeh of Gilead, 1539. 
 
 Mizpah of Benjamin, 1589. 
 
 Moab, 1539. 
 
 Modalism, 1541. 
 
 Moderates, 1541. 
 
 Moderator, 1541. 
 
 Moffat, Mary, l.Ml. 
 
 Mogilas, Peter, 1541. 
 
 Mohammed, Mohammedanism, 1541. 
 
 Mohler, Johann Adam, 1545. 
 
 Molanus, Gerhardt Walthcr, 154.5. 
 
 Molanus, Jan, 1545. 
 
 Molech, or Moloch, 1545. 
 
 Molina, Luis, 1546. 
 
 Molinos, Miguel de, 1546. 
 
 Moll. Willcm. 1547. 
 
 Moller, or Moller, 1547. 
 
 Molokani, the, 1547. 
 
 Momiers, or Mummers, 1548. 
 
 Monarchianism, 1548. 
 
 Mona-stery, 1551. 
 
 Monasticism. See Monastery. 
 
 Money among the llebreww, 1555. 
 
 Mongols, Christianity among tlie, l^'jQ, 
 
 Monheim, Johannes, 1557. 
 
 Monica, or Monnica, 1557. 
 
 Monod, Adolphe. 1557. 
 
 Monod, Frederic, 1558. 
 
 Monogram of Christ. See Chrit-t, Mono- 
 gram of. 
 
 Monophysites. 1558. 
 
 Monolhelites, 1559. 
 
 Monstrance, 1560. 
 
 Montaigne, Michel Eyqnem de, 1560. 
 
 MonUlembcrt, Charles Forbes Kon£, 
 Count de, 1561. 
 
 Montanisni, 1561. 
 
 Monte Casino, 1562. 
 
 Monies Pietalis. 1563. 
 
 Montesquieu, Charles deSerondnt, Baron 
 de, 1563. 
 
 Montfaucon, Bernard de, 1563. 
 
 Montfort, Simon de, lo6o. 
 
 Montgomery, James, 1563. 
 
 Montgomery, Robert, 1564. 
 
 Monumental Theology, 1564. 
 
 Monuments, 1565. 
 
 Moon, the, 1565. 
 
 Moore, Clement Clarke, 1565. 
 
 Moore, Henry, 1565. 
 
 Moors. Sec Spain. 
 
 Mondities. Sec Religious Dramas. 
 
 Moral Law, 1566. 
 
 Moral Philosophy, 1566. 
 
 Moral Theology. See Casuistry. 
 
 Moravian Church. 1567. 
 
 More, Hannah, Miss, 1571. 
 
 More, Henry, l.'>71. 
 
 More, Sir Thomas, 1572. 
 
 Morel, Jean, 1573. 
 
 Morel, or Morelli, Jean Bapliste, 1573. 
 
 Morel. Robert. 1-573. 
 
 Morclstsliiki, 1574. 
 
 MordTi, Louis, 1574. 
 
 Morgan, Thomas, 1574. 
 
 Morganatic Marriages, Iw74, 
 
 Moriah, 1574. 
 
 Morigia, Jncobo Antonio de. See Bar 
 nabites. 
 
 Morikofi-r, Johann Kaspar, 1574. 
 
 Morin, Ktienue. 1574. 
 
 Morin, Jean, 1574. 
 
 Morlsonians. See Evangelical Union. 
 
 Morley, George, 1574. 
 
 Murlin, Joachim, 1575. 
 
 Mormons, 1575. 
 
 Morning Lectures, 1581. 
 Morocco, 15S1. 
 
 Morono, Giovanni de, 1581. 
 
 Morris, Thomas Ashnry, 1582. 
 
 Morrison, Robert, 15.S2. 
 
 Morse, Jede<llah, 15S2. 
 
 Morse, Sidney Edward, 1.583. 
 
 Morse, Richard Cary, 158;;. 
 
 Morse, Samuel Finley IJreeso, 1583. 
 
 Mortar. See Mills. 
 
 Mortification. 1583. 
 
 Mortmain, 15i^3. 
 
 Morton, John, 1.583. 
 
 Morton, Nallumiel, 1583. 
 
 Morton, Thomas, 1583. 
 
 Mortuaiv. 1583. 
 
 Morua,f^amuel Friedrich Nathnnael, 1683. 
 
 Mosaic I>uw. See Decalogue, Moses. 
 
 MoHclius, •Johannes, 158^1. 
 
 Mosen, 1.581. 
 
 Moses ChorenenslM. 1580. 
 
 Moshcim, Johann Lorenz von, 1536. 
 
 Mosque, 15S7. 
 
 Mount Hulyokc Female Seminary, l.VSa 
 
 Mourning among the Hebrews, 1588. 
 
 Moyer's Lectures, 1589. 
 
 Mozarabic Liturgy, 1589. 
 
 Mozley, James Bowling, 1590. 
 
 Mucddin, or Muezzin, 1590. 
 
 Mufti, 1590. 
 
 Muggletonians, 1590. 
 
 Muhlenberg, Ileinrich Melchior, 1591. 
 
 Muhlenberg, J- Peter G., 1592. 
 
 Miihlenberg, Fred. Aug. Conrad, 1592. 
 
 Miihk-nbrig, GoUh. Henry Ernst. 1592. 
 
 Muhlunberg, William Augustus, 1592. 
 
 Mullens. Joseph, 1593. 
 
 Miiller, Ueinvich. 1593, 
 
 MUller, Johann Georg, 1593. 
 
 Miiller, Julius, 1593. 
 
 Mummy. See Embalming. 
 
 Miimpelgart. the Colloquy of, 1595. 
 
 MUnscher, AVilbelm, 1595. 
 
 Miinster, 1595. 
 
 Miinter, Friedrich Christian Karl Hcio, 
 rich, 1.595. 
 
 Miinzer, Thomas, 1595. 
 
 Muratori, Ludovico Antonio, 1.596. 
 
 Mur.ilorian Canon. Sec Canon. 
 
 Murder among the Hebrews, 1596. 
 
 Murtlock, James, 1597. 
 
 Murner, Thomas, 1597. 
 
 i Murray, .lohn, 1597. 
 
 (Murray, Nicholas, 1597. 
 
 Mutaus, Joharni, 1593. 
 
 iMusculus, Andreas, 1598. 
 
 i Museulus, Wolfgang. 1593. 
 
 Musgrave, George Washington, 1598. 
 
 Music and Musical Inslrumenls among 
 the Hebrews, 1598. 
 
 Music, Sacred, lOUO. 
 
 Mus-sclmans. See ^ohamracd, Moham- 
 medanism. 
 
 Mutianus, Rufus Conradus, 1602. 
 
 Myconius, Friedrich, 161.12, 
 
 Mvconius, Oawald, 1602. 
 
 Myrrh, 1602. 
 
 Myrtle, the. 1602. 
 
 Mystngugue. Mystagogy, 1602. 
 Mysticism, 1602. 
 
 Mythical and Legendary Theory, 1604. 
 
 N. 
 
 Nnaman, 1605. 
 
 Nimai'iies. See Gnosticism. 
 
 Nubiil, 160.5. 
 
 Nabnlieiins. Sec Arabia. 
 
 Nutliil, IJiTnarJ Harrison, 1605. 
 
 Nahor, 1605. 
 
 Nahum, 1605. 
 
 Nain, 1606. 
 
 Nanus, Biblical Siirnlficannc of, 1C06. 
 
 Natnfs, CliriKtian Ose of, 1007. 
 
 Nantos, the Eiliel of, 1007. 
 
 Naphtali. 8™ 'I'ribca of larac'.. 
 
 Nartl. See Spilci-nard. 
 
 Nardin, Jean Frwleric, 1607. 
 
 Nailhex, 1007. 
 
 Nanmith, Davlil, 1607. 
 
 Natalin Alexander, 1607. 
 
 Nathan, 1607. 
 
 Nathanaijl. Sec Bartholomew. 
 
 Nativity of Christ. See ClH-istmaii. 
 
 Natnral Ability. See In.ibillly. 
 
 Natnnil Law, 1008. 
 
 Natnral lieliiiion. Sec llellgion. 
 
 Natnral 'l'be..l..«y, 1008. 
 
 Naudiius, l'hili|>|>n8, lOOS. 
 
 Naninburi<, Convention of, 1609. 
 
 Nave, 1009. 
 
 Navigation. See Ship. 
 
 Naylor, James. Uioo. 
 
 NazareTiea. See Kbioniles. 
 
 Nazareth, 16011. 
 
 Na/.arUes, 1610. 
 
 Neal, Daniel. 1010. 
 
 Neale, John Maaon, 1010. 
 
 Neander, Joachim, lOl'i. 
 
 NeJinder, Johann .\nBU8t Wllhclm, 1013. 
 
 Neapolis, 1014. 
 
 Nehaiolh. Sec Aroblll. 
 
 Nebo, 1014. 
 
 Nebo (uionntaln), 1616. 
 
 Nebo (elly). l"'-''- 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar, 1615. 
 
 Nebuziir-Adan, 1016.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 xxxin 
 
 Necessity, Moral, 1616. 
 
 Necbo, 1616. 
 
 Neckbam, Alexander, 1616. 
 
 Necrologium, Necrology, 1617. 
 
 Necromiincy, 1617. 
 
 NcctarJus, I'atriarcli of Constantinople, 
 
 1617. 
 Nectarine, Patriarch of Jerusalem, 1617. 
 Needham, John, 1617. 
 Needlework. See Clothing, ViHtments. 
 Neff, Felix, 1617. 
 Negri, Francesco, 1617. 
 Negro Evangelization and Education in 
 
 America, 1617. 
 Nehemiah, 1621. 
 Nehushtan, 1622. 
 Nelson, David, 1622. 
 Nelson, Robert, 1622. 
 Nemesius, 1622. 
 Nennius, 1622. 
 Neology, 1622. 
 Neonomianism, 1622. 
 Neophytes, 1622. 
 Neo-Platonism, 1623. 
 Neot, St., 1626. 
 
 NeoBtadienaium Adnionitio, 1625. 
 Nepomuk, John of. See JohnNepomuk. 
 Nepos, 1625. 
 Nergal, 1625. 
 Nergal-Sharezer, 1625. 
 Neri, Philip, 1625. 
 Nero, 1626. 
 
 Nersee the Great, 1626. 
 Nerses Clayensis, 1626. 
 Nerses Lambronensis, 1627. 
 Nesse, Chrietopher, 1627. 
 Nestor, 1627. 
 Nestorians, 1627. 
 
 Neetorius and the Ncstorian Contro- 
 versy, 1629. 
 Netherlands. See Belgium, Holland. 
 Netherlands Bible Society. See Bible 
 
 Societies. 
 Netherlands Missionary Society. See 
 
 Missions. 
 Nethinim. See Levitcs. 
 Netter, Thomas, 1630. 
 Nettletou, Asahel, 1631. 
 Neubrigeneis, William, 1631. 
 Neufchatel, Independent Evangelical 
 
 Church of, the, 1631. 
 Nevins, William, 1632. 
 New Birth. See Regeneration. 
 New-Brunswick Theological Seminary, 
 
 1632. 
 New Christians. See Spain. 
 New Church. See New -Jerusalem 
 
 Church. 
 Newcomb, Harvey, 1633. 
 Newcome, William, 1633. 
 Ne-yvell, Harriet, 1634. 
 Newell, Samuel, 1634. 
 New-England Theology, 1634. 
 New. Haven Divinity. See Taylor, N. W. 
 New Israelites. See Southcott, Joanna. 
 New-Jerusalem Church, 1638. 
 New-Light Antiburghers. Sec Seceders. 
 New South Wales. See Australasia. 
 New Testament. See Bible Text, Canon. 
 Newton, Sir Isaac, 1641. 
 Newton, John, 1641. 
 Newton, Robert, 1642. 
 Newton, Thomas, 1642. 
 Newton Theological Institution, 1642. 
 New- Year's Celebration, 1642. 
 New- Year, Feast of. See Trumpcta, 
 
 Feast of. 
 New-York City, 1643. 
 New-York Sabbath Committee, the, 1644. 
 New Zealand, 1645. 
 Nibhaz, 1646. 
 Nicsea, Councils of, 1646. 
 Nicaeno-Constanlinopolitan Creed, 1648. 
 Nice. See Nicsea. 
 Nicene Creed. See Nicseno-Constantino- 
 
 politan Creed. 
 Nicephorus, 1651. 
 Nicephonis, Callisti, 1652. 
 Niceron, Jean Pierre, 1652. 
 Nicetas Acominatos, 1652. 
 Nicetas, David, 1652. 
 Nicetas Pectoratue, 1652. 
 Niche, 1652. 
 Nicholas (popes), 1652. 
 Nicholas of Basel. See John of Chur, and 
 
 Friends of God. 
 Nicholas, Bishop of Methone, 1653. 
 Nicholas, Bishop of Myra, 1653. 
 
 Nicholas, Henry. See Familisls. 
 
 Nicholas of Strassburg, 1654. 
 
 NicoderauH, 1654. 
 
 Nicolai, Philip, 1654. 
 
 NicoluitauH, 1654. 
 
 Nicolas, See Nicolaitane. 
 
 Nicolas de Cleraanges. See Clemanges. 
 
 Nicolas de Cusa. See Cusa. 
 
 Nicole, Pierre, 1655. 
 
 Nicopolis, 1656. 
 
 Niebuhr, Carstcn, 1656. 
 
 Niedner, Clirifitian Wilhelm, 1656. 
 
 Niemeyer, August Hermann, 1656. 
 
 Niemeyer, H. A., 1656. 
 
 Nihilism, 1656. 
 
 Nikon, 1656. 
 
 Nile, 1657. 
 
 Niles, Nathaniel, 1657. 
 
 Niles, Samuel, 1657. 
 
 Niles, Samuel, 2d, 1657. 
 
 Nilus the elder, 1657. 
 
 Nilus the younger, 1657. 
 
 Nilus the Archfmandrite, 1657. 
 
 Nimbus, 1658. 
 
 Nimrod, 16.'")8. 
 
 Nineveh, 1658. 
 
 Ninian, 1661. 
 
 Nioba. See Monophysiles. 
 
 Nirvana. See Buddhism. 
 
 Nisan. See Year, Hebrew. 
 
 Nisroch, 1061. 
 
 Nitschmann, David, 1661. 
 
 Nitechmann, John, 1661. 
 
 Nitzsch, Karl Immanuel, 1661. 
 
 NitzBch, Karl Ludwig, 1662. 
 
 No, 1662. 
 
 Noachian Precepts. See Noah. 
 
 Noah and the Flood, 1662. 
 
 Noailles, Louis Antoine de, 1665. 
 
 Nob, 1665. 
 
 Noble, Samuel, 1665. 
 
 Nocturns. See Canonical Hours. 
 
 Nod, 1665. 
 
 Noel, 1665. 
 
 Noel, Baptist Wriotheeley, 1665. 
 
 Noel, Gerard Thomas, 1665. 
 
 Noetius. See Monarchianism. 
 
 Nolascus, Petrus, 1665. 
 
 Nominalism. See Scholasticism. 
 
 Norainatio Regia, 1665. 
 
 Nomocanon, 1665. 
 
 Nonconformists, the, 1666. 
 
 Nonjurors, 1666. 
 
 Nonnos, 1666. 
 
 Non-residence, 1666. 
 
 Noph, 1666. 
 
 Norbert. Sec Premonstrants. 
 
 Nordheimer, Isaac, 1667. 
 
 Norman Architecture. Sec Architecture. 
 
 Norris, John, 1667. 
 
 North America. See Canada, Mexico, 
 
 United States. 
 North, Brownlow, 1667. 
 North-west, Theological Seminary of 
 
 the. See Seminaries, Theological. 
 Norton, Andrews, 1667. 
 Norton, -John, 1668. 
 Norway. 1668. 
 Norwich, 1668. 
 
 Nosselt, Johann August, 1668. 
 Notker (1-4), 1668. " 
 Notre Dame, 1669. 
 Nutt, Eliphalet, 166U. 
 Nourry, Nicolas le, 1660. 
 Novalis, 1669. 
 Novatian, 1669. 
 
 Novatianus, Novalus. See Novatian. 
 Novice. See Novitiate. 
 Novitiate, 1672. 
 Nowell, Alexander, 1672. 
 Nowell, Laurence, 1673. 
 Noyes, George Rapall, 1673. 
 Numbers. See Peinatcuch. 
 Nun, Nunnery, 1673. 
 Nuncio. Sec Legate. 
 Nuremberg, Religious Peace of, 1673. 
 
 Oak. 1674. 
 
 Gates, Titus, 1674. 
 
 Oath, 1674. 
 
 Obadiah, 1676. 
 
 Obedience of Christ, the, 1677. 
 
 Ober-Amniergau, 1677. 
 
 Oberlin, Jean Frederic. 1678. 
 
 Oberlin Theological Seminary, 1678. 
 
 Oberlin Theology. See Finney, C G. 
 
 Oblation. Sec Offerings. 
 
 Occam, William, 1679. 
 
 Occasionalism. See Malebranche. 
 
 Occum, Sampson, 1680. 
 
 Ochino, Bernardino, 1680. 
 
 Octave, 1681. 
 
 Odcnheimer, William Henry, 1681. 
 
 Odilo, St., 1681. 
 
 Odo, St., 1681. 
 
 CEcolampadius, John, 1681. 
 
 (Ecumenical Councils, 1683. 
 
 Oehler, Giistav Friedrich, 1684. 
 
 Oetinger, Eriedrich Christoph, 1685. 
 
 Offerings in the Old Tcslaruent, 1685. 
 
 Offertory, 1690. 
 
 Office, Congregation of the Holy, 1600. 
 
 Offices of Christ. See Jesus Christ, 
 
 Three Offices of. 
 Official, 1690. 
 Ogilvie, John, 1690. 
 Oil, Olive-tree, 1690. 
 Ointment. See OU. 
 Olaf, St., 1691. 
 
 Oldcastle. See Cobham, Lord. 
 Old-Catholics, 1691. 
 Oldenburg, 1692. 
 
 Old Light Antiburghers. Sec Seceders. 
 Old Testament. See Bible Text, Canon. 
 Olearius (1-8), 1692. 
 Olevianus, Caspar, 1692. 
 Olga, St., 1693. 
 Olier, Jean Jacques, 1693. 
 Olin, Stephen, 1693. 
 Oliva, Fernan Perez de, 1693. 
 Olive. See Oil. 
 Olivers, Thomas, 1693. 
 Olivet and Olives, Mount of, 1693. 
 Olivetan, Pierre Robot, 1694. 
 Olivi, Pierre Jean, 1694. 
 Ollivant, Alfred, 1694. 
 Olshausen, Hermann, 1694. 
 Ornish, or Araish. See Mennonites. 
 Omnipotence, OmniscieDce, of God. See 
 
 God. 
 On, 1695. 
 
 Onderdonk, Henry Ustic, 1695. 
 Oneida Community, 1695. 
 Onkelos, 1695. 
 
 Oosterzee, Jan Jacob van, 1695. 
 Ophir, 1696. 
 
 Ophites. Sec Gnosticism. 
 Optatus, 1696. 
 
 Optimism and Pessimism, 1697. 
 Option, 1698. 
 Opus Operantis and Opus Operatuni, 
 
 1698. 
 Oral Law. See Tradition. 
 Orange, Councils of, 1698. 
 Oratorio, the, 1698. 
 Oratory, 1699. 
 
 Oratory, Priests of the. See Neri. 
 Ordeal, 1699. 
 
 Ordericofl Vitalis. See Vitalls. 
 Orders, Holy, 1700. 
 Ordinary, 1700. 
 Ordinati'on, 1700. 
 Ordines, 1701. 
 Ordo Roraanus, 1702. 
 Organ, 1702. 
 Oriel, or Oriole, 1702. 
 Oriflaramc, 1702. 
 Origen, 1702. 
 
 Origenistic Controveisies, 1705. 
 Original Antiburghcis, Burghers, ana 
 
 Seceders. See Seceders. 
 Original Sin. See Sin. 
 Orleans, Maid of. See Joan of Arc. 
 Orme, William, 1706. 
 Ormuzd and Abrimnn. 1706. 
 Orosius, Paulus, 17U0. 
 Orthodoxy and Heterodoxy, 1706. 
 Orthodoxy, Festival of. See Orthodoxy. 
 Orton, Job, 1707. 
 Oscultatory, 1707. 
 Osgood, David, 1707. 
 Osgood, Samuel, 1707. 
 Osiander, Andreas, 1707. 
 Osiander (1-3), 1708. 
 Osier, Edward, 1708. 
 Osmond, St., 1708. 
 Ossat, Arnold d*, 1708. 
 Osterwald, Jean Fr6deric, 1708. 
 Ostiary, Ostiarius, 1708. 
 Oswald, St., 1709. 
 Otfried of Weissenburg, 1709. 
 Othmar, St., 1709. 
 Otho of Bamberg, 1709. 
 Otho of Froising, 1709.
 
 ISSIV 
 
 O'Tooie, taurence, St., 1709. 
 
 Ouerbein, Philip 'Wiiliam, 1709. 
 
 Oudin, Casimir, 1710. 
 
 Ouen. St., 1710. 
 
 Our Lady of Mercy, eiaters of. See 
 
 Mercy, Sistera of. 
 Ouseley, Gideon, 1710. 
 Overberg, Bernbard, 1710. 
 Owen, Jobn. 1710. 
 Owen, John Jason, 171'2. 
 Owen, Robert, 1712. 
 Owen, Robert Dale, 1712. 
 Oxford, 1713. 
 
 Oiford Tracts. See Tractarianiiin. 
 Ollee, John, 1714. 
 Ozanam, Aiitoine Frederic, 1714. 
 
 P. 
 
 Paeca, Bartolommeo, 1T15. 
 
 Pace, Richard, 1715. 
 
 Pachomius, 1715. 
 
 Pachymeres, Oeorgiua, 1716, 
 
 Pacianus, 1716. 
 
 Pacification. Edicts of, 1716. 
 
 Padua, 1716. 
 
 Paedobaptism, 1716. 
 
 Paedobaptist, 1716. 
 
 Paganism, 1716. 
 
 Page, Harlan, 1717. 
 
 Pagi, Antoine, 1717. 
 
 Pagoda, 1717. 
 
 Paine, Robert. 1717. 
 
 Paine, Thomas, 1717. 
 
 Painting, Christian, 1718. 
 
 Pajon, Claude, 1722. 
 
 Palafox de Mendoza, Juan de, 1722. 
 
 Palamas, Qregorius, 1722. 
 
 Paleario, Aonio, 1722. 
 
 Paleetine, 1723. 
 
 Paleetrina, Giovanni Pierluigl, 1727. 
 
 Paley, William, 172S. 
 
 Palimpsest. Bee Bible Text. 
 
 Palisay, Bernard, 1728. 
 
 Pall, 1729. 
 
 Palladiue, 1729. 
 
 Palladius, Scotorum Epiacopus, 1730. 
 
 Pallavicino, or Pallavicini, Sforza, 1730. 
 
 Pallium, 1730. 
 
 Palmer. 1730. 
 
 Palmer, Christian David Friedrich, 1730. 
 
 Palmer, Edward Henry, 1731, 
 
 Palmer, Herbert, 1731. 
 
 Palm-8unday, 1731. 
 
 Palm-Trec, 1731. 
 
 Pamphilun, 1732. 
 
 Pamphylia, 1732. 
 
 Paiiagiu, 1732. 
 
 Pan-Anglican Synod, 1732. 
 
 Panegyricon, 1733. 
 
 Panis Literaj, 1733. 
 
 Panormitanurt, 1733. 
 
 Pan-Prenbyterian Council. Se« Alliance 
 
 of the Reformed Churches. 
 Panticnufl, 1733. 
 PanLhei.-<m and Pantheist, 1733. 
 Pantheon, 1735. 
 
 Papacy and l*apal System, 1735. 
 Papal Election. See Conclave. 
 Papebrocck. See Bollandiata. 
 Paphnulliis, 1737. 
 PaphoH, 1733. 
 Paplas, 1738. 
 Pttpin, Isaac, 1739. 
 PapyruH. See Bible-Text, Writing. 
 Parabk-rt, 1730. 
 Parabotanl, 1742. 
 ParacelMUH, Philippus Aureolua Theo- 
 
 phnuttus Bombastus, 1742. 
 Paraclete. See Holy Spirit, Trinity. 
 Parach-tlc6, or Paraclctlcon, 1742. 
 ParadlHO. 1742. 
 Paraguay. 1743. 
 Paran, WlldernoAH of, 1743. 
 Pardee, Richard flay, 1743. 
 ParouH. iMvld, 1743. 
 Paris, 1743. 
 
 I'arls, KrancoU dc, 174r). 
 I'urls, Matthew. Sec Matthew of Paris. 
 Parish, 1745. 
 Parity, 17 W. 
 Parker, Matthew, 1746. 
 Parker, Samuel, 1746. 
 Parker. 'I'lieoib^re, 1747. 
 Parkhurnt, John, 174tf. 
 Parncll. ThomoM, 1749. 
 {'arseelFtm, 17411. 
 
 Parflonn, Robert. See Persona, Robert. 
 I'ojuoUH, Levi. 1762. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Particular and General Baptists, 1752. 
 
 Passagians, the, 1752. 
 
 I'ascal, Blaise, 1752. 
 
 Pascal, JacqueUne. See p. 1752. 
 
 Paschal Controversies, 1754. 
 
 Paschaiis (popes), 1756. 
 
 Fascbasius, Radbertus. See Radbertus. 
 
 Pasqualis, Martinez, 1757. 
 
 Passion, the, of our Lord, 1757. 
 
 Passion-Plays. See Religious Dramas. 
 
 Passion-Week. See Holy Week. 
 
 Passionei, Dominic, 1757. 
 
 Passionists, the, 1757. 
 
 Passover, the, 1757. 
 
 Pastoral Letters, 1759. 
 
 Pastoral Theology, 1759. 
 
 Pastorells, 1762. 
 
 Patarenes, 1762. 
 
 Paten, 1762. 
 
 Pater-Noster, 1762. 
 
 Patience, 1762. 
 
 Patmos, 1763. 
 
 Patouillet, Louis, 176.3. 
 
 Patriarch, 1763. 
 
 Patrick, St., 1763. 
 
 Patrick, Symon, 1765. 
 
 Patripassiane, 1765. 
 
 Patristics and Patrology, 1765. 
 
 Patronage, 1767. 
 
 Patteson, John Coleridge, 1768. 
 
 Paul the Apostle and his Epistles, 1768. 
 
 Paul (popes), 1774. 
 
 Paul, Father. See Sarpi. 
 
 Paul of Samosata. See Monarchianism. 
 
 Paul of Thebes. See Monastery. 
 
 Paul, Vincent de. See Vincent de Paul. 
 
 Paul the Deacon, 1776. 
 
 Paula, 1776. 
 
 Paullciane, 1776. 
 
 Paulinus of Aquileja, 1777. 
 
 Paulinus, Pontius Mcropius Anicius, 177S. 
 
 Paulinus of York, 1778. 
 
 Paulists, 1778. 
 
 Paulus, Ileinrich Eberhard Gottlob, 17rS. 
 
 Pauperes de Lugduno. See Waidenses. 
 
 Pavia, the Council of, 1779. 
 
 Pavilion, 1779. 
 
 Payson, Edward, 1779. 
 
 Pazmany, Peter, 1780. 
 
 Peabody, George, 1780. 
 
 Peabodv, William Bourne Oliver, 1781. 
 
 Peace, Kiss of. See Kiss of Peace. 
 
 Peace Offering. See Offeldngs. 
 
 Pearson, Ellphalet, 1781. 
 
 Pearson, John, 1782. 
 
 Peck, George, 17S3. 
 
 Peck, Jesse Truesdell, 17S3. 
 
 Peck, John Mason, 1783. 
 
 Pedersen, Christiern, 1783. 
 
 Pedobaptism, Pedobaptists. See Pifido- 
 
 baptism, Pajdobajjtists. 
 Pelagius and the Pelagian Controversies, 
 
 1783. 
 Pelagius (popes), 1785. 
 Pelagius, Alvarus, 1786. 
 Pelllkan, Knnrad, 1786. 
 Pelt, Anton Kriedrich Ludwig, 1786. 
 Penance, 1787. 
 Peultentlals, 1787. 
 Penitential Psalms, 1788. 
 Penu, William, 1788. 
 Pennaforte, Raymond de, 1790. 
 Penrv, John, 17a0. 
 Pontaleuch, the, 1790. 
 Pentecost. 1801. 
 Perala?. See Gnosticism. 
 Percy, Thomas, 1801. 
 Pcrca, 1802. 
 
 Percira, Antonio dc Flguclredo, 1902. 
 I'erfectlonism, 1802. 
 I'ergaraos, 1802. 
 I'cricopCB, 1802. 
 Perlkau, Synods of, 1808. 
 Pcrlzzlles. Sec Canaan. 
 Perkins, Justin, 1806. 
 I'erklns, William. 1800. 
 Pcrpetua, Pte., ISOO. 
 IVrroue, Glovanid, 1806. 
 Perronet, Edward, ISUT. 
 I'ersecutlon of the Christians In the Ro 
 
 man Empire, 1807. 
 Perseverance of the Saints, 1808. 
 Persia, 1808. 
 Persons, Robert, 1811. 
 I'eru, isn. 
 
 Peslilto. Sco Bible Versions. 
 I'esslmlsm. See Optimism, Schopcn 
 
 hauer. 
 Pcstulozzl, Johann Hclnrlch, 1812. 
 
 Petavius, Dionysius, 1812. 
 
 Peter the Apostle, 1813. 
 
 Peter, Festivals of St., 1817. 
 
 Peter of Alcantara, 1818. 
 
 Peter of Alexandria, 1818. 
 
 Peter d'Ailiy. See AilU. 
 
 Peter of Blois, 1818. 
 
 Peter of Bruys and the Petrobruslana, 
 1818. 
 
 Peter of Celle, 1818. 
 
 Peter Lombard. See Lombard. 
 
 Peter Martyr, or Peter of Verona, 1818. 
 
 Peter Martyr Vermigli, 1818. 
 
 Peter the Hermit, 1819. 
 
 Peter the Venerable, 1819. 
 
 Peterborough, 1819. 
 
 Peter-Pence, 1S19. 
 
 Peters, Hugh, 1820. 
 
 Petersen, Johann Wilhelm, 1330. 
 
 Petit, Samuel, 1820. j 
 
 Petra. See Selah. 
 
 Petri, Olaus, 1820. 
 
 Petri, Laurentius, 1820. 
 
 Petrobrusiaus. See Peter of Bmys. 
 
 Peucer, Caspar, 1820. 
 
 Pew, 1821. 
 
 Pezel, Christof, 1821. 
 
 Waff, Christof MatthSus, 1821. 
 
 Pflug, Julius, 1821. 
 
 Pharaoh, 1821. 
 
 Pharisees, the, 1821. 
 
 Philadelphia, 1822. 
 
 Philadelphia (U.S.A.), 1822. 
 
 Philadelphian Society, 1823. 
 
 Pbilaster, or Pbilastrius, 1824. 
 
 Philemon. See Paul. 
 
 Philip the Apostle, 1824. 
 
 Philip the Arabian, 1824. 
 
 Philip the Evangelist, 1824. 
 
 Philip the Fair, 1824. 
 
 Philip the Magnanimous, 1825. 
 
 Philip ri., 1826. 
 
 Philip the Tetrarcb. See Herod. 
 
 Philippi. 1S26. 
 
 Philippi, Friedrich Adolf, 1827. 
 
 I'hilippians, Epistle to the. See Paul. 
 
 Philippists, IS27. 
 
 Philistines, 1827. 
 
 Philipotts, Henry, 1831. 
 
 Philo, 1831. 
 
 Phllo Carpathius, 1833. 
 
 Philopatris, 1833. 
 
 Philoponus. See John Phllopouua. 
 
 Philosophy and Religion, 1833. 
 
 Philosophy, Christian, American Insti- 
 tute of, 1836. 
 
 Philostorgius, 1836. 
 
 Philostratus, Flavius, 1336. 
 
 Pbilosenus, 1336. 
 
 I'hoeas, 1836. 
 
 Phoenicia, 18.16. 
 
 I'hotinus, 1837. 
 
 I'hotius, 1837. 
 
 I'hrygia, T838. 
 
 Phylactery, 1838. 
 
 Plarlsls, o"r Fathers of the Pious Schools, 
 or Paulinian Congregation, 1839. 
 
 Picards, ISIW. 
 
 l^ictet, Benedict, 1839. 
 
 Picus of Mlrandula. See Mlrandula. 
 
 Pierce, Lovick, 1S39. 
 
 Pierpout, John, 1840. 
 
 Pietism, 1840. 
 
 Pighlus. Albert, 1841. 
 
 Pilate, Pontius, 1841. 
 
 Pilate, Procla, or Claudia Procula, 1342. 
 
 Pllu'rlmaKes, 1842. 
 
 Pllkliigton, .lames, 1843. 
 
 PInkncy, William, 1843. 
 
 Plrkd Aboth, 1843. 
 
 PIrmlu, St., 1843. 
 
 Pisa, Councils of, 1843. 
 
 Plscator, Johannes, 1844. 
 
 Pise, Charles Constantino, 1844. 
 
 Plsgah, 1844. 
 
 Plsidla, 1845. 
 
 PIstorius. Johannes, 1845. 
 
 Plthom, 1846. 
 
 Plus (popes), 1845. 
 
 Pius Soolotios, 1849. 
 
 i'lacet, 1849. 
 
 Plnceus, 1849. 
 
 Plagues of Egypt. See Kgypt. 
 
 Planck, Gutllleb Jakob, 1819. 
 
 Planck, Hclnrlch Ludwig, 1849. 
 
 Platliia, ltaithc)l<)nuLnlrt, 1849. 
 
 I'latonism and (.,'hrlsllnidty, 18.')0. 
 
 Platonlsts. the Cainbridge, 18.^3. 
 
 Pint, Guslav Leopold, 1856.
 
 Plumer, William Swan, 1855. 
 
 Pluralities, 1856. 
 
 Plymouth Brethren, 1856. 
 Pneumatomachi, 1859. 
 
 Pocock, Edward, 1859. 
 
 Podiebrad, George of, 1859. 
 
 Poetry, Hebrew. .See Hebrew Poetry. 
 
 Pohlraan, William John, 1S60. 
 
 Poiraenics. See Pastoral Theology. 
 
 Poiret, Pierre, 1860. 
 
 Poisey. Conference of, 1860. 
 
 Poland, 1861. 
 
 Pole, Reginald, 1862. 
 
 Polemics, 1862. 
 
 Polentz, George of. See George of Po 
 lentz. 
 
 Poliander, Johann, 186;J. 
 
 Polity, 1863. 
 
 Pollok, Robert, 1863. 
 
 Polycarp, 1863. 
 
 I'olyehrouius, 1864. 
 
 Polygamy. See MarHage. 
 
 Polyglot Bibles, 1864. 
 
 Polytheism, 1867. 
 
 Pomfret, John, 1868. 
 
 Pomponatius, Petrus, 1868. 
 
 Pond, Enoch. 1868. 
 
 Pontianus, 1868. 
 
 Pontificale, 1868. 
 
 Foote, Matthew, 1868. 
 
 Poor, Daniel, 1869. 
 
 Poor Men of Lyons. See Waldeuses. 
 
 Pope, the, 1869. 
 
 Pope, Alexander, 1871. 
 
 Pordage, John, 1871. 
 
 Poritoppidan, Erik Ludwigsen, 1872. 
 
 Porphyry. See Neo-Platouisra. 
 
 Porter, Kbenezer, 1872. 
 
 Portiuncula Iiidulgeuce, 1872. 
 
 Port Royal, 1872. 
 
 P'ortugal, the Kingdom of, 1873. 
 
 Poschl, Thomas, 1874. 
 
 Positivism. See Comte, Auguste. 
 
 Possession, Demoniacal. See Demoniacs. 
 
 Possevino, Antonio, 1874. 
 
 Possidius, or Possidonius, 1874. 
 
 PoBtel, Guillaume, 1874. , 
 
 Postil, 1874. 
 
 Potter, Alonzo, 1874. 
 
 Potts, George, 1876. 
 
 Poulain, Nicolas, 1876. 
 
 Pouring, 1876. 
 
 Powell, Baden, 1876. 
 
 Practical Theology, 1877, 
 
 Prades, Jean Martin de, 1877. 
 
 Pradt, Dominique Dufour de, 1877. 
 
 Praeraunire, 1877. 
 
 Prfetorius, Abdias, 1877. 
 
 Praetorius, Stephan, 1877. 
 
 Prayer, 1877. 
 
 Prayer, Book of Common, 1880. 
 
 Prayer for the Dead, 1882. 
 
 Prayer, the Lord's. See Lord's Prayer. 
 
 Preachers, Local. See Local Preachers. 
 
 Preaching, 1883. 
 
 Preaching Friars, 1885. 
 
 Prebend, 1885. 
 
 Precious Stones, 1885. 
 
 Preconization, 1886. 
 
 Predestination, 1886. 
 
 Premillennialism, 1887. 
 
 Premonstrants, or Premonstratensiana, 
 1890. 
 
 Prentiss, Elizabeth, 1890. 
 
 Presbyter and the Preebyterate, 1890. 
 
 Presbyterian Churches, 1892, 
 
 Presbyterianisra, 1917. 
 
 Presbyteriura, 1921. 
 
 Presbytery, 1921. 
 
 Presence, the Real. See Lord's Supper. 
 
 Presiding Elders, 1921. 
 
 Pressly, John Taylor, 1921. 
 
 Prester John. See John the Presbyter. 
 
 Preston, John, 1921. 
 
 Prideaux, Humphrey, 1921. 
 
 Prierias, Sylvester, 1922. 
 
 Priests and Priesthood in the Old Testa- 
 ment, 1922. 
 
 Priesthood in theRoman-CathoIicChurch, 
 1926. 
 
 Priestley, Joseph, 1927. 
 
 Primacy, Primate, 1927, 
 
 Primicerius, 1927. 
 
 Primitive Methodist Connection. See 
 Methodism. 
 
 Prince, Thomas (1), 1927. 
 
 Prince. Thomas (2), 1928. 
 
 Princeton, the Village, its Institutions, 
 Theology, and Literature, 1928. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Prior and IVloreafi, 1930. 
 
 PrlacllllnnlstB, 1930. 
 
 Probablllam, 1931. 
 
 Probation, Future, 1931. 
 
 Procession of the Iloiy Uhoet. Hec Filio 
 que. 
 
 ProceBsIoDB, 1932. 
 
 Procius. See Neo-PIatoniem. 
 
 Procopius of CiBBarea, 1932. 
 
 ProcopiuB of Oaza, 1932. 
 
 ProcopiuB the Great, 1932. 
 
 ProdicianB, 1933. 
 
 Professlo Kldei Tridentinee. See Triden 
 tine ProfesBion of Faith. 
 
 Proiocutor, 1933. 
 
 Pronier, Cesar Louis, 1933. 
 
 Propaganda, the, 193.3. 
 
 Prophetic Ofllce in the Oid Testament, 
 1936, 
 
 Prophets In the New Testament, 1940. 
 
 Propitiation, 1940. 
 
 Proseiytes of the Jews, 1941. 
 
 Prosper of Aquitania, 1942. 
 
 Protestauten-Verein, 1942. 
 
 Protestantism. See Reformation. 
 
 Protevaugeliura. See Apocrypha. 
 
 Protonotarius Apostolicus, 194:;. 
 
 Proto-Presbyter, or Proto-Pope, 1942. 
 
 Proudfoot, William, 1942. 
 
 Proverbs of Solomon, 1943. 
 
 Providence, 1948. 
 
 Provincial, 1949. 
 
 Provost, 1949. 
 
 PrudenliuB, Aurelius Clemens, 1949. 
 
 Prudent) us of Troyes, 1949. 
 
 Prussia, 1949. 
 
 Prynne, \Villiara, 1950. 
 
 Psairaanazar, George, 1950. 
 
 Psalmody in the Early Christian Church, 
 1950. 
 
 Psalms, 1961. 
 
 Psalms, Use of the, in Worship, 1959. 
 
 Psalter, 1961. 
 Psellus,1901. 
 Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament, 
 
 1961. 
 Pseudo-Ieidorian Decretals, 1966. 
 Ptolemeeus, Ptolemy, 196S. 
 Ptolemy I., Soter, 1968. 
 Ptolemy II., Philadciphua, 196S. 
 Ptolemy III., Euergertes, 1968. 
 Ptolemy IV., Philopator, 1968. 
 Ptolemy V., Epiphaues, 1969. 
 Ptolemy VI., Philometor, 1969. 
 Publican, 1969. 
 Publicani, 1969. 
 Pufendorf, Samuel, 1969. 
 Pul. See Tiglalh-pileser. 
 Pulcheria, 1969. 
 Pulleyn, Robert, 1909. 
 Pulpit, 1970. 
 Pulpit-Eloquence. See Homiletioa 
 
 Preaching. 
 Punishmenl among the Hebrews, 1970. 
 Punishment, Future, 1971. 
 Punshon, Willi.am Morley, 1974. 
 Purcell, Henry, 1974. 
 Purcell, John Baptist, 1975. 
 Purgatory, 1975. 
 Puriiications, 1976. 
 Purim, 1979. 
 
 Puritan, Puritanism, 1979. 
 Purvey, .John, 1983. 
 Pusey, Edward Bouverie, 1984. 
 Pym. John, 1984. • 
 Pynchon, ''Vllliam, 1985. 
 Pyx, 1985. 
 
 (Juadragesima. ,See Lent. 
 Quadratus, 1986. 
 t^uakera. See Friends. 
 Quariea, Francis, 1986. 
 Quarterly Meeting. See Friends. 
 Quartodecimani. See Paschal Contro 
 
 versy. 
 Queen Anne's Bounty. See Taxei. 
 Quenstedt, Andreas, 1986. 
 Queenel. Pasquier, 1986. 
 Quetif, Jacques, 1986. 
 Quietism. See Moiiuos, Guyon. 
 Quinisextum Concilium, 1987. 
 Quirinius, 1987. 
 
 R. 
 
 Eabauus Maurus, 1988. 
 
 XXXV 
 
 Rabaut, Paul, 1988. 
 
 liabaut, St. Eticnne, 198*. 
 
 Rabaut, Pommier, 1988. 
 
 Rabbah. See Ammonites. 
 
 Rabblniam, 1988. 
 
 Rabbula. See Rabulas. 
 
 Rabaaria, 19<.I0. 
 
 Rabahaiich, 1990. 
 
 Rabulaa, 1990. 
 
 Raca, 1990. 
 
 Racovian Catechiam. See SociDi>nlM>. 
 
 Rachel. See Jacob. 
 
 RadbertUB, Paachaaiua, 1990. 
 
 Raffles, Thom,a8, 1991. 
 
 Ragged Schoola, 1991. 
 
 Rahab, 1991. 
 
 Rallies, Robert, 1991. 
 
 Rainerio Sacchoni, 1991. 
 
 Rale, Sebaatien, 1992. 
 
 Raleigh, Alexander, 1992. 
 
 Raleigh, Sir Walter, 1992. 
 
 Ramah, 1992. 
 
 Ramadan, 1992. 
 
 Rambach, August .Takob, 1992. 
 
 Rambach, Johann Jakob, 1992. 
 
 Raraeses. See Exodus. 
 
 Rammohun Roy, 1993. 
 
 Ramus, Petrue, 1993. 
 
 Ranee, Armand Louis le Bouthillier, de, 
 1993. 
 
 Randall, Benjamin. See Freewill Bap. 
 tists. 
 
 Randolph Macon College, 1993. 
 
 Ranters, 1994. 
 
 Raphael, 1994. 
 
 Raphall, Morris Jacob, 1994. 
 
 Rappiats, 1994. 
 
 Raahi, 1994. 
 
 Raakoiniks. See Russian Sects. 
 Ratherius, 1994. 
 
 Rathraann, Hermann, 1995. 
 
 liationalism and Supranaturalism, 1995. 
 
 Ratisbon, the Conference of, 1998. 
 
 Ralramnus, 1998. 
 
 Ratzeberger, Matthaus, 1998. 
 
 Rau, Chriatian, 1998. 
 
 Ranch, Frederick Augustus, 1998. 
 
 Rauhe Haus. See Wichern. 
 
 Rautenatrauch, Franz Stephan, 1999. 
 
 Ravenna, 1999. 
 
 Ravignan, Gustave Franjois Xavier de la 
 
 Croix de, 2001. 
 Raymond Martini, 2001. 
 Raymond of Pennaforte. See Penna- 
 
 forte. 
 Raymond of Sabunde, or Sabiende, 2001. 
 Raymundus Lullus. See Lullus. 
 Reader. See Lector. 
 Realism. See Scholastic Theology. 
 Real Presence. See Lord's Supper, 
 liechabites, 2002. 
 Reciuao, 2002. 
 Recollect, 2002. 
 
 Reconciliation. See Atonement. 
 Rector, 2002. 
 
 Redeemer, Orders of the, '2002. 
 Redemption, 2002. 
 ReJemptorista, or CongregatioQ of Our 
 
 Most Blessed Redeemer, 20O3. 
 ied Sea, the, 2004. 
 Heed, Andrew, 2004. 
 Reformation, '2004. 
 Reformed (Dutch) Church in America, 
 
 •2013. 
 Reformed Episcopal Church. See Epis- 
 copal Church, Reformed. 
 Reformed (German) Church In the 
 
 United States, 2015. 
 Reformed Presbyterian Church. See 
 
 Presbyterian Churches. 
 Regalia, 2016. 
 Regeneration, 2017. 
 Regenaburg. Sec Ratisbon. 
 Regino, 2018. 
 Regionariua, 2018. 
 Regiua, UrbauuB. See Rhegius. 
 Regula Fidei. '2018. 
 Regulars, 2018. 
 Rehoboam, 201S. 
 Reichel, Johann Friedrich, 2019. 
 Reid, ThoEuas, '2019. 
 Reihing, .Jakob, 2021. 
 Reimarus, Hermann Samuel, '2021. 
 Reinhard, Franz Volkmar, '2021. 
 Reiand, Hadrian, 2021. 
 Reiica, 2021. 
 
 Relief Synod. See Presbyterian Churched. 
 Religion and Revelation, 2021. 
 Religion, the Philosophy of, '2024.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 ReligioUB Dramas in the Middle Agea, 
 2025. 
 
 Religious Liberty. See Liberty. 
 
 Religious Statistics, 2026. 
 
 Relly, James, 2026. 
 
 Remigius, St., 202". 
 
 Remphan, 2027. 
 
 Renaissance, the, 2027. 
 
 Renata, 2030. 
 
 Renaudot, Eus^be, 2030. 
 
 Repentance, 2030. 
 
 Rephidim. See Wilderness of the Wan- 
 dering. 
 
 Reprobation. See Predestination. 
 
 Requiem, 2031. 
 
 Reredos, 2031. 
 
 Reservation, Mental, 2031. 
 
 Resen-ation, Papal, 2031. 
 
 Residence, 2032. 
 
 Restoration. See Apokatastasis. 
 
 ResignaUon, 2032. 
 
 Resurrection of the Dead. 2032. 
 
 Rettberg, Friedrich Wilhclm, 2033. 
 
 Rettig, Heinrich Christian Michael, 2033. 
 
 Reuben. See Tribes. 
 
 Reuchlin, Johann, 20;i3. 
 
 Reuterdahl, Henrik, 2034. 
 
 Revelation, Book of, 2034. 
 
 Revivals of Religion, 2038. 
 
 Revolution, the French, 2041. 
 
 Reynolds, Edward, 2043. 
 
 Reynolds, John, 2044. 
 
 Rhcgium, 2044. 
 
 Rhegius, Urbanus, 2044. 
 
 Rhetoric, Sacred. See Homiletics. 
 
 Rhodes, 2044. 
 
 Ricci, Lorenzo, 2044. 
 
 Ricci, Scipione de', 2045. 
 
 Rice, John Holt, 2045. 
 
 Rice, Nathan Lewis, 2045. 
 
 Rich, Edmund. See Eadmund, St. 
 
 Richard, Fitzralph, 204.'.. 
 
 Richard of St. Victor, 2046. 
 
 Richard, Charles Louis, 2046. 
 
 Richards, .Tames, 2046. 
 
 Richards, William, 2046. 
 
 Richelieu, Armand Jean Dupleesis d«, 
 2016. 
 
 Elcher, Edmund, 2046. 
 
 Richmond. Legh, 2046. 
 
 Rlchter, .^Erailius Ludwig, 2047. 
 
 Richter, Christian Friedrich Gottlieb, 
 2047. 
 
 Riddle, Joseph Esmond, 2047. 
 
 Ridgley, Thomas. 2047. 
 
 Ridley, Nicholas, 2047. 
 
 Rieger, Georg Conr.ld, 2048. 
 
 Righteousness, Origiual, 2048. 
 
 Rimmon, 2048. 
 
 Ring, Melchior, 2049. 
 
 Rings, 2049. 
 
 Hinkart, Martin, 2049. 
 
 Ripley, Henry Jones, 2049. 
 
 Ripon, 2049. 
 
 Rippon, John, 2049. 
 
 Risler, Jeremiah, 2049. 
 
 Ritter, Karl, 2050. 
 
 Ritual, 2050. 
 
 Rituale Romanura, 2050. 
 
 Ritualism, 2050. 
 
 Rivet, AndriS, 2053. 
 
 Robber-Council. See Ephesus. 
 
 Robert the Second, 2053. 
 
 Robertson, Frederick William, 2053. 
 
 Robertson, James Craigie, 205-1. 
 
 Robinson, Edward, 2054. 
 
 Robinson, John, 2055. 
 
 Robinson, Robert, 2056. 
 
 Robinson, Stuart, 2056. 
 
 Roch, St., 2056. 
 
 Rochester, 2056. 
 
 Rock, Daniel, 2056. 
 
 Rodgers, John, 2056. 
 
 Rodiger, Emil, 2066. 
 
 Rogations, 2057. 
 
 Rogers, Ebenezer Piatt, 2067. 
 
 Rogers, Henry, 20.57. 
 
 Rogers, .John, 2057. 
 
 Rohr, Johann Friedrich, 2057. 
 
 Rokycana, .John, 2057. 
 
 Romaine, William, 2058. 
 
 Roman-Catholic Church, 2058. 
 
 Roman-Catholic Church in the United 
 States, 2062. 
 
 Roman Empire and Christianity, the, 
 2068. 
 
 Romance Bible Versions. See Bible Ver- 
 sions. 
 
 Romans, Epistle to the. Sec Paul. 
 
 Romanue, 2072. 
 
 Rome, 2072. 
 
 Ronsdorf Sect. See Eller. 
 
 Rood, 2073. 
 
 Roos, Magnus Friedrich, 2074. 
 
 Rosa of Lima, 2074. 
 
 Rosa of Viterbo, 2074. 
 
 Rosalia, St., 2074. 
 
 Rosary, the, 2074. 
 
 Roscelin, 2074. 
 
 Rose, the Golden. See Golden Rose. 
 
 Rose, Henry John, 207-1. 
 
 Rose, Hugh James, 2074. 
 
 Rosenbach, Johann Georg, 2075. 
 
 Rosenmiiller, Ernst Friedrich Karl, 2075. 
 
 Rosicrucians, 2075. 
 
 Roswitha, 2076. 
 
 Rota. See Curia. 
 
 Rothe, Richard, 2076. 
 
 Roumania, 2076. 
 
 Rous, Francis, 2076. 
 
 Rousseau, Jean Jacques, 2076. 
 
 Roussel, Gerard, 2078. 
 
 Routh, Martin Joseifh, 2078. 
 
 Row, Thomas, 2078. 
 
 Rowc, Mrs. Elizabeth. 2078. 
 
 Rowlands, Daniel, 2078. 
 
 Royaards, Hermann Jan, 2078. 
 
 Rubrics, 2078. 
 
 Ruchat, Abraham, 2078. 
 
 Riickert, Leopold Iramunuel, 2078. 
 
 Rudelbach, Andreas Gottlob, 207B. 
 
 Riidinger, Esrora, 2079. 
 
 Ruet, Francisco de Paula, 2079. 
 
 Rutlnus, Tyrannius, 2079. 
 
 Ruinart, Thierry, 2079. 
 
 Rule of Faith. See Regula Fidel. 
 
 Rulnlan Merswin, 2080. 
 
 Rupert, St., 2080. 
 
 Rupert of Deutz, 2080. 
 
 Russell, Charles William, 2080. 
 
 Russia, 2080. 
 
 Russian Sects, 2082. 
 
 Rutgers Theological Seminary. See New- 
 
 Brunswick Theological Seminary. 
 Ruth, 2085. 
 
 Rutherfurd, Samuel, 20S6. 
 Ruysbroeck, or RuBbro«k, 2086. 
 Ryerson, Adolphus Egerton, 2086. 
 Ryland, John, 2086. 
 
 VOLUME IV. 
 
 Saadla ha Gaon, Ben Joseph, 2087. 
 
 Baalschiitz, .Joseph Le\in, 2087. 
 
 Sabaoth, 2087. 
 
 Sabas, St., 2087. 
 
 Sabbatarians. See Seventh. Day Baptist!, 
 
 Sabbath, 2088. 
 
 Sabbath-Day's Journey, 2089. 
 
 Sabbath Laws, See Sunday Legislation. 
 
 Sabbathalsra. See Israel. 
 
 Sabbatharlans, or New Israelites, 20S9. 
 
 Sabbatical Yearand Yearof Jubilee, 2089. 
 
 Sabbatler, Pierre, 2090. 
 
 SabbatluH, 2090. 
 
 Sabdllus, 2090. 
 
 Sablans, 2091. 
 
 Sablna, 2091. 
 
 Sabinianus, 2091. 
 
 Sacerdotalism. See Priesthood. 
 
 Sachcvercll, Henry, 2091. 
 
 Bachs, Hans, 2091. 
 
 Sack, August Friedrich Wilhclm, 2002. 
 
 Sack, Friedrich Samuel (Jottfrlcd, 2092. 
 
 Sack, Karl Heinrich, 2092. 
 
 Sack, Brethren of the, 2003. 
 
 Sacrament, 2093. 
 
 Sacred Heart, Society of the. Sec Jesus, 
 
 Society of the Sacred Heart of. 
 Bacrlflcatl, 2003. 
 Sacrifices. See Offerings. 
 Sacrilege, 2094. 
 Sacristy and SucrlsUiii, 2094. 
 Sacy, Louis Isaac Le Malstre dc, 2094. 
 Sadducees, 2094. 
 Sadoleto, .Jacopo, 2096. 
 Sagittarius, Kaspar, 2006. 
 Banak. See Armenia. 
 Sailer, Johann Michael, 20t6. 
 Halht Albans, 20110. 
 Saint John, Knights of. See Mllllorjr 
 
 ICellglous Orders. 
 
 Saint-Martin, Louis Claude de, 2096. 
 
 Saint-Simon de Ronvroy, Count Clauds 
 Henri, 2097. 
 
 Saints, Day of All. See All-Saints' Day. 
 
 Saints. Worship of the, 2097. 
 
 Sakya Muni. See Buddhism. 
 
 Sala'mis. 2U98. 
 
 Salem Witchcraft. See Wilchcnift. 
 
 Sales, Francis de. See Francis of Sales. 
 
 Salig, Christian .-Vugust, 2098. 
 
 Salisbury, or New Sarum, 2098. 
 
 Salisbury, John of. See John of Salis- 
 bury. 
 
 Saluianticenscs, 2098. 
 
 Salmasius, Claudius, '2098. 
 
 Salmeron, .Vlphonso, 2098. 
 
 Salt, 2098. 
 
 Salt Sea, 2099. 
 
 Sultzmann, Friedrich Rudolph, 2099. 
 
 Salvation. See Rcdeni])tion. 
 
 Salvation Army, the, 209;.. 
 
 Salve, 2100. 
 
 Salvianus, 210O. 
 
 Salzburg, 2100. 
 
 Samaria and the Samaritans, 2101. 
 
 Samaritan Pentateuch. See Samaria. 
 
 .Saniosata, Paul of. See MonarchianlsnL 
 
 Sampsnpan. See Klkesalles. 
 
 Samson, 2104. 
 
 Samson, Bernhardin, 2106. 
 
 Samuel, 2105. 
 
 Hnmuel, Books of, 2106. 
 
 Haiiballul, 2107. 
 
 Han Benito. Bee Inquisition. 
 
 Sanchez, Thomas, 2107. 
 
 Sanchunlathon, 2108. 
 
 SanerofI, William, 2108. 
 
 Sanctincatlon, 2108. 
 
 Sanction, Pragmatic, 2108. 
 
 Sandernan and the BandemanUDB, 2109. 
 
 Sandwich Islands, the, 2109. 
 
 Saiidys, Edwin, 'illO. 
 
 Sandys, George, 2110. 
 
 Sanhedrin, 2110. 
 
 Santa ('asa. See Loreto. 
 
 SarceriuB, Erasmus, 2112. 
 
 Sardis, 2112. 
 
 Sargon, 2112. 
 
 Sarpi, Paolo, 2113. 
 
 Sartorius, Ernst Wilhclm Christian, 211i 
 
 Sarum Use, 2123. 
 
 Satan. See Devil. 
 
 Satanael, '2113. 
 
 Satisfaction. See Atonement. 
 
 Saturninus, 2114. 
 
 Saturnlnus the Gnostic. See Gnosticism. 
 
 Saul, 2114. 
 
 Saumur. 2115. 
 
 Kaurin, filie, 2115. 
 
 Saurin, Jacqlies, 2115. 
 
 Savonarola, IlieronyrauB, 2115. 
 
 Savoy ('onference. See Conference. 
 
 Saybrook Platform. See Congregation. 
 
 allsm. 
 Bcallger, .Joseph Justus, 2117. 
 Scapegoat. See Atonement, Day of. 
 BcapuTary, 2117. 
 Schade, Georg, 2117. 
 Schadc, Johaiui CJaspar, 2117. 
 Schaetfer, Charles Frederick, 2117. 
 Schall, .Johann Adiim, 2117. 
 Schaufller, William Gottlieb, 2117. 
 Bchefller, Johann, 2118. 
 Schelhorn, Johann Georg. 2118. 
 Scholling, Friedrich Wilhclm Joseph Ton, 
 
 2118. 
 Schelwig, Samuel, 2120. 
 Schem, Alexander Jacob. 21*20. 
 Schlnner, Mattliiius, '21'20. 
 Schism, 2121. 
 Sehliilter, Michael, 2121. 
 Schlelermachcr, Friedrich Daniel Krust, 
 
 2121. 
 Schlcusner, Johann Fried rirh. 2126.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 xxxvii 
 
 I 
 
 Schraalkiild, League and Articles of, 2125. 
 Schmid, Christian Friedrlch, 2126. 
 Schmld, Konrad, 2126. 
 Schmidt, Oswald Gottlob, 2126. 
 Bchraolke, Benjamin, 2126. 
 Schmuckcr, Samuel Biraon, 2120. 
 Schneckenburger, Matthias, 2127. 
 Schoberlein. Ludwlg Kriediich, 2127. 
 Scholastic Theology, 2127. 
 Scholium, the, 2130. 
 Schonherr, Johann lleinrich, 2130. 
 Schoolmen. See Scholastic Theology. 
 Schott, Heinrich August, 2130. 
 Schijttgen, Christian, 2130. 
 Schrockh, Johann Matthias, 2130. 
 Schuitens, Albert, 2131. 
 Schwartz, Christian Friedrich, 2131. 
 Schwarz, Friedrich Heinrich Christian, 
 
 2131. 
 Schwebel, Johann, 2131. 
 Schwegler, Albert, 2131. 
 r^chwenkfekl and the Sohwenkfelders. 
 
 See Tunkers. 
 Schyn, Hermannus, 2132. 
 Scotch Confession of Faith, 2132. 
 Scotch Paraphrases, 2132. 
 Scotland, Churches of. See Presbyterian 
 
 Churches. 
 Scott, Elizabeth, 21.32. 
 Scott, Levi. 2133. 
 Scott, Thomas, 2133. 
 Scott, Thomas, 2133. 
 Scottish Philosophy, 2133. 
 Scotus Erigena, John, 2134. 
 Scotus, Marianus, 2135. 
 iScribes in the New Testament, 2135. 
 Scrlver, Christian, 2137. 
 Scuddcr, John, 2137. 
 Sculpture, Christian, 2137. 
 Scultetus, Abraham, 2140. 
 Seabury, Samuel, 2140. 
 Seagrave, Robert, 2142. 
 Seals. See Rings. 
 Seaman, Lazarus, 2142. 
 Seamen, Missions to, 2142. 
 Sear, Barnas, 2145. 
 
 Sears, Edmund Hamilton, 2145. 
 
 Sebaldus, 2145. 
 
 SeBaptist. See Smyth, John. 
 
 Sebastian, 2146. 
 
 Secession Church. See Presbyterian 
 Churches. 
 
 Seckendorf, Veit Ludwig von, 2146. 
 
 Seeker, Thomas, 2146. 
 
 Second Adventists. See Adventists. 
 (Appendix.) 
 
 Second Coming of Christ. See Millena- 
 rianism, Preraillenianism. 
 
 Secret Discipline. See Arcani Disci- 
 plina. 
 
 Secular Clergy. See Clergy. 
 
 Secularization, 2146. 
 
 Secundus, 2146. 
 
 Sedes Vacans, 2146. 
 
 Sedgwick, Daniel, 2146. 
 
 Sedgwick, Obadiah, 2147. 
 
 Sedulius, C.ijus C(EliuH, 2147. 
 
 Sedulius Scotus, or Sedulius Junior, 2147. 
 
 Seeing God, 2147. 
 
 Seekers, 2148. 
 
 Segneri, Paolo, 2148. 
 
 Seir, or Land of Seir, 2148. 
 
 Sela, or Selah, 2149. 
 
 Selah, 2149. 
 
 Selden, John, 2149. 
 
 Seleucia, 2160. 
 
 Seleucidian Era. See Era. 
 
 Selneccer, Nicoiaus, 2150. 
 
 Selwyn, George Augustus, 2150. 
 
 Semi-Arians, 2150. 
 
 Seminaries, Theological, Continental, 
 2151. 
 
 Seminaries. Theological, of the United 
 I States. See Theological Seminaries. 
 
 Semi.Pelagianism, 2151. 
 
 Semitic Languages, 2153. 
 
 Semler, .Johann Salomo, 2156. 
 
 Seneca, Lucius Annasus, 2157. 
 
 Sennacherib, 2158. 
 
 Separates, 2160. 
 
 Separatism, 2160. 
 
 Sepharv'aim, 2160. 
 
 Septuagint. See Bible Versions. 
 
 Septuagesima, 2161. 
 
 Sepulchre, Holy. See Holy Sepulchre. 
 
 Sequence, the, 2161. 
 
 Seraphim, 2161. 
 
 Sergius Paulus. See Paul. 
 
 Serglus, 2161. 
 
 Sergius (confessor), 2161, 
 
 Sergius (popes), 2161. 
 
 Sermon. See Homlletics. 
 
 Serpent, Brazen, the, 2162. 
 
 Servetus, Michael, 2102. 
 
 Servia, 2163. 
 
 Servites, 2164. 
 
 Ser\'us Servorum Dei, 2164, 
 
 Session, 2164. 
 
 Session of Christ, 2164. 
 
 Sethlani. See Gnosticism. 
 
 Seton, Elizabeth Ann, 2164. 
 
 Seven, the Sacred Number, 2164. 
 
 Seven Sleepers of Ephesue. S«e Epho 
 
 Bu.«, Seven Sleepers of. 
 Seventh-Day Baptists, 2165. 
 Severianus, 2167. 
 Severinus, St., 2167. 
 Severinus (pope), 2167. 
 BeveruB, 2167. 
 Severus, Alexander, 2168. 
 Severus, Septimus, 2168. 
 Severus, Sulpiclus, 2168. 
 Sewall, Samuel, 2168. 
 Sewell, William, 2168. 
 Sexagesima, 2168. 
 Sexton, 2168. 
 Sfondratl, Francis, 2168. 
 Sfondrati, Nicholas, 2168. 
 Sfondrati, Celestlne, 2168. 
 Shaftesbury. See Deism, Infidelity. 
 Shakers, 2108. 
 Shalmaneser, 2170. 
 Shammai. 2171. 
 Sharp, Granville, 2171. 
 Sharp, James, 2171. 
 Sharpe, Samuel, 2172. 
 Shastra, 2172. 
 Sheba. See Arabia. 
 Shechem, 2172. 
 Shechinah, the, 2172. 
 Shekel. See Weights. 
 Shem Hammephorash, 2172. 
 Shemitic Languages. See Semitic Lan- 
 guages. 
 
 Sheol, 2172. 
 
 Shepard, Thomas, 2172. 
 
 Shepherd, Thomas, 2173. 
 
 Shepherd of Hermas. See Heimas. 
 
 Sherlock, Richard, 2173. 
 
 Sherlock, William, 2173. 
 
 Sherlock, Thomas, 2173. 
 
 Sherlock, Martin, 2173. 
 
 Shlnar, 2173. 
 
 ShinShiu, or " Reformed " Buddhism, 
 2175. 
 
 Shinta, 2175. 
 
 Shirley, Hon. Walter, 2177. 
 
 Shishak, 2177. 
 
 Showbread, 2177. 
 
 Showbread, Table of the, 2178. 
 
 Shrine, 2178. 
 
 Shrive, 2178. 
 
 Shrove-Tuesday. See Shrive. 
 
 Shrubsole, William, 2178. 
 
 Shuckford, Samuel, 2179. 
 
 Shushan, 2178. 
 
 Slbbes, Richard, 2178. 
 
 Sibel, Caspar, 2179. 
 
 SibylUne Books, 2179. 
 
 Sicaril, 2180. 
 
 Sickingen, Franz von, 2180. 
 
 Sidney, Sir Philip, 2180. 
 
 Sidon. See Zidon. 
 
 Sidonius, Michael, 2180. 
 
 Siena, Council of, 2180. 
 
 Sieveklng, Amalie, 2181. 
 
 Sigebert of Gemblours, 2181. 
 
 Sigismund, Johaim, 2181. 
 ! Sign of the Cross. See Cross. 
 ! Sigourney, Lydia Howard Huntley, 218L 
 
 Sihor, 2182. 
 
 Siloah. See Jerusalem. 
 
 Simeon. See Tribes. 
 
 Simeon in Bible. See Simon, the Name 
 in Biblical History. 
 
 Simeon Metaphrastes. See Metaphrastee. 
 
 Simeon Stylites. See Stylites. 
 
 Simeon, Archbishop of Thessalonica, 
 2182. 
 
 Simeon, Charles, 2182. 
 
 Simler, Josias, 21S2. 
 
 Simon ben Yochai, 21S2. 
 
 Simon, the Name in Biblical History, 
 2182. 
 
 Siraun Maccaboeus. See Maccabees. 
 
 Simon Magus, 2183. 
 
 Simon, Richard, 2185. 
 Simon of Tournay, 2185. 
 SlmoEiy, 2185. 
 Bimplicius, 2186. 
 Bin (city), 2186. 
 Bin, 2186. 
 
 Bin against the Holy Spirit, the, 218«. 
 Sin-Offerings. See Oftcriiigs. 
 Sins, the Forgiveness of, 2188. 
 Sinai, 2189. 
 
 Sinaita. See .John Scholasticus. 
 Sinaiticus, Codex. See Bible Text. 
 Singing. See Hyranoiogy, Music, Psalm- 
 ody. 
 Sintram, 2190. 
 Sion College, 2190. 
 Sirach. See Apocrypha. 
 Biricius, 2190. 
 Sirmond, Jacques, 2190. 
 Sisters of Charity. See Charity, Sisters of. 
 Sisters of Mercy. See Mercy, Sisters of. 
 Sisterhoods. See Deaconesses. 
 Siva. Bee Brahmanism. 
 Six Articles, the, 2190. 
 Six-Principle Baptists, 2191. 
 Sixtus (popes), 2191. 
 Skelton, Philip, 2192. 
 Skinner, Thomas Harvey, 2192. 
 Slater Fund for the Education of Freed. 
 
 men, 2192. 
 Slavery among the Hebrews, 2192. 
 Slavery in the New Testament, 2193. 
 Slavery and Christianity, 2194. 
 Slavic Bible Versions. See Bible Ver- 
 sions. 
 Sleidan, Johannes, 2198. 
 Smalcald Articles and League. 8ae 
 
 Schmalcald Articles. 
 Smalley, .John, 2198. 
 Smaragdus, 2198. 
 Smart, Christopher, 2193. 
 .Smectymnuus, 2198. 
 Smith, Eli, 2199. 
 Smith, George, 2199. 
 Smith, Henry Boynton, 2199. 
 Smith, .John, 2200. 
 Smith, John Cotton, 2200. 
 Smith, John Pye, 2201. 
 Smith Joseph. See Mormons. 
 Smith, .Samuel Stanhope, 2201. 
 Smith, Sydney, 2201. 
 Smith, William Andrew, 2201. 
 Smyrna, 2201. 
 Smyth. John, 2201. 
 Snethen, Nicholas, 2203. 
 Socialism, 2203. 
 Sociite fivang^lique de Geneve, 2207. 
 
 Society Centrale Protestante d'Evang411. 
 sation, 2207. 
 
 Socinus and the Socinians, 2207. 
 
 Socrates, 2210. 
 
 Socrates (historian), 2211. 
 
 Sodom, 2212. 
 
 Sodor and Man, 2212. 
 
 Sohn, Georg, 2212. 
 
 Soissons, 2212. 
 
 Solemn League and Covenant. See Cov- 
 enant. 
 
 Solitarius, Philip, 2212. 
 
 Solomon, 2213. 
 
 Somaschians, the Order of the, 2214. 
 
 Soothsayer, 2214. 
 
 Sophia, 2214. 
 
 Sophia Senatrix, 2214. 
 
 Sophia, St. See Architecture. 
 
 Sophronius, 2214. 
 
 Sorbonne, the, 2215. 
 
 Sot«r, 2215. 
 
 Soteriology, 2215. 
 
 Soto, Domiuicus de, 2218. 
 
 Soto, Petrus de, 221S. 
 
 Soul-Sleep, or Psychopannychism. 2218. 
 
 Soule, Joshua, 2218. 
 
 South, Robert, 2218. 
 
 Southcott, Johanna. See Sabbatarians. 
 
 South-Sea Islands. See Fiji Islands. 
 
 Southwell, Robert, 2219. 
 
 Sozomenos, Salamanes Hermias, 2220. 
 
 Spain, 2220. 
 \ Spalatin, Georg, 2221. 
 
 Spalding, .Johann .Joachim, 2221. 
 I Spangenberg, Augustus Gottlieb, 2221. 
 
 Spangenberg, Cyriacus, 2222. 
 
 Spanheim, Friedrich (1), 2222. 
 
 Spanheim, Friedrich (2), 2222. 
 I Sparrow, William, 2222. 
 
 Spe», Friedrich von, 2223. 
 1 Spencer, John, 2223.
 
 XTXVlll 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Spener, Philipp Jakob, 2223. 
 
 Spengler, Ls'.arus, 3225. 
 
 Spenser, Edmund, 2225. 
 
 Speratus, PauluB, 222C. 
 
 Spice among the Hebrews, 222Q. 
 
 Spiera, Francesco, 2227. 
 
 Spifaxne, Jocques Paul, Sieur de Passy, 
 
 2227. 
 Spina, Alphonso de, 2227. 
 Spinola, Cristoval liojas de, 222T. 
 Spinoza, Barucli de, 222S. 
 Spires (city), 2230. 
 Spirit, Holy. See Holy Spirit. 
 Spiritual Gifts. See Gifts. Spiritual. 
 Spirit, the Human, in the Biblical Sense, 
 
 2230. 
 Spiritualism, 2231. 
 Spitta, Karl Johann Philipp, 2232. 
 Spondanus, 2232. 
 Sponsors. See Baptism. 
 Sports, Book of, 2232. 
 Spotswood. John, 2232. 
 Sprague, William Buell, 2232. 
 Spreng, Jakob, 2233. 
 Spring, Gardiner. 2233. 
 Spring, Samuel, 2234. 
 Stabat Mater, 2234. 
 Stackhouse, Thomas, 2235. 
 Stahl, Friedrich Julius, 2235. 
 Stancaro, Francesco, 2235. 
 Stanhope, Lady Hester Lucy, 2235. 
 Stanislaus, Bishop of Cracow, 2235, 
 Stanislaus, St., 2230. 
 Stanley, Arthur Penrhyn, 2236. 
 Stapfer, Johann Friedrich, 2237. 
 Stapfer, Johannes, 2237. 
 Stapfer, Philipp Albert, 2237. 
 Staphylus, Friedrich, 2237. 
 Stark," Johann August, 2237. 
 Statistics, Religious. See Religious Sta- 
 tistics. 
 Staudeumaier, Franz .-^nton, 223S. 
 Stiiudlin, Karl Friedrich, 223S. 
 Staupitz, Johann von, 2238. 
 Sledingers, the, 2239. 
 Steele, Anne, -2239. 
 Steinhofer, Maximilian Friedrich Chrifl- 
 
 toph, 22:i9. 
 Steitz, Georg Eduard, 22.39. 
 Stennett, Joseph, 2239. 
 Stennett, Samuel, 2240. 
 Stephan, Martin, and the Stephanists, 
 
 2240. 
 Stephen, 2'240. 
 Stephen (popes), 224L 
 Stephen de Vellavilla, 2241. 
 Stephen of Hungary. See Hungary. 
 Stephen of Tournay, 2241. 
 Stephens, Henry (1), 2241. 
 Stephens, Robert (1), 2241. 
 Stephens, Francois, 2242. 
 Stephens, Robert (2), 2242. 
 Stephens, Henry (2), 2242. 
 Stephens, Paul, 2242. 
 Stephens, Joseph, 2242. 
 Stephens, Antolne, 2242. 
 Stercoranlsls, 2243. 
 Stcrnhold, Thomas, 2243. 
 Sterry, Peter, 22»3. 
 
 Stcuuel, Johann Chrislian Friedrich, 2243, 
 Steward. 2244. 
 Stewart, Dugalrl, 2244, 
 Sllchometry, 2244. 
 Sticfcl, Michael, 2247. 
 Btlekna, (Jonrad. 2247. 
 Stler, Rudolf Ewald, 2248. 
 Stigmatlzatlon, 2248. 
 Stiles, Ezra. 2248. 
 Slllling, 221(1. 
 
 6tllllngHeet, Edward, 2249. 
 Htockcr, John, 2250, 
 Stockton, Thomas Hewllngs, ',^50. 
 Stoddard, Itavld Taj)paii. 2250. 
 Stoddard, Solomon, 22.^)0. 
 Stoicism, 2250. 
 Slolberg, Friedrich Leopold, (.'ount von, 
 
 22.50. 
 Stoning among the IIebrew>4. 2261. 
 Storr, Oottlob Christian. .See Tiiblngcn 
 
 School. 
 Stowcll, Hugh, 2251. 
 Strabo, Walafrled, 22.',I, 
 .Straphan, .Toseph, 2251 , 
 Strauss, David Fried rich, 22.51. 
 Strlgel, VIctorlnus, 225:1, 
 Strjgolnlks. See Russian Sects. 
 Strong, Nathan, 2'ita. 
 HIrypc, ,Tohn, 2254. 
 
 Stuart, Moses, 2254. 
 
 Studites, Simeon, 2255. 
 
 Studites, Theodore, 2255. 
 
 Sturm, Abbot of Fulda, 2265. 
 
 Sturm, Jakob, 2255. 
 
 Sturm, Johann, 2255. 
 
 Stylites, or Pillar-Saints, 225S. 
 
 Stylites, Simeon, 2255. 
 
 Suarea, Francis, 2256. 
 
 Subdeacon, 2256. 
 
 Snbiutroductse, 2256. 
 
 Sublapsarianisra, 2256. 
 
 Subordinationism. See Trinity. 
 
 Succession, Apostolical, 2256. 
 
 Succoth-Benoth, 2257. 
 
 Sudaili, Stephanus Bar, 2267. 
 
 Suffragan, 2257. 
 
 Suger, 2257. 
 
 Suicerus, Johann Caspar, 2257. 
 
 Suidbert, 2257. 
 
 Sulzer, Simon, 2257. 
 
 Summerlield, John, 22,58. 
 
 Summers. Thomas Osmond, 2258. 
 
 Sumner, John Bird, 2258. 
 
 Sun, Worship of the, 2253. 
 
 Sunday, 2259. 
 
 Sunday Legislation, 2260. 
 
 Sunday Schools, 2261. 
 
 Supererogation, 2267. 
 
 Superstition, 2267. 
 
 Supralapsarianisra, 2268. 
 
 Supranaturalism. See Rationalism, Re- 
 ligion, and Revelation. 
 
 Surius, Laureutius, 2268. 
 
 Surplice, 2268. 
 
 Susannah. See Apocrj'pha. 
 
 Suso, Heinrich, 2268. 
 
 Suttee. See Brahmanism. 
 
 Sutton, Christopher, 2269. 
 
 Swain, .Joseph, 2269. 
 
 Sweden, 2269. 
 
 Swedenborg, Emanuel, 2270. 
 
 Swift, Elisha Pope, 2272. 
 
 Swithin, St„ 2272. 
 
 Switzerland, 2272. 
 
 Syllabus, the Papal, 2274. 
 
 Sylvester (popes), 2275. 
 
 Sylvester, Joshua, 2275. 
 
 Sylvestrians, 2275. 
 
 Symbol, 2276. 
 
 Symbolics, 2276. 
 
 Symbolura .Vpostolicum. See Apostles' 
 Creed, 
 
 Symmachians, 2276. 
 
 Symmachus, 2270. 
 
 Symphorianus, 2276. 
 
 Symphorosa, 2276. 
 
 Synagogue, the Great, 2276. 
 
 Synagogues of the Jews, 2277. 
 
 Syncellus, 2278. 
 
 Syncretism, 2278. 
 
 Synergism, 2279. 
 
 Syncsius, 2280. 
 
 .Synod, the Holy. See Russia. 
 
 Synods, See Council. 
 
 Syria, and Missions to Syria, 2281. 
 
 Syrlac Literature, 2285. 
 
 Syrlac Versions. Sie Bible Vereiont. 
 
 Syropulos, Sylvester, 2287. 
 
 Ta\>ernacle, 2288. 
 
 Tabernacle (for the Eucharist), 2289. 
 
 Tabernacles, the Feast of, 2290. 
 
 Tabor, 2290. 
 
 Taborites. See Utrafiulsts. 
 
 Tadruor, 2291. 
 
 Tnlping, 2291, 
 
 Talt, .\rchlbald Campbell, 2282. 
 
 Tnllis, Thomas, 2292. 
 
 Talmud, 2292. 
 
 Tanimuz, 2296. 
 
 'i'anchelm, 22911. 
 
 Tnncred of Bologna, 2296, 
 
 Taol«m, 2296, 
 
 Tappan. David, 2297. 
 
 Tappan. Il.nry Philip, 2297. 
 
 'I'appan, William Bingham, 2287. 
 
 TarasluB. 2297. 
 
 Targum, 2297. 
 
 Tarshlsh, 229U. 
 
 Tarsus, 2;i(lO. 
 
 Tarlan, 2300. 
 
 Tascodrugltes, 2300. 
 
 Tasmania, 2300. 
 
 Tale. Nahum, 2.101. 
 
 .Tatian, 2302. 
 
 Tattam, Henry, 2302. 
 
 Tauler, Johannes, 2302. 
 
 Tausen, Hans, 2303. 
 
 Taverner, Richard, 2303. 
 
 Taxation, Ecclesiastical, 2303. 
 
 Taylor, Dan, 2304. 
 
 Taylor, Isaac, 2304. 
 
 Taylor, Jane, 2304. 
 
 Taylor, Jeremy, 2304, 
 
 Taylor, John, 2305. 
 
 Taylor, Nathaniel William, 2306. 
 
 Taylor, Thomas Rawson, 2307. 
 
 Taylor, William, 2307. 
 
 Te Deum. See Ambrosian Musle. 
 
 Teleology, 2308. 
 
 Telesphorus, 2308. 
 
 Teller, Wilhelm Abraham, 2308. 
 
 Tellier, Michael le, 2308. 
 
 Temperance, 2308. 
 
 Temple at Jerusalem, 2313. 
 
 Templars. See Military Orders. 
 
 Temporal Power. SeeChurch and State; 
 Church, States of the. 
 
 Tempus Clausum, 2316. 
 
 Ten Articles, the, 2315. 
 
 Ten Commandments. Sec Decalogue. 
 
 Tenison, Thomas, 2315. 
 
 Tennent, William (1), 2316. 
 
 Tennent, Gilbert, 2316. 
 
 Tennent, William (2), 2316. 
 
 Tennent, John, 2317. 
 
 Tennent, Charles, 2317. 
 
 Teraphim, 2317. 
 
 Terminism and the Termiiiistic Contro- 
 versy, 2317. 
 
 Territorialism, 2317. 
 
 Tersteegen, Gerhard, 2317. 
 
 Tertiaries, Tertiarii, 2318, 
 
 Tertullian, 2318, 
 
 Test Act. the, 2319. 
 
 Testament, the Old and New, 2319. 
 
 Tetragrammaton, 2319. 
 
 Tetrapolitan Confession, 2319. 
 
 Tetrarch. 2320. 
 
 Tetzel, .lohann, 2,',20, 
 
 Textus Receptus. See Hible Text. 
 
 Thacher, Peter, 2320. 
 
 Thadda'us, See Judas. 
 
 Thamer. Theobald, 2320. 
 
 Theatines, 2320. 
 
 Theatre, the, and the Church, 2320. 
 
 Thecla and Paul. See Apociypha. 
 
 Theiner, Augustin, 2321. 
 
 Theism, 2322. 
 
 Theocracy, 2323. 
 
 Theodicy, 2324. 
 
 Theodora, 2324. 
 
 Theodore (popes), 2324. 
 
 Theodore, St., 2324. 
 
 Theodore, tiraptus, 2324. 
 
 Theodore Lector, 2325. 
 
 Theodore of Mopsuestla, 2325. 
 
 Theodoret, 2.326. 
 
 Theodosius the Great, 2326. 
 
 Theodotion. See Bible VersiOQl. 
 
 Theodulph, 2326. 
 
 Theognostus, 2327. 
 
 Theologia Germanica, 2327. 
 
 Theological Education, 2327. 
 
 Theological Seminaries, Complete List 
 of, 2328. 
 
 Theological Seminaries, Sketches of, 
 2333. 
 
 Theologus, or Theologal, 2344. 
 
 Theology, 234). 
 
 Theology, Monumental. See Monumen- 
 tal Theology. 
 
 Theology, New-England. Sec New- 
 England Theology. 
 
 Theology, Speculative, 2345. 
 
 Theontts, or rhe(ni, 2346. 
 
 Tbeopaschites, 2346, 
 
 Theophanes of Byzantium, 2.346. 
 
 Theoi»hunes, (.'eranieus, 2340. 
 
 Theophany, 2;J46, 
 
 TheoplillanthroplslB, 2347. 
 
 TheophlluB, Blsnop of Alexandria, 2347. 
 
 Theophllus, Blsbui> of .\ntloch. '2347. 
 
 Theophylact, 2:147. 
 
 Theopneusty. See Inspiration. 
 
 Theosophy, 2:!48. 
 
 Theotokos, 2:148. 
 
 Therapeutn', 234S. 
 
 Theremin, Ludwlg Friedrkh Franz, 2348. 
 
 Theresa, Ste,, 2:148. 
 
 Thessalonlans, Kptstle to the. See Paul. 
 
 Thessalonica, 2348,
 
 INDEX. 
 
 XXXIX 
 
 Theudas, 2349. 
 Theurgy, 234». 
 Thibet, Religion of. Sec liuddliiteiu aud 
 
 Lamaiem. 
 Thletmar, 2349. 
 Thilo, Johann Karl, 2349. 
 Thirlwall, Connop, 2349. 
 Thirty Years' War, the, 2:>'>i). 
 Tholuck, Friedrich August, 23.11. 
 Thomas the Apostle, 2352. 
 Thomas a Becket. See Becket. 
 Thomas a Kempis. See Kenipis. 
 Thomas Chrietians. Sec ChriBtiaus of 
 
 Si. Thomas. 
 Thomas of Aquino, 2353. 
 Thomas of Celano, 2355. 
 Thomas of Villanova, 2355. 
 Thomasin of Zirklaria, 2355 
 Thomasius, Gottfried, 2355. 
 Thomassin, Louis, 2355. 
 Thompson, Joseph Parrish, 2355. 
 Thomson, Andrew, 2356. 
 Thomson, Edward, 2356. 
 Thomson, James, 2356. 
 Thorah, 2356. 
 
 Thorn, the Conference of, 2357. 
 Thorndike, Herbert, 2358. 
 Thornton, Robert II., 2358. 
 Thomwell, James Henley, 2358. 
 Three-Chapter Controversy, the, 2359. 
 Thugfl, 2360. 
 
 Thummira. See Urim and Thummim. 
 Thurible, 2360. 
 Thuriticati. See Lapsed. 
 Thyatira, 2360. 
 Tiara, 2360. 
 Tiberias, 2360. 
 Tiglath-pileser, 2360. 
 Tiilemont, Louis Sebastien le Xain de, 
 
 236L 
 Tillotson, John, 2361. 
 Timothy, 2362. 
 
 Timothy, Epistles to. See Paul. 
 Tiudal, Matthew, 2362. 
 Tischeudorf , Lobegott Friedrich Coustan- 
 
 tin, 2363. 
 Tithes, 2364. 
 
 Tithes among the Hebrews, 2365. 
 Tittmann, Johann August Heinrich, 2366. 
 Titular Bishop. See Episcopus in Parti- 
 
 buB. 
 Titus, 2366. 
 
 TitUB, Bishop of Bostra, 23G6. 
 Tobit. See Apocrypha. 
 Tobler, Titus, 2366. 
 Todd, Henry John, 2366. 
 Todd, James Henthorn, 2367. 
 Todd, John, 2367. 
 Toland, John, 2367. 
 Toledo, Councils of, 2367. 
 Toledoth, Jeshu, 2;J68. 
 Toleration. See Liberty, Religious. 
 Tolet, Francis, 2368. 
 Tombes, John, 2369. 
 Tomline, George, 2369. 
 Tongues, Gift of, 2369. 
 Tonsure, the, 2369. 
 Toplady, Augustus Montague, 2370. 
 Torquemada, Juan de, 2370. 
 Torquemada, Thomas de, 2370. 
 Torrey, Joeeph, 2370. 
 ToBsanus, Petrus, 2370. 
 Toulmin, Joshua, 2371. 
 Toulouse, Synods of, 2371. 
 Tournemine, Rene Joseph, 2371. 
 Tours, Synods of, 2371. 
 Towianski, Andreas, 2372. 
 Townley, James, 2372. 
 Townsou, Thomas, 2372. 
 Trachonilis, 2372. 
 Tractarianism, 2372. 
 Tract Societies, Religious, 2374. 
 Tradition, 2.378. 
 Traditores. See Lapsed, the. 
 Traducianism. See Crcationism. 
 Trajan, 2380. 
 
 Transcendentalism in New England, 2380. 
 Transfiguration, 2382. 
 Transmigration, 2385. 
 Transubstantiation, 23S-r». 
 Trapp, John, 2387. 
 Trappists, the, 2387. 
 Trauthson, Johann Joseph, 2388. 
 Tregelles, Samuel Prideaux, 2.388. 
 Trcmellius, Emmanuel, 2388. 
 Trent, Council of, 2389. 
 Trespass Offering. See Offerings. 
 Treves, Holy Coat of, 2390. 
 
 Trials, 2300. 
 
 Tribes of Israel, 2391. 
 
 Trichotomy, 2394. 
 
 Tridentiiie Profession of Faith, 2304. 
 
 Tridentinum. See Trent, Council of. 
 
 Trine Baptism, 2395. 
 
 Trinitiirians, 2395. 
 
 Trinity, 2395. 
 
 Trinity Sunday, 2397. 
 
 Trisagion, 2397. 
 
 Tritheism, 2397. 
 
 TrithemiuB, Johann, 2397. 
 
 Troas, 2397. 
 
 Tronchin, Theodore, 2397. 
 
 Tronchin, Louis, 2398. 
 
 Truber, Primus, 2398. 
 
 Truce of God, 2:198. 
 
 True Reformed Dutch Church. Sec Re 
 
 formed (Dutch) Church. 
 Trullan Councils, the, 239H. 
 Tiibingen School, the, 239S. 
 Tuckerman, Joseph, 2401. 
 Tuckney, Anthony, 2401. 
 Tudela, Benjamin of. Sec Benjamin of 
 
 Tudela. 
 Tunkers, or Dunkere, 2401. 
 Turibius, AIphouBO, 2405. 
 Turkey, 2405. 
 Turiupins, the, 2407. 
 Turner, Daniel, 2407. 
 Turner, Francis, 2407. 
 Turner, James, 2408. 
 Turner, Samuel Hulbeart, 2408. 
 Turretini, orTurretin, B6n6dict, 2408. 
 Turretiui, or Turretin, Francois, 240H. 
 Turretini, or Turretin, Jean Alphonse, 
 
 2408. 
 Tweeten, August Detlev Christian, 240S. 
 Twin, or Dwin, Councils of, 2409. 
 Twissc, William, 2409. 
 Tyana, ApoUonius of. See Apollonius 
 
 of Tyana. 
 Tyana, the Synod of. 2409. 
 Tychonius, 2409. 
 Tychsen, Oluf Gerhard, 2409. 
 Tyler, Bennet, 2409. 
 Tyndale, William, 2410. 
 Type, 2412. 
 Tyre, 2412. 
 Tzschirner, Heinrich Gottlieb, 2413. 
 
 u. 
 
 Ubbonites, 2414. 
 
 Ubertinus, 2414. 
 
 Ubiquity, 2414. 
 
 Ullmaun, Karl, 2415. 
 
 Ulphilas, 2416. 
 
 Ulrich, 2416. 
 
 Ulrich von jfl pn. See Hutten. 
 
 Ultramontane, or UltramoutanistB, 3417. 
 
 Umbreit, Friedrich Wilhelm Kaii, 2417. 
 
 Unbelief. See Infidelity. 
 
 Uncial and Cursive Manuscripts, 2417. 
 
 Uncleanness. See Purifications. 
 
 Unction. See Extreme Unction. 
 
 Uniformity, Acts of, 2417. 
 
 Unigenilus, 2418. 
 
 Union of Churches, 241S. 
 
 Union Evangelical Church. See Union of 
 Churches. 
 
 Unitarianism, 2410. 
 
 Unitarians, 2422. 
 
 Unitas Fratrum. See Moravians. 
 
 United Brethren in Christ, 2422. 
 
 United States of America, Religious His- 
 tory, 2423. 
 
 Universaliem, 2427. 
 
 Universities, 2430. 
 
 University in America, 2433. 
 
 Upham, Thomas Cogswell, 2434. 
 
 Ur of the Chaldees, 2434. 
 
 Urban (popes), 2431. 
 
 Urim and Thummim. 2435. 
 
 Urisperger, Johann August, 2435. 
 
 Ureicinus, 2435. 
 
 UrsinuH, Zacharias, 2435. 
 
 Ursula, 2436. 
 
 Ursulines, the, 2437. 
 
 Ussher, James, 2437. 
 
 Usteri, Leonhard, 2438. 
 
 UeuarduB, 2438. 
 
 Usury, 2438. 
 
 Utenlieim, Christoph von, 2439. 
 
 Utilitarianism, 2439. 
 
 Utraquists and Taborites, 2441, 
 
 Uytenbogaert, Jan, 2443. 
 
 Uzziah, 2443. 
 
 V. 
 
 Vadian, 2444. 
 
 Vagantes, 2444. 
 
 Valdee, Alonso and Juan de, 2444. 
 
 Valens, 2445. 
 
 Valentine, St., 2445. 
 
 Valentinian III., 2445. 
 
 Valenlinus, St., 2445. 
 
 ValentinuB the Gnostic. See Guofltlclia. 
 
 Valerian, 2446. 
 
 Valerian, St., 2446. 
 
 Velesius, Henri de Valoif*, 2446. 
 
 Valla. See-Laurentius Valla. 
 
 Vallombrosa, the Order of, 2446. 
 
 Vandals, 2446. 
 
 Vanderbilt University, 2447. 
 
 Van Doren, William Howard, 2447. 
 
 Vane, Sir Henry, 2447. 
 
 Van Leunep. See Leiiiiep. 
 
 Various Readings, 2447. 
 
 Vaesar College, 2448. 
 
 Vassy, 2448. 
 
 Vatablus, Fran9ois, 2448. 
 
 Vater, Johann Severiii, 2448. 
 
 Vatican Council, 2448. 
 
 Vatican, Palace of the, 24.''i0. 
 
 Vaticanue, Codex. See Bible Text. 
 
 Vatke, Johann Karl Wilhelm, 2450. 
 
 Vaud Canton, Free Church of the, 2451. 
 
 Vaudois. See Waldentes. 
 
 Vaughau, Henry, 2451. 
 
 Vaughau, Robert, 2451. 
 
 Vedas. See Brahmanism. 
 
 Vedder Lectures. See Lectures. (Ap- 
 
 pendlx.) 
 Vehmic Court, 2451. 
 Veil, 2452. 
 Veil of the Tabernacle, Temple. See 
 
 Tabernacle, Temple. 
 Veil, Taking the, 2452. 
 Vellum, 24.52. 
 
 Venantiue Fortunatus. See Fortunatus. 
 Veuatorius, Thomas, 2452. 
 Veuce, Henri Fran9oie de, 2452. 
 Venema, Hermann, 2452. 
 Venerable, 2452. 
 
 Venerable Bede, the. See Bede. 
 Veni, (I'reator Sjiiritus, 2452. 
 Veni, Saucte Spiritus, 2452. 
 Venn, Henrj', 2452. 
 Vercellone, Carlo, 2452. 
 Verena, 2453. 
 
 Vergeriue, Petrus Paulue, 2453. 
 Vermigli. See Peter Martyr. 
 Vernacular, Use of. See Latin, Use of. 
 Veronica, 2453. 
 
 Verses. See Chapters and Verses. 
 Versions. See Bible Ver&ious. 
 Very, Jones, 2453. 
 Very, AVashington, 2453. 
 Vespasian, Titus Flavins, 2453. 
 Vespers, 2454. 
 Vestments and Insignia in the Christian 
 
 Church, 2454. 
 Vestry, 2455. 
 
 Via Dolorosa. See Jerusalem. 
 Viaticum, 2455. 
 Vicar, -.^56. 
 
 Vicar, Apostolic, General. See Vicar. 
 Vicarious Atonement. See Atonement. 
 Vicelin, 2456. 
 Victor (popes), 2456. 
 Victor, Claudius Marius, 2457. 
 Victor, Bishop of .\iitioch, 2457. 
 Victor, Bishop of Capua, 2457. 
 Victor, Bishop of Cartenna, 2457, 
 Victor, Bishop of Tununa, 2457. 
 Victor, Bishop of Vita, 2457. 
 Victoriuus, 2457. 
 Victricius, St., 2457. 
 Vieune, 2457. 
 Vigilantius, 2457. 
 Viglliue, i458. 
 Vigilius the Deacon, 24-58. 
 Vigilius, Bishop of Tapsus, 3458. 
 Vigilius, Bishop of Trent, 3458. 
 Vigils, 2458. 
 
 Vignolles, Alphonse de, 2459. 
 Villegagnon, Nicholas Durand de, 2459. 
 Villers, Charles Francois Dominique de, 
 
 3459. 
 Vilmar, August Friedrich Christian, 2459. 
 Vincent of Beauvais, 2459. 
 Vincent of Lerius, 2460. 
 Vincent de Paul, 3460. 
 Vincent of Saragossa, 2460. 
 Vincent, Samuel, 2460.
 
 xl 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Vine, Cultivation of the. See Wine. 
 
 Vines, Richard, 2461. 
 
 Vinet, Alexandre Rodolphe, 2461. 
 
 Vinton, Francis, 2462. 
 
 Viret, Pierre, 2462. 
 
 Virgilius, St., 2462. 
 
 Vir^nia, Protestaut-Episcopal Theologi- 
 cal Seminary of, 2463. 
 
 Vishnu. See Brahraauism. 
 
 Visitants, or Nuns of the Visitation, 2403. 
 
 VisitatioLiminuiuSS. Apostolorum,246:j. 
 
 Vitalian, 2463. 
 
 Vitalis, 24<>4. 
 
 Vitringa, Carapegius, 2464. 
 
 Vitus, St., 2464. 
 
 Vives, Juan Ludovico de, 2464. 
 
 Vocation. See Calling. 
 
 Voetius, Gysbertus, 2464. 
 
 Volney, Constairtin Francois Chassebceuf , 
 Comte de, 2464. 
 
 Voltaire, 2465. 
 
 Voragine. See Jacobus dc Voragiiie. 
 
 Vorstius, Conrad, 2466. 
 
 Vossius, Gerard, 2467. 
 
 Vossius, Gerard Jan, 2467. 
 
 Votive-Offerings, 2467. 
 
 Vowel-Points. See Bible Text. 
 
 Vowel -Points, Controversy respecting. 
 See Buxtorf, Capellus. 
 
 Vows, 2467. 
 
 Vows among the Hebrews, 2468. 
 
 Vulgftte, 2468. 
 
 w. 
 
 Wackernaerel, Karl Eduard I^hilipp, 2469. 
 Waddell, James, 2469. 
 Wadding, Luke, 2469. 
 Waddington, George, 2469. 
 Wafer, 2469. 
 
 Wagenseil, Johanu Christoph, 2469. 
 Wahabees, 2469. 
 
 Wainwright, Jonathan Mayhew, 2470. 
 Wake. William, 2470. 
 Wakefield, Gilbert, 2470. 
 Walch, Johann Georg, 2470. 
 Walch, Christiau Wilhelm Franz, 2470. 
 Waldegrave, Samuel, 2470. 
 Waklenses, 2470. 
 Waldhausen, Conrad von, 2477. 
 Waldo, Peter. See Waldenses. 
 Walker, James, 2477. 
 Wall, William, 2477. 
 Wallafrid Strabo. See Strabo. 
 Waller, Kdmund, 2477. 
 Wallin, Benjamin, 2477. 
 Wallis, John, 2477. 
 Walloon Church. See Ilolland. 
 Walpurgis, or Walpurga, St., 2477. 
 Walsh, Thomas, 2477. 
 Walter of St. Victor, 2478. 
 Walther von der Vogylweide, 247S. 
 Walton, Brian, 2478. 
 Wandelbert, St., 2478. 
 M'anderlngin the Wildernees. See Wil- 
 derness of the Wandering. 
 Wandering Jew. See Jew, Wandering. 
 War, 2479. 
 
 War, Hebrew Methods in. See Army. 
 
 Warburton, William, 2479. 
 
 Warburtonian Lecture, 2480. 
 
 Warden, 24-SO. 
 
 Wardluw, lialph, 2480. 
 
 Ware. Henry. 2481. 
 
 Ware, Henry, jun., 2481. 
 
 Warham, 24^1. 
 
 Washburn, Edward Abicl, 2481. 
 
 WalchXlKht, the, 2482. 
 
 Water, Holy. See Holy Water. 
 
 Water cif Jealousy. See Jealousy. 
 
 Watertand. Daniel, 2482. 
 
 Watfon, lilchurd, Bishop of Llandaff, 
 24^2. 
 
 Wathon, Kichard,2482. 
 
 Watson, 'J'hoinas, 2483. 
 
 Watt, Joachim von. See Vadlan. 
 
 Walt-*, Isaac. 2483, 
 
 Wautfh, Beverly, 2484. 
 
 Wuvland, Francis, 2484. 
 
 Wazo, 24S4. 
 
 Week, 24H4. 
 
 WeuHchelder, Julius August Ludwl^ 
 218.'.. 
 
 WelK.I. Valentin, 2485. 
 
 Weights and Measures among the lie 
 brews. 24Hr). 
 
 Weir, Duncan IfarknoM, 24B0. 
 
 WelsM, Chnrlen, 2187. 
 
 \VvU», Pnntiik'on, 2487. 
 
 Weisse, Christian Hermann, 2487. 
 
 Wells, Edward, 2487. 
 
 Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Church, 2487. 
 
 Wendelin, or Waudelin, 24S9. 
 
 Wendelin, Markus Friedrich, 24S9. 
 
 Wends. 2489. 
 
 Werenfels, Samuel, 2489. 
 
 Werkraeister, Beuedikt Maria von, 2489. 
 
 Wernsdorf, Gottlieb, 2490. 
 
 Wertheim, the Bible of, 2490. 
 
 Wesel, Johann von, 2490. 
 
 Wesley, Charles, 2490. 
 
 Wesley, John, 2491. 
 
 Wesley, Samuel, sen., 2495. 
 
 Wesley, Samuel, jun., 2495. 
 
 Wesley, Susannah, 2495. 
 
 Wesleyau Female College, 2496. 
 
 Wesleyan Methodists, Theology of. See 
 
 Arniiuianism. 
 Wessel, Johann, 2496. 
 Wessenberg, Ignaz TIeinrich, 2497. 
 West Goths. See Goths. 
 West, Stephen, 2497. 
 Westen, Thomas von, 2498. 
 Western Theological Seminary, the, 249S. 
 Westminster Abbey, 2499. 
 Westminster Assembly, 2499. 
 Westminster Standards, 2501. 
 Westphai, Joachim, 2503. 
 Westphalia, the Peace of, 2503. 
 Wetstein, Johanu Jakob, 2504. 
 Wette, de, Wilhelm Martin Leberechl, 
 
 2504. 
 Wetzer, Heinrich Joseph, 2506. 
 Whately, Richard, 2506. 
 Wheelock, Eleazer, 2507. 
 Wheelock, John, 2508. 
 Whewell, William, 2508. 
 Whichcote, Benjamin, 2508. 
 Whiston, William, 2509. 
 Whitaker, William, 2509. 
 Whitby, the Council of, 2509. 
 Whitby, Daniel, 2509. 
 White, Henry, 2510. 
 White, Henry Kirke, 2510. 
 White, Joseph, 2510. 
 White, William, 2510. 
 Whitetield. George, 2511. 
 Whitgift, John. 2512. 
 Whitsunday. See Pentecost. 
 Whittemore, Thomas, 2513. 
 Whittinghara. William Kollinson, 2513. 
 Whittlesey. William, 2513. 
 Wicelius, or Wilzel, Georg, 2513. 
 Wichern. Johann Heinrich, 2514. 
 WicUf. John, 2514. 
 Widows, Hebrew, 2519. 
 Widows in the ApostoUc Church. Sec 
 
 Deaconesses. 
 Wigand, Johann, 2519. 
 Wigbert, St., 2520. 
 Wigglesworth, Michael, 2520. 
 Wightman, William May, 2520. 
 Wilberforcc, Samuel, 2520. 
 Wilberforce, William, 2520. 
 Wilbrord, or Willibrord, 2521. 
 Wilderness, 2521. 
 
 AVllderness of the Wandeiilig, iC22. 
 Wilfrid. 2522. 
 Will, the, 2522. 
 Willehad, St.. 2528. 
 Willeram, or Wlltramus. 2528. 
 William of Auvergne, 2528. 
 William of ( -himii.eaux. 2528. 
 William of Malnuhbury. 2529. 
 William of .NanHau. 252'.<. 
 William of St. Amour, 2529. 
 William of Tyre, 2.V29. 
 M'llllam of Wykeham. 2530. 
 Williams, Daniel, 2530. 
 Willlanifi, Helen Maria. 2530. 
 Williams, Ismic. 2530. 
 WUHams, John, Archbishop of York, 
 
 2530. 
 Williams, John, Mieeiouary, 2531. 
 Williams, RoKcr. 2631. 
 Williams, Rowland, 2533. 
 Williams. William. 25:i3. 
 WIlliamHon, Isaac Dowd, 2533. 
 Willibald. St., 2533. 
 Wlllibrod. See Wilbrord. 
 Willirani. See Willeram. 
 Willson. James Uenwlck. 2533. 
 Wllmcr, William Holland, 2633. 
 Wilson. Bird. 2533. 
 Wilson. Daniel, 2534. 
 WilHon. John. 2534. 
 Wilson, Thomas. 2W4. 
 
 WimpTieling, Jakob, 253Ji. 
 
 Wimpina. Conrad, 2535. 
 
 Winans, William, 2535. 
 
 Winchester, 2535. 
 
 Winchester. Elhanan, 25S5. 
 
 Winckler, Johann, 2535. 
 
 Windesheim, or Windesen, 2536. 
 
 Wine-Making among the Hebrews, 2536. 
 
 Wine, Bible,' 2536. 
 
 Wiuebrennerians, 2538. 
 
 Winer, Georg Benedikt, 2539. 
 
 Wines, Enoch Cobb, 2540. 
 
 Winfrid. See Boniface. 
 
 Wiuslow, Miron, 2540. 
 
 Winterthur, Johann of, 2540. 
 
 Wisdom of Solomon. See Apocrypha. 
 
 Wiseman, Nicholas Patiick Stephen, 2540. 
 
 Wishart, George, 2540. 
 
 Wishart, or Wiseheart, George, 2541. 
 
 Witchcraft, 2542. 
 
 Wither, George, 2542. 
 
 Witherspoon, John, 2543. 
 
 Witness-Bearing amon^ the Hebrews, 
 
 2543. 
 Witsius, Hermann, 2543. 
 Wittenberg, the Concord of, 2544. 
 Wodrow, Robert, 2544. 
 Wolf, Johann Christoph, 2545. 
 Wolfenbiittel Fragments, 2545. 
 Wolff, Bernard C, 2545. 
 Wolff, Christian, 2545. 
 Wolff, Joseph, 2547. 
 Wollaston, William, 2547. 
 Woileb, Johannes, 2547. 
 Wolsey, Thomas. 2547. 
 Woltersdorff, Ernst Gottlieb, 2548. 
 Woman, 2548. 
 Woodd, Basil, 2549. 
 Woods, l,eonard. 2550. 
 Woods, Leonard, jun., 2500. 
 Woolston, Thomas, 2550. 
 Worcester, 2550. 
 Worcester, Samuel, 2550. 
 Wordsworth, Christopher, 2551. 
 Works, Good, 2551. 
 World, 2551. 
 Worms, 2553. 
 Worship, 2554. 
 Wotton, Sir Henry, 25jj. 
 WottOD, AVilliam, 2555. 
 Writing among the Hebrews, 2555, 
 Wulfram, St., 2557. 
 %Vurtemberg, the Kingdom of, 2557. 
 Wuttke, Karl Friedrich Adolf, 2557. 
 Wylie, Samuel Brown, 2557. 
 Wyttenbach, Thomas, 2557. 
 
 Xavier. See Francis Xavier. 
 Ximenes de Cisueros, Francisco, 2i^. 
 
 Yale University, 2560. 
 
 Yates, William, 2561. 
 
 Year, the Church, 2562. 
 
 Year, Hebrew, 2562. 
 
 Yeomaus, Edward Dorr, 2563. 
 
 York, 2564. 
 
 Young, Brigham. See Mormons. 
 
 Young. Edward, 2564. 
 
 Young, l*atrick, 2564, 
 
 Young Men's Christian Associations, 
 
 2564. 
 Young Women's Christian ABSociations, 
 
 2566. 
 Yule. 25G6. 
 Yvouetus, 2566. 
 
 Zabarolla, or Dc ZnbnrelliB, 25G7. 
 
 ZacchtPUH, 2567. 
 
 Zacharlii. Gotthllf Traugott, 2567. 
 
 ^acharias, 2567, 
 
 ZachariUH Scliolaslicus, 2567, 
 
 Zam7.umml[n, or Zu/lm, 2567. 
 
 Zanchl. IlieronymuB, 2567. 
 
 Zealot. 2567. 
 
 Zebulun. See Tribes of Israel. 
 
 Zechariah. 2568. 
 
 Zedekiah, 2570. 
 
 Zeisborger, David 2570. 
 
 Zell, MatthiiuB, 2571. 
 
 Zwui Avesta. See PorseelBm. 
 
 Zeno. 2571. 
 
 Zephaniah. 2571.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 xli 
 
 Zephyrinu9, 2572. 
 
 
 
 Ziuzeiidorf, Nicholas Lewis, Count von, 
 
 Zoba. or Zobah, 2576. 
 
 Z.Mi.bbabi-l, 2572. 
 
 
 
 2.57;). 
 
 Zollikofer, Georg .Joacbitn, 257fl. 
 
 Ziiloii. (ir Smon, 2578. 
 
 
 
 Ziori, or Sion, 2575. 
 
 Zoiiaras, .Johannes, 2570. 
 
 Zk-;;cnbalf;, Bartholomew. 
 
 See 
 
 Mls- 
 
 Zizl<a, .lolin. See Hussites, 1M5 ; Utra- 
 
 Zi>r<)aHt<'r. See Parseeisni, 1750, 
 
 siona, :530, 1531. 
 
 
 
 quistri, 2.J42. 
 
 ZoHiiiMirt, 2ri7tJ. 
 
 Zillerthal, 2573. 
 
 
 
 Zoan, 2575. 
 
 Zuick, .lohiiiincs, 2576. 
 
 Zimri, 2573. 
 
 
 
 Zoar, 2570. 
 
 Zwincli, lluldrelch, 2576. 
 
 ^ p p E isr D I X 
 
 Accad. See Shinar, 2174. 
 
 Adams, Mrs. Sarah Flower, 2581. 
 
 Adventists, 2681. 
 
 Advowson, 2582. 
 
 AHatius, Leo, 2582. 
 
 Alleine, .Joseph, 2.°i82. 
 
 Allen, James, 2582. 
 
 Anan the Karaite. See Karaite .Jew.s, 
 
 122.5. 
 Andrew, 2582. 
 Anstice, .Joseph, 2.582. 
 Anti-mission Baptists, 2.583. 
 Atwater. Lyman Hotchkif^y, 2583. 
 Auber, Harriet, 2583. 
 Austin, .John, 2583. 
 Baker, Sir Henry Williams, 2583. 
 Bakewell, John, 2583. 
 Barton, Bernard, 258;J. 
 Bathurst, William Hiley, 2583. 
 Bauer, Bruno, 2583. 
 Beaumont, Joseph, 2584. 
 Beddome, Benjamin, 2584. 
 Begii, James, 2581. 
 Bellows, Henry Whitney, 2585. 
 Berridfie, .John, 2585. 
 Bible Christians, 2585. 
 Blacklock, Thomas, 258G. 
 Boden, James, 2586. 
 Boston University, School of TheoloEv 
 
 of, 2586. 
 Bowdler, John, Jr., 2587. 
 Brown, James, 2587. 
 Brown, Matthew, 2.587. 
 Brown, Phrebe, 2.587. 
 Browne, George, 2587. 
 Browne, I'eter, 2587. 
 Browne, Simon, 2587. 
 Bruce, Michael, 2588. 
 Bryant, William Cullen, 2588. 
 Bnlflnch, Stephen Greenleaf, 2588, 
 Harder, George, 2588. 
 Barleigh, William Henry, 2588. 
 Buridjam, Richard, 2588. 
 Byrom, John, 2588. 
 Carlyle, Joseph Dacre, 2588. 
 Cary sisters, 2,588. 
 Caswall, Edward, 2588. 
 Cawood, John, 2589. 
 Ceuuick, John, 2589. 
 
 Chandler, John, 2.589. 
 
 Christadelphians, 2589. 
 
 Coan, Titus, 2590. 
 
 Coleman, Lyman, 2590. 
 
 Colenso, John William, 2590. 
 
 Collyer, William Hengo, 2590. 
 
 Conder, Josiah, 2590. 
 
 Cooper, Peter, 8590, 
 
 Cotterill, Thomas, 2591. 
 
 Cotton, Nathaniel, 2592. 
 
 Cowley, ,\l)raham, 2592. 
 
 Croly, Ceorge, 8592, 
 
 Cro,ssiii:in, Samuel, 2592, 
 
 Crosswell, William, 259i, 
 
 Darby, John Nelson, 2592, 
 
 Davies, Sir John, 2593. 
 
 De«ey, Orville, 2593. 
 
 Dobell, John, 2593, 
 
 Dodge, William Earl, 2.593. 
 
 Doremus. Mrs. ThonuiH C, 2594. 
 
 Drummond, William. 2595. 
 
 Dunn, llobinson I'orter, 2.595. 
 
 Edmeston, James, 2.595. 
 
 Elliott, Charlotte, 2595. 
 
 Elliott, David, 2595. 
 
 Enfield, William, 2.595. 
 
 Ephraim. See Tribe, of Israel, 2398. 
 
 Erskiiie, Ralph, 8595. 
 
 Eucharist. 2595. 
 
 Fawcett, John, 2596. 
 
 Fitch, Eleazar Thompson, 2696. 
 
 Follen, Eliza Lee. 2596. 
 
 Friends, Liberal Branch, 2.596. 
 
 Frothingham, Nathaniel Langdon, 2597, 
 
 General Baptists. See p. 2202. 
 
 Gibbons, Thomas, 2597. 
 
 Gilnian, Samuel, 2597. 
 
 Gisborue, Thomas, 2597. 
 
 Goode, William, 2597. 
 
 Graham, .Tames, 2597. 
 
 Grant, Sir Robert, 2597. 
 
 Grigg, Joseph, 2697. 
 
 Gurney, John Hampden. 2597. 
 
 Habington, William, 2597. 
 
 Hammond, William, 2597. 
 
 Hanna, William, 2598. 
 
 Hart, Jo."eph, 2598. 
 
 Hastings, Thomas, 2598, 
 
 Hallleid, Edwiu Francis 2599. 
 
 Haweis, Thomas, 2599. 
 
 Heginbotham, Othwell, 2599. 
 
 Hemaiis, Felicia Dorothea, 2-599. 
 
 Herbert, Daniel, 2.599. 
 
 Herrick, Itobert, 2599. 
 
 Herron, Francis, 8599. 
 
 Herzog, Johann Jakob, 2599. 
 
 Hornblower, William Henry, 2600. 
 
 Hoskins. Joseph. 2000. 
 
 Hurn, William, 8600, 
 
 Hyde, .\bby, 2601. 
 
 Indians of North America, 2i;01. 
 
 Irons, Joseph, 2608. 
 
 Irons, William Josiah, 2602. 
 
 Johns, John, 2602. 
 
 Joyce, James, 2003. 
 
 Kent, John, 2603. 
 
 Key, Francis Scott, 2603. 
 
 Krauth, Charles Porterfleld, :I003. 
 
 Leland, John, 2604. 
 
 Lenox, James. 2604, 
 
 LeQuien, Michael, 2604, 
 
 Lloyd, William Freeman, 2004, 
 
 Lourie, Walter, 2604, 
 
 Lynch, Thomas Toke, 2004. 
 
 Aiacurdy, Elisha, 2605. 
 
 Madan, Martin, 2605. 
 
 Martensen, Hans Lassen, 2610. 
 
 McMillan, John, 800.5, 
 
 Medley, Samuel, 2605. 
 
 Merrick, James, 2600. 
 
 Mills, Henrv, 2600, 
 
 Moffat, Robert. 8606, 
 
 Moncrciff, Sir Henry Wellwood, 20O6. 
 
 Monsell, .John Samuel Bewly, 8007. 
 
 Moore, Thomas, 2007. 
 
 Morgan, Edwin Denison, 2607. 
 
 Patterson, Joseph, 2607. 
 
 Primitive Baptists. See Anti-miseioq 
 
 Baptists, 2,583. 
 Schwab, Guslav, 2607. 
 Stark, Johann Friedrich, 2608. 
 Starke, Christoph, 2608, 
 Stuart, Robert L, and Alexander, 260S, 
 Ueberweg, Friedrich, 2008, 
 Veni, Creator Spiritus, 8608, 
 White, Norman, 2009. 
 Wilson, Samuel Jennings, 2609. 
 Zschokke, Johann Heinrich Daniel. 2609.
 
 INDEX TO ENCYCLOPiEDIA OF LIVING DIVINES. 
 
 A. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Abbot,E 1,273 
 
 Abbott, E. A a, 273 
 
 Abbott, L 2,873 
 
 Abbott, T. K 3 
 
 Achelis, E. C 3,251 
 
 Acquoy.J.G.M 3,251 
 
 Adams, W. F 3 
 
 Adler, F 3 
 
 Adler,H 3 
 
 Adler, N.M 3,873 
 
 Ahlfeid.J.F 3,251 
 
 Aiken, C. A 3 
 
 Aitken, W. H. M. H 4 
 
 Alden, E. K 4 
 
 Alexander, H. C 4, 251 
 
 Alexander, W 4,251 
 
 Alexander, W 4,273 
 
 Alexander, W. L 4 
 
 Alger, W. R 4 
 
 Allen, A. V. G 5,251,273 
 
 Allen, J. H 5 
 
 Allioli, J. F 5 
 
 Allison, J 5 
 
 Allon,H 5 
 
 Anderson, G 5, 273 
 
 Anderson, M. B 5, 273 
 
 Andrews, E. G 6 
 
 Angus, J 6 
 
 AppeI,T (i, 273 
 
 Apple, T.G fi,273 
 
 Argyll, Duke of 6,273 
 
 Ariitage, T 6,273 
 
 Armstrong, G. D 6 
 
 Arnold, E 6 
 
 Arnold, M 7, 251 , 273 
 
 Arthur, W 7, 273 
 
 Aetie, J. F 7,273 
 
 Atlav, J 7 
 
 Attcrbtirv, W. W 7, 273 
 
 Atwood, I. M 7 
 
 B. 
 
 Bach, J 8 
 
 Bachmann, J. F. J 8, 273 
 
 Bacon, L.W 8,273 
 
 Baethgen, F. W. A 8,273 
 
 Baird, C. W 8,273 
 
 Baird, H. M 9,251 
 
 Balan, P 9 
 
 Ballantine, W. G 9 
 
 Balogh, F 9 
 
 Barbour, W. McL 9, 273 
 
 Barclay, J 10 
 
 Barg«B,J.J.L 10,273 
 
 Baring-Gould, S 10, 251, 273 
 
 Bamard,F.A.P 10,274 
 
 Barrett, B. P 10 
 
 Barrows, J. H 11 
 
 Barrows, S.J II 
 
 Barrows,W.M 11 
 
 Barry, A 11 
 
 Bartlett, E. T 11 
 
 Barllett, S. C 11 
 
 Bartol, C. A 11 
 
 Bascom, J 12,274 
 
 Biussermann, H 12, 274 
 
 Bates, C. S 12 
 
 Batterson, H. G 12 
 
 Baudisein, W. W. F 12, 251, 274 
 
 Baum, H. M 18, 31 
 
 Baur,G.(A.L.) 12,251,274 
 
 Banaman, B 12 
 
 BavViss, J. H 12,274 
 
 Beard, C 12,274 
 
 Bcattie, F. K 12 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Beaudry, L. N 13 
 
 Beckwtth, J. W 13 
 
 Beckx, P. J 13,274 
 
 Bedell, G. T 13 
 
 Beecher, C 13 
 
 Beecher, E 13 
 
 Beecher. H. W 14,251,274 
 
 Beecher, T. K 14 
 
 Beecher, W. J 14 
 
 Beet, J. A 14, 274 
 
 Beets, N 14,251 
 
 Behrends, A. J. F 14,2,51,274 
 
 Bell, F. W. B. V 14, 251 
 
 Bender, W. P 14, 252, 274 
 
 Bennett, C. W 15,274 
 
 Benrath, K 15, 252, 274 
 
 Bensly, R. L 15 
 
 Benson, E. W 15, 252 
 
 Benton, A. A 15 
 
 Benton, J. A 15 
 
 Beresford, M. G 15, 252 
 
 Berger, D 15 
 
 Berger, S 15 
 
 Bernard, C. B 16,2.52 
 
 Bernard, T. D 16 
 
 Bemheim, G. D 16 
 
 Bersier, E. A. F 16,2,52,274 
 
 Bertbeau, C 16 
 
 Bertheau, E 16, 274 
 
 Bertram, R. A 18 
 
 Bestmann, H.J 16, 252, 274 
 
 Bevan, L. D 17,253 
 
 Beyschlax, W 17, 253, 274 
 
 Bickell, G 17, 274 
 
 Bickersteth, E 17, 253 
 
 Bickerttetb, E, H 17 
 
 Biedermann, A. E 17 
 
 Binney, J 18 
 
 Binnie, W 18,274 
 
 Bird.F.M 18 
 
 BirreIl,J 18 
 
 Bissell, E. C 18,274 
 
 Blssell, W. n 18 
 
 Bittner, F. A 18, 274 
 
 BiOrling, C. () 19 
 
 Blackburn, W. M 19 
 
 Blackwood, W 19 
 
 Blaikie, W. G 19,274 
 
 Blakesley, J. W 19 
 
 Bledsoe, A. T 19 
 
 Bliss, D 20 
 
 Bliss, G. R 20 
 
 Blomfleld, A 20 
 
 Blunt, J. H 20, 252, 274 
 
 Bbardman, G. D 21, 274 
 
 Boardman, G.N 81,252 
 
 Boehl, E 21,274 
 
 Boehringer, G. F 21 
 
 Boebrlngcr, P 21, 274 
 
 Boise, J. R 81 
 
 Bomberger, J. H. A 21, 274 
 
 Bonar, A. A 22 
 
 Bonar, H 22,252,274 
 
 Bonet-Maury, A. G. C. A 22,252 
 
 Bonnet, J 23,252,274 
 
 Bonwetsch, G.N 23 
 
 Boone, W.J 23 
 
 Booth, W 22, 274 
 
 Bordier, H. L 22,252,274 
 
 Bomemann, F. W. B 23,274 
 
 BoUTier, A. A. 22 
 
 Bovet,E.V.F 23,274 
 
 Bowman, T 23 
 
 Boyce, J 23 
 
 Boyce, J.P 2.3,274 
 
 Boyce, W. B 23,274 
 
 Boyd,A.K.H 23,274 
 
 Boyle, G.D 24 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Brace, C. L 21,275 
 
 Bradley, C. F 24 
 
 Bradley, G. G 24, 275 
 
 Brastow, L. O -. •• 24 
 
 Bratkc.E 24,275 
 
 Bredenkarap, C. J 24, 253, 275 
 
 Breed, W.P 24,275 
 
 Brewer, L.K 24 
 
 Brieger, T 34,275 
 
 Briggs, C. A 25, a.T.'i, 275 
 
 Bright, W 25, a>3, 275 
 
 Broadus,J.A 25,275 
 
 Brooke, S. A 25, 253 
 
 Brooks, P 25,275 
 
 Brown, C. R 2B, 375 
 
 Brown, D 28,275 
 
 Brown, F 26,275 
 
 Brown, H. S 28,275 
 
 Brown, J. B 28. 275 
 
 Brown, J. H. H 26,275 
 
 Browne, E. H 27, 253, 275 
 
 Browne, J 27 
 
 Bmce, A. B 27,25:^,275 
 
 Brueckner, B. B 27,253 
 
 Bruston, C. A 27, 253, 275 
 
 Bryce, G 27 
 
 Bryennios, P 27 
 
 Buchwald, G. A 28,253,275 
 
 Buckley, J. M 28,253,275 
 
 Budde," K. IF. R.) 28, 275 
 
 Buder, P 28 
 
 Buel, S 89.275 
 
 Buell.M.D 29 
 
 Burgess, A 29 
 
 Burgess, H 29 
 
 Burgon, J. W 29, 253. 275 
 
 Burney,S.G 29,275 
 
 Burnbam, S 30 
 
 Burr, E. F 30.275 
 
 Burrage, H. S 30. 275 
 
 Burrowes, G 30 
 
 Burton, E.DeW 30,27a 
 
 Burwash, N 30 
 
 Butler, CM -^ 
 
 Butler, H. M 31 
 
 Butler, J. G 81,275 
 
 Butler, W 31 
 
 Buttz, H. A 31 
 
 C. 
 
 Caird, J 32,275 
 
 Cairns, J 33 
 
 Calderwood,H 32.275 
 
 Cameron, G. G 33 
 
 Campbell, J. C 32,275 
 
 Campbell, J 32 
 
 Campbell, \V. H 82, 275 
 
 CapeT,T. J 32 
 
 Capen, E. H 33 
 
 Carpenter, W. B 43.275 
 
 Carroll, H. K 33.253 
 
 Carson, J. G 33, 253 
 
 Cary, G. L 33 
 
 Caspari, C. P 33,25.3,275 
 
 Cassel, P. (S. S.) 33,353,275 
 
 Cathcart, W 34 
 
 Cattell, W. C 34 
 
 Cave,A 3«, 276 
 
 Caven, W 34 
 
 Chadwick, J. W 34.276 
 
 Chalmers, W 34 
 
 Chamberlain, J 34 
 
 Chambers, T. W 35.276 
 
 Chance, F •■• 3j 
 
 Channinff, W. H 35, 276 
 
 Chantre, D. A 35
 
 Nliv 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Chaponni^re. J. F 35 
 
 Charteris, A. U 33 
 
 Chase. T^ 36, 276 
 
 Chastel, E. (L.) 36,276 
 
 Cheetham, S 36 
 
 Cheever, G. B 36, 276 
 
 Chenery, T 36 
 
 Cheney, C. E 37 
 
 Chester, W. B 37,253 
 
 Chejiw, T. K 37, 253, 276 
 
 Chluiquy, C 37, 276 
 
 Chinnery-Haldaue, J. R. A 37 
 
 Christlieb, T 37,276 
 
 Church, P 38, 276 
 
 Church, R.W 38,254,276 
 
 Churchill, J. W 38 
 
 Clapp, A. H .38 
 
 Clark, G. W 38 
 
 Clark, J. B 38 
 
 Clark, X. G 38 
 
 Clark, T. M 39,276 
 
 Clarke, J. F 39, 254, 276 
 
 Clarke, W. N 39 
 
 Claughton, T. L 39 
 
 Clifford, J 3U, 276 
 
 Cobb,L.H 39 
 
 Coe, D. B 39 
 
 Coit,T. W 40 
 
 Collier, R. L 4ii. 276 
 
 Collyer, R 40,276 
 
 Comba, E 40, 254, 276 
 
 Compton, A. S 40 
 
 Conant, T. J 40 
 
 Conder, E. R 41, 254, 276 
 
 Conrad, F. \V 41 
 
 Converse. F. B 41 
 
 Converse, T. E 41 
 
 Conwav, M. D 41 
 
 Cook, F. C 41 
 
 Cook, J 41, 276 
 
 Cooper, T 42, 276 
 
 Comill, C. H 43, 254 
 
 Cornish, G. H 42 
 
 Corrigan, M. A 42 
 
 Corwm, E. T 42 
 
 Cotterill, H 42,254 
 
 Coulin, F 42,254 
 
 Coussirat, D 42 
 
 Cowie, B. M 43 
 
 Cox, S 43, 276 
 
 Coxe, .\. C 43,276 
 
 Crafts, W. F 43 
 
 Craig, J. A 44,276 
 
 Craig, W. G 44 
 
 Cramer, J 44, 254 
 
 Cramer, M. J 44 
 
 Crarv, B. P 44 
 
 Craven, E. R 44 
 
 Creighton, M -44.2.54, 276 
 
 Cremer, A. 11 44, 254, 276 
 
 Crooks, G.R 44,276 
 
 Crosby, H 45, )i!54, 276 
 
 Croskery, T 45, 2.54 
 
 Cross, J 45 
 
 Culross, J 45, 3.54, 376 
 
 Cunilz, A. E 45,2,54 
 
 Curci, CM 45 
 
 Currey, G 46 
 
 Carrier. A. H 46 
 
 Curry, I) 46,376 
 
 Curry, .(. L. M 47, 276 
 
 Curtis, E. L 47 
 
 Curtiss, S. 1 47 
 
 Cnylcr, T. L 47, 270 
 
 D. 
 
 Dabnev, R. L 48,376 
 
 Dale, R. W 48, 2"^, 270 
 
 Dales, .J. B 48 
 
 Dniton, n 48,3.54,270 
 
 D'Alviella, G 4«, 2.VI, 377 
 
 Daviil-nn, A. B 49 
 
 Davidson, R. L Ifl, 2.54 
 
 Davidson, R. T 49, 277 
 
 Davidson, S 49 
 
 Dnvies, .1. L no, a», 277 
 
 Davis, P. S 50 
 
 Dawson, J. W 60,277 
 
 Day, 0. E 50 
 
 Day, M. F .50,277 
 
 Dcuuc, II 5(i,2.Vj,a77 
 
 Dcanc, W..J.... 81 
 
 Decoppct, A. L 61 , 3.W, 277 
 
 DeCosIa, B. F 51,277 
 
 Deems, C. F 51,277 
 
 Delloon HchelTer 51 
 
 Ifclltzsch, F 61,277 
 
 Dcllt/.flch, F 62,855,277 
 
 Demarest, D . . 
 Demarest, J. T.. 
 
 Denio, F. B 
 
 Deuison, G. A... 
 Denton, W.. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 52,377 
 
 52, 277 
 ... 52 
 52,255 
 
 53, 2 
 
 DePuy,W. H 52 
 
 Derenfoourg, J 52, '2^, 377 
 
 DeSchweinitz 53 
 
 Deutsch, S. M .52 
 
 DeWitt, J 53 
 
 De Witt. J 5:3, 277 
 
 Dexter, H. M 53,277 
 
 Dickson, W. P 53 
 
 DieckhoU, A. W 53, 255, 277 
 
 Dike, S. F 54 
 
 Dike, S. W 54,277 
 
 Dillmann (C. F.), A 54, 377 
 
 Dittrich, F 54,265 
 
 Dix, M 54, 355, 277 
 
 Dixon, R.W 55,255 
 
 Doane, W. C 55 
 
 Dodd, T. J 55 
 
 Dodge, E 55 
 
 Dods, M 55, 255, 277 
 
 Doedes, J. 1 6,5, 2.55 
 
 Doellinger, J.J.I 56, 277 
 
 Donaldson, J 57, 255 
 
 Domer, A 57, 255 
 
 Dorner, A.J 57, 278 
 
 Dorner, I. A 57, 255 
 
 Douen,E.0 58,355 
 
 Douglas, A. G 59 
 
 Douglas, G 59 
 
 Douglas, G. C. M 59,378 
 
 Dow, N 59 
 
 Driver, S.R 59,378 
 
 Drummond, H 59, 265, 378 
 
 Drummond, J 60, 278 
 
 Dmry, A. W 60 
 
 Drury, J. B (iO 
 
 Dubbs,J.H 60,278 
 
 DuBose, W. P 60 
 
 Duchesne, L CO, 256, 278 
 
 Duckworth, R 60 
 
 Dudley, C. D 61 
 
 Dudley, T. U 61 
 
 Duff, i) 01 
 
 Duffleld, G 61,278 
 
 Duffleld, S. (A.) W 61,278 
 
 Duhm, B 61,256,278 
 
 Dulles, J. W 61,378 
 
 Dunlop, G. K 61,278 
 
 Dunn, R 61 
 
 Dunning, A. E 61 
 
 Duns, J 61,236 
 
 Durnford, R 62 
 
 Durvea, J.T 62,278 
 
 Dwight, T 62, 2.56 
 
 Dvvinell, 1. E 62, 278 
 
 Dver, H 62, 250, 278 
 
 Dykes, J. 02, 278 
 
 K. 
 
 Eaton, S.J. M 6.3,2,56, 
 
 Ebrard (J. H.), A 03, 356, 
 
 Eddy, R 6.3, 
 
 Eddy, Z 63, 
 
 Eden, R 6.3, 250, 
 
 Edershcim, A 03, 236, 
 
 Edkins, J 04, 
 
 Kdniond, .1 
 
 Edwards, L W, 250, 
 
 Eells, J 
 
 Kgli, E 
 
 Ehrcnfeld, C. L... 
 
 Ekman, K. J 
 
 Ellicolt, C.J 
 
 Ellinwood, F. F... 
 
 Elliot, (i 
 
 Klliolt, C 
 
 Elliott, U. W. B 
 
 Ellis, (!.E 
 
 .64, 
 
 6.5,2.56, 
 
 . . 05, 
 . . 05, 
 
 , 05, 
 
 Elnislle, W. 06, 
 
 Emerton, E CO, 
 
 Endors, E. L 
 
 English, J. M 
 
 Erdinann (C. P.), D 60, 
 
 Errctt, 1 00, 
 
 Evans, L. I . ,. 
 
 Evans, T. 8 
 
 Everett, f ■. 00, 
 
 EwaldOI. A.),P 07, 
 
 Exen,J.S 87, 
 
 Eyro.C ^ 07, 
 
 I''. 
 Fnlrbiiirn, A. M 08, 278 
 
 278 
 
 278 
 
 378 
 
 356 
 
 378 
 
 378 
 
 278 
 
 M 
 
 378 
 
 (14 
 
 378 
 
 64 
 
 64 
 
 378 
 
 05 
 
 65 
 
 256 
 
 278 
 
 278 
 
 278 
 
 Si'S 
 
 66 
 
 00 
 
 278 
 
 278 
 
 06 
 
 60 
 
 278 
 
 278 
 
 2;'8 
 
 2.50 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Fairchild, J. H 68, 256 
 
 Fallows, S 68, 278 
 
 Farrar, A. S 68,256 
 
 Farrar, F. W 08,256,378 
 
 Fausset, A. R 69, 256, 279 
 
 Ferguson, S. D 69, 256 
 
 Ferris, J. M 69 
 
 Ffoulkes, E. S 09, 256, 279 
 
 Field, F TO 
 
 Field, H. M 70,238,279 
 
 Fisher, G. P 70, 256, 279 
 
 Fisk, F. W 70 
 
 Fitzgerald, O. P 70 
 
 Flickinger, D. K 70 
 
 Fliedner, F 70, 256, 279 
 
 Flint, R 70,256,279 
 
 Footman, H 70, 279 
 
 Forbes, J 71, 279 
 
 Foss, CD 71 
 
 Foster, F. H 71,379 
 
 Foster, R. S 71 
 
 Foster, R. Y 71,256,279 
 
 Fowler, C. U 71 
 
 Fo.x, N 71,279 
 
 Frank, F. H. R 71,258,279 
 
 Frank, G. (W.) 72 
 
 Franke, A. H 72, 356, 279 
 
 Eraser, D 73,279 
 
 Fraser, J 72, 279 
 
 Fremantle, W. n 7*2,279 
 
 Freppel, C. E 7*2,256,279 
 
 Fricke, G. A 73, 256, 279 
 
 Friedlaender, M 73 
 
 Friedlieb, J. H 73,256 
 
 Friedrich, J 73, 356,379 
 
 Fritzsche, O. F 73, 256, 379 
 
 Frothingham, O. B 74, 379 
 
 Fn-, B. St. J 74,278 
 
 Fu'ller, J. M 74,279 
 
 Fullonton, J 74 
 
 Funcke, O 74,350,279 
 
 Funk,F.X 74,256,279 
 
 Flmk, 1. K 75 
 
 Funkhouser, G. A 75 
 
 Furraan, J. C 73,279 
 
 Furness, W. 11 75 
 
 Furrer, K 76,279 
 
 Gabriels, H 76 
 
 Gailev, M 76 
 
 Gailor, T. F 76 
 
 GalleUer, J. N 76 
 
 Gams, B 76,266 
 
 Gaudcll, R 76,267 
 
 (ianse. H. D 76 
 
 CJardiner, F 76, 279 
 
 (iarland, L. C 77 
 
 (iarrctt, A. C 77 
 
 (Jarrison, J. F 77 
 
 Garrucci, R 77 
 
 (Jass, F. W.J. II 77,257,280 
 
 Gilst, V. A 77 
 
 (Javazzi, A 77,280 
 
 Gebhardt, O. L. V 78 
 
 (icden,J. D 78 
 
 Geikic, C 78,280 
 
 Gerhart, E. V 78, 257 
 
 Gerok, K. (F.) 78,257,280 
 
 Ocss, W. F 79,380 
 
 (iibb, J 79,357 
 
 Gibbons, J 79,280 
 
 Gibson, J. M 79, 280 
 
 Gillespie, G. DeN 79 
 
 Gillctt, C R 79 
 
 Oilman, E. W 79 
 
 Gladden. W 79,267,380 
 
 (Jlasgow, J 79 
 
 Gloag, P.J 80,257,280 
 
 Cilossbrenner, J. J 80 
 
 Goadhv, T 80,380 
 
 (iorlcl,"F. (L.) 80, 280 
 
 Gocbel, S. A 80,280 
 
 GipHz, II. vondcr 80 
 
 Gcu.(l,.I. H 80 
 
 (;oinh\in, I). R 81, 2MI) 
 
 Goodwin, E. P 81 
 
 Goodwin, II 81,257,380 
 
 Gordon, A. J HI. 380 
 
 Gordon, A 81,281) 
 
 (Jordon, W. R 81, 2.57 
 
 (;<isniini. A HI 
 
 (iotch, F. W HI, 280 
 
 Gollbell. G 81, 3H0 
 
 (iollschick, J 82, 3H(I 
 
 Goilgh, J. n 82, 280 
 
 Gmilburn, E. M 8.'), 280
 
 INDEX. 
 
 xlv 
 
 Gould, S. B m 
 
 Grafe, E s:), »» 
 
 Graham, R 83 
 
 Granbery, J. C K3 
 
 Grant, G. M m 
 
 Graa, R. F 83, 2H0 
 
 GraveSj C H4 
 
 Gray, A. Z (M, 880 
 
 Gray, G. Z 84,280 
 
 Gray, W. O 84 
 
 Green, 8. G 81,257 
 
 Green, W. II 81, 280 
 
 Green, W. M 81, 280 
 
 Gregg, A 85 
 
 Gregg, R. S 85 
 
 Gregg, W 85 
 
 Gregory, C. R 85,257,280 
 
 Gregory, D. S 85 
 
 Grier, M. B 85 
 
 Grier, W. M 85 
 
 Griffls, W. E 85,280 
 
 Griffith, B 88 
 
 Grimm, O. L. W 86, 281 
 
 Grimm, J 86, 281 
 
 Orisar, H 86 
 
 Grubbs, I. B 86 
 
 Grundemann, P. R 86, 2.57, 281 
 
 Grunert, M. E 86 
 
 Gubelmann, J. S 86 
 
 Guenther, M 86 
 
 Gulliver, J. P 86 
 
 Guthe H 87, 257, 281 
 
 Gwynn, J 87 
 
 H. 
 
 Haering, T 88, 257, 281 
 
 Hale,aR 88 
 
 Hale, E. E 88, 257, 281 
 
 Haley, J. W 88,857, 281 
 
 Hall, C.N 88, 281 
 
 Hall, I. H 89, 281 
 
 Hall, J 89 
 
 Hall, N 89,257 
 
 Hall, R. C 89 
 
 Hallock, J. N 89 
 
 Halsey, L.J 90 
 
 Hamburger, J 90, 281 
 
 Hamilton, E.J 90 
 
 Hamlin, C 90 
 
 riammond, C. E 90 
 
 Hammond, E. P 90,281 
 
 Hanne, J. W 90, 257 
 
 Happer, A. P 91 
 
 Hare, G. E 91, 881 
 
 Hare, W. H 91 
 
 Hargrove, R. K 91 
 
 Harkavy, A .. 91 
 
 llarman, H. M 92, 281 
 
 Harmon, G. M 98 
 
 Hamack (K. G.), A 93, 857, 281 
 
 Hamack, T 92, 857, 281 
 
 Harper, W. R 92, 237. 881 
 
 Harris, G 93, 281 
 
 Harris, 8 93, 281 
 
 Harris, S. S 93, 881 
 
 Harrison, B 93, 857, 281 
 
 Harrison, F 93 
 
 Hartranft, C. D 93 
 
 Harvey.H 93 
 
 Harwood, E 93 
 
 Base, K. A 93, 381 
 
 Hasselquist, T. N 94 
 
 Hastings, T. S 94 
 
 Hatch E 94, 2.i8, 281 
 
 Hauck, A 94,1:58,281 
 
 Haupt, E 94 
 
 Hanpt,H 94 
 
 Haureau, J. B 95,258, 281 
 
 Hansrath, A 95 
 
 Haweis, H. R 95,858,281 
 
 Hay, C. A 95 
 
 Hayes, B. P 95 
 
 Haygood, A. G 95, 881 
 
 Heard, J. B 95 
 
 Hecker, I. T 96,281 
 
 Hedge, F. H 96, 8.58, 281 
 
 Hefele, C.J. v 96,281 
 
 Heidenheim, M 98, 858 
 
 Heinrici, K. F. G 96, 2.58, 281 
 
 Heman, C. F 96, 258, 281 
 
 Hemphill, C. R 97 
 
 Hendrix, E. R 97 
 
 Henson, P. S 97 
 
 I !(Tfienroether, J 97, 281 
 
 Horing, H 07,282 
 
 Herminyard. A. L 97 
 
 Herrmann, J. G. W 97, 282 
 
 PAGK 
 
 nerahon, P. I .... 97 
 
 Uervey, A. C 98, 258 
 
 Herzog, E 98, 283 
 
 Hessey, J. A 98, 258, 882 
 
 Hi;ttinger, F 98, 258, 882 
 
 Heurtley, C. A 99, 2.58 
 
 Hevvit, A. F 99 
 
 Ilickock, L. P 99,282 
 
 Hilgenfeid, A. (B. C. C.) .... 99, 258, 282 
 
 Hill, U. J 99, 288 
 
 Hill, R lix; 
 
 Hill, T 100 
 
 Ilillcr, A .. 100 
 
 Himpel, P. v 100, 883 
 
 Hincks, E. Y lOO, 858 
 
 Hitchcock, R. D 100, 838, 888 
 
 Hodge, A. A 100, 2.58, 282 
 
 Hodge, C. W 100 
 
 Hodgson, T 101 
 
 Hockstra, S 101, 258, 282 
 
 Hoelemann, H. G 101, 2.58, 282 
 
 Hoerschelmann, F 101, 859 
 
 Hoffman, E. A 101, 359, 883 
 
 Hofmanu, I«. H. , 101, 282 
 
 Hofstede de Groot, C. P 101, 259, 288 
 
 Hofstede de Groot, P 101, 859, 282 
 
 Hoge, M. D 101 
 
 Hole, C 101,282 
 
 Holland, H. 8 101, 282 
 
 Holsten, K. J 101, 359 
 
 Holt, L. H 102 
 
 Holtzmann, H.J 102, 239, 282 
 
 Hood, E. P 102,239,283 
 
 Hoop-Scheffer, J. G. de.... 103, 259, 282 
 
 Hooykaas, 1 102,359 
 
 Hopkins, J. U 108,383 
 
 Hopkins, M 108, 359, 282 
 
 Hopkms, S. M 103 
 
 Hoppin, J. M 103 
 
 Hort, F. J. A 103 
 
 Hott, J. W 103 
 
 Hovey, A 103,282 
 
 How, W. W 104, 259, 283 
 
 Howard, E 104 
 
 Howe, J. A 104 
 
 Howe, M. A. DeW 104 
 
 Howe, W. B. W 104 
 
 Howson, J. S 104, 239 
 
 Hoyt, W 105,383 
 
 Hughes, J 105, 282 
 
 Hughes, J 105 
 
 Huidekoper, F 105 
 
 Hulbert, E, B 105 
 
 Hiunphry. W. G 105, 2.59, 382 
 
 Hunt, A. S 105 
 
 Hunt, J 106 
 
 Hunt, S 106 
 
 Huntington, F. D 106,282 
 
 Huntington, W. R 106, 259 
 
 Hurst, J. F 106, 359, 883 
 
 Hurter, H .106, 239,282 
 
 Hyacinthe, Father lOti 
 
 Hyde, J. T 107,383 
 
 Ignatius, Father, 
 Immer, H. A 
 
 107, 
 107, 
 
 Jackson, G. A 108 
 
 Jackson, J 108 
 
 Jackson, L. E 108 
 
 Jackson, S. M 108 
 
 Jackson, S 108, 360 
 
 Jacob, G. A 108, 383 
 
 Jacobl, J. L 109, 383 
 
 Jacobs, H. E 109, 383 
 
 Jacobeon, W 109 
 
 Jacoby, C. J. H 109, 880, 283 
 
 Jaeger, A 109 
 
 Jaggar, T. A 109 
 
 James, F 109 
 
 Janssen, J 110, 360. 383 
 
 Jebb, J 110, 283 
 
 JefEers, E. T 110 
 
 Jeffers, W. H 110 
 
 Jennings, A. C 110, 360, 283 
 
 Jermvn, H. W 110 
 
 Jessup, H. H 110,260 
 
 Johnson, E. H , Ill 
 
 Johnson, H 111,283 
 
 Johnson, W. A Ill 
 
 Jones, S. P Ill 
 
 Jones, W. B Ill 
 
 Jostes, F. (L.) Ill, 260, 283 
 
 PABE 
 
 Jnwett, B 113, 2«0 
 
 Jungmunn J 112,283 
 
 Kaehler (C), M. (A.) 11.3, 360, 283 
 
 Kaftan, J. W. M 113,260,283 
 
 Kahnis, K. F. A 113,3*1 
 
 Kalkar, C. A. H 1 13 
 
 Kalisch, M 113 
 
 Kamphausen, A. (H. H.) 114 
 
 Karr, W. 8 114, 283 
 
 KattenbuBCh (F. W.), F....114, 260, 2*3 
 
 Kaulen, F. P 114,360. 283 
 
 Kautzsch, E. F 114. 383 
 
 Kawerau.G 114.283 
 
 Kay, W 114,28.3 
 
 Kayser, A ]15 
 
 Keener, J. C 115 
 
 Keil. J. C. F 115.360 
 
 Keller, L 113, 360, 383 
 
 Kellner, K. A. H 113 
 
 Kellogg, 8. H 115,283 
 
 Kendall, H 116 
 
 Kendrick, A. C 116, 383 
 
 Kennedy, B. H 116,360, 383 
 
 Kenrick, P. R 116 
 
 Kephart, E. B 116 
 
 Kesselring, H 116, 360 
 
 Kidder. D. P n6 
 
 Kihn, H 116 
 
 Killen, W. D 117,260,283 
 
 King, J. M nr 
 
 Kip, W. 1 117 
 
 KJrkpatrick, A. F 117, 360, 283 
 
 Kirkpatrick, J. D 117 
 
 Kistler, J. L 117 
 
 Kitchin, G. W.... 117, 260,383 
 
 Kittredge, A. E 118 
 
 Kleinert (H. W.), P 118,383 
 
 Kliefoth, T. F. D 116, 383 
 
 Kloepper. A. H. E 118 
 
 Klostermann (H.), A 118, 283 
 
 Kneucker, J. J 118 
 
 Knickerbacker, D. B 118 
 
 Knight, G. T 118 
 
 Knox, C. E 118 
 
 Knox, R. B 119 
 
 Kober, F 119 
 
 Koegel, R 119,283 
 
 Koehler, A 119,283 
 
 Koenig, A 119,280. 883 
 
 Koenig, P. E 119 
 
 Koenig. J 119,260 
 
 Koessmg, F 119,260 
 
 Koestlin, H. A 119,283 
 
 Koestlin, J. T 1 19, 384 
 
 Kolde, T. (H. F.) 130, 860. 284 
 
 Kraffl, W. L 180. 360 
 
 Kraus, F. X 180, 884 
 
 Krauss, A. (E.)... 180, 284 
 
 Krawutzcky, A 120. 284 
 
 Krotel, G. F 121 
 
 Knieger (H.) G. (E.) 131.884 
 
 Kuebel. R. B 181. 884 
 
 Kuenen, A 131, 26(1. 2»4 
 
 Kurtz, J. H 121, 380, 384 
 
 Lat:d,G.T 133,384 
 
 Laemmer. H 128, 260, 284 
 
 Lagarde, P. A. de 182, 260, 884 
 
 Laldlaw, J 123.384 
 
 Lake, W. C 123 
 
 Lang, J. M 133 
 
 Lange, C. H. K 133 
 
 Lange, J. P 18;i. 360 
 
 Langen, J 134. 884 
 
 Langhans, E 184.884 
 
 Langworthy, I. P 124 
 
 LansdeU, H 135. 361 
 
 Lansing, J. G 183. 384 
 
 Lasher, G. W 1*5 
 
 Latimer, J. E 135 
 
 Lawrence, W 125 
 
 Lawson, A. G 123, 261 
 
 Lea, H. C 12.5,284 
 
 Leathes, S 125,261 
 
 Lechler, G. V 126, 361, 284 
 
 Lee, A 128,284 
 
 Lee, F. G 126, 2&4 
 
 Lee,W 136 
 
 LefEingwell, C. W 126 
 
 Legge, J 136, 361. 384 
 
 Lemme.L 137,361,384 
 
 LeoXIil 127,361,384
 
 ilvi 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Lewis, A. H 127, 285 
 
 Lewia, R 127 
 
 Lias, J. J 128,285 
 
 Lichtenberger, F. A 128, 2!B 
 
 Liddon, H. P 128, 261, 285 
 
 Lightfoot, J. B 128,261,285 
 
 Lincoln, H 128,261, 285 
 
 Link, A 128,2^ 
 
 Linsenmann, F. X 129, 261, 285 
 
 Lipscomb, A. A 129 
 
 Lipsius, R. A 129,261,285 
 
 Little, C.E 129 
 
 LiMedale, E. F 129, 261,285 
 
 Littlejoiin, A. N 129 
 
 Livermore, A. A 130,285 
 
 Lobstein, P 130,285 
 
 Loesclie, G. (C. D.) 130,261,285 
 
 Loman, A. D 130, 261, 285 
 
 Lominatzsch, S. O. N 130, 261, 285 
 
 Long, A. L 130 
 
 Loofs (A.), F 130, 285 
 
 Loomis, A. W 130 
 
 Lord, W 131 
 
 Lorimer, 0. E 131, 261 
 
 Loive, W. H 131, 262, 885 
 
 Lowne, J. C 131 
 
 LoOTie, S. T 131 
 
 Lon-ry, E 131 
 
 Loy, M 131,283 
 
 Luard, H. E 182 
 
 Lucius, P. E 132,285 
 
 Luckocli, H. M 132,208,285 
 
 Ludlow, J. M 132 
 
 Lnedemanu, H 138 
 
 Luedemuun, K 133, 285 
 
 Luenemann, G. C. G 132 
 
 Luthardt, (J. E 133, 262,285 
 
 Lyman, T. B 133 
 
 Lyne, J. L 1.33, 285 
 
 Lvon, D. G 133,262 
 
 M. 
 
 Mabon, W. A. V. V 134, 262 
 
 McAll, E. W 134 
 
 MacArthur, E. S 134,885 
 
 McAuley, J 134 
 
 McCabe, C. C 135 
 
 McClellan, J, B 135 
 
 McClOfkey, J 135 
 
 McCook, II. C 135 
 
 McCosh, J 138, 885 
 
 MacCracken, H. M 136, 886 
 
 McCurdy, J. F 1.36 
 
 Macduff, J. E 136, 2(i2, 286 
 
 McFcrrin, J. B 136,286 
 
 MctJarvey, J. W 137, 886 
 
 aicGiflert, A. C 1.37, 286 
 
 llc(;Ul, A. T 137,280 
 
 Mcllvaim-, J. 11 137,262 
 
 Mackarncss, J. F 137, 262, 286 
 
 McKt-nziu, A 137, 288 
 
 McKnight, U. W 137 
 
 Maclugan, W. D 1.37, 203 
 
 McLaren. A 138,280 
 
 McLaren, W. E l.)8 
 
 McLean, A 138 
 
 Maclear, G. F 188,202,880 
 
 Macleod. D l:)8 
 
 Macmillan,n Ijy, 262 
 
 McTycire, 11. N 138, 288 
 
 MacVicar, D. H ko 
 
 Mac Vicar M 139 
 
 Magee, W. C 139,286 
 
 Magoon, E. L 1.39, 862 
 
 Mahan, A 1.39,202, 280 
 
 MaicT, A 139, 362, 880 
 
 Malan, H. C 139, 280 
 
 Mallalieu, W. F MO 
 
 Mallorv, O. S 140 
 
 Mangold, W.J 140.286 
 
 Manly, B 141.288 
 
 Mann, W.J 141,202, 280 
 
 Manning, n. E 141,268,288 
 
 Mariml^ D. C 141,802 
 
 Marti, K 141,202, 280 
 
 ,Martlgny,J. A 141 
 
 Martin, W. A. P 141 
 
 Martlncau, J 142, 280 
 
 Mathcson, 142,280 
 
 Matloon, S 142,280 
 
 M«id, O. M J42, 280 
 
 Mcdd, P. G 112,286 
 
 Milnhold, J 143, 8»it 
 
 .Mcnzfl, A 143 
 
 Mcrivale, O 113 
 
 Merrill, H M3, 202 
 
 Merx(E. O.), A 148, 268, 288 
 
 PAGE 
 
 I Mesener (K. F.), H 143,26:3,286 
 
 Meuss, E 144, 286 
 
 Meyrick, F 144,286 
 
 Michaud, P. E 141, 286 
 
 Michelsen, A 1+4 
 
 MLllcr,J 144,287 
 
 Milligan, W 144, 287 
 
 Miner, A. A 145 
 
 Mitchell, A. F 145, 86;3 
 
 Mitchell, A 145 
 
 Mitchell, E. C 145 
 
 Mitchell, H. G 145 
 
 Mitchell, S. T 145 
 
 Moberly, 6 146 
 
 Moeller, E. W 146,263 
 
 Moffat, J. C 146,263,287 
 
 Moffat, J. D 140 
 
 Mombert, J. J 146, 283, 287 
 
 Monod, G 146, 287 
 
 Monod, J. P. F 146 
 
 Monod, T 148,287 
 
 Monrad, D. G 146, 287 
 
 Mooar, G 147 
 
 Moody, D. L 147,287 
 
 Moore, D 147 
 
 Moore, G. F 147 
 
 Moore, W. E 147 
 
 Moore, W. W 147 
 
 Moorhouse, J 147, 263, 887 
 
 Moran, P. F 117 
 
 Morehouse, H. L 147 
 
 Morison, J 148,263,287 
 
 Morris, B. W 148 
 
 Morris, E. D 148,287 
 
 Morris, J. G 148,263 
 
 Morse, E. C 148 
 
 Moulton, W. P 148.203 
 
 Mudge, B 14S 
 
 Muehlau (H.), P 149 
 
 Mueller, G 149 
 
 Mueller, K. (P. P.) 149,287 
 
 Mulford, E 150 
 
 Munger, T. T 131,287 
 
 Murphv, J. G 151,287 
 
 Muston, A 151,887 
 
 Myrberg,O.P 151,863 
 
 N 
 
 Naville, J. E 132. 287 
 
 Neely, H. A 152 
 
 NeU, C 132 
 
 Nestle (C), E 152, 287 
 
 Nevin, A 158,287 
 
 Nevln, E. H. 153 
 
 Nevin, J. W 153,287 
 
 Newman, A. H 153 
 
 Newman, F. W 153, 287 
 
 Newman, J. H 15:3, 287 
 
 Newman, J. P 151, 287 
 
 Newth, S I.>1 
 
 Newton, U 154, 287 
 
 Newton, K. H 154, 287 
 
 Niccolls, S. J 154 
 
 Nicholson, W. E 154 
 
 Nicoll, W. E 155, 887 
 
 Nielsen, F. K 155,20:3 
 
 Niles, W. W 155 
 
 Nillos, N 1.55,263,287 
 
 Ninde, W. X 1.55 
 
 Nippold, F. W. F 155, 283, 287 
 
 NitZBCh, F. A. B 155, 287 
 
 Norman, K. W 155 
 
 Northrup, (J. W 1.50 
 
 Nowack, W. G. U 158,887 
 
 NystrOm, J, E 158 
 
 O. 
 
 Octtingcn, A. T 157, 263, 287 
 
 Olsson, O 1,57 
 
 Oltramare, M. J. U 167, 808 
 
 Oort, II 157.20.3 
 
 Orelll ai), C. V 157,287 
 
 Ormiston. W 157, 888 
 
 Osborn, II. S 1.58, 288 
 
 Osgood, H 1.58,20.3 
 
 Oswald, J. H 158, 28,S 
 
 Otto (J.), K. (T.), R. V. 168,288 
 
 Overbcck, K. C l.W 
 
 Overton, J. II 159,203 
 
 Oxendcn, A 159 
 
 Oxenliam, II. N 1.59, 264 
 
 P. 
 Packard, J 100 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Paddock, B.H 160 
 
 Paddock, J. A 160 
 
 Paine, L. L 160 
 
 Paine, T. 160 
 
 Palmer, B.M .. 160, 288 
 
 Palmer, E 161 
 
 Palmer, E 161,288 
 
 Paret, W 161 
 
 Park, E. A 161, 264 
 
 Parker, E. P 162 
 
 Parker, J i 62, 288 
 
 Parkhurst, C. H 168, 288 
 
 Parry, E 162, 204, 288 
 
 Passaglia, C 162, 288 
 
 Paterson, H. S 168 
 
 Paton, J. B 163,204,288 
 
 Patterson, E. M , 163,288 
 
 Pattison, T. H 163 
 
 Patton, A. S 10:3.288 
 
 Patton, F. L 103, 288 
 
 Patton, W.W 163, 288 
 
 Paxton, J. R 168,264 
 
 Paxton, W. M 163 
 
 Pa)-ne, C. H 164 
 
 Payne-Smith, R 164, 264 
 
 Peabodv, A. P. 164, 288 
 
 Peck, T. E 164 
 
 Peirce, B. K 164 
 
 Pelham, J. T 165 
 
 Peloubet, F. N 165 
 
 Pendleton, J. M 165 
 
 Penick, C. C ]65 
 
 Pentecost, G. P 185, 288 
 
 Perowne, J. J. S 165, 864, 288 
 
 Perrin, L 166,288 
 
 Perry, G. G 106, 888 
 
 Perry, W. .S 106, 288 
 
 Peterkin, G. W 167 
 
 Peters, G. N. H 167 
 
 Peters, J. P 167 
 
 Pf leiderer, O 167, 204, 288 
 
 Phelps, A 107, 288 
 
 Phelps, S. D 167 
 
 Philfips, P 167 
 
 Philpott, H 168,284, 888 
 
 Pick, B 168. 888 
 
 Pieper, F. A. O 168 
 
 Pierce, G. P 108 
 
 Pierce, 11. N KW, 264 
 
 Pierson, A. T 108, 264, 888 
 
 Pigou, F 168, 201, 288 
 
 Piper, K. W. F 168 
 
 Pirie, W. R 168 
 
 Pitcher, J 169 
 
 Pitra. J. B 169, 264, 288 
 
 Pitzer, A. W 169, 288 
 
 Plath, K. H. C 109, 864. 2,S8 
 
 Plumb, A. H 169 
 
 Plummcr, A 109, 8()4. 388 
 
 Plumptre. E. H 170, 204, 288 
 
 Plunket, W. 170 
 
 Poor, l>. \V 170 
 
 Pope, W. B 170 
 
 Porter, J. L 170, 8(«. 288 
 
 Porter, N 171,288 
 
 Post, G. E 171 
 
 Potter, H. C 171, 288 
 
 Potter, H 171, 288 
 
 Power, F. D 171 
 
 Pratt, L 171,288 
 
 Preger, J. \V 171, 264, 288 
 
 Prentiss, G. L 171, 289 
 
 PressensiS, E. (D.) de ]?3, 264, 889 
 
 Preston, T. S 172 
 
 Prime. E. I). G 172 
 
 Prime, S. I 178 
 
 Prime, W 173, 204 
 
 Prins, J. J 173,204 
 
 Puaux, F 173, 204 
 
 Puenjer (G. C), B 173, 864 
 
 Pnllnian, J. M 174 
 
 Purey-Cust, A. P 174 
 
 Qulntard, C. T. 
 
 Q- 
 
 R. 
 
 174, 864 
 
 Radslock, O. A. W. W 175 
 
 lineblger, J. F 175, 20-4 
 
 Kalnv, R 17.5, 864 
 
 Rulstnii. T. N 175 
 
 Rimd, W. W 17.5, 2(Vt 
 
 Randolph, A. M 175 
 
 Hanke, E 175, 204, 389 
 
 Ranke, L. v 170
 
 INDEX. 
 
 xlvii 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Rauscheubusch, A 176, 2H1» 
 
 Itauweuhoff, L. W. E 17(i, 28'J 
 
 Kawlinsou, G 17G, »«) 
 
 Itaymond, M 17ti 
 
 Bedford, U. A 17(i,'M) 
 
 Uecd, V. D 177 
 
 Reichel, C. P m,iim 
 
 Keichel, O. J 177,289 
 
 Iteid, J. M 177 
 
 Reid, W.J 177 
 
 Reimenanyder, J. B 177 
 
 Keinkenu, J. H 177 
 
 Keischle, M. W. T 177,805, 289 
 
 Kenan, J. E 178, 289 
 
 Renouf, P. Le P 178 
 
 Keusch, F. H 178,289 
 
 ReuBB, E. (W. E.) 178, 289 
 
 Keuter, H. F 179, 265, 289 
 
 Revel, A 179 
 
 Reville.A 179,265,289 
 
 Reynolds, H. R 179, 265, 289 
 
 Rice, E. W 179,26.5,289 
 
 Ricbardson, E. 179, 289 
 
 Ridille, M. B 179, 289 
 
 Ridgaway, H. B 180 
 
 EieUm, E. (U. A.) 180,289 
 
 Rigg, J. U 180, 265, 289 
 
 Rijrgenbach, B. E 180, 289 
 
 Riggenbach, C.J 1.80, 289 
 
 Rigge, E 181,265,289 
 
 Riggs, J. S 181 
 
 EiUchl, A 181,289 
 
 Ritechl, O 181,289 
 
 Roberts, W 181,290 
 
 Roberts, W.C 182,265,290 
 
 Roberts, W.H 182,290 
 
 Robertson, C. F 182 
 
 Robins, H. E 182 
 
 Robinson, C". S 182, 265,290 
 
 Robinson, E. G 182, 265, 290 
 
 Roljinson, T. H 182, 265 
 
 Rohling, J. F. B. A 183,290 
 
 Roller.T 183 
 
 Romestin, A. H. E.de 183,290 
 
 Ropes, C.J. H 1&3, 290 
 
 Roiws, W. L ia3 
 
 Rossi, G. B. de 1*3, 290 
 
 Rudin (E. G.), W. (N.) 183, 205 
 
 Ruetschi, A. R 183 
 
 Riietscbi, R 184, 205 
 
 Rulison, N.S 181 
 
 Ranze, G. A. W 184,290 
 
 Rust, H 184 
 
 Ryan, P.J 184 
 
 Rydberg, A. V 184,265 
 
 Rylance, J. H 184 
 
 Rvle, J. C 184,265,290 
 
 S. 
 
 Sabatier, A 186,264 
 
 Sabine, W. T 186 
 
 Sage, A. J 186 
 
 SaTmon, G 186,265,290 
 
 Salraond, S. D. F 186,290 
 
 Samson, G. W 180, 205 
 
 Sanday, W 186,265,890 
 
 Sanderson, J 180, 290 
 
 Sankey, I. D 187 
 
 Sapbir, A 187 
 
 Saussaye, P. D. C. de la 187, 205 
 
 Savage, G. S. F 187 
 
 Savage, M.J 187,265,290 
 
 Sayce, A. H 187,26.5,290 
 
 Scarborough, J 188 
 
 Schacter, A 188, 390 
 
 Schaeffer, C. W 188 
 
 Schaeffer, H. M 188 
 
 Scbaff, D. S 188, 265 
 
 .Schafl, P 188, 290 
 
 ScbauE, P 190, 265, 290 
 
 Scheele, K. H. G. v 190, 265 
 
 Scbegg, P 190, 290 
 
 Schell, n 190,291 
 
 Schenck, W. E 190, 265 
 
 Schenkel, D 190 
 
 Scherer, E. H. A 191, 265, 891 
 
 Schereschewsky, S. 1 191 
 
 Schickler, F. de 191, 205 
 
 .Scblottmann, K 191,291 
 
 Schmid, A 191 
 
 Schmid, .\ 191 
 
 Schmid, H 191, 291 
 
 Schmidt, C. G. A 191 
 
 Schmidt, C. H 192, 291 
 
 Schmidt, P. (W.) 192,291 
 
 Schmidt, W. G 192,291 
 
 Schmiedel, P. W 193 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Schmucker, B. M 192, 291 
 
 Schnedermaun, G. H 192, 265, 891 
 
 Hchodde, O. U 198 
 
 Schoell, C. W 193 
 
 Schoenfeldcr, J. M 193, 291 
 
 Scholten, J. H 193 
 
 Scholz, A 198,265,891 
 
 Scholz, P liW 
 
 Schrader, E IM, 291 
 
 Schroers, J. U 194 
 
 Hchuerer, E 194,291 
 
 Schuette, C. H. L 191, 865 
 
 Schultz, F. W 19-t, 865 
 
 Scbultz, H 194, 805, 891 
 
 Scbultze, A 194, 891 
 
 Schultze, M. V 194, 891 
 
 Hchuize, L. T IM, 205, 891 
 
 Schwane, J 195,206,891 
 
 Schwarz K. H. W 195, 266, 291 
 
 Schweinitz, E. de 195, 891 
 
 Schweizer, A 195, 291 
 
 Scott, H. McD 195 
 
 Scott.J 195 
 
 Scott, R 195,291 
 
 Scott, W. A 196 
 
 ScouUer, J. B 190 
 
 Scrimger, J 196 
 
 Scrivener, F. H. A 190 
 
 Scudder, H. M 196, 291 
 
 Seabury, W. J 196, 291 
 
 Seeberg, R 196, 266, 291 
 
 Seeley, J. R 197,260, 891 
 
 Seelye, J. H 197 
 
 Segond, J. J. L 197 
 
 Seiss, J. A 197, 266, 291 
 
 Selborne, R. P 197, 291 
 
 Semisch, K. A 197 
 
 Sepp, J. N 197,266, 291 
 
 Service, J ...,198 
 
 Sevvall, J. S 198 
 
 Seyerlen, K. R 198, 266 
 
 Seymour, G. P 198 
 
 Shaftesbury, A. A.-C 198, 260, 291 
 
 Sbaw, W. 1 199 
 
 Shedd,W.G.T 199,291 
 
 Sheldon. H. C 199 
 
 Shepherd, T.J 199 
 
 Sheraton J. P 199 
 
 Sherwood, J. M 199, 291 
 
 Shields, C. W 800, 891 
 
 Shipp, A. M 200 
 
 8hone,S 200 
 
 Shore, T. T 200 
 
 Short, C 200, 866 
 
 Shuey, W. J 200 
 
 Sieffert, F. A. E 200, 891 
 
 Siegfried, C. (G. A.) 201, 891 
 
 Simon, D. W 201, 292 
 
 Simpson, M 201 
 
 Sinker, R 201, 292 
 
 Skinner, T. H 801 
 
 Sloane, J. R. W 201, 292 
 
 Smend, R 202 
 
 Smith, B. M 202 
 
 Smith, C. S 802 
 
 Smith, C. W 802 
 
 Smith, G. V 802 
 
 Smith, H. P ... 202 
 
 Smith, J 202 
 
 Smith, J. A 202 
 
 Smith, L. E 203 
 
 Smith, M. M 203, 292 
 
 Smith, R. P 203 
 
 Smith, S. F 803, 292 
 
 Smith, W 203 
 
 Smith, W. R 203,892 
 
 Smyth, E.C 203, 806 
 
 Smyth (S.PJ,N 204,260,892 
 
 Southgate, H 204 
 
 Spaeth, A 804 
 
 Spalding, J. F 204, 206, 292 
 
 Spalding, J. L 201 
 
 Spalding, M. J 204 
 
 Spence, H. D. M 205 
 
 Spencer, H 205,892 
 
 Spencer, J. A 205, 266 
 
 Spitta, F. (A. W.) 805, 866, 898 
 
 Sprecher, S 205 
 
 Sprinzl, J 205 
 
 Sproull, T 205, 292 
 
 Spurgeon, C. H 805, 292 
 
 Stade, B -207,892 
 
 Staehelln, R 207, 292 
 
 Stalker, J 207, 898 
 
 Stall, S 807, 292 
 
 Stanford, C 208 
 
 Starkey, T. A 208 
 
 Stearns, L. F 20S. 292 
 
 Steams, O. S 308. 892 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Steele, I) 208 
 
 SteeuBtra, P. II , 208 
 
 Steiner, II 208, 208, 292 
 
 SteiTimeyer, F. 1 208, 893 
 
 Stellhoru, F. W 208,898 
 
 Stephens, D.S 209 
 
 Stevens, A 209, 866 
 
 Stevens, (i. B 209, 292 
 
 Stevens, W. A 209, 292 
 
 Stevens, W. B 209, 266, 292 
 
 Stevenson, J. F 209 
 
 Stevenson, W. F 209, 866 
 
 Stewart, W 209 
 
 StIHer, J. M 210 
 
 Stockmever, I 210, 267, 292 
 
 Stoddard, V. A 210 
 
 Stoucker, A 210, 2C7, 292 
 
 Stokes, O. T 210, 867, 292 
 
 Stolz, A 210 
 
 Storrs, R. 8 210,298 
 
 Story, R. H 210, 887 
 
 Stoughton, J 210 
 
 Stowe, C. E 211 
 
 Strack, H. L 211,267,296 
 
 Strong, A. H 211, 298 
 
 Strong, J •. 211,892 
 
 Strossmayer, J. G 212 
 
 Strong, J 212, 267 
 
 Stuart, G. H 212,267,292 
 
 Stubbs, W 818,868, 292 
 
 Stuckenberg, J. H. W 212,293 
 
 Studer, G. £ 212 
 
 Super, H. W 212 
 
 SwaiuBua, C. A 212, 298 
 
 Swete, H. B 813, 268,298 
 
 Sydow (K. L.\ A 213 
 
 T. 
 
 Talcott, D.S 214 
 
 Talmage, T. DeW 214, 268, 293 
 
 Tarbox, I. N 214, 293 
 
 Taylor, B. C 214 
 
 Taylor, C 214,268 
 
 Taylor, G. L 214, 893 
 
 Taylor, J. P 215 
 
 Taylor, M. W 815, 268 
 
 Taylor, W 215 
 
 Taylor, W. J. R 215 
 
 Taylor, W. M 215, 268, 293 
 
 Temple, F 815 
 
 Terry, M. S 216,293 
 
 Thayer, J. H 216,293 
 
 Thiersch, H. W. J 216, 268, 293 
 
 Thisted, W. A 216, 293 
 
 Thomas, D 216,868 
 
 Thomas, J. B 217,293 
 
 Thomas, 217, 268 
 
 Thompson, A. C 817, 293 
 
 Thompson, H. M 217,293 
 
 Thompson. \V 817, 293 
 
 Thomson, W 217,293 
 
 Thomson, W. McC 217 
 
 Thorold, A. W 218, 269, 293 
 
 Tiele, C. P 218, 869, 293 
 
 Tillett, W. F 218 
 
 Titcomb, J. H 218, 269, 293 
 
 Tollin, H.G.N 218, 269, 293 
 
 Toorenenbergen, J. J. van 218, 269 
 
 Tousey, W. G 819 
 
 Townsend, L. T 219,809,893 
 
 Toy, C. H 819, 293 
 
 Trechsel, F 219 
 
 Trench, F. C 219 
 
 Trench, R. C 219,869,893 
 
 Tristram, H.B 280 
 
 Trollope, E 220, 269 
 
 Troutbeck, J 220, 269 
 
 True, B. 280,293 
 
 Trumbull, H.C 880,893 
 
 Tschackert, P. (M. R.) 221, 269, 293 
 
 Tucker, H. H.. . 221.293 
 
 Tucker, H. W 221,269 
 
 Tucker, W.J 221, 269 
 
 Tulloch, J 221,269,293 
 
 Tuttle, D. S 222,293 
 
 Twining, K 222,869 
 
 Tyerman, L 228,293 
 
 Tyler, W.S 223,269 
 
 Tyng,S.H 233 
 
 U. 
 
 Uhlhom, J. G. W 224, 369, 293 
 
 Upham, P. W 824 
 
 Upham, S. F 284 
 
 Upson, A.J 224
 
 xlviu 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 V. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Vail, T. H 225,293 
 
 Valentine, M 225,269 
 
 Van Dyck, C. Van A 225 
 
 Van Dyke, H. J 225, 294 
 
 Van Dyke, H. J., Jr 225,294 
 
 VanDyke,J.S 285,369 
 
 Van Vleck, H. J 225 
 
 Vaughan, C.J 225, 294 
 
 Venables, E 226,269.294 
 
 Vincent, J. H 226,294 
 
 Vincent, M. R 226, 269, 294 
 
 Voelter, D. E. J 226, 269, 294 
 
 Vogeiav.l. A 226 
 
 Voigt. H. J. M 236 
 
 Volck, W 226, 269, 294 
 
 Volkmar, G 327,294 
 
 Voysev, C 2i7, 294 
 
 W. 
 
 Wace. H 228, 269, 294 
 
 Waddington, C 228, 270 
 
 Wagenmann, J. A 228,270, 294 
 
 Warden, J. SI 228 
 
 Waldenstrom, P. P 228, 270 
 
 Walker, G. L 228,294 
 
 Walker, W. D 229 
 
 Walker, W 229,294 
 
 Walsh. W. P 229,294 
 
 Walther, C. F. W 229, 294 
 
 Wanamaker, J 229, 270 
 
 Ward, J. T 229 
 
 Ward, J. H 229,294 
 
 Ward. W. H 229, 294 
 
 Warfleld, B. B 229,370,294 
 
 Wameck, G 229, 294 
 
 Warner, Z 3.30 
 
 Warren, H. W 230 
 
 Warren, I. P 230 
 
 Warren, W. F 231, 294 
 
 Washburn, G , 331 
 
 Watson, A. A 231 
 
 Watson, F 231 
 
 Watts, R 2:31,270,294 
 
 Wsyland, H. L S31 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Weaver. J 232,294 
 
 Weed,E.G 8:32,270 
 
 Weidner, R. F 232, 394 
 
 Weiflenbach, E. W 232,294 
 
 Weingarten, H 232,394 
 
 Weiss, B 333,270,294 
 
 Weiss, H 232,295 
 
 Weiss, N... 232,370,295 
 
 Weizsackcr, K. (H.) v 332, 270, 295 
 
 Welch, E.B 232,295 
 
 Welles, E. R 2:33, 395 
 
 Wellhausen, J 333, 270, 295 
 
 Welton, D. M 233 
 
 Wendt,H.U 2*3,270,395 
 
 Werner, K 333, 295 
 
 West, E 333 
 
 Westuott. B. F 2.33, 270, 395 
 
 Weston, H. G 334 
 
 Whedon, D. D 2.31, 370, 395 
 
 Wheeler, 1). H 3:34 
 
 Whipple, II. B 3.31 
 
 Whitaker, O. W 231 
 
 White, E. N 234 
 
 Whitehead, C 234 
 
 Whiton, J. JI 231, 295 
 
 Whitsitt, W. H 3:35 
 
 Whittle, F. McX 335 
 
 Wiberg, A 335, 295 
 
 Wieseler, K 335 
 
 Wikner, C. P 3.36,270 
 
 Wilbertorce. E. R 236 
 
 WUkes, H 236,270 
 
 Wilkinson, W. C 386, 270, 295 
 
 Willcos, G. B 237,295 
 
 Williams, C. M 237 
 
 Willianis,G 237,370 
 
 Williams, J 237. 395 
 
 Williams, S. W 238 
 
 Williams, W. R 2.38, 271 
 
 Willson, D. B 2.38 
 
 Wilmer, R. H 238, 295 
 
 Wilson, II. R 238 
 
 Wilson, J. L 339, 271 
 
 Wilson, J. R 239 
 
 Wilson, R. D 239 
 
 WUson, W. S 2.39.295 
 
 WlDg, C, P 339,295 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Wingfleld.J. II. D 339 
 
 Wirthmueller, J. B 239 
 
 Wise, D 240, 271, 295 
 
 Witherow, T 340,271.295 
 
 Witherspoon, T. D 2W 
 
 Withrow, J. L B40, 271 
 
 Withrow, W. n 241, 395 
 
 Woerter, F ail 
 
 Wolf, E.J 241,271,295 
 
 Wood, J. G 341,395 
 
 Woodbridge, S. M 241 
 
 Woodford, J. E 311, 395 
 
 Woodrow, J 242 
 
 Woodrufl. F. E 342,271 
 
 Woolsev, T. D !M2, SH, 295 
 
 Worcester, J ai3, 295 
 
 Wordsworth, C 243, 271. 295 
 
 Wordsworth, C 242,295 
 
 Wordsworth. J 243. 271 , 295 
 
 Worthington. G 344,371 
 
 Wratislaw, A. H 241.295 
 
 Wright, C.H. H 244,271 
 
 Wright, G. F 31.5, 295 
 
 Wright, M 245 
 
 Wright, T. F 245, 295 
 
 Wright, W 245. 2n, 295 
 
 Wrong, G. McK 345 
 
 Wylie, J, A 345,271,295 
 
 Y. 
 
 Yerkes, S 247 
 
 Yoimg, A a47 
 
 Young, R 247, 271 , 295 
 
 Z. 
 
 Znhn, T 249, 271, 395 
 
 Zeller,E 249,271 
 
 ZezschwitE, G. v 249, 3n 
 
 Zimmer, F. K 249, 295 
 
 Zoeckler, O M9. 271. 290 
 
 Zocpffel, R. 2.50. 296 
 
 Zunz, L 350
 
 RELIGIOUS CYCLOPzEDIA. 
 
 A. 
 
 A and .Q, or ALPHA and OMEGA, the combi- 
 nation of the first and last letters of the Greeli 
 alphabet, is the phrase used three times by our 
 Lord, in the Apocalypse, to set forth liis eternity 
 (Rev. i. 8, xxi. (i, xxii. 13). [The E. V. and 
 the received text have it aLso in 1. 11, where the 
 best MSS. omit it.] Tlie idea is much older. 
 In the O. T., Isn. xliv. 6 (eomp. xli. 4, xliii. 10), 
 Jehovah calls himself "The first and the last," 
 in contrast to the perishable idols. In both 
 Testaments the phrase expresses the popular 
 conception of eternity as endless duration, and 
 at the same time the idea of divine causality; 
 the Alpha looking back to the ixpxh, the begin- 
 ning, the creation; the Omega, to the rtAof, the 
 end, the completion of the kingdom of God in 
 Christ. 
 
 Tertullian (/>e Monori. c. 5) and Prudentius 
 {Calhemer. hiimn. IX., 10-12') use the figui'e. 
 Marcus the Gnostic discovered that the numeri- 
 cal value of a and w was equal to the numeri- 
 cal value of the individual letters comiinsing 
 Trepiaripd (dove) ; whence he inferred that Christ 
 called himself A and S2 with reference to tlie 
 Holy Spirit, who descended on him at his baptism 
 in the shape of a dove (Irenseus, Adv. Haeres. I., 
 14,6; 1.5,1; Tertullian, De I'raescripl. c. 50). 
 This trifling was employed by Primasius in his 
 commentary on the Apocalypse {Bthl. Pair. J\Iax. 
 X. p. 338) to prove that "the Iloly Ghost is of 
 the same substance with the Father. 
 
 The combination of a and w, by its simplicity 
 and suggestiveness, commended itself as a .sym- 
 bol of Christian faith from the earliest times, 
 and was used extensively on monuments of every 
 description; sometimes alone, but more fre- 
 quently in connection with the monogram of 
 Christ in its various forms : 
 
 ^i^ 4 
 
 "ii 
 
 Sometimes the two letters, of which the u is 
 almost always of that uncial form which resembles 
 the miiiuscular, ai'e hung by chains from tlie arms 
 of the cro.ss. One of the oldest instances of the 
 use of the letters is in the catacombs on the Island 
 of Melos, and dates from the first part of the sec- 
 ond century or tlie latter part of the first. (See 
 Iloss, Rei^en nuf den griech. Inseln dcs iiiieixchi'ii 
 Meerea, vol. III. p. 14!).) The oldest coins on 
 which it is used belong to Constance and Con- 
 
 [" Cori/e natttn ex par<'iitift attte mundl exordium 
 Alpha et il cndnoininfttns; ipfie fons et ctansuta, 
 OnmiJim (jttte sttnt,/ui'j-u?ii, tjtuxt/ne post J'aturu 9unt"\ 
 
 stantine, the .sons of Constantino the Great. Tt 
 is found upon rings and sigils, in jiictures, illus- 
 trations, mosaics, reliefs, &c. Occasionally it is 
 used by Protestants, e.g., on the front of the 
 royal mortuary chapel at Charlottenburg, near 
 Berlin, on the altar of the Matthaeikirche in 
 Berlin [in the Madison-square Presbyterian 
 Church, New York, and iu other American 
 churches]. 
 
 [Lit. — Pfeiffeu: De a el u. Kegiom. 1667. 
 Beyschlag: T)e siijillo nnminis Dei hnininls. Vi- 
 ti-'b. 1G92. Ewald: De a et u nomine Christi 
 mtptico, in his Emhl. II. 109. ROdigeu: Da 
 Chruilo pa- prirnnm (Pi^'dii'}2) et ulfimain {'A/ii/v') 
 S.S. vocem indicalo. Giess. 3724. Diduom : 
 Icohoyr. Chrel. ^Iartign'y: Diet, dcs atiliq. 
 cliret. s. V. anneaux. S.MiTH and Cuketiiam : 
 t'hrifl. Antiq. I. p. 1.] F. PIPER. 
 
 AA'RON (mountaineer, or, according to another 
 root, enlii/hlened), the first high priest of the .Jews, 
 eldest. sou of Amram and Jochebed, of the tribe 
 of Levi, brother of Miriam and Moses, husband 
 of Elislieba, and father of Nadab, Abiliu, Elea- 
 zar, and Ithainar (Exod. vi. 20, 23) ; was the 
 " prophet," or mouthpiece, of Moses (Exod. iv. 16), 
 and associated with him in all the preparations 
 for and the actual conduct of the exodus and the 
 subsequent wandering. By divine command he 
 and his sons were set apart for the priesthood, 
 and accordingly were consecrated by Moses (Lev. 
 viii.) ; and the choice of Aaron as high priest was 
 afterwards miraculously confirmed bj' th<^ bud- 
 ding rod (Num. xvii.). Aaron held the office for 
 almost forty years; and it then passed to Eleazar, 
 the older sons having died at the hand of God 
 (Lev. X. 1, 2). The most prominent defect iu 
 his character was weakness. He reflected the 
 mood of those about him, and never acted inde- 
 pendently. Thus he yielded to the solicitations 
 of the people at Sinai, during the absence of 
 Moses, and made the gcjlden calf (Exod. xxxii. 4). 
 He joined Miriam in her jealous niurniuiing 
 against Jloses (Xnm. xii.). and subsequently 
 Moses in his impatient disobedience of the divine 
 command at Jleribah (Num. xx. 10). For this 
 latter sin he was kept out of the promised land 
 (verse 24). He died on Mount Ilor, at the age of 
 a hundred and twenty-three years, in sight of all 
 the ]>eople, who mourned sincerelv over his death. 
 See MosKs, Priest. fr. \v. gciiL-L-rz. 
 
 AARON ben-Asher, or AARON bar-Moses, .-i 
 Jewish rabbi, who in the eleventh century 
 collected the various readinss of the text of 
 the O. T. from the manuscripts of the AVestein 
 
 9
 
 ABADDON. 
 
 lO 
 
 ABBOT. 
 
 libraries, while Ben Xephtliali made a similar 
 collection from those of the Eastern librarii's. 
 These collections are the first Hebrew books in 
 which the rowel-signs are given, and to their 
 authors the honor of this invention is often as- 
 cribed. See Bible Text, O. T. 
 
 ABAD'DON (ileslrucllon), in the O. T. the 
 kingdom of the dead, Hades, or Sheol (.Tob xxvi. 
 (5; Prov. xv. 11). The rabbins used the word of 
 the lowest part of hell. But in Rev. ix. 11 
 Abaddon is personified, and called the angel of 
 the bottomless pit, and king of tlie infernal lo- 
 3USts. WOLF B-VUIHSSIN'. 
 
 AB'ANA (slwu/) and PHAR'PAR (xwifi). the 
 "rivers of Damascus" (2 Kings v. 1'2), identified 
 with the modern Barada and Awaj respectively. 
 The Abana is the Amana of Cant. iv. S, and 
 jjrobably the Greek C'hrysorrhoas {(jnfdfn sirfiam). 
 It rises in the Antilibanus, and runs through tlie 
 city; while the Awaj rises in Hernion. and flows 
 eight miles south of Damascus. But their di- 
 rection is the same, from west to east, acioss the 
 plain of Damascus; and both empty them.selves 
 into the so-called '-Meadow Lakes." eighteen 
 miles east of Damascus. Tlie Abana is the 
 chief cause of the extraordinary fertility aud 
 beautv of the jilain of Damascus. 
 
 ABARBANEL. See ABRABANEL. 
 
 AB'ARIM (lieyimd, i.e. the .Jordan), a monn- 
 t.ain-range in the Land of Moab, opposite Jericho 
 (Num. xxvii. \i; Deut. xxxii. 49). Nebo, IVor, 
 and Pisgah belong to the range. The range rises 
 U) a height of more than four thousand feet 
 above the De<ad Sea. 
 
 ABAUZIT, Firmin, b. at Uzes, Languedoc, 
 France, Nov. 11, 1G70; d. in Geneva, March 20. 
 17(i7 ; was educated in the latter city, and 
 became public librarian there in 1727, having 
 previously travelled and studied in Holland and 
 Kngland. Of his (Jutcra.i Uivc.raes (2 vols., Am- 
 aterdam, 1773), parts have been translated by 
 E. Harwood, London, 1771, under the title, Mis- 
 cellanies on Historical, Tkeoloyical, and Critical 
 Subjecl.t. 
 
 AB BA, the Aramaic word for "father," lioth 
 Chaldrc' aud .Syriac. Christ and Paul api'lied it 
 lo (iiid (Mark xiv. .3G ; Uom. viii. 1.")). Luther 
 traiislati-d Aliha. Fnfher, by "dear Father." 
 
 ABBADIE, Jacques, h'. at Nay, in Be'arn, 
 Franci', 1(;."j7; d. in Loudon, 1727; studied in the 
 flourishing reformed academies of Saumur and 
 .Sedan, and i-arly showed extraordinary talent; 
 on invitation from the Elector of Brandenburg 
 was pastor of the Frencli Ui'formed Coiigregaliou 
 in Berlin, from KJSO lo 1088; went with Marshal 
 Schonil)erg to England, and became pastor of the 
 French R<'formed Congregation in London, in 
 1089. His Ln Vi:riti lU In Udiijion Clirelicnne, oi 
 which the two first volumes ajipeared 1G81, and 
 the thini in 1G8!), was translated into Kngli.sh 
 (Ixmdoii, lG!)l-98, 2 vols.) and also into German; 
 and, though written liy a •' heretic," it became 
 nne of the standard apologetical works in the 
 French literature. Of his other works, his L'Art 
 lie se Connaitre, 1G02, giving an outline of his 
 moral syst'in, attr.icted mueli attention, and was 
 warmly di'fended by Malebranclie. 
 
 ABBESS, .iIro hoinetiines called Antistita or 
 JIajori.s.s.i, the sui>erior of an iibbey of nuns, was 
 clecltid ill this aame Jiiauncr U6 an abbot, and 
 
 held ne.arly the same power. She could not 
 excommunicate, however, or give tlie veil, or 
 ordain ; aud thus she became, in a general way, 
 more dependent on the episcopal authority than 
 the abbot. That the Abbess of Lucia wore the 
 title of Episcopa was an entirely exceptional case; 
 but her right to be present at councils and synods 
 was generally acknowledged in the Western 
 Church. See M.\NSi : Coll. Con. Tom. L Siipp. 
 pp. .519. .523, sq. Lixgard: Antiq. of the Anylo- 
 Snxon Church, I. 139. 
 
 ABBEY, a religious house under the superin- 
 tendence of an abbot or abbess. They were of 
 two general classes, — royal abbeys, founded and 
 endowed by kings, which rendered an account of 
 tlieir temporal administration to the king's offi- 
 cers ; and episcopal abbeys, which were directly 
 under the care of the bishops. Their jurisdic- 
 tion was at first confined to the immediate lands 
 aud building in |iossession of the house; but 
 subsequently they very much extended their 
 sway, even ruling over cities, and issuing coin, 
 and acting as courts of justice. The abbeys of 
 England, a hundred .and ninety in number, and 
 possessing lands valued in that day at .i2.8.')0,000, 
 were suppressed under Henry VIIL. and their 
 property confiscated. Similar was the fate of 
 the French abbeys in the revolution of 1790. 
 See Convent. Mon.^stery, Priory. 
 
 ABBO of Fleury, b. near Orleans; d. Nov. 13, 
 1001. He w.as educated in the .\bbey of Fleury; 
 studied at Rheims and Piiris; went in 985, ou the 
 invitation of Archbishop Oswald of York, to Eng- 
 land, where, since the d.ays of Alfred, studies and 
 learning had sunk so low, that very few priests 
 understood Latin; taught for two years iu the 
 school of Ramsey; was chosen .\bbot of Fleury 
 in 988, and brought the school of this place to a 
 flourishing ciuulition ; so, on the whole, he occu- 
 pies a prominent position iu this barren time 
 which followed after the bloom of the age of 
 Charlemagne, In the synod of St. Denis, ODo, 
 he took the part of the monks against the 
 bishops ; and when the former aroused the peo- 
 ple, and dispersed the latter, he wrote his Apolo- 
 fjeticus in their defence. He was not a blind 
 p.artisan, however, of the monks. He introduced 
 severe reforms in tlie monasteries of Fleury, 
 Marmontier, Mici, Saiut-l'fere de Chartre.s, and 
 Reole; and it was the monks who in the last-men- 
 tioned place roused the people against him, and 
 caused tlie riot in which lie was kilh^d. His 
 life, written by his pupil Aimoin, is given by 
 iMabillon : /lr(. Sand. Onl. Jicnedt. \i. 1; his 
 Apolor/eticus and a number of very interesting 
 letters by Fit. Pniioi' : Codex Caiionum, Paris, 
 1G87. Aiany of Iiis works, mathematical, astro- 
 nomical, historical, and dialectical, still exist in 
 manuscript. liUNnKSHAOKN (11Kii>km.\nn). 
 
 ABBOT (Greek 'AjJfJnf, Latin AMias, Italian 
 Abate, French Alihe, Gerinan Aht, from tlw^ Chal- 
 dee or .\raiuaio form of the common Hebrew 
 word iov/alher) was iutroiluced in the East, first 
 as a general term of respect fiu' any iiKuik, and 
 then as a special title for the superior of a inoii- 
 astery. .\s such it was afterwards rejilaceil 
 among the (Jreeks by t)lher terms, a.s, for in- 
 stance, .Archimandrite; and in the West it was 
 retained only by the order of the Benedictiin'S 
 and ila branches, — the Cistercians, lieinliaidiues,
 
 ABBOT. 
 
 11 
 
 ABBOTT. 
 
 Trappists, Graii<!inoiitanes, ami Pronioiistratcii- 
 ses; while the Carmelites, Aui^ustinians, Domini- 
 cans, and Sei-vites use<l the titles of /'nejio.tilus 
 or Prior Couvcnlualis ; the Franciscans, those of 
 Cuxton or Giian/ianus ; the Camalchilensians and 
 Jesuits, those of Major and Jteclor, etc. In courses 
 of time the title was applied also to other cleri- 
 cal, though not monastical otBces ; and we find 
 abljalHS cnxtrense.i, preachers appointed for army 
 service, ahhatea ctirim jxilatil, etc. Auotlier liis- 
 tinction, not of title only, but also of position, 
 was tliat lietween ablialex rcf/ulares, srciiliires, and 
 taici. The abhas xeculnris was not a monk, but a 
 member of the secular clera^y, holding; an abbey 
 ill commeniiam ; that is, as a benefice, enjoyini; the 
 honor of the title, and a certain amount of the 
 revenues, but taking no part in the administra- 
 tion or jurisdiction. From this system of giving 
 monasteries in cmnnifmlam arose the ahhales laid. 
 Tliey were not only not monks, but they did not 
 even belong to the clerical order. They were 
 simply laymen, in tlie beginning warriors, after- 
 wards courtiers. In the time of Cliarles Martel 
 it was determined to employ monastic revenues, 
 at least tempoiarily, for the pressing needs of the 
 warfare against the Saracens; and the noblemen 
 who led the troops raised in this way thus be- 
 came titular abbots. But the patriotic jiurpose 
 was soon forgotten ; and a practice gi-ew np which 
 finally, in the time of Louis XI\''., became a 
 public scandal. 
 
 The al/bax reijularis was elected by the monks, 
 and from among themselves; only, in cases when 
 a monastery seemed to present no fit subject, he 
 was chosen from another congregation. Origi- 
 nally the right of nomination rested with the 
 bishop of the diocese ; but in the middle of the 
 sixth century, during the reign of Justinian, this 
 right was by law transferred to the monks 
 througliout the Western Church, and the bishops 
 retained only the right of institution. The sys- 
 tem of commendation, however, and also other 
 circumstances, gave both the bishop and the king 
 manifold opportunities to interfere with the elec- 
 tions. Once elected and confinned, the abbot 
 held office for life, and could be deposed by the 
 bishop only with the consent of his fellow-pres- 
 byters and abbots. With respect to discipline 
 an<l jurisdiction, his power was almost absolute; 
 and tliough the prxpositi or priorc.s nominated by 
 himself, and the decani and centenurii elected by 
 the monks, could exercise some influence, it be- 
 came necessary for tlie councils to enact laws 
 jirohibiting abbots from blinding or nmtilating 
 their monks. In earlier times their power was 
 somewhat checked by the episcopal authority; 
 but, in the beginning of the twelfth century, the 
 Councils of Rheims (1119) and of Rome (112J) 
 entirely emancipated them from the episcopal 
 jurisdiction, and placed them immediately under 
 the pope. In secular things, however, especially 
 with respect to the abbey property, their power 
 was often very circumscribed; and, as they were 
 unable to interfere in person with civil suits, it 
 often happened that the O'lvocalus ecclexite or 
 mconomus or procurator usurped an exclusive 
 authority over the administration of the reve- 
 nues. There are, nevertheless, laws from a later 
 date, prohibiting abbots from lending money on 
 usury, liautiug the number of tlieir horses and 
 
 attendants, etc. ; and the frequent rumors of de- 
 baucliery and intrigue were not confiiu-il to the 
 abl/alcs taici, but touched also the abbales 7-ri/ulares. 
 
 See IIki.yot: llistoire des ordrcs vtonnxliquas. 
 Paris, 1714-1!!, 8 vols. MoNTAi.K.Miii;i;r : The 
 Monhs of Ihc We.ft. E<linb. and l.ond.. 18G0 aq. 
 7 vols." 'WioTZKit u. Wklte (2d ed.), 1880, 
 sub Abt. 
 
 ABBOT, George, b. at Guildford, Oct. 29, 
 15(i2; d. at Croydon, Aug. 4, lO.'}:} ; studied at 
 Baiiol College, Oxford: was chosen master of 
 University College ]oU7, and appointed Bishop 
 of Lichfield 1(500, Bishop of London a month 
 later, and Archbishop of Canterbury within the 
 lapse of a year. In 1001 he was chosen one of 
 the eight Oxford divines who were intrusted 
 with the tr.anslation of the New Testament, ex- 
 cepting the Epistles ; and in lOOS he accom- 
 panied the Earl of Dunbar to Scotland, to bring 
 about a union between the churches of England 
 and Scotland. In both cases he distinguished 
 himself, but his rapid preferment was neverthe- 
 less due as much to his flattery of James I. as to 
 his merit. He showed considerable firmness, 
 however, when once .seated in the archiepiscopal 
 chair, both in his relation to the king and the 
 court, and more especially to Laud : he was even 
 suspended for a short time, having refused to 
 license a sermon preached by Dr. Sil>thorp, which 
 stretched the royal prerogatives beyorul their con- 
 stitutional bounds. Of his numerous writings, 
 his Geoi/rajihi/, or a Brief De.^cription of l/ie Whole 
 World, YAi\ through many editions; and liis Ex- 
 poailion on the Prophet Jonah (IGOO) was reprinted 
 in 1845. A Life of him was published at Guild- 
 ford in 1797. 
 
 ABBOT, Robert, b. at Guildford, 1.5U0; d. at 
 Salisbury, March 2, 1G17 ; elder brother of the 
 archbishop, was, like him, educated at Oxford, 
 where he became Master of Balliol College, and 
 professor-regius of divinity. In 1615 he was 
 made Bishop of Salisbury. lie was a learned 
 man and a prolific writer, following his brother's 
 [lolicy, especially in his opposition to Laud ; but 
 most of his works, even Ins Mirror of Popish 
 .Sul/lillies (1594) and Antichristi Demonstralio 
 (16Uo), have fallen into oblivion. 
 
 ABBOT, Robert, b. about 1.588; d. about 1657 ; 
 was at once vicar of Cranbrook, Kent, and minis- 
 ter of Southwick, Hampshire ; but, when parlia- 
 ment decided against pluralities of ecclesiastical 
 offices, he gave up the former benefice, though it 
 was the larger. Afterwards he was made rector 
 of St. Austin, Watling Street, London, where 
 he died. Though a strong churchman, and much 
 mixed up in controversies with the nonconform- 
 ists, especially the Brownists-, he stands as a 
 remarkable specimen of the Puritan type of 
 clergymen of his time : and his prose writings 
 were very popular; as, for instance, liis Milk for 
 Babes; or, A Mother's Catechi.tmfor her Children, 
 first pulilished in l(i46, and often reprinted. 
 
 ABBOTT, Jacob, a popular American author, 
 b. at Ilallowell, Me., Xov. 14, 1803; d. at Farm- 
 ington, Me., Oct. 31, 1879. He was graduated 
 at Bowdoin College in 1820 ; student of theology 
 at Andover, Mass., 1822-24; tutor in Amherst 
 College, 1824-25; professor of mathematics and 
 l>hilosophy, 1825-29 ; principal of the Mount 
 Veruou School for Girls, in Boston, 1829-34 •
 
 ABBREVIATORS. 
 
 12 
 
 ABELARD. 
 
 ivistor of Kliot Congri'sational Church in Rox- 
 liury, 1834-36; and since then he devoted liira- 
 self to literary work. He is mentioned here 
 because of his " Young Christian Series," con- 
 sisting of The Vounr/ C/iriilian, lS'i'2 ; The Corner- 
 stone, 1834; The Way to dn Good; Hoary Head; 
 and McDonner, — a series which has been exten- 
 sively circulated. His numerous stories for chil- 
 (Irenbreathe a gentle Christian spirit, and convey 
 valuable moral truths. 
 
 ABBREVIATORS are notaries, or secretaries, 
 of the papal court, whose duty it is to prepare 
 condensations or outlines of letters, bulls, and 
 onnsistorial proceedings. Their number is fixed 
 at sevent}'-two ; of whom twelve are prelates, 
 Iwentv-two are lower clergy, and the remain- 
 der may be laymen. Similarly named officers 
 do the "same for the acts of general synods. 
 The office dates from Benedict XIL, in the early 
 ])art of the fourteenth century, and h.as been 
 filled by distinguished men who held the rank 
 of prelates. In 1466 Paul II. aboli.shed it be- 
 cause it had been corrupted, but it was restored 
 later on. -Jlneas Sylvius, afterwards Pius H., 
 was " Abbreviator major" of the Council of Basel 
 (1430). 
 
 ABBUNA, the special title of the metropolitan 
 of .\xuni, or, as he is also .styled, the Bishop of 
 .■\byssiuia or Ethiopia. As twelve was the lowest 
 canonical number of bishops for the establish- 
 ment of a patriarchate, and the metropolitan of 
 Axum was forbidden to have more than seven 
 suffragan bishops, he was not a patriarch, but 
 wore the above special title of Abbuna. lie is 
 nominated by the Coptic Patriarch of Alexan- 
 dria. 
 
 ABDIAS. Under the title, Ahdioe, Babylonkc 
 primi episrnpi, De HUtoria Certa/itini.i Apostolici 
 liliri X. Julio Africniio interprete, we have a collec- 
 tion of myths, legends, and traditions relating to 
 the lives and works of the apostles, and pretend- 
 ing to be the Latin translation of the Greek 
 translation of the Hebrew work of Abdias. An 
 Abdias, however. Bishop of Babylon, and a di.sci- 
 ple of the apostles, is not known to liistory ; and 
 the collection, drawn from various sources, canoni- 
 cal and non-canonical, catholic and heretical, is 
 evidently a compilation from the eighth or ninth 
 century. \V.\(iEN'M.\X.V. 
 
 AB'DON (nervile) 1. A (Jersonite Levitical city 
 in .Asher i<li'ntitied with Abdeh, ten miles nortil- 
 east from Accho. 
 
 2. Al.so the name of several Bible characters, 
 of whom one was the eleventh judge of Israel 
 (Judg. xii. l:i-15). 
 
 ABECEDARIAN HYMNS are acro.stic poems. 
 in imitation of those in llidjrew, e.g., Ps. cxix., 
 in which the several verses begin with the letters 
 of the alphabet in regular order, and thus liav(; 
 the practical effect of aiding the memory. Au- 
 gustine composed a hynni on this principle against 
 tlie J.)onatist8; and the Church employed also 
 others, for all saw the importance of song as a 
 means of religious instruction. 
 
 ABEEL, David, D.D., an eminent missionary, 
 l>. at N<".v Brunswick, X..I., June VJ, 1801; d. iit 
 .\Huny, N.Y., .Sept. 4, 1816. lie was graduated 
 from the seminary of the Ueformcd (DuUdi) 
 Church in his native town, and in 18Li6 was 
 licensed, and settled at Athens, N.Y. : but 
 
 failing health compelled him to resign, and at 
 length he went in 18'29 as a chaplain of the 
 Seaman's Friend Society to Canton ; in that ca- 
 pacity he there remained a year, when he p\it 
 himself, as had been at first propo,sed, under the 
 American Board, by whose direction he visited 
 Java and other Eastern countries in order that 
 he might report their true condition. In 1833 he 
 returned home to recridt his health, but on his 
 journey through Europe embraced every oppor- 
 tunity to present the cau.se of foreign missions. 
 In England he was instrumental in organizing a 
 society for promoting female education in the 
 East. He returned to China, February, 1839, 
 and was the founder of the Amoy Mission. 1844 ; 
 returned to America, 1845. He was an estimable 
 man, and a sincere and devoted Christian, His 
 gentle, refined manners made him welcome every- 
 where, an<l, joined to his practical wisdom, enabled 
 him to wield a wide and consecrated influence. 
 
 A'BEL (breath). The second son of .-Vdam and 
 Eve, and, according to some, the twin-brother of 
 Cain, who from envy killed him, Abel was a 
 shepherd, Cain a farmer; and thus the two chief 
 callings of the Hebrews were represented in the 
 first family (Gen. iv. 1-8). Abel was the first 
 "martyr," and hero of faith (Matt, xxiii. 35; 
 Heb. xi. 4). In patristic theology the brothers 
 are regarded as types; as, by Augustine, .\liel is 
 the representative of the regenerate or spiritual, 
 Cain of tlie natural or corrupt, man. 
 
 A'BEL (mcailoir), as a prefix, enters into several 
 Hebrew names of places: — 
 
 1. Abel-Betii-1M.\'achah (mendnw of the hon^e 
 "f opprcssioji'), also called Abkl-Ma'i.m {meadoio 
 of icater.<!), and twice simply Aukl (2 Sam. xx. 
 14, 18), identified with Abil-el-Kumh, a ruin on a 
 stream north of the waters of Merom, in the north 
 of Palestine, near D.am.ascus (2 Sam. xx. 14, 15 ; 
 1 Kings XV. 20; 2 Kings xv. 29). 
 
 2. A'dei.-Mkho'laii (meadow of the dance), a 
 place in the Jordan Valley (Judg. vii. 22), inter- 
 esting because Elisha lived there (1 Kings xix. 
 10). The identification is uncertain. 
 
 3. A'nEL-Miz'iiAiM (meadoio of lu/t/pt). The 
 name given by the Canaanites to the place, some- 
 where east of the Jordan, which was the .sceno 
 of the final "mourning" of the Egyptians over 
 Jacob (Gen. 1. 11). 
 
 4. .'V'nEi.-.Siirr'riM (meadow of the acacias), 
 called Sliittini (Xum. xxv. 1), — the hist halting- 
 place of the Israelites (Xum. xxxiii. 49). 
 
 6. "The great .\bel " of 1 Sam. vi. 18, a copy- 
 ist's error for " the great .■<toiie." 
 — ABELARD, b. at Palais, a village of Brittany, 
 in 1079 ; d. in the priory of St. Marcellus, near 
 Chalons, .\i>ril 21, 11 12. He was the eldest son of 
 a knight, the lord of the village. His Christian 
 name was Pierre de Palais (Petrus Palalinus) ; 
 but when he renounced his right of primogeni- 
 ture, and gave up his claims on his parental in- 
 heritance in order to devote his whole life to 
 studies, he assumed the nanu> of Abelard, either 
 from the French abeille, a bee, or from the French 
 bail, — Latin , bajitlun. — a tutor. 1 1 is first teacher 
 in philosophy was llo.scellinus, who kept a school 
 in Lokmenaeh, near Vannes, in Brittany, and w.as 
 a decided Xominalist, declaring all unii'cr.^alia to 
 be merely mental conceptions. His second teach- 
 er was William of Champcaux, who presided
 
 ABELARD. 
 
 13 
 
 ABELARD. 
 
 over the cathedral school of Paris, and was a 
 decideil Realist, declarinfj the unicersalin to be the 
 very essence of all existence, and indiviihialitv 
 only till! product of incidental circnnistances. 
 ]5etween these two extremes, whose bitter o[ipo- 
 sition to each other forms the niovinc; power in 
 the whole history of scholastic philosopliy, Abe- 
 lard att('ni|)ted to occupy a position of his own. 
 His positive view.s, however, such as they are 
 developed in his Diulecticti, Gloxstt in Por/iht/rium. 
 in CiUetinriax, in Topica BoHlhii, etc., are vague and 
 even self-contradictory. In jihilosophy, as in 
 tiieoloc;y. he is merely a critic; but his criticism 
 is as bohl as it is brilliant, and in many points it 
 placed iiim far in advance of his age. He at- 
 tacked William of Champeaux, and compelled 
 liim to alter his system, — - a feat oidy to be com- 
 pared with the gaining of a decisive battle. 
 After this success, lie opened a scliool of his own. 
 
 — though he was still a very young man, — first 
 at Melun, then at Corbeil, and finally at Paris. 
 But William, though beaten, was still a powerfid 
 man. Abelard was compelled to leave Paris ; 
 and about 1113 he staid at I^aon, where he 
 studied theology under Anselm, a pupil of An- 
 selm of Canterbury. Shortly after, however, 
 lie returned to Paris, AVilliani having retired ; 
 and now followed the most bi'illiaut period of his 
 life. He ta\ight both theology and philusophy, 
 and more than five thousaml pupils gathered 
 around his chair. Nearly all the great men of the 
 age, both within and without the Church, heard 
 Abelard. Celestine II. and Arnold of Brescia 
 were both among his pupils ; and his books 
 " went across the sea and the Alps." But this 
 brilliant career was suddenly checked by hi.s rela- 
 tion to Heloise. 
 
 Heloise was a young girl of eighteen years, an 
 illegitimate daughter of a canon, and living in 
 the house of her uncle, the Canon Fulbert of 
 Paris. She was very studious, and her fur- 
 ther instruction was confided to .\belard. A 
 passionate love sprang up between them ; and 
 they eloped to the house of Abelai'd's sister, 
 where Heloise bore a son, Astralabius. In order 
 to reconcile Fulbert, the two lovers were married; 
 but. from a regard to the ecclesiastical career of 
 Abelard, it was determined to keep the marriage 
 secret. To this Fulbert would not consent; and 
 wlien Abelard brought his wife to a Benedictine 
 nunnery at Argenteuil, near Paris, Fulbert sus- 
 pected an attem]it to get rid of her by making 
 her a nun, and .sought revenge. One night lie 
 fell upon Abrlard, and had him mutilated, thereb}' 
 jn"eventing him from ever holding any ecclesi- 
 astical office. Broken by shame and anguish, 
 Abelard retired to the Alonastery of St. Denys, 
 and here he lived quietly for a couple of years 
 (about 1118), teaching in a secluded place — the 
 cella — built for the purpose. But his views of 
 Dionysius Areopagita, the patron saint of the 
 monastery and of France, brought him in conflict 
 with the monks. He fled, but was compelled to 
 return and recant; and though he afterwards 
 was allowed to retreat into the wilderness of Ko- 
 gent, in Champagne, where he built an oratory, 
 
 — the so-called I'lirnclclu^, — he was still subject 
 to the authority of the abbot of St. Denys. The 
 original ]'aracleliis was made of reeds ami .sedges: 
 but so many pupils gathered around the celebrated 
 
 teacher, that soon a building of stone could he 
 erected. Abelard, however, felt miserable. One 
 of his principal theological works, /> Unilale el 
 'I'rinitate Divina, was condemned by the Council 
 of Soissons, llL'l, and he lived in jierpetual fe.ir of 
 persecution. He accepted the election as abbot 
 of the Monastery of St. (iildasius at Buys, in 
 Brittany; but here he literally fell among a gang 
 of ruffians. It was impossible for him to estab- 
 lish discipline. Twice the monks tried to [loison 
 him. Finally they attempted to .strangle him. 
 and he had to flee for his life. Meanwhile He- 
 loise had moved to the Paracletux, the Monastery 
 of Argenteuil having been closed in 1127; and 
 here Abelard lived for some time ; but his stay 
 caused scandal, and he left. For several years 
 — until the conflict with his great adversary. 
 Bernard of Clairveaux, begins — the continuity 
 of his life is lost to us. W'f only know that John 
 of Salisbury heard him teach in the school on the 
 hill of St. Geneveva, in Paris, in 113G, and that 
 he wrote his autobiography, Hisluria Calamilalum, 
 during these years. 
 
 As a theologian, Abelard was a disciple of An- 
 selm of Canterbury; but being by nature a critic, 
 while Anselm was a mystic, his dialectics drove 
 him on every point beyond the pale of the estab- 
 lished faith. The doctrine of the Trinity, wliich 
 forms the centre of his theology, he always treats 
 in connection with the doctrine of the divine 
 attributes; and, in spite of all the precautions 
 he takes, the Trinity becomes under his hands a 
 mere divine attribute. Very characteristic for 
 his attitude with respect to the Church and the 
 tradition on which it rests is his work Sic el Non. 
 It consists of quotations from the fathers, arranged 
 in hartnony with the loci theolnf/ici, but contradict- 
 ing each other at every point, without any .solu- 
 tion being offered. At the Council of Sens, 3141, 
 Bernard presented a formal accusation of heresy ; 
 and Abelard left the council without defending 
 himself, and appealed directly to the jiope. But 
 Bernard wrote himself to the pope, denouncing 
 Arnold of Brescia as one of the champions of 
 Abelard; and Innocent III., now decided against 
 the latter, forbade him to write or teach any 
 more, and ordered his writings to be burnt. By 
 the friendly mediation of Peter Venerabilis, abb'ot 
 of Clugny, he was allowed to spend the rest of his 
 days in that place. lie continued his studies, 
 "read always, prayed frequently, and kept silent." 
 He died (sixty-three years old) on a visit to St. 
 Marcellus, and was buried in the J'aracletuf. 
 Heloise died May 1(5, 1164. and her body was 
 laid in the same coffin, beside that of Abelard. 
 They now lie together in the famous tomb at 
 Pere-Lachaise, Paris. 
 
 Lit. — A complete edition of Abelard's works, 
 philosophical, theological, poetiial, and letters, 
 was given by Cousi.N, 2 vols., Paris, 1849 ami 
 1859. In Migne's edition : Patrol, vol. 178, thi- 
 Diiileclicii and the Sic el Non are lacking. Sepa- 
 rately have been published: Epistotfe, hy Krcii- 
 .•\i!i) IIawlinson, London, 1718; Uisloria CaUnn,- 
 tiiiuni by Okelli, Turin, 1841; Sic el Non by 
 Hknkk and Li.ndkxkoiil, Marburg, 18.51. Gui- 
 ZOT : Essdi siir Abilard el Hiloise, Paris, 18:Jf). 
 Cii.\ULi:s DK Rkmusat: AhelartI, Paris, 184.'). 
 J. L. Jacoiu : A/tularil tind Heloise, Berlin, 18o3. 
 \^'iunr: llonmnce of Abelurd and Heloise.. New
 
 ABBLITBS. 
 
 14 
 
 ABILENE. 
 
 York, ISO'?. BoxNiER : Ahelard et Si. Bernard, 
 Palis, 186:>. Kaiinis : Drei Vortraqe, Leipzig, 
 18(i5; [Deutsch : Abalnrd, 1883]. F.' NITZSCII. 
 
 ABELITES, or ABELONIANS, a sect mentioned 
 by .'Vucjustine (Dehcer. c. 8G), lived in the neigh- 
 borhood of Hippo Regius, in Northern Africa, 
 and consisted merely of country people, but had 
 become extinct at the time when Augustine first 
 heard of them. Their name they derived from 
 Abel, whose e.xample they pretended to follow. 
 They took wives, but their marriages were never 
 consummated. Each coujile adopted a boy and 
 a girl, who made a vow to marry each other in 
 the same manner, and to whom they bequeathed 
 their property. They were probably a branch of 
 some older Gnostic sect. HERZOG. 
 
 ABELLI, Louis, b. at Vez, France, 1GU4; d. in 
 Paris 1691 ; was made bishop of llhodez in lG(i4, 
 but resigned in 1667, and retired to the Convent 
 of St. Lazare. lie wrote with great vehemence 
 against the Jansenists : TraJilion de I'Er/lixe lou- 
 clianl le Culte de la Vierge, 1652 ; Medulla Theo- 
 logica : Vie de St. Vincent de Paul, etc. 
 
 ABEN-EZRA, one of the most celebrated Jew- 
 ish scholars of the twelfth century, called Eben- 
 are or Evenare by the schoolmen ; b. at Toledo in 
 1088 or 1092; d. in 1167 at Calahorra. on the boun- 
 dary of Navarre and Catalonia; emigrated from 
 Toledo in 1138; visited .\frioa, Egypt, Palestine. 
 Hagdad, and perhaps Indi;i; taught graniuiar and 
 languages among the Italian Jews from 1110 to 
 115.5; vi.sited France and London; and settled, in 
 1160, at Narbonne. As a poet, lie was complete 
 master of the metrical technics, both in Hebrew 
 and Arabic ; but he had no inspiration. As a 
 philo.sopher, he belonged to the Neo-Platonic 
 school ; but he was without originality. But his 
 commentaries on the Pentat-'uch (11.52-53), on 
 I.s.aiah (1151-55), on the Psalms, Daniel, etc., 
 show a new method, in which grammar and his- 
 tory were made to {ilay a much greater part than 
 they had formerly done. See Woi.F : Bililin:/i. 
 Jlcbr. Tom. I. pp. 71-86 ; De Rossi : Dizion. Maricn 
 dc'i/liaulori EOrei ; Eiiscu und Guitbkk: Enci/k-ln- 
 jiiidie : Ciuaktz : Gescluclite derJudcn. VI. p. 198 
 nq., ,-ilid 111! S(|. inj. W. .St:iUir,TZ. 
 
 ABERCROMBIE, John, b. at Aberdeen Oct. 10. 
 1780; d. at Edinburgh Nov. M, 1811; studi(-d 
 medicine at Eilinlnirgh and London ; settled in the 
 former city as practical physician, and became in 
 1835 lord-rector of Marischal College, Aberdeen. 
 In 1830 he published ICnquiries conccrnin// the 
 Iiilelleclwd I'oivcrs, which in 1833 was followed 
 bv his Pliilosoplii/ of Ike Moral Feetinr/.i. The 
 object of these works is to sliow the important 
 ri-lation which subsists between the science of 
 mind and the doctrines of revealed religion, and 
 both of them ran through a great number of 
 I'llitioiis. 
 
 ABERNETHY, John, b. .at Coleraine in Ire- 
 land 1680; d. ill Dublin 1710; studied theology 
 in Glasgow and Eiliiihurgh, and hecaiiK! minister 
 of the Presbyterian congregation of .\ntrim 1703. 
 and of tliat of Wood Street. Dublin, 1730. His 
 iiarticij)ation while in Antrim in the conlrover.sy 
 b'tween the Sidt.ii:ril)rr.i and the N(in-.Sah.icrilier.i, 
 and while in Dublin in that concerning the Test 
 Act, showed him to be a century in ailvance of 
 Ills ago; and his TrarlK were collected and re- 
 printed ill later times with considerable effect. A 
 
 Life of him by DuciiAi. is found in the collection 
 of his Sennnnx. London, 17-18-51; 4 vols. 
 
 ASI'ATHAR {father nf abundance, i.e., liberal), 
 the tenth high jiriest of the .lews, and fourth in 
 descent from Eli, and the last priest ot the house 
 of Ithamar. In consequence of his support of 
 Adonijah. he was deposed by Solomon (1 Kings 
 ii. 27). This act put an end to the double high 
 priesthood, — Abiathar in the party of David, 
 Zadok in the p.arty of Saul, — but also fulfilled 
 the ]irophecy made to Eli (1 Sam. ii. 31). 
 
 ABGARU'S, the name, or perhaps the title, of 
 a series of toparchs reigning, during a period of 
 three and a half centuries, — u|i to .\.D. 217, — 
 over Osroeiie, the north-western part of JSIesopota- 
 mia, with the capital of Edessa. Of the fifteenth 
 of these toparchs Eusebius tells (Eccl. Hi.it. I. 13), 
 that suffering terribly from diseases, and having 
 heard of the miracles of Jesus, he sent a letter 
 to him, professing belief in his Messiah.ship, and 
 asking him to come to Edessa and help him. To 
 this letter Jesus transmitted an answer, promis- 
 ing, that, since he could not come himself, he 
 would, after his death, send one of his disciples 
 to him. Both these letters Eusebius clnims to 
 have found in the archives of Edessa, and to have 
 translated literally from the Syriac text; and ho 
 add,s, from similar .sources, that Thaddens, one of 
 the seventy, was sent by the apostle Thoma.s to 
 Ede.ssa, that he cured the king, and preached 
 Christianity, etc. In the fifth century Moses 
 Choreneiisis repeats this story in his //(.<^ Arm. 
 II 30-33, and .adds that Christ sent a portrait of 
 himself to .-Vbgar; that Abgar wrote about Christ 
 to the Emperor Tiberius, to Nerses, King of 
 ,\ssyria, and Ardache,s, King of Persia, etc. In 
 the East the truth of these stories was never 
 doubted, nor the genuineness of the letters; and 
 even in the West, though a Roman synod of 491 
 declared the letters apocryphical (Maxsi: Colled. 
 Concil. Vill. 152), both Rome and (Jenoa still 
 claim to be in possession of the original picture 
 (W. GitiMM: Die Sat/e rom l'rs/)runi/ dex Clirixtus- 
 bildex, Berlin, 18-13); and the genuineness of the 
 letters has been defi'uded by \Vki.te in 'I'iib. .'Iieol. 
 QuuruUaclirif, 1812. and by F. W. Ri.vcK in Zeit- 
 actirift f. d. Iii.ll. Tlicolotjie, 1843. [See R. A. 
 LirsiL's : Die edessenische Abgar-Sa;je. Braunsch- 
 weig, 1880.] K. SCHMIDT. 
 
 ABl'JAH (ii'Iiose father i.i Jchorah). The name 
 of several men and of one woman (the mother 
 of llezekiah, 2 Cliroii. xxix. 1) mentioned in the 
 Bible. The only one of importance w as the second 
 king of Judali, called in Kings Abijani, who suc- 
 ceeded his father Rehoboam (B.C. 959). He 
 only reigned a part of three years, and even in 
 that short period fell from Jehovah to idol wor- 
 ship; nor was his promising attempt to recover 
 tlu! allegiance of the ten trib(>s followed up as 
 it should have been, and the kingdom grasped 
 (irmly (2 Chron. xiii. 16,20). Lust and idolatry 
 were his ruin. 
 
 ABILE'NE (from Abifa). The tetrarchy gov- 
 erned by l.ysanias ill the time of .John the Baptist 
 (Luke iii. 1). It was a small district of Coele- 
 .Syria, upon the eastern slopes of Anti-Lebanon, 
 north-west from Damascus. Abila the capital 
 w.os on the Harada, ami stood in a gorge called 
 Silk Wady Barada, eighteen miles fnun Dama.s- 
 cus. Joseph. .Li//(y. xviii. 6, 10, xx. 7, 1. IS. J.
 
 ABIMELECH. 
 
 15 
 
 ABRAHAM. 
 
 ir. 11, 5. Tradition makes it tlie death-place of 
 AV)el, confouiKiiiig Abel, a meadow, from wliicli 
 Ahi/a comes, with Hebe], vanity. 
 
 ABIM'ELECH (father of llicJ^hif/). 1. The name 
 of two Philistine king,s at G<'rar who had similar 
 dealinffs with .\braham and Isaac and with their 
 wives successively (Gen. xx., xxvi.). " Abinie- 
 lech " was probably, like Pharaoh among the 
 Egyptians, a ti/le given to their kin<;.s. 
 
 2. A son of Gideon by his Shechemite concu- 
 bine. He was proclaimed king by the Shechem- 
 ites after he had slain his seventy brothers, but 
 at the end of three years was killed by a piece of 
 a millstone while storming Thebez (Judg. ix.). 
 
 AB'ISHAQ (xource of error). The young Shu- 
 nammite who nursed the aged David (1 Kings i. 
 1-4). .\donijah subsequently desired to marry 
 her; but as this was virtually a usurpation, ac- 
 cording to Oriental notions, Solomon put him to 
 death (1 Kings ii. 13-2.5). 
 
 ABISH'AI I father of a f,ift). The head of Da- 
 vid's " thirty " (2 Sam. xxiii. 19), the eldest son 
 of Zeruiah, David's sister, and brother to Joab 
 and Asahel (1 Chron. ii. 1(J) ; noted for bravery, 
 and devotion to David. Coming with his broth- 
 ers unto David while in the Cave of Adullani, 
 hs shared all his dangers, and once saved his 
 life (2 Sam. xxi. 17). David appointed him com- 
 mander of one of the divisions of his army, and 
 he led it successfully against the Kdomites (1 
 Chron. xi.x. 11), Ammonites, and Syrians(2 Sam. 
 X. 10), against .\bsalom (2 Sam. xviii. 2), and 
 against Sheba (2 Sam. xx. C). 
 
 ABLON, a village on the left bank of the 
 Seine, twelve miles from Paris, is noticeable as 
 the first place of public worship conceded to the 
 Protestants of Paris. The promulgation of the 
 Edict of Nantes, May 2, 1.598, caused great indig- 
 nation among the Roman Catholics in France, 
 and its execution in detail was accompanied with 
 innumerable intrigues and subterfuges. Thus the 
 Protestants of the capital could obtain no place 
 of public worship within the city itself, but had 
 to travel twelve miles to Ablon, generally by foot, 
 because they were poor people, and often har- 
 assed by the railleries and insults of the sur- 
 rounding Roman- Catholic population. In 1(J02 
 they petitioned the king to grant thom a place 
 nearer to the city, as, during the winter, forty 
 children had died from being brought so long a 
 distance for baptism; but not until 1G06 was 
 their petition granted, and Charenton St. Jilaurice 
 conceded to them as a place of public Protestant 
 worship. The toilsome and often dangerous 
 "expeditions" to Ablon are often spoken of by 
 Sully and Casaubon. 
 
 AB'NER (father of light), a cousin of Saul, and 
 commander of his army (1 Sam. xiv. 50 sq.). 
 He proclaimed Ishbosheth, Saul's son, king after 
 Saul's death, and succeeded in getting him rec- 
 ognized by all the tribes except Judah, which 
 vigorously opposed and defeated him (2 Sam. ii. 
 17). Shortly after this defeat, Ishbosheth re- 
 proached Aimer with aspiring to the throne 
 because he had taken Rizpah, a concubine of 
 Saul, into his liarem (for so this act would be in- 
 terpreted by Orientals) ; and Abner in anger 
 abandoned Saul's house, and transferred his pow- 
 erful assistance to D.avid. Joab feared that David 
 would appoint Abner in his stead conunander-in- 
 
 chief of the army: accordingly he denounced 
 him as a spy, but, failing in this, he deadened his 
 conscience by the ]ilea of revenge for Abner's mur- 
 der of his brother Asahel, and slew him. David 
 mourned Aimer's death, and apparently the peo- 
 ple shared his grief (2 Sam. iii.). David sol- 
 emnly laid the punishment of Joab's deed upon 
 Solomon (1 Kings ii. (!). Abni>r's tomli is still 
 shown in the courtyard of a house in Hebron. 
 
 ABRABANEL or ABARBANEL, Isaac, b. in 
 Lisbon 1437, d. at Venice 1.509, descended from 
 a wealthy Jewish family which traced its pedi- 
 gree back to King David, and distinguished 
 both as statesman and author. He was the 
 financier of Alphonso V. of Portugal, of Ferdi- 
 nand and Isabella of Spain, of Ferdinand I. and 
 Alphonso II. of Naples; and when in 1503 he 
 moved from Monopoli, where he had lived in re- 
 tirement since 1196, to Venice, he succeeded in 
 effecting a reconciliation between that republic 
 and Portugal. He wrote commentaries on the 
 Pentateuch, the Prophets, etc., several of which 
 have been translated from Hebrew into Latin, 
 liut his most celebrated work is his "Herald of 
 .Salvation," an elaborate representation of the 
 Jewish doctrine of the Messiah, first printed in 
 1525, prob.ably in Saloniki, then in IGll, in 
 Amsterdam, and 1707 in Offenbach, and trans- 
 lated into Latin under the title of Pmro Salutix 
 by II. M.\Y, Franctort, 1712. In this book he 
 gives free vent to his hatred of Christ and (Chris- 
 tianity. FMossE translated his Le principr ile la 
 foi, Avignon, 1885.] See Kkscu und (inuiiEu : 
 Eacyklopwlic ; Guaetz: Gcschichle der Juilen, 
 Vlli. p. 334, and IX. p. 6. fr. w. SCIiultz. 
 ' A'BRAHAWl (father of a miiltilwle), originally 
 named A'rr.\m (father of elevation), the patri- 
 arch honored by Jew, Christian, an<l Mohamme- 
 dan as the divinely appointed founder of the true 
 religion. The leading trait in his chaiacter was 
 faith in God : henc3 he is called " the Friend of 
 God," and " the Father of the Faithful." He was 
 the eldest son of Terah, and w.as born at Ur, a 
 city of the Chaldees, identifiod with Mugheir 
 on the western shore of the Eu|ihratcs, between 
 Babylon and the Persian Gulf. He married 
 Sarai, his half-sister, who was ten years younger 
 than ho. Our information about him is derived 
 entirely from Gen. xi. 20,-xxv. 10. Philo, Jose- 
 phus, and other Jewish writers, add nothing reli- 
 able. The family was idolatrous : nevertheless it 
 was under divine guidance that they took their 
 journey into Canaan ((ien. xi. 31, xv. 7 ; Neh. 
 ix. 7), but got no farther than Haran, where 
 Terah dieil. There Ciod appeared to Abram. and 
 told him to leave Haran, and go to Canaan, where 
 he would be the founder of a great nation. 
 Abram, then seventy-five years old, obeyed, took 
 his childless wife and his nephew Lot, their ser- 
 vants, — a company of some two thousand, — and 
 all their substance, and journeyed to Sichem unto 
 the oak-grove of jMoreh. There again God ap- 
 peared unto him, and promised to give the whole 
 l.and unto his seed. The outbreak of a famine 
 forced them into Egypt, where Abram greatly 
 increased his posse.ssions, but, to save Sarai from 
 dishonor, denied that she was his wife. Ho re- 
 turned to Canaan very rich, but his troubles 
 began at this point, lie showed his generosity 
 in the peaceful separation from Lot, and i:i
 
 ABRAHAM. 
 
 IG 
 
 ABRAXAS. 
 
 l-escuiiig him from hia enemies (Gen. xiii., xiv.). 
 ]t was on liis retiini he met that m^-sterious per- 
 Bonaare, Melchizedek. Year after year passed, 
 and the faith of Abram in the fulfilment of God's 
 promise tliat he should have a son was more and 
 more tried, since Sarai remained barren ; and yet 
 theojihany and sisjn had declared offspring to be 
 certain. At Sarai's su,!;gestion he took her maid 
 llatjar, an Egyptian, as his concubine; and she 
 bore him a son, Ishmael. lie was then eighty- 
 six years old. But Ishmael was not the prom- 
 isi'ij aon. At ninety-nine God appeared again to 
 him, and solemnly renewed his promise, and 
 changed his name from Abr.am to Abraham, and 
 Sarai's (i/i'ncrotis) to Sarah (prinrc.i.i). In token 
 of the Lord's sincerity, the rite of circumcision 
 was instituted; and, accorLlin!:jly, Abraham and 
 Ishmael and all the males of his household were 
 circumcised. The declaration was made by an 
 angel to Sarah, subsequently, who received it 
 donbtingly. At this timo the Lord revealed to 
 Abraham the impending destruction of the cities 
 of the plain. The intercession of Abraham 
 (Gen. xviii. 23-33) is one of the most touch- 
 ing on record. But, inasmuch as there were not 
 ten righteous persons in it, Sodom was destroyed. 
 Very probably in consequence of the destruction 
 of those cities, Abraham cmigr.ated unto Gerar, 
 upon the Atrance south of Canaan, and there 
 )iractised the same weak deception as in Egypt. 
 Yet the Lord watched over Sarah; and Abime- 
 lech. the King of Gerar, administered to the 
 patriarch a deserved rebuke. The Father of the 
 Faithful does not appear in a very good light. 
 Within a year, when Abraham was a hundred 
 years old, and Sarah ninety years, at last the 
 long-awaited son was born, and called Isaac 
 {Iduyhlrr'). Jealou.sy between Sarah and Ilagar 
 compelled the dismissal of the latter. The jil.an 
 of God required complete separation between the 
 chosen s<'ed and the world. The final trial to 
 the faith of the patriarch was the severest, — the 
 offering of Isaac (chap. xxii.). By this crown- 
 ing act of faith Abraham had testified to his 
 belief, not only in (Jod's absolute ownership of 
 all things, that (iod's comm.ands must be obeyed 
 at all hazards, and implicitly, but also that (iod's 
 promises would be fulfiUeil, even though Isaac 
 must be raised from the dead. From this timo 
 on, the life of Abraham was peaceful. Sarah 
 <lied at the age of a hundred and twenty-seven 
 years; and he buried her in the only piece of 
 property he owned, — the Cave of Rlachpelah, 
 at Hebron, — which he bought of Ephron, the 
 llittite. On the expre.ss solicitation of Abra- 
 liain, Isaac took a wife from Abraham's kin- 
 dred. Abraham, by a concubine, Keturah, was 
 the father of six sons ; but these were portioned 
 oil, and' did not share with the Child of the 
 I'romise ((Jen. xxv. G). The eyes of the ag<!d 
 patiiarch were gladd(!ned by the light of Is;iac'.s 
 Bons Esau and Jacob; and it was not imtil fif- 
 t<;en years after their birth th.at Abraham, being 
 then a hundred and sev(!nty-five years old, "was 
 path('re<l to his people" ((ien. xxv. 7, H). The 
 ()\i\ Ti'stamcnt writers recorded no worthier life 
 than his. The facts that today there is no more 
 widely spread name, and none held in grealiT 
 poi)ular reverence, show how important is the 
 sphere lie fills in the world's history. ,Jcw and 
 
 Gentile claim him as ancestor, — the one of the 
 body, the other of the spirit (Rom. iv. IG, 17; 
 Ileb. xi. 8sqq. ; Jas. ii. 21). See Bker: Lchcn 
 Alirciham's nach Aujfaxxung rier jtidisclien Sat/r. 
 Leipzig, 1859 ; H. J. Tomkins : Studies on tlie 
 Times of Abraham, London, 1878. 
 ■~ ABRAHAM'S BOSOM. " To lie in Abraham's 
 bosom " was a Jewish phrase for felicity in para- 
 dise, beeause it implied nearness to the great 
 Father of the Faithful (Luke xvi. 19-31). 
 
 ABRAHAM-A-SANCTA-CLARA, b. at Kreen- 
 heinstetten, in the Grand Duchy of Baden, June 
 2, 1011, d. in Vienna Dec. 1, 1709; the son of 
 au inn-lce<'per, and baptized LUrich Megerle, but 
 educated first by the Jesuits of Ingolstadt, and 
 then by the Benedictines of Salzburg; entered 
 the order of the Barefoot Augustiues in 1662, 
 and. with a short exception, he resided from 
 10G8 to his death in Vienna, where he preached 
 in the Church of the Augustiues, always to 
 crowded audiences, lie was an orator of the 
 very first rank. His publications consist, besides 
 Jiutas ilcr ErzscJtelm, of a series of sermons in four 
 volumes, 1086-!).'), and Grammatica Jieliginxa, 
 1691, a representation of the moral system of the 
 Roman-Catholic Church, mostly of pamphlets 
 written upon some occasion ; as, for instance, 
 Die (jrosse Tolcnhruderschaft, 1680, when the plague 
 reigned; Auf, Auf ihr C/irislen, 1083, when the 
 Turks approached; Gark-Gack, 1G84, for pil- 
 grims, Eltrns Jiir A He, 1098 ; Hcihiimes Geiniscli- 
 Gemastch, 170-1, etc. These publications show 
 that the author was neither a gri?at writer nor 
 a great theologian; but they also show that he 
 was possessed of a peculiar off-hand and artless 
 but captivating and almost irresistible eloquence, 
 and a great wit. A conii^lete edition of his 
 works does not exist. See S. Tu. G. vox Kau- 
 AJA.v: Abraham a Sancta dara, Vienna, 1867; 
 Schkuer: Vorlrcif/e und Aufialzc, B<'rliu, 1874; 
 II. Mareta: Ueber Judas den Erzschtbn, Vienna, 
 1875. SCIIEUER. 
 
 ABRAHAMITES. L A branch of the Panli- 
 cians (which see). II. ;\ deistic sect which arose 
 in liiihemia in the latter part of the eighteenth 
 century, ]>rofessing the faith of Aliraham before 
 his circumcision, acce])ting the doctrines of one 
 God and the immortality of the soul, and of the 
 Scriptures, the Decalogue, and the Lord's Prayer. 
 As their children were not allowed to be edu- 
 catecl in the fait'n of the parents, the sect died out 
 in the same generation in which it arose. 
 
 Lit. — Gcschichte dcr bOhmischen JJaisleii, Lei}>. 
 sic, 178.">. IIEUZOO. 
 
 ABRAXAS is a word with a mystic meaning, 
 arbitrarily formed by combining together tho.se 
 letters of the (ireek al])habet, which, when con- 
 sidered according to tlieir numerical value, and 
 addeil together, give the sum of 305.' This word 
 was first applieil by the (iuoslic liusilidi^s as the 
 name of the Sn]irenie Being of llie universe, the 
 (Jod of the 305 heavens, the Divine Source of 
 the 3(i5 emanations, of which liasilides pretended 
 to know something. Now the name is generally 
 given to every kind of symbolical rejiresenta- 
 tioti of (iiioslic idi'as, such ;is were jiroduced in 
 great masses in the form of gems, or images 
 engraved on metal, or in.scriptions in Greek, Cop- 
 
 » A=i,p=a,p=i«),a=i,{— (w,.=i,?=a)o.
 
 ABSALOM. 
 
 17 
 
 ABYSSINIAN CHURCH. 
 
 tic, etc., on stones, metal tablets, etc., with and 
 without pictorial additions, from tlie second down 
 to the thirteenth century. 
 
 The character most frequently occnrrincf in 
 these representations, the Abraxas iniaj;e proper, 
 shows the head of a cock coiuiected with two 
 serpent tails as legs by means of a body in 
 armor, a whip in one hand, and a shield in the 
 other. According to scholars who have devoted 
 themselves to the study of Gnostic arcluelogy, 
 this figure represents the totality of cosnuc intel- 
 lectual forces, watching over that which is ]>ure 
 in the world, and leading it triumphantly througli 
 life back into the source of all jiurity. Often this 
 figure, tlie central symbol of Basilidian wisdom, 
 is combined with other figures symbolizing other 
 Gnostic ideas derived from Jewish, Egyptian, or 
 Greek sources. Often, also, the .symbolical rep- 
 resentation is confined to a mere oval, formed by 
 a serpent, and combined with some more or less 
 unintelligible inscription. 
 
 The Abraxas literature is very heavy. The 
 study, however, is of psychological rather than 
 historical interest : the question what such sym- 
 bols mean is of less interest than that how peo- 
 ple ever came to think that such symbols could 
 mean any thing. The subject was first taken up 
 by Je.\n Chiflet: Macarii Abraxnn seu de Hem- 
 mis Basilulianis, Antw., 1057. It was then treated 
 by Capello : Prodromus Iconicus Sculplarum, 
 Gcmmarum, Venice, 1702; Montfaucon: L'Anti- 
 qniie Explifjuee, Paris, 1722; P.\ssei;io: Thc.iaurux 
 GemnmruiH, Florence, 17.30; Bellekmaxn' : Die 
 Gemmen der Allen mil dein Abraxasbilde, Berlin, 
 1817-19; Walsh: Ancient Coins, London, 1828; 
 Mattkk ; Ili.iloire de Gnosticisine, Paris, 1S28. 
 ^ AB'SALOM {father of peace), third son of 
 Davi<l, remarkable for his abundant hair and 
 great personal beauty; murdered his brother 
 Amnon in revenge of the latter's violation of 
 Tamar, his sister (cf. 2 Sam. xiii., xiv. 32), and 
 then fled to Talmai, King of Geshur, his mother's 
 father, with whom he staid three years. By 
 Joab's stratagem David was induced to recall 
 his son, but it was two years thereafter before 
 his father admitted him to his presence (2 Sam. 
 xiv.). The re-instated son abused his father's 
 generosity, and employed his pleasing arts to 
 corrupt the people. When he thought himself 
 Bufficiently strong, he gathered his followers at 
 Hebron, and there proclaimed himself king. 
 David made no resistance at first, gave up 
 Jerusalem ; but at length the opposing forces 
 met, and Absalom's army was defeated, and he, 
 contrary to David's express order, was killed by 
 Joab <as he hung suspended by his head from an 
 oak. '1 he mourning of David is one of the most 
 touching episodes in history (2 Sam. xvii. 3^3). 
 U was during his brief period of glory that he 
 reared his pillar in the king's dale to keep his 
 name in remembrance (2 Sam. xviii. IS). The 
 so-called '• Absalom's tomb" in the Kedron val- 
 ley was erected much later. 
 
 'aBSALON, or AXEL, b. in the IsLand of Sea- 
 land 1128, d. in the Convent of Sorre, 1201; 
 studied in Paris, and was appointed Bishop of 
 Koskilde 1158. and Archbishop of Lund, that is, 
 Iirimate of the three Scandinaviiin comitries, 1 178. 
 lie was a great warrior; conquered the Island 
 of lUigen, and established successful missionary 
 
 3- I 
 
 stations among the Wends. He was also a patron 
 of learning : on his instigation .Saxo (irammaticus 
 wrote his Instory of Denmark iji elegant Latin. 
 
 ABSOLUTION. The canonists of the Latin 
 Church distinguish five kinds of absolution : 
 
 1. Jiii/)lism, because it is "a washing in the 
 laver of regeneration," — ,a cleansing from sin; 
 
 2. The liiichdrkl ; 3. The Word and hoclrine, the 
 declaration of the terms on which reconciliation 
 and salvation are granted to maidnnd ,' 4. Inter- 
 cession and Prai/er; 5. Reconcilement to flic Church, 
 which was given aftercanonical penance. The last 
 is accompanied by an imposing service, being per- 
 formed before the people gathered for worship, 
 and immediately before the f^ueharist. The 
 person absolved had been guilty of some great 
 sin; and if a priest was deposed, and if a lay- 
 man was disqmilified, altliough after absolution, 
 he was admitted to the Lord's Supper. There 
 is also absolution for the dead, — prayers for deliv- 
 ery of souls from jiurgatory pronounced after the 
 celebration of nniss for the deceased. 
 
 The Roman Church gives the power to absolve 
 from sins to the priests as the ministers of Jesus 
 Christ. The Greek Church makes account of 
 the act of the priest. So wdiile the former uses 
 the indicative form of absolution, — "I absolve 
 thee," — the latter uses the deprecatory, — "Cln'ist 
 absolve thee." The Church of Engl.md is now 
 divided in opinion ; but probably the donunant 
 view is, that the so-called absolution is a mere 
 authoritative statement that God will absolve all 
 who repent. See Confession. 
 
 ABSTINENCE differs from fasting, in that not 
 all food, but some particular kind, mostly meat, 
 is abstained from. The objects of abstinence 
 have usually been marriage, flesh, or wine. The 
 non-use of the latter has given the phrase "total 
 abstinence," which is a much more truthful de- 
 scription than "temperance" for what is aimed 
 at. Tliere is no virtue in acstinence ; it is a 
 negative thing : there is virtue in moderate use 
 of the gifts of God. See Fasting. 
 
 ABUKARA. See TiiicoDouus Abl-kara. 
 
 ABULFARAJ {Bar HebroMs), b. at JMalatia in 
 Cappadocia, 122G; d. at Waragha in Adharbai- 
 jan ; the son of a Jewish pliysician who had 
 embraced Jacobitism; was appointed Bishop of 
 Gubos in 121(3, Bishop of Aleppo in 1247, and 
 iMaphrian, or Primate of the Jacobites in Clial- 
 daja, Assyria, and Mesopotami.a, in ]2(;i. Of his 
 numerous works have been published : C/ironicon 
 Si/riacum, in Syriac ajid Latin, the Ciril Chronicle 
 by P. I. Bruns and G. ^\'. Kirsch, Leipzig, 1788; 
 and the Ecclesiastical Chronicle by J. B. Abbe- 
 loos and Th. J. Lainy, Louvain, 'lS72; Ilisloria 
 coinpen(/iosa Di/nastiarum, in Arabic and Latin. — 
 an extract of the above work by K. Pococlc, Ox- 
 ford, 1GG3; a Syriac gramm.ar, a liturgy, and 
 several minor pieces in Wiseman : Ilurw :Si/riacij:, 
 and Bernstein: Clirestomathia Sijriaca. 
 
 Lit. — F. Ue.nan : l)e I'hilosojihut Pcripatelicn 
 apud ^i/ros, 1852 ; EuscH und GnUBEU : Enci/clu- 
 pddie. 
 
 ABYSSINIAN CHURCH. Ethiopia was in 
 antiquity a geographical name of rather vague 
 signification, comprising Nubia, Sennaar, and 
 Abyssinia. These lands, while they were Chris- 
 tian, formed the Ethiopian Cliurch. At presi-nt 
 Christianity is confined to the plateau and nioun-
 
 ABYSSINIAN CHURCH. 
 
 18 
 
 ABYSSINIAN CHURCH. 
 
 tain-refrions of Abyssiiiiii ; and thus the Ahys- 
 sinian Church of our time represents the Ethio- 
 pian Church of antiquity. 
 
 Native tradition ascribes the name of the 
 country and the foundation of tlie state to 
 Ethiops, the son of Cash, the son of Mam, who 
 s<>ttled in tlie old capital of Axum in the present 
 Province of Tigre. After centuries of Paqfan- 
 ism, the visit of the Queen of Sheba to Solomon 
 led to the conversion of the people to Judaism. 
 She bore a son to Solomon, Menilek, who was 
 ediicated in Jerusalem by his father. When 
 Jlcnilek returned to Axum, he brought along 
 with him, not only a number of Jewish priests, 
 but also the ark, which was carried away from 
 the Temple of Jerusalem, and deposited in the 
 Ethiopian capit.al ; and from that time, down to 
 our day, Abyssinia has been ruled by a Solo- 
 monic dynasty; the succession having been 
 broken only now and then by usurpers and con- 
 querors. Of course, all this is mere fable. At 
 the time of the introduction of Christianity, rank 
 heathenism prevailed throughout the country; 
 and the custom of circumcision, practised to- 
 gether with baptism, may have been introduced 
 from Egypt. A Jewish immigr.ation mu.st, never- 
 theless, liave taken place, as is proved by the 
 presence in the country of a great number of 
 Jews, the so-called Falashas; but the time, man- 
 ner, and magnitude of this iumiigration, cannot 
 be ascertained. 
 
 During the reign of Constantine the Great, 
 about 330, Frumentius and yEdesius came inci- 
 dentally to Ethiopia, and began to preach Chris- 
 tianity. vEdesius afterwards returned to Tyre; 
 but Frumentius continued the work, went to 
 Alexandria, where Athanasius occupied tlie p.atri- 
 archal see, obtained missionary co-workers from 
 him, and was himself cons"crated bishop, and 
 liead of the Ethiopian Church, under the title 
 of Aldia Siilama, " father of peace," which title 
 is still in use, together with the later one Aln'ina, 
 "our father." Thus the Etliiopian Church was 
 established in close relation to the Egyptian; and 
 tlie Abyssinian Church of our time still stands 
 as a branch of the Coptic. In the iitth and sixth 
 centuries the Ethiopian mission received a new 
 impulse by the immigration of a number of 
 monks from Upper Egypt. They brought 
 nionasticism along with them, and the legends 
 and worship of saints. Also the Ethiopian 
 translation of the Bible seems to belong to this 
 time, though a tradition ascribes tlie translation 
 of the New Testament to Frumentius, and jiarts 
 of the Old Testament are said to have been 
 brought from Jerusalem by Menilek. [See 
 further undi.T liilile Versions A. VI. ll^thiopic.'] 
 The Ethiopian Diblo, liowever, has not exer- 
 cised any great influence on the Christian growth 
 of the people; tor the Ethiopian language, a 
 tongue of .Shemitio origin, by the Abyssinians 
 called Gccz, that is, "original speech," was 
 already at th.at time completely superseded by 
 Amharic, a dialect wliicli arose in the Southern 
 I'roviiice of Ainhara, and is much mixed up 
 with African elements. At present lOthiopian 
 is ail eiitindy dead language, used only in (be 
 Church, ami studied only by the priests; but 
 most of thc'm can only read it without under- 
 standing it. In the Abyssinian Church, Ethiopic 
 
 plays the same part as Coptic in the Egyptian 
 Church. 
 
 The close connection between the Abyssinian 
 and Coptic churches is very apparent in the 
 sphere of doctrines. Like the Coptic, the .A.b)'s- 
 sinian Church holds a purely monophysitic view 
 of the person of Christ. But, while this question 
 has been settled long ago for the whole rest of 
 the Christian Church, here it is still deliateil 
 under the form of a double or triple birth of 
 Christ, and gives rise to violent controversies. 
 Indeed, in spite of the spiritual barrenness and 
 ecclesiastical petrifaction of the Abyssinian 
 Church, these controversies have, nevertheless, 
 caused such enmities, that both Theodorus and 
 Joannes of Tigre have reaped considerable ad- 
 vantages from them in their plans against Shoa. 
 Also the questions of the person and dignity of 
 Alary. — w hether she really bore God, or only was 
 the mother of Jesus; whether she is entitled to 
 the same worsliip .as Christ. etc.,-^are eagerly 
 debated, though it seems to be the general view 
 that an almost divine worship is due to the 
 Virgin; that she and the saints are indispensa- 
 ble mediators between Christ and man ; that the 
 saints, who died not for their own sins, died for 
 the sins of others, etc. 
 
 The Abyssinian canon, called Scmnnja Ahwht, 
 " eightj'-one," because it consists of eighty-one 
 sacred books, compri.scs, besides the sixty-five 
 books of our canon, the Apocrypha, the Epistles 
 of Clement, and the Synodus; that is, the de- 
 crees of the Apostolic Council of Jerusalem. See 
 W. Fell: Canoncs Ajm^lolomm jElhinpice, hiiis., 
 1S71. Only a very slight difference, however, is 
 made between this canon and some other works 
 of ecclesiastical literature, — the Didascalia or 
 Apostolical Constitutions, the Haimanol-Ahn. giv- 
 ing quotations from the councils and the Fathers, 
 the writings of the Eastern Fathers, Athanasius, 
 Cyril, and Chrysostom, and the l-'cl/ia-\(ir/ast, the 
 royal law-book. On the whole, the tradition of iho 
 Church has the same authority as the Scriptures. 
 Of the councils, only those before the Council of 
 Chalcedon (4.)1) are recognized, because at Chal- 
 cedon the monophysite heresy was condemned. 
 The .\postles' Creed is unknown : the Nicene is 
 used. At the head of the Churcli stands the 
 Abvlna, who resides in (Jondar. He is appointed 
 by the Cnptio jiatriarch of Cairo; and, according 
 to a law from the twelfth century, no .\byssiniaii, 
 but only a Copt, can become AInnia. lie alone 
 has the right to anoint the king, and to ordain 
 priests ami deacons. Both in secular .and in 
 ecclesiastical things ho has a great power; and 
 his favor or disfavor may be of importance to the 
 king himself. The duties of the priests consist 
 in celi.'brating divine service three or four times 
 a d.ay, purifying liouses, utensils, an<l tools, etc. 
 The priests, as well as the monks and the .schol- 
 ars, take the Lord's Supjier every morning fast- 
 ing. The deacons jierlorm all the .subordinate 
 busine.s.s, baking bread for the Lord's .Supper, 
 cleaning the church and the sacred vessels, etc. 
 They dare not enter the Holy of holies, whe.-e 
 stands the ark. The Ihlitcnis, i\w teachers, are 
 not ordained, nor are the AlaLim. to whom is in- 
 trusted the whole administrations of the t'luirdi. 
 lieside th(! secular clergy stands the monastic 
 clergy, under the head of the ICisli'vyc, who ranks
 
 ABYSSINIAN CHURCH. 
 
 19 
 
 ACACIUS. 
 
 next to the AbOna, and decides many ecclesiasti- 
 cal and theological questions in common with 
 him. The number of niouks and nuns living 
 after the rule of Pachorains, is very great. The 
 ju'incipal monasteries are those of Dclira Dammo 
 (where nearly three hundred monks live to- 
 gether in small huts), Axum, Abba (iarima, 
 Waldubba, Debra Libanos, and St. Stepluui. 
 The church-buildings are exceedingly munerous 
 in Abyssinia, generally small, low, circular struc- 
 tures, with a conical roof of thatch and four 
 doors, one towards each of tlie cardinal points. 
 An outer court surrounds the buililing, occupied 
 during service by the laymen, and oft<'n serving 
 at night as a place of refuge to forlorn travellers. 
 The interior, dirty and neglected, but overloaded 
 with frightfully bad pictures of the Virgin and 
 the saints, the angels, and the Devil, is divided 
 into two apartments, — • the holy for the priests 
 and deacons, and the Holy of holies, where stands 
 the ark. This ark is the principal object in the 
 whole church. Neither the deacons nor laymen 
 dare touch it : if they do, the church and the 
 adjacent cemetery become unclean, and must be 
 purified. Service consists of singing of psalms, 
 recitals of parts of the Bible and Liturgy, and 
 prayers, especially to the Virgin and the wonder- 
 working saints : it i.s undignified and nnedifying. 
 Of sacraments, the Church numbers two ; but the 
 language lacks the word, and with the word also 
 the idea seems to have become lost. Beside 
 the Christian Sunday, also the Jewish sabbath is 
 kept: in all, one hundred and eighty holidays 
 are celebrated. In the discipline, fasting plays 
 a prominent part. There are in all two hundred 
 fast-days ; but they are not kept. For a small 
 compensation, the priest undertakes to do pen- 
 ance for somebody else. 
 
 Not all the inhabitants of Abyssinia belong to 
 the State Church or to Christianity. The Zalanes, 
 a nomadic tribe, consider themselves to be Jews, 
 and keep aloof from the Christians, though by 
 travellers they are described as being really good 
 Christians. The Chamantes are baptized, and 
 have Christian priests; but in reality they are 
 nearly Pagans, and celebrate many thoroughly 
 Pagan rites. The real Jews, the Falashas, live 
 along the northern shore of the great lake Tsana, 
 in the neighborhood of Gondaraiid Shelga, where 
 they pursue agriculture and trade. They are 
 more industrious than the Christians, but also 
 more ignorant, and spiritually more forlorn. The 
 Moliammedans make about one-tenth of the whole 
 population, and Mohammedanism is slowly but 
 steadily progressing. In order to distinguish 
 themselves from all non-Christians, the Chris- 
 tians receive at baptism a cord of blue silk orcot- 
 ton, called maleb, which they always wear around 
 the neck. 
 
 The first missionary w-ork which the Western 
 Church undertook in Abyssinia was the Jesuit 
 mission of I.j.j.j, which labored there for nearly 
 a century ; but, as everywhere else, the mission- 
 ary activity of the Jesuits was deeply mixed up 
 with the politics of the country, and tlieir sole 
 purpose seems to have been to establish there 
 the authority of the Roman-Catholic Church. 
 At last they reached the goal. After a frightful 
 massacre of the o]iposite party. King Sasneos 
 declared the Komau-Catholic Church tiie Church 
 
 of the State; but in IGIO the Jesuits, with their 
 Roman archbishop, were compelled to leave tlio 
 country, and the old religion with its old Church 
 was re-established. With the new AbOna who 
 ft>llowed after this Roman-Catholic interregnum, 
 Peter Ileyling, from Ijlibeck, a Protestant mis- 
 sionary, came into the country; but his great 
 zeal led only to small result. The Anglican 
 Missionary Society had more success in th(! 
 first half of this century. The circumstance 
 that a pious Abyssian monk, Abi-Ruch or Abre- 
 ka, translated the whole Bible in the Amharic 
 language (1808-18) gave the first occasion to this 
 attempt. The British and Foreign Bible Soci- 
 ety bought and printed the translation, and in 
 IS.'JO the missionaries Gobat and Kngler were 
 sent to Abyssinia. These men were succeeded 
 iu 1837 by Isenberg and Krapf; but the work 
 was partly spoiled by the opposition of the native 
 priests and the intrigues of some newly-arrived 
 Roman-Catholic missionaries. In 18.38 a Coptic 
 priest who had frequented the school of a Protes- 
 tant missionary in Alexandria, and favored the 
 Protestant mission, became Abftna, and the St. 
 Chrischona Society of Basel now sent a number 
 of Protestant missionaries into the country. They 
 labored with considerable success; but the dis- 
 turbances of the reign of King Theodore over- 
 took them, and almost destroyed their work. 
 They were thrown into prison, and only relea.scd 
 by the victory of the British. Since that time, no 
 missionary attempt has been made in Abyssinia. 
 See AnuuxA. 
 
 Lit. — LuDOLF : Ilistoria JElhinjnca and Com- 
 menlarius ad Hist. JElhiop., Frankfort, 1081-01; 
 Gobat: Tarjehuch, Basel, 1831; lsi;xnEi;G and 
 KiiAPF : Journals from the Kinf/dom of S/ioa, Lon- 
 don, 1843 ; IsF.XEERO: Abcssinicn iind die ecan- 
 r/ctische Mksion, Bonn, 1844 ; Flad : 12 Jahre 
 in Abessinien, Basel; 18G9 ; A. Dillmax.v : 
 Die Anfunge dcs axumilisclien lleiches, Berlin, 
 1879. M. LiJTTKE. 
 
 ACACIUS, T. Bishop of Cresara;a, a discii.lo 
 and the successor of Eusebius, d. 303; one of the 
 leaders of the Arian party, and as such dejMsed 
 by the synods of Antioch (341) and Seleucia (359); 
 fell out with the radical fraction of the party, 
 and gathered a large number of followers. The 
 Acacians, who, though denying the sameness, 
 accepted the likeness of substance, between the 
 Father and the Son, subscribed finally to the 
 Nicene symbol. A fragment of his work against 
 Marcellus of Ancyra is found iu Epiphan : 
 Hair. 72, 5. 39. 
 
 II. Patriarch of Constantinople since 471 ; d. 
 488 ; persuaded the emperor Zeno to issue the 
 Ilenotikon, by which was brought about a recon- 
 ciliation with the Monophy.'^ites, but was for 
 this very reason excommunicated by Felix, the 
 Bishop of Rome, nunquam. analhcmalis vmcuhs 
 exuemlun, whereby a schism ■o'as occasioned be- 
 tween tlie Eastern and the Western churches. 
 
 III. Bishop of Beroea, b. 422, d. 430, was one 
 of Chrysostom's bitterest enemies, and was pres- 
 ent at the council ad Quercum (403), which de- 
 posed him. Ill the controversy between Nestoriua 
 and Cyril he tried to mediate. Three of his 
 letters — two to Alexander of Ilierapolis, and o:-.3 
 to Cyril — are given by Bai.uzius in i\oi'. Cult. 
 Coned, c. XVII., XII., LV. HEIIZOO-
 
 ACCEPTANTS. 
 
 20 
 
 ACHERY. 
 
 ACCEPTANTS is the name of that party 
 wliicli ill the Janseiiist controversy accepted the 
 bull Unii/eiiittis. See Jaxskxism. 
 
 ACCESS, I. In the Liturgy of tlie Roman 
 Cluirch, a collection of prayers preparatory to 
 the celebration of mass; in the Liturg-y of the 
 Church of England, a prayer falling between 
 the consecration and the communion. 
 
 II. In canon law a form of electioneering; the 
 minority changing their votes, and conferring 
 them on the candidate of the majority by an 
 acccdo ilamino, in order to give him the number 
 of votes necessary to election. 
 
 ACCOLTI, Peter, generally known as the 
 Cardinal of Bologna, b. in Florence, 1U)7, d. 
 there in 15i9; was apostolical abbreviator under 
 Leo X., and drew. up the famous Bull of 15:20 
 against Luther. Under Clement VII. he was 
 made a cardinal; but under Paul III. he was 
 arraigned for peculation, and imprisoned iu San 
 Angelo. He paid an enormous sum in order to 
 be released, but left, nevertheless, a large for- 
 tune to his three children. Some poems by him 
 are found in Carmina III. Poelarum Ilal. Flor- 
 ence, l.')ij'2. Vol. 1. 
 
 ACCO.VIWIODATION, a theological term mean- 
 ing iu its broad sense an ethical notion, and, in 
 its narrow, a certain exegetical method prevalent 
 from the second half of the eighteenth century 
 to the second quarter of the nineteenth. An 
 accommodation in the theological sense is de- 
 manded by ethics whenever a person's circum- 
 stances, or the condition of his feelings, render 
 him incompetent to understand the whole truth. 
 God must lessen his p.ace if he would keep sLep 
 with man. He must also keep back part of the 
 truth while we are babes in Christ, or else dilute 
 it to our weakness. This was the method of 
 Christ (John xvi. 1-2) and of Paul (Ileb. vi. 1). 
 Tlie go.spel preached is, of course, always the 
 same; the manner of presenting it differs; and 
 the preacher has abundant opportunities to exer- 
 cise iiis judgment in accommodating the truth 
 to his hearers. The goal is the whole truth, tlio 
 comiilete revelation. Conse(piently, by all ap- 
 propriate means, by illustrations and examples, 
 by arguments and ex))lanations, he U'ads his 
 flock to the fuller and fuller revelation of God, 
 luitil, if he is faithful, he has taught his peoples 
 knowledge. Tins is the moral accommodation, 
 sanctioneil by the highest pi-actice, and conlirmeri 
 by the widest experience. But there is an im- 
 moral kind: this i.s, not the gradual unfoldment, 
 but the actual concealment, of the truth. The 
 preacher, eitlier by silence gives assent unto error, 
 or else directly imjiarts what is wrong. Expe- 
 rience sliows that great pati(Mice is requisite with 
 young cojiverls who come from heathenism into 
 Christianity. They i-equire lenient dealing, for 
 they carry over into their new relations the faults 
 of the former state. But the success of Christ 
 and of I'aul iu similar positions to the mission- 
 ary's to-day shows that the gradual growth of 
 Christian knowledge, will correct all errors. 
 
 A (piite (lilfenMit matter is the .accommodation 
 of the iiiiilpriiit of ))reachiug so as to get rid of 
 or greatly lessen the supi'ruatural element of 
 ■Scripture. The e;isy-going rationalism of the 
 last century declar<'d that many things in the 
 Bible were Jir/urutive, mere accoininodations to 
 
 human understanding. Thus Zachariii, in his 
 Essay upon the Condescension of God toward 
 Man, published in 1763, explains the epiphanies 
 of the Old Testament, the covenants of the Old 
 and New Testament, the incarnation, in short, 
 all the facts of revelation, as •'accommodations." 
 And, the more Christianity lost its hold upon the 
 theologians through this kind of talk, the more 
 eager were their answers to the question, How 
 many of the Bible statements are accommoda- 
 tions ? Their voices are heard arguing the mat- 
 ter in the opening years of this century, but 
 die away as the .school of .Strauss makes itself 
 known. Its method is shorter, more decisive, 
 and apparently more reverential. It says, " The 
 facts you cannot accept because they are super- 
 natural, you need not trouble yourselves about. 
 We have discovered that the writings in which 
 they are found are not ijettuine. Thus we have 
 vindicated God from the charge of deceiving 
 you, for he simply did nol inspire the irrational 
 statements." As wo look at the throng who arc. 
 rapidly retreating before the "critical school," 
 we see that in general they are those who are 
 desirous to do away with all biblical statements 
 which clash with (their) reason, but at the 
 same time do not want to attack directly the 
 authority of Scripture. In this fashion they did 
 away with the Messianic Propliccics, — these Jesus 
 applied to himself merely to induce the Jews to 
 believe in his JMessiahship, although he did nov 
 himself (!); with the doctrine of anf/cls and 
 (lernons, — Jesus and the Bible-writers merely em- 
 ployed the current talk; the doctrine of the 
 atonement, — ,a condescension to popular ideas in 
 order to console the Jews for the loss of the 
 s.acrificial worship. It should be said, however, 
 that not all the theologians were thus madly 
 imdermining the faith. Such men as II.Tuit 
 (178S), Gess (1707), and others, fought against the 
 theory as destructive of the Church, and it is 
 now universally condemned. It is, however, :'.n 
 unquestionable fact th.at the Bible-writers u.-se 
 the popular speech in regard to natural objects; 
 for they say, "the sun rises;" also the conduct 
 of Paul in circumcising Timothy (Acts xvi. l-:5), 
 and in taking the vow at Jerusalem (.\xi. 17-2G), 
 was an acconiniodation. But this use of lan- 
 guage, and this prudent, conciliatory conduct, did 
 no injury: indeed, by these means the cause of 
 truth w:i's advanced. IlUDOLP IIOF.M.IXK. 
 
 ACEPHALI, from the Greek a and Kti^aKii, will.- 
 oui head or chief, a terra applied to certain eccle- 
 siastical parties, as, for instance, to th.at which, 
 at the Council of Ephesus, would follow neither 
 Cyril nor John of Antioch; and to that which 
 separated from the patriarch of Alexandria when 
 ho signed the Henotikon ; and others. 
 
 ACHERY, Jean Luc d', b. .at St. Quentin 100!); 
 d. in Paris, April '21), 1(18."); was educati'd by the 
 B<'n('dictines; entered their order in Ki^iJ, and 
 was appointed librarian at St. Germain des Pros, 
 in P:uis, lUlO, the ]irincipal seat of the congreg:i- 
 tiou of St. Maur, in which position he achieved 
 his great work as a collector an<l editor of the 
 Arlii S'inctiirntii OnJini.i S. Jlene(lieli,'J vols., Paris, 
 1(1(18-1701, with prefaces and notes by Mabillon; 
 Vclerum aliijiint Srri/ilnruin S/iieilei/iaw, PI vols., 
 Palis, 1(j.j5-77, (.■Hlarge<l by Baluze, JIartcne, and 
 l-a Bane in 17'J3; and LunJ'ntncs Opera Oinniu,
 
 ACHTERPBLDT. 
 
 21 
 
 ACTA MARTYRUM. 
 
 with an uppendix containing many docnnuMits 
 conceniinf;: tiie introduction of Cliristianity in 
 Knjjland, Paris, 1648, etc. 
 
 ]at. — Tassin : Hixloire LlUeraire de la Congre- 
 tjulinn lie Saint Mum; Paris, 17'J(i. 
 
 ACHTERFELDT, Johann Heinrich, b. at Wcscl 
 1788; d. ;i,t Konu 1SG4 ; ordaininl jiricst in 1813; 
 was apiiointed professor of tlieolnyy at Urauns- 
 l)ercr in 1817, and at Bonn in 18'J(i. After the 
 death of Hermes, he was tlie head of the Her- 
 mesian scliool; and wlien tin; system of tlie school 
 was condemned liy the pope, and he refused to 
 comply, he was discharcjed. Since 183^ he w.as 
 tlie editor of the Zeitxchrijl fiir P/iiloxop/iii' und 
 hilhnlisrhe T/ieologie, the organ of the Ilenne- 
 sian scliool. 
 
 ACOEMETAE, from the Greek uKoifirjTai, the 
 "sleepless" or " unresting," an order of monks 
 establislied in the East in the middle of tlie fifth 
 century, and named from the circumstance that 
 in its monasteries the members were divided into 
 six choirs, which alternately kept up the work of 
 prayer and praise without intermission day and 
 night. Their ])rincipal seat w,as in Constanti- 
 nople, in the celebrated monastery, Sluilium, so 
 called after its founder Stndius, a Roman noble. 
 But also in the Western Church they fouml imi- 
 tators ; and in the beginning of the sixth cen- 
 tury they were established in the Abbey of St. 
 Maurice of Aganne in Valois, by the Burguadian 
 king, Sigismnnd. 
 
 Lit. — Hklyot : Onlrca Reliij. I. 
 
 ACOLYTHS, from the Greek aKuAowto, "follow- 
 ers." The first of the four minor orders in the 
 ancient Cliurch originated in the beginning of 
 tlie third century, but was, as a distinct order, 
 confined to the \Vestern Church, the name being 
 applied in the Eastern to the order of sub-dea- 
 cons. Tlie duties of the acolyth consisted prin- 
 cipally in lighting the tapers in the church, 
 whence the name of accensorius, and attending 
 die officiating priest with wine for the eucharist. 
 See Concil. Cartnrj. IV., a ?98. can. 6. Originally 
 the order of acolyth, iiKe those of exorcist, reader, 
 and doorkeeper, was considered a preliminary 
 step to the sacred order of deacon ; but in the 
 thirteenth and fourteenth centuries it became 
 customary to confer all the four minor orders at 
 once, and to release the thus ordained from the 
 discharge of the duties of the office, for which 
 lay-clerks were employed. The Council of Trent 
 jirotested against this custom, but its canons 
 were never enforced. 
 
 ACOSTA, Uriel or Gabriel, b. at Porto l.'i.Ol; 
 d. at Amsterdam 1017; belonged to a noble 
 family of Jewisli descent, but Cliristian confes- 
 sion, and was educated in the Roman-Catholic 
 faitli. Ill his twenty-fifth year, however, he held 
 all the specifically Christian dogmas in doubt; 
 and, as a conversion from Christianity to Juda- 
 ism was an impossibility in Portugal, he fled to 
 Amsterdam, where he was circumcised, and ad- 
 mitted to the synagogue. But he soon felt dis- 
 appointed; and after the publication, in 1023, of 
 his Exumen de Iradicoens P/iarixeax cnnfcridus con n 
 ley escrlpla, he was excommunicated from the syna- 
 gogue, and arraigned before the court as an athe- 
 ist, lie was condemned to imprisonment, fined, 
 his book was burnt, and he remained for seven 
 years under the ban of the synagogue, from wdiicli 
 
 he was released only by doing or undergoing a 
 humiliating penance: he was beaten in the syna- 
 gogue and trampled upon at the door. He left 
 an autobiography : Exeiiiplar Vila; llumanm. 
 
 Lit. — Uriel Acnsta'x Selhsdjiii/p-ajiliie, in Latin 
 and German, Leipzig, 1817; I. da Costa: Israel 
 en dc rnll:e. Flaarburg, 1819. 
 
 ACTA MARTYRUM and ACTA SANCTORUM 
 are collections of biograpliics from the early 
 Christi;in Church, the former recording the lives 
 only of martyrs, properly speaking: the latter 
 also of saints; that is, persons who, though they 
 did not gain the crown of martyrdom, served the 
 cause with heroic courage and self-ileiiial. 
 
 The Ada ]\ftirli/nim begin with the persecu- 
 tions, the earliest being reports, in the forms of 
 letters sent from one congregation to another, of 
 the liardships suffered and the courage evinced. 
 Thus the congregation of Smyrna announced the 
 martyrium of many of its members, and finally 
 that of its old bishop, Polycarp, during tlie per- 
 secutions under Marcus Aurelius, 107, in a letter 
 to Philadelphia in Lydia (Euseb. ///.</. Ecrl. IV., 
 15). The congregations of Lugdnnnm and Vi- 
 enna communicated the hardshiiis they suffered 
 under the same emperor in 177, to the Christians 
 of Asia and Phrygia (lb. V. 1). Diouysius of 
 Alexandria reported the history of the martyrs 
 of the place to Fabian of Antioch (lb. VI. 
 41, 42); etc. Of these reports, however, none 
 survived the persecutions under Diocletian, his 
 plan being to destroy all copies, not only of the 
 Bible, but of any book dear to the Christians 
 (Arnoli. .Idc. IValion. IV., 30; Euseb., lli.sl. Kcd., 
 VIII. 2). Nevertheless, as soon as the perse- 
 cutions ceased, and Christianity became victori- 
 ous, in the reign of Constantine, the old lives of 
 martyrs were re-written ; and, as people looked 
 upon these lives as the record of the heroic age 
 of the Church, great zeal was bestowed upon the 
 task. Eusebius wrote his report on the mar- 
 tyrs of Palestine as an appendix to the eigiith 
 book of his Hist. EccL, and also a general his- 
 tory of the martyrs of the whole Church, which 
 latter work he mentions himself, but which, at 
 the end of the sixth century, could not be found, 
 and seems to have been lost. After his time, the 
 sulijeot continued to be cultivated, and that in a 
 twofold manner: first in a meagre form, simply 
 for liturgical purposes, the so-called t'ideyidnria ; 
 and tlifu in a more elaborate form, for the pur- 
 jiose of edification, the so-called Passiones or IJesIa 
 niarljinim. 
 
 Of catalogues of martyrs, Calendnria, made for 
 some special church, and giving the names of 
 the martyrs for the respective days of the calen- 
 dar, several specimens are still extant. The 
 Jesuit jEgidius Bucherius found one in Rome 
 belontfing to the Roman Church, and dating 
 from the fourth century (Ruixart : Act. Sim-era. 
 Marl., p. 541). The number of saints anno- 
 tated is very small, however; the first part con- 
 taining only twelve days commemorating Roman 
 bishops, and the second twenty-five conimenio- 
 rating other martyrs. A Calendariiim belonging 
 to the Church of Carthage, and dating from tlie 
 fifth century, was discovered by Mabillon, and 
 numbers eighty-one days of commemoration. 
 Such Calenilaria as were destined for the use 
 of some special church gave only the names of
 
 ACTA MARTYRUM. 
 
 90 
 
 ACTS. 
 
 those martyrs who had suffered within the dio- 
 cese or neighborhood of the church ; but soon 
 these Calcnilaria were combined, and formed 
 into a real Mart>/ri)logium ; tliat is, a catalogue 
 of martyrs comprising the whole church. Such 
 a Mar!i/i-o!of/iu7n, used in the Roman Church at 
 the close of the sixth century, is described by 
 Gregory I. (7i7«'s(.VlII., 19). It contains only 
 the names of the martyrs arranged according to 
 the days on which they were celebrated in the 
 ma.ss, and the day and place of the passion, with- 
 out any further description ; but for each day 
 several saints from various countries and prov- 
 inces are mentioned, and thereby the character 
 of the Caleiiclariian is changed into that of tlie 
 Martijrolni/ium 
 
 The existence of the other kind of compil.a- 
 tions. which, for the sake of edification, gave elab- 
 orate narratives and descriptions, we learu from 
 the Council of Carthage, 307, which in its can. 
 47 (Buu.N'S : Concil. I., p. 133) grants that read- 
 ings may be made not only from the Scriptures, 
 but, on the days of commemorations, also from 
 the Pas.'iioncs Marlyrnm. A Council of Rome, 
 494 (Mansi : Concil. VIII., p. 149), showed more 
 discrimination, and forbade the reading of the 
 Ada Marli/rum in the churches, because the names 
 of the autliors were not known, and because in- 
 fidels, lieretics, and ullolce had brought much 
 superfluous and improper matter into the texts. 
 The leaders of the monks, however, recommended 
 these books; as, for instance, Ca.ssiodorus (Dc 
 Iii.ll. Dtt: Lit., c. 32) and Fejreolus.of Uzes (lier/ul. 
 c. IS), and even in Rome the critical cautiousness 
 gradually passed away- In a letter iu defence 
 of tlie seventh synod (Mansi : Concil. VII., p. 800) 
 Adrian I. tells us that not only the Bible, but also 
 the Vdce J'alrum, as far as they were written by 
 orthodox authors, were read in the Cliurch. 
 
 Besides these two kinds of Acta Marti/rum, 
 the Calendarium for liturgical, and the J'ax.sionc.i 
 for devotional purpo.ses, there developed a new 
 brancli of ecclesiastical literature, the so-called 
 Acid Sanctorum, — more or less reliable works by 
 known autliors, on men remarkable in the his- 
 tory of the Church, written principally for a 
 purely literary purpose. Both the (Jreek and the 
 J>atin churches possess considerable collections 
 of the kind. In tlie beginning, tliese Ada Sanc- 
 torum showed a meagre and statistical cliaracter 
 similar to that of the Calcnilaria ; but in the ninth 
 century an entirely different treatment of tlic^ 
 wliole subject was introduced, — -a treatment which 
 paid no regard to historical truth, but trans- 
 formed and 'n vented facts in tlie most arbitrary 
 manner. Thus began the era of the legend 
 wliich treated religious subjects in exactly the 
 sami; manner as the romance of the day treated 
 worldly sulijects; that is, as mere v(^hicles for 
 the eccentricities and extravagancies of the im- 
 aginaticm. A special encouragiMnent this kind 
 of wiitiiig found in the wish manifested almost 
 by every country and evcrry city to show an 
 apostle, or at lea.st an apostle-<liscii)le, as founder 
 of its churcli. Paris, with its St. Dionysius, 
 led the way; and in (Jermany biographies were 
 written of St. Kucharius. V'ah'rins, ami i\Ial<!r- 
 nus, who, on the command of St. I'eter, went to 
 the Rhine-regions to found llie churcliesof Treves. 
 Cologne, and roiigcrn. In many cases al.so 
 
 doctrinal purposes came into play, and then the 
 composition generally sinks into open fraud and 
 lie. The biography of Suidbert, the apostle of 
 the Bractereans (LmiiXiTz : Script, rer. Brunsvic. 
 II. p. 222), gives a striking instance. 
 
 With the revival of the study of classical 
 literature, criticism awakened, and the time of 
 the legend was over. Only in a critical and 
 historical form the history of the saints could 
 vindicate itself, and collections edited with a 
 regard to these new demands appeared in the 
 fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. They were all 
 excelled, however, by that of the Bollandists : 
 Ada Sanctorum qnnlquol Tola Orbe coluntur, of 
 which sixty-one volumes folio, with supplement, 
 have appeared. Antwerp., 1643 sqq. — Paris, 
 1S75. See Boll.vxdists. Numerous collections 
 have also been made for special purposes. Thus 
 for the separate orders ; ^Mahillon : Act. Sand. 
 Oril. Bcnedictini, 9 vols, fob, Paris, 16GS; M. 
 Ant. Alkgke : I'araduius Carmelitici Dccori.<, 
 Lugdun., 1C39 ; Chr. IIknriquez : Marfijrol. 
 Ci.<:/ercie».<:e, Antverp.,1630; Du Ches.xk: Biblinth. 
 Cluniacens, 1 aris, 1G14; Akt. dk Moustikk: 
 Martyrot. Franciscan, Paris, 1638, etc. Or, for 
 single countries; Fu. Foppexs : Batavia Sacra, 
 Bruxels, 1714; Wilson: Marti/rot. Anr/licauum, 
 1608; A. DK Sauss.w: Marlyrolog. Gatlicanum, 
 Paris, 1C37, etc. ZoCKl.Elt. 
 
 ACTS OF THE APOSTLES. The similarity 
 of opening, of style, and of language satisfactorily 
 demonstrate that the third Gospel and the .Vets 
 are by tlie same author. A tradition fiom the 
 earliest times assigns them both to the physician 
 Luke. For a time this unity of authorship was 
 disputed by the Tubingen school, but to-day it is 
 almost universally acknowledged. 
 
 It is unfortunate that the Acts should be so 
 called, as the title does not describe the book, 
 which deals almost exclusively with Peter and 
 Paul,- — with Peter for the first twelve chapters, 
 with Paul after that. Dr. Phimptre would call 
 it Origcncs Ecclcsuc. The word ads is, however, 
 used in the sense of "memoirs" or "biogra- 
 phies." The object of the work is to trace the 
 history of the gospel from the ascension of 
 Christ to the imprisonment of Paul in Rome, or 
 from till! beginning of the earthly kingdom of 
 Christ in the capital of Judaism to the time 
 when tlie Church took hold in the capital of the 
 world. This will the more clearly appear when 
 we analyze the book. It may be divided into 
 
 three parts. I. (Chap. i. 4- 
 
 2). The success 
 
 of the gospel in .Jerusalem. Pentecost with its 
 miracle, a day of large ingathering. The new 
 Cliristian community not se|iarated from the sur- 
 rounding ,ruilaisni, except in its belief in Jesus 
 as the iMessiah, charactcized by a remarkable 
 community of gooil ami brotherly love. Tlie or- 
 dination of deacons. The iireaching of .Stephen, 
 which involves tin! early Church in conllict willi 
 her deadly foes. II. (Cliap. viii. 3-xv. 33). Dis- 
 persion of the disciph'.s conseijuent upon tin? jier- 
 .secution under .Saul's leadersiiip. The apostles 
 remain together, ami <juielly continue their super- 
 intendence. Philip evangelizes Samaria. Saul 
 the i)ersecutor miraculously converted on tiio road 
 to Damascus. Peter, cured of ]irejudice by a 
 vision, preaches the gospel to the Pagan Coi'ne- 
 lius ami his Iriends. 'I'he gospel spreij into
 
 ACTS. 
 
 23 
 
 ACTS. 
 
 Phenice, Cyprus, and Antioch. I'.ariiaba8 sent to 
 seek Saul. Jaincs the brother of John beheaded 
 by Herod A^rippa I. Peter, arrested by the 
 same, miraculously relea.sed. 'I'lie first great 
 missionary journey of Paul and IJariiabas. The 
 Apostolic Council of Jerusalem. Uesults: the 
 Mosaic law not laid upon Gentile Christians, the 
 conversion of the Gentiles perceiv(ul to be the in- 
 tention of God. Thus the formation of Gentile 
 Christianity was not the revolutionary and vio- 
 lent act of Paul, but the natural and irresistible 
 consequence of the progress of the gospel, and 
 as such is accepted by the mother-church in Je- 
 rusalem. III. (Chap. XV. 3t-eud). Paul and 
 Barnabas propose to go upoif another missionary 
 journey, but ditfer and separate. Luke follows 
 the fortunes of Paul only from this point. Paul 
 traverses Galatia, Asia Minor, Macedonia, and 
 Greece, on to Corinth, where he stays in each 
 place visited, establishing a church, or at least 
 collecting a nucleus for future work. After a fly- 
 ing visit to Antioch, Paul fi.xes for two years his 
 residence in E])hesus. At last he goes to Jeru- 
 salem, although warned; is there arrested, taken 
 as a prisoner to Csesarasa, thence after two years 
 to Rome; almost shipwrecked on the way. Con- 
 ference with the Jews there. Luke abruptly 
 terminates his book by Paul's declaration that 
 the gospel which the Jews rejected will be ac- 
 cepted by the Gentiles. The book's end in this 
 fashion does not necessarily imply that another 
 volume was in Luke's mind: rather are we to 
 see the completion of his plan, which was to 
 show to Theophilus, at tlie first instance, how ill 
 founded were the insinuations and attacks of the 
 Judaizers against Paul, how true were the liberal 
 doctrines he had received, and that Paul was 
 always in harmony with the other apostles of 
 Christ and the majority of the primitive church. 
 But this intention of the book is very dilferent 
 from thorough-going apology. There is no war- 
 rant for the opinion that there was in the apos- 
 tolic Church a division into Pauline and Petriue 
 parties; although it is true that there were Ju- 
 ilaizers who opposed Paul, and that in Corinth 
 there was strife. That Luke, while noting these, 
 does not go into particulars, was because his ob- 
 ject was different. But this is quite another 
 thing from the theory held by the followers of 
 Baur and Zeller, that the sole object of the Acts 
 is to clear up difficulties, and heal disputes ; 
 and to this end all opposing facts are carefully 
 omitted, e.g., the blaming of Peter at Antioch, 
 related in Gal. ii.' If this were so, then the Actx 
 is not history, but special pleading. The door is 
 open to the wildest speculation as to the character 
 of the facts omitted. Paul, as well as Peter, 
 loses by sueli supposed suppression. 
 
 These ideas about the Acts are modern. The 
 ancient Church had no doubt of its authenticity 
 and genuineness and consequent canonicity. The 
 sects which rejected it did so from dogmatic mo- 
 tives. And yet, although acknowledged, it was 
 little used. Of this Chrysostom complaius. This 
 came from its j)osition in the canon, between the 
 (iospels and the Apostles, i.e.. Epistles and 
 Apocalypse. In the ancient and medisval 
 
 ' For tho diHsciuin;; vicWB uf Kciin ami Scbc-ukfl scu Al*os- 
 
 TOLIC Cue.NClL. 
 
 Church it was considered as the first chapter of 
 church history ; i)ut at the Renaissance the la- 
 cun(r. \n the sequence of events were remarked, 
 and that tlio history did not concern much el.se 
 than PetiT and Paul. Grotius considered it to 
 be the jiarallel biographies of the two founders 
 of Christianity. The free handling of the book 
 may be said to have begun with Schnecken- 
 burger. professor at Bern, who in 1841 published 
 his Ueher ile.n Ziceck tier Aposli'lr/nsc/iic/ite, and ad- 
 vocated the theory that the author drew a paral- 
 hd between Peter and Paul, matching every <iis- 
 course and miracle of Peter in the first part by a 
 discourse and miracle of I^iul in the second part. 
 Then came Banr and his school. AVith learn- 
 ing and ingenuity, but without proper fairness of 
 mind, th<'y attempted to .show that Luke was an 
 unreliable autiior, inasmuch as he was dominated 
 by his dogmatic purpose, and therefore made ar- 
 tificial anil arbitrary combinations, — made Peter 
 talk like Paul, and Paul act like Peter; and so 
 to the second century, when, as Baur thought, the 
 work was written, the author presented a picture 
 of unity and love, — a tale of the heroic age of 
 Christianity, while the reality was quite different. 
 
 But two facts correct these errors. The Jirsl, 
 that the third Gosv>el and the Acts are from the 
 same author, and therefore his bias and character 
 will be the same. If he showed himself in his 
 Gospel U) be fair-minded, the presumption is that 
 he will be the same in the Acts. The secoml fact 
 is more decisive. The author, so far from giving 
 rein to his imagination, carefully investigated the 
 Sources before he began his history. Here, then, 
 we have history well based and well matured. 
 The accuracy of Luke descends to the minutest 
 particular, as has been abundantly verified.^ 
 
 A very remarkable, indeed unparalleled fea- 
 ture, of the Acts, is the use of the first person 
 plural to denote the presence of the author. We 
 can thus tell exactly when Luke began to travel 
 with Paul, where he left him, and where he met 
 him again. Thus the we begins xvi. 10, and ends 
 V. 17, resumed xx. o, and contiimed unto the end 
 of the book. We can also detect in the narrative 
 the vivacity and confidence of an eye-witness. 
 
 It were, of course, very desirable to have a 
 twofold history of the planting of Christianity; 
 but, in lack of this, we are able to test the relia- 
 bility of Luke by the study of contemporary docu- 
 ments. The Apocalypse, the Epistle of James, 
 and other Judaso-Christian documents prove that 
 he reported correctly the state of things in Jeru- 
 salem; and the Epistles of Paul show how faith- 
 fully Luke presents the great apostle. 
 
 But, although faithful and reliable, the Aclx 
 can make no pretensions to completeness. The 
 passing reference in 2 Cor. xi. 23-33 contains 
 events not even hinted at in tiie Acts. The dis- 
 
 ^ E.g., The proconsular as distinct from the propraetorian 
 status of Cyprus under Sergius Paulus, whose very name has 
 heen recently discovered by Cesnola on an inscription (.\ct3 
 xiii. 7); the proconsular state of Acbaiu under Gailio (sviii. 
 l:i) ; the Roman colonial dignity of Pbilippi (.\vi. 12) ; the title 
 of " Politarcbs " for '* Foliai-ehs" to the rbessaloniau magis- 
 tracy (.\cts xvii. 6, S), which is conlirnied by an inscription on 
 an archway in Tbessalonica; the minutely accurate account of 
 Ejihesus (chap, xix.), as verilied and illustrated by the dis- 
 coveries of J. T. Wood, made between 1863 and 1ST4 {Pistor- 
 eries at EpheituSj London, 1877); and the geographical and 
 nautical details in the account of Paul's voyai^e and shipwreck 
 (chaps, xxvii. and xxviii.); comp. James Smith, The Voyage 
 and Shipwreck, of St. Paul. 4tb ed. London, 18S0.
 
 ADALBERT. 
 
 24 
 
 ADAM. 
 
 pute at Antioch is not mentioned : there is noth- 
 ing about Paul's sojourn in Arabia. These 
 facts are not damaging to tiie historian : they 
 only show that he wrote his book with discrimi- 
 nation; and some of these events have an impor- 
 tance in our eyes they would not have in his. Mis 
 fragmentariness is therefore no argument against 
 his credibility. The time and place of composi- 
 tion was probably Rome, A.D. 63. See Luke. 
 
 Lit. — See the hilmiluctinna of Blkkk, IIil- 
 OENKELD, D.wiDSO.v, and others: also the com- 
 mentaries on the book, particularly those of 
 Hackf.tt and Meyeu ; the special works of 
 B.\L'MGAUTEX (ApostelrjesdiicJile, 1852), and of Le- 
 KEBUSCH (^Die Compoailion u. Entstehunq der Apox- 
 tel qexchichle von neuem unlersucht, 1854). Dea.n 
 HowsoN : Eoidenlial Value of the Acts of the 
 Aposilcs. N.Y., 1881. 
 
 ADALBERT, Archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen, 
 101."i-lU7:?; d. at Gosslar, March IG, 1072; a 
 Saxon by birth, served for some time Henry IIL 
 as his chancellor, and was by him made arch- 
 bishop. His idea was to form Germany, Eug- 
 laud. and Scandinavia into a great northern pa- 
 triarchate, independent of Rome; and at the 
 .synod of Mainz (M.ayence), 1019, he first pre- 
 sented his phin to the church. Neither Henry 
 III. nor Leo IX. made any great opposition ; but 
 both died — tlie former in 10.54, the latter in 
 1050 — before any thing had been determined. 
 During the minority of Henry IV., Adalbert, as 
 the teacher and tutor of the young king, became 
 the actual ruler of Germany, and once more his 
 northern plans were taken up. But in lOGO his 
 enemies succeeded in driving him away from 
 tlie court, and he was even attacked within the 
 boundaries of his own bi.sliopric. 
 
 Lit. — CoLMAR Guli.NiiAGEN : Adalbert, Leip- 
 zig, 1851. 
 
 ADALBERT OF PRAGUE OVoytech, "the 
 comfort of the host"), li. 9.50; d. April 2;>, 997; a 
 Bohemian by birtli; studied in Magdeburg; w,as 
 ordained priest in 981, and elected Bishop of 
 I'rague in 983. He w.as a severe and cnerg('tic 
 man; and vehement strife arose between him .and 
 his wild, half-heathenish countrymen, especially, 
 though, because he was a stiff representative of 
 tlie Germano-Roman influence, and opposed to 
 the (Jreek character and independent <levelop- 
 ment of the Bohemian Cliurch. Twice he left his 
 see, and retired to the Monastery of St. Boniface 
 in Rome, and twice he again returned to I'rague. 
 Finally, in 990. he went, with tlie suppoit of the 
 Duke of Poland, Boleslav Chrobry, as a mission- 
 ary to the Prussians, but was killed by a Pagan 
 priest before he had acliieved any thing. His 
 title as the Apostle of the Prussians is merely 
 honor.'iry. 
 
 Lit. — Vita S. Adalherli, Aucl. Jnh. Canapnrin 
 (999), and Vila S. Adalbi'rii, Aurl. linwniie (lOO:?) 
 in Peutz : Man. (Jcrm. Script. IV'. 531. and IV. 
 .590; Tounwai.dt: Lehen d. h. A'/nlherl, in Ill- 
 gen : ZKil.icliriJl f. hist. 'J'/ifnlnr/ie, 1853. 
 
 ADALCAR, Archbi.shop of Hamburg-Bremen, 
 888-909, the; .successor of Rimbi'rt, became in- 
 volved in a long controversy witli the .Vrclibishop 
 of Cologne, because, before the estabbshmeiit of 
 the metropolitan see of Hamburg-MriMnen, the 
 bishopric of Bremen had formi-d a suffragan see 
 under the Aiclibishopof Cologne; and us now the 
 
 see of Hamburg-Bremen increased much tlirough 
 the Scandinavian mission, and the establishment 
 of the suffragan sees under it in Denmark and 
 Sweden, the .\rchbishop of Cologne claimed his 
 former supremacy over the bishopric of Bremen, 
 The controversy was carried on with great vio- 
 lence, and not decided in the time of Adalgar ; 
 but an e.xhaustive representation of its course 
 and significance is still wanting. See the Vila 
 liiinherii in Peutz: Monumenia Scrlj>l. vol. 2; 
 Adam ok Buemex, etc. C.\RL bektheau. 
 
 ADALHARD, b. 751 ; d. June 2, 82(); a grand- 
 son of Charles JIartel, and cousin-german to 
 Charlemagne; was expelled from the court, and 
 sent to the Monastery of Corbie by the latter, but 
 regained afterwards his confidence, and went in 
 790 to Italy, whose government he administered 
 till 814, when Louis the Pious rec.-dled him, and 
 banished him to Hermontier. at the mouth of the 
 Loire. In 821 he returned to Corbie, where he 
 died. He founded Neu Corwey in Westphalia, 
 established manj' schools, and did much to en- 
 courage studies. Of his works, the most impor- 
 tant, De Ordine Palalii, is lost, though large ex- 
 tracts of it are given by Ilincinar (0pp. Paris, 
 1045, II. 200-215). Ills St<ilula AnI. Ablmtin 
 Corb., dated 822. is found in D'Archkuy's 
 .Spicile(i., I. 580-592; and two letters, dated 801 
 and 814, in Epp. CaraliiKc, IV. 417. 
 
 Lit. — Pascii.\sius Radhertus, a pupil of 
 his: Vila S. Adalhardi in Peutz: Man. Germ. 
 .Script. II. .524. 
 
 AD'AM means niati, and is the name given by 
 God himself to the first human beings (Gen. v. 
 2). The important place occupied by man, ac- 
 cording to the biblical idea, is as the close, the 
 .appointed climax, of creation. Inaniin.ate nature 
 looked forward to man. To liis creation God 
 g.ave s]iecial care. It was sufficient for him to 
 order tlie other creatuns into being; but man 
 was moulded by the divine fingers out of the dust 
 of the earth, and so far forth he belonged to 
 the created world : but into him (Jod breathed the 
 breath of life, and thus put him in an im'"eas- 
 unibly liigher j^hice; for the possession of ihis 
 breatii made liim the "image" of (Jod. What 
 this "image "was ^ve loam from the Bible (Gen. 
 i. 20, ii. 7) : it was likeness to flod in the gov- 
 ernment of tlie creatures and the jjosscssion of 
 the same spirit. See I.m.vge. (Jod, the aUsolute 
 ]>crsonality. reflects himself in man. and therefore 
 the latter liecoines the lord of creati(jn. Adam 
 was the representative of the race, — humanity 
 in person. Opposite to the species and genera of 
 beasts, stood the single man. He was not a male, 
 still less a wife-man: he was man. Out of him, 
 as the progi'iiitor of the nice. Eve was taken. 
 But we do not comprehend his true position until 
 we look at him in relation to Christ, the second 
 man, as we find it most ele:irly exjircssed in Rom. 
 V. 12 sr]q.; 1 Cor. XV. 21-22, 45-19. By his fall, 
 sin and death entereil into the world, altlioiigh we 
 had not piTsonally any thing to do with it; and 
 more, condemnation has come upon all through 
 him. But from the second Adam has come just 
 the opposite, — righteousness, justilioation, and 
 life, 'i'hose who by .sin are united to the first 
 .■\dam reap all the con.scqueiK^es of siieh a union; 
 similarly do those who by faith are. niiitjMl to the 
 second .\dani. Kach is a representative head.
 
 ADAM. 
 
 25 
 
 ADAMS. 
 
 Adam lived to be nine hundred and tliirty 
 years old, and died the father of sons and daugh- 
 ters, although mention is made of only three sons 
 (Gen. V. 4). 
 
 Materialism sees in man a mere product of 
 n.ature. It is difficult to see how it makes place 
 for self-consciousness. The unity of the race is 
 also given up; and so logically Darwinism leads 
 to belief in a plurality of race-stems. Theology, 
 on the other hand, holds fast to the person- 
 ality of man, but has, from the beginning of 
 the science, wavered in regard to the position 
 Adam occupied toward the race. The oldest 
 Greek fathers are silent over this point. Ire- 
 npeus is the first to touch it; and he maintains that 
 the first sin was the sin of the race, since Adam 
 was its head. Origen, on the other hand, held 
 that man sinned because he had abused his lib- 
 erty when in a pre-existent state. In Adam semi- 
 iially were the bodies of all his descendants 
 {Contra Celsum IV. cf. Kahnis, Dor/innlik II. p. 
 107 sq.). Gregory Nazianzen and Gregory of 
 Nyssa, and Chry30stom, deduce sin from the fall. 
 Tertullian. Cyprian, Hilary, Ambrose, and Au- 
 gustine represent the biblical stand-point. Pela- 
 gius saw in Adam only a bad example, which 
 his descendants followed. Semi-Pelagianism 
 similarly regarded the first sin as opening the 
 flood-gates to iniquity; but Augustinianism upon 
 this point has dominated the Church since it 
 was formulated, — in Adam the race sinned. 
 
 [The two prominent orthodox views are : (1) 
 The Augiistinian, known as Itealimn, is, that there 
 was a real though impersonal and unconscious 
 participation of the whole human race in the fall 
 of Adam, their natural head, who by his indi- 
 vidual transgression vitiated the generic human 
 nature, and transmitted it in this corrupt and 
 guilty state to his descendants by ordinary gen- 
 eration. He sinned as an individual and as 
 7nankiinl. This view is taught by Anselm, Peter 
 Lombard, Thomas Aquinas, Luther, Melancli- 
 thon, and Calvin. (2) The Federal theory of the 
 Dutch divines Cocceius and Witsius is, that the 
 representation of mankind by Adam was vicari- 
 ous and in virtue of a covenant. This is the 
 theory of Turrettin and the Princeton theolo- 
 gians. See Imputation and Okiuin.\l Six. 
 
 Lit. — The Works of Augustine ; Anselm : 
 De Cunceplu Virylnale et Oriy. Peccato ; Tur- 
 rettin ; Pres. Edwards : Original Sin in 
 Works, ii. 303-583 ; Julius Muller : Origin 
 of Sin. Translated, Edin., 1S68 ; Charles 
 Hodge : Essays, 1 vol., and T/ieoloyy, 3 vols. 
 S.\MUEL Baird : The First Adam and the Second. 
 Phil. 1800.] BUCHRUCKER. 
 
 ADAM, Melchior, b. at Grotkau in Silesia; 
 d. at Heidelberg, March 23, 1622, as rector of 
 the city-college ; published between 1615 and 
 1620 a series of biographies, a hundred and 
 thirty-six in number, mostly of German scholars, 
 especially theologians, which in 1653 appeared 
 at Frankfort in a collected edition in five vol- 
 umes, under the title, Diynorum Laude Virorum 
 immorlalilas. 
 
 ADAM OF BREMEN (d. about 1076), the old- 
 est historian of Northern Germany, is, according 
 to general acceptance, the name of the author of 
 the history of the Archbishops of Hamburg- 
 Bremen to the death of .Adalbert in 1072. From 
 
 the work itself it appears that the name of the 
 author begins with an .\, that he came to Bremen 
 in 1008. and was a|ipointed first ecclesiw matricu- 
 taritis, then canoniciis, and that he wrote his work 
 between 1072 and 1076. This work is the Gesia 
 Hnmmenburyensls (Hinnhuryensis) ICcclesiie I'ontiji- 
 cum, quoted by llehnold, and by him ascribed to 
 Mayister Adam. It is a most valualjle source of 
 early Scandinavian ecclesiastical history. Best 
 edition bv Lai>i>enberg. in Pertz: Mon. VII. 
 
 ADAMOF ST. VICTOR, the greatest Latin poet 
 of the middle age; l>. in England or Brittany; 
 entered about 1130 the abbey of St. Victor, Paris; 
 d. there about 1192. His poetical works were 
 called Sequences, and are remarkable for their 
 melody, variety of metres, theological and biblical 
 lore, sustained power of the imagination, sublimi- 
 ty of diction, and fervent piety. His faults are 
 fondness for paronomasia, alliteration, and typical 
 application of tlie Old Testament. The first 
 complete edition of his poems w.as issued by L. 
 Gautier (Paris, 1858-59, 2 vols.), who prefaced 
 them by .an exhaustive essay upon Adam's life 
 and works. Kev. Digby S. Wrangham's transla- 
 tion, The Lituryical Poetry of Ailam of St. Victor 
 (London, 1881, 3 vols.), is the first complete one 
 in English. 
 
 ADAMANNUS, or ADAMNANUS, b. iit Drum- 
 hone in Ireland, 624, of the same lineage as St 
 Columba; d. at Hy, Sept. 23, 704; w.as chosen 
 abbot in 679 ; visited King Aldfrid of Northum- 
 bria in 688, and was, during this visit, converted 
 by Ceolfrid, abbot of Jarrow, to the Roman views 
 of the tonsure and the celebration of Easter: tried 
 in vain to introduce these views in Hy. Of his 
 works are still extant, De Locis Sanctis, in Mabil- 
 LO.v : Act. Sand. III. part II. p. 502; and I'ita 
 S. Cnlumlxc, edited liy William Reeves, Edin., 1876. 
 
 ADAMITES, or ADAMIANI, a sect which ori- 
 ginated in Northern Africa during the second 
 and third centuries, and meant to restore primi- 
 tive innocence by introducing nudity of both the 
 sexes into their worship (Epiphanius: Hcer., 
 III. 458 sq.). The same custom, under the same 
 name, appeared also in the fifteenth century, 
 among the Beghards, or Brethren of the Free 
 Spirit, in Bohemia ; but the sect was relentlessly 
 persecuted by the Hussite chief Zisca. It re- 
 appeared in 1781 and in 1849, after the proclam.a- 
 tion of edicts of toleration, but was suppressed 
 by the Austrian Government. 
 
 ADAMS, Thomas, a Puritan commentator and 
 preacher. The time of his birth and death is 
 unknown, and only a few scattered references of 
 his lite have come down to us. He was preach- 
 ing in Bedfordshire in 1612, afterwards in vari- 
 ous localities ; was in 1653 a " decrepit and neces- 
 sitous " old man, yet living in 16.58. Southey 
 called him " the prose Shakspeare of the Puri- 
 tan theologians ; " and a writer in the Encyclopm- 
 dia Britannica (ninth edition) says of him, " His 
 sermons place him in the van of the preachers 
 of England. Jeremy Taylor does not surpass 
 him in brilliance of fancies, nor Thomas Fuller 
 in wit. His numerous works display great learn- 
 ing, and are unique in their abundance of stories, 
 anecdotes, aphorisms, and puns." See Works, 
 London, 1630, folio ; Exposition of Second Peter, 
 London. 1633, folio. Edited by Rev. James Sher- 
 man, Loudon, 1839, reprint in Nichol's Commen-
 
 ADAMS. 
 
 26 
 
 ADIAPHORA. 
 
 laries, 1862. Collected edition of his irorAvs, with 
 memoir, edited by Rev. Drs. Joseph Angus and 
 Thomas Smith, London, 1862, 3 vols. 
 
 ADAMS, William, b. Colchester, Conn., Jan. 25, 
 1807 : d. Orange Mountain, N.J., Tuesday, Auj. 
 31, 1880. He was prepared for college under his 
 father, Jolm Adams, LL.D., principal of Pliillips 
 Academy, Andover, and graduated with honors 
 from Yale College, 1827, and at Andover Theo- 
 logical Seminary, 1830. He was pastor of the 
 Congregational Socijty of Brighton, IMass., from 
 February, 1831 to 1834, when he was called to 
 the Broome-street (Central) Presbyterian Church 
 of New- York city. His success here was remark 
 able. He gathered, in the course of his twenty 
 years of service, a very large congregation, out of 
 which was formed in 185:5 the Madison-square 
 Presbyterian Church, whose new edifice was 
 opened in November, 1854. His church was one 
 of the most influential in the city, and he was 
 regarded as the leading Presbyterian pastor in 
 the country. In 1873 he became president of the 
 Union Theological Seminary, and professor of 
 sacred rhetoric. He occupied this position with 
 distinguished ability and success till his death. 
 In 18.52 lie was chosen moderator of the New 
 School General Assembly of the Presbyterian 
 Church, and was very active in bringing about 
 the re-union of the New and Old School branches. 
 He will be long remembered as a fervent, elo- 
 quent, and persuasive preacher of the Word; as 
 a faithful, aifectionate, and jirudent pastor ; as a 
 dignified, learned, and efficient presiding officer, 
 and as a Christian gentleman of the liighest 
 type. He had a remarkably symmetrical char- 
 acter. His personal appearance was command- 
 ing, and at once indicated him as a prince 
 among men. " He was greater than any thing 
 that he did." He wrote much for the reli- 
 gious press, and issued the following volumes : 
 The Three Gardens, Eden, (Jethsemane, and Para- 
 dise ; or, Man\i Ruin, Redemption, and Restora- 
 tion (N.Y., 1856); an edition of Isaac Taylor's 
 Spirit of Hebrew Poetry, with a biographical in- 
 troduction (18G1) ; Thanlsi/ivln/; : Memories of the 
 Day and Helps to the Haliit\lS()')) ; In the World, 
 and not of the World (1867) ; Conversations of 
 Jesus Chriit with Representative Men (18(i8). Per- 
 haps the most admired single effort of his life 
 was the Address of Welcome to the members 
 of the conference of the Evangelical Alliance 
 Oct. 2, 1873, a model of its kind. He was to 
 perform a similar service at the General Council 
 of the Hefornied churches, wliich met in Phila- 
 delphia a few weeks after his death. 
 
 ADAMSON, Patrick, a Scottish prelate, b. in 
 Pertli, .March lo, 1543; d. in St. Andrews, Feb. 
 10, 1592. He was maih; .Vrclibishop of St. An- 
 drews in October, 1.576, although previously a 
 strenuous opponent of prelacy, saymg, " Tliere 
 were three sorts of bishops, — my lonl-bishop, my 
 lord's bishop, and the ]>ord's bishoji. My lord- 
 bishop was m tilt; jiapistry ; my lord's bishop is 
 now, wlien my lord gets the V)enefice, and the 
 bishop serves for nothing but to make his title 
 sure ; and tlie I.,ord's bishoji is tlie true minister 
 of God." His oppressive mi^iisures brought him 
 endless trouble. He was excommunicated by a 
 provincial .synod, and only absolved on submis- 
 «ion. At length, in 1588, his iirchiepiscopal reve- 
 
 nues were withdrawn, and henceforward he lived 
 on charity. 
 
 ADDAI, one of the seventy-two, who, accord- 
 ing to a legend dating from the second half of the 
 second century, was sent to King Abgar in Edessa, 
 where he preached, baptized, and founded the 
 fii'st Christian congregation. See Georgk Phil- 
 lips : The Doctrine of Addai, London, 1876. con- 
 taining the Syriac text, with an English transla- 
 tion and notes. See Abgarus. 
 
 ADDISON, Joseph, the essayist and hymn- 
 writer, b. at Milston, May 1, 1672; d. at Holland 
 House, London, June 17, 1719. He was a son of 
 the Dean of Lichfield, a fellow of Magdalen 
 College, Oxford, from 1699 to 1711. during which 
 time, however, lie travelled on the continent, and 
 held various official appointments. He had in- 
 tended to enter the Church ; but his employment 
 as a AVhig writer altered liis mind, and he rose to 
 the distinction of Secretary of State for a brief 
 jieriod. In April, 1709, Steele started the Taller ; 
 for this Addison wrote, but his fame is indissolu- 
 bly linked with the Spectator. In the two, and 
 their successor the Guardian, appeared the essays 
 afterwards published together under the title. 
 Evidences of the Christian Religion, London, 1790. 
 He also wrote several excellent hymns. He 
 presented to the age the rare picture of a Chris- 
 tian statesman. The best edition of his works 
 is by Bisho]i Ilurd, London, 1811, 6 vols. 8vo. 
 
 ADELBERT, or ALDEBERT, the powerful ad- 
 versary of St. Boniface, and leader of a national 
 party in the Cliurch of the Prankish Empire, 
 opposed to the introduction of the Roman consti- 
 tution and the Romish liierarchy, and supported 
 by the people, the native clerg\', and Carloman. 
 Boniface denounced him as a Leretic, ami sedu- 
 cer of the people, accused him of the grossest 
 frauds, and brought him, in 744, before a synod 
 in .Soissons, which condemned him. This con- 
 demnation, however, raised such a storm of indig- 
 nation, that the verdict remained a dead letter; 
 but the next year Boniface sent the priest Dene- 
 ard to Rome, to Pope Zacharias, with a formal 
 accusation, and documents of evidence, A coun- 
 cil was held in the I.,ateran, in October, 745; and 
 Deneard appeared before it as jirosecutor. Adel- 
 bert was not sunnnoned, nor was any investiga- 
 tion instituted, as the jirotocols still r'xtant 
 evince; but he was, nevertheless, unanimously 
 condemned as a new Simon Magus. This time 
 too, however, the verdict seems to have been 
 witliout effect : for two years later on, in January, 
 747, we hear Boniface and the ]i02ie speak of 
 having Adelbert placed before a new council. 
 Perhaps Carloman, in spite of his friendship 
 with Boniface, still continued to shelter Adel- 
 bert. It is at all events a suggestive fact, tliat 
 Boniface triumi>hed, and Adelbert vanished im- 
 mediately after the abdication of Carloman, when 
 Pepin became major domus alone. 
 
 Lit. — Uonifacii Epist. in Monumenta Mofpm- 
 lina, Bibl. Rer. Germ. Tom. HI. ; Wehnkk : 
 Jlnni/acius und die Romanisiruny von Mitteleurojia, 
 187.5, p. 281 sq. A. WEKNEIi. 
 
 ADEODATUS, Bishop of Rome from Ajiril, 
 072. In .Tinii', 676. Two letters of liis are extant 
 (M.\Nsr: Caiiril., Tom. XL, p. 103). 
 
 ADIAPHORA (things indijkrcnt). The idea of 
 adiaphora, thing.'! indifferent to moral laws, ori-
 
 ADIAPHORA. 
 
 27 
 
 ADOPTION. 
 
 filiated with the Stoics. They found between 
 virtue and vice a large field, lioth of objective 
 conditions and subjective actions, which were 
 neitlier good nor bad, but indiiferent, media, 
 neutra, u6ia(popa ; as, for instance, to have an equal 
 or unequal number of hairs on the head, to 
 raise the finger in this way or that, etc. 
 
 In the Bible the idea is indirectly rejected, 
 tiiough in a different way, by the Old and the 
 New Testament. The Old Testament, whicli 
 declares it as great a sin to worship Uod in an 
 illegal form as to worship an idol, can, of course, 
 not acknowledge the existence of any thing in- 
 different to the law ; but, in accoi'dance with its 
 jiedagogical character, it endeavors to answer 
 this question in details, commanding and for- 
 bidding in each special case as it occurs in prac- 
 tical life. The New Testament gives no such 
 prescrijitions; but the idea of adiaphora is there 
 absolutely e.\cluded by the ideas of the kingdom 
 of heaven, the perfection of man in Christ, the 
 "Christ in me," thougli at tlie same time it 
 gives complete liberty : " unto the pure all things 
 are pure" (Tit. i. 15). 
 
 In the Roman Church, in the middle ages, the 
 idea gradually acquired great practical impor- 
 tance. By tlie doctrines of opera superero</aloria, 
 saints, etc., a distinction was established between 
 that which was necessary for the Christian hero 
 and that which was necessary for tlie ordinary 
 Christian ; and by this distinction the whole 
 system of Christian morals was put out of 
 tune. Theoretically the question was discussed 
 by the Thomists (who accepted the doctrine of 
 adiaphora m abstrado, but rejected it in concreto) 
 and the Scotists, who thought that there existed a 
 whole sphere in human life which had nothing at 
 all to do with morality. Finally it found a most 
 lamentable solution in the casuistry of the Jesuits. 
 
 The Reformation was in this point, as in so 
 many others, simply a return to the stand-point 
 of the New Testament. On account, however, 
 of the character which the Reformation very 
 early assumed in Germany, it is not to be won- 
 dered at that the first so-called adiaphoristic 
 controversy should turn upon a point, not of 
 morals, but of doctrine. Against the Augsburg 
 Interim, which satisfied the Protestants as little 
 .as the Romanists, Melanchthou, Bugenhagen, and 
 others drew up the so-called Leipzig Interim 
 (1548), in which several doctrinal and liturgical 
 points were yielded as adiaphora. This roused 
 the indignation of the extreme Lutherans. — Fla- 
 cius, Westphal, and others ; and a vehement con- 
 troversy broke out, which, however, lost its im- 
 portance by the peace of 1555 and the Formula 
 Concordice. 
 
 The second adiaphoristic controversy, on the 
 contrary, which forms a chapter of the history 
 of pietism, touches the very centre of Chi-istian 
 ethics. Spener protested that "a Christian shall 
 do nothing which he cannot do to the glory of 
 God, in the name of Christ, and for the benefit 
 of his fellow-Christian." There are consequently 
 no adiaphora ; and such things as dancing, play- 
 ing cards, visiting theatres, etc., must be repu- 
 diated as sin. The fanaticism with which 
 Spener's disciples followed out this principle 
 called forth an equally passionate re-action ; but 
 the controversy led to no result. The question 
 
 ma», oe said to be still under debate; though the 
 true basis for its solution seems to have been 
 found by the latest writers on evangelical moral.s, 
 Rothe, Schmid, Martcusen, etc. Somewhat after 
 the example of Thomas Aquinas, the existence 
 of adiaphora is here accepted in (ihslracio, but 
 rejected in concreto: because the individuality, 
 character, and mental state of a person, at every 
 moment, necessitates a yes or no, for which he 
 feels re.sponsible in his conscience, even in cases 
 and with respect to things which objectively lie 
 outside of the moral law. UOBERT KL'UEL. 
 
 ADO, b. about 800, in the neighborliood of 
 Sens; d. at Vienne, Dec. IfJ, 874; Archbishop 
 of Vienne since 860; was considered one of the 
 principal supports of the papal hierarchy in 
 Southern France, and wrote a Marlyroloyiutn, 
 edited by Dan. Georgi, Rome, 1745; aiid a 
 Breriarium Chronicorum de six Munili jElalibus 
 (Ba.sel, 1.568; Pkrtz : Monum. II., 31.5), from 
 the creation to the middle of the ninth century, 
 consisting mostly of extracts from known sources. 
 
 ADON'AI (my Lord), a Hebrew name of God 
 in the Old Testament. The Jews pronounced 
 the tetragram Y H W II by giving to it the 
 vowels of Adonai. The pronunciation Jehooah 
 resulting is never heard among the Jews, and 
 dates from the sixteenth century among the 
 Christians. See Jehov.\h. 
 
 ADONI'JAH {mil Lord is Jehovah). The fourth 
 son of David by Haggith, born at Hebron, heir- 
 presumptive after the death of his three elder 
 brothers ("2 Sam. iii. 4). For pushing his claims 
 (1 Kings i.) when .Solomon had been designated, 
 he came near losing his life, but was pardoned 
 (1 Kings i. 52), and might have lived in security, 
 but for his asking the hand of Abishag : this 
 being construed as a fresh attempt upon the 
 throne, he was put to death (1 Kings ii. "25). 
 
 ADOPTION. 1. Bihiica,. The biblico-theo- 
 logical term for the act which restores the normal 
 condition of the sinner to God is adoption : the 
 persons adopted are called the "children." or 
 " sons," of God. This idea is not original with 
 the New Testament, but is found in the Old 
 (Deut. xiv. 1), although the pious Israelite re- 
 garded himself rather as the servant than the 
 son of God. In the New Testament, however, 
 the idea is found very clearly expressed by John 
 in his Gospel (i. 12) and in his first Epistle (iii. 1 
 sq.), where the term is not a mere figurative ex- 
 pression, but, in closest connection with his con- 
 cept of the Christian life, is the designation of a 
 mystical yet real fact. The child of God, through 
 God's love (iii. 1), is operated upon by the Di- 
 vine Spirit, and so raised out of his inigodly 
 state into that of divine grace (iii. 6). Paul is 
 equally clear, although he adopts a different 
 mode of representation. The sinner is first par- 
 doned, delivered from the bondage of sin, made 
 a new creature (Eph. iv. 24) by the action of the 
 Spirit (2 Cor. i. 22), and then he is called a son, 
 or child, of God : he receives the assurance of 
 adoption (Rom. viii. 15, 16); and, instead of fear, 
 he has a great love of God as his Father in 
 heaven, and follows God (Eph. v. 1), inspired by 
 a hope which renders him patient in tribulation 
 (Rom. viii. 17, 18). According, then, to John, 
 the Christian life from its very hei/inning is the 
 life of one who is born of God, is his child, while.
 
 ADOPTION. 
 
 28 
 
 ADOPTIONISM. 
 
 according to Paul, the adoption takes place in 
 the course of the Christian's upbuilding for eter- 
 nity. In the rest of the New Testament, while 
 the idea is found, it is not set forth with such doc- 
 trinal precision as demands particular attention. 
 2. Theoloijical. The Church doctrine distin- 
 guishes the Johannean idea of " being born of 
 God " as the starting-point of the new life, from 
 the Pauline idea of " adoption " as its essential 
 point. The first idea, theology calls reqenera- 
 tion. Our attention will therefore be limited to 
 the second. In ascetic literature, adoption, the 
 sonship of the believer, plays a very prominent 
 part. The fathers regard adoption generally as 
 a magical effect of baptism, and derive many illus- 
 trations of it from Roman jurisprudence. Thus 
 Clement of Alexandria (Aerf. 1, 6). This be- 
 came the doctrine of the Greek Church. [See 
 The Orthodox Confession of the Eastern Church, 
 Q. c. II. in Schaff's Creeds of Christendom,Vo\. II. 
 p. 376.] In the Roman-Catholic Church, on ac- 
 count of the prevailing semi-pelagian denial of 
 the free grace of God and identification of justi- 
 fication and sanctification, the joyful state of 
 sonship with God has not been clearly compre- 
 hended, suppressed, as its experience must be, 
 by the wearisome self-denials and works of satis- 
 faction and penance. Hence the Roman Church 
 denies that the subject can be certain of his justi- 
 fication, and, consequently, of his being in a state 
 of grace. Thus Council of Trent, iVss. 6, c. i). 
 [Schaffs Creeds of Christendom, Vol. II. pp. 98-9.] 
 " No one can know, with a certainty of faith 
 which cannot be subject to error, that he has 
 obtained the grace of God." Inasmuch as bap- 
 tism is regarded as imprinting the spiritual birth 
 in the form of an indelible character, and as 
 working, not alone the remission of original sin 
 and actual guilt, however enormo\is, but a posi- 
 tive infusion of grace ex opere operato (through the 
 act performed), it is furtlier regarded as render- 
 ing the subject a child of God. Catechism of the 
 Council of Trent [translated by Rev. J. Donovan. 
 Baltimore, n.d., pp. 127, 130]. In the Protestant 
 Church opinions have varied. The older Lutheran 
 divines preferred to treat adoption in connec- 
 tion with baptism. Regeneration and adoption, 
 as also justification, they taught, involve each 
 other. Adoption follows justification. Rut, after 
 pietism entered the Church, th(? Lutlieran came 
 nearer to the Reformed type, and tlie doctrine 
 of regeneration underwent a material change : 
 so that, from being regarded as only a form 
 of justification, it was hold that it not only 
 precedes it, but, as the first effect of operating 
 grace, takes its place. The Reformed theologians 
 distinguish theoretically, though not ]iractically. 
 regeneration and adoption ; and the latter is ani- 
 matedly discus.sed, because much stress is laid 
 upon personal assurance of salvation. The adop- 
 tion of the Old Testament saints is taught. The 
 Methodists (e.g., Wesley, Watson) teach the Re- 
 formed doctrine, jiutting jiarticular value upon 
 repentance and the inner testimony of conversion. 
 One of the .services Schleiermacher performed was 
 to restore adoption, which had become synony- 
 mous with the firm lK)j)e of eternal life, unto its 
 proper place. He said, "It is not po.ssible for 
 Christ to live in us, uide.ss we are in the same 
 relation to the Father, and consequently share 
 
 in his sonship, which is the power, originating 
 in him, to become the sons of God : and this in- 
 cludes the guaranty of sanctification ; for it is 
 the right of sonship to be brought up in the full- 
 est household liberty ; and the law of nature is, 
 that the community of life develops in the child 
 likeness to the father." For a recent carrying- 
 out of Schleiermacher's ideas, see A. Schweizek : 
 Christliche Glaubenslehre, 11. 2, p. 236 sq. It is 
 undeniable that there are treasures Ufion this 
 subject which lie as yet buried in the Scriptures. 
 Theology should bring tliem out. guder. 
 
 The Weslminstfr Shorter Catechism defines adop- 
 tion as the act of God's grace, whereby we are 
 received into the number, and have a right 
 to all the privileges, of the sons of God. Its 
 position in the scheme of salvation, Calvinis- 
 tically conceived, is brought out very clearly 
 by Professor A. A. Hodge, in his Outlines of 
 Theolof/i/, p. 516. revised edition. New York, 1879. 
 '■ Regeneration is an act of God originating by 
 a new creation a new spiritual life in the heart 
 of the subject. The first and instant act of that 
 new creature, consequent upon his regeneration, 
 is faith, or a believing, trusting embrace of tlie 
 jierson and work of Christ. Upon the exercise 
 of faith by the regenerated subject, justification 
 is the instant act of God, on the ground of that 
 perfect righteousness which the sinner's faith has 
 apprehended, declaring him to be free from all 
 condemnation, and to have a legal right to the 
 relations .and benefits secured by the covenant 
 which Christ has fulfilled in his behalf. Sancti- 
 fication is the progressive growth towards the 
 perfected maturity of that new life which was 
 implanted in regeneration. Adoption presents 
 the new creature in his new relation, his new 
 relations entered upon with a congenial heart, 
 and his new life developing in a congenial home, 
 and surrounded with those relations which foster 
 its growth, and crown it with blessedness. Jus- 
 tification is wholly forensic, and concerns only 
 relations, immunities, and rights. Regeneration 
 and sanctification are w holly spiritual and moral, 
 and concern only inherent qualities and states. 
 Adoption comprehends the complex condition of 
 the believer as at once the subject of both." The 
 Arminian view is expressed by Richard Watson, 
 Theological Institutes, Part II., chaj). 24 (New- 
 York edition, \>. 209). " Adoption is the second 
 concomitant of ju.stification, an<l is that act by 
 which we who were alienated, enemies, disinher- 
 ited, are made the .sons of God, and heirs of his 
 eternal glory. To this state belong freedom 
 from a servile spirit, the special love of God our 
 heavenly Father, a filial confidence in him, free 
 access to liiin at all times and in all circum- 
 stances, the title to the heavenly inlieritance. and 
 the spirit of adoption, or the witness of the Holy 
 S]iirit to our adoption, wliich is the foundation of 
 all the comfort we can derive from those privi- 
 leges, as it is the only means by which we can 
 know that they are ours . . . from it Hows a 
 comfortable persuasion or conciclion of our present 
 acce]itance with (iod, and the hniie of our future 
 and I'tcTiiiil i;lcprv." 
 
 ADOPTIONISM, ADOPTIONISTS (Adoplinni, 
 Ailoptini), a lieresy and sect, which, in tlii> latter 
 part of the eighth century, produced considera- 
 ble commotion in the -Spanish and Prankish
 
 ADOPTIONISM. 
 
 29 
 
 ADRIAN. 
 
 churches. A certain Migetius who preached in 
 that part of Spain whicli was liehl by the Moors, 
 and where the Christian Ciiurcli consequently 
 stood in a very loose connection witli Rome, gave 
 a very gross exposition of the doctrine of the 
 holy Trinity; teaching tliat there were three per- 
 sons bodily, and a triple manifestation in history, 
 of the one God. Against him Kliiiandus, Arch- 
 bishop of Toledo, wrote a letter vindicating the 
 orthodox idea of tlie immanence of the Trinity, 
 but at the same time establishing a very sharp 
 distinction between the second person of the 
 Trinity and the human nature of Christ. Ac- 
 cording to his divine nature, Elipandus said, 
 Christ is the true son of God, — "I and tlie 
 Father are one;" but, according to his human 
 nature, lie is only adopted by (iod,filhts adopticus, 
 — "The Father is greater than I." This dis- 
 tinction, however, between the two natures in 
 Christ, sounded in the ears of the time as a dis- 
 tinction in his very personality, and was by many 
 considered a relapse into the Nestorian heresy. 
 Its historical genesis is obscure. Some ascribe 
 it to an influence from the surrounding Islamism ; 
 others find it in a colony of Eastern, perhaps 
 Nestorian Christians who came to Spain with the 
 Arabs, and whom Elipandus, in a letter to Felix, 
 mentions as his good friends having the right 
 faith ; while Alcuin, in a letter to Leidrad, de- 
 nounces them as the true fathers of adoptionism. 
 Elipandus was attacked by Abbot Beatus of 
 Libana, Bishop Etherius of Osina, and a majority 
 of the Asturian clerg}'. A vehement controversy 
 broke out, and it soon spread from vSpain into 
 France, through Felix, Bishop of Urge], which, 
 situated in the Pyrenees, belonged to the Frank- 
 ish Empire, to the diocese of Narbonne. At the 
 synod of Regensburg, 702, Felix defended the 
 adoptionist view in the presence of Charlemagne. 
 But the bishojis condemned him ; and he was sent 
 to Rome, where Adrian I. kept him in prison till 
 he drew up an orthodox confession, and took his 
 oath upon it. As soon, however, as he had re- 
 turned to Urge], he repudiated the confession as 
 made luider compulsion, and fled into the do- 
 mains of the Moors. 
 
 Elipandus, and those Spanish bishops who be- 
 longed to his party, now addressed a letter to the 
 Frankish bishops and to Charlemagne himself; 
 and the case was once more investigated by the 
 synod of Francfort, 794. The result was four 
 letters, — from tlie Germano-Frankish bishops, 
 from the Italian bishops, from Adrian I., and 
 from Charlemagne, — -all condemning the adop- 
 tionist movement, and exhorting to concord and 
 quiet. , But the Adoption ists were very zealous 
 in propagating their views, which spread rapidly 
 among the masses. Also in the literary field the 
 controversy grew hotter. In 798 Felix wrote a 
 book, and sent it to Alcuin. It was answered 
 both by Paulinus of Aquileia and Alcuin (Libellus 
 adv. Felicia Ilccres.), the latter of whom received a 
 very rough rejoinder from Felix. The case began 
 to look serious, and demand energetic meas- 
 ures. In 798 Leidrad of Lyon, Nefrid of Nar- 
 bonne, and the Abbot Benedict of Aniane, visited 
 personally the infected places in France and 
 Spain, and preaclied against the heretics. In 
 799 Leo III. formally condemned Felix at a 
 synod in Rome, and in 800 a disputation was 
 
 arranged between Felix and Alcuin at the synod 
 of .\ix-la-Chapelle. Felix resisted for a long 
 time, but at last he declared himself beaten, re- 
 tracted, and wrote a circular letter to his friends, 
 admonisliing them to return to the Orthodox 
 Church. This letter, the new work by -Vlcuin 
 in seven books, and the jireachings of I^eidrad 
 and Benedict, finally smoothed down the commo- 
 tion, and the sect disappeared. 
 
 Lit. — Most of the documents pertaining to 
 this controversy are found in Froben's edition of 
 Alcuini Opera, Ratisbon, 1777, and in Mig.ve : 
 Patrol, vols. 96, 100, and lOL See also C. W. 
 F. Walch: Historia Adopt imiorum, Gottingen, 
 17.5.5; Dorner: Geschicli/e iler Lehre von der Per- 
 son Chrlati, second edition, Berlin, 1866, pp. 424- 
 427; Baur: Die chrisltiche Lehre von ikr JJreiein- 
 if/keit unti Mensrhwerdun;/ Golles, Tubingen, 1842, 
 vol. II. pp. 129-1.59 ; Scii.\FFin S.Mrrii andWACE, 
 Did. Chr. Biuq. I. 44-4(5. W. MOLLER. 
 
 ADRAM'MELECH {Adar is king). 1. One of 
 the gods of Sepharvaim worshipped by the Assyr- 
 ians transplanted to Samaria (2 Kings xvii. 31). 
 Children were sacrificed to it. The name appears 
 to consist of Adar ("ns or ■nn " lordly: " Movers, 
 die Phonizier, Bd. 1, 1S41, p. 340, wrongly derives 
 it fi-om the Persian azar •' fire"), a designation of 
 the god, and melek, Assyrian malik, " king." which 
 is a frequent honorary epithet. It is uncertain 
 whether any such god has, however, been yet 
 read of upon the Assyrian monuments. But 
 Atar, possibly the same as "ns, occurs in proper 
 names, e.g., Atarilu, '•Afar is God." See 
 SciiR.^DER, Die assyrisch-hahijlon. Keilinschr,, 1872, 
 p. 148 sq. The name Adramelus also indicates 
 a god Adar. It is very questionable whether 
 Atar-samain, " Atar of the heavens," as a North 
 Arabian god in Assyrian inscriptions, should be 
 identified with Adar, as is done by .Schrader ; 
 much more likely with Atai'gatis (Astarte), which 
 see, whom Jeremiah ajijiarently calls the " queen 
 of heaven " (Jer. vii. 18). 
 
 2. Son and murderer of Sennacherib, King of 
 Assyria (2 Kings six. 37; Isa. xxxvii. 38), called 
 Adramelus by Moses of Chorene (I. 23), and 
 Ardremuzanes by Eusebius, after Polyhistor in 
 tlie Armemian Chronicle (ed. Maj. p. 19). 
 
 Lit. — Mekx: Adrammelech in Schenckel's 
 Bihel-Leccicon ; Schr.\der: ditto, inlliehm's Hand- 
 worlcrhuck des hih. Alterthums , and the same: 
 Die Keilinschriflen u. das alie Teslani., 1872, p. 
 200. WOLF B.iUDISSIX. 
 
 ADRIAN is the name of six popes. — Adrian I. 
 (Feb. 9, 772, to Dec. 25,795) leaned from the very 
 beginning of his reign towards the Frankish 
 fraction in Rome, and addressed himself directly 
 to Charlemagne for help, when Desiderius, king 
 of the Longobards, invaded his territory. Charle- 
 magne came to his rescue (773), defeated Desi- 
 derius, confirmed and increased the donation of 
 Pepin; and a very cordial relation was estab- 
 lished between the pope and the Frankish king. 
 Adrian understood how to draw the huge mass 
 of Charlemagne's empire nearer to Rome. He 
 labored in unison with the king against the 
 .\doiitionists ; his legates played a prominent 
 part in all the many synods which were held 
 under the presidency of the king; he succeeded 
 in introducing the Gregorian cliant, first in 
 IMetz, afterwards in other parts of the realm.
 
 ADRIAN. 
 
 '60 
 
 ADULLAM. 
 
 etc. Xevertheless, in this whole relation, Charle- 
 magne was the master. When the decrees of 
 the Council of Xice of 787, re-establishing the 
 worship of the saints, and sanctioned by the 
 papal legates, were laid befoi'e him, he had them 
 refuted by the Liiri Carolini, and rejected by 
 the synod of Franofort (794), and the pope 
 could do nothing. His letters are found in 
 J.\FFE: Bibliolh. Rerum German, vol. IV. — 
 Adrian- II. (Dec. 14, 867, to Nov. 25, 872) inter- 
 fered repeatedly, but with very little success, in 
 the affairs of the Prankish Empire. In the con- 
 flict between the empei-or Louis 11. and Cliarles 
 the Bald, King of France, he sided with the 
 former, and addressed a high-handed and threat- 
 ening letter to the latter. But in the answer 
 which was drawn up by Archbishop Hincmar of 
 Rheiras, the king coldly declined to pay any 
 regard to the pope's interventions in secular mat- 
 ters. In 871 Bishop Hincmar of Laon was 
 deposed by the synod of Duziacum, but appealed 
 to the pope, who, on the authority of the Pseudo- 
 Isidorean Decretals, claimed for himself the 
 right of finally deciding the mattei-. Again 
 Archbishop Hincmar of Rheims was charged 
 with drawing up the answer; and the pope was 
 informed that his interference in the affairs of 
 the Gallican Church was unwarranted, that the 
 Pseudo-Isidorean Decretals were the offspring 
 of hell, etc. ,\drian now understood that it was 
 necessary to change front entirely, and declared 
 that his former harsh letters had been wrung 
 from him against his will during his illness ; that 
 they were probably falsified, etc. In the con- 
 troversy between Photius, Patriarch of Constan- 
 tinople, and the Emperor Basilius, Adrian inter- 
 fered with more success. The Council of 
 Constantinople (8G9) deposed Photius, and rec- 
 ognized tlie primacy of the Roman see. Never- 
 theless the emperor protested that Bulgaria 
 belonged to the Constantinopolitan, not to the 
 Roman patriarchate : a Greek archbishop was 
 settled in the country; and the Roman priests 
 and missionaries were expelled. Letters of 
 Adrian H. are found in M.\.vsr: Concil. XY. p. 
 819.— Adui.vx III. (.March 1 , 884, to July 8, 88.5) 
 was the first pope wlio changed his name at his 
 election, liis ti-ue name being .\gapetus. — .Vi.itiAX 
 IV. (Dec. 4, ll.')4, to Sept. 1, 1159) w'as a luitive 
 of England (Xicliolas IJroakspeare) ; began his 
 ecclesia.stical career as a .servant in the monastery 
 of St. Rufus near Avignon, became its abbot in 
 1137, and afterwards Cardin.al-Bishop of .\lbano. 
 Under him began the long and bitti r contest 
 between the popes and the House of Hohen- 
 staufen, tliough the first transaction between 
 Adrian and Frederick liarbarossa was very cor- 
 dial. .\rnoI<l of Brescia preached at that time 
 in tlie very city of Rome against the secidar 
 power of the Jiope, and made an attempt to re- 
 organize the government of the city on its ancient 
 model. Adrian prtjtested, fled to Orvieto, and 
 laid interdict on the city. The senate then 
 compelled Arnold to h'ave Rome; and on his 
 flight he fell into the hands of Fredcu'ick, who, 
 after a successful campaign in Northern Italy, 
 was slowly approaching Rome. A bargain was 
 now struck between the pope and the king. 
 Frederick delivered up Arnold, wlio w.is hanged 
 and burnt, and Adrian crowned Frederick em- 
 
 peror. The peace was soon disturbed, however. 
 Adrian addre.ssed a letter to the emperor and 
 the German bisliop, which was understood to say 
 that the German Empire was a fief of the papal 
 crown, Frederick was in a rage, the bishops felt 
 provoked, and Adrian did not succeed in explain- 
 ing away the offensive expressions. When Fred- 
 erick again visited Italy (1158), he convoked an 
 assembly of Italian jurists to define his right 
 and power according to Roman law. This as- 
 sembly agreed that tlie present emperor had the 
 same power as the ancient Imperalor, that is, 
 '•quod Principi jilacuit, legis habet vigorem." 
 From this moment Frederick began to exercise 
 his imperial authority very regardless of the 
 pretensions of the pope ; and Adrian was on the 
 ]ioint of excommunicating him when he died at 
 Agnani. The bulls and letters of Adrian IV. 
 are found in Migxe: Patrol, vol. 188, p. 1361 
 sq. — Adrian V. (July 12 to Aug. 18, 1276) was 
 a native of Genoa, named Ottobuono de Fieschi, 
 a nephew of Innocent IV., hehl as .Archdeacon 
 of Canterbury a synod in London (1268), which 
 issued the thirty-six constitutions known as the 
 Ottobone Constitutions, He was never conse- 
 crated, — Adrian VI. (Jan. 9, 1522, to Sept. 14, 
 1523), b. at Utrecht, 1459; the son of a poor 
 mechanic; became professor of theology in the 
 L^niversity of Louvain, aiul tutor to Charles 
 v., who in 1516 sent him as his representa- 
 tive to Spain, where he was made Bishop of 
 Tortosa, cardinal, and, after the death of Car- 
 dinal Ximenes (1517), regent. He was a pious 
 and honest man, of strong moral principles; but 
 his views of the German Reform.atiou were 
 utterly mistaken. He believed that the whole 
 movement was nothing but a re-aetion against 
 the corruptions of the Church ; that the doc- 
 trines propounded by the Reformers were mere 
 nonsense, whicli no .sensible m.an could seriously 
 entertain ; that a reform of certain flagrant mis- 
 uses in the Church would be a sufficient me.ans 
 to stay the commotion, etc. Thus he spoiled his 
 case with his own party by the confessions he 
 made and the reforms he promised ; and, on the 
 otlier side, he made the breach still wider by the 
 outrageous manner in which h<! spoke of the Re- 
 formers, and in which he wanted to have them 
 treated. In spite of his good intentions, he ac- 
 complished nothing. His adversaries laughed 
 at him; his former pupil slighted him; his 
 familiars hated him; his very household was 
 bribed, from the confcs.sor to the barber. The 
 cardinals clamored around his death-be<l to as- 
 certain where he had concealed his money; and, 
 when lu^ died, a wreath w.as hung over tlie door 
 of his physician with the inscription, "To the 
 liberator of the Fatherland." Bi'UMAnn : lla- 
 drianux VI. contains his letters, bulls, and other 
 sources to his life. See C. voN HiiKi.KU : Papst 
 A'Irian VI., Vienna, 1880; A. Lapitkk: Adrien 
 VI., Paris, 1880. 11. ZOPKFKI,. 
 
 AOUL'LAM {hiding-place). A royal city of the 
 Canaanite.s (Gen. xxxviii. 1), allotted to Judah 
 (.Josh. xii. 15), fortified by Rehoboam (2 Chr. 
 xi. 7), and made, later cm, onc^ of the abodes of 
 royalty (Mic. i. 15), repeo]ileil by the .lews after 
 captivity (Neh. xi. 31)). It has been proposfcl to 
 locate tlie ciifc of .\diill(nn, so famous from its 
 connection with David's early history, in the
 
 ADULTERY. 
 
 31 
 
 ADVENT. 
 
 neighborhood of this city ; but it is more usual 
 to suppose it was in the iieigliborhood of Beth- 
 lehem in the Wad// Khureitun. 
 
 ADULTERY, illicit intercourse with a married 
 woman, is in all jirimitive civilizations consid- 
 ered from a purely religions point of view. It 
 is a sin, an offence against God. in course of 
 time, however, as civilization progresses, the 
 social aspect becomes more and more prominent. 
 The sin becomes a crime, an offence against so- 
 ciety. Then, again, having become a mere mat- 
 ter of civil legislation, adultery is first treated 
 as a crime which it is the duty of society to 
 punish, and then as an evil which it is the right 
 ■of society to get rid of by the application of the 
 most effective remedies. This course the history 
 of the subject shows among the Hebrews, the 
 Romans, the Germanic nations, in short, every- 
 ■where. 
 
 That the Hebrews at one time considered adul- 
 tery from a purely religious pioint of view is evi- 
 dent, both from the admission of the trial by the 
 bitter water, — the water of jealousy (Num. v. 
 11-31), the only instance of an ordeal in the 
 Mosaic law, — and from the figurative language 
 of the Old Testament, which over and over again 
 represents idolatry under the image of adultery 
 (Jer. iii. 8, 9; Ezek. xvi. 32, etc.). The stand- 
 point, however, of the Mosaic law, is not reli- 
 gious, but social ; though the religious spirit, 
 which is the informing power in the whole system, 
 is palpably present here, as at every other point. 
 Adultery is a crime, an offence against society, 
 a violation of the institution of marriage (the 
 wife being the property of the husband), and a 
 violation of the institution of inheritance (prop- 
 erty belonging to the blood). The crime is pun- 
 ished with death (Lev. xx. 10) : both the adulterer 
 and the adulteress are stoned (Deut. xxii. 22). 
 But here a distinction comes in. As it is the con- 
 sequences involved in a certain act which consti- 
 tutes this act a crime, and as the consequences of 
 adultery, 'with respect to the institutions wliich 
 they infringe upon, vary with the social position 
 •of the adulteress, justice demands that also the 
 punishment shall vary. If the adulteress is only 
 a slave, she is not stoned to death, but simply 
 scourged with a leathern whip. The idea of 
 sin, of an offence against God, is thus entirely 
 left out of view. The stand-point is social. Jew'- 
 ish practice went still farther. First, adultery was 
 piunished more leniently on the man than on the 
 woman : it became criminal only with women. 
 Then the idea of crime was dropped altogether; 
 and the disturbances which adultery caused in 
 the institutions of marriage and inheritance 
 were considered mere evils, for which a remedy 
 was sought and found in the divorce. At the 
 time of Christ, divorce seems to have been of 
 frequent occurrence among the Jews. Roman 
 society had arrived at exactly the same point 
 when it became acquainted with Christianity. 
 During the first two or three centuries of our 
 era nothing was more common in Rome than a 
 divoi-ce. But a great change took place when 
 Christianity became the religion of the State, 
 although not by reason of any direct command- 
 ment. 
 
 Christ recognized adultery as a legitimate rea- 
 son for divorce (Matt. v. 32). But in this in- 
 
 stance, as always when in contact witli real life, 
 he gently pushed aside the sliifting and fugitive 
 forms of tlje surface, and applied his reform — 
 the word that saves — to the very root of the mat- 
 ter. He condemned the evil jiassion and lust- 
 ful look from which adultery springs (Matt. v. 
 27-32). Of adultery and divorce, the New Testa- 
 ment says very little : it speaks only of that in 
 which all such details are summed up, — of chas- 
 tity. Nevertheless, the impre,ssion which Chris- 
 tianity made upon man's mind, as it gradually 
 took hold of the world, was .so overwhelming, that 
 it became impossible to look at any thing from 
 any other point of view than a religious or speci- 
 fically Christian one. As a new beginning, Cliris- 
 tianity also has a period of primitive civilization. 
 Once more adultery became a sin, an offence 
 against God. Constantine defined it as sacri- 
 lege, and punished it with death. Canon law 
 and early ecclesiastical discipline point in the 
 same direction. The Council of Ancyra (314) 
 refused the encharist to the adulterer, even at the 
 moment of death ; and the Sixth Council of Or- 
 leans deposed every clerical who had committed 
 adultery, and locked him up for life in a monas- 
 tery. First in the beginning of the seventeenth 
 century the subject again breaks loose from the 
 religious ground, and becomes a matter purely of 
 civil legislation. Compare the articles Marriage 
 and DivoKCK. 
 
 ADVENT is a preparation for the Feast of the 
 Nativity, as Lent is a preparation for Easter : 
 consequently no celebration of -Advent could be 
 instituted until the Feast of the Nativity was 
 fixed ; and this was not done in the Western 
 Church until after the fourth century. The 
 first traces of such an institution are found with 
 Csesarius of Arelate (d. 5-12). Two sermons of 
 his are still extant, in which he exhorts his con- 
 gregation to go frequently to church, do good to 
 the poor, etc., during the season of preparation 
 for the great feast. Another evidence, from the 
 same time, gives a decree by the Council of 
 Lerida (524), ordering that no wedding shall 
 take place during Advent, as little as during the 
 fast befoi'e Eastei'. The ancient Church consid- 
 ered Advent a season of fast, exactly like Lent, 
 during which all amusements ought to cease. 
 The synod of Tours (-OG") decreed a daily fast 
 for monks during Advent; and the synod of 
 Maijou (581) ordered, that, from the day of St. 
 Martin, laymen should fast at least twice a week. 
 With respect to the duration of the season, no 
 general agreement was ever arrived at. If a 
 quadragesimal fast shall precede Christmas, as 
 it precedes Easter, it must begin with the day of 
 St. Martin (Nov. 11) ; and such, indeed, was the 
 custom in France for a long time. Later on, 
 however, the Fast of Advent was limited, and 
 began with the day of St. Andrew (Nov. 30). At 
 present the Roman and the Lutheran churches 
 have only four Sundays in Advent; while the 
 Greek has six, the season beginning with Nov. 
 15. 
 
 Besides being a preparation for Christmas, the 
 season of Advent has another signification : it 
 forms, since the sixth century, the beginning of 
 the ecclesiastical year, which before that tirne 
 began with Easter, both in the Orient and iu 
 the Occident. The occasion of the change was the
 
 ADVENTISTS. 
 
 32 
 
 uSIPINUS, JOHANNES. 
 
 circumstance that tlie ecclesiastical year of the 
 Jews also begins with Easter. As the Reformed 
 Church has no ecclesiastical year, properly speak- 
 ing, it had no celebration of Advent either. The 
 minister being at liberty to select his text, with 
 reference only to the wants of the moment, may 
 preach on the passion during Advent. In Ger- 
 many, however, the Reformed churches have 
 geneially adopted the practice of the Lutheran 
 Church, which retains the old texts from the 
 Epistles and the Gospels, but repudiates the 
 Advent fast, as, on the whole, it recognizes no 
 ecclesiastically prescribed fast>days. The only 
 Protestant Church, wliich, in harmony with the 
 Roman Church, still retains the quatember fast, 
 is the Church of England. II. .^LT. 
 
 "" ADVENTISTS, or the followers of "William 
 Miller, a fanatical student of prophecy, who j3ut 
 
 ^tlie' second advent of Christ in the year 1843. 
 The sect arose in New England in 1833, and 
 once numbered, it is said, fifty thousand per- 
 sons ; but now, owing to the repeated failures 
 to get the right date for the event, it has dwin- 
 dled into much smaller [iroportions. The Seventh- 
 Daj" Adventists, as they are now called, do not 
 pretend to foi-etell the exact day of Christ's com- 
 ing; but they keep the event continually before 
 them. They practice immersion ; believe in the 
 annihilation of the wicked, and in the sleep of 
 the soul from the hour of death to the day of 
 judgment. They are scattei'ed throughout the 
 United States, and reported, on Nov. 7, 1879, to 
 the General Conference held at Battle Creek, 
 Mich., 144 ministers, 599 churches, and 14,141 
 members. The amount of moneys pledged to 
 the Systematic Benevolence Fund" was 351,714. 
 They bear an excellent reputation. See Advent- 
 ists, p. 2581 ; Mii.LER, William. 
 
 ADVOCATE OF THE CHURCH (AJrocalus, or 
 Defensor licdcske), an officer charged with the 
 secular alfairs of an ecclesiastical establishment, 
 more especially witli its defence, legal or armed. 
 As soon as the Church l)ecame possessed of large 
 estates, it necessarily became implicated in many 
 proprietary relations which it was impossible lor 
 the clergy themselves to maintain, prevented as 
 they were legally from pleading in a civil court, 
 and morally from wearing arms. Under such 
 circumstances it became necessary for a church 
 or monast'.'ry to have a defender. The office 
 originated in Africa, in the beginning of the Jiftli 
 century; and among tlie Germanic nations it as- 
 sumed a peculiar form on account of their pecul- 
 iar juridical ideas. According to German views, 
 only he could hold jiroperty, in the full sense of 
 the word, who was a free man, capable of wear- 
 ing arms, and, in ca.se of necessitj-, able to defend 
 his right by force. Persons who were free, but 
 unable to wear arms, such as women, children, 
 old and sick peoiile, needled a rejiresentative 
 under W'hose ward (miimlium, mnni/ilmnrlimn) they 
 stood. To this category the clergy belonged; and 
 though at first tliey refu-sed to be considered and 
 treated legally as minors, they finally accepted 
 the situation, because it gave tfieni safety against 
 violent attacks, and exemption from many sliock- 
 ing details of German jirocedure. By a decree 
 of 783, Charlemagne ordered that each church 
 or monastery should choose a warden to act as 
 its riinmlicuit before the court, take oath in its 
 
 name, have fugitive slaves and alienated prop- 
 erty restoied. command Ihe soldiers sent by the 
 establishment to the army, etc. Very often, 
 however, this advocate of the Church developed 
 into a tyrant, keeping the establishment in abso- 
 lute submission, despoiling and plundering it. 
 He usurped the whole power of administration, 
 limited the authority of the bishop to the purely 
 spiritual affairs, absorbed the tithes and all other 
 revenues, and doled out to the clergy only a mean 
 modicum. Innocent III., however, succeeded iu 
 checking the growing imjiortance of this institu- 
 tion, and soon the office itself disappeared. 
 
 Lit. — R. Hopp: De Adcocatia Ecdesiastica, 
 Bonn, 1870. 
 
 ADVOCATUS DEI, DIABOLI, the persons in- 
 trusted with the defence and the attack, respiec- 
 tively, of the candidate for canonization. See 
 
 CANONIZATION. 
 
 yCGIDIUS, b. iu Rome 1247; d. at Bourges 
 1310 ; descended from the family of the Colon- 
 nas ; studied in Paris under Thomas Aquinas and 
 Boiiaventura ; became tutor to Philip the Fair, for 
 whom he wrote De Rer/hninc Principum (printed 
 in Rome, 1482); acquired great fame as a teacher 
 of theology and philosophy in the University of 
 Paris, and was styled Doctor fundallssimiis, Tlien- 
 lognrum princep.i ; Archbishop of Bourges, 1295. 
 He was a very prolific writer, but only a few of 
 his works have been printed i De Piccato Origi- 
 nali. Oxford, 1479 ; QiKestiones Melaphyficn^Xfimce 
 1501 ; Liicvhralliines de Lnmhardi Sentcntiis, Basel 
 1023. 
 
 >CLFRIC is the name of two prominent prel.ates 
 in the Anglo-Saxon Church, — one, Archbishop of 
 Canterbury, 990-lOOG ; the other. Archbishop of 
 York, 1023-1051, — but whether the learned Bene- 
 dictine ^Elfric (r/riimmalicti!:) is identical with 
 one of these archbishops, or not, is a question as 
 yet unsolved. As Alfred was tlie fovnider, so 
 jElfric was the model, of the S.axon prose. He 
 wrote a Saxon grammar and glossary ; and he 
 translated into Saxon a number of homilies, the 
 Heptateuch, etc. But of his personal life noth- 
 ing is known but a few notices scattered about 
 in his works. In his honor the jElfric Society 
 was formed in London, in 1842, for the purpose of 
 publisliing his works and those of other Saxons. 
 For this .society Benjamin Thorpe edited the 
 homilies in 1844. The gr.immar and glossary 
 were printed at Oxford in l(i39 and 1G9S. See. 
 WiiAitTON : Aiir/lii-(i Sacra; WitionT: Biiujraph. 
 Brll., 1842. 
 
 >ENEAS of Gaza, a philosopher of the Neo-Pl.a- 
 tonic school; convi-rtcil to Christianity; flour- 
 ished in Alexandria about 487 ; and is the author 
 of twenty-five letters, printed by Aldus in his 
 Episl. Grac. Vallecl'w, \c.\\., 1499, and of a dia- 
 logue, Tliiopliraxlus, edited by Boissonade, Paris, 
 1830, and translated into Latin by .Vmbrosius. 
 Veiiici', ].'il3. 
 
 >!ENEAS, r.isho]. of I'aris, 843-877, took p.art in 
 the controversy between the ICastern and Western 
 Churches occasioned by I'hotius, and wrote I.ilicr 
 adrersiix Grrrcnx, found in 1)'.\cheky: SpicHeij. 
 I., pp. 112-149. 
 
 /EPINUS, Johannes, b. at Ziesar in Branden- 
 burg, 11911; d. ill lliimliurg, Jlay 13. 1533; be- 
 came a ]iu]>il of liugenhageii in Belbiick, 1517- 
 21 ; studied afterwards iu Wittenberg, under
 
 AERIUS. 
 
 33 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 Luther and Melaiiclithoii, but was expelled from 
 his native country on account of his ardent ad- 
 herence to the doctrines of the Reformers, and 
 found it even necessary to change his name 
 (Hoeck) ; labored in the cause of the Heforma- 
 tion at Stralsund, 1524-28, and was appointed 
 preacher to the Church of St. Petri in llanibur<;, 
 in 1529, and superintendent in 15:t2. By his 
 comment on the Sixteenth Psalm he caused a 
 very violent controversy concerning Christ's ilc- 
 sccnsus ad inferus, which ended with the deposi- 
 tion and expulsion of his adversaries from 
 Hamburg. 
 
 Lit. — Arnold Greve : Vita ^pini, Ham- 
 burg, 1736. Fonmda ConcordicE, Art. IX. 
 Scii.\ff: Creeds of Christendom, I. 290-298. 
 
 AERIUS, in 355 presbyter and director of the 
 hospital for strangers, maimed and incapable, in 
 Sebaste, Pontus; maintained, in accordance with 
 apostolical tradition (Phil. i. 1), the equality be- 
 tween bishops and presbyters, and declared (ap- 
 pealing to 1 Cor. V. 7) against the retention of 
 the paschal meal in the celebration of the Lord's 
 Supper, — a custom prevalent inthose regions. He 
 also denied that prayers or offerings for the dead 
 had any value, and rejected all fasts ordained 
 by the Church. He gathered quite a number of 
 followers, of both sexes, and in 3G0 he gave up 
 his office. For some time liis party, the Aerians, 
 assembled in the open fields, in forests, and 
 among the mountains ; but, persecuted from all 
 sides, it soon melted away. 
 
 AETIUS, b. in Antioch ; d. in Constantinople 
 367 ; was successively "a slave, a travelling tin- 
 ker, a goldsmith, a physician, a shoemaker, a 
 theologian, and at last the apostle of a new 
 Church," representing the widest^going section of 
 the Ariau party, and teaching that the Son was 
 unlike the Father, uvujioio^, of another substance, 
 i^ iTcpa^ ovoiac, created of nothing, H ova ovnjv, 
 wherefore his adherents were called Anomoeans, 
 Heterusiasts, or Exukontians. They were also 
 called Eunomians, after Eunomius, the pupil and 
 friend of Aetius. 
 
 AFFECTIONS vary with the individual, and 
 also with the occasion. Tliey are, however, 
 largely a matter of self-control, and properly 
 ome under the cognizance of Christian ethics. 
 '&s in the old systems. Viewed from a biblical 
 stand-point it may be granted : 1. Ailections are 
 natural, proper, God has them, and is governed 
 by them ; therefore stoicism on the one hand, and 
 the sickly piety of mystical pietism, are alike 
 alien to the practical, healthy Christian. 2. No 
 class of affections is per se sinful, and hence 
 condemnatory. Christ ran the gamut. He was 
 sorrowful (Matt. xxvi. 38), grieved (Luke xix.' 
 41), agonized (Luke xxii. 44), compassionate 
 (Matt. ix. 36), indignant (John ii. 14), joyful 
 and delighted (Luke x. 21), and sometimes very 
 strongly moved (Mark iii. 21). As the Master, so 
 the disciples, showed affections. Paul and Peter, 
 James and John, were men of like passions with 
 ourselves The New Testament speaks of a 
 "zeal of God " (John ii. 17 ; Rom. x. 2), a "godly 
 sorrow" (2 Cor. vii. 10); and distinguishes be- 
 tween allowed (Eph. iv. 26) and prohibited (Col. 
 iii. 8) anger. 3. No Christian has the right to 
 give rein unto his affections (1 Cor. vii. 30 ; 
 Eph. iv. 26; 1 Pet. iv. 7, v. i>). More is de- 
 
 A— i 
 
 manded of the Christian than wic-ri.succr/ affections : 
 he must be dominated by those affections issuing 
 from a pure regard for the welfare of others, and 
 the things of God as the examples of Christ and 
 his apostles teach us (John ii. 17 ; Rom. ix. 2, 
 xii. 15; 2 Cor. xi. 29); while all iminire and 
 lower affections are to be suppre.s.sed (Matt. v. 
 22-30, 38-47, x. 37). Looked at from tliis stand- 
 point many affectional emotions may be unchris- 
 tian, which yet have a religious appearance ; 
 e g., the zeal of the Boanerges to call down tire 
 from heaven as a punishment for the insult of 
 some Samaritans to the Prophet of Galilee (Luke 
 ix. 54-56), or like a pity which is merely general 
 and wholly human, and yet would fain be reck- 
 oned divine (Matt. xvi. 22, 23). Christianity, 
 by its moral discipline of the affections, may 
 therefore, to some, appear a refined stoicism ; 
 but in reality it checks the spontaneous outgo of 
 the affections, and turns them unto higher uses. 
 [See JoNATH.\N Edwards : A Treatise concern- 
 ing the Religious Ajfections.^ 
 
 H. PARET (from first ed. of Hcrzog). 
 
 AFFRE, Denis Augusta, b. at St. Rome-de- 
 Tarn, Sept. 27, 1793 ; d. in Paris, June 27, 1848 ; 
 was ordained priest in 1816, and made Vicar-Gen- 
 eral of the diocese of Lu^on in 1821, of -Amiens 
 in 1823, of Paris in 1834, and Archbishop of 
 Paris in 1840. During the revolution of 1848 he 
 was led by an anonymous letter to believe that 
 he could restore peace by personally addressing 
 the insurgents, and, with a green bough in his 
 hand, he climbed a barricade in the Place de la 
 Bastile ; but he liad hardly begun to speak, when 
 he was struck by a musket-ball, and mortally 
 wounded. He wi-ote several treatises on histori- 
 cal, educational, and religious subjects, and an 
 Essai sur les Hicroylyphes Egyptiens, 1834, declar- 
 ing the system of Champollion insufficient to 
 explain the hieroglyphics. 
 
 AFRICANUS, Julius, a learned Christian from 
 the latter part of the second and the tirst part 
 of the third century ; b. in Africa, perhaps of 
 Lybian descent, but settled at Nicopolis in Pales- 
 tine. Of his two great works, — the Penlaljililos, 
 a world-chronicle from the creation to the time 
 of the author, and the Cestus, a book on natural 
 history, — only fragments have come down to us 
 through Euseiaius, Syncellus, and others. But 
 two very interesting letters by him — one ta 
 Origen, on the authenticity of the History of 
 Susannah ; and another to Aristides, on the dis- 
 crepancy between the two genealogies of Christ 
 in Matthew and Luke — are extant in almost 
 complete form. The first of these letters has 
 been repeatedly edited and printed, as by Leo 
 Castuius, Salamanca, 1570, and by Wetstei.v, 
 Basel. 1674. 
 
 AFRICA, the Church of, forms a separate chap- 
 ter in the history of the Christian Church as an 
 individual development determined by the pecul- 
 iarities of race, climate, and other agencies. At 
 the beginning of the Christian era, Africa was 
 divided politically into four provinces, — Africa 
 Prucvnsularis, Xumidia, and the two Mauritania: ; 
 and these four provinces formed ecclesiastically 
 one diocese, in which Carthage gradually .as- 
 sumed the rank and dignity of a metropolitan, 
 see, especially during the occupancy of Cyprian. 
 Other celebrated bishops' sees were Hippo, Ta-
 
 AGAPE. 
 
 34 
 
 AGAPETUS. 
 
 gaste, IMadaurus. etc. The beginnings of Chris- 
 tianity in Africa are obscure ; but, on account 
 of the very lively intercoramunication between 
 Rome and this province, it was natural that the 
 new religion should be carried thitlier very early, 
 and. once introduced, it could not fail to produce 
 an impression, either of passionate enthusiasm, or 
 of fanatical hatred, on a popular mind so vigorous, 
 so ardent, and so unsophisticated as the African. 
 Nowhere the persecutions were more severe and 
 cruel, and nowhere they were met with greater 
 endurance and heroism. Witnesses are the Apo- 
 lo(/elicus of Tertulliau, written during the persecu- 
 tion of Septimius Severus (203), and his epistle 
 ad Scapukim, written during the persecution of 
 Caracalla(211) ; the De Lapsisoi Cyprian, written 
 after the persecution of Decius ('-51) ; and the 
 sublime example of Felix of Tabura (Tubzoca, 
 Thibaris) under the persecutions of Diocletian 
 (313). It maj" be added that nowhere assumed 
 heresies and sectarianism greater proportions and 
 a more aggressive character. The Donatists actu- 
 ally fought, and that not in self-defence. 
 
 Compared with the Oriental churches, espe- 
 cially that of Alexandria, the .\frican Church is 
 realistic and practical. Its heresies, Montanism, 
 Novatianism, Donatism, are moral rather than 
 speculative; and the speculations of TertuUian, 
 Cyprian, Augustine, are psychological rather 
 than metaphysical. While the Gnostics tried to 
 solve the great problems of the creation of the 
 world and the origjn of evil by the subtle and 
 fantastic doctrine of emanation, TertuUian, the 
 founder of Latin theologj', retains the biblical 
 ideas of a creation nx nildlo and a prince of evil 
 in their simplest and most positive form : and, 
 disdaining to apply any dialectical mediation to 
 metaphysical contradictions, he defines his stand- 
 point <as a milo quia absurdum. While the East- 
 ern churches, so to speak, exhau.sted themselves 
 in the metaphysical exposition of the Trinitarian 
 and Christological doctrines, Augustine, the 
 greatest teacher of the Western Church, alighted 
 on a question whose psychological import gave it 
 an immediate practical bearing, — the question of 
 free will and grace. After the death of .Vngus- 
 tine, and the invasion of the Vamlals (430), the 
 African Churcli fell into decay; and the conquest 
 of the country by the Saracens (tj!)8) completed 
 its ruin. Hut through its two great teacliers, 
 TertuUian and Augustine, it has set its mark 
 forever on the theology of Latin Christianity; 
 and through its third great teacher, Cyprian, it 
 has exercised a similar influence on the organiza- 
 tion and policy of the Western Church. .See 
 the .separate articles, and Jui.il's Lloyi>: The 
 Narth African C/iurch. London, 1880. 
 
 ACAPE, plr. AGAP/E, from the Oreek uyuKt;, 
 " love," feast of love, a custom in the primitive 
 Church according to which all the members of a 
 congregation, even the ma,ster and his slaves, 
 met together at a common meal, celebrating the 
 Kucharist, as luclhren among brethren. It would 
 not be ditHcult to find striking precedents for 
 such an institution, both among tiie Jews and 
 the Greeks and the Romans. In his letter to 
 Trajan, Pliny classes it among the meetings of 
 secret societies, so well known to the lionians 
 of the empire. It is more probable, liowever, 
 that it grew up directly from the simple and 
 
 natural commemoration of the events of "the 
 night in which the Lord was betrayed" (1 Cor. 
 xi. 23). It is mentioned for the first time in the 
 Epistle of Jude (12) ; and during the next three 
 or four centuries it is often spoken of by the 
 Fathers : TertuUian gives a vivid and touching 
 description of it in his Apolorjelicus, c. 39. 
 
 Originally the character of the ai/opm was 
 strictly devotional : the feast culminated in the 
 celebration of the Eucharist. At the same time, 
 however, it was a social symbol of the equality 
 and solidarity of the congregation. Here all 
 gave and received the kiss of love ; here commu- 
 nications from other congregations were read and 
 answered, etc. As now the congregations grew 
 larger, the social differences between the mem- 
 bers began to make themselves felt, and the 
 aijapce changed character. They became en- 
 tertainments of the rich. In Alexandria "the 
 psalms and hymns and spiritual songs " of old 
 (Eph. v. 19 ; Col. iii. 16) were supplanted by 
 performances on the lyre, the harp, and the flute, 
 in sjiite of Clement's pretest {Pcedarj. II. 4). In 
 other places the rich retired altogether from the 
 meetings, and the af/apce sank down into a kind 
 
 ; of poorhouse institution (August. Contra Faus- 
 lum, XX. 20). Again, in Northern Italy, Am- 
 brose suppressed them altogether, because they 
 gave rise to disorders, and pi-opagated reminis- 
 cences from the Pagan parenlalia. 
 
 Other circumstances contributed also to throw 
 the ai/apa; out of use. The Third Council of Car- 
 thage (391) decreed that the Eucharist should be 
 taken fasting, and thereby separated the celebra- 
 tion of the Eucharist from the aijajnr. The synod 
 of LaodicKa, and again the Third Council of 
 Carthage, and finally the Council in Trullo (092), 
 forbade to hold the tii/ap(€ in the church-buildings, 
 and bereft them thereby altogether of their devo- 
 tional character. After the close of the fourth 
 century they began gradually to disappear : and 
 an attenq.it made by the Council of (iaugra (about 
 380) to restore them to their old position by 
 anathematizing all who despised them, and kept 
 away from them, was in vain. 
 
 I AGAPETUS is the name of two popes. — 1. 
 AoA ri;rrs I . , .lune 3, .')33, to April 22, 53(), pawned 
 the holy vessels of the churches of Rome in 
 order to procure money for a journey to Constan- 
 tinople, ostensibly for the purpose of averting 
 the war with which the Enqieror Justinian 
 threatened Theodohad, king of the Ostrogoths, 
 but in reality intent upon attacking tlie mono- 
 physitic heresy represented in the Eastern Church 
 by ,\nthimus, patriarch of Con.stantinople, the 
 Emjiress Theodora, and a large party at the 
 Byzantine court. In this he was conqdetely 
 successful. Anthinuis was deposed, and Mennas 
 put in his jilace. Hut Agapetus did not enjoy 
 his triumph very long: he died during iiis visit 
 to ConstantiiKiple. Five letters of hi.s an- fouiul 
 
 I in Mansi: Conril. VIII. — 2. Ad.vi'icTus II., April, 
 
 } 946 to November, 9.").), owed his elevation to the 
 intrigues of .Vlbcric, in whose hands he remained 
 a willing tool during his wliole reign. In France 
 Arclibishop .\rtolil of Rheims lia<i been expelled 
 from liis see by Hugo of Vermandois, and the 
 contest between the two prelates grew almost into 
 a civil war. Agapetus sidecl first wilii the one 
 party, tlien with the other, and had no iiifiuenco
 
 AGATHA. 
 
 35 
 
 AGENDA. 
 
 on the final tlecisioii by th(3 synod of Ingelheim 
 (948). where Hugo was oxcoMununicated, and 
 Artold re-instated. As weak and vacillating was 
 his policy in Germany. Having invited Otho I. 
 to come to Rome and be crowned emperor, he 
 became frightened when the king arrived at 
 Pavia, and stretched his hands out towards his 
 enemies. R. zoi'FFEL. 
 
 AGATHA, St., whose death-day is celebr.ated 
 by the Roman-Catholic Church on Feb. 5, belongs 
 to that class of saints of which one does not 
 know whether they ever have existed, or not. 
 See Dr. Franz Goures: Kritiscke Uiifersuchurif/- 
 ■en Uber die liciniaidstche Christenvt^rfolyunij, Jena, 
 1875. What the acts and biographies contain is 
 such a mixture of legend and fable, that hanlly 
 the smallest particle of historical fact could be 
 extracted from them. But although it is proba- 
 ble that St. Agatha never lived, her name has, 
 nevertheless, played a conspicuous role, espe- 
 cially in Southern Italy and Sicily. In several 
 places in Sicily she is still worshipped as the 
 patron-saint against the eruptions of Mount 
 ..Etna ; and the cities of Palermo and Catania 
 still contest the honor of being her birthplace. 
 
 AGATHIAS, b. at Myrina in iEolis about 530; 
 d. in Constantinople about 594 ; studied philoso- 
 phy in Alexandria, and law in Constantinople ; 
 pleaded in the courts of the latter city ; and 
 wrote, besides some poetry, a history of the Byz- 
 antine Empire from 553 to 5.59, containing much 
 interesting and reliable information about the 
 character and religion of the various nations 
 with which the Byz.antine government had to 
 ■deal. Best edition by Niebuhr in Corpus Script. 
 Hi.'it. Bi/zanl., with a Latin translation of Vul- 
 canius. 
 
 AGATHO, pope from 678 to Jan. 10, 68:2, a 
 Sicilian monk, succeeded Domnus on the papal 
 throne. On the sixth oecumenical council at 
 Constantinople (680), he took a decided stand in 
 the Monothelitic controversy, and carried his 
 point, though his victory involved the anathema- 
 tization of one of his infallible predecessors, 
 Honorius. Eight letters of his are still extant, 
 — two to tlie council and the emperor; Mansi, 
 XL pp. 234, 286 ; four granting privileges to 
 Wearmouth Abbey, Bede : Hist. Eccl. IV. 18, to 
 St. Peter's, JMedeshamsted (Peterborough), Moti. 
 Angl. I. p. 06, to Ilexhanr and Ripon monas- 
 teries, Eddius: Vit. Wil/riili, 45, 49, and to St. 
 Paul's. London. M(jii. An/;!. III. p. 299 ; one to 
 Theodorusof Ravenna, Vit. Theodori, 4, in Mura- 
 TORi : Her. Itat. Script. ; and one to the universal 
 Chui'ch, claiming the authority of St. Peter him- 
 self for all papal decrees, Gratian /. Diet. 19, 
 c. 2. HERZOG. 
 
 AGEi Both Church and State require a certain 
 age in those who do, or have done upon them, cer- 
 tain acts. Thus cunfirmation is not to be admin- 
 istered until " years of discretion " are reached. 
 On the Continent, among Protestants, this is usu- 
 ally understood to be at fourteen ; among Roman 
 Catholics, as early as seven. il/^nvV/f/e-contracts 
 are declared void by canon law if the parties are 
 under seven ; nor can they be married before the 
 man is fourteen and the wife twelve, and not 
 without the consent of their guardians ere they 
 are twenty-one. State laws differ upon this 
 .point, varying from eighteen to twenty-five for 
 
 the man, and fourteen to eighteen for the wife, 
 as the ages of permissibility. The question of 
 age enters into the matter of ordination. The 
 Roman-Catholic Church has determined upon 
 the following: For the lowest orders, tlie tonsure, 
 etc., seven years ; the di.aconate, twenty-two ; the 
 priesthood, twenty-four; the episcojjacy, thirty. 
 The pope can, if he pleases, grant a dispensation 
 to allow ordination at earlier ages, and allows 
 the bishops to consecrate to the priesthood a year 
 under twenty-four. Monastic vows cannot be 
 assumed, according to the Council of Trent, 
 before the sixteenth year, nor can a female enter 
 an order before she be twelve; but the majority 
 of orders demand a higher age. Thirty years is 
 also the youngest age for an abbot, and forty for 
 an abbess or prioress. 
 
 AGELLIUS, or AGELLI, Antonio, b. at Sor- 
 rento 1532; d. at Acerno 1008; was a member 
 of the institution of the sclwlaxlici, who had 
 charge of the printing establishment of the "N'ati- 
 can ; superintended the correction of the Vul- 
 gate and the Roman edition of the .Septuagint; 
 became Bishop of Acerno in 1.593, and wrote 
 commentaries on the Psalms, the Canticles, the 
 Book of Lamentations, tlie Book of Proverbs, 
 Ilabakkuk, etc. He also edited Cyril's Five 
 Books against Nestorius, Rome, 1607, accompa- 
 nied by a Latin translation. 
 
 AGENDA, German form Agexde (Lat. "things 
 to be done "), describes divine worship in general, 
 and the Mass in particular. The oldest writers 
 use it only in the plural. We meet with ayenda 
 did, the office for the day; agenda mortuorum, the 
 office for the dead ; aycmla matutina and vcsper- 
 tina, morning and evening prayers. Very natu- 
 rally the word passed over from the service to 
 the book which contained the forms. In 1287 
 Johannes de Janua uses ar/enda in the sense of 
 the book of forms for baptism and benediction. 
 The word in a different spelling, Ai/i'iide, is the 
 ordinary Luther.an term for the Church services 
 or liturgy ; but in the Roman Church, since the 
 sixteenth century, the word " Ritual " has been 
 used. See Liturgy, IMissal, Ritu,\l. 
 
 When Luther h.ad broken with the Church of 
 Rome, he found himself compelled to arrange a 
 public service which should embody the ideas 
 of the Reformation. The greatest difference 
 touched the Lord's Supper. Luther began with 
 forms for the Wittenberg Church (1524) : but these 
 books were quickly multiplied ; the divided con- 
 dition of the empire necessitated different books 
 for each petty kingdom or duchy. Though quite 
 different in contents, they are all distinguished 
 from the Missal of the Roman Church by being 
 written in the vernacular, although in some the 
 Latin text was also printed. They retain the 
 older ecclesiastical terms, and speak of ordina- 
 tion and confirmation, although the Episcopal 
 office had been abolished. The oldest Agende is 
 of the Duchy of Prussia (1525). As the religious 
 development took these forms, — the strict Luth- 
 eran, the Calvinistic, and the Semi-Catholic, — 
 each form had its distinctive liturgy. So things 
 went on till the Thirty- Years' ^Var, that period 
 of dire confusion, destroyed all peaceful church 
 life, and well-nigh the Churcli itself. When the 
 distracted churches again could lift their heads, 
 they arranged new forms (1650), which differed
 
 AGIER. 
 
 36 
 
 AGNOSTICISM. 
 
 as much as ever; and yet all showed the new- 
 spirit which had arisen, — Pietism, that striving 
 after greater devotion in worship and purity of 
 life. The next century was a decided falling-otf . 
 Pietism gave place to Rationalism. The Iron 
 Age was followed by the Leaden Age. But in 
 the present century reform has been made, and 
 the matter is under earnest discussion, and many 
 are the printed specimens of revised liturgies. 
 The new epoch began with the appearance of the 
 Xew Prussian Aijeiide, 1822. The desire is to 
 unite the Lutheran and the Reformed churches 
 in Prussia in one worship. 
 
 The Refornuil churches have from the begin- 
 ning manifested an equal interest in the order of 
 worship : and Zwingli demanded, as Luther, the 
 fullest liberty of choice. The movement fol- 
 lowed a course similar to the Lutheran. From 
 1523 on appeared, one at a time, forms for the 
 more important services, — baptism, marri.age, 
 Lord's Supper, etc.,- — ^ composed by Zwingli or 
 Leo Judai. The name Ar/eiide is rarely used. 
 The Swiss liturgy is peculiar in the sacramental 
 portions, in the announcement of the dead from 
 the pulpit, and in the particular prayers for the 
 difierent feasts. The Calvinistic or French lit^ 
 urgy follows that of Calvin, composed for the 
 Genevan Church : it sometimes appears bound up 
 with the New Testament. 
 
 See H. A. Daxif.l: Codex Lituiy/icus EcdesicB 
 Universce, Lips., 1817-53, 4 vols. (vol. 3, Refor- 
 malce atque Aru/Iicci}ia') ; J. II. A. Ehuard : Jic- 
 formirtes Kirchcnbucli, Zurich, 1847; [.\. Nord- 
 -MEIER : Protestantiachc Agemle, Gera, 1879. K. 
 A. Dachsel : Af/eiule f. d. evani/elisch. Kirche 
 im Konif/. Preu.t.i. Laiidtv, Berlin, 1880. The An- 
 glican Liturgy requires special treatment. See 
 LrrntGY.] D.-iNIEL {A. HARXACK). 
 
 AGIER, Pierre Jean, b. in Paris, Dec. 28, 1748; 
 d. there Sept. 22, 1823; studied law, and held 
 various high positions in the French courts, both 
 during the Revolution and tlie reign of Xapoleon 
 and tlie Bourbons, but was, by his intimate con- 
 nection with the Jansenists, early led into com- 
 prehensive theological studies. His principal 
 ■work is Les Pruphhtes noiwellement Irailuil.i de 
 I'hihreu avec des explications, el des notes critiques, 
 11 vols., 1820-1823. Among his other works 
 are Le Jurisconsulte national, 1789; Vues sur la 
 Teformalion des loi.i civiles, 1793 ; Traite sur' le 
 mariaye, 2 vols., 1800; Psaumes, nouvellement tra- 
 didts, 3 vols., 1809; Propheties concernant Jesnx- 
 Christ el I'Er/lise, 1819; Vues sur le second avene- 
 vvnt de Jesus-Christ, 1818. 
 
 AGNES, St., is commemorated in the Roman 
 Church on Jan. 21 and 28 (the Gelasian lit\irgy 
 giving the former dale, the Gregorian the latter, 
 as lier death-day), and in the Greek Church on 
 .Ian. 14 and 21 and on July 5. But the oldest 
 (lucumcnts, the Caleudariinn Romanum, the Ctden- 
 ilnriiim Africanum, a.w\ the (lothic and Oriental 
 ,l/('.s'.«fi/(?, agree in fixing Jan. 21 as her death-<lay; 
 .-ind to tliat day BoUand has assigned the acts of 
 her martyrdom {Act. Sand. .Ian. p. 3.30-303). 
 Also the year of her death is uncertain; but 
 Ruinart has shown (Act. Marl. III., p. 82) that 
 it cannot liave occurred until about 304, and 
 that the acts ascribed to .\mbrosius, and, in tlie 
 old editions, given among his works, arc spuri- 
 ous. IJer name is associated with a number of 
 
 romantic and miraculous legends ; but she was 
 probably a veritable Christian maiden of Rome, 
 who kept her chastity under severe trials, and 
 suffered martyrdom by the sword in the Diocle- 
 tian persecution. In mediteval art she is gen- 
 erally represented as followed by a lamb ; and 
 in her church in Rome two lambs, of whose- 
 wool the archiepiscopal palliums are made, are- 
 annually consecrated by the pope. Her name, 
 however, is not derived from the Latin aqiius, "a 
 lamb," but from the Greek u)r;;, "chaste." 
 
 AGNOET/E ('A-jn'orjTai, from ayvosu, ''to be ig- 
 norant of ") is the name of tw-o sects. 
 
 I. The first -sv-as founded by Eunomius and 
 Theophronius, in the latter part of the fourth 
 century, and called by Socrates (Hist. Eu. Y. 24)- 
 the Eunomio-Theophronians. They consisted of 
 Arians, and maintained that God knew the past 
 by memory, and the future by divination, and 
 that his omniscience -nas limited to the present. 
 
 II. Of more importance was the second sect 
 (founded in the sixth century by Themistius, 
 de.acon of Alexandria), sometimes called the 
 Themistians, and consisting chiefly of the Severiaii 
 fraction of the Monophysites. They maintained 
 that Christ, according to his human soul, was, 
 like one of us, limited in every respect, in knowl- 
 edge too, and referred to Mark xiii. 32, '• Of that 
 day and that hour knoweth no man, no, not the 
 angels which are in heaven, neither the Son, but 
 the Father; " and to John xi. 34, the question of 
 Christ concerning Lazarus, '• AA'liere have ye laid 
 him '? " The heresy was revived by the Adop- 
 tionists in the eighth century. 
 
 AGNOSTICISM is a theory of the L'nknowa- 
 ble, which assumes its most definite form in the 
 denial of the possibility of any knowledge of 
 God. This negative position is connected with 
 a theory that we know only the phenomenal. It 
 may be said to spring out of this theory as a 
 logical deduction; though .-Vgnosticism has been; 
 favored by those who do not hold the phenomenal 
 theory of knowledge, but rest their doctrine that 
 the Infinite and Absolute are unknowable, on the 
 limitation of human intelligence, nuiintaining 
 that the Infinite transcends the limits of our 
 knowledge, and must, on that account, remain un- 
 known, while the existence of the infinite God 
 must be a matter of belief. There is thus con- 
 siderable diversity as to the grounds on which 
 Agnosticism finds favor; but the prevailing form 
 of the theory is that resting upon the assertion 
 of the exclusively phenomenal aspect of human 
 knowledge. 
 
 Agnosticism is of modern growth, and may be 
 traced to Kant's theory of knowledge. Kant'a 
 Critical l'hil().sii]ihy was an attempt to ascertain 
 the conditions of knowledgt- by determining how 
 2nuch comes through experience, and how- much 
 is contributi'd by the mind, not as actual knowl- 
 edge, but as necess.ary forms of knowing, thus- 
 determining the possiliilities of our knowledge. 
 Kant attributed all our knowledge to three dis- 
 tinct cognitive faculties, — the sensory, the under- 
 standing, and the reason. The sensory gives us 
 the observations or perceptions of the phenome- 
 nal; the understandnig givc-s the more advanced 
 and elaborated knowledge, groupi'd undi'r the cat- 
 egories or pure conceptions, — (piantily, quality,, 
 relation, and modality; the reason gives us the-
 
 AGNOSTICISM. 
 
 37 
 
 AGNOSTICISM, 
 
 ideas which are rcguhitivp of the wliole system 
 of our knowledge ; and these are the soul, the 
 iiniverse, and (iod. In prosecntinpf his task Kant 
 proceeded to sliow tliat tliere are certain a priori 
 elements in all knowledge, whether given by 
 the sensory, the understanding, or the reason. 
 '• All our knowledge begins with sense, proceeds 
 thence to understanding, and ends with reason, 
 beyond which nothing higher can be discovered 
 in the human mind tor elaborating the matter of 
 intuition, and subjecting it to the highest unity 
 of thouglit " {Critique of Pure Reason, Meikle- 
 john's Trans., p. 212. Tranxccmliutal Dialectic. 
 Introduction, IT. A.). " The matter of intuition " 
 describes the successive impressions received 
 through the sensory. This matter is worked up 
 into systematized knowledge under the categories 
 of the understanding, which power m.ay therefore 
 be described as " a faculty for the production of 
 unity of phenomena by virtue of rules " (/6. p. 
 214). When Kant speaks of our knowledge end- 
 ing with reason, he means th.at reason, "the 
 faculty of principles," supplies to the understand- 
 ing principles for regulation of its procedure; 
 and this is the highest reach of human intelli- 
 gence. In this way Kant's theory of knowledge 
 is. that all the matter of our knowledge is phe- 
 nomenal, coming through the senses; all the 
 form is supplied by the mind itself ; and in this 
 way it follows that space and time, the categorie.s 
 .and the ideas, — the Soul, the Universe, and God, 
 — are only regulative of mental procedure, and 
 do not afford any knowledge of real existence. 
 This latter conclusion is not a mere casual infer- 
 ence from the doctine elaborated by Kant, but is 
 formally announced, worked out in detail, and 
 insisted upon. There is, indeed, an important 
 and valuable corrective in Kant's philosophy, 
 that is, his ethical system, with the categorical 
 imperative, — the " thou shalt " of moral law, — 
 ■carrying by implication the reality of the divine 
 existence as the moral governor under whose 
 sway all rational agents are placed. His theory 
 of knowledge, however, remains essentially phe- 
 nomenal; and thus the higliest contributions of 
 reason are held to be merely regulative of the 
 procedure of the nnnd in methodizing the phe- 
 nomena presented in our experience. They are 
 inevitably illusive when we attempt to apply 
 them as if they might be evidence of objective 
 existence. If we turn to the highest faculty of 
 our nature, that is, reason, it is so obviously the 
 source of what it brings into experience, that " it 
 does not borrow either from the senses or the 
 understanding" (//'.212); but there is "n natural 
 <tnil Hiiiicoiitahle illusion, which rests upon subjec- 
 tive principles, and imposes these upon us as 
 objective" (///. 211). From the structure of his 
 theory, it becomes a necessity with Kant to insist 
 upon this illusory action of reason; and he does 
 it resolutely, as if it were a leading feature in his ; 
 scheme. Tluis he urges, that, in our reason, there I 
 exist fundamental rules and maxims "which 
 have completely the appearance of objective I 
 principles" {Hi-). This illusion he declares it | 
 impossible to avoid, any more than we can help 
 the appearance of the sea being higher at a dis- 1 
 tance than near the shore. His general position 
 is indicated thus: "I accordingly maintain that i 
 transcendental ideas can never be nuiintained as '. 
 
 constitutive ideas, that they cannot l)e concep. 
 tions of objects, and tliat, when thus considered, 
 they assume a fallacious and dialectic character'' 
 (A/i/ienitix to Traiise. JJialectic. Hi. p. 39.5). This 
 rapid sumnuiry of Kanfs doctriiu! may suffice to 
 show how strenuously he denied that our idea of 
 Go<l is any guaranty for the reality of the 
 divine existence. At the same time it will be 
 remarked, tiiat, according to him, the ide.a of God 
 is illusory, just as, and not otherwise than, the 
 idea of self is. and the idea of the universe. 
 Standing in these relations, his theory that God 
 is unknowable will be disposed of under the de- 
 mands of ])ractical life by the rejection of the 
 suggestion that self and the universe are equally, 
 and for the same reasons, unknowable. But the 
 thorough-going rejection of Kant's Agnosticism 
 is to be found only in the criticism of his theory 
 of cognition, and the siipplanting of it with a 
 true tlieory of knowledge. 
 
 Hamilton and Mausel may l)e taken together, 
 as, by their conjoint efforts, they present the next 
 phase of Agnosticism. Sir William Hamilton, 
 influenced rather by the general drift of Kant's 
 thinking than by the actual structure of his 
 theory, insisted that the Infinite must be " incog- 
 nizable and inconceivable; its notion being ouly 
 negative of the conditioned, which last can alone 
 be positively known or conceived " (^Discussions on 
 Pkilosophij. )i. 12). In the following manner he 
 works out his view : " The mind can conceive, 
 and consequently can know, only the limited and 
 the conditionally limited. The unconditionally 
 unlimited, or the Infinite, the unconditionally 
 limited, or the Absolute, cannot positively be 
 construed to the mind ; they can be conceived 
 only by a thinking away from, or abstraction of, 
 those very conditions imder which thought itself 
 is realized: consequently the notion of tlie uncon- 
 ditioned is only negative, — negative of the con- 
 ceivable itself" {Ih. p. 13). Pushing this repre- 
 sentation to its utmost verge, he says, " The 
 Infinite and Absolute are only names of two 
 counter imbecilities of the human mind" (Ih. p. 
 21). His position as to the divine existence is 
 brought into relation with his doctrine of igno- 
 rance, or negative conceptions thus: " AVe must 
 believe in the infinity of God ; but the infinite 
 God cannot by us, in the present limitation 
 of our faculties, be comprehended or conceived" 
 (Lect. on Metaphi/sics, 11. p. 374). This is not 
 the Kantian doctrine ; but it is still a theory of 
 ignorance based on the recognized limits of 
 human thought. It admits a belief, but denies a 
 knowledge, being explicit on the limits of knowl- 
 edge, but far from explicit on the limits of belief. 
 On this account, Kanfs doctrine on its purely 
 intellectual side (omitting the etliical) h.is a 
 consistency which does not appear in Hamilton's 
 theory. The doctrine of Hamilton was accepted 
 by M.ansel, and used as a form of defence for 
 theology. After the Edinburgh philosopher, he 
 repeats, "The Infinite is merely a name for 
 the absence of those conditions under which 
 thought is possible " (Mansel's Limits of Religious 
 Thouglit, p. 72). His apologetic aim appears in 
 these words: "We learn that the provinces of 
 reason and faith are not co-extensive ; that it is 
 a duty enjoined by reason itself to believe in that 
 which we are unable to comprehend " (lb. p. 90).
 
 AGNOSTICISM. 
 
 38 
 
 AGNOSTICISM. 
 
 This, however, leaves unexplained the philosophic 
 harmony of reason and faith ; that is, the possi- 
 bility of showing how our thoughts concerning 
 God are to be harmonized with our belief in his 
 .existence. The whole range of this discussion 
 has been brought under review by tlie present 
 writer. (P/iilosoph)/ of the Infinite.) The discus- 
 sion involves a difference of words, which is of 
 slight value, leading to debate as to the true In- 
 finite ; since there is and can be but one Infinite, 
 
 — not within our thoughts, but above all, and 
 beyond all. Its real interest lies in the theory of 
 knowledge connected with the theory of belief, 
 
 — a theory which must involve an answer to the 
 question, '■ Can the infinite God reve.al himself 
 to finite intelligences ? And this is a question 
 for eternity as well as for time, since it is need- 
 less to introduce, in the language of Hamilton, 
 •• the present limitation of our faculties; " for the 
 limitation must continue hereafter, as it is recog- 
 nized in the present. That the finite caunot 
 comprehend the Infinite is a position which can 
 occasion no discussion ; but, to those granting 
 a belief in the infinitude of God, the question is. 
 How far does such belief imply knowledge V 
 Hamilton and Mansel both denied the possibility 
 of knowledge, and from their own stand-point 
 >vere upholders of Agnosticism. 
 
 From these two philosophers we find the doc- 
 trine pass over into the hands of a different 
 school of thinkers. Those who trace all knowl- 
 edge to experience naturally accepted a doctrine 
 of Agnosticism as to Infinite and Absolute, and 
 specially hailed it as coming from the opposite 
 school of thought. To them it seemed as a sur- 
 render of the whole theory against which they 
 contend, and a vindication of their favorite 
 theory. Philosophers of the a priori school had 
 been fabricating a weapon which could with 
 great advantage be turned against themselves. 
 Discussions on the relativity of hiiman knowl- 
 edge were eagerly taken up by sensationalists, 
 under the lead of Hamilton's theory, as illus- 
 trated in J. S. Jlill's Examination of Hamilton's 
 Philosophy, p. 2. Mill was not hampered, as 
 Hamilton was, with the admission that "we must 
 believe in the infinity of God;" but he could 
 state, " It is almost superfluous for me to say 
 that I am entirely with Sir W. Hamilton." Ac- 
 cording to his theory of knowledge. Mill neces- 
 sarily rejected the doctrine '• that we have an 
 intuitive knowledge of God," saying, '• Whatever 
 relates to God I hold to be matter of inference; 
 1 would add, of inference a posteriori" (11/. p. 45). 
 Mill's quarrel with Hamilton is, that lie does not 
 carry out his theory of ignorance with suflicient 
 thoroughness, and does not rigidly treat absolute 
 and infinite as "unmeaning abstractions" (/i. 
 p. 70). 
 
 Herbert Spencer as an Evolutionist began his 
 system of philosophy with " The Unknowable," 
 professedly " carrying a step farther the doctrine 
 put into shape by Hamilton and Jlansd," and 
 giving his adhesion to a belief in "an Absolute 
 that transcends not only human knowledge, but 
 human conception " (Preface to First Principles). 
 He enters uiion the relations lictween religion 
 and science; admitting tliat "religious ideas of 
 one kind or other are almost, if not quite, uni- 
 versal "(//>. p. P5), and that religion "expresses 
 
 some eternal fact." Thus Herbert Spencer es- 
 ( capes the meshes of the Manichean theory, iu 
 which J. S. Mill was entangled. Treating of 
 our forms of thought, he directs attention upon 
 general "symbolic conceptions," such as we have 
 of the earth. Such conceptions " are legitimate, 
 provided, that, by some cumulative or indirect 
 process of thought. . . . we can assure ourselves 
 that they stand for actualities ; " but without 
 this all such conceptions " are altogether vicious 
 and illusive, and in no way distinguishable from 
 pure fictions" {lb. p. 29). As to the origin of 
 the universe, he seeks to show that the Atheistic, 
 Pantheistic, and Theistic views are "verbally 
 intelligible," but, when critically examined, 
 "literally unthinkable " (Pi. 35). 'Nevertheless 
 he allows "that we are obliged to suppose " that 
 there is a First Cause, and "are driven by an 
 inexorable logic" to the conclusion that he must 
 be infinite and independent (lb. 37, 3S). Next 
 he quotes from Mansel as proving that the Infi- 
 nite and Absolute cannot be known, and then 
 affirms " the omnipresence of something which 
 passes comprehension," belief in which is "that 
 belief which the most unsparing criticism of 
 each (religious system) leaves unquestionable, 
 or rather makes even clearer" (Ih. 45). "Here, 
 then, is an ultimate religious truth of the liighest 
 possible certainty . . . that the Power which the 
 universe manifests to us is utterlj' inscrutable " 
 (lb. 46). Thus is it admitted that the universe 
 manifests a Power beyond and above itself, and 
 at the same time it is maintained that this Power 
 is inscrutable. 
 
 Agnosticism contemplated on its philosophic 
 side is a professed exposition of the limits of 
 human knowledge and thought, maintaining the 
 impossibility of knowledge of the Infinite, in 
 opposition to the theory of a restricted but true 
 knowledge of the First Cause as infinite and 
 absolute. Viewed from the theologic stand- 
 point, it is by implication an exposition of limits- 
 of the Infinite, and restrictions on the .Vbsolute, 
 implying that God cannot reveal himself to 
 created intelligence. 
 
 Psychologically. — Taken on its ]'Ositive 
 and philosophic side. Agnosticism is iiisulfieieut 
 as a scheme of hnman knowledge. The phe- 
 nomenal is not the limit of the knowable. The 
 purely phenomenal aspect of our knowledge 
 cannot be upheld either as to the univer.se, or 
 self, or God. The outer imiverse is known to- 
 us by impressions made on the organism, and 
 interpreted in intelligence; but what is thereby 
 reached is not merely a knowledge of phenomena, 
 but a knowledge of things; for it is impossible 
 to combine and interjiret phenomena of expe- 
 rience, without recognizing at once subjective 
 experience and objective existence. And this is 
 not a matter of inference or thought, but of 
 knowledge. So is it as to the knowledge of self. 
 It is given in experience, in every act of it, and 
 is the knowledge of self as distinct from expe- 
 rience, and yet as jio-ssessing experience. In 
 both cases knowledge is of more than the phe- 
 nomenal. Py auotlier line of advance, knowl- 
 edge is wider than the circle of experience. 
 There is much known which never can be en- 
 compassed by experience, yet is recognized as 
 explaining experience. The Infinite Being can-
 
 AGNUS. 
 
 39 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 not be emliraced in experience, cannot in this 
 way be known. Rut there are trnths not derived 
 from experience, but daily implied in the inter- 
 pretation of ex]ierience, whioli are self-evident 
 truths, and not mere forms of Hiinking. Of those 
 the law of causality is an exanijile. 'J'his truth, 
 that power exists adequate to tlii^ jiroductiou of 
 phenomena, is implied in all interpretation of 
 experience and in all structure of science, and 
 must carry us onward to knowledge of the First 
 Cause, since knowdedge of the effect is in some 
 measure knowledge of the cause. A phenomenal 
 theory of knowledge stands in conflict with all 
 the sciences ; while theology, by identity of ra- 
 tional data and method, is in harmony with tliem 
 all. 
 
 Ontologically. — From the theological posi- 
 tion, proceeding upon belief in the Divine exi.st- 
 ence as a certainty, admitted as such even by 
 some upholders of Agnosticism, the theory is an 
 exposition of alleged limits or restrictions appli- 
 cable to the One Infinite and Absolute Being, 
 and inconsistent as such. From the stand-point 
 of theology, — taking finite existence as a reality, 
 and personal existence as indubitable, — there is 
 an inconsistency in supposing that God can create 
 finite being, yet cannot make himself intelligible 
 to an intelligent creation. Any difficulty which 
 exists (there is a difficulty connected with the 
 application of mere logical forms) applies as 
 much to the creation of finite existence as dis- 
 tinct from the Self-existent One, as it applies to 
 the knowledge through finite forms of tlie Infi- 
 nite Being. If there be an intelligent creation 
 and an intelligent Creator, he must assign to 
 finite intelligence laws of intellectual action, 
 guiding to certainty, so far as that is possible 
 within the limits of the created intelligence, and 
 specially to the harmony of all in the one great 
 Source of all. henry calderwood. 
 
 AGNUS DEI (Lat. "the Lamb of God"), an 
 old Latin hymn, based on John i. 29 : Agnus Dei, 
 (jui toHix peccata mundi, miserere nobis, early 
 adapted to and incorporated with tlie liturgies, 
 both of the Eastern and Western churches, and 
 introduced into the Mass of the Roman Church 
 by Sergius I. in 680. 
 
 The name is also applied to wax medallions, 
 . bearing the figure of a lamb, made from the 
 remains of the paschal taper, consecrated by the 
 pope, and by him presented to distinguished 
 persons. These medallions were often enclosed 
 in cases of costly workmanship, and carefully 
 preserved, almost as if they were relics. One 
 said to have belonged to Charlemagne is among 
 the treasures of the Cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 The popes give them. M. HEKOLD. 
 
 ACOBARD, b. in Spain 779 ; d. at Saintonge 
 840; since 810 Archbishop of Lyons; the suc- 
 cessor of Leidrad ; belonged to that group of 
 great men which grew up in France under the re- 
 viving and stimulating influence of Charlemagne. 
 In theological respects he became known by his 
 polemic against the Adoptionists and the Jews, 
 by his liberal view's of the doctrine of inspira- 
 tion, by several works on liturgy, etc. ; but he 
 also attacked and refuted some of the most com- 
 mon superstitions of his time, such as the pro- 
 duction of hail-and-thunder-storms by bad men, 
 etc., and he wrote against one of the most hal- 
 
 lowed customs of his age, the ordeals and ju- 
 dicial combats. His works were edited by Pa- 
 pimus Ma.4son, Paris, 100."); by BALLU(iK, Paris, 
 1000; by Gali.and: liililioth. I'alr. XIII.; by 
 Mhine: Pa/roi. 101. [.Si^e Leckv : /fixlori/ of 
 lialionaliam, 180."); Rkutkk: Genc/iiclile dcr Aiif- 
 klnniiiri ilil Millelillltr, 187.0.] IH'NDH.SIIACKN. 
 
 AGREDA, Maria de, b. KiOL' ; d. May 24, 
 100."); su]ierior, since 1027, of the Franciscan Con- 
 vent of the Immaculate Conception, which her 
 jiarents had founded on their estate at Agreda, 
 Old Castile ; and author of the Mixlica Ciudiid de 
 Dins, Madrid, 1070, — a biograpliy of the Virgin, 
 wdiose romantic and fantastic contents gave so 
 much tlie more offence since the Franciscans 
 introduced the book as a divine revelation. In 
 the Roman-Catholic Church there arose a sharp 
 controversy, both as to whether the said nun was 
 author of the book or not, and as to the contents 
 of the book, which by the Sorbonne was declared 
 to be scandalous and offensive, and wliich occa- 
 sioned the Spanish and Portuguese inquisitions 
 to forbid its reading. The pope, however, never 
 saw fit to give a decision. ZOCKLER. 
 
 AGRICOLA, Johann, b. April 20, 1492, at 
 Eisleben, whence he was often called Magister 
 Islchius ; A. in Berlin, Sept. 22, 1500. He studied 
 ,in Wittenberg under Luther, and was in 1525 
 ajipointed d irector of the school of Eisleben, and 
 preacher to St. Nicolai. He was a very suc- 
 cessful preacher; but his aspiration was a chair 
 in the University of Wittenberg, and when, in 
 1.520, Melanchthon was preferred to him, his 
 vanity was deeply wounded. The doctrinal dif- 
 ference between him and the other reformers, 
 though not yet noticed, had also developed; and 
 in 15ii2 lie attacked the Articuli of Melanchthon. 
 Dissatisfied with his position in Eisleben, he sud- 
 denly gave it up in 1530, and came to Witten- 
 berg, where Luther took him and his family 
 into his own hou.se, and procured a pension for 
 him from the elector. But the discrepancy be- 
 tween them, both in character and doctrine, was 
 now too great ; and in the following year Agricola 
 directed an attack against Luther, and began the 
 Antinomian controversy. Luther refuted him, 
 and he retracted. New conflicts arose, however; 
 and the new reconciliations proved too frail. In 
 1540 he fled to Berlin, where he was made preach- 
 er to the court, and afterwards superintendent of 
 the Mark. He drew up the so-called Augsburg 
 Interim, and labored much to have it adopted by 
 all Protestant countries, thereby deepening still 
 more the breach between himself and the re- 
 formers. Besides his theological works, Anli- 
 nomia, AnlinomiiKe Theses, etc., he published a 
 collection of German proverbs, Magdeburg, 1526. 
 [Gustav Kawerau : Johann Ar/ricola con Eisle- 
 ben, Berlin, 1881.] o. VIATT. 
 
 AGRICULTURE AMONG THE HEBREWS. 
 Cain and Noah (Gen. iv. 2, ix. 21) were agri- 
 culturists, and thus at the very beginning of the 
 race this pursuit was recognized. The patri- 
 archs, although essentially nomads, now and 
 then betrayed an inclination for a settled mode 
 of life (cf. Gen. xx. 1 sq., xxvi. 6 sq.); but 
 Isaac and Jacob raised no more than what was 
 absolutely necessary to support life, and were not 
 farmers in the ordinary sense of the term (Geu. 
 xxvi. 12, xlii. 1). God, however, intended his
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 40 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 people to cultivate the fertile valleys and plains 
 of the Holy Laud, and to this end arranged that 
 the descendants of Jacob should for many years 
 occupy the rich Goshen, and there be trained for 
 their future : and thus the transition from the 
 shepherd to the farmer life was easily made, — an- 
 other evidence of God's wisdom and forethought. 
 That the growing people of Israel carried out 
 this intention is manifest from the fact that the 
 hungry and thirsty tribes included in their retro- 
 spect of the attractions of Egypt a reference to 
 Egypt's fertility (Xum. xx. 5). The Mosaic le- 
 gislation was pre-eminently adapted to agricultu- 
 rists (cf. Michaelis, Mos. Rtclil, I. § 38 sq.); and 
 it is well known that only the tribes of Simeon 
 on the west, and of Reuben and Gad ou the 
 east bank of the Jordan, were nomadic. The 
 other tribes had their fields and olive-yards, and 
 jealously did Moses guard tliem. At the Year 
 of Jubilee, the family property, even although 
 another had bought it, reverted to its original 
 owner (Lev. xxv. 23, 28). 
 
 Canaan was "a land flowing with milk and 
 honey." Not only vineyards and orchards, but 
 also fields covered with abundant harvests, glad- 
 dened the eyes with promised plenty. The 
 cereals — wheat, barley, millet, and spelt, or. as 
 others saj', vetch ( i'icia saliva), but not rye, which 
 is unknown in southern countries — were raised. 
 Beans and lentils, flax, cucumbers, cumin, and 
 onions were extensively cultivated. From the 
 earliest times there was flax (Josh. ii. 6; Prov. 
 sxxi. 13; llos. ii. 9); and the linen of the 
 Hebrews enjoyed an excellent reputation. 
 Mischna. bnhaham. 10. 9 ; Ketuboth, 5. 9 ; Movers : 
 I'hiin. III. 1. p. 21(3 sq. 
 
 Canaan was a land full of water (Dent. viii. 
 7), and in this respect it is contrasted with 
 Egypt (xi. 10-12). IJut tlie labor not put upon 
 irrigation was required to build terraces, and 
 thus agriculture was about as much laborious 
 there as elsewhere. It is the neglect to terrace 
 which is one chief rea.son of Palestine's present 
 comparative sterility. Fertilizers were also u.sed; 
 such as burnt stubble (Isa. v. 24, xlvii. 14), the 
 chaff of the threshing-floors, the excrements of 
 cattle, and dung prepared with straw (Isa. xxv. 
 10; cf. 2 Kings ix. 37; Ps. Ixxxiii. 10). The 
 ploughing and harrowing were done with oxen 
 (1 Kings xix. 1!); Job i. 14; Amos vi. 12) or 
 cows (Judg. xiv. 18); sometimes, also, with asses 
 (Isa. XXX. 24, xxxii. 20), eitlier singly or in pairs. 
 The yoke used was a crosstree with two bows, to 
 the upper side of which the pole was fastened by 
 a cord. 'I'he animals were urged by a goad some 
 six or eight feet long. The plough was merely a 
 crooked stick liaving a wooden share siiod with a 
 triangular piece of iron. Tlie land was generally 
 ploughed every winter, spring, and summer. For 
 harrowing, a boanl loaded with stones was em- 
 ployed, usually before, always after, the .sowing 
 (Job xxxix. 10; Isa. xxviii. 24). 
 
 The winter crops, particularly the pulse, were 
 sown towards the beginning of November, just 
 before the autunni or former rains; the barley, a 
 fortnight later; and still hiter the wheat, which 
 was cast in rows (Isa. xxviii. 2i")). In December 
 the fields were green (John iv. 35). The .sowing 
 of the summer crops — millet, beans, also of bar- 
 ley — came in January and February, in time for 
 
 the later rains of March and early .-Vpril. Soon 
 after began the harvest-labor, rendered dangerous 
 by the sun's heat (2 Kings iv. 18 sq.). Barley, 
 lentils, and vetch were first gathered. The wheat 
 and the spelt were harvested about the same time; 
 but of course the time was later in the high lands 
 than in the lower, and that by from a fortnight 
 to a month. The grain was cut by a sickle, jsretty 
 close to the liead, bound, and heaped. Gleanings 
 were left to the poor (Lev. xix. 9 ; lluth ii. 2). 
 The threshing-floors were generally round, about 
 fifty feet in diameter, if possible placed ou high 
 ground, so that the wind might carry oft' the chaff. 
 Cattle or asses were driven npon the grain, and 
 so it was threshed out; or else a machine was 
 employed. The common kind was a board three 
 feet wide, six or eight feet long, and three inches 
 thick. Holes were bored on the lower side, and 
 stones fastened so as to project through the holes, 
 thus acting as teeth. But there was another 
 kind, which consisted of a heavy square fi-ame 
 with rollers, each of which was encircled by three 
 or four iron rings serrated like the teeth of a saw 
 (Isa. xxviii. 27). Smaller quantities of grain 
 and tender cereals were beaten out by a stick 
 (Ruth ii. 17; Isa. xxviii. 27). The winnowing 
 was accomplished by a broad shovel, or by a 
 wooden fork with bent tines. The grain was 
 thrown against the wind, so that the chaff was 
 blown away. Usually this was done from four 
 P.M. until sunrise (Ruth iii. 2; cf. Jer. iv. 11 ; Ii. 
 2). The chaff and stubble were burnt (Isa. v. 
 24; Matt. iii. 12). Corn was sifted in a sieve 
 (.\mos ix. 9), and then collected iu great heaps. 
 So it remained until it could be put into holes or 
 into barns. 
 
 The scarcity of grain in spring and autumn, the 
 droughts, sirocco, the grasshoppers, and attacks 
 of enemies, rendered the crop a matter of uncer- 
 tainty, and decreased the yield. And yet the 
 yield was considerable. Some cereals gave two 
 crops a year. The joy of harvest was proverbial 
 (Ps. ix. 3). Canaan was alw.ays aide to suppily 
 the neighboring lands (1 Kings v. 11; Ezek. 
 xxvii. 17; Ez. iii. 7; Acts xii. 20). 
 
 The law ruled agriculture as everj' thing else; 
 for example, it was forbidden to plough with an 
 0.x and ass together, because clean and uncle.an 
 animals must not be joined (Deut. xxii. 10) ; and 
 diverse seeds must not be sown (Lev. xix. 19; 
 Deut. xxii. 9). It was allowed to pluck the 
 he;uls of ripened wheat while passing along the 
 little path purposely made througli the field 
 (Deut. xxiii. 2.5; Matt. xii. 1; Luke vi. 1). 
 The permission symbolizi^d the beneficence of 
 God, who feeds the hungry. The corners of the 
 field, and gle.anings, were alw.ays to be left at 
 harve.st-time (Lev. xix. 9; Deut. xxiv. 19). The 
 ox who trod out the corn must not be muzzled 
 (Deut. xxv. 4). The object of these latter regu- 
 lations was to teach kindness toward God's crea- 
 tures. Wo find upon the Egyiitian monuments 
 examples of similar laws. The first-fruits be- 
 longed to the Lord ; the first three years' fruit of 
 a young vineyard must not be gathered; the fruit 
 of th<; fourth year bidonged to Jehovah; and it 
 was not until the fifth year that the owner couhl 
 eat of it (Lev. xix. 23-2.")). 
 
 The three principal feasts of the Jews were 
 connected with agriculture, and fitted to a people
 
 AGRIPPA. 
 
 41 
 
 AHAB. 
 
 ■whose chief support was from their farms. On 
 the (lay after the Passover Sabbath, tlie lOth 
 Nisan, a sheaf of tlie first-fruits was brought. 
 The conclusion of the seventh week after Pass- 
 over was marked by the otferina: of two wave 
 loaves, made out of the new flour of the year; 
 while the fruit and vine harvest was celebrated 
 by the Feast of Tabernacles (Lev. xxiii.). Every 
 sabbath, and especially every sabbath-year and 
 year of jubilee, by its abstinence from out-door 
 labor, taught the Israelites (Jod's sovereignty 
 over their time and their land, and also that the 
 highest good is not the product of earthly work 
 and wealth. 
 
 Lit. — IL G. Paul-skn : Z iwerluxsige Nachrkld- 
 en vom Ackcrhau dcr Hlorrjcnldnder, Ilelmstiidt, 
 1748. Nieuuhr: Beschreihuiu; Arah. (original 
 edition), 1772. P. G. Pukmaxn : B Prorir. tie lie 
 Rustica vet. Ilebr., Franckfort, 1787. [Blmii.k and 
 AValch : Calendar Palaesl. (econum. Gottingen, 
 1784. Reyn'IEr: L'Economie rurale dett Aral/e.i. 
 Bukckuardt: Travels. Wilkinson: jl/anMersn/u/ 
 Customs of the Ancient Eyi/ptians, London, 18;?7^1, 
 C vols. Revised edition by Samuel Hirch, LL.D., 
 London, 1878, 3 vols. Kitto: Phi/slad Geoi/raphi/ 
 of the lloli/ Land, 1848. 2 vols. La yard : Nineveh 
 London, 1849. Nineveh and Dahi/lon, London, 
 1853. E. RoBixsox : Biblical Rcsearclics, Boston, 
 1800, 3 vols.; the same: Physical Gcoi/rajihi/ of the 
 ■Ilobj Land, 1SG5.] F. W.' tf(;ilUI/rz. 
 
 AORIP'PA is the name of two members of the 
 Ilerodian family. — Herod Arjrippa /. , a son of 
 Aristobulus and Berenice, and grand.son of llerod 
 the Great and INIariamne, was educated in Rome 
 together with Claudius, and obtained in 38, from 
 Caligula, the territory of Philip — Bataniea, Tra- 
 chonitis, and Aui-anitis — and the tetrarchy of 
 Lysanias, with the title of king. In the follow- 
 ing year he also received the tetrarchy of Anti- 
 pas, Galilee, and Peraea, to which Claudius 
 added Samaria and Judrea in 40. Thus he 
 became king of the whole of Palestine, and 
 reigned with great .splendor, trying in every way 
 to gain the favor of the Jews. The murder of 
 James and the imprisonment of Peter (Acts xii. 
 1) had simply this purpose. His liorrible death 
 is described in exactly the same manner in 
 Josephus : Ant. 19, 8. 2, and Acts xii. 23. 
 
 Herod Agrippa II., in whose presence Paul 
 declared his life, was a son of the preceding, but 
 only seventeen years old when the father died. 
 In 48 he obtained the principality of Chalcis, and 
 the privilege of nominating the high priest, and 
 superintending the temple of Jerusalem. In 52 
 he further obtained the tetrarchies of Philip and 
 Lysanias, with the title of king. But the Jews 
 never liked him; and, in the rebellion under Ves- 
 pasian, he sided with the Romans, and fought by 
 the side of Titus at the conquest of Jerusalem. 
 
 AGRIPPA, Heinrich Cornelius, b. at Cologne 
 148G; d. at Grenoble 1536; studied in Cologne, 
 and Paris ; .spent then a couple of years 
 (1507-8) in Spain; lectured in 1.309 (in the 
 University of Dole, Franche-Comte), on Reuch- 
 lin's book, De Vcrho Mirifico ; served for some 
 time Margaret of Austria, the Duchess of 
 Parma, and regent of the Netherlands; went 
 thence to England on some secret mission; re- 
 turned to the Netherlands, but fell out with the 
 monks; went to Cologne, and lectured on quits- 
 
 tiones quodlihetales ; served for seven years in the 
 imperial army in Italy (1511-1518), though at 
 one time during this period he was sent to the 
 Council of Pisa as a theologian, while at another 
 he lectured on medicine, jurispru<lence, and Her- 
 mes Trismegistus in Pavia and Turin ; was ap- 
 pointed syndic at Metz in 1518, but was com- 
 pelled to flee from the Inquisition ; entered the 
 service of the Duke of Savoy; practised medi- 
 cine at Freiburg in 1523, became physician to 
 the queen-mother of France, but was expelled, 
 and fled to the Netherlands; w.is ajipoiiited his- 
 toriographer to Charles V., and lived for some 
 years under the protection of Archbishop Her- 
 mann of Cologne, but returned finally to France, 
 where he died. As his life, .so his books: he 
 wrote about evei-y thing. Of his two most cele- 
 brated works, the one, De Occulta PhUosophia, 
 written in 1.509, but not printed until 1531, is a 
 compilation from the Neo-Platonists and the 
 Cabbala, and gives a plan of the world as a basis 
 for the explication of the art of magic; while 
 the other, De Vanitale .Scienliarimn (written in 
 152G, printed in 1526, and translated into various 
 languages, into Engli.sh in 1684), is a compilation 
 from the Humanists and the Reformers, and 
 gives a sceptical criticism, not only of all sciences 
 and arts, but of life itself. But this contradic- 
 tion is the character of the man. A devotee of 
 the old church, he was always in opposition to 
 its clergy; a champion of the spirit of the new 
 time, he was utterly foreign to the Reformation. 
 He was learned, but never became clear: he was 
 active, but never in harmony with himself. A 
 collected edition of his works was published at 
 Lyons, 1600. .See Morley: Life of A(/rippa. 
 London, 18.56, 2 vols. C. WElZfi.iCKER. 
 
 AGUIRRE, Joseph Saenz d', b. March 24, 
 lO.'lO, at Logrogno, Spain; d. in Rome, Aug. 19, 
 1099; entered the order of the Benedictines; 
 became professor of theology in the University of 
 Salamanca, Abbot of St. Vincenz, and secretary 
 to the Inquisition, and was made cardinal in 
 1080 by Innocent XL, as a reward for his book, 
 De/ensio cathedrce Sancli Petri adversus Declara- 
 tiones Cleri Gallici, 1682. He was a very prolific 
 writer. The two most important of his works 
 are, Collcctio Maxima Conciliorum omnium Ilis- 
 panicce et nooi orbis cum nolis et dissertationibus. 
 Rome, 1693, 4 vols. ; 17.53, vols.; and Theolo- 
 (jia S. Anschnl in 3 vols., but unfinished. 
 
 A'GUR. See Proverbs. 
 
 A'HAB (^father s brother) . 1. The son of Omri, 
 a king of the northern kingdom, called in the 
 Assyrian cuneiform inscriptions Acha-abbu 
 Sir'lai; i.e., Ahab of Israel. Through his wife 
 Jezebel, the daughter of a Sidonian priest-king, 
 he \\as led into the Baal worship, and allowed 
 Jezebel to persecute the Jehovah prophets (1 
 Kings xviii. 4). Instead of these, Ahab main- 
 tained four hundred and fifty Baal, and his wife 
 four hundred .\shera prophets (1 Kings xviii. 19). 
 But that he was not successful in killing entirely 
 the love for pure worship is manifest from the 
 reception Elijah's efforts received, and parti«u- 
 larly from the facts that such a man as Obadiah, 
 who was the governor of Ahab's house, had one 
 hundred Jehovah prophets hidden in a cave, and 
 that Jehovah told Elij.ah that there were yet 
 seven thousand w'ho had not bowed the knees
 
 AHASUERUS. 
 
 42 
 
 AHAZIAH. 
 
 unto Baal (1 Kinsrs xix. 18). Nevertheless 
 Ahab inflicted incalculable injury upon Israel 
 through his idolatry. In spite of Jehn and 
 Ilosea, the nation fell under a merited doom. 
 
 Ahab reigned brilliantly for twenty-two years, 
 for in him the power of the northern kingdom 
 culminated. He built cities, beautified Jezreel 
 and made it his capital, erected an ivory palace 
 (1 Kings xxii. 39), and several times waged suc- 
 cessful war against Syria (1 Kings xx.). He 
 entered into alliance with Jehoshaphat (1 Kings 
 xxii.), as did later on Jehoram, Ahab's second son 
 (2 Kings iii.). Ahab's daughter Athaliah married 
 Jelioshaphat's son Jehoram {2 Kings viii. 18). 
 But, although he thus exhibited shrewdness and 
 energy, Ahab had not the ability to utilize his 
 opportunities and advantages. Indecision and 
 weakness characterized him. He trembled be- 
 fore Elijah, wliom at first he denoimced : lie was 
 moved by Micaiah's prophecy, although at first 
 he pretended to be fearle.ss. His action about 
 tha vineyard of Naboth was childish (1 Kings 
 xxi.). His repentance was shallow: he was 
 moved by impulses. And yet there was a gleam 
 of virtue in him : lie spared Benhadad his 
 enemy (1 Kings xx. 33) ; and he had physical 
 courage enough to stay upon the battle-field after 
 his fatal wound (1 Kings xxii. 3.3). But upon 
 him and all connected with him tlie curse of God 
 rested. He dragged Israel and Judah into ruin. 
 
 2. A false prophet among the exiles in Baby- 
 lon, who was roasted in the fire by Nebuchad- 
 rezzar (Jer. xxix. 21, 22). FR. W. SCUULTZ. 
 
 AHASUE'RUS (mii/hli/ man), the name of the 
 king, not an epitliet, mentioned in Esther, and 
 identified with Xerxes, the son of Darius Ilys- 
 taspes (B.C. 485^05), a Medo-Persian king, who 
 is called upon the cuneiform inscriptions Khsy- 
 arshi, or Khsay-arshi (see Benfey, The Cuneiform 
 Inscriptions of Persia; .Schrader, die Keilim^chr. 
 u. (Ids alle Test. ji. 215). The identification is 
 complete: not simply are the names the same, 
 but the characti-is described, especially the love 
 of splendor and bamiueting, the tyrannical dis- 
 jiosition, the inconsiderateness and the intellect- 
 ual dependence. For these as traits of Xerxes 
 see Herod 7. 3.5, 37; 9. 10, 7; Justin. 2: 12; 
 Strabo H, al.so Spiegel, Eranisrhe Allerllmms- 
 kunde II. p. 402 sq. The absence of Xerxes at 
 the Greek war explains why Esther was not 
 chosen until the seventli year of liis reign, while 
 Vasliti was rejected in the third. Tlie Aliasueriis 
 of Ezra (iv. 0) is doubtless Xerxes, although 
 Camby.ses was formerly thought to lie meant. 
 But it is not defniitidy settled who the Ali;isuerus 
 of Dani'd (ix. 1) is, but probably Astyages. tlie 
 father of Darius the Jlede, or the Cyaxares of 
 Xenophon. Aliasuerus stands for Cyaxares in 
 Tobit xiv. Vi. Fu. w. t^ciin/rz. 
 
 A'HAZ ( /lossessor) was the son and successor of 
 Jothain, and the elevc-nth king of Ju<lah, ruling 
 for sixteen years (B.C. 711-72.)). At the time of 
 his accession lie jirobably was not twenty (2 
 Kings xvi. 2), l)ut twenty-five, as the LXX. and 
 the I'esliilo translate; (2 Chron. xxviii. 1): so that 
 sixteen y<!ars latc^r, his son Hezekiah might easily 
 have been twenty-five year.-i old (2 Kings xviii. 
 2). Ahaz w.is the weak and vvickrd successor of 
 several exci'llciit kings, and thrrefcjre could not 
 keep what they had won. I'rkali (if I.-.rail and 
 
 Rezin of Syria, who had in the reign of Jotham 
 become allies (2 Kings xv. 37), won back the 
 East-Jordan territory, attacked Jerusalem, but 
 could not take it. Rezin took Elath. however, 
 and peopled it with Aramites. Pekah, on the 
 other hand, slew in Judah one hundred and 
 twenty thousand men, and carried two hundred 
 thousand into captivity, but was compelled to 
 give them up by tlie threat of a Jeliovah prophet, 
 Oded (2 Chron. xxviii. 9-51). AVhile thus weak- 
 ened, the Edomites and the Philistines tell upon 
 him, and robbed him of territory (2 Cliron. xxviii. 
 17, 18; cf. Isa. xiv. 28 sq.). Isaiah, who had just 
 begun his prophetic career, told the king that 
 Israel and .Syria sliould occasion him no alarm, 
 but that the Assyrians, to whom he paid hire, 
 were his deadly enemies (Isa. vii. 2 sq). And 
 so it turned out. The Asfiyrians, who already 
 had had dealings with the northern kingdom, 
 verj' gladly embraced this fresh opportunity to 
 mingle themselves in the affairs of the western 
 lands. Tiglath-pileser, King of Assyria, took the 
 large moneys Ahaz sent, came into the Aramaic 
 kingdom, and, as also the inscriptions show, slew 
 Rezin, overran Israel, took several cities, and car- 
 ried into captivity many from " Gilead, Galilee, 
 and all the land of Naphtali '* (2 Kings xv. 29, 
 xvi. 9). But in return for these services Tiglath- 
 pileser demanded and received all the treasure 
 in the liouse of the Lord, and other monej's be- 
 side (2 Kings xvi. 17; 2 Chron. xxviii. 21), and 
 then, according to the inscriptions, turned Ahaz 
 into a vassal. It may well have been to secure 
 the favor of his lord tliat Ahaz built the altar 
 mentioned (2 Kings x. 10, 11). This was the 
 beginning of Judah's dependence upon the great 
 heathen powers (cf. Isa. Iii. 4). 
 
 Keeping even jiace with tliis dependence upon 
 worldly might was the growth of superstition 
 and idolatry. The prophet Isaiah lias described 
 this deterioration (ii. (i sq., iii 15 sq., viii. 19). 
 Ahaz set up a Babylonian sun-dial, connected pre- 
 sumably with the sun-worship (Isa. xxxviii. 8), 
 kept horses and chariot dedicated to the sun 
 (2 Kings xxiii. 11), and built a so-called " upper 
 chamber" upon the temple roof, in which he 
 could worsliip "all the hosts of heaven" (2 
 Kings xxiii. 12). But he went even farther: 
 sacrificed his own son to Aloloch, and erected 
 molten images for B;ialim in the \'alley of Ilin- 
 nom (2 Kings xxiii. 12; 2 Chron. xxviii. 1-4). 
 When he died, he was buried in the city, and not 
 in the se])ulclires of the kings of Israel (2 Chron. 
 xxviii. 27) ; but this fact by itself proves nothing 
 against liiin; for the same remark is niiide not 
 only of the idolatrous Jehoram (2 Chron. xxi. 20), 
 but of the better Joash (2 Chron. xxiv. 25) of 
 Asa (2 Chron. xvi. 14), and even of Hezekiah 
 ! (2 Chron. xxxii. 33). FU. W. sclIULTZ. 
 
 ' AHAZ\ A'H (ir/ioni./i linralt siixldins). 1. The son 
 ami siicce.s.sor of .\hab, as King of Israel : he 
 rtdgned two years (B.C. 897-890). Very few, but 
 very bad, things are told of him. He (lid evil in 
 the sight of the Lord. While ill from injuries 
 ' received by a fall, he .sought the lidp of liaal- 
 I zebub. His messengers were met by lOlijah, who 
 'sent them back witii tin; ]>ropliecy of the king's 
 ' death. Two companies of fifty, with their cap- 
 tains, sent to take lOlijah, W(M'e dcstroyi'd by tire ; 
 but with the third, whose captain had treated
 
 AHIMELBCH. 
 
 43 
 
 AILLI. 
 
 liim respectfully, he went, and in person repeat- 
 ed his prophecy. So Ahaziah died according to 
 t'.ie words of the Lord (2 Kings i.). lie was 
 childless. The only event of importance record- 
 ed about liim, is his commercial expedition to 
 Tarshish in connection with Jehoshaphat of Ju- 
 dah. liut his .ships were (h-stroyed (cf. 1 Kings 
 xxii. 40; 2 Chron. xx. 30). 
 
 2. The son and successor of Jehoram, King of 
 Judah, reigned only one year, 15. C. 885 (2 Kings 
 viii. 25-29; 2 Chron. xxii. l-,0), called Jehoahaz 
 in 2 Chron. xxi. 17, an<l Azariah in 2 Chron. 
 xxii. 6, either through mistake of the scribes, or 
 because the names are the .same. lie allied 
 himself with liis uncle Jehoram, King of Israel. 
 Israel rebelled under Jehu. The two kings met 
 him in liattle, and Jehu killed Jehoram. Aha- 
 ziah fled, was jiursued and mortally wounded at 
 the pass of Gur, but escaped, and died at Me- 
 giddo. In this way the two differing accounts 
 of his death (2 Kings ix. 27 and 2 Chron. xxii. 9) 
 can be reconciled. FU. W. SCIIUI/rz. 
 
 AHIM'ELECH {lirother of the kin;/) was probably 
 a son of Ahiah, and grandson of Ahitub, although 
 often called his "son" (1 Sam. xxii. 9, 20), an 
 Aaronite of the line of Ithaniar, and therefore 
 a successor of Eli in the priesthood at Nob. 
 David, when fleeing from Saul, was fed by him 
 upon the shew-bread, and furnished with Goli- 
 ath's sword, for which lie and eighty-four lower 
 priests were slain by Saul at the instigation of 
 Doeg the Kdomite (1 Sam. xxii. 18). 
 
 AHITH'OPHEL (brother of foolhhni'KK), a native 
 of Giloh, and therefore styled the Gilonite in 
 2 Sara. XV. 12, the counsellor of David, highly 
 valued because of his shrewdness and discretion. 
 But, as the issue showed, he was not sincere in 
 his attachment to David ; for he offered to become 
 Absalom's counsellor, under the mistaken idea 
 that Absalom's rule would be pernuinent. But 
 when he foresaw its downfall, and found his 
 counsel slighted, he hanged himself, dreading 
 David's revenge (2 Sara. xvii. 23). 
 
 AIDAN, b. in Ireland (505; d. at Lindisfarne, 
 Aug. 31, 651 ; was educated in lona, and went as 
 missionary to Northumbria in 035. He took up 
 his residence in the Island of Lindisfarne, where 
 he founded a monastery of the Kuldee fashion 
 and under Columba's rules. He could not speak 
 the Saxon language when first he came to the 
 country; but the king himself acted as inter- 
 preter; and his personal life, as well as that of 
 his companions and pupils, made so deep an im- 
 pression on the people that Northumbria was 
 Christianized before he died. See Bkdk: Hht. 
 Ecclt. III. c. osq. Tno.M.\s McL.\uchi.ax : Earl;/ 
 Scottish Church, Edinburgh, 1865; D.\nikl dk 
 Vinne: Irish Primilive Church, New York, 1870. 
 
 I. H. A. Ebk.\kd: Die iro - schoUische Missions- 
 kirche, 1873. 
 
 AIGRADUS (Anf/radus or A>i.t;;nrilus), a monk 
 of Fontanelles, near Rouen ; wrote, about 699, a 
 life of St. Ansbert, Abbot of Fontanelles from 
 678 to 695, which, thougli interpolated by a later 
 hand, is still of great value (Act. i'.S. Bolt. Feb., 
 
 II. pp. 347-356). He is also supposed to be the 
 author of a fragment of a life of St. Lautbert, 
 given anonymously by M.\billon, Acta SS. Ben. 
 
 III. 2 p. 402-405. 
 
 AILLI, Pierre d' (Pclrus de AUiaco), b. at Ailli- 
 
 haiit-clocher, in the department of Abbeville, 
 13.50; d. in Avignon, Aug. 9, 1120: entercil the 
 University of Paris as a .student of theology in 
 the College of Navarre, 1372; wroti; in 1375 his 
 first book, a commentary on I'etrus Lombardiis 
 ((iiurslloni's .vii/irr lihros sentciilidrurn), which was 
 published in 1 110; and began to lectun; on )ihi- 
 losojihy in the university, where lie soon made the 
 nominalism of Occam predominate. In 1380 he 
 was made a doctor of theology; ami his treatise 
 at this occasion, as well as two other essays (JJe 
 Lcijitimo Domlnio and Ulriim indoctus injure dlvino 
 pnssit Juste prodessc in ccclcsitn reijno, written at 
 the same time, and published in Qcrson. Opcr. 
 edition Dupin, Tom. I. pp. 011-044, 1706), show 
 his theological stand-point. The Christian 
 Church, he said, is founded on Christ, not on 
 Peter; on the Bible, not on the canon law; and 
 .still more directly he enters into opposition to the 
 Papists of his time by protesting that the pope 
 is fallible in matters, both of faith and fact, and 
 that the true reiiresentative of the Church is not 
 the pope, but the oecumenical council. Never- 
 theless, in spite of these advanced views, he 
 never transgresses the narrow boundaries of the 
 medi.neval Church. Dogmatically he defines faith 
 as a knowledge of theological truths, and 
 describes it as a magically inifused inspiration ; 
 politically he considered the union of the Church 
 as far more precious than its purity. In 1384, 
 having in the mean time made a great impression 
 by a series of sermons on St. Francis of Assissi 
 (Traclattis el Scrmunes, Arg. 1490), he became 
 director of the College of Navarre, where he had 
 Gerson and Nicholas de Clemanges among his 
 pupils; and in 1389, having two years previously 
 gained great fame by ids defence of the im- 
 maculate conception and the defeat of the 
 Dominicans, he was made Chancellor of the Uni- 
 versity. Thus at the head of one of the most 
 influential institutions in the Church, and pos- 
 sessed of a great fame as the " Eagle of France," 
 the '• Hammer of Heretics," his views of eccle- 
 siastical affairs, more e.specially of the papal 
 schism, became of great consequence, and he 
 understood how to make them felt. After the 
 death of Clement VII. (1394), Benedict XIII. was 
 elected his successor; and it was due to Ailli's 
 exertions that he was recognized by France. 
 Nor did Benedict XIII. show himself ungrateful. 
 In 1395 he made Ailli Bishop of Puy, and in 
 1397 Bisliop of Cambray. Meanwhile the vari- 
 ous negotiations made it perfectly plain to Ailli 
 that a general council was the only effective 
 remedy against the schism ; and this view, while 
 it estranged him somewhat from Benedict XIII., 
 drew him nearer to John XXIII. , who in 1411 
 made him a cardinal. His views at last pre- 
 vailed. The Council of Constance deposed Greg- 
 ory XII., John XXni.,and Benedict XIII.; and, 
 though the Cardinal of Cambray was himself one 
 of the candidates for the papal throne, he lived 
 on very good terras with Pope Martin V , as 
 whose legate he acted in Avignon. Besides be- 
 ing a very prolific writer on tlieological subjects. 
 Ailli also wrote on geograjihy; and his Ima;/o 
 Mundi (1410) has still interest as one of the 
 sources from which Columbus drew his view of 
 the possibility of a western passage from Spain 
 to India. His astronomical writings occupy an
 
 AILREDUS. 
 
 44 
 
 AKIBA. 
 
 intermediate position between astrological super- 
 stition and true science ; but his propositions to 
 the improvement of the calendar show compre- 
 hensive and sound views. Tliere is a collected 
 edition of his works, Douay. 1034; but it is not 
 complete. See P.\l'L Tsch.a.ckkrt : Ptter von 
 Ailli, Gotha. 1877. Paul tsciiackert. 
 
 AILREDUS, b. 1109; d. 1166; a native of 
 England, was educated in Scotland, entered the 
 order of the Cistercians, became Abbot of Reves- 
 by, Lincolnshire, and wrote Ilistnria de Vila et 
 Miraculis S. Edicanli : Genealni/ia ller/um A nr/lo- 
 rum ; De Bella Slandardi ; Hktnria de Saiicti- 
 moniali de Waltham : all in Twisden, Decern 
 Scriptoref, London, 1652 ; and Sennones de Tem- 
 pore et Sanctis : Tractatua de puero Jesu duodccen- 
 ni ; Speculum caritalis, lib. IIL ; De Spiriluali 
 Amicitia, libri IIL, etc., edited by Gibbon, 
 Douay, 1631 ; and in Bibl. Ciller. V. and Biil. 
 Patrum, XXIII. 
 
 AIMOIN or AYMOIN, monk in St. Germain des 
 Pres, near Paris, d. about 880 ; wrote a history 
 of saints, of which the lil/ri duo de S. G'ermunl, 
 episcopi Parisiensis miraculis have some historical 
 value (see B.Xhr : Geschichte der rOmischen Lil- 
 teraliiT in carolingischen Zeitatler, p. 242). Differ- 
 ent from him is Almoin, monk in Fleury, d. 
 1008, who, on the instance of Abbo of Fleury, Ids 
 patron, wrote the Historia Francorum, libri IV., 
 from 253 to G.54. The work itself has no worth ; 
 but the continuation of it up to 727 is valuable 
 (Bouquet: Script, rer. Franc, III.). 
 
 AINSWORTH, Henry, b. at Pleasington, Lan- 
 cashire, about 1560; d. in Amsterdam about 
 1623 ; was educated in the grammar-school of 
 Blackburn; studied at Cambridge; adopted the 
 platform of the Independents, such as represented 
 by the Brownists ; and was in loi)3 driven away 
 from his native country. Fur the rest of his life 
 he lived in .Vmsterdam, at the beginning in great 
 poverty, but afterwards, as teacher of the Brown- 
 ist Church of that city, in better circumstances. 
 He partook with great zeal in the controversies 
 of the day, and wrote, for instance, A Dc/enre of 
 the l/oli/ Scriptures against Smyth, 16O.0; but his 
 great fame he aciinired as a Hebrew scholar. 
 His Annotationes to the Pentateuch, Psalms, and 
 Canticles were collected in 1627, and repeatedly 
 reprinted; latest edition, Edinburgh, lS43,2vols. 
 See Xk.\i, : Hislori/ of the Puritans; WiLso.v: 
 Diisentin<i Churches. 
 
 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE (German Aachen, Latin 
 Aquis-Graniini) received its name from its warm 
 springs, wliose medicinal qualities were very early 
 recognized. 'Die (Jer:n;in name, Aar/icn, is not 
 a corruption of afjua, but derived from the Old 
 High German ach, aha, oh, •' water." The latter 
 part of the I^atin name is .su])posed to have been 
 derived from .some proper name. The eastern 
 tower of the city liall is still called the tower of 
 (iranus. 
 
 The city is first mentioned in a letter by Pepin, 
 7.54 (Baluzk: Jici/uin Francorum, Capitularia II. 
 p. 1391); but coin.i, inscriptions, l);iths, aque- 
 ducts, .and other monuments, show that it was 
 known to the Romans from the time of C.Tsar. 
 With the accession of the Carlovingian ilynasty 
 it at once .sprang into great eminence; and witFi 
 tlie fall of tliat dyniusty it, too, lost its im)iortance. 
 Charhimagne made it his residence, unci built the 
 
 Church of St. Mary — the only monument ot 
 Carlovingian architecture still jireserved com- 
 plete — and a magnificent palace, which was con- 
 nected with the church by a splendid colonnade. 
 In this palace, or in the Church of St. Mary, sat 
 tlie diet of Charlemagne, a mixed assembly of 
 laj'men and ecclesiastics summoned by the em- 
 peror to pronounce, both on secular and' ecclesias- 
 tical and I'eligious matters. Generally, however,, 
 the ecclesiastics separated when discussing eccle- 
 siastic affairs, and formed a synod or council, 
 Concilia Aquisgranensia, though not always as- 
 suming that name. We sliall briefly enumerate 
 these assemblies. 
 
 I. 789. Made an extract from the legislation 
 of the elder councils of the Roman Em]iire, and 
 made it obligatory, also, for the Frankish Em- 
 pire. II. 797. Revoked, at least jiartially, the 
 bloody laws which since 785 had hevn imposed 
 on the conquered Saxons. III. 799. Against 
 the Adoptians. IV. 801-803. The separation 
 of the bishops, abbots, and secular knights into, 
 three benches or bodies; various laws concerning 
 discipline. V. 809. On the procession of the 
 Holy Ghost. VI. 818. The final enactment of 
 the canons of the .synods of Jlentz, Rheims, Tours,. 
 Chalons-sur-Saone, and Aries. VII. 816. Regu- 
 lations for the life of canonlci. The rules of 
 Chrodegang, which liitlierto had been optional 
 only, were now made obligatory, besides being 
 much enlarged. VIII. 817. The reforms of 
 Benedict of Aniane. IX. 819. Regulations for 
 mij<si dominici. X. 825. Concerning the trans- 
 ference of the bones of St. Hubert from Liege 
 to the Monastery of Andoin. XL 831. The 
 Empress Judith. XII. 836. The re.storation of 
 those estates which Pepin, King of Aquitanise, 
 had taken from the Church. Xll. 837. About 
 the election of abbots. XIII. 842. Alediation 
 between Lothair, Louis the German, and Charle.9 
 the Bald, which led to tlie treaty of Verdun, 843. 
 XIV., 860, and XV., 862. Concerning the di- 
 vorce between Lothair and Tlieutberga. XVI. 
 992. Concerning discipline. XVII. 1105. The 
 canonization of Charlemagne. 
 
 From Otto I. (936) to Ferdinand I. (15.58) were 
 twenty-nine emperors crowned at .Vix-la-Chapelle. 
 See Qui.K: Geschichte vini Aachen. 
 
 AKIBA was the most prominent rabbi whom 
 the Jewish people produced in the period between 
 the destruction of .lerusalcm (70) and the final 
 dissolution of tlie rabliinical schools in Palestine 
 (358). He excelled all his contemporaries in 
 compass of knowledge and acut<'ii('ss of inter- 
 ])retation, on the whole iiehl of the Ilalaeha 
 (law-tradition), which he systematized and codi- 
 fied. III! found a meaning in every word of the 
 Thora, even in tin; particles and tlie manner in 
 which the letters were written. Under Domitian 
 he pleaded the case of his people in Rome. The 
 later uprising under Hadrian was chiefly Ins 
 work. By journeying to the most distant coun- 
 tries he collected among his exiled countrymen 
 the necessary means, and it was he who repre- 
 sented Bar-Cochba to tlie people as the Messiah. 
 He sujiported thi' revolutionary liero throughout 
 with his whole! influence; and when the rising, 
 which had begun so successfully (132) suddenly 
 and di'»]iicably collapsed, he was oiw. of the 
 martyrs. The flesh was torn from his bones by
 
 AKOIMBTOI. 
 
 45 
 
 ALBER. 
 
 iron combs. In ii definite literary form he lias 
 left notliing; bnt tlie IMishna and the literature of 
 the Talmud and Jlidrach contain numerous defi- 
 nitions, interpretations, etc., which give a striking 
 picture of the powerful man. See GitXr/, : 
 Geschichle tier Juden, vol. IV., 18G0; Gast- 
 frku.n'd: Biof/raplii/ of Alcib/i, Breslau, 1871 (in 
 Hebrew); Lkuki-X'HT : Bcllicr, die frn;/li'cli(; SUiilt 
 im hadrinni.ic/i-jurji.icheu Krieijc, Berlin, 1877. 
 
 AKOIMETOI. See Ac<emet^. 
 
 A'LASCO. See La.sco. 
 
 ALAN US. Under this name a considerable 
 number of mediaeval writings on theology and 
 philosophy have come down to us. A complete 
 list is given. Hist. litl. de la France, XVI., p. 421 ; 
 see also Alani. Opera, ed. C. de Visch, Antwerp, 
 1654. They consist of essays in verses, in rhyme 
 -or elegiac measure, on moral, philosophical, and 
 ■devotional topics ; allegorical commentaries to 
 various parts of the Bible; sermons; a short 
 Summa de arte pncdicaforia ; a Lihcr pi£niteiiti(dit, 
 etc. But the question is, who was the author of 
 these works. Generally they are ascribed to 
 one of the schoolmen, — Atanus de Iiixulis, com- 
 monly known by the surname of Doctor tiniver- 
 sa/i.f. Of his life only little is known, and this 
 little is full of confusion. There were other 
 ■writers of the name x\lanus, especially one, 
 Bishop of Auxerre; and another, Alanua de 
 Padin. Ondin {Comment, de script, eccles. T. II. 
 2i. 1338) maintains that Atanus de Insulis and 
 Alanus of Auxerie are one and the same pier- 
 son, while Bulaeus (Hist. Acad. Paris, T. II. p. 
 432) distinguishes between them. The latter 
 holds, however, that they were both natives of 
 Lille, which fact again is contested by Cave 
 {Hist. litl. script, -rcles. pp. 586, 624), and by 
 the author of the Hist, litle'raire de la France, T. 
 XVI. p. 396. Th;_ much, however, is certain : 
 Alanus was a native of Lille or Ryssel, Flanders, 
 belonged to the order of the Cistercians, flour- 
 ished in the twelftl' century, and spent most of 
 his life in Englanu. He is the author of all the 
 above works, with the exception of the Summa 
 jjuadripartita, and perhaps the life of St. Bernard, 
 which latter may Ixlong to Alanus of Auxerre. 
 The Summa qnadripartita is evidently written in 
 Southern France, ,"• d it is more likely that the 
 author was the Alr,uus whose surname, de Padio, 
 shows that he descended from Provence, than the 
 Fleming Alanus, residing in England. Of 
 Alanus de Podia wc liave a moral tract, found in 
 manuscript at A\ ranches (Rav.\isson : Rapport 
 sur les hililiollAques i.c I'Onest de la France, Paris, 
 1841, p 1-57), an;, another work, also in manu- 
 script and varion:;ly titled : Oculus, Oraculum 
 Scripturce Sacr(e, AJi/niroca, etc. (Hist. lit. de la 
 France. I. c. p. 421). See Dupuv: Alain de 
 Lille, 18.59. C. SCHMIDT. 
 
 ALB, from the Latin alha, " white," is a long 
 tunic, or vestment, of white linen, worn by the 
 Roman priests during service, and differing from 
 the surplice used in the Church of England by 
 fitting closer, and being held together by a girdle. 
 In the ancient church the newly-baptized wei-e 
 dressed in white garments (in albis) as a sym- 
 bolical expression of the purity of their state; 
 and these white garments were worn until Sun- 
 day after Easter, called Dominica in albis. As 
 early, however, as the fourth century, we find the 
 
 (dh mentioned as a special part of the ecclesiasti- 
 cal garment. See Smith and Ciiektiiam : Dic- 
 tionarij of Christ. Anti(p 
 
 ALBAN, St., tlie jiroto-martyr of England, 
 was boin at Verulam, llerfordshiro; served seven 
 years in the army of Diocletian ; was converted 
 to Christianity by a priest, Amphibohis, to whom 
 he had extended hospitality ; and was beheaded 
 during the persecution of Diocletian, in ■'503. In 
 the place where he suffered martyrdom a church 
 was erected, which, having been destroyed by the 
 Pagan Saxons, was restored in 793 by King Offa 
 of Mercia. At the side of the church a monas- 
 tery arose, and afterwards the city of St. Alban. 
 But the very existence of this saint is doubtful : 
 his name is not mentioned before Gildas (560) 
 and Veuantins Fortunatus (580). His life is 
 given at length by Bkd.v: Hist. Eccl. bib. I , and 
 in Ada Sanctorum, June IV., p. 146; other Vitce 
 and Acta, in verse and in prose, by Potthast, 
 Bibl. p. 588. 
 
 ALBANENSES, a fraction of the sect of the 
 Cathari, derived their name from Albania, and 
 maintained, in opposition to the Bogomiles of 
 Thracia and the Concorezenses of Bulgaria and 
 Italy, an absolute dualism, by which good and 
 evil were referred to two eternally opposite 
 and equally potent principles. See the article 
 on C.\Tn.\iti. 
 
 ALBER, Erasmus. The date and place of his 
 birth are unknown ; and many jioints are unsettled 
 in the course of his erratic life, — as a student in 
 Wittenberg (1520), pastor of Spredlingen (1528), 
 court-preacher to the Elector of Brandenburg, 
 reformer of the Church of Hanau-Lichtenberg, 
 pastor of Magdeburg, etc. He died May 5, 1553, 
 as superintendent of Neu-Brandenburg. In 
 Brandenburg he came incidentally across a copy 
 of the Liher Conformilatum S. Francisci ad vitam 
 Jesu Chrhiti, by Bartholomajus Albioius ; and 
 against this book and some other legends he 
 wrote, Der Barfusser Mijnclie Eulenspieyel und 
 Alcoran, which was published anonymously, but 
 with a preface by Luther, in Wittenberg, 1542, 
 and afterwards translated into Latin, French, and 
 Dutch. 
 
 ALBER, Matthasus, b. at Reutlingen, Deo. 4, 
 1495; d. at Blaubeuren, Dec. 2, 1.570; studied at 
 Freiburg and Tubingen, and received a call as 
 second pastor to his native city, where he imme- 
 diately began to preach the doctrines of the 
 Reformers. The first pastor complained to the 
 Abbot of Kbnigsbronn and the Bishqp of Con- 
 stance; and the two prelates remonstrated with 
 the magistrates of Reutlingen, the Swabian 
 Union, and the Austrian Government in Stutt- 
 gart. Alber was, nevertheless, appointed first 
 pastor by the magistrates ; and when he was 
 summoned before the bishop he did not only not 
 ajipear, but, as if to make the breach with the 
 Roman Church irreparable, he married. Reut- 
 lingen was now put under the ban, both by the 
 pope and the emperor, but nobody cared; and 
 Alber went on with his reforms: the mass was 
 abolished, the images were removed, and the 
 German language was introduced in the service. 
 Dec. 13, 1524, he was summoned before the im- 
 perial court of Esslingen, and he went, accom- 
 panied by fifty citizens of Reutlingen; but, after 
 two days' investigation and debate, the case was
 
 ALBERT. 
 
 46 
 
 ALBIGBNSES. 
 
 dropped. The dangers of the Anabajitist iiiove- 
 ment and the peasants' war he averted from 
 Reutlingen: but, when the interim of 1548 was 
 forced on the city, he was coin]H'lled to leave, 
 and entered the service of Duke Ulricli of Wiir- 
 temberg. wlio first made him preacher at the 
 principal church of Stuttgai't, and afterwards 
 Abbot of Klaubeuren. See Jul. HARXiMAXX : 
 Mtttthoius Allici: Tubingen, 1SG3. wilken. 
 
 ALBERT OF RIGA, d. Jan. 17, 12-29 ; is first 
 mentioned as Cauou of Bremen in llbiJ; took up 
 the plan of Bertliold, after his death in 119S. 
 of conquering and christianizing Livonia, and 
 went in 1'200. at the head of a crusading army, 
 from Lubeck across the Baltic. In 1201 he 
 founded Riga, in 1202 the knightly order of the 
 Brethren of the Sword; and though he experi- 
 enced many troubles from the order, which 
 wanted to become independent and operate on 
 its own account, and from the Danes, who con- 
 quered Esthonia in 1219, he finally succeeded 
 in establishing Christianity in the country. In 
 125.5 Riga was made the metropolis of the Li- 
 vonian and Prussian Church. 
 
 ALBERT THE GREAT {Alhertm Mcupnis), b. at 
 Lauingen. in Bavaria, 1193: d. in Cologne, Nov. 
 15, 1280. He studied at Padua and Bologna ; 
 entered the order of St. Dominic in 1223, and 
 served as Icclor in the various convent-schools of 
 his order in Germany, especially in Cologne, 
 where he had Thomas Aquinas among his pupils. 
 After a .stay of three years in Paris (1245-48), he 
 was made re//(>ji.< of the school of Cologne; and 
 in 12.54 the chapter of Worms chose him general 
 of the Dominican order in Germany, in which 
 capacity he traversed Germany on foot from end 
 to end, visiting the monasteries, and enforcing 
 discipline. In 1260 Alexander IV. made iiim 
 Bishop of Regensburg ; but this office was so little 
 in harmony with his char.acter and habits as a 
 teacher and writer, that, after the lapse of two 
 years, he was allowed to resign, and retired to his 
 monastery in Cologne, where he spent the rest of 
 his life, with the exception of a short visit to 
 Paris, which he undertook when he was over 
 eighty years old, in order to vindicate the ortho- 
 doxy of his late pupil, Thomas Aquinas. As ;ui 
 author he evinced a m.any-sidedncs.s, which, in 
 the learned world, procured for him the suiuame 
 of doctor uniocr.ialis ; while his knowledge of nat- 
 ural science, and its practical applications mad<! 
 him a sorcerer in popular estimation. His great 
 exploit was the introduction of the complete 
 system of -Vristotle to tlu; understanding of his 
 age through a kiiul of loose re])roduction.s (l)c 
 Pra:<licami'iili^ ; Sn/iKr Ucio Libros ]'/it/sirortim ; 
 Lihri XIII. Melnpli)/siconim, etc.), not of the 
 Greek originals, but of the .Vrabic versions and 
 conimentarit's, richly interlarded with compila- 
 tions from Plato, the Neo-Platonists, .Vvicenna, 
 the Arabian philo.sophical and medical writer of 
 the eleventh century, etc. By this scientific 
 brokerage, wiiich lias yieldeil liim many an un- 
 deserved compliment from nKHlern .scientists, he 
 furnished tlie scholastic iihiloso))liy with means 
 for it.s highest development. His th('ologieal 
 works comprise : commentaries on various ]iarts 
 of the Bible ; sermons ; moral and ascetical 
 treatises (Parailinun A nima: sine ile Virlulihus) ■ 
 dogmatical expositions (Suiiuiia Tlieoloyia:),eic. 
 
 Many of his works have been published sepa- 
 rately. A collected edition was given by P. 
 Jainmy, Lyons, 1051. in twenty-one vols. fol. 
 The best biography of him is found in Script. 
 Ord. Prmlkut. Paris, 1719, Tom. I., pp. 1()2- 
 171. See Pouchkt: Histoire. <kx Scicncex Xatii- 
 relles au Moi/eii-rif/e ou Albert le Gninrl r-l .ion 
 Epoquc, Paris, 1853; I, Sigh.\rt : Aihirlux Mai/- 
 7tiis.scin Lebeii und seineWisser>xch(ifl, Regensburg, 
 18.57; O. d'.\ss.\ii-LY: Albert le Grand. Paris, 
 1870. Rei.nh.\i:d de I av.cmty : Albert le Grand 
 cl S. riinmas irAi/iiin. Paris, 1880. F. NITZSCH. 
 
 ALBERTI, Jean, b. March 6. 1098, at Assen. 
 Holland; d. in Leyden, Aug. 13. 1762; was a 
 minister at Harlem, became afterwards professor 
 of theology in Leyden, and wrote : Ol.iercotlone.i 
 phUoloyiccc in .vici'os Novi Fctderis libros. Leyden, 
 1725 ; Glu.ssarinm finecum in sacro.t Noci Fmderi.s' 
 libro.<, Leyden, 1735. He also edited the first 
 volume of Hesychius' Lexicon, afterward con- 
 tinued and completed by Ruhnhenius, Leyden, 
 176(5. 
 
 ALBERTI, Leander, b. at Bologna, Dec. 11, 
 1479; d. there in 1552; studied theologj' under 
 Baviatero ; entered the order of St. Dominic in 
 1495; was called to Rome in 1525 as assistant ta 
 the general of the order, and became afterwards 
 inquisitor-general in Bologna. He wrote: De 
 riri.i illu.itribu.i ordinis Proedicdiornm, Bologna, 
 1517; also a Descrizione di tutta I'ltalia. Bologna, 
 15.50, afterwards republished, and a Hi.ttoria di 
 linloi/na, Bologna, 1541, continued by L'accia- 
 nemici. 
 
 ALBERTINI, Johann Baptist vo,n, b. at Xeu- 
 wied, Silesi.-i, Feb. 17, 1769; d. at Berthelsdorf, 
 near Herrnhut, Dec. 0, 1831 ; descended from a 
 .Swiss family of the Grisons. and was eilucated 
 together with Schleierniacher, with wliom he 
 formed a very intimate friendship, at Xisky 
 (1782-85) and at the theological seminary of 
 Barby (1785-88). But while SchliMcrmaeher 
 turiK'd to a penetrating study of i>liilosophy, and 
 attempted a reconciliation between the spirit of 
 Christianity and the spirit of modern civiliza- 
 tion, Albertini retained his Christian piety in 
 that simple and childlike form in whicli it was 
 gained in the Moravian congregation; and his- 
 thirst for knowledge I'cuuid its gratification in 
 the study of languages, mathi-matics, ami botany. 
 Thus he wrote, in connection with Schweinitz, 
 a monograph on Fiini/i. From 1788 to 1810 he 
 worked as teacher in the seliool of Ni.sky, from 
 1810 to 1821 as preacher and bishop iu Xisky, 
 (inadenberg, ami (inadenfn i (.Silesia): iu 1821 
 he became a member, ami in 1824 president, of 
 the department for cluirch ;ind school, w Inch po- 
 sition he occupied till his death. His works 
 consist of I'redii/ten, 1805; Geixtiiclic Lieder. 1821 ; 
 and liedcn, 1832. Some of his spiritual lyrics 
 are of rare beauty. 
 
 ALBERTUS MAGNUS. See Ai.ninT riiic 
 Gkkat. 
 
 ALBIGENSES, a si'ct which from the bi>gin- 
 ning "f till- ileviMith century sjiread ra|ndly and 
 widely iu Suutheru France, and maintained itsi^lf 
 there till tlu! middle of the thirteenth century: 
 received its n:imc^ from the city of .Vlbi, Latin 
 ,4 ////'/((, the (iresent ca|iital of the deparlnienl of 
 Tarn, which was one of their principal seats. 
 The name does not occur, however, until the
 
 ALBIGENSES. 
 
 47 
 
 ALBIGENSES. 
 
 time of the Albigeiisiaii crusade. Before that 
 time the sect was spolcen of as the Poldicants, or 
 Puhlii-aiii, ]irobably a corruption of the name of 
 the Paulicians, which tlie crusailcrs liad brouglit 
 back to Western Europe, or as the Jlos llum<:t, 
 Latin, Boni Ilominea, Frencli, Bans IFommnt, 
 which name they themselves gave to tliosc; 
 among tliem who reached tlie higliest state of 
 perfection, the pe.rfc.cli. 
 
 Of tlie doctrines of the Albigenses nothing is 
 known with certainty. They have left no writ- 
 ings, confessional, apologetical, or polemical ; an<l 
 the representations which Roman-Catholic writ- 
 ers, their bitter enemies, have given of them, are 
 highly exaggerated. It is evident, however, that 
 they formed a branch of that l)ro;ul stream of 
 sectarianism and heresy which arose far away in 
 Asia from the contact between Christianity and 
 the Oriental religions, and wliich, by crossing the 
 Balkan Peninsula, reached Western Europe. 
 The first outflow from this source were the JNIani- 
 chseans, the next the Paulicians, the next the 
 Cathari, who in the tenth and eleventh centuries 
 were very strong in Bulgaria, Bosnia, and Dalma- 
 tia. Of the Cathari, the Bogomiles, Patoreni, 
 Albigenses, etc., were only individual develop- 
 ments. In general they all held the same doc- 
 trines, dualism, docetism, etc.; the same moral 
 tenets, an austere simplicity bordering on ascet- 
 icism ; the same oi'ganization, a division into two 
 classes of creilenlea, or uu<Htores, 'dnd perfect i; and 
 the same policy, opposition to the Roman-Catho- 
 lic Church. See the article Cathari. 
 
 From Italy the movement reached Southern 
 France in the beginning of the eleventh century; 
 and here the soil was wonderfully well prepared 
 for the new seed. The country was rich, flourish- 
 ing, and independent; the people, gay, intellec- 
 tual, and progressing; the Church, dull, stupid, 
 and tyrannous ; and the clergy, distinguished by 
 nothing but superstition, ignorance, arbitrariness, 
 violence, and vice. Under such circumstances the 
 idea of a return to the purity and simplicity of 
 the apostolical age could not fail to attract atten- 
 tion. The severe moral demands made impression, 
 because the example of the preachers corresponded 
 to their words. The doctrine of an absolute and 
 original dualism naturally recommends itself to 
 the understanding as the easiest solution of many 
 a knotty problem. No wonder, then, that the 
 people deserted the Roman-Catholic priests, and 
 crowded around the Bos Homes. In a short time 
 the Albigenses had congregations, with schools 
 and charitable institutions of their own. Then 
 they drove away the Roman-Catholic priests from 
 the churches, took possession of the buildings, 
 and elected their own priests and bishops. Fi- 
 nally the lords of the land, the great barons and 
 counts, openly placed themselves at the head of 
 the movement; and in 1107 the Albigenses held 
 an Albigensian synod at Toulouse for the [uirpose 
 of perfecting their organization. The Roman- 
 , Catholic Church, so far as it still could be said 
 to exist in the country, had become an object of 
 contempt and derision. 
 
 This state of atfairs caused, of course, great 
 alarm in Rome. As early as 1119 a council was 
 convened at Toulouse; and the tenets of tlie Ca- 
 thari, such as preached by the Bos Homes, were 
 condemned. From time to time the condemna- 
 
 tion was repeated by the councils of the Lateran 
 (IPW), of Rheims (1118), of Tours (110:5), etc.,' 
 but w'ithout any effect. Missions were sent out 
 among the heretics. In 1117 St. Bernard of 
 Clairveaux visited them I and his preaching was 
 probably not altogether lost. In 1100 a disjiu- 
 tation between tlie orthodox and the heretical 
 bishops and jiriests was held at Lonibei-s, near 
 AIbi; but no result was arrived at. In 1178 Car- 
 dinal Peter, with a great retinue of prelates and 
 monks, tried, for the last time, jiersuasion ; and in 
 1180 Cardinal Henry, for the first time, employed 
 force. He preached a crusade against the .-Mbi- 
 gensian heretics. Troops were (Irawn together; 
 some strong places were carried witli the usual 
 accompaniment of massacre and carnage; and 
 then the case was again allow(?d to drag along, 
 until at last Innocent III. succeeded in finishing 
 it by employing measures which he is said to have 
 i-epented bitterly of himself. In 1:.'08 the papal 
 legate, Pierre de Castelnau, was murdered; and 
 the murder was ascribed to Count Raymond of 
 Toulouse. A new crusade was preached, to be 
 led by Arnold, Abbot of Citeau.x, as papal legate, 
 and Simon of Jlontfort, Earl of Leicester, as 
 military chief; and behind this line stood the 
 French king waiting for an opportunity to rob 
 Count Raymond of his beautiful lands. The 
 count humiliated himself as much as he ]iossib!y 
 could : he paid a large sum into the pajial treas- 
 ury, was flagellated by the papal legate, and then 
 took the cross against his own subjects. The 
 first place which was taken was Beziers, a city 
 of between twenty thousand and forty thousand 
 inhabitants, and the capital of Count Roger, Ray- 
 mond's nephew, who had openly espoused the 
 cause of the heretics. When the general asked 
 what to do with the inhabitants of the captured 
 city, the papal legate answered, " Kill them all ! 
 God will know his own." In this manner the 
 war was carried on for twenty years. Town after 
 town was taken, pillaged, and burnt; of the in- 
 habitants, the orthodox were chained together, 
 and sent to the Mohammedan slave -markets, 
 while tlie heretics were massacred and burnt. 
 Xothing was left but a smoking waste. But, as 
 the war went on, its purpose changed. Religious 
 fanaticism had begun it: rapacity and ambition 
 were going to end it. ^Vhen Raymond was 
 ready to hand over all his movable property 
 to the pope, and all his land to the French king, 
 peace was concluded in V22',) ; and, in order to 
 purge the population, the Inquisition was estab- 
 lished in Languedoc, and soon extinguished the 
 sect. 
 
 [Lit. — Petri: Hist. Albigensiu7n,TTev\s, 1G1.5 ; 
 Perrin: Ilisl. des Alhii/eois, Geneva, 1078; Be- 
 xoisT : Hist, lies Albii/eois, Paris, lOUl ; Allix: 
 Hist. oftheAWif/enses, Oxford, 1821; ^Iaiti.axd: 
 Facts and Documents illustratice of the Ancient 
 Alliiijenses ami Walrlenses, London, 1832; F.^isER: 
 Theology of the Vallenses and Aihiyenses, London, 
 1S38; Fauriel: Croisade centre les Albiyeois, 
 Paris, 1838; B.\rran and D.\urogax: Histoire 
 lies (Jroisades contre les Albifjeois, Paris, 1S40. 
 B. ILvR^AU : Bermiril Delicieux et I'lni/uisition 
 Alhii/eois, Paris, 1S77. Meyeu : La chanson de la 
 croisade contre les Albii/eois, commencee par Guil- 
 laiime de Tudila et continuee par un poete anoni/me, 
 Paris, 1879.1 C. SCHMIDT.
 
 ALBIZZI. 
 
 48 
 
 ALCANTARA. 
 
 ALBIZZI, Antonio, b. in Florence, Xov. 25, 
 1517: d. at Kenipten, in Kavaria. July 17, lfi:i6 ; 
 •was secretary to the Cardinal of Austria, but 
 embraced Protestantism; left Italy, and resided 
 afterwards iu Augsburg, lusbriick, and Kempten. 
 He wrote : Sermones in MnttluBiini, Augsburg, 
 1609; Principinm Christkinorum slemmata, 1012; 
 J)e principiii 7'eli(/ioni,s ChristidiiiE, 1612; Exercita- 
 tiones llieolnfjirr, Kempten, 1616. 
 
 ALBIZZI, Bartholomew (Bartholumeus Albiciux 
 Pixaiiiis). h. at llivi.no, Tuscany; entered the 
 order of the Franciscans ; became a celebrated 
 preacher, and taught theology at Bologna, Padua, 
 Siena, Florence, and Pisa, where he died Dec. 
 10, 1101. lie is the author of the famous book, 
 Liber conffirmilalnm suncli Frmicisci cum Cliri.tto, 
 which in 1391) was accepted with great applause 
 by the chapter of his order, and during the fol- 
 lowing century imblished in various editions. A 
 refutation by Vergerio, Diao/rsi supra i Jiorelli di 
 san Francisco, was put on the index, and its author 
 declared a heretic. In 1512, however, Erasmus 
 Alber published at Wittenberg his Der BarfUsscr 
 Monch Eulcnspiciiel unit Alcoran, and the follow- 
 ing editions of the Llhcr conformitatum were then 
 altered, both in contents and title : Liber A uricus, 
 1590; Antiijuitale.i Franciscanec, 1623, etc. 
 
 ALBO, Joseph, b. at Soria, in Old Castile, in 
 the latter half of the fourteenth century ; d. as 
 rabbin at Montalvan, in 1128 ; wjis one of the 
 Jewish representatives at the famous disputation 
 held in 1112 before Benedict XITI. between 
 Jerome de Sancta Fide and a number of Jewish 
 theologians. In 1125 appeared his Sefer lia- 
 ikkarim, a defence of the Jewish dogmatics as 
 opposed to the Christian. The thirteen funda- 
 mental articles of Maimonides he reduced to 
 three, (iod. Revelation, and Retribution ; an<l 
 ■while JMaimonides maintained incomiuutaliility 
 of the law, Albo acknowledges the possibility of 
 a new divine revelation similar to that on Mount 
 Sinai. Of this work, which has been frequently 
 reprinted, .Schlesinger has given a German trans- 
 lation, Francfort, 1811. 
 
 ALBRIGHT, Jacob, the founder of " the Evan- 
 gelical .\ssociation of North America," b. near 
 Pottstown, Montgomery County, Penn., Jlay 1, 
 1759; d. May 8^ 1808, at Mii'hlbach, Lebanon 
 County, Penn. His parents were; Pennsylvania 
 Germans of the Lutheran Church, and in it he 
 was himself trained. He was taught in the pre- 
 vailing defective fashion the rudimiMits of e<luca- 
 tion; but as he grew up he found his surromul- 
 ings le.ss and less congenial to his intellectual 
 and spiritual life. After his marriage, he moved 
 away some seventy miles, into Lancaster County, 
 where was a more active pojiulation. Here he 
 carried on a successful tile and brick business, 
 and was on the road to wealth. In 1790 several 
 of his children died iu quick succession. The 
 keenness of ids grief and tiio faithful funeral 
 addresses of the Rev. Anton Ilautz, a German 
 Reformed minister, roused him from his religions 
 indifference, and led to his conversion. He found 
 no one to understand his riligious state among 
 his German LullnTan ni'iglibors; and ]irejudice 
 kept him from going to the Methodists until he 
 fell in with a Methodist lay-preacher, Adam 
 Kidgel, who taught him the way of God more 
 perfectly. Albright tiieii desired to get others 
 
 to share his joy, but met \vith' opposition : so 
 finally he turned to the ^Methodists, studied their 
 church government, w'as pleased with it. joined 
 them, and received an exhorter's license; but he 
 then had no intention of becoming a minister. 
 His mind brooded over the spiritual condition of 
 his German brethren, and he prayed earnestly for 
 their conversion. During a severe illness he 
 became convinced that he was to undertake the 
 work of reform, which he did October, 1796. 
 He gave up secular interests, and devoted himself 
 to preaching as an itinerant wlierever lie found 
 hearers. Although opposed, lie persevered, trav- 
 elled at his own expense, bent only on doing 
 good. He would have remained in the Method- 
 ist Church, but could not, because it at that 
 time did not intend entering on the German 
 field ; and so as he was forced to give some kind of 
 an organization to the little bodies of his con- 
 verts; he separated himself and them from the 
 Methodist Church, and .so, entirely contrary to 
 his plan, he became the founder of a new denom- 
 ination called the '■ Evangelical Association." 
 By 1800 he had organized three congregations. 
 In 1803 a council was held, and an org.anization 
 adopted, Methodist iu general features, but inde- 
 pendent of the Methodist-Episcopal Church. In 
 1807 the first conference was held. It was this 
 body of laymen w hich unanimously elected and 
 ordained Albright as their ])astor and bishop, and 
 declared the Bible to be tlieir only rule of faith 
 and practice. Albright was requested to compile 
 articles of faith and a di.scipline for the guid- 
 ance of the so-called " Albright people " Shortly 
 after this conference Albright died. Bishop 
 Yeakel, wlio contributes the "sketch of Albright 
 in the Lii'en of the Leaders of the Church Universal 
 (Amer. ed. by Rev. Dr. Maccracken, Phila.), 
 thus describes iiis personal appearance : " He was 
 nearly six feet high, had smooth black hair, a 
 high clear forehead, small, deeply-.set, piercing 
 eye.s, aquiline nose, mouth and chin well propor- 
 tioned, a symmetrical form, a white complexion, 
 the sanguine and choleric temperaments well 
 combined." See Evaxoei.ical Associatiox. 
 
 ALBRIGHT BRETHREN (Albrechls-Brwkr). 
 See KvANdKi.icAi, .Vssociation. 
 
 ALCANTARA, ORDER OF. In 1212 Alfon.so 
 IX. of Castile laid siegi- to the city of .Mcantara, 
 in the Province of Estremadura, on the I'ajo. 
 In 1218 he conquered it from the Moors, and 
 placed it under the defence of the Knights of 
 ('alatrava, who .soon after transferred it to 
 Xugno Fernandez, third grand-master of the 
 order of San Julian de Paregro. I'his order 
 was founded in 1150 against t,he Moors, by the 
 brothers .Suaro and (iomez Fernando Parrientos, 
 while defending a frontier castle of the above 
 name: it assumed the reformed rules of .St. 
 Benedict, and was confirmed in 1177 and 1183 
 by the pojies Ali^xander III. and Lucius III. 
 But after the conquest of Alcantara the knights 
 adopted the name of that city, and ranged them- 
 selves under the grand-master of Calatrava On 
 till! occasion, however, of a contested election of 
 grand-master, the Knights of Alcantara sepa- 
 rat<Ml from thosi^ of t'alatrava, and Don Diego 
 Sancte became their lirst giaiid-mastcr. I'he 
 thirty-eighth grand-master, Juan de Zuniga, was 
 also the last. Iu 1405 he resigned the office, and
 
 ALCIMUS. 
 
 49 
 
 ALDHELM. 
 
 became Archbishop of Seville; and, with the 
 ■consent of Pope Alexander VI., King Ferdinand 
 now united the grand-masterships of St. James, 
 Calatrava, and Alcantara to the crown. In its 
 days of prosperity the order possessed fifty coni- 
 manderies ; but in 1808 all its revenues were 
 •confiscated by King Joseph, and only jiarts of 
 them restored in 1811 by King Ferdinand. In 
 1873 the order was altogether abolished, but 
 re-established in 1871 by King Alfonso XII. 
 For the elder history of the order see Hei.yot: 
 Histoire i/es Ordres monasliques, T. VI., pp. o-i-O.j. 
 
 ALCIMUS, called also Jacimus (Joseph., -l/i^iV/. 
 XII. 9, 7), the Hebrew form of the name, an 
 apostate Jewish priest who attached liimself to 
 the Syrians from self-interest, and w'as created 
 high priest by Demetrius (B.C. Hi-), and sent 
 ■with a military escort, muier the Syrian general 
 Bacchides, unto Jerusalem. At first he was 
 successful in deceiving many principal men into 
 believing his peaceful intentions, but quickly 
 revealed his bloodthirsty disposition. Judas and 
 his party knew the truth about him, and opposed 
 him so successfully, that he had only tlie simula- 
 crum of priestly authority, and had to call upon 
 the Syrian king for additional aid. Nicanor, 
 who was then sent, was- killed by Judas, Adar 
 13, 161 B.C. Bacchides was then sent, and he 
 got him into the city; but Alcimus died suddenly 
 just as he was about to pull down the walls of 
 the temple in Jerusalem (Nisan B. C. IfJO). 
 See 1 Mace, vii., ix. 51-56. Joseph., Aiiliq. XII. 
 8. 7, and 10. K. WlESELEll. 
 
 ALCUIN {Ealivine, Alchwin, Aldtuin, Latinized 
 Flaccus Al/)inus), h. at York about 735; d. at 
 Tours, May 19, 801; received a monastic educa- 
 tion in the celebrated school of York, the repre- 
 sentative of Irisli Mrning on Anglo-Saxon 
 ground, and became in 706 the master of the 
 school himself. In 782, returning home from a 
 journey to Rome, he met Charlemagne at Pavia, 
 and was by him invited to assume the leadersliip 
 of this palatial school, in which the sons of the 
 most prominent Frankisli noblemen were edu- 
 cated. He accepted the invitation, and was en- 
 dowed with the abbeys of Bethlehem at Ferriferes, 
 and St Lupus at Troyes, to which, in 796, was 
 added that of St. Martin at Tours. Thus liv- 
 ing at the court, giving instruction to the king 
 himself, and superintending the schools of the 
 whole realm, Alcuin became one of the most 
 prominent members of that circle of great men, 
 ■ which, with Charlemagne as its centre, stood at 
 the head of the whole civilizing movement of the 
 age. Charlemagne employed him several times 
 as a political negotiator, especially in transactions 
 with England : but his proper place was as the ec- 
 clesiastical councillor of the king, and in this field 
 his influence was decisive (see the articles on Lihr-i 
 Cavolini and Ailoptioril.sm). Towards the close of 
 his life he left the administration of the several 
 monasteries under his authority to his puj^ils, and 
 retired into monastic seclusion. 
 
 The ideal wliich forms the inspiration of 
 Alcuin's whole life is tliat of a Christian state 
 in W'hich every thing is pervaded by a religious 
 spirit, and regulated by the laws of the church; 
 and he looked with admiration and awe to the 
 realization of this ideal, which the energy and 
 success of Charlemagne seemed to piromise. 
 5-.T. 
 
 Theology he conserpiently considered as the prin- 
 cipal element of education. His own theology 
 is wholly positive, without originality, derived 
 from the Fathers. He wrote both on dogmatics: 
 De Fiile Suiicl(e cl Im/iriilitw Trinitalls ; J)e Trin- 
 ilate ad Fridir/ifium Qiuv.tsi ioni's ; Lllxdlus dn proces- 
 sione Spirilux Saudi, etc.; and on exegetics. In 
 his exegetical writings the mystico-allegorical 
 metliod predomiijates. Classical learr.ing, Low- 
 ever, must not be neglecteil for theolog}'. Clas- 
 sical and ecclesiastical traditions belong together; 
 and, by combining them, tiie Christian Church 
 becomes the true guardian of civilization. The 
 Christian state wliich Charlem.agne is establish- 
 ing shall be a new Athens, of a liigher stamp, — 
 an Athens in which Christ is the master of the 
 academy, and the seven arts an introduction to 
 the septuple fulness of the Holy Spirit. In the 
 classical field, however, Alcuin himself was only 
 a compilator. He wrote on grammar, rhetoric, 
 and dialectic. He was a prolific poet, but the 
 greatest success in the literary line he achieved 
 by his letters. By Charlemagne's orders he re- 
 vised the Latin Bible in 802, • — a service for 
 which we should be grateful, as lu; restored 
 God's word to a state of comi>arative purity. 
 See Latin Vovions under Bna.E Vkrsioxs. 
 
 The sources to Alcuin's life are, his poem, De 
 Ponlificil/us, liis letters, and a vila written by an 
 anonymous author, but based on communications 
 of Sigulf, a pupil and companion of Alcuin. 
 The best edition of his works is that by Froben, 
 Ratisbon, 1777, 2 torn. fol. See also Jligne, Pa- 
 lm!. Tom. C. and Cl. The letters and liistorical 
 poems liave been publislied in Moniuninta Alcuin., 
 by DuEMMLKit and W.\TTE.\n.\cii, Berlin, 1873. 
 See F. LoKENTZ : Alcuin's Lcbcn, Halle, translat- 
 ed into English by Slee; Monxiek : Alcuin el 
 Charlcmai/ne, 2d edition, Paris, 1863; K. AVer- 
 nek: Alcuin und sein JaJirhundcrt, Paderborn, 
 1876. [A. Ebert: Allgemeine Gcscliiclile dcr Lite- 
 ralur des Mittelaltcrs iin Ahendlande, Leipzig, 1880. 
 Vol. 2, pp. 12-36.] MOLLER. 
 
 ALDFRITH, King of Xortliurabria 085-705, a 
 son of Aswin, was educated in Ireland, or perhaps 
 at lona, at all events within the pale of the Kuldee 
 Kirk, iiut was by AVilfrid drawn over to Roman- 
 ism. He continued, however, to entertain friendly 
 relations with the Kuldee Kirk, with Adamuan, 
 Aldhelm, etc.; and when Wilfrid, who was re-in- 
 stated as bishop in 687, urged his claims on the 
 estates of the Church, he displaced him once more 
 in 692, and no reconciliation took place between 
 them afterwards. See Smith and \V.\CE : Christ. 
 Bio;/. 1. 
 
 ALDHELM, b. in the middle of the seventh 
 century; d. May 25, 709; belonged to the royal 
 family of We.?sex, and was educated by Maildulf, 
 an Irish scholar who had founded a school at 
 Maildulfi Burgns (Malmesbury); studied at Can- 
 terbury : succeeded Maildulf at Malmesbury, and 
 was made abbot of the place, and in 705 Bishop 
 of Sherborn. He acquired a great celebrity as a 
 scholar, being the first Englishman who cultivated 
 the Latin language with success. Also practi- 
 cally he exercised a great influence, but his sj'm- 
 pathy leaned decidedly towards Canterbury. His 
 collected worlds have been edited bj^ Dr. Giles, 
 Oxford, 1814. The earliest biography of him is 
 that by Fabricius, published in Act. i'.S". Bull. May
 
 ALBANDER. 
 
 60 
 
 ALEXANDER. 
 
 !V. p. 84: the best is that by AVilliam of Malmes- 
 bury ill tlie fifth book of liis (Jesla Poniificum. 
 See Smith and Wack : Clirisl. Bioq. 
 
 ALEANDER, Hieronymus, b. at Motta, Feb. 13, 
 1480: <1. ill Koine. Feb. 1, 1542; studied first 
 medicine, then theolojjy, and led a rather loose 
 life in Venice, where he made the acquaintance 
 of Aldus and Erasmus; became ]M'ofessor of Greek 
 in the University of Paris, l.oOS; entered the 
 service of the Prince-Bishop of Liege in 151.5 ; was 
 made librarian to the Vatican in 1516; and in 
 1520 sent as papal legate to Germany together 
 with C'araccioli. At the diet of Worms he .spoke 
 three hours against I^uther (Feb. 13, 1521), and 
 drew lip tlie act of the imperial Ijan. He was made 
 Archbisliop of Briudisi, 1524; a cardinal, 1538. 
 See Bkiegku : Aleander u. Luther, Gotha, 1SS4. 
 
 ALEGAMBE, b. m Brussels 1.592; d. in Rome 
 1G52; entered the order of tlie Jesuits at Palermo 
 in 1613; was made professor in theology at Gratz 
 1029; accompanied Ferdinand II. on his travels 
 through Germany, France, Spain, Portugal, and 
 Italy ; returned to his chair in Gratz, and was 
 finally made secretary to the general of the Jes- 
 uits in Rome, and placed at the head of the 
 German department. Of his writings the most 
 remarkable is his Hil/liiillieca Scriptonim Socii-fatis 
 Jexu, Antwerp, 1043. The work bears very dis- 
 tinct marks of the Jesuit spirit, — thus the Jan- 
 seuists Marion and Servin are repre.^ented as 
 heretics, — but at the same time it shows signs of 
 a certain freedom of judgment. The author 
 proves that various books .against the royal power, 
 the episcopacy, the Sorbonne, etc., were written 
 by Jesuit authors, though the French Jesuits had 
 tried hard to deny the authorship. A new aug- 
 mented but not corrected edition of the work was 
 given ill Rmne in 1075 by (iotuel. IIERZOG. 
 
 ALEMANNI, The, according to Asinius Quad- 
 ratus, the league between men of different de- 
 scent; according to Grimm, the very best men. 
 They m;ide their first ap|iearance in history under 
 Caracalla, in the beginning of the third century, 
 and were first mentioiieil by Dio Cassius. They 
 were located between the Neckarand the Lake of 
 Constance, and during the fourth century they 
 made frequent and devastating raids into (Jaul 
 and I'pper Italy. In the fifth century Aleinannia 
 was tlie name for thc^ whole region from the 
 Vcsges to the Iller, and from the Lower Maine 
 to the St. (iotthard; but, after the defeat at Ziil- 
 pich (490), the northern part — the regions around 
 the Neckar, Kocher, Jaxt, and Tauber — was 
 incorporated with the Frankisli Empire, and the 
 southern and eastern parts, as faras tlie Lech, came 
 under the jiatronago of the Ostro-Goths. After 
 the deatli of Tlieodoric, howi'Ver, and the disso- 
 lution of the ().stro-(jlotliic Empire, the whole 
 Alemannia fell to the Franks. Again, after the 
 dissolution of tin? Caroliiigian Empire, a duchy of 
 Alemannia was formed; but towarils the end of 
 the eleventh century the name AIemaiini:i gradu- 
 ally disapjieared, ami was supplanted by tliat of 
 Suabia. The Ali'inanni, especially those located 
 about the? Lake of Ziirieh, worship|ie(l Wuotan 
 and the war-god Ziii. They had idols of metal, 
 to which they brought sacrifices of beer. Aga- 
 tiiias (5X2) mentions that they also worshipped 
 trees, streams, hills, ami glens. 
 
 Christianity was first introduced among the 
 
 Alemanni about the year 300; but for a long 
 time the number of converts was only small, and 
 the majority of the people remained Pagan nr.til 
 the seventh century. The foundation, however, 
 in the sixth centuiy, of the bishoprics of Con- 
 stance, Basel, and Strassburg, shows that Chris- 
 tianity already began to spread in the country. 
 It was especially Irish missionaries who worked 
 in this field. The first of them was Fridolin, 
 who about 530 founded the IMonastery of .Siick- 
 ingen on an island in the Rhine between Basel 
 and Zui'zach. A century later on, Columbanus 
 and Gallus preached Christianity in Northern 
 Switzerland, and the latter founded the Monas- 
 tery of St. Galleii about 012. A Christian duke. 
 Cunzo, is spoken of at this time as residing in 
 Uberlingen. An itinerant preacher, Pirmin. a 
 Frank, exercised great influence, and founded 
 the monasteries of Reicheiiau, Mirbach, AVeissen- 
 burg, Mauersraiinster, Schwarzach. Gengenbach, 
 and Hornbach in 724 and the following years. 
 The Alemannian law, dating from the period be- 
 tween 540 and 501, speaks of Christianity as the- 
 religion of the nation, and of the ecclesiastical 
 hierarchy as .an exi.sting institution. See Fkied- 
 mcii : Kircheni/eschickte Detttschtands, II. 1, Bam- 
 berg, 1809. KLUl'FEL. 
 
 ALESIUS, Alexander, b. in Edinburgh, April 
 2-3, 1.500; d. in Leipzig, March 17, 1505; while a 
 canon at St. Andrews, in 1527, he was employed 
 to bring Patrick Hamilton to recant, and attend 
 him at the stake, but received so deep an 
 impression, both of the martyr's arguments and 
 of his ardent conviction, that lie himself was 
 converted to the reformed doctrines, and in 1530 
 he fled to Germany. After 1534 lie was invited 
 to England by Henry VIII., and made professor 
 at Cambridge ; but in 1540 he returned to Ger- 
 many, where he spent the rest of his life as pro- 
 fessor, first ill Frankfort-on-the-Oder, afterwards 
 in Leipzig, and in intimate connection with the 
 Reformers, especially Melanchthon. Besides 
 commentaries on various parts of the Scriptures, 
 he wrote : Dn necessilatu el merilo Imnonim openim, 
 1500; Di; jusliJicatUme ; Dc Sii)icl<i Trinilate ; Re- 
 spiinaio ail Irii/hila et (/«».< (irllciilos tlieohif/nnim 
 Ldvenieiisium. His original name was Alane. 
 He assumed the other in exile. 
 
 ALEXANDER is Ihi: name of eight popes. — 
 Alexander I. occupied the Roman see in the be- 
 ginning of the second century, between Evaris- 
 tus and Xistus I. ; but the dates, both of his 
 accession and of his death, are uncertain. Euse- 
 bius gives 103-114 in his Chronicle and 108-118 
 in his Ilisl. ICccl. ; Cixkx IJlierii gives 10!)-110, 
 etc, Accoriling to the LUier Pdnli/kalis and Acin 
 Alfxanilri, he suffereil martyrdom together with 
 Eventius and Theodnlus, and was buried on 
 tlie Via Numenlaiai. — Alexander II. (.Vnselm of 
 Lucca), Oct. 1, lOOl-Ajiril 21, 1073, a native 
 of Baggio in the Milanese, became, in the 
 Monastery of Bee, acipiainted with those ideas 
 of reform which at that time spread from the 
 Monastery of Cluiiy, and jireaclicd them in 
 Xorthern Italy with so much effect, that he is 
 geni'ially considered the spiritual father of the 
 .so-ealled Pataria, — a ]io]iular movement directed 
 against the depraved clergy, and their allies the 
 arrogant city nobility. Even after his elevation 
 to the episcopal chair of l^ucca, liecontiiiu"d lii,-^
 
 ALEXANDER. 
 
 r>i 
 
 ALEXANDER. 
 
 connection with tlie Pataiia, and was twice sent 
 to Milan as pajial lco;atH in its ail'airs. Hnt 
 conip. II. Pack : Die Palaria in Miiiiilanil, Son- 
 dersiiausen, 1872, and Kuugku : Die I'aliiria in 
 Mdiiildin/, Breshiu, 1874. After tlip death of 
 Niohohxs IF., Anselni was fdected pope through 
 the inthienee of llildebrand, and Ids reign shows 
 plainly tlie spirit wliicli ruhxl liiin. .\s tlio con- 
 sent of tlie Knipress Agues and her minor .son, 
 Henry IV., had not been obtained, ;i synod of 
 Basel elected Bi.sho]i Cadalus of Parma JKipe, 
 under the name of Honorius II. (Oct. 28, lOlil), 
 and bloody battles were fought between tlie two 
 popes outside the walls of Koine. Through the 
 influence of Archbishop Ilanno of Cologne, who 
 held the young king and with him the regency, 
 a general council was then convened at Mantua, 
 and here Alexander was recognized, and Ilonorius 
 excommunicated. But Ilanno did not earn niucli 
 thanks for what he had done. When (in 1068), 
 on a journey to Rome, he made a visit to the ex- 
 communicated Cadalus on some secular errand, 
 Alexander refused to see him until he presented 
 himself before him in the garb of penitence 
 and with naked feet. Still harsher the king 
 was treated. In 1071 the Roman curia de- 
 posed ISisliop Charles of Constance, though the 
 king liad invested him with ring and staff. In 
 1072 the same measure was taken against Arch- 
 bishop Gottfried of Milan ; and when Henry 
 IV., nevertheless, had Gottfried consecrated, the 
 pope put him in ban. Also in his relations to 
 Philip I. of France, Robert Guiscard of Sicily, 
 and \Villiam the Conqueror, of England, Alex- 
 ander knew how to vindicate the papal authority. 
 The idea of filling all the episcopal chairs of 
 conquered England with Normans originated 
 with him, and he raised Lanfranc of Bee to the 
 ai'chiepiscopal see of Canterbury, and made 
 him primate of the Church of England. See 
 R. Baxm.vnn : Die PoUtik Jer Pupste van Grei/or 
 I. his Gref/nr VII., Elberfeld, 1800. — Alexander 
 
 III. (Roland), Sept. 7, 11.59-Aug. :iO, 1181, a 
 native of Siena, seems to liave taught /»s canoni- 
 cum for .some time at Bologna, and is the author 
 of the so-called Sunima Maf/istri liolandi. In 
 ll.oO he was called to Rome by Eugene III., and 
 made cardinal-deacon; and from 1153 he held 
 the influential position as papal chancellor, pla- 
 cing himself at the head of the anti-imperial 
 party among the cardinals, and advocating a close 
 alliance with William of Sicily. After the deatli 
 of Adrian IV. he received all the votes but 
 three, which were cast for the cardinal-presby- 
 ter, Octavianus. The latter, however, succeeded 
 in obtaining the assent of the clergy and the 
 people, assumed the name of Victor IV., and 
 thus the scliism began, which lasted for nearly 
 twenty years. The emperor, Frederick I., con- 
 vened a council at Pavia, which confirmed the 
 election of Victor IV. (Feb. 11, 11(30), and 
 placed Alexander III. under the ban ; but Alex- 
 ander, who had refused to be present at a council 
 convened by an emperor, answered by excom- 
 municating Frederick. March 24. But two years 
 later (March 2.3, 1102) he was compelled to flee 
 from Italy, and seek refuge in France, where 
 Louis VII. gave liim a safe residence in Sens, 
 and a most liberal support. The death of Victor 
 
 IV. (April 20, llO-l; did not end the schism. 
 
 Reinald von Dassel ininuHliately established a 
 new anti-]iope, Ba.schalis III., without paying 
 any regard to the canonical forms of election ; 
 aiul, when Pasclialis died (Sept. 20. UGS), the 
 imperial Jiarty in Rome and tlu^ i)eople chose 
 Calixtus III. In 1105 Alexander III. made an 
 attempt to establish himself in Italy, and entered 
 Rome (Nov. 23). But in the following year the 
 emperor arrived in Italy with a great army. 
 Rome was taken by storm ; Pasclialis was re- 
 established ; and Alexander was again compelled 
 to flee. Nevertheless, his authority was steadily 
 increasing; and when, in 1107, the Lombardian 
 cities formed a union against Frederick I., under 
 the protectorate of Alexander III., the former 
 showed himself willing to open negotiations. 
 These failed, liowever, and the emperor once 
 more marched an army into Italy ; but this time 
 he w.as .so completely defeated in the battle of 
 Legnano (May 29, 117C) that he had to submit to 
 all the demands of the pope, and at the congress 
 of Venice (Aug. 1, 1177) he not only recognized 
 Alexander III., but conferred on him the prspfec- 
 ture of the city of Rome. A still greater 
 triumph he gained over King Henry II. of Eng- 
 land; for Becket was canonized, and the king 
 compelled to submit to a humiliating penance. 
 The culminating point of his succe.ss is the 
 Lateran synod of 1179. Here the Catharists 
 were excommunicated, and a crusade inaugurated 
 against them ; and here a change was made in 
 the papal election, exelndiiig the lower clergy 
 and the people, and abolishing the emperor's 
 right of confirmation. The sympathy of the 
 Romans, however, Alexander III. never obtained. 
 Though Calixtus III. formally abdicated (Aug. 
 29, li78), and acknowledged Alexander, a new 
 anti-pope. Innocent III., was elected. Alexander 
 was driven out of Rome for the third time, and 
 died at Civita Castellana, an exile. See H. 
 Reutek : Geschichle Alex. III., Leipzig, 2d ed. 
 entirely revised 1800-64, 3 vols. — Alexander 
 IV. (llinaldo de Coiiti), Dec. 12, 1254-.May 2.5, 
 1261, was made a cardinal-deacon in 1227, and 
 cardinal-bishop of Ostia in 1231, and succeeded 
 Innocent IV. in the papal chair, adopting the 
 policy of his predecessor and continuing the con- 
 test with the Hohenstaufens. On his death-bed 
 Conrad IV. placed his son Conradin, heir to the 
 Duchy of Suabia and the kingdoms of Jerusalem 
 and Sicily, under the guardianship of the pope, 
 hoping thereby to change his bitterest enemy 
 into an ally. Innocent IV. accepted the guardi- 
 anship with great promises, and (Jan. 23, 12.55) 
 Alexander IV. renewed these promises. He did 
 not keep them, however. On Feb. 4, same year, 
 he advised the Suabian nobles to desert their 
 hereditary duke, Conradin, and espouse the 
 cause of Alphonso of Castile. On March 25 he 
 excommunicated Manfred, the uncle of Conradin, 
 who had taken charge of the kingdom of Sicily 
 in the name of his nephew ; and on April 9 he 
 concluded an alliance with Henry HI. of Eng- 
 land, bestowing on his son the heritage of Conra- 
 din, Sicilv, and Apulia, as papal fiefs. At the 
 death of William of Holland (Jan. 28. 1250) he 
 forbade the Archbishops of Cologne, Mentz. and 
 Treves, to place Conradin on the throne of his 
 father ; and, in the contest about the German 
 crown which now arose between Alphonso of
 
 ALEXANDER. 
 
 52 
 
 ALEXANDER. 
 
 Castile and Richard of Cornwallis, he took the 
 part of the latter in a most energetic manner. 
 His interest in the English alliance, however, 
 ■was merel)' pecuniary; for from England came 
 the money which enabled him to carry on tlie 
 war against Manfred. In August. 12.58, on a 
 rumor of the death of Conradiu, Manfred him- 
 self assumed the crown of Sicily; and, after the 
 victery of Moutaperto aud the conquest of Flor- 
 ence, he stood as the acknowledged head of the 
 Ghibelliue party. The pope renewed the e.x- 
 comnimiication against him Xov. 18, 1260 ; but, 
 in spite of the reverses of Ezzelino da Romano, 
 tiie Ghibellines were in the .ascendency; and 
 shortly before his death Alexander experienced 
 the humiliation to see Manfred elected into the 
 Roman senate. The last year of his reign was 
 also much troubled by the Flagellants, whose 
 processions and preachings in Rome he su]i- 
 pressed. The council which he called at Vi- 
 terbo, for the purpose of setting on foot a cru- 
 sade against the Tartars, did not convene until 
 after his death. — Alexander V. (Peter Philargi), 
 June 26, H09-May 3, 1410, an orphan-boy from 
 Candia, educated in a Minorite monastery, en- 
 tered afterwards the order, travelled in Italy, 
 England, and France, acquired a name as a 
 teacher of rhetoric in the University of Paris, 
 received a notable appointment at tlie court of 
 Duke John Galeazzo Visconti, and was made 
 Archbishop of Milan in 1402, and cardinal-pres- 
 byter by Innocent VII. The Council of Pisa, 
 convened for the purjiose of ending the schism 
 between Renedict XIII. and Gregory XII., 
 elected him. tlien seventy years old, to the clniir 
 of St. Petef, having deposed the two rivalling 
 popes. But the measures adopted by tlie council 
 did not succeed. Renedict XIII. was still ac- 
 knowledged by Spain, Portugal, and Scotland; 
 Gregory XII., by Naples, Hungary, and parts of 
 Germany; an<l Alexander V., by France, ICng- 
 land, and parts of Germany ; and the three popes 
 reciprocally exconunnnieati'd and anatliematizi'd 
 each other. — Alexander VI. (Rodrigo Lanzol). 
 Aug. 11, 1492-Aug. 18, l.")0:i, a native of 
 Valencia, was adopted by his uncle, Calixtus 
 HI., into the family of the Borgia, made Bisliop 
 of ^'alencia, a cardinal-deacon, and vice-chancid- 
 lor of the Roman curia. This remunerative 
 position he prostituted to amass an enormous 
 wealth, and iiis wealth he spent in the most 
 appalling debaucheries. But his scandalous life 
 did not impede his ecclesiastical ]ir<imotlon. He 
 was made Cardinal Bishop of Porto, and after 
 the death of Innocent VIII. lu; ascended the 
 chair of St. Peter, having bought a nuijority of 
 the votes. Nor did he change his life after he- 
 coming pope. His adultiM-y with Jidia Farne.se, 
 the wife of one of liis nephews, aud with his own 
 daughter-ill-law, the wife of .lofrc^, was noto- 
 rious; and it was generally sai<l. though never 
 proved, that he had committed incest with his 
 own daughtiT, Lucretia Borgia. In vain the 
 secular powers remonstrated ; in vain the UKU-e 
 serious men censured: the former were eluded, 
 the latter silenced. Alexander VI. knew only 
 two motives of action, — the gratification of his 
 sensual passions, ami the elevation of his chil- 
 dren to power and wealth. The latter motive 
 finally coucentratcMl itself npou his son, Ciesar 
 
 Borgia. He had been made Archbishop of Va- 
 lencia in 1492, and cardimil in 1493; but he 
 wished to leave the Church, aud found a secular 
 sovereignty, and he began the execution of his 
 schemes b_v murdering his brother Jnan, Duke 
 of Gandia, Jime 14, 1497. In 1499 he married 
 Charlotte d'Albret, a sister of the King of 
 Navarre, and was made Duke of Valence : and 
 while the father continued his intrigues at the 
 courts of Najiles. Spain, France, etc., — intrigues 
 which, thougli they involved death aud destruc- 
 tion to thousands of human beings, have no real 
 interest, religious or political, — the son w as busy 
 in the Romagna. expelling the ruling families by 
 open force, or exterminating them by assassina- 
 tion and poi.son. The immense property of the 
 family of Colonna was confiscated, aud imme- 
 diately after the despoliation of the Colonnas 
 that of the Orsinis began. The old Cardinal 
 Orsini was compelled to drink poison. In liJOl 
 the Ronuxgna and the Marshes, these the two 
 ])rincipal provinces of the papal dominion, were 
 transformed into a donuiin of the Borgia family. 
 -Vs the aims became more daring, the means 
 became more unscrupulous. The pope intrigued 
 for the acquisition of Pisa, Lucca, aud Siena 
 from the emperor, and meditated the elevation 
 of the Romagna into a kingdom, but w.as sud- 
 denly caught in his own trap. He intended to 
 poison the rich Cardinal .\drian at a feast, in 
 order to appropriate his enormous wealth ; but 
 .Vdriau bought the cook, and the poison was 
 placed before the pope himself, who died from 
 its effects. See GoUDOX: I.ifa of Ali'jninler 
 VI., London, 1729; Domkxico Ckkki: Bari/ia 
 (issia AlcuKniiilro VI. P(i/i(i c stioi Conlempormiei, 
 Turin, 18.58; Gunr.oKovius : Lucretia Bori/ia, 
 Munich, 1870; V. Rkmkc; PupstAlcraiuIrr \'[. 
 Eine Reclil/'irlii/inii/, Linz, 1879. — Alexander VII. 
 (Fabio Ciiigij, April 7, 16.55-May 22, lt!67, 
 partook as papal legate in tlie negotiations of the 
 peace of Westphalia, but declared that he would 
 enter into no ccimmnnieation with heretics, and 
 protested publicly against the validity of the 
 treatii^s of Miinster and Osnabriick. .Vfter his 
 return from Germany he was made a cardinal 
 and secretary of state, and it was due to his 
 influence that Innocent X. condemned as hereti- 
 cal the five ))ro]iositions extract.e<l from .lanse- 
 nius's Angustinus. He was completely under 
 the sway of the .lesuits; and in their controversy 
 with the Port Hoyal he first condemned ;dl who 
 a.sserted that the above five propositions could 
 not be foniid in .lausenius's book, and then all 
 who doubted the infallibility of the pope also 
 with respect to historical or matter-of-fact ipies- 
 tioiis. But such over-assertions are simply the 
 products of weakness, and the waning vigor of 
 the papacy became very apparent at several occa- 
 sions under this pope. Tlie French ambiissador, 
 l)uk(^ lie Crec]ui, considered liimseir insiilt.ed on 
 account of a brawl between his retinue and the 
 Corsicaii guard of the jtope, and left Rome. As 
 suflicieiit satisfaction was not immediately given, 
 Louis XIV. ordered the papal nuncio to leave 
 Paris, occiijiied Avignon aud Venaissin, aud 
 threatened with an invasion. In order to obtain 
 jieace tin; pojie had to subiuit to very hnmiliating 
 (■onditions. Also in Portugal his policy nearly 
 proved fatal. In 1610 Portugal sejiarated from
 
 ALEXANDER. 
 
 ALEXANDER. 
 
 Spain, and chose a kina^ of its own, of the liouse 
 of Hrasanza. Hut Innocent X. refused to recojf- 
 nize tlie new king and to confirm the Ijisliops 
 apjiointed liy him Alexander VII. continued 
 this policy; and the result w.as, that King .lohn 
 IV. left the epi.scopal sees vacant, and employeil 
 the revenues for the army and otlu^r secular pur- 
 poses. Indeed, he even meditated to separate 
 altogether from Home, and form a national 
 church, in which the right of confirming the 
 bishops should belong to the archbishop. This, 
 however, was prevented by Clement IX. — Alex- 
 ander Vlll. (Pietro Otto'boni), Oct. 6, 1689- 
 Feb. 1, ItJDl, under wliom the relation to France so 
 far imi>roved that the king surrendered Avignon, 
 and renounced his claims on the right of asylum 
 for his ambassador. The real cause of the con- 
 troversy was not removed, however. After long 
 hesitation the pope pronounced invalid the four 
 propositions agreed upon in 1082 by the king and 
 clergy of France, and establishing the freeilom of 
 the Galilean Church, and absolved the French 
 clergy from the oath which was made on the 
 propositions. R. zoi'FFEL. 
 
 ALEXANDER, patriarch of Alexandria 313- 
 32(j. Under him the Arian controversy broke 
 out in 319. Arius was condemned by a .synod 
 in Alexandria, in 320. at which a hundred bish- 
 ops were present. \Vheu banished, he went to 
 Palestine; and, as he was well received there, 
 Alexander wrote first to certain bishops separate- 
 ly, then an encyclical letter to all the bishops of 
 the church, setting forth the errors of Arius. 
 The interference of the Emperor Constantine, 
 though intended to still the rising storm, gave 
 only occasion to more debate ; and in 32.5 the 
 first oecumenical council followed. Of Alexan- 
 der's letters two have come down to us, — one 
 having lieen preserved by Socrates (I. ti), and 
 another bv Theodoret (I. 4). 
 
 ALEXANDER, Archibald, D.D., LL.D., the 
 first [irofessor in the Princeton Theological Sem- 
 inary, and one of the founders of Princeton 
 theology; b. in Augusta (now Kockbridge) Coun- 
 ty, Va., April 17, 1772: d. at Princeton, N.J., 
 Oct. 22, 1851. At ten years of age he was sent 
 to the Liberty Hall Academy, of which the Rev. 
 William Graham was principal, and where he 
 had remarkable men for teachers; at sixteen he 
 became a family tutor, but was converted in the 
 " (ireat Revival " of 1789, studied theology, and 
 after licensure went as missionary through the 
 sparsely-settled poi'tions of his native State, and 
 eventually became pastor of two churches. From 
 1796 to 1801 he was president of Hampden-Sidney 
 College. In 1807 he succeeded Dr. Milledoler in 
 the Third Presbyterian Church of Philadelphia. 
 In 1812 he was called by the General Assembly 
 to that great work which has given him an 
 undying reputation, — the organization of the 
 Princeton Theological Seminarj-. For the first 
 year he taught all the departments, then Rev. 
 Dr. Miller joined him; and to them in common 
 belongs the glory of establishing the sshool. 
 Dr. Alexander was distinguished for practical 
 common sense, profound knowledge of human 
 nature, keen sympathies, and, above all, simple, 
 earnest, Christ-like piety ; which render the study 
 of his life a pleasure, as the life itself was a joy 
 and an inspiration. It is not too much to say 
 
 that he gave tone to the Presbyterian Church in 
 America, and the high-water mark to her piety. 
 Hy his lectures upon theology lie taught the 
 teachers of the Church; and so to-day his influ- 
 ence is felt. In common with men of his class 
 and day, he had a great horror of German theol- 
 ogy as necenfnirili/ misleading. Dr. Alexander 
 wrote many book.s, of which the principal are: 
 Outlines (if the Eviilences of C/iristiiuiiti/ (1823, 
 often reprinted); Canon oftlie 0. iind N. T. (182fi); 
 lliitori) of Loif ColU'fie (1846); and posthumously, 
 Muml Science (18.52) : all these were published 
 in Philadelphia. He prepared, also, the BilAe 
 Dictioniiri/ of the American Sunday-school Union 
 (Philadelphia, 1831), an excellent little book, 
 which served Christian families for a generation, 
 although for purposes of instruction superseded 
 by the new Bihle Dictioniiri/ of the Union (Phila- 
 delpihia, 1880). See his Memoir by liis son. Rev. 
 Dr. .T. W. Alexander, N.Y., 18.54. 
 
 ALEXANDER, James Waddell, D.D., b. in Vir- 
 ginia. March 13, 1804; d. in the same State, ,Iuly 
 31, 1859. He was graduated at Princeton, 1820; 
 was pastor in Virginia from 1824 to 1828; in 
 Trenton, N.J., 1828 to 1832 ; professor of rhet- 
 oric and belles-lettres in the College of New 
 Jersey, 1832 to 1844 ; became pastor of the Duane- 
 street congregation. New York; again a pro- 
 fessor, 1849, this time of ecclesiastical history 
 and church government in Princeton Theologi- 
 cal Seminary; but in 1851 he returned to New 
 York as pastor of the Fifth-avenue Presbyterian 
 Church, and until his death wielded a great 
 influence. The charm about his preaching was 
 its spirituality. He spoke as the ambassador of 
 Christ. His zeal in Christian work. was tirele.ss, 
 and to pr;u;tical and not scholarly ends he ad- 
 dressed his writings ; one of the best of these is 
 his Plain Words to a Young Communicant, which 
 has been of much help to young believers. Of 
 great homiletical value is his Thoughts on Preach- 
 ing, "S.Y., 18G1. He wrote also some of the best 
 translations of German hymns, which first ap- 
 peared in Schaff's Deutsche Kirchenfreund . Some 
 of them, especially P. Gerhardt's passion hymn 
 " O sacred Head now wounded," have passed into 
 many hymn-books. See Forty Years' Familiar 
 Letters ot' Rev. Dr. J. W. Alexander, edited by 
 Rev. Dr. John Hall of Trenton. N.Y., 1860; 2 vols. 
 
 ALEXANDER, Joseph Addison, D.D., b. in 
 Philadelphia, April 24, 1809 ; d. at Princeton, 
 N.J., Jan. 28, 1860. He was the third son of 
 Archibald Alexander ; educated in Princeton, 
 and was graduated there, from the College of 
 New .Jersey, with the highest honors, although 
 only seventeen, 1826. He had already .shown 
 that taste for languages which distinguislied him, 
 and availed himself of a little leisure, after grad- 
 uation, to carry forward his favorite studies. In 
 connection with Profes.sor Robert B. Patton. he 
 taught a classical academy at Edge Hill, near 
 Princeton, and bore the heavier part of the bur- 
 den of preparing Professor Patton 's first Ameri- 
 can edition of Donnegan's Greek Lexicon. la 
 the fall of 1830 he became adjunct professor of 
 ancient languages and literature in the College 
 of New Jersey, but resigned in the spring of 
 1833, and went to Europe for a year of study in 
 Germany. On his return, he became instructor 
 in the Oriental languages and literature in Prince-
 
 ALEXANDER. 
 
 54 
 
 ALEXANDER. 
 
 ton Theological Seminary, although the formal 
 acceptance of this chair, to which he had been 
 elected in 183.5, ^Yas not given until 1838. In 
 1852 he changed to the chair of church history, 
 and 1S5S to that of New Testament literature, 
 which lie held at the time of his death. He was 
 a scholar of wide reading, of catholic tastes, and 
 great industry. His mode of life was peculiar: 
 a bachelor, he was incessantly occupied with, 
 and wholly engrossed in, his worli, and lived 
 much to himself, took very little regular exer- 
 •cise, and by his abstracted ways won a reputation 
 for eccentricity and hauteur; yet he was a man 
 of tenderness, modesty, and piety. As a preacher, 
 he was popular and brilliant, and to the inner 
 circle who knew him there was no more charm- 
 ing friend. He was the most remarkable lin- 
 guist America has produced. He read some thirty 
 languages, and with many of these had a critical 
 acquaintance, and could speak seven : he devoted 
 himself chiefly to Hebrew. As a commentator, 
 he followed Hengstenberg, but not slavishly, for 
 he w'as a profound and genuine scholar ; yet the 
 everywhere present hand of his admired master 
 may have somewhat altered his judgment, as it 
 certainly detracted from the originality of his 
 work. He published commentaries upon the 
 /".>■«/»«, N.Y., 3 vols., 1850; haiah, N.Y., 2 vols , 
 1846-47, his masterpiece, best edition, edited by 
 Rev. Dr. John Eadie of (Jlasgow, 1875. Pro- 
 fessor Charles Hodge and he planned a series of 
 popular commentaries upon the New Testament, 
 of which he finished Mark; N.Y., 1858, and Acts, 
 N.Y., 1856. Mattliew was posthumously pub- 
 lished, N.Y., 1860, besides two volumes of Ser- 
 mons (N.Y., 1860), and Notes im New Testament 
 Literature. His Hior/rapliy was written by his 
 nephew, H. C. .Vi.kxaxdkh, N.Y., 1870, 2 vols. 
 
 ALEXANDER BALAS, according to his own 
 account and that of his adherents, a natural .sou 
 of Antiochus Epijihanes, but by his adversaries 
 considered an impostor, landed at Ptolemais in 
 152 B.C., and conquered the Syrian throne after 
 a two-years' contest with Demetrius Soter, who 
 was defeated and killed in 150. In 147, however, 
 Demetrius Nicator, a .son of Demetrius Soter, 
 raised a rebellion in .Syria; and when the Egyp- 
 tian king, Ptolemy, invaded the country, and 
 declared hinuself in favor of Demetrius, Alexan- 
 der was route<i, and murdered at .Vbae in Arabia, 
 whither he liad fled, 116. His relations to the 
 Jews, es|>ecially to tiieir leader, Jonathan, were 
 very friendly, as appears both from the first Book 
 of the Maccabees ami from Joseplius. 
 
 ALEXANDER JANN/EUS, king of the Jews, 
 10t-7.s B.C; thi- third sou of John Hyrcanus ; 
 open-'d liis rciiju by jiutting to death one of his 
 brothers, ami receiveil from his own suliji'cts the 
 .surname •• Thraci<li-s " (as cruel as a Thracian). 
 Besidi's his wars with fori'ign provinces, with 
 Ptolemy Eathyrus, with the Moabites ami Am- 
 moniti's, with Di'nu'trius Eucierus, Anitas, etc , 
 liis reign was an almost uninterru[ited .series of 
 internal revolts and massacres. He had to sur- 
 round the altar with a screen of boards when he 
 sacrificed, because the pi'opli; assembled in the 
 temple threw lemons at him ; and, wlii'u he once 
 asked them what he should do to win tlieir good- 
 will, they simply answered. " Kill yourself." 
 After his death, his widow Alexandra gave liie 
 
 Pharisees a considerable share in the government 
 in order to preserve the throne for her two minor 
 sons; and from this occurrence dates the politi- 
 cal influence of the Pharisees. Joseph. : Anlii/. 
 xiii. 12-16. 
 
 ALEXANDER NEVSKI, b. at Vladimir 1218: 
 d. Nov. 14, at Gorodetz 1263, a son of the grand 
 duke Jaroslav ; ascended the throne 1252, and 
 governed so wisely, that, when he died, the Ilus- 
 si.an people inscribed him in their calendar as a 
 saint. On the spot on the Neva where he gained 
 one of his greatest victories, defeating the .Swedes 
 and the Teutonic knights, Peter the Great built 
 one of the greatest and richest monasteries in 
 Russia, bearing his name; and the day of his 
 burial (Nov. 23) as W'ell as the day on which his 
 relics were transferred to the monastery, are con- 
 secrated by the Russian Church as his festivals. 
 Of the great exertions of Innocent IV. to make 
 him join the Roman Church he seems to have 
 taken very little notice ; but he was very anxious 
 to procure toleration and respect for Christian- 
 ity among the Mohammedan peoples of Central 
 and Western Asia. 
 
 ALEXANDER OF HALES (Halensls or Alen, 
 six, ahso Halesitts or Alesius) was educated in the 
 Monaster}- of Hales, Gloucestershire, Eng., stud- 
 ied in the University of Paris, entered the ordei 
 of the Franciscans in 1222, acquired a great 
 fame as a teacher in theology, and died in Paris 
 1245. His Smmiia Universce Theolor/ia;, first 
 printed at Venice (1475), was written on the in- 
 stigation of Innocent IV., and received his appro- 
 bation. It is not a commentary on the sentences 
 of Lombardus, but an independent work, giving 
 a triple series of authorities, — those who say yes, 
 those who say no, and then the reconciliation or 
 judgment, and choosing the authorities not only 
 in the Bible and among the Fathers, but also 
 among Greek, Latin, and .Vrab poets and philos- 
 ophers, and among later theologians. It treats 
 in its first part the doctrines of God and his 
 attributes ; in its second, those of creation and 
 sin; in its third, those of redemption and atone- 
 ment ; and, in its fourth and last, those of the 
 sacraments. Among the doctrines which have 
 been specially developed, and, so to speak, fixed, 
 by .Mexaiuler of Hales, are those of the l/iesaurus 
 supererof/dliiinis per/ecloniiii, of the clinrarlrr inde- 
 tibelis of baptism, confirmation, ami ordination, 
 etc. See IlAL'liEAU : De la /ihilosopliie scolastique, 
 Paris, 1850. I. ; StOckkl, Gischichte it. I'hiloso- 
 l>hie, Mainz, 1865, Bud. IE, pp. 317-326; 
 UKiiEitwia;, Hist, d/' J'/ii!i>soplii/, Vol. I., pp.433, 
 431. 
 
 ALEXANDER THE GREAT, the famous king 
 of iSIaeedonia, and eoncpn-ror, l>. B.C. 3.")() ; d. at 
 Babylon B.C. 323 : and was burieil at .\lexandria, 
 wliicli he had fonndecl. B.C. 332. By his con- 
 quests he brought Europe and .Vsia into contact, 
 niaile (Jreek tin- ruling languages of civilization, 
 and thus unconsciously jirepared the way for the 
 spiritual comiuest of the gospel. His name does 
 not occur in the canonical books, but in 'the 
 Apocrypha, 1 Mace. i. 1-0; vi. 2, and figuratively 
 is mentioned in Dan. ii. 30, where he is repre- 
 sentcil first as the belly of bra.ss in Nebuchail- 
 nezzar's image; then, vii. 6, as a leopard with 
 tour wings; as a one-horn('(l he-goat, viii. 5-7, to 
 indicate his great strength, and the swiftness ui
 
 ALEXANDRIA. 
 
 55 
 
 ALEXANDRIA. 
 
 h\s conquests; and finally is direotly s|ioken of, 
 though not by name, in xi.3, 1. Alexandi'i- won his 
 ppithet "The (ircat " by an un]iai-all('le(l cai-ccr 
 From the time lie succeednd his father Philip, 
 B.C. 336, until his death, he was restlessly and 
 resistlessly marching from place to place. He 
 subdued Egypt on the west, and Syria, Palestine, 
 Persia, and Babylonia on the east. He pushed his 
 way across Asia as far as to the Punjab in India, 
 and left a monument of his presence in that coun- 
 try in the shape of twelve altars of enormous 
 size on the Hyphasis, of which remains exist 
 It is sad to record that this brilliant man died 
 of fever caused by intemjierance ; and that 
 the empire which he had gathered was divided 
 at his death among his four generals. Josephus 
 relates {Antiq. xi. 8, 5) that after the siege of 
 Tyre Alexander visited .Jerusalem, and was so 
 much impressed with Daniel's prophecy concern- 
 ing him, which he allowed had been fulfilled, 
 that he granted the Jews everywhere the most 
 important privileges. Thei-e is no mention of 
 tliis incident in heathen historians. 
 
 ALEXANDRIA, founded in 3,32 B.C. by Alex- 
 ander the Great, rose rapidly under the dynasty 
 ■of the Ptolemies, and was, at the beginning of 
 the Christian era, one of the first cities of the 
 world, with a population of three hundred thou- 
 sand freemen. In 80 B.C. Ptolemy Alexander 
 bequeathed it to the Romans; but it did not be- 
 come actually a Roman possession until 30 B.C., 
 when it was taken by Augustus. He placed it 
 directly under the imperial power; and it was 
 governed by imperial prefects up to A.I). IStO, 
 when Severus restored its municipal freedom. 
 Always turbulent, and ready for rebellion, it was 
 treated with extreme harshness by some of the 
 Caesars ; and from the beginning of the third 
 century, when in 215 Caracalla put to death 
 every youth in the city capable of bearing arms, 
 it began to decline. Nevertheless, when (in 640) 
 it was taken by the Arabs, Aniru could write to 
 the caliph Omar that he had conquered a city 
 with four thou.sand palaces, four thousand baths, 
 twelve thousand dealers in fresh oil, twelve thou- 
 sand gardeners, forty thousand Jews paying trib- 
 ute, and four hundred theatres. But greater 
 disasters were in store for it from the hands of 
 the pii'ates : its commerce was disturbed ; the 
 decline became decay. When Cairo was built 
 (in 909), it lost its prestige. When the route to 
 the East by the Cape of Good Hope (in 1197) 
 was discovered, its commerce was completely 
 ruined. At the beginning of this century it was 
 a mere village ; but is now a large and prosperous 
 city of two hundred thousaiul inhabitants. 
 
 Commercial hiijiorlance. — The city stood on the 
 narrow stretch of land which separates Lake 
 Mareotis from the Mediterranean, twelve miles 
 west of the Canopic mouth of the Nile. A mole 
 one mile long connected the mainland with the 
 Island of Pharos, where was the famous light- 
 house. On both sides of this mole spacious har- 
 bors were built, and the westernmost of these 
 harbors was by a canal connected witli Lake 
 Mareotis, which again, by another canal, was con- 
 nected with the Canopic arm of the Nile. From 
 these two harbors the corn of Egypt was ex- 
 ported; and for several centuries Rome and Con- 
 stantinople depended on Alexandria for the 
 
 jirincipal <'Iement of their food. The exjinrta- 
 tion of hreadstutfs, however, was only one l)ranch 
 (if the business of the city. Alexandria was 
 really the mistress of the commerce of the 
 worlil, the common ]ilace of exchange for the 
 jiroducts of Spain and India, Scythia and Ethi- 
 opia; and this, its cosmoiiolitan character, it 
 showed in its population, in its very building. 
 It consisted of three quarters, — Rhacotis, Biu- 
 cheum, and the Jews' ward. In Rhacotis the 
 Egyptians lived, and here was the famous Tem- 
 ple of Serapis. Brucheum was occupied by the 
 Greeks; and here was the still more famous 
 Museum, with the greatest library the antique 
 world ever saw, numbering seven hundred thou- 
 sand rolls or books, and representing the Latin, 
 Greek, Egyptian, and Indian literatures. The 
 Jews' ward was very jiopulous. .Jewish immi- 
 gration to Egypt was frequent and of old ihite. 
 Philo says that at his time there lived more than 
 one million of Jews in the country. After the 
 capture of Jerusalem, Ptolemy I. settleil a nu- 
 merous colony of Jews in Alexandria, and gave 
 them equal rights with the Greeks. The Ro- 
 mans confirmed these privileges; and Augustus 
 established a Jewish council to administer .Jew- 
 ish affairs under the authority of the imperial 
 prefect. . But, by closer acquaintance, the .Jews 
 became distasteful to the Greeks, and hateful to 
 the Romans. Under Caligula, they lost their 
 privileges; under Vespasian, their temple and 
 synagogues were closed; in 415, when Cyril w.-is 
 patriarch, they were even expelled from the 
 city. 
 
 Lilerarij Character. — When, after the Mace- 
 donian conquest, the literary life of Greece was 
 transferred to Alexandria, it had already lost its 
 creative power, and become essentially critical. 
 Instead of poetry, it produced grammars, rhet- 
 orics, archieology, and mythology; instead of 
 philosophy, it produced mathematics, astronomy, 
 medicine, and geography. But the physical and 
 mathematical sciences are to philosophy exactly 
 the same as the linguistical and historical sci- 
 ences are to poetry, — a dissolvent. In the field 
 of philosophy, however, there arose, from the 
 peculiar circumstances under which life was led 
 in Alexandria, a peculiar problem which, though 
 critical to all appearances, could not be solved 
 by criticism alone ; and which, though forming 
 a new phase in the history of philosophy, had 
 to leave philosophy altogether in order to find 
 its true solution. Here the idea of scientific 
 knowledge as tiie liighest state of the human 
 mind met with the ideas of a divine revelation, 
 without which all other spiritual gifts are poor; 
 here the idea of imaginative reasoning as the 
 highest energy of the human mind met with the 
 idea of a prophetic inspiration, without which 
 every mental exertion is blunted and blind; liere 
 Greek philosophy and Jewish religion, Roman 
 positivism and Indian fantasticalness, the whole 
 West and the whole East, met each o'lier face to 
 face, and evei-yday; an explanation soon became 
 necessary. One attenqrt to mediate between 
 these contrasts was made from the Jewish side 
 by Philo. His power of appreciating and assim- 
 ilating Greek conceptions is .admirable, but in 
 his speculations that which is specifically Jew- 
 ish is lost. The strict and unconditiona) sub
 
 ALEXANDRIA. 
 
 56 
 
 ALFORD. 
 
 mission to the revealed word evaporates into 
 arbitrary allegorical explanations. Religion is 
 gone. Another attempt was made from the Greek 
 side by the Neo-Platonists. Their expositions 
 of the' relation between God and the world, the 
 divine and the human, spirit and matter, are 
 often ingenious, and sometimes, as for instance 
 when Plotinus touches the idea of the beautiful. 
 very striking. But in their speculations that 
 •v\-hich is specifically Greek is lost. The subtle 
 but sober exactness of the inference nms astray 
 in the wildest dreams and vagaries. Science is 
 gone. Not until the problem reached that stream 
 of Christian thought which during the first four 
 centuries flowed with powerful current through 
 the life of Alexandria, not until it presented 
 itself to the mind of .\than,asius as the very heart 
 of the Christian faith, found it its true solution. 
 
 Ecclesiaslical Injiuence. — Under such circum- 
 stances arose the catechetical school of Alexan- 
 dria. The instruction which the Lord had or- 
 dered to be given in connection with baptism 
 was in the first days of the Church always given 
 before the sacrament, with the exception of the 
 few cases in which infants were baptized together 
 with their parents. There was, however, no 
 special office, either of pre.acher or of teacher, in 
 the primitive Church ; though the increase of 
 the congregations, the occurrence of heresies, 
 and the more definite formulation of the Chris- 
 tian doctrines, soon made a regularly established 
 teaching necessary. As a simple and natural 
 consequence of circumstances. Christian teach- 
 ing, very early and for the first time, assumed 
 in Alexandria the form of a regular catechetical 
 institution. The frequent conversion of edu- 
 cated pagans, even philosojihers and scholars, 
 and the rise of Gnosticism, made it necessary for 
 the Alexandrian bishops to intrust the instruction 
 of catechumens only to scholarly educated Chris- 
 tians. They often chose converted philosophers 
 for the purpose; and the lectures and discussions 
 of the.se teachers were heard not only by edu- 
 cated pagans, but also by Cliristians who wished 
 to have a scholarly exposition of Christianity. 
 Often several cateclii.sts taught at tlie same time. 
 Ko pay was given for the instruction ; but rich 
 catechumens used to offer presents, which, how- 
 ever, many teachers declined to accept. The 
 instruction was given in the hou.se of the te.acher, 
 ■where the pupils, men and women, gathered from 
 early morning to late in the night. The method 
 of teaching was very various, generally adapted 
 to the individual wants of the pujiils, and often 
 assuming the form of alternating questions and 
 answers. The origin of the school is ob.scure. 
 According to tradition, .St. Mark the ICvangelist 
 "was its founder. Hut tlie first of whom we know 
 ■with certainty that ho filled the otlice of a 
 teacher in the school was I'anta^nus. lie was fol- 
 lowed by his pupil Clement, and in 201! Clement 
 ■was succeeded by Origen. Although Origen 
 ■was only eighteen years old, lie soon raised the 
 school to the highest point of its prosperity. In 
 2'i2 ho wa.s expelled from the city, and founded 
 another catochetical .school in Citsarea in I'ales- 
 tino; but the .school of Alexandria still contin- 
 ued to flourish nndor the loadershiii of his pupils, 
 Ileraclas aTid Dionysius. After the time of 
 Dionysiu^t, the history of the uchool again be- 
 
 comes obscure. Arius is said to have taught in 
 it. From 340 to 395 the blind Uidymus was 
 director. He was followed by Rhodon, and 
 Rhodon by Philip from Sida. But having ex- 
 hausted itself in the Origenistic, Nestorian, and 
 ilonopliysitic controversies, the institution, once 
 the represeut.ative of a brilliant and fruitful 
 phase of theological science, gradually sank 
 down into a school for children. 
 
 The theological character of the teaching of 
 this institution, a Platonizing speculation on the 
 basis of an allegorical interpretation of the 
 Bible, is a true mirror of the whole literary life 
 of the city, full of errors, and rich in the sweet- 
 est fruits ; skimming over every thing with shal-' 
 low vanity, and touching the deepest chords of 
 the huni.an soul, but always stirring, always sug- 
 gestive, greater in influence than in results. See 
 the articles on Clemkxt, Hermeneutics, Ori- 
 GEX, etc. 
 
 Lit. — II. E. F. Guerike : De Sclwla i/iice 
 Alexandrite floruit Catechetlca, Halle, 1824; C. F. 
 W. II.\SSELHACH : De Schola ijitce Alaandrlw 
 floruit Catec/ielica, Stettin, 1826. 
 
 ALEXIANS, from their patron Alexius, or 
 Cellit.e, from cclla, a tomb, was the name of 
 an association of men formed in loOO at Ant- 
 werp, for the purpose of nursing the sick, taking 
 care of the poor, and burying their dead. The 
 association was simply a branch of the Begini, 
 or Begh.\rdi, which see. ' 
 
 ALFORD, Henry, D.D., Dean of Canterbury, 
 b. in London, Eng., Oct. 7, ISIO; d. Jan. 12, 
 1871. lie was one of the most variously accom- 
 plished clergymen of his day,- — poet, preacher, 
 painter, musician, biblical scholar, critic and 
 philologist; and would unquestionably have been 
 f.ar more eminent in any one of these lines if 
 he had not tried to excel in all. He was his 
 father's oidy child, and his mother died at his 
 birth. His father, a scholarly clergyman, took 
 the utmost paius with his education, and was 
 i-evvarded by his jirecocity. After the usual 
 preparation, Alford entered Trinity College, 
 Cambridge, October, 1827, where his career was 
 successful. He was ordained de.acou Oct. 27, 
 18;53 ; elected a fellow of his college, Oct. 1, 
 1834, and priest, Nov. 0, 1834; nuirried his cousin 
 in the spring of 183.") ; and simultaneously be- 
 came vicar of Wymeswold, Leicestershire. In 
 1839-40 he edited Dcanlcii's Mlscellani/, a month- 
 ly mag.azine. He declined the bishopric of New 
 ZeaUnul in 1838, and that of New Brunswick in 
 1844. In 184{i he took the post of examiner 
 in logic and moral anil intellectual philosoi)hy 
 in the University of Loudon. In September 
 of 18.53 he became incumbent of Qm-bec Chap(d 
 iu London ; in March, 1857, he was advanced by 
 Lord Palmerst«n to the deanery of Canterbury. 
 He was the founder and first editor of Tlic C<iit- 
 teiii/mniri/ Rrriiii; 1 8()(i-7l). The great work of his 
 life was his edition ot the Gnik New Tenlament, 
 184!)-til, (ith ed., revised and enlarged, 1808, 
 which had the distinguished merit of introdu- 
 cing (ierm.an learning (Olshausen. Stier, De 
 Wette, Meyer, Tischendorf) to Kuglish readers. 
 The amount of patient labor expended upon the 
 four volumos of Ids work, as is evidenced by the 
 itujiroveinonts made in each successive edition, 
 entitle him to llie lasting gratitude of scholars,
 
 ALFRED. 
 
 57 
 
 ALLEN. 
 
 alttioucrh it will be conceded that he was rather 
 a compiler than an original commentator. His 
 work maintains its popularity, and as a digest of 
 German New Testament exegesis has permanent 
 value. 
 
 Beside his Greek Testament, there was post- 
 humously published in 1872 a revised version 
 and explanatory commentary of Genexis and part 
 of Exodus, portions of a projected commentary 
 on the Old Testament. In 1808 appeared his 
 Neto Testament for En(//ish Readers, i vols., 8vo; 
 in 1869, a revision of the A. V. of the New Tes- 
 tament. He was largely instrumental in advan- 
 cing; the cause of Revision, and was one of the 
 original members of the Revision Committee. 
 Besides these exegetical and critical labors, Al- 
 ford published the School of the Heart and Other 
 I'liems, 2 vols., 1835, the Abhot of Muehelnaye, 
 18-11, Psalms and Hymns, 1814, — -poems which 
 assei-ted his claim to be considered a genuine, 
 though minor, religious poet ; some of his hymns 
 are likely to live, especially his " Ten thousand 
 times ten thousand. In spotless raiment bright." 
 His little book entitled The Queen's Enr/liih, 2d 
 ed., 1864, had the fortune to call forth a trenchant 
 criticism from Mr. G. W. Moon, entitled The 
 Dean's English. In addition to the volumes 
 already mentioned, there came from his hand at 
 various times volumes of sermons, lectures, es- 
 says, and reviews, translations from the Greek, 
 and, in conjunction with his niece, a novel, 
 Nelherton on Sea (1869). Dean Alford was a 
 truly catholic man. On more than one occasion 
 he publicly appeared in gatherings of Dissenters, 
 and sat with them. This trait is not common 
 in English deans. His private life was very 
 lovely. He was an humble Christian, while en- 
 joying a world-wide fame. See his Life and Let- 
 ters, edited by his widow. London, 1872, 2 vols. 
 
 ALFRED THE GREAT, king of England, 871- 
 901, was born in 849 at Wantage in Berkshire, 
 the youngest son of ^Ethehvulf and Osburgha. 
 Although it proved impossible to find among his 
 countrymen one who could instruct him in Latin, 
 he was, nevertheless, possessed of an elevated 
 and distinct idea of what learning and civiliza- 
 tion meant; and although his reign, with its un- 
 intermittent contest with the Danes, contains 
 many vicissitudes, he succeeded, nevertheless, in 
 realizing his ideal of reform and progress. He 
 remodelled the whole political and ecclesiastical 
 organization of his realm ; see Leyes jElfreili. 
 He rebuilt the churches, monasteries, and schools, 
 burnt down by the Danes, and founded new ones, 
 such as the Monasteries of Athelney and Win- 
 chester, and the University of Oxford. He in- 
 vited a number of learned men to his country, 
 and provided for them, and, through the intimate 
 connection which he maintained with Rome, he 
 was able to procure books and form libraries. 
 But of a still greater importance were his per- 
 sonal exertions to arouse among his countrymen 
 a desire of knowledge and culture. He trans- 
 lated Boethius : De consoUilione phdosophia;, ed- 
 ited by J. S. Cordale, London, 1829 ; and Orosius, 
 edited" by Dr. Bosworth, Oxford, 1859. Both 
 works are treated with great freedom, especially 
 the latter. In some places something is left out. 
 in others something is added. Among the most 
 remarkable additions are a geographical and 
 
 ethnological review of Germany and the adja- 
 cent Slavic countries, and a similar review of 
 Scandinavia and the Baltic countries from the 
 reports of Ohthere and ^Vulfstan. Also the 
 paraphrase of Beda's Historia eccles. ijenti.t An- 
 (/lorum, Cantabrig. 1722, is the work of Alfred. 
 Of still greater importance is his translation of 
 the Liher pasloralis curm by Pope Gregory I., ed- 
 ited by H. Sweet, 1872, a book well calculated 
 to influence the spirit of the Saxon clergy. The 
 dialogues of Pope Gregory were not translated 
 by Alfred, but under his supervision, by Wer- 
 ferhd. Bishop of Worcester ; and the soliloquies 
 of St. Augustine, as well as the collection of 
 proverbs and the adaptation of the fables of 
 Esop, belongs to a later period. William 
 of Malmesbury tells us that Alfred began to 
 translate the Psalms ; but of the Anglo-Saxon 
 Psalms, edited by Benjamin Thorpe in 1835, 
 hardly any belong to the king. [Alfred was 
 epileptic, yet incessant and most efficient in 
 labor. Some recent English expositors (Jowett 
 and Lightfoot) use this fact in corroboration of 
 the theory that Paul's ''thorn in the flesh" (2 
 Cor. xii. 7) was epilepsy. See Schafp's Popular 
 Commentanj, Galatians, Excursus on Chap. IV., 
 13-15.] 
 
 Lit. — Annates rerum gestarum JElfredi aiiclore 
 Asserio Meneoensi rec, Wise, Oxon., 1722 ; B. 
 Thorpe: Ancient Laws and Institutes of England, 
 London, 1840; Dr. Reiniiold Pauli: KOnig 
 Alfred, 1851, translated into English by Thorpe, 
 London, 1853; [J. B.Weiss: Gesrhichte Aelfreds 
 d. Grossen, lSo2; Thomas Hughes: Alfred the 
 Great, London and Boston, 1869 ; art. Alfred in 
 Enci/cl. liriliinnica, ix. ed.] C. SC'IIiiELL. 
 
 ALGER OF LIEGE, or ALGER OF CLUGNY, 
 also Alger Scholasticus, or Alger Magister, b. at 
 Liege about 1055 ; d. at Clugny about 1131 ; was 
 educated in the high school of Liege, — at that 
 time the educational centre of the whole north- 
 western Germany ; was appointed deacon and 
 scholasticus at the Clnirch of St. Bartholomew 
 about 1100, and afterwards canon at the Cathe- 
 dral of S. Mai'ise et S. Lamberti, but retired 
 about 1121 to the Monastery of Clugny. The 
 two most remarkable of his works are De sac- 
 ramentis corporis et sanguinis Domini, lihri III., 
 which has been often reprinted, and occupies a 
 prominent place in the development of the doc- 
 trine of transubstantiation ; and Tractaius de 
 misericorilia et justitia, printed by Martene, Nov. 
 anecdot. Tom. V., Migne, Patrol. 180th vol. See 
 A. L. Richter: Alger von Luttich, Leipzig, 1834; 
 and H. Huffer; Alger von Luttich, Miinster, 
 1802. 
 
 ALLEN (ALAN, ALLYN), William, b. in Lan- 
 cashire in 1.532 ; d. in Rome in 1594 ; entered the 
 University of Oxford in 1547; studied at Oriel 
 College; was made principal of St. Mary's Hall 
 in Queen Mary's time, and Canon of York in 
 1558. Among those who hailed the return to 
 Romanism, which took place with the accession 
 of Mary, Allan was one of the most ardent ; and 
 when Mary died, and Elizabeth re-established 
 the Reformed church-order, he left England. 
 Concentrating all his energy and talent on the 
 one idea, the maintenance of Romanism in Eng- 
 land, he settled at Louvain ; and soon this city 
 became the centre whither all the Romanish ami-
 
 ALLEGORICAL. 
 
 58 
 
 ALLEGORICAL. 
 
 grants from England gathered. In 1.565 he re- 
 turned secretly to England. He took up his 
 residence in the vicinity of Oxford, and for three 
 years his intrigues remained unnoticed; but in 
 1568 he had to flee for his life. He now founded 
 a college at Douay for the education of English 
 priests; and this institution was so well supported 
 by France, Spain, and Rome, that it soon num- 
 bered a hundred and fifty students, and eight or 
 ten professors. But as it stood in close connec- 
 tion with the Jesuits, and showed itself very 
 hostile to Queen Elizabeth and the Anglican 
 Church, it had to be removed to Rheims, where 
 Allan was appointed canon. At the same time 
 he was al.so active in literature, and published a 
 number of pamphlets, apologetical and polemical, 
 which, although without any real literary value, 
 are striking for their hatred and recklessness. 
 One of the most characteristic is his Admonition 
 to the Nobility and People of Enyland. printed in 
 Antwerp, 1588, and disti-ibuted in England as a 
 forerunner for the Spanish .A.rmada. In Eng- 
 land these pamphlets caused great indignation, 
 even among the Romanists, and it was made 
 treason for a subject of the English crown to 
 correspond or entertain any kind of connection 
 with Allan ; but by Rome and Spain he was 
 magnificently rewarded. Philiji H. m.ade him 
 Archbishop of Jlechlin, and he lived in Rome in 
 princely style. He was one of the translators of 
 the Rheims New Testament (15Sl'). g. lechler. 
 ALLEGORICAL INTERPRETATION OF THE 
 BIBLE assumes a double or threefold sense of 
 the Scriptures, —an obvious literal sense, and a 
 hidden spiritual or mystic sense, both of which 
 were intended by the sacred writer. History is 
 not merely history to the allegorist; indeed, the 
 historic value of a passage is generally the least 
 interesting fact about it: what is of most iinjior- 
 tance are the spiritual lessons it conveys. Thus 
 the Book of Joshua has quite recently been treat- 
 ed, by a pojiular writer, as an allegory of the soul's 
 conquest over sin and self. This style of biblical 
 explanation finds a parallel in paganism. The 
 Greek jiliilosophers since Socrates, scandalized by 
 the stories of their divinities, allegorically inter- 
 preted the poems of Hesiod and Homer. In a 
 later period the Stoics, the Neo-Platonists, and 
 the Gnostics were noted for their facility in find- 
 ing in the ancient myths the truths of the phil- 
 osophy of nature. But the allegorical interpre- 
 tation of the Bible arose among the .\le.xandrian 
 Jews who came in contact with Gi-eek wisdom, 
 and the attempt to reconcile the Mosaic revela- 
 tion with the Greek philosophy. First .Vristobu- 
 lus (circa 160 B.C.) and the writers in tlie Apoc- 
 rypha, and next, and principally, Pliilo {circa 40 
 B.C.). found all the j.hilosopliy in the Old Testa- 
 ment by their allitgorical interpretation. Thus 
 the four rivers of Paradise were I'lato's four 
 cardinal virtues ; Adam was the lower, sensuous 
 man; Abraham w<as the human soul progressing 
 towards the knowledge of God ; Sarah rejirescnt- 
 ed divine wisdom; Hagar, secular learning, etc. 
 The Apostle Paul himself gives instances (1 Cor. 
 X. 4; Gal. iii. 16; iv. 21-31) of the sacre<l alle- 
 gory, although his use of it is so exceptional and 
 so restrained that it does not countenance it iis a 
 method. But tlie difference between the allegor- 
 izing of Philo and Paul is very great. Philo put 
 
 his Platonic ideas into Scripture : Paul drew out 
 the deeper meaning of the same. Philo ideal- 
 ized, Paul spiritualized, Mosaism. The one left 
 nothing in it but philosophy and myth : the other 
 drew from it the gospel. 
 
 Into the early Christian Church allegorical in* 
 terpretation came, and first, as was to be ex- 
 pected, from the Jews at Alexandria; for the 
 Christians there were now- interested, as the Jews 
 had been, in reconciling their religion with Greek 
 thought. Clement of Alexandria {circa 200) 
 taught that the verbal sense is merely for ele- 
 mentary faith : the allegorical sense alone leads to 
 the gnosis. But the chief allegorist of the Church 
 is Origen (185-2.53), that fertile, but not well- 
 balanced, writer. He taught a threefold sense 
 of Scripture, corresponding to the three constitu- 
 ent elements in man, — body, soul, and .spirit. 
 Once introduced, the system more or less devel- 
 oped has maintained its hold on the Church. In 
 the middle ages four senses were found in Scrip- 
 tui'e, — historical, allegorical, moral, and anagogi- 
 cal ; e.g., Jerusalem is literally a city of Palestine, 
 allei/orically the Church, morally the believing soul, 
 anaijoffically the heavenly Jerusalem. To this 
 fourfold sense the present Roman-Catholic Church 
 holds. The Reformers returned to the grammati- 
 cal sense ; and this may be said to constitute 
 the basis of Protestant exegesis. Allegorical in- 
 terpretation has its advocates to-day in Protestants 
 ism. Many sermonizers and popular expositors 
 are allegorists. Jlany scholarly men h.ave. in 
 this idea, followed the Fathers. Bishop Words- 
 worth's is a prominent instance of a commentary 
 written largely on this principle. 
 
 The system is so easily learnt, so specious in 
 its promises, that it is no wonder that it attracts 
 many. It seems to turn the Bible into a " foun- 
 tain of living waters." Everywhere under its 
 inspiration Christ is seen : the desert is gladdened 
 by his presence, the wilderness is a flower-garden. 
 Genealogical tables by mere interpretation of 
 the names become rich deposits of spiritual truth. 
 But the allegorical interpretation tamjiers with 
 the \\'ord of God. It substitutes human fancies 
 for divine facts and truths. As Calvin, by gen- 
 eral acknowledgment one of the ablest commen- 
 tators, s.ays, by the allegorists Scripture was 
 tortured away irom its true sense. They "con- 
 cluded th.at the literal .sense was too mean and 
 poor, and that under the outward bark of the 
 letter there lurked deeper mysteries, wldch can- 
 not be extracted but by beating out allegories. 
 God visited this profanation by a just judgment, 
 when he suffered the pure meaning of .Scripture 
 to be buried under fal.se interpretations. I ac- 
 knowledge lliat Scripture is a most rich and 
 inexhaustible fountain of all wisdom, but I deny 
 that its fertility consists in the various meanings 
 which ;iny man at his pleasure may assign. lyct 
 us know, then, that the true meaning of Scripture 
 is the natural and obvious meaning ; and let us 
 embr.ace and abide by it resolutely." This style 
 of interpretation is not exposition, but imposition: 
 the meaning is not read out, but read in. His- 
 tory, the grammar, and the dictionaiy are the- 
 proper aids in Bible study ; not the subjective 
 imagination. We must find out, under the guid- 
 ance of the Sjiirit, what tlie holy men of old were 
 by him moved to say.
 
 ALLEGORY. 
 
 59 
 
 ALLENITBS. 
 
 The Swedenborgians have as a matter of reve- 
 lation a modification of the allegorical method. 
 Swedenbors; laid it down that " all and every part 
 of the Scripture, even to the most minute, not 
 excepting the smallest jot or tittle, signify and 
 involve spiritual and celestial things" {Arcdiia 
 Cieleslia, I. No. 2). This deeper sense is in the 
 literal as the soul is in the body, but was lost 
 until revealed to Swedenborg. His allegorizing 
 is arbitrary, fanciful, often ingenious, often 
 absurd. Thus he considers the first chapter of 
 (ienesis to represent in its spiritual sense the 
 regeneration of man, of which process the six 
 days are the successive stages; Adam in Paradise 
 IS the primitive Church ; the four rivers are good- 
 ness, knowledge, reason, and science, etc. His 
 exegesis is critically worthless. 
 
 ALLEGORY is inost closely allied in the do- 
 main of art to the symbol, in that of literature 
 to the parable. But while in art the symbolical 
 representation leads the nund by a natural and 
 necessary association from the sign given to the 
 idea intended, — as when, for instance, a lion vis- 
 ing on his forepaws symbolizes defiant courage, — 
 in the allegory there is only a conventional and 
 incidental connection between sign and idea, 
 and the key to the meaning of an allegorical 
 representation is generally found in its symboli- 
 cal attributes, as, for instance, when a woman in 
 Greek costume is recognized as America by 
 means of the flag she holds in the hand. The 
 difference in literature between the allegory and 
 the parable is soniew'hat similar. The parable 
 consists of two parts, — • a plain narrative from 
 real, practical, every-day life, to which is added 
 a parallel from the spiritual or moral sphere; 
 and the relation between these two parts is that 
 of a strikmg and easily comprehended illustra- 
 tion of profound spiritual teaching. The alle- 
 gory, on the contrary, consists only of a fictitious 
 and fantastic narrative; but by means of subtle 
 hints and allusions this narrative leads the read- 
 er to seek for a real and substantial meaning 
 beneath the fanciful surface. 
 
 In Christian art, whicli is very rich in beauti- 
 ful symbols, — the Cross, the Lamb, etc., — the 
 allegory has always played a somewhat subor- 
 dinate piart; though in the earliest times, and 
 on account of the social position of the congre- 
 gation, it was of frequent occurrence, and in in- 
 genious artificiality often approached the puzzle ; 
 as, for instance, where Christ was allegorically 
 represented by the picture of a fish, because the 
 Greek name of fish, 'ix'^^ii 's composed of the 
 initial letters of the words 'Ir/aovf Xpiarb^ Qcov 
 Tide: ^uTT)p, '• Jesus Christ, God's Son, the Sav- 
 iour." In Christian literature it was often em- 
 ployed in books of devotion and moral teaching, 
 and it has produced at least one lasting and 
 very prominent work, — The Pitf/rim's Pror/ress ; 
 not to forget, that, introduced by I'hilo as a 
 means of reconciling Judaism and Platonism, 
 it was adopted by the theological school of 
 Alexandria as the highest pirinciple of biblical 
 exegesis, and through Augustine transplanted 
 to the Western Church, where it flourished during 
 the Middle Ages. CLEMENS PETERSEN. 
 
 ALLEGRI, Gregorio, b. in Rome about 1580; 
 d. there Feb. 18, 1652 ; studied music under 
 Nanini, and was made director of the papal 
 
 choir by Urban VIII., 1029. IIi; was one of the 
 first who composed for stringed instruments. 
 His most celebrated composition is a Miserere 
 for two choirs, still performed each year during 
 Holy Week in the Sixtine Chapel. It was for- 
 bidden, under penalty of excomnnuncation, to 
 give or take copies of this music. In 1771, how- 
 ever. Dr. Burney procured a copy, and published 
 it in London; but it was soon discovered that the 
 effect of the music depends upou a peculiar 
 execution, of which the papal choir alone has the 
 secret. 
 
 ALLEN, David ONver, b. at Barre, Mass., Sept. 
 14, 1799; d. at Lowell, Mass., July 17, 18G;i; was 
 graduated from Andierst College in 1823 ; and 
 from Andover Theological Seminary in 1827; 
 went the same year as a missionary to India; re- 
 turned thence in 18.)3 ; and published in 1850 India, 
 Ancient and Modern, Boston, 1850, 2d ed., 1858. 
 
 ALLEN, John, b. in 1470; murdered July 28, 
 1534, at Artane, near Clontarf ; was educated 
 at Oxford ; and by Archbishop Warham sent to 
 Rome, where he staid nine years. On liis re- 
 turn, he was appointed chaplain to Wolsey, 
 whose policy he adopted ; and in 1528 he was 
 made Archbishop of Dublin. He wrote Epistola 
 de Pallii iii(/iiificatioiie and other minor pieces. 
 
 ALLEN, John, b. at Truro, Cornwall, 1771; 
 d. June 17, 1839, at Hackney, near London, 
 where for thirty years he kept a private school. 
 He published in 1813 a translation of Calvin's 
 Institutes of the Christian Religion, and in 1816 
 Alodrrn Judaism. 
 
 ALLEN, William, D.D., b. at Pittsfield, Mass., 
 Jan. 2, 1784; d. at Northampton, Mass, July 
 16, 1868; w-as graduated at Harvard College in 
 1802; studied theology; was licensed in 1804; 
 and soon after appointed assistant librarian of 
 Harvard College. He issued in 1809 an Ameri- 
 can Bioi/ra/>hical and Historical Uiclionarij, the 
 first work of the kind in America. His dili- 
 gence in collecting materials, as well as the 
 growth of the country, are evidenced by the in- 
 crease of the book from seven hundred titles to 
 eighteen hundred in the second edition, 1832, to 
 seven thousand in the third edition, 18.57. In 
 1810 he succeeded his father as pastor of the 
 Pittsfield Congregational church. Became presi- 
 dent of the university intended by the New 
 Hampshire legislature to supplant Dartmouth 
 College; this scheme failing, he afterwards be- 
 came president of Bowdoin College in 1820, and 
 retained the position until 1839. He removed to 
 Northampton, where he carried on useful liter- 
 ary labors. lie was the father-in-law of Pro- 
 fessor Henry B. Smith. D.D., LL.D. ; and in the 
 memoir of the latter (N.Y., 1880) will be found 
 some notice of him. 
 
 ALLENITES, the followers of Henry Allen, 
 who, b. at Newport, R.I., June 14, 1748, d. in 
 Nova Scotia, in 1784, began in 1774 to propa- 
 gate his ideas by preaching and by publishing 
 tracts. He held that all the souls of the human 
 race were emanations from one great spirit; that 
 they were all present in the Garden of Eden, and 
 took actual part in the fall; that the human 
 body and the whole material world did not exist 
 before the fall, but were created to prevent the 
 absolute destruction of the human race by the 
 fall, etc. He made a considerable impressicn.
 
 ALLEY 
 
 60 
 
 ALLIANCE. 
 
 aspecially in Kova Scotia, and feathered a num- 
 ber of zealous proselytes ; but after his death his 
 party gradually dwindled away. 
 
 ALLEY, Wifliam, b. about 1512 at Chipping 
 ^\'ycombe, Bucks, Eng. ; d. at Exeter, April 15, 
 IdTO ; was educated at Eton, Cambridge, and 
 Oxford ; and espoused the cause of the Refor- 
 mation, but kept himself in retirement during 
 the reign of Mary. Elizabeth made him reader 
 in St. Paul's, and in 15G0 Bishop of Exeter. He 
 revised the Pentateuch for the Bishops' Bible, 
 and wrote an exposition of 1 Peter in The Poor 
 AJayi's Library. 
 
 ALLIANCE, EVANGELICAL. A voluntary as- 
 .sociation of evangelical Christians from diSerent 
 churches and countries, for the purpose of mani- 
 festing and promoting Christian union and re- 
 ligious liberty. 
 
 I. Op.igix'axd Aims. — The Alliance owes its 
 origin to a ^vide-spread and growing desire for a 
 closer union among evangelical Protestants, both 
 for the sake of union, and for a more successful 
 conflict with infidelity on the one hand, and 
 superstition on the other. This union is to be 
 entirely free and voluntary, and to leave room 
 for great variety within the limits of scriptural 
 or evangelical belief. The object is, not to create 
 tmion, but to acknowledge, exhibit, and strength- 
 en that spiritual union which has always existed 
 among true Christians as members of Christ's 
 body, but which is sadly marred and obstructed 
 by the many divisions and rivalries of Protestant 
 denominations and sects. The Alliance aims not 
 at an organic union, nor at a confederation of 
 churches, but simply at a free Christian union of 
 individual members from different churches who 
 hold essentially the same faith; although such a 
 union will naturally tend to bring gradually the 
 churches themselves into closer fellowship and 
 mutual recognition. It claims no official and 
 legislative authority that might in any way inter- 
 fere with the internal affairs of the denomina- 
 tional organization.?, or the loyalty of its members 
 to tlieir particular communion. It relies solely 
 on the moral power of truth and love. 
 
 The other object of the Alliance is the defence 
 and promotion of religious freedom in that sense 
 in which it i.s understood by tlie advanced sec- 
 tions of Protestantism, especially in Great Britain 
 and tlie United States. It is freedom as distinct 
 from mere toleration, freedom of conscience as a 
 fundamental and inalienable right of every man, 
 and freedom of worship wliicli is tiie natural 
 result of the former, ami which the government 
 is bound to protect. The Alliance is thi; only 
 Christian organization wliich attends to this im- 
 portant interest, and comes to the aid of all wlio 
 are persecute<i for the sake of religion. By its 
 unsectarian character and freedom from all jiolit- 
 ical complications, it can accomplish and has ac- 
 complislied a great deal for the relief of suffering 
 brethren and the recognition of the sacred rights 
 of conscience. 
 
 II. TlIK FOU.NDING OF THE Al.LIANCE. — 
 
 After a number of preparatory meetings and 
 conferencefs, the Alliance was founded in a re- 
 markable and enthusi;istic meeting held in Free- 
 ma.sons' Hall in London, Aug. l!)-'j:!, IsKi. The 
 meeting was composed of eight hundred Cliris- 
 tians, — Episcopalians, I'resbyterian.s, Independ- 
 
 ents, Methodists, Baptists, Lutherans, Reformed, 
 Moravians, and others, — and included many of 
 the most distinguished divines, preachers, and 
 phil.anthropists from England, Scotland. Ire- 
 land, Germany, France, Switzerland, the United 
 States, and other countries. Sir Culling Eardly, 
 Bart., presided, and became the first president of 
 the British branch. Eloquent addresses were 
 delivered, fervent jirayers offered, and nine doc- 
 trinal articles adopted ; not, however, as a bind- 
 ing creed or confession, but simply as an expres- 
 sion of the essential consensus of evangelical 
 Christians whom it seemed desirable to embrace 
 in the Alliance. 
 
 III. The Doctrinal Basis. — The nine arti- 
 cles are as follows : — 
 
 "1. The divine inspiration, authority, and suffi- 
 ciency of the Holy Scriptures. 
 
 " 2. The right and duty of private judgment in the 
 interpretation of the Holy Scriptures. 
 
 " 3. Tlie Unity of the Godhead, and the Trinity of 
 the Persons therein. 
 
 "4. The utter depravity of human nature incon- 
 sequence of the Fall. 
 
 "5. The incarnation of the Son of God, his work 
 of atonement for the sins of mankind, and his media- 
 torial intercession and reign. 
 
 " ti. The justitication of the sinner by faitli alone. 
 
 " 7. The work of the Holy Spirit in the conversion 
 and sauctitication of the sinner. 
 
 " 8. The immortality of the soul, the resurrection 
 of the body, tlie judgment of the world by our Lord 
 Jesus Christ, with the eternal V)lessedn"ess of the 
 rijjhteous ami the eternal jiunishment of the wicked. 
 
 "9. The divine institution of the Christian minis- 
 try, and the obligation and perpetuity of the ordi- 
 nances of Baptism and the Lord's Supper." 
 
 Some regard this doctrinal statement as too 
 liberal, others as too narrow (especially on ac- 
 count of Art. 9 which excludes the Quakers), 
 while still others woidd have preferred no doc- 
 trinal basis, or only the Apostles' Creed, the 
 simplest and most generally accepted of .all 
 creeds. Nevertheless it has answered a good 
 purpose, and maintained the positive evangelical 
 character of the Alliance. The American branch, 
 at its orgjinization (1807), .adopted the nine Lon- 
 don articles, with the following important ex- 
 planatory .and (pialil'ying preamble: — 
 
 " Jlesitlri'd, That in forming an Evangelical Alli- 
 ance for the United States in co-operative union with 
 other branches of tlie Alliance, we have no intention 
 to give ri.so to a new deiKiniination: ur to effect an 
 amalgamation i>f chnvehcs, except in the way ut 
 facilitating pcrsunal Cliristian inlerconrs(''and a mu- 
 tual good iindi-istanding; cir to intiTfcre in any way 
 whatever with the. internal atfairs (if the various 
 deiKiininations; hut simply to bring individual Chris- 
 tians into I'loser fellowship and co-operation, on the 
 liasis of the s]iiritual union whicli already exists in 
 the vital relation of Clirist to the niembers of his 
 body in all ages and countries. 
 
 '•'llcsnlvcd, That in the same spirit we propose no 
 new creed, but taking broad, historical, and evangel- 
 ical catholic ground, we solemnly rc-iitiinii and pro- 
 fess our faith in all the doi'Irincs of the inspired 
 word of (iod, and in the r..;i.sc»,sHS of doctrines as 
 lield by all true Christians from the beginning. And 
 we do more especially atHnii our belief in tlie (liriiu-- 
 huiium jierson ami atnnhiii imrk ul' 'nir Lunl iiinl 
 tiuvioiir Jesus Cltrisl, as the only anil sullicient source 
 of salvation, as the heart and soul of Christianity, 
 and as the centre of all trije Christian union and 
 fellowship. 
 
 '• Ili'sulucil, That, with this exnlanalion, and in the 
 spirit of a just Christian liberality in regard to the 
 minor difToreuccs of theological schools and religious 
 
 f
 
 ALLIANCE. 
 
 CI 
 
 ALLIANCE. 
 
 denominations, we also aiiopt, as a summary of the 
 ro;i.sf'7i«j(.s of the various evangelical Confessions of 
 Faith, the Articles and Explanatory Statement set 
 forth and agreed on liy the Evangelical Alliance at 
 its formation in London, 1K4(>, and approved by the 
 separate European organizations, which articles are 
 as follows," etc. 
 
 IV. Branch Alliances. — The Evangelical 
 Alliance tlms auspiciously organized soon spread 
 throughout the Protestant world. Branch alli- 
 ances were formed in Great Britain, Germany, 
 France, Holland, Switzerland, Sweden, and even 
 among the missionaries in Turkey and East In- 
 dia; more recently also in the United States, 
 Canada, Italy, Australia, Brazil, Mexico, Egypt, 
 and among the Protestant missionaries in Japan. 
 There is no central organization with any con- 
 trolling authority ; and the General Alliance ap- 
 pears in active operation only from time to 
 time when it meets in general conference, which 
 has assumed the character of a Protestant oecu- 
 menical council, but differs from the oecumeni- 
 cal councils of the Greek and Roman Churches 
 in claiming only moral and spiritual power. 
 The various national branches are related to 
 each other as members of a confederation with 
 equal rights. The British organ iz.ation, being 
 the oldest and largest, and having a house (in 
 London, No. 7 Adam Street, Strand), and sala- 
 ried officers who devote their whole time to the 
 work, has been heretofore the most influential; 
 the Continental branches are more elastic, and 
 confine themselves to occasional work; the 
 American branch, which was organized at the 
 Bible House, New York, in 1867 (a previous at- 
 tempt having failed on account of the anti- 
 slavery agitation before the Civil War), has in a 
 short time become the most vigorous and popu- 
 lar; for in the United States, where all Christian 
 sects are represented on a basis of equality be- 
 fore the law, there is also the greatest apprecia- 
 tion of religious freedom, the strongest desire 
 for Christian union and co-operation, and the 
 widest field for the realization of the idea of a 
 universal Christian brotherhood on the basis of 
 a free development of denominational peculiari- 
 ties in dogma, discipline, and worship. We now 
 give a brief summary of the history and results 
 of the Alliance. 
 
 V. The Annual Week of Prayer. — This 
 was originally proposed by the English and 
 American missionaries in India, adopted by the 
 Alliance, and has become an institution and 
 means for promoting Christian union and the 
 spread of the gospel at home and abroad. The 
 first week of January is set aside for united 
 prayer. A programme is issued several months 
 before by the British organization, and sent to 
 the branch Alliances for their revision and adop- 
 tion. Each branch adapts it to the condition 
 and wants of the country wliich it represents, 
 and gives it a wide publicity. Some convenient 
 church or hall is selected in those cities and vil- 
 lages which observe the custom, and the minis- 
 ters and laity of different denominations unite in 
 praying for tlie common objects of Christ's king- 
 dom, with special reference to the conversion 
 of the world. This week of prayer has become 
 almost an institution (like the holy week), and is 
 very generally observed in London, Paris, Berlin, 
 
 Basle, Geneva, Rome, Cairo, Beirut, New York, 
 and other large cities to the shores of the Pacific. 
 The following programme, issued by the (Vmeri- 
 can Brancli for the year 1881, is given as a speci- 
 men : — 
 
 " Jdniiavti 2. — Theme: Christ the only hope of 
 the lost world. 
 
 " iliDiiJfiii, ",. — Thanksgiving for the blessings, 
 temporal and spiritual, of the i)ast year, and prayer 
 for their continuance. 
 
 " Tiii'xihi!/, 4. — Humiliation and confession on ac- 
 count of individual, social, and national sins. 
 
 " Wi'iliiesdiiii, 5. — Prayer for the Church of Christ, 
 its iniity and luirity, its ministry, and for revivals of 
 religion. 
 
 "Thursday, G. — ChrLstian education; prayer for 
 the family, Sunday schools, and all educational insti- 
 tutions; for Young Men's Christian Associations, and 
 for the press. 
 
 " Friday, 7. — Prayer for the prevalence of justice, 
 humanity, and peace amoii;; all nations; for the sup- 
 pression of intemperance and Sabliath desecration. 
 
 "Saturday, 8. — Prayer for Christian missions, 
 and the conversion of the world to Christ. 
 
 " Sunday, 9. — Theme : On the Ministration of the 
 Holy Spirit." 
 
 VI. Conferences. — Another means of pro- 
 moting the objects of the Alliance are nation.al 
 and international Conferences. The British or- 
 ganization holds a meeting annually in October 
 in some city of England. The Irish and Scotch 
 Branches do the same. The American Branch 
 holds an American meeting every two years. 
 The Continental and other branches meet less 
 regularly. Far more important are the General 
 Conferences which are (Convened at intervals of 
 from four to six years according to circumstances. 
 They have an international as well, as interde- 
 nominational character, and may be called Prot- 
 estant oecumenical coimcils, with this important 
 difference, how^ever, that they do not settle dog- 
 mas or canons of discipline, and have no legisla- 
 tive authority, but simply moral power. They 
 are held in the great cai>itals, and arranged by 
 the branch in whose boimds they meet, with the 
 co-operation of all the sister branches. They 
 last from seven to ten days, and are spent in 
 prayer and praise, brotherly communion, and free 
 discussions of the leading religious and social 
 questions of the age. Christians from all coun- 
 tries, and speaking various languages, are brought 
 together face to face to become personally ac- 
 quainted, and to encourage each other in every 
 good work. 
 
 Eight general Conferences have been held thus 
 far, and others will be held from time to time 
 as long as the Alliance has vitality and a mission 
 to fulfil. The first general Conference took place 
 in London in 18.31, the year of the great exhibi- 
 tion of the works of industry of all nations in the 
 British metropolis; the second in Paris, IS.3.3; 
 the thinl in Berlin, 1857; the fourth in Geneva, 
 ISGl ; the fifth in Amsterdam, 1SG7 ; the sixth in 
 New York, 187.3; the seventh in Basle, 1879; tlie 
 eighth in Copenhagen, 1S84. They were well at- 
 tended, and left a most favorable impression ur>on 
 the delegates and the country' in wliich they were 
 held. See a brief history of the first five Con- 
 ferences, by Rev. James Davis, in the report of 
 the New York Conference of the Alliance. New 
 York, 1873, pp. 189, sqq. The Conference held 
 in New York Oct. 2-12, 1873, is regarded by 
 many as the most enthusiastic, interesting, ar.^l
 
 ALLIANCE. 
 
 62 
 
 ALLIANCE. 
 
 useful religious ineetiug in the history of Ameri- 
 can Christianity. Three of the foreign delegates 
 — the Rev. Professor Cesar-Louis Pronier of 
 Geneva, Rev. Antonio Carrasco of Spain, and 
 Rev. Emile F. Cook of Paris — took passage in 
 the " Yille du Havre," which was sunk at sea 
 Nov. 22, 1873 : the first two were drowned, the 
 third died, Jan. 29, 1874. in consequence of his 
 exposure. More than twenty thousand dollars (a 
 hundred thousand francs) were raised for their 
 families in New York alone. The seventh Con- 
 ference in Basle wa.s not so large and imposing, 
 but in its way equally interesting and successful. 
 The eighth Conference in Copenhagen was pre- 
 dominantly Lutheran and Scandinavian. The 
 Alliance has been the parent of other Alliances of 
 a denominational and ecclesiastical character, as 
 the Pan-Anglican Synod, the Pan-Presbyterian 
 Alliance, the Pan-Methodist Conference, which 
 likewise hold occasional meetings, but do not 
 supersede nor interfere with the Evangelical Alli- 
 ance and its general conferences. 
 
 Vn. Religious Liberty. — The Alliance as- 
 sumed from the beginning that freedom of con- 
 science and Christian union, far from being 
 inconsistent with each other, are one and in- 
 separable; that freedom is the basis of union, 
 and union the result and support of freedom ; 
 that a union without freedom is only a dead, 
 mechanical uniformity ; that true union implies 
 variety and distinction, and a full recognition of 
 the rights and peculiar gifts and mission of other 
 members and branches of Christ's kingdom. 
 The Roman Church maintains union at the ex- 
 pense of freedom, and, w'hile advocating liberty 
 of conscience and public worship for herself, de- 
 nies it t(> all others in principle, and, where she 
 has the power, in practice also. Since the for- 
 mation of the Alliance, many cases of persecu- 
 tion more or less severe have occurred, especially 
 in Southern Europe, under the operation of penal 
 laws against religious dissenters; and the united 
 efforts of the different branches of the Alliance, 
 through the press and by deputations of influen- 
 tial public men, have had a considerable moral 
 influence iu bringing aliout those remarkable 
 changes in favor of religious liberty which have 
 taken place among the Latin races, especially in 
 Italy, and even in Russia and Turkey, within 
 the last twenty years. 'J'he .VUiance successfully 
 exerted its influence for the release of the Madiai 
 family in Tuscany (18o2), who were punished 
 for the sole crime of reading the Bible and 
 holding religious meetings; for the release of 
 Matamoras, Carnisco, and their friends, who, 
 during tlie reign of Queen Isabella in Spain, 
 were tlirown into prison and condi'inned to the 
 galleys for the same innocent cause (IS.j:}). It 
 aided in inducing the Sultan of Turkey to abol- 
 ish the death-penalty for apostasy from Moham- 
 medanism in his dominions after the Crimean 
 War (18.50). It interceded for the .Mi'thodi.sts 
 and Baptists iu Sweden (1858), which has since 
 abrogated the penal laws against Unman Catho- 
 lics an<i Protestants not belonging to the Luther- 
 an Confe.ssion. It sent in 1871 a large deputa- 
 tion, in which ])romiiU'nt citizens of the United 
 States tfjok a leading part, to Prince (jortscha- 
 koff and the Czar of Russia (then at Friedriclis- 
 haten) to plead for the oppressed Lutherans in 
 
 the Baltic Provinces; and the.se have not been 
 disturlied since that time. It sent a similar 
 deputation to the embassy from Japan, when 
 they visited the United States and the courts of 
 Europe in 1872, to remonstrate against the per- 
 secution of Christians, mostly Roman Catholics, 
 in that distant empire of the East; and the per- 
 secution has since ceased. It has not forgotten 
 the Nestorians in Persia, who appealed to the 
 .\lli,ance for protection against the oppression of 
 a Mohammedan government; and prepai'ed a 
 memorial to the Czar on the persecution of Bap- 
 tists in the South of Russia (1874). At the 
 seventh general' Conference in Basle (1870), a 
 deputation was appointed to wait on the Em- 
 peror of Austria in behalf of certain Christians 
 in Bohemia, who were debarred the liberty of 
 holding even family worship ; and the request 
 was granted by the special interposition of the 
 emperor. The force of public opinion on the 
 subject of freedom of conscience and religious 
 worship, as expressed by the Alliance, h.as al- 
 ways found a respectful hearing, and must 
 sooner or later be obeyed by every civilized gov- 
 ernment on the globe. 
 
 Lit. — The Proceedings of the London meet- 
 ing of 1816, when the Alli.ance was organized, 
 and the Proceedings and Addresses of the Gen- 
 eral Conferences at London, Paris, Berlin, Gen- 
 eva, Amsterdam, New York, and B.asle, were all 
 published in English, and most of them also in 
 French, German, and Dutch, in the cities where 
 they were held, and may be had at the office of 
 the British organization, 7 Adam .Street, Strand. 
 The most important are : Ec<in</(;/ic<il Alliance 
 i Conference, 1873, edited by Drs. Schaff and Prime, 
 j published by the Harpers, New York, 1874, 773 
 I pp. double col. The American Committee dis- 
 tributed gratuitously six hundred copies of this 
 stately vohime among delegates .and theological 
 libraries in Europe and America. Sielienle 
 HnupWerxammluny der Evcing. Allianz gchaUcn in 
 Basel, 1879, herausfjef/. ran Prof. Dr. liif/r/enbacli, 
 Basel (Bahnmaier), 1879, in 2 vols, of 1.0.54 pp. 
 The same in English, under the title, Tlie lieli- 
 ffi/nts Conililion of Chrislendom descriheil in a series 
 of papers presented to the Seventh Gen. Conf. of the 
 Ev. Alliance held in Basle, 1879. edited by Dr. J. 
 Murr.ay Mitchell, Lomlon (llodder and Stough- 
 ton), 1880. To this should be added the report 
 of the Deputation of the Basle Conference to 
 the Emperor of .\ustria in behalf of religious 
 liberty in Bohemia, i)ublislird in German and 
 French at Basle, 1880. The British branch puli- 
 lishes from time to time special papers. The 
 American branch has issued from 1807 to 1884 
 eighteen documents, among them a rejiort on the 
 •state of religion in the United States for the 
 Conference iu .Vmsterdam, by the late Professor 
 Dr. Henry B. Smith (18<)7), a similar report pre- 
 pared for the Conference m Basle by Dr. SclialT 
 (1879), and a report on tlie Alliance Deputa- 
 tion to the Czar of Russia in behalf of religious 
 liberty (1871). The .Mliance has no sjiecial 
 organ, but uses the various religious periodicals 
 friendly to the cause in different countries. 
 Th(! British organization reports its proceedings 
 every month iu the J'^rani/elirid Clirlstendom, ]iul>- 
 lishccl by William John John.son, in London, 
 Edinburgh, and Dublin. I'lllLll' scil.M'-l--.
 
 ALLIANCE. 
 
 63 
 
 ALLIANCE. 
 
 ALLIANCE OF THE REFORMED CHURCHES 
 
 (popularly calli'il " I'l'csbytrriau Allianci'"j. A 
 voluntary organization formed in London 1875; 
 somewhat similar to that of the Kvaiigelical Alli- 
 ivnce, but confined to Kefornu!d churches holding 
 the Presbyterian system of government, and more 
 ■churclUy in the character of its representation. 
 It realizes a desire strongly entertained by Cal- 
 vin (letter to Cranmer, 1552) and Beza (confer- 
 ence at St. Germain, 1501), to heal the divisions 
 among Protestants by the formation of some gen- 
 eral council. Nothing came of their efforts, and 
 the different Protestant churches rapidly became 
 still farther separated. 
 
 The English-speaking portion of the Presby- 
 terians had their home in Scotland where Knox's 
 influence was paramount; and there the desire 
 for a re-union of Reformed Christendom linger- 
 ing in men's hearts, subsequently found expres- 
 sion in a variety of ways. The Secrmd Bock <if 
 Discipline of the Scottish Church (pub. 1578) 
 speaks of an " Assembly representing the Uni- 
 versal Kirk of Christ, which may be properly 
 called the General Assembly, or General Council 
 of the whole Kirk of God; " while in Pardovan's 
 well-known collection of Scottish Church laws 
 {1st ed. 1709) there is a section under the title, 
 •■ Of a General Council of Protestants." During 
 the eighteenth century a variety of controversies 
 conducted too often with great bitterness alien- 
 ated even the Presbyterian churches from each 
 other till Presbyterian re-union seemed all but 
 hopeless. In the early part of the present cen- 
 tary. however, a kindlier spirit began to prevail, 
 and churches that were doctrinally agreed drew 
 together. In 1820 the Bargher and Anti-burgher 
 churches united under the name of the United 
 Secession Church. This has been followed by a 
 large number of church unions in Scotland, Ire- 
 land, Canada, the United States, Australia, and 
 elsewhere ; while the watchword of even those 
 churche.s that did not see their way to entering 
 into organic union with any of their neighbors 
 became "Co-operation without incorporation." 
 The formation of the Evangelical Alliance 
 (London. 18-10) showing how there might be such 
 co-operation without any surrender of denomi- 
 national existence, the desire for some form of 
 Presbyterian union gradually became general. 
 At length in 1870 'the Rev. Dr. JlcCosh of 
 Princeton, N.J., gave a definite direction to this 
 desire by advocating a General Presbyterian Al- 
 liance. In Scotland Dr. W. G. Blaikie was espe- 
 cially active in the same direction. In 1873 the 
 first ecclesiastical action on the subject was taken 
 by the General Assemblies of the Presbyterian 
 Church in Ireland, and of that in the United 
 States in simultaneously appointing committees 
 to correspond with other churches. This led to 
 the holding of a meeting in New York (Oct. G, 
 1873) during the sessions of the Sixth (jeneral 
 Conference of the Evangelical Alliance, at which 
 a committee was appointed to bring the matter 
 before the Presbyterian churches throughout the 
 world and to obtain their concurrence and co- 
 operation. This coranuttee issued an address in 
 which they distinctly stated that what was pro- 
 posed was not that the churches " should merge 
 their separate existence in one large organiza- 
 tion; but that, retaining their self-government. 
 
 they should meet with the other members of the 
 Presbyterian family to consult for tiie good of 
 the Church at large, and for the glory of God." 
 The proposal met with such general approval 
 that in July, 1875, a conference was h(dd at the 
 English Presbyterian College in London. At 
 this meeting, which lasted four days, and where 
 nearly one hundred delegates, representing many 
 churches, attended, a constitution for the pro- 
 posed Alliance was prepared, from whose basis 
 we extract the following : — 
 
 "1. This Alliance shall be known as The 
 Alliance of thk Refokmed Churches 
 throughout the world holding the pres- 
 byterian system. 
 
 " 2. Any church organized on Presbyterian 
 principles, which holds the supreme authority of 
 the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments 
 in matters of faith and morals, and whose creed 
 is in harmony with the consensus of the Re- 
 formed Churches, shall be eligible for admission 
 into the Alliance." 
 
 It was also proposed that there should be a 
 triennial council of delegates, ministers, and 
 elders, in equal numbers, to be appointed by the 
 different churches in proportion to the number 
 of their congregations; and that this council, 
 while at liberty to consider all matters of com- 
 mon interest, should "not interfere with the 
 existing creed or constitution of any church in 
 the Alliance, or with its internal order or exter- 
 nal relations." 
 
 The Alliance which was thus proposed, was 
 one, not of individual Christians nor of individual 
 Presbyterians, but of Presbyterian churches, and 
 its constitution met with great favor. It fur- 
 nished an opportunity for the different church 
 organizations to come into close fraternal rela- 
 tions with each other while retaining their sepa- 
 rate existence and independence ; while the coun- 
 cil, it was seen, might in some measure inform- 
 ally do duty for that " missing link " of a world- 
 wide Presbyterian Church, a General Assembly. 
 In 1870, therefore, almost every Presbyterian 
 organization adopted the constitution, and ap- 
 pointed delegates, who — to the number of three 
 hundred and thirty-three, and representing more 
 than forty-nine separate churches, scattered 
 through twenty-five different countries, and con- 
 sisting of more than twenty thousand congrega- 
 tions — met in Edinburgh, .July 3-10, 1877, and 
 constituted the First General Council of the 
 Reformed Alliance. The session lasted eight 
 days, during which papers were read and dis- 
 cussed on The Harmony of the Reformed Con- 
 fessions ; The Fundamental Principles of Pres- 
 byterianisra : The Eldership ; Co-opei-ation in 
 Mission Work, and such like. 
 
 The Second General Council, composed of 
 nearly three hundred delegates, was held in 
 Philadelphia, Sept. 23 to Oct. 2, 1S80, and was 
 an occasion of great interest. Papers were read 
 and discussed on many vital Christian doctrines, 
 e.g.. Inspiration; The Atonement; Future Retri- 
 bution, — expressing on the whole strong ad- 
 herence to the old doctrinal positions of the 
 Reformed Churches, while important movements 
 were initiated that look to a unifying and sim- 
 plifying of the Reformed Creeds, and to co- 
 operation by the whole Reformed Church iu
 
 ALLIANCE. 
 
 64 
 
 ALMONER. 
 
 enterprises of a missionary and benevolent char- 
 acter. The Third General Council was held in 
 Belfast, in lS8i. 
 
 Lit. — Report on Bicentenary of the Westminster 
 Asse)7ib!y, Edin., 184.3. Caxdlish : Lecture on 
 The Relations in which the Churches of Christ ought 
 to stand to each other ; in "Principles of Union and 
 Mutual Duties," Glasgow, 1845. Address to the 
 Churches of Christ organized on Preshyterian prin- 
 ciples throughout the world, N.Y., 1874. Minutes 
 ot London Conference, 1875. Proceedings of First 
 General Council, edited by Rev. J. Thomson, Edin- 
 burgh, 1877, small 4to, pp. .382. Proceedings of 
 Second General Council, edited bv Rev. Drs. John 
 B. Dales and R. U. Patterson, Philadelphia, 18S1, 
 8vo., pp. 11.54. Minutes of Second (general Coun- 
 cil of Reformed Churches, Philadelphia, 1881 ; 
 Minutes of Third Council, ed. Mathews, Belfast, 
 1884. G. D. MATHEWS. 
 
 ALLIANCE, The Holy, was a league between 
 Alexander of Russia, Francis I. of .\ustria, and 
 Friedrich Wilhelm of Prussia, for the purpose of 
 maintaining that peace and order which, after 
 the fall of Napoleon I., the congress of Vienna 
 had succeeded to establish. In its original inten- 
 tion the Holy Alliance no doubt was a Christian 
 effort with pure and lofty aims, professing, as 
 it did, to carry out the princi|>les of the gospel 
 of Jesus Christ in all relations between sovereign 
 and subjects, and between sovereigns and sove- 
 reigns. In reality, however, the league became 
 a most vicious instrument of suppression and 
 re-action. The form of the instrument was due 
 to .-Vlexander, who at that period stood under 
 the inspiration of Madame Kriidener: the use to 
 which it was put Mas determined by Austrian 
 traditions and the character of Prince Metternich. 
 
 ALLIX, Peter, b. at Alen<;on, 1641; d. at 
 London, 1717; w.as educated in the Reformed 
 theological seminary of Sedan ; was minister at 
 .St. Agobille, Champagne, and afterwards at 
 Charenton, but left France on the revocation of 
 the Edict of Nantes and went to London, where 
 James II. allowed him to establish a French 
 church for the numerous French fugitives. He 
 received the degree of doctor both from Oxford 
 and Cambridge, and in l(ii)0 he was made canon 
 at Salisbury. His numerous writings, in French, 
 Latin, and English, are mostly polemical or 
 apologetical. By his two works. Same Rcmar/cs 
 upon the ecclesiastical history of the ancient churches 
 of Piedmont, London, 1G!)0, and, RemarLs vpon 
 the ecclesitusticid history of the ancient churches of 
 the Albigenses, London, l<if)2, written against Bos- 
 suet, in order to show that the Albigenses were 
 not dualists, but identical with the U'aldenses, 
 he contributed much to uphold tliis wrong view. 
 A comjilete list of his works is found in 
 Haag : La Franc, proleslante. IIERZOO. 
 
 ALLOCUTION, a diplomatinal term, denoting 
 an address from the pope to tlie assembled Col- 
 lege of Cardinals, (ieherally these addresses 
 treat of the relations between the Roman .See 
 and foreign governments; but, more especially, 
 they are u.sed as a means to explain the papal 
 
 {lolicy in cases in which the pope will not allow 
 lis action to be used as a precedent. Thus the 
 allocution is, in reality, often a reservation, a 
 protest. 
 
 ALL-SAINTS'-DAY. From Chrysostom, //om., 
 
 74, it appe.ars that as early as the fourth century 
 a festival was celebrated by the Eastern Church 
 in honor of all the saints on the Sunday after 
 Whitsuntide, which, consequently, was called 
 " All-Saints' Sunday." In the Western Church 
 such a festival was not known until later on. 
 When, under Pope Boniface IV., 608-61.5, the 
 Pantheon was fitted up for Christian worship, it 
 was dedicated to the Virgin and all the saints; 
 and its day of dedication. May 13, was annually 
 celebrated as a festival for the saints, .\nother 
 Festivitas Satictorum, mentioned by Ado, Marty- 
 rol. AijuUej. ad Kal. Novemh., originated from the 
 consecration by Pope Gregory III. of a church 
 In honorem omnium Sanctorum ; its day fell on 
 Nov. 1. In 835, Pope Gregory IV. induced the 
 Emperor Lewis to introduce an all-saints' festi- 
 val in the Prankish Church to be celebrated on 
 Nov. 1. In England the festival was introduced 
 somewhat later, about 870, and usually called 
 Allhallowmas. In the Anglican Church it is 
 still celebrated, while in most other Reformed 
 churches it lias fallen into disuse. n. ALT. 
 
 ALL-SOULS' DAY, the day following All- 
 Saints' Day, Nov. 2, is by the Roman Church 
 consecrated to the memory of the dead and to 
 prayer for the souls suffering in purgatory ; but 
 its celebration is a custom which has become 
 genei"al, rather than a definite institution. Since 
 the days of Gregory the Great (d. 604), when 
 the doctrine of purgatory became generally ac- 
 cepted, it was considered a sacred duty for all 
 Christians to piray for the dead; .and an incident 
 contributed to mould this general duty into a 
 fixed form. .\ pilgrim returning from Jerusa- 
 lem reported that, on approaching Sicily, he had 
 seen flames from purgatory bursting through the 
 eartli, and heard the wailings of the sutfering 
 souls. They implored him to go to the JMonas- 
 tery of Clugny, and beg the monks to have 
 mercy on their woes, and by prayers and alms 
 free them ovit of purgatory. From this time, 
 098, the pious abbot of Clugny, Odilo, considered 
 it a duty for his monastery to celebr.ite every 
 year the day after All-Saints' D.ay in commemo- 
 ration of all deceased believers, which example 
 soon spread to other monasteries. n. -\lt. 
 
 ALMAIN, Jacques, b. at Sens; d. in 1515; as 
 prob'ssor of tlieology in the college of Navarre, 
 drew up tlie reply of the faculty to the work of 
 Cajetan on tlie superiority of the pope to a gen- 
 eral council, and wrote De Auctoritale Eccleslce, 
 etc., Paris, 1512; De Potestate Ecclesiastica, etc., 
 Paris, 1517; and Moralla, Paris, 1525. 
 
 ALMEIDA, Emmanuel, b. at Viseu, Portugal, 
 1580; d. at (Ina. lliKi; entered the Order of the 
 ■Jesuits, and worked for ten ye.ars as a missionary 
 among the Ethio|iiaiis. Besides his Historical 
 I.cllcrs, Rome, 162!), against Urreba, he left mate- 
 rials for the Filiid/iian lllslory, edited by Bai.tha- 
 .SAU Tf.mj.i:, Ciiiiiibra, 1660. 
 
 ALMERICIANS. See Amai.ric of Bena. 
 
 ALMONER {aumOnier, elecmnsynarius), an offi- 
 cer among tlie court clergy ; occurs at the Freindi 
 court from the thirteentli century, and was origi- 
 nally employed to distribute the king's alms. 
 Later on there were several almoners, and from 
 the fifteenth century a grand almoner is men- 
 tioneil. He stood at the he.ail of the whole court 
 clergy, made propositions for the appuintnients
 
 ALMS. 
 
 65 
 
 ALSTED. 
 
 to bishoprics and other beneficps, aiul pxcrciseil a 
 considerable influence. In tlie Revohition th<' 
 office was abolished. In England the duty of 
 the hereditary grand almoner consists in distrib- 
 uting the coronation medals among the specta- 
 tors ; and that of the lord high almoner, in dis- 
 tributing twice a year the Queen's bounty, that 
 is, as many silver pennies as the Queen has years 
 of age. 
 
 ALMS (from klurjixonivr], mercifulness). To give 
 alms was a duty laid upon the Jews, who were 
 also required to leave gleanings in the fields tluit 
 the poor might be fed (Lev. xix. !), 10, xxiii. '22 ; 
 Deut. XV. 11, xxiv. 19, xxvi. 2-13; Kuth ii. 2). 
 Every third year a tithe of the entire increase 
 was to be divided among the Levite, the stran- 
 ger, and the fatherless and the widow (Deut. xiv. 
 28, 29). Alms-giving was part of 'the Pharisaic 
 practice, " to be seen of men " (Matt. vi. 2). In 
 the temple there were thirteen boxes for this 
 purpose (John viii. 20). The idea that there is 
 merit in alms per se, has been always fruitful of 
 ill. Men think by them to purchase salvation ; 
 but God asks, what is the motive? not, what is 
 the amount? (2 Cor. viii. 12.) The widow's two 
 mites were more precious than the rich men's 
 princely gifts. Alms-giving was early recog- 
 nized as a condition of piety, and as a " funda- 
 mental law of Christian morality ; " for unless 
 there be benevolence, there can be no spiritual 
 life ; and mention is made in the Acts of collec- 
 tions for the poor as a bond of Christian unity 
 (Acts xi. 29; Ilom. xii. 13; Eph. iv. 28; 1 Tim. 
 vi. 18; Heb. xiii. 16; 1 John iii. 17). It was the 
 exhortation of the pillar aposfles (Gal. ii. 10), 
 and a special care of Paul (1 Cor. xvi. 1). Fre- 
 quent are the exhoi'tations of the fathers; and it 
 became an integral part of the Church worship. 
 The money went, before the fifth centurj', into 
 the hand of the bishop, and was distributed by 
 the deacons. But in the Western Church in the 
 fifth century there was a fourfold division of 
 them: 1, for the bishop; 2, for the clergy; 3, for 
 the poor; 4, for the fabric and sustenation of the 
 churches. See Almoner. 
 
 • ALOGI, or ALOCIANS, i^ojoi, a branch of the 
 Monarchians, flourished in Asia Minor, and re- 
 ceived, according to Epiphanius, Hoeres. 51, 3, 
 their name from the fact that they denied the 
 existence of the Logos, taught by St. John, and 
 rejected both St. John's Gospel and probably 
 also the Revelation. Theodotus the currier, 
 who about 200 was excommunicated by the llo- 
 man bishop, belonged to this sect, according to 
 Epiphanius. 54, 1. heezog. 
 
 ALOMBRADOS, llluminati, Ilhimiiies, a mystic 
 sect, which originated in Spain in the lirst part 
 of the sixteenth eejitury, and appeared at the 
 same time in the vicinity of Cordova and in 
 Castile. The Inquisition, however, was prompt 
 in its action. Among those suspected was Ig- 
 natius Loyola: twice he was called before the 
 Inquisition and imprisoned. Also Juan d'Avila, 
 Luis de Granada, Francis de Borgia, and others 
 among the Spanish theologians, were examined. 
 (Cf. McCrie, Ilislori/ of the Reformation in Spain.) 
 ■The doctrines of the Alombrados, such as they 
 are represented in the acts of the Inquisition, re- 
 mind one sometimes of the Quakers on the one 
 side, and on the other of the German Anabaptists 
 6-1 
 
 Miinzer, Schwenkfeld, etc. A report of Jan 28, 
 1558, summarizes them in the following manner : 
 I. Only the inward prayer is commanded by God 
 and meritorious, while the external praying with 
 tlie lips is a merely symbolical or sacramental 
 action without any religious worth. 11. The 
 confessor w)io recommends such external, bodily 
 exercises, shall not be obeyed. III. 'J'he true 
 servant of God is above practices of this kind, 
 nor is it necessary for him to do good works in 
 the common sense of the word. IV. The violent 
 movements, cramps, and faintings which accom- 
 pany the inner devotion, are token of divine 
 love and the grace of the Holy Spirit. V. In 
 the state of perfection the secret of the Holy 
 Trinity is revealed to us, even while here on 
 earth, and all which we shall do or not do is 
 communicated to us directly by the Holy Spirit, 
 etc. (Llorente : History of tlie Inquisition). X still 
 more complete record of the doctrines of the 
 Alombrados is found with Malvasia: Ciitolorjus 
 omnium liceresium et eonriliorum, Rome, 1001, Cen- 
 tur. XVI., pp. 269-274, from which it appears 
 that they entertained antinomian maxims of a 
 very doubtful character. This was more espe- 
 cially the case with a branch of the Alombrados 
 discovered in 1575 in the neighborhood of Cordo- 
 va, and founded by the Carmelin nun, Caterina 
 de Jesus, and a certain Juan de Willelpando, from 
 Teneriffa; and with another branch flourishing 
 about 1023 in the dioceses of Sevilla and Grana- 
 da. Both these sects were suppressed with great 
 severity by the Inquisition, and many of their 
 members perished at the stake. Closely allied to 
 the Spanish Alombrados. and different from the 
 German llluminati of the eighteenth century, 
 were the Illumines of Northern France ; the sect 
 was founded in 1034 in Flanders and Piccardy 
 by Antoine Bocquet and Abbe Guerin, pastor of 
 St. George de Roye. after the latter of whom it 
 was often called Gnerinets. Another sect of 
 French Illumines flourished in Soutliern France 
 in the beginning of the eighteenth century. 
 They seem to have adopted several Masonic ele- 
 ments, and formed a transition from the Alom- 
 brados to the llluminati. See J. H. Blu.vt: 
 Dictionary of Heresies, etc., London, 1874 ; Heppe: 
 Geschichle tier quietistisclien Hhjstik in iler Kalho- 
 lischen Kirche, Berlin, 1875. ZUCKLER. 
 
 ALOYSIUS OF GONZAGA, b. at Gonzaga 
 near Mantua in 1508; d. in Rome in 1591; be- 
 longed to the princely family of Castiglione; 
 distinguished from early youth by his piety and 
 strong ascetic leaning, he became a Jesuit in 
 1587. He died by the plague, sacrificing himself 
 in order to alleviate the sufferings of the poor. 
 He was canonized by Benedict XIII. in 1720. 
 and is commemorated in the Roman Church on 
 June 21. HERZOO 
 
 ALPHONSUS MARIA DE LIGUORI. SeeLi- 
 
 GUOUI. 
 
 ALSTED, Johann Heinrich, b. in 1588; d. iu 
 1638; was professor of philosophy and theology at 
 Herborn ; represented the Reformed Church of 
 Nassau at the synod of Dortrecht (Dort), 1018, 
 and became afterwards professor of philosophy 
 and theology at Weissenburg, in Transylvania. 
 He was a very prolific writer, and his works give 
 a striking idea of the literary and scientific meth- 
 ods of his age. The most remarkable are his two
 
 ALTAR. 
 
 66 
 
 ALTAR. 
 
 great cyclopedias: (1) Cur.^ii-: pjtilosnphici Ency- 
 cloptedia, Herborn, 1G20. o£ which one volume, con- 
 sisting of 3,072 quarto pages, comprises, I. (/ho- 
 tuor pr(BCo;/n(la pfiilo.ioji/iica: archetogia, herllii(/la, 
 technolof/ia, didactka ; II. unilccim fcicnlUe philos. 
 theoreticm ; metaphtj^icu, pneitmatica, phjsica, arilh- 
 metica, geomelria, coamographia, ura?ioscopia , geo- 
 (/rapJiia, optica, tnunica, architeclonica ; III. qu'mque 
 pnulentke pkiloa. praclk-m; elJika, crconomkce, po- 
 litka, scho/asdca, hislorku ; the other comprises 
 " the seven liberal arts : " (2) Enci/clopteilia stplem 
 toink dktincia, Herborn, 1630, containing, I. (jua- 
 tuor pracognha dkciplhiarum ; II. philologia, i.e., 
 lexka, grammalka, rhetorka, lugka, oraturia, pvet- 
 ka; 111. philo.iophki iheoretka; YV.practka; V. 
 tres facullates principes: theolnyki, Jiirk-prudenlia, 
 medkiita ; VI. arte!! mechankce , VII. miscellane- 
 ous : one section is entitled tahacnlogla, or the 
 '• doctrine " of the use and abuse of tobacco. The 
 various theological disciplines he treated in sep- 
 arate works : Theologia scholastka didactka, Ilan. 
 1618; Theologia pokmka, 1620; Theologia casuiim, 
 1621; Theologia prophetica, Theologia moi'alis, etc. 
 He also wrote a Tractatus de mille annis, iu which 
 he fixes the beginning of the millennium at 
 1694, and a great work, De maiiducaliune spirituali, 
 etc. " ALEX. SCUWEIZEK. 
 
 ALTAR, Hebrew. The fir.st altar was probably 
 no more than a heap of stones, or mound of 
 earth ; similarly the altar which Moses was com- 
 manded to build was to be made either of earth 
 or stone ; in the latter case it was expressly re- 
 quired to be rough, the use of a tool being 
 regarded as polluting (Exod. xx. 24, 25). In 
 tlie Jewish worship two altars were used. 1. 
 The altar of burnt offering, or the brazen altar, 
 which was seven feet and six inches square, and 
 four feet and six inches high, and stood directly 
 in front of the principal entrance of the Taber- 
 nacle. The casing was of shittim-wood overlaid 
 with brass ; the interior was hollow, and, when 
 the tabernacle was stationary, this interior was 
 probably tilled up with earth or stones, upon 
 which the victim was laid. At each corner there 
 was a wooden projection covered with brass, 
 called a "horn." The altar was required to be 
 without steps (Exod. xx. 26), and was probably 
 approached by an inclined plane of earth. The 
 altar is described in Exod. xxvii. In the first 
 temple the altar was of the same proportion.s, and 
 occupied the same relative position, but it was 
 much larger, being thirty feet square, and fifteen 
 feet high. It was made entirely of brass plates, 
 which covered a structure of earth or stone 
 (2 Chron. iv. 1). In the third temple it was 
 still larger, and more beautiful. 2. The altar 
 of incense, or the golden altar, of the same wood, 
 but overlaid with plates of pure gold, with a 
 border of gold above, stood within the holy 
 place, " before the vail that is by the ark of the 
 testimony " (Exod. XXX. 6, Ix. .'3). It was eigh- 
 teen inches square and three feet high. Upon 
 lliis altar incense was binriiMl every morning and 
 evening. In the first temple it was maile of 
 cedar, overlaid with gold. Only incense might 
 be put upon it, yet on the Day of Atonement 
 it was stamed by blood (Lev. xvi. 18, ID). The 
 altar of incense is the only altar in heaven 
 (Rev. viii. 3, 1). 
 
 Christian. The New Testami'ut has a double 
 
 designation for the Christian's altar, namely 
 dvaiaaTTipiov, from Svelv, "to sacrifice," trans 
 lated "the altar" (Heb. xiii. 10), and rpiiTre^a 
 Kvpiov, translated literally " the Lord's table " 
 (1 Cor. X. 21), of which the first one is also 
 applied to the Jewish altar of burnt-offerings iu 
 the Septuagint and the Gospels (Matt. v. 23, 24; 
 Luke i. 11). Both names were afterwards used 
 promiscuously by the Greek Fathers to the ex- 
 clusion of other designations, such as i3u/i6( and 
 loxdpa, which were applied to the heathen al- 
 tars only. The Latin Fathers use ara and altare, 
 and later on altarium, without making any such 
 distinction. 
 
 The Christian altar combined from a very 
 early date two ideas or offices together, — that of 
 the celebration of the eucharist, and that of the 
 worship of the martyrs. When, during the time 
 of the persecutions, the eucharist was celebrated 
 in the subterraneous cemeteries, the catacombs, 
 the celebration took place on the slab covering 
 the martyr's tomb, which tomb stood under an 
 arch hewn into the living rock, the arcosolium, 
 that is, the grave of the martyr served as an 
 altar. Afterwards, when churches were built in 
 the cemeteries, but above ground, the altar was 
 placed just above the martyr's tomb, and an 
 aperture was made so that the tomb could be 
 seen. Still later, when churches were built also 
 outside the cemeteries, the martyr's bones were 
 transferred to the new place, and entombed or 
 enshrined under the altar. This custom of the 
 Church was by Felix I., 269-274, made a law in 
 the Church, and spread throughout all AVestern 
 countries, so that the martyr's tomb, the martij- 
 riinn, cimfessio, testimonium, memoria, became a 
 part of the altar itself. And so it is still in the 
 Roman Church up to this very day. No altar 
 can be raised without relics ; and when a new 
 church is consecrated, the consecralio altaris, the 
 incluxio of the relics of the patron-saint of the 
 building in the sejtulcru7n, is the principal point 
 of the ceremony. 
 
 In the combination of these two olhces, the 
 construction, position, and ornamentation of the 
 Christian altar find their explanatiou. The 
 structure itself had the form either of a table 
 or of a sarcophagus, and was first made of 
 wood, afterwards of stone, but always highly 
 ornamented, inlaid with gold, silver, pearls, and 
 jirecious stones, or covered with cloths of velvet 
 and silk, vestimenta altaris, costly embroidered, 
 over which was spread, at the celebration of the 
 eucharist, a fine white linen cloth, yj((//(i or palUi 
 rorporalis or eorporale, symbolizing the winding- 
 sheet of Christ. Over the altar, and at times 
 hiding it away from sight, rose the ciborium on 
 four colunms, between co.stly embroidered cur- 
 tains. From the ninth century it became cus- 
 tomary to place the shrine with the relics of the 
 saint on tlie top of the altar, and as a decoration 
 around this shrine developed the altar-pi(!ce with 
 its wings, the retabulum. Later on, the shrine or 
 reliquary was again placed under or in the al- 
 tar, out the altar-pii'ce was still retained, and in 
 the period when Gothic art stood at its highest, 
 when wood-carving was carried to jnufection, 
 and painting in oils ncnvly invented, these altar- 
 pieces were ofteu wonderful works of art. 
 Among the other accessories of the altar, the
 
 ALTAR. 
 
 67 
 
 ALYPIUS. 
 
 lights were not introducoil until the twelfth 
 century, and the vases with flowers still later. 
 In the middle of the ninth, I^eo IV. decreed: 
 Super altiirc riiliU ponotur nisi cnpxa et reliipiiie 
 Sanctorum nut forte quatuor Evamjelin al buxida 
 cum corpore Domini ad viaticum infirmorum (" on 
 the altar nothing niight be lawfidly placed ex- 
 cept the slirine containing relics, or perchance 
 the codex of the Gospels, and the pyx or taber- 
 nacle in which the Lord's body was reserved for 
 the last sacrament of the sick ", [Migne, Patrol. 
 cxv. 077]). Even the crucifix was not placed on 
 the altar, but suspended above it. 
 
 Originally there was only one altar in each 
 •church, placed in the apsis which terminated the 
 middle nave, and consecrated to the patron-saint 
 of the building; but just the circumstance that 
 the altar was connected with the worship of mar- 
 tyrs and saints gave rise to the introduction of 
 several altars in the same church. In the Apos- 
 tolic Constitutions the establishment of a new- 
 altar means the separation from the old bishop; 
 for as yet the one altar bound the bishop and the 
 •congregation together into one body, by one faith. 
 But, as other relies than those of the patron-saint 
 •were introduced into a church, special altars 
 were raised and consecrated to them ; and at these 
 altars private mass was said at special occasions. 
 Thus Paulinus, from Nola, described the church 
 of the Holy Sepulchre, erected by Constantine in 
 Jerusalem, as rich in "golden altars; " and Am- 
 brose mentions several altars in the church of 
 Milan. Also the portable altar, ara ijeslatoria, 
 porlatilia, motoria, viatica, itineraria, etc., was an 
 outgrowth from the altar's office in tlie worshi]* of 
 saints. As mass could not be said at an altar not 
 •consecrated, and no altar could be consecrated 
 without enclosing some relic, princes on their 
 campaigns, missionaries on their voyages, high 
 ecclesiastics, when travelling, carried with them 
 a portable altar, a box of wood or metal, costly 
 ornamented, and containing the relic, the hostie, 
 and the communion cup. 
 
 It was, therefore, quite natural thr.t the Ref- 
 ormation should take offence at the plurality 
 of altars in the same church, as it completely 
 abolished that part of the altar's office which 
 .stood in connection with the worship of saints. 
 Wherever the Reformation became victorious, all 
 the by-altars were generally broken down ; and 
 wiien in some cases, as for instance in the Church 
 of St. Laurentius, in Nuremberg, they were left 
 standing, they were bereft of all liturgical signi- 
 fication, and remained only as monuments. In 
 Lutheran churches the chief altar was generally 
 retained nearly iu its original .shape ; the reli- 
 quary disappeared, but the altai'-piece, the retalnt- 
 tum, I'emained. The Reformed churches generally 
 went more radically to work. In Switzerland 
 the altar was replaced by a plain communion- 
 table ; and in Holland and Scotland even this 
 communion-table was not tolerated except when 
 communion was actually celebrated. 
 
 Lit. — L.\IB and Schw^artz: Studien iiher die 
 Geschichte des clirisd. Altars, Stuttgart, 18.57; A. 
 Sciimid; Der christt. Altar und sein Sch7nuck, 
 Regensburg, 1871 ; C.\HIEU : Nouuelles Melanyes 
 d'Archeoioijie, Paris, 1875; [and the article Altar 
 in Smith and Cheetiiam: Diet, of Christ. Anti- 
 fjuilie.tl. M. MKUUKK. 
 
 ALTHAMER, Andreas, 1>. about l.")00 in Brenz, 
 A\'urtenilH'ig ; stu'lied in 1518-1!) at the univer- 
 sities of Tul>ingen and Leipzig; was a te.acherin 
 Hall, Suabia, in lolil, and became minister iu 
 Gmiind in 1524. On account of the feasant 
 War he fled from Southern Germany, and came 
 in 1.525 to Wittenberg. Here he very soon be- 
 came a disciple of the Reformers, attacking the 
 Romanists in his Annotatiotics in Jncohi 1-lpistolam, 
 1517, etc., and defending Luther in his De Sao 
 ramento Altaris, etc. He also assisted at the con- 
 ferences of Berne in 1528. In 1.520 he returned 
 to the South as minister in Eltersdorf; in 1527 
 he became deacon to St. Sebaldus in Nuremberg, 
 and in 1528 minister in Ansbach. About the 
 latter part of his life nothing certain is known. 
 A biography of him, containing several of his 
 letters, was written by J. A. Ballenstadius, Wolf- 
 enbiittel, 1740. 
 
 ALTINC, (1) Johann Heinrich, b. at Emden, 
 Friesland, Feb. 17, 1583; d. at (jroeningen, Aug. 
 25, 1044; studied at Groeniiigen and at Herborn 
 under Piscator ; travelled much; became in 1008 
 tutor to the Prince Palatine whom he accompa- 
 nied to Sedan and to England, and was appointed 
 professor of dogmatics at Heidelberg (Loci com- 
 munes) in 1013, and in 1610 director of the semi- 
 nary in Collerjium Sapientice. After the capture of 
 Heidelberg in 1022 by Tilly, he fled to Holland, 
 where in 1627 he was made professor of theology 
 iu Groeningen. He published nothing during 
 his lifetime, but after his death his works were 
 published by his son : Eieijesis Auijnstanae Confes- 
 sionU, Amsterdam, 1652 ; Script. Heidelherijens, 
 three vols., Amsterdam, 1062, containing, I. Locos 
 Communes ; II. Prolilcmata llieolo</ica : HI. Ex- 
 plicatio Catecheseos Palatinas : Tlieoloi/ia /listoricir, 
 Amsterdam, 1064. — (2) His son, Jacob Alting-, 
 b. at Heidelberg, Dec. 27, 1018; d. at Groeningen, 
 Aug. 20, 1679; studied Oriental languages, an^l 
 succeeded Gomarus as professor in Hebrew at 
 Groeningen, 1667. His works on Hebrew lau 
 guage and literature were published at Amster- 
 dam in 1687, in five folio volumes, by Balthazev 
 Becker. 
 
 ALYPIUS, Saint, b. at Tagaste, Nuniidia; was 
 a pupil and friend of Augustine, with whom he 
 went to Rome to study law. For some time he 
 held a position in the imperial treasury; but iu 
 385 he went with Augustine to Milan, was con- 
 verted from Manichfeism to the Catholic faith, 
 and baptized by Ambrose on Easter-eve, 387. 
 After returning to Africa, the two friends settled 
 near Tagaste, and lived in seclusion until 391, 
 when Augustine was chosen priest by the people 
 of Hippo. Shortly after Alypius took charge of 
 a monaster}' in Hippo, and in 394 he was elected 
 bishop of Tagaste. He was present at the coun- 
 cil of Carthage, 403 (see U().\.\tists), and was 
 one of the six Catholic representatives in the 
 great conference convened by Ilonorius. When 
 Augustine died in 430, he was still living, but 
 nothing is known about the last days of his life. 
 He is commemorated by the Roman Church on 
 Aug. 15. See Augustine, Con/essiun. VI., 7, 8, 
 9, 10, 12; IX., 6 ; and Epist., 22, 28, 188, 201; 
 Buti.eu: Lives of Saints, Aug. 15. 
 
 There is another St. Alypius, the Stylite, com- 
 memorated by the Greek Church on Nov. 26. 
 lie was boru in Adriauople iu the middle of the
 
 ALZOG. 
 
 68 
 
 AMALEKITES. 
 
 sixth century ; and, in imitation of Simeon the 
 Stylite, he ascended a pillar, and remained 
 standing on its top daring more than fifty years. 
 
 ALZOC, Johann Baptist, an eminent Roman- 
 Catholic cliurcli liistorian, b. at Ohlau in Silesia, 
 .Tune 29, 1808; d. at Freiburg, Germany, March 
 1, 1878; educated at Brieg, Mreslau, and Bonn, 
 from 1830-33, he was a private tutor at Aachen ; 
 and on July 4, 1834, he was ordained a priest at 
 Cologne ; in the next year he received from the 
 IMiinster Academy, as the result of a public dis- 
 putation, the degree of Doctor in Theology ; his 
 thesis was on the principles of Roman-Catholic 
 exegesis (^Explicatio Ciilholkorum Sijslemalix ite 
 Interprelalionc Litterarum Sucrarum, IMonasterii, 
 1835). Immediately thereafter he was chosen 
 ]irofessor of church history and exegesis in the 
 Theological Seminary in Posen, w-here he re- 
 mained until 1844. During this time he materi- 
 ally aided his archbishopi, Martin von Dunin, in 
 the fight against the mixed marriages, and pub- 
 li.shetl hi.s Handbuch tier Univerxal-Kirchenfjeschichle 
 (Mainz, 1841). In 1844 he was called to a 
 .similar position at Hildesheim ; but at length 
 his great desire to be a professor in a university 
 wa.s gi-atified by his call to Freiburg in 1853. 
 From then until his death he led the quiet, 
 active, useful life of a scholar. Nor was he 
 without recognition by the secular authorities 
 in the way of titles and medals; but what he val- 
 ued most highly was the confidence manifested 
 in him by his peers. In 18C4 he attended the 
 memorable congress of Roman-Catholic scholars 
 held at Munich ; and in 18G9 he was summoned 
 by the Pope to Rome to take part in the prepara- 
 tion for the Vatican Council. He died of apo- 
 plexy. 
 
 Alzog was not only respected by Roman Catho- 
 lics, but also by Protestants. He was no narrow 
 l>artisan, but a broad-minded student of history. 
 Accordingly his works are deservedly popular in 
 the best sense. In his Maniiiil of General Clmrch 
 Ili.tlori/, the tenth edition of which appeared in 
 1882. he endeavored to do for the Roman Catho- 
 lics what Hase did for the Protestants, — present 
 a brief yet full, readable, and reliable church his- 
 tory. It has been translated into French, Span- 
 ish, Italian. Portuguese, Bohnmian, Polish, Arme- 
 nian, finally into English by Messrs. Pabish and 
 Byrne, Cincinnati, 1874, sqq., 3 vols. But the 
 English translation skilfully removes the manly 
 candor of Alzog, and turns him into the conven- 
 tional Roman-Catholic apologist who sees no good 
 in Protestantism and no bad in Romanism. 
 The unfairness of this may be judged by the 
 following extracts of a letter of Dr. Alzog, dated 
 Freiburg, Sept. 15, 1868, to his Protestant fellow- 
 historian. Dr. Schaff : " The correspondence with 
 a colleague of the Protestant Church of such 
 excellent .spirit is to me of inestimable value. 
 I shall soon give expression to my joy and grati- 
 tude by sending you a copy of the latest edition 
 III my Cnm/jeiiil of Churcit Ilislori/. anil of my 
 Oralio (ipoloijelicn ih fwja of Gregory Nazianzen, 
 now in the pre.ss. lour interesting and valu- 
 al.)le communications from America give me new 
 ligiit, and induce me hereafter to pay greater 
 attention to tiiis part of cliurcli history, availing 
 myself of your suggestions," etc. 
 
 Alzog wrote also Dun katlwUnche Gebtt-GefoiKj- 
 
 und Betrachtungshuch, Mainz, 1849 ; Handbuch der 
 Pairologie, Freiburg im Breisgau, 1866, 3d ed. 
 1876 ; Grundrks der universal Kirchengeschtchle, 
 Mainz, 1868 (an abridgment of his larger work); 
 besides many special treatises. 
 
 See F. X. Kraus : Geddchtnixsrede auf Johannes 
 Alzog. 2d ed., Freiburg im Breisgau, 1879. 
 
 AMALARIUS, deacon and then priest in Metz, 
 and afterwards abbot of Hornbuch, near Metz ; 
 d. in 837 ; wrote about 820 a book. De ojjirio 
 ecclesiaxlifo, or as he calls it himself. Liber ojfi- 
 cialin, which he dedicated to Lewis the Pious 
 (Mar. Bihl., T. XIV., p. 934, sqq.). The book 
 is a curious instance of the allegorizing tendency. 
 The author finds a symbolical meaning, even in 
 the smallest details of the garment of the priest. 
 Nevertheless it contains much information con- 
 cerning the spirit and characters of the age. He 
 also wrote a work, De ordine imliphonarii or De 
 online psalmorum (Max. Bill., T. XIV.), in which 
 he criticised Agobard's improvements of the 
 church song ; but Agobard not only refuted the 
 censure, but went on and attacked Amalarius, 
 Lilicr officiedis (Liher Ae/ohardi contra liliros (jiialuor 
 Am. ahhalis. M. B., T. XIV., p. 325). 
 
 AM'ALEK (dweller in a vallei/) was the grand- 
 son of Esau (Gen. xxxvi. 16), but was not the 
 founder of the Amalekites, because, according tO' 
 Gen. xiv. 7, they existed before his birth. 
 
 AM'ALEKITES, "the first of the nations," as 
 Balaam called them (Num. xxiv. 20), and the 
 only one of the peoples outside of Canaan who- 
 were put under the ban of total extinction (Exod. 
 xvii. 14). The reason of this cause was Ama- 
 lek's cowardly attack upon Israel's rearguard, 
 " even all that were feeble," while the host was 
 faint and weary. The battle was, however, 
 turned against them by the miracle of JNIoses' 
 prayer (Exod. xvii. 8-16). The origin of the .\ma- 
 lekites is not known ; but from the fact that in 
 the time of the judges (Judg. xii. 15) there was 
 a hilly district in Ephraim, called by tliis name, 
 it is reasonable to conjecture that once they lived 
 there, and that gradually they took up a nomadic 
 mode of life, perhaps even before Abraham's 
 emigration, until they had moved southwards 
 and westwards into the wilderness between Pal- 
 estine and Egypt, where they were found iu 
 Moses' time iu alliance with the Amorites 
 (Num. xiii. 29). But it is equally probable 
 that the district took its name from some inva- 
 sion of the Amalekites. Chedorlaomer and his 
 allies smote their country (Gen. xiv. 7). In 
 Moses' day they were the chief people of the 
 Sinaitic peninsula. They come frequently into 
 notice as the foes of Israel. When the people 
 were discouraged by the report of the spies, they 
 were discomfited by Anialek (Num. xiv. 45). 
 Later the Amalekites were defeated by Ehud 
 (Judg. iii. 13-30); Gideon (vii.); by Saul (1 
 Sam. xiv. 48, xv.). But Saul's failure, while he 
 had the oi>portunitv. to utterly destroy them, and 
 (■specially his s)«iring their king Agag, brought 
 upon him the Lord's curse (1 Sam. xxviii. 18), 
 and strange"ly enough he met his death by an 
 Amalekite (2 Sam. i. 8). David, even before he 
 became king, .set himself to tlie work of their 
 extermination (1 >Sam. xxvii. 8), and while at 
 Ziklag conducted a terril)ly deadly attack upon 
 them (1 Sam. xxx. 16), and subsecpiently as
 
 AMALRIC. 
 
 69 
 
 AMBO. 
 
 king (2 Sam. viii. \2.) At length, however, in 
 the days of Ilezekiah they were completely de- 
 stroyed (1 Chron. iv. V-i). Fr. W. 8CHULTZ. 
 
 AMALRIC OF BENA (French, Amaun/), b. at 
 liena in the diocese of (Jhartres, in the middle of 
 the twelfth century ; taught theology and [iliilos- 
 ophy in the University of Paris, and enjoyed a 
 great reputation as a subtle dialectician ; but 
 ■was accused of heresy in 120i, and called to 
 Rome to defend himself before Innocent III. 
 The pope decided against him ; and, soon after 
 his return to Paris, he dicil of grief. It was not, 
 however, until after his death that the sect which 
 he had founded was discovered ; though in Paris 
 itself not less th,an thirteen ecclesiastics belonged 
 to it, and it numbered many members in the dio- 
 ceses of Paris, Longres, Troyes, and Sens. In 
 order to suppress the sect, a synod assembled in 
 Paris in 1209. Amalric's doctrines were con- 
 demned, he himself excommunicated, his bones 
 •exhumed, and scattered over the fields. Nine 
 ecclesiastics, and Wilhelm the goldsmith, one of 
 the seven prophets of the sect, perished at the 
 stake : the four other priests were imprisoned for 
 life. The same synod condemned also a book 
 by David of Dinaut, the metaphysical works of 
 Aristotle, several theological works in the ver- 
 nacular tongue, etc. At the fourth council of 
 the Lateran in 121.5, Innocent III. confirmed the 
 condemnation of Amalric's doctrines, which he 
 characterized as mere craziness. 
 
 Only three propositions can with certainty be 
 referred back to Amalric himself: the rest of his 
 system is known to us only through his disciples. 
 Xevertheless, as he founded the sect himself, and 
 the sect was discovered immediately after his 
 death, there can be no reasonable doubt that the 
 doctrines of his disciples originated with him. 
 The three above-mentioned propositions read : 
 I. God is all; II. Every Christian must believe 
 that he is a member of the body of Christ, and 
 this belief is as necessary to salvation as faith 
 in the birth and death of the Saviour ; III. He 
 who remains in love can commit no sin. These 
 three propositions form the basis of the whole 
 system, but are further developed by the doc- 
 trines ascribed to the sect. God, they said, re- 
 revealed himself thrice, and each time more per- 
 fectly. With the incarnation in Abraham the 
 epoch of the Father begins ; with the incarnation 
 in Mary, that of the Son; with the incarnation 
 ill the Almericians, that of the Holy Spirit. As 
 now the Mosaic law was abolished by the com- 
 ing of Christ, so the sacraments of the new dis- 
 pensation are abolished by the coming of the Holy 
 Spirit. The Almericians denied that the sacra- 
 ments or any other act or regulation of the 
 Church had any saving efficacy. They called 
 the worship of saints idolatry; the Church, the 
 Babylon of the Revelation; the pope, Antichrist; 
 their own community, the only true medium 
 through which the Spirit reveals himself: and 
 this revelation takes the place of baptism, yea, it 
 is the resurrection of the dead, the kingdom of 
 heaven ; no other can be expected, nor is there 
 any hell outside of the consciousness of sin. 
 Still more direct utterances of the latent panthe- 
 ism of the system are found in propositions like 
 these : God' is the body of Christ ; God has 
 spoken in the same manner through Ovid as 
 
 through Augustine ; Christ was not God in any 
 other sense than every man is, etc. Their doc- 
 trine of the impossibility of sin to believers, i.e., 
 Almericians, was, according to contemporary rec- 
 ords, a cover for manifold excesses, as it aiter- 
 wards became among the Brethren of the Free 
 Spirit. .See Pukgek: Gescliichle der (leuhchfii 
 Mi/slik im MitU'lalter, I. 167, 173. PllEGER. 
 
 AMANDUS, missionary among the Franks in 
 the reigns of Dagobert 1. and Sigbert HI. ; bish- 
 op of Miistricht, and a zealous champion of the 
 interests of Home; was ordained priest at the 
 tomb of St. Martin ; and visited Rome, where 
 St. Peter appeared to him in a vision, and sum- 
 moned him to go and convert the pagan Franks. 
 Laboring in the vicinity of Ghent, he obtained 
 from Uagobert, about C2G, a law making baptism 
 compulsory: and he succeeded in converting the 
 wealthy Alluwin, afterwards called Bavo, who 
 furnished him with means to found two monas- 
 teries. Nevertheless the chief result of his labor 
 was a conflict with the Iro-.Scottish missionaries, 
 who worked with great success in these regions ; 
 and Dagobert finally banished him. In 647 he 
 was made bishop of Miistricht; but, unable to 
 govern his clergy, he abdicated, and took up once 
 more his missionary work on the Lower Danube, 
 in Spain, and on the .Scheldt, though nowhere 
 with success. The date of his death varies be- 
 tween 061 and 684. According to Roman rec- 
 ords, he did many miracles, and is styled the 
 " Apostle of Belgium." See S.medt : Vie ile Si. 
 Amand, 1861; GossE : E.isai sur St. Amand, 1866; 
 Ebr.\kd: Ii-oschottinche Missionskircke, 1873. 
 
 AM'ASA (<( burden), a son of Jether and Abi- 
 gail, sister of David, and therefore David's 
 nephew ; commanded the army of Absalom ; was 
 completely defeated, but was nevertheless ap- 
 pointed by David Joab's successor; and eventu- 
 ally died by Joab's hand (2 Sam. xvii. 25, xviii., 
 xix., XX. 10). See Jo.\B. 
 
 AMAZI'AH {whom Jehooah strengthens), son and 
 successor of Joash as king of Judah, B.C. 838- 
 809 ; slew Joash's murderers; defeated the Edom- 
 ites; attacked Jehoash, king of Israel, and was 
 defeated; Jerusalem was taken and pillaged. 
 But he reigned for fifteen years after the death 
 of Jehoash, and was at last murdered (2 Kings 
 xiv.). 
 
 AMBO (Greek uuSw, from uraiiaivo, " to ascend." 
 not from the Latin ambire, •• to circumvent," or 
 from ainbd, "both"), denoted generally the plat- 
 form, wliich, raised a few steps above the ground 
 and surrounded with rails, cancelli, stretched from 
 the altar-place, .sandunrium, presbyterium, to the 
 west into the nave of the church, and, during 
 service, was occupied by the lower clergy, espe- 
 cially the singers and readers. In a more special 
 sense, the name was applied to a scaffolding 
 erected at the northern and southern extremities 
 of the railing of the saiaiuarium, of a considera- 
 ble elevation, provided with two flights of steps, 
 and sustaining a desk from which the Scriptures 
 were read and the furmuke solemnes were spoken. 
 If there were two ambones, one on each side, 
 that to the right of the altar was higher and 
 more richly decorated, because it was destined 
 for the reading of the Gospels; while the lower 
 and plainer one to the left was destined for the 
 reading of the Epistles. When there was only
 
 AMBROSE. 
 
 JO 
 
 AMBROSE. 
 
 one ambo, it contained two desks, one. more ele- 
 vated, for the Gospels, and another, lower, for the 
 Epistles. The deacon preached from tlie ambo, 
 while the bishop preached from his tlirono.^ behind 
 the altar, or, if the church was too large, from the 
 faldhtorlnm before the altar. C. BROCKHAUS. 
 
 AMBROSE OF ALEXANDRIA, the friend of 
 Origen, held some government office in the city 
 of Alexandria; was perhaps a deacon in the 
 Christian Church, and became a confessor during 
 the persecution of Maximin, in 235. Origen 
 calls him his " taskmaster," because he was the 
 first to encourage him to become an author, and 
 ever afterwards stimulated him to the under- 
 taking of new works. He was rich, maintained 
 seven stenographers and seven copyists at the 
 disposal of his friend, and spared no expense, 
 when Origen was making preparations for the 
 Hexapha, to procure copies for him of the Sep- 
 tuagint and other Greek translations of the Old 
 Testament. See Euseb. :///*•/. iJec7cs., VI. 18; 
 Epipiunius: Hares, c. 64, 3; Jerome: De Viris 
 lllusl. c. .50. 
 
 AMBROSE (Latin form, Ambrosius), Saint, 
 b. at Treves, 340; d. at Milan, April 3-4,397; 
 one of the great leaders and teachers of the 
 Church. Belonging to a noble and rich Roman 
 family, he was educated in Rome for the bar ; 
 and was, about 370, appointed consular prefect 
 of Liguria and Emilia. He took up his residence 
 at Milan ; and when in 374, after tlie death of 
 Auxentius, a fierce contest arose between the 
 orthodox and the Arian party, concerning the 
 election of the new bishop, he, as the first magis- 
 trate, repaired to the church to maintain order. 
 While he was here addressing the ciowd, a child 
 suddenly cried out, '^Ambrosius episcopus." The 
 idea struck the multitude, and by an unanimous 
 and urgent vote he was transferred from the 
 judicial bench to the episcopal chair. He was 
 as yet only a catechumen ; but he was immedi- 
 ately baptized, and eight days afterward, Dec. 7, 
 374, he was consecrated bishop, having bequeathed 
 all his property, money, and estates to the Church 
 whose servant lie had become. 
 
 As a leader of the Church, .Vmbrosius has done 
 much more good than the three bishops who. dur- 
 ing his time, occupie<l the papal chair, — Liberius, 
 Daniasus, and Siricius. He saw that the Koinan 
 state was hastening towards dissolution. The 
 problem then became, to organize the Church so 
 tliat it would outlast the destruction of the State, 
 and be a saving ark to human society. For this 
 purpose the Church must be one, and in concord 
 with itself. Though not personally intolerant, 
 Ambrosius opposed the spread of lieresy in the 
 church with all his might. In 37!) he succeeded 
 in establishing an ortliodox bishop at Sirmium 
 in spite of the efforts of the Arian empress Jus- 
 tina. In 38'>-0 he refu.sed to deliver up a basili- 
 ca in Milan to the emi>ress for Arian worship. 
 These contests witli ,\rianism he has reported 
 himself in his llttte^s to Marcellina (/i/'/*. 'M and 
 2J), anil to Valcntinian H. (/i'/A 21). and in his 
 oration JJe Jkisiliris I'mitetidis. Also witli the 
 Roman monk, Jovianus, he had a sharp con- 
 troversy (A/^ 42). The Church, however, sliould 
 not only be one and authoritative : it should also 
 be powerful. I'aganism must find no support by 
 the state. In the senate-liall in Rome stood an 
 
 altar to Victory, on wliich all oaths were taken. 
 Gratian had this altar removed, but in 384 it was 
 restored. At the urgent demand of .\mbrosius, 
 Valeutiuian had it once more removed; but in 
 369 it was again restored ; until, shortly before 
 the death of .\mbrosius, Theodosius had it I'e- 
 moved forever {Epp. 17 and 18). On the other 
 hand, the State, though interfering with pagan- 
 ism, must not interfere with the Church. In 389 
 the Christians burnt a synagogue at Calinicum, 
 in Mesopotamia ; and Theodosius ordered the 
 synagogue to be rebuilt at the expense of the 
 bishop of the place. In 370 the people of Thessa- 
 lonica murdered, during a riot, the military gov- 
 ernor ; and Theodosius did not prevent the soldiers 
 frour retaliating with a fearful massacre. In 
 both cases, Ambrosius addressed himself to the 
 emperor, and in the latter he counselled him to 
 make public penance in the Church of Jlilan 
 (Ep. 51). 
 
 Also as a teacher of the Church, Ambrosius 
 exercised a great and beneficial influence; and 
 his writings, though not distinguished by any 
 great oi-iginality, are rich in striking practical 
 remarks. Of his dogmatical works the De Mys- 
 teriis reminds the reader of Cyril of Jerusalem, 
 and the works De Fide and De Sj)irilu Sanetu fol- 
 low Basil very closely. Also his exegetical 
 works are mostly founded on Basil ; but they, 
 as well as his sermons, are chiefly characterized 
 by their practical tendency. Among his moral 
 and ascetic works are, De Ojficiis Minislmniin, 
 formed after Cicero, De Viri/inilms, De Viiluis, De 
 Virfiinitatc, etc. The ascetic views of Ambro- 
 sius have often been misunderstood. He does 
 not speak against marriage. He places marriage 
 and virginity on a level with each other; but 
 he recommends virginity and separation from 
 the world as an easier and surer way to purity 
 and holiness. In the field of liturgy Ambrosius 
 introduced a comjirehensive reform in the church- 
 music (see the article on Ami!Rosi.\n Music), and 
 gave the Church of Milan a new liturgy, which, 
 if it had come down to us without any modifica- 
 tions from the Roman Missale. would liave been 
 the oldest liturgy in existence. From Ambro- 
 sius we also have a juridical work. Lex Del sice 
 Mosalcdnim el linmunaniin Lcf/uiit ( 'tttlntin. 
 
 Immediately after his death .Ambrosius was. 
 interred in the .Vmbrosian basilica in Milan, 
 under the altar, and between tlie martyrs I'rotas- 
 sius and Gervasius. In 824 his bones were laid 
 in a sarcojihagus of porphyry by Archbishop 
 Angilbert II.; and his sarcophagus was found 
 Jan. 18, 1864, though not opened until Aug 8, 
 1871 (HiUAGlli: / Ire Sepolcri Siinlnmhrosiani, 
 Milan. 1804). The best editions of the works 
 of Ambrose are : the liemdwline, Paris, 1086-90, 
 often reprinted, e.g., in Migne, I'alrol. Lai., XIV; 
 and that by Ballerini, Milan, 1875, sqq. The 
 sources of his life are, besides his own works, 
 especially liis letters, Augustin<'"s C<iii/'i ssimn s and 
 De Cirilnl. Dei, wliiletlie I'lla by I'aulinus proba- 
 bly dates from the eightli century. 
 
 Lit. — Hkuma.nt : Vie dc S. Amtiroise, Pari.s, 
 1678; Tili.emo.vt; /./two/re.s Paris, 1705, Tom. 
 X. ; J. P. SiMiKitT: Ldieii lies hi. Anilirosiiis, 
 Wien, 1841 (critically worthless); Pkuner; Die 
 Thiiilof/ie dis Id. /Iminw/Hv, Eichstiltt. 1862; Bau- 
 .NAUu: llisluiie de .S". Amiiruise, Paris, 1871 ;
 
 AMBROSE. 
 
 71 
 
 AMEN. 
 
 Ebert : Geschkhte der Lileratur iles MitlekiUcrs 
 im AheiuUande, Leipzi,e^, 1874 (vol. i.); [Furstf.k: 
 Amhrosiuf, Ilallp, ISst], TlIEdH. I'l.I'I'T. 
 
 AMBROSE THE CAMALDULE, or AMBRO- 
 SIUS CAMELDULENSIS, [.ruixrly Tiavei-.s.aii, 
 b. at I'ortico, near Florence, in 138(J ; entered 
 the order of the Camaldules in 1400; became the 
 general of the order in 1431, and distinguished 
 himself as reformer of his order, as legate and 
 defender of Eugene IV. in Basel, Ferrara, and 
 Florence, as leader of the negotiations for the 
 union of the Greek and Roman C'hurches, and as 
 a writer. He translated many Greek works into 
 Latin, and wrote himself on history. His letters 
 liave considerable interest for the history of his 
 time. 1). 1439. Amur. C.\m. ; Epp. et Oration., 
 ed. C'annetus, Florence, 1759, Tom. II. 
 
 AMBROSE, Isaac, Puritan divine, author of 
 Lookinq unto Jestis ; b. 1(303-4 ; d. 1004. He 
 was educated at Oxford, and w.as vicar of Gar- 
 stang, when the Act of Uniformity compelled 
 him to leave his charge, and retire to Preston. 
 " As a religious writer he has a vividness and 
 freshness of imagination possessed by scarcely 
 any of the Puritan Non-conformists. He is 
 plaintive as Flavel, and as intense as Baxter. 
 Many who have no love for Puritan doctrine, nor 
 sympathy with Puritan experience, have ajipre- 
 ciated the pathos and beauty of his writings, 
 which have never been out of print from their 
 original issue until now." His publications ap- 
 peared in London, I(i4t)-G2 ; LookirKj unto Jesus, 
 his most famous work, was published in 1058. 
 There is an edition of his Complete Works, Dundee, 
 1759, fol. : and another, London, 1829, 8vo. 
 
 AMBROSIAN MUSIC. Before the reform 
 which was introduced by Ambrose, the singing in 
 the Christian churches of the West was per- 
 formed by choirs, rantores, to which the congre- 
 gations gave only short responses ; and this sing- 
 ing consisted of a monotonous, unregulated, and 
 artless recitation of the psalms and prayers, with 
 only a slight raising of the voice. After the ex- 
 ample of the Eastern, more especially the Syrian 
 Church, Ambrose introduced measured time, regu- 
 lar rhythms, and varied melody in the singing of 
 the Church of Milan, employing the Dorian, Phry- 
 gian, Lydian, and Mixo-Lydian keys of the musi- 
 cal system of the Greeks, and also the form of 
 alternation, male and female choirs, single choirs, 
 and the whole congregation taking up the melody 
 successively. The effect of this new method of 
 singing is described by Augustine as very sweet, 
 and often moving the audience to tears ; Confess. 
 IX. 7, and X. 33. From Milan the reform spread 
 rapidly ; and, during the fifth and sixth centuries, 
 the Ambrosiau music was ruling throughout the 
 West. But in course of time an artificial and 
 profane manner crept in, which, towards the close 
 of the sixth century, called forth the Gregorian 
 reform; and thus the singing in the Church was 
 once more confined to the choirs or the deans. 
 As text Ambrose used tlie Greek and Latin 
 ' hymns already existing, by Ephraim (d. 378), 
 Hilary of Poitiers (d. 308), and others. They 
 were generally divided into strophes, either with 
 or without rhymes ; and often they were distin- 
 guished by sublime simplicity. But Ambrose 
 also composed a number of hymns himself, the 
 so-called Ambrosian or Roman hymns, generally 
 
 without rhymes, liut well adapted to the melo- 
 dies. ,\bout thirty such hynms have been as- 
 cribed to him, but only twelve with certainty, 
 among whicli are, Deus creator omnium ; U lux 
 betita Trinitas; Veni redemptor r/enliuni: yEterne 
 rerum conditor, etc. The celebrated hymn Te 
 Deum Laudamus, generally called Ilijmnus S.S. 
 Ambrosii et Atu/ustini, is a translation in part, 
 probably by Ambrose, of an older Greek hymn. 
 Other hymn-writers were, Prudentius, Ccelius, 
 Sedulius (d. 459), Ennodius, bishop of Pavia (d. 
 521), Fortunatus (d. 600), etc. 
 
 See Fortlage: Gesanye christlicher Vorzeit, Ber- 
 lin, 1844 ; ScHLOSSER : Die Kirche in iliren Liedern, 
 Mentz, 1851 ; Mone : Die Ilijmnen des Mittelalters, 
 1853. M. HEROLI>. 
 
 AMBROSI ASTER, or .PSEUDO-AMBROSIUS, 
 
 is the name now applied to the author of those 
 Commenlaria in XIII. Epistolas Beati Pauli, which 
 are published among the works of .Ambrose. 
 The first who<]UOted these commentaries over the 
 name of Ambrose was Hincmar of Rheims, about 
 870; then Ivo of Chartres, d. 1115; then Petrus 
 Lombardus, d. 1104, etc. The first who doubted 
 the autliorship of Ambrose was Erasmus. 1.527 ; 
 and now all agree that they do not belong to him. 
 The style is another, the treatment of the text is 
 different, many views are in direct opposition to 
 those of Ambrose, and the author's knowledge of 
 Greek is very imperfect, while Ambrose was com- 
 plete master of that langu,age. Various other 
 authors have been guessed at; but it is entirely 
 in vain to ask who the author is, because the 
 work cannot possibly be the product of one 
 single man. The treatment of the several 
 Epistles is wholly different : short and pithy in 
 the Epistle to the Romans, lengthy and vague in 
 the Epistle to the Philippians and Colossians. 
 .\nd, again, the text of Scripture from which is 
 quoted, varies continually. AVhile Ambrose 
 always quotes from the Itala, the quotations of 
 these commentaries are taken now from the Itola, 
 now from the Vulgate, and sometimes from 
 another version of tlie ItaUt than that used by 
 Ambrose. The work is evidently a compilation, 
 of which the oldest part dates from about 380, 
 the commentary on 1 Tim. iii. 15 pointing di- 
 rectly to the time of Damasus ; while the latest 
 part dates from about 800, the commentary on 
 Phil. ii. 9-11 containing an allusion to the Adop- 
 tionist controversy. THEOD. PLITT. 
 
 AMEN (true, faithful) expresses an energetic 
 affirmation and confirmation of the truth of a 
 statement ; accordingly a repetition of the word 
 had the force of a superlative. In the Old 
 Testament "amen" is the public assent to a 
 sentence (Deut. xxvii. 15-20), and to a judge's 
 charge (Num. v. 22) ; the solemn closing word 
 to several books of the Psalms (Ps. xli. 13. Ixxii. 
 19, Ixxxix. 52, cvi. 48). It was frequently uttered 
 by Christ, although the Authorized Version gen- 
 erally translates "verily," as in Matt. v. 18; 
 Mark iii. 28; Luke iv.24. Also by the apos- 
 tles as an appropriate word (Rom. xvi. 24; 
 Rev. xxii. 20,21). Jesus calls himself the Amen 
 (Rev. iii. 14). In tlie synagogue and in the early 
 Christian Church it was customary to say " amen " 
 to the prayers of the rabbin or pastor. To this 
 day it is also usual in liturgical churches. See 
 Webek; Comm. in A men Ecani/elicum, Jena., 17'H.
 
 AMERICAN. 
 
 72 
 
 AMMIANUS. 
 
 AMERICAN AND FOREIGN CHRISTIAN 
 UNION. This society, as its name denotes, is 
 tlie Union of the '■ Ajuerican Protestant Society," 
 founded in 1843 ; the " Foreign Evangelical So- 
 ciety," instituted in 1839 as the expansion of the 
 "French Association" of 1835; and the " CAWs- 
 tian Alliance " of 1842. The A. and F. C. U. 
 was organized May 10, 1849, to do in a more 
 efficient way the work of the three societies 
 named, which was to convert Roman Catholics, 
 or to quote its constitution, " by missions, col- 
 portage, the press, and other appropriate agen- 
 cies, to diffuse the princijiles of religious liberty, 
 and a pure and evangelical Christianity, both 
 at home and abroad, where a corrupted Chris- 
 tianity exists." The society was for a number of 
 years very prosperous, and spread its influence 
 over Europe, Xorth and South America, and the 
 adjacent islands. From 1849 to 18.59 its yearly 
 receipts averaged 'fliCOUU. But it was compelled 
 gradually to contract its operations. It with- 
 drew from France in 1866, from Italy and Europe, 
 and other foreign stations generally, in 1873. 
 It has now (1886) as its chief missionary interest 
 the support of the American Church in Paris. 
 Tlie Christian World (ceased November, 1884), its 
 monthly organ, gave a sunnnary of news about 
 Koman-Catholicism, and the work done to evan- 
 gelize Roman Catholics. 
 
 See the April number (1880) of The Christian 
 World for a historical sketch of the first thirty- 
 years' work of the Union ; and the June number 
 of 1884, for the 3otli annual report. 
 
 AMERICAN AND FOREIGN BIBLE SOCIETY. 
 
 See BlHLK SOCIKTIES. 
 
 AMERICAN BIBLE UNION. See Bible So- 
 
 CIETIKS, A.MKRICAN. 
 
 AMERICAN BIBLE SOCIETY. See Bible 
 
 Soc I K. r 1 1 : s, .V M i: i; I c .\ \ . 
 
 AMERICAN BAPTIST MISSIONARY UNION. 
 See MissiiiNs, Baptist. 
 
 AMERICAN BAPTIST PUBLICATION SO- 
 CIETY. S,f IIAPTIVIS. 
 
 AMERICAN BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS 
 FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS. .Sec .Missk.xs, 
 
 A.MKIMCAN I'lllAKJ). 
 
 AMERICAN HOME MISSIONARY SOCIETY. 
 
 See .Mis.MD.Ns, A.Mi' i:i( AN IIkmk .Socikty. 
 
 AMERICAN REFORM TRACT AND BOOK 
 
 SOCIETY. Sr,. 'I'iiACT SOCIKTIKS. 
 
 AMERICAN SUNDAY SCHOOL UNION. 
 
 See SrMiAV Scnoor.s. 
 
 AMERICAN TRACT SOCIETY. See Tkact 
 •SociK rn;s. 
 
 AMES, William, b. at Norfolk, Eng., 1.576; d. 
 in Kott'-i'dam, Xov. 14, 1633; oduoateil in Clirist's 
 College, Cambridge; was appointed cliaplain to 
 the University, but being a rigid Puritan, and 
 without hope of preferment in the Church of 
 England, ami having given great offence by a 
 sermon on the irregularities of the students, he 
 left his nativ(! country, settled at Leyden, and 
 was by Sir Horatio Vere, commander of the 
 Knglisn troops in the Netherlands, and a great 
 patron of the Puritans, maile ]ireachi>r to the 
 garrison in the Hague. He imnuMliately entered 
 into the Arminian controversy, and published Dc 
 Arminii Smtnnlia, 1<)I3; R''.icri/>tio Schnlaslica, 
 1616; an<l ( 'orunis ad Collalioni-in Hitf/ienscni, ntc, 
 1618. Shortly after the opening of the Synod of 
 
 Dort in 1618, Sir Horatio Vere was compelled by 
 eiiiscopaliau intrigues to dismiss Ames ; but the 
 States gave him a pension to settle at Dort and 
 assist the president of the synod, and in 1622 
 he was appointed professor of theologj* in the 
 Academy of Franeker by the influence of Prince 
 Maurice. In 1623 he published Medulla Ttieohi- 
 (/ica, and in 1630 De Conscienlia, his two princi- 
 pal works, the former dogmatical, the latter 
 etliical, and though on Protestant ground, and 
 with a sound practical purpose, a continuation 
 of the old scholastic science of casuistry. Of 
 his other works, which, both in Latin and Eng- 
 lish, enjoyed a great reputation, especially in 
 the Netherlands, are Piirilanismus Anylicauiis. 
 1610; Anti-S>/noilalia, 1629, against the Remon- 
 strants; Belkirminus Enerratns, against the Ro- 
 manists; and .4 Fresh Suit aj/ninst Ceremonies in 
 God's Worship, 1633, which latter book made a 
 Non-conformist out of Richard Baxter. Shortly 
 before his death he removed to Rotterdam, as 
 pastor of the English church of the Brownists 
 (Independents), there. He had great influence, 
 though an Englishman, upon Continental thought, 
 and under his Latinized name, Amesius, is well 
 known on the Continent to-day. A collected 
 edition of his Latin works was published in five 
 volumes at Amsterdam, 1658. See Neal: His- 
 tory of I'iiril(uis. I.; BnoOKS : Lires of Puritans, II. 
 
 AM LING, Wolfgang, b. at Miinnerstadt, Fran- 
 conia. in 1.342; d. at Zerbst, May 18, 1606; stud- 
 ied at the universities of Tubingen, Wittenberg, 
 and Jena; was appointed rector of the school of 
 Zerbst in 1566, minister at Koswig in 1573, and, 
 shortly after, minister at St. Nicolai in Zei"bst, 
 and, superintendent. He was vehemently op- 
 posed to the formula concordite, and stood at the 
 head of the movement which led the population 
 of Anhalt from Lutherisni to Calvinism. _His 
 adherents were called the Amlingites. He wrote 
 the Cimfessio Anhaldina. 
 
 AMMIANUS MARCELLINUS, a native of An- 
 tioch, pursued, wliile a youth, philosophical and 
 rhetorical studies ; entered tlie army under Cou- 
 .stantius, accompanied Julian in the war against 
 the Persians, and took part under his succes.sors 
 in the wai-s both of the Orient and the Occident; 
 but retired afterwards to Rome, devoted himself 
 to historical studies, and died there about 100. 
 His Roman history. Hi rum i/istarum, lihri XXXI., 
 exti'iidcd from Nerva, 96, to the death of \'alens, 
 378 ; but the first thirteen of the thirty-one books 
 are lost. The remainder, beginning witii the 
 year 353, is of groat interest for the history of 
 the Christian Church, as it gives much valuable 
 inform.ation, not only of the general state of the 
 Church, but of many important particulars : the 
 character of Julian, his proceedings, etc. The 
 best edition is that by Wagner in three volumes, 
 Leipzig, I.SOS. An English translation was pub- 
 lished by Philemon Holland, ]>ondon, 1609. The 
 (juestion, whether .\mmianus was a Cliristian or 
 not, has often been mooted. Claud. CliilHet, 
 De Ainniiiini M. vita, etc., Lovan., 1627, answers 
 in the aflirmative; Guil. Ad. Cart, (luestiones Am- 
 iniiinew, Berol., 1868. pp. 23-42, in the negative. 
 The general opinion is, however, that he was not 
 a Christian. Throughout lii,s'work he speaks of 
 Cliristianity as an outsider, reporting and ex- 
 plaining; and the sympathy aua appreciatiou he
 
 AMMON. 
 
 lo 
 
 AMOLO. 
 
 shows are ttie natural results of liis rcliRioiis 
 staiK-lpoiiit, — a vaguG (h'isni, to which a subli- 
 inatecl pa.gaiiism and a Christianity deprived of 
 every tliinff speciiicaliy Cliristian, may not ap- 
 pear to he irreconcilable. WOLFFLIN. 
 
 AMMON, Christof Friedrich von, b. at Bay- 
 renth, Jan. 10, 17(j(i; d. in Dresden, Way 21, 
 1850; studied at the University of Erlangen, 
 and became professor of philosophy there in 
 1789, and of theology in 1700; moved in 1794 to 
 Gottingen as professor of theology, preacher to 
 the university, and director of the theological 
 seminary; returned in 1801 to Erlangen, but 
 went in 1813 to Dresden as preacher to the court, 
 and member, afterwards vice-president, of the 
 consistory. One of his earliest and also one of 
 his principal works is : ICnlamrf einer rein lii- 
 hlisdien Tkeohtiiic, 1792, in which he treats the 
 dogma of inspiration as a Jewish conceit, and 
 makes common-sense the test of revealed truth. 
 In 1791 followed Handlnich der chrisl/ichfn SUlen- 
 lelire ; in 1803, Stimiiid Iheulmjicii : and these works 
 made their autlior one of the leaders, or at least 
 one of the lights, of the rationalistic school. 
 Hut in 1817 he completely surprised liis readers 
 by his Billere Arzenci far die GInuhensschicuche 
 ilfr Zeit, a defence of tlie famous Thexes of Claus 
 Harms. His engagement in Dresden had brought 
 him in rather perplexing relations with the min- 
 ister Einsiedel, wlio w.as influenced by the Mora- 
 vian Brethren, and as Schleiermacher expresses 
 it. "So laveers the boat, so winds the eel." 
 But the revolution of 1800 compelled Einsiedel 
 to retire; and in 1833 Amnion jniblished Fi>rl- 
 bildunr/ des Cfirixleiilliums zur Wi'llreliijion, 4 vols. ; 
 the current had poured back to its old bed. In 
 1842 followed Lehcn Jesu ; in 1849, Die wahrc 
 unil fa/xhe Orthodoxie, etc. ; but these later works 
 failed to attract any attention in the theological 
 world. 
 
 AM'MONITES. The descendants of Ammon, 
 the incestuous son of the younger daughter of 
 Lot, Ben-ammi, "my folkson," to indicate that 
 he was born of no strange father (Gen. xix. 38). 
 The name appears upon the Assyrian inscrip- 
 tions, first under Shalmancser TI. (B.C. 858-823), 
 last under Assur-haddon (B.C. 681-668), as liil 
 Amman (house of Ammon). The Anniionites 
 were one of the three peoples allied to the Isra- 
 elites by blood and speech, which formed the 
 barrier on the south-east to the wild tribes of 
 the desert. By destroying the Zamzumraini, 
 they occupied land spreading from the Arnon 
 lliver to the Jabhok and the Jordan. They were 
 territorially, as well as by blood, related to the 
 Moabites, and shared with them in fortunes. 
 They appear together, as hirin"; Balaam (Deut. 
 xxiii. 4), and as possessors of the land above 
 mentioned (Judg. xi. 12-18, 25). The Israelites 
 drove out the Amorites, and the Ammonites oc- 
 cupied this territory (Num. xxi. 21-2G), which, 
 though small, was rich, as is evidenced by the 
 plain of the vineyards (Judg. xi. 33), and the 
 abundant harvests (2 Chron. xxvii. 5; Ezek. 
 xxvii. 17; cf. xxv. 4). 
 
 The Ammonites were the foes of Israel. In 
 religion they were gross idolaters: their god was 
 Molech or Alilconi (1 Kings xi. 5, 7), which was 
 substantially the same as Chernosh (Judg. xi. 24). 
 For their conduct in joining Moab to hire Balaam 
 
 they were excluded from the citizen.ship in Israel, 
 but not from the sjiiritnal privileges (l)cut. xxiii. 
 3-6; Xeh. xiii. 1,2). Tlieir attacks upon Israel 
 were repulsed with great slaughter by J(']ihUiah 
 (Jud. xi. 33) and Saul (1 Sam. xi. 11, xiv. 47). 
 David levenged upon them the insult offered to 
 his ambassadors ; their capital, Ilabbah, was de- 
 stroyed, and the people subjected (2 Sam. xii. 
 26-31). In Jehoshaphat's reign tliey and tho 
 Moabites rebelled; but .so utter was their over- 
 throw tliat it took three days to collect tlie spoil 
 (2 Chron. xx.). They were obliged to pay tril> 
 ute to Uzziah and to Jotham (2 Chron. xxvi. 
 8, xxvii. 5). They took advantage of the over- 
 throw of Israel to take the cities of Gad (Jer. 
 xlix. 1-6; Zeph. ii. 8, 9). They made common 
 cause with the Chaldeans and Syrians against 
 Jelioiakim (2 Kings xxiv. 2), wherefore Jere- 
 miah and Kzekiel in their prophecies di'clare. 
 against them (Jer. ix. 25 sq., xxv. 21, xxvii. 2; 
 Ezek. xxi. 25 sq., xxv. 1-10); and after tho 
 destruction of Jerusalem their king Baal is em- 
 ployed Ishmael to murder Gedaliah, in order to 
 hinder the reconstruction of the Jewish state 
 (2 Kings xxv. 25; Jer. xl. 14). They opposed 
 Nehemiah (Neh. iv. 7) Judas ]Maccab;cus had 
 to fight many battles with them till they wero 
 discomfited (1 Mac. v. 7). They shared with 
 the Jews the change of masters, from Greek to 
 Egyptian and to Syrian lords. An Hellenic 
 colony, named Philadelphia, aftcV Ptolemy Phil- 
 adelphus, w.as made out of their capital city 
 Kabbah. This city enjoyed great splendor for 
 a while, and fell under the Romans as ]iait of 
 the province of Syria, B.C. 04. Justin JMartyr 
 (d. 106) mentions the Ammonites as in his day 
 a numerous people. But afterwards they are 
 lost to sight, becoming a part of the gi.'ueral 
 Arab population. FK. \Y. SUIIULTZ. 
 
 AMMONIUS OF ALEXANDRIA, a Christian 
 philosopher, who, about the middle of the third 
 century, prepared a harmony of the Gospels, or a 
 Dialesseron. in which he divided the Gosjiels into 
 sections, to this day known as the Amiiiiminn yec- 
 tionK, and found indicated upon most M.S.S. See 
 BiBLK Text, New 'J'ef^lnment. A translation of 
 this Diatesseron into Latin was made by Victor, 
 Bishop of Capua (d. 544), and has often been 
 reprinted, e.g., Mayence, 1524, ami by Migne. 
 Eusebius (H. E. vi. 19) mentions his woi'k, 'J'/ie 
 llarmunij of JMuses and Jecus, but this is entirely 
 lost. 
 
 AMMONIUS, called Sacca.i (a, sack), because ii» 
 his youth Ik,' was a porter, and therefore carried 
 sacks, lived in Alexandria in tho second century, 
 and became the founder of the Alexandrian 
 school of philosophy. Plotinus and Longinus 
 were among his disciples, but he wrote no books. 
 Porphyry tells of him that he was born of Chris- 
 tian parents, but deserted Christianity; and when 
 Eusebius (H. E. vi. 19) denies this statement, he 
 seems to mistake Ammonius Saccas. the pagan 
 eclectic, the reconciliator of Plato and Aristotle, 
 for the Christian philosopher of the same name, 
 who is mentioned aliove. 
 
 AMOLO, or AMULO, educated in the school 
 of Lyons imder the tuition of .\gobard, and, 
 since 840. his succes.sor in the archi-episcopal 
 chair; d. 8.32; represents the strong hierarchical 
 views of his time, but seems to have been entirelo
 
 AMPHIBALUM. 
 
 74 
 
 AMOS. 
 
 free from its credulity and superstition. A pecu- 
 liar case of rt'lic-worship and its eftVcts -n-as laid 
 before him by Bishop Theutbold of Langres ; and 
 without hesitation, he desiajnated it as a piece of 
 Iraud and avarice (J/. Blhl., T. XIV., f. 3-_M). 
 He also wrote airainst the Jews, and against 
 Gottschalk (.1/. Btld., T. XIV., f. 33-^-330). 
 
 AMPHIBALUM, a word of Greek origin, but 
 used only 1\V Gallican writer.s, was the name of 
 a peculiar kind of ra.s-u/((, without sleeves and 
 with a hood, which the Gallicau clergy of the 
 eighth and ninth centuries wore in offices of holy 
 ministration. 
 
 A'MON (the hidden). 1. An Egyptian and 
 also a Lybian and Ethiopic divinity, originally 
 and particularly worshipped in Upper Eeypt, and 
 had his principal temple in Thebes (No-Amon, 
 the ilirellinr/ of Amon) with a numerous and 
 learned priesthood; here was also a famous 
 oracle : both destroyed by Cambyses. The divini- 
 ties of the nature-religions are related to light 
 as the source of fruit and life. The Egyptians 
 distinguished between Anion, as the original sun- 
 ]iower personified was called in Up>]ier Egypt, 
 but Ptah, in Lower Egypt, or 11a, the general 
 name, and Osiris, the representative of the be- 
 neficent activity of the sun : i.e., they distin- 
 guished between the sun and the effects of the 
 sun. But Anion v.as not allowed to stand alone. 
 He was the head of the Theban triad, associated 
 with JMut, i.e., the original material out of which 
 he came and upon which his power was exerted, 
 as mother and spouse, and with Chunsu. Under 
 the name of Amon-Ka he eventually became the 
 great god of all Egypt. He was addi-essed as 
 " the King of all gods," as " the husband of his 
 mother, his own father, and his own son," as 
 " the beneficent and lovely, but also tlie invinci- 
 ble foe and destroyer of evil." The Greeks 
 identified him with Zeus. In later times he 
 occupied a higlu'r place, and was worshipped as 
 the all-filling and all-disposing divine Intelli- 
 gence. As Anion Num, the binding one, i.e., day 
 and night, in the Great Oasis and in the temple 
 of Jupiter Amon, ho was represented with a ram'.s 
 head; but generally as a man clad in a linen 
 tunic, gathered about the waist by a belt. In 
 one hand he holds the symbol of life, in the 
 other the .staff of authority; and on his head is 
 a cap with two high plumes. He was .also wor- 
 shi)iped as Amen-Ka-Ka mut-ef, " Amen-Ua, who 
 is both male and female," or the generative 
 principle. In the latter form he is accomiianied 
 by sacred trees, similar to the "groves" of the 
 Cild Testament ; and thus he is connected with 
 Baal.^ 
 
 2. The son and successor of Manassos, and 
 king of Ju.l.ah B.C. (il3-(J41 ^(iI2-(J10), cf. 2 
 King.sxxi. l!)-2fl ; 2 Chron. xxxiii. 21-2,5. He 
 was twenty years old wlien he began to reign, 
 and lie reigned two years. Zephaniah's proph- 
 ecy contains ,a saddening picture of the times. 
 Anion wearied himself to commit ininuity. He 
 worshipped the host of heaven, revelling in the 
 gro.s.sest idolatry. At last liis own servants slew 
 him, and with Josiali issue<l a better day for 
 Judah. 
 
 3. A governor under Ali.-ib, 1 Kings xxii. 2fi. 
 
 4. 'i'he name of an ancestor mentioned in Neli. 
 
 vii. .'/). V\\. \V. SCIIULTZ. 
 
 AM'ORITES (inhabilant.i of the htf/h hmlts). The 
 name distinguishes them from the Canaanites, 
 "the inhabitants of the low lands." and the Per- 
 izzites, "the inhabitants of the flat lands." The 
 Amorites (the word is, however, always singular 
 in the Hebrew) were one of the chief Canaanit- 
 ish tribes. The description of their size and 
 strength given by Amos ii. 9, need not be taken 
 literally, but was probably an echo of the spies' 
 report (Num. xiii. 32, 33). At one time the 
 ,A.morite territory took in " all Gilead and 
 Bashan" (Deut. iii. 10), but it varied : thus iu 
 .\braham's time it was about the Dead Sea; 
 shortly before the exodus, the Amorites crossed 
 over the East Jordan conntiy, and, when the 
 Israelites invaded the laud, they inhabited that 
 fertile district bounded by the Arnon, the Jabbok, 
 and the Jordan. They opposed the Israelites, 
 but were defeated (Deut. ii. 3G), and their terri- 
 tory divided between Reuben and Gad, and the 
 half tribe Jlanasseh (Josh. xiii. 8 sq.). The 
 Gideonites, inluibitants of an Amorite city, con- 
 trived, through fraud, to avert from them.selves 
 the doom which fell upon their clansmen (Jo,sh. 
 ix.). Joshua fought and defeated five Amorite 
 kings (Josh. s. 5). They were so successfully 
 exterminated as a tribe, that they never again 
 were numerous and powerful, and are rarely 
 mentioned. F. W. SCIIULTZ. 
 
 AMORTIZATION. See iMonTMAix. 
 
 A'MOS ((I Junrif), the third of the minor 
 prophets, originally a herdmau and farmer of 
 Tekoa, a town twelve miles south-south-east from 
 Jerusalem (vii. 10), and destitute of a prophetical 
 education. Although tlius a native of Judah, 
 under divine inspiration he prophesied against 
 the sins of the northern kingdom. The Fathers 
 wrongly identified him with tlu^ father of Isaiah 
 (.\moz). because his name iu the EXX. is iden- 
 tical with that of Isaiah's father. Amos]irophe- 
 sied in the northern kingdom some time between 
 807 and 709, during tlie reigns of Uzziah in 
 Judah (807-755) and Jeroboam II. in Israel 
 (822-769), when Israel was at the very height 
 of its splendor. His prophecies were apparently 
 all given in one year, specified as " two years 
 before the earthipiake," a momentous but undat- 
 able event. His plain speaking led to the charge 
 of conspiracy against the government, because 
 he alienated the jieople; and therefore he was 
 compelled to return to Judah (vii. 10-17). Xoth- 
 ing more is known of him. 
 
 The Book of Amos, after the opening verse, is 
 divisible into three parts. 1. chaps, i. 2-ii. 10. 
 The Judgments of God upon Damascus (vs. 
 3-5), Philistia (vs. 0-8), Tyre (vs. 9, 10), Edom 
 (vs. 11, 12), Ammon (vs. 13-1.5), JMoab (ii. 
 1-3), Judah (vs. 4, 5), Israel (vs. 0-16). II. 
 chaps, iii.-vi. Three di.scour.ses upon Israel's 
 wickedness. 1. chap, iii.; 2. chap. iv. ; 3. 
 chaps, v., vi. 3 is divisiVile into three parts, 
 (n) V. 1-17, (/') 18-27, (<■) chaji. vi. In the.se 
 discourses he sets forth in liis usual rhetorical 
 manner the moral and religious degeneracy of 
 the people, their voluptuousness ami banqueting 
 (iv. 1. vi. 4-6, 8) ; their uiichastity an<l vicious- 
 ness (ii. 7), their unrighlcousiiess iiiid dishonesty 
 (iii. 9, 10, iv. 1, v. 7, 11, 12. cf. ix. 4-0). their 
 idolatry (v. 26), and especially the union of ealf 
 worship and the .leliovah cultus at Bethel, (iilgal,
 
 AMPHILOCHIUS. 
 
 75 
 
 AMULETS. 
 
 Dan and Beersheba (iv. 4, 5, v. fi, cf. viii. 14). 
 Instead of this mere external worship of Jehovali, 
 Atnos called the people to a practical service in 
 ri,a;hteousness and goodness (v. 21-!i5). He con- 
 siders it to be possible, but unlikely, that Israel 
 will rejient (cf. iv. sq., v. (J, 14, 15), and there- 
 fore he sets forth the impending dangers (iii. 12, 
 14, 1.5, iv. 2, 3, V. 5, vi. 7, 8, 0, cf. vii. 3, 8. 11, 
 17, viii. 2, ix. 1). III. chaps, vii.-ix. This 
 jiart contains the three successive threatening 
 visions (vii. 1-3, 4-6, 7-0). These were made 
 the basis of the comjilaint of Auiaziah, the high 
 priest at Bethel, to the king, Jeroboam II., and 
 iience resulted his lianishnicnt (vs. 10-13). But 
 l>elore he goes he insists ui>on the reality of his 
 call (vs. 14, 1.")), and foretells the sad fall of the 
 hiirh priest and his family (vs. IG, 17). Chaps. 
 viii. and ix. contain two visions *and their ex- 
 ])lanations. The first i» of threatening contents, 
 but tlie second (ix. 1-7) looks tov,-ards the con- 
 cluding promise of salvation for a faithful rem- 
 nant, and of the universal sv\ay of religion and 
 prosperity (vs. 8-15). The arran gcment of tho 
 book is clear, and implies mature consideration, 
 leading to tho supposition that Amos wrote it 
 after his return to Tekoa. The style of Amos is 
 rhetorical ; his figures, analogies, and similes are 
 excellent, though at times surprising (cf. iii. 3-0, 
 iv. 2, V. 7, viii. 11-14). The notion that Amos bor- 
 rows his similes chiefly from his early mode of life, 
 and thus betrays his extraction, is generally ac- 
 cepted, but hardly well founded w hen the variety 
 of iheni is observed (see ii. 13, iii. 4, 5, 8, 12, vi. 12, 
 viii. 8, ix. .5, and the visions of vii. 1 and viii. 1). 
 On the other hand, the Hebrew of Amos is ab- 
 normal both in pronunciation and orthography. 
 The book is quoted in the New Testament by 
 Stephen in his defence before the Sanhedrin 
 (.'Vets vii. 42, 43, see Amos v. 25-27), and by 
 James (Acts xv. 16, see Amos ix. 11). Amos 
 shows himself, and presumes his hearers, to have 
 a good acquaintance with the Pentateuch. It 
 lias been conjectured that the book gives only an 
 outline of his addresses. 
 
 [1^1 r. — ISeside the general connnenfaries upon 
 the minor prophets, for wliich see art. MiNOii 
 rnnpiii.,TS, there are special works: El. Scii.\- 
 UAiii: Ciimm. in Amos I'ruphdain, Argent., 1588; 
 Jt).\. Gkuhaudi: Ailnii!. in. Pruph. Amos etJonaiii, 
 etc., Jena;, 1GG3 and 1076; Amos I'roj'lieta Ex- 
 posilus, etc., cura Jo. Ca. Hakexbekgii, Ludg. 
 Batav., 1763 ; J. C. W. Dahi, : Dcr Prnph. Amos 
 iibersetzt u. crkldrt, Gottingen, 1795 ; G. .\ L. Baur ■ 
 Der Proph. Amos erlii'trt, Giessen, 1847; T. W. 
 C'liA.Miiiciis: t'uminenluri/ on Amos (enlarged from 
 Sc/imollcr's'), in the American edition of Lange's 
 Commentarv, X.Y., 1«75.] A. KOHLER. 
 
 AMPHiLOCHiUS, Saint, a native of Cappado- 
 cia; was educated for the bar, and practised tor 
 some time as an advocate in Constantinople, but 
 retired afterwards to Ozizala, near Nazianzus, 
 where he led an ascetic life. In 375 he was elect- 
 ed bishop of Iconium, the metropolitan see of 
 Lycaonia ; in 381 he was ])resent at the second 
 ecumenical council of Constantinoiile, and in 
 383 he presided over a synod at .Sida, Pampliylia, 
 against the j\Iessalians. He was ardently opposed 
 to the Ariaiis, and persuaded the emperor to ffjr- 
 bid all public debate of the controversion al points 
 (Socrates: Hist, cedes. 7, 6). With Basil the 
 
 Great and Gregory Nazianzen, he lived in very 
 intinnite intercourse, and it is from notices iu 
 their works we know what we know with certainty 
 of him ; his life, as given in JVIigne, J'atr. Orcec. 
 xxxix. p. 14. being a mere monkish fiction. The 
 year of his death is uncert;uii, but falls after 392, 
 as in this year Jerome published his Dc Vir. III., 
 in which Amphilochius is mentioned (133) as 
 still living. His day is given both in the Greek 
 and Latin calendars as Kov. 23. Of the works 
 ascribed to him, some are decidedly spurious; 
 thus the legendary biography of Basil would not 
 have been written by a friend and contem])orary 
 of him. Others are of doubtfid authenticity. 
 They have all been collected, together with frag- 
 ments of works which are lost, and edited by 
 Cambf.kis, Paris, 1044. Genuine is the Epistola 
 S>/no(licii iu defence of the orthodox conception of 
 the Holy Trinity (CoTKLiicit: Mon. cccL r,r., 'V. 
 II. ; and Tiiu.o : Bib. vat. //>: <lo/piiiit., vol. II.). 
 
 AMSDORF, Ni!-.olau3 von, b.' Dec. 3, 1483; 
 d. May 14, 1505; studied theology in Witten- 
 berg, and was ayipointed pastor in jMagdeburg, 
 1.524, bishop of Naumburg-Zeiz, 1541, and super- 
 intendi'ut iu Eisenach, 1548. He was one of 
 Luther's stanchest adherents and mo.st intimate 
 friends, accompanied him to Woi-nis, knew of his 
 abduction to the \Vartburg, received him in Ids 
 house on his secret visits to Wittenberg, partook 
 in the translation of the Bible, was consecrated 
 bishop by hiur Jan. 2U, 1.542, and superintended 
 the JeiKi edition of his works. He was a man of 
 sharp but narrow imderstauding. somewhat har.sh 
 and unyielding, and in his polemics he often 
 overleaped the goal. Thus in a controversy with 
 Jlenius he was led to say, iu a pamphlet reprint- 
 ed in Baumgarten, Gescliichtr- da- J!<lii;io)isjHij-:cicii, 
 1172-78, that good works were detrimental to 
 salvation. After the death of Luther he became 
 comjiletely estranged from Alelauchthon and the 
 Wittenbergers. A biography by I. INIeier is 
 found in Mkureu : Lehen d. Altviitcr d. luth. 
 Kirche, vol. III. 
 
 AMULETS consist of gems or small bits of 
 some natural object, — for instance, a root, or tick- 
 ets of parchment or metal, — in.scribed with some 
 word or sentence of Holy Writ, or with some 
 mystical sign, and ai-e w'orn on a string generally 
 aroimd tlie neck, as a means of protection against 
 witcherv, ill-luck, etc. The word first occurs 
 iu Pliny, Nat. Hist. 29, 4, 19; 30, 15, 47 ; and 
 is derived by some from the Latin omoliri, " to 
 avert," by others, from the Arab hamalo, "to 
 carry." The superstition was almost universal 
 in ancient times, and especially among Kasteru 
 people. It arose naturally from the idea that 
 human life is influenced by the stars, by spirits, 
 etc. ; and, where there is a belief in witchcraft, 
 there must also be a belief in the remedy against 
 it. Among the Jews anudets were much used, 
 though the law forbade them, and the whole 
 spirit of the Old Testament excludes the idea on 
 which they rest. Nevertheless the Jews were 
 firm believers iu, and skilful makers of, amulets 
 of all kinds, from the idolatrous earrings which 
 Jacob hid under the oak at Shechem (Cien. xxxv. 
 4), to the cabalistic charms known as '• David's 
 shield" and "Solomon's seal." Also among the 
 Christians the super.stition crept in ; and the 
 Council of TruUo excommunicated the makers of
 
 AMYOT. 
 
 76 
 
 ANABAPTISTS. 
 
 amulets, and branded the whole custom as a hea- 
 then superstition, A. 1). 692. can. C>'2. Hekkle : 
 Conciliemjesckickte, vol. III. p. 308. See Phy- 
 lacteries. 
 
 AMYOT, Joseph, b. at Toulon, 171S ; entered 
 the order of the Jesuits, and went in 1750 as a 
 missionary to China, where he labored forty-four 
 years, and died in Peking:. 1794. He wrote a 
 life of Confucius, Paris, 1789. a Manchoo-Tar- 
 tary-French dictionary, and a Alanchoo-Tartary 
 grammar, and gave much valuable and interesting 
 information on Chinese customs, laws, religion, 
 and historv, in Letlres Eilifiuntai el Curiemeg. 
 
 AMYRAUT, Moise (M'osi-.t Am;jnil<hi.^), b. at 
 Hourgueil, 1596; d. at Saumur, 1664 ■ descended 
 from a distinguished family belongnig lo the 
 Reformed Church, and studied jurisprudence at 
 Poitiers, but was, by the reading of Calvin's 
 Inslitutio, induced to devote himself to the study 
 of theology, and entered the academy of Sau- 
 mur. Appointed professor here in 1633, togeth- 
 er with Josue de la Place {Placceus) and Louis 
 Cappel (Cappeltus), he soon brought the academy 
 in a most flourishing condition, and students 
 from foreign countries, especially from Switzer- 
 land, gathered to its halls. The teaching of the 
 academy, however, was somewhat out of the com- 
 mon route, and, in dogmatic respects, the time 
 was very irritable. It was believed, especially in 
 Switzerland, that Amyraut's exposition of the 
 doctrines of grace and predestination differed 
 materially from the formulas of the Synod of 
 Dort. His Traili de la PreiJexlmalion, published 
 in 1634, caused a great sensation, and was fiercely 
 attacked by Pierre du Moulin (^MdUhiku,^), profess- 
 or in the orthodox academy of Sedan, by Andre 
 Kivet of Leyden, and others. Formally accused 
 of heresy at the national synod of Alenijon, 
 1037, and again in that of Charenton, 1644, he 
 was both times aoijuitted; but the controversy 
 was, nevertheless, kejit up, especially by Fried- 
 rich Spaidieim of Leyden, and he was accused 
 and acquitted a third time, in the synod of Lou- 
 dun, 1659. Though most of the prominent 
 French divines, even Piei re du Moulin, in course 
 of time, became reconciled to liim, the Swi.ss 
 students were recalled from Saumur, and the 
 last symbolical work of tlie Reformed Church, 
 the P'ormula Consensus, was drawn up against his 
 views in Geneva, 1675. His works relating to this 
 controversy, besides the above-mentioned, are the 
 lichuntilUm de la iJuctrine de Calnin sur la Predes- 
 tinalion, 1637; J)e Ai Jusn/iration, 1638; Be Prii- 
 videntia Dei in Muto, 1638; De/'cKsio I. Culvini 
 Duclrina de Absolul. Jie/)roh. yA'tre/«, 1641 ; Dis- 
 sertaliones TlieolM/icce QiuUuor, 1645 ; Decluratio 
 Fidei contra Krrnrem .i4n;ii'nian., 1646 ; Disputa- 
 tio de Libero Arhilrio, 1647; and .Specimen Ani- 
 nifidver. in JCxcrcil. de Gratia Univers., 1648 
 (1,856 pagesl), directed especially against Spaii- 
 ht;im. Among Amyraut's other works, are. La 
 Morale C/irelienne, (i vols. 1652-60; Traild des 
 llelii/ions, 1631, translated into Lnglish, London. 
 1660, etc. A complete list is found in Haao: /,ri 
 France I'riitestanic, I , 72. A. WllWKlZHU. 
 
 ANABAPTISTS (from tlie Greek iva, "again," 
 and (iaTTTi^ctv, "to ba]iti/.e ") is the naiim of a 
 violent, mystical sect winch, representing the 
 ileepest-goiiig radicalism, broke away fr<jm the 
 general reformatory iiiuvoiiiuut uf the sixteenth 
 
 century, and soon became lost in fanaticism and 
 excess. The general character is an absolute 
 break with the e"xisting order of things, ecclesi- 
 .astical, political, and social. While the Re- 
 formers wished everywhere to respect the forms 
 of real life, wantins only to correct, improve and 
 develop, with the Bible as their guide, the Ana- 
 baptists rejected every thing they found estab- 
 lished in Church or State, and proposed to create 
 an entirely new order according to their own 
 inspirations. But the special point from which 
 they started w,as a rejection of infant-bap- 
 tism, on the ground that an infant is unable to 
 a.ssuine the responsibility of the sacrament. 
 Questions concerning the proper administration 
 of baptism had already, before this time, ap- 
 peared in the history of the Christian Cliurch. 
 During the third and fourth centuries there were 
 people who declared baptism invalid when per- 
 formed by a heretic. In this form, however, the 
 question soon died out, while, as a doubt with 
 respect to the validity of infant-baptism, it re- 
 appeared every now and then during the middle 
 ages. In the sixteenth century it then became 
 the watchword of, and gave the name to, one of 
 the wildest and fiercest sects ever bred within 
 the pale of the Christian Church. 
 
 The sect originated in Zwickau in Saxony. 
 Here Thomas Miinzer gathered a great crowd, 
 "specially of mechanics, by his fanatical preach- 
 ing, .and, in conventicles, the membeis boasted of 
 divine revelations, and spoke openly of the over- 
 throw of the whole social order. Expelled from 
 Zwickau, some of the adherents of Miinzer at- 
 tempted to get a foothold even in the very centre 
 of the Reformation, in Wittenberg. Nikolaus 
 Storch and two others appeared there as prophets 
 (the so-called Zwickauer prophets) sent by God 
 to preach the truth. Not to the letter, but to 
 the spirit, should one listen ; infant-baptism must 
 be rejected, as only personal faith can save ; 
 God is now about to found a new holy congre- 
 gation, etc. The powerful preaching of Luther, 
 however, soon destroyed the impression they 
 made; and Miinzer now endeavored to realize his 
 radical ideas in Miililhausen. at that time a free 
 city of the empire. .V kind of peasants'-war. 
 kindled by haU'-demagogical, half-theooratical 
 tendencies, broke out and spread through a great 
 part of Thuringia, till the massacre at Frank- 
 enhausen put an end to the whole movement. 
 The adherents of Miinzer, hovvevei', did not prac- 
 tise re-ba]>tism, and did not form a congregation ; 
 but they all wore the marks of a peculiarly som- 
 bre mysticism, speaking of the "bitter " Christ as 
 the exaiuph^ to follow, and scolding Luther as 
 an easy-going fraud. 
 
 Quite another character the sect exhibited 
 in Switzerland. Several of Zwingle's co-worker.s, 
 Wilhelm Reublin, Simon Stumi>f, Ludwig Ilet- 
 zer, Felix Manz, and Konrad tirebel, gradually 
 separated from him and the congregation, and 
 began to worship in private houses surri>uii<li'd 
 by crowds of excited mechanics. The aiHistoli- 
 cal congregation was the iih-al of these; convi'iiti- 
 cles, an ideal with which tht; state-establishment 
 of Zwingle's church did not harmonize ; and tlio 
 formation of a congregation of true Christians 
 in strict accordance with this ideal became an 
 object most ardently pursued. Soon arose a
 
 ANACHORITES. 
 
 77 
 
 ANAMMELECn, 
 
 doubt of the validity of infant-baptism : some 
 parents refused to liave tlicir cliildrcii liajitizcd ; 
 the nia.ijistrati? threatened with expulsion ; and, 
 just in this moment of excitement and anxiety, 
 Jacob lilanrock, a former monk from Chur, 
 asked Grebel, at one of the meetings, to give 
 him the true Cliristian baptism. Hlaurock 
 then baptized others ; and thus the first Ana- 
 bai)tist congregation was formed, re-baptization 
 being the common bond between its members. 
 The general character, however, of this whole 
 movement, was peaceful, in spite of the jirevail- 
 ing excitement. Nobody thought of carrying 
 out the new ideas by force. In striking contrast 
 to the Miinzer uproar, meekness and sufferings 
 were here understood as the most essential ele- 
 ments of the Christian ideal. From Switzer- 
 land the movement spread to Southern Germany. 
 Zealously projiagatpd by its itinerant missiona- 
 ries, it found, during the gener.al excitement and 
 fermentation of the times, ready acceptance, es- 
 pecially among the lower classes, though also 
 among the higher. Augsburg, Nuremberg, and 
 Nicholsburg in !Moravia, became its centres. 
 
 Then began the persecution in autumn, 1527, 
 both from the lloman-Catholic and Protestant 
 side. Most of the leaders were killed, hundreds 
 of the members were expelled, thrown into dun- 
 geons, and massacred. 1'his persecution was 
 followed by an inner transformation of the whole 
 spirit of the movement. A few of JMiinzer's 
 aillierents W'ho had escaped at Frankenhausen 
 brought the ideas of a soci.al revolution to the 
 Anabaptists of Southern Germany; and, though 
 at first rebuked, the fiendish spirit soon found 
 foothold. Apocalyptical dreams, expectations 
 of a divine judgment near at hand and full of 
 revenge, and finally the ideas of establishing the 
 kingdom of heaven by means of the sword, took 
 hold of men's minds, and caused unspeakable 
 confusion, and even great danger. Melchiur 
 Iloifmaun appeared in Strassburg as the prophet 
 of the Anabaptists, announcing the speed}' es- 
 tablishment of the kingdom of New Zion. In 
 Miinster Jolin of Leyden (Johann IJockhold, 
 see title) gained supremacy, actually assumed 
 the title of king, and led tiie population into the 
 most frightful excesses. At many other places 
 in Germany and Holland, great disturbances took 
 place. The grapple with the secular power was 
 short, however, and fearful revenge was taken 
 The movement was completely suppressed ; and 
 the few members who were left .scattered about 
 ill various places were organized into small con- 
 gregations by Menno Simmons. See BocKiiOLD, 
 Mennonitf.s, MiJNSTEU, Mlnzer, and ISaptists. 
 
 Lit. — -Ottius: Amiules Auahaptisiici, Basel, 
 1072 ; ScHYN : Hlsloria Chrkiiunnrum <]iii in ISelijii) 
 l'\€ileraloMennonilceaj>eU.,1723; I. Mast: Geschich- 
 tc der Wiedertaufer, Miinster, 1H;!6; Corxelius: 
 Gem-hirhlc der mUnsterischen A ufruhrs, Leipzig, 
 1855-(i0, 2 vols ; [L. Keller : Ocxchiclile der 
 Wiec/erlciiifer, 18S0; NlTSCUL: D Wirderlnnfer in 
 d. Schweii, Einsiedeln, 1SS5]. G. UUUIORX. 
 
 ANACHORITES. See Anchorites. 
 
 ANACLETUS is the name of two popes. — 
 Anacletus I. occupied the Roman see at the close 
 of the first century ; but the order of succession 
 is uncertain, some sources ascribing the third 
 place after Peter, othi^rs the fourth, to him. By 
 
 later writers his life has been adorned with mira- 
 cles, the building of tlie Church of St. Peter, 
 martyrdom, etc. ; while, on the other side, hi.s 
 very existence has been doubted : but there is 
 no reason either for the one or for the other 
 extreme. — Anacletus II. (Peter Pierleoni), Feb. 
 14, ll:iO-Jan. 2.'), IIMS, descended from a wealthy 
 .lewish family, and spent, successfully, his fortune 
 on his aud.iition. After the death of IIonoriuB 
 II., one party declared for the cardinal-deacon 
 Gregory (liniocent II.), and another for the car- 
 dinal-presbyter Peter Pierleoni (Anacletus 11); 
 and by using his own enormous resources as well 
 as the treasures of the Church for bribery, the 
 latter succeeded in gaining over the lower clergy 
 and the populace of Rome. Innocent II. was 
 expelled from Rome, and fled to France; but by 
 the powerful aid of Bernard of Clairveaux he was 
 recognized by England, France, Germany, and 
 .Siiain, wdiile Anacletus II., though in possession 
 of Rome and tlie papal dominion, was recognized 
 only by the city of Milan and King Roger of 
 Sicily. Lothar of Germany made two cam- 
 paigns to Italy, 1133 and 1136, to unseat him; 
 ancl the last time he was accompanied by Ber- 
 nard, who succeeded in separating not only the 
 city of Milan, but also many of the most promi- 
 nent Roman families, from his party. Even with 
 Roger negotiations were opened. But at this 
 moment Anacletus II. died. is. ZOl'FFEL. 
 
 ANAGIMOST. See Lector. 
 
 ANALOGY OF FAITH. See Faith, IIerm.e- 
 neutics. 
 
 ANAM'MELECH, a divinity in whose worship, 
 as in tliat of Adrammelech, which see, the 
 Sepharvites burnt their cliildren (2 Kings xvii. 
 31). In the Assyrian inscriptions the name is 
 A nu-m(dik, = King Ann. In the Babylonian-Assy- 
 rian pantheon, Anu occupied the first place in tlie 
 first triad, Anu, Bel, Nisroch. It is not at pres- 
 ent decided whether the gods of the first triad 
 represent the powers of nature, as those of the 
 other triads do. Perhaps they were heavenly or 
 sun divinities; at all events, there is mention of 
 the "wide heavens of the god Anu" (George 
 Smith, Assyrian Discoveries, 187o, p. 309). Nor 
 is the description of him upon the inscriptions as 
 a "fish-god" against such a designation, because, 
 the heavenly divinities were also the marine, with 
 numy peoples, inasmuch as the heavens wert. 
 thought to be a sea joining with the earthly 
 ocean : thus the Hindoo divinity Varima (=: Biipa- 
 voc) was a sea-god. Anu is represented as a man 
 who bears a fish's head for a tiara, and along 
 his back the fish's body. He is identical with 
 the Oannes of Berosus, who, half-man and half- 
 fish, at daybreak arose from the sea, and began 
 his instruction of men in science and art, but 
 at night returned to the sea ; even as the sun 
 was fancied to sail through the ocean at niglit 
 as it sails through the heavens by day. 
 
 The female divinity corresponding to Anu wa."' 
 Anatuv. The name is fouml in the Old Test-v- 
 ment towns Beth-anath (.losh. xix. 38; Judg. i. 
 33) or Beth-anoth (Josh. xv. 59), i.e., the '■house 
 of Anath ; " also in the proper name Anath (.ludg. 
 iii. 31, V. G). See Scmroi>er: P/iuniz. Sjiraclie, 
 18G9, pp. 121-127. The n.une appears as 'AiVj/in 
 upon Greek-Phosnician inscri]>tions. Upon Piup- 
 nician coins Anatuv is drawn aa riding upon ^
 
 ANANIAS. 
 
 78 
 
 ANASTASIUS. 
 
 lion, holding a bow and arrows, showing lier con- 
 quering power, while above her he.ad shines a star. 
 
 Lit. — Dk Voguk : Milantjcs (farchcolw/ie orien- 
 tale, 186S; Schroder; Phouiz. Sprnclie, 1860; 
 Gf.okgf. S^riTii ; Assi/rian D'mcoveriex, London and 
 N.Y., 187.3; 2d ed., 1881. WOLF BAI'DISSLV. 
 
 ANANIAS (the Greelc form of Ilananiah, whom 
 Jehova/i has t/raciotisly given). The name of 
 three per.soiis mentioned in the Acts. 1. Tlie 
 Jewish Christian of Jerusalem, who with his 
 wife Sapphira was miraculously killed for lying 
 unto God, in trying to conceal the real selling 
 price of property nominally consecrated (Acts v. 
 1-11). 2. The Jewish Christian of Damascus 
 who visited .Saul in his blindness, and restored 
 his sight, and baptized him (.Vctsix. 10-18). 3. 
 A Jewish high-priest, appointed by Herod of 
 Chalcis, A.D. 48; sent to Rome to answer a 
 charge of oppression preferred by the Samari- 
 tans, but was acquitted, and returned A.D. 52. 
 Paul was tried before him, A.D. .58 ; and accused 
 him before Felix and Festus. He was deposed, 
 A D. 50, and was murdered, A.D. G7. (.Ioskpiius : 
 Anliij. XX. 5. 2; vi. 2; Jewish War, ii. 17, 0.) 
 
 ANAPHORA ('AraOopri, that which is lifted np, 
 offering) coi-res]>onds in the Greek liturgy to the 
 canon viissce in the Latin, and denotes that jiart 
 of the eucharistic office which includes the conse- 
 cration of the elements and the oblation. Books 
 containing the whole celebration of the holy eu- 
 charist are also sometimes called Anaphorce, as, 
 for instance, that by Johannes, bishop of Bostra, 
 Arabia; d. G50. .See Kenaudot: Collections uf 
 Or.'i-nial Lilurf/iei, 1710, vol. II. 
 
 ANASTASIUS, whose true name was Aslric, b. 
 in France in 9.54; d. in Hungary, Sept. 10. 1044; 
 entered the order of the Benedictines at Rouen, 
 went to Rome; .accompanied .\dalbert to Prague; 
 fled witli him to Hungary, and was, by Duke .Ste- 
 phan. made abbot of St. Martin, and afterwards 
 bishop of Colocza. Well acquainted with the 
 jiapal court, he was sent, in lUOO, to Rome, to pro- 
 cure the sanction of the ecclesiastii;al organiza- 
 tion, which tlie duke had establislied in Hungary, 
 and the elevation of tlie country into a kingdom. 
 lie was sucee.ssful in his nii.ssiou, and brought 
 back a crown of goM, and a bull conferring on 
 Stephan the title of the Apostle of Hungary, 
 and acknowledging him as the he;id of the Hun- 
 garian Church. 
 
 ANASTASIUS SINAITA. It is a question 
 wln'tli'T, ;ioei)rr|iiig to .N'icephorus and his follow- 
 ers, there w.as only one of this n.ame, or whethi'r, 
 according to some recent critics, there were .sev- 
 eral. According to N'icephorus, Anastasius lived 
 as a hermit, on Mount .Sinai; was elected bishop 
 and patriarch of Antioch ; was banished in 572, 
 on account of his o]>position to tlw; doctrine ot 
 the incorruptibility ot the body of Clirist, and d. 
 in .509. Among tin" works ascril)ed to him are: 
 Anrir/or/icre ciinlempldtioncs in dicini ofjirii Hexniimc- 
 ron, /ill, XL (in ,Uti//iia liihl., /'air. Colon., Tom. 
 VL, P. I.; Hook XIL has been edited by Allix, 
 London, 18(il); and Mvyk •"''' ''"f ''(Vc adnrr.iiis 
 Acepha/iis. od Gretser, Ligolstadt, 1800, in wliicli 
 the doctrine of tlie incorrnptil)ility of the body of 
 Christ is attacked. These works, however, are 
 sometimes a.scribed to another .Sinaitic hermit of 
 the same name, who, according to some, d. before 
 OOi), according to others after 078. Tliere is still 
 
 a third Anastasius Sinaita who succeeded the 
 first, and was slain by the Jews in a, riot in 609. 
 
 ANASTASIUS is the name of four popes, and 
 one antipope. — Anastasius I., 398-402. I'nder 
 Siricius. Rutinus of Aquileia had translated 
 Origen's ircpi upx'ji', and introduced the work in 
 Rome; but Marcella, a friend of Jerome, now 
 arraigned him before Anastasius, accusing him 
 of introducing heresies; and the pope condemned 
 the works of Origen, and broke off all ecclesias- 
 tical community with Rufinus. though the hitter 
 sent in a perfectly orthodox confession. — Anasta- 
 sius II., Nov. 496-Kov. 498, a native of Rome, 
 w;is very anxious to end the schism which the 
 monophysitic controversy had caused between 
 the Eastern and Western churches. The .situa- 
 tion was this: in 482, the emperor Zeno issued 
 the Ilenotikou which denied the authority of the 
 synod of Chalcedou ; and, two years later on, 
 the pope, Felix II. (or III.) excommunicated the 
 patriarch of Con.stautinople, Acacius. because he 
 had sanctioned that decree. Anastasius II. now 
 sent two bishops to the emperor with letters de- 
 claring himself willing to recognize the conse- 
 crations which Acacius liad jierformed, on the 
 condition tliat his name (Acacius) should not be 
 mentioned in the prayers of the service; and at 
 the same time Photiuus, deacon of Thessalouica, 
 arrived at Rome, and was very friendly received 
 by the pope, though he held the views of Aca- 
 cius, and consequently w.as a heretic in the eyes 
 of Rome. The Liher Pontificalis states that, in 
 this point, the clergy disagreed with the pope, 
 and even withdrew their allegiance to Ins authoi'- 
 ity; and from Gr.atian, who, in a decree, desig- 
 nated Anastasius 1 1, as "one thrown off by the 
 Church," and down to the sixteenth century, he 
 was consld'Ted a heretic by all ecclesiastical 
 writers.- — Anastasius III., 011-913, a. native of 
 Rome. — Anastasius IV., July 1 1, 11.5o-I)ec. 3, 
 1153, remained in Rome as the vicar of Inno- 
 cent II., when tlie latter fled to France. In iiis 
 short reign he succeeded in ending a liar.assing 
 controversy with Friedrich L, concerning the 
 appointment to the archiepiscopal see of M.agde- 
 burg, by declaring himself convinced of the 
 leg:ility of the election of Bishop Wichmann of 
 Naumburg, and allowing him, in an assembly 
 of many prehites in the Church of St. Peter, to 
 take the pallium with his own hands from the 
 alt.ar. A similar controversy in England he 
 decided by conferring the pallium on Archbishop 
 Williiim of York, who liad alternately been 
 acknowledged and deposed by Innocent II., 
 ('(vlestino 11., Lucius IL, and Eugene HI. — ■ 
 Anastasius, anti]iope to Benedict HI., 854, was a 
 c.irdinal presbyter, but w.as, on account of in- 
 snbordinatiou, excommunicated, Dec. 10, 850; 
 anathematized, IMay 29,853; and finally bereft 
 of his sacerdotal fnnctions. Nevertlieless, when 
 Leo IV. died, 855, .and Benedict HI. was elected 
 ]iopc, Anastasius succeeded in forming a party 
 among the lower clergy, gained over to his side 
 the imperial amb.assador, penetrated into the 
 Lateran Palace, seized Benedict, stripped him of 
 the pontifical robe, ill-treated and imprisoned 
 him. These proceedings, however, caused great 
 indignation in Rome. Not only the higher 
 clergy, but also the populace, sided with Bime- 
 dict, who was liberated and consecrated Sept
 
 ANASTASIUS. 
 
 79 
 
 ANATOLIUS. 
 
 29, 856 ; and a council held in Rome deposed 
 
 AtlilstMsiu.s. R. ZOEI'FFHL. 
 
 ANASTASIUS, bishop of Laodicea, in Syria, b. 
 in Alexandria about 230 ; acquired extensive 
 knowledge of the liberal arts; travelled about 
 264 in Syria, and was ordained bishop-coadjutor 
 by Theotecnus of Cinsarea, and, in 209, bisliop of 
 Laodicea. Of his work on the paschal question. 
 a fragment has been preserved by Eusebius {Ilisl. 
 eccle.t., VII. ;j2). The Latin translation of the 
 entire work. Canon Pa^c/ialix, published by Agi- 
 dius Bucherus, Amsterdam, 1634, has been proved 
 spurious by Jdeler (/Iniiilhuch der C/iroiiolu;/ie). 
 Some fraijnieiits of his mathematical works were 
 publislu^d in I'ai'is, in 1543. 
 
 ANASTASIUS was a presbyter of Antioch, and 
 accompanied Nestorius to Constantinople in 428. 
 He was a friend, or, as Theophanes calls him, the 
 syncellus, that is, confidential secretary, of Nes- 
 torius ; and it was he who caused the jealousy 
 and rivalry which existed between the schools of 
 Antioch and Alexandria to burst forth in open 
 hostilities, by his attack on one of the favorite 
 terms of the Alexandrian school, " Mary, the 
 mother of God." In a sermon he said, "Let no 
 one call Mary diorunoc. She was but a human 
 being. It is impossible for God to be born of a 
 human being." Troclu.s, the representative of 
 the Alexandrian theology in Constantinople, and 
 the unsuccessful competitor of Nestorius for the 
 patriarcliate, made a furious attack on Anasta- 
 sius. Nestorius placed liiniself by the side of his 
 friend, and the controversy began. It seems, how- 
 ever, from one of Cyril's letters (Epixl. VIII.), that 
 Anastasius in 430 made an attempt to reconcile 
 Nestorius and Cyril. After the banishment of 
 the former, he still labored for his cause in Con- 
 stantinople. The date of his death is not known. 
 See Smith and "\V.\ce : Christ. Biog.,\. sub voce. 
 
 ANASTASIUS, patriarch of Constantinople, 
 was a native of Alexandria, came to Constanti- 
 nople as the apocrisiarius of bishop Dioscurus. 
 and was, through his influence with the emperor, 
 made patriarch in 449, after the deposition of 
 Flavian by the Robber-synod. He presided over 
 the synod of Chalcedon together with the Roman 
 legates; and by the famous canon XXVIII. he 
 obtained rank of patriarch and next the bisliop 
 of Rome, extension of his jurisdiction to the dio- 
 ceses of Pontus, A.sia, and Thrace, right to ordain 
 bishops in barbaric countries, etc. On his acces- 
 sion to the patriarchal see, he had shown great 
 adroitness in destroying every suspicion with 
 respect to his orthodoxy; and he now proved him- 
 self equally dexterous in calming down the jeal- 
 ousv of Rome, lie d. in 4oS. A letter by him 
 to Leo I. is still extant (Com. T. IV., p. 905). 
 
 ANASTASIUS, abbot of St. Maria Trans-Tibe- 
 rine in Rome, and librarian of the Vatican, was 
 present at the Council of Constantinople, in SG9, 
 and ti'anslated its canons into Latin. He is also 
 the author of an Ilisloi-ia ecdesla.'sltca, mostly ex- 
 tracted from Nicephorus and Syncellus, and of 
 the so-called Lihcr jjonH/ictilis (see title), a series 
 of biographies of the popes, from Peter to Nico- 
 las I. He d. in S80. See Migne, Patrol. Tom., 
 127, 8, 9. 
 
 ANATHEMA (nvu&rna, in the Greek classics 
 synonymous with uvudij/m, from uvaridiiiu') denotes 
 properly any thing laid up or suspended, and 
 
 then any thing placed apart in the temples, and 
 consecrated to the gods. In the New Testament 
 uwii>£fM corresponds to tin; H(4)rcw D?n, anil is 
 the proper term for excommunication (1 Cor. 
 xvi. 22), implying an exclusion, not only from 
 the sacraments and the congregation, but also 
 from the grace of God, conse(|uentIy a direct 
 delivering-up of the person to S.atan (1 Cor. v. 5), 
 which last idea is ]irominent in (jal. i. 8, and 
 Rom. ix. 3. The term, and the ideas counecti^d 
 with it. were adopted by tlie language and usage 
 of the Church. The Council of Klvira, 303, can. 
 52, and the Council of Laodicea, 307, can. 29, 
 ajiply it to offences against the Church; and the 
 Council of Nioosa, 325, lays the anathema on any 
 one who holds or teaches the Ariau view of the 
 relation between the Father and the Son. In 
 later ecclesiastical practice this anathema was 
 the heaviest form of excommunication, the ex- 
 cnmmunicatiu major, as a]ipears from the acts of 
 numerous councils, especially from those of the 
 Council of Trent. 
 
 [See on the Hebrew anathema, Skldex, DeJure 
 Nat. el Gent. 4: 8, De !Si/nci/r.; Gii,DE,'\iEisTF.ii: 
 Blemhcerlcc des vidijiXren Jialionatismus zur lieseiti- 
 fiun'j des panlinisclien Anathema, Bremen, 1841; 
 EwAi.D : Altcrtliumer des VolLi Israel. 3d ed., Got- 
 tingen, 1SG6. p. 101 sq.; Eng. trans., London, 1876, 
 pp. 75-79 ; FKiTzscnEonRoni.ix.3; Tiioluckou 
 Rom. ix. .3 ; Wieseleu on Gal. i. 8.] liEiiZoo. 
 
 ANATOLIUS, b. in Alexandria, aliout 230; d. 
 about 2S2. He was the successor in 269 of Euse- 
 bius, bishop of Laodiciea, in Syria Prima. Euse- 
 bius the historian (II. E., VIL, 32) says that he 
 attained the highest eminence in mathematics, 
 ])hilosophy, and rhetoric. He journeyed about 
 264 from Alexandria to CaDSarea in Palestine, 
 and was there ordained, and made bishop-co- 
 adjutor of Theotecnus; but on passing through 
 Laodicrea he was constrained to become bishop 
 there. Eusebius says, that, although he did not 
 write much, he left a solid reputation for elo- 
 quence and erudition ; and gives us an extract of 
 Anatolius' work on the Paschal Fcsiiral. What 
 pur]iorted to be a Latin version of this work was 
 ]iublished by Buciieiuus : Doct. Temp. Antw. 
 1633, but Ideler (I/amlb. dcr Chronolorjic, ii. 266) 
 pronounces it a forgery. Fragments of a work 
 upon mathematics have been jiublished, Pari.s, 
 1543; and by FAUiiicics: Ijibl. Gracn, iii. 462. 
 
 ANATOLIUS, bishop of Constantinople, conse- 
 crated 449 ; d. 458, after being the '-apocrisiarius" 
 (see title) of Dioscurus, patiiarch of Alexandria, 
 at Constantinople. He found his new position by 
 no means easy. He M'as more than once accused 
 of heresy, of ambition, of injustice; but, not- 
 withstanding, seems to have been innocent of the 
 more serious charges. The Council of Chalce- 
 don, held at his request in part, in its twenty- 
 eighth canon decreed that equal dignity be 
 ascribed to Constantinople as to Rome; because 
 it was the New Rome, and the seat of govern- 
 ment. Hefele : Concilienr/eschichte, 2d vol., p. 
 509. Anatolius crowned the Emperor Leo, the 
 first performance of the ceremony (Giubon: in 
 loco). He is best known as the author of some 
 very sweet hymns, piarticularly the one begin- 
 ning " Fierce was the wihl billow," which have 
 been transl.ated by John Jl.ason Neale (//^7«ns of 
 the East. Ch.). See Schaif's Church History,
 
 ANCHIETA. 
 
 80 
 
 ANDERSON. 
 
 vol. III., pp. 5S3-58.5, where these hymns are 
 reprinted. 
 
 ANCHIETA, Jos6 de, the Apostle of Brazil, b. 
 at Laguna, 1.53-3; d. at Revitibia, June 9, 1597; 
 entered the Society of Jesus, 1500 ; went to Bra- 
 zil as a missionarj' in 1553, and labored with 
 great success among the Brazilian Indians, of 
 whose language he gave an admirable grammar, 
 1595. 
 
 ANCHORITES or ANACHORITES (uvaxupdv, 
 to retire, tcilli(lraiv). From the Old Testament 
 Elijah and Elislia may be taken as typical in- 
 stances of anaclioritism, and afterwards John the 
 Baptist, who by Jerome is called princeps anaclio- 
 relarum. Jerome also calls the Therapeutes of 
 Egypt, who prob.ibly simply had taken up the 
 example of tlie Essenes, a community of Chris- 
 tian monks (Calal., c. 11). Anchorites, properly 
 speaking, were persons who retired from the 
 world, and practised their devotional exercises in 
 solitude in order to fight out the sjiiritual battle 
 with so much the more prospect of success ; the 
 persecutions of the second and third centuries 
 gave a special impulse to the movement. An- 
 chorites were also called uuitTiTai, d9?.riTai, iiovu^ovtcc, 
 or philosophers, as many of them wore the phi- 
 losopher's mantle, and lived according to the 
 rules of Epictetus. They lived in caves, avoided 
 all intercourse with their fellow-men, abstained 
 as much as possible from food, spoke no word, 
 but prayed in silence. One stood in a temple for 
 years with his liands U]ilil'ted to heaven, never 
 bleeping. Others stood motionless on high cliffs 
 or tall columns (^Sli/liles), in wind and snow. 
 They were numerous, especially in Egypt, Syria, 
 Pontus, and Tlirace; and during the ecclesiastical 
 controversies of the fourth and fifth centuries 
 tliey sometimes appeared suddenly, in the very 
 midst of the noise and bustle of the large cities, 
 rebuking both the prince and the people; a.s, for 
 instance, St. Anthony (.\th.\na8. : Vila iSt. 
 Anton., c. 4(5, GS). In 370, bishop Ac.acius of Beroea 
 ■brought Julian Sabas to Antioch to employ his 
 'help against Arianism. At the same time 
 Thraates stepped before tlie emperor, Valens, 
 .and warned liim not to do any harm to the 
 Church. In 470 the stylite U.miel went to Con- 
 stantinople to defend orthodo.xy against the em- 
 peror Basiliseus. In course of time it became 
 •customary for several anchorites to unite and 
 (form small communities {Anvimi), the cells being 
 •built in a circle around a chapid ; and thus the 
 itrausition was made from anchoi'it;s to coeno- 
 bites. St Chariton is said to have built the first 
 Jaura, atioul 310, at I'liaran, near the Dead Sea; 
 St. Euthymus the next, near Jerusalem, in the 
 ^fth century; then followed St. Sabas and St. 
 Quiriakus, and in Egypt Antonius, Pachomius, 
 Alacarius, and others. Nevertheless, in spite of 
 !the rapid development of monastical institutions, 
 anclKU'iles still continued to occur. The Trullan 
 Ojuncil of (192 ordered (ran. 41), that a]ier.son who 
 wished to become an anchorite, .should first go 
 through a kind of novitiate in a monastery. 
 Charlemagne wislied to have all anchorets sent 
 to the moinisteries. Nevertheless, they occurri'd 
 even ill WeHteni Europe, at a very late date ; ami 
 on Mount -Vtlios tln-re slill live, ancliorets and 
 hermiUs independently of the monastery pro|)i!r. 
 •See J. Ckwit: Uriijinea el Cuasw MunacUalun, (jot- 
 
 tingen, 1363; Zocklf.r : Kritisclie Gcfchichle rlcr 
 Jtikese, Frankfort, 1S03. ZOCKLER. 
 
 ANCILLON, David, b. at Metz, March 17, 1017; 
 d. in Berlin, Sept. 3, 1092; a great-grandson of 
 president Ancillon, who, in the sixteenth century, 
 preferred to resign his position at the head of one 
 of the highest courts of France, rather than re- 
 nounce his evangelical faith ; a grandson of 
 Georg Ancillon, one of the founders of the Re- 
 formed Church in Metz ; and a son of Abraham 
 Ancillon, an eminent lawyer. lie was educated 
 in the Jesuit college of his native city, but with- 
 stood all the attempts of his teachers" to convert 
 him to the Roman faith. lie then studied the- 
 ology at Geneva, and was appointed preacher at 
 Meaux, in lUll, and at Metz in 1053. In 1057 
 a conference on the tradition of the Church was 
 held between him and Dr. Bedaciar, the suffra- 
 gan of the bishop of IMetz ; and, as a false report 
 of this conference was sjn-ead by some monk, 
 .\ncillon published his celebrated Truilc de la 
 tradition, Sedan, 1057. In 1060, he wrote an 
 apology of Luther, Zwingli, Calvin, and Beza. 
 By the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, he w.as 
 compelled to leave France, and settled first at 
 Frankfort, then at Berlin, where the elector 
 Friedrich Wilhelm ajipointed him preacher to 
 the French congregation. The Vie dc Furel 
 which appeared at Amsterdam, 1091, under his 
 name, is only a mutilated and bungling coiiy of a 
 manuscript which he had not destined for publi- 
 cation. See CiiARLics Ancillon: Melanges cri- 
 tiques et litlcniireti, Basel, 1698, 3 vols. 
 
 ANCILLON, Charles, son of the preceding, b. 
 at Metz in 1059: d. in Berlin in 1715; was judge 
 and director of the French colony in Brandenburg, 
 and liistoriographer to Friedrich I. Of his writ- 
 ings the following have interest for the church 
 historian : Hejhxioiis Potitiques, Cologne, 16S5 ; 
 Irrevocabilite. de I'edil de A'antc.s, Anistei'dam, 
 1088; Hi.-:loire de PHluhlisseynept dex Frtmfois re'fti- 
 ijih dans lis ilals de Branded ■omi/, Berlin, 109(). 
 
 ANCILLON, Jean Pierre Frederic, great-grand- 
 son of David Ancillon, b. in Berlin, A]n'il3(), 1707; 
 d. there April 19, 1837; studied theology, liistory, 
 and jihilosophy ; visited Cieneva and Paris; w.as 
 appointed teacher in the military academy of 
 Berlin, and preacher to thi! French congregation; 
 attr.acted niueh attention by his .sermons; was 
 made tutor to the crown ]irince in 1800, and in 
 1825, minister of state, which position he held to 
 his death. In 1818 he published two volumes of 
 sermons at Berlin. C. SCHMIDT. 
 
 ANDERSON, Lars (f.anrenlins Andrcti), b. 
 probably at Stre.ngniis, 1'18(); d. in the same 
 place, .\pril 29, 1552; waschaiu^cdlorof the realm, 
 and tlui most intimate councillor of the king 
 from 1523 to 1510, and stood, together with Olans 
 and Laurentius Petri, at the liead of that move- 
 ment which introduced thc^ Ueformation in Swe- 
 den, on the diet of Westi'raas, 1.527. He also 
 partook with Olaus Petri in the translation of 
 the Bible into Swedish, of which the New Test- 
 ament appeared in 152<), tin; whole in 1511. In 
 1540 he was accused of being cognizant of n con- 
 siiiracy against the life of the king, and con- 
 demned to deatli. Thi^ king pardoned him, but 
 he was dismi.sscd from all lii.s oflices, and lived 
 afterw.irds iu retirement iu StreiignJiH. Si-e 
 SwiiuiiN.
 
 ANDERSON. 
 
 81 
 
 ANDOVER. 
 
 ANDERSON, Rufus (I).l)., LLD.). for thirty- 
 fnur years (lie corres|u>n(liiia" secvptary of tlie 
 American lioanl of ('oiinnissioiiers for Foreii;ii 
 Missions, b. Alia;. 17, ITIIli, at North Yarmouth, 
 Me. ; d. M.ay 30, 1880, at Boston, iM;uss. He was 
 graduated at Bowdoiii Collei;;e, Me., where his 
 uncle was the first jiresident, in 1818; studied 
 in Andover Theological Seminary 1819-1822. 
 AVhile in the senior class, he. aided in conductinc^ 
 the correspondence of the Board, during the 
 absence of Mr. Kvarts; and after graduation he 
 •was made assistant secretary, and in 1832 cor- 
 responding secretary, which position he held 
 until ISfJIi, when he resigned because he was 
 convinced that seventy years form " a limit be- 
 yond which it would' not be wise for him to 
 remain in so arduous a position." He was then 
 elected a member of the prudential committee ; 
 but failing health compelled his resignation, after 
 nine more years of service. He visited officially 
 a part of the Mediterranean missions, 1828-29, 
 and another part, 1813-44; the India, IS.'Ji-SS; 
 and the Sandwieh-Tslaml missions, 18G3. He was 
 a prolific author upon his favorite theme of mis- 
 sions. Being requested by the Board to prepare 
 a history of its operations, he wrote one on its 
 work in the Sandwich Islands (1870), another on 
 ini.ssions to India (1874), and two on the missions 
 to the Oriental Churches (1872). But more than 
 foreign missions claimed his attention. He was 
 one of the founders of Mount Holyoke Seminary ; 
 was president tor a number of years of the trus- 
 tees of Bra<lford Academy ; a member of the 
 board of trust of Andover Seminary; was active 
 in benevolence. "In every position and place 
 the wisdom of his counsels seldom failed to com- 
 mand respect ; liis hopeful habit, resulting from 
 a deeply settled trust in the jiromises and provi- 
 dence of God, carried with it an abiding power 
 of inspiration." 
 
 ANDOVER THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY. In 
 the year 1807 a ]ilan was formed for the estab- 
 lishment of a theological seminary in Andover, 
 Mass. The Seminary was to be connected with 
 I'hillips Academy, an institution founded at 
 Andover in the year 1778. While the project- 
 ors of this tlieol(>;;ical seminary were maturing 
 their plan, they heard of another and similar 
 institution which was to be established at New- 
 bury, Mass. It seemed undesirable that two 
 such schools should be established in the neigh- 
 borhood of each other, and therefore an attempt 
 was made to unite the two. The union was 
 effected after an arduous and prolonged struggle. 
 The main controversy was between the " moder- 
 ate Calvinists " so called, and the men who styled 
 themselves " consistent Calvinists," and were 
 generally denominated "Ilopkinsians." The two 
 parties united on the basis of a creed, which is 
 like the Westminster Assembly's Catechism in 
 substance, but is considerably different in form. 
 The united seminary is under the immediate 
 care of the trustees of Phillips Academy ; is 
 incorporated as a branch of the academy, but 
 is under the general supervision of a board of 
 visitors. The institution was formally opened 
 for the reception of students on the 28th of 
 September, 1808. A sermon was preached on 
 the occasion by President Dwi;;ht of Yale Col- 
 lege. The number of students who entered the 
 7-1 
 
 .seminary at its opening was thirty-six. The 
 number who have been connected with it during 
 all the seventy-two years of its existence is not 
 far from three thousand. Of these a large pro- 
 jiortiou liave been presidents and professors of 
 colleges and theological seminaries; and an un- 
 commoidy large proportion have been mi.ssion- 
 aries to the heathen. Tlie most conspicuous of 
 the men who projecte<I the seminary of the 
 " moderate Calvinists " was Rev. Eliphalet 
 Pearson, LL.I). ; and the most conspicuous of 
 those who projected the seminary of the " Ilop- 
 kinsians "was Ilev. Samuel Spring, D.D. The 
 two men who were most influential in uniting 
 the two parties were Dr. Pearson and Dr. Leon- 
 ard Woods. Dr. Pearson was the first professor 
 of sacred literature in the seminary. He re- 
 mained in office oidy one year, but was a trustee 
 of the seminary eighteen years, and of the 
 academy forty-eight years. Dr. Woods was the 
 first professor of Christian theology, and re- 
 mained in office thirty-eight years. Rev. Ed- 
 ward Dorr (iriffin, D.D., was the first professor 
 of sacred rhetoric ; Rev. James Murdock, I) D., 
 the first professor of ecclesiastical history. Rev. 
 Muses Stuart succeeded Dr. Pearson in the chair 
 of sacred literature, remained in office thirty- 
 eight years, and was succeeded by Dr. B. B. 
 Edwards. Dr. I^dward Robinson was professor 
 extraordinary of sacred literature from 1830 to 
 1833. During these three years he gave instruc- 
 tion in the Hebrew department, to which a distinct 
 professorship is now devoted. Other professors 
 now deceased have been Rev. Ebenezer Porter, 
 D.D , Rev. Ralph Emerson, D.D., and Rev. 
 Thomas II. Skinner, D.D. Besides the five chairs 
 of instruction already named, the institution has 
 a professorship of elocution, also of the relatioua 
 of Christianity to science, also of theology and 
 homiletics in a special course. The most emi- 
 nent contributors to the funds of the seminary 
 have been Madam Phoebe Phillips, Hon. John 
 Phillips, Samuel Abbot, Esq., Hon. William 
 Bartlett, Hon. John Xoriis, Moses Brown, Esq., 
 Lieut. -Gov. William Phillips, John Smith, Esq., 
 Peter Smith, Esq., John Dove, Esq., Samuel A. 
 Hitchcock, Esq., Frederic Jones, Esq., Henry 
 Winkley, Esq., Madam Valeria G. Stone, and 
 Miss Sophia Smith. The donations from each 
 of these benefactors have ranged from fifteen 
 thousand dollars to one hundred and sixty thou- 
 sand dollars. The edifices belonging to the 
 seminary are two dormitories, a chapel for morn- 
 ing prayers, lecture-rooms, etc., a chapel for 
 sabbath worship, a library . building containing 
 thirty-eight thousand volumes, eight houses for 
 the professors, etc. The institution is within an 
 hour's distance by railroad from the most flour- 
 ishing cities and towns of Eastern Massachusetts. 
 The liistory of Andover Theological Seminary 
 — the oldest theological seminary in the laud — 
 has been identified with many religious and 
 philanthropic movements of the day. The 
 " American Education Society," the "American 
 Tract Society," the " American Temperance So- 
 ciety," the plan of the oldest religious newspaper 
 in America, had their origin on Andover Hill. 
 The " Andover Press " has been noted in tli3 
 religious communitv during the last seventy 
 years. The works of Drs. Porter, Woods, and
 
 ANDRADA. 
 
 82 
 
 ANDREA. 
 
 Appleton were printed here, as were the vari- 
 ous editions of Professor Stuart's Hebrew Gram- 
 mar and his Commentaries. Two other Hebrew 
 grammars, one Hebrew lexicon, one Greelv lex- 
 icon, three grammars of the Xew Testament 
 Greek, two Greek liarmonies of the Gospels, 
 various commentaries of Ellicott, Henderson, 
 Mui'phy, Lightfoot, Perowne, Hackett, on the 
 Greek and Hebrew Scriptures, are from the And- 
 over Press [see Catalogue (\V. F. Draper) 1881]. 
 As early as 1822 it issued Dr. Thomas Brown's 
 Menial Philosophi/ in three octavo volumes ; also 
 his Essay on Cattse and Effect. The " American 
 Biblical Repository " was printed at Andover 
 from 1831, the time of its commencement, until 
 1838. The " Bibliotheca Sacra " has been 
 printed here from 1814 until the present time 
 (1S81). It is now in the tliirty-eightli year of 
 its existence. In 18.31 it united with itself the 
 "American Biblical Repository," and in view of 
 this union n;ay be said to have existed fifty 
 years, and to embrace fifty octavo volumes. If 
 the numbers of the "Biblical Repository," from 
 1843 to 1850, be talcen into the account, the united 
 periodical embraces fifty-seven octavo volumes. 
 [See Woods: Hist. And. TIteol. Sem., Bost., 1885.] 
 
 The term "Andover Theology" has been in 
 local or provincial use during the last seventy- 
 years. It originated from the fact that the 
 " creed " which lies at the basis of the semi- 
 nary includes various expressions which are dis- 
 tinctively Hopkinsian, and excludes various ex- 
 pressions which are distinctively Calviuistic; but, 
 on the whole, adopts the substance of Calvinism 
 as well as the substance of Hopkinsianism, and 
 has satisfied the majority of the New-England 
 Calvinists as well as the majority of the IIop- 
 kinsians. Some of the Calvinists would have 
 preferred the catechism unmodified ; some of the 
 Hopkinsians would have preferred a larger modi- 
 fication of the catechism : on the whole, both par- 
 ties were satisfied with the compromise. The 
 "creed," representing the compromise, represents 
 the " Andover Theology." Edwards A. park. 
 
 ANDRADA, Antonio d', b. at Villa de Oleiros, 
 near .M'-nbJo, Portugal, hi 1580; d. at Goa, .\ug. 
 20, 1()33 ; entered the order of the Jesuits at 
 Coimbra in 15!)(5; went in 1001 as a missionary 
 to India, and was appointed superior of the mis- 
 sions of Mongolia. Hence lie muCe two jour- 
 neys to Tliibet, tlie first of which he has v'^sriribcd 
 in his A^oro Descubrimenio do (irao Calnijo ox, <los 
 Retfrios de 'L'/ihel, Lisbon, 102(5, translated ihlo 
 Pr"n<-li in 1020. 
 
 ANDRADA (Diego Pai/m d'Andrnde). b. at 
 Coimbra. Portugal, ih 1528; d. in Lisbon, in 1575 ; 
 was a member of the order of the Jesuits, and 
 one of the Portuguese delegates to the Council 
 of Trent. Martin Chemnitz's attack on the 
 Jesuit"), — Tlicolof/i(c Jesuilnrum priccipua capita, 
 1502, — he answered by his Libri ortliodoxarum 
 exposilionum de conlroversis reliyioni.t capilibus; but 
 this book gave Chemnitz occasion to write his 
 celebrated work, Exnminis Concilii Tridentini opus 
 inte>/rum, 1505-73, to wliieh Andra<ia made only 
 a feeble reply in his iJefensio Trident I no: Jiitei 
 Cal/ioliae. — His brother Thomas de Jesus, an 
 Augustinian monk, was taken prisoner in llie bat- 
 tle of Alcac'T, .'Vug. 4, 1578. and confined in a 
 dungeon to his death, .\pril 17, 15ii2. While here 
 
 he wrote in Portuguese his celebrated book. The 
 Labors of Jesu<, which was translated into Span- 
 ish, llnlian, and French. 
 
 ANDREA, Jakob, b. at Waiblingen, Wiirtem- 
 berg. March 25, 1.528; d. at Tubingen. Jan. 7, 
 1590 ; was educated at the expense of his native 
 city in the Pajdatrogium of Stuttgart, and studied 
 theology in Tubingen 1541-1516. On leaving 
 the university he was made a deacon in Stuttgai't; 
 and during the occupation of the city by Spanish 
 troops, in 1547, as a consequence of the .Smalcald 
 war, he was the only evangelical minister who 
 was allowed to remain in the city: the rest were 
 expelled. Returning to Tubingen in 1518, he 
 was made chaplain to the hospital, and preached 
 the Protestant faith in one of the aisles of the 
 Collegiate Church, at the same time as an Inte- 
 rim-priest said mass in the choir. In 1.553, he 
 was ajipointed superintendent general at Goppin- 
 gen, and in 1502 professor of theology, provost, 
 and chancellor of the university of TUljingen. 
 The activitv which he developed in the cause of 
 the Reformation, during the tliirty-seven years he 
 spent at Goppingen and Tiibingen, was truly 
 stupendous. He felt that there lay a great dan- 
 ger to the success of the Reformation in the 
 division of the Protestant party into minor fac- 
 tions; and, though he was an ardent champion of 
 Lutheranism pure and undefiled, he undertook to 
 reconcile the various parties among the Luther- 
 ans, and unite them into one bodjf. His first plan 
 was to neutralize the diflierences by means of 
 formulas so general that they could be accepted 
 by all. Two )'ears he spent in travelling, visit- 
 ing every university, and conferring with every 
 theologian of any consequence from Geneva to 
 Copenhagen. But neither the Flaciaus nor the 
 Philippists, tiie two extreme parties among the 
 Lutherans, h;id full confidence in him; and on 
 the convention of Zerbst, May, 1570, the attempt 
 proved a failure. Andreit, however, did not give 
 up the plan ; he only changed the method of its 
 execution. He now proposed to unite all Lu- 
 theran congregations in Germanj' into a firm 
 alliance by drawing a sharp line of ilistinctioii 
 between them and the adherents of Zwingli and 
 Calvin, and thus destroy the Philippists and 
 every other individual sliade of Liitherauism. 
 In 1573 he sent a paper under the name of the 
 Suabian Concordia, to the theologians of Ncu'th 
 Germany, for examination and criticism. May 
 28, 1.570, a convention assemliled at Torgau to 
 compare and harmonize the Suabian Concordia 
 with tliose answers to it which had com(! in, — 
 theSuabian-.Saxonian C'oixviri/in.andthe.Maulbron 
 Formidd. The result of this convention was the 
 .so-called Lihcr Tortjenscs ; and then followed. May 
 19-28, 1580, three final conferences betwei-n .Vn- 
 dreii, Chemnitz, Sehu-kker, Chytriius, Musculus, 
 and Kbrner. In June 25, 1580, the Formula Con- 
 an-difc apiieared, and was aceeiited by all Lutheran 
 governnii'iits as one of the .symbolical books of 
 the denomination. The works of Andreii number 
 more than a hundred and fifty, and belong to the 
 most characteristic from tlie closing jieriod of 
 the Reforin.-ition. 'I'liey consist of sermons and 
 essays, ]iolemical, dogmatical, and praclic;il. 
 .Some of the most y>romineiil. are, Uifulalio Crimi- 
 nalioHum Hosii, 150O; De dioditis Noliiris In C/iristo, 
 '505; UcriclU von dcr UbiiiuilUt, 1580; Lk: Instau-
 
 ANDREA. 
 
 83 
 
 ANGELA. 
 
 ration/^ Slud. TlitoL, etc. A collected edition does 
 not exist. See J. V. Andrka : Fama Andremm, 
 Strasslnircf, 1G30, containiiiaf all the pvincipal 
 sources to his hiography, among which is an aiito- 
 biof^raphy, written in lo(JJ, and a caliil<i(/us Srrip- 
 lonim. .. WA(iENM.\NN'. 
 
 ANDREA, Johann Valentin, a grandson of 
 Jacob Andrea; b. at Ilerrenberg, AVurtcnilx-rg, 
 Aug. 17, 158G; d. in Stuttgart. June 27, IGol; 
 studied theology at the University of 'J'iibingen, 
 1601-7 ; travelled from 1007-14 in Switzerland, 
 France, and Italy, as tutor for some young noble- 
 men, and was in the latter year ajipointed deacon 
 at Vailiingen. In 1020 he moved to Cahv as 
 minister and superintendent, and in 1G39 he 
 became court-preacher, and member of the consis- 
 tory of Stuttgart, from which offices he retired in 
 1647, on account of ill health. Ilis numerous 
 writings consist mostly of small pamjihlets, gen- 
 erally written in Latin; and many of them are 
 very rare, they having never been published in a 
 collected edition: De C/iristinni Kosmoxeni f/cni- 
 /Hro, 1012 ; Turbo, 1G1.5; Menippus sive inanilatinn 
 nnsirarum speculum, 1G18; ]\Iylhologia C/irisliana 
 and Clirisliauapolis, 1G19 ; Apappradhus, 1031 ; 
 Tlieop/tilus, 1(!19, etc. They contain, on the one 
 side, a deep love of the Christian ideals, and a 
 strong enthusiasm for their realization in prac- 
 tical life, and, on the other side, a humorous 
 and sarcastic polemic against the dead scholasti- 
 cism and barren dogmatism of the Lutheran 
 theology of his time. See (he article on Kosi- 
 cnuciAN.s; his Autohlograph;/, edited in Latin by 
 Kheinwald, 1819, and in German by Seybold, 
 1799; IIossiiACH : Andrea und seiii Zeiudlcr, 
 1S19. V. Fr. Oeiilkr published translations of 
 two of his works, Tlicnplulus and Der chriatliche 
 liUri/er. IIiMlbronn, 1S7S, 2 vols. 
 
 ANDRE/E, Abraham, a native of Angermann- 
 land, Sweden, the son-in-law of Laurentius Petri ; 
 came in conflict with King John, who wished to 
 restore the Roman-Catholic Church in Sweden, 
 and was compelled to flee to Germany in 1580, 
 but was elected Archbishop of Upsala by the 
 Swedish clergy immediately after the death of 
 King John (in 1593), and confirmed by King 
 Sig'ismund. lie afterwards aroused the suspi- 
 cion of Duke Charles, regent of Sweden, who 
 imjirisoned him in the castle of Gripsholm, where 
 he died in 1007. During his residence in Ger- 
 many he partook in the theological controversies 
 of the day, and wrote, among other works. Forum 
 Adiapliororum, Wittenberg, 1587. 
 
 ANDREAS CRETENSiSjb. at Damascus, spent 
 some time in Jerusalem, so he is sometimes 
 styled 'lipomAv/ilTT/c; was .sent by Bishop Theodore 
 of Jerusalem to the Sixth Council of Constanti- 
 nople (080) ; was ordained a deacon there, and 
 made guardian of orphans, and became finally 
 Archbishop of Crete. His works, consisting of 
 homilies, canons, and hymns (of which several 
 became very celebrated, and are still sung in the 
 Greek Church), were edited by Cojihefis, Paris, 
 1644; by Gallaxd : Bild. Pair. XIII., 689; and 
 by Wifi.vE, Palrnl. XCVII. 
 
 ANDREAS, ISishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia, 
 wrote towards tlie close of the fifth century a 
 commentary on the Book of Revelation. Noth- 
 ing more is known of his life. Of his work, a 
 Latin translation by Peltanus was published at 
 
 Ingolstadt, 1574, but the Greek text not vnitil 
 lo9(i. at Heidelberg, by Sylburg. It was after- 
 wards several times printed together with the 
 commentary by Arethas, which see. Smith & 
 Wace: Clirliit. Bioip: I. 
 
 ANDREAS OF GRAIN, a singular phenomenon 
 among tlie predecessors of tlie Rel'ormation, 
 tliough, pro]>erly speaking, not one of them him- 
 self; was a Slavonian by birth ; entered the order 
 of the Dominicans, and was made Archbishop of 
 Carniola by the emperor, Friedrich III.; in 1482 
 he re[)aired to Switzerland, and was very active 
 to get a new general council convened at Basel. 
 With letters of recommendation from Bern, he 
 addressed himself to the magistrates of Basel, 
 and after delivering a pompous speech in the 
 cathedral, in which he did not conceal his ani- 
 mosity against Pope Sixtus IV., he nailed, on 
 July 21, a formal ari'aignment of the pope on 
 the doors of the cathedral, accompanying it with 
 a demand for a general council. The pope ex- 
 communicated him, and put the city under the 
 interdict; and finally Andreas was arrested by 
 the local authorities, and placed in a prison, 
 where, on Nov. 13, 1484, he w as found strangled, 
 he having probably connnitted suicide. His 
 death was kept secret for some time. His corpse 
 was put in a barrel, and thrown into the Rhine. 
 Ilis own secretary, Peter Numagen of Treves, 
 considered him crazy (ccrchro kesus). See Gesta 
 ArcIiie/)lscoj>i Cnii/nenxis in J. II. Hottingkr: 
 IJisl. Fcrl.'x., S»c. XV. pp. 403-412. 
 
 ANDREWES, Lancelot, b. in London, 1.555; 
 d. at Wincliester, Sept. 25, 1026 ; was educated in 
 Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, of which he after- 
 wards became master; was appointed chaplain to 
 the queen, and Dean of Westminster, by Eliza- 
 lieth, and by James, Bisliop of Chichester in 
 l(i0.j, of Ely in 1009, and of Winchester in 1618. 
 He was a man of great learning and fervent 
 devotion, and enjoyed reputation, both as a theo- 
 logian and as a preacher. He was a member of 
 the Hampton Court Conference (1604), at which 
 the present authorized version was proposed, and 
 was appointed head of the first company of trans- 
 lators to whom were assigned the books of the 
 Old Testament as far as 2 Kings. He published 
 ninety-six sermons, of which an edition in five 
 volumes was given in the Anglo-Catholic Libra- 
 ry, Oxford, 1841-43; wrote torlura Torti, 1009, 
 against Bellarmine, who had attacked King 
 James's Defence of the Il'ujhts of Kings; Prcccs Pri- 
 vatie (in Greek and Latin, translated by Dean 
 Stanhope, London, 1826); The Pattern of Cate- 
 cliislicnl Doctrine (an exposition of the Ten Com- 
 mandments), 3d ed., London, 1075, modern ed., 
 Oxford, 1840, etc. See Isaacson: Life of Bishop 
 Andrewes (in FuWer's Abel Reilevivus, ed. Nichols, 
 London, 1867, 2 vols.); Cassan : Lives of the 
 Bishops of Winchester, London, 1820. 
 
 ANGARI/E. See Fasts. 
 
 ANGELA MERICI, also called Angela of Bres- 
 cia, b. at Desenzano, on Lake Garda, March 21, 
 1470; d. at Brescia, Jan. 27, 1540; felt herself 
 from early youth drawn towards a life of solitude 
 and devotion, and entered a Franciscan convent, 
 but returned afterwards to the world, and began 
 to teach small children, in which she succeeded 
 so well tliat she was called for the same purpose 
 to Brescia, where she spent the rest of her life.
 
 ANGELIC. 
 
 84 
 
 ANGELS. 
 
 On Nov. 25, 15.3.5. in the Church of St. Afra. in 
 Brescia, she and eleven other maidens formed 
 an association, under the patronatreof .St. Ursula, 
 for the purpose of teaching small cliildren, aiding 
 the poor, and nursing the sick. It was original- 
 ly not a strictly religious order (the members 
 liiade no vows, did not live together, adopted no 
 common dress, etc.); but it soon developed in 
 that direction. On March IG. 1537, the number 
 of members had increased to seventy-six, and 
 Angela was elected superior. In 1544 the order 
 was confirmed by Paul III. See UiiSULiXEs ; Da.t 
 l.rhtn (1. h. Angela Merici, Augsburg. 1811, and 
 M. Sintzkl: 'Leben d. h. Anrjcla; llegensburg, 
 1842. 
 
 ANGELIC ORDER, The, also called the Guas- 
 lillinex, was founded (in 1530) by the Countess 
 Torelli of Guastalla, who at that time was 
 twenty-five years old, and widow for the second 
 time.' The order was destined for maidens who 
 .should live in angelic jiurity (whence the name), 
 and was confirmed in 1534 by Paul III., on the 
 rules of St. Augustine. It was exempt from 
 <]iiscopal jurisdiction, but subordinate to the 
 liarnabites of Milan, in which city it liad its 
 first house. In the beginning the nuns accom- 
 panied the Barnabites on their missions; but in 
 ^pite of the coarse garment, the wooden cross on 
 the bosom, the hempen string around the neck, 
 to which was sometimes added a crown of thorn, 
 the easy mannei-s of the nuns gave offence, and 
 in many places the order was dissolved. The 
 cure for the scandals was found in giving up the 
 joint missions, and secluding the nuns. 
 
 ANGELIS, Girolamo, b. at Castro Giovanni, 
 Sicily, in 1557; d. in Japan, Dec. 4, 1G23; en- 
 tered the order of the Jesuits in 1585, and went 
 in 1002 to Japan. When in 1014 the Jesuits 
 were expelled from that country, Angelis re- 
 mained, disguised in Japanese dress, and was 
 not discovered until after the laps(! of nine years, 
 when he was imprisoned, and burnt alive. His 
 Jlelazione del. Rcrjno di Yczo was published in 
 Home, 1025. He was canonized by Pope Pius IX. 
 
 ANGELS, ISihlical. The commonest name in 
 the Old Testament for tliese creatures who are 
 represented, in ]irophetic vision and poetic fancy, 
 as surrounding thi^ throne of (iod, is "the sons of 
 God," which brings out their near relationship to 
 their Creator (Job i. 0, xxxviii. 7; Dan. iJi. 25; 
 Ps. xxix. 1, Ixxxix. G). They had other names, 
 "the saints" (Job v. 1 ; Ps. Ixxxix. 5, 7; Dan. 
 viii. 13) ; in Jew isli theology, " the family above " 
 (cf. Kph. iii. 15); in the Septuagint, in several 
 places, two of which are cited in the New Testa- 
 ment (Heb. i. G, ii. 7),cl<Mm, "gods:" neverthe- 
 less a sharp distinction is drawn between them 
 and (jod, to whom they pray; but they are not 
 prayeil to by any creature. The Kpistle to the 
 Hebrews (i. 14) designates them "spirits;" but 
 the Old Testament does not recognize any such 
 epithet. 
 
 Before the exile they were not known by name, 
 save tho.se called in general cherubim and sera- 
 j)hini; but they properly form a class by them- 
 selves. Angels bore a iniman figure, and to 
 paint them with winga is erroneous, but is de- 
 rived from the fal.se rendering of the Vulgati" 
 (cilo volanf) in Dan. ix. 21. The assertioji that 
 angels arc mere personifications of natural powers 
 
 is answered by saying that it is not God in 
 
 nature, but God in history, whom they assist. 
 And this idea dominates in every part of ttie 
 Bible; and thus the further idea, that the salv.a- 
 tion of man must be accomplished by some being, 
 holy, and related to God, was instilled. 
 
 The so-called !' angel of Jehovah" first ap- 
 pears Gen. xvi. 7, and often afterwards, but 
 must be distinguished from the "angel of Je- 
 hovah" spoken of 2 Sam. xxiv. 16; 2 Kings xix. 
 35, who was evidently a creature ; whereas the 
 w.ay in which the "angel of Jehovah " is spoken 
 of in the other passages, as in the Pentateuch, 
 Joshua, and Judges, raises a question in regard to 
 his n.ature. A fair interpretation of Scripture 
 does, however, compel the creature-view of this 
 being; for, as he was the same who appeared in 
 the visions of Zechariah (i. 12, iii. 1), he is 
 plainly distinguished from Jehovah, and subordi- 
 nated to him. And so the "angel of the cove- 
 nant" (JIal. iii. 1) is not identical with the Lord, 
 but is his messenger. This angel is called God's 
 " presence " or face (Exod. xxxiii. 14) ; not, how- 
 ever, that dreadful face on which no one, not even 
 Moses (Exod. xxxiii. 20) and Elijah (1 Kings 
 xix. 13), could gaze, but rather an angel who 
 revealed that face (Gen. xxxii. 30); who was 
 called Jehovah and Elohim and Eli, i.e., God 
 (Gen. xviii. 33, xxxii. 24 sq. cf. xxxi. 13), be- 
 cause (jod's " name " was in him (Exod. xxiii. 
 21), but who yet is as little God as tlie angel who 
 declared " I am Alpha and Omega " (Rev. xxii. 
 13), and yet rebuked John for worshipping him 
 (xxii. 9). The angel of Jehovah calls himself 
 the "Captain of the Lord's host" (Josh. v. 14. 
 15 cf. Exod. iii. 5). 
 
 in the term the " angel of the presence " 
 (which can mean cither the angel in whom Je- 
 hovah allows himself to be seen, or the angel 
 who sees Jehovah's face) may bo found the 
 connecting link between the primitive simple 
 conception of angels and the later idea of an 
 heavenly hierarchy, i.e., a division not only accord- 
 ing to quality, but according to rank. The post- 
 exilian writings, both canonical and niicanonical, 
 exhibit this altered view. Thus in Dan. vii. 10 
 we read: "Thousand thousands ministered unto 
 him, and ten thousand times ten thousand stood 
 befon; him." At their head were princes, of 
 whom Michael, the protector of Israel, was chief 
 (x. 13, 21, xii. 1), and at his sidi; was Gabriel 
 (viii. 10, ix. 21). Going into the region of fiction 
 and mere e;irthly wisdom, we find that the later 
 Jewish theology made seven archangels: chief of 
 them were Michael, Gabriel, Raphael (Tob. iii. 
 17), and Uriel (Enoch, and 2 Es.l. iv. 1, 30). 
 But here is an unquestionable derivation from 
 lh(^ Persian doctrine of the seven Amcsha f/ienia ; 
 and in the Babylonian theology there are "great 
 Lords" who adore the; Divinity by prostrating 
 themselves. See Schraiier, Ilollcn/alirt dur Jsltir, 
 p. 100; Leuormant, JClndes acradiennes 11. 1, p. 
 140. The latter explains the words "gri'at 
 lords" by "celestial archangels." 
 
 In Daniel we read of angels who are the pro- 
 tectors of iiarlicular peojiles (cf. Sinich xvii. 17 
 also Ps. xxxiv. 7); in 'i'obit, of the archangel 
 l!a]iliael .Mccompaiiying T(d)ias; in (he ICpistle 
 of Juile (0), of Miehaid conteiuling witli S;itan 
 about the body of Moses : but the idea of guardian
 
 ANGELS. 
 
 85 
 
 ANGILRAM. 
 
 (ii\^els caiiDot be deduced from Scripture ; for 
 Matt, xviii. 10 is inconclusive, and Acts xii. 15 
 jrives only a popular opinion. The " niorninc; 
 stars" (i.e , the stars of the niornin"; of creation) 
 and the "sons of God" (i.e., anj^els) are cla.sscd 
 tofjether in Job xxxviii. 7. The jihrase the 
 " host of heaven " is apivlied both to the stars and 
 to the angels (cf. Deut. xvii. ;J; 1 Kini;s xxii. 19_). 
 
 But, besides the good and favored, there are bail 
 and cursed anjjels. Cliief is Satan, who is men- 
 tioned, it is true, in only four cauouical books of 
 tliti Old Testament, 1 Chroniclers, Job, Zecha- 
 riah, and once in the Psalms (cix. G), and in none 
 with any reference to the fall, but stran^ifely 
 enough in heaven, among the sons of (iod. The 
 serjient of Gen. iii. is identified with him by Paul 
 (2 Cor. xi. 3). but not by Mo.ses ; nor is there 
 any explanation of how he came to be there : the 
 general impression simply is, that sin existed 
 before the creation of mai\. According to the 
 Hebrew conception, idolatry was demon worship 
 (cf. 1 Cor. X. 20,21), because the Hebrews called 
 the idols a name corresponding to demon. Bad 
 angels in the biblical sense are not always 
 morally bad. Thus the spirit of madness which 
 came over Saul is called an evil siiirit (1 Sam. 
 xix. 9) ; and evil angels are said to have plagued 
 Egypt (Ps. lxxviii.'4i)). Job and Paid (2'Cor. 
 xii. 7) both testify that (iod sends morally bad 
 angels to test and torment the righteous, and 
 morally good angels to punish the wicked. 
 
 Angels have playeil a prominent part in the 
 world's providential history- They were the 
 ministrators of the law, the heralds of the go.s- 
 pel, the servants of the saints (Ileb. i. 14). 
 Two of them led Lot and his daughters out of 
 Soilom (Gen. xix. 17) ; many of them swarmed 
 about the little city in which a prophet was (2 
 Kings vi. 17). They were commissioned to an- 
 nounce to a childless wife the birth of a son 
 (Judg. xiii. 3 sq.), and, much more remarkable, 
 to tell a virgin that she should be overshailowed 
 by the power of the Highest, and be the mother 
 of the Son of Goil (F^uke i. 3.")). And if any 
 would learn how different the Pible treatment of 
 angels is from the fanciful andexaggerated ideas 
 of the rabbins, consult such a book as lirecher's 
 7'irmscendenlale I^Lkjic hit Talmud, IS.jO. — See 
 Cherui!, and the art. Eiu/el by Franz Delitzsch, in 
 Riehm's Hii'idirorlirlincli di's hihlischen Ailerltims. 
 
 Lit. — There are few monographs. O. Cas- 
 m.vn: Anr/elor/raphia, Frankfort, 1503. The most 
 exhaustive work is J. Odio: Cammrnlarius de Aii- 
 (/eli.i, Traj. ad Rlieu., 1739. In English. Law- 
 uknce: Communion and Warre with Anijels, 1G46. 
 C'ajifieli>: Discourse uf Amjeh, London, 1G7S. 
 Matiieu: ArKjdofjraphy, Boston, IGOo. — I\Iod- 
 eru Works. (J. 1). Br.i.i. : An;jr:lic Dcinr/s: Their 
 Nature and Minislrij, London, n.d. ; J. F. Beug: 
 Abaddon and Mahanaim ; or Demons and Guardian 
 An<jels, Philadelphia, 1S5G; Trios. Wills: An- 
 f/eJs and Heaven, London, 1872; II. II. Duke: 
 The Iloh) Angels; their Nature and IJniploi/mevIs 
 (IS reeorded in the Word of Cod, London, 1875; 
 L. R. DuN.\: The Angels of God, New York, 
 1881. — -Jewish angelology. Elsenmexgeu: /i)!(- 
 decktes Judeidkum, ii. 370-4G8; KoiiUT : Ueber 
 die JUdisehe Angelolofjie u. Ddmonologie in Hirer 
 Ahhdngigkeit vom Parsismus, 1806; Nicholas: 
 Des doetrines religieuses des JuiJ's, 2d ed., 1S60. 
 
 Art. Angel in Encyclopcedia Drilannicn (9th ed.) 
 by W. Ilobert.son Smith, provoked much discus- 
 sion and adverse criticism. The variou.s treatises 
 on biblical theology and theology in general may 
 be consulted, espircially lliat of Martensen. 
 
 ANGEL OF THE CHURCH (Rev. ii. 1 etc.) 
 is the jiri'siding elder of tin' city, an office which 
 eventually developed into the (q)iscopate. These 
 officers, as rulers and teachers of tlieir congregii- 
 tions, would naturally be the recipients of such 
 messages as the Saviour should send. They are 
 with 2iropriety called '• angels," '• messengers," bo- 
 cause by tlii-m the word of life is conveyed. Tho 
 Iloraan-Catholic and Anglican view is, that these 
 officers were really and fully bishops in the pres- 
 ent sense of the term, and in proof is advanced 
 (1) the analogy of Gal. i. 8, iv. 14; (2) tlieir 
 representative position toward the several 
 churches; (3) the fact(?) that John appointed 
 bishops i:.i the cities of this very region; (4) 
 the current interpretation of the term from very 
 early times, as by Augustine (^ICp. 43, c. 8, § 22 
 in Mig'ne, torn. II., col. 170), Jerome and Am- 
 brose. Other views, are that the angel of the 
 chui'ch was (1) really an angel; (2) corre- 
 sponded to the deputy of the synagogue ; (3) 
 figurative personifications of the churches them- 
 selves. See, for discussion of this interesting 
 point. Scm.vi'F: Hist. Apost. Ch.. pp. 537-511. 
 
 ANGELS AND ARCHANGELS IN CHRIS- 
 TIAN ART. The earliest Christian representa- 
 tion of angels dates from before the fourth 
 century: afterwards they were very common. 
 On the various monuments which have been pre- 
 served, we see that these attributes were popu- 
 larly given to them in early ages. 1. The hu- 
 man form, masculine (the sex of most dignity 
 and power). 2. Wings, representing their abil- 
 ity to ascend or descend, or to move very swiftly. 
 This representation is found in other religions, 
 e.g., Assyrian, Egyptian, Greek, and Roman. 3. 
 clothing, before seventh century, white; later 
 colored, red and blue. 4. The nimbus. 5. In 
 the first eight centuries it was exceptional to por- 
 tray angels with any thing in their liauds: but 
 archangels, later on, held swords and spears, and 
 other angels often carried nuisical instruments. 
 Four archangels are named Michael, Gabriel, 
 Raphael, Uriel. See art. " .Vngcls and Archan- 
 gels" in Smith and Ciieetiiam : Dictionarg of 
 CJiristian A nti'/uitics. 
 
 ANGiLCERT, St., a Frank of noble cxtr.ic- 
 tion, was the friend and counsellor of Charle- 
 magne, and was used by him in many difficult 
 negotiations. By Bertha, the daughter of 
 Charlemagne, he was father to Nithard and sev- 
 eral other sons. In 790 he retired from public 
 life to the Convent of Centule, the present St. 
 Riquier, of which he became abbot in 794. He 
 wrote a history of the abbey, and several poeti- 
 cal works, on account of which ho was styled tho 
 Homer of his time. D. Eeb. 18, 814. See Act. 
 Hanct., Feb. 18. 
 
 ANGILRAM, Bishop of Metz, 768, arch- 
 chaplain to Charlemagne, 784, since 787 styled 
 archbishop (d. 791), has in some unaccountable 
 manner got his name entangled with tho Pseudo- 
 Isidorian decretals, most codices of which con- 
 tain a minor collection of statutes, consisting of 
 seventy-one or seventy-two or eighty chapters
 
 ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 86 
 
 ANGLUS. 
 
 relatinsj to suits against clergymen, especially 
 against bishops, and generally bearing the name 
 of Capilula Ariffilramiii. The introduction to 
 these capilula tells, in some manuscripts, that 
 Angilram presented them to Pope Adrian ; in 
 others, that the pope presented them to Angil- 
 ram. But in either of these versions the story 
 is very improbable. In the controver.sy between 
 Hincniar of Rheinis and Hincmar of Laon, the 
 collection is quoted by both as CupHula Hudriani, 
 not Awi'dranini, and in the earliest works on 
 canon law, such as those by Burchard of Worms 
 and Gratian, it bears the same name. It is most 
 probable that Angilram has had nothing at all 
 to do with these capilula, but that they were 
 ■written by the author of the Pseudo-Isidorian 
 decretals liimself. See Pseudo-Isidok DiiCiiE- 
 TALS; lIiNSCHius: Decretales Pseudu-Isid., heip- 
 zig. IS*!:;. 
 
 ANGLO-SAXONS, their Conversion to Chris- 
 tianity. When Christianity was introduced to 
 Kngland is unknown : certain it is that it took 
 root among the old Britains in the second or third 
 century, and that it was suppressed but not de- 
 stroyed l)y the Anglo-Saxons, who invaded the 
 island in the sixth century, and introduced by 
 force their own worship of Odin. The British 
 Christians were powerless to labor among their 
 fierce and hated conquerors. They retreated be- 
 fore them; and where the light of the gospel had 
 shone there were the lurid fires of superstition. 
 To Gregory the Great belongs the credit, under 
 God, of conveiting the Anglo-Saxons; for he sent 
 out Augustine (d. 605: see title), the first Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, who landed on the Isle of 
 Thanet, 590, and in 597 restored to its original 
 worship the old Christian Church of St. Salvador 
 in Kent, by permission of Ethelbert the converted 
 king. In OOO the bishopric of Rochester was 
 founded. As in Kent, so in Esxcx, royal women 
 played a prominent part. The king, who was a 
 nephew of the King of Kent, after his baptism, 
 granted to Jlellitus. whom Augustine had nomi- 
 nated bishop, the old Diana temple in his capi- 
 tal, Lon<lon, with a large plot of ground, for a 
 Christian cathedral. The faith thus established 
 remained in these places during the reigns of 
 Pagan princes, altliough jiersecution drove out 
 the bishops, and ujiset their altars. In Norlhum- 
 herlanil, Kadwin, induced by the entreaties of 
 his Christian wife from Kent, and by the cajoler- 
 ies an<l ]iresents of Pope Boniface V., allowed 
 Bishop Paulinus to carry on missionary hibors. 
 iMeanwhih; he studied the Christian system for 
 himself, was at lengtii converted, and solemnly 
 renounced the Pagan gods, in the National 
 Council, in the presence of his chieftains (U-'T). 
 St. Pet(;rs in York was cliosen for the cathedral, 
 and Paulinus the bishop. In East Arir/lia Sigedes 
 (d. 0;j5) introduced Christianity, to which he was 
 converted in France. Oswald, King of North- 
 umberland, in (J;J5 introduced (Christianity in its 
 Scotch form, and made Lindisfern a bishopric 
 (whicli did not come under Konum jurisdiction 
 until 001). About the same time Pope Ilono- 
 rius sent Birinus to nnike himself a bishopric by 
 earning it out of the Pagan Knglish. Kynegii, 
 King of Wc.isej:, was bajitized by him, and the 
 Bi.'iliopric of IJorchrster en-ctrd (Oiifi); then 
 came Winchester (000) and Sherburne (703). 
 
 Fifty years were destined to pass ere heathenism 
 was supplanted in the Southern Saxons. As yet 
 Mercia held out for heathenism. Penda the 
 king considered himself the invincible champion 
 of Paganism, but his hour came. In the great 
 battle at Leeds he was defeated and killed, and 
 his kingdom thrown open to the gospel. As has 
 been noticed, the conversion to Christianitj' was 
 by the mass rather than by the individual. If 
 the king went, his whole people followed : hence 
 the baptisms were by thousands at a time. 
 There seem to have been no compulsory meas- 
 ures, either to advance or to retard the new faith. 
 While these conversions were going on, the Scotch 
 missionaries came into Northumberland and 
 Mercia, preaching the doctrine of Columba; but 
 differences in the young church were averted by 
 King Oswin's promi't calling of a synod at 
 Streaneshalch (Sinus Phari, ^Vhitby) in York- 
 shire (604), which decided in favor of the Roman 
 form of faith and worship. This settled the 
 matter. England was a part of the Roman 
 Universal Church: the pope was her spiritual 
 head. Hitherto, as Kemble says, there had 
 been churches in England; but henceforth there 
 was only one. But Rome was not able to make 
 the sturdy Anglo-Saxons her faithful sons in all 
 things. Down to the Norman invasion Anglo- 
 Saxon w-as the ecclesiastical language; the bap- 
 tismal form was Anglo-Saxon ; the Bible existed 
 in Anglo-Saxon ; and in the vulgar tongue homi- 
 lies were circulated. Papal supremacy, canon 
 law, ecclesiastical celibacy, was not recognized. 
 On the other hand, the Anglo-Saxon kings and 
 nobles vied with each other in building monas- 
 teries and abbeys; and the longing for holy quiet 
 was found among this class as nouhere else. 
 They also were fond of going upon long, toil- 
 some pilgrimages, true to the Norse blood which 
 flowed in their veins. To these days before the 
 Norman Conquest, which so completely revolu- 
 tionized the Church, and made it a limb of the 
 body of Rome, without any independence, be- 
 longs the first foreign missionary enterprise of 
 English Christianity. Bishop \\'ilfrid (d. 709, a'(t. 
 seventy-si-x) has the high honor of being the first 
 to set such work on foot ; for he sent the gosjiel to 
 Friesland. See Augusti.ne (.Archbishop of Can- 
 terbury) E.VCI.ANT), tCnUliCIl OF. 0. SCIIlil.L. 
 
 [Lit. — Bkda Venerabilis: Ecclesiastical Ilis- 
 torij, which along with the Anijio-Saxon Chri>nlcU\ 
 translated by Sleiiliens is in Bohn's .Vntiquarian 
 Library, London, 1S19. Aitiiiuu Wr.sr IIad- 
 DAN and Wii.i.i.vM Srunns : Councils mid Eccle- 
 siaslictd Documcnls relutiiii/ to Great Britain and 
 Ireland, Oxford, 1809 sqq. Wii.i.lAM BiiKinr: 
 Chapters of Earl ij Enijlish Clturcli llistori/, Oxford, 
 1878. John Pkvce: History of the Ancient Urit- 
 is/i Chnrrli, London, 1878.] 
 
 ANGLUS, Thomas, whose true name was 
 Thomas Whiti', but who also called himself 
 All/us, Albius, Caudidus, Jlianclii, etc., was born 
 in Kngland in 1582, but spent most of his time 
 on the Continent, as teaclier in the Rnman-C;dlio- 
 lic seminaries for Englishmen in Lisbon, Douay, 
 I'aris, and Rome, and wrote against Descartes, 
 the .Moliuists, the Jansenists, etc. -Vmong his 
 philosophical works are De Mitii'lo. I'aris, lOlJ; 
 Iiistitutititu'S I'eripatetica', Lyons, Hi IS; Instilu- 
 liuncs T lieuloijicie, 1052. 1). I070.
 
 ANICBTUS. 
 
 87 
 
 ANIMALS. 
 
 ANICETUS, Bisliop of Rome, succeeded Pius 
 I., and occupied the papal cliair from 157 to 1G8, 
 accordiufj to Eusebius (lli.il. Eccl. IV. 11, 19). 
 About 100 Polycai-p cauie to Rome, and one of 
 tlie questions discussed by him and Anicetus was 
 the difference between the Church of Rome and 
 tliat of Asia Minor witli respect to the celebra- 
 tion of Easter. No agreement was arrivinl at. 
 but no discord ensued. Polycarp celebrated 
 Easter in Rome according to the traditions of liis 
 Church (Eus. IliM. Eccl. IV. 24). Anastasius 
 Bibliothecarius tells that Anicetus introduced 
 the tonsure as a rule for all clergymen; and 
 Isidorus Mercator gives a letter from him to that 
 end, but the letter is evidently spurious. The 
 Roman Church commemorates him as a saint on 
 April 17. 
 
 ANIMALS. I. llc(iu!ations respectinrj Clean and 
 Unclean. — 1. For Food. According to the lists 
 (Lev. xi. 1-31, 46; Deut. xiv. 1-19), the clean 
 animals (ie., those whose flesh could be eaten) 
 were ruminant quadrupeds which parted the 
 hoof, were cloven-looted, and chewed the cud; 
 aquatic animals that had fins and scales; all 
 birds except the nineteen species specified; only 
 those flying insects, which, like the grasshopper, 
 have two long legs for leaping. No vermin was 
 clean, nor was the carcass of any clean animal, 
 if it had died naturally, or been torn to death. 
 Every thing was unclean that touched the un- 
 clean : so was the kid seethed in its mother's 
 milk, the heathen sacrifices in all their parts. 
 The object of this regulation was to separate the 
 Hebrews from all peoples (Lev. xxii. 24-20), and 
 daily remind them of their separation. But this 
 was accomplislied, not by the mere fact that they 
 made the separation (because heathen nations did 
 that), but by the strenuous prohibition of all that 
 concerned idolatrous worship. We find, in natu- 
 ral aversion to certain kinds of animals, the 
 rationale of tliis division of them into two classes, 
 and of its wide spread. The Jew of the present 
 day shows most prominently his aversion to 
 swine's flesh. In this he is true to the traditions 
 of his race, who, in the days of the Maccabees, 
 died rather than defile themselves by eating the 
 swine (1 Maoo. i. 47, cf. ver. 03 ; 2 Mace. vi. 18, 
 19, vii. 1). 
 
 Christianity has abrogated these regulations, 
 inasmuch as it sets forth cleanliness of heart as 
 the desirable thing. So spake Jesus (Matt. xv. 
 11, 17-20). Peter by a vision was instructed in 
 the essential cleanliness of all God's creatures 
 (.\cts x. 11-16.). Paul expresses himself clearly 
 upon this point (Rom. xiv. ; Col. ii. 16; Tit. i. 
 l,j; so lleb. xiii. 9). It was, however, a partial 
 return to the old Jewish law when the apostolic 
 council in Jerusalem put among the " necesxarii 
 things" that the Gentile converts abstain "from 
 blood and from things strangled," putting these 
 on a par with " meats offered to idols," and with 
 '•fornication" (.\cts xv.). Thus the council 
 imposed the same things as the law for proselytes 
 of the gate (cf. 1 Cor. viii. 1 so., x. 19 sq. ; Rev. 
 ii. 14, 20, 24). « 
 
 2. For Sacrifice. The general rule was, that 
 only the clean animals could be offered : this 
 dates back to the pre-.Mosaic period (Gen. viii. 
 20). Asses, camels, and liorses were not ottered 
 by the Hebrews. But only the lauie among even 
 
 the clean animals could be sacrificed: therefore, 
 no animal of the chase. Doves might .seem to 
 be an exception ; but they were so generally used 
 as food by the poor, an<l were so easily caught, 
 that they were not regarded as wild. Every 
 animal offered must be without blemish (Lev. 
 xxii. 20), at least seven days old (ver. 27; Exod. 
 xxii. 30), because too young fiesh is disgusting, 
 and therefore unclean. Nor must it be too old: 
 for bovines three years, for small cattle one, was 
 usual (Exod. xxix. 38; Lev. ix. 3; Num. xxviii. 
 9; Lev. i. 5, "bullock," a young ox). What 
 man would not eat, it was an insult to sacrifice. 
 
 3. The Moral Aspect. Animals shared in the 
 consequences of the fall. Instead of being man's 
 friend, many became his enemy, and in regard 
 to all he was obliged to cultivate their friend- 
 sliip. The apostle Paul has been supposed by 
 many to refer to a desire on the part of the brute 
 creation for a restoration to their original con- 
 ilition, when he says that "the earnest expecta- 
 tion of the creation waiteth for the revealing of 
 the sons of God. . . . For we know tliat the 
 whole creation groaneth and travaileth in pain 
 together until now" (Rom. viii. 19,22). To a 
 like purpose has the beautiful de.scription of 
 Isaiah (xi. and Ixv. 25), of the docility and 
 tameness of all animals in the day of the 
 Messiah, been adduced. 
 
 But it is a question how far this idea of the 
 participation of the animal kingdom in the Fall 
 on the one hand and the Restoration on the other, 
 should be pushed. Certainly the dominant scrip- 
 tural conception is, that the dumb animals occujiy 
 a passive position in morals. They are acted upon, 
 and do not act. Thus, in cases of unnatural lust, 
 the beast was killed, as well as the human being. 
 But the beast had done no wrong: it was its 
 being used for such a ]iurpose that rendered it 
 unclean and by imputation guilty (Lev. xx. 15, 
 10). The law inculcated great kindness towards 
 tlie lower animals. Man was placed at their 
 head (Gen. i. 20, 28). It was declared to be 
 like God to be humane (Prov. xii. 10, cf. 1 Cor. 
 ix. 9). The same spirit showed itself in the 
 order to give the beasts a weekly rest (Gen. xx. 
 10, xxiii. 12), and in the prohibition to muzzle 
 the ox when he trod out the corn (Deut. xxv. 4). 
 And how tender is this : " And whether it be cow 
 or ewe, ye shall not kill it and her young both in 
 one day" (Lev. xxii. 28). Ritualistic rather 
 than moral considerations forbade the sjianning 
 of different species of animals (Deut. xxii. 10) ; 
 but the two were combined in the law against 
 castration (Lev. xxii. 24 "and this ye shall not 
 do in your land." Ileb. texl). 
 
 II. The Emhlematic Une of Animal.i in tlie Bible 
 and the Church. — 1. In the Old Testament, 
 locusts were used as the symbol of the divine 
 judgments. " Scorpion " was the name given to 
 a kind of whip (1 Kings xii. 11). The cherubim 
 were used in ornamentation of sacred places. 
 Thus at divine command a pair were placed on 
 the mercy-seat (Exod. xxv. IS sq.) in the taberna- 
 cle, and a larger pair standing on the floor of the 
 Holy of holies in Solomon's temple (1 Kings vL 
 23). They were also blazoned on the doors, 
 walls, curtains, etc., of the tabernacle and tem- 
 ple. They were composite figures of man, lion, 
 ox, and eagle. See Chkuubi-m. Besides them
 
 ANNA. 
 
 88 
 
 ANNATS, 
 
 there were the t'.velve oxen whicli Iwre the brazen 
 sea in the court of the temple (1 Ivinjjs vii. 25) ; 
 also in prophetic vision animal shapes appeared 
 (Ezek. i. 10, x. 4). 
 
 2. In the New Testament Peter uses a lion 
 as the emblem of Satan (1 Pet v. 8): on the 
 other hand, a lion is the enihleni of Christ (Rev. 
 V. 5). The ass symbolizes peace (Matt. xxi. 
 5) : the dove, innocence and the Holy Ghost : the 
 swine, uncleanness and vidararity (Matt. vii. 6; 
 2 Pet. ii. 22). But the emblematic use of beasts 
 is much greater in the Revelation than in all tlie 
 other books of the Bible combined. Constant 
 mention is made of the four living creatures 
 (iv. 6, etc.), who were from the fifth century con- 
 sidered as symbolizing the four evangelists. 
 Christ is constantly called the Lamb; the Devil, 
 the dragon (xii. 3, etc ). There are, besides, a 
 beast who comes out of the bottonde.ss pit (xi. 7), 
 horses (vi. 2, etc.), locusts (ix. 3), birds (xix. 
 17), and fi-ogs (xvi. 13). 
 
 3. The ecclesiastical use of animals was very 
 great and varied. There was not only the lamb 
 for Christ, but also dolphins, hens, pelicans, 
 apes, and centaurs. The dragon appeared as, for 
 instance, the opponent of St. George. The old 
 (iothic churches exhibit these fanciful and really 
 heathen designs. Bernard of Clairvaux raised 
 his voice against them. In the catacomlis one 
 finds the drawing of a fish to .symbolize Christ, 
 because the initials of the title of Christ 'h/aouc 
 Xptarbi; Qiov Yiof Xufj/p spell the Greek word for 
 fish IXeTS. 
 
 III. The Use nf Kmhlemnlir AntinaU in Worship. 
 — 1. Among the Ilelirews there are two spoken 
 of. The brazen serpent which Moses made, 
 w'hich was at last destroyed by Ilezekiah, because 
 it was worsliipped (2 Kings xviii. 4). The 
 golden calf, a direct imitation of Kgyplian wor- 
 ship, was not intended as a sidistitnte for the 
 Jehovah worship, but as an aid; but it became 
 a snare to Israel in the wildenic'ss before Sinai 
 (Exod. xxxii.),aiid in the daj's of .leroboam I. and 
 his succes.S(>rs on the throne of Israel (1 Kings xii. 
 2S). Among the neighboring (leople there was 
 an idolatrous worsliip, and this the llel)rews cop- 
 ied. Thus at lengtli they served heathen divini- 
 ties under various animal forms, without the 
 apology of a ,Jeliovistic meaning. The Jews 
 were falsely accused of worsliipping an a.ss's 
 head. Josephus r. Apinn II. 7. See Asixakii. 
 
 But all the nations around JuihUi were led into 
 this worship of animals. Tlie Kgyiitians wor- 
 shipped the crocodile, the cat, the wolf, the dog, 
 the ape, the goat, the sheep, the l)eetle, and also 
 the lion, and other animals. The As.syrians 
 had the eagle-headed god Xisroch, and used very 
 extensively drawings and figures of animals, but 
 probably not idolatrously. So at all events it 
 was with the Persians. They divideil animals 
 into two clas.ses, religio-morally good or bad: 
 e g., the unicorn, the hen, the dog, tiie ox were 
 holy to Ormuzd, who himself appearttd sometimes 
 as an eagle, .sonietiiiies as a hawk. The head of 
 the unclean animals was the dragon, the emblem 
 of Ahrimaii, the darkne.ss. .). u. MUI.LUK. 
 
 ANNA, St., the mother of the Holy Virgin, 
 was, according to the tradition of the ancient 
 church, a native f>f Bethleln'm ami a daughter 
 uf thu priest Mutlhau. She had two sisters, both 
 
 marrieil in Bethlehem, of whom one was the 
 mother of Klisabeth and the grandmother of John 
 the Baptist. Anna married Joachim of the tribe 
 of Juda. They settled at Xazareth. and their 
 lives are told with great elaborateness in the 
 Ei-aiir/eliiim ile Nalioilale Maria and in Protevnn- 
 (lelium Jticnhi. According to another account, 
 Joachim died soon after the birth of Maria, and 
 Anna then married, first, Cleophas, to whom she 
 bore Maria, the wife of Alphaius. and. next, Sa- 
 lome, the wife of Zebedsus. But Jerome and 
 Augustine doubted these statements. In the 
 Greek Church the worship of .St. Anna origi- 
 nated in the fourth century, and tr.ices of it 
 are found in Gregory of Nyssa and Kpiphanius 
 (Hasres. 78, 79), It becomes prominent in the 
 homilies of the monk Antioehus, in the Encomi- 
 um of St. Joachim aiul St. .\nna by Cosmas 
 Vestitor, and especially with Johannes Danias- 
 cenus in his De Fill. Orlh., IV., 14, in his Orat. 
 lie Doniitt. U. Miiriie, and in his Ornt. I. and 
 II. in NaliiK Mnriit:. Greek hymns in her honor 
 are preserved in Lambocius: Cnmm. <le Bihtioth. 
 Vinilob..,]. III., p. 207, and Andreas Cretensis: 
 Hi/inni Sacri. In 550 the emperor Justinian 
 dedicated a church to her in Constantinople; and 
 not only tlie day of her death (July 25). but also 
 that of her wedding and of her conceiition (.Sept. 
 9 and Dec. 9). are celebrated. In the Western 
 Church, Pope Leo III. had in the eighth century 
 the history of St. Joachim and St. Auwa inunted 
 in the basilica of S;vn Paolo; and in 1584 Pope 
 Gregory XIII. ordered that a double mass slioidd 
 be said in honor of St. Anna in all churches on 
 July 26. In S(iain she became very popular, e.s- 
 pecially through the exertions of the Augustine 
 nun Anna, a pupil of St. Theresa; also in Italy, 
 where the Minorite monk, Inuoceuct of Clusa, 
 suruameil .Vnnreus, wrought many miracles by 
 the ai<l of St. Anna: indeed, in the seventeenth 
 century an Italian writer, Imperialis, even ap- 
 plied to her the idea of an inim:iculate concep- 
 tion; but his doctrines were condeumed by the 
 pope. See .lc(f! Siunior, Vit. e. comiiii'ni. Citpn-i, 
 Tom. VI.. Jul., ]>. 2-):!. ZiJCKLEK. 
 
 ANNAS, whom Josephus calls '.\i<ai'or, one of 
 the chiefs of the Jewish jieople ;it the time of the 
 public ministry of Jesus (Luke; iii. 2; John xviii. 
 13), w;is the son of Seth, and was high jiriest 
 during the taking of the census by Quirinius 
 (.V.D. 6). but depo.sed by the procurator Valeiius 
 Gratus (Joseph, .[uliq., 18. 2, 1 and 2). After- 
 wards he exercised great influence, for five of his 
 sons were high prie.sts. Annas, and Caiapluis his 
 son-in-law, were contemporary chiefs, the former 
 as ]iresident of the Sanhedrin, the latter as high 
 priest. There is no dilhculty in mulerstanding 
 Luke's term upxuftiii; (Luke iii. 2). which in itself 
 is ambiguous, of the ]iresident of thi! .Sanhedrin, 
 for he regularly uses it in this sense in the Acts 
 
 vii. 1, ix. 1, XX. 5, xxiii. 2, 4, 
 
 (AcU v. 21, 
 
 xxiv. 1). The word only occurs once in the 
 LXX. (Lev. iv. 3; the common term, like the 
 Hebrew, bt'ing A iiptv^ or li iV/wif uiyaf). and is 
 used ^y Josephus, as in the New Testament, of 
 the head of the temple priests as well as of the 
 not ui'Cessarily identical per.son, the president of 
 the Sanhedrin ; lor Ezra is called (in 1 Esd. 
 ix. 10) !i i,p\upn>(. K. WMMELKlt. 
 
 ANNATS. See Taxes, Ecclksiastical.
 
 ANNIHILATIONISM. 
 
 89 
 
 ANSEGIS. 
 
 ANNIHILATIONISM dpnotes a tlicnry acconl- 
 inpr to which thi- evcrlastiiitj |uiiiishiiieiit of the 
 wicked consists in utter destruction, aniiiliila- 
 tion. The theory has never been adopted as 
 j)art of any (lenoininational creed ; but individu- 
 ally its many subtle points, psychological and 
 theolocfical, liave found very able advocates, such 
 as RiCHAUD WiiATEi.v: A View of Ihe Scripture 
 ItevelaliDiis cfjncernini/ a Future SUilc, London, 
 ISyj; and Hudson: Debt and Grace as relaleil lo 
 Ihe Doctrine of a Fiilnre Slate, Iioston, 1857; and 
 recently, perhaps its ablest expositor in Rev. 
 Edward AVliite, an Ensjlish clergyman, whose 
 Life m Cliri.-;! (first edition, London, 1875; third 
 edition, 1878) has not only sold largely, but made 
 many converts. 
 
 ANNIVERSARIUS (sc. dies). From the second 
 century it became usual in Christian congrega- 
 tions to celebrate the death-days of their martyrs 
 witii divine service. Also single families used 
 to commemorate their departed members on their 
 death-days. Thus the festivals of the martyrs 
 and the saints originated, as also those anniver- 
 saries for departed members of the congregations 
 which are still held in the Roman-Catholic 
 Church, and consist in masses and alms. As 
 only the rich can avail themselves of this custom, 
 the AU-Souls' Day has been instituted for the 
 poor. 
 
 ANNI CLERI. Any loan raised for the erec- 
 tion of a church or ])arsonage must be paid by 
 the succeeding parsons out of their benefices in 
 fixed instalments. This method of {layment is 
 called aiini cleri. 
 
 ANNULUS PISCATORIUS. To the official 
 costume of a Uomau-Catholic bishop belongs a 
 ring, which designates his espousals to the church. 
 Also the pope wears such a ring, and one with 
 the device of St. Peter fishing. From the thir- 
 teenth century all papal briefs were sealed with 
 red or green wax showing an impression of this 
 device, and for this reason they were said to 
 liave been issued snij arnudo piu-atoris. 
 
 ANNUNCIADE is the name of two orders of 
 nuns instituted in honor of the annunciation. — 
 I. The first w-as founded at liourges, in 1.^00, by 
 Jeanne of Valois, the sister of Charles VIII. and 
 the divorced wife of Louis XII. It was also 
 called the Order of the Ten Virtues, with allu- 
 sion to the ten festivals of the Holy Virgin kept 
 by the Roman Church. At the time of its abol- 
 ishment, under the Revolution, it numbered 
 forty-five monasteries in Franco. It still flour- 
 ishes in the Netherlands. — II. The second, also 
 called the Order of t.)ie Ccelestines, was founded 
 in Genoa by the widow Maria Victoria Fornari, 
 and confirmed by Clement VIII. in KIOL Be- 
 sides in Genoa and Rome, it has also monaster- 
 ies in France. 
 
 ANNUNCIATION, Feast of Ihe, is the ecclesi- 
 astical commemoration, upon March "J.j, of each 
 year of the beginning of the incarnation of the 
 word of God, when in Nazareth the angel Ga- 
 briel announced to the Virgin Mary the over- 
 shadowing of the Holy Ghost. It is uncertain 
 when the Church began the general celebration 
 of this event. There is a collect for the day in 
 tlie .Sacramentary of Gelasius (A.D. 492) and in 
 that of Gregory the Great (A.D. 500), and a 
 homily exists which was preached upon the day 
 
 by Proclus, patriarch of Constantinople, in the 
 first half of the fifth century. The Council of 
 Toledo (A.D. OoG) appointed the feast for Dec. 
 18, so that so joyful a feast miglit not come in 
 Lent, nor so near the date of Christ's deatli. 
 The Milan Church similarly put it in Decendier, 
 upon the fourth Advent Sunday. But March 25, 
 nine full months before Christmas, is now the 
 date universally assigned. The central figure in 
 tlie feast is Mary, who humbly, wonileringly, re- 
 joicingly yields herself to be the human mother 
 of the Son of (iod. 
 
 ANNUS CARENTI>C, the term during which a 
 canon or other prebendary must renounce lii.s 
 revenues in favor of the pope, the bishop, or 
 .some ecclesiastical purpose. In some countries 
 a certain per centum is annually paid to an eccle- 
 siastical fund. 
 
 ANNUS CLAUSTRALIS, the first year in which 
 a canon holds his benefice, and during which he 
 is bound to be in residence. 
 
 ANNUS DECRETORIUS.the year 1G24, which 
 by the peace of Westphalia was taken as the ba- 
 sis for the division of German territory between 
 the Roman-Catholic and the Protestant churches. 
 
 ANNUS DESERVITUS, or ANNUS GRATI/E, 
 denotes the term, different in different countries, 
 during which the heirs of an ecclesiastic are en- 
 titled to enjoy his revenues after his death. 
 
 ANNUS LUCTUS, the year of mourning, in 
 some countries an obstacle to m.arriage. 
 
 ANSEGIS, the abbreviated form of Ansegi<:il. — 
 I. The elder Ansegis, b. in tlie latter part of the 
 eighth century, d. ;it Fontauella, in the diocese 
 of Rouen, July 20, 833; received his first instruc- 
 tion in a cloister-school in the diocese of Lyons; 
 became a monk in the Monastery of Fontauella; 
 and was made Abbot of St. Germain de Flay, in 
 the diocese of Beauvais, in 807. Afterwards he 
 was called to the court of Charlemagne in Aix- 
 la-Chapelle, and made suiierintendent of all thu 
 emperor's architectural undertakings. Also Louis 
 the Pious held him in great favor, and endowed 
 him in 817 with the Abbey of Luxenil, and in 
 823 with that of Fontanella, whither he finally 
 witlidrew, old and exhausted. In Fontanella he 
 finished his collection of prankish laws: Lihri 
 IV. Capilularium, wliich in 829 obtained official 
 authority. Most of these ca/ntularia we are able 
 to compare .with the original documents; and the 
 comparison shows that Ansegis altered very little 
 in the text, — quite different in this respect from 
 Benedict of Mainz, who, twenty years later on, 
 continued his work, and made arbitrary, not to 
 say fraudulent, alterations. In the ninth cen- 
 tury the work was translated into German, and 
 up to the thirteenth century the German kings 
 took an oath on the book as containing the lights 
 of the realm. The best edition is that b}' Pertz 
 in the first part of his Monumcnta Gcrmiinim 
 Ler/um. — The younger Ansegis became Arch- 
 bishop of Sens in 871, and was in 876 appointed 
 papal vicar in Gaul and Germany, with right to 
 convoke synods, and act as the representative of 
 the pope in all affairs of the church. At the 
 synod of Ponthion, however, a number of the 
 Prankish bishops refused to acknowledge his au- 
 thority, and we hear nothing of a real activity 
 from his side as papal vicar. In 877 he seems td 
 have lost the confidence of the pope, as in 874
 
 ANSELM. 
 
 90 
 
 ANSGAR. 
 
 another papal vicar was appointed. Ansegis died 
 Nov. 25, 88:2. On liis tombstone he is called 
 J'rimuis Gallurum Pajia; and np to the fifteenth 
 century the Archbishop of Sens was styled GcdlUe 
 (I Gcrmanorum Primas. 
 
 ANSELM OF CANTERBURY, b. in lOT-i, at 
 Aosta in Piedmont; d. at Canterburj-, .\pril 21, 
 1109; the father of mediaeval scholasticism, and 
 one of the most eminent English prelates. He 
 belonged to a rich family of old Lombard nobili- 
 ty, but felt himself so strongly drawn towards 
 a life of study and contemplation, that, in spite 
 of his father's protest, he entered the Monastery 
 of Bee, in Normandy, wliere he studied under 
 the tuition of his celebrated countryman, Lan- 
 franc, and finally took holy orders. In 1063 he 
 ■was chosen prior, and in 1078, abbot of Bee; and 
 under his guidance and by his teaching the fame 
 of the school of t)ie place steadily increased. In 
 1093 he was appointed .\rchbisho]) of Canterbury ; 
 and, though lie was a very mild and meek man, 
 he had adopted the Gregorian views of the rela- 
 tion between Church and State, and followed 
 them out in practice with unswerving consis- 
 tency. Strife soon broke out between him and 
 the kintj. William Rufus, wlio exiled liim in 
 1097. Under M'illiani's successor, Henry I., he 
 returned; but the strife soon broke out again. 
 Once more he went into exile; and a reconcilia- 
 tion was not brought about until 1100, when the 
 king renounced the riglit of investiture with ring 
 and staff, and the archbishop consented to take 
 the oath of allegiance for his feudal jiossessions. 
 
 lu the history of theology Ansel m stands as 
 the father of orthodox scholasticism. He was 
 called the second Augustine. Of the two theolo- 
 gical tendencies at that time occupying the field. 
 — the one more free and rational, represented by 
 Berengarius; and tlie other confining itself more 
 closely to the tradition of the church, and repre- 
 sented l)y Lanfranc, — he chose tlie latter; and he 
 defines the object of ficholastical theology to be 
 the logical development and dialectical demon- 
 stration of the doctrines of the church such as 
 they were handed down through the Fathers. 
 Tlie dogmas of the church are to him identical 
 with revelation itself ; and tlieir truth surpa.s.ses 
 the conceptions of reason so far, that it seems to 
 him to b(! nu'ie vanity to doubt a dogma on 
 account of its uniiitelligibility. Crcilo ul iiilelli- 
 gniii, mm qucero inti'll if/are ul creilam, is the princi- 
 ple on which he proceeds; and after him it has 
 become the i)rinciple of all orthodox theology. 
 As a metaphysician he was a Realist; and one of 
 his earliest works. l)e Fide Trinitallx, was an 
 attack on the Nominalist Roscellin"s doctrine of 
 the Holy Trinity. His two most celebrated 
 works are Primlixiium, written before 1078, and 
 setting forth the ontological jiroof of the exist- 
 ence of God, and Cur Deux llniiw, finished at 
 Ca|ina in 1();)8, and developing those views of 
 atonement and satisfaction which still an; held 
 by orthodox divines. His MciUlalinncx and Ura- 
 tiones are of an edifying and contemplative char- 
 acter rather than dialectical, but arc often very 
 impressive. 
 
 l,iT. — Collected editions of Anselm's works 
 havi- been given by Joiiannks Picaiii>i:s, Colon., 
 l')12, anil more critically by G. (JKKiiKitoN, 
 I'aria, HJ75, which later edition has been re- 
 
 printed in Migne: Patrolor/. Tom., 158-59. [Sep- 
 arate editions of Cur Deus Homo were published 
 in Berlin, 18.37, and London, 18(33. Translations 
 of Cur Deua Homo and Prosloi/ium are found in 
 Bibliotheca Smni, vols. VIII., IX., and XII.] His 
 life was written by his pupil Eadmkk. See F. 
 11. H,\sse: Auselm von C<tnterl)urii, 2 vols., 1843- 
 1852 [Abridged Translation by Rev. W. Tur- 
 ner, London, 1850]; Ch. Remusat: Ansclm de 
 Cantorhdry, Paris, 1853; [lives by Dean Chukch, 
 London, 1875 ; M. Rule, 1882, 2 vols. ; Ocsenyi : 
 Thcologia S. A mehni, Briinn, 1885]. J. L. JACOBI. 
 
 ANSELM, Bishop of Havelberg, was sent in 
 1135, by Lothair II., as ambassador to the court 
 of Constantinople ; and here he held a conference 
 with Nicetas, Archbishop of Kicoinedia, on the 
 principal points of controversy between the two 
 churches. On his return, in 1145, he visited 
 Rome ; and on the suggestion of Pope Eugene 
 HI. he wrote down a report of the dispute. In 
 the mean time a learned Gi'eek bishop had come 
 to Rome, sent by the emperor: and the defence 
 which he delivered for the Greek liturgy seemed 
 to have made some impression on the pope; at 
 least, the pope deemed it right that some kind 
 of an answer should be prepared, and for this 
 purpose the above report was published. See 
 DWcuKRY : S/>icitcf/ium I., 101. 
 
 ANSELM, St., surnanied Badagius, because 
 he descended from the fami'v of Badagio ; b. in 
 Milan, 1030; d. in Mantua, iSIarch IS, 1086; was 
 a nephew of Pope .\lexander II., whom he suc- 
 ceeded as Bishop of Lucca in lOCl. He soon 
 resigned, however, and retired to the Monastery 
 of Cluny. Gregory VII. ordered him to return 
 to his see; but, being a devoted friend of the 
 pope, the adherents of the emperor expelled him, 
 and he then lived at the court of the Countess 
 Mathilda, until Leo IX. sent him as papal legate 
 to Lombardy. In the conflict between (iregory 
 VII. and Henry IV. he wrote a Dc/'ciisio pro 
 Grafjorio VII. and a pamphlet. Contra Guibfrlum 
 Auti-papnm, which are found in Hounherti Ilililio- 
 lliei-d I'dutificia IV. His biograjihy was written 
 by the Boi.LA.vnisTS, March 18, and by A.ndhka 
 RoiA, Vpron., 1733. 
 
 ANSELM OF LAON, or Lnwlunensis (Laoii 
 beinn' his birlhiilaci). .stmlied under Anselm of 
 Canterbury, in the Monastery of Bee; taught 
 from 1070 scholastic theology in Paris, and con- 
 trilmted much to the rising jirosperity of that 
 university. Towanls the close of the eleventh 
 century he. returned to his native city, where he 
 was made archdeacon and sc/ioldslicus. In this 
 [losition he became director of a, theological 
 school, which soon was much frc-cpiented. .\be- 
 lard was for some time among his puptls. Ha 
 was an enthusiastic teacher, and refused .sev- 
 eral times the episcopal dignity, in order to 
 stay with his school; died 1117. His Glossrt 
 hilt<Hi»caris, a commentary to the Vulgate, writ- 
 ten in notes between the lines, formed for a long 
 time, together with the Gloxsii onhndria by Wal- 
 afri.l Slrabo, the principal source of all exegeti- 
 c;d knowledge. It was j)rinte(l in Basel in 150.' 
 and 15i)S, and in .\ntwer]i in 1034. 
 
 ANSGAR (from Aiisi/rjr or (Mi;rjr. the modern 
 Oscar, '■ (iod's spear "), the apostle of Scandina- 
 via, b. .Sept. !), 801, near Corbie in the dioci^se o[ 
 Amiens; d. in Bremen, Feb. 3, 805; was educat-
 
 ANSO. 
 
 91 
 
 ANTHONY. 
 
 ed by Adalhard .and Wala in the Monastery of 
 Corbie; moved in 822 with a nuniber of brother- 
 monks to the newly founded Corvey in West- 
 phalia, and accompanied Kin"; Harold Klak back 
 to Jutland, in 8'2(i, as missionary amons^ the 
 Danes. In 831 the bishopric of Ilambiirg was 
 founded, and Ansgar was appointed bisliop; ami 
 in 8()t this see was united with that of Bremen, 
 and elevated to an archbishopric, — the metropol- 
 itan see of Scandinavia. Ansgar made also two 
 journeys to Sweden ; and though in 845 the hea- 
 then Danes swept down upon Hamburg, burnt 
 the city, and drove away the missionaries, Christi- 
 anity, nevertheless, got secui'e foothold in Den- 
 mark before Ansgar died. See Uimbkut: Vila 
 Atisfjarix in Pertz : Mon. II.; Adam of Breme.v; 
 Gesia Hamh. Eccl. Ponl., in Pkiitz: Mim. VII.: 
 Tappkiioun: Lchcn d. hi. Ansgar, Miinster, 1863; 
 and tlie article Dknmark. 
 
 ANSO, a monk and (77G-800) abbot of Lobbes, 
 but not also a bishop, as his predecessors had 
 been. In his day the monastery continued inde- 
 pendent of the diocese of Liege; but in 88!) it was 
 annexed. Anso was a very worthy, zealous man, 
 but no scholar: nevertheless, we owe to his in- 
 dustry while a monk the compilation from the 
 sources of biographies of two of tlie abbot-bish- 
 ops who preceded him at Lobbes, the "Vita S. 
 Ursmari " (circa (!89-7l;?), which the BoUandists 
 reprinted under April 18, II., also, by Mabillon, 
 Acta Bened. III.; and, later, was re-written liy 
 Bishop Katherius of Verona, and Abbot Folcuin 
 of Lobbes; a*'d the "Vita S. Ermini," or " Er- 
 minonis " (713-737), reprinted by the BoUandists 
 under April 2.5, III., and by Mabillon. 
 
 See Uisloire litter, de France, IV, 203, for the 
 corapletest account of him. The Chronicle of 
 Alberich confounds liim with Ansegis of Fonta- 
 nella (see title). MERKEL. 
 
 ANTERUS, Bishop of Rome (Nov. 21, 23o-Jan. 
 3, 236), succeeded Pontianus, and sult'ered, accord- 
 ing to one account, martyi-dom. Eusebius (Hist, 
 eccl. VI., 29) places liim in the time of the Em- 
 peror Gordian. 
 
 ANTHOLOGIUM,'AM9oXo'/ioi', the name of one 
 of the church-books of the Gre^k Church, con- 
 taining the oflices for the festivals of the Lord, 
 the Virgin Mary, the principal saints, etc., having 
 been much augmented by successive editors. 
 
 ANTHONY, St., the f:ither of monasticism; b. 
 in 2.")1, in the village of Coma, in the neighbor- 
 hood of Thebais, Egypt ; d. in 356, in the 
 mountain-deserts on the border of the Red Sea; 
 belonged to an old and wealthy Coptic f.araily. 
 but gave aw.ay all his wealtli to the poor, and 
 began to lead an .ascetic life in his native village, 
 supporting himself by the labor of his h.ands. 
 Soon, however, the temptations began; the irre- 
 pressible passions of human nature, and perhaps 
 also the allurements of pride, trying to carry him 
 back into the world which he liad renounced. 
 In order to conquei% lie adopted a still severer 
 manner of life, repairing to a cave, and mortify- 
 ing his flesh by protracted fasts. But here the 
 temptations re.ached their highest force. He ex- 
 perienced, Athiinasius tells us, bodily ill-treat- 
 ment from the demons, and was carried back 
 unconscious to the village. Afterw.ards he lived 
 for ten years in a ruin, then on Mount Colzin 
 near the Red Sea; but, when he fin.ally took up 
 
 some practical work, this exercised a most bene- 
 ficial influence on him and saved hijn. He be- 
 came the siiiritual leader of n)any ascetics, and 
 the desert around liim became peo]iled with- 
 iiermits. From distant places men came to him 
 asking liis advice, or doing him homage; and it; 
 ;ivailed him nothing that lie moved farther into 
 tlie desert in order to escape tliese disturbances. 
 During the persecution of Maximinus he went to 
 Alexandria, and exliorted the Christians to be 
 true to the end. Once more, during the Arian 
 controversy, he visited the Egyptian metropolis, 
 in order to defend orthodoxy; and both times hi.s 
 appearance in the busy world produced the pro- 
 foundest impression. When he was dying, he 
 ordered that the place of his burial should bo 
 kept secret, in order that no idolatrmis honor 
 sliould be shown to his e.arthly remains. His 
 life was written in 365 by Athanasius, who had 
 known him personally: and, shortly after, the 
 work of Athanasius was translated into Latin by 
 Evagrius, and introduced to the Western Churchy 
 where it gave monasticism, if not its first, at all 
 events its most powerful impulse. The authen- 
 ticity of this work, however, is doubted by H. 
 Weingarte.N' : Der Ursprung dcs Mvnchthumf, 
 Gotha, 1877. 
 
 ANTHONY, St., Order of. Towards the close 
 of the eleventh century, there raged in France an 
 epidemic (.s-acer morbua), which people commonly- 
 called the " fire of St. Anthony," because they ex- 
 pected aid against the evil from this saint. And 
 when the only son of a rich nobleman, Gaston, in 
 the Dauphine, was taken ill by this disease (109.5), 
 the father went to the Cliurch of S. Didier 
 la Mothe, in which the relics of the saint were 
 said to have been buried, and made <a vow, that,- 
 if the son recovered, he would give all his wealth 
 to the saint, to be spent in releasing those who 
 suffered from tlie same disease. The son recov- 
 ered, and the promise was redeemed. A hospital 
 was built in which the sick were nursed; and the 
 father as well as the son and eight friends de- 
 voted themselves to this service. In 1208 this 
 brotherhood of laymen were allowed bj' Inno- 
 cent III. to build a church; in 1228 Honorius 
 III. permitted them to take monastic vows; and 
 in 1297 Boniface VIII. confirmed them as regu- 
 lar canons under tlie rules of St. Augustine. 
 They wore a black garment witli a blue T, or the 
 cross of St. Anthony; and wlien collecting alms 
 they carried a small bell around their necks, thus 
 announcing their arrival. People used to pre- 
 sent them each year with a pig, which was con- 
 secrated to the saint of the order, probably 
 with reference to tlie destruction of the herd of- 
 swine (Matt. viii. 30-32). Tlie order spread in 
 France, Germany, and Italy, and attained great 
 wealth. The Abbot of St. Antoine, Vienne, was 
 its grand-master. At the time of the Reforma- 
 tion it had degenerated, and the conduct of its 
 members g.ave occasion to much satire. In the 
 seventeenth century a reform was attempted, but 
 failed. In 1774 the order was united with that 
 of the Malthese, and with the latter it was finally 
 dissolved. 
 
 ANTHONY DE DOMINIS (^rarco Antnnio de 
 Doininis), b. between 1500 and 1570, in the do- 
 minion of the Republic of Venice; d. in Rome 
 in 1674 ; was educated by the Jesuits ; entered
 
 ANTHONY. 
 
 92 
 
 ANTIDICOMARIANITES. 
 
 the order; taiicfht philosophy in various places 
 in Northern Italy; and was appointed Bishop of 
 Segni, in the neighborhood of Rome, in 159G, and 
 two years afterwards Archbishop of Spalatro, 
 and Primate of Dalmatia and Croatia. Dis- 
 agreeinc: with the po]ie, Paul V., concerning the 
 interdict laid on the city of Venice in l(i0(j, sus- 
 pected of entertaining views somewhat similar 
 to those of Paolo Sarpi, and liated by the Jesuits, 
 from whose order he had been expelled, he went 
 to Rome to defend himself. The Inquisition 
 acquitted him, but did not declare him guiltless ; 
 and, provoked by this equivocation, he left Italy, 
 and went to England, explaining in a Latin 
 memoir, published in 1616, that it was the inno- 
 vations and errors of the Roman popes which 
 drove him out of " Babylon." In England, where 
 he was very flatteringly received by James I., 
 he was converted to Prote.stantisra, joined the 
 Church of England, and was made Dean of 
 Windsor. Tliis apostasy caused a great sensa- 
 tion, the more .so, as Anthony now attacked the 
 Roman Church, and various of its doctrines, in a 
 series of learned and brilliant works. In the 
 De Kepuhlica Erclcaiaslica he denied the primacy 
 of St. Peter and the papal see, and defended the 
 Anglican view of tlie equality of the bishops 
 with the pope. In his views of the relation 
 between the pope and the various state-govern- 
 ments, he follows closely in the track of his coun- 
 tryman Sarpi, whose history of the Council of 
 Trent he published in London, 1019. Suddenly, 
 however, he left England, disappointed, as it 
 would seem, at not being made Bishop of York ; 
 and in Brussels he returned to the Roman Church 
 (1622). and addressed himself to the pope, beg- 
 ging to be forgiven. Having arrived at Rome, 
 lie was arraigned before the Lnpiisition, arrested, 
 and compelled to recant: but he died before the 
 final sentence was spoken (1624), according to 
 which his books and his body were burnt, and 
 their ashes strewn in the Tiber. See Nkwlaxd: 
 Life of Dp. Dnmin'n, Lomlon, 1860. 
 
 ANTHONY OF PADUA, b. at Li.sbon in 1195; 
 d. at Padua in 12-'<1 ; the most celebrated of the 
 followers of .St. Francis of Assissi ; entered, 
 when fifteen years old, the order of the Au- 
 gustines, but joined afterwards the new order 
 of St. Francis; settled for some time in a monas- 
 tery near Bologna, and lived there under the 
 severest practio«.s of penitiMico; studied theology 
 at Vercelli, and taught at Bologna, Toulouse, 
 Montpellier, and Padua, but devoted himself 
 later on exolnsively to ])reaching, in which olhce 
 he achieved such a success, that even the fishes, 
 it is said, ascended from the waters to hear him. 
 His works have been jiublished as an appendix 
 to those of St. Francis, by L. Wadding, Ant- 
 »verp, 1623; and by IIouov: Medd avi bibliotheca 
 j)'t!risliai. Tom. VI., I'aris, 1880. 
 
 ANTHONY OF LEBRIJA {Anlonim Nchrmnn- 
 si.i), b. in 1412; d. in l.")22; studied at various 
 universities in Sjiain and Italy; was professor of 
 classical literature, first in .Salamanca, and then 
 in Alcala; assisted since l.')08 in the edition of 
 the Compliilensian Bible J'olyglot; described, ;is 
 htistoriograjiher to Fcrdinan<l and Isabella, two 
 decades of their reign; and published, not unmo- 
 ■IfKted by the Inquisition, but protected by the 
 ■favor of Cardinal Ximeues, iluinquayena Loco- 
 
 rum S. Sc7-iptura:, non vulgariter etiarratorttm, 1520, 
 
 besides other works. 
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY. See Theologt. 
 
 ANTHROPOMORPHISM (anthropos, 7nan, 
 morphe, form) and ANTHROPOPATHISM (an- 
 thropos, man, pathos, pasision). These terms 
 designate those views of God which represent 
 him as posses.sed of human attributes or human 
 passions. Thus the Audians of the fourth and 
 fifth centuries taught that all pa.ssages of the 
 Bible which speak of God's hands, eai's, eyes, 
 etc., are to be interpreted literally: on the other 
 hand, many philosophers call the conception of 
 God as a personal spirit anthropomorphic. While 
 the Scriptures, rightly interpreted, lend no sup- 
 port to either extreijie view, they yet declare 
 that we are made in the image of God, and 
 that therefore He who made us is like us in 
 every pure emotion, and is possessed of all our 
 powers, but not in the same way or measure with 
 ourselves. 
 
 ANTHROPOMORPHITES. See Audians. 
 
 ANTICHRIST. The word occui-s in the New 
 Testament only in the Epistles of John ; but the 
 idea — an antitj'pe to the Messiah, a worldly 
 power working against the divine scheme of sal- 
 vation, the last and greatest enemy which the 
 Saviour of mankind has to defeat — is often re- 
 ferred to in the eschatological discourses of the 
 Gospels (Matt. xxiv. 15 sqq.), in the Epistles 
 of Paul (2 Thess. ii. 3), in Revelation (xvi., xvii.) ; 
 and it has its roots in the Old Testament (Ezek. 
 xxxviii., xxxix. ; Dan. xi.). The idea is apoca- 
 lyptic in its whole character, — dim, giving only 
 one vague glimpse of what is to happen when 
 the time has come, and yet full of warning, and, 
 by its fitness for application, offering a clew to 
 the meaning of the passing times. Daniel seems 
 to apply it to Antiochus Epiphanes; the Revela- 
 tion, to Nero. — if the interpretation of the caba- 
 listic figure 666 is correct, — the Christians of the 
 eighth century, to Mohammed ; the Reformers, to 
 the pope, — the idea involving the double ele- 
 ment of hostility to Christ, and false teaching, — 
 Ilengstenberg and his school, to that combination 
 of social radicalism and military di'spotism which 
 characterized the government of Napoleon III. ; 
 Frederic Godet, H. Martensen, and others, to that 
 merely negative liberalism, which, accompanied 
 by an almost cynical sensu;dism, works in mod- 
 ern civilization as a most b;\neful .agency of de- 
 moralization, [liesides the commentaries jipon 
 Daniel, Thessaloniaus, and Revelation, see among 
 recent works Rknan: L'An/echnst, 2d ed., Paris, 
 1873; PouKCUKit: Anlechrisl, son Icmps ct sea 
 anivrex, tl'aprh I' Krrilurn siiinle et lea srtinls pkres, 
 Saint-Marlin-de-B(>ul>au\-, 1880.] M. K.'uiT.F.n. 
 
 ANTIDICOMARIANITES, or ANTIMARIANS, 
 advcrsarii'S of Mary, Uie mother of the Lord, ;v 
 sect which flourishiil in Arabia towards the end 
 of the fourth century, ;iud is specially treated by 
 Epiphanius in the "78th heresy. They taught, 
 tliat, after the birth of Christ, M;iry had borne 
 children to Joseph; and, by a lengthy argument 
 communicated in the above place, JC]>iphaniu» 
 endeavors to refute them. They did not separate 
 from the ('hurch, however, but must be consid- 
 ered simply as a re-action .against the growing, 
 and by luonkish excitement fomented, Mariolatry 
 of the times.
 
 ANTILEQOMBNA. 
 
 93 
 
 ANTIOCH. 
 
 ANTILECOMENA. See Canon. 
 
 ANTIMENSIUM denotes in the Greek Church 
 the cloth, wliich, at the bejiiiiiiing of the niiuss, 
 was spread over the altar. The Greek as well as 
 the Roman Church liolds that mass cannot be 
 celebrated except on a consecrated altar (comp. 
 Gregor. Nyss. Opp. Toui. III., p. 309); and as 
 such a consecration cannot be performed except 
 by a bishop, no mass can be celebrated in those 
 cliurches which as yet have received no episco- 
 pal consecration. From this circumstance origi- 
 nated the antimensium, which, in the Greek 
 Cliurch, corresponds to the allure portab'de in the 
 Latin. See Altar. 
 
 ANTINOMIANISM is an exaggeration of that 
 antithesis between faith and works, the gospel 
 and the law, on which the whole Pauline the- 
 ology is based; faith (the gospel) being empha- 
 sized so strongly and one-sidedly, that works 
 (the law) lose tFieir legitimate position in the 
 system of salvation, and assume the aspect of 
 something intrinsically wrong and bad. The 
 first traces of Antinomianism are found in the 
 (inostic .systems, which often dropped the whole 
 moral sphere of human life as .something to 
 which a truly spiritual man could and should be 
 entirely indifferent. The opposite extreme is 
 developed by tlie Roman Church, which ascribes 
 a value to works, the mere actions, in their 
 naked externality, the mechanical observation 
 of the precepts and rites of the law, independ- 
 ently of sentiment, intention, conviction, etc. As 
 a re-action against the Judaiziug legalism of 
 the Roman Church, in which the life-principle 
 of tlie gospel had become entirely lost, the Refor- 
 mation naturally came to lay nmch stress upon 
 the faith (the gospel), in contradiction to the 
 works (the law) ; and with some of Luther's co- 
 workers, especially with Agricola, this tendency 
 developed into rank Antinomianism. He would 
 hear nothing about a moral condition for sal- 
 vation: the only condition was faith, — faith 
 pure and simple. The first troubles caused by 
 this disagreement between the Reforn'.ers were 
 smoothed over by a conference between Agricola 
 and Melanchtlion at Torgau (1527); but in 1537 
 the former renewed his attacks, and went so far 
 as to say that "all who had any thing to do with 
 Moses would go to the devil, for Sloses ought 
 to be hanged." lie was completely refuted by 
 Luther, left Wittenberg, and lived quietly in Ber- 
 lin until 1562, wlien a sermon by him on Luke 
 vii. 37-49 again stai-ted the controversy. Agri- 
 cola died in 150(5, but others continued the strife 
 for some time. Ams^Jorf declared that " good 
 works were detrimental to salvation." After the 
 establishment of the Formula Concordim (1577), 
 the movement died out. however, in Germany; 
 but Antinomian tendencies became visible, both 
 among tiie Puritans under Cromwell, and among 
 the t^uietists (Madame Guyon). .See Aoui- 
 COLA, Hawkku. Also Frank: Tl/eolnf/ie der 
 Koiicordieiijiiriiiel, Erlangen, 1S58. Neal : //«>•- 
 tori/ (if'tlie PurUuns. (i. PI.ITT. 
 
 ANTIOCH In Syria, tlie second capital of 
 Christianity, and the third city of the Roman 
 Empire in popul.ation (.500,000), wealth, and 
 commercial activity, was situated about three 
 hundred miles nortfi of Jerusalem, upon the left 
 bank of the Orontes, and sixteen miles and a 
 
 half from the Mediterranean. The city lay in 
 a deep pass between the fA'\>a.non and Taurus 
 mouiit;iin-ranges. Its founder was Seleucu.s 
 Nicator, who (15. C. 300) removed thither the in- 
 habitants of Antigonia. In order to distinguisii 
 it frfun fifteen other .Vntiochs built by the sam.; 
 indefatigable city-builder, who in this way per- 
 petuated his father's name, its conmion epithets 
 were "Epidaphnes" (near Daphne, the noto- 
 rious temple and grove), or "on the Orontes." 
 It owed much of its sph^idor, which was particu- 
 larly in streets an<I porticos, to Antiochus Epiph- 
 anes ami Herod the Great; but all its rulers 
 succe.ssively beautified it, — Roman emperor no 
 less than .Syrian king. Victorious Pompey made 
 it the seat of the legate of Syria (B.C. 64), and 
 a free city, which further increa.sed its popu- 
 lation and pro.sperity. A mixed multitude in- 
 habited it; and Antioch quickly ranked next to 
 Alexandria, and kept lier place for centuries, 
 and this notwithstanding the danger from earth- 
 quakes, which several times destroyed the city, 
 and doubtle.ss produced the superstition .so com- 
 mon in the jil.ace. The most severe of tho.se 
 recorded was A.D. .526, when two hundred and 
 fifty thousand persons are said to have been 
 killed; there being an assembly of Christians 
 at the time. But after each visitation in old 
 times, the city rose, and, helped by its stored-up 
 resources and tlie liberal donations of the emper- 
 ors, it again became noted for its beauty. One 
 remarkable feature was an avenue which trav- 
 ersed the city from east to west, a distance of 
 about four miles, and which had two rows of col- 
 umns forming a covered way on eitlier hand, with 
 an open granite-paved road between. Palaces of 
 imperial and provincial dignities, mansions of 
 wealthy merchants, houses of unpretending folk - 
 — all that luxury could .suggest and money could 
 buy, Antioch contained. Tlie people were gay, 
 pleasure-loving, and jiroud. The street-life was 
 wonderfully varied. Every sense was pampered, 
 though every sensibility was shocked. Dancing- 
 women charmed by their grace ; adventurers of 
 all sorts amused by their mimicry, or amazed 
 by their skill. There was also much culture, 
 though, for the most part, misdirected. Philoso- 
 phers, rhetoricians, and poets exposed their in- 
 tellectual wares; but too often the first excused 
 sin, the second glorified it; wliile in melodious 
 verse the third class sang the praises of guilty 
 love. Science, of a sort, existed : the stars were 
 studied, principally for their supposed effect upon, 
 or prophecy of, human destiny; animate nature 
 was scanned, in order to find an answer to the 
 questions of future weal or woe. 
 
 From its foundation, Jews formed a cnnsider.i- 
 ble fraction of its population. Selcucus Nicator 
 put a colony there, and gave them equal privi- 
 leges with the (jreeks (.loseph. Ant., 12. 3. 1. ; c. 
 Apinn. 2. 4). It is probable, however, that they 
 held their Pagan neighbors in too great disdain 
 to make much exertion to teach them any thing. 
 Yet one of the first deacons was Xicolas. a prose- 
 lyte of Antioch (A.D. 37), and he could not 
 have been alone. But at the beginning of 
 Christianity the city was put under its direct 
 religious influence; for thither fled some of those 
 whom persecution, after Stephen's death, drove 
 from Jerusalem (Acts xi. 19, 20) ; and so impor-
 
 ANTIOCH. 
 
 94 
 
 ANTIOCK. 
 
 tant was the work there begun, that Barnabas 
 was sent (A.D. 41) to look up Paul, and secure 
 his aid, as a man of wider culture and deejier 
 jihilosophic insight, in preaching the gospel to 
 those subtle Greeks (Acts xi. 2G). The soil was 
 rich. The wisdom-loving multitude heard of 
 the wisdom and love of God. They found re- 
 freshment in the gospel's pure water of salva- 
 tion. Jlany, " bitter witli weariness and sick 
 with sin," listened with faith to the truth, and 
 gladly escaped the defilement of their world 
 through the protection of Christ. Between tlie 
 mother-church and its daughter there was great 
 intimacy, but by no means agreement : indeed, 
 the first church council was occasioned by the 
 difference between them in regard to the neces- 
 sity of circumcision (.-Vets xv.). (See Apostolic 
 CoUN'CiL.) It was at -Vntioch that Paul so stern- 
 ly rebuked Peter's inconsistent conduct (Gal. ii. 
 11). But for two most important things the 
 world is the debtor to the gay capital, — the 
 Christian name given by the witty popuLace to 
 distinguish those whom the Jews called the 
 '•Nazarenes" from their Jewish kinsmen (see 
 CiimsTiAX, origin of the name), and Clu'istian 
 viissiiiiis ; for from these proceeded Paul and 
 Barnabas on their first missionary journej', and 
 thither they returned (Acts xiii. 1, 4, xiv. 20). 
 Tlieir second tour began there likewise, though 
 they did not go in company (Acts xv. 39, 40); 
 and tliere ended Paul's second (xviii. 22), and 
 liis third began (xviii. 23). After tlie fall of 
 Jerusalem, the Aiitiochian Church took tlxe lead 
 in Asia, and ranked with that of Rome, Con- 
 stantinople, Alexandria, and Jerusalem, as the 
 seat of a patriarcli, when the patriarchates were 
 formed in the fifth century. This position it 
 still holds, not only in the Greek, but also in the 
 Latin Chin-ch: indeed, in the latter communion 
 there are two patriarchs, .so called, for the Greek 
 and .Syrian Roman Catholics respectively; for, 
 altliough they do not reside in tlie city, they 
 wear tlie tith; of "Patriarch of Antioch." The 
 most flourishing period of the Church of An- 
 tioch was in Chi-j-sostom's day (b. there 347): 
 then one-half the population, or a hundred 
 thousand, professed the faith. From 252 to 
 380 ten church councils were there held, several 
 very important, especially in relation to the 
 Arian controversy; for it was a stronghold of 
 the heretics. 
 
 From Cln'y.sostom's day dates its decline; even 
 tlien it was no longer as populous as formerly. 
 In 387 it rebelled against an imperial tax be- 
 cause it was levied in a famine year; in punish- 
 ment it W!»,s deprived of its metropolitan privi- 
 leges. It never rallied from this blow, although 
 Zeno and Justinian endc^avored to restore pros- 
 perity. In 6'i.) it fell uiuler the Saracens, was 
 retaken in fJfi!), lost to the Turks 1084, taken by 
 the Cru.sadc:r.s lODS; but since 1208 it iuis been 
 ruled by the Mohammedans, and couii)lct<'ly pros- 
 trated. Now it is a miserable, dirty town of 
 .six thousand inhabitants. Repeatinl eartluiuakes 
 luivo rendered (,'Ven the traces of the jincient 
 walls a matter of doubt. Scarcely more than 
 the name, AnIaLie, rennnds the traveller of the 
 once pojiular, jiopulons, powerful Antioch. But, 
 as the gospel is again taught there in its purity 
 by Protestant inissiouarie.s, it iias become a reli- 
 
 gious centre, and may once more send out mis- 
 sions to bless all Asia and the world. 
 
 Lit. — The writings of Josephus, Libanius the 
 Sophist, and Chrysostom, are the most copious 
 original sources of information respecting Anti- 
 och. See, also, Johannes M.\LAr,.\ : lli.ituria 
 Chronica. Oxon., 1001. The most complete mon- 
 ograph upon ancient Antioch is C. O. Mijllek; 
 Aniiquitales Anliochcnce, Gottiiigen, 1839. Mod- 
 ern Antioch is described by Pococke : Descrip- 
 tion of tit e East, London, 1743—15. Hitter: Pa- 
 liist. u. Si/ricn (part of Die Erdkunde), trans, by 
 G.age, T/ic Complete Gcofjrapliy of Palestine and 
 tlie Sinaitic Peninsula, Edinburgh, 1800, 4 vols, 
 Ciiesney: Eupiiralcs Expedition, London, 1850, 
 4 vols. Brilliant sketches of its life in New 
 Testament times are found in Giuison's History, 
 chap. 23; Renan: Les Apulres, Paris, 1800; and 
 F.\ia{AU: Life of St. Paid, London and New York, 
 1879. SAMITEI, M. JACKSON. 
 
 ANTIOCH, SCHOOL OF. This term does not 
 denote an educational institution, like that of 
 the catechetical school of Alexandria, but a the- 
 ological tendency, which, from Antioch as its 
 centre, spread through the whole Grreco-Syriati 
 Church. The presbyter and martyr Lucian (d. 
 311), who exercised a great influence as a teacher, 
 and his colle;igue, the presbyter Dorotheus, are 
 generally mentioned as the founders of this 
 school ; and the attempts which have been made 
 to carry the date of its origin still farther back 
 have invariably led into uncertainty. There is, 
 however, if not a historical connection, at least 
 a psychological affinity, between Lucian and Paul 
 of Sainosata, though the monarchianism of the 
 latter stands on quite another ground than the 
 later Christology of the Antiochian school. But 
 both show, at least in a general way, a tendency 
 to emphasize an absolute distinction between the 
 divine and the; human nature in Christ, in oppo- 
 sition to a mystical conception which confounded 
 them; and both are characterized by a certain 
 cool intellectuality, which shrank back from the 
 mystery of the incarnation, and under other cir- 
 cumstances became .\rianisni. Arius himself, 
 Knsebius of Nicomedia, and Asterius, were dis- 
 ciples of Lucian; and his name was frequently 
 used by the Kusebians as a cover under which 
 they carriiKl out their attein])ts at mediation. 
 That, however, which most strikingly chanicter- 
 izes Lucian, and truly made him tlu? founder of a 
 new school, is not so much his dogmatical stand- 
 point, as his biblical criticism. In the field of 
 biblical exegesis he started a new principle, 
 directly opposed to the; dogmatico-allegorical ex- 
 positions of the school of Origen, and iirojiagated 
 by a number of able disciples. Arius taught for 
 some time exegesis in the catechetical school of 
 Alexandria, ami commented upon the Gospels, 
 the I'salms, and the Iqiistle to the Romans; but 
 the fragments of his eomminitaries still exlaut 
 are ascribed to Asterius. Of the Arian bishop 
 Theodore of Ileraclea, it is not known whether 
 he ever received instruction from i^ucian; but he 
 belongs, at all events, to that grouji of men who 
 madit historical explanation the basis of exegesis. 
 Of still greater impcu'tance is the Semi-Arian 
 bishop Knsebius of Kinesa. lie w.-is born, liko 
 Lucian, in tin; eastern part of Syria, in tho 
 neighborhood of Edcssa ; studied under Kuge-
 
 ANTIOCHUS. 
 
 95 
 
 ANTIOCHUS. 
 
 bius of Ciesarea, and tiis exegetical method ex- 
 ercised a di'cisive influence on Diodore. Also 
 Eustatliias of Antioch belongs to the school, not 
 so much on account of his dogmatical stand- 
 point — for he was a stanch adherent of the 
 Council of Micrea — as because of his exegetical 
 works. His celebrated essay on the witch of 
 Kndor, De E)ii/aslrhn;/lko, is directly opposed to 
 the exegetical method of Origen. In a more 
 special sense of the word, Diodore of Tarsus 
 may bo called the father of the Antiochian 
 school. He was presbyter in Antiochia, and 
 occupied a prominent position as a teacher. 
 Chrysostom and Theodore of Mopsuestia were 
 among his pupils, and the latter became the 
 classical representative of the school. His the- 
 ology is vigorous and original, a genuine off- 
 spring of the old Greek theology, in vital con- 
 nection with its father, Origen, and emphasizing 
 human freedom, in direct opposition to the Au- 
 gustinisni of the Latin Church. Both JJiodore 
 and Theodore agree with tlie great Fathers of 
 their time with respect to the Nicene Creed, 
 and contend not only against Arianism, but also 
 again.st .\polUnarism. But, with respect to exe- 
 gesis, Jiiodore declares that he prefers the his- 
 torical to the allegorical; and Theodore pushes 
 liis herineneutical principles still further towards 
 a true gramraatico-historical exposition. Also 
 Tlieodore's brother Polychronius, first monk in 
 the Rlonastery of St. Zebiua, near Kyros, after- 
 wards Bishop of Apamea (d. 430), deserves to be 
 noticed. He was superior to his brother in 
 knowledge of Hebrew and Syriac ; and his com- 
 mentary on Daniel, of which a large fragment has 
 been given by Angelo Mai in Hcript. Vet. Ntica 
 Coll. I., occupies a prominent place among the 
 exegetical works of the school. See O. Bakdkx- 
 iiKWKK : Poli/c/iroiiius, Bruiler Tlwodors von M., 
 Freiburg i. Br. 1879. In a practical way, Chrys- 
 ostom is, of course, the finest fruit which the 
 school produced; but both he and Isidore of 
 Pelusium make concessions to the allegorical 
 method, or do not distinguish sharply between 
 type and allegory. The last re|iresentative of 
 the school was the learned and adroit but some- 
 what wavering Theodoret : his exegesis is, like 
 his dogmatics, a compromise. 
 
 Lit. — Kihn: Die Beileutung der Ant. SchuI.e, 
 Weissenburg, 1856 ; Ph. HiiuoKNuoTHEU : Die 
 Ant. Schute, Wiirzburg, 1866; Dikstkl: Ge- 
 schichte de.t A. T. in der chrisll. Kirclie, Jena, 
 1869, pp. 126-141. MOLLER. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS is the name of twelve kings of 
 Syria, of whom the following are of interest for 
 sacred literature. — Antiochus II., with the sur- 
 name i3fof, which the ^Milesians gave him for 
 freeing them from the tyrant Timarchus (261 to 
 246), was, after a war of eight years with tlie 
 Egyptian king, Ptolemy II. (Philadpli)hus), com- 
 pelled in 249 to accept peace on the conditions 
 that he should divorce liis wife and step-sister, 
 Laodice, and marry Berenice, a daughter of 
 Philadelphus. Two years after, Philadelphus 
 died, and Antiochus now took back his first wife. 
 She, however, had not forgotten the slight of- 
 fered her by the divorce : she poisoned her hu.s- 
 band, and had Berenice and her sou decaiiitated. 
 Berenice's brother, Ptolemy HI. (Euergetes), has- 
 tened to Syria with an army, but came too late 
 
 to save her. To this nnfortunate marriage- 
 connection between the dynasties of the South 
 (Egypt) and the North (Syria) refers the pas- 
 sage in Daniel (xi. 6), and in a general way it 
 is synd)o!ized by the feet of the colossus, half of 
 iron, and half of clay, but unable to stand firmly 
 (Dan. ii. 33, 43). — Antiochus III., the Great 
 (224 to 187), began war with Egypt in 218. but 
 was completely defeated at Ilaphia, near (jaza, 
 and saved from further loss only by the slovenli- 
 ness of the Egyptian king, Ptolemy Philopator 
 (Dan. xi. 11). He then turned towards the 
 eastern frontiers of his realm, against I'arthia 
 and Bactria; penetrated into Northern India, and 
 organized a formidable army, includiuij a hun- 
 dred and fifty Indian elephants. In 201 Philop- 
 ator died ; and the Egyptian crosvn now devolved 
 on his son, Ptolemy V. (Epiphanes), a boy of five 
 years. This circumstance Antiochus meant to 
 utilize. He conquered Coele-Syria, Phoenicia, and 
 Palestine, and gained a decisive victory, in 198, 
 at PaUeas in Coele-Syria. Peace was then con- 
 cluded ; and he promised to give his daughter 
 Cleopatra, who was engaged to Ptolemy Epipha- 
 nes, the three conquered provinces as a dowry; 
 but the jiromise was not redeemed (Dan xi. 
 13-17). He then invaded Asia JNIiaor, and iii 
 19.J he crossed the Hellespont, and advanced 
 into Eurojae. Here he encountereil the Iloinans; 
 but in 190 he was totally defeated at Magnesia 
 by Scipio Asiaticus, and he obtained peace from 
 Rome only on very severe conditions (Dan. xi. 
 18; 1 Mace. viii. 6). lletiring to his eastern 
 provinces in order to raise money for the tribute 
 he owed to Rome, he was slain in 187. while 
 plundering the temple of Belus in Elymais. ^ 
 Antiochus IV., Epiphanes (176 to 164), grasped 
 the sceptre after the death of his brother, and re- 
 tained it in spite of the just claims of his nephew 
 (Dan. xi. 21). The most prominent trait of his 
 character was an overweening pride (2 Mace. v. 
 21, ix. 8; Dan. vii. 8, xi. 20, .xi. 36). He called 
 himself i9ei'(C, and assumed the surname of the 
 Olympian Zeus, NiKrjidpag. As a true Oriental 
 despot he ordered that all his subjects should 
 form one nation, with one god and one worship. 
 This god should be the Olympian Zeus, whose 
 worship was unknown to most of his subjects 
 (Dan. xi. 36-39); but, as he wholly identified 
 himself with this deity, it was, indeed, his own 
 worship he ordered introduced (2 ISIacc. vi. 7). 
 Among the Jews there was a party which favored 
 Paganism in its Greek form, and this party found 
 ready support with .\ntioehus (1 Mace. i. 11- 
 lo). In 17.5 the pious high priest Onias was 
 overthrown by his brother Jesus, who changed 
 his name to the Greek Jason, bought the office 
 as high priest from Antiochus. and received per- 
 mission to introduce Greek sjames at the temjile, 
 which caused the worship of Jehovah to be much 
 neglected (2 Mace. iv. 7). Three years later 
 on. Jason w'as overthrown by JMenelaus, who 
 made a higher bid for the office, and succeeded 
 in retaining it by the foulest means: tlius he 
 slew Onias (2 Slacc. iv. 23-50). Antiochus 
 made four campaigns to Egypt, and had hope of 
 entirely subjugating that country, when he sud- 
 denly was stojiped in his victorious career by the 
 Romans (168). In the interval between the firet 
 and the second Egyptian campaign he plundered
 
 ANTIOCHUS. 
 
 96 
 
 ANTIPHON. 
 
 the temple in Jerusalem (1 Slacc. i. 20) ; and 
 en his final return from Epypt he ordered that 
 the worship of Jehovah, circumcision, the Sab- 
 bath, the distinction between clean and unclean, 
 should be abolished: that the sacred books 
 should be burnt, and altars raised, on which 
 every one was to sacrifice to the Olympian Zeus, 
 under penalty of death (1 Mace. i. 29; 2 Mace. 
 V. 24). On'Chisleu 15, 108, an altar was con- 
 secrated in the temple to the Olympian Zeus 
 (2 Mace. vi. 2; 1 Mace. i. 51, BM^vy^a ipijuciafoi; ; 
 conip. 1 Mace. i. 59 and iv. 38), and on Chisleu 
 25 the first burnt offering was presented. To 
 this altar refer Dan. i.K. 27, xi. 31, xii. 11: 
 comp. also Jlatt. xxiv. 15. On JMount Gerizim 
 the worsliip of Zeus Xenios was established ( 2 
 Mace. vi. 2). This last step had long been pre- 
 pared by the Greek ]iarty among the Jews, and 
 tlie bloody persecutions made many renegades. 
 Many, however, remained true to their faith in 
 spite of the most horrible tortures (1 Mace. i. 
 u2-()4; 2 Mace, vi., vii.). At the head of tlie 
 faithful stood the priest Mattathias. At Mo- 
 din, near Joppe, he struck down the Syrian 
 captain before the idolatrous altar, and thus he 
 u.shered in the armed resistance of the Jews. 
 Antiochus determined to put down all resistance; 
 but, being in need of money (2 Mace. viii. 10), 
 he divided his army into two parts, and went 
 himself with the one-half to his eastern prov- 
 inces for the purpose of collecting the tribute 
 (1 Mace. iii. 31); while the other was placed 
 imder command of Lysias. Lysias. however, 
 was completely defeated by Judas Maccabeus, 
 and the Jews once more became masters of the 
 templl^ On Chisleu 25, 165. exactly three years 
 after the presentation of the first Pagan sacrifice, 
 tlie temple was purified with great solemnity, 
 and it was determined that an amiual feast 
 sliould be celebrated in commemoration of the 
 day (1 Mace. iv. 59), called "the Feast of the 
 Dedication " (John x. 22). Meanwhile Antio- 
 chus met with very little success in the East. 
 lie attemjited to plunder the rich temple of 
 Naiiiea in Klymais, but was repelled by the in- 
 habitants, and died shortly after (101) at Taba, 
 having just leceived the news from Judrea (1 
 Mace. vi. 1; Polyb. xxxi. 11; Jerome on Dan. 
 xi.). In the Old Testament he is rejjresented as 
 die fiend of the Lord, of his penpli', and of his 
 dispensation (l);ui. xi. 21; 1 jNIacc. i. 10); in 
 the New, as the prototype of Antii:hrist (Rev. 
 xiii. 5). — Antiochus V., Eupator (101 to 102), a 
 son of Antiochus Kpipluuies, was a minor wlien 
 his father di^-d, ami had been phuit^d, during his 
 (ather's absence in the Kast, umler the tutorship 
 of Lysias. Tlie dying Kpiph:uics, however, had 
 made I'liilip'nis tutor of liis son, and regent of 
 the whole realm; and, when Lysias heard of 
 these dispositions, he immediately made peace 
 with tlie Jews. The peace of Judica was of 
 fhort duration, however. The (Jreek Jiarty and 
 the high priest Menelaus continued to incite the 
 Syrian government against the faithful (1 Mace. 
 \\. 21-27; 2 Mace. xiii. 3); and in 103 an army 
 (d' a hundred thousand foot, twenty thousand 
 Irorse, and many (dcphaiits, invaded the couiitiy. 
 'I he fiirtrrs.s of liclhziira surrendered; Jerusali'm 
 wiifl be|eii:;iiercd and taken. Hut Antiochus now 
 learnt that i'hilippus advanced from Persia with 
 
 a gre.at army. He immediately made peace 
 with Judas Maccabeus, and turned against Phi- 
 lippus, not, though, until after destroying in a 
 faithless manner the fortifications of Jerusalem 
 (1 Mace. vi. 51, 52; 2 Mace. xiii. 23). Philip- 
 pus he defeated; but in 102 Demetrius escaped 
 from Home, landed at Tripolis, and took posses- 
 sion of the throne of Syria almost without resist- 
 ance. Antiochus and Lysias were decapitated 
 (1 Mace. vii. 1-4; 2 Mace. xiv. 1). — Antiochus 
 VI., Epiphanes Dionysius, was a son of Alexander 
 Balas (see title), who in 140 was overthrown by 
 Demetrius II. Though a mere child at the death 
 of his father, he was raised to the throne by 
 Tryphon. lie gained the high priest Jonathan, 
 and the brother of the high priest, Simon, over 
 to his side (1 ^Macc. xi. 57-74, xii. 24-54); but 
 Tryphon showed himself a traitor, and in 143 
 both Jonathan (1 Mace. xii. 39) and Antiochus 
 (1 Mace. xiii. 41) were murdered. — Antiochus 
 VII., Sidetes (from Sida in Pamphylia, where he 
 was educated), was a brother of Demetrius II., 
 who in 141 was taken prisoner in Parthia (1 
 Mace. xiv. 1-3), and obtained in 139 the crown 
 of Syria (1 Mace. xv. 10). He won the high 
 priest Simon for his side, and succeeded in 
 shutting Tryphon up in Dora (1 Mace. xv. 10- 
 14, 25, 20); but as Simon had conquered several 
 towns belonging to .Syria, and Antiochus de- 
 manded that he should give up these phvces, or 
 pay a thousand talents in silver, war broke out 
 between Syria and Jud.T^a. After defeating Try- 
 phon, Antiochus sent his general, Cemleba^us, 
 with an army, into Juda}a; but he was defeateil 
 by Simon's son, .lohn Ilyrcauus (1 Mace. xv. 
 27-xvi. 10). In 130 Siiiion was murdered (1 
 Mace. XV. 14), and his murderer, Ptolemy, asked 
 for help from Antiochus (1 M:icc. xvi. 18). 
 Antiochus then invaded Judaea, and pushed on- 
 wards victoriously to Jerusalem. It w:vs the 
 time of the feast of tabernacles; and so nobly 
 did Antiochus behave during the celebration of 
 the solemnity, that the Jews gave him the sur- 
 name of Eusebes. Peace was concluded shortly 
 after. The Jews retained free exercise of their 
 religion, but wei-e compelled to surrender their 
 arms, and to pay a war indemnity. In 131) .\uti- 
 ochus began war with Arsaces, King of P;irthia, 
 but fell ill the same year. K.'\V1K.SK1.EU. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS IV.,' EPIPHANES, Kiiigof Coin- 
 mageiie (A.D. 41-72), joined Titus during the 
 siege of .lerusalem. Ills Uingdoui, with its capi- 
 taP of Samosata, was sitiuiti'd between Mount 
 Taurus and the Euphrates, and belouge<l origi- 
 nally to th(! kingdom of Syria, but became inde- 
 pendent during the contests between the hist 
 Seleucids. In 43 he was betrothed to Agripp;i's 
 daughter Drusilla; in 72 he was deposed lor con- 
 sjiinu^y with the I'artliiaiis. 
 
 ANTIOCHUS, b. at Medosaga, near Ancyra, 
 in Galali:i, wiis a monk in St. Saba, near Jeriisa- 
 h'ln, at the time when Chosroes took and s:u:keil 
 that city (Oil), and has given a deseii]itiou of 
 the plundering of his monastery in the dedica- 
 tion of his work: ll(ii'(!(«r7;! t7K I'lyinc }("'ip'K, a se- 
 ries of a hundied and lliirty homilies. See 
 Faiikiciis : llthl. (I'rtir. lib. V. c. 34. 
 
 ANTIPHON, a form of singing by which a 
 second voice or choir answers the first, was 
 counuoJily used in the Jewish synagogue (Ez.
 
 ANTIPOPE. 
 
 97 
 
 ANTONELLI. 
 
 iii. 11; Ps. cvi. 48. cxlvii. 7; Matt. xxvi. 30), 
 and thence early introduced in the Christian 
 Church. Socrates (Hint. Keel. 2 '. 8) .say.s, Ji;na- 
 lius (110) employed it in Antioch. Basil (S'JO- 
 ;>79), in one of his letters {Ephl. 03 ad Neoea:.i.), 
 gives a description of this mode of sinRins, wliich 
 is to-day in common use in all liturjjical churches. 
 
 ANTIPOPE means a rival pope, one not elected 
 in the proper canonical way, but resting his 
 claims on intrigue or force. There has been 
 quite a number of such antipopes. At one time 
 (1040) there were four rival popes, namely, 
 Sylvester III., Benedict IX., Gregory VI., and 
 Clement II. But it has not always been easy to 
 decide which of the rivals was the true pope; 
 so in such cases the church has been divided by a 
 ."(chism. The longest schism broke out after the 
 death of Gregory XI.. and lasted for fifty years 
 (1378-1429). As the rivalling popes always con- 
 demned and excommunicated each other, this 
 chapter of the history -of the Roman Church 
 forms a somewhat peculiar introduction to the 
 dogma of papal infallibility. 
 
 ANTITACT/E. See Gnosticism. 
 
 AhJTITRINITARIANISM is the general name 
 for a number of very different views, which, 
 however, all have this one quality in common, 
 that they oppose the dogma of the Trinity. 
 Such views occur in the earliest days of the 
 Christian Church, even in tlie apostolic age; and, 
 indeed, the doctrine of the Holy Trinity, such as 
 it was formulated by the Council of Nica^a (32.5), 
 in the Atlianasian Creed, and such as it is still 
 held by the orthodox side of Christendom, alike 
 in the Greek, the Roman, and the Reformed 
 churches, may be said to have developed gradu- 
 ally in steady contest with a rigid, narrow, and 
 Judaistic Monotheism. Unable to grasp the in- 
 nermost kernel of Christian dogmatics, — the 
 idea of one God in three persons, — and fearful 
 of falling into Pagan Polytheism, the Antitrinita- 
 rians of the Ante-Nic<ean period tried to vindi- 
 cate Monotheism, either by making the differ- 
 ence between the Father and the Son so great 
 that Christ became a mere creature, a divine 
 being, though not God, a man. though the best of 
 all, etc., or by identifying the Father and the Son 
 so closely, that the Son became nothing but the 
 Father incarnated, crucified, etc. The first of 
 these two Antitrinitarian types, the Monarchians, 
 was represented in the apostolic age by Cerin- 
 thus and the Ebionites; in the second century, 
 by Theodotus the Elder; in the third, by Theo- 
 dotus the Younger, a banker in Rome, and Arte- 
 mon ; and it found its highest development in 
 Paul of Sanrosata. Probably it is this influence, 
 which, running through the Antiochian school of 
 theology, at last burst forth in Arianism. The 
 other type of Antitrinitarianism, the Patripas- 
 sians, made its first appearance with Praxeas, in 
 the time of Marcus Aurelius. Then followed 
 Nol'tus of Smyrna, and Beryllus of Bostra, and 
 finally the type found a full representation in 
 Sabellius, who left behind a great number of 
 congregations and a wide-spre.ad influence. 
 
 By the Nic^an Council, the dogma of the Iloly 
 Trinity was fixed, and for centuries the question 
 was not mooted. But the schoolmen of the 
 middle ages took it up once more, and, with the 
 left wing of this army, embodying the ratioual- 
 8-1 
 
 izing tendencies of the time, it became a favorite 
 subject. The authority of the Roman Church, 
 however, prevented any outburst of plain Anti- 
 trinitarianism; but it was easy to see whither 
 the speculations of an Abelard, Almaric of Bena, 
 David Dinanto, etc., would lead, if ever this au- 
 thority became shaken ; and the consequences 
 obscurely involved in the syllogisms of the meta- 
 physicians, and well concealed behind the bar- 
 barous terminology of the school, often came into 
 open daylight through tlie sects, the Paulicians, 
 the Catharists, etc. Contemporary with the Ref- 
 ormation, an Antitrinitarian movement actually 
 begun, started, in some cases, by the Anabaptist 
 whirlwind, as, for instance, with Denk, Iletzer, 
 Joris of Delft, etc., but in others, growing up 
 from the very same root as the Reformation it- 
 self; as, for instance, with Servetus. In both 
 forms, however, the movement represents the 
 Patripassian type. The Antitrinitarianism, both 
 of Joris and of Servetus, is Sabellianism, more 
 or less colored by the Pantheism of the scliool- 
 men and the mystics. But when the influence 
 and ideas of Servetus met with the Italian hu- 
 manism, as in such men as Gribaldo and Gentilis, 
 a transition was made from the Patripassian to 
 the jMonarchian type; and in Poland, whither the 
 Italian professors and tutors brought the move- 
 ment, the result became, under the hands of Faus- 
 tus .Socinus, what is now known under the name 
 of Unitariauism. The deists of England, the 
 positivists of France, the rationalists of Germany, 
 all free-thinkers, from the spiritualists to the 
 materialists, are by necessity Antitrinitarians ; 
 but the dogma of the Holy Trinity is seldom the 
 point of Christian dogmatics which they attack. 
 The Sweden borgians admit a Trinity in one per- 
 son, but not of persons. See Bock : Historic, 
 Antilrinitarionim, Konigsberg, 1774-84, 2 vols. ; 
 Langk: Gcschiehte der Unilwier vor d. Nic. 
 Si/node, Leipzig, 1831 ; TuECHSKL : Die prolestant. 
 AntilriniUirier vor F. Hocin, Heidelberg, 1839-44. 
 
 ANTON, Paul, b. at Hirschfeld, in Upper 
 Lusatia, 1001; d. in Ilalle, 1730; studied theol- 
 ogy in Leipzig; founded, together with Francke, 
 the so-called Collef/ia BilAiea ; was in 1080 made 
 superintendent of llochlitz, in 1092 court>- 
 preacher in Eisenach, and in 1095 professor of 
 theology at the Lhiiversity of Halle, where, 
 together with Breithaupt and Francke, he be- 
 came a leader of the Pietist movement. His lec- 
 tures. Collegium Aniillietieum, were edited in 1732 
 by Schwentzel. The Denkmal des Herrn Paul 
 Anton, published soon after his death, contains 
 an autobiography (to 172.5) and Francke's Lecliu 
 Para'neliea. 
 
 ANTONELLI, Giacomo, an Italian cardinal 
 .and statesman, b. April 2, 1800 ; d. in Rome, 
 Nov. 7, 1870. He early achieved distinction, 
 and in 1845 was made minister of finance to 
 Gregory XVI. Pius IX., the next pope, made 
 him a cardinal-deacon (June 12, 1847). papal 
 secretary of foreign affairs (i.e., prime-minister) 
 in 1849, and his chief political adviser, in which 
 capacity he strenuously and persistently o]iposed 
 every liberal measure. In January, 1808, he 
 became dean of the order of cardinal-deacons. 
 He had the mortification to see Victor Emmanuel 
 enter Rome as King of Italy, Nov. 21, 1871. 
 He left immense wealth, which he declared ou
 
 ANTONIANS. 
 
 98 
 
 APHEK. 
 
 liis death-bed was derived entirely from his 
 patrimony. He was certainly one of the ablest 
 statesmen of his day; but his policy was bad. 
 After his death, a suit involving his moral char- 
 acter was begun, to obtain his property, by the 
 t'liuntess Laura Lambertini, who claims to be his 
 natural daughter, wliich is not yet (1880) decided. 
 
 ANTONIANS, an Antinoniiau sect of recent 
 date; originated in Switzerland, in the canton 
 of Berne, and received its name from its author, 
 Anton Unternahrer. Born at .Schiipfheim, in the 
 canton of Lucerne, Sept. 5, 1750 ; d. in the jail 
 of the city of Lucerne, June 29, 1824, Unter- 
 niihrer was educated and confirmed in the 
 Roman-Catholic Church, and began his career 
 as a quack-doctor, in the country between Thun 
 and Berne. In 1800 he moved to Anisoldingen, 
 near Tliun. and here he began to hold religious 
 meetings, to preach, to issue books, etc. ; and 
 April IC, 1802, he appeared, with a great ci'owd 
 of adlierents, before the min.'^ter of Berne, 
 announcing himself as the son of God, come to 
 judge mankind, and more especially the magis- 
 tnUes of the city. The tumult was soon sup- 
 pressed, and Unternahrer was condemned to two 
 years' imprisonment with hard labor ; but on his 
 release in 1804 he was received by his adherents 
 with great enthusiasm, and the riots began again. 
 It was proposed to shut him up in a lunatic- 
 asylunr, and for five years he was kept under 
 arrest in Lucerne. He returned to the world 
 more collected and more serious, but by no 
 means cured, and in 1820 he was permanently 
 locked up in the jail. His publications comprise 
 about fifteen pamphlets: GerichlsbUcldein, Buck 
 ilcr Krfdlluiui, Gc/wimnixs der Liebe, etc. He 
 taught that the primitive relation between God 
 and man is exhausted by two single command- 
 ments, — one positive, to love and nndtiply; and 
 one negative, not to eat ot the tree of knowl- 
 edge. But, tempted by Satan, man violated the 
 Second Commandment; and the result was, that 
 he attained a great wisdom, beginning with a 
 distinction between good and evil, an<l ending 
 in institutions innuuu'rable, — state, church, court, 
 school, etc.; which wisdom, liowever, is of satanic 
 origin, and is the true curse of mankind. From 
 this curse tliere is only one salvation, through 
 the fulfilment of the First Comnuuuhneut, to love 
 and multiply; and for this purpose all restraints 
 arising from such ideas as nuirriage, family, 
 etc., must be throw'u off. The principal seat of 
 the sect was .\insoldingeu, whence it spread into 
 Gsteig, near Interlaken. Suppressed here in 1821, 
 it re-ajijieared at Wohlen, near Berne, in 1S30, 
 vtiuler the leaderslii]) of Benedict .Sehori, and 
 again at(isteig. in 18;i8-10, under the leadership 
 of Christian Slichel, and severe measures were 
 necessary to suppress the excesses. See .S. Zieg- 
 l.i:i:: /'." /., /,n d, i- A uli/iiiiiiirr. TI!KCII.SEL. 
 
 ANTONINUS PIUS, Roman fimi>eror from 
 •July 10, l;i8, to Marcli 7, 101, continued the poli- 
 cy of Trajan towards the Christians, protecting 
 tfieni against the wild outbursts oi' Pagan fury, 
 without according them a full legal recognition. 
 Under liis immediate successor, however, there 
 aro.qe within the cliiircli a teiuleticy to glorify 
 Antoninus, an<l make him an example ol true 
 liberality and goodne.ss; and this tendency, no 
 easily explainaljle under the circumstances, grad- 
 
 ually developed a rich tradition, which, however, 
 has no historical foundation. The Ediclum ail 
 Commune Axiie (Euseb. /Hit. Cccte. IV., 13) is 
 evidently spurious ; and though the existence of 
 the edicts to the Larisseni, Thessalouians, and 
 Athenians, in favor of the Christians (Euseb. 
 Hist. Eccles. IV., 26, 10) cannot be doubted, 
 there is no reason to consider them as any thing 
 more than a simple injunction of the principles 
 laid down by the legislation of Trajan. 
 
 ANTONINUS, St^ {Antonio Pierozzi. also called 
 de Forcii/lioni) ; b. in Florence 1389 ; d. there 
 May 2, 1459 ; entei-ed the Dominican order in 
 1404 I became vicar-general of the order in Tus- 
 cany and Naples in 1436, and was elected Arch- 
 bishop of Floi-ence in 1440. In both of these 
 offices he labored ze.alously to reform the monas- 
 teries under his authorit}-, and won the esteem 
 anil love of all by his energy, and readiue.ss for 
 self-sacrifice dtiruig the plague (in 1448) and the 
 earthquake (1453). By Adrian VI. he was canon- 
 ized (1523). His principal works are: .'iuinma 
 tlicoloijica, treating the moral system much after 
 Thomas Aquinas, lirst )irinted at Venice in 1477, 
 afterw'ards often republished, and still valued in 
 Italy as a text-book; Lctlere di S. A., Florence, 
 1859, addressed to a distinguished lady, Dio- 
 data degli Adimari, and treating moral sub- 
 jects with great earnestness; Summa confessio- 
 nalix. or Sumina conje.t.'iionuni, first printed at 
 Moudovi in 1472; Summa liisloriali.i. or Chronicon 
 ah orlie condilo hi/iartilnm, a world's chrojiicle, 
 reaching down to the year of 14.57, first printed 
 in 1480, and afterwards augmenied and altered 
 by the Jesuit P. Maturus, L3'ons, 1587. Col- 
 lected editions of his works appeared at Venice 
 in 1474 (4 vols, fol.) and at Florence in 1741 
 (8 vols.). See Ada S. T. Rlai T. I., p. 310. 
 
 ANTONIO DE DOMINIS. See A.ntiio.nv de 
 
 Do.MIMS. 
 
 APHAR'SITES, one of the peoples with wliom 
 the Assyrians colonized Samaria (Ez. iv. 9), but 
 otherwise uttt'rlv unknown. 
 
 APHAR'SATHCHITES, perhaps identical with 
 the Apharssachilen (cf. Fz. iv. 9, v. G). probably the 
 Paraitakenoi, a people on the Medo- Persian border, 
 whom the conquering Assyrians had put in a 
 strange land in order to makc^ harmless, even as 
 they did lln^ Isracilites. WOLK U.VUDISSIN'. 
 
 APHEK {.ftrcni/lli). the name of several cities. 
 
 I. A city belonging to the tribe of .\sher 
 (Josh. xix. 30), but never conquered by the Is- 
 raelites (Josh. xiii. 4) ; also called Ajihik (Judg. 
 i. 31); the classical Aphica, the present Afka, 
 situated on Mount Lebanon, near the source of 
 tlie River .\donis. ami at one time famous for its 
 Venus temple, which was destroyed by Constan- 
 tine the (ireat. 
 
 II. A city in the tribe of Iss.achar, oast of 
 .Shunem, on the slope ot the Lesser Ilermon, not 
 far from Jezreel (1 Sam. xxix. 1). Here the 
 Philistines eucam]ied before the battle in which 
 Saul lost his life, and here the Syrian king Ben- 
 hacl.ad 11. fell into the hands of Ahab (1 Kings 
 XX. 26). 
 
 III. A city near Miz])ah, north-west of Jerusa- 
 lem, wliere the Philistines encamped liel'ori' the 
 battle in which the .sous of Eli were killed (1 Sam. 
 iv. 1; comp. vii. 12), an<l jierhaps identical with 
 the royal city of the Canaanites (Josl:. xii. 18).
 
 APHTHARTODOCET^. 
 
 99 
 
 APOCRYPHA. 
 
 IV. A city .standiiif; on the plateau ea.st of 
 the Sea of Galik-e, probably the present Fik, or 
 Wadi Fik. 
 
 APHTHARTODOCET>E. See jMo.nophysitks. 
 
 APHRAATES, a I'fV.siaii .sa^e, who was mar- 
 tyred 3-15. Very little is known about him. 
 He bore the ecclesiastical name Jacob, and was 
 .a bishop and abbot of the Cloister of Mar iMat- 
 theiis, upon Mount Elpheph, in the neighborhood 
 of Mosul. Ills homilies were so hisjjhly esteemed, 
 that they were translated from .Syriac into Arme- 
 nian before 500, althougli under the name of 
 Bishop Jacob of NisiV'is : under this name, Nich- 
 olas Antonelli (175li) issued the Armenian tex^, 
 ■with a Latin paraphrase. The identification of 
 the name is very recent. In 18G9 W. Wright 
 issued twenty-tliree Homilies of Aphranlcs, Lon- 
 don. The first ten of these are in letter form, 
 and dated 336, 337 ; the next twelve, joined in 
 alphabetical order to the preceding, are dated 
 343, 344 ; and the last, August, 345. Aphraates is 
 valuable, because his gospel citations are derived 
 from Tatian's Diale.-:sanin, on which Ephraem 
 Syrus, his contemporary, had written a commen- 
 tary; and thus he is a witness to a very early 
 text. C. J. F. S.vssii: Prote/;omena in Apliradlis 
 Sapienlis Pcrs(c scnnones homileticos. Lips., 1878. 
 
 APION, b. in Oasis, of Egyptian descent; 
 studied in Alexandria under Apollonius and 
 Didymus ; tauglit rhetoric in Rome under Ca- 
 ligula; and wrote works on Homer, the history of 
 Egypt, etc., of wliicli, however, only a few and 
 rather insignificant fragments have come down 
 to us. But he has become noted on account of 
 his hatred to the Jews, which he proved both by 
 writing directly against thera, and by heading 
 the famous Alexandrian embassy, whose object 
 was to excite Caligula's suspicion against them. 
 Philo headed the Jewish embas.sy, and Josephus 
 ■wrote against Apion. On Apion's authority 
 rests the story of Androclus and the lion, of the 
 Jews worshipping an ass in the temple, etc. 
 
 APIS, the sacred bull -worshipped by the 
 Egyptians as a revelation of Osiris, from the 
 eighteenth dynasty to the time of Julian II. 
 Tiie marks by which an Apis was recognized 
 were a black-colored hide, a white spot on the 
 forehead of a triangular shape, the hair arranged 
 on the back in the form of an eagle, a twist of 
 the lower membranes of the tongue in likeness 
 with the shape of a scaralxeus, etc. When these 
 marks were discovered on a calf, the animal was 
 carried with great solemnity to Memphis, and 
 when the old Apis died a natural death (in which 
 case it was carefully embalmed), or when it 
 reached the age of twenty-five years (in which 
 case it was secretly killed by the priests), the new 
 Apis was installed in the temple as an incarnate 
 god. The birth of an Apis was considered an 
 occasion of popular joy, and the death an occa- 
 sion of popular mourning. All the movements 
 of an Apis were watched with the closest atten- 
 tion by the priests, and interpreted as involving 
 oracles. See M.\RiETTii : Le Scrapeum de Mem- 
 p/iif:, Paris, 1857. 
 
 APOCALYPSE. .See RF.VKL.\TroN-, Book of. 
 
 APOCRISIARIUS. From the time of Constan- 
 tine, when the great emperor stood at the head 
 of the whole ecclesiastical constitution, it l)e- 
 came, of course, of great importance to the 
 
 patriarchs to maintain an miinterrupted con- 
 nection with the im|)erial court. For this pur- 
 pose they appointed ecclesiastical ambassadors 
 {u-oiipiaiujMii, rcsponsules, from ummpivoimi, to re- 
 spond), who resided in the metropolis, and 
 through whom they addressed them.selves to tha 
 emperor, and received his decisions. It was al.so 
 tlie duty of the apocrisiarius to introduce the 
 patriarch, or the bishops of the patriarchal dio- 
 cese, to the court when they visited the metropo- 
 lis. As long as Rome formed part of the 
 eparchate, and remained dependent of the Greek 
 crown, the pope maintained an apocrisiarius in 
 Constantinople. See Du Canr/r', s.v. 
 
 APOCATASTASIS. See .\pokatastasis. 
 
 APOCRYPHA OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 
 The word apnkruphos, "liidden," applied to 
 writings, describes either such as are held in con- 
 cealment, or such as are of concealed origin ; and 
 the same book may be both. The apocryphal 
 is, generally speaking, the obscure, both in use 
 and origin. The word is used in both senses in 
 the patristic writings. In the /(Vs( sense Clem- 
 ens Alex, speaks of the apocryphal books of 
 Zoroaster. Sirom. I. 15, GO. So Origen distin- 
 guishes between the liooks in open use in the 
 church and those "apocryjihal " (cf. his Com. ad. 
 Malt. xiii. 57 and xxvii. 9). .Similarly the rab- 
 liins, by the term O'lUJ ("hidden books"), 
 designated those copies of tlie Holy Scriptures 
 which were buried because they were no longer 
 fit for public use. The word has also the mean- 
 ing of uncanonical. In the second sense, of 
 having an "unknown origin," the word naturally 
 shifted into "fal.se." So Irena^us, Tertullian, 
 Augustine, and Jerome. The obscure origin is, 
 of course, suspicious. 
 
 In the ancient church and in the middle age 
 the designation "apocryphal" was almost never 
 applied to those books we commonly describe as 
 the Apocrypha. Jerome anil a few isolated 
 writers are tlie only ones who do so. (See Hugo 
 a. St. Caro in De Wktte-Sciii!AI)KU, Eiidciliinij 
 in d. A. T., p. 06.) The use of the word in this 
 sense is Protestant. The first one to use it thus 
 was Carlstadt (1483-1541) m his book, De 
 (.'anonicis Scripturis Liljctltis, WittenbergK, 1520 
 (see CitEDNER : Zur (Jtscli. dcs Ktinons, 1817, p. 
 201 sqq.). The first edition of the Bible, in 
 which the luicanonical books of the Old Testa- 
 ment were styled "apocryphal," is the Frankfurt 
 edition of 1534. (See Panzei;: Gesch. d. deulsch. 
 Bdjeliiberselzung, 1783, p. 294 sq.). 
 
 This article is upon not only those books called 
 by Protestants " The Apocryjiha," but also tliose 
 jjieces found in the Greek and Latin Bibles, but 
 not in the Hebrew canon. 
 
 I. The Position of the ArocnvpiiA in the 
 Canon. The Hebrew canon was settled before 
 the Christian era: Josephus is the witness to 
 tliis (c. Apion I. 8). He is the better witness, 
 because he uses books which he allows are not in 
 the Hebrew canon. The Greek Bible canoa was 
 broader, taking in many writings which are not 
 in the Hebrew. The proof of this is the fact 
 that the Christians quote such uncanonical books 
 from the Septuagint. In the New Testament 
 there are no express quotations from our so-called 
 Apocrypha, which is the more rennirkable as most 
 of the writers habitually quote the LXX. See,
 
 APOCRYPHA. 
 
 100 
 
 APOCRYPHA. 
 
 for Paul, Kautzscb: i)(? Veleris Tc.ifctmenii Locis 
 <i I'ntiio ApoMiilu nl/er/aliis, )S69. It is important 
 ill tliis connection to bear in mind that in tlie 
 Xew Testament only the Pentateuch, the Proph- 
 ets, and the Psalms are frequently quoted: there 
 are few references to the historical books, and no 
 references to Canticles. Kcclesiastes, Ksther, Ezra, 
 and Nehemiah. And since the Apocrypha be- 
 long to these occasionally or not quoted books, we 
 nmst not lay too much vveiglit on the absence of 
 express quotation ; for there are passages in the 
 Ivew Testament which presuppose the Apocry- 
 pha. Thus cf. Jas. i. 19, P.cclus. v. 11; Heb. 
 i. 3, Wis. vii. 26; lleb. iv. 12, 13, Wis. vii. 22- 
 24 ; Eom. i. 20-32, Wis. xiii.-xv. 
 
 The Fathers generally made use of the Apoc- 
 rypha, and that when there is not the form of a 
 quotation : so that one can say that the church of 
 the first three centuries made no essential differ- 
 ence between the writings of the Hebrew canon 
 and the so-called Apocrypha. Melito of Sardis 
 (fl. second century) and Origen (1S6-2.33) do 
 make a distinction, as the result of learned inves- 
 tigations, but not such as to put the uucanonical 
 writings out of use. Still the result of such a 
 distinction as Origen made was to call attention 
 to the fixed character of the Hebrew, as con- 
 trasted with the shitting Greek canon ; and so in 
 the fourth century there were a number of cata- 
 logues of sacred books which limited the canon to 
 the Hebrew, and either did not mention the other 
 books, or else put them into a secondary class. 
 Thus Athanasius (29G-373), Cyril of Jerusalem 
 (31.5-3S6). Gregory Nazianzen (328-38.'?), and 
 Amphilochius (d. 39.')), made such catalogues. 
 (See Dl Wi;rrK-Sciiu.VDKK, Einl., in d. A. T., 
 ].. ;'),) sq. : Kkh.. Einl. in d. A. T. 3 Aufl. p. G.52.) 
 Kpiphauius (310-402) is sometimes erroneously 
 added to this list, lint the only one in the 
 ancient church who decidedly opposed the .Vpoc- 
 rypha was Jerome, who was the best Hebrew 
 scholar of the church. All these men, how- 
 ever, quote the .Vpocrypha as " Holy Scripture ; " 
 while Augustine (353-430) puts the apocryphal 
 books among the Hebrew canonical books, ami 
 calls them all canonical, and .so did the Councils 
 of Hippo (393) and Carthage (397), held under 
 his influence. And this may be said to be the 
 position of the entire church, both Kast and 
 West, — the Council of Trent having declared 
 all but the two books of Ksdras and the Prayer 
 of Mauasses to be canonical, — until the Kefor- 
 ination, and is the position of the Church of 
 Kome to-day. So the Apocrypha appear in the 
 Septuagint, the Vulgate, and all Koman-Catholic 
 Bibles. 
 
 Ill the Protestant Church, as already remarked, 
 Carl.stadt was the iirst to draw tlu; lino firmly 
 between the canonical and apocryphal books of 
 the Old 'I'<'stament. In the first complete edi- 
 tion of Luther's Hible (1534), the Apocrypha 
 were sundered from the other books, and i>ut 
 as an appendix to the Old Testament, with tiie 
 title "Apoci'vpha; that is, books which, although 
 not esUriiated e(|ual to the Holy .Scriptures, are yet 
 useiul and good to read." The Apocryi>ha occu- 
 pied a similar position in the Helormed Church, 
 but a stricter sentence was p;ussed upon them. In 
 modern times, twice h;us an agitation beiMi raiseil 
 against them, each time beguu in England (182.0 
 
 
 and ISoO) ; and the result has been a substantial 
 increase in our information about them. But 
 also, tkat whereas they were printed in all Prot- 
 estant liibles, and by the British and Foreign 
 Bible Society, up to 182(i, since then that Society 
 has omitted them, and the American Bible So- 
 ciety has followed their example. See the works 
 of De WKrri;, Kkil, and Ckedxkr, already 
 quoted; also Mouli-mk : Notice aur les liores apo- 
 <Ti//ihes (le I'ancieJi Testament en repon.se a la (jues- 
 tion faut-it les supprimer? Geufeve, 1S28 ; Rf.uss : 
 Dixx. poleinica de libris V. T. apocrijphis pcrperam 
 plehi iiei/alis, Strassb., 1829; R. Stier : Die 
 Apokrijphen, Vertheidiijung Hires aUhergehrachten 
 Anscldusses an die liibel, Braunschweig, 1853; 
 E. W. HENGSTKNiiKKO : Fiir BcibehaUung der 
 ApokrypJicn, Berlin, 1853; P. F. Keehl: Die 
 ApoL-ri//iJienfrar/e mil BerUck'sic/i/igun;/ der darauf 
 beziigliche Sdiriften Slier's u. IJenijstenbery's auj's 
 Neue beleuchtel, Leipzig, 1855. 
 
 Upon the general position of the Apocrypha, 
 see also, in addition to those named, on the 
 Roman-Catholic side, Vincexzi : Ses.iio I V. Cnn- 
 cilii Tridentini V'indieata s. Intiaduclio in Scri/)tU' 
 rrix Denterocanoiiicai Vet. Test., Rome, 1842, 2 vols.; 
 J. B. M.\Lou ; Decs Jiibelleseu in der Vol/csxpniclie, 
 iibers. v. Stdveken., Schaffhausen, 1849, 2 vols.; 
 the Introductions to the Old Testament, by 
 Herust, vol. 1, 1840; Scholz, vol. 1, 1845; 
 Reuscii, 4tL jd., 1870; Kaulex, Iste Hiilfte, 
 1870. 
 
 II. ]\lANUSCUirTS OF TIIE GrEEK TeXT. 
 
 Coinp. the Prolegomena, in the editions of the 
 Septuagint by Holme.s-Parsox.s and Tisciien- 
 DOUi', and in Fuitzsciie's edition of the Apoc- 
 rypha. The number of manuscripts is considera- 
 ble; but they are mostly of a kind called "cur- 
 sive," or '■ minuscule," because written in a small 
 letter. The following nine are the only known 
 uncial or majuscule manuscripts : 1. Cod. V'ati- 
 canus contains almost all the Bible (Tischendorf 
 sets it in the fourth century: only the Books of 
 the iMaccabecs are w.anting from the Apocrypha); 
 2. Cod. Sinaiticus, fourth century; 3. Cod. Alex- 
 andrinus, fifth century; 4. Cod. Ephr.aemi, fifth 
 century; 5. Cod. Venetus, eighth and ninth cen- 
 tury; 0. Cod. Basilano-Vaticanus, nintii century; 
 
 7. Cod. Marchalianus, sixth or seventh century ; 
 
 8. Cod. Cryptoferratensis, a palimpsest fragment 
 of the Prophets, seventh century ; 9. Palimpsest 
 fragments of Wisdom ami Siraoli, sixth or sev- 
 enth century. 
 
 HI. Oi,i) Translations. 1. Latin. — The 
 old Latin and the Jerome translations mu.st be 
 distinguished. 
 
 ((. The .lerome tran.slation. Jerome, it is wel? 
 known, Kt:irti'd out with th(? intention of merely 
 revising the old Latin translation by means of 
 the Septuagint. But ho eventually abandoned 
 the effort, ami translated directly from the origi- 
 nal Hebrew. Thi.s, of course, led him to omit 
 the Apocrypha. It i.s true, he did revise Tobit 
 and Judith, but not as a part of his Bible work. 
 
 b. The old i>atin. This contains the follow- 
 ing books: apocryplial additions to Ezra, Esther, 
 and Dallied, Barucli, Tobit, Judith, 1 and 2 
 Maccabees (of 2 j\Iaco.ibees thi're appears to 
 be no existing Latin translation), .Siracli and 
 A\'isdom of Solomon. The last two exist in only 
 one Latin translation.
 
 APOCRYPHA. 
 
 101 
 
 APOCRYPHA. 
 
 2. Stjriac. The vulgar Syriac or the Peshito 
 and the Syriac-hexaplar translations are to be 
 distinguished. The first is unevenly done ; l)ut 
 the second, in which appear Wisdom and Sirach, 
 is excellent throughout, and for the textual critic 
 is on this account of great value. 
 
 IV EDrriON.s ok thk (;n^;EK Tkxt. — The 
 principal editions of the Septuagint, which in- 
 cludes the Apocryjiha, are, 1. The Complutensian 
 Pohjglolt, in Coniplutousi universitate, 6 vols., 
 1514-1.017; 2. Tlie Ai.dixa : Hacrce Scriplurce 
 Veleris Nocccijue oninin, Venice, 1518; 3. Tlie 
 SixTiNA, Rome, 15S7; 4. Gkabe, Oxford, 4 vols., 
 1707-20; 5. Hoi.mus and Fausons, 5 vols., Ox- 
 ford, 1798-1827; (J. Tisciikndouf, Leipzig, 1850, 
 5th ed., 1875. 
 
 The best separate edition of the Apocrypha is 
 by Fuitzsciie: Libri Apocnjplu Vetcris Tcstamenti 
 Grmce, Lips., 1871. 
 
 \. ExEGETICAL LlTEItATUKE. Comp. Fa- 
 
 BRicius: Bihliotheca Gr(rca,ed. Harless III., 718- 
 750 ; WiXER : Ilndh. iler TIteol. Lilleralur, od ed., 
 I. 83 sq., 231 sq. ; Fuitzsciie u. Guimm, in their 
 commentary mentioned below; Fueust : Bihlio- 
 llieca Judaicn, 3 vols., 1849-1863. 
 
 1. Tran.iUtlions. — Luther translated the AVis- 
 dom of Solomon, 1529, the rest of the books in 
 1533 and 34; when all were collected in his first 
 complete edition of the Bible, 1534. Since then, 
 De WETTE,4th ed., 1858, and Honsen, in his Bibcl- 
 werk fill- die Geineinde, in 1869, have published 
 translations into German. [The current English 
 translation of the Apocrypha is that found in 
 King James's version, revised by seven scliolars 
 from the previous versions.] A complete Hebrew 
 translation was issued by Frankel: Ilar/iofjrapha 
 Posteriora denominain Aphcr>jpha, Lips., 1830. 
 
 2. Commentaries. — [Tlie most accessible of the 
 older are Au.vald : Critical Commentarij upon tlie 
 Apocrypha (part of Patrick, Lowth, and Whitliy 
 Commentary on the Bible), London, 1744-.52, 
 fob, 2d ed., 1760, new ed. by Pitman, London, 
 1822. quarto, Philadelphia, U.S., 1840; Charles 
 Wilson : The Books of the Apocr///)ha, with Crit. 
 and Hist. Obscrcations prefixed, Edin., 1801. By 
 far the most important exegetieal help to the 
 study of the Apocrypha that has yet appeared 
 is by O. F. Fritz.sciie and Carl L. W. Grimm: 
 Das kurzyefasstcs exeyet. Handb. zu den Apokr., 
 6 vols., Leipzig, 1851-1860. The only American 
 Conunentary, but one fresh, able, and scholarly, 
 with a full bibliography appended, is by E. 0. 
 BissELL, New York, 1880. vol. xv. of the Old Tes- 
 tament in the Am. ed. of Lange's Commenlary.'] 
 
 3. Special Lexicons. — W.mil: Clavis Librorum 
 V. T. Apoc. pliUolorji.cn, Lips., 1853. 
 
 4. Introductions. — EicHHOK.v : Einl. in d. Apoc. 
 Schrift. d. A. T., Leipzig, 1795; and in all the 
 Introductions to the Old Testament, as in those 
 by Bertholdt, ])e Wette, Scholz (R. C), antl Keil. 
 
 VI. The Origin and Nature of the 
 Various Books of the Apocrypha. — 1. A. 
 The apocryphal Ezra, commonly called I. Esdras. 
 [The title in the authorized version was first 
 given to it in 1560 by the translators of the 
 so-called Genevan version. But the Vvdgate 
 calls it "3d Esdras." In the Old Latin, Syriac, 
 and Septuagint versions, it was called " 1st 
 Ezra."] As a whole, the book is a pi-etty worth- 
 less compilation, identical in its chief contents 
 
 with the canonical Ezra. This will appear by 
 comparing: 
 
 C;hap. i. = 2 Chr. xxxv., xxxvi. The restora- 
 tion of the temjile-worship under .losiali (B.C. 
 (;3!)-600). and the liistory of the successors of 
 Josiah until the destruction (jf the temple (588). 
 
 Chap. ii. 1-14 = Ez. i. Cyrus, in the first 
 year of his reign (537), allows the return of the 
 exiles, and gives them the vessels of tlie temple. 
 
 Chap. ii. 15-25 = Ez. iv. 7-24. In conse- 
 quence of charges against the Jews, Artaxerxes 
 (465-425) forbids the further building of the 
 temple and the walls of Jerusalem. 
 
 Cliap. iii.-v. 6, independent. Zerubbabel wins 
 the favor of Darius (521-485), and receives jier- 
 mi.ssion for the return of the exiles. 
 
 Chap. V. 7-70 =: Ez. ii. 1-iv. 5. List of those 
 who returned with Zerubbabel, activity of Zerub- 
 babel, and interruption of the temple building 
 from the time of Cyrus (536-529) to the second 
 year of Darius (520). 
 
 Chaps, vi., vii. = Ez. v., vi. Recommencement 
 and finishing of tlie temple in the sixth year of 
 Darius (516). 
 
 Chaps, viii., ix. 36 =: Ez. vii.-x. Iteturn of 
 Ezra, with a number of exiles, in the seventh 
 year of Artaxerxes (458). Beginning of Ezra's 
 activity. 
 
 Chap. ix. 37-55 := Neh. vii. 73-viii. 13. Ezra 
 read the law. 
 
 From the canonical Ezra the apocryphal is thus 
 shown to be distinguished by these four jioinis: 
 (1) The passage of the canonical Ez. iv. 7-24 is 
 in the apucryplial Ezra transposed ; (2) The pas- 
 sage of the' apocryphal Ez. iii.-v. 6 is inserted 
 from an unknown source ; (3) 2 Chr. xxxv., 
 xxxvi., is prefaced; (4) Neh. vii. 73-viii. 13 is 
 added. Through the first two differences the 
 confusion from which the canonical Ezra partly 
 suffers is materially increased. 
 
 The sources are two: (1) The canonical Ezra 
 according to the Septuagint, not the Hebrew; (2) 
 the passage iii.-v. 6 is bodily introduced from 
 some existing Greek work, and it fiatly contra- 
 dicts the rest of the book. 
 
 The purpose of the whole compilation has 
 already been rightly expres.sed by Bertholdt 
 (Eiiil.'Wl. loll): "The author desired to present 
 a history of the temple from the last days of the 
 legal cultus to the building of the temple and 
 the restoration of the worship, compiled from 
 older works." 
 
 In regai-d to the arje, it can only lie said that 
 Jo.sephus made use of it. Antiq. Jud. xi. 1-5. 
 
 Lit. — Besides the works already mentioned, 
 see Trendelenburg: Uber den apok. Ezra in 
 Eichhorn's Allr/. Biblioth. d. bibl. Litleratur. I., 
 p. 178. Dahne: Gescliichtl. Darstellung dcr jii- 
 disch-alexandrinischen Relir/ionsphi/osophie, vol. II. 
 (Halle, 1834), pp. 115-12.J. Herzeeld: Gesch. 
 d. Volkes Jisraei. (3 vols. 1847-1857), I., p. 320; 
 III., p. 72. Ewald : Gesch. d. Volkes Israel., 
 vol. IV., p. 163. 
 
 [B. The Second Book of Esdras liad for its 
 original title "The Revelation of Ezra;" and it 
 were well if it were retained, as it is appropriate. 
 It was -written originally in (;reek. The com- 
 mon Latin translation, from which the English 
 was made, contains two inqiortant interpolations, 
 — i., ii., XV., xvi., — which are evideiitlv of
 
 APOCRYPHA. 
 
 102 
 
 APOCRYPHA. 
 
 Christian origin, and are pervaded by an anti- 
 Jewish spirit. 
 
 The original work (iii.-xiv.) consists of a series 
 of angelic revehitions and visions, in which Ezra 
 is instructed in some of the great mysteries of 
 the moral world, and assured of the final tri- 
 umph of the rigliteous. 
 
 Tlie lime of composition is Tmsettled. Keil 
 maintains it was written by a Hellenistic Jew of 
 Palestine, about the end of the first Christian 
 century, and early known to the Cliristians. 
 The first witness to the existence of the book is 
 Clemens Alex. Simm. III. 16. It is quoted with 
 respect by Irenreus, Tertullian, and Ambrose, 
 but with contempt by Jerome. 
 
 Lit. — VoLKM.\R : Das vlerte Burh IJ^.tra, 
 Ziirich, 18.38. The same: Das vierte Buck Ksrti 
 znm ErMenmale vnllslandir/ herausf/erjehcii, 1863. 
 HiLGENFKLD : Die Proplteten ]^srii y. Diiniel «. 
 ihre netiesten Bearbeilunr/e/i, Ilalle, 1863- K\v.\LD: 
 Dan vierte Ezmbuch nach seinein zeiUiller neinem 
 arnlii-iclien iilieivetzunf/cn u. einer neuen xcicderher- 
 steliung, Gdttingen, 1863.] 
 
 2. Aililitions Id EsOier. — In the Septuagint 
 Esther the following pieces are inserted, and that 
 so skilfully as to make no break in the narrative: 
 (1) Before Esth. i. I, the dream of Jlordecai of 
 tlie wonderful deliverance of his people; (2) 
 after Esth. iii. 13, the edict of Artaxerxes, as he 
 is called, to exterminate the .lews; (3) after Esth. 
 iv. 17, the prayers of jMordecai and Esther for 
 the ]ireservation of their people; (4) instead of 
 Esth. v. 1, 2, an account of the reception of 
 Esther by the king; (5) instead of Esth. viii. 
 13, the second edict of Artaxer.xes recalling the 
 first; (6) alter Esth. x. 3, Mordecai learns the 
 meaning of his dream. 
 
 These additions are later than the Greek trans- 
 lation of Estlier. .Josephus is the first one to 
 use them, Aiiliii. Jail. xi. 6, 4 sqq. The subscrip- 
 tion, stating that in the fourth year of Ptolemy 
 and Cleopatra, Dositheus and his son brought 
 the book to Egypt, refers to the whole book, ami 
 does not therefore give any hint as to the age of 
 the additions, especially since there were not 
 less than four Ptolemies wliose queens were 
 named Cleopatra. 
 
 'I'here are two Greek texts of Esther, — a 
 revised and an unrevised. 
 
 Lit. — Special works. Zi.'xz: Die iiollesdleiisl- 
 liclien Vorlrwje del- Juitcn (Berlin, 1832), pp. 120- 
 122. Laxok.v: Die dculefoLanuuisclien aiiicke dcs 
 Buches Esllier, Freiburg, 1862. 
 
 3. Addilioiix lo Daniel. — a. The Prayer of 
 Azarias and tli<! .Song of the Three Children in 
 the Oven, insert<Kl after IJan. iii. 23. b. The 
 History of Susainia. In tlie Greek text this 
 usually forms the first jiart of Daniel [but in 
 the Complutensian Vulgate it also occurs after tlie 
 twelfth cluipter], because he appears as a boy, wlio 
 delivers Susanna through his wisdom, c. The 
 lii.story of Bel and the Dragon : this forms an ap- 
 pendix to th(! book. b. and c. make no ]iretensions 
 to be part of the original text. Tliey were written 
 in Greek. There is an interesting correspond- 
 ence extant, between .lulins Africanus and 
 Origen, in regard to .Susanna, the former attack- 
 ing, and the latter defending, its genuineness. 
 See separate ed. Julii Africuni de Hijilnria Su- 
 sayiniE Epiglola ad Oriyenem el Origenis ad ilium lle- 
 
 uponsio. Ed. .T. R. Wetstenius, Basil. 1674. In 
 .Jerome's lime the translation of Daniel, by Theo- 
 dotion, had supplanted that of the LXX. (Hie- 
 ron Pracf. in I'ers. Danielia) \ but in these addi- 
 tions it was only a revision of the LXX. 
 
 Lit. — Special works. Delitzscii : De Hahjt 
 cuci Prop/ieUe vita atijue celate (Lips., 1842), p. 
 23 sq., 103 sq. Rohling : Das Buc!i des Prophelen 
 Daniel. Mainz, 1876. 
 
 4. The Prai/er of JMannsses. — Reference is 
 made in 2 Chron. xxxiii. 12, 13, IS, to a prayer 
 of Manasses, offered in captivity, and so this 
 apocryphal book was suggested. It is usually 
 inserted among the liyinns after the Psalms, anil 
 is quoted in full in Conslil. Aposlnl. II. 22, the 
 oldest witness to its existence; although doubt- 
 less it is older, and Jewish, not Christian [and 
 was written in Greek, in the first or second cen- 
 tury B.C.]. 
 
 5. Baruch. — This apocryphal book, bearing 
 the name of the faithful friend and amanuensis 
 of Jeremiah, is divisible into three parts: (1) 
 Chap. i. 2-iii. 8 sets forth, that, in the fifth year 
 after the destruction of .Jerusalem bj- the Chal- 
 dees (588), tlie Jews in Babylon sent a deputation 
 to Jerusalem with money for sacrifices, and re- 
 quested tliat prayers might be offered for the 
 life of Nebuchadnezzar and his son Belshazzar. 
 They also confessed that their sufferings were 
 the consequences of their sins. (2) Chap iii. 9- 
 iv. 4. Exhortation to Israel to leturn to the 
 Source of all wisdom. (3) Chap. iv. 5-v. 9. 
 Exhortation to the peojile to take fresh courage. 
 
 The lime of its composition cannot be definitely 
 settled. Since the book, in one phice (i. 15-13) 
 shows traces of Daniel (cf. Dan. ix. 7-10), it 
 must be later than it. Alost Protestant critics 
 put Baruch in the later JIaccabeau time; but 
 the book bears evidence that the autlior lived in 
 stirring times, and may with more propriety be 
 put into the time of Vespasian (enqieror A.D. 
 69-79). 
 
 Tlie question of the tinili/ of autliorsliip de- 
 pends iqion the language used. This was, prob- 
 ably, originally the, Hebrew in the first part, and 
 Greek in the last : .so there were two authors. 
 
 Lit. — Special works. H.vkvku.nick: De Li- 
 hrn Baniclii Apocrifplio Comvi. Cril., Regiom., 
 1813. Ilicuscii: Krlddnuiij des Bnrlies Baruch, 
 Ereibm-g. 1853. Kneuckku: Das Buck Barueh, 
 Leipzig, 1879. Brugsch has published a Coptic 
 translation in the Zeilsclir. /'. w/i/jil. Spr. n. Aller- 
 lumsk: 10-12 J.-irg. 1872-1874." cf. 1S76, p. 148. 
 
 6. Tlie Leiter of Jeremiidi. — Tliis appears in 
 the Vulgate, and in Luther's Bible, and also in 
 other editions, as an appendix to, or the sixUi 
 chapter of, the Book of Baruch. But origi- 
 nally it had notliing to do with the latter. It 
 is addressed to the captives of Nebuoiuulnezzar, 
 in Babylon, and is a well-written exhortation 
 against the Babylonian gods. Its origin:il is 
 Greek. Of coursi^ Jeremi;ih was not its author; 
 but it must be ancient, in:ismuch as it is quoted 
 in 2 Mace. ii. 1, 2. 
 
 7. Toliit. — In the Vulg;ite and in Lutlier's 
 Bible, the name of the book and of tlie licM'o is 
 Tobias; but in Uk! (Jreek text that is the name 
 of the son, while tlie father is Tobit, or Tobith. 
 The story is briefly this: Tobit, an exile in Nine- 
 veh, is subjected to loss and persecution, al-
 
 APOCRYPHA. 
 
 103 
 
 APOCRYPHA. 
 
 tliounh le.uling a very exemplary life (i. 1-iii. 0). 
 At tlie same time a woman named Sara, the 
 (laus'liter nf KafTuel in Ecliatana, is very strange- 
 ly iilai,'ueil (iii. T-IT)). Both thesis persons pray 
 for help at the sami' time ; and the angel Ra]-)liael 
 is sent to them, who delivers them, and unites 
 Sara and the .son of Tobit, Tobias, in mar- 
 riage (iii. l()-xii. "J'J), whereupon Tobit sings a 
 psalm of praise. He lives to be a hundred and 
 fifty-eight, and Tobias, to be a hundred and 
 twenty-seven (xiii., xiv.). The whole forms an 
 interesting didactic tale, which, with the exception 
 of a few facts borrowed from histtn-y, is a free 
 creation of its author. The ohjecl i.s plainly to show 
 the value and reward of serving God faithfully. 
 
 As to the time of composition, nothing definite 
 can be said ; but, since the original is Greek, it 
 is probably about B.C. 200. Ilitzig {Zeitschv. f. 
 tclsxenxcliafi. TlieoL, 18150., p. 250 sq.), upon insuffi- 
 cient grounds. )nits it into the I'ost- Vespasian 
 )ieriod. ami thinks it was designed to comfort the 
 Jews over the destruction of the temple. 
 
 The Chaldee version of Tobit is of late origin. 
 Of the Greek text there are three recensions. 
 
 Lit. — Special works. Ilgkn : Die Geschichte 
 Tiihi's nndi tlrei ver.ichiedenen Orir/inalen, item 
 Griechi.icJien, iJem Laleinschen i/ex Hieronymux und 
 cinem .S7/'"'-'''c/«?'i, etc., Jena, 1800. IIkusch : Dax 
 linch. Tiihias uher.ielzt u. erUurt, Freiburg, 1857. 
 Skxgi;lm.\xn' : Dax Bach Tubil eridart, llamb., 
 1857. KiiLDKCKE: Altlest. Lileralur, Leipzig, 
 1868. Ad. Nkub.\uek: The Book of Tnhit. A 
 Chaldee Text from a unique MS. in the Bodleian 
 Lihranj ; roilh ntlirr Ilabbinicnl Texts, English Trans- 
 lation, and Ike Ilala. Oxford, 1878. 
 
 8. Judiili. — The story of the book is briefly 
 this : Holofernes, the general of Nebuchadnezzar, 
 turns his victorious arms against the Jews, who 
 resolve upon a desperate defence. Holofernes 
 lays rigorous siege to the strong fortress Bethu- 
 lia (i.-vii.). In their darkest hour, one of 
 the besieged, a beautiful widow named Judith, 
 voluntiarily assumes their rescue by stratagem. 
 She enters the hostile camp, wins the affection 
 and confiilence of Holofernes, aiu.l then, while 
 sunk in a drunken stupor, she cuts off his head, 
 and returns to the fortress with this trophy of 
 victory. The besieged avail themselves of the 
 confusion to make a destructive attack. The 
 enemy are put to flight, and in this way the 
 people are delivered; and Judith, amid the 
 praises of her nation, and to a good old age (a 
 hundred and five), lived to see the permanent 
 effect of her daring deed. 
 
 Here, as in Tobit, we have no sober narrative, 
 but a didactic fiction. Auuizing liberties are 
 taken with history. Nebuchadnezzar is called 
 the King of As.syria, and the temple is said to 
 have been rebuilt in his time. The object is to 
 stir up the Jews during the distresses of the 
 jMaccabertn time, — most probably the time of 
 composition, — to m.aintain a confident resistance. 
 
 It was written originally in Hebrew. The 
 Chaldee version which Jerome had before him 
 was surely not the original. There are three 
 recensions of the Greek text. 
 
 Lir. — Besides the general works see O. 
 Wolff: Das Buck Judith als f/escliiclitliclie Ur- 
 kunde verleidii/t und erklarl, Leipzig, ISGl. See 
 also SchOnhaupt: Etudes hisiurupies et critiques 
 
 sur le livre de Judith, Strasb , 18.39. NrcKEs: 
 De lAbro Jndithw, Vratislavia;, 1851. Voi.KMAU : 
 Einleitunfj in die Ajinkry/theti. I. Thl. 1 Aljt. ; A. 
 SCHOLZ: Das Buch Judith, Wurzburg, 1885. 
 
 !>. 'The Books of Maccabees. — The name MaK- 
 Kaiialof, was originally only the surname of Ju<las, 
 the .son of Maltathias (1 Mace. ii. 4); but it is 
 not exactly determined what the name means. 
 The common interpretation, "the hammer," is 
 open to the objection that the sort of hammer 
 described by the Hebrew word adduced is a little, 
 workman's hammer, and not the war or smith's. 
 Professor Curtiss, in his brochure, "The Name 
 Machabee," Leipzig, 187G, advocates the mean- 
 ing "the extinguisher" (cf. Isa. xliii. 17), be- 
 cause Judas "quenched (extinguished) his foes 
 as tow." The objections to this derivation are, 
 that the use of such a picture by Isaiah does 
 not prove it to be allowable to use as a sym- 
 bolical name [and, moreover, it rests upon show- 
 ing, that, in the original form of the name, Kaph 
 was used instead of Koph, but that Jerome trans- 
 literated it by ch in his revision: however, it is 
 not generally allowed that Jerome made a revis- 
 ion of 1 Maccabees on the basis of the Hebrew 
 text. See full discussion of this point in Bis- 
 sell's Com. on Apoc. (N.Y., ISSO). p. 474]. Others 
 have held the name was a combination of the 
 initial lettej-s of the sentence " who among the 
 gods is like vmto Thee, Jehovah':'" (Exod. xv. 
 11), which is supposed to have been inscribed 
 upon the banners of the patriots ; or, again, of 
 the initi.als of the simply de.scriptive title " Mat- 
 tathias, a priest, the son of Johanan." These 
 latter explanations are far fetched. From Ju- 
 d.as, at all events, the name came to be applied 
 to the whole family and party. [Dr. Delitzsch 
 considers the name a contraction of mah k'abee, 
 "what is comparable to my father':'" CuK- 
 Tiss : The Name Machabee, p. 23.] 
 
 A. The First Book of ]\I;iccabees relates the 
 fortunes of the Jews from the accession of 
 Antiochns Epiphanes (B.C. 175) to the death 
 of the high priest .Simon (B.C. 135), the period 
 during which, under Judas, who raiserl the rally- 
 ing standard, and was chief until his death (B.C. 
 100), the .lews waged war against their Syrian 
 lords, and under Judas' brother Jonathan (B.C. 
 160-143), who was recognized as prince and 
 high priest, kept up the struggle, though less 
 actively, and under the third brotlier, Simon 
 (B.C. 143-135), also high priest, achieved their 
 independence. 
 
 The book is reli;ible history, dr.awn from trust- 
 worthy sources, and can be with confidence set 
 down in the first decades of the first century B.C. 
 The date is thus exactly determined, because the 
 author was, on the one hand, acquainted with the 
 chronicle of the deeds of John Hyrcanus (B.C. 
 135-105), and, on the other, ignorant of the con- 
 quests of Pompey in Palestine (B.C. 04). It 
 was written originally in Hebrew. 
 
 Lit. — Special works. J. D. Michaelis : 
 Deutsche Ubersetzunr/ des 1 B. drr lilakkabiicr mil 
 Anmcrkunr/cn,G6ttingen,n7S. Keil: Kommentar 
 idler die Biicher der Makkabacr, Leipzig, 1875. 
 See, also, FuoLicn : Annules Compendiarii Ilegum 
 el Rcrum Sijrice, yindob., 1744. E. F. W'kuns- 
 dorff: Prolusio de Fontibus Historice Syrice in 
 libris Maccabceorum, Lips., 1746. Frolich: De
 
 APOCRYPHA. 
 
 104 
 
 APOCRYPHA. 
 
 fonlihui HUlorke Si/ria; in Lihrix Mnrcnhcenrum 
 ProJitsio LipxitB eilita in Exnmen Vocain, Vimlob., 
 1746. GoTTi,. 'Wkux.sdokkf : Commenlalio Jfix- 
 tnrico-crilica de Fitlc Hi.tlorica Lihrivum Mnccnbce- 
 orum, Wratislavise, 1747. [Khell]: Autorila.'i 
 utriiisqtie Lihri Maccabcconint Canoniro-hi.itorica 
 (I'lserta, Vieniise, 1749. Geigep. : Urschrifl «. 
 ijherfcUungen der BibeL Breslau, 18.37, p. 200 sq. 
 Ewai.d: Ge.tch. des Vollce.-i Israel., IV., p. (i02 
 s q. RosENTir.\L : Das ersic lifakkaJiderbuch. Lpip- 
 zii^, 1867. [Cotton': The Five Bonks nf the Mac- 
 cabees, in Eni/lish, Oxford, 18:52. C. R. Coxder : 
 Judas Maccabceus, Loud, and N. Y., 1879.] 
 
 B. The Second Book of Maccabees runs in 
 time a little before and then parallel with the First 
 book, inasmuch as it extends from the last part 
 of the reiEjn of Seleucus IV. Philopator (or about 
 B.C. 180) to the victory of Judas Maccaliaeus 
 over Nicanor (B C. 101 or 100), and furnishes a 
 sort of leg:endary commentary upon it. It is 
 untrustworthy; has far more a religious than an 
 hist(n'ic interest. The ori(/innt i.s Greek. The 
 book is professedly an extract from a history of 
 the Maccab;ean stnisjajle, in five books, written by 
 Jason of Cyrene. But he is otherwise entirely 
 unknown. In regard to the time, we can only say 
 it was before the destruction of tlie temple, 
 .losephus does not use either Jason or his 
 epitomizer. The first expi'ess citation occurs in 
 Clemens .A.lex. Strom. Y., p. 595, ed. Sylb. 
 
 Lit. — .Special works. H. Eberh. Glo. 
 Paulus : Ubcr das zioeite Buch d. Makkab. 
 (KicnHonx's All//. Biblioth. d. MM. Litt. I , pp. 
 2-'5i .sq ). Bertheau: De Secundo Libro Macca- 
 AfconiHi, Giitting., 1829. Scni.iJNKEs: Epistofa: 
 qnm Secundo Marc. Libra i. 1-9 lerjitur E.rplicatio. 
 Colon., 1844. The same: Difficiliorum Locornm 
 Fplstolw '/me 2 Ulacc. i. 10-ii. 18 ler/ittir Erpiicntio, 
 Colon., 1817. IIeuzfeld : Geschichte des Volkes 
 Jisrael., vol. II., 1855, p. 443 sq. Patiuzi : De 
 Consensu utriusque Libri Machabworum, RomK, 
 1856. ClGOI : Ilislorisrh-clirnnolofpsche Schifierirj- 
 keiten des ziveiten Makkubiierbuches, Klagenfurt. 
 1868. 
 
 C. The Third Book of Maccabees can lay no 
 claim to be at all connected with tlie Maocal>ees, 
 because it relati's altogether to an earlier period. 
 [It and the remaining books of the Maccabees 
 are not found in the Vulgate, nor in the English 
 Apocrypha.] The story is this: Ptolemy I\'. 
 Philopator (B.C. 222-20.5), after liis victory at 
 Uapliia (B.C. 217), made a visit to Jerusalem, 
 and attempted to enter the Holy of Holies, but 
 was unable to do so, because, in answer to the 
 high jiriest's )irayer, he fell down paralyzed. In 
 revenge, on his return to Alexandria he perse- 
 cuted the Jews there. But his attempts at their 
 destruction were woudrously frustrated, and at 
 last he became thi'ir friend ami benefactor. 
 The book resembles Esther, but only to show its 
 inferiority. 
 
 Tlie sti/le is bombastic and involved. Although 
 tlie book blears the jirint of unreliability, still it 
 rests partly upon a b;isis of fact; for .Iose|ihus 
 relates of another Pt-olemy — Ptolemy VII. 
 Physcon (c. Apinn ii. 5) — an incident similar to 
 that recorded of Ptolemy IV^. in reg:ird to the 
 use of elephants to trample! ilowii the Jews, and 
 ahso say.s that the Alexainlrian Jews celebrate 
 the deliverance by a yearly feast. The attemjited 
 
 entrance of the temple may h.ave been made by 
 Ptolemy IV.. and tradition set also to his 
 account the first incident. 
 
 As to time the book is conjectured by EwAi.n 
 (Gesch. de Volkes Israel, IV.. p. 611) and 
 Hausr.\TH (Neutestamentliche Zeilf/eschichte, 2 
 Aufi. If., p. 262) to have been written in the 
 time of Caligula (A.D. 37-41) ; but this is mere 
 conjecture. We can oidy say it was ■written at 
 a late date; for the author was acquainted with 
 the apocryphal additions to Daniel (cf. vi. 0). 
 The first mention of tlie book is Canones Apos. 
 85. The abrupt beginning indicates that a part 
 has been lost. 
 
 [D. The Fmirth Book of Maccabees describes 
 the niavtyrdom of Eleazer and of the seven 
 brothers (ef. 2 Mace. vi. 18-vii. 41); but, as the 
 second title of the book, On the Supreme Sor- 
 ereiffnt)/ of Henson. indicates, the history is a 
 mere illustration of that theme. The book is 
 the product of an Alexandrian Jew who had 
 imbibed stoical notions. The Fathers attributed 
 it to Josephus ; but it is not his. although it well 
 may have dated from his times. It has un 
 historical value ; but the style, though rhetorical, 
 is correct and vigorous, and truly Greek, which !■< 
 the original language. It al)ouuds in words 
 peculiar to the book. Tisciikxdorf |-)ublislieil 
 fragments of it in vol. VI. of liis Monumenln 
 Sacra Inedila, Leipzig, 1S()9. 
 
 Lit. — Grimm: Exci/pi. Handbnvh. Dr. Cor- 
 Tox has ]iublished an English translation of it 
 and the fifth book iu his edition of The Fire 
 Books of tlie Maccabees. Oxford. 1832. 
 
 E. The FijVi Book of ^Maccabees. It is printed 
 in ,\rabic, in the Paris and r.,ondou Polyglotts. 
 and contains a, history of the .lews from the 
 attempt of Heliodorus (cf. 2 Maco. iii.) to thi' 
 birth of our Lord. The aulhoi' based his work 
 upon I. and H. Maccabees and Joseiihus, but 
 displays ignorance, and perverts the statement^ 
 of others. He must have lived after the fall of 
 Jerusalem, and probably outside of Palc^stine. 
 The original was proiiably Hebrew. See article 
 by Professor B. V. AVestcott in Smith's Diction- 
 arji of the Bible, Amer. e<l., vol. II., p. 1726.] 
 
 10. ICcclcsiasticus, or The Wisdom of Jesus, the 
 Son of Sirach. — The apocryphal counterpart to 
 the Book of Proverbs, and, like it, of wide 
 range :ind earnest sjiirit, proving the author to 
 havi^ biHMi a moralist of exceptional training. 
 It is well worthy of repeated reading. 'J'lie 
 form of tlie book is poetic:il. It has no percepti- 
 ble plan. 
 
 The Greek text, which alone has come down 
 to us, is announced by itself to he a translation 
 from the Hebrew; but, even if it were not so 
 stated, it must be so regarded, and one very 
 slavishly and not faultlessly made. In the Tal- 
 mud tliere an' (]uotations from it (cf. Zii.vz : /)/<■ 
 f/otli'.ti/ienstl. Vorlrdi/e der Juden, p. 101 S(]. De- 
 I.ITZ.SCH : Zar Gesch. der jild. Poe.iie, p. 201 sq. 
 DliKEs: Jlabhinische Blumenlesr, p. (!7 sq.). .Te- 
 rome says he saw a copy of the Hebnnv text. 
 The book in his day was coininonly calhul " Ec- 
 elesiasticus," as it is to-day. 
 
 The author ciills himself ".lesii.s, the Son of 
 .Sirach of .lernsaleni ; " and the translator was 
 his grandson, who, in his thirty-eighth year, 
 came to Egyjit, during the reign of Euergeti'S,
 
 APOCRYPHA. 
 
 105 
 
 APOCRYPHA. 
 
 i.e., the thirty-eighth year of Euorgetes. Tiiis 
 gives us a date for the book, because the fir.st of 
 the two Ptoleitiie.s wlio bore tlie uaino Euergetes 
 reigued only twenty-five years. 15ut tlie second, 
 who was named in full I'tolemy VII. Physcon 
 Euergetes II., reigned from 15. C. 170 in conjunc- 
 tion with his brother, and from B.C. 145 alone; 
 but he counted his reign from B.C. 170: conse- 
 quently it w-as B.C. 132 when the grandson of 
 Sirach came to Egypt ; and the book itself may 
 well have been written B.C. 190-170, which was 
 about the time of the death of Simon II. (see 
 Josephus, Aniiij. XII. 4, 10), whom it eulogizes. 
 
 The first Christian writer to quote the book is 
 Clemens Alexandrinus. 
 
 Lit. — Bketschneidkk : Libei- Jesti Sirnciike 
 GriEce Perpelua AnnolaUone llhislralus. Ratisbo- 
 nse, 1800. Gfrorer : Philo. Vol. II. (1S31). pp. 
 18-52. Dahnk: Geschichlt. Darxtetlung ili-r jii- 
 discli-alexamlrinischen Reli(/ions-p!iil(iMp/ue, Vol. II. 
 (1834), pp. 126-150. W'lNKK : De utrlusque .Vi- 
 racidm celale. Erlg., 1832. Buucii : Weislwilslc/ire 
 (/er //timer, 1851, pp. 2GG-319. MiciiGUET : Die 
 Gluuliens- und Sittenlehre ites Buclies Jesus Sirach. 
 Kbnigsberg, 1874. 
 
 11. The Wi.idum of Solomon is an animated 
 hymn in praise of Wisdom, who in the begin- 
 ning sat with God on his throne (ix. 4), and was 
 by him when the world was made (ix. 9). rest- 
 ing upon the ideas about Wisdom made famili.av 
 to us by the Book of Proverbs (viii., ix.) and 
 Job (xxviii. 12 sq.). 
 
 The aulhiir of the book was a Jewish philoso- 
 pher of the Philo order, — the union of Jewish 
 faith and Greek philosophy. It is true the book 
 pretends to be from Solomon (viii. 10 sq., ix. 7 
 sq.); and one modern (Roman-Catholic) theolo- 
 gian, Schmid, can be quoted in behalf of this 
 view. Philo was considered by many, e.g., 
 Luther, to be the author ; but it is more proba- 
 ble that it was written between the time of 
 Ecclesiasticus and Philo (B.C. 150-50). It is 
 expressly quoted first by Irenasus. It was origi- 
 nally written in Greek. 
 
 Lit. — Baueu.meister : Commentarius in Sap. 
 Sat. lilir. Gott., 1828. J. \. .Scii.Mii> : Das Burh 
 der Weighed idierselzl und ericlart, ^Vien, 1857. 
 GuTBERl.KT : Das Buch der Weisheit iiherselzt u. 
 erklart, Munster, 1874. [W. J. Deane : The Book 
 of' Wisdom, with introduction, critical apparatus and 
 commentary, O^i-iord, 1881; .Selig.maxn : D. B. d. 
 Weislieit, Halle, 1884]; of. IIatsrath: N. T. 
 Zeilyesch. 11. 259 sq. EMIL ciOlIUKER. 
 
 APOCRYPHA OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 
 
 The relation between canonical and apocryphal 
 writings is quite another with respect to the Xevv 
 Testament than with respect to the Old. The 
 apocryphal books of the Old Testament aim 
 simply at a continuation of the sacred history, 
 and jiursue tliis aim in an honest manner, though 
 without divine authority. The apocryphal writ- 
 ings, on the contrary, relating to the New Testa- 
 ment, purpose directly to substitute spurious 
 sources for genuine. They are very numerous; 
 and the second of the four groups into which 
 they naturally fall — I. Gospels; II. Acts of 
 Apostles; III. Epistles from Apostles ; and IV. 
 Revelations — exercised at one time great influ- 
 ence on the church, and was considered the most 
 dangerous source of heresy. Of course, not all of 
 
 these writings were composed for directly hereti- 
 cal purposes. Many of them, no doubt, originated 
 from much more innocent causes, as a mere /nous 
 fraud. But from the very oldest time a suspi- 
 cion of heresy clung to them all, and contri- 
 buted much to finally tlirow the whole literature 
 into the shade. When the canon of the New 
 Testament was fixed, and the apocryphal books 
 thereby became exiled, they ceased to be re.-ul ; 
 and in the middle ages, even their names were 
 forgotten. Nevertheless, although the books 
 themselves were delivered up to contempt and 
 oblivion, not so with their contents. From their 
 fables sprung a .sacred legend, which was kept 
 alive in the congregation during the middle ages, 
 — an ecclesiastical tradition, which the church often 
 utilized in the development of its dogmas. In- 
 deed, the origin of numerous dogmas and usages 
 and traditions dates back to these apocryjihal 
 writings; and it was consequently of as much 
 intere.st to the Evangelical Chnrch to subject this 
 whole literature to a thorough investigation as it 
 was to the Roman Church to keep the whole 
 matter in convenient obscurity. The first collec- 
 tion of apocryphal writings relating to the New 
 Testament was given by Micii. Neaxdeu, Basel, 
 15G4 : more comprehensively by J. A. Fahri- 
 cius, Hamburg, 1703; then J. C. TniLo's Coilex 
 Apocryphus, A'. 7' , Lips., 1832, incomplete, but 
 valuable ; best by Tischexdorf, Acta A/iostoturuni 
 Ajiocrypha, Lips., 1851, and Evanyelia Apocri//iha, 
 Lips.,18.j3,ed. alt., 1876. [Bonnet: ^4 c/a Tlmnne, 
 Leipzig, 1883. See Lipsius: Die a/ioli: A/iostet- 
 /jescli. u. -tef/enit., Braunschweig, 1883-86, 2 vols. 
 English translations by B. II.\RRis Cowi'er, 
 London, 1807, and by AA'ai.keu, in the " Ante-Ni- 
 cene Library," Edinburgh, 1870.] 
 
 I. Apocryphal Gospels. — About fifty apocry- 
 phal Gospels are still extant, or at least known 
 to us. Some have come down to our time en- 
 tire, others only in fragments ; and of a few we 
 possess nothing but the names. The method 
 employed in these compositions is always the 
 same, whether the author intended simply to col- 
 lect and arrange what was floating in the general 
 tradition, or wliether he intended to produce a 
 definite dogmatical effect. Rarely he threw him- 
 self on his own invention ; but generally lie elabo- 
 rated what was only hinted at in the canonical 
 Gospels, or transcribed words of Jesus into ac- 
 tions, or described the literal fulfilment of some 
 Jewish expectation concerning the Messiah, or 
 repeated the wonders of the Old Testament in an 
 enhanced form, etc. The work done, he took 
 care to conceal his own name, and inscribed his 
 book with the name of some apostle or disciple, 
 in order to give it authority. We mention first 
 those seven apocryphal Gospels which exist en- 
 tire, and then those of which we possess only 
 fragments. See Run. Hok.maxx: Das Leheii 
 .fesii nach den Apokryptien, Leipzig, 1851. G. 
 Buu.n'ET : Les icunyUes apocryplies, Paris, 1863. 
 M. Nicolas: Etudes sur les ecanyiles apocryplies, 
 Paris, 1866. R. Reixsch : Die Pseudo-Evanye- 
 lien von ./esu unit Maria's Kindheit in d. ronian- 
 isc/ien u. (jermaniscJien Literatur, Halle, 1879. 
 
 1. I'rotecani/elium Jacohi — ascribed to James, 
 the brother of the Lord — comprises in twenty- 
 five chapters the period from the announcement 
 of the birth of Mary to the massacre of the inno-
 
 APOCRYPHA. 
 
 106 
 
 APOCRYPHA. 
 
 cents. It is very old, was widely circulated, and 
 shows traces of Ebionitic origin. Frasjinents of 
 a Syrian codex are given by Wright: Coiilrihu- 
 iion.1 to the Apocryphal Literature of the JV. T., col- 
 lected an'l edited from Syrian MSS. in the British 
 Mu.-ieum, London, ISGo. 
 
 2. Evangelium Pseudo-^^atthcei sive Liber de 
 Ortu Beatte Marice et Infantice Salvatoris — be- 
 ginning with the annouiicemeut of the birth of 
 Mary, and closing with the youth of Jesus — 
 seems to be of Latin origin, and to have been 
 drawn from the Prutevangl. and the Evangl. 
 Thomce. 
 
 3. Evangelium de Nativitate Mariie contains in 
 ten chapters the histoiy of Mary before the birth 
 of Jesus. 
 
 4. Histuria Josephi Fahri Lignarii — first pub- 
 lished in Arabic, with a Latin translation by 
 GeorgWalliu, Leipzig, 1722 — contains the whole 
 biography of Joseph in thirty-two chapters, and 
 gives an elaborate description of his death. As 
 it is eviilently written in glorification of Joseph, 
 and destined for recital ou the day of his festi- 
 val, and as the worship of Joseph originated 
 among the Cop>tic mouophysites, the origin of 
 the work is probably Coptic, and not .Arabic. 
 
 5. Ecangelium Thumie — next to the Prolecangl., 
 the olde.st among the apocryphal Gospels — was, 
 in the middle of the second century, in use among 
 the Gnostics, more especially among those Gnos- 
 tics who held docetic views of the person of 
 Christ. Wright published a Syrian codex in 
 London, 1875. 
 
 6. Evangelium Infantile Arabicum — first pub- 
 lished in Arabic, and with a Latin translation, 
 by H. .Sike, 161)7 — comprises in fifty-five chapters 
 the period from the birth of Jesus to his twelfth 
 year, and consists mostly of stories from his resi- 
 dence in Egypt. The first mna chapters fol- 
 low very closely the Prutevangl. ; the last twenty 
 chapters, the Evangl. Tltonue: but the intermedi- 
 ate jiart seems to rest on some national traditioti, 
 which explains the favor it has found among thi; 
 Arabs, and the circumstance that si'veral of its 
 details have been incorporated with the Koran. 
 The whole work has an Oriental character. Ori- 
 ental deuionology and magic come everywhere to 
 the surface, and many points cannot he under- 
 stood without some knowledge of Oriental .science 
 and the religion of Zoroaster. The Arabic text, 
 however, is hardly the primitive one, but proba- 
 bly a translation from a Syrian text. 
 
 7. Ecangelium Aicoitami consists of two sepa- 
 rate works, — Gesia Pilati and Dexensu.i Christi 
 ad Inferos, — wliich were joined together at an 
 early date, though the combination did not re- 
 ceive the name it now bears until after tlie time 
 of Charlemagne. The former of these two works 
 is of some im|)ortance for the explanation and 
 further elucidation of tlie canonical Gospels; 
 while the latter is of very little interest. In con- 
 nection with these two works, Teschendorf gives 
 some otiier apocryphal fabrications, which logeth- 
 «r form a group by themselves : namely, E/ii.stola 
 I'ilafi, a letter from I'ilate to the emperor, con- 
 taining a report on the resurrection of Christ; 
 EpUtuia Puntii Pilati, another l('tt(^r by him, in 
 •which he excu.ses the unjn.stues.s of ins verdict 
 by the impoisibility of resisting the ]irevailing 
 excitement; Anaphora Pilati, a n^port on tli ■ 
 
 trial, execution, death, and resurrection of Jesus; 
 ' Paradosin Pilati, a report of the examination of 
 Pilate before the emperor, his condemnation and 
 execution; Mom Pilati, Narratio Jo.sephi Arima- 
 thiensi.f, atul Vindicta Salvatoris. See Tischex- 
 DORF : Pilati circa Christum Judicio quid lucis in 
 Actis Pilati, Lips., 1855; Lipsius: Die Pilatus- 
 Aden, Kiel, 1871. 
 
 8. Evangelium .lecundwn ^Egyptios was used by 
 the Encratites and Sabellians. 9. Evangelium 
 yEternum, the work of a Minorite of the thir- 
 teenth century, and condemned by Alexander 
 IV. 10. Evangelium Apellis. probably a mutila- 
 tion of one of the canonical Gospels. 11. Evan- 
 gelium Duodecim Apostolorum. 12. Evangelium 
 Barnalxe. 13. Evangelium Bartholonuei. 14. 
 Evangelium Basilidis. 15. Evangelium Cerinllii 
 seems to have been the Gospel according to Mat- 
 thew arbitrarily remodelled, and in this muti- 
 lated shape accepted by the Carpocratians. 16. 
 Evangelium Ebionitarnm. 17. Evangelium Erie. 
 18. Evangelium secundum Hebraos, one of the old- 
 est apocryphal productions, written in Chaldee 
 with Hebrew letters, used by the Nazarenes, and 
 translated into Greek and Latin by Jerome. [See 
 E. B. Xiciioi.sox : The Go.ipel according to the 
 Hebrews, London, 1879.] 19. Evangelium Jacobi 
 Majuris, found in Spain in 1.595, and condemned 
 by Innocent XI. in 1682. 20. Joannis de Tran- 
 situ Marice, not given by Tischendorf. 21. 
 Evangelium Judee Ischariota:, used by the Cainites. 
 22. Evangelium Leucii. 23. Evangelium Luciani 
 and Ecanijelium lles'ychii. 21. Evangelia Mani- 
 chfenrum, comprising (a) Evangelium Thonue, dif- 
 j ferent from the above-mentioned, (b) Evangelium 
 I Vivum, (c) Evangelium J'hili/)/)i, and (d) Evan- 
 Igelium .Ibdee. 25. Evangelium Marcionis, a nmti- 
 1 lation of the Gospel according to Luke, by the 
 founder of the famous anti-Jewish sect. 26. 
 Marire Inlerrognliones, Ma/ores et Minores, two 
 works of iu)]iroper contents, used by some Gno.s- 
 tics. 27. Evangelium Matlhice. 28. iVarrntio de 
 Legali Christi Sacerdotio. 29. Evangelium J'erfec- 
 tionis, used by the Basil idians and other Gnos- 
 tics. 30. Eviiugelium Petri was in use in the 
 congregation of llhossus in Cilicia towards the 
 close of the second century. 31. Evangelium 
 Phiiippi. 32. Evangelium Simonitarum, or, as it 
 was called by themselves, Liber Qualuor Angu- 
 lorum et Cardinum Mundi. 33. Evangelium secun- 
 dum Syros, probably identical with the Emngc- 
 tium secuiujum Ilcbrceos. 34. Evangelium Tatiani, 
 a compilation from the four canonical (iospels. 
 35. Evangelium Thaildad. 36. ICvangelium Valen- 
 tini is I probably the same as th(' Evangelium Veri- 
 tatis, which was useil by the Valentinians, aud 
 ditfered widely from the canonical Gospels. 
 
 II. Apocrypliid. Acts of the Apostles. — The ori- 
 gin of tins kind of writings is about the, same as 
 that of the apocryphal (iospels, though tlu; hereti- 
 cal tendency is generally more prominent. For 
 tills reason they were much feare<l in the early 
 church, and we meet with freipient complaints of 
 peojile who manufactured such " Acts.'' Espe- 
 cially one Lucius (or Lencius) Clioriuus, a Mani- 
 cha^an, seems to have been very active; but of his 
 pro<luctions none is now extant, at least not in 
 the original sliaix'. These works are often tran- 
 scriptions of transcriptions; and sonuaimes the 
 version which lias come down to us shows a do-
 
 APOCRYPHA. 
 
 107 
 
 APOKATASTASIS. 
 
 cidoil Romanizing or popisli tiMidency. Thus the 
 Hift(iri(ii .-l/iDs/tilicrc I'sciiitii-Alii/i/i.', Lihri A'., as- 
 cribed to Aliilias (Bishop of Habylon, and the 
 first bishop consecrated by tlie apostles tliem- 
 selves), is simply a compilation from earlier 
 heretical writins's. According to tradition, the 
 worlc was originally written in Hebrew by 
 Abdiiis, and then translated into Latin by Julius 
 Africanus. But it shows a complete ignorance 
 of the time in which it is said to have been 
 written, and can hardly be dated further back 
 than the seventh cenlnry. The comprehensive 
 collection of Tischendorf contains : — 
 
 1. Ada Petri el Pauli, which in their general 
 contents agree with the De Mirijicis JU'iim el 
 Aclihuf Bealoniin Peiri el Pauli, ascribed to 
 Marcellus, the disciple of Peter, and published 
 by Fabricius (Cuii Apoc. , p. 632), as also with the 
 work ascribed to the Konian bisho]i Linus, and 
 published in Bibl. Pair., Colon., IGIS, 1., p. 70: 
 while the Hisloritc Ajxisloline de .S. Petro and </e 
 S. J '(Idle by Abdias, are very different. 2. Ada 
 Pauli et Theckc, ascribed by Tertullian {De 
 Bajilivn. 17) to an Asiatic presbyter of the first 
 lialf of the second century [See Caul .Sciil.\u: 
 J)ie Aden iles Paulus unil iler Tltecla u. die dtlere 
 Thecla-Lef/ende, Leipzig, 1877.] 3. Ada Barnalim, 
 of a later date. 4. Ada Philippi. 5. Aela 
 Philippi in Hellade. 6. Ada Andrece, of a very 
 early date. 7. Acta Anilre(e el Maltltice in Urhe 
 Antliriijiiiphaf/arum, of which the Anglo-Saxon 
 jioeni Andreas and Elcne, Cassel, 1840, by Jacob 
 Grimm, is a paraphrase. 8. Ada et Marlijrium 
 Mdltliice, a continuation of the preceding. 9. 
 Ada Thoina, belong to the earliest times. 10. 
 Consummalio Thomcc. 11. Marlijrium Barthnlo- 
 meei. 12. Ada Thaddwi. Whether the old tradi- 
 tion of King Abgarus of Edessa, his correspond- 
 ence W'ith Christ, the portrait of the Lord sent 
 to him, etc., arose from this work, or whether, 
 perhaps, it rests on the tradition, is questiona- 
 ble. 13. Ada Joannis, of a very old date, and 
 lield in great esteem by the Manichajans and 
 certain Gnostics. [See Th. Zahx. Ada Johannis 
 unler Benulzunr/ v. C. V. Tischendorfs Nacldass 
 hearbeitel. Erlangen, 1880.] 
 
 IIL A/iiJcrij///iat Epistles. — The Epistola Ab- 
 r/ari ad Chrislum and Epistola Christi ad Alnjarum 
 are given by Eusebius {Hist. Ecdes., 1, 13), who 
 pretends to have seen the original documents in 
 the archives of Edessa, and in a somewhat modi- 
 fied form in the Ada Thaddcei. [See R, A. Lip- 
 SIUS : Die edessenische Ahgar-sai/e i:rilisch unler- 
 suchl. Braunschweig, 1880.] Also other Scripla 
 Cliristi are known to tradition ; but they are so evi- 
 dently mythical as to lose all interest. They are 
 given complete by Fabricius in Cod. Apoc. N. T., 
 L, 303-321 ; III., 439, 511 sq. Several letters from 
 the Virgin Mary are mentioned, — one to Ignatius, 
 the pupU of John; another to the Messanenses; 
 and a third to the Florentines (F.\Biucius : 
 Cod. Apoc. N. T ,L, 834, 844, 8.51). But they all 
 belong to a very late time. Of the two letters 
 from Peter to James, the first one was placed as 
 an introduction to the Recofpul. Clement., and its 
 authenticity falls with that of the body of the 
 work; the second is found in Faukicius : Cud. 
 Apoc. N. T., I., 907. From Col. iv. l(j we learn 
 that Paul wrote a letter to the Laodiceans, which 
 13 lost; and it is not to be wondered at that this 
 
 lost letter .soon found an apocryphal substitute. 
 But it is questionable whetln.'r the te.\t which 
 has come dosvn to us, and is first found in Latin 
 
 in Pseudo-Anselm, in 
 
 iv. If),, is identical 
 
 with that mentioned by the Fathers. The letter 
 was incui'iiorati'd in the German Bible-transla- 
 tions before Luther. — The correspondence be- 
 tween Paul and Seneca, consisting of si.K letters 
 from Paul, and eight from Seneca, is first men- 
 tioned by Jerome, who accepts it as genuine 
 {Catal. Script. ]',ccles. 12); while Augustine 
 doubts its genuineness {Ep. 1.53; De Cii; Dei, 
 0, 10). In the middle ages these letters found 
 great favor, and were incorporated with the edi- 
 tions of Seneca's works ; and Faber Stapuleus 
 even ventured to place them among the Pau- 
 linian Epistles of the canon, Pans, 1512. The 
 whole correspondence, however, is nothing but 
 a piece of fiction, based on a conjectural con- 
 ception of Acts xviii. 12. [See F W. F.aruak: 
 .'ieekers after God, London, 1S09. J. B. Ligiit- 
 FOOT : E/iislle to the Philippians, London, 1873. J — ■ 
 In a similar manner the passage from 1 Cor. v. 
 9, where Paul speaks of an earlier letter which 
 has been lost, caused the fabrication of a third 
 letter from Paul to the Corinthians. Fauuicius: 
 Cod. Apoc X. r., I., 020. — Finally the Ejiistola 
 S. Joannis AposloU ad Jli/dropicum, is in tiie apoc- 
 ryphal work of Prochorus : A^arrat. de i'. Joanne, 
 cajL 34. 
 
 IV. Apocryphal Recelations. — Although we 
 know the names of quite a inuuber of apocryphal 
 apocalypses, we piossess the texts, or fragments of 
 the texts, of only a few. There is an Apocali/psis 
 .Joannis, different from the canonical, and pub- 
 lished by Tischendorf. The apocalypse which 
 Cerinthus used was referred back to St. John, 
 but differed in essential points from that con- 
 tained in the >few Testament, as Cerinthus 
 claimed to have received revelations himself. 
 Another " Revelation of St. John," discovered 
 in Spain in 1595, is said to have been translated 
 into Spianish by St. CiT^ciliiis, a disciple of James 
 the Elder, though at that time there existed no 
 Spanish language. One Aj>ocali/psis Petri is 
 mentioned very early, as used by the heretic 
 Theodotus ; another is quoted in the twelfth 
 century by Jacobus de Vitriaco, and is identical 
 with the Liljer Per/cdioni.^, discovered in 1821 by 
 Alexander NicoU. One Apoculijpsis Pauli, occa- 
 sioned by 2 Cor. xii. 2—4, is mentioned by 
 Epiphanius as being used by the Cajanes' an- 
 other, used by the monks of the fourth century, 
 is, according to Uu Pin, still in use among the 
 Copts. .V Syrian text of this work, discovered 
 among the Nestorians, was piublished, together 
 with an lOnglish translation, in 186G, by Cowper. 
 The Coptic text of an apocryphal work en- 
 titled Recelationes Bartholemai. was published, 
 together with a French translation, by Dulaurier, 
 Paris, 1835. .Some fragments of an Apocali/psis 
 Marice are given by Tischendorf. An Apocalt/psis 
 Thomce and an Apocalypsis Stephani are men- 
 tioned by Gelasius. IIUD. HOFM.iNX. 
 
 APOKATASTASIS. The term describes ths 
 doctrine of the return of all sinful and con- 
 demned creatures unto the favor of God, the 
 moi-al life in God, and heavenly felicity, and is 
 derived from Acts iii. 21 (Greek text), " restitu- 
 tion." The first Christian writer known to ad-
 
 APOKATASTASIS. 
 
 108 
 
 APOKATASTASIS. 
 
 vocate the doctrine as deduced from the Scrip- 
 tures was Origen (185-253). He lield that un- 
 repentant souls after death were punislied, but also 
 were instructed by spirits who stood nearer God, 
 and so — some sooner, some later, but all at last 
 — will be led in sorrow and repentance unto God. 
 He planted himself upon the Bible. Christ's 
 rule must be universal, and God must be all in 
 all (Ps. ex. 1 ; 1 Cor. xv. 27 sq.). The saying 
 of Jesus, that the sin against the Holy Ghost was 
 not forgiven in the impending teon, does not 
 stand ill the way, because, after the next Kon, 
 there are many others in which it could be for- 
 given. Origen considered this teaching esoteric, 
 and calculated to do harm, if spread among the 
 masses. A similar doctrine, it is claimed by 
 some, was taught previously b_v Clement : but 
 lie merely asserted, that, in the next world, there 
 is an operation of salvation upon lost souls; but 
 how far it effected a change he does not say. 
 These teachers advocated the dogma as part of a 
 theoiy of the constitution of God, man, and his 
 soul. In God. goodness was above justice. The 
 human will was not fixed, either in good or bad. 
 Sin was rather darkness and weakness, and there- 
 fore could be banished by the entering liglit of 
 God. See Or\gen, De Princlp., I., U. 2; II., 3. 1. 
 3: III., 6.1 sq. Horn. Xy 111. in John. Horn. 
 XIX. in Jeremiah. Contra Celsum, XL, '2Q. See 
 E. R. Redepenning's edition of De Prmci/nls, 
 Lipsia;, 1830. which contains llieron. ail Aril. 
 
 Similar ideas in regard to the divine goodness, 
 liumaii freedom, and sin, led to the advocacy of 
 the .Apokatastasis by Gregory of Xazianzen (328- 
 389), although not openly, Gregory of Nyssa 
 (332-.398) very publicly, "iJidymus "of Alexan- 
 dria (308-395) ; by theologians of the .\ntiochiau 
 school, Diodorns of Tarsus (fl. 375), and Theo- 
 dore of Mopsuestia (350-429), even Chry.sostom, 
 as appears in his comments upon 1 Cor. xv. 28. 
 
 In the West the doctrine had no prominent 
 advocates. Augustine (353-430) declared against 
 it. The doctrines of Origen were condemned by 
 the Council of Coiistaiitino]ile (513). After- 
 wards the A]>okatastasis was adv<icated by such 
 men :is the Moiiojihysite monk Bar .Siidaili in 
 the sixtli century; but it rose to far greater 
 prominence in later times, when Joliaunes Scotus 
 Krigena (<1. about 884), drawing from the pseudo- 
 Dionysius the Areopagite and Maximus, from 
 Origen and Gregory of Nyssa, incorporated it 
 into his theology. He taught that (iod is the 
 substance of all things, ami all things at last re- 
 turn to God : accordingly, the ,\pokatastasis is 
 only a part of the univi-rsal process by which all 
 individuality is extinguished. But the theory 
 did not jirevail. See Cliristlieb, .ScoUi.i Krii/ima, 
 Gotha, 18(J0. The mystics, Kckart (12(i0-li!27), 
 Suso (lii0()-13(i.j), and others, did not advocate 
 it: on the other li.ind, the " Brethren and Sisters 
 of tlie Free .Spirit" (thirteenth century) did, and 
 that fanatically. 
 
 We are thus brought down to the Reformation. 
 Johann Denk (d. 1.527) taught that even the 
 devil would be saved ; and he spre.id the notion 
 among lln! Anabaptists. (See Bullinger, J)er 
 WiilirlO'iJ/iren ii/fprniif/, Buch 2, Kap. 5; Menius, 
 iltr fjcinl ilcr WiiUrliiujer in the AVittenb. ed. of 
 Lutlier's Beric, II., 293; L'hlhorn, U. llheijiun, 
 p. 122; Baum, Capilo u. Bulzer, p. 385.) Uonk, 
 
 although well acquainted with Origen, did not 
 draw exclusively from him, but grounded himself 
 upon Bible studies, conducted in the spirit of 
 the Reformation, citing Rom. v. 18, xi. 32 ; 1 
 Cor. XV. 22 sq. ; Eph. i. 10; Col. i. 20 ; 1 Tim. 
 ii. 4 ; Ps. Ixxvii. 8 sq. The chief reformers, 
 however, held unanimously to the church view; 
 and the Augsburg and other confessions of faith 
 declare strongly for an eternal hell. 
 
 Towards the end of the seventeenth century 
 the doctrine of the Apokatasiasis again appears, 
 and ever since, it has found numerous advo- 
 cates. The earliest were Jane Eeade of London 
 (1623-1704), J. W. Petersen (1049-1727). and 
 the " Philadelphian Society," which Mrs. Leade 
 founded. With them the theory was established 
 not only ujion the Bible, but upon jiersonal reve- 
 lations. It is noteworthy that Jacob Boehme 
 (1575-1024), who influenced them, did not teach 
 this belief. The author of the " Berleburger 
 Bibel " shared their belief ; but the most promi- 
 nent advocate was F. C. Oetinger, the theoso- 
 phist. He read the writings of Mrs. Leade 
 and of the Philadeliihians. and wove this tenet 
 into his theological system, depending chiefly 
 upon 1 Cor xv. and Eph. i. 9-11. J. A. Bengel 
 (1687-1752), the father of modern exegesis, be- 
 lieved it, but thought it dangerous to teach. 
 The modern Dunkers, a Baptist sect in Pennsyl- 
 vania and Ohio, are supposed to hold this view, 
 derived from Petersen and the Berleburger Bibel. 
 
 The Rationalists of Germany since the second 
 half of the former century commonly, and super- 
 naturalists frequently, have, upon various grounds, 
 advocated the return of all souls unto (iod. 
 Schleiermacher was pronounced in its favor. He 
 maintained that the sensitiveness of the con- 
 science of the damned was a sign that they might 
 be better in the next life than in this, and, quite 
 characteristically also, that it would make an in- 
 explicable "dissonance" in God's universe, if a 
 portion of God's creatures were debarred forever 
 from participation in the redemption of Christ. 
 But his principal arguments were derived from 
 his doctrine of the will and of the method of the 
 operation of the atonement. 
 
 In England and America the opposition to 
 the doctrine of the absolute eternity of future 
 punishment has led to the formation of a denomi- 
 nation called the I'.vi VKiis.vi.isTs, which see. 
 
 An unprejudiced critic cannot find support for 
 tlie Apokatastasis in the sayings of Christ or of 
 the a|)ostles, save Paul. Indeed, iMatt. xii. 32, 
 XXV. 41, xxvi. 24, Mark ix. 48, xiv. 31, are direct- 
 ly opjiosed to it. At the; same time Rom. v. IS 
 sip, xi. 32, 1 Cor. xv. 22, have to be read in a 
 dilfereiit sense from that whicli lies on the sur- 
 face, in order to avoid the conclusion that Paul 
 taught it. 
 
 Rothe and Martensen, among recent theolo- 
 gians, have brought out the inner, <logmatic, 
 and ethical objections. Thus Rothe, in opposi- 
 tion to Schleiermacher, declares that an A|>oka- 
 tastasis contradicts the .self-determining will- 
 power of acceptance of salvation, without which 
 there can be no ethical value in the process; for, 
 if the man is fn-e to accept, he is etpially free 
 to nd'use. Marlensi'U lay.s stress upon the con- 
 flict between God's sovereignty and liumaii free- 
 dom, and, along with tiie belief in God's intention
 
 APOLINARIS. 
 
 109 
 
 APOLLONIUS. 
 
 to save everybody, admits tlie possibility of an 
 endless damnation. ■'■ KosTl.lN". 
 
 APOLINARIS, or APOLINARiUS, Claudius, 
 liisliop of llirrapolis in Phryq:ia. a contfni]H>rary 
 of Jleliios ; (lourished in the reign of Marcus 
 Aurelius (lGl-180), and occupied a prominent 
 position as an apologist of Christianity, and 
 opponent to jSIontanism. He was a very prolific 
 writer, and Eusebins and Photius mention sev- 
 eral works by him, especially his Apologj' ad- 
 dressed to the emperor; but only a few fragments 
 of a work on the Passover have been preserved 
 in the Citron. Paxchak ed. Dindorf, I., p. 13. 
 The calence contains numerous fragments marked 
 ' A7ro?dvaplov ; but they have never been carefully 
 examined, and it is probable that most of them 
 belona; to Apollinaris from I.aodicea. 
 
 APOLLINARIANISM, the doctrine of APOL- 
 LINARIUS THE YOUNGER, Bishop of Laodicea 
 in Syria (d. 390), the son of Apollinaris the 
 Elder, of Alexandria, who taught gramm.ar and 
 rhetoric, first at Berytus, and afterwards in 
 Laodicea, and became a presliyter in tlie latter 
 ■city. When the Emperor Julian forbade the 
 Christians to read the Greek literature, he 
 undertook to indemnify them as best he could, 
 and gave, among other works of the same kind, 
 a poetical paraphrase in Homeric verses of the 
 historical books of the Old Testament. The 
 son, who was also a teacher of rhetoric, and 
 afterwards (335) a lector in Laodicea, but who 
 surpassed the father both in talent and learning, 
 began his literary career in a similar way, but 
 later on concentrated himself on Christian the- 
 ology. He wrote commentaries on various por- 
 tions of the Bible, a defence of Christianity 
 against Porphyry, a defence of the Nicene Creed 
 against Eunomius and Marcellus, etc.; and these 
 works brought him in close connection with the 
 representatives of the Orthodox Church, such 
 as Athanasius and others. He was made Bishop 
 of Laodicea, and for a long time he was consid- 
 ered one of the chief supports of the Nicene 
 symbol, when gradually his christological the- 
 ory, originally aiming simply at a refutation 
 of Arianism, began to develop into open heresy. 
 On the basis of the Nicene Creed, there had 
 grown up a view according to which complete 
 .divinity and complete humanity were united in 
 Christ; he being at once a perfect God and a 
 perfect man. But to Apollinaris this idea seemed 
 wholly imtenable and self-contradictory, whether 
 approached from an ontological, or psychological, 
 or dogmatical point of view. Two different sub- 
 stances, he reasoned, each complete and perfect 
 in all its attributes, can never unite into one. 
 A complete God ami a complete man can never 
 melt together in one person. The idea of an 
 uv-dpuTTofteoc is a monstrosity on a level with such 
 mythological creations as the minotaurs, etc. 
 Furthermore, the idea of such a union in Christ, 
 between perfect divinity and perfect humanity, 
 at once destroys the whole idea of atonement. 
 Where there is complete humanity, there is sin ; 
 and if sin is thought of as a potentiality in the 
 nature of Christ, he is disqualified for the work 
 of atonement. As perfect div ;iity and perfect 
 humanity cannot piossibly un,' j in one person, 
 the humanity of Christ, if considered complete, 
 must have moved mechanically beside his di- 
 
 vinity, and it is only the man in Christ who has 
 suffered, been crucified, and died ; but " the death 
 of a man does not kill death." TIio solution 
 which Apollinaris offered of this difficulty con- 
 sisted in limiting the humanity of Christ to a 
 body and an animal soul inhabited by the divine 
 Logos. These doctrines made a great sensation, 
 partly because they pointed to certain weak 
 points in the orthodox confession, partly because 
 they fell in with the general drift of public 
 opinion ; and they caused the Church considera- 
 ble embarrassment on account of the prominent 
 position of their author. The Council of Alex- 
 andria (302) condemned them. Athanasius 
 wrote against them in 371. But neither in the 
 one nor in the other case was the name of Apol- 
 linaris mentioned. In 37.5, however, he sepa- 
 rated from the Church, and began to form a 
 sect; and in the same year he was condemned by 
 the synod of Rome under Damasus, which con- 
 demnation was repeated by the second oecumen- 
 ical council (381). Several imperial decrees 
 (388, 397, 4128) were issued against his adherents, 
 the Apollinarians, or Apollinarists, of whom some 
 returned to the Catholic Church, while others 
 joined the Monophysites. Of his works only 
 I'ragments are extant. See Bauu : Dreieinirj- 
 keit, I. ; DoRNER : Geschichte der Lelire von Christi 
 Person; Schaff : History of Ihe Christian Church, 
 TIL, 708. IIEUZOG. 
 
 APOLLONIA, St., suffered martyrdom at an 
 advanced age, in Alexandria, during the Deciau 
 persecution"(249). She was seized, together with 
 other Christians, and received such violent blows 
 upon her jaws, that she lost all her teeth. The 
 Pagans then lit the pyre, and demanded that she 
 should curse Christ. She hesitated for a mo- 
 ment, and then she suddenly leaped into the 
 fire. During the middle ages she was worshipped 
 as the patroness against the toothache. She is 
 commemorated in the Roman Church on Feb. 9. 
 
 APOLLONIUS OF TYANA, b., probably in the 
 same year as Christ, at Tyana in Cappadocia, and 
 educated at Mgx in Cilicia, where he studied 
 medicine in the temple of ^Esculapius, and be- 
 came acquainted with the various philosophical 
 schools ; was an ardent adherent of the New- 
 Pythagorean system, which, since the close of the 
 second century B.C., had spread rapidly from 
 Alexandria, both among the Greeks and the Ro- 
 mans. In his fortieth year he began to travel, 
 and visited first Bardanes, king of Parthia, then 
 the Indian gymnosophists, with whom he found 
 great sympathy, and, at a later period, also the 
 Egyptian wise men. After his return from India 
 he developed a great activity as a moral and reli- 
 gious reformer in Asia Minor, Greece, Italy, and 
 Spain, converting individuals, and forming con- 
 gregations. He stood in connection with many of 
 the most prominent men in Rome, and was per- 
 sonally acquainteil with Vespasian and Titus. 
 Under Domitian, however, he was thrown into 
 prison, but only for a short time (94). The last 
 years of his life he spent in the temple of Olym- 
 pia, surrounded by a great crowd of disciples, 
 who imitated his ascetic manner of life ; and 
 from here he disappeared in some unknown way 
 during the reign of Nerva, nearly one hundred 
 years old. His life was written by Pliilostratus, 
 on the instance of Julia Domua, the wife of Sep-
 
 APOLLONIUS. 
 
 110 
 
 APOLOGETICS. 
 
 timius Severiis, Vnit not published until after her 
 death (-217). Edited by C. L. Kayser. ;W ed., 
 Leipzig, ISTO, 2 vols. The object of this work 
 is evidently to give a representation of the ideal 
 Xew- Pythagorean philosopher; and although the 
 chronological details are correct, and in accordance 
 with other historical facts, this object is pursued 
 with such an unsparing jirofusion of mysteries 
 and miracles, that it becomes wholly impossible 
 to separate the real Apollonius from the fancy 
 picture by Philostratus. That the biography was 
 written as a direct parallel to the gospel narra- 
 tive of Christ can hardly be maintained; but it 
 was often employed as a weapon against Christi- 
 anity, both in ancient and modern days. [It has 
 been translated into English by Charles ISlount 
 (incomplete), London, 1680, Edward Herwick, 
 1809: into French by Castillan, Paris, 1774; 
 A. Chassang, 18(32 ; into German by E. lialtzor, 
 Rudolstadt, 1883 See essays by Baur, repub., 
 Leipzig, 187(5 ; Xewman, repub., London, 1872 
 (Hht. ."Sketches, II.); Reville, trans , 18GG; Niel- 
 sen, Copenhagen, 1879 ; Jessen, Hamburg, 
 188.5.] IWAX MliLLER. 
 
 APOLLONIUS is the name of two men active 
 in the Christian Church in the second century. 
 The one was an ecclesiastical author, and lived, 
 as it seems, in Asia Minor. He wrote a work 
 against the Montanists while Montanus and 
 both his prophetesses were still alive. The other 
 enjoj-ed a great reputation among tlie Roman 
 Christians on account of his scientific and philo- 
 sophical accomplishments, and because he deliv- 
 ered an eloquent apology for the Christians before 
 the senate, which cost him his life. lie suffered 
 martyrdom under Commodus before 186. 
 
 APOL'LOS (probably a contraction from .\pol- 
 lonius, helontjiiitj lo Apollo), one of the most effi- 
 cient workers in the early church, noted for his 
 eloquence and learning (Acts xviii. 21). He was 
 boni of Jewish parents at Alexandria, P^gypt, and 
 became one of John's disciples ; but at Ephesus, 
 in A.I). 54. he met Aquila and Priscilla, who in- 
 .structed him in the gospel (Acts xviii. 26), and 
 ever afterwards was an enthusiastic and success- 
 ful preacher in Achaia and at Corinth. Paul's 
 First Epistle (A.l). .57) to the latter city mentions 
 him as nnliappily the favorite of a faction. There 
 is no doubt tliat such a state of things was very 
 painful to .Apollos. who refrained from visiting 
 the church while tluis distracted. The last men- 
 tion of Apollos is Tit. iii. 13, and shows Paul's 
 affectionate interest. 
 
 Many scholars to-day incline to regard .\pollos 
 as the author of the Ejiistle to the Hebrews, — a 
 work for wliicli his abundant learning and great 
 eloquence fitted him ; but the designation is in- 
 ca])able of ]iroof. 
 
 APOLOGETICS and APOLOGY. Apologetics 
 is a theological discijiline; the apology, a jirac- 
 tical utterance of religious life. Apologetics 
 originated from a scientific demand, and asjiires 
 at systematic form, encompassing Christianity as 
 a whole, an<l defending it as tlie jirincipli! of 
 truth. The apology clianges its contents and its 
 method in accordance with tin! outward circum- 
 stances which call it forth, confining itself to 
 those points which in eacli imlividnal case have 
 been attacked. Thus the dilTerence between 
 apologetics and apology may be put down pro- 
 
 visionally as one between theory and practice; 
 and as theory always comes after practice, and 
 experience always precedes science, it may be 
 found easiest to explain the relation of apolo- 
 ' getics and apology, and fi.K the jiosition of the 
 I former in the theological system, in the course of 
 an historical representation of the subject. 
 
 I. Apologies direcled against ailcersarics outside 
 of Cliristianili/. — Up to the time of Constantine 
 the church had to battle for its existence, and 
 this circumstance gave the whole period an 
 apologetical character. The first written apolo- 
 gies, dating from the times immediately after the 
 apostles, are political defences addressed to 
 Roman authorities, such as those by .\ristides, 
 Qnadratns. Melito of .Sardis. Claudius ApoUi- 
 uaris, Justin Martyr, and Athenagoras. Also 
 Tertullian's Apoloijdicuis and Ad ScapuUnn be- 
 long to this class. The general object of the.se 
 works is. with reference to Paganism, to defend 
 the Christians against accusations of atheism, 
 debaucheries, treason, etc , and. with reference 
 to Judaism, to prove by evidence from the 
 prophets that Jesus was the Messiah, and that 
 righteousness cannot be attained through the 
 law, but only by faith in Christ. But through 
 the whole series of works we see how the 
 original juridical form of the apology gradually 
 grew into the theological, and how the defence 
 by degrees became an attack on the bliiulness 
 and stubbornness of Judaism, on the folly and 
 vanity of Paganism, etc. During the third and 
 fourlii centuries the Christian apology developed 
 still further, and its problems widened as it felt 
 itself established on scientific ground. Its object 
 was now, not so much to prove the piety of the 
 Christians as to prove the truth of Christianity; 
 and here a ehar.acteristic difference is discoyered 
 between the Greek and Latin apologist. The 
 former is a philosojiher ; and logical reasoning, 
 with proper application of the ideas of Socrates 
 and Plato, is the weapon by which he contend,* 
 for the truth of the Christian doctrines: the 
 latter is a jurist, and in the principles of the 
 Roman law lie finds the arms with which he 
 fights for the inalienaljh' rights of the in<lividual. 
 Chnucnt of Alexandria institutes with superior 
 ciilmness and impartiality' a comparison between 
 the religious ide;vs of P:igauisni and Christianity. 
 Origen proves in a more polemic:d tone, but 
 with admirable :icutene.ss and stupendous erudi- 
 tion, the trnstworthini'ss of the Gospels, the 
 diyinity of the miracles, and the intrinsic rea- 
 sonableness of the Cliristiau doctrines; while 
 Tertulli:ui appears as the legal defender of 
 Christi;iiiity, and pleads his c;iuse with cutting 
 sliarpness ;ind s;irc:ism. In the series of Latin 
 apologists follow Minutius Felix, Cyprian, .\rno- 
 bius, and L:ictantius; in that of the Gn-ek, 
 Methodius and .Vjiollinaris of Laodicea. 
 
 Its point of culmination the ancient apology 
 reached in the i)eriod from Constantine the 
 (Ireat to the middle of tlie fifth century, when, 
 freed from any pressure from without, the church 
 obtained the leisure necessary to purely scientific 
 I pursuits. In his two works, Ailo. denies and 
 De Jnraniiilioiic. .\than.asius made the first suc- 
 cessful atti'uqit to yindicate. Christianity by 
 I proceeding from s very centre, the doctrine of 
 I redemiition, and to refute its adversaries by a
 
 APOLOGETICS. 
 
 Ill 
 
 APOLOGETICS. 
 
 genetieal demonstration of their errors. From 
 his time tlie aphoristical and casual character 
 of the apology disappears, and a scientific treat- 
 ment according; to jirinciples becomes more and 
 more prominent. Although the attacks of Julian 
 gave rise to a number of works simjily adapted 
 to the special occasion, the systematic develop- 
 ment of the apology was, nevertheless, continued 
 by Ensebius of Csesarea, and Augustine. In 
 order to silence the reproach frequently made 
 against Christianity, that it was the cause of the 
 decay of the Roman Empire, Augu.stine com- 
 bined in his De Cioilale Dei the speculation and 
 historical demonstration of his predece.ssors, con- 
 structed tlie whole politico-religious defence of 
 Christianity on the basis of a contrast between 
 the kingdom of heaven and tlie kingdom of 
 this world, and interpreted tlie downfall of the 
 Roman Empire as the fulfilment of a divine 
 judgment in favor of Christianity. His di.sciple 
 Orosius took the same ground, and the system- 
 atic form of the apology was cultivated also by 
 Cyril of .\lexandria and Tlieodoret of Cyprus. 
 
 After tlie downfall of the ancient world, dur- 
 ing the first half of the middle ages, the Tal- 
 mudic Judaism and the appearance of Islam- 
 ism still occasioned some apologetical activity. 
 Against the former wrote Agobard of Lyons, 
 De Jn.iolentia Juilaorum, 822 ; against both, Rai- 
 mund Martins, Put/to Fklei ado. Ulanros el Ju- 
 dceos, 1278 ; also the Dialo(/us inter T'liiliKsuphum, 
 Jurlaum et Christianum, by Abelard, may be men- 
 tioned here. 
 
 II. A/)oloi/ies directed againul (idverntiries ti:ith- 
 in the Church. Although the apology always 
 contained more or less polemics against heresies, 
 up to the second half of the middle ages it was, 
 nevertheless, chiefly occupied with adversaries out- 
 side of the church ; but from this time it became 
 more and more necessary for it to vindicate the 
 divine basis of the Christian faith also before the 
 rea.soning spirit of the Christian Church. The 
 scholastic elaboration of the Christian dogmatics 
 was hardly completed, when the whole building 
 was shaken by the question of the relation be- 
 tween science and faith, reason and revelation, 
 and thereby the apology was compelled to assume 
 an entirely new position. The Sumina Cuthnl. 
 Fidei con. GentUes., by Thomas Aquinas, was the 
 first attempt to give an apologetic theory of the 
 Revelation in its relation to reason ; but it was 
 not until after the fifteenth century, when the 
 revival of the classical studies by the Humanists 
 in Italy turned the sway of Aristotelian forms of 
 reasoning into an enthusiasm for Pagan ideas, 
 poetical and philosophical, that the split be- 
 tween theology and philosophy became fully ap- 
 parent, and with it the new adversary intra niurof, 
 — the Pagan in Christian clothes. A\'ith steady 
 reference to these fralri.i in I'lalonc, Marsilius 
 Ficinus tried to christianize Platonism, and pla- 
 tonize Christianity, in his De Uetif/. Christiana ; 
 and by their historical researches, Picus of Mi- 
 randola, John Reuchlin, and others, brought 
 Christianity in close contact with the Jewish 
 Cabliala ; while Savonarola, in jirophetical spirit, 
 and with practical tendencies of the deepest ear- 
 nestness, attacked the irreligious frivolity of his 
 iige in his Triutnphnx Cruci.t. One of the most 
 important apologists, however, of the whole 
 
 period before the Reformation, was the Spaniard, 
 Louis Vives, whose De Verit. Fidei Christ., l.-)43, 
 was al.so directed against the Pagan tendencies 
 of his time. Immediately after the Reformation 
 we meet with Philipp de jlornays : f.a ]','riti} de ta 
 lielii/i(jn Clirilieniie, 1.57!), and the much more im- 
 portant work by Hugo (Jrotius : De Veril. lieliff. 
 Chri.-il., 1027. In the works by Abbadie; La Virile 
 de ta Jlelif/. Chrtl., 1G84, Limborch : De Verit. Jiel. 
 Christ. Cullalio cum Eriid. ./uda:o, 1087, an<l Iluet : 
 Demonslralio Evan;/ , 1G70, .some regard is already 
 paid to the deism and naturalism now looming up 
 above the horizon. The ino.st prominent work 
 of an apologetical character from the period be- 
 tween the si.xteenth and the eighteenth centuries 
 is Paiscal's Pensees sur la Relit/ion, 1GC9. Though 
 its form is aphoristic throughout, it gives some 
 of the deepest hints of the true nature and method 
 of apology. 
 
 During the second half of the seventeenth 
 and the whole of the eighteenth century, deism 
 and naturalism reigned widely in England, 
 France, and Germany ; and in all three countries 
 the doctrine that natural religion forms the true 
 kernel of all revelation — on the basis of which 
 assertion, first the necessity and value, next the 
 truth and possibility, of a supernatural revela- 
 tion, were attacked — called forth a rich apolo- 
 getical activity. England produced an enormous 
 number of apologetical works. Some of these 
 apologists, however, were not free from deism 
 themselves ; they endeavored to find a ground 
 common to them and their adversaries ; they 
 yielded too much to the principle of their oppo- 
 nents (Locke, Whitby, Clarke, Foster, and oth- 
 ers) ; they often sacrificed the kernel in order 
 to save the shell (Burnet, Robinson, Archibald 
 Campbell, Williamson, and others). Others, 
 however, assumed a decidedly polemical attitude, 
 and developed with great thoroughness and in- 
 dustry the historical evidences of Christianity, — 
 the miracles (Lei and, Pearce, Adams, especially 
 rjeorge Campbell against Hume), the resurrec- 
 tion of Christ (Uitton, Sherlock, West), and the 
 prophecies (Edward and Samuel Chandler. .Sy- 
 dus, Newton, Hurd). Noticeable are also Robert 
 Boyle, who founded an apologetical prize, — an in- 
 stitution which soon was imitated in other coun- 
 tries, for instance, in Holland, — Richard Baxter, 
 Cudworth, .Skelton, Stillingfleet {Oriijines sacne, 
 16G2, and Vindication of the Doctri}>e of Trinity, 
 1G97), Richard Bentley (against Collins), Warbur- 
 ton {The Divine Legation of Moses, 1738), Water- 
 land, '\^'atson, Stackhouse, Conybeare, Addison 
 (Essay on the Truth of the Christ, lielit/ion). Lard- 
 ner (The Credibdity of the Gospel ILislonj, 12 vols., 
 1741) showed wdth "great thoroughness and mi- 
 nuteness tlie trustworthiness of the New Testa- 
 ment history and its authors. A still greater in- 
 fluence was exercised by Butler's book, The Analoyy 
 of lieliyion to die Ctinstitiition and Course of Xature, 
 l73G, a work of great originality, which holds its 
 own to this day, remarkable for thoroughly refut- 
 ing objections without mentioning the name of a 
 single objector, and Paley's View of the Evidences 
 of Christianity, 1794, and Natural Theoioyy. 1802, 
 which still belong to the standard works of Eng- 
 lish theology. Generally, however, the necessity 
 and demonstrability of the biblical revelation 
 formed the somewhat narrow ground occupied by
 
 APOLOGETICS. 
 
 11:2 
 
 APOLOGETICS. 
 
 the English apologists. They considered Chris- 
 tian truth a set of doctrines rather than a new and 
 divine principle of life. [See llev. JoHX IIu.n't, 
 D.D. : Religious Tliouyld in Emjlanil, frnm the lle- 
 formutioii lo the End of lite L'lsl Cenliiri/, London, 
 1870-7-1. 3 vols. Svo. For a legible and accessi- 
 ble reprint of the more famous works produced 
 by the deistic controversy, see Christian Literature, 
 London, 1867 (Bohn). The volume contains : 
 Watson's •• Apology for Christianity " and " Apol- 
 ogy for the Bible ; " Paley's " Evidences of 
 Christianity." and " IIora5 Paulinae;" Jencyn's 
 " View of the Internal Evidence of tlie Chris- 
 tian Religion ; " Leslie's " Truth of Christianity 
 Demonstrated," " Short and Easy Method with 
 the Deists," and " Short and Easy Method with 
 the Jews ; " Chandler's " Plain Reasons for being 
 a Christian ; " Lyttleton's " Observations on the 
 Conversion of St. Paul ; " Cambell's " Disserta- 
 tion on Miracles ; " Sherlock's " Trial of the 
 Witnesses, with the Sequel to the Trial;" West 
 on the "Resurrection." The companion volume, 
 Christian Treasury, London, 1863 (Bohn), contains 
 Less's " Authenticity, Unoorrupted Preservation, 
 and Credibility of the New Testament," along 
 with other standard treatises.] 
 
 In France during the eighteenth century, frivo- 
 lous latitudinarianism, materialism, and atheism 
 followed in the track of the deistical enlighten- 
 ment. The contest against Voltaire, Rousseau, 
 and the encyclopedists, was carried on among the 
 Roman Catholics by Le Vassor, Denyse, Iloute- 
 ville, d'.\guesseau, Bergier (Traite historique et 
 iloginatiijue de la vraie lieliijion, 12 vols., 1780), 
 and Chateaubriand, whose Genie dn Christianisme, 
 1803, made a great impression by emphasizing 
 the aisthetical side of Christianity; and among 
 the Protestants by Jacquelot (against Boyle), 
 J. A. Turretin {Oxjitat. et Dissertat. TheoL, 1737, 
 and Traite de la rerite de la rel. chret.), and Bon- 
 net (/.o /laliiif/e/iesie philosophique, 1764), who, 
 from his peculiar stand-point of natural philoso- 
 phy, undertook to reconcile the belief iu mira- 
 cles with the scientific conception of the laws of 
 nature. 
 
 In Germany, as in England, the a))ologetic 
 literature of the eighteenth century showed a 
 double character, influenced in the former coun- 
 try by rationalism, as in the latter by deism. 
 Rationalistic latitudinarians defended oidy the 
 reasonableness and high morality of Clnnstian- 
 ity against open deniers ; while tlie orthodox 
 supranaluralists vindicated this revelation, with 
 its miracles and mysteri(!s, as divine truth against 
 both the naturalists and the rationalists. In his 
 celebrated Theodice (1710) against Boyle. Leib- 
 nitz maintained tiie complete! harmony between 
 rea.son and true ndigion; and in the same direc- 
 tion followed Pfaff, Moslieim, A. F. W. Sack, 
 Euler (liettuny der i/ijtt. Offlxj., 1747), Jerusalem 
 (Betrachluiif/cn liber die unrnehmstnn Wahrheiten der 
 Rel., 1768), Nbsselt {V<:rth(:idiiiunii der Wahrheit 
 uni! GOItlichkeit der clirist. Jtd., 5th ed., 1783), 
 llaller (Briefe Ulier d. wichlii/sten Wahrh. d. OJfh;/., 
 3d ed., 1770, and liricfe idier einit/e luniviir/e niich 
 lebender Freir/eistir, 177.5). Lilicnthal, Die (/ute 
 Snche tier f/iiltl. Offhij., 16 vols., 17")0-82, occupies 
 a prominent place on account of his thorough 
 historical investigations ; also Less : lieweis d. 
 Wuhrheil d. chrinl. Jiel., Otii ed., 1785, and M. Fr. 
 
 Roos : Tiiwijis ilasn die yanze Bihel vnn Golt eimjege- 
 hen, 1701. After the appearance, however, of the 
 Wolfenbiittel Fragments in 1777, and during the 
 ascendency of Lessing's ]irinciple of the trans- 
 formation of revealed truth into reasoned truth, 
 the contest grew considerably hotter ; but that 
 which was offered by the rationalists (Dbder- 
 lein, Semler. Seilei-, and others) was much infe- 
 rior to Kleuker's Neue Pril/'uiif/ uiid Erklarunr/ der 
 varzHijl. Beweise fiir die Wahrheit niul den (/ottlichen 
 L'rsprunrjdes Christenthums, 1787, and Untersuchun;/ 
 der Griinde fur die Aclitheit unil Glauhwurdigkeii 
 der Urkunilen iles Christenthums, 5 vols., 1793 
 These works, like Kdppen's Die Bihel ein Werl: ilej 
 f/ottlichen Weislieit, 1787, 3d ed., 1837, represent 
 Christianity as a divine plan in history. 
 
 III. Apolof/eiics proper. — Jlost of the above- 
 mentioned works owe their origin to some practi- 
 cal demand, rather than to any purely .scientific 
 interest. But, from the beginning of the nine- 
 teenth century, a desire grew up to gather together 
 all that was permanent and fundamental among 
 the various apologetical materials, and form it 
 into an organic system, an independent science. 
 Kant's and Fichte's criticism of Revelation, and 
 their attempt to confine religion entirely within 
 the limits of pure reason and practical volition, 
 made it more and more necessary to subject the 
 ideas of religion and i-evelation to a deeper re- 
 search, and place the whole question of the neces- 
 sity, possibility, and reality of a revelation on 
 an entirely new basis. The name " apologetics '' 
 was first introduced by Planck, Einleitung in die 
 Theol. Wissenschd/t, 1794; but for a long time the 
 definition of this new science, and its position in 
 the theological systeia, continued nncertain, and 
 a matter of dispute. Tzschirner made it a part 
 of historical theology ; Planck, of exegetical the- 
 ology. The first attempts at a positive represen- 
 tation are also somewhat vacillating in their gen- 
 ei-al character; as, for instance, P. E. Muller: 
 Krittelig Apoloijetik, Copenhagen, 1810 ; J. S. 
 Franke: Entwurf einer Apologelik d. christl. lielif/., 
 1817; Stein: Apolotjetik des Christenthums ids Wis- 
 senselidjl diirt/estellt, 1824. In his Knrze Dtirs- 
 tellunij d. theolog. Studinms, 1810, 2d edition, 
 1830, Schleiermacher places apologetics in the 
 philosophical division of the theological system ; 
 and tills was the (character which it assumed in 
 the hands of Sack, 1829, Steudel, 18.30, Von 
 Drey, 1838, Staudenmaier, 1810. Dieriiiger, 1811, 
 Fleck, 1847. Its relations to the philosophy and 
 history of religion were unmistakable. The 
 philoso|)hy of religion treats of the idea of reli- 
 gion, and constructs its system, without any refer- 
 ence to the Christian religion; while the object 
 of apologetics is to demonstrate the idea of Chris- 
 tianity as the absolute truth. The history of 
 religion represents all religions acconling to their 
 own profe.ssion, without any partiality ; while the 
 object of apologetics is to prove the absoluteness 
 of the Christian religion from the insulficiency 
 of the non-Christian religions. Not so clear, 
 however, is the ndatiou between apologetics and 
 dogmatics; though of late the former has gi'ner- 
 ally been treated as a more or less independent 
 introduction to the latter, as, for instance', by 
 Delitz.sch, Haumstark, and lObrard [and by 1. A. 
 DoK.VKit: Si/stem der clirisllichcn Glauhenslchre, 
 Berlin, 1879, vol. i.J. See, besides the above-
 
 APOLOGETICS. 
 
 113 
 
 APOLOGETICS. 
 
 Tneiitioned works on apologetics, Ilcubnei- : Apn- 
 lo/jrtit in Ersch and Grnber's " Encycl." I., Sec- 
 tion IV., 451; Tholuck : VenimclUe Srliri/h'n, I., 
 140; Ilirzel: Uber die chrlKtliche Ap(ilo<i('lik;\MZ\ 
 Zoekler: Beweii <les Glauhens, 1807, ]). iS et sq. ; 
 Sieffei't: Apoloij. Fumlameniirwuj d. rJirixlt. (Jlau- 
 l/enswisseiisc/iaft, 1871. 
 
 IV. Recent Apoloijies. — The criticism of tlie 
 school of Tubingen, the works of Strauss, Renan, 
 and others, and the materialistic tendency of the 
 whole course of modern natural philosophy, com- 
 bining into one general attack on Christianity, 
 have in our time called forth a great number of 
 .apologetical works of every description, of which 
 we shall mention the most prominent Stium: 
 Apologie il. C/iristenl/iums, 2d ed., 185G; Uli.manx: 
 Wesen d. CIinstenllium.% 4th ed., 1854 ; IIu.vdks- 
 HAGEN: Der Wee/ :u Chrixln, 2d ed., 1854; 
 Tholuck: Gespmrhe, 1840, 1864; Lurn.iunT : 
 Apoloffet. Vurtrilije, 8th ed., 1873; and Heihwnhr- 
 heiten, 5th ed., 1882 [English translations of 
 his Lectures, published at Edinburgh ; Sarinf/ 
 Truths of Christianitii (1868, now in 4th ed.); 
 Funtlaini iital 7VhM.< (1869, now in 5th ed.) ; 
 Moral Trutlis (1873, now in 2d ed.)]; Gess and 
 IliGGENB.\cH : Apnloij. Beitrdf/e, I860; Aubek- 
 len: Die <]<)td. Offenharunrj, 18(31, 1804; DiJSTEit- 
 DIECK : Apolog. Dcitrdge, 1865; Zezschwitz : 
 Apologie d. Christeiitums, 2d ed., 1866; Held: 
 Jesus der Christ, 1865; Curisti.iei! : Aloilenie 
 Zweifel, 2 ed., 1870 [Modern Doubt and Chris- 
 tian Belief, JST.Y., 1874] ; Die hesten Methoden d. 
 Bekilmpfung d. mod. Unglavbens, 3d ed., 1873 
 [The best ]\Iethods of Counteracting Modern Infi- 
 delity, N.Y., 1874]; a,nA. Apologet. V(n-lruge, 1870; 
 STErxMKYER: Apologet. Beitrdge, I. -III., 1871 [C. 
 E. Baumstark : Christliche Apoloqetik, Frank- 
 fort, 1st vol. 1872, 2d vol., 1879]; Van Ooster- 
 ZEE : Kampf nnd Frieden, 1875; IIettin'Ger (Ro- 
 man Catholic): Lehrbuch der Fundamental-Theo- 
 iogie, 1879. [J. H. A. Ebrard : Apologetik. 117.?- 
 senschaftliche Rechtferti(/(/. d. Christenthnms, Giiter- 
 sloh. Vol. I. 1874, \'ol. Tl. 1875 (important) ; F. A. 
 M. Weiss (R. C); Apologie des Christenthnms rom 
 Slandpunkle der Sittenlehre, Freiburg, 1878. 1879, 
 2 vols. A very rich and original work in this 
 line is Sand Christendom og Cliristeiiilommens 
 Sandh.ed, " True Christianity and the Truth of 
 Christianity," by N. F. S. (irundtvig, Copenha- 
 gen, 1800 (2d edition). Its first part is directed 
 against the rationalism of the first half of this 
 century; the second powerfully develops the office 
 of Christianity in the history of mankind.] — 
 French and English works : Fuayssinou.s : De- 
 fense du Christianisme, IS'A; Rougemoxt: Christ 
 et ses temoins, 1856 ; G.\ussEX : Le cano7i des 
 Saintes Ecritures, 1864; Guizot; Meditations 
 sur V essence de la rel. chret, 1864. — Erskine : 
 Remarks on the Interned Evidence of the Truth if 
 Revealed Religion, 1825; Chalmers: The Evi- 
 dence ai^d Authority of the Christian Revelation, 1824; 
 John Pye Smith: Scripture Testimony to the 
 71/essto/i, 6th ed. ; Pearson: On Infidelity, 1863; 
 Ph. Schafk ; The Person of Christ, 186.5, revised 
 ed., 1880 (published in several languages) ; Eid- 
 don: The Divinity of Jes. Christ.^l8Q7, 8th ed., 
 1880 ; Fisher : Essays on the Sujiernnturiil Origin if 
 Christianity, 1870 ; McCosii : Christianity ami Posi- 
 tivism, 1872; Fakrar : Life of Christ [London and 
 New York, 1874, 2 vols., 25th edition, 1880 (twelve 
 9-1 
 
 eilitions sold the first year)]; McIlvai.xe : T) i\ 
 Truth <if Christianity, 1874; I'eaisODY : Cliristian- 
 ity and Science, 1874. — Treating special points 
 of the subject : Ligiitkoot ; Supernatural reli- 
 gion, in Cinitemjxirary lievieic, 1875-76; Ull- 
 m.vnn: Siindldsigkeit jesu, 7th ed., 1803 [Sinless- 
 )(('.« o/'./('.vi(.v, Edinburgh, 1870]; Tholuck: Lehre 
 V. d'. Siindc, 9th ed., 1871; Kraus.s: Lehre y. 
 d. Offlig., 1868; Pressensi:: Jesus Christ, 1806; 
 [translated 4th ed., revised, London, 1871]; 
 Va.n ()(isrE-i7,KE : Das Bild Christi, 1864 ; Godet: 
 Die Ileiligkeit des A. T.. 1809; Fuller: Das 
 A. T. deui Ziceifel gegeniiber, 186!-; IIkixzelkr : 
 Die Anstijsse in' it. h. Schrift. ]8(M; Kurtz: Bibel 
 and Astronomic, 5th ed., 1865 [I'he Bible and 
 .Islrononiy, Phila., 11. d.]; KiinxEi!: Nalurjorscli- 
 nag und Kulturlelirn, 2d ed., 1864; Zoi.LMAXX: 
 Bibel tind A'atur. 3d ed., 1872; Gart.vek ; Bibel 
 und Geoloqie, 1867 ; Stutz : Der alte und il. neue 
 Glaube, 1874; Rkusch: Bibel und Natur. 4th ed., 
 1876; F.AisRi : Briefe gegen d. Materialismus, 2d 
 ed., 1864; Sch.mid: Die Darwinischen Tlieorien, 
 1876. — Periodicals of Apologetical interest " 
 Christian Evidence Journal, published since 1870 by 
 the Christian Evidence Society, London; Der BeiveiL 
 lies Glauhens, published since 1804 by Zockler, 
 Grau, and others. TiiEonoK cii'ltiaTLlEB. 
 
 [In addition to the works mentioned by Pro- 
 fessor Dr. Christlieb, the following deserve atten- 
 tion: the Bamplon Lectures, iinnted London and 
 New York, especially A. S. Farrar: Critical 
 History of Free Thought (1862); J. B. JMozley: 
 Eight Leclu^-es on Miracles (1865) ; C. A. Row : 
 Christian Evidences Viewed in Relation t> Mcdern, 
 Thought (1877) ; Hexry WaCE : The Foundations 
 of Faith (1879). The Hulsean Lectures (London), 
 especially F. W. F.^rrar; The Witness of /li.itonj 
 to Christ (1870); St.\xlk\' Le.\thes : The t !os- 
 pcl its invn Witness (\S7i) ; The same: The Re- 
 ligion of the Christ (1876). The Boyle Lectures. 
 Independent of these valuable courses, see Hor- 
 ace Bushxell: Nature and the .Supernatural 
 (1858); McCosH : The Supernatural in Relation tn 
 the Natural, 'S.Y., 1862 ; Emilie Saisset : Mod- 
 ern Pantheism, Edinburgh, 1863, 2 vols. ; J. P. 
 Cooke: Religion and Chemistry, N.Y., 1867, 2d 
 ed., 1880; Albert B.\rxes; Lectures on the 
 Evidences of Chri.'!tianily in the Nineteenth Cen- 
 tury, N.Y., 1808; Science and the Gospel, London, 
 1870; Aids to Faith, by several authors, N.Y., 
 1870; G. P. Flsher ; Supernatural Origin of 
 Christianitii, revised ed., N.Y., 1870. Boston 
 Lectures, Ijoston, 1870, 1871, 1872. B. IIarri:^ 
 CoWPER : Popular Lectures on the Evidences af 
 Religion, London, 1870; Thom.^s Cooper: Tlie 
 Bridge 'if History over the Gulf of Time, London, 
 1871. jilodern Unbelief. Lectures, edited bj' R'l'. 
 Rev. C. J. Elicott, London, n. d. Willi.\m 
 Fr.aser: Blending Lights, N.Y., 1874. God's 
 Word A fan's Light and I'iuide. Lectures by differ- 
 ent authors, N.Y., n d. ; J. W. Dawson; Na- 
 ture and the Bible, N.Y., 1875; Tayler Lewis : 
 Nature and the .Scriptures. N.Y., 1875; .Science 
 and Revelation, Lectures. Belfast, 1875; Henry 
 Rogers : The Eclipse of Faith, London, 1853 ; Ram- 
 sox B. Welch: Faith and Modern Thour/ht. N.Y., 
 1870; R. Flint: Theism, Edinburgh, 1877 ; the 
 same; .Inlitheistic Theories, Edinburgh, 1878: 
 E. R. Conder: The Ba.'iis of Faith, London. 
 1878, 2d ed., 1881; Paul Janet: Final Cause.'^
 
 APOSTASY, 
 
 114 
 
 APOSTLE. 
 
 Edinburgh; Charles AV. Shields: The Final 
 Pliih:so))l,ii. N.Y., 1878, 2d ed. revised; B. Mait- 
 laxd: Stcpn to Faith, London, 1880; AV. M. 
 Taylou ; The Gti^pel Miracles in their Relatiim tu 
 Christ and Christianity, X.Y., 1880; G. Frederick 
 ■\VuiGnT: The Loijic of Christian Eoidences, And- 
 over, 1880. Cau'.xs : UnheUef in the Eighteenth 
 Century, Edinburgh, 1881: Caldekwood: Science 
 and ReUfjion, X.Y., 1881. See, also, Chrislianiti/ 
 and its Antaynnisms in the vol. of the Evangelical 
 Alliance, X.Y., 1874, and Revealed Reliyiun in its 
 Relation to Science and Philosophy in the vol. of 
 the Pre.sbyterian Alliance, Pliila., 1881.] 
 
 APOSTASY (u-onraaia, aposfasia, '-revolt") com- 
 prised, wlien the doctrine first was formed in tlie 
 Churcli. both the aposlasia perfidice (revolt against 
 tlie faith), tlie aposlmia inohedienliie (revolt 
 against autliority) and the aposlasia irreyulari- 
 talis (revolt against tlie rules). A precise dis- 
 tinction between the two last forms of apostasy 
 was never established, however ; and at present 
 the apostasia inohedindiie is identical with apos- 
 lasia a monachatu (revolt against the monastic 
 vow), and tlie aposlasia irrefjidaritalis witli aposla- 
 sia a clericatu (revolt, against the clerical vow). 
 Neither of these forms is possible outside of the 
 Roman-Catholic Church ; while the aposlasia a Jiile 
 or per/idiie is known also to Protestant clinrclies. 
 
 Aposlasia a monachatu takes place when a regu- 
 lar member of an ecclesiastical order leaves his 
 monastery and its rules without due permission 
 from his superior, and returns to the w'orld either 
 as ecclesiastic or as layman. Apostasia a cleri- 
 catu, wliich can be committed only by ecclesias- 
 tics of the higher grades, is an unpermitted re- 
 turn to the world of some such ecclesiastic: 
 apostates of this kind were Talleyrand, Rouge, 
 etc. Both forms of apostasy were by the Council 
 of Chalcedon belaid with anathema, to which 
 later ecclesiastical legislation has added loss of 
 all privileges of order and estate, excommunica- 
 tion, and infamy. All bisliops were required to 
 seize and imprison criminals of this kind when 
 found in their dioceses. Apostates from monas- 
 tic vows were delivered up to the superior of 
 their order, to be punished in accordance with the 
 peculiar laws ami usages of the order: apostates 
 from the ]iriesthood were detained in prison 
 until they returned to obedience. Neither of 
 these forms of apostasy is punished by the state. 
 
 Aposlasia a Jide means secession from the 
 Christian congregation, and disowning of the 
 name of Christ. It is allied to lieresy and .schism, 
 involves both tliese crimes, and lias always been 
 considered a higher grade of tliem. The pas- 
 sages of Scripture on which the legal treatment 
 of tliis form of apostasy is based are, Ileb. iii. 
 V>, vi. 4-9, X. 1(1-29; 2 Pet. ii. 15-21 ; 2 John ix. 
 11; Luke xii. 9. In the ancient church, during 
 the epoch of jiersecution, this crime was, of 
 course, mucli m<n'e frerpiently met with than now : 
 but the ancient churcli mad(^ a distinction, and 
 called only such as seceded volunt;irily apos- 
 tates; while those who fell from weakness, or were 
 compelled by force, were classified as lihrllatici, 
 sacri/icati, Iradilores, i!tc. All were excommuni- 
 cated; and at first the church refused to grant 
 alisolution, either altogetlwr, or till the liour of 
 death: but afterwards this severity decreased, 
 nnd the excommunicated were received into the 
 
 church once more on condition of repentance and 
 penance. This is still the actual state ot the 
 case. The decree of Boniface VIII., identifying 
 apostasy to Judaism with heresy, lias been of 
 special importance, us it has been extended also 
 to other cases of apostasy, and its jirinciple has 
 been adopted by the state. Apostates to Islam- 
 ism, the so-called renegades, are still treated by 
 the Roman Church from this point of view. To 
 apostates to modern atheism, however, the prin- 
 ciple cannot be applied, as such apostates gener- 
 ally make no public confession, which is necessary 
 to ])rove the crime. 
 
 Under the first Christian emperors, the Roman 
 state considered apostasy as a civil crime, to be 
 punished with confiscation of propert.y, loss of 
 TestinienliJ'actio, inability to serve as a witness, 
 infamy, etc. : see Tit. Theodos. Cod. de aposlal. 
 (10, 7) tit. Just. Cod. ead. (1, 7) I. 1, 7. Th. C. de 
 Jwheis (10, 8); comp. Plainer, Qutest. de Jure 
 Criiiiin. Romano, IMarburg, 1812, jip. 205-267. 
 During the middle ages the Gerniau Empire had 
 no occasion to make laws against apostasy : it 
 adopted the above-mentioned ecclesiastical view, 
 and considered apostasy a qualified heres}'. The 
 German criminal codes of the early middle agfe8 
 know no penalties for apostasy, and the criminal 
 code of Charles V. (1532) abolished also the 
 penalties for heresy. 
 
 AV'ith respect to the Protestant churches it is in 
 the very nature of the idea of a state-church, 
 indeed, of a church in gener.al, that it cannot re- 
 main altogether indifferent to apostasy. It must 
 take notice of the fact in some way or other; 
 but of course it cannot employ the aid of the 
 state. See Linde : StaatsL-irche, Geioissensfreiheit 
 und reliyiuse Vereine, Mainz, 1845, p. 17; Am- 
 thor: De Apostasia Liber Sinyularis, Coburg, 
 1833; Georg Fe.jkr: Jus Ecclesice Catholicce ad- 
 ccrsiis Aposlatas, Pest., 1847. MEJER. 
 
 APOSTLE. This name, "sent of God," was 
 given in the Old Testament to the organs of the 
 divine revelation (Num. xvi. 28; Isa. vi. 8; Jer. 
 xxvi. 5) ; and so in the New Testament, not only 
 to Jesus, as freipiently in .lohn (of. Ileb. iii. >), 
 but to John the Baptist (.John i. 0), and to those 
 whom Jesus sent furlh (ef. I,uke xi. 4!) ; Matt, 
 xxiii. 34, 37). This is .surely the derivation ot 
 the word "apostle;" and that it came into such 
 universal and early use is good evidence that it 
 was the name given by Jesus to the Twelve 
 (Luke vi. 13). To the apostles Jesus gave a 
 special training. They were particularly to be 
 witnesses of his resuriection. Their number 
 was twelve, because tliere were twelve trilies, and 
 after the death of Judas, the disciples filled the 
 break by an election (.Acts i. 15 sq.) Tlie apos- 
 tles made their nation's c:ipital the centre of 
 their work; and, as the church grew, they je- 
 mained its head, and staid in the city after the 
 di.sciples were disjieised (Acts viii. 1). continu- 
 ing, however, when necessary, to make excursions 
 into the neighborhood (cf. viii. 14 sq., ix. 32 
 S(i.). Their number received the addition of 
 anotlier, Paul, whose call to the aiiostolate was 
 precisely as good as theirs, and whom they even- 
 tually recognized as every way fitted to work 
 among the llncircumcisioii as they were among 
 th(! Circumcision (.\cts ix. 1; (ial. ii. 11 sqq.). 
 The different sjiheres of hibur being thus reeog-
 
 APOSTLES. 
 
 115 
 
 APOSTLES. 
 
 nizeii, there was no clashing and no jealousy. 
 It may wpll be that Paul and Peter ctonld not 
 work together in the same place ; but that there 
 was a dissension between them is unprovcn and 
 impnibable. The Tubingen school has over- 
 strained the difference between the two leading 
 apostles. 
 
 Tradition assigns to each apostle a specific ]iart 
 of the then known world: accordingly there is a 
 festival of "the Disper ion of the Apostles," 
 celebrated .July 15; hv' there is no proof that 
 this was the case. Tnis much is true : Peter 
 and John, as is proven by their letters, left the 
 centres of Judaism, and labored, like Paul, amid 
 heathen populations, and, it would seem, among 
 the heathens themselves. [The signs of an 
 apostle were (1) Witness of the Resurrection 
 (Acts i. 21, 22); (2) Commission from Clirist 
 iiiniself (Luke vi. li; Gal. i. 1); (3) Inspira- 
 tion (.John xvi. 13) ; (4) Miraculous powers 
 (.Acts ii. -43; lleb. ii. 4). The word "apostle" 
 is al.so used in a wider sense of a gospel herald 
 (2 Cor. viii. 23; Phil. ii. 25).] K. SCHMIDT. 
 
 APOSTLES' CREED, The {Sijmbolum Aposloli- 
 rnm), can, in its present form, be traced back 
 ■with certainty to the beginning of the sixth or 
 the end of the fifth century. The text, Latin 
 and Greek, first occurs in a manuscript from the 
 eighth or ninth century of the Psalterium Gvvs- 
 cnin el lionuinnm, erroneously ascribed to Gregory 
 the Great. But it is evident from the pseudo- 
 Augustinian sermons, that this very text was 
 lused in the churches of Gaul about the year 
 500. As now no trace of it can be found before 
 this time, while various other creeds deviating 
 more or less from it can be proved to have been 
 in common use, the year 500 may be put down 
 approximatively as the date of its origin. 
 Singular it is, however, that a formula of so late 
 a date should have obtained the epithet ■' apos- 
 tolical ; " and of the meaning of this epithet 
 there can be no doubt, as the legend telling how 
 the apostles made the creed, by adding each one 
 separate sentence, is contemjiorary with the 
 creed itself. Hence it would seem probable 
 that there must have been in the Roman Clmrch 
 an earlier creed, which, when sujjerseded by 
 what is now knawn as the Apostles' Creed, 
 transferred its dignity, name, and legend to 
 its successor. And so there was. The conjec- 
 ture fits the known facts. Between 250 and 
 4(J0 the Church of Rome used a. shorter symbol, 
 or creed, which was held in the highest esteem, 
 in which no alterations were tolerated, and which 
 was considered the common work of the twelve 
 apostles brought to Rome by Peter. The Greek 
 text of this older and shorter Roman symbol 
 first occurs in Marcellus of Aucyra (330-341), 
 the Latin in llufinus (390). It must be noticed, 
 that, while with the younger and longer Roman 
 symbol the Greek version evidently is a transla- 
 tion of the Latin, in the older and shorter, the 
 Latin is certainly a translation of the Greek. 
 See both te.\ts in Schaff's Creeds, Vol. II., pp. 47 
 sq. Ambro.sius speaks of this creed, and seems 
 to have known the legend of its origin ; though 
 Rufinus, who wrote later, did not know it. Also 
 J.'iome, Ccelestine I. (422-431), Sixtus III. (431- 
 410), and Leo I. (440-461) allude to the apos- 
 tolical origin of the symbol ; and so highly did 
 
 Ambrosius prize it, that he ascribed a greater 
 authority to it than to any work of any single 
 a|iostle. The questions then arise. Whence did 
 this older, shorter, Roman symbol come V and in 
 what relation did it stand to the younger and 
 longer V 
 
 With respect to the first ipiestion, the very cir- 
 cumstance that the Latin version is a translation 
 of the (ireek ptiinta towards an Eastern source; 
 but there is nothing to show that the said Greek 
 text ever has been actually used by any Greek 
 church. Generally there is a great difference 
 between the creeds of the Western Church and 
 those of the Eastern Church, both internally and 
 externally. All the creeds of the Western Church 
 have, if not their root, at least their type, in the 
 old, short Roman .symbol. They have all an 
 historical character. New facts are added in 
 Slime local creed to make the symbol more fully 
 representative of the Christian faith; but nothing 
 pertaining to the original type is ever left out. 
 The Eastern Church, which knew nothing of a 
 creed made by the apostles themselves, felt more 
 free about the matter. All Oriental creeds are 
 pre-eminently dogmatical ; and changes were made 
 simply to suit circumstances, for polemical pur- 
 poses, in order to crusft dogmatical heresies. 
 Important historical facts are left out, and anti- 
 Gnostic, anti-Monarchian. anti-Arian definitions 
 take their place. Thus the Oriental creeds are 
 in a state of steady transition up to the moment 
 when the Nicseno-Constantinopolitan Creed is es- 
 tablished, and a rigid conservatism adopted. 
 Nevertheless, in this stream of shifting shapes, 
 the presence of something typical is very strongly 
 felt, and though this type cannot be bodily 
 caught, and palpably traced out, its resemblance 
 to the old, short Roman symbol, cannot be mis- 
 taken. But at this point all further demonstra- 
 tion becomes impossible. The common source 
 of these two types is a matter of pure construc- 
 tion. Only it may be asserted that the starting- 
 point cannot have been the common work of the 
 twelve apostles, or the w'ork of any single apostle. 
 In that case, the history of the creeds during the 
 second and third centuries would have been 
 another than that it has been. 
 
 With lespect to the second question, it seems 
 probable that it was the adoption by the Church 
 of Rome of the Nicteuo-Constantinopolitan Creed 
 which mediated the transition from the older to 
 the younger Roman symbol. The rule of the 
 Ostrogoths in Italy brought the Church of Rome 
 in dangerous proximity to xVrianism, and, in 
 order to emphasize its attitude with respect to 
 this heresy, the church felt compelled to adopt a 
 more exjilicit, so to speak polemically formed, 
 symbol. Then, again, when this necessity ceased 
 to press on the church, and a return to a simpler 
 creed became possible, the old symbol had grown 
 dim in men's memory; while the new stood fresh 
 and vigorous, recommending itself with its noble 
 simplicity, its easy completeness, and the great 
 favor it had already won in the churches of Gaul. 
 
 Lit. — Harvey: History and Theology of the 
 Three Creeds, Cambridge, 1854; Nicolas: Le 
 Symhole des Apotres, 1807; Caspari : Quellen zur 
 Geschichte des Taufsymhols, Christiania, 1869 ; 
 LfMUY: The Ilislvri/ of the Creeds, Cambridge, 
 1873, 2d ed., 1880; Westcott: Apostles' Creed,
 
 APOSTOLIC. 
 
 116 
 
 APOSTOLICAL. 
 
 Lundoii, ISSo; liAltox: (Jicek Oriijin of Ajioslles' 
 Creeil. Loinloii, l'S"^o 
 
 APOSTOLIC BROTHERS, or APOSTOLICS, 
 is the name uf a sect which was founded in 
 Upper Italy, in tlie latter halt of the thirteenth 
 century, by Gerhard Sagarelli, a native of Al- 
 zano, in the donunion of Parma. It arose as a 
 natural re-action against the ostentatious and 
 vainglorious splendor of the Roman Church, and 
 its principal tenet was a literal imitation of the 
 life and apparel of the first followers of Christ. 
 At first Sagarelli made only a very slight im- 
 pression, and found only very few adherents. 
 But the interference of tlie Bishop of Parma (in 
 1280), the decrees of Honorius IV. (in 12S0), sup- 
 pressing all religious associations not sanctioned 
 by the pope, the ex-communication of Sagarelli 
 by the synod of Wurzburg (1"287) finally at- 
 tracted attention to him. The number of his 
 adherents increased, and his attacks on the 
 worldliness of the church grew bolder. In 1204 
 he was seized, and compelled to recant; and in 
 1300 he was burnt for having relapsed. A man 
 of much greater gifts, Dolcino, now took the 
 lead of the sect; and by his enthusiasm and 
 apocalyptical prophecies he attracted great 
 numbers of followers. Against the troops which 
 were sent to arrest him, he defended himself by 
 force; but in 1307 he was defeated and burnt. 
 Still the sect did not yet succumb. In 1310 it 
 was condemned by a synod of Treves; in 1311 
 it appeared in the neighborhood of .Spoleto, in 
 1320 in Toulouse ; in 13(58 it was condemned 
 by a synod of Lavaur ; and in 1374 this con- 
 demnation was repeated by a synod of Xar- 
 bonne. In France and Gernumy the sect often 
 united with the Fratricelles and Beghards. bee 
 
 Dol.lI.Ml. 
 
 APOSTOLICAL CANONS. Under the title 
 Cnntini's i/ui ilicuitliir Apuslolonnit, an appendix is 
 in many codices, though not in all, added to the 
 eiglith book of the Apostolical Constitutions, 
 giving sometimes fifty, .sometimes eighty-five, 
 rules concerning ecclesiastical discipline. .\s 
 far as their contents are concerned, these rules 
 have been drawn partly from Holy \Vrit and 
 the tradition of the cliurch, |)artly from the 
 decrees of the synods (.\ntioch, Neo-Ca^sarea, 
 Xiciea, and Laodiciea), and partly from the 
 Apostolical Constitutions, a letter from St. I5asil 
 (370), etc. The author of tliis collection is un- 
 known. It was made in Syria, and jirobably 
 gradually, though within the fifth century, as 
 Dionysius Kxiguus incorporated the shorter ver- 
 sion in his collection, and, fifty years later on, 
 Johannes .Scholasticus, the longer one in his. 
 The Council of 'i'rullo (f)!)2), which repuiliated the 
 Ajrastolical Constitutions, recognized the .\pos- 
 tolical Canons, and after that time they always 
 form part of the (ireek collections of canon law 
 In tlie We.stern Church, only the first fifty canons, 
 that is the sliorter version, were recognizi'd; but 
 to the.se tile popes often apjieal ; .lolm II., in a 
 letter to Cio.sarius of .Vrles; Zacharias, in a letter 
 to Pepin, etc. The work was first published by 
 Merlin, I'aris, 1521, but after that time often in 
 colleclioii.s of canon law. They are found also 
 in L'eltzeii'.s (.'i/riHliliilioiicx A/'i/nliiliiii: (1853), )ip. 
 236-253 (85 canons in Greek). .See the article 
 Apostolical Canous, in b.MiTii and Cukktiiam : 
 
 Dictinnnrii of < 'lirislkin .1 iillipiiliis . and our article, 
 Apo.-iToi.icAi. CoxsTi 1 r rioNs. 
 
 APOSTOLICAL CHURCH DIRECTORY, a 
 collection of ]irescripts and instructions belong- 
 ing to the beginning of the third century, and ex- 
 taut in several Ethiopian and Arabian manu- 
 .scripts, but only in one Greek. In many points 
 this collection presents a remarkal>le conformity 
 j to the seventh and eighth books of the .\postoli- 
 1 cal Constitutions and to the Epistle of Barnabas; 
 1 but it is. nevertheless, independent of both. It 
 I consists of thirty-five articles, and contains moral 
 I instructions ascribed to John, and ecclesiastical 
 prescri|its ascribed to the other apostles, and 
 treating of bishops, elders, deacon.s, w'idows, ;)ie 
 duties of laymen, and the question whether 
 women should be allowed an active particiiiati(.^- 
 in divine service. The whole ends with an ad- 
 monition by Peter to follow these instructions. 
 The collection was first published in a Latin 
 translation of the Ethiopian text by Iliob Ludolf ■ 
 Coinmeiilarittx in Historidiii .Ellilopicam. The (ireek 
 text, accompanied by a German translation, haa 
 been given by Bickkli. in his Geschichte ilcs 
 K'lrchi nnrhU, (iiesseii. 1813. 
 
 APOSTOLICAL CONSTITUTIONS is the 
 name of a collection of ecclesiastical prescripts 
 in eight books, in which three independent 
 works have been combined. I. The first six 
 books were probably origiiuilly written in Greek, 
 in the diocese of Ephesus. They give in. the 
 loose form of a continuous speech, and in a very 
 diffuse style, a multitude of doctrinal, liturgical, 
 and moral instructions. The author is unknown; 
 but he has evidently drawn from the longer ver- 
 sion of the Epistles of Ignatius. The Greek 
 original is lost ; but a Syrian translation is still 
 extant in several manuscripts; and a transci-ip- 
 tion of the work, made in the beginning of the 
 third century, exists in Greek, Arab, Ethiopian, 
 and Coptic versions. II. The seventh book 
 treats in a very much more conci.se style of the 
 ditt'erent paths which lead to life or to death, 
 and — to judge from the contents, which may be 
 characterized as a transition from Sabellianism 
 to .Vrianisin — it belongs to the fourth century, 
 though before the Council of Njca?a. It ends 
 with some liturgical rules and formularies. 
 Chaps, i.-xviii. contorm often to the ICpistle of 
 Barnabas. In the Orient it is not known. III. 
 The eighth book, probably originally a ritual for 
 bishops, and according to its contents ohler than 
 till! Council of Nica^a, is found in various collec- 
 tions, both Oriental and Greek. The style is 
 peculiar, the form is that of ordinances; the 
 apostles command. It, too, contains, a number of 
 liturgical formularies. Chap iv.,on Or<liiiation, 
 bears in many codices the special title, " 'l"he 
 Constitutions of the Holy .Apostles concerning 
 Ordination bv Ilipiiolytus ; '" and also other col- 
 lections of apostolical traditions, I'^thiopiaii and 
 Arabian, are ascribed to this man. With respect 
 to tlu^ work as a whole, it is noteworthy, however, 
 that the three divisions somi'times give three con- 
 tradictory instructions, as, for instance, on the 
 ([ueslion'of tithes (ii. 25, 28; vii. 21); viii. 30). 
 
 Th" .\postolical C<institutions were never rec- 
 ognized by the Western Clinrcli, and were hanlly 
 known in Western Europi; before tin' si.xteeutli 
 century. In the Eastern Church, opinions were
 
 APOSTOLIC. 
 
 117 
 
 APOSTOLIC. 
 
 divided about the wortii and disjiiity of the work, 
 until the Council of Trullo ((i!VJ) decided the 
 Cjuestion by rejecting tlie boolv. It was first 
 piiLilished by 'l'iirri;uius (Venice, 15(3;^); after- 
 \v;inl by Coteleriiis. in liis l'alri:i Aposlolici (Paris, 
 1G72), and by Ult/.en, Cdii.tlilnlioiii'.i Apastolicre 
 (Scliwerin aiid Uostook, 18.'):i), De Lagarde, 
 Diildfcdlia Aiio.it. Si/rl(ici' (Lips., 18.51), drwce 
 (18(iJ). 'I'lie Ethiopic version was edited and 
 translated into English liy Thomas Pell Piatt 
 (18:iJ); the Coptic, by Henry Tattam (1848), 
 both for the Oriental Translation Fund. 
 
 Lit. — Dhkv: iJhtr (tie Konslilutioncn und 
 KaiioDf-s (I. Aposl.. Tubingen, 18:52; Bickell: 
 Gesc/iiclilc '/ex Kirc/irnrrc/ils, Giessen, 1843; BuN- 
 SF.x : Hijjpiili/liis ami /<« .-liye, London, 1852; h\- 
 <;.\i<I)K: De Indole el Orujine Canonum el Cun- 
 .itiiiilioniiin Aposlolorum. [Smith and Ciieetham: 
 Divlionarji of Chrisliun Aniiipidies, Tol. I., art. 
 " Apostolical Constitutions."] ME.JER. 
 
 I APOSTOLIC COUNCIL AT JERUSALEM, 
 / AD ■"It. In .\cts XV. there is an account of 
 I a meeting of the apostles and elders to decide 
 ' whether circumcision and the Mosaic law were 
 binding upon the Gentile converts. The occa- 
 sion of the council was the representation of 
 certain men who came down to .Vutioch from 
 •Jndiea, that it was necessary to salvation to be 
 Vcircumeised. The question arose whether this 
 was also the sentiment of the parent church in 
 Jerusalem. If so. then, the practice and preach- 
 ing of Paul and Barnabas flatly contradicted it, 
 and the easiest way to find out was to send a 
 delegation to Jerusalem, wdio sliould confer with 
 die brethren there. This was done. By com- 
 aion consent this council is the most important 
 .u the entire history of the church, and therefore 
 demands special consideration. It not onl}' fur- 
 nished the basis for the evangelical work of 
 the early church, but also was a field upon 
 - which the opposing parties could meet. Within 
 this century it has ahso been the target for 
 rationalistic attack, and the object of vigorous 
 defence. Thus central and crucial in primitive 
 times and to-day has been the first council of 
 the Christian Church. 
 
 1. The Cuuiicil and the Speec/ie.i. -^The narra- 
 tive informs us that the leaders, and the great 
 majority of the congregation, were liberal in 
 their views; but the opposition of some Phari- 
 saical members in the private preliminary meet- 
 ing which seems to have been held (vers. 4, 5) 
 was so vigorous as to compel the apostles to 
 ■jring the matter before the whole body ; and 
 thus the decree had the full force of the sanction 
 of the entire church (vers. 7, 22). This final 
 unity proves that the Jerusalem Church was 
 accustoraeil to the view Peter held to in his 
 speech, '• We believe that we shall be saved 
 through the grace of the Lord Jesus, in like 
 manner as they" (ver. 11). The men who had 
 come to .\utioch were condemned (ver. 24). 
 
 The chief speakers at the council w-ere repi'e- 
 >pntative men, — Peter, the apostle to the circum- 
 cision, but cured of bigotry ; Paul, the apostle 
 to the uncircumcisiou, whom a miracle had con- 
 vinced of the truth, and experience had taught 
 how to apply it ; Barnabas, the companion of 
 Paul, and, under his influence, a representative 
 of the great body of the present clergy, not 
 
 investigatora, but happy and able followers ; 
 James, the just man, walking in all the com- 
 mandments and ordinances of the law blameless. 
 The speeches matched the character.s. Peter 
 (vers. 7-11) fell back upon his experience ten or 
 twelve years before in the house of Cornelius, 
 and argued from that premise, that inasmuch 
 as God had |uit no difference between .lew and 
 Gentile, receiving them both through faith, they 
 (the Jews) could not refuse them (the Gentiles) 
 all the rites of their religion, or tell them that 
 circumcision and Mosaism were necessary to 
 salvation. Paul and Barnabas (ver. 12) spoke 
 of the attendance of miracles upon their work. 
 James (vers. 13-21), as presiding officer and head 
 of the Jerusalem Church, authoritatively summed 
 up the debate. He showed that it was entirely 
 in accordance with prophecy, that the " lawless " 
 Gentiles stood near the Jews in the church. 
 .And he counselled them not to act contrary to 
 the declared will of God, who knew all his work ; 
 i.e., how to manage the world, from the begin- 
 ning, and who had put the conversion of the 
 Gentiles into his plan. On the contrary, he 
 advocated following the plain indications of 
 Providence, and ridding the Gentiles of any 
 obligation to keep the law, merely calling atten- 
 tion to certain necessary things. The counsel of 
 James was not a command, and yet it carried 
 so much weight, that the letter which the coun- 
 cil sent to the Antiochian Christians by two dele- 
 gates who returned with Paul and Barnabas, 
 followed exactly the line of remark and prohibi- 
 tion he i^roposed, and probably was dictated by 
 him. 
 
 2. The Letter of the Conned. — The following 
 is an analysis of it. The salutation showed how 
 the several cl.asses in the council were consulted, 
 and had agreed. The Jerusalem Church denied 
 emphatically that the causers of the trouble 
 were authorized to speak in their name, or that 
 they expressed their sentiments. They indorsed 
 Barnabas and Paul, and sent delegates to repeat 
 their commendation orally. They claimed the 
 co-operation of the Holy .Spirit in the decrees, 
 as in the general tenor of their remarks. The 
 i/ecree.i: al)Stentiou from (1) meats offered to 
 idols; (2) blood; (3) things strangled (as fowls 
 and other animals cauglit in snares) ; (4) forni- 
 cation. The closing salutation, like the opening 
 one, was (ireek, not Hebrew, indicating the com- 
 plexion of the council. 
 
 The decrees deserve more detailed study. They 
 are most likely exactly the prohibitions laid upion 
 so-called Proselytes of the Gate, which, according 
 to Jewish tradition, were among those laid upon 
 Noah and his descendants; mark, liefore circum- 
 cision, and before Moses. We find, however, 
 that tliej' are contained in Lev. xvii. and xviii. 
 The design of the decrees was to shut off all 
 objectionable heathen customs, so that the Gen- 
 tile Christians might escaj^e defilement. (1) 
 The first prohibition was called for by the per- 
 meation of the social life by Paganism. That 
 p>art of the .animal which was not burnt as a 
 sacrifice was used by the sacrificer as food, or 
 else sold. The effect of the prohibition was, 
 therefore, to debar the Gentile believer from all 
 festivities, surely from all feasting; for the eat- 
 ing of such idol-offered food was universal. (2)
 
 APOSTOLIC. 
 
 118 
 
 APOSTOLIC. 
 
 "Blood" was forbidden, because "the life of the 
 flesh is ill the blood" (Lev. xvii. 11). It was a 
 very coiiimou article of food auioug the an- 
 cients. (3) So particular were the Jews in 
 regard to the slaj-ing of their food, that they 
 would employ only a Jewish butclier ; and the 
 same spirit is shown now. Consequently the 
 council laid upon the Gentile converts a similar 
 obligation. (4) The fourth prohibition was 
 directed against that sin. which, in the then 
 heathen world, was regarded as natural and per- 
 missible, and committed without shame. It is, 
 however, perhaps probable that "fornication" 
 in this passage may include unlawful marriages 
 ■within the forbidden degrees of kindred (Lev. 
 xvii. IS). We thus see, that, although the coun- 
 cil may have considered its decrees very moderate 
 and light, yet really it called upon the Gentile to 
 live a different style of life, and to raise matters 
 of perfect inditference into matters of conscience. 
 And it is noteworthy that while, in regard to for- 
 nication, the present Church of Christ is in uni-son 
 with the Primitive Church, in regard to the other 
 decrees the Eastern or Greek Church in the sec- 
 ond TruUan Council (092) re-enacted the law 
 against eating blood and things strangled, and 
 still retains it ; but the Latin Church very properly 
 has graduall}' let this prohibition drop. The 
 decrees found a ready reception, and exerted a 
 great influence (cf. xv. 31, xvi. 4, xxi. 25). They 
 established a code of manners wliicli protected 
 the weak Christian, and distinguished all believ- 
 ers from the lieathen. 
 
 3. Till: liffi-cin of the CiiuncU. — The immediate 
 effect was to greatly cheer the Gentile converts. 
 They breathed more freely. The Judaizers were 
 similarly depressed. But the council did not 
 settle all points; for it yet left open to a Jewish 
 Christian to put aside his Mosaism, while at the 
 same time James and others were in favor of re- 
 taining it. Consequently the liberal Jew could 
 (piote the spirit of the letter; the strict Jew, the 
 text of it. Peter in .\ntioch acted not so much 
 with the decrees of the council as with himsi'lf, 
 his speech and behavior. Wo can trace the in- 
 fluence of the first and greatest of the church 
 councils in the liealfhier tone, and greater moral 
 earm-stness, with which, in the First Kpi.stle to 
 the Corinthians (v., vi. S-lO) and in the Apoca- 
 lyp.se (ii. 14, 20). fornication and idolatry are 
 spoken of; and the sentiments therein expressed 
 are evidently not unusual, but the voice of the 
 church. In regard to the eating of blood, the 
 inforniation is slight; but it can be said, that, in 
 the si'cond half of tlie second century, it was ab- 
 iiorred in the church. .See Tertnllian, Ajioloi/i-lird 
 c. !); Clemi-nl. Hum. VII. 4,8; Rico>/n. IV.'M. 
 
 There luis lieen a suspicion that the .Vets vin- 
 dicated an altogether too prominent position for 
 the Jerusalem Church in the council. But ex- 
 amination shows that there was no authority 
 exerted upon the (Jentih; converts wliieh did not 
 coincide with their convictions. So Paul could 
 heartily defend the position there taken. 
 
 4. X/ie Arcouiif.s fj'wini in Arts sv. ami Gul, ii. 
 1-10. — An event of so much importance, we 
 should expect, would be mentioned again in the 
 New Testament ; and, indeed, a reference (dis- 
 puted) iiiis beni fouml in Paul's lOpistle to the 
 Galatians (ii. 1-10). liul there are evident dif- 1 
 
 ferences, although they can be reconciled. The 
 points of dissimilarity are, (1) The visit to 
 Jerusalem is the third mentioned in the Acts, 
 after Saul's conversion ; in Galatians it is appar- 
 ently the second. (2) The .-Vets I'elate a public 
 meeting of the entire church. Galatians refers 
 to a private meeting between Paul and the prin- 
 cipal (■' pillar ") apostles ; but he hints also at a 
 juiblic meeting, when he says that he laid his 
 Gospel before the brethren of Jerusalem, i.e., 
 the entire congregation, and also "' privately," or 
 apart, before the pillar-apostles. (3) The coun- 
 cil in Jerusalem was summoned at the request 
 of the .Vntiochian Church. Paul, in Galatians, 
 says he went up by '■ revelation." (4) In Gala- 
 tians the circumcision (V) of Titus is mentioned: 
 there is nothing said about it in the Acts. (5) 
 The .\cts give the text of a letter; there is no 
 reference to it in Galatians. — actions rather than 
 words are mentioned, — and the only exhortation 
 given was "to remember the j)Oor." 
 
 In view of these dissimilarities it has been 
 common with " liberal " theologians, especially of ] 
 the "Baur" school, to throw discredit upon the ,' 
 fifteenth chapter of Acts, to regard it as written to 
 reconcile the Petrine and Pauline parties, but 
 not as history. But this view is being aban- i 
 doned, at least in part, even by liberal critics, as 
 Weizsiicker, Keim, and Schenkel. who have come 
 to the conclusion that the difference between 
 Peter and Paul was not nearly as great as Haur 
 had represented it. Schenkel confesses himself 
 now convinced that the .\cts is contemporary and 
 reliable (Das Clirixtusbilil der Aposlal, Leipzig, 
 1879, p. xi.). Keim {Ann dem Urckri.ilevtlium, 
 Zurich, 1S7S, p. 89) says, that, although the hook 
 is defective, it yet supplements Paul, and tells 
 the story of active and synqiathetic co-operation 
 with Paul. A closer study of the two pass;iges 
 serves to bring out their harmony, and does away 
 with the necessity of Paley's suggestion that in 
 (Jalatians we liave mention of a visit to Jerusa- 
 lem, not elsewhi're recorded. 1. There are five 
 visits of Paul to Jerusalem nn'iitioued in the 
 Acts. In identifying that of Galatians (ii. 1-10), 
 the first (ix. 2(i) and the last (xxi. 1.)) must 
 evidently be left out; but the second (xi. 30. xii. 
 2.")) and the fourth (xviii. 22) have foimd advo- 
 cates. But against the first ideMtificatiou "there 
 are the facts (1) that it is not easy to pKice four- 
 teen years between the visit of chap. ix. 27. and 
 and that of chap. xi. 30; (2) the visit of chap, 
 xi. 30 appears in the history as confined to the 
 single object of carrying relief to the suffering 
 poor of the church at Jerusalem ; (3) the cpu'stion 
 as to enforcing circunu'ision had not then 'been 
 raised after it.? ajiparent .settlement in l.lie case 
 of Ccn'uelins; (1) had tin' agreement referred to 
 in Galatians (ii. 9) preceded the council, it would 
 assm'edly have been ajipealed to in the course of 
 the debate at the council. Against the second 
 there are the facts (1) that the interval would in 
 that case liave been more than fourteen years; 
 and (2) that it was not likely that the question 
 shduld have been rai.sed again after the decision 
 of the council " (Plumptri! on .\cts xv. 2, in 15p. 
 miicott's Nor 'rfstiimiiit Ci)miiH'i)liiri/ for ICni/lisf, 
 lieiiih'i.i). We decide, therefore, that the attend- 
 ance of Paul on the council was his third visit. 
 Paul iloes not say, "I went u[) the secontl time,"
 
 APOSTOLIC. 
 
 119 
 
 APOSTOLIC. 
 
 but "I went up apain." The absence of refer- 
 once to it ill (Jalatians is explaiiicil liy the fact 
 that there he is statiiisj how much intercourse he 
 li.ail had with the cliief aposth'S, and as, on tills 
 visit, he prohal)ly did not see them, he omits all 
 mention of it. Hence tliere is no cliscre]iancy 
 between Acts xv. and Gal. ii. in rei,','ird to time. 
 Nor is there any insuperable difficulty in regard 
 to the contents of the two accounts. (1) In both, 
 the matters of consultation are circumcision and 
 the Mosaic law; and the origin of the consultation 
 was in each case the effort of the Judaizers. (2) 
 In both, the practice of the apostle was confirmed. 
 (3) In both, Peter appears as the equal of Paul. 
 (I) In both, the Pauline principles are trium- 
 jihaiit. (5) It was evidently impossible for Paul 
 to carry on his argument for his apostolic posi- 
 tion, and yet be silent about this most important 
 council; for it was in it that his claim was 
 fullest recognized. Further, that Paul ascribes 
 his journey to revelation proves the coincidence 
 between outward events and the Spirit's action. 
 The Antiocliian Church sent him; but God 
 prompted him to go. Paul deals with the pri- 
 vate, inner history of the council ; the .Vets, with 
 the public. Hence the Acts are silent about 
 Titus, as they are about the giving to Paul of 
 the right hand of fellowship. 
 
 5. The Aposlotic Council at Jerumlem and Church 
 Gorernnient. — Each form, Episcopal, Presbyte- 
 rial, Congregational, appeals to this council for 
 support. But, while it may be freely granted 
 that there was some particular order then used, it 
 does not follow that the order was of binding 
 force. As far as we can gather, there were regu- 
 larly appointed delegates from .^ntioch, a called 
 meeting of the apostles and eldei's, a further 
 meeting of the church, a presiding officer (James, 
 nol Peter), and a letter, which was official in the 
 sense that it received the indorsement of the 
 Jerusalem Church. This letter contained direc- 
 tions which were thought to be in-spired. It is 
 easy to see elements of the thi-ee great methods 
 of church government in such a council, and at 
 the same time to be able to prove that no one 
 method is entirely favored by it. About the 
 only things it does prove are, that there was 
 no supremacy of Peter, that it was considered a 
 good thing to refer perplexing questions to the 
 mother-church, and that in the council all — apos- 
 'tles, elders, and brethren — took part. Not, there- 
 fore, as furnishing a norm, but as demonstrating 
 the essential unity of the church, is the council 
 a'delighful feature of the primitive-church his- 
 tory. Its so-called -'decrees" have p.assed out of 
 sight as the division of the church into circum- 
 cised and uncircumcised converts ceased; but 
 the yoke of Mosaisni it broke has never been re- 
 made. 
 
 Lit. — Besides the books already incidentally 
 mentioned, see the special thesis, K. Schmidt: 
 De aposlolornm decreti sententia el consiliu, Erlang- 
 en, 1874 ; and the article by the same in Hkkzog : 
 Real-encykhpddie s. v. " Apostel Konvent", vol. 1 ; 
 ScHAFF : History of (lie Apostolic Church, pp. 21.5- 
 257 ; Bishop Lightfoot's Excursus, " iV. Paul 
 and the Three " in his Commentary on Galatians ; 
 Canon V aixiwk's Life of Paul ; Karl Wie.seler: 
 Zur Geschichte d. Neutestamentliclien Schrift u. d. 
 Urchristenthunis, Leipzig, 1880; and the latest 
 
 discussion and literature in Dr. .Schaff's Church 
 Ifislon/, vol. 1, revised edition, 1882, pp. ;5;50 
 sqq. ' S.\MUEL M. .TACKSO.N'. 
 
 APOSTOLIC FATHERS (Patres Apnstolici), a 
 term a|>pliiMl in a wider sense to all immeiliate 
 jiupils of tliH apostles, and in a nam wcrsi'iise to 
 those only who have left written trstinionies. 
 They fall into two groups; namely, disci]i!fs of 
 Paul, Bauxahas, Ci.kmicxs Uoma.nts, aii(I IIeu- 
 .mas; and disciples of John, Ignatius, Poi.y- 
 CAHI-, and Papias. Diony.sius Aueopagita 
 (see title), who is sometimes also reckoned among 
 the Apostolic Fathers as a convert of Paul, be- 
 longs to a much later age. The .\postolic Fathers 
 are valuable for the contrast they present to the 
 New-Testament writers. They move in the ele- 
 ment of living tradition, and make reference to 
 the oral preaching of the apostles; but by their 
 language they plainly show that the difference 
 between them and the apostles is one of kind, not 
 of degree. Tlie pious, and in tlie main excellent 
 Clemens Romanus, Ignatius, with his morbid, 
 feverish longing after martyrdom. Polycarp. with 
 his remarkable echoes of tlie New Testament, 
 Barnabas, allegorical and tedious. Hernias, inge- 
 nious though strained, not to mention the others, 
 — these are a great contrast to Paul, Peter, John, 
 James, Jude, and the evangelists. That the Apos- 
 tolic Fatliers were truly pious men, that they had 
 learned much about Christ, does not free them 
 from the charge of mediocrity, and starts the in- 
 quiry, Did they differ from the New-Te.stainent 
 writers simply as talent differs from genius, or 
 did they differ as uninspirefl from inspired men? 
 The unprejudiced judgment leads to the conclu- 
 sion that tlie New Testament came from God ; 
 the Pdlriun Apostolicoruni Opera, from men. .See 
 separate articles on the writers mentioneil. 
 
 Lit. — Eilitions. The best editions of this 
 whole body of literature are those by J. B. Cote- 
 i.EKius, Paris, 1672, which was the first col- 
 lection re-edited with notes by J. Ci.kricus (Le 
 Clerc), Antwerp, 1098, 2d ed., 1724; RiciiAiti) 
 RussKL, London, 1746; GuiL. Jacobso.v, 0.x- 
 ford, 18:58, 4th ed., 1863; C. J. Hkfei.e, Tubin- 
 gen, 1839, 5th ed. by Fa.NK, 1878; Dressel. Leip- 
 zig, 1857, 3d ed. by Gebhardt, IIak.vack. and 
 Zaun, 1876. The last edition is the best and 
 fullest. Lightfoot's promised edition. ,so far, 
 embraces Clcmenl of Rome, London, 1869-77, 2 
 parts (containing Bryennios' recovered portions of 
 Clement's Epistles), Ignatius and Pob/carp, 1885, 2 
 vols. — Translations. There are good translations 
 of the Apostolic Fathers by .\rcliliisliop \V.\ke, 
 London, 1693, often reprinted, latest edition, care- 
 fully revised, Oxford, 1861; by Rdhkrts, Do.\- 
 Ai.Dso.v, and Cuombie as vol. I. of tlie •' .A.nte- 
 Nicene Christian Library," Edinburgh, 1887; 
 and by C. II. Hoole, London, 1^72. X good 
 German translation is that of H. Scholz, Guter- 
 sloh, 1865. — Dissertations. Besides the Prolego- 
 mena to the editions named above see Mohler 
 (R. C): Palrolof/ie, ed. Reitmayr, Mainz, 1840; 
 A. Schweolek: Das nacliapostolische Zeitalter, 
 Tubingen, 1846 (full of untenable hypotheses); 
 Reuss : Hist, de la theol. chret. au sibcle ajiostoi., 
 Strassburg, 1852, 3d ed., 1864, English transla- 
 tion, Edin., 1872; A. IIilgenfeld: Die apos- 
 totischen Vdler, Halle, 1853 ; Lechler : Das apoS' 
 tolische und nacliapostolische Zeitalter, 3d ed , Karls-
 
 APOSTOLIC. 
 
 120 
 
 APSE. 
 
 nihe, 1885; Donaldson: A Critical History of 
 Christirtn Literature and Doctrine, from the Death of 
 the Apostles to the Council of jS^ice. London, 1864- 
 06.3 vols.; The same: The Apostolical Fathers; 
 a critical account of their genuine writings, and of 
 their doctrines, London, 187-1 ; Alzoq : Grunilriss 
 der Patrologie, Freilniis; im Breisgau, 1860, 3d 
 ed., 1876 ; Sphix/i. (R. C.) : Die Theologic der 
 ap'iftollschin Viilir, Wien, 1880. 
 
 APOSTOLIC KING, an honorary title of the 
 kings of Hungary, given originally to Stephen, 
 the first Christian King of Hungary, by Pope 
 Silvester H. (999-1003). on account 'of liis zeal 
 for the jiropagation of the faith ; renewed and 
 confirmed to Slaria Theresa, for the .Xnstro-Hun- 
 garian royal family, by a brief of Clemens XHL, 
 Aug. 25, 1758 ; abolished in 1818, but resumed 
 in is.')-.'. 
 
 APOTACTICI (Renuntiants), also called Apos- 
 tolici, an ascetic sect which arose in Phrygia, 
 C'ilicia, and Pamphylia in the third century, and 
 held tenets similar to those of the Encratites, 
 Marcionites, etc. They renounced marriage, 
 private property, etc., and pretended to follow 
 apostolical advice on these points. 
 
 APPEALS to the pope, in his quality of primate 
 of the Konum-Catholic Church, were not formally 
 recognized as a legal instrument in the adminis- 
 tration of justices, until the j-ear of 343, by the 
 Council of Sardica. It was there agreed that a 
 bishop who had been condemned by a synod 
 had a right to appeal to the Roman patriarch, 
 who, in such a ca.se, should either confirm the 
 verdict, or .appoint new judges. In the course of 
 half a century, this decree of the council grew, 
 in Rome, into the assumption, that, in all impor- 
 tant cases, an appeal from the verdict of a bishop 
 could be made to the popie, not only by another 
 bishop, but by any one aggrieved; and this view 
 was not only repeated, but even carried further, 
 by the Psendo-Isidorean decretals. Tliey state, 
 that not only can all cases be brought before the 
 papal court by bishops, but causa: majores cannot 
 be decided in any other court; tliat not only can 
 appeals to the pope be made by bishops, and in 
 caiwis majorihus, but by any one aggrieved, and in 
 any kind of c:isps, etc. In the twelfth century, 
 when the pope had arrogated the right to decide, 
 immediately or through liis leg;ites, in all cases 
 arising under tin; episco])al courts, it became 
 generally' miderstooii that .an appeal could be 
 made even from the .secular courts to the church, 
 that is, finally to the Roman c\iria : and, thougli 
 Alexander III. acknowledged th.at such an apjieal 
 was not strictly according to rule, Innocent HI. 
 declared that it was the duty of the church to 
 fight against every kind of sin, conseiiucntly, also, 
 against the lack of justice in tiie secular courts. 
 From this time, ajjpeals to the pope became 
 more and more fre<juent; and the part they 
 jilayed in Rome is very vividly de.scribed by Ber- 
 nard of Clairveaux in his l)e Coiisideratione. 
 
 The first instance in Kiigland of an appeal to 
 Rome occurred in the time of King .Stejihen, in 
 the ca.se of Henry of Hlois, Hishop of Winches- 
 ter ; and although the Constitutions of Claren- 
 d(jn decliirerl, " If appeals arise, they ought to 
 proceed from the archdejieon to the bishop, from 
 the bishop to the archbi.Hhoi), and, lastly, to the 
 king (if the archbishop fail in doing justice), so 
 
 that the controversy be ended in the archbishop's 
 court by a precept from the king, and so that it 
 go no further without the king's consent," and 
 similar prohibitions were enforced now and then, 
 .appeals to Rome continued to occur until the 
 time of Henry VIII. In Germany the first re- 
 action .against this papal usurpation appeared in 
 the •■ Golden Hull," which forbade appeals to 
 Rome from a civil court. Nest the Concordatum 
 Constant of 1418, .and the decree of the tliirty-first 
 sitting of the Council of Basel, determined" that 
 appeals to the pope should not be decided in 
 Rome by the curia, but hyjuilices inparlilius. chosen 
 first by the provincial or diocesan .synods, and 
 afterwards, when this in.stitution had fallen into 
 decay, by the bishops and cliapters. This was a 
 de.ath-blow to the appeals to the pope: and even 
 before the reforms of Joseph II.. all German 
 governments, Roman-Catholic as well as Protes- 
 tant, had forbidden such appeals. 
 
 Appeals from the pope to a geneial council 
 were forbidden by Pius II. by a bull of Jan. 18, 
 1459 " " ME.TER. 
 
 APPELLANTS is the name of that party, 
 which, in the controversy between the Jansenists 
 ,and the Jesuits, rejected the bull I'nii/enitus, and 
 appealed to .a general council. See J.-vxsknism. 
 
 APPLETON, Jesse, b. at New Ipswich, N.H., 
 Nov. 17. 177- ; d. at Brunswick, Me.. Nov. 12, 
 1819; was graduated from Dartmouth College in 
 1792, and chosen president of Bowdoin College 
 in 1807. The Worlcs of Jesse Apjiltinn, consist- 
 ing of sermons, lectures, etc., were published at 
 Andover in 2 vols., in 1836, with memoir. 
 
 APPROBATION OF BOOKS is a measure 
 which the Roman-Catholic Church employs, in 
 connection with the censure, in order to direct 
 the course of literature in the interest of pure 
 doctrines. The fifth council of the Laterau 
 (1512) decided, that, under penalty of a fine or 
 of ex-communication, no theological book should 
 be published without having pi-eviously obtained 
 the approbation of the bishop of the diocese in 
 which it was destined to appear; and this decis- 
 ion was incorporated with the decrees of the 
 Council of Trent (Trident, ress. 4). It is still 
 valid, and, for regular members of the ecclesi- 
 astical orders, it is further extended, so that not 
 only theological works, but any kind of literary 
 productions, must have the ap))rob;ition of the 
 supericM' before they can be published. The Prot- 
 estant churches havi> no institutions of the kind; 
 though in earlier times, when the censure was in 
 use, the censorship for theological books was 
 often vested in the consistory of the Kstablished 
 ("hurch. 
 
 APSE, or APSIS, the semicircular or semi- 
 octagonal enclosure with which the choir of 
 the Christian church generally terminates. The 
 ground-iilan of this enclosure is an .arc, on the 
 chord of which the altar is raised, while the 
 bisho|)'s throne is placed in the centre, up 
 against the wall, with rows of benches for the 
 clergy on both sides, .sometimes one row above 
 the other (apsiiles i;r<idat<r). In the Roman /«i- 
 silica, or hall of justice, which in unmerous cases 
 was actually turned into a Christian church with 
 vi'ry slight inodilications, while its gronnd-i>lan 
 forniecl the st:irling-point for all Christian church 
 architecture, the exterior form of the building
 
 AQUAVIVA. 
 
 121 
 
 AQUILEIA. 
 
 ■was perfectly rectangular; and the apse, with its 
 ■seats for the magistrate and the officers of the 
 court, was formed internally. There are still 
 ■churches extant on this plan, and they are the 
 ■oldest ; such as the Sta. Croce in Gerusalemme 
 in Rome, and several others in Africa and Asia 
 Minor, all from the third century. In churches 
 from the fifth century, such as St. Apollinare 
 in Classe at Ravenna, etc., the apse has gen- 
 erally become visible also in the exterior form ; 
 and not only the choir, but also the aisles, termi- 
 nate in apses. In St. Sophia in Constantinople, 
 and in churches built after that model, also the 
 transepts are provided with apses ; and, in some 
 few ca.ses in Germany, the choir has apses at 
 both ends, such as the Church of Reichenau on 
 the Lake of Constance. 
 
 AQUAVIVA, Claudius, b. Sept. 14, 154.3; d. 
 ■Jan. 31, 1(31.5; joined the order of the Jesuits in 
 1567, and became its general in 1580. Under 
 his rule, the order flourished in spite of the great 
 difficulties and troubles which overtook it; but 
 lie was prudent enough to silence Molino, when 
 the controversy with the Dominicans became too 
 hot, and to silence Mariana, whose doctrine of 
 tlie allowableness of the murder of tyrants pro- 
 duced the deepest indignation. He wrote sixteen 
 letters, which are incorporated with the constitu- 
 tions of the order, and a book . Indusirke ad Cu- 
 ranclas Animce Morbos, Venice, 1606. The Ralio 
 Studiorum and Direclorium Exercitonim St. Ignalii 
 were compiled and published after his order, and 
 under his superintendence. 
 
 AQ'UILA {eagle) AND PRISCIL'LA (from Pris- 
 ca, ancient). A married couple who did most 
 excellent service in spreading the gospel by mate- 
 rially aiding Paul, and in teaching ApoUos (Acts 
 xviii. 2, 18, 26). Aquila was a Jew of Pontus. 
 The pair were driven out of Rome in consequence 
 of the order of Claudius, and came to Corinth 
 (A.D. 52). When Paul met them in that city, 
 they were still Jews; but as the result of his con- 
 versation and instruction, since Aquila and he 
 carried on the same trade, they were converted. 
 They accompanied Paul to Ephesus, and held a 
 regular service in their house (1 Cor. xvi. 19). 
 It was then, probably, that they risked themselves 
 in the manner alluded to in Romans (xvi. 4) ; 
 thence they went to Rome, and held similar ser- 
 vices (Rom. xvi. 3, 5). At the time of the Nero- 
 uian persecution they had moved to Ephesus 
 (2 Tim. iv. 10). Nothing more is known of 
 them. ILERZOG. 
 
 AQUILA, born at Sinope in Pontus, in the be- 
 ginning of the second century A.D. ; became a 
 proselyte to Judaism, and gave a new translation 
 of the Old Testament into Greek, which was 
 reproduced by Origen in the third column of the 
 Hexapla. and highly valued by the Jews on ac- 
 count of its literalness, though, for that very 
 reason, it often became unintelligible to readers 
 who had no knowledge of Hebrew. The frag- 
 ments of this work still extant are most fully 
 given in Montfaucon's edition of the Hexapla, 
 Paris, 1714, and Field's Origenis Hexaplorum quce 
 supersunt, Oxford, 1867 sq. See Bible Ver- 
 sions. A number of details relating to Aquila's 
 life, and first given by Epiphanius {De Pond, el 
 Mens. 14, 15), seem to have no foundation. 
 Emanuel Deutsch {Literary Remains, N.Y., 1874, 
 
 pp. 344 sqq.) identifies Aquila with Onkelos, the 
 author of a Targum. The steps are, 1. Onkelos 
 is the same as Akilas, because the incidents re- 
 lated of him are the same : a Greek quotation 
 from Onkelos the Chaldee translator is in reality 
 found in, and quoted from, Akilas, the Greek 
 translator. 2. Akilas and Aquila are the same; 
 born in the same time and place, and have pre- 
 cisely similar life-courses. 
 
 AQUILA, Johannes Kaspar, b. at Augsburg, 
 Aug. 7, 1488; d. at Saalfeld, Nov. 12, 1560; 
 studied theology at Wittenberg and Leipzig, and 
 became camp-preacher to Sickingen in 151.5, and 
 pastor of Jenga in 1516, but joined Luther im- 
 mediately in 1517; married, and was thrown into 
 the dungeon of Dillingen by the order of the 
 Bishop of Augsburg, and released only on the 
 instance of Queen Isabella of Denmark, a sister 
 of Charles V. Repairing to Wittenberg in 1521, 
 he was first tutor to the sons of Sickingen, and 
 afterwards minister at Saalfeld. He aided 
 Luther in translating the Old Testament ; wrote 
 with such a vehemence against the Interim, that 
 Charles V. put a price of five thousand guilders 
 on his head ; and partook with great zeal in the 
 theological controversies of the day, though most 
 of his writings are only essays and pamphlets. 
 See G. A. Fr. Gensler: Vila M. J. C. Aquilce, 
 Jense, 1816. 
 
 AQUILEIA, a town of Northern Italy, fifteen 
 miles north-east of Venice, traces back the origin 
 of its church to St. Mark, and occupied during 
 the earlier middle ages a conspicuous place in 
 history as the rival of Rome. In 381 the Bishop 
 of Aquileia assumed metropolitan rights over the 
 churches of Venice, Istria, Carniola, Carinthia, 
 Friuli, and Styria; and in 557 the metropolitan 
 took the title of patriarch. In his contest with 
 the pope, the patriarch leaned first against the 
 Lombard king, afterwards against the German 
 emperor. In 1752 the patriarchate was divided 
 into the two archbishoprics of Goritz and Udine. 
 
 Aquileia is noticeable, therefore, as the seat of 
 a patriarch, as the place of several synods, and 
 as the cradle of a peculiar creed. 
 
 Several other Italian bishops beside the Bishop 
 of Rome, namely, those of Milan, Ravenna, and 
 Aquileia, labored from the earliest time to as- 
 sume patriarchal powers; and they partly suc- 
 ceeded. But the Bishops of Milan and Ravenna 
 were so hard pressed by the Arian Longobards 
 during the decade from 570 to 580, that they 
 preferred to enter into closer communication 
 with Rome ; and only the Archbishop of Aqui- 
 leia, who since 568 resided in the Island of Grado, 
 continued obstinately to resist any attempt at a 
 union. Pope Honorius I. (625-638) felt com- 
 pelled to consecrate the Bishop of Aquileia Patri- 
 arch of Grado, simply to keep up the appearance 
 of supremacy. In 1451 the patriarchal see was 
 removed to Venice; but this gave rise to perpet- 
 ual conflicts between Austria and Venice, both 
 claiming the right of electing the patriarch. 
 Finally Pope Benedict XIV. abolished the Patri- 
 archate of Aquileia altogether in 1751, and es- 
 tablished the rather insignificant Patriarchate of 
 Udine for the Venetian possessions in Friuli, 
 and an apostolic vicarate at Aquileia for Austria. 
 Venice, however, was not satisfied with the pa- 
 pal arrangement ; and, on the suggestion of Aus-
 
 AQUINAS. 
 
 122 
 
 ARABIA. 
 
 tria, two archbishoprics — of Udine and Goritz 
 — were established. 
 
 The first synod of Aquileia was convened in 
 381 to decide whether or not Palladias, Bishop of 
 Xllyria, was justly accused of Arianism. Thirty- 
 two bishops from Italy, Gaul, and Africa, were 
 present on Sept. 3. The Eastern bishops had been 
 invited, but did not appear. Valerian, Bishop 
 of Aquileia, presided; but the true leader of 
 the investigation was .\mbrose of Milan ; and 
 Palladius, as well as his presbyter Secundinus, 
 was found guilty and deposed. Tlie second 
 synod of Aquileia (169S) concerned the Three- 
 Chapter controversy. The bishops declared 
 against the condemnation of the Three Chap- 
 ters; but their decision never obtained authority 
 in the church on the contrary, they were them- 
 selves considered schismatics. In 1409 Gregory 
 XII. held a synod at Udine in the diocese of 
 Aquileia, and anathematized both his rivals, 
 Benedict and Alexander V ; but just at the 
 same time the Council of Pisa declared for Alex- 
 ander V. Other synods were held 1305, 1311, 
 and 1339. See Three Chapters. 
 
 The above-mentioned peculiar creed of the 
 Church of Aquileia has the words, inrixibili e> 
 impassibili added to the formula, credo in Deo 
 palre omnipotente, which was probably intended 
 for a decisive testimony against the Patripas- 
 siani. It also contains the formula, ilesccndit ad 
 inferna, and has a liujux before carnis resun-ec- 
 tionem. Schaff : Creeds of Clirhlendom, II., 
 p. 49. " ZOCKLER. 
 
 AQUINAS. See Thomas Aquinas. 
 
 ARABIA (37V,, prairie) does not in the Bible 
 denote the whole peninsula between the Red Sea 
 and the Persian Gulf, but only the northern part, 
 contiguous to Palestine (Isa. xxi. 13; Jer. xxv. 
 24; Ezek. xxvii. 21); and in the same manner 
 "the Arabian " (Isa. xiii. 20; Jer. iii. 2) does 
 not denote the Arab in general, but only an in- 
 habitant of the northern prairies and deserts. 
 Only in the later books of the Old Testament, 
 as. for instance, in 2 Chron. xxi. l(i, where 
 '• the Arabians " are spoken of together with 
 the ^Ethiopians, or in Neh. ii. 19, vi. 1, and in 
 the New Testament (Acts iii. 11 ; (ial. i. 17, iv. 
 25) the name seems to have obtained a more 
 general signification. Other designations em- 
 ployed by the Hebrews, such as "tlie people of 
 the East," and " the land of the people of the 
 East" (Gen. xxix. 1 ; Judg. vi. 3, 33, vii. 11, viii. 
 10; .Job i. 3; Isa. xi. 14), must be limited in tlie 
 same way. 
 
 Arabia comprises an area of about one million 
 square miles, with about eight niilliou inhabit- 
 ants. Though it connects two continents with 
 each other, it occupies a very isolated position, 
 partly on account of the inhospitableness of its 
 coasts, partly on account of tiie huge desert, 
 whicli, to the north, separated the .-Vrabs even 
 from their nearest kinsmen, — the Hebrews, the 
 Syrians, tlie Chaldieans, and the As.syriaiis. From 
 this country, however, so peculiarly .shut up witli- 
 in itself, there broke forth at one lime one of 
 the most powerful impulses which the history of 
 mankind ever received ; and, long before that 
 period, it attracts tlie attention of the student of 
 the Bible on account of the conspicuous part it 
 played in the history of Israel. 
 
 The ancient geographers distinguished be- 
 tween Arabia Petrsa, Arabia Deserta, and Ara- 
 bia Felix. Arabia Petrjea, situated between the 
 Mediterranean to the north, the Red Sea to the 
 south (here forming the peninsula of Sinai), 
 the desert of Sur to the west, and the Arabah 
 to the east, received its name from Petra, the 
 capital of Idumrea. It is a desolate mountain 
 region, with huge masses of granite, porphyry, 
 basalt, and limestone piled up in fantastic 
 heaps, and with very few fertile valleys. It 
 may have been more productive in the times of 
 Moses ; but, without a special providence, it can 
 at no time have sustained such a multitude as 
 spoken of in the Pentateuch. Especially the 
 plateau of Azazimat, bordering immediately oil 
 Cana.an, is .an inhospitable wilderness, sparingly 
 popuLated, difficult of access, enclosed north and 
 south by ranges of wild cliffs, and descending 
 abruptly to the east into the Arabah. The prin- 
 cipal chain of the whole group runs parallel 
 with the western arm of the Red Sea, but turns 
 eastward, farther to the south, and approaches 
 the eastern arm by a number of bald ridges. 
 The direction of this chain must have deter- 
 mined the course of the wanderings of Israel 
 through the wilderness. It was followed along 
 its western slope, where are found the Wady 
 Ghurundel, Mukatteb, and the beautiful and 
 fertile Wady Feirau (the Pliaran of the Bible). 
 It was then doubled to the south, where are the 
 sand-waste of Ramleh, the "Wady er-Rahah and 
 esh-Sheikh. South of Wady Feiran -rises the 
 Jebel Serbal. liigh and striking, which, though 
 against the tradition, is by some considered as 
 the Mount of the Law. Farther to the east 
 appe.ars ]\Iount Sinai, with its three imposing 
 ridges, of which the central one bears the name 
 of Iloreb. 
 
 Arabia Deserta, to which the prophets refer 
 when they speak of the return of the exiles .as a 
 wandering through the wilderness (Hos. ii. 16 ; 
 Isa. XXXV. 1, xl. 3. xlix. 9. etc.), is. In' the Arabs 
 themselves, called simply el-I?adie, " the desert," 
 whence the name of its iuliabitants, a few tribes 
 of roving nom.ads, — the Bedawin or Bedouins. 
 The peculiar atmospheric deceptions whicli occur 
 in these regions, the mirages of cool lakes in the 
 midst of the burning .saud-waste, are .alluded 
 to in Isaiah (xxxv. 7); and its poisonous wind, 
 Samum, which hurls desolation at every thing 
 living it meets, is alluded to in Ps. xi. G. Ara- 
 bia Felix consists of a large central plateau, sur- 
 rounded on all sides by de.serts, and very little 
 known, and a belt of mountain-ranges and Alp 
 regions all along the coast, (Huitaiiiing some of 
 the most beautiful and most fertile spots on the 
 gjobi'. Here are, on the west coast, Hejaz and 
 Yemen; on tlii' south coast lladramant, Slahrali, 
 and (Jharrah; and, on the east coast, Oman. 
 
 The po]iulatioii is essentially Sheinitie, though 
 the southern part of tlie country contains Cushi- 
 tic elements. Of the Ciishitic tribes mentioned 
 in Gen. x. 7, only tlie first one, Sheba, belongs 
 exclusively to .Vfricft,; already the second one, 
 Havilah, belongs without doubt to Asia ((ieii. 
 xxv. 18); and the last ones, Sabtah, Kaaniah, 
 and Sabteclia, refer still more plainly to South- 
 ern Arabia. .Sabtah reminds one of Sabota, the 
 caiiital of the Ciialiamotiti's in Hadramaut, the
 
 ARABIA. 
 
 123 
 
 ARABIA. 
 
 centre of the frankincense trade. Raamali, men- 
 tioned in Ezek. xxvii. 22, tofjether with Sheba, 
 as a place from wliicli drugs, diamonds, and gold 
 were sent to Tyre, is probably Regma, or Kegama, 
 an Arabian port on the Persian Gulf. Among 
 the Shemites it was the descendants of Joctan, 
 the brother of Peleg, who took possession of 
 Yemen and the rest of Southern Arabia. The 
 Ishmaelitic tribes, descending from Abraham and 
 Hagar, the Egy|>tian woman, — Nebajoth, Kcdar, 
 Duniah, and IMussa, — came later; but their place 
 of settlement has not been ascertained. The tribe 
 of Tema (mentioned in Isa. xsi. 14; Jer. xxv. 
 23 ; Job. vi. 19) settled between Petra and Medi- 
 na; and that of .Tetur (the Iturieans), across Ara- 
 bia Deserta from Egypt to the Gulf of Persia 
 (Gen. xxv. 12 sqq.). The other tribes, descend- 
 ing from Abraham and Ketura (the Midianites 
 and their kindred), were settled in the western 
 parts, among the Joctanites. This report of a 
 difference between the northern and southern 
 Arabians with respect to descent is supported by 
 the existence of marked differences between 
 them in history and language, in physical fea- 
 tures, and moral habits. In habits, features, 
 and language, the Southern Arabians resemble 
 the .(Ethiopians. The language which in ancient 
 times was spoken in Southern Arabia was the 
 Himyaritic, as has been proved from numerous 
 monuments discovered in Yemen. But the Him- 
 yaritic occupies an intermediate position between 
 the /Ethiopian and the tongue spoken in Cen- 
 tral Arabia. By the spread of Jlohamniedanisni 
 the Himyaritic dialect lost ground. Neverthe- 
 less, it is still spoken in various districts of 
 Southern Arabia ; and this, its modern develop- 
 ment (the Etkili), bears a strong likeness to the 
 modern development of the ^Ethiopian. 
 
 The principal seat of South- Arabian civiliza- 
 tion was the kingdom of Sheba with the capital of 
 Mariaba, or Mai'eb. Thence came the queen to 
 visit Solomon (1 Kings x. 1-13), and thither be- 
 long most of the Himyaritic inscriptions, as 
 probably, also, the praises for wisdom bestowed 
 upon the children of the East (1 Kings iv. 30). 
 The Bible, especially the prophets, speaks of the 
 Sabaans as a distant but far-reaching, rich, and 
 enterprising people, which brought gold and dia- 
 monds, incense, cassia, and slaves to tlie northern 
 countries from India and Africa (Jer. vi. 20; Ezek. 
 xxvii. 22; Ps. Ixxii. 15; Isa. Ix. 6; Joel. iv. 8). 
 But, besides this peaceable city population, the 
 kingdom of Sheba also contained a country or 
 desert population of another temper, and these 
 Bedouins appear in connection with the Joctan- 
 ites and the Keturseans. In the beginning of the 
 third century of our era the city of Mareb was 
 destroyed by an inundation, and several tribes 
 then emigrated to the north, where they founded 
 the kingdoms of Hira on the Euphrates, and of 
 Gassau in the Hauran Mountains. 
 
 Of the two chief tribes of Ishmael, Nebajoth 
 and Kedar, the latter plays by far the most promi- 
 nent part in the records of the Old Testament. 
 The Kedarenes are mentioned in Solomon's Song 
 i. 5, as living in black tents; in Isa. xlii. 11, 
 Jer. xlix. 31, as settled in open villages ; in Ezek. 
 xxvii. 21, as pursuing trade ; in Isa. xxi. 16, 17, 
 Jer. xlix. 28, as good archers withstanding the 
 attacks of the Assyrians and Chaldseaus. Ac- 
 
 cording to the annals of Assurbanipal, and in 
 fulfilment of the predictions of the prophets 
 (Isa. xxi. 11; Jer. xxv. 23, xlix 28). they were 
 subjugated by the Assyrians. In the period 
 immediately after Alexander the (ireat they dis- 
 appear as an independent tribe ; but at the same 
 time the Nebajoth or Nabataeans, who are men- 
 tioned in the Old Testament only as related to 
 the Edomites (Gen xxviii. 9, xxxvi. 3), gaiD 
 ascendency. They not only held a great portion 
 of Arabia Proper, for instance Aila, but they 
 also came into posse.ssion of the land of the 
 Idumaeans with the capital Petra, and pu.shed on- 
 wards into the region east of the Jordan and the 
 Syrian desert, as far as the Hauran Mountains 
 (1 Mace. V. 25, ix. 35), and Damascus (Joseph. 
 Anl. xiii. 15, 2), thus ruling over all the lands 
 between the Red Sea and the Euphrates. Their 
 relations with the Jews now became of conse- 
 quence. While the Arab prince Emalchuel en- 
 tertained friendly i-elations with the Syrians (1 
 Mace. xi. 39), and Arabs entered the Syrian army 
 as mercenaries (1 JIacc. v. 39; 2 Mace. xii. 10), so 
 that the Maccabteans had to take the field against 
 them (1 Mace. xii. 31), the Nabata?ans are re- 
 peatedly mentioned as friends and allies of the 
 Jews (1 Mace. v. 25, ix. 35). They had kings of 
 their own, among whom was Aretas, the father- 
 in-law of Herod Antipas. He waged war, both 
 against his son-in-law and the Romans, and occu- 
 pied at one time Damascus (2 Cor. xi. 32). At 
 the beginning of our era, however, the Naba- 
 tsans distinguished themselves, not only in war- 
 fare, but also in the arts of peace, as shown by 
 the ruins of Petra, by coins, inscriptions, etc. 
 Their empire was destroyed under Trajan. 
 
 Among the Ketursean tribes, only the Midian- 
 ites are of any interest in antiquity. They ap- 
 pear in the history of Joseph as merchants (Gen. 
 xxxvii. 28, 36). In the times of Moses they 
 showed themselves friendly to Israel in the Sina- 
 itio peninsula (Exod. ii. 1.5, iii. 1 , Num. x. 29), 
 but hostile in the region of Moab, where, how- 
 ever, the Israelites defeated them (Nuni xxxi. 
 Comp. Num. xxii. 4, xxv. 6, 14-18). In the 
 times of the judges they pressed heavily upon 
 Israel in connection with other Arab tribes, but 
 were repulsed by Gilead (Judg. 6-8. Comp. Isa. 
 ix. 3, X. 26; Hab. iii. 7; Ps. Ixxxv. 10). Of 
 any great development of power in those regions 
 which belonged to the Keturrean tribes, nothing 
 is heard until much later in the Christian era, 
 when just in these lands Mohammed succeeded 
 in raising the name of Arabia to a splendor and 
 magnificence which it had not before attained. 
 
 Of the religion of the ancient Arabs very lit- 
 tle is known with certainty. It is probable, 
 however, that there existed with respect to reli- 
 gion the same difference between north and south 
 as with respect to language and character ; and it 
 seems that the northern Arabians really main- 
 tained for some time their religious connection 
 with Abraham and the .lews Both the native 
 historians and cuneiform inscriptions from the 
 seventh and eighth centuries B.C. testify to 
 the existence of a very old Allah-worship; and 
 the tradition that Abraham and Ishmael were the 
 founders of the national sanctuary, the Kaaba, 
 points in the same direction. In later times, 
 however, monotheism was all but lost among the
 
 ARABIANS. 
 
 124 
 
 ARAM. 
 
 Arabs. In the soutlierii part of the country, the 
 sun, Samas, or Sabis (feminine), and the moon, 
 Alkamah (masculine), were worshipped together 
 with the star of Venus. Athar. and other stars. 
 In Northern Arabia. Orotal and Alilat, identified 
 by Herodotus witli Dionysos and Urania, were 
 worshipped. At various times and in various 
 places, polytheism even sank down into feti- 
 cisni. Objects which, on account of form or 
 qualities created admiration, came to be con- 
 sidered, not only as receptacles of divine pow- 
 ers, but as specimens of the divine essence, as 
 gods. There may at all times have been per- 
 sons among the Arabs who stood above such 
 notions; but the popular level from which Mo- 
 hammedanism arose was, as might be expected, 
 verj- low. 
 
 Lit. — What the Greeks and Romans knew 
 about Arabia has been collected by ]M.A.xxEur : 
 Geo()ra/ihie tier (Iriechen und Homer, Nuremberg. 
 1799, YI. ; and Fohbiger : Ilandbiich d. all. Geo- 
 graphie, Leipzig. 1844, IL The writings of the 
 native Arabian historians and geographei'S, as 
 well as those of modern travellers, are referred 
 to in K. KiTTKK : Erdkiinde, XII. -XIII., Berlin, 
 184b', and J. Gay: Biblwi/rnphie den Oiivrnc/es 
 relatip a I'Afrique el r Arable, Berlin, 1874. 
 Among the best and most accessible works on 
 the various points touched in this article are, 
 Laxe: Notes on. the Tlioiisand and One Nights, 
 London, 1838 ; Robinson : Biblical Researches in 
 l'<(ltsilne, Boston, 'id ed., 1850, 3 vols. ; [Stanley : 
 Sliial and Palestine, London, 1850; PALtiRAVE: 
 Jnurnefi throujih Central and Eastern Arabia, Lon- 
 don, 1865]; Arconati : VUu/i/lo ntll 'Arabia Pc- 
 trcea, 187:i: [P. Sciiaff: T/irouc/h Bible-Lands, Xew 
 York, 1879]. — CorssiN de Perceval : Essal sur 
 I'Hlstolre des Arabs ai-atd /'/.s/om«me, Paris, 1847, 
 3 vols. — Kreiii.: I'hcr die Iielif/ion der vorlslant- 
 !.«•/»■» .4r.;/«7-. Lei]i/.ig, l8li:!. Fli. W. SCIIULTZ. 
 
 ARABIANS, or ARABICI, a Christian sect, arose 
 in the beginning of the third century in Arabia, 
 in tiio times of Septiniius .Severus. They were a 
 kind of Christian materialists, and held, accord- 
 ing to Kusebius (Illst. Eccles.,VI., 37), that the 
 soul dies with the body, but shall be resurrected 
 along with it.. This doctrine grew up from the 
 view, frequently met with in antiquity, that con- 
 sciousness could not exi.st without a body. Origen 
 refuted them in a synod held in 24t), and gene- 
 rally known as tlie Council of Arabia. 
 
 A'RAD {/ilfice of fni/ltlres), a royal city of the 
 Canaanites (Num. xxi. 1, xxxiii. 40; Josh. xii. 
 14), situated on the south-western border of Uw. 
 desert of .ludah (.ludg. i. 10), about twenty miles 
 south of Hebron, on a liill, now called Tell Arud, 
 still covered with ruins. 
 
 A'RAM, such as it occurs in tiie Old Testament, 
 comprises all those peo)iles which inhabited Syria 
 and Mesopotamia, north to tlie Taurus, east to 
 the Tigris; but, as these peoples never formed a 
 political unit, the name is not used collectively, 
 but only with reference to some particular tribe 
 or region or state. Thus the Old Testament 
 distinguishes between L Aram Naharaim, Aram 
 between the two rivers, tlie laml between the 
 Euphrates aiul the Tigris, still called the island 
 ((ien. xxiv. 10; Deut. xxiii. 4; Judg. iii. 8; Ps. Ix. 
 title); II. Aram Dammesek.in the north-eastern 
 part of Palestine, often called simply Aram be- 
 
 cause it was the tribe best known, and of most 
 importance to Israel (2 Sam. viii. 5; Isa. vii. 8, 
 xvii. 3; Am. i. 5); III. Aram Zobah, at the 
 times of Saul and David the most powerful 
 realm in Syria, not far from Damascus and 
 Haniath (1 Sara. xiv. 47; 2 .Sam. viii. 3); IV. 
 Aram Beth-Rehob, in the northern part of Gali- 
 lee (2 Sam. X. 6); V. Aram Maachah (1 Chron. 
 xix. 6 ; Gen. xxii. 24) ; and VI. Geshur (2 Sam. 
 XV. 8). 
 
 The spread of the Aramseans over these vast 
 regions was, of course, gradual ; and the point 
 from which they started is generally determined 
 by Amos i. 5 and ix. 7 (comp. 2 Kings xvi. 9 ; 
 Isa. xxii. 6), where it is said that Jehovah once 
 led Aram out from Kir, and that he once shall 
 send the inhabitants of Damascus back again to 
 that place. Some understand Kir to be the re- 
 gion around the River Kur, which runs between 
 the Black and the Caspian Seas, and enters the 
 latter after joining the Araxes: others find the 
 place at Kyrrhos, north of Haleb, or seek it 
 somewhere in iSIesopotamia. Moses Chorenen- 
 ses mentions Aram among the ancestors of the 
 Armenian people ; but Aram has as little to do 
 with Armenia as with Homer's Erembi or Arirai. 
 The Greeks called the Aranipeans Syrians, which 
 is an abbreviation of Assyrians. Those Greeks 
 who were settled along the southern coast of the 
 Black Sea first applied the name to their C.appa- 
 docian neighbors who were Assyrian subjects. 
 Thence it was extended to the whole bulk of the 
 population of the A.ssyrian, Empire, and thus it 
 became synonymous with .\rama;an. Afterwards 
 the Christian Aramaeans adopted the name Syrian, 
 because among the Jews Aramrean meant heathen. 
 The country' comprised by the name Aram, and 
 of which Damascus formed a prominent part, 
 was conquered by the Assyrians under Tiglath- 
 Pileser, and made a proviiu-e. Afterwards it 
 stood under the Babylono-ChaUtean, and then 
 under the Persian rule, until, after the death of 
 Alexander the (ireat, it w.as formed into an in- 
 dependent empire, Syria, under the Seleucides. 
 Pompey made it subject to Rome 04 B.C. The 
 religion of the old Arama;ans was akin to the 
 Assyro-Babylonian worship of nature. See the 
 articl(!S on Astarte, Baal, and Tammuz. 
 From their Aram»an kinsmen the Israelites 
 adopted the Terajihim. 
 
 The Aram.aic language is a member of the 
 Shemitic family ; but, as if influenced by the 
 climate, it is poorer in vowels, and rougher, than 
 any of the other members ; and because the 
 Aianueans lived surrounded by non-Shemitic 
 jieoplcs, and were often and for long periods sub- 
 jected to foreign conquerors, it became a mix<'il 
 and corrupt tongue. Compared with the two 
 sister-tongues, — the rich, sonorous, and elegant 
 .\rabic, and the pithy though somewhat pro- 
 vincial Hebrew, — it is a commonplace dialect. 
 It falls into two branches, a north-eastern and a 
 south-western ; of which the first one, originally 
 spoken in Mesopotamia, afterwards developed 
 into the Syriac language, and produced a rich 
 literature, not only of Christian theology, but 
 also of history and philosophy. The most flour- 
 ishing period of the history of this branch ex- 
 tends from the fourth to the seventh century : 
 in the eighth and ninth the Syriac was overtaken
 
 ARARAT. 
 
 125 
 
 ARCANI. 
 
 by the Arabic ; and in the thirteenth it disap- 
 peared (see Syuia). The otiier branch bears, 
 since the days of Jerome, tlie name of the Clial- 
 dee language, thougli the old Chaldpcans, or Baby- 
 lonians, never spoke Aramaic (see Babylonia). 
 The Hebrew Bible calls this branch the "Ara- 
 maic " (Dan. ii. 4; 2 Kings xviii. 26). In the 
 time of the kings it was understood iu Jerusalem, 
 if not by people in general, at least by all edu- 
 cated persons ; and it was the business-language 
 throughout the Assyrian realm. The Persian 
 Government afterwards issued its edicts, so far 
 as they concerned the provinces of Western Asia, 
 in the Aramaic tongue. After the exile, this 
 tongue gradually became the popular language 
 of Palestine, not only of Galileo and Samaria, 
 but also of Judroa. Christ and the apostles 
 spoke it, as may be seen from several words 
 and phrases occurring in the New Testament. 
 The only specimens of this dialect which have 
 come down to us are sections of the Books of 
 Daniel (ii. -i-vii. 28) and of Ezra (iv. 8-vi. 18, 
 vii. 12-26), and the Chaldaean paraphrase of the 
 Old Testament, the so-called Targums ; but of 
 these specimens the first mentioned show so 
 strong a coloring of Hebrew, that many linguists 
 have been inclined to consider the Chaldee dia- 
 lect a mere mixture of Hebrew and Syriac. 
 
 Lit. — Lexgkuke: Kanaan, I., p. 218 sqq. ; 
 Ritter: Erdkiimle, vols. X. and XVI. A Chaldee 
 dictionary was compiled by Joii. Buxtouf, Ba- 
 sil., 1640, and re-edited by Fischer and Gelbe, 
 Leipzig, 1866-74. Chaldee grammars have been 
 written in Italian by Luzatto, Padua, 1805, and 
 in Latin by H. Zschokkk, Vienna, 1870, and 
 Petekmaxx, Berlin, 1872. VOLCK. 
 
 AR'ARAT (Jtohj land or high land) occurs in 
 the Bible, only as the name of the country, which, 
 in the Assyrian inscription, is called Urarti, in 
 classical literature Armenia, and by the native 
 inhabitants Haik. Afterwards the name was 
 transferred from the country which chiefly con- 
 sists of a high plateau along the midille course 
 of the River Araxes, to the mountain-range on 
 its southern frontier, and more especially to the 
 two commanding peaks of this range, — the 
 Greater and Lesser Ararat. The former, called 
 by the natives Massis, or V^araz-Baris, by the Per- 
 sians Kuhi-Nuh, the "Mountain of Noah," is a 
 cone 17,750 feet high, and with the top covered 
 with a silver cap of perpetual snow. Here, on 
 the southern slope, the native traditions place 
 the spot where Noah's ark rested, and the mes- 
 senger-dove brought back an olive-leaf; while a 
 Syrian tradition, supported by the Assyrian in- 
 scriptions, points to a peak farther to the south, 
 iu the mountains of Kurdistan. 
 
 ARATOR, a Christian poet from the middle of 
 the sixth century, was a native of Liguria, and 
 educated by Archbishop Laurentius of jNIilan, 
 and the poet Ennodius ; studied law, and entered 
 the civil service of the Gothic Government, first 
 as cumes dnmeMicnrum, then as cuiiies privatormn : 
 but, when war broke out between the East Roman 
 and Ostrogothic Empire, he retired from politi- 
 cal life, and Pope Vigilius made him a sub-deacon 
 in Rome. While here he wrote his great didac- 
 tic epic: De Actibus Apusto/oriiin, Libr. II., dedi- 
 cated to Vigilius, and recited in four consecutive 
 days to an applauding crowd in the Church of St. 
 
 Pelrun wl vincula, in 544. The theological ten- 
 <len<;i('s of this poem mirror very truthfully the 
 reigning tendencies of the time, — the superiority 
 of Peter over Paul, the first traces of the worship 
 of Mary, saints, relics, etc. : its a>sthetical mer- 
 its, however, are rather small. It still exists in 
 numerous manuscripts, and has often been pub- 
 lished : Basel, 1537, and in MuiNE, with a com- 
 plete commentary Palml. Curs. vol. 68. See 
 Mayou: Biblioyraphkal Cknj In Latin Literature, 
 London, 1875. 
 
 ARCANI DISCIPLINA, a term applied to the 
 practice, general in the ancient church, of ex- 
 cluding all the uninitiated from certain parts of 
 the divine service, and maintaining a studied 
 reticence, when speaking in public, about cer- 
 tain sacred objects and proceedings. This prac- 
 tice arose naturally, not to say nece.ssarily, from 
 the existing circumstances. In Christianity it- 
 .self there is no esclusiveness, no reserve; and 
 when, in the time of Justin, divine service was 
 still, as a general rule, celebrated in complete 
 seclusion, the reason was simply that Christian- 
 ity was an "unrecognized religion," and as such 
 exposed to the fury and persecutions of the Pa- 
 gans. When these circumstances changed, the 
 practice itself disappeared. More especially the 
 arcani discipl'ma may be said to have been born 
 and lived and died together with the catechu- 
 menate. They originated at the same time and 
 from the same causes; and when the institution 
 of the catechumenate was abolished as superflu- 
 ous, because the whole society had become Chris- 
 tian, the custom of an arcani disciplina was aban- 
 doned as unnecessary for the very same reason. 
 
 As long as the catechumenate existed, the 
 catechumens, or any one else uninitiated who 
 might have been present at the sermon, were 
 shown out by the deacon when the sermon was 
 over, and the so-called missa Jiileliuni began. 
 First, after two years of prejiaration. the cate- 
 chumens were admitted among the compttfutes and 
 ete<.ri; and at this stage the religious teaching, 
 properly speaking, began. But it was a condi- 
 tion well understood, and definitely set forth, 
 that the catechumen should speak to no one of 
 the creed which was orally confided to him; and 
 all teaching concerning the holy rites was gen- 
 erally postponed till after baptism, or the first 
 eucharist. Indeed, so strictly was this fides silen- 
 tii kept, that people hesitated to communicate 
 the text of the creed in historical works (Sozom. 
 I., 2), or spoke of the elements of the eucharist 
 only in a general way, and through hints (Ibid. 
 85). Epiphanius, in his A ncuratus (57), refrains 
 from giving the formulas of the consecration; 
 and Theodoret shows the same reserve with 
 respect to baptism in his Divin. Decret. Epit. c. 18. 
 Again and again Chrysostom suddenly breaks 
 oft' with "the initiated know," or Augustine, 
 with "the faithful know," when intentionally 
 refraining from speaking plainly of certain sub- 
 jects. Even Innocent I. hesitates to write in 
 detail about the unction in a private letter ad 
 LJvcentium; and on tombstones, for instance, all 
 kinds of symbolical devices and metaphorical 
 phrases were applied. But after the sixth cen- 
 tury all this changed. No ecclesiastical writer 
 mentions either the catechumenate, or the arcani 
 disciplina any more. Isidorus Ilispalensis (d.
 
 ARCHEOLOGY. 
 
 126 
 
 ARCHEOLOGY. 
 
 636) gives a description of the divine service, 
 without noticing any difference between a rnissa 
 catechumenuriim and a missajidelium. 
 
 Lit. — Isaac Casaubonus: De Rebus Sacr. 
 el Ecc/esl., 1651; Em. von Schelstrate : An- 
 lii/iiilas I/liislrala, etc., 1678; Bingham: Origines 
 IV.; R. RoTHE : De Di.iciplina Arcani, Heidel- 
 berg, 1841 ; Th. H.\rnack: Der cltrisl. Geme'mde- 
 <7o//?.v'/(Vh.s7. Erlangen, 1854; Zezschwitz: System 
 tJer KalechetiL; Leipzig, 1863. [S.mith and Cheet- 
 ii.\M : Diclionnry of Christian Aniii/uities s. v. "Dis- 
 ciplina .\rcaiii."] G. v. ZEZSCHWITZ. 
 
 ARCH/EOLOGY, Biblical, a discipline which 
 has been very variously defined, some authors 
 (Dionysius Halicarnassus, Joseplius, Jahn, etc.) 
 incorporating with it the whole history of the 
 Hebrew nation, and the whole geography of the 
 Holy Land, others (De Wette, Gesenius, Hagen- 
 bach, etc.) excluding one or both of these ele- 
 ments from it; while finally others have confined 
 it to purely artistic monuments. We would pro- 
 pose a middle course. Leaving out biblical 
 history, properly so called, we define biblical 
 archaeology as a representation of the physical, 
 geographical, statistical, economical, and social 
 conditions of that nation which produced the 
 Bible. Of the antiquities of other nations which 
 came in contact with the Hebrews, either on ac- 
 count of race relationship, such as the Aramaeans, 
 Arabs, Canaanites, Philistines, etc., or through 
 some political combination, such as the Egyp- 
 tians. Assyrians, Chaldajans, Persians, Greeks, 
 and Romans, we admit only that which has a 
 direct bearing on .some scriptural passage. Thus 
 defined, biblical archeology is a most important 
 aid, not only to the expounder, but also to every 
 reader, of the Bible. 
 
 The sources of this science comprise ; I. An- 
 tique monuments and buildings, plastic repre- 
 sentations, insoriptions, and coins. To tiiis group 
 belong not only the ruins and architectural mon- 
 uments from an ante-MoIiammedan period in 
 Palestine itself, whii'h, although recent investi- 
 gations and excavations have brought several to 
 light, are not very numerous, but also the temples 
 and palaces of Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, Per- 
 sia, Phoenicia, and Syria, with their plastic and 
 pictorial representations, yield valuable instruc- 
 tion. The pertinent inscriptions are found 
 collected in the Curpiis Insrriptl. fjnccnr. : vol. 
 HI. (1853), p. 211; Corpus Inscriptt. Latin, ed. ; 
 Mom.mse,v, vol III. (1873); Le Bas kt Wad- 
 di.nuton: Inscriptions Greciptes el Laiines, torn. 
 III., 1870; De Vogue: Syrie Cenlralc, Paris, 
 1868; Wetzstein: Ausijeuiihlte (jriech. unil latin. 
 Jn!»-liriflen, in Alihanil. il. lierliner Akai/., 1803. 
 The literature concerning the sarcophjigns of 
 Eshmunazar (Plucnioian), the tablet of Mar- 
 seilles (Punic), and the stone of Mesa (Moabitic), 
 will be found under the respective heads. The 
 coins have been examined by Eckhel, Mionnet, 
 Bertheau, C'avedoni, De Saulcy, Levy, and Mad- 
 den (see article on Money). II. Among the 
 written sources the Bible occupies the first place, 
 though a careful discrimination is nece.ssary 
 between the various epochs in which the various 
 books were written. Al.so the writings of Philo 
 and Joseplius give excellent information with 
 regard to their own times; but, for the older 
 periods, they must be used with caution. T^lie 
 
 Talmud, Targums, and the Rabbins form a " rich 
 but not clear source." The older portions of 
 them are of great value for the explanation of 
 the New Testament. See Meuschen : N. T. ex 
 Talmude Illuslralum, 1736; Lightfoot : Horm 
 hehr. el lalm. in N. T., Cantabr., 1658; Schott- 
 GEN : Horce hebr. el lalm. in N. T., 1733 et 1742 ; 
 Wetstein: Annolt. in N. T., 1757. Several 
 Greek and Roman authors, such as Herodotus, 
 Xenophon, Polybius, Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, 
 Plutarch, Appian, Pliny. Tacitus, and Justin 
 contain important notices, but cannot be used 
 without the most careful criticism. Among 
 Oriental writers the Arabic geographers and 
 natural philosophers are of great value, such as 
 Istachri, Edrisi, Ibn liautal, Abulfeda, Yakut, 
 AbdoUatiph, Avicenna, and others ; also the re- 
 ligious books of the Arabs and Parsees, and the 
 older poets and historians, are of interest. Of 
 still greater importance are the numerous travel- 
 lers' sketches from the Orient, old and new, which 
 wall be enumerated in the article on Palestine. 
 We mention here only two works, giving extracts 
 from older travels, and applying them immedi- 
 ately to peculiar passages of the Bible. E. F. C. 
 Rosenmulleu : Da.t alle untl neue Morgenland, 6 
 vols., Leipzig, 1818, an enlarged translation of 
 Burder's Oriental Customs, London. 1802,5th ed., 
 1816, 2 vols.; and Tii. Harmar : Beuhachtungen 
 iitter d. Orient aus Reiselie.^ckreibungen, ed. J. E. 
 Faber, Hamburg, 1772, and Clarke, London, 1876, 
 4 vols. 
 
 Of the sep.arate branches of biblical archse- 
 ology we mention first biblical geography and 
 natural history, including the views of the He- 
 brews of the universe and the e.arth, and their 
 knowledge of geography and ethnology. For 
 more detailed inform.ation on this point we refer 
 to the special articles, and mention here only the 
 principal works on natural history according to 
 the Bible. J. J. Scheuchzer: Physica Sacra, 
 1731 (illustrated) ; Odmann : Gemischte Samm- 
 lungen, Rostock, 1786; J. B. Friedreich: liibcl. 
 Naturhist. untl Mediz. Frarpncnle, Niiriiberg, 1848; 
 Tristu.^m : The Natural Hi.ilory of the Bible, Lon- 
 don, 1873, 3d ed.; S. Bociiart: Hierozoicon,\Qid'i, 
 ed. Rosenmiiller, Lips., 1793; Oi.. Celsius: Hie- 
 robotanicon, Upsala, 1745. Next follows a repre- 
 .sentation of the domestic relations .and customs of 
 Israel, — family and marri.age, parents and chil- 
 dren, master and slaves, house, garments, agri- 
 culture, etc., which we propose to speak of in 
 special articles. The legal anil political antiqui- 
 ti<'8 of the Jews have been treated by J. I). 
 MiCHAELis; Mas. liccht, 1770, 6 vols.; IIull- 
 m A.NN : Stalscerfassung iter Isracliten. Leipzig, 1834 ; 
 SAAl.scHtJTZ : Das Mas. Recitt, Berlin, 1853 ; also 
 Sei.de.n : De Jure Naturali el (lentium juxta Dis- 
 cipil. llebr., London, 1610. The so-called sacred 
 antiquities, rel.ating to worshi]>, have been treated 
 by Si'ENCEr: De Legibus Hebr. Ritual ibus, Cambr., 
 11)85; Jon. Lund: Die alien JUdischiHi Heilig- 
 riiHiftr, Ilanibuig. 16f15; H. Rei.and: A'ntitpdlates 
 Sacra:, Traj. ad Rlien., 1708, with notes of Kau and 
 Ugolino, ed. by Vogel, Halle, 176!); Baiir : Die 
 Si/mlmlik- lies Alos. Kullus, lleideUx'rg, 1837, 2 ed., 
 vol. i., 1874; IIaneiierg: Die rclig. Alterlhiimer 
 der Bibrl, Munich, 1861). Hebrew areha«logy has 
 been specially treated by (ioodwin : Mu.ie.i et 
 Aaron, Oxou., 1616, ed. Ilottinger, 1710; Iken:
 
 ARCHEOLOGY. 
 
 127 
 
 ARCHDEACONS. 
 
 Antiquilt. Heh., Bremen, 1730, 5th ed., 1764; 
 Waehner : Anliquilt. EJiraor. , Gotixngew, 1743; 
 Ugolino : T/iesauriis Anlliiuilt. Snernr., 54 vols., 
 Venet., 1744, a collection of older treatises ; War- 
 NKKROS : Entiourf d. helir. AllerthutiH'r, Weimar, 
 1782, 3d ed. by Hoffmann, 1832; \V. M. L. 
 I)K VVkttk: Lehrb. it. Iiehr. jiid. Arc/Keolnr/if, 
 Leipzig, 1814, 4th ed. by Rjibiger, 1804 ; E\VAi.i> : 
 Die Alh'rtldimer ties Volkes Israel, Gottingen, 
 1848, 3d ed., 1866; Saalschijtz: Arcli(ciil(i(/ie d. 
 Hebrceer, Konigsberg, 1855; Keil: Ilaniiburh d. 
 Idbl. Archdolofjie. Frankfurt^am-Main, 1858, 1859, 
 2 parts, 2d ed., 1S75. lliblical archa'ology in gen- 
 eral has been treated by J. Jahx : Bibl. Arcliceolo- 
 gie, Vienna, 1796, 5 vols., E. F. C. Kosknmuller : 
 Handbueh des biblisrheti Alterthumsknnde, Leipsic, 
 1827, 7 vols.; G. B. Winer: Bibl. Reaticorter- 
 huch, Leipsic, 1820, 2 vols.; Sche.vkei, : Bibel- 
 lexicon, Leipzig, 1869, 5 vols.; Rieum: Hdnd- 
 worterbuch d. bibl. Allertiimer, Leipsic, 1875 sqq. ; 
 Hamburger: fieal-Encyklupadie, 1866 .sqq.; J. 
 KiTTO: Ci/clopcedia of Biblical Literature, 3d ed. by 
 L. Alexander, London, 1869, 3 vols ; Smith: Dic- 
 tionary nf tlie Bible, London, 1860-63, 3 vols. 
 [Am. ed. in 4 vols.]. RIJETSCHI. 
 
 ARCH/EOLOGY, Ecclesiastical, is a branch of 
 church history ; but its boundaries have not yet 
 been finally fixed, either with respect to the ex- 
 tension of time, or with respect to the amount of 
 material, which it ought to encompass. Some, 
 as for instance Walch, confine it to the three 
 first centuries; while others, as for instance Res- 
 en kranz and Piper, want to continue it up to our 
 time. In the latter case its name has sometimes 
 been altered ; thus Pellicia calls his work Christ. 
 Efclesice Polilia. Again : some place the bound- 
 ary-line at the twelfth (August!) or the fifteenth 
 century (Baumgarten) ; while others, following 
 the example of Joseph Bingham, place it at the 
 death of Gregory the Great (604). The limita- 
 tions of the material vary in a similar way. 
 Formerly almost every thing was admitted ; and 
 the subject-matter was arranged, rather arbi- 
 trarily, after the fashion of Terentius Varro. 
 It was Rosenkranz and Schleiermacher who first 
 brought system into the limitation and arrange- 
 ment of the materials. In his Encyclo/xedie der 
 theol. Wissenschaflen, Rosenkranz confines the do- 
 main of ecclesiastical archseology to the Christian 
 cultus ; while Schleiermacher, in his Darstellung 
 des tlieol. Studiums, also admits what we might 
 call Christian customs. To these two titles 
 most modern writers have added a third one, 
 ecclesiastical constitution ; and thus the whole 
 discipline falls into three divisions. I. Eccle- 
 siastical constitution, comprising the develop- 
 ment of general priesthood into a distinction 
 between clergy and laymen ; the hierarchy of 
 ecclesiastical offices, etc. II. Christian cultus, 
 comprising, first, ecclesiastical actions, such as 
 sermon, prayer, song, administration of the sacra- 
 ments, etc. ; next, ecclesiastical times, such as 
 festivals, etc. ; and, finally, ecclesiastical places, 
 church architecture, religious art, etc. III. The 
 settled customs of Christian life, marriage and 
 burial ceremonies, etc. The last of these three 
 divisions is still very incompletely developed ; 
 while the second, on account of the immense 
 treasures of Christian art, has become an inde- 
 pendent discipline, and the name " church an- 
 
 tiquities " or "ecclesiastical archaeology," like 
 that of '• classical archaeology," is often confined 
 t« the art monuments. 
 
 Previous to the Reformation, there now and 
 then appeared works which touched archaiological 
 subjects, such as Durandus (d. 1294), Raliomdes 
 DiviiKirntii Ojficiorum : but it was the Reformation 
 which first occasioned a critical treatment of 
 church anti([uities. The two great works on 
 church history — the Mai/debiir</ Centuries (Prot- 
 estant) and Annates Baronii (Roman Catholic) — 
 contain the archa!ological summaries or surveys, 
 and from their time ecclesiastical archaeology was 
 treated as a separate discipline. Among Protes- 
 tant writers we mention Joseph Binciiam : 
 Orit/ines Ecclesiasticcc, or llie Antiquities of lite ClirU- 
 tian Cliurcli, London, 1708-22; Augu.sti : Denk- 
 leiirdifjkeiten d. christ. Arcliwoloijie, 1816-31; 
 RiiEi.vw.\LD : Kircld. Arcli(eolo;/ie ; Guekicke: 
 Letirliucli d. clirist.-kireld. Arcli(eotof/ie, 1847 
 [Smith and Cheetham : Dirtiomir// of Clirislian 
 Antiquities, 187.5, 2 vols.]. Among Roman-Catholic 
 writers we mention Mamachii: Oric/. et Aniiquit. 
 C/irisl., 1749, 5 vols.; Bintekim: DenkwUrdiijkeit' 
 en d. Christ, katliol. Kirclie, 1825, 12 vols. — -Spe- 
 cially relating to Church Constitution, Ziegler : 
 Gescliictite d. kircld. Gesellschaftsformen, 1798; 
 Planck : Entstehung d. christ. kircld. Gesell- 
 scha/tsverfasswiy, 1803; Rothe- Anfunge der 
 chrisllichen Kirche , IS'il ; Ritschl: Entstehunq d. 
 altkalholischen Kirclie, 2d ed., 1857 ; Beysciilag : 
 Die christ. GemeindeverJ'assung ini Zeitalter d. N. 
 T., 1874. — Cultus, Alt: Der christliche Cultus, 2 
 vols., 1851; Harnack: Der christliche Gemeinde- 
 gottesdienst im apost. Zeitalter, 1854. — Customs, 
 ZoCKLER : Geschickte iter Askese, 1863. — Art, 
 Schnaase: Kunstgeschichte ; Rossi: Roma Sot- 
 teranea, Rome, 1864, 1867, 1877, 3 vols. ; repro- 
 duced in NoRTHCOTE and Brownlow : Roma 
 Sotteranea, 2d ed., London, 1879, 3 vols.; Guten- 
 SOHN and Knapp : Die Basiliken d. christ. Rom, 
 1842 ; Unger : Griechische Kunst ; Otte : Hand- 
 bueh d. kirchl. Kunstarchoeoloyie des deulsch. Mit- 
 telalters, ISSS; Didron : Iconoyraphie chretienne , 
 Crosnier : Iconographie chretienne, 1848; L. 
 Twining : Symbols and Emblems of Early and 
 Mediceval Christian Art. [Kraus: Ueber Beyriff, 
 Umfang, u. Geschichte der chrisllichen Archceologie. 
 Freiburg, 1879; Victor Schultze: Arclueol- 
 ogische Studien idler altchristliche Monumenle, 
 Wien, 1880.] c. bbockhauh. 
 
 ARCHBISHOP. See Bishop. 
 
 ARCHDEACONS and ARCHPRESBYTERS 
 occur very early in the dioceses as helpers, and, 
 under certain circumstances, as representatives, 
 of the bishops ; the archdeacon standing at the 
 head of the secular clergy in all questions of 
 government and administration, and the arch- 
 presbyter heading the priests in matters of cult. 
 
 The origin of the office of the archpresbyter is 
 not clear. The name, upjOTpffT/iiiTc^of (Sozom. 
 Hist. eccl. VIII. 12), or irpoTO-npeniJinepof (Socrat. 
 //(s^ eccl. VI. 9). seems originally to have been 
 given in the Greek Church to the oldest presbyter 
 of the diocese as a matter of course ; but by de- 
 grees, as a definite distinction became established 
 between the episcopate and the presbyterate, we 
 find, that, towards the close of the fourth cen- 
 tury, the senior presbyter came to occupy an in- 
 termediate position between the bishop and the
 
 ARCHDEACONS. 
 
 128 
 
 ARCHICAPELLANUS. 
 
 presbyters. In Western Europe, especially in 
 Germany, the office developed in a somewhat 
 different way. Here the episcopal dioceses, cor- 
 responding to the old missionary fields, were 
 much larger, and so were the parishes into which 
 the dioceses were divided, and which often fol- 
 lowed the boundary-line of some political sub- 
 division. Each parish had its church, often 
 erected on the site of some ancient Pagan tem- 
 ple; but besides these parochial churches (eccle- 
 siw hapthmales:, plelies, titull majares), in which full 
 service was performed every Sunday, with bap- 
 tism, burial, etc., each parish had a number of 
 minor churches (ar-aloria, capellw, liluli tninores), 
 often connected wdth a castle, and in which only 
 sermons were delivered, and prayers held, but no 
 full service performed. In course of time these 
 oratoria. capeUcc, liliili tninores, became parish- 
 chm-ches themselves, with full service : but the 
 original parochial church, whose incumbent now 
 assumed the title of archipresbyter, or decanus 
 ruralLi. continued, nevertheless, to exercise some 
 kind of supervision and superintendence over 
 them. 
 
 Archdeacons occur as superior officers in the 
 administration and jurisdiction of the episcopal 
 diocese as early as the pontificate of Leo tlie 
 Gi'eat. In the eighth century they were regular 
 priests, and superior to the rural deacons. In 
 the ninth century in France, and, somewhat later 
 in Germany, the dioceses were divided, and each 
 bishop had several archdeacons under him. With 
 the development of the chapter-houses the pow- 
 ers of the archdeacons were much incre.ased, as 
 the archdeaconates were genei'ally held by the 
 provost of the cathedral and the canons; but 
 from this circumstance arose also a conflict be- 
 tween the archdeacon and the bishop. Origi- 
 nally the archdeacon was only the coadjutor or 
 representative of the bishop in the exercise of 
 the episcopal jurisdiction : but. in the beginning 
 of tlie thirteenth century, he is called ^'urfex tinli- 
 nwiu.t. and, but for the obstinate resistance of 
 the bishops, he would probably have usurped the 
 whole episcopal power of jurisdiction, lie had 
 also the right to hold visitation.s, to examine the 
 candidates for ordination, to apjioint and rele- 
 gate the archpresbyters, etc. During the thir- 
 teenth century several councils (Tours, I'J^JS); 
 Liege, 1287 ; Slainz, 1310, etc.^ tried to circum- 
 scribe the powers of the arclideacons in favor 
 of the bishops, and very complicated questions of 
 competence arose every now and then. But the 
 Council of Trent finally settled the conflict. 
 The archdeacons lost their right of visitation, of 
 jurisdiction in criminal cases and ca.ses of mar- 
 riage, etc., and gradually the office lost its im- 
 portance, or a-ssumud other forirfs. In the Roman 
 curia, the archdeacon became the cardinal-cam- 
 mcrlengo, as tlie arclipresbyter had beconii! the 
 cardinal-vicar; while in otlier episcopal curias, 
 for instance in (jermany, the oflice disappeared 
 altogether, and its business was transferred to 
 the vicar-general. In the Church of England 
 there are .seventy-one archdeacons apjiointed by 
 the bishops, and acting as a kind of vice-bishop, 
 with riglit of visitation, Hus[)ension, ex-commu- 
 nication, etc. See Pkktmcii : Urs/iiunjj der Dia- 
 iouoi, llildesheim, 1743; Cuu'l's: Lmv nlatintj to 
 the Church and (Meryi/, 1850. MEJEli. 
 
 ARCHELA'US (ruler of the people), a son of 
 Herod the Great by the Samaritan Malthake ; 
 brought up at Rome with his uterine and younger 
 brother, Herod Antipas ; succeeded, according to 
 his father's will, on the latter's death (B.C. 4), 
 although not without opposition on the part of 
 Antipas, to the government of Judrea and Sa- 
 maria, with the title of ethnarch, not kinq as he is 
 called by Josephus (Antiip XVIII. 4. 3) and Mat- 
 thew (ii. 22). He was so cruel, that, in the tenth 
 year of his reign, he was deposed by Augustus, 
 who had originally given him his government, 
 and banished to Vienne in Gaul, on complaint 
 of the most prominent Jews and Samaritans, 
 A.D. 6. He died there. Josephus also relates 
 that he magnificently rebuilt the palace at Jeri- 
 cho, and built a village, called after him Arche- 
 lais. He was twice married, first to Mariamne, 
 whom he divorced in order to marry Glaphyra, 
 the former wife of his brother Alexander, [to 
 whom she had borne children, and thus this 
 second marriage was illegal.] See Josephus : 
 Antiq. XVH. 13. 
 
 Lit. — Braun: Die Sohne des Herodes, 1873; 
 Schurer: Neutestamenlliche Zeitf/eschichte, L,eiip~ 
 zig, 1874. EMIL SCHURER. 
 
 AR'CHEVITES, the name of a people trans- 
 planted by the Assyrians into the depopulated 
 Samaria (Ez. iv. 9). They were inhabitants of 
 Erech and its neighborhood, mentioned (in Gen. 
 X. 10) as belonging to the kingdom of. Nimrod. 
 Erech has been identified in the ruins of Warka, 
 on the left bank of the Euphrates, eighty-two 
 miles south-east from Babylon, a former seat of 
 power, and apparently the necropolis of the As- 
 syrian kings, judging from the number of clay 
 coffins and royal inscriptions. In the cuneiform 
 inscriptions the place is named Arku. The 
 Greeks called it Orchoe. 
 
 Lit. — Besides the commentaries upon Gen. x. 
 10 ; Ez. iv. 9, see Buttmann : Mytholoqiis, vol. 
 i. (1828), pp. 23.5-245. V.itvv.k:' Erdkunde, 2d 
 ed., vol. xi., 1844, pp. 315-3,56. Chesney: The 
 Ex/ieililiitnfor the Surr>>!/ of the Euphrates and Ti- 
 i/ris ( London, 1850,4 vols.). Loktus : Travels 
 and Researches in Chatdiva and Siwiana (London, 
 1857), p. 150 sq. Rawlinson: The Five Great 
 Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World (4 vols., 
 London, 18G2-(>7, 3d ed., 1870, reprinted in New 
 York, 1881) 1st vol.. p. 23. wolf baudissin. 
 
 ARCHICAPELLANUS (apocrisiarius. patalii cus- 
 tos, (ditiiis ref/ii oratorii, etc.) w-as the highest dig- 
 nitary in the church of the ancient Fr.ankish 
 Empire. To the royal court, still ambulant, and 
 changing its residence from place to place, there 
 belonged a number of clerical per.sons, at the 
 head of whom stood the .archicapellanus. His 
 office was to report to the king on all ecclesiasti- 
 cal attairs; and as the Fraiikish Church of that 
 time, ill vindication of its independence of Rome, 
 .sought and found its centre in the royal power, 
 the arcliicapcllaiius became natiiially the most 
 influential and powerful of the Frankish prelates. 
 Soon his oflice extended al.so to secular affairs. 
 He became chief of the chancery, and the sum- 
 mns cancellariiis became his subordinate. The 
 oflice was generally filled by an archbishop, 
 after the division of the empire it was even con- 
 nected with a certain see, — for (iermany with 
 Mainz, for Gaul with Treves, for Italy with Co-
 
 ARCHIMANDRITE. 
 
 129 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 logne. See Hincmar: Dc ordine palalii, c. 13, 10, 
 19, 20, 32; and the article on Ei.kkmosynaiui. 
 
 ARCHIMANDRITE (upx"^ ^m ii<ivi\)ai, from iiiin- 
 iV'fl. fold, being geuerally applied to a monastic 
 association as consisting of tlie sheep of Christ) 
 was the name given since the fifth century to the 
 head of a monastery by the (ireek Christians, and 
 generally used in the Eastern Church, though it 
 also occurs in the Western. In old times it was 
 sometimes applied, both by Greek and Latin 
 Christians, to all prelates, regardless of their re- 
 spective rank. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, Hebrew. The notices which 
 the Bible gives of Hebrew architecture are very 
 few, and so are the architectural remains from 
 biblical times found in Palestine. The common 
 house was that generally met with throughout 
 the whole Orient, built of baked or sun-dried 
 brick, sometimes of hew'n stones (Isa. ix. 10), 
 cemented by lime (Isa. xxvii. 9) or gypsum, and 
 often plastered (Lev. xiv. 41; Ezek. xiii. 10; 
 Matt, xxiii. 27). The beams and the roofing 
 were made of sycamore, sometimes of olive or 
 cedar-wood (Isa. ix. 10; Jer. xxii. 14). In 
 palaces, columns and colonnades were of frequent 
 occurrence (Judg. iii. 23). Larger houses con- 
 sisted of several stories, and were built in a 
 square, around a roomy court-yard, which con- 
 tained the well and the fountain (2 Sam. xi. 2, 
 xvii. 18). .Sometimes such houses had a front 
 court, from which people entered into the inner 
 court through a door, or ascended to tlie upper 
 stories or to the roof by stairs (Mark xiv. 68 ; 
 Luke xvi. 20; John xviii. 16; Acts x. 17). 
 The roof was flat, only a little inclined to let off 
 the rain-water, and provided with a breastwork 
 (Deut. xxii. 8). It w-as used for various domes- 
 tic purposes, — for recreation and sleep, for lonely 
 meditations and religious exercises, and iu cases 
 when somebody wished everybody to see and 
 hear what he said or did (2 Sam. xi. 2 ; 1 Sam. 
 ix. 25 ; Acts x. 9 ; 2 .Sam. xvi. 22 ; IMatt. x. 27 ; 
 Isa. xxii. 1). Stairs led up to it, both from the 
 street and from the interior of the house. With 
 thJ roof communicated the so-called upper room, 
 which was used as a place of retirement, a kind 
 of house-chapel (2 Sam. xviii. 33 ; 2 Kings xxiii. 
 12 ; Acts i. 13, xx. 8), or as a spare-room for 
 guests (2 Kings iv. 10). It was cool (Judg. iii. 
 20), and here the corpse was laid out before 
 burial (Act. ix. 37, 39). The walls were gen- 
 erally wainscoted, the panels being sometimes 
 inlaid with ivory (1 Kings xxii. 39; Jer. xxii. 
 14). Light was admitted through latticed win- 
 dows (Judg. V. 28). The doors were shut by 
 wooden bars, and the posts were adorned with 
 proverbs (Deut. vi. 9). Rich people had rooms 
 for the summer, and rooms for the winter, the 
 latter provided witli a hearth (Jer. xxxvi. 22 ; 
 Amos iii. 15). The back rooms were destined for 
 the women, and could be entered by none but 
 the master of the house. 
 
 A Hebrew architecture, in the proper sense of 
 the word, did not arise, liowever, until the times 
 of the kings. But, immediately after the con- 
 quest of Zion, David began to rebuild and fortify 
 the city, and to erect a palace for himself. Still 
 greater and more brilliant were the undertakings 
 of his .son Solomon. He enlarged and strength- 
 ened the city-wall and the Castle of Millo (1 
 
 10 -I 
 
 Kings iii. 1, ix. 15, 24, xi. 27), erected for- 
 tresses and palaces also outside of the capital (1 
 Kings ix. 15-19), and built a costly aqueduct by 
 which excellent drinking-water was led from the 
 region of Etani, south-we.st of Bethlehem, to 
 Jerusalem. His two most magnificent buildings, 
 however, were the temple and the ])alace. It 
 took seven years and a lialf to build the former 
 (1 Kings vi. 38), besides three years to gather 
 and prepare the materials, during wliich time a 
 hundred and eighty-three thousand Jews and 
 strangers were employed. The contractors and 
 superintendents were Phrenicians. The cedar 
 and cypress wood, and probably also the stone, 
 was brought from Lebanon, floated down to Joppa, 
 and thence hauled to Jerusalem. On Mount 
 Moriah enormous substructures had to be raised, 
 in which huge stones were used, thirty feet long, 
 seven feet and a half thick, and liewn in a man- 
 ner not met with outside of Phoenicia and Syria. 
 These truly'cyclopean walls have partially with- 
 stood the vicissitudes of thirty centuries, while 
 the temple it.self has wholly disappeared. The 
 building of the royal palace took thirteen years 
 (1 Kings vii. 1). It stood on the north-eastern 
 side of JNlount Zion, west of the temple, and con- 
 sisted of two large courts connected by a passage- 
 yard (2 Kings XX. 4). In the centre of the front 
 court stood the House of the Forest of Lebanon, 
 two hundred feet long, one hundred feet broad, 
 and sixty feet high, consisting of three stories, 
 and forming an interior court-yard, surrounded 
 by open galleries, which rested on four rows of 
 colunnis of cedar- wood. A flight of stairs led to 
 the passage-yard, with a hall one hundred feet 
 long and sixty feet broad, resting on columns, 
 where stood the magnificent throne (1 Kings x. 
 18). In the back court was the palace proper, 
 with the harem, etc. A wall of three rows of 
 huge hewn stones, with a battlement of cedar 
 beams, surrounded the whole structure. The 
 interior decorations consisted exclusively of foli- 
 age ornaments, whose character, though very 
 different from what elsewhere occurs in antique 
 art, is tolerably well known from ancient He- 
 brew tombs. 
 
 From the circumstance that both under David, 
 and still more under Solomon, every architectural 
 undertaking was executed by the aid of King 
 Hiram of Tyre and his Phoenician artisans (1 
 Kings V. 9; Joseph. Ant. 8, 5, 3), it has been 
 generally inferred that Hebrew architecture was 
 a mere repetition of Phoenician architecture. 
 Nevertheless, in the description of the palace, not 
 only the general impression, but a number of de- 
 tails, remind most decidedly of the palaces of the 
 valley of the Nile, and, with respect to the temple, 
 the model was the tabernacle, and in the details 
 foreign influence can have made itself felt only 
 so far as it was compatible with the Jewish idea 
 of God. In Hebrew architecture, when it stood 
 at its highest, in the time of the kings, both 
 ^Egyptian and Assyrian influences have asserted 
 themselves beside the Plioenician. After the 
 time of the Maccabees, especially under the 
 Herodian dynasty, Greek taste and Greek style 
 became prevailing. All the magnificent struc- 
 tures from that time — gynmasiums, baths, thea- 
 tres, palaces, and colonnades — were Greek, and 
 so was, to a great extent, the new temple built
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 130 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 by Herod (Joseph. Anl. 15, 8, 1 ; 15, 9, 4; 6; 15, 
 10, 3). See Tabernacle, Temple. 
 
 Lit. — MiCHAELis : De Jud. Arch., Gottingen, 
 1771 ; KuGLER : Geschichle der BaukunM, 1855- 
 60; LuBKE : Geschkhte der Archileclur, 1865, and 
 his History of Art (edited by Clarence Cook), 
 New York, 1878, 2 vols.; De Vogue: V Archi- 
 tecture dans la St/rin. Paris, 1865. RUETSCHI. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, Christian, does not denote 
 a special ch-apter of the history of architecture. 
 Taken into the service of the Christian Church, 
 and adapting itself to the liturgical demands 
 of Christian worship, architecture burst into a 
 new bloom, and produced some of its grandest 
 fruits; but it received this new spirit, and acted 
 upon this new impulse, without deserting its old, 
 already established norms, without any sudden 
 breach in its onward development. 
 
 The gospel was preached in the synagogues of 
 the cities (.\cts xiv. 1, xvii. 1, xviii. 4, xviii. 19, 
 xix. 9); but as soon as a congregation was formed, 
 and a peculiar worship began to develop, the 
 Christians separated from the synagogue, and 
 held their gatherings in private houses (.\cts ii. 
 46, XX. 9; Rom. xvi. 5; 1 Cor. xvi. 19). In the 
 times of persecution every place might become a 
 place of worship, — the field, the desert, the .ship, 
 the inn, the jail, and the tomb (Euseb. Hist. Eccl. 
 V. 22). For a long period the catacombs of 
 Rome were the church of the Roman congrega- 
 tion, the place of their teaching and their wor- 
 ship. Independent church-buildings, that is, 
 buildings erected or set apart for the divine ser- 
 vice of the congregations, existed in the third 
 century; but the slight and frail character of these 
 structures is proved by the circumstance, that, 
 during the persecution of Diocletian, the famous 
 Church of Nicomedia was destroyed and levelled 
 to the ground by the Praetorian guard in the course 
 of a few hours (Lactant. De Mortib. Persecut., 
 c. 12). 
 
 Not until the time of Con.st.antine did Chris- 
 tian architecture become an art; and so slight 
 ■were its pretensions to originality, so closely did 
 it adapt itself to the artistic forms already ex- 
 isting, that it appeared at once in two entirely 
 different styles, I. The Hdsilicon, and, II. The 
 Bi/zantine, corresponding to the two principal 
 types of national civilization, — the Roman and 
 tne Greek. Between these two styles there is very 
 little similarity ; for in neither of them is there, 
 in their first productions, any thing strikingly and 
 pronouncedly Christian. The Byzantine was the 
 more magnificent and brilliant of the two. But 
 it soon became stationary, and even degenerated; 
 while the Basilican developed two new and grand 
 Jihases, III. The y^owndcwyiie, and, IV. The (j'o/AiC 
 style. 
 
 I. The Basilican sli/le sprung from the Roman 
 ba,silica, which was not only imitated, but in many 
 ca-ses actually taken possession of, and, with few 
 and slight alterations, used as a Christian chin-ch. 
 The style became |)r<;valent throughout the West- 
 ern countries, and lasted till the beginningof the 
 eleventh century. Under (lie reign of Constan- 
 tine, and i>artly by his su]iport, several iii.igiiifi- 
 cent structures wen; erected in this style, both in 
 the East and in the West, such as tin; Basilica of 
 Tyre, built (31 3-22) by Bishop Paulinus, the 
 Church of St. Mary in Bethlehem (328-36), the 
 
 Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, con- 
 sisting of a basilica and a rotunda, the Church of 
 the Vatican (336), that of the Lateran, etc. As 
 specimens still existing and in good repair may 
 be mentioned, .S. Paolo fuori le mura, S. A(/nese 
 fuori le mura, S. Cteinente in Rome, 5. Apoltinare 
 in Classe in Ravenna, etc. 
 
 The Roman basilica, an imitation of the 
 Greek (Saai'Mnii cttoo, thus called because the second 
 archou, the dpxtJv fSacAtix, held his court there, 
 was a rectangular structure of two stories, pre- 
 senting a bare wall to the street, and forming in 
 the interior a large hall surrounded by columns 
 and galleries. In the front was an open court, 
 alriunt, narlhex ; in the rear a semicircular addi- 
 tion covered with a vault, hemicijclium, Irihnna. 
 The main hall was used by the Romans as a kind 
 of bourse, or exchange : in the trihuna sat the 
 court, — the judge, the lawyers, the witnesses, etc. 
 
 The changes which it was necessary to make in 
 order to transform this structure from an ex- 
 change to a church were not many. The atrium 
 was enlarged, and provided with a fountain. 
 Here assembled the catechumens and the peni- 
 tents ; but when the church ceased to have cate- 
 chumens, and public penance was abolished, the 
 atrium disappeared altogether. From the atrium, 
 the interior hall — the place of the baptized, the 
 faithful, the true congregation — was entered 
 through three, or five, or even seven doors, accord- 
 ing as the hall was divided in three, or five, or 
 seven aisles. Three was the common number. 
 Two parallel rows of columns divided the hall 
 into three aisles, of which the middle one, the 
 nave proper, generally was double as broad and 
 double as high as the side-aisles, and enclosed on 
 on account of its additional height by a solid wall 
 resting on the columns, and on arches spanning 
 from column to column, and pierced towards the 
 roof by a row of windows. The hemici/clium, or 
 trihuna, now became the sacarium, or sanctitarium , 
 trlie place of the clergy, elevated a few steps above 
 the nave, and separated from it by a railing. 
 Here stood in the centre the altar, on both sides; 
 in front, the ambons, or pulpits ; in the middle, 
 behind the altar, the bishop's throne, and all 
 along the wall the .seats for the clergy. 
 
 The exterior effect of the basilica was, no doubt, 
 heavy and cold ; but the interior must have mada 
 an impression of great magnificence, though per- 
 fect harmony may have been wanting. The 
 doors were of carved wood or gilt bronze, and 
 provi<ied with hangings of costly stuffs embroi- 
 dered with gohl and silver. The columns were 
 of the finest marble, sometimes of porphyry, 
 taken from the old Pagan temples; the seats, of 
 marble and bronze, or of wood inlaid with ivory 
 and precious stones, taken from the baths and the 
 theatres. The roof was of wood, gilt or painted; 
 and the heaviness of the masonry was relieved 
 by exquisite pictures in mosaic. Originally these 
 pictures were used simply as a method of teach- 
 ing, as a means by which to impress the prin- 
 cipal facts of the Christian faith upon the minds 
 of th(; congreg.ation ; but in course of time they 
 were employed for jiurely a'sthetii^ il |)in-poses. 
 
 Iat. — Descriptions of individual churches by 
 Eisiinius (//«/. JCccl. X. 4) and by Paulinu.s of 
 .N'ola (Nulal. X. and K/n's'. ad Serer., 13); Vrritu- 
 vils: Dc Archili'clnra : Hunsen: Die Basiliken
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 131 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 rfc.s- chrhtlivhcn Roms, 1842; Huiiscn: Die alt- 
 clirisllirliiii KircJien, 1858-Gl. 
 
 II. T/ie lifizdniine xti/lt' originated, according to 
 some art-historians, from the Roman mausoleum, 
 accordiiii; to otliers, from a Persian influence, 
 most probalily from botli. The cupola, whicli is 
 the most prominent feature in Byzantine cliurch- 
 arcliitecture, was frequently used in Roman 
 tombs; and the transition from a Pagan mauso- 
 leum erected in honor of some hero, to the Chris- 
 tian church raised as a mausoleum over the 
 remains of a martyr, seems both easy and natural. 
 But in the Roman tombs the cupola was always 
 placed on a circidar substructure, and it was in 
 Persia that the problem was first solved of placing 
 the cupola on a squari substructure by forming 
 an octagon in the interior of the square by means 
 of a huge pillar in each angle. This Persian 
 form of dome-building — the combination of the 
 cupola and the square — ■ the Eastern Church 
 adopted ; and in this ground-plan it found its 
 spirit expressed, its wants satisfied. The struc- 
 ture became higher and loftier; and, by the op- 
 portunity it afforded to place galleries on lower 
 columns between the pillars, it at once acquired 
 a more picturesque and imaginative appearance, 
 and met the want, so peremptory in the East, of 
 full separation between tlie sexes. In the Roman 
 basilica, with its atrium for the catechumens and 
 penitents, its nave for the congregation, its apsis, 
 or sancluariuiii, for the officiating clergy, we recog- 
 nize the Western Church, with its craving for 
 clear and definite organization, for policy. In the 
 Byzantine dome, in which the light and broad 
 aisles have been transformed into narrow and 
 dark corridors, in which the atrimu, and even the 
 apsis, with the altar, have shrunk into insignifi- 
 cance, in which the whole construction is concen- 
 trated on the free central space, where a dim light 
 floats far aloft under the cupola, we recognize the 
 Eastern Church, with its craving for dreamy and 
 subtle speculation, for theology. 
 
 Several fine specimens of the style were pro- 
 duced in the reign of Constantine, such as the 
 so-called Dommiuin Aureutn in Antioch (331); 
 the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, 
 which, as above mentioned, combined a basilica 
 with a rotunda ; the Church of the Apostles in 
 Constantinople ; the Church of the Ascension on 
 Mount Olivet, etc. But its p)oiut of culmination 
 it did not reach until in the sixth century, under 
 the reign of Justinian. The two masterpieces 
 of the style are St. Vitale in Ravenna (520-47) 
 and St. Sophia in Constantinople (532-57). 
 The latter is probably the grandest monument of 
 Christian art, covering an area of seventy thou- 
 sand square feet. The bulk of the building forms 
 nearly a square, two hundred and thirty-five feet 
 the one way, and two hundred and fifty feet the 
 other. The central dome — a hundred and seven 
 feet in diameter, and forty-six feet high — rises 
 a hundred and eighty feet from the floor ; east 
 and west it rests, not on pillars with piers, but 
 on two semi-domes of the same dimensions, and 
 thus a central space, two hundred feet long and 
 a hundred feet broad, is left entirely free and un- 
 encumbered. The costliness of the materials — 
 gold and silver, ivory and precious stones, por- 
 phyry and marble — corresponded to the grandeur 
 of the dimensions ; and when the building was 
 
 finished, Justinian burst out, "I have eclij'sed 
 thee, O Solomon ! " Since 1453 St. Sophia has 
 been used by the Turks as a common mosque. 
 
 A latter development of the Byzantine style 
 shows a substitution of the (ireek cross for the 
 sipuire substructure, and a multi|ilication of the 
 cupolas, — one at the end of each arm, and one 
 over the crossing. The Church of St. Mark in 
 Venice (1043-71) is the most prominent ex- 
 ample. A still further complication was reached 
 by combining the Greek cro.ss with the square. 
 The number of cupolas was then increased to 
 nine, — one at the end of each arm. one over the 
 crossing, and one in each corner of the square ; 
 and various fantastic, almost grotesque forms 
 were attempted. Many examples are found in 
 Russia. In Western Europe the style penetrated 
 only as far as the Hungarian frontier, with the 
 exception of some places in Northern Italy; but 
 in Eastern Europe and Western Asia it was and 
 is generally prevailing. 
 
 Lit. — Descriptions of individual churches are 
 found in Eusebius : Vila Conxlunlini, III., 50; 
 IV., 30, 58, and in a poem by Paulus Silen- 
 TiARius on St. Sophia, in Scripl. Hint. Byzant. ; 
 Texier et P. PuLLAN : Arciiitccture Byzantine, 
 1854 ; Selzenberg : AltcJirislliche Baudenkmale 
 von Konstantinopel. 
 
 III. The Romanefsque /style was simply a devel- 
 opment from the basilican by adaptation of 
 various Byzantine motives, especially the round 
 arch. It dates as a definite style from the begin- 
 ning of the eleventh century, and produced a 
 number of fine buildings in Upper Italy and in 
 the valleys of the Rhine and the Rhone. It was, 
 nevertheless, only a transition style ; and during 
 the thirteenth century it disappeared, its true 
 and perfect ideal having been found in the 
 Gothic style. 
 
 Under the rule of the Romanesque, both the 
 ground-pilan and the interior and exterior ar- 
 rangement of the old basilica were materially 
 changed. The most important of these changes 
 was the introduction of transepts, or the adap- 
 tation of the cruciform plan with fixed mathe- 
 matical proportions. In the old basilica, all 
 proportions had been completely arbitrary ; but 
 in the cruciform plan the proportions became 
 fixed, as the cross was invariably produced by 
 repeating the square, chosen as unit, three times 
 to the west, and one time respectively to the 
 north, east, and south. The establishment of 
 chapters, or the connection between the church 
 and the monastery, made an extension of the 
 choir necessary. The introduction of side-altars 
 produced a number of apses, especially at the 
 termination of the transepts and the aisles. The 
 development of the vault over the martyr's bones 
 into a complete crypt caused the choir to be 
 raised considei'ably above the floor of the nave. 
 In the Cathedral of Brandenburg, a flight of 
 twenty-two stairs led from the latter to the 
 former. The ati-imn disappeared; and the can- 
 tharus was moved inside the door, where it be- 
 came the font with holy water. A belfry was 
 raised, — first one, and as an independent building, 
 then two, and connected with the western termi- 
 nation of the main building, — where, instead of 
 the alrium, a front fa<;ade was formed, with an 
 elaborate portal and window, etc.
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 132 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Of still greater consequence were the changes 
 which the introduction of the round arch caused 
 in the construction of the building. When the 
 flat •nooden ceiling was discarded, the barrel- 
 vault was first tried, as the easiest to build : but, 
 as the barrel-vault pressed with equal force on 
 every point of the side-walls, it was necessary to 
 give these an enormous strength. Then the 
 cross-vault was adopted, in which the pressure is 
 concentrated on those four points in which the 
 ribs touch the side-walls. These four points it 
 became necessary to strengthen with additional 
 masonry, while the intervening portions of the 
 wall could be made thinner and lighter without 
 weakening the structure. Thus the dead same- 
 ness of the wall was broken, and the formation of 
 pillars began. Also the cross-vaulting — looking 
 like a softly imdulating cloth, fastened to the 
 points of abutment, and along the ribs, but raised 
 as if by an upward breeze — matle a much 
 stronger impression of life and animation than 
 the flat wooden ceiling ; and, compared with the 
 old Basilican style, the Romanesque was a 
 decided progress, though it generally makes 
 a somewhat heavy, and not fully harmonious 
 impression. 
 
 IV. The Gothic style realized all the aspirations 
 of the Romanesque. Retaining the ground-plan 
 and general arrangement such as they had been 
 fixed by the Romanesque style, the Gothic seized 
 upon the new principle of construction intro- 
 duced, but only feebly developed, by the Roman- 
 esque, — the arch, — and carried it out to its last 
 consequences and to its highest perfection, pro- 
 ducing buildings which are marvels of audacity, 
 and marvels of beauty. 
 
 The difference between the Romanesque and 
 the Gothic style arises from the substitution by 
 the latter of the pointed arch for the round. To 
 whom the invention of the pointed arch belongs 
 is not known ; but true lancet arches were much 
 use<l in Asia by the Saracens at the time of the 
 first crusade, and it is probable that it was the cru- 
 saders who brought this novelty back to Europe, 
 as we find it introduced almost simultaneously 
 in France, England, Germany, Spain, and Italy. 
 The most palpable advantage which the pointed 
 arch has above the semicircular is, that it nuikes 
 it as easy to vault an oblong as a square place liy 
 allowing arches of different span to enter into the 
 same system. They need only to be constnuitcd 
 on different radii in order to be carried to the 
 same height. But still greater consequences were 
 involved in the principle. The pre.ssuro of the 
 pointed arch is, of course, more perpendicular 
 than that of the semicircular. The side-thrust 
 is smaller. Thus it becomes easier with the 
 pointed arcli to gather the whole pressure of the 
 vault in a few single points, and to break up 
 completely tlie Hat stretch of wall, folding it into 
 clustered colunms, and giving each shaft at th<! 
 sustaining point its own part of the vault to 
 carry. Thereby all the lines of the construction 
 assume an upward tendency, which wholly oblit- 
 erates the idea of a mechanical contrivance, and 
 actually produces the inqire.ssioti of organic 
 growth. It is the great triumph of tin? Gothic 
 style that it alone, among all styles, has been 
 able to give the aspect of movement to stationary 
 forms, the illusion of life to dead iiiass»<. 
 
 The style arose in the twelfth century, culmi- 
 nated in the thirteenth, degenerated by excesses 
 (such as the Flamhoijant in France, and the Per- 
 pentlicular in England) in the fourteenth and 
 fifteenth centuries, and finally gave way to the 
 Renaissance. The earliest fully-developed ex- 
 ample is the Cathedral of St. Denis, consecrated 
 in 1144 ; and in Northern France the style reached 
 its highest perfection in the cathedrals of Notre 
 Dame in Paris (11G3-1312), Chartres (1195-1260), 
 Rheims (begun in 1212), Amiens (1220-88), etc. 
 Also in England it produced a number of exceed- 
 ingly fine buildings, such as the Cathedral of Can- 
 terburv (1174), Westminster Abbey in London 
 (1245-69), the cathedrals of Salisbury (1220-58), 
 Exeter (1327-69), etc. But the difference between 
 Gothic architecture in France and in England, 
 though a difference of national taste only, not 
 of artistic principle, is, nevertheless, very pro- 
 nounced, and strikes the beholder at the very first 
 glance : the English cathedral is 'long and low, 
 stately and solemn ; the French is short and high, 
 airy and spirited. In Germany, Spain, and Italy* 
 the Gothic style developed less originality, though 
 in the first-mentioned country it produced two 
 magnificent buildings, — the Church of St. Ste- 
 phan in Vienna, and the Cathedral of Cologne. 
 
 V. 27(6 Heiiaixgance style, which in the course 
 of the fifteenth and sixteenth centui'ies complete- 
 ly superseded the Ciothic, has sometimes been 
 designated as a I'eturn to Paganism. It was, at 
 all events, a return to the classical forms. It be. 
 gau as eclecticism. The round arch, the cupola, 
 the column in its classical proportions and sig- 
 nification, etc., were once more resorted to; but 
 it ended in merely copying antique temples ; that 
 is, the shell of them being transferred into mod- 
 ern cities by means of a most minute imitation. 
 Between these two points, the Renaissance period 
 has a very varied history, of great interest to the 
 architect proper, but not so very impressive to 
 the student of Christianity and its influence on 
 the world. Its chief monument is the Church of 
 St. Peter in Rome, commenced in 1506 by Bra- 
 mante, continued by R.aphael (1514-20), Peruzzi 
 (lij20-46), Michelangelo (1546-64), Carlo Ma- 
 derno (lCO.j-29), and finished by Bernini in 1667. 
 
 Like the Romanesque, the Renaissance style 
 bore the character of being a transition, with the 
 difl'erence, however, that it did not lead to any 
 thing. In modern times church-building is 
 generally a more or li?ss strict adajitation of some 
 older style, without any distinct ideas of its own. 
 Sometimes it is a mixing-together of all styles; 
 sometimes a renunciation of style altogether. 
 The latter is especially the case in America. A 
 great number of churches is built here; but, 
 though some of them are very costly and more 
 or loss magnificent structures, most of them are 
 constructeil merely with regard to convenience 
 and comfort. 
 
 Lit. — For the three last divisions of this 
 article, see the pertiruMit chapters of the general 
 history of architecture by Ivutji.iou, LiJDKK (Clar- 
 ence Cook's translation), Vioi.i.kt-i.k-Duu, and 
 Fi'.HOUSoM, and moni especially BitowN : Sacred 
 Architecture, London. 1845; Ciiahi.ks Ei.iot 
 NoitroN : Studies itf ('htircli-huildinf/ in the Middle 
 A//CS, New York, 1880. — See, on this general sub' 
 ject, DiKi'oi.DKu: Dcr Tempclbau der vurchrisllichen
 
 ARCHONTICI. 
 
 133 
 
 ARGENTINE. 
 
 u. christliclien Zeit, oiler die hildenden KUnste im 
 Dienste der Religion bei den Ileiden, Juden, Moham- 
 viedanerii u. Christen, Leipzig, 1881. 
 
 ARCHONTICI, a sect of the fourth century, 
 composed a peculiar kind of works which they 
 called rerelalion.i (see Pseudepiguaphs of the 
 O. T.), in one of which, " The Symphony," tliey 
 treated of the seven heavens, each of which had 
 a ruler, lip.tui', of its own. Of these rulers, whose 
 mother was a certain Thotina, they said that they 
 fed on human souls, and could not exist without 
 such food. The ruler of the seventh he.aven they 
 called Zabaoth (So/Jautf); and the devil, who was 
 identical with the god of the Jews, was one of 
 his sons. They rejected baptism ; but some of 
 them used to sprinkle the head of the dead with 
 water or oil, thereby intending to make them in- 
 visible, and raise them above the reach of the 
 heavenly powers. The sect was started by Peter 
 of Capharbaricha, near Jerusalem, and; especially 
 under the vigorous preaching of his disciples, 
 spread among rich and prominent people. Its 
 doctrines, Gnostic in general, were afterwards 
 carried into the Greater and Lesser Armenia. 
 See Bauk: Die christliche Gnosis, Tubingen, 1835. 
 The source of all our knowledge is Epiphanius, 
 Haer. xl. Later writers merely copy him. 
 
 ARCHPRESBYTER. See Archdeacons. 
 
 ARCIMBOLDI, Giovanni Angelo, b. in Milan 
 in the latter part of the fifteenth century, d. 
 there in 1555, studied law, obtained an appoint- 
 ment in the service of the Roman curia, became 
 protonolarius et referendarius apostolicus for all 
 financial matters concerning the erection of the 
 Church of St. Peter, and was in 1514 made 
 commissary-general for the sale of indulgences in 
 Northern Germany and Scandinavia. In Den- 
 mark he staid two years, and realized immense 
 profits by selling "forgiveness for all kind of 
 crimes, restitution to the state of innocence and 
 purity at the time of baptism, and free entrance 
 through the gates of heaven." But when, in 
 order to achieve a similar success in Sweden, he 
 tried to ingratiate himself with the Swedish 
 grandees by betraying to them the plans of the 
 Danish king, all the propei-ty he had amassed in 
 Denmark, consisting of money, jewelry, iron, 
 butter, and eggs, was confiscated. He had to flee 
 for his life, and a formal accusation of treachery 
 was raised against him in Rome. The pope, 
 however, acquitted or forgave him, as the Danish 
 king proved himself favorable to the Reforma- 
 tion, and Arcimboldi afterwards served Charles 
 v., was made Bishop of Novara in 1525, and 
 Archbishop of Milan in 1550. In literary history 
 he acquired a name by his discovei'y of the five 
 first books of the Annates of Tacitus in the library 
 of the Monastery of New-Corvey. 
 
 ARCOSOLIUM, from aixus, an "arch," and 
 solium, a "throne," a "bath-tub," a "cofiin," 
 denotes a peculiar tomb-arrangement found in 
 the Roman catacombs, and employed at the 
 graves of martyrs and other eminent persons. 
 The arrangement is this: au arch is hewn into 
 the living rock, and imderthis arch the sarcopha- 
 gus is placed, or the niche is closed by masonry 
 to the height of a common table, and the tomb 
 thus formed covered by a loose slab. Often the 
 background of the uiche is painted, or ornament- 
 ed in various other ways. 
 
 AR'ETAS. 1. A contemporary of the Jewish 
 high priests Jason and Menelaus, and of the 
 King of Syria, Antiochus Epiphanes, B.C. 170 
 (2 .Mace. V. 8). 
 
 2. The King of Arabia, Nabata;a, and father- 
 in-law of Herod Antipas ; but, when the latter 
 divorced himself from his (Aretas') daughter to 
 make way for Ilerodias, Aretas revenged the 
 insult by arms, and completely defeated the 
 army of Herod Antipas. Antipas complained to 
 his patron, the Emperor Tiberius, who commis- 
 sioned Tellius, Governor of Syria, to attack 
 Aretas. But the death of Tiberius prevented 
 him. The jiew emperor, he thought, might not 
 desire to continue the feuds of his predecessor. 
 The interesting point in this history is, that 
 to Aretas, having now the good graces of the 
 Romans, Caligula restored the government of 
 Damascus, and thus the accuracy of Paul is fully 
 sustained. It was while Aretas was king, that 
 the governor of that city, incited by the Jewish 
 priests, desired to apprehend Paul. This was 
 A.D. 38 or 39. Mionnet, Descript. de medailles 
 antiques, tom. V., p. 285, mentions a coin from 
 Damascus with the name of Aretas upon it, 
 which is to be set down as probably from A.D. 
 37 or 38. 
 
 Lit. — Karl Wieseler : Clironoloyie des aposlo- 
 lischen Zeitalters, Gottingen, 1848, p. 142 sq., 
 107 sq. ; ScHiJRER : Neutestamenlliche Zeitye- 
 schichte, p. 233. K. WIESELER. 
 
 ARETIUS, Benedictus, a native of Biitterkind- 
 en, in the canton of Bern, Switzerland, studied 
 at Marburg, and was appointed professor of the- 
 ology in 1563, in Bern, where he died in 1574. 
 His i^rincipal work — Tlieoloijim Problemata, Gen- 
 eva, 1579, republished in 1617 — was highly 
 valued, and found many imitators. His Examen 
 Theologicum is also a useful book, and run 
 through six editions in fourteen years. His 
 commentary on the New Testament, published in 
 1580, was republished in 101(3, and his commen- 
 tary on the Pentateuch and the Psalms in 1618. 
 He also gave a commentary to Pindar, and a 
 description of the fiora of .Stockhorn and Riesen. 
 See Melch. Adam : Vil<e Theolog. 
 
 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, The, extending be- 
 tween the Andes to the west and the Atlantic to 
 the east, between Patagonia to the south and 
 Bolivia to the north, was discovered by Juan 
 Diaz de Solis in 1510, occupied by the Spaniards 
 in the following decades, and organized as a part 
 of the viceroyalty of Peru. In 1778 a separate 
 viceroyalty was established, with Buenos Ayres 
 as its capital, and comprising Bolivia, Paraguay, 
 Uruguay, and the states of the Rio de la Plata. 
 In 1810, after the dethi-onement of the Bourbon 
 dynasty in Spain, a revolution broke out in this 
 group of colonial lands, which ended, in 1842, with 
 the formal recognition of their independence by 
 the mother-country. But at the same time an 
 internal war began between the several members 
 of the group, which finally resulted in the estab- 
 lishment of so many independent republics. 
 
 With the Spaniards the Roman-Catholic Church 
 came into the country ; and it is still the church 
 of the state, having five bishoprics, — Buenos 
 Ayres, Cordova, Salta, Sarana, and Cuyo. The 
 liberal ideas, however, which, since 1813, have 
 reigned in the government, and prevailed in the
 
 ARIANISM. 
 
 134 
 
 ARIANISM. 
 
 people, hare considerably modified the position of 
 the Koman Church, ilost of the convents have 
 been suppressed, and their property confiscated ; 
 and the government has assumed the administra- 
 tion of the tithes, applying one part of them for 
 educational purposes. In 1825 religious tolera- 
 tion was established, and in 1834 mixed mar- 
 riages were recognized. 
 
 As long as the mission was in the hands of the 
 Jesuits (15S6-17G7), great results were effected. 
 Large numbers of Indiaus were reclaimed from 
 the savage state, and led into the paths of a 
 Christian and civilized life. They were induced 
 to settle in villages around the missionary sta- 
 tions ; they were taught agriculture and trade ; 
 they received the first elements of education ; 
 and on every occasion they showed a most re- 
 markable docility towards their teachers. But, 
 after the expulsion of the Jesuits, the Roman 
 Catholic Church — now represented by the Do- 
 minican and Franciscan orders — became indo- 
 lent, greedy, and tj'rannous. It lost its hold on 
 the hearts of the people ; and thousands of In- 
 dians relapsed into heathenism and savagery. 
 
 Protestant missionaries first came to tlie coun- 
 try in 1835, and several flourishing stations have 
 been established, especially by the Methodists. 
 A special aid in their work the Protestant mis- 
 sionaries have found in the circumstance that of 
 late a great number of Protestant settlers have 
 emigrated to the country. See the Iteporl vfllie 
 Miss. Sue. of the Meth. Ep. Church fur 1879, New 
 York. 188U.' 
 
 ARiANISIVI, so called from its leader — Arius 
 ("Apf(of), a presbyter of Alexandria (d. 336), see 
 Amus — is one of the most powerful and tena- 
 cious christological heresies in the history of an- 
 cient Christianity. It was during a part of the 
 fourth century the ruling creed in the Eastern 
 Church, though under constant vigorous protest 
 of the orthodox party. It was also at first the 
 creed of most of the barbarian Teutonic races, 
 before they were converted to Catholicity. 
 
 1. History of Arianistn. The roots of the Arian 
 conflict lie deep in the differences of the ante- 
 Nicene doctrine of the Logos, especially in the 
 contradictory elements of Origi'n's Cliri.stology, 
 which was clainu'd by both parties. Origen, on 
 the one hand, attributed to Christ eternity and 
 other divine attributes, which lead to tlie ^icene 
 doctrine of the identity of substance (/i(imo-uusia); 
 but, on the other hand, in his zeal for the per- 
 sonal distinctions in the Godhead, he taught with 
 equal emphasis a separate essence and the sub- 
 ordination of the Son to the Father, calling him 
 " a secondary God," without the article, while 
 the Father is " l/ie God." lie taught tlie eti^nal 
 generation of the Son from the will of the. Father, 
 but represented it as the communication of a 
 secondary divine substance. Athanasius laid 
 stress on tin? first, Arius on the second element 
 in tlie Christology of Urigen. 
 
 (1) llisiorij of Ariaiiisin from 318 to the Coun- 
 cil of yi<ii:a (325). — The controversy broke out 
 at .Uexandria, A.D. 318. According to the ac- 
 count of Socrates, AlexamliT, tlie bishop of A1(!X- 
 aiKlria, gave the first impulse by insisting, in a 
 meeting, on the eternity of the Son ; whereupon 
 Arius openly opposed, and charged liim with Sa- 
 belliauism. lie reasoned thus: "If the Father 
 
 begat the Son, he must be older than the Son, and 
 there was a time when the Son was not; from 
 this it further follows, that the Son has his sub- 
 stance (hi/poslaxis) from nothing." The accounts 
 of Sozomenus and Epiphanius differ in this, that 
 they date the conflict from discussions among the 
 presbyters and laymen, and Sozomenus repre- 
 sents Alexander as at first wavering between the 
 two opinions. In 321 Alexander convened a 
 council of about a hundred Jigyptian and Ly- 
 bian bishops at Alexandria, which excommuni- 
 cated Arius and his followers for their open denial 
 of the true deity of Christ. But Arius spread 
 his views all the more zealously in an entertaining 
 half-poetic work, Thalia (the Banquet), of which 
 only fragments remain in Athanasius. He found 
 powerful friends in Eusebius of Nicoraedia, Eu- 
 sebius of Caesarea (the famous church historian), 
 and other bishops, who either shared his view, or 
 at least considered it innocent. In a short time 
 the whole Eastern Church was turned into a 
 metaphysical battle-field. The Emperor Constan- 
 tine was at first inclined to look upon the contro- 
 versy as a mere logomachy, and never understood 
 its deeper import. But, for political considera- 
 tions, he called, at the suggestion of some bishops, 
 the first oecumenical synod of the church, to settle 
 the Arian controversy, together with the question 
 of the time of celebrating Easter, and the Mele- 
 tian schism in Egypt. 
 
 (2) The Couned of Nic(ta (32.5). — The first 
 oecumenical council, held at Nicfea, Bithynia 
 (now a miserable Turkish village, — Is-nik), con- 
 sisting of three hundred and eighteen bisliops 
 (about one-sixth of all the bishops of the Graeco- 
 Koman Empire), resulted in the formal condem- 
 nation of Arius, and the adoption of the "Nicene 
 Creed," so called, which affirms in unequivocal 
 terras the doctrine of the eternal deitj- of Christ 
 in these words ; " (We believe) in one Lord Jesus 
 Christ, the only Son of God, begotten of the 
 Father [the only begotten, of the essence of the 
 Father, God of God], Light of Light, very God 
 of very God, begotten, not made, being of one 
 substance with the Father, by whom all things 
 were made [in heaven and on earth] ; who for us 
 men, and for our salvation, came down and was 
 incarnate, and was made man ; he suffered, and 
 the third day he rose again, and ascended into 
 heaven; from thence he cometh to judge the 
 quick and the dead." The passages enclosed ia 
 brackets were omitted or changed in the so-called 
 Constantinopolitan Creed (381). To the original 
 Nicene Creed is added the following anathema : 
 "And those who say: there was a time when he 
 (the Son) was not ; and: he was made out of 
 nothing, or out of another substance or tiling, or 
 the Son of God is created, or changeable, or 
 alterable; — they are condemned by the holy 
 catholic and apostolic Church." This anathema 
 was likewi.se omitted in that form of the Nicene 
 Creed which is usually, though incorrectly, traced 
 to the Constantinopolitan .synod of 381, and which 
 since the Council of Chaicedon in 451 entirely 
 sujier.siMled the original Nicene Creed of 325. 
 (See below.) 
 
 The creed was signed by nearly all the bish- 
 ops, llosius at the liead, even by Eusebius of 
 Ca'sarea, who, before and afti^rwards, occupied a 
 middle position between Athanasius and Arius.
 
 ARIANISM. 
 
 135 
 
 ARIANISM. 
 
 This is the first instance of such signing of a 
 doctrinal symbol. Eusebius of Nicomedia and 
 Theognis of Nicsea signed the creed, but not the 
 condemnatory formula appended, and for this 
 they were deposed, and banished for a short time. 
 
 Only two Egyptian bishops — Tlieonas and Se- 
 cundus — persistently refused to sign, and were 
 banished, with Arius, to Illyria. This is the 
 first example of the cip'd punislinient of here.sy, 
 and opened the "long and dark era of persecutions 
 for all departures from the catholic or orthodox 
 faith. The books of Arius were burnt, and his 
 followers branded as enemies of Christianity. 
 The Nicene Creed has outlived all the subse- 
 quent storms, and. in the improved form given to 
 it at Constantinople in 381, it remains to this 
 day the most generally received creed of Chris- 
 tendom, and, if we omit the later Latin insertion, 
 FiliiHjiie, a bond of union between the Greek, the 
 Roman, and the orthodo.x Protestant churches. 
 
 (3) From the Council i>f Niaea (32.5) to the Coun- 
 cil of Coiirilaiitiiiople (381). — -After the Nicene 
 Council an Arian and semi-Arian reaction took 
 place, and acquired for a time the ascendency in 
 the Roman Empire. Arianism now entered the 
 stage of its political power. This was a period 
 of the greatest excitement in Church and State : 
 Council was held against council ; creed was set 
 up against creed; anathema w-as hurled against 
 anathema. " The highways," says the impartial 
 heathen historian, Ammianus JVlarcellinus, "were 
 covered with galloping bishops." The churches, 
 the theatres, the hippodromes, the feasts, the 
 markets, the streets, the baths, and the shops 
 of Constantinople and other large cities, were 
 filled with dogmatic disputes. In intolerance 
 and violence the Arians even exceeded the ortho- 
 dox. The interference of emperors and their 
 court only poured oil on the flame, and height- 
 ened the bitterness of contest by adding confis- 
 cation and exile to the spiritual punishment of 
 synodical excommunication. The unflinching 
 leader of tlie orthodox party was Athanasius, a 
 pure and sublime character, who had figured 
 at the Council of Nicsea as a youthful archdeacon, 
 in company with Bishop Alexander of Alexan- 
 dria, and after his death became his successor 
 (328), but was again and again deposed by im- 
 perial despotism, and spent twenty years in exile. 
 He sacrificed every thing to his conviction, and 
 .had the courage to face the empire in arms 
 ("Athanasius contra mundum "). He was a man of 
 one idea and one passion, — the eternal divinity 
 of Christ, — which he rightly considered as the 
 cornerstone of the Christian system. The po- 
 litico-ecclesiastical leader of the Arian party was 
 Eusebius of Nicomedia (not to be confounded 
 with the historian), afterwards Bishop of Con- 
 stantinople, who baptized Constantine on his 
 death-bed. Constantine was turned favorably 
 to Arius, he recalled him from exile, and ordered 
 him to be solemnly restored to the communion of 
 the Catliolic Church at Constantinople ; but, on 
 the day preceding his intended restoration, the 
 heretic died suddenly (330). See Arius. In 
 the year following, Constantine himself died, 
 and his son Constantine II. recalled Athanasius 
 from his first exile, into which his father had 
 sent him. But in the East, where Constautius, 
 the second son of Constantine the Great, ruled, 
 
 Arianism prevailed, and was maintained with 
 fanatical zeal by the court, and by Eusebius of 
 Nicomedia, now transferred to Constantinople 
 (since 338). Athanasius was deposed a second 
 time, and took refuge with Julius of Rome (340), 
 who, with the great body of the Western Church, 
 sided with the Nicene Creed, and gloried in 
 Athanasius as a martyr of the Christian truth. 
 
 It is unnecessary to follow the varying fortunes • 
 of the two parties, and the history of councils, 
 which neutralized one another, without materially 
 advancing the points in dispute. The most im- 
 portant are the Synod of Antioch, A.l). 341, 
 which set forth an orthodox creed, but depcsed 
 Athanasius ; the orthodox Council of Sardica, 
 A.I). 343 (not 347, as formerly supposed ; see 
 Hefele, Concilienyeschiclitf, I., 515 sqq.) ; and the 
 Arian counter-synod of Philippopolis; the coun- 
 cils of Sirmium, 351 ; Aries, 353; Jlilan, 355; the 
 second council at Sirmium, 357; the third, 358; 
 at Antioch, 358; at Ancyra, 3.58; at Constanti- 
 nople, 360. Aided by Constantius, Arianism, 
 under the modified form represented by the term 
 homoi-ousion (similar in essence, as distinct from 
 the Nicene homo-ousion and the strictly Arian 
 helcro-ousion) gained the power in the empire ; 
 and even the papal chair in Ronie was for a 
 while desecrated by hei-esy during the Arian 
 interregnum of Felix 11. But the death of 
 Constantius in 361, the indifference of his suc- 
 cessor, Julian the Apostate, to all theological 
 disputes, the toleration of Jovian (d. 364), and 
 especially the internal dissensions of the Arians, 
 prepared the way for a new triumph of orthodoxy. 
 The Eusebians, or semi-Arians, taught that the 
 Son was similar in substance {homoiousios) to the 
 Father; while the Aetians (from Aetius, a deacon 
 of Antioch) and the Eunoraians (from Eunoraius, 
 Bishop of Cyzicus in Mysia) taught that he was 
 of a different substance (Jieteroousios) , and unlike 
 (a)ioiHoios') to the Father (hence the names Hete- 
 ro-ousiasts and Anomoeans). A number of 
 synods and creeds of compromise were devoted 
 to the healing of these dissensions, but without 
 permanent effect. 
 
 On tlie other hand, the defenders of the Ni- 
 cene Creed, Athanasius, and, after his death 
 (373), the three Cappadocian bishops, — Basil 
 the Great, Gregory of Nazianzum, and Gregory 
 of Nyssa, — triumphantly vindicated the Catholic 
 doctrine against all the arguments of the opposi- 
 tion. When Gregory of Nazianzum was called 
 to Constantinople in 379, there was but one small 
 congregation in the city which had not become 
 Arian ; but his able and eloquent sermons on the 
 deity of Christ, which won him the title of the 
 "Theologian," contributed powerfully to the res- 
 urrection of the Catholic faith ; and two years 
 afterwards he presided over the second oecumeni- 
 cal council. The rising influence of monasticisra, 
 especially in Egypt, was bound up with the 
 cause of Athanasius ; and the more conservative 
 portion of the semi-Arians gradually approached 
 the orthodox in spite of the persecutions of the 
 violent Arian emperor, Valens. 
 
 (4) T/ie Jinal triumph of the Nicene orthodoxy 
 under Theodosius the Great (381). — This emperor 
 was a Spaniard by birth, and reared in the Nicene 
 faith. During his long and powerful reign (379- 
 395) he completed externally the spiritual and
 
 ARIANISM. 
 
 136 
 
 ARIANISM. 
 
 intellectual victory of orthodoxy already achieved. 
 He convened the second oecumenical council at 
 Constantinople (3S1), which consisted of only one 
 hundred and fifty bishops, and was presided over 
 succe.ssively by Meletius, Gregory of Nazianzuni, i 
 and Xectai-ius of Constantinople. The council 
 condemned the Pneuraatomachian heresy, which 
 denied the divinity of the Holy Spirit, and virtu- 
 ally completed the orthodox dogma of the Holy 
 Trinity. The Nicene Creed now iu common use 
 (with "the exception of the Latin clause Filioque 
 which is of much later date, and rejected by the 
 Greek Church) is usually traced to this synod of 
 Constantinople, but existed at an earlier date : \i 
 is found in the Ancoralus of Epiphanius, A.U. 
 373, and derived by him from a still older source, 
 namely the baptismal creed of the Church of 
 Jerusalem. It is not iu the original acts of the 
 Council of Constantinople, but was afterwards 
 incorporated in them. Dr. Hort derives it mainly 
 from Cyril of Jerusalem, about 362-364. See his 
 Disseiiaiioiis quoted below, and the art. Nicene 
 
 CliEKD. 
 
 The emperor gave legal effect to the doctrinal 
 decisions and disciplinary canons, and in July, 
 381, he enacted a law that all church-property 
 should be given up to those who believed in the 
 ■equal divinity of the Father, the Son, and the 
 Holy Spirit. Arianism, after forty years' reign, 
 was forcibly driven out of all the churches of 
 Constantinople, and generally forbidden through- 
 out tlie enqiire. M'e meet the last traces of it 
 in Constantinople under tlie Emperor Anastasius 
 (491-518). 
 
 After Theodosius, Arianism ceased to exist as 
 an organized moving force in theology and church- 
 history ; but it re-appeared from time to time as 
 an isolated theological opinion, especially in 
 England. Emlyn, Winston, Whitby, Samuel 
 Clarke, Lardner, and many who are ranked 
 among Socinians and Unitarians, held Arian sen- 
 timents; but Milton and Isaac Newton, though 
 aj^proaching the .\rian view on the relation of 
 the Son to the Father, differed widely from Arian- 
 ism in spirit and aim. 
 
 (5) Ariaiii.iiii amoiii/ the Barbarians. — The 
 church legislation of Theodosius was confined, of 
 course, to the limits of tlie Roman Empire. Be- 
 yond it, among the barbarians of the West, who 
 had received Christianity in the form of Arian- 
 ism during the reign of tin; Emperor Valens, it 
 maintained itself for two centuries longer, though 
 more as a matter of accident tlian clioice and 
 conviction. The Ostrogoths remained Arians till 
 553; the Visigoths, till the Synod of Toledo iu 
 589; the Suevi in Spain, till 560; the Vandals, 
 who conquered North Africa in 429, and furi- 
 ously ))ersecuted the Catliolics, till 530, when they 
 were exjielled by Helisarius; the IJurgundian.s, 
 till their incorporation in the Frank Empire (in 
 534) ; the Longobards in Italy, till the middle of 
 the seventh century. Alaric, the first conqueror 
 of Rome, Genseric, the conqueror of North Africa, 
 Theodoric the Great, King of Italy, and hero of 
 the NklKtHnijenlwit, were Arians ; and the first 
 Teutonic translation of the Scriptures, of which 
 imjiortant fragments remain, came from the 
 Arian or semi-Arian missionary Ulfila.s. 
 
 II. Tlie Creed of Arianimn. — The Father 
 a\one is God : he afone is uubegotteu, etcrual, 
 
 wise, good, unchangeable. He is separated by 
 an infinite chasm from man. God cannot create 
 the world directly, but only through an agent, 
 the Logos, who is himself created for the purpose 
 of creating the world. The Son of God is pre- 
 existent, - before time and before the world," 
 and "before all creatures." He is a middle 
 being between God and the world, the perfect 
 image of the Father, the executor of his 
 thoughts, yea, even the Creator of the world. 
 In a secondary or metaphorical sense he may be 
 called "God." But, on the other hand, Christ 
 is himself a "creature," — the first creature of 
 God, through whom the Father called other 
 creatures into existence. He is "made," not of 
 "the essence" of the Father, but "out of noth- 
 ing," by "the will" of the Father, before all 
 conceivable time, j'et iu time: he is therefore not 
 eternal, and there "was a time when he was not." 
 Neither is he unchangeable, but subject to the 
 vicissitudes of a created being. With the limita- 
 tion of Christ's duration is necessarily connected 
 a limitation of his power, wisdom, and knowl- 
 edge. It was expressly asserted by the Arians 
 that the Son does not perfectly know the Father, 
 and therefore cannot perfectly reve.al him. He 
 is essentially different from the Father (lietero- 
 ousios, in opposition to the orthodox formula, 
 honioousios, co-equal, and the semi-Arian homoi- 
 ousios, similar, in essence). Aetius and Eunomius 
 afterwards more strongly expressed this by call- 
 ing him u.tiike the Father (ano^noios) . 
 
 As to the humanity of Christ, Arius ascribed 
 to him only a human body with an animal soul, 
 not a rational soul. He anticipated Appollina- 
 rius, who substituted the divine Logos for the 
 human reason, but from the opposite motive, — 
 of saving the unity of the divine personality of 
 Christ. 
 
 The subsequent development of Arianism by 
 Aetius aud Eunomius brought out no new 
 features, except many inconsistencies and con- 
 tradictions, and the negative and downward ten- 
 dency of christological error. The controversj' 
 degenerated into a heartless and barren meta- 
 physical war. The eighteen or more creeds 
 which Arianism and semi- Arianism produced 
 between the first and the secoiul oecumenical 
 councils (325-381) are leaves viithout blossoms, 
 and lu'anclies without fruit. 
 
 The Arians supported their doctrine from those 
 passages of the Bible which seem to place Christ 
 on a par with the creature (Prov. viii. 22-25: 
 Acts ii. 36; Col. i. 15), or which ascribe to the 
 incarnate Christ (not the pre-existent Logos) in 
 his state of humiliation lack of knowledge, 
 weariness, sorrow, and other changing affections 
 and states of mind (Luke ii. .52; Mark xiii. 32: 
 lleb. v. 8, 9; John xii. 27, 28; Matt. xxvi. 39), 
 or which teach some kind of subordination of 
 the Son to the Father (especially John xiv. 28 : 
 " The Father is greater than I," which refers, not 
 to the essential miture, but to tin; state of humili- 
 ation). Arins was forced to admit, in his first 
 letter to Eusebius of Nicoinedia, that Christ was 
 called (jod (even v'KijpiK Sfb^ iun>iiyn'7i(,"i\n- iwW, 
 only-begotten God," according to the famous dis- 
 puted reading for fiomytyrif ii/of, "only-begotten 
 Son," ill John i. 18. See on this the first Disser- 
 tatiou of Professor Ilort, Loud., 1876). But he
 
 ARIANISM. 
 
 137 
 
 ARISTARCHUS. 
 
 reduced this expression to the idea of a subordi- 
 nate, secondary, created divinity. The dogmatic 
 and jihilosoiiliical arguments were chiefly nega- 
 tive and rationalistic, amounting to this: The 
 Nicene view of tlie essential deity of Christ is 
 unreasonable, inconsistent with monotheism, witli 
 the dignity and absoluteness of the Father, and 
 of necessity leads to Sabelliauisra, or the Gnostic 
 dreams of emanation. 
 
 On the other liaud, Arianism was refuted by 
 an array of scriptural passages, which teach 
 directly or indirectly the divinity of Christ, and 
 liis essential equality with tlie Father. The con- 
 ception of a created Creator, who existed before 
 the world, and yet himself began to exist, was 
 .sliown to be self-contradictory and untenable. 
 There can be no middle being between Creator 
 and creature; no time before the world, as time 
 is itself a part of the world, or tlie form under 
 which it exists successively; nor can the un- 
 changeableness of the Father, on which Arius 
 laid great stress, be maintained, except on the 
 ground of the eternity of his Fatherhood, which, 
 of course, implies the eternity of the Sonship. 
 Athanasius charges Arianism with dualism, and 
 even polytheism, and with destroying the whole 
 doctrine of salvation. For if the Son is a crea- 
 ture, man still remains separated, as before, from 
 God: no creature can redeem other creatures, 
 and unite them with God. If Christ is not 
 divine, much less can we be partakers of the 
 divine nature, and in any real sense children of 
 God. 
 
 The Ariau system is a refined form of Pagan- 
 ism, and substitutes a created demigod for the 
 eternal uncreated Logos. It lowers Christianity 
 to a merely relative value. It separates God 
 and the world by an impassable gulf, and makes 
 a real reconciliation and atonement impossible. 
 It represented the Erastian principle of the By- 
 zantine Empire, and associated itself with the 
 secular political power, without which it soon 
 lost its vitality. Its logical tendency is down- 
 ward to Socinianism, Unitarianism, and Ration- 
 alism, until the untenable conception of a second- 
 ary God, who originated before the world, out 
 of nothing, gives way to the idea of Christ as 
 a mere man. The cause of Christian civilization 
 was bound up with the defeat of Arianism, and 
 the triumph of the Niceue doctrine of the Holy 
 Trinity. 
 
 Lit. — (1) The sources of the early history of 
 Arianism are: (a) on the orthodox side, the 
 church-histories of Rufinus, Sockatks, Sozo- 
 MEN, and Theodoret, and most of the Fathers 
 of the fourth century, especially the dogmatic 
 and polemic works of Athanasius (his Orations 
 a(/(iinst the Arians, etc., all in Tom. I., pars I. and 
 11. of the Bened. ed. of Athax. Opera), Basil 
 {Adc. Eunomium), Gregory of Nazianzum 
 (Orationes Theologicce), Gregory of Nyssa 
 {Contra Eunom.), Epiphanius (Ancoratiis), Hila- 
 ry (De Trinitate), Ambrose (De Fide), Augus- 
 tine (Z>e Trinitate, and Contra j\laximum Aria- 
 num). The material of the synodical transactions 
 is collected in Mansi, Concil. Tom. II. and III. — 
 (b) On the Arian side, fragments of the Thalia 
 and two Epistles of Arius, one addressed to Eu- 
 sebius of Nicomedia, and one to Alexander of 
 Alexandria, preserved in Athanasius, Epiphanius, 
 
 .Socrates, and Theodoret ; the fragments of the 
 church-history of Philostougius (3.50-425); 
 FnKjmenta Arianorum in Angelo Mai's Scrijitnrum 
 Velerum Nooa Collectio, Iloin., 1828, vol. HI. 
 
 (2) Later literature. Bull: Defe.nsio Fiiki Ni- 
 cajKf, Oxf., 1703 (new tran.slation 18.")1). Maim- 
 kurg: Histiiire (Je rAriani.tiui; I'iir'ia, 1075. Ciik. 
 W. F. Walcii : Vollstundii/c Ilistorie der Ketze- 
 reien, Leipz., 1762 sqq., vols. 2d and 3d (exceed- 
 ingly minute, but exceedingly dry). GinnoN: 
 Decline and Fall, ch. xxi. Mohlek: Athanasius, 
 Mainz, 2d ed., 184-1. J. II. Newman : T/ie Arians 
 iif the Jflh Century, 1838; 2d ed. (unaltered), 
 Lond., 1854. Baur: GeschicJde der Lehre con der 
 Dreieinifjkeit und Menschwerdunf/, Tubingen, 1841- 
 43,1., 3U0-825. Dorner : Entwicklunr/si/escUichte 
 der L. v. d. Person Christi, 2d ed., Stutt., 1854, I. 
 773-1080 (Engl, transl. by Alexander and Simon, 
 Edinburgh, 1861). Hefele: ConcUieni/esckichte, 
 Freib., 1855, fl. I., 219 ff. H. Voigt : Die Lehre 
 des Athanasius, Bremen, 1801. Fu. Nitzsch 
 Dogmengeschichte I., 210-230 (with full literary 
 notices). Hort : Two Dissertations on fiovoyevri^ 
 ■HcoQ and on the " Constantinopolitan " Creed and other 
 Eastern Creeds of the Fourth Century, Cambridge 
 and London, 1876. (Important for the origin of the 
 Nicene Creed.) Fr. Bohringer: Athanasius und 
 Arius, oder der erste grosse Kampf der (h-thodoxie 
 und Heterodoxie, Leipzig, 1874. W. Rolling: 
 Geschichte der arianischcn Hdresie his zur Entschei- 
 dung in Nicaa, GUtersloh, 1876, sqq. E. Revil- 
 LOUT : Le Concile de Apiece, Paris, 1881. P. 
 ScH.\Kr: Art. Arianism and Arius in Smith and 
 Wace, " Diet, of Christian Biogr." I., 155 sqq., 
 102 sqq. (on which this art. is based with omi.s- 
 sions and some important additions). Art. ^W- 
 anismus, by Moller, in Herzog, vol. I., 620-637, 
 1877 Dean Stanley: The Council and Creed 
 of Constantinople, in his "Christian Institutions," 
 Ijond. and New York. 1881. Ad. Harnack : Art. 
 Konstant. Symbol, in Herzog, vol. VIII. (1881), pp. 
 212-230. Henry Melvill Gwatkin : Studies 
 of Arianism, London, 1882. rillLll' .sciI.-iFF. 
 
 ARIAS MONTANUS, Benedictus, b. at Fresce- 
 ual de la Sierra, in Estremadura, in 1527 ; d. in 
 Sevilla, in 1598; studied in the University of 
 Alcala; entered the Benedictine order; went to 
 Antwerp, and edited the so-called Antwerp Poly- 
 glot, or " Biblia Regia,"or "Biblia Plautiana," 
 which appeared in eight volumes from 1568 to 
 1573. After his return to Spain he was made 
 librarian at the Escorial, and pirior of the Convent 
 of St. Jago, but was much annoyed by the 
 Jesuits, who accused him of heresy, and had to 
 make several journej's to Rome in order to clear 
 himself of their calumnies. 
 
 ARIMATHE'A (heights), a town in Judaea, the 
 birthplace of Joseph, in whose sepulchre the 
 body of Jesus was laid (Matt, xxvii. .57 ; Mark 
 XV. 43; Luke xxiii. 51; John xix. 38). Some 
 identify it with Ramah, tlie birthplace of Sam- 
 uel, and this, again, with the modern Ramleh, 
 situated in the plain of Sharon, eight miles 
 south-east of Joppa, and twenty-four miles north- 
 west of Jerusalem ; but the latter part of this 
 identification is now generally discredited. See 
 Ramaii. 
 
 ARISTAR'CHUS, the fellow-laborer of Paul; 
 was a native of Thessalonica, and accompanied 
 the apostle ou his last journey to Jerusalem from
 
 ARISTEAS. 
 
 138 
 
 ARISTOTLE. 
 
 Troas (Acts xix. 29, xx. 4) ; shared his iraprisou- 
 ment at Ciesarea (Col. iv. 10), and accompanied 
 him on the perilous sea-voyage to -Rome (Acts 
 sxvii. 2). but seems to have left him very 
 soon after their arrival thither (2 Tim. iv. 11). 
 According to tradition, he was Bishop of Thessa- 
 lonica or Apamsea, and suffered martyrdom under 
 Xero in Rome. 
 
 ARISTEAS, a high officer at the Egyptian 
 court; was sent by'PtoIemy Philadelphus with 
 an embassy and rich gifts to Jerusalem to procure 
 an authentic copy of the Old Testament for the 
 Alexandrian Library, and brought back with him 
 not only the copy, but also seventy learned Jews, 
 who translated it into Greek. This account of the 
 origin of the Septuagint, often mentioned, and 
 generally accepted both by Jewish and Chris- 
 tian writers of the three or four next centuries, 
 is based upon a reputed letter from Aristeas to 
 his brother, printed at Basel, 1561, at Oxford, 
 1692; in Gallandius: Biblhlh. Patriim, IL, 771, 
 translated into English by Lewis, London, 1715; 
 and is discredited by scholars. 
 
 ARISTIDES, by profession a teacher of rheto- 
 rics and philosophy, but by faith a Christian, 
 presented, about 133, an apology for the Chris- 
 tians to the Emperor Hadrian. The work itself is 
 now lost, except a fragment discovered in Venice 
 in 1878. It was of a philosophical character, 
 highly valued in the church, and used by Justi- 
 nius. See Sancti Akistidis Philosophi Atheniensis 
 Sermones duo, Venetiis, 1878; Baux.\ud: De'cou- 
 verle d'un fragment de I'Apoloffie de S. Arixliilie d' 
 Athenes, traduit de I'arme'nien, Arras, 1879 (15 pp.); 
 A. IL\RXACK : Griech.Apologelen. Leipzig. 1882. 
 
 ARISTOBULUS, a Jewish priest residing iu 
 Egypt during the reign of Ptolemy VL (Philom- 
 eter). and spoken of in 2 Mace. i. 10 as a man of 
 influence in the Jewish community, and as the 
 ''teacher" of the king. He is by some identi- 
 fied with the peripatetic philosopher .\ristobulus, 
 who dedicated to Ptolemy VI. (Philonieter) an 
 allegorical exposition of the Pentateuch, in which 
 he tried to show that the doctrines of the peripa- 
 tetic school were derived from the Old Testa- 
 ment. Of the work itself, some fragments have 
 been preserved by Clement of Alexandria and 
 Eusebius. 
 
 ARISTOBULUS is the name of several notice- 
 able persons in the last period of Jewish history. 
 — I. Aristobulus, asonof John Ilyrcanus, assumed 
 the power and also the title of king after the 
 death of his father (107 B.C.), though by the 
 will of the latter the government was intrusted 
 to his mother. He had both his mother and his 
 brothers murdered in order to secure the spoils of 
 the usurpation, but died himself soon after (106), 
 stricken with terror and remorse. — II. Aristo- 
 bulus, a younger son of Alexander Janna;u8 and 
 Alexandra, compelled his elder brother, llyrcanu.s, 
 to renounce the crown and high priesthood iu his 
 favor (70 B.C.). Hyrcanus, however, repented 
 of the renunciation, an<l fled to ,\rabia Petraca, 
 whose king, Aretas, invaded Juihea, and besieged 
 Jerusalem (05 B.C.). Aristobulus succeeded in 
 driving him out of Judasa by the aid of the 
 Romans, but wa.s less succe.ssful in dealing with 
 liis powerful ally. Ponipey finally took Jerusa- 
 lem, and carried Aristobulus a prisoner to Rome. 
 He escaped, returned to Judxa, and begun a war 
 
 against the Romans, but was defeated by Ga 
 binius, the lieutenant of Porapej^ and sent to 
 Rome a second time as a prisoner. In 49, hov,- 
 ever, Julius Caesar set him free, and sent him 
 back to Judsea to work iu his interest against 
 Pompey; but he died on the journey, poisoned by 
 Pompey's spies. — III. Aristobulus, a son of 
 Herod the Great and ilariamne, was educated in 
 Rome, together with his brother .Alexander, in 
 the house of PoUio, and afterwards married to 
 his cousin, Berenice, a daughter of Salome. 
 Having become suspicious in the eyes of their 
 father, the two brothers led a very precarious life 
 at home, and twice called upon the defence of 
 foreigners, — first of Augustus, and afterwards of 
 King Archelaus of Cappadocia, the father-in-law 
 of .Vlexander, — yet finally they both fell victims 
 to their father's cruelty. They were strangled at 
 Sebaste B.C. — IV. Aristobulus the Younger, 
 a son of the preceding, was educated in Rome, 
 together with Claudius, whose favorite he was. 
 He remained all his life in private station. — 
 V. Aristobulus, a son of Herod, King of Chalcis, 
 and a great-grandson of Herod the Great ; was 
 made king of Armenia Minor in 55 A.D., of 
 Armenia j\lajor in 61, and of Chalcis in 52. 
 He was married to Salome, a daughter of 
 Herodias. 
 
 ARISTOTLE, b. at Stagira in Thrace 384 
 B.C.: d. at Chalcis 322; became the pupil of 
 Plato in 367, and remained with him for twenty 
 years; lived after the death of Plato, in 347, 
 three years at the court of Hermias in Mysia, 
 and seven years at the court of Philip of Alace- 
 don, where he became the tutor of Alexander the 
 Great; opened his school in the Lyceum shortly 
 after the accession of Alexander, and taught 
 there for twelve years, but retired to Chalcis 
 after the death of Alexander, when the anti- 
 Macedonian party got the ascendency in Athens. 
 
 The philosophy of Aristotle is a strongly pro- 
 nounced dualism : matter and form, God and the 
 world, are distinct though inseparable existences. 
 The harmony of this duality is an equally 
 pronounced Pantheism : God is an act rather 
 than a will, a process and not a person. But 
 the dualism of Aristotle is not materialistic : the 
 form, (iod, is the principal constituent ; and his 
 Pantheism is absolutely monotheistic, directly 
 opposed to every form of polytheism. There- 
 fore it might be inferred that ho would not fail 
 to win at least some .sympathy in the Christian 
 Church; and so while some of tlie Fathers attack 
 him vehemently, as, for instance, Irenaeus, and 
 others, such as Justinus Martyr, pass him by in 
 silence, there are those among tlicm, as, for in- 
 stance, Clement of Alexandria, who consider 
 him a precursor of Christ, holding the truth such 
 as it could be held before Christ came. Then, 
 when the dialectical elaboration of the Christian 
 dogmas began, his great labors on logic were 
 by no means neglected. The heretics used them 
 in the fourth and fifth centuries, and the Catho- 
 lics followed the example in the sixth and 
 seventh. 
 
 In the Latin Church Aristotle was introduced 
 by Boiithius and Cassiodorus. The study ot 
 hnn received a jiowerful impulse from the Jew- 
 ish and Arabic doctors, who translated his works 
 into Syriac and Arabic ; and the anxiety which
 
 ARIUS. 
 
 139 
 
 ARK. 
 
 the Roman Church felt with respect to his meta- 
 physical woiks, and which led to their con- 
 demnation, anil exclusion from the uiuversities, 
 disappeared after the time of Albertus Magnus 
 and Thomas Aquinas. The Renaissance, which 
 brought till' works of Aristotle to the West in 
 the original Greek text, developed an Aristotelian 
 and a Platonic school; but when the Renaissance 
 grew into the Reformation, and the splendid edi- 
 fice which had been built U[) on Plato and Aris- 
 totle — the medifeval scholasticism — tumbled 
 down, Aristotle, lost at once and forever his in- 
 fluence on Christian theology. See Scholasti- 
 cism. 
 
 Lit. — The best edition of the text of Aristotle 
 is by Immaxuel Bkkker, Berlin, 1831-70, 5 vols. 
 For treatises see Lewes : Aristotle : a Chapter from 
 the History of Science, London, 1804; G. Grote : 
 Aristotle, London, 1872; .Sir A. Grant: Ethics 
 of A ristotle, illustrated icith Essai/s ami Notes, 3d 
 ed., London, 1874. There is a good translation 
 of Aristotle in Bohn's Library : separate trans- 
 lations, with notes and excursnses by Mr. Poste 
 and others, are mentioned in the art. ''Aristotle" 
 in the Encyclopaedia Britannica (9th ed.). A 
 translation of the First Book of The Metaphysics 
 by a "Cambridge graduate" appeared, London, 
 1881. 
 
 ARIUS ("Apfiof), one of the most famous here- 
 tics ; b. about 256, in Libya (according to others, 
 in Alexandria) , d. 336, at Constantinople. He 
 was educated by Lucian, presbyter in Antioch, 
 and held a prominent position as presbyter in the 
 Church of Alexandria when the Arian controversy 
 with Bishop Alexander began (about 318) con- 
 cerning the eternal deity of Christ and his equal- 
 ity with the Father (honwousia), which he denied, 
 holding that Christ was of a different essence, 
 and a creature of the Father, though created 
 before the world. He is de.scribed as a tall, lean 
 man, with a downcast brow, very austere habits, 
 considerable learning, and a smooth, winning 
 address, but quarrelsome disposition. The si- 
 lence of his enemies conclusively proves that his 
 general moral character was irreproachable (like 
 that of Nestorius and Pelagius); and, if it had 
 not been for his heresy, he would have been 
 liighly esteemed. His enemies said that the real 
 cause of his opposition to Alexander was a per- 
 sonal grudge, because he was not himself elected 
 bishop; but the subordination views which he 
 had imbibed in the Antiochian school are suffi- 
 cient to explain the direction of his development 
 and the course of his life. Condemned by the 
 synod of Alexandria (320), he left the city; but 
 he was kindly received both by Eusebius of 
 Csesarea and Eusebius of Nicomedia, and it was 
 evident that not a few of the Asiatic churches 
 favored his ideas. A reconciliation was brought 
 about between him and Alexander; but hardly 
 had he returned to Alexandria before the strife 
 broke out again, and with still greater violence. 
 A letter from Constantine, addressed to Alexan- 
 der and Arius, and carried to Alexandria by 
 Hosius of Cordova, availed nothing : the whole 
 Christian world rang with 'the contest. But, in 
 spite of his many and powerful friends, Arius 
 was defeated at the Council of Niccea (32.5), and 
 banished to Illyria. Soon, however, a re-action 
 in his favor set in. The Eusebian party espoused 
 
 his cause more openly, and through Constantia, 
 the sister of the emperor, he got access to the 
 court. He was formally recalled from banish- 
 ment; and all the chiefs of the Eusebian party 
 were as.sembled in Constantinople to receive him 
 back into the bosom of the church, when he 
 suddenly died the day before the solemnity (336), 
 at the age of over eighty years, at a time and in 
 a manner that seemed to the orthodox party to 
 be a direct interposition of Providence, and a 
 condemnation of his doctrine; while his friends 
 attributed the death to poison. Athanasius re- 
 lates the fact in a letter to Serapion, on the au- 
 thority of a priest, Macarius of Constantinople 
 (De Morte Arii, Opera, ed. Bened. torn. I., pp. 
 I., 340), and ventures to interpret Providence in 
 the uncharitable style of his age, yet not without 
 some reluctance of his better Christian feeling. 
 Epiphanius (Hcer. 68, c. 7) compares his death 
 to that of Judas the traitor. Socrates (Hist. 
 Eccl. L, 38) gives the following account : " Going 
 out of the imperial palace, attended by a crowd 
 of Eusebian partisans like gua,rds, Arius paraded 
 proudly through the midst of the city, attracting 
 the notice of all the people. On approaching 
 the place called Constantine's Forum, where the 
 column of porphyry is erected, a terror, arising 
 from the consciousness of his wickedness, seized 
 him, accompanied by a violent relaxation of the 
 bowels. He therefore inquired whether there 
 was a convenient place near, and, being directed 
 to the back of Constantine's Forum, he hastened 
 thither. Soon after, a faintness came over him, 
 and, together with the evacuations, his bowels 
 protruded, followed by a copious hemorrhage, 
 and the descent of the smaller intestines. More- 
 over, portions of his spleen and liver were carried 
 off in the effusion of blood, so that he almost 
 immediately died." Sozomen (/7. E., XL, 30) gives 
 a similar account, and adds, that, for a long period, 
 everybody avoided with horror the spot on which 
 Arius died, until a rich Arian bought the place 
 of the public, and built a house on the site, that 
 there might be no perpetual memorial of his 
 death. 
 
 His principal work, called QuXna, The Banquet, 
 which he wrote during his stay with Eusebius at 
 Nicomedia, was a defence of his doctrine in an 
 entertaining popular form, half poetry, half 
 prose ; but, with the exception of a few frag- 
 ments in the tracts of Athanasius, it is lost. A 
 letter of his to Eusebius of Nicomedia, and one 
 to Alexander of Alexandria, ,are still extant. 
 (See Fabricius, Bihlioth. Gr., VIIL, p. 309.) His 
 doctrine on the divinity of Christ and his rela- 
 tion to the Father has given him a notoriety 
 far outstripping his talents and learning. Nean- 
 der {Cli. 11., IV., 685) ascribes to him. an acute 
 but contracted intellect without the intuitive 
 faculty. See Arianism and Athanasius. 
 
 Lit. — The chief sources on the life and char- 
 acter of Arius are, besides the fragments of his 
 own works, the writings of Athan.\sil'S, the 
 68th and 69th Hmreses of Epiphanius, the 
 church histoi'ies of Socrates, Sozomen, Theod- 
 oret, and Philostorgius. See also the works 
 quoted under Arianism, and Schaff 's art. Ahius 
 in Smith and Wace I., 102 sq. 
 
 ARK OF THE COVENANT. This was a chest, 
 made in the Wilderness by express divine com-
 
 ARKITE. 
 
 140 
 
 ARMENIA. 
 
 mand. three feet uine inches in length, two feet 
 three inches in width and height, made of shittiiu- 
 wood, and covered with gold plates within and 
 without, encircled near the top by a border or 
 crown of gold, and covered bj- a lid of solid gold, 
 ■which was called the "mercy-seat." On each 
 end of the "mercy-seat" was placed the golden 
 image of a cherub (see Cherubim), facing in- 
 ward, and bending down the ark. Two gold 
 rings were attached to the body of the ark on 
 each side, through which passed the staves or 
 poles, made also of shittim-wood, and overlaid 
 with gold: these were used in carrying the ark 
 from place to place, and were never taken out. 
 The ark was so called because in it were the two 
 tables of the law, of the covenant between God 
 and Israel (Exod. xxv. 10 sqq.). 
 
 The cherubim upon it indicated the place where 
 God revealed himself, made his presence felt 
 among the Israelites : consequently the Holy of 
 holies, in which was the ark, was the dwelling 
 of God. This being so, we see the propriety of 
 covering the ark, of keeping it behind curtains, 
 so tliat only the high priest saw it, and of in- 
 trusting it to the care of a particular Levitical 
 family, the Kohathites. The high priest could 
 only see it when surrounded by clouds of in- 
 cense. 
 
 Tiie contents of the ark were the two tables of 
 the law, the pot of manna, and Aaron's rod that 
 budded (Heb. ix. 4; cf. Dent. xxxi. "26; Exod. 
 xvi. 33; Num. xvii. 8). It is probable that the 
 two last were lost while the ark was among the 
 Philistines ; for, when Solomon brought the ark 
 into the temple, there was nothing in it save the 
 two tables of stone. 
 
 From the time of Joshua until that of Eli, the 
 ark was at Shiloh in the tabernacle, except once 
 it was brought to Bethel (Judg. xx. 26, 27 ; 
 " house of (jod " in the authorized version should 
 be Bethel). For seven months it was among the 
 Philistines in Eli's time, and when returned was 
 lodged at Kirjath-jearim (1 Sam. v. 6, vii. 1) ; 
 here it remained until David's day, when, after an 
 interruption, it was |iut under a new tent (2 Sam. 
 vi.). Solomon put it in the temple (2 Chron. v. 
 2-10). jNIanasseh displaced it by a carved 
 image ; but Josiah restored it (2 Chron. xxxiii. 
 7, xxxv. 3). It was probably burnt up in the 
 destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar ; 
 and in the tractate Yonia (see Atonkment, Day 
 ok) it is said that there was a stone in the Holy 
 of holies on the spot where the ark should have 
 stood ; and on this stone the postcxilian high 
 jiriests set the censer. VOLCK. 
 
 ARK'ITE, Thei the designation (in Gen. x. 
 17 ; 1 Cor. i. 15) of one of the families in Canaan. 
 The town was called Arka, and to-day its ruins 
 bear the same name. They are upon the sea- 
 coast twelve miles nortli of Tripoli, at -the foot 
 of Mount Lebanon. See Robinson's Bih. Re- 
 Kearches (1812), HI. pp. u79-o81 Renan, Afhsion 
 lie Phinice (18U1), pp. H.j, 124. Under the 
 emperors it w.os called C'a;sarea Libani, and was 
 an im]iortant place. It contained a temple dedi- 
 cated to Alexander the Great, and there Alexan- 
 der .Severus was born, A.l). 20.5. It was a 
 famous stronghohl in the days of the crusades ; 
 besieged vainly for two months, in 10i)9, by 
 Kaimoud of Toulouse, but taken by William of 
 
 Sartauges. In 1202 it was destroyed by an 
 earthquake. See the travels of Shaw, who was 
 there in 1722 (2d ed. 17o7) ; Burkhardt, 1812 ; 
 (Rei.ten, ed. Gesenius, 1823, pp. 271 sq., 520 sq.), 
 Robinson and Smith, 1852 (Later Researches, 
 1857, pp. 7.54-759). wolf baudissin. 
 
 ARMENIA, extending from the Black to the 
 Caspian Sea, and from the Caucasus to the Tau- 
 rus, and divided by the Euphrates into Greater 
 Armenia to the east, and Lesser Armenia to the 
 west, is the most elevated portion of AVestern 
 Asia. Here the Old Testament locates Paradise 
 (Gen. ii. 10) ; and for a second time this country 
 became the cradle of the human race, when the 
 ark of Noah rested on Mount Ararat (Gen. viii. 
 4), to which event the names of several places re- 
 fer, such as Erevan, "appearance," the spot where 
 Noah first discovered land; Akorri "he plants the 
 vine," the place where Noah first planted the 
 vine, situated on Mount Ararat, but utterly de- 
 stroyed by an earthquake in 1840; Marand "the 
 place of the mother," with the tomb of Noah's 
 wife; .<4rrnoyo^«"atthefeetof Noah," where Noah 
 is buried, etc. In Scripture, the country is men- 
 tioned under various luinies, which, however, seem 
 to apply to various parts of it. Thus it is prob- 
 able that Ararat (Gen. viii. 4 ; 2 Kings xix. 37 ; 
 Isa. xxxvii. 38 ; Jer. !i. 27) indicates the eastern 
 jiart, the dominion of the most ancient rulers : 
 the natives use tliis name only for one of the fif- 
 teen provinces of Greater Armenia, and the cele- 
 brated mountains they call Masis. Farther to 
 the west, immediately on the Euphrates, and 
 south-east of Cappadocia, lay Togarmah (Gen. 
 X. 3 ; 1 Chron. i. ; Ezek. xxvii. 14, xxxviii. 6); 
 and still farther to the west, in Northern Phrygia, 
 Ashkenaz (Gen. x. 3; Jer. li. 27). The Greeks 
 and Romans knew tlie country only under the 
 name of Armenia, which they derived from Ar- 
 menus, or Armenius, who is sometimes rejire- 
 sented as one of the companions of Jason ; but 
 the natives themselves, though they know this 
 name, and derive it from Aramenak or Arnien.ak, 
 the son of Ilaik, or from Aram, the sixth ruler 
 after Ilaik, never u.se it. They call themselves 
 Haikh, after the great-grandson of Japhet, or Tor- 
 goraians, after the father of Ilaik; ami they trace 
 their history l)ack to Noah, curiously blending 
 mythical lore with biblical records. Subject to 
 the supremacy successively of Assyria, Babylo- 
 nia, Media, and Persia, the country was concjuered 
 by Alexander the Great, and after his death 
 governed alternately by M.acedonian and Seleu- 
 cidian governors, until, in the middle of the sec- 
 cond century B.C., the Parthian king, .Vrsaces 
 the Great, succeeded in establishing his brother 
 as its king. The dynasty of tlie Arsacida; 
 reigned till the beginning of the fifth century 
 A.D., when it became extinct, and then the By- 
 zantine emperors and tlie Persians fought for 
 centuries about the possession of the country, 
 until, in the middle of the ninth century, peace 
 and national independence W'ere once more re- 
 stored l>y the Pagratid dynasty, descending from 
 a Jewi.sh family to whioli the .\rmenians apply 
 the promise of the Lord to Abraham (Gen. xvii. 
 Hi). After th.' downfall of tlie Pagratid dy- 
 n.'isty (1015), another branch of the same family, 
 the RuUuiians or Rhu[ienians, held sway over the 
 country; but, after the inviision in 1375 by the
 
 ARMENIAN. 
 
 141 
 
 ARMENIAN. 
 
 Mamelukes, the nation became scattered, and 
 the country divided : at present Russia, Turkey, 
 and Persia hold each one part of it. 
 
 Lit. — MosKS Chouenensis : Hislon'n Armc- 
 nke, edit, in Armenian and Latin by W. et (J. 
 AVhisto.vius, London, 17:W ; St. Makti.n : Mi'- 
 moires sur VAnnenie, Paris, 1819; Ciiamicii : 
 History of Armenia, translated by M. 1. Avdall, 
 Calcutta, 1827; Elisa-:us : Histori/ of Vnrlan, 
 translated by Neumann, London, 1830; Smith 
 and DwiGHT : Researcheit in Armenia, Boston, 
 1833 ; V. S.W'GLOia : Collection des hist. anc. el 
 mod. de I'Arm., Paris (not yet finished). 
 
 Armenian Church. — It is now impossible to 
 decide how much truth there may be in the 
 somewhat mythical stories of the correspondence 
 between Christ and .Vbgarus, and the missionary 
 activity and martyrdom of Thaddseus, Bartholo- 
 mew, Simon of Cana, and Judas Lebbreus ; but 
 it is certain that Christianity was introduced 
 very early in .\rmenia. Unmistakable traces 
 of it may be found in the second century; and in 
 the fourth the country became a Christian king- 
 dom, the first Christian state. Grigor or Greg- 
 ory, the Illuminator, is the apostle of Armenia. 
 Supported by King Tiridates, he christianized 
 the whole country. Gi'eek and Syrian priests 
 were invited, churches were built, bishoprics 
 were formed, and he liiraself was consecrated 
 primate or patriarch of Armenia by Leontius, 
 Archbishop of C-esarea. For a long time the 
 patriarchate remained in his family. Nerses the 
 Great was his grandson. In 3(34 Nerses con- 
 vened a synod at Ashtistat, which regulated 
 marriages between relatives, limited the excessive 
 mourning over the dead, and founded the first 
 monasteries, the first asylums for widows, or- 
 phans, and the sick, and the first caravansaries 
 for travellers ; and in 366 another synod, at Wa- 
 larshapat, defined the power of the patriarch, or 
 catholicos, — -as he now was called, — -and decreed, 
 that, in the future, he should be elected and con- 
 secrated by the Armenian bishops themselves, 
 and not by the Archbishop of Caisarea. Under 
 Sahak, the son and successor of Nerses, the Bible 
 was translated, the breviary, the ritual, and the 
 liturgy were composed, and the calendar was 
 arranged. The final arrangement, however, of 
 the Armenian calendar such as it is still in use 
 did not take place until 5.51, at a synod convened 
 in Dwin by the catholicos Jloses II. : a new era 
 was then established, beginning on .July 11, 55'2, 
 so that our year of 1881 corresponds to the Ar- 
 menian year of 1329. At the close of the sixth 
 century a violent controversy arose, which occa- 
 sioned a breach between the Greek and the Ar- 
 menian Church, and much p.arty-division within 
 the iVrmenian Church itself. The Council of 
 Chalcedon (451) having taken place during the 
 frightful persecutions of the Christians by Yez- 
 dejerd II., its decrees had never become fully 
 known in Armenia; and in 491, at a synod in 
 Walarshapat, the .Vrmenian bishops signed the 
 Henotikon of the Emperor Zeno, whicli implied 
 a condemnation of the Council of Chalcedon. A 
 century afterwards Kyrion, catholicos of Georgia, 
 and a man well vei-sed in the Greek, Armenian, 
 and Persian languages and literatures, accepted 
 the Council of Chalcedon ; but when .\braham, 
 the catholicos of Armenia, who had consecrated 
 
 him, hearil this, he remonstrated witii him. de- 
 raand<'il that he should retiact, and finally put 
 him under the ban. Kyrion complained to the 
 Emperor Mauritius; and in 597 a council was 
 convened in Constantinople, but no agreement 
 was arrived at. One part of the Armenian 
 Church continued to reject the Council of Chal- 
 cedon, and separated cnnipleti'Iy from the Greek 
 Church; and of the other ]>art, which .accepted 
 the Council of Chalcedon, only one fraction could 
 be incorporated with the (ireck Church, while 
 the rest split into many minor divisions. Great 
 exertions were afterwards made, both from the 
 Greek and Armenian side, to bring about a 
 reconciliation. In 1160 the emperor, Manuel 
 Comnenus, and Michael, the patriarch of Con- 
 stantinople, sent the Greek theologian, Theoria- 
 nus, to Armenia; and a long disputation took 
 place, not altogether without results. In 1179 a 
 synod of Hromkla, at which three hundred and 
 thirty-three Armenian bishops and a great num- 
 ber of priests and monks were present, declared 
 itself prepared to adopt the Greek views on 
 several important points of doctrine. But at 
 the same time an intercommunication had 
 sprung up between the .\rmenian Church and 
 the Roman see, and the jealousy and intrigues 
 of the Greeks and Romans soon frustrated every 
 attempt at i-ecouciliation. Grigor Pahlavuni was 
 the first Armenian catholicos who entered into 
 closer relations with the papal see. lie was 
 present, on the invitation of Pope Innocent II., 
 at the synod of Aiitiochia (1141), and accom- 
 panied afterwards the p.apal legate to Jerusalem. 
 The pope sent him the staff and the veil, the 
 symbols of the patriarchal dignity; and an oppor- 
 tunity to give all these compliments a practical 
 bearing soon offered itself. Leon II., the Arme- 
 luan ruler of Cilicia, wished to obtain the royal 
 crown from the Latins, and addressed himself to 
 Pope Coelestine III. and Emperor Henry VI. 
 concerning the matter. Both the pope and the 
 emperor were willing to grant him the favor on 
 the conditions that he would celebrate the reli- 
 gious festivals on the same d.ays as the Roman 
 Church, and hear the mass in the church, and 
 together with the congregation. But, the closer 
 the relation became between the Armenian and 
 the Roman churches, the more exasperated the 
 Greeks felt. They broke off all official connec- 
 tion with the Armenians, though they continued 
 to cause much confusion by their intrigues. The 
 attempt of Johannes of Kherrni, in 1330, to re- 
 organize the whole Armenian Church after the 
 Roman model, at one sweep, proved, of course, a 
 miserable failure; but the measures which the 
 popes adopted fov the same purpose proved more 
 successful, because they were more cautious. Pius 
 IV. gave the Armenians a church in Rome, in 
 1562, and established an .\rmenian printing-press 
 from which the Psalms were issued in 1567, and, 
 later on, also other works. Gregory XIV. even 
 thought of founding a school in Rome for the 
 education of young Armenians, but he died before 
 i he could realize the plan. Such an institution, 
 however, was successfully established in 1717, 
 when the Mekhitarists (which see) settled in the 
 I Island of S. Lazzaro at 'S'enice. There are be- 
 i tween seventy-five and one hundi-ed thousand 
 I Armenians now belonging to the Roman Church
 
 ARMENIAN. 
 
 Hi 
 
 ARMENIANS. 
 
 A reformatory movement in an evangelical direc- 
 tion has also been started. The Armenian Bible 
 was published in 1S13 by the British and Foreign 
 Bible Society, and in lbl7 by the Russian Bible 
 Society; ancl in 1831 the American Board of 
 Foreign Missions established a Protestant mis- 
 sion among the Armenians, which has worked 
 with considerable success, not only in Turkey 
 and Asia Minor, but also in Armenia Proper. 
 (See below.) 
 
 Lit. — Giov.-^XNi de Serpo : Compendio Slori- 
 co, etc., Venice, 1786; Clem. Galanus : Concil- 
 ialio Eccl. Ann. cum Rom., Rome, 1650-61; Hls- 
 loire. Dogmes, etc., de I'Eglise Armi'nienne, Paris, 
 1855; S. C. Malan: The Life and Times of S. 
 Gregory, 1868; and The Divine Liturgy of the 
 Armenian Church, London, 1870. 
 
 Armenian Literature. — The Armenian litera- 
 ture is wholly Christian, and pre-eminentlj' theo- 
 logical. Only by Moses Chorenensis some ex- 
 tracts from Pagan Armenian writers and some 
 old popular songs have been presei'ved ; and 
 history is the only field, beside theology, in 
 which Armenian literature has produced any 
 thing great. Its golden era falls in the fifth 
 century, and is inaugurated by the labors of 
 Mesrob and Sahak. Up to that time the Arme- 
 nian language was written with Greek or Syrian 
 or Persian characters; but this means of redu- 
 cing Armenian speech to writing proved utterly 
 insufficient, and a great impediment to literary 
 progress. Mesrob has the honor of having in- 
 vented, or at least completed and introduced, the 
 Armenian alphabet now used. It was first 
 applied to the translation of the Bible. Sahak 
 translated the Old Testament; Mesrob, the New : 
 but as all Cireek books had been destroyed, and 
 w-ere forbidden by the Persians, the translation 
 was made from the Syrian version, and not from 
 the original text. Twice, however, men were 
 sent to Edessa, Alexandria, Athens, and Con- 
 stantinople, to study the Greek language, and 
 examine authentic copies of the Holy Scrip- 
 tures ; and the result of these great exertions was 
 a truly admirable translation. The first printed 
 edition of the Armenian 15ible, given l>y Bishop 
 0.scon. Amsterdam, 1666, is. from a codex inter- 
 polated from the Vulgate. A critical edition 
 was not given until 1805, by the Mekhitarists. 
 In spite of the unfavorable state of political 
 and social affairs in .\rmenia during this epoch, 
 more than six hundred (jreek and Syrian works 
 were translated within the first forty years 
 after the translation of the Bible ; and as in 
 many cases the original works have perished, 
 while the translations have been preserved, the 
 great importance of this whole literary activity 
 is apparent. Among vvoi'ks which in this way 
 have come down to us are several books by 
 Philo Alexandrinus, on Providence, on Rea.son, 
 commentaries, etc.; the Chronicle of Eusebins, 
 nearly complete ; the Epistles of Ignatius, trans- 
 lated from a .Syrian version; fifteen Homilies by 
 .Severianus; the exegetical writings of Ephraim 
 Syru.s, previously completely unknown, on the 
 histfjrical books of the Old Testament, the sy- 
 noi)tical Gospels, the parables of Jesus, and the 
 fourteen Pauline epistles; the Hexahemerou of 
 Basil the Great; the Catechesis of Cyril of 
 .Jerusalem ; several homilies by Chrysostom, etc. 
 
 The period, however, was not characterized by 
 translations only. Several of the disciples of 
 Mesrob and Sahak left original works. Esuik 
 wrote four books against heretics, printed at 
 Venice in 1826, and translated into French by Le 
 Vaillant de Florival, Paris, 1853. A biography 
 of Mesrob by Koriun, honnlies by Mambres, ani 
 various writings by the philosopher David, have 
 been published; and the works of Moses Chore-" 
 nensis, published in Venice in 18i2, and agaiu 
 in 1864, have acquired a wide celebrity : his his- 
 tory of Armenia has been translated into Latin, 
 French, Italian, and Russian. Another flourish- 
 ing period falls in the twelfth century during the 
 reign of the dynasty of the Rubeuians. Nerses 
 Klajensis and Nerses Lambronensis belong to this 
 period ; also Ignatius, whose commentary to the 
 Gospel of St. Luke appeared in Constantinople, 
 1735 and 1824; Sargis Shnorhali, whose commen- 
 tary to the catholic epistles was published in Con- 
 stantinople in 1743, and again in 1826 ; Matthew 
 of Edessa, whose history, comprising the period 
 from 952 to 1132, and continued by Gregory the 
 Priest to 1163, contains many interesting notices 
 concerning the crusades ; Samuel Aniensis, the 
 chi'onologist, Michael Syrus, whose history has 
 been edited with a French translation by V. 
 Langlois, Paris, 1864, Mekhitar Kosh, of whom a 
 hundred and ninety fables appeared at Venice. 
 1780 and 1812. A most powerful impulse the 
 Armenian literature received in the eighteenth 
 century by the foundation of the Mekhitarist 
 monastery in Venice, from whose press the treas- 
 ures of the Armenian literature were spread over 
 Europe, aud new works, explaining and complet- 
 ing the old, were added. The Armenian liturgy 
 was published in 1826, the breviary iu 1845, the 
 ritual in 1831. 
 
 Lit. — Quadro delle opere Iradatte in Armenia, 
 Venice, 1825; Quadro della storia lelteraria di 
 Armenia, Venice, 1829; K.\rikin : Histoire de 
 la Lilterature Arme'nienne. [F. M. Bedrossian : 
 .4 New Armenian-English Dictionary, Venice, 
 1875-79.] H. PETEIMANN., 
 
 Armenians, Protestant. It was not the in- 
 tention of the .\mi'ricau missionaries to found a 
 separate Protestant church. The leport made by 
 Messrs. Smith and Dwight of the character of 
 the church aud the people was so favorable, that 
 it was believed that missionaries would be favor- 
 ably received by tliem, and that the church might 
 be reformed and spiritualized without any dis- 
 ruption. This hope was cherished for many 
 vears by the missionaries; but, as their influence 
 increased among the people, the hierarchy of the 
 chiu'ch took alarm, and commenced persecuting 
 those who adopted evangelical views. As the 
 constitution of the Turkish Empire gave to ''.he 
 patriarch the right to fine and imprison his peo- 
 pli%and as his ex-coininunication made them out- 
 laws witliout civil rights, he was able to persecute 
 them (!ven to the death. This persecution be- 
 came at last so violent and widely extended, that 
 the missionaries reluctantly took measures to 
 form a separate Protestant church. This could 
 only be done by decree of the .Sultan; but this 
 was at last obtained through the influence of 
 Lord Stratford, the English amba.ssador. This 
 charter of the Protestant community recognizes 
 no particular form of Protestantism, and stipu-
 
 ARMINIANISM. 
 
 143 
 
 ARMINIANISM. 
 
 Jates that the Vekit, or oflicial representative, must 
 be a layman ; but, as the missionaries were 
 mostly from non-episcopal churches, most of the 
 I'rotestants of Turkey have adopte<l similar views. 
 
 The spirit of the Armenian Church is now very 
 different from what it was when this disruption 
 took place. There is a fj''iiP''al recognition of the 
 fact that the church nee<ls reform, and a new de- 
 velopment of spiritual life. The Bible, which 
 was translated by the American missionaries 
 into the modern language, has been generally 
 circulated and read. Great progress lias been 
 made in education, and great changes have taken 
 place in the hierarchy of the church. Friendly 
 relations exist between the Protestants and the 
 old church, and it would not be strange if the 
 separate organization were finally given up as 
 the whole church becomes evangelical. 
 
 The whole number of Armenians is about 
 three millions, of whom two-thirds are in Turkey; 
 but the Catholicos, or head of the chui'ch, resides 
 in Russia. 
 
 The American missionaries commenced their 
 work in Turkey among the Armenians in 
 1831. The Protestant community was consti- 
 tuted in 1850. It has now some seventy- 
 live churches, five thousand communicants, and 
 twenty-five thousand adherents. There are three 
 theological schools, two colleges, — in addition to 
 Robert College of Constantinople,^— which is not 
 connected with the mission, but is a fruit of it, — 
 fifteen boarding-schools for girls, and primary 
 schools in all the Protestant communities. — See 
 Rev Dr. Anderson's Hist, of Miss, of the A. B. 
 C. F. M. to the Oriental Churches, Boston, 1872, 
 2 vols. G. WASHLiURN (of Constantinople). 
 
 ARMINIANISM, Historical. It should not be 
 considered an isolated and merely incidental 
 phenomenon in the history of the Reformed 
 Church. That revival of the Augustinian doc- 
 trines of predestination and grace which character- 
 izes the Reformation in general developed within 
 the pale of the Reformed Church into a somewhat 
 one-sided and particularistic view of an uncon- 
 ditional election by which the universality of the 
 divine grace seemed to become lost; and it is as 
 a re-action against this view that Arminianism 
 arose naturally and necessarily. In the Uni- 
 versity of Leyden a contest gradually grew up, 
 not so much between the dogmatics of Zwingli 
 and that of Calvin, as between a biblico-psycho- 
 logical tendency and a stiff dogmatism ; the 
 former'represented by the mild but somewhat 
 vague catecliisffi of Heidelberg, the latter by 
 the acute but somewhat rigid Conjessio Belgica. 
 In this contest Jacobus Arminius is the great 
 champion, if not the originator, of the view of a 
 conditional election, the opposition against the 
 reigning tradition, the re-action. 
 
 Arminius (Harmensen) Jacobus, b. in 1560 at 
 Oudewatei an der Yssel (whence Vetera(iuinas), 
 d. at Leyden, Oct. 19, 1609; studied (1575-82) at 
 the University of Leyden under Lambert Uaniius, 
 who made him an ardent disciple of Petrus 
 Ramus, the declared enemy of the Aristotelian 
 philosophy, and afterwards (1582-87) at the Uni- 
 versity of Geneva, under Theodore Beza, at that 
 time considered the best expounder of the dog- 
 matics of Calvin. He also visited Padua and 
 Rome, and was in 1588 appiointed preacher in 
 
 Amsterdam. In this city the writings of Dirik 
 Volkaerts zoon Koornheert hail caused consider- 
 able commotion. Thougli a layman only, he had 
 openly attacked the Reformed Church, more es- 
 pecially Calvin's doctrines of jiredestiuation. A 
 disputation was arranged, and Koornheert, not 
 convinced, refused to retract, and was declared a 
 heretic. The board of supervisors now invited 
 Arminius to refute Koornheert's writings, and as 
 at the same time a controvensy had In-oken out 
 between the Supralapsarians and Infralapsarians, 
 Lydius of Franecker also was anxious (hat he 
 should come to the support of the pure faith, — 
 the views of Beza. But, while pondering the 
 question, Arminius felt himself more and more 
 strongly drawn in the opposite direction, and the 
 public noticed the change. A sermon he deliv- 
 ered on Rom. vii. 14 occasioned an accusation 
 for Pelagianisra. This time he stilled the alarm 
 by declaring that he would teach notiiing which 
 was against the catechism of Heidelberg and the 
 confession of the Church of the Netherlands. 
 But another sermon on Rom. ix. caused new 
 troubles. New investigations were instituted, 
 new disputations took place ; but the only result 
 was, that Arminius felt more and more convinced 
 that the Calvinistic dogmatics were mistaken 
 with respect to predestination and grace. In 
 spite, however, of his suspected orthodoxy, he 
 was called to a chair in the University of Leyden 
 after the death of Junius, in 1603; and a prelimi- 
 nary parley with his future colleague, Gomarus, 
 led to a satisfactory result. But in 1004 he fell 
 out with Gomarus on the question of predestina- 
 tion, and the controver.sy soon grew very hot. 
 In order to bring about a reconciliation, a general 
 synod was spoken of in 1606, and a formal dis- 
 putation was held in 1608. But no result was 
 arrived at, and in the mean time Arminius died. 
 He was a learned and able divine, of a meek, 
 Christian spirit. " Condemned by others," Gro- 
 tius said, "he condemned none." 
 
 After his death, however, his ideas continued 
 to spread; and, while spreading in the masses, 
 they began to undergo an internal development. 
 Originally Arminianism simply meant the asser- 
 tion of universal grace and conditional election; 
 but gradually it came to denote a much more 
 comprehensive tendencj' of liberality, both in re- 
 ligion and morals. Thus the Gomarists consid- 
 ered the symbolical books as the absolute norm 
 for the explanation of Scripture ; while the Armi- 
 nians vindicated a complete exegetical freedom, 
 and would be bound by the s3'mboIical books, 
 only so far as they agreed with Scripture. The 
 movement rapidly took hold of the people; and 
 in 1610 the Arminians presented a Remunstrantia 
 (whence the name "Remonstrants"), consisting 
 of five articles, to the estates of Holland and 
 West Friesland. The first of these articles 
 reads : " By an eternal and inscrutable decree, 
 before the foundation of the world, God ordained 
 to save in Christ, because of Christ, and through 
 Christ, from out of the human race, which is 
 fallen and subject to sin, those who by the grace 
 of the Holy Spirit believe in His Son, and who, 
 by the same grace, persevere unto the end in that 
 faith and the obedience of that faith," etc. The 
 second article says that Jesus Christ, the Saviour 
 of the world, died for all and each one, etc. •
 
 ARMINIANISM. 
 
 144 
 
 ARMINIANISM. 
 
 the third, that man of himself and by the power 
 of his free will camiot do or think any thing 
 good, etc. ; the fourth, that the grace of God, 
 though not irresistible, is the beginning, the 
 progress, and the perfection, of every thing a 
 good man does or thinks, etc ; and the fifth, that 
 those who are grafted into Christ, and partake 
 of his vivifyingspirit, have the means by which 
 to fight against Satan, sin, the world, and their ^ 
 own fiesh, and to obtain victory by the aid of the 
 grace of the Holy Spirit, etc. 
 
 Against this Remonstraniia the Gomarists pre- 
 sented a Contra- Remonstrantia : but it was drawn 
 up in much less moderate expressions, and the 
 negotiations which were attempted only made 
 the controversy more bitter. In 1614 the Estates 
 of Holland forbade all discussion, and com- 
 manded peace and patience; but the Gomarists 
 set themselves against the civil authorities, and 
 the political parties became involved. Olden- 
 barneveldt (John of Barneveldt, 1547-1619), at 
 the head of the Republicans, favored the Remon- 
 strants; and Maurice of Orange, at the head of 
 the Monarchists, favored the Contra-Ilemon- 
 strants. 
 
 In order to stop these disturbances, which be- 
 came more and more violent, the famous synod 
 of Dort was convened (Xov. 13, 1618-May 9, 
 1619). Bogermann, an ardent adversary of the 
 Remonstrants, presided; and the assembly at 
 once constituted itself accuser and judge. The 
 five ai-ticles were condemned : the Catechism of 
 Heidelberg and the Confessio Delr/ica were sanc- 
 tioned. About two hundred Remonstrant minis- 
 ters were deposed, and such among them as would 
 not consent to keep silent were banished. (The 
 execution of Oldenbarneveldt, however, and the 
 imprisonment of Grotius, had principally politi- 
 cal reasons.) Most of the deposed ministers 
 gatnered in Amsterdam; and from there they 
 sent forth a defence, very adroitly drawn up, in 
 which they refuted the charge of conspiracy 
 against the prince-stadtholder. This defence, 
 and also the very acts of the synod, published in 
 1620, made a favorable impression on the govern- 
 ment; and when, in 1625, Prince Henry succeeded 
 his brother Maurice as stadtholder, the Remon- 
 strants obtained, first, toleration, and tlien (in 
 1630) liberty to live in any town or place in Hol- 
 land, and to build churches and schools. In 1621 
 and 1622 Simon Episcopius, the ablest dogmatical 
 writer among the Uemonstrant.s, published in 
 Dutch and Latin a Confessio in twenty-five chap- 
 ters, which gave a clear and succinct statement 
 of their faith; and the Censura oi this Confessio 
 issued by four professors of Leyden, was ably 
 met with the A/iologia of the same author. Sin- 
 gularly enough, however, as soon as the persecu- 
 tions ceased, and the party could settle down in 
 peace and (luietness, its number began to de- 
 crea.se. 
 
 For their organization the Arminians are in- 
 debted to Uytenbogaert. The constitution is 
 very simple. A synod composed of all the 
 preachers, — at jiresent twenty-one, — the profess- 
 ors of the .seminary, and clelegates from the 
 congregations, exercises the highest authority. 
 It assembles every year, alternately in Amster- 
 ilam and Rotterdam. The current business is 
 managed by a committee of five members. Gen- 
 
 erally speaking, however, the Arminians form a 
 theological party, rather than a religious sect. 
 They call themselves members of the Reformed 
 Church. Their seminary in Amsterdam has had 
 many eminent theologians among its professors, 
 — Episcopius, Curcellffius, Limborch, Le Clerc, 
 not to speak of the philosopher Grotius ; but the 
 congregational bond is somewhat loose. From 
 the Arminians properly speaking, the Qiiinfiuar- 
 ticulares must be distinguished, a branch of 
 anti-trinitarian Remonstrants. Heterodox par- 
 ties, such as the Socinians, have often found it 
 easy to amalgamate with the Arminians, and 
 their inclination towards Semi-Pelagianism has 
 now and then given them a direction towards 
 Romanism. 
 
 Lit. — The writings of Arminius were collected 
 and published at Leyden, 1629. English transla- 
 tion in 3 vols. The preferable edition is London, 
 1825, 1828, and 1875 (vols. 1 and 2 by James 
 Xichols, vol. 3 by William Nichols). American 
 edition. Auburn and Buffalo, 1853, 3 vols. (vol. 3 
 translated by W. R. Bagnall). His life was writ- 
 ten by Caspar Brandt: Historia Vit(r I. Arminii, 
 Amsterdam, 1724, and by Bangs: Life <f Armin- 
 ius, New York, 1843. 
 
 The history of Arminianism has been written 
 by L'ytenbogaert : KercUetijrhe Historic, Amster- 
 dam, 1647: by Gerhard I-irandt: Hislorice Refor- 
 matiani.i Belfficie, Anisterdain. 1671-1704, trans, by 
 Chamberlayne, London 1720, vols. 4; Limborch: 
 Relalio Historica, etc., appended to his Tlieotogia 
 Christiana, 1714. 
 
 The best docti-inal expositions besides those 
 already mentioned have been given by Catten- 
 burgh : Bibliotheca Scriplorum Remonstraiiliuiu, 
 Amsterdam, 1728; and G. S. Fraucke : L>e Historia 
 Do(/iiiatiiiii Anniri., Kiel. 1813. I'KI.T. 
 
 ARMINIANISM, the (Five) Articles of. The Ar- 
 ticles constituted the positive part of the nemon- 
 strance drawn up by Uytenbogaert, signed by 
 forty-six ministers, wiiich was presented to the 
 States-General of Holland and West Friesland in 
 1610 by the party of Arminius (1.560-160!)). The 
 Calvinists issued a Counter-Remonstrance: hence 
 the party names. Remonstrants, Counter-Remon- 
 .strants. On account of the number of Article.s- 
 discu.ssed, the controversy arising lias been called 
 the f/uinf/uarlicular. The Remonstrance is first 
 negative, stating the five Calvinistic Propositions, 
 in order to reject them, and then positive, stating 
 the five Arminian Aiticles, as follows : — 
 
 Article I. — That God, by an eternal, unchangea- 
 ble purpose in Jesus Chri.st, his Son, before the fiiun- 
 dation of the world, liath ileterniiniMl. out. of the 
 fallen, sinful race of men, to save in Christ, for 
 Christ's sake, and through Christ, those wlio, tlu'ough 
 the grace of the Holy Gliost, shall believ(^ on this his 
 Son .resus, and shali pcvsevrre in this faith and obe.- 
 dimice of faith, tlu'ougli lliis grace, even to the enil: 
 and, on tlie other hand, to leave tlie incorrigililo ami 
 unbelieving in sin and under wrath, and to condeinii 
 them a.s aliiniate from Christ, according to the word 
 of the gospel in John iii. .'Hi: " He that believeth on 
 the Son hath everlasting life; and he that lieliev<'tli 
 not the Son shall not .see life; hut the wrath of (;o<l 
 aliideth ou him," and according to other passages o( 
 .Scripture also. 
 
 AuT. II. — That, agreeably thereto, Jesus Christ, 
 the Saviour of the world, died for all men and for 
 every man, so that he has obtained for them all, by 
 liis death ou the cross, redemption, and the forgive 
 ness of sins: yet that no one actually enjoys this for
 
 ARMINIANISM. 
 
 14.', 
 
 ARMINIANISM. 
 
 giveness of sins, except the believer, according to the 
 word of the Gospel of Jolin iii. Ki: "God so loved 
 the world that he gave his only-liegotten Son, that 
 whosoever believeth in liini shoulil not perish, but 
 liave everlasting life; " and in tlie First Epistle of 
 John ii. 2: " And he is the propitiation for our sins; 
 and not for ours only, but also for tlie sins of tlie 
 whole world." 
 
 AuT. III. — That man has not .saving grace of him- 
 self, nor of the energy of his free-will, inasmuch as 
 he, in the state of apostasy and sin, can of and l)y him- 
 self iH-itliiT think, will, nor do anything that is truly 
 good (sui'h as saving faith eminently is); Init that it 
 is needful that he be born again of God in Christ, 
 through his Holy Spirit, and renewed in understand- 
 ing, inclination, or will, and all his powers, in order 
 that he may rightly understand, tinnk, will, and 
 effect what is trul.y good, according to the word of 
 Christ, John XV. 5: "Without me yecau do nothing." 
 
 Art. IV. — That this grace of God is the beginning, 
 continuance, and accomplishment of all good, even 
 to this extent, that the regenerate man himself, with- 
 out prevenient or assisting awakening, following, 
 and co-operative grace, can neither think, will, nor 
 do good, nor withstand any temptations to evil; so 
 that all good deeds or movements that can be con- 
 ceived must be ascribed to the grace of God in Christ. 
 But, as respects the mode of the operation of this 
 grace, it is not irresistible, inasmuch as it is written 
 concerning many that they have resisted the Holy 
 Ghost, — Acts vii., and elsewhere in many places. 
 
 Art. V. — That those who are incorporated into 
 Christ by a true faith, and have thereby become par- 
 takers of his life-giving spirit, have thereby full 
 power to strive against Satan, sin, the world, and 
 their own flesh, and to win the victory, it being well 
 understood that it is ever through the assisting graci- 
 of the Holy Ghost; and that' Jesus Christ assists 
 them through his spirit in all temptations, extends to 
 them liis hand; and if only they are ready for the 
 conflict, and desire his help, and are not inactive, 
 keeps them from falling, so that they, by no craft or 
 power of Satan, can be misled, nor plucked out of 
 Christ's hands, according to the word of Christ, 
 John X. 28: " Neither shall any man pluck them out 
 of my hand." But whether they are capable, through 
 negligence, of forsaking again the first beginnings of 
 their life in Christ, of again returning to this present 
 evil world, of turning away from the holy doctrine 
 which was delivered them, of losing a good con- 
 science, of becoming tlevoid of grace, that must be 
 more particularly determined out of the Holy Scriji- 
 tures before we ourselves can teach it with the full 
 persuasion of our minds. 
 
 These Articles, thus set forth and taught, the 
 Remonstrants deem agreeable to the word of 
 God, tending to edification, and, as regards this 
 argument, sufficient for salvation, so that it is not 
 necessary or edifying to rise higlier, or to descend 
 deeper. See Schaff : Creeds of Christendotn, 
 vol. iii. pp. .54.5-49; cf. Vol. i. § 65, p. 508 sq. 
 
 ARMINIANISM (Wesieyan). — Doctrinal iMeth- 
 odism claims to adhere to original Arminianism 
 as set forth by Arminius himself, and developed 
 by Episcopius, Limborch, and others, without 
 the freethinking tendency taken on by the inter- 
 mediate Englisli Arminianism, symptoms of 
 which had appeared in some of the early Remon- 
 strants, such as Grotius and Curcellajus. John 
 Wesley, the founder of Methodism, was of Ar- 
 minian stock; his father Samuel, in common 
 with many of the Anglican divines, inclining 
 strongly against Calvinism (see Tyerman's Life 
 of Samuel Wedeij, p. 144) ; and "the Holy Club" 
 at Oxford contained both these elements, the 
 Wesleys ultimately separating, on this ground 
 alone, from Whitefield, who became the father 
 of the Welsh or Calvinistic branch of Methodism. 
 The Wesleyans throughout the British Empire, 
 11 — I 
 
 and the Methodists in America, are universally 
 Arminians; and whatever may be their differ- 
 etices in church organization, social sentiments, 
 or pr.actical views of evangelical economy, or 
 even their individual opinions on minor points of 
 theological dogma, they heartily concur in oppo- 
 sition to the e.ssential Calvinian doctrine of God's 
 absolute jn-edestination concerning men's ever- 
 lasting destiny. Thi.s they all regard as incom- 
 patible with divine equity and human freedom. 
 It will suffice here to show briefly the relations 
 of this cardinal theme to the great redemptive 
 scheme as conceived by all the followers of Wes- 
 ley, both in this country and abroad. This will 
 be their best discrimination and vindication from 
 Pelagianism on the one side, and Augustinianism 
 on the other. On all the essential points of vital 
 Christianity, such as the Trinity, human deprav- 
 ity, the atonement, the necessity of regeneration 
 and personal holiness, of course they do not differ 
 from other evangelical denominations. 
 
 1. Wesleyanism, or Methodist Arminianism, 
 while maintaining God's supremacy as strenu- 
 ously as Calvin himself, makes a radical distinc- 
 tion between the desires and the purposes of God, 
 ju-ecisely as it does between the wishes and the 
 determinations of man. The divine foreknowl- 
 edge is regarded as logically preceding the divine 
 volitions, and not as an inference resulting from 
 them. Hence, when God resolves, it is in view 
 of all the contingencies and circumstances of 
 the case, and his prescience is simply intuitional. 
 What he knows, — whether as to the past, the 
 present, or the future, — although absolutely cer- 
 tain, is not necessitated by that cognition. He 
 not only knows that it has taken, or is taking, 
 or will take, place, but also that it miyht have 
 been or could be otherwise. This is considered 
 a fundamental difference between the Arminian 
 and the Calviiuan conception of God. 
 
 2. As a corollary from the foregoing distinc- 
 tion, Wesleyans hold, that while God absolutely 
 — or if any prefer to say arbitrarily — deteriuines 
 natural (i.e., physical) e-, ents, he has not done so 
 with occurrences belonging to the moral sphere, 
 but has left these contingent upon the volitions 
 of his rational creatures within certain limits. 
 This forms, in their view, the basis of human 
 probation and free-will. 
 
 3. Especially they believe, that while man is 
 born with corrupt moral affections, and therefore 
 is of himself unable either to love or to serve 
 God acceptably, yet by virtue of the universal 
 atonement of Christ, and the general distribution 
 of the Holy Spirit, such gracious aid is supernat- 
 urally afforded to every man as is sufficient to 
 enable him to overcome the bias of his depraved 
 affections, and the weakness or perverseness of 
 his ■will ; so that, (/" he chooces, he may, through 
 the appointed means, lay hold upon the salvation 
 of the gospel. Just at this pivotal point occurs 
 the practical or anthropological, in distinction 
 from the theoretical or theological, difference 
 between Wesleyan Arminianism and Calvinism, 
 whether of the old or the new school. In a last 
 analysis the precise element or force which turns 
 the scale in favor of a new life, or otherwise, 
 is believed by Wesleyans to be the will of the 
 subject himself, acting freely under its own im- 
 pulses, in view of, but not constrained by, mo-
 
 ARMINIANISM. 
 
 146 
 
 ARMY. 
 
 tives, aud yet stimulated and guided by divine 
 light and grace. AVitliout an original and con- 
 tinued influence from God, the will would never 
 move in the right direction : yet this influence is 
 never coercive, however powerful or effectual it 
 may be. God's Spirit is therefore held to be the 
 efficient agent which renews the moral nature of 
 the subject upon the decisive act of acquiescence, 
 as soon as it is accompanied by a positive element 
 of acceptance, which latter is saving faith. The 
 man does not save himself, but only consents to 
 be saved of God, and rests upon Christ for that 
 purpose. The penitence and faith involved in 
 this are indeed potentially the gift of God; but 
 their actual use and exercise are the conscious, 
 voluntary, and personal act of the man himself. 
 Wesleyans conceive this to be the accurate and 
 consistent account of conversion or regeneration, 
 involving, in due balance and just responsibility, 
 the human and the divine co-operation. They 
 think it relieves them from the overwhelming 
 divine influence which Augustinianism seems to 
 them to introduce, and at the same time from 
 the charge of hunianitarianism justly brought 
 against Pelagianism, New Divinity, etc. With 
 any modern or moderate Calvinists who may 
 accept this statement or explanation of the phe- 
 nomena, the}' have, of course, no controversy on 
 this central point of experimental Christianity. 
 
 4. Wesleyan Methodists, as we have shown, 
 believe that conversion is the result of conscious 
 faith, and that it involves a conscious change in 
 the feelings. They therefore universally main- 
 tain that it is the privilege of every child of God 
 to know his gracious state. Further, they believe 
 that sound experience, no le.ss than Scripture, 
 warrants the expectation of a special divine in- 
 ward testimony to the fact of the changed relation 
 towards God; and this they call "the witness of 
 the Spirit " to the adoption. This is held to be 
 a distinct but concomitant assurance in addition 
 to the consciousness spoken of above, and also 
 different from a rational conclusion derived by 
 the person himself from his own altered de- 
 uieanor. 
 
 b. Methodist Arminians, without exception, 
 argue, from the foregoing doctrine of free grace, 
 tliat it is likewise /"uW, i.e., able to remove entirely 
 the innate depravity of the human heart during 
 the present life. This, of course, they qualify 
 by the obvious liabilities to relapse, and by the 
 imjierfections inseparable from the present state 
 of probation ; and they differ, to some extent, 
 among themselves, as to whether tlie act or 
 )irocess of entire purification is instantaneous or 
 progressive, and whether it takes place immedi- 
 ately upon conversion, or subsequently ; but they 
 all unite in insisting upon the entire sanctifica- 
 tioM of believers as necessary prior to death, and 
 piossible indefinitely before that event. This 
 sanctification they hold to be the joint product of 
 divine grace and the subject's watchfulness, faith, 
 and obedience. 
 
 U. Finally, holding the above views of the 
 fearful power of the human will to accept or re- 
 ject salvation, \VesleyanH, without exception, 
 believe that it equally extends to the retention or 
 loss of the divine pardon, ])eace, and purity, at 
 any period during i>robation. Tliey therefore 
 reject the doctrine of the impossibility of lapsing 
 
 utterly and finally from grace, and believe that 
 any may, and that many actually do, lose their 
 state of acceptance, and their love of holy things, 
 and ultimately perish. They do not maintain 
 that any one is competent to keep himself in a 
 condition of holiness, any more than to attain it 
 unaided at first, but that the same gracious assist- 
 ance is vouchsafed to the child of God through- 
 out his earthly career, on precisely the same terms 
 of acceptance and co-operation. 
 
 Lit. — This is very copious : we name only the 
 most important works. The earliest, and still the 
 best and most generally recognized authority on 
 Wesleyan or Methodist Arniinianism is Fi.etch- 
 KR : Clieck's lo Anlinominianism (originally pub- 
 lished Loud., 1771 sq., as separate pamphlets in 
 answer to Toplady, and often reprinted collect- 
 ively in England and America), a rem.arkable 
 specimen of clear, calm, and cogent controversy. 
 A\'esley : Sermons (contained in his II'oHs. often 
 printed) is next in importance as a standard ; but 
 these are necessarily discursive and diffuse. The 
 whole subject is topically treated, in connection 
 \Yith general theologj', in the three great text- 
 books of Methodist divinity hitherto published; 
 namely, Richard W.\tson' : Inslilnles (Lond., 
 1822-28, often reprinted in one or two vols, in 
 England and America) ; William B. Pope : 
 Christian Thcolnyij (Lond., 1875-77, revised ed., 
 Lond. and N.Y., 1879 sq., 3 vols.); and Miner 
 Raymond: Systematic J'/ieo/o^i/ (Cincinnati, 1877- 
 
 79, 3 vols.). JAMES STRONG. 
 
 ARMY. The Hebrew army consisted originally 
 of infantry only (Num. xi. 21 ; 1 Sam. iv. 10, 
 XV. 4), though it had to fight against people 
 using cavalry (Josh. xi. 9 ; Judg. iv. 3, 16 ; 
 1 Sam. X. IS) and chai-iots of iron (Josh. xvii. 
 16; Judg. i. 19, iv. 3, v. 22; 1 Sam. xiii. 5). 
 This and other circumstances determined Solo- 
 mon to organize a division of cavalry, which he 
 distributed throughout the towns of the country 
 (1 Kings ix. 19, x. 26), and which his successors 
 often re-enforced with Egyptian mercenaries (Isa. 
 xxxi. 1, xxxvi. 9; 2 Kings xviii. 24). Everj' 
 citizen was bound to serve from his twentieth to 
 his fiftieth year (Num. i. 3, xxvi. 2; 2 Chron. 
 XXV. 5) ; but under certain circuuLstances exemp- 
 tions were admitted. When a war broke out, 
 each tribe furnished a proportional number of 
 armed men (Num. x.xxi. 4; Josh. vii. 3; Judg. 
 XX. 10). \Mien an enemy suddenly invaded the 
 country, the n.ation rose en masse, called out by 
 the sound of the trumpet, or informed, either by 
 signals erected on the mountains, or by mes- 
 .sengcrs sent through the land (Judg. iii. 27, vii. 
 24; Jcr. iv. 5; Ezek. vii. 14; Judg. vi. 35). 
 The host was divided into bodies of a thousand, 
 a hundred, .and fifty, each of which had a cap- 
 tain of its own (Num. xxxi. 11; Judg. xx. 10; 
 1 Sam. viii. 12 ; 2 Kings i. 9, xi. 4 ; 2 Chron. xxv. 
 5). The general-in-chief ami the captains of the 
 divisions formed the council of war (1 Chron. 
 xiii. 1). The soldiers wore no uniform, and had 
 to maintain thcmselvi's, though a commissariat 
 is mentioned already in Judg. xx. 10. The arms 
 were those commonly used by Eastern nations in 
 antiquity, — the shield of wood, covered with 
 leather, f.agtened to the shoulder-strap during the 
 march (2 Sara. i. 21 ; Isa. xxi. 5), and kejit 
 under some kind of covering (Is.i. xxii. 6) ; the
 
 ARNAUD. 
 
 147 
 
 ARNAULD. 
 
 helmet of brass (1 Sam. xvii. 5; 1 Mace. vi. 36); 
 the coat of mail, protecting the che.st and the 
 stomach (1 Sam. xvii. 5; 2 Chroii. xxvi. 14); 
 the sword, with double edges, borne in a scab- 
 bard on tlie left side (1 Sam. xvii. 39 ; 2 Sam. 
 XX. 8; Ezek. xxi. 3; 1 Chron. xxi. 27; Judg. 
 iii. l(i ; Prov. v. 4); the spear of wood, tipped 
 with a point of brass (2 .Sam. xxi. 10 ; Josh. viii. 
 IS, 20) ; the bow, of wood or brass, carried in a 
 cover of leather (Gen. xxi. 20; 1 Sara. xxxi. 3; 
 2 Sam. xxii. 35 ; Fs. xviii. 34 ; llab. iii. 9, etc.). 
 'I'lie numerical force of the Hebrew army often 
 reached very high figures, which, however, need 
 cause no wonder, as the question is of a rising of 
 tlie whole nation ett ?nasse. 
 
 During the reigu of Saul the first traces occur 
 of a standing army, — a force of three thousand 
 men, levied from all the tribes, and completed 
 by volunteers (1 Sam. xiii. 2, xiv. 52, xxiv. 2). 
 David followed the example, and organized a 
 national army, which was able to place a divis- 
 ion of twenty-four thousand men fit for active 
 service in the field every month (1 Chron. xxvii. 
 
 1 sqq.). Under his successors the institution 
 l)ecarae a necessity, as the Hebrews every now 
 and then found themselves implicated in the 
 wars of their powerful neighbors (1 Kings iv. 20; 
 *2 Chron. xvii. 14 ; 2 Kings xi. 4 : 2 Chron. xxv. 
 5, xxvi. 11; 2 Kings i. 9). After the exile, 
 under the Maccabees the army was completely 
 re-organized, and bodies of foreign troops were 
 enlisted. Under Herod the Great, nearly the 
 whole army consisted of mercenaries; and its 
 organization, armament, and tactics were those 
 of the Roman legions. Of the method of carry- 
 ing on war originally employed by the Hebrews, 
 there exist only some aphoristic notices. Before 
 entering upon a campaign, the divine will was 
 consulted (Judg. xx. 27; 1 Sam. xiv. 37, xxiii. 
 
 2 ; 1 Kings xxii. 6 ; 2 Chron. xviii. 4). When the 
 array arrived in the presence of the enemy, a 
 sacrifice was ordered (1 Sam. vii. 9, xiii. 9); a 
 priest, or the general-in-chief, harangued the 
 soldiers (Deut. xx. 2; 2 Chron. xx. 20); the 
 trumpet gave the signal for attack (Num. x. 9; 
 2 Chron. xiii. 12), and the attack was made with 
 yelling and noise (1 Sam. xvii. .52; Isa. xiii. 13; 
 Amos i. 14; Jer. 1. 42; Ezek. xxi. 22). The 
 combat took place man to man; but complex 
 movements, sm'prises, circumventions, etc., were 
 effected (Judg. vii. 16 ; Josh. viii. 2-12 ; 1 Sam. 
 XV. 5; 2 Sam. v. 23). Prisoners were treated 
 with great harshness. The dead were pillaged 
 (1 Sam. xxxi. 8; 2 Mace. viii. 27); the living 
 were killed (Judg. ix. 45; 2 Sam. xii. 31; 2 
 Chron. xxv. 12), or mutilated (Judg. i. 6 ; 1 
 Sam. xi. 2), or reduced to slaveiy. Women and 
 children were not spared (2 Kings xv. 10, viii. 
 12; Isa. xiii. 10; Amos i. 13; Ilos. x. 14, xiii. 
 16 ; Nahum iii. 10 ; 2 Mace. v. 13). The conquered 
 cities were often burnt or destroyed (Judg. ix. 
 45; 1 Mace. v. 28, x 84). The Pagan sanc- 
 tuaries were always destroyed (1 Mace. v. 68). 
 Victory was celebrated with cries of joy, and 
 triumphal songs and dances (Judg. v. ; 1 Sam. 
 xviii. 0; 2 Sam. xxii.; Judg. xvi. 2; 1 Mace. iv. 
 24). Conquered arms were deposited in the 
 temple (2 Kings xi. 10; 1 Chron. x. 10). 
 
 ARNAUD, Henri, b. in 1041, at La Torre in 
 Piedmont; d. in 1721, at Schbnberg, in Wtirtem- 
 
 berg ; placed himself at the head of those Vau- 
 dois, who, because they had embraced the re- 
 formed faith, were expelled from their homes by 
 Victor Amadous of Savoy, and led them back to 
 their native valleys, defeating a French-Savoyan 
 army which was sent against them. Political 
 circumstances: the influence of William of Or- 
 ange, and a breach with France, compelled Victor 
 .A.madaeus to give his assent to their return; but, 
 when a change in politics brought about a new 
 alliance with France, he again drove them away 
 from the country, and Arnaud accompanied them 
 in their exile as their spiritual leader, and re- 
 mained with them in Schdnberg as their pastor, 
 in spite of the brilliant offers he received from 
 England. Ills Ilislnire de la i/!uricuse Henlree des 
 VaudoU dans teurs Vallees was publi-shod in 1710, 
 and translated into f^nglish by II. D. Ackland, 
 London, 1827. K. H. Klaibkk : llcnri Arnaud. 
 Nach den Que/li:n, Stuttgart, 1880. 
 
 ARNAULD, Angelique (Mere An(/c'lir/ue de Si. 
 .Jean), b. Nov. 24, 1024 ; d. Jan. 29, 1684; was edu- 
 cated at Port-Royal by her aunt, ;Marie Angelique 
 de Ste. Magdeleine; took the veil in 1644; became 
 subprioress in 1653, and abbess in 1078; and was 
 the leader and principal support of the nuns of 
 Port-Royal during the controversy between the 
 Jansenists and the Jesuits, from the time when, in 
 1061, they refused to sign the Formulary of .Vlex- 
 ander VH., and were scattered by the jiolice, till 
 1069, when the Peace-edict of Clement IX. again 
 freed them from police surveillance. Among 
 other works she wrote Mimoires pour seroir a I'liis- 
 toire de Port-Royal, published in three volumes 
 by Barbeau de la Bruyere, Utrecht, 1742. See 
 Jansenism. Fkances Martin: Anf/elique Ar- 
 iiauhl. AhhtKs of Port-l!oi/al, London, 1873. 
 
 ARNAULD, Antoine, b. in Paris, Feb. 8, 1012; 
 d. in Brussels, Aug. 8, 1694; was educated at 
 C'alvi and Lisieux, and began to study law, his 
 father being a famous menilier of that profession, 
 but afterwards changed jurisprudence for theol- 
 ogy; studied under Lescot, the confessor of Riche- 
 lieu; entered the Sorbonne in 1034; and took his 
 degree as doctor, and was ordained priest in 1041. 
 In 1643 he published his De la Frequente Com- 
 munion, and with this book began his life-long 
 contest with the Jesuits. It was sanctioned by 
 many bishops and doctors of the Sorbonne ; and 
 the whole result of the intrigues and machina- 
 tions of the Jesuits was the censure by the pope 
 of one sentence in the preface. But in 1644 Ar- 
 nauld entered into the controversy concerning the 
 Augustinus of Jansen by his first and second Apo- 
 logie de Jansenim. In 1055 he published his two 
 letters, of which the second contains the famous 
 distinction between a decision dejure and de facto; 
 and in 1056 he was expelled from the Sorbonne, 
 and deprived of his doctorate. The Peace-edict 
 of Clemens IX. (1068) made his social position 
 safe once more ; and from 1669 to 1674 he pub- 
 lished his Grande Perpetuke de la Foi de I'Etjlise 
 as a defence of Jansenism against the accusation 
 that it led to Calvinism. "But in 1069 he also 
 published the first volume of his Morale Pratique 
 des Jesuites, of which the eighth and last volume 
 was published in 1094; and this work again 
 brought the hatred of the Jesuits into full flame. 
 In 1079 he was compelled to leave France, and 
 settled in 1082 in Brussels, steadily pursued by
 
 ARNAULD. 
 
 148 
 
 ARNOBIUS. 
 
 the Jesuits. Here lie -nrote Des Vraies et des 
 Faii^^ges Idc'es (16S3) and Reflexions Philosophiqitcs 
 et Thcolofiif/uas (lUSo) against ^Slalebranche. 
 AVlien he died, he was buried in secret, and only 
 his heart was sent to Port-Royal to be interred. 
 His collected works were published in forty-five 
 Yolumes, in Paris and Lausanne, 1775-83. See 
 Jaxskxism. 
 
 ARNAULD, Henri, b. in Paris in 1597; d. at 
 Angers, June 8, 1694; a brother of Antoine; was 
 first an advocate, but embraced the ecclesiastical 
 profession, and became successively Abbot of St. 
 Nicholas, Bishop of Toul, and Bishop of Angers. 
 He wa.s a stanch Jansenist, and very active in 
 the practical affairs of the State and the Church. 
 He left a work, Nc'ijolialions a la Cour <!e Rome, 
 whicli was published in five volumes in 1748. 
 
 ARNAULD, Jacqueline Marie (Marie Anr/elique 
 de Sle. Magdeleine), b. Sept. 8, 1591; d. Aug. 0, 
 1661. She was the second daughter of the fa- 
 mous advocate Antoine Arnauld, and sister of 
 the preceding. By her father's influence she 
 was nominated Abbess of Port-Royal when only 
 eleven years old. At first she discharged her 
 duties with increasing dislike as she was better 
 able to appreciate her position ; but in 1608 she 
 was converted, reformed her life, performed a 
 severe penance, and wrought a revolution in the 
 convent. She was subsequently Abbess of Mau- 
 bisson 1618-23, of Port-Royal" 1623-26, then of 
 Port-Royal de Paris, as the new house of the 
 community was called. She resigned her posi- 
 tion, and spent the rest of life in pious labor at 
 different posts. See Frances Maktin : An- 
 gelique Arnauld, London, 1873. 
 
 ARNAULD D'ANDILLY, Robert, b. in Paris in 
 1588; (1. there Sept. 27, 1674; the eldest brother 
 of .\ntoine; held various positions in the govern- 
 ment and at the court, but retired in 1640 to Port- 
 Royal, and devoted liimself to literary pursuits. 
 His Haintx Peres du Desert was translated into 
 English : Lives of the Fathers of the Desert, Lou- 
 don, 1757, 2 vols. 
 
 ARNDT, Johann, b. at Ballen.stadL .\nhalt, 
 Dfc. 27, 1555; d. at C'elle, Hanover, May 11, 
 1621, studied theology at Helmstedt, Wittenberg, 
 Strassburg, and Basel; and was appointed minis- 
 ter at Badeborn, a village of Anhalt, in 1581, but 
 was discharged in 1.590 by Duke Johann Oeorg, 
 who leaned towards Calvinism, and demanded 
 the abolition of images and of the exorcism. 
 In tlie same year, however, lie was appointed 
 minister at Quedlinburg ; in 1.599 he moved to 
 Brunswick as pastor of St. ihirtiu; and in 1611 
 he was called to Celle as court-preacher. Of 
 his celebrated work, Vom wahren Chrislenlhum, 
 the first part w:is published in 1605, the three 
 otliers in 1609. It made immediately a deep 
 impression. Edition followed edition. Transla- 
 tions were made into Latin and into all European 
 languages; into English by A. W. Boehm, 1712, 
 and by William .Jaques, 1815, the first part hav- 
 ing liiH-n transhited as early as l(i4(i. Few books 
 of devotion have etiualled its popularity ; but 
 at the sauK! time it also e.xcited much opjiosition 
 and bitter criticism. The delay in tlie ]Jul)lication 
 of the tlir(!i! last parts was due to tlie opjiosition 
 of his colleagues and superiors in Brunswick. 
 Combining an iiiduence from Tauler and tiie 
 other mediajval mystics with a decided practical 
 
 tendency, it was indeed a precursor of tlie later 
 pietism, and came, naturally enough, in conflict 
 with the Lutheran orthodoxy in its lifeless, 
 scholastic form. Of his other writings, his Para- 
 diesycirtlein roller christlichen Tiir/enden, 1612. also 
 became very popular. English translation. ■• The 
 Garden of Paradise," London, 1716. The first 
 collected edition of his works was given by Ram- 
 bach, 1734, 3 vols. A revised edition of the 
 "True Christianity" mentioned above appeared, 
 Philadelphia, 1868. See Frd. Arndt: Johann 
 Arndt, Berlin, 1838. 
 
 ARNO, b. in the diocese of Freising, in whose 
 official records he occurs as deacon and presbyter 
 up to the year of 779 ; d. as the first Archbishop 
 of Salzburg, Jan. 24, 821 ; made the acquaintance 
 of Alcuin while Abbot of Elnon. in flainanlt, 
 between 779 and 785, and was in the latter year 
 made Bishop of Salzburg by Duke Tassilo of 
 Bavaria. His attempt to interfere between Tas- 
 silo and Charlemagne failed; in 788 Bavaria 
 was incorporated with the Frankish Empire. 
 But Arno gained the favor and confidence of the 
 new ruler, and Charlemagne confirmed the Church 
 of Salzburg in the possession of all its estates 
 on which Arno made a report to him : Congestuni 
 (Indicidus) Arnonis, ed. by Keinz, Munich. 1869. 
 After the close of the war with the Avars, all the 
 conquered lands were placed under the spiritual 
 authority of the see of Salzburg; and, on April 
 20, 798, Arno was consecrated Archbishop of 
 Salzburg, and metropolitan of Bavaria, by the 
 pope himself. In the literary circle of the 
 Fr.ankish court he bore the name of Aquila 
 ("e.agle," the Latin translation of his name, 
 Am = Ar= eagle), and enjoyed great respect. 
 He was present when the Emperor Charleiuange 
 made his will. See Alcuin's letters to Arno in 
 tlie Mdiiumenta Alcuiniana, edd. AVattenbach et 
 Dui'ininlor, Berol., 1873. 
 
 ARNOBIUS was a teacher of rhetoric at Sicca, 
 in the Roman province of Africa, and had taught 
 and written much against Christianity, when, 
 frightened by a dream, he was converted, and em- 
 braced the Cliristian faith. The Bishop of Sicca, 
 however, felt suspicious, and refused to admit 
 him into the church; and then he wrote (about 
 303), and probably on the demand of the bishop, 
 his Adrersiis nnlioncs lihri VII. On this work 
 .Teronie has passed a very severe judgment (episl. 
 46) ; and it must be conceded that the author 
 commits mistakes, and shows a rather limited 
 knowledge of Christianity. Thus he s.ays that 
 the .soul is not created by God, and not immortal, 
 according to its nature; and his conception of 
 atonement is very v.ague, Christ's office being 
 simply to make God known by his teachings and 
 liis miracles. Nevertheless the book is not 
 witliout a certain genuine warmth, .and its at- 
 tacks on Paganism are vigorous and hitting. It 
 was edited by Orf.i.i.i, Ziirich, 1816; by Hii.dk- 
 nuANDT, HaUe, 1844; and by RKii'Fi:i!scm;ii), 
 Wien, 1875; the hast edition being by far the 
 best. P. R. Jleyer: De ralione Arnobiana, Haf- 
 nia^ (Copenliagi'u), IS].'). 
 
 ARNOBIUS the rounger was a priest of Gaul; 
 a Semi- Pelagian, who wrote a commentary on the 
 Psalms, found in Mac. Bilil. toiii. VIII. See 
 TKLTiK.r, : (j'eschichte dir rOinischen IJlle'altir, iid 
 ed., 1875, pp. 923 sqq.
 
 ARNOLD. 
 
 14'J 
 
 ARNOLD. 
 
 ARNOLD OF BRESCIA, b. at Brescia in tin- 
 besiiiiiiiig of tlu' tvvclltli century; d. in KoiiU' 
 1155; first appears in the humble position of a 
 lector in the cliurch of his native city ; studied 
 afterwards in Paris under Abelard, and became 
 one of his most ardent adherents; attracted, on 
 his return to Brescia, general attention by tlie 
 austere purity of his life and the fire of his 
 eloquence, and develo[ied by degrees into an 
 enthusiastic ecclesiastical reformer. His reforms 
 were all of a jiractical char.acter. To tlie doc- 
 trines of the Roman Church lie seems to have 
 offered very little opposition. But comparing 
 the first Christian congregation, the church of 
 the apostles, with the church of his own time, 
 he felt scandalized at tlie difference. The root 
 of the evil he found in the wealth of the church. 
 All the vices and all the worldliness of the 
 clergy he ascribed to their riches. The first 
 reform he demanded was, th.at, like the apostles, 
 the priests should hold no property, but content 
 themselves with the voluntary offerings of tiie 
 faithful. How these ideas originated with Ar- 
 nold has been differently explained ; but there is 
 no reason to seek the origin outside of his own 
 moral consciousness. He was a gifted man, 
 upright and fervent. The frightful corruption 
 of the church naturally struck him, and in the 
 Bible itself he found the corrective. In Brescia 
 and its neighborhood his preaching made a deep 
 impression, and caused considerable commotion. 
 Finally Bishop Manfred laid the case before the 
 .synod convened at the Lateran in 1139, and Ar- 
 nold was banished from Brescia, and forbidden 
 to preach. He went to France, where at that 
 moment the controversy between Abelard and 
 St. Bernard was at its height. With great zeal 
 Arnold espoused the cause of his teacher, but 
 thereby he only jirovoked the wrath of St. Ber- 
 nard. The synod of Sens condemned both him 
 and Abelard ; and the pope, confirming the 
 verdict, ordered the Arclibishops of Kheims and 
 Sens to imprison the two heretics. Arnold fled 
 to Switzerland in 1140, and found protection in 
 tlie diocese of Constance by Bishop Herrmann. 
 But St. Bernard continued to pursue him, and 
 urged the Bishop of Constance to expel or im- 
 prison him. He fled again ; and this time he 
 found refuge with the papal leg.ate, Cardinal 
 Guido a Castellis, a friend of Abelard. But 
 even here he was not safe. The Abbot of Clair- 
 vaux was irreconcilable, and the legate dared not 
 defy hiin. Meanwhile Innocent II. died, and 
 Arnold determined to return to Italy. During 
 his absence from Italy, perpetual contests had 
 taken place in Rome between the pope and the 
 people; and it is probable that Arnold's ideas 
 were known in Rome, though he himself had 
 never been there. After 1145, liowever, he 
 began to preach publicly in Rome, and with great 
 effect. For his religious ideas the Romans had 
 no sense ; but tlie practical consequences of these 
 ideas, their influence on social life, fired tlie 
 enthusiasm of the light-minded populace. Then, 
 again, the enthusiasm of the audience re-acted on 
 the preacher. He himself forgot the religious 
 starting-point, and, inspired by the remembrance 
 of the grandeur of old Rome, he became a politi- 
 cal reformer. Rome should stand free, independ- 
 ent of the pope and the emperoi', ruled by no 
 
 single man, but by the senate and the people; 
 and, when thus the old liberty was restored, the 
 old greatne.ss would follow. The people became 
 mucli excited; and in 1155 a new constitution 
 was framed, and Adrian IV. was demanded to 
 sanction it. The pope refused, and withdrew to 
 Orvieto. Shortly after, he laid the interdict on 
 the city, and ]mt Arnold under the ban; and as 
 Frederick Barbarossa at the same moment a]i- 
 proaclied the city at the head of a great army, 
 a panic cauglit tlie inhabitants: Arnold was ex- 
 pelled, and the pope returned. For .some time 
 Arnold found shelter with the nobility of the 
 Campania, but was afterwards surrendered to 
 Frederick Barbaross.a, who misjudging his most 
 powerful ally in a contest with the papal see, and 
 eager to buy the imperial crown at any price, 
 surrendered him to the pope; and by the pope 
 he was hanged, burnt, and his ashes thrown into 
 the Tiber. 
 
 Lit. — Otto Frising : De Gestis Frid. I., lib. 
 II., cap. 20; Guntiier : Lir/iirinus, lib. HI., p. 
 2Q2 ; S. Bern. : Ejjisl. 195, 19ti, 198; Gerhohus: 
 De Investiyal. Antichrist, in Grcttseri 0pp. XII., 
 prulegaia. ; Muii.\TOi!i: Antiquit. Ital. Medii JEvi. 
 HI., I., 441; Bakoxius: Ann. Eccl. ad ann. 
 1155 ; Kiiiii.Ki: : De Anwldo Bri.ciensi, Gottingen, 
 174:2 ; Fi!.\NKi.: : Am. v. Br. undtieine Zeit, Ziirich, 
 1825 ; Bext : Exsai sur Arnold de Brescia, Geneve, 
 1856; Guii!.\l: A. de B. el les Hohcnstauffen, 
 Paris, 18G8; Clavel: A. de B. el les Romains. 
 Paris, 1808; Giov.wxi de Castro: Arnaldo di 
 Brescia, Livorno, 1875. C. SCHMIDT. 
 
 ARNOLD, Gottfried, b. at Annaberg, Saxony. 
 Sept. 5, lOGG; d. at Perleberg, Prussia, May, 1714 ; 
 studied theology at Wittenberg, but received by 
 far the strongest spiritual influence from the 
 works of Spener; acted for some time as a 
 tutor in a noble family, and was in 1697 ap- 
 pointed professor of history in Giessen, but 
 resigned this position in the next year, and lived 
 in retirement at Quedlinburg, till, in 1704, he 
 became minister and ecclesiastical inspector at 
 AVerben, whence he moved in 1707 to Perleberg. 
 His great work, UnjHirteiische Kirchen- und Kel- 
 zer-liisturie, of which the two first volumes ajv 
 peared in 1699, the two last in 1700, made an 
 epoch in the study of church-history. The prin- 
 ciple on which this book rests — that none, either 
 individual or sect, shall be condemned because 
 the church of his time h.as condemned him — 
 has been generally accepted, though the author 
 himself often went too far in its application. 
 The polemical bent of his mind, and his pietisti- 
 cal view of Christianity, often made him partial 
 to heretics, and exposed him to very severe at- 
 tacks from the orthodox party. Of his other 
 works — fiftj'-three in number, and some of con- 
 siderable size — many are still in use among tlie 
 German Pietists ; as, for instance. Die erste Liche, 
 edit, by Liimmert, Stuttgart, 1844 ; Die Verldii- 
 ruiKj Jesu Cliristi in der Seek, 1704; Wahre AhhU- 
 dunfj des inicendigen Chrislenlhuins, 1709, etc. See 
 Arnolds gedoppelter Lchenslaiif, Leipzig, 1716; Di- 
 BELius: Gottfried Arnold, Berlin, 1873. 
 
 ARNOLD, Nicolaus, b. at Lissa (Lesna), Po- 
 land, Dec. 17, 1618; d. at Franecker, Holland, 
 Oct. 15, 1680 ; received his first instruction from 
 Amos Comenius ; went in 1635 to Dantzic, where 
 he studied philosophy and rhetoric ; then in 1611
 
 ARNOLD. 
 
 150 
 
 ARNULPHUS. 
 
 to Franecker, where he studied theology under 
 Maccovius (Maccovsky) and the famous Coccejus; 
 visited the academies of Groeningen, Leyden, 
 and Utrecht; travelled in England; and was ap- 
 pointed minister at Beetgum in 1645, and profess- 
 or of theology at Franecker in 1651. He edited 
 the works of Maccovius. His own works are 
 mostly polemical. Against Socinianism: Relu/io 
 Sociiiaiia seu Calechcsis Nacovidim major publicis 
 (lispp. refulttla. 16oi ; AtlieUnius Sociniantts, 1650. 
 Against Konianism : Apologia Amesii contra 
 Erhrmannum. Against the prophecies of Co- 
 menius, concerning the millennium : Discur.fii.i 
 Iheot. contra Comenli priEtensam lucem in tenchris, 
 1660. 
 
 ARNOLD, Thomas, b. at West Cowes, in the 
 Isle of Wight, June 13, 1795; d. at Rugby, June 
 12, 184'2 ; was educated at Warminster and Win- 
 chester ; entered the University of Oxford in 
 1811; became a fellow of Oriel College in 1815; 
 was ordained a deacon in 1818, and settled in 
 1819 at Laleham, where he established a pre- 
 paratory school for young men who wislied to 
 frequent the universities. In 1828 he was or- 
 dained priest, and appointed head master of the 
 school at Rugby; and in 1841 he was made 
 regius-professor of modern history at Oxford, 
 but he delivered only one course of lectures. 
 His influence was due more to his character as 
 a man than to any particular talent. His jiroper 
 field was education, and the chief element of his 
 educational method was religion. His religious 
 views have made themselves felt far beyond the 
 school, both in the literature and in the church. 
 He was a strong adversary of the Oxford Tracta- 
 rian movement, and became the founder of the 
 Broad-Church party, which, though not very 
 numerous, comprises some of the greatest Eng- 
 lish preachers and writers. His ideas of the 
 Christian Church, and its relation to the State, 
 are fully expressed in the two pamphlets : Cliurdi 
 Reform, 1833, and Fragment on the C/iurch, which 
 latter is directed against the Tractariaus. Among 
 his other religious writings are five volumes of 
 Sermons. His historical works comprise, beside 
 an annotated edition of Thucydides, the History 
 of Rome, 3 vols., London, 1.S38-43, unfinished ; 
 Histori/ of the Later Roman Commonwealth, 2 vols., 
 1845, 2d ed., 1849; Lectures on Modern History, 
 Oxford, 1842. See Stanley: The Life and Corre- 
 spondence of Thomas Aniotil, London, 1844, 2 vols. 
 
 ARNOLDI, Bartholemaeus, b. at I'singen 14G3; 
 d. at Erfurt 1532; an Augustine monk, professor, 
 first of philosopliy, then of theology, at Erfurt, 
 and the teacher of Luther. .-Vrdently ojiposed to 
 Humanism, he was, nevertheless, eager for a puri- 
 fication of thescholastical theology; but when this 
 purification, in the hands of Luther, became a 
 tlioroughgoing religious reform, -Vrnoldi recoiled, 
 and after 1521 he becanii^ an active and ojien 
 adversary of the reformatory movement. A list 
 of his works is found in Hiiii.N's Chronologia I'ro- 
 vincia Rhenei-Suericm Ordinis Fr. Eremitarum., p. 
 166. 
 
 ARNOLDISTS, a sect which maintained the 
 ideas of Arnold of Brescia for half a century 
 after his death, but became lost, in the beginning 
 of the twelfth century, among other factions lios- 
 tile to the church and the clergy, and at that 
 period very numerous in Northern Italy. The 
 
 Arnoldists are first mentioned when condemned by 
 Pope Lucius III. at the Council of Verona, 1184 
 {Mansi XXII., 476). A short time after (about 
 1190), Bonacursus speaks of them in an oration 
 delivered at Milan against the Catharers. It is 
 not improbable, that at the time of Bonacursus, 
 about thirty years after the deatli of Arnold, 
 there were opponents to the clerical hierarchy 
 who still used the name of the great reformer, 
 and called themselves his disciples; but it is 
 doubtful wliether such was the case at a later 
 period, though the name of Arnoldists still con- 
 tinues to occur, as, for instance, in the laws of 
 Frederick II. against heretics from 1224 (Mansi 
 XXIII., 586). At that time no other trace is 
 found of a distinct sect calling itself Arnold- 
 ists. It seems most probable, therefore, that the 
 emperor took the name, like several others, from 
 the decrees of Lucius HI., and cited them only 
 to be sure to condemn all heretical parties, with- 
 out any exception. From Frederick's laws the 
 name then went over in the bulls of later popes, 
 and the works of various writers against heresy ; 
 but the sect was extinct before the beginning of 
 the thirteenth century. C. SCHMIDT. 
 
 ARNON, the present Wadi/ el Mojeli, a river 
 which once formed the boundary between Moab 
 and the Amorites (Num. xxi. 13, 26; Deut. iii. 
 8), and afterwards between Moab and the Israel- 
 ites (Josh. xii. 1); enters the Dead Sea from the 
 east, after a course of fifty miles through a mouth 
 ninety feet wide, and from four to ten feet deep. 
 The banks of the river are in many places, espe- 
 cially in its western course, very high, precipitous, 
 and wild, presenting many ruins of forts, bridges, 
 etc. The river itself is full in winter, but dry 
 during summer. 
 
 ARNOT, William, D.D., an eminent and popu- 
 lar Scotch divine; li. at Scone, in Perthshire, 
 Nov. 6, 1808; d. in Edinburgh, June 3, 1875. He 
 was ordained in 1839, and subsequently joined 
 the Fi-ee-Cliurch movement (1843). In 1873 he 
 was a delegate to the meeting of the Evangelical 
 Alliance in New York, and won great popularity 
 as a preacher and lecturer by his sturdy good 
 sense, fervor, and earnestness. His writings are 
 inuch read : they aboiind in apt illustrations. 
 The best known of them are : Laivs from Heaven 
 for Life on Earth: Illustrnlions of the Book of Prov- 
 erbs, London, 1869, 2 vols. ; The Parables of our 
 Lord, 1870 ; Life of James Hamilton, 1870. See 
 Autobiography and Memoir, 1877. 
 
 ARNULPH, Bishop of Lisieux, accompanied 
 Louis VH. to the Holy Laud in 1147, on the 
 .second crusade; went to F^ngland in 1160 as the 
 legate of Alexander III. to restore harmony be- 
 tween Henry II. and Thomas Becket; retired 
 afterwards to the Abbey of St. Victor at Paris, 
 and died there Aug. 31, 1182. Some poems 
 and essays by him are found in th(> Bibliolh. Sacr. ; 
 but of much more interest for the? history and 
 character of his age are his letters, edited by 
 TuiiNKiiius, Paris, 1585, and by J. A. Giles, 
 Oxford. IS 11. 
 
 ARNULPHUS, St. (more correctly ARNULFUS), 
 b. about .582, near Nancy; d. Aug. "l 6, 641; distin- 
 guished wliile young, both as warrior and states-, 
 man, and in (ill or 612 made Bishop of Metz. In 
 this ]>osition he exercised considerable influence 
 on the government of the Frankisli Empire, en-
 
 ARPHAXAD. 
 
 151 
 
 ARTEMON. 
 
 joyiner at the same time the fi-ioii(lshi]i of Pipiii 
 the Elder, and the confidence of the Austrasian 
 nobility. But in 027 he abdicated, and retired 
 into the wilderness of the Vosges, where he lived 
 as a hermit, and acquired the fame of a saint. 
 His remains rest in the church in Metz named 
 after him. Through his sou Ansegis, who mar- 
 ried Pipin's daughter Begga, he became the an- 
 cestor of the Carolingian dynasty. There is an 
 older vita of liim (Mauillon: Ada SS. II., 150) 
 and a more recent one (Boll.\ndist8: Ada SS., 
 July IV., 435); but the former is by far the most 
 reliable. 
 
 ARPHAX'AD. The names in the table in 
 Gen. X. being those, not of individuals, but of 
 tribes or lands, Arphaxad (Gen. x. '22, 24, xi. 
 10) means the district called Arrapachitis by 
 the Greeks. To-day the name is preserved in 
 Af/Jdiak and Albakh, by which the Armenians and 
 Kurds designate the mountain-land east of Gor- 
 dyene. In the chapter cited above, the course of 
 the sons of Shem is described by the names as 
 from south to north, then west, and finally south- 
 east to the Euphrates again; for this is the order, 
 Elam, Asshur, Arphaxad, Lud, and Aram. 
 
 In regard to the etymology of the name, there 
 has been much discussion. The interpretations, 
 " the border of the Chaldseans," " the stronghold 
 of the Chaldaeans," are open to objection because 
 of the erroneous conception of the word, as a 
 union of Hebrew and Arabic. It is better to 
 interpret "dispersion," and to read in the word 
 that the Hebrew race, whose remote ancestor 
 is called Arphaxad in this chapter, had originally 
 its seat in Arrapachitis, and from there pressed 
 first to Mesopotamia, then over the Euphrates 
 to Canaan and Arabia. It is confirmatory of 
 this view that the progenitors of the Hebrews 
 are said to have come from Ur of the Chaldees 
 (Gen. xi. 22 sq.). See Knobel : Die Volkcrtafel 
 der Genesis. Giesseu, 1850. SPIEGEL. 
 
 ARROWSMITH, John, b. March 29, 1602, near 
 Newcastle-ou-the-Tyne ; d. February, 1658 (9). 
 He was educated at Cambridge, where he became 
 fellow of Catherine Hall, subsequently a preacher 
 at Lynn, in the county of Norfolk, was called from 
 thence to take part in the Weslmiiislei Assembli/. 
 Robert Baillie describes him as "a man with a 
 glass eye in place of that which was put out by 
 an arrow, a learned divine, on whom the Assembly 
 jnut the writing against the Antinomians." He 
 was on the committee to draw up a confession of 
 faith, and preached thrice before Parliament, the 
 sermons being published : The Cooenanl Aven- 
 ijiiKj Sword Brandished (Lev. xxvi. 25), London, 
 1643,4to, pp. 28; England's Ehenezer (I Sam. vii. 
 12), London, 1645, 4to, pp. 34; A great Wonder 
 in Heacen ; or, a lirely Picture of the Militant 
 Church, drawn hi/ a Dirine Penman (Rev. xii. 
 1, 2), London, 1617. 4to, pp. 44. In 1644 he was 
 appointed by Parliament master of St. Johns 
 College, Cambridge, and subsequently became 
 master of Trinity College, and Professor of Di- 
 vinity in the University, resigning the professoi-- 
 ship in 1655, but retainiug the mastership until 
 his death. Whilst at Cambridge he published 
 Tadica Sacra, sice de Millte Spirituali Puynante, 
 Vincente, et Triumphale Dissertatio, Cantab., 1657, 
 4to, pp. 363, containing also three Oraliones Ami 
 Weigeliame. After his death there were pub- 
 
 lished : A rmiUa Catechelira, A Chain of Princi- 
 ples ; or, an orderhj Convatenalion of Theological 
 Aphorisms anil Exercitalions, wherein the chief 
 Heads of Christian lielif/ion are asserleil and im- 
 /iroreil, Cambridge, 1659, 4to, pp. 490; an un- 
 finished work designed to form a complete body 
 of divinity in thirty aphorisms, only six of which 
 were completed, covering for the most part the 
 ground of the first twenty questions of the Larger 
 Westminster Catechism, in essentially the same 
 order; also Theanthro/ios, or God- Man, London, 
 1660, 4to, pp. 311, an exjjosition of the Gospel of 
 Johni. 1-18, discussing tlie divinity and humanity 
 of Christ, and maintaining the catholic doctrine 
 against all heresies. C. A. BRIGGS. 
 
 ARSENIUS, deacon in Rome, was recommended 
 by Bishop Damasus to Theodosius the Great, on 
 account of his learning and piety, and obtained 
 the position as tutor to Arcadius, 383. The 
 emperor held him in such esteem, that he com- 
 pelled the son to receive his instruction standing, 
 while the tutor was sitting; but Arcadius felt 
 provoked, and is said to have attempted the life 
 of his tutor. At all events, Arsenius renounced 
 his place at the court (394), and retired into the 
 wilderness of Scetis, in Egypt, where he lived 
 as a hermit till his ninety-fifth, or, according to 
 others, till his one hundred and twentieth year. 
 He is commemorated in the Greek Church on 
 May 8; in the Roman, on July 19. He is called 
 the Great, and is one of the most famous of all 
 the Egyptian monks. About him many stories 
 are told. One of his sayings is worth remem- 
 bering, " Often have I been sorry for having 
 spoken, never for having been silent." See 
 Acta ^'5. on the later date; S.mith and Wage: 
 Diet, of Christ. Bioijraphi/. 
 
 ARSENIUS, a monk of Nictea; lived for some 
 time as a hermit on Mount Athos, and become 
 finally ■ patriarch of Constantinople. Theodore 
 Lascaris II., Emperor of Nicea, intrusted his son 
 to his guardianship; but, after his death (1259), 
 Michael Paloeologus usurped the throne, and put 
 out the eyes of young Lascaris. Arsenius ex- 
 communicated the usurper, and refused to re-admit 
 liim to the church, unless he restored the throne 
 to the legitimate heir. But a council convened 
 in Constantinople in 1202 deposed and banished 
 Arsenius, and he died in one of the islands of 
 the Propontis in 1267. Although his successor 
 Joseph remitted the sentence of excommunica- 
 tion, there was a party in the Greek Church 
 which considered these proceedings irregular, 
 and in 1312 Arsenius was declared a saint. 
 
 ARTAXERX'ES (great warrior). The honorary 
 title of Persian kings. Two are so called in the 
 Old Testament. 1. Pseudo-Smerdis the Magian, 
 the pretended son of Cyrus, and brother of Cam- 
 byses, who seized the throne B.C. 522, and was 
 murdered after eight months (Ez. iv. 7-24). 
 2. Ez. vii. 7 and Neh. ii. 1 both speak of a 
 second Artaxerxes, who is generally regarded as 
 identical with Ai'taxerxes Longimanus, son of 
 Xerxes, who reigned B.C. 464-425. Therefore 
 Ezra's journey can be set down in B.C. 457, and 
 Nehemiah's B.C. 444. FR. W. SCHULTZ. 
 
 ARTEMON, or ARTEMAS, the founder of an 
 anti-trinitarian sect, the Arlemonites, taught in 
 Rome in the beginning of the third century, and 
 asserted that Christ was a mere man, thougli
 
 ARTICLES. 
 
 ARTICLES. 
 
 superior to any of the prophets, and that the doc- 
 trine of his divinity was a mere invention, and a 
 relapse into Pagan polytheism. His views were 
 afterwards adopted and further developed by 
 Paul of Samosata; but all we know about Arte- 
 mon himself depends upon a few notices by Eu- 
 sebius, Epiphanius, Tlieodoret, and Photius. 
 
 ARTICLES OF FAITH, the particul.ar points of 
 doctrine, which together make up the sum of 
 Christian belief. The great majority of churches 
 draw them up. and require a public assent to 
 them by their ministers and church officers, while 
 to the laity they are explained, and from them a 
 general assent is expected. The word thus is syn- 
 onvmous with Crked, which see. 
 
 ARTICLES OF RELIGION, English, Thirty- 
 Nine, the Reformation Creed of the Cliurch of 
 J^ngland and her daughters in the Colonies and in 
 thelJnited States. They differ from the lengthy 
 confessions of the sixteenth century in form, but 
 agree with thera in spirit. The Ten Articles of 
 lo-36, and the Six Articles of 1539, under the reign 
 of Henry VIII., prepared the way for a brief 
 statement of the doctrinal controversies. But the 
 Six Articles were a step backwards, by impos- 
 ing upon all Englishmen a belief in transubstan- 
 tiatiou, clerical celibacy, and auricular confes- 
 sion. They were therefore called the "bloody 
 .\rticles," and " a whip with six strings." King 
 Henry VIII. never was a Protestant, except in 
 opposing the pope, preferring to be a pope him- 
 self in his own dominion ; but he did the dirty 
 work of the English Reformation by destroying 
 the foreign power of the papacy, and its domestic 
 stronghold, monasticism. The positive Reforma- 
 tion was first fairly introduced during the reign 
 of his sun and successor, Edward VI. (1547-53), 
 under the lead of Archbishop Cranmer. He at 
 first entertained the noble but jireraature project 
 of framing an evangelical catholic creed, in which 
 all the Reformed churches could agree in opposi- 
 tion to the Church of Rome, then holding the 
 Council of Trent, and invited the surviving Con- 
 tinental reformers — Melanchthon, Calvin, and 
 BuUinger — to London for the purpose. Calvin 
 was willing to cross ten seas for such a work of 
 Christian union, and so replied to Cranmer in 
 15.52. (.See tlie correspondence in Cranmer's 
 Wfirti, Parker Soc. ed., vol. II., pp. 430-433). 
 But political events prevented the conference, 
 and the formulation of the doctrinal consensus of 
 the Reformed churches. Failing in this scheme, 
 Cranmer framed, with tlio aid of his fellow- 
 reformers, — Ridley and Latimer, the royal cliap- 
 lains, and the foreign divines, Bucer, Peter Mar- 
 tyr, and John Ji Lasco, whom he had drawn to 
 England, — tlie Fortij-two Articles of RelKjion for 
 the English Reformed Ciuirch. After passing 
 through several revisions, they were completed 
 in November, 1552, and published in 15.53 by 
 "royal authority" and with the apiuoval of con- 
 vocation. The re-establishment of the papacy 
 under the short but bloody reign of Mary (15.53- 
 58) set them a-side, t<)gether witli the Edvvariline 
 Book of Common Prayer. Under Elizabetli 
 (155fi-l(iU3) the Arliol(^s were revised and per- 
 manently restored. They were reduced to lliirli/- 
 niue, and brought into that shape and form which 
 they have retained ever since in tlio Churcii of 
 England. The Latin editiou was prepared under 
 
 the supervision of Archbishop Parker, \yith the 
 aid of Bishop Cox of Ely (one of the Marian 
 exiles) and Bishop Guest of Rochester, ap- 
 proved by convocation, and published by the 
 royal press, 1503. The English edition, which is 
 of equal authority, though slightly differing from 
 the L.-itin, was adopted by convocation in 1.571, 
 and issued under the editorial care of Bishop 
 Jewel of Salisbury, 1571. They were made 
 binding on all ministers and teachers of religion, 
 and students in the universities; but subscription 
 was not always enforced with equal rigor, and 
 bitterly complained of by the Nonconformists, 
 who had scrupulous objections to the political 
 articles. The Act of Uniformity under Charles 
 II. imposed greater stringency than ever ; but ' 
 the Toleration Act of William and Mary gave 
 some relief by exempting dissenting ministers \ 
 from subscribing Arts. XXXIV. to XXXVI. ' 
 and a portion of Art. XXVII. Subsequent at- 
 tempts to relax or abolish subscription resulted . 
 at last in tlie University Tests Act of 1871, which 1 
 exempts all students and graduates in the univer- 
 sities of Oxford, Cambridge, and Durham, ex- | 
 cept divinity students, fellows, professors, and 
 heads of colleges, from subscription, and throws 
 these institutions open to Dissenters. 
 
 The Thirty-nine Articles are among the most 
 important doctrinal formulas of the Reformation 
 period. They cover nearly all the heads of the 
 Christian faith, especially those which were then 
 under dispute with the Roman Catholics. They 
 affirm (1) the old orthodox doctrines of the 
 Trinity and incarnation ; (2) the Augustinian 
 views on free-will, total depravity, divine grace, 
 faith, good works, election ; and (3) tlie Protes- 
 tant doctrines on the church, and the sacraments 
 of baptism and the Lord's Supper. They are 
 borrowed, in part, from Lutheran standards; 
 namely, the Augsburg Confession of Melanchthon 
 (1530) and tlie Wiirteniberg Confession of Rren- 
 tius (1552); but on the sacraments, especial!}' 
 the much-disputed doctrine of the real presence 
 in the Euchari.st, they follow the Swiss reform- 
 ers, Bullinger and Calvin. In the political 
 sections they are purely English, .and ti'.ach the 
 Erastian doctrine of the spiritual as well as tem- 
 poral supremacy of the sovereign as the supreme 
 governor of the Churcli of England. They have, 
 therefore, an eclectic and coniprehcnsive charac- 
 ter, which distinguishes the Anglican Church 
 from the Lutheran and the strictly Calvinistic 
 churches of the Continent and Scotland, and 
 from the dissenting denominations of England. 
 They have often been interpreted and misinter- 
 preted in the interest of particular schools and 
 parties; while all claim them as favoring them- 
 selves. They must be understood in their plain 
 granim.atical sense; and, when this is doubtful, 
 the Prayer-Book, the two books of Homilies, the 
 Catechism, and the private writings of the Eng 
 lisli reformers and the Elizabethan divines, must 
 be called to aid. The doctrinal decisions in the 
 Gorhani, liennet, and other recent controversies, 
 favor great latitudi^ in their inti>rpretation. 
 
 The Protestant-Episcoiial Church in the United 
 States, after effecting an independent organiza- 
 tion and ejiiscopate in consequence of the Ameri- 
 can Revolution, formally adopted the Thirty-nine 
 Articles of the mother-church at the General
 
 ARTICLES. 
 
 153 
 
 ASA. 
 
 Convention held in Trenton, N.J., Sept. 12, 1801, 
 but with sundry alterations and omissions in the 
 political articles (Arts. XXI. ami XXXV'II.), 
 which the .separation of Church and State made 
 necessary, and which are real improvements. 
 The only doctrinal difference is the omission of 
 all allusion to the Athanasian Creed (Art. 
 Vill.), which is also excluded from the Ameri- 
 can editions of the Prayer-l?ook. By this omis- 
 sion the Episcopal Church in the United States 
 has escaped the agitation of the Knglish Cliurch 
 on that creed, whose damnatory clauses make it 
 quite unsuitable for public worship. 
 
 The thirty-five Articles of Reliyion of the Re- 
 formed Episcopal Church in America, adopted 
 by the Third General Council, Chicago, May 18, 
 1875, are based upon the Thirty-nine Articles; 
 similarly are the twenty-five Methodist Articles 
 of Religion drawn up by John Wesley for the 
 American Methodists in 17S4. Both are given 
 in ScHAFF : Creeds of Christendom, vol. III., pp. 
 807 sq., 814 sq. 
 
 Lit. — II.\udwick: Histori/ of the Articles of Re- 
 %('««, Cambridge, 2d ed., 1859; Thomas Rogers: 
 Expositioti of the Thirty-nine Articles, London, 1579, 
 new ed., Cambridge, 1854 ; Burnet : Ilistori/ of 
 the English Reformation (many eds.), and Expo- 
 sition of the Thirty-nine Articles, Oxf., 1715, 1814, 
 and other eds. ; Laurence : Bampton Lectures for 
 
 1834, Oxf., 3d ed., 1838; Lamb: Historical Ac- 
 counl of the Thirty-nine Articles; Dr. H. Browne 
 (now Bishop of Winchester) : Exposition of the 
 Thirty-nine Articles, London, 1850, 9th ed., 1871 
 (the most useful commentary). Am. ed., by 
 Bishop Williams of Connecticut, New York, 
 1809; Forbes: An Explanation of the Thirty-nine 
 Articles, Lond., 1867; Bishop White: Memoirs 
 of the Prot. Episc. Ch., 3d ed., by De Costa, New 
 York, 1880; Perry: Journals of the General Con- 
 vention of the Prot. Episc. Ch. in the U. S., 1785- 
 
 1835, vol. I., pp. 279 sqq. ; Schaff : History of 
 the Creeds of Christendom, New York, 3d ed., 
 1881, vol. L, pp. 592 sq.. III., f>p. 485-522, where 
 the text is given in Latin and English, with the 
 American changes. PHILIP SCHATF. 
 
 ARTICLES OF RELIGION, Irish. These arti- 
 cles are one hundred and four in number; were 
 probably composed by the learned Archbishop 
 James Ussher, then professor of divinity in Dub- 
 lin, and adopted by the convocation of the Irish 
 Episcopal Church at its first meeting (1615), and 
 approved by the viceroy in the same year. They 
 are important as proving the decided Calvin- 
 ism of the Irish Church at that time, and still 
 more so as the connecting link between the 
 Thirty-nine Articles and the Westminster Con- 
 fession, and as the chief source of the latter, " as 
 is evident from the general order, the headings 
 of chapters and subdivisions, and the almost lit- 
 eral agreement of language iu the statement 
 of several of the most important doctrines." By 
 a decree of the convocation, the teaching of any 
 doctrine contrary to these articles was forbidden. 
 But the Irish convocation of 1635 formally 
 adopted the Thirty-nine Articles, and quietly 
 ignored the others. Archbishop Ussher requited 
 subscription to both articles. Eventually, how- 
 ever, the Irish articles were lost sight of, and no 
 mention was made of them, when, in the begin- 
 ning of this century, the United Church of Eng- 
 
 land and Ireland was organized. See Schaff; 
 The (h-eeds of Christendom, vol. I., pp. 662-665; 
 vol. HI., 526-544. 
 
 ARTICLES OF RELIGION, the Lambeth. 
 
 They are a Calvinistic appendix to the Thirty- 
 nine Articles, composed by Dr. William Whita- 
 ker (d. 1595), the regius-professor of divinity at 
 Cambridge, have never had full .symbolical au- 
 thority, but are of great historical interest as 
 proof of the Calvinistic bent of the English theo- 
 logians at the close of the sixteenth century. 
 The University of Cambridge was at tliis period 
 the scene of a fierce discu.ssion iqion predestina- 
 tion, which, for settlement, was finally referred 
 to the Archbishop of Canterbury, who held a 
 consultation with Dr. Whitaker and Dr. Tyndal, 
 Dean of Ely, representatives of the university, 
 and a number of other learned divines,, and as a 
 result we have the so-called Lambeth Articles, 
 adopted Nov. 20, 1595. They are nine in num- 
 ber, strongly Calvinistic, although Whitaker's 
 original language was slightly softened. Queen 
 Elizabeth was offended at the calling of the synod 
 without her permission ; and the archbishop was 
 obliged to suppress the articles. Dr. Reynolds 
 at the Hampton Court Conference of January, 
 1604, requested the addition of these articles 
 to the Thirty-nine Articles. See Schaff: the 
 Creeds of Christendom, vol. I., pp. 658-662; vol. 
 III., pp. 522-525. 
 
 ARUNDEL, Thomas, Lord Chancellor and 
 Archbishop of Canterbury, b. at Arundel Castle 
 1353; d. at Canterbury, Feb. 20, 1413. He was 
 the second son of the Earl of Arundel and War- 
 ren. Twice he held the position of lord chan- 
 cellor, 1386-89, 1391-96. He was made Bishop 
 of Ely 1374, Archbishop of York 1388, of Canter- 
 bury, January, 1396, — the first instance of a 
 translation from York to Canterbury. In 1397 
 he, his brother the Earl of Arundel, and the Duke 
 of Gloucester, were impeached on a charge of 
 high treason, and banished. He went to Rome, 
 where he was kindly received, and nominated 
 Archbishop of St. Andrews. He plotted against 
 Richard II., crowned Henry IV., and was by him 
 restored to his see. He entered heartily into the 
 persecution of the Lollards, and made himself 
 especially conspicuous in the prosecution of Lord 
 Cobham on the charge of heresy. He procured 
 a prohibition of the vernacular translation of 
 the Scriptures. He was a zealous, shrewd, far- 
 sighted pirelate, and spent himself and his riches 
 in the service of the church. See Cobham, 
 Lollards. 
 
 A'SA (Jiealinf) was the son and successor of 
 Abijam on the throne of Judah for forty-one 
 years, —B.C. 955-914 (1 Kings xv. 8-24). The 
 first piart of his reign was religiously and po- 
 litically active and blessed: the latter part, 
 although successful, lacked the divine blessing. 
 He tried to uproot idolatry, and deposed his 
 grandmother Maachah, who was queen-mother, 
 because she had an idol in a grove. He made 
 use of the peace he enjoyed to fortify and build 
 several cities, and to augment and drill his army. 
 Accordingly he was able to defeat Zerah, the 
 Ethiopian king who invaded Judah at the head 
 of one million men and three hundred chariots. 
 The battle was fought at Mareshah, and was one 
 of the most important in Jewish history (2 Chron.
 
 ASAPH. 
 
 154 
 
 ASHDOD. 
 
 xiv.). He caused his people, at the suggestion 
 of the prophet Azariah, to renew their vows to 
 God at a great festival (2 Chron. xv.). This 
 revival of jahvism causing many to come from 
 Israel to the Holy City, Baasha, King of Israel, 
 built Ramah, on" the frontier, to prevent them. 
 Asa made a league with Benhadad, King of 
 Syria, who, in violation of his compact with 
 Baasha, attacked the King of Isi-ael, .and com- 
 pelled him to stop fortifying Ramah (1 Kings 
 XV. 16-22; 2 Chron. xvi. 1-G). But, for thus 
 deserting the Lord, the prophet Hanani was sent 
 to rebuke Asa; which obedience cost the prophet 
 his liberty for a time. Asa died of a disease in 
 his feet (pei-haps gout) [the severity of the dis- 
 ease may be accepted as an extenuating circum- 
 stance for his occasional acts of tyranny], and 
 showed, not only in his sufferings, but in his pre- 
 vious life, -too much reliance upon human aid. 
 He was buried with great pomp (2 Chron. xvi. 
 U). FR. M-. SCUULTZ. 
 
 A'SAPH (collector). Three of the name are 
 mentioned in the Old Testament; but only one is 
 at all prominent : he was a Levite, the chief 
 leader of the temple service, and the author of 
 twelve psalms (Ps. 1. and Ixxiii. to Ixxxiii. in- 
 clusive), and was honored by the title "seer" 
 (2 Chron. xxix. 30). His descendants inherited 
 his gift and his position ; but perhaps " the sons 
 of .\saph " means a >:clioo! of musicians. 
 
 ASBURY, Francis, b. Aug. 20, 1745, at Hands- 
 worth, Staffordshire, Eng. ; "d. March 31, 1816, at 
 Spottsylvania, Va. ; became an itinerant Meth- 
 odist minister iu 1767; sent by AV'esley in 1771 
 to America as a missionary, and was iu 1772 ap- 
 ])ointed Wesley's "general assistant in America," 
 with power of supervising all the JSIethodist 
 preachers and societies of America, but in a 
 year was superseded by Thomas Rankin, who, 
 however, returned to England on the outbreak of 
 ho.stilities, while Asbury remained from choice. 
 During the war, like other non-jurors, lie suffered 
 some per.secution arising from misunder.standing; 
 but, when it was seeu that he was patriotic, he re- 
 sumed his e.xtonsive labors unmolested. At the 
 close of the war the Methodists w-ere organized 
 into an independent church, according to Wes- 
 ley's scheme. Asbury was elected bishop, and 
 ordained by Dr. Coke, Doc. 25, 1784. No better 
 selection could have been made. A man who 
 did not know what fear was when in the course 
 of duty, a man of rugged frame, who never knew 
 weariness; a man of keen wit and uncommon 
 shrewdness ; a man of strict private life, and a 
 stern disciplinarian, — such was Asbury. He gave 
 dignity to iiis office. In labors he was even more 
 abundant than he had been before, althougli he 
 had seemed energy itself. He was wonderfully 
 active. Deficient in early education, he made 
 up for it as far as possible by careful economy of 
 time, and incessant study, and acquired consider- 
 able knowledge. He was also far-sighted, and 
 a good organizer. A vivid picture of his life 
 and success is given bj- the simple statement of 
 Bishop Janes in his Life of Ashurij: "In his un- 
 paralleled itinerant career lie preached about 
 sixteen thousand five hundred sermons, or at 
 least one a day, and travelled about two hundred 
 and seventy thousand milcH, or six thousand a 
 year, presiding in no less than two hundred and 
 
 twenty-four annual conferences, and ordaining 
 more than four thousand preachers." When he 
 came to America, the Methodists numbered ten 
 preachers and six hundred members : when he 
 died, after forty-five years of work, they had six 
 hundred and ninety-five preachers and 214,235 
 members. What hath God wrought ! 
 
 Asbury remained single ; his zeal to do all he 
 could, rather than his views, preventing him from 
 matrimony. His salary was sixty-four dollars a 
 year. His genei-osity tempted him beyond his 
 means. Cf. Asbury : Journah, 3 vols., X. Y., 
 1852; Stp.icklaxd: Life of Asburi/, "S-Y., 1858; 
 Janes: Life of Anliwy/N.Y., 1872. For Wesley's 
 deprecation of Asbury's and Coke's assumption 
 of the title " bislio]i." see Uriin's Cliurchiimu's 
 Life of ]Veslei/, pp. I(j8-170. 
 
 ASCETICISM as a principle of conduct is not, 
 strictly speaking, of Christian origin. It was 
 found with the Essenes among the Jews, among 
 the Hindoos and Buddhists, with the Pythago- 
 reans and Stoics among the Greeks, and it was 
 introduced into Christianity through contact with 
 the Alexandrian school of philosophy. In the 
 two first centuries, when the Christian Church 
 still was, in the truest sense of the word, an 
 ecclesia mililatis, fighting by day and by night 
 for its very existence, Christianity itself was 
 a danger and a suffering, a continuous sacrifice 
 and self-denial, and is justly represented by 
 Clement of Alexandria as an limijaif (Slrom. IV. 
 22). But gradually, as Christianity spread among 
 the masses, it was compelled to amalgamate 
 with very various secular interests, and so as the 
 Christian Church became a settled institution, 
 with more or less of social security and political 
 guaranty, a distinction arose between that seri- 
 ousness which ought to characterize all Christian 
 life, aud a certain austerity which claimed to i-ep- 
 resent a higher stand-point. In the earliest 
 Christian sects this distinction is very apparent. 
 All the various foi-ms of Gnosticism adopted 
 ascetism'as the true principle of conduct, — the 
 disciples of Saturninus and Basilides, of Cerdo 
 and Mai'cion, etc. Matter was in itself some- 
 thing evil ; and to escape this contamin.ation, to 
 make one's self independent of nature, to shut 
 up every door through which the world enters 
 into converse with the human soul, was the great 
 problem of holiness. But Gnosticism was the 
 first sour and unripe fruit of the contact between 
 Christianity and the .\lcxandrian philosophy. 
 And again, when iu the third century, through 
 the exam[>le of Anthony, Paul, Amnion, and 
 others, asceticism was made the basis of a whole 
 new order of Christian life, it may have been the 
 Decian persecution which started the movement; 
 but it was the teaching of the Alexandrian school 
 which directed and organized it; and to that 
 source must be traced back the doctrine of a 
 double moral principle, one obligatory td all, — 
 that of controlling the passions; and one availa- 
 ble only for the select few, — that of extirpating 
 the passions, — a doctrine which received a strik- 
 ing development in the history of monasticism. 
 See ZiicKi.KU : Kritisrhc Gescliichle tier Aslcese, 
 Frankfort, 1863 ; and the articles on Monasti- 
 cif-ivi, and liTiius in this Dictionary. 
 
 ASH'DOD (slronf/lniiil, ca.slle), the Azotus of the 
 New Testament (.Vets viii. 40). The present
 
 ASHER. 
 
 155 
 
 ASS. 
 
 village of Estlud was one of the five chief cities 
 ■ of the Philistines (Josh. xiii. ;i ; 1 Sam. vi. 17), 
 situated midway between (iaza and Joppa. three 
 miles from the Mediterranean. It was allotted 
 to Judah (Jo.sh. xv. 46), and was taken by Uz- 
 ziah (2 C'hroii. xxvi. 6); but the Israelites never 
 came ilito permanent |)Ossession of it. It was a 
 great and sjilendid city, the chief seat of the 
 Dagon-worship; and its location on the road from 
 Egypt to Syria, and near the frontier of Juda?a, 
 made it a point of great strategical importance. 
 It was taken by Tartan, besieged for twenty- 
 nine years by Psammetichus, and destroyed by 
 the Maccabees. Philip preached there (Acts 
 viii. 40). 
 
 ASHER, Ben. See Aaron ben Asher. 
 
 ASH'ERAH. See Astarte. 
 
 ASH'IMA, one of the divinities worshipped by 
 the Haniathites, i.e., the inhabitants of the king- 
 dom of Ilamath, whose capital, originally called 
 Hamath, but later Epiphania, was on the Orontes, 
 north from Antilebanon. These people were 
 transported into Samaria by the As.syrians to 
 replete that depopulated district. The god has 
 not yet been identified. See Baudissin; Studten 
 zur sevtitiiichen Religionsgeichiclite I., 1876, pp. 27-5, 
 277. WOLF BAUDISSIN. 
 
 ASH'KELON (migration), one of the five prin- 
 cipal cities of the Philistines, was taken by Judah 
 (Judg. i. 18), but not permanently held. It was 
 afterwards conquered twice by Jonathan theMac- 
 cabee (1 Mace. x. 86, xi. 60). It had a Temple 
 of Derketo, a goddess with a fish-tail : the temple 
 stood in the centre of a large pond, and traces of 
 this pond are still visible. It was the birthplace 
 of Herod the Great, and afterwards the residence 
 of his sister Salome. During the crusades it was 
 captured and destroyed several times, and now it 
 is in ruins; but the ruins, ten miles north of Gaza, 
 still bear witness to its former greatness. 
 
 ASHTORETH. See Astarte. 
 
 ASH-WEDNESDAY (dies cineris et cilicii) is the 
 first day of Lent, the first of those forty days of 
 fast, which already in the ancient church were 
 kept before Easter in memory of Moses (Exod. 
 xxiv. 18) and Elijah (1 Kings xix. 8), and more 
 especially in memory of the forty days during 
 which our Lord fasted in the desert. The name 
 is not simply a general allusion to the penance 
 in sackcloth and ashes of which the prophets of 
 the Old Testament speak, but refers more directly 
 to a peculiar rite in the Roman Church. The 
 palm-branches consecrated in the church on 
 Palm-Sunday the year previously are burnt to 
 ashes, and the ashes gathered in a vessel, and 
 placed on the altar, before the beginning of the 
 mass. The priest, dressed in a violet pluviate, 
 the color of ecclesiastical mourning, prays that 
 God will send one of his angels to consecrate the 
 ashes, in order that they may become a remedium 
 salubre to all penitents. After sprinkling the 
 ashes thrice with holy water, and striking them 
 thrice with the perfumed clouds from the cen- 
 ser, the officiating priest kneels down, and strews 
 silently ashes on his liead. Finally the congre- 
 gation approach the altar, and kneel down, while 
 the priest strews ashes on their head with the 
 words : Memento homo, quia pulvis es et in pul- 
 verem revertaris ("remember man, that thou art 
 dust and unto dust thou shalt return "). Gener- 
 
 allv. however, the ashes are not actually strewn 
 on the heads, only the sign of the cross is made 
 on the forehead; in Paris by a fine brush. In 
 Protestant churches the Lent sermons generally 
 begin on Ash-Wednesday, but" a special ser- 
 vice is performed only in the Churcli of Eng- 
 land. 
 
 ASINARII, originally a nickname given to the 
 .Tews, because they were said to worship an ass, 
 but afterwards also applied to the Christians, of 
 wliom the same story w'as told. It is possible 
 that the Jews were the first to shift the reproach 
 from themselves on to the Christians. TertuUian 
 (Apolog. c. 16; Ad Nat. I. 14) tells of a man, a 
 former Jew, who was hostile to the Christians, 
 that he exhibited in Carthage a picture super- 
 scribed, Deus c/trisli<inormn dvoKoirirri( and repre- 
 senting this god with ass-ears, a hoof on the one 
 loot, a book in the hand, and dressed in a toga. 
 From about the same time is the mock-crucifix 
 discovered in 1858 in the ruins of the paadago- 
 gium for the imperial pages on the southern 
 declivity of the Palatine. It was scratched on 
 the wall with a stijlns, evidently by some page, in 
 derision of some Christian comrade, and repre- 
 sents a man with the head of an ass hanging on 
 a cross, and to the left another figure in an atti- 
 tude of worship, the whole explained by the 
 superscription : ' AXt^n/ievog aeiSere t)iov. The char- 
 acter of the letters shows that it dates from the 
 beginning of the third centurj'. 
 
 ASMODE'US (demon of desire), a demon who 
 is first mentioned in the Book of Tobit as being 
 led through his love for Sara, the daughter of 
 Raguel at Ecbatana, to murder her seven suc- 
 cessive husbands upon the wedding-night. But 
 Tobias, under the direction of Raphael, married 
 Sara, and drove away the demon by burning in 
 the bride-chamber the heart and liver of a fish 
 he caught in the Tigris. When Asmodeus 
 smelled the fumes, " he fied into the uttermost 
 parts of Egypt, and the angel (Raphael) bound 
 him" (Tolp. iii. 8, viii. 3). 
 
 This demon is Parsi in origin, and is to be 
 identified with ^"Eshma, of whicli the same things 
 ai-e told. In the Talmud, Asmodeus has insight 
 into secrets, vEshma is the source of all knowl- 
 edge; the latter is a head of the Dievas; Asmo- 
 deus is a king of the demons. A Talmudic tale 
 relates that Asmodeus once drove Solomon out 
 of his kingdom, but Solomon at length forced 
 him to work for him in building the temple. 
 
 Lit. — EiSENME.N'GER : Entdecktes Judenthum 
 (1711), I. 8, pp. 351-361, 823. Benfey and 
 Stekn : Monatsnamen (l^'iG), p. 201. Kohut : 
 Jild. Anijelo/ogie u. Ddnionologie in ihrer Abhangig- 
 l.-eit vom Parshmus (1866). WOLF BAUBISSIN. 
 
 ASMON/EANS. See Maccabees. 
 
 ASS. An animal indispensable in the East. 
 It is so frequently referred to in the Bible, that 
 the quotation of texts is superfluous ; but its 
 principal uses deserve mention. (1) For ruling, 
 the she-ass, which was also valued for its milk, 
 was particularly liked ; and of colors the white was 
 preferred. No saddle was used, but a mere cloth 
 or mantle ; and the driver went alongside or 
 behind the beast. (2) For carrying burdens of 
 every kind. (3) For ploughing. (4) For grind- 
 ing. Asses do not appear to have been used by 
 the Hebrews, after Solomon's day, for warlike
 
 ASS. 
 
 156 
 
 ASSEMANI. 
 
 purposes : consequently the Messiah, as the Prince 
 of peace, is represented as riding upon an ass. 
 
 The ass was an unclean animal : therefore its 
 first-born was not to be oftered to the holy God, 
 but redeemed with a lamb, or else its neck broken 
 (Exod. xiii. 13, xxxiv. 20). The Egyptians dedi- 
 cated the ass to Seth-Typhon, the god of war 
 and of strangers, and probably in this way the 
 stupid charge which Josephus is at such pains to 
 refute (c. A/iioii. 11. 7), that the Jews worshipped 
 an ass's head, may have arisen. RtJETSCHI. . 
 
 ASS, The Feast of the, like the Feast of Fools, 
 the performance of mysteries, and many minor 
 points in the Roman-Catholic ritual and liturgy, 
 originated in perfect good faith, and was em- 
 ployed by the priests as means by which to 
 explain the contents of sacred history, and im- 
 press its events upon the sloven imagination of 
 people who received no religious instruction, 
 either at home or in any school, and who could 
 not read. The feslum asiiwrum was in great favor 
 in Xortheru France, and celebrated in various 
 manners in the various cities. In Rouen the 
 celebration took place shortly before Christmas, 
 and consisted in the representation of a little 
 drama, in whose principal scene Balaam's ass (a 
 priest concealed between the legs of an ass) ap- 
 peared before the altar of the cathedral, and pre- 
 dicted the early coming of Christ. In Beauvais 
 the celebration took place on Jan. 14, and con- 
 sisted in a j>rocessiou, which had reference to 
 the flight of Joseph and Mary to Egypt. In the 
 fifteenth century these feasts were forbidden, be- 
 cause they had become a scandal. When the 
 mass was said, the priest brayed thrice, like an 
 ass, instead of saying, " Ite, missa est; " and the 
 whole congregation answered with •'Ilin-han," 
 instead of Deo yralias. Such scurrilities could, 
 of course, not be tolerated from the moment they 
 ceased to be necessary. 
 
 ASSEBURC, Rosamunde Jullane von, b. in 
 November, ltl72, at Eigenstedt, near IMagdeburg ; 
 received, according to her own statement, divine 
 revelations and glorious visions while only seven 
 years old. She saw thi; Saviour himself in 
 various apparitions, and heard him speak of his 
 sufferings and of the future of his kingdom, etc. 
 In Magdeburg and neighborhood she produce<l a 
 deep impression ; and the sensation soon spread 
 wlien she became acquainted with Petersen, the 
 chiliast, at that time superintendent at Liine- 
 burg. lie invited her to his house, and in a 
 jjaraphlet — Die Species facti von deiii wJetir/en 
 Friiuleui Uosamunda Juliana von tier Asscbuiy ; 
 also containing an essay : Ob Gott nach der Auf- 
 fahrt Ckristi nicht mehr heulii/es Tages durch 
 yOlltiche Krscheinung den Menschenkindeni sich 
 offenharen irollle und sich dessen ijanz beyelien liabe? 
 — he addressed in 1(J91 all the foremost theolo- 
 gians of Germany, asking them whether they 
 accepted tlie revelations of Miss Asseburg as 
 divine inspirations or not. Some answered in 
 favor, others were violently opposed. Spener w;i.s 
 too cautious to express any opinion. Meanwhile 
 her name became known in France, England, 
 and Denmark ; and the court of Hanover seemed 
 to regard lier witli favor. Tlie magistrates, how- 
 ever, and tlie preacliers of Luneburg, took anotlier 
 view of the case ; and, in accordance with a ver- 
 dict of the theological faculty at Ilelmstiidt, 
 
 Petersen was deposed in 1692, and banished from 
 the country. Miss Asseburg accompanied him, 
 and lived afterwards in the house of a pious old 
 countess ; but she rapidly lost her prestige, and 
 sank into oblivion. The date of her death is 
 unknown. Leibnitz defended her moral and re- 
 ligious character; and, with respect to her visions, 
 he compared her to Brigitta, Hildegard, Mech- 
 tildis. and other virgins among the saints of the 
 middle ages. See Petersen's Autobiography, 2d 
 edition, 1719. 
 
 ASSEMANI is the name of a Maronite family 
 of which three members became celebrated in the 
 eighteenth century by opening np to European 
 students the Oriental literatures, especially that 
 of Syria. — I. Joseph Simon Assemani, b. on 
 Mount Lebanon in 1GS7; d. in Rome, Jan. 31, 
 1768; was educated in the Maronite college of 
 Rome ; received while yet a very young man a 
 position in the library of the Vatican ; was sent 
 by Clement XI. to the East (1715-17) to collect 
 manuscripts ; visited Cairo, the monasteries of 
 the Nitrian Desei-t, Damascus, Aleppo, etc., and 
 brought great literary treasures back to Rome ; 
 made a second journey to the East (1735-38), 
 and was made custodian of the library. When 
 he died he left a great number of works in man- 
 uscript (more than one hundred volumes), partly 
 continuations of earlier publications, partly new 
 literary enterprises ; but a large part of his work 
 was destroyed by a fire which broke out in the 
 apartments adjacent to the library, Aug. 30, 1768. 
 Ills principal works are: 1. Biblinlheca orienlalis 
 Clemenlino-Vaticana, 3 vols, fob, Rome, 1719-28, 
 forming the first part only of a larger work des- 
 tined to comprise four parts. Considerable prepa- 
 rations, however, w'ere m.ade for the seven vol- 
 umes forming the second part, and treating of the 
 Syrian and Arabian translations of the Bible, the 
 religious books of the Syrians, the Syian and 
 Arabian councils, etc. 2. Ephr. Sijri Opera, 
 Greece, Syriace, Laline in VI. tomes (Rom., 
 1732-46). (Only the first three tomes.) 3. 
 liudiinenla liitgucc Arabica:, Rome, 1732. 4. Ab- 
 rah. Ecclielleiisis: Clironicon urientalc, printed in 
 Scriplares Ilislorice Byzaiitina'T. XVII. 5. Cliron- 
 icon Siculum (827-963), after an Arabian manu- 
 script, printed in Carusii Bibliollicca Ilislorica 
 Itegni SiciliiE, T. I. 6. Kulendaria ccclesiiv. univer- 
 ses, of which only the first six volumes appeared 
 (Rome, 1755), treating of the Slavica Kcclesia sice 
 Grmcu-Mosclia. The six following volumes, treat- 
 ing the .Syrian, Armenian, Egyptian, .Ethiopian, 
 Greek, and Roman saints, were partly prepared, 
 but were burnt. 7. De sacris iniayinibus et reli 
 ijuiis, destined to comprise five volumes. Part;" 
 of the manuscript were saved ; and extracts frora. 
 it were given by .lo. Bottarius, Home, 1776, 
 For a complete list of his works, published or ii 
 manuscript, see Anckl. M.vi ; Scriptorum Vcle- 
 rutn jVo«i CoUcctioe Vaticanis Cmld. ICililn, T. III., 
 P. II., p. 106. — Joseph Aloysius Assemani, 
 brother of the preceding, was profe.s.sor of Ori- 
 ental languages in Home, and died there Feb. 9, 
 1782. Ills two principal works are: 1. Codex 
 lilurgicns Ecclesice universce, 13 vols., Rome, 1749- 
 66, unfinished. 2. Comment, de Cat/iolicis s. Pa- 
 triiirr/iis Clialdiiuniin it .Vestoriaiiorum, 1775. — 
 Stephan Evodius Assemani, a cousin of the two 
 preceding, held rich benefices in Italy, was titu-
 
 ASSEMBLY. 
 
 157 
 
 ASSYRIA. 
 
 I 
 
 lary archbisliop of Apam.Ta in S3'ria, member of 
 the Royal Society of London, etc. He worked. 
 together with .Joseph Simon, on the edition of 
 Ephraem Syrus, and on a catalogue of all the 
 manuscripts of the Vatican library. Of the 
 latter work three volumes were printed, and 
 eighty pages of the fourth; but they were all 
 burnt in 17(i8. lie al.so gave a catalogue of all 
 the Oriental nianuscrijits in the Medica;an, Lau- 
 rentian, and Palatine libraries, Florence, 1742; 
 and edited Ada SS. Marh/rmn orientalittm, qui 
 in Perside passi sunt, etc., Florence, 1748, 2 vols., 
 Syriac, with Latin translation. The first pai-t 
 gives the history of all the martyrs who suffered 
 during the reign of Sapor, Varanes, etc. 
 
 ASSEMBLY, General (the name comes from 
 Heb. xii. 2^3), the highest court of the Presbyte- 
 rian church. See Pkesbyterian Church. 
 
 ASSYRIA first designated the land and king- 
 dom, whose capital, Asshur — thus called from 
 the principal god there woi'shipped, Axiihur, "the 
 good god " — stood on the western bank of the 
 Tigris, a few miles south of Mosul, at the present 
 Kaleh Sherghat. The name was retained when, 
 later on, the kingdom expanded north to Arme- 
 nia, east to ]\Iedia, south to the Little Zab, west 
 towards the Euphrates, comprising an area cor- 
 responding to the classical Aturia or Adiabene, 
 though the royal residence was now moved far- 
 ther to the north, and a new capital, Nineveh, 
 was built on the eastern bank of the Tigris, oppo- 
 site Mosul, in the angle formed by the Tigris 
 and the Great Zab. Still later on, when this 
 kingdom grew into one of the greatest empires 
 which antiquity ever saw, comprising the whole 
 region between the Tigris and the IMediterranean, 
 the Armenian Mountains, and the Persian Gulf, 
 the name was retained, only abridged into 
 " Syria" by the classical writers. This vague- 
 ness in the application of the name is still fur- 
 ther increased by the peculiar relations which 
 existed between Assyria and Babylonia. Nei- 
 ther geographically nor historically can the two 
 countries be wholly distinguished from each 
 other. They were inhabited by the same people, 
 a branch of the Shemitic race (Gen. x. 22) ; and 
 in botli countries this people spoke the same lan- 
 guage, held the same religion, developed the 
 same science and art, etc., only with the differ- 
 ence, that, in all these respects, Babylonia ap- 
 pears to be the mother-country. Politically they 
 also generally belonged together, Assyria being 
 a Babylonian province at one time, and Baby- 
 lonia an Assyrian province at another. But this 
 latter difference was often overlooked, as, for in- 
 stance, when Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon, 
 is called King of As.syria (2 Kings xxiii. 29). 
 
 The Bible and the classical historiographers, 
 Herodotus, Diodorus, Dio Cassius, and Ammi- 
 anus Marcellinus, who, partially at least, based 
 their reports on older writers, — the Greek Ctesias 
 and the native Berosus, — were for a long time 
 the only sources from which any knowledge could 
 be drawn concerning the history of this country 
 and the civilization of this people. But the 
 knowledge thus derived was scanty, and full of 
 irreconcil.able contradictions. But in 1843 Botta 
 and Layard succeeded in uncovering a series of 
 Assyrian palaces at Kouyunjik and Khorsabad; 
 and here, scattered among the ruins, was found a 
 
 multitude of tablets of a greenish gypsum, cov- 
 ered all over with cuneiform inscriptions. By 
 means of these inscriptions it became possible, 
 not only to prove the general correctness of the 
 notices which the Bible contains, and the utter 
 nntrustworthiness of the .stories which many of 
 the classical historiographers give, but also to 
 form a tolerably full outline of this interesting 
 chapter in the history of mankind. What Ctesias 
 tells about the founding of Nineveh by Ninus 
 and Semiramis, etc., is mere fable, and so is his 
 story about a first destruction of Nineveh (about 
 800 B.C.), when Sardanapalus burnt up himself, 
 liis harem, his treasures, and his palace in one 
 huge jiile. Ninus and Semiramis are charac- 
 ters in the great mythical epic of As.syria, and 
 have no more reality than Apollo and Diana. 
 What the Bible tells (Gen. x. 11) about the 
 colonization of Assyria by emigrants from Baby- 
 lonia is true, and the date of this emigration can 
 be approximately fixed. As the succession of 
 Assyrian kings is given in the inscriptions up 
 to the year of 1450 B.C., and As.syrian kings are 
 spoken of before that time, it seems warrantable 
 to place the date of the founding of Asshur in 
 the twentieth century B.C. From the ninth cen- 
 tury B.C. to the destruction of Nineveh and the 
 downfall of the Assyrian Empire, the succession 
 is complete in all its details; and the connection 
 between this succession of kings and the abso- 
 lute chronology is made ■with certainty by means 
 of the eclipse of June 1.5, 763 B.C. The names 
 of this succession are, Tiglath-Adar IT., 889- 
 884 ; Assur-natsir-pal, 883-859 ; Shalmaneser II., 
 858-824; Samas-Rimmon, 823-811; Rimmon- 
 nirari, 810-782; Shalmaneser III., 781-772; 
 Assur-dan-il, 771-754; Assur-nirari, 753-746; 
 Tiglath-Pileser (probably Pul) 11., 745-728; Shal- 
 maneser IV., 727-723; Sargon, 722-706; Sen- 
 nacherib, 705-682; Esarhaddon, 6S1-0G9; Assur- 
 bani-pal (Sardanapalus), 608-626; Assur-ebil-ili, 
 625. . . . 
 
 This period of Assyrian history, from 900 to 
 6.50 B.C., is not only the best known, but also the 
 culminating point of jiower and success. Assur- 
 natsir-pal, the builder of the magnificent North- 
 west Palace at Calah, made Tyre, Sidon, Byblus, 
 and Aradus tributary. Rimmon-nirari subdued 
 the whole " west land," including Phoenicia, 
 Philistasa, Edom, and the land of the house of 
 Omri ; that is, Northern Israel. Tiglath-Pileser 
 II. pushed forward to Gaza on the Egyptian 
 frontier. Sargon defeated the Egyptians in the 
 great battle of Raphia. Sennacherib's campaign 
 failed; but Esarhaddon conquered all Egypt, 
 penetrated into Nubia, and styled himself, "King 
 of the Kings of Egypt and Cush." Under 
 Assur-bani-pal, an Oriental despot in the true 
 sense of the word, magnificent, sensual, and cruel, 
 the empire extended from Media and Persia to 
 the Mediterranean, and from Armenia to the 
 Arabian Desert; but signs of decay ah-eady be- 
 gan to show, or rather signs of the impossibility 
 of keeping together so vast a complex of lands 
 by devices of government so imperfect as those 
 as yet invented. A general rising took pilace. 
 Sammughes, the brother of Assur-bani-pal, and 
 viceroy in Babylonia, who headed the revolt in 
 this )iart of the realm, was captured and burnt. 
 The tril)es of Northern Arabia ^ Kedar, Zobah,
 
 ASSYRIA. 
 
 158 
 
 ASSYRIA. 
 
 Nabathaea. etc. — were again subdued. But 
 Egypt, under the guidance of Psammetichus, re- 
 covered its independence. Under Assur-ebilili the 
 revolt was repeated ; Nineveh was taken by Cj'axa- 
 res of Media and Nabopolassar of Babylonia, and 
 the Assyrian Empire came to an end, 625 B.C. 
 
 The Assyrian Government was, like that of the 
 other great Oriental monarchies, an absolute and 
 untempered despotism, organized on a crude 
 military plan, and centring in the harem. One 
 of the "principal officers of the realm was the 
 Rahsarh. the commander of the eunuchs (2 Kings 
 xviii. 17) ; and the eunuchs themselves, this 
 institution so characteristic for an Oriental court, 
 were at once the government, the science, and the 
 art of the people. Foreign countries, when con- 
 quered, were generally left in the state in which 
 they were found. The king became a vassal, and 
 paid tribute; but no closer relation sprang up 
 between the two peoples. If the king revolted, 
 and was defeated, he was burnt, and his soldiers 
 were massacred. If the whole people partook in 
 the revolt, they were transferred in a body from 
 their native soil, and settled in some distant re- 
 gion. If the revolt succeeded, the victor became 
 at once the ruler of the whole realm, the "great 
 king." In the relation between Assyria and Is- 
 rael we find many of these features of crude and 
 awkward political art strikingly manifested. 
 
 In his western campaigns Assur-natsir-pal over- 
 ran Palestine; and Shalmaneser II. compelled 
 Jehu, thatenth king of Israel, to pay tribute, and 
 recognize the supremacy of Assyria. Rimmon- 
 nirari again exacted tribute from the "land of 
 Omri ; " and Tiglath-Pileser II. found opportunity 
 to interfere still more effectively in its affairs. 
 lie received tribute from Menahera, King of 
 Israel (2 Kings xv. 19), and afterwards also 
 from Aliaz, King of Judah (2 Kings xvi. 7), 
 whom he supported against Pekah. the son of 
 Alenahem, and King of Israel, and Rezin, Kingof 
 Damascus. The kingdom of Damascus was de- 
 stroyed ; and, after the death of Pekah, Tiglath- 
 Pileser II. placed Iloshea as his vassal on the 
 throne of Israel. So heavily, however, pressed 
 the Assyrian tribute on Israel, that Hoshea made 
 an alliance with the Egyptian king, So (2 Kings 
 xvii. 4), to throw off the As.syrian yoke. Shal- 
 maneser IV. then invaded Israel, and besieged 
 the capital, Samaria, which w;is taken by his suc- 
 cessor, Sargon, who carried away Iloshea and agreat 
 number of his subjects into captivity ; while for- 
 eign settlers from the East came, and took posses- 
 sion of the land of Israel. Also the kingdom of 
 Judah paid tribute to Sargon ; and, in spite of Sen- 
 ii.'icherib's unfortunate campaign against .ludah 
 and Egypt, Judah remained tributary to Assyria 
 till the latter part of the reign of Assur-bani-pal. 
 
 In science and art the Assyrians were, as above 
 mentioned, merely the pupils and imitators of 
 the Babylonians. Their office was to spread 
 rather than to produce; and it is their great 
 merit to have brought the results of Babylonian 
 science — as, for instance, the sexigesimal division 
 of time — into common use in Western .Vsia, 
 whence it reached Europe. They were, however, 
 not altogether without originality. 'I'he circum- 
 stance that they hail stone, plenty and of good 
 quality, while tiie Babylonians were absolutely 
 confined to the use of brick, gave their architec- 
 
 ture and sculpture a strong impulse : and there 
 was something in their national character which 
 contributed still more to give their architecture a 
 peculiar development. The Babylonians were 
 priests, and built temples : the Assyrians were 
 soldiers, and built palaces. It is now also gen- 
 erally acknowledged that the Assyrians, and not 
 the Egyptians, were tlie first teachers of the 
 Greeks, both in architecture and sculpture. Less 
 originality can be ascribed to the Assyrian litera- 
 ture. The great institutions for learning and 
 education existed in Babylonia, at Erech and 
 Borsippa ; and for many centuries all literary 
 activitj' in Assyria seems to have consisted in 
 copying and re-editing Babylonian works. There 
 were, nevertheless, royal libraries in all the great 
 cities, — Assur, Calah, Nineveh, etc., — in which 
 the books, clay-tablets with cuneiform inscrip- 
 tions, were kept in perfect order, and stood at 
 the disposal of the students ; and the literary 
 remains from the reign of Assur-bani-pal are of 
 the highest interest, consisting of grammars, dic- 
 tionaries, primers of all kinds, historical records, 
 and state papers. Of poetry some hymns have 
 been discovered strongly resembling the Psalms, 
 not only in form, but also in tone ; and two epic 
 poems, — the Deluge, and the Descent of Istar 
 iuto Hades, — which seem to have formed parts 
 of a greater epic poem. But these have evident- 
 ly been merely copied from Babylonian sources. 
 
 Also with respect to religion, some individual 
 traits developed in Assyria. The Assyro-Baby- 
 lonian religion was a star-worship of nou-Shemitie 
 origin, iuto which a genuinely Shemitic element 
 was introduced, — a principle of dualism based on 
 the natural difference of sex. Thus, beside the god 
 Anu stands the goddess Anab; beside Bel, Bilit, 
 etc. But while in Babylonia, El, ''god" (whence 
 Babel or Bab-ilu, the " gate of god "), stands at 
 the head of the whole mythological system, this 
 position is in Assyria occupied by Assur, or Asshur, 
 the "good god ; " and while, among the other gods, 
 Sin, the moon-god, Merodach, Nebo, and Bel, 
 are most zealously worshipped in Babylonia, the 
 Assyrians show a preference for Adar, the god 
 of fii-e and war, and Istar, Astarte, the goddess 
 of hunting and battle. Similar differences ex- 
 isted probably also with respect to the lowest 
 sphere of the religious system, — the field of 
 spirits; but they have not yet been recognized. 
 See, for further information, the articles on 
 
 B.\l!YLO.NIA, ClI.\I,I>,t;.^, Cu.NElFOUM I.XSCUIP- 
 
 TioN.s, Dici.ijGi;, NiNKVEH, SiiicMiTic Kack, etc. 
 Lrr. — Opi'EKr: Jlisloire (Its Junpiri.i ile Chahle'e 
 et tl'Asxi/rie, Paris, 1865; Lenoumant . jI/ohuW 
 d'/lisloire ancienne de V Orient, Paris, 1869, and 
 Les ])remih-es Civilisations, Paris, 1871; Sciihadek: 
 KeilinscliriJ'tcn u. dus a. Testament, Giessen, 1872 ; 
 the same: Die Hollenfahrt der Jstar, Giessen, 1874; 
 and, Keilinschriflen u, Gescliiclttsforschxnuj, Giessen, 
 1878; Geougk Rawlinson: The Fice Great Monar- 
 chies of the Ancient Eastern World, 2d ed., London, 
 187:i, Ji vols., reprint, N.y., 1881,3 vols.; Geohgb 
 SMrni: The Assyrian Eponijm CoiioH,n.d.(1875'i')', 
 the same: Assyrian Discorerics (XSiy^, Chaldean Ac- 
 count of Genesis (1876, revis. ed. 1881), London, G. 
 iJE Duiioit: Assi/rie et Chaldce, 1879; Funz Hum- 
 mel : Aliriss der bahtjlonisch-assyrisrhen u. isrneliti- 
 schen Geschichle von den dltesten Zeiten bis zur 
 ZerstOrung Babel's, in Tabellen/orm, Leipzig, 1880.
 
 ASTARTB. 
 
 159 
 
 ASTERIUS. 
 
 ASTARTE and ASH'ERAH. 1. Astarte. The 
 
 Greek and Latin name for tin; i>riMcii>al Plueni- 
 ciau female divinity (called in Hebrew Ashtoreth, 
 and very frequently in plural form Ashtarotli), 
 the correlative of Baal, the iirincipal male divin- 
 ity. She is called the goddess of the Sidonians 
 (i Kings xi. 5), but was worsiiipped also by the 
 Philistines, even in the time of Abraliam, as is 
 shown by the name of the city Ash'teroth-Kar- 
 na'im. Afterward, in the days of Saul, we read 
 of a Philistine temple in her honor (1 Sam. 
 xxxi. 10). Solomon introduced her worship into 
 Jerusalem (1 Kings xi. 5) ; and the bamoth, or 
 artificial mounds surmounted by altars (-'high 
 places"), he had built, were not destroyed until 
 Josiah's day (2 Kings xxiii. 13). When the 
 plural form Axltlaroth, cf. Baalim, is employed, it 
 indicates, as Geseuius holds, the statues of Ash- 
 toreth and Baal. In the Phoenician inscriptions 
 the goddess is called Ashlarl : hence the Greek 
 Astarte. The name entered into the composition 
 of proper names. The Island of Tj're was sa- 
 cred to her. Her worship spread throvigh all the 
 Phoenician colonies. Ilii-am, the contemporary 
 of Solomon, built sanctuaries to her and Baal- 
 Melkart. The Phosnicians regarded her as the 
 revealer of Baal. The Philistines appai'ently 
 regarded her as the goddess of war, for they put 
 the arms of the fallen Saul in her temple. 
 
 Astarte was not originally a Phoenician, but an 
 old Babylonian goddess, where she was called, 
 according to the cuneiform inscriptions, Istar. It 
 is a mooted point whether she was not derived 
 from an older Turanian people. Istar (plural 
 Istarat), as a Babylonian goddess, is sometimes 
 the general name for female divinities, some- 
 times the name of a particular goddess. In the 
 library of King Assur-bani-pal (seventh century 
 B.C.) are mythological tales about Istar, both as 
 the dispenser of life and fruitfulness, — so that 
 on one occasion, when she went into the under- 
 world, procreation and birth ceased upon the 
 earth, — and as a war-goddess, carrying quiver 
 and bow. See Smith's Chaldean Account of Gene- 
 sis (revis. ed., N.Y., 1881), p. 243. 
 
 According to the astrological inscriptions, Istar 
 was Venus ; but such identification was of com- 
 paratively recent date. By far the older is that 
 which puts Istar side by side with Ilu, and re- 
 gards them as moon and sun respectively : these 
 two were the chief divinities of Ancient Arabia. 
 Istar appears in connection with Thammuz and 
 with the Grnaco-Phoenician Adonis. It is indeed 
 true that Sin is called the moon-c/o*/ upon the 
 Assyrian inscriptions; but he was either a local 
 god originally, or else, when men recognized the 
 importance of the moon as a divider of time and 
 as a cause of certain events, they represented it 
 by a male divinity, rather than by a female. Sin 
 was the father of Istar; and so Istar, instead of 
 being paired with the sun-god, was later on rep- 
 resented as the Venus-star, guiding the sun. 
 
 Astarte was the ovfiaviii 'AippodiTii of Ascalon, and 
 the " Cslestis " of Carthage, identified with Juno 
 by the Latins. She was also the " Queen of 
 Heaven," to whom the women made moon-shaped 
 cakes, and poured libations (Jer. vii. 18, xliv. 
 17). The rites of Aphrodite came to the Greeks 
 from the Phoenicians. 
 
 The prototype of the deus Venus, the bearded 
 
 A]ihroditeof Cyprus, is found in an androgynous 
 Istar. The prohibition (Ueut. xxii. .0) against 
 tlie sexes wearing each other's clothes, probably 
 originated in the prescribed excliange in the wor- 
 ship of this Venus. 
 
 2. Asherah. There was a goddess of this 
 name, because we read of images or itlols of 
 Asherah (1 Kings xv. 13; 2 Kings xxi. 7; 2 
 Chron. XV. IG), vessels and tents for Asherah 
 (2 Kings xxiii. 4, 7), and prophets of Asherah 
 (1 Kings xviii. 19). On the other hand, it is 
 true that many passages require the rendering 
 "statue" or "sanctuary," e.g. Exod. xxxiv. 13; 
 Judg. vi. 2.5; Isa. xvii. 8. [The authorized ver- 
 sion uniformly translates Asherah by "grove."] 
 The Asherah was evidently made of wood. 
 
 The service of Asherah was early introduced 
 into Israel (cf. Judg. iii. 7), and maintained 
 itself throughout their history in both the North- 
 ern and Southern kingdoms (1 Kings xiv. 15 ; 2 
 Kings xxi. 3, 7). It was by preference carried 
 on under green trees upon high hills (2 Kings 
 xvii. 10; Jer. xvii. 2). Asherah was worshipped 
 at one altar with Baal, since the two are named 
 together (see texts quoted). The image of Ash- 
 erah was by the side of the altar of Baal (Judg. 
 vi. 2.5). In her service were sodomites and devotee 
 i:>rostitutes (Gen. xxxviii. 21 ; Deut. xxiii. 18 
 1 Kings xiv. 24; Job xxxvi. 14; Hos. iv. 14) 
 but we know no particulars of her sensual rites 
 for the word " honor " used to describe her idol 
 (1 Kings XV. 13; 2 Chron. xv. 16, see marg.), 
 does not necessarily mean phallus ; but in gen- 
 eral we know that the Phoenician and Syrian 
 female divinities were worshipped licentiously. 
 
 It is not as yet determined whether Asherah 
 was only another name for Astarte. But the 
 idea so generally adopted since Movers, that 
 Astarte vv-as the virgin and destruction-bringing 
 goddess of war, while Asherah was the sensual 
 and procreative goddess of love, is scarcely well 
 founded ; since, as shown above, Astarte herself 
 has these two qualities. But it is not at present 
 possible satisfactorily to distinguish between the 
 gods and goddesses. 
 
 Lit. — -Selden: de Diis Syris, London, 1617; 
 MuNTEU: lieliy. der Karlkayer, 2d ed., 1821; 
 MovEiis : Die Phoniziei; vol. 1, Berlin, 1841; De 
 VoolJE: Melanges d'archeotoyie orientale, Paris, 
 1808. — Upon the Assyrian Istar: FiNZi: Ricerche 
 per 1(1 studio dell antichila Assira, 1872 ; Schra- 
 dek; Holleiifahrt der Istar,G'iessen,lS7-i:; Geouge 
 S.MiTii : Assi/rian Discooeries, London and N.Y., 
 1875 ; the same : Tlie Chaldean Account of Genesis, 
 Lontlon andN.Y., 1876, revis. ed., 1881 ; P. Ber- 
 GEU : L'anr/e d' Astarte, Paris, 1879. — Upon the 
 connection between Aphrodite and Astarte : La- 
 .iaud: Recherches sur le culte de Venus, Paris, 
 1837 ; M.\URY : Histuire des religions de la Grece 
 anti(jue, Paris, 1859, vol. HI., pp. 191-259. — See 
 also in general, Baudissin : Jahre el Moloch, 
 Leipzig, 1871; [Scholz : Gbtzendienst und Zauher- 
 icesen, Regensburg, 1877J. WOLF BAUDISSIN. 
 
 ASTERIUS. In the ancient Greek Church, 
 there were two men of this name. 1. The one, an 
 Arian, was the pupil of that Lucianus, jiresbyter 
 of Antiochia, who, together with Dorotheus, is 
 generally mentioned as the founder of the school 
 of Antiochia. During tlie lifetime of Arius he 
 was one of the most important authors writing
 
 ASTROLOGY. 
 
 IGO 
 
 ASYLUM. 
 
 in defence of Arianism. He died about 330. 
 2. Different from him is Asterius, Bishop of 
 Amasea in Pontus, d. about 410. His sermons 
 were spoken of with praise at the second synod 
 of NicKa. Several ascribed to him are still ex- 
 tant. CoMBEFis gives eleven in the first tome 
 of his Ai(cliiariiiin Novum, besides extracts from 
 ten others, made by Photius, and an eulogy of 
 Stephanus, the first martyr, which up to that 
 time had been generally ascribed to Proclus, 
 patriarch of Constantinople. Kight homilies, 
 given by Cotelier in his Monumenta Eccl. Gi:, 
 are by him ascribed to Asterius of Amasea, but 
 by AuDix and Dupix to Asterius the Arian. 
 
 "astrology (the acience of the stars) con- 
 sisted of two departments, natural and judicial 
 astrology: the former referred only to the natural 
 sphere of phenomena, the latter, only to the moral. 
 The former was a science, or developed into the 
 science of astronomy. The latter was an illu- 
 sion, but retained its hold on men's minds up to 
 the dawn of modern science. Astrology, in the 
 latter sense of the word, ascribed to the stars a 
 subtle and mysterious influence on the human 
 will, consequently on the destiny of man, and 
 pretended to be able to trace out this influence, 
 and predict its result, by inferences drawn from 
 the relative j^ositions of the stars in a given 
 moment. It was much cultivated by the Chal- 
 dees, and from them it spread into the Greek 
 and Roman world. At the time of the first 
 emperors, the Chaldsean astrologers belonged 
 to the most feared and most flattered persons 
 in Roman society. The Barbarians, so called, 
 who overran the Roman Empire, took a great 
 fancy to this occult science; and during the dark 
 ages the sounder and stronger minds among the 
 Christian clergy found it very hard to oppose 
 this kind of sorcery and magic. Thesiiperstition 
 was not completely destroyed until the elabora- 
 tion of the Copernican system, when it gradually 
 receded into the nurseries. 
 
 ASTRONOMY never developed among the 
 ancient Israelites into a real science. They 
 never attained to a distinction between comets, 
 planets, and fixed stars. Their studies were con- 
 fined to such observations as the sheplierd would 
 make while leading his flock. Nevertheless, the 
 distinction between the sun and the moon and 
 the other stars was very old, and so was the 
 division of time after tlie course of the moon. 
 Tlie arrival of the new moon was saluliui by 
 sound of trumpets, and celebrated with sacri- 
 ficial feasts (Num. x. 10, xxviii. 11-1.'), xxix. 1; 
 Ezek. xlvi. 6; 1 Chron. xxiii. 31; 2 Chron. 
 ii. 4, viii. 13). The whole complex of stars was 
 called the "host of heaven" (Isa. xl. 20; Jer. 
 xxxiii. 22) ; but (juite a number of single stars 
 were distinguished; sucli as "the morning star;" 
 the planet Venus (Isa. xiv. 12; Rev. ii. 28); 
 "the seven stars," the Pleiades (Job ix. !), 
 xxxviii. 31; Amos v. 8); "Orion," poetically 
 represented as a giant bound by chains to the 
 firmament of heaven (Job ix. 0, xxxviii. 31) ; 
 " Arcturus," the Great Bear (Job ix. 0); "the 
 Crooked Serpent; "the Dragon (Job xxvi. 13); 
 and " Castor and Pollux," the Twins (Acts xxviii. 
 11). 
 
 ASTRUC, Jean, b. at Sauvc in Languedoc, 
 March 19, 1681; d. in Paris, May 5, 17G0; stud- 
 
 ied medicine at Montpellier, and was professor of 
 anatomy, first in Toulouse, then in Montpellier, and 
 finally in Paris. In 1753, in his .seventieth year, 
 he published anonymously his Conjectures sur les 
 vh'moires oriijinuux dont il parait que Moise s'est servi 
 pour composer le Here tie la Genise, Brussels and 
 Paris, in which, on the ba.sis of the use of the two 
 divine names, Elohim and Jehovah, in different 
 parts of the book, the theory was advanced that 
 Moses formed Genesis by combining a number of 
 older documents. This theory was epoch-making 
 in the critical study of the Pentateuch (see art.). 
 Two years later on he published Sur I'lmmortalite, 
 rjmmate'rialiti', et la Liberie tie I'Ame, Paris. 
 
 ASYLUM (um'Aov, i.e., inciolahle) means, in 
 Greek antiquities, a place in which not only 
 force becomes powerless, but even the law grows 
 silent, a refuge, an escape. Among all people 
 the awe of the holy made it an offence, or even 
 a crime, to use force in a place consecrated to the 
 Divinity and divine worship; and far back into 
 antiquity the beneficial influence may be seen 
 of the protection which such consecrated places 
 offered against the prevailing arbitrariness and 
 violence. The Mosaic law jirovides "cities of 
 refuge" (Exod. xxi. 13; Deut. xix. 7-10, see 
 title), and with both the Greeks and the Ro- 
 mans, their temples and altars formed inviolable 
 asylums, not only to the persecuted, but even to 
 the criminal. 
 
 In the Christian world the right of asylum was 
 extended from the altar and the temple to all 
 ecclesiastical buildings. Various imperial con- 
 stitutions regulated the details of this privilege 
 {Cod. Theodof. Lib. IX., Tit. XLV. ; Cod. Jus- 
 tinian, Lib. I., Tit. XII.). In 431 Theodosius II. 
 ordered that not only the altar and the nave of 
 the church .should be considered sacred, but also 
 the alriuin, the garden, the b.aths, and the cells; 
 and when, in 466, Leo I. confirmed these consti- 
 tutions, he added that the steward and the advo- 
 cate of the church (see title) should subject every 
 person who demanded protection to a close exam- 
 ination, and act upon the evidence thus obtained. 
 The privilege, however, gave rise to many mis- 
 uses. -Vlready in 392 Theodosius the Great ex- 
 cluded (lel)tors to the state from the privilege ; 
 and Justinian added (Xorclla, XVII., c. 7) mur- 
 derers, adulterers, and people who had com- 
 mitted rape. 
 
 The church has always considered it a special 
 duty to protect any one who asked for its aid. 
 The Council of Sardica (347) established this 
 maxim; and in 441 the synod of Orange or- 
 dered tluit fugitives should not be surrendered. 
 Tlie .synod of Orleans (511) conferred the privi- 
 lege to the bi.shop's residence, and extended the 
 a.sylum lor thirty paces from the building, the 
 .so-called trii/inia iccUsiastiri jiassus. 
 
 In Knglan<l tlic riglit of asylum was recog- 
 nized by thir laws of .Ufred; and no considerable 
 cliange took ]ilace in tlie matter until 1487, when 
 a bull of hinoccMit VIll. declared that thieves, 
 robbers, and murderers who tried to continue 
 their criminal life under the shelter of the asy- 
 Inin, should immediately be given up to the 
 king'.s officers. In 1534 an act of Parliament ex- 
 cluded people accused of treason from the benefit 
 of the privilege, and, whi^n the Reformation was 
 established under Elizabeth, the jirivilege itself
 
 ATARGATIS. 
 
 Idl 
 
 ATHANASIUS. 
 
 I 
 
 was lost to the cluinih. In Oermany various 
 crimes, such as liighway robbery, conspiracy, 
 etc., excluded from the asyhiiu; and new crimes 
 ■were added to tlie list in coarse of time, as, for 
 instance, in 1418 by Martin V., and in ISOi by 
 Julius III. The privilege, however, was not 
 sntirely abolished until the last part of the eigh- 
 teenth century. In France the privilege began 
 to be limited by Francis the First, by the edict of 
 1,'J39 : Ordon. sur le faicl (!k la juxlim. During 
 the Revolution it was abolished. See Wai.lon : 
 Droit d'A.fijle, Paris, 1837. H. F. JACOBSON. 
 
 ATAR'GATIS. This Syrian goddess is not 
 mentioned in the Bible; but in 2 Mace. xii. 20 
 her temple at Karnion, the same place as Asht.a- 
 roth Karnaim (Gen. xiv. 5), is spoken of. She 
 was the Syrian form of Astarte. The Greek 
 and Roman writers represent her as a fish-god- 
 dess, the cause of the seas' fruitfulness. From 
 this idea came "Aphrodite Anadyomene " (Venus 
 rising from the sea). According to Ctesias, Se- 
 mii-amis, a celebrated queen of Assyria (fl. 1250 
 B.C.), was the daughter of Derketo (Atargatis) by 
 a beautiful youth, under the influence of Aphro- 
 dite. Overcome by shame at her conduct, the 
 goddess destroyed the youth, set her daughter in 
 a desert, where she was fed by doves, and threw 
 herself into the sea by Ascalon, and was changed, 
 all except the face, into a fish ; and in this shape 
 she was pictured. Fish and doves thus became 
 holy to the Syrians, and were not eaten. Asca- 
 lon and Hierapolis were the chief seats of her 
 worship. Lucian speaks of her in his book De 
 Syria dea, calls her, however. Here, and says she 
 combined traits of Athene, Aphrodite, Selene, 
 Rhea, Artemis, Nemesis, and the Moirais (the 
 three Fates). He describes her as decked with 
 gold and many precious stones, girded like 
 Aphrodite, sitting upon a lion ; near her is 
 Zeus, upon a bull. In one hand she holds a 
 sceptre, in the other a spindle ; upon her head, 
 surrounded by rays, she wears a tower ; one of 
 the jewels on her forehead illumines the temple 
 at night through its radiance. Twice a year 
 water was brought from distant places, and 
 poured into a chasm in the temple ; because, as 
 Lucian says, according to tradition, the waters 
 of the deluge were drained away tlirough that 
 opening. About her temple were oxen, horses, 
 eagles, bears, and lions, sacred to the goddess. 
 A fish-pond, upon which was a floating altar for 
 the worship of the fish, was near the temple. 
 Her rites shared the impurity of the Oriental 
 nature-religions. See Astarte for further in- 
 formation, and to literature there given add 
 TiELE : jEijyptische en mesopotamische Godsdien- 
 sten, 1872. WOLF BAUDlSSIJSr. 
 
 ATHANASIUS, the " Father of Orthodoxy," b. 
 in Alexandria of Christian parents, 298 or 209 ; 
 d. there May 2 or 3,. 373 ; received the common- 
 school education of his time ; studied the Greek 
 philosophers and poets ; was made a deacon by 
 Bishop Alexander, whose amanuensis he became, 
 and played a most prominent part, at the Council 
 of Nice, in the definition of the creed named 
 after that council. After the death of Alexan- 
 der, Athanasius was chosen his successor (June 8, 
 328), and was received with enthusiasm by a large 
 majority of the congregation, but fiercely opposed 
 by the adherents of Arius and the renmauts of 
 12— T 
 
 the Meletian party. At the instance of Eu.se- 
 bius of Nicomedia, the emperor demanded the 
 re-admission of Arius into the Church; but 
 Athanasius refused, and immediately the storm 
 broke out. lie was summoned before the em- 
 peror, at tli.at time residing in Nicomi'dia, and 
 accused of conspiracy; and only, after long and 
 wearisome exertions, he succeeded in jiroving his 
 innocence. But, immediately after his return 
 new accusations were raised against him. It 
 was said that he had killed a Meletian bishop, 
 Arsenius, and used his bones lor magic. The 
 emperor commissioned a relative of his, the 
 censor Dalmatius of Antiochia, to investigate 
 the case, and a synod was convened at Coesarea 
 (334). But Athanasius refused to appear; and, 
 as he was able to prove that Arsenius was still 
 alive, the emperor ordered the investig.ation to 
 be discontinued. Eusebius, however, succeeded 
 in changing the emperor's mind; and an imperial 
 letter ordered Athanasius to ajijiear at the synod 
 of Tyre, 335. Athanasius felt obliged to obey; 
 and July 11, 335, he set out for Tyre, accom- 
 panied by fifty bishops. Arrived at Tyre, he 
 soon understood the temper of the assembly, and 
 repaired to Constantinople, where he landed Oct. 
 30, 335. He succeeded in convincing the em- 
 peror of the partiality of the synod ; and the 
 bishops, who in the mean timj had moved the 
 convention from Tyre to Jerus<«Iem, were called 
 to Constantinople to vindicate themselves. A 
 new accusation, however, raised against Athana- 
 sius by the two Eusebiuses, that he had threat- 
 ened to stop the exportation of corn from Egypt 
 to Constantinople, wrought so well on the em- 
 peror's mind, that, without being admitted to a 
 hearing, Athanasius was banished to Treves 
 Nov. 16, 335. 
 
 Constantine died May 23, 337 ; and in the fall 
 of 338 Athanasius returned to Alexandria. He 
 entered the city in triumph; but the opposition 
 and intrigues immediately began again, and his 
 adversaries this time went so far as to accuse 
 him of having sold, and employed for his own 
 personal purposes, that corn which the late em- 
 peror had destined for the widows of Libya and 
 Egypt. A synod of bishops from Egypt, Libya, 
 and the Pentopolis, declared in his favor; but, as 
 Constantius stood entirely under the influence of 
 the two Eusebiuses, he had to go into exile a 
 second time (March 19, 340), while Gregorius. a 
 bishop of the Eusebian party, took possession of 
 his see by military force. Athanasius went to 
 Rome, where he was well received by Bishop 
 Julius ; thence to Gaul (in 343) to confer with 
 Hosius, whom he accompanied to Sardica. The 
 Easter of 344 he celebrated at Naissus in Dacia; 
 that of 345, at Aquileia, with Constans, who 
 warmly supported his cause. Jleanwhile a pros- 
 pect of his returning to Alexandria was opened 
 up by the death of Gregorius, June 26, 345. 
 The see was not filled ; and the following year 
 Athanasius repaired to Antioch, where he was 
 well received by Constantius. Over Jerusalem 
 he returned to Alexandria, and entered the city 
 Oct. 21, 346. After the death of Constans, how- 
 ever (in January, 350), his position again be- 
 came unsafe ; and the end of a long series of 
 intrigues and machinations was, that the dux 
 Syriauus and ^he imperial notary Hilarius for-
 
 ATHANASIUS. 
 
 162 
 
 ATHANASIAN. 
 
 mally demanded his expulsion from the city, 
 and broke into the Church of St. Theona dur- 
 ing service, in the night between Feb. 8 and 9. 
 Athanasius fled, and a great massacre ensued. 
 In Lent. 357, Georgius from Cappadocia was ap- 
 pointed his successor ; and his adherents were 
 discharged, and replaced with Arians. During 
 this his third exile (ooG to 361) he found refuge 
 among the monks and liermits of the Egyptian 
 deserts : but at times he also lived concealed in 
 or by Alexandria, and by his -writings he continued 
 to exercise great influence on the congregation. 
 Immediately after the death of Constantius, a re- 
 volt broke out in Alexandria. Georgius the bish- 
 op and the comes Dracontius were seized by the 
 mob, and killed; and their bodies w-ere dr.agged 
 through the streets, and burnt. The edict of 
 Julian concerning the exiled bi.shops allowed 
 Athanasius to return to Alexandria in February, 
 3(J2; but Oct. 2.5, 302, a special edict banished 
 him for the fourth time. He lingered in various 
 parts of Egypt and the Thebais until he heard of 
 the death'of Julian (June 26, 363). He then 
 repaired to Antiochia, was kindly received by 
 Jovian, and returned to Alexandria Feb. 20, 36-i. 
 Once more he was in danger. An edict of 
 Valens, Jlay 5, 365, reversed the edict of Julian 
 concerning the exiled bishops ; and Oct. 5, 365, 
 tlie prefect Flavianus broke into tlie Church of 
 ••^t. l)ionysius, and compelled Athanasius to flee. 
 Valens, however, found it hazardous to deal with 
 the great and populous city in this way; and, 
 though he continued to persecute the orthodox 
 ill other places, his notary Basidas brought, 
 Feb. 1, 366, a special permission for Athanasius 
 to return, and he w'as left in peace for the re- 
 mainder of his lite. 
 
 The gre.atness of .-Vthanasius is liis unswerving 
 fidelity to the idea of his life, his constant adhe- 
 sion to the dogma of homo-ousion as the only full 
 and satisfactory expression of the godhead of tlie 
 Son. In the ancient church the whole meta- 
 physical construction of Christianity leads to 
 this point, and from it starts the whole specu- 
 lative development of the Trinity and the 
 Christology. To- .\thanasius this dogma was 
 the only true foundation for the absoluteness of 
 tlie Christian religion. The redemption and sal- 
 vation of man demand that God has not only 
 revealed himself to man tlirough Christ, but has 
 become man in Christ, h.as been incarnated. 
 Against the Arian doctrine, that the Son is a 
 creation out of nothing, foreign to the divine 
 substance, not eternal, and not divine, he fought 
 heroically and witli all the weapons available. 
 AVith equal vigor and equal consistency he op- 
 posed the older cmanatory views of God, which 
 made the world not simply the creation of God, 
 l)ut an element of the divine substance, and 
 (Jod not simply the Ruler of the universe, but 
 an agency involvinl in the world-process. To 
 this point, the dogmatical centre of Christianity, 
 most of his writings refer. Some of them have 
 ;ui historical character: Ajiuloi/ia cnnlni Arianos, 
 written between 310 an.l 3.50; Kj/isl. Enci/cl. ad 
 K[). Aei/.et Lib. ; Ajiol. ail Impcrat. Const. ; Apot. 
 de I'u(ja sua ; Hist. Ariauorum ad Aloriaclios ; ICp. 
 ad Scrap, de Marie A rii, all written after his fliglit 
 in 350; l)c Sipiodif .t hhi. W iWenc, written in 3.")9, 
 but containing some later additions. Others 
 
 have a more dogmatical or polemical character : 
 Orntlones IV. adi\ Arianos (356) ; De Decretis 
 Xic. Synod; De Senlentia Dmii/sii ; Expositio 
 Fidei, etc. His exegetical writings, Ep. ad Mar- 
 cclUntim in Intcrpretationem Psalmorum and Expn- 
 silione.f in Psnlmos, are of less interest. More 
 especially referring to the doctrine of the Holy 
 Spirit are the four epistles Ad Sei-apionem, writ- 
 ten during his stay in the deserts; and, to Chris- 
 tology, tlie epistles Ad Epicletum, Adelphium, 
 j\ra.rim. P/iilos., as well as the two works Contra 
 AjxyUinarinm and De Incarnalione Dei Verhi, 
 whose genuineness, however, is very doubtful. 
 Of a more general character, or referring to 
 other points of the Christian system, are his two 
 earliest works : Contra Gentcs and De Incarna- 
 tione ; the celebrated Vita S. Antonii ; and a 
 number of letters, among which are the so-called 
 Festid-Letters, preserved in a Syriac version. Col- 
 lected editions of his works have been given 
 by B. DE MoNTFAtTCOs, Paris, 1698, three vols, 
 fol. (the Benedictine edition), to which some 
 additions have been made in Nov. Coll. Patr. f. 
 II. ; by GiusTiNiANi, Patav., 1777 ; and by 
 MiGXE in Script. Or. i. 25-28. The dogmatical 
 works have been edited by Tiiilo: Dit/l. Patr. 
 Gr. Dogm. I., Lips., 1853. 
 
 Lit. — The sources to the life of Athanasius 
 are, besides his own works, especially the Festal 
 Letters (Cureton, London, 1848), the so-called 
 Uistoria Acephala {eA. Patav. III., 69); Greg- 
 ouY N.\zi.\NZ. : Oral., 21, and extracts from an 
 anonymous Vita At/ian. (Phot. Cod. 258). 
 VoiGT : Die Lchre des Athan., Bremen, 1861; 
 BoiiuixGKU : Athanasius and Arius, Leipzig, 1874; 
 L. Atziserger: Die Loi/oslehrc des hi. Athanasius, 
 iliinchen, 1880. [Tlie Historical Tracts of St. 
 Athan. and Treatises in conlrorersi/ tcith the Arians 
 are translated in "The Library of the Fathers," 
 Oxford, 1843.] MOLLER. 
 
 ATHANASIAN CREED, The (also called i>H- 
 bohim QuicwKnte, after its first word), consists, 
 according to its plan, of two parts, each ending 
 with a damnatory clause. The first part (§§ 1-20) 
 treats of the Holy Trinity, and comprises the 
 doctrine of the Fatlier, Son, and Holy Spirit ; the 
 second (!;!; 27-39) treats of the incarnation of 
 Christ and his work of atonement. The doc- 
 trine of the Holy Trinity is given in short and 
 pointed sentences; and tlie influence of Augus- 
 tine is apparent. In the .second part the influ- 
 ence of tile christological controversies (Nestorins 
 and Eutyches) is equally apparent, tnough no 
 direct polemics is noticeable. The whole creed 
 seems to belong to a time when all controversies 
 concerning these two points had been settled, and 
 the settlement universally accepted as truth not 
 to be controverted any more. It is also charac- 
 teristic, th.'it both in the introduction, and 
 towards the close, the false view is propounded, 
 that adherence to the formulas of a creed is 
 necessary in order to be saved. — From tlie latter 
 part of tlie eighth century .Vthanasius was gener- 
 ally held throughout the Western Church to be the 
 author of this creed; and its nsi! as the proper doc- 
 trinal symbol spread wider and wider, especially 
 on the northern side of the Alps. In the inonas 
 teries the monks sung it every day at tlie prime. 
 The Greeks, on the contrary, who did not becoma 
 acquainted with it until about the year 1900, re
 
 ATHEISM. 
 
 168 
 
 ATHBNAGORAB. 
 
 jected it immediately, because it teaclies the 
 double procession of tlie Spirit; and, as they 
 have persisted in rejectins; it, it is erroneous to 
 call the symbol oecumcnioal. The first who in 
 the Western Church attacked the authorship of 
 Athanasius was Gerhard Joh. Voss (1(542); and it 
 is now generally acknowledged that Athanasius 
 cannot be the author, though great micertainty 
 ]irevails with respect to tlie real author, his date 
 and place. The first certain trace of the symbol 
 is found with Cwsarius of Aries (503-543). He 
 quotes passages from it, and appeals to it as 
 something settled and acknowledged, which cir- 
 cumstance shows that it must have been gen- 
 erally accepted in Southern Gaul towards the 
 close of the sixth century. [But the sermon 
 which contains these passages is probably not 
 the composition of CiBsarius at all. It is found, 
 improperly, among those of Augustine (Migne's 
 ed., 0pp. v. ser. 244, p. 1147); and Gieseler says 
 (vol. ii. p. 74) the reference of it to Csesarius 
 of Aries is a " mere conjecture." Some scholars 
 maintain that Hilary of Aries (420-431) is the au- 
 thor of the creed ; but it is of much later date, see 
 below.] Most critics and historians have sought 
 for tlie author there, though none has succeeded 
 in producing sufficient evidence. 6. PLITT. 
 
 In the Church of England this creed must be 
 sung thirteen times a year. The damnatory 
 clauses naturally awaken most scruples of con- 
 science. In 1865 a great controversy arose over 
 these clauses ; but, although the royal commis- 
 sion were predominantly in favor of removing 
 the compulsion to say it, the obligation yet re- 
 nuiins. The controversy, however, produced a 
 prolific literature; and the interesting point was 
 brought out, that there is no certain trace of the 
 creed higher up than the eir/Iith century. The re- 
 discovered Utrec/il Psallo; which was exhibited 
 in the British Museum in 1873, is tlie earliest 
 manuscript which contains it; but, according to 
 the best scholars, it is not earlier than the ninth 
 century. The second part of the creed, contain- 
 ing a summai-y of the Chalcedonian Christology, 
 has been found separately, as a fragment of a 
 sermon on the incarnation, at Treves, in a manu- 
 script from the middle of the eighth century, 
 now known as the Colbertine manuscript, in 
 Paris. It was first published consecutively by 
 Professor Swainson, 1871. The fact that Atha- 
 nasius spent some time in Treves may possibly 
 have given rise to the tradition that the great 
 champion of the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity 
 composed the whole. The Episcopal Church of 
 the United States struck this creed out of their 
 revised Prayer- Book (1785). See Schaff : 
 Creeds of Christendom, vol. i. pp. 34 sqq., where 
 the literature is given, to which add Ommaxf.y: 
 Earhf Hislory of the Athanasian Creed, London, 
 ISSO'. 
 
 ATHEISM in the strict sense of the word is a 
 denial of the existence of God. Originally 
 the word, as formed and appilied by the Greeks, 
 meant simply a denial of a certain conception, 
 viz., the Greek conception of God ; and it was 
 one of the gravest accusations raised by the 
 Pagans against the Christians, that they were 
 atheists, because they denied the existence of 
 those gods which the State recognized. This 
 mistake A-e find repeated over and over again in 
 
 history. Romanists consider Protestants atheists, 
 because tlu^y refuse to worship Mary as " the 
 mother of God," and to recognize the divine 
 office of the saints. Wlietu^ver an idol has 
 fallen before a higher and more spiritual con- 
 ception of the divine, the idolaters have never 
 failed to cry, " Atheist! " l>ut this mistake is 
 also made in the opposite direction, when various 
 systems of pantheism and positivism are de- 
 nounced as atheistic, though lliey do not deny 
 the existence of God, but simply reject that con- 
 ception of him which has been developed by the 
 Christian theology, or decline to make the ques- 
 tion the subject of discussion. It begins, how- 
 ever, to be recognized, that any positive concep- 
 tion of a spiritual cau.se, though ever so feeble and 
 unripe, is, nevertheless, always one step away 
 from atheism, and a tendency has sprung up to 
 designate every such conception by a name of 
 its own ; while the name of atheism is restricted 
 to that state of mind, which, wholly negative, and 
 utterly incapable of any kind of positive con- 
 struction, must confine itself to a pure, abstract 
 denial, — a state of rnind which appears to be the 
 result of conqilete moral indifference, of moral 
 death. In this, the strict sense of the word, 
 atheism is, of course, of rare occurrence in his- 
 tory, and generally confined to unscientific re- 
 porters of what is going on in the field of science; 
 though through this channel it has sometimes 
 penetrated far into social life, and reigned there 
 for a while, half in the form of a fashion and 
 half in the form of a disease, as, for instance, 
 during the last three decades of the eighteenth 
 century. But it is a striking remark of Plutarch 
 {Ado. Cdlolem XXXI., in Moralia, vol. VI., p. 
 2(35, ed. Tauchnitz), and one which holds good 
 this very day : " There has never been a state of 
 atheists. You may travel over the world, and 
 you may find cities without walls, without king, 
 without saint, without theatre or gymnasium ; but 
 j'ou will never find a city without God, without 
 prayer, without oracle, without sacrifice. Sooner 
 may a city stand without foundation than a state 
 without belie I in the gods. This is the bond of 
 all society and the pillar of all tegislation." The 
 intermediate stages, however, between atheism 
 and theism, — such as deism, pantheism, positiv- 
 ism, materialism, etc., — are of much greater 
 importance, and have been the characteristic 
 marks of whole ages, just as they are the charac- 
 teristic marks of whole sciences. See John 
 C.\ii!xs: Unbelief in the Eiijldeenlh Century, Edin- 
 burgh, 1S81. 
 
 ATHENAGORAS. Under the titles 'AiS^i-ayripou 
 ''kdrivaum 7ipeai3eia ■nipl xpi-^Tiavuv (a defence of the 
 Chrixlixms by the Christian philosopher Alhenayoras 
 (f Athens') and .... ■R^pl uTaoTaaFoi( vcKpCiv (of 
 the resurrection of the dead), two works have come 
 down to us, whose author is entirely unknown to 
 the tradition of the church. Eusebius, Jerome, 
 and their immediate successors, do not mention 
 him; and, as the survey which Eusebius gives of 
 the apologetical literature of the second century 
 is very elaborate, his silence with respect to 
 Athenagoras could not fail to attract attention. 
 Very early the existence of an apologist of that 
 name was doubted, and the work w-as ascribed 
 to Justin. This supposition, however, is from 
 internal reasons untenable. The first testimony,
 
 ATHOS. 
 
 164 
 
 ATHOS. 
 
 and the only one from the third century, of the 
 existence of the apology and tlie name of its 
 author, is a quotation by Methodius (Epiph. 
 Hares. 64, c. 21). Some notices by an unknown 
 scribe (Cod. Barocc. 142, fol. 216), quoting from 
 Philippus Sidetes, from the beginning of the 
 fifth century, state that Athenagoras was director 
 of the cate'chetical school of Alexandria, lived 
 at the time of Hadrian and Antoninus, and was, 
 like Celsus, occupied with searching the Scrip- 
 tures for arguments against Christianity, when 
 he was suddenly converted; but most of these 
 notices are palpably erroneous. In spite, liow- 
 ever, of the entire absence of a tradition, and the 
 close resemblance to the apology of Justin, the 
 date of the work must be placed somewhere in 
 the second century. It is addressed to the em- 
 perors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Aurelius Com- 
 modus, and various passages indicate the period 
 between 176 and 178. The treatise on the 
 resurrection, which contains nothing specifically 
 Christian, first appeared in Latin, Venice, 1408, 
 then in Greek, Louvain, 1541. The apology, 
 together with the treatise, first appeared from 
 the pre.ss of H. Stephanus, 1557. The principal 
 editions are those by Dechair, Oxford, 1700 ; 
 Prudentius Maranus, Paris, 1742; and Otto 
 in Curp. Apul., T., VIIL, Jena, 1857. There are 
 English translations of the Treatise by Richard 
 PoRDER, London, 1573, and of the Apology by 
 David Humphreys, London, 1714. The Du vraij 
 el par/ail Aiiiour, iscrit en Grec par Athcnayoras, 
 trwlnil par M. Fumc'e Heiyn. de GliiUIc, Paris, 1599, 
 is a forgery. A. HAENACK. 
 
 ATHENS. See Greece. 
 
 ATHOS. Of the three peninsulas jutting 
 out into the .lEgean from Chalcis, the eastern- 
 most ends in the celebrated promontory of Athos. 
 The peninsula is connected with the mainland 
 only by a narrow isthnrus, rises rather abruptly 
 from the sea, reaches in the marble peak of 
 Mount Athos a height of six thousand four hun- 
 dred feet, and is cut in every direction by deep 
 ravines and narrow defiles, and covered all over 
 with dense forest. Since Xerxes dug the canal 
 through the isthmus, numerous classical remem- 
 brances gathered .around the place, and in tlie 
 Christian era it became famous as the seat of 
 one of the most celebrated monastic institutions. 
 The origin of this institution, ascribed to the 
 Holy Virgin herself, is wholly legendary. Some 
 historical notices tracing it back to the time of 
 Constantine may contain some truth ; but the 
 first reliable account w'e possess dates from the. 
 reign of the Emperor Basilius Macedo, who, by 
 a decree of 885, assumed the protectorate over 
 \he hermits of the mountain. According to the 
 Golden Hull, there nmst have been monastic or- 
 ganizations settled in the peninsula in 921; and 
 in 903 the Abbey of Laura, the eldest of the now 
 existing monasteries, was built by tin; Emperor 
 Kicophorus I'liocas. Tlie Ivoron and the Vato- 
 piidi were built in 980; and the constitution issued 
 in 1040 by Constantinus Monomachas mentions 
 one hunilred and eighty establishments with 
 seven hundred monk.s. In Wn: beginning of the 
 twelftli century Mount Athos was at its highest, 
 both lis a seat of learning and .as a focus of in- 
 fluence. Tliat curious connection betwiuin the 
 court and the monastery which characterizes 
 
 Byzantine history was fully established, and 
 the monks mixed in the most singular man- 
 ner w'ith politics. But the crusades brought 
 stormy days. The place was sacked several 
 times ; and, in spite of their pride of orthodoxy, 
 the Greek monks had to submit to the authority 
 of the Roman pope in order to secure his protec- 
 tion. Though treated with the greatest regard 
 by the popes, who confirmed all their privileges, 
 and spoke of them as a celestial army, the monks 
 of !Mount Athos seized the very first opportunity 
 (1313) to throw off their .allegi.ance to the pope ; 
 and the Abbey of Amalfitones, founded by the 
 Latin Church, never prospered. B^roni the begin- 
 ning, however, of the fourteenth century. Mount 
 Athos commenced to decline; and when the Turks 
 conquered Constantinople (in 1453), the monks 
 threw themselves with singular subserviency on 
 the mercy of the Mussulmans, without asking for 
 the aid of Western Europe. They succeeded, how- 
 ever, in maintaining themselves in comparative 
 independence on their territory by paying an an- 
 nual tribute (five hundred thousand piastres, or, 
 according to others, onlj' seventy tliousand) to the 
 sultan. At present there are twenty, or, accord- 
 ing to another account, twentj'-one monastical 
 establishments on the peninsula, of which seven 
 are of Slavic and the rest of Greek origin. The 
 Laura, Ivoron, Vatop.adi, and Russico occupy the 
 first rank, both with respect to size, splendor, 
 riches, and celebrity. The town of Karyiis, with 
 the Monastery of Protaton. stands in the centre 
 of the country. Most of the other monasteries 
 arc situated along the coast, and provided each 
 with a small port, or harbor for the accommoda- 
 tion of fishing and coasting vessels. These ports 
 are generally fortified, and so are the monasteries 
 themselves, being surrounded with high walls. 
 All the establishments are dedicated to the Holy 
 Virgin, each referring to .some speci.al point 
 of her life. The government is very different. 
 Some of the monasteries are governed by abbots 
 (lietptmeno.i), whose power is absolute; in others 
 all the affairs of the establishment are settled .at 
 general meetings of the members. This demo- 
 cratic form of govermnent seems to be of very 
 old date among the Athos monks, and is applied 
 to all general affairs common to all the establish- 
 ments, which are settled by delegates from the 
 various monasteries meeting at Karyiis. The 
 number of inhabitants, of course, varies from 
 time to time : at present it comprises about six 
 thousand ecclesiastics and a few laymen. Not all 
 the monks, however, called by the Greek name 
 c(do(jeri, "good old men," live together in the mon- 
 asteries. Some of them inhabit huts in tlie 
 neighborhood, where they practise the severest 
 asceticism ; others le.ad a complete hermit-life 
 in cells in the forests; and some are always 
 travelling about in pursuit of trade, in which 
 iictivity tliey are said to evince as much zeal as 
 talent. The principal sources of income, how- 
 ever, are the contributions from the Danubian 
 jirincipalities and from Russia: the proceeds of 
 the g.arden cultivation, handicraft, and trade, 
 would be insnflicient to the maintenance of the 
 establisliment. The days when Mo\nit Athos 
 was a seat of l(;arning have jiassed by long ago. 
 Among the jircsent monks, there are a few who 
 understand a little Old-Greek, and know some-
 
 ATONEMENT. 
 
 165 
 
 ATONEMENT. 
 
 thing about the traditions of the phice ; but tliat 
 is about .all. The archives and libraries are in 
 complete disorder. 
 
 Lit. — I. CoMNENUS : Descriptin AJanlis Al/io, 
 etc., in Mon'tfaucon: PaUvDf/mphin (incca; 
 GKOlUiiUENKS : Description of I'ri'senl Stale of 
 Mounl Allws, London, 1678; II. Curzon : Vi.tils 
 lo the Monaslerifis of III n Levant, London, 1850; 
 Victor Laxglois : /,p Mont Al/ios, I'aris, 1807; 
 [A. .\. Nkyrat : L'Allioa, nolea iTun excursion ala 
 monlniqnc ile.i moines, Paris, 1880.] G.\SS. 
 
 ATONEMENT. I. The Word. — 1. The ety- 
 moloiiy and usage of the Enr/lish word, (1) Sup- 
 posed to be derived from -'at-one-ment," and its 
 primary signification, "reconciliation;" (2) At 
 present universally used in the sense of "expia- 
 tion," "satisfaction for an offence," "propitia- 
 tion," "price of redemption." 
 
 2. In the authorized version the word occurs 
 only once in the New Testament (Rom. v. 11), 
 and there is the translation of HaraXAayi/, " recon- 
 ciliation." In the Old Testament it occurs fre- 
 quently as the translation of "'S?, " to cover with 
 sacrificial blood," and hence to "expiate," to " ap- 
 pease." to "purge away," to "ransom." 
 
 a. The biblical equivalents of the word. In 
 the Old Testament, "^23 to make an atonement 
 
 (Exod. XXX. 15, 16). 133 a ransom (Exod. xxx. 
 12), a satisfaction (Num. xxxv. 31, 32). □■133 
 an atonement (Exod. xxx. 10; Lev. xxiii. 27). 
 
 In the New Testament, (1) As it respects sin 
 i'/MCKcaSm, to expiate, to make propitiation for 
 (1 John ii. 2, iv. 10; Heb. ii. 17; Rom. iii. 25). 
 (2) As it respects the sinner, uynpiilitiv, to redeem 
 by blood (1 Cor. vi. 20; Rev. v. 9); iiuyopuCav, to 
 redeem from the curse of the law (Gal. iii. 13); 
 'Avrpovv, to release for a ransom, middle voice, to 
 ransom (1 Pet. i. 18 ; Heb. ix. 12), Christ saves 
 us by being our lirpov, or ransom. 
 
 II. The Doctrine. — 1. The Patristic Doctrine. 
 — The Fathers, alike those who immediately fol- 
 lowed the apostles, and those who flourished 
 before and after the Council of Nice (A.D. 325), 
 adhered to the sacrificial language of the Old 
 Testament and to the terms used by the apos- 
 tles in the New Testament ; yet they failed to 
 express their views definitely, or to maintain them 
 consistently. It is, however, certain, that, more 
 or less clearly, they always held the doctrine 
 of expiation and satisfaction subsequently held 
 by the whole church (Polycarpus, Ail Pkilipp., 
 1. 8. Clemens Romanus, Ail Corinthios, 7. 32. 
 Athanasius, De Incarnatione, c. VII. See Out- 
 ram, Z)/.v. l,ch. 17); while together with this, and 
 often disguising the more biblical view, there 
 prevailed from the time of Origen (d. 254) to 
 that of Anselm (d. 1109), and especially em- 
 phasized by Irenseus, and taught even by Augus- 
 tine, a belief that Cliri-st was offered to Satan 
 as a ransom in the behalf of men, in whom he 
 had acquired rights of conquest. This they de- 
 rived from such passages as Col. ii. 15 and Heb. 
 ii. U. 
 
 2. The Anselinic Doctrine. — The view which 
 had been implicitly received by the Fathers was 
 first scientifically defined by Anselm (d. 1109), 
 Archbishop of Canterbury, in his epoch-making 
 book. Cur Dtus Homo? He taught that sin is 
 debt (guilt) ; that, under the government of 
 
 (Jod, it is absolutely necessary that this debt 
 should be paid, i.e., that the penalty incurred 
 by the guilt of sin should be suffered ; that this 
 necessity has its ground in the infinite perfections 
 of the divine nature ; that this penalty must be 
 inflicted upon the sinner in person, unless a sub- 
 stitute can be found liaving all legal qualifica- 
 tions for his oflice. This was alone realized in 
 .lesus Christ, a divine person embracing a human 
 nature. The best of the .schoolmen, such as 
 Bonaventura, Alexander Hales, Albertus Magnus, 
 and Thomas Aquinas, agreed with Anselm, ex- 
 cept that, while holding the moral necessity for 
 an atonement, they insisted that God possessed 
 power to forgive sin by mere will, as involved in 
 the metaphysical notion of omnipotence. 
 
 Abelard (d. 1142) resolved the moral perfec- 
 tions of God into benevolence and the liberty 
 of indifference. He held that sin could be abol- 
 ished, and the sinner received into favor, by the 
 simple volition of God. Duns Scouis (d. 1308) 
 denied that sin is an infinite evil, or that the 
 sacrifice of Christ has an infinite value, and held 
 that "tantum valet omne creatum oblatum, pro 
 quanto acceptat Deus illud, et non plus." Hence 
 God accepted (acceptilatiu) by a sovereign act the 
 work of Christ as a sufficient compensation to 
 his law, instead of the condign punishment of 
 sinners. 
 
 The "Reformers before the Reformation," 
 e.g., Wycliffe (d. 1384) and John Wessel (d. 
 1489) and the ancient Waldenses, held the strict 
 Anselmic doctrine. This has subsequently been 
 adopted in the creeds of the entire Christian 
 Church. Dec. Cone. Trent., sess. 6, ch. 7. 
 " Jesus Christ, who when we were enemies merit- 
 ed justification for us by his most sacred passion 
 on the tree, and satisfied God the Father for us." 
 Cat. Rom. II. 5, 63 ; Hase, " Libri Symholici," p. 
 684 (Form, of Concord.); Heidelbenj Cat., ques. 
 60; Second Helcetic Con/., ch. 15; Gallic Con/., 
 art. IS; Behjic Conf., art. 22; Westminster Conf., 
 ch. 8, § 5 ; Thirtii-nine Articles of the Ch. of Eng- 
 land, Arts. 28 and 31. 
 
 3. The Mural Injiuence Theory was taught by 
 Abelard, and has since, in various forms, been 
 taught by Socinus, and such Trinitarians as 
 JNIaurice, Jowett, Bushnell, etc. 
 
 According to Abelard, benevolence is the only 
 divine attribute concerned in human redemption. 
 Christ died for the twofold purpose of subduing 
 the rebellion, and removing the guilty fears of 
 men by the transcendent exhibition of divine love. 
 
 Socinus adopted this view, and emphasized the 
 additional purpose of the death of Christ as the 
 necessary prerequisite to his resurrection, where- 
 by he brought light and immortality to light 
 (Rac. Cat., p. 265). 
 
 Frederick Denison Maurice, in his Theological 
 Essays, London, 1853, and elsewhere, taught that 
 the sufferings and death of Christ were the only 
 complete sacrifice or self-surrender of the spirit 
 and body to God ever accomplished, designed 
 "to illustrate the principle of self-sacrifice as 
 due from all God's intelligent creatures to Him 
 who made them." 
 
 Horace Bushnell, in his Vicarious Sacrifice, N.Y., 
 1860, taught that Christ suffered with lis through 
 sympathy and fellowship, the result of which was 
 to give him a moral power over men, spiritually
 
 ATONEMENT. 
 
 166 
 
 ATONEMENT. 
 
 quickening them, and niouUliiig them bj- his love 
 and example. 
 
 McLeod Campbell, in his Xuture of the Atone- 
 ment, London, 1856, taught that Christ has by his 
 sympathy, at once with lis and with the righteous 
 law we have broken, so identified himself with us 
 as sinners, that he has offered up to God a per- 
 fect confession and adequate repentance of our 
 sins. This repentance meets all the demands 
 of law, which, according to Maurice, are re- 
 pentance or punishment. This appears to oc- 
 cupy the middle ground between the " moral " 
 and the "satisfaction " theories. 
 
 4. The Governmental Theory of the Atonement 
 was first propounded by Hugo Grotius (d. 1645), 
 a great lawyer, iu his work against the Socin- 
 ians : Defensio Fidei CathollccE de Satisfactiime 
 Chriati. He taught that the law under wliich 
 man is held is, including precept and penalty, a 
 positive product of the divine will. The right to 
 relax its demands at will belongs to God's pre- 
 rogative as moral governor. But since the gra- 
 tuitous remission of the penalty in the case of 
 some sinners would weaken the motives restrain- 
 ing from disobedience the subjects of the divine 
 government iu general, by affording an example 
 of impunity, the benevolence of God requires, that, 
 as a precondition of the forgiveness of any sin- 
 ners, he should furnish such an example of suffer- 
 ing in Christ as will exhibit his determination 
 that sin shall not escape with impunity. This 
 view has been represented subsequently by the 
 Supernaturalists of the last age in Germany, as 
 Staudlin, Flatt, and Storr, and, in America, by 
 Jonathan Edwards, jun., Smalley, Maxey, Em- 
 mons, Park, and others. 
 
 The Remonstrants, or Arminians, of the seven- 
 teenth century in Holland, held substantially the 
 same ground, while they adhered more closely to 
 the use of biblical language and metaphors. 
 Limborch, Apul. Thes. 3. 21, 6. "The death 
 of Christ is called a sacrifice for sin ; but sacri- 
 fices are not payment of debts, nor are they full 
 sati-sfactions for sins ; but a gratuitous remission 
 is granted when they are ott'ered." 
 
 All these various theories which have been 
 propounded in the different schools of Protestant 
 tlieologians have, in like manner, been advocat- 
 ed in the various schools of Catholic theologians. 
 See O.xenuam: The Catholic Doctrine of the 
 Atonement, London, lS(i!), 3d ed. 1881. 
 
 5. The Mystical Theory, which exists in vari- 
 ous forms, may be generally stated thus: The 
 reconciliation effected by Christ is brought about 
 by the mysterious union of (iod and man, accom- 
 plished by his incarnation. This was held by 
 the Platonizing Pathers, by followers of Scotus 
 Erigena during the middle ages, by Osiander and 
 Schwenkfeld at the Koformation, and the dis- 
 ciples of .Schleiermaclier among modern (ierraan 
 theologians. 
 
 [Lit. — Anski.m : Cur Deus Homo? finished 
 10U8; modern editions, Berlin, 1857, and London, 
 18(i:i, translat<!d in the Jilhliotheca Sacra, vol. 
 XH., also separately, Oxford, 1805; Hugo Gho- 
 Tius: Defensio Fidei f'atholicce de Satisfactionc 
 Chrisli, Leyden, 1017, modern edition, Oxford, 
 18:10; FuAN(;oi.s TuiiUKTi.t (1023-87): The Atone- 
 ment of Christ, translati'il by .1. R. \V'ilson, N.Y., 
 1859 ; ■ Joii.N OwK.N (1010-83): The Death of 
 
 Death in the Death of Christ, London, 1650 ( Works, 
 vol. 9, Philadelphia, 1865) ; Archbishop William 
 Magee : Discourses and Disputations on the Scrip- 
 tural Doctrines of Atone7)ient and Sacrifce, London, 
 1811, 8th ed., 1856, also in his Works, London, 
 1842, 2 vols.; William Symington : The Atone- 
 ment and Intercession of Christ, Edinburgh, 1834 f 
 
 F. C. Baur : Die christliche Lehre von dcr Versbhn- 
 untj, in ihrer geschichllichen Entwickeluiig von der 
 dltesten Zeit bis auf die neusle, Tubingen, 1838; 
 Ralph Wardlaw : Discourses on the Nature and 
 Extent of the Atonement of Christ. Glasgow, 1840; 
 Kurtz: Das Mosaische Oj>fer, Mitau, 1842; Eng- 
 lish translation. Sacrificial Worship tfthe Old Testa- 
 ment, Edinburgh, 1860; F. D. J1.\uhice: Theologi- 
 cal Essays, London, 1853, 3d ed., 1876; the same: 
 The Doctrine of Sacrifice : A series of SermonSy 
 London, 1854, new ed., 1879 ; J. McLeod Camp- 
 bell : 77(6 JS^atiire of the Atonement, London, 
 1856, 4th ed., 1873; E. A. Park: Discourses and 
 Treatises upon the Atonement (by different writers), 
 Boston, 1859 ; Albert Barnes : The Atonement 
 in its Relations to Laiv and Moral Government, 
 Philadelphia, 1859; Thomas W. Jenkyn : The 
 Extent of the Atonement, Boston, 1859 ; W. G. T. 
 Shedd: Discourses anti Essays, \nilover,\^&\; re- 
 vised ed., N.Y., 1879; Charles Beecher: Re- 
 deemer and Redeemed, Boston, 1864 ; Horace 
 BusiiNELL : The Vicarious Sacrifice, N.Y., 1800 ; 
 the same: Forr/iveness and Law, N.Y. , 1874, the 
 two volumes have been issued together in a new 
 edition under the title. The Vicarious Sacrifice, 
 N.Y^., 1870, 2 vols; John Y'oung : The Life and 
 Light o/J/cH, London, 1866; Robert Candlish : 
 The Atonement, London, 1867; A. A. Hodge: 
 The Atonement, Phila., 1867, new edition, 1877; 
 George S.meaton: The Doctrine of the Atonement 
 as taught by Christ Himself, Edinburgh, 1868, 2d 
 ed., 1871; the same: T lie Doctrine of the Atonement 
 as taught by the Apostles, Edinburgh, 1870 ; Thom.\3 
 J. Crawford: The Doctrine of Holy Scripture 
 respecting the Atonement, Edinburgh, 1871, 3d ed., 
 1880; R. W. Dale: The Atonement, London and 
 N.Y., 1870, 8th ed., 1881; Alfred Cave: The 
 Scriptural Doctrine of Sacrifice, Edinburgh. 1877; 
 
 G. W. Samson : The Atonement, Philadelphia, 
 1878; John Miley: Atonement in Christ, N.Y., 
 1879. — See also the historical works, .\ndrew 
 Robertson : History of the Atonement Controversy 
 in the Secession Church, London, 1846; K. R. 
 nAGENB.\CH: A Text-Book of the History of 
 Doctrines, ed. by Professor H. B. Smith, N.Y., 
 1809, 2 vols.; revised trans., E<linburgh, 1880, 2 
 vols. ; William CuNNiNciii AM : Historic<d Theology, 
 Edinburgh, 1870, 2 vols.; W. G. T. Shedd: A 
 History of Cliristian Doctrine, N.Y., 1871, 2 vols.; 
 .\liirecht Ritschl : .4 Critical Hi.^tory of the 
 Christian Doctrine of Justification anil RecnncUia- 
 tion, trans, from the German, Edinburgh, 1872. 
 Also, for symbolical statements in respect of the 
 Atonement, see R. Watson : Theological Insti- 
 tutes, N.Y., n. d., 2 vols.; Charles Hodge: 
 Systematic Theology, N.Y., 1872,3 vols.; Philip 
 Schafk: 7'he Creeds if Christendom, N.Y., 3 
 vols., vols. H. and HI.] A. A. IIODGK. 
 
 ATONEMENT, Day of. The directions for its 
 observiimiy are found, Lev. xvi., xxiii. 26-32; 
 Num. xxix. 7-11. On this day the most impos- 
 ing acts of tlie Mosaic cultus were performed; 
 for sacrifices were offered as au atonement, not
 
 ATONEMENT. 
 
 1G7 
 
 ATONEMENT. 
 
 only for the people, but also for the holy place, 
 "because of the uucleanuess of the chililreii of 
 Israel, and because of their transgressions in all 
 their sins" (Lev. xvi. IfJ). Even the "holy 
 place" was rendered unholy by its position in 
 the midst of sinners. It is evident that the 
 acceptance of this expiation rested upon the idea 
 that the people were in covenant relations with 
 Jehovah ; and hence it was not made for flagrant 
 crimes, but only for what in the Epistle to the 
 Hebrews are called " errors " (ix. 7, cf. v. 2). 
 
 The time of this service was the tenth day of the 
 seventh month (Tisri, i.e., October). The day 
 was significant. It was the tenth day, to indicate 
 the completeness of the atonement; it was the 
 seventh month, because the month closed the fes- 
 tival half of the Mosaic year, and thus in a sense 
 formed its sabbath ; it was the tenth day of Tisri, 
 because, said the rabbins, on that day Adam 
 sinned and repented, Abraham was circumcised, 
 and Moses came down from the mount, and made 
 atonement for the sin of the golden calf. The 
 day thus set apart was strictly and solemnly 
 kept ; on it, and on it alone, was there a fast en- 
 joined ; all work was forbidden on penalty of 
 excommunication ; it was a sabbath (Lev. xvi. 
 29-31, xxiii. 27-29) ("afflict your .souls" means 
 fasting in addition to repentance and humilia- 
 tion). 
 
 The ritual of the day was the following, as 
 detailed in Lev. xvi. The high priest must first 
 bathe his entire body (the ordinary washing of 
 hands and feet before sacrificing would not suf- 
 fice) ; and then dressed in pure white linen, as 
 prescribed, without his ornaments, — how can 
 man appear before (iod except in simplicity'? 
 and how more appropriately dressed than in 
 white linen, the symbol of holinessV — he placed 
 his own bullock before the entrance of the 
 tabernacle as a sin offering for himself and his 
 house, remembering himself and his first, be- 
 cause he and his must be clean when he enters 
 the presence of Jehovah. He then took the two 
 goats furnished by the congregation, and cast lots 
 upon them, — one lot for Jehovah, and the other 
 for Azazel. [Oehler considers it settled that 
 Azazel was the name of a bad spirit living in 
 the wilderness ; but see art. Az.\zel in this 
 cyclopedia.] The order of the rites is, (1) The 
 sacrifice by the high priest of his own bullock 
 as a sin offering for the priests ; (2) He takes 
 a censer full of live coals from off the altar of 
 burnt olfering, and two handfuls of "sweet in- 
 cense beaten small," and, according to tr.adition, 
 without looking round, he goes into the Holy of 
 holies ; there he puts the incense upon the fire, 
 and the ascending smoke is a symbol of prayer, 
 and hence a protection ; (3) Leaving the censer 
 yet smoking (in post-exilian times he set it on 
 the stone in tlie Holy of holies : see Auk of the 
 Covenant), he goes out backwai'ds, says tradi- 
 tion, and fetches the blood of the slain bullock, 
 which he sprinkles with his finger on the east 
 side of the mercy-seat, and seven times upon the 
 floor in front of it ; this completes the atone- 
 ment for the priests ; (4) He now begins the 
 same thing for the people. The high priest kills 
 the goat of the sin offering, that is for the peo- 
 ple ; and (.5) Bringing the blood within the veil, 
 sprinkles it as before. This ends the expiatory 
 
 rites in the Holy of Holies. Now come (6) simi- 
 lar rites in the Tent of Meeting, where he sprin- 
 kled the blood of the bullock and of the goat 
 before the altar of incense, and streaked the horns 
 of the altar (E.xod. xxx. 10). Meanwhile the 
 high priest was all alone in tlie court of the holy 
 places, because the presence of another would 
 be a defilement ; (7) The atonement for the 
 altar of burnt offerings was made in similar 
 fashion by .sprinkling and besmearing with 
 blood ; (8) Then followed that singular cere- 
 mony of sending the living goat of the two into 
 the wilderness. We read, " When he hath made 
 an end of reconciling the holy place, and the 
 tabernacle of the congregation, and the altar, he 
 shall bring the live goat, and lay both his hands 
 upon its head, and confess over it all the sins of 
 the people." The form of confession, according 
 to the Mishna, was " O Lord, thy people, the 
 house of Israel, have transgressed, they have 
 rebelled, they have sinned before thee. I be- 
 seech thee now absolve their transgressions, their 
 rebellion, and their sin, that they have sinned 
 against thee, as it is written in the law of Moses 
 thy servant, that on this day he .shall make 'an 
 atonement for you to cleanse yon from all your 
 sins, and ye shall be clean ' " {Yoma xi. 2). A 
 "fit" man appointed, says tradition, the year 
 before, led the goat away into a district from 
 which there was no return-path. But nothing is 
 said about any injury inflicted upon the goat. 
 It was apparently sufficient to prevent the goat 
 from returning; the idea being, that thus the 
 sins did not i-eturn, but God had cast them be- 
 hind his back. The man who had led the goat 
 could not re-enter the camp until he had washed 
 his clothes and himself. 
 
 The high priest then took off his linen gar- 
 ments, washed himself, put on his usual dress, 
 came out of the tent, offered his burnt offering 
 and the burnt offering of the people, and burnt 
 the fat of the sin offering upon the altar. This 
 closed the day's imposing service. And tlie bul- 
 lock and goat for the sin offering were carried 
 forth and burnt entire; and he who burnt them 
 must wash his clothes and himself ere he could 
 re-enter the camp. Tradition, for and against 
 which there is nothing decisive, adds, that, after 
 the evening sacrifice, the high priest put on his 
 white linen garments, and returned into the Holy 
 of Holies to fetch out the censer and the bowl. 
 
 The meaning of this service is briefly this: the 
 atonement for the people, their priests, and their 
 holy things, is accomplished by blood, for with- 
 out its shedding there is no remission ; and upon 
 this day especially was thij idea of reconciliation 
 through blood brought out. There was also a 
 fuller acknowledgment of human weakness and 
 sinfulness than was made by the ordinary sacri- 
 fices. The Day of Atonement thus taught the 
 same lesson, only nmch more impressively, with 
 every sacrifice, — man is a sinner, imperatively 
 needs pardon, can ask for it, and will get it if he 
 rightly asks by shedding blood. The day also 
 looked forward to a far greater day, when the 
 victim should be no bullock nor he-goat, but the 
 blameless Son of God, and the altar of sacrifice 
 should not be of brass, but of wood, — a cross, 
 rude and gory; but the sacrifice itself would 
 atone for the sins of the whole world.
 
 ATONEMENT. 
 
 168 
 
 ATTICUS. 
 
 Reference has already been made to the trac- 
 tate Ynma. In it are elaborate directions for the 
 day; and although they are preliminary, comple- 
 mentary, and supplementary to the Bible, they 
 yet arevaluable as exhibiting the usages of the 
 second temple. One point not at all mentioned 
 in the Pentateuch is dwelt on at length, — the 
 preparation of the high priest for the day. _ He 
 must live for the seven days before the fast in a 
 room of the temple, and go through a daily re- 
 hearsal of every rite under the direction of one 
 of the oldest of "the Sanhedriu, for fear he should 
 introduce some Sadducean innovation. On the 
 evening of the day he took a solemn oath that 
 he would not in any wise depart from his instruc- 
 tions. He was not permitted to sleep the night 
 before the day, but read, or was read to, out of 
 the Scriptures. In regard to the day itself, there 
 are additional rites and explanations how to per- 
 form those prescribed. For instance, the high 
 priest, in his usual dress, offered the morning and 
 evening sacrifices. In each of the three formula 
 of confession used, two over the bullock and over 
 the goat, the sacred name was uttered three times; 
 and, as it was used in casting the lot, it was heard 
 ten times. Each time it was spoken, the people 
 and priests prostrated themselves, crying out, 
 •' Blessed be his glorious name for ever ! " In the 
 second temple's Holy of Holies there was no 
 ark of the covenant ; and consequently the high 
 priest was instructed to sprinkle the blood once 
 upwards, and seven times downwards. The 
 stretcli from Jerusalem to the wilderness was 
 divided into ten sections : at each was a hut in 
 which was food and water for the refreshment 
 of the man who drove the goat, who was con- 
 ducted from station to station by appointed 
 guards. The distance was twelve Roman miles. 
 The end of the stretch was a precipice, over 
 which tlie goat was thrust backwards, and thus 
 killed. Along the route, at distances, on heights, 
 watchers were placed; and thus the arrival of the 
 goat was announced in Jerusalem. As soon as 
 he kn(?w it, the high priest read Lev. xvi. and 
 xxiii. 16 sq., and offered certain prayers. Dur- 
 ing the reading, the flesh of the offerings was 
 burnt as prescribed. In order that there might 
 be no failure of the rites, a substitute to the 
 high jiriest was sworn in the day before the Day 
 of Atonement. 
 
 It is characteristic of the mingling of super- 
 stition and degenerate reverence of later times, 
 that after the ceremonies the high priest made a 
 feast to his friends, who congratulated him on 
 getting through the day alive ! The maidens, in 
 white, danced and sang songs in the gardens 
 below Mount Zion, and the young men went 
 there to select their wives. But religious feast- 
 ing ha<l always closi'<l the day. 
 
 Since the destruction of Jerusalem, the Day of 
 Atonement ha.s, of course, not been observed with 
 imposing ceremonial ; but yet it is kept up. In 
 place of the sin olfering, there is the expiatory 
 prayer, in which there are many beautiful pas- 
 sages. A very curious ceremony is practised 
 among strict Jews. On the day previous to the 
 Day of Atonement, eacli man takes a cock, and 
 each woman a hen, and, swinging it three times 
 about the head, they each exclaim, May this cock 
 (hen^ be my substitute, my atonement! This 
 
 cock (hen) shall go to death that I may go into 
 the life of the blessed with all Israel. Amen." 
 The fowls are then killed, and given to the poor, 
 or else kept, and their value given. 
 
 [Lit. — Spencer: De Lecjlbus Hebraorum Rilu- 
 alibus, lib. iii., Dis. viii.; Lightfoot: Temple Ser- 
 vice, c. XV.; Mislina, ed. by Surenhusius, vol. ii., 
 Yoma. — Bahr ; Si/mbolik des Mosaischen Cullui, 
 Heidelberg, 18:57— '59, 2 vols., 2d ed. of vol. i., 187-1 ; 
 EwALD : The Antiquities of Israel, Eng. tr. Lond., 
 Bost., 1876, p. 361 sqq. For modern Jewish cus- 
 toms on this day see Buxtorf : Syna(jo(/a Judnica, 
 cap. XX. ; PiCART : Ceremonies et cntilumes reli- 
 (jieuses, vol. 1, Amst., 172B; Edersiikim : Modern 
 Jew, Loud., n.d.] OEHI.ER (in first e.l. of Ilerzog;. 
 
 ATRIUM, in the church-architecture of the 
 earlier centuries, denoted an open space in front 
 of the entrance to the church, surrounded by 
 porticos, and provided with a fountain, or at least 
 a large vessel containing water. Here the peni- 
 tents who were not allowed to enter the church 
 assembled, and begged the faithful to pray for 
 them. 
 
 ATTERBURY, Francis, b. at Milton-Keynes, 
 Bucks, England, March 6, 1662; d. in Paris, 
 Feb. 15, 1732; was educated in Christ Church 
 College, Oxford, where he took his degree in 
 1687. His brilliant success as a controversialist, 
 and his powerful eloquence in the pulpit, soon 
 attracted attention to him ; and he was made a 
 chaplain to William and Mary in 1692, Dean of 
 Carlisle in 1704, Dean of Christ Church in 1712, 
 and Bishop of Rochester in 1713. ILiving been 
 coldly received as a Tory by George I., he took 
 his place in the foremost ranks of the opposi- 
 tion, refused in 1715 to sign the paper in which 
 the bishops declared their attacliment to the 
 House of Brunswick, and began in 1717 to cor- 
 respond directly with the Pretender, and carried 
 on his intrigues so skilfully that his most inti- 
 mate friends did not suspect them. But in 1722 
 his guilt was manifested: he was committed to 
 the Tower, and by an act of Parliimicnt banished 
 for life in March, 1723, and all British subjects 
 forbidden to hold communication with him ex- 
 cept by the royal permission. He went to the 
 Continent, and lived most of the time in Paris, 
 in more or less constant correspondence with the 
 Pretender, for whose sake he had sutt'ered so 
 much. He was buried iu Westminster Abbey, 
 but no inscription marks the grave. He was a 
 man of a restless aiul pugnacious character, and 
 of great surface-talent; he had perfect taste, 
 but "no conviction, great wit and power of com- 
 bination, but no learning. He was always 
 wrong; but the mass, which is caught by its pre- 
 judices and dragged along by its passions, alw.ays 
 <lpclared him right. Confusion was the result 
 of his work. Ho left four volumes of Sermons, 
 London, 1710, four volumes of Correspondence, 
 London, 1783-87, and a number of controversial 
 pamphlets. See Stackiiouse. Memoirs of At- 
 lerliuri/, 1727, and article in Enci/clojxedia Dri- 
 tannii-a, written by Lord Macaulay. 
 
 ATTICUS, b. at Sebaste, in Armenia; repaired 
 early to Constantinople; was made a presbyter; 
 partook, as one of the leaders, in the conspir.acy 
 against Chrysostom, and testified against him 
 in the synod at tlie Oak. Chrysostom was 
 expelled June 10, 404. His successor, the old
 
 ATTO. 
 
 109 
 
 AUBURN. 
 
 Arsacius, died Nov. 5, 405, and, after four months 
 of intri.Efue, Atticus, was elected Patriarch of 
 Constantinople in Marcli, lOG, which (losition he 
 held till Ids death (Oct. 10, 120). F(n- a long 
 tiini' he refused to place tlie name of (.'hrysostom 
 on the diptychs of the church, but at last he was 
 friijhtened into submission by the public indig- 
 nation. Four letters of his are still extant, of ] 
 which one to Cyril, given by Nicephorns (VII. 
 2o), is very cliaracteristic. 
 
 ATTO, or HATTO, Hishop of Vercelli, Pied- 
 mont, d. about 900 ; left a number of works, in- 
 teresting as belonging to the darkest )ieriod of 
 the history of the Western Church. They are : 
 I. Slatula Ecclesi/e Vfrcellen.iis, mostly consisting 
 of extracts from older collections, but important 
 to a correct miderstanding of the state of ecclesi- 
 astical affairs at that time. 11. De Prexsuri.i 
 Ecclesiasltcin, complaining that ecclesiastics are 
 summoned before secular courts ; that jirinces 
 exercise influence on the election of bishops ; that 
 the revenues of vacant episcopal sees are seized 
 by the State, etc. III. Poh/j>tlcux (^tvo'avtttvxo;, 
 from its variegated contents) consi-sts of an 
 enumeration of virtues and vices. IV. A com- 
 mentary to the Epistles of Paul, mostly composed 
 of extracts from Jerome and other Fathers. V. 
 Letters and sermons. Some of these works were 
 incorporated by D'Archehy in his Spicllerjium, 
 T. VIII. A collected edition was given by 
 BuRANTi DEL SiGN'OKE, Vercelli, 1708, 2 vols., 
 fol. In manuscript Atto's works are found in 
 the library of the Vatican and in the archives of 
 Vercelli. 
 
 ATTRITIO. See PE^fANCE. 
 
 AUBERLEN, Karl August, b. at Fellbach,near 
 Stuttgart, Nov. 19, 1S24; d. at Basel, May 2, 1804; 
 studied in the Seminary of Blaubeuren (1837-41), 
 and theology at the University of Tubingen 
 (1841-44); travelled in 1840-47 through Ger- 
 many, Belgium, and Holland, and became in 
 1849 "repetent" in theology at the University of 
 Tiibingen, and in 1851 professor of theology in 
 Basel. As a young man he was much attracted 
 by the Goethe-Hegel views of life, and very en- 
 thusiastic for the criticism of Baur; but the in- 
 fluence of Richard Ilothe, who wrote the preface 
 to his first book, afterwards brouglit him in a 
 more direct and intimate connection with bibli- 
 cal Christianity, and he finally settled down as a 
 member of the old Wiirtemberg circle of theolo- 
 gians. — Bengel, Oetinger, Uoos, etc. lie pub- 
 lished his first work. Die Tlieosopliie Oetinr/erf:, 
 Tubingen, 1847, when he was only twenty-three 
 years of age. Then followed, Der Prophet Dtiniel 
 und (lie Ojfiiibariuir/ Johanni.t, Basel, 1854, trans- 
 lated into English, "The Prophecies of Daniel 
 and the Revelation," by Adolph Saphir, Edin- 
 burgh, 1850 : it is not a commentary, Ijut a 
 sketch of the philosophy of history according to 
 the Bible, and exercised a deep and wide-spread 
 influence. A second or revised ed. of the (ier- 
 man appeared in 1857. In 1801 he published the 
 first volume of Die ijiildiclie Offenhanm(j. an apolo- 
 getical work, translated into English by Profes- 
 sor Ilackett in Bibliolheca Hacra, 1805. A volume 
 of sermons appeared in 1845 ; a volume of lect- 
 ures on the Christian faith in 1801. 
 
 AUBERTIN, Edme, b. at Chalons-sur-Marne, 
 1596; d. in Paris, April 15, 10.52; was appointed 
 
 minister to the reformed congreg.ation of Chartres 
 1018, and of Paris 1027, and juiblished L'lCncha- 
 ris/ie lie Patieii'ime Jii/liae (2d ed., Geneva, 1033), 
 which attracted much attention, and caused » 
 great deal of controversy. 
 
 AUBICNE, Th6odore-Agrippa d' f b. neai 
 Pons, in Saintonge, Feb. 8, 15.52; d. in Geneva, 
 .May 9, 1030; grew up under very strons; impres- 
 sions of the pei-secutioiis to which the Huguenots 
 were exposed. His first tutor, .Tean Cottin, was 
 burnt at Rouen for heresy ; his .second tutor, 
 .Jean Morel, had .a brother burnt for the same 
 reason. On the scaffold on which several Protes- 
 tants had been decapitated, the old D'Aubigno 
 n'lade the son swear that he would hate Roman- 
 ism as long as he lived, etc. When fifteen years 
 old, he entered a Huguenot regiment, and fought 
 with great distinction in the wars which ended 
 with accession to the throne of Henry IV. 
 After the abjuration of the king, D'Aubigne 
 retired to his estates in .Saintonge, and devoted 
 himself to literary work ; but, after the death cf 
 Henry IV., his position became more and more 
 difficult, and in 1020 he was compelled to leave 
 the country, and seek refuge in Geneva. Hia 
 two principal works are : Les Ti-af/if/iiex, an epic 
 poem in nine thousand verses, first published in 
 161G, entirely forgotten during the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, but recently republished in three editions, 
 — 1857, 1872, and 1876; and L'lIUtmre Unicer- 
 aelle, treating in prose the same subject as Les 
 Tragupics does in verse; namely, the history of 
 his time from 15.50 to 1010. The latter work has 
 had the same fate as th.e former. Not mnch read 
 in the days of its publication, and afterwards 
 entirely overlooked, it is now reckoned among 
 the valuable and interesting fruits of French his- 
 tory. Cf. Mi'moires de d'Aubii/ne, preface par 
 LuD. Lalanne, Paris, 1854. 
 
 AUBURN THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY. This 
 school for the education of candidates for the 
 ministry of the Presbyterian Church is in Au- 
 burn, N.Y., midway between Albany and Bulfalo, 
 and was established by the Synod of Geneva in 
 the year 1819, and chartered by the Legislature 
 of the State the 14th of April of the year follow- 
 ing. The Act of Incorporation contains the 
 proviso that "no student of any Christian de- 
 nomination shall be excluded from a participation 
 in the privileges of the institution on the ground 
 of his religious persu.asion." The seat of the 
 seminary was fixed at Auburn in consequence of 
 a liberal contribution by the citizens towards its 
 endowment. A finely situated piece of ground, 
 including some ten acres, was furuLshed, which, 
 by the growth of the city, has now become quite 
 central. Upon this ground there was erected in 
 the years 1820 and 1821 the original seminary 
 building, afterwards enlarged at a cost of about 
 forty thousand dollars. It included a chapel and 
 lecture-rooms, and dormitories for sixty or seventy 
 students. It was, however, much below the 
 standard of architectural beauty and conven- 
 ience now desired in public edifices for similar 
 purposes. These defects were remedied by the 
 erection, in the years 1874 and 1875. of Morgaf 
 Hall, the beautiful and complete building now 
 used. It is five stories in height, two hundred 
 and sixteen feet long by forty-five wide, faces 
 east and west, and provides accommodation foi
 
 AUBURN. 
 
 170 
 
 AUBURN. 
 
 seventy-six students, each having a parlor and 
 bedroom. The whole building is heated by 
 steam, and supplied with gas and water. The 
 lower floor is arranged for a refectory, at which 
 the students board in commons, making arrange- 
 ments for themselves, by association in a club. 
 The cost of this hall was about a hundred thou- 
 sand dollars, of which three-fourths was the 
 donation of Col. Edwin B. Morgan of Aurora. 
 Col. Morgan also furnished one half the cost of 
 the Dodge and Morgan Liuuary on the oppo- 
 site side of the seminary quadrangle ; the other 
 half having been previously offered by the Hon. 
 William E. Dodge of New York city. The 
 entire cost of this building, which is one of the 
 finest for its purpose in the country, and is shelved 
 for sixty thousand volumes, was forty thousand 
 dollars. 
 
 ^ludeitts. — The first class of students was 
 graduated from the seminary in 1824. The 
 total of graduates down to the present time 
 (1880) is about eleven hundred. The students 
 engage in evangelistic labors during their course 
 of study, so far as possible; w'hile the cultivation 
 of their own religious life is carefully provided 
 for by weekly meetings for prayer and exhorta- 
 tion, both in common and by the separate classes. 
 AVorship is conducted every evening in the chapel, 
 and every lecture or recitation is opened with 
 prayer. The classes in the seminary are senior, 
 middle, and junior; and the course of instruc- 
 tion extends over three years. 
 
 Gorernment of the Seminary. — The Auburn 
 Theological Seminary is regarded as the prop- 
 erty of the Presbyterian Church. Its financial 
 administration is vested in a body of trustees, 
 who hold the real and personal estate under the 
 provisions of the charter. These trustees are 
 elected by the "commissioners," wlio compose 
 the co-ordinate body administering the affairs of 
 the seminary. This chamber consists of a repre- 
 sentation of two clergymen and one layman from 
 each of the presbyteries constituting the synods 
 of Albany, Central New York, Geneva, and 
 Western New York. These presbyteries are at 
 present nineteen in number; and the board of 
 commissioners therefore consists of fifty-seven 
 members. The commissioners apjioint the pro- 
 fessors, and, with the concurrence of the trustees, 
 make all necessary appropriations of funds. 
 Each commissioner holds office for three years ; 
 one going out, and the presbytery sujiplying his 
 place by a new election, each year. A body of 
 "examiners," coni|)osed of the senior commis- 
 sioners of each presbytery, attend at the annual 
 examination of the; classes at the end of the 
 seminary year in May. 
 
 Dr/iarliiienls. — • The board of instruction in 
 the seminary at jiresent consists of five profess- 
 ors in the several departments of Christian 
 theology, church history and government, biblical 
 criticism, study of the Hebrew language and 
 literature, and the chair of sacred rhetoric and 
 pastoral tlieology. Each jirofessor, on his in- 
 auguration, delivers an address, and subscribes 
 the following pli'dgi; : " In j>re.sence of the omni- 
 scient and heart-searching (jod I do solemnly and 
 sincerely affirm and declare that I believe the 
 ijcriptures of the Old and New Testaments to 
 be the word of God, and the only infallible rule 
 
 of faith and practice ; that I do receive and adopt 
 the confession of faith and the catechisms of the 
 Presbyterian Church in the United States of 
 America as containing the system of doctrines 
 taught in the Holy Scriptures; that I do approve 
 of the government and discipline of the Presby- 
 terian Church as prescribed in the ' form of gov- 
 ernment ' and ' discipline ' of the Presbyterian 
 Church in these United States ; and I do sol- 
 emnly promise to maintain with zeal and fidelity 
 the truths of the gospel, and to be diligent and 
 faithful in all such duties as may devolve upon 
 me as a professor in this seminary, according to 
 the best of my abilities." This pledge indicates 
 unmistakably tliat the founders of this institu- 
 tion were heartily and unreservedly Calvinistic 
 in doctrine, and Presbyterian in their views of 
 the church. The first corps of professors was 
 drawn fi'oni New Jersey, and consisted ot divines 
 warmly in sympathy with the seminary at Prince- 
 ton. Their successors ever since have belonged 
 to the school of the most thoroughly developed 
 evangelical theology. No leaven of Pelagianisra 
 or Arminianism has ever found its way into this 
 school. 
 
 This statement is rendered necessary by the 
 misconception, somewhat prevalent at one time, 
 that Auburn Seminary w'as founded in the inter- 
 est of a loose subscription to the confession of 
 faith, and was designed to be the organ of what 
 was known as the '-New-School " type of doctrine. 
 Nothing can be a more em]ihatic disproof of this 
 idea than the contents of the famous " Aunuux 
 DeCLAKATIon." SAMUEL MILES HOPKINS. 
 
 AUBURN DECLARATION. The "Exscinding 
 Acts," so called, by which the churches within the 
 bounds of the synods of Utica, Geneva, and Gene- 
 see, and the AVestern Reserve, were declared to be 
 " neither in form nor in fact a part of the Pres- 
 byterian Cliurch," were passed by the General 
 Assembly in May of the year 1S;!7. On the 17th 
 of August following, a convention of representa- 
 tives from all the presbj'teries in these synods 
 assembled in Auburn to justify themselves 
 against the charges of unsoundness in the faith, 
 and set forth the views in theology they actually 
 held. It consisted of about two hun<lred leading 
 divine.s, and a nund)erof distinguished laynien. 
 Of this convention, the Kev. Dr. .James Kicliards, 
 professor of theology in Auburn Seminary, was, 
 with eminent fitness, made president. As the 
 basis for the "Exscinding Acts," a paper had been 
 presented to the General Assembly containing a 
 list of sixteen heresies alleged to be held by the 
 " New-School " churches. The first of them was 
 this, "that (iod wouUl have been glad to prevent 
 the existence of ."iin in our world, but was not 
 able without destroying the moral agency of 
 man ; or that, for aught that appears in the 
 liible, sin is incidental to any wise, moral sys- 
 tem." The divines of tho Auburn Convention 
 disavowed for themselves and their churches the 
 " heresy" cliarged, and replied as follows: "We 
 believe that (iod )>frniitted the introduction of sin, 
 not because he was unable to prevent it consist- 
 ently with the moral freedom of his creatures, 
 but for wise and benevolent n^asons which he 
 has not revealed." In replying to the other 
 charges of heresy, the Auburn Convention pro- 
 nounced fully in the sense of tho We»tmiu8ter
 
 AUDIANS. 
 
 171 
 
 AUGSBURG. 
 
 Symbols. With a perhaps unconscious Supra- 
 lapsariauism, they put the doctrine of election 
 first in order, and ranged all the other facts in 
 the process of redemption after it: so the arrange- 
 ment suggests that it was the primary purpose of 
 God to save a definite numl>er of men out of a 
 race to be thereafter created ; that in pursuance 
 of this purpose man was formed, the fall decreed, 
 and an atonement provided sufficient to meet the 
 case of that predestined number, and no otliers. 
 No affirmation of the universality of the atone- 
 ment is found among these sixteen propositions. 
 Original sin, total depravity, vicarious atone- 
 ment, Christ's intercession for the elect previous 
 to their conversion, absolute dependence upon 
 iri'esistible divine grace for the renewal of the 
 heart, instantaneous regeneration, etc., all these 
 dogmas are emphatically affirmed. " All who are 
 saved are indebted from first to last to the grace 
 and Spirit of God." " The reason why God does 
 not save all " (the thirteenth proposition affirms) 
 " is not that he wants the power to do it, but that 
 in his wisdom he does not see fit to exert that 
 power further than he actually does." In short, 
 the Auburn Declaration, contrary to the popular 
 belief on the subject, rises well up to the highest- 
 water mark of the Calvinistic theology. 
 
 This declaration, it is true, has no symbolical 
 force in AVestern New York or any other part of 
 the Presbyterian Church. No one is required to 
 subscribe it as a test of his soundness in the 
 faith ; but at the same time, having been adopted 
 under circumstances so peculiar, and at so critical 
 a time in the history of these churches, it had the 
 effect of pledging them irreversibly to a loyal 
 adherence to the Westminster Confession. It 
 consolidated the exscinded portion of the church, 
 invigorated its Presbyterianism, made it jealous 
 of any deviation from doctrinal purity, and 
 jilaced it in a position to challenge before the 
 highest courts of the country any impeachment 
 of its ecclesiastical standing. From that time 
 there has been no part of tlie church purer in 
 doctrine, or stricter in government and disci- 
 pline, than that which in 1837 was abruptly re- 
 jected as being neither in form nor in fact a part 
 of the Presbyterian Church. See the full text in 
 Philip Schaff : Creeds of Christeiu/om, Vol. III., 
 p. 777 sqq. S.\MUEL MILES HOPKINS. 
 
 AUDIANS, or ANTHROPOMORPHITES, a 
 Christian sect founded by Audius of Mesopo- 
 tamia in the fourth century. He appeared first 
 as a moral reformer, and attacked the clergy in 
 his sermons. Having thus awakened their hos- 
 tility, lie finally left the church, with his adher- 
 ents, and had himself (illegitimately) consecrated 
 bishop. He was then banished to Scythia, but 
 •continued to labor there for Christianity, accord- 
 ing to his conceptions, to his death, in 372. 
 The heresy of his views consisted in anthropo- 
 morphism, which he supported by quotations 
 from the Old Testament, especially Gen. i. 26. 
 The sect disappeared in the fifth century. Dif- 
 ferent from this sect were the Egyptian monks, 
 who opposed Origen ; though they, too, held an- 
 thropomorphic views. 
 
 AUDIENTIA EPISCOPALIS is the term of the 
 ..fustinian code for a peculiar arbitrative, and for 
 a time, in the fullest sense, even a judicial right 
 given to bishops in ciL'tl, not criminal aftairs, 
 
 from the time of the apostles to the middle ages. 
 The instructions of Paul (1 Cor. vi. 1 sq.) and 
 of Chri-st (Matt, xviii. 15-lS) naturally led the 
 early church, in its constitutional develojmient, 
 to take cases before presbyters, and. later, bish- 
 ops, for arbitration, instead of into the courts, 
 liy Justin's time this had become a custom 
 (cf. Junth, Tte orii/iiiihux el pror/ressu e/iixcopalis 
 jwlicii in caiisis ricitilius laicorum UKque ml Jitstini- 
 ainim. Berolin., 1832, p. 128) ; and .so when, 
 under Constantine, the State recognized the 
 Church, two regulations were issued on this 
 matter. The first (in 321) allowed the parties at 
 any stage of the proceedings to transfer the case 
 to the decision of the bishop (XVff. Const, ijuas 
 Jac. Sismonilus — divuli/tinil, ed. Iliinel. Bonn, 
 1844). The second (iii'331) ordered that not only 
 should the episcopal sentence be obeyed by all 
 temporal magistrates, and be considered conclu- 
 sive, but that also eilher party could bring the case 
 before the spiritual authority. The latter ex- 
 traordinary privilege Arca<lius and llonorins in 
 308 abolished, and reduced the court to ordinary 
 limits again; and in this form, confirmed by 
 Valentinian III. (4.52), it has passed into the 
 Justinian Code, and in the Orient, at a later day, 
 came into greater prominence and authority. In 
 the West, long before Constantine, the Aurlientia 
 Episcijpalis was familiar, even to the heretical 
 though Christian barbarians. See Dove : De 
 jiirisdiclicniisecclesiaslica' upud Germanos Gallosque 
 profp'es.iii. Berolin. 1855. 
 
 AUDIN, Vincent, b. at Lyons 1793; d. in Paris, 
 Feb. 21, 1851 ; studied first theology in the sem- 
 inary of Argentifere. afterwards law, but devoted 
 himself finally to literature, and wrote : Histoire 
 de la Sainl-Barlkelemi/, 182(j ; Histoire de Luther, 
 1839, 3 vols.; Histoire de Caloin, 2 vols., 1841; 
 Histoire de Henri VIII. , 1847; and Histoire de 
 Leon A'., 1851. 
 
 AUGER, Edmond, b. in La Brie, France, 15.30; 
 d. on a voyage to Home, 1591 ; entered the Soci- 
 ety of Jesu in 1562 ; became confessor to Henry 
 HI. in 1575, and wrote the celebrated Catechisme 
 Franaiis. See his Life by Bailly, Paris, 1652, 
 and by Dorigny, Lyons, 1716, reprinted Avignon, 
 1828. 
 
 AUGSBURG, Confession of. Jan. 21, 1.530, 
 the Emperor Charles V. issued letters from Bo- 
 logna, inviting the German diet to meet in .Augs- 
 burg April 8. for the purpose of discussing and 
 deciding various important questions, — the war 
 with the Turks, the religious dissensions, etc. 
 As soon as the letter, which was written in very 
 moderate and conciliatory terms, came to hand 
 (March 11), the Elector of Saxony, the head of 
 the Protestant party, on the advice of his chan- 
 cellor. Dr. Briick, summoned the principal Protes- 
 tant theologians — Luther, Melanchthon, Jonas, 
 etc. —to meet him at Torgau, and charged them 
 with the preparation of a statement of the Prot- 
 estant faith, to be laid before the emperor at 
 the diet. Melanchthon drew up the document 
 on the basis of earlier labors of a similar kind 
 by Luther, and it received the unconditional 
 assent of the latter. It was then signed, not 
 only by the Elector of Saxony, but also by the 
 Margrave of Brandenburg, the Duke of Liine- 
 burg, the Landgrave of Hesse, the Prince of 
 Anhalt, and the" magistrates of Nuremberg and
 
 AUGSBURG. 
 
 172 
 
 AUGUSTINE. 
 
 Reutlin^en, and it was agreed to lay it before 
 the diet as the common confession of the 
 Protestant party. The emperor first demanded 
 that the document should be presented to him 
 in an informal way; but the princes declared that 
 they would not part with it without havinar it 
 reaS aloud in the diet. Xext the emperor called 
 the session in which the solemnity should take 
 place, not in the larg-e town-hall in which the diet 
 used to meet, but in the small chapel of the 
 archiepiscopal palace, to exclude the public as 
 far as po.ssible. Finally he asked to have it 
 read in Latin : but the elector answered. " We 
 are here on German ground;" and June 2.5, in 
 the afternoon, it was read aloud to the diet by 
 Dr. Bayer, in German, and so slowly and dis- 
 tinctly that people who had crowded together 
 heard every word. The impression was very deep, 
 even on the Romanists. The original copies of 
 the Confession in Latin and German are lost. 
 
 The emperor now ordered the Roman theolo- 
 gians present — Eck, Wimpina, Cochla^ns, etc. — 
 to prepare a '• confutation ; " but the first draught 
 he rejected as utterly ineffective, and the answer 
 to the Confession of the Protestants was not read 
 in the diet initil Sept. 3. A majority imme- 
 diately declared that the Protestants had been 
 completely confuted, and they were commanded 
 to conform to the Rom.an views, which, of course, 
 they declined to do. IMeanwhile Melanchthon 
 prepared the " .\pology of the Confession," (see 
 below) which Dr. liriick presented to the em- 
 peror Sept. 22, but which the emperor refused to 
 receive. Itwas then printed and published, both 
 in Latin and German, as was also the Confe.'ision. 
 It must be noticed, however, that the Confession 
 was not immediately established among the 
 Lutherans as a symbolical book. On the con- 
 trary, Melanchthon continued to make changes 
 in it, and thus arose an edilii) rnn'iita and an cilitin 
 inrariald. .•\t the disputation of Worms (1541) 
 Eck called attention to this fact, and in 1561 
 Flacius denounced the edilin vnriuia as altogether 
 too favorable to the Calvinistic views. It is the 
 eilkio incariiita which was taken as basis for 
 the Formula Concitnliii', and wliich has become 
 the chief symbolical book of the Lutheran 
 Church. 
 
 Lit. — G. Pmtt : Kinli'ilurxj in tlie Ani/uxlana, 
 Erlangen, lS(i7 : Die Apoloi/ie der Ata/uslana, 
 Erlangen, 1873: II. Ri.nn : Die aiK/Mnirrji.iclie 
 Confcssini), mil Eihleilnng n. Anmt'rkunf/en, Giiter- 
 sloh. 1870. [Kli.\UTH : 'J'/ie Conxerralire licfoniia- 
 tiiiii, Phil.. 1872 : S(-hakk : Creeds nf ('hristenddiu, 
 I., 225 St). |.. and HI. :!, si|(i.] ' (i. ri.riT. 
 
 AUGSBURG CONFESSION, Apology of the, 
 prepared by iMcliuiclitliuu at the instanci; of the 
 Lutlierans as a refutation of the Roman confu- 
 tation of the Augslmrg Confession, read in tlie 
 diet. Sept. 3. 1530. The A/mlni/i/ was presented 
 to the diet, although not signed by the Lutheran 
 princes, tlirough Chancellor Mriick. Sept. 22, but 
 refused. On the 23(1 Melanchthon left Augsburg, 
 re-wrote the docnnu'nt on his journey, and fin- 
 ished and ]publlslied it, together with a very free 
 German translation by Justu.s .Tonas, assi.sted by 
 .Mi'lanchthon, at Wittenberg, April, 1531. The 
 original ilraught lia.s no autliority ; but the Latin 
 text constitutes a synibolical book of the L\i- 
 theran Church. It i.s s^vi ii limi-s as large as the 
 
 Confession, and greatly superior to it in point of 
 style and learning. It greatly strengthened the 
 confidence of .scholars in Protestantism. Its 
 chief value to-day is as an authoritative commen- 
 tary upon the .Augsburg Confession. The books 
 mentioned aliove all contain an account of it. 
 
 AUGSBURG, Interim of. After the Sm.alkal- 
 dian war. Charles V. once more thought of re- 
 establishing religious unity in Germany; and at 
 the diet of .\ugsburg (1547) it w.is agreed that a 
 provisional arrangement should be made until 
 the Council of Trent had completed its work. 
 The plan to this provisional arrangement, the- 
 Interim, was prepared by Pflug, Bishop of Naum- 
 burg. Michel Helding. and .-Xgricola, but was 
 rejected, both by the pope and by the Protestant 
 princes. Nevertheless, after being revised and 
 altered by some Spanish monks, it became a law 
 of the empire (Jlay 15, 1548), and was intro- 
 duced by force of arms. Of the Protestant 
 princes, oidy Joachim of Brandeidnirg and Lud- 
 wig of the Palatinate accepted it: the others met 
 it with energetic o])position. 
 
 AUGSBURG, The Peace of, was concluded 
 .Sept. 2.5, 1555. and settled the religio\is question 
 of Germ.any. The principle of this arrangement 
 w.as the famous maxim, Cn/ns- ref/io, /ni/'us re- 
 lif/io: that is, the sovereign had the choice be- 
 tween the Augsburg Confession and the Roman 
 Church; and as he chose, all his subjects had to 
 choose. There was no freedom of conscience, 
 but a kind of freedom of territory. People were 
 allowed to move from one state in which their 
 religion was not the religion of the sovereign to 
 another in which it was. Though this arrange- 
 ment was a most miserable compromise, it was, 
 nevertheless, a great defeat of the policy of 
 Charles v., who had labored all his life to restore 
 the religious unity of the empire ; and he was- 
 not present in person at the negotiations, but luid 
 transferred all his powers to his brother. King 
 Ferdinand. 
 
 AUGUST!, Johann Christian Wilhelm, b. at 
 Eschcnberga, in the Duchj' of .Saxe-Coburg, 
 Oot. 27, 1772; d. at Coblenz. April 28, 1841; 
 studied theology at Jen.a. and became profes.sor 
 in Oriental literature there in 1803, professor of 
 theology in Breslau 1812. in Bonn 1819, and 
 director of the Consistory of Coblenz in 1828. 
 He was a very active man anil a very prolific 
 writer. Among his works are, Denk'iriirdi(jl:eileii 
 (lux tier chrisdicheii Arclia-olof/ie, 12 vols.. Leipzig,. 
 1817-31; Lehrlnich d. c/irisd. Diii/menfieschichle, 
 Leipzig, 1825; Einleiliitif/ in d. all. '/'e.'<lamenl, 
 Leipzig, 1827. The most gener.ally u.sed of his 
 works is llandhuch der clirlxlliclien Arrhuolnr/ie, 
 Leipzig, 183()-30, 3 vols. He also assi.sted I)e 
 Wette in translating the Bible into (Jerm.ui 
 (1809-11). 
 
 AUGUSTINE, St., I'.ishnp of Hippo. .See 
 ArcfsriNTs. 
 
 AUGUSTINE, or AUSTIN, St., the first Arch- 
 bishop of Canti'rbury; nothing is known of liis 
 early life. In 5il(;, when he was the abbot of tlie 
 niona.stery of St. .Andrew .at Rome, (Jregory the 
 Great (.5i"H)-()04), who for many years had taken 
 deep interest in the English, sent him at tlie 
 head of forty of his monk.s to England to con- 
 vert the .\iiglo-S.ixons. They metso maityobsta- 
 cles on their wav to the coast, that tliev relumed,.
 
 AUGUSTINE. 
 
 173 
 
 AUGUSTINIAN. 
 
 and asked to Ue pxcused. But rjresjory sent them 
 as.iin; and at last tliey landed at Ebbe's Fleet, on 
 the Tsl(! of Tlianet. Kthelbcrt, the Saxon king, 
 had married a Christian. licrtha. a daughter of 
 Cliaribert, King x>i I'aris, twenty years before; 
 and thus the way was (irovidentially oi)ened. 
 Kthelbert was baptized (597), and his tribe was 
 Christianized. -Augustine went to Aries, whose 
 metropolitan consecrated him the first Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury. A deputation he sent to 
 tell Gregory the good news returned laden with 
 presents, and bearing the pallinm. which made 
 Augustine independent of the bishops of France. 
 Gregory's dream of converting the entire island 
 •to the Roman Church was not realized. The 
 British bishops of Cornwall and Wales refused 
 to obey the Roman bishop. But, though unsuc- 
 cessful in a measure, much had been accom- 
 plished when, May 21!, GOl, Augustine died. He 
 was afterwards canoni/.ed on the ground of a 
 reputed miracle, — curing a Saxon of his blind- 
 ness. 
 
 Lit. — Letters of Pope Gregory L, in Migne's 
 ■edition of Gregory's Opera, Vol. III.; also in 
 Hadi>.\n and Stubus: Councils, etc.. Vol. III., 5 
 sqq. ; Mont.xle.muk.rt : Monk-x of tlie West, Vol. 
 III., Bk. 10, chaps. 1 and 2; Dean Hook: Arch- 
 iishops of Canterburi/, Vol. I. ; Dean Stanley : 
 Memorials of Caiiterliunj, 6t\j ed., 1872. 
 
 AUCUStlNE, Sister (Amalie won Lasaulx), b. 
 at Coblenz, Oct. 19, 181-5 ; d. in the Hospital of 
 Vallendar, Jan. 28, 1872; entered the mother- 
 house of the Sisters of Charity at Nancy in 1838, 
 but felt herself drawn towards an active life of 
 charity, mercy, and self-sacrifice, rather than 
 towards the monotonous devotion of the monas- 
 tery, and labored from 1812 to 1819 in tlie hos- 
 pital of Aix-la-Chapelle, from 1819 to 1871 as 
 superioress of the Hospital of .St. John at Bonn. 
 In the Scldeswig-IIolstein and Austro-Pi'ussian 
 wars of 1861 and 1806 she distinguished herself 
 by her great talent of organization ; and her 
 strong personality and sound judgment, no less 
 than her deep and genuine piety, brought her in 
 connection with many prominent men. But she 
 was unable to accept the new dogmas of the 
 "Immaculate Conception" and the "Infallibility 
 of the Pope;" and her chureli, which considers 
 absolute submission to its doctrinal decisions as 
 essential, called her a heretic. In 1871 she was 
 deposed, and transferred to V^allendar; and, when 
 she died, the usual burial-rites were denied to her 
 remains. See Erionerunijen an Amalie von La- 
 saulx, Gotha, 1878; Eng. trans. Sister Aur/ustine. 
 London, 1880, New York, 1881. 11. Lecoultre: 
 Amc'lie de Lasaiil.r,VaTis, 1879, English transla- 
 tion, London, 18S0. 
 
 AUGUSTINIAN MONKS AND NUNS. After 
 receiving baiitism, Augustine and some friends 
 of his retired to the neighborhood of Tagaste for 
 the purpose of leading a purely spiritual life. 
 Evodius, Alypius, and Severus came with him 
 from Italy ; they were joined by Profuturus, 
 Fortunatus, Possidius, Urbanus, Bonifacius, and 
 Peregrinus. The community was formed in 388; 
 and the rich donations of Bishop Valerius of 
 Hippo, and, still more, the accession of Augus- 
 tine to t!ie episcopal chair, .soon made it very 
 flourishing. In the beginning, the Gospels served 
 as the only rule. The one hundred and .ninth 
 
 and two hundred and eleventh Epistles of Augus- 
 tine (Bened. edit.), dating from the year 423, 
 give oidy the rides for the nuns of Hijipo. 
 When and wliere the so-called rules of Augus- 
 tine originated is uncertain; hint thi^y belcjiig, at 
 any rate, not to him. Similar communities were 
 often formed in Italy, such as the John-Bonites, 
 the Hernuts of Tuscany, the Brittinians, etc., 
 of which ('Specially thi; last-mentioned distin- 
 guished themselves by a high degree of austerity. 
 These com?nnnities were united by Innocent IV., 
 who, by a bull of Jan. 17, 1244, gave them 
 the rules of St. Augustine. Alexander IV. was 
 very anxious to further consolidate the union. 
 Lanfranc Sejitala of Milan was made general of 
 the order; and four provincials, respectively for 
 Italy, Spain, France, and (jermany, were ap- 
 pointed. By a bull of April 13, 12.56, the whole 
 organization was sanctioned. After this time 
 the order spread rapidly. In the beginning of 
 the fifteenth century it numbered forty-two prov- 
 inces, besides the vicarates of India and Moravia, 
 two thousand monasteries, and thirty thousand 
 monks. In 1567 Pius V. gave it the same rank 
 and privileges as the mendicant orders. 
 
 The Augustinian nuns formed their first com- 
 munity at Hippo, under Perpetua, the sister of 
 Augustine. An outline of their rule is given in 
 the two hundred and eleventh letter of Augus- 
 tine. An Augustinian nunnery was founded at 
 Venice in 1177 by Alexander III., which the 
 Princess Julia, a daughter of the Emperor Fi-ed- 
 erick I., entered as its first abbess. The cele- 
 brated Nunnery of Tournoy was founded in 1424 
 by Pierre de Champion. 
 
 By degrees, as the order spread and grew rich, 
 laxity and corruption crept in ; and, as a re-action, 
 independent congregations were formed at lUiceto 
 and Carbonaria towards the close of the four- 
 teenth century, at Peronse and in the Lombardy 
 in the beginning of tlie fifteenth century, in .Sax- 
 ony in 1492. etc. At attempt at a radical refoni) 
 was made in Portugal by Thomas a Jesu, who 
 died in 1582. The result was the formation of 
 the congregation of the Barefooted Augustiu- 
 ians. Their rules were first introduced in the 
 Monastery of Talavera. Their organization was 
 finally completed, and confirmed by Gregory XV. 
 in 1622. They spread much in Japan, the Philip- 
 pines, Peru, etc. In Spain every province had a 
 hermitage, to which those who wished to live as 
 anchorets could retire, and find perfect solitude 
 and seclusion. Johann Staupitz, well known in 
 connection with Luther, became vicar-general of 
 the order in Germany in 1515; but it was just 
 Luther's appearance; which in Germany brought 
 the order in speedy decadence. In the nine- 
 teenth century a great number of the monasteries 
 of the order have been secularized ; in 1850, 
 however, there were still about one hundred left 
 in Italy and in France. 
 
 Lit. — NicoL. Cuusenius : Monasticon Augus- 
 tinianuin, Monai, 1623 ; L. Torelli : Secoli 
 Aijostiniani ocrero Hist, generate del s. Ord. 
 Eremitano di San Agostino, Bob, 1659, 8 vols. ; 
 St. Martin : Vie de St. Augustine, Toulouse, 
 1641; A. DE San Nicola.s: Hist, de los Augus- 
 tinos Descalzos, Madrid, 1644. Helyot : Histoire 
 des Ordres monasti(iues, Paris, 1714-19, torn. Ill-, 
 revised ed., 1838. W. chlebus (ZOCKLEB).
 
 AUGUSTINUS. 
 
 374 
 
 AUGUSTINUS. 
 
 AUGUSTINUS, Aurelius, Bishop of Ilippo- 
 Regrius. Sketch of his Life — He was the son 
 of Patricius. a heathen, and Monica, a most 
 devoted Christian, at Tagaste (Tajcit), in Nu- 
 midia, Xov. 13, ,353. and died at Ilippo, Nortii 
 Africa, Aug. 28, 430. To Monica he owed his 
 ■warm, loving nature ; and by lier praj'ers he was 
 converted. Ilis early life was unsettled. After 
 learning the rudiments in his native place, his 
 ambitious father, delighted with his progress, sent 
 him, in his sixteenth year, to Carthage, where he 
 studied for three years. The now lo.st Horlensius 
 of Cicero awoke his love of truth ; and he began 
 to study the Bible, but soon gave it up because 
 its style displeased hira. From this time luitil 
 his conversion he restlessly strove to attain the 
 highest good, but failed, although he found for 
 a time satisfaction in various schools of thought. 
 Manichfeisni first allured him; and from 373 to 
 383 he was one of the auditors, or catechumens, 
 in that sect. But the immorality of the electi, 
 who were supposed to be saints, and the per- 
 ceived shallowness of the system, drove him for 
 a while into scepticism, from which, however, 
 Neo-Platonism saved him. Jleanwhile he taught 
 rhetoric in Tagaste and in Carthage — where he 
 published his first work, T/ie Fit and the Fair, in 
 380 — -and in Rome. As a teacher he was not 
 successful in maintaining order, nor in making 
 money ; yet the ability he evinced induced Sym- 
 machus, the Prefect of Rome, to send him to 
 Milan in answer to a request for a professor of 
 rhetoric. There he heard Ambrose; and there, 
 too, he was converted (September, 380), at the 
 age of thirty-three, and was baptized at Milan 
 Easter Eve, April 2.5, 387. On the journey 
 homeward Monica died, at Ostia; and the sor- 
 row thereby caused is renewed to each reader 
 of the Confessions. Disposing of his property, 
 he began in Tagaste an ascetic life; but in 301 
 he was elected priest to the church of Hippo- 
 Regius, and in 395 became the colleague of Bish- 
 op Valerius, and shortly after full bishop. If 
 the romance of his life was in the early peri- 
 od, the value of it was in the later. From his 
 diocese a relentless war was waged upon every 
 lieresy. Manichaians and Donaiists, Pel.\gians 
 and Semi-Pelagians, fell under his blows; and 
 the writings he produced amid the heat of these 
 controversies have made liini iumiortal, and have 
 tempered the theology of all after-tiuii;. ]5ut his 
 two most ceh^brated and interesting works are 
 the Confessions — in whicli he reviewed his life up 
 to the time of his conversion .so humbly, so 
 honestly, so wonderingly, that the book is a re- 
 ligious classic as well as the most reliable auto- 
 biography — and the Ciiy of Goil, in which he 
 showed that the Church of Christ is the surviv- 
 or of the wreck of Rome, and thus sent comfort 
 to those, wlio, with Jerome, mournfully exclaimed, 
 " Who is safe when Rome falls?" The closing 
 years of Augustine's life were troubled. He 
 saw the Vandals overrunning Nortli .\frica, and 
 was comiielle<i to lead in the desperate defence 
 of Ilippo. But God mercifully took him away 
 ere the city fell, and spared him .so great a 
 grief. In the beginning of the sixeenth cen- 
 tury his remains were carried from Hippo to .Sar- 
 dinia ; in tlie beginning of the eighteenth century 
 Liutprand, King of the Lombards, interred them 
 
 in the Church of St. Peter in Pavia, where they 
 remained until Oct. 12, 1841, when the Bishop o"f 
 Pavia formally gave them over to the Bishop of 
 Algiers, who carried them to Hippo, which was 
 near the present Bona, and buried them there 
 within a memorial ch.apel, Oct 30, 1841. 
 
 Augustine is himself the source of all our 
 knowledge of his sinful life before his conver- 
 sion. He joined a dis.solute company of youths 
 when he was sixteen {_Conf. II., 4, 9) ;"and'before 
 he was nineteen he was the father of a son, 
 Adeodatus (God-given), bj- his mistress (IV., 2, 
 2). For twelve years they lived together, mutu- 
 ally faithful ; and he says his heart was "racked, 
 and wounded, and bleeding," when he sent her 
 b.ick to Africa, because she stood in the way of 
 his marriage (Coiif. VI., 15, 25, cf. 14, 23). But 
 his betrothed lacked two years of the marriage- 
 able age; and Augustine, finding the delay un- 
 bearable, took another mistress, and kept up this 
 new connection until, in his thirty-third year, 
 the hand of Christ finally lifted him above the 
 temptations of the flesh, and the light of the 
 gospel illumined his heart. The Church may 
 in a sense rejoice that Augustine was the servant 
 of sin; for he was able to strengthen his brethren 
 after his conversion as he could not have done 
 had he not known from long and bitter experi- 
 ence, that he who sinneth against God wrongeth 
 his own soul. But in judging him we must bear 
 in mind that he w.as at the time a heathen, 
 and comparatively innocent, according to heathen 
 standards of morality. After his conversion, he 
 not only renounced all illegitimate intercourse, 
 but devoted himself to a single life, for the sake 
 of the kingdom of God, and uever broke his 
 vow. 
 
 Augustine is one of the doctors of the Uni- 
 versal Church. He is, perhaps, the most pi-omi- 
 nent leader in the development of doctrine, and 
 to many the successor of the apostles. Luther 
 and Calvin, in the doctrines of sin and grace, 
 are essentially Augustinian. The Protestant 
 emulates the .Romanist in paying him honor. 
 But, though a fountain of sweet water, he gave 
 out bitter water too ; for many of the errors of 
 Rome, her deference to human authority, her 
 doctrines of the church, tradition, baptismal I'e- 
 generation, and the right of jiersecution, can be 
 either traced directly to him, or deduced from his 
 writings. He was pre-eminently a preacher; was 
 in the habit of composing rapiiUy; and so, if 
 many of his works were very ileliberately writ- 
 ten, m.any more were not. and the necessity of 
 making up his mind (luickly ni.ay have weakened 
 his juclgmeut. .Mthough lie was not a scholar 
 like Jerome, for he knew little Grei'k and no 
 Hebrew, he had a deeper si>iritual insight into 
 tlie Scriptures than any otlier of the Fathers. 
 Genius, more than le.arning, gave him light. 
 With all his defects, he claims the reverence of 
 the world. Never was a man nune determined 
 and fearless in the defence of the truth ; never 
 breathed a purer, nobler spirit. The pride of 
 the mother in her converteil son is tlie pride of 
 Christendom in the devotion of his splendid 
 intellect anil marvellous executiv(^ aliility to the 
 service of Christ. To understand .Augustine is 
 to understand all the preceding history of phi- 
 losopliy and theology, and at the same time the
 
 AUGUSTINUS. 
 
 175 
 
 AUGUSTINUS. 
 
 Bourcps of subsequent progress. Th\is he is the 
 dividing line between the Church of tlie persecu- 
 tion and tlie Church of tlie empire. He ended 
 the old, and began the new period of her develop- 
 ment. 
 
 Bibliography. — Augustine's writings may be 
 divided into — (ci) Autobiographical: Confessions, 
 Relraclalioiis, ami Letters; (i) Polemical: treatises 
 against the Manichfeans, the Donatists, and Pela- 
 gians and Semi-Pelagians; (c) Dogmatical : En- 
 chiridion, and other doctrinal treatises ; {d) Exe- 
 geticul : Conunenlaries upon large portions of the 
 Bible; (e) Practical: sermons and ethical trea- 
 tises. 
 
 Editions of Augustine's Works. — For list see 
 Bhuxet: Manuel (In Lihraire, Paris, 1860-6.5, 5 
 vols (vol. I., col. .557-567). The be.st edition for 
 all practical purposes is the Jiencdictine, Paris, 
 1670-1700, 11 vols, folio; rejirinted by Ganme 
 fratres, Paris, 1830-39, 11 vols. Svo. ; and by 
 'iMigue, Paris, 1811, 10 vols. Svo. ; 2d ed., 1863, 
 11 vols. Ills most important works and his let- 
 ters are translated in tlie Augnstinian Lilirarg, 
 edited by the Rev. Marcus Dods, M.A., and pub- 
 lished by Messrs. T. and T. Clark, lidinburgh, 
 1872-76, 15 vols. Svo. His Confessions, revised 
 from a former translation, and edited by Rev. 
 Dr. Pusey, and many of his sermons and homi- 
 lies, are translated in the Lihrurg of the Fathers, 
 Oxford, 1839-55, 12 vols. Svo. (The two series sup- 
 plement one another.) Dr. Sheddre-issue<l the Con- 
 fessions, Andover, 1800; Eng. trans, of On instructing 
 the unlearned, etc., ed. De Roinestin, Loud., 1885. 
 
 Biographies. — The Confessions constitute Augus- 
 tine's autobiography down to his return to Africa 
 (388), while the Retractations (127) review his 
 entire literary life. But his pupil, Possidius, 
 about 432, gave to the world the first Vita 
 Sancti Augusliui, published by the Benedictines 
 (Tom. X., Appendix, pp. 257-280), along with 
 their own (Tom. xi., pp. 1-492, in Migne, Tom. 
 1, pp. 66-578). G. MoHiNGO : Vie de Sainl-Augus- 
 tin, Paris, 1553; Rivius : Vita Sancti Auguslini, 
 Antwerp, 1640; Tillemont: Meinoires Ecclesias- 
 ti<jues, Paris, vol. xiii. 1702; P. B.^yi.e: art. 
 Augustin, in the " Dictioiuiire historique et cri- 
 tique" (Rotterdam, 1090, 2 vols, folio; last ed., 
 Paris, 1820-24, 16 vols. Svo; English translation, 
 bested., London, 1734-37, 5 vols, folio); Cavk: 
 Lives of the Fathers, ISlO, vol. ii. ; Buti.kk ; Lices 
 of the Saints ; Kloth (Roman Catholic); Derheil. 
 Kirchenl. Augustinus, Aachen, 1810; Bi.ndemann 
 (Protestant) : Der heil. Augustinus, Berlin, 1844, 55, 
 09, 3 vols. (These two are very elaborate mono- 
 graphs from opposite stand-points.) Pou./oulat : 
 Histoire de S. Augustin, Paris, 3d ed.. 1852, 2 
 vols.; Philip Sch.\ff: t^/. Augustine (German 
 and English), Berlin, London, and New York, 
 1854; Friicdu. u. Paul Bohkingek: Aurclius 
 Augustinus, 2d ed. of revised ed., Stuttgart, 1877- 
 78; W. R. Clark; Augustine, in the "Fathers 
 for English Readers," Society for Promotion of 
 Christian Knowledge, London, n. d. ; Brauxe : 
 Monnica und Augustinus, Grimma, 1846. See 
 also the general historical works of ScHUliCKH, 
 Jveandeu, Milman, and Sciiafk. 
 
 Theology of Augustine. — For a comprehensive 
 review and criticism of Augustine's theology 
 see A. Dorner: Augustinus, sein Iheulogisches 
 System und seine religions-phdosophische Anschau- 
 
 ung, Berlin, 1873. For special points ; Pela- 
 gianism : Janse.n ; Augusti?ius . . . doi-irina ad- 
 cersus I'ehigianos et Massilienses, Louvain, 1040, 
 fol.; WliiOKRS: Versuch einer imignial. iJarstellung 
 des Auguslinismns ii. I'elagianismus, Hamburg, 
 1821-33, 2 vols., the first vol. translated by Pro- 
 fessor Emerson, Andover, 1840. Uermencutics : 
 H. N. Clau.s.skn ; Aur. Aug. Sacrce Scri/i. inter- 
 pres., Berlin, 1827; Sciineegans: Apjircciali<m 
 de Saint Aug., d'a/jres ses trnr. sur l hermeneu- 
 tiijue, Strassburg, ISlS; Archbp. Tre.ncii : Es.-iay 
 on the Merits if A ugustine as an Interpreter of 
 llolij Scripture, prefixed to his Exposition of the 
 Sermon on the Mount, drniim from the Writini/s of 
 S. Augustine, London, 1850. On other points: 
 Mozley ; Augustinian Doctrine of Predestination, 
 London, 1855; Tiikod. CIangauk : Des li. Aug. 
 Lehre von Oott dem Dreieinigen, Augsburg. 1865; 
 NiTZSCH ; Auguslini Lehre rom Wunder, Berlin, 
 1805; WiLDE.N : Die Lehre des h. Aug. com Opfer 
 der Eucharistie; Ribbeck : Doniitus ii. Aui/ustinus, 
 Elberfeld, 1858, 3 vols.; W. S. CuNNiNonAM: 
 Augustin and Ii is Place in the History of Christian 
 Thought, London, 1880; K. StiPio; Des Aure- 
 lins Augustinus Metaphysik iui Rtthmen seiner 
 Lehre torn Ueliel diirgestellt, Leipzig, 1886; Reu- 
 tek; Augnstiniache Stadien. Gotha, 1887; C. 
 Mirbt: Die Stellnng Augustins in der Publicistik 
 des gregorianinchen Kirchcn-itreits, Leipzig, 1888. 
 
 Phihsophg of A)igustine. — Theod. Gangauf: 
 Metaphysische Psychol ogie des heil. Aug., Augsburg 
 (2 Abt'h.), 18.52; T. Tiiery: Le genie philoso- 
 phiijue et litte'raire de saint Augustin, Paris, 1861; 
 Abbe Flottes : Etudes sur saint Augustin, Paris, 
 1861; NouRRisox: Iai phUosojihie de saint Augustin, 
 2d ed., Paris, 1866, 2 vols. ; Professor Ernest 
 Naville : St. Augustin, Geneva, 1872; Georg 
 LoEsCHE : De Augustino Plotinizante in doctrina de 
 Deo disserenda, Jena, 1880; J. Storz : Die Philo- 
 so/ihie des heiligen .4 ugustinus, Freiburg ira Br., 1882. 
 .See also UebervTeg. For an estimate of Augus- 
 tine from a literaiy stand-point, see Villemain : 
 Tableau de I'Eloi/uence chre'tienne au IV' siecle, 
 2d ed., Paris, 1849. SAMUEL M. JACK.sON. 
 
 Augustine's Theology. Augustine closed the 
 discussion upon the Trinity and Christology, and 
 opened it upon Anthroi)ology, a new path. This 
 was characteristic, for lie viewed religion practi- 
 cally rather than theoretically. 
 
 (1) Theology Proper. — He taught not only 
 an economic, but ;in immanent Trinity, and 
 endeavored to show the necessity of jiersonal 
 freedom to the construction of the divine self- 
 con.sciousuess and self-love (complacency). Self- 
 consciousness could only arise when the image of 
 the memoria was stamped by the voluntas upon the 
 intcllectus. The Father was the memoria, the Son 
 the intellectus, the Holy Spirit the voluntas, which 
 bound them together; but because these three are 
 three modes of existence, having the same con- 
 tents, the same essence in different forms, in them 
 exists the essence of God, in whose triune nature 
 there is no conflict, but complete consciousness 
 and perfect equality. Thus the idea of the 
 Trinity was for the first time clarified. Subor- 
 dinationism was ruled out. i^ach person had an 
 equally important part. 
 
 (2) Christology. — Christ is the medi.ator be- 
 tween God and man and ileus el homo, but not a 
 proper deus-homo, because, according to his viewe,
 
 AUGUSTINUS. 
 
 176 
 
 AUGUSTINUS. 
 
 an entire union is possible only at the cost of one 
 nature or the other. Both natures, he thinks, 
 stand by themselves, or ouly speak together in 
 the Person. The human nature assumed as 
 much divinity as possible, but did not give up 
 its humanity. A complete revelation of the 
 AVord is impossible, because the divine cannot 
 appear completely in the human. His fonnnlw 
 were decisive for Leo, also for Chalcedon (4.51), 
 and of great weight for all subsequent investiga- 
 tions. 
 
 (3) Doctrine of the Eucharht. — It is the meal 
 through which tiie recipient is incorporated into 
 the body of Christ. — the church, — and so into 
 Christ. " The sacrifice oiiered up in the Supper 
 was the self-sacrifice of the corpus, the church. 
 It cannot be proved that he taught the doctrine 
 of the '• Real Presence; " since he did not allow 
 omnipresence to the body of Christ, understand- 
 ing the expre.ssion figuratively of the church. 
 
 (4) Doctrine of Sin. — .Seeking to exclude 
 both iManicha;an and Pelagian one-sidedness, he 
 accented man's inability through sin. and con- 
 tracted as much as possible man's liberty. Evil 
 is privation, negation, and a weakening of all 
 spiritual power, particularly of the will : good 
 is positive, and the elfect of God's activity. He 
 only allows so much liberty of choice as is abso- 
 lutely necessary to free God from the charge of 
 the a'uthorship'of evil. At the fall, man made 
 a bad choice, and the consequences are hereditary. 
 Yet man has the capacity of salvation, since the 
 natunt is not itself bad, only impaired; the intel- 
 ligence is sunk in ii/uorantia, and the will in 
 in/iniiilas. In Adam the race had a sort of pre- 
 existence ; and thus, when he fell, all fell. Sin 
 is a permanent tendency in man, fundamentally 
 wrong, a turning-aside from God. This opposes 
 the Pelagian idea of an equilibrium, — the ability 
 to turn in either direction. Sin in the genus is 
 shared by every individual. Punishment and 
 guilt are therefore hereditary. The former was 
 the necessary and natural consequence of sin, and 
 at the same time tlie exhibition of the divine 
 righteousness : its ground was guilt. Yet God 
 angers not, for he is unchangeable. He simply 
 orders that sinful man as the weaker shall, ac- 
 cording to the laws of Nature, come under tlie 
 power of the Devil as the stronger. This cap- 
 tivity is as hereditary as sin, and so the race has 
 been since the fall a ma.ssa perditionis. 
 
 (b) Doctrine of (jracn. — Grace exists only in 
 the activity of God upon the will and intelli- 
 gence, giving them a new direction. Grace in- 
 spires the subject directly, but only in the line 
 of liis natural ability. Keclenqition is deliver- 
 ance from llie power and authority of the Devil, 
 death, and sin. Christ paid a ransom to the 
 Devil, and wrought conqilete deliverance from 
 punishment, and at the same time from the 
 infirnnty of intellect and will. Thus he brings 
 into prominence tlie activity of God among men, 
 especially in the inipartation of love and knowl- 
 edge, but this conception of justification is 
 (juite different from the Reioimers'; viz., de- 
 liverance from fjuilt, by which access is opened 
 unto God. He lays no sneh stress upon guilt in 
 its immediate relation to God, becau.se lie does 
 not make enough of ])ersonality. He makes 
 salvation depi-nd iqion the action of (jod upon 
 
 ' the powers of the soul. Therefore the relation 
 of justification to sanctification is of secondar5 
 importance, and the main thing is to determine 
 how far the human and divine powers respect- 
 ively operate in conversion. 
 
 (d) Doctrine of Faith. — lie teaches a double 
 sort of faith, one both mystic and historic, ex- 
 isting at the .same time. The former sort is the 
 effect of the power of God upon the intellect : 
 the latter is called forth by contemplating the 
 work of Christ. 
 
 (7) Doctrine of Lore. — Love rests alone upon 
 the inspiration of God. It is the enlightennu'ut 
 of faith, and a purely divine work. It is the 
 source of every good deed. Union with God 
 depends upon it. It cannot be entirely free from 
 fear, for salvation depends upon it. The feeling 
 of separation from God is not entirely overcome, 
 and justification itself is a growth. Hence we 
 must strive to love in order to be holj-, to be fully 
 united to God, and share in his love. The un- 
 certainty of salvation is an incentive. 
 
 (S) Doctrine of Preile.tlination. — God deter- 
 mines who shall belong to the elect, and who 
 shall not. The elect are chosen that they may 
 receive his grace: for in consequence of the fall 
 all have forfeited this favor, and no claim can 
 be made by any upon it; but God is willing to 
 bestow it upon some. No one can tell whether 
 he is of the number or not. On Christ, as the 
 First-Elect, all depends. This is according to tlie 
 predestined plan. In God's eyes the predestined 
 one is a fliiis iiacis before his actual conversion. 
 The plan of God embraces all events. The doc- 
 trine of predestination includes the idea of its 
 historical application, which is effected by ex- 
 ternal causes. And because the ordinances of 
 religion, etc., are external causes, therefore we 
 should despair of none, but labor on the suppo- 
 sition of their predestination. The non-predesti- 
 nated are justly rejected because they refuse the 
 very means employed for their recovery ; and, 
 when we bear in mind the damning nature of 
 sin, their condemnation has no element of in- 
 justice in it. 
 
 (9) Doctrine of the Cliurch. — Just as there was 
 a double sort of faith, so the conception of the 
 Church is double. On the practical side, it is 
 the objective institution for salvation ; while, on 
 the mystical side, it is the community of the pre- 
 destinated. The visible Church has good and 
 bad elements. He commonly, however, views 
 the Church in its eternal aspects. Out of it 
 there is no salvation, because in it alone are the 
 Holy Spirit and the means of grace. Ordination 
 infallibly imparts the Sjiirit: therefore the priest 
 is distingnislicd from tlie layman as one who can 
 mediate the grace of (iod, ami offer the eucharist. 
 The individual is linkcil. not only to the whole 
 body, but also to the priest as the re|ire3eiitative 
 of tiie body. In like manner the validity of bap- 
 tism is independent of the baptizer. Heretics 
 and schismatics can baptize, but only as one uses 
 stolen goods; for baptism has its blessing only 
 in tlie Church. I'n'aiiliiiig and the Lord's Supper 
 are also similarly dependent for their bles.sing 
 upon the Cliurch. Membership in the visible 
 Church is a condition of salvation, and unbaii- 
 tized infants are damned. The Church through 
 her priests shares in the divine Spirit and ccun-
 
 AURELIAN. 
 
 177 
 
 AUSTRALASIA. 
 
 plete holiness. Thus Ausiustino tfaches ossen- 
 tially tlie Roman Catholic idea of tlie Church. 
 
 Augustine's Ethics. He lays little stress upon 
 nature and science, property, marriage, the fam- 
 ily, and the state : in short, lie reijard.s all earthly 
 things .as comi^aratively worthless. On th(! 
 other hand, he regards the cloister life as tiie 
 very summit of piety. But thi.s is only one 
 side of his ethics. God's worldly activity is 
 concentr.ated in the visible Church. The ethical 
 sphere, which belongs to the transient, and is 
 eaten into by sin, can only be purified by the 
 Church. Marriage, the foundation of the fami- 
 ly, must be a sacrament, so that it may receive 
 the consecration of the Church. To give prop- 
 erty to the Church is a meritorious work. Sci- 
 ence must be kept in the right way by the 
 Church. The State can be looked at as a mor- 
 ally worthy institution only when placed at the 
 disposal of the Church. 
 
 It is erroneous to credit Augustine with the 
 ideas causative of the Reformation. The em- 
 phasis upon the moral personality, from whence 
 alone was possible the demand for liberty of 
 conscience ; the emphasis upon guilt and the 
 consciousness of guilt ; the striving after imme- 
 diate certainty of salvation ; the central position 
 of the doctrine of justification, and the clear 
 distinction between the legal and the evangelical 
 stand-points, — all these .are wanting in him. 
 {But his anti-Pelagian writings and his doctrines 
 of sin and grace had a very marked influence 
 upon the reformers, who esteemed him above all 
 other fathers.] 
 
 He must, however, be credited with recognizing, 
 as no one before had done, the world-conquering 
 might of Christianity. Discarding the old no- 
 tion that the world moved in reons, Augustine 
 looked beyond the present, and saw adown the 
 long gallery of time the grand consummation, 
 when the many kingdoms of the world sh.all 
 become the one kingdom of our Lord and of his 
 Christ; and the Eternal City, fully established, is 
 not heathen Rome, but the "City of God," the 
 New Jerusalem! AUGUST CORNER. 
 
 AURELIAN, Roman emperor 270-275, was, 
 according to an old tradition in the church, the 
 author of the ninth of those ten great persecu- 
 tions generally spoken of by Christian writers. 
 This tradition, however, seems to rest on a mis- 
 understanding. In his church history (^'H., 30), 
 to which all later accounts can be referred as 
 to their source, Eusebius says only, that, to- 
 wards the close of his reign, the emperor changed 
 his views of the Christians, and was about to act 
 upon this change when he died. He sjieaks 
 neither of the actual issue of an edict, nor of its 
 execution, but simply of a purpose, a plan; and 
 this corresponds better to the character of the 
 man and to the given situation. Aurelian was 
 a soldier, and much occupied with military 
 affairs during his reign ; and though he was 
 much devoted to his parental faith, even to its 
 superstitions, Christianity held, since the time of 
 Gallienus, a publicly guaranteed position in the 
 state, which makes even the plan of a general 
 persecution rather improbable. 
 
 AURELIUS, Marcus. See M.\rcus Aukklius. 
 
 AURICULAR CONFESSION (Lat. auricula, 
 the external ear), confession into the ear of a priest 
 13 — 1 
 
 in private, enjoined by Leo the Great C'l 10-401) as 
 a substitute for public confession. The twenty- 
 first canon of the Fourth Lateran Council (121.';), 
 under Innocent III., makes it oliligatory every 
 year upon ail Catholics, on ])ain of excommuni- 
 cation, and consequently the loss of Christian 
 burial. See Conkkssion. 
 
 AURIFABER, Johann ( I7;i«nV;i.s-;.s), b. in l.'ilO, 
 probably in the county of Maiisfeld ; d. at Erfurt, 
 Nov. 18, 1575; studied theology iu Wittenberg, 
 and became Luther's famulus, and afterwards 
 court-preacher in Weimar, and minister in Er- 
 furt. He partook with great zeal in the theologi- 
 cal controversies of his time, but became most 
 widely known as an editor of Luther's works. 
 He was one of the superintendents of the Jena 
 edition (1555-58), and published two volumes of 
 Luther's German works (150I-(;5), two volumes 
 of Luther's Latin letters in 155fj and 15(J5, and 
 Tischreden oder Colloquia Dr. Martin Luthcrs in 
 1506. 
 
 AUSTIN, St., a contraction of Augustine fre- 
 quently used. See Augustink, St. 
 
 AUSTRALASIA. This name is etymologically 
 equivalent to Southern Asia ; but correct usage 
 limits it to the Continent of xVustralia, the Island 
 of Tasmania, the Islands of New Zealand, and 
 the small islands near each of the colonies. The 
 mainland is bounded on the north by Torres 
 Straits, the Gulf of Carpentaria, and the Indian 
 Ocean ; on the east by the South Pacific ; on the 
 south by Bass Strait, which separates it from 
 Tasmania; and on the west by the Indian Ocean. 
 It is situated to the south-east of Asia, between 
 the parallels of 10° and 39° south latitude, and 
 ill east longitude between the meridians of 113° 
 and 154°. Its greatest length is about twenty- 
 four hundred miles: its greatest breadth is nearly 
 two thousand miles. It has a coast line of 7,750 
 miles in length. The area is three million square 
 miles, or nearly six times as large as India, or four- 
 fifths the size of Europe, or almost half that of 
 South America. 
 
 Position of the Colonies. — The whole of the 
 eastern part of the Australian Continent consists 
 of three colonies, — Queensland, in the north, with 
 Brisbane as its capital ; New South Wales, south 
 of Queensland, having Sydney for capital ; Vic- 
 toria, south-west of New South Wales, IMelbourne 
 being the metropolis. To the west lies South 
 Australia, stretching from ocean to ocean, the 
 northern part of wdiich is now known as the 
 Northern Territory. The capital of South Aus- 
 tralia is Adelaide. The whole of the western 
 part is occupied by Western Australia ; capital, 
 Perth. Tasmania is one hundred and twenty 
 miles south of Victoria, across Bass Strait, and 
 is surrounded by the South Pacific Ocean : Ho- 
 bartTown (called since ISSO Hobart) is the capital. 
 The islands of New Zealand are to the south- 
 east of the Australian Continent, twelve hundred 
 miles distant, Wellington being the capital. 
 
 General Features. — The exact date of the dis- 
 covery of Australia is doubtful. In 1006 Dutch 
 sailors explored the north and west coasts. In 
 1042 Abel Tasman discovered Tasmania and 
 New Zealand. Capt. Cook's well-known ex- 
 plorations began in 1770. The first settlement 
 was that of New South '\^'ales, iu 1788, from 
 which nearly all the neighboring colonies wero
 
 AUSTRALASIA. 
 
 AUSTRALASIx 
 
 planted. Tasmania, or Van Dieman's Land, was 
 settled in 1S03; Western Australia, or Swan 
 River, in 1829 ; Queensland, or Moreton Bay, in 
 1825 ; Victoria, then known as Port Philip, in 
 1831; South Australia, 1830; New Zealand, 
 1838. The precise number of aboriginal inhab- 
 itants in early times is not known. They have 
 been fast disappearing before the advance of 
 civilization : indeed, the Tasmanians are now ex- 
 tinct. The Maories of New Zealand ai'e much 
 superior mentally and physically to the native 
 races of the neighboring colonies. Tlie general 
 characteristics of the continent and islands are 
 now pretty well ascertained. The districts near 
 the coast and the settled parts inland are fertile, 
 but large tracts of the interior are unfit for occu- 
 pation. Navigable channels are comparatively 
 few; and the alternation of rainy and rainless 
 periods, of flood and drought, is destructive. In 
 these respects New Zealand and Tasmania are 
 more favorably situated. The seasons are the 
 reverse of those in Europe and America, June 
 being midwinter. The hot winds and dust in 
 summer are trying on the continent, but during 
 the greater part of the year the climate is genial 
 and healthy. The mean temperature ranges from 
 70° in Queensland to 51° in Tasmania. The 
 kangaroo and the opossum are the best known of 
 the numerous marsupials of Australia. Snakes 
 are plentiful, and sharks abound along the coast. 
 Each colony is a sort of distinct province, having 
 a governor and Houses of Parliament of its 
 own, on tlie model of the British Constitution. 
 AVool is the grand staple product, mining and 
 agricultural interests probably ranking next. In 
 1788 the first settlement consisted of about a 
 thousand persons; in 1859 the population, in- 
 cluding Tasmania and New Zealand, was about 
 a million; in 1877, two million and a lialf. It is 
 now, at the beginning of 1881, probably about 
 three millions. In railway, telegraph, and postal 
 arrangements, Australia has rapidly advanced ; 
 and there are three lines of subsidized mail- 
 steamers between the colonies and Great Britain. 
 The social condition of the people compares not 
 unfavorably with that of England and America. 
 In regard to education the colonies are thorouglily 
 impressed with their responsibilities. The public- 
 .scliool system is generally unsectarian, free, and 
 compulsory; while the fiigher training is ad- 
 mirably provi(le<l for by numerous colleges and 
 well-equipped universities. There is no Estab- 
 lished Church; and State aid to religion is now 
 almost wliolly abolished. New South Wales 
 ceased to grant it in 1863; Victoria, 1869. The 
 Episcopalians are tlie most numc'ious body : the 
 Roman Catholics rank next. The proportion of 
 places of worship of the various sects to the 
 population is remarkable, consideriug the recent 
 Bettlement of the colonies. 
 
 Special Cliaracterhlicx of lite Several Colonies. — 
 In the following descriptive details the statistics 
 of each colony are from the latest available 
 official returns. In the absence of a uniform 
 census for the wliole group, tlie figures represent, 
 as the reader will easily note, a more recent date 
 ju some cases than in others. 
 
 New South Wales, tli(^ indlhcr-colony, originally 
 comprised all of the continent east of the 135tn 
 meridian ; but the formation into separate colo- 
 
 nies of South Australia in 1836, of Victoria in 
 1851, and of Queensland in 1859, has reduced it 
 to a more moderate size. Its area is now given 
 at 323.437 square miles, being about three times 
 that of Great Britain and Ireland. The coast 
 district, which is a strip of varying width, ex- 
 tending back to the Dividing Range, or Blue 
 Mountains, is the chief agricultural, as the in- 
 terior is the chief pastoral, land of the colony. 
 The loftiest mountains are Ko.sciusko (7,308 feet), 
 Seaview (6,000 feet), Ben Lomond (5,000 feet), 
 and Oxiey's Peak (4.500 feet). Among the im- 
 mense level tracts of the interior are the Liver- 
 pool and JNIonaro plains. The great rivers are 
 the Murr.ay, the ^lurrumbidgee, the Darling, and 
 the Laclilan. On June 30. 1879, the population 
 of New South Wales was estimated at 712,019; 
 that of Sydney and suburbs amounted to 200,000. 
 The other important towns are Maitland, Goul- 
 burn, and Batliurst. ' 
 
 Miscellaneous Jieligious Intelliqence. — Rev. 
 Richard Johnson, Church of England, the first 
 clergyman in Australia, arrived 1788. The Rt. 
 Rev. W. G. Broughton was installed first bishop 
 of Australia June 2, 1836. The present (1881) 
 Metropolitan of Australia, who is Bishop of 
 Sydney, is Rev. Dr. Frederick Barker. The 
 first Presbyterian Church was opened in 1809. 
 The first Wesleyan class-meeting was held in 
 1812 ; the first minister. Rev. Samuel Leigh, ar- 
 rived 1815. The first Congregational minister, 
 Rev. ;Mr. Cover, arrived 1798. Tlie first Baptist 
 chapel, founded by Rev. J. Saunders, was opened 
 in 1835. The returns of the principal religious 
 sects for 1878 are as follows : — 
 
 Religion. 
 
 Ministers. 
 
 Places of 
 Worship. 
 
 Average 
 Attend- 
 ance. 
 
 Episcopalians . 
 Presbyterians . 
 Wesieyans 
 Congregalionalists . 
 [Japtists . 
 Koman Catholics 
 
 207 
 83 
 
 89 
 
 14 
 
 104 
 
 410 
 149 
 
 269 
 43 
 18 
 
 273 
 
 65,388 
 20,142 
 32,683 
 6,909 
 2,650 
 60,769 
 
 Victoria.- — Till 1851 this colony was part, of 
 New South Wales, from which it. is separated by 
 the River Murray. Its area is about 88,198 square 
 miles, a little less than th.at of Great Britain. 
 A range of mountains divides it into two unequal 
 parts, the highest peaks rising to six thousand 
 and seven thousand feet. It has no large rivers; 
 the Gipps-Land streams and tlie Yarra-Yarra 
 being the only ones of importance. The climate 
 of Victoria is healthy and agreeable : the aver- 
 age temperature is nine degrees higher than 
 in London. Although one of the youngest, 
 Victoria is one of the most important, of the 
 colonies: commercially it is probably next to 
 India among British dejiendencies. In 1835 the 
 white ]io|iulation was fourteen ; in ,Iune, 1879, 
 it was 887,434, Melbourne and suburbs numl)er- 
 iiig 260,678. Ballarat and Sandhurst are the 
 other principal cities. Capt. Cook was the first 
 European who visited the country, April 19, 
 1770. The first settlement w;is made in 1788. 
 The native population was at that time about 
 5,000; but in 1851 it had sunk to 2,093; in 1875, 
 to 1,553. It seems that the natives were com- 
 pletely incapable of a rapid civilizatory devel-
 
 AUSTRALASIA. 
 
 179 
 
 AUSTRALASIA. 
 
 opment. The religious returns of 1878 showed 
 the chief denominations as follows : — 
 
 Religion. 
 
 MinifitcrB. 
 
 ChurclieB, 
 
 Clmpels, 
 
 Etc. 
 
 Attend- 
 ance. 
 
 Episcopalifinfl . 
 ProMbytt'riiiliB . 
 Weslfyaim 
 Independents . 
 Baplisle . 
 Koninn Calholies 
 
 161 
 156 
 140 
 
 48 
 40 
 94 
 
 485 
 677 
 828 
 93 
 78 
 454 
 
 43,154 
 66,740 
 92,030 
 8,395 
 9,255 
 61,902 
 
 Queensland, formerly known as Moreton Bay, 
 occupies the north-east part of the continent of 
 Au.=itralia, comprising 669,520 square miles, or 
 fully three times the area of France. Unlike 
 most of the other colonies, it is well-watered; 
 some of the rivers being broad and navigable. 
 The soil is favorable for the cultivation of tropi- 
 cal productions, such as sugar, coffee, tobacco, 
 olives, rice, maize, spices, and arrowroot. Gold, 
 copper, tin, and coal are the chief minerals. 
 The climate resembles that of Madeira: it is 
 very warm, except on the large table-lands, where 
 it is more moderate. The winters are delightful. 
 The population of Queensland on Dec. 31, 1878, 
 was estimated at 210,510; that of Brisbane being 
 35,000. The other chief towns are Ipswich, 
 Maryborough, and Rockhampton. The leading 
 sects were thus represented in 1876 : Episco- 
 palians, 61,962 adherents ; Presbyterians, 18,947 ; 
 Methodists, 11,005; Lutherans, 12,174 ; Roman 
 Catholics, 43,147. 
 
 South Auslralia. — The area of this colony is 
 now estimated at 903,690 square miles. It has 
 much variety, both of soil and climate, and con- 
 siderable mineral wealth in copper, lead, and 
 iron. The population at the end of 1878 was 
 252,000, Adelaide containing 60,000. The num- 
 ber of churches and chapels that year was 708, 
 with accommodation for over 137,000 persons. 
 The census of 1876 gave the principal denomina- 
 tions as follows: Episcopalians, 56,100; Presby- 
 terians, 14,651; Wesleyans, 36,040; Lutherans, 
 17.129 ; Baptists, 10,460 ; Congregational ists, 
 8,726; Roman Catholics, 32,668. 
 
 Western Australia is the largest of these colo- 
 nies, being estimated at 978,299 square miles. 
 The climate is one of the finest and most salu- 
 brious in the world : its mortality has averaged 
 only about one per cent. At the end of 1878 the 
 population numbered 28,166. Perth and Fre- 
 mantle are the chief towns, the former contain- 
 ing 7,120 inhabitants. Fully a half of the 
 people of the colony were returned as Episco- 
 palians, more than a fourth Roman Catholics, 
 and about five per cent Wesleyans, the other 
 sects being poorly represented. About the end 
 of 1879 the first Presbyterian minister of the 
 colony came out from Scotland. 
 
 Tasmania, formerly called Van Dieman's Land, 
 is situ.ated betwen 40° 33' and 43° 39' south lati- 
 tude, and 144° 39' .and 148° 23' e.ast longitude. 
 Comprising 26,215 square miles, it is nearly 
 equal in size to Scotland. It is more English in 
 its aspect than any other colony of the Australi.an 
 group. " The interior especially is delightful ; 
 and here are united, so to speak, the climate of 
 Italy, the beauty of the Apennines, and the fer- 
 tility of England." The mineral treasures, 
 
 especially gold and tin, are now being mors 
 vigorously developed than formerly. On Dec. 
 31, 1879, the population w.os estinuited .at 109,947, 
 Ilobart containing 22, .500. Launceston, in the 
 the north, with 12,000 inhabitants, is a centre of 
 mineral, pastoral, and agricultural prosperity. 
 According to the last otficial return.s, in 1870, 
 the principal denomiu.ations stood th\is : Episco- 
 palians, 53,047 ; Presbyterians, 9,064 ; Wesley- 
 ans, 7.187 ; Independents, 3,931 ; Rom.an Catho- 
 lics, 22,091. No other Australian colony has 
 gone through so many and so various vicissitudes 
 as Tasmania. It was discovered Nov. 24, 1042, 
 by Abel Janssen Tasman, the Dutch explorer, 
 and by him called Van Diemen's Laud, in honor 
 of the Dutch governor of the East Indies. But it 
 w,as not settled until 1803, when Gov. Ring 
 of Sydney sent Lieut. Bowen thither with three 
 soldiers, and ten male and six female convicts. 
 Tasmania thus became a settlement of convicts, 
 <a colony of criminals; <aud its history shows the 
 marks of its origin. Robbery, murder, and fights, 
 not only with the natives, but with escaped con- 
 victs, bushrangers, and among the colonists them- 
 selves, were for many years the order of the 
 day. In 1825 it was separated from New South 
 Wales, and organized as an independent colony; 
 but in 1842 it h.ad still 20,000 convicts living, 
 besides 59,000 free settlers. And how far it 
 still is from having outgrown the dis.advant.ages 
 of its birth may be inferred from the fact, that 
 in 1870 there were 55,939 jwrsons in the colony 
 who could read and write, 13,945 who could only 
 read, and 29,444 who could neither re.ad nor 
 write. 
 
 New Zealand. — The group of North, Middle, 
 and Stewart's Islands, of which this colony con- 
 sists, are almost equal in size to Great Britain 
 and Ireland. The country is of volcanic origin, 
 chains of mountains running from north to south. 
 The climate is, on the whole, free from extremes 
 of heat and cold, and is remarkably healthy. 
 New Zealand is rich in minerals. The grains, 
 grasses, fruits, and vegetables of Gre.at Britain, 
 are successfully cultivated. M.arsupials and 
 snakes, common in the other colonies, are not 
 found here. By the census of March, 1878, the 
 population was 414,412, exclusive of the M.aories, 
 numbering about 43,000. Various kinds of grain 
 and fruit have been introduced, and succeed ex- 
 ceedingly well. Different species of animals — 
 sheep, cattle, horses, deer, etc. — have also been 
 introduced, and not only thrive well, but even 
 seem to improve. The islands were first visited 
 by Cook in 1770, but the connection with the 
 civilized world is now frequent and rapid. Aa 
 active mission is carried on among the M.aories, 
 but, as it would seem, not with much success. 
 According to the last ecclesiastical returns, which 
 were made in 1874, the numbers were as fol- 
 lows: — 
 
 Religion. 
 
 Churches. 
 
 Seats. 
 
 Attend- 
 ance. 
 
 Epiecopaliana . 
 Preebyteriaua . 
 Wesleyans 
 KoQian Catholics 
 
 172 
 
 125 
 
 105 
 
 86 
 
 30,783 
 30,183 
 18,883 
 19,645 
 
 19,916 
 
 • 18,541 
 
 12,723 
 
 10,967
 
 AUSTRALASIA. 
 
 180 
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 Religious Denomisatioxs in Australia ix 1871. 
 {The Population icas then about 2,000,000.) 
 
 Religion. 
 
 N. S. 
 Wales. 
 
 New 
 Zealand. 
 
 Queens- 
 land. 
 
 South 
 Australia. 
 
 Tas- 
 mania. 
 
 Victoria. 
 
 Western 
 AustraUa. 
 
 Total. 
 
 EpiscopnlianB 
 
 229,243 
 
 124,373 
 
 61,962 
 
 60,849 
 
 53,047 
 
 257,835 
 
 14,619 
 
 791,928 
 
 Homau Catholics .... 
 
 14o,932 
 
 40,412 
 
 43,147 
 
 2S,66S 
 
 22,091 
 
 176,620 
 
 7,113 
 
 4I«,98S 
 
 Pi-esbyteriaiia 
 
 49,122 
 
 72,477 
 
 1S,947 
 
 13,371 
 
 9,064 
 
 112,983 
 
 529 
 
 276,493 
 
 Wesleyans 
 
 36,275 
 
 25,219 
 
 11,065 
 
 27,075 
 
 7,187 
 
 94,220 
 
 1,374 
 
 202,415 
 
 CongretjationalisU .... 
 
 9,253 
 
 5,441 
 
 2,560 
 
 7,969 
 
 3,931 
 
 18,191 
 
 882 
 
 48,227 
 
 Baptists 
 
 4,151 
 
 6,353 
 
 6,344 
 
 S,73I 
 
 931 
 
 16,311 
 
 54 
 
 41,875 
 
 Primitive Metliodists .... 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 8,207 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 8,207 
 
 Other Methodists . . . . 
 
 3,291 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 
 > 
 
 3,291 
 
 Lutherans and German Protestants . 
 
 . 
 
 3,914 
 
 12,174 
 
 15,412 
 
 - 
 
 10,659 
 
 - 
 
 42,059 
 
 Christians — Brethren and Disciples, 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 1,188 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 1,183 
 
 Calvinists, or Calvinistic Methodists, 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 1,432 
 
 - 
 
 1,432 
 
 Friends 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 - 
 
 92 
 
 82 
 
 333 
 
 - 
 
 507 
 
 Unitarians 
 
 849 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 662 
 
 - 
 
 1,016 
 
 - 
 
 2,627 
 
 Catholic Apostolic Church 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 278 
 
 - 
 
 278 
 
 Greek Church 
 
 * 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 332 
 
 - 
 
 332 
 
 Christian Israelites .... 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 . 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 235 
 
 — 
 
 285 
 
 Mormons 
 
 . 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 . 
 
 97 
 
 - 
 
 97 
 
 Jews 
 
 2,393 
 
 1,215 
 
 427 
 
 435 
 
 232 
 
 3,571 
 
 62 
 
 8,337 
 
 Moravians 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 210 
 
 . 
 
 93 
 
 - 
 
 303 
 
 Pa^ns, Mohammedans, Chinese 
 
 V,463 
 
 4,751 
 
 10,047 
 
 - 
 
 4 
 
 18,392 
 
 4 
 
 40,666 
 
 Nevp Jerusalem Church 
 
 — 
 
 - 
 
 « 
 
 137 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 137 
 
 Bible Christians 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 7,758 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 7,768 
 
 Methodists, New Connection . 
 
 . 
 
 « 
 
 - 
 
 363 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 363 
 
 Church of Christ .... 
 
 . 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 _ 
 
 - 
 
 3,640 
 
 - 
 
 3,540 
 
 No Sect 
 
 - 
 
 . 
 
 > 
 
 508 
 
 - 
 
 2,150 
 
 147 
 
 2,805 
 
 Unspecified 
 
 5,946 
 
 - 
 
 5,936 
 
 4,763 
 
 - 
 
 5,560 
 
 - 
 
 22,195 
 
 Other Protestants .... 
 
 7,208 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 1,028 
 
 - 
 
 8,236 
 
 Other Catholics 
 
 1,695 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 1,695 
 
 Other Persuasions .... 
 
 1,166 
 
 - 
 
 1,674 
 
 3.802 
 
 2,759 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 9,401 
 
 Objected to state religion . • 
 
 ~ 
 
 " 
 
 ~ 
 
 5,436 
 
 - 
 
 9,965 
 
 ~ 
 
 16,401 
 
 Approximate Estimate in' 1878. 
 (Population about 2,500,000.) 
 
 -r, ,. . Estimated 
 
 Rehgion. Number. 
 
 Episcopalians ....... 989,537 
 
 Roman Catholics 679,985 
 
 Presb^'terians ....... 345,614 
 
 Wesleyans 253,019 
 
 Cont^regationalistb 61,534 
 
 Baptists 51,094 
 
 Primitive Metbodista 10,258 
 
 Other Methodists 4,114 
 
 Lutherans and German Protestants. . . 62.574 
 
 Christians— Brethren and Disciples . . 1,486 
 
 Calvinistic Methodists 1,790 
 
 Friends 634 
 
 Unitarians 3,159 
 
 Catholic Apostolic Church .... 347 
 
 Greek Church 415 
 
 Christian Israelites 356 
 
 Mormons ........ 121 
 
 Jews 10,421 
 
 Moravians 416 
 
 Pagans, Mohammedans, Cbineso ... 50,&J3 
 
 New Jerusalem Church . . • • . 171 
 
 Bible Christians 9,697 
 
 Methodists, New Connection .... 454 
 
 Church of Christ 4,425 
 
 No Sect 3,606 
 
 Un81>ecified 27,744 
 
 Other Protestants 10,295 
 
 Other Catholics 2.119 
 
 Other Persuasions 11,751 
 
 Objected to state rellKioo 19,251 
 
 WoKK.s OF Reference. — Australian Dictinn- 
 <irij of Dalen and Men of the TimK. By J. H. 
 Heato.n. London, 1879. — Australian Handbook 
 and Almanac. London, 1880. — Ilondbook for 
 AiLilralia and New Zealand. 3(1 fdition. London, 
 1880. New South Wales. By C. Koiiin.son. Syd- 
 ney, IS73-7S. —Victorian Year-Boot for 1878-70. 
 By II. H. Hayteu, Government .Statist. Mel- 
 bourne, 1879. — Mooue's Au.stralinn Almanac for 
 1880. Sydney. — South A ustralia : Its llistorij. Pro- 
 cess, Resources, and Present Position. Adelaide, 
 
 1880. — Handbook of New Zealand. By James 
 Hector, M.D. Wellington. 1879. — Walch's 
 Tasmanian Almanac, ISSO. llobart Town. T.as- 
 mania. — Enii</ralion to Tasmania. By a Recent 
 Settler. London, 1879. R. S. Duff of Tasmania. 
 
 AUSTRIA contains, accordins; to the last cen- 
 sus (of 1809) a population of 3."),634,8.58, of which 
 two-thirds, or nearly 24,000,000, belong to the 
 Roman-Catholic Church, 3,941,796 to the Greek- 
 Catholic, 3,050,830 to the Non-United Greek, 
 1,518,262 to the Lutheran, 2,255,113 to the Calvin- 
 ist, 55,079 to the Unitarian, and 10,133 to the 
 Armenian: 1,375,861 are Jews. The Catholic 
 Church, including the Greek and Armenian Cath- 
 olics, has sixteen archbishops, forty-seven suffra- 
 gan bisho]is, two vicar bisliops, one military 
 bishop, and nine hundred and fifty convents, with 
 eighty-five hundred monks, and fifty-seven hun- 
 dred nuns, — in all about thirty-four thousand 
 ecclesiastics. Tlie Non-Uniteil Greek Church liaa 
 a patriarch in Karlowitz, an archbishop in ller- 
 nianstadt, eleven bishops, about four tliousanil 
 priests, and forty convents, with three hundred 
 monks. The Protestant churches liave eighteen 
 superintenilencies. 
 
 The introduction of Christianity, and the his- 
 tory of tlie Christian Church, in tlie various parts 
 of the empire, will bi; sjioken of in the articles 
 on Bohemia, Hu.vGARY, Moravia, and I'oi.and. 
 We speak here only of the church-history of the 
 ArcluUicliy of Austria, and of the general ecclesi- 
 astical jiolicy of the empire. 
 
 The Archducliy of Austria, inhabited by the 
 Taurisci, a Celtic tribe, belonged inirtly to I'an- 
 iionia, partly to Noricum, both provinces of the 
 Konian Knipire since; tlie time of Augustus. 
 Hither ('hrislianity was brought by the Roman 
 soldiers and citizens, — from tlie Last, by ,St. Vic- 
 torinus (d. in the persecution of Diocletian), and 
 from the West, by St. Severinus (d. 482). Lorch
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 181 
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 was the oldest episcopal see. Afterwards the 
 country was overrun by various barbaric tribes, — 
 Goths, lluiis, Lombards, etc. ; and in the time of 
 Charlem.agne the Avari were .settled to the east 
 of the Ens, and the Bajuvarii to the west. The 
 Avari were converted to Christianity by mission- 
 aries from the Krankish Church ; and the count- 
 ship which Charlemagne founded here, .and which 
 forms the political nucleus of the Archducliy of 
 Austria, was placed under the ecclesiastical au- 
 thority of the Archbishop of Salzburg. Influences, 
 however, of the E.astern Church, made themselves 
 felt through Moravia; and during the whole 
 period of the middle ages the Austrian Church 
 seems to have maintained a .somewhat free at- 
 titude towards Rome. At the close of this 
 period, Turcianus preached against indulgences; 
 the monk Jacob, against relics ; Theobaldus, 
 ag.ainst the life led by the priests. Also was the 
 Reformation at first very successful here. P.aul 
 Speratus preached openly I>utlier's views in Vi- 
 enna; the books of the reformers circulated freely; 
 nearly three-fourths of the population accepted 
 the new doctrines; tlie monasteries stood empty ; 
 and in 15G0 the Emperor Ferdinand II. had to 
 place the mendicant friars under the protection 
 of the police. But the government was strongly 
 Roman Catholic; and the unfortunate dissensions 
 between the Protestants themselves, which, be- 
 tween the Phillipists and the Flacians, degen- 
 erated into unseemly quarrels and fanatical en- 
 mity, gave the Jesuits a welcome opportunity. 
 The Emperor Rudolph (157U-1G12) was their 
 pupil and their tool. Though, at his accession to 
 the throne, he confirmed the constitutional reli- 
 gious liberty of the country, nevertheless, very 
 soon after, he discharged all officials who held 
 the Protestant faith, abolished the evangelical 
 service in all towns and villages belonging to the 
 imperial domains, forbade religious gatherings 
 without special authorization, and charged Bishop 
 Khlesl with the organization of a complete anti- 
 reformation. The peasants revolted in 1.594, and 
 the revolt was not put down until 1597; but then 
 a committee was sent all through the country to 
 expel the evangelical ministers, and force the 
 Roman priests on the congregations. Under 
 Ferdinand III. (1619-57) the work was com- 
 pleted. The estates refused to swear fealty to 
 him, unless he granted religious liberty : but 
 Ferdin,and let loose a swarm of Cossacks on the 
 country, and then the estates took the oath. 
 But when he next ordered that the whole popu- 
 lation should at once return to the Roman faith, 
 and all Protestant ministers and schoolmasters 
 leave the country within a week, the peasants 
 rose en masse, and formed in a few days an army 
 of thirty-eight thousand men. They were de- 
 feated, liowever, and tlie order was executed 
 with great harshness. The peace of Westphalia 
 (1618) altered nothing with respect to Austria; 
 and in 1652 ten Jesuits were commissioned to 
 travel through the country, almost in the quality 
 of an Inquisition. Seventy-three families among 
 the nobility still adhered to the Protestant faith, 
 but they hardly dared to speak to e.ach other 
 about religion. Nevertheless, the evangelical 
 spirit, once awakened, could not die out alto- 
 gether: it lived on in secret. AVhen.in the reign 
 of Charles VI. (1711-40), permission was granted 
 
 to all Protestants to emigrate, twelve hundred 
 persons at once demanded to go. The govern- 
 ment was surprised, and tried to prevaricate; but 
 the people were inflexible, and in 1735 they were 
 transferred to Transylvania. The result of this 
 violent suppression of a sincere and orderly 
 movement towards freedom and truth has been, 
 that, in Austria, the Roman-Catholic Church i.s 
 altogether without influence, while religious in- 
 difference, superciliousness, and frivolity prevail 
 in all classes of society. 
 
 In spite of the fanaticism, however, with which 
 the government tried to suppress the Reforma- 
 tion wherever it could, it was very jealous of its 
 own freedom, and maintained quite an independ- 
 ent attitude with respect both to the pope and 
 the clergy. During the reign of Maria Theresa 
 (1740-80), especially after 1765, when Joseph II. 
 succeeded his father, Francis I., Maria Theresa's 
 husband, as Emperor of Germany, the influence 
 of the clergy was curtailed in every way. Their 
 power of holding councils was abrogated ; public 
 education was made a mere government affair ; 
 the relation between the religious orders and 
 their generals residing in Rome was dissolved, 
 and the orders placed under the authority of the 
 bishops ; numerous festivals were abolished, etc. 
 When Joseph II. became sole regent (1780-90), 
 the reforms were carried still further: the con- 
 nection between the pope and the Roman-Catholic 
 Church within the Austrian dominions was almost 
 severed, and the functions of the church itself 
 were reduced to a minimum. Many mon.asteries 
 were suppressed; the Latin language was abol- 
 ished in the administration of the sacraments ; 
 the tithes were turned into the treasury of the 
 state ; the priests were placed on an equal foot- 
 ing with other government officials, etc. Oct. 31, 
 1781, the celebrated edict of toleration was issued. 
 Protest.ants obtained full citizens' right through- 
 out the Austrian dominions, were admissible to 
 the highest offices, and received freedom of wor- 
 ship, even in the Archduchy of Austria, where a 
 superintendency was organized under the head 
 of an evangelical consistory in Vienna, and a 
 seminary for evangelical theology founded in the 
 same city. Though m.any of Joseph's reforms 
 were revoked by his immediate successors, and 
 though ultramont.ane tendencies became more 
 and more visible during the first half of the nine- 
 teenth century, the Roman Church in Austria was 
 still kept in a position subordinate to the .State, 
 up to 1855. The dangerous jiolitical concessions 
 which in 1848 made the Austrian monarchy 
 tremble in its very foundation brought forward 
 the idea to seek a support for the throne, not only 
 in the army and the police, but also and pre- 
 eminently in the Roman Church ; and Aug. 18, 
 1855, Francis Joseph I. signed a concordat with 
 the pope, by which the whole ecclesiastical legis- 
 lation of Joseph II. was swept away, the Roman 
 Church established in the empire as a state in the 
 state, and its connection with the pope thoroughly 
 cemented. Shortly after, a re-organization of 
 the Protestant churches was promised, and in 
 Hungary this re-org.anization was promptly car- 
 ried out. But in the German and Slavic parts 
 of the empire it w.as long delayed; and when at 
 last it came, in the form of a provisional consti- 
 tution (April 8, 1861), it proved unsatisfactory.
 
 AUTHORIZED. 
 
 182 
 
 AVITUS. 
 
 The partiality shown to the Roman - Catholic 
 Church is too flagrant. Only a Roman priest 
 can keep a valid register of 'births and deaths. 
 When a Roman-Catholic wishes to embrace Prot- 
 estantism he must for six months separate him- 
 self from all intercourse with Protestants, and 
 devote himself exclusively to the teaching of a 
 Roman-Catholic priest ; while a Protestant who 
 wishes to embrace Romanism needs only to go to 
 the nearest priest, and deliver himself up. In 
 Austria Proper the Protestants are not allowed to 
 have churches with music and bells, but only 
 chapels without entrance from the streets, etc. 
 Many of these petty annoyances with which the 
 priest still hopes to fight the pastor, the Protes- 
 tants have now succeeded in freeing themselves 
 from, but, characteristically enough, only by at- 
 tacking them one by one, and by going directly 
 to the emperor himself. 
 
 AUTHORIZED VERSION OF THE BIBLE. 
 See English Bible Versions. 
 
 AUTO-DA-F^, Spanish for actus Jidei, "act of 
 faith," signified the public enunciation of the 
 judgments of the Inquisition over lieretics and 
 non-Christians, and was also called senno puh- 
 licus, or f/eneralis de fide, because connected with 
 a sermon on the Catholic faith. The act com- 
 monly took place on a Sunday. At sunrise, the 
 victims, with the hair shaved off, and variously 
 dressed, according to the different degrees of 
 punishment, were led in a solemn procession, with 
 the banners of the Inquisition at the head, to 
 some public place or church. When the secular 
 authorities whose duty it was to be present had 
 Bworn to stand by the Inquisition, and execute its 
 orders, the sermon on the faith was delivered, 
 and then the judgments against the dead and the 
 living were pronounced. Next the relapsers, and 
 those whe refused to recant, were expelled from 
 the church, and given over to the secular authori- 
 ties for punishment, and then the procession 
 again began to move. The bones of the dead 
 who were condemned were carried on sleighs to 
 the place of execution. Those who were con- 
 demned to death rode on asses, between armed 
 men, and wore coats and caps, called in Spanish 
 sanbenito, painted over with devils and flames. 
 Not only the mob and the monks, but also the 
 magistrates, and sometimes even the king and 
 the court, were present at the spectacle. There 
 were, however, differences in the solemnization 
 of auto-da- f lis in Southern France, in Spain, in 
 Italy, and in the Portuguese colonies in India. 
 From the middle of the eighteenth century the 
 auto-da-f& disappeared, and the verdicts of the 
 Inquisition were executed in private. 
 
 AUTPERTUS, Ambrosias, b. in Southern 
 France early in the eighth century ; lived at 
 the Carolingian court as oralor, but retired to the 
 Monastery of St. Vincent, on the Voltorno, in 
 Southern Italy, and died there in 778 or 779, as 
 abbot. He wrote commentaries on the Psalms, 
 the Song of Songs, and tlie Apocalypse, of which 
 the last, given in Bib. Pair. Max., toin. XIII., 
 is his principal work. 
 
 AVE MARIA, or HAIL, MARr, the angelic 
 salutation, the word.s with which the angel 
 Gabriel salutid the Virgin (Luke i. 2K), as ren- 
 dered by tin; Vulgate, and afterwards the name 
 ef a peculiar form of prayer authorized by tlie 
 
 Roman Church for the invocation of St. Mary. 
 The prayer consists of a scriptural part, — the 
 words of the angel, "Hail, Mary, full of grace; 
 the Lord is with thee;" and the words of Elisabeth, 
 " Blessed art thou among women, and blessed is 
 the fruit of thy womb," — and a precatory part : 
 " Holy Mary, mother of God, pray for us sin- 
 ners now, and at the hour of our death." The 
 first p.art occurs in the Liber Antiplumiatm.i, at- 
 tributed to Gregory the Great, but did not become 
 a fixed formula until the end of the eleventh 
 century ; and the constitution of Bishop Odo of 
 Paris (119(1) is the first instance in which this 
 formula is authorized to be taught together with 
 tlie formulas of the Creed and the Lord's Prayer. 
 The precatory part was added in the fifteenth 
 century, and was authorized in the breviary of 
 Pius v., in 15G8. 
 
 AVIGNON, the capital of the department of 
 Vaucluse, situated on the Rlione, formed in the 
 middle ages, together with the adjacent districts, 
 a countship belonging to Provence. Queen Jo- 
 hanna I. of Sicily, born a countess of Provence, 
 sold the countship of Avignon in 1348 to Pope 
 Clement VI. for eighty thousand gtilders. In 
 1662 Louis XIV^. seized the city in order to 
 avenge a slight which Pope Alexander VII. had 
 shown his ambassador, but gave it back again in 
 1663. In 1791 the countship of .\vignon, as well 
 as that of Venaissin, which King Philippe had 
 bequeathed to the pope in 1273, were incorpo- 
 rated with France. From 1305 to 1377 the papal 
 residence was changed from Rome to Avignon. 
 Seven popes resided there, — Clement V., John 
 XXII., Benedict XII., Clement VI., Innocent 
 VI., Urban V., and Gregory XI. ; and during this 
 period, the so-called " Babylonian Captivity " of 
 the popes, Avignon was one of the g.ayest and 
 most corrupt cities in the world. Petrarch, who 
 staid there for some time, called it the third 
 Babylon. 
 
 AVIS, The Order of, originated from the nova 
 7)iililia, an assochation of knights, which King 
 Alfonso I. of Portugal founded in 1145, to fight 
 against the Moors who still held the southern 
 part of the country. In 1106 Johannes Civita, 
 Abbot of Citeaux, g.ave this association an eccle- 
 siastical organization, and in 1204 Innocent III. 
 confirmed the rules of the order. Also the name 
 changed. In 1166 the nora milllia conquered 
 Kvora. King Alfonso presented the city to the 
 knights, who now assumed the name of " Brethren 
 of St. Maria of Evora; " and when, in 1211, King 
 Alfonso II. presented the city of Avis to the 
 order, its name was finally fixed as " Tin; Order 
 of Avis." In the thirteeiitli century the order 
 became a dependent of Ihi' Spanish order of 
 Calatrava, but in the beginning of the fifteenth 
 century it once more became independent. In 
 1789 it was tr.ansforined into an order of military 
 merit, and the ecclesiastical vows were abolished, 
 that of chastity having been dropped already 
 earlier. 
 
 AVITUS, Alcimus Ecdidius, descended from a 
 distinguished Romano-Gallic family, and died in 
 .525 as Bishop of Vienne, Burgundy. At the 
 conference between the Catholic and Arian 
 theologians in 499, he was the principal repre- 
 sentative of the former parly, and gained the 
 confidence of the Burgundiau king, (iiuidobold,
 
 AWAKENING. 
 
 183 
 
 AZYMITES. 
 
 which was of so much th(> greater consnquonoo 
 as the Burcuiulians were Ariaiis. LatiT on, 
 Sigismund, the son and snccessor of Gundobohl, 
 was converted to Catliolicism by the infhience of 
 Avitus; and many, thougli not all, of his subjects 
 followed his example. Avitus also presided at 
 the synod of Epaou in 517, which regulated the 
 ecclesiastical relations of Burgundy. But, be- 
 sides being thus very active in many practical 
 affairs, he was also a prolific writer. Eighty 
 of his letters are still extant, addressed to the 
 Prankish and Burgundian kings, to the bishops 
 of Gaul, of Milan, Constantinople, and Jerusa- 
 lem, etc. Of hia poetical productions is extant, 
 De Mundi Principio, a large didactic epic in five 
 books. See Ebert : Gcfch. der christl. kit. Litt. 
 p. 377 sqq. Collected editions of the works of 
 Avitus have been given by Sirnmnd, in Max. 
 BibL, T. IX., p. 603, and by Gallund: BIhl. 7 at., 
 T. X., p. 701; Binding: Gcsch. dcs Buryund- 
 ischenreiclis, Leipzig, 1868, p. 1G8 sqq. 
 
 AWAKENING is the term descriptive of the 
 beginning of conversion rts a divine work, be- 
 cause in Scripture parlance the unrepentant 
 sinner is ''asleep" (Kph. v. 14). According to 
 the mental and moral condition of the sinner 
 will be the outward form of the awakening, 
 — either sudden or slow, vehement or quiet. 
 It must, however, be acknowledged that a 
 genuine Christian life is quite conceivable with- 
 out any " awakening " at all ; for many grow 
 up in unbroken fellowship with God, and enter 
 into conscious faith, and love and joy, not, it is 
 true, without conviction of their lost condition, 
 and repentance of sins, but without any percep- 
 tible beginning of a Christian experience. It is 
 to be borne in mind that the " awakening " in 
 any case is only a beginning ; the awakened one 
 is not yet converted, regenerated, only on the way 
 to conversion : hence it is possible for such per- 
 ' sons to fall asleeji again, as has frequently been 
 the case. This truth explains the wholesale fall- 
 ing-away which usually follows a great revival. 
 The machinery of revivals produces many con- 
 verts who are awakened, but who never get any 
 farther. But, when God speaks, the soul hears 
 and obeys. Those who are the subjects of his 
 grace walk through life the exponents of right- 
 eousness. See Revivals, Spener. [See Robert 
 KiJBEL: Gesammelte Vortrdge: ilher christliche Niich- 
 Urnhek, Barmen, 1877.] KLING (Herzog.ed. I.) 
 
 AYLMER, John, b. at Norfolk, Eng., 1521; 
 
 d. in London, June 3, 1.504 ; was educated at 
 Cand)ridge; became the tutor of Lady Jane 
 Grey, and was made Archdeacon of Stow in 
 155i!. During the reign of Mary he retired to 
 Zurich ; by Elizabeth he was made Archdeacon 
 of Lincoln in 1562, and Bi.shop of Lonilon in 
 1576. lie was a firm but .somewhat narrow- 
 minded man, and opjiosed the I'uritaus with the 
 same harshness as the Romanists. Against 
 Knox he wrote, An Harborrowe fur faithfidl and 
 trewe Suh/ects, etc., 1559. 
 
 AZAZEL. This word is a transliteration of the 
 Hebrew term translated in the authorized version 
 (Lev. xvi. 8 sq.) "scapegoat;" but the correct 
 interpretation is much debated. Some consider 
 azazel as the name of a region, "the desert," or of 
 a person, the opposite to Jahveh, either a spirit, 
 a demon, or Satan himself. The last interpreta- 
 tion has met with great favor; but against it may 
 be urged that nowhere else in the I'entateuch is 
 Satan mentioned, and the fact renders it all the 
 more unlikely that he should be mentioned here 
 by a name he never has in the Bible. It is there- 
 fore decidedly better to regard azazel as imper- 
 sonal, and interpret Lev. xvi. 8: "and Aaron sliall 
 cast lots upon tlie two goats ; one lot for Jahveh, 
 and the other lot for Azazel, i.e., for ' going very 
 faraway.'" According to the Talmudic tractate, 
 Voma, the high priest, knew by a sort of tele- 
 graphic communication between Jerusalem and 
 the wilderness, — the waving of cloths by set 
 watchers, at regular distances, — whether and 
 when the goat arrived in the wilderness, as was 
 necessary, for the other sacrifices were not to be 
 offered until it arrived there (Lev. xvi. 23, 24). 
 See Atonkmext, Day of. wiliielm volck. 
 
 AZYMITES (from « negative, and tV?;, leareii), 
 the epithet given to the adherents of the Latin 
 Church by those of the Greek Church, because 
 the former use unleavened bread in the Lord's 
 Supper. In reply the Latins called the Greeks 
 Feriiienlarii. The first one to attack the Latin 
 Church upon this question was Michael Caerula- 
 rius. Patriarch of Constantinople (1051), accusing 
 her of heresy upon this point. Tlie Latins have 
 made it a grievous sin to use leavened bread in 
 the Eucharist, yet they have not presumed to 
 damn the Greeks : so far from doing so. they de- 
 clared in the council of Florence (1439), that 
 transubstantiation took place just the same, 
 whether the bread were leavened or not. See 
 Carularius, Michael.
 
 BAADER. 
 
 184 
 
 BAAL. 
 
 B. 
 
 BAADER, Franz Xavier, h. in Munich, 1705; 
 d. there May 23, 1811 ; studied, first medicine, 
 and afterwards mineralogy ; travelled in Eng- 
 land 1792-96 ; was appointed, first councillor, and 
 afterwards director, of the raining department 
 in Munich ; and became in 1826 professor of 
 philosophy and speculative theology in the uni- 
 versity of the same city, in which position he 
 exercised considerable influence. He was a 
 theosophist rather than a theologian; and the 
 aphoristic and paradoxical form in which he 
 presented his mystical speculations often makes 
 it difficult to understand him. But lie was an 
 original thinker, of great suggestiveness; and, 
 though a Roman Catholic, he maintained a very 
 independent position with respect to the papacy, 
 which he considered a very equivocal institution, 
 not essential to the church. His collected works, 
 edited by several of his adherents (Hoffmann, 
 Hamberger, Kmil von Schaden, Lutterbeck. etc.), 
 appeared in 16 vols, at Leipzig, 18.50-60. A 
 writer in the " Encycl. Brit." (9th ed. vol. III. 175) 
 calls him " the greate.st speculative theologian of 
 modern Catholicism." 
 
 BA'AL and BEL. I. Baal, frequently men- 
 tioned in the Old Testament as the god of the 
 idolatrous Israelites, as he was of the Canaanites 
 (Phcenicians, Philistines, and Edomites). And, 
 as the Phffinicians naturally carried their religion 
 with them wherever they went, the name of Baal 
 was very widely spread. See Phcenicians. 
 
 1. Tfie name means " lord," or " possessor," 
 and, when used in a special sense, " head of the 
 wife." This meaning it shares with the other 
 Shemitio divinities, for they all set forth the idea 
 of power, and thus differ in conception from the 
 Aryan divinities; and akso in that, apparently, 
 these Shemitic gods were originally one god, who 
 took different names according to the localities 
 in wliich he was worshipped, and so, in course of 
 time, arose separate divinities. 
 
 2. 1'lie tine of the name. — Baal w.as the com- 
 monest name for god among the Phoenicians, and 
 everywhere designated the highest god, or the 
 highest worshipped in any particular place. So, 
 ahso, it is used as a description, e.g., "Melkart, 
 the Baal of Tyre." In the Old Testament is fre- 
 quently the plural, " Baalim; " meaning either in 
 general "the idols," or the Baals collectively, 
 which had their especial seats in different locali- 
 ties. 
 
 Baal is, without doubt, a sun-god, and a male 
 divinity par excellenre. He is very frequently 
 calleil IJaal Chamman; and Chamman, " hot," is 
 applied to the sun in Hebrew. .So, also, Baalbek 
 was called by the (ireeks Heliopolis (city of the 
 Bun). It is also noticeabh? that the Greeks .and 
 Komans identified Melkart, the Baal of Tyre, 
 with Herakles (Hercules), the sun-god. At 
 Beth-Shemesh (the sun-Utmple) was there an 
 altar to Baal : and it does not milit.ate .against 
 this identification when Baal and the sun are 
 distinguished as separate divinities (2 Kings 
 
 xxiii. .5); for Apollo was originally a sun-god, 
 but afterwards was distinguished from the sun. 
 
 In the Shemitic divinities the beneficent .and 
 tlie destructive powers were united : so in Baal 
 we find such names as Hannibal, " gracious is 
 Ba.al," Asdrubal, "Ba.al helps." On the other 
 hand, Baal is set forth as a destructive god, whose 
 wrath must be placated; and so there were sacri- 
 fices of children ('Jer. xis. 5, xxxii. 35) to which 
 many classical writers testify, although they call 
 Baal .Saturn, or Kronos. No distinction is to be 
 made between Moloch and Baal, as if the one 
 were destructive, while the other was beneficent. 
 See Moloch. 
 
 3. Different Baah. — a. Baal-Berith (lonl of 
 the covenant), worshipped by the Shecheinites, 
 the protector of the " covenant " formed between 
 men (.Judg. viii. 33, ix. 4). 
 
 h. Baal-Peor (lord of Peor), a god of the 
 Moabites or Midianites, so called because wor- 
 shipped upon Mount Peor (Num. xxiii. 28, xxv. 
 3). The common interpret.ation, which insists 
 upon obscene rites in the worship of Baal-Peor, 
 is altogether aside from tlie plain text. Not tlie 
 prostitution of female devotees who yielded up 
 their virtue in discharge of a religious duty, but 
 fornication and idolatry, are spoken of. 
 
 c. Baal-Zebub (lord of the fi/). See Beelze- 
 bub. 
 
 d. Baal-Gad (lord of fortune'), a place near 
 Hermon (.Tosh. xi. 17, xii. 7, xiii. 5.) 
 
 e. Baal-Meon (lord of the habitation), a town 
 where was a temple : in full form, the name is 
 the Temple of Baal-JIeon, Beth -Baal-Meon 
 (Josh. xiii. 17), contracted into Baal-Meon 
 (Num. xxxii. 38; 1 Chron. v. 8), .and thus the 
 name of a Moabite city (Ezek. xxv. 9), called also 
 Beth-Meon (Jer. xlviii. 23), Beon (Num. xxxii. 
 3); now Ma'in, nine miles south-east of Hesh- 
 bon. It w.as .assigned to Reuben. 
 
 f Baal-Zephon (Exod. xiv. 2 ; Num. xxxiii. 
 7), a camping-ground for the Israelites, on the 
 Red Se.a, where there was a Baal imported thither 
 from the nortli. 
 
 (). Baal-Tamar (lord of the palm), a place near 
 Gibeah (Judg. xx. 33). The palm, tamar, by 
 its height, spread, and perpetual greenness, 
 would be a good symbol of Baal, the fruitful- 
 making sun. 
 
 h. .and /. The Palmyra inscriptions speak of 
 two further forms of Baal, the divinities Aglibol 
 <and Mal.achbel. They are named and pictured 
 together, and represented the sun .and the moon; 
 for on one monument .\glibol has a half-moon 
 over her shoulder, while Malaclibel is borne up 
 by an eagle, and has a crown of sun-r.ays. In the 
 name Aglibol we have a mingling of the word 
 for a young steer .and Baal, reminding us of the 
 classic tales of Zeus, in the shape of a steer 
 carrying off Europa. 
 
 4. The liual-Cullwi in Israel. It is unques- 
 tionable, that, in the earliest times, tlie Hebrews 
 called their god Baal. In ]iroof, these names, in
 
 BAAL. 
 
 18.-) 
 
 BAALBEK. 
 
 Saul's family fioinpoumlpd with Haal. as Ksli- 
 baal (Islilioshesh), and Mcrili-baal (McphilxislifsliJ 
 (1 Cliron. viii. H'-i, 31), may I'l' ()ii()te(l. 
 
 The worship of Kaal was known to the He- 
 brews while in the desert, and iriany were in- 
 duced to adopt it by the Moabitish women 
 (Num. XXV.); and this worshi)), in the time of 
 the Judges, became their besetting sin, so that 
 vigorous, though only partially successful, efforts 
 were made to eradicate it (.Judg. ii. 11, l:i. iii. 7, 
 vi. 2.5sq , X. G ; 1 Sam. vii. 4, xii. 10). Then came 
 the reformation under Saul and David; a relapse 
 followed under Solomon ; and at length Ahab, King 
 of Israel, influenced by Je/ebel, introduced tlie 
 worship of the Zidonian Baal, and advanced this 
 idolatrous worship to the exclusion of the Jehovah 
 cultus (1 Kings xvi. 81 sq.. xix. 10). And it 
 had so strong a hold upon the affections of the 
 people that it was not until .lelui, by stratagem, 
 put a large number of Baal-worsliippers to death, 
 that this hold was loosened ; only tenqiorarily, 
 liowever, for the people returned to it not long 
 after (2 Kings x. 18-2S, xvii. 10). In Judah 
 there was likewise inveterate Baal - worship, 
 although not so much favored by the reigning 
 house. Ahaz practised it (2 Kings xvi. 3; 
 2 Chron. xxviii. 2); Ilezekiah rejiressed it (2 
 Kings xviii, 4) ; but Manasseh continued it (2 
 Kings xxi. 3). He, however, was the last king 
 to do so. 
 
 Baal was worshipped by animal sacrifices (1 
 Kings xviii. 23; 2 Kings x. 24), with incense 
 (■Jer. vii. 9, xi. 13, xxxii. 29), and by kissing his 
 images (1 Kings xix. IS). His pillars or images 
 were made of stone or of wood (2 Kings x. 20, 
 27), and even of silver and gold (Hos. ii. 8, 
 margin). It was usual for Baal to be found in 
 conjunction with Asherah, or Astarte (Phoenician, 
 Bauiaih, cf. the Assyrian-Babylonian pair, Bel 
 and Beltis, or Bil and Bilisli), upon heights, 
 either natural or artificial, where were their 
 altars (Judg. vi. 25; 2 Cliron. xxxiv. 4; Jer. 
 xix. 5, xxxii. 3.5). See Astarte. Near by 
 stood the sun-images (2 Chron. xxxiv. 4). The 
 attempt to get nearer God by climbing a hill 
 accounts for the practice of offering incense to 
 Baal upon the roofs of houses (.Jer. xxxii. 29, cf. 
 2 Kings xxiii. 12). We read of Baal temples in 
 Samaria (1 Kings xvi. 32 ; 2 Kings x. 21), and 
 in Jerusalem (2 Kings xi. 18), of Baal priests and 
 prophets, and of bloody rites (1 Kings xviii. 
 19, 28). 
 
 II. Bel (Assyrian, Bil ; Greek and Latin, 
 Bel) is called, in the authorized text and on 
 the Assyrian inscriptions, one of the greatest 
 gods of the Babylonians (Isa. xlvi. 1 ; Jer. 1. 
 2, Ii. 44), and probably he was the cliief. He 
 was called " The Exalted One, the Light of 
 the gods. Father of gods. Lord of lands. Ruler 
 of all " Whether he represented a natural force 
 has not been as yet certainly determined ; but it 
 is probable he was a sun-god. Later on he was 
 identified with the god of the jilanet Jupiter 
 (Marduk), and so called the star .Fupiter. But 
 this comparatively recent form of Bel gave rise 
 to the distinction Bel minor, or the younger Bel, 
 and Bel priscus, or the old Bel ; and when 
 transferred to Greece and Rome, for their names 
 for the planets .are Babylonish in origin, they 
 became Bel Jupiter and Bel Saturn. Tliis plane- 
 
 tary interpretation wis, however, at Irst q'.iit.ft 
 seconilarv: vet a similar ilifferi'nce lietwer^n cog- 
 nate diviniti<.s has lu'en found in many religions, 
 for it rested upon the concei)lion of a concealed 
 and a revealed god. The liighest god was so 
 transcendent, that he was quite invisible; but 
 between him and nu.rtals there was a revealer 
 who shared the divine nature, but was not identi- 
 cal with tlie supreme god. 
 
 Lit. — On the general literature see the list 
 under Astahte. Further: Upon Baal-Beor, 
 Kautzsch : Die Acchthi'it ilc.i jiioiihil. Allerhtms 
 i}r_iin\fiy 1870. Upon Aglibol and Malachbel, Dk 
 VogI'k: Syr\e cenlrnle, 1809. Upon Baal in the 
 Israelitish proper names, Nestle: Die. iaraelit. 
 Eifieiniamcn riarh Hirer reli</ions(/esrliirhll., /ieileut- 
 !()/</, Haarlem, 1870. ' WOLF UAUDISSIN. 
 
 BAALBEK (l/al'hek), a city of Cwle-Syria, cele- 
 brated for its magnificence in the first centuries 
 of the Christian era, and famous ever since for 
 its ruins. Here Baal as the sun-god was wor- 
 shipped, and in later times, at all events, Venus; 
 for the immorality of the )>lace was notorious. 
 Baalbek is situated on a plain near the foot of 
 the Anti-Lebanus range, about forty miles north- 
 west of Damascus, and thirty-eight hundred feet 
 above sea-level. It is known in history under 
 the Greek name Heliopolis, " city of the sun;" 
 but Baalbek was the earlier name. Curiously 
 enough in Egypt there was a Heliopolis, which was 
 also called On. Hence the plausible sujiposition 
 that these two places were of common origin. In 
 proof, the saying of the author of De Dm Si/ria, 
 that in the great temple of Heliopolis an antique 
 idol was worshipped which h.ad been brought 
 from Egypt, is quoted, and also the statement 
 of Macroliius in his Satttrnulio, that the statue of 
 .Jupiter Heliopolitanus came from Egypt. It 
 w.as only after it was made a Roman colony, 
 under the name Colonin Julia Aiiijusia Felix 
 Heliopolitana, that Baalbek became a place of 
 first-class importance. Up to that time it wa.s 
 in obscurity. It cannot be identified satisfac- 
 torily with any Bible locality. It is mentioned 
 by .Josephus (Antiq. xiv. 3, 2), Pliny {Nal. Hist. 
 v. 22), and Ptolemy; and coins of the city have 
 been found of almost all the emperors from Nerva 
 to Gallienus. 
 
 The magnificent ruins which now arrest the 
 traveller's attention, and excite his wonder, are 
 proof of the lavish expenditure of the enqierors 
 of the second and third centuries. We are able, 
 by coins, to reconstruct partly the two temples 
 as they once stood. The Great Temjile, one of 
 the wonders of the Olil \\'orld, designed apparently 
 as a pantheon, and built, it is probable, by Anto- 
 ninus Pius (A.D. 150), is now almost entirely de- 
 stroyed. Only six columns yet stand. It was 
 built upon the site of another temple; and in the 
 west wall of its platform are the three famous 
 blocks of stone, placed side by side, and twenty 
 feet from the ground, measuring respectively 
 sixty-four feet, sixty-three feet eight inches, and 
 sixty-three feet, and are thirteen feet in height. 
 In the quarry in the neighborhood there is a 
 stone cut out, but not yet separated from the 
 rock, wliich is seventy-one feet long, fourteea 
 feet high, and thirteen wide, and weighs probably 
 about fifteen hundred tons. The presence of the 
 three stones mentioned gave the temple the name
 
 BAANITES. 
 
 186 
 
 BABYLON. 
 
 Trilithon or "Three-Stone Temple." Slightly 
 to the north of the Great Temple is the Temple 
 of the Sun, which is remarkably well preserved. 
 The columns are forty-five feet high, inchuling; 
 the Corinthian capitals, and the circumference of 
 each nineteen feet. The temple is entered 
 thronah an exquisitely carved doorway. The 
 central stone of the architrave having subsided 
 since 16o9. it lately became necessary to prop it, 
 to the detriment of its appearance. At the west 
 end of the cella was the raised sanctuary, where 
 the altar stood during the Christian period. 
 Fartlier east there is a very small but very 
 beautiful circular temple, consisting of a semi- 
 circular cella surroimded by eight Corinthian 
 colunms. It was formerly a Greek chapel, but 
 is now falling to decay. 
 
 In the early Christian centuries, Baalbek was 
 one of the most flourishing seats of Pagan wor- 
 ship; and the Christian writers draw strange 
 pictures of the morality of the place. In 297 
 Gelasinus was martyred there. The story is curi- 
 ous, lie was a comic actor; and one day, in the 
 course of a pulilic mockery of Christian rites, he 
 was jpstingly baptized. But, wlien he came forth 
 from the bath, he said .solemnly, "I am a Chris- 
 tian, for I have seen in the bath an awful and 
 majestic spectacle; and for Christ's sake I am 
 ready to die." The people, in I'age, stoned him ; 
 and the niagistr.ate, in order to spare him further 
 suffering, had him beheaded. See Smith and 
 Wace : Did. Christ. Biot/., .v. v. The Emperor 
 Constantine, according to Sozomen, issued a re- 
 script against the licentious rites of the people, 
 and founded a w/.s(7(V« among them; but, on the 
 accession of Julian, the Pagan population broke 
 out into violent persecution, and the city became 
 BO notorious for its hostility to Chiistianity, that 
 Christians were banished thither from Alexan- 
 dria as a, special ]iunishnient. Theodosius the 
 Great is said to have turned "the Temple of 
 Balanius, the Trilithon," into a Christian Churcli 
 {Kiici/rl. Ilril. .Ml// locn). Later on, bishops of 
 Jleliopolis are mentioned. The city was captured 
 by .Vbre Ubeida on his marcli from Damascus to 
 Hums. Since then it has declined. It h.as often 
 changed inaster.s, and war lias left its indelible 
 marks, 'i'lie present unsightly town is a great 
 contrast to the city of the past. Eartliquakes 
 have done much to reduce to ruins tlie magnifi- 
 cent temples reared at such cost. 
 
 The ruins of Baalbek have been often de- 
 cribed; but one of the best, if not the best, works 
 on the subject is still W'oou and Dawki.ns : Jiuin.-: 
 of liaulliic. London, 1757. fcjee also Kobi.nso.n : 
 Later liibiicdl Kcfiarclicn, Boston, 1852, pp. 505- 
 527; Mrs. BriiroN: IJiiex/ilareil Si/ria, London; 
 and till' llauilliooks of Syria by Porter (5th ed.) 
 and Bad.-ki'r (2d (ier. ed.' ISSl). 
 
 BAANITES. See Paui.icians. 
 
 BA'ASHA (rnliir), son of Ahijah, of the tribe 
 of i.ss:iehar, third king of Israel, by the slaughter 
 of Nadali and all his family (1 Kings xv. 27), 
 thus unintentionally fulfilling Ahijah's prophecy 
 (1 Kings xiv. ID). Although of common origin, 
 lie made a warlike and Ijrave king, but increased 
 the demoralization of his kingdom by persisting in 
 the w;iy of Jeroboam. Jehu prophesied against 
 him, liut without effect. ^Vhile engaged in forti- 
 fying Uaiiiah, in order to prevent any intercourse 
 
 between Jud.ih and Israel, Baasha was attacked 
 by Benhadad, King of Syria, who had been 
 incited by .Asa, King of Judah. and compelled to 
 stop building. See Asa. Baasha reigned ))n)ba- 
 bly for a long time after this; for in all he 
 ruled twenty-four years (B.C. 955-9:52), and 
 was buried in Tirzah. Upon his son and suc- 
 cessor. Elah. the ]irophecy of Jehu was fulfilled 
 (1 Kings xvi. 12. 13). UUETSCHI. 
 
 SABA. See Mishna. 
 
 BABYLON, the metropolis of the Babylonian 
 Emjiire, was built on both sides of the Euphrates, 
 on the spot where the present Millah stands. 
 The records of the Old Testament (Gen. x. 10) 
 ascribe the foundation of Babel, Erecli, .Accad, 
 and Calneh, to Nimrod the Ilaniite (Cushite); 
 and this agrees with tlie inscriptions found in 
 the ruins, according to which Urn (the Chaldrean 
 Ur, Gen. xi. 28), Arku (the present WarUa. the 
 biblical Erech), B;ibilu (the Babel of the Bible), 
 etc., were cities of non-Shemitic origin. The 
 Old Testament (Gen. xi. 9) brings the name Ba- 
 bel in connection with the confusion of tongues, 
 and the dispersion of the race into nations, 
 and derives it from the Hebrew ^22 "contu- 
 sions." The inscriptions, however, give another 
 etymology, explaining Bab-II as the "gates of 
 El," or simply " God's gates." The existence of 
 the city as the centre of the ChaUkean and a pro- 
 Chaldaean, Accadian civilization, can be traced 
 back to about three thousand years B.C 
 
 The whole city, enlarged and coinjileted by 
 Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar, lornied a 
 square with a circumference, according to Cte- 
 sias, of three hundred and sixty stadia (about 
 fifty-six miles), or, according to Herodotus, of 
 four liundred and eighty stadia (about seventy- 
 five miles), a diH'erence « Inch perhaps arose from 
 the latter including the suburb Borsi]ipa. A 
 wall enclosed this city, according to Hrrodotu.s, 
 two hundred cubits high and fitty cubits broad, so 
 that two chariots, eacli harnessed with four liorses 
 abreast, could easily pass each other between the 
 battlements. It was built of brick and asphal- 
 tum, mounted with two hundred and fifty towers, 
 and surrounded by a deep and broad ditch filled 
 with water from the Euphrates. One hundred 
 gates, with posts, leaves, an<i sills of brass, led 
 into the city. All along the Euphrates high 
 embankments protected the city against inunda- 
 tion ; and gates of brass, and flights of steps of 
 ma.sonry, led down to tlie river. The two parts 
 of the city were connected by a bridge, built by 
 Nebuchadnezzar, lestiiig on stone pillars, and 
 ))rovided with a pathway of cedar-wood and 
 palm-beams, which was removed during night. 
 The whole area was laid out in minor sijiiares by 
 straight streets one hundred and fifty feet broad, 
 and lined with houses of three or four stories; 
 but the interior part seems to have been occupied 
 by ganlens and orchards. This "the praise of 
 the whole earth" (Jer. li. 41), "the glory of 
 kingdoms, the beauty of the Chaldees' excel- 
 lency " (Isa. xiii. 19), was, by its magnitude, 
 splendor, riches, luxury, art, and science, the 
 centre of \\'estern Asia ; but it was also a seat of 
 bonnilless debauchery and vice (Isa. xiv. 11, 
 xlvii. 1 ; Jer. li. 39; Dan. v. 1 sqq.). 
 
 Till- ruins of the western part of the city are 
 by far not so imposing as those of the easteiu
 
 BABYLON. 
 
 187 
 
 BABYLONIA. 
 
 part, consistitif;^ of the tliree huge mounds, — 
 Al-kasr, Tell Ainruii, and Habil. Acconliii}^ to 
 inscriptions found in the mound, Al-kasr rejire- 
 Bents the palace built by Nebuchadnezzar. The 
 mound forms a square seven hundred yards in 
 circuuiferenee, and consists of loose bricks, tiles, 
 and fragments of stone. Renuiants of solid 
 ■walls, with traces of architectural ornamenta- 
 tion, are met with in tlie middle of the mound : 
 in the northern part the great lion was found, of 
 bl.ack ba.s.alt, called by the Aiabs the " idol," or 
 the "elephant." At a distance of seven hun- 
 dred metres south of Al-kasr, rises the hill Tell 
 Amran, thus called from a chapel or tomb erected 
 on its top in honor of Amran, the son of Ali. 
 The mound forms an irregular trapeze four hun- 
 dred metres broad, and its two parallel sides 
 respectively five hundred and three hundred 
 metres long. Of solid wall, there are here no 
 traces. The surface consists of sand and rub- 
 bish, but it is evident that the place has been 
 used for a long time as a burial-ground. The 
 mound is generally thought to represent the 
 famous " hanging-gardens," — a construction of 
 terraces four hundred feet long, four hundred 
 feet broad, and so high that it overlooked the 
 towers of the palace. The most imposing part, 
 however, of the ruins is Babil, a mound one 
 Jmndred and eighty metres long, seventy metres 
 broad, and forty metres high. Walls and other 
 ti'aces of architectural construction are here 
 easily distinguishable; and it can hardly be 
 doubted that this mound represents a Temple 
 of Helus, identical with that temple which is 
 mentioned in an inscription of Tiglath-l'ileser 
 IV., OEie hundred years before Nebuchadnezzar, 
 and was dedicated to Bel Merodach, but different 
 from that which, situated on the western bank of 
 the Euphrates, at Borsippa, generally goes under 
 the name of the " Tower of Babel," and which 
 ■was dedicated to Bel-Nebo. 
 
 On the western bank of the river, are the ruins 
 of the second royal palace, opposite the hills of 
 Tell An;ran, and two miles farther to the north, 
 at the old Borsippa, the much more interesting 
 ruins of the above-mentioned Temple of Bel- 
 Nebo. This temple formed, so to speak, an arti- 
 ficial mountain of brick. The ground upon 
 ■which it stood was laid out as a square, two 
 stadia on each side, and surrounded with a wall. 
 In the centre of this ground, stood a square build- 
 ing of brick and aspiialtum, six hundred feet on 
 each side; and from this basis arose the tower, 
 pyramidally, six hundred feet high. Stairs, 
 with landings and resting-places, led, on the 
 outside of the building, to the uppermost story, 
 ■which contained a golden altar and a magniti- 
 cently pi-epared base for the god, but no statuary. 
 The lowest story, however, contained statuary 
 representing the god sitting on a golden throne, 
 behind .a golden altar, on which one thousand 
 pounds ot incense were burnt every year, on the 
 day of his festival. An inscription, which 
 exists in two copies, tells that Nebuchadnezzar 
 found this building partly unfinished, partly in 
 decay, but restored and completed it. It seems 
 to date back from an extremely old age ; and 
 ■when local tradition identifies the present mound 
 of ruins, the Birs Nimrod, with the Tower of 
 Babel (Gen. x. 10), most Assyrialogists seem 
 
 willing to accept the tradition. Aftfr the fall of 
 tli(^ Babylonian Empire the building gradually 
 fell into decay. Xerxes broke down the ujiper- 
 niost story, and carried away all the ornaments. 
 Alexander the Great thought of restoring the 
 building; and ten thousand laborers were ein- 
 lilciyed for two nu)nths in carrying off the accu- 
 mulated rubbish. But with his death the work 
 stoppe<l. At present the mound of ruins has 
 only half the height the building itself had. 
 The upper stories have tumbled down, and 
 covered the lower with their dc'/iris. Several 
 indications show that fire has played a part in 
 the destruction. 
 
 The city was first conquered by Cyrus in 538 
 B.C., and then again in olS, after a revolt, by 
 Darius Hystaspis, who filled up the ditch, and 
 lowered the walls to half their original height. 
 Xerxes plimdered, not only the Temple of Belus, 
 but also the palaces; and the restoration which 
 Alexander the Great promised was bafHed by 
 his death. But the severest blow, the city re- 
 ceived from the building of a new royal residence 
 in its neighborhood, — Seleucia. From that mo- 
 ment it began to decay. It became a sort of 
 quarry. Seleucia, Ktesiphon, Kufa, and even 
 Bagdad, were built of bricks taken from Baby- 
 lon. At present the site of the city is a place of 
 unspeakable desolation, just as the prophets said 
 it should be (Isa. xiii. IS), xiv. 4; Jer. li. ;i7). 
 
 Lit. — Rich : Memoirs on l/ic Ruins of Jjiiln/lon, 
 1818; Layauo: JJnlii/lon and Nincn-li, London, 
 18.33; LoKTUS: Chaldccn ami Siixiana, London, 
 1857 ; Oppkut: Exjit'dition srienli/it/ne en Mc'sopo- 
 taniie, 1858-04, with maps and plans. Rawi.ix- 
 so.\ : Five Great Monarcliies, Loudon, 18(jJ-65. 3 
 vols. ; 2d ed. 1871, 3 vols. ; reprinted N. Y., 1881, 
 3 vols. 
 
 BABYLONIA is the name which the Greeks 
 and the Romans gave to the " land of the Chal- 
 deans " (Jer. xxiv. 5, xxv. 12; Ezek. xii. 13), 
 generally called Shinar in the Old Testament 
 (Gen. X. 10, xi. 2, xiv. 1), thereby denoting the 
 region along the lower course of the Euphrates 
 and the Tigris, from the point where they ap- 
 proach each other to their mouth in the Persian 
 Gulf, and from Elam on the east, to Arabia on 
 the west. This region forms a vast plain, con- 
 sisting of a fat, brown soil of extraordinary 
 fertility; and in olden time the natural produc- 
 tiveness of the land was still further increased by 
 excellent cultivation. Immense hydraulic work.s 
 were erected in order to regulate the inundations 
 of the two rivers, and utilize their waters. The 
 current of the Euphrates is calm and regular, 
 but that of the Tigris is wild and violent; and 
 here huge embankments, immense reservoirs, and 
 long canals were necessary. Besides agriculture, 
 the teeming population w,as also successfully en- 
 gaged in manufactures and commerce. Carpets, 
 woollen and linen fabrics, articles of glass and 
 bronze, etc., were produced; and these products 
 were rapidly exchanged for those of Arabia, 
 Ethiopia, and India. The country was rich. In 
 a later period the Persian Empire drew one-third 
 of its revenues from this province alone. 
 
 The inhabitants of this country, the bearers of 
 this civilization, were not a pure race. The 
 population consisted, indeed, of two layers: one, 
 the Accadiaus, reminding, in many respects, oJ
 
 BABYLONIA. 
 
 188 
 
 BABYLONIA. 
 
 tlie Turco-Tartaric or Uralo-Altaic race ; and 
 another, the Clialda^an. belonjrinff surely to the 
 Sheinitic nace. About the former, the Aceadi- 
 aus, the original inliabitants of Sliiuar, the cunei- 
 form inscriptions give a consideral>le amount of 
 information, — about their hmguage, wliich was 
 stronglv agglutinative; tlieir literature, hynnis. 
 i-,nd epics, which the Chaldjeans translated and 
 imitated; their science and art, astronomy, an<l 
 architecture, which the Chaldjeans adopted and de- 
 veloped ; in short, their whole liistorical position. 
 They built cities which became centres of gov- 
 ernment and enterprise. Of four of these cities 
 ruins are still extant; namely, Uru, the Ur of 
 the Chaldseans of the Bible (Gen. xi. 28), situ- 
 ated farthest to the south on the right bank of 
 the Euphrates, in latitude 31° north, and repre- 
 sented by the ruins of JIugheir; Larsani, a little 
 more to the north, on the left bank of the Eu- 
 phrates, represented by the ruins of Senkereh ; 
 Arku. still farther to the north, the present 
 Warka, the biblical Erech (Gen. x 10), tlie 
 Greek Ore:!';; and finally Babilu, Babylon, the 
 Bal>el of the Bible. Other cities, not yet identi- 
 fn'(l by their ruins, are mentioned in the inscrip- 
 tions and in the Bible, such as Accad. Kutha, 
 .Sephaivaim, and Xepur. That these cities were 
 not founded by the Shemites is proved by the 
 non-Shemitic inscriptions found in their ruins ; 
 and this agrees with the Bible, which ascribes 
 the foundation of Babel, Erech, Accad, and 
 Calneh to Ninirod the Hamite (Cushite) (Gen. x. 
 10). in the beginning, and for a long time, the.se 
 towns were rivals of each other; now one, now 
 another, of them carrying the day. A king from 
 this fiist period of historical time is spoken of as 
 very powerful. He was the ruler of Ur, and his 
 name is generally read Uruk. A whole series of 
 iji.scriptions relate to him. Another, named 
 Kudurmabuk, from the .same pericul, was King of 
 l.arsam. He is probably identical with, the Ku- 
 durnanchnuti, of whom the inscriptions of .\sur- 
 banipal says that ho ruled over Babylonia lt).'?."i 
 years before Sennacherib, that is about 2'JfSO 
 years B.C. To an Elamitic, that is purely 
 Turanian dynasty, belonged, prob;d)ly, also the 
 biblical Chedorhiomer ((jen. xiv.). 'I'he union 
 of the.se minor kingdoms into one great empire 
 took place in the middle of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, and wa.s effected by llannnurabi He was 
 probably a Cassite from Ehim, and King of Baby- 
 lon ; but thence lie overran the whole region down 
 to the Persian (iulf, coinjuered Ur, Earsani, 
 Accad, and Karrak, and styled himself king 
 of Sumir and Accad, and the four nations. He 
 made Babylon the cajiital of his empire, and in- 
 creased the magnificence of the worship of Bel, 
 wiio now fx'came the ]>rincipal god in the re- 
 ligious system of B;ibyloni;i. He also built and 
 restored other temjiles, palaces, ami cities, ami 
 dug one of tlie greatest canals, Haminurabi- 
 iiuDu.s-ni8i, whicli passed through the Baliylonian 
 territory. 
 
 'I'he Shemites reached the country from 
 Arabia, and settled first in and about Ur, but 
 spread rapidly to the north, steadily fighting 
 with the Acc.adians, tuit fiiudly gaining the as- 
 cendency. Nevertheless, although the Chal- 
 dicans gradually became the ruling race, the 
 civilization which they developed they adopted 
 
 from tfie Accadians. From them they borrowed, 
 not only the art of writing, the cuneiform aljilia- 
 bet, but the very literature. The Shemito 
 Sargon, King of Agane, who in the seventeenth 
 century B.C. conquered Erech, took great pains 
 to liave the sacred books of the Accadians trans- 
 lated. Thus there exists a whole series of lyric 
 and epic poems, both in the vernacular Accailiaii 
 tongue and in the Sheinitic translation. The 
 Chaldajan account of the deluge is a translation 
 from the Accadian. U forms part of a great 
 epic cycle: "The Adventures of Izdhub;ir," 
 which w.-is to the Babylonians what Homer was 
 to the Greeks, — • their Bible ; and it was from 
 the Ur of the Chaldees that the Israelites carried 
 away with them those religious traditions on 
 which modern life rests; just as it is from this 
 very same source, but through the Greeks and 
 Romans, that modern civilization has obtained 
 its first scientific and artistic tradition. Thero 
 also exist very minute astronomical nolations 
 in the Accadian language, whicli show that in 
 this field, too, the Chaldseans were boriower.i 
 before they became producers ; and a table of 
 laws, the oldest in the world, the moral bearing 
 of whose tenets points as directly to an Uialo- 
 .-Mtaic origin as the agglutinative character of 
 the language in which it is written; for here, as 
 in all Uralo-Altaic laws, a greater importance is 
 ascribed to the mother than tt) the father in the 
 relation of parentage. The double character of 
 the Balndonian ]ieople, arising from the two ele- 
 ments of which it consisted, the Accadian and 
 the Chahhean, was openly acknowledged by tho 
 title which the Babylonian kings assumed after 
 the union of the minor kingdom.s, — '• King of 
 .Sumir and Accad ; " Suinir probably being iden- 
 tical with Shinar. 
 
 The intimate intercourse between As.syria and 
 Babyloniji begins during the reign of Tiglath- 
 Pileser H. (745-728 B.C.). He made two cam- 
 paigns to Babylonia (745 and 7-31), and suc- 
 ceeded in subjugating the country; but twice 
 Merodach-Baladan of Beth-lakin rebelled (721 
 anil 710), and not until fie was utterly defeated 
 in the latter year by Sargon could a real iiniou 
 between the two countries be accomplished. 
 .Sargon (727-707) assumed the title of "King of 
 Babylonia," and ruled the country personally. So 
 did also Essarhaddon (081-(i()9) : he even resided 
 in Babylon, whither he carried Manasseh, King 
 of .Jndah, as a captive (2 Chron. xxxiii. 11 ; Ez. 
 iv. 2) Generally, however, the As.syrian kings 
 governed Babylonia by viceroys, and this gave 
 occasion to frequent revolts. Thus Assurbanipal 
 (f)(J8-()2(l) made his brother Samulsumukin vice- 
 roy of IJabylonia; and Samulsumukin rebelled, 
 was defeated, and killed. But under A.ssur- 
 bani pal's successor, Assur-ebil-ili, the revolt suc- 
 ceeded. The Baliylonian viceroy, Nabopalasar, 
 in connection with tlu^ Median king, ('yaxcaras, 
 attacked As.syria. Nineveh fell in 005, and 
 15abylon became the centre of a great empire 
 under Nabopalasar and his son Nebuchadnezzar 
 (U04-5(il). After the death, how<'ver, of Nebu- 
 chadnezzar, the power of Babylonia immediately 
 began to decline, and in 538 it was conqni'ied by 
 Cyrus, and nuule a province of the I'l'isian Em- 
 pire. See NAlK)l'Al..\S.Alt, NK»t:oiiAi>.Ni;/ZAH. 
 
 The fall, liowevur, of A.ssyri;i and Babylonia,
 
 BACCALAURBUS. 
 
 189 
 
 BACON. 
 
 the passiiifj of the empire from the Shemitic to 
 the Aryan race with Cyrus, was a great gain to 
 mankiiiJ. Though the earliest religious, scien- 
 tific, and artistic traditions of our present civili- 
 Kation were cradled in Bal\ylonia, the Babylonian 
 religion, when fully developed, was, nevertheless. 
 a mean and base idolatry, which intellectually 
 prevented all true insight into natural phenom- 
 ena, and stopped all scientific and artistic 
 progress at a short goal, while morally it left 
 the passions without rule and guidance, and 
 rather encouraged sensuality and debauchery. 
 The Babylonian gods were originally local dei- 
 ties. Bel and his consort, Belit or Mylitta, were 
 originally the gods of Nipur. Hence they were 
 transplanted to Babel ; and, when Babylon be- 
 came the capital of the empire, Bel became the 
 supreme or central deity of tlie religious system. 
 Sin, the moon-god, was the god of Ur, one of the 
 oldest centres of B.abylonian civilization, and was 
 always held in highej- esteem by the Babylonians 
 than Shamas, the sun-god. Anu, tlie god of the 
 heavens, and his consort. Nana, were worshijiped 
 at Erech ; Hea, god of the sea and the infernal 
 regions, and his consort, Darkina, at Eridu, etc. 
 When all these cities were gathered into one 
 empire, the gods were gathered into one system; 
 a certain rank was ascribed to each of them, and 
 a genealogy was invented. Mystical and fanciful 
 astronomical, or ratlier .astrological, relations were 
 connected with their names; and a mythology 
 ■was elaborated, half poetical romance, and half 
 scientific symbolization. But when this mythol- 
 ogy lost its hold on its devotees, no philosophy 
 arose to take its place, and after a short career 
 Babylonian civilization became an abomination 
 and a curse. See, for further information, the 
 articles on Assyria, B.\bylon,Cii.\li),v;a, Cunei- 
 form Lnschiptions, Deluge, and Nineveh. 
 
 Lit. — George S.Mirii : The Histori/ of Bal»j- 
 lonia, edited by Professor A. H. Sayce, London, 
 1877 ; Bahi/lonian Literalure, by Professor S.wce, 
 London, 1877; and what is given under the arti- 
 cles above referred to. 
 
 BACCALAUREUS (Bachelor), an academical 
 title first introduced in the University of Paris 
 in the tliirteenth century, by Pope Gregory IX., 
 and given to such students as had successfully 
 gone through the first examination, but not j'et 
 acquired the rights and rank of an independent 
 master, or doctor. The etymolog}' of the word is 
 doubtful ; some deriving it from haccaUntrra, a 
 " laurel-berry," others from baccahts and taurea, 
 a " laurel-twig," .and others again from hacca- 
 larii (has cheralier), denoting a lower class of 
 knights, whose estates did not allow them to 
 take military service in an independent manner, 
 with a retinue of their own. 
 
 BACCANARISTS, an ecclesiastical order, thus 
 called after its founder, Baccanari, who .after 
 the temporary dissolution of the Society of the 
 Jesuits, in 1773, by this means attempted to 
 restore the order under a, new name and in 
 another form. Though favored by Pope Pius 
 VI., the Bacc.anavists never prospered. In 1811 
 they entered the re-established order of the 
 Jesuits. See Jesuits*. 
 
 BACH, Johann Seoastian, b. at Eisenach, 
 March 21, 1685; d. at Leipzig, July 2S, 1750; 
 belonged to a family which through several 
 
 generiitions had distinguislied itself by musical 
 talent, but lost his parents very e.arly, iind had, 
 from his fourteenth year, to provide for his own 
 education. Nevertheless, in 1703 he was ap- 
 jininti'd court-musician in AVeimar; and in 17'J.% 
 then one of the most celebrated musicians of the 
 time, he was made cantor and director of church 
 music at Leipzig. His celebrity lie owed mostly 
 to his skill as an organist and pianist. His coiii- 
 [H)sitions, which form the foundation for what, in 
 the history of music, is called the German 
 school, were not thought much of during his life- 
 time. 'J'hey consist chiefiy of church-music, or.i- 
 torios, masses, etc., for organ and orchestra, for 
 instruments as well as for the human voice; and 
 after his death the manuscripts were divided 
 among his sons, and remained unnoticed till the 
 time of Mendelssohn. Ills life has been written 
 by his son, Philipp Emanuel B.ach; by J. N. Foi- 
 kel, 18U2; and by Ph. Spitta, 1st vol. 1873. 
 
 BACON, Roger, b. at Ilche.ster, in Somerset- 
 .shire, in 1214 ; d. at Oxford 1294. His family 
 were in good circumstances, but were much crip- 
 pled during the reign of Henry HI. He studied at 
 Oxford; took orders (1233), and went to Paris, 
 took there the degree of doctor of theology, and, 
 because of his brillhant talents, was called doctor 
 mirah'dh. In 1250 he was again at Oxford ; and 
 then, acting under the advice of his patron, Rob- 
 ert Grosseteste (C.apito), he entered the Francis- 
 can order, — the great mistake of his life. Hin 
 fame spread rapidly ; but the rumor of sorcery 
 spread with it, and in ]2r)7 Bonaventura, the 
 general of his order, forbade his lectures, ordered 
 him to go to Paris, where he passed ten years in 
 imiirisonment, until released by Clement IV. in 
 120S. He returned to Oxford and to study; but 
 at the end of another decade he w.as in prison 
 again, for his opinions' sake, and there he r'- 
 mained until about 1292. He was released only 
 to die. He closed his literary labors with a com- 
 pendium of theology. 
 
 Bacon was one of the stars of the first magni- 
 tude. He had an eminently practical mind, and 
 was much fonder of natural .science than of 
 metaphysical subtleties. His misfortune was to 
 have been born some centuries too soon ; although 
 in many respects he shared the opinions of his 
 time, .and is therefore not .altogether entitled to 
 the extravagant praise and glory nowad.ays show- 
 ered upon him. His popular reputation rests 
 upon his inventions and useful arts. He not only 
 improved the calendar, and in this connection 
 expressd opinions which Copernicus later jus- 
 tified, but studied per.sjiective, and, according to 
 traditions now discredited (see art. " Roger 
 B.acon," in Encyct. Brit. 9th ed), niiide bnm- 
 ing-glasses, a telescope, and gunpowder. His 
 bond.age to the state of knowledge of the time i"< 
 proven by his leaning toward astrology and 
 alchemy; .and this knowledge brought him in 
 great trouble, .as it was the custom of the day to 
 attribute unusual skill in chemistry or mechanics 
 to tlie devil. The true greatness of B.acoii 
 ajijiears in his marvellous breadth of le.arning. 
 He troil tlie whole circle. And withal he was .a 
 devout though by no means a blind Roman 
 Catholic; foiC while humbly submitting to the 
 pope, he protested, in the name of religion, 
 against the corruptions of his time, and, when
 
 BACON. 
 
 190 
 
 BACON. 
 
 Betting fc-th the Bible as the highest authority 
 in matters of religion, lamented that it was so 
 little known. He set the practical before him, 
 and made experience the touchstone of truth. 
 His recommendation, especially to missionaries, 
 to study ethnology and geography, is a case in 
 point. 
 
 Koger Bacon fell into obloquy while living, 
 and into oblivion when dead. Many centuries 
 elapsed before he was at all recognized at his 
 proper worth, and even to-day there is no com- 
 plete edition of his works. This is greatly to be 
 lamented, inasmuch as until there is there can be. 
 no satisfactory study of him. His principal works 
 are, 0/nis Xjajus, Opus Minus, Opus Teiiiuni, 
 three large treatises written in prison, amidst 
 great embarrassments, and forwarded by request, 
 secretly, to Clement IV. The Opus Mujus was 
 published by Samuel Jebb, London, 1733. The 
 Opus Terlium was published by J. S. Brewer, 
 London, 1S60. Of less account is Epistuln de 
 secretis operibus arlis et tiatune el iJe nulliiale 
 magicc, ILimburg, 1618. 
 
 Lit. — Victor Cousin : Frayments Phil, flu 
 Moyen A</e, Paris, 1S48; Pranti, : Gesch. der 
 Logi/c, Leipzig, 185.5 (see iii., 120-1"29 for a 
 severe criticism of Bacon's logical doctrines) : 
 J. K. Ingram: On llie Opus Mujus of Bacon, 
 Dublin, 1858 ; S.\isskt : Precurseurs el Disciples 
 de Ikcarlex, Paris, ISGl. Hut the licsl work is E. 
 Charles: Hixjer Bacon, sa Vie, ses Oucraip's, ses 
 Doctrines, il'apres dcs Idles incdils, Paris, ISGl. 
 H. Siebert, in his inaugural dissertation at Jlar- 
 burg, 1801, gave a summary of Charles and 
 Brewer. Sciixf;iDER : Iloycr Bacon, June Mono- 
 graphie, Augsburg, 1873. (lie protests against 
 the extravagant judgments now jiassed upon 
 Bacon.) Kk.uter : (jeschiclile der rcligiosen Auf- 
 kltirung im Millelaller, Berlin, 1877, 2 vols. Vol. 
 2d, pp". C7-8G. See the article by Profe.ssor Adam- 
 son in the Enci/cl. Bril. S)th ed., and by Fion- 
 iniilli'r in Ilrrzog and Plitt. 
 
 BACON, Francis, b. in London, Jan. 22, 15G1; 
 d. at Higligatf, April 9, 1G2G. He was a son of 
 Sir Nicliolas Bacon; was educated at Cambridge, 
 and was for a time in the diplomatic service. 
 In 1580 he began his legal career, and passed 
 rapidly through its earlier stages. He sat for a 
 number of years in Parliament. In 1607 he lie- 
 came solicitor-general, and at length was made 
 lord-chancellor. Before tlie Parliament of KiJl 
 he was accused of taking bribes. Judgment was 
 pronounced against him. He was dejmsed and 
 degraded. The rest of his life was passed in 
 retirement. Pope unjustly called him "the 
 wisest, brightest, meanest, of mankind." 
 
 The phiio.sophy of Bacon h contained chiefly 
 in the various jiarts of liis pvincipal work, Jn- 
 flaurulio Magna, oi which the second book, Aoruin 
 Orijanum, is tlie most iniporti-.nt. His philosophy 
 is a method ratlier than a system ; but the in- 
 fluence of this method in the development of 
 Britisli thought can hardly be over-estimated. 
 As Lutlier was the reformer of religion, so Bacon 
 was the reformer of philosophy. Luther liail 
 claimed that the Scripture was to he interprete<l 
 by jiiivate j'idgpjent, not by authority. Tin? 
 problem of Baeo-.i was to suggest a iiii'lhod of 
 Interpreting natuvo. The old method atforded 
 no fruits. 1*< "ifien from the senses and particu- 
 
 lars " to the most general laws, and then applies 
 deduction. This is the "anticipation of nature." 
 To it Bacon opposes the " interpretation of na- 
 ture." Nature is to be interpreted, not by the 
 use of the deductive syllogism, but by the induc- 
 tion of facts, by a gradual ascent from facts, 
 through intermediate laws called "axioms," to 
 the forms of nature. Before beginning this in- 
 duction, the inquirer is to free his mind from 
 certain false notions or tendencies which distort 
 the truth. These are called Iilols, and are of 
 four kinds: Idols of the Tribe, which are common 
 to the race; Idols of the Cave which are peculiar 
 to the individual ; Idols of the Market-place, 
 coming from the misuse of language; and Idols 
 of the Theatre, wliich result from an abuse of 
 authority. The end of induction is the discov- 
 ery of forms, the ways in which natural phenom- 
 ena occur, the causes from which they proceed. 
 Nature is not to be interpreted by a search after 
 (inal causes. "Nature to be commanded must 
 be obeyed." Philosophy will then be fruitful. 
 I''aith is shown by works. Philosophy is to be 
 known by fruits. 
 
 In the application of this method in the 
 physical and moral world. Bacon himself ac- 
 complished but little. His system of raoials, if 
 system it may be called, is to be gathered from 
 the seventh and eiglitli books of his De Aug- 
 inenlis, and from his Essai/s. Moral action means 
 action of the human will. The will is governed 
 by reason. Its spur is the passions. The moral 
 object of the will is the good. Bacon, like the 
 ancient moralists, failed to distinguish between 
 the good and the right. He finds fault with the 
 (Jreek and Roman thinkers for disputing about 
 the chief good. It is a question of religion, not 
 of ethics. His moral doctrine lias reference ex- 
 clusively to this world. Duty is only that which 
 one owes to the community. Duty to (Sod is an 
 affair of religion. The cultivation of the will 
 in the direction of the good is accomplished by 
 the formation of a habit. For this Bacon lays 
 down certain precepts. No general rules can be 
 made for moral action under all circumstances. 
 The characters of men differ as their bodies 
 differ. 
 
 B<acon separates distinctly religion and phi- 
 losophy. The one is not incompatible with the 
 other; for " a little philosophy inclineth man's 
 mind to atheism, but depth in philo.sopliy bringeth 
 men's minds about to religion. " Bacon has been 
 sometimes regarded as a defender of unbelief, 
 because he opposed the search after final causes 
 in the interpretation of nature. But it is ons 
 thing to discourage the search after final causes 
 in science, it is another thing to deny the exist- 
 ence of final causes. "I had rather believe," he 
 says, "all the fables in the Legeiul and the Tal- 
 mud and the Alcoran than tiiat this universal 
 frame is without a mind" (A'.s,v«// on Alheisni). 
 The objc^ct of scientific in(piiry should be the 
 " form," not the final cause. 
 
 AVhile ]ihilosoiihy is not atheistic, it does not 
 inform religion. Tertullian, Pascal, and ISacon 
 agree in proclaiming the separation of the two 
 domains. Tertullian and Pascal do it to save re- 
 ligion from rationalism : Bacon does it to save phi- 
 losophy from tlie "Idols." ('reilo (/uia ahsurdun. 
 is expressed in the following words: "But that
 
 BADEN. 
 
 191 
 
 BAHRDT. 
 
 faitli which was accounted to Ahrahrun forriijht- 
 pousness was of sucli a iialui-f tliat Saiali laii^^'hed 
 at it, who therein was an iniaa;!' of natural reason. 
 The more discordant therefore, and incredible, the 
 divine mystery is, the more honor is shown to 
 God in believins; it, and the nobler is the victory 
 of faith " {Ik- Amj., Bk. IX.). Keli<?ion comes, 
 therefore, not from the liafht of nature, but from 
 that of revelation. "First lie breathed liylit 
 upon the face of the matter, or chaos, then he 
 breathed light into the face of man, and still he 
 breatheth and inspireth light into the face of his 
 chosen " (Essai/ on Trulli). One may employ 
 reason to separate revealed from natural truth, 
 and to draw inferences from the former; but we 
 must not go to excess by inquiring too curiously 
 into divine mysteries, nor attach the same au- 
 thority to inferences as to principles. If Bacon 
 was .an atheist, as .some claim, his writings are 
 certainly not atheistic. He must, in that case, 
 have been a hypocrite in order to be a flatterer, 
 and, if a flatterer, a most foolish one. Yet the 
 inductive method has given natural theology the 
 facts which point most significantly to God. 
 
 See Loud Bacox's Wnrkx. edited by ./. Speil- 
 dlnif, R. L. Ellh, and D. D. Ilealli, London, 1S.57- 
 59. 2d ed., 1870, 7 vols. Popular edition (se- 
 lected works), N.Y., 1S77, 2 vols. J. SrEnDiNO : 
 Life and Letters of Prnncis Ii<icon, London, 7 vols., 
 18(12-74 ; Dixon : I'ersDiml llixiori/ of Lord liacon, 
 London, I80L Story of Lonl liavon'.i Life, London, 
 18(i2 ; K. FiscHKR : Franci}i liacon urn/ seine Nac/i- 
 fohjer. Leipzig, 1850, 2d ed., lS7o, translated into 
 English, 18.")7. Bacon's Kssdiis, \\\ih Annotations 
 by Richard Whately, D.D., I^ondon, ISOG, 5th ed., 
 Boston, 18(J3. Archibald alexaxder. 
 
 BACON, Leonard, D.D., LL.D., h. in Detroit, 
 Mich., Feb. 10, 1802; d. in New Haven, Conn., 
 Deo. 24, 1881. He graduated at Yale College in 
 1820; studied theology at Andover; became pas- 
 tor of the First Church in New Haven in 1825; 
 resigned his active work as p.astor, and became 
 pastor e»;t'r/(«s in 18(16; was instructor in Revealed 
 Theology in the Yale Theological .School from 
 1866 to 1871, and lecturer on Church Polity and 
 American Cliurch History from 1871 to his death. 
 He was a leading founder, and one of tlie fiist 
 editors, of Tlie Imle/jendent and of T/ie Neio-Eni/- 
 lander. He published the Life and Seleet Worls 
 of Iticliard Ijiixler (1830), Tliirleen lUsloriad Dis- 
 courses on tlie Completion of Tiro Hundred Years 
 from the Beqinniiiq of the Eirst C/inrek in Neir 
 Haren (1839), Essays on Slavery (1846), Genesis 
 of the NeiD-Enylaiid Churches (1874). and other 
 books. He was a very prolific contributor, upon 
 theological, ecclesi.astical, and political topics, to 
 the periodical press. lie took a very prominent 
 part in the antislavery reform. In the Congre- 
 gational denomination he was long honored as 
 an able and influential leader. His extraordinary 
 aliility as a public speaker on subjects of social 
 and political reform, and before ecclesiastical 
 bodies, was universally recognized. His conver- 
 sational powers were equally remarkable. His 
 biography is in course of preparation (1882) by 
 his daiigliters. GEORGE P. FISHElt. 
 
 BADER, Johannes, b. in the latter part of the 
 fifteenth century; d. at Landau, August (10-15), 
 1545; was tutor to Duke l^udwig II. of Zwei- 
 briicken, and after 1518 minister at Landau. 
 
 After the diet of AVorms (1521) he became a 
 stanch ailherent of the Reformation, which ha 
 successfully introduced in the city of Landau and 
 its neighborhood. In 1526 lie jmblished his (ie^ 
 spriieh-Iiiirhtetn, which is th(> first I'rotestant cate- 
 chism; and in 1.544 aiijieared his Katei-hismns. in 
 which he gives a fuller exposition of the doctrine 
 of the Lonl's .Supper, somewhat nearer to the 
 views of Zwingli and Hutzer than to those of 
 Luther. He also wrote against the Anaba])tists. 
 A curious incident in his life is his defence ( Von 
 der fians — l>e Anserc, .Strassbiirg, 1.526), ap- 
 pended to a sermon on the Lord's .Supper, against 
 the accusation of having given tin? Lord's .Supper 
 to a goose: one of his communicants bore the 
 name (Inns, "goose." 
 
 BADGERS' SKINS are mentioned in the 
 authorized version (e.g. Kxod. xxvi, 14; Kzek. 
 xvi. 10) as one of the coverings of the taber- 
 nacle, and as the sandals of a fine lady; but the 
 word, from its analogy to the Arabic for seal, is 
 now usually so translated. The badger is very 
 rare in Arabia, if, indeed, it be known. 
 
 BAGNOLENSES. See C.\Tti.\tn. 
 
 BAHRDT, Karl Friedrich, b at Bischofswerda, 
 .Saxony, Aug. 25, 1741 ; d. near Halle, .April 23, 
 1792; is a disgusting but striking instance cf 
 the vulgar rationalism of the eighteenth century; 
 gifted, but destitute of truth ; working hard, but 
 never seriously engaged; always hunting after 
 fame, but steadily sinking deeper and deeper into 
 shame. He began his career in 1761 as a lec- 
 turer on biblical exegesis in the University of 
 Lei]izig, and preacher to the Church of St. IVter, 
 and in 1766 he was made exlraordinarj' professor 
 in biblical philology. He was at this time 
 orthodox, and gave a transcript of Cruuott's 
 Der Christ in der Einsanikeit. which, like his ser- 
 mons, found much favor; but in 1768 lie received 
 a secret consilium nheundi. on account of .scandals 
 in his private life, and thus ended the period of 
 his ortliodoxy. From 1768 to 1779 he wandered 
 about as professor of biblical archa?ology in 
 Erfurt, professor of theology in Gie.ssen, director 
 of a philanlkrojjicuni at Marschlinz in the Grisons, 
 superintendent-general and first preacher at 
 Durkheim, etc.; always dismissed from his posi- 
 tion, after the lapse of a year or two, on account 
 of public or priv.ate .scandal, and always ap- 
 pointed again to another position by some mis- 
 taken Mrecenas; always rising higher and higher 
 towards the great goal of rationalism, — the 
 moral perfection of the r.ace, — and alw.ays sink- 
 ing lower and lower personally in dissoluteness 
 and filth. His chief work from this period of 
 galloping rationalism is Neueste UJfcnbarungen 
 (jntles in Brie/en und Erzdhliinyen, — a kind of 
 expurgated Bible, but which scandalized all 
 people of seriousness and taste, even those wdio 
 were indifferent to Christianity. In 1779 lie 
 arrived at Halle, a fugitive, and found refuge 
 under the rule of Friedrich H. In Halle he 
 lectured on Hebrew grammar, metaphysics, 
 morals, Juvenal, etc., and had at times about 
 nine hundred hearers; but his success drove liim 
 into rank infidelity. He discarded every vestigo 
 still left in hiin of positive religion, and wrote a 
 System der moralisclien lieHijion. Meanwhile his 
 strength began to give way ; and the religious 
 reaction which arose in Prussia after the death
 
 BAILLET. 
 
 192 
 
 BAJUS. 
 
 of Friedrich II. overtook him. He determined 
 to take the affair more practically, and opened a 
 wine-shop in the neighborhood of Halle, wrote 
 smutty novels for tli? ciroulatiiig libraries, found- 
 ed a secret society which the police had under 
 surveillance, tried to ridicule the relig;ious edict 
 of 17SS by a farce on the stage, etc. The Prus- 
 sian Government, however, did not appreciate his 
 practices. He spent a year in the dungeons of 
 Magdeburg ; and shortly after his release he fell 
 ill, and died from the use of mercury. None of 
 his works are worth reading: but the essay on 
 him by (i. Fka.sk, in Jtauiiier's •' Ili.tlorische. 
 Tasdienhiicher" 1860, pp. 203-o70, is instructive. 
 See also Lkyser : A'. F. Bahnlt, xtin VerhuUniss 
 sum Pkildiil/inipismux ii. zur neiiereii PaJ(ii/o</H:, 
 2d ed., Neiistadt, 1S70. P.\UL TrfCII.vcKEKT. 
 
 BAILLET, Adrian, b. at Xeuville, near Beau- 
 vais, June 13, 1649; d. in Paris, Jan. 21, 1706; 
 wa-S educated in the Seminary of Beauvais; took 
 orders in 1676, and obtained a small vicarage; but 
 was in 1080 appointed librarian to Lamoignon, 
 secretary to the Parliament of Paris. Among 
 his many works are : Les Vies des iVi/n/.s, 3 vols., 
 fol., 1701, re|)rinted in 1704 and 1708; I'ie ile 
 Descartes, 1692 ; Juijemenls des .Samitls ; Hisluire 
 de Ilnllnnde. a continuation of Grotius, etc. 
 
 BAILLIE, Robert, D.D., b. at (Glasgow, in 1599; 
 died there .July, l()n2; studied theology; was 
 made professor of divinity at Gla.sgow in 1642, 
 and principal of the University in 1661, and took 
 an active part in all the church controversies 
 of liis time. His Letters and .loiinxds, edited 
 by l^aing, in 3 vols., Edinburgh, 1.S41-42, and 
 provided with a notice of his writing.^ and a 
 description of liis life, are of great historical 
 interest. To him we owe the giaphic descriji- 
 tions of the famous Westminster Assembly of 
 Divines, to which body he was sent as one of the 
 five Scotch clergymen in 1643, and sat in it for 
 three years. See Schakf's Creeds of Clirisleu- 
 dom, vol. I., pp. 727, 746 sq. 
 
 BAIRD, Robert, D.D., b. in Fayette County, 
 Pennsylvania. (Jet. 6. 1798; d. in New York, March 
 15, 1863; was educated in the Theological Semi- 
 Jiary of Princeton, licensed to preach by the pres- 
 bytery of Xew Brunswick in 1822, ordained in 
 1828, and devoted his life most zealously to the 
 cause of Protestantism, education, and tem- 
 perance, residing in Eurojie from 1835 to 1843, 
 and acting, after his return, as corresponding 
 secretary of the Foreign Kvangelical Society anil 
 the American and Foreign Christian Union. 
 Besides other works, he wrote IJistaire des So- 
 eii'liis lie Temperance des ICtats-Unis irAmcriijtie, 
 Paris, 1836, and Iteliyion in America, (ilasgow, 
 1842, New York, 1856, both of which were trans- 
 late<l into most European languages. Dr. liaird 
 was an accomplished linguist, a ]ilea.sant speaker, 
 and full of faith and charity. He was privileged 
 ito enter into king's jialaces, but he entered as 
 readily tlie houses of the ]ioor. He exert(Mi him- 
 self ))arlicularly to spread the gospel in Roman- 
 Catholic CDunlrii's. His life wius written by his 
 son, II. M. Baird, D.l)., New Y'ork, 1866. 
 
 BAJUS (DE BAY), Michel, b. at Melin in Hiii- 
 naut, 1513; d. at Uouvain, .Si-pt. 15, 15.'i9; was 
 educated in the. Univi-rsity of Eouvain, where he 
 took tile degree of doctor in tlu'dlogy in 15.")0, 
 and rciuained uoiinecled with that institution fur 
 
 his whole life, — first as professor since 1551, and 
 then as chancellor since 1.575. That self-contra- 
 diction which had secretly developed within tli" 
 Rom.in-Catholic Church during the middle age.s. 
 the Church vindicating Augustine as the highest 
 theological authority theoretically, while practi- 
 cally it abandoned the fundamental doctrines of 
 his system, ami approached Semi-Pelagianism. 
 was by Bajus brought into bro.id dayliglit. He 
 clung with sincerity to Augustine's doctrines of 
 sin and grace, and consequently he could not 
 avoid coming into sharp opposition to the ruling 
 tendency of the Church. A bitter controversv 
 aiose between him and Ids colleagues in the uni- 
 versity. By the Church the whole affair was 
 cautiously hushed up and smoothed over, treated 
 as a mere matter of the school, on account of 
 the dangerous proximity of the Reformation. 
 But, in spite of all jirecautions, the question soon 
 revived in the polemics between the Doiniuicai:s 
 and the Jesuits (ile aiuiliis r/ratiet), and it finally 
 burst forth in full tiame in the Jansenist contro- 
 versy. When, in 1551, four of the Louvaiu pro- 
 fessors went away to the council of Trent, Bkjus 
 was directed to step in and fill the vacancy; and 
 when, shortly after, one of theiu died, he obtained 
 his chair. As soon as the three others came 
 home, they felt that a foreign influence had been 
 at work, and iu 15()0 they effected a condemna- 
 tion by the Sorbonne of eighteen propositions 
 extracted from the lectures of Bajus. Bajus 
 complained, and prepared for defence. But the 
 Archbishop of INlechlin, Cardinal Granvelle, at 
 once stojiped the centre versy, and commanded 
 both jiarties to keep silent. In 1503, however, 
 Bajus published a series of dogmatical tracts: 
 De Liheri) Arhitrio; l)e .1 ustitia ; De Justijicatione, 
 etc.; in 1.564 aiuither series followed: De Meritis 
 Operuin; De Prima llmniiiis Jiistilia; De Virtutibu) 
 Inipiorum, etc.; in 1566 all these tracts were col- 
 lected in Ojtuscula Omnia; and now his adversaries, 
 the Louvain professors at the head, and the Fran- 
 ciscan monks in the rear, could not be kept quiet 
 any more. In December, 1567, the papal l)ull 
 {Ex oiimiljus afflictionibus) was i.ssued, and the 
 faculty of Louvain was demanded to subscribe 
 to the condemnation of the seventy-six propo- 
 sitions therein enumerati^l. The bull was a 
 diplomatical masterpiece. Bajus s nanuMvas not. 
 mentioned; and iu the formula of condemnation a 
 comma was left out, — the famous Comma I'ianum. 
 — which directly reverses the meaning when 
 placed before or after a certain word. Bajus, 
 liowever, took the bull in good faith, sent an 
 apology to the pope, showed that soiue of the 
 ]>roi>ositions were not his, others not his alone, 
 but ahso Augustine's, etc. ; and when a papal 
 brief of .M.ay 13, 1569, still sustained the bull, 
 he submitted and subscribed. It w.as feared, 
 however, that, imder a new pope, he would try to 
 have the bull reversed; and under (iregory \II1. 
 (1.579) there w;is conseiiuently issued a confirma- 
 tion of it, which was to be followed up by a new 
 subscription. Al.so Bajus's ndations to the Refor- 
 mation through St. Aldegonde, aiul his viinvs of 
 the episcopal authority, of the jiaial infalli- 
 bility, etc., were very liberal, and spread widely 
 in the Netherlands and Northern 1' ranee. His 
 collecti'd works were published at C'ologne, •_' 
 vols., 1090, by (.^LMcs-NKi. and Gi;kui;uo.n. See
 
 BAKER. 
 
 103 
 
 BALDE. 
 
 Duciiksnk: Hisloire ihi I'xijiinhmi; Pouay. IT^il; 
 F. X. LiNSKN'M ANN ; Micliiii-I /tdiiis 1111(1 (lie Oniiid- 
 lef/tiiif/ (liv .liiiixciiix/iiiix, '['iiliiny;!'!!, 1S67. 
 
 BAKER, Daniel, 1>. at. Aliilway, (ia., Aug:. 1"i 
 1791; cl. at Aiisliii, Dec. 1((. ISoT; was e<lucati'il 
 in tli(>. 'I'lic'dlciijical Seiiiinary of Princeton, and 
 ordained in 1818; was pastor in Wasliingtmi, 
 D.C., iVoiii 182u' to 1828; travelled then for 
 several years as a revivalist preacher throwsh 
 the Sonthern States, and settled finally in Texas, 
 where he fonnded Anstin College, whose first 
 president he was. He pnblished A Plain and 
 Scriptural View of Piajitium, two series of licviral 
 Sertudo.i, etc. His son ])uhlished Memoirs iif 
 Daniel /Idler, Philadelphia, 1S.)9. 
 
 BAKING, BREAD. While, as a rule, the indi.s- 
 pensable Wdrk of liaking fell to the women, and 
 at least one virgin princess did not consider it 
 beneath her (L' Sam. xiii. 8), and every house 
 had bakintj facilities, yet there were public bakers 
 in the cities (llos. vii. i, (i) ; and in .Jerusalem 
 they g-ave the name to a street (Jer. xxxvii. 21). 
 There were also court bakers (Gen. xl. 1 ; 1 Sam. 
 viii. 13). The best bread was made from wheat, 
 the poorest from barley. The dough was made 
 in wooden troughs, and leavened (Matt. xiii. 33). 
 Unleavened bread was also used, as to-day in 
 Palestine, and made in large paper-thin sheets : 
 it is, however, jirobable that the loaves of the 
 leavened and much thicker bread were yet thin 
 enough to be " broken ; " for we do not read in the 
 Bible of "cutting" bread (Lam. iv. 4; Matt, 
 xxvi. 26). The term " bread " is often used for 
 food or provisions in general. 
 
 Baking is a very rapid process in the East. 
 The mode to-day, and presumably the ancient 
 mode was the same, is to press by means of a 
 damp cloth a lump of dough, spread out thin, 
 against the inner sides of a stone or metal jar 
 about three feet high, which had been heated 
 inwardly « itii wood, or dried grass and flower- 
 stalks : in a minute the piece is baked. Heated 
 stones and ashes (when the bread is put in pans) 
 are also used to spread the cakes upon. But 
 there were and are also regular ovens. The 
 fuel was wood (Isa. xliv. 15); although in times 
 of need camels', cattle's, and even human dung, 
 were used (Ezek. iv. 12, 15). The Hebrews 
 sometimes added oil to the ordinary bread (1 
 Kings xvii. 12). A cake made of flour twice 
 kneaded, and probably fried in fat, seems to be 
 meant in 2 Sam. xiii. (J, 8, 10. ORELLI. 
 
 BA'LAAM (deronrcr) was a .Tehovah prophet 
 Vi'ho lived in Pethor, a city of Northern Mesopo- 
 tamia, not far from the Euphrates. Tlie inter- 
 esting episode in his life is related <at length in 
 Num. xxii. 5-xxiv. 25: reference is made to him 
 in Num. xxxi. 8, 10; 2 Pet. ii. 15, 10; Jude 
 11 , Itev. ii. 14. The story is briefly t'his: Balak, 
 King of the Moabites, finding himself unable to 
 oppose Israel in battle, called upon Balaam, who 
 had a great reputation in the East as a sorcerer 
 and prophet, and who withal was a worshipper 
 of the God of the Israelites, to curse them, think- 
 ing that the curse of a fellnw-woi-shipper would 
 be more efficacious than that of a heathen. On 
 receiving the invitation, Balaam consulted Je- 
 hovah, and being ndused permission he declined 
 to go. A second and more imposing deputation 
 of Moab and Jlidiau, with promises of wealth 
 ]t-I 
 
 and dignity, excited the cupidity of Bah'uim, who 
 again consulted .lehov.ah, and this time w.'is 
 granti'<l ]iermission to go, with the distinct under- 
 slaniling that he was to say tlie words, and none 
 other, th.at .lehovah wonlil ])Ut into Ids mouth. 
 He gladly went, dn'aining of future glory, ap- 
 p.'irently not perceiving that the condition of the 
 divine permission rendered such dreanjing vain. 
 On the journey the angel of .Jehovah ojiposed his 
 piath, and it was then the ;iss spake ; showing 
 herself to be a more willing servant of Jehovah 
 than her master. Balaam an<l Balak met, and 
 the former told the king very plainly that he had 
 no power to .say any thing except what God put 
 into his mouth. Balak was both surprised and 
 increasingly indignant to hear the famous prophet, 
 whom lie liad been at so much ]iains to bring to 
 curse Israel, bless them in exalted and inspired 
 words. Never did the divine afflatus act so 
 grandly. For the first two times Balaam kept 
 up the form of the heathen auguries; but the last 
 time, perceiving how the divine mind worked, 
 he abandoned incantations and lonely watcliing.s, 
 and yielded himself up unto .lehovah, and, in a 
 strain of eloquence never excelled, he described 
 the future of Israel. Bal.ak quite naturally dis- 
 missed him in anger; and tlie dishonored, ruined 
 prophet went back towards Pethor, but on his 
 way stopped among the Midianites, and out of 
 sheer desperation, desiring to regain popularity, 
 counselled the seduction of the Israelites unto the 
 worship of Baal-Peor by means of the Moabite 
 and Midianite women, shrewdly judging that 
 idolatry would quickest destroy them. See B.\ai.. 
 Thus Num. xxiv. 25 and xxxi. 8 are reconciled. 
 In the war which ensued, Balaam was killed ; and 
 thus the curtain drops upon a strange life, but 
 one of great instructiveue.ss. Balaam is used in 
 the New Testament as the type of those who love 
 the wages of uiirigliteousiies.s, and tempt unto sin. 
 Very aptly llengstenberg compares him to Simon 
 Magus (Acts viii. 9-24). 
 
 That there are difficulties connected with the 
 narrative is no reason for rejecting it. It is too 
 strange not to be true, and too fitting to the time 
 to be the product of any other age. Balaam was 
 a bad man, though a true projihet. lie had no 
 sincere convictions of the superiority of .Tehovah, 
 He followed him because it suited his interests. 
 Thus "a man may be full of the knowledge of 
 God, and yet utterly destitute of the grace of 
 God " 
 
 Lit. — G. JIoEnius : Ilisloria pro/diclie Dileami, 
 Lips., 1070; Hk.ngstknbkiig : Gexckirlife Jlileaim 
 u. sx'ine Weisaagunt/en, Berlin, 1842; M. M. K.\- 
 i.iscii Bible Sludics, Part 1, 'i'lie Prophecies of 
 Balaam, London, 1877. VOLCK. 
 
 BALADAN. See Mkhodacii-Bai.adan. 
 
 BALDE, Jacob, b. .Tan. 4, 1004, at Ensisheim. 
 Alsace ; d. Aug. 9, 1008, at Neuburg, in the Ba- 
 varian palatinate ; was educated in the Univer- 
 sityof lugolstadt; entered the order of the .Jesuits 
 in 1024 ; became court-preacher and Bavarian 
 historiographer in jMimich, 1040, confessor and 
 court-preacher to the count-palatine, Philii'p Wil- 
 helm; and acquired a great fame as a ]ioet, not 
 in his native tongue, — for singularly enough his 
 (ierman poetry is piteously poor, — but in Latin, 
 ,as an imitator of Horace, Virgil, etc. He wrote 
 odes, satires, and epics, of -a romantic, humoroua,
 
 BALDWIN. 
 
 194 
 
 BALLERINI. 
 
 and reliqfioiis character. His Oc/fE Pnrllienix to 
 the Virgin were separately published in 1048. 
 His Urania Victrii (1657), descriliing the contest 
 l)et\veen tlie Christian soul and the temjitation of 
 the five senses, impressed Pope Alexander VII. 
 so much that he sent the author a golden medal. 
 A collected edition of his works appeared at 
 Cologne, 1()60, and a more conijilete one at Mu- 
 nich, 1729. Minor selections have often been 
 made; for instance, by Orelli, 18U5. See Geoko 
 Westermayki! : .lacohun Balde, sein Leben n. 
 seine ]\'er/,e, Miinchen, 1S68. 
 
 BALDWIN, Thomas, d. .at Acre, Nov. 19, 1190; 
 was born at Exeter, in humble circumstances, 
 but received a good education, and was arch- 
 deacon of Exeter when he entered the Cistercian 
 monastery of Ford, in Devonshire, whose abbot he 
 afterwards became ; was made Bishop of Worces- 
 ter in 1180, and Archbishop of Canterbury in 
 1184: crowned Richard I. in 1189, and accom- 
 panied him in 1190 to the Holy Land. Some 
 treatises by him (ed. by Tissier, 1G62) are in 
 Migne, Pal. lat., cciv. 401 sq. 
 
 BALE, John, b. at Cove, Suffolk, Nov. 21, 1495; 
 d. at Canterbury, November, 15G;i; was educated 
 in the Carmelite monastery of Norwicli, and at 
 Jesus College, Cambridge, but embraced the Ref- 
 ormation, and had to seek refuge in Germany; 
 returned under Edward VI. and was made Bishop 
 of Ossory, in Ireland, 1552, but fled to the Conti- 
 nent after the accession of Mary, and lived for 
 some years at Basle ; returned under Elizabeth, 
 and was made prebendary of the Church of Can- 
 terbury in loUO. His principal work is Illuslnnm 
 Majnris Brilannice Scri/ilorum Sunimariuin, first 
 published in 1548, then considerably enlarged 
 in 1557-59; but he also became noted as a writer 
 of Miracle-/>lai/s, in which he violently attacked 
 the Roman Church. His play Ki/nf/e Jolian has 
 been pul:lislied by the Camden Society (1838); 
 and the Parker Society has published a selection 
 of his works (1849). 
 
 BALL, John, b. at Cassington, near Woodstock, 
 in Oxfordshire, October, 1585; d. Oct. 20, KiU). 
 He was educated at Brazen-nose College and St. 
 Mary's Hall, Oxford, and in KilO was ordaimul, 
 and became minister at Wliitmore, near N(!w- 
 castle, where he remained until his death. He 
 was a zealous and faithful Puritan, one of the 
 fathers of Presbyterianism in England, and, as 
 Baxter says, " deserving as high esteem and 
 honor as the best bishop in England." He 
 issued a Small Catechism conUdninij the J'rinci/iles 
 of Heliyion, which reached an eighteenth impres- 
 sion in lii'.V! \ and also a larger Catechism, en- 
 titled A short Treatise, containiny all the /irineijial 
 Grounds nf ('hrislian Jielifjion, which reaehccl a 
 tenth imjiression in 1635. These were published 
 anonymously, and highly esteemed and widely 
 used, and were among those consulted by the 
 Westminster divines. He also published " A 
 Treatise of I'aith, divided into two parts: the first 
 showing the Nature, aiul the second the Life 
 of Faith," London, 1631 (3d edition, corrected 
 and eidarged 1657, 4to, pp. 428, with an introduc- 
 tion by Richard Sibbs), iin exci'edingly valiuible 
 and complete discu-ssion. His chief work was 
 published after his ileath by Ids friend Simeon 
 Ashe, with an introduction sigucil by five West^ 
 minster diviin,'s, entitled A Treatise of the C'uoe- 
 
 nant of Grace, London, 1645. This is of great 
 importance as exhibiting that view of the cove- 
 nants which found ex]iression in the Westminster 
 symbols. According to Thomas Blake, "his pur- 
 pose w.as to speak on this subject of the covenant, 
 all that he had to say in all the whole body of 
 divinity. That which he hath left behind gives 
 us a taste of it." In this he anticipated Coo- 
 ceius and the Dutch Federal Theologv, as indeed 
 his view of the covenants is somewhat different 
 from theirs. Simeon Ashe also issued several 
 other works of Ball of a practical and contro- 
 versial character. c. A. BRlGGS. 
 
 BALLANCHE, Pierre Simon, b. in Lj'ons, Aug. 
 4, 1776; d. in Paris, Aug. 7, 1847; was an inti- 
 mate member of that circle which formed around 
 Chateaubriand and Madame Recamier. and be- 
 longed to the theocratic school of philo.sophers 
 which ai'ose in France during the restoration. 
 His Patinr/encsie Sociale, 1830, is an attempt to 
 construct the ]ihilosophy of history on the basis 
 of the Christian revidation. The same idea is 
 also set forth in his Y'islnn (Vllelial, 1841. and Es- 
 sai snr les Institutions, 1818. See S.vixrE Bkuve: 
 Pin-trails Contein/iorains 11.; J. J. Ampeue: Dat- 
 tanche, 1848. 
 
 BALLE, Nicola! Edinger, b. in the Island of 
 Lolland, Denmark, Oct. 12, 1744; d. in Copen- 
 hagen, Oct. 19, 1816; was appointed profe.s.sor of 
 theology in the L'niversitj' of Copenhagen. 1772, 
 and Bishop of Sealand, 1782, and retired from, 
 public life in 1808. He wrote the primer, after 
 which all children in Denmark, from 1794 to 
 1856, were taught Christiaiuty ; but tlie book was 
 not a good one. Compared with the New Testa- 
 ment, which it professed to summarize in system- 
 atic form, it was singularly out of time, and so 
 w.as the man hinisnlf with res[iect to the time 
 wliose spiritual leader he was set to be. A 
 pietist by heart and education, he w.as a rational- 
 ist by study and intellect ; and jilaced between 
 two generations, — of which the one luvd been 
 commanded to go to church twice every Sunday, 
 under penalty of a money-tine or bodily punish- 
 ment; while the other proposed to shut up the 
 churches, and use them as public wareliouses, — 
 he misunderstood them both, and oidy adiled to 
 the confusion. In Copenhagen he began a course 
 of Bible-re.idiugs in his church in order to stem 
 the flood of rationalism ; but he had to stop 
 because he could not prevent loafers from play- 
 ing cards in tlie pews. Out in the country ho 
 employed the force of the police to introduce his 
 primer among the pietistieal ]ieasants, and chil- 
 dren were actually taken aw.ay from their parents 
 in ordcu- to be educab'd in what the government 
 considered the only true ('hristianity. Person- 
 ally, however he was a pious, kind-iiearted, and 
 well-meaning man. cm.kmkns lM.;rKli.si.:N. 
 
 BALLERINI, two brothers from Verona, —- Pie- 
 tro, b. Sept. 7, 1698. and Girolamo, I). .Ian. 29, 
 1702, — who. educated in the .school of the .lesuits, 
 and afterwards ordained priests, t)ecaniecelel)rated 
 by tlieir joint labors im chvu-ch-history and canon 
 law. Tliey edited tin; Sermones S. ,\euonis, 1739, 
 the Summa S. Antoniiii, 1740, the Ojiera liatherii, 
 1756, the Oiiera Leonis Matjni, 1755-57, etc. 
 Pietro also took .active part in the controversies 
 of his time, and wrote De I'otestale lurlc.siaslica 
 J'unlijitum cl Coiiciliorutn, 176.5, and Uber Ue Vi
 
 BALLOU. 
 
 195 
 
 BALUZB. 
 
 nr Ratinnc Primatus Ponlifirum, 170G. Pipfro 
 died in 17(59 ; (Jii-olanio .scvcriil yciii'-f iiflerwiirds. 
 A coinpletH list of their wiii'lts is found in Maz- 
 ZUCHKI.I.I : (Hi Sc.riltori li'lldiid II., 17.S-1S;J up 
 to 1758, and in Verona lUustrala II., 109 up to 
 1771. 
 
 BALLOU, Hosea, 1>. at Richmond, N.II., April 
 30, 1771; d. at Boston, June 7, \>i'yl; was tho 
 son of a poor Haptist minister, and strnuclpd 
 hard for an education ; began to preach in 1792, 
 but emliraced Universalisni and Unitarianism ; 
 ■settled at Dana, Mass., in 1794, but removed in 
 ISOl' to Barnard, Vt. ; in 1807 to Portsmouth, 
 N II. ; in 1815 to Salem, Ma.ss. ; and in 1817 to 
 Boston, where he took charcfe of the Second 
 Universalist Society. He founded the Unirer- 
 salist Maf/nzinr in 1819, and in 1831 the Unirer- 
 sali.tl Exposilnr. He also wrote Notes on the 
 Parah/es, 1804; Treatise on tlic Atonement, 1805; 
 The Doctrine of Future Ketrilnition, 1840, and 
 several volumes of sermons. — Hosea Ballou, 2d, 
 nephew of the precedinar, b. at Halifax, Vt., Oct. 
 18, 1796; d. at Somerville, Mass., May '27, 18G1 : 
 was successively pastor of Stafford, Roxbury, and 
 Medford, and from 1853 president of Tufts Col- 
 lege at Medford, Mass. He edited the Lhurer- 
 salist Expositor, and Universalist Quarterlij. and 
 wrote The Ancient [listori/ of Uninersnlisni, 1829. 
 
 BALM in the Old Testament is supposed to be 
 tlie resin of the terebinth or turjientine tree, 
 which flows out spontaneously or through cut- 
 tmifs. It is exceedingly odoriferous, and greatly 
 esteemed in the Kast for its healing pro]ierties. 
 (iilead was especially noted for it (Jer. viii. 2"2, 
 xlvi. 11, cf. Gen. xxxvii. 25). But this is not 
 the genuine balsam. The latter is known as 
 balsam, incense, myrrh, bdellium, according to 
 its different forms. The chief variety (Aint/ris 
 Gilead. L.) is mostly thornless, has large triple 
 leaves, numerous blossoms, and sm.all, round- 
 stone fruit. Myrrh, native to the south coast of 
 Arabia, has short, tliorny branches, and small 
 trijile leaves. 
 
 Joseph us and Greek and Roman writers have 
 much to say about balm. The former relates 
 that the Queen of Sheba (1 Kings x. 10) brought 
 from Arabia the first balsam-root to Solomon. 
 On the other hand, Greek and Arabic authors 
 affirm that the genuine balsam does not exist 
 outside of Palestine. Certain it is that tlie gar- 
 dens of Jericho produced the finest kind; so that 
 Pompey brought it from there to Rome, and the 
 Romans derived revenue from it. Cleopatra im- 
 ported it thence into Egypt, and planted it in 
 the famous gardens of Matara, between liilbeis 
 and Cairo. FR. W. SCIlULTZ. 
 
 BALMES, Jaime Lucio, an eminent Spanish 
 politico-religious writer, b. at Vich, Catalonia, 
 Aug. 28, 1810; d. tliere July 9, 1848. His 
 parents were poor; but he was able to get a good 
 education, — first in his native town, and then in 
 the University of Cervera, whitlier he went in 
 1826, and where he took the different degrees. 
 He was ordained, and in 1832 became an 
 assistant professor. In 1835 he was made a 
 doctor, in 1837 professor of mathematics. ]")in-- 
 ing these years Spain was rent by the strife 
 between Maria Christina and Don Carlos. 
 Balmes watched keenly the struggle, and while 
 engaged in teaching, or literary work, still kept 
 
 his eye upon the changes of the time. In 1840 
 h(! published a catechism, which had a large 
 circulation. In 1812 he became associate editor 
 of the (.irilizacion, a literary journal, in which 
 he had the coveted oi>portunity to express hi? 
 political views. Prom Pebrnary, 1811, to Dec. 
 31, 1846, lie carried on tlie I'cnsamiento ile la 
 Nacion, and endeavored to rejire.ss the revolu- 
 tionary spirit of his people, and advocate very 
 strenuously the novel project of a marriage be- 
 tween the queen and the son of Don Carlos as the 
 best way of ending the troubles; and when the 
 (lueen was otherwise disposed of. hi' discontinued 
 his journal, although it was lucrative. He still 
 sought, however, the education of his people in 
 what he conceived to be a sound phihwophy. 
 He hailed the advent of Pope Pius IX.. and 
 wrote a brilliant work (P/o IX., Madrid and 
 Paris, 1847) in his praise: it was ihi: last work 
 he published. His i>rincipal works are t«o : (1) 
 Filosojia fundamental, Barcelona, 181(i, 4 vols.; 
 translated into French, 1852, 3 vols. ; into Kiig- 
 lish, by H. F. Brownson, New York, 1857, 2 vols.; 
 (2) El Protestarttismo comparailo con el ( 'n'olicismo 
 en sus relaciones con la civilisacion Europea, Ma- 
 drid, 1848, 3 vols. 8vo. ; Knglish translation 
 from the French by IPmford and Ki'i'.shaw, 
 Protestantism and Calholiciti/ compared in their 
 effects on the Cirilization of I'.uropc, J.on<lon, 1810; 
 American re]irint, translation revised, 2 I ed., 
 Baltimore, 1851. This latter famous book (.see 
 A. DK Blanciie-Rafi-iv : Jaciiues Dnlmes. sa vie 
 et ses ourraijes, Paris, 1850) is an audacious at- 
 tempt to show, by a review of modern civilization, 
 in opposition to Guizot, tliat ih-y. influence of 
 Catliolicity has been vastly superior to that of 
 Protestantism. The arguments are, of course, in 
 the main, weak; but the book has a(!coin[ilislieil 
 its object, — it has retarded the I'rotestant cause 
 in Spain. 
 
 BALSAIVION, Theodore, d. towards the end of 
 the twelfth century, deacon and librarian at the 
 Church of St. Sophia, Constantinople; wrote, 
 besides other works which have not been printed, 
 a complete commentary on the Nomocanon and 
 the Syntagma of Photius (1166-77). in which he 
 tries to decide how far the civil laws mentioned 
 in the Nomocanon are authoritative or not. The 
 commentary on the Nomocanon was first printed 
 in Paris in 1015, edited by Christof Justellus, 
 and again in 1020 in Bihliolheca Juris Canonici by 
 Voellus and Justellus. The Conimentary on the 
 Syntagma is found in Beveridge : Si/nodicnn I. 
 .See MiiRTiiKUiL : Ifistoiredu Droit liyzantin, Paris, 
 1840, III. 
 
 BALTUS, Jean Francois, b. at Metz, June 8, 
 1067; d. at Rheims, Jlarch 19, 1743: entered the 
 Older of the Jesuits in 1682, and distinguished 
 himself liy a number of literary and theological 
 works, of which the most noticeable are, Re- 
 ponse a t'llisloire des Oracles ile M Eontenelle, 
 Strasburg, 1707, in wdiich he maintains against 
 Fontenelle that the ancient oracles were not 
 mere frauds, but utterances under demoniacal 
 influence; and Difcnsc ties Saints Peres accuses 
 de Platonisnie, Paris, 1711, in which he vindicates 
 the originalily of the Fathers and their complete 
 indepinidence of the ancient philosophy. 
 
 BALUZE, Etienne, b. at Tulle, Limousin, Dec. 
 24, 1030; d. ia Paris, July 28, 1718; waa edu-
 
 BAMBAS. 
 
 196 
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 cated in the Jesuit College of Toulouse, and 
 devoted himself from youth to tlie coUectiou and 
 critical arrangement of historical documents; 
 received the tonsure, and became in 1056 the 
 co-laborer of Peter de Marca, Archbisliop of 
 Toulouse, afterwards of Paris, with whom he 
 staid till his death in 1GG2; enjoyed the patroii- 
 aje of the Archbisliop of Audi, and Le Tellier, 
 tiie chancellor; was librarian to Colbert from 
 lli67 to 1(570, and obtained then a chair in canon 
 law at the College Royal in Paris, of which 
 institution he afterwards became director, but 
 «as discharged from this office, and even ban- 
 ished from the city in 1710, and not recalled 
 until 1713. The cause of this trouble — very 
 lieavy to a man of eighty — was his Hi.iloire 
 (tuncaluf/i'iue (le la Maison iV A iirerr/iie, which he 
 wrote at the request of the Cardinal Boiiillou, 
 and which appeared in 1708 without giving 
 offence. But in 1710 the cardinal fell in disgrace 
 and fled the country; and it was now discovered 
 that the book of Baiuze might be used in support 
 of claims which the house of Bouillon made on 
 certain possessions in France. The first work of 
 Baliize wa-s his Anil/rizoiiiux, a ciiticism of 
 Frizon's (jdllin Purjnirala. Of the works in 
 w hose execution he was associated with De Marca 
 the Disserlaliunes dc ConCDrdia Sacerdotii el Im- 
 perii, l()(j3. is the most important. Of his edi- 
 tions of older authors, that of Salvian and 
 Vincent of Lerins appeared in 1003 ; tiiat of 
 Lupus of Ferrieres, in 1601; that of Agobard, 
 Amnio, Leidrad, and Florus Diaconus, in 1000, 
 etc. Of his great collections of historical docu- 
 ments the C(i/iilnlaria liei/uiii Fratiajrum a])peared 
 in 1677; the F.jiixloke Innocentii III., iu lOS-2; the 
 Nni-a Cutlvctin CnnciUdruin, 108.3. Of his more 
 independent works the Vitre Papaniin Acciiiuiien- 
 siuiii a]ipeared in l(i9-i. and liis Mixri-llducuruin 
 Libri .Seplciu iu 1077, 1079. 1080, 1083, 1700, 1713. 
 and 171."). His last work was an edition of 
 Cyprian, wliich he left unfinished, but which 
 was completed by Maran. 
 
 Lit. — \ complete list of the works of Baiuze 
 is found in Chiniac's edition of the (.'ii/nlul(iri<i, 
 Paris, 1780. L, 0:2-06. His life, written by him- 
 self, is found in Martin's liihliiillicfa llcdiizidiid, 
 Paris, 1719. See Vituac : Eloye de Baiuze, 
 Limoges, 1779. 
 
 BAMBAS, Neophytos, d. in .Vthens, 18.55 ; was 
 born in the Island of Chios; studied in I'ari.s, and 
 worke<l as jirofes.sor of philosophy and rhetoric. 
 first iu the University of Corfu, then in that of 
 Athens. He wrote manuals of ethics, rhetoric, 
 and grammar; and, iu connection with Nicholai- 
 des and Lowndes, lie translated tlie Bible into 
 modern (Ireck. 
 
 BAMPTOM LECTURES, a series of eight lec- 
 ture.s or sermons to Ik^ delivered annually at the 
 University of Oxford, " to confirm and e.stablish 
 the Christian faith, and to confute all heretics 
 and schismatics." They were iiistituti'(l by , John 
 Bamjiton, Canon of Salisbury (b. 1089; d. 1751), 
 who left his estate for tliat jmrpose. The lec- 
 turer must at least be a master of arts from 
 Oxford or Cambriilge. He is cliosen by tlie 
 heads of colleges, ami no one can be chosen a 
 second lime. 'l"he lectures began in 1780, and 
 the volumes containing them form a valuable 
 body of apologetical literature. See Ij;cn Hi.s. 
 
 BAN denoted, in the civil law of the old Ger- 
 man Empire, a declaration of outlawry, and was 
 in the twelfth century adopted by the church as 
 the common name for a declaration of excom- 
 munication. See ExCOMMU.NIC.\TIO.N. 
 
 BANCROFT, Richard, b. at Farnworth, Lan- 
 casliire, 1544; d. in Lambeth Palace, London, 
 Nov. 2. 1010; was educated in the L'niversity of 
 Cambridge, and became Bishop of London in 
 1597, and Archbishop of Canterbury in 1004. 
 He was a High-Churchman, asserting tliat thn 
 epi.scopal authority is b.ised upon a divine right, 
 and most violently opposed to the Puritans, whom 
 he often attacked in liis sermons. As president 
 of the Convocation, he presented for .adoption the 
 Book of Canons now iu force, and ,as archbishoji 
 he was "the chief overseer" of the authorized 
 version of the Bible, w-hich he had opposed at 
 the Hampton Court Conference (1004). His lite- 
 rary remains are unimportant. 
 
 BANGORIAN CONTROVERSY. See IIoaiv 
 LEY, Bishop of Bangor. 
 
 BANNEZ, Dominico, b. .at Valladolid, 15'27; 
 d. at Jledina del Campo, 1004; entered the order 
 of the Dominicans in 1544; lectured on theology 
 in V.aladolid, Alcal.a, and Avila; became the 
 confessor of St. Theresa, and contributed, as an 
 ardent disciple of Thom.as Aquinas, very mucli 
 to the condemnation of the works of Molina. 
 -Among other works he has also written a com- 
 mentary on the Siiinina T/ieulor/icd of St. Thomas. 
 
 BANNS (plur. of ban), a public announcement 
 in church, during service, of an intended m.ar- 
 riage, seem to have originated very early as a 
 custom iu the Christian community, since to it 
 Tertullian repeatedly alludes. In the English 
 Church they became .a legal enactment in 1200. 
 when the synod of Westminster decreed that 
 "no in.arriage shall be contracted without banns 
 thrice published in the church." So also in the 
 Lutheran churches of Europe. The Council of 
 the Lateral!, 1215, established them as law for 
 the whole L:Ltin Church. 
 
 BANQUET. .See Mkal.s. 
 
 BAPHOMET ("Baptism of Metis"), a pecul- 
 iar kiml of figures carved in stone or wood, with 
 two faces, one male and one female, and sur- 
 rounded by serpents. Of their symbolical mean- 
 ing nothing definite is known, though they played 
 a coiis|iicuous part in the process of the Tem- 
 plars, to whose insignia they belonged. See 
 Von Nell: llajdiomelisc/ie Aclcimluvke, Vienna. 
 1819. 
 
 BAPTISM. (A Pedobaptist View.) Mednimj 
 anil Useiif I'cniis. — liiiTrnCu is a derivative, modi- 
 fying the meaning of its root. Hutttu. Uukti.' 
 means: (1) To do a definite act, /«<///) ,' (2) 'l"o 
 effect a ilefinite change of condition, /" dye; 
 (3) To I'ffect a tliorough change of coiulition by 
 :issiinilating quality or influence, without color, 
 Id Icmpci; Iu sleep, lo imbue. Thus Buaru tempei-g 
 iron by wdter or oil, Sophocles, Ajdx 651, 0.5;1 
 (Scliol'ium) ; steeps with den; Dan. iv. 30.^ v. 
 21, .Septuagint: ste<'ps with poixoii, Strabo, (ico- 
 f/rdplii/, XVL, 1117; imbues with rpdl, lientley, 
 ICpii/rdms, p. 156; imbues with ('(rsarixm, Marcus 
 Aurelius A. Mcdilalmits, \l., 25; imbues with 
 iiiliip-iifi. III., 6; imbues by llidui/hh, V., 17: im- 
 bues with Jitdaisiii, Epictetus, l-lncliiniHd)i. XI..''. 
 1 These chaiigt'sof condition in numbiT and div' r-
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 197 
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 sity, siiecializi'il by the cliiiractrii.stic of the 
 agency, are noticeable, especially because Man-u, 
 biiideiied by two meanings, does not iollow out 
 this tliiril meaning, but turns it over for develop- 
 ment to its derivative, BaTrnC'J- 
 
 1 C'lasm'i: /In/iliam. — HanriQj means tlinrnughly 
 to change condition by charactei-istic assiiriilating 
 quality or ii)fluenc(', controlling (like its root) 
 any act or method to this end. 'I'hus ships and 
 crews sunk by (K'structive storm or beak of hos- 
 tile sliip are destructively baptized. An altar cere- 
 monially cleansed by water poin-ed or sprinkled 
 on it is ceremonially baptized. Convivialists 
 drinking intoxicating wine are drunkenly bap- 
 tized. .\nd a man drinking a so[)orific draught 
 is baptized, thoroughly changed in condition, 
 conformably witli this soporific characteristic. 
 For proof in detail of these positions, see the 
 author's Classic Lld/jtisiu. 
 
 2. Jiulaic IJd/ilism. — This is a thorough change 
 of condition from ceremonial defilement to cere- 
 monial purity. Heifer-ashes mixed with spring- 
 water had such legal cleansing power. As the 
 touch of a grave defiled the wdiole body, so a 
 drop of this sprinkled ashes purified the whole 
 body. .Joseph us, .A'(«. Aniii/., IV., 4; Philo, De 
 Saci'iJicanlUms; Cyrilof Alex., In hriinin. III., 121); 
 lieb. ix. 13. When long and familiar use drops 
 the defining agency, Bu-r-iC", absorliing its idea, 
 expresses ilcjinite condition, as in Sirach xxxiv. 
 ;i(); Judith xii. 7; Mark vii. 4; Luke xi. 38; 
 lleb. i.\. 11. In such and such like cases, Ba^n^u 
 means lo purifi/ cereiuimiully. See, for evidence, 
 the author's Jui/aic Baptism. 
 
 3. Baptism (if Inspiration. — This is "one bap- 
 tism," — a thorough change of spiritual con- 
 dition, assimilating the soul to the characteristic 
 quality of the divine baptizer. Its elements are 
 repentance and faith : its results are remission 
 /ind regeneration. It is grounded in the )iersonal 
 baptism of .Jesus, covenanting to "fulfil all right- 
 eousness" (Matt. iii. 1.3). and to endure sacrificial 
 death (Mark x. 38). It is effected by the Holy 
 (ihost (Matt. iii. 11). It is received by all who 
 enter into the kingilom of God (.John iii. 3; 1 
 Cor. xii. 13). Its final issue is baptism " into 
 tlie Name of the Father, and of the Son. and of the 
 Holy Ghost," — subjection, reconciliation, and 
 affiliation with the living God. 
 
 (1) The liaplism of John preached (Matt. iii. 2; 
 Luke iii. 3; Acts xiii. 24) was this "one bap- 
 tism" in swelling bud; the Holy Ghost and 
 Lamb of God within it, not yet unfolded. (2) 
 The baptism of John adminislereil was this "one 
 baptism " in symbol, "making manifest .Jesus, 
 the Lamb of God which taketh away the sin of 
 the world" (.John i. 29,31; Matt. i'ii. 11; Acts 
 xix. 4). (2) The baptism of Christianiti/ is John's 
 baptism unfolded, revealing the Lamb of God 
 slain and tlie Holy Ghost sent (Acts ii. 23, 33, 
 38, iii. 19, xi. 15-18). (3) The symbol-baptism 
 of Christianity is the perpetuation of the symbol- 
 ism of the baptism .John " preached," and of the 
 "one baptism" of inspiration (John i. 29-33, 
 iii. 22, iv. 2 ; Acts x. 47). 
 
 BaTmfu ei( expresses the ideal (Cremer, Bib. 
 Theo. Lex., s.v.) passing into a spiritual element, 
 tl^ fj£Tuioiav, fi'c dipfatv (.John), t/f Xpiarov, et^ tuv 
 HuvnTov aiiTov (Cliristianity), by whicli the bap- 
 tized are thoroughly changed in condition, being 
 
 conformed lo the characteristic of the element by 
 the power of the Holy (ihost. In Mark i. 9, 
 t'l" is related to r/AOiv (Matt. iii. 13 ; Greg. Thaum. : 
 De Christ i Baptisma). 
 
 BnTriCiJ h is never associated with the ideal 
 element of baptism. Acts x. 48 is no exce])tion 
 (see Coilex Sinaiticus). The phrase expresses 
 locality and agency : it (vmnot express passing 
 into: with ti' Trarnfiu (Mark i. 0) it means the 
 place where, within tlie banks of the river, not 
 within the water (//)>«/, XVIII., 521). Xo )ier- 
 son in the New Testament is shown, by word or 
 fact, to be under water in the administration of 
 baptism. Sprinkling being used by ins]iiration 
 to apply the blood of the type land) of tin' flock, 
 and to express the reception of the antitype 
 blood of the Lamb of God (1 ['et. i. 2), we have 
 divine authority to apply the water, symbol 
 of this antitype blood, by siirinkling; and no 
 other essentially diverse way is autliorized. For 
 minute detail and evidence, see the author's Jo- 
 liannic and Christian Baptism. 
 
 4. Patristic Baptism is claimed to be, and in fact 
 is, the same in nature with the "one baptism " of in- 
 spiration. It has the same elements, — repentance, 
 faith, remi-ssion, regeneration; the same ground 
 Kisis, — tlie redemptive work of the incarnate Son 
 of God; the same divine agent, — the Holy Spirit ; 
 the same ultimate end, — reconciliation with God 
 the Father. Son. and Holy Ghost. It dejiarts, in 
 its accomplishment, from inspiration, in that 
 "bai>tized" water is made co-efficient with the 
 Holy Spirit to this end (Cyprian, see Tertullian, 
 Migne's edition, HI., 1082); also in the aban- 
 donment of the symbol-baptism of inspiration ; 
 and, further, in the introduction of a symbol- 
 burial with .Jesus in the rock sepulchre, by cover- 
 ing the baptized in water. This " burial " has 
 been mistaken for the tinptism. The mistake is 
 as great and absolute as the mistaking of t>«n-nj for 
 BnTT-iCw- These early Christian writers make 
 Ko/iii7:7(j, Karaiiaivu, naradvui, and such like words, 
 interchangeable with diimu, but never with 
 BnT7(fu. On the other hand, they make KaOapi^u, 
 uyiit^ui, hwu, and such like words, equivalent and 
 interchangeable with Bawri^u, but never with 
 diinru. This symbol-burial is derived from 
 Kom. vi. 4, where there is no confusion of -diimu 
 and Bnirn^'u. The originators of ?,\mhi>\-hurinl 
 (not symboX-liaptism) never confoumled Paul's 
 "burial in the rock" with Paul's '• baptism into the 
 death of Christ" on the cross. Such supreme 
 error was reserved for to-day. They repudiate 
 it: 1. Because they claim their baptism to be 
 spiritual, a baptism of the soul by the Holy 
 Spirit, and "baptized" water imbued with the 
 Holy Spirit ; 2. Because the}' omit this .symbol- 
 burial "almost daily" in bajitizing the sick, yet 
 declare the baptism "perfect;" 3. Because they 
 abundantly cite "images of baptism" which have 
 no "covering;" 4. Because they declare bap- 
 tisms by blood, tears, fire, sword, touch, to be 
 glorious and perfect " baptisms " — not burials, 
 5. Because they deny that "simple" water can, 
 by any covering, effect their baptism ; 6. Because 
 their baptizing water was " baptized " (purified, 
 sanctified), "that it might be able, by its own 
 baptism," to baptize (take away sin) ; 7. Because 
 long usage in relations with remi-ssion and re- 
 generation had given to Ba-rriC" (not i>u^ru) tue
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 198 
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 meaning, lo cleanse from sin, lo ret/encrale. These 
 reasons are solidified liy tlie following definition 
 of Basil the Great, Afonilia III., 7;i(j : " Wliat is 
 the purport and power of the (Christian) bap- 
 tism V" " Thoroughly to change the baptized as 
 to mind, speech, and act, so as to become, con- 
 formably with the power bestowed, such as is 
 that of' which he was born." There is no 
 '• burial " in this di-finition. Thorough changes 
 of condition, multitudinous in numl>er, diversi- 
 fied in nature, executed liy every variety of act, 
 specialized by the baptizing agency, are present 
 everywhere in Classic, Judaic, Inspired, and 
 Patristic baptisms. Minute details and full evi- 
 dence in the author's Piitrislic Bdjilism. 
 
 Lit. — Danikl Fkatlky: The Dippcrx Dipt, 
 or the Aiialiaplisls Duckmt and P/uni/cd orer Head 
 and Kars, ul a Disputation in Soiilliicark' (1G41). 
 London, 1043, 5th ed.. 1048, 4to; A. 11. : Dippin;/ 
 isBiiplizin</,and Ijajitizini/is Dippin;/, London, 1044; 
 K. liAUHKit: Treatise of Dippin//, London, 1044; 
 Willi a:m Wall: llistori/ of Infant Baptism, Lon- 
 don, no."), 2 vols. 8vo, 'id e<l., 1707, 4 to; John 
 Gale (Bajitist); Reflections on Mr. \V(d!'s Ilislm-i/ 
 of Jnfanl JSn/Hism, London, 1711, 2d ed., 1720, 8vo 
 (Best edition of both, U"illiam Wall: A Jlis- 
 tory of Infant Ba/itisni, tot/ether with Mr. Gale's 
 Rejlections and Mr. Wall's Defence. Neic eilition, 
 by the Ben. Henry Cotton, D.C.L., Oxford, 18:30, 
 4 vols. 8vo); !Mosi;s Stuaut : Mode of Christian 
 Ba/ilisni Prescribed in the Neic Te.^itanient, Aiulover, 
 1833 (rcjirinted (1870) Nashville, Teiin., for the 
 Southern liaptist Pub. So.); Edwakd Klkciikr: 
 Ba/riisin, Its Jni/mrl and Modes, Andover, 18-10, 
 New York, 1849; Ronicur Hallky : An hu/uiry 
 into the Nature of the Syniholic Institutions of the 
 Christian Ilelit/ion, tuiually called the Sacraments, 
 London, 18.J4', 2 vols. (vol. 1, Baptism, 1844); 
 Alkxandek Caisson (Baptist): Jia/ilism in its 
 Mode and Sulijects, London, 1844; llonicuT W'il- 
 80.N : In/ant Ba/>tism: a Scriplund Serrice, and 
 Dip/liny Unnecessary to its Iliyht Administration, ,1 
 lie/di/ to Dr. Carson, Loudon, 1818; Alkxaxdkh 
 Cami'Iif.i.l (Baptist): Christian Ba/itism, with its 
 Antecedents and Consei/uents, Bethany, 1848, Cin- 
 cinnati (1870); Thomas .1. Conant (Bajitist) : 
 Meaniny anil C.se of"Ba/ili:ein," Philotoyiccdiy and 
 Historically Inre.itiyated, New York, 1800; .Ia.mls 
 W. Dalk : Ini/xiiry into the Meaniny of Bn^r/Cu 
 Classic Ba/)tism (18(i7), .ludaic liaptism (1871), 
 Johannic liaptism (1872), Christie and Patristic Ba/i- 
 tism (1871), Bliila.,4 vols. jamks w. DALli. 
 
 BAPTISM. (The Baptist View.) — The rite 
 ordiuncd liy .Icsus C'hri.st (Matt, xxviii. 10) for 
 public cdiifes.sion of God, Fatlu'r, Son, and Holy 
 Spirit, and for initiation into the fellowship of 
 his di.sciples. Dorner, Theotoyy, 1880, § 28. 
 
 The Act. — The exainph-s of baptism in the 
 New Testament occur in rivers (Matt. iii. 0; 
 Mark i. .'3), or jiools (Acts viii. 30; .Jolin iii. 23). 
 Jesus himself Wiis baptized in the Jordan 
 (Matt. iii. 10; Mark i. 0). Baptism is referred 
 to as a "burial" (lioin. vi. 4; Col. ii. 12), and 
 by Peter is called the antitype of tlie flood 
 (1 Pet. iii. 21). 
 
 The authorities on pliilology, on the archae- 
 ology and history of (.'liristian churches, an; 
 unanimous in as.serting tliat the baptism of the 
 New Testament and of the early ages of Chris- 
 tianity was a dipping, a subincrsiuu of the 
 
 candidate in w.ater. All philologists and lexicog- 
 rapliers of the Greek language give " immer- 
 sion," "submersion," or cognate terms, as the 
 constant signification of the noun or verb. The 
 arcliaeologists Augusti, DeRossi, Garucci, Mar- 
 tigiiy, Ue Vogue, etc , tell us that the inonnmental 
 remains in Asia, Africa, and Europe, prove that 
 immersion was the act of baptism. Historians, 
 and those who treat of the early liturgies, unite in 
 the same testimony. See Wall, Hist Infant Bapt. 
 (vol. 1, p. 570), Oxford. 1802; lIoHing. Sacr. d. 
 Taufe (vol. 1, p. 40). There is not a dissenting 
 voice in all the literature of the Christian churcli 
 for twelve hundred years. Only in case of great 
 sickness was any other act allowed, and then only 
 as a qu:isi-baiitism. 
 
 The many ancient baptisteries now remaining 
 in Asia, Africa, and Europe, were built and used 
 for the )iurpose of immersion. The Oriental 
 churclies, Greek, Russian, Armenian, Nestorian, 
 Coptic, and others, have always practised immer- 
 sion, and allow nothing else for baptism, Gass, 
 Symlmlil: der yriechischen Kirche, 1872, pp. 242, 
 243. Tiie western churches also preserved the 
 baptism of the New Testament for thirteen hun- 
 dred years and then gradually introduced pour- 
 ing or sprinkling, Mabillon, Museum Ital. (1724), 
 vol. 1, p. lOO; Daniel, Codex Lituryicus (1847-53), 
 vol. 1, p. 179 ff. ; Wetzer and Welte, Kirehen-Lex. 
 Art. " Tanfe." Luther .sought, against the ten- 
 dency of the times, to restore immersion (O/jc/u 
 Lat. 3: 304; Werke 21: 17, 130, 22: 103, 20:!, 
 etc., Erlangen edit.). The rubric, in Luther's 
 Taufhuchlein of 1523 and 1527, to immerse 
 {"tauche es," [Daniel, vol. 2, p. IHO, note with 
 quotations from Luther's works]) the candidate, 
 was retained in many of the Ayenda of the Lu- 
 theran churches during the sixteentli century, 
 Ilofling, Sacr. d. Taiifc (vol. 1, p. 53. vol. 2, p. 
 50, 04), just as the rubric "to dip" is still re- 
 taini'd in the baptismal service of the English and 
 .American Episeojial churches. Calvin was the 
 first to assert that immersion was of no impor- 
 tance; "whether the person who is baptized be 
 wholly immersed, and whether tlirice or once, or 
 whether water be only poured or sprinkled upon 
 him, is of no importance: churclies ought to be 
 left at liberty in this respect to act according to 
 tlie difference of countries. Tlie very word ha/)ti:e, 
 however, signifies to iininerse; and it is certain 
 that immersion was the pnictice of the ancient 
 church " (Instit., Bk. IV., ch. 15, sect. 19). 
 
 All western churches, except the Baptist, have 
 accepted siirinkling. 
 
 The Jlici/nenls. — Among the last teachings 
 and preceiits of the Saviour to liis apostles wi're 
 tlie.se: "That repent:ince and remission of sins 
 should be jireached in his name among all na- 
 tions, beginning at Jerusalem. And yc! are wit- 
 nesses of these things" (Luke xxiv. 47,48). "(lO 
 ye and jireach the gosjiel to every creature. lie 
 that believeth and is b.aptized shall be saved " 
 (.Mark xvi. 15, 10). "Go ye therefore and teach 
 all nations, baptizing them in the name of the 
 Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy (diost; 
 teaching them to observe all things whatsoever I 
 liave commanded yon" (Matt, xxviii. 10, 20). 
 
 According to these words, the a|ioslles were to 
 "pre:ich repentance uiid renii.«sion of sins in hi.n 
 name," to •tcacli :ill nations," to "baptize them,"
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 199 
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 and to " tpach tlieiii to observe all things whatso- 
 ever " .Ti'sus had cnniiviamled them. 
 
 The examples ^iveii in the New Testament of 
 ba]>ti.sin.s by the apostles show us how they 
 understooil and obeyed these precepts. 'J'hey 
 baptized those who "repented" and "received 
 their word" (Acts ii. 3S, 41); those who '•be- 
 lieved " (Acts viii. 12, 38, ix. IS, x. 47, 48, xvi. 
 15. 3:!. xviii. 8. xix. o). 
 
 The mental slates the apostles jiredioate of tlie 
 baptized are thost^ of believers only. Tliey have 
 died to sin, and been made aliv(! to fi"o<l to walk 
 in newness of life (Rom. vi. 4); they drink of 
 one spirit (1 Cor. xii. 13); they "are all the 
 childien of God by faith in Christ Jesus. For 
 as many of yon as have been baptized into 
 Christ Jesus have put on Christ" ((ial. iii. 27); 
 they were "raised to life with Christ thronjjh 
 tlie faith of the operation of Cod " (Col. ii. 12). 
 Aiul by Peter baptism is said to be, "not the 
 puttins-away of the filth of the flesh, but the 
 answer" (earnest seeking, requirement) "of a 
 good con.science toward God " (1 I'et. iii. 21). 
 
 The designations of the churches by Paul lead 
 to the same conclusion. The churches are ad- 
 dressed as those who are "sanctiHed," "called," 
 "holy," who "call upon the n;une of Christ" 
 (1 Cor. i. 2; 2 Cor. i. 1); ".saints, believers" 
 (Eph. i. 1, 22. 20); "once alienated, and enemies 
 in their minds," but "now reconciled" (Col. i. 
 21); they brought forth a "work of faith, and 
 labor of love, and patience of hope" (1 Thess. i. 
 1 ; 2 Thess. i. 1, 3). 
 
 But in the second and third century after the 
 apostolic age, the niy.stic power of regeneration 
 was by many ascribed to baptism. It was ima- 
 gined that none could be saved without baptism, 
 and gradually the baptism of infants was intro- 
 duced. The growth of this new custom was very 
 slow. Many of the most eminent Christians of 
 the fourth century did not baptize their infants. 
 Gregory of Nazianznra in Cajiiiadocia (b. A.D. 
 330), the son of a bishop, and his mother the 
 saintly Nonua, was not bajitized till he was con- 
 verted at thirty years of age. IJasil the Great, 
 also of Cappadocia (b. A.l). 329). whose mother 
 was the pious Emnielia, was not baptized till he 
 was converted, when abont thirty years old. 
 Chrysostom of Antioch in Syria (b. A.D. 347), 
 whose mother Anthusa was one of tlie noblest 
 Christian women, was not baptized till he was 
 converted. And the sou of the holy Monica, 
 Augustine of Nuniidia, was not baptized till he 
 was converted at the age of thirty-two. Here 
 were four of the most eminent Christians of the 
 fourth century, who prayed for their infants both 
 before and after their birth, who did not have 
 them baptized. No plausible theory has yet been 
 found to harmonize these facts with the assumed 
 institntiou of infant-baptism by Christ. To the 
 present time it has been fonnd "difficult, if not 
 impossible, to give a definition of the sacraments 
 in their great leading fundamental aspects, which 
 would at the same time a[iply to and include the 
 S|)ecial case of the bajitism of infants " (\V. Cun- 
 ninuduim, Kefonners ami T/iealo;//; of IleJ'uniKtl'um, 
 p. 2511). This "difficulty, if not impossibility," 
 arises from the contradiction between infant- 
 baptism and the fundamental doctrines of the 
 gospel, — election, regeneration, justification by 
 
 faith, — as well as from the ab.sence of precept 
 or example for infant-baptism in the New Tes- 
 tament. 
 
 Si/mlid/ixm. — The passages referring to the 
 .syml)olism of baptism are, "Know y(! not, that 
 so many of ns as were bajitized into Jesus Christ 
 were baptized into his death? Therefore we ai'e 
 buried with him by baptism into <ieath ; that 
 like as Christ n.as raised up from tlu' dead by 
 the glory of the Father, even so we also should 
 walk in newness of life" (Rom. vi. 3, 4, eomp. 
 vers. 2, 5-11); "buried witli him in baptism, 
 wherein also ye are risen with him throu'jh the 
 faith of the openitiou of (jod, who raised him 
 from the dead" (Col. ii. 12); "for as numy of 
 you as have been baptized into Christ Jesns have 
 put on Christ" (Gal. iii. 27). 
 
 Besides the public confession of God. three in 
 one. Father. Son, and Holy S]iirit (Matt, xxviii. 
 l!i). baptism is a symbol of "|intting on Christ " 
 ((Jal. iii. 27, comp. Rom. xiii. 14); of union, 
 through faitli, with Christ in his death and 
 resurrection (Uom. vi. 3, 4 ; 1 Cor. xii. 13; Col. 
 ii. 12); that is, those who were "dead in sins," 
 having received forgiveness, have died with 
 Christ to sin, and have been made "alive by God 
 through Christ" to " walk in newness of life " 
 (Rom. vi. 3-11; Col. ii. 12, 13). 
 
 Lit. — ViCKCo.MKs: Ohacrriiliiincs Eccl. .Medio- 
 laui, lUl.). 4 vols. (vol. 1, "l.)e Rit. liapt."); Rou- 
 i.Nsox : Ilia!, o/' Ua/ilisiu, London, 17i)U; -Vi'tiusxi : 
 Dc'idiriiii/K/kcilcn (tiis (k'r chriatlicliLii Arr/iii</l(>(/i<', 
 Leipzig, 1817-31, 12 vols. (vol. 7, p. 210 tt'.); 'Dii 
 Rossi: Uhiiiu Sdllcrriinca, Ronni, 1804-57,2 vols.; 
 Garuucci : Sinrin tIcUa Arte Cristkina, I'rato, 
 1872-8U, vols ; CltKMEit: Winicrluirk (ler N. T. 
 Griiciiat, (iotha, 1872; 3d ed., 1881 sq.; Kng. 
 Trans., Bihllco-OrccL- Lexicon, Edinburgh, 2d ed., 
 1880; ISlAltTlGXY: DirL dc-s AnliijUi/e'.t C/in'liciines, 
 Paris, 1877 (Art. " Bapteme." " Baptistere") ; 
 Li c (1 r K.N li K i!ii K 1! : Eiii:i/clo/JL'ilie ilcs Scitncc-s llelii/., 
 Paris, 1877 (Ait. "Bapteme," "Baptistere"); 
 Dk V'ociUE: Arcliilccltite t'icile ct Helii/. ilu l" au 
 VII' :iicck; Paris, 1877, 2 vols, (vol.' 1, iip 132, 
 153). II. oscooD. 
 
 BAPTISM. I. Considered Biblically. T/ie 
 NeiD-'I'csldincnl Iiteu. — We do not find in the 
 New Testament any concise, dogmatic statement 
 in regard to baptism : we have only allusions 
 to the rite, and reu)arks in connection with de- 
 scri]itions of its perfornuance; and the difficulty 
 in interpreting the former (e.g. John iii. 5; 
 Eph. V. 20; Tit. iii. 5) is increased, because in 
 them baptism manifestly stands as a symbol for 
 the cleansing and quickening power of the word 
 and doctrine. 
 
 Inasnmch as .Tewish proselyte-baptism is much 
 later than Christianity, we must search for the 
 prototypeof C'hristian baptism in the lustrations of 
 the Old-Testament economy (Lev. xiv. 7; Num. 
 xxxi. 19 .sqq.), in the purifying Jordan-washing 
 (2 Kings V. 10), and in tlie pirophetic expres- 
 sions, e.g., Isa. i. 10; Zech. xiii. 1 ; particularly 
 Ezek. xxxvi. 25-30 [and, according to some, 
 in E.ssenic washings]. Resting upon these pas- 
 sages, .John [.see Joii.v Till-: B.\1'T1st] and the 
 discijiles of .Jesus baptized in the .Jordan. The 
 two baptisms were manifestly the same while 
 our Lord was upon the earth; but that after his 
 resurrection our Lord coupled water-ba))Cisiu with
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 ZOO 
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 tlie baptism of the Holy Spirit, of wliicli John 
 liad propliesied (.Matt, xxviii. 18-L'O; Mark xvi. 
 IG). and that the two went togetlier in tlie early 
 church, is proved from .Act.s ii. 38. x. 44 sqq.,xix. 
 1 S(]q. The outpouring of the .Spirit consecpient 
 upon the layincr-on of the apostles' hands ex- 
 pressed the "thought that the blessing of bap- 
 tism conies from the Lord of the Ciiurch: for 
 such an action was an accompaniment to prayer. 
 The Spirit had ahvady been active in the recipi- 
 ent's heart: for it was expres-iy declared impos- 
 sible to believe without the Spirit's aid (1 for. 
 xii. K5). Baptism is rather the initiatory rite 
 into the Christian Church, the Body of Christ 
 (.Acts ii. 41, V. 14). It gives the seal to all 
 previous spiritual experiences, and is the promise 
 of growth with the Body of Christ, of which the 
 baptized is an integral part; for, in the language 
 of Paul, he that had '■ put on Christ " was not 
 oidy in a personal, but in an integral relation to 
 him as a member of his Body, so that the Church 
 is one ifinii in Christ Jesus (Gal. iii. 27, 'J8). But 
 we are not in the least justified in drawing the 
 conclusion that baptism is necessary to salvation. 
 
 Baptism is a highly symbolical act. The w.ash- 
 ing of the body symbolizes the cteansinfi fnnn sin, 
 spoken of as forgiveness (Acts ii. 38, cf. xxii. 16, 
 and 1 Cor. vi. 11), as a cleansing by the word 
 (Eph. v. 20), as the restoration of a good con- 
 science (lleb. X. 22, 23). The power, however, 
 to effect these changes, lies not in the water, but 
 in God. It also symbolizes the Inirial with Christ 
 (Rom. vi. 3, 4; Col. ii. 12), by reason of which 
 the recipient is bound to die unto sin. The same 
 idea is brought out in the analogy between bap- 
 tism and the circumcision of Christ: the "put- 
 ting-off of the body of the flesh" (Col. ii. 11). 
 It has also been considered by some a, symbol 
 of rer/cneraliiin (John iii. .5; Tit. iii. 5). There 
 is no trace of infant-baptism in the New Testa- 
 ment. See Baptism OF I.N'i' ANTS. All attempts 
 to deduce it from the words of institution, 
 or from such passages as 1 Cor. i. 10, must be 
 given up as arbitrary. Indeed, 1 Cor. vii. 14 
 (" For the unbelieving husband is sanctified in 
 the wife, and the unbelieving wife is sanctified 
 in the brother : else were your children unclean; 
 but now they are holy,") rules out decisively 
 all such deductions; for, if pedobajitisni were 
 taught by Paul, he would have linkiMi the sal- 
 vation of the children with their bajitism. and not 
 with the faith of their parents. At tin- same time 
 the passage brings out the justifying ground for 
 pedobaptism ; viz., the parental faith. — Bap- 
 tism was administered in running water. 
 
 II. Considered In its Relation to Johannic 
 Baptism. — Tlie speculative cpiestion involved, 
 lias greatly interested the theologians. The 
 opinion of anthpiity on this point is well sum- 
 inarizi'd by Bellarrnine in his l)e Snrriiinenlo liup- 
 lismi, Lib. I., Cap. XIX,-X.\II. (ed. Uomae, 1838. 
 torn. III., i>p. 200-200), and amounts to this: (1) 
 The baiitisni of John was not. likc^ the Christian, 
 a sacrament; for, although thiTe was water, there 
 was no invocation of tlu! Trinity. (2) It had 
 neither the ]iower nor the efficiency of Christian 
 baptism, because it was without the co-operation 
 of the Holy .Spirit. (3) In order to be saved, it 
 was necessary for tliose who were baptized by 
 John to receive Christian baptism. 
 
 On the other hand, the Lutheran and Reformed 
 
 Confessions asserted the perfect identity of the 
 two forms of baptism. )irincipnlly on the ground 
 that John had preached the fundamental truths 
 of the gospel. ,So Luther (Krlangen .\usgabe, 
 vol. 19, p. 109); Chemnitz (E-mm. Cwic. Tii- 
 ilent. lie Bnpt. can. 1): Gerhard (Aw/ TheitUn/., 
 vol. IX.. ed. Cotta, pp. 101-103). Zwingli (to'm. 
 III. 234) characteristically says, "They were 
 both alike, the one as little efficacious [i e.. as a 
 mere water-washing] as the other." .\nd Calvin 
 (Instil. IV., cap 1.5. § 7, 8) saw in the office of 
 the Baptist nothing different from that of the 
 apostles, and so he attributed to John the same 
 baptism. The Socinians and the .\rniinians took 
 the Roman-Catholic position, which is doubtless 
 correct on scriptui-al grounds alone, and agrees 
 with the confe.ssion of the Baptist (Matt. iii. 11), 
 the statement of Christ himself as to the relation 
 of the same to the kingdom (Matt. xi. 11), an<l 
 with the apostolic ideas that Christ gave a new 
 spirit to mankind, that it dwells in his Church, 
 and that the object of baptism is the reception 
 into the communion of this spirit. 
 
 III. Considered Practically. (1) The Eif/ht to 
 Bti//ti:e. anil Lai/ Dnplisin. — There is no evidence 
 that in apostolic times the light to administer 
 baptism was confined to any particular office. 
 The deacon Philip (.Acts viii. 38) and the apos- 
 tle Paul (1 Cor. i. 14-10) baptized; but the lat- 
 ter does not seem to have considered it p;irt of 
 his duty. Probably the disciples baptized the 
 first converts in a place, and then let them ba)i- 
 tize the others. Still it may well have been, that, 
 even in these times, baiitisin was usually ailmin- 
 istered by the chief officer of the congregation. 
 Tertullian, while granting in the abstract the 
 right to the laity on the ground that what all 
 received in common might be dispensed by all in 
 common, nevertheless demands, in the interests 
 of ecclesiastical order and unity, that the exercise 
 of this right, except in cases of necessity, be 
 restricted to the ecclesiastics, ordinarily to the 
 bishop (De liiipt. 17). To the same effect speaks 
 •Jerome (contra Lucifcrianos, 4) Cyprian is the 
 first of the fathers to claim baptism as the .abso- 
 lute prerogative of the bishop as the succe.s.sor of 
 the apostles and of tlu; bearer of the keys (ICpist. 
 73,7); {he. A/tiistiiliciil Cinistiltitinns al.so(lIl. 10) 
 claim baptism for the priestly office exclusively. 
 The early church custom gave to bishops, and 
 then to presbyters and deacons commi.ssioned by 
 them, the riglit to baptize, but alloweil it to the 
 laity only in extreme cases. The scdioohnen, 
 I>;irticularly Thomas .Vipiinas, modified this 
 teaching by extending tho. right to priests. The 
 Roman Church in the CiUi-cliism of the (,'oiincil of 
 Trent (or Roman Catechism), P. II., c. II., i/n. 
 23, teaches that priests and bishops have equal 
 right in the matter: deacons also can baptize on 
 commission of the bishop, and in case of need 
 anybody, — man or wom:ui. Christians or .Jews, 
 orthodox or heretics. Thus the jircsent church 
 is more liber:d than some of her founders; for 
 Tertullian denies the right to women, as the 
 A/iostiilir Conslitutinns (dll. 9) do; and it appears 
 from Kpiphanius (llirr. 42,4), that it was looked 
 upon as an heretical jn-actice. .\ugustine be- 
 lieved that baptism by a .Ji^w or .a lieathen would 
 not, even if valid, be of equal ellicacy to baptism
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 201 
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 by a Catholic or heretic (De liapl. VII. .'5:5, §§ 101, 
 102). Self-baptism was not valid. l>ut baptism 
 given ill sport, if the projier words be u.sed, is 
 regarded as valid by Rome. 
 
 The two Protestant Confe.ssions differ upon fehe 
 question of lay-baptism. Luther a.sscrted that 
 baptism was necessary to salvation ; so he granted 
 to laity the right to baptize in case of need, but 
 inconsistently, that unb.aptized infants were not 
 lost, if their failure to be baptized did not arise 
 from either guilt, or contempt of the divine com- 
 mand. The Reformed rejected his doctrine, and 
 restricted the riglit to the clergy. 
 
 (2) Tlie Subjects of Baptism. — Church Councils 
 have decided these are : First, only the living. 
 The practice of baptizing the dead had .sprung 
 up among the later IMontanists. Second, only 
 those who were born. Tlie question is discussed 
 by Augustine, whether infants in the womb were 
 fit subjects of baptism, and answered negatively 
 {Ep. 187, cap. 10, § 32 sqq.). The scholastic 
 theology allows the baptisni of partially born 
 children, even where there is an abnormal pres- 
 entation ; although, in tlie latter case, Thomas 
 Aquinas taught, th.at, if the child survived, it 
 should receive the hypothetical baptism spoken 
 of below (Smnina Tlieologica, Pars Tertia, Q. 
 LXVIII., art. 11). Abortive and abnormal 
 birtlis are not to be baptized. Grown persons 
 who are insane are to be baptized, if they shall 
 ever desire it. 
 
 As the general condition of baptism, there must 
 be tlie unforced decision and the personal desire 
 of the candidate : in the case of infants of Chris- 
 tian parents, the agreement of parents or guard- 
 ians is accepted instead. It is true that force 
 has been used by Roman missionaries, and has 
 been defended by councils but its use is excep- 
 tional, and contrary to the principles of the 
 church. (Roman Catechism, P. II., c. II., qu. 
 .37.) All tliose grown person wlio followed a " dis- 
 reputable or godless calling," as, for instance. 
 Pagan actors, artists who maintained Paganism, 
 astrologers, etc., so long as they continued in 
 these occupations, could not be catechumens, 
 much less baptized. 
 
 (3) The Baptismal Formula. — Tliis is given in 
 its complete form in Matt, xxviii. 19; but since, 
 in the Acts and in the Pauline Epistles, the 
 phrase baptizing "in the name of Christ" oc- 
 curs, the question naturally arose whether it 
 was allowable to use any shorter formula, — 
 whether to do so was a later apostolic custom. 
 Various opinions have been' expressed ; but the 
 Roman Catechism expresses the general opinion 
 when it denies sufficiency to any other than the 
 trine formula. The Roman Church formula is, 
 " Ego te baptizo in nomine Patris et Filii et 
 Spiritus Sancti." The Roman ■ Catechism (P. 
 II., c. II., ipi. 13) thus explains: The minister 
 ("/ baptize") of the Sacrament, the person to 
 be baptized ("thee "), and the principal efficient 
 cause of baptism, are contained in the formula ; 
 for baptism is the work, not of the Son alone, 
 but of the three Persons of the blessed Trinity. 
 By saying "in the name," not "names," we dis- 
 tinctly declare that in the Trinity there is but 
 one nature and Godhead. Similar is the use and 
 the explanation of Evangelical Protestantism. 
 In the Greek Church the formula is, (iaKTi^erai 6 
 
 doMu( Toil Of oil 6 deiva [i( rd uvo/ia Toii Ilnrpijf — 'K/iijv 
 — Kal Toi) ylttv — * A/iT/p — Kal rov uyiov Xlvev/iaror — 
 'A/ir/v — vvv Knl dd f/f tqv^ aluvaf^ tCw aiuvuv. 'A/if/v. 
 (Let this servant of God N. be baptized in the 
 name of the Father — Amen — and of the Son — 
 Amen — and of the Holy Ghost — Amen — now 
 and ever, world witiiout end. Amen.) In the 
 Syrian liturgy of the Antiochian and Jerusalem 
 churches the same appears witli many interpola- 
 tions. In the Roman Church the priest is in- 
 structed to say over a pierson of wliose previous 
 baptism doubt exists, "I do not re-baptize thee; 
 but, if thou hast not been as yet baptized, I bap- 
 tize thee," etc. (Hypothetical Baptism.) 
 
 (4) Baptism by Immersion, Aj/'usion (^Pouring), 
 and Aspersion (Sprinkiinc/). — In the primitive 
 churcli, baptism was by immersion except in the 
 case of the sick (clinic baptism), who were bap- 
 tized by pouring or sprinkling. These latter were 
 often regarded as not properly baptized, eitlier 
 because they had not completed their catechume- 
 nate, or the symbolism of the rite was not fully 
 observed, or because of the small amount of water 
 necessarily used. [The 12th Canon of the Council 
 of Neo-Csesarea (311-325) is: " Whoever has re- 
 ceived clinic baptism (through his own fault) 
 cannot become a priest, because he professed his 
 faith under pressure (fear of death), and not from 
 deliberate choice, unless he greatly excel after- 
 wards in zeal and faith, or there is a deficiency of 
 other eligible men." Ilefele, Conciliengeschichte 
 Vol. I. § 17, 1st ed.] In 816 the Council of Cal- 
 cuith {Chelsea in England) forbade the priests to 
 pour water upon the infants' heads, but ordered 
 to immerse them [Hefele, Vol. IV. § 416J; the 
 Council of Nemours (1284) limited sprinkling to 
 cases of necessity; and Thomas Aquinas {Summa 
 TIteologica P. III. (ju. LXVI.; Be Baptismo. art. 
 vii.) says, although it may be safer to baptize 
 by immersion, yet sprinkling and pouring are 
 also allowable. The Council of Ravenna (1311) 
 was the first to allow a choice between sprin- 
 kling and immersion (11th Can. Hefele, Vol VI 
 § 690) ; but at an earlier date, 1287, the canons 
 of the Council of the Liege bishop John prescribe 
 the way in which the sprinkling of children 
 should be jierformed. The practice first came 
 into common use at the end of the thirteenth 
 century, and was favored by the growing rarity 
 of adult baptism. It is the present practice of 
 the Roman Church; but in the Greek Church 
 immersion is insisted on as essential. Luther 
 sided with the immersionists, described the bap- 
 tismal act as an immersion, and derived Taufe 
 (Cierman for "baptism") from tief ("deep"), 
 because what one baptized, he sank tief in the 
 water. Calvin declared the whole question of 
 the mode' of baptism a matter of indifference 
 {Inst. IV. c. 15, § 19). Baptism in the early church 
 was a triple immersion. Various explanations 
 were given : some referred it to apostolic custom. 
 Thomas Aquinas calls it a sin to immerse only 
 once (I.e. <]u. LXVI. art. viii.). The Roman 
 ritual enjoins the trine affnsion (pouring) on the 
 head, as do the Lutheran Kirchenorilnungen. Some 
 prescribe the simjile dip or jiouring ; others, ex- 
 pressly the trine pouring or sprinkling. Calvin 
 (I.e.) regards the number of times as of no con- 
 sequence. 
 
 (5) The Time of Baptism. — Tertulliau main
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 202 
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 tained all times were alike; but still very earlj' 
 the church determined upon the period between 
 Easter and AVhitsunday. wlien tlie so-called " Sol- 
 emn Baptism " was administered. These times 
 were chosen with especial reference to the cate- 
 chumens : but, as infant baptism gained in favor, 
 indifference as to the time increased. Complaints 
 were heard, and remedies suggested, in the chuich 
 councils; e.g., the second Council of Macon, Oct. 
 2-3, 1585. in its third canon decreed, on the strength 
 of the statement that only two or three weie pre- 
 sented for baptism at Easter, that, except in 
 necessary cases, baptisms must take place on 
 Easter (Hefele, Vol. IV. § 2SG). Thomas Aqui- 
 nas lays down the following principles (1. c. iju. 
 LXVUI. art. 3). which are adopted in the Roman 
 Catechism (/y». .31. 34-36) : infants are to be bap- 
 tized soon after birth, because they are liable to 
 die, and also are at that age incapable of instruc- 
 tion ; but adults should not be baptized before 
 they are thoroughly indoctrinated, and can wait 
 for " solemn baptism." If, when they are fully 
 prepared, there is danger in delay, tliere is no 
 reason to wait until the Easter season. As a 
 matter of fact, one finds in Rome and in cathe- 
 drals on Easter eve, no baptisms except occa- 
 sionally a Jew's. In the Greek Church there 
 is no longer any set time. 
 
 (G) Sponsors were probably unknown before 
 the existence of infant baptism : with them also 
 came in a special liturgy. Originally the parents 
 themselves took the usual vows ; but the council 
 of ]\Iainz (Mayence), 813, can. 55. forbade them; 
 and the Roman Catechism (i]u. 28) defends the 
 present practice on the singular ground that the 
 difference between the sjiiritual and the bodily 
 education of the child may l)e all tlie sharper 
 emphasized. The Roman Church lias detailed 
 with great minuteness the duties of sponsors, and 
 described in varied phrases their position. So 
 close is supposed to be the relationship between 
 the sponsors and those whom they have brought 
 to baptism, that they are not permitted to marry. 
 If they should raany,the church declares tlie bond 
 dissolved. Nor can the baptizer and bajitized 
 marry. Sponsors are mentioned in the fourth 
 century in connection w ith adults at baptism ; 
 and they were necessary, because of the inability 
 of the clergy to keep watch of all who applied 
 for baptism, and see that their walk corresponded 
 with their profession. .Viid even catechumens 
 would need sponsors, if, by sudden sickness, they 
 were deprived of speech or consciousness. 
 
 Deacons, deaconesses, widows, consecrated vir- 
 gins, were favorite classes from which to choose 
 sponsors. Priests, monks, and nuns were forbid- 
 den to serve. In the beginning each baptized 
 one had a spon.sor of the same sex ; but soon 
 several were common, notwithstanding conciliar 
 action. The Roman Catechism (i/u. 20) allows 
 no more than two of opposite sexes. At Avign- 
 on (1337) it wiis declared that the expensive 
 presents expected of sponsors was the rejison wliy 
 many infants were unbaptized ; therefore the 
 council forbade to give more than a wliite dress 
 and a wax candle. 
 
 The choice of sponsors in those Protestant 
 churches where they exist is guide<l by similar 
 principles, and they discharge similar duties to 
 tliose in the Roman Churcli. There are, how- 
 
 ever, some curiosities in the way of legislation. 
 Thus, in Poinerania, Calvinists were classed 
 with heretics as ineligible to sponsorship. In 
 Saxony there was a fine of a hundred gulden for 
 having more than three sponsors. In Coburg an 
 ordinance was passed in 1626, that, where it was 
 customary to have three sponsors, a bastard 
 should have only one ; but where, on the other 
 hand, one was customary, the bastard should have 
 three. 
 
 (7) The Titlual of Baptism. — In the earl}- church, 
 preparation preceded baptism. This consisted 
 of prayer, instruction, and, above all. in the hu- 
 miliation of the soul before God, of which fasting 
 was the characteristic expression ; and in this 
 fasting and praying the congregation shared: so 
 Justin, A/M>L 1., 61. TertuUian, De Bajil.. c. xx.,. 
 says, '• They who are about to enter baptism 
 ought to pray with repeated prayers, fasts, and 
 bendings of the knee, and vigils all the night 
 through, and with confession of all bygone sins." 
 The catechumenate was later divided into classes. 
 1. The Rwles; i.e., those who had been designat- 
 ed as Christians by the sign of the cross; 2. 
 The Catechumens proper, both the Audienles 
 (hearers) and Gemifiectenles (kneelers) ; 3. The 
 Compelenles (those prepared tor baptism). Persons 
 were received into the catecliumenate by prayer 
 and the solemn laying-on of hands. The cate- 
 chumens of the first class were allowed only to 
 liear the sermons and the Scripture-reading. See 
 C.\TECHETics. The ceremony of baptism in- 
 cluded: 1. The giving-in of the names of the 
 catechumen (occasionally one dropped the Pagan 
 name, and took one distinctively Christian) ; 2. 
 The renunciation of the devil, his pomp, and all 
 his angels (the person stood facing the west, — 
 the place of darkness) ; 3. Exorcism, accompa- 
 nied by breathing upon the baptismal waters 
 (insufflation) ; 4. The opening of the ears and 
 the nose by the priest's touching them with his 
 spittal (cf. Mark viii. 23); 5. The anointing with 
 consecrated oil ; 6. The devout repetition of the 
 Apostles' Creed and the Lord's Prayer by the 
 officiating priest, followed by a brief explanation 
 of the same, a recitation of the beginnings of the 
 four Gospels, and also of a comparison between 
 the four evangelists and tlie cherubim of Ezek. 
 i. 10; 7. The resjionsive recitation by the cate- 
 chumen of the Creed and the Lord's Prayer. 
 
 The baptism itself consisted in (1) [The erilire 
 disrobing of the catechumen, see Smith and 
 Cheetham, Did. Chr. Andq., p. 160]; (2) The 
 threefold immer.sion ; (3) The tasting of a mix- 
 ture of milk and honey (because the baptized are 
 like new-born children of God), see TertuUian, 
 Ik corona 3; (4) Tlie anointing with oil (rlirisni); 
 
 (5) The laying-on of the hands (imposition); 
 
 (6) Dressing in white clothing, which was worn 
 a week, and binding of a piece of wliite linen 
 around the head (the chrismale), intended to re- 
 tiiin the "chrism" upon the head during the week. 
 In tlie Orient the loins of tlie neophytes were 
 girded (cf. Luke xii. 35), and the head crowned, 
 as a symbol of the royal priesthood. In the Occi- 
 dent they were given a lighted candle.' 
 
 n Dean SUinley n\wv» tlie fullowIiiK exci-cdinKly ^mphic de- 
 scription of n bnptiHiii in the i>atrlHtic ukc ; " 'I'Tiere wuh, hh n 
 Kenenil rule, but one baptixtery In eiicb city, und t^uch bap. 
 tittlerieH were iipnrl from the churcheH. There was but one
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 203 
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 Tlie pntiro baptismal servict?, witli its exorcism, 
 remmciatioiis, and symbolical acts, had an un- 
 mistakable reference to the heatlien cultiLS, which 
 the Christians regarded as the work of demons, 
 and implied that tin; neophyte had finally broken 
 with Paganism. Two very imiiortant and most 
 closely connected features in the development of 
 the baptismal liturgy deserve mention ; first, a 
 union of the originally sharply distinguished 
 catechumenate and baptismal rites became un- 
 avoidable in the case of the sick, who, dying, 
 desired baptism ; and second, that children, by 
 reason of original sin, were looked upon as 
 "heathens." To them the united catechumenate 
 and baptismal rites were applied, exactly as if 
 they had been heathens, only, of course, since the 
 infant children could not answer the questions, 
 nor promise to perform the duties of the new 
 relation, the god-parents answered for them. In 
 this way the baptismal service for infants and 
 adults was almost exactly the same. The bap- 
 tism of infants in the Roman Ciiurcli is in this 
 mode: (1) The water to be used, having been 
 consecrated with the oil of mystic unction at the 
 festivals of Easter and Pentecost, is put in the 
 font ; the sponsor presents the infant to the priest, 
 and answers the set questions; (2) The exorcism, 
 wiiich consists of words and prayers ; (3) Salt 
 is put into the child's mouth to indicate that he 
 shall be protected against the corruption of sin, 
 shall experience a relish for good works, and shall 
 be nurtured with the food of divine wisdom ; (4) 
 He is signed witli the cross upon the forehead, 
 eyes, breast, shoulders, and ears, to indicate that 
 his senses are opened by baptism to comprehend 
 the things of God ; (5) His nose and ears are 
 touched with spittal (cf John ix. 6 sqq.) because 
 baptism enlightens the understanding to the truth ; 
 (6) The Uevil and his works are renounced by 
 the infant through his sponsor; (7) He is next 
 anointed on the breast with the oil of the cate- 
 chumens, that he may receive the true faith, and 
 between the shoulders, that he may engage active- 
 ly in good works ; (S) The Christian faith is 
 professed by the sponsors ; (9) He is asked 
 
 lirae in the year when the rite Wiia administered; namely, 
 between Easter and Peiiteco.st. There was but one pereoiiai^e 
 who could administer it, — the presiding officer of the com 
 munity, the bishop, as the chief presbyter was called al'tei- the 
 first century. There was hut one hour for the ceremony, it 
 was midnight. The tol'ches Ilared through the dark hall as 
 the troops of converts llocked in. The baptislei'y eonsiste^l of 
 an inner and an outer chainbei-. In the outer chamber stood 
 the candidates for baptism, stripped to their shirts; and turning 
 to the west, as the region of sunset, they stretched forth their 
 hands through the tlimly-ht chamber, as in a defiant attitude, 
 towards the Evil S[)irit of Darkness, and, speaking to him by 
 name, sai<l. ' I renounce thee, Satan, and all thy works, aiul 
 all thy pomp, and all thy service.' Then they turned, like a 
 regiraenl, facing light around to the east, and repeated, in a 
 form rooi'e or less long, the belief in the Father, the .Son, and 
 the Spirit, which has grown up into the so-called Apo^tles' 
 Creed in the West, and the so-called Xicene Creed in the East. 
 They then advanced into the iuTier cliambei'. Before them 
 yawned the deep pool or reservoir, and, standing by, the deacon 
 or deaconess, as Ihe case might be. to arrange that all should 
 be done wilh decency. The whole troop undressed completely, 
 as if for a balli, and stood up luiked before the bishop, who 
 put to each the questions, to which the answer was returned 
 in a loud and distinct voice, as of those who knew what they 
 had undertaken. They then plunged into the water. Both 
 before and after tlu- immersion, their bare limbs were rubbed 
 with oil from head lo foot: they were then clothed in white 
 gowns, and received, as token of the kindly feeling of their 
 new brotherhood, the kiss of peace, and a taste of honey and 
 milk; and they expressed tlieir new faith by using for the first 
 time the Lord's I'rayer." — Christian Institutions (N.Y., ISyi), 
 .^p.4, 5.] 
 
 whether he wishes to be baptized, aiul tlien im- 
 mediately follows baptism ; (10) His head is 
 anointed with chrism in order to mark him as a 
 member of tlii^ Body of Christ; (11) The child 
 receives a white cloth (sudariolum), an adult a 
 wliite robe ; (12) yV lighted candle is juit into 
 his Intnd, for a Christian must be a light; and 
 finally (bi) he receives the name of some saint. 
 See K(im:in Catechism, '/«. (i2-72. Zwingli and 
 Luther characteristically treated the lioinan rit- 
 ual . the former rejected it, while the latter 
 adopted it. The present Lutheran Church retains 
 it in a much niodifietl form. 
 
 IV. Considered Theologically. (1) The Pa 
 Inslic D(;clriii(' of liiipUsiii. («) Tin: General 
 TiHu-hnuj. — Great emphasis was early laid upon 
 baptism It was the condition of salvation; it 
 gave pardon of sin, and imparted righteousness: 
 so even in the Epistle of IJarnabas (cap 11) and 
 the Shepherd of Hernias (I. vis. III. cap. 3). 
 The Fatliers generally speak of it with rhetori- 
 cal and allegorical exuberance; and many are the 
 plirases used to set its virtues forth, although at 
 the same time they contributed to its tJieological 
 development. It was common to call Christ the 
 Fhk ((.v"i'f). because the letters of the Greek 
 word for fish were the initial letters of the phrase 
 "Jesus Christ the Son of (iod, the Saviour." 
 ('[;/aui\- Xpforof Qinv Tide 2<j7//p.) See Allf;goi;y. 
 Hence we find TertuUiaii saying, "But we little 
 fishes, after the example of our (ytfi'c, Jesus Christ, 
 are born in water; nor have we .safety in any other 
 way than by permanently abiding in the water" 
 (De BiipL, cnyi I.) Justin Martyr sets opposite 
 to the natural birth by ordinary generation the 
 regeneration by water in baptism {Apol. I., cap. 
 61). Three effects are attributed to baptism : 
 
 1. The forgiveness of all existing sins; 2. The 
 impartation of the Holy Spirit and all his gifts 
 and graces, 3. Immortal life. The more sensi- 
 tive the mind of the church was to the symbolical 
 representation of baptism, and the more indis- 
 tinct the line between shadow and substance, the 
 more, of course, did the symbolism of the rite, 
 and its reference to the tleath and resurrection 
 of Christ, favor the rhetorical rejnv.sentations so 
 commonly given of it. But one finds more than 
 rhetoric in the Fathers on this subject. 1. Many 
 strive to distinguish shar[>er between the sign 
 and the operating power, and to place them in 
 a freer relationship. So Gregory Nazianzen (Or. 
 40, cf. Ullniann, Grerjor con Nazianz, p. 401). 
 
 2. The ethical idea of baptism shows itself in 
 the emphasis laitl upon faith as the indispen- 
 sable condition of the blessing on the rite. So 
 Tertullian {De Pccnil.. cap. 0), Gregory of Nyssa 
 (Dc iicop. Clinsti, p. 209), Gregory of Nazianzum 
 (Or. 40, Ullmann, p. 401), and Jerome, who very 
 plainly says (Enarr. in Ps. 77), " He who has not 
 received baptism with a full faith has received 
 water, not the Spirit." 3. The Greek Fathers 
 regard baptism as the commencement, and not 
 as tlie completion, of regeneration. So Origen 
 (Hum. in Luc. XXI.). — However correct may 
 have been the views of the leaders of the church, 
 it is certain that the church-members enter- 
 tained very erroneous notions. They ascribed to 
 baptism a magical efficacy, and particularly the 
 cleansing from sin, entirely irrespective of the 
 religious state of the recipient: indeed, from
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 204 
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 the beginning of the fourth century the sad cus- 
 tom too ■nidely prevailed of postponing baptism 
 as long as possible, even to the death-hour, so 
 that the recipient might continue his lax life, 
 and by this one act get rid of all the past sins, 
 and enter heaven perfectly pure. The Fathers 
 condemn the custom. Thus Gregory of Xazian- 
 zum, in Or. 40; and Gregory of Nyzza has a spe- 
 cial sermon against it. But other motives for 
 delaying baptism were in operation, — dread of 
 the trials of a professed Christian life, the stern 
 discipline of the church toward the lapsed, the 
 wish to be baptized at some particular time, etc., 
 and, of a higher character, the fear of losing the 
 grace of baptism, and the desire to be better pre- 
 pared. — Baptism was considered indispensable 
 to salvation ; but there were two classes of per- 
 ■jons whose will was taken for the deed, — martjTS 
 who died for the faith (later teachers distin- 
 guished the Catholics from the heretics), and 
 those catechumens who died suddenly. 
 
 Infant baptism came in quite naturally as the 
 consequent of the belief in the necessity of bap- 
 tism. Justin Martyr's phrase (/. Apol., c. 15), 
 '• Many who have been disciples of Christ from 
 childhood," is not indeed to be interpreted as 
 proving the practice in his day, but rather the 
 existence of the catechumenate. On the other 
 h.and, the saying of IreuKus, " lie came to save 
 all who through him are born again to God, in- 
 fants, children, boys, youths, and old men " (Adr. 
 Har., II. 22, 4), when compared with III. 17, 
 1, where he calls baptism "regeneration," does 
 plainly imply it; because, if it were not by their 
 baptism, how could they be regenerated ? Ter- 
 tuUian's unfavorable judgment of infant bap- 
 tism proves its existence and wide sjiread {De 
 Bapt., 18). Further proof is afforded by Cy- 
 prian's Epistle to Fidus {Ep., 64). The argu- 
 mentative force of Origen's appeal to apostolic 
 tradition on behalf of infant baptism {Ep. ad 
 Rom., lib. V. Opera IV. 505) is greatly weak- 
 ened by the fact that the church of that time 
 undoubtedly derived not only the doctrine, but 
 the very ritual, of baptism from apostolic times. 
 'I'he grounds for infant baptism were diverse. 
 Origen regarded baptism as cleansing the de- 
 filement of birth (m Liic. Ei-iuuj. Ham., .VI'.), 
 and as pardoning the sins of the children in the 
 ]'re-existeut state {in Leril. Horn., VIII.). Otlier 
 (Jriental fathers refer the principal effects of 
 liaptism to the after-life; while some maintain 
 that bajitism cleansed from original sin. .See 
 (iregory Nazianzen, who divides the unbaptized 
 dead into three classes, — those who refused bap- 
 tism, the severely punished ; those wlio delayed 
 baptism, the lightly punished; unbaptized in- 
 fants, the unpunished, yet who are excluded 
 from Paradise (O/-. 40, I'llmann, p. 47(i), Lsidor 
 of Pelusium (Lib. III., Ep. 105), and Tlieodoret 
 (Ilcercl. FaljuL, c. V. 18). In the Latin Church 
 the effect of baptism was held to be rather retro- 
 active: it forgave previous sin, — in infants, 
 original sin. 
 
 (//) A ui/ii.itiiif:'.i I'k-irs. ^The opinions of Augus- 
 tine, so important in the history of doctrine, are 
 found jirincijially in his writings .against the 
 Donatists, particularly in his sevc'U books on baji- 
 tism (compare Baptism uy IIkuktics), in wliich 
 he affirms the validity of heretical bai>tism ; and 
 
 in his writings against the Pelagians, in which 
 he discusses the relation of baptism to original 
 sin. His position is not the same in the two con- 
 troversies ; and we can mark the time of his 
 change by the important letter to Boniface (Ep. 
 98), if it was, as the Benedictines affirm, really 
 written in 408. 
 
 His stand-point is the symbolical ; for he dis- 
 tinguishes sharply between the sacrament and 
 its contents (rt\s- sacraiiieiili). and allows that they 
 do not necessarily go together: at the same time 
 he was far from denying that the sacramental 
 grace to the believer was not real, and at a later 
 time advanced to the assertion, that, without bap- 
 tism and the Lord's Supper, no one could be 
 saved (De Peccal. Merit, el llemi.i.'i., 1. 24, § 34). 
 Between these two sides of .Augustine's teaching, 
 there is no substantial contradiction. His funda- 
 mental idea of baptism was derived from his 
 idea of the Catholic Church, which was the body 
 of Christ, in which alone could there be any com- 
 munion of saints, and therefore out of which 
 there was no salvation. The enti'ance into the 
 church and incorporation with the body of Christ 
 was effected externally by baptism, internally 
 through the Spirit's working by faith. On both 
 factors rests regeneration (De Peccal. Merit, et 
 Heniiss., III. 4, §§7, 8). The water of baptism, 
 in its cleansing effect on the body, is the sacra- 
 ment only : the reality, corresponding to the em- 
 blem, is the spiritual sanctification; and its effect, 
 regeneration. Baptism is therefore, in totality, 
 the sacrament of regeneration. Regeneration 
 can only be effected by the Holy Spirit. Its 
 negative side is the renovation from the "corrup- 
 tion of the old man," which consists substantially 
 in the forgiveness of sins (De liapt., I. 11, § 16), 
 which the Holy Sjiirit must first of all give, be- 
 cause he can dwell only in a clean heart. Bap- 
 tism is therefore the "sacrament of the remission 
 of sins"(V, 21, §20), provided it be admin- 
 istered in the Catholic Church. ,\ugustine first 
 taught that only actual sins were forgiven, but 
 later, al.so original sin; and this has been claimed 
 to be tlie great effect of baptism. But forgiving 
 original sin altered the complexion of all other 
 sins. Thus concupiscence in the unbaptized is a 
 sin, in the baptized a sickness; and the approach 
 to cure is daily closer, until in heaven the cure is 
 complete (De Kiijit. et Coiicup., 1-. 25, § 28; 
 cap. 26, § 29). In his earlier period he taught 
 there could be baptism without conversion, and 
 rice ccrsa, and salvation in either case, if the first 
 case was that of a b;ibe, and the second that of a 
 believing catechumen. In his later period he 
 receded from this position, and made baptism 
 absolutely necess;iry to salvation (Ep. 185, cap, 
 11, § .50), except in the case of martyrs (De Cioit. 
 Dei, lib. XIII. cap. 7.) — Baptism, however, does 
 not help the unconverted, nor one who has re- 
 ceived heretical or schisinatical baptism when he 
 might have had tlie Catholic, See Baptism uy 
 Hkkktics. 
 
 From his earlier stand-point, when baptism 
 was not considered as ]iardoning original sin, nor 
 was the absence of ba|itisni dannuitory, .Vugus- 
 tine defended infant baptism, on the ground that 
 the inlants received first the sacramiMit of regen- 
 eration, and then conversion, if their Christian 
 educatiou was faithful ; and maintained that
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 205 
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 parents or sponsors assumed the res]inMsibility of 
 the infant's C'ln'istian education, and also in such 
 a sense answered the ba[itisnial (juestions in the 
 place of the child, that, if it should die, their an- 
 swers would be received as the child's confession 
 before God. From his later stan<l-p()int he main- 
 tained that there was at the same time a substi- 
 tutive faith of the Church, by which the band of 
 original sin is broken, the Holy .Spirit imjilanted 
 in the unconscious babe, aiu.l regeneration wrouglit 
 before conversion (£;;. 98). The idea of the 
 jiassive receptivity of the child was Augustine's 
 most pregnant contribution to the Church. It is 
 not only the root of the opiin ojicrdliint doctrine of 
 Rome, but rules the present theory of infant- 
 baptism in the Lutheran Church. In regard to 
 unbaptized infants, he says expressly, "It may 
 therefore be correctly affirmed, that such infant 
 as quit the body without being baptized will be 
 involved in condemnation, but of the mildest 
 character" (De Peccatorum Merilix el Remissione 
 et de Baptismo Parvulorum, I. l(j, § 21). 
 
 (2) The Later Itoman Catholic Doctrine. — Au- 
 gustine having laid the foundation of the Roman 
 conception of baptism, it only remained for the 
 schoolmen to build upon it. and for the Council 
 of Trent and the Roman Catechism to adopt the 
 theory thus developed without further question. 
 The schoolmen distinguish between the material 
 and the /b/v/i of baptism. Thomas Aquinas says 
 it is not the water, but the application of the 
 water, which constitutes baptism (Suiiuiia, P. III. 
 qu. 66, art. 1, Resp.), and similarly the Roman 
 Catechism (P. II. c. ii. qu. 6) and Bellarmine 
 (De Bapt., c. 1). The material of baptism is the 
 water; because water symbolizes the cleansing 
 from sin, and by its clearness the receptivity of 
 faith to divine light. Again: through the plun- 
 ging into water is symbolized the resurrection of 
 Christ: at the same time the universal prevalence 
 of water renders possible the universal perform- 
 ance of this necessary rite. It is allowable to 
 mix the water with foreign substances, but ' not 
 in such quantity as to substantially alter its 
 character. The form of baptism lies in the 
 formula. The material and form and their ap- 
 plication are the necessaries of baptism : all 
 the rest is intended merely to deepen the impres- 
 sion. Baptism was instituted by Christ ; but to 
 the question when, different answers were given. 
 All were agreed, however, that from Christ bap- 
 tism received its power to impart grace. 
 
 In regard to the effect of baptism, Augustine's 
 views were embraced and emphasized. Thus 
 they taught that it impresses an indelible charac- 
 ter upon the soul, and justifies, or rather, in 
 Protestant speech, regenerates : all sin, original 
 and actual, and all the guilt of sin, is washed 
 away : concupiscence (sensuality) is either en- 
 tirely removed or greatly lessened (so, in the 
 latter sense, the Tridentine Council, Sess. V. 
 (hereto de peccato orir/., cap, 5). On the positive 
 side, baptism incorporated the recipient with 
 Christ, and gave all the gifts and graces for the 
 new life. See S.^craments. The last effect 
 was to open heaven. The subjective condition 
 for baptism is, according to Thomas Aquinas, 
 the desire to receive the rite ; and the blessing is 
 in propoition to the desire. 
 
 But the most important part of Thomas's teach- 
 
 ing relates to the character which bai)tism im- 
 ))resses. He borrowed the idea from Augustine, 
 but carried it out much fartluT, and made it 
 much more a feature of his system. The exter- 
 nal w.ashing is only the emblem of the internal 
 cleansing, which imparts the spiritual character 
 to ba]itism, an<l which, in its stead, is the emiilem 
 of the last effect of baptism, viz., the renewing 
 grace. The character as sucli is no new disposi- 
 tion : it is simply a sign stamped upon the soul, 
 by which the soul is indicated as a member of 
 Christ's body. But since the ssacranuMits are 
 not merely emblems of internal gracious effects, 
 but are effectual signs, causes of the same (see 
 Sackamknts), so is the character they make 
 itself the active cause, the energetic principle, of 
 the grace ; so that it draws the latter after it as 
 its necessary effect. Baptism puts the baptized 
 in such a relation to Christ that they receive 
 directly the stream of his grace. Hut Thomas's 
 subtle discussion of the character imparted by 
 baptism was without influence upon later Catholi- 
 cism. The Roman Catechism touches upon this 
 doctrine of baptismal character merely as showing 
 that it renders baptism unrepeatable ; and yet 
 it was to the founder of mediaeval theology the 
 pivot on which the whole theological develop- 
 ment of baptism turned. The schoolmen taught 
 the necessity of baptism to salvation, but they 
 held that the desire might be accepted in place 
 of the actual use of water. Thomas distinguishes 
 three kinds of baptism, — of water, of blood, and 
 of fire; i.e., of the Holy Spirit or penitence (Qu. 
 66, art. 11, 12). 
 
 This whole theory needed considerable altera 
 tion before it would fit in with infant baptism. 
 Infants could not exercise any faith, nor show 
 any desire after the rite, nor experience any essen- 
 tial change of feeling. Thomas, however, re- 
 called the Augustinian idea, — the babes believe 
 not through their own act, but through the faith 
 of tlie Church in which they are baptized, namely, 
 by the power of the Holy Spirit, who gives to the 
 Church her unity, and in her makes an equal 
 distribution of spiritual goods, so that infants 
 share in the faith of the Cliurch; but only in 
 potentiality, there was as yet no exertion of 
 spiritual power. The teachings of the later 
 church is thus summarized by Bellarmine. (1) 
 Infants have no actual faith; (2) Nor spiritual 
 nuinifestations; (3) The// are justified ahsolutehj 
 without faith , (4) The lidliitus^ of faith, love, and 
 hope, is imparted to them; (5) They practically 
 believe, partly because baptism is itself an actual 
 confession of faith, and partly because of the 
 vicarious faith of others (De Bapt., c. 11). 
 
 Qi) The Protestant Doctrine of Baptism. (a) 
 The Teaching of the Reformers. 1. The Luther- 
 ans. — Three stages in Luther's baptismal teach- 
 ing can be traced. In the first stage Luther 
 followed the Augusthiian teaching, and distin- 
 guished between the sign and what the sign 
 signified, and in the middle put faith, which 
 realizes in men the meaning of the sign. The 
 sign is the immersion; the meaning, the new 
 birth. Faith makes real this spiritual baptism, 
 
 [^ Habitus is the condition which includes in itself at the 
 same time a power to act. It may be infuntd, and then it is 
 the condition of all corresponding activity; or ac^utrei/, and 
 then it is the result of actions already performed.]
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 206 
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 whose effects continue all one's life tlirough. In 
 the seco»fJ stage (e.g.. Die hubylonische Gefangen- 
 scliaft, 1520) Luther considered baptism a sign 
 and seal which God added to his word and prom- 
 ise in order to strengthen and comfort. The chief 
 thing in baptism is the divine promise. He who 
 believes it, and is baptized, will be saved ; all sal- 
 vation depends upon it, only we must exercise 
 our faith after we are baptized. So long as the 
 baptized maintain their faith, they cannot be lost, 
 though tliey grievously sin. In the third stage he 
 taught that to tlie sign and word were added the 
 command and ordinance of God, according to 
 whicli the former were given together in such a 
 manner, that the water of baptism is converted 
 into a divine element (Erlangen Ausg.abe, vol. 16, 
 p. 63 sqq.). As he says in his Catechism of 1529, 
 " It is the water comprehended in God's com- 
 mand, and connected with God's command." 
 Jlelanchthon considered baptism a perpetual 
 witness that the forgiveness of sins and the re- 
 newing of the Holy Ghost belong especially to 
 the baptized. The operating cause of this condi- 
 tion is faith (Loci Comm., " i)e Bapt.," Corp. Ref., 
 XXI. S.53). Rutzer distinguishes sharply be- 
 tween the water and the spirit baptism {Comment, 
 on Matt. c. 31). Luther's latest opinion does not 
 appear in the Confessions, except in the German 
 original of the Schmalkald Articles. The Augs- 
 burg Confession represents Melanchthon's stand- 
 point (art. 9). Tlie Reformers contended that 
 the •• concupiscence " remaining after the original 
 sin had been pardoned in baptism was really sin. 
 
 The Protestant teaching had for its starting- 
 point its objection to the Roman opus operatum 
 theory of baptism, and therefore the emphasis it 
 laid upon faith. An objection to this position 
 would seem to lie in infant-baptism. Luther 
 saw this, and had recourse at first to tlie theory 
 that the child believed through the faith of 
 otht-rs (con der babylonischen Gefanf/enschn/l) ; but 
 later Lutherans find in his third stage of devel- 
 opment, when the baptismal water was to him 
 not simply water, but connected with Christ's 
 blood, the reply to the objection. 
 
 2. The Reformed, because of their principles, 
 had from the beginning a far easier cour.se of 
 theological development into light and truth. 
 Starting with the idea that God has not condi- 
 tioned salvation upon any e.\ternal work or cere- 
 mony whatsoever, Zwingli attributed no sancti- 
 fying power to baptism ;«/;• .«e, only to faith, and 
 thai God alone can give. Baptism, therefore, is 
 not necessary to salvation. It can neither give 
 the Holy Spirit, nor cleanse the soul, nor forgive 
 original sin, nor regenerate, nor finally can it 
 strengthen faith. What, then, is baptism';' It 
 is an initiatory sign by which one is marked out 
 as a follower of Christ, and obligated to live for 
 God. But baptism cannot help one a particle to 
 this end: faith alone can (.S^huler and Schul- 
 thess' ed., H., mm 'J'tiiif). 
 
 Calvin held Zwingli's principles, but brought 
 them nearer the Lutheran conception. Accord- 
 ing to him, baptism is the initiatory sign by 
 wliich we are received into the coninumion of 
 tlie visible clmrch in oidi-r that we, iin]ilanted in 
 Christ, may belong to the children of God. As 
 the Ix)rd'8 Supper, .so baptism is a confession 
 of our desire to be counted among the people of 
 
 God ; Vmt the condition of tlie gracious effect 
 of baptism is faith. Like Zwingli, he justified 
 infant baptism by the analogy of circumcision, 
 in place of which it comes. Each only sealed 
 the covenant of grace in which the children 
 already stood by reason of their parents' position 
 and whose privileges they inherited. As further 
 arguments he appealed to Christ's declaration 
 concerning the children, " of such is the king- 
 dom of heaven " (Matt. xix. II), and also to the 
 reasonably supposed presence of children in the 
 families whom the apostles baptized. To the ob- 
 jection that children could not be regenerated, be- 
 cause they could not know Christ, Calvin replied 
 that only elect infants could be; but in regard to 
 them it was at least supposable that they had a 
 spark of divine light, and upon no other than 
 the condition of regeneration could an;/ one enter 
 the kingdom. None of the elect die before they 
 are regenerated, nor are unbaptized elect infants 
 excluded from heaven. Baptism is therefore 
 very far from being necessarj- to salvation. 
 
 [(i) The Representation of Baptixm in tlie Church 
 Creeds. Lutheran. — The Augsburg Confession 
 (1530), Art. IX.: — 
 
 " Baptism is necessary to salvation, by [it] the 
 grace of God is offered; and children are to lie bai> 
 tized, who by baptism, being offered to God, are 
 received into God's favor." 
 
 Reforyned. — The Fir.st Helvetic Confession 
 (1536), Art. XXII.: — 
 
 " Baptism is, according to the institution of Christ, 
 a laver of regeneration, which the Lord offers and 
 exhil)its to his elect in a visible sign, througli the 
 ministry of the church. We baptize our cliildren 
 because it would not be right to deprive of the com- 
 munion of Golf's people those who are born through 
 us into the people of God, wliereto they are through 
 the divine word called, and are, so far as man can 
 judge, members of God's elect. 
 
 The Second Helvetic Confession (15G6), Cap. 
 XX. (summary) : — 
 
 Baptism is instituted by Christ. Thei-e is only 
 one baptism in the church: it lasts for life, and is a 
 perpetual seal of our adoption. To be bajitized in 
 the name of Christ is to be enrolled, initiated, and 
 received into the covenant, into the family and the 
 inheritance of the .sous of God, that, eleansod from 
 our sins by tlie blood of Christ, we may lead a new 
 and iuiiocent life. We are internally regenerated by 
 the Holy Ghost; but we receive imblicly the seal of 
 these ble.ssiujjs by liaptism, in which the grace of 
 God inwardly and invisibly cleanses the soul, and 
 we confess imr faith, and pledge obedience to Goil. 
 Children of believers should be baptized; for to chil- 
 tlreii belongs the kingdom of (Jod, and they are in 
 covenant with God: why, then, should not the .sign 
 of the covenant be given to them'? 
 
 The French Confession of Faitli (1559), Art. 
 XXXV. : — 
 
 " Baptism is given ns as a pledge of our adoption; 
 for by it we ar<! K''afteil into the body of Christ, so as 
 to be washeil and cleansed by his blond, and then 
 renewed in purity of lif(> by his holy s]iivit. The gain 
 it symbolizes reaches over our whole lives and ttt our 
 <leath, so that wi; have a lasting witness that .Jesus 
 t'hrist will always be our instilieation .and sanetilica- 
 tion. Nevertheless, .'ilthough it is a sacrament of 
 faith and penitence, yet as (lod receives little chil- 
 dren into the church with their fathers, we say upon 
 the authority of .Testis Christ, that tlio children of 
 believing parents should be baiitized." 
 
 The Belgic Confession (1.561) revised and
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 207 
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 approved by the Synod of Dort (1010), Art. 
 XXXIV. (summary) : — 
 
 Baptism is tlie suljstitute for cirL'Uincision: by it 
 ■we are received into tlie cluirch of (lod. As water 
 wasliotli away the filtli of the body when jiouretl 
 upon it, as is seen on tlie body of the baplizi'il when 
 sprinliled upon him, so dotli the blood of t'lirist. by 
 tlio power of the Holy Ghost, internally sprinkle the 
 r.oul, cleanse it from its sins, and regenerate us 
 from ehildren of wrath unto children of (Jod. Not 
 that this is effected by the external water, but by the 
 sprinkling of the precious blood of the Son of God. 
 Baptism avads us through the whole course of our 
 life. Infants of believers ought to be baptized, and 
 sealed with the sign of the covenant. Christ shed 
 his blood no less for the washing of the ehildren of 
 the faithful than for adult persons; and therefore 
 they ought to receive the sign and sacrament of that 
 which Christ liatli done for them. Moreover, what 
 circumcision was to the Jews, that baptism is to our 
 children. And for this reason Paul calls baptism the 
 circitincisio7i of Christ. 
 
 The Thirtv-nine Articles of the Church of 
 England (1571), Art. XXVII.: — 
 
 " Baptism is not only a sign of profession, and 
 mark of difference, whereby Christian men are dis- 
 cerned from others that be not christened, but it is 
 also a sign of regeneraticm, or new birth, whereby, 
 as by an instrument, they that receive baptism 
 rightly are grafted into the idiurch; the promises of 
 the forgiveness of sin, and of our adoption to be the 
 sons of God by the Holy Ghost, are visibly signed 
 and sealed; faith is conrfrmed, and grace increased, 
 by virtue of prayer unto God. The baptism of young 
 children is in any wise to be retained in the church, 
 as most agreeable with the institution of Christ." 
 
 The Westminster Confession of Faith (1647), 
 Cap. XXVIII. : — 
 
 " Bapti.sm is a sacrament of the Kew Testament, 
 ordained by Jesus Christ, not only for the solemn 
 admission of the party baptized into the visible 
 cliurch, but also to be unto him a sign and seal of 
 the covenant of grace, of his ingrafting into Christ, 
 of regeneration, of remission of sins, and of his 
 giving up unto God, through Jesus Christ, to walk 
 in newness of life. By the right use of this ordi- 
 nance, the grace promised is not only offered, but 
 really exhibited and conferred by the Holy Ghost, to 
 such (whether of age, or infants) as that grace belong- 
 eth unto, according to the counsel of God's own will, 
 in his appointed time."] 
 
 (c) Later Protectant Teaching. — During the 
 fifty years before .Schleierniacher, the rationalists 
 and the supernaturalists in Germany alike re- 
 garded baptism as only a significant way of 
 admitting one into the church. His vigorous 
 treatment of the subject caused a change in 
 sacramental views generally. (See Sacra- 
 MKNTS.) He put it down {Der ckriatUche Glaiihe, 
 § 137) as his first proposition that baptism admin- 
 istered in accordance with the original institu- 
 tion confers salvation in reference to the divine 
 grace in regeneration at the same time with the 
 rights of citizenship in the Christian Church ; 
 which amounted to saying that salvation was 
 wrought by baptism not immediately, but medi- 
 ately, inasmuch as by it the reception into the 
 church is completed. He held to infant baptism, 
 because he believed that faith might follow bap- 
 tism; but in this case the baptism was an incom- 
 plete rite, and required the public profession of 
 confirmation as the consequent of instruction in 
 the Christian faith. Infant baptism is therefore 
 proper, but not necessary (L.e. § 138). 
 
 [The question, What is faith ? is vital in this 
 
 discussion; for all Protestant theologian.^ agree 
 tliat tlie connection between the sign and the 
 thing signified is an inti:riial. one, and made by 
 faith, in opposition to .Vugustine's view, that they 
 were connected in an ejiernal way. By liaptism 
 one entered into tlie visible church. But what is 
 this faith? Is it one "which begins and ends in 
 the individual act of faitli at work in the person 
 who is baptized? or is it a much wider tiling, 
 with a more universal significance V " Neither 
 Luther nor Calvin fairly met the problem ; but it 
 may be safely ]iri'sunied tliat thi'y would give an 
 affirmative answer to the first or second question 
 respectively. The Lutheran and the Reformed 
 theologians have followed the path marked out 
 by their great teachers. Thus Kahnis of Leip- 
 zig says. Baptism is the sacrament of regen- 
 eration ; but what it imparts is rather the power 
 of regeneration, which is only of efficacy when 
 the faith supposed by baptism is really present. 
 Baptism with regeneration, when saving faith is 
 present, works the forgiveness of sins, sonship to 
 God, membership in the kingdom of God upon 
 earth, and participation in eternal life. Who 
 these genuine members of the kingdom are, God 
 alone knows : as far as man can see, all the bap- 
 tized are included. As no man can be born more 
 than once, so no one can be re-born twice. Bap- 
 tism, therefore, is not to be repeated. If one by 
 sin loses the grace of baptism, there remains 
 repentance, by which the lapsed is recovered. 
 Since no one can enter the kingdom of God who 
 is not re-born of water and spirit, it follows that 
 baptism is necessary to salvation; yet not that 
 only the baptized are saved, for the '\\'ord has 
 saving efficacy, and those wlio, without fault of 
 tlieir own, fail of baptism, do not for that reason 
 fail of salvation. Infant baptism, accordingly, 
 finds its justification besides, on the scriptui'al 
 groimds, in the substitution of the faith of the 
 sponsors for tlie infant's faith, the will of the 
 parents, and the preparation of the Christian 
 family surroundings (Die Lutkerisehe Doijmiitik, 
 Leipzig, 1868, voLiii.,pp. 479-481). Heinrich 
 Schmid of Erlaugen says, " We have in bap- 
 tism, not merely water, and not common water, 
 but also the word of God. But there is super- 
 added to this a higher efficacy than exists in 
 mere natural water ; and it is this, which, by 
 means of the water, effects saving grace." His 
 statements in other respects agree with Kahnis. 
 (The Doctrinal Tlieolofiij of the Evangelical Luther- 
 an Church, p. 5.54. English Translation by Hay 
 and Jacobs. Philadelpliia. 1876.) 
 
 The Reformed theologians follow Calvin. They 
 regard baptism as " a sign and seal " of church- 
 membership, as circumcision was in the case of 
 Abraham (comp. Rom iv. 11). Baptism does 
 not produce conversion or regeneration, but pre- 
 supposes and recognizes it. Cliildreu of Chri.s- 
 tian parents are baptized because of their descent 
 from believing parents : adults are baptized if 
 they profess repentance, and faith in Christ; in 
 other words, because they are converted. Infant 
 baptism is so far incomplete as it lacks Christian 
 instruction and personal conversion : it must 
 therefore be supplemented by in.struction, and 
 completed by a personal profession of faith, 
 and union with tlie church. Among modern 
 teachers, Heinrich Heppe, who presents the typi-
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 208 
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 cal German Reformed theology, defines baptism 
 thus : " Baptism is the ordinance instituted by 
 Christ, whereby God seals to the elect their con- 
 nection with the covenant of grace, and obliges 
 them as participants in the covenant to lead a 
 holy life." " The candidates of baptism are all 
 those who belong to the covenant of grace ; i.e., 
 all who confess Christ, and are considered by the 
 Church as belonging thereto. But since the 
 promises extend to the children of believers, 
 these should be baptized, precisely as the Israel- 
 itish children were circumcised ; on the other 
 hand, the children of those who do not belong to 
 the Church may not be baptized ere they are in- 
 structed in the faith, and have been converted'' 
 (-Die Dogmatik der evangeliich-reformirten Kirche. 
 Loc. XXV.. De bapiismo, pp. 443, .5, Elberfeld, 
 1861). Ebrard says, " Through baptism we are 
 buried in Christ's reconciling death in order to 
 rise with him in his resurrection. Baptism is a 
 visible act to which the Lord has connected an 
 invisible act (regeneration), and the completed, 
 final justification, with the beginning of sanctifi- 
 cation, if the recipient is prepared by repent- 
 ance." Ebrard calls infant baptism a "modi- 
 fied baptism," a virtual contradiction to the 
 original design of baptism, because the infant 
 is not yet i-egenerated, only ingrafted in the visi- 
 ble Church, and in the midst of mediate and 
 immediate blessing and protecting influences, yet 
 an actual baptism (Ckrittllichn Dor/niatiL', Konigs- 
 berg. 18.52, vol. ii.,pp. 587, 588,(3-21). VanOoster- 
 zee thus defines baptism : " Baptism, the means of 
 incorporation into his Church, ordained by Christ 
 himself, is at the same time the sign and seal of 
 the forgiveness of, and jiurification from, sins 
 promised by the gospel to every believer, and, as 
 such, an ordinance of inestimable value." "It 
 is a holy symbolical act, in the name and by the 
 eomm.ind of the glorified Lord of the Church, 
 by which every one who receives it iu faith is 
 set apart from the unbelievin.g world, is re- 
 ceived into the Christian communion, is assured 
 of the saving promises of the gospel respecting 
 forgiveness of and purifying from sin, and is 
 pledged to a new life in holine.ss and brotherly 
 love" (^Christian Dotjmulics, English Translation, 
 § 138, vol. 2, pp. 747, 7o2). The general Re- 
 formed doctrine is thus sunnnarized by Hodge: 
 "(1) Baptism is a divine ordinance; (2) It is a 
 means of grace to believers ; (3) It is a sign and 
 seal of the covenant of grace ; (4) It was in- 
 tended to be of perpetual obligation, in the sen-se 
 that all not bai)tized in infancy are required to 
 submit to baptism as the divinely appointed way 
 of publicly professing their faith in Christ, and 
 their allegiance to him as their God and Saviour; 
 and that all such professors of the true religion 
 are bound to present their children for baptism 
 as the divinelj' appointed way of consecrating 
 them to God ; (o) I'hat (iloil, on l)is part, promises 
 to grant the benefits signified in baptism to all 
 adult,s who receive that sacrament in the exorcise 
 of faith, and to all infants, who, when they arrive 
 at maturity, remain faithful to the vows made 
 in their name when they were baptized " (SijHtem- 
 alic 'J'heoloi/i/, vol. iii., pp. 581, .582). 'Ihe Kf- 
 formed theory of baptism rests upon the theory 
 that tlie church is an ethical unit, and existed 
 before the individual believer. Therefore infant 
 
 baptism is allowable; for the relation the parents 
 or sponsors bear to the church determines the 
 position of the infant, who by birth comes with- 
 in the covenant. Those who reject infant bap- 
 tism reject also this theory of the church : to 
 tliem it is an organized body of individuals, each 
 of whom has professed to put forth a personal 
 Christian faith. (See Baptists.) 
 
 The society of Friends (Quakers) reject water 
 baptism and the Lord's Supper as a participation 
 of bread and wine, and regard such rites as a 
 relapse into the religion of forms and shadows. 
 They believe, however, in the inward substance 
 or invisible grace of the sacraments; viz., the 
 baptism of the Spirit and fire, and the vital com- 
 munion with Christ by faith. 
 
 Baptism with the Holy Ghost and Fire is a figu- 
 rative expression used (I\Iatt. iii. 11; Luke iii. 
 16) for the outpouring of the Holy Spirit upon 
 believers, as upon the Day of Pentecost, and at 
 other times in the history of the church. 
 
 Baptism for the Dead. The only allusion to 
 this evidently common ceremony occurs in 1 Cor. 
 XV. 29. The simplest explanation is Meyer's: a 
 living Christian was baptized for an unbaptized 
 dead Christian, who, it was believed, was thereby 
 accounted baptized, and was received into bliss. 
 Although discountenanced in the early church, 
 it was kept up by heretics, such as the Cerin- 
 thians and !Marcionites, and is practised at the 
 present day by the Mormons. PaiU's allusion to 
 it is not to be construed as an .ijiproval of it.] 
 
 Baptism by Heretics, and the Ensuing Contro- 
 versies. The question of the validity of heretical 
 b.aptism, which came up very earlj', was answered 
 outside of Rome in the negative. A controversy 
 on the subject arose in 255 between Cyprian, 
 Bishop of Carthage (210-258), and Stephen, Bish- 
 op of Rome (d. 257). Stephen took the Roman 
 view, that the heretics were only fallen Christians, 
 and received them into the church by the mere 
 laying-on of hands. Cypirian took the contrary 
 view, in which Firmilian of Ca?sai-ea (d. 269) coin- 
 cided. Stephen excluded from church-fellow.ship 
 those who denied his [losition. So that when the 
 news of the Carthaginian synod (255), over which 
 Cyprian had presided, readied Rome, .Stejihen 
 was very angry, and called Cyprian a pseudo- 
 Christian, a pseudo - apostle, and a trickster. 
 Cyprian wrote Stephen a conciliatory letter, but 
 in vain. Another synod was held in Carthage 
 (Sept. 1,556): the genuineness of heretical bap- 
 tism was denied with vehemence; the arrogance 
 of Stephen, who .set himself up for the "bishop 
 of bishops," was becomingly rebuked. The cor- 
 respondence with Firmilian revealed the un.a- 
 niniity of oiiinion in -Vsia and .\frica upon this 
 subject in opposition to Rome. The breach be- 
 tween Cyprian and Stephen was never healed. 
 The latter died a martyr in the Valerian persecu- 
 tion, 257 : his successor, Sixtus, was on friendly 
 terms with Cyprian, and lioth were martyred in 
 258. The letters of .Stephen in this controversy 
 are unhappily hist: thos(! of Cyprian are num- 
 bered 69-75. See particularly 72, 7!3, and 74. .Vs 
 far as can be made out, Stephen detcndi'd his 
 position on the ground of the Roman tradition, 
 the independent objectivity of baptism, whose 
 efficacy was conditioned by the faith and disposi- 
 tion of the recipient {J'^p- 73, 4), and finally
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 209 
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 because the heretics baptized in the naiiui of 
 Jesus or of the Trinity {Ep. 75, 9). All that 
 was required was. that the former heretics should 
 become penitents, because heretical baptism con- 
 ferred forgiveness of sins and regeneration (75, 
 8). As it was evident that the Roman view liad 
 the practical effect of greatly facilitating the 
 return of heretics (74, 1), Cyprian is at pains to 
 show that the rigorous African practice did not 
 deter them (73, 24). The representatives of tlie 
 anti-Konian view made the connection between 
 the church and baptism most close. As there w.as 
 only one church, there could be only one bap- 
 tism : consequently heretical baptism was no 
 baptism. Again : the efficacy of baptism rests 
 upon the priestly character of the legitimate 
 priesthood ; but lieretics are without such priests. 
 The treatment of returning heretics corresponded 
 to these ideas. If they had already received 
 Catholic baptism, they were received by the lay- 
 ing-on of hands; if baptized out of the church, 
 they were rebaptized ; if they had been Catholic 
 or heretical priests, tliey were put among the 
 laity. The councils of Nicaja 325 (can. 8 and 
 19), Laodica;a, 3(j3 (can. 7, 8), Con.stantinople, 
 381 (can. 7), and of Trullo, (J92 (can. 95), distin- 
 guished between heretical baptism as to their 
 validity; while Athaiiasius, Cyril of Jerusalem, 
 and Basil the Great, rejected such baptism alto- 
 gether. The controversy broke out again when 
 the Donatists (see title) rejected Catholic bap- 
 tism, and rebaptized their Catholic converts. 
 
 It was left to Augustine to say the last decisive 
 word in this long debate. In his writings against 
 the Donatists, especially in De Baptismo, he lays 
 down the foundation principle, th.at the objec- 
 tivity of the sacrament renders it efficacious quite 
 independent of the administrator, so long as the 
 disposition of the recipient is right. From this 
 position he proved: 1. Baptism conferred an in- 
 delible cnaracter; leaving the church did not 
 destroy it; 2. Although out of the church there 
 was no salvation, it did not follow that heretical 
 baptism was null, but that such baptism can be 
 of no profit so long as the man remained outside 
 of the church; 3. The heretic's baptism is there- 
 fore on the same footing as that of a mere formal- 
 ist; and if the latter, on his conversion, is not 
 baptized again, but received by the laying-on of 
 hands, so it should be with the former. Augus- 
 tine settled the question. Heretical baptism w.as 
 recognized, and since then the Catholic Cliurch 
 has practically left the matter untouched. 
 
 The question came up again when Protestant- 
 ism began to form its theology. Both Lutherans 
 and Reformed, however, came to the conclusion 
 that every baptism in the name of the Trinity 
 was valid, and efficacious to the believing soul. 
 To the further question, whether baptism may 
 not, in extremity, be administered by a minis- 
 ter not of one's own confession, the I^utherans re- 
 plied affirmatively, because they made baptisui 
 a necessary ordinance; while the Reformed, wlio 
 took different ground, wavered. The practice 
 to-day is to have a Protestant minister in all 
 cases, and usually the pastor of one's own con- 
 gregation. See B.\i'Ti.SM, IV. (3). 
 
 [Lit. — Besides the works mentioned under the 
 Rev. Dr. Dale's article, see G. J. Vossius : De 
 Baptismo Dinputaliones 'S.'K.., Amsterdam, 1048; 
 
 15 -J 
 
 Matthies: Baplismalis Exposilio BiUicn Ilis- 
 ti>rirn-l)of/mntlc<t, Berlin, 1831; Wai.i, (Episcopa- 
 lian) : llislori/ iif InfdiU Bapliam, London, 1705, 
 2 vols.; best ed., with Gale's Reflections ancl 
 Wall's Defense, Oxford, 1802, 2 vols.; J. G. 
 Wai.cii: Ilisloria Pwilnhajilixmi, IV.; priorum 
 stiviikirum, Jeua, 1739; F. Buicnxf.r (R. C.) : Gr- 
 scldclilliche Darstellunfj tier Verrichtutu/ der Tanfe 
 von Chrislus his auf unsere Zeiten, Bamb., 1818; 
 W. lIoKK.MANN : Tiiufn und Wicdertaufe, 1846; 
 J. W. F. IIoFLiNG (Lutheran): Das Sacrament 
 der Taufe, Erlangen, 1840-48, 2 vols.; Lk- 
 NOiR : Essai bibtique, historique, et doymatique sur le 
 Bapteme des enfants, 1850 ; G. D. Armstko.vg 
 (Presbyt.) : The Doctrine of Biijitisins, N. York, 
 1857 ; the same : T/ic Sacraments of the Neio 
 Testament, N. York, 1880; C. P. Caspaui : Un- 
 gedruckte, unbeacldete, u. weniij heaclUcte Qaellen 
 zur Geschichte des Taiifsi/ndjols iinil der Glaubcns- 
 regel, Christiania, 1800, 1809, 1875, 3 vols. ; the 
 same : Alte u. neue Quetlen zur Geschichte d. Tauf- 
 symhols u. d. Glauhensreijel, Christiania, 1879 ; R. 
 Ingham : .4 Hamll/ook of Christian Baptism, Lon- 
 don, 1805; the same : Christian Baptism: its Sub- 
 jects, London, 1871 ; \. Caspers : Der Taufbe- 
 f/riff des Neuen Testaments, Brecklum, 1877; D. 
 B. FoRi-) : Studies on the Baptismal Question, New 
 York, 1879 ; De.\n St-^nley : Christian Institu- 
 tions, London and N. York, 1881. Very impor- 
 tant is the article on Baptism in Smith and 
 CiiEETHAM : Diet, of Christ. Antiq., vol. i., pp. 
 155-173.] GKOKG E. STEITZ (S. M. J.VCKSON). 
 
 BAPTISM OF INFANTS. A very large sec- 
 tion of Protestant Christendom, especially in the 
 United States, either publicly or privately dis- 
 sents from the practice of infant baptism. The 
 Baptists, and their sympathizers in Pedobaptist 
 denominations, ground their dissent (1) upon the 
 absence of a command of Christ, or of any ac- 
 count of apostolic procedure which expressly 
 favors the practice ; (2) They hold infant baptism 
 to be a violation of the very idea of baptism; 
 since it presupposes conversion, and a credible 
 profession of faith, which cannot be expected 
 from infants. 
 
 To these arguments it is replied, (1) The gen- 
 eral command to baptize all nations may natu- 
 rally be interpreted to include the baptism of 
 infants; and the mention of the baptism of the 
 three thousand on the Day of Pentecost (Acts ii. 
 41), and of five households (.Acts x. 48, xvi. 15, 
 33 ; 1 Cor. i. 10, xvi. 15, wliere the presence of 
 children in some is far more probable than their 
 absence in, all), joined to the reiterated assertion 
 that the prondse of the remission of sins and of 
 the Holy Spirit was to the believers and their 
 children (.\cts ii. 38, cf. iii. 25), make out a strong 
 probability, to say the least, that infants were 
 baptized by the apostles. (2) Christ's tre.atment 
 of children whom he blessed, and pronounced to 
 l.)e members of the kingdom of he:i,ven. ^Vhy, 
 then, should they not also be fit to bear the sign 
 and seal of such membership? ,\11 baptism is in 
 idea an infant baptism, and requires us to begin 
 life anew in a truly childlike spirit, without w hicli 
 no one can enter the kingdom of God. (3) The 
 analogy of circumcision which began with adult 
 Abi-aham, and then extended to all his male chil- 
 dren. Baptism is the initiatorj' rite of introduc- 
 tion into the Christian Church, and the sign and
 
 BAPTISM. 
 
 210 
 
 BAPTISTS. 
 
 seal of the new covenant, as circumcision was the 
 sign and seal of the old covenant (Rom. iv. 11). 
 The blessing of the old covenant was to the seed 
 as well as to the parents ; and the blessing of the 
 new covenant cannot be less comprehensive. In- 
 fant baptism rests upon the organic relation of 
 Christian parents and children (1 Cor. vii. 1-1). 
 It is a constant testimony to the living faith of 
 the church, which descends, not as an heirloom, 
 but as a vital force, from parent to child. 
 
 No time can be assigned to the beginning of 
 the practice of infant baptism. If it had been 
 an innovation, it would have created a revolution, 
 or at all events provoked a violent protest. But 
 it gained ground gradually from the very begin- { 
 ning, as Christianity took hold of family life and 
 training. Origen speaks of it as apostolic, .and 
 ■was himself baptized in infancy (about ISO); but i 
 much earlier though less unequivocal testimony 
 is borne by Irena?us (born, probably, between 120 
 and 130), who was a disciple of Polycarp, one of 
 John's disciples, and who therefore was surely an 
 excellent witness of apostolic usage. He saj's, 
 " lie (Christ) came to save, through means of 
 himself, all who through him are born again (re- 
 generated) to God, in/anig, and children, and 
 boys, and youths, and old men." Adv. Hcer. ii. 
 22, 4 (Stieren's edition). The phrase "born again 
 to God " refers plainly to baptism : in Irensus' 
 usage (cf. i. 21, 1) baptism is •• being born again 
 to God," and (iii. 17, 1) baptism is "the power 
 of regeneration unto God." Clemens Alex- 
 andrinus (in the second century), in his book 
 PtE(lagof/iis (Tutor), lib. iii. c. 11, speaking of 
 proper designs for seals, mentions the representa- 
 tion of fishing as recalling " the apostle ami the 
 children ciraicn out of t/ie water:" the latter phrase 
 refers to baptism. The opponents of the practice 
 make much use of Tertullian (close of the second 
 century). In his De Baj/lismo, c. 18, he counsels 
 delay of baptism, particularly in the case of in- 
 fants. But, when the passage is investigated, it 
 is found that liis motive is not the impropriety, 
 but tlie inexpediency, of infant baptism, on the 
 ground that it involved the great risk of forfeit- 
 ing forever the remission of sins in the case of a 
 relapse. The very argument proves not only the 
 existence, but the prevailing practice, of infant 
 baptism, lie does not even hint at its being a 
 post-apo.stolic innovation. Hence his opposition 
 is due to his peculiar theory of the m.agical effect 
 of baptism in washing away the guilt of past sins, 
 but is by no means anti-Pedobaptist. (For Eng. 
 trans, of the i)as3age see "Ante-Nicene Library," 
 T'ertullian, vol. i. p. 253 ; orig. text, De Ildplisnui, 
 c. 18, Oehler's edition, vol. i. p. 638.) 
 
 It must be admitted that adult baptism was 
 the rule, infant baptism the exception, in the 
 apostolic age, and continued to be till the church 
 was fairly established in tiie lionian Kinpire. 
 Augustine, (iregory Nazian/.en, and Chrysostom 
 had Christian motliers, but were not baptized 
 till they were converted in early manliood ; and 
 Constantine the (in^at ])ut off his bai>lism till 
 his death-bed. Adult lia)>tisin alw.ays conies first 
 in every mission.ary church, which liegins witli 
 preaching the gospel to res])onsible adults, and 
 then lays hold of the chilcb'en. Infant bap- 
 tism has no meaning without Christian family 
 life aud the guaranty of Christian eilucation. 
 
 Hence the church has always insisted on cate- 
 chetical instruction, and most churches practise 
 confirmation as a subjective supplement to infant 
 baptism. Compulsort/ infant baptism was un- 
 known in the ante-Nicene age. it is a profanation 
 of the sacrament, and one of the evils of the 
 union of Church and State, against which Baptists 
 have a right to protest. PHILIP SCHAFF. 
 
 BAPTJSTERIES, buildings erected exclusively 
 for the administration of baptism, were not 
 known until the fourth century. In the primi- 
 tive church, the river or the brook, the lake or 
 the pond, served the purpose. During the per- 
 secutions, wells and springs found in the cata- 
 combs were used, as may be inferred from the 
 ornaments employed around and above them; 
 but when Christianity became the religion of the 
 state, under Constantine the Great, separate build- 
 ings were found necessary, and were erected in 
 the neighborhood of the church, and often con- 
 nected with it by a covered gallery. These build- 
 ings were often very large, so large, indeed, that 
 synods and councils could be held within their 
 walls. The reason was, that they also served .as 
 schoolrooms for the catechumens ; and as the sac- 
 rament of baptism was administered only twice 
 or thrice a year, at Easter and Pentecost and 
 Epiphany, and only at the episcopal church, the 
 cathedral, the ecclesia baptismalis, the numbers of 
 catechumens could often be very great. The 
 centre of the whole structure formed the baptis- 
 mal basin {piscina}, circular, octagonal, or some- 
 times, in allusion to Rom. vi. 1, in the form of a 
 grave, of stone (1 Cor. x. 1), and descended into 
 by three steps. Around this b.asin arose the 
 building, circular or octagonal, aud covered with 
 a cupola, whicli rested either on the walls or on 
 pillars aud colunnis within the walls. Connected 
 with this main building were generally, to the 
 one side a fore-hall, the schoolroom, and to the 
 other side an apsis, with an altar dedicated to 
 John the Baptist, at which the c.ateohiimens 
 received the eucharist immediately after baptism. 
 Gradually, however, as infant baptism became the 
 rule in the church, and the sacrament was ad- 
 ministered by aspersion instead of by immersion, 
 and the right of administering it was extended 
 to all cliurches and over the whole year, there 
 was less and less use for any separate buildings. 
 .\fter the ninth century, no more baptisteries 
 were built. The baptismal basin was trans- 
 formed into the baptisnuil font; and the font was 
 moved into the cliurch itself, and placed in a 
 separate chapel, or part of the building, gener- 
 ally ne.ar the entrance, to tlie left. 
 
 BAPTISTS. (The Regular or Calvlnistic Bap- 
 tists.)— A body of Christians comprising about 
 one-fourth of the Protestants of the United 
 States, and numbering in Great Britain, in 1880, 
 a membership of 282,(158 ; on the continent of 
 Europe, '14,2!)2 ; in Asia, 42,072 ; in Africa, 3,003 ; 
 in Australasia, 7,018. 
 
 Bki.hcf. — The first Confession of the Baptists 
 in England, A.D. 1044, .antedated the Westmin- 
 ster Confession. When the Westminster Confes- 
 sion w.as published, it w;is found to agree, for 
 substance of docti'ine, in most jjoints, with the 
 earlier Baptist Confession; and in 11)8!) the Gi'u- 
 eral .V.sscmbly of Baptists, following the exam- 
 ple of the Independents (Savoy, 1(558), adopted 
 
 f
 
 BAPTISTS. 
 
 211 
 
 BAPTISTS. 
 
 that Confession, with some omissions and changes. 
 This Confession was also adopted by the I'liila- 
 delphia Association in the eighteentli centiiiv, 
 and is still the statement of doctrine most liishly 
 regarded by the Baptists in the United .States. 
 
 The essential distinction between the belief of 
 Baptists and that of other bodies of Christians is 
 found in their view of the constitution of the 
 visible church. Holding the supreme authority 
 of the Holy Scriptures, and the doctrines of (Jod's 
 choice of his people, of regeneration as tlie 
 sovereign work of the Holy .Spirit, and of justi- 
 fication by faith alone, they believe that the 
 churches nientioned in the New Testament were 
 formsd in closest accord with those doctrines; 
 they believe the New Testament gives us exam- 
 ples of, and commands us to receive as candi- 
 dates for membership in the churches, only those 
 who give credible evidence of their faith in Jesus 
 as their Saviour. Hence tlie Baptists accept as 
 candidates for baptism only those who are pro- 
 fessed believers in Jesus. 
 
 They believe immersion in water is the baptism 
 enjoined in the New Testament. In this view 
 they are in acconl with the Greek and all Orien- 
 tal churches, with the practice of the Occidental 
 churches till A.D. 1300, and with the present 
 liturgies of the English and American Episcopal 
 churches. Baptists in ."Vmerica believe, but m.any 
 Baptists in England do not liold, that liaptism is 
 a prerequisite to the Lord's .Sujiper. 
 
 Church GovEHNjrENx. — Their churches — 
 " bodies of baptized believers, with pastors and 
 deacons, covenanted together for religious wor- 
 ship and religious work" — are independent of 
 all other human control, and supreme in the gov- 
 ernment of their own affairs. For the increase 
 of love, for consultation, and the furtherance of 
 missions at honre and abroad, these churches, 
 by their delegates, unite in councils and associa- 
 tions ; but these councils have no power beyond 
 advice, or withdrawing the hand of fellowship 
 from an offender. 
 
 Without an authoritative creed, and with no 
 ecclesiastical government beyond that of each 
 church over its own members, the Baptists in the 
 United .States m.aintain a very close agreement 
 in doctrine, which is best represented by the 
 (modified) Westminster Confession. 
 
 HiSTOKY. Ba/jlisis in Europe. — The early 
 Baptists of the continent of Europe held the 
 same evangelical truths, and the same view of 
 the church, as the later Baptists of England and 
 America; but they differed from these latter in 
 many other points. The Baptists appeared first 
 in Switzerland, about A.D. 1523, where they 
 were persecuted by Zwingli and tlie Roman- 
 ists. They are found in the following years, 
 1525-30, with large churches fully organized, 
 in Southern Germany, Tyrol, and in Middle Ger- 
 many. In all these places persecution made 
 their lives bitter. Moravia promised a home of 
 greater freedom ; and thither many Baptists mi- 
 grated, only to find their hopes deceived. 
 
 After 1531 they were numerous in Northern 
 Germany, Holland, Belgium, and the Walloon 
 provinces. They increased, even during Alva's 
 rule in the Low Countries, and developed a won- 
 derful missionary zeal. But from the middle of 
 the seventeenth century their numbers have de- 
 
 creased with their zeal, until, at the present, they 
 comprise a very small portion of the population 
 in Holland. 
 
 lUtjilixlx ill Enr/lrind. — During the reigns of 
 Elizabeth and .lames, a large number of Baptists 
 fled from Holland and (iermany to England. 
 What influence they exerted in .spreading tiieir 
 views in England, is not known. We otdy learn 
 of their presence by the persecutions they en- 
 dured. The first B.aptist churches in England 
 from which we have a statement of their views 
 are those of .\.D. 1G44. Their principles were 
 adopted by many, ,and churches nipidly multi- 
 plied. Under Cromwell, Baptists were found in 
 the army, in Parliament, and in the Council of 
 State. With the return of Charles II., the Bap- 
 tists, with all other dissenters, suffered from tlie 
 strong hand of violence. During the eighteenth 
 century many of their churches shrivelled under 
 the influence of hyper-Calvinism ; but a new era 
 of more faithful gospel-preaching, and of zealous 
 missionary work, began in the latter part of the 
 century under the le,ad of men like Carey and 
 .•\ndrew Fuller, and this has continued to the 
 present time. 
 
 Baplisis in America. — In .Vmerica the earliest 
 Baptists were found in the Massachusetts Colony, 
 liut were driven out. Some went to Rhode Island, 
 and others to New York and Virginia. In 1770, 
 so far as is known, the B.aptists numbered 77 
 churclies with about .5,000 members in the colo- 
 nies. In lsy5 they report 2.^,953 churches, 16,- 
 191 ministers, 2,572,238 total membership. 
 
 Missions. — The American Baptist Mission- 
 ary Union (Boston, Mass.) is the society through 
 which the Baptists of the Northern States carry 
 on their foreign missionary work. The Union 
 has in Asia five missions, as follows : Burmah, 
 with 14 stations, 103 missionaries, 522 native 
 preachers, 485 churches, 1,924 baptisms in 1884, 
 25,007 members, 399 schools, 10,404 pupils ; As- 
 sam. 7 stations, 19 missionaries, 29 native preach- 
 ers, 30 churches, 4(j baptisms in 1884, 1.731 mem- 
 bers, 62 schools, 1,247 pupils; Telugus (India), 
 12 stations, 40 missionaries, 154 native preachers, 
 42 churches, 1,.556 baptisms in 1884, 26,396 mem- 
 bers, 300 schools, 4,898 pupils ; China, 6 stations, 
 27 missionaries, 58 native preachers, 17 churches, 
 103 baptisms in 1884, 1,411 members, 12 schools, 
 217 pupils ; Japan, 4 stations. 17 missionaries, 25 
 native preachers, 7 churches, 109 baptisms in 1884, 
 367 members, 6 schools, 279 pupils ; Africa, 8 
 
 stations. 
 
 missionaries. Total, 231 mission- 
 
 aries, 791 native preachers, 588 churches, 3,738 
 baptisms in 1884, 55,941 members, 785 schools, 
 17,045 pupils. In Europe, 929 ministers, .572 
 churches, 6,776 baptisms, 61. .5.50 members. The 
 .appropriations of the American Baptist iSIission- 
 ary Union for the year ending March 31, 1885, 
 were .|383,288.41. 
 
 General summary of all the foreign missions 
 of the Baptists : 231 missionaries, 1,720 native 
 pastors and helpers, 1,160 churches, 10,514 bap- 
 tisms in 1884, 117,491 members. 
 
 The Foreign Mission Board of the Southern 
 Baptist Convention maintains missions in China, 
 Africa, Italy, .South .\merica, and Jlexico, with 
 95 missionaries, and native assistants. Income 
 (1885), $86,625.97. 
 
 The Home Mission Board of the Southera
 
 BARABBAS. 
 
 21: 
 
 BARBEYRAC. 
 
 Baptist Convention sustains 144 missionaries in 
 tlie States and Territories. Income (18S5), $66,- 
 414.47. 
 
 The American Baptist Home Missionary So- 
 ciety (Xew Yorli) sustained in 1SS4-85. 7(I'J mis- 
 sionaries in tlie States and Ten-itorie.s, 17 acaile- 
 niies for freedmen, witli 3,182 pupils. Income 
 (1885), §417,283.40. 
 
 Tlie American Baptist Publication Society, 
 Philadelphia, issued during 1883-84. 087,09.5,902 
 18mo pages. Its publications number 1,288. In- 
 come (1885), .§582.957.58. 
 
 The educational institutions of the Baptists 
 comprise 7 theological seminaries with 467 stu- 
 dents, 29 colleges with 4,358 students, and 75 
 academies with 9,252 students. The building.^ 
 and endowments of all these institutions are val- 
 ued at §16,060,974. 
 
 The periodicals, weekly, monthly, quarterly, 
 sustained by the Baptists in Anjerica number 82. 
 
 We have not enumerated among the " regular " 
 Baptists the Di.-^ciple.'', or Cainpbellites, with 850,- 
 000 members; the Frce-WiU Baptists, with 76,700 
 members; the Seventh-Dai/ Baptists,wilh 8.055 mem- 
 bers; the Tunkers, or DuiiLers, with luO.DOO mem- 
 bers; Winehrennariatu, with 4.5,000 members; 
 Anti-Mission {Primitive, or Ohl-Hchool) Baptists, 
 with 40,000 members. See those articles in this 
 Encyclop.edi.\ on pp. 044 sq.. 83!. 2165-2167, 
 2401-2404, 2538 sq., 2583, respectively. 
 
 Lit. — European Baptists. — T.J. van Braght: 
 Het Bloedifi Tuoneel of Martekvrs Spierjet der Doops- 
 gesinde, fob, .Amsterdam, 1685: Egli: Zilricher 
 Wiedertaii/er, Ziirich, 1878; Wolxy: Die Wie- 
 derlaufer in Mdliren, Wien, 1850 ; ScHYX : Histo- 
 ria Mennonitarum, 3 vols., .Amsterdam, 1743-45; 
 Ten C.\rK: G'eschiedenis der Doopsf/esinden, Am- 
 sterdam, 1839-47. 
 
 English Baplhts. — Th. Crosby : Hist. English 
 Baptists, Lond., 1738-40,4 vols.; Jos. Ivimey: 
 Hist. English Baptists, Lond., 1811-23,3 vols.; 
 EvAXs: Earl;/ English Baptists, Lond., 1802, 2 
 vols. ; Publications of " Hanserd Knullys Soc'y," 
 Lond., 1849-54, 10 vols. 
 
 American Baptists. — Backus: Hi.il. Baptists of 
 yew England, Newton, ilass., 1871, 2 vols.; 
 Morgan Edw.vuds: Hist. Baptists in Penn. and 
 N. Jersey, 1772, 1792, 2 vols.; Benkdict: Gen- 
 eral Hi.1t. Ilapl. in America, N. Y. , 1850; Cramp: 
 Bapt. Hi.1t., Phila., n. d. ; S. S. Cutting: Hi.i- 
 lorical Vindications, Boston, 1859; Fk. ^V.VYI.A^•D: 
 Principles and Practices of the Baptists, X. Y., 
 1857; D.\GG : Church Order, Cliarleston, 1858; 
 AVm. U. Williams: Lectures on Baptist Histori/, 
 Philadelphia, 1877; Baptists and the National Cen- 
 lenanj, I'hila., 1876'; "Baptist Year Books," 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 For a list of works by American Baptists to 
 1804, SCO Baptist Semi-Centcnnial Volume, Bos- 
 ton, b'^01. 11. O.SOOdD. 
 
 BARABBAS {son of Aliha), the name of a male- 
 factor whom the Jewish mob. at the instigation of 
 the priests, demanded that I'oiitius I'ilate slioidd 
 release instead of Jesus of Xiizareth (.Matt, .\xvii. 
 16 sq., cf. Acts iii. 14). According to an old tra- 
 dition, Baral)l)a8' proper name was Jesus. Some 
 manuscripts ami many :iiicii'Mt versions liave the 
 name Jesus before that of Itanihbas. Thus the 
 Armenian version read.s: "whom will ye that I 
 relea.se unto youV — Jesus Bar:il>l):is, or Jesus 
 
 which is called Christ?" (Matt, xxvii. 17.) 
 .According to Jerome, the Gospel of the Hebrews 
 had the same reading. But the majority of Xew 
 Testament textual scholars are agreed in reject- 
 ing it. Lange and othei-s favor the old view 
 that Barabbas was a pseudo-messiali. Barabbas 
 is a common name in the Talmud. 
 
 BARAGA, Friedrich, D. D., a Roman-Catholic 
 missionary, b. in Carniola, a crown land of the 
 Austrian "Empire, 1797: d. Jan. 19, 1868. He 
 came to America in 1831, devoted his life to the 
 Indians of the Lake Superior region, and was 
 made Bishop of Sault .St. Mary and Marquette. 
 He ]iublished a Grammar of the Olchipwe Language 
 in 1851, and a Dictionarg of the same in 1853. 
 
 BA'RAK {lightning), son of .\binoam, was the 
 fourth judge of Israel. He marched with Debo- 
 rah against Sisera, chief of the army of Jabin, 
 King of Canaan, and, meeting him by the torrent 
 stream of Kishon, achieved a complete victory, 
 and broke his people's yoke of bondage, which 
 had galled them twenty years. A forty-years' 
 peace followed. 
 
 BARBARA, St., suffered martyrdom, according 
 to Baronius, in .Xicomedia, under Jlaximinus 
 (235-238); according to Assemanni, at Heliopolis 
 in Egypt, under Galerius (306). Having been 
 converted, she endeavored to convert her father: 
 but he denounced her; and, as no torture could 
 move her to deny Christ, she was sentenced to 
 death, and decapitated by her own father. Her 
 feast falls on Dec. 4, and in Roman-Catholic coun- 
 tries she is considered a special guaranty against 
 fire, storms, etc. 
 
 BARBARIAN in the New Testament (Acts 
 xxviii. 2, 4: Rom. i. 14) means one not a Greek, 
 without referring to civilization : this is in ac- 
 cordance with classic usage. In 1 Cor. xiv. 11 
 it means one speaking in a foreign, unintelligi- 
 ble tongue. This is its primitive meaning. It 
 by IK) means implies siivagi'ri/, 
 
 BARBAULD, Anna Letltia, b. at Kibworth, 
 Leicestershire, June 20, 1743: married the Rev. 
 Rochemont Barbaubl, May, 1774; d. March 9, 
 1825. She was the daughter of the Rev. John 
 .\ikin, D.D., a teacher, and w.as highly educated. 
 Her husband was a Unitarian, who taught a 
 school and preached in .Suffolk. .Assisted by her 
 brother in 1773. she published her first volume of 
 "Poems;" and four editions were sold in one 
 year. In the same year appeared "Miscellaneous 
 Pieces in Prose," by J. and .A. L. Aikin ; in 1775 
 her "Hymns in Prose." and "Early Lessons" 
 (written for her pupils), and " Devotional Pieces 
 compiled from the l\salins of David." Her later 
 writings :ire of a general and critical character, 
 including political p:imphlets, editions of Akeii- 
 side, ('ollins, and of essayists and novelists. Per- 
 haps her best-known hymn begins, " How blest 
 the righteous when he dies! " See The Works of 
 .1. L. Barbauld, with a Memoir," by Lucy Aikin 
 (her niece), London, 1820, 2 vols. ; and the recent 
 .Memoirs by A. L. Le Breton and G. A. Ellis, 
 IsTl. 
 
 BARBEf RAC, Jean, b. at Beziers, Languedoc, 
 March 15, 1674 ; d. at Groeningen, March 3, 
 1744; fled with his parents into .Switzerland, 
 after the revocation of the Edict of Xantes, 
 1()85; was echicated at Lausanne and Geneva; 
 studied at the University of Frankfort-on-the-
 
 BARBIER. 
 
 213 
 
 BAR-COCHEBA. 
 
 Oder; became a teacher in the College of the 
 Reformed Congregation at Berlin, 1097; and was 
 ill 1710 appointed professor of law and histoiy 
 in the Academy of Lausanne, and in 1710 in the 
 University of Gra?ningen lie translated several 
 works of Puffendorf an<l (irot.iiis from Latin into 
 Frencli, and accompanied them with notes and 
 additions, which attracted much attention. Be- 
 sides a number of other essays, ho also wrote a 
 Traite du Jeti, 1709, and a Traite ile la Morale ile.i 
 I-'eres rle I'Ef/lisc. 1728. lie was a moderate Cal- 
 vinist. and refused to sign the Helvetic Formula 
 Consensus, which disapproved of the doctrines of 
 Amyraut and the other Saumur theologians. 
 
 BARBIER, Josu6, a Protestant pastor of Li- 
 vron, wlioMi the liishop of Valence allured back 
 into the bosom of the Roman Church by a pen- 
 sion of six hundred livres, and who became noted 
 by his coarse libels against his former co-religion- 
 ists ; La Ministrographie Hugiieitote, 1618; and 
 Les Miraculenx Effects de la Sacre'e Main des Roys 
 de France, 16"21. 
 
 BARCKHAUSEN-VOLKMANN CONTROVER- 
 SY. In 1712 Paul Volkmanii, rector of tlie ,Toa- 
 chimsthal Gymnasium in P.erliu, and custos at the 
 Royal Library, published his Theses Theoloe/icce, a 
 complete representation of the Reformed dogmat- 
 ics, in which he maintained the doctrines of uni- 
 versal grace and conditional election. Thereby 
 he stirred up within the German Reformed 
 Church that question of predestination and grace 
 ■which has arisen and been debated in every na- 
 tional branch of the Reformed Church. In 1714 
 Heinricli Barckhausen. a teacher in the same 
 gymnasium, answered by an Amira Collatin Jjor- 
 trince de Gratia, which he pul)lished under the 
 pseudonyme of Pacificus Verinus, and in which he 
 vindicated these doctrines of particular grace and 
 u.iconditional election. With Volkmann sided 
 Holzf uss, Jablonsky, Jereniias Sterky, etc. ; with 
 Barckhausen, Philip Naude, etc. Barckhausen 
 wrote two more pamphlets in the controversy, 
 both anonymous, JMaurilii Neodorpii Calvintis Or- 
 tJiodoxus and Abr/enSlhigte Ehr- iind Lehr- liettung 
 der reformirten Kirchen ; and the controversy be- 
 gan to grow hot, when, in 1719, the Prussian 
 king, Friedrich Wilhelm I., stepped in, and by a 
 royal edict commanded both parties to keep 
 silent. 
 
 BARCLAY, Alexander, b. about 147(1, probably 
 of Scotch descent; d. at Croydon in 1552; was edu- 
 cated at one of the English universities; travelled 
 much on the Continent, and w.as made chaplain 
 in the collegiate church at Ottery St. Mary in 
 Devonshire. Afterwards he became a monk in 
 the Benedictine Monastery of Ely ; and, after the 
 suppression of the monasteries, lie was vicar of 
 Much-Badew in Essex, of Wokey in Somerset- 
 shire, and rector of All-Saints in Lomb.ard Street. 
 He is the author of the Slap of Fonles, first printed 
 in 1509, partly a translation, piartly an imitation, 
 of Sebastian Brandt's Das Narren Scliiff. A list 
 of his other writings is found in the introduction 
 to Jamieson's edition of the S/iij/ of Foules, Edin- 
 burgh, 1874. 
 
 BARCLAY, Robert, b. at Gordonstown, Scot- 
 land, Dec. 23. 1048: d. Oct. 3, 1690, at Ury; de- 
 scended from an old Scottish family, and received 
 a very careful education from his father. Col. 
 David Barclay of war celebrity in Germany and 
 
 Sweden. For his further development he went 
 to Paris; but wdiile there he was won over to the 
 Roman Cliurch by one of his maternal uncles; 
 and it cost his father, who in the mean time had 
 joined tlie Quakers, much trouble to disentangle 
 all thi^se religious and iiu)ral complications. He 
 succeeded, however; and Robert Barclay became 
 the most pronuniMit, indeed the only remarkable, 
 theologian the (Quakers liavo produced. Ilia 
 chief work, Tlieolor/iir Vera < 'hristianw A/toloi/ia, 
 gives a systematic representation of that mystical 
 spiritualism on wdiicli Quakerism is based. It 
 was first juiblished in 1676, translated into Eng- 
 lish in 1678, into (jerman in 1684, and into 
 French in 1702, and called forth a great number 
 of controversial writings by Anton Reiser, Bar- 
 thold Ilolzfu.ss, Ben. Figken, William Baier, etc. 
 Barclay's collected works were published two 
 years after his death, by William Penn. See 
 [Joseph Besse: Collection of l/ie Sufferings of the 
 People called Quakers, for the Testimony of a Good 
 Conscience, London, 17.53, 2 vols, fob; S. M. 
 .T.W'XEy: History of the Friends. Philadelphia, 
 1867, 4 vols ] Weingarten : Die Revolutions- 
 kirclnii Englauds, 1868, p. 364-396. HERZOG. 
 
 BAR-C6CHEBA {son of the star), the name 
 assumed by a certain Simeon, who pretended to 
 be the Messiah, and headed an insurrection ia 
 Palestine in A.D. 131 or 132, against the Em- 
 peror Hadrian. Nothing is known of his origin, 
 or even of his real name. He purposely w ipped 
 himself in mystery the better to play his rule. 
 But he never would have been able to succeed at 
 all, had it not been for the confidence reposed in 
 him by Rabbi Akiba (which see), the most influ- 
 ential and remarkable Jew of his day. He 
 claimed to have been born on the day of the 
 destruction of Jerusalem (because a wide-spread 
 rumor set that time for the birth of the Messiah) ; 
 claimed also the fulfilment of Balaam's projih- 
 ecy (Num. xxiv. 17), hence his name; and by his 
 boasts and temerity, his promises and tact, he 
 gathered a large number about him, overcame the 
 Roman general in Judaea, J. Annius Rufus, and 
 took Jerusalem. He had coins struck to celebrate 
 his successes. But his triumph was short-lived. 
 Julius Severus, at Hadrian's order, attacked him, 
 and by prudent stratagems succeeded in penning 
 up the insurgents in Jerusalem, and then took 
 the city, although at heavy loss, and razed it; and 
 on it eventually Aelia Capitolina was built. Bar- 
 cocheba and his followers fled to Bethar, a strong- 
 hold near Jerusalem, and for three years main- 
 tained themselves. But in the year 135 Bethar 
 yielded to the Romans. Bar-cocheba fell in the 
 battle, and his head was carried into the Roman 
 camp. Rabbi Akiba and other rabbis, who were 
 accused of inciting the rebellion, were, it is said, 
 flayed alive. The Talmud, recognizing the de- 
 ception practised, changed the name of the 
 leader into Bar-Coziba {son of tlie lie), and called 
 his coins "rebel money." 
 
 It is said Bar-cocheba put to death all Chris- 
 tians who would not join his standard. Indeed, 
 in every resjiect, in speech and action, he was one 
 of the false Christs our Lord prophesied should 
 arise (Mark xiii. 21, 22), and by his very defects 
 set forth more prominently the virtues of the 
 Perfect One, the Hope of Israel, the Lord's 
 Anointed.
 
 BARDESANES. 
 
 ■2\4 
 
 BARNABAS. 
 
 [MuNTER : Derjiidische Krieg unter den Kaisem 
 Trajan u. Hadrian: P>wald: Geschickte d. Volks 
 Israel, VII.. 373-432; E. Schurek: Neittesla- 
 mentliche Zeilgeschichte, Leipzig. 1874. pp. 350 
 
 Sqn.l W. PRESSEL. 
 
 B.ARDESANES, a Gnostic lieiesiarch. who lived 
 at Edes.sa in Mesopotamia in the latter part of 
 the second century, about 170. He was a disci- 
 ple of Valentiuius, and as none of bis writings 
 have come dow'n to us — with the exception of a 
 fragment of his book on fate, which has been 
 preserved by Eusebius, and may be found trans- 
 lated in Cureton's Spic'Ueyium Si/riacuni, London. 
 1855 — his system can be understood only as a 
 variation of that of his master and of Gnosticism 
 in general. But he seems to have been a greal 
 poet; and his hundred and fifty Syriac hynnis 
 became so popular, that Ephraim Syrus, when he 
 afterwards wrote his orthodox hynnis to take 
 their place, was compelled to use Bardesanes' 
 tunes. See Gnosticism. 
 
 BAREFOOTED MONKS AND NUNS. .See 
 
 DlSCALCKATI. 
 
 BARLAAM, b. at Seniinara in Calabria, towards 
 the close of the thirteenth centurj'. He was of 
 Greek descent, but educated in the Roman 
 Church, and entered the order of St. Basil. For 
 his further studies, however, he went to Thessa- 
 lonica, at that period a great seat of learning, 
 and having made himself proficient not only in 
 theology, but also in philosophy and mathemat- 
 ics, he went to Con.stantinople (1327), where he 
 joined the Greek Church, was made .Vbbot of St. 
 Salvador, and engaged in a virulent polemic 
 against Rome: Contra Primatum Pajia, etc. In 
 1339 the Emperor Andronicus III. .sent him on a 
 diplomatical errand to Pope Benedict XII.. at 
 Avignon, to vi'hom he presented himself, well 
 recommended both by Philippe of France and 
 Robert of Sicily. The real purpose of his mis- 
 sion was to procure the support of ^^'estern 
 Europe against the Turks ; but the ostensible 
 object he labored for was the union between the 
 Greek and Latin churches. Cunningly conceal- 
 ing the thoughts he worked for under the 
 thoughts he spoke about, he delivered two elabo- 
 rate speeches before the Pope, which belong to 
 the most characteristic documents of the whole 
 series of union-negotiations: but he failed, never- 
 theless, to produce the right impression; his mis- 
 sion remained without result. After returning 
 to Greece, he began his attacks on thi- Ilesychast 
 or Quietist party among the monks of Mount 
 Athos, which he wound up with a formal accusa- 
 tion of heresy. A .synod, ]iresided over by the 
 emperor and the patriarch, was convened in the 
 Church of St. So)ihia, in Constantinople, 1311; 
 and the llesychasts were so ably defended by 
 their leader, Palanias. that Barlaam hurriedly 
 left the city, and l)etook himself to Italy. Here 
 he returned to tln' Roman Church, was made 
 Bishop of Gieraci in tin' Neapolitan, and wrote as 
 virulently against thn Greek Church as formerly 
 against the Latin. lie dii'<l 1318. 
 
 Lit. — Most of his works have remained un- 
 printed; but some of them, for instance the 
 above-mentioned speeches, are found in Rey- 
 nalds's continuation of Baronius's Amiale.i, and 
 others in II. Canisius : J.erliimes Aniiij., IV. A 
 complete list is given by Leo Allatius in his Dn 
 
 Ecclesim Occid. et Or. Consensione, 11., 17. Parts 
 of his life are fully described by the Greek his- 
 torians Catakuzen and Necephorns (5regoras. 
 
 BARLETTA, a Dominican monk from the lat- 
 ter part of the fifteenth century; b. at Barletta in 
 the Neapolitan: enjoyed an almost unparalleled 
 popularity as a preacher, especially in the cities 
 of Northern Italy. His sermons, which were first 
 published at Brescia, 1497, and afterwards often, 
 gave rise to the adage, Nescil prm/irare qui nesctt 
 harlettare. They are characterized by a blending 
 of humor and pathos, which, though sometimes 
 approaching buffoonery and affectation, explains 
 the great power of the man. 
 
 BAR'NABAS (.<«» of Prophecy, or Exhortation^, 
 a Levite named Joses, of the Island of Cyprus, 
 living in Jerusalem when the church was founded, 
 and one of the first converts. By the Christians 
 he was called Barnabas, because of his ability to 
 administer counsel and cheer. He proved the 
 sincerity and depth of his Christian zeal by vol- 
 untarily selling his Cyprian property, and laying 
 the money at the apostles' feet (.\cls iv. 36. 37). 
 He (inickly took a leading position in the early 
 church. Incited, probably, by a friendship pi-e- 
 viously formed when both were Jews, he used 
 his influence to commend the converted and 
 yet suspected Saul to the Jerusalem Church, and 
 thus publicly indorsed the strange story the 
 apostle told (ix. 27). The fitness of Barnabas 
 to deal wisely w'ith young converts is strikingly 
 illustrated by his commission to inspect the 
 '• revival " at .\ntioch : and the confidence he 
 reposed in Saul is manifested by his journey to 
 Tarsus in search of him. The two men lalx)red 
 together successfully for many months in .Anti- 
 och (xi. 22-26, xiv. 28). B;irnabas and Saul 
 were then sent down to Jerusalem with contribu- 
 tions for the poor saints there (ver. 30, B.C. 44). 
 This is the first joining of the two names. They 
 returned from Jerusalem with John (Mark xii. 
 25) ; and, ordered by the Holy Ghost, these three 
 went on a missionary journey. .\t Perga, John 
 left them, and returned to Jerusalem; but Paul 
 and Barnabas kept on their way (xiii. 2-5. 13). 
 The dignified bearing of Barnabas, and the , 
 readier speech of Paul, led to the supposition I 
 of the Lystrans, that the former was /^eus (Jupi- 
 ter), and the latter Hermes (Mercury). On com- I 
 ing back to Antioch, they were involved in a con- 
 troversy with the Judilizer s, and went to the 
 .\postolic Council at Jerusalem (which see), where 
 the matter was settled. An unliap]iy dissension 
 .soon after p;irted the pair (A. I). .50), and Barna- 
 bas is not further mentioned in the .\cts (xv.; ; 
 but from Gal. ii. 13 we leani ;i little more about 
 him, and see iiis weakness under the taunts of 
 the Judaizers; and from 1 Cor. ix. 6 we gather 
 that he was still at his missionary labors in the 
 spring of A.I). .57. Legends begin when authentic 
 history ends. Barnai)as is brought to Rome and 
 Alexandria. The Clementine Itecognition.t (I., 7) 
 make him preach in Rome during Christ's life- 
 time. Indeed, according to Clement of Alexan- 
 dria (Strom. II., 20), he was one of the seventh 
 disciples. Not older than the third century is 
 the tradition of tin- later activity and martyrdom 
 of Barnabas in Cyjirus. There is a wortiiless 
 work by a Cvprian of the tifth century, "Acta et 
 Passio Barnalia' in Cypi'o " (see .VfotUYi'iiA to the 
 
 y
 
 BARNABITBS. 
 
 215 
 
 BARNES. 
 
 New Testament), and a eulog^y by a Cyprian monk, 
 Alexander, not earlier than the firth century, 
 which relate his acts. Under the Enii>er(ir Zeno 
 (474-491), according to the last-quoted work, the 
 body of Barnalias was found at Cyjirus. But 
 the Cyprian Church had already claimed liim as 
 its founder in order to rid itself of the supremacy 
 of the Antiochiaii bishop; and so did the Milan 
 Church, tliereby to cut itself off from Rome. 
 These traditions therefore go for little. 
 
 In this connection, the question whether Bar- 
 nabas was an apostle is important, and may be 
 answered by saying he was not, in the strict sense, 
 and yet is so styled (Acts xiv. 14); and in the 
 broader sense of messenger he was amply enti- 
 tled to the epitlipt. See Apostle. 
 
 Wrllhif/s allrihuted to Barnabas. — Tertullian 
 and other African writers ascribe the Epistle to 
 the Hebrews to him. 'J'his may well have been 
 the Roman tradition (Tertullian usually follows 
 it), since in Rome, the epistle, probably, had its 
 first readers. But of more interest is the tradi- 
 tion which sets down to him an Epistle in twenty- 
 one chapters, which is contained complete in the 
 Codex Sinaiticus, and of which Bryeimios in 1875 
 discovered a complete Greek manuscript in the 
 Library of the Most Holy Sepulchre at Constan- 
 einople ; but he has not yet published it The 
 epistle was accepted as genuine by the old Greek 
 Church, although not as canonical. Clemens 
 Alexandrinus (160-202) cites it, as do Origen 
 and the Apostolical Constitutions. Eusebius threw 
 doubt upon its canonicity, but regarded it as 
 authentic ; yet it gradually faded out of view. 
 The opinion to-day is, that Barnabas was not the 
 author. The epistle was probably written in 
 Alexandria, at the beginning of the second cen- 
 tury, and by a Gentile Christian. In no other 
 writing of that early time is the separation of 
 the Gentile Christians from the patriotic Jews so 
 clearly brought out. The Jewish interpretation 
 of the Bible is declared to be false, and the Old 
 Testament regulations are allegorized. " Two 
 points are especially insisted upon: 1st, Judaism 
 in its outward and fleshly form had never been 
 commended by the Almighty to man ; 2d, God's 
 covenant never belonged to the Jews at all." 
 That the author had read Paul is manifest ; 
 whether he knew our present Gospels is not so 
 sure: 2 Esd. and Enoch are quoted. The doc- 
 trines of Paul are fully and truly reproduced. 
 The epistle has been often published. See Geb- 
 HARDT, Harxack, u. Zahn : Palrum Apostolico- 
 rum Opera, Leipzig, 187G. 
 
 Lit. — Hefele : Das Sendscreiben des Ap. iiar- 
 naAo.s-, Tiibingen, 1840; Xorton : Genuineness of 
 the Gospels, 2d ed., Cambridge, 18411; Donald- 
 son : Hist, of Christian Literature and Doctrine, 
 London, 1804, vol. i., 201-211; Cunningham: 
 A Dissertation on the Ep. Bar., London, 1877; 
 Samuel Sharpe: Epistle of Barnabas, from the 
 Hinaitic Ms., London, 1880. 
 
 BARNABITES, a religious order founded at 
 Milan in 1530 by three prie.sts. Zaccharia, Ferrari. 
 and Morigia, acting under the influence of the 
 religious movement at that time passing through 
 Italy. In 1538 the order was confirmed by Clem- 
 ent VII. ; and in 1535 it was exempted from the 
 episcopal authority, and placed immediately 
 uuder the papal chair. Its first name was the 
 
 Regular Clerks of St. Paul, after the oratory in 
 which its re-unions were held ; liut, after obtaining 
 tlie Church of .St liarn^bas, its members are gen- 
 tu-ally called the Barnabites. To the three mo- 
 nastic vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, 
 the order adds a fourtli, — never to seek any kind 
 of ecclesiastical preferment. Preaching and 
 teaching are its two great aims. 
 
 BARNARD, John, b. at Bo.ston, Nov. 6, 1681: 
 d. at Marblehe;id, Jan. 24, 1770; was educated at 
 Harvard College; accompanied the expedition 
 to Port Royal as chaplain, in 1707; and was ap- 
 pointed minister in 1716, at Marblehead, where 
 he developed a great activity, both for the 
 moral and material welfare of his flock. He 
 published a version of the Psalms, and some 
 sermons, which show an incipient deviation from 
 Calvinism. 
 
 BARNES, Albert, b, at Rome, N.Y., Dec. 1, 
 1798, d. in Philadelphia, Penn., Dec. 24, 1870; 
 has a prominent place in the religious history of 
 America, as an active cause of the separation in 
 the Presbyterian Church, as the leader of the 
 New School party, and as the author of a series 
 of commentaries or Notes upon the entire New 
 Testament and upon a few books of the Old, 
 which has had an enormous and merited circula- 
 tion in America and Great Britain. It is said 
 that more than a million copies of his Notes on 
 the New Testament have been sold. Few men 
 equalled Mr. Barnes in presenting in brief com- 
 ]iass the results of patient study. Loyalty to 
 truth, fearlessness in its defence, earnestness, de- 
 cision, and a childlike piety, gave him a command- 
 ing position. He was graduated at Hamilton 
 College, New York, in 1820; then took a four-years' 
 course at the Theological .Seminary, Princeton. 
 N.J. ; and was ordained and installed pastor of 
 the Presbyterian Church at Morristown, N.J., 
 Feb. 8, 1825; thence he was called to the First 
 Presbyterian Church in Philadelphia, and was in- 
 stalled June 25, 1830. In 1867 he resigned, and 
 was elected pastor emeritus. ISIr. Barnes was 
 the servant, and at the same time the leader, of 
 his age. He has left a lasting impress upon four 
 movements, which, although he did not originate, 
 he directed. He preached total abstinence into 
 wide favor; the abolition of slaver//, until freedom 
 rendered such preaching an anachronism; the 
 Sunday-school cause, and in its behalf complied 
 his Notes: and, finally, the doctrine of uidimited 
 atonement, and the <listinctive te;ichings of the 
 New-School Branch of the Presbyterian Church. 
 See Presbyteuia.v Church. Although circum- 
 stances put him forward as the advocate of the 
 New-School liranch, he did not desire the promi- 
 nence, nor love tlie strife ; yet he defended what 
 he deemed the truth whenever assailed. He was 
 no enthusiast or fanatic, but simply and evi- 
 dently a truth-loving, earnest, conscientious man 
 of God. And it may be claimed with justice, 
 that, as he was unhappily a cause of the divis- 
 ion of his denomination, so he happily was a 
 means of uniting it again. The first volume of 
 his Notes J-^xplanatory and Practical, which was 
 on the Gospels, is dated Phil.adelphia, Aug 25, 
 1832; and his last volume, which was on the 
 Psalms, February, 1868. Besides these, he pub- 
 lished The Atonement, Phila., 1859; Wai/ of Sal- 
 vation, Phila., 1863; Evidences of Chrislianiti/ Vt
 
 BARNBVELD. 
 
 216 
 
 BARRUBL. 
 
 the Nineteenth Century, N.Y. ,1868; and Life at 
 Threescore and Ten, N.Y., 1871. 
 
 BARNEVELD. See Armixiaxism. 
 
 BAROor BARON, Pierre, b. at Etampes, 1534; 
 d. in London, April 17, 1599; studied law at 
 Bourges, and began in 1557 to plead in the 
 court of the Parliament of Paris, but retired in 
 1560 to Geneva, where he studied theology, and 
 was ordained by Calvin himself. In 1572 he left 
 France, and settled in Cambridge, where he was 
 made professor in divinity : but he soon fell out 
 with the rigid Calvinists ; and a sermon he 
 preached on the Lambeth Articles gave so much 
 offence, that he was compelled to renounce his 
 chair in the university, and retire to London. 
 Among his works are. In lonam Prophetam Pro- 
 lectiones, London. 1579 ; Summa Trium de Prce- 
 destinatione Sententiarum, 1573, translated in 
 Nichols's "Life of Arminius," I. 9. 
 
 BARONIUS, Csesar, b. at Sora in Naples, Oct. 
 31, 1538; d. in Rome, June 30, 1607. This most 
 learned and laborious historian of the Roman 
 Church was educated at Veroli ; began to study 
 theology and jurisprudence at Naples; moved in 
 1557 to Rome ; entered the Congregation of the 
 Oratory newly founded by Filippo de Neri, was 
 thereby led to the study of church-history in its 
 very sources; began in 1577 preparations for his 
 great work. Annates Ecclesiastic!, which first ap- 
 peared in Rome, in 12 vols, folio, 158.8-1607; was 
 made librarian to the Vatican, and cardinal in 
 1596, and came twice — after the death of Clem- 
 ent VIII., aud again after that of Leo XI. — very 
 near being elected pope. The Annates Ecciesias- 
 tici were written in opposition to the '• Madgeburg 
 Centuries " of Flacius and other Lutheran liisto- 
 rians. They contain no open polemics, however. 
 The great attention which the " Magdeburg Cen- 
 turies " attracted made it necessary to furnish a 
 positive refutation. Baronins undertook the 
 task, with the help of the Vatican Library, and 
 performed it in a way that makes his Annals 
 still a storehouse of learning. He died at last 
 from sheer exhaustion. The Annals were pub- 
 lished at Antwerp, 1010, in XII. Tom. folio, and 
 by Mansi, Lucca, 38 vols., 1738-59, in which 
 Pagi's critical remarks are printed in notes below 
 tlie text. The latest and best edition was begun 
 by A. Theiner at Har-le-Duc, in IHGl, and fin- 
 ished in 1883, in 37 volumes. The form of the 
 work is that of a chronicle ; the facts being gath- 
 ered together under each year, without any regard 
 to tlieir internal connection. Several writers have 
 tried to continue B.aronius's work after hi.s death; 
 hut only the labors of Raynaldus, Rome, 9 vols., 
 1646-03, Laderchi, Rome, 3 vols , 1728-37, and 
 Theiner, Rome, 3 vols., 1856, bringing the chron- 
 icle down to the year of 1580, have succeeded in 
 gaining permanency. 
 
 Lit. — Lives of Jjaronius were written by Bau- 
 NAiiKL's, Rome, 1611, and ALUEiticu.-i, Rome, 
 1759, the latter giving also his letters (3 vols.). 
 See Dv Pi.n : NouveUe liiUiothhque iles Autcurs 
 EccWsiasliques, XVIL, 1; Bauk: Ej/nc/ien der 
 kirclitichen GeschichtsschrcHmmj, p. 72, Tubingen, 
 1852 H. KKUTER. 
 
 BARROW, Isaac, \<. in London, October, 1630; 
 d. there May 1, 1077; studied at the University 
 of Cambridge ; travelleil for several years in 
 France, Italy, and the East; was ordained and 
 
 made professor of Greek in the University of 
 Cambridge immediately after his return in 1600 ; 
 became professor of mathematics in 1003, but 
 resigned in 1669 in favor of his famous pupil, 
 Newton, and devoted himself exclusively to the- 
 ology; and in 1072 he was appointed master of 
 Trinity College, Cambridge, and in 1075 was 
 chosen vice-chancellor of the university. A 
 collected editioti of his theological works — ser- 
 mons, a Treatise on the Pope's Supremacy, an 
 Exposition of the Creed, etc. — appeared in Lon- 
 don, 1828, 3 vols., and was reprinted in New 
 York, 1846. A still better edition was published 
 at Cambridge, 1859, 8 vols. His sermons are 
 very elaborate aud exhaustive, but ponderous in 
 style. 
 
 BARROWE, Henry, a Congregational martyr, 
 hanged April 0, 1593; came of good family; was 
 called to the bar 1570, and for a time led a wild 
 life, but was converted, and in some way was 
 attracted to John Greenwood (see title), by whom 
 he was interested in church reform. Both these 
 men were influenced by Robert Browne (see title) 
 in the direction of Independency. When Green- 
 wood was arrested, Barrowe went to see him, and 
 was illegally arrested Nov. 19, 1586. He was 
 repeatedly examined bj' the ecclesiastical authori- 
 ties, and passed the remainder of his life in the 
 Fleet Prison. Together with Greenwood, he com- 
 posed several books and tracts, and alone wrote 
 an important work entitled A Brief Discovery of 
 the False Church, London, 1590. The final trial 
 of Greenwood and Barrowe was at the Old Bailey, 
 March 23, 1593. His alleged offences were, (1) 
 that he had written and published the Queen's 
 Majesty to be unbaptized; (2) That the state 
 was wholly corrupted, so that none that feared 
 God could live at peace therein ; and (3) that all 
 the people in the land were infidels. To these 
 charges he answered, that (1) he had defended 
 the Queen's baptism, though popish ; (2) He 
 meant by " corruption " the falsity of the estate 
 of the KstablishL-d Church, and contained "no 
 evil mind toward the state, laws, or judges;" 
 and (3) bj' the term "infidels" he meant men 
 destitute of the true taith ; aud, so far from con- 
 demning the whole nation, he had " reverend 
 estimation of sundry, and good hope of many 
 hundred thousands in the land," though he utter- 
 ly dislikcnl the system of church government then 
 in force. They were condemned ; and, after two 
 reprieves, they were hanged on April 0. Dr. Dex- 
 ter, in his ( 'on<;regatiiinalisnt as seen in its Literature, 
 New York, 1880 (pji. 211-245), gives a minute 
 account of the various examinations Barrowe 
 underwent, and also of the difference between 
 Barrowism and Brownism. 
 
 BARRUEL, Augustin, b. 1741 ; d. Oct. 5, 1820; 
 was profe.s.sor in the Jesuit College of Toulouse 
 when the oriler w-as sujipressed; went to Au.stria 
 and Italy; returned to France in 1774; wrote 
 with more bitterness than weight against the infi- 
 delity of the age in L'Aune'c Litteraire and Jour- 
 nal Ecctesiasliijuc ; published the Ilelve.tiennes, a 
 more systematic confut.ation, in 1785; fled in 
 1792 to England, where he published llistoire rtu 
 (.'leryr' de France pendant la Jie'voliilion (1791), 
 Memoirc sur Jacoliinisntc (1797), L'Ecantiile et le 
 Clerijii (181)0); returned in the latter year to 
 France, and published in 1803 Du Pajie et ses
 
 BARSUMA.S. 
 
 217 
 
 BARTHOLOMEW'S. 
 
 Droiln, which gave the Ultramontanes occasion to 
 say thiit Up had sold himself to Napoleon. 
 
 BARSUMAS, archimandrite, or abbot, of a 
 Syrian monastery; d. 4.'58; was a friend of 
 Eutyches, and defended him at the Robbers' 
 Synod at Epliesns (4 If)), at the head of a thoii- 
 sand rou^li and tnrluiliMit Syrian monks. He 
 took per.sonally part in the riot which caused the 
 death of the aged Flavian, I'atriarcli of Constan- 
 tinople; hut, when he i)resented him.self at the 
 Council of Chalcedon (151), he was refused admit- 
 tance, lie continued, however, to work for 
 Eutychianisni. 
 
 BARSUMAS, Bishop of Nisibis 4.35-489, was, 
 together with his adherents, banished from Edessa 
 on account of Nestorianism ; re-organized the 
 fugitive church under Persian protection, and 
 founded at Nisibis a theological school, which 
 became celebrated, both for its exegetical labors 
 in the spirit of Theodore of Mopsuestia, and for 
 its missionaries, who spread Nestorianism over 
 many points of Eastern Asia. In Persia, Nesto- 
 rianism was for a long time the only form of 
 Christianity tolerated. 
 
 BARTH, Christian Gottlob, b. in Stuttgart, 
 July 31, 1799; d. at Calw, Nov. 12, 1862; studied 
 theology at Tiibingen, 1817-21 ; became pastor 
 at Mbttlingen in 1824, but retired in 1838 to 
 Calw, and devoted himself entirely to the mis- 
 sionary cause. He founded the missionary soci- 
 ety of Wurtemberg, and brought it in active 
 co-operation with Basel and all the great mission- 
 ary societies of the Christian world. He wrote 
 some of the best German missionary hymns. 
 He edited the Calmer Missioiisblall, and a great 
 number of works of practical Christianity, 
 mostly designed for children and youths : Bih- 
 lische Geschichten ; Kircltengeschichte ; Jur/endbtat- 
 ter, a monthly ; Hamlbuch der Bibelerkldruny ; 
 Kindermissionshldtter ; some of which met with an 
 almost unparalleled success. K. Werner: G. 
 Earth, Calw, 186.5-69, 3 vols. See the article of 
 H. GuNDERT in Herzog. 
 
 BARTHOLEM/EUS DE MARTYRIBUS, b. in 
 Lisbon, 1.514; d. at Viana, 1590 ; received his sur- 
 name from the Church De Marltjribus, in which 
 he was baptized ; entered the order of the Do- 
 minicans in 1528; was for nearly twenty years a 
 teacher of theology and jihilosophy; and became 
 in 15.58 Archbishop of Braga, but was in 1582 
 allowed by Pope Gregory XIII. to resign his office, 
 and retire to the convent of Viana. He was an 
 enthusiastic and energetic reformer. Aa arch- 
 bishop, he carried through the severest reforms, 
 not only in his p>alace, but also '\n his diocese; 
 and in the Council of Trent he spoke of the 
 necessary reforms of the cardinals. He founded 
 ihe first theological seminary in Portugal, and 
 hospitals for the sick and the poor. He wrote 
 Compendium Vike Spirilualis ; Sti/indus Paslorum, 
 etc. His collected works appeared in Rome in 
 2 vols, fol., 1727, edited by Malachias d'lnguim- 
 bert. His life was written by De S.\cy, Paris, 
 1603. 
 
 BARTHOLMESS, Christian Jean Guillaume, 
 b. at Geisselbronn, in Alsace, Feb. 26, 1815; d. at 
 Strassburg, Aug. 31, 1856; studied at Pfortzliein 
 and Strassburg; lived for several years as a tutor 
 in a private family in Paris, and was in 1853 
 appointed professor iu the Protestant seminary 
 
 in Strassburg. He wrote, among other works, 
 
 Il'mlnire Crillque des Doclrines RelUjieuses de la 
 Philiisiiphie Mfiderne, 2 vols., 1855. 
 
 BARTHOLOMEW (sot, of Tahmii). one of the 
 twelve ajidstles (Matt. X. 3; Mark lii. 18; Luke 
 vi. 14; Acts i. 13), but no account in New Tes- 
 tament is given of his work. Eu.sebius and Jer- 
 ome relate that Panta>nu.s, a Christian missionary 
 of the second century, found in India the (io.spel 
 of Matthew written in Hebrew, which had been 
 left there by Bartholomew. The apostle is .said 
 to hav(^ preached in other parts of Asia, and at 
 last to have been flayed alive, and then crucified, 
 head dnwnwards, at Albanopolis in Armenia. 
 His corpse was miraculously convej'ed to the 
 island of Lipari, near the northern coast of Sicily, 
 from there to Benevento in Southern Italy, and 
 in A.I). 983 to Rome. St. Bartholomew's Day 
 is celebrated Aug. 24 (25 in Rome). Bartholo- 
 mew is almost certainly identical with Nathanael. 
 The proof of this: (1) Pliilip and Nathanael are 
 associated together by John, even as Philip and 
 Bartholomew are in the parallel passages of the 
 Synoptics ; (2) Bartholomew is not mentioned in 
 John's list of the twelve (xxi. 2), but Nathanael 
 is; while the Synoptics do not mention Nathanael 
 in their lists, but do Bartholomew. It is there- 
 fore likely that he had two names, as so many 
 others did. In John's Gospel our Lord extols 
 Nathanael as "an Israelite indeed, in whom is 
 no guile" (i. 47). K. SCHMIDT. 
 
 BARTHOLOMEW'S DAY, The Massacre of St., 
 Aug. 24, 1.572. On .\iig. 18 the wedding took 
 place in Paris of Henri of Beam, King of Navarre, 
 the head of the Huguenot party, and Margaret 
 of Valois, a sister to Charles IX., and daughter 
 of Catherine de Medici. On this occasion a great 
 number of Huguenot noblemen had assembled in 
 Paris, and the impression which they made on the 
 court and the populace seems to have been one 
 of mingled hatred and fear. An incident added 
 to the general threatening state of the situation. 
 By a freak of his fickle mind, Charles IX. seemed 
 to have thrown himself into the arms of Admiral 
 Coligny, and prepared to make front against the 
 dowager-queen, his mother, the Duke of Anjou, 
 his brother, and the party of the Guises. In view 
 of this danger, the idea of Catherine, which she 
 had often hinted at to her two sons, and repeat- 
 edly intimated to tlie papal legate and the am- 
 bassador of Philip II., — namely, to kill all the 
 Huguenots, — suddenly ripened. At three o'clock 
 in the morning of Aug. 24 Admiral Coligny was 
 murdered in his house, and his body was thrown 
 out of the window. He had been wounded on 
 Friday, Aug. 22, and was sick in bed. Then the 
 tocsin of Saint-Germain-l'Auxerrois was sounded, 
 and the general massacre began. The retinue of 
 the bridegroom, lodged in the Louvre, was slain 
 in the courtyard. All over the city, the houses 
 of the Huguenots were ransacked and pillaged 
 and fired, and the inmates were drawn down into 
 the street to be slaughtered. Those who at- 
 tempted to flee were pursued, and hunted like 
 game. The king stood himself, and fired from a 
 window in the palace. Between five and six 
 thousand persons w^ere thus killed in Paris; and 
 by royal order the same scenes were enacted in 
 all the great cities of France, — Orleans, Bourges, 
 Troyes, Lyons, Rouen, and Toulouse. In all>
 
 BARTHOLOMITES. 
 
 218 
 
 BASEL. 
 
 about thirty thousand persons were murdered. 
 As soon a.= the news was received in Rome, the 
 cannons of St. Augelo were fired, a solemn Te 
 Deum was sung, and the Pope struck a medal 
 bearing on the one side his own portrait, and on 
 the other a picture rudely representing the massa- 
 cre. Roman-Catholic writers defend the Pope 
 on the ground of ignorance ; but it took, at all 
 events, some time to make the medals. See 
 CoLiGXY, Huguenots. 
 
 Lit. — Recent works : IIe.vky White : Tlic 
 Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, N. Y., 1868; Hexry 
 M. B.\ird: Rise of the Huguenots of France, N.Y., 
 187S) ; II. AVi'ttke : Zur Voryeschichte der Bar- 
 iholomausnacht, Leip., 1879 ; Herm.\xn Baumg.\r- 
 TEx; \'or (ler Barlholomdusnacht, Strassb., 1882. 
 
 BARTHOLOMITES. — I. In 1307 some Basi- 
 lian monks from Arinenia fled from their native 
 country on account of persecutions, and settled in 
 Genoa, where they bought a liouse, and the next 
 year erected a church dedicated to St. Bartholo- 
 mew. They were joined by other members of 
 their order; and Clement V. authorized them to 
 celebrate divine service according to their rites. 
 Gradually, however, they left their rules, and be- 
 came incorporated with other orders. In 1650 
 Innocent X. suppressed the order altogether. — 
 II. A congregation of secular priests, founded by 
 Bartholomeus Ilolzhauser in Salzburg (1613-58) 
 for the purpose of preaching and teaching. In- 
 nocent XI. confirmed their constitution in 1680; 
 and they spread rapidly iu Germany, Switzer- 
 land, Hungary, and Poland. The Emperor Leo- 
 pold, ordered that they should always be preferred 
 to vacant benefices in his hereditary possessions. 
 A peculiarity of their constitution was that they 
 never worked alone, but always two and two to- 
 gether. In spite of the zeal with which the order 
 started into life, it became extinct in the eigh- 
 teenth ceutury. 
 
 BARTOLI, Daniel, b. at Ferrara, 1608; d. in 
 Rome. 1685; entered the Society of Jesus in 1623; 
 was a distinguished preacher and teacher of rhet- 
 oric, and wrote, besides other works, the liistory 
 of liis order, htoria delta Conijtaf/nia di. Gesu, in 6 
 vols, fob, Rome, 1653-73, of which especially 
 the parts containing the hi.story of the society in 
 Asia are rejilete with curious infornuition. Ilis 
 collected works were published in 12 vols, by 
 Marietti, Turin, 1825. 
 
 BARTON, Elizabeth, a servant-girl .at an iini 
 at Aldiugtf)!!, Kent, accjuirod a reputation iu tlio 
 neighborhood as a proplietess ; and just as the 
 excitement produced throughmit all Kngland by 
 the attempts of Henry VIII to obtain a divorce 
 from Catherine was at its liighest, the "Holy 
 Maid of Kent,'' as Klizabeth was generally called, 
 had some visions which plainly revealed the di- 
 vine displeasure at the royal plans The party 
 of the queen, especially th<! clergy, was not slow- 
 in utilizing this inciilent. The chapel of .Vlding- 
 ton witnessed very strange scenes, and the Holy 
 Maid became an iinjiortant argument. Hut in 
 1533 the king brought Elizabeth and her chief 
 supporters, among whom were five luiesls, before 
 Parliament. They were examined, and sentenced 
 to diath; and Elizabeth was belieaded at Tyburn, 
 Ajiril .Jl, l.-)31. 
 
 BA'RUCH (Messed), the son of Neriah, friend 
 and faithful companion of tlie propliet Jeremiah, 
 
 whose secretary (amanuensis) he was (Jer. xxxii. 
 12, xxxvi. 4, 17 sq., 27, 32, xiv. 1 sq.), and whose 
 sufferings he shared. See Jeremiah. Baruch 
 was accused by the princes, after Nebuchadnez- 
 zar's capture of Jerusalem, of influencing Jere- 
 miah in favor of the Chalda;ans (Jer. xliii. 3) ; 
 accordingly he was thrown into prison, whence he 
 was released at Jeremiah's request (Joseph. Antlij. 
 X. 9, 1). He accompanied Jeremiah into Egypt 
 (Jer. xliii. 6). Xothing further is known about 
 his fate. 
 
 BA'RUCH, Apocalypsis of. See Psetjdepi- 
 
 GRAPHS OF the OlD Te.STAMEXT. 
 
 BA'RUCH, Book of. See Apocrypha of the 
 Old Testa.mext. 
 
 BARZIL'LAI (of iron, i.e., sfrone/) of Rogelim, 
 in the land of Gilead, gave timely material aid 
 to King David when lie was flying from Absa- 
 lom ; and on David's victorious return he re 
 fused the offer of official position the thankfui 
 king made him, and recommended his son Chim- 
 ham in his stead (2 Sam. xvii. 27-29, xix. 33, 
 37, 40). David remembered the family of Bar- 
 zillai upon his death-bed (1 Kings ii. 7), and 
 charged Solomon to provide for them. 
 
 BASCOM, Henry Bidleman, b. at Hancock, 
 N. v., May 27, 1700 . d. at Louisville, Ky., Sept. 8, 
 18.50; began to preach iu 1813; was appointed 
 chaplain to Congress in 1823, president of Madi- 
 son College, Pennsylvania, 1827, jirofessor of 
 morals in Augusta College, 1832, president of 
 Transylvania University, 1842, and bishop of the 
 Methodist-Episcopal Church .South in 1850. He 
 edited the Qnarlerli/ lierietr of the Methodist- 
 Episcopal Church from 1846 to 1850; published 
 two volumes of sermons, 1849-50, and lectures 
 on " Infidelity," "Moral Science," etc. His col- 
 lected works appeared at Nashville, 1856, in four 
 volumes. His life was written by Dr. Henkle, 
 Nashville, 1854 
 
 BASEDOW, Johannes Bernhard, b. in Ham- 
 burg, .Sept. 11, 1723; d. at Magdeburg .Inly 25, 
 1790; studied theology at Leipzig; was tutor to 
 a noble family in Holstein, 1749-53; professor at 
 the Academy of .Soro in Denmark, 1753-61, and 
 professor at the gymnasium in .Mtona, 1761-68. 
 While in Altona, he published a number of theo- 
 logical works, — l'liil(dethiii, Theorelisrhes S;/stem 
 der (/esunden Vernunft, \'ersiirh einer fniniiilhif/en 
 Doymatik, etc., — which belong among thi^ flattest 
 and coarsest, but also among the most amusing, 
 specimens of German rationalism. By Rous- 
 seau's Eniite he was drawn away from theology, 
 and in 1768 he set out to beconu> the Columbus 
 of pedagogy; .and tiiough in this field, too, he 
 gave ample evidence that lie was personally a 
 mere charl.atan, he had some good ideas, and gave 
 the first impulse to a most necessary educational 
 reform. The character, however, of Hat and ooarse 
 rationalism, never left him, and marred his peda- 
 gogical sj^sti'in in all its details. 
 
 BASEL, Confession of. The Confession of 
 Ba.sel was first fornnilated by (Eoolampadius .as 
 [lartof a speech with which he opened the synod 
 of Basel in September, 1531. After his death it 
 was further elaborated by iMyconius, and jiromul- 
 gated Jan. 21, 1531, when all citizens wen' sum- 
 moned to meet in the guildhonsi's, and hear it, 
 and declare whether tliey were prepared to accept 
 it. and stake honor, property, and body on iU
 
 BASEL. 
 
 219 
 
 BASEL. 
 
 deEcMice. It is simple and moderate, occupying 
 ail intermediate position between Lutlier and 
 Zwiiigli. Tlie first Helvetic Confession is often 
 called the Second Confession of Basel, because it 
 was written in, not for, Basel. See Sciiaff : 
 Cri'iils iif Cliristtiudom, vol. I. 385 S(l(]. 
 
 BASEL, Council of, Au?. 27, 1431-May 7, 
 1449. 'I'lie Pope, Martin V., bad succeeded in 
 dissolving the Council of Siena (July 2, 1423- 
 Marcb 7, 1424) Viefore it had got fairly to work. 
 Ill s]iite of this disappoiiitinent. the dctnaiid for 
 a new council convened outside of Italy became 
 louder and louder, especially at the courts and in 
 the universities; and political troubles finally 
 deteriniiied Martin V. to Lssue a bull convoking 
 an ecumenical council at Basel. He died shortly 
 after: but his successor, Eugene IV'., was com- 
 pelled to confirm the bull; .and Aug. 27, 1431, 
 the council was opened by Johannes Paloniar and 
 Johannes of Ragnsa. So little confidence, how- 
 ever, had people in the sincerity of the papal 
 government, that only a very small number of 
 prelates accepted the invitation ; and it was not 
 until Cardinal Cesarini had arrived, accompanied 
 by Nicolaus Cusanus, and the Roman king, Sigis- 
 niund, sent a protector in the name of the realm, 
 that the interest became serious and general. 
 The order of business on which the assembly 
 ■agreed Sept. 26, 1431, was good. The old group- 
 ing of the members according to nationality was 
 di.scarded ; and four committees were formed, on 
 matters of faith, political affairs, ecclesiastical 
 reforms, and general business. These committees 
 <liscussed separately; and the agreement of three 
 of them was necessary to bring a question before 
 a general session, over which Cardinal Cesarini 
 presided, and make it a decree of the council. 
 As soon, however, as the assembly was fairly 
 constituted, and began to work, the papal govern- 
 ment felt that it was a power, and a hostile power. 
 'J'he Pope was afraid, and Dec. IS, 1431, he sent 
 -a bull to Cardinal Cesarini dissolving the assem- 
 bly. The Council protested, declaring that the 
 Pope had no power to do such a thing. April 29, 
 1432, the Pope and his cardinals were invited to 
 come to the council. Sept. 6, when they had not 
 come, a process was instituted against them for 
 contumacy ; and the deposition of Eugene IV. 
 would probably have followed very quickly, but 
 for the mediation of the Emperor Sigismund, who 
 had arrived at Basel on Oct. 11. 
 
 ' The three great questions which the Council 
 had to solve were the Bohemian here.sy, the 
 ecclesiastical reform, and the reconciliation be- 
 tween the Greek and tke Rotnan churches. Jan. 
 4, 1433, Procopius, Rokyczana, etc., rode into 
 Basel ; and their proud and fierce mien overawed 
 not only the council, but the city itself. By the 
 unexpected affability and blandness of the cardi- 
 nals, a kind of reconciliation was brought about. 
 The use of the cup in the celebration of the Lord's 
 Supper was granted. With respect to the ques- 
 tion of ecclesiastical reform, the cardinals were 
 not so ready to make concessions. But it mu.st 
 not be overlooked, that the measures which the 
 Council proposed June, 143.5, were dictated by 
 hatred to the curia, rather than by enthusiasm for 
 the church. The concubinate of the priests, the 
 abuses which prevailed in the monasteries, the 
 abolition of the frivolous dramatic representations 
 
 in the churches, and other questions of a purely 
 moral bearing, were evidently not treated with 
 the same zeal as those rfdating to the financial 
 and political position of the Pope and the curia, 
 — the annates, the pallium-iiioney, the tax on the 
 papal (■(Jiifirmation (jf ecclesiastical promotion, 
 tiu' judicial authority (if th<' Pope, etc. The Pope, 
 the cardinals, and the whole army of officials 
 which liveil in Rome on revenues derived in this 
 way, felt tlieir very existence threatened, and 
 ottered the most determined resistance. Finally 
 the question of the union of the (In^ek and Roman 
 Church brought about a complete breach. John 
 Palaaologus had addressed himself to both the 
 Pope and to the Council, aiul both wished to treat 
 the case separately and independently. Political 
 interests of considerable importance were mixed 
 up with the question; and the passions at last 
 grew so hot, that in the session of March 7, 1437, 
 the fathers of the council were prevented from 
 coming to blows only by the interference of the 
 burghers of the city. Cardinal Cesarini and the 
 whole papal party now left the assembly, which 
 from this moment fell under the sway of Cardinal 
 Louis d'AUemand, Archbishop of Aries, — one of 
 Rome's bitterest enemies, — and became more 
 and more democratic and tumultuous. 
 
 In July, 1437, the process against Eugene IV. 
 was re-opened. Jan. 24, 1438, he was suspended, 
 and June 25, 1439, he was deposed. Nov. 5, 
 same year, his successor was elected, Felix V., 
 who took up his residence at Lausanne. The dif- 
 ficulty, however, was to enforce these acts. Eu- 
 gene IV., who designated the Fathers assembled 
 at Basel as a band belonging to Satan, convened 
 a counter-council at Ferrara, at which the Em- 
 peror and the Patriarch of Constantinople were 
 present. In France, the synod of Bourges (1438) 
 incorporated the decrees of the Council of Basel 
 with the laws of the kingdom, the .so-called prag- 
 matical sanction ; but the King himself, Charles 
 VII., still acknowledged Eugene IV. as the true 
 successor of Peter. Germany followed in the 
 same track, though without binding itself by 
 any formal acknowledgment of either the Council 
 of Basel or Eugene IV. Felix V. was not recog- 
 nized by any but the Swiss, and the Duke of Ba- 
 varia. His overtures to Friedrich III. entirely 
 failed In course of time it became apparent 
 that the contest between the Council and the Pope 
 would be decided by Germany; and Eugene IV. 
 proved to be a better diplomate than the Fathers 
 at Basel. He bribed the chancellor of the empire, 
 Schlick, and the secretary, .Sneas Sylvius, and 
 on Feb. 7, 1447, Germany declared for Eugene. 
 Rome was victorious. Felix V. resigned; and, 
 when Eugene IV. shortly after died, the Council 
 recognized his successor Nicolas V. , and decreed 
 its own dissolution, April 25, 1449, thereby mak- 
 ing it almost evident that a reform of the church 
 in the way of peaceable development was an im- 
 possibility. 
 
 Lit. — ..Eneas Sylvius: Comm.de Gest. Concil. 
 Basil, written in 1440, and first published in 1.521, 
 afterward often ; Mansi : Concil. Culleclio, Tom. 
 XXIX. -XXXI. ; Wessexbekg : Diegrossen Kirch- 
 enversammlungen des 15 u/ul 16 Jahrhundert, vol. 
 II.; Hefele : Concilien-geschiclilc, vol. VII. 
 AscHBACU : Kaiser Sigmund, Hamburg, 1845; 
 G. VoiGT : -"'iw //., Berlin, ISotJ. a- VOICjt
 
 BASHAN. 
 
 220 
 
 BASIL. 
 
 BA'SHAN (the fruilful), the country of the 
 Rephaim, giants (Gen. xiv. 5), and of Og the 
 Amorite. who opposed Israel, but was defeated 
 and slain (Num. xxi. 33, xxxii. 33). 
 
 Hixlori/. — It was the northern part of the East 
 Jordan country: and it extended from "the bor- 
 der of Gilead" (i.e., the Jabbok) on the south, 
 to Jlount Hernion on the north, and from the 
 Arabah, or Jordan Valley, on the west, to .Salchah 
 ainl the borders of the Geshurites and the 
 Mllicathites on the east. It was assigned to the 
 half-tribe of JIanasseh together with half of 
 Gilead. The cities are described by Moses as 
 '•fenced with high walls, gates, and bars" 
 (Dent. iii. 5). The land seems to have been 
 thickly populated and highly cultivated. In 
 Jehu's time Ilazael robbed Israel of their East 
 Jordan possessions (2 Kings x. 33) ; but in Jero- 
 boam II. 's time they were regained (2 Kings xiv. 
 2.5). Pul and Tiglath-pileser successively over- 
 ran the country, and the latter carried its inhab- 
 itants, with those of West Joi'danic Israel, into 
 captivity (2 Kings xv. 19, 29). From this time, 
 Syrian and Arabian tribes have populated 
 Bashan. In the confusion consequent upon the 
 death of Alexander the (Jreat, IJashan, or, as it 
 is almost always called in Helirew, the Bashan, 
 suffered severelj'; for its possession was an object 
 of continual contest. " Idumajan princes, Na- 
 bathean kings, .-Vrab chiefs, ruled in their turn." 
 It was divided into four provinces, — Gaulanitis 
 (^Jaulan). Auranitis (Hainan), Trachonitis (Lr- 
 jah). and Batana?a {Bnshan). -Augustus gave 
 the three last provinces to Herod the Great about 
 B.C. 20 (Joseph., Aniiq. xv. 10, 1). and they 
 passed to his son Philip; later Herod Agrippa 
 II. received from Claudius this territory, and 
 Abilene beside (.Vntiq. xx. 7, 1). A new era 
 opened for the country, when, about the second 
 Christian century, the region of Yemen (South 
 Arabia) being overpeopled, several tribes sent 
 out colonies to the Bashan. Tliese were wel- 
 comed by the Romans, because they were orderly 
 and sedentary ; and they formed a barrier against 
 robber tribes. It is said that these colonists wei'e 
 Christians. But after the first colonists (Seli- 
 hides) came others, al.so Christians (Jefnides or 
 Ghassanides) ; and the latter dispossessed the 
 former, and for nearly five centuries were tlie 
 ruling race; but at length, not being properly 
 supported by the Greeks, they succumbed to the 
 horde of Mohammedan Arans in the year 037. 
 The former prosjierity has never returned. 
 
 The Land. — Its productiveness was remarka- 
 ble, and is mentioned frequently in the Old Tes- 
 tament (Ps. xxii. 12, ii. 13; ,Jer. 1. 19). The 
 western part to-day retains its fertility. On the 
 east rise the beautiful Hauran Mountains to a 
 height of six thousand feet. The soil of the 
 western part is chalky ; and the evergreen oaks, 
 figs, and [listacio-trees, and the luxuriant grass, 
 continue to attest its richness. In the Hauran 
 the soil is basalt and lava, but equally rich. The 
 climate of the talile-land of the Hauran, lying 
 upwards of two tliousand feet above sea-level, is 
 very healthy; and in the afternoon the heat is 
 temjiereil by a refresliing west wind. The semi- 
 transparent wheat is here said to yield eighty- 
 fold, and barley a hundred; but drouglit or locusts 
 occasionally destroy the crop. Rye, barley, and 
 
 oats frequently are found growing wild; but they 
 are quite diffi-rcnl from the cultivated varieties. 
 No trees grow on the table-land. There are no- 
 meadows. The cattle are fed on barley. — [The 
 Hauran in the wider sense is now bounded on 
 the north by the Wady-el-Ajrm, belonging to 
 Damascus, and on the south by the Belka and 
 the steppe of Hamad. Toward the north-east, 
 and beyond the " Meadow Lakes,"' extends a 
 remarkable district, consisting of a series of 
 extinct craters, in the centre of which is the 
 Safa, a long and broad lava I'ange, with the ruins 
 of the "White Castle." To the south and east 
 of this lies the Harras. an undulating plain en- 
 tirely covered with fragments of lav.a, — a dreary 
 wilderness.] Ancient Bashan had two capital 
 cities, Astaroth or Ashteroth. Karnaim, and Edrei 
 (Gen. xiv. .5; Num. xxi. 33; Deut. i. 4, etc.). 
 Edrei has been identified with Der'at, which is 
 even now well filled and walled (during the 
 Christian period it was the .seat of a bishop) ; 
 and Ashtai'oth with Busroh, the Bostra of the 
 Latins. 
 
 The A nliijuities and Modern Inhahilants. — It is 
 when we contemplate Bashan as a land of ruins, 
 and study these remains, that the unique charac- 
 ter of this land comes out. There are houses, 
 not improbably many centuries old, uninhabited, 
 and yet as perfect as when made. There every 
 thing is of stone: doors, gates, windows, stairs, 
 galleries, cupiboai'ds, benches, even candlesticks, 
 — all are stone. The reason for this curious 
 state of things is the entire absence of wood. 
 Nor are these buildings all defective in taste. 
 On the contrary, many of the linildings are really 
 fine; e.g., at Kanawat there are many sculp- 
 tures and beautiful houses, and above all a little 
 (ruined) temple, standing on an eminence in the 
 middle of a small valley, .and surrounded by 
 vegetation. But besides it there is a theatre, a 
 tower, and other public and private buildings. 
 Ruins lie scattered in every direction, attesting 
 the present distress and the former grandeur. 
 Many travellers would visit this interesting re- 
 gion, if it were not for the perpetual feuds of the- 
 different tribes, which renders travelling unsafe. 
 For several centuries, the Druses have colonized 
 the Hauran Mountains, so that the district is 
 sometimes called the Druse Mountains. 
 
 Lit. — PouTHK : Fire IVdr.v in Damascus, Lon- 
 don, 1855, and (Jianl Cities of' Jlashan, and Si/ria's 
 JIo/i/ Places, London, 1800; Wkt/.stkin : /leise- 
 hcriclit iiher den Hauran u. die Trachonen. Berlin, 
 1800; BruroN .\Ni) Drakk : Unexplored Si/ria,. 
 London, 1H72. Fll. \V. 8CHULTZ. 
 
 BASIL, a physician, was jilaced in the episco- 
 pal cliair of Ancyra by the Eusebian jiarty, 336, 
 and vindicated himself in the see, though his- 
 ordination was annulled by tlie Council of Sar- 
 dica, 347. He was thi' he;id of the Semi-arian 
 party, and defended the views of the party against 
 both the Eudoxians an<i the Acacians, but was 
 finally deposed by the Arians in 300. His book 
 against Marcellus, as well as another work by 
 him, De ]'iriiinilale, have been lost. 
 
 BASIL, liishopof .Seleucia in Isauria, voted in 
 the Eutychian controversy against Eutyches at 
 the .synoil of ('onstantino|i|e (448), but for him, 
 at the Robbers' synod of Ephesus (449), and was, 
 on account of this inconsistency, deposed by the-
 
 BASIL. 
 
 221 
 
 BASILIANS. 
 
 syiKxl of Clialcfdon (451), but was re-instated 
 when he ilcchiriil that he had votml iiinler com- 
 jnilsiou at Kjihesns. Forty homilies liy him, and 
 a worlc on St. Thecla (prolialily simrious), are 
 extant, and have been printed at lleidelljerg, 
 l.jOli and ICO."), an.l in I'ari.s, l(iL'2. 
 
 BASIL THE GREAT, li. at (\-csarea in Cappa- 
 docia, about 330, d. tliere Jan. 1, 370, stands 
 l)etvveen his older friend, Grejjory Nazianzen, and 
 his yoimger brother, (iregory of Nyssa, as tlie 
 central leaflet of that Cappadocian triple-clover 
 which marks the final completion and consolida- 
 tion of tlie theology of the (ireek C'hurcli. Me 
 grew up at Annesi, an estate belonging to tlie 
 family, situated on the River Iris in Pontus. 
 Afterwards he stndied philosophy and rhetoric 
 luider Lilianius in Constantinople, and under 
 Hinierius in Atliens, in coin])an3' with Gregory 
 Nazianzen and Emperor Julian. Tlie alterna- 
 tive wdiich at that period presented itself to 
 every strong and sincere mind in the higher walks 
 of life, the clioice between Greek philosophy, 
 with its a;sthetic splendor, with its opportuni- 
 ties for a brilliant career, with its utter insuffi- 
 ciency for a hungering soul, and Christian asceti- 
 cism, with its daily combats, and a victory which 
 nobody saw, with its perpetual misery, and a 
 peace and power which found only a little private 
 praise, but no public recognition, — tliis dilemma, 
 on which the pjiiiperor Julian wrecked his life, 
 seems to have solved itself very quickly for Basil. 
 He admired Libanius, and he admired Antonius ; 
 but lie never seems to have hesitated in choosing 
 the latter. In 357 he left Athens, and staid for 
 some time at Annesi, where his widowed mother 
 and his elder sister, Macrina, lived a life of 
 severe asceticism. At this period he probably 
 received the Christian baptism. He then set out 
 ■on a visit to the most famous hermits of Syria, 
 Palestine, and Egypt; and on his return home he 
 divided his property among the poor, retired to a 
 wild mountain tract on the Iris, opposite Annesi, 
 formed a little community of hermits, and gave 
 this community its rules of life. The organiza- 
 tion of monasticism had already begun in these 
 regions, under the leadership of Eustathius of 
 Sebaste, a friend of Basil ; but here, as in so 
 many other points, the latter sliowed himself a 
 man who held all the instincts of his age living 
 in his own bosom. His rules were so exactly that 
 which was wanted, that eventually they alone 
 reigned througliout the Greek Church. As yet 
 his interest for dogmatic questions .seems to have 
 been slumbering. He was present in Constanti- 
 nople in 360, and heard the debates between 
 Eustathius and Eunomius; but he listened only. 
 Gradually, however, he emerged from that great 
 middle party, to wliich he originally belonged, 
 the Homoiousians, standing midways between 
 Arianism and Orthodoxy ; and it afterwards 
 became his great task to draw this great but 
 somewhat inert mass over to the Orthodox side. 
 In 364 he was called to active participation in 
 the work of tlie Church, and ordained presbyter 
 of Caesarea by Bishop Eusebius; and .so great 
 was his practical talent, tliat in a very sliort 
 time he became the real leader of the whole con- 
 gregation. After the death of Eusebius (370), lie 
 was elected bishop, though not without opposi- 
 tion. The first great task which devolved upon 
 
 liim was the sui>pression of Arianism. On his 
 procession through Asia Minor, the Emperor 
 Valens enforced Arianism wlierever he came. 
 \V'lien he arrived in Capjiadocia, however, Basil 
 made such an impression upon him, that not only 
 was no violence attempted, but the bi.shop was 
 allowed to remain unmolested in his office. The 
 seconil great problem of his life was the recon- 
 ciliation between the Greek and Roman cliurches. 
 Many agencies had been at work in producing 
 the breach; and fresh elements of discord were 
 added every day. Just now it was the question 
 of the procession of the Holy Spirit, concerning 
 wliicli IJasil wrote one of his princijial works, 
 De Spiritu Siiiifia Am/ihilochnim. Nor did lie live 
 to see the question .settled. At the same time he 
 had his hands full with controversies nearer at 
 home, especially with Eunomius, against whom 
 he wrote his celebrated Libri wlri'rsu.f Eummiium 
 V. His position was so difficult, tliat when, in 
 one of the last years of his life, he went to visit 
 his brother Petrus, in the neighborhood of Neo-cse- 
 sarea in Poiitus, tlie residence of Atarbius. tlie 
 whole city was in commotion on account of his 
 presence. 
 
 Lit. ^ The works of Basil, dogmatical, exe- 
 getical, liturgical, ascetic, and a number of very 
 interesting letters, were first printed in Basel, 
 1532. The best edition is that by ,1. Garnier, 
 Paris, 1721-30, 3 vols, folio, reprinted liy Migue. 
 With respect to his life, see the eulogies by 
 Gregory Nazianzen, Gregory of Nyssa, and 
 Ephraim Syrus ; A. Jahn: Btisilius Plotinizans, 
 Bern, 1838; DiiRGENS : Basilius und die classischeii 
 Studien, Leipzig, 1857; Euo. Fialon: Elude 
 hist, et tin. sur St. Basile, Paris, 1866; R. F. 
 Smith : Basil (" The Fathers for English Read- 
 ers," S. P. C. K. Soc), London, 1881. See also 
 Schaff: Church Iliston/, III. 894. 
 
 BASILIANS. What Benedict of Nursia after- 
 wards became for the Western Church, Basil was 
 for the Eastern Church, — the organizer of the 
 monastic" life. Monasticism was well known in 
 Asia Alinor at the time of Basil ; in Poutus and 
 Cappadocia it had been introduced by Eustathius 
 of Sebaste ; but in the form of cenobitism it was 
 entirely unknown. This progress in its develop- 
 ment it owed entirely to Basil. He understood 
 that most of the graces of Christianity are im- 
 possible ill a solitary life; for " whose feet wilt 
 thou wash, whom wilt thou serve, how canst thou 
 be the last of all, when thou art alone? " Going 
 out from this principle, he founded in the middle 
 of tlie fourth century the first monastic commu- 
 nity on the Iris in Pontus, opposite his home, 
 Amiesi. The rules which he gave this community 
 connected active industry and devotional exer- 
 cises ill regular successions, day and night, — 
 one meal a day, consisting of bread and water; 
 very little sleep during the hours before mid- 
 night; prayers and singing, morning, noon, and 
 evening; work in the field during forenoon and 
 afternoon, etc. These rules were further devel- 
 oped and completed by his ascetical writings. 
 The institution prospered; and similar institutions 
 sprang up, in extremely short time, in other places 
 of Pontus and Cappadocia, whence tliey spread far 
 into Westeru Europe. After the separation be- 
 tween the Eastern and 'Western churches, Basil's 
 rules became almost the exclusive regulation of
 
 BASILICA. 
 
 BATH. 
 
 monastic life in the Eastern Church : so that a 
 " Basilian " simply nieans a monk of the Greek 
 Church. In the Western Church the rules of 
 Basil were afterwards completely superseded by 
 those of Benedict of Xursia. Nevertheless, Ba- 
 silian monasteries, acknowledging the supremacy 
 of the Pope, are still lingering in Sicily and in 
 the .Slavonian countries. 
 
 BASILICA. See Architf-cture, Christian'. 
 
 BASILIDES, a famous Gnostic who lived in 
 Egypt in tlie first half of the second century (d. 
 between 12.5 and 130), and to whom we are in- 
 debted for the oldest testimony to the Gospel of 
 John. He quoted the passages, " The true light, 
 ■which enlighteneth every m.an. was coming into 
 the world," and ''My hour is not yet come." 
 See .\bbot, Authorship nf the Fourth Gospel, pp. 
 83-87. Of his works, and those of his son and 
 pupil Isidorus, only a few extracts have come 
 down to us in the Phuosophoumena of nip)polytns. 
 VII., 1-i sq., and in the disputations between 
 Archelaus of Kaskar and Maui, written in Egypt 
 in the beginning of the fourth century (Z.\cag- 
 NUS : Colled. Monument. Veter.). Of his system 
 there are two contradictory accounts, — one by 
 Irenseus, Adv. Heer., I. 24, and Epiphanius, If(er. 
 21 ; and another by Hippolytus and Clemens 
 Alexandrinus in his Stromata. .The former bases 
 the system on a dualistic principle, — even on a 
 very strongly pronounced Persian-looking dual- 
 ism : the latter describes it as monistic, with a 
 preponderance of Greek, more especially Stoic 
 elements, and with a tint of pantheism. The 
 latter agrees best with tke fragments, and is the 
 generally accepted one ; though the former corre- 
 sponds well with the sect such as it lived on in 
 Egypt until the fifth century, with its frivolous 
 morals, its inclination to magic, its Abraxas- 
 symbols, etc. See the article Gnosticism, and 
 Baur : Die chri.^tliche Gnosis, Tiibingen, 1831 ; 
 Jakobi : Ba.<:ilides, Berlin, 1832; Uhlhorn: Sys- 
 tem d. BcLtilides, 1855; P. IIofstede de Groot : 
 Basilides, Leipzig, 1868. See Gnosticism. 
 
 BASNAGE, Benjamin, b. at Carentan, 1580; d. 
 1652; pastor at Carentan, Normandy; played a 
 conspicuous part in the synods of Charenton 
 (1631), -Men^on (1637), etc., and exercised a con- 
 siderable influence on the Protestant Church of 
 France. Among other polenncal tracts he wrote, 
 De I' Etal risihlc et invisiUc de I' Erjli.'ie, La Kochelle, 
 1612, against the doctrine of a purgatory. — 
 Jacques Basnage, b. at llouen, 1653; d. at the 
 Hague, Dec. 22, 1723 ; studied theology at .Sau- 
 mur, Geneva, and .Sedan ; was pastor at Rouen ; 
 retired in 1085 to Holland, and was pastor first at 
 Rotterdam, and then, since 1700, at the Hague. 
 He was a powerful i>re.icher, and published, wlien 
 in 1720 a Protestant rising was feared in France, 
 a most impressive admonition to his co-religion- 
 ists, In.ttruction Pastorale, to keep quiet, and avoid 
 all disturbances. Still greater fame he acquircMl 
 as adipioinate. He sat in the conference of (ier- 
 truydenberg; and when, in 1716, the Regent of 
 France, the Duke of Orleans, sent Abbe Dubois 
 to Holland to negotiate the triple alliance, he 
 instructed him to seek and follow the advice of 
 Basnage. To the after-world, however, he is jirin- 
 cipally known as a scholar and an author. His 
 writings are partly historical, partly jjolemical. 
 He was historiographer of Holland, and wrote, 
 
 Annales des Prorinces-Uniis, 2 vols, fol., the 
 Hague, 1719-26. an excellent work. But his 
 principal works in this line are : Hisloire de la 
 Religion des Er/lises lic'f'ormc'es, Rotterdam, 1690 ; 
 Histoire de I'Eglise depuis J. C. jiusiju'cl present, 
 Rotterdam, 1699 ; Hiistoire des Juifs depuis J. C. 
 jusqu'a present, Rotterdam, 1706. Noticeable 
 among his piolemical writings are, Examen des 
 Me'thodes . . . du^Clerge' de Prance, Cologne, H)S2; 
 Reponse a M. I'Eceque de Meau.r, Cologne, 1686; 
 directed against Bossuet. — Samuel Basnage, b. 
 at Bayeux, 1638; d. as pastor at Ziitphen, 1721; 
 was first j^astor at Baj'eux, but fled in 1685 to 
 Holland. His E.cercitationes Historico-Crlticie de 
 Reims Sacris el Ecclesiasticit, Utrecht (1692), is a 
 spirited criticism of the .\nnals of Baronius from 
 35, at which year Casaubon stopped, to H. He 
 also wrote other historical and moral works. He 
 was the grand.son of Benjamin Basnage. 
 
 BASTHOLM, Christian, b. in Copenh.agen, Nov. 
 2, 17-10; d. there Jan. 2.5, 1819; was court-preach- 
 er, confessor to the king, the most admired orator 
 of his time, and the most striking instance of 
 rationalism in the history of the Danish Church ; 
 gifted, versatile, superficial, the rage of the day, 
 and a scarecrow for afterdays. He rose and fell 
 with the times. In 1775 he published a Sacred 
 Rhetoric, which was transhxted into German, and 
 by Joseph H. introduced as a text-book in all 
 Austrian seminaries, and in which he gave very 
 minute advice with respect to the raising of the 
 eyes, the folding of the hands, etc., and especially 
 warned preachers against chewing tobacco, be- 
 cause it might cause them " to spit in their hear- 
 ers' faces." In 1785 he published a Liturgical 
 ImproremenI, which occasioned an endless and 
 bitter controversy in Denmark, and in which he 
 proposed to make the service elegant, diversified, 
 and interesting, "like concerts and balls." In 
 1795 he published a Short .Iddre.is to Clergj/men, 
 in which he exhorted them to study natural his- 
 tory and political economy, and to preach about 
 poultry-farming, .stall-feeding, fruit-raising, etc. 
 In 1805 he i-etired into private life, studied natu- 
 al science and stoical philosophy, and died wholly 
 forgotten. CLEMENS PETERSEN. 
 
 BATES, William, b. in 1625; d. in 1699; stud- 
 ied at the University of Cambridge, ami was 
 appointed chaplain to Charles II., though he 
 was a member of the Conference of Savoy for 
 reviewing the liturgy, and was engaged in the 
 drawing-up of the exceptions to the Book of 
 Common Prayer. He afterwards became minis- 
 ter of St. Dunstan's in the West, but lost the 
 benefice for nonconformity. He wrote. Select 
 Lices of Illustrious and Pious Persons ; Harmony 
 of the Dioine Atlrihules, etc. His collected works, 
 with a memoir by Farmer, appeared in -1 vols, in 
 London, 1815. 
 
 BATH. 1. Among Hebrews. — Bathing in the 
 Orient is a necessity, because of the heat and 
 the dust, and tlu; likelihood of skin-dise.ases, and 
 was almost daily practised by the Jews. It was 
 enjoined by the Mosaic law in certain cases of 
 Levitieal uiicleanncss (Lev. xiv. S, xv. 5, xvii. (!, 
 xxii. (i; Xum. xix. 19; Dent, xxiii. 11), and thus 
 incorporated with religion as among the ancient 
 Kgyjitians and modi^rn Mohammedans. Bathing 
 was requireil of the priests; and the high jiricst 
 at his installation, and particularly upon tho
 
 BATH. 
 
 223 
 
 BAUMGARTEN. 
 
 Day of Atonement (which see), was obliged to 
 batlie before each act of exiiiation (Lev. xvi. 
 i). The rabbins increased the nuinlier to fi'n. 
 
 Bathing a,ftfr niourning. indicative of remov- 
 ing a defilement, is referred to in the case of 
 Ruth (iii. ;!) and David (2 Sam. xii. 20); a.s 
 part of tli(> toilet (Ezek. xxiii. 40) ; as usual 
 after birth (Kzek. xvi. 4). 'J"he Hebrews bathed 
 not only in running water (Lev. xv. Vi ; 2 Kings 
 V. 10), but also in open basins in the conrtyanis 
 of private houses (2 Sam. xi. 2), and, in a later 
 day, in public baths introduced under foreign 
 influence (.fosephus, Anfi)/. xix. 7, 5). There 
 were bath-rooms in 'the later temple for the 
 priests' use. Besides, there were hot baths near 
 Tilierias (Josephus, Aniiq. xviii. 2, 3), near 
 Gadera, and at Callirhoe, east of the Dead Sea 
 (Josephus, Bell. Jud. i. 33. 5). In New-Testa- 
 ment times there is mention of the Jerusalem 
 baths, Bethesda and Siloam (John v. 2, ix. 7). 
 According to the Mishna (Pc.sach. ii. 7), Hebrew 
 women sometimes used bran in the bath, or to 
 rub themselves dry with it. Even so the modern 
 Arab, when he cannot get water, uses sand. [In 
 John xiii. 10 there is reference to the practice of 
 bathing.] V. ORELLI. 
 
 In every considerable town there was a public 
 bath. The Talmud gives us particulars of tlieir 
 construction and use. There were large bathing- 
 rooms, usually darkened a little, with tube.s for 
 conveying the warm water, basins, broad stones 
 to stand upon while cooling off, etc. The watei-- 
 basins were heated underneath; and inasmuch as 
 there was danger from the water Viecoming too 
 hot, or from the floor being burned through, it 
 was customary to offer a prayer before stepping 
 in. The bathers, at times women, had bathing- 
 dresses, different kinds of soaps, combs, etc. 
 They inhaled the steam, swallowed a little of 
 the warm water, then had cold water poured 
 over them, or plunged into cold water, drank a 
 mixture of wine, oil, and water, and finally were 
 anointed with oil and perfumes. The bathing- 
 hour was not earlier than ten a.m. A chaste 
 behavior was enjoined. The bath is enthusias- 
 tically praised in the Talmud. It is declared 
 that the reason why tliere were no lepers in 
 Babylon was because the inliabitants bathed in 
 the Euphrates. The greatest ralibins, rather 
 than not bathe, frequented tlie heathen baths; 
 and when once Rabbi Gamaliel was asked why 
 he went to the bath of Aphrodite, he replied, 
 " The goddess is for the ornament of the bath, 
 but not the bath for the glory of the goddess." 
 Hamburger : Real- Enci/clondi lie des Jndenlhtims, 
 Ab. 1 (1874). 
 
 2. Among Cfirislians. — The public b.aths, which 
 all classes frequented, and to which the early 
 Christians before their conversion went as a mat- 
 ter of course, were so commonly places of such 
 shamelessness, — both sexes bathed together 
 oftentimes, — that it is no wonder that the faith- 
 ful church-fathers raised their voices against 
 their abuses. Justice requires it to be said that 
 many of the heathen protested against this 
 shameful corruption, some of the emperors took 
 precautions against it, and in the great public 
 baths of Rome the two sexes did not mingle. 
 Still it is noteworthy, that though there was 
 public censure, eg., of women, particularly of 
 
 virgins, who were immoilest in the bath, there 
 was no formal, ecclesiastical prohiliition of the 
 public baths. On the contrary, the Apostle .John, 
 according to Irenteus (Adr. l/wr., III. 3, 4). fre- 
 quented them; so did Tertnllian (Ap»l., c. 42), 
 the rigorous ascetic; and so did Augustine; and 
 he says he went there to calm himself after his 
 excessive grief over his mother's death, becau.se 
 he had heard that the bath drives sorrow out of 
 the heart: an<l lience the Greeks called it l/alane- 
 ion, as if from l/allcin aiiiiiii, to cast out sorrow, a 
 fabse though po[>uhir etymology (Co»/r-.s-.v., ix. 12). 
 But, although not forbidden, the use of them was 
 remitted during public calamities, penance, Lent, 
 and for the first week after b.aptism. 
 
 From the time of Coustantine it was usual to 
 build baths near the basilicas, partly for the use 
 of the clergy, and partly for other ecclesiastical 
 purposes. In tlie fiscal accounts of the popes, an 
 entry concerning the repair or the erection of 
 such baths often appears. Kraus: liciil-Encij- 
 cliipdilic dcr clirhlticlicii Allirtliiiiiifr, art. Jiader. 
 
 BATH'-KOL (daiif/hter of the roice, i.e., echo). 
 A Talmudic term for a supposed divine revc'. »- 
 tion. The true idea of it is, that it was the echo 
 of a heavenbj voice. Instances of it are given in 
 the Talmud. Not only was it the utterance of a 
 single word, but sometimes of a sentence, as when 
 "Once in a gathering, a Bath-Kol said, 'There is 
 a man among you who is worthy to have the 
 Divine Majesty rest upon him; but the times are 
 Tiot worthy.' All eyes were turned upon the aged 
 Ilillel, the holy and modest scholar of Ezra." 
 
 The rabbins felt keenly the great difference 
 between their times and those of the prophets. 
 In one place we read, " Our rabbins h.ave rebated, 
 that, since the death of Ilaggai, Zechariah, and 
 Mal.achi, the Holy Ghost has been taken from 
 Israel. Nevertheless, the Bath-Kol remains." 
 But it was not asserted that no Bath-Kol came 
 before the second temple. One rabbi attributes 
 it to Daniel; another, to Ilagar, and Manoah and 
 his wife. Indeed, it may be said gener.ally that 
 the mysterious voices heard at different times by 
 the Bible characters were, unless they were proph- 
 ets, Bath-Kol. The same term may designate the 
 voices mentioned in the Gospels (Matt. iii. 17- 
 xvii. .5; John xii. 28); but the Peshito errs when 
 it refers Acts xii. 22 and Heb. iii. 1.5 to this 
 source. 
 
 The Bath-Kol was (1) The first result of reflec- 
 tion upon the prophecies of the Old Testament, 
 grown up upon the soil of the Old Testament, 
 causing a sense of desertion by the Lord, and a 
 deep longing for the return of the Sliechin.ah; 
 (2) It was designed to prepare the people for the 
 remarkable voices during the last times of the 
 second temple, which, equally with the miracles 
 of Jesus and liis apostles, pointed out the Messiah 
 and his kingdom, until the obdurate and devoted 
 city, immediately before its capture ami destruc- 
 tion, was dumfounded by the cry which issued 
 from the temple ; " Let us go from hence " (Jose- 
 phus, War. VI. 5, 3). 
 
 Lit. — Meusciikn : Noo. Text, ex Tabnude 
 illustr., Leip., 1730, and the older treatises of 
 Danz (,Iena, 171(i) and Metzler (Jen., 1673) 
 upon De )•(«•/.< p'lia. W. PKESSEL. 
 
 BAUMGARTEN, Siegmund Jacob, b. ,at Woll- 
 mirstUdt, Saxony, March 14,1706; d. at Halle,
 
 BAUMGARTEN. 
 
 224 
 
 BAUSGET. 
 
 July 4, 1757; studied theology in the University 
 of Halle, and became professor of theolojjy there 
 1730. He was an excellent teacher, and read 
 generally to three hundred or four hundred hear- 
 ers. He was also an industrious writer, and 
 pulilished voluminous works on exegesis, her- 
 meneutics, morals, dogmatics, and history. By 
 adopting the formal scheme of the philosophy of 
 Wolff, and applying it to the theological ideas in 
 which he was educated, he came to form a transi- 
 tion from the pietism of Spener and Francke to 
 the modern rationalism. His life was written 
 by his enthusiastic disciple, Semler (2 vols. Halle, 
 1781, ]7s-.>). 
 
 BAUMCARTEN-CRUSIUS. Ludwig Friedrich 
 Otto, b. at Merseburg, Jul}' 31, 17SS; d. at Jena, 
 May 31. 1813: studied theology and philology at 
 Leipzig, and became professor of theology at Jena 
 in 1812. His principal works are Einleituiuj in 
 das Stwliiim d. Dogmatik, Leipzig, 1820; Lehrhitcli 
 d. chriM. Dogmengeschichle, Jena, 1832 ; Compen- 
 dium d. Dogmengeschichle, Leipzig, 1840, finished 
 by Ilane. Jena, 1846 ; Theologif:che A tislegung dcr 
 Johanneischen Schrifleii, Jena, 1843-4.5, 2 vols. 
 
 BAUR, Ferdinand Christian, b. at Schmiden, 
 near Cannstatt, .June 21, 1792; d. at Tiibingen, 
 Dec. 2, 18fil). He was educated at the Seminary 
 of Blaubeuren and at the University of Tiibin- 
 gen; became professor of Latin and (ireek (1817) 
 in the former, and in 1820 professor of church 
 history at Tubingen. He soon gathered a large 
 audience around his chair, and filled them with 
 admiration by his genius, learning, and enthu- 
 siasm as a teacher. A Hegelian himself, he ap- 
 plied Hegel's method of dialectical development, 
 by mediation between two opposites, to church 
 history and the growth of the New Testament, 
 and thus founded the famous " Tiibingen School " 
 of theology, which revolutionized the church his- 
 tory of the apostolic and post-apostolic times. 
 He must be r;tnked alongside of Neander and 
 Gieseler as a church historian of the first rank, 
 independent, original, profound, and scholarly, 
 He had a rare talent for critical combination, 
 and the grasp of a giant in handling historical 
 problems. He was, however, deficient in well- 
 balanced judgment; and so, while tireless in his 
 investigations and bold in his theories, he over- 
 valued tendencies, and under-valued persons and 
 facts. He ruthlessly attacked the optimi.stic opin- 
 ion of the. apostolic church, and attempted to 
 show, that so far from being peaceful, quiet, lov- 
 ing, and united, it was torn by opposing factions, 
 — the friends of Peter and tliose of I'aul. He 
 thus resolved its rich spiritual life of faith and 
 love into a purely specubitiv(! process of conflict- 
 ing tendencies, a keen rivalry between the I'e- 
 trine and I'auline i>arties, and supposed that the 
 war stopped liy the compromise the ancient Catho- 
 lic Church. According to his theory, he regard- 
 ed the Acts as a document of this (^oni]ironiise, 
 in which the points of ojipo.sition are oliscured ; 
 and, further, he unhesitatingly rejecte<l all those 
 Epistles of the New Testament in which lie 
 could not find traces of such a (supposed) con- 
 flict. It must be acknowledged, that by his 
 keen, critical analysis he fully brought to light 
 the profound intellectual fermentation of tlie 
 jirimitive clmrcii, but failed to describe the exact 
 State of the case, because ho eliminated the super- 
 
 natural and miraculous elements. Yet, as an 
 earnest and honest skeptic, he had to confess at 
 last a psychological miracle in the conversion of 
 Paul, and to bow before the greater miracle of 
 the resurrection of Christ, without which the 
 former is an inexplicable enigma. His critical 
 researches and speculations gave a powerfid 
 stimulus to New-Testament historical studies, 
 and resulted in vastly increased knowledge. Tlie 
 studies of those times by a critical and impar- 
 tial method dates from Baur. But while he 
 acknowledged only four Epistles of Paul (Ro- 
 mans, the two Corinthians, (lalatians), and the 
 Revelation, to be genuine products of the apos- 
 tolic age, his followers have been compelled, oy 
 the use against them of their own weapons, to 
 yield point after jioint; so that now they grant the 
 authority and genuineness of ten of Paul's Epis- 
 tles, and take their stand only at the so-called 
 Pastoral Epistles. Baur owed his success partly 
 to his clear, logical, pointed style. His literary 
 activity was very great. His works fall into 
 three groups ; showing a movement from the his- 
 tory of doctrines to biblical criticism, and again 
 from biblical criticism to general church history. 
 To the Jirst group belong, (jeschichic t/es Mani- 
 chaismiis, 1831 ; Oeschichle der christlichen Gnosis, 
 1835 ; Die christliche Lehre von der Versohnung, 
 1838; Die Lehre von der Dreieinigkeit u. Mensch- 
 icerdiing Golles, 1841-43; 3 vols. ; Lehrhuch der 
 chrisdichen Dogmengeschichle, 1847, 2d ed., 1858; 
 Vorlesungen iiberDngmengeschiclile, [mbWshed by his 
 son, 1865-67, 3 vols. ; also the three essaj's upon 
 Apollonius von Ti/ana, 1832, Soirates ti. Chrisltis, 
 1837, and Seneht u. Pnulus, 1858, collected and 
 edited by E. Zeller, 1875. 
 
 To the secon I group belong. Die sogenannlen 
 Pasloralbriefe des Aposlels Pauliis, 1835; Paidns 
 der Aposlel Jcsii ChrUli, 1845; translated, Piitd, 
 Ilis Life and Works, London, 1873-75 ; Kritische 
 Unlersuciiungen iiher die kanonischen Kvangelien, 
 1847; and a great number of minor essays in 
 the TUliiiif/en Zcilschrifl fiir Theologie, among 
 which are the famous ones on the " Christ-party 
 in Corinth," 1831, and on the " Gospel of Mar- 
 cion," 1846. 
 
 To the lliird group belong. Das Christenthum u. 
 die christliche Kirche in den S erslen .lalirhunderlen, 
 1853; translated, Chrislianili/ and the Church in the 
 Firsl Three CenUiries, London, 1878-79, 2 vols.; 
 Die christliche Kirche vom 4 '"•''' ^ Jahrhunderl, 
 1859 ; Die christliche Kirche des Miltelalters, 1861; 
 Kirchenge.schichle der neueren Zeil, 1863; new 
 edition of his Geschichle der christlichen Kirche, 
 Tubingen u. Leipzig, 1873-77, 5 vols. Noticea- 
 ble among his polemical writings are his mas- 
 terly vindication of Protestantism (Gegensatz <les 
 Xalholicisnins u. I'rolestaiilismns, 1831, 2d, 1836) 
 against Mbhler's Si/mbolik ; his Semlschrcihen an 
 Dr. K. Iliise, 1855; and /.*/(' 'J'iilnngen Schide u. 
 ihre Slelhing ziir Gegenirnrt, 18.59. Eor the char- 
 acter and bearing of this activity, see the article 
 Ti'iii.NdK.N, Sciiooi. OK. For biograjiliy and 
 criticism, see Worle der ICrinnerung an I'erilinanil 
 Christian von liaur, Tiibingen, 18(il, which con- 
 tains Landerer's Rede before the University of 
 Tiiliingen. 
 
 BAUSSET, Louis Fran(jois de, b. at Pondi- 
 chery. Dtc. I 1. 171S; d. in Paris, Jmie 21, 1824; 
 studied in tlie Seminary of St. Sulpicc ; w;is
 
 BAUTAIN. 
 
 225 
 
 BAXTER. 
 
 appoiiitpcl Bishop of Alais, 17SI; emisnited in 
 1701, but returned in \T,)2 to raris, and sup- 
 ported liiniself, after a short iniprisonnicnt, by 
 literary labor. In LSOfi he was made canon of 
 St. Denys, and in 1815, after tlio second return 
 of Louis XVIII., director of tlie council of the 
 University of Paris, peer of France, and cardinal, 
 1S17. lie wrote a llistoire de I'cnelun, 1S08, 3 
 vols., new ed., 18.jO, 4 vols., and a Ilisloire dc 
 Bossuel, 1815, 4 vols, 2d ed., 1819, of which espe- 
 cially the former met with much success. 
 
 BAUTAIN, Louis Eugene Marie, b. at Pari.s 
 Feb. 17, 171MJ ; d. there Oct. 18, 18(17. lie was 
 professor of ]ihilo.sophy at the University of 
 Strassburg, but was suspended in 1825 because 
 of his too liberal views, and in 1828 entered the 
 priesthood, and rose rapidly, notwithstanding liis 
 independent ways and words. In 1838 he be- 
 came professor of philosophy in the University of 
 Strassburg, afterwards vicar-general at Paris and 
 Bordeaux, professor of theology at the Sorbonne, 
 and superior of the house (congregation) of Jnil- 
 ly. lie is widely known by his Art of Extemitore 
 tipeaking, which was the piroduct of his experi- 
 ence. His preaching was sober, earnest, and 
 edifying. He was good rather than brilliant, and 
 deserved respect for his piety and virtue. He 
 was the author of many works, mainly of a 
 philosophical nature. 
 
 BAVARIA was not fully Christianized until 
 the middle of the eighth century, though Chris- 
 tianity was very early brought from Italy to the 
 Roman colonies along the Danube. In 304 St. 
 Afra suffered martyrdom at Augsburg, belonging 
 to the Roman province of Rhoetia. There nuist 
 ■consequently have been a Christian congregation 
 in that place at that time ; and at the same time 
 there was a flourishing missionary station at 
 Lorch, belonging to the Roman province of 
 Noricum. Nevertheless, more than one hundred 
 years later on, St. Valentine was driven out of 
 Passau by the Pagans, and St. Severin found 
 heathens making .heir sacrifices at Kuhl, r^ear 
 Salzburg. Alani, Aleniauni, Ileruli, etc., moved 
 to and fro in the country, and some of them were 
 Pagans, wliile others were Arians. Gradually, 
 however. Catholic Christianity gained the ascend- 
 ency, and at the death of Boniface the Catholic 
 Church was firmly established in the country, 
 having seven Episcopal sees, — Passau, Freising, 
 Wurzburg, Regensburg, Augsburg, Eichstiidt, 
 and Neuburg, belonging to the archiepiscopal 
 see of Salzburg. 
 
 In the beginning, the Reformation made con- 
 siderable progress throughout the country; but 
 after the Diet of Worms, 1521, the Duke William, 
 under the influence of Dr. Eck, adopted a most 
 hostile line of policy. March 5, 1522, an ordi- 
 nance was issued forbidding anybody to abandon 
 the faith of his ancestors under the severest pen- 
 alties; and as convereions continued to take 
 place, and the bishops seemed to be rather luke- 
 warm, Dr. Eck i-epaired to Rome to procure for 
 the ducal government a greater judicial authority 
 with respect to heretics The bishops protested, 
 but the power was granted ; and from that 
 moment the Dukes of 15avaria became the main- 
 stays of the Roman Church in Germany. Every 
 one who went to hear an evangelical preacher 
 was arrested and fined. The more stubborn were 
 16 — 1 
 
 severely punished. In Landsberg nine persons 
 were burnt, and in .Munich twenty-nine were 
 drowned, for here.sy in l.')2i). Duke I\Iaximilian I. 
 formed the Catholic League at Munich in IfiOO; 
 and the jieace of Westphalia (l(il8) made no 
 concessions to the Protitstants in Bavaria. In 
 1519 the Jesuits were called into the country; 
 and they reigned supremely up to the close of 
 the eighteenth century, when the Elector iMaxi- 
 milian .Joseph 11., or ratlier, his minister, Mont- 
 gelas, expelled thein. The acquisition of n(?w 
 territories — the margraviates of Baireuth and 
 Anspach, the free cities of Nuremberg, Augs- 
 burg, etc., all of which were thoroughly Prot- 
 estant — made a new line of policy necessary; and 
 by the constitution of 1818, Protestants acquired 
 equal rights with Roman Catholics. 
 
 According to the census of 1875, the kingdom 
 had 5,022,390 inhabitants, of whom 3,.573.M2 
 were Roman Catholics, 1,392,120 Protestants, 51,- 
 335 Jews, and 5,793 belonging to other denomi- 
 nations. Tlie Roman-Catholic Church has two 
 archbishoprics (Munioh-Freisingen and Bamberg), 
 and six bishoprics (Augsburg, Passau, Regens- 
 burg, Eichstiidt, WUrzburg, and Spires), and 2,756 
 parishes. With each cathedral a theological 
 seminary is connected, and there are theological 
 faculties in Munich and WUrzburg. The num- 
 ber of monastic institutions is very great ; namely, 
 595, of wliich 95 for monks, with 1,233 brethren, 
 and 500 for nuns, with 5,031 sisters. In May, 
 1877, the Old-Catholics numbered 3,7113 inde- 
 pendent men in thirty-four congregations; but 
 the number was afterwards decreased. The Prot- 
 estant Church is governed by consistories, under 
 a supreme consistory in Munich. It has a theo- 
 logical faculty in Erlangen, and numbei'S 1,036 
 parishes. 
 
 BAXTER, Richard, "the chief of English 
 Protestant schoolmen," b. at Rowton, Shropshire, 
 Nov. 12, 1015; d. in London, Dec. 8, 1691. Al- 
 though too poor in early life to be liberally edu- 
 cated, he was able by great diligence, notwith- 
 standing his feeble health, to acquire extensive 
 learning; and so, while not an accurate scholar, 
 he was able to maintain himself against all 
 comers in that age of vast erudition. Under the 
 Puritan influence of home, he developed toward 
 (xod; and, after a brief experience of court- ways, 
 he determined to enter the ministry of the Church 
 of England. Accordingly he was ordained by the 
 Bishop of Worcester; and, after two years' faith- 
 ful and fruitful service, he was called (1640) by a 
 happy pirovidence to Kidderminster, which was 
 destined to be to all time associated with his 
 name. He found the place a desert, and left it a 
 garden. Tliere, with unflagging zeal, he labored 
 for the advancement of the Redeemer's kingdom, 
 and with great success. When he came, it had a 
 bad reputation for ignorance and vice ; by the 
 blessing of God he made it a model of ,all vii-tue. 
 When Uie Civil War broke out (1642), Baxter 
 was placed in an awkward piosition. He was a 
 member of the Presbyterian party in the Church, 
 but not in sympathy with tlie Revolution : in- 
 deed, his avowed object in preaching to the sol- 
 diers was to bring them back to the King and 
 Church. For safety's sake he withdrew from 
 Kidderminster to Gloucester, and then to Coven- 
 try, where he remained for two years, preac'.:-
 
 BAXTER. 
 
 226 
 
 BAXTER. 
 
 ing regularly to the garrison and the citizens. 
 He then (1645) became ch.aplain to the regi- 
 ment of AVhalley. the cousin of Cromwell. But 
 in February, 1647, he finally left the army, be- 
 cause of a severe illness, anil returned to Kid- 
 derminster. His thoughts, by his sufferings no 
 less than by his recent experiences (for he had 
 just come from that wonderful army which dis- 
 cussed theology from morning to night), were 
 turned toward the future resi ; and then it was he 
 outlined his most popular work, T/ie Saints' Ever- 
 lasting Rest, which he published. London, 1650. 
 From 1647 to 1660 he remained quiet; but his 
 pastoral labors were faithful and fruitful, and 
 his publications numerous. Blessed truly was 
 that people to whom he ministered. It is suffi- 
 cient description of his manner and methods to 
 say he was himself the reformed pastor he has 
 described and commended. He welcomed the 
 return of monarchy; and, in order to remove gen- 
 eral doubts and fears, he spread far and wide the 
 letters addressed to him by the French pastors, 
 Daille, Drelincourt. and Kaimond Oaches, who 
 gave Charles a certificate of Protestantism. The 
 King showed his gratitude by appointing Baxter 
 one of his chaplains. Upon Sept. 10, 1662, he 
 married Margaret, daughter of Francis Charl- 
 ton, Esq., of Shropshire, a young lady of wealth 
 and station, many years his junior, who made 
 him a most excellent wife, and with womanly 
 fidelity stood by his side through all his ti-oubles. 
 She died June 14, 1681, and he h.as recorded his 
 tender appreciation of this noble woman in his 
 Breviate of the Life of Mrs. Mari/aret liaittr 
 (1681). He had need of comfort, inasmuch as 
 the Act of Uniformity that year (1662) drove 
 him, in company with two thousand noncon- 
 formist ministers, out of position. A cruel blow 
 to him. In 1661 he had taken part in the Savoy 
 Conference (so called from its being held in the 
 Savoy Palace of the Bishop of London), between 
 the bishops and nonconformist divines, which had 
 for its nominal purpose a revision of the Liturg\', 
 and to this body liad submitted his Rtrised Lit- 
 urgi/. Besides, the royalist desire to win him 
 back to the Church had been shown liy Lord 
 Clarendon's offer of the bisho]iric of Hereford. 
 Encouraged by the friendly aspect of affairs, lie 
 had statedly preaclied in London. Hut, after tlie 
 Uniformity Act, he was compelled to leave all 
 his po.sitions, even his belov(^d Kidderminster, 
 and to pass laborious and fearful days at Acton, 
 where he was intimate with Sir JMattliew Hale, 
 and at Totteridge, near London. His lifc^ for 
 the next twenty-fiv(! years was a series of sor- 
 rows, aggravated by his feeble health. For 
 preaching lie was more than once arrested, his 
 library .sold, himself put under bonds for good 
 behavior. But nothing could daunt liim. He 
 preached whenever he had opportunity, and 
 found in (iod a pavilion safe from the strife of 
 tongues. He used the press to give wider cur- 
 rency to his wise and tender words; published in 
 1057 his trumpet Call to the Unronrcrttil, of which 
 twenty thousand copies were sold the first year, 
 and which has bi'en translated into most ot the 
 literary languages of the world ; ' in 1673, the 
 
 1 A cliTf^ymuH of tho KHtnbilHhod <.*htircli In Kn^flnnd 
 bequeathed to Uiixivr twenty puiindM for eupleH uf IiIh Call. 
 for |;ratuituua dUtrlbutlon ; but Lord Kce{ier North decided 
 
 Christian Directory in 1674, the Poor ^fan's Fam- 
 ily Book; in 1083, the Cure for Melancholy : in 
 1685, A Paraphrase on the Sew Testament. Thi.9 
 latter work brought him into his greatest trouble. 
 On ch<vrge of sedition he was committed to the 
 King's Bench Prison, and tried in ;\r,ay. 1685, 
 before the notorious Chief .Justice Jeffrevs, who 
 sentenced him to pay five hundred marks (§1.610, 
 a large sum in those days), and until it was paid 
 to lie in prison, and to be bound to his good 
 behavior for seven ye,ars. He endured eighteen 
 months' imprisonment; but through the exertions 
 of Lord Powis, a Roman-Catholic nobleman, the 
 fine was remitted; and he was pardoned, and 
 released Nov. 24, 1686. His last days were his 
 best. His evening-time was light. Delivered 
 fi-om fear of per.secutioii after King William HI. 
 entered England (1688), thorouglily respected 
 for his courage, and, above all, for his godliness, 
 he preached when he was able, and continued 
 his publications. When lie died. Non-conformist 
 England mourned her chief ; Protestant England, 
 one of her saints. 
 
 Character. — Baxter was one of those rare men 
 who have to die in order truly to live. He was 
 in adv.ance of his day. He was an advocate of 
 Christian union at a time of the fiercest partisan- 
 ships, of Christian liberality at a time of the stiff- 
 est creeds, of Christian philanthropy at a time of 
 the narrowest sympathies. Our entliusiasm for 
 him, our respect for his courage, rises as we con- 
 template the miserable state of his. age and coun- 
 try. Cavaliers, licentious, Roundheads, bigoted 
 — and yet these were the conflicting parties. lie 
 could join neither, because his great mind per- 
 ceived the good points of each side, .and the bad 
 as well. He was a born reconciliator, but in his 
 case the middle way was by no means the safest. 
 He was sneered at, insulted, mistrusted, and per- 
 secuted by both parties. No one could under- 
 stand how Churchm.anship and Dissent could 
 exist in the same individual. But the under- 
 standing denied liis age has come to us. On the 
 twenty-eighth day of July, 1875, a statue repre- 
 senting him in a preaching attitude was erected 
 at Kidderminster, and upon it this inscription : 
 "Between tlie years 1641 and 166(1 this town was 
 the scene of the labors of Rieliard Baxter, re- 
 nowned equally for his Christian learning and 
 his pastoral fidelity. In a stormy and divided 
 age he advocated unity and comprehension, 
 pointing the way to everlasting rest. Church- 
 men and Nonconformists united to raise this 
 memorial A.D, 1875." Dean .Stanley of West- 
 minster, and Dr. John Stoughton, Independent, 
 of New College, London, representatives of the 
 old opposing parties, made the addresses. Dean 
 Stanley (see panqihlet, London, 1875) very elo- 
 quently put Baxter's present )iosition and ac- 
 knowledged worth, when he said, " It is a proof 
 of liis (Baxter's) real greatness and eminence that 
 the noliler memories of his cliaracter have sur- 
 vived tile distasteful and acrimonious elements 
 with whicii ]>!• was encompassed. The admira- 
 tion of the best spirits of his own and futuri' times 
 have prevailed over tlie violence of petty faction, 
 
 Jbifl It'Kucy wilH fur " BuperHtltlouM ukcm " (i.e., ftocording to 
 KriKltKli liiw lit the thne, fur the propjiKiUtoii of ii faith not 
 upproved by the Suite), and therefore void. — Btho.nu ; AV/«. 
 lioiu u/ Civil law to Church Jft/tity, N.Y., 1876, p. 87.
 
 BAXTER. 
 
 227 
 
 BAYLE. 
 
 and over his own coiitentioii.s self. Sir Matthew 
 Hale's unfailing regard ; I5islioji Burnet's grateful 
 acknowledgment; Ussher, when he entreated him 
 to write the ('all In the Uncoiii:«ii<'(/. ; Kliot, the 
 Apostle to the Indians, when he translated that 
 book next after the Hilile, — all these now turn out 
 to be more correct judges, tno7'e proficient seers, 
 than tlie narrow partisans who saw in him a mere 
 l)utt for scorn or slander, or a mere combatant of 
 an opposite school." 
 
 Writings. Pnclri/. — Baxter was the author of 
 a metrical version of the I'salms, puldished Kjl)"-', 
 and two volumes of poetry, lie wrote the hymn 
 beginning, "Lord, it lielongs not to my care." 
 He wrote also Latin poetry. His Poetical Frag- 
 ments : Heart Imjilinjinent with Gnil anil Itself: The 
 Concorilnnt Discord of a Broken-healed Heart, 
 is dated, "London, at the Door of Eternity; 
 Richard Baxter, Aug. 7, 1681." The death of 
 his beloved wife was the occasion of its pub- 
 lication. Baxter invented a plan of making 
 hymns either in long or common metre, by re- 
 taining or omitting certain designated words. 
 Prose. — Robert Boyle, quoted in Alliltonc, vol. 1, 
 p. 143, enaliles us to compare him with others 
 when he says. " The works of Lightfoot extend 
 to thirteen volumes; Jeremy Taylor's, to fifteen; 
 Dr. Owen's, to twenty-eight; [but] Baxter's, if 
 jirinted iii a uniform edition, would not be com- 
 prised in less than sixti/ volumes." Orme enu- 
 merates one hundred and sixty-eight treatises. 
 It must be confessed that lie is exceedingly dif- 
 fuse, and therefore tedious. Ilis Saints' Everlast- 
 ing Rest, and Call to the Unconoerted are probably 
 known to most persons merely by title; and 
 indeed the former is only readalile in an abridg- 
 ment of an abridgment. Ilis other books cannot 
 lie said to be read nowadays at all ; although his 
 Gildas Sahianus, the Reformed Pastor, and his Rea- 
 sons for the Christian Religion, are excellent, and 
 indeed invaluable. Perhaps as great a service 
 as any he performed was to bring to light that 
 golden sentence of the obscure German, llupertus 
 Meldenius, "In necessary things, L'nity ; in 
 doubtful things. Liberty; in all things, Charity." 
 Two testimonies, remarkable in themselves and 
 in their source, deserve quotation (see Allihone, 
 vol. 1, p. 143). Dr. Barrow declared " his practical 
 writings were never mended, and his controversial 
 ones seldom confuted;" Bishop Wilkins said. 
 " he cultivated every subject he handled ; and, if 
 he had lived in the primitive time, he had been 
 one of the Fathers of the Church. It was enough 
 for one age to produce such a person." He was a 
 preacher, a pastor, a teacher, a theologian (see 
 next section), a mast"r in all fields. 
 
 Theology. — His chief work was his Methodus 
 theologif-C Christiana- (1681), a Latin work of nine 
 hundred folio pages: to this his Christian Directory 
 (1673) was the practical part. In theology Bax- 
 ter was as independent as he was in church polity. 
 Characteristically he was an eclectic. He held 
 to Calvinism, but not in its extreme form. He 
 sought to find a common resting-place for Calvin- 
 ist and Arminian, Episcopalian and Presbyterian, 
 Protestant and Romanist, — aplatform upon which 
 they could all stand. He taught that all who 
 from their hearts confessed that Christ was Lord 
 belonged to the true catholic Church, which is 
 composed of the believers in every Christian 
 
 denomination. It is difficult, as Orme confesses, 
 to get a clear notion of what he really believes, 
 because his works contain few definitions, and 
 are, besides, so diffuse. But, .weaking generally, 
 he taught, that common, grace was given to all, 
 which, however, needed sj/ecial grace to render it 
 effectual to salvation; that election and reprobation 
 are not equally to be ascribed to (Jod, who elects, 
 liut is not chargeable with the sin which causes 
 the reprobation ; that Christ diiil for all. therefore 
 the widest invitation can be given, but not equally 
 for all. He taught the Calvinistic theoUjgy upon 
 the jieisecerance of the saints and the trill. Those- 
 who sj'mpathized with him have been called Bax- 
 terians. 
 
 Lit. — His numerous controversial and theo- 
 logical writings have never been reprinted, and 
 are now very scarce. His Practical Works have 
 been published in 23 vols., editedby Rev. William 
 Orme, London, 1830. Another edition appeared 
 in 4 vols., London, 1854. Select Practical Writings, 
 with a life of the author, by Leonard Bacon, 2 
 vols.. New Haven, 1844. The best source of 
 information about Baxter is his autobiography 
 down to 1684, which was published by Matthew 
 Sylvester in 1690 under the title Reliquitc Box- 
 terianw ; or. Air. Richard Baxter's Narratire of the 
 Alo'it Memorable Passages of his Life and Times. 
 The Rev. Dr. Edmvmd Calamy, who was Mat- 
 thew Sylvester's assistant at Blaekfriars, issued 
 an abridgment of it in 1702, and continued his 
 life down to his death, and adiled as a second 
 volume an account of other ejected ministers. 
 In the second edition (1713) of his Continuation 
 of the account, he refutes a number of accusa- 
 tions made against Baxter. Neander wrote a 
 sketch entitled Richard Baxter, ein Mann der 
 wahrhaft rechten Mitte, icelche das Erangelium 
 allein zu offenbaren ii zu verleihen rermag, Beidin, 
 1833; V. Geulach: Richard Baxter nach seinem 
 Leben u. Wirken, Berlin, 1830. A Life is pre- 
 fixed to the complete edition of The Saints' Ever- 
 lasting Rest, N.Y., 1855. Also Dean Boyi.e (l.ate 
 vicar of Kidderminster) : Richard Baxter, London 
 and New York, 1884. SAMUEL M. JACKSON. 
 
 BAXTERIANS. See Baxter, Richako, The- 
 ology. 
 
 BAYLE, Pierre, b. Nov. 18, 1647, at Carlat, in 
 the department of Aridge, France ; d. Dec. 28, 
 1706 ; belonged to a Protestant family, but was 
 converted to Romanism while studying at the 
 Jesuit college in Toulouse, 1669. His Romanism 
 lasted only seventeen months, however. He ab- 
 jured, and fled to Switzerland, where he lived 
 several years at Geneva as a private tutor. He 
 afterwards removed to Rouen, thence to Paris, 
 and was in 1675 appointed piro lessor of philosophy 
 in the Academy of Sedan. When the academy 
 was suppressed by royal order in 1681. he received 
 a chair in philosophy in Rotterdam ; but fi'om 
 this position he was discharged in 1093, after 
 which time he lived as a private citizen, engaged 
 in literary occupation. It was Jurieu who procured 
 his first appointment in Sedan, and it was also 
 Jurieu who procured his final dismissal in Rotter- 
 dam. His Letters sur les Comites, 1682, ridiculing 
 the superstition which the court of 1680 had called 
 forth, but also touching, though very cautiously, 
 on the belief in miracles, was the first cause of 
 irritation between them. Shortly after, followed
 
 BAYLEY. 
 
 228 
 
 BEATIFIC. 
 
 Critique Generale de VITisloire da Calfini:ime, par 
 M. Maimhourtj, wliich Jurieu attacked. But the 
 cause of the final breach and of Bayle's disnussal 
 ^vas a pamphlet, Avis Important aux Rcfiu/ii's, 1G9(), 
 ■which Jurieu ascribed to Bayle, but which Bayle 
 denied to have written. In 169.5 appeared the 
 first voUmie of liis Dictionnaire Critique, which has 
 exercised considerable influence on European 
 civilization, and is still a book of living- value, 
 famous for its curious learnins:, marred by its 
 skepticism; 4th ed., .•\msterdam, ITl'O, 4 vols, 
 folio; best ed., Paris, 1S20-24, 16 vols. Svo. Also 
 his Nouvelles de ht Ri'puhlique des Letlres, whicli he 
 founded in 1GS4, and continued to 1687, was an im- 
 portant jihenomenon in the literary lifeof thetime. 
 
 Lit. — His OEurres Dii-erscs, 4 vols, folio, were 
 edited by Des JI.\izeaux, The Hague. 1727-31; 
 liis letters, 3 vols., appeared at Kotterdam, 1714; 
 liis life was written by L.\ Mo.nnoye, Amster- 
 dam. 1710, and by L. Feueiib.^ch, Augsburg, 1838. 
 His dictionary luis been translated into English ; 
 best ed., London, 17.j4-;)7, 5 vols, folio. 
 
 BAYLEY, James Roosevelt, D,D., Roman- 
 f'atholic Archbishop of BaUiiuore, L'.S..\. ; b. in 
 Xew-Yoik City, Aug. 23, 1814 ; d. in Baltimore, 
 Oct. 3, 1877, His aunt, Mother Seton, was tlie 
 founder of the order of Sisters of Charity in 
 America; but he was originally a Protestant, a 
 graduate of Trinity College, Hartford, Conn,, and 
 fur a time an Episcopal minister. After his 
 change, lie studied theology in Paris and Rome, 
 and was ordained a priest in 1842. Returning to 
 America, he was professor of belles-lettres in St. 
 John's College, Fordham, and then its president 
 for one year (1845-46). In 18.53 the bishopric 
 of Xewark, N,J,, was conferred upon him, and 
 in 1872 the high dignity of Archbishop of Bal- 
 timore, and Primate of America. 
 
 BAYLY, Lewis, Bishop of Bangoi in Wales; b. 
 at C.aermarthen, about 1.565 ; educated at Oxford ; 
 became minister of Evesham in Worcestershire 
 in 1611; con,secrated as bishop in 1616; d. 1632. 
 He will always be remembered as the author of 
 The Practice of Piety, directitu/ a Christian how 
 io walk that he may please God, one of the most 
 popular religious works ever written. It reached 
 its fifty-first edition in 1714. It is also note- 
 wortliy as one of the two volumes which consti- 
 tuted the dowry of Bunyan's wifi', the other 
 being Arthur Dent's I'lain Man's Pathway to 
 Jhiin II. 
 
 BDELL'IUIVI is a transparent, powerfully and 
 jileasantly odoriferous, wax-like resin, from a sort 
 of palm which was native to Ai'abia, India, 
 Media, Babylonia, and Bactriana. This exjila- 
 iiation of a debated word is more satisfactory than 
 that favored by many rabbins, and even by Geso- 
 iiius, — pearl. The word " bdellium " occurs only 
 twice in the Bible, — once as a product of the land 
 of Havilah ((jen, ii. 12), ami again as a descrip- 
 tion of the appearance of manna (Xum. xi. 7). 
 It must, therefore, liave b(!en familiar to the 
 Jews; but it is questionable wliether ]>carls were. 
 It is likely, tlicrefore, to liave been a gummy- 
 resinous substance ; and the circumstance that ma- 
 delcon, one of the names for bdellium, wliicli 
 surely is such a substance, is linguistically one 
 with bedolali (bdellium), is a strong proof of 
 the correctness of the interpretation. Lassen 
 (frul. Allhumskunde) considers it uioscus, others 
 
 crystal, or beryl. See Sprkxger: Die alte Geogr. 
 Arab. § 59, _ RrETSCHI. 
 
 BEARD, The. The Jews, like the present 
 Orientals, were proud of their beards; therefore 
 they let them grow ; while the Egyptians cut 
 them off, but on high festival days wore false 
 beards, — private individuals, a beard scarcely 
 two inches long; a king, one of considerable 
 length, square at the bottom. The figures of gods 
 were distinguished by their beards turning up at 
 the end. Tlie Jews also retained the liair on the 
 sides of the face between the ear and the eye, 
 and this had a religious meaning (Jer. ix. 26, 
 XXV. 23, xlix, 32). In these verses "uttermost 
 corners " should be shaven cheeks. Incidental 
 mention of barbers is made in Ezek. v. 1. It wa.= 
 an unbearalile insult for any one to cut off or 
 mutilate another's beard (2 Sam. x, 4 sq. ; Isa, vii, 
 20) ; but in times of deep sorrow the beard and 
 the hair of tlie head were plucked out (Ez. ix. 3; 
 Isa. XV. 2. 1. 6 ; Jer. xli. 5), or allowed to be 
 unkempt (2 Sam. xix. 24), or covered, like the 
 lepers', in sign one must not speak (Ezek. xxiv. 
 17, 22). 
 
 The practice of the Christian clergy in ancient 
 times in respect of wearing beards was in con- 
 formity with the general custom. Long hair and 
 baldness by shaving being alike in ill repute as 
 unseemly peculiarities, the clergy wei'e required 
 to observe a becoming moderation between either 
 extreme. In the later Roman Church, the clergy 
 always shave the beard, and often the head, at 
 least in part. See particularly the interesting 
 article on Beards in Encycl. Brit., Vol, III., and 
 books upon Eastern customs. 
 
 BEARD, Richard, D.D., an eminent divine of 
 the Cumlicrland Presbyterian Church; b. in Sum- 
 ner County, Tetin , Nov. 27, 1799 ; d. at Leba- 
 non, Tenn., Nov. 6, 1880. He was licensed, and 
 began preaching in 1S20. After several years, he 
 became a professor, first in Cumberland College, 
 Princeton, Ky., and then in .Sharon College, 
 Sharon, Miss. From 1842 to 1854 he was presi- 
 dent of Cumberland College; but, when the Cum- 
 berland Presbyterian Church established a chair 
 of systematic theology in Cumberland Univer- 
 sity at Lebanon, Tenn., 1854, he was so evidently 
 the man for the position, that it came naturally to 
 him. He w.as repeatedly made moderator of the 
 (ieneral Assembly. The position he occupied in 
 the esteem of his brethren was the best proof of 
 his exalted character. Besides numerous and 
 valuable contributions to the periodical literature 
 of his church, he Lssued two works of pennanent 
 importance, — his Lectures on Theototpj, Nash- 
 ville, 1870, 3 vols. ; and Win/ am la C umherlanil 
 Prislii/leriiiii? Nashville, 1874. 
 
 BEATIFIC VISION, or the direct and unhin- 
 di'red vision of (Jod. It is jiart of the reserved 
 blessi>dness of the redeemed (1 Cor. xiii. 12; 
 1 John iii, 2; Rev, xxii, 3,4), Our conception 
 of its nature must necessarily be very vague, but 
 our belief in its existence is foundeil upon Scrip- 
 ture and reason, Tlie only question concerns its 
 time. This has been much disputed. Tin', Greek 
 Church and many Protestants, csiiecially Luther- 
 ans and Calvinis'ts, put the vision after tlie judg- 
 ment day. So Dr. Hodge, Si/.ileiuatic 'J'heoloi/i/, 
 vol, iii,, p, 860. But the Council of Florenco 
 (1439) condenmed this view in the following
 
 BEATIFICATION. 
 
 229 
 
 BECK. 
 
 wnrrls; "AVe (letpvniiiifi that tho souls of those 
 who have remained ]iure :iiul s|iotless after bap- 
 tism, and of those whose sins after l)aptisin liave 
 been jiardoned, either in this life or the next, are 
 immediately received into heaven, and behold 
 ]ilainly the Triune God as he is." To the same 
 intent speaks the Constitution of IJenedict XII. 
 (1334-4'J) in the previous century. So the Coun- 
 cil of Trent, in the decree concerninff the " Invo- 
 cation, Veneration, and Relics of Saints," speaks 
 of the saints as enjoying " eternal happiness " in 
 heaven (Sess. xxiv. Dec. 3, 1503. See Schaff's 
 Creeds, vol. ii., p. 200). It is, however, reasona- 
 ble to suppose that this glorious sight, this won- 
 drous knowledge, is first revealed in heaven, and 
 that only intimations of it are known in the 
 intermediate state. Of it Dr. Hodge says, "The 
 incomprehensible blessedness of heaven shall arise 
 from the vision of CJod. The vision is beatific. 
 It beatifies : it transforms the soul into the divine 
 image, transfusing into it the divine life, so that 
 it is filled with the fulness of God. This vision 
 of God is in the face of Jesus Christ, in whom 
 dwells the plenitude of the divine glory bodily. 
 God is seen in fashion as a man, and it is this 
 manifestation of God in the person of Christ that 
 is inconceivably and intolerably ravishing" {Sys- 
 tematic Tlieuhgt/, as above). The question of Ber- 
 nard of C'luny is asked again : — 
 
 " Say, O dear country of my heart ! shall these thy 
 joys be mine ? 
 Shall I, in that my precious home, behold the light 
 divine ? 
 
 God's o'ertlowiug gift obtain ? — 
 Or is my hope, my faitli, in vain ? " 
 
 BEATIFICATION, a lower degree of, and a 
 preliminary step to, canonization, declaring a 
 person blessed after death, though not deciding 
 whether he is a saint or not, and granting to him 
 certain religious honors short of worship. Origi- 
 nally beatification was a simple episcopal jireroga- 
 tive, and the ceremony could be performed in any 
 church ; but Urban VIII. reserved the right for 
 the papal see, and Alexander VII. forbade the 
 ceremony to be performed in any other place but 
 the basilica of the Vatican. See Canoxiz.\tion. 
 
 BEATON, David, b. in 1494; ayoungerson of 
 John Beaton of Balfour, in the county of Fife; 
 d. at St. Andrews, May 29, 154(j ; was educated at 
 the universities of St. Andrews and Glasgow ; 
 studied canon law in Paris, and was made Abbot 
 of Arbroatli in 1523, lord privy seal in 1528, 
 Bishop of St. Andrews m 1537, cardinal in 1538, 
 Chancellor of Scotland, and legate a latere, in 1543. 
 In the political contest between the French and 
 English party, he sided with the former, and 
 fought with energy and courage for the independ- 
 ence of Scotland against the plans of Henry 
 VIII. In the religious contest between the 
 Romanists and the Reformers, he took as decid- 
 edly the part of the hierarchy, and did not scru- 
 ple to use intrigue and force when argument and 
 persuasion failed. The persecution of fjeorge 
 Wishart is an instance : he was seized, impris- 
 oned in the Castle of St. Andrews, tried in the 
 cathedral before the cardinal and a court of 
 priests, sentenced to death, and burnt, without 
 the aid of the civil power. But a nemesis soon 
 overtook the cardinal. A conspiracy was formed 
 Against him by a immber of the Reform party, 
 
 and he was murdered one morning in his bed- 
 chamber. See Chakle.s Rogkus: Life of Georije 
 Wislmrl. Edinburgh, 187(>. 
 
 BEATTIE, James, b. at Laurencekirk, Scot- 
 land, Oct. 2.'., 173.'>; d. at Aberdeen, Aug. 18, 
 1803; studieil at jMarishal College, Aberdeen, 
 and became professor of philosophy at that insti- 
 tution in 170O. He wrote an Essay on Truth 
 against Hume, which was very successful (1770); 
 also Dissertations Moral ami Critical (1783) ; Eri- 
 ilences of the Christian Iieli(/ion (178(i), etc. ; and 
 some poetry, especially T/ie Minstr/l (1774), a 
 poem of much merit, by which he is best known. 
 His life was written by Sir William Forbes, 3 
 vols., 1807. 
 
 BEAUSOBRE, Isaac de, b. at Niort, in the 
 department of Deux-Sevres, France, March 8, 
 1059; d. in Berlin, June 6, 1738; descended 
 from a Protestant family ; studied theology at 
 Saumur; was made pastor at Chatillon-sur- 
 Indre in 1G83; fled to Holland in 1G85; became 
 chaplain to the Princess of Anhalt in 1686, and 
 pastor of the French congregation in Berlin in 
 1695. Together with Lenfant he gave a French 
 translation of the New Testament, which ap- 
 peared at Amsterdam, 1718. He also wrote 
 Histoire de Manichc'e et du manlche'isme, 2 vols., 
 Amsterdam, 1734 ; Histoire de la Rifonnation, i 
 vols., 1785-80, and other works. 
 
 BEBENBURG, Lupoid, d 1363 as Bishop of 
 Bamberg; descended from a noble Prankish 
 family ; studied canon law at Bologna, and 
 placed himself, in the controversy between Lud- 
 wig the Bavarian and the Pope, on the side of 
 the former. His De Jurihus Regni et Imperii 
 lioniunoram, first printed at Strassburg (1508), 
 edited by Jakob Wimpfeling, is remarkable, also, 
 on account of its method, — di.scussmg the subject 
 liy means of historical facts rather tlian abstract 
 ideas and Aristotelian politics. 
 
 BEC, Abbey of, situated in the diocese of 
 Rouen, was founded in 1040 by St. Herluin, and 
 became, while Lanfranc and Anselra were teachers 
 in its school, one of the most famous centres of 
 learning. Among its pupils were Pope Alex- 
 ander II., Guitmond, Yves de Chartres, CJilbert 
 and Miles Crespin (who wrote the lives of its 
 first abbots), and Robert de Thoringy, who com- 
 menced its chronicle, which was afterwards con- 
 tinued by anonymous writers. About llOO the 
 abl.)ey was exempted from the episcopal au- 
 thority. 
 
 BEGAN, Martin, b. in Flanders, 1550; d. in 
 Vienna, April 23, 1624 ; entered the Society of 
 Jesus; taught philosophy and theology in the col- 
 leges of his order; became confessor to the em- 
 peror, Ferdinand II., and distinguished himself 
 by the fury with which he labored against the 
 Reformation. In his Controversia Anglicana de 
 Potestate Ret/is et Ponlifcis, Jlentz, lGi2, he de- 
 fended the morality of assassinating a heretic 
 king, and in his Quastiones de Fide Harelicis 
 Sen-anda, Mentz, 1609, he declared that no 
 promise or oath given to a heretic was binding. 
 Rome condemned the former proposition, Ijut 
 not the latter. 
 
 BEGCARELl.l. See Qiietists. 
 
 BEGGUS. See John X. ok Constantin'Opi.e. 
 
 BECK, Johann Tobias, b. at Balingen in "\Vur- 
 temberg, Feb. 22, 18u4 ; d. at Tubingen, Dec. 28,
 
 BECKBT. 
 
 230 
 
 BECKBT. 
 
 187S. The facts of his outward life are few : he 
 studied at Tubingen from 1822 to 1826; left the 
 luiiversity to become pastor of Waldtheim ; in 
 1829 he rose to be '• Stadt^Pf arrer " (city pastor) 
 of Mergentheim : but in 1836 he left the pastor- 
 ate, and entered the professorate, first as profess- 
 or extraordinary at Basel, and then as professor 
 ordinary at Tubingen from 1843 till his death. 
 Baur and he were for many years fellow profess- 
 ors, but they belonged to different schools; and 
 in more senses than one, Beck lived after Baur 
 died; for, in opposition to Baur, he led his pupils 
 into the study of the Bible upon simple, positive 
 principles. He had little respect for the learned 
 liut sceptical and really shallow theories of the 
 higher critics. The very titles of his books show 
 how intense was his ardor for positive Bible- 
 Christianity. He was the best modern represen- 
 tative of the 'Wurtemberg School of Bengel and 
 Oetinger. By plain, homely ways, by a kind 
 heart, and manly independence, he won respect, 
 confidence, and affection. He wrote, Eiiileilitii;/ 
 ill das Si/stem tier chrlstUclicn Lelire, Stuttgart 
 1838. 2d ed. 1870; Die Geburt chs christlicheii Le- 
 bens, Basel, 1839; Die christlicJie Lclinrissctischafi 
 itac/i iler biblischen Urkitnden, Bud. I., Stuttgart, 
 1841; Die clirislt. Afenschentiehe, Basel, 1842; Um- 
 ris.t d. bibl. Seelcnlehre, Stuttgart, 1843, 3d ed., 
 1877 (Eng. trans. BUiliral Pfi/c/wln;/;/, VA'uih., 
 1877); Leitfaden d. cliristl. Gtaubendchre, 1862, 
 2d ed., 1809; Chrisd. Liebeslehre, 1S72; I'aMoral- 
 icliren d. N. T., 1880 (Eng. trans.. Pastoral 
 Theoloyxj, Edinb. 1882); Clirisll. Ethik, 1882-83, 
 3 vols ; connnentaries upon Timothy (1879), 
 Revelation (1883), Romans (1884, 2 vols.); Briefe, 
 188.5. 
 
 BECKET, Thomas, Archbishop of Canterbury; 
 b. in London, Dec. 21, 1118; d. in Canterbury, 
 iJec. 29, 1170. The writing of his name A Becket, 
 as if he were of noble birth, is inaccurate, and 
 now discarded. 
 
 Life. — His father, Gilbert Becket, was from 
 Rouen ; his mother, Roesa or Matilda, from Caen. 
 But, though thus Norman in parentage, he was a 
 thorough Englishnum, full of national and local 
 jiatiiotism. His father, a bai-on of the city of 
 London, gave his son an excellent education, with 
 the canons of Mcrton Abbey, in London schools, 
 and afterwai-ds in Paris. There is no proof that 
 lie ever went to Oxford. His father's friend. 
 Richer of Laigle, — one of tlie great barons of 
 England, — took an interest in the boy; and, in 
 his castle of Pevcnsey, Becket was introduced to 
 the S]iorts of hunting and hawking, in which lie 
 became such a proficient. On his return from 
 I'aris, he was employed under the sheriffs of Lon- 
 don, and so made acquainted with )iolitical busi- 
 ness. But prefiMineut was to be expected in the 
 case of so brilliant a scholar; and when common 
 friends from the otlier side of the Chaimel had 
 recommended him to the notice of Tlieobuld, 
 Archl)ishop of Canterbury, who, however, was 
 probably already acquainted with Becki^fs father, 
 lie Wiis immediately taken into his service (1142), 
 sent to Bologna and Auxerre to study civil and 
 canon law, and (juiekly madi! archdeacon of the 
 see, and Provost of IJeverley. AVhile in this 
 double capacity, ISecket showed his loyalty to the 
 Church, and iiis political tact, by cleverly solving 
 the difficulty ojnnected with the succession to the 
 
 crown of England. Securing it to Henry, while 
 not sacrificing papal interests, he made two secret 
 journeys to Rome, and tliwarted an effort to win 
 over the Pope to the side of Eustace, the son of 
 Stephen. When Henry 11. came to the throne, 
 he made Becket his chancellor (1155), on the 
 recommendation of Theobald ; and the ecclesias- 
 tic was immediately forgotten in the statesman. 
 The ke\- to the mystery of Becket's character, his 
 apparent fickleness, is his compilete devotion to 
 the office he held, involving a constant study how 
 best to magnify it. Accordingly, when a chan- 
 cellor, he served his king with the utmost fidelity. 
 He surrounded himself with the outward state 
 befitting so exalted a station, because he had the 
 wit to see that it would give him the more power. 
 While chancellor, he headed the chivalry of Eng- 
 land in the war of Toulouse, and there certainly 
 acted little like an ecclesiastic : for he joined in 
 their bloody work. But to him belongs the chief 
 credit of bringing England back from utter law- 
 lessness to as strict an administration of the law 
 as the state of England in the twelfth century 
 allowed. Sufficient emphasis has not been laid 
 upon this fact. He was one of the greatest chan- 
 cellors England ever had. It was an evil day for 
 him and for his fame when he accepted the Arch- 
 bishopric of Canterbury. He left an office he was 
 fitted for, for one he was not; and he was, alas ! one 
 of those men who show their strong side in pros- 
 perity, and their weak in adversity. But being 
 elected in 1102, by the Cluapter of Canterbury, on 
 the King's command, archbishop, he gave up his 
 pomp and worldliness, and began at once a life 
 of austerities, and at the same time appeared as 
 the champion of the Church against the State; 
 so that he contended with Henry, his patron and 
 friend. Yet this was not fickleness, but princi- 
 ple : he was loyal to his nuister. Once it was the 
 King, now it was the Pope : once it was the State, 
 now it was the Cliurch. But becau.^e Becket was 
 really an arrogant churchman, and opposed to 
 po]iular progress, his career from our standpoint 
 is discreditable. He fought against tlie Constitu- 
 tions of Clarendon, Jan. 25, 1164, which snljjected 
 clerks (clergy) guilty of crime to the ordinary 
 civil tribunals, jiut ecclesiastical dignities at the 
 royal disposal, prevented all appeals to Rome, and 
 made Henry the virtual head of the Church. To 
 these, however, under pressure, he set his seal ; 
 but as he had been led to suppose the King would 
 have been satisfied with a merely verbal a.ssent, 
 — a very different thing in the morality of his 
 age, — when compelled to affix his seal, he felt 
 him.self entrapped, and guilty of a great sin. 
 The Pope absolved him. and he proceeded to 
 anathenuitize the Constitutions with energy. lu 
 so doing he had great pojiular symp.athy. To be 
 sure, the ( 'onstitutions were not novelties ; yet they 
 appeared .so in the novel form of statutes. Tliey 
 .were really most beneficent, helpful in raising 
 England out of barbarism into civilization ; and 
 Henry was right in urging them, liut, as they 
 undoubtedly detracted from the jiapal and eccle- 
 siastical power, Becket from his stand-point was 
 also rigiit. The battle thereafter wiiged inces- 
 santly between king and prelate, disastrously for 
 the latter. \\\ assembly of the people was held 
 at Norlhamiilou. Becket was citinl to apjieai 
 before it to answer the suit of Jolin the Marshal,
 
 BECKET. 
 
 231 
 
 BECKET. 
 
 •who had charged him with injustice, and had the 
 case removed from tlie an.'hbi.sliop's to the king's 
 court. Tims to liimsdi' tlu^ (Uarondou ('onstilu- 
 tious, wliich saiietioiu'd siurli proceedings, were 
 applied; but it surely was unworthy of the king, 
 after having gotti'U jiim in his power on one pre- 
 text, to raise a charge of malfeasance in office so 
 long a time after his connection with the chancel- 
 lorship had ceased. This was a mean trick. 
 Becket denied the autliority of the council over 
 him, appealeil to the l'o])e, refused to in;dce any 
 explanation, fled in disguise, and after hiding in 
 Englanil, at last, with two companions, crossed 
 the Channel from Sandwich to Gravelines, Nov. 
 2, 110-1. He hastened to Sens, where the Pope 
 (.Mexander III.) then was, whither, also, the 
 King's legates were bending their steps. The 
 Pope favored, Louis VH. of France kindly re- 
 ceived liiui, and he retired to the Cistercian mon- 
 astery of Contigny, where he passed tlie next 
 two years. The Pope acted cautiously in tlie 
 matter, because Henry had shown a disposition 
 to favor the anti-pope, Pascal HI. But, when tlie 
 Archbi.shop of York officiated at the coronation 
 of Henry's son without the Pope's permission, the 
 latter took decided measures, and tlireat 'ued ex- 
 communication if the King did not make peace 
 with Becket. This he did July 22, 1170, at 
 Preteval in Vendome. The first act of the re- 
 instated archbishop was to excommunicate all his 
 enemies, — the Archbishop of York, and the 
 bishops w'hn had taken part in the coronation, or 
 who favored the Clarendon Constitutions. Becket 
 returned to England, and was warmly received. 
 His friends were many. The excommunicated 
 ]irelates fled to Korinandy, where Henry was: 
 their arrival created a great sensation. The King 
 is said to have exclaimed, "By God's eyes I if all 
 are ejccommunicated who were concerned iu the 
 coronation, I am excommunicated also. Is this 
 varletthati loaded with kindness, that came first 
 to court to me on a lame mule, to insult me and 
 my children, and to take my crown from me ? 
 What cowards liave I about mo, that no one will 
 deliver me from this low-born priest! " Four of 
 Henry's knights — -Reginald Fitzurse, Hugh de 
 i\Iorville, William de Tracy, and Richard de 
 Breton — really or affectedly understood the 
 King's words literally; and, making a hasty jour- 
 ney to Canterbury, they murdered him coolly, 
 -I'utally, in Canterbury' Cathedral. Becket made 
 no attempt at resistance ; indeed, he courted mar- 
 tyrdom. 
 
 Death and Consequences. — The murder of 
 Becket has been considered merely a deserved 
 fate, a piece of rude yet even-handed justice; and 
 by others a veritable martyrdom. But Becket 
 was far from being a saint. He was abusive in his 
 speech, haughty in his manner, arrogant in his 
 claims : yet, however deeply he had insulted 
 his sovereign, he was no traitor ; and, because this 
 was the ostensible ground for the murder, the act' 
 was foul, cowardly, only excusable from the tui'- 
 bulence of the time. — ■ On the very night of the 
 murder, the miracles which made the shrine of 
 Tliomas Becket so famous began. People from 
 all parts of England made pilgrimages to Ins 
 tomb: one such is immortalized in Chaucer's 
 Canterbury Talcs. He was called " saint " long 
 before he was formally canonized, wluch was two 
 
 years afterwards. The news of the murder 
 greatly affected Henry, and he took rigorous and 
 indeed humiliating measures to remove the popu- 
 lar imiircssion that he was directly responsible for 
 it. One of tbe most remarkable scenes in lii.s- 
 tory was enacted in Canterbury Cathedial when 
 Henry II. of England, dressed i;i a hair shirt, 
 laid his' head upon Thomas's tomb, and was 
 whipiied by the monks and clergy ]ire.sent. But 
 he stooped to conquer. He was a more powerful 
 king after this penance. 
 
 Character. ^ — Thomas Becket is a fine study. 
 He came at a time when tlie country was ripe fo» 
 progress; and, while chancellor, he hastened the 
 good work ; but in his later years lie tried to 
 stem the tide. The interest of his life for most 
 persons begins wdieii he leaves the pomp of the 
 chancellor for the asceticism of the arclibisliop. 
 It was of deliberate purpose that he entered into 
 opposition to the King. He dreamed of showing 
 a devotion to the Catholic Church equal to that 
 of his great predecessor Anselra; but alas! he 
 had not the same genius, self-control, and tact. 
 Anselm and Henry I. contended for sniiremacy, 
 but tlie friendship between them was not broken. 
 ISeoket contended so hotly, tliat he was in open 
 feud with his sovereign. Becket was the first 
 Ultramontane of his day, bent upon the upliold- 
 ing of papal privileges, more eager than the Pope 
 about them. Curiously enough, he disappointed 
 his two patrons, Theobald (because as chancellor 
 he seemed to forget the Church), and Henry 
 (because as archbishop he seemed to forget the 
 State). Y'et, in serving these two causes so faith- 
 fully, he was not inconsistent witli that guiding 
 principle already mentioned, — to be faithful 
 to his master. But this principle surely led to 
 great changes of outward conduct, and hence to 
 insinuations of hypocrisy. Unfortunately, the 
 archiepiscopal throne was not fitted to him; and 
 hence he discharged its duties in a strained 
 fashion, like a man who conscientiously is acting 
 consciously a part. It is also important, in 
 weighing his character as archbishop, to bear in 
 mind that Thomas died for tlie rights of liis 
 own church, — for the right of the Archbishop of 
 Canterbury, and none otlier, to crown the King 
 of England, but that tlie struggle began upon 
 quite a different point, viz., the question of the 
 exemption of the clergy from temporal jurisdic- 
 tion. 
 
 Lit. — Original sources, the letters and con- 
 temporary biographies of Becket are printed in 
 ]\Ialerkds for the llistorij of Thomas Bectct, Arch- 
 bishop of Cantcrbunj, edited by James Ci!.\igie 
 Rohektson, Canon of Canterbury; published, 
 under tlie direction of the jNIaster of the Rolls, 
 1875 sqq., 5th vol. 1881. This i)ublication super- 
 sedes the ill-arranged collection of Dr. J. A. 
 Giles in 8 vols., Oxford, 1S4.5-46. 
 
 Biof/ra/>hies. — J. A. Ciii.KS: The Life and Let- 
 ters of Thomas (i Becket, London, 18iG, 2 vols. ; 
 F. F. Buss : Der heil. Tliouias unci sein Kampf fiir 
 die Freihed der Kirche, Maiiiz, 1856 ; Mokris : Lfe 
 and Marti/rdoni of St. Tliomas Becket, London, 
 1859; .1. C. RoBEUTsON : Becket, Archbishop of 
 Canterburi/ : a Biography, London, 1859 (contains 
 list of sources). 
 
 Sketches. — .1. A. Fuoude . Life and Times of 
 Thomas Becket, London and Xew York, l.'J78
 
 BEDE. 
 
 232 
 
 BEDELL. 
 
 (Originally published in four ai-ticles in the Ninc- 
 teenlli Centunj. the series was criticised by Mr. 
 Freeman, in the Contemporary Review of that 
 year, on the ground of gross inaccuracy. This 
 attack gave rise to a notable exchange of articles 
 between the distinguished historians.) See also in 
 The Jlimain.i of Rev. R. H. Froudc, Derby, 1839. 
 4 vols. : 1) an FIooic : TAres of the Archbishops of 
 Cwiterliitrji, Loudon. 186(1 sqq. ; Lord Cami'BELl: 
 Lives of till- < hdnrellors of I'Jiu/lnnd, London. 184G, 
 7 vols. ; Dean Stanley : Historical Memorials 
 of Canterhun/, Gth ed , London. 1872; H. Rf.u- 
 TER : Alexander III , Leipzig. 1860-04,3 vols., 
 and the general church histories which touch 
 upon iUc pfiiiul. s.\MrKi, M. JACKSON. 
 
 BEDE, or Baeda, The Venerable {lieda I'enenr 
 bills), b. 674; d. May 26, 73.5; was from Ids seventh 
 year educated in the Monastery of WVannouth ; 
 moved afterwards to that of Jarrow. where he was 
 ordaiued deacon m his nineteenth, and presbyter 
 in his thirtieth, year, and remained there for the 
 rest of his life, dividing his time between devo- 
 tional exercises and studies, teaching, and writ- 
 ing. What we know of his life we owe to notices 
 scattered throughout his own works, especially 
 Hist. EccL, V. 24. and to a letter on his death bj' 
 one of his pupils, Cuthbert. What the later 
 vilce. contain is nothing but worthless fancies. 
 See Geiile: Dis/intalio de IVh. Bcil., Leyden, 
 18-38; K. Weuxek : Beda d Khricurdirie, Vienn.a, 
 1875; and the prefaces and introductions to the 
 editions of Bede's works by Stevenson and Giles. 
 A popular account is given in the series. Fathers 
 for English Readers, by G. F. Browne, London, 
 [1879]. 
 
 The works of Bede range over the whole field 
 of knowledge occupied at his time, — exegesis, 
 grammar, metrics, physics, astronomy, chronol- 
 ogy, history, and biography. At the end of his 
 ///.</. I-lrrl. he gives himself a list of his works : 
 but much has become lost, much has been re- 
 placed by spurious matter, and much is still left 
 in manuscript The earlier editions of his col- 
 lected works — Paris. 1544; Basle, 1563; Cologne, 
 1612 — are completely uncritical; and even the 
 latest, by Giles, London, 1843 (12 vols. 8vo), 
 and in Patrol. Cursus, Paris, 1850 (xc-xcv), are 
 unsatisfactory. Of his Ecclesia.'<tical Histori/, 
 however, there are good editions by Smitii (1722). 
 Stevenson (1838).' Moberly (1869) On their 
 time all these works exercised a great iuHuence. 
 They were copied over and over again : they were 
 found in every lilirary of Europe. Bede, the 
 humble monk, living in seclusion in a small 
 English cloister, was indeed the teaclier of the 
 whole civilized world. 
 
 That group of Bede's vforks which has the 
 least interest comprises his poems, of which 
 the Liber Epii/rammatum is lost, and the Liber 
 Hymttorum spurious, so that the Vita Cndberti 
 and a few minor poems are the oidy specimens 
 left; his books I)e Orthoi/rapkia, De Melrica Arte, 
 in which he attempts to i>rove the superiority of 
 the metaphorical language of the Bible over that 
 of the (ireeks; and IJe Natxira Rerum, a com- 
 pendium of astronomy and geography, establish- 
 ing a reconciliation of the cosmogony of the 
 Bible with that of the classical mythology. 
 Much more interest has the second group, the 
 exegetical ; though, of the twenty-tivc which 
 
 Bede himself mentions, the commentaries on 
 Isaiah, Daniel, the minor prophets, Ezra and 
 Nehemiah, are lost; and those on the Kings, 
 Job, Genesis, the Pentateuch, and the Acts, are 
 spurious. lu these commentaries the allegorical 
 explanation has completely superseded the gram- 
 matica-historical, and one of the chief demands 
 of the method is a fidl quotation of the views of 
 the Fathers. 
 
 Those works which have contributed most to 
 Bede's fame are his historical writings, more espe- 
 cially his Historia Ecclesia.ttica (Jenli.i Britonum. 
 It was tinished in 731. and gives the political and 
 ecclesiastical history of England, from Julius 
 Cajsar down to the date of its completion. The 
 introduction, treating the period befoi-e the con- 
 version of the Anglo-Saxons, is a mere compila- 
 tion from Orosius, Gildas, Prosper .Equit.. the 
 Vila N. German!, etc. ; but the real body of the 
 work, treating the period from 596 to 731, is an 
 independent and conscientious study of docu- 
 ments and other historical sources, and has made 
 Bede the father of ecclesiastical history in the 
 English language. It was translated from Latin 
 into Saxon by King Alfred. Another work, Ve 
 Ratione Temporum. is a complete chronology, to 
 which is added the De .Etatibiis Seruli Aix, an 
 outline of the world's history, inspired by Au- 
 gustine (iiermo 259 in oct. pasch.). The martyr- 
 ologies ascribed to Bede ai'e probablv spurious. 
 
 BEDELL, William, b. Christmas, lo71, at Black- 
 Notley, Essex, Eng. ; d. Feb. 7, 1642. He was 
 a scholar, and afterwards a fellow of Ennnanuel 
 College, Cambridge. His first charge was at St. 
 Ednnnid's-Burv. Suffolk; but after five years' .ser- 
 vice he went to \'enice (1607) as chaplain to Sir 
 Henry Wottou, where he nuide the acquaintance 
 of Father Paolo .Sarpi, who intrusted to his care 
 the maunscript of his Histori/ of the Council of 
 Trent. In 1610 he returned to St. Edmund'-s- 
 Bury. and theie married i\Irs. Leah Maw, the 
 widow of the recorder of the town, who "had 
 five small children, and but a small estate." In 
 1616, since "the very great (Bury) congregation 
 found a great defect in his voice," he removed 
 to Great Horningshearth, and in 1627 he was 
 a]ipointed " Provost of the College of the Holy 
 and Cndivided Trinity, near Dublin, in Ireland." 
 Here he was very eHicient. Without his knowl- 
 edge, he was made, in 1629. bishop of the united 
 dioceses of Kilmore and Ardagh ; but, consist- 
 ently with his views on episcopal plurality, he 
 gave up the latter see (1633). His position was 
 quite trying, owing to opposition ; but amoug the 
 people he enjoyed great esteem, and he reformed 
 many abuses. He also h.ad the Old Testament 
 translateil into Irish (it was not ]>ublishe(l until 
 1685). When the Irish rebellion of Oct. 23, 1641, 
 broke out, his home was a refuge for the neigh- 
 boring English: but he was kept there a sort of 
 prisoner liy the insnrgent.s, until Christmas, when 
 Ednuind O'Ueilly arrested him, and conveye<l the 
 whole family to Longhwatcr C^astle, where, how- 
 ever, they w-ere well treated. After the Christmas 
 holidays, he was reli'ased. and went to live with 
 the Kev. Deimis Sheridan, and there he died. 
 He wrote a large tieati.se on the questions, 
 " Where was our religion before Luther?" and, 
 "What became of our ancestors who died in 
 Popery?" His IJfe, with the Letters beticeet>
 
 SfjHiorilljA* 
 
 233 
 
 BEELZEBUB. 
 
 WwUlexu'cirth and Bedell, vv'as published by Hishop 
 Burnet, London, 1()S5; liy Dr. W. .).' Monck 
 Jlason, London, l«l;i; best his Life,!'!) his Son, 
 edited by T. W. Jones, Camden Society, LS72. 
 
 BEECHER, Lyman, b. at New Haven, Oct. 12, 
 1775 ; d. at Brooklyn, .Ian. 10, 1803; was educated 
 at Yale College ; ordained pastor of Kast Ilanip- 
 ton, L.I., in Sept. 5, 170!J ; removed in 1810 to 
 Litchfield, Conn., and thence^, in 1820, to Boston; 
 was chosen president, and professor of theolojjy of 
 Lane Theological Seminary, C'inciimati, in 18:32; 
 returned in 1852 to Boston, and spent the last 
 days of his life in Brooklyn. He was pre-eminent 
 as a preacher for an unconmion union of imagina- 
 tion, fervor, and logic. At the same time he was 
 a profound student of theology, of which he was 
 professor for twenty years. Yet his results were 
 never presented in scholastic and technical forms, 
 but in the language of real life. He developed a 
 theology to be preached for the conversion and 
 sanctification of men, and for the regeneration of 
 human society. His theological system is most 
 fully developed in his Views of Theology, the Faith 
 once delivered to the Saints, and his Reply to a 
 Reoiew of it, and in The Bible a Code of Lairs. In 
 the great theological and ecclesiastical controversy 
 that shoolc New EngLand, and divided the Pres- 
 byterian Church, he took a prominent part. [He 
 was a man of originality and gi'eat force of char- 
 acter, foremost and fervid in denouncing duel- 
 ling, intemperance, and every form of innnorality. 
 His Six Sermons on Intemperance exertud a world- 
 wide influence. His nunistry was eminently 
 blessed to the conversion of souls, and has been 
 continued by his children, of whom Edward, 
 Charles, Henry Ward, Thomas K., Catharine, 
 Harriet (Mrs. Stowe), have attained great prond- 
 nence in their respective lines of work.] His 
 Autobiography and Correspondence, edited by 
 Charles Beecher, appeared in 2 vols., in New 
 Y'ork, 1864-65, and his Works, in 3 vols., Boston, 
 
 1852. EDWARD BKECHER. 
 
 BEE-CULTURE AMONG THE HEBREWS. 
 
 There are and have always been many wild bees 
 in Palestine, which hive in crevices of rocks, old 
 trees, and the like (Deut. xxxii. 13 ; Judg. xiv. 
 8 ; 1 Sam. xiv. 25 sqq. ; cf . Herod, 5, 14). Be- 
 cause their sting is painful and dangerous, hostile 
 armies are compared to them (Deut. i. 44; Ps. 
 cxviii. 12 ; Isa. vii. 18 ; cf . Homer's Iliad, 2, 87 
 sqq.). There were also domestic bees, which 
 were handled by the bee-keepers, and obeyed the 
 customary hissing and whistling (cf. the Com- 
 mentaries on Isa. V. 26 ; Zech. x. 8). According 
 to Philo, some of the Essenes devoted themselves 
 to bee-cidture (Mang. ed., II. p. 633, Bohn's trans, 
 vol. iv. p. 220) ; and this industry is also men- 
 tioned in the Tahuud. Honey is frequently 
 mentioned in the Bible as a favorite article of 
 food (2 Sam. xvii. 29 ; Ps. xix. 11 ; Prov. xxiv. 
 13, XXV. 16 sqq. ; Cant. v. 1 ; Ezek. xvi. 13; Luke 
 xxiv. 42). " Flowing with milk and honey " was 
 the phrase descriptive of a rich land (Exod. iii. 8 ; 
 Isa. vii. 15 ; Jer. xi. 5 ; Ezek. xx. 6) ; also " a land 
 of oil, olive, and honey " (Deut. viii. 8 ; 2 Kings 
 xviii. 32). We find honey introduced in similes 
 (Prov. V. 3, xviii. 24 ; Cant. iv. 11) ; and Deborah, 
 which means "bee," was a favorite female name. 
 1^51, d'vash, usually rendered " honey," occa- 
 .'iionally means rather " debs ; " i.e., the sh-up 
 
 made of lioiled grape-must, and which is an 
 important article of connnerce in the East (Gen. 
 xliii. 11 ; Ezek. xxvii. 17.) Honey might not be 
 used in meat-offerings (Lev. ii. 11 sq.), not be- 
 cause bees were unclean, for a tithe of honey was 
 on one occasion paid to the jiriests (2 Chron. 
 xxxi. 5), but either because it .so quickly soured, 
 or else because it emitted an offensive odor when 
 burnt. See Lf.nckkke: Canaan, [Thomson: 
 Land and Book ; Kitto : Physical History of Pal- 
 estine; RoiUNSON : Later Biblical Researches , Tris- 
 tram : Land of Israel}. RUETSCHI. 
 
 BEEL'ZEBUB (properly, in all the New- Testa- 
 ment passages, — Matt. x. 25, xii. 24, 27 ; ]\Lark iii. 
 22; Luke xi. 15, 18, 19, — Beelzebul), the name of 
 the prince of the demons ; i.e., of Satan, and 
 means "the Baal, master of the house." Our 
 Lord, in Matt. x. 25, plays upon the word. But 
 we are justified in tracing Beelzebul to the much 
 older name Baal Zebub, which is foimd in the 
 Old Testament as tliat of aii idol. 
 
 1. Baal Zeliub was lionored in Ekron, where 
 he had a temple and an oracle (2 Kings i. 3). 
 The name means "lord of flies." In classical 
 mythology, th(>re was a god who protected from 
 flies. It is related that Hercules banished the 
 fJies from Olympus by erecting a shrine to Zeus 
 Apomuios {A verier of flies) ; and the Romans 
 called Hercules Apomuios. A similar deity is 
 mentioned in different places; the excuse for 
 such worship being the plague flies cause in those 
 warm countries. 
 
 The name "lord of flics" compels us to con- 
 sider him the god of the sender of, as well as the 
 protector from, flies ; and, further, as Baal Zebub 
 is identical with the sun-god, we may conjecture 
 his name came from the fact that flies are most 
 numerous in midsummer, when the sun is warm- 
 est. And that he had an oracle is to be explained 
 by a substitution of effect for cause. Flies come 
 obedient to certain atmospheric conditions; and 
 so the god was considered to have caused these 
 conditions, and so at length his control would be 
 extended to other events, and accordingly he was 
 consulted. See Baal. [More probably because 
 flies were believed, at all events by the Baby- 
 lonians, to reveal the future. See Lenormant, 
 La Divination, p. 95.] 
 
 2. Beelzebul was early identified with Baal 
 Zebub ; and, as was so often the case, turned into 
 a bad demon, in accordance with the later Jewish 
 ideas. Since Lightfoot (Horce Heb. in loco), it has 
 been common to say that the name of the demon 
 Beelzebul was pm-posely made out of Beelzebub, 
 in order to express contempt and horror; i.e., 
 " lord of dung," instead of " lord of flies." But, 
 inasmuch as such a name for Satan does not occur 
 outside of the New Testament, it is better to seek 
 its derivation in the old Ekronic worship, which 
 might, in the New-Testament times, have still 
 existed. Beelzebul may therefore be looked 
 upon as precisely the same name as Beelzebub, 
 except that the last syllable was softened, and 
 therefore as ha%ang the same meaning. But why 
 did such a god become the head of the demons ? 
 Because the fly is an unclean and annoying thing ; 
 and so the connection of Baal with the flies 
 showed that he was in a sense the most unclean 
 god, and therefore worthy of the greatest con- 
 tempt. The rabbins, according to Seldeu, said,
 
 BEER. 
 
 234 
 
 BELGIC. 
 
 that, while flies came in clouds about the heathen 
 sacrifices, thev never approached the Hebrew. 
 See Literature", imder B.\al. wolf baudissin. 
 
 BE'ER (tvell). 1. Name of a station of the 
 Israelites upon the desert, to the north of jSIoab 
 (Num. xxi. 16, 18) ; perhaps identical with Beer- 
 elini, "the well of the heroes" (Isa. xv. 8). 2. 
 The place in Judah to which Jotliani fled from 
 Abiraelech (Judg. ix. 21). 
 
 BEE'ROTH {llie icells), one of the fom- Ilivite 
 cities to make a treaty with Joshua (Josh. ix. 
 17), now called el-Bireh ; the fii-st resting-place 
 upon the route from Jerusalem to Nablus, and 
 tlierefore not unlikely, as tradition says, the place 
 where Mary discovered that the child Jesus was 
 not "in the company" (Luke ii. -14). 
 
 BE'ER-SHE'BA (icell of seven or of the oath) was 
 situated at the entrance of the desert, and at the 
 extreme limit of the land of Judah ; hence the 
 expression "all Israel from Dan to Beer-sheba." 
 It is named thirty-three times in the Bible, only 
 in the Old Testament. It has been a centre of 
 religious interest from the earliest times. There 
 Abraham lived (Gen. xxi. 33) : indeed, by his 
 transaction with .\bimelech (25-33) the name was 
 given. From there went Abraham to sacrifice 
 Isaac (xxii. 1, cf. 19). Isaac lived there (xxvi. 
 33). After the conquest it formed part of Judah. 
 Elijah fled thither (1 Kings xix. 3). It was a 
 .seat of idolatrous worsliip (Amos v. 5, viii. 14). In 
 the time of Eusebius and Jerome it was a large 
 village or town fortified by the Romans. It was, 
 in the middle ages, the seat of a bishopric attached 
 to Jerusalem. It then faded out of notice, but 
 in the fourteenth century was rediscovered, but 
 as a ruin. To-day it bears the name Bir-el-Seha, 
 interpreted by the Arabs, " the well of the lion," 
 and has two large, fine wells, surrounded by 
 troughs used for watering flocks and herds, — so 
 patriarchal is the manner of life of the siuTound- 
 ing nomads. 
 
 BECHARDS and BEGUINES. In the latter 
 part of the twelfth centmy, associations of women 
 were formed in several cities of the Netherlands, 
 living together in a common house, and leading a 
 pious life, under the supermtendence of a mar/is- 
 tra, and according to certain simple rules, but 
 making no vows. Such women were called Be- 
 ghinfe or Ber/uttm. The origin of these associa- 
 tions was owing to that tending towards a life of 
 contemplation, seclusion, and self-sacrifice, which 
 prevailed throughout tlie twelfth and tliirteenth 
 century; l)ut no donbt the crusades also played 
 a part, depriving many wives of their husliands, 
 and preventing many virguis from marrj-ing. 
 The origin of the name is very doubtful, some 
 deriving it from Lambert le Begue, a priest wlio 
 lived at Liege about 1180, and is said to have 
 been the founder of these associations ; others, 
 from an Alsatian word, he(j(jf.n,"io beg;" others, 
 again, from .St. Begga, the daughter of Pepin of 
 Landen, and the supposed patron saint of the 
 associations. The form Ber/uttf was originally a 
 nickname, proliably derived from the term JBei 
 Gott, much u.sed liy the members. 
 
 In the l>eginning of the thirteenth century sim- 
 ilar associations of men were formed ; one existed 
 at Louvain, in 1220. The members of the.se 
 associations were called Bcgini, or Ber/hardi. In 
 1300 such an association was formed at Antwei-p, 
 
 for the purpose of takiitg care of the poor, nurs- 
 ing the sick, and burying the dead. Its mem- 
 ber were often called Alexions. after tlieir patron 
 saint Alexius; or Cellitce, from (.-eUa. "a grave.' 
 The people also called them Lollards, from lollen 
 " to sing " or " to pray." 
 
 As these associations came in connection with 
 the mendicant orders, and their members began 
 to wander tlirough the countries begging, heresies 
 crept in ; and from the middle of the thirteenth, 
 and more especially in the fourteenth century, 
 the name Beghard became s^monymous with here- 
 tic ; in Germany, with the " Brethren of the Free 
 Spirit ; " in France and Italy, with the " Fra- 
 tricelli." Popes and bishops persecuted them. In 
 France and the regions along the Rhine they 
 were often burnt. At the C'omicil of Vienna 
 (1311) Clement V. issued two bulls suppressing 
 both the Beghards and the BegTiines. John 
 XXIL, however, confined the effect of the bulls 
 to the heretical members of the associations : the 
 Beguines he protected, both in the Netherlands 
 and in Italy. Nevertheless, in the fifteenth cen- 
 tury, the associations came into ill repute every- 
 where, or. account of the frivolous lives their 
 members led ; and their numbers decreased. At 
 present there are only a few beguinagice left in 
 Belgium, and they are nearly empty. 
 
 Lit. — MosHKiM : De Beghardis et Beguiannhus, 
 Leipzig, 1790 ; IIallmaxn : Die Geschiclite des 
 Ursprungs der belgiichen Beghinen, Berlin, 1843; 
 Chr. Schmidt: Die Strassbm-ger Beguinenhditser 
 im Mittelalter. in Alsatia, 1859. 
 
 BEKKER, Balthasar, b. in West Frie.sland, 
 March 3(1, 1G34; d. there June 11, 1698; was 
 pastor at Franecker, and afterw.ards, since 1679, 
 in Amsterdam, but was dismissed 1692. Already 
 his De vaste Spysen der Vohnaaktcn (•' Strong Fooil 
 for the Perfect "), 1676, gave offence, and roused 
 a suspicion of Socinianism. In 1680 followed 
 Ondersoek van de Betekenige der Kometen, ridicul- 
 ing the superstitious fears which the comet of 
 that year called forth, and made a still greater 
 sensation and gi-eater scandal. But finally his 
 De betoverde Wecrcld (1691), in which he denied 
 the existence of sorcery, magic, possessions by 
 the Devil, and of the Devil himself, caused the 
 consistory of Amsterdam to institute a formal. 
 process against him, and he was deposed. 
 
 BEL. See Baai.. 
 
 BEL AND DRAGON. See Apocrypha, Old 
 Testament. 
 
 BELGIC CONFESSION, The, w.is written in 
 French in 1561 by Guido de Brfes (1523-67), 
 aided by Adrien de Saravia (profes.sor of theology 
 in Leyden, afterwards in Cambridge, wliere he 
 died 1613), II. Jlodetus (for .some time chaplain 
 of AVilliam of Orange), and G. Wiugen. It was 
 revi.sed l)y Fr.ancis .lunius of Bourges (l.')45- 
 1602), a student of Calvin's, pastor of a AValloon 
 congregation at .\ntwerp, and afterwards ] profess- 
 or of theologv' at T^eyden, who abridged the 
 sixteenth article, and .sent a copv to (ieneva and 
 other churches for approval. It was probably 
 printed in 1562, or at all events in 1566, and 
 .afterwards translated into Dutch, German, .and 
 Latin. It w.as presented to Philip II. in 1562, 
 with the vain liope of securing toleration. It 
 was formally adopted by svnods .at Antwerp 
 (156C), Wcsel (1508), ICinden (1-571), Dort
 
 BELGIUM. 
 
 235 
 
 BELGIUM. 
 
 (1574), Middlebuff; (1581), again by tlie great 
 synod of Dort, April 29, 1(J19. But inasnnich as 
 the Arininians liad demanded pai'tial changes, 
 and tlie text liad licconie coiTujit, the synod of 
 Dort submitted the Freneli, Latin, and Dutcli 
 texts to a careful revision. Since tliat time tlie 
 Belgic Confession, together witli tlie Heidelberg 
 Catechism, has been the I'ecognized synihol of 
 the Reformed Churches in Holland and Belgium, 
 and of the Reformed (Dutch) Church in Amer- 
 ica. 
 
 The Belgic Confession contain.s thirty-seven 
 articles, and follows the order of the Galilean 
 Confession, but is less polemical and full and 
 elaborate, especially on the Trinity, the Incarna- 
 tion, the Church, and the Sacraments. It is, 
 upon the whole, the best symbolical statement of 
 the Calvinistic system of doctrine, with the ex- 
 ception of the Westminster Confe.ssion. 
 
 The French text must lie considered as the 
 original. Of the first edition of 1.5G1 or 1.562 no 
 copies are known. The synod of Antwerp, in 
 September, 1580, ordered a precise parchment 
 copy of the revised text of .Junius to be made tor 
 its archives, which cojiy had to be signed by 
 every new minister. This manuscript has always 
 been regarded in the Belgic churches as the 
 authentic document. The first Latin translation 
 was made from Junius* text by Beza, or under 
 his direction, for the Hannonia Confessionum, 
 Geneva, 1581. The same passed into the first 
 edition of the Corpus el Syntagma Confessionum, 
 (Jeueva, 1612. A second Latin translation was 
 prepared by Festus Hommius for the synod of 
 Dort, 1618, revised and approved 1619 ; and from 
 it was made the excellent English translation in 
 use in the Reformed (Dutch) Church in America. 
 It appeared in Greek 1623, 1653, and 166(1, at 
 Utrecht. 
 
 Lit. — H. Grotius : Annates ei Hist, de rebus 
 Belgicis, Amstel., 1658; Gerh. Brandt: His- 
 torie der Reformatie in en omtrent de Nedcrlanden, 
 Amst., 1671-74, 4 vols. (English translation by 
 Chamberlayne, London, 1720-23, 4 vols.) ; Ypey 
 EX Deriiout : Geschiedenissen der Nederlandsche 
 Hervonnde Kerb., Breda, 1819-27, 4 vols. ; 
 ScHAFF : Ci-eeds of Cliristeudom, vo\. I. pp. 502- 
 508, vol. III. pp. .383-436. 
 
 BELCIUM. The introduction of Christianity 
 in those territories which in 1830 were formed 
 into the kingdom of Belgium, is obscure : at the 
 time of Constantine, however, several episcopal 
 sees had been e.stablished here. The salient 
 points in the history of the Belgic Church 
 before the Reformation are: the lirilliant part 
 which the Belgic knights played in the first cru- 
 sades ; the rise of such sects as the Beghards and 
 Beguines, the Lollai-ds, and the Fralres Communis 
 Vit(e, Brethren of the Common Life (see titles); 
 and the appearance of Ruysbroeck and Erasmus. 
 The first trace of an open sympathy with Luther 
 was found in an Augustine monastery in Ant- 
 werp, whose prior, Jacob Spreng, was carried a 
 prisoner to Brussels in 1521, and compelled to 
 retract. In 1522 the whole monastery was broken 
 up; and in 1523 two of its monks, Henri Yoes 
 and Jean Esch, were burnt in Brussels. But in 
 spite of very harsh edicts, — Worms, 1521, Malines, 
 1526, Brussels, 1529, 1531, etc., — preventing the 
 introduction and sale of Protestant wi-itings, pur- 
 
 sviing and punishing Protestant preachers, etc., 
 the Reformation spread, especially among the 
 lower and middle classes. Marguerite of .Savoy 
 was not a fanatic, and Maria of Hungary was 
 even suspected of favoring the movement. The 
 excesses, however, of the Anabaptists, and the 
 extravagances of the Brethren of the Free Spirit, 
 liurt the Protestant cause even in the eyes of its 
 friends, and justified the government in applying 
 more effective means of resistance. By an ordi- 
 nance of April 20, 15.50, Charles V. introduced 
 the SpanLsh hupiisition in the provinces; and. 
 although the opposition was so unanimous and 
 decided that the name of the institution had to 
 be altered, the institution itself was actually 
 established and put in operation by Philip II. 
 Nevertheless, the Belgic Confession (see title) 
 was published in 1562, sent to Philip II. in 1563, 
 and accepted by the synod of Antwerp 1566. In 
 1567 the Duke of Alva arrived, and the innuedi 
 ate result was absolute suppression on the one 
 side, open rebellion on the other. Alva's suc- 
 cessor, however, Alexander of Parma, succeeded 
 by the treaty of Arras (May 17, 1579) in separat- 
 ing the southern provinces from the northern, 
 and in reconciling them with Spain ; and from 
 this moment Belgium became the scene of a most 
 violent Roman-Catholic re-action. When Joseph 
 II. published his edict of toleration, Oct. 13, 1781, 
 the whole people arose, inflamed by the .Jesuits 
 and the priests, and a revolution was about to 
 break out again, but this time against, and not 
 for, religious freedom. Again, in 1815, when the 
 southern and northern provinces had been united 
 into one kingdom, the Roman Catholics of Bel- 
 gium, fearing the contact with Protestant Hol- 
 land, used every kind of intrigiie, from the most 
 insidious seductions in the royal cal.iinets, to the 
 grossest play upon popular passions in the streets, 
 in order to bring about a separation. In 1830 
 they succeeded. 
 
 According to the census of 1846, the last which 
 paid any regard to the difference of confession, 
 there were, out of 4,337,196 inhabitants, only 
 10,323 non-catholics. Since that time, the popu- 
 lation has increased to 5,403,006 ; but the pro- 
 portion between the various confessions has not 
 changed.- There are hardly more than 10,000 
 Protestants and 1,000 Jews in the country. At 
 the head of the Roman-Catholic Church stands 
 the Archbishop of Malines, and by his side five 
 bishops, — of Liege, Naniur, Tournaj', Ghent, and 
 Bruges. But the archbishop is oidy an adminis- 
 trative centre. The bishops stand innnediately 
 under the Pope, and their power is very great. 
 They have the right of all ecclesiastical appoint- 
 ments in their dioceses, and all officials are ad 
 nutum ainuL'iblles. The church has six theological 
 seminaries and a theological faculty in the L'ni- 
 versity of Louvain : in the three other universi- 
 ties — Ghent, Lifege, and Brussels — there are no 
 theological faculties. The Protestants are organ- 
 ized into ten congregations, with fourteen minis- 
 ters, and governed by ii synod, which assembles 
 every year. According to the constitution of 
 1830, the Church is wholly independent of the 
 State. Every denomination has the right of pub- 
 lic worship, but education has been until lately 
 completely controlled by the Roman-Catholic 
 priests and the .lesuits. The emancipation of
 
 BELIAL. 
 
 236 
 
 BELLAMY. 
 
 the school has for several years been the burning 
 question of Belgian politics, tlie cause of cabinet 
 crises, and riots in the streets ; and the victory of 
 the liberal party is by no means assm-ed, although 
 recently great strides have been taken in this 
 direction. 
 
 BE'LIAL (worthlessness), correct form Beliar, 
 is given once in the New Testament (2 Cor. vi. 
 15) as tlie name of Satan (the Peshito has " Sa- 
 tan "). But in the Old Testament, Belial never 
 has this meaning: there it is an appellation, 
 "worthlessness," "destruetiveness," almost always 
 in connection with a word setting forth the per- 
 son or thing whose worthlessness or wickedness 
 is spoken of ; as, " num of Belial, ' most fre- 
 quently, '■ son of Belial," " men of Belial," 
 "daughter of Belial," further, "thoughts of Be- 
 lial," etc. ; and the adjunct is occasionally omitted, 
 as in 2 .Sam. xxiii. 6; Job xxxiv. 18; Nah. i. 
 15; when the word means the "bad," the "de- 
 stroyer," the " wicked." The etymology of the 
 word is h'lee, " without," and yah-ol, " profit," 
 either from yah-al, " to get on in the world " 
 (only ill the IHphil, " usefid "), or, better, from ah- 
 lah, to " ascend : therefore it means, to be " worth- 
 less." Although thus originally not a proper 
 name, but an appellation, in the later Jewish and 
 Christian literatiu-e it passed over into a name 
 for Satan, not as the "worthless," but as the 
 "destroyer." WOLF B.VUDISSIX. 
 
 BELKNAP, Jeremy, b. at Boston, June 4, 1744 ; 
 d. there, June 20, 1798; was educated in Harvard 
 College, and ordained pastor of the Congrega- 
 tional society of Dover, N.ll., 1767, and removed 
 in 1787 to Boston. He was one of the founders 
 of tlie Massachusetts Historical Society, and 
 ^\Tote, beside a number of sermons and Disserta- 
 tions upon the Character and Resurrection of Christ, 
 1795, a Hislori/ of New Hampshire, 3 vols., 17S4- 
 92, and American Biography, 2 vols., 1794-98. 
 
 BELLAMY, Joseph, was born in New Cheshire, 
 Conn., Feb. 20, 1719. He died at Bethlem 
 [Bethlehem], Conn., March 6, 1790, in tlie 
 seventy-second year of his age, and the fiftieth 
 of liis ininistry in that place. 
 
 In his boyhood he was remarkable for his love 
 of study, and his proficiency in it. ^\'hen only 
 sixteen years of age, he was graduated at Yale 
 College. His religious zeal, his taste and tem- 
 perament, were signs of his call to enter the 
 ministerial office. In part he [inrsued his theo- 
 logical studies with Jonathan Edwards at North- 
 ampton, Ma-ss. ^\'hen he was about the age of 
 eighteen years, he was approbated as a preacher 
 by the New Haven -Vssociation ; and on the 
 2d of April, 1740, soon after he had entered 
 his twenty-first year, he was ordained as pastor 
 of the church at Bethlem. Between 1740 and 
 1744 " the great awakening " was in progress 
 tinoughout New England. Young Bellamy threw 
 his whole soul into this work ; itinerated as an 
 evangelist among the churches; in two years 
 preached four hundri'd and fifty-eight times in 
 two hundred and tliirteen places. Many thought 
 him to be, on the \vh<)l(>, equal to A\'hitefield in 
 his f)OWer over a thoughtful audience. The 
 sources of his power lay in his majestic ])resence, 
 his expressive voice, his vivid imagination, his 
 deep and earnest feeling, his dramatic style of 
 thought and speech, his logical as well as rhetori- 
 
 cal skill, his clear apprehension of divine truth, 
 his pungent appeals to the conscience of his 
 hearers, his fervid and honest piety. The im- 
 pression that he was domineering arose, in part, 
 from his commanding manner. The impression 
 that he was harsh and rough arose, in part, from 
 the fact that he was frank and outspoken. He 
 was a character, and the faults commonlj- ascribed 
 to him were a natural result of his marked indi- 
 viduality. He struggled against them. In de- 
 .spite of them he retained a well-nigh unbounded 
 influence over those who knew him. In ecclesi- 
 astical councils his words were prized as emi- 
 nently judicious. His judgment was honored 
 by such literarj' men as presidents Burr, Davies, 
 Finley, Wheelock; such ministers as Rodgers, 
 Blair, Brainerd, Davenport, Tennent. He and 
 Hopkins and Edwards were united in a trium- 
 virate. In 1754 he was called, not unanimously, 
 to become the pastor of the first, then the only, 
 Presbjierian church in New- York City. The 
 Consociation refused to dismiss him. The call 
 was afterwards renewed, and again declined. 
 
 He is said to have been the first American pastor 
 who established a " school of the prophets " in his 
 own house (^Bibliotheca Sacra, vol. XXXVIII. pp. 
 372, 373). As a theological teacher he was noted 
 for his skill in detecting sophistry, his thorough 
 acquaintance with the distuictive principles of 
 Calvinism, the pithy- and sententious criticisms 
 which he passed upon his pupils. Among these 
 pupils were Dr. Jonathan Edwards, Dr. John 
 Smalley, Dr. Samuel Spring of Newburyport, 
 Dr. Ephraim Judson, Dr. Levi Hart, Dr. Joseph 
 Eckley of the Old South Chinch, Boston. Upon 
 men like these the depth and earnestness of his 
 religious character made a profound impression. 
 Pupils who were not candidates for the minis- 
 try were also .sent to him. Among these was 
 Aaron Burr, the future Vice-President of the 
 United States, and the son of Bellamy's life-long 
 friend Aaron Burr, president of Nassau Hall. 
 The pupils who were committed to his care re- 
 membered him with gratitude for his wit, which 
 was pregnant with wisdom. A volume of lacon- 
 ics might have been collected from his conversa- 
 tions with them. 
 
 The published writings of Bellamy fail to give 
 an adequate idea of his eloquence in the pulpit. 
 They develop, however, his keen insight into 
 human nature, his skill in unravelling the intrica- 
 cies of spurious religion, his fidelity to his con- 
 science, his zeal for the purity of tlie Church. 
 They are mainly devoted to the defence of Cal- 
 vinism against Antinomianism on the one hand, 
 and .Vrminianism on the other; al.so to the 
 delineation of true piety as distinguished from 
 fanaticism on the one hand, and latitu<linarian- 
 ism on the other. Some of his writings were 
 reprinted in Great Britain, and received high 
 commendation from such men as .\ndrew Fidler 
 and .Idlm Kyland. Througli the influence of 
 Dr. .Idhii Erskine and the Earl of Buehan, two 
 of Bellamy's warm admirers in .Scotland, he 
 received in' 1708 the degree of Doctor of Divinity 
 from the University of .Aberdeen. Some of ids 
 writings have passed through several editions, 
 and in 1811 were collected and republished in 
 New York. The edition consists of three octavo 
 volumes (pp. 540, 544, 546), and is prefaced by
 
 BELLARMINE. 
 
 237 
 
 BELLS. 
 
 iJr. Noah Benedict's seiiiion, and an appendix to 
 the same, delivered at the funeral of Hellaniy- 
 A highly enijihatic recommendation is jircfixcd 
 to tlie edition by l)rs. Kodgers and Miller of New 
 York, Dr. Tnimlmll of North Haven, Dr. Mor.se 
 of Charlestown, Dr. Backus of Bethlehem, J)r. 
 Wil.son of Bhiladelphia, Dr. Grillin, and l'rofe.s.s- 
 ors Woods and tStuart of Andover, the Kev. 
 Asaliel Hooker of Goshen, Conn., and the Kev. 
 James Kiehards of Newark. In 18.00 another 
 edition of Bellamy's collected works was j)ul)- 
 lished in Boston by the Doctrinal Tract and 
 Book Society. It consists of two octavo volumes 
 (pp. (113, 731), and is introduced with a memoir by 
 Kev. 'I'ryon Edwards, D.D. See also Sprague's 
 Aniiah, "vol. i. EDWARDS A. I'AKK. 
 
 BELLARMINE, Robert Frangois Romulus, b. at 
 Montepulciano, Tu.scany, Oct. 4, 1.042; d. in 
 Kome, Sept. 17, 1621 ; a nephew of I'ope Mar- 
 cellus II.; entered the Society of Jesus in 15t!0; 
 went in 1569 to Louvain, where he studied under 
 Bajus ; returned in 1576 to Kome, and was made 
 professor of controversional theology in the Cul- 
 legium Romanum , became rector of this institu- 
 tion in 1.592, cardinal in 1599, and Archbishop of 
 Capua in 1(502. His principal work, the result 
 of his labor in the Culleijiwn Romanum, is his 
 Disputationts de ( 'onlrorersiis ChrislmncE Fidei, 
 Rome, 1581-93 It occupies in the field of dog- 
 matics the same place as the Annales of Baronius 
 in the field of history; and, like that work, it is 
 a fruit of those great exertions which the Roman 
 Church made in the latter part of the sixteenth 
 century to define and defend itself against the 
 Reformation. Vol. I. treats of the word of God, 
 of Christ, and of the I'ope; vol. II., of councils 
 and the church; vol. III., of the sacraments; and 
 vol. IV., of grace and free-will, and justification 
 by good works. But it was especially his views 
 of the temporal power of the I'ope which gave 
 offence. This power, he considers, is indirect, — 
 the Pope cannot depose a king in the same simple 
 manner as he can a bishop, — but it is neverthe- 
 less absolute ; and in a conflict between the Pope 
 and a king, or a body of national laws, etc , the 
 latter ought to give way. Several times he had 
 occasion to apply these views to real life, develop- 
 ing and defending them. Against Paolo Sarpi, 
 the .spokesman of the senate of Venice in its 
 controversy with Paul V., he wrote three tracts 
 in Italian and Latin; against James I. of Eng- 
 land he wrote two, ridiciding with elegant irony 
 the Latin of the royal theologian ; against Wil- 
 liam Barclay he wrote, Traclalus de Potentate 
 Summi Pontljicis iti Reims Tempuralibus ; but this 
 book was forbidden in France, and caused great 
 exasperation in the Galilean Church. Bellar- 
 mine's views have been revived, however, in the 
 nineteenth century, by Pius IX., and seem at 
 present to form the foundation for the papal 
 policy. 
 
 Lit. — The best edition of Bellarniine's col- 
 lected works is that of Cologne, 7 vols, fob, 1620. 
 The Disputationes were reprinted at Rome, 1832-40, 
 in 4 vols. 4to. His life was written by Jacob 
 Fuligatti, Rome, 1624, Daniel Bartoli, Rome, 
 1677, and Nicole Frizon, Nancy, 1708 ; but the 
 best source is his autobiography, printed 1761, 
 at Ferrara, together with the votes of the cardi- 
 nals in the case of his beatification. The book was i 
 
 extremely rare until J. .1. I. Dollinger and F. II. 
 Reusch reprinted it, Boun, 1887. 'I'he autobiog- 
 raphy was i)roduccd liy the Jesuits from Bellar- 
 miue's posthumous papers, as an arguuu-nt in 
 favor of his beatification. But the piece made 
 just the opjjosite impression; and the Jesuits 
 liave, since that time, been very anxious to |)re- 
 vent its publicati<m, and especially to destroy the 
 above-mentioned volume. II. TiiiKltsrn. 
 
 BELLS are an invention of the Christian 
 Church. 'Phey were unknown to the Jews and 
 the Pagans, and they are not used by the Mo- 
 hannnedans. .Small, globular, clo.sed bells, (m- 
 tbuialniki, were used l)y the Hebrews (Exod. 
 xxviii. 33), the Greek.s, and the Romans, on 
 clothes, in the hath.s, at sacrifices, etc.; but the 
 invention of oiu- church-bells is generally a.scribed 
 to Bishop Paulinus of Nola in Canjpania, who 
 died in 431. Also their Latin luime )io/a or cnm- 
 pana (campauum), the latter of which is still 
 living in the Italian language, is generally de- 
 rived from him. But this derivation .seems to 
 be a mistake ; for in the writings of Paulinus, 
 though several, even elaborate desci-iptions of 
 churches are given, no mention is ever made of 
 bells. Further, tintinnalnda were called noUe long 
 before the time of Paulinus; and campana refers 
 most probably to the aex campanum, a metal 
 spoken of by Pliny, from which bells were first 
 made. The German name Glocke, from the old 
 high German clocchOii '" knock ") was adopted in 
 mediaeval Latin under the forms clmjua, clucca, or 
 cioccum, whence tlie French cloche and the Eng- 
 lish ''clock." 
 
 The fir.st bell was probably simply an enlarged 
 lintiiuiabulum i and it is thus called by Polydorus 
 \'ergilius, who ascribes its first use to Pope Sabi- 
 nianus, the successor of Gregory I. It was intro- 
 duced to replace the cursor (" runner") and the 
 tuba ("trumpet") in calling together the faithful 
 to service. Its use soon became general. In the 
 seventh century we meet it in France. It was the 
 bells of .St. Stephan's Church in Orleans, which 
 in 610 caused a panic in the army of King Chlo- 
 tair. . In the eighth century bells became connuon 
 throughout the realm of Charlemagne. The cam- 
 panitm optimum, or gxeat bell for the Cathedral of 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, was made bj' Tancho, a monk of 
 St. Gall, and a famous bell-founder. In the ninth 
 century bells were brought to the East. Duke 
 Ursus of Venice sent twelve great bells as a pres- 
 ent to the Byzantine emperor (Michael, or Basi- 
 lius), and the emperor erected a belfry for them 
 at the Church of St. Sophia. In the East, how- 
 ever, their general introduction was checked by 
 the spread of Islam, the Mohammedans contem- 
 plating them with a kind of dread, and forbid- 
 ding even the Christians to use them. 
 
 In the Western Church the bells, like all other 
 church-furniture, were consecrated, or, as it was 
 called, baptized, before taken into use. The bell 
 was washed with water, then oil was poured 
 upon it, and under chants and prayers the priest 
 made the sign of the cross over it. There is a 
 capitulary of Charlemagne, from 787, which ex- 
 pressly forbids the baptism of cloccce. but it ia 
 probable that cloccce there refers only to tinlinna- 
 hula, or such bells as were in every-day use. In 
 the tenth century it also became cu«tomary to 
 give the bell a name. In 968 Pope John XIII.
 
 BELSHAM. 
 
 238 
 
 BENEDICITE. 
 
 consecrated the great bell of the Church of tlie 
 Lateral], and gave it his own name, loannes. 
 
 BELSHAM, Thomas, b. at Bedford, Eng., April 
 26. 1750: d. at llampstead, Xov. 11, 1829; was 
 educated at tlie Dissenting Academy of Daven- 
 try, and became (1781) head of tliis institution, 
 but left it in 1789, liaving adopted Unitarian 
 views; was head of the Unitarian College of 
 Hackney until 1796, when it ceased to exist. 
 He became minister to the Essex-street chapel 
 in London in 1805. The most prominent of his 
 works are : Jieriew of Amerlrnn Uiiitai-ianism, 1815; 
 Evidences of C/iri.illnnili/, London, 1822, 2 vols. ; 
 and The Epistles of Paul the Apostle, translat- 
 ed, ■with exposition and notes, London, 1822, 4 
 vols. A Life of him, together with his letters, 
 wa.s publislied by J. AVilliams, London, 18133. 
 The death of Dr Priestley left him the leading 
 Unitarian in England. The " Unitarian Societ}' 
 for promoting Christian Knowledge and the 
 Practice of Virtue " was his suggestion. He had 
 an important share in the Improved Version of 
 the y^etc Testament tipon the Basis of Archbishop 
 Xeircome's Neio Translation, with Notes Critical 
 and Ex/ihinalori/, London, 1808. 
 
 BELSHAZ'ZAR (ma>/ Bel protect the Kincj), the 
 first-born son of Nabonidus (the usurper of the 
 Babylonian throne) and a daughter of Nebuchad- 
 nezzar, and thus his dpiasty had a color of 
 legitimacy. In consequence of his maternal de- 
 scent, Belshazzar could be called the son, i.e. de- 
 scendant, of Nebuchadnezzar (Dan. v. 2, 11 sqq ). 
 But, even if his mother had not been the daugh- 
 ter of Nebuchadnezzar, he might still be styled as 
 above, just as Sargon sjioke of the preceding Assy- 
 rian kings as his ancestors (see G. Rawlinson, 
 The Five Great Monarchies, 3d ed., London, 1870, 
 II. p. 139 sq.; Schrader, Keilinschriften u. A. T., 
 Giessen, 1876, p. 25-1 sq.), and a.s, in 2 Chron. 
 xi. 14, the successors of Jeroboam I. are called 
 his sons, although in fact they belonged to otlier 
 dynasties. Belshazzar, tlie crown-prince and 
 
 i'oint-king, was nominated by his father regent of 
 5abylon, and to him was confided the defence of 
 the city against Cyrus. How he kept liis trust 
 let Daniel's wonderfully graphic account testify 
 (Dan. v.). When Babylon fell, he was killed : liis 
 father, however, who had. been (lefeate<l by Cyrus 
 at Borsippa, after the capture of Babylon, was 
 banished to Carmenia, but there made ruler. Tlie 
 narrative of Daniel in regard to Belsliazzar has 
 been abundantly verified by Sir Henry Kawlin- 
 son's decipherment of several cuneiform inscrip- 
 tions. (^)ne passage reads, "Me Nabu-nahid (X.u- 
 bonidus). King of Babylon, from sin against tliy 
 great divinity, do thou save me, and liealth and 
 long days numerous do tliou multiply. And of 
 Bel-sar-uzur (Belsliazzar), my eldest son, the de- 
 liglit of my heart, in the wor.ship of Ihy great 
 divinity, his heart do thou establisli, and may he 
 not consort with sinners.'' — This identification 
 renders intelligible the otherwise strange promise 
 of Belshazzar's to make tlie interpreter of tlie 
 writing on tlie wall the third ruler in the king- 
 dom. We now know that B(,'lsliazzar was the sec- 
 ond, and so he would place tlie inteqireter next 
 to himself. — The; wi-iting on the wall must liave 
 ajilieared in startling coiitra.st to the cnncifdrm 
 in.scriptioiis already upon it, which .set forth the 
 >raise8 of tlie gods and the victories of tiic kings. 
 
 See the books quoted, also Pusey on Daniel, Ox- 
 ford, 1868 ; J. Menant's Babylon et la Chaldjie, 
 Paris, 1875. a. kohler. 
 
 BEMA (Jau, (Sttivu) means in classical literature 
 an elevated platform of a semicircular shape, des- 
 tined to carry the sella currules, or throne of some 
 magisterial official. Hence it became a fit name 
 for that part of the Christian church formed by 
 the apsis, where stood the throne of the bishop 
 and tlie seats of lower clergy. In this significa- 
 tion it occurs in the fifty-sixth canon of the synod 
 of Laodicea, which forbids the clergy to enter the 
 bema and sit down before the arrival of the bish- 
 op. There is, however, also a more restricted 
 sense of the word, in which it signifies any kind 
 of elevated seat or place, such as the cathedra, 
 the pulpit, etc., and in which it is synonymous 
 with ambo. 
 
 BENA'IAH (whom Jehovah built), the name of 
 several Israelites. The most important of them 
 is the son of Jehoiada, the chief priest (1 Chrou. 
 xxvii. 5), and a Levite, though born in Kabzeel, 
 a city in t!;e south of Judah (Josh. xv. 21). He 
 was the captain of David's bodj'-g-uard, the 
 Cherethites and Pelethites (2 Sam. viii. 18; 
 1 Kings i. 38), and in this capacity carried over 
 his allegiance to Solomon, and executed the royal 
 sentence upon Adonijah and Joab (1 Kings ii. 
 25, 30, 34), and thus eventually became Joab's 
 successor. In the catalogue of David's mighty 
 men he is mentioned ; and three of his exploits 
 are recorded in justification of his rank, wliich 
 was between the first three of the Gibborim, or 
 "mighty men," and the thirty "valiant men of 
 the armies." These three exploits were : (1) he 
 slew two sons of Ariel, a distinguished IMoabite, 
 or of the king of IMoab ; (2) he slew a lion which 
 had fallen into a pit in time of snow ; (3) he 
 slew an Egyptian giant, who, according to the 
 additions in the Septuagint, carried a spear so 
 huge that it seemed like a tree thrown across a 
 ravine ; but he forced it from his hand, and killed 
 the giant with his own weapon. Benaiah was 
 captain of the host for the third moiitli (1 Chron. 
 xxvii. 5), and his course .consisted of twelve di- 
 visions of twenty-four hundred men eacli. In 1 
 Chron. xxvii. 34 we read, "After Ahithophel, was 
 .Jehoiada, the son of Benaiah," as counsellor of 
 the king. It is probable that the names are 
 transposed, and that Benaiah himself, and not 
 his son, occupied tliis dignified position after the 
 death of Ahithophel. 
 
 The other men of the same name are : 1. One 
 of the thirty mighty men, an Ephraimite, captain 
 of the eleventh monthly course (2 Sam. xxiii. 
 30); 2. One of the "princes" of the families 
 of Simeon (1 Chron. iv. 3()) ; 3. A Levite in 
 David's time, who was musical (1 Chron. xv. 18, 
 20, xvi. 5) ; 4. A jiriest who blew the trumpet 
 before the ark in David's time (1 Chron. xv. 24, 
 xvi. 6) ; 5. A descendant of jVsapli (2 Chron. xx. 
 14) ; 6. A Levite, who in Ilezekiah's time was 
 an over.seer of olferings (2 Chron. xxxi. 13); 7. 
 The father of I'elaliali, "a iirince of the people" 
 in the time of Kzekiel (Kzek xi. 1, 13); 8. Two 
 [or four] contemporaries of Ezra who Iiad foreign 
 wives (ICz. X. 2.''), 30-35, 43). ORELLI.' 
 
 BENEDICITE, the alti'inative to the Te Deum 
 ill the Book of Common I'rayer. These two are 
 liie only portions of the kind iu the book, which
 
 BENEDICT. 
 
 239 
 
 BENEDICT. 
 
 ^re not o£ canoiiiual Scripture orifiiii. The Bene- 
 dlcile is, liowfver, really an expansion of the Ilini- 
 dred and Forty-eighth Psaliii, and is otherwise 
 called the "Song o[ the Three Holy Children," 
 and is found among the Old-'l'estanient Apocry- 
 pha, as part of the Greek addition to l)aniel, 
 inserted between the twenty-third and twenty- 
 fourth verses of the third chapter. It was used 
 as a hymn in the later Jewish Churcli, and very 
 early adopted for use in tlie public service of tlie 
 Christian Churcli. Chrysostoni calls it " that 
 -admirable and marvellous song, which, from that 
 day to this, hath been sung everywhere through- 
 out the world, and shall yet be sung in future 
 generations." See Puoctok : History of lite Book 
 •if CdJiunoH Pnii/rr (Utli ed., 1874), p. 225 sq. 
 
 BENEDICT is the name of one schismatic and 
 fourteen regular popes. — Benedict I., .lune 3, 
 uT-l-July 3(1, 578; a native of Konie; was elected 
 inuiiediately after the death of his predecessor, 
 John III., July 13, 573, but could not be conse- 
 crated until a year after, as, on account of the 
 invasion of the Lombards, the imperial con- 
 ftrniation of the election had great difficulty in 
 reaching Rome from Constantinople. The letter 
 to the Spanish bishop David, ascribed to him, lias 
 been proved spurious by Pagi (ad aim. 577 not. 2). 
 His life is found in INIuratori, Rer. Ital. Scr., 
 III. p. 133. See, also, Paulus Uiaconus, De Geslis 
 
 Longob., II., 10, III., 11 Benedict II., June 
 
 26, 68-l:-March 7, 685, had also to wait a whole 
 year after his election before the imperial con- 
 lirmation arrived, and the consecration could take 
 place, but procured from the Eriiperor, Constan- 
 tine Pogonatus, an ordinance, according to which 
 the Pope, for the future, could be consecrated 
 immediately after his election, without w'aiting 
 for the imperial confirmation. He was very 
 zealous to have the sixth ecumenical council, 
 which had condemned the Monothelites and their 
 champion, Pope Honorius, accepted by the Span- 
 ish Church, and succeeded at the synod of Toledo, 
 684. His life is found in Muratori, Rer. Ital. 
 Script., III. p. 145. For his relation to Wilfrid, 
 Bishop of York, see Vita Wilfridi, by Eddius 
 Stephanus. — Benedict III., Sept. 29, 855-April 
 7, 858, was regularly elected, when the repre- 
 sentatives of Ludwig II. and Lothar raised the 
 cardinal-presbyter, Aiiastasius, as anti-pope, and 
 imprisoned Benedict in the Lateran Palace. The 
 pieople, however, proved faitliful to their can- 
 didate. The emissaries of the two emperors 
 gave up the intrigue: Anastasius was expelled, 
 and Benedict installed. The introduction of the 
 Peter's pence in England, and the foundation of 
 the Anglican school in Rome, were due to the 
 visit of King ^Ethelwulf and his son Alfred to 
 Rome during the reign of Benedict. His vigor- 
 ous policy in all relations with the Frankish and 
 Bj'zantine empires was probably the work of his 
 famous successor, Nicholas I. See, besides his 
 life in Muratori: Her. Ital. Script., III. p. 247; 
 Prudentii Trecensis Annates, and Hincmari Remen- 
 sis Annales in Hon. German. Script., I., and Epis- 
 tnlce Nicoliii I., in JIansi : Concil. Collet, XV. p. 
 159. — Benedict IV., 900-903, recognized Formo- 
 sus, whom .John VIII. had anathematized as an 
 usurper, as a duly elected Roman pontiff. See 
 Watterich, Potit. Rom. Vita;, I. p. 659. — Bene- 
 dict V. Li order to sustain Leo VIII. against 
 
 .John XII., the Emperor Otlio I. was marching 
 with a great army against Rome ; but, before he 
 reached the city, John XII. died (May 14, 964), 
 and Renedict V. was elected in his place. When 
 the emperor arrived before the city, however, the 
 people surrendered Benedict. A formal process 
 was instituted against him. He was deposed, and 
 carried captive to (iermany, where lie lived at 
 the court of Archbishop Adeldag of Hamburg 
 till his death, July 5, 966. See Wattkkich : 
 Pontif. Rom. Vitce, I. p. 45; Liutprandus: Dc 
 Oltonis Rehus in Url/e Roma Gestis , Adam dk 
 Bremen: Gest. Ham. Eccl. Pontif. — Benedict 
 VI., Jan. 19, 973-July, 974, was elected immedi- 
 ately after the death of John XIII. (Sept. 6, 972), 
 but not consecrated until the Emperor Otho's 
 confirmation of the election arrived. Soon after 
 the death of Otho I., the affairs of the empire 
 fell into disorder. Crescentius de Theodora and 
 the deacon Boniface arose against Benedict, and 
 threw him into prison, where he was strangled. 
 His life is found in Watterich : Pontif. Rom. 
 Vitce, I. p. 65; Muratori: Rer. Ital. Script., 
 III. 2, p. 332; Eccard: Corp. Hist. Med. .€ri, 
 Leipzig, 1723, II. p. 1640. — Benedict VII., Octo- 
 ber, 974-October, 983, began his reign by anathe- 
 matizing Boniface VII., and showed himself 
 very submissive to the emperor, Otho II., and 
 very partial to the Monastery of Clugny, whose 
 plans of ecclesiastical reforms he adopted. See 
 Watterich : Pontif. Rom. Vitce, I. p. 66 and 
 686. — Benedict VIII., May, 1012-April 7, 1024, 
 gained the support of Henry II., though the anti- 
 pope Gregory, defeated in battle, and expelled 
 from Rome, sought refuge at the German court ; 
 crowned Henry II. and his spouse Kunigunde at 
 Rome in 1014, and obtained from him a reumr- 
 ciation of the right, held by the Othones, to con- 
 firm the election of a pope ; defeated, by the aid 
 of Pisa and Cienoa, the Saracen chief jklogehid, 
 when he invaded Italy, and expelled him from 
 Sardinia; worked in luiison with Henry II. for 
 the general introduction of the reform-plans of 
 Clugny, though without fully satisfying tlie Clu- 
 niacenses themselves. See Watterich: Pontif. 
 Rom. Vitce, I. pp. 69, 700 ; Amori : Storia dei 
 Muselmanni in Sicitia, Florence, 1858, vol. III.; 
 Sadee : Die Stellunij Kai.icr Heinr. II. zur Kirche, 
 .Jena, 1877. — Benedict IX., January, 1033-,July 
 16, 1048; a son of Count Alberic of Tusculum, a 
 nephew of Benedict VIII. and John XIX. ; was 
 only ten years old, when, by the intrigues and 
 violence of his father, he w-as elevated to the 
 papal chair, but exasperated the Romans to such 
 a degree by his scandalous life, that a rebellion 
 broke out in 1044, and Sylvester III. was elected 
 in his stead. He succeeded in expelling Sylves- 
 ter; but, doubting whether he would be .able to 
 maintain himself against the Romans, he sold 
 his dignity for one thousand pounds silver to 
 Gregory VI. Henry III. now convened a synod 
 at Sutri, Dec. 20, i046, in which Sylvester" IH. 
 and Gregory VI. and Benedict IX. were de- 
 po.sed, and "Clement 11. was made pope. But 
 Clement IT. died Oct. 9, 1047; and before the 
 new pope, Damasus II., could come into posses- 
 sion of the chair, Benedict IX. succeeded in 
 returning once more to Rome. He was soon 
 expelled^ however, and compelled to retire to 
 Tusculum. Wheu and where he died is not
 
 BENEDICT. 
 
 240 
 
 BENEDICT. 
 
 known. See Annnles Romnni (J[. G. S. V., p. 
 468) ; Th. Mittlkk : De Schismate in Ercl. Rom. 
 fuh Bened. IX., Turici, 1835.- — Benedict X., 
 April 5, 10.58-April, 10.i9, was elevated to the 
 papal chair by the Roman noLility, the counts of 
 'rusculuni, Galeria, and Jlonticelli, after the 
 death of Stephau X., but resigned immediately 
 after the return of Hiklebrand from Germany, 
 and was kept in clo.se confinement for the rest of 
 liis life. See '\V.\TTKUicn : Pod I if. Rom. Vil(e,J. 
 pp. 203-219, 738. — Benedict XI., Oct. 22, 1-303- 
 July 7, 1304, was able, by his noble and mild 
 pi'oceedings, to reconcile the kings of France 
 and Sicily, and even the family of Colonna, 
 but was poisoned just as he was prepared for 
 an energetic stroke at the participants in the 
 fray of Anagni. See Muratori : Rer. Itnl. Script., 
 III'., IX., Xr., XIII.; L. GArriKU; B.^nedict XI., 
 Paris, 1863: Ch. Gi!AXD.ikax ; T.( s irr/islrcx de 
 Benoit AV., Pari.s, 1883. — Benedict Xll., Dec. 20, 
 1334-Apnl 25, 1312, remained in Avignon in spite 
 of the urgent entreaties of the Romans to return 
 to their city. Also Barlaam, and the approaches 
 of the Byzantine court, lie received somewhat 
 coldly, knowing that the religious question was 
 only used as a cover to their jiolitical interest. 
 His dependence on tlie French court twice pre- 
 vented him from coming to an understanding 
 with Lewis the Bavarian : the result of which 
 was, that Lewis emancipated himself altogether, 
 and even assumed the imperial title without soli- 
 citing the confirmation of the pope. See Balu- 
 ziL'.s : Vi/tg Paparum Avenioneiuium, I. p. 197- 
 243; MiKATORi: Rer. Ital. Script., III. 2, p. 
 527; Carl Muller: Der Kampf lAubci(j ilex 
 Baiern mil der romiachen Curie, Tiibingen, 1880. 
 II. — Benedict XIII., a (I'eter de Luna), .Sept. 
 28, 1394-\ov. 17, 1424, took, in the schisms be- 
 tween Urban VI. and Clement YIL, the side of 
 the latter, and was unanimously elected his 
 successor on the condition that he should do 
 every tiling in his power to heal the schism. The 
 remedy pi'oposed was that both tlie rival popes, 
 Boniface IX. in Rome, and Benedict XIII. in 
 Avignon, should resign ; but neither of them was 
 willing to do so. The schism continued ; France, 
 Spain, and Scotland adhering to Benedict XIII., 
 Italy and Gernumy to Boniface IX. Twice, 
 however, France withdrew its obedience, — Sept. 
 1, 1398, when Benedict XIII. was shut up in his 
 palace in Avignon, and for some time kept there 
 as a prisoner; and May, 1408, when lie fled from 
 Avignon, and took up his residence at Poniscola, 
 — an estate belonging to his family in Aragon. 
 Twice he was formally dc'fiosed and condemned, . — 
 by the Council of Pisa, 1409, and by that of Con- 
 stance, 1417 ; but on the rock of Peniscola he 
 still continued to declare, " Wne is the only true 
 Cliurch." See Bai.uzius; Vil. J'ap. Arion., I. 
 p. .')()2; Du Pi:vs: Hi^toirc dn Schi.tme, 1378- 
 H28, I'aris, 1654; Maimbouro : llisloire de 
 Grand Sc/iisme d'OccidetU, Paris, 1678. — Bene- 
 dict XIII., b (of tlic house of Or.sini-Gravina), 
 May 29, 1727-Foli. 21, 1730, was a learned and 
 pious man, but somewhat weak in his relati<iMs 
 with the temporal jKiwers, and com|>li'tely in (lie 
 hands of his minister, Cardinal Coscia, who liy 
 Clement XII. wa-s deprived of liis ecclesiastical 
 dignity, and condemned to ten years' imprison- 
 ment, lie distinguished liiinself a.s .an author ; 
 
 and his collected works appeared in Rome, 1728, 
 3 vols. fol. See A. Borgia : Benedicti XIII. 
 Vita, Rome, 1752. — Benedict XIV. (Pro.spero 
 Lambertini), Aug. 17, 1740-May 4, 1758; b. at 
 Bologna, 1675; Bishop of Ancona, 1727; cardinal, 
 1728 ; Archbishop of Bologna, 1731 ; distinguished 
 himself as an author, both before his elevation to 
 the papal ch.air (De Serrorum Dei Bealijicatione), 
 and after (De Si/nodo Diocesano). In his foreign 
 policy he was willing to make great concessions, 
 even against the advice of his college of cardinals, 
 as shown by the concordats he concluded with 
 Naples, Sardinia, and Spain. But, as a spiritual 
 ruler of the Church, he often showed considerable 
 firmness, especially in his relations to the .Tesuits. 
 Twice he administered very severe rebukes to the 
 society for the frivolous manner in which it car 
 ried out the mission in China and on tlie coast 
 of JIalabar, accommodating Christianity to the 
 most scandalous Pagan rites in order to secure 
 purely commercial relations with the natives. 
 He understood that the society had — to use a 
 mild expression — beconae an anachronism ; and, 
 shortly before his death, he charged the patriarch 
 of Lissabou, Cardinal Saldanha, with a thorough- 
 going reform of the order, so far as Portugal was 
 concerned. But his successor revoked the bull. 
 With the Protestants his relations were kindly, 
 as was shown by manj- small traits. He was the 
 first pope who gave the ruler of Prussia the title 
 of "king," the curia having hitherto always 
 styled him "Margrave of Brandenburg." Bene- 
 dict's collected works appeared in Rome, in 12 
 vols. 4to, 1747. For his life, see Sandixi : Vit(B 
 Ponlif. Roman., Ferrara, 1763, II. ; Gu.\rnacci : 
 Vita: Rom. Pontif., II., Vie du Benedeti XIV., 
 Paris, 1783. 
 
 BENEDICT OF NURSIA, b. in 480, at X'ursia, 
 in tlie pi-oviiu'c of ^'aleria; d. March 21, 543, at 
 Monte Casino; was educated in Rome, but fled 
 from tlie city in 494, only fourteen years old, dis- 
 gusted at the worldliness and confusion, both of 
 the students and the studies, and retired first to 
 Enfide (the old Anfidena, the present Altidena), 
 and then farther east, among the mountains, to 
 Subiago, in order to perfect himself in holiness 
 by a life of seclusion and devotion. At Subiago 
 he met witli a monk, Romanus, who encouraged 
 liim in his purpose, and aided liim in carrying it 
 out. He took up liis abode at the bottom of a 
 dismal cavern ; and here he spent tlie time in 
 lioly contemplations, and fighting the temptations 
 of the flesh, provided with food by Romanus, 
 who, by means of a rope, lowered down to him 
 daily a part of his own scanty ration. After 
 the lapse of three years (in 497) he was discovereil 
 by some shepherds, who first shrank b.ack from 
 him as from a wild animal, but soon recognized 
 the signs of a holy life in the .apparition, and 
 prostrated themselves before liiin. Others were 
 .attracted, (iradually he was drawn out of this 
 utter seclusion; and in 510 the monks of the 
 Monasterv of Vicov.aro chose him their abbot. At 
 this time lie .st-ems to have abandoned the au.stere 
 asceticism which he originally prufessi'd ; for he 
 allowed his monks to drink wine Ihil the iin- 
 condilioiial ol«'(li('iice lie demanded, iuid (he strict 
 regiilaritv which lie enforced in the hourly alter- 
 nation ot devotional practices and manual labor, 
 exasperated them; and they tried to jioison him.
 
 BENEDICT. 
 
 241 
 
 BENEDICTINE. 
 
 He left the moiiastpij', and returned to the 
 cavern; but tlie world's eye was once set upon 
 him, as upon a liglit lit in the darkness. Much 
 people gathered around him, — delicate youths of 
 rich families, old roughs from the (iothic hordes, 
 — to obtain his guidance to a holy life. lie 
 organized minor connnuuitics of twelve monks 
 under an abbot, and estahlished twelve such ceno- 
 bies in the neighborhood of Snbiago, constituting 
 himself supreme abbot. But new trovdiles arose. 
 Though monastic life was still a wild-growing 
 plant, without any clearly defined mission, with- 
 out any thoroughly developed organization, and 
 consequently liable to fall into the most singular 
 aberrations, it was, nevertheless, to all men's eyes, 
 the highest expression of the religious cravings 
 of the age. To enter a monastery was considered 
 the only true cunversio, to live in a monastery, 
 the only true religio. Hence arose a bitter jeal- 
 ousy from the side of the secular clergy towards 
 the monks. A priest from the neighborhood of 
 Subiago, Florentius, actually tried to poison Ben 
 edict; and, when this failed, he attempted to 
 seduce the monks by sensual temptations. Bene- 
 dict then determined to leave the place; and in 
 528 he led his little army into Campania, to 
 Monte Casino, where he transformed an old 
 Apollo temple, with its adjacent grove, into a 
 Christian oratory 'in the centre of a circle of 
 cenobies. In 529 he jTronudgated his famous 
 rules, which wei'e destined to be, through many 
 centuries, the rules of all the monasteries of the 
 Western Church. The monastei'y of Monte Casi 
 no grew rapidly, and was soon able to send out 
 colonies. In 580 it was destroyed by the Lom- 
 bards, the monks fleeing to Rome, and it was not 
 rebuilt until 720; but in the mean time (in 633) 
 a French monk, Aigulf, dug up the bones of 
 Benedict, and carried tliem to France, where they 
 were deposited in a monastery near Fleury, — a 
 circumstance, which, however, does not prevent 
 the present monks of Monte Casino to exhibit 
 the bones of the founder of their order, together 
 with a bull of Urban II., condemning all who 
 doubt the genuineness of the exhibit. See Bene- 
 
 IIICTINES 
 
 Lit. — The only literary monument which Ben- 
 edict has left of himself is his rules, often printed 
 and commented upon, best by Ed. Martene : 
 Commentarius in Regulam S. P. Benedicti, Paris, 
 1690 : the other works which have been ascribed 
 to him, and which may be found in Blbliotheca 
 Patrum Maxima, Lyons, 1677, torn. IX. p. 640, are 
 spurious. His life has been written by Mege : 
 Vie de St. BenoisI, Paris, 1696 ; by the Boli.and- 
 isTs : Act. Sa7ict. March, tom. III. p. 274-357 ; 
 and by Mabillon in Act. Sand., A.iS.B., I p. 3, 
 and Ann. Ord., S.B., I. p. 1-177; but these ac- 
 counts are only fanciful expansions of the life 
 given by Gregory the Great, in his Dial. II., 
 which itself is overloaded with the miracles and 
 legends. albrecht VOGEL. 
 
 BENEDICT OF ANIANE.b. in Languedoc, 750; 
 d. at Suda, Feb. 12, 821 ; of Gothic descent ; the 
 son of a covmt of Magelone ; was educated at the 
 court of Charlemagne, whom he accompanied on 
 his campaign to Italy in 774, but having on this 
 occasion saved his brother from drowning while 
 crossing the Ticino, he made a vow to renounce 
 the world, changed his name AVitiza for that of 
 17 — 1 
 
 Benedict, retired to the Monastery of St. Sequa- 
 nus in the diocese of Langres, and became a 
 monk. Destined by nature to greatness in what- 
 soever sphere his life might enter, he embraced 
 monasticisni with an ardor very rare in that time, 
 and adopted the jiractice of the most rigid asceti- 
 cism. But his self-sacrifice and .self-torture pro- 
 duced no other impression than that of spite and 
 contempt, and he gradually came to understand 
 t)i;it to become something great in the order of 
 life which he had chosen meant to elevate and 
 purify this very order itself. He did not recoil 
 from the task, however. In 779 he left the Mon- 
 astery of St. Sequanus, and foimded a model 
 monastery on one of the paternal estates in Lan- 
 guedoc, on the River Aniane. His talent for 
 organization and government proved to be very 
 extraordinary. He simply revived and enforced 
 the rules of his great ideal, Benedict of Nursia^ 
 but his activity was soon felt as a great blessing, 
 not only by his own monks, but by all the mo- 
 nastic institutions of the country, and he became 
 one of the most intimate advisers of Lewis the 
 Pious, Charlemagne's son. King of Aquitania. 
 Together with Alcuin he partook in the negotia- 
 tions with the Adoptionists, and thus he came 
 into personal contact with Charlemagne himself. 
 His dreams approached their realization. His 
 idea was to make the monastic order an active 
 member of the social organism, a constituent ele- 
 ment of civilized life, the bearer of the science and 
 learning of the church ; but, in the carrying-out 
 of this idea, he had to contend, not only with tlie 
 abject condition of the order itself, but also with 
 the whole institution of canonici, whicli already 
 seemed to have assumed these functions, and even 
 with an opposing party, represented by Adalhar 
 and \Vala. Nevertheless, when Lewis the Pious 
 ascended the throne, Benedict found the way 
 open for his plans. He was called to found and 
 preside over the Monastery of Juda, near Aix- 
 la-Chapelle, in order to be in steady and close 
 connection with the court. He was made super- 
 intendent-general of all the monasteries of the 
 realm; and in the great council of Aix-la-Cha- 
 pelle (817) he succeeded in giving the monasteries 
 a well-defined position in the state, at the same 
 time introducing great reforms in their interior 
 organization. See Benedictines. 
 
 Lit. — Of Benedict's writings, those against the 
 Adoptionists may be found in Baluze : Miscel- 
 lanea, V. p. 1-62. Those concerning monasticism 
 have been edited : Codex Ret/ularum by Holste- 
 Nius, Paris, 1663 ; and Cuncordia liecjularum by 
 Hugo Menard, Paris, 1638. His life, written 
 by Ardo, has been edited by Bollaxdus, in Act. 
 Sanct., Feb. 2, and by JIabii.i.on, in Act. Sanct., 
 O S. 11.. 1. ALBKECIIT VOGEL. 
 
 BENEDICTINE EDITORS, EDITIONS OF 
 THE FATHERS, AND OTHER WORKS. The 
 
 editors embrace such scholars as Mabillon, ^lont- 
 fau(;on, Sainte-Marthe, D'Achery, ^Martene, Du- 
 rand. Rivet, Carpentier, Tassin, and Pitra. The 
 following is a complete list of these highly es- 
 teemed and now very co.stlv works. 1. Barnabas 
 (Menard), 4to, 1642; 2. lanfranc (D'Achery), 
 fob, 1648; 3. Bernard (iMabillon), 2 vols, fob, 
 1667; 4. Anselm (Gerberon), fob, 1675; 5. Au- 
 f/usline (Delfan and others), 11 vols, fob, 1679- 
 1700 ; 0. Coisiodorus (Garet), 2 vols, fob, 1679 :
 
 BENEDICTINES. 
 
 •242 
 
 BENEFICE. 
 
 7. Ambrose (Du Fiische and Le Nourri), 2 vols., 
 1686-90; 8. Hilarii (Constant), fol., 1693; 9. Je- 
 Tome (Martiany and others), 5 vols, fol., 1693- 
 1706; 10. ylM(iHa.<i'(« (Montfa^uon), 3 vols, fol., 
 1698 ; 11. Gregoni of Tours (Ruiuart), foL, 1699 ; 
 12. Gregory the Great (De Sainte-Martlie), 4 vols, 
 fol., 176-5 ; 13. HMebert (Beaugendre), fol., 1708; 
 14. Irenceus (Massuet), fol., 1710; 1.5. Lucius 
 Ccecilius (Le ^ourri), 8vo, 1710 ; 16. Chriisostom 
 (Montfau(;on), 13 vols, fol., 1718-38; 17. Cyril 
 of Jerusalem (Toultee and Waran), fol., 1720; 
 18. Basil (Garnier and IMaran), 3 vols, fol., 1721- 
 30; 19. Cyprian (Maran), fol., 1726; 20. Justin 
 Martyr (Maran), fol., 1742; 21. Oriyen (De la 
 Rue), 4 vols, fol., 1733-59; 22. Gregoni Nazian- 
 zen (Clemencet), 1st vol. fol., 1778 ; 2d vol;, 1842. 
 
 Besides editions of the Fathers, these scholars 
 produced such works as Art de verijier les dates 
 (1783-87,3 vols, fol.); Acta Sanctorum Orel. S. 
 Benedicti (1088-1702, 9 vols, fol.); Annales Ordi- 
 nis S. Benedicti (1713-39, 6 vols, fol.) ; Thesaurus 
 Nocus Anecdotorum (1717, .5 vols, fol.); Veteriwi 
 Scriptorum et Monumentorum Amplissima Collection 
 (1724-33, 9 vols, fol.) ; Spicilegium Solesmense (10 
 vols. 4to). SeeTASsiN; Histoire de la Congrega- 
 tion de St. Maur (to which house these famous 
 scholars belonged), Paris, 1770. 
 
 BENEDICTINES. When Benedict of Nursia 
 (see title) composed his rules of monastic life 
 (.529), lie had probably no idea of the influence 
 they were destined to exercise. He. like the whole 
 age ill which he lived, considered the monastery a 
 place of refuge, a steppmg-stono towards holiness, 
 but only for tlie individual : that it might have a 
 social mission, and become one of the most pow- 
 erful organs of the Church, he did not realize. 
 That tendency, Iiowever, towards compact unity, 
 which is so characteristic for the Church of Rome, 
 had already at that time grown so strong, that 
 monasticism could not develop further without 
 as.suming the apjiearance of uniformity. At the 
 same time as Benedict many other persons were 
 eager to establish order and regularity in this 
 field. — Cassiodorus, Equitius, and Eugippius in 
 Italy ; C«sarius and Aurelianus of Aries in 
 France ; Isidore of Hispalis in Spain. But only 
 Benedict succeeded. His rules were the wisest, 
 the mildest, the most moderate ; and they found 
 in Gregory the Great a most enthusiastic support. 
 He introduced them in Italy, Sicily, and England. 
 In 543 Maurus brought them to France. In the 
 seventh century they spread in Spain ; in the 
 eighth century Boniface, himself a Benedictine, 
 establkshed them m Germany. 
 
 In the eiglith century the Benedictine monas- 
 tery passed through a very severe crisis, from 
 which it was rescued only by the energy of Bene- 
 dict of .\niane (.see title). It was from its very 
 origin an aristocratic institution. Its inmates 
 belonged to the highest classes of society ■ to the 
 slave and the serf its doors were closed. In cour.se 
 of time it had grown immen.sely rich. The noble 
 families which .sent their sons to live within its 
 walls beipieathed great estates to it; and under 
 the liaiids of the monks these estates became very 
 prosperous, and yielded great revenues. The con- 
 sequence was, that gradually tlie very cliaracter of 
 the institution changed. Each mon;isteiy lieing 
 a law unto itself, without responsibility before 
 any central authority, the rules were modified and 
 
 remodelled, until a wide entrance stood open for 
 all kinds of worldly interests and passions. In 
 the best monasteries the monks lived like canoni- 
 ci , in the worst, like robbers and rioters. To 
 this danger from within, came another from with- 
 out. The riches of the monasteries began to 
 tempt the neighboring lords, and abbeys were 
 often given as fiefs to laymen. It was Benedict 
 of .\niane, wlio, in the Council of Aix-la-Chapelle 
 (817), at once secured the social position of the 
 monasteries of the Frankish Einpu-e, and carried 
 out a moral reform by enforcing the original 
 rules. In the tenth century similar reforms were 
 introduced by Archbishop Frederick of Mentz, 
 .Vrchbishop Adalbera of Rheiins, Archbishop 
 Buiistaii of Canterbury, and others. 
 
 The lack of central organization, which had 
 become very apparent during this same period, 
 was remedied by the formation of the so-called 
 congregations Several independent monaster- 
 ies miited to guard in common over the strict 
 maintenance of the rules within the pale of the 
 congregation ; and several of these congregations, 
 as, for instance, that of Clugny, labored with great 
 success, and exercised considerable influence on 
 the general life of the Church. The period of 
 prosperity was short, however. Other monastic 
 orders arose, especially the mendicant orders, and 
 threw the Benedictines into the sliade. The 
 attempts at reform and re-organization made by 
 Clement V. and Benedict Xll. failed The ef- 
 fects of the Reformation and of the jealousy of 
 the Jesuits were very detrimental to the order. 
 Nevertheless, it rose once more. In the seven- 
 teenth century it became the representative of 
 the science of the Roman Church. The coiigr*^- 
 gation of St. ^Slaur has rendered great services to 
 the science of history : but the political reforms 
 of Joseph II , the French Revolution, and the 
 civil wars in Spain, have almost killed the order ; 
 and Austria is now the only country in which it 
 shows any vigor. 
 
 Lit. — Mabii.lon : Acta Sand. Ord. St. Dened. 
 and Annales Onlinis S. B.. Zikgklhaur and Le- 
 GiPo.NT ■ Histona Litteraria Ordinis S. B., Vienna, 
 17.57, 4 vols, fob; Helyot : Histoire des Ordrcs 
 MonastHjues, Religieux el Militaires, Paris, 1714- 
 19, 8 vols. 4to ; Mdntalemiikkt : Les Moines de 
 I'Occidenl. 5 vols., Paris, 1680, trans, into English, 
 I.ond . 1860 sqq. 7 vols. ALBRECIIT VOOEL. 
 
 BENEDICTION is, hi the Roman Chinch, a 
 sacred tliougli not sacr.amental act, 1)V which the 
 grace of (iod is implored in belialf of some per- 
 son or thing, and which consists in the making 
 of the sign of the cross, in aspersion of holy 
 water, etc., together with the recitation of some 
 ])rescribed formula. Of such formulas there are 
 innumerable collections, — libri lienedictionales, 
 bcnediclionalia almost every diocese liaving a 
 collection of its own. In the Evangelical Chui'ch 
 there is no act which really resembles the bene- 
 diction of tlic Roman Church. 
 
 BENEFICE, in ecclesiastical langu.age bencfici- 
 uin icrli sKislicum, comprises both tlie oj/icium or 
 munsteriuin witii its duties, and the compensation 
 for their fulfilment, the stiperuhum or prwbenda, 
 and IS thereby distinguished from the commenda, 
 which is an enjoyment of ecclesiastical revenues 
 without corresponding duties, and from the 
 jiensiu, which is an enjoyment of a part of au
 
 BENEFIT. 
 
 243 
 
 BBNGEL. 
 
 ecclesiastical revenue as coiiipeiisatioii for duties 
 fulfilled. In the primitive church there were no 
 •benefices. All tlie property of a church was 
 lumped together in one mass, and administered 
 by the bishop : the revenues were divided between 
 the bishop and the clergy, the church and the 
 poor. In course of time, however, as each episco- 
 pal church grew into a iliocese, and each diocese 
 became completely divided uj) in parishes, it was 
 natural that the great donations of real estate 
 which had been made to the church were parti- 
 tioned out, and a suitable measure allotted to 
 each parish church for the maintenance of its 
 minister. Instances of such a development occur 
 as early as the sixth century, and with the 
 eleventh the development was about completed. 
 As all secular property was based on a system of 
 tief, so all ecclesiastical property was based on a 
 system of benefices ; and between the two systems 
 there were no other difi^erences than those natu- 
 rally arising from the differences between the 
 Church and" the State, their character and their 
 purpose. The appointment to a benefice, the 
 priieUii} or inxlilutio canonica, comprised the selec- 
 tion of a fit candidate (desi/jnalin), and the confer- 
 ring of the benefice to the candidate, the collalin, 
 concenio or instituii<)\>ro'^er. With henejicia niajora 
 the selection of the candidate often took place by 
 election, as, for instance, by the chapters ; or bj' 
 nomination, a.s, for instance, by the king ; and 
 then followed the papal conjirmalin or inxlilutio. 
 With henejicia minora the selection often consisted 
 in a simple presentatio palroni, after which fol- 
 lowed the episcopal admii:sio. The conditions for 
 a valid appointment were, that the l)enefice was 
 vacant, tliat the candidate was a fit person, that 
 no simony took place, that the candidate held no 
 other lienefice, etc., — conditions which seem to 
 have been dictated by simple common sense, but 
 which the Roman Church often disregarded in 
 the moist offensive manner. 
 
 BENEFIT OF CLERGY. See Clergy, Bene- 
 fit OK. 
 
 BENEZET, Anthony, b. at St. Quentin, France, 
 Jan. 31, 1713 ; d. at Philadelphia, May 3, 1784 ; 
 belonged to a Huguenot family which in 1715 was 
 driven from France by Romish persecution : re- 
 moved to London, joined the Quakers, and came 
 to Philadelphia in 1731. Educated in a mercan- 
 tile house, and prosperous in business, Anthony 
 left this career in 1740, and became head of the 
 Friends' English School in Philadelphia. For 
 the rest of his life he was engaged in teaching ; 
 always eager to alleviate sufferings wherever he 
 met them, but more especially passionately oj> 
 posed to slavery, against which many of his 
 writings are directed : A Caution to Great Britain 
 and her Colonies, 1767 ; Historical Account oj' Guin- 
 ea, 1772; Ohxervations on the Indian Natices o/ this 
 Continent, 1784. etc. There is a memoir of him 
 by Roberts Vaux, Xew York, 1817. 
 
 BENEVOLENCE, BENEFICENCE. The for- 
 met is the love of mankind in general, accompa- 
 nied with a desire to promote their happiness, and 
 is distinguished from the latter, which is the prac- 
 tice, while benevolence is the desire, of doing 
 good. Benevolence nuist be universal, reaching 
 to every man without exception, but beneficence 
 cannot be so universal, for it is necessarily con- 
 fined by .several considerations; such as our 
 
 knowledge of olijeets and their different circum- 
 stances, as well as our own abilities, and opportu- 
 nities of exercising them, 'iUf liuties oi' benevo- 
 lence include tho.se we owe to men, purely on the 
 ground of their being of the same .species as our- 
 selves, tliose we owe to our country, those we owe 
 to families and individuals, and tho.se we owe 
 to (iod. The objects of our beneficence are like- 
 wi.se all those wlio are in the sphere of our influ- 
 ence and action, without resjiect of party or .sect. 
 Benevolence is called disinterested wlien unmixed 
 with thought of pei'son.al advantage. The means 
 of beneficence are connmmication of temporal 
 supplies ((iiil. vi. 6), prayer (Jas. v. 10), sympa- 
 thy (Rom. xii. I.t), Christian communion (Col. 
 iii. Iti). .See Buck's '/'h< (j/<ji/i<-al l)ictionarij. 
 
 BENCEL, Johann Albrecht, b. at Winnendeii, 
 Wiirtemberg, .June 24. 1687 ; d. at Stuttgart, Nov. 
 2, 1751 ; studied theology at Tiibingen, and was 
 appointed professor at the seminary of Denken- 
 dorf in 1713 ; prelate of Herbrechtingen in 1741 ; 
 and prelate of Alpirsbach, with residence in Stutt- 
 gart, in 1749. With bis firm faith in the full in- 
 spiration and ab.solute authority of the Bible, he 
 felt very much perplexed at the great number of 
 variations in the text of tlie Xew Testament, and 
 with characteristic humility and perseverance he 
 immediately went to work investigating the mat- 
 ter. He procured all the editions, maimscripts 
 and translations, he could: and in 1734 he pub- 
 lished his text and an Apjiaralus Criticus, which 
 indeed became the starting-point for the wliole 
 modern text-criticis7n of the Xew Testament. 
 His fanioiis canon was. The more ilifficult reading is 
 to he preferred. Tiiis critical work was followed by 
 an exegetical one. Gnomon Novi I'eslamenti. Tiiliin- 
 gen, 1742, which has been often reprinted in Latin, 
 and translated into (ierman by C. F. Werner, 
 1853; and into Engli.sh, in "Clarke's Library." 
 Edinburgh, 18.57, 1858; and by Lewis and Vin- 
 cent, Philadelphia. 1860, 1861; and remains unto 
 this day a treasure-house of exposition delivered 
 in sentences whose point, clearness, brevity, and 
 wondrous depth of meaning, render them not only 
 worthy of patient study, but a part of the mental 
 stores of the attentive student. It was the fruit 
 of twenty years of labor ; and it has been said of it, 
 that it "condenses more matter into aline than 
 can be extracted from the pages of other writers." 
 His principles of interpretation are stated in his 
 Essay on the Riyhl iVai/ of Ilandlinij Divine Sub- 
 jects. Briefly it was to "put notihing into the 
 Scriptures, but to draw every tiling J'rom them, 
 and suffer nothing to remain hidden that is really 
 in them." To this end he proceeded, in strict con- 
 formity to grammatical rules, but untrammelled 
 by dogmatical or symbolical considerations, to 
 study the New Testament. In theology he was 
 a moderate Lutheran, but much more a Christian 
 anxious to hear what tlie Spirit saith unto the 
 churches. He united profound reverence for the 
 Bible with an acuteness which let nothing escape 
 him. In 1740 appeared his Exposition of the 
 Apocalypse (last German ed., 1858), translated by 
 .lohn RoViertson, London, 17-57; in 1741 his Ord'o 
 Temporum. In both these works he fixes the be- 
 ginning of the millennimii in 1836. His apoca- 
 lyptic calculations were of course doomed to dis- 
 appointment. His Life was written by his son 
 as an introduction to the Gnomon, and is found
 
 BENHADAD. 
 
 244 
 
 BENOIT. 
 
 in the translations mentioned above, by J. Cn. 
 F. Bi'RK, liis great-grandson, Stuttgart, 1831; 
 translated by Walker, l^oudon, 1837 ; and best, 
 with new materials, by Oskar Wachter: J A. 
 liengers Lebensalmss, Stuttgart, 1865; also the 
 article on Beiigel by J. Ch. F- Burk in Herzog, 
 2ded 
 
 BEN-HA'DAD (son, i.e., wor.shipper, of Hailad, 
 the sun), the religious name of three S\Tian 
 kings. 1. The son of Tabrimon came to the suc- 
 cor of Asa. King of Judah, against Baasha, King 
 of Israel (1 Kings xvi 18). See Ba.\siia 
 
 2 The son of the preceding was at war with 
 Ahab and Jehorain, kings of Israel, and was once 
 badly defeated, but escaped by fraud and strata- 
 gem' (1 Kings XX.). I.,ater on, Ben-hadad be- 
 sieged Jehorain in .Samaria, and so straitly, that 
 famine compelled mothers to eat their own chil- 
 dren. By divine intervention the SjTian host 
 was dispersed, and plenty regained (2 Kings ri. 
 S-vii. 20). Hazael's assas-sination of Ben-hadad 
 occurred the next year (\'iii. 15). Three successful 
 campaigns against Ben-hadad II. are mentioned 
 upon the tablets of the Assyrian king, Shalina- 
 neser II. (B.C. 858-823), undertaken in the sixth, 
 eleventh, and fourteenth years of the latter mon- 
 arch. Thoroughly in agreement with the Bible, 
 Shalmaneser says, that, at the time of the first 
 expedition, the Syrian king was in league with 
 " Achabbu," i.e., Ahab of Israel (cf. 1 Kings xx. 
 34) ; and it is safe to conjecture, with Sclirader 
 (Riehm, Hwh. Bib. All. p. 164), that the misfor- 
 tunes of Ben-hadad in subsequent campaigns 
 alienated the allies; for we find Israel in open 
 revolt from her Syi'ian lord. 
 
 3. The son of Hazael was called Ben-hadad. 
 He was the master of Israel ; but Jehoahaz. in 
 answer to prayer, received the promise of deliv- 
 erance. The '• Savior " was his son Jehoash (2 
 Kings xii. 5, c( ^. 25). The prophet Amos (i. 4) 
 declares that a fire should devour the palaces of 
 Ben-hadad III. 
 
 Schrader, in Riehm, calls attention to the Assy- 
 rian form of the name, Bin-hidri, i.e., Ben-hadar, 
 tlie exact form preserved in the Septuagint, which 
 is therefore nearer right than the Hebrew. 
 
 BENJAMIN OF TUDELA, a Spanish rabbi, b. 
 in Navarre; d. in 1175. After many years of 
 travel (116()-73) in Europe and the East, vi.s- 
 iting Constantinople, Egypt, Palestine, Assyria, 
 Persia, penetrating to the frontiers of China, he 
 published his Itinerary in Hebrew, under the title 
 Mazahth ('• peregrinations '' ). Tiie work swarms 
 with errors, geographical, chronological, and of 
 every kind, raising almost the presumption that 
 the author never was in the places lie attempts to 
 describe. The work has pa.ssed through many 
 editions, and been translated into several lan- 
 guages. It first was printed by Soncini, at Con- 
 stantinople (1513, 8vo), reprinted in Antwerp in 
 1.575, with a Latin translation by Ariiis Monta- 
 nus. Later editions are those of Constantin L'Em- 
 jiereur (Brunet .says tlie Hebrew text used was 
 inaccurate), Lyon, 1033, in Latin ; of Barratier, 
 Amsterdam, 1734, 2 vols in French; and, best 
 of all, that of Aslier, in English, London and 
 Berlin, 1810, 2 vols. The first volume contains 
 the text; the .second, the notes and iiuinerous 
 e.ssays. See, also, the edition of Lelewel, Bru- 
 xelles, 1852. 
 
 BENNETT, James, D.D., a preacher and schol- 
 arly writer of the Congregationalists of England ; 
 b. in London, May 22, 1774 ; d. in London, Dec. 
 4, 1862 ; studied at tiosport, under Dr. Bogue ; 
 settled at Ronisey Hants, in 1796, and ordained 
 there April, 1797 Whilst here, he published 
 Memoirs of Risdon Darracott, And together with 
 Da\nd Bogue, D.I) , The History of Dis.ienlers from 
 the Kei-ulution, 1688, to the Year 1808, 2d ed., 
 London, 1833, 2 vols. In 1813 became theologi- 
 cal tutor of the Rotherham Independent College, 
 and pastor of the adjoining church. Here he 
 pulilished Life of Dr Boyne. and Lectures on the 
 History nf Christ, 2d ed., 1828 In 1828 he was 
 called to the pastorate of the ancient church at 
 .Silver Street, London, which afterwards removed 
 to the new chapel in Falcon Square. He attracted 
 great attention by his Lectures on Infidelity. 3d ed., 
 1847, at the close of which he was accustomed to 
 invite infidels to public controverey. His later 
 works are. The Preaching of Chri.il, Justifcation 
 as lierealed in Scripture, in opposition to the Coun- 
 cil of Trent, and Mr jVeirman's Lectures, 1840, 
 Lectures on the Acts of the Apostles, 1846, and the 
 Congregational Lecture on The Theology of tlie 
 Early Christian Church, 1840. He pnblislied also 
 a large amount of miscellaneous works in the 
 form of letters, articles, sermons, etc. His son is 
 the celebrated I.ondon physician, .Sir J. Risdon 
 Bennett. Llewelyn d. bevak. 
 
 BENNO, St., b. near Goslar, Hanover, 1010; 
 d. at Meissen, June 16, 1106 ; was educated in a 
 monastery at Hildesheim, where he took holy 
 orders ni 1028, and was ordained deacon in 1035, 
 and priest in 1040; was appointed teacher in the 
 cathedral school of Goslar in 1051, and wrote, 
 while there, l)e Dictamme and Expositiones supra 
 Evangelin Dmninculia, which are still extant; and 
 became Bishop of Meissen in 1067. By Henry- 
 IV. he was twice imprisoned (in 1075 and in 
 1078), suspected of secretly encouraging the Saxon 
 insurrection , and in 1065 he was even deposed 
 for having declared himself in favor of Hermann : 
 but in 1088 he was again re-instated in his office 
 on the recommendation of Clement HI. He was 
 a rather insignificant character, weak and vacil- 
 lating in all great questions; but he held the 
 Gregorian views in all chmch matters; and in 
 1523 .\drian VI. found it opportune to canonize 
 him, which occasioned a sharp attack from 
 Luther. His remains are deposited in JSIunich, 
 and he is the patron saint of Bavaria. See Ussile- 
 gium i". Bennonis, Munich, 1765, by C. F. Seys- 
 SAHrii, and Apologia Bcnnoniana, Munich, 1773. 
 by .\. Ckammk.I!. 
 " BENOIT, Ren6, b. 1521, at .\ngers; d. in Pari.s, 
 1608; accompanied Mary Stuart to Scotland as 
 her confes.sor: was after his return appointed 
 pa.storto the Chnrcii of St. Eustache in Paris, and 
 played a conspicuous part in the controversies of 
 the Ligue, as one of the leaders of the oiiposition 
 to the (iiii.ses and the lUtramonlanes. In 1566 he 
 published a transl.-itiou of the Bible, which, how- 
 ever, was not much more than a reprint of the 
 fJeneva translation. It was condemned by tlie 
 faculty ; and when (in 1588) Henry \\ . made him 
 profe.s.sor of theology in the Collrgrs de iXararre, 
 he was coni]i<'lled to suliscribe the condemnation 
 of himself. .Still more he exa.s))eratcd the Ultra- 
 montaiu.'s by liis Catholic Apology, in wliich he
 
 BBNOIT. 
 
 245 
 
 BERENGARIUS. 
 
 tried to prove that the King did not forfeit Ins 
 right to the throne by professing the Protestant 
 faitli. When, as a rewanl, tlie King afterwards 
 made him Bisliop of Troyes, tlie I'ope refused the 
 ■confirmation, and in 1004 he had to renounce the 
 ortice. 
 
 BENOIT, Elle, b. in Paris, Jan. 20, 1040; d. at 
 Delft, Xov. 15, 17-8; studied pliilosophy in Paris, 
 and theology at Montauban ; was appointed min- 
 ister at Alen9on in 1(365; lied in lt)84, after the 
 revocation of the Edict of Nantes, to Holland, 
 and became minister to the Walloon congrega- 
 tion ill Delft. He wrote several controversional 
 tracts, books of editicatiou, etc. ; but his principal 
 work is his Hisloire de V Edit de Naiiles, 5 vols., 
 Delft, 1G93-95, which, written with great accura- 
 cy, and giving a number of documents, is one of 
 the best sources of the history of the Protestant 
 Clnu'ch in France. 
 
 BENTHAM, Thomas, b. at Sherburn, York- 
 shire, Eng., 151:5; d. at Lichfield, Feb. 21, 1.578; 
 was educated at Oxford ; embraced the Kefor- 
 mation ; left the country on the accession of 
 Mary, and lived for some years at Zin-ich and 
 Basel, but returned before her death to take 
 charge of a Reformed congregation in London, 
 and was made Bishop of Lichfield and Coventry 
 in 1559. He translated the Psalms, Ezekiel, and 
 Daniel, in the " Bishops' Bible." 
 
 BENTLEY, Richard, b. at Oulton, Yorkshire, 
 Jan. 27, 1662 ; d. at Cambridge, July 14, 1742 ; 
 was educated at St. John's College, Cambridge ; 
 •ordained deacon in 1090 ; nominated to the Boyle 
 lectureship in 1092 ; appointed master of Trinity 
 College, Cainliridge, in 1699, Archdeacon of Ely 
 ill 1700, and /iro/e^sor re<jius in divinity at Cam- 
 bridge in 1717. Besides liis eminent merits as a 
 critical piiilologist, he exercised a great iuHuence 
 on the theology and the religious views of his 
 time, especially by his Confutation of Atheism, or 
 luijht Sermons preached at Boyle's Lectures, Lon- 
 tlon, 1698, translated into Latin, French, and 
 Oermaii, and Remarks upon a late Discourse of 
 Free-thinking, London, 1713, which actually si- 
 lenced the atheists, and drove them into deism. 
 .Vfter great and laborious preparations, compar- 
 ing editions, manuscripts, etc., he published in 
 I7i7 Proposals for printing a New Edition of the 
 Greek Testament. He anticipated the principle 
 of Lachmann, and intended to substitute for the 
 Textus Receptus the oldest attainable text of the 
 Xicene or ante-Niceiie age; but this plan met 
 with so much opposition from the side of the 
 tlieologians, that he was compelled to give it up. 
 ■ His collected works were published in London, 
 18:i6, 3 vols., edited by A. Dyck; his Correspond- 
 <:nce, in 1842, 2 vols., edite<l by Wokdswouth. 
 His life was written by Bishop Monk in 1830, 2d 
 2d., London, 1833, 2 vols., by J.acoi! ]\[.\hly, 
 Leipzig, 1868, and by J. C. Jkuh, London, 1882. 
 
 BEOWULF, the oldest epic poem in any Ger- 
 manic tongue, recounts, in 3,184 double lines of 
 Anglo-Saxon alliterative verse, the exploits and 
 death of the hero Beowulf. He is represented as 
 leaving his home in the country of the Geats, upon 
 hearing of the murders perpetrated by a fiendish 
 monster named Greudel, at the court of tlie Dan- 
 ish king, Hrothgar, and proceeding thither with 
 fourteen chosen companions for the purpose of 
 encountering and slaying the destroyer. He suc- 
 
 ceeded in tliis undertaking, and also in despatch- 
 ing (jrendel's mother, who appeared as the aven- 
 ger of her .son. In his old age, after having reigned 
 for many years over his kinsmen the (jeats, he 
 was slain in combat with a dragon. His body 
 was consumed, and a mound was reared ujjoii a 
 lofty promontory to commemorate his name. The 
 poem naturally falls into four great divisions ; viz., 
 (a) Beowulf's figlit with (irendel, (6) his fight 
 with Grendel's mother, (c) his return, (</) his 
 death. Certain episodic passages, and others 
 which clearly imply an acquaintance with the 
 Scriptures, must be regarde<l as later additions. 
 Example of the latter are vers. 107-114, 178-188, 
 1724-1781, etc. The origin of the poem must 
 be sought in heathen times, and among the Teu- 
 tonic tribes of northern Denmark and southern 
 Sweden. Though its nucleus is evidently myth- 
 ical, it contains an admixture of historic fact. 
 The Hygelac of vers. 2355-2367 and other passages 
 has been identified with the Chochilaicus of Greg- 
 ory of Tour.s, and his expedition with one that 
 took place in the second decade of the sixth 
 century. 
 
 Our recension of the poem probably dates from 
 the beginning of the eighth century, though the 
 single manuscript in which it is contained (Vi- 
 tellius A. XV. of the British Museum) belongs to 
 the tentli century. 
 
 Lit. — Among the best editions are those of 
 Kemble, London, 1835; Thorpe, Oxford, 1855; 
 Grein, in Ids Bihl. der angels. Poesie, Gottingen, 
 1857-04; and Heyne, 4th ed., Paderborn, 1879. 
 Extracts in the original are contained in the 
 Anglo-Saxon Readers of March, X.Y., 1870, and 
 Sweet, Oxford, 1879. There are P^nglish transla- 
 tions by Kemble, London, 1837; Wackerbarth, 
 London, 1849 ; Thorpe, in his edition, Oxford, 
 1855; Arnold, in his edition, London, 1870; and 
 Lumsden, London, 1881. Analyses and partial 
 translations may be found in Turner's Hist, of 
 the Anglo-Saxons, Loudon, 1836 (and earlier edi- 
 tions), and Morley's English Writers, London, 1867. 
 Cf. also the following from a great number of 
 monographs and essays, — Leo : Ueher Beowulf, 
 Halle, 1839; Haigh : The Anglo-Saxon Sagas, 
 London, 1861. albert S. cook. 
 
 BERCEANS, or BARCLAYITES, a sect founded 
 by John Barclay, 1734-1798, and still represented 
 by a few congregations in Scotland. Claiming to 
 imitate the ancient Beroeans (Acts xvii. 11), they 
 reject all human authority, and acknowledge only 
 the Scriptures as the rule of conduct. 
 
 BERENGARIUS OF TOURS, b. at Tours, in 
 the beginning of the eleventh century ; d. in the 
 adjacent Island of St. Cosme, 1088; a representa- 
 tive of that craving for spiritual independence 
 which every now and then comes to the surface 
 all through the history of the middle ages, and 
 which in its latent, often unwilling, opposition 
 to the authority of the Church, sometimes ap- 
 proaches very near to the principles of modern 
 rationalism ; was a pupil of Bishop Fulbert of 
 Chartres, and became in 1040 director of the ca- 
 thedral school in Toui's. By his talent as a 
 teacher, and by his learning, both in the fathers 
 (especially Gregory tlie Great and .\ugustine) and 
 in the classical literature, from which he had ac- 
 quired a freer method of reasoning and a clearer 
 expression for his thoughts, he soon brought the
 
 BERENGARIUS. 
 
 246 
 
 BERKELEY. 
 
 school into a flourishing condition ; pupils gath- 
 ered around him from every quarter. But his 
 studies in the Bible and the fathers had led him 
 to the conclusion that the view of the Lord's Sup- 
 per generally accepted throughout the Church 
 since the time of Paschasius Radbertus was wrong, 
 that, indeed, the whole doctrine of transubstan- 
 tiation was an inepta recordia vulgi. He taught 
 that in the Lord's Supper it was necessary to dis- 
 tinguish, with Augustine, between the symbols, 
 facramenlum, and the thing symbolized, res sacra- 
 menti: and though at tirst he seems to have been 
 somewhat cautious in divulging his conviction on 
 this point, rumors of his heterodoxy gradually 
 oozed out. In 1046, and again in 1048, Adelman, 
 scholasticus at Liege, and a friend of his, ad- 
 dressed some anxious queries to him in private 
 letters. In 1049 Bishop Hughes of Langres 
 attacked him publicly in a book ; and in 1050 
 he himself wrote a letter to Lanfranc, at that 
 time the greatest teacher of the Church, re- 
 proaching him because he still held the views of 
 Paschasius, and thereby made Scotus a heretic. 
 Lanfranc received the letter in Rome, and im- 
 mediately laid the case before a synod, which 
 condemned Berengarius without a hearing, nay, 
 without a summons. This injustice was too 
 glaring, however; and a new synod was con- 
 voked to Vercelli, Sept. 1, same year. But when 
 Berengarius went to Paris to obtain the permis- 
 sion of the King, his abbot, to go abroad to the 
 .synod, the King, Henry I., thought it a good oi> 
 portunity to get hold of his canon's property, and 
 threw him in a dungeon. He was condemned 
 by the synod of Vercelli, and rescued from the 
 King's clutch only by the powerful aid of his 
 friends, — Count Gaufried of Anjou, and Bishop 
 Eusebius Bruno of Angers. Henry I., vexed at 
 having missed an opportunity of rapine, now con- 
 voked a synod at Paris, which also condemned 
 the wealthy heretic ; but, under the protection of 
 Gaufried and Eusebius Bruno, Berengarius sat 
 quietly in Tours, though the fanaticism and ha- 
 tred of his adversaries surged higher and higher 
 around him every hour. When, in 1054, Cardi- 
 nal Hildebrand arrived in France as papal legate, 
 he tried to bring the matter to an i.ssue ; and 
 Berengarius succeeded in satisfying the synod of 
 Tours. But only for a moment was tlie uproar 
 stilled. In 1059 he was again siuumoned before 
 a .synod in Rome ; and here he was met with such 
 an outV)urst of fury, that, stunned by fright, he 
 fell upon his face, and retracted. Thereby he 
 saved his life; but the weakness of that moment 
 he never forgot, and hardly had lie returned to 
 Tours before ne trampled upon his owni retraction, 
 and began to teacli and preach his original ideas 
 with increased vigor and bitterness. Synod after 
 synod condemned him ; but he continued disre- 
 garding the verdicts, imtil at last Gregory VI L, 
 who .seems to have felt kindly towards him, but 
 was vexed because this controver.sy threatened to 
 interfere with his reform-plans, compelled him, 
 at a synod in Rome (107H), to retract a .second 
 time, and to keep silent for tlie rest of his life. 
 He retired to the Island of St. Cosme, where lie 
 lived in deep solitude. 
 
 Lit. — A complete list of all sources and 
 documents concerning this point of inediiPval 
 church-history may be found ill 11. Sidmndoui-- : 
 
 Berengarius Ttironensis, Berlin, 1850; sei', also, 
 ReuTER : Gesrhiclile (I. relig. Aiijklurimci im j\Iit- 
 telalter. 1875, I. p. 91: and Guitmcxd's works in 
 BM. Pair., Lugd., XVIll. His De Sacra Ca;r.a 
 was edited by Vischer, Berlin, 1834. JACOBI. 
 
 BERGIER, Nicolas Sylvestre, b. at Darnay, in 
 Lorraine, Dec. 31. 1718; d. in Paris, April 1!), 
 1790 ; attracted attention, while still a teacher in 
 the college at Besan^on, by some essays on phi- 
 lologj' and mj-thology, but abandoned afterwards 
 this line of study, and devoted liimself to Chris- 
 tian apologetics, and polemics against the En- 
 cyclopedists. In 1765 he jiublished Le Dc'isme 
 rtfutd par lui-meme, and in 1708 tlie Certilwie des 
 preuves du christianismr, which achieved a great 
 success, and occasioned "N'oltaire, who wrote against 
 it, to temper his tone, and be a little more care- 
 ful about liis facts. In 1709 followed Apologie 
 de la Religion chrctienne against Ilolbach, and in 
 1771 Examen du matc'rialisme. He also wrote a 
 Diclionnaire the'ologiquc, which formed part of the 
 Encyclopedic mtlhodique, but has several times 
 been separately edited, latest, Paris, 1808, 6 vols. 
 As a reward for his great services, he was made a 
 canon of Noire Dame in Paris, and confessor to 
 the courts of the king. 
 
 BERGIUS, Johannes, b. at Stettin, 1587; d. at 
 Frankfort-on-tlie-Oder, 1G58 ; studied theology at 
 Heidelberg and Strassburg ; visited England, 
 France, and the Xetherlands ; and was in 1016 
 appointed professor of theology in the University 
 of Frankfort, whose faculty professed the Re- 
 formed faith. He represented Brandenburg at 
 the Leipzig conference (1631) and at the Thorn 
 colloquiiun (1642), but declined to be present at 
 the synod of Dort, as his stand-point was union- 
 ism rather that Calvinism. His ideas of the uni- 
 versality of the divine grace he developed in his 
 Der IVitle Gotles von aller Mensckens Seliykeil, 
 1653. In his controversies with the Lutherans 
 he was very moderate. On the members of the 
 house of Brandenburg he exercised great in- 
 fluence. 
 
 BERKELEY, George, the author of the Minute 
 Philosopher ; h. at Kilcrin, or I )ry.sert Castle, in 
 the county of Kilkenny, Ireland. March 1"2, 1685; 
 d. suddenly, at Oxford, Jan. 14, 1753. He was 
 educated at Trinity College. Dublin, and obtained 
 a fellowship in 1707. He lived there in an "at- 
 mosphere charged with the elements of re-action 
 against traditional scholasticism;" and his Com- 
 mon-Place Book shows how his mind worked under 
 its stimulus. Very early in life he was possessed 
 by the idea, which he subse(iuently in various 
 forms worked out, that no existence is conceiva- 
 ble and therefore possible, which is not either con- 
 scious .spirit, or the ideas (i.e., objects) of which 
 such .spirit is con.scious. " Exi.stiiig tilings consist 
 of ideas or objects perceived or willed ; while per- 
 ception and volition are inconceivable and impos- 
 sible, save as the operations of mind or .siiirit. 
 No object exists a]i:irt from the mind: mind is 
 therefore the deepest reality; it is tlie /iriiis, both 
 in tliduglit and existence, if for the moineiit we 
 a.ssume the ]iopiilar dLstinction between the two." 
 From this theory he never wavered: with it 
 already developed he appeared as an atitJior. 
 In 171)7 he issued two .short tracts upon mathe- 
 matics; in 1709 the jVcic Theory of Vision, — an 
 examination nf visual consciousness to Jirove that
 
 BERKELEY. 
 
 247 
 
 BERLEBURG. 
 
 it really <iffords 110 grnund for belief in the reality 
 of the objects apparently seen. In 1710 appeared 
 his Principles of Human Knoirl(^f///e, in which his 
 theory received complete exposition. Meanwhile 
 Berkeley had taken orders, and 1711 lie jireached 
 his Discourse nn Passice Oheilicnce, in which he 
 worked a "theological ntilitarianisin." In 171'5 
 he left the university, went iiji to London, formed 
 many desirable acfiuaintances, and gained a most 
 enviable reputation for learning, humility, and 
 piety, wliich was strengthened by the appearance 
 of his Dialogues helwcen Hylns and Phiionous 
 (1713), — a work of great literary beauty and skill. 
 The next seven years were spent, for the most 
 part, on the Continent. In 1722 he was appointed 
 Dean of Dromore; in 1724, Dean of Derry, the 
 "best preferment" in Ireland. In .\ugust, 1728, 
 he married, and in .September sailed for America, 
 to carry out his darling jiroject of establishing a 
 college in the Bermuda Islands, with the aim of 
 extending Christianity and civilization in Ameri- 
 ca. He w-as led to lielieve that government took 
 great interest in his plans, for which he had vol- 
 untarily made great personal sacrifices and great 
 exertions. He landed at Newport, R.I.; but 
 three years of waiting for the promised aid con- 
 vinced him of the vanity of his hopes. He re- 
 turned to London, and published in 1732 Alciph- 
 ron, or, the Minute P!i ilosopher, the fruit of liis 
 studies in America. The book is a powerf id refu- 
 tation of the free thinking then so popular and 
 fashionable: it is probably the mo.st famous of 
 his works. In 1734 he was raised to the bish- 
 opric of Cloyne, Ireland. In 1744 he wrote tlie 
 curious iihilosophico-medical work, Philosophical 
 Reflexions and Inquiries concerning the Virtues of 
 Tar-water. In the second edition, printed the same 
 year, the title Siris, and the words 'a chain of,' were 
 prefixed to the orignal title. Frofes.sor Fraser calls 
 it "the profoundest English philosophical work 
 of the last century." In 1752 Berkeley went to 
 Oxford to live, to end his days in wished-for re- 
 tirement, and there he died. 
 
 Bishop Berkeley was certainly one of the purest 
 and sincerest Christians in history. AVhile in 
 the world, he was not of it. And he has peculiar 
 claim upon the attention of Americans, because 
 of his long residence on his farm near Newport. 
 While there, he greatly endeared himself to all, 
 and is yet remembered. Trinity Church in New- 
 port, a fine old wooden structure in which he 
 sometimes preached, still stands; as does the 
 house, three miles froni Newport, which he built 
 and lived in, and named " Whitehall," in honor 
 of an English palace. About a mile from the 
 house is the rooky shore ; and a horizontal cleft 
 in the rocks is stiU pointed out as a retreat to 
 which Berkeley went to meditate, and to which, 
 also, he was wont to take his friends. In Alciph- 
 ron, Berkeley has given permanent record of his 
 life at Newport ; and not a little of the charm of 
 that work is due to this fact. AVhile there, he 
 made at least one convert, the Kev. Dr. Samuel 
 Johnson, first president of Columbia College, 
 New York, who published in his Elementa Phi- 
 losophica an exposition of Berkeley's teaching. 
 Jonathan Edwards is also claimed as a Berkleian. 
 And Berkeley did more : he left his impress on 
 here and there a speculative mind in Khode 
 Island, and a speculative tendency has always 
 
 characterized its gifted men. Another strong 
 claim upon us is becau.se it was he, who, inspirea 
 by the prospect of planting arts and learning in 
 Anierica, uttered the prophetic ver.se: — 
 
 " Westwaril tlie course of empire takes its way; 
 Tlic four first. a<"ts .-ilrca'ly [last, 
 A tiftli sliall close tin; draiii.i with tliii day: 
 Time's noblest offs|)nng is the last." 
 
 The quotations made above are from Mr. Ad- 
 amson's article in the Enci/cl. Brit., 9th ed. 
 
 Lit. — The cla.ssical edition, snper.seding all 
 others, of Berkeley's Complete Works, is that by 
 Professor A. C Fr.\ser, Oxford, 1871, 4 vols", 
 (the fourth volume contains Life, Letters, and Dis- 
 sertation on his Phdosophy). Professor Fhaseu 
 and Professor T. II. Green have each furnished 
 a volume on Berkeley to the series of Philosophic 
 Classics for English Readers and English Philoso- 
 phers respectively. 
 
 Essays. — Collyns Simon : Unirersal fmma- 
 terialism (1847) ; the same : Nature ami Eletnents 
 of the External iroWrf (1862) ; Frieduich • L'eber 
 Berkeley's Idealism us . 
 
 Adverse Reviews of his Theory of Vision. — 
 Baii.ev : Review of Berkeley's 'I'heoni of Vision 
 (1842); Abbott: Sight 'and Touch (1864): 
 MoNCK : Space and Vision. Modern editions of 
 separate works have appeared, e.g.. The Princi- 
 ples of Human Knowledge, with Prolegomena and 
 Annotations, by Pi'ofe.ssor Krauth (a merito- 
 rious and learned compilation, presenting a val- 
 uable epitome of what has been said about 
 Berkeley). 
 
 BERLEBURG BIBLE, The, was an annotated 
 Bible with a new translation (German) as its 
 basis, in which it was attempted to explain the 
 Scriptures according to the teachings of the Mys- 
 tics. The execution of the work is very unequal ; 
 and the spirit is sometimes rather sectarian than 
 Christian, as when, with bitterness, oppo.sing 
 views are attacked. But, on the whole, it must 
 be granted that the " Bible " contributed to 
 quicken the spiritual life of its readers. 
 
 The work was comprised in eight folio volumes, 
 issued 1726-42. The translation was made under 
 the direction of 1\I. Haug, and shows, particularly 
 in the Old Testament, a shocking absence of 
 grammatical knowledge, of literary taste, and of 
 poetic sense. The commentary was in a sense 
 an anthology, inasmuch as it presented choice 
 extracts from mystical writers, all the way from 
 Origen down to Madame Guyon and Mrs. Leade. 
 But a great part was the work of otherwise 
 totally obscure persons, who somewhat plaintively 
 described themselves as "pastors persecuted for 
 the sake of heterodoxy." 
 
 This pretentious work was written by the mys- 
 tical school, who were the degenerate descendants 
 of the Pietists, — the fruit of the re-action from 
 the dry and formal orthodoxy of the seventeenth 
 century. It was a sort of continuation of the 
 Marburg Bible of 1712, edited by Horch ; but it 
 was no iiuprovement. Count Casimir of Sain- 
 Witgenstein-Berleburg was its patron. It cannot 
 be said to he happy in its idea or execution. 
 Three sen.ses of the Word were taught, — the lit- 
 eral, the moral, and the secret or prophetic. To 
 interjiret the latter, the commentators boasted of 
 the possession of tlie spirit who originally wrote 
 the words. Their central doctrine was the regeii-
 
 BERN 
 
 248 
 
 BERNARD. 
 
 eration. Tliey taught that men could perfectly 
 keep the coniniaudineuts of God, and receive into 
 tlieniselves in such a manner the righteousness of 
 C'hriyt, that the primitive human nature is tliere- 
 liy restored. Of course, their conception both of 
 sin and of redemption was heterodox. 
 
 The work never reached a second edition, and 
 copies are now scarce. Curiously enough, in 
 addition to the canonical books, they gave a num- 
 ber of apocr^-phal writings, botli on the Old and 
 the New Testament, and also extracts from >Iose- 
 phus and the Fathers. c. WEIZSACKER. 
 
 BERN, The Disputation of, occupies a promi- 
 nent place among the many disputations, confer- 
 ences, and coUoquia which were held in Ger- 
 many during the period of the Reformation, 
 because it arrived at a practical result. For a 
 long time the Reformation made only slow prog- 
 ress in Bern : both the character of the people 
 and the manner of their life made them less sus- 
 ceptible to new ideas. But, as soon as an evan- 
 gelical party was formed, the jealousy and arro- 
 gance of the Roman Church immediately began 
 to cause trouble. According to the usages of 
 those days, a reconciliation was attempted by 
 means of a disputation; and May 21, 1526, such 
 a disputation was opened in Baden before a large 
 and brilliant assembly. Faber, Eck, Murner of 
 J.,uzern, spoke on the Roman side; (Ecolampadius, 
 on the evangelical. But the defeat of the latter 
 party was a foregone conclusion, and the evan- 
 gelical cause might have been completely lost in 
 Bern, had not the Roman Church, by the violent 
 and domineering manner in which it used its 
 victory, called forth a re-action, which, in less 
 than two years, proved fatal to her cause. A 
 new disputation was opened at Bern, Jan. 7, 
 1.528, and lasted to Jan. 26. The Roman digni- 
 taries and celebrities who had been invited de- 
 clined to 1)6 present. On the side of the evan- 
 gelical, spoke, besides Kolb and Ilaller, preacli- 
 ers of Bern, Capito, and (Ecolampadius. The 
 assembly was very numerous ; and ten doctrinal 
 points of purely evangelical bearing were agreed 
 upon, and subscribed to by most of the clergymen 
 present. Feb. 7, 1528, the Refornuition Edict 
 was issued. The nutss was abolished, the images 
 were removed from the churches, the episcopal 
 power was annulled, etc., and the Refornuition 
 was established witliout the least violence or 
 disturbance. 
 
 Lit. — The acts of the disputation were pub- 
 lished at Zurich, 1528, and again in 16(18 and 
 1701. FisciiKu: Geschiclite iler DispHtation un/l 
 Reformation in Bern, Bern, 1828. See the " Ten 
 Theses of Bern," in Sciiaff : Creeds, vol. III. 
 pp. 208 s.jq. 
 
 BERN, Synod of. By this title, the fir.st re- 
 formed synod tliere held (in 1532), together with 
 all the acts it passed, is meant. The .synod num- 
 bered two hundred and twenty of the clergy of the 
 country, and lasted from the 9th to the 13tli of 
 January inclusive, with Cajuto as its principal 
 figure. They formeil a I'astoi's Manual and a 
 Church Directory, distinguislie(i, even among the 
 monuments of the Reformation, for its apostolic 
 force and unction, warmth and siiu;erity, homely 
 simplicity and i)ractical wisdom. T/ie Aels of the 
 Synod were ollicially printed at Basel, 1532, under 
 the title " Benier Syuodus-Onnung wie sich pfar- 
 
 rer und prediger zu Statt und Land Bern, in leer 
 und leben, halten sollen, mit w^•terem bericht von 
 Christo, und den Sacramente'n, beschlo.ssen im 
 Synodo daselhst versamlet, am IX. tag Januarii 
 An. MDXXXII. ; " again officially reprinted 1728 
 and 1775 ; privately, with original and modern- 
 ized text, by Lauener, Basel, 1830. F. trechsel. 
 
 BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX, b. 1091, at Fon- 
 taines, near Dijon, Burgundy; d. at Clairvaux, 
 Aug. 20, 1153; canonized by Alexander III., 1173; 
 was the third son of a noble and wealthy family, 
 and received a complete training in all knightly 
 accomplishments, but felt himself so strongly 
 drawn toward things holy, that, in spite of the 
 remonstrances of his family, he retired in 1113 to 
 the Monastery of Citeaux (Cislerlium), and be- 
 came a monk. Though the Monastery of Citeaux 
 (founded in 1098 by Stephan Harding) was re- 
 nowned for the .severity and strictness of its rules, 
 Bernard, nevertheless, produced a strong impres- 
 sion in the circles into which he had entered, by 
 the austerity of his ascetic practices, and by the 
 passionate energy with winch he concentrated his 
 whole life on the one thing needful. When, in 
 1115, the monastery proved too small for the 
 number of persons asking for admission, — Ber- 
 nard, for instance, came in company with thirty 
 others whom he had converted f I'om the world, — 
 and it was found necessary to .send out a colony 
 and found a new monastery, Bernard was placed 
 at the head of the emigrants. They .settled in 
 the wild and bari'en gorge of Clairvaux (Clara 
 Valtis) ; and it cost an incredible amount of per- 
 severance, hard labor, aiul self-sacrifice, to build a 
 house in this inhospitable region. But the nion- 
 astei'v prospered wonderfully, and its abbot soon 
 became famous. He was severe, almost austere, 
 but he was not hard : to all he showed a kindness 
 of heart and a suavity of manners which charmed 
 and con.soled. He was humble and meek; but he 
 was not diffident : on one thing he was so sure, 
 that his conviction made him a coimnander, aiul 
 a harbor of refuge to every one who felt weak, 
 or doubtful, or tempted. He was yoiuig, ami 
 singularly inexperienced; but he had that magical 
 intuition into characters and circumstances which 
 comes from perfect sincerity of heart, and fur- 
 nishes the best aid to any one who is sick, and 
 the best remedy to any thing which is wrong. 
 So great was the confidence he enjoyed, that in 
 1128 he was called upon to draw up the rules for 
 the Older of the Templars. 
 
 In the .schism which broke out after the death 
 of Honorius II., Bernard iunnediately and re.so- 
 lutely took the side of Innocent II.; and the 
 enormous energy which he developed in the c;ise 
 decided both the course and the issue of the con- 
 test. At the synod of Estampes he induced the 
 French clergy to recognize Innocent. The recog- 
 nition by Louis VI. of France, Henry I. of Eng- 
 land, and Lothair of (iermany, followed soon 
 after, and was, partly at least, also the residt of 
 his exertions. Lothair he even persuaded to give 
 up some of the claitns which Ik; based on the 
 concordat of Worms, and to nuike a campaign 
 to Italy to expel Anaclet II. "While Innocent 
 staid in France, Beriuird accompanied him from 
 place to ]>iace, an<l preached to the peopli; in his 
 l)ehalf, with an eloquence whose effect often ap- 
 proached the miraculous. In France ho bore 
 
 1
 
 BERNARD. 
 
 240 
 
 BERNARD. 
 
 down every trace of opposition ; and in Italy 
 too, wliitlier he went twice (in 113:? an<l 11-5'!), 
 lii.s presence was more effective llian tliat of tiie 
 armies of Lotliair. Shortly after the ending' of 
 the schism, the controversy with Alielard began. 
 Abelard was a rationalist; Kernard, a mystic: 
 Abelard lield tliat the doctrines of Cln-istianity 
 onght to pass tln'ongh the sifting of reason, in 
 order to become a fit snbject of faith ; while Uer- 
 nard demanded tliat they shoidd be embraced at 
 once by faith, through an act of the will. \\'ith 
 Abelard, faith meant reasoned c<)M\ iction : with 
 llernard, intellect meant enthusiastic contempla- 
 tion. Between those two men a conflict was 
 imavoidable. But at tlie synod of Sens (1140), 
 where Abelard expected to meet Bernard as his 
 counterp.art in a disputation, Bernard appeared 
 as his accuser. Abelard refused to defend him- 
 self, and appealed to the Pojje ; but Bernard 
 frustrated the appeal, and Abelard was in reality 
 4'ondemned indieard. Peter Venerai)ilis, how- 
 ever, the great Abbot of C'lugny, with whom 
 Abelard sjient tlie last years of his life, after- 
 "wards brought about a personal reconciliation 
 lietween the two antagonists. lVrh;ips the great- 
 est, or, at all events, the most striking, e.\ploit 
 which Bernard performed, was the preaching of 
 the second crusade, 1146. lie roused the people 
 of France and (iermany to a pitch of enthusiasm 
 hardly smpassed by that whicli produced the first 
 crusade ; but the lesult corresponded very poorly 
 to the preparations, and he felt himself somewhat 
 embarrassed at the complete failure. Very re- 
 markable, also, was his activity in Sontli-westcrn 
 France (1147-40), among the heretics of AIbi 
 and Toulouse, though he was not completely suc- 
 cessful in this case, either, lie met there with a 
 state of mind which somewhat resembled his 
 own, and the miracnlous in liis personal influence 
 became somewhat weakened by this circumstance. 
 The works of Bernard comprise a numlier of 
 sermons, especially on the Canticles ; a ninnber 
 of mystic theosophic treatises, De Diligent/o Deo, 
 De Gradihus Ilnuiililalis et Superbio'., etc. ; De Con- 
 nideratione ad Eiitjenium 111. (ed. Murter, Inns- 
 bruck, 1885), a most characteristic work ; a poem 
 in hex.ameter ; and a series of hymns, still living 
 both in the Roman Catholic and in the Keformed 
 ehnrches (the most famous is the familiar, " O sa- 
 cred head now wounded," which was translated 
 into German liy (ierhardt) ; and four hundred and 
 nineteen letters of the greatest historical and psy- 
 chological interest. His style is generallj' strained, 
 . artificial, and cumbersome ; but his thoughts have 
 oft«n the same power as hunger or thirst. They 
 absorb tlie whole man \\hom they beset, and 
 throw him with passionate decision in one direc- 
 tion. The best edition of liis works is that by 
 MabilloN; Paris, 1667, 2 vols, folio, afterwards 
 often reprinted, .i-s in Mignc. 18.54, 4 vols. yvo. 
 This edition contains Ids life written by his 
 friend and disciple Godfrey. 
 
 Lit. — Bernard's life was written thrice in 
 the twelfth century, — by AA'illiam of Thierry, 
 (ianfredes of Clairvaux, and Alanns ab Insulis. 
 Of modern biographies the most remarkable are 
 by Nkandeu : Der heil. Bernhard, Berlin, 1813, .3d 
 ed., 1865, translated from the first edition by Sfa- 
 tilda AVrench, London, 184;!; andMoRisox" Life 
 and Times vf St. Btniard, 1J^6;J, 'Jd ed., 1877. 
 
 BERNARD OF MENTONE, b at Annecy, in 
 Savoy, ii-_':5; d. at .Vovara, May 28. 1008; re- 
 ceived an excellent education as the only child of 
 rich and noble parents, but determinecl very early 
 to renounce the world, and retired to a monas- 
 tery of Aosta, took holy orders, and was after- 
 wards appointed arelide.acon. In Aosta, as well 
 as in his hmne, he often witnessed the unsiieaka- 
 ble misery to which pilgrims were subjected when 
 crossing the Alps. A hos])ice had Ixkmi entcteil 
 in one of the p:isses m the ninth eenlury; but it 
 had been destroyed, and the passes w(^re now held 
 by gangs of robbers. In 973 Abbot Majolns of 
 Clugny, when returning home from Italy across 
 yT/o/i.v Jovis (Mont Joux), was captunnl by such 
 a gang, and compelled to pay an enormous ran- 
 .som (see Pertz : Afon. Germ. VI. 651, VII. 54). 
 Bernard himself took part in the military expedi- 
 tion against the robbers; and on the higlie.st and 
 most dangerous spot of the pass, surrounded on 
 all sides with perpetual snow and ice, he founded 
 a great and magnificent hospice, and peopled it 
 with Angustinian monks. Afterwards he added 
 another but minor hospice in the pass of Co- 
 himna .furis (Colona Jon) ; and both these Iios- 
 pices have been maintained to our day, having 
 the nanie of their founder, — the Greater ami 
 Lesser St. Bernard. Bernard was canonized by 
 Innocent XL in 1681. His life is given in Act. 
 ■Saiict., June 1.5, vol. III., p. 547-564. See also 
 L. BuRC.r.XKK : Leiien iind Wcrken d. h. Bernhard. 
 Luzern, 1856, and, with respect to the history of 
 the hospice, Le Comierratcur Sui.tue, Tom. V., pp. 
 231-280. 
 
 BERNARD, Archbishop of Toledo, and Pri- 
 mate of Spain ; the chief promoter of llie Grego- 
 rian .sy.stem of the Papacy in Spain; b. at Ageu 
 in France; d. in Spain, 1125; for a time was a 
 soldier, then turned a Benedictine monk ; |iroinot- 
 ed to Abbot of the Sahagima Monastery in Ca.s- 
 tile, 1080, and rendered Gregory VII. such help 
 in his reforms that he loaded him with favors. 
 King Alfonso VI. nominated him Archbishop of 
 Toledo as a reward of his services in taking th;ifc 
 city from the Moors ; and, when he went to lionie 
 (1087) to receive the pallium. Pope Urban 11. 
 named him Primate of the Spanish Church. II(^ 
 renewed with redoubled vigor his efforts to re- 
 form the Church according to the Gregorian plan, 
 but by so doing raised a storm of opposition : 
 nevertheless he persevered. Among his reforms 
 was the introduction of the Roman Liturgy in 
 place of the Mozarabic. As an indication of his 
 warlike character may be mentioned his raisin*' 
 an .army which he intended to command upon a 
 crusade into Palestine; but Pope Paschal II. for- 
 bade him and ail Spaniards, under penalty of the 
 baim, from engaging in such an entei-prise. Four 
 of his sermons are given in Bernardi ClaivTvall. 
 opera V., P.aris, 1719. Cf. Asciib.\ch : Geschicliti: 
 der Ahnoravidcn. HERZOG. 
 
 BERNARD {Bemardns) DE BOTONO, b. in 
 Parma, about the beginning of the thirteenth cen- 
 tury ; studied law at Bologna; became profe.ssor 
 and canon there ; went to Rome, and occupied 
 for many years a prominent position at the jmpal 
 court, but returned to lecture in Bologna ; d. 1266. 
 He is famous as the author of the so-called Glossa 
 ordinaria to the Decretals of Gregory IX., issued 
 probably 1210. MEJEIt.
 
 BERNARD. 
 
 250 
 
 BBRNICE. 
 
 BERNARD, Claude, called the " Poor Priest; " 
 one of the most goiily men of the Koman-Catliolic 
 Church during the seventeenth century, sliowing 
 in his whole life what energy tlie romantic char- 
 acter can develop when deeply affected by reli- 
 gion; b. in Dijon, 15SS; d. Iti41. 'J'he son of a 
 jurist, he studied law liiniself, and for a time led 
 a licentious life, but was converted by a vision of 
 his departed father. He became a priest, and 
 made Paris his residence, where he exercised an 
 extraordinary self-denial and philanthropy; gave 
 awav all he had to the poor, including an inherit- 
 ance of four hundred thousand francs ; spent his 
 whole time in preaching, and visiting the poor 
 and .sick, not shrinking from the most disgusting 
 diseases. He was a man greatly beloved and a 
 .saint, canonized, not by the Pope, but by the peo- 
 ple. Of the sketches of his life, see especially 
 that by L'empereur. HERZOG. " 
 
 BERNARD OF CLUNY (not to be confounded 
 with his namesake and contemporary of Clair- 
 vaux) ; b., about the middle of the twelfth cen- 
 tury, of English parents, at Morlaix in Brittany; 
 d. at Cluny. Xothing of his life is known, yet 
 his memory is imperishable. He was the author 
 of De Conlemptu Slumli, a Latin poem of nearly 
 three thousand hues, dedicated to his abbot, Peter 
 the Venerable, d. 1156, general of the Benedictine 
 order ]t is a bitter satire upon the corruptions 
 of the age, but opens with a description of the 
 peace and glory of hea\en ; and this part of tlie 
 poem is so exquisite, that it excites universal ad- 
 miration. The earliest publication of the poem 
 is by M.atthias Flaciits, in a volume of other poems 
 calling for a reformation of ecclesiastical abuses, 
 Basel, 15u7, and live or six times since. Dr. Trench 
 has issued ninety-six lines of it in his Sacred 
 Latin Poelnj. These extracts have been freely 
 reproduced liy the Rev. John Mason Neale {Thf 
 RhylUm (if liernanl ile Morlaix, Monk of Cluni/. on 
 the Celestial Counlri/, London, 1858, ;5d ed., 18()1) ; 
 and portions of this English reproduction have 
 pa,s.sed into general use in our hyinn-books as the 
 most pojinlar of hynnis about heaven. They 
 are. Brief Life i.i here our Portion (IIic hrerir riri- 
 tur), For tliee, O dear, dear Countrii .' (O Imna pa- 
 Iria), and Jerusalem the Golden .' ( Urhs St/i>n urea) . 
 See them all in SchafY's (,'ltrisl in Song (Xew York, 
 1868, London, 1809). The metre of the original 
 poem is very strange ; the lines are dactylic liex- 
 ametres, with the leonine (sometimes a tris.syllabic 
 or dactylic) and tailed riiyme, each line being 
 broken up in three cqu;il parts, — a most difficult 
 metre, wliich only a .special grace and inspiration 
 enabled the author, as he believed, to master. 
 The following arrangement of the first two lines 
 will make this intelligible : — 
 
 " nora novis.shHc/ i| tempuri pe.s.srnia II sunt: \\g\lcmiis .' 
 Ecce! iiiiiia'-id-i' li imiuinut arbiter || illu sup/cmHs ! " 
 
 Besides Xeale's free translation, there are the more 
 literal versions of portions by Dr. Ahkamam 
 CoLKS (K.Y., 1806), .S. W. ])rn'ii;i.i> (N.Y., 
 1867), who luis attempted to reproduce the origi- 
 nal, and D. 'J'. Moiujan (lli/iiius and other Poetry 
 of the Latin Church, London, 1880), who presents 
 a spirited version of UrOs Syun Inchjta ( The 
 lleuccnbj Zion). 
 
 It is worth noting tlial Bernard cites the ca.He 
 of the Biddendeii Maids of Kent, 1. 1013 scjci , a-s 
 
 a proof that the last days had come. See Fla- 
 cius' ed., Basel, 1557, p. 283. The " Maids " were 
 ALary and Elizabeth Ohulkhurst, born at Bidden- 
 deii in 1100. They were joined together by the 
 shoulders and hips, and lived to the age of thirty- 
 four. See liRKWKR: The Heailer's Hundiouk if 
 Allusions, etc., sub " Biddenden Maids." 
 
 BERNARDIN OF SIENNA, St., h. at Ma.s.sa. 
 1-380; d. at Aquiia, May 30, 1444; entered the 
 order of the Franciscans in 1402, and became 
 the most famous preacher of his time, often ad- 
 dressing audiences of thirty thousand, and im- 
 pressing peoj)le so powerfully, that the men burnt 
 their cards and dice, the women their frivolous 
 finery. He refused the bishoprics of Siena, Fer- 
 rara, and Urbino successively. His sermons were, 
 like most .sermons of the Franci-scans, moral 
 rather than religious. A number of them have 
 been translated into Latin, and published in a 
 collective edition, Paris, 1639, and Venice, 1745. 
 He was canonized in 1450 by Nicholas V. See Bek- 
 TiiAi'MiF-r! -.Hist, de Saint Bemardin, Paris, 1862. 
 
 BERNICE, often, but less accurately, Bekemck 
 (victorious), was the eldest daughter of Herod 
 .\grippa I.; betrothed at a tender age to Mark, 
 the son of Alexander I^ysimachus, the alabarch, 
 or chief officer of the .lews, in Alexandria ; but, as 
 he died eie the marriage was consummated, she 
 became the wife of her uncle, Herod, King of 
 Chalcis (Joseph. Antiq. XIX. 5, 1), liy whom she 
 had two sons, Bernictanus (or Beniicianus) and 
 Hyrcanus {Antiij. XX. 5,2; H'or. II. 11,6). Her 
 husband died when she was but twenty years old 
 (A.D. 48), and she went to live with her brother, 
 -Agrippa H. Rumor declared their intimacy to be 
 criminal. She met the charge by inducing I'ole- 
 nion, the King of Cilicia, to be circumcised, and 
 to marry her. Joseph iis thought her wealth was 
 the main attr.iction. At all events, the union did 
 not last long, and again .she lived in the palace of 
 her brother (Antiq. XX. 7, 3), with whom she vis- 
 ited Festus, and thus heard Paul's defence (Acts 
 x.\v. 23. xxvi. 30), A.D. 00. The bruit of their 
 relations reached Rome, aiul Juvenal alludes to it 
 {Sat. VI. 156-160). Her courage enabled her, at 
 the risk of her own life, while in .leru.salem per- 
 forming a vow, to Kii]>]ilicale the Roman procura- 
 tor Florus to spare tlie poor Jews ( ]\'iir. II. 1.5, 1). 
 She united with her brother in the attempt to dis- 
 suade the Jews from war ( llVo-. II. 10. 5). Dur- 
 ing the war she espoused the Roman side, and 
 was the mistre.ss of Vespasian, and then of his 
 son Titus. She followed the hitter to Rome, after 
 the capture of Jenisalem; and so infatuated wa.s 
 he with her, that it is said that he (Uwired to make 
 her his wife, but the clamor the rumor laised 
 obliged him to dismiss her. In A.D. 71). when 
 Titus bcianie sole emjieior, she visited Rome 
 again, although she was then fifty years old, to 
 try to regain her old jiosition ; but Titus was 
 wary, and paid her no attentions. .See Tacitus, 
 Ilist. II. SI; Suetonius, Tiliis 7; Dio. Cass. 
 LXVI. 15, 18. Of her later history we know 
 nothing, (^iiintilian speaks {Inst. (hut. iv. 1) 
 of having i>leaded her cause on some occasion not 
 otherwise allniled to, on which she her.self sat as 
 judge (Nolde, //i.s7. Idem, \f. 4o3 .sq.). Anothei' 
 undated fcict about her is a souvenir of her visit 
 to .\lhens, in the sh.ipe of the inscription upon 
 a column, "Julia Berenice, the great Queen. To
 
 BERNO. 
 
 251 
 
 BERTHOLD. 
 
 Julia, flanslit<>r of King Agrippa" (Corp. Iiiscrip. 
 gra^c. 11. 301). 
 
 lic'iiiicu reniiiuls us of Cleopatra. Both had 
 extiaoidiiiary Ijeauty, firm wills, and loosf char- 
 acters. Both wore very ambitions, and fertile in 
 Ti'sources ; and both scrupled not to use their 
 charms to gain their ends. 
 
 BERNO, d. 1048; was monk in a Benedictine 
 monastery at I'riim, near Treves, when Henry 
 II. made hiin Abbot of Keichenan in Lake Con- 
 stance, 1008; accompanied Ileni-y II. to Home in 
 1014, and brought back a number of musical im- 
 provenients, which he introduced in (ierniany; 
 brought the school and library of Keicheiiau to a 
 very fiourishing condition, and built the Church 
 of .St. Alary; wrote, among other works, a \'i!a 
 S. Uilnlrici, jiublished, together with a (Jermaii 
 translation from the thirteenth century, at Munich 
 in 1844; a Vita S. Meijinradi, found in Mahil- 
 i.ox : Ann. Oril. Berno. axe. IV.; and musical 
 treatises published in Gkruert: Script. Keel, de 
 Musica, 1 1 
 
 BERNO, Abbot. See.Ci.UGNY. 
 
 BERQUIN, Louis de, b. at Passy, abouM400; 
 d. in Paris, April 17, 1529; studied law, and bore 
 the reputation of being a vei-y strict and consci- 
 entious member of the Uomau Church, when a 
 controversy with Dn Cheiie, member of the Sor- 
 bonne, led him into the investigation of Luther's 
 writings and the great reformatory questions of 
 tlie day. But Luther's writings had been forbid- 
 den by the Parliament of Paris; and when some 
 of them were found in Berquin's study he was 
 imprisoned (Aug. 1, 1523), and released only by 
 the mediation of l.,ouise of Savoy. He now re- 
 tired to his estates in Artois; but he did not 
 desist from his investigations, nor conceal the 
 result of them. lie translated tlie Encliiridion 
 of Erasmus, with notes, and wrote several polemi- 
 cal tracts. On the instance of the Bishop of 
 Amiens, he wasagiiin imprisoned (Jan. 10, 1526), 
 and a formal })rocess of heresy was instituted 
 against Iiiin. This time, too, he was saved, but 
 only by the interference of the King himself. 
 His friends advised him to leave the country, or 
 at least to keep silent ; but this he considered to 
 be against his conscience. He directly attacked 
 the Sorbonne, it« members and its tenets ; and 
 now his doom was sealed. Imprisoned for the 
 third time (in tlie beginning of March, 1529), he 
 was sentenced (April 16) to have his tongue 
 pierced by a hot iron, and to remain in prison for 
 the rest of his life. He appealed to the King; 
 -but this irritated his judges to such a degree, 
 that by a second sentence they condemned him 
 io be burned alive ; and the sentence was imnie- 
 iiately executed in the Greve-place, April 17, 
 1529. He was tlie first Protestant martyr in 
 France. 
 
 BERRUYER, Joseph Isaac, b. at Rouen, 1681 ; 
 d. in Paris, 1758 ; was a Jesuit, and became 
 famous by his H'lstoire du peuple de Dieii, a kind 
 of transcription or paraphrase of the Bible, of 
 which the first part, the Old Testament, appeared 
 in seven volumes, 1728; tlie second, the Gospels, 
 in four volumes, 1753; and the third, the Epis- 
 tles, in 1758, after the death of the author. The 
 first part is an obscene romance, full of indecent 
 descriptions; the third is a scandalous absurdity, 
 drawing the Christian doctrines ^ — for instance, 
 
 that of the Trinity — down into scurrility; the 
 second is a transition from the oik' to the other. 
 When the first part api)eared, the bishops of 
 Prance protested; and a Jiarly williiu the order 
 itself compelle<l the geneial to coimjiand a new 
 and expurgated edition. When the second part 
 aiiiicared, the protest of the French Church wag 
 ri'lieated with incn'a.sed energy; and the Pope put 
 the book on the Index, repeatedly condemning it 
 as an abominable offence. Neverthele.ss, the 
 Jesuits published the third part, had the book 
 translated into foreign languages, and reprint it 
 every now and then. 
 
 BERTHIER, Gulllaume Francois, b. at I.s.soii- 
 dun. in the Department of Indre, April 7, 1704; 
 d. at Bourges, Dec. 15, 1782; was a Jesuit; con- 
 tinued the iHslinre de P Er;ti.ie O'allicaiie of Brumoy 
 down to 1529; edited for some time the Journal 
 de Trernnx , was appointed tutor to the children 
 of the Dauphin after the suppression of his order, 
 but banished from the country in 1764. His 
 CEueres Spirituelle.'i were published in five vol- 
 umes, in Paris, 1811. 
 
 BERTHOLD THE FRANCISCAN {Prater Perk- 
 tolilus-), h. at Katisbou about 1220; d. there Dec. 
 14, 1272; entered the order of the Franciscans; 
 was ordained priest, and started in 1252 on a 
 tour as itinerant preacher, through Bavaria, 
 Alsace, Switzerland, Austria, Bohemia, Moravia, 
 and Silesia, gathering immense crowds wherever 
 he came, and addressing people, both in the 
 churches and in tlie open field. He was strongly 
 opposed to the frivolous preachers of indulgence, 
 and to the false confidence in the power of the 
 saints. See complete edition of his sermons by 
 F. PFEiKFKn and J. Stobl, Vienna, 18G2-80, 2 
 vols.; Xevv High German translation by F. 
 GiiBEL, Schaffhausen, 1850-51, 2 vols. ; and his 
 biography by SxROMBEitGKR, Giitersloh, 1877. 
 
 BERTHOLD OF CHIEMSEE, b. at Salzburg, 
 1465 ; d. at Saalfelden, July 19, 1543 ; was made 
 Bishop of Chiem.see in 1508, but resigned in 1525. 
 He was probably author of the Omm Eeceleaia, 
 which appeared anonymously at Laudshut in 1524, 
 and gives a trenchant description of the corrup- 
 tion of the Roman Church, both in head and in 
 members. In his retirement he wrote the 
 Tewtsehe Thenloqeij, which appeared (1528) in Mu- 
 nich, and (1.531), in Latin translation, at Aiig.s- 
 burg. It is a scholastic development of the doc- 
 trinal system of the Roman Church, held polemi- 
 cally against the reformatory movement, but able 
 and original. The book, in German, with dic- 
 tionary, and a life of the author, was republished 
 at Munich in 1852, edited by W. Rkithmkier. 
 
 BERTHOLDT, Leonhard, b. at Emskirchen, 
 Bavaria, May 8, 1774; d. at Erlangen, IMarch 22, 
 1822; studied theology and Oriental pliilology in 
 the University of Erlangen, where he was ap 
 pointed extraordinary professor of philosophy in 
 1805, and full professor of theology in 1806, in 
 consequence of his important work upon Daniel, 
 Erlangen, 1800-1808, 2 vols. His principal work 
 is, Historisch-kritiscl)e Einteitunr/ in die sdnimtlickeu 
 Icanonischen u. a/wcri/pkischen Schri/)en des A. und 
 N. Testmnenls, Erlangen, 1812-19, 6 vols. Of less 
 interest is his Einleitmu/ in d. Ilteol. Wisaenschaji, 
 2 vols., 1821-22; and of still less, liis HandbucK 
 d. Bor/menyescliie/ite, 2 vols., 1822-23. As a 
 teacher, howe^■el•, and as editor of the Kritischt
 
 BERTHOLD. 
 
 252 
 
 BETHANY. 
 
 Journal der neueslen theol. TMteratur, one of the 
 jiiiucipal orgaiLS of the rationalistic parly, his 
 actiritj' was stimulating iii many ways. 
 
 BERTHOLD, Apostle of Livonia, formerly 
 Abbot of the Cistercian Monastery of Lokkum ; 
 was in 1196 consecrated, by the Archbishop of 
 Bremen, bishop, and the successor of Meinhard, 
 the first missionary and bishop of the Livonians. 
 He pursued a difi'erent policy from his predeces- 
 sors ; for he sought not only to convert, but also 
 to subjugate, the heathen. For this purpose he 
 raised in Lower Germany a cnusading army, 
 embarked at Liibeck, and sailed to the mouth of 
 tlie l)una. There he gave battle to the Letts, 
 gained a victory, but was killed July 24, llOS. 
 (See Albert of Riga.) AVintf.r : Die Ci.iler- 
 cienser des nordoslhchen Devlsclilanils, Gotha, 1868. 
 
 BERTHOLD, founder of the Carmelites. See 
 
 CaK-MLLITES. 
 
 BERTRAM, the name by which Ratramnus 
 is frequently quoted. 
 
 B^RULLE, Pierre de, b. near Troves, Feb. 4, 
 1.575; d. in Paris suddenly, while celebrating 
 mass, Oct. 2, 1G29, was educated by the Jesuits, 
 and an intimate friend of Francois de Sales ; 
 enjoyed the confidence of Louis XIII., and was 
 well received in court-circles, especially among 
 ladies; introduced tlie Spanish order of St. The- 
 lese, and founded, iu spite of the opposition 
 of the Jesuits, the Congregation of the Oratory; 
 was used in many important diplomatic negotia- 
 tions, and made a cardinal in 1627. A common 
 rumor said that he was poisoned by Richelieu. 
 His works were collected by P. Bourgoing, in 
 2 vols., 1G44, new ed., 1856. His life has been 
 written by Habkkt dk Cerisi, 1646, Tau.\r.\ud, 
 1818. and Noui;isson, 1856. 
 
 BERYLLUS, Bishop of Bostra in Arabia, in 
 the middle of the third century; entertained cer- 
 tain heretical views concerning the person of 
 Christ, but was brought back to the Orthodox 
 faith by Origen. His views are known to us only 
 from one passage in Eusebius, /list. KrcL, W. 33 
 (lie is mentioned VI. 20) ; and very different con- 
 ceptions of them have been advanced by Schleier- 
 inacher, Xeander, Dorner, Baur. Xitzsch, etc. 
 
 BESCHITZI, Elijah, d. in 1491, .at Adrianople, 
 ■where he was born, and where, in H(!0. he .suc- 
 ceeded his father as chief of the Karaite Jews. 
 He left an unfinished work, Adarct Elijahou 
 (mantle of Klijali), which was completed in 1497 
 by his brother-in-law, Caleb Afcndopulo, and 
 published at Constantinople in 1.031 by his 
 grandson, and which is held in the _gi-oatest 
 esteem by all Karaites, because it is ba.sed on 
 thorough knowledge of the whole earlier Karaite 
 literature, which is now mostly lost. There is 
 an edition of this work bv Fikkowitz, Eupatoria, 
 1.835. 
 
 BESSARION, b. at Trebizond, 1305; d. at 
 Ravenna, Xov. 19, 1472; was educated in Con- 
 stantinople, wliere he .studied mider Chrysokok- 
 kes; entered the order of tiie IJasilians in 1423, 
 and continued his .studies in Peloponnesus, under 
 Gcmistus Pletho; was made Archbishop of Xica^a 
 in 1437, and accompanied, ni the following year, 
 the emperor, John VII. Pala^ologus, on his voyage 
 to Italy to .'iolicit the aid of Western lOiu-ope 
 against the Turks. The condition for lliis anl 
 Hceiiied to be a reconciliation between tlie Greek 
 
 and Roman churches ; and at the councils of Fer- 
 rara and Florence such a reconciliation was actu- 
 ally brought about, chiefly through the exertions 
 of Bessarion. But the effect was quite the oppo- 
 site of wliat had been expected, and Be.ssarion 
 remained in Italy. He was made a cardinal, and 
 continued to labor for his unhappy fatherland, 
 and in a certain respect he also became a media- 
 tor between (Jreece and Rome. He gathered a 
 large circle of scholars, Greek and Latin, in his 
 palace; encouraged with profuse liberality the 
 study of the antique literatures; collected a great 
 library, which he bequeathed to Venice, and which 
 was the first public library in Europe ; translated 
 Greek authors into Latin, and wrote himself in 
 Latin : in short, he was one of the chief leaders 
 in the movement called the Renaissance. His 
 works, among which the Cimlra Calumnialorent 
 Pla/onis is the most celebrated, have never been 
 collected, and remain mostly unprinted. .See Fa- 
 BJiicius : Bib. griEca X. p. 401, XL p. GSO ; II. 
 Vast : Lc Carili)i<il neasarinn, Paris, 1879. 
 
 BESSEL, Gottfried, b. Sept. .5, 1672, .at Buch- 
 hein, nearMayence; d. at Gottweich, near Vien- 
 na, in 1749; studied at Wiirzburg and Salzburg; 
 entered the order of the Benedictines in 1693 ; 
 was ordained priest in 169G, and was by the Arch- 
 bishop of Mayence used in various diplomatic 
 negotiations. In 1707 he converted the Princess 
 Elizabeth Christine of Brunswick to Romanism, 
 and in 1710 her grandfather, Duke Anton L'lrich, 
 on which occasion he published anonymously his 
 Qui»r/u(ir/iiila . . . Motira or, in (iernian, I'iwfzffi 
 Bedeiiken, which attracted some attention. In 1714 
 he was made Abbot of the 5Ion;isfery of (jott- 
 weich. and in 1732 he began the publication of 
 his Chrimicon Godivicense. which, however, was 
 never finished. 
 
 BETH-AB'ARA (linnse of /he ford) is, according 
 to the received text since Origen, the name of the 
 place upon the .lordan where John baptized (John 
 i. 28). But the most ancient manuscripts read 
 Bethany : and this is the re.ading adopted by the 
 Xew Testament revisers, and is correct. As Can- 
 on Westcott says, " Betliabara is a mere correction, 
 made as early :is the second century, for Bethany, 
 which was probably an obscure vill.age in Pera^i, 
 and not to be confounded with lielliany on the 
 Mount of Olives." Bihle Com. iu loco. Origen 
 could not find any such place upon that river, 
 and decided for the present reading; .and all the 
 F.ithers followed him .In Judg. vii. 24 there is 
 a Beth-barah ; but this was situated on the right 
 bank, and not, like liethabara, upon the iefl bank 
 of the .lordan, below Hc^thsan. Lieut. Conderpro- 
 jioses to identify lieth-abara with Abarah, a lead- 
 ing ford of the .lonl.an on the road to (!ilead. 
 
 BETH'ANY (hoti.-ie of iiiiscri/, because of its 
 lonely situation, and because lepers, iHipuIarly 
 called the " poor,' sought asylum there ; others. 
 house of dales), a village situated on the eastern 
 slope of Mount Olivet, to the left of the road 
 leading from JerusahMU to .lericho, fifteen fur- 
 longs from the former city (about two miles), .and 
 ever memorable for its associations with .lesus 
 (Matt. xxi. 17; M:vrk xi. 1 1, 12 ; ,Iohn xi.) It is 
 now called, from IIk; miracle, cl-A:trii/ch, "place 
 of Lazarus." .Simon the leper also lived here 
 (Mark xiv. o) ; and from here our Lord ascended 
 (Luke xxiv. bO). "It is now a poor uiouutaiji
 
 BETHEL. 
 
 253 
 
 BETHLEHEM, 
 
 liaiTilot of forty nulo stone houses inhabited by 
 Moslems." 
 
 BETH'EL (hoii.w of Gtnl). a place twelve miles 
 north of .Jerusalem, now called Ilflliii, but origi- 
 nally Lti:, the residence of a Canaanitish king 
 (Josh. viii. 9 sq., xii. IG; Judg. i. 2:5,20), and 
 associated with the patriarchs ((ien. xiii. 13, 
 xxviii. 17-19, xxxv. •i). Joshua assigned tiie town 
 to Ijenjamin as its frontier town towards Kjili- 
 raim (.Josh, xviii. l:i, 22). It formed part of the 
 Northern Kingdom; and Jeroboam made it the 
 chief seat of tiie calf-worship (1 lyings xii. 28-33, 
 xiii. 1). The reason of its selection w.as jiroba- 
 bly it,s sacred cliaractor fi'om patriarchal times, 
 and the presence there of the ark and tlie taberna- 
 cle for so long a time (see marg. .Judg xx. 18, 
 26, 31,xxi.2; cf. 1 Sam. x. 3). In manifesta- 
 tion of .Jehovah's auger at this desecration, the 
 propliet Hosea calls it Beth-aven {house nf noth- 
 iiu/ness, or idols) ; and Amos (v. o) solemnly warns 
 tlie people against entering the town. After the 
 captivity it was again inhaVjited by the Benja- 
 niites (Neh. xi. 31). In the time of the Macca- 
 bees it was fortified by liacchide.s, the general of 
 Demetrius, the usurper of the kingdom of Syria 
 (.Joseph., vln^Vy. XIII. 1,3). It is not named in 
 the New Testament; but .Josephus tells us it was 
 taken by Ve.spasian (War. IV. 9, 9). It is now a 
 miserable village of about four hundred inhabit- 
 ants standing amid ruins which cover about tour 
 acres. (B.adeker). 
 
 BETHES'DA (hoti.te of mercy, or of the flowing 
 water), a pool in Jei'usalem near the sheep-gate 
 (Neh. iii. 1,32, xii. 39; .John v. 2). Tradition 
 incori'ectly identifies it with the modern Birkei- 
 Israil, which is an empty reservoir within the 
 city, three hundred and sixty feet long, one hun- 
 dred and twenty feet wide, and eighty feet deep, 
 half filled with r\dibish. But it is a pi'oblem 
 where Bethesda really was. The guide in the.se 
 identifications should be the statement of Nehe- 
 niiah, that the sheep-gate was neai-, and on the 
 north, or more probably north-east, side of the 
 temple. Robinson identified it with the inter- 
 mittent Pool of the Virgin, in the Kedron Valley, 
 which answers one of the conditions of John's 
 narrative ; but it is much too small, and does not 
 yield sufficient space for the five porches. Capt. 
 Warren identifies it with the double pool under 
 the Convent of the Sisters of Zion, near the 
 north-west corner oi the Haram enclosure. In 
 corroboration is the mention by Ensebius of two 
 pools lying in juxtaposition, of which one was 
 the sheep-pool. But a better identification is 
 "with the lialf-filled w.ater re.servoir adjoining the 
 Church of St. Anne, which the older writers call 
 the " piscina interior." In the time of the Cru- 
 sades it was distinguished from Birket Israil, 
 called the Sheep-pool ; and arontnl it five porches 
 ■were traced. This is in all jirobability the .same 
 as the "piscina natatoria" (swinuuing-ba.sin) in 
 Itiner. Antonini Placentini of the sixth century. 
 
 This identification may be perhaps to-day con- 
 sidered certain. That it preserved its curative 
 properties is proven by the votive tablet found in 
 the Church of St. Anne, which dates from the 
 Hid of the first or the beginning of the second 
 century. The giver was Pompeia Lucilia, po.ssi- 
 bly some great lady who lepaired the porches 
 ruined during the siege. Perhaps she was the 
 
 daughter of Jjucilius Bassus, Roman legate in 
 Palestine after the cajitnre of Jerusalem (.lo- 
 sephus, War. VII. (J, 1 and 4). 
 
 The name Bethesda in original form and mean- 
 ing is uncert.ain. The common intcM'pretation is 
 given above ; but on the ground of the u.sage of 
 the .second component, Delitzsch proposed "house 
 of the portico," and Canon We.stcott, " hou.se of 
 the olive " (JUIjU: Conuiienlary in loro). 
 
 See article in Riehm's Jlunilwdrleriuch des bib- 
 li.ichr.m Alterlums, and in Lichteiiberger's Ency- 
 clope'die des .SVwrr/rr.s' iieliijienses. 
 
 BETH-HO'RON (/lou.w of the honnw),ihc name 
 of two places, the " Upper " and the " Nether " 
 Beth-horon (Jo.sh. xvi. o, 3), about three miles 
 apart, on the opposite sides of a ravine or steep 
 pas.s, now distinguished in like manner, and called 
 Bcil Ur et-Tahui and El Foka. The Upper i.s 
 adnurably situated upon the fop of a mountain 
 spur; but the Nether was more important. Both 
 are now uninhabited. The towns lay upon the 
 boiuidary line between Benjamin and Kphraim, 
 and were counted with the latter (.Jo.sh. xxi. 22). 
 They were upon the road from Gibeon to Aze- 
 kah and the Pliilistine J'lain. Through the pa.ss 
 l)etweeu them fled the Amorites after the b;ittle 
 of Gibeon (.Josh. x. 10 sq.). Solomon fortified 
 both villages (1 Kings ix. 17; 2 Chr. viii. b). 
 Judas Maccab.Tus fought two battles there (1 
 Mace. iii. 16 sq., vii. 39 .sq.), and there was the 
 army of Cestius Gallus siuTounded, and almo.st 
 entirely destroyed (.Joseph., War. II. 19, 8). In 
 the days of Ensebius and .Jerome the two Beth- 
 horous were small villages. From their time the 
 j)laces appear to have been unnoticed until USOl ; 
 then again, until Dr. Roliin.son visited them in 
 1838, and afterwards described them, they are 
 not mentioned. \) 
 
 BETH'LEHEM (house of bread), the modern 
 Beitlahni, the name of two towns spoken of in 
 the Bible. 1. A town in Zebulun (,Iosh. xix. 
 15), now a poor village, six miles west of Naza- 
 I'eth. 
 
 2. Bethlehem-.Iudah, a,s it is called in ,Tudg. 
 xvii. 7, 9, xix. 1, 2, 18, and Rethlehem-Ephratah 
 in !Micah v. 2, to distinguish it from the preced- 
 ing. Ephrath, or Ephratah {the fruitjul) ((ien. 
 xxxv. 19, xlviii. 7; Ruth iv. 11; Ps. cxxxii. G), 
 was, perhaps, not originally the name of the city, 
 but a de.scription of the locality in which it lay. 
 and one which answers now ; for the modern 
 like the .ancient Bethlehem is built upon a hill, 
 and all about it are ridges of terraced vineyards, 
 and gardens with evergreen olives, and hixuriant 
 fig-trees. The wine of Bethlehem is considered 
 better than that of Jerusalem. The women rival 
 their Christian sisters of N.azareth. Here is an 
 air of industry, thrift, and comfort, whicli are 
 very rare in the East. The inhabitants (about 
 five thou.sand) are almost all Christians, the 
 Mohammedan quarter having been destroyed in 
 1831. 
 
 It is worthy of notice, that, in 1 Chron. ii. 19, 
 an Ephrath .appears as the wife of Caleb, ami 
 mother of llnr, whose son .'^alma founded Bethk>- 
 hem (vers, .'il, 54). But S.almah (Ruth iv. 20, 
 marg.), or Salmon (ver. 21), was the lather of 
 Boaz. Hur was also the grandfather of Bezaleel, 
 who superintended the work of the tabernacle; 
 and, since trades are singularly fixed ui the East,
 
 BETHLEHEM. 
 
 254 
 
 BETHSAN. 
 
 it may well be that the father of David, as the 
 Targuin of Jonatlian relates, was a " weaver of 
 the veils of the sanctuary ; " and thus tlie town 
 o£ Bethlehem was connected in memory with 
 the heroic Caleb, with Bezaleel the builder of the 
 tabernacle, and with David the poet-king-. 
 
 But the " little ' city had no lack of memories. 
 Here, long before Caleb's day, had Rachel brought 
 forth Beuoni, and yielded up her life for her 
 cliild. On the spot where she died, Jacob erected 
 a pillar; and a little white Mohaumiedan mosque 
 reminds every passer-by of the touching incident 
 of patriarchal life (Gen. xxxv. 16-20, xlviii. 7). 
 Here, in the days of the Judges, was the scene 
 of the charming idyl of Ruth. Here David was 
 born. For a draught from the well at its gate 
 he longed on one occasion, but woidd not take 
 it when tlie three heroes broke through the ranks 
 of the Philistines and brought it to him, because 
 it was, in his estimation, "the blood of men " (1 
 Chron. xi. 15-19). Rehoboam fortified Bethle- 
 hem (2 Chron. xi. G). Mention is made of the 
 khan, or caravanserai of Chimham, close to Beth- 
 lehem, as a resting-place or starting-point for 
 travellers on the way to Egypt, which gives rise 
 to the very probable supposition that Chimham, 
 the son of Barzillai, received from David, as a 
 recognition of his father's fidelity and self-sacri- 
 fice, a possession, perhaps a Davidic family prop- 
 erty, upon which he built a khan. '• Children of 
 Bethlehem ' returned with Zerubbabel from Baby- 
 lon (Ez. ii. 21; Xeh. vii. 26). 
 
 But all these facts and incidents coiniected 
 with Bethlehem are of little moment, compared 
 with the one transcendent event wliich there took 
 place. " Hie de virgine !Maria Jesus Christus 
 natus est ' (Here Jesus Christ was born of the 
 Virgin Mary.) 
 
 Tradition pointed out, even in Justin iMartyr's 
 day, in the middle of the second century, a cave 
 in wliich the Lord of life saw light; and it is 
 every way likely that for once tradition and fact 
 coincide. Over the sjiot, Constantine, or rather 
 Helena his mother, erected a basilika (A.D. 327), 
 the oldest church in Christendom, which still 
 stands as part of the present Church of the Na- 
 tivity, or of St. Mary. Here Jerome lived for 
 thirty years, and made his so-called Vidgate 
 translation of the Bible, and died (119). The 
 church escaped destruction by the Moslems, it 
 is said by a miracle, 1010; and hen" Baldwin 
 was crowned king, 1101 ; and in 1110 Bethlehem 
 was raised to tlie rank of an episcopal S(!0. The 
 church was thoroughly restored, and munificently 
 decorated, by the Byzantine Emperor Manuel 
 Comnenos (ilI3-80). Tlie church was covered 
 with lead. In 1482 the roof was repaired, Ed- 
 ward I\'. of England giving the lead. But 
 toward tlie end of the eighteenth century the 
 Turks turned the lead roof to account hy making 
 bullets out of it. Inuring the present century the 
 roof has been again repaired. 
 
 The present church, like the Church of the 
 Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, is singularly com- 
 prehensive of "lioly places." It is entered 
 through tlio Latin Monastery, which looks like a 
 mcdiiuval fortrcs.s. (The (jreeks and Arini'iiians 
 have monasteries in contiguous buildings.) Jn 
 the crypt beneath it is shown, iji the "Cliapel of 
 the Nativity," the place where Clirisl «as uorn. 
 
 Opposite, and three steps down, is the Chapel ot 
 the Manger, in which there is a marl)le manger. 
 The original C?) wooden one was taken by I'ofw 
 Sixtus V. to Koine, and set up in the Chmch of 
 Santa ^laria Maggiore. In the same extensive 
 crypt are other chapels, called after different 
 events or persons, the most interesting of which 
 is the Chapel of St. •leronie, the cell in which 
 the great scholar lived and worked. See 
 ToBLKK : Belhlehem in Paleslina, St. Gallen u. 
 Bern, 1849; [Rohixsom: Researches; Sciiaff: 
 Through Bible Lands, 1879.] FR. vr. SCIIULTZ. 
 
 BETHLEhEMITES is the name of two orders 
 of monks. I. The origin of the first is very ob- 
 scure. It was established at Cambridge in 1257: 
 its members wore a red star on the breast, sym- 
 bolizing the .star which led the wise men to Beth- 
 lehem. II. The founder of the second order was 
 a Franciscan monk, Pierre de Betheucourt ; b. in 
 1619; d. in 1667. It was confirmed by Innocent 
 XI. in 1687. Its principal seat is Guatemala, and 
 it numbers in Central America about forty houses. 
 Its members follow the rule of St. Augustine, and 
 wear around the neck a medallion \\ith a repre- 
 sentation of the birth of Christ in Bethlehem. 
 To attend tlie sick is the main object of the 
 order. 
 
 BETH'PHAGE (house of fif/s), a place near 
 Bethany iii>on the Mount of Olives. Tradition 
 locates it half way between the suniinit of the 
 IMouut and Bethany ; but more probably it was 
 on the road from Bethany to Jerusalem, and at 
 the spot wliere the holy city first becomes visible 
 to one coming from tlie east. 
 
 BETHPHANY, a primitive name for the festi- 
 val best known in the West as the Epiphany. 
 
 BETHSAI'DA (house of Jish), the appropriate 
 name of two places upon the shore ot Galilee's 
 lake. 
 
 1. Belhsaida of Galilee, the birthplace of An- 
 drew, Peter, and Philip (John i. 44 sq., xii. 
 21), the scene of many a minK^e of Christ (Matt, 
 xi. 21; Luke x. 13), was upon the west .shore in 
 or by the "land of Gennesaret," i.e., the jilain el 
 Ghuieeir, not far from Capernaum (Mark vi. 45, 
 cf. ver. 53; John vi. 17, 24). But the nearer 
 identification depends upon tliat of Capeknaum 
 (which see), and that is a vexed question. 
 
 2. Belhsaida Julias, often niinitioned by Jose- 
 plins (Aniii/. XVni. 2, 1), known to Pliny, in 
 Lower (iaulonitis, just where the Jordan empties 
 itself into the lake. t)riginally a village, Philip 
 the tetrarch enlarged it into a city, and named it 
 Julias, in honor of Julia, the daughter of Augus- 
 tus, and wife of Tilxnius. In its neighborhood 
 the feeding of the five thousand took place (Luke 
 ix. 10). 
 
 Some scholars, e.g.. Dr. W. M. Thomson, de- 
 clare that the two Bethsaidas were really only 
 the east and west ]>arts ot one city, wliich was 
 built upon the Jordan at the place it enters tljn 
 lake now Ciillrd Aim Zany. 
 
 BETH-SHE'AN (house' of quiel), BETH'SHAN, 
 or BETH'SAN, was situated in the lirridny of 
 I\Ianassch (.losh. xvii. 11), and coiiiniand<;d tlie 
 entrance of the Valll^y of Jezreel where it opens 
 into the .lordau Valley. It is on the road from 
 Jerusalem to Damascus, and is about time miles 
 from the Jordan. It remained in the hands of 
 the Canaaiiites until the time of David; there the 
 
 \
 
 BETH-SHBMESH. 
 
 255 
 
 BEZA. 
 
 corpse of Saul was exhibited (Jiuig. i. 27 ; 1 Sam. 
 xxxi. Id). L'lulei- Soloiiioii it formed part of one 
 of the twelve coiiiiiiissariat districts (1 Kings iv. 
 12). Tile (ireeks called it N'yssa, or Nysa, in hon- 
 or of Dionysus (Hacchus), probably because of its 
 wine; l)ut it was more gt^nerally called .Scythopo- 
 lis, the city of tlie Scythians (Jud. iii. 10 ; 2 
 Mace. xii. 29 stp), because, in the second lialf of 
 the seventh century 15. C, the country was invad- 
 ed by the Scytliians on their way to Kgypt, and a 
 few of them settled in ISethsheau. This circum- 
 stance explains how the city was considered non- 
 .lewish and unholy (2 Mace. xii. -'SO; Joseph., 
 War, 11. IS, 1, ;i, 4; Lifi, U). It belonged to the 
 l>ecapolis, and it wa.s here that Alexander Jan- 
 nueus made the alliance with Cleopatra (Joseph., 
 Aniii/. XVIII. 13, 2). Scythopolis became an 
 epsicopal see. It is now called Beisan, and con- 
 tains many interesting ruins of temples, a large 
 theatre, a Roman arch; and about it are many 
 ancient tombs. 
 
 BETH-SHE'MESH (house of l/ie sun). 1. The 
 same iis Ir.sliemesh, "city of the sun," and Mount 
 Ileres "mountain of tlie sun" (Josh. xix. 41; 
 Judg. i. 35), a sacerdotal city near Kirjath-jearim, 
 and about fourteen miles from Jerusalem. It is 
 noted as the place to which the ark was returned, 
 and at which Jehoash, King of Israel, defeated and 
 took prisoner Aina/.iah, King of Judah (2 Kings 
 xiv. 11). Under Ahaz the Philistines occupied it 
 and other towns in the locality (2 Chron. xxviii. 
 18). Upon its site to-day is the ruined village 
 of Ain Shenis, "fountain of the sun," which is 
 evidently constructed of ancient materials. 
 
 2, 3. Tliere were two other places of this namr : 
 one was in the tribe of Issachar (Josh. xix. 2'_) ; 
 the other was PhoMiician in origin (.losh. xix. 38; 
 .ludg. i. 33), and belonged to Naphtali, but was 
 not occupied by that tribe. 
 
 Beth-shemesh is the name Jeremiah gives to 
 Ileliopolis, or On in Egypt (Jer. xliii. 13). The 
 meaning is identical. 
 
 BETH'ULIA (oirghi of JehoraJi) was the centre 
 of the events recorded in the apocryphal Book of 
 .ludith, but is not elsewhere mentioned. Its sit- 
 uation is very minutely described, — among the 
 mountains of Ephraim, south of the Valley of 
 Jezreel, and near Dothaim (Dothan), and on a 
 mountain which overlooked the plain of Esdra- 
 elon, and commanded the passes from that plain 
 to the hill-country of Maiiasseh. Strange as it 
 may seem, it has not been identified, although 
 many attempts have been made. If the place is 
 not an imaginary one, as may well be, it is proba- 
 bly an altered name. 
 
 BETHUNE, George Washington, b. in New 
 York city, March 18, 1805; d. in Florence, Italy, 
 April 27, 1862. lie w.as graduated from Dickinson 
 College, Carlisle, Peiiu., 1823; entered the Prince- 
 ton Theological Seminary; was married 1825; 
 licensed by the Second Presbytery of New York, 
 July 11, 1820; was missionary to the colored 
 people and sailors at Savannah, Ga., for a year, 
 — a post for which his perfect familiarity with 
 nautical phrases, and his great love of human 
 nature, eminently fitted him. He then began his 
 regular ministry, and was, in succession, pastor of 
 the following cliurches in the Reformed (Dutch) 
 denomination : Rhinebeck, 1827-30; Utica, 1830- 
 3i; First Church, Philadelphia, 1831-37; Third 
 
 Church, organized by Iiini, 18.37-49; Central 
 Church, Brooklyn, 184;)-50; Cliiirch on tlie Heights, 
 organized for him, 18.50-5!); as.sociate minister 
 in Twenty-first Street Church, New Vork, 1859- 
 (52. lie was in his day one of th<^ most idoipient 
 preachers and jmblic sjieakers in tli(; country; 
 but lie was, besides, a .scholar, a theologian, and a 
 poet. He was a very lovable man. His publica- 
 tions were numerous. His most valued are : ICdiiy 
 LdsI, Early Sliced, with original poem, Phil., 
 184G ; The British Female J^oels, with biographical 
 and critical notices, Pliil., 1848 ; l.iujs of Loce and 
 Faith, Phil., 1848; Memoirs of Mrs. Jonnna lie- 
 thune, N.Y., 1857 ; Expository Lectures on the Heidel- 
 herg Catechism, N.Y., 18(J4. He also edited with 
 rare skill and con iimorc, for he was an enthusi- 
 astic fisherman, Walton's Complete Ani/ler, N.Y., 
 1847, new ed. 1880, 2 vols. 
 
 See Memoirs of Rev. Georije W. Bethune, D.D., 
 by Rev. A. R. Van Ne.st, \)'.\)., N.Y., 1807. 
 
 BETH'-ZUR (house of the rock), in the moun- 
 tains of Judah, now a ruined village, Beilsur, four 
 miles north of Hebron, was fortified by Reho- 
 boam, and once the "strongest place in all Juda;a" 
 (Joseph., Antiip XIII. 5, 0). As such, it played 
 an important part in the wars of the Maccabees 
 (1 Mace. iv. 29, vi. 32-47, xi. 05 sqq.). Ac- 
 cording to an unlikely tradition, reported by Eu- 
 sebius and Jerome, the eunuch of Queen Caudace 
 was baptized by I'hilip at Aiit ed-Dirweh, — a 
 spring near Beth-zur (Acts viii. 20-39). 
 
 BETKIUS, Joachim, b. Oct. 8, 1001, in Berlin; 
 d. Dec. 12, 1663, at Linum, near Fehrbellin, where 
 he was pastor for more than thirty years. He 
 was a Pietist before Pietism yet existed. The 
 cause of the religious misery of his age in Ger- 
 many he ascribes to the ministers. Among h:s 
 works are : Cliristianismus Elhnicus, Berlin, 1633 ; 
 Saccrdoiium, 1040; Antichrislentlium, Amsterdam, 
 1050 ;• /!■>(■/(/;««; Germiviicc, Amsterdam, 1660. 
 
 BEVERIDGE, William, b. at Barrow in 1037; 
 d. at Westminster, March 5, 1708 ; was educated 
 at Cambridge ; became Archdeacon of Colchester 
 in 1681, and Bishop of St. Asaph in 1704. In 
 church-history he made himself a deserved repu- 
 tation by his Institutionum Chrimoloijicarum Libri 
 Duo, London, 1609 ; and in canon law, by the 
 edition and intei^iretation of its sources, Imbtimov 
 sire I'andectie Canonum S. Apost. el Concil., Oxiord, 
 1672. His collected works, including liis Private 
 Thoitr/hls tipon lielii/ion, and Doctrine of the Church 
 of Eni/land, were published in 9 vols., London, 
 1824, and, more complete, in 12 vols., Oxford, 1844- 
 48. He has been styled " the great reviver and 
 restorer of primitive piety." He was very learned, 
 earnest, and devout, and justly esteemed. 
 
 BEZA, Theodore (originally de Besze), the 
 friend and biographer of Calvin ; b. in Vezelai 
 Castle in Burgundy, where his father was gov- 
 ernor, June 24, 1519 ; d. in Geneva, Oct. 15, 1605. 
 When only three years old, his micle, Nicholas 
 de Beza, a counsellor of the Parliament of France, 
 took him to Paris, but in December, 1.528, sent 
 him to Orleans, to be educated by ]Melchior Wol- 
 mar, the Greek teacher of Calvin, a Suabiau 
 scholar of eminence, and a Protestant withal. 
 AVith Wolmar he lived until 1534, when the 
 latter returned to Germany. From !May, 1535, 
 to August, 1539, he was a student of law at the 
 University of Orleans ; but, when he had received
 
 BEZA. 
 
 256 
 
 BEZA. 
 
 the degree of licentiate in law, lie began his 
 pmctice in I'aris. Not being fond of the law, 
 but devoted to jx)etry, rarely gifted, a poet an<l 
 a scliolar, of high social position, abunditntly 
 supplied with money, — for, although not in 
 orders, he enjoyed the income of two benefices, 
 with tlie prospect before him of being the heir of 
 iiis other uncle, Claudius, the Abbot of Froiniont, 
 — it was natural that he should yield to the 
 seductions of the gay capital, and live among his 
 social equals, the wits, the scholars, and the 
 beauties of Paris. Proof is lacking that Beza 
 was ever grossly immoral. He was probably 
 more frivolous than ciiniinal. Even his impme 
 relations with Claude Desnoz were not so rep- 
 rehensible as tliey have been represented; for 
 he was faithful to her, and at last fulfilled his 
 ])romi.se to marry her. hi 15^8 he published 
 his JucenUia, a collection of Latin poems, and 
 fliereby won the reputation of being the best 
 Latin jioet of liis day. But in that year he had 
 a severe sickness, which sobered him. The 
 instructions of the pious A\'olmar influenced 
 him thus late ; and at length he resolved to leave 
 his sinful life, give up his benefices, and go to 
 (ieneva. This lie did. By advice of Calvin he 
 iniblicly professed the Protestant faith, and mar- 
 ried his mistress. In November, 1549, he was 
 ajipointed professor of Greek in the Academy of 
 Lau.sanne ; but he did not confine his energies 
 to that department. He revived the sacred 
 tlramas of the jniddle ages, and wrote (1550) a 
 liighly successful one, called Aiiraluun's Sacrifice, 
 in which he cleverly contrasted Ronum-C'atlioli- 
 cism with Protestantism. He aided Calvin in 
 liis connuentaries upon Paul's Epistles and the 
 iipistle to the Hebrews; defended the burning of 
 Servetus; attempted to unite Swiss and German 
 Protestants in protesting against the French 
 yiersecution of the AN'aldenses in Piedmont, but 
 tailed, owing to untimely disputes about the 
 Lord's Supper, and got more lilame than praise 
 for his attempt. In the fall of 155S he removed 
 to Geneva, to be professor in the academy there. 
 He was al.so from this time the coadjutor of 
 Calvin. His career was brilliant. Li 15G0 he 
 issued his completed metrical translation of the 
 I'salter, upon which he had been engaged for a 
 number of years. He finished the work of 
 Clement Jfarot, who had translated fifty. The 
 reception of this work was most enthusiastic. It 
 may be sa-id, indeed, that the French Reformed 
 Church dates from its first use. In 1501, in the 
 Abbey of Poissy, near I'ari.s, upon tlie Oth of 
 September, Beza stood in the presence of a bril- 
 liant assembly of nobles and clergy, presided 
 over by the young King, Charles IX. A\'itli 
 learning, with ehMpience, with spiritual fervor, 
 lie pleaded for his beloved Protestantism. \\'hat- 
 ever may have been the hopes of the different 
 debaters, the debate did no good, except that it 
 I'stablished Beza as the head of the Keformed 
 Church. Calvin died May 27, 1504. Beza natu- 
 rally furnished his biography, and with great 
 reluctance, as far as he could, took his jilace. 
 Like him, he wa.s the .soid of the educational and 
 ecclesiastical affairs ; but he relaxed .somewhat 
 the governmental rigor. His thorough-going 
 •lefence of Calvin's view of the Lord's Sujiper 
 bruuglit him into conflict with the Lutherans, as 
 
 at ^Ibmpelgard (1585), in debate with Andreii; 
 and with Zwinglians, as in debate with Bullinger 
 and Ramus (1571). 
 
 In 158S his beloved but childless wife died; 
 and lie married, in order to have the care he 
 needed, a widow, Cathaiine del Piano. U]) to 
 his sixty-fifth year he was singularly free from 
 sickness, notwithstanding his incessant labors; 
 but the liust twenty yeare of his life were one long 
 struggle against di.sease. Ciiadnally he gave his 
 attention to fewer and fewer objects, though 
 much of his old fire was left him still ; for he 
 replied in a vigorous satire to the story, circulated 
 industriously by the Roman-Catholics, that he 
 had recanted upon his death-bed. He resigned 
 all his official positions in 1600, and breathed out 
 his noble, devoted Christian life five years later. 
 
 The literary labors of Beza were long-con- 
 tinued and fruitful. In addition to those already 
 mentioned, lie wrote, omitting very many minor 
 publications, 1. Epistola 7)iaf/ifi[ri Benedicli Passa- 
 rdiilii, Paris, 1551 (a satire, written in macaronic 
 verse, directed against President, afterward Abbot 
 Lizet, a violent persecutor). 2. De liicrelicis a 
 cioi/i viai/isiratu puitieiKjh, Genevfe, 1554 (a de- 
 fence of the burning of Servetns). 3. Aiinola- 
 lioncs in jVociiin Tesiainentmit , Parisiis, 1556, fol. 
 4. Novum Testumentu)ii Domini 7wstri Jesii Christi 
 laline Jam olim e veleri inlerprete, nunc deiiuo a Th. 
 Beza rersuni cum eiusdcm annotalionihus, in (/iiibus 
 ratio inlcrprcladotiis reddilur, Geneva>, 1556, fol. 
 (a faithful and elegant translation). 5. Con/e.isio 
 clirialianic fidci tl eiusdem cijUatio cum papisticis 
 hferifsihus, Geneva.', 1560. This masterly defence 
 of the Reformed faith appeared originally in 
 French. It was translated into English, London, 
 1563 and 1565. 6. Vie de I. Calcin, Geneve, 
 1563 or 1564. But his most valuable work was, 
 7. lesu Clirixti D. N. Norum teslamentum sive 
 novum fwitus, cuius yrccco lexlui respondent interpre- 
 lalioiii's ducc, una, veins, altera, nora, Theodori 
 Bczcc, ditiijenter ah eo recofjnita. Eiusdcm Tli. Bezm 
 annotationes, quas ilidem in hac secunda editione re- 
 corjnocil et ai'i-cssione non parva locupletacil. Indices 
 eliam duo, thcohyis (priesertini Hebraiccc, Grcecm et 
 Latince linguce sludiosis) mullum profuluriudiecti sunt. 
 [(Jenevfp,] Anno 1565., Heiir. Stephanus. Beza 
 had received, from the library of the elder Robert 
 Stephens, a copy of the New Testament, to which 
 was added readings from several more nianu- 
 .scripts than the father had used in Ids third 
 edition (1550). In Beza's second edition (1582), 
 called, however, upon the titlepage, tertia cditio, 
 much help was derived from the uncial manu- 
 scripts, Codex I). Gosp. and Acts (Codex Beza, 
 Gra:co-Latinus, now in the library of the Univer- 
 sity of Cambridge, to wliich Beza presented 
 it in 1581), and Codex Claromontanus, of the 
 I'auline Epistles, now in Paris [see Bible- 
 Tkxt, jXew 'J'eslameiitJ. from the Peshito, and a 
 I^atin translation of the Arabic version. The 
 third edition a)>peared in 1.589, also under the 
 date 1588; and the fourth (1508), which diffiMs 
 little from the third, is less accurate, and wa.s 
 reprinted in Cambridge, 1642. The counting of 
 the above edition is confused by Beza's iinpro])er 
 reckoning of his Latin edition of 15.')7 (the title- 
 page gives 1556, tlie last page, 15.57) as hinjirst edi- 
 tion, which, as it docs not contain the (Jreek ti'xt, 
 it certainly was not. The latter editions of Beza
 
 BIBLE. 
 
 257 
 
 BIBLES. 
 
 were the main basis of tlie authorized English ver- 
 sion, not only becanse they were (lie latfst and 
 the best, l)ut also because Beza, the survivinp; 
 ]iatviarch of tlie Heforiners, e::erted by liis Latin 
 version and exegetical notes a inarlied inllnence 
 upon tlie Kinj;- James' translators, as lie had pro- 
 \ ioiisly upon the (ienevan (lo.'iTand 1500). The 
 lliMoire eccl('siaf:lifjue des Efj/I.ies ri'fhrmce.'!, Ant- 
 ^Yerp, 1580 (best ed., Paris, 1882, 2 vols.), is not his. 
 
 For the biography of Hez.a, in addition to the 
 original work of one of his favorite pupils, 
 Antoiiie J.,a F.aye (Gen., 1000), see F. Cr. 
 ScHi.ossKR: Lchcn ties Thcoilor Beza a. dot Peter 
 Marli/r Vermili, Heidelberg, ISO!); .1. AV. Baum: 
 Tliendor Bezo, niicli liandxchrifltichen Quellcn ihir- 
 i/cKlelll, Leipzig (Berlin). 1843 et 185' (unhappily, 
 this great work only exi*;iids to 15G3] ; Hkinkicii 
 Hki'PK : Theodor Beza. Lehen u. ausyewiildle 
 Schiiflen, Elberfeld. 18fjl. 
 
 BIBLE. The olde. Protestant theologians, 
 under the title Affecti^.,cs Scripturcv Sucrce, put 
 together the particular aftributes of the Bible as 
 the inspired rule of faiili and practice, a. The 
 primary attributes, such as come directly from the 
 divine origin and canonicity of the Scriptures : 
 1. Divine autliorili/, in ojiposition to the Socinians, 
 wlio underrated the Old Testament, and to the 
 Konian Church, which grounds the authority of 
 the Scriptures upon the Church. This attribute 
 itself is partly an authority to bind men to be- 
 lieve what it teaches, and jiartly the final appeal 
 in germane questions. The .Scriptures had divine 
 autliority as the highest law and tlie sujjreme 
 court. 2. Sufficiency. The Bible contains all 
 that is requisite for Christian faith and life, and 
 for the attaiumeut of heaven. 3. I'er.yiicuili/, 
 ill opposition to Koman-Catholic notions of vagne- 
 ne.ss and obscurity, and Arminian and Socinian 
 denial of the necessity of the Spirit's aid to under- 
 stand the Bible. Clearness was, indeed, only 
 predicated of the Bible as a whole : j)ortions were 
 allowed to be obscure; e.g., the Revelation, and 
 parts of Ezekiel and Daniel. It was necessary 
 to believe only the " saving truths ; " and to these 
 the historical portions of the Bible and the dog- 
 matics of the schools did not belong. Nor was 
 it asserted that every saving truth could be in- 
 stantly grasped. There were truths only the re- 
 generate could understand, and they not without 
 prayer and divine aid, a knowledge of the lan- 
 guage, and a mature and unprejudiced mind. 
 4. To the Scriptures was attributed a power of 
 Self-iiUerpreiation : Scripture interprets Scripture. 
 See HKHMiiNp:uTics. 5. Dieine efficacy, :isii'^iimst 
 the (Quakers and others wlio saw in the Scripture 
 only " dead letters." The Truth of Scripture is 
 usually reckoned in the first class ; but this attri- 
 bute is so bound up with that of insiiiration, that 
 it does not require to be enumerated separately. 
 h. The secondary attributes of Holy Scriptiu'e, 
 or such as come indirectly from the same sources : 
 
 1. Necessity. A revelation, if made, must be con- 
 tained in writing. iveither an "inner light" 
 nor sinqile tradition will afford sufficient surety. 
 
 2. Integrity. Xothiuj necessary to the canon has 
 been lost : the lost books were either uninspired, 
 ordesignedsiiiiplylorlocalu.se. 3. Uncorrujitcd 
 text. The Hebrew ot the Old Testament, and the 
 Greek of the New Testament, have come down 
 to us as written. 4. Accessibility. The Bible is 
 
 18 — 1 
 
 adapted to the reading of all ages, classes, and 
 
 sexes. 
 
 The modern Protestant theologians liave modi- 
 fied the definition of these predicates; yet they 
 express sul)stantially th(! mind of evangelical 
 Christcndoni. II. I'.MiKT (KIM. KOUEL). 
 
 BIBLE CHRISTIANS, or BRYANITES, a sect 
 closely resembling the Methodists, from whom 
 they diifer merely in having a more popular form 
 of church-government, consisting of equal num- 
 bers of ministers and laymen, in rejecting the 
 title "Reverend," on the ground that it intro- 
 duces distinctions in the body of Christ, and in 
 giving women the fullest liberty to preach. But 
 in doctrine and practice they are like the Method- 
 ists. In the United States there is only one con- 
 gregation, which is in Philadelphia, and calls Rev. 
 William Cowherd, who left the ministry of the 
 Church of England in 1800, its founder. In Eng- 
 land, in 1876, they numbered 3(J8 chapels and 
 14,352 members, with Go preachers and 057 local 
 preachers ; in Canada, 135 chapels, 40 preachers, 
 and 4.08G members; in Australia, 100 chapel-s, 34 
 preachers, 147 local j.ireachers, and 2,045 members. 
 All these claim to be the spiritual children of Rev. 
 William Bryrtn of Cornwall, who leftthe Wesleyans 
 in 1815. See art., P.ini.i-; Cmu.sri.vxs, p. 25S5. 
 
 BIBLES, Pictured, and BIBLICAL PICTURES. 
 Pictured Bibles have existed from the dawn of 
 printing. Indeed, long before, in the earliest 
 Christian days, miniatuies were painted with 
 loving care by holy hands upon the Bible parch- 
 ment^rolls ; for just as the ancients had illustrated 
 Homers and Virgils, so the Christians had illus- 
 trated Bibles. The great number of these little 
 pictures thus made, and the great beauty of many 
 of them, attest the skill, the industry, and the 
 piety of the makers. An instance of great inter- 
 est is Codex 2 (which see under Bible Text, 
 New Testament). But the cost of these pic- 
 tures excluded the people from po.s.se,ssing them, 
 or even seeing them. AVhen, however, woodcuts 
 were invented, and the printing-press set up, the 
 peojjle could share in whatever profit these pic- 
 tures afforded. Long before the Reformation; 
 JIartin Schdn in Kolmar issued a book of the 
 life and sufferings of Jesus, with excellent cuts. 
 The Bible printed in 1477 by Anton Sorg and 
 Zainer, in Augsburg, had woodcuts. Towards 
 the close of the century there wei'e more pojiular 
 editions, with pictures from the Passion of our 
 Lord, the Apiocalypse (already a favorite theme 
 for the artist), and the Canticles, besides the so- 
 called Bible of the Poor (^Biblia Pauperum), — brief 
 biblical selections, with simjile, rude woodcuts. 
 The sixteenth-century artists put their powers at 
 the .service of the Bible, and to the present time 
 their work remains vmequalled. Albrecht Diirer 
 (1498, 1507-13), L. Cranach (1500), Hans Scheuf- 
 felen (1508), and other masters, illustrated dif- 
 ferent portions of Scripture. The Reformers 
 made use of the same help in their work. Cuts 
 derived from the CoburgerBible(Niirnberg, 1483), 
 adorned the Apocalypse in even the first edition 
 of Luther's New ' Testament. The Romanists 
 followed. The Episcopal vicar, J. Beringer, in 
 1526-27 printed Luther's New Testament, with a 
 few changes, Init with the addition of sixt)"-five 
 cuts, as did Emser in 1527, under the patronage of 
 Duke George, much to l^uther's anger, that sucu
 
 BIBLES. 
 
 258 
 
 BIBLE-READING. 
 
 uiiwasheii hands should touch his wovk. In 1.534 
 Luther's Old Testament, illustiated, and the Xew 
 with additional ilhistiations, appeared in AVitten- 
 herg. Christophorus AValther, the coi rector for 
 the press of Hans l.nfft, declared that the pictures 
 were partly of Luther's designing ; and Melancli- 
 thon wrote to Stigel (Sept. 26, 15-14). th.at he 
 sometimes busied himself with designs for Bible 
 )>ictures, which he gave over to the finishing- 
 touches of Lucas Cranach, — so high was the esti- 
 mation of the lieformers for pictorial effects. The 
 Koman-Catholic improved version of Dietenber- 
 ger (1534) had many woodcuts. Indeed, it was 
 not possible in those days to get the Kible without 
 them. The high-water mark in this line was 
 reached in the Bible printed by Hans Kraft in 
 Wittenberg (1.572, 1574, 1576, and 1.584). Be- 
 sides these illustrated Scriptures, there were col- 
 lections of Bible-pictures. Thus Graff issued a 
 Bible-history (1536-53). But the best work was 
 produced by Hans Holbein, whose inimitable 
 Pictures from the Old Testament appeared with a 
 Latin text in Lyons, 1538, 1.543, 1.547, with .an 
 English text, 1549, and with a French text, 15-50. 
 Many other similar Bible-histories followed in 
 this century. Particularly worthy of mention is 
 Feyerabend's (1.571), a manual which sets forth 
 the weightiest topics of biblical history and ar- 
 choeology by means of two hmidred small wood- 
 cuts, with Latin verses attached. The letterpress 
 was furnished by Pastor Heinrich Peter Keben- 
 stock, and the illustrations by .lost Animann of 
 Zijrich. Similar works were published in France 
 and the Netherlands : Vila J. Ckrlstl, Antwerp, 
 1537 ; Figures rfu Vieux Testament par 'I'ourues, 
 Lyons, 1559; Quarlrlns hlstnrlques ile la lillicl par 
 Claude Paradin, 1553, which appeared also with 
 Spanish and Italian letterpress. 
 
 Wood-engraving, the glory of the sixteenth 
 century, did not flourish in the ne.xt centuries : 
 the copper-plate, more pretending, less ''popular," 
 took its place. In 1607 Bodalocchio and Lan- 
 franco issued the Rajfuel BlUe, so called liecause 
 it contained the fifty-two famous pictures, mostly 
 from the Old Testament, with which that great- 
 est of painters had decorated tlie lo;i'jlii of the 
 Vatican. In a very much lower scale of artistic 
 merit, but much more widely circulated, and really 
 more useful, were the Icunes Bllillcw and l/lslorice 
 :Sacr(e (Matthiius Meriau, Frankfort, 1025-27, and, 
 later, in (ierman and Dutch), veritable treasures 
 in many evangelical households of those countries, 
 father nations-were quite as prolific as the (ier- 
 nians. In the eighteenth century, books of the 
 class were multijilied. Hubnei''s Illhllsc/ie lllstorien, 
 1714, with unspeakably bad pictures, was a prize 
 for the youth of three generations. Another popu- 
 lar work was the Augsburg Histories f ram the liible. 
 Illustrated, in five parts, by .lohann I'lr. Kraus 
 (1700) often reprinted. Tlic Dutchmen, Danck- 
 ers (1700), Tafereeleu (1740), and Pet. Schots 
 (1749); the Frenchmen, ISasnage (1705) and Mar- 
 tin (1724); the Englishmen, Clarke (1739), and 
 Fleetwood, whose Coiitpeudlous lllstorij nf the Old 
 and New Testament (170(i) was illustrated with a 
 hundred and twenty cojiper-plates and ran through 
 seven editions), — and many others in these 
 lands, issued comjiilations and original works 
 upon Bible themes, with illustrations of more or 
 leis merit- In the hrtt year of the present cen- 
 
 tury there was begun in London The Hithj DMe, 
 with engravings from pictures and designs by the 
 most eminent artists. This great work Wiis in 
 seven elephant folios in classic "style," but full 
 of the modern romantic mannerisms and afl'ecta- 
 tions. .Such faiilts are glaring enough in copper 
 and steel : in wood-engraving they are unbearable. 
 Instead of the sim]>le strengtli of the woodcut, 
 the.se presented caricatures, unnatural, theatri- 
 cal ; aufl the matter was made worse when Ger- 
 man booksellers printed the engravings from 
 casts, e.g., the ))orrible cheap cuts which the Cal- 
 wer Union used for the Bible histories of Dr. 
 Barth ; although in their one himdredth edition 
 more worthy engravings were substituted. The 
 i-ecent effort after so-called realism lias led to pro- 
 ductions such as Bro%\n's Self-Inter/n-elhig Bllile 
 (London and Xew York), with views of Bible 
 cities and landscapes, and the tierman Ilildburg- 
 hauser, Pracht Haushihel, published in 1830, of 
 Vihich a million copies have been sold. These 
 books are in the main showy and inartistic; but 
 of late years true art has paid deserved homage to 
 the Word; and Olivier (1834), Overbeck (1841), 
 Cotta (1850), now Ihockhaus, have issued illus- 
 trated Bibles which weie praisewoi'thy. .\t last 
 .lulius .Schnorr of Korolsfeld, a niasterliand, pub- 
 lished his drawings under the title The Jillile In 
 (240) Pictures. Thepublishersubsequently issued 
 an abridgment. But there is needed a Bible for the 
 people which shall be, like the Keformation Bibles, 
 a true house-book, a family inheritance, loved 
 by old and young. [Bida's beaulifnl illustrations 
 to the New Testament, and Dore's (1866) on the 
 entire Bible, deserve enijihatic approval. Schaff's 
 Pojiidar Com. on the N. T. is richly illustrated with 
 Bible scenes from photograjihs.] H. MKHZ. 
 
 BIBLE-READING BY THE LAITY, AND BI- 
 BLE PROHIBITION. 1. in the Roman-Catho- 
 lic Church. Upon this point, as upon so many 
 others, the Roman-Catholic Chuicli is agitated 
 by conflicting opinions; but she does not allow 
 these differences publicly to apjiear. Her con- 
 duct at different times has also varied. But it is 
 a matter of complete demonstration, that the 
 greatest of the Fathers u)ion whiuu she so fondly 
 rests, such as Augustine. Jerome, and (iregory I., 
 not only allowed, but commended, the reading 
 and the study of the Scriptures; ;uul, further, 
 that, from the beginning, the .Scriptures have been 
 circulated in the vernacidarof manynations. (See 
 Bini.F. Vkusio.vs.) In the middle ages, among the 
 Romanic and Gernumic peoples, there was for a 
 long period no talk of prohibiting the reading of 
 the Bible; although it is true the Church did not 
 trouble herself to translate and circulate it, and 
 looked u]ion the gradual sjiread of ignorance of 
 Latin with great complacency, because it nar- 
 rowed to extinction the circle of Bible-readers. 
 But the growth of the Papacy was death to the 
 study of the Bible, (iregory V'll. (Ilihlebrand), 
 in pious strain wrote to J)uke Wratcslaw of 
 Bohemia, in lOKO, that God was pleased to allow 
 th(^ Holy Word to remain in some localilies un- 
 known (i.e., wheri^ Latin was not understood) 
 in order to save the ]ieople from error. 
 
 Untiajipily the appeal made to the Bible by 
 theCathari, Albigeuses, and \\'al(li'nses, — sects of 
 the twelfth and thirteenth (ti'uturies. which strove 
 to reform abuses, — only served to deepen the
 
 BIBLB-READINa. 
 
 25n 
 
 BIBLE SOCIETIES. 
 
 conviction of many, that the Rible was a danger- 
 ous liook, because its unrestrictc(l readinu; startpd 
 heresies amonj,' the neople. And therefore vari- 
 ous councils, no doubt sincerely, as that of Tar- 
 racoiia (1234), endeavored to clieck its spread. 
 And wlien attempts were made to spn^ad vernac- 
 uiar translations of it, many were scandalized; 
 and th(! Council of Oxford (1108) ordered that 
 no one should make such a translation witliout 
 the consent of his bishop and of the provincial 
 synod. In the same spirit, Berthold, the Arch- 
 bishop of Mainz (Mayence), in 14G8 issued an 
 edict against the printing of any sort of religious 
 book in German, giving, among other reasons, the 
 singular one, that the German language was un- 
 adapted to convey correctly religious ideas, and 
 therefore they would be profaned. 
 
 Notwdthstanding prohibitions, the editions of 
 German and other vernacular Bibles greatly 
 increased. When Luther's translation came out, 
 and was so eagerly caught up, the Roman Church 
 was compelled to take some action concerning 
 it. Erasmus and prominent ecclesiastics had 
 warmly recommended tlie reading of the Bible. 
 But the shrewd ones among the Roman clergy 
 saw that this advice must l>e rebuked by the 
 highest authority. One of the results, therefore, 
 of the Council of Trent (1545-03), was a regu- 
 lation in regard to reading the Bible. Accord- 
 ing to Rule 111. of the Ten Rules concerning Pro- 
 hibited Hooks, the reading of versions of the Old 
 Testament made by heretics is allowed to pious 
 and learned men, provided they have the permis- 
 sion of their bishop ; but no one was allowed to 
 read an heretical version of the New Testament. 
 Rule IV. states, that, inasmuch as the reading of 
 the Bible in the vernacular is in general more 
 full of danger than of use, it can be allowed 
 only to those who are too well grounded in the 
 faith to be shaken, and who, for that reason, have 
 the permission of their pastors or confessors. 
 Such reading, moreover, is to be only of approved 
 translations, and even them booksellers cannot 
 sell, save upon permission of the bishop. What 
 a sad contrast to Protestantism ! 
 
 The rise of Jansenism (see title) in the seven- 
 teenth century, and especially the appearance, 
 under its encouragements, of the French New 
 Testament of Quesnel (Paris, 1699), which had 
 moral reflections under each verse, and was pro- 
 fessedly intended to popularize the reading of 
 the Bible, caused the renewal, with increased 
 stringency, of the rules already quoted. Even 
 that sweet spirit Fenelon considered Bible-read- 
 ing dangerous to the laity. Pope Clement XL, 
 in the famous bull Uniijenitus (.Sept. 8, 1713), 
 anathematized Quesnel's version, and by so 
 doing caused a great commotion : indeed, things 
 came to such a pass, that the bull itself was ridi- 
 culed upon the streets of Paris. In consequence 
 of this reception of Tridentine ideas, a milder 
 course was adopted. But in the ne.Kt century 
 the great spread of Bibles, due to the Bible 
 societies, awakened the solicitude of Rome. Pius 
 VH. (1810), Leo XII. (1824), Gregory XVI. 
 (1832), and Pius IX., tried to check the circula- 
 tion of the Protestant versions, but did not forbid 
 the reading of the Bible. Rome is no friend to 
 education in any direction, and especially not in 
 the Bible, because sh"? knows full well that her 
 
 distinctive doctrines are not based upon the 
 Word, but contradict it. And so, while here 
 and there aie defenders of Bible-reading, the 
 Church cannot consistently advocate the sjiread 
 of the Bible. .Strangely enough, .Sender and 
 Lessing, and other Protestant rationalists, liave 
 taken similar ground against allowing th(! laity 
 to read the Bible. See Ak.nai.'i.d : l)e la lecture 
 (le I'ecriture ; IIaoki.mkyku : d'esc/iiihle des Bibel- 
 verbuls, Ulm, 1783; A. J. O.WMi'S : ICntirurf zu 
 einer Gesc/iic/ile lies Bil/ellesens, Wiirzburg, 1780; 
 Van Ess: Uehcr das notwendiycn u. nillzliche 
 liitiellescn, Leipzig, 1808. IIKKZOO. 
 
 2. In the Greek Church. In the Turkish Em- 
 pire, as early as Cyril Lucar (d. 1038), the ques- 
 tion of circulating the Scriptures was agitated; 
 but the Confession of Dositlieucs (Q. 1) answers it 
 in the negative as far as the common people are 
 concerned. [See Schaff's Ckickds of Ciuustkn- 
 DOM, vol. 11. p. 433.] In consequence, the New 
 (jreek (Romaic) translation, which was made 
 about that time, had a very limited sjiread. Prot- 
 estant versions have been more kindly received; 
 and in 1817 the Patriarch of Constantinople 
 allowed the printing and free circulation of such 
 a New Testament, but stopped the Olil Testa- 
 ment, because it was from tlie Hebrew, and not 
 conformed strictly to the Septuagint. The un- 
 wi.se attempt to brave this prohibition resulted, 
 in 1830, in the condemnation of the entire Bible 
 as nncanonical. In Greece opinion is divided. 
 In Russia the Czar Alexander I., in 1813, as is 
 v/ell known, favored the establishment of a Bible 
 Society in St. Petersburg (see Bihlk Socie- 
 ties) ; but his successor, Nicholas L, sup])re.ssed 
 the society in 1820, and allowed only the old 
 Slavonic version (see under Bihi.k Vkhsions) 
 to be circulated. This was a practical prohibi- 
 tion of the Bible, because that version can be 
 read by comparatively few. At no time has 
 there been in the Greek Church the same oppo- 
 sition to Bible-reading as in the lloinan Church; 
 and this is particularly the case in Russia, where, 
 at the present d.aj-, there are large sects which dis- 
 play considerable scriptural knowledge. Since 
 1809, the British and Foreign Bible Society have 
 been able to do something. [It has, according 
 to the eighty-first report (1880), agencies in St. 
 Petersburg, JMoscow, Odessa, Charkotf, Tiflis, and 
 elsewhere. The one at Odessa was formed in 
 1S08, and had, up to 1885, di.sseminated 1,324,305 
 copies: the one at St. Petersburg, formed in 1828, 
 had di.sseminated 3,821,1.59. During the war with 
 Turkey, in 1877, the New Test.ament was widely 
 circulated in the Russian army. The holy synod 
 allows the sale of the .Scriptures only in the 
 authorized Russian version.] G.\S8. 
 
 BIBLE SOCIETIES. I. British and Foreign 
 Bible Society. — It was founded in London, 
 March 7, 1804. Other societies had been organ- 
 ized previously, which partly or wholly made 
 their object the distribution of the Bible. Tlie 
 principal of these were : 1. Tlie Socicti/ for Pro- 
 moting Christian Knowledge (c. 1G98). Its objects 
 were the erection of free schools, the spread of 
 the Bible and the Prayer-Book, and religious 
 tracts, also the support of foreign missions, es- 
 pecially in India. It published the Bible in En- 
 glish, \Velsh, iSIanx, and Arabic. 2. The Societii 
 for the Propaga'wn of the Gospel in Foreign Parts
 
 BIBLE SOCIETIES. 
 
 2G0 
 
 BIBLE SOCIETIES. 
 
 (1701), with similar objects in special reference 
 to tlie, American Colonies. 3. The Scotlix/i Snci- 
 eli/ for Propariatinrj Vltrislian Knnwledtje (1709), 
 whose field included the Highlands, the Scottish 
 islands, and part of Xorth ^America, supplying 
 them will) evangelists, Bibles, and edifying liooks 
 in Ga'lic. 4. The Socitly for Promoliiif/ Relirjious 
 Knowlcd'je among the Poor (1750) also distributed 
 Bibles aiid religious books. 5. The Bible Snciel;/, 
 later called The Xaml and Military Bible Societi/ 
 (1780), which worked exclusively among tlie sol- 
 diers and sailors. 6. The .'Society for the Support 
 and Encouragement of Sunday Schoola (17S5) dis- 
 tributed gTatuitously Bible and other books in 
 Sunday schools. Xor was Ireland behindhand. 
 7. The Association for Discountenancing Vice, and 
 Promoting the Knowledge and Practice of the Chris- 
 tian Religion, established in Dublin in 17!)"2. did a 
 similar work ai^iong the poor Irish. 8. A French 
 Bible Society was founded in London in the 
 same year (1792), for publishing the Bible in 
 French ; but the tin-.es did not favor the enter- 
 prise, and so the money collected for this pur- 
 pose was applied to other things. But the desire 
 for such a society among the French Protes- 
 tants was very great, more especially, because no 
 Protestant Bibre had been printed in France 
 since 1678. 
 
 Although these facilities existed, yet the de- 
 mand far" exceeded the supply. Particulaily was 
 this the case in Wales, where the Hev. 'I'homas 
 Charles of Bala in Marionethshire had been 
 Breaching for twenty years as an itinerant minis- 
 ter. This devoted man everywhere awakened a 
 keen interest in the Bible; but many were com- 
 pelled to walk long distances before they could get 
 a copy; while in J>ondon, in December, 1802, the 
 thoug'ht came to Charles, 'Why not found a Bible 
 society for Wales? He imparted this idea to 
 liis friend Tarn, who introduced him to the exec- 
 utive committee of the London Tract Society, 
 before whom Charles gave a moving account of 
 tlie famine for the word of God among his own 
 people. His speech made a deep impression, par- 
 ticularly upon a Bajitist minister, .losepli Hughe.s, 
 one of the secretaries of the Tract Society. " Cer- 
 t;iinly," said he. " such a society might be formed ; 
 and, if for Wales, why not for the Kingdom and 
 for the world? " Joseph Hughes had given utter- 
 ance to the idea of a Bible society for the world. 
 The next step was to awaken interest, and find 
 out the extent of the destitution at home and 
 abroad. In the last direction the Rev. C. F. A. 
 Steinkopf, pastor of the German laitheran Church 
 in the .Savoy (in the. Strand, London), was partic- 
 ularly useful. A ))ublic meeting was held March 
 7, 1804, at the London Tavern (on the call of Mr. 
 Hughes) : three hundred persons attended it. 
 Anione the various dcnonunations represented 
 were Quakers, wlio were consideied to be de- 
 .spLsers of the Bible, and who k(>pt themselves 
 aloof from the other denominations, and did not 
 join with them in any work, save that of the 
 aiiolition of slavery, ftut it was (piickly evident 
 the Bible society j)re.sented coinmon ground upon 
 ■which all sect.s and jiarties could stand. Dis- 
 senters met Churchmen, and in their interest in 
 the common work forgot, for a time, their differ- 
 ent interj>retation of the same book. But t)ie 
 latter were not at ouce ready to joiu the niove- 
 
 ment. Tlie first of the Chinch clergy present to 
 favor the enterprise was the Rev. John Owen, 
 who was inipres.sed by the address of the Rev. 
 Mr. Steinkopf upon the Bible destitution on the 
 Continent. And his example found imitators. 
 The roughly drawn-np by-laws were adopted. 
 An executive committee of thirty-six laymen, fif- 
 teen from the Chiuch of England, fifteen di.ssen- 
 ters, six foreigners residing in or near London, 
 was cho.sen, and seven hundred pounds subscribed. 
 The committee then chose as secretaries the Rev. 
 Messrs. Joseph Hughes (Baptist) and Josiali 
 Pratt (Church of England) ; and after a few 
 weeks the Rev. John Owen was made another 
 secretary, and then the Rev. C. F. A. Steinkopf, 
 secretary for the foreign lands, on nomination of 
 Lord Teignmoutli, a former governor-general of 
 India. The Bishop of London, Dr. Porteus, Wiis 
 elected President. Besides the Bi.shop of Lon- 
 don, the Bishops of Durham, Exeter, and St. 
 Davids, and many other influential persons, such 
 as "W'ilberforce and (iranville Sliarpe, famous for 
 their work against slavery, joined the movement. 
 The constitution of the society soon was defi- 
 nitely made, and the society started upon its ca- 
 reer. As at present organized, the business of 
 the .society is conducted by the committee men- 
 tioned above. Besides the president, there are 
 vice-presidents, a treasurer, and secretaries. The 
 members pay an annual fee of one guinea, and 
 can buy Bibles at a discount. In order to excite 
 wider interest, and facilitate the distribution of 
 the Bible, auxiliary and branch societies are 
 formed, which p.ay in their collections into the 
 common fund, and receive their Bibles at a dis- 
 count. In connection w ith these are a.ssociations 
 which collect smaller sums, and provide the poor 
 with Bibles on the payment of a very low weekly 
 charge. In 1814 associations of women were 
 formed: now there are those of sailors, soldiers, 
 and even of children. 
 
 The .society began it.s career by first meeting 
 the wants of AV'ales. Twenty thousand Welsh 
 Bibles and five thousand Testaments were printed. 
 Providentially but a short time before, the art of 
 ■stereotyping had been invented. AVhen, in ISOd", 
 the first w.agonful of Bibles came into Wales, it 
 wa-s received like the ark of the covenant; and 
 the people, with shouts of great joy, dragged it 
 into the city. In the Highlands of Scotland the 
 society distributed the Bible in an improved 
 (iPL'lic translation. The .society also turned its 
 attention to the Irish, to the asylums; in short it 
 started out to sujiply Great Britain with Bibles 
 printed without note or comment, and it has 
 nobly accomplished its design. But it lias not 
 forgotten that it is a foreign as well as British 
 Bible Society. It has .sent its agents everywhere ; 
 it lias excited a world-wide interest in the word 
 of (jod, and now, especially in inission-lields, is 
 supplying the pure water of life unto millions 
 of thirsty .souls. (.S<'e below.) 
 
 II. Bible Societies upon the Continent of 
 Europe. When the British and Foreign liible So- 
 ciety began operations, I'.umpe was convulsed by 
 war; and .so, although the demand for the Bible 
 was in a measvne supplied, not so much was done 
 as would otherwise have been. Enrojie liad her 
 own Bible societies : Germany in jiarticular w.is 
 well supplied. 1. The Canstein Bible Inslilule was
 
 BIBLE SOCIETIES. 
 
 261 
 
 BIBLE SOCIETIES. 
 
 founcl(?d ill 1710 by the Freiherr von Canstein 
 (.see title), and has been very active in circnlat- 
 iii;;' Uibles in several languages. 2. The destitu- 
 tion ill Austria excited the merchant Kiiwliiig in 
 Xurnberg, and led to tlie organization of the 
 Xurnberg (Nuremberg) IJible Society on May 10, 
 1801. Tlie British and Foreign Hible Society 
 contributed stereotype plates of the German Hi- 
 l)le. The Basel friends to the Bible cause joined 
 in the niovenient, and after two years (1806) it 
 was shifted to the latter city, and called tlie Ilasel 
 Hible Society. [Tliey report (1880) an issue of 
 1)84,313 copies.] 3. It might be supposed that 
 tlie Bible would be rarely found in tlie Koman- 
 Catholic portion of (iermany; nor would any 
 e.xi>ression of regret over the fact be exjiected. 
 AH the more, therefore, was the astonishment 
 when a Roman-C'atliolic priest in South (jermany 
 wrote a letter expressing great joy over tlie found- 
 ing of the British and Foreign Bible Society, and 
 assuring them that many priests of his acipiaint- 
 aiice desired their people to I'ead the Bible. As a 
 practical expo.sition of this desire. Dr. Wittmann 
 founded in 180a the Koman-Catholic Reijen^liurij 
 (Katisbon) Bible Society. Dr. Wittmann liim- 
 .self translated the New Testament into (jermaii. 
 The priest Gossner in JInnicIi, and Leander van 
 Ess (see title), the celebrated Benedictine niouk, 
 and professor-extraordinary at the University of 
 Marburg, also furnished translations, which were 
 printed by the society, and zealously spread. 
 The Freiherr von A\'essenberg and Bisliop Sailer 
 gave the work their cordial support. But Rome 
 viewed the society with dislike ; and a Papal bull 
 forbade the circulation ot the Scriptures in one 
 of their districts ((riiesen), and in the sjiring of 
 1817 suppressed the society. It had, previous 
 to that date, printed almost a half million of Tes- 
 taments. Gossner, who persisted, in spite of the 
 bull, to circulate the Scriptures, was driven out 
 of IMunich. Van Kss, however, kept on his Bible- 
 work, although he I'esigued his positions in 18l!J; 
 and, under the patronage of the British and For- 
 eign Bible Society, pushed on his translation of 
 the Bible, and at last published a complete Bible 
 in (iermaii in 1810. 4. The Berlin liihle Sncieli/ 
 was founded Feb. 11, 180(5. It owes its origin to 
 the Moravian preacher Jiinicke, who liad jiresent- 
 ed to the British and Foreign Bible Society the 
 great scarcity of Bohemian Bibles. The latter 
 society contributed a large quantity of Bibles 
 and Testaments in Bohemian, Polish, and Lithu- 
 anian (since a branch had been established in 
 1810 in Konigsberg). The Berlin Society in 
 August, 1814, was converted into the ]'ruxf:ian 
 Bible Society, and set before itself the circulation 
 of the Scriptures throughout the Kingdom. It 
 now has many branches, and is doing noble work. 
 [Total issues'(1885) 5,103,413 copies.] 
 
 The most of the societies were founded after 
 1812, and at the incitement of INIessrs. Steinkopf 
 and Pinkerton, who repeatedly visited the Con- 
 tinent. In this way was started, .5, the Wiirttem- 
 herf/ Bible Society in February, 1813, which became 
 one of the most flourishing in Germany. [Total 
 issue (1885) 1,051,657.] Otiiers, in Hannover, 
 Saxony, and the smaller German states, followed ; 
 and so in Hungary in 1811, but it was suppressed 
 by a Papal bull. 
 
 6. Nor did Switzerland lag behind. After tlie 
 
 transfer of the Niiriiberg Society to Ba.sel, a 
 great activity was excited. Stcinkopf's tour 
 through Switzerland in 1812 awoke great enthu- 
 siasm ; and Bible societies sprang up every wlii're. 
 7. In 1816, at Latour a Bible Society fur tlie Wal- 
 (leuniiins was established. [Issue last reported 
 4,238..] 
 
 8. 'I'he Unitcil NethirUinih Bible Society was 
 founded in 1815 [issue reported (1881) 1,621,384]. 
 A Bible society for sailors was also started. 
 
 [9. In France tlie movement was begun by the 
 London Frcncli Bible Socictyfovnwil in 1792 ; but the 
 breaking-out of the Revolution effectuall_v checked 
 it. An edition of the New Testament was ])rint- 
 ed in Paris in 1802 by another Eiigli.sh society; 
 but the recommencement of hostilities in 1S04 
 again jirevented the Bible's circulation. The re- 
 action in the year 1815 found the Protestants in 
 France ready foi- bolder work on tlieir own ac- 
 count, and so in 1818 the Protestant Bible Society 
 of Paris was established [issue reported (1882) 
 639,478]. The subsidies generously granted by 
 the Briti.sh and Foreign were withdrawn at the 
 close of the sixth year, because of dilTerence of 
 views in regard to the Apociypha. In 1826 the 
 British and Foreign voted to exclude from their 
 liberality all tho.se societies wliicli persisted ;u 
 printing tho.se books. The French .society thought 
 to cut the knot by printing Bibles with and witli- 
 oiit them. Tlie success of this society has also 
 been conditioned by internal strifes ; for there are 
 two jiarties, one contending, that instead of the 
 so-called revision of Ostervald. which is confes.s- 
 edly inaccurate, the text be tliat of Perret-Gentil 
 for the Old Testament, and, for the New Testa- 
 ment, tlie Geneva version and that of Arnaud. 
 The result of the internal strife was the formation, 
 in 1864, of the Bible Society of France, whicli per- 
 sists in printing the old version, and rejecting the 
 Apocryplia [issues reported (1884), about 500,- 
 000]. — (.). DouKN, in Encyclopc'die des Sciences 
 Reliyieuses, vol. 11., pp. 284-286]. 
 
 10. In the Northlands the work of the Briti.sh and 
 Foreign Bible Society was (piite strangely opened 
 up: IMe.s.srs. J. Paterson and Ebenezer Henderson 
 (Scotchmen) went to Copenhagen, tliere to em- 
 bark as missionaries to 'I'ranquebar [a town in 
 Ilindostan, then a Danish possession]. The plan 
 fell through ; but they met Thorkeliu, who turned 
 tlieir attention to the need of Bibles among the 
 Icelanders. There were only fifty Bibles in a 
 population of fifty thousand. Tlie two Scotch- 
 men laid the matter before the British and For- 
 eign Bible Society, which promised to defray half 
 the expenses of five thousand Testaments. The 
 ]irinting was begun in 1806 at Fiihuen ; but the 
 war between Denmark and England abruptly 
 ended it. But in 1812 Hender.son received per- 
 mission to remain in Copenhagen in order to com- 
 plete the printing of the whole Icelandic Bible, 
 and notwithstanding the war, to correspond with 
 England, — an instance of very marked confi- 
 dence. On Aug. 8, 1814, the Danish Bible Soci- 
 ety was founded [issues reported (1876), 340.026] ; 
 in 1815 that of Iceland [issues reported, 10,445]. 
 
 11. In 1831 the Eranyelical Bible Society in 
 Russia was established witli the aim of circulat- 
 ing the Bible, without notes, among all Protes- 
 tants dwelling within the limits of the Russian 
 Empire. Its support comes in the main from
 
 BIBLE SOCIETIES. 
 
 262 
 
 BIBLE SOCIETIES. 
 
 Germans [issues reported (1S82). 1,011.259]. In 
 Sweden tlie Bible .Society dates from 1814 [i.ssiies 
 reported (1880) 921,747]; in Norway from 1816 
 [issues reported (ISSO) 248.924] ; in Russia from 
 Jan. 19, 1813; but it was suppressed in 1826 
 by the emperor, up to wliicli time tlie Britisli 
 and Foreign had aided it to the extent of 
 £16,833. [Privately formed in 1863, on May 2, , 
 1869, the Socie/i/ for the Disseminalion of the Hohj ; 
 Scriptures in llussia was founded, and honored 
 by the imperial sanction. The rules of the j 
 society are: 1. To disseminate only Scriptures! 
 sanctioned by the Holy Synod ; 2. To sell bound 
 Scriptures as largely as possible, but also to dis- 
 tribute gratuitously, or at reduced jirices, wheie 
 the occasion demanded. It makes free use of the 
 colportage, and in this way the Bible finds its 
 way into the remotest villages of the empire. Up 
 to 1881, 6lJS,103 copies of the Scripture iiad been 
 distributed, and the work is carried on. It de- 
 pends mainly upon voluntary subscriptions. See 
 Bible Societi/ Itccnrtl, October, 1880, and Biblk 
 Reading, The Greek Church']. 
 
 In Southern Europe we find the il.alta Bible 
 Society (1817), the Ionia Bible Society in Corfu 
 (1819) [issues reported, 7,377]. In' Iiulia the 
 ISible is translated into the various dialects; and 
 the Bible Society of Calcutta (1811) [issues re- 
 ported (188.5) 1,997..582] of Bombay (1818) [is- 
 sues reported (1885) 539.884]. of .AJadras (1820) 
 [issues reported (1885) 3,394,061)], and so of other 
 places of Asia, attests the interest in this great 
 and blessed work. 
 
 As has already been abundantly evidenced, it is 
 impossible to treat separately theBritish and For- 
 eign Bible .Society and those already named ; for 
 the latter liave been in such large measure ad- 
 juncts of the former, that their interests are iden- 
 tified. It is fitting, therefore, to close this ac- 
 count of the Bible-work abroad by a return to 
 the great society. Its work has not been carried 
 on without hinderances and difliculties : .some of 
 these were inevitable, such as those connected 
 with making- translations in as yet unprinted or 
 even miwritten tongues; but others came from 
 the sinful heart of bigotry and prejudice. The 
 High-Church party in the Established Church 
 opposed the Bible Societj', because, forsootli, it 
 interfered with their pet, the Society for the Pro- 
 motion of Christian Knowledge, (ithers thought 
 it dangerous to put the Bible, without note or 
 comment, into the hands of the laity, and espe- 
 cially of the heathen. Indeed, it was prophesied, 
 that, if this were done, there would be an end of 
 British rule in India : hence the governors-gen- 
 eral for many years opposed the society. But 
 more ridiculous complaints were made: such 
 men as Bishop Marsh fain would bind the Bible 
 with the Book of Connuon Prayer, and thus main- 
 tain the purity of the Christian faith. ]5ut (lod 
 did not suffer this grand society, wliich gave out- 
 ward expression to his thought of Christian unity, 
 to be overthrown by any attacks. 'I"he most 
 serious trouble, however, came in connection with 
 the .\)iorry]ilia; and the fight lasted from 1825 to 
 1827, and well nigh split the .society. At first 
 the Bible printed for the Canstein .Society con- 
 tained the Apocrypha; but in 1811 attention was 
 called to this fact, and the committee determined 
 to exclude it. After much agitation, in which 
 
 Dr. Andrew Thomson of Edinburgh, and the 
 Edinburgh Society, were leaders in opposition 
 to the Apocryplia, in regard to which they used 
 very hard language, it was resolved. May 3, 1827, 
 that the fundamental law of the society be fully 
 and distinctly recognized as excluding the circu- 
 lation of the Apocrypha; and therefore no per- 
 son or society spreading the Apocrypha could 
 hereafter receive any pecuniary aid from the so- 
 ciety. The consequence was, that the societies 
 upon the Continent, where the Apocrypha was 
 universally used, and of which the British So- 
 ciety had founded over fifty, separated them- 
 selves from the parent societ}'. Strangely enough 
 the Edinburgh and most of the Scotch societies, 
 though it would seem they had won, thenseelves 
 seceded. The society then established uyencies 
 in various parts of the Continent. See Apocry- 
 pha. The refusal of the society in 1831 to alter 
 its constitution so as to exclude non-Triuitarians, 
 and to withdraw from circulation in France, 
 Spain, and Portugal. Bibles translatea from the 
 Vulgate, led to the formation of the Trinitarian 
 liible Hocieti/, which, however, is of exceedingly 
 limited operation. The fifty-fourth Annual Re- 
 port (1885) shows that during the year it received 
 £2,374, 9s.. and circulated 281,426 Bibles, Testa- 
 ments, and portions. Colporters work for it in 
 France, Russia, and Italy. 
 
 The present work of the British and Foreign 
 Bible Society is carried on through nuxiliar)/ and 
 branch societies, gradually formed in every district 
 of the United Kingdom and in the colonies; af/enln, 
 who at home and abroad investigate local require- 
 ments, and supply information for the guidancfe 
 of the committee; dcpijls for the sale of the 
 Bible in almost every town in England and in 
 many places abroad ; colporters, to some extent in 
 England, and very largely on the Continent and 
 in India ; and, lastly, by //rants to sori<iies. espe- 
 cially to those of a missionary or philanthropic 
 nature, also in aid of Bible translations. [The 
 Eightj'-first Annual Re^iort was presented May 6, 
 1885. During the year the recei]its were £253,- 
 765, and llie issues 4,161,032: or. from the begin- 
 ning, 104,196,965. Its president, the Earl of 
 Shaftesbury, died Oct. 1, 1885.] C. SOIIOELL. 
 
 III. Bible Societies of the United States of 
 America. (1) The Amiricon JUIile Somti/ was sng- 
 gested by the success of the British and Foreign 
 Bible Society, and was the union of many existing 
 organizations.' lu 1777, during the Bevolution- 
 ary War, Congress were memiirialized to print 
 thirty thousand copies of the Bible in order to 
 supply the demand. But, owing to the want of 
 type and paper, they could not l)e printed, and 
 hence the Committee on Commerce was empow- 
 ered to import twenty thousand copies from Hol- 
 land, Scotland, or elsewhere, at the expense of 
 Congress. In consequence of the embargo, this 
 scheme could not be carried out; and in 1782, on 
 another memorial, a eomuiittee reported, recom- 
 mending a Bible i)rinted by Robert Aitken in 
 I'hil.adidphia. But Bibles were not in those 
 times printed in sufficient quantity, nor at low 
 enough prices, for the poor. In 1808 the first 
 organization for the supply of the Bible was 
 fornu'd in Philadelphia. The idea was ipiiekly 
 taken up everywhere; so that in .Tune, 1816, a 
 hundred and twenty-eiglit Bible societies were
 
 BIBLE SOCIETIES. 
 
 263 
 
 BIBLE SOCIETIES. 
 
 rejxyrteil. The credit of the idea of \initii)!; 
 these societies into one seems due to the Rev. 
 Samuel ,1. Mills, who reported the spiritual des- 
 titution of the AV'r.st and South-west in LSI 5; hut 
 the first one to take active measures in such a 
 direction was the Hon. Elias Houdinot. president 
 of the New .Jersey Hible Society, who in .Ian. 1, 
 1816, made the. first public communication in 
 favor of a national liible movement. The New 
 York 15il)le Society was the first to follow it by 
 formal action. Mr. Houdinot issued a circular 
 dated .Jan. 17, 181G, and appointed Wednesday, 
 May S. ISKi, and New York, as the time and 
 place for holding the convention. Accordingly 
 sixty delegates, representing twenty-eight 15ible 
 societies of various sections of our country, and 
 of various denon)inations (Congregational, I're.s- 
 byterian, Protestant-Episcopal, Slethodist-Episco- 
 pal, Reformed Dutch, Baptist, and the Society of 
 Friends), met, and adopted a constitution, and 
 elected tlie officers and board of managers. Mr. 
 Boudiuot was appropriately made the first presi- 
 dent. 
 
 The list of presidents since then is as follows : 
 Hon. Elias lioudinot, 1816-21; Hon. .John .Jav, 
 1821-28; Hon. Richard Varick, 1828-31; Hoii. 
 fTohn Cotton Smith, 1831-40; Hon. Theodore Fre- 
 linghuvsen, 1840-02; Hon. Luther Rradi-sh, 1862- 
 04; .James Lenox, 1864-71; William H. Allen, 
 1872-Hll; S. Wells Williams, 1881-83; Hon. Fred- 
 erick T. Frelinghuysen, 1884-85. The Sixty-ninth 
 Annual Report was presented May 14, 1885. The 
 total receipts were ^587,914. The number of vol- 
 umes of the Scripture printed at the liilile House, 
 New York, was 822,507; thus divided, — I?ibles, 
 307,500; New Testaments, 410,000; portions, 08,- 
 100; volumes for the blind, 967 ; besides .397.600 
 volumes printed abroad for the Society; making its 
 entire circulation in sixty-nine years, 45,440,200. 
 
 The society is conducted by a board of mana- 
 gers, composed of thirty-six laymen, of whom 
 one-fourth go out of office every year, but are re- 
 eligible, ami so, as a matter of fact, they remain. 
 Every clergyman wlio is a life-member of the 
 society, if he be not entitled to receive any salary, 
 emolument, or compensation for services from 
 the society, is entitled to meet and vote witii the 
 boai'd of managers, and be possessed of the same 
 powers as a manager himself. The officers con- 
 sist of a president, about thirty vice-presidents, 
 three secretaries, a treasurer, au assistant treas- 
 urer, and a general agent. In connection with 
 the main societies there are auxiliaries, which 
 collect nroney, carry on local Bible distribution 
 and promote interest in the Bible cause. The 
 number of such auxiliaries in 1880 was about two 
 thousand. 
 
 The history of the American Bible Society is 
 not a record of unbroken peaceable labor. Two 
 serious storms have imperilled its existence. 
 The first of these troubles arose in 1835, when it 
 was learned that Ur. Judson and his coadjutors 
 had published, .at the expense of the society, in 
 their Burmese translation of the New Testament, 
 a transldlinn instead of a transliteration of the 
 Greek words lja/>tisini>s, baptizo, rendering them by 
 itnmersiiin and to immerse. After long considera- 
 tion of the matter, the managers Resolved, " That 
 in appropriating money for the translating, print- 
 ing, or distributing of the Sacred Scriptures in 
 
 foreign languages, the managers feel at lil)erty 
 to encourage only such versions .is contorm in the 
 jirinciple of their translation to the common 
 ICnglisli version, at least so far as that all the 
 religions denominations represented in this so- 
 ciety can consistently use and circulate said ver- 
 sions in their several schools an<l communities." 
 This resolution was communicated to the .several 
 missionary boards receiving ajipropriations from 
 the society, with the recpiest, that, in apjilying for 
 aid, they would slate that the versions they [>ro- 
 posed to circulate were in accordance with the 
 resolution. Many of the Hajitists took olfenee at 
 this resolution. A controversy ensued, and the 
 practical effect was the formation of a rival 
 Bible society. See below American and Foreit/n 
 Tiihie Socieli/. 
 
 The second trouble spoken of came from an 
 entirely different source. In 1817 the attention 
 of the board of managers was called to the dis- 
 crepancies found in differeiit editions of the ICng- 
 lish Bible in respect to the use of It<dic words, 
 capital, letters, and the article a or an , and the 
 Committee on Versions were instructed to under- 
 take a careful collation. 'I'heir final report wius 
 made May 1, 1851, and in it they stated, tliat. in 
 colhating five stamlard copies of English and 
 American imprint with the original edition of 
 1611, nearly twenty-four thousand variations 
 were recoi-deil, solely in the text and pnnctu.a- 
 tion, not one of which marred the integrity of 
 the text, or affected any doctrine or precept of 
 the Bible. The standard determined upon by the 
 committee at first met with the unanimous ap- 
 proval of the board of managers and the public. 
 All the new editions were conformed to it, and 
 for several years these J-iililes. were circulated 
 without the slightest objection. The fact was, 
 the changes in the text introduced by the com- 
 mittee were very few and slight; their great 
 oliject being to .secure uniformity, and not to 
 touch the original version, except in cases of evi- 
 dent inadvertence or inconsistency, open and 
 manifest to all. A few proper names were con- 
 formed to the Old Testament spelling, as .Judah 
 for .Tuda, Sinai for Sina, Zion for Sion, Noah for 
 Noe, sera]ihim for seraphims, etc. As Dr. 
 Charles Hodge said, " Not one reader in a thou- 
 sand would notice the alterations, uidess they 
 were pointed out." Other alterations consisted 
 in changing the chapter-he.adings, so as to make 
 them a little more descriptive, or, as in the Song 
 of Solomon, less of a comment. For a time all 
 went w-ell; but in the fall of 18.50 the Rev. A. C. 
 Coxe, then of Baltimore, now Bishop of Western 
 New York, questioned the right of the society to 
 make these alterations, and in .January, 18.57, 
 published a pamphlet, in which lie charged th» 
 society with having maile twenty-four thousand 
 changes in the veision of 1810. This to hic 
 excited mind proved that the demon of rational- 
 ism, "exorcised from its German haunts," had 
 governed the society. The pamphlet did it* 
 work. It stirred up great excitement. The Old 
 School Assembly of 1857 debated the matter, 
 and instructed its board of publication to print 
 a Bible. Dr. Hodge wrote an article on the sub- 
 ject in The Princeton Rericic, July, 1857. So 
 great w.as the opposition excited, that the lx)ard 
 of managers were compelled to bow before the
 
 BIBLE SOCIETIES. 
 
 264 
 
 BIBLE TEXT — Old Test. 
 
 storm. Among the soberest men the question 
 was merely one of constitutional authority, — had 
 the society the power to introduce chansjes from 
 the Bible" of 1011? It was finally decided it 
 had not. Accordingly on Jan. 28, 18.58, the 
 board " Resolved, That this Society's present 
 standard English Bible be referred to the stand- 
 ing committee on versions for examination ; and 
 in all cases where the same differs in the text or 
 its accessories from the Bibles previously pub- 
 lished by the society, the committee are directed 
 to correct the same by conforming it to previous 
 editions printed by this society, or by the autlior- 
 ized British presses, reference being also had to 
 the original edition of the translators printed in 
 1611 ; and to report such corrections to this board, 
 to the end that a new edition, thus perfected, 
 may be adopted as the standard edition of the 
 society." The committee reported in 18.">9 and 
 1860; and from this "standard edition " all Eng- 
 lish Bibles are now printed. The relation of the 
 Bible Society to the Revised A'ersion is at pres- 
 ent (1881) much discussed. The constitution of 
 tlie Society would have to be altered before it 
 could publish any other English Bible than King 
 .lames' Version (art. I.); and it would not be 
 expedient to do .so before public opinion decides 
 in favor of the Revised Version. 
 
 (2) American and Fnreir/n Bible Socict;/. This 
 is a IJaptist society. It was organized in Phila- 
 delphia (April, 1836) by those Baptists, headed by 
 the Rev. S. 11. t'one, D.l)., a former secretary of 
 the American Bible Society, who felt themselves 
 aggrieved by the resolution quoted above. Dr. 
 Cone was made president. The society was de- 
 clared ui be " founded upon the principle that the 
 originals in the Hebrew and Greek are the only 
 authentic standards of the Sacred Scriptures, and 
 that aid for the translating, printing, or distribut- 
 ing of them in foreign languages, should be af- 
 forded to such versions only as are conformed as 
 nearly as po-ssible to the original text; it being 
 understood that no words are to be transferred 
 which are susceptible of being literally translated." 
 The constitution declares (Art. II.) '•that, in the 
 distribution of the Scriptures in the English 
 language, the commonly received version shall 
 be used initil otherwise directed by the Soci- 
 ety." See Annual Reports. The society is 
 similar in organization and management to the 
 American Bible Society. The annual meetings 
 are held in New- York City. The Forty-third An- 
 nual Report was presented May 13, 1880. The 
 balance in treasury May 1, 1879, w.is !$r),(l2;5.14. 
 The receipts of tlie year from individual and 
 church offerings were .'?;j,002.62 ; from estates 
 and other sources were $2,023.08; total receipts, 
 87.920.70. The society supported several native 
 Bible readers and distributers among the '.rolugus 
 of India and the freednien of the South. 
 
 (3) American Biljle Union was organized in 1850 
 by those members of the American and Foreign 
 Bible Society who demanded that the priuciiile 
 of circulating " such versions only as are con- 
 formed as nearly as po.ssible to the original text " 
 should be applied to the Englisli version; i.e., 
 that version should itself be revised. The cibject 
 of the Tnion is "to procure and circulate tlie 
 most faithful versions of the Sacred .Scriptures, 
 in all languages, throughout tho world." The 
 
 first appropriation by the Union v.-as toward the 
 Karen version in 1851. The Twent>/-eif!hth Armual 
 Report was presented Nov. 14, 1877. The receipts 
 for the year were .'J16,299 93. Since then the 
 Union has not made any report. It secured tho 
 services of ,a number of eminent Baptist and 
 other biblical scliolars, especially Rev. I)rs. II. B. 
 Hackett, A. C. Kendrick, and T. .7. C'onant. The 
 latter devoted his whole time since 1857 to the 
 work, and finished tlie New Testament and .a 
 part of the Old. In 1S5Q it published the re- 
 vised Book of .lob; in 1805, the completed revised 
 New Testament; in 1868, Genesis; in 1869, the 
 Psalms; in 1871, Proverbs; in January, 1878, 
 Josluia, .ludges, and Ruth. First and Second 
 Samuel, First and Second Kings, and First and 
 Second Chronicles, are ready in manuscript. It 
 has also prepared an Italian, Spanish, Chinese 
 (colloquial for Ningpo), Siamese, and Sgau-Karen 
 New Testament. Tlie revisions of the Union are 
 among the best individual revisions ever made. 
 
 In May, 1883, botli the last-named Societies 
 turned over their plates to the American Baptist 
 Publication Society, Philadelphia, which publishes 
 their works, and also the RevLsed New Testament 
 with the American revisers' jireferonces incorpo- 
 rated with the text. S. M. JACKSON. 
 (KfviBtd by Rev. E. W. Gilman, P.D., Sue. .\inci-. Bible Soc.) 
 
 BIBLE TEXT. I. Old Testament. The ordi- 
 nary Hebrew text, the Massnretic, is the result 
 of the alterations and other additions made with- 
 in a certain period by Jewish scholars. But, 
 concerning the time and the principles of these 
 changes, there w.as in the seventeenth century 
 great difference of opinion among Christian 
 (mainly Protestant) Hebrew scholars. On the 
 one side stood the 15uxtorfs (father and sou) and 
 their party, who held, in the interest of the then 
 prevalent views of inspiration, to the absolute 
 completeness and infallibility, and hence exclu- 
 sive value, of the Massoretic text; and, further, 
 attributed that text to Ezra and the Men of the 
 Great Synagogue (Sopherim), who, under the 
 inspiration of the Holy Spirit, cleansed the text 
 of all accumulated error, added the vowel-points, 
 the accents, and other punctuation-marks, thus 
 settling the reading and pronunciation; also 
 made the right division into verses, paragrapiis, 
 and books; and, finally, they held, that, by the 
 care of (lOd, the text thus made has been kept 
 from all error, and presents to-day the veritable 
 ironh of (iod. On the other side w.-is the ])arty 
 of Johannes Morinus and Ludovicus Cappellus, 
 who, in the interest of pure historicity, com- 
 bated these o]iinions, maintained with equal 
 learning the later .age of the JNIassoretic text, and 
 sought to vindicate value and usefulness for the 
 old versions and other critical helps. They fell 
 into m.any errors in respect to the details of the 
 history of the text; but their general view was 
 sujiported by irresistible arguments, and is now 
 universally adopted. This view, instead of ile- 
 riving the existing text from any gathering of 
 inspired men in Ezra's time, assigns it to a 
 much later date and quite different men, and, 
 instead of ahsoltite, claims for it only a rela- 
 tive, completeness, and a higher value tlian other 
 forms of the text. A glance at the history of 
 the text will show how this agreement has beeu 
 brought about.
 
 BIBLE TEXT — Old Test. 
 
 265 
 
 BIBLE TEXT — Old Test, 
 
 1. Concerning the oldest or anle-cannnicn! his- 
 tory of the text of the Old-Testament writings, 
 ■we have almost no positive information, and 
 only few indirect hints. The books were proba- 
 bly written upon skins, perhaps also on linen : 
 indeed, as paper was used from very early times 
 in Egypt, it is possible that it was used by the 
 Bible-writers ; parchment appears to have been 
 later. By the end of tlie .Judaic monarchy the 
 roll was the usual form (I's. xl. 7; .lei-. xxxvi. 14; 
 Ezek. ii 9; Zech. v. 1). The original character 
 was the old Hebrew, which was almost identical 
 with the old Pliienician and Moabite. Speci- 
 mens of this are pre.served in the inscriptions on 
 cut stones of the eiglith or seventh century B.C., 
 in the coins of tlie Asniona'ans and those belong- 
 ing to the time of the Jewisli-Konian war, and, 
 in somewhat different form, in Samaritan writ- 
 ings. The inaccurate division of words in later 
 texts proves, that, in the earlier, the words were 
 not regularly divided by particular marks or 
 spaces ; yet it is not thereby proven that the 
 words were not divided at all. It is, however, 
 probable, in analogy to the primitive Arabic, that 
 the verses were somehow indicated ; but it is 
 certain, that, in this early day, the manuscripts 
 were without vowel-points and accents. While 
 the language lived, this occasioned no trouble. 
 
 We possess no details concerning the way in 
 which the text was multiplied and preserved; 
 but, inasmuch as the writings did not then have, 
 in the popular estimation, the character they after- 
 wards had, it is likely th.at they were less care- 
 fully handled, and that the s.ame amount of pains 
 was not taken in copying them. This statement 
 rests upon the fact that those parts of the Old 
 Testament which we possess in double forms vary 
 between themselves in ways that indicate a cor- 
 ruption of the text, going back to ante-canonical 
 times; i.e., when copies were neither made nor 
 corrected so laboriously. 
 
 2. The second period in the history of the text 
 extends from tlie Exile lo the rise of I lie Massoreles. 
 The canon was completed slowly, through the 
 exertion of Ezra, Neheniiah, and the Men of the 
 Great Synagogue, although we may properly date 
 the formation of a part of the canon, especially 
 the law, from Ezra, and extend the period of set- 
 tling the text and vocalization down to tlie close 
 of the Talmud, at the end of the fifth century 
 A.D. It was the period of the determmation of 
 the penmanship and text, the pronunciation and 
 division : in short, in a traditional verbal form, 
 the major part of the ISlassorah was collected. 
 
 (a) A change of an external kind was the 
 development of a sacred handwriting, under the 
 influence of the Aramaic characters, the so-called 
 square or Babylonian- Aramaic (" Assyrian ") 
 character. Jewish tradition, which is clearly 
 wrong, attributed the square character to Ezra, 
 described it as the change from the Hebrew to 
 the Aramaic mode of writing, and asserted that 
 the old Hebrew character was left to the Samari- 
 tans. A study of Assyrian, Persian, and Cilician 
 geals and coins, and of the Aramaic manuscripts 
 from the third to the first century B.C., and of 
 the Palmyrene inscriptions from the first to the 
 third century A.D., has enabled us to trace the 
 development of the present Hebrew alpliabet 
 through a thousand years, back to 800 B.C. 
 
 Ezra, therefore, may have influenced the u.se of 
 the Aramaic alpluiiiet ; but the .sipxare character 
 was not formed in his day, nor for centuries 
 afterwards; nor was the Aramaic alphabet then 
 used outside of the narrow circle of doctors of 
 the law. Matt. v. 18 is commonly quoted in 
 proof of the completion of the present Hebrew 
 alphabet in the first century; but the recently- 
 studied Palestinian inscriptions for the century 
 before and after the destruction of Jerusalem 
 give clearer evidence. Tlie Talmud lays down 
 minute rules on this subject, and therefore the 
 writing of the manuscripts scarcely varies a par- 
 ticle through centuries. 
 
 (6) As soon as the Scriptures obtained canoni- 
 cal authority, and were used in divine service, 
 the variations between the manuscripts would be 
 observed, and the necessity of having one stand- 
 ard text would be apparent. The preparation 
 of such a text began with the Law, and that 
 among the Jews in Babylon ; but the other two 
 divisions of the canon (the Prophets and the 
 Hagiographa) were probably not reached in this 
 period, as they were never held in as high 
 esteem. In the oldest critical sources, in the 
 Samaritan Pentateuch and in the Septuagint, we 
 have evidence, from the end of the fifth century 
 before, to the second before Christ, to show that 
 the widest-spread and most approved manuscripts 
 differed verbally a good deal. And these varia- 
 tions are not to be set down to the charge of 
 carelessness or wilfulness on the part of the 
 Hellenistic Jews and Samaritans, as was the old 
 opinion, but are explained by the less weight then 
 put upon exact uniformity of the text, and the 
 existence of the mistakes in current copies. 
 And when the Septuagint and the Samaritan Pen- 
 tateuch agree in good readings, and still oftener 
 in bad ones, against the ^lassoretic text, we are to 
 conclude that these readings were spread by 
 many copies current among the Palestine Jews, 
 and are therefore not to look upon them as offen- 
 sive or thoroughly unreliable. But after the 
 destruction of Jerusalem, when Judaism was 
 held under the authority of the rabbins, it 
 became possible to prepare a uniform standard 
 text, although this idea was not realized until 
 many generations had worked upon it. But the 
 progress toward it can be proved. The Greek 
 versions of Aquila and Theodotion, made in the 
 second century, have fewer variations from the 
 Massoretic text than those which preceded them ; 
 and the Targums to the Law and the Prophets, 
 completed in Babylon in the third and fourth 
 centuries, have still le.ss. (The supposition is 
 groundless that the later Jews corrected their 
 text according to the Targums.) .Still nearer 
 the Massoretic text is Origen's. The Talmud 
 itself bears witness, by its biblical quotations 
 agreeing with the Massoretic text, that the con- 
 sonantal text was practically finished before the 
 Talmudic era closed. 
 
 We are not able to say upon -what principles 
 the work was done ; but the way in which they 
 have preserved the individuality of the several 
 authors is remarkable, and enables us to deny 
 that these critics would, on dogmatic grounds, in- 
 tentionally alter a passage (cf. such verses as Ps. 
 xxii. 18 ; Isa. xix. 18, liii. 9). We know nothing 
 concerning the number or quality of the manu-
 
 BIBLE TEXT — Old Test. 
 
 266 
 
 BIBLE TEXT - Old Test. 
 
 scripts used, and can readily believe that if for any 
 book the manuscripts were few or inferior, and yet 
 they agreed in a faulty reading, tliat that faulty 
 reading would be adopted and thus fixed. Xot- 
 withstandiug, we confidently assert that the men, 
 not always, but in general, have chosen the correct 
 reading ; and so the text as a whole is, although 
 not absolutely correct, the best and the most reli- 
 able. It lay, however, entirely out of the power 
 of such critics, owing to the want of the appara- 
 tus, to correct textual errors and variations in the 
 current manuscripts ; and therefore it is undenia- 
 ble that errors may have remained in their text, and 
 the errors thus left would be perpetuated. The 
 critical apparatus of the time is fragmentarily 
 concealed in the later Massorah, but cannot be 
 separated from the other matter. The Talnmd 
 allows a little insight into the critical efforts of 
 the time. Thus in one place it says that the 
 Sopherim (" the Jlen of the Great Synagogue ") 
 had removed in five places a falsely introduced 
 f' ; in another, that in eighteen places they had 
 preseiTed the correct text. Component parts of 
 the critico-exegetical apparatus of the older time 
 were the three sorts of Keri, well known to the 
 Talmudists, and by them deduced from primitive 
 tradition, — K'ri v'lo K'lkibh, "read, but not writ- 
 ten ; K'thihh v'lo K'ri, " WTitten, but not read ; " and 
 K'ri uck'thibh, "read and written." The three 
 kinds of K'ri have, it is true, for the most part, only 
 exegetical value ; e.g., they give the usual instead 
 of the unusual grammatical forms, show where 
 one must understand or omit a word, or where 
 the reader should use an eupliemistic expression 
 for the coarse one in the text : they are therefore 
 scholia upon the text. But many of these K'ris 
 are really various readings, resting upon compar- 
 ison of manuscripts, as the oldest versions prove, 
 and therefore are veritable fragments of the criti- 
 cal apparatus at the disposal of the old Jewish 
 rabbins. 
 
 (c) The development of the pronunciation, or- 
 thography, and verse and paragraph making, of 
 the text, kept equal pace with its settlement. 
 From its original composition down to the close 
 of the Talmud, it was unvocalized and unpunctu- 
 ated. The old versions (particularly the Greek) 
 and Josei)hus, depart so widely from the ]Masso- 
 retic text, that they settle this point. If only one 
 differed, it were explicable; but they all differ in 
 ways that could not happen if the present spell- 
 ing were in use. Origen printed a text differing 
 in pronunciation from the Massoretic. Jerome 
 knew nothing about vowel-signs, not even the 
 diacritical point over the .<r/iin. The Tahnud, and 
 so, at the present day, the public or holy manu- 
 scripts of the Jews, present an unpointed text. 
 The pronunciation was not variable, liowever, but 
 developing steadily towards the present system. 
 Of course time was required to bring it into 
 vogue ; but before the end of the period it was so 
 firmly established, that .Jerome's pronunciation 
 differed very little from the Ma.ssoretic, and he 
 was so sure of its correctness, that he appeals to 
 it again.st the text of the Versions; an<l ilie Tal- 
 mud gives it tlirougliout correctly. Hefore the 
 Ma.ssoretes, there was tlie pronunciation, not yet 
 written, but handed down by word of nu)utli, 
 although some scholars may have used signs in 
 their books to help their memory. 
 
 Clo.sely connected and mutually dependent were 
 the pronunciation and the dirixinn of words. The 
 latter was finished in this period. The .Samari- 
 tan Pentateuch, in which eacli word is separated 
 from its neighbor by a punctuation-mark; the 
 Septuagint, wliich, indeed, does depart frequently 
 in its division from the JIassoretic text, but only 
 in the case of words which might be written 
 closer together without any loss of legibility; 
 the Targums, which have the same word-divis- 
 ions as the Massoretes ; and, again, the " final 
 letters " of the square character, — these are cumu- 
 lative proof of the coiTectness of the above state- 
 ment. 
 
 The third step — the division into verses — wa& 
 also taken in this period. The study of the text, 
 the custom of reading the Law and the Propheti- 
 cal books in the synagogue, would make some 
 such division imperative. In the Talmud it ap- 
 pears to be already completed. Often the num- 
 ber of verses in particular books or paragraphs is 
 given, and it nearly agrees with the Massoretic. 
 The division into lines in the poetical books was 
 perhaps original, certainly very early ; but, when 
 the ^lassoretes introduced the accents, poetry 
 was written close, like prose. This verse-division 
 and counting was taught in the schools ; but no- 
 rules are given for its writing, nor did any punc- 
 tuation-marks indicate it. 
 
 Earlier than the division into ver.ses is that 
 into sections of larger or smaller length, because 
 these were more necessary for the untlerstanding 
 of the Scriptures, and their reading in divine 
 worship. Perhaps some of them were in the 
 original text. The sections of the Law were at 
 least pre-Talmudic ; for in the jNIishna, and fre- 
 quently in the Gemara, they are mentioned, and 
 in the latter they are traced to Mosaic origin, 
 and exist in synagogue-rolls. They were indi- 
 cated by spacing, — the larger sections, by leaving 
 the remainder of the line at their close unfilled, 
 the next section beginning with a n(>w line, on 
 which account they were called " open " sections : 
 the smaller sections were sepai"ated from each 
 other onlj' by a small space, and were therefore- 
 called "closed." 
 
 For the divisions of the whole canon, and the 
 arrangement of the books, see article C'.\xox. 
 
 Extraordinary pains wi'r<^ taken before the 
 Massoretes to perpetuate in its purity the text 
 thus divided and vocalized. We iind in the Tal- 
 mud regulations for the mode of writing not only 
 the ordinary, but the so-called "extraordinary," 
 characters, which denoted the middle letter of a 
 book, or served some purjiose now unknown, or 
 which were only by accident in the text. 
 
 3. The third period of the textual history of the 
 Old Testament is the Massoretic, usually reckoned 
 as extending from the sixth until (he eleventh 
 century, wIkmi the .Jewish scholars removed from 
 the East to North Africa and Spain. 'I'liis period 
 embraces the age of the Massoretes Jii'oper, and 
 has for the l?ible-text the sauK^ importance as the 
 Talnmdic period had for tlie Law. 'I'he word 
 iiKissora means "tradition," and exactly describes 
 the work done. .Ml the tra<litional marks and 
 divisions of tlie sacn'd text, all the recognized 
 thongli unrecorded helps to its understanding, 
 the iironunciation wliich had lieen handed down, 
 — these were recorded by the Massoretes in a>
 
 BIBLE TEXT — Old Test. 
 
 267 
 
 BIBLE TEXT — Old Test. 
 
 fixed and official form. There were two chief 
 schools working, however, together, — the Raliylo- 
 nian and Palestinian (at Tiberias). We readily 
 understand their origin. They met the growing 
 demand after accui'acy. (See Mas.sora.) 'i'heyde- 
 pended upon the existent materials, and built upon 
 them. But a great part of their product was 
 new. 
 
 (a) They took the " textus receptus " jnst as it 
 stood, but in places made a few changes, and at 
 all events gave it its settled form by minute at- 
 tention to the writing of the consonants. 'J'hey 
 also appended critical notes upon the text, in part 
 derived from the, Talmudic period, but in part 
 new, esisecially the " grannnatical conjectures,' 
 showing that wliere, according to the grannmir and 
 the genius of the language, one should expect an- 
 other reading, nevertheless the text should stand. 
 Finally the great majority of the K'riti date from 
 the Massoretes. 
 
 (6) The Massoretes fixed the reading of the 
 text by the introduction of the vowel-signs, the 
 accents, and the signs which affect the reading of 
 the consonants (daghesh lene and forte, mappik, 
 raphe, and the diacritical point). And the pro- 
 nunciation tliey thus brought about was not an 
 invention, but the purest tradition. A striking 
 piroof is the unanimity of the Babylonian and 
 Palestinian schools working independently. The 
 systems were different (that of the latter was 
 more complicated, although destined to gain and 
 keep the ascendency), yet the result was substan- 
 tially the same. The i'm-mer was fully develojied 
 about the middle of the eighth century ; the lat- 
 ter, in the seventh century. From the eleventh 
 century the Jews have pretended that their pro- 
 nunciation was primitive. 
 
 (e) The divisions of the text into verses and 
 paragraphs made in the former period were re- 
 tained, and only slightly modified. At the begin- 
 ning of this period the end of the verses was 
 marked by the Soph PasCik (J), and, when the 
 accents were introduced, by Silluk besides. The 
 old sections (divisions for public reading) were 
 also retained ; but in addition there were intro- 
 duced some fifty-three or fifty-four large sections 
 of the Pentateuch (Parshiyoth) for sabbath pub- 
 lic reading, and the Haphtaroth, sections from 
 the prophets. 
 
 (rf) But even these efforts could not entirely re- 
 move variations. Hence, before the end of this 
 period, the doctors either attempted to find out by 
 an elaborate comparison the correct punctuation, 
 and fix it, or marked the important variations in 
 " the punctuation, or added a caution to each appar- 
 ently wrong and yet correct punctuation. The 
 mass of notes which the JIassoretes added to the 
 text relate to these matters. The notes in two 
 famous codices, and remarks of rabbins, were fre- 
 quently cited as authoritative. Famous codices 
 were ben Naphlali and heyi Aslier, Vjoth from the 
 first half of the lOth century. The respect for 
 the latter gradually predominated. 
 
 (e) As the Talmudists had already shown their 
 superstitious regard for the text by counting its 
 letters, and deciding which was the middle verse 
 of the Bible, how often a certain word occurred, 
 etc., the Massoretes, of course, wrote down this 
 information, and sacredly preserved it. 
 
 But their inventions of the pronunciation and 
 
 punctuation were gains which quickly were 
 shared by all ; and to-day, outside of the syna- 
 gogue-rolls, all Hebrew is read liy means of them. 
 See Massora. 
 
 4. Since the Mas.soretes closed their labors, 
 the history of the Hebrew text is the recital of 
 the efforts made to hold fast to and perpetuate the 
 Massoretic text. The manuscri|jts may bi? ili- 
 vided into two cl.asses, — the jmblic or holy, and 
 the private or common. Tlie first are synagogue- 
 rolls, and have been prepared so carefully, and 
 watched so closely, that the possibility of varia- 
 tion and error is reduced to a mininnim. But 
 they contain only the Pentateuch, or also the five 
 Megilloth (Canticles, Ruth, Lamentations, Eccle- 
 siastes, Esther) and the Haphtaroth. contain the 
 text of the Massoretes, without their additions, 
 and are, for the most part, of recent origin, 
 although antique in form, being written upon 
 leather or jiarcFiment. The private manuscripts 
 are written upon the same material, but also 
 upon paper, in book-form, with the Massoretic 
 additions, vowel-points, etc., — complete, the so- 
 called Greater Manr^ora, or, abridged, the Less. 
 As a general thing, the consonantal text, the 
 points, the K'ris, and other additions, frequently 
 including translations and rabbinical commentary, 
 are written by different hands. It is often diffi- 
 cult, and indeed impossible, to determine the 
 date and nationality of a manuscript; but none 
 of the manuscripts now known are really very 
 old. The oldest authentic date is A.D. 916 for 
 the Prophet Codex, and .\.D. 1009 for an entire 
 Hebrew Bible, both of which are preserved in 
 the Imperial Liljrary of St. Petersburg. 
 
 The oldest are generally the more accurate. 
 The number of errors which crept in awakened 
 solicitude, and led to well-directed efforts to get 
 a pure text. In this line the labors of ^leir ha 
 Levi of Toledo (d. 1244) upon the Pentateuch 
 text ai'e renowned. But the art of printing 
 opened a way of escape from copyists' errors, and 
 very early it was taken. The first book to ap- 
 pear was a Psalter, in 1477, the first complete 
 Bible at Soncino iu 1488. Luther's Old Testa- 
 ment was translated from the edition of this 
 Bible, which appeared at Brescia in 1494. The 
 first edition of the Bomberg Rabbinical Bible 
 and the Bomberg hand-editions contain substan- 
 tially the same text. The second independent 
 edition derived from manuscripts is that in the 
 Complutensian Polyglot (1514-17). The text is 
 vocalized, but not accented. The t/iird important 
 recension is the second edition of the Bomberg 
 Rabbinical Bible, cura R. Jacob ben Chajim, 
 Venet., 1525-20, corrected according to the 
 Massora, which, indeed, it contains. This con- 
 tains the various readings collected by Aaron 
 ben Asher. It was freijuently republished in 
 the sixteenth century. The edition of Jos. 
 Athias, cum pr.nef. Jo. Leusdenii, 1661, rested 
 upon some very old manuscripts, and, with im- 
 provements, was re-issued in 1705 by Van der 
 Hooght ; and this edition has remained the 
 standard. The most recent attempt at a revised 
 text is that of S. Baer and Fr. Delitzsch, who 
 have issued separately the Books of Genesis, 
 Ezra, Nehemiah, Job, the Psalms, Proverbs, 
 Isaiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, the minor Prophets, 
 Leipzig, 1801-84. A. DlLLM.^-N.
 
 BIBLE TEXT — New Test. 
 
 2f)8 
 
 BIBLE TEXT — New Test. 
 
 II. The New Testament. 1. History of the 
 Written Text. The autographs of the New Tes- 
 tament very early disappeared, owing; to the 
 action of constant use upon the perishable pajiy- 
 rus; for this appears to have been the material 
 (2 John ver. 12). If they wei-e really not in the 
 handwriting of the apostles, but in that of their 
 amanuenses, as we know Paul's Epistles generally 
 were (Kom. xvi. 22; 2 Thess. iii. 17), then it is 
 the easier to account for tlie phenomenon. The 
 papyrus rolls preserved to the present day were 
 never much used: indeed, the most of them have 
 been found in sarcophagi, and so, of course, were 
 never used at all. The ink was lampblack mixed 
 with gum dissolved in water; copperas (sulphate 
 of iron) being sometimes added. The piens were 
 of reed {calamus). The writing was entirely in 
 uncials (capitals), with no separation of the 
 words (except rarely to indicate the beginning of 
 a new paragraph), no breathings, accents, or 
 distinction of initial letters, and few, if any, 
 marks of punctuation. The evangelists may 
 have denominated their conijiositions " Gos- 
 pels," although .lustin regularly speaks of the 
 •'Memoirs by the Apostles;" but all addition to 
 the name is later, and presupposes a collection of 
 the (iospels. In the case of the Epistles the 
 brief address, e.g.. To the Romans, was probably 
 added by tlie original sender, and other marks of 
 genuineness given (cf. 2 Thess. iii. 17). The 
 Muratorian Fragment (second half of the second 
 century) calls our Ads and Apocah/pse by these 
 names, and so proves the early use of these desig- 
 nations. The designation "Catholic (General) 
 Epistle " is first met with at the close of the 
 second century (ApoUonius in ii,useb.. Hist. v. 18, 
 § 5, where the First Epistle of John is probablj' 
 meant). Tlie application and limiting of the term 
 to the whole of our present collection, is of later 
 date ; for even in the third and fourth century it 
 was customary to give this term to ecclesias- 
 tical epistles, like that of Barnabas, or those of 
 Dionysius of Corinth, which were not specially 
 addressed. 
 
 The external history of the New-Testament 
 text for a thousand years prior to the invention 
 of printing can be traced by means of manu- 
 scripts. Before the formal close of the canon 
 (end of fourth century) there were probably few 
 single manuscripts of the entire New Testament. 
 [Of the thousand known m<anuscripts of the 
 New Testament, only about thirty include all the 
 books.] Some of those of the fourth and fifth 
 century now preserved contain not only the Greek 
 Old Testament (X A B C), but also writings 
 which, though not canonical, were read in 
 churches, and studied by catechumens. Thus 
 attached to the Codex Sinaiticus (n) were the 
 Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Iler- 
 mas; to the Codex Alexanilriiuis (A), two " epi.s- 
 tles " ascribed to Clement of Rome [the second 
 spurious, and not an epistle, but a homily], and 
 the so-called J'sullerium Saloinonis. 'I'he four 
 Gospels were most frecjuently copied, the Pau- 
 line Epistles oftener than the Catholic Epistles 
 or the Acts, least often the Apocalypse. The 
 Gospels were usually arranged in our present 
 order, then came tlie I'aulino Epistles, the Acts, 
 and the Catholic l^pistles : the Apocalypse always 
 last. The arrangement of the Epistles differed: 
 
 indeed, there was no model. [On the various 
 arrangements, see particularly Credner's Oe- 
 .tchichte lies N. T. Kanon, heniusg. voii Volkmar 
 (1860), p. 393 ff. and Gregory's Proler/nmnia to 
 Tischendorf's Sth ed. of the (jr. Test. pp. 131 sqq. 
 De lihrorum online.^ 
 
 The use of parchment or vellum prevailed 
 from the fourth to the eleventh century; then 
 came in cotton, and afterwards linen paper (cf. 
 Wattenbach, Dus Schriftwesen im MitteUiller. 2te 
 Autl. pp. 114 sq.). The growing scarcity of 
 parchment led to the re-use of the old skins", the 
 former writing being erased or washed off; and 
 imfortunately it oftener happened that it was a 
 biblical manuscript which was thus turned into 
 a patristic one than the reverse. Such manu- 
 scripts are termed Codices palimpsesti or rescripti. 
 In many cases, by the use of chemicals, the 
 original text has been recovered in modern 
 times. The most famous New-Testament pal- 
 impsest is the Codex Ephrnemi, of the fifth cen- 
 tur}% re-written upon in the twelfth, .^s papy- 
 rus disappeared from use, the book form was 
 generally substituted for the rolls, in manuscripts 
 written on parchment or paper. The books were 
 mostly made up of quaternions, i.e., quires of four 
 sheets, doubled so as to make sixteen pages, 
 less frequently of five, though later quires of six 
 sheets were common. The division of the page 
 into columns was at first retained, two being the 
 usual number (e.g.. Cod. .\lex.); but in many 
 manuscripts (e.g., Cod. Ephraemi) the lines run 
 across the page. Exceptionally, N has four col- 
 umns, B three. From the seventh and eighth 
 centuries the present accents were more or less 
 used, but very arbitrarily and irregularly. The 
 uncials gradually changed their earlier simple 
 round or .square forms, and from the tenth cen- 
 tury yielded to the cursives. The earliest punc- 
 tuation was by means of a blank space and a 
 simple point. Euthalius, a deacon in .\lexan- 
 dria, in the year 458 published an edition of the 
 Epistles of Paul, and soon after of the .-Vets and 
 Catholic Epistles, written stirhometriralli/, i.e., in 
 single lines containing only so m.-my words as 
 could be read, consistently with tlie sense, at a 
 single inspiration. This mode of writing was 
 used long before in copying the poetical books 
 of the Old Testament. It involved, however, a 
 great waste of parchment, so that, in manuscripts 
 of the New Testament, it was superseded after a 
 few centuries by punctuation-marks. 
 
 l_Divisions of the text were early made for vari- 
 ous purjioses. In the third century Ammonius 
 of .\lexandria prepared a H.armony of the (ios- 
 pels, taking the text of Matthew as the basis, 
 and placing by its side in parallel columns the 
 similar passages in the other Gospels. This of 
 course destroyed the continuity of tlieir narra- 
 tive. Ensebius of Ca^sarea, in the early part of 
 the fourth century, av.ailing himself of the work 
 of Ammonius, devised a method of conqiaring 
 the parallel passages not open to this olijectiim. 
 He divided the text of e.ach (iospel into sections, 
 the length of which, varying gre.atly (in John 
 xix. (i there are three, and in twenty-four other 
 instances two, in a sinfjle verse), was determined 
 .solely by their relation of parallelism orsimlKari- 
 ty to passages in one or more of the other Gos- 
 pels, or by their having no Darallel. These sec-
 
 BIBLE TEXT — New Test. 
 
 269 
 
 BIBLE TEXT — New Test. 
 
 tions (often t'lToneously ascribed to Aminoiiius) 
 were tlieii numbered consecutively in the niarjjiu 
 of the Gospel in black ink ; Matthew liuvint,' .'inr), 
 Mark 2m(nal 2:W ), l.uke :j I'J, and .John 232. "They 
 were distriluited by Eusebius into ten tables or 
 canons, prefixed to the (jospels, and containing 
 the sections correspondinij in — 
 
 I. Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, 71. 
 II. Mattliew, Mark, I.iike, 111. 
 
 III. Matthew, Luke, Jolui, 2J. 
 
 IV. JIattliew, Mark, John, 20. 
 V. Matfliew, Luke, ,S2. 
 
 VI. Matthew, Mark, 47. 
 VII. Matthew, John, 7. 
 VIII. Luke, Mark, 14. 
 IX. Luke, Johu, 21. 
 X. Scctioiia ppctiliiir to Matthew 62, Mark 21, 
 Luke 71, John 117. 
 
 Under the number of eacli section in the mar- 
 gin of tlie several Gospels wa.s written in red 
 ink the number of the canon or table to which it 
 belonged. On turning to its place in this table, 
 the iniraber of the corresponding section or sec- 
 tions in the other Gospels stands with it, so that 
 the parallel piassages may readily be found. For 
 example, the first verse of Matt. iv. forms the 
 fifteenth Eusebian section ; the niimber two 
 under this takes us to the second canon or table, 
 where it appears that section fifteen in Matthew 
 corresponds to six in Mark, and fifteen in Luke; 
 i.e.. to Mark i. 12, ami Luke iv. 1. In some 
 manuscripts the parallel sections are indicated at 
 the bottom of the page. They thus correspond 
 to our marginal references. See Eusebius, Episl. 
 ad Carpianum ; Burgon, T/ie Last Tivelve Verses 
 of S. Mark (1871), p. 295 ff. 
 
 Wholly different in character and purpose from 
 the Eusebian sections, and probably older, is a 
 division of the (iospels into chapters, called nr?.oi, 
 also itefuXaia majora (in Latin manuscripts, breves'), 
 found in most m.anuscripts from the Alexandrine 
 and the Ephraera (A, C) of the fifth century on- 
 wards. Of these chapters Matthew contains 
 68, j\Iark 48, Luke 83, John 18. The numbers 
 by which they are designated in the margin of 
 manuscripts refer to tire titles describing their 
 contents at the top or bottom of the page, or in 
 a list prefixed to each Gospel, or often in both 
 places. A certain portion at the beginning of 
 each Gospel is not numbered ; for example, the 
 first chapter in Matthew corresjionds with our 
 chap. ii. 1-15, and is entitled Ucpl tuv na-juv ("Con- 
 cerning the Magi "). There is a similar division 
 in the Acts and Epistles, to which Euthalius 
 (cir. A.D. 458), though not its inventor, gave 
 wide currency by his stichometric edition of these 
 books. The Apocalypse was divided by Andreas, 
 Bishop of Cffisarea in Cappadocia (cir.A.D. 50t)), 
 into twenty-four Uyoi, or cluipters, and each of 
 these chapters into three acipakaia, or sections, the 
 former number answering to the twenty-four 
 elders spoken of in the book (Rev. iv. 4) ; the 
 latter suggested by the threefold division of hu- 
 man nature into body, soul, and spirit (conip. 1 
 Thess. v. 23), as the author himself tells lis. 
 
 In the Vatican manuscript (B), there is a di- 
 vision of the Gospels into much shorter chapters 
 (Matt. 170, Mark 62, Luke 152, John 80), very 
 judiciously made. This has been found in only 
 one other manuscript, the Codex Zacynthius (H). 
 
 In tlie Acts and Ejiistles the V;itiean manuscript 
 has a twofold division into chapters. — one very 
 ancient, tlie other later, but both different from 
 the Euthalian. In the older division, tin; Pau- 
 line Epistles arc treated as one book. (For fur- 
 ther details see Tischendorf, N.T. Vat. 1867, p. 
 XXX.; Scrivener, Inlrod., 2d ed., p. .02.) Other 
 ancient divisions of the New Testament into 
 chajiters were more or less widely current, espe- 
 cially in Ijatin an<l Syriac manuscripts. 
 
 The subscriptions at the end of the Pauline 
 Epistles in many manuscripts are generally as- 
 cribed to Euthalius. At least six of these are 
 untrustworthy (1 Cor., Gal., 1 and 2 Thess., 1 
 Tim., Tit.). 
 
 The division of the Bible into our present chap- 
 ters has been generally attributed to Cardinal 
 Hugo de Sancto Caro (Ungues de St. Clier), a 
 Dominican monk (d. A.l). 1203) who used it 
 for his great concordance of the Latin Vulgate. 
 But there appear to be much better grounds for 
 ascribing it to Stejihen Langton, Archbishop of 
 Canterbury (d. 1228). (See Dr. C. R. Gregory's 
 Prolegomena to the eighth critical edition of Tisch- 
 endorf's N.T. Gr.) It is found only in very 
 late Greek manuscripts. The division of the 
 New Testament into our present verses 'was made 
 by Robert Stephens (Estienne, Stephanus) in his 
 N.1\ Gr. el Lot., printed at Geneva, in 1551. An 
 earlier division of the New Testament into verses 
 about three times as long, by Sanctes Pagninus, 
 in Ills Latin translation of the Bible (L3'ons, 
 li52S), did not find favor. The whole Bible was 
 first divided into our present verses in Robert 
 Stephens's edition of the Latin Vulgate in 1555 
 (not 1548, or 1545, or 1558, as stated by many 
 writers). The first English New Testament so 
 divided was Whittingham's translation, Geneva, 
 1557 ; the first English Bible, tlie Genevan ver- 
 sion of 1500. 
 
 Another ancient division of the New-Testa- 
 ment text remains to lie noticed, — the lessons, or 
 lections {iivayvCiGEL^^ iivayvijafiara, TrefUKOTrai'), from the 
 Gospels on the one hand, and the Acts and Epis- 
 tles on the other, read in the public services of 
 the church. The history of these is obscure, and 
 they varied much at different periods and in dif- 
 ferent regions. The lessons for the Sundays and 
 chief festivals of the year seem to have been the 
 earliest ; next were added lessons for the Sat- 
 urdays, and finally for every day in the week, 
 w'ith special commemoration of saints and mar- 
 tyrs. Euthalius marked in the Acts 16 of these 
 uvayvua/iaTa : in the Catholic Ejiistles, 10 ; in the 
 Pauline Epistles, 31 ; in all, 57. Pie was not, 
 probably, as m.any have supposed, their inventor. 
 The system of lessons which idlimateli/ prevailed 
 in the Greek Church appears in our Erangelista- 
 ries and Lectinnaries (more properly Praxapostoli), 
 containing the lessons from the Gospels and the 
 Acts and Epistles respectively. The ordinary 
 manuscripts of the Greek Testament were often 
 adapted for church service by marking the begin- 
 ning and end of each lesson, with a note in the 
 margin of the time or occasion for reading it, 
 and l-)y prefixing to them a Sijnaxarion. or table of 
 the lessons in their order; sometimes also a 
 Menolor/ion, or calendar of the immovable festi- 
 vals and the saints' days, with their appropriate 
 lessons. — E. A.]
 
 BIBLE TEXT — New Test. 
 
 270 
 
 BIBLE TEXT— New Test. 
 
 Turning to tlie inlernal liistory of the New- 
 Testament test, it is evident that its original 
 perfect purit}' was early lost. The quotations of 
 the latter half of the second century contain 
 readings which agree with later texts, but are 
 not apostolic. Irenreus alludes (Adr. hmr. V. 30, 
 § 1) to the difference between the copies; and 
 Origen, early in the third century, expressly de- 
 clares that niattei's were growing worse {in Malt. 
 torn. x\". 14), as is proved by the quotations 
 of the Fathers of the third and fourth centu- 
 ries. From this time onward we have the manu- 
 script text of each century, the writings of the 
 Fathers, the various Oriental and Occidental 
 versions, all testifying to varieties of reading for 
 almost ever}' verse, which undoubtedly occasioned 
 many more or less important departures from the 
 sense of the original text. How came this? The 
 early Church did not know any thing of that 
 anxious clinging to the letter which character- 
 izes the scientific rigor and the piety of modern 
 times, and therefore was not so bent upon pre- 
 serving the exact w _;!'ds. Moreover, the first 
 copies were made rather for private than for pub- 
 lic use : copvists were careless, often wrote from 
 dictation, and were liable to misunderstand 
 Attempted improvements of the text in grammar 
 and style ; proposed corrections in history and 
 geography ; efforts to harmonize the quotations in 
 the Xew Testament with the Greek of the Sep- 
 tuagint. but especially to harmonize the Gospels ; 
 the writing-out of abbreviations; incorporation 
 of margiiuil notes in the text; the embellishing 
 of the Gospel narratives with stories drawn from 
 non-apostolic though trustworthy sources, e.g., 
 John vii. 53 to viii. 11, and Mark xvi. 9 to end, — it 
 is to these causes that we must attribute the very 
 numerous '■ re.adings," or textual variations. It 
 is true that the copyists were sometimes learned 
 men ; but perhaps their zeal in making correc- 
 tions may have obscured the true text as much as 
 the ignorance of the unlearned. The copies, 
 indeed, came under the eye of an official reviser; 
 but he maj' have sometimes exceeded his func- 
 tions, and done more harm than good by his 
 changes. 
 
 Attempts were made by learned Fathers to get 
 the pure text; and three men of the third cen- 
 tury — Origen, the Egyptian Bishop Ilesychius, 
 and the Presbyter Lucian of Antioch — deserve 
 mention for their devotion to this object. The 
 two last undertook a sort of recension of the New 
 Testament (see Jerome, lipisl. ml Damaxum) ; but 
 we do not know exactly what they did, and their 
 influence was small. In regard to Origen, while 
 he did not make a formal recension of the New- 
 Testament text, his critical work was of the 
 highest importance. Notwithstanding these di- 
 versities, there were, as early as the fonrtli and 
 fifth centuries, affinities between manuscripts 
 
 Erepared in the same district, which seem to 
 etray certain tendencies, as is proved by the 
 Fathers, the versions, and the (ireek manuscripts 
 themselves. This somewhat justifies us in speak- 
 ing of an Oriental and Occidental, or, monr cor- 
 rectly, ail Alexandrian or Egyptian, and a Latin, 
 as also of an Asiatic or Greek, and a Byzantine 
 or C'on.stantiiiopolitan text. According to this 
 theory, the Alcxaiiilriiin was used l)y those Jewish 
 Christians of the East who already used the bep- 
 
 tuagint ; particularlj- was this text preserved and 
 spread by the learned .-Alexandrian school. The 
 Liilin text characterizes not only the manuscripts 
 prepared by Latins, but the Greek manuscripts 
 they used. The A.sirilir manuscripts were used 
 chiefly by native Greeks in Greece, or in the Asi- 
 atic provinces having intercourse with Greece. 
 The B)/::anline manuscripts belonged to the 
 Church of that empire. The latter alone had a 
 certain official uniformity, and were, in the latter 
 centuries, almost the only manuscripts circulated 
 in the empire. This class of manuscripts is 
 also the only one perfectly represented in exist- 
 ing documents, and is the result of the gradual 
 mixture of older recensions under the predomi- 
 nance of the .•Asiatic or Greek. Each of these 
 recensions is more or less altered and corrupted ; 
 so that it is often more difficult to assign a par- 
 ticular reading to its proper class than to find 
 out the original. Finally, the differences and 
 relationships are by far most strongly marked 
 in the Gospels, least so in the Apocalypse, and 
 again are more distinct in the Pauline Epistles 
 and the Acts than in the Catholic Epistles. (See 
 TiscHE.NDOUK, Xor. TeM. Greece. Editiu Aca- 
 deiiiica VIII., Lips., 1875, p. xxiv. seqq.) 
 
 NOTICE OF THE UNCIAL MSS. OF THE NEW TESTA.MENT. 
 
 X." Codex Sinaiticu-^, /ound by TischeiidoTf (1844 and 
 ISfi'J) in tht Conve-7it of St. Catharine at the foot of Mount 
 Sinai, vow preserved 271 iSt. Peteraburg. Foi'ty-three haven of 
 the Old-Testament portion of the 7najlUficripi, knowtt as the 
 Codex Friderieo-Aiigvatanus, are in the Library of the Leipzig 
 I'nicersity. Beside>i itcenty.sl.r books of the Old Testament^ 
 of irhich fire form the Codex Frideriro-Aiigustanus, the man. 
 nsnipt contains the utiTiRK New Testament without the 
 LEAST BREAK, the Epistle of Mamabas, and the first third of 
 the .Shepherd of Llennas. The Alexandrian copyist has fre- 
 quently shown his imperfect knowledge of Greek, and his 
 haste. The license in handling the text, common in the first 
 thrt-e centuries^ is greater than in Ji A C, though much leas 
 than in D. Nereriheless, the superiority of the Codex Sinai- 
 ticus to all other ^Vw- Testament ntanuscripts, zcith the single 
 excejition of B, is fully jiroved by the numerous places in 
 lohich its reading has the nupport of the oldest quotations, 
 or the most ancient versions. The text is in four lolitmns, 
 which is a nuif/ue arrangement. The Pauline Epistles, among 
 which is Hebrews after 2 Thessalonians, come directly after 
 the Gospels; the Acts and the Catholic Epistles, and the 
 Apocalypse, follow. The date of the Codex is the .fourth cen- 
 tury. Jt has a special value from the fact, that, owing to the 
 corrections it received in the sixth and seventh centuries and 
 later, its pages represent, a^fter a fashion, the history <f the 
 changes in the Xeic Testament text. T/ie Codex was published 
 {2SG2) in facsi.mile type from the Leipzig press, in four 
 folio volumes, at the expense (^^ the Emperor o.r Bussia, Alex. 
 under II. The edition was limited to three hundred copies. 
 The JCew-Testament part icas published separately in a criti- 
 cal edition by TiBchiiulorf, N. T. Sinaiticum cum epistula 
 BaRNAB.^ ET PRAdMENTIS Pastoris, etc.. Lips., JS03, 4to, 
 and in a more popular fortn in li<tio, N. T. <.U\. E-\ tSlNAlT. 
 ICO CODICE . . . Vaticana itemque Klzeviriana i.ectione 
 NoTATA. Sm. Sep. also Scrivem-r, A Fui.i. Collation op 
 THE Codex Sinaiticus with the Received Text of the 
 N. T., 2d cd., Cambriilge and London, 1S6T. 
 
 A: Codex Alexandrinus, now in the British Museum, pre- 
 sented in Jli2S by Cyril Luray, Patriarch of Constantinople 
 ifortnerly of .Ue.ran'dria) to Charles I. After the Old Testa- 
 ment, the New Testiiment btgins with Matt, xxv. 6, and con- 
 tains the whole, excepting John vi. SO-mii. j72, and 2 Cor. I'u. 
 i:s-xii. 0. It has been priidrd in facsimile type by C. G. 
 Wokk' in 17S6, and in usual type by H. II. Cowper in 1S60, 
 tvho corrects ti few mistakes of Woitle, and commits a few 
 himself. The date, arrordinq to Ti.'irhendorf, is about the 
 middle of the fifth century. [A photograph of the Codex is 
 i7i course of piUilication by the Trusties of the Ilritish .Museum, 
 of which the NeiD Testament and Cle/nentine Epistles ap- 
 peared i7l 2S79at London.] 
 
 B: Codex Vaticanus, Xo. 1200, in the Vatican Library. 
 The i7ianuscript contains, besides the Old Testament, the entire 
 jiVfO Testa7nent, with the exception of Ileb. ix.. X4 to end, 1st 
 and 2d Ti7nothy, Titus, I'hile/non, and the Apocalypse. 
 Sepulveda ll-l!>l-I/>72) in l,'>:i:i, writing to Eras/nus, men- 
 lions It ; btit it is likely that E7asmus had heard eifit in 1S21 
 (fiitrivflKT, Introi). p. !>:>). The first real collation of Vie 
 /iianuacripl, made in lOB'J by limioloccl, then librarian of
 
 BIBLiE TEXT — New Test. 
 
 271 
 
 BIBLE TEXT - New Test. 
 
 4he Vaticautfxi/itaonhj in vinnu script in thfi Pnrin Library. 
 The collation made ii>\' ll\c\\i\n\ Bontlcy^^«H, Itnlinn named 
 Mico wua published by Ford in hia Append, ('on. Ales, in 
 into. Birch'rt «/)/jff(/v(/ in llSS-lSOi. Ung {1810) fir xi 
 <ippreciatedit.9 of/e <uid rnliif. After many tittemptu on the 
 part of P?vttfitani scholars, hic/ndirig 7'isrhfndor/'.s/ourteen 
 (lays* use at three hourn ilailij, and the inliahle inaccuracy o/ 
 the lonff-awaited edition l<i/ (Utrdntiil }fiii (IS/iT), Vorct-llone 
 and Coi/.n issued an ulitiim <>/ the entire ( ddex, of lohich the 
 ^VtW Testament is vol. y.{hs'fhs). The Codex is nHoldas^. 
 
 B {2) : Codex Vaiicanufi '2066 {eighth eeiitiirii),/<>nnerly 
 B'lsilian Coder 106, i7t the library of the Basilian monks in 
 Home. First imperfectly edited by Ti^cheiMivrf (MoN. sack. 
 INED., 1 846) , und'carefullt/ in i860, after a fresh collation 
 made in 1866 (Appendix X. T. Vaticani, Lips., I860, 4to, 
 pp. 1-20) . Tregelles designates thetnannacrijit by the letter Q. 
 
 G: Codex Ephraenii {fifth century) now No. in the 
 great library at Paris; in thf sixths and again in the ninth 
 century y altered in many places. In the twelfth century the 
 original writing ivan aashedojf to make room for the Greek 
 text of several ascetic trorks of Kphraem Syrus {d. 373). 
 Pierre Allix,at about the close of the .serenleenth century, 
 noticed the traces of the old irriting under the later charac- 
 ters. Wetstein in 1710 collated the Kew-Tentauient part so 
 far as itivas legible. In 1834 and 183ii the lihrariun, Carl 
 Hase, revivefl the- original writing by the appUratinn of the 
 Giobertine tincture {prussiate of potash) Tl^^^lu■^.iot f, after 
 great labor, brought out in 1843 an edition of the New-Tes- 
 tament part of the manuscript, and in 1846, of the Old-Tes- 
 tament fragments, representing the manuscript line for line, 
 but 171 ordinartf type {capitals). The Codex contains portions 
 of the Ol't Testament 071 sixty-four leaves, a7id five-eighths of 
 the New Testament. 
 
 D {!) : Codex. Bezcv {about A. D. 660), now in th'j Univer- 
 sity Library at Cambridge, a present in 1581 frotn Theodore 
 Beza. It contains, tcithfew lacunae, the Greek a7id Latin text 
 of the Gospels and the Acts sticho7uetrically written, perhaps 
 in Gaul. Indited bt/ Kipling in 1 793, but in afar better ma7i- 
 ner by Scrivener (Bez.b <Jod. Cantab.) in 1864. No known 
 manuscript has .so many and so remarkable interpolations. 
 It has a special affinity with the Old Latin version and the 
 Curetonian Syriac. 
 
 D {2) : Codex Claromontanus of the Pauline Epistles, i7i- 
 cluding Hebrews {second half of sixth century). Beza found 
 it i7> the Monastery of Clermont, he7icethejianie ; noxo in the 
 Paris Library. Contains the Greek and Latiii text xcritten 
 stichomet?-ically. It leas retouched at diffe7'€7it times, and 
 exhibits especially two jieriods of the text. The Latin text rep- 
 resents the oldest version, — that of the seco7id century. It 
 was collated by Tregelles in 1849 and 1860, and edited by 
 Tiechendorf in 1862. 
 
 E {!): Codex Basileensis A. N. III. IS {A.D. 750), in 
 Basel, a nearly complete manuscript of the Eo7ir Gospels, 
 collated by Tregelles {1846\ also by Tischendotf and MiUler 
 {1843] 
 
 E {2) : Codex Laudianus {end of sixth century), in the 
 ■Bodleian Library at Oxford, a present fro7H Archbishop Laud 
 in 1636; was brought to England in 668; Bede {d. 735) 
 *used it 7chen inriti7ig his Expositio Retractata of the Acts. 
 It contains an almost complete Greek-Latin text of the Acts. 
 Edited in 1716 by Heurne, and in 1870 by Tischendorf. 
 
 E {3) : Codex Sangermaneyisis, a Graco- Latiii ma7iuscript 
 of the Pauline Epistles {e7id of ninth century), now in St. 
 Petersburg , the Greek, text bei7ig a cbansy copy of the Codex 
 Claromont. Of no critical value except for the Latin text. 
 
 F {1) : Codex Boreeli of the Four Evangelists, but defec- 
 tive {ninth century) , noto in Utrecht University. See, for full 
 description, Jod. Heringa: Dispdtatio de Codice Bore- 
 BLIANO, ed. II. E. Vinke, 1843. 
 
 F {2) : Codex Augiensis of the Pauline Epistles {close of 
 ninth ce7itury) , Greek and Latin text, and Hebrews 07ily in 
 Latin ; named from the Monastery of lieichenau (AugiaI^ives 
 «r Major) in Switzerland ; bought by Richard Bentleyat Hei- 
 delberg, and be</ueathed by his nephew {1787) to Ti'i7iity Col- 
 lege, Camb7Hdge. The Latin is not a ircuislation of the Greek. 
 Collated by Tischendotf 1842, Tregelles 1845, and carefully 
 edited by Scrivener 1S69. [See G {3).'\ 
 
 F^ : Designates those passages of the Gospels, Acts, and 
 Pauline Epistles, which were written in the margin of the 
 Coislin Octateuch in Paris, dati7ig from the beginning of the 
 seventh century. Printed by Tiscbendorf in J846 (Mon. 
 
 SACR. INED.). 
 
 G (1) : Codex Ilarleianus of the Gospels {tenth century), 
 withma7iy breaks; brought by A7idrew Erasmus Seidel from 
 the East in the aevetiteenth century. Now in the British Mu- 
 .,seum. Collated by ^Vetstein, Tischendotf, a7id Tregelles. 
 
 G (2) : A St. Pe.tersb7irg fragtnent of the Acts {ii. 46-iii. 
 8) {seve7ith cejdury), brought by Tischendorf f7-om the East 
 i7i 1860* It has a few rare and valuable readings. \_See L 
 (2).l 
 
 G^ : Codex Vaticanus 9671, fort^ierly Cryptoferraiensis 
 {of Grotta Ferrata), of the ninth cetitury, or earlier, contain- 
 ing fragments of Arts rm., xvH., xviii. Edited by Cozza, 
 Sacrorum BiBLiOKuai VETUST. Fragmenta, Pars 3,Ro7na:, 
 1877. 
 
 G {3) : Codex Boemerianus of the Pauline Epistles {niiith 
 century) , now in Royal Library of Dresden, with Greek and 
 Latin text : Hebrewi and some forty verses besides are wa7U' 
 
 ing. The Greek text is taken from the name original from 
 7chich the f.'OD. AuoiENSis wan rnpied. The Latin t>.rt differ^ 
 widely from the Vulgate. Ldited by Matthael in 1791, col- 
 lated by Iregelles and Tischendorf. [See u?ider A.] 
 
 If{l): Codex Seidelii of the Gospels {tenth century), be- 
 ginning Matt. XV. 30, and defective in all the Gospels. Now 
 in the Public Library of Hamburg. Collated by Tregelles, 
 1850, and examined in 1854 by Tischendorf. 
 
 //(2); Codex Mutine7}sin of Acts {iiinth century), lucks 
 about seven chapters. Now at Modena. Carefully collated 
 by TiHchendorf{1843) a7id Tregelles {1845). 
 
 [/I {3). Coder. Coistinianus {sixth centurj/), fragments of 
 the Pauline Ejnstle.s iti twenty-nine leaves, all found in the 
 BINDING of manuscripts at or from the Monastery of St. 
 Athanasius at Mount Athos. Twelve of thete leaves are in the 
 National Libi'ary at Paris ; aiid two formerly there are Jiow at 
 St. Petersburg. These fourteen leaves, containing fragments 
 of 1 Corinthians, O'alatians, 1 Timothy, Titus, and Hebrews, 
 I'vere published by Mnnlfaucori in 1716, in his Bibuotheca 
 Coisliniana. Two more leaves at Sloscow {Bibl. S. Syn. 
 61), containing parts of lie b. x., were first described and col- 
 lated by Maltluvi {1784), and have been edited in facsimile 
 by Kabas (Spiitasi. PAL^EOfiR., Moscow, 1S63). They are 
 desig/iaied as N^ in Tische/uiorf's GheekTehtame^t, scverith 
 edition (1850). Four -more leaves, belonging io Archbishop 
 Porfiri and the Archimandrite Antony, are cited Inj Tiech- 
 L'lidorf in his last critical edition 07i 'S Cor. iv. 4-6 ; Col. Hi. 
 6-8; 1 Thess. ii. 0-13, iv. 6-10. Still more rtcently 7iine 
 neio leaves have been discovered at Mou7it Athos. Their text, 
 contai7iing jntrts of 2 Corinthians and Oalatians, has been 
 published £•(/ Duchesne 171 the Archives des missions scient. 
 ET LIT., 51- «er., torn. Hi. p. 420 ff, Paris, 1876. 
 
 I: Codex Tischendorfianus II., at St. Petersburg, desig- 
 nates a manuscrij)t in which, under later Geoi-yiamoriting, 
 there are twe7ity.eight palimpsest leaves of seven different codi- 
 ces, containi7i{f f7rtgments of the Neiv Testament, as fol- 
 lows,— I\of John xi.,xii.,xv.,xiri., xix. I^,of 1 Cor.xv.,xvi.; 
 Tit. i.; Actsxxviii. I^,of Matt. xiv.,xxiv., xxv., xxvi.; Mark 
 ix., xiv. I*, of Matt, xmi.-xix. J^, of Acts ii., xxvi. /*, of 
 Acts xiii. P, of Luke vH., xxiv. P-^'^ are of the fifth cen- 
 tury ; !*•'', of the sixth; I ^■*^, of the seventh. The text of 
 /1.2.3.4.7 /,rt.5 a close affjiity with ^ A B C B L. Published 
 by Tischendorf zn his RTon. sacr. ined. N. C, vol. i. {1856). 
 
 /b {formerly N^, begiJtning of fifth ce7itury) , four palirnp- 
 sest leaves in the British Musexnn, containing, u7idertieo lay- 
 e7-s of Syriac writing , frag7ne7tts of sei'enteert verses of John 
 xiii. andxvi. Deciphered by Tischendenf and Tregelles, a7id 
 published by the former in his MoN. sacr. ined. N. C, vol. ii. 
 
 {1867). — i:. A.] 
 
 K{1): Codex Cyprius of the Gospels, co7nplete {middle or 
 end of ninth century) ; now in Paris. Collated by Tischen- 
 dorf {1842) and Tregelles {1849and 1850). 
 
 K {2): Codex Mosquensis of the Catholic and Paxdine 
 Epistles (7ii7ith centw~y); brought from Mount Athos to Mos- 
 cow. Lacks apart of Roma7is and 1 Corinthians. Collated 
 by Maithiti. 
 
 L (7); Codex Regius of the Gospels {eighth century), noxo 
 in Paris, almost complete. Closely related to t< and B rtnrf the 
 text of Origen, Published by Tibchendorf in his MoN. sacr. 
 ined.. 1846. 
 
 L {2): Codex Angeliais or Passionet of the Acts and Cath- 
 olic Epistles {formerly G), and of the Pauline {for^nerly I) 
 {ninth century), now in the Angelica Library of the Augustin- 
 ianmonks at Rome. Contains Acts vii. 10 to I/eb. xiii. 10. 
 Collatedby Tischendorf {1843) and Tregelles {1845). 
 
 M {!): Codex Campianus of the Gospels, complete {end of 
 ninth ce7itury), now in Paris. Copied and used by Tischen- 
 dorf {1849). 
 
 M{2): Codex Ruber of the Pauline Epistles {ninth cen- 
 tury). Two folio leaves at Hamburg {Htb. i 1-iv. 3,xii. 20- 
 xiii. 26),and tico at Londo7i {1 Cor.xv. 52-2 Cor. i. 16; 2 
 Cor. X. l3-xii. 6). Wintten in red. Edited by Tischendorf m 
 Anecdot. sacr. et prof., 1866, and, with a few correctionst 
 1861. 
 
 N {!): Codex Purpurexis {endofthe sixth century), a beau- 
 tiful Gospel ma7iuscript written 07i the ihu viest v ellu/ ii, dyed 
 p7trple, with silver letters {the abbreviations <=> C, K C, etc, in 
 gold; four leaves in Lo7idon,tu^o iti Vie7i}ia, si-r in the Vati- 
 can, and fhirti/-three in the Mo7iastery of St. John in Patmos. 
 Tischendorf used in his eighth edition of the Neio Testament 
 the readings of the thirty-three Patmos leaves transcribed by 
 John Sakkelion, containing Murk vi. 63-xv. 23, xcith some 
 gaps. These have si7ice beenpjublished by Duchesne J7i Me Ar- 
 chives DES MISSIONS sciENTiFiQUES,5';ser.,iom.iii. {1876). 
 
 N{2): Twoleaves {7iinth ceitturt/) ,contai7iing Gal. v. 12-vi* 
 4 a7id Ileb. v. 8-ui. 10. Brought by Tischendorf to St. Peters- 
 burg. 
 
 N^: The i7ianuscript now marked by Tischendorf I^. 
 
 0{1): Eight leaves {ninth century), co7itaining a part of 
 John i. and xx., with scholia. Now in Moscow {S. Syn. 120). 
 Edited by M.uthfei ( 1 785), and, after him, by Tregelles, CoD. 
 Zactntuuis {1801), Appendix. 
 
 O (2): Two leaves {sixth century), containing 2 Cor. i. 20- 
 ii. 12. Brought fro7n the East to St. Petersburg by Tischen- 
 dorf in 18.^9. 
 
 On oh oc Qd Qq Qt : Psalters or other 77ianuscripts, contain- 
 ing some or all of the hy7nns of Luke's Gospel (i. 46 ff., 68 
 ff.j ii. 29 ff.). C:i is at Wolfenbiittel {ed. Tischendorf, Anecd,
 
 BIBLE TEXT — New Test. 
 
 272 
 
 BIBLE TEXT — New Test. 
 
 SACR. ET PROF., ISoo). 0^ at Orfort!. 0<: ill Verona, the 
 Greek tert in Roman letters {ed. Biancliini, 7 7J0) . OJ at Zu- 
 rich, on purple vellum in silver letters (tcl. Tiscbeiidorf, MoN. 
 SACK. INED. N. C. to;, ill.). C»e and C" at St. Call and St. 
 Petersburg (collated bv Tischendorf). (K is of the sixth, cen- 
 tury; Vi, or' the seventh; O^bei , of the ninth. 
 
 yl); of the Pauline Epistles, a leaf (sJx(A century), which 
 imperfectly presents Eph. iv. 1-lS. Collated by Tischendorf 
 at Moscow in ISGS. 
 
 P{1): Codex Guelpherbytanus I. (sixth century), a pal- 
 impsest at Wolfenbiitlel, containing portions of all the Gos- 
 pels (.678 verses). Edited by Tischendovf (MoN. SACK. iNED. 
 ^.C.,vol.vi.,lSG9). 
 
 P (2): Codex Porfrianus of the Acts, Epistles, and Apoca- 
 lypse (ninth century) , a palimpsest with few hiatus; the text is 
 particularly good in the Apocalypse. Belongs to Archbishop 
 Porfiri of St. Petersburg. Edited bv Tischendorf, vol. vi. 
 
 Q (1); Codex Guelpherbytanus II. (fifth century), a frag- 
 mentary palimpsest of Luke and John ; now at Wolfenbiittel. 
 Edited by Tischendorf, vol. Hi., 1S60. 
 
 Q (2); Porfrianus (fifth century) papyrus fragments of 
 1 Cor. i. n-20; vi. 13-3S ; vii. 3, 4, 10-14. Tisch. collator. 
 R: Codex NUriensis (sixth century), a fragmmtary ]>al- 
 impsest of Luke from a monastery in the Niti-ian Desert; note 
 in the British Museum. Collated by Tregelles (1854), and ed. 
 by Tischendorf (Mon. sack. ined. N. C, vol. ii., 1SS7). 
 
 [B (2) : A palimpsest leaf at Grotta Ferrata (seventh cent. !) , 
 containing 2 Cor. xi. 1-9; publ. by Cozza, Rome, 1867.] 
 
 S: Codex Vaticanus 354 (A.D. 949), a complete manu- 
 script of the Gospels. Collated by Tischendorf for the eighth 
 edition of his Greek Testament. 
 
 T: Codex Borgianus I. (fifth century), now m the College 
 of the Propaganda in Rome, fragments of Luke xxii., xxiii., 
 and John vi.-viii., the Greek text accompanied by a Sahidic 
 version. The fragments of John were published by Giorgi in 
 1789. Those of Luke were first collated by B. H. Alford. 
 
 ywoi; fragments of Luke xii. 15-xiii. 32, John viii. 23- 
 32, formerly owned by Woide, and published by Fori in his 
 Append. Cod. .\lex. (1799). Simitar to the preceding, but 
 shown bt/ Lightfoot to belong to a different manuscript. 
 
 Tb: Fragments of the first four chapters of John (sixth 
 century), nolo at St. Petersburg. 
 
 Tc; A fragment of Matthew (xiv. 19-xv. 8) , resembling the 
 above. 
 
 yj; Fragments of a Greek-Sahidic Evangelistary (seventh 
 century) found by Tischendorf (1800) among the Borgian 
 manuscripts at Rome. Contains Matt. xvi. 13-20; Mark i. 
 3-8, xii. 35-37; John xix. 23-27, xx. 30-31. 
 
 [T'c; A bitofan Evangelistary, of about the sixth century, 
 from Upper Egypt, now in the Library of the VniversUy of 
 Cambridqe, England. It contains Malt. Hi. 13-10. Read- 
 ings given in the I'ostscript to Tregelles's Greek Testament, 
 ». 7070. — E. A.] . 
 
 U: Codex Naniamis (end of ninth or beginning of tenth 
 century), now in Library of St. .Mark, Venice. Contains the 
 Gospels complete. Collatedby Tischendorf and Tregelles. 
 
 V: Codex Mosquensis of the Gospels to John vii. S9 (ninth 
 century), almost complete. Written at Mount Athos. Mat- 
 thiti collated and describi d it in 17 1 9. 
 
 ira and W^ : The former designates two leaves, with frag- 
 ments of Luke ix., X., in the National Library at Paris, prob- 
 ably of the eighth century. Edited by Tischendorf in his 
 MoNHM. SACK. INED., 1848. The latter is a palimpsest of 
 fourteen leaves found by Tischendorf at Naples, and fully 
 deciphered by him in ISOO. 
 
 W": Three li lives (ninth cenluri/), containing Mark ii. 6- 
 le, Luke i. 20-32, 04-79; -now at St. Gall. Edited by Tisch- 
 endorf, Mon. sack, ined., N. C, vol. Hi. (1800). 
 
 Il'il; Fragments of Mark vii., viii., ix. (ninth century), 
 found in the binding of a volume in the Library »f Trinity 
 College, Cambridge. The readings are remarkable. 
 
 II''-'/ A fragment containing John iv. 9-14, discovered in 
 180S in the Library of Christ Church College at Oxford. 
 Closely resembles O, and is perhaps a part of the same manu- 
 script. Alford callsit Frag. Ath.b; and his Frag. Alh.a,con- 
 tainingJohn ii. 17-iii. 8, found by J'. E. Puseyin the cover 
 of a manuscript at Mount Athos, probably belongs to the 
 same Codex. . . . ,, 
 
 Wt: So we may designate a palimpsest leaf (ninth cen- 
 tum), containing Mark V. 10-40, found by Mr. Vansittart 
 in 'Cod. 102 of the Acts (see fcicrivuner, Inthod., :;d ed. p. 
 147). 
 
 X: Codex Monacensis of the Gospels, fragmentary (end of 
 ninth or beginning of tench century). Nowinthe Munich Uni- 
 versity Library. Collated by Tischendorf and Tregelles. 
 
 Y: Codex BarOerini of the Gos/iel of John, franmentanj 
 (eighthcenturi/). Now in the Library of the Prince JSiirberini 
 at Home. 'r\iic\\Q\iiuTi published it in MoN. SACll. ined., 
 J 840. 
 
 Z .• Codex Dublinensis rescriptun (sixth century) , one of 
 the chief palimpsests extant ; with numerous fragments from 
 Mal'h- w. Now in Trlnili/ College, Ilublin. Barreltpublished 
 afauHxi facsimile (1801) ; Tregelles supplemented his edi- 
 tion in 'J'80:i ; and it has lately been re-edited with yreat care 
 III 'J'. K. .\bbotl, Tab rALi-MPsEsrouuM JJunuNiiNsiUM, Lon- 
 don, IN HO. 
 
 r: Codex Tischendorflanus IV., brought by Tischendorf 
 from Iht East, and bought of Mm for the Ilodkian Library, 
 
 Oxford, in 18,55. In 1859 he brought from the same monas- 
 tery 7tinety-nine more leaves, -unfortunate 'y in St. Petersburg, 
 which, with those at Oxford, make a nearly complete copy of 
 the Gosj,els. [T'le subscription at the end of the Gospel of 
 Johngives an indielion which may belong to the year 844. 
 889, 934, or 979. Tixchendorf favors the first ; Gardthausen 
 {rAL.EOGK.,p. 4(i4f,), the lastof these dates.] 
 
 S; Codex Sangallensis of the Gospels (ninth century), 
 complete (lacking one leaf), with a Latin inte.-linear transla- 
 tion, somewhat conformedto the Vulgate. Published in fac- 
 simile by Rettig in 1836. It was originally a part of the 
 same manuscript as O (3),icritten, probably, by Irish monks 
 in the Monastery of St. Gall, Switzerland. 
 
 0a; Codex Tisch endorfianus I. (seventh century), now in 
 the Leipzig Vniversity Library, containing^ fragments of 
 Matt, xiii., xiv., xv. Found by Tischendorf in the East in 
 1844, and published in his MoN. sack, ined., 1846. A few 
 lines of Matt. xii. were also discovered in 1853, and pub- 
 lished in his Mon. sack, ined., N. C, vol. ii. (1857). 
 
 @1>: Six leaves (sixth or seventh centiir;/), fragments of 
 Matt, xxii., xxlii.,_ and Mark iv., v Brought by Tischendorf 
 to St. Petersburg in 1859. 
 
 ©c; Two folio leaves (sixthcentury),icith Matl.xxi. 79-24, 
 and John xviii. 20-35. Tischendorf brought the first, and 
 Archbishop Purfri tlie second, to St. Petersburg. 
 
 O'l ; A fragment (eighth century) of Luke xi. 37-45. 
 Brought to St. Petersburg by Tischendorf. 
 
 0"; A fragment (slrth century) of Malt. xxvi. 2-7, 9. 
 0f ; Fragments (sixth century) of Matt, xxvi., xxvii., and 
 Marki., ii. „ „,, . . 
 
 eg; A fragment (sixth century) of John (vi. 13-24), simi- 
 lar to 0(2). , . „ „ 
 0h ; Grceco-Arabic fragments (ninth century) of Matt. 
 xiv. and XXV., which, toqet/iericith & e I e, belong to the collec- 
 tion of Archbis/iop Porjiri, in St. Petersburg. 
 
 A; Codex Tischendorfianus III. (ninth century), Luke 
 and John complete, with occasional scholia in uncials on the 
 margin, partly of a critical kind. Noio in the Bodleian 
 Library, Oxford; collated by Tischendorf (who broug/it it 
 from the East) and rregelks. The portion of this manu- 
 'script containing Matthew and Ifark is written in cdksive 
 characters, and was brought by Tischendorf to St. Petersburg 
 in 1850. 
 
 H • Codex Zacynthius (eiqhth century), a palimpsest con- 
 taining Luke i. l-.ri.33, with some gaps ; brought from the 
 Island of '/ante, and presented in 1821 to the British and 
 Foreign Bible Society, London; deciphered and published by 
 Trege'lles in 1801. The text, which is very valuable, ts sur- 
 rounded by a commentary. 
 
 II; Codex Petropolitanus of the Gospels (ninth century) , 
 complete, excepting seventy-seven verses. Brought to St. 
 Petersburg by Tischendorf from Smyrna. 
 
 [S; Codex Rossanensi^ (sixth century), containing Matt, 
 i. 1-Markxvi. 14,andbelonQinii to the chapter of the Cathe- 
 dral Church at Rossaim, is written on very Jine purple vellum 
 in silver letters, with the three first lines in both columns, at 
 the beginning of each Gospel, in gold. It is adorned with 
 eighteen remarkable pictures in water-colors, representing 
 scenes in the gospel history, with forty figures of the proph- 
 ets of the Old Testament. Us miniatures bear a sinking 
 resemblance to those of the celebrated Vienna purple manu- 
 scrhit of Genesis. It numbers a hundred and etuhteen leaves, 
 some ofwhhh havebeen much injured by dampness. It ongi- 
 nallii contained the four Gospels. The text, as well as the 
 wriiina, resembles that of Codex Nofthe Gospels. The wnt- 
 inqis'sHlljiioie similar to that of the Ziirich Psalter (seventh 
 centum) (published l„i Tisehrndorfin his MoN. SACR. INBD. 
 N. C'vol'iv.), but miiy be a little older. This precims relic 
 was discoveredinthe spring of 1-179, at Rossano in Calabna 
 (Southern Itabi).hyDr. GebhardtofGotliugen and Professor 
 IJarnack of (i'iessen, who have published a full description 
 of it, witli'tieii facsimiles of the writing and outline sketches 
 of theminiatu'res. in an eiegant quarto entitled, KVANQELIO- 
 
 RVn CoiiE.K Oii.Ecus riiRi'URBUS KossANENSis, Leipzig, 
 1880. Its text seems to hold a position about midway between 
 t/tat of the older uncials and those of the ninth and tenth 
 centuries, agreeing most remarkably iclth N, often with A ATI, 
 orwith D and the Old Latin, against the mass of later manu- 
 scripts.— U. A.] , , , 
 
 Besides the UNCIAL, there are over six hnmlnd cuKsnB 
 manuscripts of the Gospels, rari/Ing in dalejmm the nirlli to 
 the sixteenth centuries; above three hundred Evangelistanes, 
 of wMch about sixtii are uncials, the majority oj these, how- 
 Iver, written betwee'n tlie tenth and I we If tb """"'','^'<A ."'°^' 
 than two hundred manuscripts of the -Ms and CatMic 
 Epistles; nearly three hundred manuscripts «.'J'lf J '''''''' 
 Epistles; over a hundred cursive manuscripts oJ the .^poca■ 
 l pse,-and eighty Lectionaries (Praxapostolt),wMi read- 
 Zgsfromthe'Actiand the Epistles, but none older than lis 
 tenth century. The following is a list of some of tlie most 
 
 ""ifrhe'oZ'i^Codex Basil., A. N. IV 2 (tenth century), 
 collated bv Wetslein. recenth, by C. L. Roth and regfes. 
 
 13: the Acts and Catholic Einstles, identical with Ao. 6« 
 of the Gospels,
 
 BIBLE TEXT — New Test. 
 
 273 
 
 BIBLE TEXT — New Test. 
 
 77; The Pauline Epistles, identical with No. 33 of the 
 Gospels. 
 
 31 : The Acts and Catholic Epistles, identical with No. 69 
 of the Gospels. 
 
 33: The Gospels (^Acts 13, Paul 17), Cod. Colbert. 2S44 
 {eleventh century). Collated by Griesbach, and laboriously 
 by Tregelles in 18o0. 
 
 37 : The Pauline Epistles, identical with Ko. GO of the 
 Gospels. 
 
 47: The Pauline Epistles, Cod. Jlodl. Roe IG {eleventh or 
 twelfth century). Collated by Tregelles. 
 
 til : Acts and Catholic Epistles, Cod. Tischendorf. in the 
 British MuKcuiii. it, il,<l April 2(1,1(144. Collated by Tisch- 
 endorf, u'iin f/is< nr< i ' ■/ if, Trcycltt's, and Scrivener. Porinerly 
 called lo'^, i.e.. bnt'liu'tisis tischeiidorfiauus. 
 
 0^1: The Gospels {Acts 31, Paul 37), Cod. Leicestrensis 
 {eleventh century), collated by Treejelles {1852) and Scriv- 
 ener {1855). This inanuscripd, together with 13, 124, 346, 
 of the Gospels, are regarded as derived from an uncial ar- 
 chetyjie resembHng codex D. 
 
 05: Apocalypse, Cod. Parham. 17 {twelfth or thirteenth 
 century), collated by Scrivener. 
 
 [The number of uncial manuscript.'^ of the New 
 Testanu'ut, ranging in date from the fourth to 
 the tentli century, is seventy-seven. (In this reck- 
 oning, six Psaltei's, containing the hymns, Luke 
 i. 46-55, 68-79, ii. 29-32, and designated by 
 Tiscliendorf as O"'''^'"''', are not counted; nor are 
 the Church Lesson-Books — Evangelistaries and 
 Praxapostoli — included.) About half of these 
 seventy-seven manuscripts, however, are mere frag- 
 ments, containing but a few verses, or at most a 
 few chapters. They may be arranged as follows, 
 with reference to their probable dale : — 
 
 Cent. IV., 2: N with the lohole New Testament ; B, 
 Gospels, Acts, Catholic Epistles, and Pauline Epistles 
 (mutilated). 
 
 Cent, v., 10: New Testament, A C; Gosp., Q | H'S 
 lb X T»'o' (or T"); mere fragments, P; P(ml,Q. 
 
 Cent. VI., 20: Gosj). and Arls, D; Gos/J., N PRZ 
 2 (perhaps seventh century) I IJ-7T'>T<:Te0<:0e©£ 
 es; Acts, E; Funl, D | H | O Ci. 
 
 Cent. VII., 8 small fragments: Gosp-, Acts, Paul, 
 F"; Gosp., T"! 0" ei>; Acts, G I^-S; Paul, R (Tisch.: 
 =, Hort). 
 
 Cent. VIII., 8: Gosp., E L | a | W» W" Y e"; 
 Apoc, B. 
 
 Cent. IX., 25: Gosp., KM|PVXrAAn|OW<^ 
 W<1 We Wf el'; Acts, Epp., Apoc, P; Acts, Epp., L; 
 Cath. and Paul. Epp., K; Acts, CH; Paul, EFG 
 I MN. 
 
 Cent. X., 4: Gosp., S U | G H. 
 
 The mark | is here used to separate complete 
 from imperfect manuscripts, or the larger frag- 
 ments from those containing less than two hun- 
 dred verses. 
 
 In reference to the contents of the uncials, we 
 may observe that only one, x, comprises the 
 whole New Testament : only five others contain 
 more than half of it; viz., A B C D of the Gos- 
 pels and Acts, and P of the Acts, Epistles, and 
 Apocalypse. They are distributed, according to 
 the principal divisions of the New Testament, as 
 follows : — 
 
 Of the Gospels there are 55. (o) Complete, or 
 nearly so, 10: X B K M S U | E L a ri; {b) containing 
 the larger part, 10: A C D r | F G H V X a; (p) con- 
 siderable portions, but less than half, 7: N P Q R Z 
 S 5 (Matt., Mark); (d) less than two hundred verses, 
 28: T Ti* W' Y | F" 11.3.4.- ibQ T"'"' T<^<ie W^ef 
 @abcclefgh^ 
 
 Acts, 15. (a) Complete, or nearlv so, 4: X A B | 
 E; (6) larger part, 5: C D H L P; (c) small frag- 
 ments, G: Fal'-S=-6GG'=. 
 
 Catholic Epistles, 7. (o) Complete, 5: X A B K L; 
 (h) larger part, 2: C P. 
 
 Pauline Epistles, 20. (a) Complete, or nearlv so, 
 3: X I DL; (6) larger part, 8: ABCEFGKP; (c) 
 fragments, 'J: H M | F" I^ N O O" Q R (or C:). 
 
 Apocalypse, 5. (a) Complete, 3: X A B; (6) larger 
 part, 2: P I C. 
 
 19 — 1 
 
 In reference to the character of their text, Tisch- 
 endorf classifies the uncials as foUow.s : in the 
 Go.spels the oldest form of the text, predominantly 
 Alexandrine in its coloring, is found, though witli 
 many ditferenors, in x A B C D I' ■" " I'' L P Q 
 K 'J''"'"- X Z A 0'^ OK E; next to these stand F» N 
 O \^\ W'"^ Y 0"'"''. A later form of the text, in 
 which the Asiatic coloring prevails, is presented 
 by ]•: F G II K 1\I S U V Y A 11 Oi', among which 
 E K M r A n 01' incline most toward the first 
 class. For the Acts and Catholic Epistle-s, 
 X A B C give the oldest text, to which, in the 
 Acts, D I approach, and, less closely, E G; also, 
 in the Catholic EpLstles (except 1 I'et.), P; 
 while in the Acts, II L P [G*>], and, in the Catho- 
 lic Epistles, K L, come nearest to the later form 
 of the text. In the Pauline Epistles the oldest 
 text is represented by x A B C) II I- O Q [R], 
 with the Grajco-Latin manuscripts, D F G; M P 
 approach this ; while K L N stand nearest to the 
 more recent text. The text of the Apocalypse 
 appears in its oldest form in x A C, to which P 
 comes nearer tluiu B. 
 
 Tregelles exhibits the "genealogy of the text" 
 and affinities of the manuscripts in the Gospels 
 in the following form : — 
 
 WESTERN. 
 
 ALEXANDRINE. 
 
 BX Z 
 
 B\-ZANTINE. 
 
 D 
 
 C L H 1.33 
 
 
 
 PQTRIN 
 
 A 
 
 
 XaCO 
 
 KMH 
 
 E F G S U, etc 
 
 Westcott and Hort attach a superlative value 
 to B. — The same manuscript may differ in 
 character in different parts of the New Testa- 
 ment : thus, A is not so excellent in the Gospels 
 as elsewhere ; A is specially good in the Gospel 
 of Mark ; x and D agree most closely in the Gos- 
 pel of John ; the cursive 1 is remarkably valuable 
 in the Gospels, but not so in the rest of the New 
 Testament. — E. A.] 
 
 [2. History of the Printed Text. — For more 
 than half a century after the invention of print- 
 ing, the original text of the New Testament re- 
 nuiined unpublished. The credit of first printing 
 it belongs to Cardinal Ximenes df, Cisneros, 
 Archbishop of Toledo, who made it tom. V. of 
 his great Polyglot Bible, printed at Alcala, in 
 Spain (Latin Comjilutum, hence the name Coin- 
 plutcnsian Polyglot), in 6 vols, folio (1514-17). 
 The manuscripts depended upon were compara- 
 tively modern and of inferior value. Though 
 the volume is dated June 10, 1514, the New Tes- 
 tament was not puhlished before 1521 or 1522, 
 and thus was preceded by the Greek-Latin New 
 Testament of 1516, publi.shed by Froben of Basel, 
 and edited by Euasmu.s. He used as the basis 
 of his text in the Gospels an inferior Basel manu- 
 script of the fifteenth century (cod. 2), and one 
 of the thirteenth or fourteenth century in the 
 Acts and Epistles (cod. 2). With the.se he col- 
 lated more or less carefully one other manuscript 
 of the Gospels (cod. 1), two in the Acts and 
 Catholic Epistles (codd. 1 and 4), and three in 
 the Pauline Epistles (codd. 1, 4, 7). The olde.st 
 of these (cod. 1, tenth century) lias a good text 
 in the Gospels ; but Erasmus made very little use 
 of it : the others are comparatively modern, and 
 poor. For the Revelation he had only a single
 
 BIBLE TEXT -New Test. 
 
 274 
 
 BIBLE TEXT — New Test. 
 
 ■manuscript of the twelfth century, wanting the 
 last six verses, which he Iranxlaled into (ireek 
 from the Latin Vulgate. In v.arious other places 
 in the Revelation lie followed the readings of the 
 Vulgate in opposition to the Greek, as he did in 
 a few cases elsewhere. The result of the whole 
 is, that in more than twenty places the Greek of 
 tlie lexlus receptus, which is" derived ultimately in 
 the main from the fourth edition of Erasmus, is 
 supported by the authority of tn) known Greek- 
 manuKcript tchatecer. The first edition of Eras- 
 mus was sped through the press with lieadlong 
 haste (•' [in^cipitatum fuit verius quam editum," 
 as Erasmus liimself says) in order that the pub- 
 lislier, Frolien, might get the start of the Coni- 
 plutensian. It consequently swarms with errors. 
 A more correct edition was issued in 1519: Mill 
 observed about four hundred changes in the text. 
 For this and later editions, one additional manu- 
 script (cod. 3) was used in the Gospels, Acts, and 
 Epistles. In the third edition (1522) the changes 
 were much fewer ; but it is noted for the intro- 
 -duction of 1 John v. 7 from the Codex Mont- 
 fortianus (sixteenth century). In the fourth 
 •edition (1527) the text was altered and improved 
 in many places, particularly in the Revelation, 
 from the Complutensian Polyglot. That of the 
 fifth (1535) and last (Erasmus died in 1536) 
 hardly differs fi'om the fourth. — The next edi- 
 tions which call for notice are those of the great 
 printer and scholar, Robert Stephe.xs (Esti- 
 «nne, Stephanus), published at Paris in 1546, 1549 
 (the beautiful " mirijicam " editions, in 16mo), 
 15.50 (a magnificent folio, edilio regia), and Ge- 
 neva, 1551 (16mo), in the last of which our 
 present division into verses was first introduced 
 into the Greek text. (The first edition of the 
 ■whole Bible which contains this verse-division 
 was Robert Stephens's edition of the Latin Vul- 
 gate in 1555, not 1548 as is often erroneously 
 stated.) His Greek Testament of 1550, notwith- 
 standing its array of various readings in the 
 margin from fifteen manuscripts and the Com- 
 plutensian Polyglot, is mainly founded on the 
 fourth or fifth edition of Erasmus : Scrivener 
 has noted a hundred and nineteen places in 
 which he dift'ers from all of his manuscripts. 
 The text of the edition of 1551 varies but 
 slightly from that of 1550. — The four folio edi- 
 tions of TuEouoKE Beza (1519-160.5), Geneva 
 (1565-82-88 or 89, and 1598), as well as his five 
 8vo editions (1565-67-80-90, 1604), follow, for 
 the most part, .Stephens's editions of 1.^50 or 1551, 
 with changes here and there, many of which are 
 not improvements. Stepliens's edition of 1.5.50 is 
 commonly spoken of in England as the lexlns 
 receptus: but on the Continent the first Elzkvii! 
 edition, printed at Lcydcn in 1624, has generally 
 received that designation. The expression is 
 borrowed from the preface to the second ICl/.evir 
 edition (1633), in which we find the words, 
 " Textum ergo habes, nunc ab omnibus recc[> 
 turn." The text of the seven Elzevir editions 
 (1024-33-41, Leyden; 1056-62-70-78, Amster- 
 dam), among which tliere are a few slight dif- 
 ferences, is made up almost wholly from Reza's 
 smaller editions of 1565 and 1580 (Rcuss) ; its 
 editor is unknown. The texlus receptus, slavishly 
 followed, with slight diversities, in hundreds of 
 'editions, and substantially represented in all llie 
 
 principal modern Pi-otestant translations prior to 
 the present century, thus resolves itself essentially 
 into that of the last edition of Erasmus, framed 
 from a few modern and inferior manuscripts and 
 the Complutensian Polyglot, in the infancy of 
 biblical criticism. 
 
 The editions which follow from 1657 to 1830, 
 with the exception of that of GRiESB.\cn, are 
 mainly important, as regards the text, for their 
 accumulation of critical materials. In \V.\ltox's 
 Polyglot (London, 1057), .Stephens's Cireek text 
 of 1550 was accompanied by the Vulgate, Peshito 
 S\Tiac, Ethiopic, Arabic, and in parts of the New 
 Testament, other ancient versions, with a critical 
 apparatus including the readings of Codex A, 
 U (1), D (2), Stephens's margin, and eleven cur- 
 sive manuscripts collated by or for Archbishop 
 tlssher. In Bishop Fell's edition (Oxford, 1675), 
 who reprinted substantially the Elzevir text, other 
 authorities, including readings of the Coptic and 
 Gothic versions, are given in the notes, though 
 the titlepage, "ex plus 100 MSS. codicihus." is 
 verv misleading. — The edition of John Mill 
 (1645-1707), Oxford, 1707, fol. (improved and 
 enlarged by Kiister, Amsterdam and Leipzig, also 
 Rotterdam", 1710), the work of thirty years, marks 
 an epoch in the history of textual criticism by 
 its vast additions to the store of critical material 
 through the collation of new manuscripts, the 
 collection of readings from the ancient versions, 
 and e.specially from the quotations found in the 
 writings of the Christian Fathers, and by its very 
 learned and valuable Prolegomena. Mill gave 
 his judgment on many readings in his notes and 
 Prolegomena, but did not venture to form a text 
 of his own, reprinting .Stephens's text of 1550 
 without intentional variation. — The projected 
 edition of the Greek Testament and Latin Vul- 
 gate in parallel columns, by the illusti-ious critic, 
 Richard Bentley, deserves a brief notice. 
 Proposals for printing -were issued in 1720, and 
 a large amoimt of materials collected at great 
 expense, including a collation of Codex B (pub- 
 lished by Ford in 1799) ; but the work was never 
 completed. It was to have been founded on the 
 oldest tireek and Latin manuscripts, compared 
 with the principal ancient versions and the quota- 
 tions in the Fathers of the first f ve centuries. See 
 A. A. Ellis, Bentleii Crilica Sacra, 1802. — JouN 
 Albert Bengel's (1687-17.52) edition, Tiibin- 
 gen, 1734, 4to, while it had the advantage of some 
 new manuscripts, was specially valu.able for its 
 discussions and illustrations of the principles of 
 criticism, and its classification of manuscripts ; 
 but, except in the Apocalypse, he did not dare to 
 introduce into his text any reading, even though 
 he believed it unquestionably genuine, which had 
 not previously appeared in .some iirinted edition. 
 llis judgment of the value of different readings 
 w.as, however, given in the margin.^ The mag- 
 nificent edition of John James Wetstein (1693- 
 1754), 2 vols, fob, Amsterdam, 1751-.52, the work 
 of forty years, greatly enlarged the store of criti- 
 cal material by extensive collation of manuscripts 
 and researches into the quotations of the Fathers, 
 and l>y his description of this material in V(>rv 
 valuallle and copious Prolegomena, reprinted, witli 
 additions by Semler, Ilalle, 1704. lie gives also 
 the readings of the chief jirinted editions which 
 prccedril him, and describes them fully. He in-
 
 BIBLE TEXT — New Test. 
 
 275 
 
 BIBLE TEXT — New Test. 
 
 troducefl the presoiit metliofl of rtenotiiif;- the 
 uncial niainis(:ri|)ts liy Koiiiaii cajiitals, and the 
 cursives and lectionarios liy Arabic tif^ures. He- 
 sides the critical matter, liis oilition is a thesaurus 
 of (imitations from ancient (ireek and Latin and 
 ralil'inical authors, ilhistratini; the ]ihraseolo;4y of 
 th<! N'cw Testament, or containing passages more 
 or less parallel in sentiment. ]{ishop Marsh calls 
 it "the invalualile book." His publisher insisted 
 on his reprinting the textu.i rncejitua (substautially 
 that of the Elzevirs); but he gives his critical 
 judgment in tlie margin and the notes. — Other 
 editions to be bi'iefly mentioned are those of F. C. 
 Altkr, Vienna, 1780-87, giving the readuigs of 
 twenty-two Vienna manuscripts and of four 
 mauusci'ipts of the Slavonic version ; of Andrew 
 Birch. Qimtimr Eviuu/clia Greece, Copenhagen, 
 1788, Jto. and VarUc Leclio>in\ 1798, 1800, 1801, 
 exhibiting the readings of many manuscripts 
 collated in the libraries of Italy, .Spain, and Ger- 
 many, by himself and others; and of ('. F. M.at- 
 TH.Ei, Nov. Test. Gr. el Latiiie (Vulg.), Riga, 
 1782-88, in 12 vols. 8vo, also Nor. Text. Grave, 
 AVittenberg, etc., 180;5-07, in 3 vols. 8vo, for 
 ■whicli over a hundred manuscripts wei'e used, 
 jnostly from the Libi'ary of the Holy Synod at 
 Moscow, ilatthasi was a careful collator, but a 
 very poor critic; and his manuscripts generally 
 were of inferior quality. 
 
 The first edition of John Jajies Griesbach 
 (174.5-1812) h.ad been published in 1774-75 (the 
 first three Gospels in synopsis) ; but we need con- 
 sider only the second, Halle, 179(3-1800, 2 vols. 
 8vo, in which, though not wholly freed from the 
 fetters of the lextus recephix, he first made really 
 good use of the materials gathered by his prede- 
 cessors, and augmented by his own collections. A 
 manual edition was issued at Leipsic in 1805[-00], 
 the text of which, differing somewhat from that 
 of the larger edition, expresses his later critical 
 judgment. Following in the track of Bengel and 
 Semler, Griesbach sought to simplify the process 
 of criticism by cVissifying his manuscripts and 
 other autliorities. He made three classes or re- 
 censions, — the Alexandrian, the '\\'estern, and the 
 Constautinopolitan or Byzantine, — to the latter of 
 which the mass of later and inferior nutnuscripts 
 belongs. Though his system is not now accepted 
 in its details, nuich truth lay at the bottom of it. 
 His principles of criticism were sound ; and in liis 
 application of them he displayed rare skill and 
 tact. In 1827 a third edition of the first volume 
 of his Greek Testament was published, with im- 
 portant additions, under the editorship of Dr. 
 David Schulz. Griesbach'.s Symholm crilicce 
 (Halle. 178.5-93), and Commentarius criticus (on 
 Matthew and Mark), part i., ii., with Melelemata 
 critica (prefixed to part ii.), .Jena, 1798-1811, 
 are still valuable. — A number of manual editions 
 founded on that of Griesbach, but inclining more 
 to the " received text," as those of H. .\. Schott 
 (Leipz., 1805-13-2.o-:59), with a good Latin trans- 
 lation; G. C. Knapp (Halle, 1797, 1813-24-29- 
 40). with a useful Commcntatio i.'sat/ogica, or Intro- 
 duction, and carefully punctuated and divided; 
 J. A. H. TiTTMANN (ster. Leipz., 1820, 1828, 
 16mo; 1S24, 1831, Svo). Aug. Hahn (Leipz., 
 1840, 1S41, revised ed. 1861), reprinted at N.Y., 
 1842, by Dr. Edward Robinson ; K. G. W. Theile 
 (ster. Leipz., 1844, 11th ed. 1875, by O. von Geb- 
 
 hardt), with the variations of the chief modern 
 editors, ]iarallel passages, etc.; also .S. T. I'l.ooM- 
 kiki.d's Gr. Te.'il. wiih EngUnli Notes (London, 
 1832, 9th ed., 18.55, 2 vols. Hvo), mark no m-og- 
 ress in criticism beyond (iriesbach, Imt ratlier a 
 retrograde movement. — The same is true of the 
 large edition of the Catholic scholar, .1. ^I. A. 
 Scnoi,/, (Leijizig, 1830-30, 2 vols. 4to), whose 
 extensive travels ,and researches in liliraries en- 
 abled him to adil a very large numlier of new 
 manuscripts (according to Scrivener, 010) to the 
 list of those previously known. But of these, 
 only thirteen were collated entire ; a few others in 
 the greater part; many in only a few chajiters ; 
 many more simply inspected, or only enrolled in 
 the list. He was a poor critic, and as an editor 
 and collator incredibly careless. lie divided his 
 manuscripts into two classes or recensions, — the 
 xVlexandrian and the Constantinoiiolitan, givhig 
 the preference to the latter. Hut in applying his 
 system he was happily inconsistent, particularly 
 in his second volume, and at a later period of his 
 life (1845) abandoiu'd it. His edition met with 
 no favor from intelligent scholars; but in Eng- 
 land, where liililical criticism was at its lowest 
 ebb, it was welcomed and praised by many, and 
 its text reprinted. 
 
 A new period in the history of textual criticism 
 was inaugurated by the appearance (Berlin, 1831) 
 of a small edition of the (ireek Testament by the 
 distinguished classical schohar Charles Lach- 
 MANN (1793-1851), followed by a larger edition 
 in which the authorities for the Gi'eek text were 
 supplied by Philip Buttmaiin. with the Latin A'ul- 
 gate in the lower margin ciitically edited from 
 Codd. Fuldensis, .\miatinus,and other manuscripts 
 (Berlin, 1842—50, 2 vols. 8vo). Lachmann's aim 
 in these editions was not to reproduce the original 
 text according to his best judgment (for this he 
 deemed conjectural criticism to be necessary in 
 some cases), liut to present as far as possible on 
 purely documentary evidence the text current 
 in the Eastern churches in the fourth century, as 
 a basis foi- criticism. He paid no attention to the 
 texlwt receptti.-!, and used no cursive manuscripts, 
 but founded his text whollv on ancient authori- 
 ties, viz., Codd. A B C D P Q T and Z of the 
 (lospels, A B C D E (2) in the Acts and Catho- 
 lic Epistles, A BCD (2) G H in the Pauline 
 Epistles, and ABC in the .\pocalypse. with the 
 Latin Vidgate, and Codd. a (Vercellensis, fourth 
 century), b (Veronensis, fifth century), and c 
 (Colbertinus, eleventh century) of the Old Latin, 
 for the (jospels, besides the Latin versions of 
 the GrfPco-Latin manuscripts in the above list, 
 viz., D, D (2), E (2), G (2), also of E (3) : of 
 the Fathers he used Irenasus, Origen, Cyjirian, 
 Hilary of Poitiers, Lucifer of Cagliari, and in the 
 .Apocalypse, Primasius. His attempted task was 
 not fully accomplished, partly because the text of 
 some of the most important manuscripts which he 
 used (B C P Q, and the Latin Codex .A.miatinus) 
 had been but very imperfectly collated or edited, 
 partly because the range of his authorities was 
 too narrow, and partly because he was sometimes, 
 ajiparently at least, inconsistent in the application 
 of his principles. But he was the first to found 
 a text wholly on ancient evidence (Griesbach dis- 
 regarded what he deemed unimportant variations 
 from the received text) ; and his editions, to which
 
 BIBLE TEXT — New Test. 
 
 (6 
 
 BIBLE TEXT - New Test. 
 
 his eminent reputation as a critic gave wide cur- 
 rency, especially in Germany, did nmch toward 
 breaking down the superstitious reverence for the 
 texhui receptus which had long prevailed. — AVe 
 come now to the editions of I'ischexdokf and 
 Tkegelles, of whom biographical notices will be 
 found under their names. Through their com- 
 bined labors we have a solid basis for a completely 
 critical edition of the Greek Testament in the 
 accurate knowledge, not possessed before, of all 
 our manuscripts of the oldest class (not inchiding 
 lectionaries), comprising many newly discovered, 
 among them the Sinaitic of the fourth century. 
 Tischendorf (1815-74) .spent about eiglit years of 
 his life in travels in search of manuscripts, for 
 which lie visited tlie East three times (in 18-14, 
 18.5-3, and 1859), or in collating with extreme care, 
 or transcribing and preparing for publication, the 
 most important of those in the various libraries 
 of Eui'ope which were before known, but had not 
 been publislied or thoroughly examined. The 
 following uncial (ireek manuscripts (see the list 
 above) were iliscorered bj' Tischeudoi'f : N G (2) 
 j:.2.3.4.5.6.- X (-2) ()a Q (o) T'' '^ T 6" '' = d A O = 
 21; — first Hs«/ by him : F" I"- X O^cdet Qb (O) 
 P (2)"t2 (2) R R (2) T»= Wbcde e'^fg'' = 2.3: — 
 puhlhhed: S B B (2) C 1) (2) E (2) F" 11-2.3.4.5.6.7 
 1" L M (2) X in part, (J" P P (2) Q R W"; Y e» = 
 21: — transcribed: H (3) M O Tl = ^ : — collated : 
 E F (2) G H II (2) K L (2) O" (2) S U X r A = 1:5. 
 (See Dr. C. R. Gregory's Proler/omena to Tischen- 
 dorf 's iV. T. Gr. ed. 8va, p. 31.) His editions of the 
 texts of biblical mauuscripts (including some of 
 the Septuagiiit) comprise no less than seventeen 
 large quarto and five folio volumes, not inchiding 
 the Anecdota Sacra et Profana (1855, new edition 
 1861), or the Nutilia editionk Cod. Sinaitici (ISUO), 
 two quarto volumes containing descriptions or 
 collations of many new manuscripts; and many 
 of his collations, or copies of nuinu.scripts, remain 
 unpublished. The titles of his various writings, 
 most of them relating to biblical criticism, fill 
 twelve octavo pages of Gregory's Prolegomena. 
 His pi'incipal editions of the Greek Testament 
 are those published at Leipzig in 1841 [1840], 
 promising as a first essay, but of no special im- 
 portance except for the refutation, in the Prolego- 
 mena, of Scholz's theory of recensions ; 1849, in 
 which the critical apparatus was much enlarged, 
 and the text settled on the basis of ancient au- 
 thority, generally with good judgment ; 1859 
 [1855-58], 2 vols., reckoned as "editio .septima 
 critica inaior," in which very large additions vcre 
 made to the critical appai'atus, not only from 
 manuscripts, Greek and J.alin, but from the (juo- 
 tations in the writings of the Cliristian Fathers ; 
 and the evidence was for the first time fully 
 stated, both for and against the readings adopted. 
 In the first volume, Teschendorf, influenced per- 
 haps by Scrivener, showed a tendency to allow 
 greater weight to the latei- uncials and cursives 
 than he had done in liis edition of 1849 ; but he 
 soon fouml that he was on tlie wrong track : 
 and on the whole, if we include orthographical 
 changes, his edition of 18.50 dilfers more widely 
 from the " received text " than that of 1849. Its 
 publication was immediately followed by Tisclien- 
 dorf's third journey to the East, and the discovery 
 of the great Sinai iiianu.script, together with the 
 acqui.sition of much other new critical material. 
 
 After the publication of the Codex Sinaiticus in 
 1862, in a magnificent edition in four volumes 
 folio, in facsimile type, with twenty-one plates of 
 actual facsimiles, at the expense of the Russian 
 Government, the edition being limited to three 
 hundred copies, he issued in 1863, in 4to, his 
 Nonim Testamentum Sinailicum, m ordinary type, 
 but representing the manuscript line for line, 
 with fidl Prolegomena, and his iY. T. Gr. ex 
 Sinaitico Codice, Vaticana itemque Elzeviriana lec- 
 tione notata, in 1865, 8vo, with a supplement of 
 additions and corrections in 1870. .\fter .some 
 other publications, particularly the second edition 
 of his S;/no/)sis erangelica in 1864, in which the 
 .Sinai manuscript was first used, he undertook his 
 last gi'eat critical edition of the Greek New Tes- 
 tament, which was issued in eleven pai'ts from 
 October 1864 to 1872, forming two large volumes, 
 8vo, Nov. Test. Grave, editio octava critica maior, 
 Lipsia?, 1869-72, but without the Prolegomena. 
 This edition far surpassed all that had preceded 
 it in the richness of its critical apparatus, and, as 
 compared with that of 1859, rests much more ou 
 the authority of the oldest mauuscripts, particu- 
 larly the Sinaitic. The preparation of the Pro- 
 legomena was prevented by a stroke of apoplexy 
 (Alay 5, 1873), followed by paralysis, which ulti- 
 mately caused his death (Dec. 7, 1874). After long 
 delays, it was intrusted to an American scholar re- 
 siding in Leipzig, Dr. C. R. Gregory; and the vol- 
 ume is now (July, 1881) passing through the press. 
 Besides those mentioned above, the most impor- 
 tant publications of Tischendorf pertaining to the 
 textual criticism of the New Testament are : Co- 
 dex Ephraemi Si/n rescriptus, 1843, 4to (Old Testa- 
 ment part, 1845) ; Moiiumenta sacra iiiedita, 1846, 
 4to ; Kcainjclium Pahitinum ineditum, 1847, 4to; Co- 
 ilex Amiatinus (Vulg.), 1S50, new ed. 1854; Codex 
 Claromontanus, 1852, 4to ; Mon. sacr. inedit. Nova 
 Collecting Vols. I.-VL, IX., 1855-70 (Vols. VIL 
 and \'1II. will probably be published hereafter by 
 (iel)hardt aiul (iregory), 4to ; Novum Testamentum 
 Vaticaniim, 1867, and Appendix N. T. Vat., con- 
 taining B (2), 1869, 4to; compare Responsa ad 
 calumnias Romanas, 1870, 8vo, also Appendix codi- 
 cum celeberrimorum Sin., Vat., Alex., 1867, 4to; 
 Die Sinaibihel, ihre Entdecktmg,- Herausgabe und 
 Ericei-buni/. 1871, large 8vo. His Novum Testamen- 
 tum triglottum, Greece, Latine, Germanice, Lips., 
 18.">4, 2d ed., 186.5, is a convenient book, the three 
 jiarts of which were also issued separately, and in 
 various combinations. The Greek is his own 
 text, with the variations of the lextus receptus: 
 the I^atin, the Vulgate, critically revised from the 
 oldest nuiuuscripts, with the variations of the 
 Clementine edition ; the German the genuine text 
 of Luther, though in modern orthography. Tesch- 
 endorf al.so issued many manual editions of the 
 Greek Testament, the three latest in his lifetime 
 being ]uiblished in 1873 by Tauchnitz, Brockhaus 
 (to match his edition of the .Septuagiiit), and Men- 
 delssohn {Editio acadeinica stptima) respectively. 
 Hi."! large editions of 1859 and 1869-72 were issued 
 with the critical apparatus greatly abridged, but 
 giving the chief authorities for all the important 
 \arious readings, with the titles Editio septima cri- 
 tica 7ninnr(\S'A>), and Ed.nctara critica minor {IS72- 
 77). The first part of Gregory's Prolegomena ap- 
 peared, Leipzig, 1884. For the more important of 
 ills numerous other works, see the article Tisciien-
 
 BIBLE TEXT — New Test. 
 
 277 
 
 BIBLE TEXT — New Test. 
 
 BORF. — Samuel Pridkaux Trkc.km.i-.s (prnn. 
 Tre-ghel'lfo), h. .Ian. 30, 1813; d. April 24, 187.i; 
 ranks next to Tisehendoii' among' soholai'S of the 
 present century in tlie importance of his critical 
 labors, and in single-hearted devotion to his 
 chosen task. His first essay in the department 
 of textual criticism was IVte Hook of Ilcrc.latioii in 
 Greek, edited from Ancienl Atilltoriticn, with a New 
 English Version and Various Readings, London, 
 1844. In 1848 he issued liis Prospectus for a 
 critical edition of the Greek Testament, the text 
 of which was to be founded solely on the an-' 
 thority of tiie oldest Greek manuscripts, the 
 ancient versions down to the seventh century, 
 and the citations of early eccle.siastical writers, 
 including Eusebins. No account was made of 
 the " received text," or of the great mass of cur- 
 sive manuscripts. Completeness and accuracy in 
 the exhibition of the evidence of the witnesses 
 used were especially aimed at. Like Tischendorf, 
 Tregelles visited (in 184.5-46, 1849-r)(), and 1862) 
 the principal libraries in Europe for the purpose 
 of collating manuscripts the text of which had 
 not before been published. For the (Jospels he 
 collated twelve uncials, E G II P K M H U X Z r A, 
 and the cm'sives 1, 33, 69 ; for the Acts H (2) 
 L (2) and 13, 31, 61 ; for the Pauline Epistles 
 D (2) F (2) L (2) M (2), 17, 37, 47 ; and tiie cur- 
 sives 1 and 14 for the Apocalypse. In many 
 cases Tregelles compared his collations with those 
 of Tischendorf, and settled the differences by a 
 re-examination of the manuscript. In 1861 he 
 edited the Codex Zacynthivs (5), republishing in 
 an Appendix the fragments of O. His edition 
 of The Greek New Testament, edited from Ancient 
 Authorities, with their Various Readings in full, and 
 the Latin Version of Jerome, was issued in London 
 in seven successive Parts : I. INIatthew, I\Iark, 
 1857; II. Luke, John, 1861 ; III. Acts and Catho- 
 lic Epistles, 186.5 ; IV. Romans to 2 Thessaloni- 
 ans [iii. 3], 1869 : V. Hebrew.? [with 2 Thess. iii. 
 3-18] to Philemon, 1870 ; VI. Revelation, 1872. 
 Part VII., Prolegomena and Addenda and Corri- 
 genda, appeared in 1879, four years after his 
 death, edited by Dr. Hort and A. W. Streane. 
 A stroke of paralysis soon after Part II. was 
 completed long delayed the publication of the 
 Thii-d Part. A severer stroke, when he was revis- 
 ing the concluding chapters of the Book of Reve- 
 lation, disabled him from further labor, so that it 
 was necessary for friends to aid him in the issue 
 of this portion of the work. His text of Jerome 
 was founded on the Codex Amiatinus, which lie 
 had personally collated, the variations of the 
 Clementine edition being given in the margin. 
 Though Tregelles added far less than Tischen- 
 dorf to our store of critical material, he did more 
 to establish correct principles of criticism, and 
 his various writings had a wide and most benefi- 
 cial influence in England. Besides many articles 
 in Kitto's Journal of Sacred Literature, he pub- 
 lished in 1854 An Account of the Printed Text of 
 ike Greek New Testament, xoith Remarks on its Re- 
 vision upon Critical Principles, and in 1856 Intro- 
 duction to the Textual Criticism of the New Testa- 
 ment, forming part of Vol. IV. of the tenth and 
 later editions of Home's Introductioti, etc. Tliis 
 volume was also issued separately, and, in the 
 eleventh edition of Home's Inlroduction (1861), 
 appeared with " Additions " and a "Postscript." 
 
 Both of these works are of great value. — IIkxhv 
 Ar.i-oiin (1810-71), Dean of Canterbury, in his 
 Greek Testament (vol. i., London, 1849, 0th ed., 
 1868; vol. iv., 1861, 4th ed., 1871), gave a criti- 
 cally revised text, with a digest of variou.s read- 
 ings. The work was greatly improved as rtjgai'ds 
 the text (especially of vol. i.) in tlie later edi- 
 tions, in which he adojjted substantially the prin- 
 ciples of Tischendorf and Tregelles, giving more 
 weight, liowever, to internal considerations. — The 
 first volume of the long-expected edition of the 
 Greek Testament by Dr. 15. F. VVkstcott anil Dr. 
 F. J. A. HoitT was published in England, May. 
 1881, in the same month with tlie revLsed New 
 Testament, and reprinted fi'om duplicate plates 
 in New York with an Introduction by Dr. Schaff. 
 The second volume, containing the authors' In- 
 troduction and Appendix, followed soon after. 
 This edition is not accompanied with any critical 
 apparatus : it has rather been the object of the 
 authors, by a careful study of the materials fur- 
 nished by their predecessors, augmented some- 
 what, liowever, by their own researches, to trace 
 the history of the text as far as possible, to dis- 
 tinguisli its different types, and determine their 
 relations and their comparative value, to investi- 
 gate the special charactei-istics of the most impor- 
 tant docmnents and groups of documents, and, 
 finally, to apply the principles of criticism which 
 result from these studies to the determination of 
 the original text. They have been more or less 
 steadily engaged in this task for about twentj- 
 eight years; and though their view of the genea- 
 logical relations of the chief ancient texts has 
 not failed to excite strong opposition in certain 
 quarters, it can hardly be doubted that their work 
 is the most important contribution to the scien- 
 tific criticism of the New-Testament text whicli 
 has yet been made. They distinguish four princi- 
 pal types of text : the Wrsli-rn. characterized by a 
 tendency to paraphrase or to modify the form of 
 expression, and also to interpolate from parallel 
 passages or from extraneous sources, represented 
 especially by D and the Old Latin versions, 
 also in part by the Curetonian Syriac ; the neu- 
 tral, represented by B and largely by X, preserv- 
 ing best the original form ; the Alexandrian, much 
 purer than the \Vestern, l>ut betraying a tendency 
 to polish the language ; and the St/rian. the latest 
 form, a mixed text, borrowing from all, and aim- 
 ing to be easy, smooth, and complete. They re- 
 gard B as pre-eminent above all other manuscripts 
 for the purity of its text ; the readings of N and 
 B combined as generally deserving acceptance as 
 genuine, their ancestries having " diverged from 
 a point near the autographs ; " and they attach 
 great weight to every combination of B with 
 another primary Greek manuscript, as L C T D H 
 A Z 33, and in Mark A. 
 
 A very convenient edition for representing the 
 variations of the principal modern editors from 
 the " received text " is Scrivener's Nov. Test, textfts 
 Stephanici A.D. 1550. Accedunt varia lectiones 
 editionum Bezce, Elzeviri, Lachmanni, Tregellesii. 
 Ed. auct. et emend. Cantabr. et Loud., 1877, 
 16mo. Dr. Gregory's Prolegomena to Tischen- 
 dorf's eighth critical edition give a collation of 
 the texts of Tischendorf, TregeUes, and Westcott 
 and Hort. Dr. Scrivener and Archdeacon Palmer 
 of Oxford have lately published (1881) editions
 
 BIBLE TEXT — New Test. 
 
 278 
 
 BIBLE TEXT — New Test. 
 
 of the Greek Testament indicating in different 
 ■ways the (ireek text followed in the revised ver- 
 sion of the New Testament. 
 
 The most complete worka on the history of 
 printed editions of the Greek Testament are 
 Le Long's Bibliotheca sacra, edited by Masch, 
 vol. i. (Hal*. 1778, 4to), pp. 187-424, and Reuss's 
 Bihiiolheca Aovi Testamenii Grceci, Brunsvigae, 
 1872. Svo. — E. A.] 
 
 [3. Principles: of Textual Ci-iticixm. — Tt is im- 
 possible, within the limits here allowed, to state 
 and illustrate the principles of criticism applica- 
 ble to the text of the Greek Testament. A few 
 hints may, however, be given. The object, of 
 course, is to ascertain which, among two or more 
 variations of the text presented bj' our manu- 
 scripts or other authorities, is the original. Xo 
 kind of evidence, external or internal, is to be 
 neglected. The problem is to be solved by a 
 process of reasoning upon probabilities ; and we 
 have to consider, in every case, what hjiJothesis 
 will best explain all the phenomena. This fact is 
 sometimes partially stated under the form of the 
 rule that that reailing is to be accepted as ffeniiine 
 which tcill best explain the origin of the other varia- 
 tions. This is an impoitant rule ; but we have to 
 consider, not merely the nature of the variations, 
 but the number, independence, and character of 
 the witnesses that support them. The process of 
 criticism is not a mechanical one. Our authori- 
 ties mu.st be weighed, not counted. One good, 
 very early manuscript may be worth more than a 
 thousand copies derived from a late and corrupted 
 archetype. Again : though the presumption is in 
 favor of the oldest manuscripts, mere antiquity 
 cannot prove the excellence of a copy. 
 
 One of the essential prerequisites to intelligent 
 criticism is a thorough study of the occasions 
 of error in maimscripts. This involves a knowl- 
 edge of palaeography and of the history of pro- 
 nunciation. 'I'he similarity of certain letters or 
 abbreviations in their older forms gave occasion 
 to errors which can be only thus explained ; and 
 in the corruption of the (ireek language, vowels 
 and diphthongs originally distinct in soimd (f , ai ; 
 t, fi, n. 01, V, vL) were pronounced alike (itacism). 
 It involves also a study of the tendencies and 
 habits of transcribers. Many manuscripts, in the 
 alterations they have received from later hands, 
 illastrate the manner in which the text was cor- 
 rupted. Among the maxims resulting from such 
 a study, in connection with the consideration of 
 external testimony, are the.se: (1) The more diffi- 
 cult reading is to be preferred ; Bengel's gi'eat rule. 
 This applies to those variations which are to be 
 ascribed to design. Transcribers would not in- 
 tentionallv substitute a harsii, ungrammatical, 
 unusual, Hebraistic expression, one tiiat caused a 
 ditliculty of any kmd, for an easier one. (2) The 
 shorter reading is to be pre/erred ; Porson's " surest 
 canon of criticism." The tendency of .scrilies 
 wa,s almost always to add, rather than to omit. 
 They did not like to have tlieir copies regarded as 
 inconi])lete. It was connnon to insert in the mar- 
 gin of manu.scripts, or between the lines, glosses, 
 or explanations of unusual or diflicult expres- 
 sions, also words or clauses which served to sup- 
 plement the language of one (iospel from the 
 parallel or similar passages in anotiier, or to com- 
 plete abridged quotations of the Old Testament 
 
 from the fuller text of the Septnagint. Words 
 accidentally omitted were also placed in the mar- 
 gin, or interlined. A transcriber might thus easily 
 mistake these glo.sses, or supplements, of his 
 predecessor for accidental omissions, and transfer 
 them to his text. This i-ule does not apply to 
 cases where an omission can be satisfactorily ex- 
 plained by honiCEotetmton (^bfioioTOiCi-ov') ; that is, 
 cases where two successive sentences or parts of 
 sentences have a like ending. The scribe copies the 
 first of these, then his eye glances to the like end- 
 ing of the second, and he thinks tliat tliat is what 
 he has just copied, and omits unconsciously the 
 intervening words. — Another prerequisite to suc- 
 cessful criticism is a careful study of the principal 
 documents, and groups or classes of documents, 
 in connection with the history of the text, so far 
 as it can be traced, in order to determine by a 
 process of "comparative criticism " their peculiar 
 characteristics, their weak points and their strong 
 points, and the relative anti(]uity and value of 
 their texts. This process includes the ancient 
 versions, and the quotations in the writings of 
 the principal Christian Fathers. It cannot be 
 here detailed. Griesbach did good work in this 
 direction, and it has been the special study of 
 Westcott and Hort. AVe are thus enabled to 
 iceigh tlie external evidence in particular cases 
 with some approach to accuracy. — E. a.] 
 
 [4. liestdts of' the Textual Criticism of the Neu? 
 Testament. — The host of " various readings " 
 which an examination of ancient manuscripts, 
 versions, and quotations, has brought to light, 
 perhaps a hundred and fifty thousand in uiun- 
 ber, alarms some sinqile-minded people. Analy- 
 sis at once dispels the alarm. It is seen that a 
 very large proportion of these readings, say nine- 
 teen-twentieths, are of no authority, no one can 
 suppose them to be genuine ; and nineteen-twen- 
 tieths of the renuiinder are of no importance as 
 affecting the sense. Of how much, or rather, of 
 how little, importance, for the most part, the 
 remainder are, can readilj' be seen by comparing 
 the revised version of the New Testament (with 
 its marginal notes) with the text of the conmion 
 version, or by an exannnation of the various read- 
 ings of the chief modern editors in Scrivener's 
 Greek Testament referred to above. The great 
 number of various readings is simply the result 
 of the extraordinary richness of our critical re- 
 sources. Westcott and Ilort renuirk with entire 
 truth, that "in the variety and fulness of the 
 evidence on which it rests, the text of the New 
 Testament stands absolutely and unapproachably 
 alone among ancient jirosi'-writings." (Greek 
 Test., vol. i. p. 501). — K. A.] 
 
 [f.iT. — Besides what have already been men- 
 tioned, the most important contributions to our 
 knowledge of manuscri]its of the New Testament 
 in the present century have bet^n made by V. II. 
 A. ScHiVKNF.R, in his Full and Exact Collation of 
 about Tu-cnti/ MS.S. of the Gospels, Cambridge, 
 1853, and Full Collation of almit Fiftij MSS. of the 
 Greek Testament, tcith a Crit. Introduction, ajv 
 peniled to his edition of the Coilex Augiensis, 1859. 
 Works of snuiller importance in this department 
 have been jiublished bv Dermout. Kinck (I.urn- 
 bratio critica, 183(1), l{eu;he, \'<in Muralt, Dobbin 
 {C„d. Monl/ortiaiius, 1854), Delitzsch, Uaml.ic/iriji- 
 liche Fundi (1861-C2), on Cod. 1 of the Apoca-
 
 BIBLB VERSIONS. 
 
 279 
 
 BIBLE VERSIONS. 
 
 lypse, the long-lost manuscript of Erasmus ; also 
 by the Catholic Cozza, and Ferrar and Abbott. 
 
 On the textual criticism of the New Testament 
 generally, besides the Introdiwlions to the Xew 
 Testament by Michaelis, translated with valuable 
 notes by ^Nlarsh (3d ed., 1818), Hug, De Wette, 
 Bleek, and Keuss (Geschichle dcr heiliyen ScJirifl- 
 en N. T., 5te Ausg., 1874), may be mentioned the 
 special treatises by J. Scott Porter (1848), S. Da- 
 vidson (185''), Tregelles (185G), and Scrivener, 
 Pliiin Inlrod. to the Criticism of the N. 7'., Cam- 
 bridge and London, 1861, 2d ed., 1874. .Scrivener 
 represents a more con.servative school of criticism 
 than Tischendorf, Tregelles, and Westcott and 
 Hort, though in his different writings he has 
 steadily approached them. Smaller works are : 
 William Milligan and Alexander Roberts, The 
 Words of the N. T., a.s altered by Trnnsmission and 
 ascertained hi/ Criticism, Edinb., 1873 ; Scrivener's 
 Six Lectures'on the Text of the N. T., 1875; C. E. 
 Hanmiond, Outlines of Textual Criticism applied to 
 the N. T., 3d ed., 1880; and E. C. Mitchell, The 
 Critical Handliook, Andover, also London, 1880. 
 — For applied criticism, the notes of ]Meyer and 
 his collaboi-ators on the Xew Testament, those of 
 Wieseler on Galatians, Volkmar on Mark, and 
 particularly Weiss on j\latthew and ]Mark, and 
 Westcott on John, also Lightfoot on Galatians, 
 Philippians, and especially Colossians and Phile- 
 mon, are worthy of attention. The Kev. T. S. 
 Green's Course of Developed Criticism on Passages 
 of the N. T. affected bij Various Headings, London 
 [1856], displays good judgment. Reiche's Co7n- 
 mentarius criticus, 3 tom., Gottingen, 1853-62, 4to, 
 is heavy, but not weighty. — Among elaborate 
 critical monographs on important passages, the 
 following may be mentioned : J. W. Burgon, 
 The last Tioelve Verses of the Gospel according to 
 S. Mark vindicated . . . and established, Oxford, 
 1871 (comp. an art. by Dr. J. A. Broadus in the 
 Baptist Quarterli/ for July, 1869) ; Ezra Abbot on 
 .John i. 18, in the Bibliotheca Sacra for October, 
 1861, and the Unitarian Review for June, 1875 ; 
 Professor James I>rummond on the same passage, 
 in the Theol. Rev. for October, 1871 (comp. April, 
 1876); F. J. A. Hort, Two Dissertations, 1. On 
 jjovoyevtii 0eof in Scripture and Tradition, etc., 
 Cambr. and Loud., 1876; Ezra Abbot on Acts 
 XX. 28, in the Bibl. Sacra for April, 1876 ; A. W. 
 Tyler on 1 Cor. xiii., in the Bibl. Sacra for Janu- 
 ary and July, 1873 ; William Hayes Ward on 
 1 Tim. iii. 16, in the Bibl. Sacra for January, 
 1865 ; and William Orme's Memoir of the Contro- 
 versy respecting 1 John v. 7, Lond., 1830, new ed., 
 with notes and an appendix by Ezra Abbot, New 
 York, 1866.— E. a.] 
 
 TISCHENDORF (d.) ; O. VON GEBHAEDT 
 (revised jiiui in large part re-written by Ezra Abbot). 
 
 BIBLE VERSIONS, or TRANSLATIONS OF 
 
 THE BIBLE. As regards the Old Testament, 
 the extinction of the Hebrew as a spoken lan- 
 guage, and, as regards the New Testament, the 
 introduction of Christianity among non-Cireek- 
 speaking peoples (for in the earliest day Chris- 
 tians read the entire Bible in Greek), rendered 
 translations necessities. These translations are 
 called "versions." Thej' may be classified as 
 immediate, i.e., directly from the original text, 
 and mediate, or derived from other translations. 
 The oldest of the first class are older than the 
 
 oldest existing manuscripts of the Bilile, and are- 
 therefore of great value to the Bible critic in 
 determining the text, and to the exegete in tra- 
 cing the history of doctrine; lor translation is 
 more or less commentary. 
 
 Ancient Versions. A. Versions of the Old 
 Tkstamknt.' I. GREEK. — (1) The first in 
 importance, and the oldest complete version in any 
 language, is the Alexandrian, known as the Seji- 
 tuagint (commonly designated by LXX.), because, 
 according to the worthless tradition (cf. KuRz: 
 Aristae epistnla ad Philocratem, Bern, 1872), the 
 translation of the Law was made on the Island 
 of Pharos, near Alexandria, Egypt, by 70 (72) 
 .lews, who brought the Hebrew manuscript from, 
 Palestine by request of Ptolemy Philadelphus, 
 who was gathering a library. (See Aiusteas.) 
 The story is told at great length by Josephus 
 (Ant. 12, 2). The truth about its origin is, 
 that Alexandria became, after the Dispersion, a 
 centre of Jewish population, and eventually of 
 religion ; but, as time went on, the .Jews, under 
 Greek influences, lost command of Hebrew, and 
 therefore required a translation of their sacred 
 books into Greek. The men who met this want 
 differed very much in knowledge and skill, were 
 of an indeterminate number, and of different 
 periods, beginning with the time of Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus (B.C. 280), and continuing until B.C. 
 150. The Pentateuch was first translated. Pre- 
 viously there had been Targums (see II. Ch.\l- 
 dee) ; and it is likely, that, upon the margin of 
 the Hebrew manuscripts, difficult words and sen^ 
 fences were translated, and that these were used 
 in the final complete work. Tjie translation of 
 the remainder of the canon was less necessary, 
 and was more a piece of literary work. The 
 translators were chiefly of Egyptian, and par- 
 ticularly Alexandrian, birth and training, and 
 therefoi-e strongly Hellenistic. It must be con- 
 fessed that we are much in the dark in regard to 
 the comparative value of the parts and of the 
 texts of the Septuagint ; yet certain things have 
 been clearly made out. 'The most attention has 
 been given to the version of the Pentateuch. 
 See H. G. J. Thiersch: De Pent. Al. libri III., 
 Erlang., 1841, and Frankel ; Ueber tlen Einjluss 
 der paldslin. Exegese auf die alex. Hermeneutik, 
 Leipzig, 1851. It surely is not the work of one 
 man, nor made at one time. On the whole, it is 
 successful (Numbers, and the close of Exodus from 
 xxxvi. 9, are exceptions), though not literal (cf. 
 P. de Lagarde's edition of Cienesis, Leipzig, 1868, 
 which contains the text of the Roman edition of 
 1586, with a rich critical apparatus). The Septu- 
 agint Pentateuch in more than a thousand places 
 agrees with the Samaritan [see Samaritan Penta- 
 teuch in this article passim], where the latter differs 
 from the JIassoretic text; but again it agrees 
 with the Hebrew in opposition to the Samaritan, 
 and the Hebrew is incontestably the original text. 
 In regard to the subsequent books see : J. HoL- 
 LENBERG : Der Charakter der alexandr. Ueberset- 
 
 ' For literature see : Richard Simon : nixioire critique du 
 Vieux Testament, edit. 3. Roterd.. I6S5. ,Iac. Le Long: Bib- 
 liotli. sacra, ed. Mascli. Pare II., Vol. I.-III., Halle, 1778-90, 
 6 vols. Walton : Prolegomena in Biblia I'olyijloUa IX. sq., 
 ed. J. A. Dathe, Leipzig, 1777. RosenmCller .■ Ilandb. f. d. 
 Lit. d. bibl. Kritik it. Exegese, Gottingen, 17'J7-18U0, 4 parts, 
 and the Introductions of Jahn (1802-03), ElCHHORN (182U-24), 
 Bertholdt (1812-19), and Db Wbttb.Scbbadbr (1869).
 
 BIBLE VERSIONS. 
 
 280 
 
 BIBLE VERSIONS. 
 
 zu»(/ ile.i Ij. Joslnia n. ilir kxth-rilitchcr Werlh, Mors, 
 1S76 ; Fritzsche's editions of Judges [^Rkhter], 
 Zurich, 1867, and Ruth (Zurich, 1SG4) ; Well- 
 HAUSEN : Der Text il. B. Sa7n. untersucht, Gijttin- 
 ^en, 1871 ; Thexu's, in the " Kurzgef . Exeget. 
 Handb. zum A. T." iiher der Biiclier der Konir/e, 
 audFR. C. Movers: Kritische Untersuchunyen iiher 
 die bibl. Chroni/c., Bonn, 1884. The transhition of 
 the Psalms and Prophets is least successful, for 
 which fact their difficulty is suiBcient explana- 
 tion. On Isaiah, see Gesexius' commentary, 
 and [Dr. Axtox Scholz : Die alexa/ulrinische 
 Uehersetzung des Bitches lesaias, AViirzhurg, 1880 
 (47 pp.)]- On Jeremiah, for proof that the 
 translator must have used a text differing very 
 much from our present text, see Movers : De 
 uli-iumiue recens. ratlc. Jer. indole^ etc.. Ilanib., 
 1834. The Church, from ancient times, used, in 
 place of the Septuagiut of Daniel, the more exact 
 version of Theodotion. The long-lost Septuagiut 
 version was discovered in the Chisian Library 
 at Rome by Simon de INIagistris (1772). [See 
 the edition of J. Cozz.A., Rom., 1877. On the 
 Minor Prophets, cf. Vollers : Das Dodekaproph- 
 ■elon der Alexaiulriner, Berlin, 1880 sqq.] ; on Amos, 
 J. S. V.\TER, Halle, 1810: on Xahum, Studer, 
 and L. Reixke : Zur Krilik der alleren Versionen 
 des Pr. Nnkuin, Miinster, 1867; on Jonah, EiCH- 
 HORX: Allg. Bibl. d. bibl. Litter.; on Hosea, the 
 same. The translators of Proverbs and Job 
 show themselves very well acquainted with 
 (ireek, but handle the original in a very free and 
 arbitrary manner. Proverbs was evidently trans- 
 lated from a text which varied from our present 
 Hebrew text: cf. P. de L.\garde: Amnerkung- 
 en zur griesch. U bersetzuri g . tier Prorerhien. Leip- 
 zig, 180:1 On .loh, G. (i. IL Bickell : De indole 
 ac ratione vers. Al. in inlerpretando I. Johi, JIarb., 
 1862. On Esther, cf. Fritzsche's edition, and 
 his excellent Libri apocri/phi V. T.. Lips., 1871. 
 But in the Septuagint were not alone canonical 
 books ; for, as the work of translating continued, 
 additions were made from other sources, Greek 
 and Hebrew, either lengthy passages or whole 
 books. Such additions are called Apucrijpha, and 
 were acknowledged by their inserters not to be- 
 long to the canon, which comprised, according to 
 the Hebrew notation and arrangement, twenty- 
 two books. See Caxon, Apocrypha. These 
 interpolations were allowable, from their stand- 
 point, because the Septuagint was regarded as a 
 private undertaking. We do not know their 
 date, only that in Theodotion's time (second cen- 
 tury A. D.) they were all added, and the version 
 passed into universal use in the Christian Church, 
 with no distinction between its contents ; apocry- 
 phal and canonical books being held in equal 
 esteem. 
 
 'I'he di.scovery was quickly made that the Sep- 
 tuagint was not always accurate ; and this fact 
 was particularly unpleasant when the Jews quoted 
 from the Hebrew against the Christian dispu- 
 tants, who, through ignorance, were obliged to 
 rely upon the .Septuagint. Moreover, the text 
 itself was corrupt and degenerating, since there 
 was no ecclesiastical guard about it. In this 
 «mergency, Origen prepared his great llexajita 
 (sixfold), which contained a corrected text, and 
 thus guided the Christian apologist, and at the 
 same time showed the amount of the Septua- 
 
 gint's inaccuracy. His work was this : he ar- 
 ranged in six parallel columns the Hebrew 
 text in Hebrew, the same in Greek characters, 
 the versions of Aquila, Symmachus, and Theo- 
 dotion, and a text of the .Septuagint. partly cor- 
 rected by a comparison of manuscripts, partly 
 emended by recourse to the Hebrew. The varia- 
 tions of several less important versions were also 
 noted. The Hexapla was too large to be circu- 
 lated as a whole; but the revised Septuagint was 
 published in separate transcripts, and, known as 
 the Hexaplar text, quite displaced the older text. 
 But by their omission of his critical signs to dis- 
 tinguish his improvements from the original Sep- 
 tuagint. and by mixing the texts in juxtaposi- 
 tion, the scribes increased the corruption he had 
 hoped to prevent. See Frederick Field : Ori- 
 getiis Hexaploriim qum stipersuiit, Oxon., 1867-74, 
 2 T. [P. de L.\garde : Ceteris Testamenti ah 
 Origene recensiti fragmenia apud Syros servata 
 quinque. Gottingen, 1880.] 
 
 The Printed Text of the Septuagint. — There are 
 four principal texts: (1) that of the Biblia Poly- 
 glolta Coinplulensis (1514-17). a poor text; several 
 unknown manuscripts were used ; often reprinted, 
 e.g., Paris Polyglot (1629). (2) The Aldine, 
 Venice, 1518 ; manuscripts unknown ; resembles 
 (1); often reprinted. (3) The 5/x/(He, patronized 
 by Pope Sixtus V. , Rome, 1587 ; follows the Codex 
 Vaticanus, but not exactly, supplying omissions 
 from other manuscripts, cost much labor, and is 
 the best text; reprinted in Walton's Polyglot 
 (1657), and with various readings of more than 
 three hundred manuscripts, by Kob. Holmes and 
 Jac. Parsons, Ox., 1798-1827, 5 vols, fob; lastly 
 by TiscHENDORF, with various readings, 1850, 
 [best ed. VL, 1880, 2 tomi, with Nestle's colla- 
 tion of the Vatican and Sinaitic texts, which is 
 of great value, and can be obtained separately : 
 Nestle : Veteris Testamenti Orceci coilices Vati- 
 camts el Sinaiticus, Lips., 1S80]. (4) That of the 
 Codex Alexandrinus, published by J. E. Grabe, 
 Oxon., 1707-19, in facsimile by Baber, 1816-28, 
 in improved form by Fr. Field. Oxon., 1859. 
 The Codex Sinaiticus was published in facsimile 
 by Tischendorf in 1862, but not in a generally 
 accessible form. The Codex Vaticunus was pub- 
 lished in full by C. Vercellone, Gins. Cozza, and 
 a. Sergio, Rome, 1868-72, 5 vols. fol. The 
 Septuagint has not been studied as it should be, 
 although ample materials in a scattered form 
 exist. There is only the clumsiest attempt at a 
 special lexicon. The chief works, the The.^aurns 
 by BiEL (1779-80) and Schleus.ner (1820), 
 make little advance upon the very useful concord- 
 ances of Kircher (1607) and Trommius (1718). 
 But Ch. AiiR. Wahl, by his Claris Librorum 
 V. T. opncryph., Lips., 18"53, does advance in a 
 limited sphere. 
 
 (ireat is the historical significance of the Septua- 
 gint. It was the first attempt at a translation 
 upon so large a scale. This explains and ex- 
 cuses its errors. Greek and Hebrew are very 
 dissimilar; and, as the translators knew more 
 about the former than the latter, they failed to 
 present the deeper and truer sense of the Scrip- 
 tures, and therefore misled the Christian Church, 
 which used their labors. But the Septuagint is 
 of the highest importance for the criticism and 
 history of Hebrew text. It tells us the her'
 
 BIBLE VERSIONS. 
 
 281 
 
 BIBLE VERSIONS. 
 
 niPiiPutical stiiiiflpoiiit of the Ilcilenists. Their 
 translation is not a rfM<lering of the present 
 Massoretic text in many places ; prolialily liecaiise 
 their Hebrew text was ilitl'erently punctuated, or 
 varied, or seemed to vary, in its consonants, and 
 also l>ecause their hernieneutical piriuciples were 
 very free. Then the Septuagint is not a literal 
 translation. Finally, the influence of the Septu- 
 agint upon the lant/uafje of the Jews was very 
 great. As it was the finst attempt of the Hel- 
 lenists to transfer their hereditary possessions 
 (religion and history) into a new language and 
 mode of thought, so it furnished at the same time 
 a model. The idiom of the Septuagint became 
 the idiom of the New Testament in more fully 
 developed form, and thus that of early Christi- 
 anity, whose writers cannot lie thoroughly im- 
 derstood without a familiar knowledge of the 
 Septuagint, which they so largely quote. Most 
 of the direct quotations of the Old Testament 
 are apparently from it, and thus its study is 
 indispensable to an exegete. O. F. FRITZSCHE. 
 
 [2. Other Greek Versio)!!:. — (1) Aquila, a Jewish 
 proselyte of Pontus, a contemporary of Hadrian 
 (about A.D. 130), prepared a literal translation 
 for the benefit of Jews contending with Chris- 
 tians, which was so successful, that it was used 
 by Jews and Christians. It was slavishly literal ; 
 and, in his endeavor to present a word-for-word 
 reudering of the Hebrew into the Greek, he goes 
 to the extent of the boldest word-coining and 
 grBmmatical absurdities. The Ebionites proba- 
 bly used it; although IrenEeus, ado. Ii(er.,ed. Migne, 
 HI. 21, ed. Grabe, III. 24, does not necessarily 
 prove this. Jerome speaks of a second more lit- 
 eral version. Only fragments of it now remain 
 in Origen's Hexapla. Cf. Hody : de Biblionim 
 texlihus originalibus, Versionibus Greeds el Latina 
 Vulyata, libri IV., Oxon., 1705, fob, pp. 570-578. 
 
 (2) Tlieodolion, a Jewish proselyte of Ephesus 
 (Irenaaus, adv. hcer. ed. Migne, HI. 21), revised, 
 before A.D 160, leather than translated, the Sep- 
 tuagint, deriving his alterations in part from 
 Aquila, and partly from the original text; which, 
 however, he did not thoroughly understand, and 
 so occasionally transliterated the Hebrew he could 
 not translate. Origen used him in his Hexapla; 
 and the Church substituted his version of the 
 Book of Daniel for the Seventy's. Cf. Hody, as 
 above, pp. 579-585. 
 
 (3) Symmachus, a Samaritan Ebionite (fl. A.D. 
 19.3-211), made a version distinguished for clear- 
 ness and elegance, but paraphrastic and occa- 
 sionally arbitrary. Cf. Hody, as above, pp. 
 585-589. (4-6) Besides those named, three others 
 are cited by Origen in his Hexapla, which are 
 called the Quinta, Sexta, and Sepitima, the authors 
 and ages being unknown. Probably the two 
 first extended only to detached books of the Old 
 Testament, and the last only to the Psalms. 
 They are rather paraphrases than translations. 
 (7) The Versio Veneta, a very late Greek transla- 
 tion of several Old- Testament books, now in the 
 Library of St. Mark's in Venice. The manuscript 
 is not earlier than the fourteenth or fifteenth 
 century. It is of little value, except as a literary 
 curiosity. It follows the Massoretic recension. 
 See O. Gkbhakdt: Grcecus Venetus, Lips., 1875.] 
 
 H. CHALDEE. — These versions are called 
 " Targums " (translation, or interpretation), and 
 
 were ri^ideied necessary by the loss of Hebrew 
 while in Babylonia (cf. Neh. viii. 8). They were 
 at first, and for many years, oral. As might be 
 expected, they are usually paraphrases, in which 
 the ideas of the translator are more followed 
 than those of the original writer. No one of 
 those now existing extends over the whole Old 
 Testament, although together they do, with the 
 exception of Ezra and Nehemiah. The two old- 
 est are that of (1) Onkelos, on the Law, and that 
 of (2) .Jonathan ben Uziel, on the Earlier and 
 Later Prophets. (1) Oidcelos probably lived 
 about A.D. 70, as he was the friend of (Gamaliel. 
 His interpretation is generally correct : it follows 
 the text closely, and is free from the fabulous 
 additions which mar other Targums. His Tar- 
 gum was first published in Bologna (1482, fob), 
 with Hebrew text and Rashi's commentary; also 
 in Buxtorf's Rabbinical Bible (1619). A recent 
 and much emended edition dates ^\''ilna, 1852. 
 The Targum of (2) Jonathan ben Uziel, who, 
 according to tradition, was the disciple of Ilillel ; 
 but the Targum is younger than Onkelos', and 
 more paraphrastic and less simple. The first 
 edition dates Leiria, 1494; but it is found also in 
 the great Rabbinical Bibles, and in the Antwerp, 
 Paris, and London Polyglots. [The Targums 
 of Onkelos and Pseudo-.Jonathan on the Penta- 
 teuch have been translated into English by J. W. 
 EriiKRiDGE, Lond., 1862-65, 2 vols ] 
 
 Besides these two, which date from before the 
 third century, there were other Targums of im- 
 portance, particularly two on the Pentateuch, — 
 one compilete, attributed, but falsely, to the same 
 (3) Jonathan mentioned above; the other only in 
 fragments, called the (4) Jerushalmi. The first 
 is based upon Onkelos, but departs far more from 
 the Hebrew into the region of pious fiction. It is 
 a modern work, not earlier than the middle of the 
 seventh century. The Jerushalmi is earlier, 
 dependent upon Onkelos', which it corrects in 
 places, but was never designed to be complete. 
 Both are reprinted in Walton's (the London) Poly- 
 glot. [S. Gronemann : Die Joual/ian'sche Pen- 
 lateiick-Uebersetzung in ihrem Verhiillnisse zur Hala- 
 eha, Leipzig, 1879.] 
 
 (5) Targums of "Joseph the Blind" on the 
 Hagiographa. Tradition, wrongly as usual, 
 assigns these Targums to a person so named, 
 who lived in the fourth century ; but critical 
 study has put their date in the eleventh century. 
 The work separates into three parts : Targums 1. 
 On the Psalms, Job, Proverbs ; 2. On Song of 
 Solomon, Ruth, Lamentation, Esther, and Eccle- 
 siastes; 3. Chronicles and Daniel. The (1) are 
 nearly contemporaneous, and from the same 
 land, probably Syria. The work on Proverbs is 
 the best, following the Hebrew as closely as 
 possible. The similarity of this Targum to the 
 Syriac version is extraordinary. Some suppose 
 it was in truth copied from it, while others, with 
 perhaps greater likelihood, contend for its inde- 
 pendence. [Deutsch, in Smith's Dictionari/ of the 
 Bible, vol. IV. p. 3421, maintains, with Frankel, 
 that the true explanation is, that "the Seventy is 
 the common source of both versions, but in such 
 a manner that the Aramaic (Chaldee) has also 
 made use of the Hebrew and the Greek; of the 
 latter, however, through the Syriac medium."] 
 The Targums on Psalms aud Job are mere frag-
 
 BIBLE VERSIONS. 
 
 282 
 
 BIBLE VERSIONS. 
 
 ments, more or less close to the Hebrew. 2. The 
 Targums on this class are uot mentioned before 
 the twelfth century. The freedom of a version 
 can go no farther than it does in them. They 
 are, in fact, mere commentaries. 3. No Targum 
 on Daniel was for a long time believed to exist ; 
 but Munk found one in the Imperial (National) 
 Library at Paris. It was written after the first 
 crusade, or the twelfth century. See Notice sur 
 Sawlia. Paris, 1S38. The Targum on Chronicles 
 was also long unknown. The first edition ap- 
 peared under the title PnrajJiratiis Chalilaicu liln: 
 Chromcorum. cura IM. F. Bkckii, 2 torn. Aug. 
 Yind. (Augsburg), 1680-83. 4to. 
 
 There is also extant a Targum on the apocry- 
 phal pieces of Esther. See J. B. De Itossi : 
 Specimen variarum lection um sacri textus et ChaltUnca 
 Estheris additamenta, Kom., 1780; ed. 2, cura J. 
 F. Schnnrrer, Tiibingen. 1783. VOLCK. 
 
 III. SYJUA C — 1. The olde.st and most impor- 
 tant version is the Peshito (the correct or simple). 
 because confined to the text, in contrast to the 
 allegorical and mystical paraphrases. The first 
 reliable historical reference to the version is its 
 use by Ephraem the Syrian (d. 373) in the fourth 
 century; but even then it was old, for Ephraem 
 defines in his commentaries many of its words 
 which were no longer understood by his country- 
 men. Hence it is no improbable conjecture 
 which assigns the version to the second century. 
 It is made from the Hebrew, probably by Jew- 
 ish Christians, and includes the Old-Testament 
 canon, without the apocryphal additions, which 
 were translated later; is accurate and close. 
 The version of the Xew Testament seems to have 
 been made afterwards. The Old Testament was 
 published fir.st in the Paris Polyglot (1(345), and 
 then in Walton's (16.57), and. in critical and im- 
 proved edition, by the British and Foreign Bible 
 Society (in 1823). under care of Samuel Lee, Pro- 
 fessor of Arabic at Cambridge. There is wanting 
 a truly critical complete edition. ARNOLD. 
 
 In the sixth century the Peshito was univer- 
 sally received by Syrian Christians, even while 
 the controversy raged between the Monophysites 
 and Nestorians, and so is at the present day. 2. 
 The version of Bishop Paul of Telia (a city of Meso- 
 potamia), made in 616 sq., at the suggestion of 
 the Alonophysite patriarch Athanasius, was based 
 upon the HexaplarGreek text. It isclosely literal, 
 and thus is important in the critical study of Ori- 
 gen's work. Dr. Antonio M.-vria Ckuiani of 
 the Ambrosian Library at Milan has published Co- 
 dex syro-hexaplaris Anihrosianus, 1874 sqq. The 
 so-called Versio Kar),:ap!tensis, or Montana, is 
 neither an independent version nor a recension 
 of the Peshito, but a Massoretic work upon the 
 Old and New Testaments, and >ipon the chiefest 
 Orthodox Greek Fathers whose works had been 
 translated into Syriac. Cf. Paulin Mautin : 
 Tradition Karkaphienne, ou la Alassorc chez les 
 Syriens, Paris, 1870. The so-called Figurata owes 
 its origin to a writing or printing error, and the 
 ensuing false interpretation. Abulfaraj (Bar Ile- 
 brajns) in the thirteenth century says {A hul-l'hara- 
 gii/iist. dynastiariwijdii. Ed. Pocock,Ox()n.,1663,p. 
 i(K)), according to Pocock's translation. " The Syr- 
 ians have two versions, — Simplex, which was 
 translatfid from the Hebrew into Syriac in the time 
 of Addai the Ajxistle, or, as some say, in the time 
 
 of Solomon, the son of David, and Hiram, and the 
 Figurata, according to the Sepluagint text, translated 
 from Greek into Syriac." The words underscored 
 should read, and of Hiram, King of Ti/re. and 
 the Septuagint. By " the Septuagint " is meant the 
 version of Paul of Telia. Several others are re- 
 ported. Jacob, Bishop of Edessa (d. 712), made a 
 recension of the Peshito, according to the Syro- 
 Hexaplar text. Fragments have been published; 
 e.g., in Ceriani"s Monumenta sacra et prof. V. 1, 
 1868. The Nestorian patriarch Mar Ahhas (d. 
 552) is said to have made a translation from the 
 Greek. Simeon, Abbot of the Convent of St. 
 Licinius, and Polycarp, the author of the Philoxe- 
 nian New Testament, are said each to have made 
 a version of the Psalms from the Greek. 
 
 IV. SAM.iRfTAy. — Besides a recension, 
 the Samaritans had a translation of the Penta- 
 teuch in their peculiar dialect. Ad. Brull : 
 Das Samaritan. Targnm zum Pentateuch, Frank- 
 fort-a-M., 187.5, issued the first complete edition 
 of it. It is not earlier than the second century 
 B.C., although the date and author are uncer- 
 tain. It follows closely the Samaritan text, but 
 occasionally contains apparent interpolations from 
 the Targum of Onkelos. Cf. Samuel Kohn : 
 Zur Sprache, Literatur und Dogmatik der Samari- 
 taner, Leipzig, 1876. 
 
 V. EGYPTIAN versions sprang into being 
 in the third century, or at the beginning of the 
 fourth, in answer to the demand of the growing 
 African Church. They were of all the various 
 dialects, founded upon the Septuagint (except 
 Daniel, which was from Theodotion's), and are 
 of indeterminate age and seniority. Portions of 
 these versions have been published, especially the 
 Pentateuch and the Psalms. O. F. fritzsche. 
 
 VI. LATIN. Cf. Petrus Sabatier: Biblio- 
 rum sdcrorum latino; versioncs antiquce, seu retus 
 ital., etc., Rheims, 1743-49. Also the Specidum 
 Augustini in the Spicilegium Romanum, torn. 
 IX. 1. Vetus Latina, or Old Latin, was made 
 from the Septuagint in North Africa some time 
 in the second century; for it is quoted by the 
 earliest of the Latin Fathers, and was widely 
 circulated. It is throughout a verbal version, 
 made simultaneously by several men, in the de- 
 teriorated Latin of the period, with its mixture 
 of colloquial and provincial words and phrases, 
 i.e., in the .siieech of the common people. AVlien 
 introduced into Italy, where (ireek was under- 
 stood, and a higher culture common, its provincial 
 rudeness gave offence, and so a revision was 
 demanded. Thus arose the Itala, or the Italian 
 version of the Old Testament. We have Augus- 
 tine's testimony that a translation of the New 
 Testament was undertaken by any one who 
 knew sufficient Greek. There existed then 
 more than one Latin version of the Bible; and 
 perhaps Britain, (Jaul, and Spain had each a 
 national version. But in Africa the Old Latin 
 was the only one current. It was there jealously 
 guarded and kept in use after Jerome's version 
 was elsewhere received. See Zieolkr : Die lot. 
 liiheliibersetzungen vor Ilierongmus und die Itala des 
 ylHyu.s7i»!«, Miinchen, 1870;'U. RomcRT : Penla- 
 leuchi e coilire Lugdunensi versio Latina antiquissima 
 (" anterieure ii saint Jerome "), Paris, 1881. 
 
 2. The Vulgate. — Cf. Lkanber van Ess: 
 Pragmatisch-kritische Geschichte dtr Vulgata,
 
 BIBLE VERSIONS. 
 
 283 
 
 BIBLE VERSIONS. 
 
 Tiiliiiigen, 18'J4; Kavlkn: (Safi-kichlp der Vul- 
 quta, Mainz, ISfiS; Riixscii : JtnUi u. Vuhjatn, 
 Marbura: ('-'d ed.), 1875; Zieglkk: ludafrdij- 
 nienle, Miinclieii, 1870. 
 
 The tfirm " Vulj^ate," that is " Vulfjata editio," 
 the cunriil text of the Bible, was ongiiially ap- 
 plied in tlie Church to the Septuagint. In this 
 sense the word is used by .Teronie, who, however, 
 also applied it to the Old Latin version, whicli 
 was made from the Sejituagint. But there does 
 not appear to be any instance in the age of 
 Jerome of the application of the term to the 
 Latin version of the Old Testament without 
 regard to its derivation from the Septuagint, or 
 to that of the New Testament. " Vulgata edi- 
 tio," meaning a corrupt text, also stands in con- 
 trast to the true Hexaplar text of the Septuagint. 
 The Latin Fathers habitually refer to Jerome's 
 version as "our version." Hut the Council of 
 Trent (151.5-63) described it .as " vetus et vulgata 
 editio," and hence the term "Vulgate" is used 
 to-day exclusively of it. 
 
 The Latin texts in current use had been cor- 
 rupted by frequent copying. There was urgent 
 need of a thorough revision. At this crisis God 
 raised up a man to do the work. Sopiiroxius 
 Eusehius Hierony.^ics, commonly called Je- 
 KOME (331-420), the most learned scholar, not 
 only of his day, but of many centuries, amply 
 prepared, linguistically through his acquaintance 
 with Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, and morally and 
 spiritually by his earnestness and piety, was 
 requested in 383 by Damasus, Bishop of Rome 
 (3fi6 to 384), to do this almost imperative work. 
 Nothing more at first was contemplated than a 
 revision of the cuiTent Latin New Testament by 
 means of the Greek original. The Gospels were 
 taken up, all interpolations removed, and gross 
 errors corrected. We do not know whether he 
 went through the New Testament in this way ; 
 but it is probable. Bishop Damasus asked him 
 to revise the Psalms. He made two revisions : 
 the first (383) by the use of the common text of 
 the Septuagint (this is the Roman Psalter, be- 
 cause introduced by Damasus into ecclesiastical 
 use in Rome) ; the second (387) liy the use of 
 the Hexaplar text (this is the Gallican Psalter, 
 because introduced primarily into Gaul by Greg- 
 ory of Tours, then into Germany, England, and 
 Spain, and eventually made by Pius V., in 1.566, 
 the succussor of the Roman). He then designed 
 and carried out a revision of the entire Old Tes- 
 tament according to the Hexaplar text, of which, 
 . however, there has come down to us only the 
 Book of Job. But the more he compared the 
 Greek texts with the Hebrew original, for Jew- 
 ish friends secretly supplied him with manu- 
 scripts from a synagogue (he had meanwhile 
 taken up his abode in Bethlehem), the more 
 desirable did a new version from the Hebrew 
 appear. He knew full well how prejudice and 
 fanaticism would put obstacles in the way ; but 
 solicited by friends, although without any eccle- 
 siastical sanction, he made a begimiing with 
 Samuel and Kings in 392 (prefixed by the famous 
 Prologus (jalealns, giving an account of the He- 
 brew Canon), and completed his translation in 404. 
 Portions of it, such as the writings of Solomon, Es- 
 ther, Judith, and Tohit, were done in great haste, and 
 there are errors, which, with more care, he would 
 
 not have made ; but, " as a monument of ancient 
 linguistic power, this translation of the Old Test- 
 ament stands imrivalled and unique." 
 
 Although Jerome's version was used by .some 
 as soon as finished, it spread very gradually, 
 was, indeed, " received with a loud outcry of re- 
 proach ; " and it took centuries for it to become 
 the ecclesiastical translation of the Occident. No 
 ecclesiastic as such, no church court, befriended 
 it : it won its way upon its merits, and in the 
 ninth century its victory was complete. As 
 time went on, its text deteriorated. Owing to 
 his eyes and general health, Jerome had origi- 
 nally employed scribes to write it: therefore the 
 first copy was probably not free from errors; and 
 each successive copy increased the evil. The old 
 and the new version being in use side by side led 
 to a mixture of both texts. Cassiodorus. in 
 the sixth century, was the first to attempt a 
 revision ; but this private work could not stem 
 the tide of corruption. So evidently bad was 
 the case, that Charlemagne ordei-ed Alcuin 
 (735-804), the most learned man of his day, and 
 his trusted friend, in the year 802, to revise the 
 Latin text. This Alcuin did, not by reference 
 to the Hebrew and Greek, but to older and more 
 correct Latin manuscripts, and presented a very 
 good text, which, under Charlemagne's patron- 
 age, obtained wide currency, and long resisted 
 decay. But in the lapse of years, other revisions 
 were reqixired, and were made by Lanfranc of 
 Canterbury (1089), Stephanus II., Abbot of 
 Citeaux (about 1109), and Cardinal Nicolaus 
 (about 11.50). In the thirteenth century so-called 
 " Correctoria biblica " were drawn up, in which 
 varieties of reading were discussed. But, al- 
 though in the monasteries the older and more 
 reliable texts were preserved, they were not used 
 in the preparation of a pure text. [See Di un 
 corlice critico delta BihJiia Vulgata, transcritto nel 
 secolo XIL, Palermo, 1880.] 
 
 But a better day awaited the Vulgate. Print- 
 ing was invented, and the first book sent out by 
 the press was the Latin Bible. No book was 
 more frequently printed. The text was the ordi- 
 nary. Cardinal Ximenez (1437-1517), in his 
 Complutensian Polyglot (1502-17), made the first 
 serious attempt to revise the text. Robert Ste- 
 phens (1503-59) in 1528 and 1540 made impor- 
 tant corrections by collation of manuscripts. But 
 there was felt a necessity for an authorized edition. 
 This the Council of Trent demanded (1546), and 
 it was undertaken by Pope Si.xTus V. (1521-90), 
 and issued 1590. The text was declared by the 
 Papal Constitution ^Etermis ille, tohe "true, law- 
 ful, authentic, and unquestioned in all public and 
 private discussion, reading, preaching, and expla- 
 nation." The printing of any other text was 
 forbidden, under penalty of excommunication. 
 But many changes had been made; and many 
 typographical errors, though none serious, had 
 passed uncorrected. Besides the usual preju- 
 dice against any change, personal feeling was 
 aroused. At the head of the movement against 
 the revision stood Bellarmine (1542-1621), the 
 famous Jesuit. Sixtus V. had put his Controver- 
 sice upon the index, and therefore his hatred was 
 excited. Here was also an opportunity to link 
 his name with the great Catholic work, the Au- 
 thentic Vulgata. Swayed by hate and ambition,
 
 BIBLE VERSIONS. 
 
 284 
 
 BIBLE VERSIONS. 
 
 he labored to undo the work of Sixtus. lie 
 lyingly told (iregory XIV. th.it Sixtus had him- 
 'self ordered the edition to be recalled. He pro- 
 posed that its errors should be at once corrected, 
 and in the preface the lyina; statement made that 
 they came about through the airelexsnexs of prinl- 
 Ts.' Gregory died in 1591. and his successoi-. Inno- 
 cent IX., in the same year. It was not, therefore, 
 until the beginning of 1592 that Bellarmine 
 realized his hopes. The new pope, Clement 
 VIII. (d. 1605). issued a decree (Feb. 13), inter- 
 dicting the Sixtine, and ordei-ing the purchase, at 
 the expense of the papal treasury, of all copies. 
 lu consequence, copies of this edition are ver}' 
 rare. The new or Clementine edition appeared 
 in 1592, with a temperate and modest pi'eface by 
 Bellarmine, who candidly allowed that the text 
 was not perfect, but claimed it was more correct 
 than any yet given. The two editions were simi- 
 lar in external appearance, and the second bore 
 tho name of .Sixtus upon thf titlepage. On the 
 history of the Authentic Vulg.ite, of. Thom.-\s 
 J.-iMES : BeUum papnle s. roncordia diacors Sixti V. 
 et Clemfntis VIII. circa Ilieroni/miaiwm edit., Lon- 
 don, 1600; several reprints, latest, 1841. 
 
 Even while the Clementine edition was fresli 
 from the press, thei'e was talk of revising it, and 
 several revisions have, indeed, V)een made ; but 
 the presence of an official text has cheeked the 
 study of the manuscripts, and hindered the print- 
 ing of various readings. Tlie '• epoch-making 
 work in the study of the Vulgate" is C. Vek- 
 CELLOXE : Varife Lectiones Vulr/. Lat Bihliorum. 
 Rome, tom. i. (1860), tom. ii. (unfinished), part 1, 
 (1862), part 2, (1864). The oldest and best manu- 
 script of the Latin Bible is the Codex Amiali- 
 nus, now in the Bibl. Laurentiana at Florence. 
 which dates from 541, and contains the entire 
 Bible, except Barucli. The New Testament part 
 ha,s been eciited by Tischendorf, 1850, 1854. The 
 Clementine text of the A'ulgate of the Old Tes- 
 tament was published at Leipzig, 1873, large 8vo, 
 with tlie various readings of the Codex Amiatinus 
 throughout. The edition was begun by Th. 
 Heyse, and completed by Tischendorf. The best 
 edition of the simple Clementine Vulgate is that 
 of Carlo Vercellone, Rome, 1861, 4to. 
 
 [Tlie present Vulgate, Canon ^V'estcott reminds 
 us, contains elements whicii belong to every pe- 
 riod and form of the Latin version, — (1) I'nre- 
 rised Old Latin (Wisdom, Kcclesiasticus, 1 and 2 
 Maccabees, I'.aruch), (2) Old I^atin revised from 
 the Septuagint (Psaltei'). (3) ./erome.'.i free trans- 
 lation from tlie ori(/iriat text (Judith, Tobit). (4) 
 Jerome's translation from the oiiginal (Old Tes- 
 tament, except Psalter). (5) Old Latin revised 
 from Greek manuscripts (Gospels). (6) Old 
 Latin cursorily revised (the remainder of the 
 New Testament). See art. Vulgate in Smith's 
 Dirt, of the liihte, Amer. ed., vol.IV. p. 3466.] 
 
 3. Modern Latin Versions. — For convenience we 
 here group a few modern translations of the Old 
 Testament into Latin from the Hebrew. Tlie 
 Reformers worked in lliis line, piirticnlarly (Kco- 
 jampadius, the Icarui'd Kcfnrmer of Basel, who 
 translated the prophetical l)ooks. But a Koman- 
 Catholic scholar, the learned Dominican Sanctes 
 Pag.ni.nus (147(1-1511), was the first to publish 
 (in 1528) a complete Latin Bible, wliich won 
 him great applause. A corrected edition of the 
 
 Old Tf^stament of this translation, along with 
 Beza's Latin New Testament, was issued by Rob- 
 ert Stephens in 1557. In 1572 appeared, as an 
 appendix to the Antirerp Poh/i/lot, a Latin iuter- 
 line.ar to the Bible, which, in the Old Testament, 
 was substantially the Paguinus version, corrected 
 Ijy Arias Montanus, and, in the New Testament, 
 the Vulgate. Under the direction of Cardinal 
 Thomas de Vio Cajeta.v (1469-1534). another 
 interlinear of the greater part of the Old Testa- 
 ment, and all the New Testament save the .Apoca- 
 lypse, was prepared by Jewish and Christian 
 scholars; but the Old-Testament parts were not 
 issued in collected edition until 1639. The New 
 Testament appeared 1530. The version was 
 verbal, and in rather barbarous Latin. Sebas- 
 tian Mi'xsTER (1489-1552) issued (in 1534-;i5, 
 2d ed. 1546) a literal, faithful version of the Old 
 Testament, with explanatory remarks, Leo 
 JuDE (1482-1542) had almost finished a Latin 
 version of the Old Testament, upon which he 
 had been engaged may yeai's. at the time of his 
 death. At his request some friends continued it; 
 and it was issued in splendid form by Froschower, 
 Ziirich, 1543, folio, Sebastian Castellio 
 (1515-63), in 1551, 1555, and 1556, sent forth an 
 elegant and accurate Latin version of the Old 
 Testament, The version made by Immasuel 
 Tremei.lius (1510-80), a born Jew. assisted by 
 his son-in-law Franciscus Junius (1645-1602), 
 which appeared in 2 tom., 1579, received great 
 praise. The New Testament appeared in reprint 
 in England by Middleton, 1580. The translation 
 of the Old Testament published by J. Pisc.\tor 
 (1546-1625) was in the main only a revision of 
 Tremellius*. Seb.\stian Sciimid (1617-96), a 
 very useful exegete. spent forty years upon a 
 Latin translation of the entire Bible, and did 
 not live to see it out of the press (1696, 2d ed. 
 1708), Johannes Coccejus (1603-69), the 
 Dutch theologian, issued an almost entire trans- 
 lation in connection with his commentaries: and 
 Jean le Clerc (1657-1736), the versatile Gene- 
 van, an independent able one, in parts, with a 
 commentary (1693-1731). From the learned and 
 acute priest of the oratory, Charles Fran(;ois 
 HoUBiGANT (1686-1783), appeared, Paris, 1753, 
 the Bililia Hebraica cum notis cril. el vers. lat. ad 
 notas crit. facia. 4 torn., the Hebrew text unpointed 
 (since he held the points to be, not only useless, 
 but dangerous), and tlie translation very careful, 
 J. A. Dathe (1731-91) made a conservative trans- 
 lation (if the Old Testament, which appeared at in- 
 tervals, 1773-89. Besides, there have been versions 
 of separate books, of greater or less excellence. 
 
 Turning to the .separate Latin versions of the 
 New Testament, the earliest, nio.st succe.ssful. and 
 influential, is that by Erasmus (141)7-1536), 
 made in five months, hut though hastily made, 
 as was his custom, so excellent, that it has been 
 reprinted more than two luuulred times. Five 
 editions a))pearod in his lifetiino (1516, 1519, 
 1522, 1527, 1535). Theodore Beza (1519- 
 1605) followed. His first edition appeared 15.50 
 (1557); the other per.sonally conducted editions 
 were 1.06.5,1588 (1589), 1,598; but the work has 
 been jmblished more than a hun<lred times. The 
 best edition is Cantabrig., 1042. Three new 
 translations are yet to be mentioned, — those of 
 II. A. SciiOTT, very handy, much used, Lips.,
 
 BIBLE VERSIONS. 
 
 285 
 
 BIBLE VERSIONS. 
 
 1805, 1811, 1825, 18:?0: F. A. An. NXiiK, Lips., 
 IHIJI; and An. (iii.'^ciiEN, Lips., 1832. But thn 
 time for such work is past. : it, is an anachronism. 
 The duty of tlie hour is to spread tlie living; 
 Word in living languages. (>. F. FllITZSCHE. 
 
 yn.E7'I/I0PlC. — In the ancient language of 
 the Axumite kingdom, commonly called, since 
 the sixteenth century, the Ethiopic, but liy tlie 
 natives the Geez, there exists a version of the 
 Bible, whicli has always been the only authorized 
 one among all the tribes of Abyssini.an Christians, 
 as well as among the .Tcwish Falashas, .and which 
 yet maintains its .ancient authority, and is read 
 in the service, although the Ethiopic long ago 
 ceased to be spoken. We have, however, no 
 reliable information in <"cgard to the exact time 
 or manner of its origin ; but it is certain that it 
 was made from the Alexandrian recension of the 
 Greek Bible in tlie early days of Christianity in 
 Abyssinia, or from the fourth to the sixth century, 
 and it is not only the oldest monument, but also 
 the foundation, of the whole Ethiopic literature. 
 It is very faithful ; being, for the most part, a ver- 
 bal rendering of the Greek, and yet readable and 
 fluent, and in the Old Testament often hits the 
 ideas and the words of the Hebrew in a surprising 
 manner. But this varies, of course ;' and the 
 translators were not learned men, nor even per- 
 fectly at home in Greek, as is evident when rare 
 words and technical terms had to be translated, 
 so that upon their shoulders lies a burden of 
 error which cannot be laid to defective manu- 
 scripts, nor to the poverty of Ethiopic. Copying 
 had the inevitable deteriorating effect upon their 
 work ; althougli it appears that errors from this 
 source were comparatively few before the last 
 three or four centuries, and that the majority of 
 the variations are intentional, the result of an 
 effort to remove archaisms, and render the diction 
 more idiomatic. Thus, in many manuscripts, 
 the four Gospels, the portion most read, have 
 undergone such a change, that they i-ead like a 
 paraphrase rather than a translation, or like a 
 new translation instead of the old. Those por- 
 tions less read are in purer condition. The tra- 
 dition which ascribes the version to Frumentius 
 is of little value. 
 
 The uncertainty of the text led to early 
 attempts at revision ; the easier to effect because 
 the Abyssinian pilgrims brouglit home with them 
 Bibles in other languages, so there could be com- 
 parison of texts. In the books of the Etliiopic 
 version already published [see Literature at end 
 of this section] three texts can be distinguished: 
 (1) The original translation, more or less cor- 
 rupted, very rare in the manuscripts ; (2) A text 
 enlarged and altered from the Greek, the com- 
 monest in the manuscripts; (3) A text corrected by 
 the Hebrew original, found in later manuscripts. 
 Critical care and caution are therefore requisite 
 to restore the original Ethiopic text. Since this 
 Bible is one of the oldest daughters of the 
 LXX., it has great critical importance, and has 
 preserved peculiarities and originalities. Thus 
 it had at first a different, peculiar, and partly 
 original division of the separate books. The 
 Occidental "chapters" were introduced at a later 
 day into Abyssinia, under European influences. 
 It included the .\pocrypha, except the IMaccabees, 
 ■\Thich were either not translated, or very quickly 
 
 lost, and several pseudographs (see title), and put 
 them upon perfect equality with the canonical 
 writings; and in this way the number of books 
 is given as eighty-one, — forty-six for the Old 
 Testament, thirty-five for the New; but in par- 
 ticulars the counting varies very much. 
 
 Lit. — Ludolk: JFIist. irlli., HI. 1, and Cmnni., 
 pp. 295-298; the Prolegomena to Walton's 
 Polyglot, No. 15; Lk Long: JiihUolh. sacra, ed. 
 A. G. Masch, 1778, tom. 11. pp. 110-1.57. Of 
 Ethiopic texts, Laukkxck i.ssued in 1819 tho 
 Asn iisio Jesatw, and the A/mcn/i/pm' of Ezra in 
 1820, at Oxford. Dillmann has edited the 
 Orlaleuch, 1853 ; the four books of the Kinr/s, 
 180I-71; Henoch, 1851; Lihcr Juliilaonnn, 18.59. 
 The first portions of the Ethiopic Scriptures that 
 appeared in print wei-e the Psalms and the Song 
 of Solomon, edited by John Potken, Kome, 1513. 
 Tiie New Testament was first printed in Rome, 
 1548-49, reprinted in Walton's Polyglot, 1657, 
 and a Latin translation of the version made by 
 Professor Bode, published at Brunswick, 1752-5.5, 
 2 vols. 4to. Jlr. Thomas Pell Piatt edited for 
 the Britisli and Foreign Bible Society an I>thiopic 
 New Testament, London, 1830. This edition, it 
 is true, is better printed than the Roman, but is 
 equally marred by many errors, and the absence 
 of an old nuvnuscript text, so that it is critically 
 worthless. A. DlIXMAX>f. 
 
 VIII. GOTHIC. — This version was the work 
 of Ulpiiilas or Vulkila (311-381), Bishop of 
 the West Goths, a "holy and spotless priest of 
 the Lord," written in an .alphabet he constructed 
 for this piu'pose out of Greek, Latin, and Runic 
 characters, and embr.aced the entire Bible, with 
 the exception of the four books of the Kinr/s, 
 omitted because of their warlike, .and, as he 
 thought, dangerous spirit against idols. Jfuch 
 of the New Testament, but very little of the Old 
 Testament, has come down to us. Uli>hilas was 
 an Arian ; but there is no trace of iiis heresy in 
 the version, which is faitliful, and so skilful, th.at 
 even the finer sliades of the original .are h.appily 
 brought out. The version is from tlie Greek 
 text, and has, therefore, critical weight. As it 
 now exists, there are traces of Latin-text influ- 
 ences; but these were probably of later origin, 
 when the manuscripts were copied in Italy dur- 
 ing the reign of the Goths. The recently debated 
 question, whether Ulphilas was tlie author of 
 the entire translation, must be answered affir- 
 matively in regard to the New Testament, but 
 left unanswered in the Old; for we know too 
 little about it. Cf. E. BERNHARnr: Krit. Un- 
 tcrs. iiber die r/olh. Bibeldbersetzun(j, Elberfeld, 
 1864-69, 2 vols; O. Ohrloff: Die BruchstUcke 
 vom A.T. der ynih. Biheliibers. h-itisch unlersucht, 
 ILalle 1876. And on Ulphilas cf. G. Waitz: 
 Uebcr das Lehen imd die Lehre des Ulf., Hannover, 
 1840 ; W. Bessell : Uebcr das Lehen des Uljilas 
 und die Bekehrunr) der Gothen zum Christcnthum, 
 Gottingen, 1860. Cf. also W. Krafft, Kirchen- 
 (jescliichle der rjerm. Volkcr, Berlin, 1S54. 
 
 [In the fifth century the East Goths governed 
 Italy, and the West, Spain, where they ruled until 
 the eighth century. In this w.ay the version was 
 very widely spread. Tregelles, indeed, says it 
 must have been the vernacular translation of a, 
 large portion of Europe.] But eventually it was 
 entirely lost sight of for centui-ies, until, in the
 
 BIBLE VERSIONS. 
 
 286 
 
 BIBLE VERSIONS. 
 
 latter part of the sixteenth century. Ant. Moril- 
 lon repoi'ted havinsf seen at AVerden in West- 
 phalia a Gothic codex, from which he copied the 
 Lord's Prayer. This was probably the Codex 
 Argeuteus, taken by the Swedes at the siege of 
 Prague (1648), and wliich now is ttie most pre- 
 cious treasure of the University of Upsala. It is 
 a superb manuscript, containing fragments of 
 the Gospels, and dates from the fifth century, 
 first edited by Fr. Junius, Dortr., 166.5, 2 vols, j 
 'i'he best editions of all the fi-agments [for the 
 exact list, see Davidson's Art. Gothic Version, in 
 Kitto's Cyc. of Bill. Lit., 3d ed., ii. 873 sq.] are by 
 n. C. V. der Gabelentz and J. Loebe, Lips., 
 1836(4.3)-46 : by Fr. Ludw. Stamm, 7th ed., re- 
 vised by Moritz Heyne. Paderborn. 1878; and by 
 K Bernhardt, Halle, 1875. The Gospel of Mark 
 has recently lieen edited with a grammatical appa- 
 ratus by K. IMiiller and H. Hoeppe : U/Jilas Eian- 
 (jdiuni Marci, Herlin, 1881. O. F. FRITZSCHE. 
 
 I X. j4 RMENIA N. — It was made from manu- 
 scripts brought from the Council of Ephesus 
 (431) by Mesrob (d. 441: his name is spelled in 
 six different ways), the inventor of the national 
 alphabet, with the assistance of several of his 
 pupils. See Mesrob. The Old Testament was 
 from the Septuagint (Daniel, as usual, from 
 1'heodotion), word for word; the New Testament 
 from the Greek. The first printed edition of 
 the Armenian Bible is that of Bishop Uscan 
 (lioth tlie bishopric and the name are doubted), 
 Amsterdam, 1666 ; but it is untrustworthy, the 
 text having been in many instances conformed to 
 tlie Vulgate against all known manuscripts. The 
 best edition founded on manuscripts is by Zohrab, 
 New Testament, 1789, Bil/lia. 1805. Cf. Neu- 
 Ji.v.vx'. (•isch. der arm. Lit.. 1836. 
 
 X. GEOJlG/AN. — 'Mdde from the Septua- 
 gint, in the sixth century, in the literary lan- 
 guage and ecclesiastical alphabet (Kuzuri) ; of 
 little present critical value, because of its corrupt 
 state. First printed in Moscow, 1743, fob, since 
 widely circulated by the St. Petersburg Bible So- 
 ciety in both the ecclesiastical and civil character. 
 
 XL OLD SLAVONIC. —Ma.de in the ninth 
 century from the Septuagint, by Methodius and 
 Cyril of Thessalonica. The oldest manuscript 
 of the whole Bible dates 1499, tlie first printed 
 Bible 1581 ; but of the New Testament there is 
 an Evangelistary dated 1056, and the Gospels of 
 the same period at Kheims, on which the kings 
 of France used to take their coronation oath ; also 
 Glagolitic manuscript of the Go.spels, of about the 
 same date, now at St. Petersburg; see V.Jagii?, 
 Qiialuor Erv. Codex Glae/olitieus, Berlin, 1879. 
 
 XII. ARABIC. — There are many manuscripts 
 containing translations of portions of the Old 
 Testament now stored away in libraries. We 
 consider only those which are printed or are 
 reliably described. They may be classified into 
 the immediale, direct from the original text, and 
 the mediate, from other versions. 1 . Immediate. 
 (a) The version, often a paraphrase, of llabbi 
 Saadia ha-Gaon (d. 042), more renowned as 
 giammarian. The Pentateuch was iiublished at 
 Constantinople, 1546. Lately P. de Lagarde, in 
 his Materialieo zur Kritilc »/. Gesehiihte </« Peiita- 
 leiichs, i,ei|izig, 1807, published Genesis and 
 Kxodus from a l.,eyden manuscript. Saadia's 
 Isaiah, llaiea, Joli, and Psalms hav« also appeared. 
 
 (/<) Joshua and a fragment of Kinr/s are in the 
 Paris and Walton's Polyglot, made by a .Tew of 
 the tenth or eleventh century, (c) Arab.i Erpenii, 
 a manuscri]it of the Pentateuch (in Hebrew let- 
 ters), literally translated, made by an African 
 Jew in the thirteenth century. (</) Genesis, the 
 Psalms, and Daniel, by Saadia ben Levi Asnekoth, 
 a .Jew of Morocco, from the ISIassoretic text: 
 manuscript now in British ISIuseum. (e) A 
 translation of Hosea and Joel. (/) The Penta- 
 teuch of Abu Sa'id, a Samaritan of the eleventh 
 or twelfth century, from tlie Samaritan text of 
 the Pentateuch, influenced by the Hebrew and 
 the Saadia and the Samaritan version. Samuel 
 Kolin (Zur Sprache. Litcralur, u. Doymatik der 
 Samaritancr, Leipz., 1876, ]ip. 134 sq.) maintains 
 just the opposite, that the version of Abu Sa'id 
 gave Arabisms to the Samaritan. 2. Mediate. 
 (1) Those which are made from the Peshito. 
 (a) A version of Judges, Ruth, .Samuel, Kings, 
 and Nehemiah, found in the London and Paris 
 Polyglots. The version of Job was published 
 by P. de Lagarde, in 1876, in his Psalterium Job 
 Prorerhia A rabice. (Ii) Translations of the Psalms. 
 ((■) Fragments of the Pentateuch. (2) Those 
 from the Hexaplar Sijriac text. Cf. AV. G. Fr. 
 Comes d£ Baudissin : Translationis atttiquce ar. 
 lib. Jobi rjuce siipersunt ex apoyrupho cod. j\lus. Brit, 
 nunc pr. ed. atque ill.. Lips., 1870, and the Leviti- 
 cus, Nuvtbers, and Deuteronomy published by 
 Lagarde in his Materialien I. (3) Those from 
 the Septuagint. (a) The versions in the Poly- 
 glots of the books not specified above. (/*) Sev- 
 eral Psalters described by Ddderlein (Reperlor. II. 
 176-178, IV. 57-96). (c) .Specimens of a Penta- 
 teuch from the Alexandrian recension of the 
 Septuagint. (4) Those from the Coptic are very 
 numerous, generally are side by side with the 
 Coptic text; of no importance except for the 
 Coptic. (5) Those made or interpolated from 
 the Vult/ate are also of no account. 
 
 XIII." PERSIAN. — In the fourth volume of 
 the London Polyglot, there is a Persian transla- 
 tion of the Pentateuch, which was made in the 
 first half of the sixteenth century in Constanti- 
 nople by the Rabbi Jacob Ben Joseph, surnamed 
 Tawosi, or Tusi, i.e., according to the usual 
 interpretation, from Tus, a city of Persia, which 
 possessed a celebrated Jewish academy ; but, ac- 
 cording to Koliut, it is a proper name, meaning 
 peacock. Cf. Alex. Koiiut; Krit. Deleuchlung 
 der pers. Pentateuch- Uebcr.^ctzuny, Lei\y/.ig u. Hei- 
 delberg, 1871. The version is very literal, after 
 the manner of Aquila; euphemistic, avoids an- 
 thr()|H)nu)riihic aiKl anthropopathic terms, and is 
 intluenced by older versions, especially by Oiikelos 
 and Saadia. 
 
 B. Versions OF the New Testament. This 
 section is supplementary, and refers only to the 
 New Testament: for tlie Old Testament and 
 entire Bible, see A. In addition to the literature 
 already given in the note at tiie beginning of this 
 article, two works deserve mention, — Reuss: 
 Geschichte der heil. Schriflen N.T., 5th ed., Braun- 
 schweig, 1874; and Scrivener: A Plain Intro- 
 duction to the Criticism of the N. T., 2d ed., Cam- 
 bridge, 1874. 
 
 I. SYRIAC-Ci. Andr. MiJLLEU : De Syria- 
 cis lihl). ss. verss., und Symbolce Syrr., Berol, 1073; 
 also in O/mscc. Orientl., Franco!., 1695; Gloc.
 
 BIBLE VERSIONS. 
 
 287 
 
 BIBLE VERSIONb. 
 
 Kidi.ey: De Syrr. N. T. versionimi iiulnle alq'ir 
 usu, 1701 ; G. C. Storr : Ohxfrrr. suprr N. T. 
 I'crsionibus Sytr., Tiib. 1772; Fr. Uhlkmann : 
 De versinnum N. T. Syrr. crilim tixu, Kcrliii, 
 1850 (Schul-prowranim des Fripilrich Wilh. Gym- 
 iKisium). 1. Tlie Ppshito. Seo /( III. [Tho 
 New Testament omits the Apocalypse aiul four 
 Catholic Epistles (L'd Peter, 2d and 3d John, 
 and .lude). See J. AV. Ivihicridgk : T/if A/ms- 
 tolk-al /Ic/.s <inil Epistles from the Ancient Syrinr, 
 London, 18-19 ; J. Murdock: Syri((r N'ew Testa- 
 ment, N.Y., 1851.] 2. The Thiioxenian or Ilar- 
 clean was made by Polycavp, Rural Bishop for 
 Mar Philoxenns, Monop'hysite ISishop of Mabug 
 (Hierapolis), directly from the Greek: the Gos- 
 pels were finished A.D. 508. In 61G Thomas of 
 Harkel (Heraclea) corrected the translation by 
 the help of three approved and accurate (ireek 
 manuscripts in the Monastery of the Antonians 
 at Alexandria, and added a critical apparatus, 
 and, after the manner of Origen, also asterisks 
 and obeli. This revision is the one now generally 
 found in manuscripts. It is so close to the Greek 
 that it is probably the most servile version of 
 Scripture ever made ; indeed, so close as to be in 
 places quite miintelligible without the Greek. 
 It includes the portions of the New Testament 
 omitted from the Peshito ; although it is a ques- 
 tion whether the Apocalypse, edited by L. de 
 iJieu, Leyden, 1G27, and often considered a part 
 of the Philoxenian, although usually nsed to 
 complete the Peshito, really belongs to it. But 
 at all events the Catholic Epistles and Apoca- 
 lypse are not the work of Thomas of llarkel ; cf. 
 BicKELL : Conspectus rei Syrorum literariw, Monast. 
 Ih71. The whole Havclean version was edited by 
 J. White, Gospels, 2 vols., 1778, Acts and Epis- 
 tles, 2 vols., 1799, 1803; and John, by Bkrnstkin: 
 Das heil. Evatif/. des Johannes Syr. in Jiari.iens. 
 Uber.'i., Leipzig," 1853; see Bernstein's essay, De 
 Charklensi N. T. Irnnslatione si/riaca, Vratisl., 1837, 
 2d ed., 18.54. 3. The Curetonian Syriac. Wil- 
 liam Cureton, U.D., Canon of Westminster dis- 
 covered iu 1847, printed in 1848, and published 
 in London, 1858, Jiemains of a very ancient recen- 
 sion of the Four Gospels in Syriac, which manu- 
 script was brought (1842) from a monastery in 
 the Nitrian Desert, near Cairo, Egypt, and is now 
 in the British jNluseum. The manuscript is from 
 the middle of the fifth century ; but whether the 
 version itself is older than the Peshito is a ques- 
 tion. Cf . IIermansen : Disp. de cod. evv. syr. a 
 Caretono typis descr., Haun., 1859. Dr. Cureton 
 entertained the idea that he liad discovered in 
 these Syriac fragments a text of Matthew's Gos- 
 pel, which, to a great extent, preserves exactly 
 the genuine words of our Lord as they had been 
 written by the apostle iu his original Hebrew 
 Gospel ; but this view was accepted only by its 
 author. Upon this point cf . Gildemeister : Dc 
 eranqeliis in arabicum e simplici syriaca translatis, 
 Bonn, 1865. 4. The Jerusalem Syriac, so called 
 because the language of the principal manu.script 
 known, an Evangelistary, which was discovered in 
 the Vatican by Adler, and described in his N. T. 
 Versiones Syriacce, Copenhagen, 1789, is less Syriac 
 than Chaldee, much like that of the Jerusalem 
 Targum. It is made directly from the Greek ; 
 dates from the sixth century; and was proba- 
 bly used but in a few remote churches of Leba- 
 
 non or Galilee, as it is not mentioned by any 
 Syriac author. Count Francis Miuiscalchi Erizzo 
 liiis given us a complete and scholarly edition 
 of iit in two quarto volumes : Erati;/)Harium 
 Hieriisohpnilannm, ex ('odicc Valicano J'aUcttiuo 
 (lejironijisit, ediilit, L<tlinh rerlil, /'rolC(/tnnenis nc 
 G/ossario adm-narit, Verona, 18(il-(J4. Recently 
 discovered fragments of this version are con- 
 tained in Land: Anecdola Si/riacaT. IV. Lugd. 
 B., 187.5, p. 103 sq. 
 
 II. EGYPTIAN, or COPTIC. — [The section 
 contributed by Canon (now Bishop) Lightfoot 
 to Scrivener's Introduction to the Criticism of tlie 
 New Testament, 2d ed., 1874, pp. 319-3,57, is here 
 presented in a very brief form. The New Testa- 
 ment, or parts of it, appeared in the two prin- 
 cipal dialects of Upper and Lower Egypt, the 
 Thebaic and Memphitic respectively, probably 
 before the close of the second century. This is 
 the more likely since it was the exception to find 
 a native Egyptian bishop or monk in the early 
 centuries who could speak Greek. Surely before 
 270 the Scriptures had been translated into Egyp- 
 tian ; for Anthony (251-3.56), who could only 
 .speak his native tongue, was in liis youth power- 
 fully affected by the Gospels which he heard read 
 in church. The Memphitic or Bahiric version 
 was not included in the Polyglots, but was first 
 published by David Wilkins, in Oxford. 1716, 
 from manuscripts in the Bodleian Library, with a 
 Latin translation, N. T. jEgyptium vulyo Copticum, 
 etc. But although great praise is due to this 
 pioneer, two defects seriously impair the work. 
 (1) The text is not constructed on any consist- 
 ent or trustworthy principles. (2) The trans- 
 lation is often inaccurate. Schwartze, in Berlin 
 (1846. 1847), issued the Gospels, and P. Boetticher 
 [(dias P. de Lagarde], in Halle (18.52), the Acts and 
 Ejiistles; but the first editor had much too scanty 
 materials, and the second gives no translation or 
 collation with the Greek, rendering his book abso- 
 lutely useless to any other than Egyptian scholars. 
 The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge 
 published (1847-.52) a magnificent edition of the 
 whole New Testament in Memphitic, under the 
 editorship of Henry Tattam ; but, as the edition 
 contains no various re.adings, it is quite use- 
 less for critical purposes. The Memphitic New 
 Testament did not contain the Apocalypse : this 
 gives a hint as to its date. The earlier Alexan- 
 drian w-riters, Clement and Origen, in the first 
 part of the third century, and the later Alexan- 
 drian Church from the close of the third century 
 onward, quote the Apocalypse without hesitation 
 as the work of John ; but about the middle of 
 that century doubts were widely expressed, as by 
 Dionysius of Alexandria (d. 26.5), and the diffi- 
 culty may have been powerful enough to cause its 
 exclusion from the Egyptian canon. The order 
 of the books of the New Testament is (1^ Gos- 
 pels, (2) Pauline Epistles, (o) Catholic Epistles, 
 (4) Acts. The version is for the most part faith- 
 ful ; and Egyptian is so largely Greek in vocabu- 
 lary that it "is fairly adequate for the purpose. 
 The version may, therefore, generally be consult- 
 ed, even for minute variations iu the text : iu this 
 respect it is perhaps the most important of all 
 the versions for the textual critic. It preserves 
 the best text as current among the Alexaudrian 
 Fathers, free from the corruptions which pre-
 
 BIBLE VERSIONS. 
 
 288 
 
 BIBLE VERSIONS. 
 
 vailed so widely in the copies of the second 
 century. 
 
 The Sahidic or Thebaic version has not attract- 
 ed attention until comparatively recent times. 
 The pioneer scholar was C. G. Woide, who in 
 1778 announced his intention to publish from 
 Oxford manuscripts the fragments of the Thebaic 
 \ew Testament; but he did not live to finish his 
 work (d. Jlay, 1790), and H. Ford, professor of 
 Arabic at Oxford, completed and issued it : Ap- 
 pendix ad Editionem N- T. Grceci e Coilice MS. 
 Alexandrino a C. G. Woide descripli, ?» ryim conli- 
 nenliir Fragmenta N. T. jnxta inlerpretatioucm Dia- 
 lecli Superioris jEgijpti </uce T/iebaidica vel Saliiilica 
 appellatur, etc., Oxoniae, 1799. This work lays 
 biblical scholars under heavy obligations ; but, 
 although some additions have been published 
 since, there is greath' needed a complete collec- 
 tion of all the fragments of the Thebaic New 
 Testament The version is rougher and less faith- 
 ful than the !Memphitic, like it in the arrange- 
 ment of the books and in the omission of the 
 Apocalypse, but entirely independent of it in text 
 and interpretation, and stands second in textual 
 value. 
 
 The Bashmuric or Elearchian version, without 
 independent value, a mere adaptation of the The- 
 baic, and only useful where the Thebaic is want- 
 ing, was made not later than the end of the third 
 or beginning of the fourth century. The word 
 "Bashniur" means the "girdled (by the Nile) 
 country," and was applied to Elearchia, the coun- 
 try of the Bucoli, a fierce and turbulent race of 
 horsemen who lived in the Delta. They were 
 almost exterminated in 839, the remnant of the 
 race being transported to Bagdad. They must 
 have had a complete version of the Bible; but 
 only the merest fragments have come down to 
 us. They are published by Engelbreth : Frag- 
 menta Baxmurico-Coplica Veleris el Novi Testamenli, 
 Ilavnise (Copenhagen), 1811.] 
 
 III. PERSIAN. — The Christians of Western 
 Persia belonging to the Syrian Church used the 
 Peshito in early times; yet there are known two 
 translations of the four (iospels into Persic, — 
 one from the Peshito. in Walton's Polyglot, with a 
 J.,atin translation by Samuel Clarke, afterwards 
 reprinted with corrections and a learned preface 
 by Bode, Helmstadt, 17.50-.ol : the other is made 
 from the Greek, published, London, 16.57; edited 
 by Abraham Wheelocke. There are older Per- 
 sian versions (parts of both Testaments) still 
 unpublished. 
 
 IV. ARABIC. — There is no version earlier 
 than 719, nor is any of critical value. 1. Imme- 
 diate., (n) The (iospels most commonly printed, 
 first in Rome, 1590, found in the London and 
 Paris Polyglots ; latest edition by P. de La- 
 garde, Leipzig, 18G4. (4) By another translator 
 the remainder of the New Testament ii"! the Paris 
 and London Polyglots, (c) The New Testament 
 ed. by Krpenius, Leyden, IGIG; re)iriuteil Lou- 
 don, 1829. 2. Mediate. From the Peshito, as in 
 "Cod. Teschendorf;" of the Acts, the Pauline 
 and Catholic Epistles, exci'])t the four ,\nlilc- 
 gomeiia of the latter. 3. Tlie Arabic translation 
 of the New Testament in the Koinan Bible of 
 the Propaganda, Home, 1(171, altered from the 
 Vulgate, and that of the Society for Promoting 
 Christian Knowledge, LondoD, 1727, altered from 
 
 the Greek, were both designed forcirculation in the 
 East, and are of no critical value. See P. df. La- 
 GARDK: Die i-ier Evanq.arah. O. F. FKITZf^CHE. 
 
 [V. A NGLO-SAXON. — There was apparent- 
 ly no version of the Scriptures in this language 
 before 706, when Adhelm, the first Bishop of Sher- 
 borne, translated the Psalms, followed by Egbert 
 or Eadfiid, Bishop of Lindisfarne, with parts 
 of the Gospels, and by Bede (d. 73.5), with the 
 Gospel of John. Other Saxon translations are : 
 in ninth century by King Alfred (d. 900), the 
 Psalms; in tenth century by -Elfric, the Penta- 
 teuch, Joshua. Joli, Judith, part of Kings, Esther, 
 and Maccabees. The version was made from the 
 Vulgate. The entire Anglo-Saxon version has 
 never been published ; but Spelman edited the 
 Psalms, London, 1640 ; and Benjamin Thorpe in 
 1835 issued Libri Psalinorxtm Ver.'iio aniiqna Latina 
 cum Paraphrasi Anglo-Saxonica (probably Ad- 
 helm's), and in 1842 The Anglo-Saxon Version of 
 the Holy Gospels, reprinted in New York, 1846. 
 Joseph Bosworth edited The Gothic and Anglo- 
 Saxon Gospel.'' in Parallel Columns irith the Ver- 
 sions of Wycliffe and Tyndale, arranged with pref- 
 ace and notes. London. 1865. The fact that such 
 a small part of the Bible has been published is 
 the stranger because manuscripts are so numer- 
 ous. Before the prose translation of any part, 
 Caedmon. a monk in the Abbey of Streoneshalh 
 in Northumbria, composed a poetical version of 
 parts of the Bible, 664. See Tfiokpk; Caedmon's 
 Melricfd Parajihrase of Parts of the Holy Scriptwe, 
 .\nglo-Saxon with English translation, notes, and 
 a verbal index, London, 1832.] 
 
 [Modern Versions. — For account of the im- 
 portant German and English versions see special 
 articles : our space admits of only the briefest 
 mention of the principal others. 
 
 1. FRENCH. — Lefevre d'Etaples made the 
 first Protestant version published. Antwerp, 1530; 
 but that of Pierre-Robert Olivetan, founded 
 upon his, published 1535 at Serrieres, near Neuf- 
 chatel, at the expense of the Waldenses, as 
 corrected by Calvin his cousin, is the nearest 
 approach to a national version. Calvin recog- 
 nized Olivetan 's imperfections, and, in the pref- 
 ace to the edition of 1561, expre.ssed the wish 
 that some competent scholar would devote half 
 a dozen years to the translation of the Bible. It 
 is greatly to be regretted that Calvin did not do 
 this work himself. His wish, however, was essen- 
 tially met when La Compagnie ties Paslews de 
 Genkve deputed the task to certain of their mem- 
 bers, among whom was Beza, and in 1588 issued 
 the anxiously awaited version. Put forth under 
 such authority, and a manifest improvement 
 upon its predeces.sor, it has kept the field unto 
 this day, although it is only a revision of Olive- 
 tan. The Bibles of Martin (Amsterdam, 1707) 
 and Ostervald (Amsterdam, 1724) are substan- 
 tially the 1588 version, and only valuable for 
 their notes. The attempts hitherto made to 
 supersede the sadly defective Olivetan have been 
 unsuccessful; but in 1874 Rev. Dr. Louis Segond 
 iniblished at (Jeneva (2d ed., 1877, at Nancy; 3d 
 ed., 1879, at (Jeneva) a new translation of the Old 
 Testament from the Hebrew text, and in 1879 a 
 new translation of the New Testament from the 
 Greek. His work has been accepted by the Uni- 
 versity press, Oxford, England, and, as a note on
 
 BIBLE VERSIONS. 
 
 289 
 
 BIBLE VERSIONS. 
 
 thp fly-leaf states, been prititod in a first pflition 
 of fifty tliousaiul copies. Tliis version is regarded 
 as a decided iniprovenient upon all others, and as 
 worthy of national official use. The 0.\ford edi- 
 tion is beautifully printed, — the prose portions 
 in ]iaragraphs, with marginal numbers to indicate 
 the verses; the poetical in verse form. There are 
 also occasional brief notes, mostly geographical 
 and philological, interesting prefaces, retiKirijuci, 
 an abridged history of the .Jews to connect the 
 Testaments, and maps, indexes of quotations in the- 
 New Testament and to the notes. For the early 
 history of the French Bible see Samuel Bkhgek: 
 La Bible Franfaise tin iiwi/en lujc, I'ai'is, 1884. 
 
 2. DUTCH. — Portions of the Bible appeared 
 in the opening years of the century ; but the first 
 complete edition of the Scriptures was issued at 
 Antwerp in 1520, by .Jacob van Liesveldt, in two 
 folio volumes. The subsequent edition having 
 cost the printer his head, the work was the more 
 valued, and held its own until 1556, when Van 
 Uteuhove's version began to supplant it, and is 
 to-day still sold, being highly esteemed by the 
 Lutherans. Neither of these versions was imme- 
 diate. The first was founded upon Luther's 
 Bible, so far as it had then appeared, and a 
 Cologne Bible of the previous century ; tlie 
 second, upon the complete Luther's Bible, com- 
 pared with Olivetan's (French) ; and both failed 
 to present the. best Dutch. A version which 
 should be immediate, accurate, scholarly, yet 
 po]iular in the best sense, was therefore loudly 
 demanded ; but, ov.dng to the troubles in Hol- 
 land, — although in 1571 the Provincial Synod 
 at Embden ordered it, — it was 1637 when the 
 version appeared. The steps which led to the 
 happy issue may thus be described. Discussion 
 and synodical action, 1571-92. Philippe van 
 Marnix de St. Aldegonde, who had long been 
 occupied with a version of his own, .appointed 
 (1593) to superintend the work. With him were 
 to be associated five ministers, appointed by the 
 different provincial synods. They were to meet 
 at Leyden, and have their expienses paid by the 
 State ; but the death of the brilliant and beloved 
 St. Aldegonde, in December, 1598, ended their 
 meetings. lu 1599 work re-begun. Owing, how- 
 ever, to the small amount of time the revisers 
 could give to it, and also to the doctrinal differ- 
 ences developed with Gomar and Armiuius and 
 their adherents, it went very slowly ; and at the 
 death of Helmichius, in 1608, the work stopped. 
 Forty years had thus passed away : nothing was 
 done; but the ground was cleared for action, 
 inasmuch as the principles of the proposed trans- 
 lation were decided. 'The famous Synod of Dort 
 (1618) elected three translators and fourteen 
 revisers, two from each of the seven provinces; 
 instructed the translators to begin within three 
 months after the rising of the synod, send their 
 work to the States-General, and then to each of 
 the revisers ; and, when the revision was finished, 
 to hold a joint meeting to determine the final 
 form of the version. The Apocrypha was to be 
 placed at the end of the New Testament, with a 
 distinct title and pagination. This action of the 
 synod had to be brought before the States-(ien- 
 eral for ajiproval, in order that the necessary mon- 
 eys might be allowed, and the ministers chosen 
 released from parochial service. It was 1624 
 20 — 1 
 
 before this petition coulil be presented, and 1626- 
 before the company got fairly at work. They 
 met in Leyden. It was at the outset believed 
 th.at four years would suffice; but, owing to real 
 ilifficulties and unexpected hindrances, the trans- 
 lation took eleven years. At last, in 1637, the 
 Bible appeared in two editions, oni> with, one 
 without, references and marginal readings. So 
 hearty was its rece])tion, that in fifteen years it 
 had won unanimous popular an<l ecclesiastical 
 sanction. It is, indeed, one of the best of exist- 
 ing versions ; perhaps, in points, it excels them 
 all. It is immediate, although quite evidently 
 our authorized version influenced the translators 
 more or less. In many cases its felicity is re- 
 markable. In Holland it is called the Stales' 
 Bible, to distinguish it from the Si/nud's Bible. 
 This latter Bilile. which, up to the present time, 
 has only appeared in the New Testament, is thfr 
 result of the criticism of the century, and the im- 
 mense growth of knowledge. In 1854 the Gen- 
 eral Synod appointed a committee of fourteen to- 
 revise the old translation, and at length, in 1867, 
 the revision appeared. Its reception has been 
 far from enthusiastic. This has led to an indefi- 
 nite postponement of the Old-Testament part.] 
 
 3. /7'yl/,//liV. — There were Bible translations- 
 into Italian before the invention of printing; 
 but the earliest printed Italian Bible is that of 
 Nicol6 di Malherbi (or Malermi). published in 
 Venice, 1471. In the same year another Bible 
 appeared ; but it is known only by title. Nicol6- 
 was a Venetian abbot of the order of Camaldoli. 
 He speaks in his preface about former Italian 
 translations, criticises their freeilom, and declares 
 his fidelity to the Vulgate. Nicolfi's Italian is 
 not the choice speech which had then been 
 developed. The next version was that of the 
 Florentine Antonio Bruccioli, made from the 
 original texts; New Testament, 1530; Psalms, 
 1531; Bible, 1532, Venice. In the preface the 
 translator waxes indignant at all prohibitions of 
 the Bible, and every hindrance to its widest 
 spread among the people. His work, however, 
 seems to have been scarcely circulated in Italy 
 outside of Venice, and was indeed put in the first 
 class of prohibited books; still, many editions 
 .appeared. With Bruccioli the Ronum-Catholic 
 .activity in the field of Bible versions practically 
 ceased ; although translations of the New Testa- 
 ment were issued by the Dominican Zaccaria in 
 1532, .and by Giglio in 1551, both .at Venice. 
 These books are extremely rare. 
 
 With the expulsion of Bruccioli's version a 
 new era of Bible study began. The liberty to 
 read the Scriptures, denied by Romanistic Italy, 
 was enjoyed in Geneva; and there this version 
 of the Old Testtiment, slightly revised, was re- 
 printed in connection with the New Testament 
 of the Florentine Miissimo Teofilo (first printed 
 Lyons, 1551), revised by Gallars and Beza; and 
 so the first complete Italian Protestant Bible 
 .appeared in Geneva, 1562, for the benefit of the 
 congregation of Itali.an fugitives. But this Bible 
 was put into speedv disuse by the appearance of 
 the Bible of Giov.anni Diodati, (ieueva, 1607, 
 made directly from the original texts, in the 
 Lucchese dialect, and therefore adapted for circu- 
 lation among the peasiints. This is the version 
 commonly taken up by Bible societies, and used
 
 BIBLE VERSIONS. 
 
 200 
 
 BIBLICAL. 
 
 ill Italy to-day. In 1776 the Archbishop of 
 I loreuce, Anton Martini, issued in Turin a trans- 
 ];.tion of the whole Bible from the Vulgate, 
 which the British and Foreign Bible Socieiy 
 adopted, published the Kew Testament, 1813, 
 Bible, 1821, and now circulate in Italy. For the 
 famous story of the persecution of the Madiai in 
 Florence, because they used the Bible, see title. 
 Southern and Eastern Italy, up to this time, 
 appear to stand outside of Bible influences. 
 
 4. SPANISH. — The first printed New Testa- 
 ment is by Francisco de Enzinas (Dryander, see 
 title): appeared in Antwerp, 1543; now circu- 
 lated by the British and Foreign Bible Society. 
 Another New Testament was that of Juan Perez, 
 A'enice, 1556. The first Bible was from Cassio- 
 doro Reyna, Basel, 1569 ; revised by Cypr. de 
 Yalera, Amsterdam. 1602 ; New Testament, 
 separately, 1625. The Old Testament was 
 repeatedly rendered into Spanish during the 
 sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, by Jews in 
 the Netherlands and in Ferrara. But of all 
 tliese translations the fact is that they did not 
 circulate in Spain. In 1794 Phil. Scio de S. 
 Jliguel, a Spanish ecclesiastic, issued at IMadrid 
 a translation with a commentary. The British 
 and Foreign Bible Society have, since 1828, cir- 
 culated the Spanish text. It is made, of course, 
 from the Vulgate. See Borrow's " The Bible in 
 Spain." 
 
 5. PORTUGUESE. — The version of J. Fer- 
 reira d' Almeida, a convert from Rome (New 
 Testament, Amsterdam, 1712; Pentateuch and 
 historical books, 1719), is that now printed by 
 the British and Foreign Bible Society; although 
 there was printed at Lisbon, 1784, a version 
 made by Anton Pereira de Figueiredo, the first 
 upon native soil. RECSS. 
 
 6. SCANDINAVIAN. — Some parts of the 
 Old Testament were translated into Danish in the 
 fourteenth century, and published by jNIolbech, 
 Copenhagen (1828); but the Danish translation 
 of the Bible is the work of the Ileforniation. 
 Prepared by several scholars, it bore the name of 
 Christiern Pedersen, and was published in 1550. 
 It w-as afterwards often revised. The edition 
 now used is the work of a coiiiniittee of revision, 
 appointed in 1815: it appeared in 1824. There 
 are two independent translations: one by I. C. 
 Lindberg, much used in the (Irundtvigian cir- 
 cles; and one by Chr. Kalkar, of missionary 
 reputation. The Danish Bible was used in Nor- 
 way up to the .separation of the two kingdoms 
 in 1814. After that time, minor iiiiprovenients, 
 mostly of purely linguistic iiu]iort, have been 
 made in the Norwegian Bible, and in 1871 a com- 
 mittee was appointed to make a thorough 
 revision. 
 
 A Swedish translation from the fourteenth cen- 
 tury is spoken of as lu'ning been undertaken at 
 the instance of St. Birgitta, but has not come 
 down to us. In Sweden, as in Denmark, it wa.s 
 the Ucforination which translated the Bible. 
 The complete Swedish version appeared in 1541, 
 the New Testament by Jjaui'entius Andreie 
 (152G), tlie Old Testament by Laurentius and 
 Olaus Petri (1534). Often revised, the edition 
 now in general n.se dates back to the beginning 
 of the eighteenth century. 
 
 The Icelandic translatiuu was made by Oddur 
 
 Gotshalkson : the New Testament appeared at 
 Copenhagen in 1540, the whole Bible at Holum 
 in 1584. The edition now- in use is a revision by 
 Thorlak Skuleson (1644). Clemens Petersen. 
 
 Misdonarij Translations. — The Bible has been 
 translated by Protestant missionaries into all the 
 literary languages of the world, and into many 
 which had never previously been written ; but 
 these translations are evidently of no critical 
 value whatever, although made, in mcst cases, 
 from the original tongues. Probably the most 
 faithful and finished of all these versions is that 
 into Arabic. It was begun by Eli Smith, D.D., 
 in 1847. aided by Cornelius V. A. Van Dyck, 
 M.D. D.l)., who continued the work after Dr. 
 Smith's death, and brought the labors of sixteen 
 years to a happy conclusion. 
 
 The printing and electrotyping of this Bible is 
 regarded as the gTeatest tj'pographical perform- 
 ance of the American Bible Society, and the 
 book itself opens the truth to the jMohanimedaii 
 world. The first plate was electrotyped March 
 15, 1866. The types perfectly transcribe the best 
 Arabic caligraphy, according to a mode designed 
 by Dr. Eli Smith, and executed by Mr'. Homan 
 liallock of the Svrian Mission. 
 
 BIBLICAL ARCH/EOLOGY. See Arch.eol- 
 OGY, Bihlk AL. 
 
 BIBLICAL CANON. See Canox Old and 
 New Tkstamknt. 
 
 BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. See Hermk- 
 
 NEUTICS. 
 
 BIBLICAL HISTORr. See Ishaki.. 
 
 BIBLIANDER (Buchmnnn), Theodore, b. at 
 Bischofzell, Thurgau, about l.")07 ; d. of the plague, 
 at Zurich, Nov. 26, 1564 ; was a teacher in the 
 school of jNIyconius, and professor of theology 
 and Oriental philology in the University of Zii- 
 rich after the death of Zwingli,but was dismis.sed 
 in 1500 on account of his open opposition to the 
 Cah'inistic doctrine of predestination, propagated 
 with great success in the city since 1556 by Peter 
 Martyr Vermilius. lie gave a Latin translation 
 of the Koran, and many valuable contributions 
 to the history of MohainiiuMlanism. Most of his 
 wrllhigs, howovi'r, have never been printed. 
 
 BIBLIA PAUPERUM {the r>ilAe of the Poor) is 
 the name given to one of the earliest " block 
 books " printed before the use of movable type. 
 It consists of a series of forty leaves, printed on 
 one side, so as to make twenty when pasted to- 
 gether, on which forty sciMics from the history of 
 our Lord are depicted : uiulerncath are inscrij> 
 tions in the abbreviated l>atin of the period. 
 The title given aliove is )>iob,ably misleading. 
 It was not intended for the jioor people so much 
 as for the poor friars who went about, preaching, 
 and would, no doubt, di-rive help in the composi- 
 tion of their .sermons from the pictures. Besides, 
 tiiey could be shown with ailvantage to their 
 auclienres. 
 
 BIBLICAL PHILOLOGY ((mcerns itself with 
 the original text of the Old and New Testaments 
 and the old versions, the stmly of Hebrew and 
 the cognate languages and dialects, of the (!reek 
 of the Septuagint, the -Viiocryiiha, and New Tes- 
 taiiient. .See lIicHUKW Language; Hellenic 
 
 DiAI.KCT. 
 
 BIBLICAL THEOLOGY, in the .sense of a .study 
 of the woril of (iod, in contrast to dogmatics, or
 
 BIBLICAL. 
 
 291 
 
 BIBLICAL. 
 
 the deductions and speculations of men, and 
 tlierel'ore witliout refere.nce to ecelesiastrical for- 
 nuike and creeds, manifestly is of conijiaratively 
 recent development; for, so long as tlie Clinrch 
 and the Bible were believed to be in unison, there 
 was no demand for it. The Fathers were pre- 
 .sumed for many centuries to have conserved and 
 <leveloped the apostolic teaching. The. mediaival 
 theologians went upon the assumption that tlie 
 Fathers were infallible, and studied them, and 
 therefore accepted the traditional patristic scrip- 
 tural proofs upon all points, instead of working 
 up the subjects for themselves. It was not, there- 
 fore, until the Reformation called attention to 
 the discrepancy between the Bible in tradition 
 and the Bible itself, that biblical theology began. 
 [Unfortunately in the seventeenth century a new 
 scholasticism replaced the old, and individual 
 Bible-writers, and even some who were not, were 
 minutelv studied. Thus the theology of Job 
 (1087), 'of Jeremiah (1G96). even that of Eliza- 
 beth (1706), was treated with minute care.] The 
 beginnings of the science were naturally unsys- 
 tematic and wavering. Seb. Schmidt, in his 
 Colkf/ium liil/lic. in rjun dicla V. et N. T. iuxla 
 seriem loconim comm. Theol. (xpJicnntnr, Strassburg, 
 1071, led the way, and he had many followers. 
 But these works were little more than collections 
 of proof-texts conveniently arranged for tlie theo- 
 logical lecturer. The first one to bring the term 
 " Bible theology " into use was Ilaymann, who 
 introduced it in its present sense in his work, 
 Versuch einerhibl. T/ieol. in Tahellen (1708), which 
 ran through four editions, the last being printed 
 1758. Pietism loosened tlie connection between 
 the Bible and dogmatics, because it emphasized 
 the importance of the former as a means of grace, 
 and infallible source of knowledge. The i-esult 
 is seen in Busching's Disa. crhibens cpitomen Theol. 
 e siilia lit. Dacr. concinnatce (1756) and Gedanken 
 von der Beschaffenheit und d'jni Vorzuge der hihl. 
 ilwpti. Theologie cor der scholaslixchen, Berlin, 1758. 
 Then came Bengel, the acute verbal critic, and 
 his school, who worked upon the principle that 
 the Bible does not contradict the Church, but 
 accompanies it, and has superior authority. 
 
 Sender, in 1764, in his HiM. u. kril. Sammlunrien 
 iiherdiesoff. Beweisslellen in der Dotjtu., Ilalle, 1764- 
 68, 2 parts, and more particularly his followers, 
 showed the great difference between the cut-and- 
 dried theology of the schools and the teaching 
 of the New Testament. This led the defenders 
 of the former to show their substantial agree- 
 ment by an unprejudiced study of the Bible. So 
 did Zachariii, Biblische Theoloyie, oder Untersuch- 
 ung d. hibl. Grundes d. vornehmsicn thcol. Lehren, 
 Gdttingen, 1772, and Storr, Doclr. clirist. pars 
 theor. e sacr. libris repetiln, Stuttgart, 1793. The 
 Neologians, on the other hand, prejudiced against 
 every doctrine not part of natural religion, began 
 to press for a purely historical treatment of the 
 Bible (so Gabler, De iusto discrimine Theologim bihl. 
 et doqm. rcgutidisque recte utriusque Jinibus, Altorf, 
 1787), and thus prepared the way for a rational- 
 istic history of religion, written by such men as 
 Amnion, Kntwickel. einer reinen bibl. Theol., Er- 
 langen, 1792. The increased attention given to 
 Oriental studies, and the rise of the study of com- 
 parative religion, yielded fruit in the subsequent 
 works upon biblical theology, as Kaiser's, which 
 
 attempted to educe a jmrely "rational" religion 
 out of the Bible. With Sclileiermaclier a new 
 direction was given to tlie study, and in .some 
 r(^spects an nnfortiniate one. 'J"he Old Testa- 
 ment was sundered from the Xew, and attention 
 directed to the latter. Tlien came up the study 
 of individual authors, particularly of Paul and 
 John. Neandei- led the way in a new departure, 
 — the unity of the Gospels in spib! of their dif- 
 ferences. Cf. C. F. Schmid, 1st ed. Stuttgart, 
 1853, excelled by Weiss, Lchrh., Berlin, 1868, 
 4th ed., 1884. Then came Ferdinand Cliristian 
 Baur, tlie head of the Tubingen school (see title), 
 and his followers, who have attempted in their 
 works to split the Primitive Church into parties, 
 e.g., Paulus, Stuttgart, 1846, Das Cliristentlium u. 
 d. Kirche d. erst. .Jahrhunderts, TUbiiigen, 1853; 
 Schwegier, Nachaposl. Zeittdler, Tiibingen, 1846 ; 
 Pfleiderer, Pautinismus, Leipzig, 1873 ; and Kost- 
 liii, Lehrheyriff d. Ev. u. d. Brie/e Johannis, Ber- 
 lin, 1843. The life of Jesus was also studied 
 as never before, and very valuable i-esults ob- 
 tained. In fact, the persons and the events 
 of the New Testament have had an amount of 
 patient study and a wealth of learning bestowed 
 upon tjiem, which makes them the most thor- 
 oughly known phenomena in history. Under 
 such influences sprang up the study of the New- 
 Testament times as such (Hausrath), and of the 
 immediate surroundings of our Lord's life 
 (.SchUrer), and thus the way was prepared for 
 the history of primitive Cliristian literature and 
 theology as the first .step in the study of church 
 history. 
 
 But the claims of the Old Teslamenl have not 
 been completely ignored. Indeed, the ajiliorism 
 is gaining ground, that, in order to understand 
 the New, it is necessary to study the Old. So has 
 A. Ritschl, in his Entstehung d. cdtkath. Kirche, 2te 
 Aufl. Bonn, 1857, maintained, as a rebuke to the 
 Tiibingen school. Hengstenberg, in his Christolo- 
 (jie (1829), advocated the necessarily close connec- 
 tion between the two Testaments, and repudiated, 
 upon the ground of his conception of revelation, 
 a biblical theology that made too much account 
 of strict historical sequence, or, in other words, 
 that refused to see the Old Testament in the 
 New, and the New in the Old. Oehler developed 
 the same idea, maintaining that nothing was 
 ended in the Old Testament, nothing was quite 
 new in the New Testament. See his Prolegomena 
 z. bibl. Theol. d. A.T., Stuttgart, 1845, and Theol. 
 d. A. T., Tubingen, 1873. Hermann Schultz 
 likewise advocates this view in his Alltestument- 
 liche Theologie, new edition, Frankfurt, 1878. 
 
 And it is manifestly the correct view. In this 
 way a lack in Protestant theology is tilled ; for tlie 
 Bible studied in this thorough-going fashion be- 
 comes in the most comprehensive sense the source 
 and test of theology. But let it not be supposed 
 that it is easy thus to handle the Scriptures, 
 although it appear to be so. jNIany preliminary 
 questions have to be answered. Is Judaism a 
 preparation for, or a mere predecessor of, Chris- 
 tianity ? What is the primitive religion ? Is the 
 Bible literature, or revelation ? What is the con- 
 nection between the Bible and the aftertime? 
 How much is comprehended in Bible theology? 
 Does it include, for instance, Bible history? 
 When these points are settled, and the study
 
 BIBLICISTS. 
 
 292 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
 
 begun in earnest, other questions arise. The 
 order, subjects, and methods of work, must be 
 determined. The books themselves are to be 
 examined, and in this way important contribu- 
 tions will be made to the discussion of canonicity. 
 
 The relation of biblical to dogmatic theology, 
 and to the other branches of Christian learning, 
 is an interesting point. It would seem to be 
 necessary to restrict biblical theology to the sub- 
 ject immediately in hand. Hence, while a study 
 of the people among whom the doctrines arose 
 is necessary in order to determine the need and 
 condition of revelation, it can have nothing to do 
 with the long struggles in the Christian Church 
 over doctrinal points. The Bible must be made 
 the source. All that throws light upon it shoiUd 
 be used. The more the theologian knows about 
 outside matters, of course the better for him ; but 
 it shoidd be his endeavor to master the text, and 
 whatever explains the text of the sacred volume 
 whose contents he desires to formulate, and whose 
 truths he desires to defend. Compare the Ijooks 
 quoted in this article, and also Ewald : Lckre 
 der Bibel von Gott, Leipzig, 1870-75, 4 vols. ; 
 Weiss: Lehrhuch derhiblischen Theolor/ie <les Nrui'n 
 Testaments [Sd ed., Berlin, 1880]; HiTzyr, : Vor- 
 lesunrjen iiber hihlische Tlieulogie it. Mexakinixche 
 WeixsfK/unqen, Karlsruhe, 1880. M. K.'iHLER. 
 
 BIBLICISTS, BIBLICAL DOCTORS, those 
 were called, who, during the thirteenth and four- 
 teenth centuries, demonstrated religious truths by 
 the Scriptures and by the authority of the Fa- 
 thers, in contrast to the scholastics, who aban- 
 doned Scripture and tradition in order to give 
 full rein to their fancy and philosophy; and in 
 this way the famous, interminable hair-splitting 
 subtleties arose. The most of these latter sort 
 of doctors were Dominican and Franciscan monks, 
 •who in as much as their orders held no property, 
 had no libraries, and were, moreover, required to 
 lead unsettled and vagrant lives, had little oppor- 
 tunity for the study of the books, and therefore 
 naturally taught out of their own heads. Some 
 of the biblical doctors were scholars, and pro- 
 duced valuable works ; but the majority of them 
 were servile imitators of their predecessors, and 
 by their method tended to bring the Scriptures 
 into disrepute. 
 
 See Mosheim's Eccl. History, translated by 
 Murdock, bk. iii. cent. xiii. pt. ii. chap. iii. §§ 7, 8, 
 and cent xiv. pt. ii. chap. iii. §§2,3,4. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHr, Theological. I. Theology 
 in General. 1. SYSTEMATIC BIBLIOdliA- 
 PlIY. — C. M. Pfakfii:s: Intmrlnclio in liistoritini 
 theologice litlerariam, 2d ed., Tiibingen, 172l-2<i, 
 3 vols ; J. F. BuDDKi's: Isa;i()<je historim-tlicoUi- 
 i/ica ad theoloijiam nnirerstim, 2d ed., Lips., 1730; 
 G. Stoi.le : Anleitunr/ zur Ilistorie d. theol. Gchihrt- 
 Aei(, Jena, 1730 ; (i. .1. Planck: Einleitun;; in d. 
 theologischcn Wissenschaften, Leip., 1704-!)."), 2 vols.; 
 K. F. StaUDLIN: G'eschichte d. theol. Wi.i.ien.trhiif- 
 ten, Gott., 1810-11, 2 vols.; the same: Lelirhucli 
 d. theol. Enctjklopiidie u. Methodotofjie, Han., 1821 ; 
 and among the ino.st recent works particularly 
 K. R. Hagenbacii : Enrijllopudie n. Metliodn- 
 lo(/ie d. theol. Wisscnsclififlen, 9th ed., Leipzig, 
 1874 ; J. M'Clintock : 'J'/ieoloi/iral Enciirliijurdia 
 and Methndolof/y, Cincinnati, 1873; .). 1. Dokdks: 
 Encyclopedie der Chrislelijke Tlteoloijie, Utrecht, 
 187G; i. P. Lanoe: Grundri.^s der theoloyischen 
 
 EncyHopddie mil Einschluss der Methodologie, Hei- 
 delberg, 1877; R. Rothe: Theologische Encyclo- 
 pddie, Wittenberg, 1880. More especially biblio- 
 graphical. Two works of great value are, J. G. 
 Walch ; Bihtiotheca Iheoloijica selecta, Jena, 17.57- 
 6.5, 4 vols.; G. B. Winer: Handbuch der thenl. 
 Literatur. 3d ed., Leipzig, 1838-40, 2 vols, (sup- 
 plementary vol., 1842); F. Perenxes: Diction- 
 naire de bibliographie catholique, Jlontrouge, 1858- 
 60, 4 vols., part of Migne's " Encyclopedie theol." 
 Journals devoted to the record and criticism 
 of current theological literature are, Zeil.^chri/l 
 fur die yesammte lutherische Theologie u. Ki^che, 
 Leipzig; Theologische Literalurzeittmg (edited by 
 Harnack and Schiirer), Leipzig; Theologische Lil- 
 eralnrhlatt (Roman-Catholic, edited by Rensch), 
 Bonn; in French, Bibliognyjhie catholicjue, Paris. 
 Twice a year Vandenhock and Ruprecht of 
 Gbttingen have, since 1848, published Bibliothera 
 Theologica (edited by W. Miildener). In 1870, 
 1875, and 1880, Hiurichs of Leipzig publish''d 
 catalogues (edited by Baldamus) of German theo- 
 logical works, Protestant and Roman Catholic 
 separately, for the five years 1865-60, 1870-74, 
 and 1875-79. These bibliographical works are 
 alphabetical according to the author's name. 
 Works arranged according to subjects are, >L 
 LiPENius: Bibliotheca realis Theologica. Francof., 
 1685, 2 vols, (voluminous, but inexact); Danz: 
 Universal-Worterbnch der theologischen. I'irchen- u. 
 religionsyeschichllichen Literatur, Leipzig, 1837-4.3, 
 supplement, 1843 (it unfortunately lacks a table 
 of authors). 
 
 2. BIBLIOGRAPHY IN THE ORDER OF 
 A UTHORS. — The Fathers and ecclesiastical 
 authors of the past have been catalogued in the 
 elaborate works of Possevin, Cave, I)u Pin and 
 his continuator Goujet, Ceillier, Oudin, and in 
 the less voluminous works of Tritheme, Mineus, 
 Bellarmin (continued by Labbe and Du Saussjiy), 
 and Ole.arius. These volumes contain a great 
 deal of information of a literary character. The 
 bibliographies of modern writers are those of 
 Enslix : Bibliotheca theologica, 2d ed., Stuttgart, 
 1833, carrying the list down to 1831 ; continued 
 down to 1862 by Zuchold : Bibliotheca theologica, 
 Giittingen, 1864, 2 vols.; for Roman-Catholic 
 literature, M. .Schmalhofer, publisher: Biicher- 
 kunde der kath. theol. Literatur bis 1S36, Augsb., 
 1837, supplement entitled Handhilchlcin d. neuesten 
 Literatur des Katholizisrinis, Schaffhauseii, 1840-44. 
 The Thesaurus librorum rei calholicrr, Wiirzburg, 
 1848-.50, 2 vols, with supplement, embraces all 
 tlie Roman-Catholic authors arranged topically 
 and alphabetically. Daiu.ing: Cyclo/ncdia bib- 
 liotheca, London, 1854, 2 vols., is for the most 
 part the catalogue of a simple libr.ary, — that 
 collected by i\Ir. Darling, consisting of thirty 
 thousand volumes. (The catalogue is extremely 
 valuable for English theological authors, but 
 much less ,so for those of other countries, except 
 the old and stand.ard writers. One feature of it 
 is its detailed list of the contents of all the 
 great collections, like Migne, of collected writers, 
 e.g., Orme's edition of Baxter, and of lecture 
 courses.) 
 
 3. CATALOGUES OF PARTICULAR LI- 
 BRARIES. — Jo. Fahuicius: Ilistoria liiblio- 
 theciK Fabriciame, Wolfenbiittei, 1717-24, 6 vols. 
 (Fabricius having died ere it was finished, it
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
 
 293 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
 
 lacks a general table of contents) ; J. F. Reim- 
 MANN ; ('alaliii/iif: hihliotlicca' tlituloi/icw sijslt'inalicu- 
 tn((fu.N, IJildesia;, 17:51, supplement. 1747; Micn. 
 Lii.iENTiiAL : Bihlifch-Exciiislisclie Bihliollick, Kd- 
 iiigsberg, 1740: Theolor/ische Bihliottick^ 1741; 
 Furl</es);lzli: TheohHiische Bibliolhck., 1744 (in all 15 
 vols.); S. J. Baumgartex : Nachrkhlcn con I'inir 
 huUlsche.n Bihl'mthck., Halle, 1748-51, 8 vols.; Narh- 
 richlen iwu merktmirdigen Biichcrn, 1752-58, 12 vols, 
 (these two works of Baunigarten, remarkable 
 especially for the precious collection of Bibles 
 which is described, and for the exactitude of the 
 bibliographical information they contain, are 
 grouped together by a very convenient table, 
 which refers to all the twenty volumes) ; J. M. 
 Franke: Catalor;us Bihliolhecce Bunaviunw, Li]is., 
 1750-5G, 7 vols, (unhappily unfinished, valuable 
 for its detailed information and systematic classi- 
 fication of the valuable library, now at Dresden, 
 which is particularly rich in ecclesiastical history 
 and biography); C. G. G., Theilk ; T/icsanrus 
 lileralara: theoloijiccE academiccB, Lips., 1840 (un- 
 finislu'd) ; O. Fiehig : Corpus disyertalionum tlieo- 
 luyicarum, Lips., 1847 (catalogues of large and 
 excellent collections of theological theses and dis- 
 sertations). 
 
 II. Exegetical Theology. 1. EXEGESIS IN 
 GENERAL. — J. Lelong : Bihliotheca sacra, 
 nov. ed., Paris, 1723, 2 vols, (a vast repertory of 
 biblical works: the first volume contains a cata- 
 logue of editions of the Bible in different lan- 
 guages ; the second an alphabetical list of authors 
 who have written upon the Bible, with their 
 works, followed by a systematic table of the last: 
 in spite of errors and omissions, the book is still 
 useful); E. F. K. RosenmUller : Ilandbuch fur 
 die Lilevatur der biblischen Kritik u. Excyese, Got- 
 tiugen, 1797-1800, 4 vols, (this excellent work, 
 unhappily unfinished, embraces only the intro- 
 duction and criticism, the indispensable editions 
 of the original text, hermeneutics, the ancient 
 versions, and, among the modern, those in the 
 Romance languages); G. W. Meyer: Geschichle 
 der Schriflerkliirung seit der Wiederherstellung der 
 Wissensc'haflen, Gottingen, 1802-1800, 5 vols, (a 
 useful work from the number of its bibliographi- 
 cal references). Besides these one may profitably 
 consult Calmet : La BibUolhlque sacrc'e, prefixed 
 to liis " Dictionnaire de la Bible," Paris, 1722 
 (often repi-inted and translated, e.g., as revised 
 by Rev. Dr. Edward Robinson, Boston, 1852) ; 
 and W. Orme : Bibliotheca Biblica (a select list 
 of books on sacred literature, with notices, etc.), 
 Edinburgh, 1824; T. H. Horne : Manual of 
 Biblical Bibliography, London, 1839 ; also in the 
 second and fourth volumes of his Inlroduction as 
 edited by Ayre and Tregelles, 14th ed., London, 
 1877, 4 vols.; Diestel: Geschichle d. All. Test, 
 in der chrisllichen Kirche, Jena, 1869. Ewald, 
 in his Jahrbiicher der bibl. Wissenschaflen, Gottin- 
 gen, 1848-65, 12 vols., took notice of almost all 
 the works relating even remotely to biblical exe- 
 gesis which were published within this time. 
 
 2. EDITIONS OF THE BIBLE. — X. G. 
 Masch : Bibliotheca Sacra, Halle, 1778-90, two 
 parts in six volumes (a reprint and continuation 
 of J. Lelong's work mentioned above, but not 
 carried out further than the record of the edi- 
 tions of the original text and versions in the 
 Oriental, Greek, and Latin languages). The 
 
 record of Hebrew Bibles was completed by G. B. 
 DE Rossi : De ignotis nonnuUis anlifjuissimis hebr. 
 texlus editionibus ac critico earwn nsu, Erlangen, 
 1782. There are elaborate catalogues of differ- 
 ent collections of Bibles, as that of .S. .J. Baum- 
 GAUTEN cited above; that of the Duki; of Bruns- 
 wick, made by G. L. O. K.noch : Bibliotheca biblica, 
 Brunsw., 1752; that of Gue/.e: Verzeichniss seiner 
 Sammlung merkwiirdiyer Bibeln, Halle, 1777, Port- 
 sclzung, Hamb., 1778 ; at Stuttgart, by J. Lokck : 
 Die Bibelgeschichte, Copenhagen u. Leipzig, 1770- 
 83, 2 vols. ; at Parma, by G. B. de Rossi, in 
 the first and fifth volumes of his Varim Lecliones 
 V. T., Parma, 1784-98, 5 vols. ; of the Duke of 
 Su.ssex, by T. J. Pettigrew: Bibliotheca Sus- 
 sexiana, London, 1827-39, 3 vols. For the edi- 
 tions of the Hebrew Bible, see the monographs 
 of DE Rossi ; for tliose of the Greek New Testa- 
 ment, the best work is Reuss: Bibliotheca Novi 
 Test. GrcEci, Braunschweig, 1872 ; for the Ger- 
 man versions, J. G. Palm : Historic d. deulsch. 
 BibelUbers. LutJier's, hcrausgeg. mil Anmerkk. v. 
 .1. M. Goeze, Halle, 1772, and De codicibus V. el 
 N. T. quibus b. Luther, in conficienda inlepretalione 
 girm. usus est, liber hist., Hamb., 1735; II. E. 
 Bindseil: Verzeichniss der Original-Ausgaben der 
 lutherischen Uebersetzung, Halle, 1841 ; for the 
 Dutch version Is. Le Long : Boek-zaal der neder 
 duijtsche bybels, yeopent, in een histor. Verhandel. 
 van de overzettinge der h. Schr. in de nederdugtsche 
 taale, Amsterdam, 1732, new title, Hoorn, 1764 ; 
 for the Swedish, J. A. Schinmeykr : Vers. e. vollst. 
 Gesch. d. sckiced. Bibcliibersetzimgen, Flensb., 
 1777 ; for the English, J. Lewis : A Complete 
 History of the Several Trandalions of the Bible and 
 the New Testament into English, both in manuscript 
 and in print, and the most remarkable editions of 
 them since the invention of printing, 3d ed., London, 
 1818 (originally printed with the author's edi- 
 tion of Wiclif's New Testament, 1731, and sepa- 
 rately, 1739) ; H.Cotton: A list if editions of the 
 Bible and parts thereof in English, from the year 
 1505 to 1820, Oxford, 1821, 2d ed., enlarged, 
 1852; Christopher Anderson: The Annals of 
 the English Bible, London, 1845, 2 vols., new ed. 
 1862, abridged and continued by S. Irenseus 
 Prime, N.Y., 1856; B. F. Westcott: History of 
 the English Bible, London, 1868; J. H. Blunt: 
 A Plain Account of the English Bible from the ear- 
 liest times of its translation to the present day, N.Y., 
 1870; J. Eadie: The English Bible, London, 1S7(>, 
 2 vols. ; W. T. Moulton : Hittory of the English 
 Bible, London, Paris, and New York, n.d. (1878); 
 J. Stoughton : Our English Bible, London, 1878. 
 For Bibles published in America, E. B. O'Calla- 
 GHAN : A List of Editions if the Holy Scripture 
 and. Parts thereof jirinled in America p?-evious to 
 1860, ti'ith Introduction and Bibliographical Notes, 
 Albany, 1861. Finally, for Bibles in the Ro- 
 mance languages, and especially the French Bible, 
 see the profound researches of Reuss in Iler- 
 zog's Real-Encyklopadie, art. Romanische Bibeliiber- 
 setzungen. 
 
 3. COMMENTARIES.— J. F. Mayer: Bib- 
 liolheca biblica, Frankf., 1709, continued by C. 
 Arnd, Rostock, 1713, and L. Muller under the 
 pseudonyme of Theoph. Alethaus: Ausfiihrlicher 
 Berichl von den Commenlariis, Leipzig, 1710-44, 
 8 vols., form a series which carries the informa- 
 tion down to 1744. M. Lilienthal: Biblischer
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
 
 29-4 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
 
 .\rc/i!fniiiis ile.< A. T.. Kbidgsburg, 1746, N. T., 
 1745 (indicates uuder each chapter and verse the 
 authors who have exegetically or honiiletically 
 explained it) ; J. F. 'Wildksiiausf.x : Bibliolliera 
 (lisputalio)nim in V. el X. T., Hamburg, 1710, 
 and C. H. Schetelig under similar title, Ilanib., 
 1736, 1737, 3 vols., have followed the same plan 
 in respect of the isolated exegetical disserta- 
 tions; J. Darling: Cj/clopaiiJia Biblior/rapliica. 
 Subjects; Holy Scriptures, London, 1859 (indi- 
 cates the dissertations and sermons founded upon 
 tlie different verses of the Bible, especially of 
 English divines) ; finally Spukgeon : Comment- 
 in/; and conunentarie.t, London and New York, 
 1S76 (a catalogue of commentaries in the Eng- 
 lish language, with spicy remarks; an excellent 
 and useful comjiilation). Touching the depart- 
 ment of exegesis, W. F. Hezel : Versuch einer 
 Geschichte der bibl. Kritik des Alt. Test., Halle, 
 1780; J. C. Wolf: Hisloria Lexicorum hehraico- 
 rum, "Wittemb., 1705; AV. Gesenius: Geschichte 
 der /lebrdi.^chen Sprache u. Schrift., Leipzig, 1815; 
 M. Steinschxeider : Biblioyraphisches Hand- 
 buch iiber die theorelische u. praktische Lileratur fur 
 hebrcilsche Sprachkunde, Leipzig, 1859 ; T. To- 
 BLER : BUiVwyraphia geographica Palestinoe, Leip- 
 zig, 1867 ; H. E. Bindseil : Concordantiariim Ho- 
 mericarum fpecimen, cum Prolegomenis in qtdbus 
 prmsertim concordantice biUiccc recensentur, Halle, 
 1867, complemented by his article in the " Theo- 
 logische Studien und Kritiken," 1870, pp. 673- 
 720 (a condensed translation is given in art. 
 
 CoXCORriAXCE). 
 
 III. Historical Theology. — K. Sagittarius 
 and his continuator J. A. Schmid: Intrnductio 
 in historiam eccle.':iasticam, Jena, 1694-1718, 2 
 vols. ; C. W. F. Walch : Grundsdize der zur Kir- 
 chenhistorie d. N. T. niilhigen Vorbercitung.':leJiren u. 
 Biwherkenntnis, Gbttingen, 1773; C. W. Fli'igge: 
 Einleitung in das Sindium ». die Literatur der Reli- 
 gions u. Kircheugeschiclile, (Jottingen, 1801 ; K. F. 
 Staudlin' : Geschichte ii. Literatur der Kirchen- 
 geschichle, Hannover, 1827 ; J. I. Ritter : Hand- 
 buch der Kirchengeschichte, 6th ed., Bonn, 18G2, 
 2 vols. The above-mentioned furnish ample 
 bibliographical information about church history 
 in general. Upon certain special points consult 
 J. A. BoSE : Introductio in notitiam scriptorum 
 ecclesiasticorum, Jena, 1673 (last ed. 1733); Tii. 
 Ittig : Schediasma de auctorihus <pii de scrijitoribu.s 
 ecclesiasticis egeruni, Lips., 1711; G. F. Gude : 
 BibliolhecCE disputationum de selectis hi.ilorice eccles. 
 capitibus, Lips., 1743; J. E. Volheding: Index 
 dissertalionum quibus singuli historite N. T. et anti- 
 quilatum ecclesiasticorum. loci illustrantur, Lips., 
 1849; P. Wackernagel: Bibliographic zur Ge- 
 schichte d. deutschen Kirchenliedes im XVI. Jahrh., 
 Frankfort, 1855; F. Bovet: Hist, du psautier des 
 Egl. ref. de France, Neuchatel, 1872; J. C. 
 KiicHER : Bihliotheca theologiw sijmbolicie et cate- 
 chetica:, ilemque liturgiciv., Wolfenb., 1751-69; J. W. 
 Feuerlin : Bibliotheca si/ndmlica erangelica luther- 
 ann, new ed., by J. B. Hiederer, Norimb., 1768, 
 2 vols.; F. A. Zaccaria : BiUioihuca ritiudis, 
 Romse, 1770-78, 2 vols.; H. K. Kii.vic : Biblio- 
 theca agendorum, Zelle, 1726. For patristics, see 
 F. W. GoLDWiT/.KR : Bibliographic der Kirchen- 
 viiter u. Kirchenlehrer, Landshut, 1828, I'litrnlogie 
 rerbunden mit I'atristik, Nurnberg, 1834, 2 vols. ; 
 J. G. Walch: Bibliotheca patristica, new ed., by 
 
 Dai>2, Jena, 1834. For the study of the middle 
 age, the indispensable work is,' A. Potthast, 
 Bibliotheca historica medii mvi, Berlin, 1862, sup- 
 plement, 1868. Very valuable is Chevahei!, 
 Repertoire des .■iources hittor. du moyen aqe (now 
 in course of publication). There is lackinsr a 
 general bibliographical manual upon the Ref- 
 ormation; but the catalogues of different collec- 
 tions offer al)undant materials. — H. vox i>er 
 H.-vrdt: Antiqua liternrum monumenta Reforma- 
 tionis atatem illustrantia, Brunsw., 1690-93, 3 vols. ; 
 J. A. F.\bricius: Centifoliumlutheranum,lla.mh., 
 1728-30,2 vols.; G. Schwetschke : Ausstellunff 
 meist origineller Druckschriften zur Erluuter. d. Re- 
 formationsgeschichte, Halle. 1841; A. Kuczynski: 
 Thesaurus libellorum historiam Refomiationis illus- 
 (raii^'ifw, Leipzig, 1870-74. For "the reformation 
 in Spain, see Ed. Bohmer : Bibliotheca Wiffen- 
 iana, Strasb., 1874. For a very serviceable list 
 of the sources and moi-e important works on the 
 Reformation, see George P. Fisher: Hi.'tlori/ of 
 the Reformation, Kew York, 1873, Appendix H. 
 Bibliographies of different religious orders have 
 been prepared. The more important are: upon 
 the Benedictines, by Ziegelbauer and Fran9ois, 
 and, specially for the congregation of St. Maur, 
 Pez, Lecerf , and Tassin ; for the Dominicans, 
 by (Juetif and Echard; for the Fi-anciscans, by 
 Wadding, his continuator Sbaralea, and J. a .S. 
 Antonio; for the Jesuits, besides the old works of 
 Kibadeneira, Alegainbe, and Southwell, consult 
 A. C.\rayon: Bibliographic historique de la Comp. 
 de Je'sus, Paris, 1864 ; and the remarkable work 
 of the brothers de Backer : Bibliotheque des e'cri- 
 rains de la Comp. de Je'sus, new edition, Li^ge et 
 Louvain, 1869-76, 3 vols. fol. Certain religious 
 sects have furnished good bibliogi'aphical mono- 
 graphs : thus, for the Socinians, C. Sand : Biblio- 
 theca Anti-Trinitariorum, Freistad, 1684 ; for the 
 Arminians, A. van Cattenburgh : Bibliotheca 
 scriptorum Remonstrantium, Amsterdam, 1728 ; 
 and, most recent, H. C. Rogge : Catalogus der 
 Pamfletten - Verzameling van de Boekerij der Re- 
 mon.^trantsche Kerk te Amsterdam, Amst., 1861-65, 
 in 3 parts (an excellent work, and much more 
 complete lli;xn its title would indicate). Jan- 
 senism was verj' fertile in publications; but there 
 is lacking a complete catalogue. See Catalogue 
 lies lirres impr. de la Biblioth. der roi , The'ologie, 
 Paris, 1739-43, 3 vols, (fulfils its object admi- 
 ralily, but its scope is narrow). It is to be 
 regretted that Abbe Guettee, Histoire litte- 
 raire de Port Roi/<d, Paris, 1S68, was not pub- 
 lished beyond the first volume. The first vol- 
 ume of .1. Lelong, Bibliotheque hist, de la Fiance 
 (new ed., by Fevret de Fontette, Paris, 1768-78, 
 5 vols.), and vol. V. of the Catalogue de I'hi.it. de 
 France de la Bibliolhhpie imperiale (Paris, 1855- 
 70, 10 vols, in quarto), are taken up with ecclesi- 
 astical history. For the Swiss religious affairs, 
 see vol. HI. of G. E. vox Haller ; Bibliothek der 
 Schweizer-Geschichte, Bern, 1785-88, 7 vols.; and 
 the Archie Jiir die .ichn: Reformations- Geschichte 
 herausgeg. con dem Pius-]^crein, vol. I., Soloth., 
 1868, and vol. HI., Freib., 1875. 
 
 IV. For catalogues of Oriental, especially 
 Hebrew, literature, J. T. Zenker: Bibliotheca 
 oricntalis, Leipzig, 1846-61, 2 vols. ; C. H. Herr- 
 mann: Bibliotheca orienlalis et linguislica, Halle, 
 1870 (contains (ierman works published between
 
 BIBLIOMANCY. 
 
 295 
 
 BIDDLB, 
 
 1850 and 1808) ; Die Z,'ilsclir!fl der Drul^rhni 
 morijettklndixcken Gcselhchafi, Leipiiig, 1817 sqq. ; 
 GOSCHK. : Wissi;ti!»'li(iflHcher JalircshcrichI iiher ilh' 
 morgenldndischen Studien, 1850-01, Lfipziff, 1808, 
 and 1862-07, Heft 1, Leipzig, 1871 ; C. Fkikuk- 
 RICI : Bihliothcca Orientalis, London, 1877 sqq. 
 (a yearly full list of books, papei-s, serials, and 
 essays published during the preceding year in 
 England and the Colonies, Germany, and France, 
 on the history, languages, religions, antiquities, 
 and literature of the East; an excellent pub- 
 lication). Concerning the Jews there is an 
 inexhaustible mine of bibliographical informa- 
 tion of all sorts, J. C. Wolf : BUiUotheca hebrma, 
 Hamb., 1715-33, 4 vols. 4to; the supplement, by 
 H F. KocHER, Nova bibliotheca hebra'ica (Jena, 
 1783-84, 2 vols.), is far from having the same 
 value ; M. Steinschneider : Cataloipis librorum 
 hebi-fforum in Bibliotheca Bodleina, Berlin, 1852-60, 
 
 2 vols. 4to (a very superior work, and, in spite 
 of its title, a complete Hebrew bibliography); 
 G. B. DE Kossi : Annates hfibrao-typoffraphici, 
 Parma, 1795-99, 2 vols. 4to ; Bibliotheca Judaica 
 anli-christiana, Parma, 1800. For more complete 
 directions where to find works in the different 
 branches of theology, see Walch : Bibliotheca then- 
 logica, Jena, 17.57-65; Stuuve: Bibliotheca his- 
 torite litterai-i(E, new ed. by Jugler, Jena, 1754-63 ; 
 Namur : Bibliographie paleoyraphico-diplomatico- 
 bibliographique, Liege, 1838; especially Petz- 
 HOLDT : Bibliotheca bibliographica, Leipzig, 1860 ; 
 DE Smedt : Introd. gener. ad histor. eccl., Gand, 
 1876 ; Brunet : Manuel du Libraire, Paris, 1860- 
 65, 8 vols. ; Allibone : Dictionary of Authors, 
 Phila., 1863-70, 3 vols.; Malcom : Theological 
 /nrfex, Phila., 1870; O. Zockler : Handlmch der 
 theologischen Wissenschaften, Nordlingen, 1882-83, 
 
 3 vols. ; Hurst: Bibliotheca Sacra, N.Y., 1S8-'. 
 BIBLIOMANCY, or sortes biblicoe, is the term 
 
 used to describe a superstitious use of the Bible, 
 which consists in opening it haphazard, and con- 
 sidering the first verse the eye rests upon, or 
 entering a church, and marking the first words of 
 Scripture read, as a divine indication of duty, or 
 prophecy of future good or ill. JMany are the 
 stories told of wonderful answers to prayers, and 
 warnings and encouragements thus given. Some 
 eminent Christians, such as John Bunyan and 
 John M'esley, have fallen victims to this delusion. 
 It cannot be denied that it may please God to 
 make use of his own Word to comfort saints or 
 startle sinners, by such chance readings ; but it 
 can be denied most emphatically that he intended 
 his book to be so used. He would have us free 
 from all reliance upon the printed or wi-itten let- 
 ters, but, instead, to trust to the Spirit, who will 
 direct us just as carefully as he did the writers 
 of the Bible. 
 
 Bibliomancy, it is to be feared, is not dead. 
 Too much respect is paid to the mere ijjsissiyna 
 verba of the authorized version, which is quoted 
 as settling every thing, even when it is notori- 
 ously inaccurate. It seems such an easy and 
 natural thing that God should direct us by caus- 
 ing us to read one of the many precious promises 
 of his Word, that it is no wonder simple-minded 
 folk, and many deeply pious, nay, and sinful per- 
 sons, should go to the Bible for supernatm-al 
 guidance. The innnortal story of Augustine's 
 conversion, and the familiar story of the remarka- 
 
 ble conversion of William Cowper, not to speak 
 (if other religious anecdotes, contniu mention of 
 such a use of the Bible as probably has encour- 
 aged bililiomancy, far as it was from tlie practice 
 or conniK^ndation of these persons. The inveter- 
 acy of llu! folly is shown by its continuance in 
 the Church, both East and West, notwithstand- 
 ing tlie decrees of councils. It came dii-ect from 
 Paganism ; for in liki? manner had the Pagans 
 used Homer and Virgil. In the middle ages a 
 new use was found for it in the detection of here- 
 tics : the opened Bible woidd, they thought, give 
 an answer either for or against the accused. A 
 similar mode was at one time employed in Great 
 Britain to root out witchc^raft. Tlie suspected 
 old woman was taken to the village church, and 
 weighed against the big church Bible. If she 
 weighed more than it, she was declared innocent; 
 but alas for her whom the Bible outweighed! 
 
 BICKELL, Johann Wilhelm, b. at Marburg, 
 Nov. 2, 1799; d. at Cassel, Jan. 23, 1848; studied 
 law at Marburg and Gottingen ; was appointed 
 professor of jurisprudence at Marburg in 1824; 
 and became president of the supreme court of 
 Ilesse-Ca.ssel in 1841, and minister of state in 
 1846. He wrote Uber die Entstehung dcs Corpus 
 Jm-is Canoni'ci, 1825; Uber die Reform der Protest. 
 Kirchenverfassung, 1831 ; and tjber die Verpflich- 
 tung der evangel. Geistlichen auf d. symbolischen 
 Schriften, Cassel, 1831, 2d ed. 1840; Geschichte 
 des Kircheurechts, Giessen, 1843, 1849. 
 
 BICKERSTETH, Edward, b. at Kirkby Lons- 
 dale, Westmoreland, Eng., IMarch 19, 1780; d. 
 at Watton, Hertfordshire, Feb. 28, 1850; studied 
 law, and began to practise at Norwich, but felt 
 himself strongly drawn to theology; received full 
 orders in 1815, and was in the same year appointed 
 secretary to the Missionary Society, and in 1830 
 rector of Watton. A collected edition of his 
 works, of which the most prominent are, A Help 
 to the Study of the Scriptin-es, Guide to the Prophe- 
 cies, etc., appeared in 1853, in London, in 16 vols. 
 He edited the Christian Family Library, 50 vols. 
 He was a leader of the " Evangelicals," and one 
 of the founders of the Evangelical AUiance. See 
 Memoir by Rev. T. II. Birks, London, 1851, in 
 2 vols. 
 
 BIDDING-PRAYERS (corruption of "Bidding 
 of Prayers") are formal "biddings," or exhorta- 
 tions, to pray, — a very early custom. A form 
 yet in use in the Chiu'ch of England before ser- 
 mons which are not preceded by divine service, 
 such as university sermons, and also before the 
 morning sermon in cathedral churches, dates sub- 
 stantially from medifeval times. Before the 
 Reformation, the prayer before sermon was called 
 the bidding of the beads; beads meaning both 
 "things comited" and "prayers." The preacher 
 successively named the subjects of their devotion. 
 After the Reformation the practice continued, 
 but the subjects were changed. The text of the 
 bidding-prayer mentioned above is given in full 
 in Procter : A History of the Book of Common 
 Prayer, 11th ed., London, 1874, p. 172. 
 
 BIDDLE, John, b. in 1615 at Wotton-under 
 Edge, Gloucestershire ; d. in a London jail, Sept. 
 22, 1662 ; was educated at Oxford, and appointed 
 master of the free school of Gloucester in 1641. 
 Suspected of heresy, he was called before the 
 Parliament, and committed to custody, December,
 
 BIEL. 
 
 296 
 
 BINNBY. 
 
 1645, in whicli lie remained for five years, -nhile 
 the assembly of divines at Westminster discussed 
 his views. The book -nhieh he published in de- 
 fence of himself, Twelve Arguments, etc. (1647), 
 was btmit by the hangman ; and the two tracts. 
 Confession of Faith and Testimonies, etc. (1048), 
 were suppressed by the govenmient. The Act 
 of Oblivion (1654) gave him full freedom once 
 more ; and his adherents, called Biddelians, or 
 Socinians, or Unitarians, began to form a con- 
 gi'egation. But his translation of the Life of 
 Soctnus, and various Socinian books, again exas- 
 perated his adversaries. He was put on trial a 
 second time (1655), and only rescued from death 
 by Cromwell's sending him away in banishment 
 to the Scilly Islands. After the lapse of three 
 years he was quietly released ; but after the Res- 
 toration he was again imprisoned, and fined, and 
 died in the jail. He was one of the founders 
 of Unitarianisra, and a man of learning, blame- 
 less life, and great piety. SeeTouLMiN: Life and 
 Character of Biildle, London, 1789. 
 
 BIEL, Gabriel, b. at Speyer; d. at Tubingen, 
 1495; studied at Heidelberg; preached in the 
 Church of St. Marten in Mayeuce ; Provost of 
 Uracil in Wiirttemberg ; and since 1484 professor 
 of theology and philosophy in the newly founded 
 University of Tiiljingen. He is often styled the 
 '•last of the schoolmen;" and he is, indeed, one 
 of the last noticeable representatives of the eccle- 
 siastical science of the middle ages. He was a 
 nominalist; denied the infallibility of the Pope, 
 defined the absolution as declaratory and not ju- 
 dicial, and occupied generally the same ground as 
 the Councils of Constance and Basel. He wrote 
 Epitome et Collectorium ex Occamo, Tiibingen, 
 1495; E.rjwsitio Canonis, Basel, 1499; a number 
 of sermons, etc. See G. Plitt : Gabriel Bid als 
 Prediyer, Eriangen, 1879. 
 
 BILLICAN, theobald (Diepold Gerlacher), b. 
 at Billigheini, in the Palatinate, towards the end 
 of the fifteenth century; d. at Marburg, Aug. 8, 
 1554; studied theology at Heidelberg, and began 
 to lecture there, but was so deeply impressed by 
 Luther that he aroused suspicion, and in 1522 
 he left, and accepted an appointment as preacher 
 at Nordlingen. Here he opened a way for the 
 Reformation ; but, while the congregation gradu- 
 ally became thoroughly Protestant, it seems as if 
 its pastor gradually sank back into Romanism. 
 In the controversy about the Lord's Supper he 
 first held with Zwiiigli, Von der Mess, 1524; 
 tlien drew nearer to Luther, Renovatio Ecclesiee, 
 1525, and Epistola de verbis Ca:n(e ; and finally, in 
 1528, made a completely Roman-Catholic confes- 
 sion before the faculty of Heidelberg. He never 
 left the Roman Church; and in the years be- 
 tween 1528 and 15.36 it appears that Dr. Eck 
 exercised considerable influence on him. But, 
 on the other hand, he never came to rest in the 
 Roman Church, and in this indecision his life 
 was wasted. In 1535 he left Nordlingen, and lec- 
 tured, first at Heidelberg, and then at Marburg, 
 on law and rhetoric. There is no biography of 
 him. See Cllit. JIayku : Die Sladl Nordlinyen, 
 1877, pp. 217-245. uEitN'nAun RiGOENDACn. 
 
 BILNEY, Thomas, b. in Norfolk, Eng., 1.500; 
 was educated at Cambridge; embraced the Ref- 
 ormation, and jireaclied with great success, but 
 ■was arrested Nov. 25, 1527, aud persuaded to 
 
 recant Dec. 7, 1527. He soon repented the 
 recantation ; and in 1531 he again began to 
 preach, but was immediately arrested ; and, as 
 he absolutely refused to recant a second time, he 
 was condemned for heresy, and burnt at Nor- 
 wich, Aug. 19, 1531. 
 
 BILSON, Thomas, b. at Winchester, 1546; d. 
 there June IS, 1016 ; was educated at Oxford ; 
 and became Bishop of Worcester in 1596, and of 
 Winchester in 1597. He was in the Hampton 
 Court Conference (1604), at which the new trans- 
 lation of the Bible was proposed. He wrote 
 True Difference between Christian Subjection and 
 unck)-istian Rebellion, 1585 ; Perpetual Government 
 of Christ his Church, 1593, new ed., Oxford, 1842; 
 Survey of the Sufferings of Christ for the Redemp- 
 tion of Man, 1604. 
 
 BINGHAM, Joseph, b. in 1668 at Wakefield, 
 Yorkshire ; d. Aug. 17, 1723, at Ilavant, near 
 Portsmouth ; studied at Oxford, and became a 
 fellow of University College, but left on account 
 of a disagreeable sensation he made by a sermon 
 on the Trinity, and was appointed rector, first of 
 Ileadbourn-Worthy, near ^\'inchester, and then, 
 in 1712, at Ilavant. His great archa;ological 
 work, Oriyines Ecclesiasticce, or the Antiquities of 
 the Christian Church, which has not yet been 
 superseded by any of its successors, first ap- 
 peared in English, London, 1708-22, in 8 vols., 
 and was afterwards often reprinted : best edition 
 is that by Pitman, revised by Rev. Richard Bing- 
 ham, great-great-grandson of the author, Oxford, 
 1855, 10 vols., giving the quotations in full, a life 
 of the author, and other of his works. A cheap 
 edition for the use of students was published in 
 London in 2 vols., 1852. By J. II. Grischow 
 (Grischovius) the work was translated into Latin, 
 and published in Halle, 1724—38, in 10 vols. A 
 German translation, made in the interest of the 
 Roman Church, was published at Augsburg, 
 1788-96, in 4 vols. 
 
 BINNEY, Thomas, one of the leading noncon- 
 formist ministers of England ; b. at Newcastle- 
 on-Tyne, April, 1798; d. at Clapton, Feb. 24, 
 1874. He spent seven years in a bookseller's em- 
 p'oy in his native town, where he first attracted 
 attention by a poem published in one of the 
 local papers. He first received private and aca- 
 demic training in the north of England, and then 
 entered the theological college at Wymondley, 
 Herts. After a brief ministry at Bedford, he w'as 
 settled, in 1824, over the Congregational Church 
 called St. James's Chapel, Newpoit, in the Isle of 
 Wight. Here he wrote his well-known hymn, 
 "Eternal Light I Eternal Light ! " and ]>nblished 
 the Life of Stephen Morell, and a volume entitled 
 The Practical Power of Faith, London (n.d.), 
 being an exposition of a portion of the eleventh 
 chapter of the Epistle to the Hebrews. In 1829 
 he was called to the King's Weigh-IIouse Chapel 
 in Eastcheap, an independent church, which dated 
 back to 1662, the period of the ejection of the 
 nonconformists. In 1833 the foundation of the 
 new cliapel on Fish-street hill was laid by Mr. 
 Binney; and the address delivered by him upon 
 that occasion led to a bitter and prolonged con- 
 troversy with State churchmen, in the course of 
 which he published the once famous ])amphlets, 
 " What and Who Says it f " " Strike, Out Hear," 
 " Two Letters by Fiat Justitia." For a long
 
 BIRCH. 
 
 297 
 
 BISHOP. 
 
 while Mr. Hiiincy wiis cn-oiieously thoiiglit by 
 members of tlie Estalilishment to be a flissenter 
 of peculiarly narrow and bigoted views; but be- 
 fore his death he not oidy gained the foremost 
 position among the nonconformists, but obtained 
 for his broad and catholic sjiirit an affectionate 
 and appreciative; regard from many of f Ik; most 
 distinguished dignitaries of the Cliurch of Kng- 
 laiid. His jireacliing rapidly secured a wide 
 popuhirity, which continued during his long 
 ministry. He chielly attracted young men and 
 the business men of the city of London. He 
 was also closely connected with the most im- 
 IJortant philanthropic and religious movements 
 of his time, especially in connection with mis- 
 sionary labors in the colonies, of the society for 
 which he was one of the founders. He visited 
 America in 1845 (when he received the degree of 
 D.D.), and Australia in 1857-59. The degree of 
 LL.D was also conferred upon him by the Uni- 
 versity of Aberdeen. He j^ublislied many of 
 his sermons and lectiu'es. His best-known works 
 are The Service of Soiii/ in the House of the Lonl, 
 which exercised a great influence in the develop- 
 ment of a richer and more nuisical service in 
 nonconformist churches ; Dissent not Schi-ini ; The 
 Christian Ministry not a Priesthood ; The Life of 
 Sir Thomas Kowell Buxton; Lir/hls and Shailows of 
 Church Life in Australia ; From Seventeen to 
 Thirty, a book for young men ; St. Paul, His 
 Life and Ministry ; Money, a Popular Exposition 
 (li.d.); il//ca/(, the Bread Maker (1867); First 
 Series of Sermons (1800) ; his most widely sold 
 work is, Is it possiide to make the best of both worlds ? 
 He retired from the pastorate in 1869, and occu- 
 pied the chair of homiletic and pastoral theology 
 at New College, London, until his death. ]\lr. 
 Binney's magnificent presence, vigorous intellect, 
 ardent affections, direct style, and highly effective 
 manner, combined with large-hearted sympathies, 
 sufficiently explain the wide and long-continued 
 influence which he exerted upon his generation. 
 See A Memorial of the late Rev. Thomas Binney, 
 LL.D., edited by the Rev. John Stougiiton, 
 D.D., London, 187i ; Second Series of his Ser- 
 mons, edited witli sketch by Rev. Dr. Allon, 
 London, 1875 ; Pulpit Memorials by Edward 
 "\VlHTK. T.LEWELYN D. BEVAN. 
 
 BIRCH, Thomas, b. in London, Nov. 23, 1705; 
 d. there Jan. 9, 1766 ; was ordained j>riest in 
 1731, though he had enjoyed no university educa- 
 tion ; and became Vicar of Ulting, Essex, in 1734, 
 rector of St. Margaret's, London, in 1746, and 
 rector of Depden, Essex, 1761. He de\'eloped a 
 very great literary activity, especially historical 
 and biographical ; edited the General Dictionary, 
 Historical and Critical, 10 vols, fob, 1734-41 ; 
 Thurloe's Stale Papers, 7 vols., 1742, etc. ; wrote 
 biographies of Tillotson, Boyle, etc. ; and was one 
 of the secretaries of the Royal Society since 1752. 
 
 BIRGITTA (Briffitta, Bridyet), St., b. at Fin- 
 stad in Upland, Sweden, in 1302 or 1303; d. in 
 Rome, Jidy 23, 1373 ; was, both on her father's 
 and mother's side, related to the royal family of 
 Sweden, and was very early married to Ulf Gud- 
 mar.son, a wealthy nobleman in a high social 
 position, to whom she bore eight children. She 
 was of a poetical and enthusiastic nature. In 
 the home she grew up among very strong reli- 
 gious impressions. Her husband was a pious 
 
 man; and twice the couple made pilgrimages 
 together, to St. Olaf in Throuhjem, Norway, and 
 to St. .lacob in Compostella, Spain. Neverthele.s.s, 
 in spite of the exalted state of her mind, produ- 
 cing visions in which she believed as in divine ( 
 revelations, both as a housciwifc and in her office 
 at the court .she distinguished herself by the 
 nolilo c.onnnon sense of her judgiuent and the 
 calm re]iose of her will. After the death of her 
 husband (1344) she retired into a monastery, 
 devoting herself to ascetic practices and religious 
 studies ; but from her cell she; continued to exer- 
 cise a great influence, considered by many as ,a 
 true prophetess, by others as a witch. It was her 
 wi.sh to found an order; and this idea fell in with 
 the plan of the King to build a monastery at 
 Wadstena, on the border of Lake Wettern. In 
 1349 she went to Rome to oljtain the Pope's con- 
 firmation of a set of rules, Uerjulm Sancti Salva- 
 torift, which slie declared that the Lord had re- 
 vealed to her. In Rome sluj lived as she had 
 lived in Sweden ; her authority increasing, like 
 lier fame, year by year. She addressed the kings 
 and princes on the most important affairs, and 
 she was listened to. The clergy, even the popes 
 at Avignon, whom she was not sparing in de- 
 nouncing, treated her with the greatest regard. 
 In 1307 Urban V. confirmed the rules; and in 
 1370 the order of the Birgittines, or Brigittines, 
 was established. In the same year Birgitta made 
 a pilgrimage to .lerusalem, and shortly after her 
 return to Rome she died. Her remains were 
 brought back to Sweden, and deposited at Wad- 
 stena. By Boniface IX. she was canonized Oct. 
 7, 1391, and the bull was confirmed by John 
 XXIII. (1409) and by Martin V. (141.5). Un- 
 der her name there exists a work, Rerelationes^ \ 
 originally written in Swedish, but translated into 
 Latin under her own superintendence, and of- 
 ten printed in Rome; best edition, Liibeck, 1492. 
 The original was publLshed at Stockholm. 18.57-61 . 
 
 Lit. — Fkkd. II.\MMf:RiCH : Die heUige Bir- 
 gitta, Copenhagen, 1863. .\L. micukl^ex. 
 
 BIRGITTINES, or BRIGITTINES, The Order 
 of the, was founded on the rules of St. Birgitta 
 in 1370, and comprised both monks and nuns, liv- 
 ing together in the same monastery, though in 
 absolute separation. The monastery of '\^'■ad- 
 stena, on the border of Lake Wettern, Sweden, 
 the first establishment of the order, was designed 
 to hold sixty nims and seventeen monks, beside.s 
 a number ')f lay sisters and brethren. Accord- 
 ing to the rules, the hours of the day were divided 
 between manual lalior, studies, especially transla- 
 tion of good books into Sw-edish, and devotional 
 exercises. The rules of silence were very severe, 
 but the rules of fasting were mild. From AV^ad- 
 stena the order spread to all Eiu'opean countries : 
 at one time it numbered seventy-four establish- 
 ments. But in the fifteenth century it fell into 
 decay, and with the Reformation it almost dis- 
 appeared. 
 
 BISHOP, 1. Ix THE Bible .VND Tin: Fatiieus. 
 As usually employed, bishop is the designation of 
 the spiritual head of a diocese {speculator, super- 
 intendens) ; but in the Septuagint emaKOjroc, of, 
 which "bishop" is the translation, is used of| 
 public officers civil and religious (cf. Nimi. iv. 
 16, xxxi. 14), and in the latter sense in the Greek 
 New Testament and later ecclesiastical writers
 
 BISHOP. 
 
 298 
 
 BISHOP. 
 
 • (cf. Acts i. 20 ; Ps. cix. 8). In the same way the 
 iible writers employ ■^psoSvTepoc, "elder" (Num. 
 xi. 16; Jer. xix. 1 f JIatt. xxviii. 11, 12; Mark 
 Tiii. 31, etc.). Xo distinction is made between tlie 
 words, for they both have the same meaning (cf. 
 Acts XX. 17, 28; Tit. i. 5 sq.) : a " presbuteros " 
 occupied ]irecisely the same ]iosition as an " epis- 
 copos" (Phil. i. 1 ; 1 Tim. iii. 1-8); hence the 
 apostles John and Peter call themselves "presbu- 
 teroi," and " surapresbuteroi " (2 Jolm 1; 3 John 
 1; 1 Pet. V. 1). The identity of the two offices 
 •comes out in the First Epistle of Clement to the 
 Corinthians, in which he uses the two words in- 
 discriminately. In chapter forty-two he exhorts 
 the Corinthians to submit themselves to the p7-es- 
 hyters (ii-oriiyi]Te -olg-npeafimlpoiQ^, for the apostles 
 had made their earliest converts bishops and dea- 
 cons (f/f eTTtoKO-ovi KoX 6iaK6vov(; nadiaravov^ ; in one 
 section he calls the same persons " presbyters " 
 and "bishops." In chapter forty-four he says it 
 would be a sin to depose from the episcopate (tu 
 dupa 7//f i-i(iKo~7ic) those who have done well, and 
 in the next sentence eulogizes faithful presbyters 
 (jrpea^vTepoi) . In chapter forty-seven he speaks 
 of the dignity of presbytersliip. Ko demonstra- 
 tion could be plainer. Otlier titles for the hold- 
 ers of the office of oversight in the church were, 
 in a)iostolic days, -Kpoen-CneQ or -TTpoioTa/ievoi (those 
 standing before, representatives, 1 Thess. v. 12 ; 
 1 Tim. V. 17 ; Rom. xii. 8), iiyavficvoi (leaders, 
 Ileb. xiii. 7, 17, 24 ; Clemens, First Epistle to 
 the Corinthians i. 21), and iroi^ve^ (shepherds, 
 Eph. iv. 11; Acts xx. 28; 1 Pet. v. 1, etc.). 
 It is indubitable that very early a distinction 
 was made between presbyter and bisliop, but 
 it is by no means clear when or how this change 
 came in. [Tlie Epistles of Ignatius are full of 
 Episcopacy as the embodiment of Christ's pres- 
 ence in the Cliurch.] Koman-Catholic writers are 
 bound by the decision of the Council of Trent 
 (Sess. XXIII. cap. IV., et can. VII. de sucramento 
 ordinis: "Bishops, being the successors of the 
 apostles, are placed by the Holy Spirit to govern 
 the Church of God, and to be superior to their 
 presbyters [priests] ; " " If any one affirms that 
 bisliops are not superior to presbyters [priests], 
 let him be anathema"), and accordingly have en- 
 deavored to explain away the evident identity. 
 Anglican writers of the Iligli-Cliurch school 
 approach the Roman idea. See literature in 
 H.\SE : Kirchenfiexchichte ; Rothe : Die AnfUnge 
 der christlichen Kirche u. ihrer Verfassung, Witten- 
 berg, 1837; Bauk : Ueber den Ursprung des Epis- 
 kojMts in der christlichen Kirche, Tubingen, 1838; 
 BuxsKX : Ignatius von Antiochien u. seine Zeit, 
 Hamburg, 1847 ; Ritsciil : Die Kntstehtmq der 
 altkathoUsthen Kirche. Bonn, 18.50, 2d ed., 1857. 
 
 The Roman-Catholic view is. that the distinction 
 between the offices is primitive, althougli at first 
 the names were not so sharply defined : the apos- 
 tles had a general episcopal supervision of the 
 congregations, while the elders whom they had 
 ordained had the local oversight. But, as the num- 
 ber of the congregations greatly increased, the apos- 
 tles could no longer pretend to supervise districts, 
 80 they ordained certain chosen assistants, whom 
 they at the same time named their successors, 
 to be overseers of each large gathering of Chris- 
 tians, as that in a city and noigliborhood. Such 
 pre-eminently were the angi'ls of the seven church- 
 
 es mentioned in the Apocalypse (i. 20, ii. 1 sqq.). 
 But the New Testament has not a word to say 
 about any apostolic appointment of successors 
 with full powers ; nor does it contain a trace of 
 any distinction between the office of bi.shop and 
 elder ; nor is the interpretation given above sup- 
 ported or supportable : but, on the eontrarv, after 
 the canon closed, tlie episcopoi and the presby- 
 teroi remained identical. Clemens Romanus (d. 
 100) is not the only witness to this state of 
 things. The "Pastor of Hennas" (IV.s-. 3, 5, circa 
 140), and the Epistle of Polycarp (d. circa 1G4) to 
 the Philippians, indicate the same. [The " Pas- 
 tor" is not decisive. The passage quoted reads, 
 " Hear now about the stones which are in the 
 building . . . they are the apostles (iotoctt-oAoi) 
 and bishops (imoKo-noi) and doctors {hianKaXoi^ 
 teaching elders) and ministers (iiuKovoi^ deacons) : 
 these walked in the grace of (xod, and oversaw, 
 and taught and ministered holily and humbly 
 to the Church." Hefele, Patrum Apostolicorum 
 Opera, p. 334, appends the note: "These are 
 distinct hierarchical orders," and that seems to 
 be the only inference. Nor can Polycarp in his 
 Epistle, c. v., be emphatically quoted; for al- 
 though it is true that he exhorts the young men 
 to be " subject to the presbi/lers and deacons as 
 unto God and Christ," and omits mention of bish- 
 ops, yet from his silence little can be made.] 
 The first distinct separation we find in Ig- 
 natius of Antioch (d. 107 or 116), whose epis- 
 tles, however, are, just in these ecclesiastical 
 mattei-s, strongly interjiolated. [The sliorter 
 Greek recension is considered genuine by the 
 best critics.] On the other hand, Irena;ns (d. 
 202), Adv. Ha:r. III. 2. 3, unmistakably rec- 
 ognizes the original identity of the two offices. 
 Particularly noticeable are the expressions of 
 Ambrosiaster (Hilary the deacon, about 380), in 
 commenting on 1 Tim. iii. 10, Eph. iv. 11; and 
 Jerome (d. 420), Epist.c. I., ad Evaiigeluni; of 
 Gratian's decree, c. 24, dist. XCHl., conim. ad 
 Tit. i. 7, and Decree c. 5, dist. XCV. (" The 
 apostle clearly teaches that presbyters are the 
 same persons as bishops : moreover, as to the 
 fact that one was afterwards elected to be placed 
 over the rest, this was done as a remedy for 
 .schism, lest any one, bj' attracting to himself 
 adherents, should break the unity of the Church 
 of Christ." " A piresbyter is the same person as a 
 bishop. And before party-passions arose in reli- 
 gion, from tlie instigation of the devil, the churches 
 were governed by a board of presbyters. But 
 when some began to think tliat those wlioin they 
 had baptized belonged to them, and not to Christ, 
 it was decreed in the wliole world that one of the 
 presbyters elected to the office should be placed 
 over the rest. . . . Tlierefore as the presbyters 
 know tliat they are subject to liini wlio may have 
 been placed over them from ecclesiastical usage, 
 so let the bisliops know that they are higher in 
 rank than the jiresl)yters, more from usage tlian 
 from a iirinciple of the Lord's a]ipointnu'nt, and 
 that tliey ought to rule the Church in common.") 
 The defenders of de jure divino episcopacy claim 
 for this early period tlie later distinction of ordo 
 and juri.fdictio. So IJenzinger, Kritik it. Vorl. 
 d. Prof. Thiersch ilhcr Kalholizismus u. I'mtestan- 
 tismus. Wih-zburg, 1847 ; and Hergenrblher, De 
 Cdtholicce ICcclesicB primordiis reretiliornin Prnle--
 
 BISHOP. 
 
 299 
 
 BISHOP. 
 
 ■ tantium Sijstemalci expenduntiir, Ratisboiia^, 1851. 
 The iioii-episcoiial writers of tlio Kvautifelical 
 C'hurch (e.ef., Ziegler, Geschicktc der kiixhiichen 
 Vcrfa.^suri//sfonneii, Leipzig, 1798, p. 7 sq. ; Neau- 
 der. Church Hhlori/, vol. i. pp. 190-20(1) assume 
 that the college of jiresbyters must necessarily 
 liave had a director, a primus inter pares, who ahiie 
 bore the previously common name of "bishops" 
 \\\u'.n his office was made permanent. At fir.st 
 tiie position would be given to the oldest, then to 
 tlie ablest, who was specially ordained thereto. 
 Substantially the same explanation is given by 
 those writers who emphasize the divided condi- 
 tion of the Christian communities, particularly 
 in large cities where the Christians formed sev- 
 eral congregations QiiKXriaiai Kar' ofKour), and main- 
 tain that union would be naturally promoted by 
 electing one of the presbyters to tlie headship. 
 Rothe started the improvable theory, that the 
 episcopacy was of apostolic origin, the result of 
 the deliberations of the survivors some time after 
 A.D. 70, and therefore part of the original con- 
 stitution of the Church, but a merely human and 
 tPm[)orary design. Bunsen gave to episcopacy a 
 Johannean origin, — a date after the death of Paul 
 (about 70), and a gradual spread. See his IIlppo- 
 li/lu.i and his Aqe, London, 18.52 ; Christianil ij and 
 Mankind, London, 1852. [So Rothe (AnJUmje 
 der chrisll. Kirche) and Thiersoli {Gesch. des apost. 
 Zeitahers),'\ 
 
 [The Church of England tolerates several op- 
 posing views of the origin of the episcopate, 
 which will be found stated under Episcopacy. 
 The High-Anglican or Anglo-Catliolic view is cor- 
 rectly given by the late Rev. Arthur West Ilad- 
 dan, iu Smith and Cheetham's DicCwnarij of 
 Christian Antiquities, vol. 1, art. "Bishop:" 
 " Bishop, first an appellative, and then an in- 
 terchangeable, title of the Trpeai^vrepoi. (presby- 
 ters), who ministered to the several churches 
 under the apostles ; but from the earliest years 
 of the second century, and from St. Ignatius on- 
 wards, the distinctive name, adopted as such in 
 every language used by Christians, Eastern as 
 well as Western, of the single president of a 
 diocese, who came in the room of the apostles, 
 having presbyters, deacons, and laity under him, 
 and possessing exclusive power of ordination, 
 and primarily of confirmation, with primary au- 
 thority in the administration of the sacraments 
 and of discipline." Mr. Haddan enumerates 
 fully the titles by which the " bishops " have been 
 called, grants that some of them were applied 
 - also to presbyters, but finds the actual insti- 
 tution implied and i-ecorded in the New Testa- 
 ment : 1. In the position of James in Jerusalem 
 (Acts xii. 7, XV. 13, xxi. 18; Gal. ii. 9), " affirmed 
 also by all antiquity to have been bishop of Jeru- 
 salem ; " 2. In Paul's appointment of Timothy 
 at Ephesus, and Titus in Crete, to be "bishops," 
 i.e., to ordain (1 Tim. iii. 13; Tit. i. 5) and rule 
 both in church worship (I Tim. ii. 1-12) and 
 over all church-members, including presbyters 
 (1 Tim. V. 1-22 ; Tit. i. 5, ii. ), and probably to 
 confirm (1 Tim. v. 22) in the apostle's stead 
 (1 Tim. i. 3 ; Tit. i. 5) ; 3. In the angels of the 
 churches, who were real individual persons (see 
 Aniiel of the Church sub voce Angel). lie further 
 finds confirmation to the hypothesis in Clemens 
 Romauus, ad. Cor. i. 44 (already quoted on the 
 
 other side), in St. Jerome's Cnlal. Scripti. Keel. 
 ix. (" Last of all John, at the request of Ine 
 bishops of Asia, wrote his (lospel "), and other 
 Fathers; in the fact that "bishops in the later 
 sense are actually found in every church whatso- 
 ever from the moment that any evidence exists 
 at all, and that such evidence exists, either 
 simply to an actual bishop at the time, or more 
 commonly to such a bishop as in succession to a 
 line of predecessors traced up to apostles, and 
 with no intimation of such episcopate being any 
 thing else but the original, appointed, and unbroken 
 order."] The establishment of the ciiiscopatc can- 
 not be attributed to a general movement: some 
 churches early, others later, ]iut their government 
 in a board of elders (^iresbytei's) ; it di-jiended upon 
 how soon they fell into the line of develo))ment 
 from separate congregations to the one Church. 
 That out of the elders one would be choscui to 
 preside, was natui-al, and is proven by the 
 Fathers to have taken place before the middle of 
 the second century. Hence in the largest com- 
 munions, as in Jerusalem, Antioch, Rome, the 
 institution would first be established. In Asia 
 Jlinor and SjTia the general name "episcopus" 
 was applied in these early times to this representa- 
 tive. Very early, to some of these episcopi were 
 assigned the appointment and ordination of the 
 new elders: but there seems to have been no rule 
 about it; e.g., in Egypt, up to the first quarter 
 of the third century, the presbyteries ordained 
 without episcopal supervision. But with the 
 development of the Church in doctrine and con- 
 stitution, the separation of presbyter and bishoi) 
 was established. The process was hastened by 
 the opposition of Gnosticism and other heresies : 
 the bishops became the centres of authority, the 
 representatives of apostolic teaching. By the 
 fourth century the present order was firmly set- 
 tled. The bishops themselves were originally 
 elected by the neighboring bishops, and the 
 clergy and laity of the diocese, but later on by 
 the chapter of the cathedral, with the assent of the 
 sovereign. [See the arts. " Bisho]) " and " Priest," 
 in Smith and Cheetham : Diet. Chri.il. Antiq., and. 
 the books therein mentioned. Also the impor- 
 tant works, G. A. Jacoii : The Eeelesiastieal 
 Polity of the New Testament, London and N. Y., 
 1872, 6"th Amer. ed., 1879; E. Hatch: The 
 Organization of the Early Cliristian Churches, 
 London, 1881.] 
 
 2. In the Roman-Catholic Church. The 
 bishop must be of legitimate birth, thirty years 
 old, recognized for learning and morality. The 
 choice is nomiiuxlly made by the Pope,_ through 
 the curia, although practically through the 
 chapter {electio canonica) ; or, when the person 
 is to be transferred from one bishopric to an- 
 other, through their postulation, or by the 
 nomination of the tempora Iruler. Then-follow 
 the papal examination through the papal legate ; 
 if favorable, a second (formal) examination by 
 the college of cardinals upon the receipt of the 
 report ; the investitm-e witli full rights ; the con- 
 secration, within three months, by a bishop com- 
 missioned by the Pope, and two other bishops or 
 prelates, in "the cathedral of the new bishoj). 
 Tlie candidate takes the old oath of allegiance to 
 the Pope (essentially that prescribed by Hilde- 
 brand), subscribes the professio Jidei, is anointed,
 
 BISHOP. 
 
 300 
 
 BISHOP. 
 
 solemnly enthroned, and dismisses the congrega- 
 tion with his blessing. Conseci-ation precedes 
 the oatli of civil allegiance. The episcopal ritjiils 
 and powers are derived partly from his consecra- 
 tion, partly from his jurisdiction, partly from his 
 dignity. 1. Jura orjinis. He shares all the rights 
 of the presbjters, but, besides, has as jura reser- 
 r-ata, propria, ponlijicalia (1) ordination, (2) con- 
 firmation, (3) chrism, (4) consecration of res 
 sacrw, (5) benediction of abbots and abbesses, 
 (6) anointing of kings. 2. Jura jurisdictionis. 
 In the broad sense these emlirace the entire 
 ecclesiastical authority of the liishop: in the nar- 
 row, the lex jurisiliclionis (as the oversight, rule, 
 and executive power) is distinguished from the 
 lex (lioecesana, the right to the various church- 
 taxes. As the bishop exercises all these rights 
 jure propria, he is called "judex ordinarius ; '' 
 but many others has he in consequence of papal 
 bestowment. See F.\culties. 3. Jura status et 
 dignitatis. The bishop takes precedence of all the 
 clergy, directly after the cardinals of the Roman 
 Curia, and is addressed, as they are, " Reverend- 
 issimus," " sanctissimus," " beatissimus," " right 
 reverend," "your episcopal Grace." His tem- 
 poral rank is settled by special enactment, with 
 his particular insignia and robes. To these rights 
 correspond duties , in chief, the cure of souls, 
 and oversight of the diocese. Each bishop, by his 
 consecration oath, is bound at regular intervals 
 to give a personal report in Rome of his dio- 
 cese, which reiiort must be repeated in writing. — 
 Assistants of Ike biskops. Such are the archdeacons, 
 archpre.sbyters, chapters, consistories, general- 
 vicars, etc. (See separate titles.) Cf. Thomas- 
 six : Vetus ac nova ecclesice disciplina, P. I. lib. I. 
 c. 1. 2. 50-60; Barbosa : De officio et potestate 
 episcopi, Lugdun. 1698 ; Jon. IIelfert : Von den 
 liechten u. PJiirhten der Bischijfe u. Pfarrer, dann 
 dcrcn bciderseitijjen Geliilfen ti. Stcllverlreter, Prag., 
 1832. For later literature, HiNSCHlus : Kircken- 
 recht. 
 
 3. Ix THE Churches of the Reformatiox. 
 The churches of the Reformation have no bishops 
 in the Koman sense, although the question at that 
 time was rather the reform of the office than its 
 abolition. The Lutheran Church in Germany is 
 not governed by bishops, although the general 
 superintendents are .sometimes so called, but by 
 consistories. In some parts of Germany the title 
 "bishop" is given to a civil officer. [In Sweden 
 and Denmark the episcopal office was retained, 
 but without the jure divinn theory. The Church 
 of England admits different theories of the origin 
 and authority of the ejiiscopate and episcopal 
 succession. The i\Iethodist and Moravian epis- 
 copate is merely a matter of convenience, and 
 lia.s a missionary character.] 
 
 4. Aiu'Huismoi' {Archiepiscopus, MetropoUtanus') 
 is the s]iiritual chief of a church province (arch- 
 bishopric, metropolitan diocese). The office fol- 
 lowed naturally from the bishopric; and the 
 dependence of the city bishops, who exercised 
 authority over the adjiicent country congrega- 
 tions, upon the inetro)iolitans (see titles), was 
 recognize<l by the Covmcil of Nicica, 325. Among 
 the metropolitans, again, some were preeminent, 
 and were called arrliiepislnpos, and, after 450, 
 patriarclics ; but snbse(|uently every bisiio]) having 
 metropolitans under him \va.s called an archbishop. 
 
 The office is one of varying jx)wer : much depends 
 upon the under-bishops, wlio are styled sujinit/ans. 
 The archbishop calls synods, presides at them, 
 and publishes their acts. In addition to his own 
 diocese, he visits those of his bishops, and requires 
 reports from them. He receives the pallium 
 directly from the Pope. The archiepiscopal dig- 
 nity is retained with similar powers in the Epis- 
 copal Church of Great Britain, but not in the 
 United States. MEJER (.JACOBSON). 
 
 BISHOPRIC, the jurisdiction of a bishop. It 
 was formed out of the congregations which clus- 
 tered aroimd the parent cliiuch in those early 
 days of a growing yet persecuted Christianity. 
 Each congregation was a parish : the associated 
 parishes formed the bishopric. These terms are 
 still in use in the Oriental Church. In the Occi- 
 dental Chmch, in the ninth century, the term 
 dicecesis was applied to bishopric, and parochia to- 
 the individual churches. In Frankish Gaul the 
 diocese often corresponded with the pat/us viajor; 
 and the phrases terminus, territorium ciritatis, 
 patjus, were used of the bishop's jurisdiction. 
 The bishops resided in the larger cities, as was 
 ordered. In Germany the dioceses, comprising 
 several provinces, were larger than those in Gaul, 
 which took in only one. The setting vip and 
 alteration of bishoprics have been, since the fourth 
 century, the affair of the metropolitans and the 
 provincial synods. Every year the Annuario- 
 Pontitico contains an official review of the bish- 
 oprics of the Romish Church. 
 
 BISHOPS' BOOK, THE, or The Institution of 
 a Christian Man, contains an exposition of the 
 Apostles' Creed, the Seven Sacraments, the Ten 
 Commandments, the Lord's Prayer, and the Doc- 
 trine of Justification, and was compiled ir. 1537 
 by a commission of ministers and bishops of the 
 Church of England. 
 
 BISHOP, Nathan, an eminent Christian phi- 
 lanthropist, b. Aug. 12, 1808, at Vernon, Oneida 
 County, N.Y.; d. at Saratoga, Aug. 7, 1880. His 
 parents were New-England people, who moved 
 from Connecticut to Central Jvew York when that 
 was called the "Far West." His father, Elna- 
 tlian Bisliop, was a farmer, a justice of the peace, 
 and at one time represented his neighborhood in 
 the New- York Legislature. His mother was a 
 woman of rare excellence, of a strong mind, and 
 great executive ability. Tlie family was large. 
 His home was the abo<le of l>iety, intelligence, and 
 industry. He was an anilntious boy, caring little 
 for annisements, and choosing to give all his spare 
 time to study. 
 
 At eigliteen years of age he entered the acade- 
 my at Hamilton, Madison County, N.Y. During 
 his course there, antl suliseqnently in Brown I'ni- 
 versity. Providence, It.]., lie supported him.self. 
 He was graduated at twenty-nine years of age (in 
 1837), .so mature a .scholar that he was inuuedi- 
 atel)' elected a tutor in tlie university. At the 
 close of his first year in this position lie was 
 chosen superintendent of public schools in Provi- 
 dence. "Previous to this," says Dr. II. I.. Way- 
 land, " the common schools were of very low 
 order, and it is due very largely to the labors of 
 Mr. Bisho)! that the .schools of that city now rank 
 with (he first of (he country." In tliis position 
 he .spent thirteen years. .Mr. Bishoji was elected 
 a trustee of Brown University in 1812, and in
 
 BITHYNIA. 
 
 301 
 
 BLANDRATA, 
 
 1S54 a member of the Board of Fellows. His 
 iiiai'ked success in the Providence schools led 
 U) his being called to the position of siiperintend- 
 ■<'ut of public schools in Boston in 1851. In tliis 
 ollice he .spent six years with .siynal success: 
 (luring these years he aided largely in plan- 
 ning several of those model schoolhouses for 
 which Boston is celebrated. 
 
 While in Boston he received from Harvard the 
 degree of LL.D. When nearly fifty years of age, 
 Mr. Bishop removed to Kew-York City ; soon 
 after he became a member of the Sabbath Com- 
 mittee, and an active manager of the American 
 Bible Society. He identified himself witli the 
 work of the chiu'ch and sabbath school, teaching 
 a large Bible-class of young men. He took great 
 interest in the work of city missions. When the 
 war of the Rebellion burst upon the country, 
 there came a cry from the army for help, reli- 
 gious consolation, nursing and comforts for the 
 sick ; and the Christian Commission was formed. 
 Mr. Bishop gladly gave to the work of the New- 
 York Branch his whole time and energy till the 
 close of the war. He was appointed by President 
 Grant one of the ten Indian commissioners; and 
 it was in pursuance of the work of visiting the 
 wild tribes in 1869 that lie contracted the malari- 
 al disease which eleven years afterwards caused 
 his death. He was for several years a member of 
 the State Board of Charities, a member and a 
 delegate of the Evangelical Alliance to the Czar 
 of Russia in behalf of religious liberty in the Bal- 
 tic Provinces, a member of the advisory boards of 
 the New-York Orphan Asylum, the Ladies' Chris- 
 tian Union, and the Baptist Home for the Aged. 
 He was one of the original board of trustees of 
 A'assar College, and for the first seven years 
 chairman of the executive committee. lie was 
 an earnest worker for foreign and home mis- 
 sions, and served the American Baptist Home- 
 Mission Society as its secretary for two years 
 gratuitously during a time of financial depres- 
 sion. 
 
 He delighted to give and work for the educa- 
 tion and elevation of the ignorant and degraded. 
 The eight schools established in the Southern 
 States by the American Baptist Home-Mission 
 Society, for the education of preachers and teach- 
 ers among the freedmen, elicited his warmest 
 sympathy. To them he gave the benefit of his 
 long experience in the management of schools, 
 and biulding of schoolhouses. He was chairman 
 of the finance committee of the American Bible 
 Revision Committee till his death, and contributed 
 largely to its expenses. He was a man of catho- 
 lic spirit, of large benevolence, calm judgment, a 
 ■wise adviser, a consistent Christian, in active 
 sympathy with every good cause. P. SCHAFF. 
 
 BITHYNIA; a north-west province of Asia Mi- 
 nor, conquered by the Romans B.C. 75. After 
 different administrative changes, Augustus raised 
 it into a proconsularship B.C. 27. Trajan com- 
 bined it with Pontus under the younger Pliny 
 A.I). 103-105. Under the Bizantine emperors it 
 was again divided. Niconiedia and Nica?a were 
 its chief cities. It is mountainous, tliickly wood- 
 ed, and fertile. Paul was not suffered to enter it 
 (Acts xvi. 7) ; but 1 Pet. i. 1 testifies to the pres- 
 ence of Ghristians there in Paul's day, and Pliuy 
 was embarrassed by their number. 
 
 BLACKFRIARS, a name given to tlie monks of 
 the Dominican orders on account of the oolor of 
 
 their gai'niciit. 
 
 BLAIR, Hugh, b. at Edinburgh, April 7, 1718; 
 d. there, ik'c. 27, 1800; studied theology in the 
 university of his native city, and was ajipointed 
 minister of Colessie, in Fifeshire, in 1742, and of 
 the High Church of Edinburgh in 1758. The 
 first volume of his Scrmuns was published in 
 1777 : four others followed. The moral bearing 
 of these sermons, hajipily contrasting with the 
 nielaphy.sical tone of the preaching of that time, 
 ])rocured for them a great success (they were 
 translated into German, French, Slavonian, etc.) ; 
 but in true evangelical spirit our time finds them 
 wanting. As professor of rhetoric at the univer- 
 sity, which position he held from 1702 to 1783, he 
 published lectures on Ulietoric and Belles-Lettres, 
 1783, 3 vols., of which lectures, twenty-nine treat 
 of the eloquence of the pulpit. IIERZOG. 
 
 BLAIR, James, 1>. iu Scotland about 1660; d. 
 at Williamsburg, Va., Aug. 1, 1743; came to 
 Virginia as a missionary in 1685; was appointed 
 commissary in 1689 ; founded the William and 
 Mary College in 1G92, and was its first president. 
 From 1711 to his death he was rector of Wil- 
 liamsburg. In 1722 he published Sermons and 
 Discourses, 4 vols. 
 
 BLAIR, Robert, b. at Edin'ourgh, 1699; ai> 
 jiointed minister of Athelstaneford, Jan. 5, 1731, 
 and d. there Feb. 4, 1746. He is known as the 
 author of The Grace, a solemn religious poem, 
 published 1743, beautifidly and strikingly illus- 
 trated by William Blake, 1808, and still read. 
 The poem is very melancholy, defective in rhythm, 
 yet vigorous and interesting. 
 
 BLAIR, Samuel, b. in Ireland, June 14, 1712; 
 d. at Londonderry, Penn., July 5, 1751 ; came 
 early to America ; was educated at Tennent's 
 Academy at Neshaniiny, and was ordained pas- 
 tor in Shrewsbury, N.J., 1734; removed to Penii- 
 .sylvania in 1740, and established a theological 
 seminary at Fogg's Manor, Chester County. In 
 1744 he published A Narralice of a Revival of 
 Religion in Several Parts of Pennsijlrania. A vol- 
 ume of his writuigs was published in Philadel- 
 phia in 1754. 
 
 BLANDRATA, Georg, b. at Saluzzo, 1515; 
 studied medicine, and lived for several years in 
 Poland and Transylvania, as body-physician to 
 the queen of Sigismuiid I. and the widow of 
 John Zapolya, but returned afterwards to Italy, 
 and practised at Pavia. The influence, however, 
 of the Reformation had reached liim, and some 
 incautious utterances made him suspected by the 
 Jesuits. He fled, and settled in Geneva. There 
 his anti-Roman tendencies rapidly developed, but 
 also his anti-trinitarian ideas. Calvin's Respon- 
 sum ad Questiones G. BlandraUe (1559) did not 
 satisfy him ; and Calvin turned against him with 
 great bitterness. He went to Poland, and lived 
 at the court of Prince Radziwil ; but Calvin pur- 
 sued him thither, and ill 1563 he went to Tran- 
 sylvania, where he enjoyed great honors luider 
 John Sigismund and Stephen Bathori. In 1566 
 he defended his anti-truiitarian views against the 
 Reformed theologians in a great disputation, in 
 the presence of the court, and came out victori- 
 ous. The latter part of his life is very obscure. 
 He died after 1585, killed, it is said, by his owa
 
 BLASPHEMY. 
 
 302 
 
 BLBMMYDBS. 
 
 nephew. See M.vl.\cai;ni' : Cnmmentario (Idle 
 Opere di G. B., Padua, ISU. c. SCHMIDT. 
 
 BLASPHEMY, technicallv the .speakhig evil 
 of God ; but etymologicallj- it may mean any 
 specie.s of cahniiay and detraction. Tlie iMosaic 
 law punished with de.T,th by stoning any one, 
 Israelite or stranger, wlio took the sacred name 
 in vain (Lev. xxiv. 10) ; but those who spoke 
 against forcifjn divmities were not punished (verse 
 Ti); Exod. xxii. 28). The Jews fell into two 
 ]>eculiar and absurd errors of interpretation of the 
 law upon this subject. From Exod. xxiii. 13, 
 '•^lake no mention of the name of other gods, 
 neitlier let it be heard out of thy mouth," they 
 supposed they were bound to nickname the 
 heatlien gods : hence their use of " Bosheth " for 
 Baal, ■' Beth-aven " for Bethel, " Beelzebul " for 
 Beelzebul). From Lev. xxiv. 16 they deduced 
 the notion that the ]nere utterance of the word 
 '■Jehovah " was proliibited : so the true jironuncia- 
 tion has been lost. TJie Jews of the New Testa- 
 ment regarded as blasphemy the attribution to 
 man of any divine quality (Matt. ix. 3, xxvi. 65 ; 
 John X. 30). The Christian 'wi'iters consider as 
 lilaspliemy the refusal to honor Christ (^Slatt. 
 xxvii. 39; Mark xv. 29; Acts xviii. 6, xxvi. 11) 
 or God (Kom. ii. 21r). 
 
 The bhisphemij against t/ie Holy Ghost (Matt, 
 xii. 31 ; jMark iii. 29 ; Luke xii. 10) is the unpar- 
 donalile sin. It implies a state of final and hope- 
 less impenitence, and is committed by those who 
 have again and again wilfully resisted the infln- 
 euces and warnings of tlie Holy Ghost, and have 
 made themselves incapable of repentance, and 
 consequently of pardon. 
 
 The Ancient Church called tho.se llaspJiematici 
 who fell away during persecution, those who 
 taught heresies, those who, in the heat of pas- 
 .sion, .spoke irreverently of God and Christ : in- 
 <leed, at last tlie term was applied to those who 
 spoke against the Virgin Mary. In the Middle 
 Ages the punishment was severe. The guilty one 
 must stantl for seven consecutive Sundays at the 
 porch of tlie church, without cloak or slices, fast- 
 ing, aiul might besides be fined and imprisoned. 
 .Sometimes the tongues of blasphemers were cut 
 out, or jiicrced by hot irons. Sometimes the pun- 
 ishment was death. In modern times the penalty 
 has been very much ligliter. In the interests 
 of morality and religion, it W(M-e surely desirable 
 if all those who take God's name impiously uj)on 
 their lips wen- made to feel the heavy hand of 
 llie Slalr. • (FKOXMiJLLER) C. BKCK. 
 
 BLASTARES, Matthaus, a monk of the order 
 of St. Basil, wrote in 1335 a compilation of civil 
 and ecclesiastical laws: Si/nlatpiia Alpliahelicum 
 Rerum Omnium qnie in Sacris Canonil)ii.i Compre- 
 henilunlur, based on .Instinian and Photius, and 
 in }he form of a juridical dictionary. The work, 
 wliich was inudi used liy tlie clergy of the Eastern 
 Church, is found in Hi'.VKUKiai's : Si/nodicon, 
 T. II. P. II. 
 
 BLAURER (or lllnrer, IVaarcr), Ambrosius, b. 
 .at Constance, Ajiril 12, 1192; d. at 'Winlrrlllur, 
 Dec. 0, l.')01; studicMl theology in TubingiMi to- 
 gether with Mejanchthon ; entered in 1515 th(^ 
 Benedictine .Monastery of .\l))irsbach, and was 
 afterwards chosen its abbot ; l)ut, having ein- 
 liraced tlie Keformation, lie left the monastery in 
 1521, began to preach the new doctrines in Con- 
 
 stance in 1525, and married in 1533. From 1531 
 to 1538 he was active in introducing the Reforma- 
 tion in Wiirttemberg, after which he again retireil 
 to Constance ; but when, in 1548, the Interim 
 was introduced in that city, he left for "Winter- 
 thur. Ilis stand-point was one between Lutlur 
 and Zwingli. His character was mild and con- 
 ciliatory. The works he left are mostly pamphlets 
 and letters, both in Latin and German. Ilis life 
 has been written by Theodor Keim, Stuttgart, 
 1800, and by Tiieodok Pressel, Stuttgart, 1861. 
 
 BLAYNEY, Benjamin, d. at Polsliot,"Wiltshire, 
 Eng., Sept. 20, 1801; studied at Oxford; be- 
 came professor of Hebrew in 1787, afterwards 
 canon of Christ Church, and rector of Potshot, 
 and published A Dissertalion on Daniel's Seventy 
 Weeks; TJie Sign given to Aliaz, new translations 
 of Jeremiah and Lamentations, and Zechariah. He 
 edited the Oxford Bible, 1709 ; greatly improved 
 the text by applying with more consistency the 
 principle of denoting additions to the original 
 text by Italics, and by substituting for obsolete 
 words those in common use ; he added seventy-six 
 marginal references, and sixty-six annotations ;. 
 but unhappily the misprints of his edition were 
 many. 
 
 BLEEK, Friedrlch, b. at Ahrensbok, Holstein, 
 July 1, 17!I3; d. at Bonn, Feb. 27. 1859; studied 
 theology at Kiel and Berlin ; began to lecture on 
 biblical exegesis in the latter place in 1818, and 
 was appointed professor there in 1823, and at 
 Bonn in 1829. His principal works are his yinV/" 
 an die Ilebriier, published in three parts (1828, 
 1830, and 1840), and his Beitrdge zur Erangelien- 
 Krilik, Berlin, 1840, containing the ablest and 
 most decisive defence of the genuineness of the 
 Gospel of John. After his death his lectures 
 were published, among which are. Introduction to 
 the Old Testament, edited by I. Bleek and Ad. 
 Kamphausen, Berlin, 1860, and translated into 
 English by Venables ; and Introduction to the New 
 Testament, edited by I. Bleek, Berlin, 1802, and 
 translated into English by Urwick. [The fourth 
 German edition of the former appeared in Berlin, 
 1878, edited by J. Wellhansen, and the third of 
 the latter in 1875, edited by "\V. Mangold. In 
 each case the editors have taken unwarrantable 
 liberties with tlie text, luakiiig Bleek the advocate 
 of the editors' ".advanced" views.] His stand- 
 ]ioint as a biblical critic is, at least with respect 
 to the New Testament, very conservative; but his 
 method is severe, and liis impartiality impregna- 
 ble. AV'itli an immense erudition he connected 
 great talent for arrangement, and jierfect clearness 
 of expression. His Lectures upon the Apocalypse 
 (1802, Eng. trans., 1874), the Colo.ssians, Ephe- 
 sian.s, and Philemon (1805), and Hebrews (1808), 
 jiulilished in Berlin, carefully edited, and his Sgn- 
 oplisctie Krkldrung d<r drei erstin Krangclii n, edited 
 by Holtzmann in Leipzig, 1862, 2 vols, are as yet 
 untranslated. ' ad. Iv.xmi'II.MISKN. 
 
 BLEMMYDES, <>r BLEMMIDA, a Greek monk 
 from a ;\Iacrdoiiian iiioiiasiery, who, with great 
 learning and alnlity, defended the Komaii doc- 
 trine on the ]irocessioii of the Holy Spiriti from 
 the Fatlu'r and the Son in a disputation arranged 
 at Nica'a by the l^inperor Ducas Vatazes (1222- 
 55.) On the same subject lie afterwards conijiosed 
 two essays, which aie found in Leo Allalius' 
 Gra;ciie Orlhodoxa Scriptorcs, pp. 1-00. Theodore •
 
 BLOMPIELD. 
 
 303 
 
 BLOUNT. 
 
 Lascaris made hiin patriarch of Constantinople 
 
 (m jHirlihiis, as tlie Latin Knipire was established 
 in Constantinople, and the Greek emperor resided 
 at \ica>a) ; but he refused tlie honor, and re- 
 inaine<l in his monastery. HERZOci. 
 
 BLOMFIELD, Charles James, 1>. at Bury St. 
 Kilniuiids, Suirolk, Kwj;., May '2'.), 178^; d. in 
 Fulhani I'alaco, Aug. .5, 1857 ; was educated at 
 Canibiid^e, and became Bishop of Chester in 
 lS2i, and of Loiiddu in 1 828, from which oflice 
 he retired in 185IJ, al't^'r a vTyorous and effective 
 administration. He was an excellent Greek 
 scholar; wrote a Greek graimnar (1828); edited 
 jEschylus, Callimachus, etc.; and contributed nu- 
 mci-ons critical papers on classical subjects to the 
 periodicals. His theological writings comprise 
 FU-e Lectures on John's Gospel (1823), Tivelce Lec- 
 Itires on the Acts (1828), several collections of 
 sermons, and a Manuel of Private and FamUij 
 Prai/ers. See Bihkr : Bishop BlomfieUl and his 
 Times, 1857 ; and tlie excellent .Alemoir by his 
 son, 18G3. 
 
 BLONDEL, David, b. at Chalons-sur-Marne, 
 1591 ; d. at Amsterdam, April 0, 1G55 ; was early 
 appointed nnnister of the Reformed congregation 
 of Houdan, near Paris, but received in 1645 a pen- 
 sion from the synod of Chai'enton, which enabled 
 him to devote himself exclusively to literature, 
 and moved in 10.30 to Amsterdam as Vossius' 
 successor in the chair of history. !Most of his 
 writings, of which a complete account is given by 
 Xiceron (vol. viii. p. 48), are theologico-iiolemi- 
 cal, directed against Ivomanism, and are distin- 
 guished by immense learning, great acuteness, 
 and a decided talent for combination. The most 
 remarkable are : Pseudo-Isidorus et Tarrian us Vapu- 
 lanles, Geneva, 1028; De la primaute de I'Efjlise, 
 Geneva, 1041 ; Apolor/ia pro Sententia Ilieronijmi 
 de Kpiscopis et Preshi/lcris, Amsterdam, 1G40 ; l-'a- 
 milier Eclaircisement (concerning Papess Johanna), 
 .-i.ii.-,L^....ii.a, loi/ ; Dc jure pUlns in rerjiniine eccle- 
 siastico, 1048. 
 
 BLOOD, Revenger of. There is a sense in 
 man which declares that whoever intentionally 
 takes another's life deserves to forfeit liis own ; 
 and in all nations, ancient and modern, outside 
 of civilization, the next of kin has felt called 
 upon to avenge the death upon the murderer. 
 The Mosaic law found this custom and adopted 
 it, but restricted it, and put it upon religious 
 grounds. In its conception such a nun'der was 
 not a crime against society, but against God ; and 
 therefore the shed blood was a defilement, and 
 the land could not be cleansed of the blood shed 
 therein, but by the blood of him that shed it 
 (Num. XXXV. 33). The failure to avenge was 
 criminal. If the natural goh-el had-dahm, the 
 revenger of blood, did not, some one else must 
 take his place. God himself is the great Avenger 
 of blood (Ps. ix. 12). 
 
 But the law (Exod. xxi. 12-14; Niun. xxxv. 
 9-34; Dent. xix. 1-13) put blood revenge under 
 the following restrictions: 1. The blood revenge 
 was only allowed for intentional killing. For 
 those wlio accidentally caused the loss of life, 
 there was appointed six Levitioal cities, three on 
 each side of the .Jordan, called cities of refuge. 
 Thither all slayers fled, and there the cases were 
 investigated. If tlie man was a murderer, then 
 the elders of 'his own city demanded his death ; 
 
 and the revenger of blood killed him, even though 
 he sought the protection of the altar (Exod. xxi. 
 14). But, if the elders of his city decided the 
 man was not a murderer, th(Mi he remaini'd in 
 the city of refuge until the death of the high 
 priest under whom the deadly stroke was given. 
 But, if the man left tlie city before, he was liable 
 to be killed by the r/oh-cl. The rabbins said ''the 
 deatli of the high priest was exi)iatory." But 
 howV Because liis dealli set a limit to the im- 
 pris(jnnient and risk of life on the part of the 
 dwc^ller in the city, and, so to say, .sealed his 
 repentance as suflicient. The true connection 
 between the deatli of the higli priest and the 
 release of the involuntary man-slayers lies in the 
 fact, that, with the incoming of a new high 
 priest, a new period began. 
 
 2. There was no other expiation for the inten- 
 tional killing than the blood of the nnu-derer. 
 No amount of money could buy exemption. The 
 forgiveness of the murdered man liefore his death 
 availed nought. The lex laliunis was held to in 
 the strongest fashion. Flight to a city of refuge 
 was vain. 
 
 It is not possible to determine how long the 
 blood-revenge in the Mosaic mode was observed. 
 The parable of the wise woman of Tekoah alludes 
 to it (2 Sam. xiv. 7) ; but ver. 8 seems to indi- 
 cate that the king (David) had influence in 
 restraining the operation of the law. .Jeho.slia- 
 pliat established a court in .Jerusalem to take 
 cognizance of such cases (2 C'liron. xix. 10) ; and, 
 as the state increased in civilization, the primitive 
 I'evenge would gradually give place to orderly 
 proceedings in courts of law, and executions by 
 the .state." (DELlTzscri) ceiilkr. 
 
 BLOODY-MARRIAGE. See Coligny. 
 
 BLOODY-SWEAT. Luke say.s, that, during 
 Christ's agony in the garden, "his .sweat was as 
 it were great drops of blood falling down to the 
 ground" (xxii. 44). This abnormal physical 
 state is not unique. Wliat is called diopcdesis, 
 sweating of blood, is ii recognized, well-authenti- 
 cated phenomenon. The power of passion to 
 force the blood to the skin is seen in the blush of 
 shame or anger. If the emotion be very great, a, 
 copious per.spiration follows, and, in extreme 
 cases, with the water there is blood. A well- 
 attested case is that of Charles IX. of France. 
 De Mezeray says, " During the last two weeks of 
 his life (iMay, 1574) his constitution made strange 
 efforts. lie tossed and agitated himself continu- 
 ally, and his blood gushed from all the outlets of 
 his body, even from the pores of his skin ; so 
 that on one occasion he was found bathed in a 
 bloody sweat." See, for abundant proof. The 
 Phi/siral Cause of the Death of Christ, by ■\\'illiaiu 
 Stroud, M.D., London, 1847, 'pp. 85-88, Note III. 
 pp. 370-389. 
 
 BLOUNT, Charles, b. at Upper IloUoway, 
 Middlesex, Eng., April 27, ltJ.54; committed .sui- 
 cide, August, 1G93; produced in 1079 a scandal- 
 ous sensation by his Anima Mnndi, whose vulgar 
 scepticism gave general offence. In 1680 hi.s 
 translation of Pliilostrat's Life of Apollonius of' 
 Ti/ana, \\\ih its indirect attacIvS on Christianity, 
 was suiiiiressed. The most characteristic repre- 
 .sentation of his deistical stand-point is found in 
 his Oracles of Reason, which, however, was not 
 publishcil until after his death. A collected edi-
 
 BLUMHARDT. 
 
 304 
 
 BODY. 
 
 tiou of his works, together with a life of him, 
 was published by Gildon, Loudon, 1695. See 
 Dkism. 
 
 BLUMHARDT, Christian Gottlieb, b. in Stutt- 
 gart. April -20. 171'J: d. in Basel. Dec. 19, 1838; 
 studied theology at Tubingen, and was in 1801 
 appointed secretary of the German IMissionary 
 Society in Basel, and in 1809 minister at Biirg, 
 but returned in 1816 to Basel as director of the 
 missionary school ; in which position he remained 
 till Iris death. Since 1816 he edited the Missionf- 
 wagazin, and since 1828 also the Heidenhute. 
 From 1828 to 1837 he published five volumes of 
 his Versudi einer allgemeinen Missionsgeschichle tie?- 
 Kirche Clirisli, reaching down to the time of the 
 lieforniation. 
 
 BLUNT, John James b. at Newcastle-under- 
 Lyme, Staffordshire. 1791; d. at Cambridge, June 
 17, 1855 ; was educated at Cambridge ; travelled 
 in Italy and Sicily ; became curate of Hodnet, 
 Shropshire, 1821, rector of Great Oaldey, Essex, 
 in 1834, and professor of divinity at Cambridge 
 in 1839. His Sketch uf Ihe Reformation in Eng- 
 land, and Undersigned Coincidences in the Writ- 
 ings of the Old and Neic Testaynents, have run 
 through many editions : the latter work, in the 
 vein of Paley's HortB Paulince, is of nuicli value, 
 and has been extensively used. This indirect 
 sort of proof has to thoughtful minds oftentimes 
 more convincing force than the direct. He also 
 published sermons, Lectures on the Early Fathers, 
 etc., and cdutriluited largely to periodicals. 
 
 BOARDMAN, Henry Augustus, D.D., a promi- 
 nent Presbyterian minister and author, b. at 
 Troy, Jan. 9, 1808 ; d. at Philadelphia, June 15, 
 1880. He was gi-aduated with highest honors at 
 Yale College in 1829 ; entered Princeton Theo- 
 logical Seminary in 1830 ; graduated in 1833 ; 
 installed, Nov. 8, 1833, pastor of the Tenth Pres- 
 b\i;eriau Church of Philadelphia, and retained the 
 position till his death, though in later years he 
 had a colleague. He was moderator of the O.S. 
 (Jeneral Assembly in 1854. His publications 
 were numerous : the chief are. The Scri/jltval 
 Doctrine of Original Sin (1839), The Bible in the 
 Counting-ilouse (1853), and The Higher-Life Doc- 
 trine of Sanctification tried hg the Wurd of God, all 
 published in I'hiladelphia. 
 
 BOCHART, Samuel, b. at Bouen, 1599: d. at 
 Caen. .May Hi, l(i(i7 ; studied at Sedan and Sau- 
 inur, also at Oxford and Leyden, and was ajipoint- 
 €d minister at Caen, where his conferences with 
 the Jesuit Verou, in l(i28, attracted much atten- 
 tion. In 1046 he published his Geogruphia Sacra, 
 wliich procured for him an invitation from Queen 
 Christina to come to Sweden, where, however, he 
 did not stay long. In 1G63 he |iul)lished his 
 other gre.1t work, Ilierozoicon sioe de Animalihus 
 S. ScripturcK, 2 vols, fob, — -a biblical luitural his- 
 tory which has still its worth, and wliich was 
 repiiblislied, with notes by Kosenmiiller, Leipzig, 
 1793. His collected works have been several 
 times publishe<l (1675. 1692, 1712. etc.) at Leydim. 
 
 BOCKHOLD, Johann, the Prophet and King 
 of liii- .\ualiaplist Kingdom at Munster (called 
 also Bockelsohn, or Ueuclcelszoun, and John of Leg- 
 den), b. at MUnster about 1509; (mt to death 
 there Jan. 23 (?), 1536. He was the illegitimate 
 BOM of a magistrate in tlie iieigliborliood liy a 
 servant. The onlv facts kiujwu of his early life 
 
 are that he was educated at Leyden by relatives, 
 learned the tailor's trade, travelled to England, 
 and then to Portugal, and at last returned to 
 Leyden, married, practised his trade, but at the 
 same time kept an inn in the suburbs. From 
 this time on his course is known. He was a 
 favorite as an innkeeper by reason of his lively 
 conversation ; was a member of the Singer's 
 Guild, a poet and an actor. Little by little he 
 was drawn into the current setting against the 
 Church. He imbibed heretical opinions, but was 
 not confirmed in his views until his visit to Jliin- 
 ster for the express piu-pose of hearing the 
 "brave preachers." In autumn of the same 
 year (1533) he made the acquaintance of Johan- 
 nes ]\latthiesen, the Anabaptist, and as the re- 
 sult he came to Miinster in January, 1534, as an 
 " ajjostle " in the sect ; but when, on his request, 
 Matthiesen came thither, he retired to a subordi- 
 nate position. At Easter (1534), ^latthieseii 
 was killed. Bockliold then again came to the 
 front, and, on the strength of a pretended revela- 
 tion, took not only Matthiesen's position, but his 
 wife. He soon showed his extraordinary power 
 He revolutionized the city, set uy) the '• kingdom 
 of Zion," of which he was king, ["appointed 
 ministers, coined money, introduced polygamy, 
 married fifteen wives, lived in royal sjilendor and 
 luxury ; and for more than a year the city was the 
 stage for the most frightful scenes of fanatical 
 cruelty and sensual dissipation. In 1535 it was 
 conquered by the neighboring princes, and again 
 reduced to order. John was tortured to death 
 by hot pincers; and his body was hung in a cage 
 on the tower of St. Lambert's Church "]. With- 
 out education, intellectual or moral, Bockhold 
 owed his influence to his dignified, pleasing per- 
 son, and to the reckless daring which made him 
 attempt any enterprise, however great. It is how- 
 ever true that he was unfitted to keep the control 
 he seized. His character is a study : in it fan.iti- 
 cism and lust, conviction and hypocrisy, were 
 ndxed. In the hour of trial he showed no hero- 
 ism, only the rage of a disappointed spirit. [He 
 is the historical subject of Meyerbeer's opera. Le 
 Prophete.] See An.\bai"TISTS. Hask : Reich tier 
 Wiiderlau/er, Leipzig. 1860. O. WEIZSACKKR. 
 
 BODENSTEIN. See CAULSTAnT. 
 
 BODY, Natural, Spiritual, and Mystical. The 
 (iriM'k wui'd oij/<a (body) is used in these three 
 relations. The ditt'erence between the first two 
 is well brought out by Bev. Dr. Kling: "'J'he 
 expression ' natural [or rather, jisgchicaf} body ' 
 (oCi/ia ilwxiKov) denotes, in general, an organiza- 
 tion that corres]ionds to the soul (i/'TO) i <i"'l the 
 •spiritual body' (aufia m-tvunnum), one that cor- 
 responds to the spirit (nrtfyio). The soul is that 
 by means of which oiu' spiritual part is linked to 
 a'pliysical life, — a life of impul.se and .sen.sation, 
 dejiendent for its nourishment upon a world of 
 sense. The corpioreity coi'res]ionding to this, and 
 determined by it, is, jirecisely on tliis account, 
 made dependent ujion this outward world, and is 
 alTected by it, and by reason of it, it is exposed to 
 all that is expressed by the words 'corruption,' 
 'dishonor.' and ' weakness,' of wliich <leath is the 
 catastio|)he. The nature of the spirit is, on the 
 contrary, a free, supermundane life of light and 
 love in God ; and the spiritual body is an organi- 
 zation suited to itts character, being lifted abova
 
 BOEHME. 
 
 305 
 
 BOETHIUS. 
 
 all dependence on the outward world, and tin- 
 consequences following- from it, and display.s 
 itself in incorrnjition, glory, and power" (Lauge's 
 ('i)iiiin. 1 Cor. XV. 11, Amer. ed. p. 3-'58). 
 
 'J'lie Mijslical, lioilij is a phrase indicative of the 
 Christian Churcli ; for the union which subsists 
 liftweeu Christ and his Church is as intinuite as 
 tliat between the members of our bodies, and at 
 the same time is mystical, — to be believed rather 
 than understood. We owe to Paul the origin of 
 this significant designatiou. Cf . 1 Cor. xii. 27 ; 
 Eph. i. 23, ii. 16, iv. 4, 12, 16, v. 23, 30; Col. i. 
 18, 2-1, ii. 19, iii. 15. He draws certain practical 
 conclusions from the existence of this relatiou- 
 .ship, as that ditferent members have different 
 functions, and that there should be no schism in 
 the body. The imjiortant questions, however, 
 relate to the way in which admittance is obtained, 
 and the means of growth with the body. It is 
 evident tliat the terms of admittance into tlie 
 external Church are easy ; but to be really joined 
 to him is a different matter. For this, living 
 laith is requisite, and then from the Lord liinrself 
 will come the means of growth. 
 
 BOEHME (often written in English Behmeri), 
 Jacob, b. at Alt-Seidenberg, in Upper-Lusatia, 
 1575 ; d. at Gorlitz, in Silesia, Nov. 17, 1624 ; 
 descended from a well-to-do peasant family ; was 
 apprenticed when fourteen years old to a shoe- 
 maker, and settled, after the usual wanderings, 
 in 1599, as master of his profession, in Gorlitz, 
 where he married, and bought a house. Mean- 
 while the religious and philosophical instincts of 
 his nature developed rapidly, without any influ- 
 ence from without; and in time this develop- 
 ment ripened into a mystico-theosophical view of 
 God and the world, which called for utterance. 
 I He began to put down his ideas in a desultory 
 ' and unsystematic way ; and the unfinished manu- 
 script. Die Morgenriithe im Aufgang, began to cir- 
 culate among his friends. It happened to fall 
 under the notice of the official ecclesiastical au- 
 thority of the place, Gregorins Richter, and 
 greatly scandalized him. He was a full-blooded 
 representative of the Orth.odoxy of that time, 
 with its hair-spliting barren subtleties, fit only for 
 strife and condemnation, and utterly incapable 
 of fostering a genuine religious life. A layman 
 writing on religion was to ^lim an impertinence 
 ■which deserved rebuke ; and when he wrote, as 
 Boehme did, with the enthusiasm and authority of 
 inspiration, it was a crime which deserved pun- 
 ishment. He put both the magistrates and the 
 mob of the city against Boehme, and compelled 
 him to stop writing, 1612. For five years Boehme 
 kept his word, and wrote nothing ; but then he 
 began again, and in his remaining years he wrote 
 about thirty works, smaller and greater. In 1623 
 two of these, Vom iiliersinnticken Leben, and Von 
 wahrer Busse, were published by one of his friends, 
 and immediately the persecutions were renewed, 
 Gregorius Richter at the head. The magistrates 
 advised Boehme to leave the city. He went 
 first to Dresden, but foimd no rest there, then to 
 Silesia, but was there overtaken by a severe ill- 
 ness, and hastened home only to die. His works 
 were then collected and published by his friends ; 
 most of them by Heinrich Betke, or Beets, a 
 wealthy merchant of Amsterdam. By Abraham 
 van Beyerland they were translated into Low 
 21 — 1 
 
 German. In England they attracted much at- 
 tention. A complete English translation was 
 maile by John Ellistonc, John Sparrow, Ilum- 
 l)hrey Hlundcu, Charles and Durand Ilotham, 
 iuid "E<lward Taylor, London, 1(144-03. The 
 first complete edition of the original was by J. G. 
 (iichtel in 1682, the last l)y Schicdilcr, Leipzig, 
 1831-47, 7 vols. Indeed, ISoehmc's fame may be 
 said to have grown wdth every new generation ; 
 and thnmgh Franz von Baader, Oettinger, Clau- 
 dius, Schelling, etc., he has exercised considerable 
 influence on the theology of our own time. 
 
 Lit. — CiiAKLKS Hotiiam : Ad Philosopkiam 
 Teulonicain. London, 1648; Dukanm) Hotiiam: 
 Mi/xla-ium Magnum, etc., ]>ondon, 1654; Eijward 
 Taylou: Jacob Boe/ime's Theosophic Pkiloxophy. 
 London, 1691 ; J. Pordage : Ahtaphyska vera et 
 dit'ina, London, 1698 ; J. HAMnKitGEi't : Die Lehre 
 des deutschen Philosop/ien J. Boehme, Munich, 1844; 
 [H. Martknsen : Jacob Biikme, Cojienhagen, 1882 ; 
 Eng. t^rans., London, 1885.] J. llAMliEHGER. 
 
 BOETHIUS, Anicius Manlius Severinus, b. in 
 Rome, 480 ; beheaded at Pavia, 525 ; descended 
 from a wealthy and influential Roman family ; 
 studied in Athens, and occupied for several years 
 a very prominent position in the Roman world, 
 equally revered by the people, and esteemed by 
 the Ostrogothic king, Theodoric, the ruler of 
 Italy. The decree of the Emperor Justin against 
 the Arians was the first event which made Boe- 
 thius suspected ; but .Theodoric now banished 
 liim to Pavia, where he afterwards had him con- 
 fined in a dungeon, and finally beheaded. By 
 his translations of Aristotle's Anabjtica, Topica, 
 Soph. Elench., and of the hagoye of Porphyi-y, 
 by his elaborate connnentaries on these works, 
 and by his own independent writings, Inlrnduc- 
 tio ad Categoricas Si/llogisnws, De Sijllogisnio Cate- 
 gorico, De Syllogismo Hijpoihetico, iJe Divisione, De 
 Dejinitioiie, etc., Boethius became the connect- 
 ing link between the logical and metaphysical 
 science of anticjuity and the scientific attempts 
 of the middle ages ; and a still greater influence 
 he came to exercise on mediaeval thought by his 
 De Consolatione Philosophice and the various theo- 
 logical writings which were ascribed to him. The 
 Consolalio Philosophice was written during the im- 
 prisonment of the author at Pavia; but though 
 it is certain that Boethius was a Cliristian, at 
 least nominally, it never touches Christian ground : 
 all the comfort it contains it owes to the optim- 
 ism of the neo-platonic school and to tlie stoicism 
 of Seneca. Nevertheless, during the middle ages 
 this book was read with the greatest reverence by 
 all Christendom. King Alfred translated it into 
 Anglo-Saxon, which tran.slation was edited by 
 Rawlinson, Oxford, 1698; and Thomas Aquinas 
 wrote a commentary on it. Having thus advanced 
 from the position of a mere logician to that of a 
 moralist, he finally reached that of a theologian. 
 It is not probable that he has written any of the 
 theological works ascribed to him ; but the tradi- 
 tion is very old. He is mentioned by Alcuin as 
 author of De Sancta Trinitate ; by ilincmar of 
 Rheims, as author of Ulriim Paler et FiUus el 
 Splritus Sanctus de Divini/afe instant ialiter prcedi- 
 cenlur, etc. Collected editions of the works of 
 Boethius appeared at Venice, 1492; Basle, 1546 
 and 1.570 ; and in Migne : Patrol., tom. 63 and 64. 
 The theological works were published at Louvain,
 
 BOGATZKY. 
 
 306 
 
 BOHEMIA. 
 
 1633. The Coitfohitio Philosophic was translated 
 into English by Preston, lOPo. 
 
 Lit. — F. Nitzscii: Das System iles Boclhins, Ber- 
 lin, 1S60: Ch. JouRDAl>f : De I'orir/ine des Iraililions 
 stir le Christianisme de Boece, Paris, 1861 ; Paul : B. 
 u.d.qreich. Harmonil; Leipzig, 1872; Hildebraxd: 
 B. Stellunr) zum Chrisfenlume, Regensburg, 1885. 
 
 BOGATZKY, Karl Heinrich von, b.'at Jan- 
 kowe, in Lowfr SiK'sia, Sept. 7, 1000 ; d. at 
 Halle, June 1.3, 1774; was educated as page at 
 the ducal court of Weissenfels, but left it dis- 
 satisfied, and began in his twentieth year to 
 study, first law at Jena, then, since 1715, the- 
 ology at Halle. Among the pietists he found 
 what lie sought ; and, after finishing his theologi- 
 cal studies, he lived for several j-ears among the 
 nobility of Silesia, afterward, from 1710 to 
 1716, at the ducal court of Saalfeld, and finally 
 at Halle, engaged in literary work of a devotional 
 character. His Golden Treasury of tlie Children of 
 God, translated into Englisli, York, 1821. was first 
 published at Breslau, 1718 : the fifty-fifth edition 
 was published in 1878. Also his Tdgliches Haus- 
 huch der Kinder Goltes, 2 vols., 1748, ran through 
 many editions. Of his four hundred and eleven 
 hynms, several obtained a place in the common 
 hymn-books of the, (ierman people: they ap- 
 peared collected in Ulmiig der Gollselif/i-eil, Halle, 
 1749. His autobiography was edited by G. C. 
 Knapp, Halle, 1801, and is very interesting for 
 the study of the piietism of his days. See also 
 Ledderhose : Das Leben K. H. von Boejalzky, 
 Ilpidelberg, 1846. 
 
 BOGERMANN, Jan, b. at Oplewert, Friesland, 
 1570 ; d. Sept. 11, 1037. at Franeker, where he was 
 made professor of divinity (1633) ; took a very 
 active part in the Arminian controversy; wrote 
 Annotationes cimira H. Grotium, and presided at 
 the synod of Hort (1618). The translation of 
 the Old Testament still in use in the Dutch 
 churches, is, for the greatest part, his work. He 
 translated Beza's tract on the punishment of 
 Heretics, Van hel Keller Stralfen. 1601. 
 
 BOGOMILES, a branch of the Calliari which 
 devi'li)pi'd in Thrace. Their name was formerly 
 derived from JJof/ MUui, " God have mercy," or 
 Bogmnil, "Beloved by God;" but Schaffarik, the 
 great authority on Slavic anticpiities, has found 
 in some old Slavic record a Bulgarian bishop of 
 the name Bogomil, who, in the middle of the 
 t<?nth century, was the representative of the pecu- 
 liar heresies of the sect, and this .seems to give 
 a l)etter clew to the name. The mythology which 
 the sect developed was very fantastic, — a mixture 
 of Manicheism, Docetism, and wild fancy. But 
 their views of morality and polity were exactly 
 those of the other Cathari. Tlu^y'were decidedly 
 anti-clei-ical. The Church, with its liierarchy, its 
 worship of relics, images, and saints, etc., they 
 considered tlie work of Satan. In tlie twelfth 
 century they were veiy numerous in I'hilijipopel 
 and Constantinople. One of their leaders, Basil, 
 was burnt in tlie latter city in 1118. 'i'hey were 
 repeatedly condenuicd, and at times severely per- 
 secuted; but they, nevertheless, lived on through 
 the whole ]ieriod of the middle ages. Tlieir sys- 
 tem of doctrines is completely expounded in 
 EUTIIYMIUS ZiOAHAXfS: I'ano/ilia. edited by 
 Gia.seler, Gottingeii, 1852. See Kazki: Buyomili 
 i Calareni, Agrani, 1869. 
 
 BOHEMIA. Christianity was introduced in 
 Bohemia from ^loravia in the latter part of the 
 niuth century. A generation previously (845) 
 some Czech noblemen were baptized at the court 
 of Lewis the German, and Bohemia was put down 
 as a Chriiitian country belonging to the dioce.se of 
 Katisbon; but it was not until the baptism of the 
 Bohemian duke, Borziway, and his wife Ludinilla. 
 at the court of Swatophik of iSIoravia, and th^" 
 arrival of Methodius in Bohemia, that Chris- 
 tianity became firmly established in the country. 
 A strong re-action took place nnder Borziuay's 
 son, Wratislaw, whose heathen .spouse, Uralioniira, 
 had Ludmilla and other Christian members of the 
 reigning family murdered. But when, under 
 Boleslas XL, the German inflnence became prevail- 
 ing in the country, Christianity was again in the 
 ascendency, and a bishopric was founded in Prague 
 (973). A century later on, all traces of Paganism 
 disappeared. In 1092 the last sacred forests were 
 felled, and the last heathen priests exiled. 
 
 Methodius, who was born and bred in the 
 Greek Church, placed the Bohemian Church on 
 an exclusively national ba.sis. The native lan- 
 guage was used in divine service; the Bible was 
 read in the Slavic translation ; the Lord's .Supper 
 was administered in both kinds ; the Koinan 
 demand of the celibacy of the clergy was disre- 
 garded, etc. This original independence of Koine 
 determined tlie whole character of the history of 
 the Bohemian Church, which, indeed, is one con- 
 tinuous contest between a spontaneous develop- 
 ment, national and independent, on the one side, 
 and plots for centralization and absorption on 
 the other. In Adalbert the Ronian designs were 
 completely foiled: in other cases they succeeded. 
 The tragical fate which pursued .Vdalbert through- 
 out life was his connection with Rome. IVii<ler 
 Gregory VII., however (1073-85), the Roman lit- 
 urgy and the Roman language became prevalent 
 in the Bohemian Church. 
 
 During the fourteenth century the contest grew 
 hotter and liotter, and in the beginning of the 
 fifteenth the battle began. In 134(i the arch- 
 bishopric of Prague was founded, and the metro- 
 politan connection between Bohemia and the see 
 of Mayenco was dissolved ; but thereby the 
 (iernian influence, which in this ca.se was identical 
 with the Roman influence, lost its firm liold on 
 the country. In 1348 the I'niversity of Prague 
 was f<nmded, and in very short time it became 
 one of the most brilliant centres of learning in 
 Europe. But its most celebrated teachers, Con- 
 rad of AValdhaiisen, John Milic, Matthi;is of 
 Janow, were fh(^ teachers of Hus. As the uni- 
 versity consisted of four nations, — the Bohemian, 
 Polish, Bavarian, and Saxon, — and each nation 
 had a vote, the foreigners exercLsed a considerable 
 influence on the direction of its affairs. But in 
 140S the original statutes were altered, and the 
 Bohemian nation obtained three votes. Irritated 
 by this .slight, tlie Bavarijin and Saxon nations 
 left, and founded the University of Leipzig; but 
 thereby the national movement in Bohemia be- 
 came only stronger. In 1412 the first ]xiilisans 
 of Hus were burnt in Prague. In 1115 Hus 
 himself was burnt at Constauee. In 1120 the 
 (•rusades against the Hussites began. I'>ut under 
 Zi.ska and Procopius the Ilu.ssites beat the Ger- 
 mans time after time, and the Romanists came to
 
 BOHEMIA. 
 
 307 
 
 BOHEMIA. 
 
 mulerstaiKl that by force nothing oould lie done, 
 intrigue was tlien adopted, and it succeeded 
 better. Tlie Hussites theniseh-es were divided 
 into two jiarties, — • tlie radicals and the moderates, 
 the Taborites and the Calixtines. ]iy nranting 
 (lie use of tlie cup in tlie Lord's Supper, tlie I'ead- 
 ing of the Bil)le in the Slavic translation, etc., 
 the Council of Basel succeeded (MUT) in elfect- 
 ing a reconciliation with the Calixtines, and thus 
 the split lietween the Roman and the Bohemian 
 Chui'ch was healed externally. 
 
 Internally, however, below the surface, the 
 movement which had produced IIus continued 
 its course. The Taborites disappeared; the Calix- 
 tines lost their individual stamp; but from the 
 national depths arose the Bohemian Brethren, — 
 a sect which I^uther always treated with regard, 
 and spoke of with respect, though at one time he 
 called them a new order of monks only. At the 
 time of the Reformation this sect formed the 
 most prominent feature in the religious life of 
 Bohemia ; and through the Bohemian Brethren a 
 lively interconnnunication even sprang up be- 
 tween the Czechs and the Protestant leaders, 
 both Luther and Calvin. But in L526, by the 
 extinction of the house of the Jagellons, Bohemia 
 fell to the house of Austria, and the effects of 
 this change were not slow in making themselves 
 felt. Lnmediately after the battle of INIiihlberg 
 (April 2-1, 1547) Ferdinand I. sent the Jesuits into 
 Bohemia to re-romanize the country. All evan- 
 gelical parties — Lutherans, Calvinists, and Bohe- 
 mian Brethren — were persecuted ; and numbers 
 of families were driven out of the country. 
 Under Maximilian II. (1564-76) circumstances 
 bettered : he was tolerant. But under Rudolph 
 II. (1570-1612) the Jesuits again began the game. 
 This time they lost, however. The Bohemian 
 Brethren compelled Rudolph II. to sign a com- 
 pact (July 9, 1609) by which their .social position 
 l)eeame legalized, and complete liberty of worship 
 Avas granted to them. Under Matthias (1612- 
 19) this compact was broken by the government, 
 not openly and by force, but, as it behooved a 
 tool of the Jesuits, on the sly, and by chicanery. 
 The Brethren complained ; the government pre- 
 varicated : in the course of the debate the Breth- 
 ren threw the representatives of the government, 
 Martinitz and Slawata, out of the window in 
 Hradschin, May 2.3, 1618, and on the next day 
 the Thirty- Years' War began. 
 
 The battle of the White Mountain (Nov. 8, 
 1620) made Ferdinand II. master of the country; 
 and with a high hand he now carried through 
 what his ancestor, Ferdinand I., had only at- 
 tempted, — .the re-romanization of Bohemia. By 
 a series of decrees, beginning from June 20, 1021, 
 were expelled, first the Calvinist ministers, then 
 the preachers of the Bohemian Brethren, and 
 finally the Lutheran ministers, Czech and Ger- 
 man ; and, the evangelical party having thus 
 Ijeen deprived of their teachers and leaders, the 
 conversion commenced. Of the Protestant no- 
 l)ility, tliose who had taken active part in the 
 rebellion lost their estates, and were banished 
 from the country, while the rest were forbidden 
 to marry. Tliis last measiu'e, however, not being 
 considered sutiiciently effective, a decree of Jidy 
 •Jl, 1627, gave them the choice between abjuration 
 or exile. They were allowed to sell theii* estates, 
 
 but only to Roman Catholics. Moi-e than two 
 hundred noble families left the country, destitute 
 of every thing. As for tlii^ Protestant part of 
 the city ]iopulation, they were forbidden. to engage 
 in anykind of trade; tliey were fined when they 
 abstaineil from any of the rites of the Koniau 
 Church ; their nuirriages wen; considered and 
 treated liy the law as concubinagi' ; (heir children 
 were taken from them, and (■ducaled by the 
 Roman priests; their poor and sick were expelled 
 from the hospitals and asylums. Thirty thousand 
 burgher families left the country. With respect 
 to the peasantry, the case was rather delicate. 
 \Vhat good would the country be to the Emperor 
 or the Pope, if there were no peasants to till the 
 soilV They could not be banished. But in this 
 emergency Lichtenstein's dragoons proved of good 
 use. The peasants were driven together in large 
 crowds, and kept starving till they submitted. 
 Sometimes mothers were tied to the door-post, 
 and compelled to see their babies starving before 
 their eyes. Sometimes all the inmates of a 
 household were shut up in one room, and the 
 cattle left starving, until the frantic howling of 
 the animals drove the men crazy. Thus Protes- 
 tant Bohemia was converted to the Roman 
 Church. The treaty of Westphalia (1048) does, 
 not even mention the Protestants in Bohemia, for 
 officially there were none. They had almost all 
 gone (more than one-third of tlie whole popula- 
 tion), and in their stead had come 1,13(1 .Jesuits, 
 who enjoyed a yearly revenue of thirty millions. 
 
 Protestantism was, nevertheless, not completely 
 eradicated in Bohemia, as may be seen fi'om the 
 very severe measures of repression which from 
 time to time were employed. As late as 1760, 
 some men were condemned to death for having 
 peddled Protestant tracts and pamphlets among 
 the peasants; and, when Joseph II. issued his 
 edict of toleration (Oct. 13, 1781), Protestani 
 congregations were immediately foi'med in vari- 
 ous places of the country. Generally sjieaking, 
 however, Bohemia is stUl a Roman-Catholic coun- 
 try. While in the seventeenth century four-fifths 
 of its population were evangelical, and one-fifth 
 Roman-Catholic, only two per cent of its present 
 population are evangelical : the rest is Koman- 
 Catholic. The Roman Church comprises the 
 archbishopric of Prague and the bishoprics of 
 Leitnieritz, Koniggi'atz, and Budweis, with 5,226 
 churches and chapels, and 8,538 priests. The 
 evangelical chui-ches were organized l.iy the law 
 of Jan. 23, 1866. Tliey are divided between the 
 adherents of the Lutheran or Augsburg Confes- 
 sion, and those of the Reformed or Helvetic Con- 
 fession. Both, however, are ruled by the Church 
 Council in Vienna. At the Basel Conference of 
 the Evangelical Alliance (Sept. 6, 1879), the case 
 of some Boliemian Baptists, a sect not recognized 
 by Austria, who had been distm'bed particularly 
 in their family worship, was presented, whereupon 
 it was resolved that a conunittee be appointecl to 
 present the case to the emperor. This was don© 
 upon Xov. 6, 1879, and the persecution was 
 .stopped. See The RelirjinuK Condition of Chrhten- 
 dom (report of Basel Conference), London, 188(), 
 pp. 398, 399; also Verhondfuni/en der eoant/eli- 
 schen Allianz in Basel, 1S79, Basel, 1879, pp. 902- 
 904. 
 
 Lit. — Fk. Palacky : Gescldchte Bbhmens^
 
 BOHEMIAN BRETHREN. 
 
 308 
 
 BOHEMIAN BRETHREN. 
 
 Prague, 1S45-67, vols. III.-V. ; C. Peschek: 
 Oe.wkichte d. Geyenreformatinn in Bo/inieii, Leipzig, 
 1850, 2 vols. ; Rod. Reuss : DeMruclion du Prules- 
 (antisme en Bohe'me, Paris, 186S ; Czerwenka : 
 Oe.tchichte d. evanyetkchen Kirche in Bohmen, 
 Bielefeld. 1S69-7U. 
 
 BOHEMIAN BRETHREN, a .sect which arose 
 in Bohemia in the latter part of the fifteenth cen- 
 liiry, spread rapidly, and comprised one-fourth of 
 the pojuilation in the latter part of the sixteenth 
 century, but was suppi-essed or banished by the 
 atrocious measures of Ferdinand II., and lived 
 latent and in exile, until, in the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, it was revived in Saxony by Count Zinzen- 
 dort, and became known once more under the 
 name of the jMorarian Brethren. The general out- 
 Jine of the history of the sect is perfectly clear, — 
 its period of rise and organization under Gregor 
 (11.57-94), its period of expansion and consolida- 
 tion imder Lukas of Prague (1494-1528), the 
 diversion towards Lutheranism under Augusta 
 (1.528-46), the diversion towards Calvinism (1546- 
 80), and, finally, the period of the highest social 
 success and the greatest literary achievements, 
 iiot altogether unaccompanied by traces of inner 
 -dissolution. Its birth, however, its relation to 
 Rokyczana and the Utraquists on the one side, 
 and to the AValdenses on the other, is still some- 
 what obscure, though of late Bohemian scholars 
 Lave thrown considerable light on these compli- 
 -cated questions. 
 
 The nucleus from which the sect developed 
 formed the so-called Chelczicky Brethren, — a 
 group of pious men in the county of Praehin, who 
 gathered around Peter Chelczicky as their spirits 
 ual leader. Peter was a layman belonging to the 
 lower nobility, but not without education ; and 
 his pamphlets against the Roman Church and 
 clergy were sharp and stirring Rokyczana, the 
 leader of tlie Utraquists, and a man who had 
 deeper and more radical ideas of reform than he 
 was able to reconcile with his personal ambition, 
 sent Gregor to the Chelczicky Brethren ; and, when 
 persecutions were raised against them, he procured 
 them a place of refuge (1457) at Kunwald, near 
 Senftenberg, whence, however, they soon were 
 driven into the forests, and up among the moun- 
 tains. The Chelczicky Brethren rejected the oath, 
 the profe.ssion of the soldier, all rank and honor 
 connected with an ollice, the right of any secular 
 autliority to punish, etc. They stood in absolute 
 opposition to any kind of hierarchy. The doc- 
 trine of community of jjroperty they did not 
 adopt; but they taught that the rich only admin- 
 istered his ]iroperty for the good of the poor, and 
 their ]iositive goal was an approach to the congre- 
 gational life of the primitive Church, and a reali- 
 zation in practical life of the words and example 
 of Christ. At the Convention of Lhotka (14()7) 
 these tenets were solemnly adopted ; and they 
 continue!' to be the life-givnig soid in the social 
 and political body which gradually develojied from 
 tlie Chelczicky Brethren into the Unitas Fralrum, 
 or the Bohemian Brethren. 
 
 The first seed of discord was sown in this field 
 of general harmony by I'rocojiius of Xeuhaus ; 
 but it became a mere element of jirogross. I'ro- 
 cojiius was a scholar, and the other liicthren were 
 plain country-jieople. The first bisho]), Matthias 
 I 'Of Kunwald, ordained by a Waldensian bishop, 
 
 was a jieasant; and on his death-bed (1474) Gre- 
 gor solenndy warned the Brethren against "pro- 
 fessors and magisters." As a scholar, Procopius 
 held milder and broader views ; and a conflict 
 soon arose. The method adopted for the settling 
 of the question was very characteristic. Lukas 
 of Prague and some other Brethren went on a 
 great journey through Greece and the Orient, 
 with the purpose of discovering some model con- 
 gregation whose organization could be innnedi- 
 ately imitated. They found noiie: but they 
 returned with their ideas so much enlarged, and 
 their experience so much enriched, that on the 
 synod of Reichenau (1494), where the questions 
 of the difference of estates, the authority of civil 
 and ecclesiastical powers, etc., w-ere debated, the 
 milder vie\^■s became victorious. Thus Lukas 
 stands as the second founder of the Unitas Fra- 
 trum. Once more he visited foreign countries, 
 and for the same purpose; and this his journey 
 to Italy and France was the cause and the occa- 
 sion of that intimate literarj' intercourse which 
 existed between the Bohemian Brethren and the 
 Waldenses, and which has given rise to much 
 misunderstanding. It is now proved beyond 
 doubt that the famous 'Waldensian woi-k, Ayczo 
 es la causa del departiment de la (/lei/sa Homatia, is 
 a translation of a Bohemian work on the Reasons 
 fur Secession from the Roman Church; and again 
 that the equally famous Waldensian work, ^4)i(i- 
 christ is foimded on Ai/c:o es la causa. 
 
 The appearance of Luther caused, as might 
 have been foretold, a great commotion in the 
 Unitas Fralrum, and attempts of connniuiication 
 and connection were immediately made. They 
 led to nothing, however. There was between the 
 Bohemian Brethren and the German Reformers a 
 radical difference, which could not be got over. 
 By Speratus and Optatus, Luther was requested 
 to give his opinion of the Brethren's doctrine of 
 the Lord's Supper. Before answering, Luther 
 asked for means of a closer examination ; and 
 Lukas sent him the tract on The Truth Victorious. 
 In 1523 Luther answered by his Vom Anbeten des 
 Sakraments des heilie/en Leichnams Jesu Christi, and 
 the answer was both friendly and cautious ; but 
 the rejoinder which Lukas gave was simply an 
 elaborate exposition of the difference which sepa- 
 rated them : essentially this difference was not 
 doctrinal. AVhat the Unitas Fralrum has con- 
 tributed to the doctrinal development of Chris- 
 tianity is not of great interest ; but with respect 
 to the practical application of the Christian doc- 
 trines to tlie individual realization of the Chris- 
 tian ideal in actual life, to the congregational 
 organization imder the guidance of the ChrLstiaii 
 spirit, the Bohemian Brethren have hardly been 
 excelled in the history of the Christian Cluuch 
 but by the apostolic age. Hence, while the 
 purely doctrinal differences might have been 
 smoothed over, the Lutheran justification by faith 
 alone looked to the eyes of the Unitas Fratrum 
 like an attack on tlieir very princijiles. Somewhat 
 easier to effect seemed a union with the Calvin- 
 i.sts. The negotiations with AVittenberg were 
 stojiped just as the last trace of Cryiito-Calvinism 
 w;is wi|>ed out there; ,'Uid in aftertijue, when the 
 Hohcmiau lircthrcn were griidually absorbed by 
 other Reformed denominations, it was with thtt 
 Calvinists they easiest amalgamated.
 
 BOLIVIA. 
 
 309 
 
 BOLZANO. 
 
 These freiiueiit iiiterconiiminications with other 
 parties and toreion nations led to a very lively lit- 
 erary activity in the UniUis Fralruiii. Young men 
 were sent to foreign universities, especially to Tu- 
 bingen, to study; collections of literary materials 
 were made ; libraries were founded, etc.; and soon 
 the results of these exertions were felt, not only 
 in tlie devotional and controversional writings of 
 the day, but also in the fields of history, granunar, 
 etc. The great monument of this activity is the 
 Bohemian translation of the Bible, — the"J!ible 
 of Kralicz," thus called after its place of printing. 
 There were earlier Bohemian translations, but 
 they were made from the Vulgate. The Bible of 
 Kralicz is the first made from the original, and 
 it is a masterpiece. The New Testament, trans- 
 lated by Blahoslaw, appeared in 1564 ; the Old, 
 translated by a number of scholars, from 1579 to 
 1593. It cannot be denied, however, that this 
 extraordinary literary activity was accompanied 
 by a relaxation of discipline and by a gradual 
 transformation of the very spirit. The old Unitas 
 Fralrum kept aloof from all secular affairs which 
 had no direct religious bearing. The Bohenuan 
 Brethren of the seventeenth century became a 
 political party ; and it was not the religious con- 
 flict alone which brought Ferdinand II. down upon 
 the country, and opened the Thirty- Years' A\'ar. 
 
 Lit. — GiNDELY : Geschichte d. hohmisch. Bin- 
 der, Prague, 1868, 2 vols.; Goll : Quellen und Stu- 
 dien zur Geschichte der Brikler, Prague, 1880. (See 
 also art. Bohemia.) G. von zezschwitz. 
 
 BOLIVlAi a republic of South America, com- 
 prising an area of about 536,200 square miles, 
 with 1,987,352 inhabitants (in 1858), of whom 
 245,000 are independent Indians, the rest a mixed 
 race of Indians and whites. The Roman-Catholic 
 Church is the Established Church of the country, 
 with an exclusive privilege of public worship. 
 There are no evangelical congregations in Bolivia. 
 The Church comprises an archbishopric. La Plata, 
 with residence at Chuquisaca, and three bishop- 
 rics. La Paz, Santa Cruz, and Cochabainba : the 
 number of priests amounted in 1846 to 1,517. 
 There are four seminaries at the episcopal resi- 
 dences. In 1826 the State confiscated and sold 
 the estates of the Church, and assumed the obli- 
 gation to maintain the church officers ; but the 
 State is bankrupt. G. PLITT. 
 
 BOLLANDISTS is the name given to those 
 Jesuits who carried on the Acta Sanctorum, — a 
 vast collection of hagiology and martyrology but 
 lately finished, intended to embrace the life of 
 every saint in the Calendar. Heribert Rosweyd, 
 professor in the Jesuit College of Douay (b. at 
 Utrecht, Jan. 22, 1569 ; d. at Antwerp, Oct. 15, 
 1629), conceived in 1599 the plan of uniting all 
 the legends of saints and martyrs in one work of 
 eighteen folio volumes ; but he lived to print 
 only the beginning of his series, Vkce Patrum 
 (1615). By command of the order the continua- 
 tion of the work was intrusted to Johanii BoUand 
 (b. at Tirlemont in Brabant, Aug. 13, 1596 ; d. at 
 Antwerp, Sept. 12, 1665). Antwerp was made 
 the headquarters of the enterprise, and, assisted 
 by his emment pupil Gottfried Ilenschen (1600- 
 81), a vast correspondence was carried on with 
 all Europe. Libraries and monasteries were ran- 
 sacked for information about saints, and the 
 ; esult was an unparalleled coUectiou of such mate- 
 
 rial. The editors worked with fiery zeal. In 1631 
 l)iinting was begun, and in 1643 two thick folios 
 a])peared, which containr'il (he Calendar for Janu- 
 an/ ; in 1658 two otlu^rs, with that for Fehruan/. 
 In" 1060 the Jesuit I)ani(d Papebroeek (1628- 
 1714) was add(!d to the editorial staff. He con- 
 .secrated his fortune to the prosecution of this 
 work, and lived to see twenty-si.x volumes appear. 
 On the suggestion of Pope Alexander VII., Ilen- 
 schen ami Papebroeek nuide a journey through 
 (iermany, Italy, and France in search of mate- 
 rials. So well drilled was the staff, that the 
 great undertaking went on, whoever died. The 
 Bollandists, as tliis stalf was calliMl, suffered with 
 the rest of their brethren in the di.spersion of 
 the order (1773). One of them was impris- 
 oned for two years. However, they persevered 
 in spite of many difficulties and removals. The 
 fifty-third folio volume appeared in 1794, contain- 
 ing Oct. 12 to 15 inclusive. Th j collection they 
 made with such care was happily, to a great ex- 
 tent, preserved, — the printed works at the Hague, 
 and the manuscript at Brussels. From 1837 the 
 Belgian Government contributed six thousand 
 francs annually, and so the work is at la.st finished 
 in sixty-one volumes folio, with a supplement, 
 Paris, 1875. Le Blant : Acta Martijrum et leur 
 sources, Paris, 1880. 
 
 BOLSEC, Jerome Hermes, author of two noto- 
 rious biographies; a Parisian Carmelite monk of 
 the sixteenth century, who, compelled to flee the 
 city because of a sermon he preached, left his 
 order, betook himself to Ferrara, studied medi- 
 cine, and married. Converted to Protestantism, 
 he went to Geneva, but soon after was impris- 
 oned for publicly opposing Calvin's cardinal doc- 
 trine of predestination. He was released only to 
 be bani.shed, Dec. 23, 1551. Incautiously he con- 
 tinued his attacks in Bern, and therefore found 
 a change of residence desirable. Went to Paris ; 
 but his opinions were condemned by a synod 
 at Orleans (1563), and a recantation required. 
 He refused ; went to Lausanne as a physician ; 
 but, as the condition of residence there was his 
 signing the Confession of Bern, he chose rather 
 to leave, and return to France. Probably to no 
 one's surprise, he went back shortly thereafter to 
 the fold of the Roman-Catholic Church. He 
 died at Lyons, 1585. He gave expression to his 
 bitterness in his slanderous Histoire de la vie, 
 moeurs, actes, doctrine, Constance et mort de Jean Cal- 
 vin, Lyons, 1577 ; and Histoire de la vie, Mceurs et 
 deporlemens de Th. Beze, Paris, 1582. The first 
 work appeared in Cologne, in Latin, 1580, in Ger- 
 man, 1581; last ed. in French, Lyons, 1875; the 
 second, in Latin, Ingolstadt, 1584. The two 
 works were reprinted, with a life of their author, 
 at Geneva, in 1835. 
 
 BOLZANO, Bernhard, a Roman-Catholic theo- 
 logian and philosopher, b. at Prague, Oct. 5, 
 1781 ; d. there Dec. 18, 1848. He early showed 
 marked ability in mathematics and philosophy, 
 and was appointed professor of the philosophy of 
 religion in the university of his native city when 
 twenty-four years old. He at that time was 
 already in holy orders : consequently he was sub- 
 jected to ecclesiastical censure when his views 
 developied themselves in a course contrary to the 
 ideas of the Church. The Prince Archbishop 
 Salm-Sahn, however, i^rotected him, and for some
 
 BONA. 
 
 310 
 
 BONIFACE. 
 
 time he escaped expulsion, and enjoyed gi-eat 
 popularity. But in 18:20 he was charged with 
 complicity with the students in their revolution- 
 ary schemes, and compelled to resign his chair. 
 He was also suspended from his priestly functions 
 in consequence of certain alleged errors in his 
 works. He lived by his pen from that time forth. 
 His works are very numerous. Of most interest 
 to lis is the Lehrbuck der RiAujionfwissenschafl, 
 Sulzbach. 1837, 4 vols., which contains a philo- 
 sophic representation of all the dogmas of the 
 Koman-Catholic theology. 
 
 See Leheiisheschreihung lies Dr. Bohaitu, 1836 ; 
 AVeisshaupt : Skizzcii aus don Lehen Dr. Bolzano, 
 1850. 
 
 BONA, Giovanni, b. at llondovi. Piedmont, 
 Oct. 12, IIJOIJ ; d. in Rome, Oct. 25, 1074 ; entered 
 the order of the Fenillants, 1625, and was chosen 
 general of the order in 1651, and made a cardinal 
 in 1669. His two devotional tracts, Principhi Vilce 
 Christiaiice, and Manud actio ad Coslum, were fre- 
 quently translated, and widely read. Of his scien- 
 tific works his Rerum Liturgicarum Libri Duo is 
 still of value. A collected edition of his works 
 was given by P. Sala, in 4 vols., Turin, 1747, 
 who also gave a collection of his letters, Turin, 
 1755, 1 vol. 
 
 BON ALD, Louis Gabriel Ambroise, VIcomte de, 
 I), at ]\Ionna, in the Rouergue, Oct. 2, 1754 ; d. 
 there Xov. 23, 1840; emigrated in 1791, but 
 returned in 1805; was made a peer of France in 
 1823, and retired into private life on the acces- 
 sion of Louis Philippe. Practically he was one 
 of the leaders of the Ultramontane re-action after 
 the Restoration, and theoretically he was one of 
 the leaders of the theological school (de Maistre, 
 Eckstein, Lamennais), which started from the 
 maxim that revelation, and not observation, is the 
 true principle of philosophy, and wliich ended with 
 considering the crown, the mitre, the escutcheon, 
 and the jiolice-baton as sacred forms of divine reve- 
 lation. His works, the most remarkable among 
 which are, Tlienrie du ponvoir polilii/iie el relii/i- 
 eux, Constance, 1796, Lei/i.flation prhnilire, Paris, 
 1802, were collected in 10 vols., Paris, 1817-92. 
 
 BONAVENTURA, or Giovanni di Fidenza (ftx- 
 tor Sf!ra/>liicu.-<). li. at Bagiuirea in Tuscany, 1221; 
 d. at Lyons, July 15, 1274 ; entered the order of 
 the Franci.scans in 1243 ; studied theology and 
 philosopliy in Paris, under Alexander of Hales 
 and John of Kochelle ; succeeded the latter in the 
 Franciscan chair of theology in the University, 
 1253, and was cho.sen general of his order in 
 1250, and made cardinal-bishop of Alba in 1273. 
 His la-st public act was a lirilliant and most im- 
 pressive speech, delivered to the Council of Lyons 
 in ALay, 1274, for the union between the Eastern 
 and AVestern Churches. He was canonized by 
 Sixtus IV., in 1482. 
 
 Already, before he became its general, Bona- 
 ventura had had an oppotunity to work for his 
 order. In the great cont(!st between the Sor- 
 bonne and the Alendicant orders (1254-60), occa- 
 sioned by the attacks of (iuillaume de St. Amour 
 on the Dominicans, he wrote Dn Paiijxtrlale 
 Clirisli, in which he, through a somewhat forced 
 and sophistical argumentation, repre.sents volun- 
 tary iioverty as an element of moral perfection. 
 Of his general views of monastic life he has given 
 an exposition in his Dctcrminationcs Cliieslioiiiim 
 
 circa Ih'f/idam Franci.sci. In his practical ad- 
 ministration he was very mild, yet firm. As a 
 teacher and author, he occupies one of the most 
 prominent places in the history of mediajval the- 
 ology ; not so much, however, on account of any 
 strongly pronounced originality, as on account 
 of the comprehensiveness of his views, the ease 
 and clearness of his reasoning, and a style in 
 w'hich are still lingering some traces of the great 
 charm of his personality. His mystical and devo- 
 tional writings — as, for instance, De Sej>lem Ili- 
 neribua jEternitalix — are almost imitations of Hugo 
 de St. Victor. More independent are his dialectical 
 writings. YWs Breriloquium (lasted. Freiburg, ISSl) 
 is considered one of the best expositions of Chris- 
 tian dogmatics which the middle ages produced. 
 
 Lit. — The works of Bonaventura were pub- 
 lished by the order of Sixtus V. in S vols.. Home, 
 1588-96 ; again, Quaracchii, 1884 sqq. His life is 
 found in Act. Sand. Jul. III., and in the introduc- 
 tion to the editions. See also, A. Hollenberg : 
 Htudien zu Bonaventura, Berlin, 1862; P. Fidelis 
 A Fanna : Ratio novce collectionis operum omnium 
 Bonavenluroe, Taurini, 1874; [Margerie: iJ.wd 
 sur la pIiilo.<<opliie de St. Bunaventure, Paris, 1855 ; 
 a translation of Meditations on the Life of Christ, 
 by Rev. W. H. Hutchings, London, 1881; An- 
 TONius M.\i!iA .\ Vicetia et Johanxes a Ru- 
 HINO : Lexicon Bonacenturianum philo.topltico-theu- 
 loytcum, Venetiis, 1880.] UASS. 
 
 BONIFACE is the name of nine popes. — Boni- 
 face I. (Dec. 28, 41S-Sept. 4, 422) was elected 
 the successor of Zosimus by a majority of the 
 clergy; but Eulalius succeeded in obtaining the 
 recognition of the Emperor llonorius. The em- 
 peror, however, acknowledging the flaw in the 
 election of Eulalius, referred the matter to a 
 council, and forbade the two rivals, in the mean 
 tune, to enter the city of Rome. But Eulalius 
 disobeyed the order, which irritated the emperor 
 to such a degree, that he expelled him by force, 
 and recognized I5oniface without awaiting the 
 decision of the council. Afterwards, in a con- 
 troversy with the Patriarch of Constantinople, 
 llonorius again came to the support of Boniface ; 
 and, by his influence on the emperor Theodosius, 
 the authority of the Roman see over Illyria was 
 acknowledged. See Vita Bon. I., in ]\Iuratori: 
 Rer. Ital. Script. III. p. 116; and Constant: 
 Epist. Rom. I'ontif., Paris, 1721. p. 1007 sq., where 
 his letters are found. — Boniface II. (.Sept. 22, 
 530-October, 532), a Goth, obtained the election 
 by bribery, which occasioned the Roman Senate 
 to issue a decree that no election to the chair of 
 St. Peter should be valid, if the person elected 
 could be proved guilty of influencing the voters 
 by jiromises. Boniface compelled the Ronuin 
 clergy to give him the right of choosing his suc- 
 cessor, and he designated Vigilius as such; but, as 
 this privilege involved an infringement of the 
 royal prerogatives. King Athalarich conqielled 
 Boniface to cancel the designation, to burn the 
 document on which it was based, and to declare 
 himself guilty of treason. See Vila Bon. H., in 
 iMuRATOiii: Rer. Ual. Script. HI. p. 127.— 
 Boniface III. (Feb. 19, 607-Nov. 12. 607) was by 
 (iregory the Great (who styled himself .srcciw 
 nervorum dei) .sent as aiirokrisiarins (o the court 
 of Constantinople in .luly, 6(13. in order to com- 
 pel the Constantinoi)olitan patriarch to renounce
 
 BONIFACE. 
 
 311 
 
 BONIFACE. 
 
 the title of ephcopiis iinwersalis ; and so iiitiiiiato 
 liecaiiie his friendship with, and so strong his 
 influence over, tlie mean and vicious I'liokas, tliat 
 tlie latter, in 007, was actually induced to transfer 
 the title from the patriarch to the pope. See 
 ]'ila Bimif. III., in 1\1uratori: Rer. Ital. Script. 
 ni. p. lo.j; Paui,us Diaconus : De Gcstis Lon- 
 qoh. IV. 37; I. M. Lorenz; Examen Dicreti 
 Pltoc(E, 1700. — Boniface IV. (.Se]it. X',, GOS-May 
 2."), 61.")) continued the alliance which his predeces- 
 sor had concluded with Phokas, and received 
 permission from him to transform the J'aiilhcoii, 
 which Agrippa had built in Koine, and dedicated 
 to C'ybele and all the Olympian gods, into a 
 Christian church, Sancta Maria lloluiida. After 
 the overthrow of Phokas by Heraclius, he enter- 
 tained friendly relations also with the latter, with- 
 out taking umbrage of his monophysitic tenden- 
 cies. See the letter of C'olumban in Eij]!.\rd ; 
 Die iro-scoUische Missionskirclie, Giitersloh, 187.S, 
 p. 95. For his relations with the Anglo-Saxon 
 Church, see Bed.\ : Hist. Ecd. II. 4. His life is 
 given in ]\Iur.\tori: Rer. Ital. Scrijtt. III. p. 
 13.5. — Boniface V. (Dec. 24, 618-Oct. 2.5, G25) 
 made Cauterl)ury the metropolitan see of Eng- 
 land. See I7/n Bunif. V., in Mur,\toki : Rer. 
 Ital. Script. Iff. p. 13.5; Beda : Hist. Ecd. 11. 7, 
 8, 10, 11. — Boniface VI. (8r»6) was raised to the 
 papal throne by a mob, after tlie death of For- 
 mosus (though John VIII. had deprived him of 
 his ecclesiastical offices, on account of his vicious 
 life), but died fifteen days later. — Boniface VII. 
 (974-98.5) began his reign by having Benedict VI. 
 .strangled in the Castle of S. Angelo, but fled him- 
 self shortly after with the papal treasury to Con- 
 stantinople, where he lived nine years. After the 
 death of Otho II., he returned to Rome, and had 
 .lohn XIV, poisoned in the same castle, but was 
 liiniself murdered in tiie streets of Rome eleven 
 \nontlis afterwards. Ferrucci, in his Investiya- 
 zioni su la Persona el il Pontijicalo di Bonif. VII., 
 1856, tries to whitewash this monstrum horreiuhim. 
 — Boniface VIM. (Dec. 24, 1294-Oct. 11, 1303) 
 entertained the most extravagant ideas of the 
 papal office, as instituted by God to give judg- 
 ment over kings and empires, to examine the 
 persons elected kings, and reject them if found 
 incapable, etc. ; and these ideas he actually en- 
 deavored to realize, thereby involving himself in 
 strife with all the princes of Christendom. In 
 Germany he succeeded. Adolf of Nassau and 
 Albrecht of Habsburg he treated as simple vas- 
 sals ; but Erik VIII. of Denmark took no notice 
 of his demands ; Wenzel II. of Bohemia openly 
 defied them; and Edward I. of England laid them 
 before Parliament, which met them with a spite- 
 ful protest. It was in the contest, however, with 
 Philip IV. the Fair of France, that this question 
 of the secular supremacy of the Pope was decided 
 generally and forever. The relations between 
 Boniface VIII. and Philip IV. were originally 
 very friendly. The first case of discord, however, 
 occurred already in 1295, when the French clergy 
 complained of the taxes which Philip IV. levied 
 on them, and the Pope addressed the King with 
 the bull Clericis laicos, Feb. 25, 1296. The King 
 answered by forbidding aU exportation of gold 
 and silver, coined or uncoined, from France ; and 
 as soon as the I'ope felt the famine in his treas- 
 ury, he submitted, and attenij)ted to explain 
 
 away the most olfensive expres.sions in his bull. 
 Again the relations became very friendly, liut, 
 during the great centennial festival of 1300, the 
 Pope showed himself to the multitude one day in 
 the pontifical robe, with the tiara, and another 
 day in the imperial mantle, with the crown ; and 
 in the same year Pierre Dubois, royal advocate 
 of France, publislied his Siivimaria brcvis, develoi>- 
 ing iiow and by what means Constantinople, 
 S])ain, Italy, etc., could be brought under the 
 French scei)tre. There were asjiirations of a 
 universal empire on both sides, and a collision 
 was unavoidable. The ajipearance of Bernard of 
 Saisset, Bishop of I'amiers, at the Fi'i^nch crjurt, 
 1301, as papal legate, and urging the King to 
 imdertake a crusade, gave the occasion. The 
 King had the bishop imprisoned. The Pope 
 ordered the bishop released immediately, and 
 summoned the bishops, abbots, and doctors of 
 France to Rome to hold a council. The King 
 released the bishop, but forbade the French 
 clergy to go to Rome. Several went, neverthe- 
 less; and the result of this synod (opened Oct. 
 30, 1302) was the bull Unain saiirlain, which, in a 
 style never used by the papal curia, either before 
 or after, .sets forth the doctrine of the two swords, 
 both intrusted to the Pope. The strife now 
 assumed dimensions which made it of world-wide 
 importance. The Pope, who resided at that time 
 in Anagni, prepared himself to .speak the anathe- 
 ma against Philip IV. in the church of the city 
 on Sept. 8, 1303 ; when, on Sept. 7, Guillaume 
 Nogaret of Toulouse, vice-chancellor to Philip 
 IV., in connection with some members of the 
 family of the Colonna, which had been expelled 
 by Boniface VIII., and some menibers of the 
 nobility of the Romagna, which had Ijeen bought 
 by Philip IV., penetrated into the sleeping-room 
 of the Pope, and made him a prisoner. lie was 
 soon after liberated by the citizens ; but he re- 
 turned to Rome a broken-hearted man, and died 
 shortly after. On his order was issued the Liber 
 Textus (see article on C.vxoN L.wv). See J. 
 RuBEUs: Bonif. VIII., Rome, 1651; L. TosTi : 
 Storia di Bniiifazio VIII., IMonte Casino, 1846; 
 W. Drumann : Geschichte Boni/aciiis VIII., 
 Konigsberg, 1852. [His Reyistres, published, 
 Paris, 1884.]— Boniface IX. (Nov. 2, 13S9-Oct. 1, 
 1404), a mean and gTeedy character, spent his 
 reign in useless intrigues agamst the Popes of 
 Avignon. See Vita Bonif. IX., in Muratoki : 
 Rer. Ital. Script. III. p. 830 ; Du PuYS : Histoire 
 du Schisme, 1378-U28, Paris, 1654; Maimuourg: 
 Histoire du Grand Schisme d'Occident, Paris, 
 1678. B. ZOPFFEL. 
 
 BONIFACE (Winfrid, the "Apostle of Ger- 
 many "), b. at Kirtoii near Exeter, between 680 
 and 683 ; d. near Dokkum in Friesland, June 5, 
 754 or 755 ; a Saxon by birth ; was educated in 
 the monasteries of Adescancastre and Nhutscelle, 
 and had already acquii-ed a name for learning and 
 piety, when, in 716, he left his native country, and 
 joined the missionaiy AMllibrord in Friesland. 
 Political circumstances, howe\er, made missionary 
 labor an impossibility in that field at tliat mo- 
 ment ; and Boniface returned to England, But 
 in 718 he again started for the Continent, This 
 time he went to France, and thence to Rome ; and 
 with papal authorization he repaired in 719 to 
 (Je'-many His first attempts as a missionary in
 
 BONNIVARD. 
 
 312 
 
 BONOSUS. 
 
 Bavavi.a and in the Frankisli dominions failed, 
 and he once more joined Willibrord in Fiiesland. 
 After the death of the latter, Boniface returned 
 to Germany (722) ; and in the region between the 
 Lahn and the Saal^ ho finally succeeded in taking 
 root, and forming for himself a basis of operation. 
 From this moment to his death he labored with 
 great success in Hesse, Bavaria, and, after the 
 death of Charles Martel, also in the Frankish 
 Empire. In 723 he was made a bishop ; in 732, 
 an archbishop. His last eifort was a tour into 
 Friesland, where a Pagan re-action had taken 
 place after the death of Willibrord ; and here he 
 was killed while administering confirmation to 
 those who liad remained faithful. His work con- 
 sisted, however, not so much in the preaching of 
 Christianity as in the propagation of Romanism, 
 which to him was identical with Christianity 
 organized, and which, perhaps, was the best for 
 that age. He labored mostly in countries which 
 had already been Christianized by the Iro-Scottish 
 nnssionaries ; and the result of his labor was sim- 
 ply the establishment of the Roman hierarchy. 
 He formed bishoprics, and secured bishops who 
 were willing to administer their dioceses in sub- 
 mission to the Pope. To convert Pagans to Chris- 
 tianity was not liis only or his chief office, but to 
 drive away by force or intrigue tlie independent 
 Christian missionaries, and replace them with 
 lloman priests ; and at the time of his death that 
 part of Germany which had received Christianity 
 »vas tinuly coiuiected with the Roman see. 
 
 Lit. — The works of Boniface, .sermons, letters, 
 etc., have V)een edited by J. A. Gilks, London, 
 1844, 2 vols. His life was written by Wilhb.\li> 
 (Pertz: Monum. U., 33); I. P. Mullkr, Am- 
 sterdam. ISfi!) ; August Werner, I^eipzig, 1875. 
 [G. Pfahler: St. Boni/acius, iiegensh., 18S0; O. 
 Fischer: Bonifalius, Leipzig, 1881.] WERNER. 
 
 BONNIVARD, Franz, the " Prisoner of Chillon," 
 b. 149:i at Seyssel on the Rhone ; d. 1570 at (ie- 
 neva. He was the younger son of a Savoy family 
 which liad an almost hereditary claim upon sev- 
 eral benefices : so when he entered the Church he 
 thought to hold them; but, through the intrigues 
 of the Duke Charles of Savoy, he was deprived of 
 all save the priory of St. Victor, whose dependen- 
 cies, however, comprised a considerable part of the 
 Genevan territory. Tliis unexpected tmii of for- 
 tune affected his life, and is the key to his career; 
 for his hatred of the duke led him to fraternize 
 with the young (ienevan patriots who were re.sist- 
 ing the duke's attempts to obtain control of that 
 city. Bonnivard quickly became tlie leader of 
 the movement, and was largely instrumental in 
 bringing (ieneva and Freiburg into alliance ( I51S). 
 His devotion cost him for a time his ]iriory. In 
 1510 the duke entered (ieneva. Bonnivard tied, 
 was Vietrayeil l>y his travellitig-coin)ianions, and 
 imprisoned for twenty inonllis. Nine years later 
 he obtained from the duke a "safe-conduct," and 
 set out on a visit to his aged parents at Seyssel. 
 But the duke broke his word, arrested him at 
 Lausanne (May 21), 1530), and imprisoned him in 
 the Castle of Chillon, wheiv for six years lie pined. 
 It is this imprisoinnent which Byron has immor- 
 talized inverse, more musical than truthful. The 
 first two years were tolerable; but after a visit 
 from tlie duke he was put in the dungeon now 
 ehowii to vi.sitor». It ia only a local tradition 
 
 that he was fastened to a pillar. In the spring of 
 153() the Bernese took the ca.stle, and freed him. 
 During his incarceration tlie priory and Church of 
 St. Victor had lieen razed, and the income of the 
 estates applied to the city hospital. By the in- 
 tervention of the Bernese, the original sum of 
 twenty thalers, granted him by the city for the ,. 
 payment of his debts, was increased to eight hun- 
 dred, which he received in addition to a pension 
 of two hundred thalers. Bonnivard then married, 
 in all four times, but not happily, nor had he 
 children. His last wife was accused of adultery, 
 confessed to the charge on the rack, was put in a 
 sack, and drowned in the Rhone ; while her para- 
 mour, a former monk, was lieheaded. Bonnivard 
 made the city of Geneva his heir on condition 
 that it paid his debts; but his estate consisted 
 only of his books, which formed the foundation 
 of the city library. 
 
 Boimivard's literary activity was the chief rea- 
 son for the forbearance his contemporaries showed 
 him ; for his career was somewhat dishonorable, 
 wavering, and time-serving. In 1517 he was en- 
 titled " poet-laureate ; " and after his liberation he 
 was commissioned liy the magistracy to write a 
 history of the republic of Geneva. This work, 
 called Chivniijue!: Ue Oeiiere, ends with 1551, is 
 interesting, full of anecdotes, but so marred by 
 contradictions and exaggerations as to be unre- 
 liable, and probably did not suit his patrons. 
 Strangely enough, his more important works were 
 not printed until this century, although the auto- 
 graphs have always been in the city library. 
 Those now printed are : Les Chroniques de Geneve, 
 Geneve, 1831, 4 vols. ; Advis el devis des lani/iies 
 (1563), Geneve et Paris, 1849; Adris et devis ile la 
 source de i'idutalrie el li/raiinie papule, tieueve, 1856 
 (with an historical introduction). GALIFFK. 
 
 BONNER, Edmund, b. at Ilanley, Worcester- 
 shire, Eng., about 14!)5 ; d. as a prLsouer in Lon- 
 don, Sej)t. 5, 150!) ; was educated at Oxford, 
 and received his first preferment from Cardinal 
 W'olsey. After the death of 'Wolsey, however, 
 he seemed to veer aroiiiul towaids the Reforma- 
 tion ; was appointed chaplain to Henry VIII.; 
 employed in various emba.ssies to Fiance, Gei- 
 niany, and the Pope ; and made Bishop of London 
 in 1540; but as soon as the King died, the refor- 
 matory zeal of the bishop slackened ; he refused 
 to take the oath of supremacy, and was committed 
 to the Fleet. After his release he was twice 
 reprimanded by the privy council for neglect in 
 the, cause of the Reformation, and finally com- 
 mitted to the JSIar.shal.sea, and deprived of his see, 
 1540. R(!storcd by Queen Mary, he took his re- 
 venge. In the course of threi^ years he con- 
 demned more tlian two hundred Protestants to 
 the stake; and in many eases Cardinal Pole and 
 other champions of the Roman Church had to 
 interfere with his persecuting fury. Inimedi- 
 ately after the accession of Elizabeth, however, 
 he was again committed to the Marshalsea, and 
 died in confinement. See Life and Defence of 
 Bishop Bonner, London, 1842; j\I.\iti..\ni) : Es- 
 sni/s on Snh/ecls connected with the licforiimtinn, 
 London, 184it. 
 
 BONOSUS, Hishop of .Sanlica in the latter part, 
 of the Inuitli century; held that Mary, in her 
 marriage with .(ose]ih, had borne several children 
 beside Jesus ; for this opinion he vv.is condemned
 
 BOOS. 
 
 313 
 
 BORROMEO. 
 
 by a synod of Illyrian bishops, and the condcni- 
 iiation was confirmed by the Bishop of Home, 
 lie foimd adherents, however, wlio aftei-wai'ds 
 affiliated willi the I'hotinians in tlie Kast and tlie 
 Adoptians in tlie West. See C. AV. F. Walch: 
 De Jjoiioso llii rclico, (ibttingen, 1704. 
 
 BOOS, Martin, b. at Iluttemied, Bavaria. Dec. 
 25, 17(ji2 ; d. at Sayn, near Colilenz, Aug. 'lU, 
 1825; stndied theology at the University of Dil- 
 lingen, where an evangelical movement had bet'ii 
 started by Sailer, Zinnner, and AVeber. Without 
 leaving the Roman Church, ho began to preach 
 justification by faith; and everywhere, in Bavaria, 
 Austria, and Prussia, his preacliing caused a reli- 
 gious revival, which the Roman clergy feared 
 and hated. He was driven from place to place, 
 hunted out of Bavaria by the Inijuisition, ban- 
 ished from Austria by the emperor, and hardly 
 left in peace in Dusseldorf and Sapi under the 
 protection of a Protestant government. See I. 
 GosSNER : S. M. Boos, 1831, translated into 
 English, London, 1836; Bodem.\nn : M. Boos, 
 Bielefeld, 18.54. 
 
 BOQUIN, Pierre, b. in Guienne in the begin- 
 ning of the sixteenth century ; studied in the 
 University of Bourges ; entered the order of the 
 Carmelites, and was elected abbot; but, liaving 
 become acquainted with the ideas of the Refor- 
 mation, he abandoned the cowl, and left France ; 
 in 1.541 vi.sited AVittenberg; occupied for some 
 time Calvin's chair in Strassburg ; returned to 
 Bourges, and lectured on Hebrew and exegesis in 
 the iniiversity under the protection of the Queen 
 of Navarre. Persecutions, however, compelled 
 him to leave his native country a second time. 
 In 1557 he was made professor in the University 
 of Heidelberg, and in 1574 he moved to Lausanne, 
 where he died in 1582. A list of his works, 
 mostly consisting of polemics against the Roman- 
 ists and the Lutherans, is found in II,\.\G : La 
 France Protestante. See also Melchior Adam : 
 Vike Theotof/orum Exlernoruin. 
 
 BORA, Catharine von, b. at Bitterfeld in the 
 countship of Meissen, Jan. 29, 1499 ; d. at Tor- 
 gau, Dec. 20, 1552. She was a nun in the mon- 
 astery of Nimtzsch, near Grimma ; but, with the 
 cognizance of Luther, she fled from the monastery 
 together with eight other nuns (April 4, 1523), 
 and repaired to AA'^ittenberg. June 13, 1.525, she 
 married Luther, to whom she bore six children. 
 Luther first offered her to his friend Am.sdorf; 
 but she declined, her aspirations rising liigher. 
 He married, he said, for three reasons, — to please 
 his father, to tease the Pope, and to vex the Devil 
 He lived in happy wedlock, and wrote many 
 characteristic letters to his wife and cliildren. 
 After his death (1546) she continued to live in 
 Wittenberg, often in troubles, and Init sparingly 
 supported by the Danish king. Christian HI. 
 See F. G. HoFMANN : Kalharina von Bora, Leip- 
 zig, 1845, and the many lives of Luther. Among 
 the many libels concerning Luther's marriage the 
 principal one is Eusebius ExXtELHAKD : Lucifer 
 Witlenbergensis oder der Morgenstern von Willen- 
 herg, Landsberg, 1747-49, 2 vols. 
 
 BORBORITES or BORBORIANS, from ,3op- 
 ^opof (" dirt-eaters '"), is the name of one of the 
 most extravagant Gnostic sects, mentioned by 
 Epiphanius, Hares. 26, and by Augustine, 
 De Hceres 
 
 BORDAS-DEMOULIN, Jean Baptiste, 1). at 
 
 Montagnac in the Dordogne, 1798 ; d. in Paris, 
 1>S.")9; was one of the leaders of the lilieral 
 Catliolic )iarty, which, by developing tlie princi- 
 jiles of till' old Gallii-anism, tried to reconcile the 
 Roman-Catholic Churcli and the demands of mod- 
 ern civilization. Besides his Mc'lnngi.t philoso- 
 /i/iifjucs el reliyieux, his two jirincipal works are 
 Lns Powoirs constitulifi de I'Eglise (185.5), and 
 ICxsiii/ sur le Refiirme cnlhotUjue (1857). Ilis 
 Etuiles de pldlosopJtie cark'sicnne was crowned by 
 the French Aeadeniv ; but he died in the poorhou.se. 
 See Ili-ET : 17,- cl (Kurrcx lie B. - TJ., Paris, 1860. 
 
 BORDELUMIAN SECT, one of the obscurest 
 and weakest of the nunierons unwholesome re- 
 ligious developments of the last century, com- 
 prised some fifteen or twenty persons in the town 
 of Bordelum in Schleswig-IIolstein, under the 
 leadership of two Saxons, candidates of theol- 
 ogy, — David Bahr and Borsenius. In 1739 the 
 sect was complained against by the local pastors, 
 and charged with holding that they were saints 
 who had advanced upon Paul in Rom. vii. 24; 
 that God had special care over them ; that they 
 decried the Church as the devil's house, despised 
 the sacraments ; that, as clean, they rejected mar- 
 riage, and, like so many of these clean and pine 
 persons, — indeed, this .seems to have been Satan's 
 bait, — lived in the greatest unchastity among 
 themselves. For their mutual supjiort they insti- 
 tuted a sort of community of goods. They were 
 found guilty of these charges : and King Christian 
 VI., by edict of June 11, 1739, suppressed the 
 sect, and condemned the leaders to imprisonment ; 
 but they escaped. Borsenius married, and lived 
 quietly; Biihr ventured back to Ilolstein, was 
 arrested and imprisoned, very harshly treated, and 
 died miserably in Bredstiidt, 1743. The sect gave 
 much local trouble. P.\UL TSCHACKERT. 
 
 BOREL, ADAM, the founder of the Borelists; 
 b. in Zealand, 1603; d. in Amsterdam, 1667; 
 was pastor of a Reformed congregation, but re- 
 signed his otfice, and liecame the leader of a 
 separatistic party, wliich acknowledged no other 
 religious authoiity than the Scripture. His 
 work. Ad Legem et Teslinionium. attracted great 
 attention. Here he developed that the written 
 word of God, without any human commentary, 
 was the sole means of awakening faith ; that the 
 Church had fallen completely away from the 
 Lord ; that the Christian ought to shun all con- 
 nection with the Established Church, and confine 
 himself to his private devotion, etc. Though 
 violently attacked by Maresius and Hornbeck, he 
 gathered quite a number of adherents, — the 
 Borelists. See Arnold : Kirchen- und Ketzcrhis- 
 lurien. III. 6, p. 28. HERZOQ. 
 
 BORGIA. See Alexander VI., Jesuits. 
 
 BORRHAUS. .See Cellarius. 
 
 BORROMEO, Carlo, b. Oct. 2, 1.538, in the 
 Castle of Arona, on the southern shore of Lago 
 Maggiore; d. Xov. 3, 1584, in ;\lilau ; was, in 
 harmony with the natural bent of his character, 
 destined for the Church, and stndif-d theology, 
 philosophy, and canon law at Pavia. When his 
 uncle, Pius IV., was elected pope in 1.559, he was 
 immediately called to Rome, and made cardinal- 
 deacon, and Archbishop of Milan. After the 
 death of his elder brother, liowever, in 1562, both 
 the Pope and his other relatives wished him to
 
 BORROW. 
 
 314 
 
 BOST. 
 
 relinquish the Church, and marry ; but lie refused. 
 His whole ambition had become concentrated on 
 the one idea of restoring the Church to its for- 
 mer dignity and power ; and to the realization of 
 this idea he devoted his wliole life : he is the hero 
 of the ecclesiastical re-action of the sixteenth ceu- 
 tmy. When the Council of Trent decreed that 
 the bishops should reside in their dioceses, he 
 immediately repaired to INIilan, preceded by the 
 Jesuits and tlie Inquisition. Milan was not only 
 the largest, but also the most difficult diocese of 
 Italy, comprising fifteen suffragan bishoprics, 
 twelve hundred and twenty churches, and a Inni- 
 dred and se\enty monasteries, pervaded by all the 
 most hideous corruptions of the Itoman Churcli, 
 and stirred up by tlie ideas of the Reformation 
 penetrating into the country from Switzerland. 
 But the young archbishop was equal to the task. 
 Ill spite of the violent opposition which went so 
 far as to attempt his life, he restored discipline in 
 the Church, the monasteries, and the school ; and 
 the Reformers he pursued to the top of the Alps, 
 never sparing even their lives. Xo wonder that 
 the gratefid Church has adopted him among its 
 saints, especially as his personal life was stain- 
 lessly pure, and as rich in self-sacriflce as full of 
 energy and activity. He was canonized m IGIO 
 by Paul y. 
 
 Lit. — His Opera Omnia were published in 
 Milan, 1717. His life was written in Latin by 
 Bascapi, Ingoldstadt, 1502, and I)e Vit, Amster- 
 dam, 18.58; in Gei'man by S.4.ILER, Augsburg, 
 1823, and Dieiu.nger, Cologne, 1840 ; in French 
 by TouROX, Paris, 17.51 ; and iir Italian by 
 Giuss.\xo, Rome, IGIO, and Aristide S.\ia, 
 Milan, 18.57-61, 3 vols. The last-mentioned work 
 is the principal one. BEXRATH. 
 
 BORROW, George, autlior of the Bible in 
 Spain, b. at East Dereham, Norfolk, Eng., Febru- 
 ary, 1803; d. July 30, 1881. After receiving a 
 good .school-education, he was in 1818 articled to 
 a solicitor in Xorwich ; but, following his natural 
 bent, he abandoned tlie law for literature and 
 philology, acquired several modern languages, in- 
 cluding that of the English gyqisies, did hack- 
 work for London publishers, travelled, and so 
 spent many years. From 1833 to 1830 he was in 
 the service of the Hritisli and Foreign Bible 
 Society, and laliored as a colportor in Russia and 
 Spain, in the latter country he was twice impris- 
 oned. At St. Petersburg lie edited the New Testa- 
 ment in tlie MaiKlchu or Chinese-Tartar language, 
 at Madrid, the Xew Testament in Spanish, and 
 translated the Gospel of Luke into the Spanish- 
 Gj'psy language. Having returned to England, 
 he issued Zincnli, or An Account of the Gypsies in 
 Spain, London, 1841, and in 1843, T/ie Bible in 
 Spain, or the Journei/s, Adrenlurcs, and Imprison- 
 ments of an Enylishman in an Attempt tn circulate 
 the Scriptnren on the Peninsula. By the latter 
 work he achievccl a great leputation. The re- 
 mainder of Ills life was devoted to literature, and 
 to researches into the manners and speech of the 
 gj-psies in Europe. He was a popular and prolific 
 writiT. 
 
 BOSSUET, Jacques Binigne, b. at Dijon, 
 Sept. 27, 11127; d. in Paris, April 12, 1704; was 
 educated in the Jesuit school of his native town, 
 and made his tlieological studies in tlie College tie 
 Navarre in Paris; lived there for some time in 
 
 retirement at St. Lazare before he removed to 
 iletz, where he held a rich benefice, and developed 
 ! a great activity in controversies with the Reformed 
 churches ; was made Bishop of Condom in 1009, 
 but resigned this office, wlieii, in 1070, he was ai 
 pointed tutor to the Dauphin, with whom lie 
 staid till 108), when he was made Bi.shop of 
 Meaux. Bos.suet first attracted attention as an 
 orator by his sermons ; and, so far as eloquence 
 is an art, his Discours Fu7iebres must be ranked 
 among the highest .specimens of Christian elo- 
 quence, though they reflect the splendor and 
 greatness of Louis Quatorze more vividly than 
 the power and humility of the Gospel. As tutor 
 to the Dauphin he wrote Traitc de la connaissance 
 lie Divu I't lie soi-nu'ine and Discours sur I'llistuire 
 unirerselle, the latter of which is a strikinglj' origi- 
 nal attempt to construct a Christian philosophy 
 of history on the ]>riiiciple that the destinies of 
 nations are controlled by Providence in the inter- 
 est of the Roman-Catholic Church. Among his 
 controversial writings against the Protestants, the 
 two iiiost remarkable are Exposition de la doctrine 
 de i'E;/lise calholique sur Ics muti'eres de cvntro- 
 rerse (1071), and Ilistoire dcs J'arialiuns des Eylises 
 protestaiitcs (IGSS). The latter was very sharply 
 criticised by Jurieu and Basnage, and involved 
 its author in a long and vehement controversy. 
 His fanaticism against the Reformation made him 
 so blind that he characterized the revocation of 
 the Edict of Xantes (1085) as " le plus bel usage de 
 rautorite." He was no ultramontanist, howevi'r. 
 On the contrary, he presided in 1082 over the as- 
 .sembly of the French clergy which the King had 
 convened in order to defend the royal prerogatives 
 and the liberties of the Galilean Church against the 
 claims of the Pope. Xor was he in the least tainted 
 by mysticism. His attacks on Fene!on and the 
 Quietists approached ^■ery near to persecution. 
 His passion was cold; and his peculiar ideas of 
 cluu-ch-polity corn'sjionded to, if they were not 
 dictated by, Louis Quatorze's " L'etat, c'est moi." 
 The latest and best edition of his works appeared 
 at Versailles, 1819 sqq., in 40 vols., edited by Car- 
 dinal Be.wsset, who also wrote his life. See 
 also T.\UAi!.\ii> : Supplement aux Ilistoircs de Bus- 
 suet et de Fcnelon, Paris, 1822; [II. L. Sidxey 
 Le.\r : Bnssucl and his Contemporaries, London, 
 1874. A translation of select sermons was pub- 
 lished, 2d ed., London, ISOl]. C. SCHMIDT. 
 
 BOST, Paul Ami Isaac David, one of the leaders 
 of the lu'ct.il in Swit/.rrlaud and France, b. June 
 10, 1700, in (Jeiieva; d. Dec. 14. 1874, in La 
 Force. His father was a Mt>ravian. pious and 
 hard-working, ser\'ed as chorister, and tauglit 
 music; and piety and musical tastes were sliowu 
 by the son. lie .studicil theology in Geneva ; but 
 at that time the Bible was scarcely opened, so 
 when he was ordained (1814) he had little lieart 
 for liis profession. Shortly after, however, he 
 was converted. For the greater part of his active 
 life he was a missionary of the London Continen- 
 tal Society. He was of an active, restless dispo- 
 sition, but thus providentially spread the wider 
 his flaming love for Christ. Many owed to him 
 under (iod their conversion. He was no tiieolo- 
 gian ; but as composer and poet he did superior 
 service, and he has written some valuable works, 
 among tliem, Ilistoire drs frcres de Bohime et ilc 
 Moravie, Genbve, 1831, 2 vols., particularly hia Me^
 
 BOSTON. 
 
 315 
 
 BOYLE. 
 
 moire.i poumnt ito-i-ir a I'hlitoire du re'veil reliyieux, 
 (ieucve, ISol, 1855, 2 vols. [See GuKUs: Pre- 
 mier n'rcil a O'eiivri', 1871.] KDWAUD BAUDE. 
 
 BOSTON, Thomas, li. at Dunsc, Heiwicksliirc, 
 Scotland, March 17, l(i7(i; d. at Kttrick, May 20, 
 1732; was ('(liicati'd at tlio rnivcrsity ol' Kdiu- 
 Imrgli, and liccainc minister of Siniprin in 1(J9», 
 and of Ettrick in 17U7. He was a very voliuni- 
 nous writer, and lias exercised };reat influence in 
 tlie Presbyterian churclii-s in Scotland and Eng- 
 land. The two works by which he is now best 
 known are, T/ie Crook in the Lot, a book for 
 mourners, being the substance of several sermons ; 
 and Ilinnaii IViituiv in its Fourjhlil Slali; of Primilire 
 Inlei/rlli/, Entire Dtpracution, Bei/im Jiccoreri/, and 
 Consumiiiale II<ij>])iiiess or Uliseri/. The last was 
 first published iu 1720. lie left an autobiography, 
 or Memoirs, which appeared in 1776. A collected 
 edition of his works was published in 12 vols., 
 London, LS.'c'. 
 
 BOUDINOT, Elias, b. in Philadelphia May 2, 
 1710; d. at Purlington, N.J., Oct. 24, 1S21 ; re- 
 ■ceived a classical education, and studied law ; was 
 the president of Congress in 1782, and signed as 
 such the preliminaries of peace with Great Bri- 
 tain ; became a member of the P)Oard of Conuuis- 
 sioners for Foreign Missions in 1812, and in 181G 
 the first president of the American Itible Society, 
 and devoted himself with great zeal and seif- 
 sacriflce to benevolent and philanthropical under- 
 takings, lie published : T/te Aye of Revckdioyi, 
 1790; Second Adreiit of the Messiah, 1815; and 
 Star in the West, or an Allciiipt to discover the 
 Lonfj-lost Tribes of Israel, ISIG. 
 
 B'OURDALOUE, Louis, b. at Bourges, Aug. 20, 
 10:52 ; <1. in Paris, ^May l^i, 1704 ; entered the Soci- 
 ety of the Jesuits in 1018 ; was for some time a 
 teacher in literature and rhetoric, then a preacher 
 in the provinces, afterwards in Paris, and finally, 
 after the revocation of the Edict of Xantes, in 
 Eanguedoc, among the Protestants. As a preach- 
 er he has neither the magnificent oratory of Bos- 
 suet, nor the sympiathetic strain of INlassillon: his 
 strength is in the clearness of liis argument, its 
 readiness and its cogency. IMany of his sermons 
 have been translated into English, London, 1776, 
 4 vols. One of the best recent editions is that 
 of Paris, 1804, 4 vols. The best old edition is 
 Bretonneau's, Paris, 1707-34, 16 vols. Svo. His 
 life was written by Mailame de Piucny, Paris, 
 1705. M. Lauras : Bourdaloue, sa vie et ses 
 ieuvres, Paris, 1881 (1,222 pages). 
 
 BOURIGNON, Antoinette, b. at Lille, Jau. 13, 
 1016; d. at Franeker, Oct. 30, 1G80 ; grew up 
 neglected and solitary because of her temper and 
 her physical deformities, spending her time in 
 reading mystical and fantastical books ; fled just 
 as she was about to be married, and found ref- 
 uge in a monastery near Cambray, but was ex- 
 pelled on account of insubordination, and wan- 
 dered about for the rest of her life in Flanders, 
 Holland, and Korthern Germany, gathering a 
 number of restless enthusiasts around her, and 
 busily engaged in the propagation of her views, 
 — that the Church needed a thorough reforma- 
 tion, that there existed no more true Christians, 
 that all religious rites were superfluous, and true 
 worship confined to an inner, mental process, etc. 
 In Scotland her ideas foimd some adherents. 
 Her works were edited (1679-86, 19 vols.), and 
 
 lier life written, by Poirkt, Amsterdam, 1679, 
 2 vols. See Elude suj; Ant. Botiriynon, by M. 
 E. S., Paris, 1870. 
 
 BOWER, Archibald, 1.. at Dundee, .Tan. 17, 
 1086; d. in l^ondon, Sept. 3, 1766; wa.s educated 
 at Douay ; went afterwards to Italy; became a 
 .lesuit, and member of (lie In(piisition of Mace- 
 rata. In 1726 he suddenly returned to England; 
 became a member of the Established Chnich ; 
 was m,a<le librarian to tlie (,^ueen in 1748, and 
 occupied him.self with literature. His principal 
 work is his History of the Popes, 7 vols. 4to, Lon- 
 don, 3d ed., 17.50-06; which contains the most 
 copious account of the Popes in the English lan- 
 guage, but was very severely criticised on account 
 of want of originality, and of the author's re- 
 peated clianges of religion. Bishoj) Douglas of 
 Salisbury wrote against him, Bower ami Tillevionl 
 compared, London, 1757. 
 
 BOWRINC, Sir John, b. at Exeter. Oct. 17, 
 1792 ; d. Xov. 22, 1872. He distinguished him- 
 self as statesman, translator, and original author 
 in prose and poetry : he is here mentioned for his 
 liynms. He issued " Matins and Vespers, with 
 Hymns and Devotional Pieces," 1823 (4th ed. 
 1851) ; " Hymns, as a Sequel to the JIatins," 
 1825. His best known hynms probably are, " In 
 the Cross of Christ I glory," and " M'e cannot 
 always trace the way" (the latter has been erro- 
 neously credited to anotlier). 
 
 BOY-BISHOP, a boy who figured in one of 
 the nnimmeries so connnon in the middle ages. 
 He was a cathedral-choir boy elected by his fel- 
 lows on St. Xicholas' Day, Dec. 6 : arrayed in 
 episcopal robes, with mitre and crosier, and fol- 
 lowed by liis companions as priests, he made his 
 entry into the cathedral ; and, except the offering 
 of nuiss, he discharged episcopal functions. lie 
 held this mock office until Innocents' Day, Dec. 
 28. If he died before the close of his term, he 
 was buried in liis robes. This absurd travesty 
 was enacted in many ]iarts of Europe. The re- 
 turning sense of the Church was, however, shown 
 by the sixteenth canon, fourth part of the decis- 
 ions of the Council of Paris, 1212 (see Hefele 
 Concilienyeschichle, 5th vol. p. 776), peremptorily 
 forbidding them ; but this was of merel)' mitional 
 and temporary effect, for the practice continued. 
 In 1.542 Henry VIII. of England abolished the 
 festival ; but it was revived under Queen Mary, 
 and so late as 1556 English boy-bishops are men- 
 tioned. 
 
 BOYLE and the BOYLE LECTURES. Robert 
 Boyle, son of Richard Boyle, Earl of Cork, was 
 born at Lismore Castle, in Ireland, Jan. 25, 1627, 
 and educated at Eton. From 1G38 to 1644 he 
 lived at Geneva, studying natural science ; and 
 after his return he first settled on his estate, Stal- 
 bridge, then, since 1654, at Oxford, and finally, 
 since 1608, in London, where he died Dec. 30, 
 1091. He was never married, and never held an 
 office. His great mental gifts and his large for- 
 tune he devoted to the study of natural science 
 and to labor for the kingdom of heaven. As a 
 scientist he holds a very high rank ; and he was 
 one of the founders of the Royal Society (1662), 
 which, indeed, grew out of that association of 
 scholars to which he belonged while residing at 
 Stalbridge. As a religionist, lie wrote a number 
 of theorogical essays, defrayed the expenses of
 
 BOYS. 
 
 316 
 
 BRAHMANISM. 
 
 tlie Irish translation of the Xew Testament, of 
 the Malay translation of the Gospels and the Acts. 
 of Pococke's Arabic translation of Grotius's Dc 
 Veritate. etc., and instituted the Boyle Lectures, — 
 eight sermons to be preached annually, by some 
 one elected for the purpose, against raganisin, 
 .Judaism, Mohammedanism, Deism, and Atheism. 
 Some of England's most pronnnent theologians 
 have successively assumed the task, and thus a 
 valuable body of apologetic literature has been 
 produced. A' selection of such sermons was given 
 in -1 vols., by Gilbert Burnett, in 1737. A col- 
 lected edition of Boyle's own works, with a life of 
 him by Bikch, was published in G vols, in Lon- 
 don. 1772. See Lectures. 
 
 BOYS, or BOIS, John, h. at Nettlestead, Suf- 
 folk, Eng., .Ian. ■',, ISlil : d. at Boxworth, Jan. 
 11, lG4:i; was so precocious tliat he could read 
 the Bible in Hebrew when he was five years 
 old ; was fellow at Cambridge, where he specially 
 cultivated Greek ; became rector of Boxworth m 
 1596, and prebendary of Ely, IGl.). He was ap- 
 pointed one of the translators of the authorized 
 version, and was one of the company upon the 
 Apocrj^iha. AVhen it was finished, he joined, at 
 their own urgent request, the company at work 
 upon the section from Chronicles to Canticles, 
 and was one of the delegates engaged in the final 
 revision. He was one of the greatest scholars of 
 his day in the Oriental languages. He assisted 
 Sir Henry Savile in liis edition of Chrysostom, 
 Eton, 1613, 8 vols, folio, the first good edition. 
 He left many manuscripts, but only one work has 
 been published : Veleris iiiterjiirlis rum Beza, 
 (iliisque recenloribus coUatio in I\'. Ecanyeliis el 
 Apostolnrum Actis, London, 1655. 
 
 BRADFORD, John, b. at Manchester in the 
 first decade of tlie sixteenth centui-y; began to 
 study law in the Temple, 1547, but went next 
 year to Cambridge; studied theology, and was 
 appointed chaplain to Edward VI. in 1552. On 
 the accession of Mary, he was discharged, and 
 committed to the Tower. In 1554 he was ar- 
 raigned before Gardiner, Bonner, and others, and 
 convicted of heresy; and .Tune 1, 1555, he was 
 burnt at Smithfield'. His writings have been re- 
 publislied by the Parker Society, edited by Town- 
 send, Cambridge, 1848. There is a Memoir of 
 him by Stevens, London, 1832. 
 
 BRADSHAW, William, a Puritan divine, b. at 
 Markct-Hosworlh, Li-icrslershire, 1.571 ; d. at Xew- 
 hall, 1618. He was educated at Emniamiel Col- 
 lege, Cambridge; obtained a fellowship at .Sidney 
 Sussex College, Cambridge; took orders, and in 
 1601 settUMl at Chatham in Kent ; but, refusing to 
 .sign tiie Thirty-nine Articles, he was soon sus- 
 pende<l, and obliged to remove. He at last was 
 chosen lecturer of Christ Church, Newgate Street, 
 London, but again got himself into trouble by 
 his opposition to "ceremonies," aiul retired to his 
 native county. He wrote : A Treatise of })ivine 
 Worship. Tending li> prove thai the Ceremoniea: im- 
 posed upon the Ministers of the Gospell in Enf/ltind, 
 in present rontrouersie, are in their use nnliiwfull 
 (1611 1) ; A Treatise on tlie Nature and l^se of Thiiii/s 
 Indifferent [i.e., ceremonies] (l(!l)5) ; I'.nijlish Puri- 
 tanisme. Containeini) : The iiiaine O/iininns oj" the 
 riffidest sort of those that are called I'liritanes in the 
 Realme of Eni/land (lUO')). Tliis imi)ortant work 
 is given ill outline iii Ncal, llariier'.s ed., vol. i. 
 
 pp. 248 sq. It was translated into Latin by Wil- 
 liam Ames, and republished in Frankfort, 1610. 
 .See Dexter : Congregationalism as seen in its Lit- 
 erature, Bibliographical Appendix. 
 
 BRADWARDINE, Thomas (doctor profundus),. 
 I., [probal'ly in 12!il> at Chichester, Eng.]; d. in 
 London, .\ug. 26, 134!( ; studied theology, philoso- 
 phy, mathematics, and astronomy in Merton Col- 
 lege, Oxford ; became one of the proctors of the 
 university in 1325; followed Edward III. as his 
 confessor, since 1338, in his campaigns in France ; 
 and was chosen Archbishop of Canterbury, and 
 consecrated at Avignon a few weeks before his 
 death. His great work, De Causa Dei, more 
 philosophical and metaphysical than theological 
 in its character, was edited by Sir Henry Savile, 
 London, 1618. Several of his mathenuitical works 
 were published at Venice or Paris, 1495-1536. 
 See G. Lechler : Wiclif, I. pp. 234 sqq. [Eng- 
 lish translation by Peter Lorimer, D.D., London,. 
 1878, 2 vols., vol.'i. pp. 88-96.] G. lechlkr. 
 
 BRADY, Nicholas, b. at Baudon, Ireland, Oct. 
 20. 16.5!); d. at Uichmond, IMay 2t1, 1726; was- 
 educated at Christ Church, Oxford, and Trinity 
 College, Dublin ; settled, after the Revolution, in 
 Loudon ; became minister of St. Catharine Cree- 
 and lecturer of St. Michael's in Wood Street,, 
 afterwards rector of Richmond, and also of Clap- 
 ham, and the chaplain of King William. He- 
 published (1726) a translation of the -Eneid in 
 four volumes, a tragedy, " The Innocent Inipo.s- 
 tor," two volumes of sermons (1704-06), and,. 
 in conjunction with Tate, a metrical translation 
 of the Psalms, London, 1695, now ordinarily 
 printed in the English Book of Common Pi-ayer- 
 See Tate, Nahum. 
 
 BRAHMA. See Brahmanism. 
 
 BRAHMANISM' is .the term for the religiott 
 and practices originated and elaborated by the- 
 Brahmans, who are the highest of the four great 
 classes, or castes, into which the Hindu people 
 are divided, — the Brahiiianas (" priests "), Ksha- 
 triifos ("soldiers"), ]'(iisi/as ("agriculturists"), 
 and Sudras ("servants"). Like other religions, 
 Brahmanism has its sacred books and their offi- 
 cial interpreters. The oldest portions of this 
 collection are the Vedas ("knowledge"), or Sruti 
 ("that which is directly lieard or revealed"). 
 The Vedas are divided again into Mantra ("the 
 instrument of conveying thought"), prayer and 
 ])rai.se, enibo(lie<l in texts and metrical hynms;. 
 lirahniaiui, or ritualistic^ precept and illustration 
 written in pro.se; and Upanisliad, mystical or 
 secret doctrine appended to the aforesaid Brah- 
 mana, written in prose and occasional ver.se, and 
 "the only part of tlie Veda much studied and 
 apjiealed to by educated Hindus in the pre.sent 
 day." 
 
 'I'here are four Samhitas, or collections of Man- 
 tra; viz., the Jiigreda (upon which the other.s 
 are ba.sed), the Sinnareda, the yajurredii, and the 
 Athiirrareda. The word Vida is applied to that 
 unwiitlcn knowledge which came like breath 
 from Brahman: hence llie \'e(la is often called 
 Brahman, a word variously interpreted, — "the 
 universally diffused essence," or " the sjiirit of 
 devotion," or "divine spiritual knowledge." The 
 
 » Iti Itilt* artirlc cHpi'i-Iiil im<' ttiin been mitdr' of Dr. Monlcr 
 Wlllluni«'i< llhiiiiiiHm, iiMil riiilV'KHur Kkhl'Umij'ii mi. " Brah- 
 niuiilt.iu," ill llu- nlnlli i-Ultiou ^li llie h'lii !/< iojHtditi HrUaunica.
 
 BRAHMANISM. 
 
 317 
 
 BRAHMANISM. 
 
 liyiiiiis of the Vi'ilas (Miiliracc tlio earliest known 
 lyrics of the Aryan setMcM's of India. Dr. Monier 
 Williams thinks they wcn'e (iroliably coiuposeil by 
 a sncccssiiin of |ioets, at different dates between 
 151)0 and 1000 li.i:. 'J'lie oldest are found in tin; 
 Rifjoeila: they iiuniber one thousand and seven- 
 teen, and express a nature-worship the purest 
 known. The latest are those of the Alliart-ai-cda, 
 jirincipally u.sed as incantations for calling down 
 ■or driving away curses. The Vedas, as a collec- 
 tion, are not ea,sy or pleasant reading; but they 
 throw light upon the fjuality of mind and the 
 t'uvironinent of our Aryan ancestors. They 
 prove tliat the Aryan was a worshipper of nature, 
 liut had not learned to distinguish between the 
 <lifferent objects of his worship: hence he gave 
 to them tlie generic name dcoa ("the shining 
 fines"). " In the prinutive worship of the mani- 
 fold phenomena of nature it is not so much their 
 physical aspect that impresses the human heart, 
 as the moral and intellectual forces which are 
 supposed to move and animate them." The 
 primitive conception best .seen in the Rigveda 
 was gradually tarnished, taking on in the later 
 hynms a more sensuous and anthiopomorphic 
 •character- Epithets applied to the same divinity 
 become at last separate divinities; until at a 
 later period, after centuries of speculation, a 
 pantlieistic conception was arrived at, and this 
 divine essence bore various names, such as 
 Purusha ("soul"), Kama ("desire"), Brahman 
 ("devotion, prayer"). Metaphysical and theo- 
 sophical speculations completely possessed the 
 authors of the Bra/imanaa and the UpanisJiads : 
 and the compromise between polytheism and 
 monotheism resulted in the composite pantheistic 
 •system which makes Prajapali ("lord of crea- 
 tures ") the personal creator of the world, the 
 manifestation of the impersonal Braluna, the uni- 
 versal, self-existent soul; and this is the charac- 
 teristic dogma of the Brahmanical period. 
 
 The Brahmaiuis, the second division of each 
 Veda, were composed as a guide to the Brahman 
 in sacrificing. They developed the ritual. The 
 oldest dates perhaps from the seventh century 
 B.C. They contain some very remarkable ideas ; 
 thus, that " the gods were merely mortals till 
 they extorted immoi'tality from the Supreme Be- 
 ing by sacrifices and austerities ; " that the " lord 
 of creatures offered himself a sacrifice for the 
 gods ; " that human sacrifices, although known, 
 were so strongly repugnant to the Brahmans, that 
 they legislated against them in favor of animal 
 sacrifices. Thousands of animals were killed 
 every day, until in disgust the people turned from 
 this endless succession of bloody rites. 
 
 The Upanishaih, the third division of each 
 Teda, which present the underlying doctrine, are 
 pantheistic. " There is one real Being in the 
 universe, which Being also constitutes the uni- 
 verse." The}' are not earlier than 600 B.C., and 
 show the working of the Ai-yan mind upon reli- 
 gious and philosophic problems. They .are more 
 mature and systematic than the earlier writings, 
 and contain many original ideas and striking 
 thoughts. 
 
 Worship, as enjoined by the Vedas, rests upon 
 the two ideas of the efficacy of prayer and of 
 sacrifice. Prayer was especially emphasized : 
 the very word for the officiating priest was brah- 
 
 man ("one who prays"). 'I"he I'anlliion of the 
 early Hindus was thus developed. In the begin- 
 ning was Brithma, sole and self-existent. lie 
 willed to creates various creatures out of liis own 
 substance. Accordingly, by meditation, he pro- 
 duced the waters ; into them lie put a seed, which 
 developed a golden egg; and from that egg he 
 was born. Hut, as the people did not aliandon 
 their worship of the old gods to take up with any 
 such abstraction, th(! priests, with singular tact, 
 incorporated the most popular of these divinities 
 with Brahma, and so the triad was formed, — 
 Brahma ("the creator of all things"), Vishnu 
 ("the preserver," who underwent ten ararlaras, 
 or incarnations, to deliver the people from the 
 tyranny of as many wicked princes), and Sica 
 ("the destroyer"). Here was no trinity, for 
 there was no unity, but a triad, — three co-ordinate 
 male deities. To them three female deities were 
 respectively consorts, — Vach or Sararali (" the 
 goddess of speech or learning"), Sri or Lakshami 
 ("beauty, fortune"), and Uma or Parrati ("the 
 daughter of Himaeaf," the god of the Himalaya 
 mountains). The problem, what to do wiLb the 
 discarded gods of the Hindu ])antheon, was 
 solved by relegating them to the domain of Indru 
 ("sky"), an intermediate sphere, into which men 
 also can enter at death, if they have been obedi- 
 ent. The retinue of Indra consists of tlie GaniUi- 
 arvas ("genii") and their wives, the Apsaras, 
 lovely nymphs whom the gods often select to 
 tempt the pious devotee. The messenger be- 
 tween the gods and men is Narada, who sprang 
 from the forehead of Brahma. The god of love 
 is Kaiiiadera, or " the bodiless." .so called because 
 lie was reduced to ashes by an angry glance from 
 Siva, whom he had endeavored to make fall m 
 love with Parvati, while at his (Siva'.s) devotions. 
 The gods in this heaven of Indra resemble men 
 in their liability to be reborn in a lower state, 
 and also, therefore, in longing for emancipation 
 from such a dread. 
 
 The peculiar institution which has given Indian 
 life its distinctive fiavor is caste. Professor Egge- 
 ling states that " there can be no doubt that the 
 Hindus do not feel, and perhaps never have felt, 
 their class I'estrictions as being in any way bur- 
 densome, or still less a disgrace to them, and 
 that even the lowest man looks upon his caste as 
 a privilege as high as that of the Brahman." It 
 is the opinion of the Brahmans that there is only 
 one original caste now extant, viz., their own; 
 all the others having resulted from successive 
 intermixtures. The Brahman occupies iiis posi- 
 tion for three rea.sons, — his assumed sanctity, 
 his intellectual superiority, and his learning; fcr 
 in the popular estimation he is not only a sharer 
 in divinity, but acquainted with the sacred bocks, 
 the Vedas, and also the Shastras and the Puranas, 
 which are modern works, composed for the ex- 
 press purpose of promoting the worship of some 
 particular deity. Mr. Sherring, in his Hindu 
 Tribes and Castes, thus describes the Brahman's 
 apjiearauce : " Light of complexion, his forehead 
 ample, his countenance of striking significance, 
 his lips thin, and mouth expressive, his eyes 
 quick and sharp, his fingers long, his carriage 
 noble and almost sublime, the true Brahman, 
 uncontaminated by European influence and man- 
 ners, with his intense self-consciousness, with the
 
 BRAHMANISM. 
 
 318 
 
 BRAHMANISM. 
 
 proud conviction of superiority depicted in every 
 muscle of his face, and manifest in every move- 
 ment of liis body, is a wonderful specimen of 
 humanity, walking on (iod's earth." 
 
 Caste is later than the oldest Veda, for iu the 
 Rigceda it is uukuowu. The word means "color," 
 and points to the contrast in color between the 
 aboriginal Sudras and the conquerors, the Aryas. 
 As among the latter only the priestly class held 
 themselves aloof from marriage with the Sudras, 
 therefore only this class kept the strain pure. In 
 coui-se of time the other castes were formed, dis- 
 tinguished, not now by color, but by occupation. 
 The Ksltatrii/as are the governing and military 
 class ; the Vaisyas are the farmer and merchant 
 class ; the Sudras are the servants, particularly of 
 the Bi'alimaus, who take particular pains to keep 
 them ignorant of botli the tlieory and practice of 
 religion Between the Brahmans and the Ksha- 
 triyas there was a sharp and long contest ; but, 
 when the former were victorious, they riveted 
 their chains upon the obedience of all lower 
 castes by making themselves indispensable to 
 the performance of any rite. Tliey also framed 
 laws which made any injury done to them a seri- 
 ous affair; while they migjit almost with impu- 
 nity maltreat those of tlie lower castes. The 
 tliree upper castes are styled the " Twice-born," 
 because their sons are initiated into the study of 
 the Veda, the management of the sacred fire and 
 of the purifpng rites, by a singular ceremon}-, — 
 the rite of conducting a boy to a spiritual teacher, 
 connected with which is the investiture with the 
 sacred cord, ordinarily worn over the left shoulder 
 and under the right arm, and varying in material 
 according to the class of the wearer. In the case 
 of girls there is no such rite, nor is there any such 
 instruction. Marriage is, however, for them ac- 
 cepted as an equivalent. It is just iu this matter 
 of marriage that the caste .system does most mis- 
 chief ; for it is forbidden by Hindu laws for a 
 man to marry into a caste above his own, wliile 
 it is allowable to marry in any or all those below, 
 if he has already a wife of his own caste. If, 
 however, he marries a Sudra, and has children by 
 her, they are not admitted into the pri\'ileges of 
 the " Twice-born." 
 
 But great social and religious changes are tak- 
 ing place in India. " It is satisfactory to know," 
 says Dr. Williams, " that although it is too true 
 that caste is still the very life and soul of Hindu- 
 ism, and although tins very caste is not without 
 certain good points and advantages, yet some of 
 its most vexatious rules ai'e graduall}' giving way 
 under the pressure of steam, electricity, and 
 European influence. ^lany ye;irs ago, a Brahman 
 who accidentally touched leather would have had 
 to choose between public expiation, or degrada- 
 tion, and expulsion from caste; whereas in ISTO 
 a Uriya Brahman held the post of sub-inspector 
 of police in Puri itself, under the very shadow of 
 Jagannath, although a leather belt iormed part 
 of his uniform." Again: no caste but the Brah- 
 man's pretends to fulfil the round of duties which 
 lead to the supreme bliss, which is ab.sorption into 
 the one eternal .soul, complete deliverance from 
 the circle of births by which other .soids are pun- 
 ished and purified. Tliis round is divided into 
 four stages : (1) Ri'Viijioits sludi til, when tlu' youtli 
 ii studying tlie Vedas, and supjrarts him.self by 
 
 begging from door to door ; (L') Huusehuhlcr, for 
 marriage is obligatory, else there would be no son 
 to perform funeral-rites: (3) Ancliorile, reached 
 when the man is a grandfather, then he goes forth 
 alone, or with his wife, to spend his time in the 
 study of the profounder portions of the Vedas, 
 living in the open air upon fruit, and trying to 
 kill every worldly desire; (4) Relir/ious nicKdwant, 
 now he begs his food in the evening, lives in 
 solitude, and meditates upon the divinity. In 
 these days few Brahmans even are found earnest 
 enough to go this round. 
 
 A decided change for the better is in the treat- 
 ment of widows. Hindu law does not allow the 
 remarriage of widows, and yet their treatment is 
 outrageous. They are kept in complete seclusion, 
 the object of scorn, abuse, and barbarous neglect ; 
 stripped of their jewels, clad in the coarsest garb, 
 compelled to perform the most menial duties^ and 
 to eat the poorest food, avoided and depised as 
 though they were criminals. So miserable is 
 their condition, that it is not wonderful they 
 should have preferred death to life, and therefore 
 should liave performed sultee, or voluntary innno- 
 lation (which really is a comparatively modern 
 institution; for the passage iu the Rigceda quoted 
 in its defence is really an exhortation to the widow 
 to return home, and resume her usual life), burn- 
 ing themselves upon the pyre of their husbands. 
 But tyrannical custom is no ionger so formidable. 
 The British Government thirty years ago suc- 
 ceeded in prohibiting sullce, and now, iu most 
 parts of India where the idea of widow-man iages 
 was but lately repugnant, and considered tanta- 
 mount to apostasy from the ancestral religion, 
 and the first step towards denationalization, they 
 are becoming common. This is especially true 
 of Bombay, Bengal, and in the I'anjab. 
 
 It remains to speak of certain peculiar objects 
 of Hindu worship, and of two great religious 
 movements which have greatly affected Brahman- 
 ism. Three animals are most .sacred, — the cow, 
 the serpent, and the monkey. The first " typifies 
 the all-yielding earth." There is a so-called '• cow 
 of plenty," of which images are sold in the ba- 
 zaars, and everyMhere revered. The serpent is 
 the emblem of innnortality, and especially a.s.soci- 
 ated with Siva. There is supposed to be a race 
 of half-divine serpents existifig in the nether 
 regions. Monkeys "are inviolable, and never 
 imder any circumstances to be molested. Swarms 
 of them are encour.aged to infest the vicinity of 
 temples and consecrated buildings, where they 
 subsist upon the food offered them by ]iious wor- 
 shippers." Plants are al.so sacred, and are wor- 
 shipped. Thus the 'I'ulsi plant is sacred to Vishnu, 
 the Vilva to .Siva, llu' Pipal to Brahma: it is 
 invested with tlie sacred (lircad. Certain stones 
 have religious value. Indi>ed, the pantheism of 
 the Hindu philosophy puts (iod into every thing; 
 so that there is not an object in earth or he.aven 
 which lie is not prepared to worship. A\'e are not 
 surprised, therefore, to find sacred places. They 
 are of all sizes, from Benares, the Hindu's .lerusa- 
 lem or Mecca, down lo mere hamlets. Kiver.s, 
 too, come in for their .share of adoration. .Stately 
 rivers like the (Janges naturally hold the first 
 place. Bathing in them clean.ses from the foulest 
 sins. It is extremely meritorious to trace their 
 course on foot, — a work of no small amount of
 
 BRAHMO. 
 
 319 
 
 BRAHMO. 
 
 laboi-. It takes six years to make such a pilgrim- 
 age of the (Janges. 
 
 IJraliiiianisiii has encouiitei'ed one l'ormiilal)li' 
 clieck, — lUiddhisin. Tliis new religion sprang up 
 in Iiitlia itself. It seemed likely to gain tlie mas- 
 tery ; lint after a time it became so corrnpt, that 
 it "no lunger attracted the people ; and wlien the 
 support of the powerfid kings wlu) had protected 
 it was withdrawn, it fell. According to the un- 
 certain traditions which have come down to us, 
 its suppression was accompanied with bloodshed. 
 By the eleventh Christian century it had died out 
 in India. Yet it was purer in its morality, and 
 freer in its polity, than Brahmanism. It accepted 
 the caste system, yet proclaimed the eqiuility of 
 all men in point of religious pi-i\ilege. Kor Jiave 
 all traces of its existence vanished. " The human- 
 izing spirit of its doctrines left a deep impress on 
 the llindu mind," and it also led to the doubtful 
 institution of monastioism. The convents are 
 called tiialhs, and their superiors mahduts. They 
 are quite numerous in all parts of India. A cpiali- 
 fied Buddhism exists at the present day in tlie 
 important sect of tlie Jains. They reject the 
 Vedas, yet retain belief in the Hindu gods. They 
 pay great respect unto holy men who have, by 
 conquering all worldly desire, raised themselves 
 to divine perfection. 
 
 Lit. — H. II. AVilson: Two Lectures on tin 
 Keliyious Practices and Opinions of the Hindus. 
 Oxford, 1840; the same: .4 .Sketch of the Rili- 
 f/ious Sects of the Hindus, Calcutta, 1846; Eli'III.n- 
 STONE : Historij of India, 1841, 2 vols, (new ed. 
 by E. B. Cowell) ; C. Lassen: Indische Alter- 
 tumskunde, Bomi, 1844-62, 4 vols. ; J. MuiR : 
 (Jriijintd Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and Histortj 
 of the People of India, their Religion and Institu- 
 tions, collects/, translated, and illustrated, London, 
 1858-70, 5 vols.; F. Max Mui-ler: Histori/ of 
 Ancient Sanskrit Literature, Oxford, 1860; Sam- 
 uel Johnson : Oriental Religions, vol. I., India, 
 Boston, 1872; W. A. Leonard: Hindu Thought : 
 A Short Account of the Religious Books of India, 
 Glasgow, 1876; J. V.\ughan; 7'he Trident, the 
 Crescent, and the Cross [in India], London, 1876 ; 
 MoNiEK Williams: Indian IlV.vf/yw, 3d ed., Lon- 
 don, 1876 ; the same : Hinduism, London, 1878 ; 
 A. Beugaigne: Les deux souverains de la religion 
 vedique, Paris, 1877 ; the same : La religion ve- 
 dique d'apres les hymnes du Rig-Veda, Paris, 1878 
 sq. ; J. VVackernagel : Ueber den Ursprung des 
 Brahmanismus, Basel, 1877 (a valuable lecture of 
 35 pages) ; F. Max IMuller : Origin and Grouih 
 of Religion as illustrated htj the Religions of India., 
 London, 1878; A. Barth : Religions de I'Inde, 
 Paris, 1880. — For the sources see Sacred Books 
 of the East, edited by F. Max JMuller, Oxford, 
 1879 sqq. ; Kagi; Der Rigveda, 2d ed., Leipzig, 
 1881. SAMUEL M. JACKSOX. 
 
 BRAHMO SOMAJ (ivorshipping-asscmbbf) OF 
 INDIA is the Theistic Church of India, which 
 owes its present position and power to the Babu 
 Keshub Chunder Sen. The movement originated 
 in the Rajah Ram Mohun Roy (b. Bombay, 1772 ; 
 d. Bristol, Eng., 1833), who', on Jan. 2:5, 1830, 
 founded in Calcutta the Brahmiya Somaj (Society 
 of God). He held that if the oldest sacre'd books, 
 particularly the Upanishads (the philosophical 
 treatises), of the Vedas, were correctly interpreted, 
 they would be found to teach monotheism ; and so, 
 
 basing hhnself ujion the piiniitive faith, he boldly 
 di.ssuaded his landsmen from idolatiy. But the 
 .sect made little jirogre.ss until, in 1842, it was 
 joined by Debendra Xatli Tagore, who re-formed 
 it, and led it unto success, lie adopted European 
 |ilaiis of projiagaiidism, .started a journal, jnib- 
 hslied sectarian treatises, a])pointed teachers, and 
 so succeeded in awakening w ide-spread interest, 
 leading to the formation of branch Somajes in 
 dilferent parts of Bengal. The idea of an au- 
 thoritative revelation in the Vedas, which Roy 
 had defended, was formally given up. In 1858 
 Keshub Chnnder .Sen joined the sect, and quickly 
 showed himself to be a reformer. Koy was bet- 
 ter versed in Christian than in Hindu theology. 
 Tagore was conservative, and clung to the ances- 
 tral faith, although he -was a radical in some 
 lines. Sen developed an eclectic theology, veiy 
 largely biblical, at least in the two principal doc- 
 trines of the Fatherhood of (Jod and the brother- 
 hood of man. After a time, it became evident that 
 the two parties in the Somaj must separate ; and 
 in February, 1S65, a large number of the younger 
 Brahmos left the Calcutta Somaj, and in Novem- 
 ber, 1866, they organized Iheiiiselves into the 
 " Bralimo Somaj of India ; " while the con.servative 
 portion is call(.'il the •• Adi (original) Ihahnio 
 Somaj." The three propositions announced by 
 Sen, and which precipitated the disruption, were, — 
 
 " 1. That the external signs of ca.ste distinctions, 
 such as the Brahininical thread, shoukl not be u.seil. 
 [See Brahmanism.] 
 
 "2. Tliat none but Brahiuos of suflficient ability and 
 good moral character, wlio lived eonststently with 
 their profession, should be allowed to conduct the 
 services of the Somaj. 
 
 " 3. That nothing should be said in the Soraaj ex- 
 pressive of hatred or contempt for other religions." 
 
 Under Sen, the Somaj was a grand spiritual 
 force ; for he is a man of extraordinary fervor 
 and piety. He laid down the following Precepts 
 of Practical Deration (condensed) : — 
 
 1. Pray unto God every day, and worship the Only 
 Perfect, Infinite, Omnipresent, Omnipotent, Omnis- 
 cient, All-merciful, and All-holy One. 
 
 (6) Carefully cut off all connection witli every man- 
 ner of idolatrous ceremony and festival. 
 
 2. Knowing God to be the common Father, thou 
 Shalt love every man as thy brother, anil every woman 
 as thy sister. 
 
 (V) Do not hear any emblem of idolatry. 
 
 (c) Do not join any ceremony, or encourage any 
 movement, which upholds the distinction of caste. 
 
 (.3) Be truthful. (4) Be good unto others. (.-)) Deal 
 justly, ((i) Be forgiving. (7) Govern all thy pas- 
 sions, and keep them under restraint. (S) Faithfully 
 perform thy domestic duties. 
 
 The movement is towards the Christian concep- 
 tion of doctrine and life. But, although rever- 
 encing Christ, they are essentially Unitarians. 
 They have been well called the " Protestants " of 
 India ; for they protest against pantheism, poly- 
 theism, idolatry, caste, and the speculations which 
 infidel Englisli science spreads, ilany of their 
 adherents "come from the government schools. 
 They have churches in various parts of India. 
 
 In 1872 the " Xative :Marriage Act " ^N'as passed, 
 which legalized marriages by Brahmic rites, re- 
 quired tiiat the bridegroom should be at least 
 eighteen, and the bride fourteen years old, and 
 made bigamy a penal offence for any one marry-
 
 BRAIN ERD. 
 
 320 
 
 BRAINERD. 
 
 iiig under the Act. This Act marked a wonder- 
 ful progress in enlightened views. Greatly to 
 the consternation of the Bralnno Soinaj, Keshub 
 Clumder Sen, who had been the prime mover in 
 agitating for the Act, and who was so generally 
 revered, was the first to countenance a wilful de- 
 parture from liis own principles ; for in 1878 he 
 married liis eldest daughter, aged thirteen, to the 
 minor rajah of Kuch Behar, aged sixteen, and, 
 furthermore, with Hindu marriage-rites. The 
 marriage evoked great opposition on account of 
 its un-Brahmic character; and a split, in conse- 
 quence, took place in the Brahmo Somaj, and at 
 the present day (ISSl) the adherents of Keshub 
 Chunder .Sen are a decided minority. It was a 
 grievous disappointment to his followers to find 
 the leader of the Brahmo StJmaj ready to sacrifice 
 princijile to personal interest. Since 1878 Sen 
 has certainly acted very strangely, issuing blas- 
 piianious proclamations, and showing a desire to 
 approach the Hindu idolatry, which lie once so 
 emphatically and manfully renounced. Never- 
 theless the movement which he so powerfullj' 
 aided makes daily progress, which shows that it 
 has life independent of (he great leader. The 
 sect has a hundred and thirty small churches 
 scattered over the country, and celebrated in 1880 
 its semi-centennial with pride and gratitude. The 
 normal t\-pe of a Brahmo church embraces these 
 features : — 
 
 Religions. 
 
 (1) Congregational worship at least once a week. 
 
 (2) Keligious festivals on special occasions. 
 
 (3) Strictly Brahmic ceremonies at births, mar- 
 riages, and deaths. 
 
 (4) A religious couversation-class for zealous mem- 
 bers. 
 
 (5) A theistic library. 
 
 (6) Diffusion of principles by mission-tours, tracts, 
 and a periodical. 
 
 Philanllirojiic. 
 
 (1) Charitable donations to the poor and disabled. 
 
 (2) Dispensaries for the sick. 
 
 (3) Societies for the discouragement of intemper- 
 ance, premature marriages, and other eAils. 
 
 Educational. 
 
 (1) Instruction of women by various methods. 
 
 (2) Sclmols f<ir boys and girls. 
 
 (3) Night-schools for working-men. 
 
 The movement .seems adapted to promote edu- 
 cation and virtue, the vanguard of the Christian 
 Host. Sen died Jan. 8, 1884. 
 
 See the able and interesting little annuals of 
 Wiss Soi'iiiA Doiisox Coi.LKT : The Hmhmo Year- 
 Book, London, lS7(i-8:i; G. S. Lko.nakd : A 
 Jlislori/ of l/ii: Brahmo Soma/', from its Rise lo the 
 Present Day, Calcutta, 1879 ; T. K. Slatek : 
 Keshab Chandra Sen and the Brahma SamaJ, Lon- 
 don, 1881. H.VMUEL M. JACKSON. 
 
 BRAINERD, David, a celebrated missionary to 
 the Indians; b. at Iladdam, Conn., April 20, ltl8; 
 d. at Northam])ton, Oct. 0, 1747. His father, 
 Ilezekiah Brainerd, was a mendicr of the King's 
 Council for tiiat colony : his mother, Dorothy, was 
 the daugliter of Kev.' Jeremiaii IIol)art, aiid, by 
 a previous maniage, the motlier of .Jeremiaii 
 Wa.son, grandfather of the great lawyer of that 
 name. At the age of fourteen he was l(?ft an 
 orphan. He was a tlioughtful boy, inclined to 
 
 melancholy, and full of religious feeling. His 
 account of the spiritual struggles that preceded 
 his conversion is very striking. In 1739 he en- 
 tered Yale College, where he stood first in his 
 class. In February, 1742, he was expelled, very 
 unjustly, as he and his friends always felt. It 
 was the time of " The Great Awakening." He was 
 in sympathy with the " Xew Lights.'' as those 
 who followed Wliitefield and Tennent were 
 called ; and an indLscreet remark, to the eifect 
 that one of the tutors " had no more grace than 
 that chair," ha\ ing been overheard, and reported 
 to the rector, occasioned his expulsion. Later he 
 made a very manly acknowledgment of his error, 
 and asked to be allowed to take his degree ; but, 
 in spite of tlie intercession of Jonathan Edwards 
 and others, his request was refused. This caused 
 so much indignation among his friends as to 
 have led. it is said, to the founding of Princeton 
 College. In July, 1742, he was licensed to 
 preach, and in April, 1743, began to labor as a 
 missionary at Kaimameek, an Indian village 
 between Stockl)ridge and Albany. He lived m a 
 little cabin built by himself, and lodged upon a 
 bundle of straw. His food was chiefly boiled 
 corn, hasty-pudding, and samp. Here he con- 
 tinued for a year. Declining repeated calls to 
 churches at home, in June, 1744, he was ordained 
 at Xewark, X.J.. as a missionary of the Scottish 
 " Society for Propagating Christian Knowledge," 
 to the Indians at the forks of the Delaware, near 
 the present town of Easton, Penn. In June, 
 174."), he started a mission at Crossweeksung, near 
 Freehold, N.J. Here his success was wonderful ; 
 and liere, with the exception of a journey through 
 the forest to the Indians on the Susquehanna, 
 he toiled until the spring of 1747, when, in con- 
 sequence of tlie hardships he had endured, his 
 health broke down, and he was advised to seek 
 relief by travel in New England. In July he 
 returned from Boston to Xortham]iton, where, 
 in the home of Jonathan Edwards, and niu'sed by 
 Jerusha, the young daughter of the great theo- 
 logian, to w hom lie was engaged, • — herself a 
 youtliful saint, — this eminent servant of God 
 passed his last days. He entered into rest Oct. 
 9, 1747, in the thirtielh year of his age. Brai- 
 iierd's career was very brief, au<l in visitde results 
 it was far surjiassed by that of Da\id Zeisberger, 
 not to mention other Moravian missionaries 
 among the Indians. His great work was the 
 priceless example of his Jiiety, zeal, and self-devo- 
 tion. Herein, since the days of the apostles, none 
 ' have surpassed him. And his unconnnon intel- 
 lectual gifts, his fine personal qualities, his niel- 
 aucholy and his early death, as well as liis 
 remarkalile holiness and evangelistic labors, have 
 conspired to invest his memory with a peculiar 
 halo. The story of his life has been a iiotent 
 force in the modern missionary era. It is related 
 of Henry M;irtyn. that, "perusing llie life of 
 David Brainerd. his soul was tilled with a lioly 
 emulation of that extraordiiiary man ; and, after 
 dee|i consideration and fervent ]irayer, lie w.as at 
 length fixed ill a resolution to imitate Iiis exam- 
 ple." Brainerd was a representative man. formed 
 both by nature and grace to leave a lasting im- 
 pression upon the ]ii('ty of the Church. He is 
 tlie missionary saint of New Knglaml. Presi- 
 dent Kuw.\i!i>s: Memoirs of the liei: David Brai-
 
 BRAINBRD. 
 
 321 
 
 BRAZIL. 
 
 neirl, Life and JiHirniiU, oil. by l)wif;lit, New 
 Haven, \^2-2; W. 15. (). Pkahody in Scakks: Am. 
 Biof/. VI il. \'lll. GEO. h. PKENTIH8. 
 
 BRAINERD, John, -.i brotlier of David, 1). at 
 lladdani. Conn., Feb. 28, 1720, and d. at Dcer- 
 field, X.J., March, 1781. He was gradnatcd at 
 Yale College in 1740, and in 1717 tooli lii.s brotli- 
 ■er's place as nii.s.sionary to tlie Indians. lie also 
 labored as a home missionary among tlie wliites. 
 From 1754 to liis death he was a trnstee of tlie. 
 College of New .Jersey. lie was a modcsl, meek 
 man, and a devoted servant of Christ. 'I'/ir IJjh 
 ■of Jfihn Bniiiicrd, by Rev. T. BiiAlNHKD, I'hiUi., 
 iSfi.V «. L. 1>. 
 
 BRAINERD, Thomas, D.D., a Presbyterian di- 
 vine, b. at Leyden, N.Y., June 17, 1804 ; d. at 
 Scranton, I'enn., Aug. 22, 1800. His father, Je.sse 
 Brainerd, was a great-grandson of .lames Brai- 
 nerd, brother of Hezekiah, the father of David 
 and John, the missionaries. lie was converted 
 under the preaching of the Rev. Charles G. Fin- 
 ney, while a student of law at Rome. Be- 
 fore completing his legal studies, he decided to 
 prepare for the ministry. After three years in 
 the theological seminary at Andover, he became 
 in 1831 pastor of the Fourth Presbyterian 
 Church in Cincinnati. In March, 1837, he was 
 installed over the Pine-street Church in Pliiladel- 
 piiia, wliere he spent the rest of his days. Dr. 
 Brainerd was a bosom-friend of Lyman Beecher 
 and Albert Barnes. He was a nuiii of superior 
 gifts, genial, whole-souled, and full of zeal for 
 God. His appointment by the New-School Gen- 
 eral Assembly at St. Louis, in 18(3G, as chairman 
 ■of its committee of conference on re-union, shows 
 the high esteem in which he was held by that 
 branch of the Presbyterian Church. Dr. Brai- 
 nerd was an effective writer for the religious press, 
 and the author of a valuable Life of John Bmi- 
 tterd. During the war he was distinguished for 
 his patriotic ardor and services. Life of llei\ 
 T/inmas Brainerd, D.D., Phila., by M. Brainerd, 
 1870. G. L. r. 
 
 BRAMHALL, John, b. at Pontefract. Yorkshire, 
 Eng.. in 1593; d. in Dublin, June, 1663; was 
 educated at Cambridge ; became chaplain to the 
 Archbishop of York in 1623; went to Ireland in 
 1633, and was made Bishop of Londonderry in 
 1634 ; lived in exile during the Revolution, but 
 returned to Ireland after the Restoration ; and 
 was made Archbishop of Armagh in 1661. Of 
 his writings, among which his controversies with 
 Milletiere and with Hobbes are the most remarka- 
 ble, a collected edition in one volume folio was 
 published in Dublin, 1677, and republished in 
 5 vols., Oxford, 1842-45, accompanied ^ith a 
 sketch of his life. 
 
 BRANDENBURG. See Prussia. 
 
 BRANDT, Gerard, b. in Amsterdam, July 25, 
 1626; d. there Dec. 11, 1685; was first pa,stor of 
 the Remonstrant Church in Nieukoop, then, since 
 1660, at Hoorn, and finally, since 1667, in Am- 
 sterdam. He wrote a History of the Reformation 
 in the Low Countries (4 vols., 1671-1704), trans- 
 lated into English by Chamberlavne, London, 
 1720-23, 4 vols, fob, and lives of Barneveldt, 
 Ruyter, etc. 
 
 BRANT, Sebastian, b. at Strassburg, 14.57; d. 
 there 1.521 ; studied law and literature at Basel ; 
 and was made syndicus of his native city in 1501. 
 22 — 1 
 
 He was a very prolific writer, lioth on law and 
 belles-lettres, and is the author of the famous 
 satirical poem Dan NarrenschiJI', 1 lll4, translated 
 into Latin, French, and English, often imitated, 
 and u.sed iis text for conmienls and moral reflec- 
 tions. Warci^w'h Ship ff Fools, \7M), is a free 
 imitation. '\V.\tson gave an abridged jirosi! ti'ans- 
 lation in 1517. Be.sl edition of original text by 
 Zarncke, Leipzig, 1872: Sinn'ock has translated 
 it into modern German, Berlin, 1872. See 
 ('iiAiiLiis SciiMinr: S. Jlninl, 1874. 
 
 BRAY, Thomas, D.D., b. at Marton, in Shrop- 
 shire, 1650; d. in London, Feb. 15, 1730. He 
 took his degree of M.A. at Oxford, 1693 ; founded 
 the ".Society for the Propagation of the (iospel 
 in Foreign Parts," 1698; and was from March 
 1700 to 1701 in Maryland, I'.S.A., as connnissary 
 for organizing Episcopal chnrdies, lieing .sent out 
 by Bishop Compton. In 1700 he became rector 
 of St. Botolph, Aldgate, London. He was a 
 faithful pastor, particularly interest-d in the im- 
 provement of the people by parocliial libraries. 
 His principal publications were Calechetiral Lec- 
 tures, which induced Bishop Cotnpton to .appoint 
 him his connnissary ; Bibliotheeu //aroc/iialis, vol. I. 
 (all written), 1697, 2d ed., 1707, a manual for the 
 clergy ; Papal Usur/iulion ami Ti/runn?/, ancient 
 and modern, 1712 (pvdilished anonymously). A 
 Memoir of him was published in London, 1848, 
 by the "Bray Associates." 
 
 BRAZIL. The Roman-Catholic Church, intro- 
 duced by the Portuguese when they took possession 
 of the country in 1500, and propagated among the 
 natives, first by Franciscans, and, since 1.549, by 
 .Jesuits, is the Church of the .State, and com- 
 prises, besides the Archliishopric of Bahia, 11 
 bishoprics and 1,333 parishes. But the Church is 
 completely dependent upon the State : it has no 
 property of its own. Its officials are paid, and 
 very poorly paid, by the State. The bisliops and 
 even the priests are appointed by the emperor. 
 The monasteries, of which there are ninety-one, 
 are rapidly closing, as, by a law of 1S60, they are 
 forbidden to receive novices. Other confessions 
 are tolerated, and are now allowed to have pub- 
 lic worship, but not to build churches with 
 spires and bells. Of late many favors have been 
 gra^:ted to the Protestants. The (Jerman immi- 
 gration, which began in 1824, has become quite 
 important, and most of the innnigrants are Prot- 
 estants. For many years these Protestants lived 
 without any proper nunisterial care, choosing 
 some laymen to act as ministers (Schnapps- 
 pfarrer), and consecrate their marriages. But 
 since the arrival of Dr. Borchard in 1804, and by 
 the active support of the Comite fiir die prates- 
 tantischen Deutschen in Siidbrasilien, formed at 
 Barmen, and the mission-liouse of Basel, the reli- 
 gious life of the Protestant congregations lias nmch 
 improved. The Preslnierian Church (North) 
 has recently established a mission in Br.azil. See 
 the reports of the Connnittee of Barmen, espe- 
 cially No. V. 
 
 Brazil was a colony of Portugal up to 1822, 
 when its independence was declared. The con- 
 stitution of 1824, still in force, st.ates tliat"the 
 Homan-Catholic religion will continue to be the 
 religion of the State ; but all sects will be toler- 
 ated, provided that they should hold worship in 
 special buildings put up for the piu'pose, without
 
 BREAD. 
 
 322 
 
 BREITINGER. 
 
 the externai form of churches." The coiistitu- I 
 tion also determines that no bulls or apostolic ] 
 constitutions shall be published and promulgated , 
 in the empire by the Koman-Catholic authorities 
 without the placet of the sovereign. The appoint^ 
 ment of the bishoj)s by the Pope is also suliject 
 to the approval of the government. The liberty 
 of the press is guaranteed, except as to denying 
 the existence of God and the immortality of the 
 soul. Brazil is a Konian-Catholic province, with 
 one archbishop (in Bahia), who is the primate, 
 and ten bishops. The clergy are mostly Portu- 
 guese and Italian, and they exert but little hiflu- 
 ence on the government and people. 
 
 There are a good number of Protestant churches 
 in Brazil, principally in Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, 
 and Rio Grande do Sul. Several foreign missiona- 
 ry societies have missions in the empire, and tliere 
 are half a dozen native Protestant ministers. 
 
 In 1873 there was a serious conflict between 
 the State and the Established Church. The young 
 and intelligent Bishop of Pernambuco tried to 
 enforce some of tlie injunctions of the Papal 
 Syllabus of 1864, among them those against the 
 Freenmsons, some of whom he expelled from a 
 certain brotherhood. The que.stion was submit- 
 ted to the government ; but the bishop disobeyed 
 orders, and was then tried by tlie Supreme Court, 
 and condemned to prison. His colleague of Tani 
 was also tried for a similar offence, and equally 
 condennied. Later on, however, both were re- 
 leased ; and the question of how far the Roman- 
 Catholic Church itself is free in Brazil is precisely 
 where it was befoi-e 1873. The fact is, that the 
 constitution fails to satisfy either the Protestants 
 or the Roman-Catholics. See Flktchkk and 
 KiDDKi! : Brazil, 9th ed., Boston, 1878. 
 
 BREAD. See IUking. 
 
 BRECKENRIDGE, John, b. at Cabell's Dale, 
 Ky., July 4, 17!)7 ; d. near Lexington, Ky., Aug. 
 4, 1841 ; studied in the Theological Seminary of 
 Princeton, and was chaplain to the House of Rep- 
 resentatives, 1822-^3; pastor of a Presbyterian 
 Church, Lexington, Ky., 1823-26 ; secretary of the 
 Board of Education of the Presbyterian Clmrch 
 in Philadelphia, 1831-36; professor of theology 
 at Princeton, 1836-38; secretary of the Presby- 
 terian Board of Foreign Missions, 1838-40. At 
 the time of liis death he was president-elect of 
 Oglethorpe University, Georgia. He jiublished 
 his famous discussion witii Bishop Hughes of 
 New York under the title, Roman-Cathnlic Con- 
 troverssij, Pliiladelphia, 1836, and some minor con- 
 troversial essavs. 
 
 BRECKENRIDGE, Robert Jefferson, D. D., 
 LL.D., au i-minent Presbvtcrian minister; b. at 
 Cabell's Hale, Ky., March' 8, 1800; d. at Danville, 
 Ky., Dec. 27, 1871; a graduate of Union College, 
 New York, in 1819. He practised law in Ken- 
 tucky for eight 3'ears (1823-31), and meanwhile 
 was several times in the State I^egislature ; but, 
 convinced of his duty, he tm'ued from law to the- 
 ology, and in 1S!2 he became pastor of the First 
 Presbyterian Church of Baltimore, and r.apidly 
 made his mark a-s a preacher. In ISU") he accept- 
 ed the presidency of .Jefferson Coll(?ge, but in 
 1817 returned to the pastorate, and from that date 
 unto 18.'j3 discharged the double duty of minister 
 to the First Presbyterian Church in Lexington, 
 and superintendent of public instruction for the 
 
 State. In 18.53 he entered the chair of theology 
 in Danville Seminary, Kentucky, and held it mitil 
 death. Like his l)rother John, he interested him- 
 self in the Roman-Catholic controversy, and at- 
 tacked the Roman Church without mercy as '-the 
 great apostasy," and enemy of progress and reli- 
 gious liberty. The public-school system of Ken- 
 tucky is largely his creation. During the civil 
 war he defended the Union cause. During his 
 residence in Baltimore he edited the Literary and 
 Reliyiou.i Ma(/a:i>ie and the Sjiirit of the Nineteenth 
 Centuri/ ; but his principal work is upon The 
 Knoidedije of Guil, Olijecticely and Subjectively con- 
 sidered, 2 vols., N.Y., 18.37, 18.39. Dr. Brecken- 
 ridge was the author of the Act and Testimony 
 (1834), complaining of the prevalence of doctrinal 
 errors, the relaxation of discipline, and the viola- 
 tion of church order, which played such an impor- 
 tant part in the disruption of the Presliyterian 
 Church. He was a stanch (Md-School Presby- 
 terian theologian, and opposed the re-union of 
 the two branches of the Presbyterian Church, 
 which took place in 1869. 
 
 BREGKLING, Friedrich, b. at Handewitt in 
 Schleswig, 1629: d in the Hague, 1711; studied 
 theology at various German universities, and read 
 with great avidity the works of Tauler and other 
 mystics ; was appointed a chaplain in the Danish 
 army in 16.37, and pastor of Handewitt in 16.59, 
 but was deposeil in 1660 on account of his violent 
 attacks on the officials of the Danish Chiu'ch ; 
 fled to Holland, and was made pastor of Zwoll, 
 but \\as deposed also here, and from a similar 
 reason (166.3), after which he lived in retirement 
 in Amsterdam and the Hague. He stood in 
 connection with all the revivalists and religious 
 enthusiasts of his time, also with the Pietists, 
 and was himself veiy busily engaged as a writer, 
 though without making any impression. A list 
 of his works and a life have been given by .Jon. • 
 ;\IoLLEH, in his Cinibria Litlernta, III. p. 72. 
 Also Adki.uxg has written a life of him in his 
 Gtschlchte il. nienscldichcn Thorhfit, 4, p. 16. 
 
 BREITHAUPT, Joachim Justus, b. at Nord- 
 heim, February, KiriS ; d. at Kloster Bergen, 
 March 16, 1732; studied theology at Helm.stedt 
 and Kiel; and lived for some time in Francfort, 
 together witli Spener, whose plans of regenerating 
 the Protestant Church he fully adojited; was in 
 1685 appointed court-preaciier to the Duke of 
 Meiningen ; 1687, professor of theology at Er- 
 furt ; and 1691, i)rofessor of theology at Halle, 
 where, together with Francke and Anton, he gave 
 the whole theological study its peculiar character 
 and tendency. In 170.3 ]h\ was made superintend- 
 ent-general of JIagdeburg, and in 1709 .Vblxit of 
 Kloster Bergen, in which jiositions lie had an 
 opportunity to carry out his jirinciples in practice. 
 Besides a number of minor writings, he published 
 Institutione.i Theohxjicce, Halle, 1694, 2 vols., much 
 extended, 1732, 3 vols., and Tlicscs Credeudornm td 
 Ai/enilornm Fundamentales, Halle, 1700. See G. 
 .V. Fh.wckk: Das ijesef/nele Geddchtniss drs selitjcn 
 Brtitlnnipt, Halle, 173C; fol. nilYANDEli. 
 
 BREITINGER, Johann Jacob, b. at Ziirich, 
 April 19, 1.37.3; .1. tliere Aj.ril 1, 164.3; studied 
 theology at Franeeker, Heidelberg, and Basel; 
 was ap]w)inteil minister of St. Peter's Church in 
 Ziirich in 1613; represented the church of Zuiicli 
 at the .synod of Dort; and exercised on all the
 
 BREMEN. 
 
 323 
 
 BRETHREN. 
 
 affairs of his native city an aullioiify pqnal to 
 tliat of Zwingli ami Bulliiigi-r. His writinj^s arc 
 mostly of a practical character. Ilis life was 
 written by .1. C. MiiuiKoKKi!, Ziirich, 1874. 
 
 BREMEN. Charleniaf;n(! fouiidcd here a bish- 
 opric in 7ii7, inider the metropolitan authority of 
 the Archbishop of Cologne. Hut when, in S.'itl, 
 1 lambing was burnt down by the heathen Danes, 
 the archiepiscopal see of that city, with its met- 
 ropolitan authority over all the Scandinavian 
 countries, was removed to Bremen, whicli occa- 
 sioned jirotracted and vehement controversies 
 with the archbishops of Cologne. Though in 
 1111 the Scandinavian countries were formed 
 into an independent metropolitan province, under 
 the Archbishop of Lund, and though the city of 
 Bremen threw off its feudal allegiance to the 
 archbisliop in 1284, and became a free city, and 
 member of the Ilanseatic League, the Arch- 
 iiishop of Bremen still contiimed to be one of 
 the most powerful prelates of Germany. In the 
 city of Bremen the Reformation was introduced 
 (lrii2-'27) witliout causing any great trouble ; 
 and during the Smalcaldian Wkv the city sus- 
 tained a long siege with great iieroism. But in 
 the latter part of the sixteenth centuiT heavy 
 disturbances arose from the conflict between Lu- 
 theranism and Calvinism. In ISti'J all Lutherans 
 were expelled from the city. Hamburg, Lubeck, 
 and tlie other members of the Ilansa, interfered, 
 and declared that they would have no dealings 
 with the heretical city. In 1.568 the Lutherans 
 were allowed to return, thougli under certain re- 
 strictions. At present the majority of the inhab- 
 itants, f)7,.'5.33, are Luther.ans; 21,127 .are Reformed; 
 8,932, Evangelicals (united) ; 4,164, Roman-Cath- 
 olics ; 24-5, other confessions ; and 408, .Jews. 
 
 BRENZ, Johann, b. at Weil, Winttemberg, 
 June 24, 1493; d. at Stuttgart, Sept. 11, 1570; 
 studied at Heidelberg; and was ordained priest in 
 1520 by the Bishop of Spires, and appointed 
 priest at the free city of Hall in Suabi.a, 1.522. 
 The appearance of Luther had made a deep im- 
 pression on him, and gradually lie espoused all 
 the ideas of the Retormation. In 1523 he ceased 
 to read mass ; and in the next year he not only 
 preached the new ideas, but re-organized the 
 church of Hall on the basis of them. He was 
 eminently successful, resisting the insurrection of 
 the peasants with the same firnniess as the in- 
 trigues of the Roman priests. But with the 
 Smalcaldian War his days of trouble began. In 
 1.546 Hall was taken by the imperial troops, and 
 Brenz had to flee. He found refuge with Duke 
 Ulrich of ^^'urttemberg ; and, having been ap- 
 pointed minister of the Collegiate Clmrch of 
 Stuttgart in 1553, he established the Refornuition 
 in that country, distinguishing himself equally as 
 author, organizer, and administrator. In the 
 literary controversies of the time he took an 
 active part, especially in tiiat concerning the 
 Lord's Supper, in which he placed himself on the 
 side of Luther, and wrote the famous Si/nr/ramma 
 Suericum, 1.52.5. The only collected edition of 
 his works is untinished, Tubingen, 1.576-90, 8 vols. 
 His life was written by HAnxM.wx and .Iagkr, 
 Hamburg. 1840-42, 2 vols., and by .Julius 
 Hartm.\nx, in Vateim d. lulh. Kirche, vol. VI., 
 Elberfeld, 1862. See Pressel, Anecdota Brenli- 
 ana, Tub., 1868 
 
 BRETHREN OF THE COMMON LIFE (Prn- 
 
 (rfs riitiniinins rifn ; Ftiilir-< tieroti : Ftdlrfs hoiife 
 roluntali.i : Frafrcx rolhiliiDiarii), a free Cliristian 
 association which flourished in the transition 
 ]ieriod between the middle ages and tlie Hefonna- 
 tion. It was formed, not in direct opposition to 
 the Church, but simply iis a kind of sujiplenieiit, 
 ;is .an organ of the true ev.angelical spirit which 
 had liecome nearly lost in the el.abor.afe system of 
 doc'trines and rites. It nowise prot(^sted again.st 
 the world-encompassing ;is]iirationsof the Church; 
 but it strove within this splendid organization to 
 n^alize the simple and severe ideas of tlie apostolic 
 age. Its principal impulse was mysticism, liiit a 
 mysticism free of all pantheistic and antinomistie 
 tendencies : all its enils were sober, practical, and 
 moral. The association was founded by (ierhard 
 (iroot (1310-84), who.se life has lieeii written by 
 Thomas a Kempis. .\wakened to full conscioius- 
 ness of the seriousne.s.ss of human life, he wan- 
 dered about for some time in the diocese of 
 Utrecht as a lay-preacher, until the jealou.sy of the 
 priests, and especially of the mendicant monks, 
 prevented him from pursuing this line of work. 
 A visit to the priory of Johann Ruysbroek oiiened 
 another .avenue to him. Having returned to his 
 native city, Deventer. he gathered a number of 
 young men. who. under his leadersliip. engaged to 
 aid each other in leading a Christian life, to oc- 
 cupy themselves by studying the Bible, and copy- 
 ing useful books, to help otlier people directly and 
 indirectly in their struggle for Christian perfec- 
 tion, etc. The common labor led to a common 
 purse, the common purse to full community of 
 life, and thus the first brother-house was formed 
 at Deventer. After the death of Groot, Floren- 
 tius (1350-1400), wlio.se life h.as also been written 
 by Tliomas a Kempis, became tlie leader of the 
 association. He founded a monastery for regu- 
 lar canons at \'indeseii, another at St. Agneten- 
 berg, near Zwolle ; and the association began to 
 spread very rapidly. During the course of the 
 fifteenth century, nearly every larger town between 
 the ocean and Merseburg. and between the Baltic 
 and the frontiers of Suabia, contained one or 
 more such brother or sister houses. The coniinu- 
 iiity of property, occupation, station, etc., which 
 ruled in these houses, did not depend upon a 
 vow such as in the monasteries. It was entirely 
 voluntary, the free expression of love, (ienerally 
 twenty brethren or sisters lived together, and 
 formed a family. Peculiar offices were those of 
 the Scripluariti.':, Librariua, Magisler NovUinrwn, 
 Infermarius, and Hofpitarhm. At the head of the 
 house stood the rector, chosen by the members ; 
 and all houses found their common centre in the 
 great fathei'-house of Deventer. "\Mth respect 
 to the external world, the principal office of the 
 association was education, both directly by schools 
 and teaching of children, and indirectly by preach- 
 ing, lecturing, and the diffusion of good books. 
 School education had hitherto been confided to 
 the mendicant orders, but very poorly performed 
 liy them. In this field the Brethren of the Com- 
 mon Life actually worked a revolution. Never- 
 theless, during the course of the sixteenth century 
 the association lost its significance and its impor- 
 tance in this respect as in many others. After 
 the Reformation, schools were founded by the 
 State, and put much more powerfuUy in opera-
 
 BRETHREN. 
 
 324 
 
 BREVIARY. 
 
 tion. The printing-press made tlie copying of 
 books completel}- superfluous, a waste of time. 
 The sermon had become a prominent part of di- 
 ^•ine seiTice ; and preaching in tlie vei-nacular 
 tongue was now part of the office of every clergy- 
 man, etc. Tlius the very purposes for which tlie 
 association had lieen formed were now fulfilled ; 
 and after producing many great men, such as 
 Tlionias a ivempis.Busch, Lange, Ilegius, etc., 
 and leaving behind itself a venerable memory, it 
 tiradually disappeared. 
 
 [Lit. — Delpk AT : I'erhaiulettuf/ over de liroeder- 
 M-liciji van G. Groole. l.'trecht, lS:iO; Ui.lmanx: 
 Tlefonners before the llefurmiiliun, Eug. trans., Kd- 
 iuburgh, 1855, 2 vols. ; .S. Kktti.kwkli, : Thomax 
 <i. Kempis ami the Brothers of the (^omiiion Life, 
 ].,ond. and X.Y., 1882, 2 vols. ; and art. Brmler des 
 i/eiiieinsamen Lehenf. by Kaim. IIii;sriiK, in 2d ed. 
 
 of IlerZOg.] ri'l. MAN'S- (fr.,.n lUrzog. ed. I.). 
 
 BRETHREN OF THE FREE SPIRIT, a sect 
 -which flourished in the thirteenth and fourteenth 
 centuries, and forms one of the most rei«arkable 
 instances of heresy during the middle ages, on 
 account of the Pantheism they taught, .and the 
 jiractical inferences they drew from their theory. 
 Their doctrines may be learned from the letters 
 of the Archbishop of Cologne (l^idli) and the 
 Bisliop of Strassburg (l^ilT). and from the edicts 
 of Clement V. (l-ill) and dohn XXII. (1330); 
 which documents are found in Jlosheini, De Be- 
 (jhardh. Leipzig. 1701). The principal points of 
 their theoiy were : all that is is (Jod ; man is 
 (iod, and there is no difference between (Jod 
 and nuan. A separation, however, between God 
 and man is caused by sin ; but tiie union may be 
 re-established through the consciousness of its pos- 
 .sibility and necessity. In this state man cannot 
 sin any more. All he does is good, as he is above 
 all differences. Of the Church and the moral law 
 lie has no more need. Virtue is something subor- 
 dinate, something relative, etc. The origin of the 
 sect is obscure, though generally ascribed to the 
 influence of Anialrich of Hena, condemned in 
 I'aris, 1210. In 1212 Ortlieb taught at Str<assburg 
 that man should ah exteriorihus abstinere el sei/ui 
 responsa Spirltus intra se. In 1216 similar princi- 
 ples were preached in Switzerland. In 1230 they 
 appeared at Lyons, mixed up with the doctrines of 
 the A\'aldenses. In the middle of the thirteenth 
 century they occtuTed in Cologne and Snabia ; and 
 in the fourteenth century they spread over the 
 regions of the Khiue, Holland, and Northern 
 Trance. The sect called itself Hrethren of the 
 Free, or of the New, Spirit; but also other names 
 occur, as, for instance, Tnrlepins iu Paris, Homi- 
 nes InteUitjentice in Brussels, etc. In (Jermany 
 they were often confounded with the Beghards. 
 1'hey were vigorously ]iursued, both by the popes 
 and the Inquisition; but the sect w;is .still alive 
 in the middle of the fifteenth century. See 
 IIaiix : Geschk-hte der Kelzer im Mitlelalter, Stutt^ 
 gart, 1817; Ju.mit: lliatoire (In panthi'isme popn- 
 /(lire an ICine si, cie. Paris, 1875. C. SCtlMIDT. 
 
 BRETHREN, Plymouth. See Plymouth 
 l!l!i Tiii;i \. 
 
 BRETHREN, United. .S.c I'nitkd Bhktiiukn. 
 
 BRETHREN, United, in Christ. See Unitkd 
 
 Bl'.l I IIKI \ l\' • IIKlN I . 
 
 BRETSCHNEIDER, Karl Gottlieb, b. at Gers- 
 dorf, Saxony, Feb. 11, 1776 ; d. at Gotha, Jaa. 22, 
 
 1848; studied theology at Leipsic, and was ap- 
 pointed minister at Sclinoeberg iu 1807, superin- 
 tendent at .\iiiiaberg in 1808, and superintendent- 
 general at (iotha in ISIO. He was a very prolific 
 writer, contriliuted frequently to various periodi- 
 cals, took active part in controversies, and wrote 
 independent works, both on exegis and dogmatics. 
 Ilis principal works are; Lexicon manuale Grreco- 
 lafiniiiii in /ibnis X. T., Leipzig, 182!); Syslematische 
 EnticickeluHti alter in der Doyniatik eorkommenden 
 Beqriffe, 1805; and Handbuch der Dogmatik, 1814, 
 whicii ran through many editions. They repre- 
 sent the stand-point of the so-called rational supra- 
 naturalism, — a rather untenable ground, interme- 
 diate between rationalism and supranaturalism. 
 But, though destitute of genuine religious life 
 and speculative talent, they are distinguished by 
 clearness of arrangement, and acuteness in the 
 definitions. His autobiography was published by 
 his son. Goth.a, 1851, and attracted much atten- 
 tion. [Parts of it have been translated into Eng- 
 lish for the Bibliotheca Sacra-I HAGENBACH. 
 
 BREVIARY (Brcviariiim) denotes an ottice-book 
 of the Uoman-Catholic Church which contains 
 the offices for the canonical hours (see title), in 
 distinction to the missal, which contains those of 
 the mass. The name has been variously explained. 
 Most probably it means the abbret-ialion of the 
 " inissale plenarium," and was originally compiled 
 for the direction of tlie choir. The word itself is 
 certainly very old ; for it was in common use when 
 ^licrologus, i.e., Ivo, Bishop of Chartres (1125), 
 wrote his De ecclesiasticis observationibus. The 
 breviary was a growth. It consists of the Psahns, 
 arranged for a weekly reading or singing. These 
 form tlie foundation, and come first in orc'er of 
 time ; next antiphons before and after the Psalms ; 
 readings from the Scriptures, the Fathers, the 
 lives of saints and martyrs ; and, finally, hymns, 
 which were introduced in the face of great oppo- 
 sition, especially in Rome. Gregory ATI. (1073- 
 85) reduced this growth to reasonable limits ; and 
 the Breviary now in common use, dating from 
 Pius V. (1566-72), is the repeated revision of his 
 work. In former times, besides the Roman Bre- 
 viary and the mona.stic, whicli followed that made 
 by Benedict in the sixth century, and wliicli dilfer 
 very mucli from the secular kind, the Anibrosian, 
 now confined to Milan, and the Mozanibie, now 
 used only in Toledo, were widely used. From an 
 unaccepted revision madi' in 1536 by Cardinal 
 (^uignon for Clement \'H., the Jlorning and Even- 
 ing Players of the English Prayer-ISook were 
 condensed. 
 
 The use of the Breviary at the eight canonical 
 hours being impracticable to any other than a 
 "religious" (monk or nun), the secul.ar clergy are 
 •allowed to group hours, and say them at the most 
 convenient time. But monks and iinns are en- 
 joined by the Council of Trent to repeat the Bre- 
 viary asit stands. Many of the readings .about 
 the saints are absurd. Hence there aro.se i'l 
 France a strong revisioiuiry sjiirit, really coming 
 from Port Koyal, which carried a great refomi 
 The original intention to read the entire Psalter 
 once a week was again carried out; for the multi- 
 ]>lication of saints iqioii the calendar ha'! imslied 
 the Psalter ;isidi', and the whole service was 
 much siinplilied. Hut, under the leadership of 
 the Count de Montalemberl, a movement was sue-
 
 BREWSTER. 
 
 325 
 
 BRIDGET. 
 
 cessfully rarriod on against this Uevisnd Hreviary, 
 and it has been suppressed in every place except 
 
 Ly*"'**- 
 
 Breviaries have appendices of miscellaneous 
 character, — jirayers to the Virgin Mary, for the 
 dead, etc. ; Imt the ludk of the volume is sub- 
 divided into four parts, — (I) the Pmi/lcriiiin (the 
 Psalter) ; (J) the l^iopriumdi' Ti'Dijuirc (the Proper 
 of the season), containing those portions of the 
 offices which vai'y with tlu; season ; (:!) the Pro- 
 prium Sanctoruin (I'roper of the Saints), the cor-' 
 responding portions for the saints' festivals; (4) 
 the Cuinniune Sanctorum (Connnon of the Saints), 
 for such festivals which possess no particular form 
 of prayer. 
 
 In the Greek Church there is a Breviary 'ilpuAn- 
 yiov (^Horoloi/ium), wliich contains prayer.s for the 
 canonical hours, a complete calendar (Menolo- 
 giuni), and different liturgical appendices. 
 
 In the Lutheran and Episcopal Churches modi- 
 fications and translations of the Breviarium Ito- 
 inanum are now in use. 
 
 Lit. — I)u Fresne : Gtosxaritan (sub voco) ; 
 Kopp : Die Icath. Kirche im 19th Jahrhunilerla, 
 Mainz, 1830 ; ^'A^' Espen : Der yeweiheteii oiler Irt- 
 nonischen Stunden, Alter, Geist, u. Wesen, Landshiit, 
 1835 ; Ranke : Das kirchliche Perikopensijstem 
 aus den altesten Urkunden der rSmischen JJlurr/ie, 
 Berlin, 1847 ; Fluck : Kalh. Liturgik; Regensburg, 
 1855; Probst: Brevier u. Breitiergebet , and the 
 general works of Bi.\gh.\m : Origines, and Bix- 
 terim : Denkwurdigkeiten d. chrislkalh. Kirche. 
 [See also John, Marquess of Bute : The Roman 
 Breviary (translated), Edinluu'gh and Ixjudon, 
 1879, 2 vols.] M. HEROLD. 
 
 BREWSTER, William, b. at Scrooby, Eng., in 
 the year 1560 (?); d. at Plymouth, Mass., April 
 10, 1644. He studied for a short time at the Uni- 
 versity of Cambridge ; entered in 1584 (?) the ser- 
 vice of William Davison, ambassador, and later 
 secretary of state to Queen Elizabeth, and went 
 with him in 1585 on a mission to the Netherlands 
 as confidential private secretary. On Davison's 
 disgrace, in 1587, he returned to Scrooby, where 
 from April, 1594, to September, 1607, he was keep- 
 er of the post-office, and lived in Scrooby Manor. 
 In this house a company of Brownists regularly 
 assembled every Lord's day. In 16t)8, after an 
 unsuccessful attempt in 1607, this congregation, 
 under John Robinson as teacher and Brewster as 
 ruling elder, removed, on account of repeated ma- 
 lignant persecution, to Amsterdam, and in 1609 
 settled at Leyden. " Mr. Brewster, who had been 
 reduced almost to poverty by his charities and 
 munificent aid to his .struggling brethren, earned 
 his living by giving les.sous in Engli.sh, having 
 composed a granniiar, according to the Latin 
 model, for the use of his pupils. He also set up a 
 printing establishment, and published nuiny con- 
 troversial works" (Motley: John of Barntveld, II. 
 p. 288). In 1620 a portion of the congreg.ation 
 emigrated to Xew England. Elder Brewster was 
 their spiritual head; but, not having been or- 
 dained, he never administered the sacraments, 3'et 
 preached regularly on .Sunday nntil 1629, when 
 William Ralph, the first settled nnnister, came. 
 
 BRICONNET, Guillaume, b. in Paris, 1470: 
 d. at .\inians, near Monteieau-sur-Yonne, .Jan. 25, 
 1534 ; was a son of Cardinal Bri(;onnet, Arch- 
 bishop of Narbonne; aud was made Bishop of 
 
 Lodeve in 1504, and of Meaux in 1516. lie was 
 po.s.ses.sed of a good cla.ssical education, and w.is 
 twice sent as ambassailor to the papal court; but 
 ,a mystic by natural dis]i(isition, a jnipil of Lefevre 
 d'Etaples, and a friend of Marguerite d'.Vngou- 
 leme, he- soon came in a ditlicult position with 
 respect to thi^ Ronum Church, ile was a friend 
 of reforms, and compelled the clergy of his dio- 
 cese to reside in th(! places where they were a])- 
 pointed. lie chose Lefevre for his vicar-general, 
 and invited Farrel, and others who had been en- 
 gaged in disseminating the ideas of the Reforma- 
 tion, to come to Meaux, and preach. The result 
 vvas the fornuition of a Protestant ctjlony at 
 Meaux. But Bri(;onnet's ideas of reform fell 
 very far short of a breach with the Roman 
 Church ; and, when the opposition to the Reforma- 
 tion became .serious, he was compelled to allow, 
 and even to employ, very harsh measures against 
 his own work. Of his correspondence with 
 IMarguerite d'AngoulC-me parts have been pub- 
 lished by Genin, in Lettres de Marguerite d'Angou- 
 leme, Paris, 1841. and Nouvelles Lettres de la Heme 
 de Navarre. Paris, 1S42. 
 
 BRIDAINE, Jacques, b. at Chu.selan, March 
 21, 17()1 ; d. at Roquemaure, Sept. 22, 1767; was 
 educated in the Jesuit College in Avignon, and 
 in the seminary of La Congregation des Missions 
 royedes de Saint-Charles de la Croix ; visited as a 
 missionary preacher almost ever}' city and town 
 of .Southern and Central France; came to Pari.s 
 in 1744, and produced everywhere a deep impres- 
 sion by his sermons, wliich are sombre and vehe- 
 ment, but full of genius and sincerity. They ap- 
 peared at Avignon in 1823, in five volumes. His 
 life was written by Carro.v, ie Moilele des Pretres, 
 Paris, 1804. 
 
 BRIDGE, William, Puritan divine, b. 1600; d.at 
 (ireat Yarmouth, IVIarch 12, 1670; he was a fellow 
 of iMnmanuel College, Cambridge ; preached at 
 Norwich ; was silenced by Bishop AVren for noncon- 
 formity (1637), afterwards excommunicated; but 
 when the writ de excommunicato capiendo came out 
 against liim, he withdrew to Holland, and became 
 pastor to the English Cliurch at Rotterdam, where 
 Jeremiah Burrouglis was preacher. In 1642 he 
 returned to England ; was a member of the West- 
 minster Assembly ; after a time was chosen min- 
 ister of Great Yarmouth, but ejected 1662. He 
 was a Cougregationalist (Independent), a Calvin- 
 ist, a learned man, and had a librai-y ricli in the 
 fathers and the schoolmen, of which he made 
 diligent use. Xeal says also, that " he was a good 
 preacher, a candid and charitable man, and did 
 much good by his ministry." Bridge published 
 Bali'/lon's Dnicnfall, a .sermon, London, 1641 : also 
 a collected edition of his works, 4 vols. 4to. 1649 ; 
 and, as conclusive proof of the esteem in which he 
 is still held, there appeared a new, and, for the 
 fii-st time, complete edition of his Works, London, 
 1845, 5 vols. Svo : the Works are mostly sermons. 
 See Xeal's History of the Puritans, vol. ii. p. 270 
 (ll:iri«'r's ed.). 
 
 BRIDGET, St. (Brigida), the "Mary of the 
 Irish," d. in 523, was the daughter of a certain 
 Duptach, and born at Fochart Muirthemue, Lein- 
 ster. In her fourteenth year she took tlie veil in 
 the Monastery of Meath ; obtained a great fame 
 for lioliness ; founded the monasteries of Kildare, 
 Hay in Conuaught, Cliagh in Munster, etc. ; and
 
 BRIDGEWATER. 
 
 326 
 
 BRIGHTMAN. 
 
 was buried at Kildare, where a perpetual fire 
 was lit in her honor, and kept up until 1220, 
 when the bishop of the place forbade the super- 
 stition This fire of St Brigida, as well as many 
 other traits in her life, such a-s described by 
 Ultan, Aileran, Cogitosus, Chilianus, Laurentius 
 of Dunelin, and in the Act Sand., February, pp. 
 99-183, indicates that the old Pagan worship of 
 the goddess Ceridwen, the Ceres of tlie Kelts, 
 who had her principal temple at Kildare, was 
 continued in the worship of St. Bridget. See 
 Traiix(iclii)ifi uf the Irish Acailevuj, III. 75; Frif.d- 
 KKicii ■ Si/iiihiilik unil Mi/lhiihxjie der Naltir, p. 
 190; I II Todd: Hi/iiiiis of the Ancient Church 
 of Ireland, Dublin, 1805 [Stokes- Three Mid- 
 ille-lrish Ilriniilies im the Lires of Saints Patrick; 
 Briijil. and Coluinlia, London, ISSO j ZOCKLER. 
 
 BRIDGEWATER TREATISES. By his death 
 (Feb 11, 1829) Francis Henry, Earl of Bridge- 
 water, left eight thou.sand pounds to the Royal 
 Society, to be paid to one or several authors, 
 selected by the president, for writing a treatise 
 '• On tlie Power, AVisdom, and Goodness of God, as 
 manifested in the Creation." The following eight 
 authors were .selected, and their treati.ses published 
 (1833-40): (1) Thomas Chalmers: The Ada/ita- 
 iion of External Nature to tlie Moral and Intellec- 
 tual Condition of Man, (2) John Kidd : The 
 Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical Con- 
 dition of Man . (3) William Whewell : Axtrononnj 
 and General I'lii/sics considered with reference to 
 Natural Theolo;;;/. (4) Charles Bell: The Hand, 
 its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as ecincinij 
 Design. (5) Peter JMark Koget : Animal and 
 Vei/elahle Phi/siolof/>/ considered with reference to 
 Natural Theoloijy, (G) William Buckland: Ge- 
 oloepi and Mineralor/i/ considered with reference to 
 Natural Tlieoioijii. (7) \\'illiam Kirby: Tlie Habits 
 and Instincts of Animals with reference to Natui'al 
 Theolofjij , (8) William Prout : Cheniistri/, Meteor- 
 olof/i/, anil /he Function of Diyestion considered with 
 reference to Natural Theolot/if 
 
 BRIEFS, BULLS, and' BULLARIUM, Papal. 
 The word '■ bull ' is from the Latin l/ulla, which 
 liteially means '"any object made round by swell- 
 ing up ; " lience a drop, and so used of the "drop " 
 of metal which bore the seal attached to a docu- 
 ment; and at last the word came to stand for the 
 document itself. "Brief" is from tlie later I-atin 
 breve, a short catalogue, or sununary. A pajial 
 hull of the present d;iy is an open letter, written 
 in Latin, in angular Gotliic letters, upon loiigh 
 yellow parchment. The string which holds the 
 seal is, in forma e/ratio.sa (ahull of grace; i.e., 
 when the bull is a blessing), of red and yellow 
 silk; ill forma rii/orosa (a bull of justice; i.e., 
 when it is a curse), of hemp. On the seal, which 
 is of lead, are stamped on the obver.se side the 
 heads of Peter and Paul, and above S. PE. and 
 S. PA. (Pet('r on the left: this fact has not 
 escaped the notice of antipapists, and has puzzled 
 the papists to explain) ; on the reverse the name 
 of tile Pope. 'I'lie bull begins with the name of 
 the Pope, but not often the nunibei- (jf the name ; 
 e.g., Leo, not Leo XIII. Then follow ••e]>isco])us, 
 servus .servorum Dei," and the formula •• ad i)ei- 
 petuaiii rei meinoriam," or the salutation "in 
 Domino salulem el apostolic:iin l)eiiediclionein." 
 At the end come the date and place. The bulls 
 are not u.sually signed liy the Pope, but by the 
 
 wi-iter of the bull ; or, if it is a consistorial buh 
 (i.e., issued after consultation with the consi.story 
 of cardinals), it is signed by all the cardinals 
 con.sulted. The bulls are named from the words 
 with whicli they begin, as tlie .Jews call the books 
 of the Bible. Thus " In coena Domini " (at the 
 Lord's Supper), the bull of excommunication of 
 all heretics, which is the product of centuries, 
 although now disused ; " Unigeiiitus " (onl}--be- 
 gotten), issued bj' Clement XI. in 1713, against 
 the Moral Reflections upon the New Testament, 
 by Quesnel : " Ineffabilis Deus '" (ineffable God), 
 is.sued by Pius IX. (18.')4). declaring the dogma 
 of the immaculate conception of Mary; "^Eterni 
 Patris " (of the Eternal Father), the bull is.sued in 
 1SG8, which convened the Vatican Council of 1869 
 and 1870. Bulla Uanca is a bull issued by a 
 pope before he is enthroned, the seal of which 
 is blank Briefi are open or closed letters, of 
 equal authority, but are not in so solemn a form 
 Tliey are written on paper, in a running hand, 
 and by the papal secretary, sealed with red wax, 
 and impressed with the seal of the fishormau, or 
 Peter in a boat, and tlie name and number of the 
 Pope. The distinction between briefs and bulls 
 is not much older than the fifteentli century. As 
 both these ducuments are liable to be forged, 
 various official precautions are taken Bullarium 
 is a collection of briefs and bulls The oldest 
 of such collections is the Bulla; dnersorum Ponlifi- 
 cum a Joanne XNII ad Julium III ex hililiolheca 
 Luducici Gomes, Rome, ISCO ; but it contains only 
 fifty documents The first comprehensive collec- 
 tion is the Mui/num Buitariuni liomanum, made by 
 Cherubim on the order of Sixtus V , and con- 
 taining all briefs and bulls from Leo I. up to 
 1585 Among the later continuations of this 
 work the most prominent are, Bullarium Muy- 
 num Romanum a Leone M. tuti/ue ail Benediclum 
 XIV , Luxembourg, 1727-58, 19 vols fob, and 
 the contemporary collections by Cocquelines, 
 Rome, 1733-48, 14 vols, fol The latest con- 
 tinuation is that by Tomasetti, Turin, 18.57-72, 
 24 vols There are also bidlariums for single 
 countries, separate orders, etc. ME.IER. 
 
 BRIGHAIVI, Charles Henry, a l'iiit;irian autlior 
 and professor, b. in Boston. Ma.ss., .lulv 27, 1820; 
 d at Brooklyn, X.V., Feb. 19, 1879 After 
 graduation at Harvard University, he was jiastor 
 of the Unitarian Church of Taunton from 1844 to 
 1805, when he went to his second charge, at Ann 
 Harbor, Mich In 18(ili he was appointed non- 
 resident prt>fe.s.sor of ecclesiastical history in the 
 theological .school at Jleadville, Penn. Mr. Brig- 
 hain w;us a prominent member of the American 
 Oriental and Philological Societies, also of the 
 American Association for the Advauceinent ot 
 Scic^nee ; was a prolific writer for his denomina- 
 tional ]ire.ss, and periodicals of high grade, e.g., 
 North-Ainrrlcan Reriew and the Riicue des Deux 
 Mondes (Paris), but left little of perinanent value. 
 See Cii.vHLKs IIi;.\i;v Brigiiam, Memoir and 
 Papers. Boston, 1881. 
 
 BRIGITTINES. .Se l!iH(;rrriM:s. 
 
 BRIGHTMAN, Thomas, b. in 1.5.')() at Xotting- 
 liam; d. Aug. 24, 1()(»7. He was educated at 
 (ineens College, Cambridge, and became rector 
 of the clinich at Ilawnes, in Bedfordshire, in or 
 about l.'>92. He was one of the fathers of Pre.s- 
 byteriauism in England ; as 'J'homas Caitwright
 
 BRILL. 
 
 327 
 
 BROUGHTON. 
 
 savs, " The liriglit star in tlio f'liiiich of (!o(l." 
 He subscrilied tlie I'lvslntcriaii Books of Disoi- 
 pliiie. His priiioijiul work was ^l/i<ic<ih//isix Ajiocd- 
 li/.<ei,s, rrankfort. KiO!), and Hcidrli.cr;;', KilL'; 
 also in English with the title ,1 Jti-ruOilidii of lite 
 Jlevcluliori, Amsterdam, Kilo, and Leyden, llilG, 
 with freqiKMit subsequent editions. Few liooks 
 have been i>ul)Iished at so many different places, 
 and in so many different editions, and so wiih^ly 
 read. He opened up a new i>ath in the e.xposition 
 ■of the Apocalypse by making two distinct millenni- 
 ums : the first, from Consfantine until l^iOO, in this 
 corresponding with the connnon Ortho<lox view ; 
 the second, from 1300 to Lf-iOO, which was a new 
 ■departure, by which he was enaliled to find a jilace 
 for the future conversion of the Jew.s, and a more 
 glorious condition of the Church on (>:irtli, which 
 he gains by a symbolical interpi-etation of Kev. 
 xxi and xxii. Brightman was one of the most 
 infiuential of the Puritans ; and his views gi'eatly 
 modified their interpretation of tlie Apocalypse, 
 and found supportei'S throughout the seventeenth 
 century. He also published commentaries on the 
 Song of Songs and Daniel, and discus.sed various 
 questions in dispute between the Puritans and 
 the bishops. His works were collected and pub- 
 lished, London, 1044, 4to. C. A. BRIGGS. 
 
 BRILL, Jacob, b. Jan. 21, 1639, at Leyden ; d 
 there Jan. "JS, 1700; was a pupil of Pontiaan van 
 Hattem, .and as such deposed from his oliice as 
 preacher of Phillipsburg, 1683. Between 1685 
 and lCf(9 he published about forty works of a 
 mystical-devotional chai'acter, which were nuich 
 read ; but spiritualizing Christ to such a degree 
 that tlie historical Christ alino.st disappeared, and 
 the sacrifice on the cross became a niei'e symbol 
 of the sacrifice which sliall take place in us, he 
 at last got lost in a mystical pantheism, far away 
 from Christianity. See Poiket; Bib. Mi/slic. 
 Select., 1708 (which contains a eulogy of Brill); 
 Ypf.V kx 1-)i-;i!MOUT : Di- hercormde Kerk in Ned- 
 ciiuitd, Breda, 1824, vol. III. M. GOBEL. 
 
 BRITTINJANS, acla.ss of Augustinian eremites, 
 so called fi-om Brittini in Ancona, their first .set- 
 tlement. Their rule was confirmed bj' Gregory 
 JX. (d. 1211). 
 
 BROCHMAND, Jesper Rasmussen,b. at Kjoge, 
 in the Ishmd of Sealand, Aug. 5. I.jSS; d. in Co- 
 penhagen, April 17, 1652 ; studied theology and 
 )ihilology in Copenhagen, Leyden, and Franecker ; 
 was made professor in the L'niversity of Copen- 
 hagen in 1610, afterwards tutor to the crown- 
 prince, and in 1639 Bishop of Sealand. He I'epre- 
 sents the stiff Orthodoxy of his time, with its 
 narrowness and its intolerance; but he was a man 
 of superior intellect, of great accomplishments as 
 a scholar, and without personal ambition. His 
 principal dogmatical work, Univtrsw Theolofjke 
 Systema, 1633, was often reprinted, both in Den- 
 mark and Germany ; and his controversy with the 
 tJesuits, on occasion of the conversion of Chris- 
 tian William of Brandenburg to the Roman 
 Church, attracted wide-spread attention. He also 
 wrote a luimber of practical devotional works, 
 wliicli are still used in the Danish Church. 
 
 BROMLEY, Thomas, an English mvstic, b. in 
 "Worcester, 1629; d. 1691. He held a 'fellowship 
 in Oxford until 1660, wdien he, as a nonconform- 
 ist, refused to accept the Anglican Liturgy. But 
 previously he had become a follower of Jacob 
 
 Boehme the mystic (see title), and with John 
 I'ordage and Johanna Leade had founded the 
 Philadel]>hian Society (see title): and when he 
 left Oxford, lie came to I'ordage, and lived with 
 him many years. Bromley went further than 
 Boehme: he rejected the Church, and also mar- 
 riage, which he held was an inferior condition, 
 not bearable by a xaint But witli Brondey and 
 his friends, the latter tenet was not connected with 
 undiastity : on the contrary, they insisted upon 
 perfect purity of life. Bromley was active in 
 propagating his opinion.s, and was an estimable 
 man. His works were pnblislied, in second edi- 
 tion, at Frankfort and Leipzig, 1719-32, 2 vols. 
 The best of them are. The 11'"// /" lite S(diliiilh of 
 Jirxl, XCIV. lii;miijelic(d ICpislUs lo his Good 
 Friends, and The Juurnetj uf the Children nf 
 Israel. 
 
 BROOKS, Elbridge Gerry, D.D., an able and 
 beloved minister of the l'niv('rsalist Church; b. 
 at Dover, N.II., July 29, 1816 ; d. at Philadelphia, 
 April 8, 1878. He was licensed at Portsmouth, 
 N.II., June 16, 1836; was pastor in West Ames- 
 bury, :Mass., Oct. 19, 1837 to June, 1838; in East 
 Cambridge, !Mass , 1838 to 1845; in Lowell, Mass 
 (First L'niversalist Church) for a year; in Bath, 
 JNIe., from November, 1846 to 1850; in Lynn, 
 Mass. (First Universalist Church), 1850 to 1859: 
 in Xew-Yoik City (Church of our .Saviour), 18.59 
 to 1867 ; in 1867 general agent of the board of 
 trustees of the General Convention; Dec 13, 
 1868, installed pastor of the Cliurch of the Me.s- 
 siah, Philadelphia He was the author of Our 
 Ncir Departure (1874), ami of Uuicerstdism in Life 
 and Doctrine, and its Sii/ieri<n-it7/ as a Practical 
 Poirer. In July, 1867, he received the degree of 
 D.I), from Tufts College. 
 
 Di'. Bi'ooks was a born leader and reformer, elo- 
 quent, untiring, courageous, .and full of resources, 
 as is evidenced by his advocacy of the Maine 
 liquor law, the cause of the Union, and, within 
 his denominational lines, of the modified the- 
 ology of exi.sting Univer.sali.sm, — the doctrine of 
 remedi.al punishment in the future world, in con- 
 trast to the older theory in that body which denied 
 all punishment after de.ath. To his energy and 
 tact tlie body in no small degree owes its present 
 organization. .See E. .S. Brooks : The Life -Work 
 of Elbridge Gerrij Rrvuks, Boston. 1881. from 
 which the above sketch has lieen derived. 
 
 BRORSON, Hans Adolf, b. at Kandrup. near 
 Kibe in Jutland. June 20. 1694; d. in Kibe, 
 June 3, 1764; studied theology in Copenhagen, 
 and w<as successively minister in Kandrup, Touder, 
 and Kibe, till in 1741 he became iiishop of the 
 diocese of Kibe. To him the Danish Clnnch is 
 indebted for about one-third of its hymns. He 
 was strongly influenced by the (jernuin pietism, 
 and so are his hymns, many of which are adapta- 
 tions. But the unsound elements of this influ- 
 ence were counterbalanced by a natural affinity 
 for the popular song, its cheerfulness, its naivete', 
 its melodiousness; and most of his hynms are 
 still living in the congregations. A collected and 
 ci-itical edition was given by P. A. Arland, Copen- 
 hagen. 18(i7. 
 
 BROUGHTON, Hugh, a distinguished Hebrew 
 scholar, li. at OMlnny. Salop. 1549; d. in London, 
 Aug. 4, 1612. His earliest patron was ISernard 
 Gilpin (see title), who met him accidentally, edu-
 
 BROUSSON. 
 
 328 
 
 BROWNE. 
 
 cated him at his parish school, and sent him to 
 Cambridge, where lie became fellow of Christ 
 College ; but afterwards he went to London, and 
 enjoyed great reputation as a preacher. His He- 
 brew and Greek learning was remarkable in an 
 age characterized by its attainments in these 
 tongues. lie translated the prophetical books 
 into fireek. and the .\pocalypse into Hebrew, and 
 de.sired to translate the whole New Testament 
 into Hebrew, believing that it would have for- 
 warded the oonvei-sion of the Jews. While liis 
 learning and ability were unquestioned, his un- 
 happy \em[)er prevented his advancement. Dr. 
 .lohn Lightfoot edited his literary remains un- 
 der tile title. The works of Ihe great Albioneaii 
 iliciiie, reiioirned in many iiationx for rare skill 
 ill Salem's and Atheii's tongues, and familiar 
 acqiiaiiituiice with alt Rabbinical harniny, JSIr. 
 Hugh linouGHTO-N Collected in one volume, 
 and digested into four tomes. Folio, London, 
 
 im-i. 
 
 BROUSSON, Claude, b. at Ximes. 1647; exe- 
 cuted at Montpellier. Nov. 4, 1698; practised as a 
 lawyer at C<i-stres, Castelnaudary. and 'J'oulouse, 
 and employed his talent with great courage and 
 self-sacritice to defend his co-religionists of the 
 Reformed Ciiurch against the steadily-increasing 
 injustice with which they were treated. -Vt last 
 he was comiielled to flee ; and June U'6, 1684, he was 
 coiidenmed to death, which .sentence was executed 
 .July 'A in ejfigie. Aleanwliile he visited Berlin 
 and Holland, to bring about a coalition between 
 the Protestant princes agahist Louis XIV.; but, 
 not satisfied with what coidd be done in this way, 
 he returned in 1689 to France, and wandered 
 about in the Cevennes, " preaching in the desert," 
 admonishing and exhorting his brethren, thougii 
 a price was put on his head, and he was limited 
 by the government offlcials like a beast of prey. 
 In 169:^ he went to Holland, and staid fourteen 
 months in the Hague as preacher to the congrega- 
 tion of French exiles ; but in 169.5 he again en- 
 tered France through Sedan, and visited most of 
 the Reformed congregations north of Loire, finally 
 escaping through Franchecomte into Switzerland. 
 Once more, in 1697, he visited France, but Wiis 
 caught at Oleron, and .sentenced to be broken on 
 the wheel. Among his works, of which a list is 
 given in La France Proleslante, III., ]>. .i6, the 
 most prominent are : Etal des Riformi's ile France, 
 La Haye, 168.5; La Manne Mystique du Desert, 
 Amsterdam, 1695; I^ettres Pastorales, 1697. His 
 life was written by Borel, Nimes, 1852, in French, 
 and in Knglish by Bavnes : The Evam/clistDfihe 
 JJeserl, London, 1853. THEODOR SCIIOTT. 
 
 BROWN, John, b. at Carpow, Scotland, 1722; 
 d. at llaildington, June 19, 1787; aci|uiicd his 
 education under great difficulties; from 17.51 till 
 death was minister of the Burgher branch of the 
 Sece.ssion Cluirch of Haddington, aiul alter 1768 
 profe8.sor of theology to the Associate Synod. 
 He published many i>o]iMlar and valuable works, 
 as a hiitionary of the Jiilile, London, 1769, 2 vols., 
 often reprinte(i, revised Lond., 1868; the Self-inter- 
 preting Jiihle, Lond., 1778, often reprinted; Com- 
 pendious llisliiry of the liritish Vhnrrhes, 1784, new 
 edition,editedby I'ev. Thomas Brown. Kdin.,1823; 
 and, most widely circulated of all, A Short Cate- 
 chism, 1764, tiiugiit in homes an<l .Sund.iy schools 
 to this day, and very admirable for its simple piety 
 
 BROWN, John, grandson of the preceding, b. 
 at Whitliurn, Linlithgowshire, Scotland, July 12» 
 1784; d. in Edinburgh, Oct. 13, 1858; .studied at 
 Ediub. University and at the divinity school of 
 the Burgher branch of the Secession Church, and 
 was ordained minister of the Burgher congrega- 
 tion of Biggar. In 1822 he moved to Edinburgh, 
 where -he took charge, first of the Hose-street 
 Chmcli, and afterwards of the Broughtou-place 
 Church. In 1835 he was also appointed profe.s.sor 
 of theology to the United .\ssociate Synod. He 
 was a great pnlpit-orator, and a voluminous writer. 
 The most prominent of his works are : Expository 
 Discourses on First Peter, 1848; Exposition of the 
 Discourses and Sayings of our Lord, 1850; The 
 Resurrection of Life, 1851 ; Exposition of the Epistle 
 to the Galntians, 1853, etc. See Joiix C.\IRXS : 
 Memoirs of John Brotrn. D.D.. London. 1S60. 
 
 BROWN, John Newton, D.I)., a Baptist minister 
 and editor, b. New London. Conn., June 29, 1803; 
 d. at Germantown, Penn., May 15, 1868. .\fter 
 graduating head of his class at Hamilton Institute, 
 New York, in 1823, he entered the baptist ministry, 
 and preached at several places in New England 
 In 1835, while at Exeter, N.H., he issued his 
 Encyclopivdia of Religions Knoirlcdge (1 vol. small 
 4to, Brattleborough), a good specimen of a pious, 
 uncritical, u.seful compilation from various ap- 
 proved works, sucli as Calmet's Dictionary of the 
 Bible, Buck's Theological Dictionary, and Evans's- 
 Sketch of Religious Denominations. This encyclopse- 
 dia. it is true, is far behind the times : even the 
 revised edition, by Rev. G. P. Tyler (1858), re- 
 printed Philadelphia, 1866, cannot now be used. 
 In matter and illustration it belongs to a former 
 generation, yet Dr. Brown deserves great credit 
 for having so ably carried through in tliat early 
 day a work of such magnitude and instructive- 
 ness. From 1838 to 1845 he was professor of 
 theology and church-history in the New Hampton 
 Tlieological Institution, New Ilampsliire; from 
 1845 to 1849, pastor at Lexington. Va. ; then 
 editorial secretary of the .\merican Baptist Pnb- 
 lishing Society, and of their journals. The ( 'hri.';- 
 tian C/ironicle and The Xatioiiiil Bojjtisl. The 
 New Hampshire (Baptist) Confession was pre- 
 pared and revised (1852) by him. 
 
 BROWNE, Robert, the founder of the Brown- 
 ISTS, and thus the spiritual father of Congren;a- 
 tion;dism. His life and principles have lieen tor 
 the fir.st time intelligently and authoritatively 
 stated by Henry Martyu Dexter, in his Congrega- 
 tionalism as .-ieen in its Literature, New York. 1880; 
 and we present his account in a very condensed 
 form. Robert Browne Wivs born at Tolethorp, 
 Rutlandshire, Eng., about 1550; d. between 1631 
 and 11)33, at -Northampton. His father wa.s a 
 gentleman, a relative of Lord Bnrghley ; his 
 mother, a daugliter of a baronet. He was edu- 
 cated, and in' all probabilitv took the regular 
 degrees, at Corpus Christi College, Candiridge; 
 and in 1571 became domestic diaplain to the 
 Duke of Norfolk, who tpiickly wa.s called upon 
 to take his part in refusing to obey a citation to 
 answer before the ecclesiastical commissioners a 
 charge of di.sseminating .seditions doctrines. At 
 some time after this, Browne taught school, probar 
 biy at Southnark, for three years; but after 1.578 
 he" re-entered the university to study theology. 
 He had no license to preach, yet he preached
 
 BROWNE. 
 
 329 
 
 BROWNE. 
 
 frequently and powerfully. When his brother 
 obtaineil for him the necessary license, he not 
 only refused to receive it, but publicly liarans^ued 
 "against the calling and authorizing of preachers 
 by bishops." Discouraged by the failure to (ex- 
 cite Muicli interest in Cambridge, inhibited from 
 preaching, and recovered from a severe illnc^ss, 
 lie went to Norwich, where he kept on pre'aching 
 his "seditious" doctrines, and in 15HI was com- 
 plained against by the Bisho]) of Norwich, but 
 [)rotected by his kinsman Lord Uurghley. He, 
 with his disciples, now found it so uncomfortable 
 that they fled to Middelberg in Zeland, to seek 
 there amid strangers peace and liberty of wor- 
 ship. There is no direct evidence that Krowne 
 preached to the Dutch element of Norwich, as is 
 80 commonly stated ; nor is it probable that 
 Browne joined Cartwright's English Church at 
 Middelberg. For two years he remained in Mid- 
 delberg ; and there his three treatises, which 
 were probably intended to form one volume, were 
 succcv.iirc'l// printed, and thence sent for distribu- 
 tion to England. They are entitled: 1. "A 
 Booke which Sheweth the life and manners of all 
 true Christians, and howe unlike they are imto 
 Turkes and Papistes, and Heathen folke. Also 
 the pointes and partes of all Dininitie, that is of 
 the reuealed will and worde of God, are declared 
 by their seuerall Definitions and Diuisions in 
 order as followeth " (pp. Ill); 2. "A Treatise 
 upon tlie 23 of Matthewe, both for an order of 
 studying and handling the Scriptures, and also 
 auoyding the Popishe disorders, and ungodly 
 communion of all false Christians, and especiallie 
 of wiked Preachers and hirelings " (pp. 44) ; 
 3. " A Treatise of reformation without tarying 
 fer anie, and of the wikednesse of those Preach- 
 ers, which will not reforme till the Magistrate 
 commaunde or compell them" (pp. 18). These 
 are all in quarto, and printed by llicliard Painter 
 [Schilder], whose charges were met, it is proba- 
 ble, by Robert Harrison, one of Browne's early 
 converts. But in Middelberg the very principles 
 they held to led to continual discussion and divis- 
 ion of sentiments among themselves; and in 
 December, 1583, Browne, with four or five fami- 
 lies, came to Scotland; and Thursday, Jan. 9, 
 1.384, arrived in Edinburgh, and at once com- 
 menced the circulation of his peculiar doctrines. 
 " They held opinion of separation from all kirks 
 where excommunication was not rigorously used 
 against open offenders not repenting. They 
 would not admit witnesses [i.e., sponsors] in 
 baptism; and sundry other opinions they had." 
 These were the charges .against them, when, on 
 the fdlldicinf/ Tuexdai/, Browne was sunnnoned 
 before the .session of the Kirk of Edinburgh. He 
 was for a few days imprisoned ; but unhindered, 
 if not covertly encouraged, by the .secular authori- 
 ties, he ti'aveiled over Scotland. Soon he returned 
 to England, and endured a lengthened imprison- 
 ment, with its attendant circumstances of mental 
 and bodily suffering; was again befriended by 
 Lord Burghley; removed to Northampton (1580), 
 and was excoumiunicated for disobeying the 
 Bishop of Peterborough's citation to trial for 
 his offensive teachings. Now he came to a 
 strange determination to join the Church of 
 England. On Nov. 21, 1586, he was elected to 
 be master of the grammar-school at St. Olaves, 
 
 Southwark ; and in order to enter upon the posi- 
 tion he bound himself not only to abstain from 
 preaching his "st'ditious" dcjctrines, but to live 
 as a member of the Church of England, so far as 
 his conduct was concerned. His good behavior 
 so mollified the popular feiding against him, 
 that in Septendier, 15!J1, hi^ was installed rector 
 of Achurch-cuni-Tliorpe, a very small living (for 
 in the next century the parish contained only 
 eighteen families) given him by Lord Burghh^y. 
 Here the fiery, eloquent, determined Hobert 
 Browne lived ior forty years. But in what condi- 
 tion ? Dr. Dexter explains the cessation of 
 Browne's activity, and his long residence in the 
 little parish, on the supposition of his mental 
 incapacity, which may at times have amounted to 
 real insanity. It was for a mad blow at a con- 
 stable he died in prison. [It is ea.sy to understand 
 how Fuller {Church IJislori/, V. (iO) cuvdd say thai, 
 Browne did not preach in his (Binwne's) church: 
 he could not. j\lany other slanders are likewise 
 refuted by supposing him to be weak-minded. 
 This account of Browne differs radically from 
 the ordinary story, which is found in Neal's llis- 
 lori/ of the Piirildtis, in Fuller's Church History of 
 Britain^ and in books based upon them.] 
 
 The followers of Browne are known as Brotm- 
 ixtx, a term of reproach. Our knowledge of the 
 early history of the .sect is derived from Uobert 
 Browne him.self, who published in 1584 A 'J'rue 
 and Short Declaration, Both of the Gathcrinr/ and 
 Joyning tof/elhcr of certaine Persona: ahd idso (f the 
 Lamentable Breach anil Disuision which fell anionr/xt 
 them (4to, pp. 24), — a treati.se which answers 
 its name, is true on the face of it, and certainly 
 short. But Browne's change, and the bad stoiics 
 about his later life, made those who shared his 
 earlier views disclaim all connection with him : 
 and so, although to him is due, in Dr. Dexter'M 
 opinion, the founding of Congregationalism, the 
 denomination in England and America slightH 
 his claim. But the man merits better treat- 
 ment. He was not "an ambitious bigot iu 
 his earlier, and a contemptible sneak in later, 
 years." His voluntary as.sociation for a long 
 period with that estimable minister and eminent 
 Christian, the Rev. Richard Greenham of Dry 
 Drayton, the modesty and charity with which. the 
 7'nie and Short Declaration is written, the works 
 already cited, and a few others, may be put in 
 evidence to prove his character, the sincerity of 
 his purpose, and its nobility. The movement he 
 started was not solely to effect a change of form 
 of church polity : its spring was his deep disgust 
 and shame at the laxity and corruption of the 
 Clun-ch of England, which tolerated the indis- 
 criminate mixture of good and bad in the throng 
 to partake of the Lord's Supper. It was because 
 the bishops tolerated this state of things, that he 
 declared they were not Christ's ministers ; and 
 because the Presbyterian Puritans i-efused to cut 
 themselves loose from connection with such a 
 system, and looked forward to a State Church on 
 Genevan principles, he would not remain with 
 them. His independency was therefore not from 
 policy, but from piety. In a church so corrupt 
 as that of England, he maintained, the true 
 Christian could not stay. Nor was there any 
 hope of reform for the Church from the civil 
 power, neither any obligation to wait for prince
 
 BROWNE. 
 
 330 
 
 BRUEGGLERS. 
 
 or magistrate. He denied tlie ecclesiastical 
 authority of the magistrate, and so was the tirst 
 to set forth the correct doctrine of the relation 
 of the civil and religious powers. He further 
 declared, that any company of believers thus 
 separated from the corrupt State Church formed 
 of themselves a true Church, amenable only to 
 Christ's control, and quite competent to govern 
 themselves according to their own decisions, 
 under the promised guidance of his Spirit. The 
 dfficei-s of such a church were, as deduced from 
 tlie New Testament, a Pastor, a Teacher of Doc- 
 ti-ine, one or more Elders, one or more Relievers 
 (deacons) and one or more Widows. The Lord's 
 Supper is to be the sweet and sacred bond of 
 anion in the Church, and care must be taken to 
 keep out all unworthy members. [The practical 
 result of this " care " was an inquisition which 
 broke up his church at Middelberg.] He further 
 completed his system by deciding that the rela- 
 tions between tlie various independent churches 
 should be sisterly, admitting of no control, but 
 inviting unto mutual love and kindness in speech 
 and deed. 
 
 But the times were not ripe for such .splendid 
 theorizing, although it was not God's design to 
 let the world forget it. Robert Browne died, 
 his name smothered by his proper friends, and 
 jeeringly repeated by his enemies ; but he lives, 
 the real founder of CongTegationalisni, and his 
 >\X)i'ks ai'e the acknowledged quiver whence the 
 defenders of his polity have drawn their sharpest 
 arrows. The miserable, crazy dotard who died 
 in Xorthamiiton jail liad been the enthusiastic, 
 impetuous jireacher, and the man of genius, who 
 conceived and advocated the freest type of chin'ch 
 government. We bring out to the light once 
 more, that we may honor, the man whose later 
 years God shrouded in gloom, but whose years of 
 health and vigor were freely dedicated unto the 
 senici' 111' Clivist and his Church. 
 
 BROWNE, Sir Thomas, b. in London, 1605; d. 
 at Xorwich, 1082 ; studied medicine ; ti'avelled 
 oil the Continent, and settled as a practitioner at 
 Norwich in l(j;5G. His Religio Medici was first 
 published in l(il2, and attracted inunediately a 
 great attention, though its peculiar blending of 
 deep religious feeling and sceptical views is not 
 easy to follow. " It is the confession of faith of 
 a mind ki;en and sceptical in some aspects, but 
 on the whole deeply imbued with the sense of the 
 mysteriousness of true religion, and willing to 
 yield itself up without reserve to the requirements 
 of faith." In Ifilti appeared the Treatise on Vul- 
 gar Errors, in l<i.J8 the Hi/rlri/itaphia or Urnhurial, 
 and also Tlie (Jarden of Ci/rus. His Christiiin 
 Morals was not jmljlished until 1710. Tlie best 
 edition of his work is that by .Simon Wilkin, in 
 4 vols., llS3(i, containing his letters and Johnson's 
 biography, reprinted by Bohu, London, ISol, 3 
 vols. 
 
 BROWNISTS. Sic BiunvNK, Roni-.UT. 
 
 BROWNLEE, William C, b. at Torfoot, Lan- 
 arkshire, .Scotland, 17HI; (1. in New York, Feb. 
 10,1860; studied in the I'liiversity of (ilasgow; 
 emigrateil to .Vnierica in 1H(I(S, and was in l.S'JO 
 chosen miniNt<!r of the Collfgiatc licformed 
 Dutch Church in New York, and distingui.shed 
 himself by liis oi)])()sition to Romanism. He 
 published : Iinjiiiry iiilo Ike J'riiicijitea of Quakers, 
 
 New Y'ork, 1824; The Romnn-Calholic Controversy, 
 Phila., 1834 ; Lights ami Shadoirs of Christian 
 Life, New Y'ork, 1837; Popery an Enemy to Ciril 
 and Religious Liberty, 4th ed.. New Y'ork, 1839 ; 
 Jlomanism in the Light of Prophecy and History, 
 New Y'ork, 1854. From 1820 to 1830 he was ed- 
 itor of Magazine of the Reformed Dutch Church. 
 This career of eminent usefulness was suddenly 
 ended by a paralytic .stroke in 1848, which effect- 
 ually laid him aside from all sustained mental 
 labor, although he giadually regained some of 
 his lost power. He was made a pastor-emeritus. 
 
 BROWNSON, Orestes Augustus, LL.D., b. at 
 Stockbridge, Vt., .Sejit. 10, 1803; d. April 16, 
 1870; was for many years an able opponent of 
 Protestantism, and an unqualified but conscien- 
 tious defender of Romanism. His education was 
 defective. His religious career was sinuous. He 
 was originally a Baptist, joined the Presbvterian 
 Church at Ballston, N.Y'., in 1823 ; but in 1825 
 he became a Universalist preacher, and in 1832 
 a Unitarian preacher. He plunged into French 
 and German literature, philosophy, and theology, 
 and came out a Socialist, after the type of Rob- 
 ert Owen. While in this way, lie organized in 
 Boston, in 1830, the " Society of Christian Union 
 and Progress," and ministered to it, until, in 
 1843, he avowed infidel doctrines in his book, 
 A'eic Vieics of Christianity, Society, and the Church. 
 In 1844 he made his final change. He had gone 
 from Bible Christianity to infidelity : he went to 
 the opposite extreme, and joined the Roman- 
 Catholic Church. Having exhausted all possi- 
 bilities, he never left it, and established, in 1844, 
 Brotv7u<on's Quarterly Recieic, which he edited until 
 his death, and in which he taught the strongest 
 Ultramoutanism with energy and enthusiasm. 
 He had a rare facultv for defending the most 
 extreme views, and making them plausible. See 
 his collected Works, New York, 1883-85, 19 vols. 
 
 BRUEGGLERS, a sect founded in 1740 in the 
 village of liruegglen, in the canton of Bern, Swit- 
 zerland, by two brothers. Christian and Ilierony- 
 mus Kohler. During a religious excitement which 
 at that time prevailed in the neighborhood, the 
 two brothers, who had hitherto led a very disso- 
 lute life, and were sorely in want of means to 
 gratify their vanity and sensuality, suddenly aji- 
 peared as divine prophets, began to jireacli and 
 exhort, and soon gathered a number of followers. 
 They professed to stand in direct coniinunicatiou 
 witli God the Father, and to know every thing he 
 knew. By virtue of tliis foreknowledge they aii- 
 nonnced that the world should perish, and the 
 day of judgment come, on next t'hristnias Eve ; 
 and this event, which frightened people out of 
 their senses, was only averted by the intercession 
 of the two bwjthers. The basis of their moral 
 system was the doctrine that the whole external 
 ]i'art of man, the flesh of human nature, is under 
 the dominion of Satan ; and con.sequently Satan, 
 and not man, is responsible for wliat is done in 
 the flesh. The effects of such doctrines soon be- 
 came apparent in tlie wildest exces.ses; and the 
 two brothers were banished from the country 
 (17.")()). The disorders continued, however, as the 
 brothers every now and then returned .secretly 
 to Briiegglen. In 17."i2 tlii'V were cau^;ht; and 
 the process institntcil against them now revealed 
 the whole abomination of their conduct. Hie-
 
 BRUIS. 
 
 331 
 
 BRUNSWICK, 
 
 ronynius was sentenced to deatli, ami exenuted 
 Jan. 10, 17'i-i. Wliat liecanie of ChrisMiui is not 
 known. 'I'lie sect (lisappeared, tliougli ai'tcrvvanls 
 many of its doctrines and instincts were renewed 
 by the Antonians. See Kyhuiig : l)a:< ciililcchli: 
 O'elteitimiis ilcr Jioxlicil in (tcr lirucijtjli^r-Sckle, Zii- 
 ricli, 17.5:5; Mkisikk : Ilalvelisc/ie Scencn der ncu- 
 em Sc/iirdniiiri'i, Ziirieli, 178."). 
 
 BRUIS, Pierre de. See rKTicu of IJnuYS and 
 Pkthohuiissians. 
 
 BRULLY.or BRUSLY, Pierre (Petrus Brulins), 
 the successor of Calvin in Strasslmrg, and a 
 martyr of tiie Protestant faitli, 1). at Mercy-le- 
 Ilaut near Jletz, Germany, al>out l.")l.S; burned 
 at tlie stalvc at Tonrnay, Fel). liJ, 151.3. He was 
 educated for the Cliurch ; and, distinguislied l^y 
 his learning, he was early appointed lector in 
 the Dominican convent in Metz. The story of 
 Luther's recantation, and the preaching of tlie 
 new faith, affected him so, that, about the close 
 of 1540, he was expelled as an apostate. He 
 shortly after left the city, and went to Katisbon, 
 to Ulm, and on to Strassburg, where he made a 
 very favorable impression upon Calvin. Quite 
 contrary to his expectation, he settled there ; and, 
 when Calvin was recalled to Geneva (1541), he 
 became his successor in the pastorate. His life 
 was neither easy nor pleasant, but he was sin- 
 cerely attached to his flock ; yet in September, 
 1544, he quitted Strassburg to go upon a nussion- 
 ary tour in Flanders in obedience to the invita- 
 tion of persons in Tournay who wished to be 
 instructed in the pure faith. He travelled m dis- 
 guise, and reached that place in safety, although 
 he narrowly escaped arrest. It was forbidden to 
 propagate the Protestant " heresy ; " and Brully 
 was compelled to exercise address and caution. 
 He labored with gi'eat earnestness and success, 
 but secretly. With genuine courage, he preached 
 in other places in Flanders. But his career was 
 brief. On returning to Tournay he learned that 
 the authorities were on the watch for him (Nov. 
 3, 1544). His friends let him down from the 
 wall at niglit, and lie might have escaped, had 
 not a stone fallen upon him with such violence 
 that it broke his leg ; and so he easily was foinid 
 and taken the next morning. The touching story 
 is told, that lirully, in the midst of his sufferings, 
 praised his Saviour, because, when he was about 
 to basely desert his flock in a time of danger, he 
 had interposed to bring him back to duty. His 
 trial soon followed. He made a manly confession 
 of his work, concealing, however, the names of 
 his friends, lest he sliould bring them into trou- 
 ble. At Strassburg the news of the arrest caused 
 a great sensation. A delegation from the magis- 
 tracy of the city was sent to Tournay, hut all 
 efforts at release failed. The German Protestant 
 princes themselves addressed pressing letters in 
 his behalf to Charles V., which, however, arrived 
 too late ; although it is questionable whether 
 they would have done any good. Brully perished 
 a martyr to the cause he loved so well. — His 
 biography has recently been written by Ror>oi.PiiE 
 Reuss, Pierre Brully, Strasbourg, 1879, who, how- 
 ever, relies in great measure upon Le proces de 
 Pierre Bridli/, succenseur de Cvlvin comme mi- 
 nislre de C Kylise frarn-aise rtformee de Sirashourg 
 (1544-45), par Cii. Baillakd, Paris, 1878, which 
 is derived from original researches. 
 
 BRUNO, b. 925; d. Oct. 11, 905; a son of 
 Henry llu; Fowler, and brother to Otlio I. ; was 
 from infancy destined for tlie Chnreh, and edu- 
 cated in the cathedral school of I'trecht, and was 
 made Archbishoj) of Cologne in 95;3. He took a 
 very active jiart in the political affairs of his 
 brother, always working for peace ; while in the 
 history of the Churcli he stands as a repres(^nta- 
 tivfi of that school-education wliich was started 
 by Charlemagne, and in tli(! tenth century dev(!l- 
 oped in a peculiar way by the Iro-Scottish monks. 
 His life was written by Unotger in 900, and in 
 the thirteenth century by the monks of St. Pan- 
 taleon in Cologne, where he lies buried. See 
 Pektz : Alouum. Genu. Hist. Script. IV. pp. 252, 
 275; also in Act. Sdnct. Oct. V., and the recent 
 biographies by Piklku, Ai-nsberg, 1851 ; K. 
 Meyek, Berlin, 1S70; PrKiFKEit, Koln, 1870; 
 DuMi.KR in Piper's Zcur/en der Wahrhcil, l,eii> 
 zig, 1874. ALBIIECHT VOGEL. 
 
 BRUNO, the "Apostle of the Pru.ssians," also 
 called Jio7iifticiu!<,h. 970; d. Feb. 14, 1009; was 
 related to the Saxon dynasty, but destined for 
 the I'hui'ch, and educated in ^Slagdeburg; accom- 
 panied Otho 111. to Italy in 990, and was here 
 won over by Adelbert of Prague to those extreme 
 ideas of asceticism which from Greece invaded 
 the Western Church ; became monk, and set out 
 in 1004 as a missionary, first to Poland, then to 
 Hungary and Russia, and finally among the Prus- 
 sians, among whom he suffered martyrdom. The 
 materials for his life have been critically sifted 
 by ^'olGT, in his Geschichte Prcuasciis, I. p. 280, 
 and by Pertz, in his introductory to Vita S. Adel- 
 berti. ALBRECIIT VOGEL. 
 
 BRUNO, Giordano, b. at Nola in Campania 
 al>out 1550; d. in Rome, Feb. 9, 1000; entered 
 the Dominican order; but the study of natural 
 philosojihy, and of the works of Nicolaus Cusa- 
 nausand Raimundus Lnllus, gradually placed him 
 in such an opposition to the Roman Churcli that 
 he was compelled to flee from his moiiastei'y, and 
 leave Italy. In 1580 he settled at Geneva. He 
 was not a Protestant, however. He was a Pan- 
 theist; and nniny of the moral principles he 
 adopted and defended are of a very doubtful 
 character. But his criticism of the superstition 
 of the Roman Church and the futility of the 
 scholastic system was deeji and striking; and the 
 effect of his lectures, delivered at Geneva, Paris, 
 Oxford, Wittenberg, Prague, and Frankfort, and 
 of his numerous writings, was very keenly felt, 
 and deeply resented. In 1592 he had the au- 
 dacity to return to Italy, and began to lecture at 
 Padua, and aftenvards at Venice. But he was 
 seized by the Inquisition, and placed before its 
 tribunal in Rome. Every means was employed 
 to compel him to recant; and, when he absolutely 
 refused, he was condemned for heresy, and handed 
 over to the secular authorities to be punished 
 citra fianrjiunis cffusionem. He was burnt. His 
 Italian works were published at Leipsic, 1830; 
 the Latin, at Stuttgardt, 1834. See Ch. Bau- 
 TiiOLEMESs: J. Bruno, Paris, 1840; F. J. Cle- 
 mens : Bruno und Nicol. von Cusa, Leipzig, 1847. 
 
 BRUNSWICK. Of the population of the grand 
 duchy of Brunswick, .300,190 are Lutheran, 7,030 
 Roman Catholic, 2,793 Reformed, and 1,174 .lews. 
 The Reformed have a church and a ]iastor in the 
 city of Cruiis'wick, and form, togetb"- with the
 
 BRUYS. 
 
 332 
 
 BUDDEUS. 
 
 co7igi'egations of Celle, Hanover, Biickeburg, Got- 
 tiiigen, and Miiuden, the Reformed Synod of 
 Lower Saxony. Tlie Roman Catholics have three 
 oliurches, respectively in Helnistedt, Brunswick, 
 and Wolfenbiittel, and belong to the diocese of 
 Uildesheim in Hanover. The Lutheran Church, 
 established in the city of Brunswick in 1.V2S, and 
 in the country in 1508, is the Church of the State, 
 comprising two hundred and sixty congregations, 
 and administered by a consistory, seven su])erin- 
 tendeut^generals, and thirty-three superintendents. 
 The confession on which all ecclesiastics of the 
 Kstablished Church must take oath, the Cor/ms 
 jMctrinie Julium, does not contain the Formula 
 ('nncordicc. The census quoted above is that of 
 December, 187L 
 
 BRUYS, Peter. See Peter of Bruys and 
 
 PkT1!OBRUSSIANS. 
 
 BRYAN, Rev. W. See Bible Christians. 
 
 BRYANT, Jacob, a learned though whimsical 
 writer, b. at Plymouth, 171.5; d. near Windsor, 
 Nov. 14, 1804. He was educated at Eton and 
 Cambridge, where he took B.A., 1740, ]M.A., 
 fellow of King's College, 1744; became tutor, 
 and then, later, secretary, to the Duke of Marl- 
 borough, 17.')*j. From the duke he received a 
 lucrative appointment in the ordnance, which, as 
 lie never married, amply supported him, and was 
 assigned two rooms at ISlenheim, with permission 
 to enter at anytime the magnificent library tliere. 
 'l"he passion of his life w as the cause of his death ; 
 for when eighty-nine years of age, in attempting 
 to get a book down from a shelf by means of a 
 chair, his foot slipped, his leg was grazed, mortifi- 
 cation set in, and he died. He published : Obser- 
 valionx and JiKjuirie.i, Cambridge, 17ti7 (in this 
 volume he defends the reading Edrocli/itou instead 
 of liuro Aquilo, ju'oposed by Bochart, Bentley, 
 and others ; and also Melite as a ditferent island 
 from Malta. On both points modern scholarship 
 pronounces him wrong; although in regard to the 
 jormer point the decisive verdict was given only 
 recently by the Codex Sinaiticus) ; A A'eio Si/alem, 
 or Anuiysis of Ancient MiilJuUuiiii, l^ondon, 1774- 
 70, A vols. ; 'id ed., 1st vol. 1775 ; ;5d ed., with 
 Account of the Autlior, Index, 41 plates, Loudon, 
 1807, 6 vols. 8vo, — a work of great learning 
 u]ion the plan of substantiating the Bible by a 
 .study of the traditional remains of all nations, 
 but now utterly worthli'ss; Vindicin: I'luciana^, 
 l^oudou, 1777 (a vindication of tin; testimony 
 given by .losephus concerning our Saviour Jesus 
 Christ); Tre.nlisi' on the AnIhenUcUij of the Scrip- 
 tures, London, 179J, ]>reparcd at request of the 
 Dowager Lady Pembroke, M ed., 1810; 0/iser- 
 Vfilions v/mn some J'nssa</('s in Scripture, I.,ondon, 
 180:5. liesides these volumes, lie issued several of 
 a more purely areliieological interest. His great 
 fondness for paradox, and his other eccentricities, 
 rob liis writings of a great jiart of their value. 
 
 BUCER. See Hiit/.ki!. 
 
 BUCHANAN, Claudius, b. at C'ambuslang. near 
 fJlasgow, March ^'J, 17fli!; il. at Broxbourne, 
 H(frts, Feb. 9, 1815; studii-d at Cauil>ridge; went 
 to the East Indies in 170(1 as one of the com- 
 ])an y's cliaplain.s ; was ajipoiiited professor of the 
 classical languages and litiTatnres in the College 
 of Fort William, Bi'ng:il, iu IHIXI, and returned 
 to England in 18(18. lie ]iublishi'il : l\j-jtci/ii'nci/ 
 of an Ecclesiastical Establiiliinenl Jor India, 1805 ; 
 
 Christian Jiesearches in Asia, 1811 ; Colonial Eccle- 
 siastical Eslahlishnients, 1813, etc. There is a Life 
 of him by Hrr.ii Pkahson, London, 1819, L' vols. 
 
 BUCHANAN, George, b. at Killearn, Stirling- 
 shire, Scotland, 150(5; d. in Edinburgh, Sept. '2i) 
 1582; studied in Paris, 15"J0-22, at St. Andrew'.s, 
 1524-25, and again in Paris, whence he returned 
 to Scotland in 1536. Having adopted Protestant 
 views, his first literary undertakings were two 
 Latin satires on the monks, Somnium and Fran- 
 ciscanvs, which caused such indignation among 
 the Romanists, that he was compelled to leave 
 the couiitrj', 1539. During his exile he taught in 
 Paris, Bordeaux, Coimbra, etc. ; and to this 
 period belong his Latin translations of Medea 
 and Alcestis, and his two Latin tragedies, Jcphtex 
 and Bitplistes. Returned to Scotland in IStJO, he 
 was appointed tutor to Queen Mary in 1562, 
 principal of St. Leonard's College, St. Andrew's, 
 1566, and tutor to .James VI. in 1570. During 
 this last period of his life he wrote his Latin 
 translation of the P.salms, his Dc Jure Jier/ni ajnid 
 Scolos (condemned in 1584, and burnt in l(i83), 
 and JieruiH Scoticurum Ilist/irin, his principal 
 work. His life was written by Dr. Irvi.no, 1817. 
 
 BUCK, Charles, the never-to-be-forgotten au- 
 thor of the Tluoloijical Diclionari/, a work which 
 has .sold enormously in Great Britain and Ameri- 
 ca, has appeared in many shapes, undea- different 
 editors, and yet is so admirably composed that it 
 cannot become entirely antiquated. Mr. Buck 
 was born in 1771 ; labored in the ministry of 
 the Independents of England until his death, in 
 1815. His Diclionari/ appeared London, 1802, 
 2 vols. 8vo. ; in 1821, 1 vol. 8vo. ; edited and 
 much improved by Rev. Dr. Henderson, London, 
 1847; 1 vol. Svo, pp. 788, Philadelphia, U.S.A., 
 1869. Another work, of less \alue, but of great 
 popularity, was. Anecdotes, Relif/ious, Moral, and 
 Entertidninq, London, 1799; 6th ed., corrected, 
 1815; lOth'ed., 1842. 
 
 BUCKMINSTER, Joseph, b. at Rutland, Mass., 
 Oct. 14, 1751; d. at Portsmouth, N.IL, .June 10, 
 1812; studied at Yale College, and wiis ordained 
 minister of the North Church in Portsmouth in 
 1779. He published a memoir of Dr. McClin- 
 lock, and some sermons. His .sou, Joseph Ste- 
 vens Buckminster, b. in Portsmcnith, May 2(5, 
 1784; d. in Boston, June 9, 1812; studied at 
 Harvard College; took charge of the Bruttle- 
 street Church in Boston in 1805; an<l was ap- 
 pointed professor of biblical criticism at Harvard 
 College in 1811. lie published a volume of ser- 
 mons, which was reprinted in Loudon. See 
 Memoirs of the liurl.niinsters. Father and Son, by 
 Jlrs. I.ii;. Boston, 1S51. 
 
 BUDDEUS, Johann Franz, b. at Anclam, loni- 
 erania, .June 25, 1667; d. at Jena, Nov. 19, 1729; 
 .studied at (ireil'swald, and became professor of 
 philosophy at Wittemberg in 1687, and at .lemi 
 in 1689; jn-ofessor of (ireek and Latin at Cobnrg 
 in 1()92; profess(U'of moral jihilosophy at Halle in 
 1693; and ])rofessor of theology at .lena in 1705. 
 He was a man of g(Miuiiie piety and imnieuso 
 learning; .and he exercised a inccious inthience, 
 both by the coneili;itory (lositioii he oeenjiied 
 among the various theological and ])hilosopliieal 
 schools, and by the (■learne.ss and case with which 
 iu his writings he liaiidleil eMormoMS masses of 
 materials. The most prominent among his worka
 
 BUDDHISM. 
 
 333 
 
 BUDDHISM. 
 
 ;;;'•" 
 
 DC 
 
 are, Elementa Philosophkc Practicic, 1097 ; Iiislilu- 
 tionex T/ieolo(/i(E Moralis, 1711, wliich. executed 
 under the iiiHuenceof Speiier, caused the casuisti- 
 cal elements to disappear altogether from tlie 
 Protestant treatment of Christian morals; also 
 his Ixaqoqe llistorica ad Tlieoloyiam Unireratim, 
 1727, is remarkable. K. SCIIWAUZ. 
 
 BUDDHISM,^ the religion of five hundred mil- 
 lions of our race, is the system of religious truth 
 taught originally by Gautama (or (Jotama), the 
 son of Mayadevi, the queen of Suddhodana, king 
 of Kapilavastu, a place about one hundred miles 
 north-east of Benares. lie was b. probably B.C. 
 ()".22 or 556, in the garden of Lumbini, and d. at 
 Kusinagara, B.C. 54;{ or 477. Tlie story of his 
 life in its simplest form is as follows : One day 
 Mayadevi, while dreaming, saw Bud<lha descend 
 from heaven in the form of a white elephant, 
 attended by a myriad of heavenly beings, and 
 enter her womb. The incident was interpreted by 
 the Brahmaus who had been summoned by the 
 king for the purpose, as prophesying that the 
 future king would either be a world-emperor of 
 ideal beauty of character, or else, if he renounced 
 his temporal dominion, a Buddha, the .savior of 
 the worlds. When the time of her confinement 
 was near, Mayadevi started for her parents' house ; 
 but on the way, under a pipal-tree (Ficus relir/iosa), 
 her child was born. She hastened back again, 
 only, liowever, to die. The boy was named SiddJi- 
 arlha ("he by whom all ends are accomplished "). 
 His aunt, Mahaprajapati, who was also the king's 
 other wife, a childless woman, brought him up 
 tenderly. He was early married to his cousin, 
 the daughter of the rajah of Koli. But after a 
 time the splendors and pleasures of his daily life 
 ceased to satisfy him. He became conscious of a 
 far higher destiny than that of an earthly prince ; 
 and so in his twenty-ninth year he suddenly broke 
 loose from all his associations, and took up an 
 ascetic life. He first studied under two famous 
 Brahmans, Arada and Rudvaka; but, unsatisfied, 
 he went into the jungle, and there for six years, 
 accompanied by five disciples, lived so austerely 
 that he was wasted to a shadow. But when almost 
 dead he perceived his mistake, and at once took 
 proper food. This course of religious develop- 
 ment had been all along desperately opposed by 
 !Mara, the demon of desire, whose temptations 
 remind us of those to which Christ was subjected ; 
 but at last he conquered, and set forth to amelio- 
 rate the woi-ld. He regathered his five disciples, 
 whom his renunciation of asceticism had driven 
 away, and began to publish abroad the deep 
 things his meditations had revealed, and in his 
 first discourse propounded " the four sublime 
 truths," — pain, the eternal fact presented to con- 
 sciousness throughout the universe ; its oriyin in 
 desire, whicli leads to action, and consequent merit 
 and demerit; its prevention tlirough the u-ay, the 
 law promulgated by Buddha, or the eightfold 
 path (rigiit belief, feelings, speech, actions, means 
 of livelihood, endeavor, memory, and meditation). 
 He was then in his thirty-sixth year, possessed of 
 the perfect intelligence of a Buddha. He lived 
 for forty-four years thereafter, travelling about; 
 and when he died his body was burned with im- 
 
 ' The maUTinIs fur thin .irticle liave boon derived chiefly 
 from l*rofeH»«<»r Cowell's :irt. '* BudOliitim," in 8milhand Wace, 
 {IJict. C/ir. Biog.), and Uliyn Davidti'^ Bmliihitim. 
 
 perial obsequies, and his ashes sent to eight king- 
 doms, each of which built a monument over its 
 portion. 
 
 Gautama, or, as he is commonly called, Sah/a 
 Muni (" the Sakya sage "), like Socrates and 
 Jesus, proclaimed his doctrines orally, and wrote 
 nothing: at least nothing has been preserved. 
 But after his death five hundred of his di.sciple.f 
 held a council, and each recited what he had 
 heard, and then tlie whole assembly reiieated 
 aloud what had been thus gathered up. 15y a 
 second and third council tlie teachings of (iartta- 
 ma were formulated; but it is not proved that 
 any written statement of them is earlier tliau 
 B.C. 100-88. It is yet unsettled whether the 
 original language was Sanscrit or Pali, probably 
 the latter. 
 
 Present Buddhism is a development of the 
 primitive faith, which had three objects, — morali- 
 ty, asceticism, and nircima. The cardinal tenets 
 are the four truths already stated. It is open to 
 any thing, even to a worm, to become a Buddlia, 
 provided this high ottice is kept steadily in view 
 through the long succession of births. In the 
 past thei-e have been many Buddhas, and in tlie 
 future there will be as many. When at last one 
 by his self-negation and virtue has become ?i, poten- 
 tial Buddha {Bodhinatlira), he awaits in heaven his 
 final change, — his birth as a man, — for then he 
 is perfected. He is born either a male Brahman, 
 or a Kshatriya (Gautama's caste); gains intelli- 
 gence under the bndlii tree at Gaysi; and begins 
 his preaching in the deer-paik at Benares, and 
 preaches precisely the same doctrines as all his 
 predecessors. Gautama's Buddha,sliip was for five 
 thousand years. Then he will enter nirtcnia, an<l 
 the next Buddha, Maitreya, will appear, and re- 
 store to all its influence the old docti'ine. 
 
 The Buddhists divide all being into the five 
 classes: (1) Buddhas: (2) Bud/iixalta-as (future 
 Buddhas) ; (3) Pralyeka-tiur/dlias (individual Buil- 
 dhas, who have attained to perfect knowledge, but 
 have .sought it only for themselves, while tlie 
 Buddha attains know-ledge in order that he may 
 impart it) ; (4) Ari/as (the saints who have l>egun 
 to tread the road to nirvana), who are divided int<i 
 four clas.ses, called "paths," cacl( of which is sub- 
 divided into those who are nearing the end of 
 their " path," and those who have ended it. The 
 first path is called coHccr.smn, or "entering upon 
 the stream;" while in it the aspirant "becomes 
 free successively from the delusion of self, from 
 doubt as to Buddha and his doctrines, and from 
 the belief in the efficacy of rites and ceremonies." 
 The second path is that of those u-lio will nnly 
 return once to tliis world : the third is that of those 
 who will never return to this world; and tlie fourth 
 that of the Worthy Ones, the Arhats, who are 
 entirely free from all sin, and able to know every 
 thing, to see every thing, and to go everywhere, 
 in any form. There is but one change more, — 
 nirvana. What is riiVrana .*■ Extinction. Annihi- 
 lation is really all that awaits the Arhat, accord- 
 ing to the philosophic writings of the Buddliists. 
 as interpreted by many scholars. But Air. Kliys 
 Davids puts an entirely different construction 
 upon 7?iVca)m, which he grants does mean "extinc- 
 tion," but not the extinction of a soul. He says, 
 " It is the extinction of that sinful, grasping con- 
 dition of mind and heart which would otlierwise
 
 BUDDHISM. 
 
 334 
 
 BUDDHISM. 
 
 be the cause of renewed individual existence." 
 In a word it is "iioliness," ••perfect peace, good- 
 ness, and wisdom " (BiK/ilhisrui, pp. 111,:2). (5) 
 ■Prilliuf/jana)', the ordinary disciples wlio content 
 themselves with ordinary duties, and do not aspire 
 to the transcendental perfections of the Aryas. 
 'I'hese are, of course, the vast majority. 
 
 The five above-mentioned gradatiojis, however, 
 mostly belong to the unseen world. The visible 
 tBtiddhist communion has necessarily other divis- 
 ions. The Buddhist " church " is called Saiii/ha ; 
 aii4 the Iri-rafna, or "three precious things," — 
 Buddha, the law, and the assembly (sant/lm), — 
 are contumally mentioned in Buddhist formulas 
 and books ; but the present hierarchy is not primi- 
 tive, but developed. The saiii/ha is composed of 
 "religious mendicants" (l/lilkslius), who, after a 
 novitiate, take vows of chastity and poverty, — 
 vows, however, which are not irrevocable at tlie 
 
 S resent day, nor, apparently, at any pre\-ious time, 
 uddha from the first discouraged all painful as- 
 ceticism, so prevalent in Brahminism, but laid 
 great stress on a mendicant and celibate life. In 
 contradistinction to the devotees', the duties of 
 tlie laity are included in the three formulas of 
 " taking " refuge (•' I take refuge in Buddha, in 
 his doctrine, and in his community"), and the "five 
 jM-dhibitious," i.e., against tlie sins of murder, 
 theft, unchastity, lying, and the use of intoxicating 
 drinks. The morality of Buddhism is its bright- 
 est side. The purity and benevolence of Buddhist 
 books supply tlie want of poetry, for they are 
 usuallj' of little literary merit, and' strongly excite 
 the interest of the reader. 
 
 As Buddliism does not recognize the idea of 
 God, it has properly no worship or sacrifices, and 
 originally no religious ceremonies ; but as it 
 spread, a cultus arose. The images and relics of 
 Buddha himself and the other holy personages 
 of the legends were worshipped ; and the ceremo- 
 nies consisted of offerings of flowers and perfumes 
 with music, and tne recital of hymns and prayers. 
 Formulas of prayer have also come into use, al- 
 though the idea of a being who answers prayer 
 isutterly foreign to the system. The prayers "are 
 supposed to produce their effect by a kind of magi- 
 cal efficacy. Hence the praying-machines of Tibet 
 and -Mongolia are logical consequences. The reli- 
 gious connuunities assemble for prayer three times 
 a day; i.e., morning, noon, and evening. They 
 publicly confess their sins on the days of the new 
 and full moon ; and the laity also attend for con- 
 fession, and to listen to the reading of some sacred 
 text. Besides these days, there are several otlu^r 
 fast-days in the month. The end of the Buddhist 
 system is nirvana, or extinction. In theory this 
 is really what awaits the faithful disciple, accord- 
 ing to his creed; but it can hardly l)e di.sputed 
 that the great mass of Buddhist believers in every 
 age have given to nirmna a vague meaning of 
 future happiness. 
 
 Buddhism began to decline in India in the 
 .seventh century, and was extinct in the sixteenth. 
 I5ut previously it had bless(!d with its light the 
 nations around. Like Christianity, it jiropagated 
 itself by preacliing ami (jnii't missionary labors ; 
 and .so it spread to China, whi!re it is one of the 
 tliree co-ordinate religions. (.See Lit. below.) 
 From China it liiw sjnead into Coiea and Japan. 
 Indirectly it has influenced the West. Gnosticism 
 
 and Maniclwism were unions of Buddhism with 
 Christianity; and so it made itself known in a 
 perverted way to the Western M'orld. Stray 
 references are found in Clemens .\lexandrinus 
 {Strom, i. 15) and Jerome {Adc. Jorinianum. i. 
 i'2). Some suppose that the halo around the he;id 
 of Christ and his saints was borrowed from the 
 Buddhist pictures of Buddlia and his principal 
 disciples, in which it is found. Rightly to esti- 
 mate this Buddliist influence on the world, we 
 must remember that it sprang up in India. 
 Nearly all its tenets were based on the immemo 
 rial belief of the Hindu mind. It was the moral 
 teaching of Buddha, and his proclamation th.at 
 the higliest religious truth w'as open to all castes 
 alike, which formed the special features of his 
 system. All else he only borowed or modified 
 from the Brahmans whom he opposed. 1 here 
 were, in truth, only three creative national intel- 
 lects in the ancient world, — the Hebrew, th3 
 (ireek, and the Hindu; and Buddhism is that 
 product of the Hindu mind, which, for good or 
 for evil, has most widely influenced mankind. 
 
 In Tibet, Buddhism has developed itself into 
 a hierarchy, and acquired temporal power under 
 the name of Lainaism. The form of ecclesiastical 
 government and service bears striking resem- 
 blance to the Roman-Catholic. The .Spirit of the 
 Buddhas is believed to be present in the cl,uluk!ii!i, 
 who occupy a position similar to that of cardinal, 
 and to be especially incarnate in the Dalai Lama, 
 the infallible Head of the Church, the Buddhi.st 
 Pope, who is also the sole temporal sovereign of 
 Tibet. See T. W. Rhys Davids, Bwlillii^in, pp. 
 2I8-'250, for account of the service in Lhassa 
 Cathedral. 
 
 Rffonned Buddhism is a recent development in 
 China and Japan. It plainly shows the influence 
 of Christianity upon thoughtful Orientals who 
 yet are not converted. In China tlie sects of 
 Reformed Buddhists are numerous; but they 
 generally agree in rejecting polytheism, and in 
 wor.shipping some one divinity; e.g., the godde.ss 
 of mercy. One sect calls itself (Salvation) Witli- 
 out Workx. Ill Japan more advance has been 
 made. The sect assumes the title of Slnn-shln, or 
 tlie true religion. In Kioto they have a college, 
 which is ^\'cste^n in its arrangements and cur- 
 riculum. 'J'lieir creed is, " Rejecting all religious 
 austerities and other action, giving iqi all idea of 
 .self-power, we rely upon Amita (Infinite) Buddha 
 with tlie whole heart for our salvation in tlie 
 future life, wliich is the most important thing; be- 
 lieving, that, >at the moment of putting our faith 
 in .\mita Buddha, our .salvation is .settled. From 
 that moiiKMit invocation of his name is observed, to 
 express thankfulness and gratitude for Buddha's 
 mercy. Moreover, being thankful for the recei> 
 tion of his doctrine from the founder and suc- 
 ceeding priests, we must also keep the laws, 
 which are fixed for our duty during our whole 
 life." 1'he striking resemblances to Christianity 
 are: 1. AVorship is rendered to one Buddlia, to 
 the exclusion of all others ; '2. This one Buddha 
 bears the title of Amita, the " Bouiidlrss," or 
 Infinite; 3. The worshipjier renounces all per- 
 sonal merit, and ]>uts failh in nothing but the 
 mercy of .\niita ; 1. The soul is broiigiit into a 
 state of .salvation by tlic act of faith; .5. Though 
 salvation is thenceforward assured, the believer
 
 BUDE. 
 
 335 
 
 BULGARIA. 
 
 does not abaiiiloii tlie conflict with sin ; Imt 
 growth in liolincss is tlio result, not tlic cause, of 
 salvation. Thus Kefornied Huddhisni has niad<( 
 an iiiuncnso and radical advance u|ion the origi- 
 nal faith, which had no (!od, no jiraycr, no cheer, 
 only austerities, and at last annihilation. Truly 
 the leaven of the Gospel is working. 
 
 Lit. — Only a few titles can be given. On 
 the general subject, C. F. KOppkn : Die Rtdi- 
 Ijion lies Buddha u. ihre Enlste/mni/ (18.'j7), and 
 Die lamnische Hierarckie u. Kircha (1851)); 
 Max MUllku: Ancient Sanscrit Literature (18150), 
 Chips from a German Workshop (1868 sqij.), and 
 Lecture on Buddhist NihUism; St. IIilaihe : Le 
 Buuddha et sa Reliyion (18(J(J). For Northern 
 Buddhism, see Buhnouf : Introduction h Vliisloire 
 da Buililhisme Indien (184-1), and Le Lotus de la 
 bonne Loi (185^); Julien : Votjages des pe'lerins 
 Bouddhistes (1853-58) ; Wassilief : Der Buil- 
 dhismus (18(J0). For Southern Buddhism, TuR- 
 KOUR : Maliawanso (1837); R. S. IIahdy: East- 
 ern Monachism (1850), Manual of Buddhism (18(50, 
 2d ed., 1880), Lef/emls ami Theories of the Bud- 
 dhists (1860); Bishop Bigandet: Li/'e of Gau- 
 da:na Buddha (1866, 3d ed., 1880, 2 vols.); T. 
 \V. R. Davids: Translation nf Fausbolt Collection 
 of Buddhist Birth Stories (1880). For Chinese 
 Buddhism, Beal: Catena of Bwldhist Scriptures, 
 from the Chinese (1871), and Itomantic Hislori/ of 
 Salya Buddha, from the Chinese-Sanscrit (1875) ; 
 Edkins: Chinese Buddhism (London, 1880). For 
 Tibetan Buddhism, Sciiiefneu: Eine lihetische 
 Lebensbeschreibung Schakjamunis (18411) ; Schla- 
 gixweit: Buddhism in Tibet (1863); Hodgson: 
 Essays (1874). For a bibliography complete up 
 to 18G8, see Otto and Ristneu : Buddha and 
 his Doctrines (1869, Triibner & Co., London). 
 For complete and clearly arranged bibliogi'aphy 
 of Buddhist and aU other Oriental literature, see 
 the annual Bihiiotheca Orientalis (1876 sqq., Leijv 
 zig, Paris, London, and New York), compiled by 
 Charles Friederici ; an exceedingly meritorious 
 little work. On the comparison between Chris- 
 tianity and Buddhism, see Hardwick: Christ 
 and other Ufasters (ed. by Proctor, 3d ed., London, 
 1874) ; Marcus Uods : Mohammed, Buddha, and 
 Christ (London, 1878) ; P. Wurm : Der Buddhis- 
 mus, Oder der vorchrislliche Versuch einer erlosenden 
 Unicersalreligion (GUtersloh, 1880), a small but 
 excellent pamphlet of 50 pages; A. Lillie : 
 Buddha and Early Buddhism, London, 1881. In- 
 strnotive, though too much evangelized, is the 
 poem on Buddhism by Edwin Arnold: The 
 Light of Asia (London and Boston, 1879). A 
 translation of the Dhammapada, and of the Sutta- 
 Nipata, canonical books of tlie Buddhists, is 
 given in vol. x., and of other Suttas in vol. xi., 
 of The Sacred Books of the East, ed. by F. Max 
 Midler, London, 1881. S.VMUEL M. JACKSON. 
 
 BUD^ (Budaeus), Guillaume, b. in 1467; d. 
 1540; librarian to Francis I., and a man of influ- 
 ence ; was secretly in favor of an ecclesiastical 
 reform, but afraid of an open rupture with the 
 Church. His De Asse, Pai'is, 1514, contains 
 heavy saicasms on the clergy and the Pope; and 
 in his De Transitu Hellenixmi ad Christianismum 
 he maintains that true wisdom is not to be found 
 in the Pagan literatures, but only in the practice 
 of the precepts of Christ. By his will he forbade 
 the ceremonies of the Roman ritual to be per- 
 
 formed at his burial as mere imitations of iK-ath&n 
 customs. C. SCIIMIUT. 
 
 BUDINGTON, William Ives, D.D., a beloved 
 and able Congregatinual minister, b. April 21, 
 1815, at Ni'W Haven, ('(inn.; d. in Brooklyn, 
 Nov. 29, 1879. He graduated at Vale College in 
 1834; studied theology in the New-Haven and 
 Andover Senunaries, graduating from the last in 
 1839; and from April 22, 184(1, to 1855, he was 
 pastor of the First Church, Cliarlostown. On 
 April 22 of tliat year hi; began his services in the 
 Clinton-avenue Congregational Churcli, Bi'ooklyh, 
 N.Y. In 1845 he published his History of the 
 First Church, Charlestown, Mass. Ho was a fre- 
 quent contributor to the press, and issued a 
 variety of sermons, etc. He enjoyed the esteem 
 and confidence of his congregation not only, but 
 of his denomination and tlie Christian public in 
 high degree. 
 
 BUGENHAGEN, Johann, b. at Wollin, Pome- 
 rania, June 24, 14^5; d. at Wittenberg, Ap>ril 20, 
 15.j8; studied at Creifswald, and was hi 1504 
 appointed rector of the school of Treptow, which 
 he soon brought into a very flourishing state. 
 The writings of Erasmus and the Humanists had 
 early lea him to understand that an ecclesiastical 
 reform was a necessity ; but it was Luther's book 
 De Captivitate Babylonica which revealed the truth 
 to him. In 1521 he went to Wittenberg; and in 
 1522 he was apjiointed minister at the collegiate 
 church of that city, in which position he remained 
 for the rest of his life. He possessed a very 
 extraordinary talent of organization. Without 
 causing any great disturbances, he established the 
 Reformation in Brunswick, Hamburg, ai.d Lu- 
 beck ; and the church constitutions whicli he gave 
 these cities became the norm and rule for many 
 others. In 1537 he went to Copenhagen, where 
 he staid to 1542, re-organizing the whole Dan- 
 ish Church and the University of Copeuhagen. 
 Among his works are a history of I'omerania 
 written in Latin in 1518, but not printed until 
 1728; Historie d. Leidens und d. Aujerstchung Jesu 
 Ckristi, 1530, often rejirinted, and a commentary 
 on tiie Psalms, which Luther valued very highly. 
 His life has been written by Janckens, Rostoclc, 
 1757; Enqelken, Berlin, 1817; Zietz, Leipzig, 
 1834; Meurer, Leipzig, 1862; Vogt, Elberfeld, 
 1867. G. I'LITT. 
 
 BULGARIA. Some fifteen hundred years ago, 
 there existed a Bulgarian kingdom on tlie banks 
 of the Volga. Whence these Bulgarians came, 
 who they were, and wliy they were called by this 
 name, cannot be certainly known ; but there is 
 reason to believe that they were of Finnish 
 origin. About 680 A.D. a portion of the Bul- 
 garians left the Volga, crossed the Danube, and, 
 under the leadership of the Krai Asparuch, occu- 
 pied the country as far as the Balkans. The 
 Slavic tribes who occupied this region submitted 
 to their conqueror; but, as ha-s often liappeiied 
 in these national migrations, the native element 
 proved to be the stronger. The Bulgarian lan- 
 guage disappeared ; and the people were amalga- 
 mated into a single nation, retaining the name of 
 the conquerors, and but little else. 
 
 This new Bulgarian nation was converted to 
 Christianity about the year 860 by \\\o Slavic 
 apostles, Cyril the theologian, and ]\"lethodius the 
 painter, natives of Salouica. It was the skill of
 
 BULGARIA, 
 
 336 
 
 BULL. 
 
 the painter who pictured the Day of Judgment, 
 rather than the ai-gunients of the theologian, which 
 converted King Boris, and througli him tlie na- 
 tion. Tlie capital of the kingdom at that time 
 was Preslava near Shumla. There is no con- 
 nected history of the Bulgarian kingdom or 
 church ; but many important facts may be 
 gleaned from Byzantine histoi-y and Slavic wTit- 
 ers. They owe their alphabet and their Bible to 
 CjTil and Methodius. They were engaged in 
 constant wars with the Greeks, often defeated 
 them, especially in 811, when King Krum de- 
 feated and killed the Emperor Nicephorus; in 
 913, when Simeon, the greatest of Bulgarian 
 kings, besieged Constantinople; and in 1186, 
 when King Assen re-established the kingdom, 
 after it had been subjugated for a hundred and 
 seventy years. In 1205 Ivan, or Calo-John as 
 he is known in Europe, allied himself with the 
 (ireeks against the Latins, defeated and killed 
 Baldwin, Emperor of Constantinople, and Boni- 
 face, King of Salouica. Tlie last of the Bulga- 
 rian kings was Ivan Shishnian, who was finally 
 conquered by the Turks in 1393, and his kingdom 
 annexed to the Ottoman Empire. In 1878, after 
 the Uus.so-Turkish war, Bulgaria beyond the 
 Balkans was constituted a semi-independent prin- 
 cipality, and Bulgaria south of the Balkans, a 
 semi-independent province called Eastern Rou- 
 mclia. 
 
 The ecclesiastical history of these centuries may 
 be told iu a few words. King Boris, after his 
 conversion, negotiated with Rome and Constanti- 
 nople, lie got the best of advice from Pope 
 Nicolaus I., which may still be seen in his letter 
 preserved at Rome (See Mansi : Com. Coll. XV. 
 pp. 401-434) ; but he finally accepted an arch- 
 bishop from Constantinople. In the early part 
 of the tenth century, there was a Bulgarian Patri- 
 arch at Preslava, independent of Constantinople. 
 King Sanuiel transferred the Patriarch to Ochrida. 
 The Emperor Basil, snrnamed the " Slayer of 
 Bulgarians," conquered them in 1019 ; and for a 
 linndred and seventy years they were imder the 
 Patriarch of Constantinople. When King Assen 
 re-established the kingdom, he recognized the 
 Pope, and received a Latin archbishop at Tirnova. 
 The Church again became independent, under 
 King Ivan, early in the thirteenth century ; and 
 at the time of the Turkish conquest the Patriarch 
 was again located at Ochrida, where he continued 
 until 1777, when the Patriarch of Constantinople 
 succeeded, by intrigues with the Turks, in secur- 
 ing the abolition of this see, annexing it to his 
 own jurisdiction. 
 
 Immediately after the Crimean AVar, the Bulga- 
 rians began to agitate the question of their eccle- 
 siastical indepeiulence ; the Greeks having done 
 «very thing in their jiower to destroy the Bulga- 
 rian nationality, and to llellenize the people. 
 The Roman Catholics took advantage of this agi- 
 tation to intrigue; for a return to Rouk;. In 
 18l>0 they won over a Bulgarian priest, one Joseph 
 Sokolski, took him to Rome, and with great cere- 
 mony and display consecrated liim a Patriarch of 
 Bulgaria. He returned to Constantino]ile mider 
 French protection, but soon after snddi'nly dis- 
 appeared, and has since resided in Russia. The 
 movement was a total failme, the only Catholics in 
 Bulgaria being descendants of tiiu old Paulicians. 
 
 American missionaries went to Bulgaria in 
 1858, and immediately commenced translating the 
 Bible into the modern language. It has had 
 an immense circulation among the people. They 
 also established schools, and sought in every way 
 to enlighten the people. They had no little in- 
 fluence in helping on the rapid development of 
 the nation ; and, although but few have left tlu; 
 Bulgarian Church to call themselves Protestants, 
 the missionaries are on the best of terms with th<! 
 people, and the whole tendency of the Church it 
 toward reform. The missionaries represent the 
 American Boai-d of Commissioners for Foreign 
 Missions, and the Methodist-Episcopal Church of 
 America. There are now a hundred Bulgarian 
 students in Robert College at Constantinople. 
 
 After a long conflict with the Greek Patriarch 
 of Constantinople, after having driven the Greek 
 bishops out of the country, and lived for ten 
 years without bishops, the Bulgarians at last, in 
 1870, secured a firman from the Sultan, establish- 
 ing a national Bulgarian Church under an Exarch, 
 who was to be nominally subordinate to the Patri- 
 arch, but practically independent. The Greek 
 Patriarch then excommunicated the Exarch and 
 the whole Bulgarian nation, declaring them schis- 
 matics from the orthodox Church. This excom- 
 munication lias never been withdrawn ; but it has 
 not been recognized by other branches of the 
 Orthodox Church, in Russia, Greece, etc. The 
 Bulgarian Exarch still resides in Constantinople, 
 and exercises authority over Bulgaria, Eastern 
 Rounielia, and the Bulgarians in Macedonia. 
 In Macedonia there is still a painful conflict of 
 authority between him and the Patriarch, owing 
 to tlie fact that the firman given by tlio Sultan 
 has never been fully executed. All things con- 
 sidered, this Bulgarian Church is the most prom- 
 ising and most progTessive of the orthodox 
 churches of the East. 
 
 See art. on " The New Bulgaria," in Contempo- 
 rary Review of June, 1879, written by the author 
 of this article. O. WASHBURN (Consl.intinopU). 
 
 BULGARIS, Eugene, b. in Corfu, 171(); d. in 
 St. Petersburg, June 10, 1806 ; studied at Janiiia 
 and Padiui; taught in the schools of Janina, 
 Mount Athos, and Constantinople; but went in 
 1703 to Germany in order to escape from the 
 persecutions of the orthodox party in the Greek 
 Church, and was in 1776 called to Ru.ssia by 
 Catherine II., and made Archbishop of Cher.son. 
 Th<! most remarkable of his writings are, besides 
 a handbook of logic, still used in the (Jreek col- 
 lege.s, a Book mjainM llie Laliiis, Constantinojile, 
 1790, new ed. 1818, and a History of the Apostolic 
 A qe, I.*ipzig, 1805. His life was written by A. P. 
 ViiKTos, Ailicns, l.S(!0. 
 
 BULL, George, 1>. at Wells, Somer.set.shire, 
 Eng., March 'Jo, 1634; d. Feb. 17, 1710; studied 
 at Oxford; was Rector of St. George's, near Bris- 
 tol, then Rector of Suddington, (iloueestershire, 
 Archdeacon of I.landafl', and finally, since 1705, 
 Bishop of St. David's. His llarmonia Apostoliea 
 (1670) is an attempt to show that Paul and 
 James were fully agreed with respect to the doc- 
 trine of justification. His Defensio Fiilei Nieiiifr 
 (1685) is a most learned and elaborate attempt to 
 show that the orthodox doctrine of the 'I'rinitv 
 existed fully dc'veloped in the Christian Church 
 before the Council of Nice. The best edition
 
 BULL. 
 
 337 
 
 BUNSEN. 
 
 of his collected works is that hy Hurloii, Oxford, 
 1827, in 7 vols, in 8, containing the Life, liy Nel- 
 son. 
 
 BULL, Papal. See Biukfs and Rulls. 
 
 BULLINCER, Heinrich, b. at Brenigarten in 
 the canton of Aargan, .Inly IS, 151)1; d. at Zuiicli, 
 Sept. 17, 1575. He was edneated in the scliooi of 
 Emmerich; studied at Cologne, and was by the 
 " Sentences " of Peter Lombard led to the writings 
 of Augustine and Chrysostoni, and by the works 
 of the Fathers to the liilile itself. Thus pre- 
 pared, he received a deep impression of tlie writ- 
 mgs of Luther and Melanchthon, and by Zwingli 
 he was completely won for the cause of the 
 Reformation. Appointed teacher in the cloister 
 school of (lappel in 1522, lie lectured on ^Melanch- 
 thon's Loci Communes, and in 1528 he accom- 
 panied Zwingli to the disputation of Bern. In 
 1529 he was clio.sen pastor of his native city, and 
 in the same year he married. After the battle 
 of Cappel, however (Oct. 11, 1.531), in which 
 Zwingli fell, he was compelled to leave lirenigar- 
 ten. He went to Zurich; and Dec. 9, 1531, he 
 was chosen chief pastor of Ziirich, in the stead of 
 Zwingli. With great energy and mildness he 
 filled this difficult office, and contributed much 
 to establish the Reformation in Switzerland. In 
 the controversy concerning the Lord's Supper he 
 wrote with great dignity against Luther, and 
 Butzer's attempts at reconciliation fomid very 
 little favor with him. JNIore happily ended the 
 dissension, between him and Calvin, which re- 
 sulted in the Consensus Tiijui-inus, an agreement 
 on the doctrine of the sacrajuents. The Second 
 Helvetic Confession, drawn up by Bullinger in 
 1560, is the most elaborate Reformed creed, and 
 was adopted in Switzerland, Hungary, Bohemia, 
 and other churches. His writings are very nu- 
 merous, and were highly esteemed in England 
 during the reign of Elizabeth. The catalogue of 
 the city library of Ziirich mentions about a hun- 
 dred. But they have never been collected. They 
 consist of commentaries on the Bible, sermons, 
 polemics against the Lutlierans, the Anabaptists, 
 etc., and dogniatical expositions, De Gratia Dei 
 Juslijicantc, De Scripturw Sanclce Autoritatc, etc. 
 Many of his sermons have been translated into 
 English : One Hundred Sermons on the Apocalypse, 
 1.581; Twentij-six Sermons on Jeremiah, 1583; Fire 
 Decades of Sermons (1.387), reprinted in 4 vols. 
 (1819). His life was written by Carl Pesta- 
 i.ozzi, 1858, and Raget CintisTOFKKL, 1875. See 
 also G. II. Zni.MERMANN, DieZHricher Kirche iind 
 ihre Antisles, Ziirich, 1877. JUSTUS IIEER. 
 
 BUNGENER, Felix, the author of the Histor;/ 
 of the Cuuriril of Trent, h. at Marseilles, 1814; d. 
 at Geneva, June 14, 1874. He took his degree at 
 Strassburg ; was ordained in Geneva ; pursued the 
 sacred calling for five years, but finally abandoned 
 it for teaching and literature. From 1853 to tlie 
 year of his death he edited an annual chronicle, 
 the Eirennes reliyieuses, particularly devoted to 
 the history of the attack on the Genevan Protes- 
 tants by their two foes, ultramontanism and sci- 
 ence, "falsely so called." In 1863 he wrote his 
 pathetic Trois jours de la mart d'un pere, which 
 proved the existence of a tenderer heart than he 
 was credited with by many. He was indited a 
 man of rai-e moral as well as intellectual quali- 
 t' yS. The tvorks by which he is best known are 
 23 — 1 
 
 the historical romances, Un Sermon sous Louis 
 XIV., 1843 ("The Preacher and the King," 
 Boston, n.d.), — this gave him a gTeat reputation. 
 //«.< trois sermons sous Louis A' P., 1849, 3 vols. 
 ("The Priest and tlie Huguenot," Boston, n.d., 2 
 vols.), and, above all, the liistory, Ilistoire du con- 
 cile de Trenle, 1847,2 vols. ("History of the Coun- 
 cil of Trent," N. Y., 1855). In 1853 he conceived 
 the idea of writing a series which should oppo.s*; 
 Rome successively to the Bible, moral philosophy, 
 and history. In 1859 he issued the first volume. 
 Home et la Bihle ; in \S(j\, Jionie et le coeur hinnain 
 The calling of the Vatican Coinicil interrupted 
 the series, and led him to write, in 1870, I'upe el 
 Concile au XIXe siecle (" Rome and the Council 
 in the Nineteenth Century," Edinburgh, 1870). 
 Besides these works he w rote Voltaire et son siecle 
 (2 vols. 1851) ; Julicn, ou la fn d'un silicic (4 vole. 
 1854) ; Christ et le siecle (1850) ; and on Calvin 
 (1803), Lincoln (18G5), Saint Paul (1807). A 
 volume of Sermons was published after his dealli 
 (1875). He aided by solid, lasting compositions, 
 the cause of Protestantism, so dear to his heart. 
 His writings were very numerous : numy remain 
 still impiiblished. See Felix Uuur/ener, by JiiA.v 
 G Ai!i:i!i:i., in Etrcnnc rclii/ieusc for 1875. 
 
 BUNSEN, Christian Karl Joslas, b. at Korbach, 
 ui the principality of Waldeck, Aug. 25, 1791 ; d. 
 at Bonn, Nov. 28, 1800. He studied theology and 
 philology in Marburg and fiottiuOTn, 1808-13; 
 was by his acquaintance with Niebuhr and Sil- 
 vestre de Sacy led to the study of ancient hi.slory 
 and Oriental languages, and was preparing for a 
 journey to the East, when, in 1818, he settled in 
 Rome, first as secretary to the Prussian embassy, 
 then as charye' d'affaires since 1823, and since 1827 
 as minister resident. In 1839 he was sent as 
 minister to Bern, and in 1841 to London, where 
 he remained till 1854. The rest of his life he 
 spent a-s a private citizen, mostly residing at Hei- 
 delberg, and devoting himself to literary pur- 
 suits, — philology, history, and theology. Among 
 his historical works are Die Basilihen des christ- 
 lichen Rams, Munich, 1843, and yEyyptens Slelle 
 in der Weltyeschichtc, Hamburg, 1844-57, G vols., 
 of which work is a shorter but nuich improved 
 English edition, Eyi/pt's Place in Universal History, 
 with notes and additions by S. Birch, London, 
 1847-67. Also some of his theological writings 
 have an historical character, such as lynatius von 
 Antiochien tind seine Zeit, Hamburg, 1847, and 
 Hippolylus and his Aye, London, 1852, 2 vols., 
 which, together with his Analecta Ante-Nicecna. 
 and Outlines of the Philosophy of Universal History, 
 form his great work, Christianily and Mankind. 
 London, 1854, 7 vols. A directly polemical char- 
 acter have his Die Verfassuny der Kirche der Zu- 
 kunft (1845) and Die Zeichen der Zeit (185.5), both 
 translated into English under the titles, 7'he 
 Church of the Future, and The Siyns of the Times, 
 the latter of which involved him in a sharp con- 
 troversy with Stahl and Hengstenberg. As the 
 positive complement to his polemical and critical 
 writings may be considered his Vollsldndiyes Bibel- 
 zverh filr die Gemeinde, 9 vols., 1858, finished by 
 H. Holtzmann in 1870. His jl/oHo/re, containing • 
 parts of his private correspondence, were published 
 in 1808 by his widow. His correspondence with 
 Humboldt appeared in 1809, and parts of his 
 correspondence with Friedrich AVillielm IV. iu
 
 BUNTING. 
 
 338 
 
 BUNYAN. 
 
 1873. [Baron von Biinsen was a Christian noble- 
 man of comprehensive cultiue, broad views, and 
 great personal attraction. His hospitable home 
 at the Capitol at Home and at Carlton Terrace in 
 London, was the centre of literafy celebrities 
 from all countries. He was an interpreter of 
 German thought to England, and an intimate 
 friend of Thomas Arnold, Archdeacon Hare, and 
 Professor Maurice. He helped to establish the 
 Anglo-Prussian bishopric at Jerusalem, as a basis 
 of a larger luiion between the German evangeli- 
 cal and the Anglican churches. Like his royal 
 patron and friend, Frederic William IV. of 
 Prussia, he had a romantic turn of mind, and 
 engaged iu fanciful schemes. He entertained 
 many questionable opinions; but his heart was 
 fixed on Christ as his divine Sa'\-iour, and he died 
 in that faith. His wife was one of the noblest 
 and most cultured English ladies of the age, and 
 her memoir of her husband is an abiding monu- 
 ment to botJl.] ADOLF KAMI'lIAUSEX. 
 
 BUNTING, Jabez, a very influential name in 
 tlie English S\'esleyan Church, b. at Jlanches- 
 ter, May I'i, 1779 ; d. June 16, 1858. Educated 
 very carefully in his native town, and naturally 
 of superior mental gifts, a man of great sagacity 
 and power of administration, from the time of 
 liis becoming a member of conference (1799) lie 
 steadily rose in the estimation of liis brethren 
 and tlie Church at large. For fiftj'-seven years he 
 served liis denomination. From 1834 to his death 
 he was president of the newly-established Wes- 
 leyan Theological Institution, which has done 
 much to elevate the standard of 'W'esleyan minis- 
 terial culture ; was four times president of the 
 conference, and for eighteen years secretary of 
 the AV^esleyan Missionary Society, to whose suc- 
 cess he so largely contributed. Through liini the 
 lay element was brought out in the management 
 of the Church. In every position IJr. Bunting 
 was eminent. His word was law. But he used 
 his influence for no personal ends, and withal 
 kept his heart pure and humble. Posthumous 
 Hermons, 2 vols., 1861. See Memoir bj' his son 
 and (i. S. Rowe, Loudon, 1859-87. 
 
 BUNYAN, John, the "Immortal Dreamer of 
 Bedl'oiil .biil," 1). N'nvember, 1628, at Klstow, one 
 mile from Bedford, Eng. ; d. in London, Aug. 31, 
 1688. He was a tinker, like his father before him, 
 brought up to attend the National Church, but was, 
 according to his own confession, which must, how- 
 ever, be received with caution, in youth given to 
 lying and swearing, alfliougli he was never drunk, 
 
 Eerfectly cliaste, and in truth greatly superior to 
 is class. For a few niontlis in 1645 he was in 
 the army, it is uncertain imon which side, and 
 was present at the siege of Leicester. A j'ear 
 after his return to Elstow, he married. He was 
 then about twenty years old. But with the set- 
 ting up of his home begair his mental troubles. 
 He became a prey to melancholy upon religion; 
 and the wildest delusions seized fiis fertile brain. 
 His wife brought him as her only portion two books 
 which she iniierited from her father, — Bishop 
 Lewis Baily's The Prartire of J'icli/, and Arthur 
 Dent's 'J'hi; Plain Man's P(tlliim>i tn IIi(ircn,\\\\v-\\ 
 TV'as an allegory, first ]mblislied in 1622, — and in 
 herself a living emliodiiiient of the Puritanical 
 teaching. Such contact ])roduced at tlie liegin- 
 ning a great thougli painful impression upon liim. 
 
 He gave up reluctantly but conscientiously, one 
 after another, the innocent amusements of dan- 
 cing, tipcat, ringing the village church-bells, and 
 reading the life of Sir Levis of Southamjiton. a 
 semi-Oriental and absurd romance very popular 
 in his day. But he thus became a Pharisee, main- 
 taining a strict conversation, indeed, without hav- 
 ing a heart in the business. God was, however, 
 fitting hini in a wonderful way for the immortal 
 book he was to write ; and co he passed from 
 formalism to faith by the " straight way " of an 
 excited, tender conscience. He was morbidly 
 sensitive to sin ; he was tormented by dread of 
 reprobation ; he was tempted to commit the un- 
 pardonable sin ; he thought his day of grace was 
 ended. But amid this spiritual darkness he pros- 
 pered in business. The best evidence of this is, 
 that in 1653 his name appears among thirty-six 
 appended to an address sent up from Bedford- 
 shire to Cromwell, approving the dismissal of the 
 Long Parliament, and recommending the country 
 magistrates as fit persons to serve in the Assembly 
 which was to take its place ; which proves that 
 he must have been at least a householder, and a 
 person of consideration. 
 
 In the mercy of God, morning at length dawned 
 upon the sold of the tinker. He was converted, 
 not by any means instantaneously, for the meas- 
 ured steps of his Godward progress can be dis- 
 tinctly traced, but slow ly and thoughtfully. 1 he 
 pious w'omen of Bedford whose talk upon the 
 " new birth " arrested his attention one day as he 
 was passing carelessly along; the godly John (iif- 
 ford, himself a reformed reprobate ; the Baptist 
 minister in Bedford, to whom the pious women 
 introduced hun, — these were the most prominent 
 of the human agents in the change. At length, 
 however, in 1653, John Bunyan was baptized in 
 the Ouse, and began the public life of a Baptist, 
 or rather of a Christian. As was to be expected, 
 very soon thereafter he became a Bajitist preacher, 
 if a denominational name .should be given to one 
 who was so catholic, and about whom the least 
 distinctive thhig is his pedobaptist views. Xo 
 such preacher to the uneducated English masses 
 was to be found anywhere. He was a man of 
 one book, but that book was the Bible. He had 
 had intimate acquaintance with it since child- 
 hood. All the days of his wandering had boon 
 rendered uneasy by his recollection of the Bible 
 curses upon the ungodly. He had had a sjiiritual 
 experience of an exceptionable character. He 
 had run the gamut of soul music : over his soul, 
 as over the keys of an organ, the i\Iasti'r Hand 
 had passed, and from the deepest bass to the 
 higliest treble his soul had gone. His theology 
 was Calvinistic. He preached the fall with its 
 fatal consequences, free will, election, reproba- 
 tion, an eternal heaven aii<l hell. 
 
 He began to preach wliile a deacon in ISIr. Gil- 
 ford's Cliurch, in 1655 ; but so extraordinary was 
 his popularity, that in 1().")7 he devoted his whole 
 time to the work, rnknown to him, his taking 
 up preaching as his regular profession was a link 
 in the chain of wonderful ]irovidences by which 
 this "Jerusalem sinner" was to be trained to pro- 
 duce the /'//i/r/'m'.s- J'n>i/r(S.<. In ]()6() the Act of 
 rMit'oriiiity. compelling attendance iqion the Na- 
 tional C liurch, was revived. No distinction was 
 made among Dissenters. Tlie harmless Baptists
 
 BUNYAN. 
 
 339 
 
 BUNYAN. 
 
 and Qiialiors were equally undpi- tho ban ■with tlie 
 fiery Indrpciidents and liigoloil I'lvsliyterians. 
 Tlie IJedford Ba))ti.st.s refusud obodiuiicc ; and 
 liunyan, i'(jr tlio odiou.s sin of socretly continuini^' 
 Ills ininistry, was arrusl.cd, and committed to 
 jirison Ijy tlio magistrates, who, however, wc^re 
 friendly to him, au<l would liave si)ared him, had 
 the law allowed. There he jiassed the next twelve 
 years of his life. Tra<lition, without ])rol)al)ility, 
 ))uts him in the smallest of the three jirisons of 
 Uedford. 
 
 To many persons it seems wholly unnecessary 
 for him to have been imprisoned at all; and the 
 extraordinary opportunities given him to escape 
 by a little casuistry show the unwillingness of 
 all parties to keep so eminent a saint in durance 
 vile. But as Buuyan stoutly refused to attend 
 the National Chui'ch, or to give up preaching, his 
 case was hopeless. To such a man the separation 
 from his family was very painful. Two years 
 before his arrest his wife had dii'd, leaving him 
 with four small children, one of whom, Mary, was 
 blind, and therefore tlie object of peculiar affec- 
 tion. VVithiu a year he had married a second 
 time, aiul to a young woiuau of piety and cour- 
 age. By her a pardon for him was sought through 
 the friendly intervention of the high sheriff in 
 consequence of a jail-delivery in honor of the 
 coronation of Charles II., April 23, 1661. But, 
 though Sir Matthew Ilale took a kindly interest 
 ■in her and her cause, the law had to be obeyed, 
 and a pardon was refused so olistinate an offender 
 as Bunyan. At first his imprisonment was merely 
 nominal. He was allowed to go where lie pleased; 
 but he used his liberty to resume preaching, and 
 so he was put into strict confinement. He was 
 not formally tried : if he had been, he would have 
 been transported. It was, therefore, not the 
 cruelty of his jailers, but his own conscience, 
 which made his imprisonment so long. "It 
 might have ended at any time," says Mr. Froude, 
 whose treatment of this point is admirable, "if 
 he would have promised to confine his addresses 
 to a private circle." We should not without evi- 
 dence yield to tlie popular notion that those twelve 
 years were a bitter struggle against poverty and 
 disease, in a damp and dreary cell, with his 
 poor wife sadly in need, and his children lacking 
 food. No imprisonment is agreeable ; and Bun- 
 yan counted it a great affliction to be debarred 
 from ministerial labor. But as he was an influen- 
 tial, much respected man, had many friends, and 
 was, so far as we can judge, in (comparati\'ely) 
 good circumstances, it is inconceivable that he en- 
 dured any unusual suffering. Besides, would the 
 Baptists have allowed their most distingiushed 
 preacher to starve? We see, therefore, in Bunyan 's 
 twelve years' imprisonment proof of his constancy, 
 patience, and courage, and a wise Providence. His 
 library consisted of the Bible, Concordance, and 
 Foxe's Book of Martyrs. He used the enforced 
 leisure in reading and writing (tlie Pilgrim's Prog- 
 ress was then begun, without thought of publica- 
 tion), and also in making tags of boot-laces, thus 
 doing something to support liis family. But 
 toward the close of the twelve years more liberty 
 was given him. In 1670 we read of his preach- 
 ing in the woods. In 1671 he became an elder, 
 and on L)eo. 12 of that year, pastor of the Bedford 
 Baptist Chapel. Curiously, he was liberated by 
 
 those who had no interest in him, nor sym])athy 
 with his views. Charlies II., with the ultimate 
 design of removing disabilities from Itonian 
 Catholics, issued the Declaration of Indulgence 
 (1672), which annulled the penal acts against Dis- 
 senters ; and so upon May y he was released, and 
 tho next day his license as jiastor of the chapel 
 was issued. Out of gratitude to Charles II., he 
 published soon afti^r a Discourse ujian Anlichrisl, 
 in which he innocently credits the King with the 
 most honorable and pious intentions, and urges 
 loyalty upon liis countrymen. This treatise was 
 afterwards used against him. The closing years 
 of his life were laljorious and honored. He 
 preached annually in the Baptist churches of 
 London ; but he retained his charge at Bedford. 
 His domestic life was pleasant ; although he 
 mourned the loss of his blind daughter, who had 
 died while he was in prison. He seems also to 
 have been most of the time in good health. His 
 death was brought about by being chilled in a 
 rain-storm on his return from effecting the recon- 
 ciliation between a father and son. The exact 
 date of this event is unknown, probably Aug. 31, 
 1US8. 
 
 Character. — John Bunyan was one of the 
 noblest of the many noble Puritans. He .spent 
 his life in devotion to the highest ideals of duty, 
 and his death fitly followed a sacrifice of self. 
 His early surroundings and occupation explain, if 
 not excuse, the sins he charges himself with, and 
 excite our wonder that he never committed the 
 grosser sins of drunkenness and unchastity, which 
 were probably sadly common in his class. A 
 chaste and sober tinker was a great rarity. And 
 the instances of the holiest men humbling them- 
 selves as sinners in the presence of an angry and 
 perfect God, and confessing themselves miracles 
 of saving grace, are so numerous and natural, that 
 we do not wonder that Bunyan accused himself 
 of so many sins. The terrible mental trials Bun- 
 yan passed through before he found peace were 
 due more to the artificial notions of his day in 
 regard to sin, and to his own active mind, than 
 to any work of the Spirit. But, as we look back 
 upon his life, we see the rude, profane youth, 
 under the tuition of the Sjiirit in the hard school 
 of experience, developed into the saintly man 
 before whose inspired vision the Heavenly City 
 stood revealed. Out of obscurity GoA lifted him 
 into prominence ; so that when he died he was 
 mourned, not only as the most gifted minister in 
 his denomination (his zeal had won liim the sou- 
 briquet " Bishop Bunyan "), but as one of Eng- 
 land's worthies, one of the jiillars of the Church. 
 
 Writings. — The one book which God ordained 
 John Bunyan should write was the Pilgrim's 
 Progress. For it his life was a preparation ; and 
 because the experiences thei-ein recorded are 
 genuine has the book become a world classic. 
 Every one can see himself, at least in some phase, 
 faithfully mirrored in the Pilgrim. Two opinions, 
 from critics of far different orders of mind, de- 
 serve quotation. Coleridge says, " I know of no 
 book — the Bible excepted, as above all compari- 
 son — which I, according to my judgment and 
 experience, could so safely recommend as teach- 
 ing and enforcing the wliole saving truth accord- 
 ing to the mind that was in Christ Jesus, as the 
 Pilgrim's Pr^iiross. It is, in my conviction, in-
 
 BUNYAN. 
 
 340 
 
 SURGES. 
 
 comparably the best Suiinita Tlteologkc Evan- 
 qelicre ever produced by a writer not iiiiraculoiisly 
 inspired." ]n liis famous essay upon Bunyan, 
 Wacaulay pays this tribute to liis genius : " Tliat 
 wonderful book, while it obtains admiration from 
 the most fastidious critics, is loved by those wlio 
 are too simple to admire it. In every nursery 
 the Pilf/rim's Prorjress is a greater favorite than 
 Jack the Giant-Killer. Every reader knows tlie 
 straight and narrow path as well as he knows a 
 road in which he lias gone backward and for- 
 ward a hundred times. This is the highest mira- 
 cle of genius, — that things which are not should 
 be as though they were ; that the imaginations 
 of one mind should become the personal recollec- 
 tions of another. And this miracle the tinker 
 has wrought. . . . The style of Bunyan is de- 
 lightful to eveiy reader, and invaluable as a study 
 to every person who wishes to obtain a wide com- 
 mand over the English language. There is no 
 book in our literature on which we would so 
 readily stake the fame of the old unpolluted 
 English laugviage, no book which shows so well 
 how rich that language is in its own proper 
 wealth, and how little it has improved by all 
 that it has borrowed. . . . Tliongh there were 
 many clever men in England during the latter 
 half of the seventeenth century, there were only 
 two great creative minds. One of these produced 
 the Paradise Lost ; the other, the Piltjrim's Pnxj- 
 res.'i." But, besides the Pilgrim, two other compo- 
 sitions claim attention, — the Life 11/ Mr. liaitnian 
 (published IGSO), told in a dialogue between Mr. 
 Wiseman and Mr. Attentive, a very interesting 
 story of a thorough rascal; and the Iloh/ llnr 
 (1682), an allegory which would surely have been 
 regarded as incomparable, were it not for the 
 Pilgrim's Progress. Bunyan published, besides, 
 a number of sermons, controversial tracts, spir- 
 itualized Sci'iptm'e passages, and even verses. 
 In regard to the latter, while he cannot be called 
 a poet of great merit, he yet pleases by his sim- 
 plicity and directness. Some of these writings, 
 notably much of the Pilgrim's Progress, were 
 compo.sed while he was in prison. 
 
 BihUographii. — There are several editions of 
 his complete works. The first complete edition 
 was published in 1692, 2 vols, folio; the latest 
 and best, edited with elaborate notes, a Memou', 
 etc., by George Offor, London, 1S53, 3 vols, royal 
 8vo. The liiugraphy of Bunyan is best read in 
 his own language in Grace Abounding to the Chief 
 of Sinners. " But Burder (1780), Hawker (1822), 
 Southey (183!)), I'liilip (1839), and Oifor (18.50), 
 have olaborati'd lives of the great nonconformist 
 in connection with editions of the Pilgrim's Prog- 
 ress. Southey dissents from the common repre- 
 sentation of Bunyan as an awful sinner, believing 
 that tlie language Bunyan employs is that of 
 religious enthusiasm. See al.so the biograjihies 
 by .1. .•V. Kroude, London and New York, 1880, 
 and .John Brown, 1885 (the best). 
 
 The Pilgrim's Progress. — In the Lenox Library 
 of New-Yiirk City there is a noteworthy, indeed 
 unique, collection of editions of the Pilgrim's 
 Progress. In 1879, under the care of Dr. S. 
 Austin Allibone, was i)rinted, not published, 
 under the title ('imlrihuliims to a Calalngue of Ike 
 Lenox Litirary, No. JV., Jiuni/an's Pilr/rim's Prog- 
 ress, Etc., a neatly-arranged list of this collection, 
 
 with interesting bibliographical notes. The First 
 Part contains a long and valuable " Note on the 
 Early Editions of the Pilgrim's ProgTess." It is 
 now settled that the first edition appeared in 
 1078. Only two copies are known to exist, — one 
 in the R. S. Holford Collection in England, and 
 the other in the Lenox Library in New- York 
 City, which is far richer in editions of the J^it- 
 grim's Progress than any other library. Ihe 
 Lenox Library has two hundred and fifty-eight 
 editions of this book in English, and .'^evenly-fo-.r 
 of it in foreign languages ; thus attesting the 
 enormous circulation of the book, which has been 
 translated (usually innnediately after the Bible) 
 into almost every literary language. — The first 
 edition is in foolscap 8vo, 232 pages ; prefixed is 
 The Author's Apology For his Book, 8 pages (mi- 
 numbered). It has no portrait or cuts. The 
 second edition, "with Additions," appe.ared the 
 same year, in 12mo ; and the thiid edition, with 
 the final additions to the text of the First Part, 
 the next year (1079), also in 12mo. — The Second 
 Part was not published imtil 1084, and tlien 
 separately: the First Part was then in the ninth 
 edition. The two Parts do not seem to have 
 been combined in one volume until 1728. — 1 here 
 was a so-called 1 bird Part (London, 1693), 
 author unknown, which was denoimced upon the" 
 titlepage of the authorized (Pomider's) edition to 
 be an Impostor (sic), but which was often re- 
 printed, and sometimes bound up with the First 
 and Second (there is an edition ."o late as 18.')2, 
 Koutledge & Co., London) ; but it is not much 
 known in America. It has often been noticed 
 that the Pilgrim's Progress was for many years 
 the household treasure of the lowly alone ; but at 
 length it became the delight of the njiper clas.ses. 
 This gradual spre;ul sulficiently accounts for the 
 comparative meanness of the editions in illustra- 
 tion and binding. AVith sincere gratification it 
 is therefore recorded that at last the book appears 
 in a worthy make-up : The Pilgrim's J'rogress. 
 With One Ihnidreil Jlluslralions by Frederick Bar- 
 nard and Others, London, Strahan & Co., 4to, 
 1880. Edition de Luxe, on Dutch paper, with 
 proofs of the illustrations on Japanese paper. 
 Only five hundred copies printed. There is also 
 a cheap edition, with the same illustrations upon 
 ordinary but excellent paper. The illuslratidi .s 
 are uniformly good, many of them wortliy of the 
 highest praise. B.VMUEL M. .T.VcksON. 
 
 BURCES, Cornelius, b. in Somersetshire (date 
 undetermined) ; d. .June 9, Hid."). lie was edu- 
 cated at Oxford in AVadham and other colleges; 
 became vicar of Watford in llartt'ordshire in 
 1013, also rector of St. ]\lagnus Church in Lon- 
 don, holding the two charges at the .same time, 
 and was, on the accession of Charles L-ajipointed 
 one of the chaplains in ordimiry. He took both 
 d(!greesof divinity in 1027. He was a]ipoint<'d a 
 member of the \Veslminster Assembly in 1013. 
 .Inly 8 ho was chosen by them assessor with Dr. 
 White, and generally occupied the chair on ac- 
 count of the illness of Dr. Twi.sse. He wiis 
 chairman of the first of tlu^ three grand connnit- 
 tees of the A.s.sembly, an<l one of th(^ most ener- 
 getic niendiers of the body, being active especially 
 in the di.scussion of Church Ciovi-rrniient and the 
 Directory for Worship. He was energetic in po- 
 litical as well as ecclesiastical alfairs. His chief
 
 BURGESS, 
 
 341 
 
 BURIAL. 
 
 ivoi'ks are : A chain of Graces drawn out at lenr/th 
 for Reformation of Manners, London, 16L'2; Tlic 
 rire of the Sailctuary jiewli/ discovered or a com- 
 pleat Tract of Zeal, liOiitlon, 1025; anil Baptismal 
 lleticnenilion of Jilect I nJants,{)xon., ltj'2i). In the 
 latter he maintains " It is most agreealilo to the 
 Institntion of Christ that all elect infants that 
 are baptizcil (unless in some extraordinary cases) 
 doe, ordinarily, receive, from Clirist, the Spirit in 
 Baptism, for their first soleiim initiation into 
 Christ, and for their future actuall renovation, in 
 God's good time, if tlu'y live to yeares of discretion, 
 and enjoy tlie ordinary means of grace appointed 
 of God to tins end." He delivered a large num- 
 ber of sermons before Parliament and other civil 
 bodies, which were published from time to time. 
 He is credited also with the paper subscribed by 
 the London ministers, entitled A Vindication of 
 the ministers of the Gospel in and about London 
 from the unjust Aspersions cast upon their former 
 Actinr/s for the Parliament, as if theij had promoted 
 the Brinyitiff of the Kiny to Capital I'unishnicnt, 
 London, 1648. He was an able and pious man, 
 who was much abvised subsequently by the Bish- 
 ops' party. C. A. BRIGGS. 
 
 BURCESS, Anthony, a Nonconformist clergy- 
 man, educated at St. Jolm's College, Cambridge, 
 but a fellow of Emmanuel College ; held in 16^55 
 the living of Sutton-Coldfield, Warwickshire ; was 
 a member of the Westminster Assembly of Di- 
 vines ; ejected at the Restoration, lived after- 
 wards in retirement at Tamworth. His principal 
 Works are : Vindiciw Let/is, hondon (IGiii); True 
 Doctrine of Justification (1648); CXLV. Sermons 
 on John xvii. (16.56) ; Spiritual Refninrjs, deliv- 
 ered in 161 sermons (2d ed., 1658) ; Doctrine of 
 Original Sin (1659). 
 
 BURGESS, Daniel, Dissenting divine, b. at 
 Staines, Middlesex, 1645; d. January 26, 1713. 
 He was graduated at Oxford; in 1067 went to 
 Ireland as master of a school at Charleville, in 
 1685 minister, took charge of a congregation in 
 Brydges Street, Covent Garden, London, after- 
 wards in Carey Street. He was for a time tutor 
 to Henry St. John (Lord Bolingbroke). He was 
 noted for wit. He issued Man's Whole Duty, 
 London, 1690, and other sermons. 
 
 BURGESS, George, b. at Providence, R.I.. 
 Oct. 31, 1809 ; d. on the passage home from the 
 West Indies, April 23, 1866 ; was educated in 
 Brown University; studied in Gottingen, Bonn, 
 and Berlin; was made rector of Christ Church, 
 Hartford, Conn., in 1834, and the first Episcopal 
 bishop of the diocese of Maine in 1847, where his 
 memory is still clierished. He published a trans- 
 lation of the Psalms in English verse. New York, 
 1840; Payes of the Ecclesiastical History of New 
 Knyland, Boston, 1847 ; The Last Enemy, Pliil., 
 1850; Sermons; Last Journal, tvith Introduction by 
 Bishop A . Lee, N. Y. ; The Gospel of Luke, with 
 Azotes, N.Y., 1880. See Memoir by his Brother, 
 Rev. A. Burqess, Phila., 1869. 
 
 BURGHER-SECEDER. See Seckders. 
 
 BURGUNDIANS, The, when first known to 
 history, towards the close of the third century, 
 were settled in the regions between the Oder and 
 the Vistula. In the middle of the fourth century 
 they had moved westwards, and stood on the 
 Upper Main , and when, in 400, Stilicho retreated 
 with the Roman legions from the Khiue in order 
 
 to protect Italy against tlie West-Goths, the Bur- 
 gundians pushed onwards, and occupied the 
 regioiis between Mayence and Strassburg. Amal- 
 gamating with other (iermanic tribiw, they formed 
 in tlie begiuiiing of the fifth century a powerful 
 kingdom between the Rhine and tlie Rhone, 
 which lasted till the middle of the sixth century, 
 and produced the Gond/ettes, the famous Burgun- 
 dian law-book, one of the most interesting and 
 im]iortant monuments of ancient Germanic civili- 
 zation. In their many dealings with the I'loman.s 
 the Burgundiiins early became acc]uaiiited with 
 Christianity; but in the fifth century they appear 
 to have lajised into Arianisin. TlKur king, (iun- 
 dobad, held in 499 a great disputation between 
 the Catholic and the Arian priests. Avitus offered 
 a miracle in proof of the truth of the Catholic 
 faith ; but the Arians declined to accept any tes- 
 timony of that kind, and the conference en<led 
 without any practical result. But in 516 Giiiido- 
 bad died ; and in 517 his son and successoi', Sieg- 
 mund, who belonged to the Catholic Church, 
 convened a council at Epaon, and quietly, with- 
 out encountering any serious resistance, estab- 
 lished the Catholic doctrines and rites among his 
 subjects. All sources referring to the Burgundian 
 nation and kingdom have been collected by 
 SciiUpflin in his Commentalioncs Hislnricce el 
 Crilicfc, Bas., 1741. ALBliliCUT v<j(;e[,. 
 
 BURIAL. I. Among the Ancient IlEiiiiEws. 
 — AVhen life had fled, the relatives kissed the 
 body, and closed the eyes (Gen. xlvi. 4, 1. 1) : it 
 was then w.ashed (Acts ix 37), and wrapped in 
 numerous folds of linen (Matt, xxvii. 59), or in 
 grave-clothes (John xi. 44), between which were 
 laid odoriferous spices, myrrh, aloes, etc. (John 
 xix. 39 sq.). It may well have been that a por- 
 tion of the great amount (one hundred pounds 
 weight) brought for the burial of .Icsus was in- 
 tended to be burnt in his honor, and another por- 
 tion to form a " bed of spices ; " for .loseph and 
 Nicodemus were both wealthy, and their respect 
 for Jesus was great. At all events, we find such 
 a use of spices in the case of Asa (2 Chron. xvi. 
 14). Fallen warriors were buried with their 
 weapons (Ezek. xxxii. 27). Since, according to 
 the law (Num. xix. 11 sq.), it was defilement to 
 touch the dead, it was customary to bui-y as soon 
 after death as possible, usually on the same day 
 (Acts V. 5 sq.). The climate al.so necessitated 
 speedy burial. A longer period than a day must, 
 however, have elapsed between the death of Sarah 
 and her burial (Gen. xxiii. 2, 19). The body 
 was borne upon a bier in an open coffin, accom- 
 panied by the relatives and friends, and a proces- 
 sion varying in niunber according to circumstances 
 (2 Sam. iii. 31 ; Luke vii. 12), among whom were, 
 of cour.se, those most intimate with the deceased, 
 as his sons, spouse, disciples, who were obligated 
 to pay the last respects (Gen. xxv. 9 ; Judg. x^^. 
 31 ; Mark vi. 29). It was customary to hire 
 mourning women and pipers as soon as the person 
 died ; and these, sitting among the mourners, by 
 their shrill cries, eulogistic dirges, affected grief, 
 and plaintive strains, kept iip the giief of the 
 really afflicted to the agonizin"- point, and con- 
 tinued their services while the body was carried 
 through the streets (Jer ix. 17 sq ; Matt. ix. 23; 
 Mark v. 38). In later times there were funeral 
 feasts, sometimes of great extravagance (Joseph.
 
 BURIAL. 
 
 342 
 
 BURIAL. 
 
 War, II. 1, 1, cf. Tob. iv. 17 ; Ep. Jer. 32). The 
 passages sometimes quoted as showing the earlier 
 Hebrews to have had this custom (2 Sam. iii. 3o ; 
 Jer. svi. 5 sq.; Ezek. xxiv. 17; Hos. ix. 4) are 
 not to the point, because they refer to the return 
 of the mourner to his usual food after his sor- 
 row has abated. On the contrar}-, the relatives 
 and friends sent the needed food into the house 
 of mourning (Deut. xxvi. 14, cf. 2 Sam. iii. 35). 
 Tlie mourning time lasted seven d<ays (Gen. 1. 10 ; 
 
 1 Sam. xxxi. 13), but in extraordinary cases thirty 
 days (Num. xx. 29 ; Deut xxxiv. 8), and was 
 characterized by fasting, tearing in the garments 
 a little slit in front, wearing sackcloth, scattering 
 ashes and dust, shaving the beard, and such like 
 actions (Gen, xxxvii. o4; 2 .Sam. iii. 31, xiii. 31; 
 Ezek. xxiv. 17 sq; Amos viii. 10). But the hea- 
 then customs of cutting the flesh, and shaving 
 the fore part of the head and the eyebrows, were 
 forbidden (Lev. xix. 28; Deut. xiv. 1). 
 
 The Jews hurled, and did not burn, their dead. 
 It is true there is mention of burning; but it was 
 either as a punishment for an infamous crime 
 (Lev. XX. 14, xxi. 0), or else rendered necessary ; 
 as in a pestilence, when there was neither time 
 nor people enough (Amos vi. In), or in a war, 
 when the work of disposing of the dead must be 
 done quickly (1 Sam. xxxi. 12). Nothing was 
 considered as so dishonorable and liorrible as to 
 liave to lie unburied, the prey of dogs, hyenas, 
 and vvdtures ; and hence the threat was enougli 
 to make the stoutest quail (1 Kings xiii. 22, xiv. 
 11; Jer xvi. 4; Ezek. xxix. 5). It was a pious 
 duty to bury the dead, and a meritorious act, the 
 later Jews thought (cf. Tob. i. 17, ii. 3 sq.). It 
 was obligatory according to the law (Deut. xxi. 
 23) to bury even those capitally punished before 
 sunset (Josh. viii. 29, x. 27 ; Alatt. xxvLi. 58 ; 
 John xix. 31 ; cf. Josephus, War, IV. 5, 2). One 
 of the most picturesque scenes in all literature is 
 the faithful watch of Kizpah, the concubine of 
 Saul, over the seven slain sons of Saul ; for, " from 
 the beginning of har\-est until water dropped out 
 of heaven (six months), she suffered neither the 
 birds of the air to rest on them by day, nor the 
 beasts of the tield by night" (2 Sam. xxi. 10). 
 
 The burial-places were outside the towns and 
 cities, as tliey ought always to lie (Luke vii. 12 ; 
 John xi. 30). Kings and prophets (1 Sam. xxv. 
 1) alone hiul an intranunal grave. The sepul- 
 chres were either natural or artificial caves in 
 groves or gardens (Gen. xxiii. 17 ; 1 Kings ii. 34 ; 
 
 2 Kings xxi. 18, 20 ; John xix. 41). They were, 
 it would seem, occasioiudly perpendicular (Luke 
 xi. 44), though probably generally horizontal, and 
 were closed by a door or a large stone (Matt. 
 xxvii. (iO; Jolin xi. 38) as a protection against 
 injury from man or beasts. The whole country 
 is full of rock tombs. 
 
 'I'liese rm-k louilis were chambers excavated " in 
 the face of a precipitous rock, and their entrances 
 were .sometimes at an apparently inaccessible 
 height from tlie groimd. ^Vhere no such slopes 
 were available, a shaft was sunk in the rock, and 
 the tomb excavated in the side of the shaft, in 
 which a staircase descended. The tomb-cham- 
 bers are quadrangular in shape; and a .series of 
 lliem .sometimes exttMids into the rock for a con- 
 Hi<leral)le distance. Dr. Tobler has conveniently 
 classed these tombs as follows : (1) sunken lomhs, 
 
 hollowed in the rock like modem graves, and 
 then closed with a slab of stone ; (2) shaft tombs, 
 consisting of openings five to six feet long and a 
 foot and a half square, usually hewn horizontally 
 in the rock, and often provided with a gutter in 
 the floor, into which the body was pu.shed, prob- 
 ably with its feet foremost; (3) shelf lotiibs, or 
 those containing shelves or benclies for the recep- 
 tion of the dead, about two feet from the ground, 
 and generally with vaulted roofs ; (4) niche 
 tombs, hewn laterally in the face of the rock, 
 about two feet and a half from the ground, of 
 the length of the body, and about a foot and a 
 half square." — Badekek's Palestine and Syria, 
 p. 116. 
 
 Sarcophai/l were used only by the rich, and 
 were decorated with flowers and leaves. (Jlany 
 of them are to-day used in Syria as fountain- 
 troughs.) But the usual way was to bury with- 
 out cotHns. Not only kings and distingui-shed 
 persons, but whoever was able, liad their own 
 hereditary family tombs (Gen. xxiii. 6 sq.), and 
 it was looked iqjon as a misfortune not to be 
 buried with one's kin ; and therefore, when possi- 
 ble, the dead were taken thither (Gen. xlvii. 29, 
 1. 5 ; 2 Sam. xix. 37 ; 1 Kings xiii. 22). For the 
 poor, for pilgrims and such like, and even for 
 those in better circumstances, cemeteries became 
 in after-times necessities (2 Kings xxiii. 6; Jer. 
 xxvi. 23). The •■ Potter's Field," as we call such 
 a place, may have gotten its original name from 
 the lioles out of which the clay had been dug 
 being used for burying-places. Over the graves, 
 monuments were occasionally built (Gen. xxxv. 
 20; 2 Sam. xviii. IS). I'pon the graves of ob- 
 noxious persons in insult stones were tin-own, — a 
 custom still maintained in the East (Josh. vii. 26, 
 viii. 29). In the post^exilian days those tombs 
 which could not be easily recognized from a dis- 
 tance as such were " whited " (^latt. xxiii. 27) 
 every spring, after the rains, before the passover, 
 to warn jiasser.s-by of defilement through a touch 
 of the same. The sepidchres of tlie prophets 
 were sought out and decorated (jMatt. xxiii 27, 
 29). The tombs were believed to be temmted by 
 demons (Matt. viii. 28), and were also u.sed for 
 superstitions purposes (Isa. viii. 19, Ixv. 4). 
 
 The tombs constitute a remarkalde feature 
 among the curiosities of modern Jerusalem. They 
 are found all around the city. But unhappily 
 the tombs of the kings, so often referred to in the 
 Ivings and Chronicles, have not been foimd as 
 yet. The tombs so called were probably built by 
 Queen Helena of Adiabene (.lo.seph. Antii/. XX. 
 4, 3). livery time a king, because of leprosy, as 
 Tzziah (2 t'liron. xxvi. 23), or of an nn\\oi'thy 
 life (2 C'ln-on. xxi. 20, xxiv. 25, xxviii. 27), or at 
 Ins own re(|ue.st, was buried .somewhere else, W'as 
 particularly noticed. .lehoiada, the high priest 
 m .loash's day. was buried "among the kings" 
 because he had done good in Israel (2 Chron. 
 xxiv. 1(1.) Kt'KTSllll. 
 
 II. .Vmonc the CiinisTiANS. — Tlie convic- 
 tion that the bodies of tliose who died in the Lord 
 were still united to Christ le<l to great care and 
 reverence in handling the dead; and tlie Emperor 
 Julian a<'knowledged tliat this fact was one rea- 
 .son for the success of I'hrislianily. While the 
 Komaiis burnt their dead, tlie Cliristians always 
 buried them, and the African (hri.sti.ans very gen-
 
 BURIAL. 
 
 343 
 
 BURIDAN. 
 
 erally embalmed. Euscbius relates liow the pei- 
 
 secutors of the Cliiirch thouj^ht to injure her yet 
 more by burning- the bodies of those' whom they 
 had put to di'uth. 
 
 The huridl-place was originally^ in accordance 
 with .Jewish and Roman law, outside of the city. 
 And at Rome, Na]iles, and Milan, the Christians 
 availed themselve of the nature of the soil to diy 
 passages under the earth for burial purposes; anil 
 hence the catacondw. But when Christianity 
 became the religion of the empire, the Christians 
 could bury where they pleased, and (juite natu- 
 rally chose to lie as near as ]iossible to saints or 
 martyrs. Hence the burials in the churches dedi- 
 cated to such worthies were frequent, and umlti- 
 plied so greatly, leading, perhaps, to indecorous 
 rivalry, that (Jratian, Valentinian, and Theodo- 
 sius, in A.l). 380, forbade them. Notwithstand- 
 ing, tliey continued, and were rebuked by the 
 Church, as in the ISth canon of the Second Coun- 
 cil of Braga (in Portugal), A.U. 563, which ex- 
 pressly ordered that bodies must not be buried 
 inside the churches, but outside, by the church- 
 walls. (See Hefele's Concilientjeschichle, vol. 3, 
 p. 17.) Inside the church, however, there was a 
 place, somewhat removed from the altar, reserved 
 for the interment of bishops, .abbots, priests, and 
 lay per.sons distinguished for sanctity. Others 
 might be buried in the court before the chief 
 entrance and other entrances, and in the corners 
 of the church-walls. J5ut the desire to be buried 
 in "the holy ground" was too strong for councils 
 and canon laws. Cloister churches often won 
 the privilege of interment within them for those 
 who were not monks; and family vaults were 
 erected in churches. Tlie regulations upon this 
 subject, though numerous, seem to have been 
 largely futile. The law of Germany forbids such 
 burials, but that of England grants them on 
 permission of the incumbent. 
 
 Funeral riles have always varied according to 
 time and taste. Among the early Christians they 
 were the direct antithe.ses to the Pagan customs, 
 which symbolized defeat and sorrow ; wliile the 
 Christian spoke of victory and joy. The Pagans 
 buried by night, because they regarded a funeral 
 as a thing of evil omen to look upon ; the Chris- 
 tians by day, although they retained the lighted 
 tapers of the Pagan mode. The Pagans carried 
 the funereal cyi^ress, and marched in silence ; 
 while the Christians had palm and olive branches, 
 and sang joyful strains as they went, and often 
 sent clouds of incense toward heaven, and strewed 
 flowers in the' way. Some of the leathers — such 
 as Cyprian (de Alortal. § 20), who says that black 
 garments sliould not be taken upon us here for 
 the sake of the dead, who are clothed in white ; 
 and Augu.stine (ile Cunsol. Mori. 11. cap. 5), who 
 uses the case of David changing his behavior 
 when Bathsheba's adulterous child was dead as a 
 reason for Christians looking upon death as a 
 triumph — endeavored to alter the dress of mourn- 
 ers from melancholy to joyful robes ; but doufit- 
 less the natui'al feeling liad its way, and sad 
 hearts desired sad clothing. It was customary to 
 have appropriate addresses, either in the church 
 or at the grave, and at the latter, at least as early 
 as the fourth century, to celebrate the Eucliarist. 
 The body was lowered face upwards, feet toward 
 the c<ist. ["Prayers for the dead were offered 
 
 when it became customary at the grave to com- 
 mend the .souls of tli(! deceased to God."] In the 
 Iioman-Catholic Church there are regular prayers 
 for the dc^ad, and joined to them absolution and 
 mass. On the third, seventh, thirtieth (or forti- 
 eth) day afU'r tlie death, and al.so on the auni- 
 vcn-.sary of the event, nui.s.ses are said. The Prot- 
 estant Church has cast aside all such superstitions 
 and extra, if not anti-scriptural, services. 
 
 According to canon law, the burial ordinarily 
 takes place in the churchyard of the pari.sh in 
 whicli the deceased received tlu^ sacrament, or 
 where his ancestors are buried, either in the com- 
 mon cemetery, or in the family plot or vault. 
 But yet the canon law allows every one not a 
 minor to choose another place of interment. For 
 minoi's a parent nmst choose. It is to be under- 
 stood tluit the chosen place is in every case conse- 
 crated : particularly desirable is it that it should 
 be a place in which mass was frequently cele- 
 brated. Protestant State churches follow pretty 
 nuich the same rules. In the Konum, according 
 to statute, if it can be proved that tlie choice of a 
 burial-place was unduly influenced by the priest 
 iu favor of his own cliurch, he (the priest) falls 
 under the ban of the Church, and only the I'ope 
 can relea.se him from it (c. 1. de sepulturis in \ I. 
 Clem. 3 in fine, de pcenix V- 8). 
 
 The buying of a burial-place is denounced as 
 simony; but free gifts were allowed. Hence 
 arose the so-called "surplice fees," to which the 
 pastor of the deceased is entitled in case the body 
 is buried out of the parish. But no fees aie 
 exacted when a stranger dies in the parish, and 
 is carried elsewhere. The amount of the fees 
 depends upon circumstances; e.g., whether the 
 funeral is with the ringing of bells {sejiultura 
 solennis), or without it (gepulliira niinnx S(>len7iis}. 
 
 A church-funeral is refused in geneial to all 
 non-believers, and, in the Roman-Catholic Church, 
 to all unbaptized infants, who are to be buried iu 
 a particular (unblessed) part of the churchyard, 
 without any liturgy. The following persons 
 were, according to the Council of Trent, also 
 excluded from the rites : the excomnnmicated, 
 suicides (in doubtful cases these were buried in 
 silence), those who fell in tournament or duel, 
 usurers, robbers, incendiaries, those guilty of 
 sacrilege, those who had not once in the year 
 confessed, or received the sacrament, open blas- 
 phemers, those condenmed, apostates, schismatics, 
 and heretics. 
 
 Lit. — GlIjck : Erliiulerung der Pandelten, 
 vol. XI. pp. 386-459 ; Pkllicia : De Clirisliana 
 ecclef:im poiilia., Tom. II. (ed. Braun., Coloniic, 
 1838) diss V. de ccemeierio sive caiacnmlia Neapuli- 
 lana, Chu. FniKi>. Bklleumann : Uehcr die dlles- 
 ten chrisdiclien BegrdlinissldKen, Hamburg, 1839; 
 .'VuGUSTi : Denkicurdifjkeiten, Leipzig, 1816-31 ; 
 BixTKiUJ[ : Die vorzu</lich.-!ten Denkwurdiijkeilen 
 dcr clirislkalholischen Kircke, Mainz, 1821-33, vol. 
 VI. Th. III. p. 360 sq. H. F. J.\COBSOX. 
 
 BURIDAN, Jean, b. at Bethune iu Artois to- 
 wai-ds the end of the thirteenth century; d. after 
 1358; was a pupil of \V. Occam, and taught for 
 some time with great success in the Uuiversitj' 
 of Paris, Imt retired afterwards to Germany, 
 driven aw.ay by the Realists, and taught in 
 Vienna. With him the very foimdation of scho- 
 lasticism — the implicit contidence in the unity of
 
 BURKITT. 
 
 344 
 
 BURNET. 
 
 faith and knowledge, of religion and philosophy — 
 began to shake. He developed Occam's nominal- 
 ism until the conflict between dogma and meta- 
 physics, between religious and philosophical truth, 
 became apparent. But it is not known whether 
 he himself, or some of his adversaries, first in- 
 vented the famous fable of the ass starving be- 
 tween two bundles of hay, and first applied it as 
 a fit representation of the psychological state of 
 his scepticism. His works were published in 
 Paris, 1500, 1516, 151S, and at Oxford, 1637, 
 1640, 1641. See HauuEau : Philos. Hcolust., H. 
 p. 483. WAGENM.A.JSIN. 
 
 BURKITT, William, b. at Hitcham, Suffolk, 
 Eng., July 25, 1650; d. at Dedham, Essex, Oct. 
 24, 1703; studied at Cambridge, and became 
 rector of Mildeu, Suffolk, in 1671, and vicar of 
 Dedham in 1692. His Expusilury Notes on the 
 Neio Testament, London, 1707, ran through many 
 editions, and are still reprinted, e.g., N.Y., 1865. 
 These Xoles are rich in practical suggestions, and 
 bear a very remarkable similarity to those of 
 Matthew Henry. 
 
 BURMAH, Independent, a kingdom situated 
 in South-east Asia, bordering upon Bengal. Area, 
 a hundred and ninety thousand square miles; 
 population, four million ; capital, Mandalay. The 
 territory was much reduced by British conquest 
 in 1825 and 18.52. The government is a pure 
 despotism; the king dispensing torture, impri.son- 
 ment, or death, according to his sovereign discre- 
 tion, held in check only by fear of insurrection. 
 Snch a thing as even-handed justice is unknown. 
 Society is in a continually shifting state, owing 
 to the absence of hereditary honors, the absolute 
 power of the king to raise or depose, and the 
 . necessity of continual bribery to avoid punish- 
 ment. AV'omen have more apparent liberty than 
 in many parts of the East; for they are not .shut 
 up, but appear openly in society, and have free 
 access in their own name to courts of law, where, 
 if ill treatment is proved, divorce is readily ob- 
 tained. In other respects, however, they are ex- 
 posed to the most degi-ading treatment. They 
 are sold for a time to strangers; and the practice 
 is not considered shameful, nor the female in any 
 respect dishonored. They are seldom unfaithful 
 to their new master, and are generally of indus- 
 trious au<l <lomestic habits, and not addicted to 
 vice. Tlie Burmese are Buddhists ; but there 
 are some Mohauunedans in the country who have 
 mosques at the capital, and a few Christians. 
 Foreigners enjoy religious toleration; but attempts 
 to convert the luitives to any foreign faith are 
 looked ufion as an interference with tlieir allc- 
 giauce. 
 
 British Burmah, the country acquired by the 
 British in 1825 and 1852. Education ha.s not 
 nuide much progress under tlie English plan of 
 public instruction ; but the people have a wid(>- 
 spread system of prinuiry education of their own 
 in the monastic schools. See art. Ijurmnh in En- 
 cyclopfcdia Britannica, 9th ed., vol. IV., whence 
 tiie above information has been taken. 
 
 'J'he liuman credit of introducing Christianity 
 into Burmah belongs to the Rev. ,\doniram Jud- 
 son (see title), the able, indi-fatigable Bajitist 
 missionary, who iu 1813 began his labors at Kan- 
 goon. The early trials and siift'eriiigs of this 
 man of God were the condition of ultimate suc- 
 
 cess. The Baptists have the field in British Bur- 
 mah to-day, and their nussion has been most 
 remarkably successful. In 1879 the condition of 
 the mission in the districts of Rangoon, Maul- 
 main, and Toungoo is thus reported : 83 nussion- 
 aries, 100 ordained native ministers, 300 helpers, 
 about 270 schools, 12 institutions for higher edu- 
 cation, 440 congregations (of which SO are minis- 
 tered to by ordained native preachers), 20,811 
 communicants, and about 70,000 native Chris- 
 tians, 1,309 baptisms during 1879. See CiiniST- 
 LIEH : Protestant Fin-ciijn Missions, Boston, 1880, 
 p. 161. The Bible in Burmese was published by 
 Judson in 1840. See art. K.\rex"S. 
 
 BURMANN, Franz, b. at Leyden, 1632 ; d. Nov. 
 12, 1G79, at Utrecht, where he was professor of 
 theology since 1662. His principal work is Sy- 
 7iopsis ilieoloijice, whicli appeared in 1671, and 
 attempts a dialectical reconciliation between the 
 doctrines of Cocceius and those of the orthodox 
 Reformed Church. He also wrote several devo- 
 tional works in Dutch. 
 
 BURN, Richard, a philanthropist, b. at Wiib 
 ton, "Westmoreland, Eng., 1709; d. Nov. 12,1785, 
 at Orton, where he was rector since 1736, and 
 justice of the peace. The combination of these 
 two offices occasioned him to write his Jxistice of 
 the Peace and Parish Officer, London, 1755, 2 vols., 
 which was several times reprinted. Also his 
 Ecclesiastical Law, Loudon. 1760, 2 vols., attracted 
 nuich attention, and was afterwards enlarged. 
 In 1764 he published A History of the Poor Laio, 
 and, in 1776, Observations on the Bill projjosed in 
 Purliametit for erectinq County ]]'orkhoi(ses. 
 
 BURNET, Gilbert', b. in Edinburgh, Sept. 18, 
 1043; d. at Salisbury, Jlarch 17, 1715; was edu- 
 cated at Aberdeen ; travelled in France and Hol- 
 land; was ordained minister of Saltoun in 1665; 
 became professor of divinity at Glasgow in 1669 ; 
 removed in 1673 to Loudon, anil was nuvde 
 preacher at the Rolls Chapel, and lecturer at St. 
 Clement's, and became one of the most popular 
 preachers in town, but was dismissed in 1684 for 
 his intimacv with Lord Russell, whom he attended 
 on the .scaffold. After the accession of James II. 
 in 1685, he left England, visited F' ranee and Italy, 
 and settled in the Hague, where he tcok a vei-y 
 active part in the execution of the plans of the 
 I'riuce of Orange. In 1688 he returni'd to Eng- 
 land with William IL, and was shortly after 
 (1689) made Bishop of Salisbury. His two prin- 
 cipal and invaluable works are : History of the 
 Rffonuation of the CItnrch of Eni/land. of which 
 the first volume appeared in l(i79, the second 
 in 1681, the third in 1714, and of which there is 
 a recent, and the best, edition in 7 vols., by 
 Pocock, 1865; aiul History if his own Time, pul>- 
 lislied in a somewhat nuUilated form by his .sou 
 after his death (first volume, 1724; second, 1734), 
 but re-edited and rendered conqilete by Dr. 
 Houth, Oxford, 1833, vols. Beside these two 
 works, liurnet wrote a great number of iiistorical, 
 polemical, and drvotional books, among which 
 are: 'J'he Life of William liedill, KiSo; E.rposition 
 of the Thirty-tiine Articles, 1699, which iiu;urred 
 the censure of the Lower House of Couvocalion ; 
 Memoirs tf the Dukis of llnmilton, Loiiilou, 1676; 
 History of James II.. publislied, with additional 
 uoti's, in ()xf(iiil, l.s.')2, etc. 
 
 BURNET, Thomas, b. at Croft in Yorkshire^
 
 BURNETT. 
 
 345 
 
 BURRITT. 
 
 Eng., about lG:i5; d. in London, Sept. L.'7, 1715; 
 fellow of Christ's CoUejje, Canil)ridj;(', 11)57; mas- 
 ter of the Charter House, 1(J.S5 ; was tlie author 
 of several works which liave theological liearin.u;s. 
 One — tlie famous Tellurk Thcoria Sacra, or Sa- 
 cred Theory of the Karth, ahrilliant, but, for scien- 
 tific purposes, utterly worthless, work — appeared 
 first in Latin, London, lOiSl, in an English trans- 
 lation, folio, 1084-8!), and was very popular, nm- 
 ning through several editions; anotlier, Arc/iwolo- 
 yiiF. I'/iilosii/tliicce: she IJuclriiia anliqua de Rerum 
 Oriyinihus (l(il>2), in wliich he maintains the alle- 
 gorical interpretation of the fall of man, and 
 which cost liim his position as clerk of the closet 
 to King William III., and marred Iiis hojie of ad- 
 vancement ; another — a piosthunious publication, 
 De Slalu Morluorum et Resurf/cnliuin Tractatus, 
 1723 — defended the doctrine of the middle state, 
 the millennium, and tlie linuted duration of future 
 punishment. See IIe.^tiicotp: : Life of Jliumas 
 Burnet, D.D., London, 1759. 
 
 BURNETT PRIZES, The, two tlieologieal 
 prizes, of at least twelve hundred pounds and four 
 hundred pounds, instituted by a rich merchant of 
 Aberdeen, of the name Burnett, 1729-84, to be 
 awarded every fortieth year to the two best trea- 
 tises on the evidences of the existence of God. 
 The prizes were distributed for the first time in 
 1815, and for the second time in 185.5, when they 
 were taken by Rev. Robert Anchor Thompson, 
 and Rev. Dr. John Tulloch, respectively. The 
 judges were the ministers of the Established 
 Cliurch in Aberdeen, and the principal and pro- 
 fessors of King's and Marisehal Colleges, and 
 three appointees of the testator's trustees. The 
 Burnett lectureship superseded them. 
 
 BURNS, William Chalmers, a famous Scotch 
 misssionary to China, b. at Dun, Scotland, April 
 1, 1815; d. at Poi-t of Xieu-chwang, China, April 
 4, 1868. His parents were persons of marked 
 character. His father, a Presbyterian minister, 
 was the very model of a Christian pastor ; his 
 mother was an angel of sunshine ; both were 
 profoundly pious. He was thus blessed with a 
 singularly happy home, amid whose advantageous 
 surroundings he began his education without 
 thought of the career before him, but rather re- 
 solved to be a farmer. When tliirteen years old, 
 his uncle took him to his home in Aberdeen, and 
 sent him to tlie grammar-school there, taught by 
 the Rev. Dr. James Melvin, a tliorough scholar. 
 From the school he passed to the universitj', 
 left it (1831), determined to be a lawyer; but, 
 to the surprise and delight of his parents, he 
 met with a change of heart, and became a minis- 
 ter. He re-entered tlie University of Abei'deen, 
 1832 ; and, as he was now a true Christian, lie 
 was a more faithful student, and attained by liis 
 diligence the mathematical scholarship, then tlie 
 highest attainable distinction in the university. 
 He took his degi-ee in 1834, proceeded to Glas- 
 gow to study theology, was licensed by the pres- 
 bytery of Glasgow, March 27, 1839, and for a 
 time preached statedly for Mr. ]McClieyne during 
 the latter's absence in Palestine ; but on his re- 
 turn he became an evangelist, and held revival 
 meetings, with extraordinary success, not only 
 throughout Scotland, but in England, Ireland, 
 and Canada (1844-46). But, although greatly 
 blessed in this peculiar work, Mr. Burns was a 
 
 missionary at Iieart, and only waited the Master's 
 hint to go. At last tlu^ intimation was jilainly 
 given; and, having been ordained as a missionary 
 by the same pi'esl)yti'ry of the English I'resVjyte- 
 rian Chuich which had sent out Morrison (see 
 title), he sailed .lune 9, 1847, to take cliai-ge of 
 their mission in China. To the astonishment 
 of his home friends, he began to speak in Chinese 
 within two months of his arrival, having dili- 
 gently studied the language while on the voyage. 
 He made himself, indeed, in a very short time, as 
 much a Chinaman as practicalile, dressing and 
 living after their mode, simply because he thought 
 in this way the most advantageously to labor. 
 He lived in Hong-Kong, Canton, Amoy, Shang- 
 hai, Peking, and Nieu-chwaiig. In 18.5.3, while 
 at Amoy, he printed his translation into Chinese 
 of the first part of Bunyan's PUyriin's Proyress. 
 He afterwards issued the second part with cuts, 
 which represented the persons of the immortal 
 allegory as Chinamen. It was his lot to sow 
 the seed for future harvests, and yet not alto- 
 gether to be without the joy of the reapers. 
 His linguistic ability, common sense, indomitable 
 piu'pose, godly conversation, and, withal, great 
 kindliness of manner, won for him universal 
 respect and confidence. It lias been remarked, 
 that if he had staid longer in some one district 
 of country, instead of pursuing so desultory a 
 course of labor, he might have been more useful ; 
 but he was so close a student of his Master's 
 will, that these frequent removals were probably 
 really divinely ordered. Mr. Burns never mar- 
 ried, and so was much freer in his movements. 
 ^V'hen it is asked what he did, the answer must 
 be, "He lived." He was one of those rare men 
 who are rather an "influence than an agency." 
 " Reckoned by the number of conversions under 
 his direct preaching, the results are small. Meas- 
 ured by the effect of his personal influence, the 
 results are gi-eat. From the nature of his work, 
 that of pioneer, he could not expect to reap the 
 fruits himself." But everybody in China knew 
 him, and long will it be before the consecrating 
 power of his holy life ceases to be felt. The 
 mention of his name to-day to one wlio has lived 
 there brings a smile and a word of praise. See 
 the delightful Memoir oi tliis remarkable man by 
 Rev. Islay Burns, D.D., 6th ed., New York, 1871. 
 
 BURNS, James Drummond, a Presbyterian 
 minister and Christian poet, b. at Edinburgh, 
 Feb. 18, 1823; d. at Mentone, Nov. 27, 1864. 
 Educated at the L^niversity of P^dinViurgh. he be- 
 gan pastoral labors in 1845 in the Free Church, 
 Dunblane, Scotland, failed in health, and com- 
 pelled to go to Madeira (1847), where he preached 
 for nearly six years, and then settled in Hamp- 
 stead. He married in 1859. In 1856 he issued 
 his first volume of poetry, Tlie Vision of Prophecy, 
 and other Poems. His religious poems, scarcely 
 known among us, are in England much admired. 
 A few of his hymns have found their way into 
 American collections. 
 
 .See Hamilton: Memoir and Remains of the 
 Rev. James D. Burns, M.A., 2d ed., London, 1869. 
 The volume contains many poems and hymns, 
 besides sermons, etc. 
 
 BURNT OFFERINGS, See SAfRiFicEs. 
 
 BURRITT, El ihu, "the learned blacksmith,]' a 
 Christian philanthropist and remarkable linguist.
 
 BURROUGHES 
 
 346 
 
 BURTON. 
 
 h. in New Britain, Conn., Dec. 8, 1810; d. there 
 March 6, 1879. His fatlier was a farmer-me- 
 chanic, once a common tj-jie iu Kew England ; 
 <iud it was at the forge that Burritt .studied, first 
 malhemalks, and tlien languages, in wliicli he won 
 unexpected success. lie taught an academy for 
 a year, to the detriment of his health, and so 
 went into business, in which he had varied for- 
 tunes. Jleanwhile he kept adding to his linguis- 
 tic stores. In A\'orcester (1S.37) he went back to 
 liis forge for liis support. His fame as a linguist 
 had spread: and in 1811 he was asked to lecture, 
 and proved himself eminently qualified for the 
 work, through his command of a vigoi-ous, racy 
 style, great natural eloquence, and kindling en- 
 thusiasm. Henceforward he was prominent be- 
 fore the public as lecturer, orator, editor, and 
 philanthropist. Antislavery, peace, temperance, 
 self-cultivation. — these were the objects of his 
 lifelong advocacy. Mr. Burritt never married, 
 and, for the better accomplishment of his plans, 
 spent tlie greater part of his life in England. In 
 1817 he first developed the idea of the ocean 
 penny postage, i.e., a pienny to be added to the 
 inland rate of any letter. This proposition ex- 
 cited great interest. He was very active in or- 
 ganizing the first Peace Congress, which was held 
 in Paris in 1819, and in promoting similar gath- 
 erings. He took a prominent place in " The 
 National Compensated Emancipation Company," 
 which was organized at Cleveland, O., iu Au- 
 gust, IS-JG ; and into this cause he threw himself 
 with his accustomed energj-. From 1SG.5 to 1809 
 he was consular agent of the United States at 
 Birmingham, Eng. The latter part of his life 
 was quietly spent at New Britain. 
 
 Mr. Burritt's popular reputation among us 
 rested upon his knowledge of a great number of 
 languages, some forty indeed; but he served his 
 generation to the measure of his ability in many 
 ways, and few public-spirited men have been 
 privileged to see so many of their plans realized. 
 Slavery met its death-blow in the civil war ; the 
 international postal card was an actual ocean 
 penny jiostage ; the Genevan Congress of 1865 
 helped efficiently the cause of peace ; the treaty 
 rtf Washington (December, 1871) was a striking 
 l)roof of the lienefit of arbitration ; and the total- 
 abstinence rau.He was never in such favor as now. 
 
 Mr. Burritt published in 1818 S/iarlcs from the 
 Anvil; in 18.53, O/ivc-Lcares, a series of brief es- 
 says on philanthropic topics, which have liad an 
 extensive circulation in .several languages; in 
 1854, Tlioiirjhis on Thiiir/x at Home and Abroad ; in 
 180.5,^ Walk from John o' Groat's to Land's End; 
 in 1869, Lectures and Speeches; in 1876, A San- 
 skrit Ihindhook for the Fireside; in 1878, Chips 
 from mnni/ filocks. See Ciiaules Noutiiend : 
 /,//> anil I.alini:< of FJihu linrritt, N. Y. 1879. 
 
 BURROUGHES, Jeremiah, an eminent Puri- 
 tan, b. 159!) ; d. Nov. M, 1016. Ho was educated 
 at Cambridge, but was obliged to leave the uni- 
 versity on account of nonconformity; was a.ssist^ 
 iint at Bury St. Ednnmds, then rector of Titshall ; 
 but, under the pressure of Laud's jiersecution, lie 
 left the kingd(jm (16:58), and settled as teacher of 
 thi; Cliurcli in UotUirdam. He " afterwards be- 
 came a famous preacher to two of (he largest 
 congregations about London, viz.. Stepney and 
 tripplegate." He was a distinguished Independ- 
 
 ent. His great work, exliibiting his learning 
 and piety, was A n Exposition of Hosea : In Divers 
 Lectures, London, 1643-51, 4 vols, folio, reprint, 
 London, ISfJS, 8vo. 
 
 BURROUGHS, George, was imprisoned in 
 Boston, Jlay 8, 1692 ; brought to trial for witch- 
 craft, Aug. 3, and executed Aug. 19. The date 
 and place of his birth are unknown ; but he was 
 ordained pastor of Salem in 1680, resigned the 
 position in 1685. and lived at Falmouth (now 
 Portland), ]\Ie., until the destruction of that place 
 by the Indians in 1090. 
 
 " BURTON, Asa, b. at Preston (now Griswold), 
 Conn., Aug. 25, 1752; d. at Thetford. A^t., May 
 1, 1836. having been ordained pastor there in 
 1779 ; published Essays on some of the First Prin- 
 ciples of Metaphysics, Ethics, and Tlieokir/i/, 1824. 
 
 BURTON, Edward, b. at Shrewsburv, Eng., 
 Feb. 13, 1794 ; d. at Oxford, Jan. 19, 1836 ; be- 
 came professor of divinity in the University of 
 Oxford in 1829, and published: Inijuiry into the 
 Heresies of the Apostolic Age, 1829; Testimonies of 
 the An'e-JS'icene Fathers to the Divinity of Christ, 
 1826; Testimonies of the Ante-Nicene Fathers to 
 the Doctrine of the Trinity, and the Divinity of the 
 Holy Ghost, 1831 ; Lectures on the Ecclesiastical His- 
 tory of the First Three Centuries, 1833; a Greek 
 New Testament with English notes (a meritorious 
 work), Oxford, 1831, 2 vols., subsequent editions 
 in 1 vol. His Works have been collected and 
 published, witli a memoir, Oxford, 5 vols. 
 
 BURTON, Robert, b. at Lindlev, Feb. 8, 1576; 
 d. at Oxford, ,Ian. 25, 1639. He 'studied at Ox- 
 ford, entered the Church, and became rector of 
 Segrave, 1636. He w;us a good mathematician, a 
 thorougli classical scholar, an omnivorous reader, 
 and a merry companion. His famous Anatomy 
 of Melancholy appeared in 1621, and has been 
 plagiarized by many a wit besides Laurence 
 Sterne. The character of the book has been 
 thus felicitously and humorously described by 
 Taine in his History of English Literature, Bk. ii., 
 c. 1 : " He (Burton) read on for thirty years, put 
 an encyclopaedia into his head, and now, to amuse 
 and relieve himself, takes a folio of blank paper, 
 twenty lines of a poet, a dozen lines of a treatise 
 on agriculture, a folio column of heraldry, the 
 patience, the record of the fever-fits of liii'pochon- 
 dria, the history of the jiarticle >/ne, a scrap of 
 metaphysics, — this is what passes tlnough his 
 brain in a quarter of an hour. It is a carnival 
 of ideas and plirases — (Jreek, Latin, German, 
 French, Italian, philosophical, geometrical, medi- 
 cal, jioetieal, astrological, pedagogic — heai>ed one 
 on tlie other, an enormous medley, a prodigious 
 ma.ss of jund)led quotations, jostling thoughts, 
 witli the vivacity and the transport of a least 
 of unrea,son. . . . He is never-ending. Words, 
 plir;ises, overflow, are heaped up, rejieated, and 
 rtow on, carrying the reader along, deafened, wea- 
 ried, half drowned, unable to touch ground in the 
 deluge. Burton is inexhaustible. 'I'liere are no 
 ideas wliich he does not iterate under fifty forms. 
 When he has ex]iended his own, he poms out 
 upon us other men's, — the classics, liie rarest 
 authors, known only by .savants, autliors rarer 
 .still, known only to the learned. He borrows 
 from all. I'liderncatli these deeji caverns of eru- 
 dition and science then- is one bl.icker aiul more 
 unknown than all the others, filled with forgot-
 
 BUSCH. 
 
 347 
 
 BUSHNBLL. 
 
 ten authors, witli crack-jaw iianios, — Bcsler of 
 Nurcmburn', Ailru'oniius, Liuscliotcn, Hiocanfe 
 Bredenbacliiiis. Ainiilst all these antediluvian 
 monsters bristling with Latin terminations, he is 
 at his ease. He sports with them, laughs, ski|)s 
 from one to the other, drives them all at once. 
 He is like old Proteus, the bold runner, who in 
 •one hour, witii his team of hi|i]i(ii)otaini, makes 
 the circuit of the ocean." Burton's PliildSopliusN/r 
 .and Pdi'iiiala were jiublislied by the Koxliurglie 
 Club, London, bSfi'.'. 
 
 BUSCH, Johannes, b. at Zwolle, l:5!»!l; d. at 
 •Sulfa, 147!) ; was educated in the flourisliing school 
 of his native city, and entered the neighboring 
 monastery of AVindesiieim in 1416; was made a 
 canon in 1 119, and a presbyter in 14'24, and was 
 apiioinled sub-prior of ^\'ittenburg in 1435, and 
 prior of Sulfa in 1440. He wrote a life of Jo- 
 hannes of Kempen, the brother of Thomas, a 
 Chronicon Windesimense, edited by Herib. Ros- 
 weydus, Antwerp, 1628, and four books, De Re- 
 Jbrmalione Monaslerioriim Quorundaiii Saxonkc, 
 published in Script, lirunsric. 11., p. 476 sqq. 
 But the principal work of his life was the practi- 
 cal reform which he carried out in the monasteries 
 of Holland, Friesland, Hanover, Lower Saxony, 
 and Westphalia, on the basis of the maxims of the 
 Brethren of the Connuon Life. In connection with 
 the abbots of Minden and Bursfeld, he founded 
 the Congregation of Bursfeld, for the purpose of 
 enforcing the monasticuil vows and rules in their 
 original purity, and at his death se\enty-five mon- 
 asteries had entered the congreg.ition. S(!e K.vui. 
 Grubk: Juhannes Btisrii, AiKjHstuicr/jrojisl ;« llil- 
 deslicbn, Freiburg, ISSl. 
 
 BUSENBAUM, Hermann, b. at Xottelen, West- 
 phalia, 1600; d. at Munster, Jan. 31, 1668; en- 
 tered the order of the Jesuits in 1610 ; tauglit 
 theology in Cologne, and was ajipointed rector of 
 tlie College of Hildesheim, and finally confessor 
 to the prince-bishop of MUnster. His Medulla 
 Theologice Moralis, which first appeared in 1645, 
 was often republished, and introduced in most 
 schools of the order ; but in the eighteenth cen- 
 tury it was twice condemned to be burnt by the 
 Parliaments of Paris and Toulouse, on account 
 of the views it propagated concerning murder 
 (esjiecially of a king) ; and in the troubles which 
 overtook the Jesuits under Choiseul it played a 
 conspicuous part. 
 
 BUSH, George, Bible commentator, b. at Nor- 
 wich, Vt., June 17, 1796; d. at Rochester, N.Y., 
 JSept. 19, 1858. He was educated at Dartmouth 
 College and Princeton Theological Seminary, and 
 ordained (1824) pastor of a Presbyterian church 
 in Indianapolis. He resigned in 1829, and in 
 J831 became profassor of Hebrew at the Univer- 
 sity of the City of New York. He began in 1840 
 the publication of his Notes, wliich covered the 
 Pentateuch, Joshua, and Judges, and have been 
 widely circidated. A new edition appeared Bos- 
 ton, 1870, 6 vols. Mr. Spm'geon (^Couimentiny 
 <ind Commentaries, Engt ed., p. 49) accuses him 
 of gross plagiarism in his Notes on Genesis, but 
 grants his independence and value in the other 
 volumes. Mr. Bush showed a marked leaning 
 towards mystical speculations, embraced Sweden- 
 borgianism (1845), and ardently defended its 
 tenets. Besides the Notes, he published a He- 
 brew Grammar, 1835, 2d ed., 1838; Anastasis, or 
 
 the Dortrine nf the Resurrection nf the Body, 184.5, 
 and (-'diteil the Anr/lo-Amcrican New Cliurch Re- 
 posilori/. See Feknald : Memoirs mid Reminis- 
 cences (if the Late Professor Ucori/c Hush, Boston, 
 lH(i0. 
 
 BUSHNELL, Horace, one of the great spiritual 
 foi<:es of the cenlin-v, b. at Litchfield, Conn., 
 April II, 1S02; d. iii Hartford, Conn.. Feb. 17. 
 1876. II(! was graduated at Yale College in 1827, 
 and after a brief experience of school-leiu'hing, 
 and ten months of most valuable editorial work 
 upon the Journal of Commerce in New York, he 
 entered tlie New-Haven Law School. When he 
 hud tiinshed a half-year there, he accepted a 
 tutorshiji at Yale College ; and so he taught and 
 studied for two years. He was ready to be ad- 
 mitted to the bar; but in the winter of 1831 he 
 was converted, and exchanged law for theologj'. 
 He resigned his tutorship, and in the autumn 
 entered the Divinity School of Yale College. In 
 February, 1833, he went as temporary supply to 
 the North (now Park) Congregational Church of 
 Hartford, Conn., biut Jlay 22 was ordained its pas- 
 tor. In September, 1839, he delivered an address 
 on " Revelation " before the Society of Inquiiy at 
 Andover, Mass. ; and in it he broached a heresy 
 upon the Trinity, and thus began his troubled 
 lite as a religious teacher. In tlie spring of 1840 
 he declined the presidency of Middlebury College. 
 In 1845 he visited Europe, and was gone a year. 
 Previously, as well as subsequently, he was inter- 
 ested in the Christian Alliance, an anti-Romanist 
 organization, and published pamphlets and ser- 
 mons, and made addresses, in its behalf. His 
 book on Cltristian Nurture (1846) "emphasized 
 the uryanic life of the family." Meanwhile he 
 had been full of anxious longing for a higher 
 Christian life ; and in February. 1848, all at once 
 — " not as something reasoned out, but as an 
 inspiration, a revelation from the mind of God 
 himself " — there came to him the knowledge of 
 the true way, and this conception lie embodied in 
 his work God in Christ. He addressed the Har- 
 vard Divinity School (l"nitarian) in July, 184S, 
 on the Atonement ; delivered the Concio ad Cle- 
 rum at Yale College in August on the Divinity 
 of Christ, and spoke at Andover in September 
 on Dogma and Spirit. These addresses, with an 
 introductory Dissertation on Lanr/va(/e as related to 
 Thought, made up the volume God in Christ, pub- 
 lished in February, 1849, which was the occasion 
 of his trial for heresy. The charges against him 
 were "his contemptuous denial of any Trinity 
 beyond the lilankest Sabellianism, and his char- 
 ging those who lield to a proper tri-personality 
 in the Godhead witli being heretics ; that he re- 
 duced it to a mere instrumental revelation of 
 God, in terms sometimes suggestive of its mani- 
 festing Him by a sort of pantheistic evolution, in 
 which the so-called persons are merely the rfro»«7- 
 ^is /jer4-o»(E for dramatizing God to us." It must 
 be confessed, that by his independent, bold, and 
 original language, he laid himself open to just 
 such charges, however erroneous they may seem 
 to-dav, when his books are read in sober quiet 
 and liy a later generation. Such expressions in 
 his God in Christ as — "Conceive Him (God) now 
 as creating the worlds, or creating \\orlds, if you 
 please, from eternity. In so doing. He only rej> 
 resents, expresses, or outwardly produces Him-
 
 BUSHNBLL. 
 
 34s 
 
 BUTLER. 
 
 self. He bodies out His own thouglits. AVhat 
 we call t)ie creation is in another view a revela- 
 tion only of God. — his first revelation ; and it is 
 in this view that the ^^'ord, or Logos, elsewhere 
 called Christ, or the Son of God. is represented as 
 the creator of the worlds " (p. 140) ; and " They 
 (the Trinity) are instrumentally three '"..." if 
 (jod has been eternally revealed, or revealing him- 
 self, to created minds, it is likely always to liave 
 l>een, and always to be, as the Father, Son, and 
 Holy Ghost" — cei-tainly do not have the orthodox 
 ring. In June, 181!), his book was placed on the 
 docket of business by the Hartford Central Asso- 
 ciation ; and a committee of five then appointed 
 reported at a special meeting held in Septenibei', 
 upon its alleged errors. Three of the committee 
 deemed its errors not fundamental; and this was 
 the ultimate verdict of the association after Dr. 
 Bushnell had made his defence before them, and 
 he was therefore not presented for trial. Tliis 
 action did not settle the matter. On complaint 
 of the Association of Fairfield West it came up 
 before the General Association of Connecticut, 
 ineeting at Litchfield in June, 18.30; but that 
 body refused to interfere. Efforts made to influ- 
 ence the Hartford Central likewise failed. In 
 April, 18.51, his Christ in Theulogij appeared. The 
 same attempt to bring liim up for trial was made, 
 and as vainly. The General Association at Dan- 
 bury in June, lS.'y2, again declared it '-was not a 
 legisliitive or judicial body," and would not sum- 
 mon him before them. The private position of 
 Dr. Bushnell's church had long been very un- 
 pleasant, owing to the alleged heresy of the pas- 
 tor; and accordingly it was unanimouxl y \oteA on 
 Sunday evening, June 27, 18.52, to withdraw from 
 the North Consociation of Hartford County, and 
 henceforth to be a true Congregational Cinn'ch, 
 whose minister was amenable to no external au- 
 thority. This action was taken without the 
 advice or in.stigation of the pastor. During 18.55 
 and 1850 he w-as compelled by his health to take 
 a leave of absence, and travelled in the Soiith and 
 Far West. He took an active jiart in the estab- 
 lishment of the University of California, and was 
 otTered the presidency. Into the revival of reli- 
 gion wliich immediately followed the financial 
 crisis of the fall of 1.S.57, Dr. Bushnell entered 
 lieartily, and for the first time preaclied extempo- 
 raneously. But the excitement and extra labor 
 told upon him; and he was obliged to insist upon 
 the acceptance of his resignation in April, and 
 spoke his parting words July. 185!1. Tlius termi- 
 nated a ])astorate of twenty-six years, often inter- 
 rujited towards its close, Lut still a quart(;r-cen- 
 tury of love and labor among one people. He 
 gave them liis freshest, rijiest thought ; he filled 
 them with <Mithusia.sm for the things of Christ; 
 lie taught them knowledge. Afterthis time he 
 took no other charge, but began iiis "ministry at 
 large." And how u.seful a mini.stry ! His it was 
 to clieer during tlie war by his great hojiefulness ; 
 his it wa-s to impress the city of his residence 
 with tlie stamp of his .s])irit ; his it was to write 
 books, tainted, indeed, by what is styled heresy, 
 but instinct with heavenly piety and the noblest 
 thouglit. In 180<! apix'ared Ids much-debated 
 book, Tlie Vicnrii/iis Siicri/ice, ijrimniliil in J'riii- 
 rijiles of Universal Ohliyatiun. In this he .sets forth 
 that " moral theory " of the atonement wliicli is 
 
 always associated with liis name. The volume 
 liad been long preparing. It taught that " Christ's 
 object is theliealing of souls. He is to he God's 
 moral power in working such a souI-c\ire. His 
 life and sacrifice are what he does to become this 
 saving power." Late in the spring of 1874 ap- 
 peared his last work. Forgiveness and Lnir. which 
 modifies somewhat the ]'icarious Sacrifice, of 
 which it is now published as the second volume. 
 It is worthy of note, that, at the time of his 
 death, he was writing upon Inspiration ; its Modes 
 and Uses: but he finished only a few chaptej-s. 
 Dr. Bushnell was not only a theologian, but also 
 a public-spirited citizen, alive to all about him. 
 The city of Hartford owes to him her Bushnell 
 I'ark, and indirectly the present site of the Capi- 
 tol ; for by his advocacy the park was made, and 
 by his opposition the original site was not used,. 
 but another and better bought. 
 
 His chief published works are : Christian JViir- 
 liire (1847) ; God in Christ (1849, new ed., 1877) ; 
 Christ ill Theology (1851) ; Sermons for the i^em 
 /^//b (18-58) : yat lire and the Snpernaturat (ISoS) ; 
 Worl: and P/f/// (1864) ; Christ and his Salration 
 (18C4) ; The Vicariuiis Sacrijice, grounded in Prin- 
 ciples of L 'ii irersid Oliligation (1866); Moral Uses 
 of Dark- Things {iS&.t): Woman Suffrage, the Re- 
 form against Nature (186!)) ; Sermons on Liring- 
 Suhjccts (1872) ; Fnrgirencss and Law (1874). A 
 j new edition of his select woi'ks in 8 vols, ap- 
 ; peared, X.Y., 1876-77. and in 1881 three volumes 
 of liis miscellanies entitleil Wurk and Play: Moral 
 Uses of Dark- Things: and Building Eras in Religion, 
 the last not pre\-iously published in >>ook form. See 
 Life and I^etters of Horace Bushnell (edited by his 
 daughter). X.Y.,"]880. samI'EL M. J.\CKs6n. 
 
 BUTLER, Joseph, Bishop of Durham; author 
 of the famous Analogi/: h. at A\'antage, near 
 Oxford in Berkshire,' Kno-., ]May 18, i6!)2; d. 
 
 17 
 
 He was the 
 
 at Bath, Tuesday, June 16, 
 youngest of eight children. His father, Thomas 
 Butler, a retired linen-draper, and a stanch 
 Presbyterian, intended him for the ministry of 
 his church ; but after he had been educated, first 
 at the school of the Rev. Philip Barton of the 
 Established Church at Want.age, and then at the 
 Dissenting Academy of that remarkable man 
 Samuel Jones, at (tloucester (later removed to 
 Tewksbury), his mind underwent a change, and 
 he signified his preference for the ministry of the 
 Established Churdi. His father generously con- 
 sented, .ind .sent him to Oriel College, Oxford, 
 March 17, 1714. He was ordained deacon, Oct. 
 '20, and priest, Dec. 21, 1718, and that year w'a.s^ 
 appointed |ireacher at the Cha|)el of the Rolls, 
 i.e., the chapel in the Rolls Court, Chancery Lane, 
 London, the place used for keeping records in 
 chancery, . — a position of more honor than emolu- 
 ment, wliich li(! owed to the kind offices of Dr. 
 Samuel Clarke and l\Ir. Talbot his friend, son 
 of Bishop Talbot of Salisbury. The audience 
 consisted, in the main, of lawyers: hence Butler's. 
 publislii>d Sermons at the Rolls are abstruse, and 
 totally miadapted to a popular audience. In 
 1721 he was ajipointed by Bishop Talbot to the 
 living of Houghton, but was transferred by the 
 same in 1725 to the wealtliy rectory of Stanhope, 
 I and in 1726 h<' resignecl his preachi'rship. Seven 
 I years were iias.sed in seclusion and study. This 
 i was providentially beneficent: lie was preparing
 
 BUTLER. 
 
 349 
 
 BUTLER. 
 
 himself for his fjreat work. lUit tliat his frioiids 
 <li'eine(l it a yivat loss to tho world that so jiro- 
 foiiiiil a thinker should liide his light for so lopg 
 ;v time is shown hy the answer th(i Arehhishop of 
 York made to the question of (^iieen Caroline, 
 •■ Is Mr. Butler dead? " — " Nti, madam ; but he /.v 
 /inrir'il." It is not therefore; sur])risiiigf that in 
 IT.i-i ]5utler was appointed chajilain of tlie lord 
 ehancellor, in 170(J a prehend of llochester, and 
 later in the same year clerk of the closet to the 
 queen, — an office which recpiired him to spend 
 every eveninj;' from seven to nine with the queen 
 in devotional exercises aiul theological discus- 
 sion. At the court lie found a brilliant circle of 
 wit and beauty; but he bore himself not only as a 
 jihilosopher, but pre-eminently as a Christian, and 
 maintained a reputation for piety. It was while 
 there, insited thereto by the conversation he 
 heard at court, that he issued his Aiialor/i/, wliich 
 he dedicated to the queen. On the death of his 
 roy;il ]iatroness, he was ajipointed by the king to 
 the bishopric of Bristol, the poorest see in tiie 
 kingdom, worth only four hundred jiounds per 
 annum. Butler felt the ajipointment as a slight. 
 In 17-10 the king made him dean of St. Paul's, 
 and in 1746 clerk of the closet to the king. 
 When the king came to know Butler, he found 
 liim exceptionally adapted to any post, however 
 eminent: accordingly he offei'ed him in 1717 the 
 primacy; but Butler declined, saying that "it 
 was too late for him to try to support a falling 
 church." In 17.50 he was transferred to the .see 
 of Durham, the richest in England ; but he lived 
 only twenty months in his new position. 
 
 Character. — Butler was of a serious and de- 
 sponding disposition; and this inherent bent was 
 confirmed when he saw how deeply the infidel 
 spirit held tlie brightest minds of his day, and 
 how little was done to improve the morals of 
 the community; yet for himself he lived close 
 with (iod, unsettled by doubts. lie was a very 
 liberal man, simple, even abstemious, in his per- 
 sonal habits, but lavish almost to a fault upon 
 others. lie discharged the duties of his various 
 positions conscientiously; though one so shy, sen- 
 sitive, modest, and retiring, must have been natu- 
 rally unfitted for the highest success as a pastor. 
 He never married. But it was as a un-ilcr, more 
 than as a man, that Butler made himself felt; 
 and to this day he is esteemeil as not only one of 
 tlie most distinguished of English authors on 
 theology and ethics, but also as, on the whole, the 
 man of greatest intellectual power in the Church 
 •of England during the eighteenth century. It 
 may be, indeed, a question whether the Analoyi/ 
 ■will always possess the reputation it has enjoyed 
 for w'ell-nigh a hundred and fifty years ; but the 
 fact that it has lost popularity, not because of 
 any discovered weakness in its contents, but 
 simply because of the shift in the grounds of 
 unbelief, is sufficient proof of the commanding 
 genius of its author. See Bishop Duller and the 
 Zeit-Gehl, in Last Essays on Church and Religion, 
 by Matthew Arnold, London, 1877. 
 
 Writings. — ■ When twenty-one years old, while 
 at the academy in Tewksburj', lie addressed a 
 series of anonymous letters to the Rev. Dr. Sam- 
 uel Clarke, upon some of the positions assumed 
 in the latter's celebrated Demonstration of the 
 Being and Attributes of God (Boyle Lectures, 
 
 1701 ; pub. 1705). To these Dr. Clarke re|)lied, 
 and pulilished the correspondence in sub.sequent 
 editions of his book. This shows tin,' estimate 
 early put upon Butler by those conqictent to 
 appi'cciate him. 1. The first publication of his 
 own was the Fifteen Sermons preached at the llolls 
 C'tiapel, London, 17:20. The book tn.ade no sensa- 
 tion. It took three years to sell the first edition, 
 but it has had a steady sale ever since. In 1749 
 the fourth edition appeared, enlarged by the addi- 
 tion of Six Sermons on Public Occasions. It has 
 long been a text-book upon moral philosophy, as 
 at tlie University of Oxford; and the first three 
 sermons of the volume. On Ihunan Nature, have 
 been accepted as a precious legacy of the eigh- 
 teenth century to all time. They were epoch- 
 making, for they mark a decided advance in 
 ethics in these two points: (1) the distinction 
 between self-love and the particular desires, upon 
 which, however, it is dependent; and (2) the 
 proved co-existence of self-love and disinterested 
 benevolence, and the discussion of their relations. 
 Butler also emphasizes conscience, the " princi- 
 ple of reflection," which takes a view of motives, 
 approves or disapproves them, impels to or re- 
 strains from action. 2. The Analog;/ of Religion, 
 Natural and Revealed, to the Constitution and Course 
 of Nature, London, 1730 (4to, Messrs. Kuapton). 
 Butler had been often engaged in controversy 
 with the wits of Queen Caroline's philosophical 
 tea-parties ; but such unsatisfactory fragmentary 
 discussion was the occasion of his bringing out 
 at that time the results of twenty years' continu- 
 ous thinking as a final and complete answer to 
 the " loose kind of deism " then prevalent. The 
 style of the book is very concise ; it could hardly 
 be otherwise, for what a man has been formulafc- 
 ing through many years he will express concisely: 
 but it is not obscure. The book demands and 
 repays attentive study. Very briefly put, the ar- 
 gument is this : He begins with the premises of 
 the existence of God, the known course of na- 
 ture, and the necessary limitation of our knowl- 
 edge. He thus takes the ground of the deists 
 whom he would convince. He then argues, that, 
 inasmuch as the difficulties in Scripture are not 
 different from those which we find in the opera- 
 tions of nature, we should not only reject all 
 arguments against the Scriiitures which are 
 founded upon these difficulties, but also infer 
 that probably both jiroceed from the same au- 
 thor. The book has thus a narrow scope: it is 
 in no sense a philosophy of religion ; it seeks 
 rather to remove objections to it. It is very re- 
 markable that the book contains no quotations, 
 and very few references : at the same time he 
 meets fairly a host of objections which were 
 commonl)' brouglit against Christianity; and this 
 fact, and not its originality, has given it lasting 
 fame. Butler was an omnivorous reader, and uo 
 one could accuse liim of ignorance. The Analogy 
 did a noble work for his generation. It rendered 
 Christianity less despicable to its foes, and more 
 reasonable to its friends : nor has it ceased to be 
 serviceable. It has long been a text-book in our 
 colleges, and may retain its place still longer. 
 But even if it ceases to be thus used, it will 
 always be a quarry from which apologists can 
 derive arguments, a discipline by which mental 
 strength can be increased. To the Analogy are
 
 BUTLER. 
 
 350 
 
 BUTZER. 
 
 usually appended two dissertations, Of Personal 
 Identiti/, and 0/ tlie Xattire of Virtue. 3. The 
 only charge of Bishop Butler which has come 
 down to us is one to the Durham clergy, On the 
 Uxe and Importance of External licliifwn. It was 
 this charge, together with his erection of a plain 
 cross in his Episcopal chapel at Bristol, which 
 gave color to the rumor that Butler died a secret 
 Roman Catholic. So low was the tone of piety in 
 his day, and yet so blind was tlie prejudice against 
 Romanism, that attention to tlie details of public 
 worship smacked of superstition, and to set up a 
 cross was to be a Papist ! The calumny against 
 Butler is beneath criticism. 
 
 Editions. — The Complete Edition of Butler is 
 in 2 vols. Svo, Oxford, 1S44. Edward Steere, 
 LL.D., of University College, London, issued 
 Some Remains (hitherto unpubli-shed) of Joseph 
 Butler, LL.D., .tome time Lord Bishop of Durham, 
 London, 185^5, which have been repi'inted by Pro- 
 fessor Pa.ssmore in his edition of Bishop But- 
 ler's Ethical Di.tcourses, Philadelphia, 1855. The 
 .'Sermons anil the Analor/i/ have often been edited. 
 They are readily accessible to all. There are so 
 many editions, that selection is difficult. We 
 have used Professor Passmore's edition of the 
 former, which is recommended by its long and 
 full biographical preface, the large size of the 
 type in tlie body of the volinne, and the appen- 
 dix mentioned above ; and the Rev. Br. Howard 
 Malcom's edition of tlie Analor/ij, which has good 
 notes and the usual apparatus of introduction, 
 analysis, iiulex, etc. See also W. Lucas Collins : 
 iJH(/e/-, London, 1881. SAMUEL M. JACKSON. 
 
 BUTLER, Alban, b. at Northampton, Eng., 
 1710; d. at St. Omer, May V<, 177:i ; was edu- 
 cated at Douay ; labored for some time in the 
 Roman-Catholic mission in Staffordshire ; held 
 several positions as tutor, and became finally 
 president of the English College of St. Omer. 
 His Lives of the Saints, the product of thirty years' 
 labor, was first published in London, 175tJ-59, 4 
 vols. ; later editions, and reprints. It is a com- 
 pendious and popular reproduction of the Ada 
 Sanctorum. His own Life was written by his 
 nejiliew, Charles Butler, Edinburgh, 18(10. 
 
 BUTLER, Charles, b. in London, 1750; d. there 
 •lurie 2, 1832; was educated at Douay, and prac- 
 tised law in London. Of his numerous writings 
 the most prominent are : Hone Bihlirte, 1797 ; 
 Booh of the Uoman-Catliolic C7(H)-<7i, 1826 ; llemi- 
 nisccnces, 1821-27; Lives of Bossuet, Feiielon, 
 Alban Butler, his uncle, etc. A selection of his 
 works was i>ul>lished in 5 vols., London, 1817. 
 
 BUTLER, William Archer, b. at Annerville, 
 Ireland, IM 1 ; d. in Dublin, July .5, 1848; studied 
 at the University of Dublin, and was made pro- 
 fessor of moral jjliilosopliy in 1837. His Letters 
 on Development of Christian Doctrine, in re])Iy to 
 J. II. Newman's Essay, were first publislied in 
 the Irish Ecclesiastical Journal, 181.J, and reprinted 
 in book form in Dublin, 1850. His Sermons were 
 imblished in 2 vols., 181()-50, with a I'ifetnoir hy 
 Woodward. Ili.s Lectures on the Ilistori/ of A ncienl 
 Philosophy were edited by W. IIe]>wortli Tliomp- 
 .son, and appeared in 2 vols., 1S5(J. His Letters 
 on Romanism appeared Cambiidge, 1858. Very 
 lat<;iy there lias been a revival of interest in his 
 valuable works. A second edition of his lectures, 
 in one volume, appeared in Loudon, 187'L His 
 
 sermons and his lectures were reprinted in New 
 York, 1879. Butler was a brilliant and profound 
 thinker. He died early, never having had time- 
 to give his works a final finish : and therefore it 
 is all the more remarkable that his hm'ried com- 
 positions should have such power. 
 
 BUTTLAR, Eva von, b. at Eschwege, Hesse, 
 1670 ; d. in Altona after 1717 ; received a loose 
 and godless education ; married in 1G87 a French 
 dancing-master at Eisenach, and glided gradually 
 from the frivolities of a court life into the most 
 hideous aberrations of religious excitement. She 
 left her husband, and with her seducer, the theolo- 
 gian Winter, and her victim, the young physician 
 Appenfeller, constituted, as she blaspliemously 
 claimed (1698), the Holy Trinity. She formed 
 in 1702 a "Christian and Phihidelpliian Society'* 
 at Allendorf in Hesse, and became the head of 
 one of those abominable conventicles into which 
 the Collei/ia Pielatis of the Pietists sometimes de- 
 generated. Expelled from Allendorf, the society 
 sought refuge at L'singen, in the Wittgenstein 
 domain ; but here they were brought into court, 
 and escaped sentence only by flight. Having 
 embraced Romanism at Cologne, they settled at 
 Pyrmont in the county of Lippe, and here their 
 scandals reached the point of culmination. They 
 were convicted of the most unnatural excesses 
 of blasphemy and licentiousness. AVinter was 
 condemned to death ; Appenfeller and Eva, to 
 flogging and perpetual exile : but once more they 
 escajied. They assembled again at Wetzlar, and 
 finally in Altona, where the traces of them finally 
 disappear. See M. Goebel : Geschichle des christ- 
 lichen Lehens in der rhein.-weslphdl. erani/. Kirche, 
 Coblenz, 1852, 11. pp. 728-809. where all sources 
 to the history of tliis peculiar phenomenon are 
 given. ' FRAXZ niBELIUS (M. GOEBEL). 
 
 BUTZER, or BUCER {Bucerus), Martin, b. 
 1491 at Schlettstadt, Alsace; d. at Cambridge, 
 Feb. 28, 1551 ; wa.s educated in the Latin school 
 of Udenheim, and conceived a great passion for 
 learning and study: but, having no other means 
 than the Church or the monastery afforded to pur- 
 sue this object, he entered in 1506 the Domini- 
 can order. By the favor of his prior he was 
 sent to the L'niversity of Ifeidelberg; and here 
 he heard Luther's disputation, April 26, 1518, 
 which made a powerful impression .on him. He 
 felt the decisive ditfereiice between Erasmus and 
 Luther, and hesitated not a moment in making 
 his choice. But the tendenev of his studies and 
 sympathies was soon disco\'ered, and persecution 
 began. In 1521 he sought refuge with Franz 
 von Siekingeii ; and in the same year he obtained 
 a papal dispensation from his monastical vow, 
 and was transferred to the secular clergy. In 
 1522 Franz von Sickingen made him pastor of 
 Landsluhl; and he married a nun, tlius breaking 
 absolutely and forever with the Roman Church. 
 The desjierate circumstances, liowever, of Franz 
 von Sickingen, did not allow Butzer to remain 
 in Landstulil. In 1523 he went to Sirassburg; 
 and in 1524 he was apjiointed minister of the 
 Chureli of St. .\nrelian, in which ]i()sition lie 
 labored for twenty-five years, ]>romiiient not only 
 among the Reformers of .\lsaee, but among the 
 leaders of the whole movement in Switzerland 
 and (iermany. ( )n the question of tlie Lord's 
 Supper he .stood nearer to Zwingli and the Swiss
 
 BUXTORF. 
 
 351 
 
 BYFIELD. 
 
 reformers tliau to Lutlier; but tlic great ol)ject 
 of his life was to effcet a reconciliation, or at 
 least to prevent an open breach. But in this 
 he succeeded only )iartially- The Conference of 
 Marburg, Oct. 1, l.Viit, failed so far as a final 
 formula conconlid' was not arrived at; lint it had 
 some influence on Luther's conceptions, or at 
 least on his temp(>i'. Butzer saw it, and went on 
 with his work, wliicli finally resulted in tin- " Wit- 
 tenberger Konkordie," drawn up by Melanch- 
 thon at the conference in Wittenberg, 15;5G. The 
 firnnie.ss with which Butzer opposed the intro- 
 duction of the liilerun in Strassburg caused his 
 dismissal in l.Wt). He went to England on the 
 invitation of C'ranmer, and was made professor 
 of tlieology in the University of Cambridge. lie 
 aided Cranmer in the preparation of the Articles 
 of Religion, aiul tlie Book of Comriwn Prayer. 
 Of his works, a collected edition was begini at 
 Basel in l.")?" ; but only the first volume ap- 
 peared, containing, besides a life of him, most 
 of what he wrote in England, whence its name, 
 Tomus Anr/liranus. See J. W. Baum : Capito 
 und Bulzerl Elberfeld, 1S60. W. KRAFFT. 
 
 BUXTORF is the name of a family which 
 throngli four generations held the professorship 
 of Hebrew in the University of Basel, and con- 
 tributed much to make this study a useful and 
 important liranch of Protestant theology. — I. 
 Johannes Buxtorf, b. at Camen in Westphalia, 
 Dec. 25, 1504; d. at Basel, Sept. 1?,, 1620; studied 
 at Marburg, Herborn, Basel, Ziirich, and Geneva, 
 under Piscator, Gryn<eus, Bullinger, and Beza, 
 and was in 1501 appointed professor of Hebrew 
 in Basel. Of all Protestant theologians, he was 
 possessed of the most comprehensive and accurate 
 knowledge of rabbinical literatiu-e ; and he applied 
 his knowledge of Jewish traditions and Jewish 
 views with great acuteness to the interpretation 
 of the books of the Old Testament. Not only 
 did he make it more easy to learn Hebrew, but, 
 by his stanch defence of the Massoretic text, has 
 rendered Protestant theology a great service, as 
 the Romanists claimed superiority in accuracy 
 and reliability for the Greek translation and the 
 Vulgate. His principal works are : Maimale He- 
 hraicum el Chaldaicum (1602) ; Synarjocja Judaica, 
 first published in German (1603), then in Latin 
 (1604); Lexicon Hebraic(B et C/ialdaicce (1607) ; De 
 Abbrevialuris Hebraicis (1613) ; Biblia Hebraica 
 cum Paraphr. Cliald. et Commentariis Rabbinoriim, 
 4 vols. (1618-19) ; Tiberias sire Commentarius Ma- 
 sorethicus (1620). A complete list of his works 
 is given in Alhenee Rauricee, Basel, 1778, p. 447. 
 E. IvAUTScn : Johannes Buxtorf der jEltere, Basel, 
 1879 (45 pp.). There have been lately published 
 new editions of two of Buxtorf's works, which 
 were originally finished by his son, and published 
 at Basel, 1632 and 1639 respectively: Concordan- 
 tiie Bibliornvi Ilebraicce et Clialdaicce, ed. Bern. 
 Baer, Berlin, 1863, 4to ; Lexicon Chaldaicum Tal- 
 mudicum et Rabhinicum, ed. Ph. B. Fischer, Leip- 
 zig, 1866-74, 2 vols. 4to. — 11. Johannes Buxtorf, 
 son of the preceding, b. at Basel, Aug. 13, 1590; 
 d. there Aug. 17, 1664 ; studied under his father, 
 and at Heidelberg, Dort, and Geneva; and was 
 appointed professor of Hebrew at Basel in 1630. 
 It became his office to defend the views which 
 his father had propounded, attacked as they were 
 by Cappellus ; and in this protracted and often 
 
 V)itter controversy lie wrote, De Litternrum Ilehr. 
 Genuina Anlir/uilale (1643) ; De Punctorum Origiife 
 (1648); /ln^i'c;-(V(rti (1653), etc. The influence he 
 exercised is noticeable in the Formula Consensus 
 Helvetica, whose second canon is directly pointed 
 against Cappellus. A comjiN'te list of liis work.s 
 is found in Atlana' Raurica, pp. 47 and 448. — 
 III. Johann Jakob Buxtorf, son of the preceding, 
 b. at Basel, .S,.pt,. 1, 1015; d. there April 1, 1704; 
 was appointed assistant to his father in June, 
 1604; visited in the following years Holland and 
 England, and assumed the full responsibility of 
 his professorship in 1069. He has given im- 
 proved editions of the Tiberias and the Synar/oga 
 Judaica of his grandfather, but wrote nothing 
 himself. — IV. Johann Buxtorf, nephew of the 
 preceding, b. at r.asd, Jan. 8, 1663; d. there 
 1732; was first pireaclier at the Mark near Basel, 
 and succeeded his uncle in 1704. His principal 
 work is Catalecta Philologico-Theologica cum Man- 
 tissa Epistolar. Viror. Claror. ad J. Buxtorfium 
 Scriploriim, 1707. A complete list of his works 
 is given in Alhencc Raurica; p. 454. [G. Schne- 
 DERM.\NN : Die Controrerse d. L. Capcllus mil den 
 Buxtorfen iiber das Alter <ler kebrdischen Puuctation, 
 Leipzig, 1879.] E. bertiieau. 
 
 BYBLUS, an alteration, from the Greek epoch, 
 of ancient name Gebal (which survives in the 
 modern Jubeil), Guba-lu upon the cuneiform 
 inscriptions. It was celebrated for its temple of 
 Baaltis, and the birtli and worship of Adonis. 
 Thus it had a sacred character, and iiilgriinages 
 were made to it. Movers maintains that the 
 Giblites were not pure Plioenicians, but rather a 
 mixed population, in which the Hebrew element 
 predominated. And it is true that the inscrip- 
 tions discovered have a more Hebraic style than 
 the ordinary Phcenician. The Bible speaks of 
 the Giblites as famous stone-cutters (1 Kings v. 
 18) and calkers (Ezek. xxvii. 9). Very recently 
 a stele from the temple of Byblus has been dis- 
 covered, translated, and published by M. df. 
 VogI'e: Stele de Yehawmelek, Paris, 1875. 
 
 BYFIELD, Nicholas, h. in Warwickshire in 1579: 
 d. 1022. He was educated at Exeter College, 
 Oxford ; was for seven years pastor of St. Peter's 
 Church at Chester, when (1615) he became vicar 
 of Isleworth in Middlesex, where he remained 
 until his death. William Gouge describes him 
 as " a man of a profound judgment, strong memo- 
 ry, sharp) wit, quick invention, and unwearied 
 industry." His works were numerous, and greatly 
 esteemed. His Man-ow of the Oracles of God, 
 London, 1620, containing six treatises jireviously 
 pulilished apart, reached an eleventh edition in 
 1040. Tlie Principles or the Pattern of Wholesome 
 Words, dedicated in 1018, reached a sixth edition 
 in 1637, and is a valuable compend of divinity. 
 His expository sermons on the Epistle to the 
 Colossians were published, London, 1615, and 
 several series on the First Epistle of Peter at 
 various times, finally collected and enlarged in a 
 Commentary upon the Whole First Epistle of St. 
 Peter, London, 1637. The Rule of Faith, or an 
 Exposition of the Apostles' Creed, was issued by his 
 .sou Adoniram, after his death, London, 1626, and 
 is' an able and instructive work. He must be 
 numbered among the Presbyterian fathers in 
 England. C. A. BRIGGS. 
 
 BYFIELD, Adoniram, was son of Nicholas By-
 
 BYFIBLD. 
 
 35S 
 
 BYN^US. 
 
 field, date of birth unknown ; d. in 1660. He 
 was educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, 
 and chosen chaplain to a regiment of Parliament's 
 army in 1642. In 1643 he was appointed one of 
 the scribes of the A^'estminster Assembly. The 
 manuscript minutes of that body, now in the 
 AVilliams Library, Grafton Street, London, are 
 probably in his handwriting. He also edited, by 
 authority of Parliament, the various papers in 
 the controversy between the Westminster As- 
 sembly and the Dissenting Brethren, publislied 
 London, 1648, including Reasons presented by the 
 Dissenting Brethren against Certain Propositions 
 
 concerning Presbyterian Gorernment, Tlie Anstcct 
 of Assembly of Dicines, Papers for Accumulation, 
 and Tlie Papers and Answers of the Dissenting 
 Brethren and the Com. of the Assembly of Dicines. 
 He became rector of Fulham in Jliddlesex, and 
 subsequently minister of Collingboru-Ducis in 
 Wiltshire. C. A. briggs. 
 
 BYN/EUS, Anthony, b. at Utrecht, Aug. 6, 
 1634 ; d. at Deventer. Nov. 8, 1G98 ; was one of 
 the most eminent Oriental scholars of his time, 
 and wrote De Calceis Hebra:orum, Dort, 1682 ; 
 Explicatio Hist. Ecang. de Kaliritate Christi, Dort, 
 1688; De MorteJesu Christi, 1689.
 
 CAB. 
 
 353 
 
 CABALA. 
 
 c. 
 
 CAB (hollow), a Hebrew measure, one-third of 
 an oilier, variously pstiniatod, perhaps best as 
 three ami oiie-third li(iuid pints, two and five- 
 sixths dry pints. 
 
 CABALA, tlie title of the system of Jewish 
 theosophy, denotes primarily " reeeption," then 
 "a doctrine received by oral tradition." The 
 term is thus in itself nearly equivalent to "trans- 
 mission," or "tradition." Thus we read in Pirke 
 Abolh I. 1, "Moses received the law on Mount 
 Sinai, and transmitted it to Joshua." I5y this 
 indefinite title we are reminded, that among the 
 .Jews, as throughout the greater part of the East, 
 human knowledge, whetlier historical or scientific, 
 rested principally on a sort of succession ; and 
 the best claim for its reception was an unliroken 
 chain of traditionary evidence. Hence the care 
 with which Judaism established the succession of 
 the custodians of truth, from Moses, through 
 Joshua and the so-called elders, to the prophets, 
 thence, through Ezra and the so-called Great Syn- 
 agogue, to the teachers of later times, subdividing 
 at length into the various schools or periods of 
 particular sages and their follo\\ers. AV'hile, 
 therefore, the truth was gradually exhibited in 
 the writings of the Law, the Prophets, and the 
 Talmud, the Cabala indicates the verbal exposi- 
 tion of these, orally transmitted along with the 
 Scriptures, and not generally known to the peo- 
 ple, but containing a deeper or more thoroughly 
 initiated mode of instruction. In this manner the 
 word " cabala " ultimately became the expression 
 of a particular tlieologico-philo.s.ophical system, 
 that arose and established itself in the bosom of 
 Judaism, yet in a measure independent of, or 
 rather supplementary to it, which finally received 
 a more general signification through some Chris- 
 tian thinkers. As all instruction in .Judaism was 
 principally verbal, and founded on memory, this 
 philosophical instruction became ultimately a 
 mystery, at least in the view of posterity : hence 
 the history of the Cabala or of .Jewish metaphy- 
 sics is still a matter of scientific controversy ; and 
 both are entitled to a hearing, — tho.se who ascribe 
 to it a high antiquity, or those who regard it as a 
 product of the middle ages. It is true that the 
 Talmud (treatise Char/iga passim) speaks of a 
 doctrine which was communicated to only a few 
 and selected persons ; but what this doctrine was 
 we are at loss to know. The only works which 
 can with any propriety claim to emliody the ear- 
 liest views of this theosophy are the following 
 two (a third cabalistic treatise entitled the iSi'phcr 
 Bahir, edited at Amsterdam, 16.31, and ascribed 
 to a certain Rabbi Nechonja ben Hakana of the 
 first century, has long ago been generally regarded 
 as fictitious, although a cabalistic work of the 
 same title is already mentioned in the fourteenth 
 century) : — 
 
 Tlie first of these works is the Sepher Yetzira, 
 
 or the " Book of Creation," often printed and 
 
 edited : thus by Steph. Rittangel, Amst., 16-12, 
 
 with a Latin translation and commentary ; by J. 
 
 24 — 1 
 
 F. Meyer, with a German translation and com- 
 mentary, Leipzig, 1830 [by I. Kali.sch, with a poor 
 English translation, New York, bsTT]. 'I'radi- 
 tion ascribes it to Rabbi .\kiba (d. l"i(l). It is a 
 short treati.se, in oracular sentences, the language 
 of which, more obscure in import than in form, 
 resembles the Hebrew of the Mislina. As the 
 (ieniara already mentions a book under a like 
 title, which was commented uiion by R. Saadja 
 of Fayum in the tenth century, its antiquity was 
 traced liack to tliat period. The other work is 
 the famous " Book of Splendor," or Hrp/icr JI<i- 
 zohar (so called from Dan. xii. 0), first [iriuted at 
 Cremona and Mantua, lo.'iO, arid often since 
 [latest at Brody, 3 vols., 1S73]. Tradition as- 
 cribes it to a contemporary of Rabbi Akiba, 
 namel}'. Rabbi Simeon Ijen Yochai. Incredulous 
 criticism has declared it to be a production of the 
 thirteenth century, the time of its first appear- 
 ance in the history of literature, and ascribed it 
 to a Spanish Jew, Moses of Leon. A more con- 
 siderate disquisition recommends a middle way, 
 tracing back its doctrines in the main features to 
 Rabbi Simeon of the second century, and its 
 completion in the East in the eighth century ; 
 whilst it became known in the AVest at a later 
 period. 
 
 In general the Zohar seems to be a commentary 
 on the Pentateuch. Interspersed tiiroughout it, 
 eitlier as parts of the text with special titles, or 
 in separate columns with distinct superscriptions, 
 are the following pieces, known under special 
 names: Siphra Detzniulha, or "The Book of Se- 
 crets ; " hlra Rabha, or " The Great Assembly ; " 
 and Idra Sula, or "The Small Assembly." 
 
 In examining these original documents of the 
 Cabala we must be careful not to interchange 
 the contents of both ; for, although the}' have 
 the same idea underlying their system, yet they 
 must be distinguished as for their matter and 
 method. The book Yelzini opens with the enu- 
 meration of the thirty-two ways of wisdom, or 
 the thirty -two attributes of di\ine mind, as they 
 are demonstrated in the founding of the universe. 
 The book shows why there are just thirty-two of 
 these. Bj' an analysis of this number it seeks to 
 exhibit, in a peculiar method of theosophical 
 arithmetic, on the assumption that figures are the 
 signs of existence and thought, the doctrine that 
 God is tlie author of all things, the universe being 
 a development of original entity, and existence 
 being but thought become concrete : in short, 
 that instead of the heathenish or popular Jewish 
 conception of the world as outw ard, or co-existent 
 with Deity, it is co-equal in birth, having been 
 brought oiit of nothing by (iod, thus establishing 
 a Pantheistic system of emanation, of which, 
 principally because it is not an.vwhere designated 
 by name, one would think the writer was not him- 
 self quite conscious. The followmg sketch will 
 illustrate the curious proof of this argumentation : 
 the number 32 is the sum of 10 (the number of 
 digits) and 22 (the number of the letters of the
 
 CABALA. 
 
 354 
 
 CAB AT. A. 
 
 Hebrew alphaliet), this latter being afterwards 
 further resolved into 3 + 7 + 12. The first chap- 
 ter treats of the decade and its elements, which 
 are called figures in contradistinction from the 
 22 letters. This decade is the sign-manual of 
 the universe. The existence of divinity in the 
 abstract is really ignored, though not formally 
 denied. Thus tlie number 1 is its spirit as an 
 active principle, in which all worlds and beings 
 are yet enclosed; 2 is the spirit fi-oni spirit, i.e., 
 the active principle in so far as it has beforehand 
 decided on creating ; 3 is water ; 4, tii'e, these two 
 being the ideal foundations of the material and 
 spiritual worlds I'espectively ; while the six re- 
 maining figures, 5-10, are regarded severally as 
 the signs-manual of height, depth, east, west, 
 north, and south, forming the six letter.s, sides of 
 the cube, and representing the idea of form in its 
 geometrical perfection . 
 
 We see, however, that this alone establishes 
 nothing real, but merely expounds the idea of 
 possibility or actuality, at the same time estab- 
 lishing the virtuidiler as existing in God, the foun- 
 dation of all things. The actual entities are 
 therefoi'e introduced in the subsequent chapters 
 under the twenty-two letters. The connection 
 between the two series is evidently the Word, 
 which, in the first Sephira (number) is yet iden- 
 tical in voice and action with the spirit ; but after- 
 wards these elements, separating as creator and 
 substance, together produce the worlds, the mate- 
 rials of which are represented by the letters, since 
 these, by their manifold combinations, name and 
 describe all that exists. Xext, three letters are 
 abstracted from the twenty-two as the three 
 mothers ; i.e., the universal relations of principle, 
 contrary principle, and balance, or in nature, fire, 
 water, air ; in the world, the heavens, the earth, 
 air; in the seasons, heat, cold, mild temperature ; 
 in humanity, the spirit, the body, the soul ; in the 
 body, the head, body, breast ; in the moral or- 
 ganization, guilt, innocence, law, etc. These are 
 followed by seven doubles, i.e., the relations of 
 things which are subject to change (oiijiosition 
 without balance), ,as life and deatli, liappiness and 
 misery, wisdom and insanity, riches and poverty, 
 beauty and ugliness, mastery and servitude, fruit- 
 fulness and barrenness. At the same time these 
 .seven also designate the material world ; namely, 
 the six ends (siiles of the cube) and the palace of 
 holiness in the middle (the immanent deity) which 
 supports it; also the seven planets, the .seven 
 heavenly si^heres, the seven days of the week, the 
 seven weeks (from Pa.ssover to Pentecost), the 
 seven portals of the soul (i.e., the eyes, ears, nose, 
 mouth), etc. This theory further has express 
 reference to the fact, that from the condiination 
 of the letters results, with mathematical certainty, 
 a quantity of words so great that the mind can- 
 not emnn(;rate them ; thus, from two letters, two 
 words ; from three, six ; from four, I wenty-four, 
 etc., or, in other words, that the letters, whether 
 spoken as results of breath, or writtiui as elements 
 of words, are I lie ideal foundation of all things, 
 rinally, the twelve single hitters show the rela- 
 tions of tilings .so far as they can be apprehended 
 in a universal category. Their geomi'trical rejv 
 resentalive is the regular twelve-sided polygon, 
 such as that of which the horizon consists. Their 
 representation in the world gives the twelve signs 
 
 of the zodiac and the twelve months of the lunar 
 year; in human beings, the twelve parts of the 
 body and twelve faculties of the mind (these 
 being very arbitrarily determined). They are so 
 organized by (iod as to form at once a province, 
 and yet be ready for battle, i.e., they are as well 
 fitted for harmonious as for dissentious action. 
 
 Different from the system as exhibited in the 
 book Yeizira is that of the Sohar, because the 
 more difficult, since it not only speculates con- 
 cerning the cosmos, but also concerning the es- 
 sence of (iod and the relations of men : in other 
 words, it treats also on theology, cosmogony, and 
 anthropology. Starting from the idea of the 
 Supreme ISeing as boundless in his nature, — which 
 necessarily implies that he is an absolute unity 
 and inscrutable, and that there is nothing without 
 him, — God is called En Soph, i.e., "endless," 
 "boundless." In this boundlessness God cannot 
 be comprehended by the intellect, nor describevl 
 in words; for there is nothing which can grasp 
 and depict him to us, and as such he is in a cer- 
 tain sense not existent, because, as far as oiu' 
 nnnds are concerned, that which is perfectly in- 
 comprehensible does not e.\i.st. To make his- 
 existence perceptible, and to render himself com- 
 prehensible, the En Soph made his existence 
 known in the creation of the world by means of 
 attributes, or ten Sephirolh, or intelligences, ema- 
 nating from the boundless one, and which, in their 
 totality, represent and are called the Prhnordiat or 
 Archil i/pal Man. This figurative presentation, 
 which is also called the cabalistic tree, is as 
 follows : — 
 
 1. Crown. 
 .■). Intelligence. '2. Wisiiom, 
 
 5. Justice. i. Love. 
 
 6. Beauty, 
 8. Splendor. 7. Firmness. 
 
 0. Foundation. 
 10. Kingdom. 
 
 The first Sephira is denonnnated the Crown, 
 and is expressed in the Bible by the divine name 
 Ehejeh, or " I am." It is also called the Ai/ed, or 
 the Lon</ Face [Macroprosopon]. From the first 
 Se/ihira proceeded a masculine or acti\e ]iotency 
 designated Wisdom, represented in the Bible by 
 Jah, and an opposite, i.e., a feminine or passive 
 potency, denominated Inletliijence, represented by 
 the name Jehovah. These two opjiosite potencies 
 are joined together by the first potency, and thus 
 yield the first triad of the Stjdiirolh. From the 
 junction of the foregoing opposites emanated 
 again the masculine or active potency denomi- 
 nated Mercif or Loce, represented by El : and 
 from this again emanated the fenunine or passive 
 potence Juslice, represented in the divine name 
 Eloha. From this again emanated the uniting 
 potency Beatdi/, represented by the divine name 
 Elohim. AVe have thus the second trinity of the 
 Sc/ihiroth. 
 
 The medium of union of the second trinity, i.e., 
 licaiili/, or the sixth Sephira. beamed forth the 
 mascidine or active potency Firmness, correspond- 
 ing to the divine name Jeliorali Sal/nolh, and this, 
 again, gave rise to the fenunine or passive potency 
 S/il('n</cn; answering the divine name Eioiic Saha- 
 olh ; from it, again, emanated Fotnula/ion, or the 
 Kl Chai, thus yielding the third trinity of ,'^ephi- 
 rolh. From the ninth Se/ihira emanated the tenth, 
 railed Kinydum, represented by the divme name
 
 CABALA, 
 
 CABASILAS. 
 
 Adnnni, and also called Sht-rllnnh. Those ten 
 Sc//liirolh, also called the Wiirlil nf Emanations, 
 save birtli to thne worlds in i\w following order : 
 1. The World of Craalion, or the Ilrialic World 
 and the T/inini; which is the aluxle of jmre spir- 
 its, and when! the angel Metatroii reigns; '2. The 
 World of Formation, or the Vf^tzlrativ ]\'ortd, the 
 haliitation of the angels. '■^. The third world 
 is called the World of Action and the World 
 of Mailer, which emanated from the iireceding 
 world, the ten Scjiliirolh of which are made uji of 
 the grosser elements of all th(! former three 
 worlds. They I'epresent in the first three degrees 
 the Toliu, Valiohu, and Darkness, whereupon fol- 
 low seven infernal halls, the prince of which is 
 Samuel ("angel of poison or of death "). lie has 
 a wife called the Harlot; but they are both gen- 
 erally represented as united in the one name of 
 the Bea.it. As to the nature and destiny of man, 
 according to these nietaphj'sical ideas, according 
 to his soul and body, he represents the univer.se, 
 the body being merely a garment of the soul. 
 Like God, man has a unity and a trinity, the 
 latter I'epresented liy the .tpiril, the sonl, and the 
 life The fii'st represents the inlellcclwd ivorld ; 
 the second, the sensuous world ; the third, the 
 material irorld. As to the soids, they are pre- 
 existent, and are, without an exception, destined 
 to inhabit human bodies, and pursue their course 
 upon earth for a certain period of probation. 
 Hence all souls are subject to transmigration, till 
 at last they return to God to be united in the 
 Palace of Love with him by a loving kiss. 
 
 The most famous Cabalists are Moses ben 
 Nachman, author of Faith, and Hope ; Jose of 
 Castile, author of Gales of Li</hl ; ^ioses of Cor- 
 dova, author of the Garden of Pomeyranales , 
 Isaac Liu'ia, author of the Book of Melenipsi/chosis ; 
 Chajini Vital, who wrote the Tree of Life, Clir. 
 Knorr von Rosenroth has collected most of these 
 and other writings in his Kahhala denudata, Sulz- 
 bach, 1077, sq. 3 vols. 
 
 In the hands of the younger disciples of the 
 Cabalists, the secret knowledge was not only 
 .studied in its philosophical bearing, but also, and 
 even rather, under two new aspects not previ- 
 ously mentioned ; namely, the practical application 
 and the hermeneutical method. Passing over the 
 first, which amounts to saying that a true Caba- 
 li,st nuist also be a sorcerer, we come now to the 
 second, because of more interest to the theologian. 
 The pi-inciple of the mystic interpretation is very 
 old, and not peculiar to the Cabalistic schools, 
 as may be seen from church-history, and even 
 from file history of Greek literature, '\^'e find it 
 in Philo, in the Xew Testament, in the writings 
 of the Fathers, in tlie Talmud, and in the .Sohar ; 
 and the more the latter departs from tlie spirit of 
 the sacred text, the more had it to be brought to 
 its suppoi't by distortions of its meaning. For 
 such operation, there are no known rules except 
 the exigencies of the case and the capacity of the 
 mystic interpreter. In the mean time, tjie Jews 
 had already, by the arbitrary character of tlieir 
 aliihaliet, arrived at all manner of subtleties, of 
 whicli we have already isolated examples in earlier 
 writings, but which were especially established 
 as a virtuosoship in post-Soharic times. Thus we 
 have, 1. The Gematria, i.e., the art of discovering 
 tlie hidden sense of the text by means of the 
 
 numerical equivalents of th(> letters ; 2. The Nn- 
 larikon, i.e., tin- art of forming a new word from 
 each letter of the woi'd ; 3. The Temura, the 
 anagram, of two kinds. The simple is a mere 
 tran.sposition of the letters of a word : the more 
 ingenious kind is that by which, according to 
 certain established rules, each letter of tlu' alpha- 
 bet acquires the signification of another; as Alepli 
 that of 'J'ar, Beth that of Sliin, etc. ; or, again, 
 letters may be read forward and liackward. or the 
 first letter of the alpliabet is connected with the 
 twelfth, the second with the thirteenth, etc. 
 
 Among Christians the Cal)ala was cultivated 
 as early as in the thirteenth century. I'aymond 
 Lully is the first who provi^s him.self at home in 
 this branch of science. I'esides, we must mention 
 John Picus di Mirandola and John lieuchlin, not 
 to speak of such converted Jews as Paul Ricci, 
 physician to Emperor ^Maximilian, and Juda ben 
 Isaak Al>r;ibanel (Leo llebriius), son of the fa- 
 mous connnentator, and author of Dialotjhi de 
 amore, and others, who initiated many Christian 
 scholars into this theosophy. 
 
 [The literature on the Cabala is very large, and 
 convenientlv arranged in Fi.'ust: Bibliolheca Ju- 
 duwa, vol. 'ill. pp". 32!J-3:!.5, Leipzig, 1863. In 
 the French language we have Ai>. Franck : La 
 Kahhale, ou la philosophic reliijieusc des hebreux, 
 Paris, 1813 (tian.slated into German by Ad. 
 Jellinek, Die Kahhala, oiler die lieli(jions[)hilophie 
 der Hehrder, Leipzig, 1844) ; the art. Cubale in 
 Lichtenberger's Encijclo]ie<He des Sciences Reli- 
 (jieuses, Paris, 1878, vol. II. pp. 497 sq. ; and S. 
 MuNK : Me'lanr/es de Philo.tojihie Juice et A rahe, pp. 
 461-511. A .short survey on the Cabala is also 
 given by Gougenot des Mousseau.x, in his work, 
 Le Juif, pp. .509 sq., Paris, 1869. In the English, 
 language may be consulted, besides the arts, ia 
 Kitto, and !McClintock's and Sti'ong's Ci/clops. on 
 the Cal/ala, and the art. by K. Pick, ou the Zohar, 
 in the latter work, Milmax : History of the Jews, 
 II. p. 421, III. pp. 438-444, New York. 1870; 
 UEiiEinvEG: Llislori/ of Philosophy, I. p. 417, ib. 
 1872; Longfellow: Dante's Dicine Comedy, IIT. 
 pp. 456 sq., wliere the Cabalistic alphabet is given, 
 but more especially Ginsburg : The Kahhalah : its 
 Doctrines, Development, and Literature, London, 
 1865.] ED. KEUSS (B. PICK). 
 
 CABASILAS is the name of two prominent 
 bishops of Thessalonica during the fourteenth 
 century. Thessalonica was at that time, next ta 
 Constantinople, the most important see of the 
 Byzantine Church, and the principal object of the 
 contest between the Eastern and Western Church. 
 Both the Cabasilas were decidedly anti-Roman ; 
 and for this reason the writings of the elder, 
 Nilus, who occupied the see about V'AO. were 
 entirely unknown in Western Europe until the 
 Reformers called attention to them. His De 
 T'rimatn Paper was edited by M. Flacius Illyricus, 
 Frankfort, 1555. The younger, Nicolaus Cabasi- 
 las, occupied the see about 1354, succeeding 
 Pa.samas. He was originally a monk ; and in the 
 Hesychast controversy he took the side of the 
 monks of Athos against Barlaam and Nicephorus 
 Gregoras. He wrote rhetorical, liturgical, and 
 dogmatical works, also polemics against Rome, 
 most of which, however, liave remained unprinted. 
 But his principal work is T-.ife in Christ {Ucpi r^f ev 
 XfiiaTu iuTic). It was much read and often copied
 
 CABRAL. 
 
 356 
 
 C^RULARIUS. 
 
 in earlier times. A Latin translation by .Tacob 
 Pontanus was published at IngolstaJt in KJOi. 
 \ critical edition of the Greek text has recently 
 been given by Gass. The book is interesting as 
 a striking instance of that mysticism -which grew 
 up in the Eastern Church parallel with but inde- 
 pendent of the mysticisn: of the Western Church. 
 See Gass : Die Mi/^iik des Nikolaus Kubasi/as com 
 Leben in Clirislo, Greifswald, 1849. 
 
 CABRAL, Francois, b. at Caviltaa, Portugal, 
 15-2>i : d. at Gua. April 16, 1609 ; entered the '"So- 
 ciety of Jesus ; labored as a missionary in India, 
 Japan, and China; baptized in 1575 the King of 
 Bungo, who had previously been \'isited by Fran- 
 cis Xavier, and was in 1571 appointed director of 
 the House of the Professed at Cloa. 
 
 C/ECILiA, St., suffered martyrdom, according 
 to an old legend, in 2-H\, under Alexander Severus. 
 According to a legend which dates from the four- 
 teenth century, she sang hymns, and accompanied 
 herself on the organ, immediately before her 
 death ; and this circumstance has made her the 
 patroness of church-music. Her festival falls on 
 Xov. '2'2. See Butler ; Lii-es of Saints, Xov. 22. 
 
 C/ECILIANUS. See Donatists. 
 
 C/EDMON, the first Christiau poet of Eng- 
 land, was a monk of the Abbey of Streaneshalch 
 in Xorthumbria, who lived in the seventh centu- 
 ry. It is related of him by Bede {Eccl. Ilisl. iv. 
 24), that, before taking upon himself the monas- 
 tic vows, he was on one occasion at a feast where 
 all were in turn called upon to sing. Feeling his 
 inability to comply, he left the hall, and betook 
 himself to rest in the stable, M'here he was that 
 night to watch the animals. In his sleep he be- 
 came aware of a person who stood over him, and 
 connnanded him to sing of the creation, which 
 he thereupon was enabled to do, repeating verses 
 which he had never heard. On awaking, he 
 remembered the poetry of his dream, and pro- 
 ceeded to add nuich more of the same purport. 
 Being brought before the Abljess Hilda, he related 
 his vision, and, at the rec^uest of the learned men 
 there present, translated certain passages of Scrip- 
 ture, which they repeated to him, into excellent 
 ver.se. Thereupon he was received into the mon- 
 astery, and instructed in the biblical histories, 
 large portions of which he subseciuently versified. 
 Among these were the creation of the world, the 
 origin of man, and tlie whole history of Genesis ; 
 the departure of the children of Israel out of 
 Egypt, and their entrance into the land of prom- 
 ise ; the incarnation, passion, resurrection, and 
 ascension of Christ; the coming of the Holy 
 Ghost; and the ])reaching of the apostles. His 
 death took place about the year 080, and the man- 
 ner of it was in com])l(^te accord with his devout 
 and tranquil life. 
 
 The poems which have been attributed to Ca'd- 
 mon were first ])nblished in 1055 by Francis Ju- 
 nius, from a manuscript now in the possession of 
 the Bodleian Library. They are known as tiie 
 (jenesis. Exodus, Daniel, and Christ and .Satan. 
 At present it is geni'rally conciMlc<l that only the 
 first of the.se (loems has any claim to be considered 
 as the production of Ciedmon, and even (his has 
 been transmitted to us in an interpolated and 
 Consideral>ly modified form. 
 
 Cicdinon's alliterative ])araphrase is bold and 
 vigorous ; and in sublimity he is surpassed by no 
 
 writer in the language, excejit, perhaps, ISIilton. 
 The striking resemblance between parts of the 
 Genesis and of Paradise Lost has been pointed out 
 by DTsraeli, Amenities of Literature, I., 32-44. 
 
 Lit. — Ctedmonis monachi jiaraplirasis poetica 
 Genesios ac jircecipuarum S(,icra: Par/ince llistoria- 
 rum, ahhinc annos mlxx. Ant/lo-Saxonice conscripta, 
 et nunc primuin editn a Fr.\xcisco Jrxio, Am- 
 stelodami, 1055 ; B. Thorpe : Ciedmon s Metrical 
 Paraplirase of Parts of tlte Ihibj Scripture in Am/lo- 
 Saxon, with an Enr/lish Translation, etc., London, 
 1832; K. W. Bouterweic : Cadmons des An- 
 f/elsachsen hililisclte Dichtunijen, Giitersloh, 1854 ; 
 C. W. JI. (Jrei.N' : DUiliotliek der angelsiichsisclien 
 Poesie, erster Band, Gbttingen, 1857; the same: 
 Dichlunt/en der Anyehaclisen slabrtunend iibersetzt, 
 Cassel uud Gbttingen. 1857-59 ; W . H. F. Bos.^.n- 
 Ql'ET : The Fall of Man, or Paradise Lost of Cied- 
 mon, translated in verse from the An</lo-Saxon, etc., 
 London, 1860; J.J. Coxvbe.\re : Jllnstration of 
 Anijlo-Saxon Poetr)/, London, 1826; E. Guest: 
 Ihstorij of -Enijlish lihi/thms, London, 1838; Tiios. 
 Wright: BiiKjraphia Britannica Literaria, An//lo- 
 Saxon Period, London, 1842; L. Ettmi'ller : 
 Enijla and Seaxna Scopus and Boce'ras, Qnedlin- 
 burg and Leijizig, 18.50; S. G. Saxdrar : De 
 carminibus Ani/lu-Saxonicis Ceedmoni adjudicalis 
 disf/uisitio, Paris, 1859 ; H. jMorley : Enijlish 
 TFnVens vol. L, Part I., London, 1867: E. SiK- 
 ■\'ERS : Per lleliand unit die ani/ilsiichsische Genesis, 
 Halle, 1875 ; B. Tex Brink : Oeschichte der cni/- 
 llschen Litcratur, er.ster Band. Berlin. 1877; J. j\L 
 H.\UT : A Si/llabus of' ani/lo-Saxon Literature, 
 adapted from Bernhard 'I'en LSrink's Geschichte der 
 Eniiliscian Literatur, Cincinnati. 1881 . A. S. COOIC. 
 
 C/ERULARIUS, Michael, Patriarch of Con- 
 stantinople 1043-59, made complete the breach 
 between the Greek and the Latin churches, which 
 had been so well prepared by Photius. The 
 strife was at rest since the days of the Patriarch 
 Sisinnius (d. 999). when Michael, in comiectiou 
 with the Bulgarian metropolitan. Leo of Achrida, 
 arbitrarily abolished the Latin liturgy in use in 
 some Bulgarian churches and monasteries, and, 
 by a letter to the Bishop of Trani in Apulia, 
 formally declared vvarag;vinst the Roman Church 
 (Canisins: Lection. Antit/ua; ('dited by Basnage, 
 HI. p. 281). The complaints were the old ones, — 
 the use in the Latin Church of unleavened bread 
 in the Lord's .Supper, the omission of the Halle- 
 lujah during the fast, the introduction of the 
 word Pihoipie in the creed, etc. ; but the tone was 
 more violiMit than ever. The Emperor Con.stan- 
 tine Monomachus was very much displeased with 
 the letter; ami when Pope Leo IX. .sent his am- 
 bassadors to Constantinople to attempt to settle 
 the ipu'stions, the emperor received them veiy 
 graciously. But Micliael defended his views 
 very cunningly (Canisins, p. 283) ; the enijieror 
 began to waver; ami the papal amba.ssadors 
 departed abruptly from the city, leaving on the 
 altar of the Church of St. Soiiliia a formal bull 
 of exeomnumication (Canisins. p. 308). iMichai-l 
 inaintaine<l himself, both under Cimstantine ami 
 under Theodora; and thongli the Emperor Isaac 
 Conmenus, in 1(159, banished jiim fiom his si'C, 
 the .schism between tlie (ireck and Latin churches 
 was, nevertheless, unremediably elTeeted. Be- 
 sides some letters given by Canisius, there al.so 
 e.\ist some decretals of I\ln maei.: De Episcoporum
 
 C^SAREA. 
 
 357 
 
 CAIAPHAS. 
 
 Jtidiriis, T>e Nuplils in Scplimo Oradii von Conlni- 
 /((■«(^>, etc., given by Corr.r.Kiurs : l^atrcs A/mn- 
 loL, I. p. 87. [See also the elaborate work of 
 I'lclil.Kl! : Onscliirlile dcr kircldirht'n TrennMivj 
 :ifl.<rliin dnn Oriiid ii. Ocridiiil, MiuicIk'H, ISGl, 
 2 vols. (vol. i. jip. I'.M s.i.|.)] (iA.SS. 
 
 C/ESARE'A and OESARE'A PHILIP'PI.^ Two 
 cities of Palestine mentioned in the New Testa- 
 ment, and which are to be distinguished from 
 one another. 1. Caesarea, originally called Stra- 
 to's Tower, later, Cai'sarea Palestin;p, or Pales- 
 tina, lay on the Mediterranean, between Jopjia 
 and Dora, and owed its celebrity and name, in 
 lionor of Augustus, to llerod the Great, who spent 
 vast sums of money in its adornment, and provided 
 it with an extensive and secure harbor B.C. 10 
 (Josephus: Aniiq., XVI. 5, 1; War, I. 21, 5-8). 
 Vespasian was declared emperor there, and made 
 it a Roman colony, and released it from capitation 
 and ground taxes. There lived Cornelius and 
 Philip the Evangelist (.\cts x. 1, viii. 40, xxi. 8). 
 there died Herod Agrippa (Acts xii. 19, 23), Paul 
 visited .and spent two years in prison (Acts ix. 
 
 30, xviii. 22, xxi. 8, xxiii. 
 
 xxiv. 27). The 
 
 contest between the heathen and Jewish inhabit- 
 ants of the place in regard to their equal right 
 to the privileges belonging to citizens was the 
 beginning of the Jewish war, which resulted in 
 the destruction of Jerusalem (Josephus: Anl'iq., 
 XX. 8, 7). After the latter event, C';esarea 
 became the chief city of Palestine, and the seat 
 of a bishopric, to which Jerusalem was subordi- 
 nate until the Council of Chalcedon (453) raised 
 Jerusalem into a patriarchate, spiritual lord of 
 Csesarea. Among its liishops, Eusebius the histo- 
 rian is best known. Councils were held there 190, 
 331, and 357. During the crusades, Caisarea was 
 taken by Baldwin (1101), retaken and destroyed 
 by Saladin (1187), retaken by the Christians, re- 
 built, again devastated, and finally destroyed by 
 the Sultan Baibar, and in this condition remains 
 to-day. The modern name is Kaiaariijeh. 
 
 2. Caesarea Philippi (probably the Old-Testa- 
 ment " Baal gad "), the Greek Paneas, from Pan- 
 ion, the sanctuary of Pan, now called Banias, is a 
 town at the base of ]Mount Ilermon, forty-five 
 miles south-west of Damascus. Beautified by 
 Philip the Tetrareh, he gave it his name, along 
 with Caesar's. Our Lord visited it; and in its 
 neighborhood the memorable confession of Peter 
 was made, and Christ was transfigured (Matt. 
 xvi. 16 ff., xvii. 1, 2). Ancient tradition in.ade 
 it the home of the woman called Berenice, 
 who had the issue of blood (Matt. ix. 20-22). 
 Herod Agrippa 11. called it Neronias, to flatter 
 Nero (Josephus, Aniiq., XX. 9, 4). Titus com- 
 pelled captive Jews, after the fall of Jerusalem, 
 to fight one another in the games lie instituted 
 tljere {War, YII. 2 and 3). The place has had 
 a somewhat similar history to Ciesarea Palestina. 
 It has been the seat of a bishopric, t.aken ami 
 retaken during the crusades; it then dropped out 
 of sight until 1S:»6, when Burckhardt visited it. 
 The present popidation is about fifty families. 
 Two remarkable objects of interest are in the im- 
 mediate neighborhood, — the cave, the Grotto of 
 Pan, from whence flows one of tlie sources of the 
 Jordan (Herod the Great built a marble temple 
 by it) ; and the old and strong ruined castle, which 
 commands a view of the whole country round, 
 
 and is the finest ruin of its kind in Palestine. 
 Stanley calls Banias, on account of its situation 
 and Ihe picturesciue views it commands, a " Syrian 
 Tivoli." 
 
 C/ESARIUS OF ARLES (Arehitem^h). b. at 
 Chulons-sur-Marne {('(diilonum) in the latter part 
 of the fifth century; d. at Aries, Aug. 27,513; 
 was educated in the celebratcil monastery of 
 Lerins (Z^ormum), and succeeded in 502 his nda- 
 tive Anouius in the ejiiscopal chair of Aries. A.s 
 a bishop lie introduced many good reforms; tried 
 to make the sermon a more effective jiart of the 
 ser\'ice; compelled the congregation to join in 
 the singing, instead of whisiiering and gossiping; 
 ordered that no one should be ordained a deacon 
 till he had read the Bible four times through, etc. 
 In the dogmatical controversies of the day he 
 aI,so participated; and at the synod of Arausio, 
 the present Or.ange (.529), he defended the doc- 
 trines of Augustine against the Semipelagians. 
 ISut his book, Be. Gratia ct Libern Arbitrio, has 
 not come down to us. Perhaps the greatest in- 
 fluence he exercised by his Ucrjuhv Diia:, altera ad 
 Mojiachos, altera ad Virylnnt, which were often 
 adopted by founders of monastic institutions 
 before the rides of Benedict came into general 
 use. Baluze edited sixteen of his sermons, Paris, 
 1G49 ; the rest, forty-six, is given in Max. Bihl. 
 Patr., VIII. His life is found in Mabillon : Act. 
 Sand. O. S. B., I. pp. ,059-677. See also Lon- 
 gueval : Hlstoire de l'E(;lise Gallicane, II. p. 2G2; 
 Oudin: Diss. d. Vita et Scriptis S. Ctcsarii Archi- 
 c/n.^copi. n.\.GENPACH. 
 
 OESARIUS OF HEISTERBACH, b. in the 
 latter part of the twelfth century ; d. in the mid- 
 dle of the thirteenth ; was educated in Cologne, 
 and spent about thirty years in the Cistercian 
 monastery of Heisterbach near Bonn, as a monk 
 and as prior ; but the date and the place of his 
 death, like those of his birth, are unknown. His 
 theological wTitings, sermons, liomilies, etc., were 
 edited by Coppenstein, Cologne, 1015, under, the 
 title of Fascicidi Moralilatis, and have interest as 
 specimens of the rhetorical art of the time. But 
 much greater importance must be ascribed to liis 
 historical writings : Vita S. Eiujelberti, printed at 
 Cologne, 1633; Catalot/us Eplscoporum Cohmien- 
 sium, published in the second volume of_ Pontes 
 lierum German.; and Dialogus Magnus Visionum 
 et Miraculorum, first printed at Cologne, 1591, 
 and recently edited critically by Jos. Strange, 
 1851. The last-mentioned work is a dialogue 
 lietween Csesarius and Apollonius, de cnnrcrsione, 
 contorlione, confesnione, etc., best elucidating the 
 subjects by anecdotes, historical narratives, obser- 
 vati(jns from actual life, and thereby furnisliing 
 much precious material for the characterization 
 of the period. See Alex. Kait.-m.wn : Casarius 
 von III ixterbaeh. Cologne, 1350. 
 
 CA'IAPHAS (oppressor), the surname of the 
 high priest who condenmed Jesus Christ to death 
 (Matt. xxvi. 57-08), in full, Jo.seph Caiaphas 
 (■Toiseph. Ant. 18, 4, 3); the fourth high priest 
 appointed by the Procurator Valerius Gratus, the 
 predecessor of Pontius Pilate, within three or four 
 years after the deposition of Ananus or Annas 
 ben Seth. Caiaphas was high jiriest for eighteen 
 years (A.T). 18-30), of which the last ten years 
 were under Pilate. In religious bias he belonged 
 to or favored the Sadducees (Acts v. 17), ^■■ 
 
 In
 
 CAIN. 
 
 358 
 
 CAJBTAN. 
 
 character lie was hard, coarse, brutal, yet adroit 
 and crafty (Matt. xxvi. 3, 4; John xi. 49, 50. 
 xviii. 14)." He w.is son-in-law of Annas (John 
 x\-iii. 13). In Luke iii. 2 Annas and Caiaphas 
 are spoken of as " high priests," and in Acts iv. 6 
 Annas is called "high priest." Very probably 
 Annas was president of the Sanhedrin ; and, as he 
 had five sons high priests, he retained the office 
 very largely in his own hands, and was to all in- 
 tents and purposes the high priest himself. The 
 expression Caiaphas was high priest " that same 
 year" (John xi. 49) means "the memorable 
 year of our Lord's sufferings," and not that the 
 office was annual. He was deposed by Vitelliu.s, 
 and nothing more is known of him (Josejih. Am. 
 
 18, 4, 3). FU. W. SCIIULTZ. 
 
 CAIN AND THE CAINITES. The name of the 
 first-born in the world is usually interpreted '• a 
 gotten one " (Gen. iv. 1); but it also resembles 
 the Hebrew for "spear," "smith." "lamentation," 
 "dirge," all of which words describe different 
 turns in the Cainitic history. It is also interest- 
 ing to observe that the two elements, the good 
 and the bad, which were found united in Adam, 
 seem to have been divideil between his sons; Cain 
 receiving the bad, and Abel the good. Again : 
 the curse which God imposed upon the ground 
 (Gen. iii. 17) was after his murder repeated upon 
 Cain himself (iv. 12). That sacrifices and wor- 
 ship were found in tliat early time demonstrates 
 their naturalness and reasonableness. The recog- 
 nized privileges of primogeniture point to an 
 ordered state. Cain's dread of being killed, his 
 journey to the land of Xod, his marriage, and 
 his establishment of a city, have, on tlie one hand, 
 been laughed at as silly tales, and, on the other, 
 been quoted as proofs of the existence of other 
 races than the Adamic. The language may, 
 however, mean no more than that the relater 
 used the language of a later day to describe 
 the very beginnings of history, i.e., Cain might 
 well have dreaded meeting a son of his brother's. 
 His wife was his sister : tradition calls her a twin- 
 sister named Save (Epiphanius, Ilrrr. XXXIX. 
 cap. VL [vol. 2, Pt. 1, p. 529, ed. (Elder]), or his 
 oldest sister, Azron or Aznra (Malala, p. 2). The 
 country to which he went received its name after- 
 wards ; and the "city" was a few of the rudest 
 huts. The descendants of Cain were enterprising, 
 industrious, and made far more rapid progress in 
 civilization than tlie line of Setli. But if they 
 weretlie first to us(! musical instruments, to work 
 in iron, and to surround themselves with luxu- 
 ries, they were true to their parentage in invent- 
 ing or beginning sins. Lamech was the first to 
 use offensive weapons. He was also the fir.st 
 bigamist, i)roving that woman had alreaily been 
 degraded in man's eyes, and polygamy was not 
 far off. The poem Lamech composed on the 
 occasion of his killing of .some one is bloodthirsty 
 and brutal in its tone, and seems to defy (jod, as 
 Herder says: "What is God's power, compared 
 to my sword? " The race of Cain was entirely 
 destroyed in the Deluge. Too much has been 
 made of the superficial similarity between the 
 genealogy of Cain (iv. 10-21) and tliat of .Setli 
 (v.). The differences are greater than the agree- 
 ments. I5ut, even if they were less, the similarity 
 would not prove that the lists were really the 
 same. The Jewish legends of Cain are found in 
 
 ElSEXMESGER : Entdecktes Judenthum, I. 402, 471, 
 832, 830 ; the Arabic in Hottingeu, llistoria ori- 
 enlttlia, p. 25. See Kuktz and Ewald in loco. 
 C. W. Eduard NaGelsbach: Der Gottmenscb, 
 NUrnberg, 1853. 
 
 In Judg. XV. 57 there is mention of a city 
 called Cain, which, however, is not to be connected 
 with the Cainites, but with the Kenites, a Ca- 
 naanitish tribe. fk. w. SCIIULTz. 
 
 CAIUSi Eusebius names six of this name 
 (//. E., 5, 12, 2; 10, 22; 7, 11, 22; 32. 1) ; but 
 the only one of interest is Cains, a writer of the 
 Chm-ch of Rome, who flourished between 180 and 
 235. Eusebius calls him "an ecclesiastical man," 
 who was born about the time of Zephyriniis, 
 Bishop of Rome, and twice speaks of his work 
 against Proclus, the leader of the Phrygian sect, 
 entitled The DiKpuiation, 2, 25, 0, cf. 0,"20, 3; 3, 
 28, 1, and 31, 4. There is no proof tliat he was 
 a clergyman. Eusebius Is really the source of 
 all the information we possess about Caius; that 
 which is said by Jerome, Theodoret, and Photius, 
 is mere repetition, with more or less blundering. 
 Indeed, a Caius myth has grown up, and many 
 modern scholars have sanctioned tliese mistakes. 
 The true Caius was one of the prominent and 
 learned defenders of the Catholic faith against 
 Chiliasm and Montanism. The fictitious Caius 
 was the author of the Labyrinth, or the tenth 
 book of the Philosiijihunienn, or Refutation of all 
 Heresies; of the Philosophumena; of the Little Labi/- 
 rinlh ; of On tlie Substance of the Unicerse; of the 
 Mnratorian canon. Further, he was a presbyter 
 of Rome under Victor and ZeplnTinus ; conse- 
 crated by them " bishop of the nations (or Gen- 
 tiles)," wrote a special treatise against Cerinthus, 
 whom he held to be the author of the Apocah/pse 
 of John. See Buxsex : lIippol>/tus and his Times, 
 London, 1852, 2 vols.; WoiinswoRTii : i'(. Hip- 
 polijtus and the Church of lionw, 2d ed., London, 
 1880. 
 
 CAJETAN, Cardinal, b. at Gaeta, July 25, 1470; 
 d. in Rome, Aug. 9, 1534. His true name was 
 Jacob de Vio. The name Thomas he assumed in 
 honor of Thomas Aquinas : that of Gaetano (Caje- 
 tan) was derived from his birthplace. In 1480 
 he entered the Dominican order, in 1508 he was 
 chosen its general, and in 1517 he was made a 
 cardiiuil. The most remarkable event in his life 
 was the conference with Luther in Augsburg, 
 1518. He luid come to (iermany as legate a latere, 
 on account of the war with the Turks ; and <luring 
 his stay there he received orders fiom Kiime to 
 sunnuon I>uther to his presence, and compel him 
 to retract. In this he failed utterly; but the con- 
 ference was not without a certain influence on 
 him.self.l He felt how far superior Luther was to 
 liimself and the theologians of the reigning .school 
 with respect to true knowledge of thi' Bible; and 
 he inuncHliately went to work to fill u|) this gap, 
 undaunted of his lack of linguistic and historical 
 (puUifieations. In his youth he liad studied the 
 schoolmen with great zeal, and he was generally 
 considered tlu^ real head of the Thomistie school. 
 Ho now became an exegete ; and as such, though 
 
 I < Cajptan bore wltncBfl to Lmhcr'A abtltty when he ci- 
 
 rliitincii, " Ejfo nolo nmpliuH cum liac lM'Nti:i "olloqul : hnb<<t 
 culm profimdoH ocuIoh ct mlriitillcn epcculiitioncM in cnpitoiiuo." 
 n ilo not witnt to liiive nny further parley willi tliat beoat; for 
 lie butt Hliurp eyea and wonderful apeculatlona In hla head.)]
 
 CALAMON. 
 
 359 
 
 GALAS. 
 
 ^le never left the track of the tradition, he occu- 
 pies a iiivich freer position than his predecessors 
 with respect to tlie Fatliers ; and tlie allegorical 
 nietho<l he altogether abandoned, 'i'lu; ]irof;r(!ss 
 he thus made met with great opposition within 
 his own order from the Donnnican Anihrosiits 
 C'atharinus; and in the collected edition of his 
 works, Lyons, Klli!), many passages have luider- 
 gone mitigating modifications. There is a sepa- 
 rate collection of his writings against Luther, 
 Lyons, 1530. See U. Simox: Hisloire Crilii/ue liu 
 Nouveau Tattameiil. 1089 ; ,1 aceh : Ciijrlinis Kumpf 
 qegen die Inllierhchc Lehrform in ZcUxclirift f. d. 
 hist. Tlieoliii/if. 1,S.')S, p. 430. C. WEIZS.iCKER. 
 
 CALAMON. See Svcamina. 
 
 CALAMY, Benjamin, b. in London, June 8, 
 1642; hm'ied there, Jan. 7, 1686; fellow of Cath- 
 arine Hall, t^anibridge, 1608; minister of St. 
 Mary's, .Aldermanlniry, London, 1677 ; king's chap- 
 lain and O.IJ., 1()8(); vicar uf St. Lawrence Jewry, 
 1683; prebendary of St. Paul's, 168.5. Unlike his 
 father, he was a High Churchman, and very active 
 in dissuading Dissenters. He published many ser- 
 mons, which are still worth reading, " as well for 
 the beauty of the language as for the excellent sen- 
 timents." His sermon on Luke xi. 41, Of a Scru- 
 2>ijlous Conscience, preached in 1683, and ))ublished, 
 made a great sensation. It was directed against the 
 Dissenters and called forth a reply from Thomas 
 de Lauue. ( )ther sermons were popular. Sermons 
 preached vpon Sinrat Occasions, 5th ed. (includes 
 Dean .Sherlock's funeral senuou), London, 1715, 
 
 CALAMY, Edmund, b. in London, Februarv, 
 1600 ; d. tliere Oct. 2ft, 1666 ; educated at PenV 
 broke Hall, Cand.>ridge ; became vicar of St. 
 Mary's in Swati'ham Prior, Cambridgeshire; thence 
 removed to St. Edmund's Bury in Suffolk, where 
 lie remained ten years or more, until compelled to 
 retire on account of the Book of Sports, thereby 
 identifying iiimself witli the Puritan part}'. He 
 accepted fi'om tlie Earl of AVarwick the rectory 
 of Kochford in Essex, where he remained, until 
 in 1639 he was chosen pastor of Aldi-rmanbury 
 Church in London, wiiere he labored imtil the 
 Restoration. He conipo.sed with others "An An- 
 swer to a Bool: entitled, An Ilmnhle Ucmonstrance 
 in which the original of Liturgy and Episcojiaci/ is 
 (liscnssed : and Queries proposed concerning both. 
 The Parilij of Bishops §■ Presbyters in Scripture 
 ilemonstrated. The occasion of their Imparity in 
 Antiquity discorered. The Disparity of the Ancient 
 Sf our modern Bishops manifested. The Antiquity 
 of Ruling Elders in the Church vindicated. The 
 Prelatical church bounded. Written by Smec- 
 tvninus [e.g., S(tephen) M(arshall), E(dmund) 
 C(alamy), T(homas) Y(oung), M(atthew) \(ew- 
 conimen), and W(illiani) S(purstow)]. This re- 
 Jily to .Joseph Hall's Ilumlile Remonstrance ]'ec'd,me 
 the platform of the Presbyterians, as that became 
 tlie platform of the Episcopal party, each side 
 claiming Jure divino. Several other tracts were 
 issued in the controversy pro and con. Calamy 
 was chosen a member of the Westminster A.s.sem- 
 bly of Divines, and took <an active part in its 
 proceedings, being moderate in doctrinal position, 
 and inclined to a union with both Independents 
 and Episcopalians in .some comprehensive polity. 
 He also became one of the most energetic mem- 
 bers of the Provincial Assembly of London ; took 
 gait in the composition of the Vindication of the 
 
 Presbyterian Gorernment and Ministry, 164!) ; was 
 the author of the Jus iJivinum Ministerii Kcan- 
 f/elici, 1654, lioth adopted l)y that body. He was 
 active in restoring Charles II. to th(^ kingdom in 
 1659; was one of the divines .sent to Holland to 
 treat with him. At the Restoration in 1660 he 
 was madt! one of the King's chaplain's, and offered 
 a bishopric, which, however, he declined. With 
 Baxter, Reynolds, and others, he gave Ids ener- 
 gies for a comprehension of Presbyterians and 
 Episcopalians through a revision of the Liturgy, 
 and a reduction of Episcopacy on Archbishop 
 U.ssher's model. He took part in drawing up the 
 E.rc''eptions against the Liturgy, and reply to the 
 Reasons of the Episcopal clergy. He was a gi-eat 
 [ireacher. frequently delivering sermons before 
 Parliament and tlie Lord Mayors on public occa- 
 sions ; and his lectures were fi-eqnented by the best 
 peojile of London. A number of these have been 
 jiublished. His most popular work is. The Godly 
 Mans Ark, 3d ed., 1001, IStli ed., 1700. lie was 
 a practical man of affairs, rather than a scholar 
 and writer. He was ejected for nonconfonnity 
 in 1602, and imprisoned for a short time. But 
 the king interpo.sed, on account of gre.at public 
 indignation, and he w,as released. For further 
 infornuUion, .see the Nonconformist's Memorial, 2d 
 ed., 1802, I. p. 70; Reid's 'j/emo/r.s- of the West- 
 minster Dirines, ISU, I. 165. C. A. BRIGGS. 
 
 CALAMY, Edmund, grandson of Edmund, b. in 
 London, April 5, 1671 ; d. tliere .June 3, 1732. On 
 his return from the Utrecht University (1691), he 
 studied divinity, joined the Nonconformists, was 
 unanimously chosen assistant to JNIatthew Sylves- 
 ter at Blackfriars, I^ondon, 1092, and, after .several 
 changes, pastor of a church in \\'estminster, Lon- 
 don, 1703. He was the author of fourteen ser- 
 mons on The Insjiiration of the Old and New 
 Testaments, London, 1710, and other collections; 
 but his principal service is as an historian of Xon- 
 coiiformity. In 1696 he conducted Baxter's i/«- 
 lory of His Life and Times through the press ; 
 furnished it with an index and table of contents. 
 In 1702 he pidilished an abridgment of Baxter, 
 but added a history of those ministers ejected 
 for nonconformity down to 1091. Bishop Hoad- 
 ley having criticised his Historij, he replied in 
 .4 Defeni:e of Moderate Nonconformity, London, 
 1703-05, 3 vols. In 1713 he published the second 
 edition of his Abridgment oj Baxter's Life, in which 
 he carried the iioiie<niformist history through the 
 reigns of William III. and Anne; and in 1727 he 
 closed his labors in this deptirtmentof special study, 
 bringing down the story still farther Calamy 
 was well qualified by his moderation and catholicity 
 to be the fair-minded historian of nonconformity. 
 
 See An historical account of my own life IVithsome 
 reflections on the times I hare iired in (1671-1731). 
 Bv Edmuxd Calamy, D.D. Now first printed. 
 Edited liy John Towill Rutt, London, 1829, 2 vols. 
 
 CALAS, Jean, a Protestant merchant of Tou- 
 lou.se, whose son, JIarc-.Vntoine, hung himself in 
 a fit of melancholy in the house of his father, 
 Oct. 13, 1761. A "rumor arose tlnat the young 
 Calas was going to embrace Romanism the very 
 next day, that the father, from fanaticism, had 
 killed tiie .son, etc. ; and the Roman-Catholic 
 clergy did all in tlieir powei- to rouse the passions 
 of the populace. The old Calas was arrested, 
 found guiltv of the murder of his son, and exe
 
 CALATRAVA. 
 
 360 
 
 CALENDAR. 
 
 ciited on the -wheel, Maicli 9, 1672. The property 
 of the family was confiscated, and the family 
 itself fled to Geneva. But the case was now 
 taken up by Voltaire, Elie de Beaumont, and 
 Loiseau de Mauleons ; and ^larch 9, 1075, the 
 Parliament of Paris completely reversed the ver- 
 dict of the Parliament of Toulouse. The old 
 C'alas was declared innocent, the property of the 
 family wa.s re.stored, and the king gave the widow 
 a present of thirty thousand francs ; but neither 
 the instigators of tliis hideous process, nor the 
 judges, were pimislied. The acts in full are 
 found in De la ^'II,I.E : Continuation ties Causes 
 Celehres, I'aris, 177(t. torn. I. See also ^'oltaire's 
 Traitc sur la Toh rome. I'uris. 171!:!. 
 ■ CALATRAVA, THE KNIGHTS OF, a military 
 order founded in the middle of the twelfth cen- 
 tury, for the purpose of defending the city of 
 Calatrava against the Moors, and confirmed in 
 1104 by Alexander ITT. The knights fought 
 witli great success in the beginning, and the 
 order flourished; but in 1197 they lost Calatrava, 
 and retired to Salvatiera. In 14S7 tlie grand- 
 mastership was annexed to the crown of Sjiain ; 
 and since 1808 the order lias become simply an 
 order of merit. Also the nuns of the order, insti- 
 tuted in rill), liave been .secularized. 
 
 CALDERWOOD, David, the liistorian of the 
 Scottisli Clnuch, b. l.J7o; d. at Jedbm'gh, Oct. 
 29, lOoU. lie took the degree of jNIaster of Arts 
 at Edinburgh, I-jSS ; in 1004 became minister 
 of Crailing, near .Jedburgh, and distinguished 
 himself by his opposition to King James's scheme 
 of prelatiziug the Church of Scothuul. AVhen 
 in 1617 .lames visited Scotland, Calderwood 
 presented liim a remonstrance signed by the 
 Presbj-terian clergy, but refused to deliver up 
 the roll of signatures to it ; for which conduct, 
 joined to other acts of insubordination, he was 
 imprisoned, and oidy released, notwithstanding 
 the interference of influential persons, ujion con- 
 dition that lie would banisli himself ; and on 
 Aug. 27, 1019, he sailed for Holland. .So cpiiet 
 and obscure was his life there, that at one time 
 he was supposed to be dead ; and one Patrick 
 Scot fabricated a recantation, which was i>uli- 
 lished un<ler the title CaUleriromt's Recantation, 
 directed to Such in Scotland as refuse Conjhnniti/ to 
 the Ordinances of the Church, London, 1022. Tie 
 remained in Holland till the death of .lames 
 in 102"), when lie returned to Scotland; and in 
 1040 he was appointed minister of Pencaitland, 
 in the County of Haddington, Scotland. He 
 gradually came again into prominence. It is 
 noteworthy that it was he who introduced in 
 1649 tjie practice, now conunon, of requiring a 
 dissent from the (ieneral Assendily to be re- 
 corded. In 1648 the General A.ssembly urged 
 him to complete his Ilistori/ of the Kirk' of Scot- 
 land, and voted him a yearly ])ension of .SISOO 
 (Scots), or £00 Vis. -id. (sterHng) ; but he died 
 ere the jtublication liegan, if, indeed, it was con- 
 templated. The ///.sVocy remained in manuscript, 
 and in tliree forms, — the original in the ISritisli 
 Museum, a copy in the Library of the I'liiversity 
 of Glasgow, another in tlie Library of the Churcii 
 of .Scotland, — until 1842, when the Wodrow 
 Society began its publication, finished 1849, Kdin- 
 burgh, 8 vols, (,'alderwood jirepared an abri<lg- 
 jnent of Iiis own work, entitled A true hislory of the 
 
 Church of Scotland, from the beginnlnr/ of the Refor- 
 mation unto the end of the Reigne of King Jamett 
 VI.. published 1678. The historical works are of 
 great value as materials for history, collected N\ith 
 (liligenee and fidelity. In 1021 he [iublished The .4 1- 
 tar of Damascus, or the Pattern of the Englisli Ilierar- 
 chi/ an<l Church obtruded upon the ( 'hurch of Scotland. 
 in 1023 tran.slated into Latin, Allare Damasannm, 
 etc.. and much enlarged, best ed, Leiden., 1708. 
 
 CALEB, the son of .lejiluinneh of the trilie of 
 .Tudali ^Xiuii. xiii. 0), Imt called the Kenezite. or 
 son of Kenez (Xum. xxxii. 12; Josh. xiv. 0, 14). 
 The reconciliation of these accounts is either to 
 suppose that that division of the tribe of Judah 
 which Caleb headed had so intermingled itself 
 with the Kenezites, a tribe of Southern Palestine, 
 that lie could be reckoned a Kenezite, or that 
 Caleb was the head of the Kenezites, who had 
 been absorbed by .Judah. He was sent to spy 
 out the land, and with .loshua rendered a ti'ue 
 rejiort, and encouraged the people to make the 
 attack. For this fidelity he was richly rewarded ; 
 for he was permitted to enter the Promised Land 
 as a conqueror, and given possession of Hebron 
 and its neighborhood ; and, when the city w as set 
 apart for the Levites, he yet retained the land 
 and villages about. In D.avid's time mention is 
 made of the '■ .South of Caleb," a considerable 
 district inhaliited by his descendants, and of a 
 place calletl Culeh-Ephralha. which must have 
 been near Bethlehem (Kphratah) (1 Sam. xxx. 
 14 ; 1 Chron. ii. 24). 'I'hese references show the 
 increased importance of the family. RUETBCHI. 
 
 CALENDAR, Hebrew. The Hebrew calendar 
 dates from the creation. Tlie year is semi-lunar, 
 consists of twelve or thirteen lunar months, each 
 of which has twenty-nine or thirty days. Thus 
 the year has either three hinidicd and fifty-four 
 or three hundred and eighty-four days. In either 
 ' case it is sometimes made a day more or a day 
 less in order that certain festivals may fall on 
 proper days of the week for their due observance. 
 The civil year begins in the autumn ; the sacred, 
 in the spring. The Jews had calendars wherein 
 were recorded tlie festivals and saints' days; but 
 none of those now extant are old. The oldest is Me- 
 gillath Taanith (" the volume of atfiietion "), w liich 
 contains the days of feasting and fasting hitherto, 
 bill nut now. olisciNcil by the Jews. See yi-:.\n. 
 
 Ecclesiastical, Origin of. The ecclesiastical 
 calendar existed in very early times. Originally 
 it was arranged not for one year, but every year, 
 and was in reality nothing else than a Christian 
 adaptation of the calendar in coniiuon use among 
 (ireeks and Konians. Xumerous exanqiles of the 
 Konian Pagan calendar exist. Some had a merely 
 local value, but otliers were adapted to a country. 
 They contain astronomical data (the (ireek calen- 
 dars were particularly rich in these), the religious 
 fe.'ists. and civil festivities, — either bound up 
 with religion, as many of the pulilic games, or 
 in meniory of some historic event, as a victorj'. 
 \'ery remarkable is it to find Christian inlluence 
 exliiliiled in two cali'iidars from tlie middle of the 
 fourth and fifth centuries: indeed, tlii-y really 
 mark the transfer from I'aganism to Christianity 
 so conimoiilv made by the people. The frst, 
 from A.I). :VJ1. i.iiblishi'd by Kollar {Anal. Vindo- 
 Inin, vol. I. p. !l()l S(|q.), contains the usual astro- 
 nomical and astrological data, but omits the cus-
 
 CALENDAR. 
 
 861 
 
 CALENDAR. 
 
 tomary Pagan sacrificial and temple feasts, apjiar- 
 ently m (leferenci; to Christian feeliiij;, altliouKli 
 it does not mention any Cln'istian feast. Anotlier 
 trace of Clnistian influence is in tlie setting of 
 the Christian week side by side with the Pagan : 
 thus the ymir beginning .Ian. 1 is divided, on the 
 one hand, in I'agaii style, by the letters A-II, 
 i.e., into divisions or weeks of eight days; wliile, 
 on the other, the letters go from A-(i, i.e., seven 
 days. Christian style. The second dates from 
 448, published by the IJollandists {Ada Saiii-l/i 
 Jan. T. VII. p. 176), is arranged quite evidently 
 in the Pagan style, but yet gives the first recogni- 
 tion of Christian festivals, for it contains five 
 festivals of Christ, and six of martyrs. 'J'he 
 earliest known pure Clirislian calendar is of 
 Gothic origin, from Thrace in the fourth century. 
 It exists now as a fragment, merely thirty-eiglit 
 days; but it contains mention of .seven saints, — 
 two from tlie New Testament, three from the 
 Church Uni\'ersal, and two from tlie Goths. See 
 Krafft, Kirc/ienyi'schichle der ijermaiufchenViilker, 
 Bd. I., Alth. 1, pp. an, 385-387. There were 
 lists of saints' days arranged chronologically, but 
 not in a calendar. The earliest known are a 
 Roman one from the middle of the fourth century, 
 and a catalogue of the Carthage Church from the 
 end of the fifth century. Each contains bishoji 
 and martyrs' days, mostly of local interest. 
 
 The Medkdual Calendar. — Since originally the 
 martyrs were celebrated only where they suffered, 
 each church had its own calendar; but in the 
 middle ages the Roman calendar spread through 
 the Western Church. Thus the .separate churches 
 materially iiicrea.sed tlieir list of saints and mar- 
 tyrs. From the eighth century many such com- 
 bined calendars were made, and they are found 
 in great numbers. 'I'hey are all designed to 
 suit all times, are supplied with means to ascer- 
 tain the movabla feasts, especially Easter, of eacli 
 year, and differ from those named above in that 
 they contain not alone the letters A-G to mark 
 the days of the week, but also the numerals L- 
 XIX. to mark the new moons, which, in each 
 year of the lunar cycle, occur on that particular 
 day of the montli corresponding with that num- 
 ber. A monthly calendar thus arranged is called 
 a perpetual (Julian) calendar, because one can 
 find from it the day of the week of each date, and 
 all the new moons through the year, as soon as 
 the Dominical letter of the year is known. See 
 F. Piper, Kirchenreehnumj, Berlin, 1841, p. VI. 
 Towards the close of the middle ages tlie calen- 
 dar, which had hitherto been in Latin, makes its 
 appearance in the vernacular of the different 
 lands. An Anglo-Saxon one dates from the tenth 
 century ; one in French, from the thirteenth cen- 
 tury ; and quite a number of German calendars, 
 from the fourteenth century. Manuscript calen- 
 dars were frequently decorated, as with the signs 
 of the Zodiac and pictures from church-history : 
 e.g., famous for its ornamentation is the calendar 
 in the prayer-book of Anna, wife of Louis XII., 
 now in Paris. Particularly curious is a Russian 
 calendar, dating from the second half of tlie 
 seventeenth century, painted on wood in tlie form 
 of a Greek cross, preserved in the A'atican Libra- 
 ry, and known as the Capponi tables, after the 
 Marchioness Capponi, wlio presented it. The 
 four anus of the cross contain a complete monthly 
 
 calendar; the table in the middle, the movable 
 feasts from the fourth Sunday before J>ent to the 
 Sunday after Pentecost; and each day has its pic- 
 ture, with the name of the saint or the Sunday 
 written in Slavonic underneath. See As.semanni, 
 Kfdettdaria ecdesuE Slarkce sire Gnecu-Mosc/ioe, 
 Rome, 17-55. The earliest prinled calendars natu- 
 rally followed in arrangement the written. They 
 were carved in wood, and engraved on copiier; 
 e.g.. Calendar of Johannes de (jamundia, pub. 
 lislied 14(j8. These were all perpetual calenclars. 
 The first calendar for particular years was pub- 
 lished at Niirnberg, in German and Latin, Jo- 
 liamies Regiomontanus, 1475, and arranged for 
 1475, 1494, 1513; i.e., for the first years of three 
 successive nineteen-year cycles, yet so that the cal- 
 endar could by calculation be made iLseful from 
 1475 to 1531 inclusive. 
 
 Tlie Gregorian Ueform of the Calendar took 
 place under Gregory XIIl. in 1.582; was occa- 
 sioned by the long-felt unsatisfactory method of 
 calculating the time of Easter, and was the out- 
 come of several attempts at a change. The 
 Julian Calendar, which was introduced by Julius 
 Ca\sar, had in course of time proved itself to be 
 inaccurate; for it made the year 305^ days, and 
 intercalated a day every four years, whereas the 
 year is in reality more than 11 minutes shorter; 
 so that in 128 years one whole day is apparently 
 lost. Moreover the vernal equinox was reckoned 
 according to the XIX. year cycle of 235 months, 
 i.e., 19 X 365^ = (},939|; but in reality tlie cycle 
 is too short by more than a month (in 310 years a 
 day's difference), and the full moon was put so 
 much too late. So it came to pass, that, whereas 
 in Julius Caesar's day the vernal equinox corre- 
 sponded with the 25th of March, in (Gregory's 
 day it had retrograded to the 11th. In obedience 
 to the Council of Trent, by a bull of Feb. 24, 
 1.582 [traiislat«d in Mr.* Lewis A. Scott's pam- 
 phlet, Act and Bull, privately printed, Phila., 
 1880] Gregory made the Calendar of Aloysins 
 Cilius in his Compendium novfe rationis restituendi 
 calenilarium obligatory upon the Church. Agree- 
 ably to the new plan ten dajs in the calendar were 
 dropped (this restored the vernal ecpiinox to 
 March 21, the day on which it fell at the time of 
 the Council of Nice in 325), and a new rule of 
 intercalation adopted, which was, every year 
 whose number is divisible by 4 is a leap-year, 
 excepting the centesimal years, which are only 
 leap-years when divisible by four after suppress- 
 ing the two zeros. The length of the mean year 
 thus fixed is 365 days, 5 hours, 42 minutes, 12 
 seconds, which exceeds the solar year by 25.95 
 seconds, — an error which amounts only to one 
 day in 3,325 years. For an account of the Gre- 
 gorian Calendar see Ideler, Handb. d. Chronologie, 
 Bd. II. pp. 301-321. As was to be expected, the 
 new calendar was received at once in all Roman- 
 Catholic countries; but the Protestant states 
 continued to use the Julian. Germany and Den- 
 mark, how'ever, made the change in 1700, and 
 England in 1752. The Rassians use the Julian 
 Calendar still. 
 
 One other reform remains to be effected : the 
 calendar should be purged of its obscure saints 
 and martyrs, and in their stead be put the tnily 
 great names of all branches of the Church Univer- 
 sal. As an attempt to rectify the existing state
 
 CALENDAR. 
 
 362 
 
 CALF-WORSHIP. 
 
 o£ tilings, see the Eeanqellfclie Kalender of Di". 
 F. riper, canied on for twenty years (1850-70) 
 in connection with brief popnlar yet original biog- 
 laphies, and finally p^^bli^shed, after a revision, 
 under the title. Die Zeuf/en der Warht'U Lehenx- 
 bilcler zuin ecan(jelischen Kalender aufal/e Taye des 
 Jahres, Leipzig (Tauchnitz), 1874-75, 4 vols. 
 These volumes contain the revised calendar, and 
 biogi'apliies of all persons mentioned. Rev. Dr. 
 H. AI. Maccracken published in 1871) a transl.ation 
 of parts of it, with important ailditions, imder 
 the title. Lives of the Leaders u/mtr Church Utiii-er- 
 .lul. [The original volumes contain three hundred 
 and ninety-nine liiograj)hies, contributed by one 
 hundred and twenty-nine writers ; the translation, 
 one hundred and twenty-five; but thirty-three of 
 tlie writers are Americans, and the work lias been 
 taken up by several denominational publication 
 boards.] FEKDI.\.\.ND PIPER. 
 
 CALENDAR BRETHREN {fralres Calendarii). 
 a society which arose apparently in .Saxony, but 
 .spread quiekh- over Northern and Central Ger- 
 many, and to Hungary and France. The name 
 comes from their original custom of meetings on 
 the Kalends, or first d.ay of every month. They 
 are first spoken of in 1220, as in the Monastery of 
 Ottberg. In idea the fraternity was good, — partly 
 beneficent and partly devotional. Particular at- 
 tention was given to the care of their sick, and the 
 burial of their de.ad members or families, likewise 
 to masses for their souls. The membership was 
 not limited to any class or sex. The piesident 
 was called dean : imder liim there w.as a treasiu'er. 
 It was not a monastic order, but was under the 
 authorization and oversight of the diocesan bishop, 
 and not of the Pope. The monthly meetings were 
 closed by a meal, paid for out of the society's 
 ' funds. As the society increased in wealth through 
 bequests, it degenerated : the monthly meeting 
 became an occasion for carousal and vice. The 
 reformatory zeal of the sixteenth century swept 
 the society almost entirely away. The Caland of 
 Brunswick is the only one now existing. See 
 .1. Fkllku : Dins, de frulrih. Kalend., Francof, 
 1692; BuMliKltc : Ueherd. Ca!an(/s/iriider,Cht;ni- 
 iiitz, 1721 ; l^KDKiu'it, ill vol. iv. of the MiirLisehe 
 Fvrschttmien, Berlin, 18.")0. II. MERZ. 
 
 CALF (the golden), CALF-WORSHIP. The 
 fir.st mention of calf-worship (or, more correctly, 
 bull-worshi]i, since not only does the word em- 
 ployed mean a bull jus well as a calf; but among 
 the other Sheinitic peoples, and also among the 
 Egyptians, not a calf, but a bull, was worshipped 
 as an idol) is Exod. xxxii. ; cf. Deut. ix. l(i, the 
 episode in the wilderness. The next mention of 
 the worship is 1 Kings xii. 28-33; cf, 2 Kings x, 
 29, xvii. 1() ; llos. vii'i. 5 tf., x. 5, xiii, 2; 2 Chr. 
 xi. 15. But, when Aaron set up the steer-image, 
 he revived an old .Semitic religions rite. That he 
 did not borrow it from the Egyptians, plausible 
 and near-at-Iiand ,as the theoi-y is, is proven by 
 the fact tliat that i)eo]ile did not worshi]) imnr/cs 
 of animals, but the living animals. Apis, repre- 
 Beiited, it is true, by a small bull-image in their 
 processions, was a black bullock, sacredly guarded 
 from injury; for in him the god Osiris Wius be- 
 lieved to \)c incarnated ( Wilkinson's Manners 
 nnd Customs nf the Aneient E(/i/iitians, new (^d., 
 l.oudon, 1878, vol. III. pp. 8fi-9.-), 3(t(i If.). It is 
 true that .Jeroboam set up the golden bulls at 
 
 Bethel and Dan ; but his long residence in Egypt 
 is at most only presumptive evidence that he bor- 
 rowed the idea thence; and it is very improbable 
 that he would seek to strengthen his uncertain 
 authority by introducing a foreign cultus, where- 
 as he would really strengthen himself by substi- 
 tuting for the rigorous Jehovah-worship the laxer 
 bull-worship, if it was indigenous. That such w or- 
 sliip was indigenous is, of coiu'se, not easy to provi! 
 directly; but we know that the great and mighty 
 of the earth are often represented in the Hebrew 
 Scriptures under the figure of a bull; and esjie- 
 cially is the horn of the bull the symbol of power, 
 — a .symbol even used of the divine power and of 
 the outgoing salvation. The twelve oxen which 
 supported Solomon's sea of brass may have been 
 Phcjenician in suggestion, and so the various 
 animals in Ezekiel's visions may have been Baby- 
 lonian. If the trace of the old Hebrew bull-wor- 
 ship is faint, the proof of its existence among the 
 neighboring nations is abundant. In the Baby- 
 lonian-.^.ssyrian religion, and in the Syro-Phoeni- 
 cian, the bull represented the masculine divinity, 
 as wa.s natural to a people who were graziers. 
 The old Aryan explained the heavenly phenomena 
 by comparisons dr.awu from the life of their 
 herds. In the Zendavesta we find mention of 
 the first bull. The bull represents power and 
 strength; to the Sheinite the destroying, at the 
 same time the reproductive, omnipotence of the 
 sun, which was worshipped in all the different 
 forms of Baal (see Ba.'Il). It may be that the 
 gold of the Hebrew bull-idols represents the glit- 
 ter of the sun's rays. We pos.sess pictures of the 
 .Syrian Baid of Doliche, which was transported to 
 Rome, representing him standing upon a bull (see 
 Fel. Ilettner, De love Dolicheno disserlatio phiUt- 
 iof/ica, Bonn, 1877). The Jupiter of Hieropolis in 
 Syria was pictured sitting upon a bidl. The chu--- 
 sical I ale of the seduction of Europa is a form of 
 the Baal myth, in which the god, in the shape 
 of a bull, journeys with Astarte to Crete. Tli<! 
 sacrcdness of cattle among the Philistines is 
 demonstrated by the story of the sending home 
 the ark (1 Sam. vi.). [It is not jirobable that 
 -Varon's golden bull was solid; rather it x\as a 
 rude wooden image covered with gold. Thus it 
 co\ild be burnt, and the gold be powdered.] 
 AVht^n deroboam si^t up his bulls, and ordained his 
 non-levitical priesthood, he did not pretend lo do 
 more than return to the Jehovah-worship of (lie 
 pa.st. That lie did thus return is proved by his 
 success. When Jehu destroyed (he Baal-worshi[), 
 he did not touch the bulls, — a clear proof of the 
 distinction to be made between the two worshiiw 
 (2 Kings X. 29), The one was foreign and de- 
 basing: the other was domestic and orderly. 
 Hosea is the only one of the jirophets who al- 
 ludes to the bull-worship; and to him the worship 
 of an image is the same as the worship of an idol. 
 Lit. — Si;li>i-;.\ : De d'ls Si/ris (lOng, trans, by 
 W. A. llauser, 'J'he FahnUms Cods denonnred in 
 the liihle. Philadeli)liia, 18S0, chap, iv.) ; GuA>r- 
 llKIiC: Krilisclie Ccsrhichle der /lclii/i<nisldecii des 
 alien Testaments, Berlin, 1829, 3(), 2 parts; Vatkk : 
 BiUische 'J'henloijie, Berlin, 1835: MovKHs: J)n- 
 Phiinlzier, 1841; I)k WKrrK. : Ifehraish-jUdisrhe 
 Areh<iolo<jie, 4th ed. by Raebiger, Lei])zig, 18(il; 
 Ewai.d: Geschichtr. des Volkis Israel, vol. III,, 
 Coltiiigoii, 1800, 3d ed. (ICng. trans,, London, 5
 
 CALHOUN. 
 
 363 
 
 CALIXTUS. 
 
 vols.); Kuenkn: GodstlienM van /srac/, IlaarliMii, 
 180!) (KiiK- trans., Tlie Jielii/ion d/ Isnirl, Loiuioi), 
 1874, 3 vols.) ; IvKir, : Ili/i/isc/te Arc/inoloi/le,2ded., 
 Fraukfuitraiu-Maiii, 187:"); Au(i. Kiiiii.Krt: Lekr- 
 hiicli ilt:r liUiiixchcn Gcsc/iichln ilex Allen TesUiiiicnlf, 
 Eriangen, 187.'j; Duii.M : Die Tlieoloi/ie ilcr J'rupli- 
 els, 1875; Paul Scholtz : Giitzcndiensl u. Ziiu- 
 lierioesen bei den alien Ilehrdern, llegeiislmrg, 
 1877. WOLF nAubissiN'. 
 
 CALHOUN, Simeon Howard, Aiiicrican iiiis- 
 sionary, h. in Boston, Aug. 15, 1801; d. at Buf- 
 falo, Dec. II, 1876. He was graduated at Williams 
 College in 18lii); studied law; was converted, and 
 came back to his Alma Maler as tutor. In 1837 
 he went to the Levant as agent of the American 
 Bible Society, biit in 1844 became a missionary 
 under the American Board, subsequently imder 
 the I'resbyterian Board. His field of operation 
 was the seminary at Abeih on the slopes of Leba- 
 non. He returned home in 1874. Mr. (Jalhoun 
 was a most devoted missionary; and tlie epithet 
 he bore, the "Cedar of Lebanon," proves how he 
 was regarded. He was rarely gifted, yet content 
 to spend his life in comparative obscurity. He 
 published, in Arabic, Scripture Helps, Beirut, '2d 
 ed., 1809, pp. 048. 
 
 CALIXTINES, The, one of the two great fac- 
 tions into which tlie Hussites divided in 1420, 
 derived their name from calix (" the chalice "), 
 because the cup, ;is an essential element of the 
 Sacrament of the Lord's Supper, was the point to 
 which they held unswervingly fast, while in other 
 respects tliey showed themselves much more trac- 
 table than the Taborites. See Bohe.mia and 
 Hussites. 
 
 CALIXTUS I., Bishop of Rome under Helio- 
 gabalus and Alexander Severus. The history of 
 this bishop has assumed a new and quite different 
 aspect since the discovery of the work of Hippoly- 
 tus, Ilefutalion of all Heresies. I'reviously notliing 
 certain was known of him. The magnificent 
 church Santa Maria Traslerere was ascribed to 
 him ; but the custom of dedicating churches to 
 special saints is of much later date. The cele- 
 brated Cemetery of the Martyrs bears his name ; 
 but it was always considered doubtful whether he 
 really built it. Two decretals of his, regulating, 
 among other things also, the four great annual 
 fasts, the Qnatember fasts, are spurious. His 
 martyrium is very improbable. The acts are 
 fabulous from beginning to end ; though they 
 must be old, since extracts from them occur in 
 the martyrologium of Bede. Such is the Calixtus 
 of tradition, and such the trustworthiness of the 
 tradition. 
 
 Quite otherwise the report of Hippolytus (IX., 
 11 ), though it must not be forgotten that Hippoly- 
 tus was a violent adversary of Calixtus. Accord- 
 ing to this report, there lived in Rome during the 
 reign of Commodus (180-192) a Christian of the 
 name Kallistus, who was the slave of a Christian 
 official called Karpophorus. From his master he 
 obtained a considerable sum of money, and es- 
 tablished a banking-business in the fish-mavket. 
 Much money was intrusted to him also liy widows ; 
 but he conducted the business ill, and lost all. 
 Afraid of being called to account by his master, 
 he sought refuge in flight, and was just about to 
 set sail for some foreign port, when Karpophorus 
 appeared in the harbor. He jumped into the 
 
 water, but was caught, delivered over to the mas- 
 ter, and shut up in the treadmill. Released after 
 some time, he liad a scullle with the Jews in 
 Rome, on account of which ho was publicly 
 whijiped, and sent to work in the mines of Sar- 
 dinia. By the inllui^nce of Marcia, the concubine 
 of Commodus, he regained libcity ; and, alter his 
 return to Rome, he ingratiat<;d hini,self so well 
 with 1'o]h; Zephyrinus that he was made director 
 of the great cemetery which aft<!rwards camo to 
 bear his name. But here an insoluble enigniu 
 jiresents itself ; for how could such a man be 
 ordained i)riest? and how could he be placed on 
 the episcopal chair of Rome ? The fact that he 
 could be throws a very peculiar light on the 
 moral state of the Roman Church at that period. 
 The conflict with Hippolytus began already in the 
 lifetime of Zephyrinus. Hippolytus accused Kal- 
 listus of patripassianisni, and Kallistus accused 
 Hippolytus of ditheism. But the controversy be- 
 tween them was not merely doctrinal. Hippoly- 
 tus had adopted the maxim which the Novatians 
 afterwards vindicated in all its rigor, — that those 
 who had coinniitted a deadly sin could never. 
 again be admitted into the church. Kallistjis 
 defended the milder piactice of the Roman 
 Church. He even taught that a bLshop should 
 not be deposed on account of a deadly sin. 
 There were good reasons for his mildness. See 
 UoLLiNGEii : Hippolytus and Kallistus, Regens- 
 burg, 18.53. [Eng. trans., E<linburgh, 1870. Crin. 
 WouDSWOKTn: St. Hi;>piili/lus and the Church of 
 Home, 2d ed., London, 1880. Dr. Dollinger de- 
 fends the chai'acter of Kallistus again.st the 
 charges of Hippolytus. On the other hand. 
 Bishop AWjrdsworth accepts them, and explains 
 (p. 140) the severity of the language and the , 
 freedom of the handling, on the ground that Hip- 
 polytus did not recognize Kallistus as a legitimate 
 bishop of the church, because he was an abetter 
 of heresy. The dates for the bishopric of Kallis- 
 tus are 218-223. His heresy consisted in his 
 view that the Son was merely the manifestation 
 of the Father in human form; the Father ani- 
 mating the Son as the spirit animates the body, 
 and suffering with him on the cross. 
 
 [Besides heresy in doctrine, Kallistus is accused 
 of greatly relaxing the terms of re-admittance 
 into the chui-ch ; of allowing married men to be 
 ordained, and ordained men to marry ; of bring- 
 ing the marriage-laws of the Church into conflict 
 with those of the State ; and, finally, of allowing 
 repetition of baptism, probably as a substitute of 
 the severe penance required of grievous sinners. 
 
 [The largest of the Roman catacombs is the 
 Cemetery of St. Calixtus ; and De Rossi says it 
 was the first common cemetery, given to the Pope 
 by some noble family for the use of the whole 
 Christian community. Thirteen out of the next 
 eighteen popes after Zepliyrinus are said to have 
 been buried there.] HERZOG. 
 
 CALIXTUS is the name of two other popes.— 
 Calixtus II. (Feb. 2, 1119-Dec. 13, 1124) de- 
 scended from the royal house of Burgundy, and 
 was received with applause by the whole of Chri»- 
 tendom when elected Pope by the cardinals aa- 
 sembled at Clugny, because several of his imme- 
 diate predecessors were men who had risen to the 
 papacy from the monastic state, and by their 
 narrow stubbornness made the long strife with the
 
 CALIXTUS. 
 
 364 
 
 CALLING. 
 
 German emperors concerning the investiture a 
 tedious, dangerous, and inextricable entangle- 
 ment. Even Henry V. declared himself hopeful 
 of a reconciliation. Nevertheless, at the Council 
 of Rheims all negotiations failed; and Henry, 
 together with Pope Burdinus (Gregory VHI.), 
 was once more excommunicated (Oct. 30, 1119). 
 By the aid of Duke William of Calabria, Calixtus 
 .succeeded in 1121 in seizing Burdinus, and shut 
 him up in the Monastery of Cava, near Salerno, 
 to do penance. This victory made the Emperor 
 a little meeker, and at the same time there arose 
 among the German princes a party which decid- 
 edly wished to put an end to the strife. At the 
 Diet of Worms an agreement was at last arrived 
 at (Sept. 8, 1122); and Sept. 23 the famous Con- 
 cordat of ^Vorms was solemnly read to the mul- 
 titudes assembled in the plains outside of Worms. 
 The principal point of the agreement was, that 
 the bishops and abbots of the German Empire 
 should receive the regalia, as temporal feudatories 
 of the realm, from the Emperor, but the ring and 
 staff, as spiritual servants of the Church, from the 
 Pope. The letters of Calixtus are given by 
 Jatfe, Regesla Pontif. Rom.: the sources of his 
 life, by Watterich, Pontif. Roman. ViUe,Tom. II. — 
 Calixtus III. (April 8, 14y5-Aug. 6. 1458) was a 
 Spaniard by birth, and Bishop of Valencia. His 
 true name was Alonso de Borja, Italian Borgia. 
 He was seventy-seven years old, weak, good-na- 
 tured, and incapable of energy, except for the 
 elevation of his own nephews, and for a grand 
 crusade against tlie Turks. In the latter under- 
 taking he failed utterly, though the mendicant 
 orders as alms-gatherers, and a swarm of crusade- 
 preachers with loads of indulgences, sent immense 
 sums of money into the papal treasury. But the 
 fleet he equipped did nothing ; and the tithe which 
 he proposed to levy on the clergy caused rebellious 
 murmurs, both in France and Germany. He suc- 
 ceeded better in providing for his nephews ; for, 
 though they all found it advisable to leave Rome 
 as soon as he died, they were able to return after 
 a short time. See Platixa, Vita Calixli III., 
 Venice, 117!). G. VOIGT. 
 
 CALIXTUS, Ceorg, b. at Medelby, a village 
 of Sleswick, Dec. 14, I'jSG; d. at Ilelmstadt, 
 March 19, 165G ; was educated in the school of 
 Flensburg; studied philology, philosophy, and 
 theology at the University of Helmstiidt, 1603-09 ; 
 travelled in Holland, England, and France, 1609- 
 13, and was in 1614 appointed professor of the- 
 ology at Helmstiidt. He was in the seventeenth 
 century the most prominent and most influential 
 representative of the school of Melanohtlion. 
 With a large-hearted conception of that which is 
 true in all Christian denominations, he labored 
 to prepare the way for a general reconciliation of 
 Christendom by ttie extinction of all minor, more 
 or le.ss individual differences. But liis labor fell 
 in the period of tlie Thirty- Years' War ; and its 
 result was an isolated position, attacked from all 
 sides. The orthodox Lutherans very early sus- 
 pected him of lukewarnmess or looseness. His 
 De Immorlalitalc Animcr el Resiirrectinne Mortno- 
 rum, 1610, was supjiressed by the censor, because 
 his exegetical exi>lanationH deviated from Lu- 
 ther's translation ; and his Epitome '/'lii-olof/iie, 
 1819, was ransacked like a i)lague-8tricken vessel. 
 While his Theologia if oralis (1634) and De Arte 
 
 Nova Nihusii were considered by the Roman- 
 Catholic theologians as the heaviest blows aimed 
 against their system for a long time, among the 
 orthodox Lutherans they occasioned an open ac- 
 cusation of crj-pto-papismus (1640). The situa- 
 tion became still more involved and precarious 
 after the conference at Thorn (1645). Calixtus 
 hoped to bring about a reconciliation between 
 the Lutherans and the Reformed, but succeeded 
 only in being vehemently attacked as a crypto- 
 Calvinist. He never gave up, however, to work 
 for the great idea of his life, all the while defend- 
 ing himself as best he could. Desiilerium et titti- 
 (lium Concordiie Ecclesiaslicce and Wiederlegnng iler 
 Verleumdungen are among his last works. Of 
 his writings, many of which were several times 
 reprinted, there is no collected edition ; but a 
 complete list is given in Moeller's Cimbria Lilerata 
 III. pp. 121-210, together with a description of 
 his life. See E. L. Th. Henke: Calixtus' Brief- 
 wechsel, Halle, 1833, with two continuations, 
 Jena, 1835. and Marburg, 1840; Georg Callixttis 
 xtnd seine Zeit, by the same author, Halle, 18.i3 ; 
 H. Schmid: Geschichle der .•iynkretislischen Slreilig- 
 keitcn, in der Zeit des Georg. Calixtus, Erlangen, 
 1846; W. Gass : Calixt. vnd der Synlcreti.wiiis, 
 Breslau, 1846. E. L. Tn". henke. 
 
 CALLENBERG, Johann Heinrlch, b. at Gotha. 
 Jan. 12, 1694; d. at Halle, July 16, 1760; studied 
 theology and Oriental languages at Halle, and 
 became professor there, first in philosophy, 1727, 
 then in theology, 1739. He founded in 1728 the 
 so-called Jewish Institution, — a school for the 
 education of missionaries among the Jews and 
 Mohammedans; printed the New Testament, Lu- 
 ther's Catechism, etc., in Arabic; gave an intro- 
 duction to, and dictionary of the corrupt Hebrew 
 which the German Jews speak among themselves; 
 and jiublished lierichte von einem Ven^uch das 
 Jildische Volh zur Erkentniss des ChristUchen auzu- 
 leiten, 3 vols., 1728-36, and De Conversione Mo- 
 knmmvdanornm, 17.33. 
 
 CALMET, Augustine, b. at Mesnil-la-Horgue, 
 in the diocese of Toul, Feb. 26, 1672 ; d. at Se- 
 nones, Oct. 25, 1757; was a Benedictine monk of 
 the Congregation of St. Vannes, and became 
 Abbot of St. Leopold at Nancy, 1718, and of Se- 
 nones, 1728. He was a very prolific writer. The 
 most remai'kable of his works are : Dictionnaire de 
 la Bible, Paris, 1722, with a supplement, 1728, 
 4 vols, fob, often reprinted witli additions or 
 abridgments; e.g., Calmet's Dictionarg of the 
 Holy Bible, as jnd/listieil by the Late Mr. Charles 
 Taylor, revised, with Large .Additions, by Lydicard 
 Robinson, Boston, 1852; Commrnlaire littcral ct 
 critique de la Bible, Paris, 1707 sqq., 23 vols., 
 trans, and ed. Taylor, London, 1847, 5 vols. ; Ilis- 
 toire ecclesiasti/jue et civile de Lorraine, Nancy, 
 1728, 4 vols., etc. See FANcfe: Vie de Calmet, 
 1763, containing a complete list of his works. 
 
 CALLING is in theological as in popular reli- 
 gious speech the first phenomenon in conversion. 
 (The word is not so used in the Old Testament, 
 and in tlu^ New chiefly by Paid.) It conies 
 from (iod as tlie carry mg-init of a purpo.so of 
 salvation formed from all eternity (Rom. viii. 
 28, 29). (Jod knows his own (Cor. viii. 3; (ial. 
 
 iv. 9). Yet it is ' 
 
 •lit tliat tlie calling is wider 
 
 than the salvation: "Many are called, but few 
 chosen" (Matt. xx. 16). The fact is, that the
 
 CALOGERI. 
 
 365 
 
 CALVIN. 
 
 desire of God's heart, as testified to by his Word 
 (1 Tim. ii. 4; 2 Pet. iii. !); cf. Ezelc. xxxiii. 11), 
 is the salvation of all ; but against this wisli men 
 set tliemselves, so that tlie fault is not God's. Init 
 man's (Matt, xxiii. 37; Acts xiii. 40). There 
 is therefore in salvation a co-operation of man 
 with God. The calling comes tlirough tiie usual 
 means of grace, particularly the Word as pro- 
 chiimed by the preacher (Rom. x. 14). Paul's 
 fruitful ministry was not exceptional. God has 
 in every age as abundantly blessed liis messen- 
 gers. The assertion that the call is general 
 means simply tliat the call is given to all who 
 liear the gospel preached, and, if obeyed, leads 
 to their salvation ; for God's love takes in the 
 world (John iii. 18), and he has put upon his 
 Church tlic duty of proclaiming to all tliis bound- 
 less love, and promised his presence in the work 
 (Matt, xxviii. 19, 20). [Calvinistic theologians 
 distinguish between the external and the internal 
 call. The former is addressed to all, elect and 
 non-elect alike; the latter, only to the elect, and 
 is an effectual calling. It is thus defined in the 
 Westminster Shorter Catechism, q. 31 : " Effectual 
 calling is the work of God's Spirit, whereby, con- 
 vincing us of our sin and misery, enlightening 
 our minds in the knowledge of Christ, and renew- 
 ing our wills, he doth persuade and enable us to 
 embrace Jesus Christ, freely offered to us in the 
 gospel."] D. V. BURGER. 
 
 CALOGERI ((/ood old men). See Athos. 
 
 CALOVIUS, Abraham, b. at Mohrungen, East 
 Prussia, 1012; d. at Wittenberg, Feb. 25, lOSO; 
 studied tlieology at KiJnigsberg; was rector of the 
 gymnasium of Dantzig 1043-50, and became in 
 the latter year professor of theology at Witten- 
 berg. His Sijslema Locorum Theolor/icorum, 12 
 vols., 1655-77, is the most compact and comjire- 
 hensive representation of Lutheran dogmatics, 
 — the true exemplar of what has been called 
 Lutheran scholasticism. His essential character, 
 however, was not dogmatical, but polemical. 
 Even his chief exegetical work, B'M'ia lllustrala, 
 4 vols., roots in a polemical interest. It is a refu- 
 tation of the Commentaries of Grotius. And the 
 conspicuous position which he occupied in the 
 theological world of the seventeenth century he 
 owed to his violent polemics against Calixtus, 
 and that reconciliating tendency whicli was rep- 
 resented by the University of Ilelrasfadt, and 
 which generally went under the name of syncre- 
 tism. His jirincipal writings in this line are: 
 Prolegomena Jnxlitutionum Tlieolo/iicarum, 1049 ; 
 Di(/ressio de Nova Theolor/ia IIelm^ladio-Iie(/io- 
 montanorum Syncrelislarum, 1051; Ilannonia Ca- 
 lixtino-hceretica, 1055, etc. At last, however, he 
 overreached himself. His Historia Stjncrelistica, 
 1682, was suppressed. He was six times married. 
 See J. F.Ekdmann, Lebensbeschreibungen der Wil- 
 tenb. Professoren, 1804; Tiioluck: Der Gei.il der 
 lutherischen Theologen Wittenbergs, Hamburg u. 
 Gotha, 1852. tholuck. 
 
 CALOYERS, the name given to monks in the 
 Greek Church. 
 
 CALVARISTS, or PRIESTS OF CALVARY, a 
 monastic association founded at Bethorani in the 
 diocese of Auch, France, in 1633, l)y Hubert 
 Charpentier, for the purpose of bringing back 
 Beam into the Roman Church. On the instance 
 of Louis XIII. the association established a house 
 
 near Paris on the Mont Valerien, which after that 
 time was called Colline de (.'alruire. There were 
 also I'fiic'dictine nuns of tli(! Colline de Calcairc. 
 
 CALVARY. Si-i! lIoi.Y Si;i'iii.cMiiti;. 
 
 CALVIN ( Latinized form of Cauvin or Caulvin), 
 John,' b. at Noyon in Picardy, some seventy 
 miles north-east of Paris, July 10, 1.509; d. at 
 Geneva, May 27, 1564. 
 
 1. Ilis Life. — His father, Gerard Cauvin, was 
 apostolic notary, fiscal attorney of the county, and 
 secretary to tiie Bishop of Noyon. His motlier, 
 Jeanne Lefranc of Cambray, was noted for her 
 personal beauty, as also for great religious fervor 
 and strictness. Ilis father was ]>oor; but his influ- 
 ence secured his son the best educational advan- 
 tages at home, and when only twelve years old 
 the chapilaincy of the Chapel de la Gesine : so 
 Calvin received the tonsure, althougii he was 
 never ordained. lu 1523 lie was sent to Paris to 
 prepare for the priestliood. He was then noted 
 for Ilis extraordinary ability, and also for astem- 
 ness.of chai'acter whicli gave him his sobriquet, 
 the Accusative Case. His support while a student 
 was derived from cliurch-preferments. He held 
 successively his chaplaincy, and then the curacy 
 of Marteviile (1527) and of Pontl'Eveque (1529). 
 In 1527, on the advice of his father, he turned 
 his attention to law, and attended lectures at 
 the universities of Orleans, and, the next year, 
 Bourges. His career was brilliant. At Orleans 
 he frequently lectured to the class in the absence 
 of the jirofessor, and received the complimentary 
 degree of Doctor of Law (which, however, he 
 never used). In Bourges he was a favorite pupil 
 of Andreas Alciati, then the most distinguished 
 law-professor in Europe, and studied Greek, and 
 Protestantism as well, under Melchior VVolmar 
 (see Beza), although he probably was already 
 inclined to the new faith. On May 26, 1531, his 
 father died ; and that summer he returned to 
 Paris and to theology. In April, 1532, he pub- 
 lished, with a commentary, Seneca's De dementia 
 (On Mercy). He had assumed the cost of publi- 
 cation, and apparently was pecuniarily embar- 
 rassed by it; for he sold at this time his slender 
 patrimony. But, if poor in purse, he was rich in 
 honors. God had, however, better things in store 
 for him, and was pleased by a "sudden conver- 
 sion " to subdue him, making him willing, as he 
 says, "to know llie truth." The change was 
 radical and permanent, like Paul's. This was in 
 the latter part of 1532. But he did not break at 
 once with his studies, although he made the Bible 
 more of a te.xt-book than ever. 
 
 The Reformation was making lieadway in 
 France under Francis I.; and Calvin preached 
 frequently in the meetings of the Evangelical 
 party, commonly closing w ith the words : " If God 
 be for us, who can be against usV " His friend 
 Nicholas Cop, a learned physician of Basel, wa« 
 elected rector of the University of Paris ; and at 
 his request Calvin prepared for him an inaugural 
 address on Christian ]ihilosopliy (see Calvin's 
 Opera in the Corpus Reformalorum,\ol. X.), which 
 Cop delivered on All-.Saints' Day in 1533 in the 
 Church of the Maturins, before a large assembly. 
 Calvin had made the address a plea for the reform 
 
 1 This article is based upon Dr. Hcrzos:'s, with additions 
 from different sources, especiaiiy from Scbal)'*8 OreedSt vol. L
 
 CALVIN. 
 
 366 
 
 CALVIN. 
 
 of the Church on the liasis of the pure gospel. 
 The consequence of this bold act was the compul- 
 sory flight of Calvin to the south of France. The 
 next two years were spent in wandering as a fugi- 
 tive under a.ssuraed names, all the wliile sowing 
 the seed of the kingdom. For some time he 
 was at Angouleme with his learned friend the 
 A-oung canon Louis du Tillet, who subsequently 
 joined the Protestants, using his excellent library, 
 .ind preparing his Institutes. Then he was at tlie 
 court of Margaret of Navarre, the sister of Fran- 
 cis I. ; at Noyon (May, 1534), where he parted 
 with his ecclesiastical benefices ; at Poitiers, where 
 he celebrated witli a few friends, for the first 
 time, the Lord's Supper, according to tlie evan- 
 gelical rite, in a cave near the town, called to tliis 
 <i:iy "Calvin's Cave;" at Orleans, where he pub- 
 lished (\ii-ii) his first theological work, Psi/c/io- 
 punnychia, confuting from the Scriptures the Ana- 
 baptist doctrine of the sleep of souls between 
 deatli and resurrection; and finally again in Paris 
 (the close of 1534), where he met for the first 
 time Michael Servetus, and challenged him to a 
 debate on the Trinity. The outbreak of perse- 
 cution compelled his flight to Strassbnrg. Thence 
 he went to Basel, and there published in Latin 
 (153G), when ho was twenty-seven years old, his 
 immortal Institutes. (The French edition was 
 made subsequently, and is a translation.) The 
 dedication to Francis I. is a model of manly elo- 
 quence, lie revisited Koyon, won a brotlier and 
 sister to the Reformed faith, and then returned 
 to Switzerland, witli the intention of settling 
 down to a studious life at Basel or Strassburg. 
 
 On Aug. 5, 1536, he arrived in Geneva, being 
 compelled by tlie wars to go round that way, and 
 intended to leave the next day ; but William Farel 
 threatened liini witli tiie curse of God if he pre- 
 ferred his studies to the work of the Lord. " Tliese 
 w'ords," says Calvin, in tlie preface of his Com- 
 mentary on the Psalms, "terrified and shook nie 
 as if (iod from on liigh had stretched out his hand 
 to sto]) me; so that I renounced the journey I liad 
 undertaken." The timid scholar was forced to 
 become a preacher at a stormy time. He and 
 Farel laViored to introduce reforms into Geneva, 
 and by tlie severity of their discipline won the ill 
 will of tlie leaders; and on Easter Monday (Ajiril 
 23), 153«, they wore dejiosed, and expelled from 
 the city, by the Council of the Two Hundred. 
 Banishment meant freedom; and for three years 
 (1538-41) he (luietly pursued his studies in Strass- 
 burg, and at the same time ministered to the 
 French Church tliere. In Sei)teniber, 1540, he 
 married Idelette de Bures, or Van Buren, the 
 widow of Johannes Stonier, an Anabaptist wliom 
 he had converted. By her lie had three children, 
 all of whom died in infancy. Calvin's married 
 life was otherwise very happy, but lasted only 
 nine years. During his stay in Strassburg lie 
 made the acquaintance of Melanchthon ; and the 
 "theologian," iis the Germans called Calvin, and 
 the " preceptor of Germany," were quickly firm 
 friends. 
 
 Meanwhile (Jeneva was by no means forgotten. 
 When Cardinal Sadolet tried to win it to Konie, 
 Calvin came boldly to its defence ; and often did 
 ho give his former flock his timely counsel. At 
 length magistrates and jieople united in urgently 
 and repeatedly recalling him, us the only unu 
 
 who could stop the disorders that had arisen ; and 
 very reluctantly he came. On Sept. 13, 1541, he 
 made his entrance. The council gave him a 
 house with a garden to live in, and, for salary, 
 five hundred florins, twelve measures of wheat, 
 and two tubs of wine. From that time on, (jeneva 
 was his lionie and his parish, his centre of ac- 
 tivit}', but by no means circumference of influence. 
 Under his iron rule the city assumed a new ' 
 aspect. Immorality of every sort was sternly 
 suppressed. It was well for the success of this 
 system that Geneva was a refuge for the per- 
 secuted in every land. Hollanders, English, 
 Italians, Spaniarils, and more particularly French- 
 men, settled in the town, and readily lent their 
 aid in maintaining Calvin's peculiar methods. 
 But not refugees alone came: his lectures and 
 those of Beza attracted many thousands of stu- 
 dents, and thus spread their fame far and wide. 
 But incessant study, a vast correspondence, " the 
 care of all the churches," his sedentary life, — 
 these conspired to make him the victim of dis- 
 ease, and at fifty-five years of age he breathed 
 his last. He had lived abstemiously, been most 
 generous in his gifts, and left behind him in 
 money onh' about a hundred and seventy dollars, 
 but an incalculable fortune in fame and conse- 
 crated influence; and from him Geneva inherited 
 faith, education, government, brave citizens, and 
 pride in an honoreil name. 
 
 2. His Fundamental Ideas. — He based his sys- 
 tem upon the Apostles' Creed, and followed its 
 lines. Ethics and theology were handled in the 
 closest connection. Calvin's reformation in the- 
 ology was pre-eminently a practical affair. Even 
 the doctrine of piedestination was developed, not 
 as a speculation, but as a matter of practical con- . 
 cern. By the extraordinary emphasis put upon | 
 it, the Genevans were taught to consider it almost ( 
 the corner-stone of the Christian faith, ta oin io- ' 
 sition to the lax views of sin and grace-wuich , 
 the Roman Church inculcated, he revived the 
 Augustinian doctrine in order by it to conquer 
 Rome. In so doing he was one with Zwingli, 
 fficblampadiiis, Luther, and Melanchthon. Jiut 
 iuJiis supra-lapsarian views ho stood alone iimoug 
 the Reformers. His views of ecclesiastical au- 
 thority and di.seipline are also important. Xlo 
 allowed to the Church a greater authority than 
 any other Reformer. Here, again, the influence 
 of Augustine is seen. He says, " Thc^ ('hurch is 
 our mother " (fiislitules, Bk. IV. chap. i. 1). Out- 
 side of the Church tlu're is no salvation, ller 
 ministry is divinely constituted, and to it believera 
 are bound to pay deference. ller authority is 
 absolute in matters of doctrine; but, when civil 
 cases arise, she hands tin; offenders over to the 
 State for punishment. State and Church have 
 therefore separate and exclusive! jurisdiction; yet 
 thej' exist side by side, and co-operate. They 
 mutually sujijiort each other. — The ideal govern- 
 ment embraced a democracy, an aristocracy, and 
 a king or autocrat. Hc> taught obedience to the 
 ]ioweis that be. In this si-henn^ he had in mind 
 the Israelites. Ho aimed at a tlieocracy. (Salvia 
 bowed before the majesty of the righteous .Judge. 
 His fear of God led him to unquestioning sub- 
 mission. In a sense it was his very breath; and 
 so in his system justice is more prominent than 
 love. God as the ruler, ratiiur than as tho
 
 CALVIN. 
 
 367 
 
 CALVIN, 
 
 lover, of all in Christ, was the object of his 
 reverence. 
 
 3. //« }!cform.s. — In accordance with liis ]ir)U- 
 ciples was his work. Diirinjj his fust rcsich'neo 
 in Geneva lie showed liis (h'terniination to sejia- 
 rate Church and State; and tiierefore he and his 
 fellow-preachers protested against the interfer- 
 ence of tlie State in the matter of the nse of fonts, 
 of nnleavened bread in the Lord's Supper, and in 
 the celebration of the churcli-festivals, as these 
 were properly within the ecclesiastical province. 
 When, also, he refused the Euciiarist unto tiie 
 city, because of its immorality, he asserted for 
 the Church freedom from the civil authority. 
 Thi.s determined stand cost him temporarily his 
 jiosition ; but, when he resumed his work in Gene- 
 va, he and the citizens knew that his power was 
 _ henceforth absolute. The reforms he instituted 
 ' are famous, and often condemned as infamous. 
 ' They are, however, not only defensible, but com- 
 mendable, if judged by the standard of that age. 
 We cannot withhold our admiration of the moral 
 courage, the self-forgetfulness, the stern morality, 
 and the micompromising zeal, with which Cal- 
 vin addressed himself unto the apparently hope- 
 less task of curbing the pa.ssions of the loose 
 jiopulace, and gaining tlie cordial co-operation of 
 the upper classes. lie succeeded. Geneva came 
 to be regarded as a normal school of religious 
 life. Religion was the life of the greater part of 
 the inhabitants. With a correct insight into the 
 necessities of the case, Calvin declared immedi- 
 ately after his victorious entry that he could not 
 take up work without a re-organization of the 
 Church, viz., by the formation of a ehia-ch-court, 
 which should have full authority to maintain dis- 
 cipline. On Kov. 20, lo41, at a popular meeting, 
 the scheme he drew up was ratified. This pro- 
 vided for a conisislnri/, composed of six city minis- 
 ters and twelve elders, — one of the latter to be 
 a syndic and their president, — which met every 
 Thursday, and put under church-discipline, with- 
 out respect of persons, every species of evil-doers. 
 The rigor and vigor of this administration quickly 
 awakened natural indignation, in part even 
 among those who on the whole favored Calvin. 
 His life was at times in danger. Some showed 
 their terrified contempt for him by naming their 
 dogs after him. In a city like Geneva, full of 
 refugees of every description, there were many 
 who looked upon all restraint as oppression,; others 
 who objected to Calvin's measures as going too 
 far, or criticised its methods. In order still fur- 
 ther to increase the authority of the cliurch-court, 
 Calvin secured (15o.j) an important modification 
 of the city government, whereby the consail f/i'rw'ra/ 
 (the General Council), the highest law-making 
 body, was only called twice a year, — in February 
 to elect syndics, and in November to fill some 
 minor offices, and fix the price of wine. But 
 nothing might be discussed in this meeting which 
 had not been previously determined upon in the 
 Council of Two Hundred; nor in the hitter which 
 the Council of Sixty did not approve of; nor 
 could this council take up any thing not previ- 
 ously agreed to in the highest council, which 
 thus practically governed the State. The General 
 Council became in this way a superfluity, without 
 the power of initiative. It had, however, accom- 
 plished its mission, — accepted the Ueformation. 
 
 Most prominent among the means Calvin used 
 to reform the city was preaching. Kvery other 
 week he preached every day in i)lain, direct, con- 
 vincing fashion, without elorpience, but still iri'e- 
 sistibly ; and the life the preaclier led constituted 
 his strongest claim uiiou their attention. Our 
 reports of his sermons are probably from notes 
 made by his hearers; which was the easier done, 
 Ijecause, being asthmatic, ho si'oke very slowly. 
 Every Friday the so-called "Congregation " was 
 held, in which questions were answered, and de- 
 bates even carried on. Minors were carefully 
 instructed in a catechism originally prepared by 
 Calvin in Latin, 1545. In loJiU he had i.ssued 
 a French, and in 1538 a Latin, catechism, which 
 was a mere abridgment or syllabus of his Insli- 
 lutes, and was not in the form of question and 
 answer; but the catechism of 1515 was in the 
 usual form. 
 
 Calvin has the credit of first introducing con- 
 gregational singing into the worship of the Re- 
 formed Church in Geneva. The first songs were 
 some of his own metrical renderings of the 
 Psalms. 
 
 4. IIlx Opponents. — Like Zwingli and Luther, 
 Calvin had his dilficulties witli tlie Anabaptists, 
 towards whom he adoj)ted the same tactics. He 
 met them in public debate IMarch 18, 1537, and 
 so effectually disposed of tiieir arguments, that 
 he was not troubled again. 
 
 But he had personal controversies — (1) first 
 with Peter Caroli, a French refugee and ]);«tor 
 ill Lausanne, a religious chameleon, whose latest 
 hue was that of a stickler for orthodoxy. Calvin 
 was very indifferent to the terminology of the- 
 ology, so long as the truth was expre.s.sed. In 
 discussing the nature of the Godhead during his 
 first residence in Geneva, he avoided using the 
 words " Trinity " and "Person," although he had 
 no particular objection to them ; and so they did 
 not occur in the Confession of Faith which he 
 drew up, and to which Hie citizens of Geneva 
 were compelled to assent; nor did the Geneva 
 Church subscribe formally to the Athanasiau 
 Creed. Caroli accused Calvin and his fellow- ( 
 divines of Arianisin and Sabellianism ; and so; 
 plausible w'as the charge, that Calvin was greatly > 
 troubled. However, in the synod of 1537, held 
 in Bern, the Genevan divines fully cleared them- 
 selves, and Caroli was deposed and banished. 
 {'2) Berthelier, the son of a martj'r for freedom. 
 iSerthelier was forbidden the commnnion (1553) 
 by the consistory. The council absolved the 
 liann. Calvin from the pulpit, two days before tho 
 September Communion (out; of the four yearly 
 occasions), declared tliat he would die sooner than 
 give the Lord's holy things to one under condem- 
 nation for despising (!od. Perrin. who was then 
 syndic for the second time, ordered Berthelier to 
 .stay away from communion, and .so ended a dis- 
 pute from which the enemies of Calvin had hoped 
 a great deal. (3) Bolsec (see title), whose pro- 
 sumption in denying predestination, and abusing 
 the ministers at a conr/rcr/iifinn, drew upon him, 
 not only Calvin's indignant reply at the time, 
 but also imprisonment and banishment (1551). 
 (4) But by far the most famous of all Calvin's 
 opponents was Seixtius (see title for fuller dis- 
 cussion), who seems to have been a rather tlippant 
 person. It is said he desired Calvin's banish-
 
 CALVIN. 
 
 368 
 
 CALVIN. 
 
 ment in order that lie might be installed in his 
 place. To this end he accused Calvin of perfidi- 
 ous, tyrannical, and unchristian conduct. It is 
 110 wonder, therefore, that Calvin treated him 
 harshly. It is idle to shield Calvin from the 
 charge of bringing about Servetus' death, al- 
 though it is true that the mode adopted (burn- 
 ing) did not meet with his approval ; but at the 
 I .same time it is easy to excuse him on the ground 
 i of the persecuting spirit of his age. Strange as 
 -it may seem, the Protestants who had felt the 
 persecution of Rome were ready to persecute all 
 who followed not with them. The burning of 
 Servetus (Oct. '27, 1.5.33) for the crime of heresy, 
 specifically antitrinitarianism, was approved by 
 the Helvetic C.Hurch, and, what is more re- 
 markable, by the mild Melanchthon ; but it 
 failed even then to win universal approval, and 
 now it is usually considered a sad, ineffaceable 
 bl-ot upon Calvin's character. Many who know 
 nothing else of either Calvin or Servetus are very 
 indignant over the tragedy, and apparently reject 
 Calvinism because of it. We ought rather to 
 mourn than to censure. Servetus knew the dan- 
 ger he braved in coming to Geneva. He had as 
 early as lo34 been in debate with Calvin, although 
 they did not personally meet. On his intimating 
 an intention to visit Geneva, Calvin gave him 
 fair warning, that, if he came, he would prosecute 
 him to the death.' While, therefore, we hold 
 Calvin responsible for Servetus' death, we clear 
 him of the charges of having allured Servetus 
 to Geneva, and of rejoicing in his death on per- 
 sonal grounds. See art. Seuvktus ; K. AVillis : 
 Sercclus and Calcin, London, 1877; H. Tollin: 
 Sercet. u. die olieiidndischen Rcjhnnaloroi, 1. Bd. 
 Servet. u. Butzer, Berlin, 1880. 
 
 No good came of the execution, only evil, — 
 ridicule from the Roman Catholics, and the ad- 
 verse criticism from many friends. It likewise 
 failed to check the antitrinitarian heresy. Calvin 
 defended himself, and Beza aided him; but no 
 defence could excuse the facts. 
 
 5. His Ecclesiastical Iiiflaencc. — By his lectures 
 he attracted students from every quarter. He 
 often had as many as a thousand : therefore his 
 influence was constantly spreading. As was natu- 
 ral, it was must formative in France, whence 
 most of his pui>ils came, and to whose Protes- 
 tants Calvin was le.ader and spiritual father. 
 But in other lands he exerted his power. In 
 Italy he came to the aid of the troubled Duchess 
 of Ferrara. To England he sent his Commen- 
 tary on Isaiah, with a dedication to the youthful 
 Xing, Iviward VI. To Cranmer he wrote letters; 
 and through Knox he moulded Scotland. lie 
 counselled the Moravian Brethren. He helped 
 the Poles in the Trinitarian controversy, and 
 likewise the Reformed cause in Hungary. He 
 also prepared, in his way, the present interest in 
 foreign missions by his unfortunate mission to 
 lirazil (loj.3). .See Vim.kgaioxox ami Staiie- 
 i.ix, Jolianncs C<dcin, vol. ii. pp. 231-238. 
 
 Calvin's relations with .Switzerland and Ger- 
 many were niipleasaut. He strove most earnestly 
 to unite the different branches of the Protestant 
 Church. But unhappily ho was suspected by 
 
 • *' Xfim «1 modo vnlcnt men niitorltaH vlvum fxire luinqimm 
 p.illnr (I (.hail iK-vcr ix-rmlt lilin lo dciuirt iilivo If my nutbority 
 la grcai cnouuh)." — C'ALViN to Fabbl, Feb. 13, IWO. 
 
 many Swiss of Lutheran views on tire Lord's 
 Supper, — for this was the controverted point, — 
 and by many Germans of too much Zwinglian- 
 isra ; so that he made but an iiidiiferent mediator. 
 He had high hopes of the " Consensus Tigurinus " 
 (Consensus of Zurich, 1549), which harmonized 
 the Swiss churches; but the controversy with the 
 Lutherans was violently renevi-ed by Ilesshusius. 
 
 6. His Personal Character. — The common con- 
 ception of Calvin is erroneous. He was not the 
 stony-hearted tyrant, the relentless persecutor, 
 the gloomy theologian, the popular picture repre- 
 sents him to have been. Men, by a blessed incon- 
 sistency, are often kinder than their creeds. So, 
 at all events, was Calvin. To the superficial 
 observer he is not attractive -, but it is the opinion 
 of every one who has studied him that he im- 
 proves upon acquaintance. Gr.anted that he was 
 constitutionally intolerant; that he did draft and 
 sternly carry out regulations which were vexa- 
 tious and needlessly severe; that he knew no 
 other stand-point in government, morals, or the- 
 ology than his own. — he had other qualities 
 which entitle him to respect and admiration. 
 He was refined, conscientious, pure, faithful, hon- 
 est, humble, pious. His otYeriiig to God was a 
 bleeding heart. He attnacted men by the strength 
 of his char.acter, the loftiness of his aims, and the 
 directness of his eii'orts. He had the common 
 human affections. He loved his wife, and mourned 
 her death. He grieved over his childlessness. 
 He took delight in his friends; and they were 
 the noblest in the Protestant Church. Somewhat 
 of the forbidding aspect of his life may perhaps 
 be accounted for by the unnatural life he was 
 forced to lead. He desired to spend liis days in 
 study; whereas he was fprceil to incessant, mul- 
 tifarious, and mo.st prominent labor. Experience 
 shows there is no harder master than a timid man 
 compelled to lead. Again : his ill li<'alth must be 
 taken into account, ije was a walking husiiilal. 
 Such men are not apt to Tie gentle, 'riii- wi.nd.T 
 rather is that he showed no patient a .spirit, 'llie 
 popular verdict has been given against him ; but 
 vox populi is not always vox del. AVliat Beza, his 
 biographer, wrote is nearer truth : " Having been 
 an observer of Calvin's life for .sixteen years, I 
 may with perfect right testify that we have in 
 this man a most beautiful example of a truly 
 Christian life .and death, which it is easy to ca- 
 lumniate, but diilicult to imitate." Ernest Renan 
 finds the key to his influence in the fact that he 
 was "the most Christian man of iiis generation" 
 (Studies of lieli(ji(iu^ Hislorif and Criticism, N.Y., 
 181)1, pp. 28(i S(iq.). I'rofessor Dorner says, 
 " Calvin was ccpially great in intellect and char- 
 acter, lovely in social life, full of tender synipathy 
 and faithfulness to friends, yielding and forgiving 
 towards penional olTenees, but inexorably severe 
 when he saw the lionor of God obstinately and 
 malignantly attacked" (6'e.vc/i. d. I'rol. Theot. 
 pp. 374, 370). 
 
 7. His Personal Appearance. — He w.as of mid 
 die stature, and, through feeble health, of meagre 
 and emaciated frame. He had a thin, pale, linely- 
 chi.selled face, a well-formed mouth, a long, jiointeil 
 beard, black hair, a prominent nose, a lofty fore- 
 head, and flaming eyes. He was modest, plain, 
 and scrupulously neat in dress, orderly and me- 
 thodical in all his habits, temperate, and even
 
 CALVIN. 
 
 369 
 
 CALVINISM. 
 
 abstemious, allowing himself scarcely food aiui 
 sleep enouy;h for vigorous work. (The fatuous 
 portrait by Ary Scheffer is too much i(li'alizi;il.) 
 
 8. His LUerat-!/ Labors. — Leaving out of view 
 his correspoiuieiice, the writings of Calvin divide 
 themselves into the theological and the exegetical. 
 In regard to the latter, it suffices now to say that 
 they have never been excelled, if, on the whole, 
 tliey have been equalled. He possessed all the 
 requisite qualifications for an excgete, — knowl- 
 edge of the original tongues, good common sense, 
 and abundant piety. His expositions are brief, 
 pithy, au<l clear. His theological writings are 
 remarkable for their early maturity and their un- 
 varying consistency. Besides his minor writings, 
 we possess that masterpiece of Protestantism, tlie 
 l7>slilutes of the Christian Religion, which came 
 fully grown into the world, like ISIinerva from the 
 brain of Jupiter. He really produced at twenty- 
 six a book in which he had nothing to change at 
 fifty-five. The repeated enlargements were mere 
 developments of its germinal ideas. The first 
 edition (Basel, 1536) contained only six chapters, 
 and was intended merely as a brief apology of 
 the Reformed doctrine: 1. Of law, with an expo- 
 sition of the Decalogue ; 2. Of faith, with an 
 exposition of the Apostles' Creed ; 3. Of prayer, 
 with an exposition of the Lord's Prayer ; 4. Of 
 the sacraments of baptism and the Lord's Suj> 
 per; 5. Of the other so-called sacraments ; G. Of 
 Christian liberty, church government and disci- 
 jiliiie. The French translation made by Calvin 
 liimself appeared in Basel, 154L The final form 
 was given to the Institutes in the Latin edition of 
 Geneva, 1559, when it was made into a treatise 
 of four books, divided into a hundred and four 
 chapters.! 
 
 Lit. — Calvin's writings. Joannks Calvinus: 
 Opera qua; supersunt omnia, ed. G. Baum, E. Cu- 
 NiTz, K. Reuss. Brunsvigas (liraunschweig), 1803 
 sqq. 30th vol., 1886. This edition supersedes all 
 others (Geneva, 1617, 12 vols, fob ; Amster., 1671, 
 9 vols, fol., etc.). 1'here is an Knglish translation 
 of Calvin's works by the " Calvin Translation 
 Society," Edinburgh, 18-12-53, 52 vols. There is 
 an edition of those works originally written in 
 French, (Euvres Fran<;ois dc J. Calvin, rccueillcs 
 pour la premiere fois (Preceddes de sa vie par 
 Theod. de Beze, et d'une notice bibliographique, 
 par P. L. .Jacob, bibliophile), Paris, 1812, 12ino. 
 The Braunschweig edition includes Calvin's Let^ 
 ters, which are numerous and important. An 
 English translation from the previous edition of 
 Bonnet is published in 4 vols, by the Presb. Board 
 of Pub., I'hiladelphia. See also A. L. Hkumin- 
 JARD : Correspondance des reformateurs dans les 
 pays de lanr/uefranfaise, Geneve et Paris, 1806 sqq. 
 
 Biographies of Calvin. — Tn. de Bezk : His- 
 toire de la vie et la morl de J. Cahnn, Geneve, 1564 ; 
 2d French ed. enlarged by N. Colladon, 1565, 
 republished by A. Franklin, Paris, 1864; Latin 
 ed. by Beza, Geneva, 1575 (the chief material, 
 along with his Letters, for an authentic biography); 
 Hieron. Bolsec : Histoire de la vie de Jean Calvin, 
 Paris, 1577 (Geneve, 1835, Lyon, 1875) ; in Latin, 
 
 1 Tn C-ilvin's life the following editions of the oricinni L-itin 
 appeared mider his supervision • at Basel, 153fi; at Slrassburi;, 
 1539, I.^43, l.i4o; at Geneva, 1650, 1653, 1564, 1560 (from which 
 the ordit:ary trantilations are made). See J. THOMAS : Histoire 
 de I'instit. hhrdtienne dc J, Catv., Blrasb., 1859, 
 
 26 — 1 
 
 Coloniie, 1.580 (a mean libel; a reply to it, entitled 
 yl»((7W.s-eci(s, appeared at Cleves, 1622); Dkei.in- 
 couitT : La defense ile Calvin, Geneve, 1667 (a refu- 
 tation of Bolsec); PailHenuy: Das Lehen lohann 
 Calvins, ILamliurg, 1835-44, 3 vols., abridged in 
 one vol., Hamburg, 1846; English tiaiislation by 
 Stebbing (defective, omits most of Henry's notes, 
 and all his appendix), London and New Yoik, 
 1854, 2 vols, (much valuable but ill-digested ma- 
 terial) ; AuDix (K. C.) : Histoire de la vie de 
 Calvin, Paris, 1841, 5th ed., 1851, 2 vols., also in 
 English and German (bitter and scurrilous, full 
 of misrepresentations and blunders) ; T. H. 
 Dyek : Life of Calvin, London, 1849 (valuable 
 and impartial) ; Felix Bungeneu : Calvin, Paris, 
 1862; English translation, Edinb., 1863 (popular 
 but trustworthy) ; E. Stahelin : Joliannes Calvin, 
 Elberfeld, 1863, 2 vols, (on the whole, the best 
 biography, full, and well arranged, yet needing 
 modification on some j)oints) ; F. W. Kamp- 
 SCIIULTE : Jottann Calvin, seine Kirvhe und sein 
 Staat in Gerif Ijcipzig, 1869, vol. I. (all published, 
 extends to 1546, able and siiigulaily impartial, 
 author died an Old Catholic in 1871); Thomas 
 McCrie : The Earlij Years of John Calvin, Lon- 
 don, 1880 ; B. FoNTANA : Documenti circa il soggi- 
 orno di Catvino a Ferrara, Home, 1885. 
 
 Essays upon Calvin and his work. — JI. Ml- 
 gnet : Memoire sur I'e'tablissciuent de la rcfomie et 
 sur la constitution du Calvisme a Genlve, Paris, 
 1834 ; E. Renax ; Jean Calvin, in Etudes d'kistoire 
 religeuse, 5th ed., Paris, 1862 ; English translation 
 by O. B. Frothingham, Studies of Religious His- 
 tory and Criticism, N.Y., 1804; Amad. Roget: 
 I^'eglise et I'etat a Geneve de virant Calvin, Geneve, 
 1877 (this little book corrects the common im- 
 pression of Calvin's rule in Geneva, and shows 
 that the civil authority meddled too much with 
 ecclesiastical affairs, and once even exhorted Cal- 
 vin to fulfil his duties better) ; GuizoT : St. Louis 
 and Calvin, London, 1868 ; P. Lobstein : Die 
 Etkik Calvin's in ihren Grundziigen entxvorfen, 
 Strassburg, 1877. 
 
 General works. ■ — Meule d'Aubione: History 
 of the Reformation in Europe in the Time of Calvin 
 (translated from the French), N.Y., 1863-79, 8 
 vols.; G. P. Fisher: The Reformation, New 
 York, 1873 (pp. 192-241). For an .ampler bib- 
 liography see bcHAFF : Creeds of C/irislendom, vol. 
 I. pp. 421, 422. HERZOG (S. M. JACKSON). 
 
 CALVINISM is a term used to designate the 
 doctrinal system of Calvin. But the doctrines 
 are far older than the man. The system was 
 known originally as Augustinianism, from its ear- 
 liest champion, St. Augustine (353-430).' Cal- 
 vinism is the term for its developed and Protestant 
 form, which finds its definition, not alone in the 
 writings of Augustine and Calvin, but in the 
 published confessions of those churches which 
 h.ave professed this form of doctrine, and in their 
 standard theological writincs. 
 
 ' [Tt should be remembered, however, that Angustine also 
 taught sunie of the leading doctrines of the Koman-Catboiic 
 Church, which still regards him as the greatest authority 
 among the fathers. Calvinism is a development of the anti- 
 Pelagian Augustinianism, and at the same time an advance 
 tipon it, with many new features never dreamed of by the 
 Bishop of Hippo. In other words Calvit), and Luther before 
 him, followed Augustine, only in the doctrines on sin and 
 grace, and oii predestination, but dilfered from him on jnstifi- 
 cation. on the rule of faith, on the church, and many other im- 
 portant points. — £d.J
 
 CALVINISM. 
 
 370 
 
 CALVINISM. 
 
 )C»* 
 
 r 
 
 A. A Statemkxt of the Principles of 
 Calvinism. — I. The Relation of the Creator tn the 
 Creation. — Calcinism teaches Cliristian Theism. 
 It emphasizes at once the tmnsieiice of God be- 
 yond, and tlie immanence of God within, the 
 world. He remains ever a conscious personal 
 Spirit, witliout and above tlie world, able, in the 
 exercise of his free volitions, sovereignly to exer- 
 cise a supernatural influence upon any part of 
 that s}-steni of nature which he has established, 
 ordinarily working through second causes, ''yet 
 free to work without, above, and against them, at 
 his pleasure." At the same time his creatures 
 are momentarily dependent upon the energy of 
 his will for substance, and for the possession of 
 the powers comnuinicated to tliem as second 
 causes in all their exercises. 
 
 But this is common ground for all Christians. 
 Calvinism, or Augustinianism, just here opposes 
 itself to Pelagianism (see title) in that it teaches, 
 that, prior to apostasy, the spirit of man depended 
 for spiritual life and moral integrity upon the 
 concurs^ (concurrence) of tiie Spirit of God, the 
 withdrawal of which is the immediate cause of 
 spiritual death and moral impotence. This divine 
 influence, in one degree, and in one mode or 
 another, is common to all creatures and all their 
 actions; and it is called " (/cnce," when, as an un- 
 deserved favor, it is in a supernatural manner 
 restored to the souls of sinful men, with the de- 
 sign of ailecting their moral character and action. 
 
 II. 7'he Design of God in Creation is declared 
 in the Scriptures to be the manifestation of his 
 own glorious perfections; and Calvinism seizes 
 this principle, and applies it to the interpretation 
 of all God's dealings with man, and of all man's 
 duties to God. 
 
 III. The Eternal Plan of God ai»l the Actual 
 Succession of Ecents in Time is set forth thus: 1. 
 This eternal and immutable plan of God has 
 constituted man a free agent, and consequently 
 can never interfere with the exercise of that free- 
 dom of which it is itself the foundation ; '2. This 
 created free will is not, however, independent, 
 but ever continues to have its ground in the 
 conserving energies of the Creator ; 3. In the case 
 of an infinitely wise, powerful, and free Creator 
 of all things out of nothing, it is obvious that 
 the certain i'oi-eknowledge of all events from the 
 ab.solute beginning virtually involves the prede- 
 termination of each event without exception; for 
 all the causes and consequences, direct and contin- 
 gent, which are foreseen in creation, are, of course, 
 determined by creation ; 4. Since all events con- 
 .stitute a single system, the Creator nnist embrace 
 the system <is a wholes, and every infinitesimal 
 element of it, in one all-comprehensive intention; 
 ends more or less general nnist be determined as 
 ends, and means and conditions in all their 
 several relations to the ends wliich are made 
 dependent uj)on them : hence, while every event 
 remains dependent n]K>n its causes, and contin- 
 gent upon its conditions, none of (iod's purposes 
 can possibly be contingent, because, in turn, ev(M\y 
 cause and condition is determined in that i)ur- 
 l)ose, as well as the ends which are suspen<l(^d 
 upon them : all the decrees of God are hence 
 called absolute, because they are ultimately de- 
 t.ennined always by "the counsel of his own 
 will," and never by any thmg exterior to him 
 
 which has not in turn been previously determined 
 by him ; 5. -This determination, however, instead 
 of interfering with, maintains the true causality 
 of the creature, and the free seU'-determination of 
 men and angels. Since the holiness of the cre- 
 ated moral agent is conditioned upon the in- 
 dwelling of divine grace, and its turning from 
 grace is the cause of sin, it follows tliat all the 
 good in the volitions of free agents is to be re- 
 ferred to (iod a.s its positive som-ce ; but all the 
 evil (which orirjinutes in defect, privation) is to be 
 referred simply to his permission. In this view 
 all events, without exception, are embraced in 
 God's eternal purpose ; even the primal aposta- 
 sies of Satan and of Adam, as well as all those 
 consequences which have flowed from them. The 
 charge of fatalism so often made does not really 
 lie against Calvinism; for the energizing will 
 of the personal Jehovah, at once perfect Light 
 and Love, is very different from fate. It is one 
 thing to be borne along by irresistible yet utterly 
 blind force, and quite another to be led by our 
 heavenly Father's hand. 
 
 IV. God's liencvulcnce. Justice, and Grace in 
 the Scheme of Redemption. — Justice, as well as 
 benevolence, is an essential and ultimate prop- 
 erty of the divine nature, and hence lies back 
 of, and determines the character of, the divine 
 volitions. By the perfection of God's nature he 
 is always benevolent to the innocent, and just as 
 certainly is he determined to p)unish the guilty. 
 In the gospel, God has sovereignly separated the 
 sin from the sinner in certain cases, in the vica- 
 rious penal sufferings of his Son ti'eating the be- 
 lieving sinner as a righteous person ; that is, as a 
 person with regard to whom all the demands of 
 justice are fully satisfied. Hence he has exer- 
 cised both justice and benevolence, — justice to 
 the sin and to the law, benevolence to the sinner; 
 wliich benevolence to the imdeserving is sovereign 
 grace. Calvinism, wliile admitting the general 
 benevolence of God, emphasizes his justice and 
 
 GliACE. 
 
 V. The Effect of Adam's Apostasi/ tipnn his 
 Poslcritij. — I'he entire soul with all its constitu- 
 tional faculties and acquired habits is the organ 
 of volition, the agent willing. It possesses the 
 inalienable property of self-determination, the 
 moral character of which always depends upon 
 the indwelling of the Holy Spirit, and it needs, 
 therefore, divine help to will rightly. Adam was 
 created in fellowship with (!o(l, and hence with a 
 holy tendency of heart, with full ])ower not to 
 sin, but also, for a limited )ieriod of jirob.ation, 
 with power to sin; and when he sinned the Holy 
 Spirit w,as withdrawn from the race, and he and 
 his descendants lost the original power not to sin, 
 and gained the necessity to sin; in other words, 
 total moral inability. But this theological doc- 
 trine is to bo carefully <lislingnislied from the 
 metaphysical one of "jihilosophical necessity." 
 The phrases, the " bondage? of the will," etc., are 
 intended to apply only to the corrupt sjiontani^ous 
 tendency of fallen man to evil, which can be re- 
 versed only by a new creating energy from above. 
 At the same time, every Calvinist holds devoutly 
 to the free self-determination of the soul in ev('ry 
 moral action, and is at liberty to give whatcvei 
 jisychological ex]^lan.ation of tliat fact may .'eenv 
 toliim most reasonable. Ilenco Calviuists hold, -~
 
 CALVINISM. 
 
 371 
 
 CALVINISM. 
 
 First as to original guilt: (1) Human sin, hav- 
 ing originated in tlio free apostatizing act of 
 Adam, deserves (iod's wratli and curse ; and im- 
 inutal)le justice demands tlieir iniliction. (2) 
 Sucli, moreover, was the relation subsisting be- 
 tween Adam and his descendants, that God right- 
 eously regards and treats each one as he comes 
 into being as worthy of tlie punislnuent of that 
 sin, and conseiiuently withdraws liis life-giving- 
 fellowship from him. The whole race, therefore, 
 and each individual it embraces, is under the just 
 condemnation of God; and hence the gift of 
 Christ, and the entire scheme of redemption in 
 its conception, execution, and application, are 
 t,hroughout and in every sense a product of sov- 
 ereign grace. God was free to provide it for few 
 or many, for all or none, just as he pleased ; and 
 in every case of its application the motives deter- 
 mining God cannot be found in the object, but 
 only in tlie good pleasure of the will of the di- 
 vine Agent. 
 
 Secondly as to original sin : (1) Since evei-y 
 man thus comes into the world in a condition of 
 ante-natal forfeiture, because of Adam's apostasy, 
 he is judicially excluded from the morally quicken- 
 ing energy of the Holy Ghost, and hence begins 
 to think, feel, and act without a spontaneous bias 
 to moral good. (2) But since moral obligation 
 is positive, and the soul is essentially active, it 
 instantly develops in action a spiritual blindness 
 and deadness to divine things, and a positive in- 
 clination to evil. This involves the corruption 
 of tlie whole nature ; and the absolute impoteiicy 
 of the will to good is, humanly speaking, without 
 remedy, and necessarily tends to the indefinite 
 increase, both of depravity and guilt. It is there- 
 fore said to be total. 
 
 VI. The Nature and Necessity of Recjeneratiiirj 
 Grace. — Grace is free, sovereign favor to the ill- 
 deserving. Calviiiists distinguish (1) "common 
 grace," or the moral and suasory influence on the 
 .soul of the Spirit acting through the truth, as the 
 result of Christ's work, which tends to restrain 
 its evil passions, but which may be resisted, and 
 is always prevailingly resisted by the unregeiier- 
 ate, from ("2) "effectual calling," which is a single 
 act of God, changing the moral character of tlie 
 will of the subject, and implanting a prevail- 
 ing tendency to co-operate with future grace in 
 all forms of holy obedience. By reason of this 
 new creative energy within it, the soul spontane- 
 ously embraces Christ, and turns to God. (o) 
 Afterwards this same divine energy continues to 
 support the soul, and prepare it for, and to con- 
 cur with it ill, every good work. This gi-ace is 
 now prevailingly co-operated with by the regener- 
 ated soul, and at times resisted, until the status 
 of gi-ace is succeeded by the status of glory. 
 
 VII. The Application of the Plan of Itedemption. 
 — Predestination, or the purpose of God to secure 
 the salvation of some men, and not of all, has 
 been popularly regarded as the distinguishing 
 feature of Calvinism, and one most revolting to 
 the moral sense. Some Calvinists, reasoning 
 downward from the nature of God as absolute, 
 and developing this doctrine in a strictly specula- 
 tive manner, have made it the foundation of their 
 system. These have necessarily conceived of it 
 in the high and logically coherent suprahipsarian 
 sense (election before creation ; the decree to cre- 
 
 ate, and jiermit men to fall, in order to carry out 
 their predestined salvation or perdition), which 
 has been rejected by the great body of the Re- 
 formed tlieologians as unscriptural, and revolting 
 to the moral sense. Tlu; vast majority of (,'alvin- 
 ists, however, are influenced by i>iaclical, and not 
 speculative, considerations, and therefore hold to 
 the infralapsarian (election after creation) view, 
 (iod, they say, elects his people out of the mass of 
 guilty sinners, and provides redemption for them, 
 thus securing for them faith and rei)entance 
 whereby th(;y may be saved. These gifts cannot, 
 therefore, be conditions of salvation, as Arniiiiians 
 hold ; rather they are its predetermined and gra- 
 ciously effected I'esults. 
 
 Gottschalk (808-8(58) taught a double predesti- 
 nation, — the elect to salvation, and, the reprobate 
 to damnation. But this theory is not tauglit in 
 the recognized standards of Calvinism. God 
 elects of free grace all those he purposes to save, 
 and actually saves them ; while those wliom he 
 does not elect ai'e simply left under the operation 
 of the law of exact justice, whatever that may be. 
 All infants, idiots, and all believers in Christ, are — 
 saved by gTace. All others are left to the opera- 
 tion of pure justice. It is obvious that all do not 
 believe, that all are not saved. Calvinistic " par- 
 ticularism " admits the actual results of salvation 
 in their widest scope, and refers all to the gracious 
 purpose and power of God, but does not restrict 
 it one iota within the limits determined by the 
 facts themselves. 
 
 B. The History of Calvinism. ^ The East- 
 ern division of the Church had from the first, in 
 re-action from prevalent Gnosticism, emphasized 
 the autonomy of the human will. While the 
 triitli of human free agency was on all sides ad- 
 mitted, a tendency to give proportionate consid- 
 eration to the correlaj^ive facts of the controlling 
 influence of character over action, of original sin, 
 and of moral impotency, is first traced in the Latin 
 or Western Church, in the writings of Tertullian 
 of Carthage (220 A.D.), Hilary of Poictiers 
 (;j6S), and Ambrose of Milan (397). But the 
 characteristic principles of the system now called 
 Calvinism were first fully developed by Augustine, 
 Bishop of Hippo (32-i-4oO).' His great opponent 
 was Pelagius (Morgan), — a British monk, a stu- 
 dent of the Greek fathers, a man of pure life, moral 
 earnestness, and -n'ide familiarity with different 
 parts of the C'lmrch, — assisted by Coelestius, a 
 Konian advocate, and Julian, an eloquent deposed 
 bishop. The opinions of Pelagius were unani- 
 mously condemned by the whole Church, Eastern 
 and Western, at the Councils of Cartilage (407- 
 41G), IMileve (410), and Ephesus (431), and by 
 Popes Innocent and Zosimus, — a sure proof that 
 they were not in accordance with the original 
 faith of the Church. And up to the present time '. 
 Pelagianism has never been adopted into the ', 
 public creed of any ecclesiastical body except that 
 of the Socinians of Poland (Racovian Catechism, 
 1605). Afterwards the doctrines of Augustine 
 triumphed, in their conflict with Semi-pelagianism, 
 at tlie Synods of Orange and Valence (•")29), and 
 by the decrees of Popes Gelasius (496) and Boni- 
 face (530). Henceforth a moderate Augiistiniau- 
 ism became the legally recognized orthodoxy of 
 
 • [See footnote on page 369.]
 
 CALVINISM. 
 
 372 
 
 CALVINISM. 
 
 "Western Europe, and actually tinctured the lead- 
 ing minds and events of that great community 
 for several centuries. Bede, Alcuiu, and Claudius 
 of Turui, and afterwards the best and greatest 
 of the schoolmen, — Anselm (910), Bernard of 
 Clairvaux (lUO). Hugo St. Victor, Thomas Aqui- 
 nas (1:247), and Thomas Bradwardine (134S), — 
 were all of the school of Augustine. The same 
 is true of all the " Reformers before the Reforma- 
 tion," — Wycliffe (1324-84), John llus (1369- 
 141d), the Waldenses of Piedmont, John ^Vessel 
 (1419-Sa), John of Goch (1475), Savonarola 
 (1493), John Reuchlin, and Staupitz, the spiritual 
 father of Luther. 
 
 The Reformation was a re-action from the glow- 
 ing Semi-pelagianism, as well as from the idolatry 
 and tyranny of the Papal Church. It was in all 
 its leaders, Luther as decidedly as Calvin, and in 
 all its centres, England and Germany as well as 
 Scotland, Holland, or Geneva, an Augustinian 
 movement. Although Calvin was not the first to 
 formulate the system which goes by his name, 
 to him, nevertheless, justly belongs the praise of 
 presenting to the world the first and grandest 
 work of systematic divinity, — of recasting Augus- 
 tinianism in its Protestant form, and of handing 
 it to the modern world stamped with its great 
 author's name. By him Calvinism and its cor- 
 relatives — Presbyterianism in the Church, and 
 Republicanism in the State — were, though not 
 invented, advocated and disseminated with tran- 
 scendent ability and success. From him his doc- 
 trines passed to that " apostolic succession " of 
 Bullinger, Turrettin, Witsius, John Owen, and 
 Jonathan Edwards; to the Synod of Dort (1618- 
 19) and the Westminster Assembly (1638); and 
 so to the churches of France, Switzerland, Hol- 
 land, England, and Scotland ; to the Independents, 
 the Baptists, and to the Presbyterians in all lands. 
 The Episcopal Church of England and America, 
 whatever may be the teachings of its different 
 leaders, was, beyond controversy, in the intention 
 of its founders, and in the first century of its 
 history, and is yet in its doctrinal articles, essen- 
 tially Augustinian. 
 
 Thus Calvinism exhibits its life by the very 
 varieties it presents. In Germany it has been 
 rendered less thorough and definite through the 
 influence of tlie compromising school of Melanch- 
 thon. In Holland, En"land, and Scotland it has 
 been modified in form by the " Federal Sciieme," 
 introduced by Cocceius and the Westminster 
 divines. In America it lias been coerced through 
 more radical and more transient transformations, 
 in the sjiecnlations of Hopkins, the younger Ed- 
 wards, Emmons, N. AV. Taylor, and others of the 
 New-Englaii<l school. 
 
 C. TiiK Pkacticai, Effect of Calvinism 
 is the best possible refutation of the charges 
 often brought against it. 1. It has uniformly 
 raised the moral standard of both individuals and 
 communities by exalting the sovereignty of (iod, 
 and empliasizing the moral law. Compare the 
 Waldensians with tiie oilier Italians; (ieneva 
 under Calvin's rule with its condition before or 
 since; the Huguenots with their Homan-Catholic 
 fellow-citi/.ens ; the Janscriists with the Jesuits; 
 the English Pnritans with tin; courtiers of Charles 
 II. ; and, finally, all tiiose sections of America 
 settled by tlie Puritans and the Presbj-terians of 
 
 Scotland, France, and Holland, with those settled 
 by men of other faiths ; North America with South 
 America. Calvinism makes giants _of,inen. Wil- 
 liam tlie Silent and Cromwell, Knox and Bunyan, 
 were Calvinists. The Shorter Catechism fought 
 through successfully the Revolutionary War. 
 2. As in personal cliaractcr, so, of course, in gov- 
 ernment, both in Church and State. It promotes 
 political freedom ; it establishes religious liberty. 
 Its principles strip the ministry of all sacerdotal 
 powers. They make all men and all Christians 
 equal before God. Tliey make God absolute, and 
 supreme over all, and the immediate Controller 
 and Disposer of human affairs. Hence all churches 
 accepting Calvinism, unless prevented by external 
 conditions, have immediately adopted popular con- 
 stitutions, — Presbyterian or Independent. The 
 republic was established at the same time with 
 presbytery at Geneva. The ^lecklenburg Decla- 
 ration (May 20, 1775) was adopted by twenty- 
 seven delegates, nine of whom, including the 
 president and secretary, were ruling elders ; and 
 one was a Presbyterian minister. The simple 
 enumeration of the names of the great represen- 
 tative Calvinistic nationalities — the Waldenses, 
 the Swiss, the Huguenots, the Hollanders, the 
 Puritans, the Covenanters, tlie New-England and 
 Scotch-Irish Americans — proves this point be- 
 yond question. 
 
 3. The relation of Calvinism to education is 
 no less conspicuous and illustrious. The little 
 republic of Geneva became the sun of the Euro- 
 pean world. The Calvinists of France, notwith- 
 standing all their embarrassments, immediately 
 founded and sustained three illustrious theologi- 
 cal schools, — at Moiitauban, Saumur, and Sedan. 
 The peasantry of Scotland excel in intelligence 
 those of other European peoples, thanks to the 
 parish schools. In this country, it has been said, 
 for the first two hundred years of our history, 
 "almost every college and seminary of learning, 
 and almost every academy and connnon school 
 even, had been built up and sustained by Calvin- 
 ists." With Calvinism goes the teacher; with 
 Romanism, the priest. 
 
 4. While it is true that every religion and reli- 
 gious party, however impure its creed, or tem- 
 porary its success, may boast its martyrs, it is 
 nevertheless a fact equally certain and significant, 
 that, beyond all others put together, the Calvin- 
 istic churches have furnished the martyrs to 
 Christianity since the Reformation. It is only 
 necessary to niention the AV'aldeiises, the victims 
 of the Inquisition in Italy and Spain, the Mas- 
 sacre of St. Bartholomew, the Revocation of the 
 Edict of Nantes, the victims of Philip and Alva 
 in llolland, of " Bloody Mary " and of the " High 
 Commission " and of the " Bloody Assizes " in 
 England, the Puritans and Covenanters, and vic- 
 tims of Claverhouse, and the " Killing Time" in 
 Scotland. 
 
 5. And, lastly, Calvinism is the friend of mis- 
 sions. But in this it is not alone. No church 
 of Christ can forget his command to " disciple 
 all nations." But this can be fairly claimed on 
 behalf of the Calvinistic chnrches. They have 
 been alike in priority and in extent of enterprise 
 and devotion, — l<'ailcrs in this great woik. 'I'liey 
 have also excelled in the thoroughness of their 
 mission educational organizations, and in the
 
 CALVINISM. 
 
 373 
 
 CAMALDULES. 
 
 manly and Christian type of character they have 
 formed in tlie converts they have gathered of all 
 races and in all lands. 
 
 D. Lit. — Aikjustini Opera Omnia, Henedic- 
 tine edition, Paris, 18:!G-39 ; Works of Aurolius 
 Augustine, Bishop of Hippo, a new translation, 
 edited by ]{ev. Mahcus Dods, 15 vols. 8vo, 
 Edinburgh, T. & T. Clark, 1871-70; S. Thomas 
 Aquin-^tis Summa Theoloijica, ed. nova, 8 vols. 
 8vo, I'arisiis, 18S0 ; Joannis Calvini Opera Om- 
 nia, in norem toniii.i digesta, folio, !J vols., Ainstelo- 
 dami, IGUT-'l ; the Works of John Calvin in 51 
 vols. 8vo, translated and published by the CaMn 
 Translation Society, Edinburgh, 1814-5U ; Letters 
 of John Calvin, compiled by Jules Bonnet, Phila- 
 delphia, Presbyterian Board, 18G4; Corxklius 
 Jansex : Au</uslinu.i S. doctrina Aufjustini, 3 vols, 
 fob, Paris, 1011 ; MosKS Amyualdus : De Pre- 
 deslinatione, Saumur, 1058; Bi:itxii.\R»ixi de 
 Mooit: CommenlariusperpeluuninJohannisMarckii 
 Compendium Theologice Christiana:, 7 vols. 4to, 
 Lugduni Batavorum, 1701-74 ; Institulio Theolo- 
 gies Eleucticce, Aulhore Francisco TuiiRETnxo, 
 3 vols. 4to, Geneva, 1079 ; JoHX IIexrici IIei- 
 DEGGERi Corpus Theoloniee Christiance., Tignri, 
 1700; 77ie (Economy of the Covenants hetteeen God 
 and Man, by Herman Witsius, D.D., 2 vols. 8vo, 
 London, 1840; Works of Jonx Owex, D.D., 
 edited by Rev. William H. Goold, Edinburgh, 10 
 vols. 8vo, Xew York, Robert Carter & Bro., 185:5 ; 
 Baxter : Defence of Christ anrf Free Grace 
 nr/ainst the Antinomians (crisp), 8vo, 1090; also 
 Treatise on Unicersal Reitemption, 8vo, 1094 ; the 
 works of President Edwards, 4 vols. 8vo, Xew 
 York, Carter & Brothers, 1809 ; Systematic The- 
 ology, by Charles Hodge, D.D., 3 vols. 8vo, 
 New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1872 ; Col- 
 lectio Confessionum in ecclesiis Reformatis Puh- 
 licatorum, edidit Dr. II. A. Niemeyer, LipsicC, 
 1840; Comparative View of the Doctrines and Con- 
 fessions of the Various Communities of Christendom, 
 by Dr. George Benedict Wixer, translated and 
 edited by Professor William B. Pope, Edinburgh, 
 T. & T." Clark, 1873; Creeds of Christendom, by 
 Dr. Philip Schaff, 3 vols. 8vo, New York, Har- 
 per & Brothers, 1877 ; History of Christian Dogmas, 
 by Dr. Augustus Neaxder, translated by J. E. 
 Ryland, M.A., 2 vols. 12mo, London, George Bell 
 & Sons, 1857 ; History of Christian Doctrines, by 
 Dr. K. R. Hagenbach, translated from fifth and 
 last German edition, Edinburgh, T. & T. Clark, 
 1880; AVigger's Historical Presentation of Aupus- 
 tinianlvn and Pelagianism, translated by Ralph 
 Emerson, Andover, 1840; General History of the 
 Christian lleligion and Church, by Dr. Augitstils 
 Neaxder, translated according to the last edition 
 by Joseph Torrey, 11th American edition, revised, 
 corrected, and enlarged, 5 vols. 8vo, Boston, 
 Crocker & Brewster, 1872; History of the Christian 
 Church, by Philip Schaff. D.D., new edition. 
 New York, Charles Scribner, 3d vol., 1807; 
 The Augustinian Doctrine of Predestination, by J. 
 B. Mozley, B.D., London, John Murray, 1855; 
 History of Christian Doctrine, by Rev. Williaji 
 G. T. Shedd, D.D., 2 vols. 8vo, New York, 
 Charles Scribner, 1863 ; Historical Theology, 2 
 vols. 8vo, by Principal William Cunningham, 
 D.D., Edinburgh, T. & T. Clark, 1803; The Re- 
 formers and the Theology of Ike Reformation, by 
 Principal William Cunningham, D.D., Edin- 
 
 burgh, T. & T. Clark, 18G2 ; W. M. Paxton: 
 
 The Mission of the Presbyterian Chnrch (.Sermon 
 before the Second Council of the Alliance of the 
 Reformed Churches), N.Y., 1880. 
 
 A. A. nODUK (from llie autlior's nrtidfi In Johnson's 
 Cyctopirdia, ubridK^'fli Jidfiptc-d, iind Lit. HUi)pl».'rni!ntc-d). 
 
 CAMALDULES (CamrUdulani, Camaldulenses). 
 The founder of this order was Roniualdus, b. at 
 Ravenna, 950 ; d. at Val de Castro, June 18, 1027. 
 In Ids twentieth year he entered the Monastery 
 of Classe, near Ravenna; but monastic life did 
 not fully satisfy him. Aspiring to a higher state 
 of holiness, he left Classe in 970, and became an 
 anchoret. After wandering about for several 
 years in various directions, he .settled in the 
 neighborhood of Ravenna; not for a long time, 
 though, in the same place. He easily gathered a 
 circle of followers around him ; and, whenever 
 the organization of such a circle into a monastic 
 community was finished, he removed into another' 
 place. Thus at Val de Castro he founded a 
 flourishing establishment. In 1000 Otho III. 
 visited him in the Island of Pereo. On his wan- 
 derings he reached as far as the frontier of Hun- 
 gary ; but, feeling no .special calling for missionaiy 
 work, he returned to Italy. In lOlS he formed a 
 small establishment at Campus Maldoli, at Arezzo, 
 in the Apennines. In 1022 Henry II. visited him 
 at Sitrien, near Saxoferato. A few yeai's after- 
 wards he retired to Val de Castro, and shut himself 
 up in his cell. It was not wholly incidental that 
 Campus Maldoli, Camaldoli, though one of the 
 smallest of the establishments of Romualdus, be- 
 came the centre of the whole movement. The 
 spirit of seclusion and asceticism was kept purer 
 here than in any of the other establishments. 
 Camaldoli became the model institution ; and its 
 moral pre-eminence naturally led to social superi- 
 ority. Meanwhile the movement itself was 
 steadily spreading. Petrus Damiani wrote the 
 life of Romualdus about 1040 ; and at his death 
 (1072) there existed an order of Camaldules, not 
 as a reformed branch of the order of the Bene- 
 dictines, but as an independent association of 
 anchorets. The prior was called "major." The 
 members lived in separate huts, where they slept 
 and ate. At certain hours they met in the prayer- 
 house, and recited (not sang) the liturgy. They 
 fasted often. Bread and water was their conmion 
 diet : meat was not allowed. But the principal 
 command was silence. The fourth major, Rudolf, 
 was the first who put down the rules in writing 
 (1102), at the same time mitigating them some- 
 what. A conmion table was introduced, wine was 
 allowed, etc. He also established Camaldule nun- 
 neries (1086). In 1212 the anchorets were invited 
 to Venice. Here they became cenobites, and their 
 establishments became regular ablieys. But, as 
 the order grew rich, its history developed the 
 common stages through which all religious orders 
 have run — deviation from the severe rules of life ; 
 gi-adual decay of order, moral and social ; at- 
 tempts at reform ; separations, etc. In 1476 the 
 Congregation of St. Michael of Murano was 
 formed, independent of the authority of Camal- 
 doli ; and the celebrated monasteries of Classe, 
 Val de Castro, and Fonte Avellana. were incorpo- 
 rated with this congregation. Other independent 
 congregations existed in Northern Italy, in France, 
 and iu Austria. During the lattei- part of the
 
 CAMBRIDGE PLATFORM. 
 
 374 
 
 CAMERARIUS. 
 
 eighteentli century, when great troubles befell the 
 monks almost in all countries, the Camaldules 
 fared better than their brethren. The order was 
 abolished in Austria in 1782, afterwards also in 
 France and Italy; but the monks were nowhere 
 treated witli harshness. In 1822 the order was 
 restored in Naples. Gregory XVI. belonged to it. 
 
 Lit. — The life of Eoniualdus, by Petrus Danii- 
 ani, is given by Mabillon in Aim. Ord. ileticdicl., 
 111. and I\'. The history of the order is found 
 in IIelyot : Ilisioire des Ordre.i Mon. lid. el Mil., 
 
 CAMBRIDGE PLATFORM, ^ee Co.ngkixia- 
 
 TIO.NAI 1--M. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE PLATONISTS. See Pi.ato- 
 
 NISTS, t'A.MlilMDC.K. 
 
 CAMEL. Of the two distinct varieties, the 
 one-huriiped and the two-humped, only the first 
 is found in Bible lands. It is a ruminant ani- 
 mal. Its second stomach is divided into hex- 
 .agonal cells, wliioh receive and retain for gradual 
 use the water which is drunk ; so that it can go 
 for three or four days without drinking any (and 
 even for twenty or thirty days in the spring, pro- 
 vided that, at starting, it had a full supply), if it 
 can get the dew upon the lierbs it eats. But tliis 
 is only one of the wonderful pro\isions of God 
 which fit it for great usef idness. Its foot is large, 
 broad, cushiony, covered with a tough sole, so it 
 is insensible to the heat of the sand, and well-nigh 
 incapable of slipping, or of sinking in it ; callosi- 
 ties protect its breast and legs from cuts when 
 kneeling upon stones; its nostrils cU)se like 
 valves, so it can breathe, though the air be full of 
 sand ; its horny mouth is covered by a divided 
 upper lip, so tliat it can eat the thorniest shrubs ; 
 its hump is a mass of fat, sometimes to the 
 amount of thirty pounds, and upon this carbon it 
 can live for a wliile if other food fall .short, so 
 that often, at the end of a journey, the animal 
 has no hump. No wonder that the camel is 
 highly prii;ed. To own one is for the Bedawy to 
 be well off: to have several is to be rich. It is 
 carefully looked after, and celebrated in song. 
 But, although a domestic animal, the ordinary 
 camel is not noted for docility. Travellers tell 
 many stories about its vicious temper, liow it 
 everlastingly snarls and groans. This is true : 
 but, as any one wlio has seen it will testify, the 
 back of tlie poor cauud is oftentimes one mass 
 of sores ; and thc;refore it is no wonder it com- 
 plains when tlie heavy loads are put upon it. 
 The .speed of the camel is two miles and a lialf 
 an hour, kept up for fourteen hours, and more 
 if need be. Blood camels, commonly known as 
 dromedaries, will make a hundred miles a day. 
 The daily load, equally distributed on each side, va- 
 ries from tliree hundred to eight hundred pounds: 
 if the distance be short, oi' the animal exce])tiona- 
 bly strong, like the canteen camel of Kastern 
 tourists, it can carry from one thousand to twehe 
 hundred pounds. It usually goes along at a slow, 
 swinging gait, to which the rider soon becomes 
 accustomed, and even leanis to like. It is of no 
 trouble to drive, since it will follow the trail : tlie 
 most tlie Bedawy does is to walk in advance of it, 
 with the roj^e from the animal's neck over his 
 shoulder. When he is riding, lie guides it by 
 striking his foot against the side of the neck 
 opposite to that he wants it to go, and controls 
 it by hig voice. Obedient to peculiar guttural 
 
 sounds, which the tr.aveller soon learns, the camel 
 rises, or kneels. In fact, there is no animal 
 easier controlled under ordinary circumstances, 
 nor more agi-eeable to ride. The camel saddle of 
 tlie Bedawy is a pair of cross-trees, with a skin 
 underneath and a cloth above : on each side often- 
 times is a basket or bag. The women and ciiil- 
 dren of the rich sometimes ride in palanquins, 
 provided with .seats and curtains, balanced upon 
 the back of a camel, and strongly fastened from 
 the sides. For the natural history of the camel, 
 see TiiiSTRAM : The Natural Hi.'^torij of the Bible, 
 London, 18(37. 
 
 The Bible picture of Eastern life of couree 
 includes the camel. The name comes from the 
 Hebrew (jamal, probably meaning bnrd en-bearer, 
 and occurs tif ty-three times in the Old Testament. 
 The Hebrew for the racing camel is the (female) 
 "dancer" (Isa. Ixvi. 20), swift beasts, because 
 under the influence of music, of which it is very 
 fond, its movements have a sort of rhythm. The 
 camel figures in patriarchal times (Gen. xii. 16, 
 xxiv. 10, xxiv. 04, xxxi. 34 ; .lob i. 3) more 
 frequently than in the later periods, because the 
 camel was not properly a domestic animal among 
 the Hebrews. It is essentially the property of the 
 nomad. It came witliin the provisions of the 
 Jlosaic law, which condemned it as unclean, on 
 the ground, that, while it chewed the cud, it did 
 not divide the hoof ; and therefore forbade to eat 
 its flesh, or to touch its carcass. In the New 
 Testament there is mention of camel's-hair cloth, 
 which John the Baptist wore (Matt. iii. 4), as did 
 former prophets (2 Kings i. 8; Zeeh. xiii. 4). It 
 ]U'obably was tlie coarser variety (Matt. xi. 8). 
 There is no further reference to the animal, ex- 
 cejit in tlie two proverbs, " to strain out a gnat, 
 and swallow a camel" (iMatt. xxiii. 24), i.e., to 
 be very particular about little insignificant points, 
 and indilferent about morality and religion ; and, 
 it is " easier for a camel to enter in through a 
 needle's eye than for a rich man to enter into the 
 kingdom of (iod" (Luke xviii. 25), an expression 
 for the impossible. A similar one is in the 
 Koran and in the Talmud, of the elephant: there- 
 fore there is no need to take the word "camel" 
 in any other than its literal sense. KiiETSCIII. 
 
 CAMERARIUS, Joachim, b. at Bamberg, April 
 12, ].">00; d. at Leipzig, April 17, 1574; descended 
 from a noble family of the name of Liebhard ; 
 studied philology and tlieology at Leijizig, Erfurt, 
 and Wittenberg, where he formed an intimate 
 friendship with Melanchthon ; was appointed 
 teacher of (ireek in the gymnasium of Nunuuberg 
 in 1520, professor at Tubingen in 1535, and at 
 Leipzig in 1541. In tlic last place he contributed 
 very much to the firm establishment of the 
 Kelormation, but wa.s, novertheles.s, expcsed to 
 har.sh attacks on .account of his willingne.ss to 
 make concessions with respect to tlu' Interim. 
 Also on tlie general coursi; <jf the Kelormation lie 
 exercised considerable influence, both by )iis theo- 
 logical writings — exegetii'al, liistorical, systemati- 
 cal, and ]iractical — and by liis great zeal for the 
 study of the chussieal languages and literatures, 
 especially Greek. The l)est known of liis works 
 is liis A'arrallo <le I'hilippi Melanclitlioiiin orlti, 
 lotinn vitic currirulo el viorte, etc., Lei])zig, 1500, 
 giving an outline of iho, whole liistory of tiie 
 Keformation. His edition of Mel.inchthon's
 
 CAMERO. 
 
 375 
 
 CAMISARDS, 
 
 letters, lOGO, is not considered perfectly reli- 
 
 abli'. K. KCIIWARZ. a. I'LITT. 
 
 CAMERO, or CAMERON, John, b. in Glii.sp)W 
 about l.')77 ; d. at Montauban, I()25; studicKl jilii- 
 lology and philoso]iliy ill Glasgow ; went in KiOO 
 to Bordeaux, and l)ecanie professor of pliilosopliy 
 at Sedan ; studied tlieology for four years in I'aris, 
 Geneva, and llei<lelberg', at tlie expense of tiio 
 Reformed congri'nation of ISurdeaux, and became 
 its pastor in lli()8; was appointed professor of 
 theology at Saumur in lOlS, and at Montauban 
 in lG2-i, but was here, by his doctrine of passive 
 obedience, lirought in conflict with the fanatical 
 (spirit of resistance prevailing in the place, and 
 died from injurii^s received in a riot. Amyraldus, 
 Placa!us, and (Ja[)))ellus were his pupils ; and the 
 whole theological school of Saumnr, with its predi- 
 lection for the doctrines of Tiscator, with its 
 views of the intellect as the priviux motor of the 
 win, in short, with its mitigated Calvinism, has 
 its roots in him. lie was not an Arminian, how- 
 ever, as is proved by his Arnica CnUaiio cum Tilcuf, 
 Leyden, 16:21, and his Defenaio ile Gratia et Libera 
 Arbilrio, Saunuir, Ki-'l. After his death, his works 
 were collected and pnblished in (ieneva at the 
 expense of the national synod. A. SCUWEIZER. 
 
 CAMERON, Rev. Andrew, D.D., was born in 
 Edinburgh, Scotland, 1822, and died at St. Kilda, 
 Melbourne, lb77. lie was educated at the high 
 school and university of his native city, where he 
 acted as reporter for the WilJiess newspaper, which 
 was edited by Hugh Miller. Karly impressed by 
 the want of attractive religious literature, espe- 
 cially for sabbal h reading, he projected and carried 
 out the Christian Treasuri/ in 1845, which, proving 
 successful, may be regarded as the precursor of 
 the numerous serials of this class with wliich we 
 are now supplied. He afterwards organized and 
 edited the Free Church Hlar/a:ine, the British and 
 yoreign Erangelical Jiericic, and the Fa/iiili/ Treas- 
 ury. After long delay tln'ough jmlmonary weak- 
 ness, he at length entered on the work of the 
 ministry at Maryton, Fifeshire, whence, in 1S70, 
 he accepted a call to IMelbourne, Victoria. Shortly- 
 after his arrival in that colony he received the 
 degree of "L).l)."from Princeton. It was as a 
 religious journalist, that, in Australia as in Scot- 
 land, he did his greatest work. He established, 
 and till his death edited, the Southern Cross, an 
 undenondnational weekly religious newspaper of 
 high tone, and extensive influence in those colo- 
 nies. Dr. Caineron has been called the " Prince 
 of Editors," a name not undeserved, as he led the 
 way in a most important department of literature, 
 .and conducted thi^ various jiublications with which 
 he was connected witii singular ability and judg- 
 ment. He was also distinguislied in the pulpit and 
 
 in church courts. R. S. DUFF (of Taemnniu). 
 
 CAMERONIANS. The name •;iven to a body 
 of Presbyterians, who, however, repudiate it, 
 and call themselves "Reformed Presbyterians." 
 Richard Cameron was one of the .authors of the 
 Sanquhar Declaration, puV)lished in KiSO, in which 
 Charles II. was decl.ared to have forfeited allegi- 
 ance, in consequence of liis tyranny, and his disre- 
 gard of the constitution. Cameron was killed in 
 the battle of Airdmoss. Those who followed him 
 were united in "societies," which h,ad become 
 somewhat numerous before the revolution. The 
 societies welcomed King William; but they did 
 
 not approve of the revolution settlement, and did 
 not join the Established Church. They objected 
 to the church, which Inid made many unworthy 
 compiomises ; were disjileased at the want of 
 recognition of the covenants; did not consider 
 th.at the independence of the church was secured; 
 and generally believed that God was not suffi- 
 ciently honored in the new settlement. They 
 objected, too, to the recognition of Krastianisin 
 in England. In 1700 Rev. .lohn M.acmillan of 
 Ralmagliie joined the societies, and was their 
 first minister. In 1743, another minister having 
 joined them, they constituted " the Reformed 
 Presbytery." In 1774 a simil.ar piesbytery was 
 formed in the United States. A presbytery was 
 constituted likewise in Ireland. About 186"J 
 most of the Scotch synod came to be of opinion 
 that there was nothing in their principles requir- 
 ing them to abstain from countenancing the politi- 
 cal institutions of the country, e g., from voting 
 for a memlier of Parliament; but, a small minority 
 having a different opinion, a disruption took place. 
 In 1870 a union took place between the larger 
 body and the Free Church of Scotland. 
 
 See Act, Declaration, and Testimony, 1761; Hi.i- 
 lorical Part of the Testinioni/, Naismvtii • Histori- 
 cal SIcetch of the Reformed Presbyterian Church of 
 Scotland, etc. "w. G. BLAIKIE 
 
 CAMISARDS (from camise, a jacket which the 
 inhabitants of tlie Cevennes used to put on when 
 fighting) is the name generally applied to those 
 French Protestants, who, in the reign of Louis 
 XIV., rose in arms in Languedoc, and waged a 
 bloody war (1702-05) for the purjiose of restoring 
 their Church. Neither the dragonnades nor the 
 revocation of the Edict of Xantes succeeded in 
 destroying Protestantism in France ; but, though 
 private worship was never forbidden, new laws 
 were steadily enforced which made it more and 
 more difiicult, and at last almost impossilile, for a 
 French citizen to adhere to the Reformed confes- 
 sion. In 1086 the gatherings in the desert were 
 forbidden, and fines, confiscations, the donjon, tlie 
 galleys, and the rack, were employed as punish- 
 ments. Nevertheless, with the pressure grew the 
 power of resistance. Religious meetings were 
 held during night in secluded places, presided over 
 by simple people, but fervent in prayers and 
 exhortations ; and distinguished men, such as 
 Claude Brousson, Isaac Homel, and others, en- 
 coiu'aged this passive resistance by a perseverance 
 unto martyrdom. 
 
 As was natural, the miseries of the present 
 forced up, as a necessary counterbalance, a corre- 
 sponding hope of the future ; and books like .In- 
 rieu's L Accomplissement des Prophilies, Rotterdam, 
 1686, and Suite de i Accomplissement, 1687, in 
 wliich he predicted the speedy downfall of the 
 P.apacy, contributed to give shape and direction 
 to this unconscious movement. A certain Guil- 
 laurae du Serre appeared as prophet in Dauphine 
 in 1688. (Jther prophets arose in Vivarais. The 
 number increased r.apidly. Women and children 
 became "possessed by the spirit." In the trance, 
 when seized by convulsions, they saw the troops 
 from the far-off garrisons come inarching towards 
 the pl.ace, they singled out those among their 
 comrades who should fall m the encounter, tliey 
 recognized the traitors among them, etc. ; and 
 tlie.se predictions, sent forth intermingled witli
 
 CAMISARDS. 
 
 376 
 
 CAMPANELLA. 
 
 words of penitence, prayer, and exhortation, were 
 always accepted with reverence and confidence, 
 and often tliey proved true. Tliere was disease 
 in all this, — a kind of mental epidemic. But 
 there was also a heightening and intensification 
 of the religious life, which attracted the wondering 
 but s\^npathetic attention of the whole Protestant 
 world, and which ought to be sheltered from any 
 coarse imputation. At all events, if this psj^cho- 
 X)gical fact is left out of view, the enthusiasm 
 and obstinacy of the Camisards is unintelligible. 
 The movement, however, of 1688-89, was 
 speedily suppressed ; but when the expectations 
 of the Protestants were completely disappointed 
 by the peace of Ryswick (1697), the fermentation 
 began again. The Roman priests noticed, with 
 much chagrin, that the newly-converted staid 
 away from the churches, and took to the desert. 
 Francois de Langlade du Chayla undertook to 
 punish the refractory. At his parsonage at Pont 
 de Montvert, in the present department of Lozere, 
 he built a donjon, in which he shut up his guilty 
 parishioners, and tortured them as best he could. 
 On the instigation of the prophets Seguier, Cou- 
 derc, and JIazel, the Camisards assembled, and 
 in the night of July 23, 1702, they surrounded 
 the house, stormed the donjon, while chanting 
 their hymns, liberated the prisoners, and burnt 
 the parsonage, and slew the priest. Baville, the 
 intendant of Languedoc, and a man as heartless 
 as a millstone, felt a particular satisfaction in 
 pursuing the guilty. Seguier was caught, and 
 burnt at the stake Aug. 12 ; but the rest escaped 
 among the mountains, where they soon were re- 
 enforced by new throngs formed by Castanet, Cati- 
 nat, Roland, and others. In Jean Cavalier the}' 
 found an able leader. He was born in 1680 at 
 Ribaute, in the present department of Gard, — a 
 small and plain-looking fellow, but full of courage 
 and deternunation, a baker by profession, but of 
 decided military talent. Baville, with the stake 
 and the gibbet, the rack and the galley, was un- 
 able to finish the affair. But in February, 1703, 
 Marshal Montrevel arrived at the spot with a 
 regular army-corps. He beat the Camisards re- 
 peatedly, — at La Jonguiere, March 6 ; at La Tour 
 de Belot, Ajiril 29. He was etfectively aided by 
 loose bands of " crusaders " summoned to work 
 by a bull of Pope Clement XL, May 1, 1703. He 
 employed such means as razing all the single 
 houses and minor villages in the Upper Cevennes, 
 whereby he made seven thousand persons house- 
 less. Nevertheless, he, too, was unable to put down 
 the rebellion. The Camisards never numbered 
 more than five thousand, and they had no military 
 organization. But they fought wilh desjiair, sal- 
 lying forth, wilh the agony of revenge in their 
 heart-', to burn the church(^s, and hang the priest; 
 and they fought with entliusiasm too, marching 
 into the battle? with the I'salins on their lips. In 
 their camps they lived as in a church, preaching, 
 ]iraying, and fasting; and many brilliant victories 
 they won,- — the most brilliant at Sainte Chatte, 
 March 1.5, 170L But in .\|>ril of tliat year Mar- 
 .shal Moiitri'vcl was replac('d by Marshal V'illars. 
 Before Villars liegan active operation he first 
 surrounded the whole district with a line of 
 strong military posts, thus cutting off all com- 
 nninication between the rebels and the out.sido 
 world ; and then he offered pardon to all, who. 
 
 within a certain term, laid downi arms, and surren- 
 dered. Cavalier, who saw that further resistance 
 was useless, left the country, fought afterwards 
 against his countrymen in'lIoUand, Italy, and 
 Spain, and settled finally in England. There he 
 became Governor of Jersey, and died at Chelsea, 
 May 18, 1740. Roland fell Aug. 14, 1704. Cas- 
 tanet, Catinat, Joanni, etc., fled to Geneva. AVith- 
 out leaders, the Caniisard army gradually melted 
 away. Towards the close ot 1705 peace and 
 order were restored ; but desolation and destitu- 
 tion had in the mean time spread over one of the 
 richest and most fertile provinces of France. 
 
 Sources. I. Roman-Catholic. — C. J. de la 
 Baume : Relation HiMorique de la Rcrolte des Ca- 
 misards, edited and annotated by Goiffon, Xlmes, 
 1874, 2d edit. ; Louvreleuii. : Le Fanalisme Re- 
 nouvele, Avignon, 1704-07 ; Brueys : Ifistoire du 
 Fanatisme de Kuire Temps, Utrecht, 1709-13 (un- 
 reliable) ; Lcttres choisics de Ftv'chier avec une Re- 
 lation des Fnnaliques du ]'ifarez, Paris, 1715; 
 Menioires de Villars, The Hague, 1734 (very short) ; 
 Memoires de Bdcille, Amsterdam, 1734 (valuable). 
 11. Protestant. — M. Missox: Le 7'liedtre Sacre' 
 des Cei-cnnes, London, 1707 (very interesting, but 
 not altogether reliable) ; Cavalier: Memoi}-s of 
 the Wars of the Cevennes, London, 1712 (very 
 inaccurate) ; the Bulletin de la Socic'tc de t'llistoire 
 du Protest. Fran, contains Le Camp des Enfants 
 de Dieu, 1867, p. 273, and the memoirs of Mon- 
 lionnnux, 1873, p. 72 ; the Bibliotheque Unii-ersetle, 
 March-May, 1866, contains the Memoires de Ros- 
 scl d'Aif/aliers sur les Derniers Troubles. 
 
 Lit. — A. Court: Uistoire des Troubles de 
 Cevennes, Yillefranche, 1760, new edition by 
 Alais, 1819 (rich and reliable) ; N. PEyR.\T : Uis- 
 toire des Piislcurs du Desert, Paris, 1842 (vivid and 
 elaborate, but inaccurate) ; Frostervs : Les In- 
 surges Protestatits sous Louis XIV., Paris, 1868; 
 Bonnejif.re: Histoire de la Guerre des Camisards, 
 Paris, 1869; I. C. K. Hoffmaxx: Geschichte des 
 Aufruhrs in den Sevennen, Kbrdlingen, 1837 (an 
 excellent work). VoV rOLENZ. 
 
 CAMPANELLA, Thomas, b. at Stilo. Calabria. 
 Sept. 5, 1568 ; d. in Paris, March 21, 1639 ; entered 
 the Dominican order in his sixteenth year, but 
 devoted himself chiefly to the study of pliiloso- 
 phy ; was kept in prison for twenty-seven years 
 by the Spanish Government of Najiles, on .account 
 of certain social and political speculations, but 
 was finally rescued by the Pope, Urban VIII. ; 
 lived for some time in Rome, but, not feeling safe 
 there, repaired in 1634 to France, where Cardinal 
 Richelieu gave him a pension. Strongly opposed 
 to Aristotle, on account of the discrepancy he 
 found between th.at which Nature herself showed 
 and that which the scliool taught, his idea was to 
 produce an .altogether new jihilosophy ; but this 
 new philosophy should at no point come in con- 
 flict with Scripture, or the cliurch, or theology. 
 On the contr.ary, though a bold innovator in jilii- 
 losophy, he was very conservative, almost ultra- 
 montane, in theology. The Reformat inn was to 
 him an abomination. Of Ids numeious writings, 
 those which best char.acterize Ids jiosilion in 
 jihilosophy and theology, and with respect to the 
 Reformation, are iJnirers<dis I'hdosophitc . . . 
 Paries Tres, De Gentilismo non Retinendo, and 
 Atheismus Triumphatus seu reductiu ad rcligioncm 
 per scicnliam veritatis.
 
 CAMPANAS. 
 
 CAMPBELL. 
 
 CAMPANUS, Johannes, h. at Maeseick, in the 
 ilioci'se of Liege, in thi; iK-i^iiniiiij^ of the six- 
 teenth century ; d. 1574 ; studied at Cologne ; 
 came to Wittenberg in lOliH ; was present at tlie 
 Conference of Marburg, but could gain no liear- 
 ing for his peculiar conception of tlie Lord's 
 Supper, differing ecjually much from the Kefornied, 
 the Lutheran, and the Roman-Catholic ; was for 
 some time during his stay in Saxony iin])risoned 
 on suspicion of anti-trinitarian and anabaptistic 
 heresies; repaired to Julicli, whei-e he caused 
 great excitement among the peasants by j)reaching 
 that the end of the world was speedily approach- 
 ing; was again imprisoned, and died insane. 
 His anti-trinitarian and anabaptist views he de- 
 veloped in two works, yVider (die Wi'li nach den 
 A/Hislclii, and Goldiche uiul licilii/e Scliriji, of which 
 the former is lost, lie held there were ouly two 
 divine persons. 
 
 CAMPBELL, Alsxander, founder of the Disci- 
 ples OF Christ; b. near Ballyniena, in county 
 Antrim, Ireland, Sept. IL', 1788; d. at liethany. 
 West Va., March 4, 1866. He was educated at the 
 University of Glasgow, and came to America as a 
 licentiate of the Seceder Church, Scotland. His 
 father, a minister of the same denomination, had 
 been for two years settled in Western Pennsyl- 
 vania. Young Campbell had expected opposition 
 to his changed views in theology, but found his 
 father altered and liberalized; confirmed, probably, 
 in the new direction, because of an ecclesiastical 
 trial he had stood for inviting to the communion- 
 table members of other Presbyterian churches, 
 (aider him he continued his studies, and preached 
 his first sermon July 15, 1810. He rapidly be- 
 came widely popular. Many regarded the views 
 of father and son as both novel and objectiona- 
 lile : hence they and the few who at first sided 
 with them formed an isolated congregation, called 
 " The Oiristiau Association," organized as the 
 '• Brush Run Church," with Thomas Campbell 
 (176;5-lS5i) the father, as its elder, several dea- 
 cons, and Alexander Campliell as its licensed 
 preaclier. The main points of this teaching in 
 the early stages of the movement were : " Chris- 
 tian union can result from notliing short of the 
 destruction of creeds and confessions of faith, 
 inasnuich as human creeds and confessions have 
 destroyed Christian union ; " " Nothing ought to 
 be received into the faith and worship of the 
 churcli, or be made a term of conniiunion among 
 Christiau.s, that is not as old as the New Testa- 
 ment, nor ought any thing to l)e admitted as of 
 divine obligation in the church constitution or 
 management, save what is enjoined by the au- 
 thority of our Lord Jesus Christ and his apostles 
 upon the New Testament church, either in ex- 
 press terms or by approved precedent." The 
 Bible and nothing else was their confession of 
 faith or creed. Mr. Campbell's marriage in 1812 
 with the daughter of a Presbyterian tm-ned his 
 attention to an examination of the Scripture 
 mode of baptism, which was determined, after 
 careful, earnest discussion, to be that of immer- 
 sion. Consequently, he and his fatlier, ami the 
 majority of the members of his church, with their 
 families, were immersed on June I'J, 181"J, by 
 Elder Loos, a Baptist minister, to whom he said, 
 " I have set out to follow the apostles of Christ, 
 and their Master, and I will be baptized only into 
 
 the primitive Christian faith." Next the conr/rena-r 
 tiiiri, acting, as they believed, in accordance witli 
 the New Testament, ordained him to the ministry. 
 He organized several churches, which joined, 
 thougli openly acknowledging their peculiar view 
 of the Binle, the Baptist denomination. But in 
 1827 they were fornuilly excluded; and from 
 that date the Disciples uf Chrisl, or the C'amjibel- 
 liles as they are popularly called, sjircad very 
 rapidly as an independent, simple, and earnewt 
 body of Christians. In 182:i I\Ir. Campbell ex- 
 tended his labors from the limited region round 
 about his home in West Virginia into Teinie.sseo 
 and Kentucky, and on July 4 of the same year 
 started a monthly entitled T/ie ('lirixtimi Ilii/Uist, 
 printed on his private press at home. The peri- 
 odical was successful far beyond expectation ; 
 but in 1830 it was merged in 'J'Jie MUleimwl Har- 
 binger, which was continued until his death. In 
 1810 he founded at Bethany, W. Va., Bethany 
 College, in wliich tlie Bible was made a text^ 
 book. JIi'. Campbell was a famous debater : in- 
 deed, l)y his first public debate he may be said to 
 have called public attention to the existence of his 
 denomination. This was at Mount Pleasant, O., 
 in 1820, with the Rev. John Walker of Ohio, a 
 Presbyterian, on the subject of baiitisin. Again, 
 upon the same subject, he debated in 182.5 at 
 W'ashington, Ky., with the Rev. William McCalla, 
 another Presbyterian ; in 1828, at Cincinnati, with 
 Roliert Owen, on the Truth of Christianity; in 
 18.30 with Archbishop Purcell of Ohio, in the 
 same city, on the Infallibility of the Church of 
 Rome; and in 1843, with the Rev. Dr. N. L. 
 Rice, at Lexington, Ky., on the distinctive pointH 
 of ills communion. Mr. Campbell was gifted 
 with a fine presence, great ease and skill of utter- 
 ance, and possessed considerable information. 
 His private life was stainless, and full of ChrLs- 
 tian grace. He was the author of Tlie Christian 
 Si/stem (often reprinted); Hemisswn nf l^in, 3d ed., 
 1846, Memoirs of Thomas Camphell, Cincinnati, 
 1861. See Richardson : Memoir of A. Campbell, 
 Philadeli)hia, 1868. See Disciples ok Christ. 
 
 CAMPBELL, George, b. at Aberdeen, Dec. 25, 
 1719; d. April 6, 1796. He was educated at 
 the University of Edinburgh; licensed in 1746; 
 and after a pastorate in the country in 1757 he 
 became one of the ministers of Aberdeen. He 
 took great interest in philosophical questions, 
 founded in 1758 a society for their discussion, 
 and at last (1759) found a more congenial field of 
 labor in the principalship of MarLschal College. 
 In 1762 he published his celebrated Disserlaliun on 
 Miracles, a criticism of Hume's sceptical position. 
 In 1771 he was elected professor of theology at 
 M.arischal College. In 1776 his Philosophy of 
 Rheloric, a much admired and widely used book, 
 appeared. These two works have jiermanent 
 value. In 1778 he issued The Four Gospels, 
 translated from the Greek (3d ed. Aberdeen, 1814, 
 4 vols.; reprinted Andover, 1837, 2 vols.), — awork 
 which derives its value from the preliminary 
 dissertations and accompanying notes, critical 
 and explanatory. In 1795 his feeble health com- 
 pelled his resignation ; and on his retirement he 
 received a pension of three hundred pounds from 
 the King. He is considered "the acutest and 
 most cultivated theologian the Church of Scot- 
 land has iiroduced."
 
 CAMPBELL. 
 
 378 
 
 CAMP-MEETINGS. 
 
 His Lectures on Ecclesiastical History were post- 
 Iiiimously printed : tlicre is an edition, London, 
 1840. His works liave been issued in a complete 
 and imiforni edition in G vols. 
 
 CAMPBELL, John M'Leod, b. May 4. 1800, at 
 Ardmaddy House, near Kilninver, Argyllshire, 
 Scotland ; d. in the parish of Rosneath, Feb. 27, 
 1872. His father was the minister of Kilninver, 
 and an excellent Latin scholar : so his son re- 
 ceived good earlj' training. From 1811 to 1820 
 he was a student of the University of Glasgow, 
 but completed his course in Edinburgh. In 1S21 
 he was licensed; and on Sept. S, 1825, he was 
 inducted to the parish of Row, and faithfully did 
 lie discharge his duties. His anxious meditation 
 on the religious state of his congregation led him 
 to the conclusion, that, in order to sei-ve God witli 
 pure love, they must rest " assured of his love 
 ill Christ to them as individuals, and of their in- 
 dividually h.aving eternal life given to them in 
 Christ."' This "assurance," further, rested on 
 the promises of the gospel; but, imless Christ 
 diedylir all (unlimited atonement), there was "no 
 sufficient wan-ant for calling upon men to be 
 assured of God's love to them." I5y manfully 
 preaching these views he involved liiniself in a 
 church trial for heresy, and was in due course 
 deposed by the Assembly, Wednesday, Jlay 2.5, 
 18il, by a majority of a luindred and nineteen 
 to six. He went back to Kilninver, preached 
 tliroughoiit the neighborhood, and at last, in the 
 first week of 1833, began an independent ministrj' 
 in Glasgow, which lasted for twenty-six years 
 (1835-.\pril, 1859). He was married on Sept. 
 20, 1838. In 1851 he published his book on the 
 Eucharist, Christ the bread of Life (2d ed., 1860), 
 suggested by tlie then Roman-Catholic contro- 
 versy. He rejected transubstantiation, because 
 it contradicts the faculty of perception, which dis- 
 tinguishes man as a spiritual being. " There is 
 a spiritual eye which sees that in Christ is pre- 
 sented to us the appropriate food of eternal life; 
 and to fix the thoughts on him was the proper 
 office of the Lord's Supper. As long as it was 
 itself the object on which thought and interest 
 were concentrated, so long it was misused; and 
 tliis misuse of the ordinance was as possible, if 
 not as common, among Protestants as it was 
 among Koman-Catholics." In 1856 he issued his 
 chief work, The Nature of the Atonement, and itx 
 /{elation to Remission of Sins and Eternal Life 
 (4th ed., 1873). By one of its .sentences tiie 
 main thesis of the book m.ay be thus expressed : 
 "It was the spiritual essence and nature of the 
 Kufferhigs of Christ, and not that these sufferings 
 were penal, which constituted their value as 
 entering into the atonement made by the Son of 
 God, when he put away sin by the sacrifice of 
 himself." In 1859 he was compelled by failing 
 health to resign his charge at Glasgow. In 1862 
 he published Tlioui/hts on Revelation, with S/)ecial 
 Reference to the Present Time, — a book called forth 
 by the Essays and Reriews (1860). In 18(i8 the 
 University of (il;i,sgo\v made liiin a doctor of 
 divinity. In 1870 lie removed liis liome from the 
 neigliborhood of (llasgow to Ilosneatli, to his 
 house Ach-n;irHliee (" 'Hie Fi<'ld of I'eacc"), an old 
 local name. In this liousc, ai>|uopriately iiami'd, 
 lie partially prepared the volume which appeared 
 in 1873, under the title Reminiscences and Rejiec- 
 
 tions, referring to his early ministry in the parish 
 of Row (1825-31); and then, with his book un- 
 finished, but with his life-work done, at peace 
 with God and man, honored and beloved by all 
 who knew him, a channel of God's grace unto 
 many, this eminent and gifted servant went to his 
 higher service. The impression Dr. Campbell 
 made upon all his acquaintances was that of holi- 
 ness. Dr. Norman JNIacleod said of him, "His 
 character was the most perfect embodiment I 
 have ever seen of the character of Jesus Christ." 
 His readers testify to his sincere, humble, pro- 
 found piety ; and, where his theory of the atone- 
 iiient is umjualifiedly rejected, his personal charm 
 is unhesitatingly acknowledged. 
 
 See D. Campbell : Memorials of John M'Leod 
 Campbell, London, 1877, 2 vols. 
 
 CAMPE, Joachim Heinrich, b. at Deensen, in 
 the grand-duchy of Brunswick, 1746 ; d in the 
 city of Brunswick, Oct. 22, 1818; was chaplain to 
 a I'riissian regiment, and director of ISasedow's 
 Pliilanthropinum at Dessau; established after- 
 wards a celebrated boarding-school for boys near 
 Hamburg, and settled finally at Brunswick, wliere 
 he wrote and edited whole children's literature. 
 Many of his books, as for instance Robinson der 
 JUni/ere, became almost world-famous, and are 
 still very popular. His educational principle was 
 exclusively rationalistic. Religion lie recognized 
 only as a prop for morality, and poesy he rejected 
 altogether, as a snare to the intellect. But the 
 success with which he labored made him one of 
 the most prominent champions of rationalism in 
 Germanv. 
 
 CAMPEGIUS (Lorenzo Campeejffi), b. at Bo- 
 logna, 1474; d. in Home, 15^)9 ; was first professor 
 of canon law at Padua, and then priest. Julius 
 11. used him in nuin^' important diplomatical 
 cases ; and Leo X. made liim a cardinal in 1517. 
 The principal events in his career are his missions 
 to England in 1519 and in 1528, and his negotia- 
 tion of a counter-reformation in Regensburg in 
 1524. He represented the Pope at the diets of 
 Nuremberg (1524) and Augsburg (1530), and 
 played a conspicuous part at the election of Paul 
 III., 1534. Some letters by him are found in 
 Epist. misc. sin(j. J'ers., Ba.sel, 1550. 
 
 CAMPION, Edmund, b. in London, Jan. 25, 
 1540 ; executed at Tyburn, Dec. 1, 1581 ; studied 
 at Oxford, and was ordained a deacon in 1507, 
 but felt himself at variance with the tenets of the 
 Church of England; went to Ireland, thence to 
 Douay; embraced Romanism, and entered the 
 Society of Jesus. In 1580 lie was .sent by Greg- 
 ory XIII. on a projiagandisl mission to Eiighind. 
 but was arrested July 17, 1581, on a charge ol 
 trea.son, and condemned to death. He wrote a 
 Narratin de Dirortio Jfenrici 17//., publislied at 
 Douay, 1622, and a History of Irelanit, puliii.shed 
 in Dul>lin, 1633. For a full account of his mis- 
 sion to England .see FuoiiIiK : History <f l\ii<ilaiid, 
 XI. He was a man of rare culture, amiability, 
 and diiiloinalic skill. 
 
 CAMP-MEETINGS are religious gatherings 
 held in a grove, usually lasting for several days, 
 during which many find shelter in tents or tem- 
 porary houses. The main features are the oixMi-air 
 jireaciiing, the night prayer-meetings, and the 
 freedom of the life. They are not so common 
 as formerly, at least in the Eastern States, and
 
 CAMUS. 
 
 379 
 
 CANAAN. 
 
 are, indeed, regarded by some as morally if iint 
 BpiriLually objecMoiialde. The first ineetiii}; of 
 tlie kind is said to hav(! taken place in Ken- 
 tucky, on tlie banks of the K('d River, in 17!)!), 
 under a Presbyterian and a Methodist minis- 
 ter. These denominations at first used them in 
 eonnnon; but gradually the Presbyterians with- 
 drew, and of late years the Methodists and the 
 liaptists have almost exelusively hidd them. In 
 recent times the M(!thodists have purch;ised tracts 
 of land in desirable locations on the seaboard or 
 inland, and turned them into parks, with comfor- 
 table houses, streets, post-offices, meeting-places, 
 biblical models, etc., and there in the summer 
 many persons live, and there tlie religious gather- 
 ings of different kinds are daily held. Tlius the 
 primitive camp-meeting is continued in an im- 
 proved form. The credit of introducing camp- 
 meetings into England is due to the Rev. Lorenzo 
 Dow (see title), an eccentric though able minister 
 of Methodist views, who in 1807 proposed it in 
 Staffordshire. Two Methodists, William Clowes 
 and Hugh Bourne, were so impressed witli the 
 advantages of this style of service, that they per- 
 sisted in liolding them after they were disa(> 
 proved by the Wesleyan Conference in 1807 ; for 
 doing which they were finally expelled. In 1810 
 they founded the Primitive Methodists, which 
 body uses the camp-meeting. The Irish Wesley- 
 an conmienced them in 1860. See art. " Cami> 
 meeting" in McCliutock and Strong's CyclopiedUi 
 (vol. II. p. 60). 
 
 CAMUS, Jean Pierre, b. in Paris, 1.582; d. 
 there 1652; became Bishop of Belley in 1608, 
 and lived in great intimacy with Francois of 
 Sales; resigned in 1628; was afterwards Abbot 
 of Aulnay in Normandy, but retired finally to 
 the Ilopital des Incurables in Paris. He was an 
 extremely prolific writer, and much relished in 
 his own time. A hundred and eighty-six works, 
 many of which are in several volumes, were the 
 result of his labor, — moral romances of a rather 
 odd description, satirical pamphlets against the 
 mendicant orders, etc. His L Esprit de St. Fran- 
 f:oi.'< de Sales, 6 vols., Paris, 1641, afterwards 
 abridged by CoUot, and his L'Ai-oisinement des 
 proleslants de VEylise Romaine, edited by Richard 
 Simon, Paris, 1703, are still read. 
 
 CA'NA OF GALILEE was the home of Nathan- 
 ael (John xxi. 2), and the scene of Christ's first 
 miracle, and of another (John ii. 1-11, iv. 46). 
 'J'he traditional Cana is a village now called Kefr- 
 Kenna, which is about four miles north-east of 
 Nazareth. There are shown the "water-pots of 
 stone " from which the water made wine was 
 drawn, the well whence it originally came, and 
 the site of Nathanael's house ; but Robinson de- 
 nies the claims of the village, in favor of Kana-el- 
 Jelll, about nine miles north of Nazareth. The 
 name is similar, the situation is fine, and, although 
 there is now no village on the spot, the ruins indi- 
 cate that once there was quite a large settle- 
 ment. 
 
 CA'NAAN (low) occurs in the Bible as a person- 
 al name, the youngest son of Ham (Gen. ix. 18, 
 X. 6) ; as a tribal name (Hos. xii. 7) [" merchant," 
 in the A. V.]; but above all as a (/eui/ra/>hical 
 name, — the country inhabited by the post<?rity 
 of Canaan, particularly in the phrase " the laud of 
 Canaan" ((Jen. xi. 31sq.). In the latter sense it de- 
 
 notes a well-defined district, all the country on the 
 west of the .Ionian, cxtcudiiig, at h'ast in places, 
 to the coast, including on the south the Negebli, 
 or the .South Country (Num. xxxiii. 40); on the 
 north, Pluenicia; on the south-west, I'hilistia. The 
 name occurs outside the Bible, among the Egyp- 
 tians and Phoenicians, but does not seem to have 
 been known to the Assyrian.s, wlio call the land, 
 not Canaan, but the "back countiy." See Schro- 
 der, Die Keilinsc/irifle/i, p. 14. The word in its 
 meaning "low" referred to the "sinking," the 
 Arabali, wiiich is .so striking a feature of the 
 country, and the Shefelah, the South Plain. In 
 its primary application in the mouth of Noah, it 
 was prophetic of the condition of .servitude to 
 which Canaan would come in his descendants 
 (Gen. ix. 2.')). The Canaanites appear to have 
 been Shemitic in language ; for quite evidently 
 they spoke the same tongue with the Hebrews, as 
 Isaiah says (Isa. xix. 18), with merely dialectical 
 differences. For a di.scussion of the question 
 whether the Canaanites were Hamites, .see J. (i. 
 Miiller, Die Seniitcn in ihrem Verltallnisszu Clmmiten 
 u. Juphi(en, Gotha, 1872 (p. o4). Like the Phce- 
 nicians, they were a commercial people, so much- 
 so, — that the name, iu later times, became an occa^ 
 sional synonyme for merchant (.lob xli. 6 ; Prov. 
 xxxi. 24 — Hebrew). The land of Canaan must 
 have been settled ere the Canaanites arrived; for 
 certain tribes are reckoned with the Canaanites 
 in every full enumeration of the population, who 
 evidently were one with them (Exod. iii. 8, 17; 
 Deut. vii. 1, etc.). Whence they came cannot be 
 determined. Their appearance was the cause of 
 the spies' discouraging report (Num. xiii. 22, 33). 
 The Canaanites and they appear to have li\'ed 
 peaceably together. (Jne of their descendants, 
 ()g, King of Bashan, ruled over the Amorites 
 within his borders (Deut. iii. 8). It is probable, 
 however, that they gradually lost their ascen- 
 dency. The Canaanites, Perizzites, Amorites, 
 Ilittites, and Hivites were in the land in the 
 patriarchal days (Gen. xiii. 7, xiv. 7, xxvi. 34, 
 xxxiv. 2). In the genealogical table in Gen. x. 
 l.")-l!), eleven Canaanite tribes are enumerated ; 
 but the enumeration subsequently varies from five 
 (Exod. xiii. 5), six (Exod. xxiii. 23), seven (Deut. 
 vii. 1), to ten (Gen. xv. 19-21) ; and these tribes 
 were brought into close contact with Israel, while 
 the Sidonians or Phfeniciaus on the north were 
 not so much so. Of these tribes, the Amorites, 
 and perhaps the Ilittites, were ])robably nnght- 
 ier than the others; for whenever the name of 
 Canaanite, or of Canaanite and Perizzite, are 
 found together, there occur those of Amorite and 
 Hittites (e.g.. Gen. xv. 16, cf. ver. 21 ; .Josh. i. 4) 
 as general name. The tribal limits probably 
 often changed ; but, as near as may be, these were 
 the locations of the tribes: the Amorites, chiefly 
 at first in the south-west, shortly before Moses' 
 time, migrated east of the .Jordan, and founded 
 the kinodoms of Sihon and Og (Deut. iii. 8, iv. 
 47 ; Jo.sh. ix. 10). See Amorite. 
 
 The Hilliles, in Abraham's day, were found at 
 Hebron (Cieu. xxiii. 10), during the exodus (Num. 
 xiii. 2f)), along with the .Jebusites and Amorites, 
 upon the momitains, higher up ; in the days of the 
 judges (Judg. i. 26), as far north as Bethel, 
 whither the Amorites, or, more likely, the Israelites 
 liad driven them ; and in Solomon's time upon
 
 CANAAN. 
 
 380 
 
 CANADA. 
 
 lycbauou (1 Kings x. 29). The name in Assyri- 
 an records is Haiti. 
 
 The PerhzUes appear to have been the peasant 
 class of the population, liviny;, during patriarchal 
 times, ill the middle ol' the West Jordan country, 
 in the neighborhood of Bethel and Shecheni 
 ((Jeu. xiii. 7, xxxiv. 30), and afterwards as far 
 north as Beth Sheaii, in the mountainous and 
 wooded stretches of that locality (Josh. xi. 3, xvii. 
 lo; Judg. i. 4, 5). 
 
 The Gin/askile.i inhabited probably a small tract 
 between the Hittites and the Amorites, with 
 whom they are mentioned (Deut. vii. 1; Josh, 
 xxiv. 11). 
 
 Whether the Geslnirites (Josh. xiii. 2) and tlie 
 Oe:rilcs (1 Sam. xxvii. 8) were Canaanite tribes 
 is uncertain. 
 
 The Jebusites (except Gen. x. 16) were always 
 last mentioned, perhaps because their territory 
 was the smallest, only their city and its immedi- 
 ate surrounding-s. Yet they were a " kingdom," 
 and fought manfully (Josh. x.). Their capital, 
 Jobus, was later called Jerusalem (Judg. i. 8). 
 
 The Hivites exchanged the middle countiy, 
 where tliey inhabited Shechem and other cities 
 ((ien. xxxiv. 2), for the northern about Lebanon, 
 as far as Hamath (Josh. xi. 3; Judg. iii. 3). 
 
 The picture of life among the Caiiaaiiites 
 drawn for us by the Bible is a very animated one. 
 We see that they were essentially a warlike peo- 
 ple, dwelling in cities, with walls and gates (Josh. 
 X. 20), had fortresses upon the heights, and gave 
 much time and thought to the perfecting and col- 
 lecting of implements of war. Their iron chari- 
 ots were irre.sistible (Josh. xi. 4, xvii. 16, 18; 
 Judg. i. xix.). On the other hand, the fact that 
 one of their cities was called Kirjath Sepher, 
 •'The City of Books" (Judg. i. 11), joined to the 
 Greek tradition of the Eastern or Phoenician ori- 
 gin of writing, leads to the conjecture that read- 
 ing and writing were in u.se. At all events, they 
 carried on trade and manufacture ; and the abun- 
 dant crops which fell into the Israelites' hand at 
 the time of the conquest attest their skill in 
 agriculture and gardening (Josh. xxiv. 13). Over 
 this people, divided as they were into tribes and 
 lesser subdivisions, reigned many " kings," or 
 sheikhs, as we .should call them to-day (.ludg. i. 7), 
 although their authority was api>arently shared 
 .and regulated by "elders " (Josh. ix. 11). " But this 
 bustling, martial, industrious people were the vic- 
 tims of superstition, idolatry, and vice. They wor- 
 shipped Baal and .Vstarte (see titles), observed 
 times and .sea,sons, jiraotised witchcraft and magic 
 (Deut. xviii. 10), were addicted to unnatural lusts 
 (Lev. xviii. 19-30). Laxity of morals, .shanieless- 
 ness of conduct, led to haril-licartedne.ss, reckle.ss- 
 ne.ss, and cruelty; for he who lives for the gratifica- 
 tion of pa.ssion has no ])ity for the weak. Such a 
 corrupt, corrupting people as the Canaanites pol- 
 lute the air. (iod therefore ordered their destruc- 
 tion, and the Israelites felt no compunction in 
 carrying the order out; it was in .self-defence; 
 and well had it been for Israel if they had not 
 grown weary of blood-.shedding. The remnant of 
 the (.'anaanit(!s wa.s the caus(? of Israel's fall. 
 
 The history of Canaan after the conquest is in 
 the main simply this: gradual extinction by the 
 resistless conqueror.s, a lull in the battle, a re- 
 iituiiption of hostilities un the part of the Canaan- 
 
 ites, and a long series of victories for them, 
 followed, after a time, by divine deliverances. 
 The de.struction of the Canaanites was begun 
 again under Samuel, when Israel had a central 
 government; was continued under Saul's better 
 military organization, under David's greater skill; 
 and completed under .Solomon (1 Kings ix. 20). 
 Thus the orders received by Alo.ses were only 
 partially carried out by the people under Joshua. 
 So anxious were they to settle down, have their 
 families about them, and pursue the peaceful 
 callings in the land flowing with milk and honey, 
 that they sheathed the sword too soon, as the 
 first chapter of Judges .shows. The Canaanites 
 held strong cities in every part of the land, many 
 of them probably very important places. Such 
 were Jebus, between Benjamin and Judah, and 
 Gezer, on the highway to Egypt. The former 
 was taken by David (2 Sam. v. 7), and the latter 
 taken and burnt by Pharaoh, Solomon's father- 
 in-law (1 Kings ix. 10). Those who were driven 
 out by the Israelites went to the north. It is 
 said that Asher and Najihtali did not drive out 
 the Canaanites, but dwelt among them (Judg. 
 i. 31-33). .\s wiis to be expected, as soon as 
 the old dwellers in the land perceived the scat- 
 tered condition of Israel, they rallied their forces, 
 and attacked the conquerors with great, though 
 not permanent, success ; for misfortune led Israel 
 to God, and God raised up judges who delivered 
 them. But the Canaanites unhappily taught the 
 Israelites their idolatry ; and so, long after they 
 had been overthrown utterly, they overthrew 
 Israel, since Baal had been put in the place of 
 Jehovah, and vice was mistress instead of virtue. 
 Marriages with Canaanites (Judg. vi. 3 ; 2 Sam. 
 iii. 3; Ez. ix. 1), contrary to the express com- 
 mand of Jehovah (Deut. vii. 3), had introduced 
 this strain in the nation's blood, and thus induced 
 the disastrous overthrow. The foolishness of 
 God is wiser than men. If the people had obeyed 
 him, they would have been spared centuries of 
 misery. See v. Lexokkke: Kenaan. Volkx- u. 
 Reli(/ion.'!(/e.ichichle Israels., Kdnigsberg, 1S44 ; 
 Gkau : Seiiiiten u. Indnijermanen, Giitersloh, 2d 
 ed., 1867; IiiiNTsni : I'her Itidof/enimnen- uiiil 
 Semileii/hiim, Leipzig. 1872. FU. W. scnULTZ. 
 
 CANADA, DOMINION OF. The name of that 
 vast British lUqx'udency that lies between the 
 United States and the North Pole, and between 
 the .\tlantic and the Pacific Oceans. 'Jhis coun- 
 try was di.scovered in 15:!4 by Jacques Cartier of 
 St. Malo. who took pt>s.se.ssion of the Labrailor 
 region in the name of the French King. During 
 a .second visit in l.')3.'), Cartier reacluHl a great 
 river, which lu; named the St. Lawrence, in lionor 
 of the .saint on whose fete-day (.\ug. 10) he had 
 entered if.s waters. Passing up the river, ho 
 arrived at Stadacona, now t^uebec, and subse- 
 quently at Ilochelaga, lying at the foot of a 
 mountain, the view from wlio.se summit so 
 charmed the explorer, that he named it Mont 
 Hoy, whence the present Montreal. No further 
 effort was made lor the colonization of Canada 
 until 1603, when Samuel Chamj)lain planted a 
 colony in Acadia (now Nova Scotia), and in 1607 
 laid the foundations of the present city of (Que- 
 bec (]ir()])erly Kt^bec, an Indian word nu'aning 
 straits), the St. Lawrence being at this point 
 comparatively narrow.
 
 CANADA. 
 
 381 
 
 CANADA. 
 
 In 1627 the government of Canada hecame 
 Tested in a commercial company of a liundrcd 
 partners, with Champlain as governor, wliile tlie 
 name of New France was used in the cliarter now 
 issued. In 166:{ tlie company was dissolved, and 
 Canada became again a royal province, with its 
 affairs administered by a council, consisting of tin- 
 governor — who was responsible for all military 
 measures, the bishop — in charge; of tlie religions 
 and educational interests, and the inteudant, or 
 civil governor — having charge of tlie finances ami 
 all matters affecting triple and commerce, along 
 with a few other officials (the inhabitants having 
 no representation), — a system that continued in 
 operation for a hundred years. During this 
 period, hunters and traders finding their way 
 westward came into collision with the English 
 settlers in Western Pennsylvania and Ohio; and 
 this, combined with the constant troubles with 
 the New-England colonies, — territorial boun- 
 daries being all undefined, — • led to war. Thougli 
 France and Britain were nominally at pea.ct; in 
 Europe, yet each openly assisted their respective 
 colonists in their local conflicts. At last, in 1759, 
 Wolfe gained, under the walls of Quebec, the 
 decisive victory of the Plains of Abraham, which 
 resulted in the cession of Canada to England ; 
 the vanquished securing, as conditions of sur- 
 render, tlie continued exercise of " their language, 
 their religion, and their laws." British emigrants 
 now began to settle along the banks of the St. 
 Lawrence ; while in 1790 large tracts of land in 
 the Niagara district were given to loyalist 
 refugees from the revolted colonies of America. 
 In 1791 Canada, hitherto under a military gov- 
 ernor-general appointed by the Crown, received 
 a constitution ; and the upper, or western section, 
 which was exclusively British, was separated 
 from the lower, or eastern one, which was as 
 exclusively French and Roman-Catholic ; each 
 division having an Upper House, or I..egislative 
 ('ouncil, appointed by the Crown, and a Lower 
 Ilon.se, or Assembly, elected by the people, along 
 with a governor. Aft«r some years, dissatisfac- 
 tion arose in both provinces against the govern- 
 ments; while in addition, in Lower Canada, race 
 and religious antagonism became manifest. These 
 things brought the country, in 1837—38, to the 
 verge of civil war, but resulted finally in the for- 
 mation of a legislative union between the prov- 
 inces, with Kingston as the capital. The old 
 dissensions, however, soon re-appeared ; so that 
 the great project of a confederation of the several 
 North-American provinces inider a Federal Gov- 
 ernment, having a Senate and a House of Com- 
 mons, but with Provincial or State Legislatures, 
 each independent for all local purposes, was 
 adopted in 18G7, by which the two Canadas, 
 Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, were formed 
 into " The Dominion of Canada," with Ottawa 
 for its capital. In 1870 the newly-formed prov- 
 ince of Manitoba, in 1871 British Columbia, and 
 in 1872 Prince Edward Island, entered the Con- 
 federation. When the English took possession 
 of Canada, its population was 6.5,000. At present 
 it is 4,000,000, of whom about 1^250,000 are 
 claimed to be of French origin, and are connected 
 chiefly with the eastern portion of the country; 
 while about 85,000 are Indians, who have lived in 
 unbroken friendship with the government. For- 
 
 merly Can.ada was known only as a lumber and 
 fur-producing country, having in addition some 
 valuable fisheries ; but of late it has been exjwrt^ 
 ing large amounts of farm-produce and cattle. 
 Its mineral resources of gold, silver, coi>j)cr, iron, 
 and coal, are oidy now becoming known. Alanu- 
 factories of a great variety of articles are spring- 
 ing up over all the country; while its immens*' 
 wheat-growing prairie territory of Manitoba and 
 the North-west offers homes for countless emi- 
 grants. 
 
 t^anada is a .self-governing country, with a par- 
 liamentarian .system, copied largely from Unit ol 
 (jreat Britain. The franchi.se is almost universal. 
 The ministers must be sustained by a majority 
 of the Hou.se of Commons; while the governor- 
 general, though appointed by England, merely 
 lepresents the British connection, and possesses 
 no political authority whatever. 
 
 lidiginn. — The Roman-Catholic Church in 
 Canada dates from the discov(!ry, for Huguenots 
 were allowed to .settle, only on conditions that 
 .soon proved fatal to their religion. In 1615 foni 
 RecoUet priests (a branch of the Franciscans) 
 settled in Quebec, forming the earUest regular 
 establishment. In 1624 the Jesuits arrived, antl 
 began their missionary and educational labors. 
 In 1658 Francois Laval was sent out as vicar- 
 apo.stolic of New France, becoming first bishop 
 of Quebec in 1072. Under him the church sy.s- 
 tem was fully organized. One-thirteenth of all 
 the revenue (a proportion afterwards reduced U> 
 one-twenty-sixth) was collected as the tithe, or 
 dime, for church-iiur])oses. The bishop, though 
 appointed by the Pope, must be subject to the 
 king of France, while the parish cures were de- 
 clared to be permanent in their offices. For 
 some time after the conquest, the see of Quebec 
 remained vacant, as the English (lovernment 
 would recognize its occupant only as the head of 
 the Roman Cluuch in Canada, and not as the 
 bishop of that city. The difficulty wa.s, however, 
 overcome; for in 1806 the Pope appointed to tlie 
 vacant see M. Plessis, who subsequently becan;e 
 the first Canadian archbishop. The Roman- 
 Catholic Church is thus practically established 
 by law in Lower Canada, now the Province of 
 Quebec. Its ecclesiastical staff throughout the 
 Dominion consists of two archbishops, twelve 
 bishops, and nearly fifteen hundred clergy, all 
 of an extremely ultramontane character. 
 
 The Episcopal Church in British North America 
 dates from the conquest. In 1760 the first Epis- 
 copal congregation was organized in Montreal ; 
 .service being held in the chapel of the Recollets. 
 at such hours as the building was not required 
 for mass. In 1774, while the Roman-Catholic 
 Church was secured in all its previous rights, it 
 was restricted to collecting its church-dues from 
 members of its own communion, and the purpo.'^e 
 was intimated of establishing a Protestant Church. 
 In 1791, when the constitutional act was adopted, 
 one-seventh of all the land in the colony disposed 
 of by sale or grant to colonisfjj was "reserved" 
 for the support of a Protestant clergy. In 1787 
 Dr. Inglis was appointed by the English Crown 
 Bishop of Nova Scotia, — the first of the colonial 
 bishops ; in 1793 Dr. Mountain was appointed 
 Bishop of Quebec; and in 1837 the see of jMontreal 
 was instituted. Since then, other sees have been
 
 CANADA. 
 
 382 
 
 CANDACE. 
 
 organized, until now the Episcopal Churcli, 
 which has no connection with the C'liurch in Kng- 
 land, possesses eighteen bishops, with about six 
 hundred and fifty ministers, and theological semi- 
 naries at LennoxviUe, 'W'iimipeg, Loudon, Wind- 
 sor (X.S.), and Toronto. 
 
 The Presbyterian Church dates from 17G.5, when 
 the chaplain of the Twenty-fourtli Regiment 
 began service in Quebec. In 17G9 Presbyterian 
 ministers were sent out from Scotland to Nova 
 Scotia. In a little while the numerous divisions 
 of tlie Scottish Church were reproduced on North- 
 American soil ; but of these it is not necessary 
 now to speak, a.s, after a series of local and par- 
 tial imions, these all, reduced in number to four, 
 ■ — the Church of Scotland, the Canada Presby- 
 terian Cliurch, the Presbj-terian Cliurch of the 
 Lower provinces, and tlie Presbytei'ian Church of 
 the Maritime provinces in connection with the 
 Church of Scotland, — entered, in 1S75, into a 
 union under the name of " The Presbyterian 
 Church in Canada." This united church now 
 e.xtends from Newfoundland to the Pacific ; con- 
 sists of about fifteen hundred congregations, with 
 a hundred and thirteen thousand comnmnicants ; 
 raised in 1S81 a million and a quarter of dollars; 
 and has theological seminaries at Halifax, Que- 
 bec, ^lontreal, Kingston, Toronto, and Winnipeg. 
 
 Congregationalism dates from the settlement 
 in Nova Scotia, in 17,")9, of some New-England 
 Puritans, who were guaranteed full liberty of 
 worship, and exemption from all disabilities, for 
 not conforming to the Episcopal Church. In the 
 Province of Canada it dates from 1801, when 
 the London Jlissionary Society sent out an agent 
 to. Quebec to minister to a number of .soldiers in 
 the garrison there; while in 1810 the society 
 sent an agent to Upper Canada. In 1827 the 
 Canada Educational and Home MLssionary So- 
 ciety w:is formed of Congregationalists and Pres- 
 byterians. In l.s^W the Congregational ministers 
 receiv(xl a legal status as nunisters of religion. 
 In 1840 a theological seminary was established 
 in Toronto, which in 1804 was removed to IMon- 
 treal. The present strength (1881) of Congre- 
 gationalism ill the Dominion is si.x associations, 
 a hundred and sixteen churches, and about seven 
 thousand comnmnicants. 
 
 The Metlnxlist tlhurch dates from the presence 
 in Quebec, .shortly after tlie conquest, of some 
 soldiers of tiiat persuasion; and subsequently 
 Methodists from New York formed congregations 
 in what is now Ontario. The.se congregations at 
 first received their ministers from the United 
 States, and formeii an integral part of the Method- 
 ist-Episcojial Church of that country. In ]81(j 
 the Knglisii Methodist Conference sent out agents, 
 who opened .several stations ; so that in 18'J0 it 
 wiis agreed that the English Conference should 
 luive sole charge of jyower Canada, and tlu^ 
 American one of that of Upjicr Canada. In 1824 
 the Canadian Methoilists were formed into a 
 general Conference of their own, and in 1828 
 separabnl from the American ('hurch, becoming 
 indei>(Mident and self-governing, under the nami,' 
 of. " The Methodist-Kpiscojial (,'hurch of Canada." 
 Bishops, how(!Ver, were never ordained ; and in 
 1832 "The Wesleyan Methodist Church in Cana- 
 da," as it was then called, united with the Eng- 
 lish Wesleyan Methodi.st Conference. This was 
 
 followed by the formation, in 18:54, of the 
 "Methodist-Episcopal Church in Canada," claim- 
 ing to represent the original Canadian Methodist 
 Church. In 1874 a union was effected between 
 tlie Wesleyan INlethodists and the New Connec- 
 tion, forming the Methodist Church of Canada. 
 In 1884 this Church and the Methodist-Epis- 
 copal, Primitive Methodists, and Bible-Christian 
 Churches united. The new Church is governed 
 by two General Superintendents, who do the 
 work of supervision, aided by the Presidents of 
 the Annual Conferences, hold office for eight 
 years, and are eligible for re-election. It con- 
 tained in 1884 one hundred and seventy thousand 
 members and nearly seventeen hundred minis- 
 ters. There were ten Annual Conferences, and 
 over three thousand churches. See Met/mrlisl 
 Annual for 1SS5, Toronto. The Evangelical 
 .Association (or " Albright Methodists ") of North 
 America, Canada, reported in 1884 sixty-seven 
 ministers. Seethe Canadian A Imanuc fur lSi>5, 
 Toronto. 
 
 There are several small bodies of Lutheran 
 churches also, for the mo.st part in Ontario. 
 
 The Baptist Church lias about five hundred 
 congregations in different parts of the Dominion. 
 
 Educational institutions were early established 
 in Canada. In the early part of the seventeenth 
 century, the Recollets, the Jesuits, and the Ursu- 
 line nuns, opened schools in Quebec, while the 
 Sulpicians did the same in Montreal. Until the 
 present century, however, boys could receive a 
 superior education only in either of these cities ; 
 wdiile numerous schools had been established for 
 the benefit of girls. Some time ago an admira- 
 ble system of public instruction was adopted hy 
 each of the present provinces of the Dominion, 
 but with such modifications as might be re(iuired 
 to meet circumstances and the peculiar religious 
 condition of each locality ; so tliat, by means of 
 primary or elementary, high and normal schools, 
 leading up to the university, a good education has 
 been brought witliin the reach of almost every 
 child throughout the Dominion. 'J'lie expenses of 
 the system are met by government grants, local 
 assessments, and .school ff^es. Mastei's of high 
 schools must be university graduates, and experi- 
 enced teachers. Teachers of public .schools must 
 be regularly qualified, a. I). MATIIEWS (orync-liuc). 
 
 CAN'DACE was the title of the queens of the 
 Ethioi>ian realm situated north of Meroij, with 
 the capital Napata. From Alexander the (ireat, 
 and down to the time of Eu.sebius, we meet w ith 
 Ethiopian queens of this n.'ime, who.se etymology 
 is obscure, though a]>parently not Shemitic. It 
 •seems that in lOlhiopia the (|ueen-vvid(iw siic- 
 ceedi'd to the tliroiu', and that, as long .as she 
 lived, the son occupied only the .second place. 
 See Lki>.sius : liriefe rtt« yhliji/plcn, 18.'J2, pp. 181, 
 217. In Acts viii. 27 is mentiimed an eunuch 
 who was treasurer to the reigning Candace. He 
 was a " pro.selyte of the Cate," since he had come 
 up to Jeru.salein to worship; but h<^ was not a 
 Jew, since he was an eniuuh (Dent, xxiii.). On 
 his return from Jerusalem he met with the apos- 
 tle Philip between Asdod and (ia/.a, and was con- 
 verted and bai>tized. According to a loose tiadi- 
 tiou his name was Judich. He brought the (iist 
 .seeds of Christianity to Ethiopia; but the real 
 evangelization of the country took [ilace much
 
 CANDIDUS. 
 
 CANDLESTICK. 
 
 later. S<-(( Lrnoi.iTi: Hia. Mlhiop., 1681, II. 4, 
 
 7, ill. L'. KUET8CIII. 
 
 CANDIDUS, an Aiian controversialist i'roni 
 the niidille of thfi fourtli centnry, wrot<i a liook, 
 l)e Gencrd/ionc Divini Vertii, and addressed it to 
 his friend, the celebrated African riietorician, 
 Victorinus, on the occasion of his conversion to 
 Christianity. The book called forth an answer 
 from Victorinns, Confutntorium (.'cmdii/i Arlmii ; 
 and the two works are fjenerally ]irinted together. 
 See Migne: Patrol, Vl'll. j)]). Ulia and 103G. 
 
 CANDLEMAS, a Christian festival institnted 
 in the Kasteni Church by the Emperor Justinian 
 (.>12), under the name of iimmavTri, or Fesluiii 
 Si/vieo!tix (Luke ii. 25). In the Honjan Church, in 
 which 15aronius says that it occurred already in 
 the time of Gelasius (492-49G), it .soon became a 
 feast of Mary, Fesltan I'urificalioni.t Marice : the 
 2d of February, on which it was celebrated, being 
 the fortieth day after the birth of Christ (Dec. 25), 
 and consequently the day on which, according to 
 liCvitical rules, the purification of the mother 
 should lake place. In all its details, however, 
 — the lighting of candles, the consecration by the 
 I'ojie of all the candles to be used in the ser^■ice 
 during the year, etc., — the Candlemas, Feslum 
 CwKlelaruin, shows itself to be a mere Christian- 
 i-zation of an old Pagan feast celebrated in Rome 
 just at the same season, by purification of the 
 whole house, in order to make it ready for the 
 returning sun, and by lighting of candles and 
 torches, in memory of Ceres searching after 
 Proserpina. See II. Alt : Dcr chrislliche Cuilus, 
 IJerlin, 1851-1800, 2 vols,, I. p. 559. 
 
 CANDLES, use of. In divine service. There is 
 no trace of their use during the first three Chris- 
 tian centuries ; for Lactantius (250-330) says, 
 " If they (the heathen) would contemplate tliat 
 heavenly light which we call the sun, they will at 
 once perceive how God has no need of their can- 
 dles, who has himself given so clear and bright a 
 light for the use of man. ... Is that man there- 
 fore to be tliought in his senses, who presents the 
 light of candles and torches as an offering to Him 
 who is the Author and Giver of light?" (Bir. 
 Inxt., VI. 2.) But in the fourth century Athana- 
 sius (29G-372) reproached the Arians with having 
 put to idolatrous uses the candles Cliristians had 
 used in worship; and Jerome (331-420) says that 
 the practice of burning candles during the read- 
 ing of the gospel, even in the clear day, was 
 universal in the Eastern Church {Liber contra 
 Vil/ilantuitii, III.) ; and in another place he speaks 
 of wax lights burning before the tomb of martyrs 
 (ICpi.sl. ad Riparium, i.; Epist., CIX., ed. Migne, 
 0/iera lUcroiuimi, vol. I. p. 907 [720]). Chrysos- 
 toin (317-407) speaks of the candles burning 
 u]ion the altars in churches as a usual sight ; but 
 in chapels and before shrines, lamps were pre- 
 ferred. The candles were and are exclusively 
 wax. The Roman Church forbids even stearine 
 candles, ^^'ax was chosen on account of its odor 
 ar.d its costliness ; for we ought to give God our 
 best and costliest. At mass, at least two tapers 
 must burn upon the altar; they are carried in by 
 the designated ceroferarii: so, in other ceremo- 
 nies, candles were used, and a symbolical meaning 
 found. Thus the baptism candles spoke of the 
 light of the good works by which heaven was 
 entered ; the marriage candles, of the purity and 
 
 joy of the heart; the burial candles, of the eter- 
 nal light of lieaven. The I'efornK^d Chunh has 
 ])ro])crly rejected the use of candles, as .savoring 
 too much of that heatlienism whence (he custom 
 was borrowed. II. MERZ (in Ilcrzotj'n ift (•d.). 
 
 CANDLESTICK, THE GOLDEN, or properly 
 Candelabrum (E.\-(iil. .\xv. 31-40, xxvii. 20, 
 xxxvii. 17-24), stood on the south side of the 
 first apartment of the tabernacle, " opposite the 
 table of shew-bread, in an oblique position, so 
 that the lamps looked to the east and the south : 
 hence the central was called the 'western ' lamp." 
 Its object was partly, by its lights, to enable the 
 priests to discharge their functions there, as all 
 natural light was excluded from the holy jilace, 
 but cliiefly to be a holy sign and symbol of the 
 invisible God, who dwells in the light whicli no 
 man can approach unto, who covers himself .with 
 light as with a garment (1 Tim. vi. IG; Ps. 
 civ. 2), who is himself light, and the source of it 
 (Ps. xxxvi. 9). Bezaleel made it, after the divine 
 directions, out of beaten gold. Dr. T. .1. Conant 
 thus describes it : " From the ba.se, rose an upright 
 central shaft, bearing the central lamp : from two 
 opposite sides of it proceeded other shafts, three 
 on a side, making six branches from the main 
 .shaft, all being in the same plane with it. and 
 each bearing a lamp. A part of the )nain shaft 
 I and its branches, .serving for ornaments of the 
 structure, are mentioned, — Jlmeer-cups, capitalu, 
 und Jfower.i. In shape the capital may have had 
 the rounded form of fruit, as indicated in son:o 
 of the ancient versions and Josephus. From the 
 representation in Exod. xxv. 33-35, these pai'ts 
 appear to have been arranged as follow.s: each 
 of the six side-branches had three flower-cups, 
 shaped like the calyx of the almond-blossom, and 
 terminated in a crown or capital, with its orna- 
 mented flower as a receptacle for the lamp. The 
 central shaft was composed of four such combina- 
 tions of calyx, capital, and flower, each pair of 
 side-br.anches resting on the capital of one of the 
 three lo\ver, the fourth and uppermost bearing 
 the central lamp." 
 
 The question whether the seven lamps were 
 upon one level may probably be answered afTn- 
 matively. Of Josephus' statement {Antiq. III. 
 7, 7), that the ornaments upon the shaft and 
 branches were seventy in number, there is no 
 proof, nor much likelihood, although he finds in 
 the numlier a secret intimation of the dcKa/joiiun, 
 in astrology the ten degrees of a circle, and in 
 the lamps a reference to the seven planets, philo 
 likewise finds symbolical reference in the seven 
 lights ; for he says, " The sacred candelal)rum and 
 the seven lights upon it are an imitation of the 
 wandering of the seven planets through tho 
 heaven " {Quis rer div. kwr. sit. § 44, ed. Mangey, 
 Tom. I. jip. 503 sqq.; Bolm's trans, vol. ii. p. 137). 
 Ewald, probably correctly, sees in the nimiber 
 seven merely the holy number, consecrated by 
 the sabbath {Antiq. [Eng. trans.] p. 11.5). The 
 lamps bin-nt day and night, although, as Josephus 
 says (Atitiq. III. 8, 3), it may well be that by day 
 only three were kept burning. It wa.s the busi- 
 ness of the priests to fill the lamps every evening, 
 for which ]im'pose the finest olive-oil was used 
 (Exod. xxvii. 20) to clean them in the morning, 
 snuffing them with golden snuffers, and to carry 
 away the siiuff iu golden snufi-dishes (Exod. xxv-
 
 CANDLISH. 
 
 384 
 
 CANISIUS. 
 
 38). Whenever this was done, the priest was obli- 
 gated to offer a sacrifice of incense upon the altar 
 of incense in the inner sanctuary (Exod. xxx. 
 7, 8) ; thus, as Ewald says, giving perfect expres- 
 sion to the " coiTespondence between light and 
 sacrifice." 
 
 The candelabrum and its appurtenances re- 
 quired a talent of pure gold, weighed a hundred 
 minae, and, according to the rabbins, was five 
 feet high, and three feet and a half broad, i.e., 
 the distance between the exterior branches. 
 When it was moved, the lamp-stand was covered 
 with a blue cloth, and put, with the " lamps, tongs, 
 snuff-dishes, and all the oil vessels tliereof," in 
 badger-skin bags, which were carried on a bar 
 (Num. iv. 9, 10). 
 
 In Solomon's temple, instead of one candela- 
 brum, there were ten upon golden tables, — five on 
 the north and five on the south side of the Holy 
 Place. The larger number fitted the larger space 
 and the greater pomp of the worship (1 Kings vii. 
 49). The Chaldaeans carried them to Babylon 
 (Jer. lii. 9). In the second temple, there was only 
 one candlestick (Ecclus. xxvi. 17; "as the clear 
 light is upon the holy candle-stick, so is tlie beauty 
 of the face in ripe age"). Antiochus Epiphanes 
 removed it (1 Mace. i. 21). and .Judas IMaccabeeus 
 restored it (Mace. iv. 49) ; and it remained in 
 Herod's temple imtil the destruction of Jerusa- 
 lem, wlien Titus carried it to Home, and it figured 
 in his triumphiil procession, and was sculptured 
 upon his arch, although it would seem not alto- 
 gether accurately (Joseph. War, VII. 5, 5). It 
 was then deposited in the Temple of Peace. 
 According to one account, it fell into the Tiber 
 from the Milvian Bridge during the flight of Max- 
 entius from Constantine, Oct. 28, 312; but the 
 usually accredited story is, that it was taken to 
 Carthage by Genseric, 4.5o (Gibbon iii. 291), re- 
 covered by Belisarius, transferred to Constan- 
 tinople, and then respectfully deposited in the 
 Christian Church of Jerusalem .53 { (id. iv. 24). 
 JJothing more has been heard of it. 
 
 The saying of Jesus, " I am tlie light of the 
 "World " (John viii. 12), was probably suggested 
 by the illumination of the temple courts on the 
 (evening of the Feast of Tabernacles, by means of 
 four great candelabra erected in the gourt of the 
 -women ; although some see in it allusion to the 
 golden candelabrum. In Rev. i. 12, 20, ii. 1, 
 icandelabr.a symbolize rhurrlies. 
 
 Lit. — lIcioLixo: Thexattrus, Yenet. 1714-09, 
 ,■34 vols. fol. toini IX. et XI. essays by Ueland, 
 IJoederlein, Ugolino, and Jahn ; BXiiu : Si/mlinli/c 
 ides Mosaiichen Cid/it.^; Heidelberg, 1837-39, 2 vols. 
 ,(2 ed. vol. I., 1874) ; Blekk : Vorlesuiiffen iiher 
 den Ilehraerhrief, Elberfeld, 1808; EwAi.n; Anli- 
 quitie.1 of hrad (Eng. trans.), London, 1870. 
 Also art. Leuchler, heili/jer, in Herzog and Plitt 
 lle(d-enc;//clopivlie, vol. viii. pp. 014, 010, and art. 
 Canrlleslirk iu Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, Am. 
 ed. vol. i. pp. 3.>4-350. 
 
 CANDLISH, Robert Smith, D.D., one of the 
 moHt (liHtiiii,nii.slic'il fcjurnlrrs and li-adi'rs of th(! 
 Free! Church of .Scotland, b. at Eilinbnrgli. March 
 23, 1800 ; d. there Oct. 19, 1872. His fatlu-r, who 
 died early, was a medical teachc^r, and a friend of 
 llobert Burns. He wa.s educated .at (iia-sgow, 
 and, after two years spent as a tutor at Eton, he 
 -was licensed as a preacher; served as assistant in 
 
 Glasgow, at Bonhill, and in St. George's, Edin- 
 burgh, and was ordained to the charge last 
 named in 1834. In this very conspicuous spliere 
 his great talent as a preacher soon made him 
 famous. In 1839 he publicly identified himself 
 with the party in the Established Church of Scot- 
 land which ultimately became the Free Church, 
 by moving, in the Commission of the General 
 Assembly, the suspension of the Strathbogie min- 
 isters who had indicated their intention to disobey 
 the .\ssembly, and obey the Court of Session by 
 ordaining Mr. Edwards as minister of Marnoch. 
 In 1839 he was nominated by the crown profes- 
 sor of biblical criticism in the University of Ed- 
 inburgh ; but, on the angry remonstrance of the 
 Earl of Abenleen in the House of Lords, the 
 nomination was cancelled. In 1841 he received 
 the degree of D.D. from Princeton College, New 
 Jersey. In all the public proceedings prior to 
 tlie disruption (1843), and especially in the debates 
 in the General Assembly, wliere he shone greatly, 
 he took a leading part. After the disruption he 
 exerted liimself with great energy in the organi- 
 zation of tlie Free Church; and, more than any 
 other man, he aided in her rapid development. 
 On tho death of Dr. Chalmers he was appointed 
 by the General Assen\bly to succeed him as pro- 
 fessor of divinity in the New College, Edinburgh ; 
 but, after accepting the appointment, he with- 
 drew his acceptance, and remained minister of 
 St. George's Free Church. On the death of Dr. 
 Cunningham, he succeeded him as Principal of the 
 New College. He was the chief organizer and 
 extender of the school system of the Free Churcli, 
 which was afterwards incorporated with the na- 
 tional system of education. For many years he 
 was the most conspicuous man in the General 
 Assembly, of which ha w;vs indeed the recognized 
 leader. In every .scheme and movement con- 
 nected with the Free Church, he took a cordial 
 interest, and generally an active share. His elo- 
 quence as a debater, his tact as a business-man, 
 his high Christian character, and liis thorough 
 disinterestedness, secured for iiim the high jilacc 
 which he so long maintained, in sjiite of a some- 
 what sharp and abrupt manner, and a teiulency 
 towh.at some considered diploniatic nian.igcment. 
 He was a voluminous author, although his books 
 did not attain a very large circulation. .Vnioiig 
 his writings were: CoiUrihulinns loirards lite Expo- 
 silion of Ike Book of Genesii, 3 vols. ; Un the Alonc- 
 titcnl : Scripture Cliiiraclers and Mixrclhiiiii^ ; JCj:- 
 (imiudtion of Maurice's Thc.olo(jicnl JCsstii/s; The 
 Resurrection of Life; The Tico (jrcat (Joinmnnd- 
 ments; The Fatherhood o/ <7o(/ (Cunningham Lec- 
 tures) ; Exposition of 1 John; The (iospel of For- 
 ifweness; Select Sermons (posthumous). In 1880 
 appeared a Memoir, by William Wilson, D.D., at 
 tlie close of which is a chapter on the cliaracterof 
 Dr. Candlish .as a theologian, contrihntcd by Rob- 
 ert Rainy, D.D., his successor as princij'al of the 
 New Coliege. W. O. isi.AIKIE. 
 
 CANISIUS, Peter, b. at Nimeguen, May 8, 
 l.VJI; d. at Freiburg, Dec. 21, 1.097; descended 
 from a Dutch family, J)c Ilondt ; was educatc'd at 
 Cologne; <>ntered the order of tli<^ .lesnits (l.'J43). 
 the first German memlier; and became professor 
 in the University of liigolsta<lt in l.'it!*, and rector 
 of the Jesuit College in Vienna in l.'j.Ol. In Bava- 
 ria he founded two Jesuit schools, — at Augsburg
 
 CANNON. 
 
 385 
 
 CANON. 
 
 and Dillingen, — and contributed much to stop the 
 progress of th<^ Reformation. In Austria, where 
 he became court-preacher to Ferdinand I., lie 
 labored with still great(;r success, so that the 
 friends of the Reformation in Germany called 
 him the Austrian dog, with reference to his name 
 Canisius, De Ilondt, the hound. His works have 
 pai-tly a more scholarly character, Commcnlarii 
 against the Ceniur. Mai/d.; partly a more practi- 
 cal purpose, Su.miiia Dnclrime et InslUulianU 
 Chrisfidncc, 15.14, and Inslilulinnen Christ. I'ielads, 
 1566. Both the latter were written as a counter 
 balance to the catechisms of Luther, and found a 
 very wide use, being still reprinted. Biographies 
 of him were written by Raderus, Munich, KiH; 
 Sacchini, Ingol.stadt, 1616 ; Dorigny, Cologne, 
 1692; Werfer, Schaffhausen, 1852; and Riess, 
 Freil)urg, 1865. G. plitt. 
 
 CANNON, James Spencer, b. in the Island of 
 Cura<,'oa Jan. 28, 1776; d. in New Brunswick 
 July 25, 18.52. He was professor of pastoral the- 
 ology and ecclesiastical history in the Theological 
 Seminary of the Reformed Church, New Bruns- 
 wick, N..I., from 1818 to 1819, and again from 1826 
 to 1852, during which time he was also professor 
 of metaphysics in Rutgers College. Though his 
 duties were thus manifold, he dischai'ged them 
 with fidelity and capacity. Learned, systematic, 
 deliberate, liis speech was slow but pithy, and his 
 lectures were elaborate and exhaustive. His mem- 
 ory is still cherished by many pupils and hearers, 
 and his portrait is found in many of the older 
 families of his denomination. After his death, 
 his Lectures on Pastoral Theologi/ were given to 
 the press, New York, 1853, and favorably re- 
 ceived. See Dr. Proudfit's ai'ticle in Sprague's 
 A nnals. 
 
 CANON (Cfinnnicl and Cannnicce), a general 
 ecclesiastical designation, which originated in 
 times prior to the Council of Nicsea, from the 
 canon, or roll, on which the names of the clergy 
 belonging to a certain church were inscribed, but 
 which afterwards came to denote a peculiar eccle- 
 siastical class, occupying a position intermediate 
 between the monks and the secular clergy. See 
 
 ChAI'TKI!. 
 
 CANON, Old Testament. The word "canon" 
 means primarily a straiglit staff, then a measur- 
 ing-rod, hence, figuratively, that which is artisti- 
 cally, scientifically, or ethically a guide or a 
 model : so in the earliest Christian use (Gal. vi. 
 16; Phil. iii. 16; Clemens Rom., I ep. ad Cor. 7, 
 41) the canon was a leading thought, a normal 
 principle. The next change of meaning (indi- 
 cated by Clemens Alex., .Strom. 7, 16, § 94) was 
 to a li//ir. of Christian doctrine, the orthodox as 
 opposed to the heretical. Since A.D. 300 the 
 plural form (canons) has been used of ecclesiasti- 
 cal regulations. Now, since the Christian doc- 
 trines were professedly based upon the Scriptures, 
 the writings themselves were naturally known as 
 the Canon ; and the test of the canonicity of 
 any particular writing was its reception by the 
 Chuj-ch. The earliest use of the word in this 
 sense is in the fifty-ninth canon of the Council of 
 Laodicffia (A.D. 363): "No psalms of private 
 authorship can be read in the churches, nor un- 
 canonical books, but only the canonical books of 
 the Old and New Testament," and contempo- 
 raneously in Athauasius, Epistola Jestalis (ed. 
 26—1 
 
 Bened. L, 961, Paris, 1698). A few years later 
 the use was general. 
 
 I. History of thk Canon among thk .Jews. 
 
 (a) The Traditional Account of the Rise of the Col- 
 lection. — The theory, which was almost univer- 
 sally received for fifteen hundred years, that 
 Ezra was the .author of the Old-Testament canon, 
 dates from the first Christian century; for it is 
 found in the Fourth Book of Ezra (Second Es- 
 (has) xiv. 41, that Ezra was inspired to dictate dur- 
 ing forty days to five men ninety-four books [not 
 two hundred and four, or nine hundred and four, 
 as in King .lames' Version], of which twenty- 
 four were to be published. The.se twentv-four 
 quite evidently are the twenty-four books of the 
 Hebrew Canon, according to the counting given 
 below ; and the seventy are the .Jewish Apocryjiha 
 alluiled to in chap. 28 of the Evangeliuni Nicndenii 
 [dospel of Nicodemus (Clark's trans), p. 210]. 
 What the Fathers have to s.ay upon this matter 
 is derived in part from Fourth Esdra.s, and is 
 equally fabulous. The modern Protestant theory 
 attributes the Old-Testament canon to Ezra and 
 his associates, the men of the Great Synagogue, 
 or at least to their time. 
 
 (l>) The Theory of the Synagogue. — The above- 
 mentioned theory has been supposed to be the 
 one prevalent among the Jews themselves; and 
 indeed the eminent rabbins David Kimchi (d. 
 1240) and Elias Levita (1472-1549) put it fcrtli 
 as a settled fact (see Levita, Ulassoreth ha-Mnsso- 
 relh, p. 120, ed. Ginsburg, London, 1867). lint 
 the only Talmudic passage which can l)e quoted 
 directly in its behalf is in Balm Balhra ; for the 
 other quotations commonly made prove merely 
 the care of Ezra and the men of the Great Syna- 
 gogue for the law, not for the canon : indeed, 
 mostly for the oral lair, and some also for altera- 
 tions in the text. The passage is in these words: 
 "The order of the prophets is .loshua and Judges, 
 •Samuel and Kings, Jeremiah and Ezekiel, Isaiah 
 and the Twelve. Ilosea is the first, because it 
 is written, 'The beginning of the word of Jeho- 
 vah by Hosea' (i. 1). Did (Jod, then, speak to 
 Hosea first':' and have there not been many proph- 
 ets between him and Moses 'i' R. .Joehanan ex- 
 plained this as meaning that Hosea was the first 
 of the four prophets who prophesied .at that time, 
 — Hosea, Isai;ih, Amos, and JJicah. Why, then, 
 was he not put first? Because his prophecy stands 
 next to tli.at of the Latest prophets, Haggai, Zech.a- 
 riah, and Jlalachi : he is therefore counted with 
 them. So this prophet should have been kept by 
 himself, .and inserted before Jeremiah? No: he 
 was so small that he might then easily have been 
 lost. Since Isaiah lived before Jeremiah and 
 Ezekiel, ought he not to h.ave been put before 
 them? [No.] Because Kings closes with destruc- 
 tion, .Jeremiah is entirely occupied with it, Eze- 
 kiel begins with it, but ends with consolation, 
 w'hile Isaiah is all consolation: hence we connect 
 destruction with destruction, and consolation with 
 consolation. But Job lived in the time of Moses: 
 why should he not come in the first part '! No; 
 for it would never do to begin with misfortune. 
 Yet Ruth contains misfortune ? True ; but it 
 issues in joy. That is a support for the s;iying 
 of Rab; for Rab Jehuda says, in the name of 
 Rab, ' Ezra did not leave Babylon until he had 
 written his own family register ' Who has ended
 
 CANON. 
 
 386 
 
 CANON. 
 
 it ? Neheraiah the son of Ilachaliah." It will be 
 pf-rceived that this passage says nothin,^ about 
 the closincj of the canon, but also that it would 
 readily furnish qround for the idea that the canon 
 was closed in the time of Ezra and the Great 
 Synagojjue. 
 
 (c) Criticism of The Tjvo Theories. —They hoth 
 agree in assigning the collection of the Old Testa- 
 ment to Ezra and his companions and successors, 
 and also in asserting that the division into the 
 Law, the Prophets, and the Hagioijraplia, was 
 primitive. But against this, two objections may 
 be urged : (1) Critical investigation assigns the 
 first part of the Book of Daniel, on account of its 
 Greek words, to a time when Greek was under- 
 stood, and the second part to the time of the 
 Maccabees [so several modern German scholars. 
 But see art. Daniel] ; (2) The position of some 
 of the historical books, e.g., Ezra and Daniel, 
 among the Hagiographa, is inexplicable if the 
 canon was made at one time. Moses IMaimoni- 
 des, D. Kiinchi, and Abarbanel explained the fact 
 by a dilTerence in inspiration. But Christ calls 
 Daniel a prophet (Matt. xxiv. 15; Mark xiii. 14), 
 and quotes him as worthy of all credence. 
 
 ('/) Positive Exposition. 1. Tlie Pentateuch 
 (the so-called "first canon"). The Hebrews, like 
 other ancient jieople, preserved their sacred writ- 
 ings in sacred places. So the law of the Lord 
 was ]iut by the side of the ark of the covenant 
 (Dent, xx.xi. 2G), with its additions by Joshua 
 (Josh. xxiv. 26); Samuel laid the "right of the 
 kingdom" before the Lord (1 Sam. x. 25); 
 Ililkiah, the high priest under ,Iosiah, found "Me 
 Book of the Law of the Lord " in the temple (i.e., 
 the well-known book: so it was no recent inven- 
 tion, as some claim) about C23 B.C. (2 Kings 
 xxii. 8). We are therefore safe in believing, 
 that, since the time of Moses, besides the tables 
 of the law, the autographs of the legal and his- 
 torical writings of Moses were carefully preserved 
 in the sanctuary (Exod. xxiv. 4, 7, xxxiv. 27, 
 xl. 20). The priests also would retain partly 
 oral and partly written information (subsequently 
 combined in the Codex of the Priests) in regard 
 to many similar matters ; and, between the eigh- 
 teenth year of Josiah and the destruction of Jeru- 
 salem (about 5SU B.C.), the writings of Moses 
 and the priest-codex, long in existence, were 
 combined. During and after the exile, the influ- 
 ence of this book is great, and the proph(>ts and 
 the pious give it canonical authority. See Karl 
 Marti : J)ie Sjmren der sog. Grundsclirift des lleia- 
 teuchs in den voreiilischen Propheten des A. T., in 
 Jahrbiieher fiir protest. Thcoloijie, 1880, cf. pp. 325- 
 351. Originally Joshua formed part of the book ; 
 but, when the Mosaic elements received their 
 present shape, it was separated, and then these 
 elements themselves were divided into five parts, 
 in imitation of which the fivefold division of 
 the Psalms was made. 
 
 2. The Ilisturico-prophetic and distinctively Pro- 
 phetic Hooks (the so-called "second canon"). — 
 The prophets were the spiritual exhorters and 
 guides of the people, and therefore held in high 
 esteem by the faithful, whosi^ natural desire to 
 have a collection of their writings we have every 
 reason to believe was early gratified. At all 
 events, it is quite evident from the prophetic par- 
 allels, that the prophets were acquainted with eacli 
 
 other's writings. The loss of so much sacred 
 literature in the destruction of Jerusalem by the 
 Chalda?ans made the collection of the remaining 
 historic as well as prophetic books the more 
 imperative. 
 
 3. The Hagiographa (the so-called "third 
 canon"). — The last /\<a/ms were written in the 
 time of Nehemiah ; but the collection dates from 
 David. The first collection of the Proveibs of 
 Solomon was so highly valued, that Hezekiah 
 ordered a second to be prepared (Prov. xxv. 1). 
 The name of the wise man sufficed to recommend 
 the Canticles; its age and contents, the Book of 
 .Job. Lamentations appealed directly to every 
 patriotic Jew during the exile, and was accepted 
 as sacred, although Jeremiah was not its author. 
 Ruth, by age, and especially by its genealogy of 
 David, was put in the third canon, and formed an 
 introduction to the Psalter. These early writings 
 were followed gradually liy the others, probably 
 in this order: Ezra, Chronicles, Ecclesiasles, Esther 
 (an explanation of Purim. the festival the Per- 
 sian .Tews brought back with them), and finally 
 Daniel, in the time of the Maccabees. After this 
 time, and down to the destruction of Jerusalem 
 by Titus, A.D. 70, the nation was so affected by 
 Greek customs, and divided by the growing rival 
 parties, the Pharisees and Sadducees, that its 
 religious development was too much hindered 
 for any work to receive universal recognition, 
 and hence canonicity. Not long after the Macca- 
 bees, the second collection or canon I'eceived its 
 name, the Prophets, descriptive not only of a 
 portion of its contents, but of their authorship; 
 and thus the three divisions of the Old- Testament 
 canon — the I^aw, Prophets, and Hagiographa ^ — • 
 d;ited from the second century B.C. See the Pro- 
 logue to Ecclesiasticus. 
 
 Witnesses for the Second and Third Parts of the 
 Ca»o«. — ( For those for the Pentateuch see section 
 (rf) 1.) Jesus Sirach shows acquaintance only 
 with the Prophets in the wider sense, the "second 
 canon," chaps, xlvi.-xlix., especially xlix. 10. 
 llis grandson testifies to the third division also. 
 
 Pliilo had the same canon as ours (see C. Sieg- 
 fried, Philo, ,Jeua, 1875, p. 101), and quotes from 
 almost all the books; while from the Apocrypha 
 he makes no excerpts or citation, not giving it 
 the honor he accords to Plato, Hippocrates, and 
 several other Greek writers.' 
 
 Second Maccabees, dating from before 70 A.D., 
 in the spurious .section (i. 10-ii. 18) contains an 
 account of the recovery of the sacred fire, a quo- 
 tation from the "records" of Jeremiah (a lost 
 apocryphal writing); .and then follows ii. 13: 
 " Ami tlie same tilings also were reported in the 
 records, namely, the memoirs of Nehemiah [.an- 
 other apocryphal writing], an(l how he, fcuniding 
 a library, gathered together the books concerning 
 the kings an<l prophets, and those of David, and 
 epistles of kings concerning holy gifts." This 
 
 '[P. C. l.iicius, DIf Thrrnpmtni u. i/ire Stetltmg In der 
 Ankeufi, Slr«s8buri(. 1380, lin« proved tliat tin' IM vita cotttfm- 
 pldliva w:iH not willlcn by I'lillo, anil ciiiiBcqiKiUly Ihi- clusalc 
 I)ii..*.i!ii;L' — "In every lioviwe there in a Haered nlirinc, which la 
 e.-iMed the holy place, anil Ihe monuMlery in wliieli they [tho 
 'riiernpenltcMl retire by theniBelvei*, and perform all the myH. 
 lerieH v)(' a holy life . . . studyinir in tliat jdaee tlu- laws and 
 the in^pned «iird» thronirh Ihe proplulB and hymns and the 
 other |wrlllni(»], bv which linowled«e anil jiiety are increnned 
 and perfected" ( /> rilil contrmjil. § 3), which id the only di. 
 rect reference to tlie threefold divi«ion of llic canon found in 
 I'liilo'ti workw (yemiine iillU pretended) — mUBt be Ktven iip,J
 
 CANON. 
 
 387 
 
 CANON. 
 
 verse bears reliable witness to Nehemiah's collec- 
 tion of the second canon substantially as we 
 have it to-day. in addition to the Psalms and the 
 documents so weighty for the rebuilt city. 'J'he 
 next verse, " And in like manner also .ludas gath- 
 ered together all those books that had been scat- 
 tered by reason of the war we had, and they 
 are with us," applies only to the third canon. 
 Therefore the last enlargement of the Hebrew 
 canon took pl.aco under .Judas Maccabee ; altiiougli 
 probably the most of the books of the third canon 
 had previously been preserved in the temple 
 archives. 
 
 Tlw New Testament contains quotations princi- 
 pally from the Pentateuch, Prophets, ami Psalms, 
 as might be conjectured from its scope, but recog- 
 nizes the threefold division of the canon (Luke 
 xxiv. 44). (In this verse " the Psalms" does not 
 stand for the entire Hagiographa; for our Lord 
 meant to emphasize the fact that the Psalms 
 spoke of him.) The absence of quotation in the 
 New Testament of any Old Testament book ar- 
 gues nothing against its canonicity. 
 
 Josephus, in his book Aijainsl Apion, \. 8, bears 
 the strongest testimony for the canon,' and, as is 
 evident, expresses the national, and not his pri- 
 vate opinion. And, further, the books mentioned 
 are not mere literature, but a sacred, divine col- 
 lection. He enumerates twenty-two books; thus, 
 1. The five boolcs of the Law; 2. The thirteen 
 Prophets, counting the twelve minor Prophets as 
 one book, and Lamentations with Jeremiah; 3. 
 The four Hagiographa, — Psalms, Proverbs, Ec- 
 clesiastes, and Canticles. But this arrangement 
 is not to be looked upon as either old or correct. 
 
 Siipposeit Jewish Dissent from the Canon. — This 
 dissent is not real, only apparent; but appeal 
 has been made, Jirst to the Talmudical contro- 
 versies about certain books, e.g., Esther: on 
 further examination these "controversies" are 
 perceived to be mere intellectual displays; there 
 is no intention of rejecting any book. Second, 
 the Book of Sirach, it is said, is quoted as Scrip- 
 ture ; but there is no proof that it was regarded 
 as Scripture, and the two or three quotations are 
 memoriter, and probably made under a misappre- 
 hension of their source. Third, the Septuagint is 
 supposed by .some to show that the Alexandrian 
 Jews had a different canon from the Palestinian, 
 because books are added to the canonical twenty- 
 four; but this does not follow. Eor first the 
 Palestinian idea of a canon (namely, the compo- 
 sitions of inspired prophets, a class of men not 
 then existent) was not known in Alexandria, 
 where, on the contrary, the statement of Wisdom 
 (vii. 27), "[Wisdom] from generation to genera- 
 tion entering into holy souls, prepares them 
 friends of God and prophets," was fully believed, 
 as by Philo (cf. Quis ser. din. hcer. § 52, de Cheru- 
 bim, § 9, and de prcem. el poen. § 19) and Jo- 
 sephus {War, I. 3, 5; II. 8, 12; IH. 8, 3, 9), who 
 
 *[This passage in condensed form is as follows : " Wo have 
 twenty-lwo books containing the records of all the past times, 
 and justly believed to be inspired. Five of them are Moses'. 
 These contain his laws and the traditions of the origin of man- 
 kind till his death. From Moses to .\rtaxcrxes the prophets 
 made the record in thirteen books. The remaining four books 
 contain hymns to God, and precepts for the conduct of human 
 life. The history written since that day, though accurate, 
 is not so much esteemed, because there has not been an exact 
 succession of prophets. No one dares add to, take from, or 
 alter them; but all Jews esteem these books to contain divine 
 doctrines, and are willing to tiie for them."] 
 
 even declared that they themselves had been at 
 times really inspireil, and freely accorded the 
 fact unto others. Therefore, to an Alexandrian 
 Jew, there was no impropriety in enlai'ging the 
 Greek transLation of tlie Old Tcstami'nt, not only 
 by additions of sections to the canonical books, 
 but of entirely new l)ooks. The great resjiect 
 entertained for the Septuagint was extended to 
 these additions, but without giving the latter :iny 
 canonical authority. There was no Alexandrian 
 canon; for neither the number nor the order of 
 the books added was fixed. Besides, I'hilo, who 
 was doubtless a tyjie, proves, by the fact that he 
 never uses the Apocrypha in the same way as 
 the canonical books, that the Alexandrian jews 
 made a distinction between them. 
 
 The Triplex JJioision of the Hebrew Canon is 
 testified to by the prologue to Sirach and the 
 New Testament (Luke xxiv. 44). The .Seventy 
 gave up this division in favor of a different 
 (namely, the present Christian) arrangiincnt of 
 the books, and inserted the apocryphal books and 
 sections in appropriate places. 
 
 7'Ae Order of the Books in the Hebrew Canon [is 
 as follows: 1. Law, — the five books of Moses; 
 2. Prophets, — Joshua, Judges, First and Second 
 Samuel, First and .Second Kings, Isaiah, Jere- 
 miah, Ezekiel, the twelve minor Prophets; 3. 
 Haf/iof/rapha, — Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Canticles, 
 Kuth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Estiier, Daniel, 
 Ezra and Nehemiah, Chronicles, in all, twenty- 
 four books]. 
 
 The Number of the Canonical Books. — Jewish 
 tradition, except when influenced by Ab'xandria, 
 unanimously gives tlie number as twenty-four. 
 Nevertheless, it is usual to say that the original 
 reckoning was twenty-two. If, however, the 
 witnesses for the latter number be not counted, 
 but weighed, it is plain that the authority they 
 rest upon is Alexandrian; and this is worthless 
 for getting at the primitive reckoning, because 
 the Alexandrian Jews altered, not only the order 
 and division of the books, but added to them 
 others not in the canon. But how did the Alex- 
 andrians arrive at the number twenty-two ? By 
 joining Kuth to Judges, and Lamentations to 
 Jeremiah. Having thus made twc-nty-two, they 
 were impressed with its numerical agreement 
 with the number of letters in the Hebrew alpha- 
 bet. This idea was thought significant, jiart of 
 the divine intention indeed; and so it became 
 fixed in the Jewish mind. The Fathers took it 
 up in their uncritical fashion; and so it has come 
 down to our day. Josephus first gives twenty- 
 two ; but he makes greater use of the S"ptuagint 
 than of the Hebrew original. It is noteworthy 
 that Epiphanius and Jerome, who reckon the 
 books twenty-two, mention also twenty-seven ; 
 i.e., the Hebrew twenty-two letters, with the five 
 final letters ; made by separating the double 
 books, Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, and Ezra. 
 But this double counting was onhj possible for 
 Jews using the Septuagint, since the original does 
 not divide these books. Further : neither in the 
 Talmud nor in the Midrash is there the least trace 
 of any acquaintance with the number twenty-two; 
 but, on the contrary, twenty-four is always given, 
 not because it corresponds with the twenty-four 
 Greek letters, but simply as the natural result of 
 the gradual rise of the canon. In the present
 
 CANON. 
 
 383 
 
 CANON. 
 
 printed Hebrew Bible the number is tliirty-nine, 
 similarly counted, tliough not arranged, with 
 those of Protestant Bibles. 
 
 II. The Oi.d-Tkstamext Canon in the 
 Chkistiax Church. 1. The Palrklic ami Miil- 
 ilte-Ai/e IlViVers. — No Father has impugned the 
 authority of the Old Testament : but, because of 
 the universal use of the Septuagint, they recog- 
 nized as Scripture what we regard as Apocrypha. 
 Since the fourth century tlie Greek Fathers 
 make less and less use of the Apocrypha: while 
 in the Latin Church counciliar action justified 
 and emjihasized their use. .lerome alone speaks 
 out decidedly for the Hebrew canon. During 
 tlie middle age tlie Apocrypha were not recog- 
 nized by the majority of tlie Greeks: while just 
 the opposite was true of the Latins, although not 
 a few followed Jerome. 
 
 Tlie Book of Esther, because of its curious 
 contents, was sometimes excluded from the Chris- 
 tian Old Testament Canon. Melito of Sardis 
 (about 170 A.D.) omits it from his list (see 
 Kusebius, H. E., IV. 26), although perhaps it has 
 ratlier dropped out after Et.dras (Ezra), inasmuch 
 as in other lists it conies next to this name. It 
 is also omitted by Athan.asius (^EpUlida Fcxialix, 
 I. 961, ed. Bened.), Gregory of Xazianzum (Cann. 
 XXXIIi.), and in the sixth century by Junilius 
 (De Parlihus Legis Dlvince, I. 3-7). On the other 
 liand, it is included in the canon by Origen, Cyril i 
 of Jerusalem, and Epiphanius. 
 
 2. The Ancient Oriental Version-^. — The old 
 Syrian Church did not receive the Apocrypha. 
 They are not in the Peshito, although found in 
 a later Syriac translation. Eiihraem Syrus (d. 
 373) does not give them canonical authority. 
 Aphraates (fourth century) cites from no apoc- 
 ryphal, but from every canonical book. [Sasse, 
 Proleijiimi'ita in Apltraalis Sapientis J'ersce Sermones 
 Homilelieos (Lips , 1879), p. 40, says Aphraates 
 had knowledge of First and Second Maccabees.] 
 A great difference is perceptible iu tlie Peshito 
 translation between the Chronicles and that of 
 the other books. This has started the query 
 whether the Chronicles were accepted as canonical 
 by the Syrian Church. The Nestorians certainly 
 rejected it. The Ethiopic translation follows 
 tiiroughout the Septuagint, and contains, not only 
 the canonical, but also the apocryphal books, 
 except that for First and Second Maccabees it 
 substitutes two books of its own under the same 
 name, and some pseudepigraphs of which the 
 Greek texts do not now exist; for the Ethiopic 
 Church makes even less difference than the .Alex- 
 andrian between canonical and uncanonieal books. 
 
 [See PSEUDEI'IGKAI'IIS OF THE Ol,l> TeSTA- 
 MENTJ 
 
 3. The Roman Church is committed to the use 
 of the Apocrypha as Scripture by the decision of 
 the Council of Trent at the fourth session. In 
 order to get a normal text for jiurposes of quota- 
 tion, a Bible was ]iubli.slied in Rome in 1;j92 
 under the orders and care of the Pope. In it 
 Jerome's remark, that the additions to Esther and 
 Daniel which are printed are not in the Hebrew 
 text, is given; ;ind in smaller type the candid 
 aniiounc('ment is prefaci'd to the juayer of Ma- 
 liasses and the Third and Fourth Books of Ezra, 
 that, while it is true they are not in the Scripture 
 canon of the Council of Trent, they are still 
 
 included because they are quoted occasionally 
 by certain nf the Fathers, and are found both 
 in printed and manuscript copies of the Latin 
 Bible. The decree of the council w.as not passed 
 without opposition; and later Roman Catholics, 
 such as I)u Pin, Dixserl. prelim, sur le Bible, Paris, 
 1, 1; B. Lamy, App. liihl. 2, 5, and Jahn, Einl. 
 in d. <i<illUch.'li.B. d. Allen Bimdes, i. 119. 132, 
 140-143. have endeavored to establish two classes 
 of canonical books, — the proto-canonical and the 
 deutero-canoiiical, — .attributing to the first a dog- 
 matic, and to the second only an ethical authority; 
 but this distinction evidently contravenes the de- 
 cision of Trent, and lias found little support. 
 
 4. The Greek Church. The synods of Constan- 
 tinople (1638). Jas.sy (1642), <and .lerusalein 
 (1'672). expressly reject the view of Cyril Lucar, 
 Patriarch of Constantinople, and others, which 
 distinguishes the canonical from the apocryphal. 
 And the last, which is the most important in the 
 modern history of the Eastern Church, defined its 
 position in regard to the Apocrypha in the an- 
 swer to the third question .appended to the Con- 
 fexxion t)/ Dosilheus, in which it expressly mentions 
 Wisdom, .ludlth, Tobit, History of the Dragon, 
 History of Susannah, the Maccabees (four books 
 of), and Ecclesiasticus, as canonical. But the 
 longer Catechit^tn of the Orthodox Catholic Eaalern 
 Church (Moscow, 1839), the most authoritative 
 doctrinal standard of the orthodox Gi'ieco-Riis- 
 siaii Church, expre.^sly leaves out the apocryphal 
 books from its list on the ground that "they do 
 not exist in the Hebrew." [See .SchaS, Creeds 
 of Christendom, vol. II. p. 451.] 
 
 5. The Protestant Church. — 'Plie Lutheran sym- 
 bols do not give any ex]iress declaration against 
 the .\pocryi'lia. JCevertheless they are denied 
 dogmatic value. Luther translated them, and 
 recommended them for private rea<ling. With 
 this agrees the decisions of the other Reformed 
 churches: the Gallic Cnnfe.vsions, 1'm9, §§ 3, 4; 
 Belf/ic Conj'e.'ssion, l.'iOl, §§ 4-6; Thirlij-nine Arti- 
 cles of Helii;ion of the Church of' England, l.')fi2, 
 § 6. [See Schaff, Creeds of Christendmn, vol. II I.] 
 The Jiool: of Common Prayer contains readings 
 from the Apocrypha, and espi'cial recommenil.a- 
 tion of portions of Wisdom and Sirach. . — At tin- 
 Synod of Dort (1618), Gomarus and others raised 
 an animated di.scussion by demanding the exclu- 
 sion of the apocryphal Esdras, Tobit, .ludith, and 
 Bi'l and the Dragon from the Bible. This the 
 synod refuseil to do, although speaking strongly 
 against the Apocrypha. Simil.arly opposed to them 
 was the Westminster A.sseml)ly of Divines, 1647, 
 Confession of Faith, c. L §3; the Armini.ans, Cou- 
 
 fessio . . . I'asloruin, qui . . . Jiemonslranlcs vocan- 
 lur, I. 3,0; the Socinians (O.storodt, Unlerrichlunt) 
 von den rornelimsten Ifauplpunckten der christlichen 
 Religion, Rakau, 1604) .and the Mennonites (Jo- 
 hann Ris, Pneci/auirum (^hristiaua: Fiilei Arlicu- 
 lorum Precis (.\)7if'rssio, c. 29) agree with the other 
 Protestants. For history of the relation of the 
 Bible societies to the Apocrypha, see Binr.K 
 .SocrKTiES. For the Apocrypha in general, see 
 Apocrypha. 
 
 Lit. — (No completeness is attempted in this 
 list ; only the more serviceable works are named.) 
 J. H. lIoTTiNC.Eit: Thesaurus Philologicus sen 
 Clavi.i .^criptunc, Tiguri, 164!), ed. 2, 1659, 4to; 
 HuMl'UKEY IIoDY: De BiOliurum 'Textibus Oriyi-
 
 CANON. 
 
 389 
 
 CANON. 
 
 nalihus libri II'., Oxonii, 1705, fol. (the section 
 De Librurum liihliroriim Nutiwrii ac Online shows 
 in one liumlred and thirty-hve columns in what 
 different ways the books liave been arrani,'ed and 
 nninbered by Jews and Cliristians, botli in manii- 
 scri|it and [irint. J. Ciiit. Woi.k, in vol. 11. of 
 his Bili/iolluca Hchrn'd, has rejuiblished the lirst 
 fifty-one columns) ; J. II. Lkidkn-fiiost : Diascr- 
 talio (jua Ndiitina, A'umerus, Diritio ct Urdu L'thri>- 
 rum Sacroruin ('. T. sinluntur, prveaitle. Vlir. B. 
 Michaelix, Halle, 1743; J. S. Semlkk : Ahhand- 
 luiu/ von freier Untersuchunij ties Krinoii, Halle, 
 1771-1775, 4 parts ; J. P. A.' Mim.lku : Be/t/irun;/ 
 vuiii Kanon ties A. T., Leipzig, 1771; C. F. 
 Schmid: Hiiloria Aniiij. ct Vindiialio Canonis 
 Sacri Veteris Noeujue Test., Leipzig, 1775, 2 vols, 
 (shows great diligence in gathering materials, 
 but too much partiality for Joseiihus); IIkin- 
 iticil ConuoiJi : Versuck c'mer Beleuchliiii;/ der 
 (j'esc/iic/ile dc.t judifchen u. cliristUcIien JJiheltanoiis, 
 Halle, 1702, 2 vols. ; F. C. Movkks : Luci iimdiim 
 JlislorUe V. T. illustrati, Breslau, 1842; L. Hi;kz- 
 FKLD : Oe.icliirhte des Vulkcs Israel vun Zerstiiruny 
 lies erslcn Tempels, Nordhausen, 1S57 (2d vol.); 
 IL EWAI.D : Geschiehie des Volkes Isriiel (3ded.), 
 vol. 7, Gottingen, 1808; L. Dikstkl: Gesckidde 
 des A. T. in der clirisllichen Kirche, Jena, ISliO ; 
 AliUAHAM Gkiger: Nachgetassene Sckri/len, in 
 4th vol., Elideilung in die biblisclien Scliriflen, 
 Herlin, 1870. [W. Roiseutson Smith : The Old 
 7'eslamenl in the Jewish Church, Xew York, 1881 ; 
 E. Rkuss : Die Geschiehie d. heil. Schrift. A. T., 
 IJraunschvveig, 1881 ; also Introductions by Eleek 
 and IIoKNE, 14th edition]. II. L. STRACIC. 
 
 CANON OFTHENEWTESTAMENT.i— Christ 
 and the apostles, and, following their examjile, 
 tlie early Church, used the Old Testament as the 
 word of God ; but the formation of the New 
 Testament was relatively late in its origin, and 
 slow in its progress. Decades passed before the 
 Christian Church tliought of collecting the apos- 
 tolic writings, and yet longer time before they 
 gave them canonical authority. The Cliurch had 
 the Old Testament, and could trust to verbal 
 testimony for its knowledge of Christ. But very 
 early in its history a literature which is now pre- 
 served in our New Testament did obtain cur- 
 rency. The explanation lies in the authority of 
 tlie writers, the pains they took to guard against 
 forgery (2 Thess ii. 2, iii. 17), the reipiested 
 reading of the letters in the church (1 Thess. v. 
 27), the circulation of these letters from chui'ch 
 to church (Col. iv. 10); and, finally, the charac- 
 ter of the writings themselves which demanded 
 currency; e.g., the Synoptic Gospels were designed 
 for the Jews ; that of John, for believers generally 
 (John XX. 31) ; and the Catholic Epistles, for the 
 whole Church. It is evident their end would 
 not be attained without a wide circulation. One 
 trace of the use by one writer of another is 2 Pet. 
 iii. 10. It was not, however, to be expected that 
 a collection of these apostolic writings woidd be 
 made in their day. Since the fall of Jerusalem, 
 there was no favorable place for depositing such 
 a collection, if made ; nor was there any demand 
 for one. It is probable that the wide-spread ex- 
 pectancy of the end of the world, joined to the 
 
 ^[The writings of tlie Antc-Niccne Fathers, constrxntly re- 
 ferred to in tills article, will be fonnd translated in the Ante- 
 ^Hceiie Cl^Hstian Library, Kdiu., 1867-71, 24 vols.] 
 
 fact that tlie apostles were yet with them, drove 
 all such itleas out of tlicnr minds. 
 
 The ArosToi.ic Fatheus will naturally bo 
 turned to first in proof of the existence of a 
 canon ; but while very many of their expressions 
 can be paralleled in the New Testament, ami 
 sentences of Jesus are (pioted, yet the impression 
 left on the mind is ratlier that they drew from 
 the fountain-head of tradition, and possessed 
 written (iosjiels now perishijd, and other sources 
 of knowledge closed to us, than that they re- 
 garded any nninber of wiitiugs as of paramount 
 canonical authority. It is indeetl true that it is 
 easier to quote this early )iatristic support for the 
 Epistles than for the (jospels ; for Ci.emk.s.s 
 Roman us, writing to the Corinthians (c. 17, cf. 
 1 Cor. i. 10 S(iq.), Ion ATI us to the EphesianH 
 (c. 12, cf. Eph. vi. 18), and PoLYCAur to the 
 i'hilip/iians (c. 3, cf. Phil. iii. 1), mention the 
 Epistles of Paul to those churches respectively. 
 The quotations from the New Testament are 
 fewer than from the Old Testament ; and, while 
 the quotations from the Old Testament are gen- 
 erally introduced l>y "Tlie Scripture saith," "The 
 Holy Spirit saith," or " The Holy Word speaks," 
 those from the New have, for the most part, no 
 such introduction. We conclude, therefore, that, 
 to the Apostolic Fathers, the New Testament had 
 not attained canonical authority. To this con- 
 clusion the testimony of Papias leads us. See 
 Eusebius, II. E., III. 39.'^ Papias wrote five 
 books entitled Interpretations of our Lord's Decla- 
 rations. In them he recorded not oidy the oral 
 tradition, but also what he had read. How far 
 his actpiaintauce with the written Gospels ex- 
 tended is not clearly expressed ; but there is 
 explicit information given regarding Matthew 
 and Mark, and his acquaintance with Luke is 
 fairly conjectured from the similarity of his 
 preface (not given below) to that of Luke's. 
 His silence about John proves neither his igno- 
 rance of that Gospel nor his disbelief in it. Eu- 
 sebius also says that Papias " made use of testi- 
 monies from the First Epistle of John, and 
 likewise from that of Peter." AVhat Papias says 
 of Mark jmts the latter in silent yet evident con- 
 trast to the other evangelists, who were both eye 
 and ear witnesses to Christ. We have a right to 
 assert that Papias was acquainted with our four 
 evangelists, and drew from them, and not from 
 apocryplial sources, joined to oral tradition, his 
 knowledge of the gospel. 
 
 The next witness is Justin Mabtyk, whose 
 First Apolotpj (before 100) was quickly followed 
 by the Second, in both of which, as in his Dia- 
 logue tcith Trypho, he frequently speaks of and 
 quotes from the Ulemoirs of the apostles ; thus, 
 Apoloijy I. 60, " The apostles, in the memoirs 
 composed by them, which are called Gospels," 
 Dialoijue 103, " The memoirs which were drawn 
 
 2["And John the Presbyter also said this, Mark being tho 
 interpreter of Peter, whatsoever he recorded he wrote with 
 great accuracy, but not, bowevei', in the order in which it was 
 spoken or done by our Lord, for he neither beard nor followed 
 our Lord; but, as before saitl, he was in company with Peter, 
 who gave him such instruction as was necessary, but not to 
 give a histoi-y of our Lord's discourses. Wherefore. Mark 
 has not erred in any thing by writing some things as he has 
 recorded them ; for he was carefully attentive to one thing,— 
 not to pass by any thing that he heard, or to state any thing 
 falsely in these accounts." " Matthew composed his history in 
 the Hebrew dialect, and every one translated it as he was able."
 
 CANON. 
 
 890 
 
 CANON. 
 
 up by his apostles and those who followed them." 
 These '■ memoirs " are doubtless our present Gos- 
 pels. The references to Matthew and Luke are 
 easiest recognized. Mark is called the " memoir 
 of Peter" (Dial. lOG). Tlia influence of John's 
 Gospel is seen, not so much in quotation as in the 
 style of arijuraentation and expression. See 
 Luthardt, Dcr jnh. Ur.iprunt/. pp. 63 sqq. [Eug. 
 U:ins, St. John, the Author o/ the Fourth Gospel, 
 Kdin., 1875. See Anuor: The Authorship of the 
 Fourth Gospel, Boston, 1880.] Justin refers to 
 the Apocalypse {Dial. 81) and to the Pauline 
 Epistles as the authoritative writings of Chris- 
 tians (Apol. I. 28), and further, tliat the '■ memoirs 
 of the apostles " were read in their weekly meet- 
 ings witii tlie same frequency and solemnity as 
 the writings of the prophets (I. 67). Thus .Justin 
 gives us certain knowledge of a veritable canon 
 of the New Testament. Some of our present 
 canon must have been already collected and recog- 
 nized as authoritative Christian literature. Ta- 
 riAN, the scholar of Justin, made a Diatessaron, 
 "a gospel by the four" (P2us., //. E. IV. 29). 
 and therefore must have u.sed John's Gospel. It 
 seems to have been in the interests of Gnosticism, 
 and is therefore really all the higher testimony 
 to tlie position of these writings. We are hence 
 justified in saying that by the end of the second 
 century the canonical Gospels were in common 
 use as sources of the life of Jesus. The apos- 
 tolic Epistles were not, however, as yet collected. 
 Paul's were probably gathered first. Athexago- 
 UAS (d. about 200) grounds his argument for the 
 resurrection of the dead upon words of the Epis- 
 tles to the Corinthians (De Itesun:, 16, cf. 1 Cor. 
 XV. 53, 2 Cor. v. 10); and Tueophilus (d. about 
 188) quotes Rom. xiii. 7 sq., 1 Tim. ii. 2, Tit. 
 iii. 1, with the formulas, "the holy word exhorts 
 us," or " teaches us ; " and to do this was to put 
 the apostolic upon the level of the Old Testament 
 writings. 
 
 The rise and spread of heresy, especially Gnos- 
 ticism, was largely instrumental iu deepening 
 the authority of the New Testament in the 
 Church; for she found in it the dam to check 
 the flood of error. The heretics in their own 
 interest corrujited the New Testament, or gave it 
 false interpretations, and even forged books in the 
 name of apostles. Marcio.v of .Sinope, the (inos- 
 tic (fl. about 110), made a collection of apostolic 
 writings, in whicli he included one Gospel, and 
 ten Pauline Epistles, in this order: Galatians, 
 First and Second Corinthians, Romans, First and 
 Second Thessalonians, Colossiaus, Philemon, 
 Philippians, Lnodicewus, (Epijjh., Il<rr. XLll. !»). 
 This Gosjiel did not exurtUj harmonize with any 
 one of ours, but approached nearest to Luke, 
 liutoutsiile of .Marcion's circle, Hasii.idks (about 
 130) made \i.se of some (iospel ; but we an! not 
 sufficiently informed to pronounce decisively that 
 it was one of our four. Similarly the (Jphite 
 references [to Matthew, Lnki", .lohn, Ronnins, 
 First and .Second Corintliiatis, (ialatians, Ephe- 
 sians, and Hebrews] cannot be adduced in jiroof 
 of their use of the New Testami-nt, because we 
 do not know the primitive shape of their teach- 
 ing. The position of the New Testament in 
 another Gnostic set, the Valentinians, is much 
 clearer; for, of the pupils of ^'aleMtirlUs, llerac- 
 leoii wrote a commentary upon .lohn (about 160), 
 
 of which fragments have been preserved by Clem- 
 ent of Alexandria and Origen ; and Ptolemy cites 
 the fourth Gospel as from John the apostle. 
 Valentinus himself seems to have made a gospel- 
 harmony : at all eventfs, he and his followers 
 were well acquainted with the Gospel of John 
 (Irenaeus, Adv. Hter. IIP 11, 7). See Heinrici : 
 Die valentinianische Gnosis u. die heiline Schrift, 
 Berlin, 1871. 
 
 Iren'jEus, Bishop of Lyons (177-202), is the 
 next witness, exhibiting the Gallic view of the 
 canon at the close of the second century. He 
 quotes all the books of the New Testament save 
 Philemon, Second Peter, and Jude. He shows 
 special knowledge of the history of our Gospels, 
 and emphasizes their unity and unshakable po- 
 sition ; denies ecclesiastical authority to HebreifS, 
 but looks upon the New Testament as the pillar 
 and ground of the faith {Adv. liter. III. 11) ; says 
 that both the Old and New Testaments proceed 
 from the same Spirit (IIP 21); but, it should be 
 added, he puts equal stress upon tradition (HI. 
 4, 2), and expressly cites the Pastor of Hernias 
 as "scripture" (IV. 20, 2). Clement ok Ai.ex- 
 an'dkia (d. about 220), a little later, is witness 
 to the use of the Alexandrian Church. He uses 
 all the canon of Irena;us, and, besides, the two 
 omitted Catholic Epistles; considers Paul to 
 have been the author of Hebretvs, and Lidje its 
 translator (Euseb., //. E. VI. 14) ; assigns to the 
 " Gospels," as he calls our New Testament, an 
 equal position with the Law and the Prophets 
 (Clem. .\lex., Strom. IV. 1, § 2), but nevertheless 
 does not seem to have fixed ideas in regard to a 
 canon ; for he lays great emphasis upon an un- 
 written saying of Jesus, and the Epistle of Barna- 
 bas {Strom. 6). Tektullian is the contemporary 
 witness for Proconsular Africa (See Rbnsch, Das 
 Neue Testament Terlullians, Leipzig, 1871). He 
 shows no acquaintance with Second Peter, Second 
 and Third John, ascribes Hebrews to Barnabas 
 {Dc Pudic. c. 20), and, along with First Peter and 
 Jude, considers it an appendix to the apostolic 
 writings, and, before his conversion to Montanism, 
 quoted as Scripture the Pastor of Hernias {lb. 
 c. 10). With these six exceptions, he makes 
 cojiious use of the New Testament. 
 
 The Peshiio, the Syrian Bible version (.see 
 Biiii.E Versions), surely not later than the be- 
 ginning of the third century, contains the four 
 Gospels, the Acts, Epistles of Jame.s, First Peter, 
 First John, and fourteen Pauline Epistles (i.e., it 
 includ('s Hebrews, whose apostolicity and full 
 canonicity wer(! afterwards denied), but leaves 
 out Second Peler, Second and Third John, Jude, 
 and Jiertldlion. This, then, was at that time the 
 canon of that part of the Church. 
 
 The Mikatokian Fragment, so called be- 
 cause discovered by IMunitori (published 1740) 
 in the Ambrosian Library at Milan, in a inanu- 
 scrii)t of the eighth or ninth century, originally be- 
 longed to Cohimban's gieat nionastery at Bobbio, 
 ri'peatedly published and investigated [.see Mi;ra- 
 torian Fragment, Tregelle.s, Canon Miiralo- 
 rianus, London, 1868, and Westcott, CaiKni of the 
 ^^'ew Testament, London, bSSl]; and was probably 
 originally writt^'n in Latin, is surely of Occi- 
 dental origin, dates from the last quarter of the 
 second century, but of unknown authorshij). 
 'ihe fragineutisL draws a shai]) line between the
 
 CANON. 
 
 391 
 
 CANON. 
 
 fully and the only partially received writings. 
 The list iiicliules tlie four Gospels, Acts, tliirt('<;n 
 EpistUrs of I'aul, First .lolin, Second .John, .hide 
 (although, in the judgment of llw, compiler, the 
 hust two Kpistles had as little right to their nanicis 
 as Wisdom to that of .Solomon), and Kevelation 
 of John aixl that of I'eter (not for ]mMic read- 
 ing) ; excludes Ilebrenv, Jamen, First and SeconiJ 
 Peler, Third John. The compiler also declares 
 tliat the Pastor of Hennas was for private reading 
 only. 
 
 From the preceding statements it follows, that, 
 at the close of the second century, oui' present 
 New Testament was completed, and in parts had 
 received the unanimous indorsement of the 
 Church ; but, as there was no agreement as to 
 certain books, there was no canon in a universal 
 sense. Passing over to the third century, the 
 first, and uncpiestionahly the most learned, scholar 
 to be examined is Ouigk.v (18,'>-254). See Euse- 
 bius, //. /?. VI. 25. This testimony is import.ant; 
 for he had the best information, deri\'ed from 
 inen, books, and travel. At the same time he 
 was, according to his own confession, determined 
 to follow the Church's tradition, and hence his 
 list is really that of the Church as he knew it. 
 lie puts first " the four Gospels, which, as I ha\'e 
 understood from tradition, are the only undis- 
 puted ones in the whole Church of God through- 
 out the world." He knows of those of the He- 
 brews, of the Egy])tians, and of Peter; but he 
 rejects them. To the Gospels he adds the Acts 
 (whose author he asserts was surely Jjuke), and 
 the Epistles of Paul (fourteen, although he con- 
 siders Ildirews only Paul's in doctrine), Peter, and 
 tJohii. James and Jude are omitted purposely; 
 but elsewhere he calls James a "holy Epistle." 
 Jude he cites, although he acknowledges that its 
 genuineness was questioned. The Apocalypse 
 hi accepts as canonical. But Origen apparently 
 places on a level with these writings the I'astnr of 
 Ilermas and the Epistle of Barnabas and the First 
 Epistle of Clement. 
 
 The memorable canon of Eusebius, the church- 
 historian (265-340), given in H. E. III. 25, is as 
 follows: 1. 'OfioTLoyov/ina (confessedli/ f/enuine), the 
 four Gospels, Acts, Epistles of Paul (number not 
 stated). First .John, First Peter, and t'lye i^avdii 
 ("if it .seems right"), the Revelation of John; 2. 
 ' KvTLkcyuiitva (^spoken a/jainst), " although they are 
 well known, and approved by many," Epistle of 
 James and Jude, Second Peter, Second and Third 
 John; 3. J^'iUa (spurious), tiie Acts of Paul, Pastor 
 of Ilermas, the Rerelation of Peler, Epistle of Bar- 
 nabas, Institutions of the Apostles, and, " if the opin- 
 ion appears correct, the Revelation of John, which 
 some reject, but others rank among the genuine." ' 
 
 ' [As tlie rcmnrks of Eusebius which follow the above nre 
 very important, we give tbcni in full: "But there are also 
 aonio wlio number amonif these the * Gospel according to the 
 Hebrews,' witli whicli those of the Hebrews that have received 
 Christ are particularly delighted. These may be said to be all 
 concerning which there is any dispute. We have, however, 
 necessarily subjoined here a catalogue of these also, in order 
 to distinguish those that are true, genuine, and well authenti- 
 cated writings, from those others which are not only not em- 
 bodied in the canon, but likewise disputed, notwithstanding 
 that they are recognized by most ecclesiastical writers. Thus 
 we may have it in our power to know both these, and those 
 that are adduced by the heretics under the name of the apos- 
 tles ; such, viz., as compose the 'Gospels' of Peter, Thomas, 
 and Matthew, and others beside them ; or such as contain the 
 ' Acts of the Apostles,' by Andrew and John and others, of 
 which no one of those writers iu the eeclesiastjcal succession 
 
 In this section Euseliius hesitatingly pronounce.s 
 judgment in favor of Ilebretcs, which he reckons 
 among Paul's F^pistles (cf. II. E. III. 3) and Ilcve- 
 lation. 
 
 Ry the close of the fourth century tlu! doubts 
 which had rested upon certain liooks of the New 
 Testament have vanished. Atiianasius of Alex- 
 andria, who first uses " canon " in our sense (d. 
 373), Cyitii, of Jerusalem (d. 380), (JitKcoitY of 
 Nazianzum (d. 38!)), and ICi'ieiiAxirs, Pishoj) of 
 Salamis (d. 403), have left catalogues of the New 
 Testament, which agree in granting to the dis- 
 jiiited Catholic Epistles an etpial place with the 
 undisputed; noticeable is also tlu^ unquestioning 
 reception of Hebrews. The sixtieth canon of the 
 Council of Eaodicea (360) gives th(^ list of the 
 present New Testament (but uo apocry) ihal 1 lOoks), 
 with the exception of Revelation, and thus voices 
 the decision of the Eastern (-.'laiL-ch of the fourth 
 century in regard to the New Testament canon. 
 
 The AVestern Church also at this time had 
 settled upon ii canon. There is little dilference 
 between the lists; and what one omits another 
 restores. Thus IIii.ahy of Poitiers (<1. 3G8) 
 leaves out the five Catholic Epistles , but Piiir..\s- 
 Tiuus (d. 387) and Rufinus (d. 410) insert 
 them. So Ambrosk (d. 379) nund)ers Hebrews 
 among P.aul's Epistles, and the Apocalypse is 
 universally accepted as apostolic and canonical. 
 The decisive judgment came from Jekomk (d. 
 420) and Augustine (d. 430). Yet Jerome, 
 while, out of respect to tradition, including in 
 his canon the disputed Epistles, acknowledged 
 that they had been often put aside. Augustine 
 was much more influenced by the voice of tradi- 
 tion. The synods were also in substantial agree- 
 ment upon the canon. Thus that of Hippo Regius 
 in Numidia (393), while Augustine was a presby- 
 ter there, in its thirty-si.xth canon gives the list as 
 now received: so Carthage (397 and 419), and so 
 Bishop Gelasius in the decree prepared by a 
 Roman synod (495), which decree fixed the order 
 in which the books of the New Testament at 
 present stand. 
 
 By 397 the canon of the New Testament was 
 established; but the canonicity of certain books 
 was still occasionally questioned, nor is there 
 wanting individual cases of their rejection. 
 Thus Chrysostom (d. 407) ignores the lOpistles 
 of Jude, Second Peter, Second and Third John. 
 and the Apocalypse. But these dissenting voices 
 were few and uninfluential. The middle .age 
 came on, and the Catholic Church left off think- 
 ing and questioning on the subject. Not until 
 the Council of Trent w.as the Western Church 
 (not now Catholic, but Roman) called upon to 
 express her mind upon the canon ; and, when she 
 did, she re-affirmed the canon of the fourth cen- 
 tury, and an.athematized all dissent. See Cone. 
 Tri.l., Sess. IV., April 8, 1540. 
 
 The Reformation awoke new interest in the 
 canon. The Reformers expressed themselves 
 very freely upon it. First comes Caklstadt : 
 
 has condescended to make any mention in his works. And, 
 indeed, the character of the style itself is very difterent from 
 that of the apostles; and the sentiments, and the purport of 
 those things that are advanced in them, deviating a.s far as 
 possible from sound orthodoxy, evidently proves they are the 
 fictions of heretical men, whence they are to be ranked not 
 only among the spurious writings, but arc to be rejected as 
 altogether absurd and impious."]
 
 CANON. 
 
 CANON LAW. 
 
 De Canonis Scrip/uris : aiifl the same year and 
 ]>l.-ice, in German, in condensed form, Welche 
 Biichtr hiblisch sinil, Wittemberg, 1520. lie di- 
 vides the entire Bible into three classes : I. The 
 Late, the Gospels, and Acts; II. (of secondary 
 dignity) The Prophets, thirteen Epistles of Paul, 
 First John, and First PHer : III. (of lowest 
 dignity) The remainder of the canon. Bnt this 
 j)urclv subjective arran;jenient, which showed 
 neither dogmatic nor critical principles, was of 
 no influence. Its historical caujie was the fear 
 lest Luther should .actually destroy the tradi- 
 tional canon by his free handling and criticism, 
 especially in regard to Hebrews, James, Jwie, and 
 the Apocalypse. Luther attributed Hebrews to 
 Apollos ; said that James was quite beneath apos- 
 tolic dignity in its style, and legal in its spirit, 
 " au epistle of straw ; " pronounced Jude "an un- 
 necessary epistle; " while as for the Apocalypse, 
 he considered it neither ajiostolic, nor prophetic, 
 nor inspired, of no more value than Second Es- 
 dras, particularly because it presented pictures 
 and guiding words. He did not ignore the his- 
 torical attestation of a book ; but his standard for 
 the canonicity of a book was its power to teach 
 Christ; and so, because these four books failed 
 to present Christ according to his notions, he 
 puts them at the end of his New Testament. 
 As was to be expected, Luther had followers in 
 this path, such as Brenz, Flacius, and the "Mag- 
 deburg centuriators," and Chemnitz; and while 
 the Gallic (§ 3) and Belgic (§ 4) Confessions, and 
 the Westminster Confession of Faith (§ 1) com- 
 mit these churches to a canon, the Lutheran does 
 not, nor do the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church 
 of England (§ 6) ; for the latter s.ays, after the 
 list of the Old-Testament Apocrypha, " All the 
 books of the New Testament as they are com- 
 monly received we do receive, and account canoni- 
 cal." The Reformed churches were, however, 
 agreed upon the canon ; and as for the Reformers, 
 OicOLAMP.vDius (d. 15 !1 ) might object to putting 
 the antilegomena on a level with the homologou- 
 mena, and ZwixGi.l (d. 15:J1) might reject the 
 Apocalypse; but none of them went so far as to 
 make a canon of his own. Two names in the 
 modern German-I'rotestant Church represent tlie 
 sceptical opinions of their day. Johanx Sai.omo 
 Skmlek (d. 1791), in his Ahhandlun// von freier 
 Untersuchunij des Kanoiis, Halle, 1771-75, 4 vols., 
 set fortli the idea that the early Church did not 
 regard the canon as normal for all time, but 
 rather as a list of books which were read in pub- 
 lic service. No book was truly canonical e.\oept 
 it was universally usable; ami therefore a later 
 age was not bound to respect the limits of the 
 original collection. See Sk.mi.ick, .'\(T()Mij<)1>a- 
 TION. He anticipated the Tubingen school in the 
 assertion that the Catholic epistles were rocon- 
 ciliatory documents. The founder of this school 
 was Fkkdina.nd Ciiiustiax Bauu (.1. ISOO). 
 They almost give up the iilcn of a canon ; nor 
 does the question of canonicity enter into discus- 
 sion in their later New-Testanu'iit criticism. See 
 Ti'UiNiJKN ScHooi,. Their oiqionents seem like- 
 wise to have abandoned the dLscnssioii, although, 
 as Schleiermachcr has sai<l, " The Protestant 
 Church must strive after a more definitiMietermi- 
 natiou of the canon ; and this is the highest exe- 
 getico-theological task for the higher criticism." 
 
 Lit. — Selection of modern works. In German. 
 — Reuss : Die Geschichte der heiligen SchriJ'len 
 Neuen Testaments, Braun.schweig, 1842, 5th ed., 
 1874, in 2 Pai'ts ; Kirchhokek : Quellensammhauj 
 ziir Geschichte des neutestam. Kanons his auf Hie- 
 ronymus, Ziirich, 1844 [A. H. Charteris : Can- 
 onicity: a Collection of Early Testimonies to the 
 Ciinonical Books of the New Testament, based oti 
 Kirchhofer's QiieHensammlunf/, Edinburgh and Lon- 
 don, 1881]; Thiersch: Versuch :ur Herstellung 
 lies hislorischen Standpunctcs fiir die Krililc der 7ieti- 
 testam. .SWin/?e;i, Erlangen, 1845: the same : Die 
 Kirche im apostol. Zcitalter u. die Eiitstehuni/ des 
 neutestam. Biicher, 1857, 3d ed.. Frankfurt, 1879; 
 Crednek: Zur Geschichte des Kanons, Halle, 
 1847; the same: Geschichte des neutestam. Kanons 
 (ed. by Volkmar), Berlin, 1860; Hilgenfeld: 
 Der Kanon ii. die Kritik drs i\'eurn Testament, 
 Halle, 18G3; Scholte.v: Die cillesten Zeuijnisse 
 betr. die .Schri/ten des N. T., Bremen, lS(i7; [OliEK- 
 BECK : Zur Geschichte des Kiinnns, Chenniitz, 1880 ; 
 Reuss: History nf the Canon, Eng. trans., Edin- 
 burgh, 1884; Zahn : Forschmu/en, Erlangen, 
 1881 sqq. WOLDEMAK SCHMIDT. 
 
 [In English. — Westcott : History of the Canon 
 of the New Testament, Cambridge, 1855, 5th ed.. 
 London, 1881; the same: art. Canon, in Smith's 
 Dlctionartj of the Bible, Am. ed., vol. I. pp. 
 3t)S-37(J ; Gaussen" : Le canon des saintes Ecritures, 
 Lausanne, 1860, translated and abridged by Rev. 
 Dr. Kirk, The Canon of Holy Scripture, Boston, 
 18(J2 ; Sanday : The Gospels in the Second Cen- 
 tun/. London, 1876; Samuel Davidsox: Canon 
 of 'the Bible, London, 1878, 3d ed., 1880: Mitch- 
 ell : A uthenticity. Canon, and Text of the Greek 
 New Testament, Andover, 1880; J. J. Givex; 
 Tlie Truth of Scripture in Connection with Kecela- 
 tion, Insjiiration,and the Canon. Edin., 1881 ; Char- 
 teris: Canonicity (see above).] 
 
 CANON LAW. Collections of Canons and De- 
 cretals. Corpus Juris Canonici. In the first three 
 centuries the word " canon " simply denoted such 
 rules of conduct and discipline as had descended 
 innnediately from the founders of the Christian 
 Church, and were generally accepted by it. But 
 by degrees, as the synods took the lead in the 
 life of the Church, and tlicir decrees were recog- 
 nized as authoritative by the Cliurch. these decrees, 
 too, were called canones ; and in the .same man- 
 ner, when the primacy of the Bishop of Rome 
 became firndy established, both the name ami 
 the authority of canones were transferred to liis 
 decretals, until at last, in the language of the 
 middle ages, the word " canon " came to denote 
 any ecclesiastical prescription in contradistinction 
 to the regulations of the civil law. 
 
 During the first centuries the Christian Church 
 felt no necessity of having a .systematic collection 
 of its canons. Its relations were as yet so simple, 
 that l\u: intermediate prescriptions of Clirist and 
 the ajiostles were sulticient for its constil,ution 
 and dis(tipline. That the so-called Apostolical 
 Constitutions and Canons do not reach back to 
 the time of the ajiostles is certain. A Codex 
 Canonum is first mentioned in the acts of the 
 Counc'il of Clialcedon (451). Here (lie canons ti, 
 83, 84, 95, and 96 of a certain collection, were 
 re.ad aloud ; and a clo.ser examination shows that 
 those canons are the canon Ii of the synod of Nic;ea 
 (325), and the canons 4, 5, 16, and 17 of the synod
 
 CANON LAW. 
 
 393 
 
 CANON LAW. 
 
 of Antiochia (332). Thus it seems quite probar 
 ble that this Greek collection contained the can- 
 ons of several councils numbered in continuous 
 succession, beginning with the Council of Nicpca, 
 and ending with that of Antiochia. There were 
 other Greek collections of canons. See Petr. et 
 Hieroii. Hallerinii, De Aitll'/uis, luvi eililis tnm 
 iiieililis, Collcclionilnis el Collcctorilms Caiinnum, 
 in Oiii'i: Leonis Marjni, Venice, 17-^7, Tom. III. 
 But it is a mistake to ascrilie an official character 
 recognized by the wliole C'liurch, eitlirr to that 
 Cnilex Canoiiuin use<l at tlii! Council of Chalcedon 
 or to any otiier collection ; and the so-called Cuilex 
 Caiinnum Ecclcsite Uiilmsa; which Christoph 
 Justeau published in Paris, IGIO, is nothing but 
 a miscarried attempt at fabrication : both the 
 title and the arrangement are tlie editor's own 
 work. 
 
 Of the decrees of the Greek councils, only those 
 of the Council of Xic^a were innnediately ac- 
 cepted by the Western Clmrch (Iiinoc. I. Epp. ad 
 Theuphil. Alex. <aud ad CIcr. cl Popul. Const., in 
 Schdnemann : Puntif. Roman. Epislnl<E Genuince, 
 Gottingen, 1796, pp". 539, 519), and also those of 
 the Council of Sardica in the original Latin text. 
 But already in tlie fifth century there existed Latin 
 translations of the Greek collections of canons ; 
 and of these translations three are specially 
 noticeable; namely, the Spanish or Lsidorian trans- 
 lation, the Translalio Pri.tca, and the Dionysian 
 translation. The Spanish or Lsidorian translation 
 received its name from the circumstance that it 
 afterwards came to form the basis for the great 
 Spanish collection of canons and decretals, which 
 for a long time was ascribed to Isidore of Seville ; 
 but its birthplace was, no doubt, Italy, and with 
 respect to its date the translation of the decrees 
 of the Council of Xicrea was known in Gaul in 
 439 (Concil. Kegense); and that of the deci'ees of 
 the Council of Ancyra (^Canones Anci/ritani), in 
 517 (Concil. Epaonens.). This translation forms 
 part of a collection of canons made in Gaul 
 towards the close of the fifth century, and was 
 first published by Paschasius Quesnell, in Oj/era 
 S. Leonis, Paris, 1675, Tom. II., under the title, 
 Codex Ecclenice Romance. The title is a misno- 
 mer, however, as the collection was never author- 
 ized by the Roman Church. Different from this 
 translation is the Versio or Translutin Prisca, made 
 in Italy in the second half of the fifth century, 
 containing the decrees of the Councils of AncjTa 
 (Ancyrenses), Neo-Ca3Sarea, Nicpea, Antiochia, 
 Gangi-a, Constantinople, and Chalcedon, and pub- 
 lished first by Justeau, in Bihlioth. Jur. Canon. 
 Tom. I. p. 275, but after an incomplete codex, and 
 then complete and more correct, by the Ballerinii 
 in Opera Leonis Magni. Tom. III. p. 473. Of still 
 greater importance is the translation made in 
 Rome by Dionysius Exiguus, on the instance of 
 Bishop Stephan of Salona, at the end of the fifth 
 century. It contains fifty Canones Apostolorum, 
 a hundred and sixty-five canons from the Councils 
 of Niciea, Ancyra (Anci/rani), Neo-Ca?sarea, Gan- 
 gra, Antiochia, Laodicea, and Constantinople from 
 one Greek collection, twenty-seven canons from 
 the Council of Chalcedon from another, and finally, 
 in the original Latin text, twenty-one canons from 
 the Council of Sardica and the acts of the synod 
 of Carthage (419). Besides this work, Dionysius 
 also made a coUectiou of the decretals of Siricius, 
 
 Innocent I., Zosimus, Boniface I., Cwlestinus I., 
 Leo I., (lelasius I., and Anastasius II., on the 
 instance of the presbyter .Julian, and during the 
 reign of Synmiachus (498-514). These two 
 works of Dionysius were afterwards united into 
 one colk^ction, which soon gained the precedence 
 of all other collections, was frequently qiujted by 
 the popes, ahd wa.s, according to the testimony of 
 Cassiodorus {De Instil. Dii'in. c. 23), in general 
 use throughout the Western Church in the middle 
 of the sixth century. In the time of Charle- 
 magne it even obtained the rank of an official 
 Codex Canonum. Augmented with the decretals 
 of Ildarius, Simplicius, Felix, Synunachus, Hor- 
 misda, and Gregory II., it was presented in 774 by 
 Pope Adrian to Charlemagne, and at the diet of 
 Aix-LvChapelle (8(12), it was formally recognized 
 by the prankish Church as CWex Cf«?on«»i. This 
 Codex Dionijsio-IIadrianeus was first edited by 
 Wendelstein, Jlayence, 1.525, and then by Pithou, 
 Paris, 1009 ; and it is found in Bihlioth. Jur. 
 Canon., Tom. I., and in Migne, Patrologin, Tom. 
 67, p. 135. 
 
 The African Church based its discipline princi- 
 pally upon the decrees of its own councils. Espe- 
 cially the synod of Carthage (419) was in this 
 respect of great inqiortance, as it incorporated 
 with its own decrees those of the synods held 
 under Aurelius of Carthage since 393. This col- 
 lection of African canons Dionysius merged into 
 his compilation, though in an incomplete and 
 abbreviated shape ; and the Dionysian text was 
 afterwards translated into Greek, and combined 
 with various Greek collections. .lusteau published 
 in 1015, in Paris, both the Latin and the Cireek 
 texts, under the arbitrary title. Codex Canonum 
 Eccles. AfricancE. and they have been reprinted 
 in Bihlioth. Jur. Canon, Tom. I. p. 305, and in 
 Bihlioth. Ecclesiast., Berlin, 1839, vol. I. p. 155. 
 The two most noticeable among the other African 
 collections are the Breinatio Canonum, made in 
 540 by Fulgentius Ferrandus, deacon of the 
 Church of Carthage, containing an extract of the 
 Greek canon after the lsidorian translation, and 
 the decrees of the African councils up to 523, and 
 published, first by Pithou, Paris, 1588, and then 
 in Bihlioth. Jur. Can., Tom. I. p. 448, and in 
 JSIigne, Patrologia, Tom. 07, p. 949 ; and Concor- 
 dia Canonum, probably made about 090 by an 
 African bishop, Cresconius, and printed in Bihlioth. 
 Jur. Canon, Tom. I. App. p. 3. 
 
 Collections of decrees of councils and of papal 
 decretals existed in Spain in the sixth century, as 
 appears from the acts of the synod of Braga 
 (563); and the overthrow of Arianism, and the 
 restoration of the Catholic Church, made a com- 
 plete and systematic arrangement of all canonical 
 matter very desirable. Shortly after the fourth 
 council of Toledo (633), such a collection was 
 actually made. In the form in which we now 
 know this collection, as published in iladrid 
 (1808), it belongs to the eighth century; but it is 
 quite possible to form an idea of the original col- 
 lection. As the text contains much more than is 
 mentioned by the indice.i, it seems legitimate to 
 infer that the indices were made to the original 
 collection, and retained unchanged ; no notice 
 being taken of the later additions to the text. 
 The collection consists of two parts. Part first 
 contains the decrees of the councils : Concilia
 
 CANON LAV/. 
 
 39-i 
 
 CANON LAW. 
 
 Grcfcorum, after the above-iiientioned so-called 
 Spanish or Isidorian translation ; A/ricrB Concilia; 
 Concilia Gallite (16); and Concilia Hispanite ^36). 
 Part second contains the papal decretals from 
 Daniasus to Gregory I. (604). The author of 
 this collection is unknown. Xone of the existing 
 manuscripts contain any thing to put the collec- 
 tion in comiection with Isidore of Seville. He 
 is first mentioned as its author by the author of 
 the Pseudo-Isidorian decretals ; wliich article see. 
 
 The old British, the Scotch, and the Irish 
 churches developed their constitution and disci- 
 pline independently through their own synods; 
 tut very few of the canons of those synods have 
 come down to us. Some canonical collections 
 from the fifth and sixth centuries are simply peni- 
 tentials. In the Anglo-Saxon Church, too, the dis- 
 cipline depended for a long time upon native 
 .synods, though the Dionysian collection was 
 known there already in the seventh century, as 
 appears from the acts of the synod of Ilerford 
 (673). With the exception, ho\\ever, of the 
 2)enitence-ordinances of Tlieodore, Bede, and 
 Egbeit, nothing exists of an Anglo-Saxon collec- 
 tion of canons. The De Jure Sacerdolali and 
 Excerptiones are of Frankish origin. See 'Was- 
 .serschleben : Bussordnunyen dcr ahendlandischen 
 Kirclie, Halle, 1851. But there exists an Irish 
 collection of canons, published at Giessen, 1871, 
 by "Wasserschleben, which treats the whole field 
 of church-discipline. The collection is interest- 
 ing, not only on account of the rich patristical 
 materials it contains, but also on account of the 
 great number of decrees of Irish synods it pre- 
 sents, and which give a vivid pictui'e of the 
 peculiar constitution of the national church of 
 Ireland. 
 
 Long before the Codex Dionysio-Hadrianeus was 
 recognized as the Codex Canonnm, or Liher Cano- 
 num, there circulated in the Frankish Empire a 
 great number of collections of canons and decre- 
 tals. One published by Paschasius Quesnell, under 
 the title Codex Ecclesice Romance, is mentioned 
 above. Xew materials were added, w hen, towards 
 the close of the eighth century, the great Spanish 
 collection became known in Gaul ; but, as the 
 materials grew richer, they became more difficult 
 to handle. Systematical arrangement wa.s necces- 
 sary, and such systematically arranged collections 
 soon became very frequent. One belonging to 
 the latter part of the eighth cent\iry, and con- 
 taining three hundred and eighty-one cupitula, 
 lias been published by Kichter, Marburg, 1844 ; 
 another, dating pi'obably from the begiiniing of 
 the ninth c(mtury, by d'Achery in SpecUetj. I. 
 p. 510; a third, the so-called P<cnitentiaiis of 
 Bishop Ilalitger of Cambrai, 810-837, by Cani- 
 sius. in Leclion. .4 h(i'7., edited by Basnage, T. II. 
 P. II. p. 87. These three collections pay special 
 regard to the rpiestion of penitence, and so do tiie 
 various collections by Ilrabanns jSIaurus: Liher 
 l'u:nilenliuin ad Oli/arium, 841, and Epislola ad 
 /[eribaldum, 8.53. The so-called Capiluta Episco- 
 porum also evince a somewiiat similar character. 
 They are minor collections, generally made by 
 .some bishop, and consisting ]iartly of extracts 
 from larger works, )>artly of local decrees and 
 I)rescriptions. To this kind of collections belong 
 Slaluta Bonifacii Mo/junl., 797 (Mansi : Concil., 
 XIII. p. 383), Cuiiii'iJa Theodulphi Aurel., 797 
 
 (Mansi, XIII. p. 903), Capitula Ahijlonis Basil., 
 820 (Mansi, XIV. p. 393), Capitula Herardi 
 Turonensis, 858 (Baluze : Capil. Beg. Francor, I. 
 p. 1283), Capitula Hincmari Bemens, 852-877 
 (Mansi, XV. p. 505), etc. The great influence 
 which during the Carolingian period the secular 
 power exercised on the Church, even on its disci- 
 pline, added still more new materials to the body 
 of the canonical law ; and systematical compila- 
 tions also of these new elements, the capitularies 
 of tlie Frankish kings, were made, for instance, 
 by Ansegis, Benedictus Levita, etc. 
 
 After the ninth century this labor of systemati- 
 zation became of still greater importance ; and 
 attempts were made, on a steadily-increasing 
 scale, almost in every country, until, in the middle 
 of the twelfth century, the whole development 
 reached its consummation in the Decretum Grali- 
 ani. Among the principal works of the kind 
 may be mentioned Libri Duo de Causis Synodali- 
 bus et Disciplinis Ecclesiasticis by Abbot Regino 
 of Prtim (d. 915), written on the instance of 
 Archbishop Kathbod of Treves as a manual for 
 bishops, and published at Leipsic, 1840, by Was- 
 senschleben ; Decretum, or Liber Dtcrelorum Bur- 
 chardi, written by Bishop Burchard of Worms, 
 between 1012 and 1023, and published in !Migne, 
 Palrologia, Tom. 140, p. 537 sqii. ; a collection of 
 canons by Cardinal Deusdedit, dedicated to Vic- 
 tor III. (1086-87), and published by Martinucci, 
 Venice, 1869 ; the Decretum in seventeen books, 
 and the Pannormia in eight books, by Bishop 
 Ivo of Chartres (d. 1117), both found among his 
 works in Jligne, Patrolor/ia Tom. 161 ; besides a 
 number not yet printed. But all these attempts 
 were completely superseded by the Discorduntium 
 Canonnm Concordia, or Liber Decretorum, or simply 
 Decretum Gratiuni, consisting of three parts, of 
 which the first is divided into one hundred and 
 one distinctiones, each distinclio comprising a num- 
 ber of cationex : the second into thirty-six causce, 
 each causa comprising a number of questions and 
 answers; and the third into five rf/s/Mica'oHei. The 
 division of the first and third parts into distinc- 
 tiones is the work of I'aucopalea; while that of 
 the second part into catisa- proceeded from Gra- 
 tian himself. The work, however, is not simply 
 a systematical arrangenu-ut of the materials, 
 but also, to a certain extent, a treatment of the 
 subject. Besides the text of the canones, it 
 also contains short explanations. Dicta Gratiani, 
 in which the author endeavors to explain away 
 the contradictions between the canones. To this 
 feature the work owed a great deal of its success. 
 Written at Bologna, and wi-itten at a time when 
 Bologna was the centre of all juridical study, it 
 was planned and executed in accordance with the 
 method then prevailing in the juridical lecture- 
 room, lather than with a view to special practical 
 purposes. It was imiiiediately made the subject 
 of study. Gratiaii liiin.self lectured upon it in the 
 same manner as the i/lossatorcs on the Corpus 
 Juris Justiaiii ; and through the school it con- 
 quered and ruled the world, though it was never 
 formally confirmed by the popes, or accepted by 
 till' Church as authoritative. 
 
 The Decretum Gratiani apjieared in the period 
 when the papal power stood at its liighest, and 
 developed its greatest legislative activity. Hence 
 the natural consequence, that, though the work at
 
 CANON LAW. 
 
 395 
 
 CANONICAL HOURS. 
 
 its first appearance was justly considered as the 
 Corjius Juris Vaiionici, oidy a few years elapsed 
 before it became iucoiii[ilete, or even aiiticpiated. 
 Supplements were necessary; an<l no less than five 
 new collections were made bi'fon^ the devel(i[)ment 
 again reached a haltini;-point with the Decrelii- 
 liuin Grcyorii. fX. (.'oiiijiitdlio {12'-'A). The first of 
 these supplementary collections was the Brcvia- 
 riuin Extravafjtinluiiu; that is, a collection of decre- 
 tals, extra decretum raijaiiles, by ISernardus, provost 
 •of Pavia. It was finished in 1 1!)(), and consists 
 of five books, subdivided into t'tluli and ciipitula. 
 The intluence of the Vudcx Justiniaiii, and even 
 «f the Pandects, is still more a])parent here than 
 in the dcvrelum itself. The arrangement of the 
 material in the five books is indicated by the 
 verse : Judex, Judicium, C'lcrus, Coimuhia, Crimen. 
 The second collection, the so-called Compilatio 
 Tenia, was made by tlie papal notary Petrus C'ol- 
 livacinus, from Benevent, on the instance of Inno- 
 ■cent III., and contains tlie decretals issued by 
 that Pope during the first eleven years of his 
 reign. The Pope sent it himself to the Uni- 
 versity of Bologna in 1210. The Compilatio 
 Secimda is later in time than the preceding, but 
 •contains tlie decretals issued by the popes from 
 Alexander III. to Innocent III. : hence its name, 
 Secunda. It was made by Johannes Galensis. 
 After tlie fourth council of the Lateran (1215), a 
 new collection was made by an unknown author, 
 and recognized by the University of Bologna as 
 Compilatio Quarta. These fom- collections were 
 first pulilished by Ant. Augustinus, Ilerda;, 1507, 
 and then by Labl>e, Paris, 1009. The Compila- 
 tio Quinta, containing the decretals of Ilonorius 
 III. and the constitution of the Emperor Fred- 
 •eric II., was sent to the University of Bologna in 
 1220, and published first by Cironius, Tolos.-\;, 
 1645, and then by I. A. Riegger, Vienna, 1701. 
 In 1230 Gregory IX. charged his chaplain, Ilay- 
 niund of Pennaforte, with the compilation of a 
 new collection, in which the preceding five collec- 
 tions, together with his own decretals, should be 
 merged into one body ; and this new collection, 
 Decretalium Greyorii IX. Compilatio, was in 1234 
 sent to the University of Bologna with a papal 
 buU. From this time it was, both in the schools 
 and in practical life, considered and used as the 
 law-book of the Church ; but, as it had taken the 
 place of the Extravagantes, it was in quotations 
 marked like those; namely, by the word Extra. 
 
 The' Compilatio Greyorii also very soon needed 
 supplements; and such were furnished by Inno- 
 cent IV., Alexander IV., Urban IV., Clement 
 IV., Gregory X., and Nicholas III. These sup- 
 plements were, by Boniface VIII., united into 
 one body together with his own decretals, after 
 the plan which Gregory IX. had employed with 
 respect to the Extrauagantes ; and this new collec- 
 tion was in 1298 sent to the universities of 
 Bologna and Paris, under the name of Liber Se.i:- 
 tus, and with a papal bull of authorization. The 
 decretals which Boniface VIII. issued after 1298, 
 and among wliich were the famous bull Unam 
 Sanctum, as well as the decretals of Clemens V. 
 (130.5-14), were finally collected by John XXII., 
 and in 1317 sent to the universities, where they 
 were treated under the name of Const itutioncs 
 Clementince ; but with tlie Clementines the official 
 collections of papal decretals stojiped. The bat- 
 
 tered authority of the Poi)e, and tlie steadily 
 inci-ea.sing discrepancy between the papal see on 
 the one side, and the secidar jiower and the 
 national churclies on the other side, gave the 
 papal legislation an entirely new character, and 
 mad(^ the success of such an undertaking as an 
 official collection of decretals more than proijlem- 
 atic. The law-collections already in existence, 
 the Decretum Gratiani, tlie Compilatio Gregorii, 
 till! Liber Sextus, the Clementines, and two com- 
 pilations of Extraragnntcs by Chappuis, were held 
 together as the Corpus Juris Canonici (Vitalis de 
 Thebes and Jean Chappuis, Paris, fifteenth cen- 
 tury, most correct edition by A. L. Kichter, Leip- 
 zig, 1839, 2 vols.); but any attempt at further 
 development failed. The Liber Septinms pub- 
 lished by Petrus Matthaeus at Lyons, 1500, was 
 never authorized; and the Liber ^ejitimus, which 
 resulted from the labors of a committee appointed 
 by Gregory XIII., was withdrawn in 159.8. Chro- 
 nological collections of the papal bulls, the so- 
 called Bullaria, took the place of the systematized 
 compilations of papal decretals ; and the authority 
 of the Corpus Juris Canonici itself became a ques- 
 tion of the Concordats. 
 
 Lit. — RlCllTER : Lehrbuch <l. Kath. evanij. 
 K. R., Leipzig, 1842, 8th ed. [by Dove], 1884 ; 
 BiCKELL : Geschichte des Kirchenrechts, Giessen, 
 1843; M.4A.SSEN: Geschichte der Quellen und der 
 Litcratur des canonischen liechts im Abendlande, 
 Gratz, 1870 ; Schulte : Die Geschichte der Quellen 
 und Literatur des canonischen Rechts von Gregor 
 bis auf die Gegenwart, Stuttgart, 1875-80, 3 vols. ; 
 [J. H. Blunt: Book of Church Law, 4th ed., 
 Phillimore, London, bSSu ] WASSERSCHLEBEN. 
 
 CANONICAL HOURS, certain portions of tinif 
 set apart for the performance of prayer and devo- 
 tion. In their fully-developed arrangement they 
 are seven: prime, about six a.m.; terce. about 
 nine a.m.; sext, about noon; nones, about three 
 P.M.; vespers, ahoxit sunset; compline, about bed- 
 time ; nocturns, matins, or lauds, at midnight. The 
 book which contains the prayers, psalms, hymns, 
 canticles, scripture-lessons, and patristric read- 
 ings, used according to fixed rule on these occa- 
 sions, is called a " Breviary " (see title), and the 
 separate services themselves, "Hours." These 
 services came up very early, but the exact time is 
 uncertain. The apostolic chur»h observed, very 
 likely, the Jewish custom of praj'ing three times 
 daily, — at the third, sixth, and ninth hour (Ps. 
 Iv. 17; Dan. vi. 10; cf. Acts ii. 15, iii. 1, x. 30). 
 Clement of Alexandria (second century), Tertul- 
 lian (third century), and Jerome (fourth century), 
 all speak of these three hours as the usual times 
 of prayer. In the third century a morning (ma- 
 tins) ami an evening (vespers) hour were added by- 
 some, making five hours; and the innovation was 
 at last universally accepted. In the fourth cen- 
 tury the zeal of the Psalmist, " seven times a day 
 do i praise thee " (Ps. cxix. 164), was held up for 
 Christian imitation by Ambrose, Augustine, and 
 Hilary ; liut Ca.ssian (424) claimed to have been 
 the first to have instituted the rule. 
 
 V^arious grounds have been stated for observ- 
 ing these hours. Thus for prime, Cassian gives 
 the practical reason that it prevents the compara- 
 tive idleness and sloth which the long interval 
 between matin lauds and terce entailed. " The 
 third (terce), sixth (sext), and ninth (noties) hours
 
 CANONIZATION. 
 
 3% 
 
 CANTHARUS. 
 
 were thought to have been selected in lionor of the 
 Holy Trinity." Other reasons were given : thus 
 Cj'prian says, " Tlie Holy Gliost descended on the 
 disciples on the tliird hour " (tcrce) ; and, for sext, 
 St. Peter, ■• at the .sixth hour went up to tlie house- 
 top ; again, " The Loi-d was crucified at the sixth 
 hour;" for nones, "At the niutli hour Christ 
 washed away our sins with blood. " For i-espers, lie 
 says, " When at the departure of the sun ... we 
 pray . . . we are praying for the coniing of Christ, 
 who will give the grace of everlasting light." For 
 compline, the manifest propriety of prayer before 
 resigning oue's self to the "elder brotlier of 
 death " would be a .sutficient reason. "Xoclui'ns 
 originated in the pious custom of prayer when 
 one awoke in tlie night." Matins, or lauds, were 
 later united with nnctwns. The services used at 
 the canonical hours are manifestly appropriate 
 only to monasteries, although all Christians might 
 with advantage observe these set times of prayer. 
 
 In England the hours from eight to twelve in 
 the forenoon are also called " Canonical Hours," 
 before or after which marriages cannot legally be 
 solemnized in any parish church without a license. 
 See the exliaustive article by i\Ir. Scudamore, 
 "Hours of Prayer," in Smith and Cheetham's 
 Diet. Christ. Anilq.. vol. i. pp. 792-799. 
 
 CANONIZATION is the ceremonial act by 
 which one previously beatified is put down on 
 the roll or canon of saints, as entitled to the wor- 
 ship of the Church. The most pii'oper way in 
 which to an-ive at .such an honor seems to be. a 
 papal verdict ; and cases very early occur in whicli 
 the Pope confirmed a beatification or canonization 
 which had taken place independently of him. 
 As an exclusive right, however, the papal see did 
 not. claim canonization until the time of Alexan- 
 der III. (ll^^l) : and, as the bishops continued to 
 beatify and canonize in their dioceses, Urban 
 VIII. issued (10:25 and 1G34) new and more em- 
 phatic bulls, presenting in detail tlie whole man- 
 ner of proceeding. M'hen it could be proved 
 with valid testimonies that a person had led a 
 holy life, and worked miracles, a motion for his 
 beatification could be made in the following man- 
 ner: fifty years after liis death, the bishop of the 
 place .should appoint a connnittee, which had to 
 carry the case, first before tlie Coni/reyatio liitu- 
 um, then before the cardinals, and finally before 
 a consistory presided over by the Pope himself. 
 The act of beatification always took place in llie 
 Basilica I'alicana (see the bull by Benedict XI\'. 
 of Xov. L':!, 1711, in Bullar. Ma>iuum, Tom. XVL); 
 and the heiilus was entitled to be connneniorated 
 in the canon missce, to have altars erected in his 
 honor, to have his nMuains publicly exhibited, 
 etc. If miracles continued to be wronglit, a new 
 and still more rigid investigation was instituted, 
 and in due time the canonization followed. Tliis 
 act, too, took place in the Basilica Vaticanai and 
 the sanctus was entithul to the invocation and 
 adoration of the whole Church, — hcalorum cnllns 
 Jidelibn.^ permitlitur, canonizatoriim aulem prwcipitur. 
 
 Lit. — .IfSTUS Foxtaxiu.s: Codex Conslilu- 
 tionum (juos Stimmi PonliJIces e.didcrunt in solenni 
 canonisatione Sanctorum, 993-1729, Kome, 1729; 
 Fi:i!r!Ai!is : Bih. f'anon. MEJKIt. 
 
 CANONS REGULAR, members of monastic 
 orders, lived under some rule, but not with mo- 
 nastic strictuess. 
 
 CANSTEIN, Karl Hildebrand, Baron Von, b. 
 
 Aug. -1, 1G(J7, at LinilenUerg in ISrandenbiag- ; d. 
 in Berlin, -Vug. 19, 1719 ; studied Law in Fr.ink- 
 furt-o]i- the -Oder; travelled, and served for a 
 short time in tlie Prussian army, but retired then 
 into private life, and devoted liimself wholly to 
 religious studies and philanthropical undertak- 
 ings. He wrote a Harmonic der vier Ecanr/elisten, ' 
 171S, and a Life of Spener, who was an intimate 
 friend of his; and in 1712 he founded in Halle 
 the Cansteinsche Bihelanstidt, which was able to 
 sell the Xew Testament for two groschen, and 
 the whole Bible for six, and which, up to 1S7G, 
 had sold 4,383,285 Bibles and 1,337,058 Xew Tes- 
 taments. His life was written by Lange, 1740, 
 as a supplement to liis Life of Spener, and by 
 C. II. Chr. Plath, Halle, 18G1. The historv of 
 the Bible institution was written by Oswald ^Ber- 
 tram, Halle. 18(;3. 
 
 CANTERBURY, the Anglo-Saxon Cantivara- 
 hijrig, the Itunian Diirorernu/ii, became the metro 
 politan see of the Knglisli Church, wlien Augii.s- 
 tine and his fellow-missionaries were settled there 
 in 590 by King Ethelbert, who gave them an old 
 Koman church and his own palace. The church 
 was entirely rebuilt by Lanfranc (1070), much 
 enlarged by Anselm, and again enlarged by its 
 restoration after the fire in 1172. The nave was 
 rebuilt in the course of the fifteentli century, and 
 the central tower was not finished until 1500. 
 Tlie building is five hundred and forty-five feet 
 long, and a hundred and fifty-six feet broad at 
 the eastern transept, and is one of the largest and 
 most magnificent catliedrals in England. Its 
 brightest d.iys it saw in the century following 
 after the murder of Thomas Becket (1170), wliose 
 shrine, placed in a special chapel, was immensely 
 wealthy, and attracted thousands of pilgrims every 
 year, not only from England, but also from the 
 Continent, until the commissioners of Henry 
 VIII. destroved the shrine, and cleared the chapel 
 (153S). 
 
 Our word " canter " is a contraction of "Can- 
 terbury gallop," ami therefore a reminder of the 
 Canterbury pilgrimages, and tlie easy pace at 
 which they were performed ; for they were quite 
 as much excursions as religious exercises. Chau- 
 cer (1328-1400), in liis Canterliurij Tales, has given 
 us an " admiralile picture of such pilgrimages, 
 with the manners and behavior of a party of 
 pilgrims, leisurely en jnying tlu; journey, and tell- 
 ing slories to each other on the road." , 
 
 The Archbisliop of Canterbury, who is the pri- 
 mate of all England and metropolitan, does not 
 live in Canterbury, but in Landieth Palace, Lon- 
 don. The cathedral statf consists of a dean, six 
 canons, twenty-four honorary canons, an auditor, 
 six preachers, four minor canons, and subordinate 
 officers. The cryjit of the cathedral is a church 
 founded by Queen Elizabetli for Frencli Protes- 
 tant refdgees, and still used by a small Frencli 
 congregation. 'J"he ecclesiastical remains in tlie 
 toW'U are very interesting, including flio.se of the 
 first friary of the Dominicans in England, and 
 of the church in which Ethelbert was ba))ti/,ed. 
 .See .St.vm.ky : Memorials of Cantcrlmry, 0th ed., 
 1872. 
 
 CANTHARUS, a well, or cistern, or fountain, or 
 sinijily a vessel for water, in the centre of the 
 atrium just in front of the entrance of tlie ancient
 
 CANTICLES. 
 
 397 
 
 CANTICLES. 
 
 liasilica, used by ilie faithful for the abhition of 
 hands and face Lid'ore entering the clnircli build- 
 ing. 
 
 CANTICLES, or SONG OF SOLOMON, called 
 in Hebrew, D'Ttyri ^^'p, Song of Songs; i.e., the 
 most beautiful of songs : so in Greek, /frr/ta 
 ' ua/it'iTuv, au<i Latin, Canticum Cantlcnrum. Ihe 
 book is plainly a love-song ; and the difficulfry of 
 its interpretation ai-ises from its unique position 
 in Hebrew literature : we have no other exam- 
 ples with which to compare it. But is tlie loVe 
 immortalized merely carnal, or is it spiritual V 
 Does the poem find its end in the earthly, or is it 
 rather an allegory, setting forth the heavenly in 
 the garb of tlie earthly? It is the task of tlie 
 critic to explain first of all the peculiar phraseol- 
 ogy, and then decide whether it compels or can 
 bear a deeper meaning. 
 
 The poem is a unit. The persons throughout 
 are King Solomon, his rustic Beloved, and the 
 Daughters of Jerusalem. The same phrases re- 
 peatedly recur, cf . ii. 7, iii. 5, v. 8, viii. 4 ; iii. 6, 
 yi. 10, viii. 5; ii. 17, iv. G, viii. 14; ii. 6, viii. 3; 
 i. 2, iv. 10; ii. 5, v. 8, etc. Many parts are mani- 
 fest parallels; e.g., ii. 8 .sqq., iii. 1 sqq., and v. 2 
 sqq. Canticles is a lyrical drama, yet not in- 
 tended for presentation on a stage so much as for 
 recitation : Ps. ii. and xxiv. are examples of simi- 
 lar use of dialogue in poetry. According to the tra- 
 ditional view, Solomon celeorates his marriage with 
 the Shulamite ; while, according to the modern 
 and now prevalent view (the Shepherd Theory), 
 he celebrates rather the constancy of the country 
 maiden, who, unmoved by the blandishments of 
 the great king, persists in her love for an humble 
 shepherd, until the king gives his consent to the 
 matoli, and retires from the field. These two in- 
 terpretations of course lead to wholly different 
 allotments of the speeches. 
 
 (1) The Shepherd Theory quotes weighty 
 names in its defence. It is the theory of Ewald, 
 who thus analyzes the Song • Solomon and his 
 suite once found in a "garden of nuts" (vi. 11) 
 near the village of Shulem (or Shunem) a most 
 charming and modest girl, whom Solomon at- 
 tempted to get for his harem, notwithstanding 
 the rough treatment she had I'eceived, and her 
 lowly station as keeper of a vineyard (i. 0). 
 These two play together the first scene, wherein 
 it appears that she is in love with a shepherd 
 (i. 7), and will not yield to Solomon's wishes. 
 So the dramatic poem goes on. AVhen Solomon 
 praises her, she responds by praising her beloved 
 swain : she longs for him by day, she seeks him 
 in her dreams at night. The culmination of the 
 action is in Solomon's final efforts to win her 
 favor. He offers to her his throne : as queen he 
 leads her to his capital, but in vain. He tries 
 upon her the magic of his speech (vi. 4 sqq.); 
 but the simple-minded girl is overcome of home- 
 sickness, and the embraces of her lover are dearer 
 to her than those of the king. Solomon, finding 
 persuasion useless, magnanimously gives her up ; 
 and in the last act we see her walking with her 
 lover upon their native hills. .Joy has come to 
 her at last. She has received her reward. The 
 moral of the piece is expressed in viii. 6, 7. Love 
 is inflexible, inextinguishable, unpurchasable ; 
 *nd to this free and faithful love is the victory. 
 
 It must be confessed that the above scheme is 
 attractive and plausible ; but a careful examina- 
 tion of the Song shows that it is without foun- 
 dation. Against it decidedly is the jiassage iii. 
 0-v. 1 inclusive, — a description of a royal ■ mar- 
 riage wliich is hapjiily terminated. Where, then, 
 is tlie maiden's constancy? In order to curry out 
 his scheme, Ewald was obliged to interpolate two 
 lines between vers. 7 and 8 of chap, iv., — " Look, 
 my love, look ! There he comes I Listen while 
 he speaks to me," — because there is no indication 
 in the text of any change of speakers. It is also 
 ridiculous to make Solomon .step aside while the 
 lovers meet. Again, viii. 11, 12, is jilainly a speech 
 of the Shulamite to Solomon. Besides, why may 
 not Solomon be supposed to be the shepherd of 
 the poem? Delitzsch has explained vi. 2 and 
 elsewhere by saying, " The country-life of the 
 maiden, and the delight of Solomon in nature, 
 express themselves in these words, and prove by 
 their spiritual beauty that the romantic girl saw 
 in the lover a plain .shepherd, not a king, and as 
 such loved him, and pictured herself as sharing 
 with him her accustomed simpilicity ; in which 
 fancies the king humored her." It is noteworthy 
 that the poem contains no word of complaint, but 
 that Soloiuon's tender tones are echoed by the 
 Shulamite — facts which are against the Shep- 
 herd Theory. 
 
 (2) The Traditional Theory. The poem con- 
 sists of confessions of reciprocal love l)etween 
 Solomon and the Shulamite. AA'e divide it into 
 five acts: I. The first meeting of the lo'S'ers 
 (i. 2-ii. 7) ; II. Their reciprocal longing and 
 searching (ii. 8-iii. 5) ; III. The marriage in the 
 capital (iii. 6-y. 1) ; IV. New seekings and find- 
 ings of the lovers (v. 2-viii. 4) ; V. Sealing of the 
 bond, and its meaning (viii. 5-14). The scene 
 of the first act (i. 2-ii. 7) is a country-seat of 
 the king's, near the home of the fair Shulamite. 
 The pair meet ; and the maiden is at sight so en- 
 amoured of Solomon, that she permits herself to 
 be led to his garden-house, where she receives a 
 garland from tlie court ladies. The king is also 
 at once smitten, and the pair expre.ss tlieir mutual 
 regard. In the second act (ii. 8-iii. 5) the lover 
 seeks his love, and finds her at home. She seeks 
 him at night upon the streets of the city, and, 
 finding him, expresses her delight with the same 
 words used in the first act. The latter scene is 
 manifestly not adapted to representation. In the 
 third act (iii. 6-y. 1) the wedding march and 
 songs are heard. The fourth act (v. 2-viii. 4) 
 concerns incidents of the wedding festivities. In 
 the closing scene one of the brothers of the bride 
 appears, and invites her to go home with him. In 
 the fifth act (viii. 0-14) this request is granted : 
 Solomon and the Shulamite revisit the scene of 
 their first meeting. Her brothers are suitably 
 rewarded for their care of their sister. M'ith 
 Solomon's request of the bride to sing, and her 
 counter-request that he should show his agility, 
 the joyous, lively Song closes. 
 
 The book is a story of conjugal love, of its 
 anxieties and rewards, and as such it deserved a 
 place in the canon. Because of its pm-ity and 
 mystery, writers in other parts of the Bible usa 
 it as an image of the holiest desires. _ And the 
 poem owed its canonical position likewise to the 
 peculiar dignity of the king of whom it spoke ;
 
 CANTICLES. 
 
 898 
 
 CANTICLES. 
 
 for Solomon was for liis time, as David had been 
 for his, the anointed of the Lord, the Messiah, 
 the vicegerent of the unseen King (Ps. ii. 7, xlv. 
 7 sq., ex. 1). When, therefore, tlie king, seeking 
 a purer, holier love than he found in his harem, 
 condescended to raise a simple maiden of the 
 people to a place by his side, because she realized 
 to him the very love he sought, what was this 
 but a picture of the Jlessianic marriage of which 
 Ps. xlv. sings, — a culmination-point of the \-isible 
 kingdom of God, at that time thought to be on 
 earth ? According to this hypothesis, there is no 
 difficulty about the Solomonic origin of the poem, 
 nor about its representation of literal facts. Yet 
 it may be of different authorship and occasion, 
 as the peculiarity of a few words may indicate. 
 (The Shepherd Theory renders a Solomonic origin 
 improbable.) The majority of the recent critics 
 assign it to a time shortly after the disruption 
 (950-946 B.C.), and maintain it was a popular 
 protest against the luxury of the court of the 
 Northern Kingdom. 
 
 In later Hebrew literature there are numerous 
 references to it (cf. Cant. iv. 12, 15, and Prov. v. 
 15 sqq.; v. 6, Prov. i. 28; vi. 9, Prov. sxxi. 28; 
 \ai. 10, Prov. xxiii. 31; vii. 7, Prov. vi. 30). 
 Questionable is the use in Jeremiah (xxii. 21), 
 in Haggai (ii. 23 ; cf. Cant. viii. 0), and the refer- 
 ence in Isaiah (v. 1) ; but Hosea appears to have 
 known Canticles, and borrowed much from it. 
 That references to it are not common in the pro- 
 phetic writings is proof that it was not a people's 
 book, but rather artistic and esoteric. It was. 
 however, admitted into the canon, and declareil 
 by Rabbi Akiba to be so valuable, that the whole 
 world was not worth as much as the day on which 
 it was given to Israel. Yet a mystery was made 
 of it : no one under thirty years old was allowed 
 to read it (thus jnitting it in the same category 
 with the history of creation and Kzekiel), on the 
 ground that it coidd be licentiously interpreted 
 (see Fiirst, Der Kanon des A. T. nach den Vher- 
 Ueferunyen im Talmud mid Midrasch, Leipzig, 
 1868). It was interpreted as an allegory epito- 
 mizing the whole theocratic history of Israel. 
 This is the view of it taken in the commentaries 
 of llashi and Aben Ezra. But !Maimonides, in 
 Morek Nevochhn, substitutes for this historico- 
 allegorical theory an allegorico-mythical one, 
 rejects the continuity of the Song's action, and 
 wins from some of its parts instruction on the 
 soul's relationship to God. 
 
 The Christian Churcli, under the lead of Ori- 
 gen, likewise regarded it as an allegory, in wliich 
 tlie Bride was the Church, the lover was Christ ; 
 and Theodore of IMopsuestia was anathematized 
 for interpreting it of earthly love. In the middle 
 ages the allegory was supposed to relate to the 
 intercour.se between Christ and the individual 
 soul. So Bernard of Clairvaux, in his famous 
 eighty-.six sermons on this book (dovvn to iii. 1). 
 Tlio reformers adopted the allegorical interpreta- 
 tion. Coming down to later times, (irotius con- 
 sidered it a nuptial song for Solomon and tlie 
 daughter of Pharaoh ; .so others, erotically. Her- 
 der was enamoured of its beauty, and distributed 
 it into "separate voices, accordant only in tlie 
 breath of love." So the I'rotestant interpreters 
 differ : .some are literalists, and otlier.s allegorists ; 
 some hold to the unity, others to the collective 
 
 nature, of the Song. The author maintains that 
 the theme is conjugal love, pure and sweet. 
 
 Lit. — German commentators (see Bibliogra- 
 phy by Zockler, in Lange, Amer. ed., pp. 25-43, 
 for a careful distribution of the commentators 
 upon Canticles into their respective schools). 
 J. G. Herdki! : Licder der Llehe, die idlesten tind 
 scJionsten aus dem Moi'genliuide, 1778; F. W. 
 C. Umbreit : Lied der Liehe, Gbttingen, 1820; 
 H. KwALi> : Das llnhelied Salomonis, Giittingen, 
 1S26, and in Die Didder des alien Jiiindes, Gbttin- 
 gen, 2d ed., 1800 ; E. J. ilAGxrs : Kritische Beur- 
 heiturKj des H. L. Sal., Halle, 1842 ; F. BoTTCiiKn : 
 Die iiltesten Biilinen<lichltinr/en, Leipzig, 1850 ; 
 F. Dklitzscii : Das llohelied, Leipzig, 1851, and 
 in his Commenlar, 1875; E. AV. IIkxgstenherg : 
 Das H. L. Salomonis, Berlin, 1853 [Eng. trans, in 
 Clark's Library]; IIitzig: Das IlolicVud, Leipzig, 
 1855; ZiicKi.ER : Das H. L. Sal. (in Lange 's 
 Bihelicerk, 1868) ; II. Gr.ATZ : Sc!iii--ha-Schiri7n, 
 1871; C. F. GoDET : liludes lililitjues, vol. i., 
 Paris, 1873 [Eng. trans., Oxford, 1875]; [S. J. 
 Kami'F : Das Holielied, Prag, 1877, 2d ed., 1870; 
 B. W. J6SEFFV : Das llohelied, Basel, 1S77 ; 
 K. Koiii.ER : Das Hohe Lied, Chicago, 1878]. 
 
 [English commentators (see the valuable Sup- 
 plementary Bibliography by Professor 'W. II. 
 Green, in his translation of Zockler's Commen- 
 tary on the Song of Solomon, in the An"'-ericau edi- 
 tion of Lange's Commentary, pp. 43-47). Bishop 
 II.^ll: An Open and Plain l'araphra.-<e upon the 
 Song of Songs, London, 1009; Hexry Aixs- 
 wouTii: Annotations upon . . . the Song of Songs, 
 or Canticles, London, lOoO (of much influence in 
 shaping the current allegorical interpretation) ; 
 J. Cotton : A Brief Exposition, etc., London, 
 1642 (in Nichol's series); W. Guild: Lore's In- 
 tercourse between the Lamb and the Bride, London, 
 1658 ; Ja.mes Durham : Claris Caiitici, London, 
 1068; John Mason Good: Song of Songs, hon- 
 don, 1803 ; J. Fry : Canticles, a Neic Translation 
 with Notes, London, 1811 ; George Burrowes : 
 A Commentarti on the Song of Solotnon, Pliiladel- 
 phia, 1853, 2d ed., revised. New York, 1867: 
 Peter Macpherson: The Song of Songs shown to 
 be constructed on Architectural Principles, Edin- 
 burgh, 1856 (he supposes the Song to consist of 
 verses written along an archway) ; A. IMoODY 
 Stuart : A n IL.rposilion nf the Song of Solomon, 
 London, 18.57, repub. Philadeli>hia, 1809 (one of 
 the best commeniaries on the Song); Christian . 
 I). GixsiU'KG : The Song of Songs translaleil from 
 the Original llebrcn) with a Conimtiitary, Historical 
 and Critical, I^ondon, 18-57; John Mason Xeale: 
 Sermons on the Canticles, preached in a Religious 
 House, by a Pries! of the Church of England, Lon- 
 don, 1857; L. WrriiiNGTON : Solomon's Song 
 translated and explained, Boston, 1861 ; J. F. 
 TiiRUPi" : The Scmg of Songs, a Revised Transla- 
 tion, icith Introduction and Commentary, Cambridge, 
 1862; 11. F. Littledale: A Commentary on the 
 Sonq of Songs, frinn Ancient and Mediirral Sources, 
 London, 1809; IL J. Matthews: Abraham llm 
 Ezra's Commentary rm the Canticles, after the First 
 Recension, edited from Two Hebrew MSS., with a 
 Translation, London, 1874. 
 
 There are very numerous mcitrical translations 
 of the Song. Dr. (ircen, in Lange, gives a list of 
 them. The latest is by James Pratt, London, 
 1881.] OUEI.I.I.
 
 CANTOR. 
 
 390 
 
 CAPERNAUM. 
 
 CANTOR (.v/»f/('r),an eccli^siastical order of (in- 
 anoiciit cliurcli, institutt^d in the fourth century. 
 It is ineutioiied in tlie Apostolical Constitutions; 
 and tlie Council of lyaodicea Qiit'i) forbids any- 
 body to sinn' in the cluirciies, Imt tlie cantors. 
 The ordination could be pi'rl'orined by a prc^sby- 
 ter, ami imposition of hands was not a part of it. 
 
 CANUS, Melchoir, b. at Tarancon, Spain, loi:! ; 
 d. at 'rolcdn, loliO; entered the order of the J)o- 
 nunicans; studied at Salamanca; was jirofessor 
 of theology at Alcala and Salannmca, liishop of 
 the Canaries, and provincial of his order. Mis 
 principal \vorks are J)e Pcenitentki, De S(icrame7i- 
 tis, and Loci TheoUniici ; which last work occupies 
 a prominent place in the history of Konum-Catho- 
 lic dogmatics. His works appeared at Cologne, 
 1005, and at l.yon, 17(14. 
 
 CAPER'NAUM {lUe village of Nahnm, not to be 
 connected with the prophet) is not mentioned 
 outside of the Ciospels, perhaps was not built till 
 after the exile, but is called Christ's "own city" 
 (Matt. ix. 1), and was the scene of many of his 
 mighty acts. See JIatt. viii. .5-14, ix. 2, xvii. 24 ; 
 John vi. 17-59, iv. 40, etc. It is plain from the 
 Gospels that it was, (1) in Galilee (Luke iv. .31) ; 
 
 (2) on the lake (Matt. iv. 13 ; John vi. 17-24) ; 
 
 (3) the seat of a collector and of a garrison 
 (Matt. viii. 5), perhaps of a custom-house (Jlatt. 
 xvii. 24 ; Mark ii. 1, 14 ; Lulce v. 27, cf . Matt. ix. 
 1, 9) ; (4) noted for its synagogue built by a 
 Roman centurion (Luke vii. 1, 5) ; (5) joined 
 with Chorazin and Bethsaida in the denuncia- 
 tions of Jesus, and its destruction predicted 
 (Matt. xi. 20-23 ; Luke x. 13-15). It has been 
 inferred that it was in the land of Gennesaret ; 
 but this is not certain (cf. Matt. xiv. 34; John vi. 
 16, 17, 24, 25). The indications are, that the city 
 was on the west side of the lake, and near its 
 northern end. Constantine built there a cluirch 
 upon the site of Peter's house. We find refer- 
 ences to the place in the thirteentli century, but 
 to-day its very site is in dispute. The expression, 
 " On the borders of Zebulun and Naphtali " 
 (Matt. iv. 13), does not help us any, because it is 
 imcertain where tliese borders were. Two places, 
 only about three miles apart, lay claim to be 
 Capernaum, — Khan Minyeh, on the northern end 
 of the plain of Gennesaret ; and Tell Hum, a ruin 
 near the lake, about two miles south-west of 
 where the River Jordan enters the lake, — and 
 biblical geographers are much divided between 
 them; the claims of other places, such as 'Ain 
 Mudaivarah, meeting now with no support. The 
 arguments for and against each place are as fol- 
 lows: 1. Tell Hum is well located for a custom- 
 house and garrison, since it was on the border of 
 Philip's tetrarchy. But Khan Jlinyeh was on 
 the Roman highway to Damascus : whether it 
 ran by Tell Hum in Christ's day is very doubtful. 
 Khan Minyeh is surely much more accessible, 
 and therefore more likely to get trade. To reach 
 Tell Hum one must follow a narrow path (an- 
 ciently a conduit) cut in the rock at some height 
 above the lake. 2. A\'hen it is said (Mark vi. 
 32, 33 ; cf. Matt. xiv. 13 ; Luke ix. 10) that the 
 people walked around the head of the lake while 
 Jesus went across in a boat, but yet they arrived 
 first, it does not necessarilij follow that Cajier- 
 naum was far to the north, because no men- 
 tion is made of it as the point of departure. 
 
 Xor is it proven that Capernaum belonged to 
 (jenuesarct, becausi^ Mark (vi. 53) says, that, on 
 the return journey, Jesus came to (iennesaret; 
 and John (vi. 24), that the people found him at 
 Capernaum. 3. Jose])hus {Life, 72) relates, that 
 when wounded, near the enti'ance of the Jordan 
 into the lake, he was carried into a village named 
 Capernaum, or Kcpharnome, which ajijiarently 
 was the nearest; i.e.. Tell Hum. But, as Jose- 
 phus does not say that Capernaum was the near- 
 est village, it might just as well have been a little 
 farther off; and the passage is not conclusive. 
 In the only other passage in which Josephus 
 mentions Capernaum {War, III. 10, 8), it is not 
 the name of a place, but of a " most fertile foun- 
 tain " by which Gennesaret was watered. This 
 is probably the 'Ain el Tuhiyhah, the fountain 
 from which, by means of an aqueduct along the 
 seashore, the water was carried to the northern 
 part of the plain. It is only about two miles 
 from Tell Hum, and a mile from Khan IMinyeh: 
 by the latter place itself flows 'Ain et Tin ("the 
 Fountain of the Fig-tree "), w hich, however, falls 
 into the sea a few hundred steps off; southward 
 is the Round Fountain, 'Ain J\Iiulawarah, in which, 
 as in Joseplins' Kapharnaum, the Kile fish cora- 
 cinus, or catfish, is found. [Lieut. Kitchener 
 remarks that 'Ain et Tabighah is too muddy, and 
 too much overgrown with weeds, to allow the co- 
 racinus to be seen ; for they always remain at the 
 bottom of the w ater.] 4. The statement of Theo- 
 dorus (c. 530), that Capernaum was twice as fai- 
 from IMagdala as the latter from Tiljerias, and 
 that of Arculfus (c. 070), that he had seen Caper- 
 naiun lying from west to east, between the sea 
 on the south, and the mountain on the north, 
 agree best with Tell Hrun, which lies upon a 
 point of the shoi'e jirojecting into the lake. But 
 later tradition is of small account either way. 
 5. Robinson interprets Tell Hum "hill of the 
 camel-herd," which is very questionable. But to 
 compare Hum with Nahum [the mound or ruin 
 of Nahum] is equally so. The Jewish tradition 
 connects it with R. 'ranehiun. 0. Tell Hum is, 
 at all events, one of the most important ruins 
 in Palestine, a half-mile long, a quarter-mile 
 broad, emljracing that of a synagogue about 
 seventy-five feet long by fifty-eight feet wide ; its 
 walls built of hard limestone, resting on basaltic 
 rock. FR. W. SCHULTZ. 
 
 [If Tell Hmn be Capernaum, then this is 
 probably the synagogue built by the pious cen- 
 tiu'ion, and in which Jesus taught (Luke vii. 5; 
 Mark i. 21). The walls of many private houses 
 can be traced, and two tombs have been found. 
 But there are ruins at Khan IMinyeh also, accord- 
 ing to Lieut. Kitchener, under the present surface 
 of the ground. This review of the arguments 
 shows that there is nuich to be .said on both 
 sides. The claims of Khan Minyeh are supported 
 by Robinson (18.52), Jlacgregor (1SG4), Sepp 
 (1867), Porter (1875), Kiepert, and by Lieut. 
 Kitchener and Selah Merrill (1877), representa- 
 tives respectively of the British and American 
 Exploration Societies; while those of Tell Hum 
 are maintained by Dr. John Wilson (1847). Dr. 
 W. M. Thomson (18.59), Ilepworth Dixon (1S64), 
 Dean Stanley (1871), Capt. (now Lieutenant- 
 Colonel) Wilson (1871), Ritter, Delitzsch, Socin, 
 in Baedeker's Syria and Palestine, Schaff, and
 
 CAPHTOR. 
 
 400 
 
 CAPPADOCIA. 
 
 others. The strongest avguinent for Khau Min- 
 yeh, or the Khiu'bet Jlinyeh of Lieut. Kitchener, 
 is the geographical : it is near the shore, in the 
 land of Gennesaret (if Geiinesaret be el-Ghuweir), 
 and is well located for a custom-house, on the 
 liighway from .Jerusalem to Damascus. For Tell 
 Hum there is the similarity of name, and the 
 extensive ruins. Dr. Robinson explains their 
 absence from Khan ilinyeh on the ground that 
 Tiberias may have been built witli them; but 
 Tiberias was already built (.V.D. 20) while Caper- 
 naum was flourisliing; and, besides, so comislete 
 a demolition as the conjecture necessitates is not 
 easily effected. If Tell Hum be Capernaum, 
 then Kerazeh, two miles northward, is Choraziu. 
 This is, upon the whole, the most probable view. 
 But see Chor.azin. 
 
 Besides the authors mentioned, see Scn.\FF : 
 Bible Lands, 350-.3.54, and his Bible Diet, sub 
 '•Capernaum;" Lieut. Kitchexer, art. in the 
 Quart, ■'statement of the Palestine Exploration 
 Fund, July, l'S70; S. Mekuill: East of the .Jor- 
 dan. Xew York, 1881, p. 457 (for Khan Minyeh); 
 K. Tii. KL'cKEUT : Reise durch. Putastina, Mainz, 
 1881, pp. 381 sqq. (wOio favors decidedly Tell 
 Hum)]. 
 
 CAPHTOR, the original home of the Caphto- 
 rim, or Philistines (Deut. ii. 23; Jer. xlvii. 4; 
 Amos ix. 7), eitlier an island, as Jeremiah calls it, 
 or a coast country. '\'arious identifications liave 
 been proposed. 1. Cappadocia, favored by the 
 old versions because of similarity of sound ; but 
 Cappadocia was originally Catpatuk, and so the 
 similarity vanishes. 2. Cyprus, but in tlie Old 
 Testament the island is called Chittim. 3. Crete: 
 the generally received identification, supported 
 by Amos ix. 7 : the Philistines are said to have 
 been brought from Caphtor as the Lsraelites from 
 Egypt; but the Pliilistines are called Cheretliites, 
 cf. 1 .S.am. XXX. 14, 16; Ezek. xxv. 10; Zeph. ii. 
 5 ; but the latter are Cretans, as the Septuagint 
 calls them. The objection that Gen. x. 13, 14 
 (cf. 1 Chrou. i. 12) makes the Caphtorim to come 
 from tlie Egyptians is tlius explained: the Caslu- 
 him were the inhabitants of Cassiotis ; colonists 
 from Crete or Caphtorim settled there, were 
 counted ICgyptians, and then went to Palestine, 
 where tliey were joined by their countrymen 
 direct from Crete. 4. The Phoenician colony on 
 the coasts of the jV(7e ddta, because Egyjit, 
 Aiguptos = .\ia guptos = Ai Kaphtor (Ileb.) = 
 coast-land of Phoenicia, for Caphtor = Ivaftur = 
 Great Plia'uicia. But these etymologies arc not 
 undoubted. [It is improliable that at the earliest 
 times a tribe moved from an island to the main- 
 land : lience these " island " id<>ntifications are 
 unliki-ly, wliile the last is likely]. See J. G. 
 i\Ii'-i,i.EK : Die SemilcH, Gotha, 1872; Stauk: 
 Cazn. RtiET.SC'IlI. 
 
 CAPISTRANUS (Gioranni di Capi.ilrano), b. 
 at Capistrauo in tlie Abruzzi, June 23, 138.j; d. 
 at Villach, Carinthia, Oct. 23, 14.')f) ; studied law, 
 and entered the service of the King of Sicily, but 
 gave up this career in 141.'), and became a monk 
 of the Franciscan order. He was one of tlie 
 greatest preachers of that time, and distinguished 
 himself by tlie zeal and tlie success with which 
 he worked against the Fraticelli. In 1450 he was 
 sent to Germany to counteract tlii! Hussites. In 
 thi.s mission he paitially failed ; but, after the fall 
 
 of Constantinople, he succeeded in rousing once 
 more the crusading entliusiasm of tlie people. 
 He led personally an army of crusaders to the 
 support of Johannes Coninus, and he contributed 
 much to the signal defeat of the Turks at Bel- 
 grade. 
 
 CAPITO, Wolfgang, li. at Hagenau, Alsace, 
 1478; d. at Strassburg, 1.541 ; studied at Freiburg, 
 first medicine, then law, and finally theology; 
 became preacher at Bruclisal, 1511, and at Basel, 
 1513; removed in 1519 to Mayence, where he 
 lived in great intimacy with the archbishop, 
 Albrecht ; Ijut, carried away by the Reformation, 
 lie left Mayence in 1523, and settled at Strass- 
 burg, where he became one of the most prominent 
 leaders of the reformatory movement. He is the 
 real author of the Confessio Tetrapolitana. At 
 the synod of Bern, 1532, he played a conspicuous 
 part ; and his moderating and conciliatory in- 
 fluence was also felt in the Peasant ^\'ar and the 
 Analiaptist disturbances. A list of his writings 
 is found in Balm : Capita und Bulzer, Elberfeld, 
 1860. 
 
 CAPITULARIES. The various nations of which 
 the Frankish Empire was composed had each its 
 own law, according to which the people lived, 
 also when it left its native territory. But, besides 
 these national laws, there was also a general im- 
 perial law, valid not only for the individual, but 
 also for the territory. In the ^Merovingian time 
 the names of decretam, dccrctio, constituttiin, edic- 
 tum, auctoritas, pactio, were given to such general 
 imperial prescriptions; but during the Carolingian 
 time capitularies — from capitida, because the edict 
 was divided into chapters — came into general 
 use, and it has afterwards been extended also to 
 laws of an earlier date. The language was Latin, 
 but the text was accompanied with translations 
 for the provinces. As the Frankish kings exer- 
 cised a legislative authority also in the affairs of 
 the Church, many capitularies have a direct eccle- 
 siastical bearing ; and special collections of eccle- 
 siastical capitidaries were made at an early date, 
 for instance, by Ansegisus, 827. Of the original 
 copies of the capitulari(!s, only a few fragments 
 are still extant; but from the archives of monas- 
 teries and chapters the text of a great number of 
 capitularies is well ascertained. The best edition 
 of them is found in vol. HI. and IV. of Peutz : 
 i1/«n. Ilisl. Germ., Hanover, 183.5-37. See STOltnE : 
 Geschiclite der deutschcn llcrhtsijuellen, Part I., p. 
 200, where olden- editions are noticed ; A. BouE- 
 Tlfs : Die Kapitularien im Lonf/ohardenreiche, 1862, 
 and Beilriirje zur Kapitidarienkritit, 1874; G. 
 Bicselek: Ubcr die Gesetzeskrajl der Kajiitularicn 
 1871. MEJER, 
 
 CAPPADOCIA, tlie largest and most easterly 
 province of Asia Minor. On the north was Poii- 
 tus ; on the east, the Euphrates, beyond wliich 
 were Armenia and Mesopolainia; on the soutli, 
 Syria an<l Cilicia; an<l on the we.st, Galatia. It 
 was high tabUvlaiid, intersected by ranges of 
 mountains .spar.sely wooded, but fitted for grain 
 or grazing. It was conquered by Cyrus, ruled by 
 Alexander the (ireat. Made a tributary by th(! 
 .Seleucida>, it became a Roman province A.D. 17. 
 Some Cajipadocian Jews were in Jerusalem on 
 tlie Day of Pentecost (Acts ii. 0); and Christians 
 of the jirovince are specially addressed by Peter 
 (1 Pet. i. 1).
 
 CAPPEL. 
 
 401 
 
 CAPTIVITY. 
 
 CAPPEL, Jacques (Jacobus Cappellus), li. at, 
 Renin's, l.'iTO; il. ul Sedan, 1024 ; descended from 
 a family whieh has given to France many excel- 
 lent men, and was educated in the Reformed 
 Church. In 1599 he l)ecame professor of Hebrew 
 at Sedan, and in IGlO professor of theology. A 
 list of his numerous works is given as an appen- 
 dix to tli(^ ski'tch, Di: ( 'appcllonmi Grille, which is 
 printed as an introdu(^tory to Ludocici t'upp<;lli 
 Comincutaiii id Nolfc Crilica; in Vetus Testamcnium, 
 Amsterdam, 1689 ; and his Ohncrcaliones in Hetecta 
 Pentalcuchi Loca, in Josiiam, JudiccK, etc., are con- 
 tained in the same volume. His Ilistoria Sacra 
 appeared at Sedan, Kill.'. Many of his works are 
 not printed. 
 
 CAPPEL, Louis (Liidocicus Cappellus), a J'oung- 
 er brother of the preceding; b. at St. Elier, a 
 village near Sedan, Oct. 1.5 or 10, 1.585; d. at 
 Sauinur, June 18, 1058; studied theology at 
 Sedan, and acted for some time as tutor to the 
 daughters of the Duke of Bouillon ; received a 
 stipend from the Reformed C'hurch of Bourdeaux, 
 and travelled for four years in England, Holland, 
 Germany, and Switzerland; was appointed pro- 
 fessor of Hebrew in the Academy of Saumur in 
 1613, and professor of theology in 1633. He was 
 a man of vast learning ; but the subject on which 
 he specially concentrated his energy was the Ids- 
 tory of the text of tlie Old Testament, on which 
 he wrote Arcanum Punclationis Revelatum, Am- 
 sterdam, 1624 ; Critica Sacra, Paris, 1650 ; and 
 Dialriha <le Veris et Antiquis Hebraurum Lilcris, 
 Amsterdam, 1645. By these works, advocating 
 the comparatively recent introduction of the 
 vowel-points in Hebrew writing, he seemed to 
 shake the authority of the Sci'iptm-es as the in- 
 spii'ed regula et novum fidei, and they met with 
 great opposition in the Protestant world. The 
 first was vehemently attacked by Buxtorf, which 
 attack called forth the Vindiciw Arcani Puncla- 
 tionis ; but this answer was not published until 
 1689, by his son, in Ludovici Cappelli Conimentarii 
 et NotCE Crilicce in V. Test. The Critica Sacra was 
 finished in 1634 ; but such strong objections were 
 made to it by the author's friends, both in Geneva, 
 Leyden, and Sedan, that its publication was post- 
 poned for sixteen years. It was severely criti- 
 cised, and the author wrote thrice in defence of 
 it, — Justa Defensio adversus Injustum Ccnsorcm ; 
 De Critica, 1651 ; and De eadem ilia Critica, 
 1652. The opposition at last became so strong, 
 that the first propositions of the Formula Consen- 
 sus Helvetica, are pointed directly against Cappel- 
 lus. But after the lapse of half a century, the 
 results of his investigations were universally ac- 
 cepted. A complete list of his works, printed 
 and unprinted, is given in the above-mentioned 
 Comment, et Nota in V. Test., Amsterdam, 1089. 
 See also Geoug Schnederm.vxx : Die Contro- 
 verse des Ludovicus Capellus mit den Buxtnrfen, 
 Leipzig, 1879. E. bertheau. 
 
 CAPTIVE. SeeAA^AR. 
 
 CAPTIVITY OF THE JEWS. This term is 
 used in a narrow sense to ex) iress the " seventy 
 years " between the first invasion of .Tudsea by 
 Nebuchadnezzar and the permission for the re- 
 turn, given by Cyrus B.C. 605-.536. But in its 
 widest sense it may be taken to inclmle the differ- 
 ent times when the Jews came under the power 
 cf their foes. Six such times of partial and 
 27'- 1 
 
 transient captivity, however, are recorded in 
 Judges: 1. By Clnishan-rishathaim, King of 
 Aram-naharaim, i.e., Mesopotamia, during eight 
 years (iii. 8); 2. Kglon, King of Moab, during 
 (eighteen years (iii. 14) ; 3. Jabin, King of Hazor, 
 during twenty years (iv. 3); 4. the jMiilianites 
 during .seven years (vi. 1) ; 5. the Anniionitcs dur- 
 ing eighteen years (x. 8); 0. tlie I'liilistines dur- 
 ing forty years (xiii. 1). The chronolfigy of this 
 period of the .Judges being very uncertain, we 
 cannot tell whether any two of th'se captivities 
 were synclironous, or wliether thei| followed each 
 other in time, as they do in the record. 
 
 Captivity in the strict sense first fell upon the 
 Xortliern Kingdom ; lor after Pnl, B.C. 762 (2 
 Kings XV. 19), Tiglath-pile.ser, B.C. 740 (xv. 29), 
 King of Assyria, made war upon Israel, and 
 carried members of the tribes of Reuben, Gad, 
 and Manasseh, with a few of other ti-il>es, into 
 his land. The residue remained under their own 
 king, but paid tribute to the Assyrian (iovern- 
 ment. After the lapse of some twenty years, this 
 tribute was refused : tlierefore Shalmanezer " went 
 up to Samaria, and besieged it three years," or 
 rather, two according to our reckoning. It was 
 finally taken by the " King of Assyria," probably 
 his successor, Sargou (B.C. 721), who carried away 
 the mass of the poimlation beyond the Euphrates 
 (xvii. 0). — Tlie kingdom of Judah, as was inevi- 
 table, fell next under the great world-power, 
 Assyria. In the fourteenth year of Ilezekiah 
 (B.C. 713), Sennacherib took all the fenced cities 
 of Judah, and was prevented from taking Jerusa- 
 lem only by the large tribute sent him (xviii. 
 13-10). His next attempt upon the city occurred 
 a few years later. He sent an army against 
 Jerusalem, and semeed upon the very eve of 
 success, when God slew one liundred and eighty 
 thousand of his army, and thus prevented any 
 attack (xviii. 17, xix. 35). One hundred yeai's 
 of comparative quiet passed ; and then Xebuchad- 
 nezzar, King of Babylon, began his depred.ations 
 (B.C. 005). At first he cari'ied away only a few ; 
 but among them were Daniel and Ids companions 
 (xxiv. 1; Dan. i. 1-4). In B.C. 598 he came 
 again, and took away ten thousand (2 Kings xxiv. 
 10-16). The seventy-years' captivity, in the eccle- 
 siastical sense, began in B.C. .588, wlien, for the 
 fourth time, Xebuchadnezzar invaded Judwa, and 
 took Jerusalem after a .siege of eighteen months, 
 whose horrors are graphically depicted in Jere- 
 miah's Lamentations. The King, Zedekiah, and 
 his people, were transported to Babylon, the city 
 was burnt, and the walls broken down Cxxv. 1-21). 
 The " seventy-years' captivity," in the civil sense, 
 came to an end wlien Cyrus allowed the Jews to 
 return (B.C. 530) ; in an ecclesiastical sense, not 
 until the temple was rebuilt (B.C. 517). The 
 first company went under Zerubbabel (Ez. ii. 2) ; 
 a second under Ezra (B.C. 458) ; and a third 
 under Xehemiah (B.C. 445). Those who re- 
 mained in Assj'ria, or who were afterwards scat- 
 tered over the Roman Empire, were known as 
 " The Dispersion " (John vii. 35 ; 1 Pet. i. 1 ; 
 Jas. i. 1). They were the soil for tlie gospel 
 seed. See Dispersed. 
 
 The .Jews themselves commonly reckon four 
 n.ational captivities, — the Babylonian, the Me- 
 dian, the Grecian, and the Roman. The Babylo- 
 nian has been already described; the Median
 
 CAPUCHINS. 
 
 402 
 
 CARACCIOLI. 
 
 (Medo-Persian) was IVoiii Darius tlie jMede to 
 Barius Codomamis (B.C. 530-332); the (Tiecian, 
 from tlie entrance of Alexander tlie Great into 
 Jerusalem to the insurrection of the Ilebi-ews 
 imder the Maccabees (B.C. 332-107); and the 
 Roman, from B.C. 03. From A.U. 7 to GS there 
 were thirteen Roman procurator.s ia JuJiea. In 
 A.D. 70 the Jews lost every thing ; their temple 
 was destroyed, and they were driven from their 
 land. In a sense they are still in their Roman 
 captivity. 
 
 CAPUCHINS. A :\Iinorite of the Observantine 
 Convent of Montefalconi, !Matteo di Ba.sio, heard, 
 of a brother-monk, that the capuchin (hood) which 
 St. Francis had used was of quite a different shape 
 from that which afterwards his followers, the 
 Franciscan monks, adopted. He was nnich struck 
 by this discovery, left his monastery immediately, 
 appeared in Rome before Pope Clement VII., 
 and obtained (in 1520) permission of him to put 
 ou a pyramidal capuclie, to wear a long beard, to 
 live as a hermit, and to preach wherever he 
 liked, on the condition that he should report once 
 every year at the provincial chapter of the Observ- 
 ants. But enthusiasm is contagious. Shortly 
 after, another Observantine monk, Ludovico di 
 Frossombone, became enamoured with the genuine 
 capuche, the long beard, and the literal observa- 
 tion of the rules of St. Francis ; and, together with 
 his brother Raffaello, he repaired to Rome, where 
 he received by a breve the same permission as 
 JIatteo had received orally. Tlie three enthusi- 
 asts now joined fortunes, and found protection 
 against the Observants with the Duke of Came- 
 rino. By a bull of July IS, 152S, Clement YII. 
 confirmed them as a separate congregation (Fra- 
 tres Minores Capuzini), entirely independent of 
 the Observants, but under the authority of the 
 Conventuals. They should have only a vicar- 
 general, and he should be confirmed by the gen- 
 eral of the Conventuals : they should be subject 
 to visitations from the chapter of the Convent- 
 uals ; wlien walking in a procession, they .should 
 walk under the cross of the Conventuals, and 
 not under a cross of their own, etc. But they 
 were free to display the large pjTaniidal capiu^he, 
 and that was to them the great thing. Their 
 first monastery was foimded at Colmenzono by 
 the Duchess of Camerino. In 1.529 they had 
 already four monasteries, and in the same year 
 Ludovico could convene the first chapter of Capu- 
 chins at .Vlvacina. But in 1543 its vicar-general, 
 JJeruardino Ochino, embraced Protestantism. He 
 had left the Observants, and joined the Capu- 
 chins in 1534. In 1538 he was made vicar- 
 general of the congregation ; and so successful 
 was his administration, that he was re-elected in 
 1543. But now he left, not oidy the congregation, 
 but the Clnircli, lied to Geneva, an<l became an 
 apostate. This was, of coiu-se, a f(;arful blow 
 to the congregation. Tlie Pope thouglit of dis- 
 .solving it altogether; and only the most doleful 
 supplications, the most absolute submission to 
 the wish of the Pope, the most complete abnega- 
 tion of all indiviilual opinions, saved it from 
 death. As soon, however, as it began to recu- 
 perate, it showed its sincerity and vigor by de- 
 veloping one of the most extreme tyjies of l^atin 
 monasticism. The Reformation actrd upon the 
 monks of the Roman Church as a kind of mag- 
 
 netic polarization ; and while the Jesuits de- 
 velojied to the higliest degree of excellency the 
 positive qualities of the Church, — the un.scrupu- 
 lous energy and cunning intrigue of a consum- 
 mate casuistry, the Capuchins succeeded in giving 
 perfect expression to its negative qualifications, — 
 its ignorance, its credulity, and its coarse symim- 
 thy with the lower instincts of the masses. Origi- 
 nally the congi'egation was confined to Italy; Vmt 
 in 1573 it invaded France, in 1.5il2 Germany, and 
 in 1000 Spain. In lOlSI it obtained its own gen- 
 eral, and right to walk in a procession vmder its 
 own cross. In the latter part of the eighteenth 
 century it was abolished in (iermauy and in 
 France ; and. in the third and fourth decades of 
 the present century, it suffered very much both 
 in Spain and Portugal. In the last decade, how- 
 ever, it seems to be recuperating in all Roman- 
 Catholic countries. 
 
 There was also an order of Capuchin nuns 
 founded by JIaria Laurentia Longa, who in 1534 
 took the veil at Naples with nineteen other 
 women. They adopted the third rule of St. 
 Fi'aucis, and were placed under the authority of 
 the Theatines. But in 153S they made a change, 
 adopted the rules of St. Clara, assumed the pyrami- 
 dal capuche, and came under the authority of the 
 Capuchins. In 1575 they founded a monaster}' 
 in Rome, and in 1000 one in Paris. 
 
 The Aiuwli;;! Saci: Hist. Onlinis Minorum S. 
 Fnmcisci ijui Cnpucini iinnctip(inlur,\>y B.WEisirs. 
 Lyons, 10.32, is simply an impudent praising-up of 
 the Capuchins at the expense of the Observants, 
 and full of palpable lies. Reliable information 
 is found inllF.LYOT: Illsloire (It." Ortlrex Moitas- 
 lique.i, Paris, 1714-19; W.\ni)i.\<i : Annales On!. 
 Min., Lyons. 1025. .VLBRECUT VOGEL. 
 
 CAPUTIATI (rapiicheil), thus called from the 
 hood of their cowl; appeared first in .\uvergne 
 (1182), under the leadership of the carpenter 
 Dm-and, who boasted to have received revelations 
 from the Virgin for the jnn-pose of establishing 
 peace in the Church, and destroying all her ene- 
 mies. According to otlier accounts, the ultimate 
 object of these peacemakers was nothing so inno- 
 cent as peace. At all events, Bishoj^ Hugo of 
 ,\uxerre marched against them with troops, took' 
 them all prisoners, and condemned them to go 
 about a whole year bareheaded, in frost and heat- 
 by cutting the cnpuelie of llieir cowl. 
 
 CARACCIOLI, Galeazzo (.^f(lrt■hL•se di Viro). 
 h. at Xuples in 1517; d. at (ieneva, May 7, 1586; 
 descended from one of the wealthiest and most 
 di.stinguished families of the kingdom of Xaples,- 
 and entered early on a brilliant career at the 
 Neapolitan com-t. Tiie reformatory movement, 
 which in this period s]irang up almost every- 
 where in the Honum Church, and which in 
 Na])les, under the leadership of the .Spaniard Juan 
 de Valdcs, early attracted his attention and sym- 
 pathy, and his ac(j\iaintance with Pietro iMarlire 
 Veriiiiglis, carried liini still farther onward in the 
 direction of Protestantism. But in Na]iles, as in 
 .so many other places, an ecclesiastical re-aetion 
 followed immediately after the reformatory move- 
 ment ; and, though'the attcm])t of introilueing 
 the Inquisition in the kingdom failed, the nltra- 
 iiuintane re-action .soon became so powerful that 
 Caraccioli felt compelled to fiee (1551). He set- 
 tled at Geneva, and became a nieml>ei- of the
 
 CARAITBS. 
 
 40:5 
 
 CARDINAL. 
 
 Protestant-Italian consresation wliicli had ex- 
 isted there since 1512; and he remained there, 
 ■ an exile, and a stranger to his own family, in 
 spite of the exertions which his relatives, and, 
 among them, his nncle, I'ope Paid IV., made to 
 induce him to return. His life has been written 
 by Baliuni, preacher to the Italian congrega- 
 tion at Geneva: llUtdnn dclUi Vila di Giileazza 
 Caraccioli, 1587; new edition, Florence, 1875. 
 CARAITES. See Isk.\i:i., rosr-iuni.icAi. iiis- 
 
 TOIiY <IF. 
 
 CARANZA. Sim. Cakiianza. 
 
 CARAVANSERA!. See Khax. 
 
 CARCASS. The Hebrews were not alone in 
 thinking that the dead body of any animal, clean 
 or unclean was defiling. The Parsees, to men- 
 tion another people, shared the concept; but the 
 Hebrew law contained many regulations upon 
 the subject; and statute gave justification and a 
 religious meaning to the natural repugnance to 
 the presence cf death (see particularly Lev. xi.). 
 It was defilement to eat, even of a clean animal 
 which had eitlier died naturally, or been killed 
 by other animals, or to touch it, or to carry the 
 carcass of an unclean animal (f^ev. xi. .39, 40). 
 If the touching was accidental, a trespass offering- 
 was demanded (Lev. v. 2, 5, 6). Of animals 
 which died naturally, they were forbidden to vise 
 more than the fat, but were at liberty to give the 
 carcass to dogs, to the stranger, and to sell it to 
 aliens (Exod. xxii. 31 ; Dent. xiv. 21) ; but, if the 
 stranger ate it, he was unclean (Lev. xvii. 15). 
 To refrain from things strangled was one of the 
 requirements laid upon the Gentile Christians by 
 the Council of Jerusalem (Acts xv. 20 sq.) For 
 Talmudical regulations see Tr. Oheloth, I. 5, G ; 
 II. 1. FR. AV. SCnULTZ. 
 
 CARCHE'MISH (Fortress of CJiemosh), very 
 probably identical with Circesinm, at the juncture 
 of the Khabur (Chebar) and the Euphrates, — 
 one of the cities taken by Pharaoh-Xecho shortly 
 after the battle of Megiddo (about B.C. 608), anil 
 retaken by Nebuchadnezzar, B.C. 005 (Isa. x. 9; 
 Jer. xlvi.'^2-12; 2 Cluon. xxxv. 20). The Gar- 
 {/amis upon the cuneiform inscriptions is not to 
 be regarded as identical with Carchemish, but 
 rather as describing a city nnich farther north. 
 ScHRADER : Keilinsckriflen u. Geschichtsf'orschunc/, 
 Giessen, 1878; Maspero: De Carchemis oppiiH 
 situ et list, antiqii., Paris, 1872. KUETSCIII. 
 
 CARDINAL is the title of the highest dignity 
 in the Roman-Catholic hierarchy, next to that of 
 the Pope. Its origin dates far back in the history 
 of the Church of Rome, though its final defini- 
 tion was not fixed until the middle of the six- 
 teenth century. Each of the dioceses into which 
 that city was divided had its own cathedral, 
 or baptismal church, titulus; and the occupant of 
 such a church was called iiititulalus, incardinatus, 
 cardinalis. According to the pontifical of Dama- 
 sus (384), Pope Marcellns (308) divided Rome 
 into twenty-five lituli. In the same manner the 
 city was divided into charity-wards (an institu- 
 tion which is ascribed to Clement I.), and at the 
 head of each ward stood a diaconus. At the be- 
 ginning, there were seven such wards; and the 
 seven diaconi also belonged to the preshi/leri intitu- 
 lati. Pope Stephan IV. (771) added the bishops 
 of the suburban dioceses, that is, the suffragans 
 of the archiepiscopal see of Home, to the class. 
 
 The number of cardinals, however, was variable 
 In the twelfth century it seldom ro.se above thirty 
 (IlrRTEU: Gcsr/iicfilc J'fi/isl Iniioccnz III., I. 73, 
 luitf 119); in the thirteenth it once fell to seven. 
 The Council of Basel fixed it at twenty-four {sess. 
 23, c. 4 deer, de numero et ijiialitale card.) ; but in 
 1510 there were only thirteen cardinals, while 
 under Pius IV. (1559) there were once no le.ss 
 than .seventy-six. Sixtus V. finally fixed the 
 number, once for all, at seventy, corresjionding to 
 tlie seventy elders of Lsrael ; so that thei'e should 
 be six cardinal-bishojis (O.stia, Porto, Frascati, 
 Sabina, Pala?strina, and Albano), fifty cardinal- 
 priests, and fourteen cardinal-deacons. The num- 
 ber, however, was very seldom complete. By a 
 bull of Feb. 1.5, 1507, Pope Pius V. finally con- 
 fined the title, w hich formerly had been applied 
 somewhat vaguely to all priests appointed at a 
 cathedral church, to such among the clergy of the 
 city of Rome as had been " incardinated " by the 
 Pope him.self (Ferraris: JJdiliollin-a Canonica 
 s. p. Cardinales, Ai-t. I. ser. 0), referring to the old 
 testimony about Rome as tlie ca7-do erclesiarum 
 . . . unde Senatus Carilimdium a cardine norem 
 accejrit. 
 
 The rights and duties of cardinals dejiend upon 
 a number of older and more recent constitutions, 
 but especially upon the Ceremoniale Hnmanwn 
 (the Concil. Tridentinnm, sess. XXI]'. rap. 1 de 
 reform) and the bulls of Sixtus V. A cardinal is 
 "created" by the Pope; and the qualities de- 
 manded in a candidate are generally the same as 
 those demanded in a liishoji, — the person must 
 have been born in legal wecllock, be possessed of 
 the lower degrees of ordination for at least one 
 year before his elevation, have no progeny, have 
 no relatives of second degrees (according to 
 canonical computation) among the cardinals, etc. 
 The creation takes place in a secret, but is an- 
 nounced in a public, consistory, when the instal- 
 lation with hat, ring, etc., is "performed. Until 
 all formalities are gone through, — and they are 
 very multitudinous, and often completely un- 
 meaning even to antiquaries, — the cardinal can- 
 not exercise his rights; for instance, not vote in 
 the conclave, thougli in this respect the consti- 
 tution of Eugene IV. (Oct. 20, 1431) and the 
 rescript of Pius V. (Jan. 20, 1571) contradict 
 each other. By the ajjpointment the Pope is 
 obliged to pay some regard to all nations, but 
 the majority of cardinals are always Italians. Of 
 the sixty-seven cardinals in 185(), fifty-one were 
 Italians. In former times the kings had a right 
 of presentation ; and cardinals who had been 
 created in that manner were called crown-cardi- 
 nals. The principal rights of the cardinals are : 
 they alone are eligible to the papal see (Stephan 
 III., 709), and they alone elect the Pope (Nicho- 
 las 11. , 1059) ; and, on account of this their close 
 connection with the papal digiiit}', they were 
 allowed by Innocent IV. (1245) to wear the red 
 hat with the pendent tassels, and by Paul 11. 
 (1404) to wear a purple robe. Urban V'lII. (1630) 
 conferred the title of Emiiientissimi upon them, 
 the same as was applied to the prince-electors 
 of the German Empire; and offences against 
 them were considered as crimen Iwsa majestatis. 
 Among themselves the cardinal-bishops rank fir.st, 
 then tlie cardinal-presbyters, and finally the cardi- 
 nal-deacons. The oldest cardinal-bishop residing
 
 CAREY. 
 
 404 
 
 CARLSTADT. 
 
 in Rome is the dean of the College of Cardinals. 
 See articles on Conclave, Consistory, Curia, 
 and PoPK, and the literature there given. Comp. 
 also Histori/ of the Carilinals, to Pope Clement TX., 
 London, 1670. fol. : Buddeus: De Orig. Card. 
 Dignitatis, Jena, 109.5; Bke : De Orig. et Antiqu. 
 Cardinalium, Ileidelljerg, 1767. MEJER. 
 
 CAREY, William, a Baptist missionary and Ori- 
 entali.-;t . b. at raulerspury. Northamptonshire, 
 Eng., Aug. 17. 1761 ; d. at Serampore, India. June 
 9, 1834. By baptism a member of the Estab- 
 lished Church, he was early in life convinced of 
 the scriptural authority for the Baptist vie\^■s, 
 and joined this sect, in which he soon became a 
 preacher. His congregations were very poor, 
 and he supported himself and family by shoe- 
 making. But his thirst for knowledge was 
 strong; and he managed, notwithstanding the 
 pressure of poverty, to acquire Latin, Greek, 
 Hebrew, and a goodly amount of other useful 
 learning, especially in natural history and botany. 
 Thus, unknown to himself, he was being prepared 
 for the great career God had planned for him. 
 His attention was turned nnto the heathen, and 
 he saw plainly his duty go to them. On Oct. 2. 
 1792, largely through his exertions, the first Bap- 
 tist missionary society was founded ; aud on June 
 13, 1703, he and his family sailed for India, ac- 
 companied by Jlr. John Thomas, who had form- 
 erly lived in Bengal. On reaching Bengal, Carey 
 and his companion lost all their property in the 
 Hugli ; but, having received the charge of an 
 indigo-factoi-y at Mahia, he cut otf his pecuniary 
 connection with the missionary society, aud be- 
 gan in earnest what, instead of regular missionary 
 labor, was to be the work of his life, — the study 
 and translation, both from and into the languages 
 of India. In 1799 the factory was closed ; and 
 he went with Thomas to Kidderpore, where he 
 liad purchased a small indigo-plantation. Here, 
 joined by JIarshmau and ^\'ard, he started, under 
 bright hopes, a mission, but soon encountered the 
 opposition of the Indian (tovernment, wliich for- 
 bade the mission's enlargement, and compelled 
 its removal, at a great pecuniary loss, to .Seram- 
 pore, a Danish settlement (1800), where it took 
 a fresh lease of life. For some time Carey and 
 Thomas had been diligently at work upon a ver- 
 .sion of the New Testament in Bengalee. In 
 1801 it was publislied by the press Carey institut- 
 ed. About the same time the Marquis of Welles- 
 ley appointed him professor of Oriental languages 
 in the Tort William College, wlii('h the manpiis 
 had founded at Calcutta for the instniction of the 
 younger members of tlie British Indian civil ser- 
 vice. Carey held this ]iosition for thirty years, 
 and taught Bengalee, Mahratta, and Sanscrit. 
 lie wrote articles upon the natural history and 
 botany of India for the .Vsiatic .Society, to which 
 he was elected, 1805, and thus in<ade practical 
 application of tastes cultivated in former years ; 
 but this was only a ]iart, and bv far the less 
 valuable part, of his work. That w)iich has given 
 him his undying fame was his translations of 
 the Bil)lc, in whole or in part, either alone or 
 with others, into some twenty-four Indian lan- 
 guages. The Serampore press, \nider his direc- 
 tion, rendered the Bible accessible to ni()r<' tlian 
 three lumdred million human beings. Besi<les, he 
 prepared grammars and dictionaries of several 
 
 tongues; e.g., Mahratta Grammar, 1805; Sanscrit 
 Grammar, 1806; Mahratta Dictionary, 1810; Ben- 
 galee Dirtionarif. 1818; and a .Sanscrit dictionary 
 which unhappily was destroyed by a fire in the 
 printing establishment. Later students have dis- 
 covered errors and omissions in these works ; but 
 all honor is due to Carey for " breaking the way," 
 and every inhabitant of India is his debtor. See 
 J. C. ^Mahshmax. Life and Times of Carey, 
 Marshmini, and Ward, London, 1859, 2 vols. 
 
 CARGILL, Donald, one of the leaders of the 
 .Scotch Ciivenanters ; b. in the parish of I'attray, 
 Perthshire, 1610; beheaded at Edinburgh. July 27, 
 1681. lie was educated at Aberdeen ; and about 
 1650 he became pastor of the Barony Church, 
 Glasgow. In 1661. \\hen Episcopacy was estab- 
 lished in Scotland, he refused to aece]it his charge 
 from the archbishop, and was banished beyond 
 the Tay; but he did not go. In 1679 he joined 
 Cameron, Douglas, Hamilton, and others in the 
 rebellion against prelacy, which arose out of the 
 ■' Rutherglen Declaration " of May 29 of that 
 year, and with his fellow-Covenanters endured 
 the defe.it of Bothwell Bridge, June 22. He fled 
 to Holland, but .soon returned. The next year he 
 and Cameron, with their adherents, drew up the 
 ".Sanquhar Declaration," June 22. The govern- 
 ment set a price upon the leaders' heads. They 
 were attacked at .\yrsmoss, July 22. and Cameron 
 was slain ; but Cargill succeeded to the leadership, 
 and, as if to testify in the most signal manner hi.s 
 abhorrence of the tyrannical persecutors, he pub- 
 licly excommunicated the king and several of the 
 nobles at a field-preaching held at Torwood in 
 Stirlingshire in September. When the Duke of 
 York, one of the "excommunicated." came to 
 Scotland, the persecution of the followers of Car- 
 gill increased. He himself was hunted froinplact 
 to place; hut on July 11, 1681, he was captured 
 between Clydesdale and Lothian, and taken to 
 Edinlnu'gh for trial. He readily confessed that 
 he had done what the council had called treason. 
 The coimcil were equally divided whether to im- 
 prison him for life, or to execute him ; but the 
 vote of the Duke of Argyle decided in favor of 
 the latter, — a vote which cost Argyle, later on, 
 the support of the Covenanters, to say nothing 
 of deej) remorse. Accordingly Cargill was put 
 to death. See Hi'.tiikuinotox : llist. Ch. Scot- 
 land, eh. vii. X.V. (Carter). 
 
 CARLSTADT, Andreas Rudolphus Bodenstein, 
 1). pniliably a cnuiilc of yrars befcire Luther, at 
 Carlstadt in Franconia, \\ hence his surname; d. 
 of the plague, at Basel, 1511 ; made his first studies 
 at some Italian university, ami came in l.")0-l to 
 AVittenberg, where in 151:! lu! was made professor 
 of theology, and archdeacon at the collegiate 
 church. He was well versed in the works of the 
 .schoolmen ; and all he wrote himself at this period 
 was scholastic in sjiirit and in form. But, having 
 made a journey to Home in 1515, he found, on 
 his retm-'n, the whole theologv of the university 
 changed by Luther. The seiioobuen had gone, 
 and "the Bible and .Vugustine had tak<'n their 
 place. His first instinct was hatighty resistance; 
 lor he w.as used to consider himself the repre- 
 sei\tative and the honor of the miivcrsity. But 
 the attempt of resistance failed; and, as failure 
 always made him very meek ami submissive, ho 
 immediately vieldc'd io the change, and threw
 
 CARLSTADT. 
 
 405 
 
 CARLYLE. 
 
 himself into tlie opposite extreme. lie became 
 a mystic. M'orkiiig together witli Luther for 
 some time in perfect unison, lie even antioijiated 
 him in several points, as is shown by his hun- 
 dred and tifty-tvvo theses of Ajjril 2(i, 1517, Di' 
 Natura, Le<ie, el Grat'ni conlnt Sc/m/dxlicos ct Com- 
 mmietn NtitHnim. lint this refornuitory activity 
 brought him in conflict with Dr. Kck ; and at 
 the Leipzig disputation, June 27, 1510, he had 
 the great mortification, not only to see himself 
 foiled by the skill and adroitness of his adver- 
 sary, but also to see Luther step forward with 
 connnanding sviperiority, and usurp the whole at- 
 tention. The next year (August, 1.520) he made 
 the first attack on Luther in Ids Dc CanoiikU 
 Scriplurh, though without mentioning his name. 
 
 Carlstadt was, no doubt, sincerely devoted to 
 the cause of the Reformation : but he was vain ; 
 he wanted to be the first, the leader, whenever ho 
 took a part in any thing, and that was just the 
 very position which he was utterly unable to 
 occupy. A^'hile Luther was away in Wartburg, 
 Carlstadt found the field free ; and by the impetu- 
 osity and rashness of his character he carried not 
 only the populace, but also the council and the 
 university, into a most dangerous revolution. 
 Christmas Day, 1521, he celebrated the Lord's 
 Supper in his church, leaving out all the most 
 essential features of tlie Roman liturgy, — the 
 confession, the consecration of the elements, the 
 elevation of the host, the reservation of the cup 
 for the clergy, etc. Jan. 20, 1522, he married in 
 a most ostentatious way. The destruction of 
 images, the abolition of monasteries, and other 
 sweeping reforms, were in preparation. Mean- 
 while the students and the mob bombarded the 
 house of the canons with stones, and interrupted 
 the service when it was not in accordance with 
 the latest frenzy ; and the whole commimity was 
 on the very verge of chaos and anarchy. Luther's 
 re-appearance in the city (March 0, 1522) brought 
 back order and quiet ; and all the rash and pre- 
 mature reforms were set aside. Carlstadt himself 
 was treated with leniency, even with regard, by 
 Luther ; but he felt sick and humiliated. In the 
 spring of 1523 he left 'Wittenberg, settled on a 
 farm in the neighborhood, put on a peasant's 
 dress, called himself a " new layman," and began 
 to cast about in an unruly and planless manner. 
 
 Once more, however, he got an opportunity to 
 show himself as a practical reformer. Towards 
 the end of 1523 he was made pastor of Orla- 
 miinde, and he immediately began to repeat his 
 experiment from Wittenberg. But Carlstadt at 
 Orlamiinde, and Thomas Miinzer at Allstiidt, 
 soon became the centres of a wild and uproarious 
 fermentation, which rapidly spread through(.)ut 
 the whole of Thuringia; and in 1524 he was ban- 
 ished fronr Saxony. Through the interference of 
 Luther he was allowed to return in 1520 ; but he 
 was kept, under very strict control, apart from all 
 public business, forbidden to write or publish 
 any thing. lie gained a poor pittance by selling 
 gingerbread and beer. Such an humiliation the 
 proud man could not, of course, bear. In 1528 
 he fled, and roved about in Ilolstein, Friesland, 
 and the Rhine regions, until in 1530 he arrived 
 at Strassburg. The controversy between Luther 
 and Zwingli concerning the Lord's Supper he 
 contemplated with unconcealed interest ; and he 
 
 took, of course, the side of Zwingli. He was 
 consequently W'ell received in Sti'as.sburg and 
 Ziii-ich ; and everybody there was eager to do 
 something for the unhappy man, though no one 
 seemed willing to have him as a co-operator or 
 neighbor. In 1531 he was ajipointed pastor of 
 Altstiitten in the Rhine Valley, and in 15:M pro- 
 fe.ssor of theology in Basel. His life has been 
 written by Maykk : Dlsnerl.alio dc Koro/.tlii(/iii, 
 Oreifswald, 1703 ; Fiissi.iN : Lfilifnsf/fsr/iiclilc r/is 
 Andreas Bodenstein I'on Karhtadt, Frankfurt. 177ti ; 
 JXoKit: Andreas Bodenslein von Karlsldill, Stutt- 
 gart, 1856. A complete list of his works has 
 been given by Rotermund in his Erneuertes An- 
 <l<id.rii\ lireiuen, 1818. ERBKAM. 
 
 CARLYLE, Thomas, historian, biographer, an<l 
 essayist; b. at Ecclefechan, Scotland, Dec. 4, 171(5; 
 d. in London, p>b. 5, 1881; buried at Ecclefechan, 
 Feb. 10, though a grave was oft'ered in Westmin- 
 ster Abbey. He was early noted for his extraor- 
 dinary memory, and for his love of reading. He 
 entered the University of Edinburgh in 1810, 
 and distinguished him,self as a nuithematician. 
 Having abandoned the study of theology, he 
 taught nuithematics in the high school at Annan 
 for two years. In 181G he was appointed rector 
 of the Burgh School at Kiikcaldy. Here he 
 devoted himself to the study of German, and 
 also translated Legendre's Georrietri/, adding an 
 Introductory Essay on Proportion. He removed 
 to Edinburgh in 1818, and from 1820 to 1823 
 conti'ibuted a number of articles to the Ed'tn- 
 l/ti>r/h Encyclopo'dia and the Ediidmryh Revieic. 
 In 1824 he introduced Goethe to English readers 
 by the translation of WUhehii Meister's L(lirjulire, 
 and in 1825 published the Life of Schillei: He 
 married Jane Welsh in 1820, and remo\-ed in 
 1828 to Craigenputtoch, where he wrote his Criti- 
 cal and Miscellaneous Essays. 
 
 Sartor Itesarlus, a philosophic romance in the 
 form of a treatise on dress, containing his views 
 on the problems of religion and life, was pub- 
 lished during 1833-34, in Frase?-'s Magazine. In 
 1834 he removed to London, to the house in 
 Cheyne Row, Chelsea, where he resided until his 
 death. In 1837 appeared Tlw French Recolulion, 
 the first of his works to which his name was for- 
 mally attached. In the same year he began lec- 
 turing, and, during 1837-43, delivered courses on 
 German Literature, The Periods of European Cul- 
 ture, the Recolutions of Modern Europe, and Heroes 
 and Hero -Worship, besides publishing Chartism, a 
 political treatise, and Po.s/ and Present. 
 
 One of his most important works, Oliver Crom- 
 icell's Letters and Speeches, was issued in 1845, and 
 produced a great re^■olution of sentiment in favor 
 of Cromwell. In 1840 he inaugurated the move- 
 ment which resiilt«d in the London Lihrartj, of 
 which he w-as afterwards elected president. Dur- 
 ing 1848-50 he wrote a nundjer of political and 
 social treatises, notably The Latter Day Pam- 
 phlets, the ultimate and most violent expression 
 of his political creed. 
 
 The Life of John Sterling, especially valuable 
 as a partial expression of his own religious views, 
 appeared in 1851. His magnum opus, The History 
 of Frederick- the Great, w'as begim in 1858, and 
 finished in 1865. It is a monument of patient 
 industry and minute research, and contains a 
 complete political history of the eighteenth cen-
 
 CARLYLB. 
 
 406 
 
 CARMEL. 
 
 tnry, but weakened his moral influence by its 
 laudation of a despot, and its assertion and de- 
 fence of the right of the strongest. 
 
 He espoused the Soutliern side in the American 
 ^ouflict. His unappreciative and contemptuous 
 treatment of the question appeared in The Nigt/er 
 Question (1S50) and The American Iliad in a jVu/- 
 ihell (1863). In 18G0 he was chosen rector of the 
 University of Edinburgh, and delivered an inau- 
 gural on The Choice of Books, ilrs. Carlyle died 
 during his absence on this occasion (April •21). 
 A few newspaper articles, with Historical sketches 
 of the Early Kinys of Norway, and The Portraits 
 of John Knox, marked the next five years, and 
 completed his literary labors. 
 
 Carlyle's life is marked by gi-eat unity of pur- 
 pose and concentration of energy. He lived for 
 literature. With his imaginative genius, his 
 poetic insight, and his opulent diction, lie was a 
 poet by constitution ; but his lack of the sense of 
 form and proportion, and his impatience of meas- 
 ured expression, made him despise Jioetry. His 
 few poetical expei'iments, Tlie Niyht Moth, Tlie 
 Adieu, To-day, and Tlie Sower s Sony, are among 
 the earliest of his literary efforts. He is a 
 preacher and a prophet, rather than an artist. 
 His keen sense of the grotesque, with the real 
 depth of his nature, made him a humorist at once 
 racy, subtle, and satirical ; but this element devel- 
 oped itself disproportionately, and ran into cyiii- 
 cism as he grew older. 
 
 Xotwitstanding the large admixture of ethics 
 and philosopliy in his v\Titings, it is well-nigh 
 impossible to define accurately his position as a 
 philosopher, moralist, or religionist. Veracity is 
 the basis of his ethical conceptions, by which he 
 means the disposition to go behind appearances 
 to facts, and the assertion of reality as against 
 mere symbols and conventionalities. His hatred 
 of shams is intense, and often leads him into 
 needless roughness of speech. His ethical ideal 
 is defective from its identification of physical and 
 moral order, of might and riglit. It is too sub- 
 jective, lodging the test of right in each man's 
 moral consciousness. Hence liis fun<laniental fal- 
 lacy, expounded in i/ero-iro/-.s/i(/), and applied in 
 Frederick, — the reverence for strength, regardless 
 of moral quality. He is a dangerous guide, there- 
 fore, as an historian and political philosopher. 
 His conception of history as only the record of 
 the world's great men is radically false. He lias 
 no sense of the poi)ular jiower in the solution of 
 
 Eolitical problems. Tlie moral teaching of his 
 istories is unsound in blinding the reader to 
 vice through the admiration of greatness. The 
 logical outcome of his political philosophy is slav- 
 ery and despotism. As an historian he is distin- 
 guished by exact and laboiious attention to detail. 
 He studies folios and ]iasquina<les aliki^ ; and no 
 detail of topograi)hy, feature, or costume, escapes 
 him. His histories are a series of striking por- 
 traits or pictures. He stands connuitted to no 
 philosophical system. With nuicli talk about the 
 real and practical, his jihilosophy is intuitional and 
 sentimental, emphasizing feeling above reason. 
 
 Theologically he cannot be accurately placed. 
 The Life of Sterling throws most liglit u|ion his 
 religious views. He may fairly be regarded as a 
 theist. He is mainly silent on tlie truth of 
 creeds, always reverential towards Christ, and, 
 
 while agreeing that Christianity is the supreme 
 religion, denies that it embraces all truth. He 
 seems to hold that responsibility to God is the 
 essential truth foresliailoued in all religions, and 
 that the essence of all religion is to keep con- 
 science alive and shining. He believes in retri- 
 bution as the natural outcome of wrong. He 
 revered genuine piety, and his own moral life 
 was singularly pure. As a critic he has great 
 knowledge and keen discernment, but is too 
 liable to be swayed by his personal prejudices. 
 
 His earlier style, as in tlie Essays on Burns ...in 
 Scott, was natural, simple, dignified, and vigorous. 
 His later style is figurative, abrupt, enigmatical, 
 sometimes turgid and involved, inverted, declama- 
 tory, and at times coar.se, yet withal often beauti- 
 ful, rich, and powerful, and always picturesque. 
 
 Lit. — The best complete edition of Carlyle's 
 works is the library edition of ^lessrs. Chapman 
 & Hall, London, in oO volumes. See Remi)iis- 
 cences lii/ Thomas Carli/le, edited by J. A. Froude, 
 Lond and X.Y., 1881; W H. Wylie: Thomas 
 Carlyle, the Man and his Books, I^ond. and N.Y., 
 1881; Mo.NCUUK D Conw.^v : Thomas Carlyle, 
 Lond. and X.V , 1881; Pktkh B.wnk : Lessons 
 from my Masters, N.Y , 1870; Edwix 1). Mkad: 
 The Phd'jsojihy of Carlyle, Bost , 1881; Moiu.ky's 
 Essay on Carlyle , and FitouDE : Life of Carlyle, 
 N.Y , 1882, 2 vols M. K. VINCEXT. 
 
 CARMEL Mount, (park), once the .southern 
 bounilaiy of Aslier (Josh. xix. 2(3); later, part of 
 Galilee. At tlie time of Josephus it belonged to 
 Tjre (iro/- iii. o, 1). The range runs south-east 
 to north-west, is about twelve miles long. Its 
 highest elevation is 1,740 feet. It is to-day cov- 
 ered with trees and flowers. In its forests ani- 
 mals of all sorts are found. It is a magnificent 
 sight; but the view from it is grander, inas- 
 much as the ridge divides the Plain of Sharon 
 from the Plain of Jezreel, and projects itself into 
 the Mediterranean Sea. No Vionder that to the 
 poets and i>rophets of the Old Testament it was 
 a symbol of beauty (Song vii. 5; Isa. xxxv. 2, 
 cf. xxxiii. 9; Jer. 1. 19; Amos i. 2; Nah. i. 4). 
 Hidden tliere during the stormy days of Ahab, 
 lived Elijah ; and his cave is yet shown. Some- 
 where upon its slopes the wondrous contest 
 between Jeliovah and Baal took place, and the 
 answering fire proved who was the true God (1 
 Kings xviii. 20-12). The traditional site is at 
 El ji/ohraka, i.e., " burnt place," upon the south- 
 ern slope of the range, a long way fi'om tlie coast. 
 But this site is too far from the Kishon to meet 
 the reiiuirements of the narrative ; and hence Dr. 
 Robinson prefers the south-eastern extremity of 
 the range. The range ends abruptly: a bluff 
 over five hundred feet higli juts out into tlie .sea. 
 Here stands the famous Monastery of the Carmel- 
 ites. Tlie monks show you behind tlie high altar 
 the grotto of Elijali. lint on tlie rangi' Elijah 
 also dwelt (2 Kings ii. 25, iv. 25); and, indeed, 
 so numerous are tlie caves in its sides, that there 
 could be no dilliculty in finding shelter. AVlien 
 first mentioned, it was a holy mount, a place of 
 concour.se (2 Kings iv. 23); ami altars of Baal 
 were doubtless erected upon it, which was proba- 
 bly the reason wliy Elijah selected it as the site 
 of Ids sacrifice. In later times Pythagoras visited 
 tlie mountain, attracted by its .sanctity. Here 
 Vespasian came, and sacrificed to tlie divinity c/
 
 CARMELITES. 
 
 407 
 
 CAROLINE BOOKS. 
 
 the same name with the mountain, without image 
 or temple, but wlio.se oracle had foretold his ele- 
 vation to the iniperatorship. In the early days 
 of Christianity, there were many hermits in its 
 many caves; and to-day one of the most hopeful 
 facts for Palestine is the little German colony of 
 Haifa, which is at the foot of Carmel, near the 
 sea, and whose labor has made the wilderness to 
 rejoice. 
 
 CARMELITES. A certain Berthold came, in 
 the latter part of the twelfth century, to I'alestine, 
 on a pili;rimage or crusade, and formed an asso- 
 ciation of hermits at the Well of Elijah on Mount 
 Carmel. In 1209 the association received its rule 
 of sixteen articles from Albert, Patriai-ch of .Je- 
 rusalem ; and in 122^ this rule was confirmed by 
 Pope Ilonorius III. As long- as the crusading 
 enthusiasm sent thousands and thousands of peo- 
 ple from Europe every year to Palestine, the asso- 
 ciation of IMount Carmel prospered mucli ; but 
 when this whole movement came to a standstill 
 by the armistice between Frederick II. and the 
 Saracens, the liermits at the Well of Elijah began 
 to feel very lonesome, and in 1238 they removed 
 to more lively places in Cyprus and Sicily. In 
 1240 they came to England, in 1241 to Southern 
 France, and in 1245 they held their first general 
 chapter at Aylesford in England. In order not 
 to be completely ousted by the ileiulicant orders, 
 which just at that period won their greatest tri- 
 umphs, it was necessary for the Carmelites to 
 follow fashion ; and so they did. They changed 
 their rule (1247), their organization, their dress, 
 after the Dominicans and Franciscans. But they 
 had one piece of good luck : they invented the 
 scapulary (1287). The scapulary consists of two 
 stripes of gray cloth, worn on the breast and on 
 the back, and connecting with each other on the 
 shoulders. This innocent piece of dress was 
 brought expressly from heaven by the Virgin her- 
 self ; and she promised to go on Saturday evenings 
 to purgatory, and relieve all those who wore it. 
 Of course, the scapulary immediately became the 
 rage. Large associations or brotherhoods of the 
 scapidary were formed among laymen, and brought 
 'n a more or less loose connection with the order, 
 which earned both fame and influence from this 
 circumstance. As was natural, the success stinni- 
 lated their ambition. They began to dispute the 
 claims of the Dominicans to tlie rosary. They 
 brought out the Virgin's House at Loretto as a 
 counterbalance to the Portiuncula Church of the 
 ISIinorites. They claimed to be the oldest mo- 
 nastic order, the trunk from which other orders 
 had sprung, since they could show an uninter- 
 rupted succession of generals from the days of 
 Elijah, who had been one of their generals. 
 They reckoned the Virgin ^lary as one of their 
 members, and called themselves Frafre.t Beata- 
 Marke ile Monte Cannelo. They asjiired to occupy 
 a position above all other monastic orders, as the 
 true representatives of Monasticism. But then 
 the bubble burst. The Jesuits fell upon them 
 ■with violence; and Papebroch, the Bollandist, laid 
 bare in a most merciless manner the emptiness 
 of their pretensions. The controversy became at 
 once so bitter and so ridiculous, that the Pope 
 had to interfere ; and in 1608 Innocent XII. 
 ordered both parties to drop the matter, and keep 
 silent. But the great aspirations of the Carmel- 
 
 ites were blasted forever. Other circumstances 
 had also ])roved unfavorable to their success. An 
 unconnuoidy great number of independent con- 
 gregations were formed ; and several of them — -as, 
 for instance, the congregation of ^laiitua, founded 
 by Thomas Connecte, who in ll'-iii was burnt in 
 Kome as a heretic; the Discalceati, oi' I!arefoot(^d 
 Carmelites, founded in the sixteenth century in 
 Spain by Theresia de Jesu; and others — had their 
 own generals. There were at one time four inde- 
 pendent Carmelite generals; and all attemjits at 
 consolidating the whole order into one liody failed. 
 There were also Carmelite nuns. Th<^ first mon- 
 astery was founded in 1452 by Soreth, a geni'ral 
 of the order, who was poisoned at Nantes in 1471 
 by the discontented monks. To this order of 
 nuns belonged the daughters of Louis XV. Hut 
 in modern times the Carmelites have played no 
 conspicuous part, and the order is at present fall- 
 ing rapidly into decay, without any means of 
 reconstruction. See IlELYor : Tlisl. ilcs Ordrc.i 
 Monastiijtjen, F&ris, 1714-19; M.\xxi.n(;: Life of 
 Si. Teresa, Loudon, 18(i5. .•\LI!I!i':(IIT VOGEL. 
 
 CARNAHAN, James, D.D., LL.D., for thirty- 
 one years presiilent of Princeton College ; b. near 
 Carlisle, Penn., Xov. 15, 1775 ; d. in Newark, 
 X.J., March 2, 1859. In Jlay, 1823, he was 
 chosen president of the College of Xew Jersey, 
 resigned in 1853, and connection with the institu- 
 tion dissolved June, 1854. 
 
 CARNIVAL (a word of uncertain etymology: 
 eanii-eale, " farewell to flesh-meat ; " cani-iii-alliire, 
 " swallow flesh-meat ") denotes the period from 
 the end of the festival of the Epiphany to the 
 end of Shrove-Tuesday. This part of the year is 
 in all Roman-Catholic countries considered a 
 proper season for social enjoyments ; and more 
 e.specially the last seven or ten days are in many 
 cities, particularly in Rome, given up to public 
 merriment. The custom is of Pagan origin. Ifi 
 is the revelry and debauchery of the old Saturnalia 
 and Liipercalia, which have been continued under 
 this form in the Christian world, and nowhere in 
 a more unrestrained manner than in the centre 
 of Christendom, — in Rome. Several popes have 
 tried, if not to repress the cu.stom, at least to 
 restrain its license. Clement XL issued two 
 apostolical briefs (1719 and 1721), lienedict XIA'. 
 an encyclical letter, for this purpose. But other 
 popes, who had a clearer understanding of the 
 economical and political import of the custom, 
 did every thing they could to encourage it. Thus 
 Paid 11. issued a decree with very minute provis- 
 ions with respect to the races of the Corso ; and 
 when the Italian people, during its struggle for 
 national unity, instinctively withdrew from these 
 frivolous dissipations, the papal government under 
 Pius IX. was very desirous, and very active, to 
 allure it back on the old track. The Roman 
 Carnival of the present day is a comparatively 
 tame affair. 
 
 CAROLINE BOOKS (Lihri Carolini, or Opus 
 Caroli). The work originated in the controversies 
 of the eighth century concerning iinage-wor.ship, 
 the participation of Pope Adrian I. in the second 
 synod of Xicsea (787), and the communication 
 of the acts of this synod by Adrian to Charle- 
 magne and the Frankish Church. Charlemagne, 
 who just at that time felt very much displeased 
 with the Byzantine court and the equivocal policy
 
 CARPENTER. 
 
 408 
 
 CARRANZA. 
 
 of the Pope, had the ^\hole matter — the au- 
 thority of the synod, the ortliodoxy of its decrees, 
 etc. — discussed by tlie tlieologiaiis of liis court, 
 and then forwarded the acts to England to King 
 Offa, wlio liliewise laid them before the bishops 
 of his realm. Alcuin, who at that moment was 
 staying in England, drew up a criticism of the 
 decrees of the synod in tlie form of a letter, which 
 he deli\'ered personally to Charlemagne in the 
 name of the Euglish princes and bishops. The 
 epistle is lost; but Charlemagne sent an elaborate 
 answer, the so-called Libri Carolini. The work, 
 which is divided into four books and a hundred 
 and twenty chapters, contains a very sharp cen- 
 sure of tlie synod and its deci-ees, and establishes 
 a principle, which, on the one side, gives the 
 Christian art full freedom in the representation 
 of Christian ideas, but on the otlier excludes all 
 superstitious misuses of the merely artistic crea- 
 tion. The Pope received the book with subnus- 
 siun and extreme iiattery, Ijut declined to recog- 
 nize its principles. He died, however, shortly 
 after (79.')) ; aiul the synods of Francfort (704) 
 and of Paris (82.5) took the book as basis for 
 their whole relation to the question of image- 
 worship. The first edition of the Caroline Books 
 was given by Jean du Tillet (Elias Philgra). 
 Paris, 1549 ; the best by Ileumann, Aur/usti Cuncili 
 Nicceni Secundi Cr'nsuni, Hanover, 1731. See II. 
 I. Floss: Coiumentatio tie sii.ipecta Lihrorum Carol! 
 fide, Bonn, ISfiO ; Leist : Die lilerar. Beiceyunrj 
 d. Bilderstreit.t., Magdeburg, 1871, and the litera- 
 ture on Charlemagne. WAGENTIAXX. 
 
 CARPENTER, Lant, LL.D., an English Uni- 
 tarian divine and author, b. at Kidderminster, 
 Sept. 2, 1780 ; drowned between Xaples and Leg- 
 horn, April 5, 1840. lie was intended for the 
 nonconformist ministry; but he joined the Uni- 
 tarians, and was minister to the church at Exeter, 
 1805-17, and minister at Bristol, 1817-39. He 
 wa,s made doctor of laws by Cdasgow University, 
 1806. He published numerous works, of which 
 the more important are: Introduction to the Geog- 
 raphy of the N.T., 180.5; Unitarianisin the Doctrine 
 of the Gospels, 1809 ; An Examination of the Charges 
 made against Unitarians and the Improved Version, 
 hy Bishop Magre, Bristol, 1S20; A Harmony of the 
 Gospels, 18:!.5, 2d ed., London, 1838; Sermons on 
 Practical Suhjects, London, 1840. His son was Dr. 
 W. B. Carpenter, the physiologist (d. 1885). His 
 life was written by another son, Hey. Russell Lant 
 Carpenter. 
 
 CARPENTER, Mary, philanthropist, b. at Exe- 
 ter, Kng., 1S07; d. at Bristol, June 14, 1877. She 
 was tin- daughter of the Uev. Dr. Lant Carpen- 
 ter, mentioned above, and was educated l)y him. 
 Her life-work, the inspiration to which came in 
 18.33 from the Hindoo reformer Raimnohun Roy, 
 was among the criminal cl.ass, wliom slie strove 
 faithfully to raise. To this end she originated 
 the system of reformatory schools for vicious gii-ls. 
 In the drawing-up of tlie bill which was passed 
 (>y Parlianw-nt in 1854, slu- was greatly aided by 
 the recorder of Bristol, Matthew Davenport Hill. 
 Slie was also one of the chii'f [iromoters of the 
 Industrial .Schools Act, which jiassed in ln.57. So 
 great was her zeal, that she visited India four 
 times betwf-en l8()fi and l87<i, in order to get jier- 
 sonal knowledge of the- educational and reforma- 
 tory metliods in that country. Her reports were 
 
 laid before Parliament. In 1871 she estaldished 
 the National Indian Association, and edited it» 
 journal. Her noble, unselfish life had its roots 
 in her fervent piety. She wrote much in behalf 
 of her projects, and prepared elaborate reports 
 for various bodies. Besides these she issued. 
 Morning and Evening Meditations, 5th ed., 1808, 
 and Six Months in India, 18()7. See J. Estmn 
 Carpkxtku : The Life anil Work of Mary Car- 
 penter, London. 1879. new ed. 1881. 
 
 CARPOCRATIANS, a Gnostic sect founded by 
 Carpociates. who, in the tirst decade of the .second 
 century, developed in Alexandria a monastic 
 system, in which all jiositive religious and ethical 
 ideas were lost in Pantheism. As the public 
 identified the Carpocratians and the Christians, 
 the wild vagaries and immoral life of the former 
 were often laid at the door of the latter. 
 
 CARPZOV is tlie name of a family of scholars, 
 several of whom were theologians, and occupied a 
 prominent position in the Church. I. Johann 
 Benedikt Carpzov, b. at liochiltz, June 22, lli07: 
 d. at Leipzig, Oct. 22, 1(557 ; was professor of 
 theology at Leipzig from 11)43. His work Isagoge 
 in Libras Eccles. lAither. Symbolicos, 101)5, is the 
 starting-point of that liranch of theology called 
 "svmibolics." Also his Ilodegeticum, 10.50, played 
 a prominent jiart in the field of homiletics. A.s 
 the Lutheran minister is demanded to choose hi.s 
 text for a certain Sunday from a certain part of 
 the Scriptures, he may be compelled, during a 
 career of fifty years, to preach fifty times over 
 the same text. In this emergency he may find 
 great help with Carjizov, who, in his Ilodegeticum, 
 found no less than one hundred different manners 
 in which to vary the theme. II. Johann Gottlob 
 Carpzov, b. at Dresden, .Sejif. 20, 1079; .1. at 
 LUbeck, April 7, 1707 ; studied at Wittenberg and 
 Altdorf, and was yirofessor of Oriental languages 
 at Leipzig from 1719 till 1730, when he became 
 superintendent^general at Liibeck. His Introdnclio 
 in Libros V. Test., 1721, Crilica Sacra, 1728, and 
 Apparatus Ilistorico-criticus Antirjuitatum U. Test., 
 1748, are works both of learning and talent, 
 though his stand-point is .still that of Buxtorf, 
 and already somewhat antiquated : the authority 
 of the text depends with liim upon an almost 
 m.iterialistic conception of inspiration. He was 
 a decided adversary of the wliole pietistic move- 
 ment, more especially of the Ilerrnhuters. HI. 
 Johann Benedikt Carpzov, b. at Leipzig, Mav 20, 
 1720; d. at Helmsf;idt. April 28, 1803; became 
 professor of (ireek in the University of Helm- 
 stiidt in 1748, and I'anied his fame chiefly as a 
 philologist, but vindicated tlii^ name of the family 
 as rejiresentaf ive of ]inre orthodoxy by his Lihcr 
 Doclrinalis Theologiw I'lirioris, 1708. He was one 
 of the last profes.sors of (iermany who continued 
 to use the Latin language in his lectures. 
 
 CARRANZA, Bartolome de, b. at Miramla in 
 Navanc, 1.503; d. in l\(iiui\ .May 22, 157ti; entered 
 the Dominican order in 1.520, and gained a great 
 re|iutation as a teacher of theology in the I'niver- 
 sity of Valladolid ; went to Pome in 1539 as a 
 representative of his order to its chapter-general, 
 and sat as one of the imperial tlieologians, 1546- 
 48, in the Council of Trent, where he |)layed a 
 conspicuous part as leaili'r of the party demand- 
 ing (lisciplinary reform ( ( 'o)itrin\rsi<i de Neeessaria 
 Itesidentia I'ersonali Episcojioruiii, Venice, 1547) f
 
 CARRASCO. 
 
 409 
 
 CARSTARES. 
 
 labored with great zeal for the restoration of the 
 Roman Church in Kngland under I'hilip and 
 Mary, and was in 1557 made Arcliliishop of 
 Toledo, liut in 155i) lie was seized by the Inqui- 
 sition, and thrown into prison, lie had been 
 present at the death-bed of Charles V., and a 
 rumor sprang up that the emperor had not died in 
 the right faith. Testimonies of several prisoners 
 of the Inquisition made liim su.spected ; and his 
 Comnii'tilorios . . . sohre el Calechismo Chriatiano, 
 1558, finally furnished the basis for an accusation. 
 Though it is not true that the book contains a 
 complete system of I'rotestantism, the avithor cer- 
 tainly belonged to the reform party within the 
 Roman Church, and there was nuich in his book 
 which was fit to give offence. lie appealed to the 
 Pope, but was, nevertheless, kept in prison tUl 
 1507. He was then removed to Rome, on the in- 
 stance of Pius V. ; but there, too, he was impris- 
 oned ; and no sentence was given in his case until 
 Gregory XIII., a short time before his death, sus- 
 pended him from his office, and compelled him to 
 retract certain passages of his catechism. Among 
 his other works are Summa ConciUorum et Pontiji- 
 cum, Venice, 1546, a compendium of church history, 
 which has been often reprinted, and Controversim 
 Qualuor, a treatise on the authority of the tradi- 
 tion, the Scriptures, the Pope, and the councils. 
 See Florente : Histori/ of the Inquisition in Spain 
 (Spanish and French), 1817-18 ; JI'Crie : History 
 of the Reformation in Spain, Edin., 1829 ; IlEi>f- 
 RICH Langwitz : BartholomKus Carranza, Kemp- 
 ten, 1870. BENEATH. 
 
 CARRASCO, Antonio, one of the leaders of 
 the new Reformation in vSpain ; b. in Malaga, 
 Jan. 19, 1843 ; drowned in the Ville du Havre 
 disaster in mid-ocean, Nov. 22, 1873. He was 
 converted at sixteen, and joined !Matamoros' band 
 of Bible-readers at Malaga : in consequence, he 
 was imprisoned two years, and then sent to the 
 galleys. On the solicitation of the Evangelical 
 Alliance deputation at Madrid, May, 1863, Queen 
 Isabella changed his sentence to exile ; and for 
 five years he studied theology in Geneva. In 
 September, 1868, on the downfall of Isabella, he 
 returned to Spain, and entered with great zeal 
 on the work of evangelization, and was, at his 
 death, pastor of the Free Church in IMadrid, 
 which had a membership of seven hundred. He 
 was the best educated and the most eloquent 
 Protestant preacher in Spain. He was president 
 of the Protestant Synod, and made frequent visits 
 to the scattered congregations throughout the 
 iand. See the memorial sketch in the volume of 
 the Evangelical Alliance, N. Y., 1874, pp. 764,765. 
 
 CARROLL, John, the first Roman-Catholic 
 bishop of the United States ; b. at Upper Marl- 
 borough, Md., Jan. 8, 1735; d. Dec. 3, 1815. He 
 •was a cousin of the famous Charles Carroll of Car- 
 rollton, one of the signers of the " Declaration of 
 Indendence." He was ordained a priest at Liege, 
 and entered the Society of Jesus, and later was a 
 tutor in two English Roman-Catholic noble fami- 
 lies. AVhen the war for independence broke out, 
 he returned to America; and at Dr. Franklin's 
 instance he was in 1786 apjiointed vicar-general 
 of the new established Roman-Catholic hierarchy ; 
 and in 1789 he was in England consecrated a 
 bishop under the title of " BishoxJ of Baltimore," 
 and in 1815 made archbishop. 
 
 CARSON, Alexander, LL.D., b. in County Tv- 
 rone, Ireland, 1776; d. at Jielfast, Aug. 24, 1 84 4. 
 He sprang from Presbyterian stock ; was edu- 
 cated at the University of (ilasgow ; became the 
 Presbyterian nunister in Tubberniore, Ireland, 
 1797, but in 1805 withdrew from that denomi- 
 nation because of the worldliness of many of 
 its ministers in the synod of Ulster, and justi- 
 iied himself in his published Reasons for Sepa- 
 rcitini/from the Synod of Ulster. He was followed 
 by a majority of his congregation. Unable to 
 retain his former churcli edifice without litiga- 
 tion, he gave it up, and preached for many years 
 in barns or fields, imtil at last a rude stone 
 church was built for him at Tubberniore. In the 
 early part of his independent career, while study- 
 ing the New Testament in order to confute the 
 Baptists, he was converted to Baptist principles ; 
 and henceforth he advocated these views, except 
 close communion, with all the wealth of his schol- 
 arship, wliich was considerable, and all the power 
 of his mind, which was great. The Baptist de- 
 nomination value his writings highly. See Bap- 
 tism, in its Mode and Subjects, trith a Sketch of the 
 Life of Dr. Carson, .5tli ed., Phila., 1857 ; also 
 the sketch of Dr. Carson, by Rev. Dr. Tiiojias 
 Akmita(;e, in Johnson's Cyclopedia. 
 
 CARSTARES, William (or Carstairs), a Scotch 
 clergyman and politiciil leader; b. Feb. 11, 1649, 
 at Cathcart, near Glasgow ; d. Dec. 28, 1715. His 
 father, the Rev. John Carstares, belonged to the 
 extreme Covenanting party of Protesters. After 
 studying at Edinburgh, he went to the University 
 of Utrecht, and there his friendship with ^^'illiam 
 HI. began. This intimacy, together with his 
 participation in the composition of the severe trac- 
 tate, An Account of Scotland's Grievances by Rea- I 
 son of the D. of Lauderdale's Ministrie, humbly 
 teiidered to his Sacred Majesty, generally attribut- 
 ed to the learned James Steuart, and his being 
 the bearer of despatches from those in Holland 
 who sympathized with the disaffected in Scot- 
 land, made Charles IPs. government suspicious of 
 him. Accordingly, when, at the close of 1674, he 
 landed in England, he was arrested, lodged in the 
 Tower, the next year transferred to Edinburgh, 
 and kept in jirison until August, 1679. He went 
 to Ireland, and became a nonconformist pastor, 
 liut in 1682 he was again in Holland, and the 
 next year in London. lie entered into the Rye- 
 house Plot for an insurrection in favor of the 
 Duke of iMonmouth and to assassinate Cliarles 
 H. The plot was discovered in the middle of 
 July, 1683. He was examined before the Scottish 
 council, tortured by the thumbscrew, but firnJy 
 refused to make any disclosm'es, " until he was 
 assured that his admissions would not be used as 
 evidence ; and in the disclosures he then made he 
 displayed great discretion." The King pardoned 
 him. Prince 'William of Orange welcomed him 
 warmly on his return to Holland, and appointed 
 him court chaplain. When the Revolution of 
 1688 had put AMlliam on the throne of England, 
 he became royal chaplain for Scotland ; and liy 
 his broad catholic views, his tact and learning, 
 he rendered the King invaluable service, especially , 
 in thoroughly reconciluig the Scotch Presbyteri- I 
 ans to the new regime. lie held the same jiosi- 
 tion under Queen Aiiue and George I., with that 
 of principal of the University of Edinburgh
 
 CARTHAGE. 
 
 410 
 
 CARTWRIGHT. 
 
 (170i), and minister of St. Giles. lie was four 
 times elected moderator of the General Assem- 
 bly. See State Papers and Letters addressed to 
 William Carstares, witli Life by M'Cokmick, 
 Edinbm-gh, 1774 ; Story : Character and Career 
 of William Carstares, 1874. 
 
 CARTHAGE, a famous city of the ancient 
 ■svorld, situated near tlie modern town of Tunis, 
 Xortli Africa ; was the seat of nruuerous church 
 coimcils, of whicli two wei'e very important. In 
 411 a conference was there held, on command 
 of the emperor, witli the Donatists, in order to 
 refute their errors, and reconcile them with the 
 Church. Augustine and Petilian were the prin- 
 cipal opposing sj^eakers ; and IMarcellinus, tlie 
 Enijieror Honorius' tribune, decided tliat the 
 Donatists liad been completely answered, nor 
 from this sentence was there any appeal allowed. 
 From this conference dates the decided decline of 
 Donatism ; for more stringent measures were 
 adopted towards such determined heretics as they 
 w-ere adjudged. See Donatists. In 412 Pauli- 
 xrns of Milan appeared at the council held under 
 Aurelius, Bishop of Carthage, as the accuser of 
 Coelestius ; and thus the Pelagian heresy received 
 there its first condemnation, and at the same 
 time its first ecclesiastical recognition. See 
 ScH.\FF : Church History, vol. ii. pp. 365 sq., vol. 
 iii. p. 79:-!; and IIefele : Conciliengeschichie. 
 
 CARTHUSIANS, an order of monks founded 
 by St. Bruno in the latter part of the eleventh 
 century. Bruno was born at Cologne, studied at 
 varioiis scliools in France, became chancellor of 
 the chapter of Rhehns, and enjoyed great reputa- 
 tion as a teacher. Despairing both of the Church 
 and of the theological science as wa3-s of salva- 
 tion, he determined to retire from the world, and 
 live as a hermit, and settled, together with a few 
 companions, at Saisse Fontaine, in the diocese of 
 Langi-es. In 1086 the company removed to La 
 Chartreuse, in the neighborhood of Grenoble; and 
 here, at one of the wildest spots of the whole 
 region, they built their huts around an oratory, 
 making a vow of silence, abstinence, the oKseiTa- 
 tion of the canonical hom-s, etc. When L^rban 
 II., who had been a pupil of Bruno, ascended the 
 papal tlirone, Bruno was calle<l to Konie ; and, as 
 his brotlier-hermits would not leave liim, they all 
 •went together. Bruno, liowever, exercised no 
 influence on the policy of Urban II. Tlie arch- 
 bishopric of Rheggio, wliicli was offered to him, 
 lie declined ; and wlien Urban II. went to France, 
 preparing for tlie first crusade, Bruno retired to 
 La Torre, near Squillace, in Calabria. Here he 
 died Oct. 6, 1101, and was buried in tlie Clnn-ch 
 of .St. Steplian. lie was canonized in 1514. The 
 order grew slowly. In 1137 it numbered only 
 four establishments ; in 1151, fourteen ; Init fifty- 
 six in 1258. It was formally recognized and con- 
 firmed as an independent order by Alexander III. 
 in 1170. Its rules, the Consuciudines Carlusia, 
 were first put down in writing by Guigo, the fifth 
 prior of La Cliartrcuse. In 12.50 Bernard de la 
 Pour made a collection of all the decisions of the 
 chapter-general since 1141, — Statula Antii/ua. A 
 second collection, Statula iS'Vjt'n, was made in 1307 ; 
 a third, Tcrtia Compilnlio Statulorum, in 1500; .and 
 a fourth. Nova Collectio Statuorum Ordinis Cartu- 
 xiensis, in 1 .581 . In the beginning of the eiglileenth 
 century, there were a liumhed and seventy Car- 
 
 thusian mon.a,steries, of which seventy-five were in 
 France ; but aU the latter disappeared during the 
 Revolution, and only a few of them have since 
 been re-established. There are also Carthusian 
 nuns. The order is said to have originated in 
 the twelfth century; but the five Carthusian 
 nunneries which existed in the eighteenth century 
 dated all from the thirteenth or fourteenth cen- 
 tury. For the life of Bruno, see Histoire Litlc'raire 
 de France, IX. p. 233; for the history of tlie 
 order, Helyot : Histoire des Ordres Mo'nastiqiies, 
 Paris, 1714-10. alerecdt vogel. 
 
 CARTWRIGHT, Thomas, b. about 1535, in 
 Hertfordshire; d. Dec. 27, 1603. He was ma- 
 triculated as a sizar of Claire Hall, Xovember, 
 1547, and as a scholar to St. John's College. Cam- 
 bridge, Kov. .5, 1550. In 1560 he became a minor 
 feUow of Trinity College, and on the 6tli of April 
 of the same year a fellow of St. John's College ; 
 in April, 1502, a major fellow of Trinity College^ 
 In 1507 he took his bachelor's degree, and in 
 1569 was chosen Lady Margaret professor of di- 
 vmity, and began to lecture on the Acts of the 
 Apostles. His lectures were exceedingly popular, 
 and made a profound impression in favor of his 
 distinctively Puritan views, but created a storm 
 of opposition from the Prelatical party, headed by 
 Dr. AVhitgift. Tliis conflict, under these two gi-eat 
 champions, continued to grow more and more 
 severe, and was continued by their successors in 
 two gi-eat parties in the Church of England, — the 
 Presbyterian and the Prelatical. The Puritan 
 platform is well stated in the six propositions 
 which Cartwright delivered under his own hand 
 to the vice-chancellor, the grounds of his persecu- 
 tion by the Prelatists : " (1) That the names and 
 fmictions of archbishops and archdeacons ought 
 to be abolished. (2) That the offices of the 
 lavrful ministers of the Church, viz., bishops and 
 deacons, ought to be reduced to their apostolical 
 institution : bishops to preacli the word of (iod, 
 and pray, and deacons to be employed in taking 
 care of the poor. (3) Tli.at the government of 
 the Church ought not to be intrusted to bishop's 
 chancellors, or the officials of archdeacons ; but 
 every church ought to be governed by its own 
 ministers and presbyters. (4) Tliat ministers 
 ought not to lie at large, but every one should 
 liave tlie charge of a particular congregation. (5) 
 That no man ought to solicit, or to stand as a 
 candidate for the ministry. (6) That ministers 
 ouglit not to be created by the sole authority of 
 the bishop, but to be openly and fairly chosen by 
 the people." 
 
 ILaving been deprived of liis professorship Dec. 
 11, 1.570, of his fellowship .at Trinity College in 
 September, 1571, he went to the Continent, and 
 especially to Geneva, and conferred with Beza and 
 ottier cliiefs of the Reformed Churches. He was 
 prevailed upon to return l>v his friends in Novem- 
 l)er, 1572. An Aihnonition to Parliament for the 
 Reformation of Church Discipline liad been issued 
 by liis friends, .lolni Field and Tliomas Wilcocks, 
 for wliicli lliey had been cast into prison, l^.art- 
 wriglitesjioused tlictirc.au.se, and issued 'J'hc Second 
 Admonition, with an Humble Petition to both Houses 
 of Parliament for Jielief ar/ainst Subscription, 1.572. 
 Whitgift replied in An Answei'e to a Certen Libcll, 
 intituled An Admonition to the Parliament, 1572. 
 Cartwriyiit rejoined in A Ilepli/e to an Ansirert
 
 CARTWRIGHT. 
 
 411 
 
 CARTWRIGHT. 
 
 made of M. Dnctor W/iiler/i/lr af/ainste the Admoni- 
 tion to the Parliament, l^u'i. 'I'liis was a renewal 
 of the old discussion on a larger scale, going to 
 the roots of difference ; Cartwright and the Puri- 
 tans contending that tlie church government and 
 the discipline, as well as the doctrine, must be 
 reformed according to the Scriptures. 
 
 The discussion took a wide range, — -as to the 
 standard of church government, the choice of 
 ministers, the offices of the Christian Church, 
 clerical habits, bishops, archl)ishops, the authority 
 of princes in matters ecclcisiastical, confirmation, 
 etc. Whitgift replied in A Defense of the Eeclesi- 
 asticall Regiment in Englande defaced by T. C. in 
 his Ileplie againsle D. Whitgifte, 1574, and also The 
 Defense of the Answere to the Admonition, against 
 the lieplye of T. C, l.W-l, pp. 812, folio. An 
 order for Cartwriglit's apprehension was issued 
 Dec. 11, 1574; and he fled to the Continent, and 
 became minister of the English congregation of 
 merchants at Antwerp and MiJdleburgh. 
 
 In 1576 he also went to the Isles of Jersey and 
 Guernsey, and aided the Puritans there in settling 
 the discipline of their churches, and then returned 
 to Antwerp, and preached for several years. 
 Whilst abroad, he wrote the Second Repiie of 
 Thomas Cartwright agaynst Maisler Doctor Whit- 
 giftes Second ansiver touching the Churchc Discipline, 
 1575, and also The Rest of the Second Repiie, 1.577. 
 
 He also, in 1574, prepared a preface to the Latin 
 work of William Travers, and translated it under 
 the title A Full and Plaine Declaration of Ecclesi- 
 asticall Discipline owl off the Word off God and off 
 the Declininge off the Churche off England from the 
 same, 1574, which still more imbittered his foes. 
 Li 1582 he was invited to the divinity chair in St. 
 Andrews, Scotland, but declined. In 1583, at the 
 solicitation of the Earl of Leicester, and Lord 
 Treasurer Burleigh, and a large number of Puritan 
 friends, he undertook to write a confutation of 
 the Rhemish version of the Scriptures, which took 
 him many years ; but he was prevented by the 
 ecclesiastical authorities of England from pub- 
 lishing his work. The year before his death, 
 however, his Answere to the Preface of the Rhemish 
 Testament, 1602, was issued ; but the work itself, 
 not until 1618, under the title A Confutation of 
 the Rhemists Translation, Glosses, ami Annotations 
 on the New Testament, so farre as they containe 
 3Ianifest Inijiieties, Heresies, Idolatries, etc., fol. 
 pp. Iviii. 761, xviii., Leyden. 
 
 In 1585 he returned to England under the pro- 
 tection of the Earl of Leicester and Lord Treas- 
 urer Burleigh, but was apprehended by Bishop 
 Aylmer, and cast into prison, where he remained 
 from April until June, when he was released 
 through the influence of his powerful friends, and 
 the Earl of Leicester appointed him master of a 
 hospital which he had founded at Warwick. His 
 preaching was opposed by his enemies, but with- 
 out success, until 1590. During this time he went 
 over a great part of Proverbs and Ecclesiastes. 
 The latter was published in 1604 under the title 
 Metaphrasis et Homilite in Lihrum Solomonis, qui 
 inscrihitur Ecclesiastes, 4to ; the former in 1617, 
 Commentarii Succincti et Delucidi in Proverbia Solo- 
 monis, 4to. He is said to have been the first 
 ; preacher in England who practised extempore 
 prayer before sermon, although he usually em- 
 ployed forms of prayer- During this period the 
 
 ecclesiastical conflicts waxed hotter and hotter. 
 The I'm-itans had been making rapid jirogress. 
 The first jiresliytery was organized at Wands- 
 worth within the Church of England in 3572. 
 Classes wei-e rapidly oi'ganized in all parts of Eng- 
 land, bvit secretly. In 158:! a rough draft of a 
 book of Disciphne was drawn up by Thos. Cart- 
 wright and Walter Travers, and at an assembly 
 held either at London or Cambridge it was re- 
 solved to i)ut it in practice. It was revised at a 
 national synod in London (1584), and referred to 
 Jlr. Travers, "to be corrected and ordered by 
 him." It was then passed around the various 
 classes. It was adopted and subscribed by an 
 assembly of all the classes of Wai'wickshire in 
 1588, and then by a provincial .synod in Cam- 
 bridge ; and by 1590 the Directory had spread all 
 over England, and was subscribed to by as many 
 as five hundred ministers. The episcopal party 
 were greatly alarmed, and determined to arrest 
 Cartwright and the other leaders, and destroy as 
 large a number of copies of the Holy Discipline as 
 possible. A few copies were, however, preserved, 
 and subsequently issued in English in 1644 by 
 authority of the Long Parliament, entitled A 
 Directory of Church Government anciently contended 
 for, and as farre as the Times woidd siffer, prac- 
 tised by the first Non-Conformists in the Dales of 
 Queen Elizabeth. Found in the study of the most 
 accomplished Divine, Mr. Thomas Cartwright, after 
 his decease ; and reserved to be published for such a 
 time as this. 
 
 The discussion between the Presbyterians and 
 the Prelatists was complicated by the Brownist 
 party and the Martin mar-prelate tracts, which 
 loitterly satirized the bishops. Cartwright took 
 strong gi-ound against the Brownists and tlieir 
 doctrine of separation, and opposed the JIartin 
 mar-prelate method of controversy ; but it_ was 
 the policy of the Prelatists to make the Puritans 
 bear all tlie odiimi of the weaker and niore obnox- 
 ious party. Manuscripts of Cartwright against 
 the Brownists are preserved, but no printed books. 
 In May, 1590, he was summoned before the High 
 Commission, and committed to the Fleet. He 
 and his associates were confronted with thirty- 
 one articles of charges, afterwards increased to 
 thirty-four, besides articles of inquiry. He \yas 
 willing to reply to the charges, but refused to give 
 testimony against his brethren. He was then 
 summoned before the Star Chamber with Ednunid 
 Snape and others ; but the case never reached an 
 issue. Powerful friends worked on liis _ behalf, 
 and he was finally released from prison in 1.592, 
 on the promise of quiet and peaceable behavior, 
 in broken health. The remainder of his life he 
 passed quietly on the Island of Guernsey, and at 
 his beloved hospital, save that he had to meet one 
 bitter attack, to which he wrote A Brief Apologie 
 of Thomas Cartwright against all such slaunderous 
 Accttsalions as it pleaseth Mr. Sutcliffe in his Sev- 
 erall pamphlets most injuriously to load him with, 
 etc., ito. pp. 28, 1.596. 
 
 Thomas Cartwright is the hero of Presbj-te- 
 rianism in England, laying the foundations of 
 Puritanism broad and deep, upon which a great 
 structure was subsequently erected, which has 
 continued till the present time. Some of his po- 
 sitions have subsequently proved untenable ; but, 
 in the main, the Presbyterian churches of Great
 
 CARTWRIGHT. 
 
 412 
 
 CASELIUS. 
 
 Britain and America still stand by his princi- 
 ples. 
 
 Other works besides those mentioned in their 
 historical connections v.-ere published after his 
 death by his disciples: A Catechisme, 1611; .4 
 Commentary on the Epistle to the Colossiann. 1612 ; 
 A Treatise of the Christian Reli/jion, 2d edit. 4to, 
 1616, edited by A\'illiam Bradsliaw ; Harmnnia 
 £i;an(7e//("n, Amsterdam, 4to, 1627; Commentaria 
 Practica in tolain Historiam Eimnijelicam, 1630, 3 
 vols. 4to. For fuller information reference may 
 be made to CoorEit : Athenm Cantabrigienses, 1861, 
 II. p. 360, f ; Brook : Lives of the Puritans, 1813, 
 II. p. 1-36, f. ; S.iMUEL Cl.\rke: Lives of Thirty- 
 two English Divines, 3d edit., 1077, p. 16, where a 
 portrait is given ; Brook : Memoir of Thomas 
 Carlirrif/hl. hi'). C. A. "bRIGGS. 
 
 CARTWRIGHT, Peter, an American Method- 
 ist clergyman, b. in Amherst County, Virginia, 
 Sept 1, 1780 ; d. near. Pleasant Plains, Sangamon 
 County, Illinois, Sept. 25, 1872. His parents 
 removed while he was a child to Kentucky ; there 
 in 1801 he was converted, and in 1806 made a 
 deacon, 1808 an elder, in the Methodist Church. 
 In 1812 he was made presiding elder, and spent 
 eight yeai's in the old Wesleyan Conference, four 
 in the Kentucky, eight in the Tennessee, and over 
 forty-five in the Illinois Conference. He is said 
 to have received more than ten thousand members 
 into the church, baptized more than twelve thou- 
 sand persons, and preached more than fifteen 
 thousand sermons. He was familiarly known as 
 the " Backwoods Preacher ; " but no one ques- 
 tioned his devotion, and probably his homely 
 preacliing secured him the better attention : he 
 has been known, however, to knock dovni the 
 inattentive. See his Fifty Yeais a Presiding 
 Elder, and the A utobiography of Peter Cartwright, 
 the Backwoods Preacher, edited by Rev. W. P. 
 Stricklanil, Xew York, 18.^6. 
 
 CARY, Henry Francis, li. at Gibraltar, Dec. 
 6, 1772; d. in London, Aug. 14, 1844. After 
 graduation at Christ's Church, Oxford, in 1796, 
 he took orders in the Kstablishcd Church, and 
 was a]ipointed vicar of Bromley Alibots. Staf- 
 fordshire. Was an a.ssistnnt librarian of the 
 British Museum from 1826 to 1837. Though he 
 had distinguished himself by an original ode on 
 the misfortunes of Poland when at Oxford, and 
 published a number of sonnets and odes, his fame 
 rests upon his work as an editor and translator. 
 He had devoted much attention to the ancient 
 and modern languages, and thus had fitted him- 
 self to edit The Early Erenrh Poets : a Series of 
 Notices and Translations (published after his death 
 by his .son, Kev. Henry Cary, in 1847). and the 
 Birds of Aristophanes, and the Giles of Pindar. 
 His great work is his translation of tlie Divina 
 Commedia of Dante. The /n/irno appeared in 1805 
 and 1806, and the completed work in 1814. This 
 work received little attention until it was com- 
 mended by Coleridge in his Icctiwes in 1818; liut 
 Soutliey afterwards jironounced it "one of the 
 most masterly ])roductions of modern times;" 
 and The Edinburgh Jieview sn\(\ that it was "exe- 
 cuted with a fidelity almost without example." 
 It ha-s not been excelled. It is in blank verse. 
 Cary also edited carefully revi.sed editions of 
 Pope, Milton, Cowper, Thom.son, and Young. 
 His Life was publislied in 1847 by liis son. He 
 
 was buried in the "Poets' Corner" of Westmin- 
 ster Abbey. Arthur gilmax. 
 
 CARYL, Joseph, b. in London, 1602; d. there 
 Feb. 7, 1673. He was for some time a commoner 
 at Exeter College, and a preacher at Lincoln's 
 Inn. He was one of the Triers for the approba- 
 tion of ministers in 16.53, ejected in 166l', aiul 
 afterwards minister to a congregation gathered 
 near London Bridge. His title to fame was his 
 E-rposition, with Practical Observations, on the Booke 
 of Job, London, 1648-66, 12 vols, quarto, 2d ed., 
 2 vols, folio, 1676-77, abridged by Berrie, Edin- 
 burgh, 1830, 8vo. Sjmrgeon {Commenting and 
 Commentaries, London. 1876, p. 6) says of the work, 
 " Caryl must have inherited the patience of .lob, 
 to have completed his stupendous task. It woidd 
 be a mistake to su]ipose that he is at all pi-olix or 
 redundant: he is oidy full." 
 
 CASAS, Bartolemeo de las, b. at Seville, 1474; 
 d. in ^ladrid, l.)66 ; entered the Dominican 
 order ; went in 1535 to St. Domingo as a mis- 
 sionary among the Indians ; became Bishop of 
 Chiapa, ^Mexico, in 1.544, and spent his life in 
 preaching the gospel to the American aborigines, 
 and in defending them against the cruelty of 
 their conquerors. Nine times he travelled be- 
 tween America and .Spain in order to induce 
 Charles V. to put an end to the horrible miseries 
 which the Spaniards inflicted on the Indians. 
 But he succeeded only partially. Of his works, 
 written about or in behalf of the Indians, there 
 is a collected edition in 2 vols, by Llorente, Paris, 
 1822. containing a detailed sketch of his life. 
 
 CASAUBON, Isaac, b. at Geneva, Feb. 18, 
 1559 ; d. in London, .July 1, 1614 ; was professor of 
 Greek, first at Geneva (1582-96), then at Mont- 
 pellier (1596-1000) ; removed in the latter year to 
 Paris as librarian to Henry IV., but left France 
 after the assassination of the king (1610), and 
 settled in London, where he was well received liy 
 King .lames and the bishops of the Anglican 
 Church. He was acknowledged to be the greatest 
 scholar of the age, next to Scaliger ; and though 
 he was a philologist and a critic, rather than a 
 theologian or historian, he was frequently drawn 
 into the theological controversies of his time. Be- 
 sides some minor pamphlets, he edited a Xovum 
 Testamenlum (jriccum. (ieneva, 1587 ; but his E.rer- 
 cilationes in Baroninni remained imfinishcil. His 
 letters, accompanied with a carefully written life, 
 were puldished by D'Almeloveen, Kotterdam, 
 1709 ; but for his biography his Ephemerides, 
 pulilished in 1850 liy Tlie Clarendon Press, are of 
 jiaraniount interest. See AIauk Pattison : Isaac 
 Casauboii. Oxford. 1875. 
 
 CASELIUS, Johann, b. at Gottingen, 15.33; d. 
 •at Helmst:idt, April 9, 1613; studied at Witten- 
 bi'rg uniler Mclanchthon, and at Leipzig inider 
 Caineronius ; visited Italy twice (1560-63 ami 
 1566) ; Wiis .ip])ointed ]irofessor at liostock in 
 156:), and removed to Helmstadt in 1.599. He- 
 belonged to the i\Ielanehtonian school, and was 
 one of the most bi-illiaiit representatives of 
 humanism in (iermany: but he w.as vehemently 
 attacked, es]ieci;illy in the latter jiart of his life, 
 by the rigid Lntlierans, who wanted to have 
 ]ihilosophy and classical learning ejected from 
 the miiversities. Of his numerous writings nuvny 
 still remain in manuscri]>t. See K. Hknkk: (t. 
 Calixtus iind seine Xeit, I. p. 48; .LvKon lirntK
 
 CASSANDER. 
 
 413 
 
 CASSIODORUS. 
 
 uakd: Ejiislola de J. Caseiio, Wolfenbiittel, 
 1707. 
 
 CASSANDER, Ceorg, b. ou the Island of Caz- 
 dand, iu the Scheldt, 1515; d. at Cologne, 1506; 
 taught classical literature, canon law, and theol- 
 ogy 'it 15ruges and Ghent, but retired to Cologne, 
 and devoted himself exclusively to stiulying. 
 His gi-eat object was a reconciliation between the 
 Koniiui Church and the Reformers. On the in- 
 stance of the Duke of Cleve, he wrote against the 
 Anaba])tists, and still nearer he approached his 
 great idea by his work De Officii) Pii, 1501. Sitm- 
 monc^d afterwards to Vienna by Ferdinand T., 
 expressly for the purpose of .such a reconcilia- 
 tion, he wrote his ConsuUaiio de Ariicxdis Fidei 
 inter J'fi/)ixl/ix el Prolc.flanles Controversis ; but he 
 achieved nothing but to offend the one party 
 ■without gaining the confidence of the other. In 
 some respects he is a precursor of that spiritualiz- 
 ing Romanism of a later date, which manages to 
 retain even the worst misuses by representing 
 them as mere symbolization of some fanciful 
 but pure idea. The collected edition of his 
 ■works was published in Paris, 1610. See Cal- 
 KOEx; Fi'to Ca.s'sa)i(/n, Amsterdam, 1859 ; Biuck : 
 Cassanders Ideen, Cologne, 1876 (from a Roman 
 point of view). C. ■WEIZSACKER. 
 
 CASSEL, The Conference of, 1001, was, to a 
 •certain extent, the result of the great influence 
 which Georg Calixtus of Helmstiidt had exercised 
 in tins part of Germany, and engaged tlie per- 
 sonal support of Wilhehn VI. of Hesse, with 
 •whom it was a serious wish to see a luiion 
 brought about between his Lutheran and Re- 
 formed subjects. The disputation lasted from 
 the 1st to the 9th of June. On the Lutheran 
 side, spoke Peter Musseus and Johann Ilennichen, 
 both from Rintelu, and pupils of Georg Calix- 
 tus ; on the Reformed side, spoke Sebastian 
 Curtius and Johannes Hein, both from ^larburg. 
 The subjects of discussion were the doctrines of 
 the Lord's Supper, predestination, tlie two natures 
 in Christ, and baptism ; and the wliole character 
 •of the proceedings •khs moderate and conciliatory. 
 A basis of union was also established, and Wil- 
 hehn VI. was requested to take measures for the 
 furtlier consolidation and extension of the result 
 arrived at. But he died in 1003, and the cause 
 was lost by the stubbornness of the Lutherans, 
 especially in Saxony. See Henke : Das Unions- 
 ■coUoqidum zu Cassel, Marburg, 1802 ; Heppe : 
 Kii citeiu/eschichle beider Hessen, Marburg, 1870, 
 II. lOll-Ki.""). HEPPE. 
 
 CASSIANUS, Johannes, b. between 350 and 
 300 ; d. between 440 and 450 ; was educated in a 
 monastery at Bethlehem, under the tutelage of 
 abbot Germanus. In 390 the master and his 
 pupil, now two friends, made a pilgrimage to the 
 Egyptian liermits ; and this oasis of stillness and 
 quiet, situated ou the veiy confines of the con- 
 fusion and restlessness of the ancient world, made 
 so deep an impression on tlie two wanderers, that 
 they remained there for seven years. Leaving 
 Egypt, they repaired to Constantinople, where 
 Cassianus was consecrated a deacon by Chrysos- 
 tom ; but after the overthrow of Chrysostoni (404) 
 Cassianus went to Rome alone. Of Gernumus 
 nothing more is lieard. The sack of Rome by 
 Alaric, made upon Cassianus, as upon so many 
 •others, the impression that pieace and safety could 
 
 not be attained except by leaving society and tlie 
 stir of the multitude, and settling down in soli- 
 tude. He went to Massilia, founded two monas- 
 teries (one for men and one for women), and 
 wrote, lor tlie instruction of his pupils, De Cano- 
 liioruin luxlilulis Libri XIL, and Collaliones Patrum 
 XXIV. In the former of tlie.se works he gives 
 first the external rules after which a hermit's life 
 is led, and then he describes the internal labor 
 by wliicli tlie final goal is readied. In the latter 
 he gives his experiences from the P^gyptian lier- 
 mits. By tiiese books, and by his two founda- 
 tions, lie introduced monasticism in the Western 
 Church. 
 
 Also from another side the Western Church was 
 deeply moved at that moment, namely, by the 
 genius of Augustine. But the discrepancy be- 
 tween the ideas of Augustine and the theological 
 system of the Eastern Church, in which Cassianus 
 was educated, was so great, that he never felt able 
 to adopt such doctrines as those of predestination, 
 the irresistibility of grace, etc. He did not sepa- 
 rate himself, however, so far from the views of 
 Augustine as to embrace those of Pelagius. On 
 tlie contrary, on the instance of Leo the Great, lie 
 wrote liis De Incarnatione Libri ' VII., directly 
 against Nestorianism, but indirectly against Pela- 
 gianism ; and thus he became tlie founder and 
 first representative of semi-Pelagianisin. The 
 best collected edition of his works is that by 
 Gaz^us, Douai, 1010, which has been often re- 
 printed, latest at Leipzig, 1733. An accurate 
 analysis of his stand-point has been given by 
 G. Fr. Wiggeus : Darstetlung des Augustinismus 
 und Pelagianismus, 1833, II. pp. 0-183. [There is 
 an Italian translation of Cassianus 's work, Venice, 
 1003, and a French, Paris, 1067.] tiiieksch. 
 
 CASSIANUS, Julius, a heretical teacher from 
 the latter part of the second century, is known to 
 us only through Clement Alexandrinus, who twice 
 (Sti-mnata, I. '21 ; III. 13) refers to his writings. 
 According to Clement he was the originator of 
 docetism ; and his denial of the reality of Christ's 
 body seems to be a natural sequence of his abso- 
 lute condemnation of generation even under the 
 form of matrimony ; for, if it is an evil to be born, 
 the birth of Christ must be an evil too, and there 
 is no other means to place Christ outside of the 
 evils of generation than denying the reality of his 
 human nature. 
 
 CASSIODORUS, Magnus Aurelius, b. at Scyl- 
 laciuni in Bruttiuiii, about 477 ; d. in the Jlonas- 
 tery of Viviers about a century later ; descended 
 from a noble and wealthy family, and entered 
 early on a brilliant political career; became sena- 
 tor and consul, and carried great weight in the 
 council of the Ostro-Gothic kings from Theodoric 
 to Vitegis, but retired in 540 from public life, 
 founded the ]\Ionastery of Viviers, and devoted 
 himself exclusively to literary pursuits. As he 
 induced his brother-monks to follow in the same 
 track, he set an example, which, during the dark 
 ages, made the monasteries asylums for science 
 and the liberal arts. In the earlier period of his 
 life his literary activity was chiefly directed to 
 history ; but the works which he wrote after his re- 
 tirement are religious or theological : Instituliones 
 Dioinwum et Scecukirium Litterat-um, a kind of 
 theological encyclopajdia ; De Orthugraphia, a con- 
 tinuation of the preceding ; Complexiones in Epis-
 
 CASTELL. 
 
 414 
 
 CASUISTRY. 
 
 tolas et Acta Apostolorum et Ajmcabjpsin ; Hisloria 
 Ecclesiastica Tripartita, etc. Collected editions 
 of his works were given by J. Garet, Rouen, 
 1679, and in SIigxe : Patrologia Lat. LXIX.- 
 LXX. See Dexis de Ste. SIarthe: Vie de 
 Cassiodore, Paris, 1694; Olleris : Cassiodore 
 Conservateur des Lirres de VAntu/uite latine, Paris, 
 1841; A. Franz: .1/. A. Cassiodorius Senator, 
 Breslau, 1872. ebert. 
 
 CASTELL, Edmund, Orientalist; b. at Hatley, 
 Cambridgeshire. IGOG ; d. in Bedfordshire, 1685. 
 He was educated at Emanuel and St. John's Col- 
 lege, Cambridge. AVhile at the university, he com- 
 piled his immortal work, Lexicon Heptaglolton, 
 Hchraicum, Chaldaiciim, Syriacum, Samaritanum, 
 jElhiopicum, Arnl/icum, conjunctim, et Pcrsicu7n 
 separatim, London, 1669. 2 vols, folio. He spent 
 eighteen years, and twelve thousand pounds, upon 
 the work. Tluis he ruined his fortune and his 
 health. In 1666 he was appointed King's chap- 
 lain, Arabic professor, and later a prebend of 
 Canterbury : at his death he was rector of Iligham 
 Gobion in Bedfordshire. He assisted AA'alton 
 upon his Polyglot (1657), not only by lalior, but 
 by money to tlie amount of a thousand pounds, 
 and for it his Lexicon was specially prepared. 
 
 CASTELLIO or CASTALIO, Sebastian, b. at 
 St. Martin-du-Fresne, a village of Savoy, 1515; 
 d. at Basel, Dec. 29, 1568; made his studies 
 under very difficult circumstances, and was in 
 1.540 appointed tutor to three young noblemen 
 at Lyons, where he published the tirst part of 
 his Latin Dialogues, a work which was often re- 
 printed, and used as a text-book up to 1731, and 
 which has been translated into English under 
 the title Youth's Scripture Remembrancer, London, 
 1743. Having made the acquaintance of Calvin 
 at Strassburg, he was called to Geneva as rector 
 of its high-school. But disagreement soon arose 
 between him and the great reformer ; and in 
 1544 he left Geneva, and settled at Basel. After 
 living there for several years in great poverty, he 
 published, in 1551, his Latin translation of the 
 Bible, dedicated to Edward VI. of England ; and 
 in the following year he was made professor of 
 Greek. In 1555 appeared his French translation 
 of the Bible, dedicated to Henry II. of France. 
 The Latin 15ible of Castellio, the last edition of 
 which appeared at Leipzig, 1756, may be charac- 
 terized as the Bible of the Humanists. The 
 powerful realism of the original text is often 
 weakened by the elegant forms of the translation. 
 But the violent attacks of Calvin and Beza find 
 their exiJanation, not so much in the faults of 
 the work as in the connection in which Castellio 
 stood to certain anonymous treatises against Cal- 
 vin's doctrine of predestination, and to Martinus 
 Bellius's De non Piiniendis (jiadinjhcreticis. See his 
 LifeliyJ. ^Luii.v, Basel, 1862, founded upon careful 
 Btudy of the sources. BEUXII ARI> HKiUENBAClI. 
 
 CASUISTRY is a theological discipline which 
 developed, generally in connc^ction witli ethics, but 
 sometimes independently, and for a long period 
 even succeeded in completely super.sediug this 
 science. Its first germs may Ije found in the 
 very text of the Now Testament. Clnist answers 
 ca.sui.stical questions (Matt. xxii. 17 ; Luke xiv. 
 3). Paul does ti)e same (1 Cor. vii.,viii. 10). As 
 the institution of confession and iienance de- 
 veloped in tiie old church, manifold opportunities 
 
 occurred to decide upon the moral worth of so n» 
 special action. The ethical writings of Tortul- 
 lian and Augustine, among the Latin fathers,, 
 are rich in such decisions. In the penitontials,^ 
 or books of penance, the movement began to- 
 take shape, and show direction. They contained 
 long lists of sins observed in common life, or 
 imagined as possible, minutely described, and 
 accurately classified ; and to each sin was added 
 the penance or ecclesiastical punishment set upon 
 it. New materials flowed from the canon law, 
 wliich, in consequence of its own inborn princi- 
 ple, always considered morality in its relation ta 
 actual circumstances ; and the method which the 
 proper treatment of such materials demanded 
 was brought to its very perfection by the school- 
 men. Thus the penitentials of the ancient church 
 gradually grew into the mediaeval science of casu- 
 istry; and when auricular confession, in 1215,. 
 was made a formal law, this science became of 
 so great practical importance, that the casuist 
 appeared in the miiversities by the side of the- 
 canonist. 
 
 Raimund de Pennaforte, from the thirteenth 
 century, is generally mentioned as the earliest 
 representative of this science of casuistiy. His 
 Summa de Casibus Pcenitcntialibus consists of four 
 books, and is alphabetically arranged: it was 
 edited by Hon. Vine. Laget, Lyons, 1719. A 
 great number of smiilar tiooks followed in the- 
 fom-teenth and fifteenth centiu'ies, generally 
 called Summce, and often named after the author 
 or his birthplace : thus the Asttsana, ed. Nurem- 
 berg, 1482, after Asti in Piedmont ; the Pisana or 
 Pisanella, ed. Paris, 1470, after Pisa ; the Angelica, 
 ed. Nuremberg, 1492, after Angelas, the -Genoese ; 
 the Pacijica, ed. Venice, 1574, after Pacificus from 
 Novara, etc. But by degrees, as the science de- 
 veloped, its inner confusion increased. Every | 
 trace of a ruling principle disappeared, and tlie ' 
 whole field was covered with a loose conglomer- 
 ate of details. The cases became more and more 
 intricate, the solutions more and more subtle ; 
 the power of conscience to give a clear and ready 
 verdict was blunted and confounded ; and the 
 blight of sceptici.sm, with its indifference and 
 frivolity, fell upon the whole moral field of 
 Christian education. 
 
 At this point, as at so many others, the Reforma- 
 tion Laid tlie axe at the root of the evil. Luther 
 biu-nt the Angelica, together with the papal bull, 
 and declared openly that the true Christian needs 
 no special moral instruction, as the spirit of his 
 faith will surely lead him to that which is sanc- 
 tioned by the will of God, and demanded by 
 lirotherly love. Even Zwingli, though represent- 
 ing a more specifically moi'al side of the Reforma- 
 tion, never ceased to assert that the iiulividnal 
 spirit, when fidly imbued with the word of God, 
 is the true source from which to draw the moral 
 ride, entirely inde]>eiident of any external pre- 
 scription. Although a nund>er of diliicult moral 
 cases presented themselves in which the Reform- 
 ers had to give a decision, as, for instance, with 
 respect to marriage, usury, obedience to estab- 
 lished authority, etc., nevertheless, no casuistry, 
 ])ropt!rly speaking, di'velojied during the first 
 decades of the l{i-forMialii>n ; and wlien it, later 
 on, grew up both within the Reformed and within 
 tlie Lutlu-ran Church, it proved of a merely tran-
 
 CASUISTRY. 
 
 415 
 
 CATACOMBS. 
 
 isient nature, and was speedily absorbed by 
 ethics. 
 
 In the Refonnod Church, W. Perkins (1558- 
 1602) was tlie first wiio attempted to revive casu- 
 istry, though he conipletely abandoned the old 
 scholastic method. lie wrote in English, Tlie 
 Whole Tiviilise of Cfises of Conscience, London, 
 1602, wliieli was edited in Latin, by INL^gkh, 
 Hanover, ll)();3, and Dkaktis, Geneva, 1621, and 
 in German, liy Si'iii'xcLi, Basel, 1640, and Leip- 
 zig, 1690. Ilis piqiil, Wii.MAiM Ames, followed 
 the same track : IJc ( 'onscientia t:t ejus Jure vel 
 Casibus, Amsterdam, lU:i(), translated into Ger- 
 man, Nuremberg, 1654 ; also others ; Hall : 7iesr>- 
 lulions and Decisions of Dicers Practical Cases of 
 Conscience, London, 1649; S.\xdersox : Nine 
 Cases of Conscience, London, 1678; I. H. Alsted: 
 Theoloyia Casuum, Hanover, 1621, which he in his 
 theological encyclopiedia placed independently 
 beside the Theoloyia Hloralis. In the Lutheran 
 Church the attempt was made a little later by 
 Fr. Balduin (1575-1627), whose Tractate's de 
 Casibus Conscientia:, first publislied (1628) in 
 AVittenberg, was meant to form an opposition to 
 the corrupted casuistry of the Roman-Catholic 
 Church. It contains all the casuistic materials 
 scattered throughout the works of the Reform- 
 ers, arranged after a very superficial plan; and 
 the great regard which is paid to such subjects 
 as ghosts, evil sjiirits, sorcerers, witches, etc., 
 shows how tightly the Orthodox Lutheran Church 
 was held in the mazes of superstition and ped- 
 antry. The same character re-appears with the 
 other Lutheran casuists of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury,— Fink, 1631; Dunte, 16.36; Kdnig, 1654; 
 Kessler, 1658 ; Dannhauer, 1679 ; Osiander, 1680 ; 
 Olearius, 1694, etc. Nevertheless, the influence 
 of Spener soon became apparent; and the clear 
 and convincing exposition, by his pupil Buddeus, 
 of the superfluity of casuistry as an independent 
 branch of evangelical theology, finally made it 
 disappear. 
 
 Quite otherwise in the Roman-Catholic Church. 
 There, among the Jesuits, casuistry attained a 
 new and most luxuriant growth. To re-establish 
 the tottering dominion of the hierarchy over the 
 souls was the avowed object of the order ; and 
 what more suitable means could be found for 
 such an aim than the dissolution of all morality 
 in casuistry ? Consequently, instead of a deeper 
 conception of the universal ideas of morality, 
 instead of a stronger assertion of conscience in 
 its office as the organ of the spirit of faith, the 
 Jesuits invented the doctrines of probabilism, of 
 the aim justifying the means, of a difference be- 
 tween philosophical and theological sins, of men- 
 tal reservation, etc. ; and the result was an inner 
 confusion which actually made the peiutent the 
 slave of the confessor. The most prominent 
 among tiie Jesuit casuists ai'e Mariana, Mendoza, 
 Suarez, Sanchez, ^Molina, and Escobar in Spain ; 
 Filliucci and Francolini in Italy ; Less and Lob- 
 kowitz in Holland ; Busenbaum and Laymann in 
 Germany. The laxity, however, and frivolity of 
 the Jesuit morality, caused scandal, even within 
 the Roman-Catholic Church itself. In the first 
 half of the seventeenth century, Arnauld began 
 the opposition ; then followed Pascal. The Sor- 
 bonne condemned the doctrine of proViabilism in 
 its Corpus Doclrince, ed. by Pfaff, Tubingen, 1718. 
 
 Scholars, like Mabillon and Du Pin, kept aloof 
 from the pestiferous atmosphere ; and serious 
 men, like Ileinrich a St. Ignatio, attempted to 
 rear a ntiw moral system on another basis (T/no- 
 loyia, 1707; Ethica Amoris, 1709). But all tliis 
 was done with very little effect. There is in the 
 doctrinal system of tlie Roman Cliurcli a tendency 
 which necessarily leads to casuistry in morals, 
 and which cannot be eradicated exciipt together 
 with the Church itself. Even Sobiech's Com- 
 pcndiuin Thcolof/icc Moralis, Breslau, 1814, bears 
 witness to this truth. 
 
 Lit. — G. Tii. jMeier: Inlroductio in TheologicB 
 Moralis Studium, Helmstadt, 1671 ; J. F. Mayer, 
 in his edition of Strauch : Theoloyia Moralis, 
 1705; Buddeus: Isayoye Ilislorica, etc., 1727; 
 Staudlin: Geschichie d. Siltenlehre, (iottingen, 
 1799 and 1802; De Wette : Chrisltiche Sitlen- 
 lehre, Berlin, 1821, Part II.; Heinricii Merz: 
 Das System d. christl. Sittcnlehre nach den Grund- 
 sutzen des Protestanlisimts iind Kallwlicismus, Tii- 
 bingen, 1841. E. SCHWAKZ. 
 
 CASUS RESERVATI are cases of sin in which 
 the Pope or the bishop reserves the right of 
 absolution to himself, or to a priest authorized 
 by him. The Roman-Catholic Church justifies 
 such reservation in the following manner: as 
 Christ, properly speaking, conferred the power 
 of absolution only on the apostles and their suc- 
 cessors (John XX. 21-23), the Pope and the 
 bishops, by further conferring the po\\ er on their 
 substitutes, the lower ranks of the priests, have a 
 right to make such resei-vations as they deem 
 necessary for the weal of the Church ; w hich con- 
 ception lias been confirmed by the Council of 
 Trent, sess. XIV., cap. 7, de poenitentia. The 
 cases which the Pope has reserved for himself 
 maybe found enumerated in Ferr.\ris: Biblio- 
 theca Canonica, Jladrid. 1795, 10 tom. in 5 vols, 
 fol. The cases which the bishops have reserved 
 for themselves differ in the different dioceses. 
 With respect to Germany see H.^utzheih : Con- 
 cilia Germarii(e, Tom. XL 
 
 CATACOMBS is the name of certain subter- 
 ranean galleries and halls in which the ancient 
 Chiu'ch, up to the fifth century, buried her dead ; 
 though instances of burial in the manner now 
 common occur even in the first days of the 
 Church. The Pagans called their burial-places 
 Koi/i7iT?)pia (dormitoria, "sleeping-rooms"); and the 
 Christians adopted the name, which among them, 
 fi'om their hope of resurrection, received a new 
 and deeper meaning. Christian cemeteries of 
 the abo\e description are found in Syria, Alex- 
 andria, Melos, Malta, Sicily, Spain, and through- 
 out the whole of Italy, especially in Naples and 
 Rome. The most extensive, and, both in artistic 
 and in ecclesiastical respect, the most important, 
 of these cemeteries, are those built under the hills 
 just outside the gates of Rome. They are fifty- 
 four in number; and their labyrinthine galleries 
 and corridors, excavated in the tufa, woukl, if 
 stretched out in one contimious line, reach from 
 one end of the Italian Peninsula to the other. 
 They are computed to house about six millions 
 of dead. In the surroundings of Rome, tliere are 
 found twenty-four more subterranean cemeteries, 
 and thirty in the rest of Italy. 
 
 It was formerly believed that the Roman cata- 
 combs were merely quarries, which had been
 
 CATACOMBS. 
 
 416 
 
 CATACOMBS. 
 
 abandoned, and then taken into use by tlie Cliris- 
 tians, in lack of something better. • But it lias 
 now been ascertained beyond doubt that such 
 was the case only with a few of them ; and there 
 is a marked difference between those which origi- 
 nated as independent structm-es, and those which 
 were reared m the quarries. The hitter have 
 broader but also more irregular galleries, built up 
 with masonry and props of all kinds ; while in 
 the former the galleries are narrower but higher, 
 more regular, and alwaj^s hewn out in the granu- 
 lar tufa, which at once is firm, easy to work, and 
 well suited to preserve the corpses, because it is 
 porous, and easily lets off the water. It has also 
 l)een ascertained that originally the catacombs 
 were not built secretly, nor were they fitted up in 
 a poor and dismal style. Among the privileges 
 which Julius Ciesar gave the Jews of Rome was 
 also legal protection of their burial associations 
 and gi'aves. As the first Cliristian congregation 
 ill the city consisted mostly of converted Jews, it 
 naturally enjoyed the same jirivilege. The first 
 Christian cemetery, like that of the Jews, was 
 built on a hillside, near the public highway, and 
 with a conspicuous entrance. It was a locus 
 religiosus, though not, in the Roman sense of the 
 words, a locus sacer. Even the remains of the 
 martyrs could be buried without any trouble. 
 But it is true, that, when the times of persecution 
 came, the original entrances had to be covered 
 up, and new entrances to be made in some for- 
 gotten corner of an adjacent quarry, where they 
 were not easily detected. Regular service was 
 not held in the catacombs until the second or 
 third century, and then only exceptionally, but 
 more frequently during the fhird and fourth cen- 
 turies. Even the death-days of the mart\TS were 
 celebrated in the chapels, or small basilicas, above 
 the catacombs, up to the middle of the third cen- 
 tury ; and it was not until an edict of 257 had 
 forbidden the Christian assemblies, that Pope 
 Felix I., in 269, ordered those natalitia to be cele- 
 brated at the very graves. According to tradi- 
 tion, five or six of these subterranean burial-places 
 date back to the times of the apostles, as, for 
 instance, those of Priscilla, Lucina, and Flavia 
 Domitilla ; and, indeed, inscriptions, wall-paint- 
 ings, and ornaments belong to the tunes of the 
 Flavians and Trajan. The orchards or vineyards 
 under which the cemeteries were excavated were 
 given to the congregation by some wealthy mem- 
 ber, for tiiis purpose. Thus the first common 
 burial-])lace which the Christian congregation of 
 Rome possessed was, no doubt, founded by u 
 noble lady at her villa, ud culacumhns, whore 
 afterwards Constantine built a church over the 
 grave of St. .Seliastian. The place was probably 
 called Kara av/ijiai, from some natural or artificial 
 cave; or, as Kifiida also means a ciqi, there may 
 have stood an inn, Kara kv/jiScu:, catacumlias, analo- 
 gous to ad cnscs, ml titjuilas, etc., at a s]iot on the 
 much-frequented Via Appia, and in the vicinity 
 of Vicus Sutpicius, and from this inn the whole 
 neighliorhood may have received its name. 
 
 In the third century, there were in Rome twenty- 
 five large cemeteries, and about twenty minor 
 martyr or family tombs. Pope Zephyrinus placed 
 the deacon Kallistus, proposihis of the Roman 
 clergy, over the al)Ove-m(!iitioned Ca:mclcrium ait 
 Calacumhas ; and, of the eighteen popes between 
 
 Zephyrinus and Sylvester, thirteen were buried 
 there. During the period of peace from Caracalla 
 to Decius, Pope Fabianus (238) erected also, in 
 other cemeteries, a nmnber of small oratories for 
 service : such a one was discovered in 1S74 in the 
 Cemetery of Domitilla. In 2.37 Valerian forbade 
 tlie Christians to visit their cemeteries, declared 
 their loca religiosa state property, and had Pope 
 Sixtus and his deacon Laurentius beheaded in 
 the Cemetery of PrKtextatus. Gallienus, how- 
 ever, again allowed the Christians to use their 
 burial-places (260) ; but from that time it became 
 customary to conceal the entrances. Under Xu- 
 nierian, a gTeat number of the faithful, who, with 
 the vasa sacra, had sought refuge in a catacomb 
 on Via Salaria, were bm'ied alive ; the entrance 
 having been choked up. Shortly before his death, 
 Aurelian issued an edict against the Christians, 
 and in 303 the grounds under which the ceme- 
 teries were built were taken from them. Instead 
 of that named after Kallistus, Marcellinus now 
 founded another large common cemetery, buUt 
 very deep under the ground ; and the entrances 
 to the graves of the martyrs were covered up. 
 Under Maxeutius, the persecutions ceased. In 
 311 the church property was restored, and with 
 the edict of Milan (312) a new era began for 
 the Chiuch. 
 
 The victorious Church did not like to bury her 
 dead in the catacombs, and consequently the 
 catacombs were less and less used. !Melcliiades 
 was the last pope interred at St. Kallistus. Syl- 
 vester lies in the basilica built by him over the 
 Coeinelerium PrisciUcE ; and Marcus, in the cella 
 memorice at the entrance of the Ca:mvlerium Balbi- 
 n(E. The example once set, graves in or near the 
 basilicas soon came to be preferred to graves in 
 the catacombs. The extraordinary increase, how- 
 ever, of the martyr-worship after the time of Con- 
 stantine, contributed to give the catacombs a new 
 interest. Costly basilicas were erected above the 
 graves of the martyrs ; and the whole side of the 
 hill where was the mouth of the gallery leading 
 to those graves was, so to speak, carved off in 
 order to lay bare the gi-aves themselves. Under 
 Damasus this arrangement was completed. Walls 
 were propped up, corridors and passages were 
 formed, flights of steps were built, the chambers 
 themselves were adorned with marble, and the 
 calligrapher, Furius Dionysius Philokalus. was 
 busy everywhere making inscriptions. Pruden- 
 tius, ill his hymns on the martyrs (Jlcpl nrcipavuv 
 XI., 1.53-218), gives a description of the tomb 
 of Ilijipolytiis, such as it had been restored by 
 Damasus. Tlie walls of the little chapel were 
 inlaid with slaVis of I'ariaiiiiiarble, and leaves of 
 glittering silver ; and on the birthday of the mar- 
 tyr such a multitude of devotees thronged to the 
 grave, that the narrow passages proved altogether 
 incapable of holding them. Indeed, the cata- 
 combs became a much frequented place. Jerome, 
 ill his commentary on Ezek. xl. b, 6, gives a graphic 
 descri])tion of the visits he made while a school- 
 boy, ami, together with his comrades, on Sundays, 
 to this dreary yet awful spot. " On both sides the 
 walls rise, filled with corpses ; and the whole place 
 is so dark, that the prophet's words, ' Anil they 
 shall go alive to hell' (Ps. Iv. Hi), seem directed 
 to us. Now and then a little light breaks down 
 from above, through a wall-eye, — just enough
 
 CATACOMBS, 
 
 417 
 
 CATECHETICS. 
 
 to soften the horror of the night for a moment. 
 But by the next step we are again in the densest 
 darkness ; and the words of tlie poet, ' Horror 
 ubique ainmos, simut ipsa silentiu terreut ' (Vihgil, 
 ^IHneas II., 75.)), come home to our heart." 
 
 According to records still extant, two-thirds of 
 the t'hristiaus who died in Itonie between 338 
 and •![)! were buried in the catacomlis; but, be- 
 tween 37'J and 400, not more than oniM.liird ; after 
 410 only a few; and none after 4.'J4. Jn Naples, 
 however, and in .Sicily, interment in catacombs 
 continued as late as the ninth and tenth centuries. 
 After the conquest by Alaric, the Christians in 
 lionie could not afford to adorn their graves any 
 more; and from 410 the catacombs actually 
 began to fall into oblivion and decay. After 426 
 no fossores, " grave-diggers," are mentioned any 
 more. The Ostrogoths under Vitiges (537), and 
 again under Totila, did not liesitate to outrage 
 the graves of the niartjTs, and throw out their 
 bones ; and though tlie Popes Vigilius and John 
 in. (568), and Sergius and Gregory III. (735) did 
 much for the restoration of the catacombs, and 
 the revival of the devotion at the martyr's' graves, 
 ■when the " godless " Longobards, under Aistulf, 
 broke open the tombs, and carried away the bones 
 of the saints, the awe and even the respect of the 
 people for the catacombs sank so low, that sheei> 
 pens were built in the consecrated graves. In 
 761 Paul I. transferred a hundred holy corpses to 
 the new church he had erected, and dedicated to 
 St. Sebastian and St. Sylvester. July 20, 817, 
 Paschal I. transfeiTed twenty-three hundred holy 
 corpses to St. Prassede ; and Sergius II. and Leo 
 IV. carried them by the cartload into the Pan- 
 theon. Thus the ruin of the catacombs was com- 
 pleted. In the fourteenth century, however, 
 three of these old cemeteries were still visited 
 by pilgrims ; but in the fifteenth the Ccemetcrium 
 in Catacumhas, or, as it was also called, the Came- 
 terium Calacumbas ad Sehastia7nim, was the only one 
 open to visitors ; and thus it came to pass that its 
 name, Catacutnbas, became the common appella- 
 tion applied to all subterraneum burial-places. 
 
 In 1578 another catacomb was incidentally dis- 
 covered, and immediately made a mine from 
 which the altars of those churches, which during 
 the counter-reformation had been taken from the 
 Protestants, were refurnished with relics. St. 
 Borromeo, the chief of the counter-reformation, 
 prayed whole nights in the catacombs ; and, some 
 years before him, Filippo Neri spent every night 
 there. AVater from the wells of the catacombs, or 
 the mere use of cups found there, began to work 
 miraculous cures. Pope Sixtus did his best to 
 push the movement,' discovering, investigating, 
 and restoring catacombs. Bosio, an official of the 
 order of IMaltha, spent his fortune, and often 
 risked his life, in examining the catacombs. 
 Gems, utensils, sarcophagi, were found in great 
 multitude ; but most of them were lost again by 
 bad management. What remained was gathered 
 into the Christian Museum in the Vatican, in the 
 eighteenth century, by Benedict XIV. The de- 
 scription of Bosio's discoveries appeared at Rome 
 (1632) shortly after his death, under the title, 
 Roma Sotlerranea ; but both the description and 
 the illustrations are very inaccurate. A Latin 
 translation by Ariiir/hi, much enlarged, appeared 
 in 1651 ; and a pocket edition, somewhat abbrevi- 
 28 — 1 
 
 ated, in 1671. The literature of the subject now 
 began to flourish. See Cardinal Bottaki : Scul- 
 ture e pitture sagrc eslratte dai cemelari ili Roma, 
 Rome, 1737-54, 3 vols, fob; SIauchi : Monumenli 
 dctle Anliche Arti Cristlane nclla Mali-opoli did 
 Cristianismo, Turin, 1841; Pkhkkt: CataconJ/es 
 ih Rome, Paris, 1851. But all these woi'ks were 
 completely superseded by G. B. uic Rossi: La 
 Roma Solterranea, I. -III., 1804-77. See also 
 J. Si'icNCEU NouTHCOTic and AV. 11. ISuownlow: 
 llama Sotlerranea, London, ISO!) [2d ed., 2 vols., 
 1870, entirely rewritten, and njuch enlarged]; 
 V. SciIULTZE : Die Katakomben von S. Gennaro 
 del Pooe.ri in Neapel, 1877 ; J ■ II. Parkkk: The 
 Archccology of Rome, 1874-77, 9 vols.; and F. 
 Becker : Die Wand- und Decken- Gemulde der 
 romischen Katakomben ; Roms altchristticlie Ciime- 
 terien ; and Die Inschriften der romischen Ciimete- 
 rien, 1878 ; [R. Armellini : Le catacombe romans 
 descritte, Roma, 1880 ; L. Lefout : Clironologie 
 des peintures des catacombes romains, Paris, 1881 
 (60 pp.) ; T. Roller : Les catacombes de Rome, 
 Paris, 1881, 2 vols. ; V. Schultze : Die Kata- 
 komben, Leipzig, 1882]. IIEINIIICII MERZ. 
 
 CATAFALCO, or CATAFALQUE, from the Ital- 
 ian balco, a "scaffold," is a representation of a 
 tomb, made of plain carpentry, but often magni- 
 ficently decorated. It came into use in Italy, 
 wlien it became customary not to bring the corpses 
 into the church while the singing of the A'igil, 
 Requiem, and Libera, took place ; and its object 
 was, as a visible memorial of the dead, to 
 strengthen the devotion. 
 
 CATALDUS, ST., a saint of the Roman-Catho- 
 lic Church, but a person of a very fabidous record. 
 It seems, however, that he lived in the sixth cen- 
 tury, came from Ireland, made a pilgrimage to 
 Jerusalem, settled at Tarent, and became bishop 
 there. In 1071 his bones were discovered ; and, as 
 they made the customai'y miracles, he was canon- 
 ized. His festival is celebrated on iSlay 10. The 
 Acta Sanct., May, gives his life, and the literature 
 belonging to it. 
 
 CATECHETICS, CATECHISMS, and CATE- 
 CHUMENS. Catechetics, from Kanixii^en; "to 
 teach," " to instruct," is a part of practical theol- 
 ogy, and corresijonds to catechesis, as theory to 
 practice. The practical art of catechisation origi- 
 nated together with the Church, and in the fourth 
 and fifth centuries it began to develop its scien- 
 tific theory. Some instruction in the truths of 
 Christianity, more or less conqirehensive, more or 
 less profound, was, no doubt, from the very first 
 days of the Church, considered an indispensable 
 condition for admission into membership, that is, 
 for baptism and very early the catechist appeared 
 as an officer, the catechumenate as an institution, 
 in the Church. The Const itutiones AposloliccE, 
 from the latter part of the third century, show 
 the institution, its functions, and its proceedings, 
 in a fair state of development; and a century 
 later on, in the ■s\Titings of Cyril of Jerusalem, 
 Gregory of Nyssa, Chrysostom, and Augustine, it 
 presents itseU as a missionary apparatus of great 
 completeness and vigor. After a sinqile applica- 
 tion to the deacon, or presbyter, or bishop, and a 
 preliminary investigation by him of the moral 
 standing of the applicant, any person, Jew, 
 jjagan, or heretic, was admitted into the state of 
 a catechumen by the sign of the cross and the
 
 CATECHISMS. 
 
 418 
 
 CATECHUMENS. 
 
 imposition of hands ; th.at is, lie was recognized 
 as a Christian, tliougli not as one of the fideles, 
 and enjoined to attend tlie catechisation in tlie 
 church. As a catechumen he passed through 
 several stages. Some distinguish between two, 
 others between three, and others again between 
 four ; though a first class, not allowed to enter the 
 church-building, but receiving instruction outside 
 the wali, is a very doubtful supposition. Tlie 
 first class comprised the Auilientes, who attended 
 the sermon, but left the church before the strictly 
 liturgical part of the service began ; the second, 
 the Genujieclentes, or Prostrali, who were allowed 
 to attend, kneeling, the prayer which was offered 
 up for them ; the third, the Compelentes, or candi- 
 dates for baptism, to whom the arcani cli.iciplina 
 was unveiled. — the creed and the Lord's Prayer. 
 The whole course through the catechumenate took 
 between two and three years ; and in this, its great 
 missionary function, the Church appears to have 
 employed as much caution as energy. In the 
 tlih'd and fourth centm-ies, questions of the what 
 and the how of this mstruction were mooted ; and 
 in the fourth and fifth centuries the settled prac- 
 tice began to develop its theory. See Cyril : Calc- 
 cheses ; Gkegory of Xyss.\ : Oratio Catechelica; 
 Chrysostom : Catecheses ad lUmyiinanilos ; Au- 
 gustine : De CalecJilzmidis Rudibus. Comp. I. 
 May'ER : Geschichte des Kulcchmnenats nnd der 
 Katechese in den erslen sechi Ja/irhunderten, Keniiv 
 ten. 1868. 
 
 In the period from the sixtli to the sixteenth 
 century very little was done for catechetics and 
 catechesis. The missionary activity of the Church 
 assumed an entirely new character. On the one 
 side, the society in which Christianity was born, 
 and in which it was now growing into supreme 
 power, had been thoroughly christianized ; infant 
 baptism had become the rule ; the catechumenate 
 disappeared ; the instruction in Christianity was 
 left to the family, and the clergy gradually 
 dropped those functions which characterize the 
 catechist, developing only those which character- 
 ize the priest. On the other side, the Church 
 carried on its mission among the barbarians in a 
 peculiar wholesale style, which plainly shows 
 that the kingdom of heaven had become a king- 
 dom on earth, and meant to vindicate itself as 
 such. Whole nations were converted by the 
 sword, or as a natural consequence of the conver- 
 sion of their ruli-r; and the great oliject of the 
 Church was to subdue the nuisses under an exter- 
 nal organization, which did next to nothing for 
 the internal trai)ung of tlie individual. The. 
 gi-ave shortcomings of the Konian-Catholic Church 
 in this respect were felt; but very little was done 
 to make up for the deficiency. The cnpilularies 
 of Charlemagne and l^ouis the Piou.s, the councils 
 of Lambeth (1281), IJezier (1346), and Tortosa 
 (112,0), ardently inculcated the duty of the priest 
 to instruct his flock in the Cliristian faith. In the 
 ninth century Ottfried wrote the so-called AVeis- 
 senburg Catechism ; in the eleventh, Kruno of 
 AVurlzburg, a catechism in the form of questions 
 and answers; in tlic fifteenth, John fjerson, his 
 Ue Purvulis ad Clirinlum Trnliciidis. lint it was 
 only among the heretical sects of the jieriod, — the 
 Cathari, Walden.ses, AViclifites, IJoheniian Bretli- 
 ren, etc., — that catechesis and catechetics still 
 lived on, and bore fruit. Amoug them no child 
 
 was allowed to grow up without being able to give 
 an account of its faith ; and in Bohemia there are 
 traces of gradated catechumenate similar to that 
 of the ancient Church. It is apparent, however, 
 as we approach the outbreak of the Keformation, 
 that a feeling of the necessity of giving more and 
 better religious instruction becomes more and 
 more vivid in the Church ; and not only have the 
 Brethren of the Coninion Life done much good 
 in this field, but all the reformers before the 
 Reformation found here one of their principal 
 practical issues. 
 
 How powerful the impulse was which cateche- 
 sis (and, soon after, also catechetics) received in 
 the beginning of the sixteenth century may be 
 inferred from the sudden and almost contempo- 
 raneous appearance in all chm-ches of the cate- 
 chism ; that is, a siminiary of the contents of the 
 faith, drawn up under the authority of the 
 Chmxh, and destined to form the basis for oral 
 instruction. [See Philip Schaff : Creeds of 
 Christendom. New York, 1877, 3 vols.] In the 
 Lutheran Church several attempts had been 
 made, both by Luther and others, to write a cate- 
 chism ; but they were all superseded in 1529, 
 when Luther published his Larger and Smaller 
 Catechism, — the former destined for the minister 
 and the schoolmaster, the latter for the people and 
 the children ; which two books soon became, and 
 still are, the standard text-books in the Lutheran 
 churches in Germany and Scandinavia. In the 
 Reformed Church the Catechixmus .S'a/i-6'H//ensis 
 appeared in 1527 ; the catechism of fficolampa- 
 dius and Leo Juda in 1534 ; that of Calvin, in 
 1536 ; and in 1563 that of L'rsinus and Olevianus, 
 tlie so-called Heidelberg Catechism, which became 
 one of the symbolical books of the Dutch and 
 German Reformed Churches in Europe and Amer- 
 ica. In the French Reformed Church various 
 catechisms were used, — by Capell, 1619, Drelin- 
 court, 1642, etc., — until in 1806 the Cate'chisme 
 a I'Usaye de toules les Eylises de V Empire Fran- 
 cais was introduced. Even the Roman-Catholic 
 Church felt the influence of this impulse. The 
 catechism of Canisius appeared in 1554 ; that of 
 Bellarmin, in 1603 ; that of Bossuet, in 1687, etc. 
 The standard work, liowever, is the Calecliis7nus 
 liomaniis c.r Decrelo Cone. Tritleni., published 
 under the authority of Pius V., in 1566 [and 
 translated into English by Donovan, Dublin, 
 1829]. 
 
 The two great catechisms which the Reforma- 
 tion produced in England are that of the EpLsco- 
 jial Church and that of the Presliyterian Church. 
 The former was prepared, after the Hampton 
 Court Conference of 1604, by John Overall, or at 
 least in part by him, and at the instance of James 
 I., and it is still the standard text-book of the 
 Clun-ch of England. The latter was prepared 
 by the assembly of divines at Westminster, and 
 appean^d in a double form, — a smaller, 1646, and 
 a larger, 1047. It is tlie standard text-book for 
 all evangelical Xonconformists in England, and 
 Presbytei'ians in America. Other liut less suc- 
 cessful attempts in tlie sami; field are, Cranmer's 
 Ciitechismc, 1548 ; Allen's Calechismc, tiiat is to 
 say, A Christen Instruccion of (he Principnll Pointes 
 of Chrisles IMifjion, 1551 ; Kini/ Edward Vllh's 
 Catechisme, 1.").53; Alexander Xoel : Catechis- 
 mus sive prima In.ilitutio Disciplinaque Pielatii-
 
 CATENA. 
 
 419 
 
 CATENA. 
 
 ChnslUinfv, 1570; Danikl Rookiss: Pmrliccd 
 Calechi.wic, WiO ; Ezekikl RooKits : GrnuiKh of 
 the Christian ReUf/ioti byway of Catcchisiiif, ICAU; 
 HuNYAN : Instruction for the Iijnorant, 107:2 ; 
 Isaac Watts : Catechisms for Children and 
 Youth, 1730, cto. Valuable contributions to cate- 
 chetics were given by Isaac Watts : Discourse 
 on Instruction by Catechism, 17-*S; Gii.l.Y : Norm 
 Catecheticce, 1828; GuEEX: Lectures on the Shorter 
 Catechism, Pliiladolphia, 1811; Ardkn : Manual 
 of Catechetical Listruction, London, 1851. But a 
 systematic representation of catechetics has been 
 produced only in Germany, where the practical ap- 
 plication of very different principles ami methods 
 of catechisation by the orthodox Lutheran, the 
 Pietists, and the Rationalists, naturally led to the 
 creation of a scientific theory. See C. Pai.mkij: 
 Ecany. Katechetik, Stuttgart, 4th ed.,^ 1814 ;_ G. 
 VON Zkzschwitz : System d. christ. lirchl. Kate- 
 chetik; Leipzig, 1864, 3 vols.; R. Kuhel : Kate- 
 chetik, Barmeii, 1877; P. Gobel? Geschichte der 
 Katechese ijn Abendlande, vom Verfall d. Katechu- 
 menats bis zum Ende d. Mittelalters, Kempten, 1880 ; 
 J. Coiiiii.ET: Du catc'chumt'nal, Paris, 1881 (36 
 pp.). 
 
 CATENA (a chain). From the very first 
 days of the Christian Church her teachers were 
 deeply engaged in the study and exposition of 
 Holy AVrit ; and the books of the Old Testament 
 attracted the same attention, and carried the same 
 authority, as those of the New Testament. In 
 Origen the Eastern Church produced a compre- 
 hensive and most fertile exegete ; and in the mid- 
 dle of the fifth century her literary activity reached 
 its acme. Ambrose, Avigustine, and Jerome la- 
 bored at the same time in the AVestern Church ; 
 and such a mass of exegetical materials was pro- 
 duced as to make sifting, arrangement, and epito- 
 mizing, after the manner of the old scholiasts, 
 absolutely necessary. Thus originated exegetical 
 collections, whicll the Greeks called imrojiat {avX- 
 Tloyai, avvayuyni) ep/irjveiijv, etc. while tlie Latins 
 simply designated them as ylossce, postilke, etc. 
 The name catence is of a later date. Formerly it 
 was generally believed that Thomas Aquinas was 
 the first to use it; but the title Catena Aurea, of 
 liis work on the Gospels, does not belong to him : 
 all the oldest editions have Glossa Continua, or 
 Continuum. 
 
 According to general acceptation, the catence 
 began in the ^^'est with Cassiodorus, from the 
 end of the fifth century, and in the East with 
 Procopius of Gaza, from the beginning of the 
 sixth century. But this is hardly correct. Tlie 
 true catena consists merely of extracts from a 
 greater or smaller number of exegetes, whose 
 names are given after every quotation. The col- 
 lector himself offers no opinion of his own. His 
 business is simply to collect and arrange, and he 
 makes changes only when he feels compelled to 
 abbreviate or condense. The choice of authori- 
 ties from whom to make extracts was individual 
 and incidental; but prominent teachers — Origen, 
 Chrysostom, Theodoret, and Cyrillus in the East, 
 and Augustine in the West — were, of course, 
 preferred. Also hei'etics were sometimes quoted, 
 but generally for the purpose only of warning 
 against their propositions. iSomewhat different 
 from this, the true catena, is another kind of 
 exegetical collections, in which the collector uses 
 
 only one authority, whom ho epitomizes, con- 
 denses, transcribes, etc. To this latter kind belong 
 the works of Procopius, Cassiodorus, Primasius, 
 Florus Magister, Beda, and Rhabanus Maurus; 
 and they are the nearest predecessors of the true 
 catena. 
 
 Once invented, the catena flourished during the 
 wiiole period of the middle ages, and uj) to the 
 latter part of the sixteenth century. Rich mate- 
 rials exist, scattered about in the various libraries ; 
 but only a small portion of it has as yet been 
 examined and utilized. See J. A. FAJiHicius : 
 mUiolheca Grccca, Hamburg, 1718-28, VIH. p. 
 637 sqq. ; J. A. Noesselt : De Calenis Patrum 
 Grac, in his Opusc. ad Hist. Eccl., Halle, 1817; 
 .1. MouELLius : BiUioth. Marc. Venet. Manser. 
 Grwc. et Lat., Bassani, 1802, I. ; and Ids Cod. 
 Gnec. Muser. apud Nanios Patricios Venetos As- 
 servati, Bonn, 1784. On closer investigation, how- 
 ever, it appears that there were originally only a. 
 limited number of cateme, which were copied over 
 and over again, and abbreviated or enlarged in a 
 rather arbitrary manner by the copyists. Among 
 the most jjrominent catena writers were Nicetas, 
 Bishop of Serrai in ISIacedonia, and afterwards 
 metropolitan of Heraclea in Thracia (eleventh 
 century), and ]\Iacarius Chrysocephalus, metropol- 
 itan of Philadelphia (fourteenth century). There 
 occur also catence in the vernacular tongues, — one 
 in Low German, on Jesu Sirach ; another in High 
 German, on the New Testament, etc. The exe- 
 getical value of these works is very small ; but, 
 besides having interest as literary monuments of 
 the age in which they originated, they are of im- 
 portance to the text-critic, especially in cases in 
 which they quote from books which now are lost. 
 
 As the Latin cateme mostly quote from works 
 which still exist, they are only of suboidinate 
 consequence, and need no further mention here. 
 The most important of the Greek catence are : 
 
 I. To the Old Testament. — One to the Octateuch, 
 very rich, edited by NicBphorus, Archbishop of 
 Philadelphia, Leipz'ig, 1772, 2 vols, fob ; one to Jere- 
 miah and Baruch, printed in tlie Commentary of 
 Mich. Guislerius, Lyons, 1633, 3 vols. fol. ; on* 
 to Daniel, published in A. jMai : Script. Vett. Nova 
 Coll., I. 2, p. 161 sqq. ; one by Bishop Nicetas 
 to the Psalms, edited by Balth. Coederius, 
 Antwerp, 1043-46, 3 vols, fob, very interesting. 
 
 II. To the New Testament. — To Matthew, one 
 edited by P. PossiNUS, ToIoscB, 1646, and another 
 edited by Balth. Corderius, Antwerp, 1647; 
 to Mark, one edited by P. PossiNUS, Rome, 1673, 
 and another edited by C. F. Matth^i, Moscow, 
 1775; to Luke, one made by Titus Bostrexsis, 
 and published in Fronto Duc.eus, Auctar. Bib- 
 lioth. Patr., II. p. 762 sqq., and in Bibl. Patr.^ 
 Paris, XIII., and large parts of another, pub- 
 lished in A. ]Mai, Script. Vett. Nova Coll. IX.,. 
 p. 626 ; to John, one edited by Balth. Corde- 
 rius, Antwerp, 1630; and to all the books of the 
 New Testament, one edited by J. A. Cramer, 
 Oxford, 1838-44, 8 vols. The commentaries of 
 EuTHYMius ZiGADENUS to the Psalms and the 
 Gospels, of Theophylactus to the Gospels and 
 Paul's Epistles, and of Andreas and Arethas 
 to the Apocalj-pse, all dating from the tenth cen- 
 tury, have the character of catence, though they 
 are" not altogether without independent produc- 
 tivity.
 
 CATHARI. 
 
 420 
 
 CATHARI. 
 
 The powerful impulse wliich biblical exegesis 
 received in the sixteenth century from tlie Refor- 
 mation soon produced a great quant it}' of new 
 exegetical materials ; and in the seventeenth cen- 
 tury exegetical collections were made which in 
 all essential points show the cliaracter of the old 
 catence. Such are tlie Biblia Mai/na, Paris, 1643, 
 5 vols. fol. ; Biblia 3Iaxiina, Paris, 1660, 19 vols, 
 fol. ; Annolalions upon all the Books of the Old and 
 New Testaments, Loudon, 1645, "2 vols. fol. ; Pear- 
 son's Crilici Sacri, London, 1660, 9 vols. fol. ; 
 Abr. Calovius : Biblia Illustrata, Francfort, 1672, 
 4 vols. fol. And, indeed, the exegetes of the 
 Eoman-Catholic Church have retained many of 
 the features of the ancient catena up to this very 
 day. O. F. FRITZSCHE. 
 
 CATHARI (xaSapoi, "the pure''), a dualistic 
 sect which originated in Eastern Europe, inde- 
 pendently of the IManichaeans and Paulicians, 
 but from the same source, — an intermingling of 
 European and Asiatic ideas. Most probably 
 they originated among the Slavs, and in some 
 Bulgarian monastery ; though Shaff arUc, the great 
 authority on Slav antiquities, while confirming 
 their Slav origin, puts their birthplace in Drago- 
 ■witza, in Southern Macedonia, where, at all 
 events, they had a bishopric in the twelfth cen- 
 tury. Thence they spread into Thrace, where 
 they were known as the Bogomiles, into Dalma- 
 tia, Slavonia, Bulgaria, whence the crusaders 
 hrought back to France the name Bulgari, or 
 Bowjres, and Albania, where the great split took 
 place between the absolute dualists, the Alba- 
 neuses, and those adoptmg a milder form of 
 dualism, the Concorezenses (from Coriza in Dal- 
 matia, or, according to Schafforik, from Goriza in 
 Albania). From tlie Slav countries in the Balkan 
 peninsula, where they maintained themselves up 
 to the latter part of the fifteenth centm-y, wheji 
 they were absorbed by Mohammedanism, they 
 spread, during the middle ages, over all Eurojie, 
 more especially over tlie southern part. 
 
 Travelling Slav merchants early brought the 
 heresy to Italy. Though the first traces of the 
 sect in the Western Church are found in France 
 and Flanders, it is expressly affirmed that the 
 new doctrines were brought thither from Italy. 
 In Italy the first Cathari were discovered iu tlio 
 Castle of Jlonteforte, near Turin, about 1035; 
 and their chief Girardus, together witli .several 
 others, was burnt. A century later on they had 
 spread widely in IJpper Italy, especially in Lom- 
 bardy ; and in 1167 Xiceta.s, the Bishop of the 
 Cathari in Constantinople, came to Italy, on ac- 
 count of tlie schism between the Albanenses and 
 the Concorezenses, and for the inirpose of secur- 
 ing the firm adherence of the Italian Cathari to 
 tlie doctrine of absolute dualism. In Milan and 
 Florence, in Calabria and Sicily, even in the 
 Papal States, they had churches, and at last also 
 dioceses. Political circumstances were favorable 
 to them ; many powerful nobU-s jirotected tliem ; 
 for centuries tliey withstood all the exertions of 
 the popes and tlie Lujuisition. But it is an exag- 
 geration of a sickly criticism, when Aroax tries 
 to make Dante a jm-aclier among the Cathari, 
 and lh(! Divina Commcilia an allegorical liljel on 
 the Uoman Churcli (see his Dantn lleretii/iie, 
 Ui'iwlutionnire el Socialisle, Paris, 1854, and Clef 
 [<lc la Comidie Anti-Cutholiijuc de Dante Aliijliieri, 
 
 Paris, 1856). It is true, though, that one of the 
 most active members of the sect, Arnianiio Pangi- 
 lovo, from Ferrara, was very near being canonized 
 by the Pope in the last years of the thu-teenth 
 century. Even late in the fourteenth century 
 the Inquisition in Italy was -busy persecuting the 
 Cathari ; but after that time they are not heard 
 of any more in that country. Their name in 
 Italy was not Cathari, however, but Patareni, 
 from Pataria, an obsciu'e street in Milan, the 
 headquarters of the rag-pickers, where they held 
 theu" secret assemblies. 
 
 Their principal seat in "Western Europe the 
 Cathari had in Southern France, where they were 
 known as the Albigenses; which article see. 
 Thence they penetrated into the northern prov- 
 inces of Spain, wliere they numbered many adher- 
 ents in the thirteenth century. To Germany 
 they came partly from the East, from the Slav 
 countries, partly from Flanders and Champagne. 
 In 1052 several Cathari were condemned to death 
 at Goslar. In 1146 Evervin, pro\ost of Steinf el- 
 den, held a disputation with them in Cologne; 
 but the disputation was interrupted by a mob, 
 and the Cathari were murdered. Still tlie sect 
 lived on in the regions along the Rhine, especially 
 in Cologne and Bonn. In 1163 several of them 
 were burnt, after the canon Echbert had tried ia 
 vain to convert them ; and in 1231 a severe perse- 
 cution broke out, under the leadership of the 
 fanatical Dominican monk, Konrad of .Marburg, 
 after which event the sect is not mentioned any 
 more in Germany. The Waldenses, however, and 
 the Brethren of the Free Spirit, seem to have 
 found more easy access among the Germans, and 
 maintained themselves in the country during the 
 whole of the middle ages. In England the Ca- 
 thari found very little sympathy. They came 
 over in 1159 from Holland, and in 1210 some are 
 said to have been discovered in London ; but 
 their influence was very insignificant. 
 
 The doctrinal system of the Cathari consists of 
 some imperfect speculations concerning the nature 
 and the origin of evil, physical as well as moral, 
 mixed up with some curious mythological fancies 
 about the creation of the world, of man, etc. 
 This .system tliey based upon the New Testament, 
 of which they possessed a translation, probably 
 derived from the Orient, and deviating considera- 
 bly from the Vulgate. But the text of thi.s 
 translation they interpreted in a most arbitrary 
 manner, — now literally, now allegorically, after 
 the rcquiroments of their doctrinal system. They 
 also held certain apocryphical books in great 
 esteem, especially the Visio Jesaicc, and a Gospel 
 according to John, entitled Narralio ile Intcrror/a- 
 llnnilms S. Johannis <t Jlesjionsionibus Chrisli Domi- 
 ni. Of tlieir own writhigs nothing is known but 
 a .short though very remarkable ritual, drawn up 
 in the language of thi^ Troubadours of the thir- 
 teenth century, and edited, after a manuscript in 
 Lyons, by Cui'iitz, Jena, 1852. Unable to under- 
 stand how evil ever could have originated from 
 God, they were led to ascribe it to an independent 
 principle. According to the oldest view, and 
 that most widely adopted among them, the evil 
 principle was ab.sohite and eternal, like the good. 
 Rut this coarse dualism was afterwards softened 
 down by the assumption that the (^vil sjiirit had 
 originally been a pure creature, who, liy an act
 
 CATHARINA. 
 
 421 
 
 CATHARINA OF SIENNA. 
 
 of his own five will, had separated himself from 
 the good. Both systems iiiaiiitaincd tliciiiselves 
 for a Ions' time, as the difference between them 
 concerned only the metaphysical part of the 
 whole system, the theology proper, the cos- 
 mogony, and the anthropogony ; while the morals, 
 the ritnals, and the ecclesiastical organization 
 remained mitouched by it, tlu; same for both 
 parties. 
 
 The moral system of the Cathari was thor- 
 oughly ascetic. Sin was defined as Inst after 
 that which is material ; for matter was the work 
 of Satan. The sold was created by (lod, and 
 heaven was its home; but Satan had allnred her 
 down on earth, and locked her up in a material 
 body to prevent her return to lieaven. Natural 
 life was consequently nothing but a term of 
 penance. Any contact with matter was sin. 
 Any act of the will which was not an abnegation 
 of nature, a sacrifice of the material self, was a 
 sin. To hold property, to keep intercourse with 
 worldly men, to tell lies, to wage war, to kill 
 animals (except those that creep), to eat flesh 
 (except that of fishes), were deadly sins ; and the 
 greatest of all sins was generation, whether in or 
 out of marriage. The extreme severity of this 
 system was somewhat mitigated by a distinction 
 between the perfecti and the credenles. Only the 
 former were demanded to fulfil the rules in all 
 their rigor : considerable allowances were granted 
 to the latter. But onlj' the perfecti formed the 
 Chiu'ch proper, outside of which there was no 
 salvation ; and all were enjoined to enter this 
 class, if not earlier, at least in the moment of 
 death, by receiving the spiritual baptism, which 
 was administered by a single imposition of haiuls, 
 and which was not a sacramentum, but only a 
 consolamentiim. 
 
 The ritual and ecclesiastical organization were 
 exceedingly simple. There were no churches, 
 but only oratories, without images, crosses, or 
 bells. All the furniture and ornament which the 
 building contained consisted of a plain table, 
 covered with a white cloth, on which laid the 
 Bible, opened at the Gospel of John. The ser- 
 vice consisted of the reading and expounding of 
 a chapter of the Bible, after which one of the 
 perfecti blessed the kneeling assembly. There 
 were no sacraments. The baptism with water 
 was rejected as something insignificant. Instead 
 of the Lord's Supper, a kind of agape was held, 
 at whicii the perfecti broke and blessed the bread; 
 but no reference was made by this act to the 
 body of Christ. There were parishes and dio- 
 ceses, with deacons and bishops : but the clergy 
 had no power, spiritual or secular ; and that 
 which made the Cathari most odious, and most 
 dangerous to the eyes of the Roman Church was, 
 no doubt, their strongly pronomiced anti-clerical 
 tendency. 
 
 Lit. — JIaitl.\xd : Facts and Documents on the 
 History of the Alhif/enses and Waldenses, London, 
 1832; Schmidt: Histoire et Doctrine de la Secte 
 dcs Cathares, Paris, 1849, 2 vols. ; [Brf.ede : Gesch. 
 d. Ber;rijf: d. KatJi., Riga, 1880 sqq.]. C. SCHMIDT. 
 
 CATHARINA {'^itKadapivu, " the always pure "), 
 one of the most celebrated saints, worshipped 
 both in the Greek and Roman Church. Since J. 
 T. Assemani, she is generally identified with that 
 'noble and wealthy Alexandrian lady of whom 
 
 Eusebius tells (TTisl. Ecd., VIIL 14-15) that .she- 
 withstood all the adulterous attacks of tlie Kni- 
 pcror Maximinus, and for that reason was lian- 
 ished, and despoiled of all her property, liut 
 this does not agree either with the circmnstance 
 that Rufiuus calls the Alexandrian lady DorotlK;a 
 (Hist. Eccl., VJII. 17), or with the principal fea- 
 ture of the old legend such as it is recorded in 
 the Martyrologium Ronianum, and by Simeon I\Ieta- 
 plirastes (Migne : Patrol. Orcec, T. 110, pp. 275- 
 302). According to the legend, St. C'atharina 
 was the daughter of King Konstos, eighteen years 
 old, and as wise as beautiful. She converted the 
 philosophers with whom she lield a disputation 
 on the connnand of the emjieror. She converted 
 also the empress, the general Porphyrins, two 
 hundred soldiers, etc. ; and, when she was placed 
 on. a torturing engine composed of wheels, she 
 was miraculously rescued. Finally she was be- 
 headed ; and her remains were carried by angels 
 to IMount Sinai, -uhere afterwards the emperor, 
 Justinian I., built a monastery in her honor. She 
 is the patron saint of the philosophical faculty of 
 the LTniversity of Paris ; and she was a favorite 
 subject with the paintere of the middle ages, who 
 represented her with a crown, a book, a wheel, 
 etc. Her festival is celebrated in some places on 
 Nov. 25, in others on March 5. See Surius : 
 Vit. Sand., Nov. 25; Act. Satirt. Boll., IMarch 5; 
 Butler : Lices of Saiiil.% Nov. 25. ZOCKLER. 
 
 CATHARINA OF BOLOGNA, b. 1413; d. 
 March 9, 14{j3; entered the order of St. Clara in 
 1430, and became afterwards abbess of one of 
 the convents of the order. She was canonized in 
 1724 by Benedict XIII. A book of Revelations 
 is ascribed to her. It was first printed at Venice, 
 1511. See Act. Sand., IMarch, T. 11. pp. 34-88; 
 Buti.er : Lice.i of Saint:;. IMarch 9. 
 
 CATHARINA OF GENOA {Catharina Flisca 
 Adorna Vidua Genuensis),h. 1447; d. Sept. 14, 
 1510; was a daughter of Robert Fiesclii, 'i'ice- 
 regent of Naples ; married the dissijiated Giuliano 
 Adorno, but became a widow in 1474, and devoted 
 the rest of her life to the poor and tiie sick. She 
 was canonized by Clement XII. in 1737. She 
 wi'ote Demonstratio Puri/atorii, Dialor/iis Animam 
 inter et Corpus, and other mystico-prophetical 
 works of the kind quite common during the mid- 
 dle ages. See Act. Sand., September, T. V. pp. 
 123-195; Butler: Lices of Saints, Sept. 14; 
 Upham : Life of Catharina Adorna, New York, 
 1856. 
 
 CATHARINA OF SIENNA {Catharina Benin- 
 casa), b. 1347 ; d. April 29, 1380 ; assumed the 
 habit of the Third Order of St. Dominic in 1365, 
 and enjoyed, on account of the austerity of her 
 asceticism and the ecstatic state of her mind, so 
 great a fame that at several occasions she could 
 play a conspicuous part in politics as mediator 
 between Florence and Rome, between LTrban VI. 
 and Clement VII., between Rome and Naples, 
 etc. She was canonized in 1461 by Pius II. Her 
 festival is observed on April 30. She left three 
 hundred and seventy-three letters • addressed to 
 popes, cardinals, princes, etc., six treatises under 
 the common title X/iro della Divinn Doltrina, some 
 prayers, prophecies, etc., which were published 
 by Aldus Manutius, A'enice. 1500, and again by 
 Girolamo Gigli, Sienna, 1707-26. A separate edi- 
 tion of the letters, chronologically arranged, was.
 
 CATHARINA OF SWEDEN. ■i-- CATHOLIC APOSTOLIC CHURCH. 
 
 given by Xicolo Tommaseo, Florence, 1S60. Her 
 life -n-as written by Rainiund of Capua, her con- 
 fessor (Act. Sa»ct., April, T. III. pp. 652 sqq.) ; by 
 Chavin de Malan, Paris, 1S46 ; Alfonso Capacelatro, 
 Florence, 1855; Hase, Leipsic. 186i ; Olga von 
 Leoiu'ad, Cologne, 1S80. The Processus CoiUesta- 
 tionum super Sanctitate et Dodrina Beatce Calharinm 
 de Senis is given by Martene and Durand, in ]^et. 
 Script. Collectio, VI. See in English, J. E. But- 
 ler : Catherine of Siemut. 3d ed., London, 1881; 
 Augusta Theodosia Dkane: Catharine of Sien- 
 na. London. 1880, 2 vols., 2d ed.. 1887. 
 
 CATHARINA OF SWEDEN (Catharina Suecica 
 VaslanensL':), h. 1331 : d. :\Iarch 2i, 1381 ; was a 
 daughter of St. Birgitta, whom she accompanied 
 to the Holy Land, and succeeded as Abbess of 
 Wadstena. When thirteen years old she was 
 married to a young and pious nobleman ; but im- 
 mediately after the wedding they both made a 
 solemn vow of perpetual chastity, and kept it. 
 She wrote a book, T/ic Soul's Comforter, wliich 
 is lost. In 1474 she was canonized. Her festival 
 falls on March 22. See Act. Sand., March, T. III. 
 pp. 503-531: Butler: Zu^es o/, Sain/s, March 22. 
 
 CATHARINA RICCI, b. 1522; d. Feb. 2, 1589; 
 entered the Dominican order at Prato in Tuscany, 
 and became prioress of the nunnery. She was 
 canonized in 174G by Benedict IV. Her letters 
 were edited by Cesare Qdosti, Prato, 1848. 
 Her life was w-ritten, first by Seraphin Ilazzi, a 
 Dominican monk, and then by Philip Guidi, her 
 confessor. See Rutler : Lives of Saints, Feb. 13. 
 
 CATHARINUS, Ambrosius, themonasticalname 
 of Lancelot Politi, b. 1483; d. Nov. 8. 1553; 
 studied, and taught jurisprudence for several j-ears, 
 but entered the Dominican order in 1515 ; became 
 Bishoji of !Minori 1546, and Archbishop of Conza 
 1552. He was a prolific wTiter. His Apologia 
 pro Veritate Caiholicce et Apostolica; Fidei ac Doc- 
 trince, written against Luther, is his first work. 
 He also wrote against Cajetan, Carranza, and 
 Dominico Soto. 
 
 CATHEDRA and CATHEDRAL. Cathedra, in 
 ecclesiastical usage, meant originally simply the 
 episcopal throne or chair placed against the wall 
 in the middle of the semicircular apsis, with a 
 row of lower seats for the presbyters on each side, 
 and so that the priest officiating at the altar faced 
 the bishop. Afterwards the word was. applied, 
 first to the see itself, and then to the very building 
 in which the bishop olficiated, ecclesia cathedraiis, 
 in contradistinction to ecclesice diocesance. Thus 
 the transition was made to the use, now so general, 
 of the adjective "cathedral" in a sid)stantive 
 sense, — a usage which dates from the tenth cen- 
 tury, and is confined to tlie Western Church. 
 
 CATHOLIC (Ihrouyhoiit-all, i.e., yencral, univer- 
 sal). This word early came into use among 
 Christians to distinguish their church from the 
 Jewisli, wliich was national : later on, it distin- 
 guished the orthodox church from the heretical 
 sects. In modern times it lias been arrogantly 
 and aVisurdly claimed by the Church of Home'; 
 and Prote.stajits usually call her so, although it 
 were nearer truth to say the Roman-Cat^iolic 
 Church. The jilirase in the Apostles' Creed, "tiic 
 Holy Catholic Church," is often ignorantly siijv 
 posed to refer to the Roman Church ; but the word 
 "catholic" merely means "universal," and was 
 not in the first form of the creed. The plirase is 
 
 correctly explained by what follows, — " the com- 
 munion of saints : " thus it simply expresses a 
 belief that the Holy Church, the communion of 
 saints, is not confined to one nation, but. by the 
 appointment and help of Christ, shall be dissem- 
 inated through all nations. Cf. Pearson, On the 
 Creed. Art. IX. 
 
 CATHOLIC APOSTOLIC CHURCH, or IRV- 
 INCITES. The man to give the strongest, if not 
 the first, impulse to this religious movement, was 
 Edward Irving (1792-1834, see title), although 
 he is little mentioned by the writers of this 
 Clnu'ch, who regard him merely as a forerunner, 
 and not as the founder of their community. The 
 historic occasion for the Apostolic Church was 
 the manifestations which occurred in the spring 
 of 1830, on the shores of the Clyde, among some 
 pious Presbyterian men and women, who believed 
 that their organs of speech were used by the 
 Holy Spirit for the utterance of his thoughts and 
 intentions. The fame of these phenomena spread : 
 in Ajiril, 1831, the same took place in London. 
 The " prophesyiugs " were addressed to the audi- 
 ence in intelligible English, and were like Quaker 
 utterances ; but the " tongues " were monologues 
 or dialogues between the speaker and Ciod, which 
 no one could understand. Toward the end of 
 1832 a considerable number of persons had be- 
 come believers in the supernatural character and 
 divine origin of these spiritual jihenomena, and, 
 further, convinced that it was the will of God the 
 apostolic office should be restored. God was 
 believed to indicate who should be put in this 
 office; and "by the middle of 1835 the fuU num- 
 ber (twelve) was completed, and they entered, as 
 a twelvefold Apostolic College, on the work of 
 caring for the whole Christian Church." From 
 these apostles this church has received its doc- 
 trine, organization, and worship. In doctrine it 
 is eclectic. Its advocates make a great deal out 
 of the second coming of Christ, which they think 
 is very near : they believe in liaptismal regenera- 
 tion, and the spiritual iiresence of Christ in the 
 Supper, with the additions that the elements after 
 consecration have a heavenly and spiritual as well 
 as a material character, and that the eucharist is 
 not only a sacrament, but a sacrifice, in the patris- 
 tic sense of a thanksgiving. With them it is also 
 connected with a commemoration of the departs 
 ed. They lay stress upon the a'cumenical creeds, 
 and embody them in their worship. In organi- 
 zation this church is very elaborate ^ — apostles, 
 prophets, and evangelists, for the general care of 
 the church, and angels (or bisholis), presbyters 
 (priests), and deacons, for the care of particular 
 congregations. All ollicers are called by the 
 Holy Ghost, through ihe jirojihets, except the 
 deacons, who are elected by tlie respective congre- 
 gations as their repre.sent;itives. In wor.ship, as 
 in doctrine and org:uiization, it is eclectic and 
 elaborate. It is highly ritualistic, with a .solemn 
 liturgy, based upon tlie Anglican and ancient 
 Greek, and with an elaborate symbolism, derived 
 from a fanciful interpretation of the .Jewish tab- 
 ei'iiacle as a type of the worshiji of the Christian 
 Church in the wilderness. In its hierarchical 
 constitution and ritu.alistic worship consists the 
 chii'f ]ii'culiarity of this community. Tliey are, 
 u]u)ii the whole, the highest of Iligh-Churchmen; 
 and have, indeed, most .sympathy with the Kpis-
 
 CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION. 423 
 
 CATTLE-RAISING. 
 
 copal Chuich, from which they received the 
 majority of tlieir original members. Their inain 
 strength is in London, where tliey have seven 
 churches, after the model of tlie seven churches 
 of Asia; but they are also foimd throughout 
 Great Britain andin North Germany; and they 
 have one church in New- York City, but very few 
 adherents in the country. 
 
 This church combines a high order of piety 
 and hiunility of individual members with aston- 
 ishing assun'iptions, wliicli, if well founded, would 
 require the submission of all Christendom to the 
 authority of its inspired apostles. But, as these 
 die, their vacancies are not filled : soon there wiU 
 be none left, and then the chm-ch at large will be 
 no better off than it was before the movement 
 began. 
 
 Lit. — Edwaki) Irving: WuHs, London, 
 1864-65, 5 vols.; Mrs. M. O. W. Oliphant: 
 Life of Edward Iroinrj, London and New York, 
 1862 ; Liturciii and cither Divine Offices of the 
 Church, London, 1842 (by the "Apostles," subject 
 to enlargement) ; C. M. Carre : The First and 
 Last Days of the Church of Christ, London, 1851 ; 
 J. S. Davknpokt l Edward Irving and the Catholic 
 Apostolic Church, New York, 1853; W. W. An- 
 drews : Tlie True Constitution of the Church and 
 its Restoration, New York, 1854 ; the same : The 
 True Marks of the Church, Hartford, 1867; J. S. 
 Jacobi : Die Lchre der Irviniyton, Berlin, 1868 ; 
 E. Miller : History of Irvingism, London, 1878, 
 •2 vols. 
 
 CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION, the name given 
 to the Act of Parliament, April 13, 1829, which 
 removed from the Roman Catholics, particularly 
 those of Ireland, the political disalulities which 
 had lain upon them. The Act was one of simple 
 justice ; but the tardiness of its execution is a 
 striking instance of the existence in Protestant- 
 ism of that grasping, persecuting, intolerant 
 spirit so commonly condemned by Protestants as 
 a Roman-Catholic spirit. From their subjugation 
 in 1691, down to the Act, Roman Catholics in 
 Ireland were grievously oppressed. No Roman 
 Catholic could act as guardian for any child ; a 
 son turning Protestant could dispossess his father, 
 and take the estate ; a Roman-Catholic heir to a 
 landed p>roperty was to be set aside in event of 
 the next Protestant heir; no office, military or 
 civil, could be held by a Roman Catholic ; he 
 could not vote, or marry a Protestant wife ; he 
 could not practise law, or teach school ; a priest 
 marrying a Roman Catholic and a Protestant was 
 to be hanged. Such was the law ; but the prac- 
 tice was naturally much milder, and several of 
 these wicked laws were repealed by the Irish Par- 
 liament of 1790. In 1806 came tlie Union. Mr. 
 Pitt pledged himself to secure an act of emanci- 
 pation, but failed ; and not until the agitation of 
 O'Connell and the Catholic Association awoke the 
 usually slumbering conscience of Great Britain 
 abont all that relates to Ireland was any thing 
 done. But when aroused, the British are always 
 fair; and so the measure of relief was trium- 
 phantly passed. See sub Titido Johnson's 
 Ci/clopcedie. 
 
 CATHOLIC EPISTLES. Seven epistles— those 
 of James, First and Second Peter, First, Second, 
 and Third Jolm, and Jude — are so denominated. 
 Three explanations, none very satisfactory, have 
 
 been given of the term : 1. Because these epistles 
 are "general letters of instruction, the name being 
 at first applied only to a part, but afterwards in- 
 cluding even tliose addressed to private person ; " 
 2. liecause the different apostles wei'e engaged in 
 writing them; 3. Because of the catlinlic doctrine 
 taught in tliem; 4. The First Epistle of Peter, 
 and the First Epistle of John, liaving from the 
 beginning been received as authentic, obtained 
 the name of catholic, or universally acknowledged 
 (and therefore canonical), epistles, in order to 
 distinguish tliem from the Epistle of James, the 
 second of Peter, the second and third of .I(jhn, 
 and the Epistle of Jude, concerning wliich doubts 
 were at first entertained ; and they were consid- 
 ered by many as not being a rule of faith. But, 
 their autlienticity being at lengtli acknowledged 
 by the generality of the churches, they also ob- 
 tained the name of catholic, or universally ac- 
 cepted, ejjistles, and were esteemed of ecjual 
 authority with the rest. IIorne : Introduction 
 (14th ed., London, 1877, vol. iv. p. 589). 
 
 CATHOLIC or UNITED COPTS, that portion 
 of the Coptic Church which acknowledges the 
 supremacy of the Pope. They numbered (1876) 
 about thirteen thousand. 
 
 CATHOLICUS was, in the time of Constantine, 
 a civil officer establislied after tlie organization 
 by law of dioceses ; each diocese having its ca- 
 tliolicus, or receiver-general. As an ecclesiastical 
 officer occurring in several Eastern churches, the 
 catholicus occupied a position between the metro- 
 politan and the patriarch. The Armenian Cliurch 
 has still three catholici, — at Etchmiadzin, Aylita- 
 niar, and Sis. 
 
 CATTLE-RAISING AMONG THE HEBREWS. 
 From the Bible we know that the patriarchs led 
 a pastoral life. Their descendants continued this 
 life, in connection with agricidture, even after tlie 
 taking of Canaan. From 1 Sam. xx. 2, 1 Kings 
 V. 3, 8, 63, and other passages, we get an idea of 
 the extent of cattle-breeding which existed at 
 different times. We confine ourselves to speak- 
 ing of those kinds which were generally used in 
 the house and for sacrificial purposes ; viz., — • 
 
 (1.) Neat-Cattle, collectively designated by the 
 Hebrew word bakar. Single animals of this kind 
 are aliuph, an " ox," or shor, a " bullock : " the 
 calves are styled e'gel, a "heifer," also a young 
 cow, even when broke to the yoke (Judg. xiv. IS ; 
 Hos. X. 11), anA para, even when grown, but still 
 in full youthful vigor. There was a great demand 
 for neat-cattle : many hundreds were yearly slaugh- 
 tered in sacrifice ; others were employed for food, 
 especially veal (e.g., Deut. xii. 21 ; 2 Sam. xii. 
 4 ; 1 Kings iv. 23), although, among some an- 
 cient nations, it was regarded as an act of wanton 
 prodigality to slay useful agricultm-al beasts in 
 order to enjoy their flesh. The milk was used 
 either sweet or curdled, and was made also into 
 cheese. Cattle were yoked to the plough (Deut. 
 xxii. 10 ; 1 Kings xix. 19 sq.), likewise for drauglit 
 (Num. vii. 3 sq.), but more especially for thresh- 
 ing. They were driven with a pointed stick. 
 During summer, cattle ranged under the open sky. 
 In the stalls their fodder was placed in a crib. 
 Besides fresh grass and meadow-plants (Dan. iv. 
 29 ; Num. xxii. 4), meslin (.Tob vi. 5 ; Isa. xxx. 
 24, to which salt was also added, Isa. I.e.) is men- 
 tioned.
 
 CAUSSIN. 
 
 424 
 
 CECIL. 
 
 Concerning the cattle the following legal en- 
 actments were given : — 
 
 1. An ox and an ass must not be yoked to- 
 gether to the plough . (Deut. xxii. 10) ; 2. The 
 mouth of the threshing-oxen \Yas not to be bound 
 (Deut. sxv. 4); 3. A goring ox was to be stoned, 
 and his flesh not to be eaten (Exod. xxi. 28 sq.) ; 
 4. Whoever stole, and then sold or slaughtered, 
 an ox, must give five oxen in satisfaction (Exod. 
 xxii. 1) ; but, if the animal was found alive in the 
 possession of the tliiet, he was merely required to 
 make double restitution (Exod. xxii. 4); 5. Who- 
 ever met an ox that had fallen or strayed was 
 under obligation immediately to help it up, and 
 bring it back to the ow^ler (Exod. xxiii. 4 ; Deut. 
 xxii. 1, 4); 6. The law of the sabbath had also 
 reference to the cattle (Exod. xx. 10, xxiii. 12). 
 
 (2.) Small Cattle, collectively designated by the 
 Hebrew word tson, " sheep," singly by scli, " lamb." 
 Sheep-breeding formed the chief employment of 
 a large part of the people, and even kings had 
 their shepherds. The flesh of the sheep, espe- 
 cially that of wethers and lambs, was a highly 
 esteemed food (1 Sam. xxv. 18; Isa. xxii. 13). 
 The milk of sheep, as well as their wool, was also 
 made use of; the former for culinary purposes, 
 the latter for garments. Slieep-shearing was a 
 rural festive occasion (1 Sam. xxv. 4 ; 2 Sam. 
 xiii. 23); of the wool, tithes were to be paid 
 (Deut. xviii. 4). The color of sheep is in the East 
 generally white (Isa. i. 18), although black ones 
 are also found (Gen. xxx. 32), as well as spotted 
 and grizzled. 
 
 Along with the sheep are classed the goats. 
 They were used not only for sacrifice, but also 
 for food (Deut. xiv. 4). Their milk was also used 
 (Prov. xxvii. 27), it being more wholesome than 
 that of sheep. Tlieir skins were employed as 
 clothing by poor persons (Heb. xi. 37), whilst their 
 hair was often the material of tent-cloth (Exod. 
 xxvi. 7) as well as of mattresses and bedding 
 (1 Sam. xix. 13, 16). On the Mosaic enactment 
 respecting cooking a kid in its mother's milk 
 (comp. Exod. xxiii. 19, xxxiv. 26; Deut. xiv. 21), 
 comp. the art. Viehzucht, in Herzog's Real-Ency- 
 klnpwlie (1st cd.) bv T-eyrer. B. TICK. 
 
 CAUSSIN, Nicholas, b. at Troyes, l.'JSS ; d. in 
 Paris, .July 2. lfi.')l ; entered the Society of Jesus in 
 1607 ; became confessor to Louis XIII., and wrote 
 Cour Saintc. translated into English, T!ic Hobj 
 Court, by Thomas Hawkins, London, 1063. His 
 De Elnqnentin Sacra el Humana was also a iiuich- 
 usccl iKKik, .-iMcl oftcni reprinted. 
 
 CAVALIER, Jean. Sc(! C.\misai{i>s. 
 
 CAVE, William, a learned patristic scliolar 
 ami aiitlior; li. at Pickwell, Leicestershire, Dec. 
 30, 1637; d. at Windsor, Aug. 4, 1713. He was 
 made M.A. of St. .lolui's College, Cambridge, in 
 1G60, and D.D. 1672, and by Oxford in 1681. In 
 1662 he was appointed vicar of Islington, and 
 afterwards one of the King's chaplains ; in 1679 
 rector of All Hallows the (treat, I>ondon ; and 
 canon of Windsor in 1681 ; and in 1690 vicar of 
 Lsleworth. His repute rests njion liis eminent 
 attainments in patristics. In his different works 
 he makes use of over two thousand fathers, and 
 writers upon the fathers. His principal works 
 are: (1) Apostolici, or History of the Apostles and 
 Fathers in the Three First Centuries of' the Church, 
 London, 1077 ; Ecclesiastica, or History of the Most 
 
 Eminent Fathers of the Fourth Century, London, 
 1683, folio. (2) Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Hi.tlo- 
 ria Literaria (from the birth of Christ to the four- 
 teenth centm-y), London, 1688, 2 vols, folio. The 
 first two were republished bv Rev. Henry Carj% 
 Oxford, 1840, 3 vols. 8vo, under the title. The 
 Lives of the Most Eminent Fathers of the Churchk 
 that Flourished in the First Four Centuries. The 
 latter work was brought down from 1098 to 1.517, 
 and finally appeared (best edition). Oxford, 1740- 
 43, 2 vols, folio, reprinted Basel, 1741-45, 2 vols, 
 folio. (3) Primitive Christianity, London, 1672; 
 reprinted, Oxford, 1840, along with Cave's Disser- 
 tation on the Government of the Ancient Church 
 (London, 1683). (4) Tahulce EcclesiasticcE, tables 
 of ecclesiastical writers, London, 1674. (5) Charto- 
 phylax Ecclesiasticus (an improved edition of the 
 preceding), London, 168.5. 
 
 Cave was uncritical, but extremely industrious. 
 He did not know how to use the collections he 
 made ; but othei's, such as INIohler, have drawn 
 from his reseiToir. So, althougli he was not a 
 scientific patristic scholar, he yet greatly helped 
 patristic learning. 
 
 CAWDRY, Daniel, aNonconforniist; d. October, 
 1664; educated at Peterhouse, Cambridge; be- 
 came rector of Great Billing, Northamptonshire, 
 1635; ejected, 166'3; amembcr of the Westminster 
 Assembly of Divines, and author of numerous 
 works of a controversial character, principally 
 against the liturgy of the Church of England, 
 against independency, and also of a work on the 
 sabbath, which was his masterpiece. 
 
 CAYET, Pierre Victor Palma, b. at Mont- 
 richard in Touraine, 1525; d. in Paris, 1610; 
 studied at Geneva; was ordained minister at 
 Poitiers, and became chaplain to Catherine of 
 Bourbon, but was deposed by the thirteenth gen- 
 eral synod (1594) on account of two scandalous 
 treatises he wrote on sins against the Sixth Com- 
 mandment; embraced Romanism, and was made 
 professor of Hebrew in the Sorbonne. The Re- 
 monstrances and .-idynonitions he addressed to his 
 former co-religionists attracted no attention ; and 
 he is now known only on account of his historical 
 works, — the Chronologic Novcnaire, 1608, and the 
 Chronologic Septenaire, 1608, and his translation 
 of the German tale of Dr. Faustus. 
 
 CAZALLA, Augustin, b. 1.506 ; d. May 21, 1559 ; 
 stiidii'd at ^'alhulolid and Alcala; became a pupil 
 of Carranza, and was in 1545 appointed chaplain 
 and almoner to Charles V. At the outbreak of 
 the Smalcaldian war he accompanied the emperor 
 to Germany, and returned in 15,52 to Spain, — a 
 Lutheran. ' He preached his new ideas in Valla- 
 dolid and Saianiauca with more and more open- 
 ness, but was in 1558 arrested by the Inquisition, 
 brought before the tribunal, .and conih^nined to 
 death, together with his motlier, brethren, sisters, 
 and a large circk; of friends. At the A uto da fe 
 some of the guilty were burnt alive ; but others, 
 among whom Augusthi, were first strangled be- 
 fore tlicy were bui'nt. 
 
 CECIL, Richard, an eminent evangelical, b. in 
 London, Nov. S, 1748; d. at Hampstead, Aug. 
 15, 1810. In Ids early life lie professed infidelity, 
 but about 1772 was converted, and the next year 
 entered Queen's College, Oxford ; was ordained 
 priest 1777, and lield scvi-ral clerical appoint- 
 ments. Ho was distinguished as an eloquent
 
 CEILLIER. 
 
 CELIBACY. 
 
 preacher of gospel trntlis, aiul for liis skill in 
 music and painting; See Memoir in the U'«/7..v, 
 London, LSll, 1 vols , reprinted New Yoik, l-S-tf), 
 3 vols ; also his Eleiiuiiiluri/ Ilelu/iuus Truths from 
 the Five liiiois oj Mu.ifs, London, lfJ8L - vols 
 
 CEILLIER, RemI, 1.. 1088; d. 1761; entered 
 the Ccin^ legation of Saint Valines (Reformed 
 Benedictini') in 1715, and published llistiure Gc- 
 ne'rale tins A iiteurs Surres cl Eci'li'siaftique.i, 23 vols., 
 I'aris, 172l)-(i3, new edition, 18.58-65, 14 vols. 
 
 CELESTINE is the n.anie of tive popes. — Celes- 
 tine I., September, 422-Jnly 2(i, 4;i2 ; tried to 
 assert hi.s authority over the African t'hurch by 
 claiming the right to receive appeals, but was 
 severely rebuked by an African synod. In the 
 controversy between Nestorius and Cyrillus he 
 was more successful. The latter addressed the 
 Bishop of Borne as the supreme judge and arbi- 
 ter of tile Christian Churcli ; and Celestine was 
 not slow in condemning Nestorius, and intrusting 
 the execution of the verdict to Cyrillus. — Celes- 
 tine II., Sept. 26, 114:5-Maich 8, lU4. — Celestine 
 III., March 30, 1191-.Jan. 8, 1198; began his pon- 
 tificate by crowning Ilenry VI., and continued 
 during his whole reign to be contemptuously de- 
 pendent on the emperor. Kven in the case of 
 Kicliard I. of England, who on his return from 
 the Holy Land was taken prisoner by Duke 
 Leopold of Austria, he dared not interfere with 
 the necessary energy, though the case was a 
 breach of international law, and the Pope just 
 based his claims to political supremacy on his 
 office as the guardian of international law. — 
 Celestine IV., Oct. 26 -Nov. 17, 1241. — Celestine 
 v., .Inly .5-Dec. 13, 1294. After the death of 
 Nicholas IV. there occurred a vacancy of two 
 years and three months ; until finally the cardi- 
 nals, compelled by Charles of Aiijoii, King of 
 Naples, agreed to raise Pietro di Murrone, a 
 hermit, founder of the order of tlie Celestines, 
 and eighty years old, to the papal throne. In 
 moving from his cell at Muri-one to the Vatican 
 in Rome, the poor old man simply lost his head; 
 but, feeling his own unfitness for the assumed 
 task, he alidicated, and determined to return to 
 his solitude. His successor, liowever, Boniface 
 VIII., feared that somebody miglit use the former 
 pope as a suitable material for a schism, had him 
 seized, and kept liim in prison till his death, Jlay 
 19, 1296. 
 
 CELESTINES, The, a monastic order, founded 
 in 1254 by Pietro di Murrone, afterwards Pope 
 Celestine V., followed the rule of St. Benedict, 
 and spread rapidly in Germany, France, and 
 Italy; but at present there are only a few con- 
 vents left. There is a Franciscan congregation 
 which bears the same name. 
 
 CELIBACY, in the Roman Church, is the state 
 of virginity to which a person pledges himself, 
 either by a special vow, or by receiving the conse- 
 cration of one of the higher ecclesiastical orders. 
 The Jewish priests and liigh priests lived in mar- 
 riage ; but, on account of the holiness of their 
 office, they were forbidden to marry a harlot, a 
 jirofane or a divorced woman. The high priest 
 ",vas even forbidden to marry a widow (Lev. xxi. 
 7,8, 13, 14; comp. Saalschutz: Das Mosaische 
 Jtecht, II. 786-788). When preparing for actual 
 service they were furthermore demanded to abstain 
 xrom their wives, as was the whole people at the 
 
 time when the law was given them on Mount 
 Sinai (Kxod. xix. 15; comp. Si-F..V(;Kii: De Lci/ihiis 
 Ifchriioruiii liitunlilim, Tiiliingcn, 1732, jip. 189 
 sqq.). The holy books of the new dispensation 
 contain no prohibition of marriage. Several of 
 the apostles were married (Matt. viii. 14; 1 Cor. 
 ix. 5), and recommended even the chief.s of the 
 congregation to marry (1 Tim. iii. 2), though 
 witliout overlooking, that, under certain circum- 
 stances, it would be better not to marry (1 Cor. 
 vii. 38). From this last notice and others of the 
 same bearing, there arose very early in the Church 
 an idea that the unmarried state ought to be 
 preferred to the married {Hennas, lib. I. vision 
 II. 3; Ignatius ad I'ohjcarp. c. V.), and the idea 
 soon developed into actual contempt of marriage 
 (Ori(/enes in Num. Hum. VI., ed. de la Rue, 
 Tom. II. p. 288 ; Hieroni/mus a<l Joi-inianum, I. 4). 
 Already, in the second century, instances occur of 
 voluntary vows of virginity ; and the demand of 
 abstinence before officiating was generally ac- 
 knowledged as just (comp. Schweglkk : Der 
 Moutanismus, Tubingen, 1841, p. 122). In the 
 fourth century, laws were issued w-ith the same 
 tendencv, such as c. 1, Cone. Neociesar. a. 314 (e. 
 9,dist. XXVIII.) ; c. 10, Cone. Aneyran. a. 314 
 (c. 8, eod.). Unmari'ied men were preferred for 
 ecclesiastical offices, though ecclesiastics were as 
 yet not forbidden to mai-ry : nay, it was even for- 
 bidden to dissolve a man-iage for religious reasons 
 (c. 5 Apostolorum in c. 14, dist. XXVIII. ; comp. 
 the account of the close of the Council of NicKa 
 by Socrates, Hist. Eeel. lib. I. e. 11, and Sozo- 
 JIENUS, Historia Tripartita, lili. I. c. 23, in e. 12, 
 dist. XXXI.). Siricius, Bishop of Rome in 38.5, 
 declared {Ad Himerium Tarraennensem, Ep. 1. c. 7, 
 in c 3. 4 dist. LXXXIL), that, under the old 
 dispensation, the priesfs marriage had been al- 
 lowed liecause priests could be taken only from 
 the tribe of Levi; but with the abrogation of this 
 limit also the license was abrogated, as the ob- 
 seance, eupiditates, i.e., marrriage, greatly imjieded 
 the ecclesiastical duties. The next bishops of 
 Rome followed in the same track (see the decretals 
 of Innocent I. from 404 and 405 in e. 4-6, dist. 
 XXXI. and of Leo I. from 446 and 458 in e. 1, 
 dist. XXXII. and c. 10, dist. XXXI., etc.), and 
 the whole Western Church soon joined issue with 
 Rome {Cone. Cartha(/.. II. a. 390, c. 2 in e. 3, dist 
 -XXXL, e. 3, dist. LXXXIV. : Cone. Carthag.,Y. 
 a. 401, e. 3 in c. 13, dist. XXXII., c. 4, dist. 
 LXXXIV., etc.). The prohibition regarded at 
 first oidy bishops, priests, and deacons, but from 
 the fifth century also subdeacons, who were not 
 allowed to enter into man-iage after ordination 
 (Leo I., a. 446 in c. 1, dist. XXXII. ; Gregory I., 
 a. 591 and 593 in e. 1, dist. XXXL, c. 2, dist. 
 XXXII. , etc. ; and Cone. Agath. a. 506, c. 39 in 
 e. 19, dist. XXXIV.). The clergy of the lower 
 orders were allowed to marry, though not widows, 
 or for a .second time {Cone. Carthag.,Y. a. 401, c. 
 3 in e. 13, (//.^■^ XXXII. ; Gregory I. a. 601 in 
 c. 3 eod.). The civil law confirmed these ordi- 
 nances. Married persons, or such as had chil- 
 dren, could not be elected bishops. The marriage 
 of the clergy of the higher orders was declared 
 null and void, and the children sprung from such 
 a marriage illegitimate {e. 10. 14 Cod. Theod. de 
 Episeopis et C/erieis by Constantius and Constans, 
 a. 353 and 357 ; Theodosius and Valentiaii, a. 434
 
 CELIBACY. 
 
 426 
 
 CENSORSHIP OF BOOKS. 
 
 in c. 20 Cod. Just. cil. I. 3-c. 42, § 1. c. 45 C. 
 J. de Episc. et Cler. ; Justinian, a. 528 and 530, 
 Xoc. v., c. 8, a. 535; Nov. VI., c. 1, .5, a. 535; 
 A-«f. XXII., c. 42, a. 536; iVoy. CXXIII., c. 1, 14, 
 29, a. 546). 
 
 At this point the Greek Church halted ; and 
 its present arrangement of the matter rests upon 
 the ancient canon law. But the Latin Church 
 pushed onwards. Its conception of the duty of 
 virginity grew more and more severe, though it 
 met with great resistance from the side of the 
 clergy. From the middle of the eleventh century, 
 Ilildebrand, afterwards Pope Gregory VII., exer- 
 cised a decisive influence on the question, as is 
 apparent from the decretals of Leo IX. (c. 14, 
 .ilisl. XXXII., a. 1054), Stephen IX. (c. 14, disl. 
 XXXI., a. 1058). Xicholas II. (c. 5, di^. XXXIL, 
 <i. 10.59), and Ale.xander II. (c. 6, disl. XXXIL, 
 r. 16-18, dist. LXXXL, a. 1063). At a synod of 
 1074 he revived the decree of 1059 and 1063 ac- 
 cording to which a married priest who admin- 
 istered the Lord's Supper, and a layman who 
 received the sacrament from a married jiriest, 
 should be exconununicated (c. 15, disl. LXXXL). 
 In 1089 Ui'ban II. decreed tliat any ecclesiastic 
 of the higlier orders who married should lose his 
 otfice and benelice (c. 10, dist. XXXIL), to which 
 the councils of Rheims (1119) and of the Lat- 
 eran (1123) added that such a marriage should 
 immediately be dissolved, and the parties shut up 
 in a place of penitence. When, in the beginning 
 of the sixteenth centurj', the Keforraers completely 
 abandoned the Roman s3stem, Charles V., who, 
 by the Interim of 1548, had tried to abrogate it, 
 caused the subject to be thoroughly ventilated by 
 the Council of Trent (Pall.wicixi : Hist. Cone. 
 Trid. XVII. 4, 8, XXII. 10, 15, XXIV. 12; 
 SakPI : Hist. Cone. Trid. VII. 20; Wessexbekg : 
 Die grosscn Kirchencersamndungen d. 15 und IG 
 Jahrhunderts, IV. pp. 99 sqq.). The council, 
 however, generally confined itself to confirming the 
 existuig state. The duty of remaining in the un- 
 married state is, for the higher orders, so absolutely 
 binding, that it makes a marriage contracted after 
 consecration null and ^oid. If one belonging to 
 tlie lower orders marries, the marriage is valid ; but 
 the person loses his ecclesiastical position. Jlarried 
 persons can obtain consecration to the lower orders 
 after a vow of perpetual nuirital abstinence ; but 
 they cannot be promoted to any of the liigher 
 orders unless the wife declares lierself willmg to 
 take the veil, and enter a convent. The Evan- 
 j;elical Church luis never acknowledged the iirohi- 
 bition of marriage. The (juestion is carefully 
 di.scussed in tlie Confession of -Vug.sburg (art. 
 XXIIL), the Apology (art. \l.), Confcssio Hel- 
 vetica, I. (art. 37), II. (art. 29), Confcssio Angli- 
 cana (art. 8, 24), etc. ; and the various evangelical 
 church organizations rest upon the same ])rinciple. 
 
 Lit. — Ki.rr.sciiK : Gesckiclitedes Ciilihats, Augs- 
 l>urg. 1830 ; Vcr Cijlilml, Regensburg, 1811, 2 vols. ; 
 Ko.skovAnv : Cccliliatus it Bicvarium, I'est, 1861, 
 containing in its first three volumes a collection 
 nf all decrees concerning the subject, and in the 
 fourth an index of the pertaining literature ; 
 niK.NUY C. Lea : .in Hislorirrd Sketch of Saecrdo- 
 Jul Celibacy in the Christian Church, Phila., 1867]; 
 ^'<»^• Scimi.TE : Der Ciilibalszwanc/, Bonn, 1876; 
 f r. L.vuiti.v: Der CccUbat der Cri.sllichen, Vienna, 
 itio )]. Mli.)li« ,JAC'0B80N). 
 
 CELLARIUS. See Chapter. 
 
 CELLARIUS, Martin, b. at Stuttgart, 1499; d. 
 at Basel, Oct. 11, 1564; studied Oriental lan- 
 guages and theology under Reuchlin and Me- 
 lanchthon, but joined in 1522 the Anabaptists, 
 and was even arrested at Konigsberg as a spir- 
 itual vagabond ; recovered slowly fi-om this error, 
 bj' the aid of Capito and CEcolarapadius ; settled 
 at Basel in 1536, and was in 1546 appointed pro- 
 fessor of the Old Testament there. A list of his 
 writings is found in the Athenie Rauricce, p. 24 
 
 CELLIT/C. See Alexians, Beghards. 
 
 CELSIUS, Olaus, b. 1670; d. 1756; was pro 
 fessor of Oriental languages and theologj' in the 
 University of Upsal, Sweden ; undertook, with 
 the support of King Charles XL, extensive bo- 
 tanical excursions, and published Hierobotanicon 
 seu de Plantis SanctCE Scrijjturee Dissertationes 
 Breves, Upsal, 1745-47. 
 
 CELSUS, a Greek philosopher who in the 
 second century (about 178) wrote a hook against 
 the Christians, to which Origen replied with his 
 Contra Celsum. Nothing is known either of th» 
 book or of the author, except what can be gath 
 ered from Origen's reply. Keim has attempted 
 to reconstruct the book from these fragments : 
 Celsus tcahres Wort . . . widerhergestelll, Zurich, 
 1873. .See Orige-v. 
 
 CELTIC CHURCH. See Keltic Church. 
 
 CEN'CHRE/E, the eastern harbor of Corinth, 
 on the .Sarouic Gulf, about nine miles east of the 
 city. A Christian Church was established there, 
 of which Phoebe was deaconess (Rom. xvi. 1). 
 Paul sailed from thence to Ephesus (Acts xviii. 
 18). The modern name among the educated is 
 still Kcvxpiat (Kenchrece), although the vulgar 
 name is Kikries. 
 
 CENSER. It is certainly reasonable to sup- 
 pose that the censer used by the Hebrews was 
 similar to that of the Egyptians, which consisted 
 of a box in winch were the live coals, a straight 
 or slightly curved handle by which to carry it, 
 and, at a convenient place on the handle, a little 
 cup, in which were the small round pellets of the 
 incense. The priest projected these pellets into 
 the coals by means of his thumb and finger. The 
 fact that the Jewish incense was a paste lends 
 additional likelihood to the supposition. 
 
 CENSER, In Roman-Catholic Worship. See 
 Thurihle. 
 
 CENSORSHIP OF BOOKS is an institution 
 which examines all litrrary works destined to be 
 published, and either authorizes or forliids their 
 ])ublication. Institutions of this kind are not 
 older than the invention of the printing-pre.ss ; 
 while prohibition of books as dangerous to reli- 
 gion, morals, and the State, dates back to a much 
 earlier time. Thus all works on magic were con- 
 denmed to be destroyed as books of bad contents 
 during the reign of Alexander Severus ; and Con- 
 I stantine issued an eilict that the works of Arius 
 sho\ild be burnt, those who used or po.ssessed 
 them were threatened with death. Also the 
 1 Church forbade, on its own account, the reading 
 I of Pagan or heretical liooks (see Ajxisl. Const, lib. 
 I I., cap. VI. ; Coned. Cnrlhag. IV., c. 398, can. 
 1 XVI., etc.). During the middle ages, lioth Clmrcli 
 and State adhered firndy to these maxims. 
 I After the discovery of tlie printing-press, Jiow- 
 I ever, and more especially since this invention bo
 
 CENSUS. 
 
 427 CENTURI^ MAGDEBURGENSES. 
 
 caiMc so foriiii<lalilc' a weai>oii in the liaiids of the 
 Kel'oi-iiiatioii, siiMjile jiroliiliition, in tlie form of 
 tlestructioii of books ahvady printed, proved im- 
 practical; and preventive measures, taking effect 
 before tlie publication, were i-esorted to. It was 
 the Konian Church which introduced the censor- 
 ship of books. In a letter addressed to the Arch- 
 bishops of Cologne, Mayence, Treves, a,nd Magde- 
 burg, Ale.xander VI. ordered, in l.'idl, that no 
 book shoiihl be printed without special authoriza- 
 tion. Jn 151.5 the Council of the f^ateran de- 
 creed that no book should be printed without 
 having been exanuned, in Home, by the l"ope oi- 
 the iiiiii/isler nacrl ptilatii : in the other dioceses, by 
 the bishop, or the inquisitor of heresies. Further 
 and more detailed legislation followed, and the 
 Council of Trent sanctioned the measures by its 
 decrelum de editioiie et iiau sacroruin lihroniiu. But 
 while the State, which at first adopted the insti- 
 tution, and used it for its own purposes, after- 
 wards abolished it as inadequate and vicious (in 
 which it was followed both by the Lutheran and 
 the Reformed Churches), the Koman Church still 
 maintains it in all its rigor. No ecclesiastic is 
 permitted to publish any thing without the au- 
 thorization of his superior. 
 
 As the Roman Church could exercise no censor- 
 ship over the literatures of Protestant countries, 
 it was necessary to continue the old prohibition. 
 Hy the Council of Trent the whole suliject-niatter 
 had been placed in the hands of a committee ; 
 and the results of the labors of this committee, 
 which were nevei' laid before the council, but sent 
 directly to the Pope, were the ten rules concerning 
 jirohibited books and the Index Lihronim Prohibi- 
 lorum. The rules have been further enlarged 
 and improved by Clement VIII., Sixtus V., Alex- 
 ander VII., and especially bj' Benedict XIV., by 
 his constitution of July 10, 1753. The Index 
 was continued by a Congregalio Judicis , but it 
 has never been acknowledged in Germany, and 
 in France it has been formally rejected (see De 
 V Aulnrite de I'lndex en France, Paris, 1853). Be- 
 sides its Index Lihr. Proliilil., the Roman Church 
 also keeps an Index Lib. Expurgatorum and an 
 Index Lib. Expurijandonim. MEJER. 
 
 CENSUS. In tlie Old Testament there is men- 
 tion made of twelve censuses: 1. Under I\Io.ses 
 (Exod. xxxviii. 20; Num. i. 2, xxvi.) ; 2. Under 
 David (2. Sam. xxiv. 0) ; o. Under Solomon 
 (2 Chron. ii. 17, bS) ; 4. Rehoboam (1 Kings xii. 
 21); 5. Abijah (2 Chron. xiii. 3); 0. .Jehoshaphat 
 (2 Chron. xvii. U-19) ; 7. Amaziah (2 Chron. 
 XXV. 5, 6) ; Uzziah (2 Chron. xxvi. 13) ; 12. Under 
 Zerubbabel (Ez. ii. 64, viii. 1-14). Some impor- 
 tant facts are evinced by a .scrutiny of these pas- 
 sages ; e.g., the kingdom of Judah was largest 
 under Jehoshaphat ; the ratio of population was 
 five hundred and thirty to the square mile, a 
 dense population ; but then Palestine had a very 
 fertile soil ; nor is the number unparalleled in 
 modern times. 
 
 In the New Testament, there is incidental refer- 
 ence to the census of the Roman Empire ordered 
 by Ca'sar Augustus : " Now it came to pass, in 
 those days there went out a decree from Caesar 
 Augustus, that all the world should be enrolled, 
 i.e., counted " (Luke ii. 1). We know that there 
 were at least three such enrolments during his 
 reign. The Roman method differed from the 
 
 .lewi.sh in requiring the enrolment of women : 
 hence .Jo.seph takes i\Iary with him to Bethlehem, 
 and there .Jesus is born. Thus upon the peculi- 
 arity of the Roman census, we may say the Betli- 
 lehemic birth of .lesus depended. 'The ultimate 
 object of the census was taxation : this design 
 was probably at first concealed, for there is no 
 recorded outbreak under Ilerod; but one later on 
 occurred (.\cts v. 37). For critical questions and 
 difficulties in connection with Luke's .statement, 
 see QuiiUNius. 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA comprises, geographical- 
 ly, Guatemala, Honduras, .San Salvador, Nicara- 
 gua, Costa Rica, Pananui, and the British Colony 
 Honduras or Balize ; but politically Panama be- 
 longs to Columbia. The number of inhabitants 
 is only approximate : Guatemala. 1,194,000 ; Brit- 
 ish Honduras, 24,700; Honduras, 351,700; San 
 Salvador, 600,000; Nicaragua, 250,000; Costa 
 Rica, 165,000. The majority of the population 
 ai-e Indians. The whites, descendants of the Span- 
 ish emigrants, form only a small minority, and the 
 Ladinos, a mixture of Indians and Europeans, an- 
 other minority equally small. The general stand- 
 ard of civilization has been considerably lowered 
 in these states since their separation from the 
 mother-country ; and the cause is undoubtedly 
 the rough treatment which the Church experi- 
 enced during the Revolution and the next follow- 
 ing decades. 1'he property of the Church was 
 confiscated, the monasteries were abolished, the 
 monks banished, and the secular clergy heavily 
 persecuted. The clergy still represents nearly all 
 the civilization wliich the nation possesses ; but, 
 impoverished and down-trodden as it is, it can 
 exercise no decisive influence, though the mass of 
 the people is fervently devoted to the Church. 
 At the head of the clergy stands the Archbishop 
 of Guatemala; his suffragans ai-e the Bishops of 
 Leon (Nicaragua), Comayagua (Honduras), San 
 Salvador, and .San Jos^ (Costa Rica). The popu- 
 lation is Roman Catholic throughout. The num- 
 ber of Protestants is insignificant: only in British 
 Honduras is there an Anglican Church. The 
 legal position of the Protestants is somewhat dif- 
 ferent in the different states. 
 
 Guatemala and Costa Rica concluded in 18.52 
 concordats with the Pope. In Guatemala the 
 monastic orders, even the Jesuits, were allowed 
 to return, and the Jesuits take care of the popu- 
 lar education. In the city of Guatemala there 
 is a university, the best educational institution 
 in Central America. In Costa Rica the Roman- 
 Catholic faith was declaied the religion of the 
 republic, but the Jesuits were not admitted. In 
 botli states free worship has been secured to the 
 Protestants. In Honduras, San Salvador, and 
 Nicaragua, the Church has suffered exceedingly 
 from poverty. It has no regular revenue, and 
 the tax which is levied in San Salvador under the 
 name of " Religious Gift " has proved a barren 
 source. \ great number of the clergy are igno- 
 rant negroes. In Honduras the Roman-Catholic 
 Church has the exclusive right of public worsliip ; 
 but other denominations are allowed to worship 
 
 I in private. tt. PLITT. 
 
 CENTURI/E MAGDEBURGENSES ("The 
 Magdeburg Centuries "). The first, and. for a long 
 time, unsurpas.sed attempt to write the hi.story of 
 
 ! the Church from an evangelical point of vie\\ ,
 
 CENTURION. 
 
 428 
 
 CHALMERS. 
 
 was planned by Flacius. and executed by liini and 
 a number of other scholars, — .Johaini Wigaiul, 
 Matthseus Judex, Ba.silius Fabev, Andreas C'orvi- 
 nus, Thomas Holzhutei-, etc. The headquarters 
 of the enterprise was Magdeburg, and hence the 
 name under which the work is generally known, 
 thougli its real title is Ecclesiaslica Hisloria Nori 
 Teslameitli. It was printed at Basel, and appeared 
 in thirteen volumes folio, from 15.59 to 1574. It 
 comprises the thirteen first centuries of the history 
 of the Church, and gives a volume to each centu- 
 ry, arranging the nuiterials under the following 
 fifteen heads : de h>ci> el propagatione ecdesice ; de 
 per.tecutione et tranijuillilate ejus ; de doclrliia ejusque 
 intlinattone ; de hceresihus ; de creremoniis diversis 
 in locisj de guhernalione ecclesm; de nchismatibus 
 el cerlaminihus leiioribus ; de concilns ; de personis 
 llluslribus in ecclesiaj de hfcrelicisy de murtijribus ; 
 de mirncuiis ; de rebus jiidalciis exiernis seu polili- 
 cus ; de aliis religinnibus extra ecclesiam ; de mula- 
 lionibus polilicis in imperiis. The style is tasteless 
 and repulsive, the arrangement mechanical and 
 awkward, the tone controversional ; but the learn- 
 ing is immense, the criticism bold and upright, 
 the spirit enthusiastic ; and thus it became, in 
 spfte of its defects, the inauguration of the free 
 study of church-history. 8eeB.\UR: Die Ejmclnn 
 d. kircli. Geschichtschreibung, Tubingen, 18.52; 
 Scii.\ff: Church Hitlory, vol. I. p. 37, revised 
 editiiin. Xcw York, 1882. 
 
 CENTURION, from centum, "one hundred," 
 occurs ^latt. viii 5, 8, 13, Luke vii. 2, G, Acts 
 xxi. .32. xxii. 25, 20, etc.; and denotes an ofBcer 
 in the Koman army, conmianding one hundred 
 men. 
 
 CEOLFRID, b. about 642 in the kingdom of 
 Xorthnniberland ; d. at Langres, France, Sept. 
 25, 716: w.as abbot, first of Jarrow, and after- 
 wards of Jari-ow and AVearmoth. A letter by 
 him, addressed to Xaitou, King of the Picts, has 
 been preserved by Bede (Hist. EccL, V. 21). His 
 life was written by an anonymous contemporary 
 printed iu Stephenson's edition of Bede, and by 
 Bede in his Lires of the Five First Abbots of Wear- 
 mouth and Jarrow. 
 
 CERDO, a Gnostic teacher from the second 
 century, the predecessor of Marciou, and known 
 only through him ; was a native of SjTia, and 
 came about 137 to Rome, where Marcion became 
 liis pupil. He left no writings. See Gxosticism. 
 
 CERINTHUS, a Gnostic teacher who came 
 from Kgypt, and was active in Asia Jlinor towards 
 the close of the apostolic age. He w^as a con- 
 verted Jew, and represents a mixture of Gnosti- 
 cism and Judaism. He left no writhigs, and the 
 sect he founded .soon died out. See Gnosticism 
 ancl J<)M\ TiiK .VrosTi.K. 
 
 CESTIUS CALLUS was procurator promncia: 
 in Syria wlien tlie .Jewish rebellion, which ended 
 with tlie destruction of the temple, liroke out. 
 From Antioch lie moved slowly tow.ards .Icrusa- 
 lein; and thougli he easily drove the Jews back to 
 the upper part of the city, and everj- thing .seemed 
 to indicate a rapid close of the campaign, he 
 sudileiily retreated, harassed in the rear by the 
 exultant Jews. When Nerva heard of these ]iro- 
 ceedings, lie immediately sent Vespasian to Pales- 
 tine to take the command; but tialliis died 
 before Vespasian's arrival. 
 
 CHADERTON, Laurence, the first master of 
 
 ; F^mmanuel College, Cambridge ; b. at Lees HalL 
 Lancashire, Sept. 14, 1536; d. Xovemlier, 1640. 
 He was born of a Uoman-Catholic family, and 
 I was disinherited when he joined the E.stablished 
 i Church. He w.as a fellow of Christ's College, 
 Cambridge, and preached in Cambridge for many 
 I years with great applause. Sir A^'alter Mildmay,. 
 on refounding Emmanuel College in 1.584. chose 
 liim for master, and, indeed, conditioned the con- 
 tinuance of the foundation upon his acceptance. 
 He was one of the five Puritan representatives in 
 the Hainj)ton Court Conference (see title), and 
 also one of the Bible translators, translating from 
 Chronicles to Canticles inclusive. He published 
 a treatise On Jiistijication. and a sermon preached 
 at St. Paul's Cross in 1578. Some other of his 
 theological works remain in manuscript. 
 
 CHALD/EANS. In the Old Testament, from 
 the time of Jeremiah and the establishment of the 
 new Bal)ylonian Empire under Nabopolassar and 
 Xabuchadrezzai", the terms Chalda>ans and Chal- 
 dees denote the inhabitants of Babylonia, or the 
 subjects of the Babvlonian F'mpiire (Jer. xxi. 4,. 
 xxxii. 4. 5 ; Ilab. i. 6 ; Ezek. xxiii. 14. 1.5). AVith 
 this terminology agree both Strabo, who makes 
 the territory inliaViited by the Chaldees border on 
 .\rabia and the Persian Gulf, and the monuments, 
 which on the one side (west) place the Chaldees 
 opposite to the Syrians, and on the other (south) 
 extend their country to the sea. There was 
 another nation of the name Chaldasans, or Chal- 
 dees, an Armenian mountain-tribe, related to the 
 Kurds and Karduches, and, according to Strabo,. 
 originally called the Chalybes. But they were of 
 .\rvan, Indo-(!ermanic descent, and had nothing 
 to do with the Babylonian Chalda^ans. who were 
 Shemites. In the inscriptions, the name Chaldee 
 can be traced back till about 900 B.C. ; but there 
 can be no doubt that it is much older ; and it 
 seems originally to have denoted a sjiecial part — 
 the southern Sliinar — of the whole Babylonian 
 territory. When the Book of Daniel (ii. 2, 5, IIV 
 iv. 4, V. 7, 11), and the profane historians Cur- ■ 
 tins, Strabo, and Diodorus, speak of the Chaldne- 
 •ans as the learned class of the Babylonian people, 
 or even as a peculiar section of this ela.ss, — the 
 astrologer.s, — the terminology has no foundation 
 whatever in reality. See, for furtlier information, 
 Assviu.\, B.\HYi,ONiA, etc. (Add to literatura 
 under .\ssNTia, Assgrioloi/isrlie liibliothek. ed. by 
 FuiKnuuii Dklitzscii and P.\il Haiji't, iu 
 course of publication at Leipzig since 1881.) 
 
 CHALCEDON, a city of Bithynia, on the Bos- 
 phorus, near Constantinople. Here the fourtli 
 (ecumenical council was convened (451) by the 
 Emperor Marcianus. Six hnndred and thirty 
 bisliops were present (mostly from the Orient), 
 the legates of the Pope Leo I., and the com- 
 missioners of the em|)eror. The .sessions began 
 Oct. 8, and ended Oct. 31. 'I'he principal result 
 of the debates was the <M)ndemnation of Eutychi- 
 anism, and tlie .symbolical statement of the ortho- 
 dox Christology. See CiimsToi.ocY. 
 
 CHALMERS, Thomas, the leader of the Free- 
 Church i)f Sciilland: b. in East .\nstruther, Fife- 
 .sliire. March 17, 17S0; d. in Edinlmrgh, Sunday 
 night. May 30, 1.S47. The family to which he 
 belonged were middle-cla.ss peo]ile of the strictest 
 type of Calvinism ; and hence, in his opi'iiiiig 
 years, he received thorough indoctrination. He-
 
 CHALMERS. 
 
 429 
 
 CHALMERS. 
 
 entered St. Andrew's ruiversity when only eleven 
 years old, and ciinfined his attention almost exclu- 
 sively to niatheuiatics, l>iit did not give up his 
 original intention of becoming a preacher, and 
 accordingly was licensed by tlict presbytery of !St. 
 Andrew's, .lanuary, 17!)!). His character early 
 developed into maturity. Instead of beginning 
 his professional work, he contiiuied the study of 
 mathematics and natural science ; and during 
 the winter of 180J-()3 he acted as assistant of the 
 professor of mathenuitics at St. Andrew's. lie 
 .showed an extraordinary power to awaken enthu- 
 siasm in ahnost any topic ho took up ; although 
 it was this very fact which at that time cost him 
 his place, the authorities disliking the novelty of 
 his methods. He settled as minister of Kihnany, 
 nine miles from St. Andrew's, Ma}', 180:i, and in 
 the following winter, while preaciiing regularly, 
 opened voluntary and independent cla.s.ses in 
 mathematics at the university, which were largely 
 attended, although vigorously discouraged by the 
 authorities. He was a faithful pastor at Kil- 
 juany, but his heart was not in his work. lie 
 was trammelled by the prevailing moderatism, 
 which put culture above piety, and state support 
 above independence. In 1808 evidence of the 
 trend of his thirdiing appeared in his Inquirij 
 into the Extent and Stabiliti/ of National Resources. 
 The supply of man's physical and social eeds 
 was uppermost in his mind. But God was pre- 
 paring him by these very studies for a glorious 
 career of divine service. In the midst of such 
 work he was visited with severe domestic afflic- 
 tions, and a serious illness brought him to death's 
 door ; but he recovered after a year. Dr. Brew- 
 ster asked him to contribute to his Edinbui-gh 
 Eucyclopaxlia. He at fii'St chose " Trigonometry," 
 but at length took "Christianity." And as he 
 exanuned the doctrines of this religion, and went 
 deeper into its mysteries, he realired its importance, 
 and by studying about Christianity he became 
 a Christian. The congregation quickly became 
 awai'e that he had really not so much lesumed 
 his work among them as begun it. His whole 
 soul was on fire, and his culture was now used to 
 make the saving truth of saving power. He cut 
 loose from the moorings of moderatism, and be- 
 came a decided Evangelical. His eloquence was 
 expended in new channels, and with great results. 
 In July, 1815, he was fornuilly admitted as 
 minister of the Tron Church, Glasgow. In 1816 
 he delivered the famous series of seven Discourses 
 on the C/irislian Ilevelation, viewed in Connection 
 loith Modern Astronomij. In September, 1819, he 
 removed from the Tron parish to that of St. 
 John's, in order that he might, in a newly-consti- 
 tuted parisli, have an opportimity of testing the 
 practicability in a large city of the old Scottish 
 scheme of providing for the jioor. In the parish 
 there were two thousand families. These he dis- 
 tributed into twenty-five divisions ; and over each 
 such district he put an elder and a deacon, — the 
 former to attend to their spiritual, the latter to 
 their temporal, needs. Two conuuodious school- 
 house.s w ere built ; four compietent teachers were 
 employed, and by school-fees of two and three 
 shillings each per quarter, seven lumdred children 
 were educated ; while on Sunday the forty or fifty 
 local schools supplied religious instruction. Dr. 
 Clialmers not only presided over all this system 
 
 of work, but made him.self familiar with all the 
 <letails, even visiting personally every two years 
 each family of the pari.sli, and holding evening 
 meetings. He als<j assumed complete charge of 
 the ixior ; and by thorough system, and con.seciuent 
 weeding-out of unworthy cases, he reduceil tin- 
 cost of maintaining them from fourteen hunilred 
 to two hundred and eighty pounds per annum. 
 This ellicient .system, however, in 18:!7 was given 
 up; and the " Englisli " plan of compulsory a.s.ses.s- 
 menls, which requires nmch less trouljje, and 
 probably does nnich less good, was substituted. 
 In Novend)er, 1823, Dr. Chalmers became profe.s.s- 
 or of moral philo.sophy in St. Andrew's Univer- 
 sity, and in November, 1828, professor of theology 
 in Edinburgh. In 18lj;3 he issued his Bridgewater 
 Treatise, On the Ailiijilatlon of External Nuture to 
 the Moral anil Intellectual Constitution of Man. 
 This work made a great sensation ; and his biog- 
 rajiher, Kev. Dr. Hanna, says, that, in con.sequence, 
 he received " literary honors such as were never 
 united previously in the person of any Scottish 
 ecclesiastic." In 1834 he was elected fellow of 
 the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and soon after 
 one of its vice-presidents, in the same year a cor- 
 responding member of the institute of France ; 
 and in 1835 the University of Oxford conferred 
 on him the degree of D.C.L. 
 
 Up to this time he had taken little part in 
 church government ; from then on he was des- 
 tined to do more than any other man of the cen- 
 tury. The friction between Churcii and State in 
 Scotland was rapidly producing trouble. The 
 attenipt to settle nduisters who were obnoxious 
 to the congregations was the commonest com- 
 plaint. The historic case is that of Marnoch. 
 Here only one person in the parish signed the 
 call ; and yet the presbytery of Strathbogie de- 
 cided, by a vote of seven to three, to proceed with 
 the ordination, and did, although these seven 
 were suspended. In so doing they W'ere upheld 
 by the civil authority, which annulled their sus- 
 pension. But this case was only an aggravation 
 of a common ill. INIatters became so serious in 
 all parts of Scotland, that a convocation was held 
 in November, 1812, to consider the matter; and 
 a large numVier of ministers resolved, that, if re- 
 lief was not afforded, they would withdraw from 
 the Establishment. No help came ; and accord- 
 ingly, on the 18th of May, 1843, four hundred 
 and seventy clergymen withdrew from the Gen- 
 eral .'\ssembly, and constituted themselves into 
 the Free Church of Scotland, electing Dr. Chal- 
 mers as their first moderator. He had foreseen 
 the separation, and drawn up a scheme for the 
 support of the outgoing ministers. But, after he 
 had safely piloted the new Church througli the 
 stormy waters, he gave himself up more exclu- 
 sively to professional work, especially in connec- 
 tion with the New College, Edinburgh, of which 
 he was principal, and to the composition of his 
 Institutes of Theoloijy. He died suddenly. 
 
 Dr. Chalmers is to-day a moulding influence. 
 All the churches of Scotland unite to do him 
 reverence. He was a greater worker than w I'itei-, 
 and a greater man than either. It was surely 
 enough honor for one life to inspire spiritual life 
 throughout an entire land ; and as the tireless 
 and practical reformer, as the Christian philan- 
 throjiist, and, above all, as the founder of the
 
 CHAMIER. 
 
 480 
 
 CHANNING. 
 
 Free Cliurch of Scotland, lie will live. See 
 Memoir of his life and writings by his son-in- 
 law, Kev. WiLLiAJi Haxxa, Edin!, 1849-52, 4 
 vols. ; J. L. Watsox : The Life of Thomas Chal- 
 jners, /)./)., Edinburgh, ISSl ; Donald Fkaser : 
 Thomas Chalmers, DID., LL.D., London and Xew 
 York, 18S1. 
 
 CHAMIER, Daniel, b. 1565; d. Oct. 17, 1621; 
 studied theology at Geneva, and had charge of 
 various Reformed congregations in France, at last 
 in ilontauban, where, during the siege, he was 
 killed by a cannon-ball. He distinguished himself 
 by the courage and energy with which he fought 
 for the rights of his churcli at every occasion, but 
 especially during the discussions which preceded 
 the Edict of Nantes. Ilis writings, which are 
 mostly polemical, comprise Dispute de la Vocation 
 des ilinistres en I'lirjlise Ri-formi-e, LarocheUe, 
 1598; £;j/4'/6i/cE /esHiVicn;, Geneva, 1599 ; La Honte 
 de Babylon, LarocheUe, 1612 ; PanstraticcE Catholi- 
 c(e, unfinislied, published by his son, Geneva, 
 1626, etc. See Memoir of D. Chamier, London, 
 18.52; Read: Ihmiel Chamier. Paris, 1858. 
 
 CHANOIEU, Antoine de la Roche, b. at the 
 Chateau of Chabot in Maconnais (Saone-Loire), 
 1534; d. at Geneva, Feb. 23, 1591; embraced the 
 Reformation; studied theology at Geneva; was 
 the minister of the Reformed congregation of 
 Paris, 1555-62, and convoked the first national 
 synod of the Reformed Church in France, Pai'is, 
 May 26, 1559 ; retired in 1564 to his estates in 
 Maconnais, but did not cease to take the most 
 active part in all the business of the Reformed 
 Church, in the synods, and at the court, as a 
 preacher and as an author ; fled to Switzerland 
 after the Massacre of St. Bartholomew, and lived, 
 first in Lausanne, afterwards in Geneva, as pro- 
 fessor of Hebrew. His principal works are, 
 Histoire des persecutions et martyrs de VajUse de 
 Paris depuis I'an 1557 jusqu'au temps de Charles 
 JX., Lyons, 1563; Locus de Verba Dei Scripto, 
 1584; De Christi Sacerdotio, 15SS ; De Vera Pecca- 
 torum Remissione, 1591, etc. Most of his writings 
 were published either anonymously, or under the 
 pseudonymes of Sadeeand Zamariel. Collected 
 editions apiicared in 1.592 and 1,599. 
 
 CHANDLER, Edward, opponent of Collins; b. 
 at Dublin, 1670; d. in London, July 20, 1750. 
 He was made Bishop of Lichfield, 1717, and trans- 
 ferred to the see of Durham, 17.30. He is best 
 known by his Defence of Chri.ilianily from the 
 Prophecies of the Old Testament (London, 1725), 
 in reply to Collins's Discourse on the Grounds and 
 Reasons of the Christian Reliyion. The work went 
 over the whole ground with remarkable biblical 
 and rabbinical learning. In 1727 Collins replied 
 to it in his Scheme of Literal Pro/thecy considered : 
 and the controversy closed by tlie publication of 
 Chandler's Vindication of the Dtfence of Christi- 
 anity from the Propliecies of the Old Testament, Lon- 
 don, 1728. The point in debate was the existence 
 of an expectation of the Messiah at the time of 
 Christ's birth. This Collins denied. See CoL- 
 l,i.N.s, A.; also Caikns, Unbelief in the Eiyhtcenth 
 Century. ]<]>. 77-7!'. 
 
 CHANDLER, Samuel, b. at Hungerford in 
 Berkshiic in 1693; d. in L(jndon, May 8, 1766. 
 His father, who wa.s an eminent Nonconformist 
 minister, gave him a good education, .sending him 
 first to Gloucester, where lie formed what proved 
 
 to be lifelong friendships w ith Bishop Butler and 
 ArchV>ishop Seeker, and then to Leyden. In 
 1716 he was pastor of the Presbyterian Church at 
 Peckham ; and from 1726 pastor of the Presbjiie 
 rian Church, Old Jewry, London, to which he nan- 
 istered for forty years. His learning and talent.? 
 were recognized liy his election to the Royal and 
 Antiquarian Societies, and doctorate -in theology, 
 both from Edinburgh and Glasgow. On the 
 death of George II. (1760), Chandler published a 
 sermon in which he compared the deceased king 
 to David. This drew out a pamphlet which set 
 fortli David as a bad man. Chandler replied 
 briefly, but was led to give more study to David's 
 history, and so wrote his best-known and most 
 valuable work, finished just before his death, A 
 Critical History of the Life of David, London, 1766, 
 2 vols. 8vo, reprinted, Oxford, 1853. Among his 
 other works of note (all published in London), 
 are, A Vindication of the Christian Religion 
 (against A. Collins), 1725; A Vindication of Dan- 
 iel's Prophecies, 1728 ; The History of Persecution, 
 1736 ; A Vindication of the History of the Old 
 Testament, 1741 ; Connnentaries on Galatians, 
 Ephesians, and 1 and 2 Thessaloniatis, 1777, and 
 on Joel, 1735 ; four volumes of posthumous Ser- 
 mons, 1768. In theology he was a senii-Arian. 
 
 CHANNING, William Ellery, the most cele- 
 brated and influential Unitarian theologian and 
 philanthropist of America, and better known in 
 Europe than most American authors ; b. at New- 
 port, R.I., April 7, 1780; d. at Bennington, Vt., 
 Sunday, Oct. 2, 1842. His father was an hon- 
 ored judge and a moderate Calvinist; his mother, 
 a refined and pious woman : under such influences 
 he early manifested a deeply religious nature, and 
 chose the clerical profession. He traced his con- 
 version to the influence of the funeral of his 
 father, and a religious reviv.al wliicli then swept 
 over New England. He wa,s graduated at Har- 
 vard College. He devoted his leisure hours chiefly 
 to the study of Shakspeare. In 1798 he went as 
 private tutor to Richmond, "\'a., and while there 
 had such mental agony from religious doubts, 
 that he was physically enfeebled, anil returned to 
 Newport in 1800 a "thin and pallid " invalid, with 
 a constitution permanently impaired. At home 
 he associated much with the Kev. Dr. Samuel 
 Hopkins, — the famous Calvinist, and follower of 
 Jonathan Edwards, — whom Iw warmly esteemed. 
 In 1802 he was licensed to preadi, and at once 
 distinguished himself by his fire, his unction, and 
 elegant style. Although jiopularly supposed to 
 be orthodox, he was really an Arian, but with the 
 ethical principles of Dr. Ilniikins. On June 1, 
 1803, he was ordained, and installed pastor of a 
 puritanical Calvinistic Congregation in Federal 
 Street, Boston. His audience increased rapidly 
 with his reputation for ekKjuence and devotion. 
 His church was alw.ays well filled. At the close 
 of his sermons he was often physically exhausted. 
 He introduced a new era in iireaching, and enli- 
 vened the iiuljiit by themes of Christian philan- 
 thropy and social reform. 
 
 Not very long after this time, it became appar- 
 ent that many of the Congregational churches of 
 New England, <'siiecially in Boston and its neigh- 
 borhood, had, through various influences, become 
 gradually Antilviuitarian and ,\nti-Calvinistic. 
 In the separaiioii which I'olloweil, Channing allied
 
 CHANNING. 
 
 4:]1 
 
 CHAPEL. 
 
 himself with tlie so-called " Liberal " jiaity, and 
 lifcanie thi'iv ackiiDwlcdj^cd head. lie is coiii- 
 iiionly called a Unitarian ; lint in his own language 
 he vvisiird to regard hiniselt' as " belonging not to 
 a sect, but to the comnuniity of free minds, of 
 lovers of truth, and followers of Christ, both on 
 earth and in heaven." This catholicity of sfiirit 
 secured him the esteem of men of all schools and 
 parties. In a letter of Aug. 2'J, 1841, addressed to 
 an Englishman, he expressed tlie noble sentiment : 
 " As I grow older ... I distrust sectarian influ- 
 ence more and more. I am more detached fi'om 
 a denomination, and gtrive to feel more my con- 
 nection witii the Universal Church, with all good 
 and holy men. I am little of a Unitarian, have 
 little synipatliy with the system of Priestley and 
 Befeiham, and stand aloof from all but those who 
 strive and pray for clearer light, who look for a 
 purer and more effectual manifestation of Chris- 
 tian truth" (Memoir, vol. TI. p. 380). From this 
 confession some have inferred that towards the 
 close of his life he leaned more to orthodoxy; 
 but this is emphatically denied by his nephew and 
 biographer, and by I)i'. Gannett, his colleague and 
 successor. In anotlier letter, written three luonths 
 later (November, 1841), he says, " I value Unitiv 
 rianism, not because I regard it as in itself a per- 
 fect system, but as freed from many great and 
 pernicious errors of the older .systems, as encour- 
 aging freedom of thought, as raising us above 
 the depotism of the Church, and as breathing a 
 mild and tolerant spirit into all the members of 
 the Christian body" (Memoir, II. 400). 
 
 Channing opposed, on the one hand, the hard 
 and bony Puritan orthodoxy of his day, and 
 combated vigorously the traditional views on the 
 trinity, the atonement, and total depravity ; while 
 on the other he eipially opposed the rationalistic 
 and radical Unitariauisni, and sought a middle 
 ■way. He emphasized the human element in 
 Christ and Christianity, M'hich was too much 
 overlooked by Calvinism, and paid one of the 
 most beautiful and elocpient tribxites to the per- 
 fection of tlie moral character of Christ. He held 
 up his example as the great ideal to be followed. 
 He found in Christ a perfect manifestation of 
 God to men, and at the same time the ideal of 
 humanity, who spake with divine authority. He 
 firmly believed in his sinlessness and miracles, 
 especially his resurrection. He was " always 
 inclined," he wrote as late as March 31, 1832, "to 
 the doctrine of the pre-exUtence of Christ" (Me- 
 moir, II. 416). He was, therefore, not a liumani- 
 tariau, like Priestley, but rather an .^rian, as his 
 nephew calls him (Memoir, II. 93). He paid 
 little attention to metaphysical questions, and 
 preferred to dwell on the historical Christ. But 
 he remained a supernaturalist to the end ; and 
 his last utterances on the Gospels and the char- 
 acter of our Lord are among the strongest and 
 noblest. See Memoir, II. 431, 436, 442. ' 
 
 Channing, however, was not so much a theolo- 
 gian as a preacher and a philanthropist. He was no 
 dreamer, but a practical reformer. He labored for 
 the purification and elevation of life and society, 
 and entered heartily into schemes for the abolition 
 of slavery, of intemperance, of prison-aliuses, and 
 for the circulation of the Bible. He had an ex- 
 alted idea of the nobility of human nature, and 
 an unbounded faith in freedom and progress. 
 
 He was reserved and reticent, but earnest and 
 ardent when aroused. He was short and slender. 
 He had a devout and unworldly spirit. H<; was 
 singularly free from selfishness, and full of sympa^ 
 tliy for others. A French-Catholic writer calls 
 liini the "American Fenelon." The impression 
 he nuide upon Coleridge, whom he met in Eng- 
 land in 1822, was so favorable as to draw forth 
 the expression, " Channing has the love of wis- 
 dom, and the wisdom of love."* Dr. II. "W. Bel- 
 lows, one of his pupils, says (in his Centenary 
 Address, 1880, p. 6), " He belonged to the order 
 of Christians called Unitarians, but he belonged 
 still more to the Church Universal ; and nothing 
 would have grieved him more than any attempt 
 to shut him into any enclosure that shuts out the 
 pure and good of any name, — Catholic or Protes- 
 tant, Trinitarian or Unitarian." ' 
 
 Channing's Works were pidilished in six vol- 
 umes, Boston, 1848, and in London, 180."), two vol- 
 umes ; German translation by Sydow and Schulze, 
 Berlin, 1850. The best known of them are his 
 Evidences of Christianity, delivei'ed at Cambridge 
 1821 ; his treatise on Slavery, 1841 ; his discourses 
 on the Character of Christ ; and his critical essays 
 upon Milton, Fenelon, Bonaparte, Self-Culture. 
 liis 3femoir, ivith Extracts from his Correspondence 
 and Manuscripts, was prepared by his nephew, tlie 
 Rev. William Henry Channing, London and Bos- 
 ton, 1818, 3 vols.. 10th ed , 1874. (Cf. the French 
 work, Channiny, sa vie et ses ceurres, with a Pref- 
 ace by Cli. de Kemusat, 1857, enlarged ed., 1861.) 
 An abridgment was published as a Centennial 
 Jlemorial Edition in 1880 by the American Uni- 
 tarian Association. 
 
 On the 7tli of April, 1880, the centenary of his 
 l.)irth was celebrated at Newjiort, K.I. In the 
 morning the Rev. Dr. Henry ^\'. Bellows of Xew 
 York delivered a Discourse (afterwards published. 
 New York, by G. P. Putnam) ; in the afternoon 
 tlie corner-stone of the Jlemorial Church was 
 laid, and an address delivered by the Rev. W. H. 
 Cliaiming. Another meeting was held in the 
 evening. Memorial meetings were also held in 
 New Y'ork, Brooklyn, and Washington, and in 
 several cities of England. Among the books 
 more or less called forth by this centenary, al- 
 though all published before it, were C. T. Brooks's 
 William Ellery Channiny : A Centennial Memory; 
 
 ' To this I may add au extract from a private letter of Dr. 
 Bellows (Oct. 10, 1881) : "I have read with genera! assent your 
 .article on Channing, and do not feel disposed to change it. 
 1 am convinced, that although tlie survival of many ideas of his 
 youth (and the pre-existence of Christ among them) makes it 
 ])Ofisible to say that Channing was nut a iuimanitarian in the 
 strict theological sense, and not a Unitarian after the prevail- 
 ing modern type of Unitarianism, yet that he was as much a 
 Unitarian as any of his contemporaries, and that his whole influ- 
 ence went toward the support of the Unitarian movement. It 
 would be as absurd to cut him ofl' from the body that aciinowl- 
 edged him as its head as to deny that Wesley was a Method- 
 ist, because he had tender an<l strong leanings towards the 
 English Church. . . . Channing did not belong to us in any 
 cxeLtiHive sense. Neither, I may add, do an}' of our leading 
 men." 
 
 By Dr. Bellows's kind permission I make also the following 
 extract from a letter to him by William F. Channing, il.D., a 
 son of Dr. Ch.inning, d.ated Oct. 10, 1881 : " In the autumn of 
 1841, the year before his death, 1 improved the opportunity to 
 ask him what his view then was of the nature of Clirist. His 
 answer was, '/ rt7n Wior^ ««(/ more <iinpoi<f(i to heli've in hi^ 
 ahnpte humtmity.^ . . . During my boyhood and earlier youth 
 I had discussed long and often with my father the great ques- 
 tions of theology and religion ; and I knew that during many 
 years, while liolding the most exalted view of Christ's position 
 and office, he yet refused to dogmatize or delinitely affirm 
 Christ's rank and place in the scale of being." But see above.
 
 CHAPEL. 
 
 CHAPTERS. 
 
 C. A. Bartol's " Portrait," in Principles and Por- 
 traits; and, most important of all, Miss Elizabeth 
 Palmkr Pe.\bodv's Ihniiniscences of Rcr. Wil- 
 liam EUery Channing, D.D., all published, Bos- 
 ton, ISSO. The Channiny Centenary, edited by 
 Russell Morris Bellows, Boston, 1881 (532 pages), 
 contains an account of the memorial meetings in 
 America and Great Britain, and reports of the 
 addi-esses made on those interesting occasions, 
 which show the. extent of the impression which 
 Dr. Channing made upon his age, especially in 
 Kew England. The Channing Memorial Church 
 was dedicated Oct. 10, 1881. I-IIILIP SCILiFF. 
 
 CHAPEL (Latin, capella), a small church, des- 
 tined for a family or a convent, but without paro- 
 chial rights; or an addition to a large church, 
 destined for occasional service, or for a mission 
 congregation. The derivation of capella is ob- 
 scure, but generally referred back to the capa, or 
 cloak, of St. Martin, which the French kings 
 carried with them in liattle, deposited in a small, 
 transportable structure, hence called a capella. 
 
 CHAPIN, Edwin Hubbell, D.D., a Universalist 
 minister, b. at Union Village, Washington Coun- 
 ty, New York, Dec. 29, 1811; d. in New-York 
 City, Dec. 26, 1880. In 1837 he was ordained 
 to the Universalist ministry, and until 1840 
 preached to a society composed of Universalists 
 and Unitarians in Richmond, Va. After a six- 
 years' pastorate in Charlestown, and two years in 
 Boston, !Mass., he came to New York in 1848, as 
 minister of the Fourth Universalist Society, and 
 from that time until the last few years of his life, 
 he was one of the most admired and popular 
 preachers and lecturers of the city. Harvard 
 College bestowed upon him the degrees of A.M. 
 and D.D. His publications were numerous, al- 
 though ephemeral, consisting in the main of ser- 
 mons. Among them are Moral Aspects of City 
 Life, 18.")3; True ^/anliness, 18.54; Lessons of 
 Faith and Hope, 1877 ; The Church of the Living 
 God, anil Other Sennons, 1881 ; God's Reijuiremcnts 
 and Other Serninns, 1881. 
 
 CHAPLAIN (capellanus), in the Roman-Catho- 
 lic Church, means a parson's assistant, ordained 
 priest himsell', and aiding the parson in the dis- 
 charge of his p;istoral duties. According to canon 
 law, a parish has only one parson ; Init when 
 the flock is very large, or other circumstances 
 prevent the par.son from fulfilling his whole duty. 
 the bishoj) can order him to procure one or more 
 assistants (Trid. Sess. 21, e. 4 de ref). These 
 assistants (capeltaui, chaiilains) are in the .service 
 of the parson, are paid by him, and may be dis- 
 mis.sed by him at pleasure, though the bishop's 
 approbation is nece.s.sary to their appointment. 
 In ca.ses in whicli, by endowments, means have 
 been provided for the establishment of a per- 
 petual chaplaincy, the incundient, whether a cap- 
 ellanus ciiralus (that is, appointed for the general 
 assistance of tlie parson), or a capellanus sacel- 
 lanus, or vicarius, or primissarius (that is, appointed 
 for some special service), ceases to be in the ser- 
 vice of the parson, and cannot be dismissed by 
 him, though lie still remains in a certain depend- 
 ence. As tlie word " capellanus " originally meant 
 any one olliciating in a cnpilla, there aie, of 
 course, capellani reijii, capcllani cpiscojtalcs, t-tc. 
 The Pope has al.so a number of cliaplains, divided 
 into three groups, — capellani honorurii, a mcro 
 
 title ; capellani ceremoniarii, who assist him in 
 officiating ; and capellani secreti, who serve as pri- 
 vate secretaties. See V.\N Espen : Jus. Eccl. 
 Unicers. pars.ll.; Resold: Parochialrechte. \SK, 
 I. 332.<!77; Hixscmus: System des Kath. Kirchcn- 
 rechts, 2. 321 sq. MEJER. 
 
 CHAPTERS, in the Roman-Catholic Church, 
 mean ecclesiastical coi-porations, organized, both 
 at the cathedrals, and, later on, also at collegiate 
 churclies, with special regard to the regulation of 
 the divine service. They grew up from the pres- 
 byteries ; that is, from those colleges of priests 
 and deacons which in the old church stood by 
 the side of the bishop as his council or senate ; 
 and they assumed a more distinct form, when, 
 from the fourth centiu'y, the monastical vita com- 
 munis (conmuuial life) began to be transferred 
 to the secular clergy. 
 
 Eusebius of Vercelli, and Augustine, introduced 
 the vita communis at Vercelli and Hippo. The 
 clergy lived together in one house {monasteiium) ; 
 and in the latter city, also, the monastic vow of 
 perpetual poverty was adojjted. This arrange- 
 ment was imitated in Africa, Spain, and Gaul ; 
 but it was not generally accepted, nor fully de- 
 veloped, until the eighth century. At that time 
 the cita canonica (canonical life), based upon 
 Acts iv. 32, and, by its idea of common property, 
 distinguished from the monastical life Q-eyularifer 
 virere), with its absolute poverty, was organized 
 in France by Chrodegang of jletz, about 700. 
 See M.\xsi : Cone, 14, 313; W.\lter : Pontes 
 Jur. Eccle., p. 29. This organization spread so 
 rajiidly, that, under Louis the Pious, the synod 
 of Ai.x-la-Chapelle (816) elaborated a new regula- 
 tion, resting on Chrodegang's rules, as they rested 
 on the rules of Benedict, and comprising not only 
 the cathedral, but also the collegiate churches. 
 According to both these regulations, the clergy 
 should live together in one house (daustrum), 
 with the Inshop and their special head, who, 
 according to Chrodegang, is the archdeacon, 
 according to the synod of Aix-la-Chapelle, the 
 pra'positus, to whose discipline they were subject. 
 From pure monasticisni this organization differed 
 by retaining that gradation of rank which fol- 
 lows with the gradation of ecclesiastical order 
 and function, and the right of the individual to 
 hold jirivate property. In the ninth century this 
 organization generally came to bear the name 
 capitulum, N\hich at first simply referred to the 
 chapter of the Bible which was read aloud at 
 their daily gatherings, then to the room or house 
 in which the a.ssend)ly was held (the chapter- 
 house), and finally to tlie a.ssenibly itself and the 
 whole organization. 
 
 In the latter part, however, of the ninth cen- 
 tury, a division of the connnon property began to 
 take i>lac(! between the bishop and the chapter, 
 and between the members of the chapter, each 
 retaining tor himself individually a certain por- 
 tion of the connnon mass. At the .same time it 
 became custonuiry for the members of the chap- 
 ter, at least for those of the higher gi-ades, to 
 have hou.ses of their ow'ii (mansioncs) ; and th\is 
 the very foundation of the .so-called rita canonica 
 was gradually broken up. In the cour.se of the 
 eleventh century the transformation was lu'arly 
 completed ; but, in the latter jiart of the eleventh 
 and the lioi^innim;- of the twelfth century, a re-
 
 CHAPTERS. 
 
 433 
 
 CHAPTERS AND VBRSEU. 
 
 action arose. The ascetic and monastic tendency 
 was still iu tlie ascendency; and .suiipdi-ted by 
 men like Petrus of Damiani, and (Jei'lioli of Uei- 
 chensberg, and favored by tlie popes, an attempt 
 at restoration was made. At many placets Hk; 
 canonki smculares were replaced with cantmici 
 regidarcs, and at some, even the latter were re- 
 placed with PKBUionstratensian monks. Never- 
 theless, the ascetic tendency proved too weak, or, 
 rather, the relations wliich tlie holding of prop- 
 erty had established between the clergy and the 
 world were too manifold and too strong : tlie 
 restoration failed. From the thirteentli century, 
 the vita canonica in its original form was of very 
 rare occurrence. 
 
 The members of a chapter (rdniiiuci majiires or 
 cathedralcs, at a cathedral church, and canonici 
 ■cotlegiales, at a collegiate church) consisted of two 
 groups, which, liowever, were not so very sharply 
 distinguished from each other. The canonici 
 seniores, or capitulares, had a vntum in caj/ilidn, a 
 stallum in chorn, and, generally, a prcchenila ; that 
 is, an individual revenue derived from real estate, 
 ground-rent, tithes, tolls, etc. Tlie canonici juni- 
 ores, non capitulares, domicelli, or canonici in pul- 
 vere, were young men admitted into the chapter 
 for further ecclesiastical development, and per- 
 haps still frequenting the scliool (non emancipali). 
 The conditions for admittance into the chapter 
 were the tonsure, an age of fourteen years, a sound 
 body, legitimate, and sometimes, also, noble birth, 
 etc. Originally it was the bishop or the jmcposi- 
 tus who selected the fit subjects for vacant places ; 
 afterwards it was the older members of the chap- 
 ter itself ; and finally, when by its participation 
 in the administration of the diocese, and by its 
 great wealth, the chapter liad obtained an impor- 
 tant political and social position, and a canonry 
 had become the usual way in which the nobility 
 provided for their j-ouiiger sons, the pope, the 
 emperor, the ruler of the country, the patron of 
 the Church, and others, claimed a vote in the de- 
 cision. For admission into the class of canonici 
 seniores a higlier ecclesiastical consecration than 
 the tonsure was necessary ; and the degree as 
 inagister, or doctor, or licentiate, in theology or 
 canon law, here formed a counterbalance to no- 
 bility of birth and secular influences. 
 
 At the head of the chapter stood tlie prarpositus, 
 whose business it was to administer tlie property 
 of the institution. Tlie decanus had to watch 
 over the discipline among the members, and their 
 proper discharge of the duties of the service, ile 
 accordingly exercised a certain power of punish- 
 ment. The primiceriits, or cantor, or jircccenlor, 
 had charge of tlie singing ; the scholasticus, of the 
 cathedral school; the cuslos, of the utensils and 
 paraphernalia belonging to the service ; the sa- 
 crista or thesauri us, of the treasures; the cellarius, 
 of the internal economy, etc. As the chapter 
 grew in wealth and impiortance, these officers got 
 one or more substitutes, who did the work while 
 they themselves enjoyed the revenues, — the deca- 
 nus, a sulidecanus ; the cantor, a succenlor, etc. The 
 rights and the duties, which originally referred 
 chiefly to the ser\'ice, assumed gradually a more 
 and more secular character. Though the whole 
 institution continued to stand under the authoi'ity 
 of the bishop, the bishop could not sell or mort- 
 gage the property of any of the cathedral or dio- 
 
 29 — 1 
 
 cesan establishments, or make any important 
 clianges in the economical arrangements of the 
 diocese, or take a coadjutor, etc., without the 
 consensus of the chapter; and even in minor mat- 
 ters, by appointments or disrais.sals, by dispeiisar 
 tions or confirmations, etc., he was bound to hear 
 the consUium of the chapter, thougli Iks was not 
 bound to follow it. After tlie sixtcenlh century, 
 however, the institution disappeared abnost en- 
 tirely in countries in which tlie I^eformation pre- 
 vailed ; and even in Roman-Catholic countries it 
 has since that time undergone a number of sim- 
 plifications and curtailments which have bereft 
 it of a great deal of its importance. 
 
 Lit. — Aug. Bauuosa : iJc Canonicis et Dig- 
 nitatibus, etc., Lyons, IG-IO; Scaukantonius : 
 De C«/7(7h/w, Lucca, 1723 ; Gkhkinc;: Die kallioL 
 Domcapitel Dcutscldands, Regensburg, l.S.jl ; Ro- 
 uix : Tractul. de Capitulis, Paris, 18.'52 : Fi.v.A.zzi ; 
 Dei capilidi cidlicdrali, Lucca, 1SC.3; Jacobson : 
 Des ecanrjl. Kirchenrecld d. Preuss. Staates, Halle, 
 1864. 
 
 CHAPTERS AND VERSES, Modern. The pur- 
 pose of the presi'ut division into chapters and 
 verses was to facilitate reference. They some- 
 times, but not generally, ignore logical and natu- 
 ral divisions. Of the chapters the origin is 
 obscure. Common opinion attributes thein to 
 Cardinal Hugo de Sancto Caro (Hugues de St. 
 Cher, d. circa 1262), who is alleged to have made 
 the division for use in his concordance to tlie 
 Latin Vulgate (circa 1210, first printed, with 
 modification, at Bologna, 1470). This opinion 
 rests on the direct testimony of Gilliert Genebrard 
 (d. 1597) ; though that is greatly weakened by his 
 well-known statement, — alleged as an inference 
 from the seeming fact that theologians earlier 
 than Hugo were ignorant of these chapters, while 
 later ones knew them, — that " tlie scholastics who 
 with Cardinal Hugo were authors of the concord- 
 ance " made the division. Quetif and P>chard, a 
 century and a half later tlian Genebrard, who 
 wrote competently and carefully aliout Hugo, 
 ascribe to him only the subdivision of the chap- 
 ters presently to be mentioned. The better 
 opinion is, that Stephen Langton, Archbishop of 
 Canterbury (d. 1228), made it for purposes of 
 easier citation. This rests on the direct testi- 
 mony of several writers, many of whom, again, 
 seem to repeat that of Trevet or Trivetus (1258- 
 1328). Before the invention of printing, this di- 
 vision had already passed from Latin manuscripts 
 to those of other tongues, and after the invention 
 of printing it became general. It has undergone 
 slight variations from the beginning to the present 
 day. Many early printed Bibles, especially Greek 
 Testaments, besides these chapters retain also the 
 old breves or titWui noted in the margin. 
 
 The chapters were at first subdivided into seven 
 portions (not paragraphs, as we now use the word), 
 marked in the margin by the letters A, B, C, L), 
 E, F, G ; reference in the concordance being 
 made by the chapter-number and the letter under 
 which the passage occurred. In the shorter 
 Psalms, however, the division did not always ex- 
 tend to seven. In Ps. cxix. (cxviii. in the Vul- 
 gate) it seems not to have been used at all. This 
 division (except in the Psalms) was modified by 
 Conrad von Ilalljerstadt (circa 1290), who reduced 
 the divisions of the shorter chapters from seven to
 
 CHAPTERS AND VERSES. 
 
 434 
 
 CHAPTERS AND VERSES. 
 
 four ; so that the letters were always either A-G or 
 A-D. This subdivision continued long after the 
 introduction of tlie present verses. But in the 
 seventeenth century it became much modified ; 
 some chapters having more than four, and less 
 than seven, subdivisions, and, though still used to 
 nuirk liturgical readings or lessons, apparently 
 useless for concordantial purposes. 
 
 The present verses differ in origin for the Old 
 Testament, Xew Testament, and Apocr\'pha. In 
 tlie canonical Old Testament they go back to 
 the obscurity of the JIassoretic division of the 
 Hebrew Bible, appearing in the oldest known 
 manuscripts marked with the accent soph pam'tk. 
 They are thus older than the ninth century, tliough 
 not used for citation by the Jews till the fifteenth 
 century. The Hebrew concordance of Rabbi 
 Xathan (finished 1448, first printed at Venice 
 1.524) seems to have been made upon the basis of 
 aniuneral for each verse; but the earlier printed 
 Hebrew Bibles marked each fifth verse only with 
 its Hel>rew numeral. Aral.iic numerals were first 
 added for the intervening verses by Joseph ,\tliias, 
 at Amsterdam, 1600, at the suggestion of .John 
 Leusden. The first portion of the Bible printed 
 witli the Massoretic vei'ses mnnbered was the 
 J'salleriiiin Qiiincitpltx (Latin) of Faber Stapulen- 
 sis (.James or .lacciues Le Fevre), printed at Paris 
 bv Henrv StHjiliPus (Stephanas, Estienne, father of 
 Robert)in 1.509 (iM ed., 1513; 3d ed., by another 
 jirinter, 1515). In 1.528 Sanctes Pagninus pub- 
 lished at Lyons a new Latin version of the whole 
 Bible, with the JIassoretic verses marked and 
 numbered. He also divided the Apocrypha and 
 New Testament into numbered verses ; Ijut these 
 were three or four times as long as tlie present 
 ones. The jMassoretic verses have been some- 
 times modified in translating, in a few places ; as, 
 e.g., by Luther, for which subsequent historians 
 (e.g., Mayer) ha\'e felt called upon to defend 
 liinr 
 
 The present Xew- Testament verses were intro- 
 duced by Kobert Stephens in his Greek-Latin 
 Testament of 1551 (some copies erroneously have 
 MDXLI. on the titlepage, not MDLXL, as stated 
 by Wright and Tregelles). printed at Geneva. 
 This contains, in parallel columns, the Vulgate 
 (always in the inner column), the Greek (in the 
 centre), and the Latin of Erasnms (in the outer). 
 In Erasmus a smaller type serves the purjiose of 
 the Italics of modern English Bibles. Of the 
 ver.ses, Stepliens says in his preface that the divis- 
 ion is made to follow the most ancient (ireek 
 and Latin copies, and that the more willingly 
 '• (/uiiil hue raliuiif vlraijiie Irannlalio ponsel oiitiiiiio 
 ereylunr Ontcii coiiltxlul resjinnilere." But it will 
 be ditlicult. if nol impossilile, to find any (irecik 
 or Latin manuscripts wliose divisions (even the 
 iater Latin, marked with (i, like Paguinus's v<^r.ses) 
 coincide vei-y nearly with Stejihens's ver.ses. It 
 is likely, as Maseh intimates, tliat he made this 
 statement to forestall opposition from known 
 enemies. His son Henry, in the preface to liis 
 Greek concordance; (published in 1.501, afler Rob- 
 ert's death), rebates that this divisiou was made 
 l>y liis father on a journey from Paris to Lyons, 
 and a great part of \t " iitlKr ei/uihntdiim," ov on 
 lior.HeliJick. Doubtless this division was made 
 with reference to his concordani e to the Vulgate, 
 then preparing, published in 1555, in the preface 
 
 of which he announces his Greek concordance a.* 
 also in hand. This Latin concordance, like 
 former ones, contains references to the letters A, 
 B, C, D, E, F, G, but also tlie numbers of the 
 verses of each chapter " after the Hebrew method " 
 of division. This latter, the preface states, has 
 special reference to an " op('ri puldwrrimo el pne- 
 clarissimo " which he is now printing ; w hicli must 
 mean his .splendid Bible of 155(i-.57, 3 vols., con- 
 taining the Vulgate, Pagninus, and the first edition 
 of Beza's Latin X^ew Testament. Meanwhile, for 
 present convenience, he is is.suing a [more modest] 
 Bible (Vulgate), with the verses marked and num- 
 bered. This latter was his Vulgate of 1.555 [Ge- 
 neva], — the first whole Bible divided into the 
 present verses, and the first in which they were 
 introduced into the Apocrypha. The text is con- 
 tinuous, not having the verses in separate para- 
 graphs, like the X'^ew Testament of 1551, but 
 separated by a ^ and the verse-number. On 
 the titlepage is a reference to the concordance, 
 with a statement substantially tlie same as that 
 just mentioned in the latter's preface. Theverse- 
 di\isioii differs in only a very few places from 
 that of 1551 ; and a comparison shows that the 
 concordance agrees rather with that of 1551 than 
 with that of 1555. 
 
 While Stephens was meditating this divi.sion, 
 as Ills son Henry relates (^ubi supra), most people 
 thought his plan useless, if not ridiculous. " But 
 lo ! contrary to their condemnatory opinion . . . 
 no sooner did the invention come to light than it 
 met with universal favor, and at once obtained 
 such influence that other editions of the X'^ew 
 Testament which did not adopt that invention — 
 whether Greek, or Latin, or German, or in any 
 other vernacular tongue — were, so to speak, cash- 
 iered." This is nearly the truth. In other lan- 
 guages the division appeared first as follows t 
 French, Xew Testament, (ieneva, 1552, Bible, 
 Geneva, 1553 (both R. Stepliens) ; Italian, X'ew 
 Testament, L. Paschale [Geneva?], 1555; Dutch, 
 X^ew Testament, (iellius C'tematius (Gillis van 
 der Erven), Embden, 155(i, Bible, Xicolaus Biest- 
 kens van Diest, Embden, 15(j() ; Engli.sli, Gene- 
 van X^ew Testament, 1557, (ienevan Bible, 1560; 
 (ternian, Luther's Bible, perhaps Heidelberg, 1568, 
 but certainly Frankfurt-a.-M., 1582. 
 
 In Beza's editions of (he Greek Testament 
 (1565-1G04) sundry variations were introduced, 
 which were followed bj' later editors, notably the 
 Elzevirs (1033, etc.). But many minor changes 
 have been made, quite down to the present day. 
 (For variations in the Greek Testament see Dr. 
 Ezra .Vbbot's collation in C. R. Gregory's Proleg. 
 lo Tisch. Gr. N. T., ed. viii.) These Stephanie 
 verses have met with bitter criticism; but their 
 utility for reference outweighs their disadvantage, 
 at least when they are confined, as they should 
 be, to a numbering in the margin. 
 
 Lit. — Art. " Verse," by W. WnuHiT, in Kit- 
 to's Ci/chp. of liihl. Lil., 2-vol. edition, London 
 and X.Y. (in which the art. is fuller than in the 
 three vol., and latest edition) ; art. " Bible," by E. 
 II. Pi.i'.Mi'THK, in Smith's Did. of the Bible, 
 Hackett & Abbot's ed., N.Y., 1870; C. R. Gueg- 
 onv : Prole;/, lo Tisch. Gr. N. T., ed. viii. ; 
 Lki'sdkn : PhiloldijHs Ihb.-Gr.; art. "Chapters 
 and Ver.ses," by the writer, in 'Die Snndoii-Schdiil 
 Times, Pliila.,"April 2, 1881. ALso LkLon(;;
 
 CHAPTERS. 
 
 CHARITY. 
 
 liwk-Zaal, Amsterdam, 17.32. Sea ait. Bihi.k 
 'J'kxt., pp. 200-69. ISAAC; ii. hai.i,. 
 
 CHAPTERS, The Three. See Tiikkk Ciiap- 
 
 TKUS. 
 
 CHARIOTS for war, altliou,i<li used liy "k" 
 Philistines, wei'e introduced among the .lews by 
 David (2 Sam. viii. i) ; but, as these in general 
 use under the kings came from Egy|it (1 Kings x. 
 29; 2 Kings xviii. 24; Isa. xxxi. 1), a description 
 of an Egyptian chariot will answer for the .Jew- 
 ish. It was an "almost semicircular wooden 
 frame with straiglitiMied sides, resting posteriorly 
 on the axle of a ]iair of wheels, a rail of wood or 
 ivory being attachecl to the frame by leathern 
 thongs, and a wooden upright in front. The 
 back of tlie car was open ; and the sides were 
 strengtliened and end)ellished with leather and 
 metal binding : the floor was of rope net-work, to 
 give a springy footing to the occupants. On the 
 off-side were the bow-case, sometimes the quiver, 
 and spear case, crossing diagonally; the last- 
 named inclined backward. If two warriors were 
 in the chariot, there was a .second bow-case. The 
 wheels had usually six spokes, fastened to the 
 axle by a linchpin, secured by a thong. The 
 horses had a breastband and girths attached to 
 the saddle, but were without traces. They wore 
 head-furniture, often ornamented, with a bearing- 
 rein. The driving-reins passed through rings on 
 each side of both horses. Two persons, generally, 
 were in a chariot ; but there was sometimes a 
 third, holding the umbrella of state " (^VILKIN- 
 son: Ancieiil Ei/i/ptiaiis, \o\. I. pp. 222-211, vol. 
 II. pp. 201-203). The occupants sometimes 
 fought from them, sometimes used them merely 
 for purjioses of transportation. 
 
 CHARISMATA. See Gifts, Spiritual. 
 
 CHARITY, Brothers of, a religious order found- 
 ed by .Johannes C'iudad, or di Dio, a Portugiiese, 
 b. 1495, d. 1550, who in 1540 hired a small 
 liou.se in Granada, and filled it witli poor sick 
 peojile, whom he nursed, working, begging, and 
 praying for them. He was soon joined by others, 
 wlio were roused by his example of self-sacrifice ; 
 and at his death he left a well-regulated associa- 
 tion, which ill 1572 was confirmed by Pius V. as 
 a religious order under the rules of Augustine 
 (Fralres Misereconlke). To the common nioiias- 
 tical vows was added that of nursing the sick, and 
 this became the characteristic feature of the order. 
 It sjiread rapidly in Italy (Fate hen Fralelli), in 
 France (Freren <le la Charile), in Germany {Bann- 
 !ier:ir/e Briider), etc. Its monasteries were hospi- 
 tals, in which poor sick people were taken in and 
 cared for, without distinction of religion. Such 
 hospitals, on a grand scale, are found in Madrid, 
 Paris, Rome, Naples, Vienna, and Prague. In 
 the order, tlie study of theology is generally re- 
 placed by that of medicine. 
 
 CHARITY, Sisters of. Daughters of Charity, 
 Gray Sisters (from their dress), names applied 
 to several orders of celibate women in the Roman- 
 Catholic Church, who devote themselves to the 
 care of the sick, and children. Some of these 
 orders are very small, others very large ; but the 
 tw'o most important are " The Sisters of St. Vin- 
 cent de Paul," and " The Daughters of St. Carlo 
 Borromeo." 
 
 1. The first was founded in Paris, by Vincent 
 de Paul and Madame Louise de Marillac le Gras. 
 
 The providential occasion was an appeal for lielp 
 to a suffering family, made to Vincent de Paul at 
 Ch.atiliou, just as lie was about to enter his pulpit, 
 which affected him so that he laid aside his ser- 
 mon, and preached jiowerfully upon their duty 
 toward this case. The congregation were deejdy 
 interested, and help was at once offered. But the 
 incident led him to think upon the needs of the 
 poor in times of sickness, and, under divine direc- 
 tion, to the foundation of an as.sociation of women 
 for the care of the poor.' It began with a mem- 
 bership of about fifteen, but quickly spread, so 
 that in a few years it was found in more than 
 thirty places. But the very spread of tlu^ order 
 weakened it; for when Vincent de I'aul and his 
 missionaries could not longer give it their per- 
 sonal direction and encouragement, the love of 
 many waxed cold, and many, especially in the 
 country, who required instruction in nursing, 
 could not get it. But at this juncture Madame 
 Louise le Gras, ne'e de Marillac, left a widow in 
 1625, and, by the advice of her bishop, under 
 the spiritual direction of A'incent de Paul, made 
 Iciiown her deterniination to devote her life to the 
 poor. Vincent de Paul determined to avail him- 
 self of her help ; but for four years he tested her, 
 ere he sent her out to visit the order of women 
 he had founded. She rendered him such efticient 
 service, that she is entitled to be linked with him 
 in the history of the order. But considerations 
 for her family held her back from nursing very- 
 bad cases ; and so Vincent de Paul found it expe- 
 dient to enlist only virgins, and give them over 
 to iMadame le Gras for instruction. 'I'he order 
 became very popular. Not only [loor girls, but 
 those of the highest rank of society, I'olunteered ; 
 and the world learned how much women will 
 sacrifice and suffer for the sake of Christ. In 
 1633 the Archbishop of Paris raised the asso- 
 ciation into a distinct order, to be called the 
 " Daughters of Christian Love," although they 
 are commonly known as the " Sisters of Charity." 
 In the lifetime of Vincent de Paul the order 
 spread all over France, and also into Poland. 
 Tlie rule which he gave it was confirmed by 
 Pope Clement IX., when in 1668 the order was 
 officially acknowledged and indorsed. This rule 
 was, that the Sisters should rememljer, that, in 
 nursing the sick, they were nursing Christ, whose 
 servants they were, and therefore go about their 
 duty irrespective of the praise or blame of men ; 
 that they should rise daily at four a.ji. ; twice 
 in the day engage in earnest prayer ; live very 
 simply ; never drink wine except in case of sick- 
 ness; never refuse to nurse the sick, even in the 
 most repulsive and infectious diseases ; never to 
 stand in awe of death ; always to render implicit 
 obedience to their superior. Moreover, they were 
 to dress in uniform, to cultivate mutual trust and 
 peace of spirit, and to do all and bear all, out of 
 love for Clirist. The vow is not perpetual or ir- 
 revocable, but is renewed every year; but it is not 
 given until after a probation of five years. The 
 simplicity and flexibility of the rule has worked 
 admirably in favor of the order. In France it 
 took sucii a hold that it survived the storm of 
 the Revolution ; for, notwithstanding the edict of 
 1790, suppressing all religious orders, it did not 
 stop its work; and no sooner had the storm 
 passed in 1800, when Napoleon gave them public
 
 CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 436 
 
 CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 support, thau it showed a more vigorous life than 
 before. The community was introduced into the 
 United States, under a distinct rule, liowever, by 
 Mrs. Elizabeth Ann (Bayley) Seton (1774-1821) 
 of Maryland, a pervert from Protestantism, who, 
 with her sisters-in-law Harriet and CecUia Seton, 
 took the veil as "Sisters of Charity," Jan. 1, 
 1800. at Erametsburg, ^Nld. There she opened a 
 religious house in 1812 ; and " Mother " Seton 
 became the head, or superior-general, of the order 
 in America, iiother Seton's rule is still followed 
 in several dioceses, but in more the French. See 
 Seton, Mother, and art. "Schwestern, barmher- 
 zige," in Wetzer u. Welte, Kirchen-Lexicon, 1st 
 •ed. vol. ix. 
 
 2. Different from the order of " St. Vincent de 
 Paul " is that of the " Sisters of St. Borronieo," 
 founded, and provided with a rule in 16.32, by 
 Epiplianius Louys, Abbot of Estival, general of 
 the order of the Prjemonstrants. The Sisters who 
 that year took the vow to dedicate their whole 
 lives to the sick and to children chose this name 
 for the order, because they then served in the 
 Hospital of St. Carlo Borromeo, at Xancy. Tliis 
 community also was wide-spread in France, and 
 outlived the Revolution. 
 
 The idea of an order of single women devoted 
 to the care of the sick, of the poor, and of chil- 
 dren, particularly foundlings, was surely divine ; 
 and noble have lieeu the services of the different 
 comnumities of Sisters of Charity. They are the 
 glory of the Church of Rome. All credit and 
 praise to these women who liave braved the 
 horrors of war and plague, wlio, undeterred by 
 dangers seen and unseen, have nursed tlie sick, 
 bound up the wounds of soldiers, soothed the 
 troubled sjiirits of the sutferers, and broiiglit calm 
 upon nuiny a brow, v nd peace into many a heart, 
 by their promise to ;ai' ; for tlie children. They 
 ha\e been, with few exceptions, genuine daugh- 
 ters of that divine love and charity which bless 
 the world ; and it is a pity and a shame that 
 Protestants should often speak of them so dis- 
 paragingly, for surely all who do good to Christ's 
 little ones deserve respect and recognition. The 
 charge against them is that they proselyte tlie 
 sick : but, whi^n we bear in mind that these 
 sisters believe that all outside of the Koman- 
 Catholic Church are lost, we can surely excuse 
 and exi'laiu their action ; for how can they con- 
 scientiously do otherwi.se? Then as to tlieir 
 enforced celibate life : such a life is tlie only 
 one befitting their occupation. Tliere is no sin 
 in being unmarried, but rather virtue, if mar- 
 riage be foregone for the kingdom of heaven's 
 sake. 
 
 For general information, see Buss : Dcr Onlen 
 tier harmlicrzifjKu SrltircMern, .Scliafthauscn, 1844. 
 Also in tliis Cyclop;edia, see Deaconness ; Sis- 
 terhoods; also AUGUSTl.NE, SiSTEU ; l)oi!A, 
 SlSTEH. 
 
 CHARLEMAGNE, b. April 2, 742; d. Jan. 28, 
 
 811: sur Ird, iiii^f Ihcr wilh his yoimgiM- brotlier 
 
 Carloman, his father, Pepin the Sliort, as King 
 of tlie Franks in 708; became sole ruler of the 
 Frankish Empire by Carlonian's death in 774; 
 was clowned Roman emperor l)y Leo HI. in tiie 
 Church of .St. Peter in Roiik;, Christmas Day, 81)0, 
 ji;id stood, in tlie latter part of his reign, as oik; 
 <;i llie tlireo greak rulers of the world, the eipial of 
 
 the Emperor of Constantinople, and the Calipli 
 of Bagdad. 
 
 Xo layman has exercised so gi-eat an influence 
 on the liistory of the Church as Charlemagne ; 
 though his influence was, properly speaking, 
 merely that of extension, organization, and con- 
 solidation. Personally he probablv did not reacli 
 far beyond a tolerably accurate fulfilmeiit of the 
 precepts of the Church. His character has, no 
 doubt, been much embellished by tlie legendary 
 poetry of the Church. His want of cluvstity, and 
 disregard of the marriage-vow, must be freely ad- 
 mitted. I'ractically the Church was to him, not 
 only the visible representative of Clirist on earth, 
 but also an organ of civilization, an iustrunient of 
 government ; and he was sometimes unscrupulous 
 enough in the use of this instrument, as, for in- 
 stance, when he compelled the Saxons, by force 
 and with unexampled cruelty, to receive baptism. 
 Nevertheless he contributed perhaps more than 
 any one else to make the Church a power in the 
 history of the I'ace, and enabled it to form during 
 the middle ages a much-needed and highly bene- 
 ficial counterpoise to the military despotism of 
 feudalism. 
 
 His relation to the Church is strikingly charac- 
 terized by a total absence of any distinction be- 
 tween spiritual and temporal power. Both were 
 i<leiitieal to him ; and as he unquestionably was 
 the holder of the one he necessarily came to con- 
 sider himself as holder of the other too. AMthout 
 paying the least regard to the Pope, whom, under 
 other circumstances, he was not unwilling to rec- 
 ognize as the representative of the Church, he 
 condemned at the synod of Francfort (794) the 
 decrees of the second council of Xiciea concerning 
 image-worship, and with as little ceremony he 
 introduced the FiHorjue of the Spanish cliuix'hes 
 into the Nicene Creed at the synod of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle (809). He was liberarto the Church. 
 The exarchate of Ravenna was his splendid dona- 
 tion to the papal see. Churches and moniusteries 
 received enormous endowments everywhere in his 
 realm ; and the first business he took in hand 
 after conquering a new territory was the forma- 
 tion of dioceses, the building of churches, the 
 foundation of niissionarv-stalions, etc. But of 
 this church, made gri'at and rich by his liberality, 
 he demanded absolute obe<lieiice. The metro- 
 politans received the /Ktllium from the Pope, but 
 only with his consent ; and the bishops he chose 
 and appointed himself alone. He would liave 
 been very much surprised if any one liad inti- 
 mated to him — what, a century later on, was 
 preached from the roofs — that there was within 
 the Church a spiritual power to which even tlu^ 
 emperor owed obedience. Church and State 
 were one to him. His idea of government was 
 theocratic, with the distinction, though, that, in 
 his ca.se, it was not the Cliurch which liad ab- 
 .sorbed the State, but the State which iilentified 
 itself with the Churcli. 
 
 Nothing shows more jilainly than the circle of 
 great men wliicli gathered around Charlemagne 
 that the priiicijial problem which he expected the 
 {■liurch to solve had a general civilizing bearing. 
 .Ml the great men of his age, such as Alcuiii, 
 I.eidrade, Angilbert, Egiiihanj, Agobard, Pa-scha- 
 sius Radbcrtus, Rabanus Mauriis, Scotns Krigena, 
 Iliucmar, were connected, either as teachers or iw
 
 CHARLES V. 
 
 437 
 
 CHARLES V. 
 
 pupils, with t.liat school which he had founded in 
 his piilacfi, and which became the fevtile genu of 
 the niediicval university. All these men were 
 tlieolonians, but not exclusively : on the con- 
 trary, their greatness was their many-sidedness. 
 They had studied grammar, rhetoric, iihilosophy, 
 classical literature, canon law, etc. They were 
 poets, philosophers, statesmen, practical adminis- 
 trators, etc. They were exactly what Charle- 
 magne wanted, — men whom he could .send out as 
 legates to see how the counts wen^ doing in the 
 marches, or could settle as bishops in a dioce,se to 
 take care, not only of the Chiu-ch jii'oper, but also 
 of the school and the court ; for, according to 
 his ideas, the Church was an institution with 
 many worldly duties of education and jurisdic- 
 tion'; and consequently it became, under his 
 liands, an institution with many worldly interests 
 of property and ambition. 
 
 Lit. — The sources of Charlemagne's life are 
 found in Picktz : Monuiiienia Gi'rmanke. IlislDricd; 
 tlie biographies (among which that by Egiuhard 
 occupies the first place) and chronicles in Scrip- 
 tnrcs I. and II., 1820 and 1829 ; the capitulares in 
 Leges I., 18;S5 ; in Jaffe : Bihliolheca Reruiit Ger- 
 manicaram, IV., 1807, also containing his letters; 
 and in Mignk: Patrologia, 87-88, 1851, giving 
 his opira omnia. Of modern treatments of the 
 .'•abject we mention : G. P. K. James : Life of 
 Cliarlemiigne, 1832 ; Gaston : Hislnire poetique de 
 Ckarleiimgne, Paris, 1805; Abel: Jahrhiidier ties 
 Frcinkisc/ien Reiclis itnler Karl dent Grosscn, 1800 ; 
 W.4ITZ : Deutsche Verfassunysyesdiic/ilc, III-IV., 
 1809; Wyss: Karl der Grosse als Gesetzgeher, 
 Ziirich, 1809; B.\ss Mullingeu: 77ie Schools of 
 Charles the Gn-at, 1877. CLEMENS PETERSEN-. 
 
 CHARLES v., b. at Ghent, Feb. 24, 1500; d. 
 at the mona.stery of Yuste, Sept. 21, 1558; son 
 of the Archduke" Philip of Austria and Joanna of 
 Aragon ; was educated in Flanders by William 
 de Croy, an acute statesman, and Adrian of 
 Utrecht, afterwards Pope Adrian V\. ; and in- 
 herited in 1517, after his maternal grandfather, 
 Ferdinand the Catholic, Spain, with Naples, .Sar- 
 dinia, .Sicily, and the newly-discovered America, 
 and in 1519, after his paternal grandfather Maxi- 
 milian, Emperor of Germany, Austria and Bur- 
 gundy. On June 38, 1530, he was elected Emperor 
 of Germany. Goaded onward bj' the idea of a 
 world-empire, lie spent thirty-six years in war, 
 and hardships of every kind, but gained no other 
 result of his enormous exertions than a clear 
 understanding of the impossibility of his own 
 aim. Disenchanted, and finding a kind of rest 
 by occupying his mind with bagatelles, he abdi- 
 cated in 1550, leaving Spain and the Xetherlands 
 to his son, Philip II., and Austria and the im- 
 perial crown of Germany to his brother Ferdi- 
 nand, and retired, a sutfering cripple, but a 
 sl.ave to gluttony, to the niounstery of Yuste, 
 in Estremadura in Spain, where he die<l. 
 
 His conduct wdth respect to the Reformation 
 did not spring from a settled religious convic- 
 tion, but from worldly and selfish policy. The 
 rumors which spread after his death, and which 
 cost Carranza, his confessor, and some of Car- 
 ranza's pupils, so dear, may have been unfound- 
 ed; but, on the other hand, the cruel measures 
 which he actually employed in Flanders, and 
 tried to employ in Germany, for the suppression 
 
 of the Protestants, were nothing but political 
 plans, colored by the innate despotism of hig 
 nature. Charles had no devotedne.ss to any thing 
 but liini.self : he would in religious resjiects have 
 been ciinqiletely indifferent, but lor the habits of 
 his childhood. There was only one idea which 
 had root in his heart, beside his many whims 
 and vices; and that was the idea of the renewal 
 of tlie empire of Charlemagne. When this idea 
 brought him into a deadly duel with Francis I.,^ 
 he proved himself ready to sacrifice any thing in 
 order to reach his goal. It was necessary for 
 him to have peace in (iermany in order to be 
 strong against France ; and he found it easiest 
 to maintain peace by sacrificing the Protestants. 
 Had the opportunity pointed the other way, he 
 would have sacrificed the Pope without a mo- 
 ment's hesitation. 
 
 Immediately after his coronation at Aix-la- 
 Chapelle (Oct. 22, 1520) he convoked a diet at 
 Worms, at which (April 20, 1.521) Luther was 
 outlawed. Soon after, however, the duel with 
 Francis I. began; and the religious conflict in 
 Germany was left so far to itself, that a diet of 
 Spires (1520) allowed the (ierman princes to 
 regulate the religious affairs of their respective 
 states according to their own judgment. At a 
 second diet at Spires (1529), held during a pause 
 in the wars with France, the Roman Catholics 
 obtained a decree purporting to stop the further 
 progress of the Reformation ; and, when the 
 Protestant princes met this decree with a Protest 
 (April 19, 1529), an outburst of the despotism in 
 Charles's nature followed, and might have led 
 him to some decisive step, if he had not felt the 
 pressure of the Turk so heavily at the same 
 moment. At the diet of Augsburg he seemed to 
 have been gained completely over by the Roman- 
 ists ; and a decree of Nov. 19, 1530, not only 
 condemned the Confession of the Protestants, but 
 demanded their unconditional submission. How- 
 ever, when this decree was answered by the 
 Protestants with the league of Smalcald (Feb. 
 27, 1531), and Solyman on the one side, and 
 Francis I. on the other, began to move, Charles- 
 was ready with the truce of Nuremberg (July 
 23, 1532), which granted freedom of conscience. 
 It was evident, however, that sooner or later it 
 must come to an armed conflict between the 
 Protestants and Roman Catholics in Germany; 
 and, from the decided preponderance which the 
 Roman-Catholic interests possessed in tlie policy 
 of the emperor, it was easy to infer which side 
 he would take. But after the victory of Miihl- 
 berg (1.540), which was almost crushing for the 
 cause of the Reformation, lie treated the Protes- 
 tants, in general, with great leniency. After his 
 entrance in Wittenberg, the Protestant service 
 ceased in the churches ; but it was taken up 
 again, and continued, on his express order. He 
 had at this time fully made up his mind that the 
 religious conflict should come to an end, and 
 unity be restored within the Church ; and he had 
 his hands free to do what he liked. Francis I. 
 was dead, also Henry VIII.; and the Turk had 
 fallen asleep. But when the Pope transferred 
 the council from Trent to Bologna, and proved 
 himself unyielding at every point, Charles showed 
 him his displeasure as openly as he ever had 
 done with the Protestants, and chose his allies
 
 CHARNOCK. 
 
 438 
 
 CHASSIDIM. 
 
 in the Evangelical camp. The Interim proved, 
 liowever, better than any thing else could have 
 done, how incapable he was to deal with such a 
 question : and tlie affair suddenly took a pitiful 
 turn for him. when Duke Maurice of Saxony fell 
 upon him at Insbruck. and compelled him to sign 
 the treaty of I'assau (Aug. 2, 1552), which gave 
 to the Protestants complete religious liberty. 
 
 ^yhile in his retirement at Yustc, the idea of the 
 restoration of unity in the Church occupied his 
 attention nearly as much as his clocks. He be- 
 gan to understand that tliat which had thwarted 
 all his plans, and baffled all his hopes, was not 
 so much Francis I. as the Reformation ; and, like 
 an old woman whose brain has only one wheel 
 going, he began to repeat over and over again, 
 *' Put it down ! put it down ! " But he jjrobably 
 never understood that it was he who had com- 
 pletely mistaken the time in which he lived, and 
 wasted his power, while history went onward, 
 pretty nearly undisturbed by him. 
 
 Lit. — The sources of the life of Charles V. 
 are, Sleidanus: De Slalu Relii/ionis el lieipublicie 
 Carolo V. Casare, 1555, best edition, Francfort, 
 1785; Sepulveda : Hislorkt Caroli I'., Madrid, 
 1780; L.ANz: Corresjioiidenz ties Kakers Kurl T'., 
 Leipzig, 1841-46, 3 vols. ; Actcnsliicke tind Briefc 
 zur Oeschichte Carls I'., Vienna, 1853; G.\chari): 
 Correspondence de Ch. V. el d'Adrteii TV., Brus- 
 sels, 1859 ; De Let iexhove : Commenluires de 
 Ch. v., Brussels, 1802 (Eng. trans., London, 
 1862); L.em.meu: Antdecla Vtilicanu, 1521-46, 
 Freiburg, 1863. Of modern treatments of the 
 subject, we mention Robektson : Ilitttar;/ of Ike 
 Emperor Charles v., London, 1764; the great his- 
 torical works on the age of Charles V., by Hanke, 
 Prescott, Motley, etc., and monographs by Ga- 
 chaud, Pkhot, JIignet, especially H. Baumgar- 
 ten, Stuttgart, 188.5, sqcj. cxemens petehsen. 
 
 CHARNOCK, Stephen, D.D., tlie author of 
 Diaroiimes on the Allribules : b. in London, 1628; 
 il. there July 27, 1680. lie studied at Cambridge, 
 but bi'came (1650) a fellow of New College, Ox- 
 ford, and idtiniately proctor. In 16.53 he went 
 to Dublin as chaplain to Henry Cromwell ; but 
 in 1061) the Act of Uniformity put an end to his 
 useful ministry there, and lie returned to Eng- 
 land. He preached afterwards irregularlj' until i 
 1675. when lie accepted the charge, in London, 
 which lie lield at his death, llis Discourses upon 
 Ihe Ejisleni'e and Allrdiulcs of Cod (often re- 
 printed) are acknowledged masterpieces, and 
 surely take rank witli the greatest of the many 
 great ]n-oducts of the Xoiiconformist clergy. 
 Charnock published only one sermon; but after 
 ills di'cease two volumes appeared, edited by 
 Adams and Veel from liis manuscri)its, London, 
 1682-83, fol. Best edition of his coni))leti^ works 
 in Xichol's Series of Standard Divines, with in- 
 troduction by Uev. Dr. James McCosh, Edin- 
 liurgh, 1801, 5 vols. Svo. 
 
 CHARRON, Pierre, b. in I'aris. 1.541; d. there 
 10.13; studied law at Orleans, and jiractised for 
 .several year.s at Bourges as an advocate, but gave 
 up this career, studied theology, was ordained a 
 priest, and was very actives in Soutliern France 
 as a preacher, and finally as vicar-general in the 
 diocese of Caliors. His Traili' dis Irais rcnii's 
 (1594), and DIsconrs chn'tims (16(10), exhibit liiin 
 as a very orthodox Romanist; but his great work, 
 
 Trade de la Sar/esse (1601), suddenly revealed him 
 as a disciple of ^lontaigne, drawing consequences 
 which the master himself would have hesitated 
 to draw. See Ch.\xet : Coustderalions sur la 
 Sariesse de Charrori, Rochelle, 1043; the article 
 in B.wi.e ; and Saixte-Beive : Causeries du 
 lundi, vol. XL 
 
 CHASE, Irah, D.D., one of the founders of 
 Newton Centre Baptist Seminary ; b. at Stratton, 
 Vt., Oct. 5, 1793; d. at Newton Centre, Mivss.. 
 Nov. 1, 1864. He was graduated at Middle- 
 bury College in 1814; a student at Andover, but 
 ordained in the Baptist Cluirch in 1817 ; was pro- 
 fessor of theology in Baptist tlieological semina- 
 ries from 1818 to 1845, — 1818-25, in the seminarj- 
 at ^^■ashington ; 1825-45, in that at Newton Cen- 
 tre, Mass. The latter part of his life was spent 
 in literary pursuits. Besides other books, and 
 many controversial articles, he published The 
 Woric cluhning to he the Conslilutinns of the Holy 
 Aposdes, inchidinr/ the Canons, N.Y., 1848; Infant 
 Bujitism an Invention of Man, Phila., n.d., and a 
 Life of liunjitin. 
 
 CHASSlblM, or PIOUS, is a name given to a 
 Jewish party which became very conspicuous in 
 the time of the Maccab»an struggle. " The zeal 
 and even the fanaticism of this party had been 
 admirable qualities in the hour of trial and exer- 
 tion " (Mi/man). The Chassidini rigidly ad- 
 hered to the written as well as traditional law of 
 their fathers. " Themselves austere," says jMil- 
 man, " they despised all who did not practise the 
 same austerities. Earnest in tlieir belief, they 
 branded as free-thinkers all whose creed was of 
 greater latitude than their own, and considered 
 it their duty to enforce the same rigid attention, 
 not merely to every letter of the law, but like- 
 wise to all their own peculiar observances, which 
 they themselves regarded as necessary, and most 
 scrupulously performed," . . . till they finally 
 degenerated into the "haughty, tyrannical, and 
 censorious Pharisees, the Sejiaratists of the Jew- 
 ish religion." In the course of time they disap- 
 peared, until, about the year 1740, Rabbi Israel, 
 with the epithet Baal-Shem ('• Possessor of the 
 Name," i.e., the mysterious name of God), ap- 
 peared at the liead of a small party of men, first 
 at Ilussti, and afterwards at iledziboze in Podo- 
 lia, who called themselves Chassidini, or Saints. 
 Rabbi Israel was most probably a man of devo- 
 tional and enthusiastic spirit, who felt the in- 
 surticiency and lifelessness of Ilabbinism, and 
 thouglit he had discovered the essence of true 
 jiiety in llie mysticism of the cabalistic system, 
 llis fame soon spread, in spite of the opposition 
 of the raVibins; and in a short time his tbllowers 
 were numbered by tens of thousands. As long 
 as he lived, the sect formed one great wliole, of 
 which he was tlie head. After his death, which 
 took place in 1760, it was divided into separate 
 congregations, each of which had its own rabbi, 
 or, as the Chassidini call liini, Tsaddik, or Saint. 
 They soon spread over (Jalieia, South Hungary, 
 West and Soutli Russia, Wallachia, and extended 
 to the East. The Chassidini have separate syna- 
 gogues ; and their great object is — at least they 
 jirofess it — to .strive after a perfect union with 
 (iod. To effect this, they spend iiiucli time in 
 contenqilation, and in prayer use the most ex- 
 traordinary contortions and gestures, jumping.
 
 CHASSIDIM. 
 
 430 
 
 CHASUBLE. 
 
 writhing, howling, in order to exalt their minds, 
 and do certainly snccecd in working themselves 
 into a state little sliort ol frenzy. Their chief 
 edification is the spemling of the salihath day with 
 the Tsaddik, when they listen to a sort of moral, 
 mystical, cabalistical ili.scourse, which is received 
 as the dictates of immediate inspiration. For the 
 benefit of snch as are too far removed to come 
 on the Satnrday, the Tsaddik makes jonrneys 
 through his district, when he lodges with some 
 rich mend)er of the sect, and is treated with all 
 the respect due to one who stands in inunediate 
 communcation with Deity. He then imposes 
 penances, dispenses amulets, and slips of jiarch- 
 ment with cabalistic sentences written on them, 
 to those who wish e.xeraption from sickness and 
 danger, or protection against evil sjiirits ; and 
 pronounces on the sick and the barren his bene- 
 diction, wliich is supposed to remove all infirmi- 
 ties, and to procure the fulfilment of every wish. 
 The late Dr. Alexander JNIcCaul, who for a 
 number of years labored as a missionary among 
 the Jews in Russian-Poland, once saw one of the 
 most famous of these Tsaddikim, the Tsaddik of 
 Medziboze, or Mezbesh, during one of these 
 periodical visits to a large congregation. " Ilis 
 antechamber," says Dr. McCaul, "was crowded 
 with Jews and Jewesses, anxiously waiting for 
 admission. The Tsaddik himself was seated in 
 an inner chamber, in an arm-chair. He wore a 
 long robe, something like a cassock, of sky-blue 
 silk, a white girdle, and cap. He was a fine- 
 looking, portly old man, with a long white beard. 
 His attendants all stood around him, attired in 
 the usual costume of the Polish Jews, excepting 
 tlie cap, which was not black velvet, but white 
 cotton. His conversation was that of a shrewd, 
 sensible man ; and with us he certainly sliowed 
 nothing either of the mystic or fanatic. The 
 Jews said, at his departure, tliat his receipts in 
 this town alone were two thousand silver rubles, 
 or about three hundred piounds." The articles 
 of faith of the C'ha.ssidira, which may be gathered 
 from the Kilsur Likkute Muharan, and the Sephcr 
 Ilainntiihlh, may be thus summed up : " The 
 most important of all principles is unreserved 
 devotion to the Tsaddik ; never to turn aside 
 from his precepts ■ to reject wisdom and science, 
 yea, one's own understanding, and to receive 
 only what the Tsaddik says. Even when one 
 lliinks that the Tsaddik is acting contrary to the 
 law, he is still to believe that the Tsaddik is in 
 the right : he must therefore reject his own un- 
 derstanding, and rest confidently on that of the 
 rabbi." We thus see an infallible Jewish pope 
 before Pius IX. The number of the Chassidini is 
 still very large in Poland, Wallachia, Moldavia, 
 Galicia, and Palestine. Moderji Jews do not look 
 very favorably upon them. Says Dr. D. C'assel 
 (^Lchrhucli iler jddinchen Gefchichle u. Lllerotur, 
 Leipzig, 1879, p. .517) : •• To tlie disgrace of Juda- 
 ism and modern culture, the Tsaddikim still go 
 on with their disgraceful business, and are thus 
 the most essential hindrances to the dissemina- 
 tion of literary progress in Galicia and Russia. 
 There are still thousands who behold in the 
 Tsaddik the worker of miracles, the prophet, 
 one who is in close communion with God and 
 angels, and who present him with rich gifts, and 
 pr;:):nulgate the wonders which they have seen. 
 
 Covetousne.ss on the one hand and spiritual nar- 
 rowne.ss on the other are the channels through 
 which this evil is fed anew." n. TICK. 
 
 CHASTITY is the inner side of modesty, tin! 
 condition of bodily and moral purity in the sexual 
 relations, and the virtue of self-control from for- 
 bidden sexual longings. Its o])positcs are lust 
 co()uetry, and idle wit. It is a virtue known to 
 and esteemed by the ancients, though rarely 
 found among the men. Kven the chosen people, 
 as is proved by the numerous allusions to unchas- 
 tity in the Old Testament, do not seem to have 
 been exceptionally chaste. But Christ has made 
 chastity in word and deed common, and laid its 
 obligation upon all. The New-Testament writers 
 employ the word «yvof in this connection, the 
 original meaning of which is de(/iriileil, tln-'U clean, 
 iiiisjiol/iiil, and so chaste. The New-Testament 
 idea of chastity is the natural result of its new- 
 view of the body as the temple of the Holy Spiirit. 
 Hence the obligation to be chaste was of the 
 strongest (1 Cor. vii. 1.5-20). But obedience is 
 difficult, owing to the force of passion (1 Pet. ii. 
 11). This sexual passion is not in itself sinful, 
 but is to be gratified only within the marriage- 
 bond. Unchastity is a scourge, a pestilence 
 which lays low body and soul. It has a certain 
 and sad effect upon the religious feelings, killing 
 them, so that Ciod is utterly cast out, and there- 
 fore the door is open to every sin. It leads to 
 imnatural vice (Rom. i. 26, 27). And therefore 
 according to the Bible the unchaste are lost (1 
 Cor. vi. 9; Eph. v. 5; Rev. xxi. 2, 27). 
 
 Chastity is to be in thought (Matt. v. 28) and 
 word (Eph. v. 3, 12), as well as in deed. In 
 regeneration the Christian receives grace to at- 
 tain this high ideal. It is the duty of both stxes, 
 and of all ages and relations, married or not, to 
 be chaste. To some a .special grace to this end 
 is given (Matt. xix. 12; 1 Cor. vii. 7). To those 
 who preserve absolute chastity outside of the 
 mai'ried state, there is peculiar honor; though 
 this is no implied disparagement to marriage 
 (Rev. xiv. 4), which is a divinely-ordered pro- 
 tection. Modern ways of living have debarred 
 many from entering that state, but their celibacy 
 is no excuse for uncliastity. See the Elhics of 
 Harless, Neandeu, Schmid, AVuttke, Mau- 
 
 TENSEN, and ROTHE. KARL BURGER. 
 
 CHASUBLE, an ecclesiastical garment, is de- 
 rived from casula, a diminutive of caxa, a "hut." 
 Casuta seems originally to have been a local or 
 provincial designation for the panula, an outer 
 garment used by the humbler classes in the 
 Roman world, and consisting of a single piece of 
 cloth, with a hole in the centre, provided with a 
 hood. With the head thrust through this hole, 
 the wearer of the casula was completely covered, 
 as if by a portable house. The Christian clergy 
 adopted this piece of clothing as their common 
 outer garment, the monks, as their regular dress; 
 and after the eighth century it became a liturgi- 
 cal vestment, though in a somewhat altered form. 
 It was split open on both sides in order to give 
 free play to tlie arms; and afterwards the super- 
 fluous laps were cut away, and the whole vest- 
 ment reduced to two broad strips hanging down 
 in front and behind. The color varied according 
 to the character of the solemnity at which it was 
 used. The changes seem first to have taken
 
 CHAUCER. 
 
 440 
 
 CHAUNCY. 
 
 place in Italy and Spain, where the vestment 
 was known as the jiliincld, a century before it was 
 generally adopted by the whole Western Church, j 
 CHAUCER, Geoffrey, the first great English 
 poet. b. (]ierhaps in London, where his father. 
 John Chaucer, was a vintner) before 1346 (possi- 
 bly in 1340. though nothing is certain about it) : 
 d. in London in the autumn of 1400 (Oct. 25 
 has been given as the date). The most of Chau- 
 cer's life was passed in association with the 
 higher classes of English society; and he is pre- | 
 eminently the poet of the "gentles." A person 
 of his name entered the service of Lionel, third 
 son of Edward III., probably as page, in 1357; 
 and in 1359 Chaucer joined the army of Edward 
 III. as it went to invade France. He was made 
 prisoner, but was ransomed in 13G0, before the 
 peace ; and his importance may be inferred from 
 the fact that the king himself paid a portion of 
 the ran.sora. The next seven years are blank, so 
 far as the record of his doings is concerned; 
 then we find him a pensioner at court, and one of 
 the valets of the king's household, — a position 
 always held by ■'gentlemen." Before this time 
 he had married one Philippa, possibly sister of 
 Katherine Koet, who became w'ife of John of 
 (iaunt, Duke of Lancaster ; though there are 
 reasons for doubting his relation to the duke in 
 this way. Upon this connection, and upon various 
 contemptuous expressions regarding the clergy, 
 found in his poems, it has been assumed that 
 Chaucer was a follower of Wiclif, or at least a 
 sympathizer with him. While it is not improba- 
 ble, that at a time when it was said that every 
 third man was a Wiclifite, and when the only 
 other great poet was strongly opposed to clerical 
 corruption. Chaucer should have sympathized in 
 the feelings of the "first Protestant," it is diffi- 
 cult to put out of court the testimony of the 
 sentiments of devout Romanism found in some 
 of Chaucer's verses. From 1370 to 1380 he was 
 mucti of the time engaged in the service of the 
 king on the continent, visiting Italy twice. The 
 incidents founded ui)on passages in T/ie Teala- 
 ment of I.ove (a composition long wrongly attribut- 
 ed to Chaucer) — such as that he was engaged 
 in the disputes between the court and the citi- 
 zens of London about the election of John of 
 Northampton to the mayoralty (in 1382), his 
 attempted arrest, his flight to Zealand, his return 
 (in 1380), his imprisonment in tlie Tower, and 
 his release — are all contradicted by official rec- 
 ords. He retirerl from court in 1380, but received 
 ni'W appointments in 138». and again lost all his 
 offices in 13!J1. He was in emliarrassnient until 
 thi' accession of Henry Molingbroke in 1399, but 
 he died the next year. His reputation rests upon 
 his Cdnlerhuri) 'J'tilis, written at various dates 
 during his life, and partially arranged in a con- 
 nected form. These are remarkable pictures of 
 society. Two of them are in ]irose, — T/ie Paj-- 
 soii's Tale, which is simi)ly a sermon on penitence, 
 from the text Jer. vi. Ifi of the Vulgate ; and The 
 Tale of Melilmus, an illustration of the law of love 
 and mercy. Unth of these; are crowded with 
 .Scripture allusion.s, as, in fact, an^ most of the 
 jioems of Chaucer. In various parts of his poems 
 lie di.scusseg the prescience of (Jod, and tin; sub- 
 jects of predestination, pre-onlinalion, and free 
 will, 'i'he latest complete eilition of the joems 
 
 of Chaucer is that edited by Arthur (Tilman 
 (3 vols., liost., 1879), which is the only one con- 
 taining the best text of the Canlerhurij Talis, that 
 of the'Ellesmere ;M.S. .mithur oilman. 
 
 CHAUNCY, Charles, second president of Har- 
 vard College; b. in Yardlevburv, Hertfordshire, 
 Eng., Nov., 1,592; d. at Cambridge, U.S.A., Feb. 
 19, 1072. He was educated at Westminster 
 school and Cambridge, Eng. ; at the latter was 
 chosen by the heads of houses professor of He- 
 brew, but by the vice-chancellor made ]irofessor 
 of Greek. Shortly after, lie left the university, 
 and took the vicarage, first of ^Vare, Hertfordshire 
 (1627); then of Marston St. Lawrence (1633). His 
 ministry was eminently successful. By his uncom- 
 promising Puritanism he involved him.self with 
 the ecclesiastical judicatories, was imprisoned and 
 
 ; fined. In an hour of weakness he recanted (Feb. 
 
 \ 11, 1635). He never forgave himself for this. 
 
 ' and, overcome by shame, left the country, and 
 landed at Plymouth a few days before the great 
 earthquake, which ha]ipened Jan. 1, 1638. He 
 first preached in Plymouth for three years, and 
 then at Scituate. In 1654 he received an invi- 
 tation to return to Ware, and was in Boston in 
 November to make arrangements for his depart- 
 ure, when he received the appointment of presi- 
 dent of Harvard College, successor to Henry 
 Dunster. Reluctantly he accepted the position, 
 but faithfully and ably he fulfilled its duties. 
 Cotton Mather, in his MuynuUa CItrisli Americana 
 (Bk. iii. c. 23, 2d Amer. ed., Hartford, 185,5, vol. 
 1. pp. 463-476), devotes a chapter to Chauncy, 
 and commends especially liis piety. The epitaph 
 put on his tombstone in Cambridge (in Latin) 
 says he was for "seventeen years a most faithful 
 president of Harvard College in New England, 
 a man of unsullied integrity, an accomplished 
 debater, gifted with equal merit in jnety and 
 scholarship." He wrote Greek and Latin poems. 
 His remorse at his weakness in yiehling to his 
 prosecutors was incessant, and led to his publica- 
 tion in London, 1041, of The Retraclalinii of Mr. 
 C. C, formerhj Miii. of Il'are in Ifar/onlshire, 
 written in 1637, and published, as he says, " for 
 the satisfaction of all such who either are, or 
 justly might bee, offended with his scandalous 
 submission, made before the High Commission 
 Court, Feb. 11, anno 1635" (4to, pp. 40). He 
 published also Anlisi/nodnlia Scri/ila Americana, 
 or a Proposal of tlie Judgment of the Dissenting 
 Me.s.senger of the Chiirchi^s of N.E., Cambridge. 
 1662 (ltd. jip. 38), and several pamphlets and 
 sermons. 
 
 CHAUNCY, Isaac, son of the above, was ejected 
 in 1662; a successor of Dr. John Owen (d. 1083) 
 in London, 16s7 ; retired from pastorate, 1701;, 
 taught divinity in Dissenter's Academy in Lon- 
 don; d. Feb. 28, 1712. He wrote, The Catholike 
 Hierarchie, or The Dirine Riyht of a Sacred Do- 
 minion in Church anil Conscience, 1681 ; Kccle.iia 
 Emicleala, a Clear DemonMralion of the True <jos- 
 jiel Church in its Aalure and Conslilulion, 1084; 
 Ecclcsiaslioim, or a Plain and Familiar Christian 
 Conference concerninij (lospel Churches and Order, 
 1090; The Doctrine ichlch is accord in;/ to Godliness, 
 V-U:, 1694 ; The iJicine Institution of Conijri ijational 
 Chnrrhis. 1697, besides jiamphlet.s, etc. 
 
 CHAUNCY, Charles, relative of the above, b, 
 at nosU)n, Jan. 1, 1705; d, Feb. 10, 1787. He
 
 CHAUTAUQUA. 
 
 441 
 
 CHEKE. 
 
 was graduated at Harvard. \~J\, find ordained 
 pastor of tlie First Cliurcli in liostoii in 17"J7, and 
 tliere remained for sixty years. lie was a learn- 
 ed, copious writer, and publicly tanglit Kestora- 
 tionisni. or Universalisin. lie wrote, Srasoinililf 
 '/'/inuij/il.i on tli(- Slate of Ri'Urjion in Ncic Juif/Zantl, 
 ISoston, 174:i ; several open letters to Wliitelield, — 
 A Let/er to G. W/iiteJielfl, puliticii/ i-nUini/ u/iiiii liim 
 to Vindicate liif C'unilucl,or Con/ens liix JuiHlts,l',os- 
 ton, 17-11; Second Letter to O. W/iileJielil, nri/inf/ 
 ti/mn him t/ie Ihtti/ of lie/ientnnce, l?oston, 1745; and 
 A Letter to liev. G. Whitefield, Boston. 174.'>; two 
 treatises on churcli-governnieut, — The Vulidit;/ 
 of Presbyterian Ordination Asxerted and Maintained, 
 ISoston, 1762, and A Comptent View of' E/iisco/iaci/ 
 vntil the Close of the Second Ccnliir!/, lioston, 1771 ; 
 several works on universal salvation, — The Sal- 
 ration for All Men Illnstrated and }'indicate<l as a 
 Scripture Doctrine, Boston, 1782; Dirine Glorij 
 Inoui/ht to View in the J'^inal Salcalion of All Men, 
 1783 (in 1784 a second ed., so Dexter supposes) ; 
 7'lie Benevolence of the Deiti/ fairli/ and iinjiartialli/ 
 considered, Boston, 1784; Fire Dissertations on the 
 Scri/jture Account of the Fall ami its Consequences, 
 17S.J. 
 
 CHAUTAUQUA, on Chautauqua Lake in AVest- 
 ern New York, is the site of the " Cliautauqua 
 Assembly," — a summer convocation, school, and 
 resort, in the interest of education, religious and 
 general, and of legitimate and wholesome recrea- 
 tion. The nioveiuent was projected in 1873 by 
 Lewis Miller, Esq., and Rev. Dr. J. H. Vincent, 
 the former a wealthy manufacturer in Akron. O., 
 the latter, editor, and secretary of the Sunday- 
 school department of the Methodist^Episcopal 
 (-'hurch. The first Assembly was held in August, 
 1874, as a two-weeks' normal (Sunday-school) 
 institute, with general, biblical, and normal lec- 
 tures, class-drills, specimen illustrative exercises, 
 models of Palestine, an archreological museum, 
 etc. Its leaders early asked, and pronqitly an- 
 swered, the questions : " How shall we increase 
 the power of the Sunday school by connecting it 
 more intimately with tlie other departments of 
 the churcli and other agencies in society ? " 
 '• How control, in the interest of religious culture, 
 the foi-ces — social, commercial, indu.strial, and 
 educational — wliich for good or evil are affect- 
 ing our pupils every d.ay of the week ? " These 
 questions were practically answered at Chautau- 
 (jua by the holding of '• Church Congresses," " Re- 
 form Councils," "Scientific Conferences," and 
 " Summer Schools." Brilliant lectures were de- 
 livered on chemistry by such men as Dr. Ogden 
 Doremus, and Professor S. A. Lattimore; on as- 
 tronomy, by Drs. Burr and Warren ; on geology, 
 by Professor Alexander Winchell, and Professor 
 AVilliam N. Rice. Telescopes were in use night 
 after night, season after season. A department 
 of microscojiy was established. Permanent or- 
 ganizations were effected for the prosecution of 
 the several studies by per.sons at their homes. 
 The Chautauqua Assembly aimed to give a start 
 and an inspiration. Its few weeks' session at 
 Chautauqua led individuals to read and study at 
 ticmie during the year. The C. L. S. C. (Chau- 
 tauqua Literary and Scientific Circle) was organ- 
 i/.eil in 1878. It is a " home college," and now 
 uumbers more than twenty-five thousand mem- 
 bers. Its course of reading requires an average 
 
 of forty minutes a day. and covers a period of 
 four years. The C. P. AI. I. (('hautanqua Pondgn 
 Mi.'isionary Institute) held its first session in 
 187!K The C. L. S. (Clnud.aucpui Scliool of Lan- 
 guages), the C. T. 11. (Chautauqua Teachers' 
 Retreat), the C. S. T. (Chautaucpia .School of 
 Theology), and the C. Y. F. 11. U. (Chautauqua 
 Young Folks' Heading Union), are all depart- 
 ments of this new movement, which aims at pojui- 
 lar literary, scientific, and religious education, at 
 the jiromotion of ratiomil recreation, at true 
 reform. — donu'stic, social, and political, — and 
 whicli aims to cultivate independent sell-educa- 
 tion at liome by those who have hitherto lacked 
 educational opportunity. .1. II. VIN'CEXT. 
 
 CHEKE, Sir John, an eminent (jreek scholar, 
 1). at Candjridge, June 10, lol4; d. .Sept. Kt, 
 l.')r)7. lie was appointed by Henry \]U. in 1540 
 the first Regius Professor of (ireek in the Univer- 
 sity of Candiridge. To him and .Sir 'J'homas 
 .Smith belongs the honor of reviving the knowl- 
 edge of (ireek in England. In 1.044 he was ap- 
 jiointed tutcpr to Prince Edward, and on the 
 accession of the latter (January, 1547) received 
 honor and w ealth ; for he was appointed to vari- 
 ous ]Kisitions, — from provost of King's College, 
 Cambridge, 1548, to secretary of state, and privy 
 councillor, 1553. But, having joined in the at- 
 tenq.it to establish Lady Jane Grey in the govern- 
 ment (155u), he was deprived of all his lionors, 
 an<l finally of all his wealth, by I\Iary, and con- 
 fined for a year in the Tower. On liberation he 
 obtained permission to travel: visited Italy and 
 Switzerland; settled in .Strassburg, where he sup- 
 ported himself by teaching Greek; and took so 
 )irominent a part in the Englisli Church there, that 
 the home government was alarmed, and, by 
 means of a decoy, caught him, and brought him 
 to England (1550). There he recanted, and even 
 took part in the judgment of Protestants more 
 constant than he. The Queen restored him to 
 wealth and position; but his lieart was broken, 
 and he died from remorse, giving the best evi- 
 dence that his recantation w;is insincere, and 
 "carrying God's pardon, and all good men's pity, 
 along with him." Cheke was a remarkable man, 
 and deserves a wider fame. His Greek learning 
 won the admiration of the day. He knew quite 
 intimately the prominent Protestants of Europe. 
 He was a sincere, humlile, though a not sufficiently 
 maidy Cliristian, and inspired universal esteem by 
 his lovely life. Curiously he anticipated an im- 
 portant phenomenon of the present day, — the 
 reform of the spelling, i.e., according to sound. 
 (See Strype, pp. 161, 162.) He was also a strenuous 
 advocate of pure English. In exemplification oi 
 his idea, he prepared a revised version of Mat- 
 thew, and part of Mark, in which Saxon equiva- 
 lents of Latin theological and ecclesiastical words 
 are given. (For specimen see Stougliton's Our 
 EiKjlish Bible, pp. 176, 177.) He was a volumi- 
 nous and learned writer. (For list see Strype, 
 pp. 165-107.) The most interesting is said to 
 be the True Subject to the Rebel, or the Hurt of 
 Sedition, 1.549 (also Oxford, 1641, with a Me- 
 moir). His translation of Matthew, and seven 
 of his letters, were edited and published by 
 J. Goodwin, D.D., London, 1843. His Life 
 was written by Joux Stbype, new edition, 
 Oxford, 1821.
 
 CHEMNITZ. 
 
 442 
 
 CHERUB. 
 
 CHEMNITZ, Martin, b at Trewenbrietzen, 
 Hiaiulfnljius, Xov 9, 1522; d. at Brunswick, 
 April 8. 1536; lost his fatlier wlieii he \v,as eleven 
 years old, and finished his education under very 
 difficult circumstances. From 1539 to 1542 he 
 studied at Magdeburg, preparing for the univer- 
 sity, but was then compelled to go to Calbe, and 
 afterwards to Wrietzen, and teach school, in order 
 to earn money enough to continue his studies. 
 In 1545 he came to Wittenberg, and attached 
 himself closely to Melanchthon, on whose advice 
 he studied mathematics and astrology, and who, 
 in 1547, sent him to Kbnigsberg with a letter of 
 recoramend.ation to Dr. Sabinus. In Konigsberg 
 he lived as tutor to some young Polish noblemen, 
 as rector of the school of Kneiphof, and as a 
 practical astrologer; which last busine.ss brought 
 him in connection with Duke Albrecht, who in 
 15.50 made him his librarian. From this time 
 he began to concentrate himself on tlieology, hav- 
 ing ascertained the looseness of the found.ation 
 on which astrology rested. He studied the Bible, 
 the Fathers. Luther, Lombardus, etc. But his 
 theological interest allured him into the Os.si- 
 ander controversy ; and this became, at last, so 
 disagreeable to him. that in 1552 he gave up his 
 position at Konigsberg, and went to Wittenberg. 
 There he continued his studies of dogmatics, and 
 beg.an to lecture in the university on Melanch- 
 thon's I.oci Tlieotorjici ; and his lectures attracted 
 so much attention, that in 1554 he was called to 
 Brunswick as coadjutor to the superintendent. 
 In 15(i7 he was made superintendent himself, and 
 in that position he remained until 15S4, when, on 
 account of ill health, he retired into private 
 life 
 
 Chemnitz made his first appearance in liter.v 
 ture in the controversy concerning the Lord's 
 Supper, by his memoir, Anatomc Proposilionum 
 A. IIiirile)ihirf/i de Cvena Domini, which was fol- 
 lowed by his ]'eia el Sana Doc/rina de Praisentia 
 Corpr)ri< el .San(/iiinis Christi in C. D., 1500; lle- 
 pelilio Vera Doctrinal, etc., 1501; Fundamenta 
 <San(c Doctrincc, etc., 15G1 ; and Di' Diiahus Naturis 
 in Chri.itr), etc., 1.571. But his greatest celebrity 
 he gained by his controversy with the Jesuits. 
 In 15()0 appeared in Cologne the Censura de 
 I'rmcipuis (/iij)itihH.< Doctrinoi Ccele.ilis, ,1 direct 
 attack on Protestantism, and tlio first work of the 
 Jesuits which attracted any attention. Cliemnilz 
 answered with his 'J'/iei/loi/i'C .Jcsnilarum J'rcecipna 
 Capila. 151)2, in which he treated the Jesuits as a 
 faction, a consi>iracy. Ho soon discovered, how- 
 ever, from the works of Andrade, that the Jesu- 
 its were in reality the true exponents of the 
 Koman-Catholic Cliurch, aiul he went to work on 
 a greater scale : from 1565 to 1 573 lie published 
 his Examcn Cimcllii Tridenlini in four volumes, a 
 classical work as yet unsurpassed. In the latter 
 p.art of his lifi' he was very active, together witli 
 Andreii, for tlie unification of the evangelical 
 churdi'S, but without decisive success; though 
 in many respects he seemed to be just the right 
 man for such a ta.sk. He was not a creative 
 mind : order, arrangement, sy.stemati/.ation, was 
 his talent. In that direction \\i: also liis literary 
 merits. The jirectMiing generation the Ueforrn- 
 ers had been the |irodncers: Cheimiitz took th(! 
 inhi'ritance, and became the first theologian of 
 tlie Heformation. His Loci Communes, however, 
 
 were not published until after his death (1592), 
 by Polycarp Leyser. 
 
 Lit. — C. G. H. Lentz : Dr. Marlin Chemnitz, 
 Gotha, 1866; Herm. Hachfeld : Martin Chem- 
 nitz, Leipzig, 1867. ii. Schmidt. 
 
 CHE'MOSH (.vuWuer), the national deity of the 
 Moabites, who are called the people of Chemosh, 
 just as the Israelites were the people of Jehovah 
 (Num. xxi. 29; Jer. xlviii. 46); identical with 
 Molech, the god of the Ammonites (Judg. xi. 24). 
 Solomon introduced (1 Kings xi. 7), and Josiah 
 suppressed, his worship in Jerusalem (2 Kings 
 xxiii. 13). The Moabite worship of Chemosh 
 has received unexpected illustration by the Mo- 
 abite Stone [C. D. Gixsburg : The Moabite Stnne, 
 2d ed., London, 1871]. It was to Chemosh that 
 Mesha offered his son (2 King's iii. 27). See 
 Mesha; AIoab; Moahitk Sto.nk. 
 
 CHER'UB, CHER'UBIM (luicertain derivation, 
 perhaps from xinmg, hence terrible). Cherubim 
 ai-e a distinct order of beings from angels ; for 
 they are always in the immediate presence of 
 God, whereas angels are sent on varied errands. 
 They are winged, while angels are not. The 
 Bible descriptions of their appe.arance are rather 
 vague. Nothing very intelligible is said about 
 their shape, except that they are winged. Ac- 
 cording to the Hebrews' primitive conception, 
 they were the bearers of God when he appeared 
 in glory upon earth (Ps. xviii. 10; Ezek. xi. 22); 
 the witnesses of God's presence, wherever they 
 are, he is. Very appropriately, therefore, were 
 representations of them placed in the Holy of 
 holie.s, both in the tabernacle, when the golden 
 figures stood upon the mercy-seat (Exod. xxxvii. 
 8), and in the temple, when they were of colossal 
 size (fifteen feet higli), and stood on the floor, 
 overshadowing the ark, which was between them 
 (1 Kings vi. 27). They were pictured upon the 
 curtains (Exod. xxvi. 1, 31, xxxvi. 8, 35), and 
 upon all parts of the temple (1 Kings vi. 29, 32, 
 35, vii. 29, 36). Thus was testified the truth that 
 God was in the midst of his people, and also the 
 further ideas, that tiie holy places were under 
 sleepless surveillance, and God by them w'as cov- 
 ered from the irreverent gaze of men. God is 
 spoken of and addn'sscd as dwelling between the 
 cherubim (Num. vii. 89; 1 !>am. iv. 4; 2 Sam. 
 vi. 2; 2 Kings xix. 15; 1 Chron. xiii. 6; Ps. 
 Ixxx. 1, xcix. 1 ; Isa. xxxvii. 16). After the fall, 
 it is said (Gen. iii. 24) God placed at the east of 
 the Garden of Eden the cherubim, and a flaming 
 sword (a separate thing, not a sword in the hand 
 of a cherub), to keep the way of the tree of life. 
 The garilen, liaving been the scene of (iod's pres- 
 ence, was an ajiprojiriate, indeed necessary, place 
 for the cherubim (see above). 
 
 Much study lias been given to the .supposed 
 non-Hebraic origin of the cherubim ; but, although 
 analogous shapes are found u]ion Egyptian and 
 Assyrian monuments, it remains to be proven 
 thai these were ]iatt.('rns, in any sense, of tlie 
 cherubim of the tabernacle and temple. What 
 is much more likely is, that the cherubim of 
 Ezekiel and the later Jewish thought were devel- 
 o|iments of the earlier ideas under the influence 
 of the surrounding cultus. In regard to Ezekiel, 
 it has be(Mi noticed tliat he has two different sorts 
 of cherubim in his }iropliecy. 1. In xxviii. 14 
 he culls the king of 'i'yre, in a passage of great
 
 CHEYNELL. 
 
 443 
 
 CHILLINGWORTH. 
 
 beauty, "the anointed cherub" that covereth 
 with liis \viiit;.s the lioly tilings : in other words, 
 the king is said to liave been raised to a divine 
 throne. The cherub here appears as a divine 
 being, who upon tiie mount of the gods has liis 
 fire-encircled seat. There is no sucli u.se of hiii- 
 guage in tlie non-IIebraic peoples. 2. The second 
 sort of cherubim is that iu i., iii. 13, xi. '22, 
 ct. xli. IS sq. Here we find, for the first time, a 
 description of the shape of the cherubim, which, 
 however, does not go far. They have four faces, 
 four arms and hands, four wings, are covered 
 over M'ith eyes, stand between wheels which have 
 wheels in them, so that they can move in any 
 direction. They carry the throne of God. ]n 
 this conception we trace Babylonian influence; 
 for winged gods, and animals with men's faces, 
 and vice versa, aie common on their monuments. 
 In Ezekiel, as in other parts of the Bible, we 
 trace the connection between the chernbim and 
 the tliundi-r.storm, in which God manifests liim- 
 self. There is the same fire of lightning running 
 to and fro, and the same roar as of rumbling 
 wheels. 
 
 Later Jewish speculation resulted in a change 
 in the conception. The cherubim ajipear in the 
 Book of Enoch, but not as the guardians of the 
 places of God's appearance upon the earth, but 
 of the hencen!;/ throne itself. They are higher 
 than the seraphim and tlie ophanim, are nearest 
 the throne, and are its sleepless watchers (Enoch 
 xiv. 11, 18, XX. 7. Ixi. 10 sq., Ixxi. G sq., cf. 
 xxxix. 12 sq.). In the Apocalypse this later 
 conception is again modified. The cherubim 
 [who in the authorized version misleadingly are 
 called herixis'] are four in number, each resembling 
 a different animal (iv. (i, 7); have six wings (iv. 
 8), like Isaiali's seraphim (Isa. vi. 2) ; are the 
 guardians (and give the seer invitation to ap- 
 proach, vi. 1, 3, 5, 7), not the bearers, of the 
 throne of God ; and are vocal (cf. Isa. vi. 3), not 
 silent; are, indeed, leaders of the unceasing 
 praises of heaven (Rev. iv. 8-10). A remarka- 
 ble variation from the old Hebraic idea is the 
 statement that one of tlie cherubim gave unto 
 the seven angels the seven golden vials full of 
 the wrath of God (xv. 7). 
 
 As the cherub-concept from the beginning 
 served substantially to set forth a lively notion of 
 the holiness, and particularly of the glory, of 
 God as the Creator, and as Employer, of all things 
 to show forth his majesty and power, so the 
 Christian Church, as fruit of the previous devel- 
 opment, holds fast to the notion that in the high- 
 est rank of heavenly creatures stand the angels, 
 who, in power to reflect, and eloquence to pro- 
 claim, tlie glory of God, transcend all others; 
 and from them eternally goes forth the wondrous 
 ascriptions of honor and power unto Him that sit- 
 teth upon the throne, and unto the Lamb, for ever 
 and ever. See Angel. FRANZ DELll'ZsciI. 
 
 CHEYNELL, Francis, Puritan theologian, b. at 
 Oxford, 1608; d. at Preston, Sussex, 1(305. He 
 was made a fellow of Merton College, Oxford, 
 in 1029. and took orders; sided with the parlia- 
 ment, 1640 ; was a member of the Westminster 
 Assembly of Divines, 1643; rector of I'etworth, 
 Sussex, and one of the delegation sent in Septem- 
 ber, 1646, to obtain tlie submission of Oxford to 
 parliament. In 1048 lie took forcible possession 
 
 of tlie Lady Margaret professorship of theology in 
 that univer.sity, and the i>residency of St. John'."* 
 College ; but he was quickly removed. He was 
 ejected from his rectory, 1062. He published 
 Jii.<e, Growth, tiiiil Dnnr;er of Snrininnlstn, London, 
 1643 (in which he accused Chillingworth, Laud, 
 and others, of Socinian leanings); and Chillinij- 
 irnrthi NovUsima, or Sickness, Heresy, Death, and 
 Burial of William Chiltinffworlh, London, 1644. 
 For his relations with Chillingworth, see title. 
 
 CHILDERMAS DAY. See Innocents' Day. 
 
 CHILI, The Republic of, established Feb. 16, 
 1817, and numbered 1,(138,861 inhabitants in 1869, 
 most of whom were of pure Spanish descent. The 
 number of independent Indians, the so-called 
 Araucani<ans, is estimated at seventy thousand. 
 The religion of the State is Roman Catholic, 
 though the public worship of other denominations 
 is tacitly allowed. The president of the republic, 
 however, appoints the bishops; and no papal bull 
 or episcopal letter can be published in the coun- 
 try without his placet. At the head of the Church 
 stands the Archbishop of Santiago, with three 
 suffragans, — of La Serena, or Coquinibo, Con- 
 cepcion, and Ancud, or Chiloe. The number of 
 priests is insufficient, but there are no means to 
 provide for any more. The Church of Chili was 
 never rich ; and after the separation from Spain, 
 the State seized all the estates of the Church, 
 and also the tithes. As compensation, the State 
 assumed the duty to pay the clergy, but is not 
 always able to fulfil it. There are two theo- 
 logical seminaries, and a theological faculty at 
 the University of Santiago. Twenty missionary 
 stations, kept by the Capuchins, Franciscans, 
 and Jesuits, and supported by the State, are 
 laboring among the Indians. Some of the 
 monasteries had their property re.stored to them 
 in 18.30, on the condition that they should estab- 
 lish free schools for poor people. In Valparaiso 
 the foreigners — Englishmen, Americans, and 
 Germans — form two small Protestant congrega- 
 tions. In the southern provinces of Valdivia and 
 Llanquihue the German settlers have an evan- 
 gelical minister residing at Puerto-Montt. An- 
 other evangelical congregation was afterwards 
 formed at Asorno. 
 
 CHILIASM. See Millennium, Millenarian- 
 
 ISM. 
 
 CHILLINGWORTH, William, b. at Oxford, 
 
 October, 1002; d. at Chichester, Jan. 30 (?) 
 1044. He was made a fellow of Trinity College, 
 Oxford, 1628; and was converted to Komanisni 
 by the Jesuit, John Piercy, alias John Fisher, 
 who, with others of the Society of Jesus, was at 
 that time particularly active among the talented 
 young men of the universities and the gentry, 
 and succes.sful in proselyting. The marriage 
 of Charles I. with Henrietta Maria of France 
 (1625) had deepened the interest in the question 
 as to the probable ecclesiastical fate of the coun- 
 try, and Rome did her best to bring the nation 
 over to her side. Chillingworth was persuaded 
 to go to Douay ; but his godfather. Laud, then 
 Bishop of London, put the Protestant side so 
 forcibly to liim, that he determined to leave 
 Douay, return to Oxford, and investigate the 
 question de iioro. The result of his investiga- 
 tions was his hearty acceptance of Protestant 
 teaching. A controversy had sprung up between
 
 CHILLINGWORTH. 
 
 444 
 
 CHINA. 
 
 Dr. Christopher Potter, Provost of Queen's Col- 
 lege, Oxford, and Mattluas Wilson, alias Edward 
 Knott. Tho latter had published, in I60O, the 
 little treatise, Chariti/ Mistaken; and to it Dr. 
 Potter replied in 1633. Wilson replied to him, 
 iu Mercy and Truth, 1631. Chillingworth took a 
 deep interest in the discussion, carefully studied 
 the question, and replied to AV'ilson, in the famous 
 The Jielii/ion of l-'rotcstants a Safe. Watj tit Salra- 
 tion, 1637, 1638, — a work yet read and prized as a 
 consummate argument. In its day it was widely 
 circulated: two editions were sold within five 
 months of publication. It is a vindication of 
 Protestantism, and of the author's return to it, 
 and proclaims tliat " the Bible, the whole Bible, 
 and nothing but the Bible, is tlie religion of 
 Protestants," and that no church of one denomi- 
 nation is infallible. In the preface, however, 
 Chillingworth seems to grant practical infalli- 
 bility in teaching to the Church of England ; 
 and this position is all the more strange because 
 it is notorious, that in 1635, while busy with his 
 book, he had said that he could not conscien- 
 tiously subscribe to the Thirty-nine Articles, and 
 considered that the damning clauses in tiie 
 Athanasian Creed were " most false, and also, in 
 » higli degree, schismatical and presumptuous." 
 Indeed, previous to its publication. Laud, then 
 Archbishop of Canterbury, had the book exam- 
 ined by the Vice-Chancellor of Oxford and two 
 professors of divinity, because ''the young man 
 had given cause why a more watchful eye should 
 be held over him and his writings." But, now 
 that Cliilling"worth had expressed his unqualified 
 assent to the Church, he was willing and able to 
 accept the preferment he had previously refused ; 
 and so in 1638 he took the chancellorship of the 
 church of Sarum, witli the prebend of Brixworth 
 in NorthamptoM.shire annexed to it. While an 
 advocate of rclijious, he had no idea of rivil, 
 liberty; for he wrote (1642) an unpublished 
 treati.se on the Unlawfulness if lii'sislinij the Law- 
 ful Prince, althouijJi most Imjjimis, Ti/rannical, anil 
 Idolatrous. In the civil war he of course followed 
 the royalists; was in Charles's camp at the siege 
 of Gloucester (August, 1643), and brought his 
 classical knowledge to bear upon the construction 
 of machines, like the Roman testuilines cum 
 pluteis, wliieh ran upon cart-wheels, and luid a 
 mu.sket-proof covering to conceal the assailants, 
 who shot through holes: tliey were further pro- 
 vided with a projiiclion whicli would rest on the 
 breastvvork.s, and so form a bridge over the ditch 
 into tho city. Jn DeciMuber, 1613, he was taken 
 tirisoner at Arundel Castle, when laid up by 
 illness; and in January, 1611, he w.as conveyed 
 to tlie bishop's palace at Chichester, where he 
 died. A strange scene occurred at liis funeral. 
 Francis Cheyuell (see title), tliat eccentric but 
 devout Puritan, who hapjiened lo be in tlie town, 
 had treated liini with tli(( utmost kindness, 
 Bocured him tlie lodgings in tlio jialace, nursed 
 him, and vigorously defended his reputation, 
 but, by his further elTorts to convert liiin, is said 
 to have shortened his days: and at the funeral 
 he outraged all decency by dinging a copy of the 
 lielii/ion of I'rnleslnnts into the iijien grave, ex- 
 chiiming, " Get thee gone, tiiou cursed book I go 
 rot with thine author." lie afterwards i>ubliKhed 
 his ChtlUnijworthi Novisaima, 1011. Chilling- 
 
 worth was estimable for piety, modesty, and 
 learning, for genius, acutene.ss, and enthusiasm. 
 " He was the best reasoner, and the most acute 
 logician, of liis age." Tlie charge of .Socinianisni 
 was brought against him by Cheynell and others ; 
 but, as Tillotson sadly explains, iu that day every 
 one that ottered to give a reasonable account of 
 his faith, and to establisli religion upon rational 
 principles, was presently branded for a Socinian. 
 Besides his great work, Chillingworth wrote 
 many treatises of much, though, iu comparison, 
 minor value. The best edition of liis Works: 
 reprint of the .tenth folio edition of 1742, contain- 
 ing life by Dr. Biich, Oxford, 1838, 3 vols. 8vo; 
 American r<q)rint, Phila., 1840. See Dks Mai- 
 ZK.\ux : Historical anil Critical Account of tlie Life 
 and Wrilinijs of \V. Chillinijirorth, London, 1725. 
 
 CHINA, Christian Missions in. The knowl- 
 edge that so populous an empire was ignorant of 
 the gospel of Christ was an incentive to his fol- 
 lowers in early times to preach it to the t'liiiiese; 
 and about A.D. 505 the Nestorians had missions 
 among them. Very little authentic information, 
 however, concerning the extent and thoroughness 
 of their work, has been preserved. Not a single 
 fragment of their religious literature in Chinese 
 has been discovered, nor any portion of the 
 Bible; no legend or ruins of an ancient church 
 remain to bear witness of their work. The only 
 certain relic left is a stone tablet dated A.D. 781, 
 still standing in Si-ngan, the ancient capital of 
 China. Its author was Liu Siii-yen, a court-coun- 
 cillor; and it records the establLi^linientof the Kinij 
 Kiao, or llhistriouB Religion, in that city, with the 
 consent of the Kmperor Kien-chung. Xestorian 
 churches are mentioned by travellers as late as 
 the fourteenth century ; but their e.xtiuotion leads 
 to the sad conclusion, that, like the church at 
 Sardis, they were all dead, while they had a name 
 to live. Shut off from constant intercourse with 
 Western Asia, dependent on a native ministry 
 alone for their pastors, and these having no Chi- 
 nese version of the Scriptures to guide and ani- 
 mate them, it is not surprising that ritualism, 
 ignorance, poverty, and dissensions, gradually 
 destroyed their life and coiitiiuiity. 
 
 The Roman-Catholic Chuich took up the mis- 
 sionary work a little while before the IS'estorians 
 had ontindy quitted it; and Nicholas IV. sent 
 John de Monte Corvino, who reached Peking iu 
 1292, while Knblai khan was living. He labored 
 alone eleven years; when Clement V. made him 
 archbishop, on hearing of his zeal ;ind success, 
 and .sent him .seven assistants. He translated 
 the Psalms and New Testament into Rhuigolian ; 
 and at his death, in 1328, lii^ "had convcrteil more 
 than thirty thousand infidels.'' At this distance 
 of time it is impossible to ascertain what these 
 conversions really amounted to. But the seed 
 sown seems to have been like that which fell iu 
 stony ground ; for after the exinilsion of the 
 Mongol rulers from CliiiKi in 1361), nothing sur- 
 vived of these numerous churches or their bisli- 
 op.s. .lolin of Florence, one of tho Pope's nuncio.s 
 to China, returned to Europe in 13.'>3, after an 
 absence of twelve years. 
 
 The next atU'inpt was made by Xavier in 1552, 
 but li(! dii'd just at landing; and China remained 
 till 1580 without a Christian teacher. Matthew 
 Ricci and Michael Ruggiero were tliea desiguat-
 
 CHINA. 
 
 445 
 
 CHINA. 
 
 ed by Va]ig:nani, and entered upon their work 
 with zeal and tact. The details of their efforts, 
 disappointments, and successes dnrinsj the next 
 thirty years, until they and their colleagues were 
 settled in I'ekiiifj, Nanking, and other cities, are 
 fully given by Ablie Hue. It is a record of un- 
 ceasing labors, and skilful uses of means an<l 
 men calculated to promote their puipose. At 
 Ricci's death, in 1(110, he was at the head of a 
 large body of coadjutors, scattered in many cities 
 between the capital and Canton, who were gath- 
 ering churches among the people, and propagat- 
 ing their tenets among all ranks. His body was 
 buried in a plat of ground west of the city, given 
 for the purpose by the Emperor Waulih, where, 
 with those of many of his successors, it still 
 remains to draw the homage of visitors and be- 
 lievers. His work has been minutely detailed by 
 admiring friends. They have given its modus 
 '(ipcranrli in the full belief that its results proved 
 its purity and power; and some of them contin- 
 ued it on the same principles : while, on the other 
 hand, his conduct has called forth criticism from 
 his own church, and Protestants, according to 
 their differing views taken of mission-work. 
 
 His mantle fell on Longobardi, who exhibited 
 great jirudence in the trying times of disorder 
 and opposition while the Ming dynasty was has- 
 tening to its downfall. The growing faith was 
 then ujiheld by the co-operation of its native 
 adiierents, among whom Paul Sii and his daugh- 
 ter Candida shine forth during many years of 
 charitable and consistent efforts among their 
 countrymen. She built thirty-nine churches in 
 different provinces, printed a hundred and thirty 
 Christian books, established foundling and other 
 hospitals, and was regarded with such considera- 
 tion, that the emperor conferred on her the title 
 of "virtuous woman." 
 
 Other societies also entered the field. Francis- 
 can and Dominican priests began their labors at 
 various points; and, as their system of operations 
 was unlike that o( the Jesuits, differences arose 
 which tended to further separate them. Ricoi 
 was disposed to gloss over the idolatry involved 
 in tlie Chinese worship of ancestors by allowing 
 its practice with mental reservations; and the 
 worship of Confucius was so described, that no 
 one needed to regai'd it as otherwise than the 
 veneration due to a great sage and legislator. 
 , The imperial state worship on the altars of 
 Heaven and Earth in Peking was also divested 
 of its idolatrous principle, and resolved into a 
 state craft that possessed no religion at all. The 
 advocates on each side took their discussions to 
 Rome, and each obtained a bull in their favor, 
 thus providing themselves with the strongest 
 proof of their orthodoxy they could desire. In 
 1699 the Jesuits appealed to the Emperor Kanghi 
 to decide between them, stating the pith of their 
 own belief in such a manner that he could not 
 fail to coincide with it. He assured them that 
 "lien means the true God, and that the customs 
 of ('hina are political." 
 
 Soon alter Longobardi became superior-general, 
 disorders arose in the ill-governed empire ; and 
 many among the converts desired to free them- 
 selves from their allegiance to their rulers. He 
 was aided in his efforts in maintain a discreet 
 neutrality by Adam Schaal, whose science and 
 
 skill had become well known, and who.se influ- 
 ence reached to the farthest province. When 
 the Manchus posse.s.sed themselves of Peking in 
 1()44, Schaal and his colleagues made friends 
 with their chiefs during the reign of Shunchi; 
 but during the minority of his son, in lOOo, a 
 strong opposition developed at court, and its 
 leaders succeeded in banishing, degrading, and 
 imprisoning them and their adherents in the 
 capital and provinces. Schaal died of grief : and 
 dangers thickened over the heads of his coadju- 
 tors, who were beaten, imprisoned, and ordered 
 to leave the country ; so that their enemies looked 
 for a speedy triumph, when an earthquake at 
 Peking delivered the missionaries by terrifying 
 their adversaries. On the majority of Kanghi, 
 in 1()71, they were gradually restored to their 
 positions, and Verbiest took the place of Schaal 
 in imperial favor. 
 
 During his reign of sixty years, the extension 
 of tlie missions throughout the Chinese Empire 
 suffered little real reverse : churches, schools, and 
 other religious establishments, multiplied in the 
 provinces; so that it is a cause for wonder that 
 the Romish Church did not become dominant 
 among the people. No exact data are given of 
 its condition ; but we are told, that when at 
 Kanghi's death, in 1722, an edict was issued for 
 the suppression of the faith, " more than three 
 hundred churches were destroyed or suppressed, 
 and three hundi'ed thousand Christians aban- 
 doned to the fury of the heathen." The dissen- 
 sions which arose during the last fifteen years of 
 his reign, about the right of the Pope to direct 
 the worship of his subjects, had aroused a spirit 
 of suspicion among native officials ; and he began 
 to restrain the freedom of propagating Christi- 
 anity while employing the missionaries in state 
 duties. His son Yungching was sustained in his 
 repressive policy by the officers in the capital 
 and provinces ; so that when he died in 1735, 
 the cause had suffered severe losses. Its noble 
 army of martyrs had also greatly increased; and 
 the record of their constancy, patience, and fideli- 
 ty, even unto death, does honor to their profes- 
 sion. Their foreign teachers also suffered with 
 them, and many sealed their ministrations with 
 their blood. It is not possible here to describe 
 in detail how the great expectations entertained 
 of the prosperity and final triumph of the faith 
 were gradually destroyed by the dispersion of 
 the native clergy, the want of foreign teachers, 
 and the opposition of the educated class to a 
 heretical religion, until the fires of persecution 
 languished and died for want of fuel, towards 
 the end of the century. Between the years 1768 
 and 1820 the disturbed state of Europe crippled 
 the resources of missionary bodies, and few of 
 their agents went to China. At the last date an 
 estimate of the Roman-Catholic Church in China 
 gives 8 bishops and coadjutors, 2'i missionaries, 
 80 native priests, and 210,000 converts, as the 
 total communion. Since then it has steadily 
 increased ; so that in 1806 the report enumerate,s 
 20 bishops, 8 coadjutors, 233 missionaries, 237 
 native priests, 12 colleges with 331 students, and 
 400,000 converts : 54 boys' and 114 girls" schools 
 were opened in the province of Szechuen alone. 
 
 In 1844 Louis Philippe sent M. Lagrene as 
 Freucli envoy to China ; and, after the latter had
 
 CHINA. 
 
 446 
 
 CHINA. 
 
 si^ed the treaty of Whampoa, he obtained from 
 the Chinese plenipotentiary, in reply to a memo- 
 rial sent to court, an imperial rescript, which 
 granted toleration to these long-persecuted native 
 converts, and placed them on a higher ground 
 than ever before. Fourteen years after, an ex- 
 press article in each of the four treaties negotiated 
 at Tien-tsin gave the highest sanction to the ex- 
 ercise of Christianity in all its forms throughout 
 the empire. This was about tliree hundred years 
 after Xavier's death at St. John's Island, near 
 Macao. 
 
 Tlie character of the work of these earnest 
 laborers, if examined by the standard of the 
 word of God, W'ill be found to lack many vital 
 points, and goes far to explain whj' the existence 
 of sucli a number of Christians scattered through 
 the land has failed to elevate the morality and 
 intelligence of the natives. The greatest defi- 
 ciency in this system of evangelizing is with- 
 holding the Sacred Scriptures from the people. 
 This keeps the great salvation hidden away 
 under a mass of ritual ceremonies; and the per- 
 son of Christ is obscured by the worship of the 
 Virgin and numerous saints, whose pictures and 
 images too closely resemble the same thing in 
 Buddhist temples to be easily discriminated by 
 ignorant converts. The hierarchy which gov- 
 erned and guided these converts could therefore 
 teach for doctrines the commandments of men, 
 and control every part of their dioceses. If, 
 therefore, a struggle arose between the civil and 
 religious duties of the converts, their choice was 
 in favor of the new faith ; and the officers of the 
 Chinese Government naturally resorted to force, 
 oppression, and injustice, to maintain their power. 
 This struggle has already developed some in-ita- 
 tion and suspicion on the part of influential 
 scholars and liigh officers, and contains in it the 
 germs of serious troublfs in the future. 
 
 The results of over two hundred years of un- 
 opposed proselytism in China by Roman-Catholic 
 missionaries, as shown in the morals, learning, 
 enterjirise, and self-sustaining power of their 
 converts, are sufficient iiro(]fs, tliat without the 
 direct, continual instruction in the word of God, 
 no heathen nation can ever be elevated to become 
 a free and intelligent Christian people. Yet it is 
 likewise true, that the good effects of so many 
 years of careful labor are seen in many villages 
 and communities of peaceable, industrious, and 
 obedient believers attached to their worship. 
 These Chretiiinlcs are found in all the provinces ; 
 and their members are generally superior to their 
 pagan countrymen. 
 
 It was therefore, in the providence of God, a 
 preparation for the new relations into which the 
 ultra-Ciangetic nations were to be forced by Chris- 
 tian powers during this century, that the Protes- 
 tant cluin-hes in Europe and America were led 
 to cstalilish their missions in all of them as soon 
 as the way was opened. China was occ\ipied 
 first. Robert Morrison, the pioneer of Protestant 
 missions to all that region, was told by the officers 
 of the London Missionary .Society, at his departure 
 in iJiOT, that, after he had learned the Chinese 
 language, "ho might \\h\h: the honor of forming a 
 Chinese dictionary more compn-in iisive and cor- 
 rect than any preciMling one, or the still gri-ater 
 honor of translating the Sacred Scriptures into a 
 
 language spoken by a third part of the human 
 race." He earned both these honors, and pub- 
 lished the dictionary and translation before hia 
 return to England in 18'J4. The cordial recep- 
 tion extended to him by all classes — from King 
 George IV. to the cottagers in his home at 
 Newcastle — indicated the national sense of his 
 services. 
 
 The year of his death (1834) saw the winding- 
 up of the East India Company's establishment in 
 China, and the commencement of the new era. 
 During the jiast half-century the evangelizing 
 labors of both divisions of Christians have gone 
 on among the Chinese. The same toleration-acts 
 contained in the treaties now give each of them 
 access to all parts of the empire, and allow a 
 candid comparison of their modes of operation, 
 many of which, are, of course, alike; as schools, 
 tiieological seminaries, erection of chapels, or- 
 phanages, and churches, etc. 
 
 Protestant missions in China really date from 
 1844, when their agents first occupied the five 
 newly opened ports. The missionaries presently 
 procured chapels in convenient positions for the 
 daily preaching of the gospel, and thereby soon 
 became known to the common people in and 
 around the cities. Connected with the missions 
 was usually a hospital, where diseases and wounds 
 were attended to by a trained physician as far as 
 the means allowed ; and the crowd of patients 
 became also a company of auditors to hear the 
 message of salvation. The first institution of 
 this kind was opened at Canton in 1835, by Dr. 
 Peter Parker, and has since been imitated, with 
 uniform success, at about twenty other places. 
 The Canton hospital has received about seven 
 hundred and fifty thousand patients since it be- 
 gan ; and, like the others, its operations have 
 been aided by the donations of foreign residents 
 in China. 
 
 Printing-offices were also opened in three or 
 four central stations, and four or five fonts of 
 movable metallic types (each containing nearly 
 eight thousand sorts) cut and cast, with which 
 printing could be cheaply done. These types 
 have also furnished the natives with facilities for 
 issuing newspapers, thus incidentally starting 
 one of the powerful agencies of their education. 
 The printing-offices and foundries at Shanghai, 
 Hongkong, Canton, Foochow, and Peking, have 
 i.ssued millions of copies of works upon religion, 
 science, history, and geography, besides many 
 copies of the Bible in wliole or in part, nearly 
 all of which were written and translated by the 
 missionaries. Their cpiality, variety, and suita- 
 bleness vary greatly, of course ; but all t('n<l to 
 one point. — the ex|ilanation and enforcement oE 
 God's truth and works. In addition to purely 
 Chinese books, aliout three hundred others have 
 been printed at these olhces, — dictionaries, vocab- 
 ularies, phra.se-books, grammars, and numerous 
 .separate treatises of ,a more scientilic character, 
 besides periodical publications in the English as 
 well as Chinese languages. From all these 
 sources the natives have learned more, in thirty- 
 five years, .about God and their fellow-men, and 
 their duties to each, than they had previously 
 learned since they were a i)eople. 
 
 In schools and seminaries the Labors of Protes- 
 tant missiuus have kept pace with the means at
 
 CHINA. 
 
 447 
 
 CHORAZIN. 
 
 their command. Through thesR schools and the 
 public prcachiiiH', the missionuries liave aimed 
 more directly to carry out Christ's command: 
 "Teaching' them to observe all things whatsoever 
 I have comuKuided you." Calling in the aid of 
 native converts to supplement their own teachings, 
 it has been shown, as it was in apostolic times, that 
 no agency can take the place of the living voice 
 in arousing dull intellects, vivifying dead con- 
 sciences, and leading men to the cross of Clirist. 
 In a country where common schools are within 
 the reach and means of even the very poor, it is 
 not necessary to spend time and money in exten- 
 sive plans of education. The children of con- 
 verts, are, liowever, gathered under the care of 
 the Church, and parents thereby taught their new 
 responsibilities in training their offspring in the 
 nurture and admonition of the Lord. Chinese 
 education does not include girls in ordinary 
 cases; and the energies of the ladies who have in 
 recent years joined the missions are much directed 
 to the training of girls. 
 
 In no one respect is the difference between the 
 two bodies of missionaries no\T pursuing their 
 work in China more apparent to the mass of 
 people than in the oral preaching of the gospel. 
 The open door of the wayside chapel, where usu- 
 ally stands a foreign or native teacher to invite 
 the passers-by to enter, and hear the Word, is 
 known in the neighborhood or village as one of 
 the common tokens of their presence. Curiosity, 
 for a while, draws the residents and strangers to 
 fill the house. Out of the hundreds who hear 
 little or nmch, with more or less comprehension of 
 the truth, some are led to inquire more, and their 
 hearts become the honest ground where fruit 
 grows up to eternal life. But everybody at first 
 is aroused, and learns something of the foreigner 
 and his message. It is difficult for a stranger to 
 understand the utter ignorance of the great body 
 of natives of every thing pertaining to otlier 
 lands ; but a few years' chapel-preaching in a 
 town iias the result of removing much of this 
 ignorance and prejudice. The divine declaration, 
 " The entrance of thy words giveth light, it giveth 
 understanding unto the simple," is found to be 
 constantly verified. The erection of large and 
 expensive churclies at foreign expense has been 
 usually discouraged by Protestants. Such is not 
 tfie plan of the Romish missions. An imposing 
 edifice for the ceremonies of their Church l)y its 
 bishops and priests is erected, and thus becomes 
 a centre to attract and hold their converts, around 
 which they group their schools and seminaries, 
 and provide retreats for their missionaries. Some 
 of these establishments have grown to large 
 dimensions, and prepare hundreds of catechists 
 and native clergymen. 
 
 The growing power of the Christian Church 
 in China renders statistics of its condition at a 
 given time of comparatively little value. In 
 1879 the enlargement of Protestant missions was 
 pushed with vigor. Out of a total of 460 men 
 and women sent out by twenty-five societies from 
 the United States, Great Britain, and Germany, 
 about 280 wei-e ordained ministers and physicians, 
 distributed over 92 stations and 532 out-stations 
 in ten provinces, and aided in their work bv 93 
 native pastors anil 1,039 helpers. coljiortenrs, and 
 schoolmasters. They reported 1S,7U7 communi- 
 
 cants of botli sexes in their churches, and 6,227 
 
 children in day and boarding schools, for whose 
 education, and other religious objects, ?!»,.''>71 
 had been contributed by the Christians in 1876. 
 About 72.5 churches and chapels had been erected 
 up to that year; an<l 18 hospitals were opened, 
 where nearly 100,000 jiatients had been treated. 
 No satisfactory data of the myriad copies of Sa- 
 cred Scriptures, in whole or in part, and of tracts, 
 sold and distributed, can be obtained. The esti- 
 mates derived from these figures and statements, 
 showing the progress made in leavening the dor- 
 mant mind of China with religious, scientific, 
 and political truths, will be very imperfect if their 
 collateral results on the vast mass of people not 
 yet reached personally by foreigners is not also 
 considered. 
 
 These figures need only to be contrasted with 
 the condition of mission-work at Morrison's death, 
 in 1834, when two missionaries and four converts 
 formed the entire working-force in the empire, 
 to be assured that God's time for the fulfilment 
 of his ancient promise through Isaiah (xlix. 12), 
 " Lo these from the land of Sinim," has at last 
 fully come. s. WELLS WILLIAMS 
 
 (formerly Sec. of the U.S. Legation, IVIilng). 
 
 CHOIR, a body of men, or of boys, or of men 
 and boys, or of men and women, performing or 
 leading the song which forms part of the Chris- 
 tian service. There was a choir in the Jewish 
 temple : after the time of David it was at certain 
 occasions composed of no less than four thousand 
 singers. There w.as also a choir at the worship 
 of Bacchus, singing and dancing around his altar; 
 and this choir became the nucleus of the Greek 
 tragedy. Indeed, the choir seems to liave formed 
 part of all public religious worship. For ' choir," 
 as an architectural term, see Architecture, 
 Christian. 
 
 CHORA'ZIN, a city of Galilee, not mentioned 
 in the Old Testament, nor by Josephus, and only 
 twice in the New Testament (Matt. xi. 21; Luke 
 X. 13), where it is associated with Capernaum 
 and Bethsaida. The etymology of the name is 
 uncertain. Origen (Migne'sed. ii. p. 280) makes 
 it a Greek name, Xupa Zfi" ("district of Zin ") ; 
 but the manuscripts give XopaCiv, or XopaCciv, 
 which, if of Hebrew derivation, might mean 
 "woodland." Its identification is still a matter 
 of sharp controversy, along with that of Caper- 
 naum and Bethsaida. Ritter, who was never in 
 Palestine, puts Bethsaida at Klian Minyeh, Cho- 
 razin at Tabiga, and Capernaum at Tell Hum. 
 Some writers put Bethsaida at Tabiga, Caperna- 
 um at Tell Hilm, and Chorazin at Ker.azeh (two 
 miles north of Tell IlClin), without assigning 
 any place to Khan Minyeh. Robinson puts Ca- 
 pernaum at Khan Minyeh, Bethsaida (about two- 
 thirds of a mile farther north) at Tal'iga, and 
 Chor.azin (about a mile and a half north of Ta- 
 biga) at Tell Ilflm. In support of this theory we 
 have first of all the positive statement of Jerome 
 (Migne's ed., iv. p. 124), that these three places 
 were all of them, with Tiberias, on the shore of 
 the Lake of Gennesaret. Kerazeh is a good long 
 two miles away from the lake, and tlie remains 
 of buildings found there are not apparently very 
 ancient. The inhabitants of Chorazin, which, in 
 the time of Eusebius (^Oiiomasticon, Larsow and 
 Parthey's cd., p. 07-')), v.as already deserted, may
 
 CHOREPISCOPI. 
 
 448 
 
 CHRIST. 
 
 bave taken the old name along with them to the 
 new site ; as in the case of Sarepta hy the seaside. 
 whieli is now Surafend upon the hill, a mile and 
 a quarter off. We have also tha itinerary of 
 the German bishop. Willibald, who visited Pales- 
 tine about the middle of the eighth century, and, 
 in going up on the west side of the lake, went 
 from Tiberias, through Magdala, to Capernaum, 
 Hethsaida, and Chorazin (Toblkr's Descriptiunes 
 Terrcc Sacrw, 1874. p. 03). This order of places 
 is exactly that of Robinson. [For another view, 
 see Capeun'.\um.] koswell d. hitchcock. 
 
 CHOREPISCOPI, i.e., lit. "country bishops," 
 those who acted as bishops in distant rural dis- 
 tricts under the authority of .some city bishop. 
 They w-ero a class between bishops proper and 
 pre.sbyters, and appeared first in Asia Minor, 
 at the close of the third century, because there 
 and then the impossibility of careful oversight of 
 all the interests of large dioceses was first felt. 
 In the A\'est they are mentioned first in the fifth 
 century. They performed such episcopal duties 
 as the ordination of readers, exorcists, subdea- 
 cons, but only rarely of deacons or presbyters, and 
 never of bishops, confirmation in their own dis- 
 trict, and the granting of letters dimissory ; they 
 also assisted at the Lord's .Supper in the mother- 
 church in the city. One of the subsidiary yet 
 important uses to which the office coidd lie put 
 was to nialie a place for schismatical bishops who 
 had returned to tlie Church. In both parts of 
 the Cliurch they were common. But the office 
 declined and vanished. In the West its place 
 was taken by the archdeacons, although in France 
 and Germany the title was long given to an alto- 
 gether different office. In the East it continued 
 for a time among the schismatics. .\ modern 
 analogy is the English suft'ragan bishop. See 
 art. Chorcpiscopus, in Smith and Cheetham : 
 Did. Clir. An/it/, vol. i. pp. 'ioH-'d'K). 
 
 CHRISM (from Aviia/ira, " oil," or " unction "), the 
 consccrati'd oil, or mixture of oil and balsam, 
 which is used in the Greek and Koni:in Church 
 in the administration of baptism, confirmation, 
 and extreme miction, applied respectiv(>ly to the 
 crown of the head, the forehead, and the organs 
 of the five senses, the loins, and the feet. The 
 usage dates far back into the Christian Church. 
 'J'he earliest testimonies are, Ti;uTt;M.i.\N : De 
 Jinplixmn, c. 7; .St. CvruiAx: Epist. 70, c. 2; 
 Apost. Constil., VII. 4;5, § .J ; 41 § 1. The right 
 to consecrate chrism is, since the Co\mcil of 
 Toledo (398), an episcopal privilege in the \V'est- 
 ern Church : in the Eastern it is reserved for the 
 patri.irchs alone. 
 
 CHRISMAL. The word is applied to, (1) The 
 vessel cir llask which held the chrism, ("i) A 
 cloth I'm- cnviM'ing relics, (3) Chrisom, see below. 
 
 CHRISOM, the white cloth with which the 
 Roman prii'st covers tiie head of an infant after 
 the administration of baptism : hence tlie expres- 
 sion, a "chri.somed child." Before the inlroiluc- 
 tion of infant baptism, the cateehnmen received 
 a white lobe, cliri.iinitli.i : which word is also used 
 of the vessil in which tin; chrism was jireserved. 
 
 CHRIST JESUS. .See.Iiisis CiiitisT. 
 
 CHRIST, Monogram of. In tin' Koman cata- 
 combs is loiiuil a niiiiKigram of Cliiist, consisting 
 of the two first letters of his name, .X and I', 
 I ombined in various manneis, and .sometimes fur- 
 
 * .g^-F 
 
 ther adorned with an added Alpha and Omega; 
 which article see. By 
 Constantine this mono- 
 gram was a]iplied to 
 the military standards, 
 coins, etc. See l\Irs. .Iamkson and Lady East- 
 L.\KK : Nlalory of our Lord as exemplified in Worku 
 of Art. 2d ed.", London, 18(J5. 
 
 CHRIST, Offices of. See Jesus Christ, Of- 
 fices of. 
 
 CHRIST, Sinlessness of. .See Christology. 
 
 CHRIST, The Order of, was founded in 1317 
 by Dionysius, King of Portugal, under the name 
 of the Knights of Jesus Christ, and for the pur- 
 pose of defending Algarbia against the Moors. 
 In the beginning of the sixteenth century the 
 order had four hundred and fifty canonries, and 
 enormous revenues. In 1550 the grand-master- 
 ship was forever combined with the Portuguese 
 crown by Pope Julius III. In 1789 the order 
 was abolished, and its estates confiscated. Its 
 titles and insignia are now simply a token of 
 royal favor. 
 
 CHRIST, Pictures of. None of the evangel- 
 ists gives us the least hint with respect to the 
 personal appearance of Christ; and when after- 
 wards a tradition began to form, it was evidently 
 the product of incidental circumstances. The 
 persecuted Church of the first three centuries 
 liked to imagine Christ in his state of humilia- 
 tion, starting from the prophetic description of 
 the suffering Messiah in Ps. xxii. and Isa. Hi. ; 
 the victorious Church liked to imagine him in 
 his state of elevation, starting from the i\Ie.ssianic 
 jiictures in Ps. xlv. and the Song of Solomon. 
 The first formal description of the personal a]i- 
 pearance of Christ is found in a Latin letter, 
 which pretends to have been written by Publius 
 Lentulus, a contemporary of Pil.ate, and "presi- 
 dent of the people of Jerusalem" (there was 
 no such office), and sent to the Roman Senate. 
 Christ is here described as " a man of noble and 
 well-proportioned stature, with a face full of 
 kindness and 3-et firmness, so that the beholders 
 both love and fear him. His hair is wine-colored, 
 golden at the root, straight, lustreless, parted 
 down the middle of the crown, afbu- the fashion 
 of the Xa/.arenes [Xazarites?] ; his beard is full, 
 but short, forked, and hazel-colored ; and his 
 eyes are V)lne and brilliant. In reproof and 
 rebuke he is formidable ; in exhortation and 
 teaching, gentle and amiable. He has been never 
 seen to laugh, but oftentimes to weep." The 
 letter was first discovered in a manuscript copy 
 of tlie works of Anselm from the twelfth cen- 
 tury, and it is certainly not ohler than the fourth 
 century. Another description is found in the 
 works of John of Daimiscus, ICpisl. wi 'J'/ieoplt. 
 Imp. lie venf.raitdi.i Imat/., from the eiglith century; 
 and a third, in the Church History of Nicejihorus 
 I. '10, from the fourteenth century. Christ is 
 here representee! with long, waving, blond hair, 
 and pale olive complexion. Besides these tradi- 
 tions and formnl descrijilions may be mentioni'd 
 as mab'rials utilized by modern ai'tists in piidnre.s 
 of Christ, tlie two .so-called portiaits «! Christ, -- 
 that sent U) King Abgarns, and th;it imprinted 
 on the silken handkerohi<'f of Veronica. .See the 
 articli'S on .\ii<; Alt and Vkhonka. iModi'rn ]iic- 
 i lures of Christ show generally, either the iSalvalor
 
 CHRISTIAN. 
 
 449 
 
 CHRISTIAN CONNECTION. 
 
 type, witli its expression of calm serenity and 
 dignity, or the Ecce Homo type, with the crown 
 of tliorns mid tlie tears of suffering. 
 
 Lit. — J. B. (J.^ui'zow: De. oris cl corporis 
 Christi forma, etc., Hehnstedt, 1777; V. K. 
 .Iabi.onski: De orir/ine imaffinum C/in.<(/, Lugd., 
 Hatav., 1804 ; W. Gkim.m : Die Sage, vom 
 I'rsprunij tier Chrishtshiider, Berlin, IS-lPi; L. 
 (iiAicKSELiG : Chri.tlus-Arc/idologie, Prague, 18(5:!; 
 Mrs. Jameson and Lady Eastlake : T/n- Histari/ 
 of our Lord as exemplified in Works of Art (illus- 
 trated), London, 2d edition, 1805. 
 
 CHRISTIAN, Origin of the Name. The (".reek 
 .fpioridwif is <i tran.sliter.atiou of the Latin Vliristi- 
 anu.i, the nickname meaning " partisan of Christ," 
 given by the people of Antioch to the believers 
 in the new religion brought there bytho.se driven 
 from .Jerusalem by the persecution after Stephen's 
 death (.\cts xi. 19, 26). The name may have 
 been given in ridicule, for the Antiochians were 
 known for their scurrilous wit; hut the time had 
 come for naming, in some popular, intelligible 
 way, those who were in religion neither Gentiles 
 nor Jews. The name arose, probably, in the 
 mistake that Christ was a proper name ; never- 
 theless, it was tlie fittest, most honorable, possi- 
 ble : it expressed the distinguishing features of 
 the Christian religion. It is a Person, not a sys- 
 tem of ethics or of divinity ; it is a Life, not a 
 thought; it is, moreover, Christ, the Messiah, the 
 Son of God, whose partisans we are, not Jesus, 
 the Son of man, — a name common among the 
 .Tews. And it is striking, that whereas " Chris- 
 tian " is a term of respect all the world over, 
 "Jesuit" is just the opposite, even in Roman- 
 Catholic lands. See Conybeare and Howson's 
 Life of Paid, vol. I. chap. 4. The form of the 
 word is suggestive. (Bishop Lightfoot is in 
 the minority in denying the Greek form of this 
 Latin word. See his Com. on Philippians, p. 16, 
 n.) It is a combination of the two widespread 
 languages, Greek and Latin, reminding us that 
 Christianity desires not concealment, but pub- 
 licity, and prophesying that in all tongues the 
 name of Christ shall be heard. 
 
 CHRISTIAN COMMISSION, The United States, 
 one of the grandest fruits in history of combined 
 Christianity, patriotism, and philanthropy. It 
 was first proposed by Mr. Vincent Colyer of New 
 York, in a letter written Aug. 22, 18G1, to his 
 colleagues of the New- York Young Men's Chris- 
 tian Association Committee, and originated by a 
 call of the Young Men's Christian Association of 
 New York (Sept. 23, 1861) upon all similar asso- 
 ciations in the North, to unite in a convention to 
 consider the religious needs of the soldiers. The 
 idea was approved by the National Committee 
 of the Young Men's Christian Association of the 
 United States of America, who alone had the 
 authority to call the convention ; and on Oct. 28 
 an official call was issued, and the convention was 
 accordingly held in the rooms of tlie Young 
 Men's Cliristiau .\ssociation of New-York City on 
 Thursday and Frid.ay, Nov. M and 15, 1801. The 
 result of their deliberation was the organization 
 of a commission of twelve to take charge of the 
 wliole work, wliich reported to the Young Men's 
 C'liristian Association and the public, collected 
 money and contributions of various kinds, and 
 kept up the interest in the movement. The 
 30 — 1 
 
 amount of good done was of cour.se incalculable. 
 
 The Sanitary Commission looked after the bodies 
 of tlie soldiers; the Christian Commission, after 
 their souls ; but at the same time the bodily wants 
 were cared for, and the soldier's comfort was 
 much increased. The .soldiers knew there were 
 at home daily prayers on their behalf ; and on 
 the very battlefield God was invoked to bless the 
 right. The evils of camp-life were ameliorated ; 
 the wounded were tended, and given spiritual 
 comfort. Into a Christian's ear the dying told 
 his seci'et, or gave his last bequests. An aggres- 
 sive work for Christ was carried on amid all the 
 distractions of war. Bible.s, hymnals, tracts, re- 
 ligions newspapers and books, were distributed, 
 and personal work was done. Two special works 
 were taken up. The Commission was the medium 
 of speedy and safe communication between the 
 soldiers and sailors and their friends at home ; 
 and, besides, it circulated "Loan-Libraries" of 
 general literature through the army. The money 
 collected for this cause was, in the aggregate, 
 nearly $2,750,000; but counting in the gifts of 
 books, etc., and tlie value of the facilities gratui- 
 tously given, the official Annals of the United States 
 Christian Commission reckon the total amount as 
 !3!0,291,107.68 (p. 729). Of course these figures 
 do not tell the whole story ; but they show how 
 ready the Christian public was to give, to carry 
 on the work of the Commission. The final meet- 
 ing of the Christi.an Commission was held on 
 .Sunday evening, Feb. 11, 1806, in the hall of 
 the House of Repi'esentatives, Washington, D.C. 
 The leading men in this movement were the presi- 
 dent, Mr. George H. Stuart of Philadelphia, and 
 Dr. Nathan Bishop of New York. For a full 
 and very interesting account of the grand work, 
 see Lemuel Moss: Annals of the U. S. Christian 
 Commission. Phila., 1868. 
 
 CHRISTIAN CONNECTION, or CHRISTIANS 
 (often pronounced Christ-yans). The denomin.a- 
 tion is the resultant of three independent sece.s- 
 sion movements. The first was in 1793, in North 
 Carolina, when certain seceders from the Method- 
 ist-Episcopal Church called themselves " Repub- 
 lican Methodists," but, influenced chiefly by Rev. 
 J. O'Kelley, adopted the name of "Christians." 
 The second movement was in Vermont, in 180(1. 
 among the Baptists; and a church was organ- 
 ized at Lyndon. The third movement was in 
 Kentucky and Tennessee, among the Presbyte- 
 rians, in 1801 ; and the Springfield presbytery, 
 which proclaimed the principles of the denomi- 
 nation, was formed in 1804. But a union wa.s 
 quickly effected between these different organiza- 
 tions, inasmuch as the expulsive force was found 
 to be in each case the same, — the desire to be free 
 from the " bondage of creed." But although the 
 Bible is their only authoritative rule of faith ami 
 practice, yet the general characteristics of their 
 belief may be determined. They are antitrini- 
 tarians, yet call Christ a divine Saviour, and ac- 
 knowledge the Holy Spirit to be the power and 
 energy of God ; immersionists, yet open coin- 
 munionists of the widest kind, extending their 
 fellowship to Christians of every name. In 
 ecclesiastical polity they are congregational, but 
 have annual State conferences, and quadrennial 
 general conventions. At first their ministry was 
 not well educated ; but now the sect has several
 
 CHRISTIAN UNION CHURCHES. 450 
 
 CHRISTMAS. 
 
 institutions of learning, innludincf the Christian 
 Union CoUecje at Merom, Ind. They are distrib- 
 uted throughout tlie United States and Canada. 
 Their menil>ership in the United States is about 
 two hundred thousand. See the general histo- 
 ries of the different denominations in the United 
 States by Winebrenneu (1844), and by Bel- 
 CHKit (1855); also B.\ird : Religion in America 
 (18.30). 
 
 CHRISTIAN UNION CHURCHES OF THE 
 WEST. This body of Christians arose in the 
 West in lS(i3-64:. The official statement of their 
 principles is as follows : 1. The oneness of the 
 Church ; 2. Christ the only head ; 3. The Bible 
 the only rule of faith and practice ; 4. " Good 
 fruits" the only condition of membership; 5. The 
 repudiation of controversy ; 6. Each local church 
 self-governed; 7. No partisan politics preached. 
 They have no creed ; but they unite cordially 
 with organized Christian churches in supporting 
 such institutions as the American Bible and the 
 American Tract Society ; and their pulpits are 
 open to all denominations which they recognize 
 as sound. The body holds a general council every 
 four years, and each State a separate yearly coun- 
 cil. They claim to number about a hundred 
 thousand members. It seems to be a purely 
 ephemeral movement. See art. in supplemen- 
 tary volume to Appleton's Cydupcedia, pp. 803, 
 804. 
 
 CHRISTIANS OF ST. JOHN. Some Carmel- 
 ite missionaries laboring in the regions of Basrah 
 and Susa, in the middle of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury, met there with a body of Christians who 
 called themselves Nazarieans or Mend?eans, but 
 by the Mohammedans were called Sabinians. 
 They pretended to be the descendants of the dis- 
 ciples of John the Baptist, and to have been 
 driven away from the regions of the .Jordan by 
 the Mohammedans ; hence their name, " Chris- 
 tians of St. John," given to them by the mis- 
 sionaries. Their holy books are written in an 
 Aram^an dialect. One of them has been pub- 
 lished, with a Latin translation, Codex Nazareus, 
 by Matth. Norberg, London, 1S15-1C, 3 vols. See 
 Ignatius a Jesu : Narratio Orif/inis, llittmm, el 
 Errorium Clirixdniiorum S. Jnhannix, Home, l(i")2. 
 
 CHRISTIANS OF ST. THOMAS, or, as they 
 call themselves, T/ie Syrian Cliurck of Malar/ala; 
 a Christian sect living in the southern part of 
 the Malabar coast of India ; pretend to be the 
 descendants of the converts of the apostle Thomas 
 on his visit to India, but originated, probablv, 
 from some early Nestorian colony. In the sixth 
 century they were in regular communication with 
 the Nestorian Church of Western Asia; and, 
 though tliis connection was afterwards <listurbed, 
 their whole tradition rests on a Nestorian basis. 
 Wn.-n the l'.)rtuguese readied India, they found 
 the eliurch, numl>ering about sixteen tliousand 
 families, in a very poor condition, and under 
 their protectorate its very independence and 
 natural character were threatened. In 159.") tlie 
 Archbishop of Goa brought it in connection 
 with Home. The .lesuits came, and the conver- 
 sion began; but in l(i.'>3 most of the converts 
 again broke off from tlie llonian Church, and at 
 presi'ut one-half, comprising about ninety-seven 
 churi-lies, follow their old Syri.in riles, while 
 the rest confoniis to the Church of Uoiiie. I'hu 
 
 language of the liturgy is not the Malabar, but 
 the Syriac. See AV. Geumann : Die Kirche cler 
 Thomaschristen, Gutersloh, 1877. 
 
 CHRISTMAS, a Christian festival celebrated 
 on Dec. 25, in memory of the l)irth of Jesus 
 Christ. The English name Christinas, like the 
 Dutch Kersimisse. or Kerf7nis, is formed analogous 
 to such names as Candlemas, Michaelmas, etc. 
 In the Romanic languages the name is derived 
 from the Latin Natalis, Natnlilia, or Nalivilas, 
 Italian Natal, Spanish Nadal, or Aalividail. 
 French Noel. The German Weihnacht is a literal 
 translation of the Hebrew Cliaind-a. the name of 
 the Jewish festival of the dedication or purifica- 
 tion of the temple by Judas Maccaba-us. The 
 Scandinavian Juul, and the Anglo-Saxon Geol, 
 mean " wheel," and refer to the winter solstice. 
 
 When the festival of Christmas is fir-st spoken 
 of in the ancient Church (Clement of Alexan- 
 dria : Stromala, lib. I., cap. 21). it was celebrated 
 by the Eastern Church on Jan. tJ, under the name 
 of Epiphania, and by the Western Church on 
 Dec. 2.5, under the name of Akitali.i. This dis- 
 crepancy is easily accounted for, however, by the 
 circumstance that the gospel gives no date of 
 Christ's birth, but simply tells that it took place 
 during night. But the date of the Epiphania is 
 arbitrary, so far as it rests upon an inference of 
 merely allegorical import, — the first Adam was 
 born on the sixth day : consequently the second 
 Adam ought also to be born on a sixth day. — 
 and the festival itself had something allegorical 
 in its character. It was celebrated, not so much 
 in memory of the actual birth of Christ, as in 
 memory of the first manifestation of the divinity 
 of Christ ; the name E/>lpliania being the word 
 commonly used in the Greek language to denote 
 the manifestation of a god in human sha]ie. Later 
 on, however, from the beginning of the fourth 
 century, when the restless searchings of the nature 
 and person of Christ drave men's mind into many 
 singular errors, the Eastern Church began to feel 
 the importance of emphasizing the actual birth 
 of Christ by a separate festival distinct from the 
 Ejiiphania, with its somewhat v.ague historical 
 bearing; and from a sermon of Chry.sostom, de- 
 livered, it is believed, on Christmas Day, 380, it 
 appears that the Nalalis of the \\'estern Church 
 was rapidly though gradually adopted tlirougliout 
 the East. 
 
 What foundation tliere originally w.as for the 
 Roman date of Dec. 25 is difficult to decide. On 
 account of this date, some coniuM^l the Christian 
 festival of Christmas with the above-mentioned 
 Jewish feast, Clianidd ; and many features seem 
 tosjieak for such a relation between thi'ni. Others 
 connect it witli the Sitlurnaliii, or Jinimdlia, or 
 some, other Pagan Ucunaii feast; and here, too. the 
 single features are often strikingly re.semblant. 
 Others, again (Lightfoot, Jablonsliy, Munter), 
 inveigh against tlie date as arbitrary, and not in 
 harmony with the gos]iel narrative, etc. Never- 
 theless th(^ fact remains, that the wliole Western 
 Church unanimously agree<l upon liiis date, and 
 that the Ivistern Cliurch adojited it without nuich 
 contr.adiction ; whicli fact goes far to show tliat 
 the date cannot well havi! been a mere assump- 
 tion, but must liave liad some kind of tradition 
 to support it. 
 
 The dale once fixed, Christmas gradually be-
 
 CHRISTOLOGY. 
 
 451 
 
 CHRISTOLOGY. 
 
 came one of the three great annual festivals of 
 the CImvcli. The whole period from Nativity 
 to EpiphiUiy was consecrated, — Dec. '2(j as a me- 
 morial of the martyr Stephen; Dec. 27, of St. 
 John ; Dec. 28, of the Massacre of the Innocents, 
 etc. The four Sundays preceding Christnias were 
 incorporated with the cycle, under the title of 
 Advent, as a preparation for the festival. The 
 day itself was celebrated by three masses, — one 
 in the night, one at daybreak, and one in the 
 morning; and the costliest utensils and furni- 
 ture were used. During the middle ages the 
 celebration assumed, in accordance with the taste 
 of the time, quite a theatrical aspect. The man- 
 ger was shown, with the Virgin sitting beside it, 
 surrounded with chanting angels. The wi.se 
 men, the shepherds, Joseph, etc., were also rep- 
 resented ; and a complete Mystery was formed. 
 As a remnant of this symbolical representation 
 of biblical events which formerly found so much 
 favor both with the piiests and with their flocks, 
 it may be mentioned, that, in the third decade of 
 the present century, the custom was still kept up 
 of rocking a doll, in a cradle adorned with lights, 
 on the top of the spire of the Cathedral of Tii- 
 bingen at twelve o'clock Christmas night, while 
 a band of wind instruments blew the Hymn of 
 the Nativity. 
 
 No other Christian festival penetrated so deeply 
 into the household as Christmas, probably be- 
 cause its character is essentially joy. Such as it 
 appears in the household, however, many features 
 indicate that there were non-Christian elements 
 present in its origin. The use of lighted tapers 
 reminds forcibly of the Jewish festival of jiuri- 
 fication. The giving of presents was a Roman 
 custom. The Yule-tree and the Yule-log are rem- 
 nants of old Teutonic nature-worship. In the 
 household, also, the festival gradually sank down 
 into a mere revelry. In England an abbot of 
 misrule was chosen in every large household ; in 
 Scotland, an abbot of unreason ; and during the 
 term of the festival he was the master of the 
 house. By an act of Parliament this custom was 
 forbidden in 15.35; and in England, as everj'- 
 where, the Reformation brought in a kind of 
 refinement in the celebration of Christmas by 
 emphasizing its Christian elements, and exclud- 
 ing every feature which had not, or could not be 
 given, a religious character. Under the influence 
 of evangelical Christianity, Christmas has be- 
 come a children's feast, and the Roman-Catholic 
 Church has followed the example. The dissent- 
 ers of the Church of England, taking offence 
 at the coarse and un-Christian character which 
 the festival had retained from the middle ages, 
 abolished it altogether; but of late years the 
 celebration of Christmas in some form or other 
 has become well-nigh universal in England and 
 America. See Paul Cassel: Wcihmichten-Ur- 
 uprunr/, Braiiche und Aherglauhen, Berlin, 1861; 
 Chambers: Book of Ikii/s, Edinburgh, 1864; 
 Marbach : Die heilige Weihnachtszeit, Frankfort, 
 1365. 
 
 CHRISTOLOGY {TipiaToXoyia, from Xpwrrof and 
 f-oyoi, as "theology" is from iJrof and Aoj'of).! 
 
 ' Tlic length of this article nriees from the fact that it is a 
 complete tllou£;h condensed liisturical summary of all the 
 c<ttiiicctc'd topics; such as Apolliimriaiiisiu, Kutychianism, 
 Xcsturianism, Cbalcedoii, Muuoptiysitism, MonothclutisDl, 
 
 It embraces the doctrine of Christ's person ; while 
 soteriology is the doctrine of Christ's n'orl\ or 
 the doctrine of salvation. Some writers include 
 both the person and work under the term ; but 
 we confine it here to the former, although we 
 ailmit, of course, the iiise|)arable connection. 
 The word was used by the English divines in 
 the seventeenth century,- and has recently been 
 re-introduced from Germany. Christology is 
 based upon the life and testimony of Christ, as 
 represented historically in tLe uospels, and as 
 reflected doctrinally and experimentally in the 
 Acts and E])istles. It tre' 6S of the mystery of 
 the incarnation (in the wider sense of the term), 
 
 (1) the humanity, (2) the divinity, of our Lord, 
 and (3) their relation to each other in his one 
 person. This divine-human personality forms 
 the basis of his work, which is the redemption, 
 reconciliation, and re-union of men with God. 
 It is the central doctrine of Christianity (pre- 
 ceded by theology and anthropology, and followed 
 by pneumatology, soteriology, ecclesiology, and 
 eschatology). It was the one article of St. 
 Peter's creed, and it forms the heart of the Apos- 
 tles' Creed. The leading evangelical divines of 
 Europe and America come to agree more and 
 more in this estimate of its importance; and 
 the ever-increasing number of Lives of Christ 
 strengthens the christocentric character of mod- 
 ern theology. Yet care must be taken not to 
 emphasize the incarnation at the expense of the 
 equally important doctrines of the atonement by 
 Christ's death, and the regeneration by the Holy 
 Spirit. 
 
 I. The Biblical Christology embraces, (1) 
 The Messianic prophecies of the Old Testament; 
 
 (2) The christology of the New Testament, (a) 
 The testimony of Christ in the Gospels ; (i) The 
 christology of the apostles, — (aa) of James, (bb) 
 of Peter, (tr) of Paul (including that of the au- 
 thor of the Epistle to the Hebrews), (</</) of John 
 (including the Apocalypse). Christ is the heart 
 of the Scripture, and the key to its spiritual un- 
 derstanding. All revelations of God look to him 
 as the final revelation. 
 
 (1) The Old Testament is the preparation for 
 the New. The soul of the Old Testament is the 
 promise of the Messiah, wliich began in Paradise 
 with the protevangelium of the serpent-bruiser, 
 and culminated in the testimony of John the Bap- 
 tist, pointing to Jesus of Nazareth as the Lamb 
 of God, which taketh away the sin of the world. 
 See Messiah and BIessiaxic Prophecies, and 
 the literature quoted there. 
 
 Coramunicatio idiomatuin, Kenosis, Kcnoticists, etc. The 
 author has made some use (by permission) of his own articles 
 in McClintock and Strong's Cyclop. ^ III. 277--S5, and Smith 
 and Wace's Dictionary of Cttristian Biography, I. 489-495, 
 and of the third volume of his own Chm-ch IHntory ; but tlie 
 whole is reconstructed, adapted, and virtually a new article, 
 especially the exposition of the modern theoiies. 
 
 ' Dr. Thomas .Jackson (1595-1640) defined it correctly as 
 '* that part of divinity which displays the great mystery of 
 godliness, — God manifested in the human tiesh." .Tohn Owen 
 used the terra ; and Robert Fleming, jun., a Scotch divine (d. 
 1716) , wrote a Christology, in 3 vols.,^ London, 1705-1708. Some 
 French writers also use "it; although they have not paid much 
 attention to the doctrine, notwithstanding the sensation of 
 Renan's Life of Jvfum. Lichtenberger (A'ncyc/., III. 129) cor- 
 rectly defines it : " On comprend sous ce nom " [ChristologieJ 
 " I'ensemble des doctrines toucbant la personne de Jesus-Christ 
 dans ses rapports avec Dieu et avec i'bumanit^, telles qu'ellcs 
 sont contcnues dans le Noiiv. Test, et telles qu'eiles ont et6 
 developpccs dans le cours des siccles, au stin de rEglise chre. 
 tieune."
 
 CHRISTOLOGY. 
 
 452 
 
 CHRISTOLOGY. 
 
 (2) It is the unanimous teaching of the New- 
 Testament writings, that Christ combines in a 
 most real, thougii mysterious way, tlie double 
 character of a unique divine sonship and a unique 
 sinless manhood in one harmonious personality ; 
 and that by this very constitution of his person 
 lie is qualified to be the Lord and Saviour of the 
 human race, and the only Mediator between God 
 and man. He represents at once the nearest 
 approach which God can make to man, and the 
 nearest approach which nuxn can make to God. 
 The orthodox christology is an attempt to formu- 
 late this " mystery of godliness," and to guard 
 it against error ; but every age must grapple 
 anew with this problem of problems, and make 
 it alive, and fruitful for its own intellectual and 
 spiritual benefit. 
 
 Christ strongly asserts his humanity, and calls 
 himself about eighty times in the Gospels Ihe Son 
 of man; not a son of man among other descend- 
 ants of Adam, but (lie Son of man emphatically; 
 as the representative of the whole race; as the sec- 
 ond Adam, descended from heaven (comp. Rom. 
 V. and 1 Cor. xv.) ; as the ideal, the perfect, 
 the absolute man, the head of a new- race, the 
 King of Jews and Gentiles, the model man for 
 universal imitation. While putting himself on 
 a, par with us as man, he claims at the same time, 
 as the Son of man, superiority over all, and free- 
 dom from sin, and thus stands solitary and alone 
 as the one and only spotless human being in the 
 midst of a fallen race, as an oasis of living water 
 and fresh verdure, surrounded by a barren desert 
 of sand and stone. lie never fell out of harmony 
 with God and with himself: he alone needed no 
 repentance, no conversion, no regeneration, no 
 pardon. This sinle.ssness of Christ is the great 
 moral miracle of history which underlies all his 
 miraculous works, and explains tliem as natural 
 manifestations of his mir.aculous person. 
 
 On the otiier hand, Christ as emphatically as- 
 serts his divinity, and calls himself not simply a 
 .son of God among other chihlren of (iod by adop- 
 tion, but the Son of God above all others, in a 
 peculiar sense; the .Son by nature; the Son from 
 eternity; the Son who alone knows the Father, 
 ■who reveals the Father to us, who calls him, not 
 "our" Father (as we are directed to pray), but 
 "my" Fatlier. He is, as liis favorite disciple 
 calls him, the "only-begotten Son" (according 
 to some of the oldest manuscripts, "the only-be- 
 gotten God," i9f6f) ; or, as the Nieene tlieology 
 expresses it, "eternally begotten of the essence 
 (oiiaia) of tlie Father." lie is thus represented 
 to us by himself and his disciples as ,a divine- 
 liuman being, truly (iod and truly man in one 
 person ; and his words and acts and sufferings 
 have a corresponding character and elTect. Hence 
 lie |iuts forth claims which in the mouth of 
 every other man, no matter how wise and how 
 pooii, would sound like blasphemy or lunacy, but 
 which from his lips ai)pear as natural as the rays 
 of light emanaling from the sun, and which 
 commanil the. njspect even of unbeli<'vers, so far 
 as to jirevent any charge of pride and presump- 
 tion, lie re.pres<'nt.s himself constantly as being 
 sent from God, or as liaving come directly from 
 (iod, to teach this worhl wliat he liad not learned 
 from .any school or any book. He calls himself 
 the Light of the world, the Way, the Truth, 
 
 and the Life; he invites all men to come to him, 
 that they ni.ay find rest and peace; he claims the 
 power to forgive sins, and to raise the dead ; he 
 says, " I am the Resurrection and the Life," and 
 promises eternal life to every one that believeth 
 in him. Even in the moment of his deepest 
 humiliation, he proclaimed himself the King of 
 truth, and the Ruler and Judge of mankind. 
 His kingdom is to be co-extensive with the race, 
 and everlasting as eternity itself. And with this 
 consciousness he sent forth his disciples to pro- 
 claim the gospel of salvation to every creature, 
 forewarning them of persecution and martyrdom, 
 and promising no reward in this life, but pledg- 
 ing them his presence to the end of the world, 
 and a crown of glory in heaven. He co-ordi- 
 nates himself in the baptismal formula with the 
 eternal Father and the eternal Spirit, .and allows 
 himself to be worshipped by the sceptical Thonuas 
 as his " Lord "' and his " God." 
 
 This central truth of Christ's divine-liuman 
 person and work is set forth in the New-Testa- 
 ment writings, not as a logically-fornmlated 
 dogma, but as a living fact and glorious truth, 
 as an object of faith, a .source of comfort, and a 
 stimulus to a holy life, in humble imitation of his 
 perfect example. This is sufticient for all practi- 
 cal purposes. The simple narative of the Gos- 
 pels is far more powerful for the general benefit 
 of mankind than all the systems of theology. 
 But the mind of the Church must meditate, and 
 try to grasp this truth ; and the New Testament 
 itself furnishes ever new impulse and food for 
 theological speculation. The beginning of a 
 christology we find already in Paul and John. 
 
 Lit. • — See the works on the 'Thcologi/ of the 
 New Testament, by Sciimid, B.\uu, Van ()ostei{- 
 ZEE, Reuss, Weiss. Ullmann's Sinlcssness of 
 Christ; Schavf's Person of Christ ; Busiinell'.s 
 God in Christ, and Moral Character of Christ; 
 Gess : Christi I'eison itnd Werk nach Chrisli 
 Selbstzeiiijniss tuid den Zeurjnissen der Apostel, 
 2d ed., 1870-1870 ; Nosgen : Christiis der 
 Menschen- und Gottcssohn ; Beysciilag: Christulo- 
 i/ie des N. Test., ISOG ; Van Oostekzee : The 
 Ima//e of Christ as presented in Scripture, trans- 
 lated by JL J. Evans, Loud., 1874; R. RorilE : 
 rJoi/mal'ik; 1,87(1, vol. II. 81 sqq.; Douner: Christi. 
 GlaubcnsU-hre, ISSO, vol. H. 2.'J7 sqq. Dr. Dorner 
 sums up the New-Testament teaching concerning 
 Christ in the thesis : " In Christ has appeared the 
 perfect revelation of God, and at the same time 
 the perfection of humanity." 
 
 11. The Ante-Nicenk Christology (from 
 A.I). 100 to the Council of Nicoca, 325). The 
 ecclesiastical development of this fundamental 
 dogma started from I'eter's confession of the 
 Messiahshiii of Jesus (Matt. xvi. 18), and from 
 John's doctrine of the incarnate Logos (John 
 i, 11). It was stimulated by two opiiosite here- 
 sies, — EiiioNisiM and (iNosTicisM; the one essen- 
 tially .lewish. the other essentially heathen; the 
 one attirining the liumanity of Christ to the exclu- 
 sion of his divinity, the other running into the 
 opposite error by resolving his humanity into a 
 delusive show (A""?"!;, fiivranua) ; both .agreeing 
 in the denial of the incarnation, or the real and 
 abiding union of the divine and human in the 
 person of our Lonl. 
 
 Besides, there arose in tlio second .and third
 
 CHRISTOLOGY. 
 
 453 
 
 CHRISTOLOGY. 
 
 centuries two forms of Unkarianism or Monarchi- 
 anism. 
 
 (1) The Rationalistic or Dynamic Unitari- 
 anisiii — represented by the Alogiaxs, Tiikodo- 
 rus, AuTEMOx, anil Paul of Samosata — either 
 denied the divinity of Christ altogetlier, or re- 
 solved it into a mere power (ilwa/jir), altliough 
 they generally admitted his suiiernatiiral genera- 
 tion by tlie Holy Spirit. 
 
 (2) The Patripassian and Sahelliax Unita- 
 rianisni maintained the divinity of Christ, but 
 merged it into the essence of the Father, and so 
 denied the independent, pre-existent personality 
 of Christ. So Puaxeas, NoiiTus, Callistus 
 (Pope Calixlus I.), Ueryllus of Bostra, and 
 Sabellius. 
 
 In antagonism with these heresies, the Church 
 taught the full divinity of Christ {versus Ebinn- 
 ism and rationalistic Monarchianisin), his full 
 humanity {versus Gnosticism and Mauichjeism), 
 and his independent personality {versus Patri- 
 passianisni and Sabellianism). The dogma was 
 developed in close connection with the dogma of 
 the Trinity, which resulted, by logical necessity, 
 from the deity of Christ and the deity of the 
 Holy Spirit on the basis of the fundamental truth 
 of Monotheism. 
 
 The ante-Nicene Christology passed through 
 many obstructions, loose statements, uncertain 
 conjectures and speculations; but tlie instinct 
 and main current of the Churcli was steadily 
 towards the Nicene and Chalcedonian creed- 
 statements, especially if we look to tlie worship 
 and devotional lite as well as to theological litera- 
 ture. Christ was the object of worship, prayer, 
 and praise (which implies his deity) from the 
 very beginning, as we must infer from several 
 passages of the New Testament (John xx. 28; 
 Acts vii. 50, 60, ix. 14, 21 ; 1 Cor. i. 2 ; Phil. ii. 
 10; Heb. i. C ; 1 John v. 13-15; Rev. v. 0-13), 
 from the heathen testimony of Pliny the Younger 
 concerning the singing of hymns to Christ as 
 God ('• Carmen Chrislo quasi Deo dicere," Ep. x. 
 97), from the "Gloria in Excelsis," which was 
 the daily morning hymn of the Eastern Church 
 as early as the second century, from the " Ter- 
 sanctus," from the Hymn of Clement of Alexan- 
 dria to the divine Logos {Pwdarj. HI. 12), from 
 the statements of Origen {Contra Cels. VIH. 07), 
 Eusebius {Hist. Eccl. V. 28), and many other tes- 
 timonies. Christ was believed to be divine, and 
 adoreil as divine, before he was clearly taught to 
 be divine. Life preceded theology {•' Fides jirce- 
 ccdil inlellectum"). Many a martyr in those daj's 
 of persecution died for his faith in the divinity 
 of our Lord, with very imperfect knowledge of 
 this doctrine. It is unfair to make the Church 
 responsible for the speculative crudities, the 
 experimental and tentative statements, of some 
 ante-Nicene fathers, who believed more than they 
 could clearly express in words. In the first 
 efforts of the human mind to grapple with so 
 great a mystery, we must expect many mistakes 
 and inaccuracies. The ante-Nicene rules of 
 faith as we find them in the writings of Irengeus, 
 Origen, TertuUian, Cyprian, etc., are essentially 
 agreed among themselves and with the Apostles' 
 Creed, so called, as it appears, first in the fourth 
 century, especially at Rome and Aquileia. (See 
 RuKiNus, De Symbolo.) They all confess the 
 
 divine-human character of Christ as the chief 
 object of the Cliristian faith, but in the form 
 of facts, and in simple, popular style, not in the 
 form of doctrinal or logical statninent. The 
 Nicene Creed is inucli more exjilicit ami dogmat- 
 ic in consequence of the preceding contest with 
 heresy; but the substance of the faith is the 
 same in the Nicene and Apostles' Creeds. See 
 these ante-Nicene Rules of Faith in Sciiaff, 
 Creeds of Christendom, vol. II. 11-4.'). 
 
 In the Apostolic Fathers we find only simple 
 practical, biblical statements, and reminiscences 
 of apostolic j)reachiiig for the pnri'oses of edifica- 
 tion. Ignatius of Antioch does not hesitate to 
 call Christ God without qualification {Ad Ephes. 
 c. 18; 6 yap Qtb^ iifxtov 'lijoov^ o Xp., c. 7; iv napKi 
 ynio^cvor Ofof, comp. Ad. Rom. c. 0). Polycarp 
 calls him " the eternal Son of (Jod" {Ail. I'hil. c. 
 2, 8), and as.sociates him in his last prayer with 
 the Father and the Spirit {.Vlurl/jr. t'oli/c. c. 14). 
 
 The theological speculation on the person of 
 Christ began with Justin Martyr, and was carried 
 on by Clement of Alexandria and Origen. in the 
 East; by Irensus, Ilippolytus, and TertuUian, in 
 the West. 
 
 Justin Martyu (d. 100) takes up the Johan- 
 nean Logos idea, which proved a very fruitful 
 germ of theological speculation. It was prepared 
 by the Old-Testament personification of the word 
 and wisdom of God, assumed an idealistic shape 
 in Philo of Alexandria, and reached a realistic 
 completion in St. John. Following tlie siigge.s- 
 tion of the double meaning of the Greek Aojof 
 {ratio and oratio), Justin distinguislies in the 
 Logos two elements, — the immanent and the 
 transitive; the revelation of God ad intra, and 
 the revelation ad extra. He teaches tlie procession 
 of the Logos from the free will (not the essence) 
 of God by generation, without division or dimi- 
 nution of the divine substance. This begotten 
 Logos he conceives as a hypiostatical being, a 
 person distinct from the Father, and subordinate 
 to him. He co-ordinates God, the Son, and the 
 prophetic Spirit, as objects of Christian worship 
 {aefiofietia nal -pnoKVinv/jiti, Apol. I. 6). Peculiar is 
 his doctrine of the Myog aTTipfiariKor:, the seminal 
 Logos, or the Word disseminated among men, 
 i.e., Christ before the incarnation, who scattered 
 elements of truth and virtue among the heathen 
 philosophers and poets, although they did not 
 know it. 
 
 Cle.mext of Alkxaxdiua (d. 220) sees in the 
 Logos the ultimate iirinciple of all existence 
 (without beginning, and timeless), the revealer 
 of the Father, the sum of all intelligence and 
 wisdom, the personal truth, the author of the 
 world, the source of light and life, the educator 
 of the race, who at last became man to make us 
 partakers of his divine nature. Like some other 
 ante-Nicene fathers (Justin Martyr, TertuUian, 
 and Origen), he conceived the outward appear- 
 ance of Christ's humanity in the state of humilia- 
 tion to have been literally without form or 
 comeliness (Isa. liii. 2, 3) ; but he made a distinc- 
 tion between two kinds of beauty, — the outward 
 beauty of the flesh, which soon fades away ; and 
 the moral beauty of the soul, which is perma- 
 nent, and shone even through the servant form 
 of our Lord {Pad. IIL c. 1). 
 
 Origen (d. 254) felt the wliole weight of the
 
 CHRISTOLOGY. 
 
 454 
 
 CHRISTOLOGY. 
 
 christolosjical problem, hut obscured it by foreicm 
 speculations, and prepared the way, both for the 
 Arian heresy and the Athanasian orthodoxy, 
 thougli more fully for the latter. On the one 
 hand he closely approaches the Nicene Homo- 
 ousion by bringing tlie Son into union with 
 the essence of the Father, and ascribing to him 
 the attribute of eternity. He is, properly, the 
 author of the !>vicene doctrine of eternal genera- 
 tion of the Son from the essence of the Father 
 (though he usually represents the generation as 
 an act of the irill of the Father). But on the 
 other hand he teaches subordinationism by call- 
 ing the Son simply God (Sfof), and a second God 
 (devTcpo^ Qi6(), but not the God (J> 6t6f, or niro- 
 Qfof). In his views on the humanity of Christ, 
 he approached the senii-linostic doketism, and 
 ascribed to the glorified body of Christ ubiquity 
 (in which he was followed by Gregory of Nyssa). 
 His enemies charged him with teaching a double 
 Christ (answering to the lower Jesus, and the 
 higher Soter of the Gnostics), and a merely tem- 
 porary validity of the body of the Redeemer. 
 As to the relation of the two natures in Christ, 
 he was the first to use the term " (iod-man " 
 (Qci'ivDpuTrni'), and to apply the favorite illustra- 
 tion of fire heating and penetrating the iron, 
 without altering its character. 
 
 The Western Churcli was not so fruitful in 
 speculation, but, upon the whole, sounder and 
 more self-consistent. The keynote was struck by 
 Irenasus (d. 202), who, tliongh of Eastern origin, 
 spent his active life in the south of Fr.ance. He 
 carries special weight as a pupil of Polycarp of 
 Smyrna, and through him a grand-pupil of St. 
 John, the inspired master (6 flroXoyof). He likewise 
 uses tlie terms " Logos " and " Son of God " in- 
 terchangeably, and concedes the distinction, made 
 also by the Valentinians, between the imcnnl 
 and the ittlereit word, in reference to man, but 
 conU'sts the application of it to God, who is 
 above all antitheses, absolutely simple and un- 
 changeable, and in whom before and after, think- 
 ing and speaking, coincide. He repudiates also 
 speculative or a priori attempts to explain the 
 derivation of the Son from the Father. This he 
 liolds to lie an incomprehensilile mystery. He is 
 content to define the actual distinction between 
 Fatlier and Son by saying that the former is God 
 revealing himself; the latter, God revealed. The 
 one is the ground of revelation : the other is the 
 actual, appearing revelation itself. Hence he 
 calls the Father "the invisible of the Son;" and 
 the Son. "the visible of the Father." He dis- 
 criminates most rigidly the conceptions of genera- 
 tion and of creation. The .Son, thougli begotten 
 of the Father, is still, like him, distinguished 
 from the created world as increate, — without 
 beginning, and eternal ; all plainly showing that 
 Ireiiaius is much nearer the Nicene dogma of the 
 essential identity of the Son with the Father 
 than Justin Martyr and tiifi Alexandrians. If, as 
 lie does in several passages, he still subordinates 
 tlie Sou to the Father, lie is certainly inconsis- 
 tent, and that for want of an accurate distinction 
 between the eternal Logos and the incarnate 
 (,'hrist. Fxpressions like " My Father is greater 
 than I," which apply only to the Christ of his- 
 tory, ill the state of huiuiliation, he refers also, 
 like Justin and Origeii, to tlie eternal Logos. On 
 
 the other hand he is charged with leaning in the 
 opposite direction, — towards the Sabellian and 
 Patripassian views, — but unjustly. Apart from 
 his frequent want of precision in expression, he 
 steers in general, with sure biblical and churchly 
 tact, equally clear of both extremes, and asserts 
 alike the essential unity and the eternal personal 
 distinction of the Father and the Son. The in- 
 carnation of the Logos he ably discusses, viewing 
 it both as a restoration and redemption from sin 
 and death, and as the completion of the revelation 
 of God and the creation of man. In the latter 
 view, as finisher, Christ is the perfect Son of 
 Man, in whom the lil:eness of man to God (the 
 simitiliiilo Dei), regarded as moral duty, in dis- 
 tinction from the imar/e of (Jod (ima(/o Dei) as an 
 essential property, becomes for the first time 
 fully real. According to this, the incarnation 
 would be grounded in the original plan of God 
 for the education of mankind, and independent 
 of the fall. It would have taken place even with- 
 out the fall, though in some other form. Yet 
 Irenieus does not expressly say this : specula- 
 tion on abstract possibilities was foreign to his 
 realistic cast of mind. He vindicates at length 
 the true and full liumanity of Christ against the 
 doketism of the (jnostic schools. Christ must be 
 man, like us, in body, soul, and spirit, though 
 without sin, if he would redeem us from sin, and 
 make us perfect. He is the second Adam, the 
 absolute, universal man, the prototype and sum- 
 ming-up (^avaiie<tiaAacuai(, recapilulatio) of the whole 
 race. Connected with this is the beautiful idea 
 of Irenseus (repeated by Hippolytus), that Christ 
 made the circuit of all the stages of human life 
 to redeem them all {AdtK Hcer. IL 22, § 4: omnes 
 venit per semel ipsuni sulrare . . . inj'iinles el par- 
 Bulos et pueros el juvenes et seninres, etc). To 
 carry this out he extended the life of Jesus to 
 fifty years, and supported it by a mistaken infer- 
 ence from the loose conjecture of the Jews (John 
 viii. 57), and by an appeal to tradition. He also 
 teaches a close union of the divinity and humanity 
 in Christ, in which the former is the active prin- 
 ciple, and the seat of personality, the latter the 
 passive and receptive principle. 
 
 Tertui.i.i.\.\" (about 22u) cannot escape the 
 charge of subordinationism. He bluntly calls the 
 Father the whole divine substance, and tlie Son a 
 part of it, illustrating their relation by the figures 
 of the fountain and the stream, the sun and the 
 beam. He would not h.ave two suns, he says; 
 but ho might call (Uiri.st God, as I'aul does in 
 Rom. ix. ••>. The sunbeam, too, in itself consid- 
 ered, may be called sun. but not the sun a beam. 
 .Sun and beam are two distinct things (species) in 
 one essence (sulislanliti),i\s God and th(; WonL 
 as the Father .and the Son. Rut we shoiilil not 
 take figurative language too strictly, and must 
 remember that Tertiillian was especially inter- 
 ested to distingnisli the Son from the Father, in 
 opposition to the I'alrijiassian I'raxeas. In other 
 respects he did tlie Chiiroh christology material 
 service. He ]iro]iounds a threefold liYI'ostatical 
 existence of the Son (Jilinlia): (1) The )ir('- 
 existi'iit, eternal immanence of the Son iu tin' 
 Fatlu'r, they being as inseparable as reason ;iud 
 word in man, who was created in the im.age of 
 God, and lience in a measure reflects liis being; 
 (2) The coraing-forth of tlie Son with the Father
 
 CHRISTOLOGY. 
 
 455 
 
 ')0 
 
 CHRISTOLOGY. 
 
 for the purpose of the creation ; (3) The mani- 
 festation of the Son in the world by tlie incar- 
 nation, lie advocates the entire yet sinless 
 luunanity of ('lirist, against both the doketistic 
 (inostics (,!'/(:. Mdrrinni'in, and Dc cnnie C/irixli) 
 and tlie I'atripassians {Ado. Praxecnn). lie ac- 
 cuses the former of making Christ, who is all 
 truth, a half lie, and, by the denial of his liesh, 
 I resolving all his work in the flesh into an empty 
 show. He urges against the latter that God the 
 Father is incapable of suffering and change. 
 
 CvpitiAN (d. '2oS) marks no progress in this or 
 any other doctrine, except that of the Catholic 
 unity and the episcopate. He was not so much 
 a theologian as an ecclesiastic, and a typical 
 Iligh-Churchman. 
 
 DioNYsius, 15ishop of Rome (262), came near- 
 est the Nicene view. He maintained distinctly, 
 in the controversy with Bionysius of Alexandria, 
 the unity of essence, and the threefold personal 
 distinction of Father, Son, and Spirit, in opposi- 
 tion to Sabellianism, tritheism, and subordina- 
 tionism. His view is embodied in a fragment 
 preserved bv Athanasius (De sent. DionysU, c. 4, 
 and Kouth Rcliiiic. s. HI. 384). 
 
 Lit. — On the ante-Nioene christology see 
 especially Dion. Petavius : De llieoloij. dorpnali- 
 hus, 1044 sqq. ; Boll : Defensio Fiilei Niccenw 
 de (Sterna d'winitate Fdii Dei (first ed. Oxf., 1685, 
 ed. Grabe, 1703); Edw. Burton: Testimonies of 
 the anIe-Nicene Fathers to the Diviniti/ of Christ 
 (2d ed. Oxf., 1829); Bauk: Die cliristl. Lehre 
 von der Dreicinirjheit und Menschtcerduiiif Gottes 
 in ihrer f/cschichtliehen Entwickiunri, Tubingen, 
 1841-43, 3 vols. (vol. 1 down to the Council of 
 Chalcedon) ; Uounek : Entwicklungsgeschiehte der 
 Lehre von der Person Christi, 2d ed., Stuttg. and 
 Berlin, 1845 and 1853, 2 vols., vol. I. pp. 122- 
 829 (Kng. trans, by W. L. Alexander and D. W. 
 Simon, Edinb., 1864, 5 vols.) ; Schwane : Dor/- 
 mengesch. der vornicdnischen ^Tc/V, Miinster, 18G2; 
 Fu. NiTzsCH : Dogmengeschichte, Berlin, 1870 
 (first part, the patristic period); Schafk : Hist, 
 of the Christ. Ch., first vol.; Hefele : Concilien- 
 geschichte, first vol. 2d ed. (Eng. trans, by W. R. 
 Clark and H. M. Oxenham, Edinb., 1871" sqq.). 
 
 HI. The Nicene christology (from 325 to 
 381) is the result of struggle with Ani.^NisM 
 and Semi-Arianism, which agitated the Eastern 
 Church for more than half a century. The Arian 
 heresy denied the strict deity of Christ (his co- 
 equality with tlie Father), and taught that he is 
 a subordinate divinity, dilferent in essence from 
 God (iTtpooiatoc) , pre-existing before the world, 
 yet not eternal (?;»' rrure ore oiia 5/k), himself a crea- 
 ture of the will of God out of nothing (Kriafia i^ 
 ova uvTov), who created this present world, and 
 became incarnate for our salvation. Semi-Arian- 
 ism held an untenable middle ground between 
 the Arian hetero-nusia and the orthodox homo-ousia, 
 or co-equality of the Son with the Father, and 
 asserted the homoi-ousia, or similariti; of essence, 
 which was a very elastic term, and might be con- 
 tracted into an Arian, or stretched into an ortho- 
 dox, sense, according to the general spirit and 
 tendency of the men who held it. 
 
 In opposition to these heresies, Athanasius of 
 Alexandria ("the father of orthodoxy." at one 
 time " un us versus mundum"), and the three Cap- 
 padocian bishops, — Basil, Gregory of Nazianzus, 
 
 and Gregory of Nyssa, — maintained and defended 
 with su|M'ri(n' ability, vigor, and perseverance, the 
 homo-ousia, i.e., the essential oneness of the Son 
 with the Father, or his eternal divinity, as the 
 corner-stone of the whole Christian system. 
 
 This doctrine trimnphed in the first (ecumeni- 
 cal council, convene<l by Constantine the (Jreat; 
 and, after a new and longer struggle, it was ri'- 
 iisserted in the second oecumenical council. It is 
 briefly and tersely laid down in the chief article 
 of the JCica?no-Constantinopolitan C'reed, which 
 has stood ever since like an immovable rock : — 
 
 " (We believe) ... in one Lord Jesus Christ, the 
 only-bcgottcu Son of Ooii, liegotten of tlie Father 
 before all worlds [God of God], Liglit of Light, Very 
 God of Very God, Begotten, nut iiiaile, licing of one 
 substance! witli tlie Father; liy wlioiii ;ill tilings were, 
 made; who for us men and for our salvation came 
 down from lieaven, and was incarnate by the Holy 
 Ghost of the Virgin Wary," etc. 
 
 Lit. — On the Nicene christology see, besides 
 the general works already quoted of Bi'll, Pet.\- 
 vius, Baur, Dorner, Hefele, etc., Mohler's 
 monograph on Athanasius (1844); J. II. New- 
 M.\x, on the yl nans of the Fourth Century (IS'^H 
 and 1854) ; Bishop Kaye, on the Council of 
 Niccea (18.53); Voigt : Die Lehre des Athanasius 
 (1861); and Dean Stanley's Lectures on the 
 Eastern Church (1802, lect. H.-VH.); also the 
 art. Arianism. 
 
 IV. The CliALCEDONiAN christology finds its 
 normal expression in the Chalcedonian statement 
 of 451. It was the answer of the Orthodox 
 Church to the heresies which related to the 
 proper constitution of Christ's theanthropic per- 
 sou. 
 
 These heresies are chiefly three ; viz., — 
 
 (1) Apollinarianism, a partial denial of the 
 humanity, as Arianism is of the eternal deity, 
 of Christ. Apollinaris the Younger of Laodicea 
 (d. 390), on the basis of the Platonic trichotomy, 
 ascribed to Christ a human body {oC.>iia) and ani- 
 mal soul (J>vx!i (iAoj'of), but not a human spirit or 
 reason (V'l'.W loymi], lov;, irviifia') ; he put the divine 
 Logos in the place of the rational soul, and thus 
 substituted a Ofoc CTopso^opof for a real ticiivepu~o;, 
 — a mixed middle being for a divine-human per- 
 son. From this error it follows, either that the 
 rational soul of man was not redeemed, or that it 
 needed no redemption. 
 
 (2) Nestorianism (from Nestorius, Patriarch 
 of Constantinople, d. in exile 440) admitted the 
 full deity and the full humanity of Christ, but 
 put them into loose mechanical conjunction, or 
 affinity (awitipeia) rather than a vital and personal 
 union (iuumj); and hence it objected to the un- 
 scriptural term " mother of Oml " (Sforoxof, Dei- 
 para}, as applied to the Virgin Mary, while will- 
 ing to call her '• mother of Christ " (XpiororoKOt). 
 
 (3) Eutychianism (from Eutyches, presbyter 
 at Constantinople, d. after 451) is the very 
 opposite of Nestorianism, and sacrificed the di.s- 
 tinction of the two natures in Christ to the unity 
 of the person, to such an extent as to make the 
 incarnation an absorption of the human nature 
 by the divine, or a deification of human nature, 
 even of the body : lience the Eutyehians thought 
 it proper to use the phrases " God is born," " God 
 suffered." " (Jod was crucified," "God died." 
 
 The third and fourth oecumenical councils
 
 CHRISTOLOGY. 
 
 456 
 
 CHRISTOLOaY. 
 
 (Ephesus, 431, and Chalcedon, 451) settled the 
 question of the precise relation of the two natures 
 in Christ's person, as the first and second (32u 
 and 3S1) liad decided tlie doctrine of his divinity. 
 The decree of the Council of Ephesus, under the 
 lead of tlie violent Cyril of Alexandria, was 
 niereh' negative, a condemnation of the error of 
 Nestorius, and leaned a little towards the oppo- 
 site error of Eutyches. This error triumphed 
 temporarily in the justly so-called " Robber 
 Synod " of Ephesus, in 449, under the lead of 
 Dioscurus of Alexandria, who inherited all the 
 bad, and none of the good, qualities of his prede- 
 cessor, Cyril But Dyophysitism re-acted; and 
 Uioscurus and Eutyches were condemned a few 
 years afterwards by the Council of Chalcedon. 
 This council gave a clear and full statement of 
 the orthodox christology as follows (see the 
 (Ireek and Latin text in Act v. in M.\Nsi'.s Con- 
 til. torn. vii. p. 115, and in Sch.vfk's Creeds of 
 Christendom, II. 62-64): — 
 
 " Following the holy Fathers, we all with one 
 consent teach men to confess one and the same Son, 
 our Lord Jesus Christ, the same perfect in Godhead 
 and also perfect in manhood; truly God and truly 
 man, of a reasonable [rational] soul and body: con- 
 substantial [co-equal] witli the Father according to 
 the Godhead, and consulistantial with us according 
 to the Manhood; in all things like unto us, without 
 .Min; begotten before all ages of the Father according 
 to the Godliead, and in tliese latter days for us and 
 for our salvation, born of the Virgin Mary, the 
 Mother of God, according to the Mahliood; oiie and 
 the same Cluist, Son, Lord, Only-begotten, to lie 
 acknowledged in two natures, incon/tisedlii, rindiaiii/c- 
 abl>/, iiidirisiblfj, inscparttblit ; the tlistinction of na- 
 tures being by no means taken away by the union, 
 but rather the property of each nature being pre- 
 served, and concurring in one Per.son ami one Sul)- 
 sistence, not parted or divided into two persons, but 
 one and tlie same Son, and onlj' begotten, God the 
 Word, the Lord Jesus Christ; as the proplii^s from 
 the beginning [have declared] concerning him, and 
 tlie Lord Jesus Christ himself has taught us, and the 
 Creed of the holy Fathers has handed down to us." 
 
 The same doctrine is set forth in a more con- 
 densed form in the second part of the ,Si/tid/ohiin 
 Quicunqnfl, or the falselj' so-called Athaniisian 
 Creed (see the Latin text, with notes, in Scn.\FF, 
 Creeds, etc., II. 66-71) : — 
 
 " Furthermore it is necessary to everlasting salva- 
 tion: that he also believe rightly [faithfully] the 
 Incarnation of our Lord .Te.sus Christ. For tlie right 
 Faith is, that he Ijelievo and confess: tliat our Lord 
 Jesus Christ, tlic Son of God, is God and Man; Goil, 
 of the Substance [Essence] of the P'atlicr; begotten 
 before the worlds; and Man, of the Sulwtance [Ks- 
 aonco] of his MoMier, born in the world. Perfect (iod 
 and perfect Man; of a reasonable soul and human 
 licsh sulisistinp; eriual to the Father, as touching his 
 Godhe.ad; and inferior to the Father as toucliiiig 
 Iiis Manhood. Who altliougli he is God and Man ; yet 
 lie is not two, Imt one Clirist. One; not by conver- 
 f\\ti\\ of tlie (rodhcad into iii-sh, but by assuniption of 
 fho Manhood into (iod. One altogetiicr: not by con- 
 fusion of Sulislanco [Essence], Imt liy unity of I'er- 
 Hon. For as tli<: reasonalile soul and flesh is one >ian ; 
 .so Goil and .Man is one (Christ; wlio snlTcfrcd for our 
 salvation; descended into Hell [Hades, sjiirit world], 
 rose again the third day from the dead," i:tc. 
 
 Lit. — ALvxsi: Ada Cone, torn. VII.; H.Mt- 
 i)t;iN: Cone, torn. III.; Oalla-VDI : BihI. /'. ]'. 
 lorn. XL; LiHKUATUS : JJrevl'.iritan cuusik IVcslo- 
 ritmnrumel Knh/rliianislarum; Aukndt: I'a/isl I.eo 
 df.r Grossr (1835); IlErKi.i; : Concilii'ni/cscUiclile, 
 vol. II. 302 stjfp ; .ilso Uauk, Dok.mji, Nirzscii, 
 
 already quoted. On the Athanasian Creed, see 
 the lit. iu Sciiaff's Creeds of Christendom, I. 
 34 sq. 
 
 V. The PosT-CnALCF,DOXi.\N christology. — 
 The Chalcedonian decision did not stop the contro- 
 versy, and called for a supplement.ary statement 
 concerning the two wills of Christ, corresponding 
 to the tu-o natures. 
 
 Eutychianism revived in the form of Monoph- 
 )/silism {iiovrj ^Sioif), or the doctrine that Christ 
 had but one composite nature (/^ia ^iVif oi'i'Sfrof, or 
 /ua di'aig dirri/). It makes the humanity of Christ . 
 a mere accident of the immutable divine sub- 
 stance. The liturgical shibboleth of the Jlonophy- 
 sites was " God has been crucified," which they 
 introduced into the Trisagiou (nyioc i Qfof uyiuc 
 vcxx'po^., uyioi; uOuvarog, & aravpuOdc^ ()l' 7/uuf, l?Jrioov 
 7//i(2f) : hence they are also called TheopascMtes 
 (Oeo-ctaxiTai). The tedious Monophysite contro- 
 versies convulsed the Eastern Church for more 
 than a hundred years, weakened its powei', and 
 facilitated the conquest of Mohammedanism. 
 
 The fifth cEcumenical council (held at Constan- 
 tinople 553) made a partial concession to the 
 Monophysites, but did not reconcile them. They 
 .separated, like their antipodes, the Nestorians, 
 from the orthodox (Jreek Church, and continue 
 to tills day under various names and organiza- 
 tions, — ^ the J;icobites in Syria, the Copts in Egypt, 
 the Abyssinians, and, the most important of 
 them, the Armenians. 
 
 Closely connected with Monophysitism was 
 MoNOTiiF.LETiSM Qwvov and OfAtifia), or the doc- 
 trine that Christ had but one will, as he had but 
 one person. The orthodox maintained that will 
 is an attribute of nature, rather than of person, 
 and consequently that Christ had tu-o wills, — a 
 human will and a divine will, — both working in 
 harmony. The Monothelite controversy lasted 
 from 033 to 680. The Emperor Ileraclius pro- 
 posed a compromise formula, — one divine-human 
 energy (fiia demdpin^ h/ipyeia') ; but it was opposed 
 in the West. 
 
 The sixth oecumenical council (held in Con- 
 stantinople, 68!) ; also called the Third Constanti- 
 nopolitan Council, or the Cone. Trullanum I.) 
 condemned the Monothelite heresy, and repeated 
 the Chalcedonian Creed, with the following sup- 
 plement concerning the two wills (Artie, xviii. in 
 Mansi'.s Cone, tom. XI. p. 637, and in Schakf's 
 Creeds, II. 72, 73) : — 
 
 "Anil we likewise preach two 7}nfin-al n-ith in him 
 rtjesus t'liristj, and liro nutund I'ln i-ations undivided, 
 ineonverlilih;, iiiseparalile, uiinii.xed, aeccirding to the 
 doctrine of tlie holy fathers; and the two natural 
 wills [arc] not contrary, far from it! (as the- impious 
 heretics assert), but his Iiuiiian will follows the divine 
 will, and is not n^sisting or reluctant, Imt rather suli- 
 ject to his divine and oiuiiipiiteiit vill. For it was 
 proper that the will of the tiesli sliould be moved, 
 but lie sulijeeted to the divine will, according to tho 
 wise Athanasius." 
 
 The samo council condemned Po]ie Iloiiorius 
 as a Monothelite heretic, and his successors con- 
 firmed it. This undeniable fact figured con- 
 siiicuously ill the Yatiean Council (1870) as an 
 niiaiiswer;ible argument tigaiiist jiajial infallibili- 
 ty, and was pressed liy Hishop Ilebde and other 
 learned members of the council, .aUhough they 
 afterwards submitted to an infallible modern
 
 CHRISTOLOGY. 
 
 451 
 
 CHRISTOLOGY. 
 
 pope and council versus infallible old popes and 
 councils. Moiiotheletism continued among the 
 Maronites on Mount Lebanon (who, however, 
 afterwards submitted to the Roman Church), as 
 well as among the Monopliysites, \Yho are all 
 iVIonothelites. 
 
 With the sixth oecumenical council closes the 
 development of the ancient Catholic christology. 
 The Ailoptioii controversy, which arose in Spain 
 and France towanl the close of tlio eightli cen- 
 tury, turned upon the question whetiier Christ as 
 man was the Son of God by nature Qinturalilrr), 
 or simply by adoption (itimcupatice). The Adop- 
 tionists maintained the latter, and shifted the 
 whole idea of sonship from the person to whom it 
 belongs to the nature. Their theory was a modi- 
 fication of the Nestorian error, and was condemned 
 in a synod at Frankfort-on-the-Maine, 791 ; but 
 it did not result in a positive addition to the 
 creed statements. 
 
 The scholastic theology of the middle ages 
 made no real progress in christology, and confined 
 itself to a dialectical analj'sis and defence of the 
 Chalcedonian dogma, with a one-sided reference to 
 the divine nature of Christ. John of Damascus 
 in the East, and Thomas Aquinas in the West, 
 were the ablest exponents of the Chalcedonian 
 dogma. The mediaeval Church almost forgot, 
 over the glorious divinity of our Lord, his real 
 humanity (except his passion), and substituted 
 for it virtually the worship of the Virgin Mary, 
 who seemed to appeal more tenderly and effec- 
 tively to all the human sensibilities and sympa- 
 thies of the heart than the exalted Saviour. 
 
 VI. An.^lysis op the Ecumenical Chris- 
 tology. —The following are the leading ideas 
 of the Chalcedonian or cecumenical christology, 
 as taught in common by the doctrinal standards 
 of the Greek, Latin, and Evangelical Protestant 
 Churches : — 
 
 1. A true incarnation of the Logos, i.e., the sec- 
 ond person in the Godhead (IvavDpuTrrimg Otov, haup- 
 liuaic Toil Ao-jov, incarnatio Verbi). This is an actual 
 assumption of the whole human natui-e — body, 
 soul, and spirit — into an abiding union with the 
 divine personality of the eternal Logos, so that 
 they constitute, from the moment of the super- 
 natural conception, one undivided life forever. 
 The incarnation is neither a conversion or trans- 
 mutation of God into man, nor a conversion of 
 man into God, and consequent absorption of the 
 one, nor a confusion (Kpuaig, aiiyxvaig) of the two. 
 On the other hand, it is not a mere indwelling 
 (evoinrjcii, inhahitatio) of the one in the other, nor 
 an outward, transitory connection (am'a<pcia, con- 
 junctio) of the two factors. 
 
 2. The distinction between nature and person. 
 Nature or substance (essence, ovala) denotes the 
 totality of powers and qualities which constitute 
 a being ; while person (^vTrdaTaaii;, Trpocuirov) is the 
 Ego, the self-con.scious, self-asserting, and acting 
 subject. The Logos assumed, not a human per- 
 son (else we should have two persons. — a divine 
 and a human), but human nature, which is com- 
 mon to us all; and hence he redeemed, not a 
 particular man, but all men. Yet no council has 
 denied the human personality of Christ. 
 
 3. The God-man (JimvdpuKog) as the result of 
 the incarnation. Christ is not a (Nestorian) 
 double being, with tico persons, uor a compound 
 
 (ApoUinarian, or Monophysite) middle being, a 
 terlinm rjuid, partly divine, and partly human; 
 but ho is one person, both wholly divine, and 
 wholly human. 
 
 4. The dualitij of the natures. The orthodox j 
 doctrine maintains, against Eutychianism, the ! 
 distinction of natures, even after the act of in- 
 carnation, without confusion or conversion (unvy- 
 XVTijg, inron/usf, and urpe'irruf, immntabiliter), yet, 
 on the other hand, without division or separation 
 {udioipiTuc,, inilii'ise, and uxupiarug, ijjseparabiliter); 
 so that the divine will ever remain divine, and 
 the human ever human; and yet the two have 
 continually one common life, and interpenetrate 
 each other, like the persons of the Trinity (Trepix<J- 
 priaii;). According to a familiar figure, the divine 
 nature pervades the human as the fire pervades 
 the iron. The two natures are complete, and 
 embrace every tiling which pertains to them 
 separately, even will (according to the anti-Mo- 
 nothelite decision). Christ has all the properties 
 which the Father has, except the property of 
 being unbegotten (the uyeivijaia^ ; and he has all 
 the properties which the first Adam had before 
 the fall : he has, therefore (according to John of 
 Damascus), two consciousnesses, and two physical 
 wills, or faculties of self-determination (nvrt^ov- 
 cia). This is the extreme border to which the 
 doctrine of two natures can be carried, without 
 an assertion of two full personalities; and it is 
 almost impossible to draw the line. 
 
 5. The unity of the person (Svuaic KaS' moaracnv, 
 Ivuaig vKoaTanKri, unio hi/postatica, or unio persona- 
 lis). The union of the divine and human nature 
 in Christ is a permanent state, resulting from 
 the incarnation, and is a real, supernatural, per- ; 
 sonal, and inseparable union, in distinction from i 
 an essential absorption or confusion, or from a 
 mere moral union, or from a mystical union, such 
 as holds between the believer and Christ. The 
 two natures constitute but one personal life, and 
 yet remain distinct. " The same who is true 
 God," says Pope Leo I. in his famous Epistle, 
 wdiich anticipated the decision of Clialcedon, "is 
 also true man; and in this unity there is no 
 deceit, for in it the lowliness of man and the 
 majesty of God perfectly piervade one another. 
 
 . . . Because the two natures make only one 
 person, we read, on the one hand, 'The Son of 
 7nan came down from heaven' (John iii. 13), 
 while yet the Son of God took flesh from the 
 Virgin ; and, on the other hand. ' The Son of 
 God was crucified and buried,' while yet he suf- 
 fered, not in his Godhead as co-eternal and con- 
 substantial with the Father, but in the weakness- 
 of human nature." 
 
 G. The whole work of Christ is to be attributed 
 to his per.son, and not to the one or the other 
 nature exclusively. The person is the acting 
 subject; the nature, the organ or medium. It is- 
 the one divine human person of Christ that 
 wrought miracles by virtue of his divine nature, 
 and that suffered through the sensorium of his 
 human nature. The superhuman effect and in- 
 finite merit of the Redeemer's work must be as- 
 cribed to his person, because of his divinity ; 
 while it is his humanity alone that made him 
 capable of, and liable to, temptation, sufl'ering, 
 and death, and renders him an example for our 
 imitation.
 
 CHRISTOLOGY. 
 
 458 
 
 CHRISTOLOGY. 
 
 7. The AnJij/posfaxia, or, more accurately, the 
 £nlii/postas!a (Impersonalili/) of the human nature 
 of Christ. The meaning is, that Christ's human 
 nature had no independent personality of its 
 •own, and that the divine nature is the root and 
 basis of his personality. His humanity was en- 
 hypostatized through union with the Logos, or 
 incorporated into his personality. The synod of 
 Chalcedon says nothing of this feature : it was an 
 after-thought developed by John of Damascus. 
 It seems inconsistent with the dyotheletic theory ; 
 for a being with consciousness and will has the 
 two essential elements of personality, while an im- 
 personal will seems to be a mere animal instinct. 
 
 8. Critical Estimate. The Chalcedonian chris- 
 tology is regarded by the Greek and Roman, and 
 the majority of the orthodox English and Ameri- 
 can divines, as the ne plus ultra of christological 
 knowledge attainable in this world. Dr. Shedd 
 (flislorif of Christ. Doctrine. I. 408) thinks it 
 probable that " the human mind is unable to go 
 beyond it in the endeavor to unfold the mystery 
 of Christ's complex person ; " and he therefore 
 serenely ignores all subsequent christological con- 
 troversies and speculations. Dr. Ilodge, in his 
 Systematic Theology, vol. 11. .397 sqq., notices and 
 criticises several of the more recent " erroneous 
 and heretical doctrines," as he calls them, but 
 abides in the Chalcedonian statement as adopted 
 by the scholastic Calvinists of the seventeenth 
 century. 
 
 On the other hand, the Chalcedonian chris- 
 tology has been subjected to a rigorous criticism 
 in Germany by evangelical as well as rationalis- 
 tic divines, — by Schleiermacher, Baur, Dorner, 
 I Kothe, and the modern Kenoticists. It is charged 
 with a defective psychology, and now with dual- 
 ism, now with doketism, according as its distinc- 
 tion of two natures, or the personal unity, is made 
 its most prominent feature. It oscillates between 
 two extremes, without truly reconciling them ; as 
 the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity stands be- 
 tween tritheism and modalisra, now leaning to the 
 •one, now to the other, when either the triperson- 
 <dity or the unity is emphasized. It assumes two 
 natures in one person : while the dogma of the 
 Trinity assumes three persons in one nature. It 
 teaches a complete hunuin n.ature with reason 
 aud will, and yet denies it personality. It does 
 not do justice to the genuine humanity of Christ 
 in the Gospels, and to all those passages which 
 assert its real growth. It overshadows th.; human 
 by the divine. It puts the final result at the 
 beginning, and ignores the intervening process. 
 If we read the gospel history, we find that Clirist 
 ■wasalielpless infant on his mother's breast, — and 
 therefore not onmipot ■iit till after the resurrec- 
 tion, wlien "all authority in lieaveu and on earth " 
 was riiiten unto him (^Iatt. xxviii. 18) ; ho grew 
 in wi.sdoni, and learned olx'dience (Luke ii. 40; 
 ileb. v. 8), and was ignorant of tlie day of judg- 
 ment (Mark xiii. '-VS), therefore not omniscient; 
 lie moved from place to i>laci', and was tlierefore 
 not omnipresent before liis ascension to heaven ; 
 he was destitute of his divine glory, which he 
 was to regain after his death (John xvii. 5). To 
 confine these limitations and imperfections to Iiis 
 human nature, while in his divine nature he was, 
 at one and the same lime, omnipotent, omniscient, 
 iiiid omnipresent, even in thv manger and on the 
 
 cross, is to destroy the personal unity of life, and 
 to make two Christs, or a double-he.aded Christ. 
 How can ignorance and omniscience simulta- 
 neously co-exist in one and the same mind ? How 
 can one and the same individual pervade and rule 
 the universe in the same moment in which he 
 exclaims, " My God. my God, why hast thou for- 
 saken me ? " Christ speaks and acts throughout 
 as one undivided Ego. We must, therefore, so 
 reconstruct or improve the Clialcedonian chris 
 tology as to conform it to the historical realness 
 of his humanity, to the full meaning of his own 
 sayings concerning himself, and to all the facts 
 of his life. This is now generally felt among 
 the evangelical divines in Germany, where cliris- 
 tological speculation has been most active since 
 the Reformation, and b3Miot a few in other conn- 
 tries. If any thing has resulted from the multi- 
 tude of Lives of Christ, written by learned and 
 able men in this nineteenth century, it is the fact 
 of the perfect and unique divine-human personali- 
 ty of Jesus of Nazareth. 
 
 At the same time, the Chalcedonian dogma is 
 the ripest fruit of the christological speculations 
 and controversies of the Ancient Church, and can 
 never be lost. It gave the clearest expression to 
 the faith in the incarnation for ages to come. It 
 saves the full idea of the Ctod-man as to the 
 essential elements, however imperfect the foi-m 
 in which it is cast. It defines with sound reli- 
 gious judgment the boundary-line whicli separates 
 christological truth from christological error. It 
 guards us against two opposite dangers, — the 
 8cylla of Nestorian dualism, and the Charybdis of 
 Eutychian Monophysitism. or against an abstract 
 separation of the divine and human, and an ab- 
 sorption of the human bj' the divine. It excludes 
 also every kind of mixture of the two natures 
 W'hich would result in a being which is neither 
 divine nor human. With these safeguards, theo- 
 logical speculation may boldly and liopefully move 
 on, and penetrate deeper and deejier into the 
 central truth of Christianity. Protestantism 
 cannot consistently adopt any doctrinal or disci- 
 plinary decisions of popes or councils as an infalli- 
 ble finale, but must reserve the right of furtlier 
 research and progress in the .appreliension and 
 appropriation of Christ and his infallible teach- 
 ing according to the Scriptures as the only rule 
 of faith. 
 
 VII. The Orthodox Pkotkst.vxt Ciiristol- 
 OGY. The churches of the Reformation (Luther- 
 an, .\nglican, and Calvinistic) adopted in their 
 confessions of faith, either in form or in substance, 
 the three oecumenical creeds, and with tliem the 
 ancient Catholic doctrines of the Trinity, and 
 of Christ's divine-human character and work. 
 They condennu'il the old and new .\ntitrinitari- 
 ans, and the peculiar doctrine of the Socinians, — 
 tliat Christ was raised by his own merit to a par- 
 ticipation in the divine honor and dignity. The 
 Unitarians, like the .\nal>aptists, were everywhere 
 (except in Poland and Transylvania) imprismied, 
 exiled, or executed; and the unfortunate Serve- 
 tus was burnt as a heretic and blasiiliemer, under 
 the eyes of Calvin, and with the full approval 
 of the mild Hullinger and Melanchthon. Wo 
 quote from the principal Protestant t^onfessions. 
 
 The .-I ni/shuri/ Confession of the Lutheran 
 Church (1.V:J0). Art. 111. (l>r Filio Dei): —
 
 CHRISTOLOGY. 
 
 450 
 
 CHRISTOLOGY. 
 
 " Also they teach that the Word, that is, the Son 
 of God, took unto him man's nature in th(! woml) 
 of tlie lilessed Virgin Mary, so that tlicro are two 
 natures, the divine and tlie luiman, inseparably 
 joiiHjd together in unity of person ; one Christ, true 
 God and true man: who was liorn of the Virgin 
 Mary, truly suffered, was erueirted, dead, and liuried, 
 that' he might reeoneile the Father uuto us, and 
 might be a sacrifice, not only for original guilt, but 
 also for all actual sins of men." 
 
 The Second Heluelic Confession, by Bullinger 
 (1.506), chap. 11: — 
 
 " We acknowledge, therefore, that there are in one 
 and the same Jesus Christ our Lord, two natures, 
 the divine and tins human nature ; and we say that 
 these two are so conjoined or imited, that they are 
 not swallowed up, confounded or mingled together, 
 hut rather united or joined together in one j^erson, 
 the properties of each nature being safe and remain- 
 ing still; so that we do worship one Clirist our Lord, 
 and not two; I say, one, true, God and man; as 
 touclung his divine nature, of the same substance 
 with the Father, and as touching his human nature, 
 of the same substance with us, aud ' like uuto us in 
 all things, sin only excepted.' " 
 
 The Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of 
 England, Art. II. ; — 
 
 " The Son, which is the Word of the Father, be- 
 gotten from everlasting of the Father, the very and 
 eternal God, and of one substance with the Father, 
 took man's nature in the womb of the blessed Virgin, 
 of her substance; so that two whole and perfect 
 natures, that is to say, the Godhead and Manhood, 
 were joined together in one Person, never to be 
 divided, wliereof is one Christ, very God and very 
 man; who truly suffered, was crucified, dead, and 
 buried, to reconcile his Father to ns, and to be a sac- 
 rifice not only for original guilt, but also for [all] 
 actual sins of men." 
 
 The Westminster Confession, which gives the 
 
 clearest and strongest expression to the faith of 
 
 tlie strictly Reformed or Calvinistic churches, 
 
 I thus states tlie doctrine of Christ's person in 
 
 ch;ip. viii. § 2: — 
 
 " The Son of God, the second person in the Trinity, 
 heing very and eternal God, of one substance and 
 equal with the Father, did when the fulness of time 
 was come, take upon him man's nature, with all the 
 essential properties and common infirmities thereof, 
 yet without sin, bein" conceived bj' the Holy Ghost 
 in the womb of the Virgin Mary, of her substance; 
 so that two whole, perfect, and distinct natures, the 
 (iodhead and the Manhood, were inseparatily joined 
 logetlier in one person, without conversion, composi- 
 tion, or confusion. Which person is very God, and 
 very man, yet one Christ, the only Mediator between 
 God and men." 
 
 The Westminster Shorter Catechism, whicli is 
 famous for clear and terse definitions, savs 
 (Qu. 21);- 
 
 "The only Redeemer of God's elect is the Lord 
 Jesus Christ, who being the eternal Son of God, 
 became man, and so was, and continueth to be, God 
 and man, in two distinct natunis, and one per.son, 
 forever." 
 
 VIII. The SciiOL.\STic LuTMERA>f Christol- 
 OGY. On this general basis of the Chalcedonian 
 christology, and following the indications of the 
 Scriptures as tlie only rule of faith, the Protes- 
 tant, especially the Lutheran, scholastics, at the 
 close of the sixteenth, and during the seven- 
 teentli, centiuy, built some additional features, 
 and developed new aspects of Christ's person. 
 The propelling cause was the Lutheran doctrine 
 of the real presence or omnipresence of Christ's 
 body in the Lord's S\ipper, and the controversies 
 
 growing out of it with the Zwinglians and Cal- 
 vinists, and among the Lutherans themselves. 
 
 There is, however, a cliavacteristic difference 
 between the christology of the Lutheran aud that 
 of the Reformed churches, which affects the 
 whole .system. The former has a leaning towards 
 the ICutychian confusion of the divine and human 
 natures ; the latter, to the Nestorian separation : 
 yet both distinctly disown the Eulychi;in and 
 Nestorian heresies. Tlie Lutheran christology 
 started from the principle that tlie finite is 
 callable of receiving the infinite (finitum capax 
 injiniti), and went to the very border of doketism, 
 which destroys the realness of Christ's humanity. 
 The Reformed christology held fast to the in- 
 separable gulf which separates the finite from 
 the infinite as to their essence or nature (fnilum 
 non capax in/initi), and kept open the possibility 
 of a full appreciation of the humanity of Christ 
 in its actual growth and development. 
 
 The progress made in christology since the 
 Reformation, on the basis of the Chalcedonian 
 orthodoxy, relates to the communion of the two 
 natures, and to the states, and the offices of 
 Christ. Tlie first was the production of the 
 Lutheran Church, aud was never adopted, but 
 partly rejected, by the Reformed : tlie second and 
 third were the joint doctrines of both, but with a 
 very material difference in the understanding of 
 the second. 
 
 (1) Tlie communicatio idiomatum, the communi- 
 cation of attributes or properties {idiuiiaTu, proprie- 
 tates) of one nature to the other, or to the whole 
 person. It is derived from the unio personalis 
 and the communio nuturarum. The Lutheran 
 divines distinguish three kinds or genera. 
 
 (a) The genus idioiuaticion (or Idioiroirirtiiuv'), 
 whereby the properties of one nature are trans- 
 ferred and applied to the whole person, for which 
 are quoted such passages as Rom. i. 3 ; 1 Pet. 
 iii. 18, iv. 1. 
 
 (i) The genus apotelesmatictim (^koivohoujtikov'), 
 whereby the redemptory functions and actions 
 which belong to the whole person (the u-ore^a- 
 /jara) are predicated only of one or the other 
 nature (1 Tim. ii. 5 sq. ; Ileb. i. 2 sq. ). 
 
 (c) The genus auchemaiicum {avx'llJ-aTihiiv), or 
 majestaticum, whereby the human nature is clothed 
 with and magnified by the attributes of the divine 
 nature (John iii. 13, v. 27; Matt, xxviii. 18, 20; 
 Rom. ix. 5; Phil. ii. 10). Under this head the 
 Lutheran Cliurch claims a certain ubiquity or 
 omnipresence for the body of Christ, on the 
 ground of the personal union of the two natures; 
 but as to the extent of this omnipresence there 
 were two distinct schools, which are both repre- 
 sented in the Formula of Concord (1.577). Bren- 
 tius and the Swabian Lutherans maintained an 
 absolute ubiquity of Christ's humanity from his 
 very infanc}-, thus making the incarnation not 
 only an assumption of the human nature, but 
 also a deification of it, although the divine attri- 
 butes were admitted to have been concealed 
 during the state of humiliation. Chemnitz and 
 the .Saxon divines called this view a monstrosity, 
 and taught only a relatice ubiquity, depending on 
 Christ's will (hence called voliprasentia, or multi- 
 voliprmsentia), who may be present with his whole 
 person wherever he pleases to be, or has promised 
 to be.
 
 CHRISTOLOGY. 
 
 460 
 
 CHRISTOLOGY. 
 
 (d) A fourth kind would be the genus kenoliciim 
 (from Kevuaic), or tapeinolicum (from rairt/i'uoif), 
 Phil. ii. 7, 8; i.e., a communication of the 
 properties of the human nature to the divine 
 nature. But this is decidedly rejected by the 
 old Lutherans as inconsistent with tlie nnchan- 
 geableness of the divine nature, and as a '• horri- 
 ble and blasphemous" doctrine {Form. Cone. p. 
 612), but is asserted by the modern Keuoticists 
 (see below). 
 
 The Reformed divines never committed them- 
 selves to the communicatio idlomatum as a whole 
 (althoun;h they might approve of the first two 
 kinds, at least, by way of what Zwingli termed 
 u/.?Miucic, or a rhetorical exchange of one part for 
 another) ; and they decidedly rejected the third 
 kind, because omnipresence, whether absolute or 
 relative, is inconsistent with the necessary limita- 
 tion of a human body, as well as with the Scrijv 
 ture facts of Christ's ascension to heaven, and 
 promised return. The third genus can never be 
 fully carried out, unless the humanity of Christ 
 is also eternalized. The attributes, moreover, are 
 not an outside appendix, but inherent qualities 
 of the substance to which they belong, and in- 
 separable from it. Hence a communication of 
 attributes would imply a commiuiication or mix- 
 ture of natures. The divine and human natures 
 can indeed hold free and intimate intercourse 
 with each other; but the diviue nature can never 
 be transformed iuto the human, nor the human 
 nature into the divine. Christ possessed all the 
 attributes of both natures; but the natures, never- 
 theless, remain separate and distinct. The famil- 
 iar illustrations of the iron and the fire, of the 
 body and the soul, favor the Reformed rather 
 than the Lutheran theory ; for the fire, while it 
 pervades the iron, does not communicate its prop- 
 erties to the iron, nor the iron its properties to 
 the fire. The soul resides in and interpenetrates 
 the body ; but its spiritual qualities, as cognition 
 and volition, are not communicated to the body ; 
 nor are the physical qualities of the body, as 
 weight and extension, communicated to the soul. 
 The .Scripture passages quoted by the Lutherans 
 are inconclusive. ^ 
 
 (2) The doctrine of the twofold slate of Christ, 
 — the state of humiliation and the state of exalta- 
 tion. This is based upon Phil. ii. 5-9, and is 
 no doubt substantially true. The status exina- 
 nitionis (humiliationis) embraces the supernatural 
 conception, birth, circumcision, education, earthly 
 life, passion, death, and burial of Christ: the 
 statu.'! exaltationis includes the resurrection, ascen- 
 sion, and the sitting at the right hand of God. 
 
 But here, again, the two confessions differ very 
 considerably. First as to the descent into liell, 
 or Hades ratlier. The Lutherans regarded it as a 
 triumph over hell, and made it the first stage of 
 e.\altation ; while the Reformeil divines viewed it 
 as the last stage of the stale of humiliation. It 
 is projierly the turning-point from the one state 
 to the other, and thus belongs to both. 
 
 Secondly, the Lutheran Creed refers the two 
 
 « Dr. IlodjfC (.Synt. Tlirol., II. 41B) objects to tlic Ltitliornn 
 doctrine, tliut it " UeHtroys the InleKrlty of the Iniiniin niitiire 
 of C'hrlHt. A body which filU hiiineiiwlty U not a biiniiiii body; 
 a Boul wldcli 1» omiilBcicnl, otnnlprcHent, mid nlmli;bly, In luit a 
 tiuman kouI. The ChrUt of the bible anil uf the Imiuaii heart 
 Is lost, If the doctrine be true." 
 
 states only to the human nature of Christ, regard- 
 ing the divine as not susceptible of any humilia- 
 tion or exaltation. The Reformed divines refer 
 them to both natures ; so that Christ's human 
 nature was in a state of humiliation as com- 
 pared with its future exaltation, and his divine 
 nature was in the state of humiliation as to its ex- 
 ternal manifestation {ratione occullalionis). With 
 them the incarnation itself is the beginning of 
 the state of humiliation ; while the Lutheran 
 symbols exclude the incarnation from the hu- 
 miliation. 
 
 Finally, the Lutherans regard the humiliation 
 only as a partial concealment of the actual use- 
 (Kpvtjni j-pi/OTuf) of the divine attributes by the- 
 incarnate Logos. 
 
 The proper exegesis of the classical passage in 
 the second chapter of Philippians decides here 
 in favor of the Reformed, and against the Luther- 
 an theory. The nivuni^. or self-humiliation, can- 
 not refer to the incarnate Logos, who never was 
 tv fiop(;>>i i?ff', but must refer to the pre-existent 
 Logos (the Aojof uTOpKof). This is admitted by 
 the Greek fathers, and by the best modern com- 
 mentators, Lutheran as well as Reformed. (See 
 quotations in Schaff's Creeds, etc., I. 328 sq.)- 
 
 (.3) The threefold office of Christ, (a) The 
 prophetical office (inuniis, or officium propheticum)' 
 includes teaching and the miracles of Christ. 
 (b) The priestly office (munus sacerdotnle) consists 
 of the satisfaction made for the sins of the world 
 by the death on the cross, and in the continued 
 intercession of the exalted Saviour for his people 
 (redemptio et intercessio sacei-dotalis). (c) The 
 kinglij office {munus re/jitim), whereby Christ 
 founded his kingdom, defends his Church against 
 all enemies, and rules all things in heaven and 
 on earth. The old divines distinguish between 
 the reign of nature {regnum natiirce sice potentice), 
 which embraces all things ; the reign of grace 
 (i-ei/num gratice), which relates to the Church 
 militant on earth ; and the reign of glory (rer/num 
 gloriw), which belongs to the Church triumphant 
 in heaven. 
 
 This convenient threefold division of the office 
 of Christ was already approved by Calvin, and 
 used by the divines of both Confessions during 
 the seventeenth century. Ernesti opposed it, 
 but Schleiermacher restored it. 
 
 Lit. — On the Lutheran side : The Formula 
 Concordiic (1577) ; Brenz : De personali unione 
 duarum tHitu7-aru7n in Christo (1551) ; De Ma/estate 
 Domini no.itri J. C. (1562); Ciikmxitz: De 
 duabus naturis in Christo, de hypostatica earum 
 unione, de communicutione idiomatum (1.^71, re- 
 vised 1576). — On the Reformed side: the Ad- 
 monitio Ncostadiensis (1577) and the christological 
 writings of Beza, Uksi.nus, Sadkei., DAN.ia's 
 {Examen tibri de duabus naturis a Chemnitio con- 
 scripti, Genev., 1581). Zanxtiius {De Incarnutione 
 Filii Dei, Ileidelb., 1593). 
 
 On the difference between the Lutheran and 
 Reformed christology, see especially Matthias 
 
 ' Dr. LlKlilfoot, also. In his Com. on th< Philippians, p. 130, 
 (jivos the Keformed interpretation: "The |)olnt of time is 
 clearly prior, not only to our Lord's open ministry, )>nt also to 
 his boconiliiif man. Even if tlio words /iopipr/v dnvMiii ?M^(Jl' 
 did not directly refer to tlie Incarnation, as they appear to do, 
 iiotiilnK else can bo understood by h u/wuJpaTi I'lVtlpCinuv 
 yw6iuvo{,"
 
 CHRISTOLOGY. 
 
 461 
 
 CHRISTOLOGY. 
 
 ■■ScHNECKENUUllGEU : Zur IcircMichen Christolof/ie. 
 Die orthoiloxc Lehre vom doppcllen Slande Chrisli 
 >i(wh lut/n'rischer unil rcformirliT J-'assiiiK/, Pfor- 
 ■Au'jm, 1848, 2d (title) 'ed. 18(il ; also iiis Ver- 
 yliiichende iJamtelLunij des lutkcnxclien u. rcjoniiirlcn 
 Le/irhefjrifli, herausf/cgeben ilurch Kdic. (lililcr, 
 Stiittsjart, 1855, 2 parts. Very accurate and dis- 
 ■criminatino-. (Schiieckenburger was a Swabian 
 Lutheran, but jirot'essor at the Reformed Univer- 
 sity of Berne, and hence well qiuilified to appre- 
 ■ciate the strength and the weakness of both 
 Confessions. He made the first preparations for 
 IlEii/.oG's Encijkl. before his death, 1848.) — On 
 the JjUtheran side, see Fhank : Theologie der 
 Concordicnfonnel, Erl., 1805, vol. III. pp. 165- 
 ■3.90 ; Chakles p. Krauth : The Conservative 
 Ileformatiun and its Thealogy, Phila., 1872, pp. 
 45U sqq. — On the Reformed side, IIeppe : Re- 
 formiiie Dogmatik, Elberf., 1861, pp. 351 sqq. ; 
 SciiAFF : Creeds of Christendom, New York, vol. I. 
 .285 sqq. and 317 sqq. Compare also the great 
 historical monographs of Bauk and Dokner, 
 -already quoted, and the most recent work on 
 tlie subject by Hermann Schultz : Die Lehre 
 von der Goltheit Chrisli. Communicatio idiornatum, 
 >Gotha, 1881 (an attempt to reconstruct the Lu- 
 theran theory on a modern critical and ethical 
 instead of a dyophysitic basis). 
 
 IX. The Kenosis Controversy between 
 ■Giessen and Tubingen. This is the last chapter 
 in the development of the orthodox Lutheran 
 ■ohristology on the basis of the Formula of Con- 
 cord. The Reformed churches had no share in it; 
 since they rejected the deification of Christ's hu- 
 manity, which it presupposes. In the early part 
 of the seventeenth century, there arose a subtle 
 ^ controversy between the Lutheran divines of the 
 I'niversity of Giessen and those of Tubingen 
 aliout the Kenosis and Kri/psis ; that is, about the 
 c]uestion whether Christ, in the state of humilia- 
 tion, entirely abstained from the use of his divine 
 ■iittributes (Kcvuat^, abstinentia ah usu, Phil. ii. 7), 
 or whether he used them secretly (/(pwi/"f> occulta- 
 iio). The divines of Giessen (Bathasar Mentzer, 
 iua son-in-law Feuerborn, and Winkelmaun) de- 
 fended the Kenntic ; those of Tubingen (Thumm, 
 Hafenreffer, Osiander, Nicolai), the Krrjptic 
 view. Both schools were agreed as to the posses- 
 sion (KT?/(T(f) of the divine attributes by Christ, 
 including omnipotence, omniscience, and omni- 
 -presenoe, during all the stages of his humiliation, 
 and differed only as to the use (VP'/"";) of them, — 
 whether it was a Kpi'i/xf XP>1'":"C (a concealed use), 
 •or a Kcvucic XP>!<":<JC (a non-use). The Kryptic 
 view of Tubingen is logically (i.e., from Lutheran 
 premises) more consistent, but carries the theory 
 of the communicatio iiliomatum to the very verge 
 •of Gnostic doketicism, which resolves the human 
 life of Christ on earth into a magical illusion. 
 The Kenotic view of Giessen is more in accord- 
 ance with the facts of Christ's life, but agrees 
 with the other in principle, and admits, after 
 all, an exceptional use in the performance of 
 miracles. The controversy was waged with vio- 
 .lence, and threatened to weaken tlie Protestant 
 cause at a very critical period. The Lutheran 
 princes interfered. In their name. Hoe von 
 Hoenegg, court-preacher at Dresden, issued a 
 Solida Decisio (1624), essentially favoring the 
 tCAuse of tlie Giessen Kenoticists ; but the Tu- 
 
 bingen divines defended their position till the 
 controver.sy was lost in the disastrous events of 
 the Thirty-years' War, without leading to any 
 positive result. The Kenotic controversy was 
 renewed recently, but in a modified form, and on 
 a new basis (see below). 
 
 Lit. on the Giessen-Tubingen Kenosis contro- 
 versy : — 
 
 (1) On the Giessen side ; The Saxon Solida 
 decisio, Latin and Germ., Leipz., 1624; Feuek- 
 BORN : Sciagrapliia de div. Jes. Christo juxta 
 humanit. communicatw. majestatis usurpatione, 1021. 
 By the same : Ktvumjpa^in xP"""'''^o}'"''/, JLarburg, 
 1627 ; Mentzer : Ncccssaria el Jusla Dcfcnsio, 
 against the Tiibingen divines, Giess., 1624. 
 
 (2) On the Tubingen side : Luc. Osiander : 
 Do omniproisentia Christi hominis, Tiib., 1620; 
 Thummius : Majestas J. Christi dcavSpu-nov, Tiib., 
 1021; by the same: Taixcivuciypaijiia sacra, h. e. 
 Repetitio sancE el orthod. doctrinee de humilialione 
 Jesu Christi, Tiib., 1623 (900 pp. 4to) ; by the 
 same : Acta Mentzeriana, 1625. 
 
 (3) On the Roman-Catholic side : Bellum uhi- 
 quisticwn velus el novum, Dilling., 1627; Alter und 
 neuer lutherischer Katzenkrieg v. d. Ubii/uitat, 
 Ingolst., 1629. 
 
 (4) Historical and critical : Cotta : Historia 
 doctrinee de duplici statu Christi (in his edition of 
 Gerhard's Loci theologici, vol. IV. pp. 60 sqq.) ; 
 Walch : Lehrstreitigkeiten der luth. Kirche, vol. 
 I. p. 206; vol. IV. p. 551; Baur: Gesch. der L. 
 V. d. Dreieinigkeil, vol. III. pp. 450 sqq. : Thoma- 
 sius : Christi Person und TFcr^-, vol. II. pp. 391- 
 450; DoRNER, vol. II. pp. 788-809; G. Frank: 
 Gesch. der protesl. Theol. vol. I. p. 336 ; Rocholl: 
 Realprcisenz, pp. 198 sqq. (Giitersloh, 1875) ; 
 Wagemann : Kenotiker und Kryptiker, in Herzog, 
 VII. 640-646. 
 
 X. Modern Christologies. The orthodox 
 christology emphasized the divinity of Christ, 
 and left his humanity more or less out of sight 
 (although it was always recognized in tkeory), 
 and, in the last stage of its Lutheran develop- 
 ment, arrived at the brink of Gnostic doketism. 
 Rationalism arose, towards the close of the 
 eighteenth century, as a re-action against sym- 
 bolical and scholastic orthodoxy, and ran into 
 the opposite extreme : it ignored the divine 
 nature, and fell back upon a purely human or 
 Ebionitic Christ. Its force, as well as its weak- 
 ness, consists in the examination of the human 
 element in Christ and in the Bible. 
 
 With the revival of evangelical faith in Ger- 
 many, the divine element in Christ was again 
 duly appreciated by theologians. Hegel and 
 Schleiermacher mark a new epoch in christologi- 
 cal speculation, with two tendencies, — the one 
 pantheistic, the other humanistic; and these, 
 again, were followed by original reconstructions 
 and modifications of the Catholic doctrine of the 
 God-man. The pantheistic tendency of Hegel is 
 more congenial to the maxim of the Lutheran 
 Confession, that the finite is capable of the in- 
 finite : the humanistic of Schleiermacher, to the 
 tendency of the Reformed Confession, which 
 guards the genuine humanity of Christ against 
 confusion with the divine. The former starts 
 from the divine, the latter, from the human ele- 
 ment; but both may unite, and do often unite 
 when they proceed from naturalistic premises.
 
 CHRISTOLOGY. 
 
 462 
 
 CHRISTOLOGY. 
 
 Both Hegel and Scbleiermacher j;ave impulse to 
 orthodox as •nell as negative and destructive 
 tendencies. To most of his pupils Schleier- 
 macher was a sort of John the Baptist, who led 
 them to Christ. 
 
 1. The Humanitarian or Unitarian Chris- 
 TOLOGY makes Christ a mere man, though the 
 wisest and best of men, and a model for imit.v 
 tion. It is held in various forms, from tlie com- 
 municated semi-divinity of the old Socinians 
 down to the pure Immanity of modern Unitarians 
 and Humanitarians.^ Kant may be said to have 
 inaugurated the modern Humanitarian view. He 
 regarded Christ as the representative of the 
 moral ideal, but made a distinction between the 
 ideal Christ and the historical Jesus. The more 
 conservative Unitarians admit the sinless perfec- 
 tion of Christ. Dr. Channing (see that art.) 
 was, at least in his earlier period, a firm believer 
 in the pre-existence of Christ : hence lie is some- 
 times called an Arian. He certainly rose above 
 the mere Humauitarianism of Priestley. He saw 
 in Christ the perfect manifestation of (Jod to 
 man, and the highest ideal of humanity, and 
 paid one of the noblest and most eloquent trib- 
 utes to Christ's character and inspiring example. 
 
 Lit. — The writings of the Socinians, espe- 
 cially the Racooian Calechism, 1605 (Eng. trans, 
 by Thomas Rees, London, 1S18); Jos. Priestly: 
 Hhlonj of Early Opinions concerning Jesus C/irist, 
 178G, 4 vols., and other works; Kant: Religion 
 innerhalb der Grenzcn ties blossen Vernunfl, 1793; 
 A. CoQUEREL : Ckrislolngie, Paris, 1858, 2 vols. ; 
 the writings of Willum Ellery Ch.\xn"ixg, 
 Boston, 1848 (especially vol. IV. 1-20); James 
 IMartineau: Studies of Christianiti/ (1858), Essays 
 Pliilosophical and Theological (1869), Religion and 
 Modern Materialism (1876) ; Theodore Parker 
 (radical Unitarian): Discourse of Matters pertain- 
 ing to Religion, Boston, 1847. 
 
 2. The Pantheistic Christology, suggested 
 by Sohelling and Ilegel, and best represented by 
 Daub, Marheineke, and Goschel (of the right or 
 conservative wing of Ilegel ianisni), and by Baur, 
 Strauss, and Biedermann (of the left or radical 
 wing), starts from the idea of the essential unity 
 of the divine and hiinuui, and teaches a continuous 
 incarnation of (iod in the human race as a whole, 
 but denies, for this viM-y reason, the .specific dig- 
 nity of Christ as the one and only God-man. 
 This, at least, is the theory of the " left " or radi- 
 cal and negative wing of the Hegelian School, 
 altliough Ilfgc'l himself had no .syiupathy witli 
 rationalism, but despi.scil it. "Tlie infinite," 
 says Strauss, "cannot pour out its fulness into 
 a single individual." The peculiar [losition of 
 Christ, however, is that he Jirst awoke to a con- 
 sciousness of this unity, and that he represents 
 it in its purest and strongest form. Under this 
 view Biederin.-inn (Chrislliclie Dogmatik) places 
 Christ highest in tlie scale of humanity, not only 
 in the past, but for all time to come. Even 
 Strauss was at one time willing to go so far; but 
 he destroyed nearly the wiiole historic founda- 
 tion of his lite, and ended in the pliilosopliical 
 bankruptcy of materialism. 
 
 Lit. — i). Fu. Strauss: D/c christl. Glauhcns- 
 telire in ihrer geschichll. Entwicklung und im Kampfe 
 
 ' Bruce, ffumiltntton of Christ, Bccoml p<!., Lcct. V. p. 
 3K3, (IlntlD^ulnli^-il lUc cluHHCM uf nuiimulturlurii). 
 
 viit dcr modcrnen Wisscnschaft, Tiib., 1840, II. 193 
 sqq. (a work as destructive of Christian dog- 
 matics as his Leben lesu is of the evangelical his- 
 tory) ; A. E. Biedermann : Chrisdiche Dogmatik; 
 Zurich, 1869 (more serious, but almost equally 
 unsatisfactory in its results) ; Emanuel Mari- 
 us : Die Persiinlichkeit lesu Christi. Mit besond. 
 Rucksicht auf die Mytliologien und Myslerien der 
 alten VOlker, Leipz., 1881 (first ed., 1878), — a 
 strange compound of the mythical views of 
 Strauss, and the mystical interpretation of Swe- 
 denborg. 
 
 3. Schleiermacher's Christology repre- 
 sents the highest form of Humauitarianism with 
 an important admission of the supernatural or 
 divine element. He regards Christ as a perfect 
 man, in whom, and in whom alone, the ideal of 
 humanity (the Urbild) has been fully realized : at 
 the same time he rises above Humauitarianism by 
 emphatically asserting Christ's essential sinless- 
 ness and alisolute perfection (" wesentliche Unsund- 
 lichkeit," and " schlechthinige Vollko?mnenheit "'), anA 
 a peculiar and abiding indwelling of the Godhead 
 in him (" ein eigentliches Sein Gottes in ilim "), by 
 which he differs from all men. He admits him 
 to be " a moral miracle," which means a great 
 deal for a divine of the boldest and keenest criti- 
 cism in matters of history. He was willing to- 
 surrender almost every miracle of action in order 
 to save the miracle of the person of Him whom 
 he adored and loved, from his Moravian childhood 
 to his deathbed, as his Lord and Saviour. He 
 adopts the Sabellian view of the Trinity as a 
 threefold manifestation of God in creation (in 
 the world), redemption (in Christ), and sanctifi- 
 cation (in the Church). Christ is God as Re- 
 deemer, and originated an incessant flow of a 
 new spiritual life, with all its pure and holy 
 emotions and aspir.ations, which must be traced 
 to that source. Sabellian as he was, Schleier- ■ 
 macher did not hold an eternal personal pre- 
 existence of the I^ogos which would correspond 
 to the historical indwelling of God in Christ. 
 His conception of the abstract unity and sim- 
 jilicity of the Godhead excluded an immanent 
 Trinity. See his christology in liis Der christi. 
 Glauhe, §§ 92-99 (vol. II. 26-93), and the sharp 
 criticism of Strauss, I.e. II. 175 sqq. 
 
 Ullmaxn (d. 1865), originally a pupil of 
 Schleiermacher, but more orthodox, wrote the 
 very best book on tlie ini|)ortant topic of the sin- 
 lessness of Christ, which has an abiding doctrinal 
 and apologetic value, independently of all .specu- 
 lative theories (i)/e SUndlosigkeit Jesu, 7th ed., 
 1853). 
 
 Somewhat similar is the christology of Rich- 
 ard Rotiie (d. 1806), the greatest speculative 
 divine of the century next to .Schleiermacher (d. 
 1834). He was influenced by Hegel and Schleier- 
 maciier, but wrought out an original .system of 
 ethics of tlio liighest order. He abandons the 
 orthodox dogma of the Trinity and the Chalce- 
 donian dyopliysitism (wliich lie thinks goes far 
 beyond tlie simplicity of biblical teaching, and 
 makes the union jihysical rather th.an moral), 
 but fully admits tlie divine-human character of 
 the one personality of Christ, and lays great 
 stress on the ethical feature in the develojunent 
 of Clirist, by which alone he can become our 
 Redeemer and Example. God, by a creative act,.
 
 CHRISTOLOGY. 
 
 463 
 
 CHRISTOLOGY. 
 
 calls the scoond Adam into existence in the 
 bosom of the old natural humanity. Christ is 
 hori) of a woman, yet not lui/ollen by man, but 
 createil by Ciod (iis to his humanity), hence free 
 from all sinful bias, as well as aetual sin. 
 His development is a real, but normal and har- 
 monious, religious moral growth, and a corre- 
 spondingly increasing indwelling of God in him. 
 There was not a single moment in his con.scious 
 life in whicli he stood not in personal union with 
 God ; but the absolute union took place with the 
 completion of the personal development of the 
 second Adam.^ This completion coincided with 
 his perfect self-sacrifice in death. Henceforth he 
 was wholly and absolutely God (f/anz und sdilecht- 
 Jiiii Golt), since his being is extensively and in- 
 tensively filled with the true (iod ; but we cannot 
 say, ck-e ycns-a, tliat God is wholly the second 
 Adam ; for God is not limited by an individual 
 person. The death of Christ on earth was at the 
 same time his ascension to heaven and his ele- 
 vation above all the limitations of material exist- 
 ence into the divine mode of existence (a return 
 to the /^op(('7j iSfoS) which, however, implies also 
 his perpetual presence with his Church on earth 
 (Matt, xxviii. 20). 
 
 Here is the place also for the theory of Houace 
 BusH.NELL (d. at Hartford. Conn., 1S7(5), which 
 strongly resembles those of Schleiermacher and 
 Rothe, but differs from them by adhering to the 
 eternal pre-existence of Christ (though only in a 
 Sabellian sense). It was fii-st delivered in his 
 ('iiiirio ad Clerum, at the annual commencement 
 of Yale College, New Haven (Aug. 15, 1848), and 
 was published, together with two other dis- 
 courses (delivered at Cambridge and Andover), 
 and a preliminary dissertation on the Nature of 
 Lanijtmge as related to ThougiU and Spirit, under 
 the title, God in Christ (new ed.. New York, 
 1877). It gave rise to his trial for heresy. Bush- 
 nell, one of the most independent and vigorous 
 American thinkers, was not a German scliolar; 
 but he read Schleiermacher's essay on Sabellius 
 as translated by Professor Moses Stuart in the 
 Biblical Reposilori/, and says that "the general 
 view of the Trinity given in that article coin- 
 c'des " with his own view, and confirmed him in 
 the results of his own private struggles (/ c. p. Ill 
 8q.). He maintains tlie full divinity of Christ on 
 the Sabellian basis. He rejects the theory of 
 "three metaphysical or essential persons in the 
 being of God," with three distinct con.scious- 
 nesses, wills, and understandings; and he substi- 
 tutes for it simply a trinity of revelation, or what 
 he calls (p. 175) an " instrumental trinity," or 
 three impersonations, in which the one divine 
 being presents himself to our human capacities 
 and wants, and which are necessary to produce 
 mutuality, or terms of conversableness, between 
 us and him, and to pour his love most effectually 
 into our feeling (p. 137). '• God may act." he 
 says (p. 152), "a human personality, without 
 being measured by it." The real divinity came 
 into the finite, and was subject to human condi- 
 tions. There are not two distinct subsistences 
 
 ' See his Dogmatik (published .after hie death, from MSS., 
 by Schenkel, 1S70), vol. II. 168: " Der Process der sitttichni 
 Lelti'nsenttrickhtng ties ziceiten Adams ist gteich wesenttich 
 leides, eiite stdtige Menschwerdung GoUvs und tine stdtige 
 Gottwerdung dea Jfenschen (dtfs eweiteii Adams) " 
 
 in the person of Christ, — one infinite, and the 
 other finite; but it is the one infinite God who 
 expresses himself in Christ, and brings himself 
 down to the level of our humanity, without any 
 loss of his greatness, or reduction of his majesty. 
 At the same time, Bushnell holds to the full yet 
 sinless humanity of Christ ; and the tenth chap- 
 ter of his work on Nature and tlie Supernatural is 
 one of the ablest and most eloquent tributes to 
 the sinless perfection of the moral character of 
 Christ. 
 
 4. The modern Kenotic theory differs from 
 the theoi-ies just noticed, by its ortho<lox premises 
 and conclusions as far as the dogma of the Trini- 
 ty and of the eternal Deity of Christ is concerned; 
 but it likewise departs from the Clialcedoniau 
 dyophysitism, by holding to one divine human 
 Christ, with one consciousness and one will. It is 
 chiefly based on the famous passage Phil. ii. 6-8 
 (iai'Tdv hh.cvuntv, he emptied hiinstlf, etc., the subject 
 of the Kenosis being the pre-existent, not the 
 incarnate. Logos), and also on 2 Cor. viii. 9 ; 
 John i. 14 (iyiviTu, became); Heb. ii. 17, 18, v. 8, 
 9 ; and on the general impression which the gos- 
 pel history makes of Christ as a truly human, 
 yet divinely human being, speaking of himself 
 always as a unit. It was suggested by Zinzen- 
 dorf in the form of devout sentimentalism, that 
 brought the divine Christ down to the closest 
 intimacy with men ; it was scientifically devel- 
 oped, though with various modifications, by a 
 number of eminent German divines of the Lu- 
 theran Confession (Thomasius, Liebner, Ge.ss, 
 Von Hofmann, Kahnis, Belitzsch, .Schoberlein, 
 Kiibel), and several Reformed divines (Lange, 
 Ebrard, Godet, Pressense, in Europe, Henry M. 
 Goodwin and Howard Crosby in America). It is 
 hardly just to call it (with Dr. Dorner) a revival 
 of Apollinarianism and Patripassianism, or Theo- 
 paschitism ; for, while it resembles both in some 
 features, it differs from them by assuming a truly 
 humanized Logos dwelling in a human body. It 
 carries the Kenosis much farther than the Giessen 
 Lutherans, and makes it consist, not in a conceal- 
 ment merely (spinlnc), but in an actual abandon- 
 ment, of tlie divine attributes of omnipotence, 
 omniscience, and omniiiresence, during the whole 
 period of humiliation from the incarnation to the 
 resurrection ; the differences between the advo- 
 cates of this theory referring to the degree of the 
 Kenosis. It substitutes a genus kenoticuin, or tapei- 
 noticum, for the genus -maj estaticum of the Luther- 
 an Ci'eed : in other w olds, a communication of 
 the properties of humanity to the divinity for a 
 communication of the properties of the divine 
 nature to the human. It proceeds from the 
 maxim, infnituia capax est Jiniti, which the old 
 Lutheran theology rejected ; while it held to the 
 opposite maxim, finitum capax infinili, which the 
 Calvinists rejected. Instead of raising the finite 
 to the infinite, the Kenotic theory lowers the infi- 
 nite to the finite. It teaches a temporary self- 
 exinanition or depotentiation of the pre-existent 
 Logos. In becoming incarnate, the second Per- 
 son of the holy Trinity reduced himself to the 
 limitations of humanity. He literally emptied 
 himself ((nt.76i' iKcvuaci:, Phil. ii. 7), not only of 
 his divine glory, but also of his divine mode of 
 existence (the fioptpi) dcoi), and assumed the hu- 
 man mode of existence (the lioptpij 6ov?jov), subject
 
 CHRISTOLOGY. 
 
 464 
 
 CHRISTOLOGY. 
 
 to the limits of space aud time, and the laws of 
 development and growth. He ceased to be omni- 
 1 otent aud omnipresent: he became ignorant 
 and helpless as a child. But he retained what 
 Thomasius calls the essentia! attributes of trutli, 
 holiness, and love, and revealed them fully during 
 his humiliation. The incarnation is not only an 
 assumption by the Son of God of human nature, 
 but also a self-limitation of the divine Logos; 
 and both constitute one divine-human personali- 
 ty. Otherwise the infinite cousciousness of the 
 Logos could not coincide with the human con- 
 sciousness of the historical Christ : it would tran- 
 scend and outreach it, aud the re.sult would be 
 a double personality. The self-limitation is to 
 be conceived as an act of will, an act of God's 
 love, which is the motive of the incarnation; and 
 Ids love is absolutely powerful, even to the extent 
 of the utmost self-surrrender. 
 
 This is the view of Tho.m.\sius, a Bavarian 
 Lutlieran. He and Lieb.ver held, fii-.st, that the 
 Logos actually became a rational human soul ; 
 but afterwards tliey assumed a truly human soul 
 alongside with the Kenosis of the Logos, and 
 thereby they lost the chief benefit of the Kenosis 
 theory. 
 
 Gkss, a Swabiau divine brought up under the 
 influence of the school of Bengel, CEtinger, and 
 Beck, and starting from a theosophic biblical 
 realism, carries the Kenosis to the extent of a 
 suspension of self-consciousness and will.' He 
 identifies it with the outgoing of the Son from 
 the Father, or his descent from heaven, which 
 resulted in a temporary suspension of the influx 
 of the eternal life of the Father into the Son, and 
 a transition from a state of equality with God 
 into a state of dependence and need. Gess and 
 Ebrard assume an actual transformation of the 
 Logos into a human soul, i.e., he assumed a hu- 
 man body from the flesh of the Virgin, but became 
 a rational human soul, so that he had no need of 
 assuming another soul. Consequently the soul 
 of Christ was not derived from Mary: it was the 
 result of a voluntary Kenosis, while an ordinary 
 human soul derives its existence from a creative 
 act of God. This view, therefore, is inconsistent 
 with traduciauism, and presupposes the theory of 
 creationism.- It is very questionable wliether 
 such a soul, which is the result of a transforma- 
 tion whicli begins witli divinity, and ends with 
 divinity, can be called a truly hunum soul any 
 juore than the .Vpollinarian Logos, who, remain- 
 ing unchanged, occupied the place, and exercised 
 tlie functions, of the human soul. The bond of 
 syini)atliy with Christ, on the ground of the 
 identity of his nuuital constitution aud condition, 
 seems to be broken by this form of the Kcnotic 
 theory. 
 
 Mautense.n, a very able Danish tiieologian, 
 
 ' JtewuHttttoKigkeit uiul WiUniRhnigkr-it. 
 
 - tie«» (In the Hint i-il. p. 3ao) : " IJer Logon indem er in'a 
 Werdrn fringing und Flfinvh wnrde, int stfr infnir/iUrhfn Sfflf 
 gewordent wie (leint defi J.fbentt von GitU \ii ftnurhi in die 
 durctt OoUen Wunderkra/t aun Staut} bfrtitftr J.rihlii'ltkfii en 
 Adamn Seeiff und (Pj> (Jriit dm I^fttrni von Otdt gi'hauc/it in 
 die von unn^ren Kltfm grttngie LfiiAirhkeit »u unsrrrr .Sffte 
 tcurdf. Die Lfibtir.hkrit aher, tu dtren Hffte. der Logoii 
 wurdr, indetn er in*n tVerden cinuing und sich mil ihr Vfr- 
 indtiltr, war durch den heiligen (reitl in Mnrienn Schoonti ge- 
 
 Jtrufjt." Dorni-r ulxl KoOie uhji'ct thiit siK-li n houI in not li 
 truly liumfiii »oul : 
 tku Kunoals theory 
 
 umfiii »oul : h(!ncc tbi* cliurgu uf AputlliiurlitniMn u({ii)tii»t 
 
 more cautiously teaches only a relative, though 
 real, Kenosis. He distinguishes betvieen the 
 Logos-revelation and the Cln-ist-revelation, and 
 confines the Kenosis to the latter. In the Logos- 
 revelation the Son proceeds from the Father as 
 God : in the Christ-revelation he returns to God 
 as God-man, with a host of redeemed children of 
 God. Tlie eternal Logos continues in God aud 
 his genei'al revelation to the world as the Author 
 of all reason ; while at the same time he enters 
 into the bosom of humanity as a holy seed, tliat 
 he may arise within the human race as a jNIedia- 
 tor and Redeemer. He would, however, have 
 become man even without sin. tliough not as 
 Redeemer." The Son of God leads a double life. 
 As the pure divine Logos {der rehie Gottheits- 
 loi/us), he works in all-p6rvading activity through- 
 out the kingdom of nature ; as Christ, he works 
 through the kingdom of grace, redemption, and 
 completion, and he mdicates his consciousness of 
 personal identity in the two spheres by referring 
 to his pre-existence, which, to his human con- 
 sciousness, takes the form of a recollection. But 
 Martensen does not explain how this Dnppellehen 
 of the Logos can be reconciled with the unity of 
 his personality any more than the two natures 
 of the orthodox creeds. 
 
 Kahnis aud Lange limit the Kenosis sub- 
 stantially to an abandonment of the use, rather 
 than the possession, of the attributes. Lange's 
 christology abounds in fruitful and original hints 
 for further and clearer development. 
 
 Julius jMuller (d. 187!(). one of the pro- 
 foundest divines, whose luuiiility and modesty 
 induced him to forbid the pulilication of any 
 of his valualile manuscripts, taught, likewise, a 
 moderate Kenosis theory, which I am able to 
 give from mv notes of his Lectures on Dogmatics 
 (1839 to 1840): "Paul contrasts the earthly 
 and pre-earthly existence of the Son of God as 
 povertv and riches (2 Cor. vii. 9), and repre- 
 sents tlie incarnation as an enqitying himself of 
 tlie full possession of the divine mode of exist- 
 ence (Phil. ii. G). Tills implies more than a 
 mere assumption of human nature into union 
 with the Son of Ciod : the incarnation is a real 
 .sclf-exiuanition (Sclhsli nlausscriiii(/), and a renun- 
 ciation, not only of tlie use, but also of tlie po.sses- 
 sion, of the divine attributes aud powers. . . . 
 The Church is undoubtedly I'ight in teaching a 
 real union of the divine and human nature in 
 Christ. I!ut in tlie state of humiliation this 
 union was first only potential and concealed ; and 
 tlie unfolded reality nelougs to the state of exal- 
 tation. Only with the assumption of a self-ex- 
 inanition can we fully appreciate the act of the 
 self-denying condescension of divine love ; while 
 in the orthodox dogma Ciod gives nothing in the 
 incarnation, Imt simply receives and unites some- 
 thing with Ills per.son!" Want of space forbids 
 further extracts. 
 
 Goodwin differs from the German Kenoticists 
 by assuming that the Logos is the human element 
 
 Mliiit 
 
 Arc we lo bollovo," nskri M'nrlcnm'n [Dogmatik, n. 296), 
 tlio niowt tflorioUK fjict in tlu- world w.'ib i)osnible only 
 
 lliit.uijli KJTi. iKul tlmt without it tluTi- would be no i-noui in 
 liiiilory for tliu Kloiy of llie only-b<'Kotlun of tlio Fntlur?" lUi 
 truclu'f*, with Hcvoriil of the Futlu-rH ami inodiTU (iiTniun 
 iluitiL'M. Ihiit tin- inriirniition U lu-ccHniiry lor tin' lii«lu'(»l rt-vi-- 
 hillon uf Llud, und woh only niodlllcd, nut conditioned, liy tho 
 full.
 
 CHRISTOLOGY. 
 
 4G5 
 
 CHRISTOLOGY. 
 
 in God which pre-existed in him from eternity, 
 and became incarnate by taking flesh, and occn])y- 
 ing tlie place of the soul.' No incarnation, he 
 thinks, is possible without a hmnanization of the 
 divine ; and this implies a self-limitation, and 
 true development from ignorance to knowledge 
 and wisdom. The incarnation is not a .synth<;sis 
 or miion of opposite natures, but a development 
 of the divine in the form of the human. ']'he 
 AVord did not assume flesh or human natui'e, but 
 it became flesh. As the true idea of God includes 
 humanity, so the true idea of man includes God. 
 The divine and human differ only as the ideal 
 differs from the actual, or the prototyjie from the 
 copy. This essential unity is the basis of the 
 possibility of the incarnation as a Kenosis. 
 
 Dr. Ckosby holds, that, according to the Scrip- 
 ture, the Son of God reduced himself to the 
 dimensions of humanity, to a state of "dor- 
 inancy," but declines to enter into speculations 
 about the possibility of such self-reduction, which 
 he regards as transcending human thouglit. The 
 supreme Godhead of Christ is clearly taught in 
 words, he says, but Christ nowhere showed it in 
 action from Bethlehem to Calvary ; for his mira- 
 cles, like those of Closes, Elijah, and the apostles, 
 were wrought by the power of God, by a dele- 
 gated authority, and proved merely that he was 
 sent from God, not that he -was God. Ilis God- 
 head, therefore, was in a state of quiescency during 
 his humiliation, and awoke with the resurrection, 
 after which the divine overshadowed the human. 
 Criticism. A theory advocated by so many 
 learned and pious divines cannot be altogether 
 false. AVe cannot think too highly of the amaz- 
 ing condescension of God, and the self-denial of 
 his love for the good of his creatures. The Keuo- 
 ] tic theory has the merit to have brought out the 
 I truth of the classical passage in Phil. ii. more 
 forcibly than ever before. But it carries the idea 
 of the humiliation and self-limitation of the Logos 
 to the extent of a metaphysical impossibility : it 
 contradicts the essential unchangeableness of 
 God. The humiliation of the Logos is an aban- 
 donment of the divine doxa and its enjoyment, 
 but not of the divine being. He laid aside his 
 divine majesty, and assumed the condition and 
 function of a servant; as a king in noble self- 
 denial may condescend to the lowest of his sub- 
 jects, and put himself on an equality of condition 
 with him, without losing any of his qualities. 
 The true Kenosis is a renunciation of the use 
 (XP'l<^v), but not of the possession (njf/aic), of 
 divine attributes. The former is possible, the 
 latter impossible. God can do nothing that is 
 contrary to his rational and moral nature. It is 
 admitted by the Kenoticists that the Logos can- 
 not, in the incarnation, limit or suspend his moral 
 attributes of love and holiness, but reveals them 
 most fully in the state of humiliation. But his 
 metaphysical and intellectual attributes belong 
 just as much to the essence and nature of God 
 as his moral attributes, and all are inseparable 
 from his nature ; so that God cannot give up any 
 of his attributes without mutilating and so far 
 destroying his own being. He cannot commit 
 suicide, nor can he go to sleep. He cannot re- 
 
 ' Isaac Watts believed in the pre-oxistence of the human 
 -soul of Christ, Ijat as created, and distinct from the Lo^os. 
 ■Swedeiiborg taught au eternal humanity of God hiiutielf. 
 
 31 — 1 
 
 duce himself to the unconscious existence of au 
 embryo, without ceasing to be God, and without 
 destroying the life of the world, which without 
 liim cannot exist a single moment. The illustra- 
 tion borrowed from sleep proves nothing; for 
 man's identity continues undisturbed in sleep, 
 and he awakes with the full exercise of all tlie 
 faculties. Moreover, we cannot conceive of such 
 a self-reduction of the Logos without suspending 
 the inter-trinitarian process, and also tlie Tiinity 
 of revelation. It would stop for thii'ty-three 
 years, as (less frankly admits, the et(!rnal genera- 
 tion of the Son, the procession of the Sjiirit from 
 the Father and the Son, and the government of 
 the world through the Logos. To say that the 
 Logos remained unchanged in the Trinity, while 
 at the same time he went out of the Trinity, and 
 became man, is virtually to establish two distinct 
 Logoi, or a Logos with two heads, which is no 
 better than the orthodox theory of two parallel 
 nattu'es, — one infinite, the other finite. The 
 Father and the Son have but one essence : how, 
 then, coidd the divinity of the Son be suspended, 
 or almost annihilated for a time, without suspend- 
 ing the divinity of the Father? It maybe said 
 with Thomas Aquinas, that it was not the nature, 
 but the person, of the Logos that became man. 
 True, but a person w'ithout a nature is an intpossi- 
 ble abstraction. If the Logos surrendered his 
 divine self-consciousness, his omnipotence, and 
 omniscience, how did he regain them '.' Was it 
 by a recollection of his pre-existent state ? Or by 
 a reflection on the Old-Testament Scriptures? 
 Or by a revelation from the Father? Or by the 
 development of a native instinct? These and 
 similar questions caimot be satisfactorily an- 
 swered by the consistent Kenoticists. 
 
 Lit. on the Kenotic theory: Joh. L. Konig: 
 Die Menschwerdung Gottes, Mainz, 1844 ; Tiioma- 
 sius : Beitrage zur kircld. Christologie, 184.5, and 
 Christi Person und Werk; Erlangeu, 1850 ; Lieb- 
 NER : Christologie, fiottingen, 1849 ; Ebrakd : 
 Christi. Dogmatik, Konigsberg, 18.51 and 1852, 
 2 vols.; Lange: Positive Dogmatik, \\&v\e\h.,\>ib\, 
 pp. 595-782 ; Gess l Lehre von der Per.i<nt Christi, 
 Basel, 1856 (rewritten under the title C/iristi 
 Person und Werk, Basel, Part I., 1870, Part II., 
 1878) ; Martensen : Clirisd. Dorpnatik, Berlin, 
 1853 (Engl, trans, by Urwick, Edinb., 1806); 
 Delitzsch : Sijst. der bibl. Psychologic, 2d. ed., 
 1861, pp. 325 sqq.; Boiiemeyer : Die Lehre von der 
 Kenosis, Gbttingen, 1800; Kaiinis : Die lather. Dog- 
 matik, Leipz., 1861-68, 3 vols. (HI. 343 sqq.); Sciid- 
 BERLEIN : Die Geheimnisse des Glaubens, Ileidelb., 
 1872 ; Robert Kubel : Christliches Lehrsystem, 
 Stuttgart, 1873 ; Van Oosterzee : Christian 
 Dogmatics, Eng. trans., 1874, vol. II. 514 and 543 
 (very moderately and cautiously Kenotic); Godet: 
 Essay on Jesus Christ, in his Studies on the Xeiu 
 Testament, trans, by Lyttleton, 1876, and his Com. 
 on the Gospel of John, 3d ed., 1881 ; Press- 
 ense: Life of Christ (first French ed., 1806, also 
 trans, into English and German), and La divinite' 
 de lesus-Christ, in the Revue Chrc'liennc, III. 641 
 sqq. ; Henrv M. Goodw-i.\ : Christ and Humani- 
 ty, New York, 1875 ; Howard Crosby : The 
 True Humanity of Christ, New York, 18S1. 
 
 For an adverse criticism of the Kenosis theory 
 see Dorner : Entwicklungsgesch., II. 126 sqq. 
 (Eng. trans. Divis. II. vol. III. 100); his able
 
 CHRISTOLOGY. 
 
 466 
 
 CHRISTOLOGY. 
 
 Essays on the Unchangeabhnefs of Goil in the 
 Jahrbucher Jurdeutsche' Theol. for IS'ie and 1858, 
 and his Christ!. Gl. lehre U. 367 sqq.; also Kothe: 
 Dogmalik, II. 157 sqq. Bruce gives the fullest 
 account in English of the Kenosis theories in his 
 able work, The Humiliation of Christ, Edinb., 2d 
 ed., 1881, Lect. IV. Dr. Hodge also notices the 
 Kenotic theories of Thoniasius, Ebrard, and Gess, 
 but condemns them very severely, saying, " Any 
 theory which assumes that God lays aside his 
 omnipotence, omniscience, and omnipresence, and 
 becomes feeble, ignorant, and circumscribed as 
 an infant, contradicts the first principle of all 
 religion, and, if it be pardonable to say so, shocks 
 the common sense of men " (Si/st. Theol. II. 439). 
 lie also objects that the Kenosis destroys the hu- 
 manity of Christ, since a bemg wliich never had 
 a human soul and a human heart cannot be a 
 man. But Gess maintains that the Logos became 
 a true human soul. 
 
 5. The last theory which promotes a solution of 
 the problem, but has not yet been sufficiently ma- 
 tured, is the theory of a gkadual or progres- 
 sive incarnation. It carries the divine Kenosis, 
 or the motion of God's love to men, through the 
 whole earthly life of Christ, instead of confin- 
 ing it to an instantaneous act when the Holy 
 Spirit overshadowed the Blessed Virgin. When 
 John says that the '• Logos became flesh," he 
 spoke as one of those who " beheld his glory, the 
 glory of the only-begotten of the Father," as it 
 manifested it^self in his wliole pul)lic life. We 
 discard the impossible idea of an essential self- 
 limitation of tlie Logos, but assume instead the 
 rational idea of a limitation of the self-communica- 
 tion of the Logos to humanity. There are various 
 degrees in this self-comnmnication. The being 
 and actuality of the Logos remained metaphysi- 
 cally and morally unchanged ; but .lesus of Naza- 
 reth possessed the Logos merely so far as was 
 compatible with the truth of human growth and 
 the capacity of his expanding conscio\isness. In 
 other words, the eternal personality of the divine 
 IjOgos entered into the liumanity of Josus, meas- 
 ure by measure, as it grew, and became capable 
 and worthy of I'eceiving it. There were two 
 corresponding movements in the life of Christ, — 
 a descent of the divine consciousness, and an 
 ascent of the human conseiousnoss. There was 
 a progressive self-comnmnication of the divine 
 Logos to Jesus, and a moral growth of Jesus in 
 holiness keeping step with the former. The 
 process of union began with the supernatural 
 conception, and wivs conqileti'd with the ascen- 
 sion. The first act of the incarnation of the 
 Logos was the beginning of tlu- man Jesus, and 
 both constituted one undivided iiersonalilv. There 
 was a personal unity and identity tliroughout the 
 whole period, the same lif(! of the <livine-hunian 
 personality, but in actual grow'th and develop- 
 ment from germ to full organi/alion, from in- 
 fancy to ripe manhood. Christ became conscious 
 of his Godhead as lie became conscious of his 
 Manhood ; but the divine life always wa,s the 
 basis of his human life. Tlie twell\h year of 
 Jesus in the temple, and thi^ liajitism in tlie Jor- 
 dan, mark two important ejiochs in the develop- 
 ment of this divine-human conscinusness. 'I'liere 
 was in connection with tlic griiihial incorpo- 
 ration of the divine L(i;;os iiitn \\\r liinrianity of 
 
 Jesus an actual elevation of his humanity into 
 personal imion with the Godhead, as he grew 
 in moral perfection : hence his exaltation is 
 spoken of by Paul as a reward for bis humili- 
 ation and obedience (Phil. ii. 9 ; comp. Heb. v. 
 7-1(1). 
 
 This theory escapes the difficulties of the Ke- 
 notic theory, and is even better reconcilable with 
 the orthodox christology of the creeds, as far as 
 the result is concerned ; the difference being only 
 that the latter puts the end at the beginning, and 
 ignores the intervening process by which the 
 result is attained. Nearly all christologists admit 
 now the genuine growth and development of 
 Christ's humanity, to which the Kenoticists add 
 the impossible growth of the divine Logos from 
 unconsciousness and impotence to omniscience 
 and omnipotence. Our view teaches the former 
 without the latter, and saves the continued integ- 
 rity of the Logos. There still remains the specu- 
 lative problem felt by the Reformed divines, — 
 how" the infinite consciousness of the eternal Logos 
 can ever become absolutely coincident with th& 
 limited consciousness of the man Jesus ; but this- 
 difficulty attaches to every theoiy which holds 
 fast to the strict divinity of our Lord. 
 
 Lit. — Comi-1. Dorxer : Christliche Glaubens- 
 lehre, Berlin, 1880, vol. II. 431, where lie sums up 
 his matured view of a gradual incarnation, hinted 
 at towards the close of his classical History of 
 Christology.^ 
 
 6 Conclusion. — In reviewing these variou.s 
 theories, we can readily accept the elements of 
 truth wliich they variously express. Christ is the- 
 ideal man realized, the head of the redeemed race,, 
 the perfect model for universal imitation. So- 
 far, even the Humanitarian theoiy is correct;. 
 
 ' I quote the following paBsage in the original : " Da tier 
 
 Mensvhftfit das Wtrdtii gcortlnHiat. Chritttun aber die wahre 
 Meyischheit in einejn ivirklithfn Menschfiilt'ben daratettt, so 
 koinntt ihm ein wahrhu/i mfnafhtichfn M'erden zit. J)a ander- 
 erseitH (lolt in Christun trst dann kann votlkommt-n offenbar 
 sein, wfinn die gunze yiitte dts fjdf/fichf7i LnfjoR auch e»/r 
 eignen FitUe dietie^ .Vennc/ien in Wisst'n und Wollnt, aluo gott- 
 nienHvlilivh geworden int: so ist in ihni mit d£tti Wer-den der 
 7nensv/ttivhen SfiU noihwmdig auch ein Werden dfr Gott. 
 mensehhfit gigeben und die Mensrhwerdnntj in( uicht (lift fine 
 mit einein .Mah ffrtige, sovdrrn alu /ortge/ttndr.ja traehsende 
 en (linkin, indenl (iott tlth hngottjtdt der lltncn Sifiteyi, die VOn 
 der icd/irfti unuxrltliihin EnCwii klung luri-nrgelntditwerden^ 
 Rtftig ir{iriir't und sirh anriguet, wie umgtkehrt die teachnende 
 avtiti/te KtHjifttngltvhkeit dtr Meutit^hlieit mit immer lieuen 
 Seilen dt.t J.ogn.s sitk betvusst und widletid zUKtinntienachtieSst. 
 Trote diem's iWejdens innerhtitl der t'nio iat idterder Logos von 
 An/ang an mit lesu im tie/slni We-srusgruiiite geeinigt und 
 lesu Leben immerdar ein goltnunnelilietieft geiresen, indem nie 
 eine vnj-hnndene Enip/dngtielikeit fiir die Gottheit ohne ihre 
 Krfiillung Idieb. Das metisc/itirbe Werdejt und die Unverdn- 
 dertirbke'it der Gottheit stimmt aber dadure/i zusammen,. 
 dass Goit alx Logos ohne Selbstvertust in Gesehiehte eiugehen 
 kann /iir den Zireek stiigender Selbsttifenharuug in der 
 Menseliheit. diese otter /fibig ist, immer mehr in die t'ltper. 
 dnileitii hkeit, wiedi r ohne Alterirung Hires Weseiis, gextetlt 
 za irerdi n.'* 
 
 In thej>ro(?roBB of hit* profound diBcussion (as Bkctchod vol. 
 II. ;1S4), Ur. DorniT unn>ld» (I) Thi' prc-existenco of Christ 
 jurcordiuK to Idt* divine nidr, or tiie KtoruiU Word of God and 
 Ills iictivlly in croallon and liiKlory; (2) Christ's prfscnn' on 
 oarlh.orhls |>arouBln in Ihr slide of proKiesslvc humiliation 
 and inner transllKUratlon, («) Tile act of the incarnation of 
 (iod in Clnist, or Ids divlncinnnun nature, (6) Tlio ctldcal 
 (lod.nninliood (dottmensrliliehkeit), or tlic doctrine of the 
 holy divine. human personality, (c) The ofllcial Ood-inanlioo(i 
 of Christ, or his tlivine-lunnan functions on earth, in wldch ho 
 |>re»entB himself as the Kcdeemer, — hlB prophetic, hisrh- 
 prlestly, and kiuKly office; (:)) The nosl-existence of ChriBl, 
 or his person and work after his eartldy life, tlie descent into 
 Hades (//«i/r»/Vi/ir(). resurreclion. exallation to llie rlKht hand 
 of God, ami llle continualion of his tiireefoid office In heaven 
 till the completion of hl» work, and the judgment of Ui* 
 world.
 
 CHRISTOLOGY. 
 
 467 
 
 CHRODEGANG. 
 
 only it does not go far enough, and it becomes a 
 serious error wlien it denies tlie higher truth be- 
 yond. For Clirist is also the eternal .Son of (jod, 
 who in infinite love renounced his glory aii(l 
 majesty, and lowered himself to a fallen race, 
 entering into all its wants, trials, and temptations, 
 yet without sin, and humbled himself, even to the 
 death on the cross, in order to emancipate men 
 from the guilt and power of sin, and to reconcile 
 them to God. lie is the one undivided God-man, 
 who, as man, calls out all our sympathies and 
 trust, and, as God, is the object of true worship. 
 In this respect we accept fully the faith of the 
 Church in all ages, and consider the divinity of 
 our Lord as the corner-stone of Christianity. 
 We hold, with Rothe and Ritschl, to the moral 
 nature of the God-manhood of Christ, but without 
 sacrificing his eternal divinity. We would go as 
 far with the Kenosis theory as the unchangeable 
 nature of God permits, and as the unbounded 
 love of God demands. We dissent from the 
 dyophysitic and dualistio psychology of Chalce- 
 don, and hold to the inseparable personal unity 
 of the life, and at the same time to the genuine 
 growth of Christ, without asserting, with the 
 Kenoticists, a growth of the divine Logos, who is 
 unchangeable in his nature ; but we substitute 
 for this impossible idea a gradual communication 
 of the divinity to the God-man. 
 
 This is, in substance, the Christ of the Catholic 
 creeds and the Protestant confessions of faith. 
 lie is a mystery indeed to oui' intellectual and 
 ])liilosophical comprehension, but a mystery made 
 manifest as the most glorious fact in history, — 
 the blessed mystery of godliness, the inexhaustible 
 theme of meditation and jiraise for all generations. 
 How tiie whole fulness of uncreated divinity can 
 be pom'ed out into a human being passes our un- 
 derstanding, but not more, perhaps, than the 
 familiar fact that an immaterial and innnortal 
 soul made in God's image, and capable of endless 
 perfectibility, inhabits and interpenetrates a mate- 
 rial and mortal body. And deeper and grander 
 than both mysteries is the infinite love of God 
 which lies back of them in the very depths of 
 eternity, and which prompted the incarnation and 
 the death of his ouly-begotten Son for the salva- 
 tion of a sinful world. Yet this love of God in 
 Christ, whose "breadth and length and height 
 and depth passeth knowledge" (Eph. iii. 18, 19), 
 is more certain and constant than the light of the 
 sun in heaven and the voice of conscience in 
 man. 
 
 Lit. — Besides the books already mentioned, 
 among which Dorner's exhaustive History of 
 ChristiAoyij is the most important, the following 
 English works deserve notice, though mostly con- 
 fined to an exposition and defence of the Chalce- 
 donian dogma : R. J. Wilberforce : T}ie Doc- 
 trine of the Incarnation of our Lord, etc., London, 
 1852 ; II. P. LiDDON : The Dicinitij of our Lord 
 and Saviour Jesus Christ (Bampton Lectiu'es for 
 1S66), London, 1868; M. T. Sadler: Knimanuel. 
 or the Incarnation of the Son of God, the Founda- 
 tion of hninutahle Truth, Lon<lon, 18G7 ; Alex. B. 
 Bruce: The Iluinilialion of Christ in its Physical, 
 Ethical, and Official Aspects, Edinb., 1876, .second 
 ed. 1881. The various Lives of Christ will be 
 noticed, with the liistorical facts, in the art. 
 Jesus Christ. Here we have discussed the 
 
 person of Christ simply from the dor/matic point 
 of view, as an object of the Christian faith, leav- 
 ing out the historical, the ethical, an<l the artistic 
 aspects of this central fact in the history of n-.an- 
 kind. PHILIP SCIIAKF. 
 
 CHRISTOPHER, St., lived, according to the 
 oldest versions of liis legend, at Saucos in Ljxia, 
 and suffered martyrdom under King Dagnus ; 
 but no place of the name Saucos is known in 
 Lycia, nor any king of the name Dagnus. Xever- 
 thelcss, thougli the historical kernel of this legend 
 seems to be of a very doubtful character, few 
 legends have grown so luxuriantly. In mediaeval 
 art and poetry St. Christopher is of frequent 
 occurrence, generally represented as a huge fellow 
 wading through the waters, and carrying a child 
 on his shoulder. His day in the Greek Church 
 is May 0, and, in the Latin, July 25. See Act 
 Sand., July, VI. pp. 125-149 ; Butler : Lives of 
 Saints, July 25 ; Mrs. Jaiiie-son : Sacred and 
 Lei/endan/ Art, II. 439-4.50. 
 
 CHRISTOPHORUS, pope from November, 903, 
 to June, 904, imprisoned his predece.ssor, Leo V., 
 but was himself imprisoned by his successor, 
 Sergius. 
 
 CHRISTO SACRUM, the name of an a,ssocia- 
 tion founded (1707-1801) by Onder de Wijngaart 
 Canzius, burgomaster of Uelft, and some mem- 
 bers of the Walloon congregation, for the piu-pose 
 of gathering all Christians into one body, irre- 
 spective of the different denominations to which 
 they might belong. The foundation of the asso- 
 ciation was the so-called positive Christianity; 
 that is, the faith in the divinity of Christ and 
 the redeeming power of his suffering and death. 
 In the beginning the association was very success- 
 ful : the number of its members increased to 
 three thousand. But in 1836 the church had to 
 be closed, and in 1838 the association was dis- 
 solved. See Ilet Genootschap Christo Sacrum bin- 
 nen Delft, hey den, 1801; Gregoire: Histoire des 
 sectes religieuses, V. J. J. VAN OOSTEEZEE. 
 
 CHRODEGANG (Hrodegandus, Ruotganej), b. 
 in Hasbania (Belgian Limburg) in the beginning 
 of the eighth centur}' ; d. at Jletz, ^March 6, 766 ; 
 descended from one of the most distinguished 
 families among the Ripuarian Franks, and was 
 destined for an ecclesiastical career, and incor- 
 porated with the coui't clergy. Having been ap- 
 pointed referenelarius by Charles Martel, he was 
 made Bishop of Metz in 742 by Peppin, Charles's 
 son. Twice he visited Rome, — in 753 to conduct 
 the Pope safely to Gaul, and in 764 to bring 
 back with him the relics which the Pope had 
 presented to his monasteries and churches ; and 
 the intimate relation which sprang up between 
 the papal see and the Frankish empire was much 
 furthered by his influence. His gi-eat fame, how- 
 ever, is chiefly due to his labors for the improve- 
 ment of the discipline of the Church. By his 
 rules, which in parts are borrowed from those of 
 Benedict, he instituted or regulated the so-called 
 Vita Canonica. Of these i-ules there was a double 
 version : an older, destined only for the Cathedral 
 of Metz, and published by Mansi : Coll. Cone, 
 XIV. 313; HoLSTEXius: Codex Regularum Mo- 
 nasticarum et Canonicarum, II. 69; and a more 
 recent, enlarged into eighty-six chapters, destined 
 for the Church in general, and published by 
 D'Archery : Spicilerjium, I. 565 ; Hartzheim :
 
 CHROMATIUS. 
 
 468 
 
 CHRYSOLOGUS. 
 
 Concilia Germanice, I. 96 ; and MiGXE : Patrolo- 
 gia Lot., 89, 1097. 
 
 Lit. — Chrodegang's Life was written by Pau- 
 LUS Warxefridus : Liber de Episcopis Mellensibw!, 
 ■written in 784, published by Pertz, Mon. Germ., 
 11. 267 ; and bj' John of Goez, between 96.5 and 
 073. published by Pertz, Mon. Germ., X. 552; 
 -and in Act. Sand., March, I. 453. MEJER. 
 
 CHROMATIUS, Bishop of Aquileia from 388 
 to 406, was a friend of Ambrose, Rufinus, Je- 
 rome, etc., and exercised considerable influence 
 in the controversies of that time, not so much, 
 though, on accoiuit of his writings, as by his frank 
 and sympathetic character. Most of what lie has 
 ■written is lost ; but some considerable fragments 
 of homilies on iMatthew, etc., are stiU extant, and 
 have been published by G.-illaxdi in BihUoth. 
 Patrum, VIIL p. 333, and separately by Pietro 
 Br.\ida. Udine, ISIIJ. 
 
 CHRONICLES, The First and Second Books 
 of. The name, since Jerome, for the Hebrew 
 " Book of the Events of the Days," called in the 
 Septuagint Tlapakemoueva (" things omitted "). 
 Originally our present First and Second Chroni- 
 cles, Ezra, and Xehemiah, formed one book. The 
 proof of this is the similarity of style, language, 
 point of view, and the identity of the last two 
 verses, of Second Chronicles (xxxvi. 22, 23) with 
 the first two o£ Ezra. These books, tlierefoi-e, 
 were once one book, a history of the Israelites 
 from the beginning; although the first part is 
 exclusively genealogical tables to the post^exilian 
 period. Our present division of this book into 
 four parts is very ancient, originating with the 
 Seventy. Chronicles contains a reliable liistory, 
 being drawn from the official records of the 
 Israelites, which explains the numerous instances 
 in which it coincides even verbally with Kinys . 
 and where it difl'ers in names, etc., the discrep- 
 ancy can 1)0 explained by textual corruptions, 
 ■either in Chronicles, Kings, or their common 
 source. But the point of view is priestly, and 
 therefore the author dwells at greater length 
 upon those features of the liistory which are 
 ecclesia.stical. Accordingly we find his narrative 
 very full about David's religious reforms and 
 arrangements, Solomon's erection of the temple, 
 its consecration, and liis care for religion (he 
 passes over his defection). In regard 1o the other 
 kings he emphasizes those like Asa, .lehoshaiihat, 
 Joash, Hezekiah, and Josiah, wlio were zealous 
 for the Jewish religion. While, therefore, accu- 
 rate, his language, times, mind, and jinrpose col- 
 ored his story. He often translates the old speecli 
 into that of liisday; alters expressions and things; 
 omits single facts, and explains them peculiarly, 
 and not always correctly ; scattt^rs over his pages 
 all kinds of reflections and remarks. lie is 
 influenced by his dogmatic environment. By 
 leaving out intermediate cau.ses lie represents 
 ordinarj' events as miracles. He reproduces the 
 spirit rather than the letter of the old .sjK'eches 
 he professes to copy. He infu.ses into his frequent 
 descrijition.s of tlie religious festivals of former 
 days too much of the feeling of liis own day. A 
 hint, at times, furni.sliea him materials for a ])ic- 
 ture. In general, then, it is true that liis ideas 
 are correct and historical ; but liis mode of treat- 
 ment follows the fashion of a lalcr day, and his 
 peculiarities must be borne in mind wIkmi using 
 
 Chronicles for historical purposes. — The lan- 
 guage, wlien not that of quotation, betrays in 
 idiom and words, as well as in orthography, its 
 later age and degeneracy. The lime of compo- 
 sition is after Ezra and Nehemiah (cf. Neh. xii. 
 47), more exactly about 330 B. C, or a little 
 later, in the beginning of the Greek rule in Asia, 
 as Ewald acutely argued from tlie application of 
 the phrase " King of Persia," to Cyrus and his 
 successors (2 Chron. xxxvi. 22; Ezra i. 8, etc.); 
 nor is the reckoning according to darikonim 
 (" drams ") (1 Chron. xxix. 7, and in Ezra and Xe- 
 hemiah) against this vie^w; because sueli reckon- 
 ing would, of course, continue after the fall of the 
 Persian Empire. — The object of the writer ■n-as 
 not so much to retell the story of Israel, as, from 
 the rich historical stores at his command, to 
 select those portions wliich related more particu- 
 larly to the liistory of worship in order to demon- 
 strate to his compatriots how precious this legacy 
 was, and hon- fundamental to the existence and 
 prosperity of the new state arising from the aslies 
 of the old. — The author was either a priest or a 
 Levite. — The Septuagint text and the present 
 JIasoretic text are exactly the same. — The book 
 was received into the canon because of its impor- 
 tant additions to histoi-y ; but, as it was plainly 
 recent, it was relegated to the Hagiographa. It 
 seems to have been originally wanting in the 
 
 Peshitto. A. DILLMANN. 
 
 Dr. Zdckler, in Lange, says, " Xeither the exe- 
 getical nor the critical literature of this book is 
 very rich : indeed, there is scarcely one portion 
 of the Old Testament that has found fewer 
 laborers, either in the one respect or the other. 
 The older Jewish commentators shrank from 
 the many difficulties which tlie genealogies of 
 the first chapters presented; and there are in all 
 very few Jewish commentaries. Of the Church 
 Fathers, Theodoret and Proeopius of Gaza alone 
 commented upon the book at any length : Jerome 
 is very cursory and meagi'e. Xone of the Re- 
 formers have treated Chronicles exegetically." 
 Of modern works the best are, E. Beutiieau : 
 Die BUcher der Chronik erkldrt, Leipzig, 1865, 2d 
 ed., 1873; C. F. Keii. : Bibt. Komment. iihcr das 
 A.T., Leipzig, 1870 (translated in Clark's Foreign 
 Theological Library); B. Neteler (R. C): 
 Die Biichcr der bihtischen Chronik, iiher.'<etzt u. 
 erkldrt, Miinster, 1872; Rai'II. Kiuciiheim : Ein 
 Comtnentar zur chronik aus dcm 10 Jalirh. zum 
 cisternal hrsg., Frankfurt-a.-M., 1874; ZiicKi-EK : 
 The Books of Chronicles (vol. 7tli of the Amer- 
 ican edition of Lange's Commentanj, translated 
 by Professor James G. Mvri'hv of Belfast), 
 >.ew York, 1877. — Important also is the crit- 
 ical though destructive monograph of K. H. 
 Gr.\f : Die i/cscJiichtlichen BUcher des A.T., Leil> 
 zit;. 1S66. 
 
 CHRONOLOCr. See Era. 
 
 CHRYSOLOGUS, b. at Imol.a, lOG ; d. there 
 4.50; was maile Bislioji of Ravenna in 433, and 
 distinguished himself as one of the most eloquent 
 preachers of the fifth century. A liundied and 
 seventy-six Sennones ascribed to him are still 
 extant ; but only a hundred and sixty of them 
 belong really to liim. The five sermons (^.57-62) 
 on the apostolical .synibolum are of gi'cat histori- 
 cal interest, as containing an indejiendent text. 
 The first edition of the sermons -was given by
 
 CHRYSOSTOM. 
 
 469 
 
 CHRYSOSTOM. 
 
 Vincentius, Bonn, 1534, and often reprinted. His 
 letter to Eutyches was edited in (iroek and Latin 
 by Vossius, 1()04. Hotli the letter and the ser- 
 mons are found in Bihl. Afnx. Polriim, Lyons, 
 Tom. VII. German translation, Kempten, 1874. 
 
 CHRYSOSTOM (CHRYSOSTOMOS), Joannes, 
 b. at Anlinrli, -'il?; <1. at t'onjana in Pratas, 
 407; descended from an illustrious Greek family. 
 His father was Mar/ister Militum Oiientin. His 
 mother, Anthusa, was a Christian woman; and, 
 though only twenty years old wdien lier husband 
 died, she rcMuained a widow, and concentrated 
 her whole life on the education of her .son. The 
 young- Chrysostom — the name is a surname (the 
 " golden-mouthed ") occurring for the first time in 
 the beginning of the seventli century, with Isi- 
 dore of .Seville — was destined for a public career 
 in the administration or the court, and received 
 instruction from the celebrated rhetorician Liba- 
 nius. But there was a deeper craving in his 
 nature. Rhetoric became repugnant to him. At 
 last he left the Pagan sophist for the Chris- 
 tian priest; and, after studying for three years 
 under Bishop Meletius of Antioeh, he was bap- 
 tized. 
 
 Monasticism, and generally the ascetic views 
 of his time, attracted him powerfully ; aiul inmie- 
 diately after the death of his motlier he joined a 
 society of hermits living in the mountains outside 
 Antioeh. It was probably there that he met 
 with Diodorus, afterwards Bishop of Tarsus, and 
 founder of the school of Antioeh ; and how deep 
 a satisfaction he extracted from this kind of life, 
 in which study of the Bible, and meditation on 
 holy things, alternated with prayers and manual 
 labor, may be seen from a couple of enthusiastic 
 treatises written in its praise, and more especially 
 from two letters addressed to his friend Theo- 
 dorus, afterwards Bishop of IMopsuestia, who 
 wished to abandon monasticism, and marry. 
 After the lapse of six years, however, his fail- 
 ing health compelled Chrysostom himself to 
 forsake the solitude ; and, having returned to 
 Antioeh in 380, he was ordained a deacon by 
 Meletius. 
 
 Thus began his practical labors in the service 
 of the Church, and he inaugurated this period of 
 his life by the publication of his celebrated trea- 
 tise On the Priesthood. In 386 he was ordained a 
 presbyter by Flavian, the successor of Meletius. 
 Aa a presbyter he began to preach, and the very 
 next year offered a grand opportunity for his ex- 
 traordinary oratorical gifts. A rebellion broke 
 out in Antioeh, and the statues of the imperial 
 family were hurled dow-n from the pedestals into 
 the dust. But the rebellion was speedily sup- 
 pressed, and the city was in an agony of fear. 
 Flavian proceeded to Constantinople to avert the 
 emperor's wrath ; and in the mean time Chrysos- 
 tom delivered his famous twenty-one sermons On 
 the Statues. The activity which he developed as 
 a preacher during the twelve years he staid in 
 Antioeh was very great ; and his fame as the 
 first preacher of the Church was spreading rap- 
 idly. We have still from that time sixty-seven 
 sermons on Genesis, sixty on the Psalms, ninety 
 on the Gospel of Matthew, eighty-eight on the 
 Gospel of John, and a number on the Epistles to 
 the Romans, Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, 
 Timotheus, and Titus. Of a more strongly- 
 
 marked doctrinal character is the series of ser- 
 inons against the Anomoeans, belonging to the 
 sanu! period. 
 
 In 308 he removed to Constantinople. Eulro- 
 pius, tlie favorite of the Emperor Arcadius, wislied 
 to see him placed on the patriarchal throne of 
 the metropolis; but Chrysostom absolutely re- 
 fu.sod to assume the responsibility of such a posi- 
 tion. Nevertheless, by a trick he was allured to 
 Constantinople, and by force he was compelled to 
 accejjt the patriarchal ordiiuition from Theophilus 
 of Alexandria. Thus he suddenly found him- 
 self at the head of the whole Greek Church, very 
 nmch against his own will. Tlie situation was 
 full of dangers to him. He was a man of single 
 aims and straight ways. Severe to himself, he 
 was sevei'e to others too ; and, in his passionate 
 hatred of any thing bad or w'-ong, his franknes.* 
 and courage prevented him f?- :'. paying any re- 
 gard to circumstances. But sucli a man was very 
 ill adapted to manage the wliinis of a despotic 
 com't, and handle a population immoral beyond 
 description, fanatical unto fury, and exceedingly 
 proud of its own doctrinal orthodoxy. Controver- 
 sies with heretics, Arians, Novatians, etc., added 
 to the difficulties ; and the situation finall}- proved 
 too strong for the man who had been pressed 
 into it. 
 
 Some Egyptian monks, who, on account of the 
 esteem in which they held Origen, had excited 
 the displeasure of Theophilus, Patriarch of Alex- 
 andria and a very violent character, fled to Con- 
 stantinople, and sought refuge with Chrysostom. 
 Theophilus was sunnnoned to Constantinople to 
 defend himself. But on his arrival there he 
 found that Eudoxia, the empress, was very ill 
 disposed towards Chrysostom ; and at the de- 
 cisive moment he managed to assume the part 
 of the judge instead of that of the accused. 
 Under his presidency a synod was convened 
 on the imperial estate at Chalcedon, — the so- 
 called Synodus ad Quercvm ; and there forty- 
 six accusations were raised against Clirysostom, 
 most of them mere lies, and some of them 
 completely ludicrous. Nevertheless, as the synod 
 was composed of Chrysostom's enenries, it gave 
 in a verdict of guilty, recommending his depo- 
 sition and banishment. Tlie Emperor accept- 
 ed the verdict ; and Chrysostom was secretly 
 brought on board a vessel to be carried to Bithy- 
 nia. But an earthquake wliich shook the city 
 during the night, and the threatening fermen- 
 tation in the population, frightened the court. 
 Chrysostom was recalled, and received by the 
 people with gxeat applause. Thus he escaped 
 the first bolt. 
 
 A few months later, a silver statue of Eudoxia 
 was raised on a colunm of poiiihjTy in front of 
 the Church of St. Sophia, and consecrated with 
 all those idolatrous ceremonies and licentious 
 rites which characterized such an occasion during 
 the days of rank Paganism. Chrysostom gave a 
 warning : Eudoxia accepted it as a challenge. 
 Chrysostom went farther : he is reported to have 
 said in the pulpit, " Again Herodias is dancing ; 
 agam she demands the head of John on a 
 charger ; " and the empress now determined to 
 get rid of the man. A council of Constantinople 
 deposed Iiim a second time ; and June 20, 404, he 
 was dragged into exUe, Cucusus in Lesser Ar*
 
 CHUBB. 
 
 470 
 
 CHURCH. 
 
 menia having been fixed as hLs abode. In this 
 dismal village he spent three j-ears in bodily 
 pain and mental anguish, but without losing his 
 influence on the Church, without even relaxing 
 his hold on his congregation in Constantinople. 
 Xo less than two hundred and thirty letters, 
 written from this place, are still extant, and bear 
 witness to the extraordinary power and purity of 
 his mmd. His friends, even the Bishop of Rome 
 and the Emperor Ilonorius, labored for his re- 
 call ; but the result of their exertions was simply 
 that he was transferred to a still more distant 
 place, Pityos in Colchis. On the way thither he 
 died. 
 
 Lit. — Collected editions of his works have 
 been given by Savilius, Etonre, 1013 (8 vols.), 
 Fronto Duc.eus, Paris, 1609—30 (12 vols.), and 
 MoxTrAU90N, Paris, 1718-38 (13 vols.), re- 
 printed at Venice, 1755, re-edited in Paris, 1835- 
 40. Separate editions of his single works are 
 verj" numerous. [Englisli translations of the homi- 
 lies and De HucerJotio are found in the Oxford 
 Library of the Fathers (1842-53).] His life was 
 first written by his contemporary, Pall.-vdius : 
 Dialogus Historicus . . . de Vila el Concersaiione 
 J. Chrysostomi; compare Socr.\tes : Hist. Eccel., 
 VI. 2-21 ; SozoMEXus, VIII. c. 2-23 ; Theo- 
 DORET, V. 27, 34; Jerome: De Vir. TIL, 129. 
 Among modern biographers see Neander : Dcr 
 heilige Chrysoslomiis, Berlin, 1831, 3d ed., 1848, 
 2 vols. [1st vol. translated into English by J. C. 
 Stapleton, London, 1838] ; Riviere : Ckri/sos- 
 tome comme predicateur, Strassburg, 1845; LuTz: 
 Chrysostomus, Tiibingen, 1846; [Perthes : Life uf 
 Chrysoslom, Boston, 1854 ; W. A. W. Stephens : 
 Life and Times of Chrysostom, London, 1872 (2d 
 ed., 1880)]. C. BURK. 
 
 CHUBB, Thomas, deist, b. in East Harnham, 
 near Salisbury, Sept. 29, 1679; d. at Salisbury, 
 Feb. 8, 1710. He was a tallow-chandler to the 
 end of his life. When Whiston published his 
 Primitice Christianity revived, Chubb wrote a de- 
 fence of the idea of the supremacy of the one 
 God and Father, expressed in the preface, entitled 
 The Supremacy of the Father asserted, iind sent it 
 to "Whiston, who printed it in 1715. This brouglit 
 Chubb into notice, and induced liim to write a 
 good deal. He represents the decay of Deism in 
 England. He .stated his objections to orthodoxy 
 in a simijle, vigorous style ; but lie had no learn- 
 ing, nor very great logical ability. His principal 
 writings are, A Discourse concerning Reason, Lon- 
 don, 1731 ; The True Gospel of Jesus Christ vindi- 
 cated, 1730 (advocating the pregnant idea that 
 Christianity is not doctrine, but life: wrongly, 
 however, lie makes the true gospel of Christ 
 identical with natural religion : Lechler charac- 
 terizes it as an essential moment in the historical 
 development of Deism); The Author's Farewell 
 to his Readers, printed in his Posthumous Worlcs, 
 2 vols., 1748. 'J'his is the most complete sum- 
 mary of liis opinions. He denied a special provi- 
 dence, miracles, literal inspiration, and apparently 
 Christ's resurrection. Stephen says his writings 
 show a very cahn and honest intellect ; tluae is 
 little bitterness in his attacks upon the E.stab- 
 lished faith ; and his arguments arc fairly, though 
 seldom vigorously, stated, lie was a man of 
 considerable natinal ability, ami in many of hi.s 
 tracts (and lie wrote more ihau fifty) e.vhibits 
 
 a logical faculty, which, guided by better train- 
 ing, might have made him a formidable antago- 
 nist. But it was not to be expected that much 
 new light was to be thrown upon his weU-worn 
 topics by an ignorant chandler. See Lechler : 
 Geschichte des enylisclien Deismus, Stuttgart, 1841; 
 Stephen: History of English Thouyht in the Eigh- 
 teenth Century, London, 1876, 2d ed., 1881 ; 
 Cairns: Unbelief in the Eii/hteenth C'eji^ur^, Edin- 
 burgh and N. Y., 1881. See Deism. 
 
 CHURCH. 1. The Church in the New- 
 Testament. Meaning of the icord. — The word 
 CKK/Jima in the New Testament means either the 
 universal Church of Christ, or a local congregation. 
 In modern use, " church " means also the " house 
 of God," or the building in which the congrega- 
 tion assembles for divine worship, and a particular 
 "denomination." [Our English word "church" 
 is of Greek origin, from i/avpiahii or rdhvpiaKov; in 
 Anglo-Saxon, cyrice; in Scotch, kirk: The fact 
 seems to be, that the Romance languages derive 
 their word for "church" from inKh/aia; e.g., 
 French, e'glise, Italian, chiesa ; the Teutonic and 
 Scandinavian, from mpiaK^.] In profane Greek 
 eaihiaia, from enKn'Auv (to call together), describes 
 an assembly of citizens called together, usually by 
 a herald, the members of which were therefore 
 the " elect," ckkAiiioi (the called). Instances of 
 this usage occur in Acts xix. 32, 41, — "thea.s- 
 sembly" [n eimhiaiu), cf. ver. 39, where the town- 
 clerk contrasts the tumultuous gathering with a 
 " lawfid assembly " {hvofioc kKKkrioia). But the 
 ecclesiastical meaning of the word in the New 
 Testament is directly connected with the Hebrew 
 of the Old Testament and the Greek of the 
 Septuagint. The two expressions in the Old 
 Testament for the people of God are nii' and 
 
 'T}\{ : the difference between them is, that, while 
 both express an assembly, nn^. means assembly 
 in general, and vnp an assembly for divine wor- 
 sliip ; cf . Lev. iv. 13, 14, where the two words 
 are in juxtaposition. In ver. 13 the "congrega- 
 tion " is general : in ver. 14 the " congi'egation " 
 is that assembled for religious worship. The 
 Seventy translate Hli^. by amayuyi/, and never by 
 iKKhjiyia, and 7np also by omaYuyi/, though more 
 frequently by iimhiaia. At bottom lies the idea 
 that the congregation is called together by God 
 himself. 
 
 The question has often been discussed, whether 
 Jesus contemplated a new Church in distinction 
 to the Jewish Church. He surely announced the 
 nearne.ss, nay, the e.xistence, of tlie kingdom of 
 God. But did he mean liy this a particular 
 organization of his own '! The allusions to and 
 parables of the kingdom, with the exception of 
 Matt. xvi. 18, do not leiiil themselves to this idea. 
 The " kingdom " is already present (Luke xvii. 
 21) in those who are good ground for tlie seed 
 sown by the Son of man (Matt. xiii. 3-8, 37-43). 
 These, together with those in who.sc hearts the 
 seed does not come to fruitfulness, and tho.se in 
 whom it is mixed with weeds, are represented as 
 standing upon one and the same field. l}nt of 
 any such connection between them as member- 
 .sliip in one church would imply, there is no hint. 
 Nor is there any in the parable of tlie net or of 
 the pearl. At the .same time, it is true that the 
 disciples constituted a little body by theni.selves ■•
 
 CHURCH. 
 
 471 
 
 CHURCH. 
 
 they were Jesus' flock (Luke xii. o2 ; .John x. 1 
 .sqq.), his devoted liaud, whose love and interest 
 stood in boldest contrast to the indifference and 
 hate of the rest of the iiation. Tn Matt. xvi. 
 18 and xviii. 17 sqq., however, he contemplates 
 the Church whicli should result from their ac- 
 tivity, and therefore had a vision of tlie coming 
 times. To him the cKKhiaia was a 'Hp, an assem- 
 bly for divine worship. 
 
 Our Lord declared that lie would build his 
 Church upon Peter (Matt. xvi. 18) ; by which 
 play on the word pctros (a rock) he propliesied 
 that historically his Churcli should rest upon 
 the sermon and activity of tlie inspired i\Ian of 
 Eock ; and the Day of Pentecost realized his 
 prophecy. But of any succession in office, and 
 government of the Church thus establislied. there 
 is not a word. For the meaning of the phrase 
 " power of the keys," see Keys, Power of the. 
 
 Very naturally in the Early Church the apos- 
 tles occupied the most prominent positions. Yet 
 there was no distinction in authority between 
 them and the newer disciples ; rather, wlien 
 churches were established, they left them to the 
 care of the members, and discharged in all literal- 
 ness their Lord's commission, and went forth to 
 preacli in new localities the gospel of Christ. In 
 Matt, xxiii. 34 Jesus speaks of sending " proph- 
 ets, wise men, and scribes ; " and in Matt. xxiv. 
 45 sqq., Luke xii. 42 sqq., of ".stewards " and 
 " upper servants ; " all which expressions are not to 
 be considei'ed other than different forms of loving 
 service, by which the Church was built up. Next 
 to the preaching of the Word came baptism, an 
 institution plainly Christ's ; and every congrega- 
 ' tion observed the other sacrament, the Lord's 
 Supper, as the principal feature of its peculiar 
 growth. At first the Church was a Palestinian 
 affair; and although one might argue it was in- 
 tended to be much more comprehensive, yet there 
 was nothing in its structure to directly support 
 the opinion that it would ultimately unite Jew 
 and Gentile in one society. Therefore evangeli- 
 cal Protestantism is right in asserting that the 
 existence of the Church does not depend upon 
 the apostolic forms ; for our Lord's speeches con- 
 cerning his Church have nothing to do with tlie 
 externals of religion, the ordering of worship, and 
 of government, nor yet with the formulating of 
 doctrine, — phenomena whicli have gi^eatly occu- 
 pied later attention. [The distinction between 
 the Kingdom of God and the Chm-ch is impor- 
 tant to observe. The Kuigdom is much more 
 ■comprehensive. It exists irrespective of the 
 Church. Its members are the ultimately saved, 
 whether they belong to the Church as an ecclesi- 
 astical body, or not. The Church, on the other 
 hand, is made up of aU under gospel influences. 
 Therefore, when we pray for the Church, we pray 
 for the progress of divine truth with all its at- 
 tendant blessings ; but when we pray, " Thy 
 kingdom come," we pray for the speedy presence 
 of the saints, gathered under the sceptre of their 
 King, Jesus Christ.] 
 
 The historical Church began on the Day of 
 Pentecost; and it was at first composed of the 
 disciples whom Jesus had personally gathered. 
 It was a community inside of Judaism, with pe- 
 culiar worship and government. It was the eKK^ri- 
 
 aia; and by this name Paul calls it in liis earliest 
 Epistles, w'liether in Palestine oroutsi(l<' (1 Thess. 
 ii. 14). Its complete iiamc^ was the "Church of 
 (lod," or the "Church of Christ" (Hom. xvi. 16), 
 whether of a single congregation, or of the whole 
 body of Ijelievers. It was made up of the "sanc- 
 tified in Christ Jesus" (1 Cor. i. 2), the "called 
 saints" (Rom. i. 7), the "holy nation" (1 Pet. 
 ii. 9). In the deep conception of Paul every be- 
 liever was united with Christ, and entered this 
 close union through baptism (1 Cor. xii. 13; Gal. 
 iii. 27). The Church was Christ's body, of which 
 he was the Head (Col. i. 24, ii. 19). 
 
 But how comes it that this body of Christ is 
 described by Paul as enclosing unworthy mem- 
 bers, "vessels of dishonor" (2 Tim. ii. 20)? 
 Not because the term is used in a general sense, 
 just as the Israelites were called collectively the 
 " people of God," but rather, as Luther says, be- 
 cause Paul speaks synecdochically, putting the 
 whole for a part, looking not at the unsaintly, 
 but at the saintly, at those who had really put 
 on Christ, and by their lives gave form and value 
 to the whole liody. It was indeed a recognition 
 of the distinction between the visible and the 
 invisible Church : only we must bear in mind 
 that there was then no State Church ; so that the 
 relations of the unworthy to the worthy wei'e 
 quite different from wliat they afterwards be- 
 came, when both made up one body politic. It 
 is noticeable how Paul refers to Jesus' idea of 
 the kingdom of God. He, like the other apostles, 
 put the kingdom into another reon, when the 
 Lord shall in person unite Christianity, and bring 
 it to its highest development. In the present 
 £eon, Christianity is a developing, spreading force, 
 working upon the hearts and practices of men : 
 in the future it will be completed (cf. 1 Cor. vi. 
 9 sqq., XV. 24, 50; Gal. v. 21; Eph. v. 5; 2 
 Thess. i. 5; 2 Tim. iv. 1; Heb. xii. 28; Jas. 
 ii. 5; 2 Pet. i. 11). The Church in the present 
 has for its immediate duty the steady growth in 
 God, letting his word dwell among it richly (Col. 
 iii. IG), praying, praising, and working, reaching 
 out its hands of love and comfort unto all needy 
 ones, and providing especially for the necessities 
 of the saints. Each member is a priest to offer 
 spiritual sacrifices (Heb. xiii. 15 sq.). 
 
 To the proper discharge of these duties the 
 Church had certain officers, who were endowed 
 with particular gifts. In a collective sense the 
 duties were called dianoviai (" ministrations," 1 
 Cor. xii. .5). The leaders were known as eniaiiOTTOi 
 ("overseers"), who were the elders, or "presby- 
 ters," and "deacons." Originally they were the 
 selection of the apostles themselves, then by the 
 congTegations. See Clergy. They sprang up 
 in accordance with the wants of the different 
 churches. Thus " deacons " were a necessity in 
 the Jerusalem church ; and that church was 
 modelled upon the symagogue. But the clergy 
 are not divinely constituted in the sense that God 
 gave .special order for their organization, or spe- 
 cial du-ection for their continuance : on the con- 
 trary, the New Testament contains no particular 
 ecclesiastical polity. The future Church was left 
 free to manage its affairs according to its needs. 
 — One gift of the na.scent Church was the pro- 
 phetic (1 Cor. xii. 28 sqq.). It was necessary to 
 build up the communities, and lead them unto
 
 CHURCH. 
 
 472 
 
 CHURCH. 
 
 better acquaintance with the divine 'Word. But 
 the "prophets" were not an order; rather the 
 gift was shared by presbjiers (1 Tim. iii. 2, v. 
 17), and generally by the Church (Jas. iii. 1). 
 The apostolic office was by its very conditions 
 unique and untransniissible. There will never 
 be apostles again, because they v.ere the divinely- 
 ordered /ounrfers of the Church. See Apostle. 
 
 There was a mighty difference between the 
 " legal " church in Jerusalem, and the " spiritual " 
 churches permeated by Paul's heavenly freedonr. 
 But bond and free constituted one Chiu'ch in 
 Christ Jesus ; and the test of membership was 
 not ecclesiastical observances or theological con- 
 ceptions, but love. Love to Christ, love to the 
 brethren, — by this were Christians known to the 
 world. " See how these Christians love one an- 
 other ! " was the admiring speech of their ene- 
 mies. " These things I command you, that ye 
 love one another," said Jesus (John xv. 17). And 
 John, when too feeble through age to say more, 
 repeated in the gatherings at Ephesus the words 
 of the ^Master. Love was the higher unity in 
 which the Church forgot minor differences. The 
 seal of this sweet brotherhood was the holy kiss 
 (Rom. xvi. 16). 
 
 2. The Ciiuiicn .\xd the Doctri.ve of the 
 Church in C.xtholicis.m. (a) The Ancient 
 Catholicism. — The Catholic Church is the devel- 
 opment of the Church of the New Testament; 
 and yet it contains elements which certainly are 
 not found in the New Testament. In place of 
 the body of Clirist, is the episcopacy as a divine 
 institution. .Salvation is communicated by means 
 of a priesthood. Tlie uniting band is no more 
 brotherly love, but the external organization. 
 The holiness of the external Church is increas- 
 ingly emphasized, instead of the holiness of the 
 individual member, leading directly to a belief 
 that the Cliurcli by its acts can impart this 
 quality. The I'aulinp doctrine of faith, and 
 liberty as the result, is anknown. 
 
 The Roman-Catholic theologians hold this en- 
 tire movement to be normal, a real progi'ess 
 along the lines nuirked out for it in the New 
 Testament. The Haur school, on the otlier hand 
 (see ScHWKGLEit: Das nachapostolisclie Zeitaller, 
 1846), hold that the Catholic Church was the 
 resultant of the Petrine (the particular) and the 
 Pauline (the universal) tendencies of the earliest 
 times, — a position contradicted by th(^ facts. 
 Much more to the point is it to recognize tlie posi- 
 tion of tlie Church in th(> midst of the Ronuin 
 world, wliich was permeated with the i<lea of law, 
 and therefore to find in the influence of the em- 
 pire the solution of the unquestionable tighten- 
 ing of cliurch bands. The Cliurch opposed itself 
 to tlie world. It reqiiired a strongxu- external 
 organization to enalile it to cope .successfully with 
 its foes. And this it received, although not ac- 
 cording to any direct and special divine plan, 
 from its very historical environment. When the 
 Churcli thus benefited liy tlie situation, and ex- 
 hibited a marked departure from New-Testament 
 ideas in otlier ways, there wa-s not necessarily any 
 fall from .so-called "primitive ])iuity." It is im- 
 portant to bear in mind tliat the apostles were 
 not representative men, but inspired and elevated 
 aVjove their times. Their writings are not, tliere- 
 fore, to be considered as the expression of the 
 
 Christian consciousness of their times, but rather 
 of their consciousness, — quite a different thing. 
 [Indeed, the Epistles are the very best evidence 
 that the apostolic churches were by no means 
 always such model commmiities as pious fancy 
 pictures ; although, speaking generally, the spon- 
 taneity and beauty of the new life must be freely 
 and heartily granted.] 
 
 We now examine the writings of the Fathers, 
 with a view to bring out their ideas upon the 
 Church. And first, Clement of Rome, in his First 
 Epistle In the Corinthians, parallels the episcopacy, 
 or the presbyterate, with the Old-Testament 
 priesthood, and the offerings in prayer which 
 these bishops bring with the offerings of the 
 priests, but knows nought of bishops as successors 
 of the apostles, nor of offerings by them of saving 
 efficacy for tlie congregation. In the Pastor of 
 Hennas, the high idea of the Church comes out 
 in his identification of the "Jerusalem that is 
 above" (Gal. iv. 26) with the earthly Church. 
 Ignatius, in his Epistle to the Church of Smyrna, 
 and the JIuratorian Fragment, first speak of the 
 " Catholic Church," — a phrase of contested mean- 
 ing, but probably in opposition to the dividing 
 and differing heretical churches. The Catholic 
 Church takes in all true Christians ; and so each 
 congregation was a "Catholic Church." 
 
 ^Mth noteworthy definiteness speaks IgTiatius : 
 " Each church stands under one bishop, who is the 
 representative of Christ or of God, and under the 
 presbj'ters, who are about the bishop as the apos- 
 tles were about Christ." But he does not discuss 
 the questions, how tlie bishops came to occupy 
 this position, how far they were divinely gifted 
 for their office, and how the Churcli and they 
 were guarded against erroneous leadings. Irena>us 
 and Tertullian voice the general opinion of their 
 day, when they speak of the episcopacy as the 
 representatives of the apostles, continuing their 
 work of teaching and leading the Church, and 
 thus giving to it "aiio.stolicitj'." See Irenanis 
 (IV. 26, 2) and his famous sentence (III. 24, 1): 
 " Ubi ecclesia, ibi .Spiritus Uei, et ulii Spiritus Dei,. 
 illic ecclesia et omnis gratia " (" Wliere the Church 
 is, there is the Spirit of Ciod ; and where the 
 Spirit of (iod is, tliere is the Church, and every 
 kind of grace"). Similarly Tertullian compares,, 
 as Clement of Rome had done, the presbyterate, 
 and especially the episcopacy, to the Old-Testa- 
 ment priestliood, asserting that to the Cliurch 
 belonged an " order of priests," and that the 
 bishop was the "high priest" (ponti/ex marijnns, 
 upXiepei'Z). It must, however, be allowed that the 
 notion of the bishop as the dispenser of the 
 means of grace was the development of a later 
 age. — The Alexandrian theology of a Clement 
 and an Origen did not affect tliis development. 
 Their ]>]iiIosophical and aristocratic gnosis was 
 out of the stream of New- Testament Cliristianity. 
 Agauist this stream Montanism tried tci work its 
 way, but failed ; and we find its progress in 
 Cyprian, to whom tlie bishops are the Church's 
 rulers, witli divine authority. Baptism was in- 
 deed allowed to be valid, even if performed by 
 heretics or schisnuitics ; yet the sliibliolctli, that 
 "out of the Church there is no salvation," wa-s 
 maintained ; for tho.se b.aptized by outsiders first 
 H'ceived the saving effects of their baptism when 
 they entered the Cliurch. See Baptism dy
 
 CHURCH. 
 
 473 
 
 CHURCH. 
 
 Heretics. Besides the expressions of Cyprian, 
 wliicli show tliat to tlie episcopacy lie granted 
 unconilitional authority, are others wliich as em- 
 phatically point to a necessary ])articipation of 
 the presbyters, and even of the laity, particularly 
 in the "power of the keys." Nor does he suggest 
 any explanation of this contradiction. In him, 
 also, the priest, in the Lord's Supper, represents 
 Christ, and offers the body of Christ. See ]\Iass. 
 It is true, however, tliat he does not use tlie 
 word " body " in its later Honian sense. — Cyprian 
 finds the unittj of the Chui'ch in its being built 
 upon the one Peter (Matt. xvi. 18). In Rome he 
 sees the "cathedra Petri," the root and the matrix 
 of the Catholic Church {De Unit. EccL, c. 4 ; Epist., 
 70, 73, 5.5 [.59], 45 [48]); yet he explains that 
 the Lord granted to the other apostles, and to 
 the post-apostolic bishops, the same power origi- 
 nally given to Peter, and vindicates for himself 
 independent episcopal authority. See tlie Old 
 Catholic bishop Reinke.xs : Die Lehre des hi. 
 Cyprian von der Einheit der Kirche, AViirzburg, 
 1873. 
 
 We come now to Augustine. It is from him 
 tliat the Church received her deepest and fullest 
 exposition of the doctrine of the Church. The 
 historical occasion for this was the contest with 
 the Donatists, who denied the holiness of the 
 Catholic Church, because she kept within her 
 fold tliose who had sinned unto death, as they 
 claimed; i.e., those wlio had delivered up the 
 sacred writings to the heathen persecutors. To 
 these idealists Augustine opposed the true con- 
 ception of the Church as really tlie body of Christ, 
 because the di^dne energy impelled her, and the 
 divine love inflamed her, and not liecause she 
 was spotless. In this mixed body the Lord 
 knoweth his own. The elect constitute the true 
 inner Churcli. It was substantially from Augu.s- 
 tine that tlie present Roman-Catholic doctrine of 
 the Church has been developed. He teaches 
 that out of the Cliurch there is no salvation, and 
 the sacraments, including ordination, have no 
 efficacy. He contends for the divine right of 
 episcopacy, and calls the Church "catholic," be- 
 cause she spreads herself all the world over. 
 Upon her depends the individual faith. He de- 
 clared that he believed the gospel only on the 
 autliority of the Catholic Church (" Evangelio 
 non crederem nisi me catholics ecclesise commo- 
 veret auctoritas," c. Epi-st. Euml.): consequently 
 he finds nothing in the Scriptures which contra- 
 dicts the teachings of tlie Catholic Church. And, 
 finally, he demands for this Church the support 
 of the .State. 
 
 (6) The Oriental and Occidental (Roman) Catholi- 
 cism. — The priesthood and the episcopacy were 
 fully developed in both branches of Christendom, 
 and in the Occidental churches the further ideas 
 of priestly sacrifice and absolution, and of govern- 
 ment in the Church analogous to that in the 
 State, much more than in the Oi-ient. It is 
 markworthy that the schisms which devastated 
 this Church — the Novation and the Donatist — 
 were peculiar to the Occident. This organiza- 
 tion was at length carried to the point of the 
 papal monarchy, coupled with pajjal infallibility. 
 The Oriental churches, on the other hand, in- 
 dulged in doctrinal speculations of various kinds, 
 particularly in soteriology. 
 
 Pope Leo I. claimed for the Papacy, in tlie way 
 of government more than of doctrine, the care 
 of the Universal Church. Out of his teachings 
 the later claims were naturally developed. Tlie 
 jiolitical position of Rome in the empire, and 
 the support given to the Church of Rome by the 
 (iuiperor (edict of Valentinian HI., A.I). 44.5), 
 helped very greatly this Icmlency. The desire of 
 the Latin and German peoples in the middle age 
 for an earthly repi'escntation of the divine was 
 gratified in the apjiearance of the one Roman 
 representative of the one heavenly Lord, as by 
 the doctrines of tlie mass, the saving efficacy of 
 the sacraments, the transmission of the Holy 
 Spirit through the oi'dination and the priesthood, 
 with their ability to forgive .sins as God's vice- 
 gerents. Over the State the Church claimed 
 authority; and the great popes of the middle 
 age, Gregory VH. and Innocent HI., carried out 
 this authority to its widest possible extent. 
 Finally, the Occidental Cliurch claimed to be 
 the onli/ Catholic Church, denying to the Greek 
 Chm-ch any part in the genuine Church of Christ 
 [or, ratlier, calling it schiwiaticnQ. 
 
 But these ])retensions of the Chair of Peter h.ad 
 not yet been formulated as a dogma ; for in oppo- 
 sition to them stood not only the civil authority, 
 which endeavored to break the yoke of tlie 
 Church, but also national pride, as in France, 
 during the pontificate of Boniface VIII., the con- 
 .sciousness of their original independence and 
 importance on the part of the bishops, the Ijad or 
 w'eak character of the popes, and tlie great papal 
 schism, which aroused tlie Church against the 
 Papacy. Hence, especially in France, do we find 
 a vigorous exposition of a Catholic Church in 
 distinction to the Roman Church ; and under the 
 leader.ship of D'Ailly and Gerson (cf. his De 
 modi.i uniendi el ref. eccles.) these ideas were pre- 
 sented in the great Reform councils : the coun- 
 cils were infallible, not the Pojie ; the Roman 
 Church was fallible, and under the authority of 
 the Universal Church, which was represented in 
 the councils, composed not of Ijishojis alone, but 
 also of princes, and delegates from the universi- 
 ties ; the Head of the Church was Christ ; the 
 Pope was not the head, but only the vicar of 
 Christ. The divine right of e]iiscopacy, and the 
 divine ordinance of the papal primacy, were not, 
 however, denied; and Hus was condemned to 
 death, even by a Gerson and a D',\illy, for main- 
 taining that the true Church was made up of the 
 elect, that the Papacy was not divinely appointed, 
 and that councils were not infallible. 
 
 Notwithstanding this opposition, the papal 
 theory gained ground. It dominated tlie Lateran 
 Council (151"2-17) under Leo X. The Jesuits 
 gave it their powerful advocacy. Bellarmine 
 defines the Church as the assembly of those pro- 
 fessors of the Christian faith who are bound by 
 the sacraments under the rule of legitimate pastors, 
 and especially under the Pope. But the Council 
 of Trent refused to decide between the opposing 
 theories ; and it was left for the Vatican Council 
 of 1870 to gjve the logical conclusion to tlie long 
 development, in its dogma of the infallibility of 
 the Pope, when speaking ex cathedra upon inat^ 
 ters of faith and morals. This makes the Pope 
 the Head of the Church, and as Pope Pius LX. 
 iictually claimed, in his famous letter of Aug, 7,
 
 CHURCH. 
 
 474 
 
 CHURCH. 
 
 1873, to the Emperor 'Williani, rightful ruler of 
 aU who have received baptism. 
 
 3. The Church and the Protestant Dog- 
 ma OF THE Church since the Reformation. 
 The Waldensians were the first to return to the 
 primitive idea of the Church, Viut witliout any 
 new principle of church-action, or any scienti- 
 fically settled doctrine upon the subject. The 
 first "theologian who opposed to the Roman- 
 Catholic doctrine of the Church another which 
 was well gi-ounded, was Wiclif, whom Hus fol- 
 lowed. According to him, the Church is the 
 •company of the predestinated. This was so far 
 forth both Catholic and Augustinian : but the 
 conclusion to which his idea led liini was decidedly 
 otherwise ; for lie declared that to the proper ad- 
 ministration of salvation neither priest, nor bishop, 
 nor pope was needful. He denied the papal 
 primacy and the de jure dU-ino episcopacj", and 
 maintained that God granted the laity to hold 
 fast to truths lost sight of by the clergy. The 
 Church, to AViclif, was the elect, both living and 
 dead. The next champion of Protestantism to 
 Hus is Luther, who, at the Leipzig Disputation 
 (1517), defined the Church as the Comnninion of 
 Saints, whose existence depended upon its posses- 
 sion of the Word and sacraments, and not of 
 bishop or clergy. The "power of the keys," 
 which the true Chui'ch knew, was no exclusive 
 class-possession, but the assurance, by the means 
 of gi'ace, that sin was forgiven, independent of 
 the personal character of the administrator. The 
 saints who form the Church are those who have 
 been sanctified by the Word and sacraments, 
 through the exercise of faith. On this basis 
 Luther conducted the revolt against Rome ; prov- 
 ing out of the Word that no human agency inter- 
 vened before the sinner and his Saviour, but that 
 by faith in Christ we were saved, and became 
 members of his body. The Church thus defined 
 was real, although not visible, except to God, who 
 knows his own. The evidence of saintship was a 
 holy life, and of the Church was tlie preaching of 
 the AVord and the sacraments ; and it conse- 
 quently assumed such shape as best suited this 
 activity. Luther held strong notions of the right 
 and power of the Churcli to punish otfences. In 
 cutting loose from the Churcli of Home, Luther 
 (like the Waldensians so long before) recognized 
 in that Church the membei's of Christ's Church. 
 Very different, of course, was Rome's opinion of 
 Luther's followers. In the mouth of the Luther- 
 ans the Catholic Churcli is the Church spread all 
 over the world and over all the centuries. Its 
 Head is the one Christ: its bands are the one 
 faith, one hope, one baptism. As is evident, this 
 definition of Lutlier's is too vagu(; to decide the 
 many questions and problems wliich it starts ; 
 what is purity in preaching, and administration 
 of the sacraments, and how far is it necessary? 
 •what is the power of tlie Churcli? who should 
 exercise it? etc. Tlie i)ositioii of the Church to 
 the State was the result of circumstances ; its 
 mode of government was almost accidental ; and 
 the question of a return to episcopacy w:w left 
 open for many years. See Lutheran Church. 
 Melanclithon in his later teaching einpha-sizes tlie 
 conception of the Clinrcli as a visible organiza- 
 tion, in whicli the ]ime Word or the pure doctrine 
 was taught; and in its doing of these tilings con- 
 
 sisted its visibility. [He also favored a modified 
 episcopacy, and was wilUug even to allow a papal 
 supremacy over the Church, provided the Pope 
 tolerated the freedom of the gospel. See Schaff : 
 Creeda, I. 2.54.] 
 
 The Reformed Confessions describe the Church 
 as the Communion of Believers or .Saints, and 
 condition its existence on the pure preaching of 
 the Word. They distinguish between the visible 
 and the invisible Church ; the latter composed of 
 the elect, who, however, know their election, 
 and therefore their membership in the invisible 
 Church. The Reformed theologians made much 
 less of tlie sacraments. Thev declared that the 
 Church was in no sense the " clispenser of grace," 
 as the Roman Catholics and Lutherans affirm. 
 Various solutions were offered to the problem of 
 Church and .State. Zwingli made the Chm-ch 
 the servant of the State. Calvin favored presby- 
 terial government, and independence of the .State, 
 but could not carry out his scheme. As in the 
 case of the Lutherans, the political surroundings 
 and relations dominated the Church, and only 
 where these were hostile did the Church assume 
 independent government. The theory of com- 
 plete separation of Church and State belongs to 
 a later period. Inside the Reformed churches 
 difference of opinion also existed in regard to 
 ecclesiastical polity ; and so Presh_\i.erianisra and 
 Congi-egationalism sprang up side by side. The 
 Reformed theory in government and theology 
 reached its extremest point in Quakerism. 
 
 L'nlike either the Lutheran or the Reformed 
 churches, is the Anglican. Reformed in its teach- 
 ings on the sacraments, it is yet Melanchthonian 
 in its assertion of the visibility of the Church. 
 But its assertion of the necessity of apostolical 
 succession to the existence of the Church of 
 Christ is not found in its Thirty-nine Articles. 
 
 After the Reformation, followed a period when 
 a newly-awakened religiousness rebelled against 
 the too tightly drawn lines of ecclesiastical polity. 
 Then came in rationalism, religious indifference, 
 and unbelief, which depreciated the Cliurch in 
 any .sense. .Speiier strove to counteract this dis- 
 integrating tendency by awakening the laity; but 
 Pietism sought rather the satisfaction of personal 
 religious \\ants through (;ccIcsIoI(e. Tlie piety 
 which here sought satisfaction took on a narrow, 
 legal character, and one related to the Reformed 
 idea. Rationalism considered the Church as a 
 purely human organization, on a level with otlier 
 societies, and denied that Jesus ever contemplated 
 tlie formation of a Church. 
 
 [Of great influence was the view of Schleierma- 
 clier (i7<)8-liS;il); namely, that "the Christian 
 Churcli is (piickened by the Holy (Jlio.st, and is 
 in its purity and completeness a perfect copy of 
 the Saviour, and that every regenerate soul is 
 a coin]ionent jiart of this society " (Dcr clirhl- 
 liche Glanhc. 3d ed.. Berlin. 183(i, "ll. 3t)()). The 
 theory of Rotlie (1799-1807) w.is quite different. 
 He held, that, in the true moral dcvelopinent, 
 civil society is in itself a religious community. 
 Every man should have a part in the Cliurch; 
 for only thus can his part in other associ- 
 ations Iiave iiior.al validity. It follows, that, 
 when liuinanity becomes perfect, the Cliuicli van- 
 ishes ; for then the sjihere of the moral ami that 
 of the religious communion become one and the
 
 CHURCH. 
 
 475 
 
 CHURCH-PROPERTY. 
 
 samo: hence the Church disappears in proportion 
 as tlie State becomes perfect. Tliis j^rachial solu- 
 tion of tlie Church in the State can take phice 
 only by the State becoming a religious body, a 
 kingdom of God, — a tlieocracy in the highest 
 sense. See 11. Rothe: Die Anfdnr/e der christ- 
 Uchen Kirche, Wittenberg, 1887.] 
 
 The f riglit of revolution in the first part of the 
 century produced in Germany, in some quarters, 
 a longing for authority ; and so a new emphasis 
 was laid upon tlie Church. It was clothed with 
 divine might and right: it was a divine institu- 
 tion, and was composed of the baptized. There 
 was talk of reviving the episcopacy. The dis- 
 cussion elicited by tliis Neo-Lutheranism showed 
 the necessity of ecclesiastically recognizing the 
 laity, and of giving them part in the government 
 of the Church. The condition of the Church's 
 existence and growtli is, however, not in its 
 polity or policy, but in its use of tlie divinely- 
 ordained means of grace, and, above all, in the 
 jM-esence of the Holy Spirit, who gives efficacy to 
 the Word, and enables the congregations to live 
 and work together in love. .J. KbSTLix. 
 
 lu England, about the same time, arose Iligh- 
 Churchism (Anglo-Catholicism) with its roman- 
 izing tendency as expressed in the famous Oxford 
 Tracts for the Times. See Puseyism, Tuacta- 
 ]a.\NiSM. The Anglo-Catholics announced their 
 lielief, (1) In apostolic succession (i.e., the min- 
 istry of the Church of England was derived by 
 miinterrupted descent, through episcopacy, from 
 the aiiostles, and is a permanent and imalterable 
 institution : upon this connection with the apos- 
 tles rested the efficacy of the sacraments) ; (2) In 
 baptismal regeneration; (3) The eucliaristio sac- 
 rifice, and the real conrmunion in the body and 
 blood of our Lord ; (4) The appeal to the Cliurch 
 from the beginning as the depositary and witness 
 of the truth. Opposite to them is the Broad- 
 Church party, which, in the interests of the widest 
 freedom, denies that apostolical succession is 
 essential to the Church and the sacraments. A 
 strange product of the extreme High-Church 
 view is the Catholic Apostolic Church, commonly 
 called the Irvingite. The interpretation of the 
 New-Testament passages in the interest of epis- 
 copacy is gradually giving way to a more liberal 
 exegesis under the influence of such scholars as 
 Bishops EUicott and Lightfoot, G. A. .Jacob, and 
 E. Hatch. See Bisnop; Exgland, Church ov. 
 
 Lit. — Petersen : Die Idee dcr chrisilichen 
 Kirche, 3 Thle., Leipzig, lS3!)-iG; W. Palmer; 
 On the Church, London, 1842 ; KOstlin : Lu- 
 ther's Lehre von der Kirche, Gotha, 1853 ; the 
 same : Luther's Theologie, 18(53, and Das Wesen 
 der Kirche nach Lehre und Geschichte des N. T., 2d 
 ed., 1872 ; Munchmeyek : Das Dorjma v.d. sichtb. 
 ■u. unsichtb. Kirche, Gdttiugen, 1854 ; St.\hi. : Die 
 Kirchenverfassung nach Lehre v. Recht. d. Protest. 
 2d ed., Erlangen, 1862 ; Huscuke : Die streitiejen 
 Lehren von der Kirche, Leipzig, 18(j3; IIundes- 
 hagen: Beitrd(/e zur Kirchenrerfassungsyeschichle, 
 Wiesbaden, 18G4; Zezschwitz : Die tvesentlichen 
 i'er/asswu/sziclc der luth. ii(;/b?v«., Leipzig, 1867; 
 .1. .1. McElhixney : The Doctrine of the Church, 
 i'hila., 1871; II. Cotterill : The Genesis of the 
 < ','iurch, Edinburgh and London, 1872; IL^ckkn- 
 .s.'HMlDT: Die Anfdnge des kalholischen Kirchen- 
 liejriffs /., Strassburg, 1874 ; Riezleu : Dieliterar. 
 
 Widrrsdchrr der Pupste, Leipzig, 1874; Th. Fiin.s- 
 ter; Der .Mtcalholizismus, Gotha, 1879 ; K. Hack- 
 ENs<'HMii>T : Die Kirche iin Glauben des evan- 
 i/e/ischi n Christen, Erlangen, 1881. 
 
 CHURCH-DIET. Sec Kirch extag. 
 
 CHURCH-PROPERTY. The means necessary 
 for its (organization and maintenance the primi- 
 t.i\e t^hurch dci'ived, partly from voluntary gifts, 
 and partly from direct taxes levied ujion its mem- 
 bership. The revenues thus raised were collected 
 in a conunon diocesan purse, whence they were 
 paid out, in proportionate allotments, to the 
 clergy, for the fabrica ecclesice (that is, the church- 
 liuilding, the cemetery, etc.), and to the poor. The. 
 administration devolved originally ujion the pres- 
 bytei'v, and afterwards upon a steward, oMovojioq, 
 appointed by the presbytery, and acting undei 
 the supervision of the bishop. The Council of 
 Chalcedon (451) recommended the apj^ointment 
 of such an officer in every diocese ; and the office 
 was still in existence when the Fourth Council of 
 Toledo was held (633), though at that time the 
 financial department of the Christian Church 
 had long lost its original simplicity. 
 
 In 321 Constantine tlie Great granted permis- 
 sion to donate and bequeath property to the 
 Christian Church ; and this permission was so 
 extensively used, that, already in 364, Valentinian 
 felt constrained to enact a mortmain law in 
 order to prevent the accumulation of land by the 
 Church. Property consisted at that time chiefly 
 of land ; and great masses of landed property 
 accrued to the Church fi'om bequests for the 
 erection or ornamentation of buildings, for the 
 foundation or maintenance of establishments, 
 etc. 'N'alentinian's law, however, liad no perma- 
 nent influence. Under .lustinian (527-565) it 
 became a recognized maxim of Roman jurispru- 
 dence, and the general practice of the Roman 
 courts, to put tlie most favorable construction on 
 wills making dispositions of property for the bene- 
 fit of the tlun-ch. It occurred very frequently, 
 tliat by will a legacy was given to the Church 
 in general, or to the poor in general, or to God ; 
 Imt in such cases the courts never allowed the 
 legacy to be lost on account of the uncertainty of 
 tlie instrument, but construed it to inure to the 
 parish of tlie testator. Thus the Church soon 
 liecame very rich, holding property in every form 
 in which property could be held : and this wealth 
 was well g-uarded ; it could not be alienated by 
 its present incumbents, and robbers of it were 
 pmiislied doubly. 
 
 ]5ut the question now arose, '\A1io is the true 
 owner of all this property? In the contest be- 
 tween the monastic institutions and the episco- 
 pal authority, the bishop protested that he was 
 the real owner of all the ecclesiastical property in 
 his diocese ; but finding no support from the 
 Pope, whose policy it was to use monasticism as 
 a counterpoise to the episcop.acy, the claim was 
 never recognized. Again : in the contest between 
 the episcopacy and the papacy, the Pope asserted 
 that he, as the representative of the Universal 
 Church, was the real owner of all the property 
 of the Church, and to a certain extent he suc- 
 cee<led in establishing his claim. Finally, in the 
 contest between the Church and the secular gov- 
 ernment, the Church declared that its property 
 belonged to Christ, and any encroachment upon
 
 CHURCH-PROPERTY. 
 
 476 
 
 CHURCHING OF WOMEN. 
 
 its rights, or privileges, or immunities, was a rob- 
 bery of Christ. It may be doubtful whether such 
 an argument ever could have obtained legal force ; 
 but it is certain that it made a deep impression 
 on people in general, and exercised great influ- 
 ence on the formation of public opinion. There 
 was also a theory afloat according to which the 
 property of the 'Chiu-ch belonged to the poor; 
 but the" practical difliculties of this theory were 
 .so obvious, that it remained a mere phrase. But 
 the true theory, that on which practical life 
 moved along, was, that each ecclesiastical insti- 
 tution was the real o\\-ner of its property : not 
 so, however, that the present representatives of 
 the institution, the congregation of the Church, 
 the members of the order, the inmates of an asy- 
 lum, etc., could do with the property what they 
 liked ; for the property did not belong to the per- 
 sons who enjoyed it, but to the purjjose, religious 
 or charitable, for whose promotion it was set apart. 
 
 The Reformation acknowledged tliis pruiciple, 
 and acted upon it, at least in the beginning. 
 When the object of a certain institution was 
 rejected, as, for instance, in the case of monas- 
 teries, legacies for saying mass, etc., the institu- 
 tion was dissolved, and its property confiscated. 
 But when the institution was preserved, its 
 projierty remained with it, and was applied only 
 for religious or cliaritable purposes. See Lutiiek : 
 Onlnung eines f/emeinfn Kastens, Itatliscldaf/, tcie 
 die geistlichen Giiter zu hamlelen sind, 1523. By 
 degrees, however, as the Reformation spread and 
 split, and every State organized its own church 
 establishment, the Church became a function of 
 the State, a State institution, and the State be- 
 came the owner of the property of the Church. 
 Such is the case in all Protestant countries, witli 
 one gi-eat exception, — America, in which the 
 Church is perfectly free and independent of the 
 State, — and a number of minor exceptions arising 
 from the existence of dissenting churches beside 
 the State establishment. Sucli is also the case in 
 France ; though it has proved very difficult, as the 
 people are Koman-Catliolic, to carry through there 
 the princijile of organizing the Church as a State 
 institution. But there is at present a tendency 
 abroad in all evangelical countries to revi.se the 
 now ruling system of Church organization in 
 favor of freedom and independence ; and tlie re- 
 vision will, of course, hav<' its influence also on 
 the question of holding ])roperty. See the articles 
 on TKniuTORi.\i.is.M and Cor.i.K<;i.\i.i.sM. 
 
 In .\merica a churcli may hold projierty in 
 various ways, sometimes not without impedi- 
 ments of various kimls, but always with perfect 
 safety. The law of charity is here the chief 
 protector of cliin-di-property, and. in connection 
 with the law of trusts, also tlie chief regulator. 
 When a religious society is incorporated, it is 
 regarded by the law, and treated by it, exactly 
 like any other civil corporation, — a railroad com- 
 pany, a bank, or an insurance company ; and the 
 civil courts will not interfere with its organiza- 
 tion, order, discipline, doctrine, or ownership of 
 jiroperty, except to enforce an .application of its 
 wealth in strict accordance with tlie purposes for 
 which it wiis iiccpiired. When, however, a reli- 
 gious society is not incor])orat<'d (and in some 
 States a charter cannot be obtained by them), 
 they are not recognized as having a legal existr 
 
 ence. They can neither sue nor be sued in civil 
 courts ; and they cannot hold property directly, 
 yet they can control property held by others for 
 their use. Donations and grants may be legally 
 made to trustees for the use and benefit of an 
 unincorporated society ; and courts of equity will 
 protect them in the enjoyment of their rights, 
 and, if necessary, will raise uji legal trustees 
 through whom they may act. 
 
 Lit. — Ew.\LD : Die Kirclie uiul ihre Institute 
 auf dem Gehiete des Vermof/ensreclils. 1845; Hij- 
 BLER : Der Eir/eiilliiimer des Kircliengutes, Leipzig, 
 1868 ; AV. Stroxg : Two Lectures upon the Rela- 
 tions of Cifil Law to Church Polity, Discipline, and 
 Properti/, Xew York, 1875. 
 
 CHURCH-RATE is a tax imposed on the pa- 
 rishioners, and occupiers of land in a parish of 
 England for church repairs : the payment, how- 
 ever, cannot be compelled. It is proposed by the 
 church-wardens, and must be voted by a majority 
 of the parishioners at a regularly constituted 
 meeting. 
 
 CHURCH-REGISTERS were books in which 
 the minister recorded the births, deaths, and mar- 
 riages, etc., occurring in his congregation. The 
 custom originated in the Roman law ; but, in spite 
 of its eminent usefidness, it never became a gen- 
 eral law, and never acquired a universal method. 
 The oldest records of this kind still extant are 
 the Ijaptismal registei's of Florence, beginning 
 with 1 1.')0. There are French burial registers from 
 1515; and in 1539 Francis I. ordered that bap- 
 tismal registers should also be kept. The Council 
 of Trent (^sess. XXIV. cap. 1 and 2, de reform, 
 matrius.) instituted marriage registers; and the 
 institution was adopted also in Protestant coun- 
 tries. As, however, the civil law could not well 
 leave it entirely to the Church to decide whether 
 or not in a certain case there existed a real mar- 
 riage, a French law of Sept. 20, 1792. transferred 
 the whole V)usiness of registering to a civil officer ; 
 and this change was afterwards introduced in all 
 civilized countries. 
 
 CHURCH-WARDENS, lay-olficers in the Epis- 
 copal t'hiu'ch in Kngiand and America, appointed 
 by the united consent of minister and parishioners 
 (in the United St.ates they ai'e elected at Easter). 
 whose dutii's are to ]irot(>ctlhechinrh-bnilding,and 
 provide i>nblic worship, and see that it be orderlv. 
 
 CHURCHING OF WOMEN, or Thanksgiving 
 of AVonicn after ('hil(ll)irtli. The Hebrew idea, 
 that child-bearing was in a sense a di'iilement 
 which required purification on the fortieth d.ay 
 (Lev. xii.), passed over into the Christian Clun"ch. 
 and comes out in Dionysius of Alexandria, the 
 canons of Xiciea, Chry.sostom, and Augustine 
 (Que.^t. in Levit., lib. iii. cj. 04). Primitively there 
 were no fornndaries for this purpose ; but there 
 was a sei"vice of some sort, at the discretion of 
 the priest. "On tlie fortii^tli day the mother and 
 the child, accompanied by the godfather, went 
 solemnly to church. Beft)re (he church-door the 
 priest received them, signed the mother with the 
 cross, and said over her several jirayers. lie then 
 took the child, made the sign of the cross with it, 
 and carried it up to the altar. The godfather 
 then receiveil it from the ]iriest, and left th(> 
 church" (.Smith's Diet. Christ. Antii/., in loco). 
 The service as now unvxl in the (ireek, Roman, 
 and Episcojial churches, is based upon the Chris-
 
 CHURCH AND STATE. 
 
 477 
 
 CHURCH AND STATE. 
 
 iian idea, tliat tliero is lienor, not df-fileiiient, in 
 inothcrliood ; and women safely delivered are 
 lionnd to thank God pulilicly for his mercy in 
 granting them offspring, and in preserving their 
 lives. In the Church of Englancl the title to the 
 office in the first book of P^dward VI. was " 'I'he 
 Order of the Purification of Women," the old 
 title ; but in the second book it was altered to 
 "The Thanksgiving of Women after Cliildliirth; 
 commonly called the Churching of Women." No 
 set day was appointed for it, but custom would 
 naturally fix upon one. The ceremony prescribed 
 is very simple and beautiful. Some curious in- 
 formation upon this subject will be found in vol. 
 iii. pp. 1751-1763, of the Book of Common Prai/er, 
 with Notes by Aiiciiibald John Stephens, Lon- 
 don, 18.51, 3 vols. 
 
 CHURCH AND STATE. The relation between 
 Church and State may be conceived of on three 
 different principles, — the supremacy of the Church, 
 the supremacy of the State, and their reciprocal 
 independence of each other. Each of these prin- 
 ciples has, in succession, been tried in the history 
 of the Church. The first is the ideal of the Ko- 
 man-Catholic Church, and has for centuries been 
 the cause of perpetual contests, full of confusion 
 and misery. At one time it seemed to be on the 
 high road to victory ; but it finally failed, and it 
 now stands in history as a ghastly spectre from 
 the past. The second was adopted by the Re- 
 formed churches as the most, if not tlie only, 
 practicable issue, — as a convenience, if not as a 
 necessity. But in course of time it proved so ill 
 suited to the strongest demands of the Church, 
 so incapable of satisfying her deepest impulses, 
 that it became an object of many reproaches, and 
 was driven into much compromising, remodelling, 
 and patching up, probably as a preliminary to its 
 entire abandonment. The third finally developed 
 in the United States of America, as the natural 
 result of their free political constitution ; and the 
 success wliich it has already achieved indicates 
 that it has opened a new chapter in the history 
 of the Church, — a chapter of the most decisive 
 interest. 
 
 The Christian Church started in the Roman 
 Empire as a forbidden organization, and was, as 
 such, subject to bitter attempts at extinction. In 
 the fourth century, under Constantine the Cireat, 
 this situation was completely changed. When 
 the Emperor became a Christian, the Chiistian 
 Church became an active part of the State, like 
 the judicature, or the army, an organ, and that 
 the most vital one, — the heart. Still greater 
 changes soon took place in its external condition, 
 ■with corresponding effect, of course, on its in- 
 ternal construction. In the East, when the Greek 
 civilization had run out its course, Christianity 
 became the heir of its philosophy ; but, in the 
 same degree as it assimOated this its new acqui- 
 sition, it ceased to be a religion, and became 
 itself a philosophy. Its enthusiasm sprouted out 
 in speculation ; its conscience got entangled in 
 dialectics ; its wisdom became petrified in mere 
 dogmatics. In the West, by the general decay 
 of the empire, by its division int(^ two empires, 
 by the disintegTation of the western empire, the 
 Christian Church was made the heir of the pres- 
 tige of tlie city of Rome, for centuries tlie mis- 
 tress of the world ; and in the same de';ree as the 
 
 Church took possession of this its new heirloom 
 it ceased to lie a preacher, ami became itself 
 a ruler. Most of the good which the Iloman- 
 Catholic Church has done for Europe during tlie 
 dark ages and the middle ages — and Hk; sum 
 total is incalculable — she did, not as the me.s.sen- 
 ger of the gospel, but because she furnished the 
 noblest and the strongest government. 
 
 The sources of the immense power wliicli the 
 Church of Rome attained during those ages are 
 by no means a mystery. She was then teaching 
 people the first rudiments, that is, the essential 
 elements, of luinian nobleness,. — to obey, not as 
 the slave or the vanquished, Ijut from love and 
 reverence, and to work, not from greed or any 
 other impulse of egotism, but from gratitude for 
 the faculties given, and for the glory of the giver. 
 She w;is then gathering into her bosom the most 
 and the best of the genius which was produced. 
 In the feudal world one was born in a castle, on 
 the back of a horse, and with a sword in his 
 hand; another in a hut, crouching on his knees in 
 the dust: and no amount of idiocy or genius could 
 possibly change their lots. But in the ecclesiasti- 
 cal world the gates of the Church stood open to 
 all, to the serf as well as to the king, provided he 
 was a man of upright heart and clear brain, of 
 pure will and strong understanding; and in the 
 Church he was sure to rise according to his gifts 
 and his energy. She was, then, the sole possessor 
 of science and art. All knowledge, from the ori- 
 gin of a tliunderstorm to the mysteries of the 
 Trinity, from a song by Horace to the Lord's 
 Prayer, she held ; all skill, from the tilling of a 
 vineyard to the rearing of a cathedral, from the 
 curing of a fever to the fabrication of gunpowder, 
 was in her hands. Even the science and art of 
 war did not form an exception. She held, then, 
 the weightiest, the most intelligible, and the only 
 beloved and awe-iuspiring title of authority. The 
 king had his sword with what agony of blood 
 and brand might still cling to it, and upon his 
 sword depended all his claim to authority ; could 
 anybody dull or break it, so much the better. 
 But the Pope had the prestige of Rome, and on 
 the background of this radiant effulgence the 
 words of the Lord to Peter, his predecessor. To 
 deny this authority, was, indeed, to .shut one's 
 self out from ■what light the world contained, and 
 turn away into utter darkness. Tlius the idea 
 that all jiower on earth emanated from the Church, 
 and centred in the Pope, w-as the natural and in- 
 evitable outcome of history itself, and by no 
 means the dream of a diseased ambition, or the 
 result of a well-contrived fraud. But the idea 
 was one born of time, to be again swallowed by 
 time. In Gregory YH. it became conscious of 
 itself. In Innocent III. it found its most bril- 
 liant expression. In Boniface VIII. it already 
 became a desperate struggle on the other side of 
 the line, on the course downwards. 
 
 In order to realize this idea, it ■was necessary, 
 first, to orgaime the ■whole mass of the Church 
 into one compact body, independent of those di- 
 visions into states into which the secular world 
 was cut up, and, next, to bring the collected force 
 of this one body to bear upon each of the secular 
 divisions individually- until the .state was actually 
 crushed into submission. The first part of this 
 problem the Roman Chvu-ch handled with mar-
 
 CHURCH AND STATE. 
 
 478 
 
 CHURCH AND STATE. 
 
 veUous success. But she never achieved a com- 
 plete solution ; and hence it follows, that she never 
 came to try herself fairly on the second part of 
 the problem. In his contest with Germany the 
 Pope succeeded in makmg the papal election com- 
 pletely mdependent of fhe Emperor; but with 
 respect to the next step m the process of emanci- 
 pation, his attempt to make the episcopal election 
 dependent on the papal see alone, he accomplished 
 only a compromise. In spite of such striJving 
 scenes as Henry IV. at Canossa standing bare- 
 footed, almost naked, for hours and days mider 
 the window of the Pope, or the army of Barba- 
 rossa before the gates of Rome melting away like 
 snow, vanisliing into nothingness, mitil the victo- 
 rious emperor must flee, alone, and with no one 
 but Death himself for. a groom, the victory was 
 only apparent. The investiture with ring and 
 staff was reserved for the Pope ; but the bishops' 
 oath of allegiance to the Emperor, as holders of 
 imperial fiefs, was not abolished. Equally am- 
 biguous was the Pope's victory in his contest with 
 England. Tlie question was, whether the canon 
 law, or the " customs of our fathers," should ride 
 over England ; that is, whether, in secular affairs, 
 the English clergy should be amenable to the 
 jurisdiction of the civil com'ts of the countiy, or 
 whether, in secular as in spiritual mattters, tlioy 
 should be amenable only to the jurisdiction of their 
 own ecclesiastical courts. But though Henry II. 
 was soundly flogged on his bare back by the Can- 
 terbury monks before the miracle-working corpse 
 of the murdered Thomas Becket, the English 
 king could never be prevented from dragging into 
 the civil courts the priests who iiappeued to com- 
 mit murder or theft, and punishing them accord- 
 ing to the "customs of oui- fathers." Thus, al- 
 though the organization of tlie Church into one 
 compact body, independent of all secular powers 
 of the States, was carried onwards with trium- 
 phant energy, it was never completed ; and the 
 result hereot was, that when the Pope attempted 
 to meet the secular power in its own field, and to 
 overawe it by liis mere presence, his attempts 
 were looked upon by many contemporaries as a 
 dangerous and unbearable arrogance, and to om' 
 times they even assume a somewhat humorous 
 aspect. He pretended to give away the crowns 
 of Naples, of Hungary, indeed, all crowns, even 
 that of tlie Emperor ; but, when in; happened to 
 give a crown to a man who had no power of his 
 own to vindicate it, the gift never proved of any 
 value. 
 
 The principal reasons, however, why the estab- 
 lishment of a universal cliurch-monarchy failed, 
 were tlie internal decay of tlie Church herself, 
 and the rapid development of distinct nationali- 
 ties in Europe. Thei'c came a time, towards tlie 
 clo.se of tlie middle ages, when the Church of 
 Rome was not teaching people any more the 
 rudiments of nobleness, but the rehnenients of 
 crime; when she was not gatliering to hcr.self 
 any more the flower of tlie nations, but filled lier 
 ranks witli those who were weak and lazy and 
 indifferent ; when .science and art had gone .some- 
 where else, and even become her bitterest eno- 
 niies; when her very title of authority was read 
 with incredulity, au<l laid aside witli a smile. 
 By her vices she lost lier power; aii<l, the power 
 gone, the idea suggested by it became ab.surd. 
 
 But. even if the Churcli of Home had never been 
 found wanting herself in any respect, the idea of 
 a universal church-monarchy would, nevertheless, 
 have proved an impossibility on account of the 
 steadily gi'owing national dili'erentiation of tl*e 
 mass of the subjects. Had Europe been inhab- 
 ited by one nation, with homogeneous instincts 
 and impulses, homogeneous traditions and aspira- 
 tions, homogeneous customs and manners, it 
 might still have been sitting quietly in tlie dark 
 ages, lit up with Roman candles from one end to 
 the otlier. and no one suspecting the existence 
 of a sun in the world. But as it was a number of 
 nations consolidating themselves, each having its 
 own errand to do, the Church herself became 
 split into many divisions ; for the Church is not 
 and can never be, like the imperium liomaniim, a 
 mere superstructure which can be stretched across 
 all national ditt'erences. AVith the nations the 
 Chm-ch became national; and ah-eady, at the Coun- 
 cil of Trent, the Pope was compelled to make 
 special arrangements with the special states (see 
 Coxcord.\t), which siinpl)- amounts to a practi- 
 cal abandonment of the idea of a universal church- 
 monarchy. In the individual states the Pope still 
 continued to exert himself in order to maintain 
 the supremacy of the Church, with what ups and 
 downs may be learned from the concordats with 
 Napoleon I. and Francis Joseph I., with what 
 final result may be inferred from recent events, 
 — the Kulturkampf in Germanj', the expulsion of 
 the Congregations in France, etc. But if the 
 Pope now would rejieat the famous words of 
 Boniface VIII., " Rotuanus punlifcx omnia Jura in 
 scrinio pectoris sui luihere censelur," he would simply 
 make the impression of a distracted actor sud- 
 denly wandering astray into a wrong part. A 
 striking exposition of the enormous claims which 
 the Pope made, and of the opposition which he 
 met already in the period of the Council of Con- 
 stance, is found in Gekson'-s De poleslale ecclesi- 
 astira considerationes, written during the sessions 
 of the council. Opera, vol. II. pars II., Antwerp, 
 1706. Among modern ultramontane writers, see 
 Joseph de Maistue: Du I'ape, Lyons, 1819. 
 
 With the Reformation the principle of tlie re- 
 lation between Church and State was comiiletely 
 rever.sed. Tlie Ronian-Catliolic Cliurcli luul tried 
 to make the State her right hand by %\liich to 
 defend her property, temporal and spiiitual, from 
 robbers and heretics. 'I'he Keformed Church 
 became the left hand of the State, charged with 
 keeping bai'k the citizens from any kind of unruly 
 or immoral behavior. Tli<! Church supreme, the 
 State her knight ; the State supreme, the Church 
 its servant, — that was the change. 11 took place 
 in a somewhat different manner in Kiigland ami 
 on the Continent ; but it was es.sentially the same 
 in both cases, and had the same effect. Tlio 
 maxim "■ ciijus rei/io, ejus relii/io," the pithy defini- 
 tion of territorialisni, wliicli makes the religion 
 of the people dependent of the religion of the 
 ruler of the country, became the leading principle 
 in all Protestant states on tlie Continent ; and, in 
 s|iit(! of a certain roughness of expression, it; 
 agrees fully with wliat w'e read in the Thirty-nino 
 .\rticles : " The (Queen's Majesty has the chief 
 power in tliis Realm of Englaiid, and other her 
 Dominions, unto whom the chief (Jovernment of 
 all Instates of this Realm, whether they be ICcde-
 
 CHURCH AND STATE. 
 
 479 
 
 CHURCH AND STATE. 
 
 siastical or Civil, in all causes dotli a]ipertaiii. 
 . . . They [the princes] should rule all states 
 and degrees committed to their charge liy (iod, 
 whether they be Ecclesia-stical or 'I'eiiiporal, and 
 restrain with the civil sword the; stubborn and 
 evil-doers " (Article XXXVII.) ; or in tlie West- 
 minster Confession of Faith : " The civil magis- 
 trate . . . has authority, iuid it is his duty, to 
 take order, that amity and peace be preserved in 
 tlie Church, that the truth of God be kept pure 
 and entire, that all blasphemies and heresies be 
 suppressed, all corruptions and abuses in worship 
 and discipline prevented or reformed, and all 
 the ordinances of God duly settled, administered, 
 and observed" (chap, xxiii. sect. III.). 
 
 It was Luther's as well as Calvin's view, that 
 the Church .should stand free and self-governing 
 under the protection of the .State. But the view 
 proved impracticable. When the Protestants cut 
 loose from the old church-moorings, the question 
 was not simply of re-organization, but of self- 
 defence. But the Reformers could go nowhere 
 else for protection than to the secular powers, — 
 what the case would have become in the hands of 
 the people, the Peasants' War showed; and the 
 princes were sure to give no support unless their 
 ideas of reform agreed with those of the Reform- 
 ers. Thus the power of reform lay practically 
 in the hands of the princes; and the maxim, 
 " whoever rules iu the State has the say in re- 
 ligion," became the established rule. Further- 
 more, as the bishops everywhere protested against 
 the Reformation, the episcopal authority and 
 jurisdiction had, in the Protestant countries, to 
 be conferred on the civil ruler. He became the 
 master of the Church as the Pope had never been. 
 He authorized its creed and rituals; he appointed 
 its ministers and teachers ; he held and adminis- 
 trated its property without responsibilitj', etc. 
 The Churcfi became a mere department of his 
 government, a mechanical apparatus, by which he 
 proposed to instil quietness, submissiveness, in- 
 dustry, and good morals ni general, into his sub- 
 jects, just as he distilled money from them by 
 means of the taxing machine. For the theoreti- 
 cal justification of this practice see Grotius : 
 De imperio summarum potcxiatum circa sacra, 
 162.3 ; PuFFEXDOKF : De hablta rcliijlonis ad vitam 
 cuHlem,lG7'2; Tno^iAsius: KirchcnrcchlHchen Vor- 
 tragen, published after his death, IToS ; Biiennky- 
 SEN : JJe jure principis circa adiaphvra, KJII"). 
 
 The results to the Church herself, of tliis her 
 complete subordination to the .State, were, first 
 the so-called orthodoxy, a barren pedantry which 
 made it impossible for any one who had not a 
 lawyer's smartness to become a good Cliristian ; 
 and, next, rationalism, which made Christianity 
 an enlightenment of the intellect, a matter of 
 the school merely. The opposition of pietism to 
 orthodoxy did not touch the question of the re- 
 lation between Church and State ; but that oppo- 
 sition did, which, in the third and fourth decades 
 cf the present century, arose against rationalism. 
 It claimed that the Cluu'ch should be a represen- 
 tation of the religious life of the congregation, 
 and it consequently demanded that the congrega- 
 tion should at least liave a certain share in the 
 government of the Church. The movement was 
 strongest in Prussia, weakest in Sweden ; but it 
 achieved everywhere some results. Elements of 
 
 preshyterian or .synodal government were every- 
 where introduced, and the movement is still m 
 vigorous progress. 
 
 In England the Reformation did not begin 
 from lielow, but from above, Henry VIII. simply 
 taking the place of the Pope, and, making himself 
 the head of the English Church ; and, when it 
 was finally accon)plished under Elizabeth, the 
 supreruacy of the State was firmly established as 
 the principle of the relation between Church and 
 State. Opposition, liowever, soon arose, first 
 fi'orn the Puritans, and afterwards from other 
 dissenters. The Puritans protested that the 
 Church and the State are two entirely distinct 
 societies ; that they ought, therefore, to stand 
 wholly independent of each other; that the Church 
 can in no way rightfully be made subject to the 
 control of the civil magistrate, etc. The oppo- 
 site view, the theory adopted by the Estaljlished 
 Church itself, is represented by Hooker, Laics 
 of Ecclesiastical Polili/, London, 1.504, who main- 
 tains that Church and State are one and the 
 same society, only contemplated from two differ- 
 ent aspects, and that the State, therefore, has a 
 perfect right to legislate for the Church. After 
 a short victory for the Puritans under Cromwell, 
 who, with certain limitations, adopted the prin- 
 ciple of toleration, guaranteed free exercise of 
 religion to all who professed faith in God and iu 
 Christ Jesus, and forbade all compulsion, by pen- 
 alties or otherwise, to conform to tlie Established 
 religion, there followed a violent re-action under 
 Charles II. It is said, that, on account of the 
 Act of Uniformity of 1662, two thousand minis- 
 ters were ejected, eight thousand laymen impris- 
 oned, and sixty thousand persons made to suffer, 
 in some w'ay or other, for conscience' sake. 
 Finallj', however, the Toleration Act of 1688, 
 granting full liberty of worship to all noncon- 
 formists excepting Roman Catholics and Unita- 
 rians, broke down the main bar obstructing the 
 freedom of the Church ; and the progress towards 
 liberty and independence has ever since been 
 iminterrupted, though slow. The act was ex- 
 tended in 1778 to Roman Catholics, and in 1813, 
 to L'nitarians. The repeal of the Test Act, etc. 
 (1828-29), gave the dissenters access to Parlia- 
 ment and public offices. The Registration and 
 Marriage Acts of 1S.36, 1837, and 1844, made the 
 baptisms and marriages performed by dissenting 
 ministers valid before the law. The Reform Bill 
 of 18.54 opened the universities of Oxford and 
 Cambridge to dissenting students, etc. Jlean- 
 wliile, also, the theory changed. In his T/ie 
 Alliance heficeen Church and iStute, London, 1736, 
 Warburton accepts the Puritan premise, that 
 the Church and the State are distinct societies, 
 but rejects the inference, that, for that reason, 
 they should remain independent of each other, 
 and construes the relation as an alliance, some- 
 thing like a contract social for the sake of mutual 
 advantage. The book is not remarkable for any 
 logical strength in its reasoning ; but it is interest- 
 ing as indicating a decisive step onward in the 
 direction of liberty. Among more recent contri- 
 butions to the theoretical solution of the (juestion 
 are, S. T. Coleridge : On the Constitution of the 
 Church and Stale accordintj to the Idea of each, 
 London, 1830; Thomas Arnold: Fragment on 
 the Church, unfinished, and published after his
 
 CHURCH AND STATE. 
 
 480 
 
 CHURCH HISTORY. 
 
 death, London, 1844 ; Gladstone : The Slate in 
 its Relations with the Church, London, 1838, fourth 
 revised edition, 1841 ; Church Principles consid- 
 tred in their Kesults, London, 1840; Lonn Mon- 
 tague : The Four Experiments in Church anil 
 State. London, 1863. 
 
 The principle of independence as the true re- 
 lation between Church and State was not brought 
 to America by the Puritans. Though they left 
 their native country on account of the tyranny of 
 its church-establishment, they established a state- 
 church themselves no less tyrannical. Xo man, 
 tliev enacted, who did not belong to the Church 
 of the Colony, should have the freedom of the 
 Colony. Romanists, Baptists, and others were 
 excluded. Quakers were punished with impris- 
 onment, and. in four cases, even with death. 
 But other denomination's were settled in other 
 Colonies, — the Baptists in Rhode Island, the 
 Episcopal Chiu'ch in Virginia, the Roman Church 
 in Maryland, the Quakers in Pennsylvania, etc.; 
 and when these Colonies were united, and a Con- 
 stitution was framed for the Union, it was found 
 necessary to secure entire freedom of religion by the 
 provision that "Congi'ess shall make no law re- 
 specting an establishment of religion, or prohibit- 
 ing the free exercise thereof." From the Constitu- 
 tion of the Union this principle was gradually 
 introduced into the constitutions of the indi- 
 vidual States, so far as it was not found there 
 beforehand. In Virginia it had been established 
 already in 178.5 ; but in Massachusetts it was 
 not completed until 1833, up to which time the 
 Church was still supported in Massachusetts by 
 State taxation ; and with the State support fol- 
 lowed, of course, a kind of State control. Now, 
 in all the .States and Territories (except in Utah), 
 the Church is entii-ely separated from the secular 
 government, forms her creeds, arranges her ritu- 
 als, builds and owns her churches, educates and 
 appoints lier ministers. In the Mormon Terri- 
 tory of Utah, politics and religion are blended ; 
 but other denominations have built churches in 
 Salt Lake City. 
 
 Lit. — RiFFKL : Geschichtliche Darstellunq der 
 Verhciltnisse zwkchcn Kirchc und Slaat, Mainz, 
 1836; ViNET : La separation de I'Eylise el de I'Elnl 
 Paris, 1842: Baikd: Jlelii/ion ui America, Glas- 
 gow, 184"J; I. I. McKlminxk.y: The Doctrine of 
 the Church, Pliiladelpliia. 1871: C. 1\I. CuRCi : 
 Der heulir/e Ziriex/mlt zicisrhin Strint und Kirche. 
 Aus dem Itat.. Wien, 1878; M. Mingiietti: 
 Stain e Chiesa. Milano. 1878: Ger. trans.. Gotha, 
 1881 ; .Samcf.i. T. Si-eai: : f!elir/inn and the Slate, 
 or the Hdile anil l!,r I'lihlir S.hnnls. V.^v Vnrk. 1>;70; 
 Schakk: Chrislianiti/ in the I'niteil .S7«to, Basel 
 and London, is7i) (in the Proceedings of the 
 Seventh General Conference of the Kvangelical 
 Alliance); Xiim-oi.d: Die Thenrie der Tnnnunf/ 
 r. Kirche u. Slaat yeschichllich heleuchlel (87 pp.), 
 B<TN. ISSl. CT.KMKX.'^ PKTKRSEN. 
 
 CHURCH DISCIPLINE. .See Disciit.ink. 
 
 CHURCH GOVERNMENT. See I'oi.rrv. 
 
 CHURCH HISTORY. I. Natuhe a.ni. Aim. 
 — Cliurili liislory is lli(! largest, and, with the 
 exception of exegesis, the mo.st important, depart- 
 ment of theologicil science or sacred learning. 
 It embraces, in tlie widest sense, tlie whole 
 religious development of mankind, from the 
 creation ilown to the present time, and is con- 
 
 tinually growing in bulk. In a narrower sense, 
 it is confined to a history of Christianity and the 
 Christian Church from the birth of Christ and 
 the Day of Pentecost, when Christianity made its 
 first appearance in an organized form as distinct 
 from the Jewish religion. The historian has to 
 trace the origin, growth, and fortunes of the 
 Church, and to reproduce its life in the dift'erent 
 ages. The value of liis work depends upon the 
 degree of its truthfulness, or exact correspond- 
 ence with the facts. Church history is not a 
 heap of dry l>ones, but life and jower: it is the 
 Church itself in con.stant motic-n and progres* 
 from land to land, and from age to age, until the 
 whole world sliall be filled with the knowledge of 
 Clirist. It is the most interesting part of the 
 world's history, as religion is the deepest and 
 most important concern of man, the bond that 
 unites him to God. It embraces the externa, 
 expansion and contr.action of Christianity, or the 
 history of missions and persecutions, the visible 
 organization or Church polity and discipline, the 
 development of doctrine and theologj', the wor- 
 ship, with its various rites and ceremonies, litur- 
 gies, sacred poetry and music, the nuiuifestations 
 of practical piety. Christian morality, and benevo- 
 lent institutions : in one word, all that belongs to 
 the inner and outer life of Christianity in the 
 world. It is a panorama of God's dealings with 
 the human race, and man's relations to God under 
 all aspects. It shows the gi'adual unfolding of the 
 plan of redemption, — a plan of infinite wisdom 
 and goodness, in constant conflict with the Satanic 
 powers and influences which are struggling for 
 the ascendency, but are doomed to ultimate de- 
 feat, and overruled for good. It is the greatest 
 triumph of (iod's wisdom to bring good out of 
 evil, and to overrule the wrath of man for his 
 own glor}' and for the progress of truth and 
 righteousness. Church history is a book of life, 
 fidl of warning and precept, of hope and encour- 
 agement. 
 
 II. Cin'RCH History and Secular History. 
 ■ — They dift'er a.s Church and State, as Christianity 
 and humanity, as the order of grace and the order 
 of nature; yet they are inseparably connected, 
 and the one cannot be understood without the 
 other. Among the .lews the sjiiritual ,and secul.ar 
 history together form one history of theocracy. 
 Both currents intermingle in the Byzantine Km- 
 pire, in the Einopean States and the Latin 
 Church during the midiUe ages, in the perioil of 
 the Reformation, during the eoloni.al period of 
 .\merica, anil in all countries where Church and 
 State are united. Gibbon's History of the De- 
 cline anil Full of the Roman Empire is in great 
 )iart also a history of the rise and progress of 
 Christianity, which survived the fall of Old and 
 New Rome, and went forth to conquer the bar- 
 barian coniiuerors by Christianizing and civil- 
 izing them. Every history of the jiapacy is also 
 a history of the German Roman Emjiire, and 
 vice versa. No history of the sixteenth century 
 can be writti'U without constant n^ference to the 
 Protestant Reformation and Roman-Catholic re- 
 action. The Purita)! settlements of New Eng- 
 land are the beginning, alike of the ecclesiastical 
 ami secular history of North America. In mod- 
 ern times the tendency is more and more towards 
 separation of the spirilual and trniporal powers:
 
 CHURCH HISTORY. 
 
 481 
 
 CHURCH HISTORY. 
 
 nevertheless, tlie Church will always be influenced 
 by the siirrouiidiiig state of civil society, ami 
 must adapt itself to tlii! wants of the age, and 
 progress of events; while, on the other hand, the 
 world will always feel the moral intinence, the 
 restraining, ennobling, stimulating, purifying, aiul 
 sanctifying power of Christianity, which works 
 like a leaven from within upon the ramitications 
 of society. 
 
 III. Sources. — They an; mostly written, in 
 part unwritten. 
 
 A. The written sources include, (1) The official 
 ■documents of ecclesiastical and civil authorities, 
 such as acts of councils, creeds, liturgies, hymn- 
 books church-laws, papal bulls and encyclicals. 
 (2) The writings of the personal actors in the Iiis- 
 tory, and contemporary observers and rejiorters, 
 sucli as the Fathers for ancient Christianity, the 
 Schoolmen for mediivval, the Reformers and their 
 opponents for the Reformation period. (3) Inscrip- 
 tions on walls, pictures, churches, tombstones, and 
 other monuments. The history of the Jewish reli- 
 gion lias derived much light from modern discov- 
 eries of monumental remains in Egypt, Babylon, 
 and Assyria, the deciphering of the hieroglyphic 
 And cuneiform inscriptions, the Moabite stone 
 (1868), and the Siloam inscription in the tunnel 
 of the Kedron Valley at Jerusalem (1880). 
 
 B. The unwritten sources are works of Chris- 
 tian art ; as churches, chapels, pictures, scidptures, 
 crosses, crucifixes, relics, and other monuments 
 which symbolize and embody Christian ideas. 
 The Roman catacombs, with their vast extent, 
 their solemn darkness, their labyrinthine mystery, 
 their rude epitaphs and sculptures, their symbols 
 of faith, and their relics of martyrdom, give us a 
 lifelike idea of the Church in the period of perse- 
 cution, its trials and sufferings, its faith and 
 hope, its simple worship, and devoted piety. 
 " lie who is thoroughly steejied in the imagery 
 of the catacombs will be nearer to the thoughts 
 of the early Church than he who has learned by 
 heart the most elaborate treatises of TertuUian or 
 Origen." The basilicas are characteristic of the 
 Nicene ; the Byzantine churches, of the Byzantine 
 age and the Eastern and Russian Church ; the 
 Gothic cathedrals, of the palmy days of medieval 
 Catholicism ; the Renaissance style, of the revival 
 of letters. Even now, most churches and sects 
 can be best appreciated iu the localities, and in 
 view of the monuments and the people, where 
 they origiiuited, or have their centre of life and 
 action. 
 
 IV. Duty of the Historian-. — (1) He must 
 master the sources in the original languages in 
 which they were written (Greek, Latin, Syriac, 
 and the modei'n languages of Europe) ; separating 
 the genuine from the spurious, the original from 
 corruptions and interpolations, sifting the truth 
 from falsehood, the facts from fiction and partisan 
 judgment, comparing the accounts of all actors, 
 friend and foe, nari-ator, eulogist, advocate, and 
 antagonist, whether orthodox or heretic, whether 
 Christian, Jew, or Gentile, aiming in all this 
 laborious investigation at "the truth, the whole 
 truth, and nothing but the truth." (2) lie must, 
 then, reproduce the clearly ascertained facts and 
 results of his investigation in a faithful and life- 
 like narrative, so as to present the oljjective 
 course of history itself, as it were, iu a photo- 
 
 32 — 1 
 
 graph, or rather in an artistic painting ; for a 
 photograph gives a ghastly view of the momentary 
 look of a jierson, while the portrait of the artist 
 combines \\w changing moods and various aspects 
 of his subject into a living whole. The genuine 
 writer of history differs as much from the dry 
 chronicler of isolated facts and dates as from the 
 novelist. lie must n^pre.sent both thoughts and 
 facts. lie must particularize aiul generalize, de- 
 .sceiul into minute details and take a comprehen- 
 sive bird's-eye view of ^\■hole ages and ])erioils. 
 lie must have ajudicial mind, which deals impar- 
 tially with all persons and events coming before 
 his tribunal, lie nmst be free from partisan and 
 sectarian bias, and aim at justice and truth. It 
 is the exclusive privilege of the divine Mind to 
 view all things sub specie ceternitatis, and to see the 
 end from the beginning. We can only know 
 thing's consecutively and in fragments, llut his- 
 tory is its own best interpreter ; and, the farther 
 it advances, the more we are able to understand 
 and ap]ireciate the past. Historians differ in 
 gifts and vocation. Some are miners, who bring 
 out the raw material from the sources (Flacius, 
 Baronius, Tillemont, Gie.seler) ; others are manu- 
 facturers, who work up the material for the use 
 of scholars (Bossuet, Mosheim, Gibbon, Milman, 
 Xeander). Some are wholesale merchants, some 
 retailers. Some are bold critics, who open new 
 avenues of thought (Ewald, Baur, Renan) ; others 
 popularize the results of laborious researches for 
 the general benefit (Ilagenbach, Iklerle, Pressense, 
 Stanley). 
 
 V. Periods and Epochs. — These repiresent 
 the different stages in the religious development 
 of the race. They must not be arbitrarily made, 
 according to a mechanical scheme (such as the 
 centurial division, introduced by Flacius in the 
 Maydeburi/ Centuries, and followed by ^Mosheim), 
 but taken from the actual stops or starting-points 
 (which is the meaning of i^rroxr/, from inixu, " to 
 stop," "to pause") and circuits (jrfpiodm) of the 
 history itself. The following are the natural 
 divisions : — 
 
 A . Sacred or Biblical History, the history of the 
 divine revelation, from the creation to the close 
 of the apostolic age, running parallel with the 
 Scriptures, from Cienesis to Revelation. Here 
 we must distinguish the dispensation of the law 
 and the dispensation of the gospel, or the his- 
 tory of the Old-Covenant religion and that of the 
 New-Covenant religion. 
 
 (1) Under the Old Dispensation, from the crea- 
 tion down to .Tohn the Baptist. Subdivisions : 
 (a) The pirimitive period ; (b) The patriarchal 
 period; (c) The Jlosaic period (the establishment 
 of the theocracy) ; (</) The Judges, the Jewish 
 monarchy and projihets ; (e) The Babylonian 
 exile; (/) The period of the restoration (Ezra, 
 Nehemiah, and the post-exilian propihets; ((/) The 
 Maccabees; (/() The Roman rule till Herod the 
 Great, and the destruction of Jerusalem. 
 
 (2) Under the New Dispensation — Christ and 
 the apostles, or primitive and noi'inative Chris- 
 tianity in its divine-human founder and inspired 
 organs. Subdivisions : {a) The preparatory mis- 
 sion of John the Baptist; {b) The life and work 
 of Christ ; (c) The founding of the Church among 
 the Jews and Gentiles by the labors of Peter 
 Paul, and John.
 
 CHURCH HISTORY. 
 
 48-2 
 
 CHURCH HISTORY. 
 
 B. Christian Ilislori/, or Ecclesiastical History 
 proper, from the close of the apostolic age to 
 modern times. Subdivisions: — 
 
 (1) History of yl»ei«H< Christianity, embracing 
 the tirst six centuries to Gregory I. (590) : Grse- 
 co-Latin, Patristic, Catholic, the common stock 
 from which the Greek, the Roman, and the Prot- 
 estant churches have sprung. .Subdivisions: 
 (a) The life of Christ and the apostolic age (see 
 A 2) ; (i) The age of persecution, to Constantine 
 the Great and the Council of Xicasa (3'25) ; (c) 
 The age of patriarchs. Christian emperors, and 
 oecumenical councils (to 590). Some historians 
 carry ancient Christianity down to Charlemagne 
 (A.I). 800) and the beginning of the Holy 
 Roman Empire and the temporal power of tlie 
 Papacy. In this case we have a fourth subdivis- 
 ion, from Gregory I. to Charlemagne (AD. 590 
 to 800). But Charlemagne belongs to the middle 
 ages and the Germanic phase of Christianity. 
 
 (2) History of Medicccul Christianity, from the 
 close of the sixth to the beginning of the six- 
 teenth century, or from Gregory the Great (.\.D. 
 .590), the first mediaeval pope, to Luther (A.D. 
 1517). Character: The Gireek and Roman 
 churches, divided since the controversy of Pho- 
 tius and Pope Kicolas I., pursue their independ- 
 ent course ; the Latin Church extending west 
 among the Celtic and Germanic races ; the Greek, 
 north-east among the Slavonians (in Russia) ; 
 conversion of the Xorthern and Western barbari- 
 ans ; conflicts with Jlohammedanism ; the cru- 
 sades ; rise and progress of the papacy, scholasti- 
 cism, mj'sticisni; the reformatory councils of 
 Pisa, Constance, and Basel ; revival of letters ; 
 invention of printing; discovery of America; 
 biblical theology ; forerunners of Protestantism 
 (Wiclif in England, IIus in Bohemia, Savonarola 
 in Italy, Wessel in Holland, etc.) .Subdivisions : 
 («) The missionary period of the middle age, 
 from (iregorv L to Gregory ^TI. (IIil<li'l)rand, 
 A.D. 590-1049); (b) The height of the papal 
 hierarchy, from Gregory VII. to Boniface VHL 
 (.\.D. 1019-1291); (c) The decline of the pa- 
 pacy from Uoniface VIH. to Leo X., or Martin 
 Luther (.V.D. 12.01-1517). 
 
 (■i) History of Mwlenx Christianity, from the 
 Reformation of the sixteenth century to the 
 pre.sent time. Protestantism and Romanism; 
 founding of tlie various evangelical churches (the 
 Lutheran, Calvinistic, .Vnglican, etc.) ; restora- 
 tion and revival of Romanism ; the Council of 
 Trent; .Jesuitism; .Jansenism; the Puritan con- 
 flict in ICnglaiid; the Westminster Assendily ; 
 tlie restoration of the Kjiiscopal Chinch under 
 Charles II.; tlie (■x])ulsion of the Stuarts; the 
 Edict of Toleration ; the organization of the dis- 
 senting denominations (Presbyterians, Indiqiend- 
 ents, Haptists, (Quakers); the settlement of North 
 .\merica ; Pietism and tlie Moravians in Cior- 
 many ; the Methodist ri'vival in England and the 
 Colonies; the Erench Revohilion, and spread of 
 infidelity ; revival of Cliristiau life and missionary 
 zeal; progress and triiiinph.of rilniinontane 
 Romanism (culminating in the V.atican Council, 
 1870); conflict of faith witli rationalism aii<l 
 infidelity; growth of the churches in the I'nited 
 States, on the basis of the volimt.ary jniiiciple ; 
 immense! activity in theology, liti'ialui-e, missions, 
 and all forms of Christian philanllirojiy. Sub- 
 
 divisions : (a) The age of the Protestant Refor- 
 mation, and the Roman-Catholic counter-reforma- 
 tion or re-action (from 1517 to 1618) ; (6) The 
 age of scholastic and polemic confessionalisni. in 
 conflict with nonconformity and subjective piety 
 (from the middle of the seventeenth to the mid- 
 dle of the eighteenth century) ; (c) The age of 
 revolution and revival, and conflict between 
 Christianity and various forms of scepticism 
 and secularism (from Deism in England, and the 
 French Revolution, to our time). 
 
 VL V.ALUE. — The .study of history enables us 
 to understand the present, which is the fruit of 
 the past and the germ of the future. It is the 
 richest storehouse of wisdom and experience. It 
 is the best commentary of Christianity. It is full 
 of comfort and encouragement. It verifies on 
 every page the promise of the Saviour to be with 
 his people always, and to build his Church on an 
 indestructible rock. It exhibits his life in all its 
 forms and phases, and the triumphant inarch of 
 his kingdom from land to land and generation to 
 generation. Earthly empires, systems of philoso- 
 phy, have their day; human institutions decay; 
 all tilings of this world bloom and fade away, like 
 the grass of the field : but the Christian religion 
 has the dew of perennial youth, survives all 
 changes, makes steady progress from age to age, 
 overcomes all persecution from without, and cor- 
 ruption from within, is now stronger and more 
 widely sjireail than ever before, directs the course 
 of civilization, and bears the hopes of the human 
 race. The history of the world is governed in 
 the interest, and for the ultimate triumph, of 
 Christianity. The experience of the past is a 
 sure guaranty of tlie future. 
 
 VII. Lit. ^ — ^\'e confine ourselves here to works 
 on General Church History. (1) Ancient Ilixlori- 
 (ins — EusEiiirs (d. 340): C/iurcli Hislorij. from 
 the birth of Christ to Constantine the Gre.at (324); 
 his successors in the Greek Church : Soci;ates, 
 SozoMEX, TiiEODOKET. The Latin Church con- 
 tented itself with extracts from Eiisebius and his 
 contiiiuators. 'Ihe middle ages produced most 
 valuable material for history, but no great general 
 churcli history. The Reformation called forth 
 the spirit of critical inquiry. 
 
 (2) Historians from the Sixteenth to the Eigh- 
 teenth Century. — Matthias Flacius (d. 1575) 
 and other Lutheran divines of Ciermany wrote 
 the Ma/jdelmrij Centuries (Basel, 1559-74), covering 
 thirteen Christian centuries in as many volumes, 
 — the first history, from a Protestant point of 
 view, in ojijiosition to the claims of Romanism. 
 In defence of Romanism, and in refutation of 
 Flacius, C.ESAU Bauonh's (d. 1007) wrote Eccle- 
 siastical Annals, in 12 folio vols, (luiblished at 
 Rome, 1588 .sqq. ; new ed. by Aug. Tlu-iner, Bar- 
 le-Duc, 1808 sqq.), continued by Kaynaldns, 
 S])oiidanus, Theiner, and other.s, — a work of 
 extraordinary learning and indu.stry, but to be 
 used with great caution. Tii.i.emont (d. 109S), 
 in his invaluable Mimoires (Paris, 1093-1712, 10 
 vols.), wrote the history of the first si.x centuries 
 from the sources, in bibliographical .style and in 
 the spirit of the more liberal Gallicaii Catholi- 
 cism. GoiTiitiEi) AitNOLi) (d. 1711), of the 
 I'ietistic .school of Spener, in his Impartial History 
 of the Church ami of Heretics (Frankfort. 1099 
 S(i<p, 4 vols, fob, to A.D., 10S8), advocated the
 
 CHURCH HISTORY. 
 
 483 CHURCH, STATES OF THE. 
 
 interests of practical piety, and the claims of 
 heretics and schismatics, and all those who suf- 
 fered persecution from an inlulei'ant hierarchy 
 and orthodoxy. J. J^. Mosiiki.m (d. 1755) wrote 
 his In.itilnles of Ecclcsiashral Ilix/ori/ (in Latin, 
 llehnstailt, 1755, and often since in sevcn'al trans- 
 lations) in the spirit of a moderate lyutheran or- 
 thodoxy, with solid learning and im]iartiality, in 
 clear style, after the centurial arrangement of Fla- 
 cius, and furnislied a conv<'nient text-book, which 
 (in the translation of .Murdock, with valuable 
 supplements) has continued in use in England 
 and America much longer than in Germany. 
 Sciiuokck's C/ir(sti(tn Church Ilistnnj (I.,eipzig, 
 1708-lSll), in 45 vols.) is far more exten.sive and 
 far less readable, but invaluable for reference, 
 full of information from the sources. It forsakes 
 the mechanical centurial division, and sub.stltutes 
 for it periodic arrangement. IIknke (d. 18U9) 
 followed with a tlioroughly rationalistic work in 
 !) vols. (1788-1810). 
 
 (3) Historians of the Nineteenth Centurij. — 
 Xkandkr, a converted Israelite, professor of 
 church history in Berlin (d. 1850), marks an 
 epoch in this branch of theological literature; and 
 by his truly Christian, conscientious, impartial, 
 truth-loving, just, and liberal, and, withal, thor- 
 oughly learned and profound spirit and method, 
 he earned the title of " Father of Church His- 
 tory." His General Histori/ of the Christian Re- 
 ligion anil Church (Hamburg, 182.5—52, 11 vols.), 
 though incomplete (it stops with the Council of 
 Basel, 1430), and somewhat ditfuse and monoto- 
 nous in style, is an immortal monument of 
 genius and learning. It pays special attention 
 to the development of Christian life and doc- 
 trine, and is edifying as well as instructive. It 
 has been naturalized in England and America 
 by the translation of Professor Torrey (Boston, 
 1847-52, 5 vols., 12th ed., 1872, new edition w'ith 
 a complete index, (5 vols., 1881), and will long 
 be studied with profit, although in some respects 
 superseded by more recent researches in the first 
 three centuries. Equally valuable, though of an 
 altogether different plan and spirit, is the Church 
 History of GiESELEU (Bonn, 1824-56), translated 
 from the German, first by Cunningham in I'hiki- 
 delphia. (1840), then by Davidson and Hull in 
 England, and revi.sed and completed by H. B. 
 .Smith of New York (18.57-80, in 5 vols.). The 
 text is a meagre skeleton of facts and dates ; but 
 the body of the work consists of carefully-selected 
 extracts and proof-texts from the sources which 
 furnish the data for an independent judgment. 
 Bauk's Church Histori/, partly published after his 
 death (Tiibingen, 18(13 sqcj., in 5 vols.), is distin- 
 guished for jiiiilosoiihic grasp, critical combina- 
 tions, and bold conjectures, e.specially in the treats 
 nient of the apostolic and post-apostolic ages, and 
 the ancient heresies and systems of doctrine. 
 Hagenbacii's Church Histor;/ (Leipzig, 1873, 7 
 vols., revised ed. by Nippold, 1885 sqq.) is a popu- 
 lar digest for the edncateil Lay reader. Schakf's 
 Histori/ (f the Christian Church (Xew York, 1859 
 sqq., vol. iv., 1885, (ierman ed. of the 1st three 
 vols., Leipzig, 18(58, revised ed. of same in English, 
 New York, 1882-84) goes down to 1073, and is 
 written from the Anglo-German and Anglo-Ameri- 
 can stand-point. The next volume will be upon 
 the Reformation. England has produced greater 
 
 works on special departments (as Gibbon, on The 
 iJectine and Full, etc. ; Milnian, on Latin Chris- 
 tianity ; .Stanley, on The Jewish Church and The 
 Eastern Church ; Farrar, on The Life of Christ and 
 The Apostle Paul) than on general church history. 
 VVadi)IN(!T()N- represents the general history, in 
 six volumes, to the Keformation inclusive (1835 
 s(i(i.); superseded by James C. Rohkhtson's 
 Histori/ of the Christian Church to the Reformation, 
 in 3 vols., 18.54 S(iq., new ed. 1875, in 8 small vols. 
 The older work of Milxeu (d. 1797) is written 
 in popular style for edification. The most valuar 
 ble contributions of modern English .scholarship 
 to ancient church history are found in Smith & 
 Cuketham, Dictioiiitri/ of Christian Antiquities, 
 London, 1875, 1880, 2 vols., and in >S.MiTir & 
 Wace, Dictionarij of Christian Bioyraphy, Lon- 
 don, 1877 sqq., to be comiileted in 4 vols. The 
 largest Koman-Catholic church history of recent 
 times is Abbe Uohkhacheh's Histoire universelle 
 lie rEylise cathol , I'aris, 1842 sqq., 25 vols. 
 
 (4) Manuals of Church History in one or more 
 Volumes. — (a) Honian Catholics : Dollingeu 
 (1830, unfinished; English trans, in 4 vols.), 
 iluiiLEK (postliunious, ed. by P. B. Gams, 1807 
 sq., 3 vols.), KiTTEU (1820-35, 3 vols.; 4th ed., 
 1854), Alzog (10th ed., 1882, 2 vols.; English 
 trans, in 3 vols.), Kraus (Trier, 1872-75, 3 parts, 
 2d ed., 1882), Hergenrotiier (Freiburg, 2 vols., 
 3d ed., 1884). (i) Protestants: Hase (10th ed., 
 1877, a masterly miniature picture), Niedner 
 (1846 and 1860, very learned and very heavy), 
 GuERiCKE (9tli ed., 1806, high-Lutheran, super- 
 seded by Kurtz), Kurtz (9th ed., 1885, 2 vols.), 
 Hasse (1864, posthumous), Ebrard (1865, 4 
 vols., polemically Reformed), Herzog (1880-82, 
 3 vols., moderately Reformed), Chastel (French, 
 Paris, 1859-74, 4 vols., new ed., 1881 sqq.), H. 
 SciiMiD (1881. 2 vol.s.), Hase (lectures, 1885 
 sqq.). Hase (text-book), Guericke, and Kurtz 
 are translated, but from old editions. 
 
 (5) Doctrine Histories by Munscher (Mar- 
 burg, 1797-1809, 4 parts), Baur (Lehrbuch der 
 Doymeni/eschichle, Tubingen, 1847, 3d ed., 1867; 
 Vorlesuni/en, ed. by his son, Leipzig, 1865-67, 3 
 vols.), N BANDER "(ed. by Jacobi, Berlin, 1857), 
 Hagenbach (Leipzig, 1841 ; 5th ed., 1867, trans, 
 by Buch, Edinb., supplemented by H. B. Smith, 
 N. Y., 1861, 2 vols. ; new ed. with introduction by 
 Plumptre, Edinb., 1880, 2 vols.), Shedd (N.Y., 
 1803, 2 vols.), Thomasius (Erlangen, 1874-76, 
 2 vols.), Friedr. Xitzsch (Berlin, 1870, unfin- 
 ished), Adolf Harnack (Freiburg i. Br., 1st 
 vol., 1886). 
 
 (6) Chronological Tallies. — Weing.\rten: Zeit- 
 tafeln, Berlin, 2d ed., 1874; H. B. Smith : History 
 of the Church of Christ in Sixteen Chronol. Tables, 
 New York, 1860 (the best, but too large in size 
 for convenient use); L. H. Kraus (Roman- 
 Catholic professor in Strassburg) : Synchronistische 
 Tabellen znr K. Gesch., Trier, 1870; and Synchro- 
 nist. Tabellen zur christl. Knnstgeschichte, Freibm-g, 
 1880. For a fuller introduction into church his- 
 torv see the author's History of the Apost. Church, 
 jip." 1-134. " PHILIP SCHAFF. 
 
 CHURCH JURISDICTION. See Jurisdic- 
 tion. Ecclesiastical. 
 
 CHURCH POLITY. See Polity. 
 
 CHURCH, States of the (Patrimonium Petri; 
 Stalo delta Chiesa), the region occupying the
 
 CHURCH, STATES OF THE. 484 CHURCH, STATES OP THE. 
 
 central part of Italy, between Tuscany and Na- 
 ples, and once fornihig an independent state, of 
 which the Pope was the sovereign. This sov- 
 ereignty of the Pope was not, as Koman-Catliolic 
 writers"like to represent it, a striking providential 
 arrangement : on the contrary, it was a long and 
 laborious growth of a rather vicious character. 
 Tlie prominence which the Roman episcopacy 
 very early obtained was a natural and necessary 
 conseqiience of the position whicli the city of 
 Rome lield in the empire. Xothing in Rome 
 •could be second-rate ; and, from the moment 
 Christianity became the religion of the State, the 
 Roman bishop naturally and necessarily became 
 the centre of Christendom. It was only tiirough 
 reflection that Jerusalem could be any thing grand 
 and awe-inspiring to people of Greek and Roman 
 descent. The congregation of Rome was tlie 
 largest already in the third century : in the fourth 
 it also became tlie richest. It commanded re- 
 spect by itself, independently of its being the 
 representative of the metropolis of the world. 
 The donation of Constantine is a mere fable. 
 Constantine did not move his residence to Con- 
 stantinople in order to give room in Rome for tlie 
 "spiritual emperor; " nor did he cede the city of 
 Rome, or the provinces of Italy, or the whole 
 western part of the empire, to the Pope. Tlie in- 
 strument of this bequest is a forgery of the ninth 
 century ; and, thougli the Pope had people burnt 
 at Strassburg in 1178 for saying so, that century 
 did not run out before Laurentius Valla and .Vriost 
 had made the lioUmv pretension tlie laughing- 
 stock of Europe. l>ut by a decree of 3'Jl Con- 
 stantine allowed the Christian Church to receive 
 bequests by will ; and the Bisliop of Rome soon 
 became one of tlie largest landed proprietors of 
 the realm. Estates in Italy, Gaul, and Spain, 
 were bequeathed to him ; and to this solid wealth 
 privileges and immunities were added by Gratian, 
 Valeutinian III., and others. His money helped 
 him to enforce liis authority, and his aulliority 
 helped him to multiply his money. Still tliere 
 were as yet no traces of any sovereignty in tlie 
 Pope's position. For centuries after the alleged 
 "donation of Constantine," he remained a Imrii- 
 ble subject, and much too often even a liumble 
 servant, of the emperor. 
 
 But circumstances were alre.ady preparing for 
 the coming .sovereignty. Tlie removal of the 
 imperial residence to Constantinople left an enqily 
 .space in Rome; and on thousands of occasions, 
 each, perhaps, very iiisigiiificanl by it.self, the Pope 
 stepped in to fill the void. Tlie idea of a spirit- 
 ual empire, tlie condition of a temporal sov- 
 ereignty, was fully develoi>ed, and ready to be 
 acted upon, with Gregory tlie Great (oiiO-fiOl). 
 Actual oi)portuiiities were neitlier lacking nor 
 neglected. The storms before whicli the West- 
 ern Empire finally fell, tlie continuous invasions 
 of Italy by barl)arou.s tribes, the feeble rule 
 which the Hyzantiiie eni))erors (',\eici.se<l in Italy, 
 and the still feebler dirfence wliioh they could give 
 the country, — everything t(Miiled to gatlier the 
 people of Rome around their bisliop as their 
 natural leadiM', and to allure the bisho]) into the 
 political field, first as a mediator who dcsc^rved 
 his reward, then as an ally who demanded his 
 recomp<'nse. Gregory 11. receiveil in 728 the city 
 of Sulri from Liutprand, the king of the ]<oni- 
 
 bards ; and this is the first possession which the 
 popes held independently of the emperor. Zacha- 
 rias received in 742, from the same hand, the cities 
 of Amelia, Orta, Bomarzo, and Bieda, which had 
 been taken from the exarchate. The Pope's rela- 
 tions to the Lombard king were by no means 
 safe, however. Gregory III. (731-741) had been 
 compelled to ask for tlie interference of Charles 
 Martel ; and .Stephaii II. (752-707) was com- 
 pelled to ask Pejiin the Short for direct protec- 
 tion. As .Stephan had given Pepin most valuable 
 aid in the acquisition of the Prankish crown, 
 Pepin went to Italy with a great army, defeat- 
 ed the Lombard king, Aistnlph, conquered the 
 whole exarchate and the Pentapolis (Rimini, I'e- 
 .saro, Fano, Sinigaglia, and Ancona), and con- 
 ferred the conquests on Stephan. This .sjilendid 
 donation, the real foundation of the temporal 
 sovereignty of the Pope, was repeated, and con- 
 firmed in 774 by Charlemagne, who completely 
 destroyed the Lombard rule in Italy. The instru- 
 ments of Pepin's and Charlemagne's donations 
 are not extant, and the real extent of the bequest 
 is somewhat doubtful. The general character, 
 however, of the gift, cannot be questioned : it wa,s 
 a fief. In 800 Leo III. severed the last bond be- 
 tween tlie papal see and the Byzantine Empire 
 by crowning Charlemagne Roman emperor : and 
 from that moment the Pope stands in the politi- 
 cal field as a vassal of the Prankish Empire. 
 
 Immediately after the death of Charlemagne 
 (S14), the dis.solution of the empire began. But, 
 as the strength of the central government liecame 
 weakened, the power of the feudal lords or fief- 
 holders increased, and the popes were not slow in 
 taking advantage of the situation. Nicholas 1. 
 (858-867) is said to have changed his mitre into 
 a crown ; and when Charles the Fat, the last 
 emperor of the Carlovingian house, was deposed 
 (in 887), the papal independence became an ac- 
 complished fact. Thus the step from simple sul> 
 jection to complete sovereigntv was successfully 
 made through a short, intermediate stage of vas- 
 salage. But to hold this new position proved 
 exceedingly dilTicnlt in the beginning. First fol- 
 lowed a century of shameless intrigue and scan- 
 dalous fighting, — the period of the Pornocracy. 
 Th(! Pwpe was elected, not by the clergy alone, but 
 by the clergy and people of Rome ; and each elec- 
 tion was disputed by factions led by foreign and 
 native adventurers. " Sergius III. (!I05-011) was 
 simply the paramour of i\Iarozin of Tuscany, and 
 for her sake he prostituted the dignity of the 
 apostolic see, and s(]uandered its treasures. The 
 disorder continued till the emperor, Henry III. (in 
 1010), marched into Italy with a great army, de- 
 jiosed the three pretenders at the Council of Sutri, 
 and seated Clement II. on the papal throne: in 
 1052 he ceded the Duchy of Henevent to Leo IX., 
 a relative of his. Then followed two centuries 
 of bitter contest with the emperors of Germany, 
 the mo.st brilliant and most ilramatic part of the 
 history of the Papacy In this contest tlii' [lajial 
 sovereignty did not form the principal issue; Imt 
 through the whole period it exercised a considera- 
 ble influence on the windings of the i)a]ial )iolicy, 
 and at times it actually occupied the foreground; 
 thus, when the Countess Mathilile of Tu.scaiiy, 
 in who.se Castle of Canossa Gregory VII. received 
 the homage of Henry IV. (1077), bequeathed all
 
 CHURCH, STATES OF THE. 
 
 485 
 
 CHYTR^US. 
 
 her possessions to tlip Pope. She died 111"); but 
 her will was iiniuediatcly dispute<l by the Ger- 
 man emperors, and thi! (piestion was not decided 
 unlil (he days of Innocent III. (llilS-l-JlC), when 
 Otho IV. recognized tlie. Pope's claim. A change, 
 whieli in tliis period toolv i)lace in the mode of 
 electing the Pope, contributed nmch to con.soli- 
 date the jiajial sovereignty. Hy a decree of 10.^0 
 Nicholas II. re.serv(Hl the right of electing the 
 Pope ex-clusively to the college of cardinals ; and 
 in 1171) Alexander III. further decreed, tliat a 
 majority of two-thirds of the votes was necessary 
 to make tlie election valid. Through the contest 
 with the emperoi's of Germany the papal power 
 reached its culmination. It was accei^ted as an 
 nndisputeil fact, as a moral certainty, that in no 
 case could there be an authority above the Pope ; 
 and only the next question was left open, — 
 whether there could be a case in which the Pope 
 had no aiithority. During the last three centuries, 
 however, preceding the Reformation, the papal 
 sovereignty was often in danger, but only from 
 int(M-ior or domestic causes. Every now and then 
 the memory of the past would flash up(jn the 
 people of Rome, and cause turbulent commotions. 
 Arnold of Brescia was the first of those heroes 
 from Hades ; and Lucius II. was massacred in the 
 streets of Rome (IH.j). Cola di llienzo (1354) 
 was the last; and his failure was his own fault. 
 Clement VI. and Innocent VI. sat doubtful and 
 powerless at Avignon. Equally dangerous were 
 the feuds and rebellions of the great families, 
 — the C'olonnas, Orsinis, Frangipanis, etc. They 
 drove the sovereign from his capital ; they caused 
 schisms ; and at times the Pope had only a very 
 feeble hold on his own territory. Nevei'theless, 
 in the papal monarchy, as in most other European 
 monarchies, the contest between the sovereign and 
 the large fief-holders ended with the victory of 
 the former; and, at the beginning of the Reforma- 
 tion, the Pope was not only in sure and quiet pos- 
 session of the states of the Church, Imt he had 
 even found opportunity to enlarge them. Philippe 
 III. gave Venais.sin in 1273 to Gregory X. ; 
 Clement VI. bought Avignon in 1348 from Queen 
 Johanna of Sicily; Julius II. (1503-12) acquired 
 Parma, Piacenza, and Reggio, etc. 
 
 From the Reformation the Papacy received a 
 shock from which it never recovered, and which 
 affected it in all its manifestations, also in the 
 temporal sovereignty of the Pope. This sover- 
 eignty has another basis than royalty. It rests 
 upon the spiritual supremacy, the infallibility, of 
 the Pope; and tlie moment this infallibility, this 
 spiritual supremacy, is undei-stood to be a mere 
 nightmare upon the moral and intellectual devel- 
 opment of Christendom, the temporal sovereignty 
 of the Pope becomes something merely incidental, 
 which may last a thousand years, or one hour, 
 according to circumstances. The .strange light 
 which the Reformation threw upon the Papacy 
 liad its effect, and the effect became ajiparent at 
 the conclusion of the peace of AVestphalia (1648). 
 The Pope protested against this official recogni- 
 tion of a Christendom outside of the Roman- 
 Catholic Church; but no regard was paid to his 
 protest. His position in the political system of 
 Europe was shaken, if not already ruined ; and 
 liow little was thought of his sovereignty within 
 his own dominion, the squabble between Louis 
 
 XIV. and Innocent XL (1076-80) .shows. When, 
 towards the close of the eighteenth century, 
 the great ideas began to move, the Pope, a.s 
 the sovereign of the states of the Church, was 
 simply treated as people treat an inconvenience, 
 — with a mixture of patience, indifference, and 
 contempt. France occu]iied Avignon and Venais- 
 sin ill 1792, and, in 17!I6, Ferrara, Bologna, and 
 the Romagna, which, by the Peace of Tolentino 
 (Feb. lil, 1797), were incorporated with the Ci.s- 
 alpine Republic. Next year (Feb. 1.^, 1798) the 
 Republic was declared in the, forum of Rome ; and 
 Pius VI. was depo,sed, and bereft of all temporal 
 power. Once more, however, the Pope came into 
 possession of liis sovereignty. The Congress of 
 Vienna, whose principal ta.sk was to undo what 
 Napoleon I. had done, re-establi.shed the states 
 of the Church, nearly with their old boundaries; 
 and for about a decade every thing went on 
 smoothly. But, since the French Revolution, 
 people in Europe had generally got some sense 
 for good government, and the papal government 
 was as bad as it possibly could be. The admin- 
 istration of justice was as corrupt as the adminis- 
 tration of the finances was stupid. Commerce 
 and industry died out ; science and art sickened ; 
 the country filled up with thieves and brigands ; 
 and riots became of daily occurrence. From 
 1832 to 1838 an Austrian army-corps occupied 
 Bologna, and a French one Ancona, to preserve 
 order. In 1848 the riots grew into a blazing revo- 
 lution. Pius IX. fled to Gaeta, in the Neapolitan 
 territory, and did not return until 1850. under the 
 protection of a French army. jNIeanwhile a new 
 great idea — the national unity — had begun to 
 enter men's minds, and within a few years it 
 swept away the papal sovereignty as a spider's 
 web. In 1860 the States of the Church, with the 
 exception of the city of Rome, were incorporated 
 with the Kingdom of Italy; and in 1870 Victor 
 Emmanuel took up his residence in Rome itself. 
 The sovereignty of the Pope, if there still is any 
 thing in existence which can be thus called, is 
 now confined to the Palace of the Vatican. 
 
 Lit. — SuGENHEiM : Geschichte des Kirchen- 
 staal.i, Leipzig, 18.54; Scharpff : Entstehung des 
 Kirchi-nstciiilf:, 1854 ; Th. D. Mock : De Doiialione 
 a Carolo Mrirpio sedi ApostoliccB anno 774 ohlata, 
 JIunich, 1861; DiiLLiNOER: Kirche vnd Kirchen, 
 Papsll/iuiii unil Kirchenstaal, Miinchen, 1861; Eng- 
 lisli translation, London, 1862; M. Bkoscii : 
 Gesclilclite den Kin-litiislaale.-:, (iotlia, 1880-82, 
 2 vols. ('LEMKX.S I'ETEKSEN". 
 
 CHURTON, Ralph, Archdeacon of St. David's; 
 b. near Bickley, Che.shire, Dec. 8, 1754; d. Jlarch 
 23, 1831. He delivered the Bampton Lecture of 
 1785. on the Prophecies respecting the Destruction 
 of Jerusalem, published at Oxford the same year. 
 He i.ssued, besides. Memoir of Archdeacon 7'ou-nson, 
 prefixed to Practical Discourses (3d ed., London, 
 1834"), Lires of Bishop Smith and Sir Richard Sut- 
 ton (1800). Life of Dean Nowell (Oxford. 1.-09). 
 
 CHYTR/EUS '(Kochhafe). David, b. at Ingel- 
 fingen, Feb. 26, 1530: d. at Rostock, June 25, 
 1600 ; studied, under Camerarius ami .'^chnepf, at 
 Tiibingen. and. under Melanchthon, in Witten- 
 berg ; travelled in Italy, and was made professor 
 at Ro.stock, in 1551 ; lectured on philosophy and 
 theology, and distinguished himself as one of the 
 most i'lifluential of the Lutheran theologians of
 
 CIBORIUM. 
 
 48G 
 
 CIRCUMCISION. 
 
 the latter part of the sixteenth century- In 1569 
 lie visited Austria, on the invitation of Maximilian 
 II., for the purpose of organizing the evangelical 
 church of the country. "lie was one of the chief 
 directors at the foundation of the University of 
 IlehnstUdt, and ^vrote the statutes. His theologi- 
 cal works, among which are Onomaslicon Theologi- 
 cum, an Historia Cotifessionh Aiirjustana;, etc., were 
 collected in 2 vols, fol., Leipzig. 15.99. lie also 
 ■wrote a Chronicon Saxonlce, 1500-95. His bio- 
 graphy has been written by Stuuz (Rostock, 
 i601),"ScHUTZ (Hamburg, 1720), Prf.ssel (Elber- 
 feld, 1S02), and Kkabue (Rostock, 1S70). 
 
 CIBORIUM (from the Greek uiiupiov) denoted 
 originally the canopy, which, borne by four col- 
 umns, surmounted the altar, but was afterwards 
 specially applied to the shrine or vessel in which 
 the host was kept, which occasioned the erroneous 
 derivation from cihos ("food"). 
 
 CILI'CIA, the south-easterly province of Asia 
 Jlinor, having C'appadocia on the north, from 
 wliich it is separated by the Taurus and Anti- 
 Taurus Range, Syria on the east, the ^Mediterra- 
 nean Sea on the south, and Paniphylia on the 
 west. Eastern Cilicia was a rich plain. 'Western 
 Cilicia was rough and mountainous. Tarsus, the 
 home of Paul, was its capital, and there was a 
 famous school of philosophy. The province con- 
 tained many Jews. There are many references 
 to it in Acts (see vi. 9. xv. 23, 41, xxi. 39, xxii. 
 3, xxiii. 34, xxvii. 5; also Gal. i. 21). The goat's- 
 liair cloth, called cilicium, was one of its jwod- 
 ucts: to make tents of this was Paul's trade. 
 The word, in a slightly modified form, exists 
 to-day in modern European languages, to describe 
 this article, which is still )iroduced. 
 
 CIRCUMCELLIANS. See Doxatists. 
 
 CIRCUMCISION, the cutting-awiiy of the 
 whole or of parts of the ]irepuce, was, in the old- 
 est times, performed with a stone knife, both 
 among the Lsraclites and the Egyptians (Exod. 
 iv. 25; Josh. v. 2); and other nations adhered to 
 this custom, even after becoming accpiaiuted with 
 sharper instruments; while in later times the 
 tlews emjiloyed a steel knife. The operation was 
 not without danger, especially when iierformed 
 on adults. The tliird day was feared as the day 
 of tlie crisis (Gen. xxxiv. 25). Every Israelite 
 was allowed to perform the rite, but no (ientile. 
 Generally it wa.s the odice of tlie father (Gen. 
 xvii. 23); only under certain circuiiLstances it 
 became that of the mother (Kxod. iv. 25; 1 Mace. 
 i. GO). Afterwards it became the business of 
 the physician, and at present it is performed by a 
 .sjiecial officer. According to (ien. xvii. 10-14, 
 circumci.sion was laid ujion Aliraliani, his seed, 
 and his servants, as a direct connnandment from 
 (iod ; and the ]>i'nalty of neglect was, to be cut 
 off from the peojilc-. Tlie Mosaic law speaks 
 only incidentally of it as .something already es- 
 tablished. According to Lev. xii. 3, the eighth 
 day after the liirtii of a boy was tlie term fixed 
 for tlie performance of tlie rit<!. H tlie cliild was 
 ill, tlie rite could be ))Ost]ioned, however. Tiie 
 old Egy]«tians performed it between the sixth 
 and ti'iith year; llie .Moliamiiiedans of our days 
 often wait" till tin- Iweinii or lliiiicciitli year. 
 With the Israelites, the naming of the child takes 
 place together with the ciicuMicision (Luke i. 59, 
 ii. 11; coinp. (ien. xvii. 5). 
 
 Besides by the Israelites, circumcision was prac- 
 tised, not only by the Terachitian peoples, such 
 as the Edoinites, Ammonites, Moabites (Jer. ix. 
 25, the interpretation of the passage is some- 
 what doubtful, however), but also by the Egyp- 
 tians. Herodotus (2. 3li, and 2, 104), and, after 
 him, Diodorus and Stralio, even assert that the 
 custom was original among the latter ; while the 
 Phoenicians and the " Syrians of Palestine " 
 (the Jews) simply adopted it ; a statement which 
 even Josephus does not see fit to contradict 
 (Cimt. Ap., 2. 13). That the Egyptians should 
 have learnt the practice from the Israelites can- 
 not be maintained, on account of the great age of 
 the Egyptian monuments representing the cus- 
 tom, in Egypt, however, it seems that only the 
 sacerdotal caste was comjielled by law to observe 
 the rite. Josephus, Clement of Alexandria, Ori- 
 gen, and others, indicate that such was the case ; 
 and Apion, the adversary of Josephus, was him- 
 self an uiicircumcised Egyptian, and submitted 
 to the operation only late in life, and for physical 
 reasons. The probability is, that the Israelites 
 adopted the custom from the Egyjitians ; but, as 
 intimate connections existed between the two 
 nations long before the time of Moses, it is un- 
 justifiable, and in contradiction with the whole 
 Ilebrew tradition, to place the establishment of 
 the institution of circumcision among the Israel- 
 ites after the exodus, in the times of Moses 
 or Joshua. After the captivity, the Edomites 
 remained iincircumcised until John Ilyrcanus 
 compelled thein to re-introduce the rite, as did 
 .\ristobulus among the ItuivTans (JosKrii. : AnI., 
 13, 9, 1, and 13, 11, 3). .Vniong the nations with 
 which the Israelites had to deal, the Philistines 
 are most frequently spoken of as uiicircumcised; 
 and, among the prophets, Ezekiel most .strongly 
 emphasizes the state of non-circumcision as a 
 feature of heathenism. Among the nations prac- 
 tising circumcision, Herodotus also mentions the 
 Colchians. a colony from Egypt, and the Ethiopi- 
 ans and Phoenicians. The Coptian and Habes- 
 .syiiian f'liristians still retain the rite; and by 
 Islam, which found it in general u.se among the 
 Arabs, it was introduce'd to the Persians, Turks, 
 and Hindoos. The custom is also found among 
 nations which have no traceal>le connection with 
 any form of ancient civilization: as, for instance, 
 among the Congo Negroes and Caffrarians in 
 Africa, the Salivas Indians in South America, 
 the inhabitants of Otaheiti and the Fiji Islands, 
 etc. 
 
 With respect to the symbolical signification of 
 the rite, a distinction must be made between 
 Israel and the lieathen religions. Even if it 
 could be proved, that, among the Egyptians, cir- 
 cumcision originated from the ]ihalliis-worshiii, 
 this wouM have no bearing on the Israelite view 
 of the lite. Xor can the rite be brought in con- 
 nection with the idea of sacrifice (as a remnant 
 of an ancient .self-sacrifice, sacrifice of the body, 
 castration in honor of the Deity, etc.); for sacrifice 
 means the selection of something pure for the 
 .service of (iod, and not the destruction of somi'- 
 Hiiiig impure for the sake of (Jod. Hut to tlur 
 iMiielite the foreskin was a token of human im- 
 imrity and iincleanliness, and circiiiucision was 
 an act of purification ami cleanliness. Other 
 Oriental peoples considered the act from the
 
 CIRCUMCISION. 
 
 487 
 
 CISTERCIANS. 
 
 same point of view, as, for instance, tlio Egyj>- 
 tians (IIekodotus, 2, :i7; conip. I'liii.o: De 
 
 Circumcisiniie, 2, 211). Tlie Arabs of to-day call 
 the operation luliir, UiOdr, "purification." Tliii.s 
 the idea of liodily cleanliness forms the very basis, 
 among the Israelites, for the religious rite of 
 circumcision. But the idea of bodily cleanli- 
 ness gradually grew into that of spiritual jiurity, 
 such as was demanded of the chosen people of 
 God : hence such expressions as those in .Jer. 
 vi. 10; Lev. xxvi. 41, etc.: the non-circumcision 
 of the ear, the lieart, etc. Finally, the act became 
 the external token of the covenant between God 
 and his cliosen people, and lias been designated 
 as the patents of nobility of the .lews. As such 
 it was the rite of admittance into Israel, — the rite 
 by which a convert entered the .synagogue, and 
 without which he was not allowed to participate 
 in the Paschal feast. In spite, however, of the 
 exertions of the Juda'a-Christians, it was dropped 
 by the Christian Church, whose corresponding 
 rite of admission is baptism. 
 
 Lit. — .1. 1). MiciiAKi.is: MnxahclifK Rnrht, 
 FranVfurt-a.-M., 1775, §§ 184-18(1; .1. U. Fiukd- 
 iSEicii: ZurBiliil. /'/■ar//HeH^<>, Niirnberg, 1848, II. 
 39-163, giving full information of the pertinent 
 literature, ancient and modern. VOX ORELLI, 
 
 CIRCUMCISION, Feast of. See Octave. 
 
 CISTERCIANS, a monastic order founded by 
 Ixobert, at Citeaux near Dijon, in Burgundy, on 
 the Day of St. Benedict, 1098. Bobert, who at 
 an early age had become Pi'ior of the Monastery 
 of St. Michel de Tonnerre, but felt unable to 
 reform the loose and frivolous life of his monks, 
 obtained dispensation from Pope Urban IL, then 
 travelling in France, and preaching the first cru- 
 sade, to retire, at the liead of a small colony of 
 hermits, into the forest of Molesme, in the diocese 
 of Langres, for the purpose of leading a life of 
 austere asceticism. The colony jirospered; but 
 the reverence of the surrounding population, and 
 the more substantial favors wliicli followed in its 
 wake, brought vanity and irregularities into the 
 hermits' camp; and Molesme was soon as bad as 
 St. Michel de Tonnerre. A second time Robert 
 tried a change, and retired to Ilaur, a desert in 
 the neighborhood. But the monks of Molesme 
 would not lose their abbot ; and the Bishop of 
 Langres compelled liim to return. Later on, 
 however, he obtained permission of the papal 
 legate. Archbishop Hughes of Lyons, to retire 
 ■ to Citeaux, in the diocese of Chrdons, where he 
 formed a settlement of twenty hermits, who bound 
 themselves to a strict observance of the rules of 
 St. Benedict. The undertaking proved eminently 
 successful. Count Odo built a monastery, and 
 the Bishop of Chalons made Kobert abbot. Do- 
 nations came in plentifully, and it was apparent 
 that Kobert was destined to become an ornament 
 to the diocese in wliich he lived. But this roused 
 the envy of the Bishop of Langres, so nmcli tlie 
 more as the rise of Citeaux would surely become 
 the fall of Molesme; and, through tiie Pope, he 
 compelled Robert to leave Citeaux in 109!t, and 
 return to Molesme, where he died in 1108. 
 
 At Citeaux Robert was succeeded by Alberic, 
 and Alberic's first great task was to make his 
 monastery independent of IMolesme. Delegates, 
 with letters of recommendation from the Bishop 
 of Langres, the Archbishop of Lyons, etc., were 
 
 sent to Rome; and in 1100, by a special bull, 
 Pasohalis II. jilaced the Monastery of Citeaux 
 directly uniler tlie papal authority. Shortly after, 
 Alberic issued the Slalula Mnnnchorum C'isler- 
 liennium, in which a strict observance of the rules 
 of St. Benedict is adopted as the leading princi- 
 ))le ; and gradually the monksof Citeaux assumed 
 tlie position as the reformed, or as the only true 
 Benedictines. They got a costume of their own. 
 At first they were gray or tan-colored, like tlie 
 monks of Molesme : but one night th<' Virgin de- 
 scended from heaven, and presente<l Alberic witli 
 a white garment, and from that moment the Cis- 
 tercians always appeared in white in the choir, 
 and in blaclv in the streets; hence the names of 
 White-, Black-, and Gray- Friars. Nevertheless, 
 a strict ob.servance of the rules of St. Benedict 
 may mean very nnich as a maxim of conduct, and 
 very little as a principle of life. The example 
 set by the Cistercians was much admired, but it 
 was not followed. When Alberic died (in 1109), 
 the ranks of his monks had been fearfully thinned 
 out ; and his successor, Stephan Harding, an Kng- 
 lisliman, was in great fear that Citeaux should 
 die out without having had one single novice. 
 Then came the living principle with St. Bernard. 
 
 Instinctively the Monastery of Citeaux had 
 formed itself as an opiJOsition to Clugny. Clugny 
 was wealthy and magnificent : at Citeaux every 
 kind of display was banished. The crucifix was 
 of wood, the candlesticks of iron, the censers of 
 copper ; no gold, no silver. Tliis austerity at- 
 tracted St. Bernard. When he and his thirteen 
 friends determined to renounce tlie world, and 
 devote their lives to the service of God, they 
 entered Citeaux, and not Clugny. But in St. 
 Bernard, asceticism was represented, not as a pen- 
 ance, but as an enthusiasm ; not as a cross, but as 
 a glory ; and the influence produced by this most 
 extraordinary phenomenon was at once instanta- 
 neous and overwhelming. Such a number of 
 monks crowded to Citeaux, tliat, within two years 
 after the admission of St. Bernard (in 1113), Ab- 
 bot Stephan had to found four new monasteries, 
 — La Ferte, Pontigny, Clairvanx, and Jlorimond. 
 In 1119 the number of Cistercian abbeys had 
 increased to thirteen ; in ll.'il, to five hundred; in 
 the middle of the thirteenth century, to eighteen 
 hundred. In 1119 the constitution of the order, 
 the Chartn Caritati.<!, was issued by Abbot Stephan, 
 and confirmed by Pope Calixtus H. One of the 
 principal points of this constitution was the es- 
 tablishment of the order entirely independent of 
 the cjiiscopal power, and directly under the papal 
 authority ; and the co-operation between the order 
 and the Pope was at times complete. Eugenius 
 III. belonged to the order, and was a pupil of 
 St. Bernard. Led by St. Bernard, and following 
 the Pojie, tlie order occupied one of the very 
 first places in the Christian world. It crushed 
 the heretics, Ahelard, Arnold of Brescia, the 
 Cathari, etc.; it preached the second crusade ; it 
 called into life the military orders of the Tem- 
 plars, of Calatrava, Alcantara, Montesa, Avis, and 
 Chri.st. In 1143 the kingdom of Portugal de- 
 clared itself a fief of tlie Abbey of Clairvaux; and 
 in 1578 the abbey actually tried to make good its 
 claims. 
 
 By the middle of the thirteenth century the 
 order had passed its point of culmination. It
 
 CITIES. 
 
 488 
 
 CLAP. 
 
 lost its liistoiical mission, wliich was inherited by 
 tlie mendicant orders ; and the internal decay of 
 the rich and proud institution soon became ajv 
 pareiit. One of the lirst attempts of reform was 
 made by JIartin de \'arsas in Spain, supported 
 by Pope' Martin V. (ll-'(i) ; and in 1469 an inde- 
 pendent Spanish congregation was formed on the 
 basis of extreme asceticism. Similar attempts 
 were made a little later in Tuscany, Calabria, and 
 the Papal States. In France, its home, the order 
 suffered very much during the wars with Eng- 
 land; and all tlie attempts of reform wliicli were 
 made during the fourteenth and fifteenth centu- 
 ries failed. In the sixteenth and seventeenth 
 century, independent congregations were formed, 
 — the Feuillants, the Trappists, etc., which see. 
 The first Cistercian nunnery was founded at Tart, 
 probably by Abbot Stephan ; but the most famous 
 was that of Port Royal. 
 
 Lit. — MiK.Ei's: Chronicon Cisterciensis Ordi- 
 nis, Cologne, 1014 ; Angelus M.^nriqu?: de 
 BiRGEN : Aiinales Cistercienses, Lyons, 1642-59, 
 4 vols, fob; AuGUSTixus S.iUTOnii's: Ci.-<(erlium, 
 Prague, 1700; Newman: T/ie Ci.stercian Saints of 
 EiH/tantl, London, 1844; History of the Cistercian 
 Or6?er, London, 1S5J; Winter: Die Cisterzienser 
 des nordOstl. Deulschlands, Gotha, 1868, 3 vols.; 
 Jaxausciiek : Origines Cistercienses, Vienna, 
 1877. ALBRECHT VOGEL. 
 
 CITIES. Cities date from the days of Cain 
 (Gen. iv. 17). In this article we consider only 
 those of Palestine. The Hebrew word shows that 
 originally they were walled, and thus were in con- 
 trast to the unwalled villages and the open coun- 
 try. In the walls were gates, over which were 
 towers (2 .Sam. xviii. 24 sq.). Immediately inside 
 of tlie gate was a wide open space, known as the 
 "gate." Here councils and public gatherings 
 were held (Gen. xxxiii. 10, 18; Dent. xxi. 19 
 sq. ; Ruth iv. 1, 11; Isa. xxix. 21 sq.): here, 
 too, one went to learn the news (1 Sam. iv. 18; 
 Job xxix. 7). The gates were provided witli 
 posts and bars (.ludg. xvi. 3; 1 Sam. xxiii. 7; 1 
 Kings iv. 13). From the gate the streets led into 
 the citv, whicli, like those of modern Palestine, 
 were proliably narrow and unpaveil, and distinc- 
 tively business streets or bazaars; ;is the " .Street 
 of tlie IJakers" referred to in .ler. xxxvii. 21. 
 The names of the Palestinian cities have almost 
 always a reference to their situation, founding, or 
 history. Many ol<l names were altered, as Luz 
 liecanie Hetliel ((ien. xxviii. 19). This frequently 
 liappened in Itoman tim(?s, when the original 
 names were ronuinized or grecized ; but in most 
 instances tlie old name exists to the present day, 
 and only in few cases has the Roinano-tlreek 
 name crowded out the old. ar.nold. 
 
 CITIES OF REFUGE were six Levitical cities 
 app(jinlrd liy (hr Miisaic law as asylums, to any 
 one of which uninl<'nti(mal manslayers might flee 
 for protection, and therein remain, or in the circuit 
 of one thousand yards annuid it, until the death 
 of the higli Iciest (Num. xxxv. 4-34; Dent. iv. 
 41, 42, xix. 1-13; ,Josli. xx. 2, 7, 8). These 
 cities, however, afforded no safety to wilful mur- 
 derers; and, if the authorities decided the fugitive 
 to be such, he was given up to the avenger of 
 blood, on the deman<l of t)ie elders of his own 
 city. 'l'li<,' roads to the.se cities of refugi' were 
 kept clear, and linger-posts indicated plainly the 
 
 way. See the interesting tale, The Wood-cutter 
 of Lebanon, by A. L. O. E. See Avengeii ok 
 Blood. 
 
 CITIZENSHIP. 1. Among the Hebrews. 
 The more distinctly the idea of being the chosen 
 people, the people of the Lord (Judg. v. 11), the 
 people of God ('Indg. xx. 2), the congregation of 
 the Lord (Num. xvi. 3), the holy peopte of the 
 Lord (Dent. vii. 6), etc., developed in Israel, the 
 more strictly the nation separated itself from 
 other nations; tiiough that particularism and 
 narrow pride which afterwards characterized the 
 Jews were fruits of a later growth, and resulted 
 chiefly from the liar.sh treatment they experienced 
 from the Pagans. Generally, citizenship was ob- 
 tained by being' born of Israelite parents ; and the 
 more speci.al means by which tlie indi\idual came 
 into full posse.ssion of the whole dignity and 
 holiness of the congregation were the circumcis- 
 ion, the Passover, and the Sabbath. .\iiy neglect 
 or breach of the duties of citizenship was severely 
 punished with penance, and even with death. 
 
 Foreigners were allowed to live in Israel, both 
 singly and in whole congregations (Josh. ix. 27 ; 
 comp. Dent. xx. 10). Especially since the time 
 of Solomon, many foreigners settled in the cities 
 of .Tudah as merchants and tradesmen : 2 Chron. 
 ii. 17 gives their number as 153,000. They be- 
 came a kind of half-citizens, and had many rights 
 in common with the Israelites. They could not 
 hold real estate ; but their lives and personal 
 property were protected (Num. xxxv. 15; Deut. 
 i. 10, xxiv. 17). They were compelled, however, 
 to comply with certain of the mo.st general laws 
 of the land, — the salibath, abstinence from blood, 
 etc. (Exod. xii. 49; Lev. xvi. 2l), xvii. 8, etc.). 
 Entire .strangers had no rights in Israel: tliey 
 were only tolerated. Originally, foreigners could, 
 under certain restrictions, obtain citizenship in 
 Israel : only Ammonites, Moabites, the offspring 
 of prostitution, etc., were excluded. Egyptians 
 and Edomites could be nationalized in the third 
 generation (Deut. xxiii. 1; Nell. xiii. 1). After- 
 wards, however, with the growing fanaticism, it 
 was attempted to exclude all foreigners from 
 citizeiLship in I.sr.ael. rCetsCUI. 
 
 2. Among the Romans. The Roman idea of 
 citizeiishi|i — that of a privileged cla.ss amidst a 
 world of slaves — had no existence among the 
 Hebrews ; for their connnonwealth was a congre- 
 g.ation, and their ruler was (Jod : men governed 
 merely as God's vicegerents. But Roman citizen- 
 ship is several times spoken of in the .Vets as a 
 valuable franchise. It was obtained by inherit- 
 ance or pm-chase (.Vets xxii. 28), by military .ser- 
 vice, favor, or manumission. It conferred the 
 riglit of trial before inqirisonment, and of appeal 
 unto Caisar (xxv. 11). Its pos.sessors could not 
 lawfully be scourged (xvi. 37), much less cruci- 
 fied. Tradition, whicli puts the inarlyrdoms of 
 Peter and Paul on the same day, respects Paul's 
 Roman citizenshii), anil makes hun die by the 
 sword. 
 
 CLAP, Thomas, a ]iresi<Ient of Yale College, 
 b. at Sciluate, Mass., .June 2li, 1703; d. in New 
 Il.iven, .Ian. 7, 1767. He was gr.aduated at 
 Harvard College, 1722, ami wivs minister of 
 Windham, Conn., 1726-39, and ]iresidenl of Vale 
 College, 1739-6(i. l\r. was one of the most 
 learned men of his day in tlio country : eminent
 
 CLARENDON. 
 
 489 
 
 CLARKE. 
 
 as a niathematician. he constructed tlie fiist 
 orrery in America. Mis devotion to Yale College 
 was very great. The Code of Laws (in I>atin) 
 which lie drew up for its goverinnent was the 
 fir.st book printed in New Haven. Although, as 
 was universally acknowledged, a truly pious man, 
 he opposed Whitefield, and against him wrote, 
 A Brief Ilistori/ anil ViniJicaliun of the Doctrines 
 receiced anil e^ttaldisheil in the Churches of New 
 JSni/lanil, with a Specimen of the New Scheme of 
 Jieiigion liei/innini/ to preoail (175.5). His oppo- 
 sition caused so much feeling, that in deference 
 he resigned his olHce. His Annals or Ilistori/ of 
 Yale Colli-i/i- apiKMi-rd in 1700. 
 
 CLARENDON, Constitutions of, is the name 
 given to the laws nuide hy the general council of 
 Knglish barons and prelates held at Clarendon, a 
 royal summer residence near .Salisbury, AV'iltshire, 
 and subscribed to by the bishops, with the exceji- 
 tion of Becket, Jan. 25, 110-L They are a monu- 
 ment iu the line of upward progress ; because 
 they checked the encroachment of the Cliurcli 
 upon the State, put clerics guilty of crime under 
 the civil tribunals, prevented all appeal to Rome, 
 and made Henry IL the virtual "head of tlie 
 Church." See Becket, Thomas. The Consti- 
 tutions are in sixteen chapters, of which ten were 
 condemned bv tlie Pope : the rest were tolerated. 
 
 CLARE, St., and the CLARISSES. Clara 
 ScilH, b. at Assissi, 119-i, d. there Aug. 11, 1253, 
 belonged to a distinguished family, but left her 
 home in 1212 to follow St. Francis; practised, 
 under his giudance, the severest asceticism ; found- 
 ed the order of the Nuns of St. Clare, or the 
 Clarisses; and was canonized by Alexander IV. 
 shortly after her death. The order received its 
 rule from St. Francis in 1224, enjoining absolute 
 jioverty, temporary silence, fasting, etc. This 
 rule was mitigated in 1246 by Innocent IV., and 
 again in 1264 by Urban IV., after whom those 
 who adopted only the mildest form of the rule 
 were called Urbanists. In the fifteenth century, 
 liowever, the development took the very opposite 
 direction. Colette of Corbie (d. 1447) founded 
 the Congregation of St. Colette, whose members 
 bound themselves to a strict observance of the 
 original rule. In 1G31 Francisca of Jesus Jlaria, 
 belonging to the house of Farnese, founded the 
 Congregation of the Strictest Observance ; and 
 in 1676 Peter of Alcantara founded the Congre- 
 gation of the Ilenuitesses of Alcantara, both of 
 which went still farther in austere asceticism. 
 See Act. Sanct., and Butler : Lives of Saints, 
 Aug. 12; and the biographies of St. Clare, by 
 ViTALis, Milan, 1646 ; Stwckler, A'ienna, 1675 ; 
 Vauciiot, Paris, 1782 ; Orsbach, Aix-la-Clia- 
 pelle, 1844; De :Moi!E. Mar.seilles, 1.S4S; and 
 LocATELLi, Naples, 1854. 
 
 CLARKE, Adam, the conunentator, b. at Moy- 
 beg, north of Ireland, 1760 or 1762 ; d., of cholera, 
 iu London, Aug. 20, 1S32. From 1782 to 18(15 
 he travelled as a Methodist itinerant; preached 
 over all Great Britain and Ireland. From 1805 
 to 1815 he held an appointment in London, his 
 f^tay being prolonged by the special rerpiest of 
 the British and Foreign Bible Society in order 
 that he might continue to superintend the print- 
 ing of their Arabic Bible. From 1815 till his 
 death he devoted himself to literary work. In 
 1808 Aberdeen University made him LL.D. 
 
 He was a most industrious student, and acquired 
 much varied and profound learning, particularly 
 in Oriental languages, and wrote many elaborate 
 works, of which the pi'incipal are, A liihlioyraplii- 
 cal Dictionary, Liver]iool, 1H02, vols. ; Tlie IHhtio- 
 ijraphical Miscellani/, or Supplement to the Bihlio- 
 ijraphical Dictionarij, London, 1806 (both works 
 were publi.shed anonymously); Succession of Sa- 
 cred Literature, vol. i., London, 1808 (vol. ii. by 
 his son, 1830) ; and his widely circulated and 
 still used Commentary on the Uolij liilile, London, 
 8 vols., of which vol. i. appeared in 1810, vol. viii., 
 1820, and which cost him forty years of work. See 
 Memoirs, edited by liis son .1. B. B. Ci.arkk, 
 London, 1833, 3 vols.; Everett: Adam Clarice 
 Portrai/ed, London, 1843; 2d ed., 1866, 2 vols. 
 
 CLARKE, John, a founder of Khode Island, b. 
 in Bedford.shire, Eng., Oct. 8, 1000; d. in New- 
 port, April 20, 1676. He joined Itoger Williams's 
 colony, and at Newport, 1644, founded the second 
 Baptist church in America. He was, with Wil- 
 liams, in 1651 sent to England as an agent of the 
 Colony, and published in 1652 the famous tractate, 
 /// News from New Enijland, or a Narratice of New 
 Enr/land's Persecution (4to, 76 pp.). 
 
 CLARKE, Samuel, the English philosopher and 
 divine, b. at Norwich, Oct. 11, 1675; d. in Lou- 
 don, Saturday, May 17, 1729. He studied at 
 Cains College, Cambridge, and greatly distin- 
 guished lumself by publishing in 1697 a Latin 
 version of Rohault's Physics, whose system was 
 founded upon Cartesian principles, with notes 
 derived from Sir Isaac Newton. Having chosen 
 the clerical profession, he rose rapidly, until iu 
 1709 lie became rector of St. James's, AVest- 
 minster, London. He was the anther of numer- 
 ous works, several of a scientific nature ; but his • 
 fame chiefly rests upon his Boyle Lectures (1704— 
 1705), printed together under the title, A Dis- 
 course concerning the Beinf/ and Attributes of God, 
 etc., and liis Scripture Doctrine of tlie Trinity 
 (1712), a work which exposed him to the charge 
 of Arianisin. Dr. Clarke's famous proof for 
 the being of God was not meant to Ije a purely 
 a priori argument : it starts from a fact, — " some- 
 thing lias existed from eternity," — and often 
 directly appeals to facts. Among other propo- 
 sitions maintained, is that time and space, 
 eternity and immensity, are not substances, but 
 the attributes of a self-existent Ijeing. And it 
 is incorrect, although commonly said, that Clarke 
 argued from the existence of time and space to 
 the existence of Deity : rather, ho presupposed 
 the existence of an immut.able, independent, and 
 necessary being, before time and space. Nor 
 could the opinion have been borrowed from the 
 Scholium Generale of Newton's Principia, which 
 w.as not printed till 1714. 
 
 Clarke's theory of virtue was briefly this. The 
 inherent and necessary difference between things 
 causes them to stand in different relations. These 
 relations ''make it fit that both creature and 
 creator .should act in accordance with them, 
 separately from any command of the Creator, or 
 any foreseen advantage or disadvantage which 
 may follow such actions. It is fit, however, that; 
 the Creator should enforce this fitness by his', 
 positive commands, and by rewards and punish- 
 ments. Inasmuch as the original tendency of 
 things to reward virtue, and to punish vice, has
 
 CLARKE. 
 
 490 
 
 CLAUDE. 
 
 failed to be effectual in the present condition of 
 human existence, tliere must be a future state of 
 -existence for men in order that this adjustment 
 may be complete." 
 
 Clarke has been accused of confounding mathe- 
 matical and moral relations, and of meaning by 
 " fitness " merely the adaptation of means to an 
 end. But the "charges ai-e not well founded. 
 ■What is true is, that he states an amilogij between 
 mathematical and moral trutlis. and means by 
 "fitness" accordance to a standard of judgment. 
 
 His TT-^sr^-,*, prefaced with a biography by 
 Bishop Hoadley, were published in 4 vols, fob, 
 London, 1738. See also Hunt's Relirjious Thought 
 in England, particularly vol. ii. pp. 447-4.57, and 
 vol. iii. pp. 20-29, 109-115. The most elaborate 
 essay on his philosophy as a whole is, perhaps, 
 that by Professor Zimmermann, in the Denk- 
 acTiriften d. I: Akademie der Wissenscha/len, Phil. 
 HUt. Clanae, Bd. XIX., AVien, 1870. 
 
 CLARKE, Samuel. Three lesser men of this 
 name deserve mention. 1. Biographer and dirine, 
 b. at Woolston, Warwickshire, Oct. 10, 1.509 ; d. 
 at London, Dec. 25, 1082. He was educated at 
 Emmanuel College, Cambridge; was minister of 
 St. Bennet Fink, London, and ejected 1662. He 
 ■was for eight years a governor, and for two years 
 a president, of Sion College. He was also a 
 member of the Savoy Conference. His biographi- 
 cal writings are valuable, because he drew upon 
 sources now difficult to obtain. Among them 
 are, A Mirror or Looking-Glass both for Saints and 
 Sinners, London, 1646, 12mo; 2d ed., 1654, Svo ; 
 4th ed., 1671, 1672, 2 vols. fol. ; The Marrow of 
 Ecclesiastical History, 1650, 2 vols. 4to; 3d ed., 
 1075, 2 vols. fol. ; A General Martyrologie, 1651, 
 fol. ; same with Lives of Thirty-two English Dirines, 
 1652, fol. ; 3d. ed., corrected and enlarged, 1677, 
 fol. — 2. GommentatOT, b. at Shotwick, Nov. 12, 
 1626; d. at High Wycombe, Fob. 24. 1701. Edu- 
 cated at Cambridge, and gained a fellowship, which 
 he lost by the Hcliellifui. lie afterwards became 
 TPCtor of Orrndon, Biickinghamshirc, and was 
 ejected 1662. His reputation rests upon his 
 learned work, The Old and New Testament, irilli 
 Annotations and I'arcdlel Scriptures, London, 1690, 
 fol. The notes are very brief liut judicious, and 
 were higidy commended by Owen. Baxter, Howe, 
 and others. The book has, however, been siiper- 
 aeded. — 3. Orientalist, h. at Bracklev, Xorth- 
 haniptonshire, 1623; d. at Oxford, Dec." 27, 1669. 
 He was made M.A. at Oxford, 1618, and in 
 1()58 returned to his .\lma M.ater, to be .superior 
 beadle of law and arcliilypographus, — the last 
 person who united the two oflices. His great 
 service wa.s rendered in connection with ^\'alton, 
 whom he assisted in his famous polyglot. He 
 contributed to the Otli. vol. Varia: f.ectiones et 
 Ofiservationes in fVialdairam Parapfirasin. His 
 acquirements comprehended Heltrew, Chaldee, 
 Syriac, .Ftliinpic, ('o]itic, .\rabic, and I'ersic. 
 
 CLARKSON, Thomas, an antislavery l(>ader, 
 b. at Wisbiaeh, Candiridgeshire, March i'8. 1700; 
 <l. at Playford Hall, Suffolk, Sept. 26, 1840. In 
 1785 he gained the Cambridge University prize 
 for a Latin essay upon the (piestinn, " Is Involun- 
 tary .Servitude Justifiable?" which was after- 
 wards |)uUlished in Knglish, and had an immense 
 circulation and influence; an<l the rest of Ids life 
 was devoted to vigorous efforts to put into |ira<-- 
 
 tice the principles he held. He was particularly 
 u.seful in collecting and diffusing information 
 about the slave-trade. With William Dilhvyu, 
 Granville Sharp, George Harrison, and other 
 (Quakers, under the leadership of William Wilber- 
 force, he labored untiringly, until on INIarch 25, 
 1807, the Britisli slave-trade was abolished. His 
 principal writings are, Portraiture of Quakerisin 
 (1806), History of the Abolition of the Slave-Trade 
 (1808, 2 vols.), and Memoirs of William Penn 
 (1810). See j\l£moir of Thojnas Clarkson, by 
 Thomas Elmes and Thomas Taylor, 2d ed., Lon- 
 don, 1847. 
 
 CLASS-MEETINGS, a distinctivelv Methodist 
 arrangement, whereby the members of a congrega- 
 tion are divided into sections, over each of which 
 is a leader, appointed by the pastor, whose duty 
 it is " to see each person in his class once a week 
 at least, in order to inquire how their souls pros- 
 per; to advise, reprove, comfort, or exhort, as 
 occasion may require ; to receive what they are 
 w'illing to give towards the relief of the preach- 
 ers, church, and poor; to meet the ministers and 
 the stewards of the society once a week in order 
 to inform the minister of any tliat are sick, or 
 of any who walk disorderly and will not be 
 reproved ; to pay the stewards what they have re- 
 ceived of their several classes in the week preced- 
 ing " {Book of Discipline, pt. i. ch. ii. § 1). Mr. 
 Tyerman, in his Life of John Wesley (vol. i. pp. 
 377-379), thus relates the origin of class-meetings: 
 On Feb, 15, 1742, some of the principal members 
 of the Bristol (iNIethodist) Society met to consult 
 how the debt upon their meeting-house was to be 
 paid. One of them said, " Let every member of 
 the society give a penny a week, till the debt is 
 paid," Another answered, "^lanj- of them are 
 poor, and cannot affortl to do it," - — " Then," said 
 the former, "put eleven of the poorest w'ith me, 
 and, if they can give any thing, well : I will call 
 on them weekly; and, if they can give nothing, I 
 \i-ill give for them as well as for myself. .\nd 
 each of you call on eleven of yoin' neighbors 
 weekly, receive what tliey give, and make up 
 what is wanting." " It was done," writes 'Wes- 
 ley ; " and in a little while some of these informed 
 me they foinid such and such a one did not walk 
 as he ought. It struck me innnediately, 'This 
 is the thing, the very thing, we have wanted 
 so long.' " On March 25 AVesley introduced the 
 plan in London. At first the leaders visited eadi 
 member at his own liouse; but this was soon found 
 to be inconvenient, and a connuon place of meet- 
 ing apjiointed. The leader began and ended 
 each meeting with singing and prayer, and .spent 
 about an hour in conversing with those present, 
 one by one. 
 
 The class-meeting has been traced, in idea at 
 least, in pi-e-existing religious societies; but it 
 remains lo-day a .Methodist peculiarity. 
 
 CLAUDE, Jean, b. 1619 at La Sauvetat-iln- 
 Dropt, in the department of Lot-et-Garonne, 
 Fr.ance; <I. in the Hague, .7an, 13, 1687; studieil 
 theologj- at Montanbau ; was ordained in 1015, 
 and had charge of several minor congregations, 
 till in 1054 he was nia<Ie ])astor in Nismes. Hav- 
 ing defeated in the piovincial synod a scheme of 
 the Prince of Couti, governor of Languedoc, for 
 the union of the Protestant and Homan churches, 
 he was forbidd'^n to pi-eii<-li any more in tin- prov-
 
 CL AUDI ANUS. 
 
 491 
 
 CLAUDIUS. 
 
 ince, and removed to Montaubaii. There, too, he 
 was forbidden to preacli (1665) ; and in the next 
 year he was appointed minister at ('harenton, 
 near Paris, wliere lie remained till the revoca- 
 tion of tlie Edict of Nantes drove him in exile. 
 His controversies with Nicole, Re'ponse aux deux 
 traile's intitules la pcrpetuitii de la foi (166.5), 
 witli Arnanld, Rcpunse au livre de M. Aniauld 
 (1670), _and with Bossuet, lie'ponse an livre de 
 M. rEi'ii/ue de Meatij: (16S:J), attracted great 
 attention ; but his principal work is La defense 
 de III re'/hnnalion (1()73). In his exile he wrote 
 his Pldinles de Protestants ; and after his death his 
 son published five volumes, CEuvres posthmnes 
 and lett<Ms. His life was written by De La 
 Deveze, Amsterdam, 1687. 
 
 CLAUDIANUS (Claudianus Mamertes, Claudia- 
 nus Ecdicius Mamertus), d. 474 ; was a presby- 
 ter at Vienne, brother of the bishop of the 
 diocese, and an intimate friend of Apollinaris Si- 
 donius. His woi'k De Statu Aninia;, which during 
 the middle ages exercised considerable influence 
 on the w'hole treatment of the subject, was writ- 
 ten as a refutation of Faustus, Bishop of Riez, 
 who held that the soul, like every thing else cre- 
 ated, was material. The work has been published 
 in Max. Bihl. Patr., VI., and with notes by Barth, 
 Zwickau, 1655. Two letters by him — one to 
 Apollinaris, and one to the rhetorician Sapandus 
 at Vienne — are still extant ; the former having 
 been published among ApoUinaris's Lectures, 
 IV. 2, the latter in Baluze : Miscellanea, VI. p. 
 535. The hymn, Pange, lingua gloriosi, is gen- 
 erally ascribed to him. EBERT. 
 
 CLAUDIUS, Roman emperor (41-54), is still 
 by some historians considered the instigator of 
 the first persecution of the Christians on account 
 j of the passage in Suetonius, Claudius, 25 : 
 I " .ludseos, irapulsore Chresto, assidue tumultu- 
 antes, Roma expulit." Now, it is very true 
 that " Chresto " may be a corruption of " Chris- 
 to" (.see Tertullian : Apolog. c. 3, and Ad 
 Naliones, 1:3); but this does not decide the que.s- 
 tion. Chrestus must have been a Jewish insur- 
 rectionist ; and already Paul warns against such 
 an insurrectionary spirit (Rom. xiii.). Moreover, 
 Dio Cassius says in his Roman Ilistorg (60, 6) 
 that Claudius did not expel the Jews from Rome, 
 but only forbade the public exercise of -their 
 religion. llEuzou. 
 
 CLAUDIUS OF TURIN, d. 839; a Spaniard by 
 birth, and a pupil of Felix of I'rgel, whose pecu- 
 liar opinions, however, he did not share ; was 
 appointed teacher in the palatial school of Lewis, 
 king of Aquitania, shortly before the death of 
 Charlemagne. When Lewis became emperor, 
 Claudius was called to the episcopal see of Turin 
 (820), and charged with the restoration of pure 
 Christianity in that diocese, more especially with 
 the suppression of image-worship. Claudius was 
 a pious and learned man, of great energy, and of 
 still greater zeal. With undaunted courage he 
 fought, both against the Saracens who invaded 
 his diocese, and against the misuses which had 
 crept into his flock. In spite of the resistance 
 of the people, he took away from the church of 
 Turin the images and the relics, and preached 
 with great fervor against the worship of any 
 visible object. He was a disciple of Augustine, 
 and saw clearly how far the Churcih already 
 
 deviated from that great Father. The justifica- 
 tion by good works and the intercession of the 
 saints he rejected altogether. The special merit 
 of the monastical vow he denied, also the opinion 
 that Rome, or any other actual place, was the 
 special seat of penitence and absolution. He 
 went even farther : not any one sitting in the 
 apostolic chair he would call Dominus Apostolicus, 
 but only him who did the work of an apostle ; 
 and he denied that any special power of loosing 
 and binding had been given to Peter and his 
 successors. 
 
 Such views met, of course, witli great opposi- 
 tion. Already Paschalis I. reproved the audacious 
 bishop ; and later on, it came to actual contro- 
 versy. In or after 823 Claudius sent his Com- 
 mentaries on the Epistles to the Corinthians, in 
 which he expressed himself very plainly and very 
 sharply to Abbot Theodemir. Theodemir, very 
 anxious about the orthodoxy of his friend, laid 
 the book before an assembly of ecclesiastics. 
 Rumors began to spread in the country. In 828 
 Theodemir wrote directly to Claudius, to warn 
 him against heresy; and then Claudius wrote the 
 elaborate Apologeticum alque Rescriptuni adcersus 
 Theutmirum Ahhatem, his principal work. The 
 book was condemned by an assembly of the 
 coUrt-clergy of Lewis the Pious, and vehemently 
 attacked by Dungal, a Scotchman whom Charle- 
 magne had appointed teacher at Pavia, and by 
 Jonas, Bishop of Orleans. Nevertheless, Claudius 
 continued his activity in Tm'in unimpeded, till 
 his death ; but his book, the chief source to an 
 miderstanding of his views, has disappeared. In 
 1461 there existed a copy of it in the Monastery 
 of Bobbia ; but, since the incorporation of the 
 library of Bobbia with the Biblintheca Anihrosiana, 
 the Apologeticum has never been seen. Of Claudi- 
 us's other works (commentaries on the Bible), the 
 most still remain unprinted. See Rudelb.^ch : 
 Claud. Turin., etc., Copenhagen, 1824; H. Reu- 
 TER : Geschiclite d. relig. Aufklarung im Mittelal- 
 ter, I. pp. 16-24. ' C. SCHMIDT. 
 
 CLAUDIUS, Matthias, b. at Rheiufeld, near 
 Liibeck, Aug. 15, 1740; d. in Hamburg, Jan. 21, 
 1815; studied law at Jena, and spent most of his 
 life at Wandsbeck, partly as reviser of the Bank 
 of Schleswig-Holstein in Altona, partly as a pri- 
 vate citizen. His writings consist of poems and 
 articles published over the signature of Asmus iii 
 the Waridsbecker Bote and other periodicals. Of 
 these writings he made the first collection in 
 1765, the last (in 8 vols.) in 1812: of the latter, 
 the ninth edition appeared in 1871. He \\as not 
 a theologian. His articles are not sermons or 
 devotional tracts. None of his poems are used in 
 the churches. He exercised, nevertheless, a great 
 influence on the religious life of his country by 
 his strong, primitive, and sympathetic Christian 
 feeling, expressed in an easy and individual man- 
 ner, in which humor and irony are singularly 
 blended with warm and even passionate earnest- 
 ness. The tendency of his writings points directly 
 against the rationalism of his time, though he 
 did not forget to condemn the barren and pedan- 
 tic orthodoxy. 
 
 Lit. — His life has been written by Herbst, 
 Gotha, 1857, 3d ed., 1863; Monckeberg, Hamb., 
 1870; Redlich : Die poclisc/ien Bcitrcige zum 
 Wandsbecker Boten, Hamb., 1871. HAGESBACH.
 
 CLEAN AND UNCLEAN. 
 
 49: 
 
 CLEMENS ROMANUS. 
 
 CLEAN AND UNCLEAN, as a distinction be- 
 tween animals, existed apparently from tlie earli- 
 est times (Gen. vii. 2). Only those animals 
 which di^-ide the lioof, and chew the end, were 
 regarded as clean (Lev. xi. 3, 4). The distinction 
 primarily related to sacriiice, but in the ilosaic 
 law was'extended to food (Lev. xi. ; Dent, xiv.) ; 
 and indeed some of the articles pronounced un- 
 clean are really unwholesome. The underlying- 
 idea, however, was the education of a people dis- 
 tinguished from all the world by peculiar modes 
 of lite. The Jews keep up the distinction to 
 this day, and have their own butchers. So in- 
 grained was the idea, that it required a miracle 
 to convince Peter that he might eat with Gen- 
 tiles who did not observe this law of food (Acts 
 X. 9-lU). .See also Apostolic Cou.nxil. 
 
 CLEMANGES, Nicolas de, b. in the village of 
 Clemanges. in Cliauipagne, 13G0; was educated in 
 the CdUege de Nararre, in Paris ; studied tlieolo- 
 gy under Pierre d'Ailly and Gerson ; began him- 
 self to lecture in 1301 ; and was in 1303 chosen 
 rector of the university. In the ecclesiastical 
 history of that period the University of Paris 
 played a very prominent part, standing at the 
 head of the party of reform, and exerting itself to 
 restore order and unity to the Church ; and many 
 of the remarkable memoirs, addresses, and letters 
 which it issued to kings and popes, were penned 
 by Clemanges ; thus, for instance, the memoir 
 addressed in 1303 to Charles VI., to induce him 
 to put an end to the papal schism, and the 
 memoir of the following year, proposing, as the 
 only means of ending the schism, the abdication 
 of the pojies, or a court of arbitration, or an 
 cecumenical council, etc. When Clement VII. 
 died at Avignon, both the French court and the 
 University of Paris tried to prevent the election 
 of a new pope, until the cardinals came to an 
 understan<ling with their colleagues in Rome, 
 and with Boniface IX. Nevertheless, Benedict 
 Xlir. was elected Sept. 28, 1304; and the fol- 
 lowing year Cldmanges went to A\'ignon as his 
 secretary. But in 130.S France witlidrew from 
 the obedience of Benedict; and in 1407 Benedict 
 laid the kin^ and the country mider the ban. 
 Cldmanges, w-lio was at Genoa when the bull of 
 excomnmnication was issued, immediately re- 
 turned to France, and repaired to l>angres, where 
 he a short time before had obtained a canonry. 
 I lis enemies, however, accused him of being the 
 author of the bull, and he wa,s compelled to live 
 in concealment, — first in a Carthusian monas- 
 tery at Valpiofonds, afterwards at Fonlaine-du- 
 bosc. His nenefice of Langres he exchanged for 
 one at Bayeux, and after the lapse of .some years 
 lie once more emerged into public life. In M"21 
 lie defended the liberties of the (iallican Church 
 in a public disjiutation at Chartres : in 1 125 he 
 again look up his lectures in the dillif/e de Na- 
 fiirre. The date of his death is unknown. 
 
 iJuring his slay in Valprofonds and Fontaine- 
 dii-bosc, Clemanges wrote, besides a number of 
 e.xceedingly interesting letters, De Fruclu Erciiii, 
 ])e Fruciu Ilernm Adversariim, Df A'ovis Feslivi- 
 Idlibus mm IiiKlilucnill.i, De Slwtio Tlienlof/ico (of 
 Rjiecial interest for the encydop.edia of theology), 
 JJispuliilio lie CorAtio Oetiendi, Oialio ad (iidtianim 
 J'rincincs, De Laj/.iu el l{ci>anUwne ju.slili(c, etc. ; 
 and these works show that he went through a 
 
 remarkable development. Always on the side of 
 reform and liberty, he came farther and farther 
 away from the idea of the papal authority; and 
 his studies of the Bible brought him nearer to 
 the great jirinciples of the Reformation than his 
 teachers d'Ailly and Gerson ever reached. Above 
 the Pope he placed the oecumenical council ; but 
 above the cecumenical council he placed the 
 Bible ; and the idea of the invisible Church, to 
 which all the paraphernalia of an established 
 Church may be a mere scandal, began to dawn 
 upon him. A collected edition of his works was 
 published by Joh. Lydius, Leyden, 1013, in 2 
 vols. 4to ; but much of what he has written still 
 remains in manuscript, and some of his treatises 
 seem to have been suppressed. His life was 
 written by Adolph MI'ntz. Xicolas Cle'manyes, sa 
 vie et scs t'critu, Strassbiu'g, 1846. 
 
 The two works De Ruina Ecclesice, ov De Cor- 
 rupto EcclesUn .Slnlu, and Apostoti (i.e., liUerce di 
 missorice) et Hesponsio per Nationem Galtlcannm 
 Domints Canlinaliltiis Apipellantibus, etc., generally 
 ascribed to him are, as Adolph Miintz has shown, 
 not by liim. c. schmidt. 
 
 CLEMENS ROMANUS, one of the most cele- 
 brated names of Christian antiquity, but so over- 
 grown with myths, that it has become next to- 
 impossible to lay bare the historical facts which' 
 it represents, occurs in all lists of the first Roman 
 bishops, but not always in the same place. Thu.s 
 Ireuieus (Hcer., III. 3, 3) puts it in the third place 
 from Peter (Petrus, Linu.t, Anendetux, Clemens) ; 
 and so do Eusebius (lioth in his Church Histori/, 
 III. 13, 1.5, and in his Chronicle), Epiphanius 
 (Hcer., XXVII. 6), and Jerome {De Vir. lit.. V>) ; 
 only that, with the two last mentioned, the name 
 of the second bishop after Peter is Clelus, and not 
 Anenclelus. But another succession meets us in 
 the Chronicle of Hippolyte, in wliich Clement is 
 placed before Cletus, — Pelrus, Linus, Clemens, 
 Cletus; and this succession was adopted by the 
 Liherian Catalogue, by Augustine, (jptatus, and 
 others, as also by the Apostolical Constitutions ; 
 while at the same time the double tradition made 
 two ditferent per.sons out of tlie two names of 
 Anencletus and Cletu.s, thus producing the fol- 
 lowing list, — Petrus, Linus, Clemens, Cletus, Anen- 
 cletus. The Leonian Catalogue, however, returns 
 once more to the old succession, according to 
 which Clement occupies the third place after 
 Peter; and tluis the Felieiaii Catalogue, which is 
 merely a combination of the Liherian and Leo- 
 nian Catalogues, arrives at the following succes- 
 sion, — J'etrus, Linus, Cletus, Clemens, Anenclelus. 
 The pseudo-Tertullian Carmen adv. Mnrcionem 
 finally places both Cletus and Anencletus before 
 Clement; while the epistle said to have been writ- 
 ten by Clement to the apostle .lames narrates 
 that Peter himself ajipointed Clement his succes- 
 sor; but the former found no advocates at all, and 
 the latter only one, — the author of the p.seudo- 
 ClementiiK^ romance. See Lir.snis: Chronoloijie 
 der riimischcn liishiife, Kiel, 1800. There is. indeed, 
 no reason to abandon the oldest tradition of the 
 Church, according to which, Clement was the 
 third bishop of Konii' after I'eter; only it must 
 be lemembeii'd that he was not a bislio]i in that 
 sen.se of the word which the nionarchical temlency 
 of a later period develo]ied. He was simply one 
 of the iiicst prominent presbyters of the llomaiii
 
 CLEMENS ROMANUS. 
 
 493 
 
 CLEMENS ROMANUS. 
 
 ■congregation immediately after the post-apostoli- 
 'Cal age. 
 
 So much for tlie time in which he lived. With 
 respect to the identity of his person, Irenifns (l.r.) 
 makes him a pupil of an apostle; and Origen 
 (In Joann. 1, 29), Eusebius (ULsl. EccL, III. i.")), 
 Kpiphanius (Iliv.r., XXVII. 0), and Jerome (/> 
 Vir. lit.) identify him with the Clement mentioned 
 by Paul (Phil. iv. 3), makini^ him a special pupil 
 of Paid. This .supposillon Chry.sostom carries 
 still further (Cnmm. in 1 Tim.), speaking of Clem- 
 ent as the st(;ady companion of Paul on all his 
 travel.s; while the Clementine literature, in har- 
 mony with its .Judeo-Christian character, brings 
 him in tlie clo.sest connection with Peter, and 
 makes him his most intimate pupil. These two 
 traditions have been combined in many various 
 ways, all more or less artificial. But though 
 the identity of Clement of Rome and Clement 
 mentioned by Paul still finds its defenders (see 
 WociiKK : Die Briefe des Clemens unci Polycurp, 
 Tubingen, 1830), it has been given up by most 
 theologians, and with good reason ; as Irenreus, if 
 he had known any thing about this identity, would 
 hardly have neglected to speak of it. The Clem- 
 ent mentioned by Paul was, no doubt, a Philip- 
 pian. Still more intricate is the qnestion, whether 
 the report of the Clementine literature, that Clem- 
 ent was a relative of the imperial family, has any 
 historical kernel or not. Recent investigations, 
 and more especially the excavations of tlie Ro- 
 man catacombs, prove that Christianity actually 
 succeeded in penetrating into the Flavian family. 
 [.See XoRTHCOTE and Buowni.ow^: Roma Sotter- 
 ranea, 2d ed., London, 1879, 2 vols. (vol. i. pp. 
 ■S3 sqq.)]. If we now suppose that the consul 
 Flavius Clemens (who was sentenced to death by 
 Domitian on account of Atheism, the common 
 Pagan designation of Christianity) belonged to 
 the Christian congregation, we have, then, at the 
 same time, two prominent Christians in Rome of 
 the same name, — the one consul and martyr, 
 the other bishop or presbj-ter ; and the question 
 arises. Was there originally only one person, 
 afterwards split into two by a confusion of the 
 tradition, or were there originally two, afterwards 
 merged into one by the Clementine literature? 
 On this point modern opinions deviate very 
 much ; and the question can, perhaps, never be 
 fully answered. But it must be remembered, 
 first, that the Christianity of Flavius Clemens is 
 a mere assumption ; next, that the martyrdom of 
 Clemens Romanus is equally doubtful. The cata- 
 combs prove that Christianity penetrated into the 
 Flavian family, but not that the consul Flavius 
 Clemens was a Christian ; and the report of Dio, 
 or rather of his epitomizer Xiphilinus, is in many 
 of its details so palpably erroneous, that it be- 
 comes unreliable as a whole. And how could the 
 Roman congregation forget, in the course of only 
 one century and a half, that one of its first bish- 
 ops had been a consul, that the first martyr among 
 its bishojis had been a member of the imperial 
 family V But Irena?us (/.<.•.) mentions Telespho- 
 rus as the first martyr among the Roman bishops ; 
 and Eusebius {Hist. Eccl., III. 34), as well as 
 Jerome (De Vir. Itl., 15), says that Clement died 
 a natural death in the third year of the reign 
 of Trajan. This leads us to the conclusion that 
 ■the consul and the bishop, Flavius Clemens and 
 
 Clemens Romanus, were two different persons ; 
 which necessitates the admission that we know 
 nothing of the persoiuil life of Clemens Ronui- 
 nus but its approximate date and the position he 
 occupied in the congregation. 
 
 Of the numerous writings which bear the 
 name of Clement, most are evidently spurious, as, 
 for instance, the Apo.ilulical Conslituliunx, and 
 the whole group com[)rised under the name of 
 the Clementines; which articles see. Nor are th(3 
 two Epistles on Virr/lnit;/ worth a long debate. 
 They were first published by Wetstein as an ap- 
 pendix to his New Testamcmt (17.52), and after- 
 wards by Yillecourt, in MiGtiK, Patrol. Grcec., I., 
 and by I. Ph. Beelen, Louvain, IS.'jG. But the 
 views of asceticism which they propound, and the 
 state of ecclesiastical development to which they 
 refer, show that they belong to a much later 
 period. Jerome knew them (Ad Jovin., I. 12), 
 perhaps also Epiphanius (Ihcr., XXX. 1.5). The 
 two E/iistles to tlie Corinthians, on the contrary, 
 especially the first, belong among the most im- 
 portant documents of Christian antiquity still 
 extant. In the Ancient Church they were held in 
 the greatest esteem, and in many places they were 
 read at divine service. Nevertheless, after the 
 fifth century they disappeared from the AV'estern 
 Church, and remained completely unknow n until 
 .Junius rediscovered them in the celelirated Cod. 
 Alex., a present from Cyrillus Lucaris to King 
 Charles I., and published them at Oxford (1033). 
 Up to 1875 this manuscript remained the only 
 one known ; and all editions before that year — by 
 WoTTON, Cambridge, 1718 ; Jacobsox, Oxford, 
 1838; Madden (photographic facsimile), Lon- 
 don, 1856 ; TiscHENDORF, Leipzig, 1807 and 
 1873; LiGHTFOOT, London, 1869, to which an 
 Appendix was added in 1877; IIilgenfeld, Leip- 
 zig, 1866; Laukent, Leipzig, 1870; and finally 
 by Gebhardt and IIarnack, in Dressel : Pat. 
 Apost., Leipzig, 1875 — were taken from it alone. 
 But in 1875 Bryennios, metropolitan of Serrae, 
 gave an edition from a newly-discovered manu- 
 script in the Library of the Holy Sepulchre at 
 Farnar, in Constantinople; and in this new edi- 
 tion, not only were the many gaps of the 
 Cod. Alex, filled, but also the second epistle, of 
 which hitiierto only a fragment had been known, 
 appeared in full. Editions based upon a com- 
 i:)arison between the two manuscripts have been 
 given by Gebhardt and Haruack, and by IIilgen- 
 feld, Leipzig, 1876. [The Appendix of Light- 
 foot gives a good English translation of both. 
 epistles.] R. L. Bensly found in June, 1876, a 
 Syriac translation of the two epistles in a manu- 
 script purchased for the University of Cambridge 
 at the sale, in Paris, of Julius Mohl's library. 
 
 The First Epistle is an official missive from the 
 Roman congregation to the Corinthian, occasioned 
 by some dissensions which had arisen in the lat- 
 ter. As it is written in the name of the whole 
 congregation, it bears no author's name ; but 
 ancient witnesses mention Clement as the author. 
 Dionysiu.s, Bishop of Corinth, in a letter addressed 
 to Bishop Soter of Rome, about 170, speaks of 
 the epistle as written by Clement, and adds that 
 it was alwaj's read aloud in his congregation 
 (EusEB. : Hist. Eccl., IV. 2-3). Clemens Alexan- 
 drinus also holds it in great esteem, quotes often 
 from it, and designates its author as an apostle
 
 CLEMENS. 
 
 494 
 
 CLEMENT. 
 
 (Strom., TV. 17 ; I. 7 ; V. 12 ; VI. 8). As so very 
 little is known of Clement, the question of the 
 genuineness of the epistle becomes a question of 
 the date of its authorship. Formerly tlie opinion 
 ■was generally prevailing, and is still held by 
 Hefele {Patr. Ap. Prolegomena, p. XXXII.) and 
 Wieseler (Eine Unlersuchung iiber den Hebrder- 
 hrief, Kiel, 1861), that it was written between 01 
 and G8. A closer examination, however, seems to 
 lead to the last decade of the first centur^y, between 
 i)3 and 97. On the one side, not only Peter and 
 Taul, but all the apostles, have died, and the state 
 of the congregational life seems to indicate that 
 some time has elapsed since that event. Ou the 
 other hand, there are presbj-ters iu office who 
 have been appointed by the apostles themselves ; 
 and there are members living who have been con- 
 temporaries of the apostles. 
 
 The Second Epistle is not an epistle at all, but 
 a homily ; and, as it is the oldest existing ser- 
 mon, it is, of course, of gi-eat interest. Where, 
 at what time, and by whom, it was ■WTitten, are 
 ([uestions of great difficulty; and, of the many 
 lij'potheses which have been offered as answers, 
 none has proved fully satisfactory. • It seems 
 most probable that it originated in Kome, and 
 between 130 and 140 ; but how it then came to 
 be connected with the Epistle to the Corinthians 
 liy Clement as a second epistle must for the pres- 
 ent be left unexplained. For Lit. see editions 
 mentioned above. G. UHLHORN. 
 
 CLEMENS, Titus Flavius, was one of the most 
 celebrated teachers of tlie Church of .\lexandria. 
 The date of his birth falls near the middle of the 
 second centiu'y ; as between 192 and 202, when 
 he began on his principal work, he was a man in 
 his best years. The place of his birth was not 
 Alexandria, since he speaks of Egypt as a country 
 in which he finally settled He was probably a 
 native of (Ireece, — Epiphanius says, of Athens. 
 His parents seem to have belonged to the upper 
 classes, and to have been Pagans. He speaks of 
 himself as one who has come to grace through 
 penitence; and he shows an intimate acquaint- 
 ance with Pagan life, even with its darkest sides. 
 He frequented the schools of tlie rhetoricians; 
 and, though strict nietliod is not the most .strik- 
 ing i'eatun^ in his authorship, he studied logic and 
 dialectics with great zeal. He was well versed 
 in music; and the brilliant development which 
 cliurch-nnisic achieved in .Mexandria was no 
 doubt (lu(> to him. Hut the principal subjects 
 of Ids .studies were the poets and tlie pliiloso- 
 phers. His works bristle with quotations from 
 the older (ireek literature, and have, for this very 
 rea,son, an additional interest to tlie student. Hut 
 neither the poets nor the jiliilosojihers were able 
 to fully .satisfy his craving for truth. He began 
 to study Christianity; and in Egypt, in Alexan- 
 dria, lie finally found a man who could give him 
 what he wantt'd. Eusebiiis is imibably right, 
 when in this man he recognizes Panta-nus, who 
 actiuired great fame as teacher in the Church of 
 Alexandria. In this position Clemens afterwards 
 succeeded him, and ni fame he .soon surpassed 
 him. Huriiig the per.si^cution of .S(!ptimius Se- 
 verus lie was driven away from Alexandria, and 
 sought refuge with .Mcxandcr, bishop in some 
 Caj)padocian city, ami afterwards of .Icrusalcm. 
 It is a letter from Alexuiid<;r which contains these 
 
 notices of Clemens : another letter of a later date- 
 speaks of him as having recently died. 
 
 The three works of Clemens Alexandrinus 
 stUl extant, JlpoTpc-anKo^ (" Exhortation to the 
 Heathen "), Tlaidayuyo^ (" The Instructor "), and 
 ZTpufiaTd^ (" Jliscellanies "), are his three princi- 
 pal works, and represent three successive stages 
 in a systematical teaching of Christianity, begin- 
 ning with the conversion from Paganism, and 
 ending with full initiation in the Christian mys- 
 teries. [These three works have been translated 
 into English in the Ante-Xicene Libraiy, vol. IV., 
 Edinburgh, 18C7.] Other works are mentioned 
 by Jerome and Photius, but they have perished. 
 The writings of Clemens are rich iu brilliant 
 thoughts, often most strikingly expressed ; and 
 to a certain extent he has succeeded in permeate 
 ing the whole mass of thoughts with certain grand 
 fundamental ideas. But his talent is not system- 
 atical. Even W'hen he most sincerely tries to 
 be systematical, much remains loose, and only 
 mechanically tied together. The elements which 
 he proposes to harmonize are the Greek philoso- 
 phy and Christianity, an independent reason, 
 and an authority based on tradition. But though 
 he never succeeds in fully defining the office of 
 reason on the field of authority, or in fully separ 
 rating that of Pagan thought which Christianity 
 can assimilate from that ■nliich it must reject, he 
 is, nevertheless, exceedingly suggestive, and often 
 eminently striking. 
 
 Lit. — Collected editions of his works have 
 been given by Petrus Victorius, Florence, 
 1550; F. Sylburg, Heidelberg, 1592 ; IIeixsius, 
 Leyden, 1616; J. Potter, Oxford, 1715; Din- 
 dork, Oxford, 1868-69. For his life, and a 
 characterization of his works, .see Eusebius: 
 Hist. EccL, V. 11; VI. 6, 11, 13; Jerome: De 
 Vir. III., c. 38; PiiOTUis : Blblioth., 109-111 ;i 
 Hofstede de Ghoot : De Clem. Al., Griinin- ■ 
 gen, 1826; Dahne : De Gnos. Clem.. Leipzig, 
 1831 ; Reuter : Clem. .Uornlis, Berlin, 1853 ; Win- 
 ter : Die Ethik d. C, Leipzig, 1882. JACOBI. 
 
 CLEMENT is the name of fourteen popes. — 
 Clement I. (see Clemens Rom.\nus). — Clement 
 II. (Dec. 24, 104G-Oct. 9, 1047). After the abdi- 
 cation of Gregory VI., Henry III., at the heiid of 
 a formidable army, stood as the master of Home 
 and the Church; and the people and the clergy 
 conceded to him the right of the first — and, ac- 
 cording to the inter]iretation of Petrus Damiani, 
 also tile decisive — vote at the papal election. 
 On Dec. 24 he pre.scnted Hishop Suidger of Bam- 
 berg to the .s^^lod assembled in the Church of St. 
 Peter, and seated him on the jiapal throne, the 
 first German pope; and the next day Suidger, 
 who assumed the name Clement II., crowned' 
 King Henry and his wife. See Jaefe: liegesta; 
 and W.\TTEl!Kli: Ponlif. liimmn. Vilir. I. — 
 Clement III. (Dec. 19. nH7-Mareh 2.'>. 1191), a 
 Roman by birth; ascended the papal throne just 
 as the report of the fall of .Terusaleni and the 
 entrance of Saladin (Oct. 3, 1187) spread horror 
 and dismay through all Europe. He espoused 
 the cause with great fervor, and .succeeded in 
 rousing a general enthusiasm. Letters were sent 
 to all the kings and princes; daily prayers were 
 onlered for the rescue of the Holy Land; the 
 Truce of (Jod was jneached in all countries; in- 
 dulgences, dispensations, absolutions, were freely
 
 CLEMENT. 
 
 495 
 
 CLEMENT. 
 
 distributed; and the summons to the third cru- 
 sade was accepted by the nations with nearly 
 as mucli enthusiasm as that to the first. Venice 
 and Hungary made peace with each otlier; the 
 Emperor took the cross; even France and Eng- 
 land were reconciled, and joined in the under- 
 taking. Tiie pitiful end, however, of this grand 
 beginning, Clement was sjiared from seeing. 
 With King William of Scotland lie came into 
 a sharp conflict. The see of St. Andrew became 
 vacant. The chapter chose one bishop; the 
 king appointed another. But the Pope threat- 
 ened with interdict, and the king yielded. As a 
 rewaril for this concession, the Pope placed Scot- 
 land immediately under the papal authority by 
 a bidl of ]March bi, 1188, thus exempting it from 
 the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of York, who 
 liad hitlierto acted as papal legate for Scot- 
 laud. On Nov. 18, US!), William H. of Sicily 
 died. The Pope, who claimed the kingdom as a 
 fief, invested Tancred with the country; but 
 Henry VI., son of Frederic Barbarossa, protested 
 as the next • heir, and was marching against 
 Home, when Clement died. See Jafk^;: Re- 
 r/esta; and W.\TTEKlcn : Pontif. Roman. ViUc, 
 Tom. 11. There was an Antipope of the same 
 name (see Gregoky VII.). — -Clement IV. (Feb. 
 5, l'2(i.j-Xov. 29, 120S), a native of France; 
 studied law, and held a high position at the 
 court of Louis IX. ; married, and had two daugli- 
 tr>rs, but was, by sorrow over the loss of his wife, 
 led to enter the Church, and was made Bishop of 
 Le Puy in 12.57, Archbishop of Narbonne in 1259, 
 and cardinal in 1262. lie was on a journey to 
 England as papal legate, when he heard of his 
 election to the papal throne ; but such was the 
 state of Italy tliat he had to put on the cowl of a 
 mendicant friar in order to reach the papal domin- 
 ion. His whole reign was occupied almost exclu- 
 sively with the affairs of the Apulian Empire. 
 The long tradition of the papal policy, the in- 
 veterate hatred of the curia to the Hohenstaufen 
 House, and the necessity of withstanding the 
 attacks of the Ghibellines, determined his course. 
 Feb. 20, 1265, Charles of Anjou was invested in 
 Rome with the fief of Apulia, and tlie war with 
 -Manfred began. Clement felt very indignant at 
 the arrogance, faithlessness, and licentiousness 
 of Charles, and was about to open negotiations 
 with Manfred, when the latter died. Conradin 
 now appeared in Italy; and in spite of the papal 
 ban, launched against him Nov. 18, 1267, lie 
 entered Rome in triumpli. But his defeat at 
 Tagliocozzo was the end of his r6lc and of that 
 of the House of Hohenstaufen. It is sure, how- 
 ever, that Clement had no part in the pitiful end 
 of his adversary. He was a right-minded and 
 warm-hearted man; and the energy with which 
 he attacked and suppressed nepotism, the cancer 
 of the papal rule, is so much the more praise- 
 worthy, as he had many poor relatives. See 
 Mlth.\toki: .SV-ny)/..III. P. I. p. .594, and P. II. 
 ]i. 421 ; and the list of his letters given by Pott- 
 ii.\st: Refjes'.a I'ontif. Rom., II. — Clement V. 
 (June 5, 1305-April 20, 1314), a native of France ; 
 was made Bishop of Comminges in 1295, and 
 Archbishop of Bordeaux in 1299, and showed 
 himself a firm adherent of Boniface VIII., and a 
 decided adversary of Philip tlie Fair. Cun- 
 ningly manceuvring with this prestige, he secured 
 
 the election after Benedict XI. ; and only a few- 
 persons knew that he had actually bought the 
 papal crown by a number of the most degrading 
 concessions to the French king. He was crowned 
 at Lj'ons, and took up his residence, first at 
 Bordeaux, then at Poitiers. Finally he settled 
 (l;i()9) at Avignon with the whole curia. No 
 argument or flattery or threat could induce him 
 to go to Rome; and thus began the so-called 
 Babylonian E.xile of the Po];es, which lasted for 
 seventy years. At Avignon he led a brilliant 
 but scandalous life ; and, in spite of his ostenta- 
 tious arrogance, lie was not much more than a 
 tool in the hands of Philip the Fair. In .June, 
 1300, he inviti'd the grand master of the Tem- 
 plars, Jac(jues de Molay, to Avignon, apparently 
 to discuss the plan of a new crusade, but in 
 reality as the first step towards the abolition of 
 the order ; which he had promised the king. 
 An investigation was instituted, but only in 
 order to give in an indirect manner the sanction 
 of the Church to the violent proceedings of the 
 king. Without waiting for the result of the 
 investigation, the king at once imprisoned all 
 the members of the order living in France, and 
 confiscated their property. A general council 
 was convened at Vienne, Oct. 16, 1311 ; and a 
 pai)al bull of ISlay 6, 1312, dissolved the order. 
 But, though the bull reserved both the members 
 and the property of the order for the decision of 
 the Pope, the king burnt the members, and 
 ]iocketed the property ; and the Pope kept silent. 
 While the process of the Templars was going on, 
 a process was begun against Boniface VHI., 
 whose memory Clement al.so had promised the 
 king to condemn as a heretic. He confined him- 
 self to annul his acts of excommunication and 
 interdict, and especially his bulls Clericis Laico.i 
 and Umim ^anclam, but only because the king- 
 did not find it necessary to press his claims. 
 The decrees of the Council of Vienne. augmented 
 with his own decretals, he ordered to be col- 
 lected ; and, under the name of the Clementines, 
 they now form the seventh book of decretals. 
 See Baluzius: Vil(r Paptir. Avcnion., Paris, 1693; 
 MuKATOiu : Script., HI. P. I. p. 673, and P. II. 
 p. 441 ; Vn,L.\Ni : I/isl. Finrent. : Rcgrsliim, Rome, 
 1885. — Clement VI. (May 7, 1342-Uec. 6, 1352), a. 
 native of France ; monk of the order of St. Bene- 
 dict; Archbishop of Rouen ; remained at Avignon, 
 though the Romans, through an embassy of which 
 Petrarca was a member, most humbly and most 
 urgently solicited his return to Rome. He sat 
 quietly at Avignon, and looked on while Cola di 
 Rienzi pUiyed his farce in Rome. In the affairs 
 of Germany he interfered in a very high-handed 
 manner; and his claim to choose or confirm the 
 Roman king was practically recognized. Avignon, 
 wliich belonged to the crown of Sicily, he bought 
 of Queen Johanna, and he spent great sums to 
 adorn it. For the Church he had no interest : 
 the most remunerative ortices he gave to his rela- 
 tives. A sumptuous table, fine horses, brilliant 
 pageantries, and the company of beautiful women, 
 were the things he liked; and in order to procure 
 the necessary means he introduced the custom 
 of celebrating the jubilee of the Church every- 
 fiftieth year, instead of every hundredth. See 
 Baluzius: Vila Papar. Aven. — Clement VII. 
 (Nov. 19, 1523-Sept. 25, 1534), an illegitimate:
 
 CLEMENT. 
 
 496 
 
 CLEMENT. 
 
 son of Giuliano de Medici ; entered the military 
 order of St. John ; was Prior of Capua, and car- 
 ried the colors of the order at the coronation of 
 his cousin Leo X., but was legitimatized the very 
 next day, made Archbishop of Florence, and 
 soon after cardinal. After the death of Adrian 
 '\'I. he ascended the papal throne by a shrewd 
 compromise with his antagonist. Cardinal Colon- 
 na. But the great business capacity which he 
 liad shown under his two predecessors proved 
 altogether insufficient for his new position ; and 
 his policy brought not only him, but the Papacy 
 itself, into the greatest dangers. Afraid of the 
 growing influence of Charles V. in the Italian 
 Peninsula, Clement entered into an alliance with 
 Francis I. ; but ]VIay 6, l.r2C, Rome was stormed 
 and sacked; the Pope had to ransom his own 
 person for four hundred thousand scudi; and the 
 ^ledicis were expelled from Florence. This war 
 between the Pope and the emperor proved a 
 great opportunity for tlie German Reformation, 
 and the Protestants utilized it. The diet of 
 Spires established religious liberty in Germany, 
 and placed the Protestant churches on equal 
 terms with the Roman. The Pope now hoped to 
 crush the Reformation by the aid of the Emperor: 
 but Charles V. demanded a general council ; and 
 Clement VII. was afraid of such a measure, on 
 account of his illegitimate birth, the manner in 
 which he had obtained the tiara, etc. Once more 
 he sought the support of France; and liis niece, 
 Catherine de Medici, was married to Henry of 
 Orleans, the second son of Francis I. Mean- 
 while, Protestantism spread rapidly both in 
 Germany and France; and when the Pope (in 
 1531) decided against Henry VIH. in the divorce 
 case, the king immediately threw oif all alle- 
 giance to the papal see. See ZiF.tii.KU : Hist. 
 Clemenlis VII., in Schelhorx : Amcetiil. Hi.it.; 
 Rossi: Ckmenle 17/., Rome, 1837; Bai.an: Po- 
 litica di Clem. VII., 1884. Tliere was an Antipope 
 of the same name (see Uuii.\n VI.). — Clement 
 VIII. (Jan. 30, 1.592-March .'J, 1005), Cardinal 
 Ippolito Aldobrandini, descending from a noble 
 Florentine family, imdertook the (lilTunilt task to 
 rescue the curia from the overwhelming influ- 
 ence of Spain, and finally succeeded in fulfilling 
 it. The manner in which he dealt with Henry 
 IV. of France is very characteristic of his policy 
 in general. The conversion of the king (July 
 25, 159.3) was not a sufiicient guaranty. The 
 absolution did not follow until Paris and the 
 greater part of France had accepted tlie king 
 (Dec. 17, 1.'j95). The king tlien recalled the 
 Jesuits; and the Pope kept silent on occasion of 
 the Edict of Xantes. ISy the aid of Henry IV. 
 Clement VHI. was aide to retain Ferrara as a 
 papal fief wlieii the House of Este became ex- 
 tinct; and thus gradually the French influence 
 grew until it was a match for the Spanish. The 
 same method the Pojie employed in the great 
 dogmatical controversy between the Jesuits and 
 the Dominicans, which he snuiothed down with- 
 out risking the estrangement of eithiT of the 
 two great orders by a definite decision. See 
 Waddinij: Vita Clemenlin VIII., Rome, 1723. 
 There was aLso an Antipope of the same name 
 (see Maktin V.). — Clement IX. (June 20, l(i(!7- 
 l)ec. 9, 1009), a native of Pistnja, and a peace-- 
 loving man; mediated the peace of Aix-lu-Chii- 
 
 pelle (1608), and the Pax Clemenlitia, which 
 brought the .Tansenistic controversy to a tem- 
 porary conclusion. — Clement X. (.-^pril 29, 1670- 
 July 22, 1676), a Roman by birth ; was eighty 
 years old when he ascended the papal throne, 
 and left all business to Cardinal Proluzzi. Under 
 him began the controversy with Louis XIV., 
 concerning the enjoyment, during vacancy, of 
 episcopal revenues and benefices. See Amelot 
 DK L.\ IIouss.WE : Relation du Conclave 'de C/e- 
 ?«CTi; A'., Paris, 1670; (;u.\rxacci: Hist. Pontif. a 
 CI. X. ad CI. A7. —Clement XI. (Xov. 23, 1700- 
 March 19, 1721), b. at LMiino; was a man of 
 great ability, and achieved considerable results 
 as a reformer of the internal administration of 
 his dominion, but was very little successful in 
 his external policy. His protest against the 
 assumption of the royal crown by the ruler of 
 Prussia (1700) made him almost ridiculous. In 
 the War of the Spanish Succession he favored 
 Philip v., but was compelled to acknowledge 
 Charles III., which disturbed his relations with 
 Louis XIV. In the controversy between the 
 Dominicans and the Jesuits, concerning the ad- 
 visability of allowing Chinese converts to retain 
 certain Pagan customs, Innocent X. had decided 
 in favor of the Dominicans, Alexander VII. in 
 favor of the Jesuits ; and Clement now decided 
 in favor of the Dominicans. The Jesuits sub- 
 mitted, but only apparently. In the Jansenistic 
 controversy, in whicli the Pope took a very de- 
 cided stand, the bull of July 10, 1705 (^Vincam. 
 Domini), demanding absolute submission to the 
 decrees of Innocent X. and Alexander VII., 
 against the book of .lansenius, was registered by 
 the Parliament of Paris, and enforced by the 
 king; but the bull of Sept. 8, 1713 {Unigenitus), 
 against Quesnel's work, caused a great commo- 
 tion, rallied all adherents of tlie Galilean views 
 around the .Jansenists, and contributed more 
 than any thing else to stir up the hatred to the 
 Jesuits, whose work the bull was. See Clementii 
 Ejiist. et Brevia Sclecta, Rome, 1724, 2 vols. ; 
 BuUarimn dementis XL, Rome, 1723: Oralt. Con- 
 sistor., Rome, 1722. His life was written by 
 
 BUDER (1721), PlETRO PoLIDORO (1727), Re 
 
 iu)ui.Er(1738), Lafiteau (1752). — Clement Xil. 
 (July 12, 1730-Feb. 0, 1740). a Florentine by 
 birth, and seventy-eight years old wlien he as- 
 cended the throne. His attempt to reclaim 
 Pavia and Placentia, and to incorporate tlie 
 repulilic of San IMarino, failed ; and, while the 
 political power of tiie Papacy visilily crumbled 
 into (lust, tlie, literary and scienlific opposition 
 became sliarper and more open dav bv dav. — 
 Clement XIII. (July 0, 1758-Feb. 3,"l769), 6. .at 
 Venice ; a.-iceiided the throne by the aid of the 
 .Jesuits, and became tlieir zealous defender, 
 though he thereby brought the Papacy itself to 
 the very verge of ruin. The storm against them 
 began in Portugal. In 1759 they were expelled 
 from that country, and sent by sliip to the Papal 
 .States. In France the king proposed certain 
 modifications in the constitution of the order; 
 and, when the Pope refused, the Parliament 
 voted that the .Jesuits should leave the country 
 witliin a month, the king fixing the day at Dec. 
 1, 17111. On Jan. 7, 1705, the Pope issued the 
 bull A/iosloliciim I'ascendi Miiniis. in which he 
 spoke of the order as a useful and holy institu-
 
 CLEMENTINES. 
 
 497 
 
 CLEMENTINES. 
 
 tion ; but the publication of the bull was forbid- 
 den in Portugal, France, and Najiles. On March 
 31, 1707, the king of Spain had all the Jesuits 
 living in Madrid arrested, and the following 
 day all the Jesuits living in Spain. They were 
 packed like slaves in some merchant-vessels, and 
 carried across the Mediterranean to the shores 
 'of the Papal States. The contest became still 
 more violent. The Duke of Parma introduced 
 some reforms in his dominions; and by a breve 
 or monitorium of Jan. 30, 17fJ8 (Aiiuil ml Aposlo- 
 /alus), the Pope undertook to annul those mea.s- 
 ures. The duke answered by expelling the 
 Jesuits ; and the Pope actually began to prepare 
 for war. But at this moment French troops 
 occupied Avignon and Venaissin ; Sicilian troops, 
 Benevent and Ponte Corvo ; and no other issue 
 seemed possible but the destruction of the politi- 
 cal power of the Papacy, when Clement suddenly 
 died. See Theiner ; Genchlchle d. Ponllf. CI. 
 XIV., Leipzig and Paris, 1853, vol. I. — Clement 
 XIV. (May 19, 1769-Sept. 2:2, 1771). The con- 
 clave which assembled after the death of Clement 
 XIII. lasted for three months ; and only after 
 a hundred and eighty-five scrutinies, the two 
 parties, the friends and the adversaries of the 
 Jesuits, agreed upon Cardinal Ganganelli (b. at 
 Arcangelo in the Papal States), the son of a poor 
 physician. He was agreed upon because he was 
 considered the most insignificant; but he suc- 
 ceeded, nevertheless, in steering safely through 
 the dangers of the moment. He became recon- 
 ciled to all the estranged powers, even Portugal 
 and Parma, without loshig any thing of his dig- 
 nity ; and, when he understood the necessity of 
 dissolving the order of the Jesuits, he did it by a 
 breve of Aug. 10, 1772, quietly, but firmly. lie 
 had been warned against the revenge of -the 
 Jesuits; and he died, indeed, suddenly and 
 under susjiicious circumstances. He founded 
 the Museum of the Vatican, afterwards called 
 the Pio-Clemenlinum. His letters were collected, 
 some say partly invented, by Caraocioli, Paris, 
 1770, who also wrote his Life, Paris, 177o. See 
 Lehcn d. P. a. XIV., Berlin and Leipzig, 1774:-75, 
 3 vols. ; Enprit du P. CI. XIV., Amsterdam, 1775 ; 
 Reumont: Ganrjanelli P. CI. XIV., Berlin, 
 1847; Chetineau-Joly: Clement XIV. el les 
 Jesuiles, Paris, 1847; A. Theiner: Geschichte d. 
 Pont. Clemenn XIV., Leipzig and Paris, 1853, 
 3 vols. O. VOIGT. 
 
 CLEMENTINES is the name generally applied 
 to a very remarkable group of writings closely 
 related to each other with respect to their con- 
 tents, and evidently drawn from the same source, 
 but often transcribed, augmented, and variously 
 remodelled. Of the group, three works are still 
 extant, — the Clementine Homilies, the liecogni- 
 iions, and the Epitome. 
 
 Attention was first drawn to the Homilies of 
 Clemens Romanus by Turrianus in his book. Pro 
 Canonibus App. (1573) ; but tlie codex which he 
 used seems to have disappeared. In 1672 tlie 
 work was published by Cotelerius, after a codex 
 in the Library of Paris : but the codex was incom- 
 plete ; it breaks off in the middle of the nine- 
 teenth homily. A complete manuscript was 
 discovered by Dressel in the Ottobonian Library 
 In Rome, and jniblished by him at Gottingen, 
 1853. Finally Ue Lagarde gave a complete and 
 33—1 
 
 critical edition, Leipzig, 1865. The book con 
 sists of two letters to .lames, and twenty homi- 
 lies, also addressed to him. The first letter is 
 fi'oMi Peter to .lames : the former asks the latter 
 to keep the Keri/gma sent to him an absolute 
 secret. The second letter is from Clement to 
 .lames, written after the death of Peter, and stat- 
 ing that the latter, shortly before he died, ai)poiiit- 
 ed the writer of the letter his successor. The 
 work itself tells how Clement, having sought in 
 vain after truth in the schools of tlie philoso- 
 phers, and having heard something in Rome 
 about .lesus, decides to go to .Juda'a. Arrived at 
 Alexandria, he meets Barnabas; and at C.'Esarea 
 Stratonis Barnabas introduces him to Peter, who 
 initiates him in Christianity, and invites him to 
 remain with him during the disputation with 
 Simon Magus. The disputation lasts for three 
 days ; but at the end of the third da^ Simon Ma- 
 gus flies from the city defeated. Peter pursues 
 him; and, while journeying, Clement narrates the 
 romantic incidents of his life, — how his father 
 and mother and two brethren have mysteriously 
 disappeared. It now turns out that his two 
 companions, Xiceta and Aquila, are his two lost 
 brethren. His father and mother are also found ; 
 and Simon Magus is finally overtaken, and com- 
 pletely crushed in a disputation lasting four days. 
 This romantic narrative, however, is used only as 
 the framework around a doctrinal development. 
 The doctrine is the chief interest of the book, 
 and may generally be characterized as speculative 
 Ebionitism, though it is not perfectly homogene- 
 ous. Sometimes God is represented decidedly 
 pantheistically, as the One, the All, the world's 
 Heart, which makes the whole stream of life pul- 
 sate, etc. At other times he is represented as a 
 person, the Creator, the Judge, etc., but with the 
 strongest anthropomorphisms known to Judaism. 
 These two tendencies the author never succeeds in 
 fully blending. 
 
 Of the Recoynitions, the Greek original is lost. 
 We have the work only in a Latin translation by 
 Rufinus ; but of this translation the manuscripts 
 are quite numerous, bearing various titles, gen- 
 erally dramatic terms referring to the meeting 
 between Clement and his brethren. The work 
 was published before the Homilies, first by Sichar- 
 dus (Basel, 1526 and 1536), then by Lambertus 
 Gruterus Venradius (Cologne, 1563 and 1.570). 
 The best edition is that by Gersdorf, in Bibl. 
 Pair. Lat., Leipzig, 1838, vol. I. [There is an 
 English translation by T. Smith in tlie Ante- 
 Nicene Library, vol. HI., Edinburgh, 1867.] The 
 difference between the Pecof/nitions and the Homi- 
 lies is comparatively small in the narrative part 
 of the works, but very striking in the doctrinal. 
 In the liifuijnitions the ideas and views are all 
 through the work weakened and modified so as 
 to suit a catholic reader. 
 
 The Epitome, first edited by Turnebus (Paris, 
 1555), then by Cotelier, is an uninteresting extract 
 from the Homilies, to which are added extracts 
 from the letter of Clement to James, from the 
 Martyrium of Clement by Simeon ^Nletaphrastes, 
 etc. Dressel's edition, after a newly-discovered 
 codex, and containing a second Epitome, has no 
 great interest; nor has the Syriac translation, 
 edited by De Lagarde, Leipzig, ISOl. 
 
 The doctrinal labor with the Clementine litera-
 
 CLERICUS. 
 
 498 
 
 CLERGY. 
 
 ture was begun by Neander. who, in the appen- 
 dix to his Genelische Enlwickeluncj rler gnostischen 
 St/steme. Berlin, 1818. gave a representation of 
 the doctrinal view of the Homilies; and it was 
 continued by F. C. Baur, who, for his conception 
 of the ancient Church, drew a considerable 
 amount of evidential matter from this group of 
 writings. Baur laid at first the emphasis on the 
 Kbionitic elements (/)e Ehionilarum Orit/ine, Tii- 
 bingen, 1831; Die Christnsparteiin der Icorinthischen 
 Gemeinde. Tiibingen, 1831), but seemed after- 
 wards inclined to ascribe more importance to the 
 finostic elements {Die chrislliche Gnosis, Tubin- 
 gen, 1835: ijlter den Episcopal in der chrisHichen 
 Kirche, 1838). In opposition to Baur, Schliemann 
 wrote his Die Clementinen nehsl den verwandlen 
 Schriflen und der Ebionitismus (Hamburg, 1844), 
 a book as careful in the collection of materials 
 as acute in the investigation of details; and 
 this work in connection with Schwegler's Kach- 
 (iposlolisches Zeitalter (see I. 364 sq.), formed the 
 transition from a purely doctrinal to a purely 
 literary treatment. The turning-point w-as Hil- 
 genfeld's Die clemeniinischen Rekofinitionen und 
 Homilien, Jena, 1848. Not the doctrinal views 
 and tlieir systematical elaboration, but the histori- 
 cal origin and literary character of this group of 
 writings, were to him the points in question; and 
 he attempted to show that the Recognitions formed 
 the basis for the Homilies, and were themselves 
 based on a still older tract, of Roman origin and 
 Judseo-Christian character, — the true Kert/gma 
 Patri, of which he found an actual renuiant in I. 
 27-72, and a general outline in III. 75. Against 
 Ililgenfeld, Uhlhorn attempted to show, in his 
 Die HomUifn und Rel'ognilionen lies (-lemens Ro- 
 manus ((idttingen, 1854), that the author of the 
 Recognitions had the Homilies lying before him 
 when he wrote, and tli.at the true nucleus from 
 which the whole literature developed was to be 
 found, not in Recogn., I. 27-72, hut in Horn., 
 XVI. -XIX. The one-sidedne.ss of tlicse two 
 works was eliminated by Lehmaun, who, in his 
 Die clement inisrhen Schriften (Gotlia 18(jfl), begins 
 by dissolving the Recognitions into two diifer- 
 eut jiarts, byVwo different authors, — I. -III. and 
 IV'.-X., — and then penetrates deeper into the 
 construction of the two works until he arrives at 
 tiie root, the Kerygmn. Still farther has this 
 method been carried by Lijisius, in his Die Quellen 
 der romisclien Petrussage (Kiel, 1872), who finds 
 the basis of the whole Clementine literature in 
 the Acta Petri with tlieir strongly-marked anti- 
 Pauline tendencv. The evidence which can be 
 offered for this last supposition may be deemed 
 insufficient; but the general results of the whole 
 course of investigation are irrefragable. 'I'he 
 Homilies, tlie Recognitions, and the ICpilome are 
 three independent elaborations, perhaps at first 
 hand, perhaps at second or tliircl, of some older 
 tract not now extant. O. UIIIJIOIIN. 
 
 CLERICUS {.loin Ic Clerc), b. atfJeneva, March 
 10, l(J."i7 ; d. at Anislerdam, Jan. 8, 173IJ; studied 
 theology and philoso])liv in (ieneva, (irenoblo, 
 Saumur, I'aris, und I^ondon ; was, by the reading 
 of the works of Curcellamsand Episcopius. drawn 
 over to tlie Remonstrants, and became professor 
 of philosojihy and lielhs-lettres at Amsterdam, and, 
 after the death of ].,iinl)orch, profes.sor of church 
 history. Of bis uumerous works, liis connniui- 
 
 taries on the Old Testament, and his Harmonia 
 Erangelica. are still valuable. See Niceron : 
 Mc'moires, Tom. XL. p. 294. 
 
 CLERGY, Benefit of, a mediaeval custom by 
 which accused persons who could read Latin 
 could claim the privilege of being tried in the 
 bishop's court. Originally such "clerks" were 
 really ecclesiastics ; but laymen who had th& 
 knowledge claimed the privilege, to the gre.it im- 
 pediment, and, in many cases, the actual mockery, 
 of justice. The struggle between the civil and 
 ecclesiastical authorities over this point resulted 
 in the common law courts abandoning the extreme 
 punishment of death assigned to some offences, 
 when the person convicted was a " clerk " in holy 
 orders; but a secondary punishment was inflicted. 
 For more atrocious offences this exemption was 
 not allowed : consequently offences were divided 
 into clergyable and unclergyable. This exemp- 
 tion ultimately wrought out the reformation of 
 the entire criminal law. It became the practice 
 for every criminal to claim, and to be allowed, the 
 benefit of clergy; so that, when a crime was made 
 capital, the statute declai'ed that its action was 
 without "benefit of clergy." The "benefit of 
 clergy " in cases of felony was abolished in Eng- 
 land in 1827. See Blackstone's Commentaries, iv. 
 28. 
 
 CLERGY, Biblical. It may be considered set- 
 tled that there is no order of clergy, in the mod- 
 ern sense of the term, in the New Testament; 
 i.e., there is no class of men mentioned to whom 
 spiritual functions exclusively belonged. Every 
 believer is a priest unto God. Every believer has 
 as much right as anybody else to pray, to pi'each, 
 to baptize, to administer communion (Rom. v. 2 ; 
 Eph. ii. 19-22, iii. 12; 1 I'et. ii. 9; 1 John ii. 
 27; Rev. i. 6, v. 10, etc.). Believers constitute 
 the body of Christ (Eph. i. 22, 23; cf. Col. i. IS, 
 ii. 19), and therefore have all tilings (1 Cor. iii. 
 21-23). The so-called "power of the keys" is. 
 theirs, for it is surely true, that whatever the 
 Christian Chuich hinds (declares to be wrong or 
 false) is bound in heaven, i.e., has also the divine 
 condenmation, and what it looses (declares to be 
 right or true) is loosed in heaven. But it does 
 not follow that therefore the cliu-gy are superflu- 
 ous. Experience has shown that certain persons 
 are by natural endowment better fitted for s[iirit- 
 ual functions than others, and ahso, that, in the 
 Christian communities, there will lie leaders to 
 whom will gravitate the major part of the vsork. 
 The clerical order took its rise, therefore, in the 
 very necessity of the case. Decency, order, and 
 efficiency demai\ded that certain persons should 
 make it their business to conduct the services, 
 and have the oversight, of the congregations. 
 Without such a class, the very freedom of the 
 gospel would be defeated. If everybody dis- 
 ch.arged the spiritual functions of which they 
 were cajiable, then confusion an<l anarcliy would 
 result. In the sense that " order is Ili'aveu's first 
 law," and that progress is the object of public 
 service, the spiritual may be said to be of divine- 
 origin. 
 
 But who selects and installs the stewards of the- 
 divineineans of grace? The first servants and 
 instruments for the announciMuent and jipbuilding 
 of tlie gospel Church were the disciiiles; and they I 
 were clioscn by the Lord, and sent out with a di- 1
 
 CLERGY. 
 
 499 
 
 CLERGY. 
 
 rect personal commission ; yet the baptism of the 
 Spirit on Pentecost fell not vi]ion them exclusively, 
 but u)ion the whole body of the disciples (Acts i. 
 15, ii. 1). The apostles founded the Church on 
 earth (1 Cor. iii. 10 ; Eph. ii. 20; Rev. xxi. 14) : 
 consequently they cannot have successors. The 
 foundation does ncit need relaying. When perse- 
 cution arose, the scattered t'hurch did not require 
 special commissions to sjiread the gospel. It was 
 more difficult to conceal than to tell the glad 
 tidings. Thus the Church grew, and extended to 
 localities where neither commissioned apostle nor 
 evangelist had ever gone. 1'he model upon which 
 these congregations organized themselves was the 
 Jewish synagogue. It is nowhere said that the 
 apostles founded the office of elders or bisliops, 
 much less that they endowed it with their own 
 plenary power. In the Jewish-Christian congre- 
 gations the arrangement grew up naturally. In 
 the heathen-Christian the example of their breth- 
 ren would be decisive. We read of elders in the 
 Jerusalem Cluirch in very early days (Acts xi. 30, 
 XV. 12 sqq.), and of the ordination of elders by the 
 apostles or their juipils (Acts xiv. 23; Tit. i. 5). 
 But in every case the congregation existed before 
 such ordinations ; and the only effect they had 
 was to organize the congregations upon a firmer 
 basis, and fit them better for effective work. 
 The offices thus filled were indeed for the benefit 
 of the Church (1 Cor. xiv. 33, 40). They were, 
 in a sense, necessary for the Church's existence ; 
 but they are not to be put on a par with the 
 sacraments as the ordinances of Chi-ist. In the 
 beginnings of the Church the numerous necessary 
 services were performed by the members in com- 
 mon, according to each one's natural ability and 
 supernatural endowment (1 Cor. xii. 4-13, 27-30). 
 The elders or bishops were merely the leaders 
 and guides. That they were ordained by the 
 laying-on of hands and prayer was in imitation 
 of Old-Testament models. The conclusion of 
 the whole matter is, the office in the Church is 
 dependent on the means of grace, and not the 
 means of grace on the office. The office is only 
 necessary to the orderly progress of the Church. 
 But the means of grace gain not a whit of effica- 
 cy from their administrator. Baptism, the Lord's 
 Supper, preaching, and prayer, like singing, and 
 taking up a collection ; reading of the Scriptures, 
 like reading of notices, — may be jierformed by 
 laymen with precisely the same spiritual effect 
 as if the highest or the most godly minister in 
 the land had been the administrator. The source 
 of all power is God. If he see fit, he can make 
 the lowliest woman mightier to the pulling-down 
 of strongholds than the whole clergy combined. 
 If God withhold his blessing, the whole clergy are 
 powerless to lift a finger for Christ. BUEGER. 
 
 Archsological and Historical. 1. Meanhtr/ of 
 the Word. — The word "clergy" is derived from 
 K/l?/pof ('-lot"), because the whole body of believers 
 were the '• lot," or inheritance, of the Lord (1 Pet. 
 V. 3). The derivation from the choice of Mat- 
 thias (Acts i. 2G) is inaccurate ; because, as a mat- 
 ter of fact, the clergy were not chosen by lot. 
 
 2. The Clerical Orders. — Although, in the New 
 Testament, there is no clergy in the modern sense 
 of the term, very early in church history do we 
 find the distinction between clergy and laity. 
 The three proper orders of bishops, presbyters, 
 
 and deacons, were called primi clericl; and the 
 low<>r orders, — the readers, singers, porters of 
 monasteries, etc. , — inferiorU loci. The monks 
 formed a third class of religious persons. "Cler- 
 gyman," or "clerk," in the sense of a "scholar," 
 or one who could write, dates from the eleventh 
 century. " The term reijuhirin coming into use 
 when monachism was becoming regarded as 're- 
 ligion ' (i.e., about the eighth century), the term 
 scciildris al.so gradually lost its general sense of 
 worldly, and became simply the antithesis of 
 a ' regular,' or monk. Clems rer/ularit thenceforth 
 meant a clergyman who was also a monk ; and 
 clcnis sec'ilaris, a parish clergyman, or one who 
 kept a school, or lived in any way not under a 
 rule." 
 
 3. Support of the Clcrejij. — In the days of per- 
 secution the clergy derived their support both 
 from the weekly offerings at the altar, and the 
 monthly to the common treasury of each church. 
 When, however, the cessation of persecution 
 made it safe for the Church to hold landed prop- 
 erty, it came into possession of it liy inheritance 
 and gift, and thus could depend, in i>art, upon its 
 own revenues. Occasionally the Christian em- 
 perors gave large sums of money for the support 
 of the clergy ; and by Constantine and his suc- 
 cessors (except Jidiau) they received an allow- 
 ance from the State. The emperors paid the 
 travelling expenses of the clergy coming to the 
 osoumenical councils. Tithes were also collected 
 bylaw; although, up to the time of Charlemagne, ■ 
 they were purely voluntary. 
 
 4. Immunities and Priviler/cs. — The clergy en- 
 joyed, under the christianized Roman Empire (see 
 Justinian, Code of), immunity from certain 
 taxes, — such as the jioll-tax, the soldiers' horses 
 tax, etc., — and from the obligation to fill certain 
 public offices. They were likewise exempted 
 from the jurisdiction of the secidar courts in 
 respect of minor offences, — a privilege outra- 
 geously abused, and converted into a crying 
 shame. In this way " clerks " were punished 
 more lightly than laymen for the same offences. 
 Neither bishops nor presbyters might be tortured, 
 nor the bishops be summoned as witne.sses, nor 
 sworn ; their simple word being regarded as suffi- 
 cient. Civil cases came before the bishops as 
 magistrates ; and in criminal cases they appeared 
 as intercessors : and, as they thus time and time 
 again defended the accused, so they came to have 
 the legal defence of the weak ; the churches, the 
 right of sanctuary ; and the clergy, the censorship 
 of public morals. 
 
 The clergy had other immunities and privileges 
 of a more ecclesiastical and private kind. Thus 
 the clergy and the laity enjoyed the right to elect 
 the bishops. The bishops had alisolute authority 
 over their clergy. The Bishop of Constantinople 
 presided as lord over sixty presbyters, one hun- 
 dred deacons, forty deaconesses, ninety sub-dea- 
 cons, one hundred and ten readers, twenty-five 
 chanters, one hundred door-keepers, and a guild 
 of eleven hundred grave-diggers. The Bishop 
 of Alexandria was faithfully and fanatically' 
 served by their ;)ora?/c(/o»)' (see title) to the num- 
 ber of six hundred. The Bishop of Carthage 
 had five hundred clergy imder his authority. 
 The various provincial synods met twice a year 
 for the free discussion of their affairs. The
 
 CLERGY. 
 
 500 
 
 CLOTHING. 
 
 position of bishop depended, of course, upon the 
 size of their city or diocese ; but in any case they 
 enjoyed great influence, and received much re- 
 spect. The laity, and even the emperor, bowed 
 the head to the bishop, and liissed his hand. 
 The terms used in speaking of him were very 
 honoring, not to say adulatory: indeed, some 
 epithets were profane. Thus he was styled 
 '' God-beloved," " Most Holy," " Holy Lord," "and 
 "Most Blessed Pope." His seat in his cathedral 
 was called his throne; his vestments were very 
 rich ; his pi-aises were sung, although the latter 
 practice was infrequent. 
 
 Of the regulations respecting the clergy, con- 
 tained in the Justinian Code, and which have 
 been enumerated above, few now remain in 
 force. The difference in their present condi- 
 tion in England has been thus concisely put: 
 " Their judicial privileges and immunities exist 
 no longer, except so far as the coercive power 
 of a bishop's court be regarded as a shadow of 
 them. Their pecuniary privileges and immuni- 
 ties exist no longer; for the grant made in some 
 countries to the clergy from the national ex- 
 chequer is rather a substitute for estates confis- 
 cated than a free grant of love. Their official 
 privileges and immunities exist no longer, unless 
 the permi-ssion conceded to bishops to take part 
 in national legislation, and tlie exemption of the 
 clergy from having to serve in tlie army or on 
 juries, be regarded as the equivalents of the 
 nonors and immunities bestowed by the Cnesars 
 with so ungrudging a hand." It is the American 
 idea very widely to separate Church and State; 
 and no one who reads history with open eyes has 
 aught but regret that the State ever undertook 
 to coddle the Church, or the Church to rule the 
 State. The State transcends her sphere when 
 she attempts to regulate the Church. 
 
 y. Tltoite Eligible to Orders. — So long as the 
 Church was oppressed, comparatively few un- 
 wortliy persons desired hi^r offices ; but, when she 
 became the object of the liberality and care of 
 the State, worklly men pressed into her service. 
 Hence regulation was necessary. It was decreed 
 that no more ]iersons should be ordained than 
 were needed for the service of each church. 
 Among those ineligible to orders were soldic^rs, 
 slaves, comedians, tax-gatherers, those who had 
 been married twice, pcnsons of a mean and ser- 
 vile occupation, those who had performed public 
 penance, houiicides, adulterers, lapsed, usurers, 
 mutilated or self-crippled, clinics (see Baptism), 
 and tliose once insane. See Bincjiia.m : Ori(/. 
 Ecd. lib. 4. 
 
 C. Clerical Houses. — It was very common in 
 *arly times for the clergy to live together, and 
 have all things common. Leo IX. (1048-51) 
 ordered that cloisters .should be establislied in 
 connection with the churches for this purpose. 
 
 7. Tlie pniver of the clergy was profiably at its 
 lieight in the eleventh century, wlien tliey ab- 
 sorbed all tlie lejiruing of the time, and their 
 houses were places of refuge. But their influence 
 was never greater than in the seventeenth cen- 
 tury, when, according to Von llanke, " they sat 
 in tho councils of kings, and di8cu.sHed political 
 affairs from the puljiit in the presence of the 
 ■whole people. They directed schools, controlled 
 1 the efforts of learning, and governed the whole 
 
 range of literature." Hist, of the Popes (bk. vi. 
 Introd.) 
 
 See art. " Immunities and Privileges of the 
 Clergy," in Smith and Cheethaji : Diet, of 
 Christ. Antifj. ; also Bishop, Celibacy, Orders, 
 Presbyter, Priest. On the gradual develop- 
 ment of the idea of clergy as distinct from laity, 
 see Lightfoot : Cnmin. on Pliilip/iians, pp. :>44 
 sqq. ; and Hatch: The Organization of the Early 
 Christian Cliurclies, Lect. V. 111-1:39. 
 
 CLERK is derived from the Latin clericus, and 
 was originally the name given to tliose in holy 
 orders, and is still the legal name of clergymen 
 of the Church of England. But afterwards it 
 acquired a secondary meaning, — a learned man, 
 or rather, one who could read : but now it is re- 
 stricted (ecclesiastically) to the persons who lead 
 the responses in the parish churches in England. 
 
 CLETUS, one of the first bishojis of Rome. 
 It is doubtful, however, whether he followed im- 
 mediately after Linus, and whether he is iden- 
 tical with .\nacletus. See An.\cletus and 
 Clemens Romanus. 
 
 CLINIC BAPTISM {rlinicijrom nXivri, a "bed") 
 meant in the ancient Church those who received 
 baptism on the sick-bed. Jlost of the Fathers 
 considered such baptism valid ; though it was a 
 question often raised whether it should be re- 
 peated or not, if the sick recovered. The ordina- 
 tion of a ctinicus for the presbytery was objected 
 to ; and the synod of Neo-Cfesarea (311) forbade 
 to ordain a clinicus priest. 
 
 CLOISTER (from the Latin claustrum, an " en- 
 closure ") meant originally simply the wall sur- 
 rounding a monastery, but became gradually 
 applied to the whole establishment, synonynious 
 with monastery; as, for instance, in the capitula- 
 ries of Charlemagne. A little later it acquired 
 a more special sense (now the most generally 
 used), denoting the arcades which surround the 
 inner court of a monastery, and which were used 
 by the monks as places of study, meditation, and 
 recreation. 
 
 CLOTHING AND ORNANENTS OF THE HE- 
 BREWS. The collective name for clothes is hc- 
 yadim, wliich were made out of linen, wool, and 
 cotton, although silk is also mentioned (Ezek. 
 xvi. 10; Rev. xviii. 22). Clothing prepared 
 from wool and linen was prohibited (Lev. xix. 
 19; Deut. xxii. 11). Costly clothing was of di- 
 vers colors and of needlework. Luxury in, and 
 imitation of, foreign fashions, are often censured 
 (Isa. iii. 16; Zeph. ii. 8). The costume of both 
 sexes was very similar : there was sufficient 
 difference, however, to mark the sex. The arti- 
 cles of clothing connnon to men and women 
 were: 1. Tho under-i/armeni, which was held to- 
 gether by a gii'dle, and besides which a linen 
 shirt (sadin) is sometimes mentioned. \ person 
 who luid only tliis under-garinent on was called 
 "naked " (1 Sam. xix. 21; Job. xxiv. 10; Isa. 
 x.x. 2). Persons in liigh stations wore two under- 
 garments; the outer one being called nieV, a robo 
 (1 Sam. XV. 27, xviii. 4, xxiv. .0; Job i. 20). A 
 Chaldee costume was tho patlish, or mantle (Pan. 
 iii. 21). 2. The wi'tr-yaraif'H;, for which diflerent 
 expressions are given, and whicii was thrown 
 art)und the person. Poor people and travellers 
 also used the outer garment as night-clothes. 
 Both se.xes made out of the superabundant folds
 
 CLOTHING. 
 
 301 
 
 CLUGNY. 
 
 in front a pocket or lap. Priests alone wore a 
 kind of drawers. Besides these dresses, women 
 wore veils. Both sexes covered the head with a 
 turban, made of divers articles, and in diil'erent 
 forms : hence, from its costliness, it is also called 
 "an ornament," "beauty." Oloces were not un- 
 known ; yet they appear not to have been used as 
 a part of tlie attire, but by workmen as a protec- 
 tion of the hands from injury and soiling (cf. 
 Mishna, Clidbn, xvi. 6, xxiv. 10. xxvii. ;3). The 
 coverinq: of the feet were samld/.t of heather or 
 wood, bound to the foot with thongs : they were 
 dispensed with indoors, and put on wdjcn leaving 
 the liouse. On entering of sacred places the 
 sandals were cast off. 
 
 Rending the clothes was a sign of nervous irri- 
 tation and of mourning. Only the high priest 
 was forbidden to rend his garment. Lepers al.so 
 had to rend their clothes. In times of distress 
 and sorrow, sackcloth (of coarse stuff) was worn. 
 Prophets also used tins kind of habiliments to 
 express their sorrow over the sins of the people. 
 On solemn occasions, however, the Israelites used 
 so-called state dresses. Kings and nobles had a 
 goodly wardrobe, which was superintended by 
 the keeper of the clothes (2 Chron. xxxiv. 22). 
 Such costly garments were also used as presents 
 (Gen. xlv. 22; Esth. iv. 4, vi. 8, 11). Persons 
 changed their clothes for religious reasons wdien 
 they had become ceremonially unclean; and those 
 in eminent stations, and females, anointed and 
 perfumed their garments (Ps. xlv. 9; Cant. iv. 
 11). Public reverence and homage toward the 
 monarch consisted in spreading the garments 
 along the way; and the ribbon of blue attached 
 to the outer garments was a sign of piety, espe- 
 cially of Pharisaic piety, the longer these ribbons 
 were. To shake the garment was a sign of ab- 
 horrence (Acts xviii. G), and to exchange it with 
 another, a sign of friendship (1 Sam. xviii. 4). 
 A person elevated to a post of honor was solemnly 
 invested with the clothes of his office (Gen. xli. 
 42), and it was regarded as a disgrace when the 
 clothes were half cut oH. 
 
 As for the oriiamenis, they were especially com- 
 mon to the female sex, although both sexes wore 
 bracelets (2 Sam. i. 10; Num. xxxi. 00). Be- 
 sides, we find ear-rings, which (according to Job 
 xii. 11) were also worn by men. So-called ear- 
 peiiclaiils (Judg. viii. 26; Isa. iii. 19) were also 
 attached to the ear-rings. Other ornaments were 
 the ncise-rinr/a, made of precious metal or ivory; 
 the slqnet, which was suspended by a string; neck- 
 laces formed of perforated gold drops strung to- 
 gether ; to which must be added the anl^lets, an 
 especial ornament of the women, which were 
 connected with step-chains to announce their com- 
 ing, and to either attract or chase away the oppo- 
 site sex. LEYREIt. 
 
 CLOTHING AND INSIGNIA OF THE CHRIS- 
 TIAN CLERGY. See Vkstmknts. 
 
 CLOVIS (Cludoecus, Chlodovechus, Ludovi- 
 cus, Ludwig, Louis), King of the Franks 481- 
 511; defeated Syagrius in 48G ; extended his 
 dominion from tlie Somme to the Seine, and 
 fixed his residence at Soissons. In 402 he mar- 
 ried Clotilda, a Burgundian princess, a Christian 
 and a Catholic; and a happy incident, turning 
 ■ihe battle of Zulpich to his advantage, induced 
 him to embrace Christianity, together with the 
 
 greater part of his warriors and subjects. It is 
 related, that, when he heard the story of the 
 crucifixion of Christ, he exclaimed, " Would I 
 ha<l been th(!re with my valiant FraidiS to avenge 
 him!" He was baptized upon Christnuis Day, 
 406. This event contributed very much to liriiig 
 the Teutonic races in closer connection witli the f 
 Christian Church and Roman civilization; and | 
 the circumstance that he b(.'came a Catholic, while 
 the princes of Burgundy ami of the Visigothic 
 realm in Southern France were Arians, exercised 
 also a considerable injluence on the development 
 of the Roman Church. Partly from political, 
 and partly from religious, reasons, Clovis at- 
 tacked the Visigothic king, Alaric II., defeated 
 him, and extended the boundary of the Frankish 
 Empire to Bordeaux. The principal source to 
 his life is (riiKGORY OF TouHs: Ilisloria Fran- 
 corum, Jl. 27-4:'i. See Juxgii.vns: Oesrlddite der 
 frfinkisclien Klinige Childerich und Cldodovech, 
 Gottingen, 18.57. 
 
 CLUGNY. Towards the end of the nintli cen- 
 tury, monastic life had sunk very low in France, 
 partly because the monasteries had grown weal- 
 tiiy and were badly governed, aud partly on ac- 
 count of the uncertainty which prevailed in all 
 public life. Duke AVilliam of Aquitania, called 
 the Pious, thought to save nionasticism by reform- 
 ing it. In 910 he founded a new mor,aster3- at 
 Clugny, Chiniacum in Burgundy, endowed it well, 
 and placed at its head Berno, a descendant of the 
 ruling fannly of Burgundy, and Abbot of Beaume 
 in the diocese of Dijon. Berno enforced the 
 strictest observance of the rules of St. Benedict; 
 and this severity struck a rich vein of .sympathy 
 in the time. The monastery immediately filled 
 up with monks. Under his successor Odo (927- , 
 941) seventeen other monasteries joined the con- ' 
 gregation of Clugny; and the success of the 
 establishment continued increasing under Ay- 
 mardus (941-948), Mayolus (948-994), and Odilo 
 (994-1048). Clugny became the reformer, not 
 only of the order of St. Benedict, but of monas- 
 tic life in general. Its rules, Consuetudines Clu- 
 niaccnses, first collected in the beginning of the 
 eleventh century by the monk Bernard (IIerr- 
 GOTT : Veins Disciplina JSIonastica, Paris, 172G), 
 then in 1070 by the monk Ulric (D'Achery : 
 Spicilegium, T. I.), and finally by Petrus Venera- 
 bilis (Bibiioth. Cluniacen., p. 1353), were generally 
 adopted ; while the popes vied with each other in 
 conferring new privileges on the establishment. 
 Its abbots bore the title of archiahhales. Alexander 
 II. decreed that no bishop or other prelate could 
 lay the ban upon the place. Urban II. gave the 
 abbot episcop.al emblems, and exempted the mon- 
 astery aud its estates from the jurisdiction of the 
 Bishop of Macon. Towards the end of the 
 eleventh century three popes — Gregory VII., 
 Urban II., and Paschalis II. — issued from the 
 congregation. The monastery itself was the 
 largest in Christendom. In 1245 it received at 
 one time Pope Innocent IV. and the French king, 
 with their whole retinue. Its church was one of 
 the most magnificent built during the middle 
 ages, ornamented with wall and glass pictures, 
 and embroidered tapestries, and stocked with 
 furniture of gold and bronze. 
 
 In the beginning of the twelfth century the 
 discipline slackened; and the establishment wa»
 
 COADJUTOR. 
 
 502 
 
 COBHAM. 
 
 impoverished during the incompetent rule of 
 Pontius. He finally abdicated, and went on a 
 pilgrimage to the Holy Laud; but on his return 
 he fell upon the monastery, and sacked it. Under 
 Petrus "S'enerabilis it rose again. The number 
 of monks increased from two hundred to four 
 hundred and sixty; and three hundred and four- 
 teen abbeys belonged to the congregation ; but 
 the improvement was only temporary. The fur- 
 ther history of Clugny is a steady decline. The 
 abbot lost his power. In order to defend itself 
 against the counts of Cliulons, Clugny invoked 
 the protection of the French king, and the mon- 
 astery was surrounded with walls, and trans- 
 formed into a fortress. Both the popes and the 
 French kings interfered in the election of abbots. 
 In the beginning of the sixteenth century the of- 
 fice became a commeudam in the House of Guise. 
 In 1714 a royal ordinance placed the establishment 
 under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Macon. 
 The internal decay, ll0we^■er, was still worse. In 
 vain Abbot Yvo of Vergy (1209) founded the 
 College de Clugny at Paris in order to encourage 
 studies and literary pursuits among the monks. 
 In vain several abbots tried to introduce reforms, 
 or at least to better the discipline. The whole 
 result was a split in the order between the old 
 Cluniacenses and the Keformates, which gave rise 
 to much haggling, and even scandal. Tlie whole 
 organization was in a state of dissolution when 
 the Constituent Assembly (1790) confiscated the 
 jiroperty, and sold the church and the buildings 
 to tlie city. The church was broken down. The 
 last abbot. Cardinal Dominique de la Rochefou- 
 cauld, whose rare visits to Clugny had been 
 marked by drinking-bouts and lascivious festivi- 
 tit:s, died in 1800. See BiUiolh. Cluniacen., Paris, 
 161-1; LoR.WN : Essai Ilistoriijue su?- I'Ahbaye de 
 Clur/ni/, Dijon. 1839, which book, however, is full 
 of circumlocution and bombast. C. SCnMIDT. 
 
 COADJUTOR is the assistant of au ecclesias- 
 tic who by sickness or age is prevented from 
 fulfilling the duties of liis office, and may be ap- 
 pointed temporarily or perp(^tually ; in the latter 
 case with or without right of succession. Gen- 
 erally, however, the name is applied only to the 
 assistant of a bishop. According to an old canon 
 no successor shall oe appointed as long as the 
 bishop himself is alive (c. 5, 6, Can. VII. qu. I. 
 [Cyprian, a. 252], c. 3, 4, Can. VIII. tpi. 1. [Cohc. 
 Antiuchcn. a. 3.32, c. 23]) ; and in case of his being 
 disabled the neighboring bishops shall come to 
 Ills aid, or a ilitpcnsalor, inlercc.ssoi; intervenUir, 
 shall be appoirted (c. 1, Can. VII. qit. I. [Grajor. 
 I. o. GOl]). .Such appointments were originally 
 made by the provincial synods, though with the 
 consent of the Pope; but, later on, the Pope re- 
 served this cau.ia epiicopalis, like all cuu-nc majores, 
 for his own decision (c. 13, 14, ell. c. 17 eod. 
 [Zacharias ml Bonifacium a. 7 18] ; c. 5, C, X. de 
 rlerico (eijrotantc [III. 0], [Innocent. HI. a. 1204; 
 llonorius III]; <•<(/>. tin. tie clurico tegrot. in VI. 
 [III. 5], [Bonif. VIII. a. 1298]). The old princi- 
 ple, ne in una urhc duo .tint cpb!Cuj>i {Cane. Nicicn. 
 a. 325 c. 8), was i)re.served, at least formally, by 
 consecrating the coadjutor on the title of some 
 other cliurch. The Council of Trent further 
 decnreil (.w;s.<. XXV. cap. 7, de njhrni.) that 
 coadjutores should be appointed at cathedral 
 churches and inouasteries only in casus of abso- 
 
 lute necessity, and that they should never acquire 
 the right of succession, except after a careful in- 
 vestigation of all circumstances by the Pope. 
 
 Lit. — OvERBEUG : Dii:s. de Ela-iionibus Co- 
 adjutorum Episcopalium, Miiuster, 1780 ; Kohlek : 
 Qiioisl. inaug. de Coadjatorihus in Germatiia, May- 
 euce, 1787. For the famous election of Dalberg 
 as coadjutor in Mayence see Mejer : Zur riiin- 
 deutschen Frage, 1, 110. For the election of Car- 
 dinal (xeissel as coadjutor in Cologne see Held : 
 Das Rechl zur Aufstellung eines Koadjutors, Mu- 
 nich, 1848. " (H. F. JACOBSOX) MEJER. 
 
 COBB, Sylvanus, D.D., a Universalist minis- 
 ter; b. at Norway, Me., July, 1799 ; wrote a Com- 
 mentary on the New Testament, and other works, 
 and was editor of a denominational paper for 
 almost twenty years; d. in East Boston, Mass., 
 Oct. 31, 1800. 
 
 COBHAM, Lord (Sir John Oldcastle), a promi- 
 nent supporter of the Lollards ; b. in Hereford- 
 shire about 1300 ; martyred at London, Dec. 25, 
 1417. He married about 1408 Joanne (whose 
 fourth husband he was, and who married again 
 after his decease), grand-daughter of Baron Cob- 
 ham, and by right of his w'ife's title sat in the 
 House of Lords. He was a brave soldier, an 
 able statesman, a faithful friend. He was called 
 the ''good Lord Cobham." He seems to have 
 been early draN\n toward the Lollards (see title), 
 and to have freely used his wealth in defence and 
 propagation of their doctrines ; while his castle 
 sheltered many a wandering Lollard preacher, 
 to whose ministrations he listened with delight. 
 His interest may have been at the start partly 
 political; but at all events it was profound. He 
 employed John Purvey, Wiclif's companion anil 
 fellow Bible-translator, to write books, and had 
 Wiclif's treati.ses copied and distributed. In 
 1391 he delivered a speech in the House of Com- 
 mons against the papal political despotism, wiiich 
 had the practical effect of leading to a law which 
 forbade the publication of excommunications 
 issued by the Pope. In 1395 he w'rote a book in 
 prose and poetry which exposed the abominations 
 of the Church. After his marriage he was em- 
 ployed in France (1412) to support by English 
 arms the interest of Philip the Bold, Duke of 
 Burgundy. On his return, his troubles began. 
 His bold stand on behalf of LoUardism led to 
 persecution, from which his rank, wealth, and 
 popularity could not save him ; and after trial 
 lie was sentenced to be burnt as a "iiernicious 
 and detestable heretic." A respite of forty days 
 was, however, granted, perhaps in the hope that 
 he would recant. On the night of Oct. 27-28, 
 1413, William Fisher, a leather mereluint, came 
 with a number of determined burghers, and de- 
 livered him. For three montlis he lay concealed 
 in the city. Very probably the king connived 
 at his escape : at all events, no steps were taken 
 against him until .some disturbances on the part 
 of the Lollards raised the rumor that Lord Cob- 
 ham headed a conspiracy against the State. The 
 king issued a proclamation against him (Jan. 11, 
 1414), and set a price of a thousand marks 
 (ij(3,220) ujion his head (an enormous amount in 
 those days), and five hundred marks lor infor- 
 mation wliieh should lead to his capture. Lord 
 Cobliam left liis hiding-place, and lied to Wales, 
 whero he was discovured early iu 1417, and iu
 
 COCCEIUS. 
 
 503 
 
 COCCEIUS. 
 
 the fall of that year taken prisoner. On Dec. 
 14 he was bmught before the Loi'ds in Parlia- 
 ment assembled, and the proclamation of Janu- 
 ary, 1414, read to him. As he had no defence 
 which was acceptable, he was sentenced a second 
 time; and on Christmas Day he was carried from 
 the Tower through the city to St. (iiles-in-tiie- 
 Fields, and there hung in a horizontal position by 
 means of three chains, and burnt over a fire kin- 
 dled on the ground. He died praising God, and 
 exhorting the people to follow Christ. 
 
 See Tlic processe of Thomas Arundcll agaynsl 
 lorde Cobham [London], 1544; T. Gaspey: Life 
 and Times of the Good Lord Cohhaiii, London, 
 1844, 2 vols.; especially G. Lkchlkr: Jnhauii von 
 Wiclif Leipzig, 1873, Huch III. c. 2, iii. ]ip. 8lM)l. 
 
 COCCEIUS (Latin form of KOCH), Johannes, 
 b. in Bremen, Aug. 9, IGU.3 ; d. in Leyden, Nov. 
 4, 1669. He pursued his theological .studies at 
 the University of Franeker in West Friesland. 
 In 1629 he became professor of biblical philology 
 in Bremen, in 1636 professor in Franeker, in 1650 
 professor of theology in Leyden. He laid down 
 the guiding exegetical principle, that every pas- 
 sage must be interpreted according to its context, 
 and have only that sense to which the context 
 leads. He drew his theology directly from the 
 Bible, and from it alone; and thus he put him- 
 self in opposition to tlie scholastics and the Car- 
 tesians. And since the Bible is the history of 
 redemption, in the form of a covenant between 
 God and man after the fall, he logically conceived 
 of the relation between the parties before the fall 
 as also a covenant. But this covenant is not, like 
 a human one, an agreement for mutual sei-vice : 
 I rather it is one-sided. The fundamental law of 
 every covenant of God with men is, he says, that 
 man is receiver, God giver. Jlan was qualified 
 by his creation to receive it. He was free, ra- 
 tional, and holy. The first Covenant was "of 
 Works." God gave man the promise of eternal 
 felicity, on condition that man remained holy, as 
 he was able to do. This was his icork. But he 
 fell, and accordingly was cursed. After the fall 
 he was still bound to perfect obedience and faith. 
 God, however, who is rich in mercy, put in place 
 of theCovenantof Works the "Covenantof Grace," 
 upon precisely similar principles. God yet stands 
 as free giver; man, as willing receiver. Cocceius 
 shows tluxt the fulfilment of the latter required 
 the sending of Jesus Christ, and in the biblical 
 way handles the doctrines of redemption under 
 nine divisions, — -its purpose (the promised grace,) 
 its mode (gratuitous), its founder (a mediator), 
 its means (faith), its recipients (believers), its 
 cause (God's good pleasure), its revelation (the 
 Bible), the method of its application (the opera- 
 tion of the Holy Spirit), its ultimate object (the 
 glory of God). — -The history of the second Cove- 
 nant falls into three divisions (economies), — the 
 unle-lcgal (the law under the form of conscience, 
 the grace under which the patriarchal protevaugel 
 manifested itself, and the kingdom of God existed 
 in the form of the family), the leyal (the written 
 law, grace in the form of ceremonial types and 
 prophecy, the kingdom of God existed in the na- 
 tion), and the post-legal economy (in which Christ 
 himself appeared as the completely fulfilled per- 
 sonal law, and as the personal grace, as the person- 
 al word, and in which the kingdom of God exists 
 
 in universal form). — The effects of the Covenant 
 of Grace are the happiness of tlio individual soul, 
 the conversion of pliysical deatli from a punish- 
 ment into a deliverance from the body of sin, 
 and, lastly, the resurrection of the body. See 
 his Summit Doclrince de Fmlere el Testumeiitis Dei, 
 1648, 2d ed., 1653. 
 
 The Federal theology of Cocceius does not rest 
 upon the doctrine of predestination, as did tlie 
 teaching of the Protestant scholastics of the six- 
 teenth century. Man, he taught, was not a ma- 
 chine by which the divine decree was carried out, 
 but a person who received the divin(' grace into 
 his heart, and by it was led unto perfection. See 
 EuK.vuD ; Chrlstliche Do(jmutik,Sj2b7. As was to 
 be expected, the scholastic school attacked him, 
 and called him a heretic. He replied that "or- 
 thodoxy h la mode " was the ruin of the Reformed 
 Church, because it prided itself upon its ortho- 
 doxy, and yet was full of worldline.ss. Cocceius 
 had the spiritually-minded upon his side. He 
 took the substantially pietistic ground, that one 
 should not listen to tho.se preachers who regarded 
 the work of teaching religion merely as a profes- 
 sion. Unhappily the controversy took a political 
 turn. The aristocratic party which had supported 
 Arminius supported the Cocceians ; the Oranian 
 party, his opponents. At one time a deeper split 
 than Arminianism had made threatened the Neth- 
 erlaud Church ; but by pacificatory measures peace 
 was restored, and it was established by law that 
 one out of every three ordinarii at each university 
 should be a Cocceian. 
 
 As an exegete Cocceius is open to the charge 
 of fancifulness, but not more so than other stu- 
 dents of prophecy of his day. His influence is 
 best seen in his pupil, Campeius Vitringa. But 
 iu the history of theology he plays a very impor- 
 tant part, in that he delivered the Reformed 
 Church from the tyranny of the scholastic ortho- 
 doxy, and taught her to give heed to her true 
 character and work as emphatically a Bible 
 Church, and, as such, capable of great theologi- 
 cal freedom. But he also lays theology iu all 
 churches under great obligation, in that his sys- 
 tem of the covenants was the first attempt at a 
 biblical theology. He built his system upon tlie 
 Bible, and purposely arranged his theology under 
 the biblical categories. In this method we per- 
 ceive the influence of his teacher, Sixtinus Ama- 
 ma, who emphasized the study of the original 
 text, and carried through the synod a measure 
 requiring all candidates in theology to pass an 
 examination in Greek and Hebrew. 
 
 The Works of Cocceius and his School. — He 
 wrote, besides his Sitmina Doctrince, Summa Theo- 
 logize (2d ed., 1665), which was more conventional 
 in its use of terms, but not less independent in 
 its explanations and contents. Among his follow- 
 ers are Wilhelm Momma and Hermann Witsius, 
 who carried out the analogies between the two 
 covenants with trifling ingenuity {De CEconomia 
 Foederum Dei cum Hominibus, Leeuwarden, 1685); 
 but far more important is Franz Burmaun (Si/nop- 
 sis Theologies ct Speciotim (Economiec Foederum 
 Del, Utrecht, 1671), who, in general, follows his 
 teacher in his arrangement of his material, but 
 enters into the discussion of all the scholastic 
 questions which had genuine value, and embodies 
 the results of the Federal theology in a perma-
 
 COCHL^US. 
 
 504 
 
 CCELESYRIA. 
 
 nent and lasting form: lastly, Yau Til {Compen- 
 dium Thcolo(jice, Bern, 1703 ; Theo!of/i(e utriusque 
 Compendium, Leyden, 1704) set forth a theology 
 which liad its roots in both the Federal and Car- 
 tesian schools. 
 
 The complete works of Cocceius appeared in 
 twelve volumes folio, includins: two volumes An- 
 ektola (Opera Omnia, Theolnfjica, Exegetica, Di- 
 daclica, Polcmica. Philolofiica, 3d ed., auclior et 
 emcndalior, Amsterdam, 1701). They include 
 commentaries on nearly the whole Bible, essays, 
 controversial and expository (among them one 
 on the sabbath as a Jewish institution not bind- 
 ing upon the Christian Church, although he fa- 
 vored its observance on the ground of expediency), 
 sermons, a Hebrew and Chaldee lexicon compiled 
 at the request of a Brandenburg princess, and 
 letters. A. EBR.\RD. 
 
 COCHL/EUS (JoJuinn Doheneck), b. at AYendel- 
 stein, near Xuremberg. 1170 ; d. at Breslau, 155i ; 
 was successively rector of tlie Latin School in 
 Nuremberg, dean at the Church of Our Lady at 
 Frankfort, secretary to Duke (Jeorgof Saxony at 
 Dresden, cauon at Breslau, etc., and led a very 
 erratic life as one of the busiest and most pas- 
 sionate adversaries of the Reformation. lie was 
 present at the diets of "Worms, Katisbon, and 
 Augsburg, and at the disputation of Ratisbon. 
 But as a debater he was too excited and violent. 
 He had his force as a pamphleteer always ready, 
 and well-nigh inexhaustible. He is, if not the 
 inventor, at all events one of the first representa- 
 tives, of the view according to which the Refor- 
 mation was nothing but the stupid result of an 
 incidental jealou.sy between the Dominican and 
 Augustinian orders; and in his Commentaria de 
 Aclis el Scriplis Ml. Lutheri and Ilislorin Hiissi- 
 larum he derives with unexampled cynicism tlie 
 causes of the grandest spiritual movements from 
 tlie meanest personal circumstances. See UitB. 
 DE Weluige-Cuf.mer : De Joannis Cochkei Vi(a 
 et Scrijitis, iliinster, 1S(j5; Carl Otto: Johannes 
 CocldcEiui, Breslau, 1874. 
 
 C^LESTIUS, a native of Lelaud; studied 
 law ! became a monk, and from 405 to 431 is often 
 mentioned in tlie liistory of the Church as the 
 friend and collaborator of Pelagius. lie was 
 condemned by a council of Carthage (412), but 
 was soon after ordained a priest at Epnesus, 
 and acquited of heresy by Zosimus in 417. In 
 the following year, however, he was condemned 
 by a .synod in Koine ; and, after the condemna- 
 tion of I'elagianism by the Council of Ephesus 
 (431), he is not heard of any more. (^f his 
 writings (a Confessio Fidei, addressed to Zosimus, 
 and some epistle.s) only fragments are still extant 
 in t\n: writings of Augustine and Jerome. 
 
 CSLESYRIA. According to tlie early classic 
 geographers, Ccelesyria included only the long 
 valley which separati-s the par.allel ranges of 
 Lebanon and Anti-Lelianon. Suhsequently, how-- 
 ever, the name came to have a wider application, 
 including not only the region surrounding Damas- 
 cus, but also a large |>art of the country east of 
 the Jordan. Ca-le.Hyria thus expanded con- 
 tained nearly all the cities of Decapolis within 
 its limits; and. though tlie name does not occur 
 in the Bible, it is frequently mentioned in tlie 
 Ai)Ocryphal books (1 Ksd. ii. 24, 27, iv. 48, vi. 2t) ; 
 1 Mace. X. 69; 2 Mace. xiv. 3, 5, 8), and by 
 
 Josephus {Ant. XIII. 4, 2; XIV. 0,5; 11,4) and 
 other writers. It has a legendary history of its 
 own, attested by curious monuments. At Iverak 
 Xuh is shown the grave of Xoah, one hundred and 
 thirty-two feet long; and on the opposite side of 
 the plain is the tomb of Xeby Shit, the prophet 
 Seth ; wliile the temples at Ba'albek have aston-> 
 ished the world for many centuries. The mas- 
 sive foundations upon which they were built by 
 Greek and Roman architects must have been 
 placed there at a time too remote for even tradi- 
 tion to reach; and long before "Toi, King of 
 Ilamath," sent presents to David (2 Sam. viii. 0- 
 11), the Ilittites of that region were sufficiently 
 powerful to contend with the Pharaohs of Egypt 
 for supremacy in the Valley of Ccelesyria, or 
 Hollow-Syria, as its original Greek name signi- 
 fies. 
 
 That remarkable valley, now called el Boka'a, 
 — "the cleft," — extends to the north-east, from 
 Jubb Jenin, under Ilermon, for about one hundred 
 miles, having an average width of seven miles. 
 Its surface as seen from above seems to be quite 
 level ; but this appearance is decepitive. It is, 
 in fact, an elevated plateau rising gradually 
 northward, until, at the north-east end, it is nearly 
 four tliousand feet above the level of the sea, — 
 a cold, rugged, and barren region. 
 
 The northern end of the BCika'a is drained by 
 the Orontes, called el* Asy, — " the rebellious," — 
 because its course is northward, contrary to the 
 other rivers of Syria. Its most southern source 
 is at Lebweh, the Libo of the ancients. By 
 means of canals the water is conducted far away 
 to the north, to irrigate fields of Indian corn, 
 the chief product cultivated along the numerous 
 streams that form the Orontes. The main per- 
 mauent source of that river is the copious foun- 
 tain that flows out from under the clift's of 
 Lebanon, near Mughar.at er Ruhib. I'a.ssing 
 below Kamu"a Iltirmul, a unique monument 
 with hunting-scenes carved upon its four side.s, 
 the Orontes irrigates the extensive corn-growing 
 plains of the Biblical Riblah (2 Kings xxv. 6), 
 and the equally fertile region around the small 
 Lake of Kedes. The shapeless ruins near Tell 
 Xeby Jliiidau may mark the site of the chief 
 city of the Hittite Kingdom. Issuing from the 
 artificial L.'ike of Kedes, six miles soulli of Hums, 
 the river pursues its winiiing course through the 
 land of Ilamath, past the extensive ruins of 
 Apamea, and along the eastern foot-hills of the 
 Nusairlyeh Mountains, where it turns westward, 
 and, passing by Antioch, it enters the sea near 
 the base of Mount Casius. 
 
 The central and southern portions of the BCika'a 
 are comparatively level, and their fertility and 
 beauty are entirely due to the abundance of 
 water. Perennial streams descend from the 
 mountains on either side, and coi>ious fountains 
 rise in the i)lain itself, in such positions that tho 
 water can be conducted to all jiarts of its sur- 
 face. Looking down u]ion the Bfikfi'a from any 
 one of the hundrcil stan<l-puints on Lebanon and 
 Hermon, the beholder is charnu^d with the check- 
 ered and endlessly-varied exjianso of blending 
 wheat-fields, green or golden, recently-))louglied 
 laiiil, black or reddish-brown, and broad belts of 
 <liin-coloriMl fallow-ground, re.acliing to and climb- 
 ing up the gray foot-hills of the mountains.
 
 CCELICOL^. 
 
 505 
 
 COLERIDGE. 
 
 Through the centre of the UnUa'a inlanders 
 the Litany, the ancient Lcontcs, one. of tlie lonfj- 
 est and lar^fst rivers of Syria. It rises at 'Ain 
 es Sultan, above Ka'albek, and is joine(l, as it flows 
 southward, by many tributaries, anioiii;st them 
 el Berdilny, ^vhich descends from snow-crowned 
 Lelianon, and the larsje remittin.tj fountain near 
 'Anjar, that flows out from the very roots of Anti- 
 Lebanon, near the site of the ancient Chalcis. 
 Below Jubb Jenln the Litany enters a profound 
 gorge, along which it has worn its way througli 
 Southern Lebanon to the sea, near Tyre. 
 
 Ccelesyria, celebrated in ancient times for its 
 fertility, and its numerous and warlike inhabit- 
 ants, largo cities, and magnificent temples, is now 
 merely an insignificant district of tlie Turkish 
 Empire. W. M. THOMSON. 
 
 CCELIC0L;E, the name of a Jewisli sect first 
 mentioned in 4(18, in a decree of the Emperor 
 Honorius. ,()f their doctrines the decree says 
 nothing : it only forbids their meetings. After- 
 wards Honorius had occasion to issue another 
 decree, especially against the Coelicolre, enjoining 
 either to embrace Christianity within a year, or 
 to suffer the penalty of heresy. Tlieir chief 
 crime was, that they had seduced some Christians 
 to embrace Judaism; and this crime was con- 
 sidered as treason, and punished in the severest 
 possible manner. Augustine says (Ep. IGo) that 
 they were numerous in Africa, and used a pecu- 
 liar form of baptism ; but it is not correct to infer 
 from this fact that they had borrowed their cus- 
 tom of baptizing from the Christians, as they might 
 have taken it from the Jewish baptism of jirose- 
 lytes. Like the Jews, they often used the word 
 " Heaven" instead of "Ciod : " hence their name 
 of "Heaven-worshippiers." See Sciimid: Historia 
 Ccelicolarum, Helmstiidt, 1794. HERZOG. 
 
 CCZNOBITES. See Monasticism. 
 
 COFFIN. See Buri.\l. 
 
 COFFIN, Charles, a hymnist, b. at Buzancy, 
 1676 ; d. in Paris, 1749. He succeeded M. Rol- 
 lin, the famous historian, in 1712, as principal 
 of the College of Dormans-Beauvais, University 
 of Paris, and held th.at position with distin- 
 guished success until his death. He was chosen 
 rector of the university in 1718. Several of the 
 Latin hymns which he contributed to the Paris 
 Breviary are found in our collections in John 
 Mason Neale's and John Chandler's renderings. 
 In the original they are much commended for 
 purity of style and felicity of expression. His 
 works appeared in 2 vols., Paris, 1755, with 
 prefatory ''filoge " by Lenglet. 
 
 COLARBASIANS. See Gnosticism. 
 
 COKE, Thomas, D.C.L., first superintendent 
 of the Methodist-Episcopal Church; b. at Brecon. 
 South Wales, Sept. 9, 1747 ; d. at sea, on a 
 voyage to Ceylon, May 2, lb] 4. He was a gen- 
 tleman commoner of Jesus College, Oxford, and 
 curate of South Petherton, .Somersetshire ; but 
 in the latter place he came under Metliodist in- 
 fluences, and in 1777 joined Wesley, to whom 
 he was "a right hand," and who in 17S1, ,%t 
 Bristol, set him .apart as a superintendent of the 
 work among the .Methodists in America. "Wes- 
 ley meant the ceremony," says Mr. Tyerraan, 
 "to be a mere formality likely to recommend his 
 delegate to the favor of the Methodists in Ameri- 
 ca: Coke, in his ambition, wished and intended 
 
 it to lie considered as an ordination to a bishop- 
 ric " {Life of TFcs-Zcy, vol. HL p. 4.34). Coke 
 and two elders arrived in America, Nov. 3, 17.S4, 
 1 held a conference at Baltimore, Dec. 24, at which 
 I he onliiined Francis .\sbury to the office of 
 I superintendent, and with characteristic energy 
 discharged his duties in this country. But he 
 by no means confined his attention to .\merica. 
 On the contrary, he traver.sed Great Britain and 
 Ireland, crossed the ocean eighteen times at his 
 own expense, founded a mission among the 
 negroes in the West Indies, and one also in the 
 East Indies, and it w.^s upon his voyage thither 
 that he died. " During his life it was not deemed 
 necessary to organize a missionary society among 
 the Wesley.ans, for he embodied that great in- 
 terest in his own person." Coke was not only a 
 missionary and org.anizer, he was also an author. 
 His principal writings are (in connection with 
 Henry Moore) Life of John Wesley (London, 
 1792), Coiiimentari/ on the Old and New Tealamentit 
 (finished 1807, 6 vols.), Ilislon/ of the ITcs/ Imlies 
 (1808, 3 vols.). See S. Dukw : Life of Thomas 
 CW-e, N.Y., 1837; R. Stkki.: Burnimj and Shin- 
 ing Liijlits, London. 1864. 
 
 COLeRIDGE, Samuel Taylor, poet, critic, phi- 
 losopher, and theologian ; b. at Ottery St. Mary, 
 Oct. 21, 1772; d. at Ilighgate, July 2.5, 1834. 
 He Wivs the youngest child of the Rev. John 
 Coleridge, vicar of Ottery St. Mary, Devonshire, 
 and master of the free grammar-school founded 
 by Henry VIII. in that town. His mother, 
 whose maiden name was Ann Bowdon, managed 
 skilfully the large household ; while his father, 
 a learned, guileless, good man, alisent-minded 
 and eccentric, devoted himself to his parish and 
 school, and to writing curious unsalable books. 
 The childhood of .Samuel Taylor, according to 
 his own account, had in it far more of shade 
 than of sunshine. Although his father was very 
 fond of him, and he was his "mother's darling," 
 yet, for that very reason, Molly the nurse, who 
 idolized his brother Frank, hated and tormented 
 him. He became morbid and fretful, never 
 played except by himself, re.ad incessantly, never 
 had the child's habits, never thought or spoke 
 as a child. The year after his father's death, 
 which occurred in 1781, Judge BuUer, a friend 
 of the family, obtained for him a presentation 
 to Christ's Hospital, London, of which the noted 
 Bowyer was then head ma.ster. Here he spent 
 eight years, during the first half of which he 
 describes himself as "a playless day-dreamer, 
 a helluo librorutn." Among his school-fellows 
 was Charles Lamb, who, in one of the Essoi/s of 
 Elia, has drawn a vivid picture of him as "the 
 inspired charity-boy." In February, 1791, he 
 entered at Jesus College, Cambridge. The fame 
 of his genius and classical attainments had pre- 
 ceded him, and raised high anticipations of his 
 university career, which were by no means real- 
 ized, lie was studious, and a great reader, as 
 well as brilliant talker; but his onlj' college 
 honor w.as a gold medal for the Greek ode. In 
 November, 1793, in a fit of despondencj-, he sud- 
 denly left Cambridge for London, where, under 
 the pressure of want, he enlisted as a private in 
 the Fifteenth Light Dragoons. After serving 
 four months, lie was discharged, and went back 
 to his college. About this time he openly avow ed
 
 COLERIDGE. 
 
 306 
 
 COLERIDGE. 
 
 himseK a Unitarian. He was also full of the 
 generous but wild enthusiasm for liherty and the 
 rights of man, aroused by the French Kevolution. 
 In the summer of 179i he first met Robert 
 Southey, with whom he formed a close friendship. 
 He quitted college without taking a degree, and 
 devoted himself to literature, lecturing also, and 
 preaching occasionally in Unitarian pulpits. A 
 scheme to emigrate to America with Southey and 
 others, and to establish on the banks of the Sus- 
 quehanna a new social order, called '■ Pantisoc- 
 T.acy," perished in its birth. In October, 179.5, 
 he married, at Bristol, Sarah Fricker, whose sis- 
 ter Edith soon after became the wife of Southey. 
 He resided for a while at Bristol, or in its vicinitj', 
 and later at Nether Stowey, near his faithful 
 friend, Thomas Poole. At Bristol he became 
 intimate with Mr. Cottle, who in 17.06 published 
 his Junnile Poems. Early in this year he started 
 a short-lived miscellany called 'I'/ie Watchman. 
 In 1798 appeared at Bristol the famous Lyrical 
 Ballads, written jointly by himself and "Words- 
 worth. During this period he composed his 
 finest poems. In September, 1798, in company 
 with '\Vordsworth and his sister, he went to Ger- 
 many, where lie passed fourteen months, mostly 
 at Gbttingen, sup]>orted by the liberality of 
 Thomas and Josiah Wedgewood. Soon after 
 returning home, he made his admirable transla- 
 tion of Schiller's Waliensfein, and began to write 
 for tlie ]iIorn!n(j Post. Later he contributed to 
 the Courier. In 1801 he settled at Keswick, 
 remaining there until 1804, when he went to 
 Malta. Ilere he acted for a time as secretary of 
 the governor. Sir Alexander Ball. At Itome, 
 where lie spent some months, he met William 
 von Humboldt, Tieck the poet, and Allston the 
 painter. Witli the latter he formed a friendship 
 that lasted for life. In 1806 he returned to 
 England, and settled again in the lake country. 
 In ISIO he betook himsi'lf to London, and for 
 several years seems to have had no certain dwell- 
 ing-place. Tliis period was one of severe suffer- 
 ing, triaks, and di.sap])ointinent, relieved, howevei-, 
 by the hospitable kindness of Mr. and Mrs. 
 Basil Montague and other devoted friends. In 
 April, 1810, he became an inmate of the family 
 of James Gillman, a surgeon of IIighgat>', near 
 London. The friendship and watchful, affection- 
 ate care of Mr. and Mrs. Gillman afforded him 
 a refuge and home during the rest of his days; 
 and for this .service their names should be ever 
 held in grateful remembrance. From the time 
 he settled at Keswick in 1801 until 181G, his lit- 
 erary activity consisted largely in giving courses 
 of lectures in London and Bristol, and in writing 
 7'/«' Fricml, a new (edition of whicli, recast and 
 enlargeil, ajipeared in 1818, witli a l>i'autiful 
 dedication to Mr. and .Mrs. (iillman. Tlie happy 
 effect of liis life at Ilighgate soon showed itself 
 also in the Ilii)//rajilii<i l.itcraria and the Lnif Ser- 
 mons, and, a few years later, in the Aitls lo Refle.c- 
 iions (182.">), and Church ami Stale (1830). After 
 Ids death, four volumes of his Literari/ liemains, 
 three volumes of Jismi/s on his own Times, Confes- 
 sions of a Imiuirinij S/iiril, and a fragment on The 
 Idea of Life, were publislied. In the retirement 
 of Ills la.st years he was resorted to a,s an oracle 
 of wisdom by disciples and admirers from far 
 and near; and aome of the ablest minds of tiic 
 
 next generation were formed under his influ- 
 ence. 
 
 It was while at Highgate that Coleridge at 
 last coiKjuered the terrible habit of opium-eating. 
 He had first resorted to the fatal drug as a relief 
 from disease and pain ; but the taste grew into 
 an insatiable appetite, involved him in untold 
 miseries, and brought him to the verge of ruin. 
 While passing through this desolate valley of 
 humiliation, he took his deepest lessons in the 
 school of Christian repentance. "I feel," he 
 wrote. '• with an intensity unfathomable by words, 
 my litter nothingness, impiotence, and worthless- 
 ness in and for myself." And here, too, he learned 
 the infinite fulness and power of God's grace in 
 Christ, the Redeemer of the world. He died in 
 perfect peace on the "J.jth of July, 1834, in the 
 sixty-second year of his age. The writer once 
 receiveil from the lips of Mrs. fJillman a very 
 touching account of his last days on earth, and 
 also many interesting details respecting his man- 
 ner of life during the eighteen years which he 
 passed at Highgate. Her picture of him, l.iotli 
 living and dying, was that of a man as remarka- 
 ble for the sweetness of his disposition and his 
 unaffected piety and goodness, as for the splen- 
 dor of his intellect. Shortly before his death he 
 composed his own epitaph, which closes thus : — 
 
 " Jlercy, for praise; to he forgiven, lor fame — 
 He asked and hoped tlirougli Christ. Do thou the 
 same." 
 
 Coleridge was one of the most remarkable men 
 of his age. The annals of literature, indeed, 
 hardly furnish anotlier instance of such a union 
 of poet, pihilosopher, and theologian in one and 
 the same person. And, what is specially note- 
 worthy, his genius as a thinker blossomed even 
 earlier than his genius as a jioet. " Come back 
 into memory, like as thou wert in the dayspring 
 of thy fancies, with hope like a fiery column be- 
 fore thee, — the dark pillar not yet turned, — 
 S. T. C, logician, metaphysician, bard!" (L.\mb). 
 The impression he made upon his contemporaries 
 is shown by the testimonies which some of the 
 most eminent of them have left on record. Here 
 is that of John Foster: ••His mind contains an 
 astonishing map of all sorts of knowledge; while 
 in Ills power and manner of putting it to use he 
 dis|ilays more of what we mean by the term 
 'genius ' than any mortal I ever saw, or ever ex- 
 pect to see." Shortly after his death, De Quincey 
 si>eaks of him as " This illustrious man, the 
 largest and most spacious iuti^Uect, the subtlest 
 and most comprehensive, in my judgment, that 
 lias yet existed amongst men." Less e.xtravaganl 
 than this, but not less eniiihatic, is the witness 
 borne by Sir Walter Scott, llazlitl, Wordsworth, 
 Dr. .Vrnold, Mill, Julius Hare, Maurice, and 
 others, to his extraordinary gifts. And in full 
 accord with this exalted opinion of his own 
 countrvnien was that of the German philosopher 
 Schelling.i 
 
 ' SclicllInK onci' cxpri'nm'd to llii- wiiUT lii» warm iidmira- 
 tion for (^olerldKe, whom lie proiKJiiiicod llu' HrKt Kiiitllxhinuii 
 who fully understood (fi-nnnii philosophy. Iti one of hii* 
 lecturcH hi- horroWH from < 'oU'ridin' Ihr rfimirk thiit mythoIoKV 
 " Is not rt//oKortciil, but /(i7//fj(orlc!il,*' unit then i*uhjoinn u nolt- 
 in priilno of the " lil((hly-(!lfled Hilton," and acqultlInK him of 
 the ehnr(fo of plairlai'tHm, ho nharply made by «ome of hii* own 
 countrynu-n. •' KUr den erwiihnten trellenden Aurtdruek iiber- 
 luBso Icb ibm gerne die von neiucu eigencil LandMleulen Bcharf, 
 
 1
 
 COLERIDGE. 
 
 507 
 
 COLERIDGE. 
 
 .\s a poet Colerifige occupies a place not only 
 high, l)nt almost uniqvie. Thr: Ancinil Mariner 
 and C/iri.tl(ihi'l, not to mention other poems, are 
 woMtlerfnl creations, full of imaginative power 
 and l)eanty. lie- was also pre-eminent as a critic 
 of literature and art. The notes of his lectures 
 on Shakspeare are rich in subtle, discriminating 
 thought, and original views; while his disserta- 
 tion on A\'ordswii]-th, in the Biui/rap/iia Littraria, 
 is unsurpassed by any thing of the kind in the 
 language. Ilis writings on political subjects, 
 whether questions of the day or the vital princi- 
 plesof government, are marked by deep rt'dretion, 
 ardent zeal for both liberty and law, and a skil- 
 ful use of the lessons of history. If not always 
 convincing, he is always fresh and instructive. 
 
 But the great work of his life belongs to the 
 sphere of Christian philosophy. Here he was 
 ■without a rival in his generation ; and his influ- 
 ence was alike profound and far-reaching. Hav- 
 ing fought his own way, through much error and 
 doubt, to the full light of truth, he strove to guide 
 other minds to the same light by showing, to use 
 his own words, that Christianitj', "though not dis- 
 coverable by human reason, is yet in accordance 
 with it; that link follows link by necessary con- 
 sequence ; that religion passes out of the ken of 
 reason, only when the eye of reason has reached 
 its own horizon ; and that faith is then but its 
 continuation, even as the day softens away into 
 the sweet twilight, and twilight, hushed and 
 breathless, steals into the darkness." As a phi- 
 losopher he was a power rather than a system- 
 maker ; and his power was exerted almost as 
 much in conversation as by his writings. When 
 lie came upon the stage, the mind of England was 
 fast bound in the .systems of mechanical thought 
 and empiricism which ruled the last century. 
 Locke and Paley were the oracles of popular wis- 
 dom. A subtle rationalism was everywhere at 
 work sapping the ancient foundations in morals 
 and religion. Coleridge undertook, at first al- 
 most single-handed, to re-assert the claims of a 
 spiritual philosophy. In order to tliis, he laid 
 the utmost stress upon the difference in kind be- 
 tween reason and understanding, — a distinction 
 familiar already to (jermau thought, and as old, 
 indeed, as Aristotle. A careful statement of his 
 views on this point may be found in Aidx in JU- 
 Jlciiioii, the most mature and complete of his 
 works. He also revived the Platonic doctrine of 
 ideas; that is. of the archetypal forms, or eternal 
 verities, in the divine mind. Upon these two 
 points his battle with the dominant systems 
 largely hinged. His philosophical method and 
 opinions were greatly influenced by Kant, of 
 whom he was an ardent admirer. He owed much 
 also to .Schelling and Jacobi. Of Hegel he seems 
 to have known nothing. His writings, while full 
 of seeds of the highest thought and the noblest 
 wisdom, are yet disciplinary rather than doc- 
 trinal: they contain no fully-developed .system. 
 For this very reason they are, perhaps, even the 
 better fitted to aid inquiring minds, especially 
 
 ja zu Bcharf geriigten Entlehnungen aus racinen Schriftcn. 
 . . . Einem icirfcUch congeniaUn Mann soiltc man der- 
 gleichen nicht anrec/ineri.** Some Inter writcTs, notably Mr. 
 Carlyle, have spoken of him in a very different tone ; but their 
 estimate is not likely to be permanent. Sooner or later, wis- 
 dom is sure to be justilicd of her children. 
 
 youthful minds, in the search for truth, and in 
 .solving th(! (h'cp problems of existence both 
 earthward and heavi-nward. 
 
 His religious temper and .sympathies are indi- 
 cated by his fondness for such divines .as Luther, 
 Hooker, Leighton, Donne, Baxter, Jeremy Taylor, 
 and liunyan. The writings of Archbishop Leigh- 
 ton and Pilf/rini's J'roi/resa were his csjiecial de- 
 light. As athcologian he revered the Fathers of 
 the Ileformation, and acce]ited heartily the catho- 
 lic doctrines of faith, substantially as contained 
 ill the ancient creeds and in the great Protestant 
 ■symbols. His orthodoxy has been warmly im- 
 pugned, jiarticularly in reference to inspiration 
 and the atonement. It can hardly be denied 
 that, in the re-action from what he calh'd bibliola- 
 try, he sometimes ex]>ressed himself incautiously, 
 to say the least, on the question of inspiration. 
 With regard to the atonement, whatever may be 
 said about certain passages, the general tone of 
 his later writings favors the conclusion that he 
 was in substantial accord with the teaching of 
 the Reformed churches on this subject. In gen- 
 er.al, it may be said that he anticipated, and fur- 
 nished pregnant hints on the best way of meeting, 
 most of the objections to revealed truth which 
 have been raised by the sceptical science and 
 speculation of the last fifty years. Whatever his 
 faults and imperfections, whether as a man or an 
 author, Coleridge must still be regarded as the 
 most original, profound, and many-sided Chris- 
 tian thinker who has lived in England in the 
 nineteenth century. 
 
 Lit. — The Poetical Works of S. T. Coleridge, 
 3 vols., 1835 (London, William Pickering; Bos- 
 ton, Ililliard, Gray, & Co.) ; several later editions 
 have appeared ; The Friend, edited by H. N. 
 Colei'idge, 3 vols., 1837, and later ; Biugrajihia 
 Literaria, 2d ed., 2 vols., edited by H. N. C. and 
 his widow, .Sara C, 1847; Aidslo Rcjlection, 5th 
 ed., enlarged. 2 vols., with President Marsh's 
 Preliminary Essay (1843) ; The Complete Works 
 of S. T. C, edited, with a very able Introduc- 
 tory Essay, by Professor Shedd. 7 vols. (Harper 
 & Brothers, 1854); Specimens of the Tahle-Talk of 
 the late Samuel Taylor Coleridge, 2 vols., 1835. In- 
 teresting notices of Coleridge, though mixed with 
 more or less mere gossip, and not a little of a 
 worse sort, may be found in De Quincey's Litera- 
 ry Reminiscences, vol. I., and in Letters, Conrersa- 
 tioHS, and Recollections of .S. T. C. (Harper & 
 Brothers, 1836). J. Cottle's Reminiscerices con- 
 tain an account of Coleridge's opium-eating and 
 { its effects. Archdeacon Hare's estimate of Cole- 
 ridge may be seen in the dedication and preface 
 of 'The Mission of the Comforter. See, also, a very 
 appreciative paper on Coleridge in Professor 
 Shairp's Studies in Poetry and Philosophy. In lSt)6 
 appeared Spiritual Philosophy, founded on the 
 Teaching of S. T. Coleridge (London, 2 vols. 
 8vo), written bv his friend and pupil Dr. J. H. 
 Green. ' G. L. PRENTISS. 
 
 COLERIDGE, Hartley, b. at Clevedon, near 
 Bristol, 17n<5; d. at Rydal, Westmoreland, Jan. 6, 
 184!l; eldest son of Samuel Taylor Coleridge; was 
 educated iit Oriel College, Oxford. He inherited 
 not a little of his father's poetical and conversa- 
 tional power. Some of his sonnets are very fine. 
 7'Ae Worthies of Yorkshire and Lancashire, 1835, 
 his most noted prose-work, has unusual merit.
 
 COLERIDGE. 
 
 508 
 
 COLIGNY. 
 
 lie lies buried near the grave of AVordsworth in 
 (irasmere churchyard. He was a frail mortal, but 
 gifted with qualities which endeared hira to sucli 
 friends as ^Vordsworth and Southey, and led to 
 the common saying, that he was no one's enemy 
 but his own. See Poems by Hartliij Coleridije, 
 with an interesting memoir of his life by his 
 brother Uerwent, 2 vols., 1S51. G. L. PRENTISS. 
 
 COLERIDGE, Sara, only daughter of Samuel 
 Taylor Coleridge; b. at Keswick, 1803; d. in 
 London, May 3, 1852. She passed most of her 
 early years in the home of her uncle, Robert 
 Southey. In 1S29 she was married to her cousin, 
 Henry Kelson Coleridge, editor of several of her 
 father's works, and himself an author of note. 
 While still a girl, she transl.ated from the Latin 
 Martin Dobrizhoifer's Account of tlic Ahipones, an 
 Equestrian People of Parai/uai/. 3 vols., 1822. 
 After the death of her husband (ISIo), she took 
 his place as editor of her father's writings. She 
 wrote a fairj--tale called Phiintasniion, which was 
 much admired. She possessed real learning, 
 superior culture, no little power and acuteness 
 of thought, and was a very lovely Christian wo- 
 man, it was said of her, that her father " looked 
 down into her eyes, and left in them the light 
 of his own." See Memoir and Letters of Sara 
 Coleridije, edited by her daughter, New York, 
 1874. " G. I,. PREXTISS. 
 
 COLERIDCE, Sir John Taylor, an eminent Eng- 
 lish jurist, nephew of Samuel Taylor Coleridge; 
 b. at Tiverton, in Devonshire, 171)0; d. at Ottery 
 St. Mary, Feb. 11, 1S7G. He was educated at 
 Oxford and the Middle Temple ; became judge 
 of the King's Bench in 1835, and privy councillor 
 in 1858. He was an intimate friend, and the 
 biographer, of the poet Keble. 
 
 COLET, John, Dean of St. Paul's, and founder 
 of .St. Paul's School (l-'l-); b. at London, 1400; 
 d. there Sept. 10, 1519, and was buried in St. 
 Paul's Catliedral. He was one of the " Reform- 
 ers before the Reformation." He took his M..\. 
 at O.xford (1490), and wentabroad ( 1493) to study 
 Greek and Latin. On his return, in 1497. he pub- 
 licly expouiuled Paul's Kpistles at Oxford, and 
 there became accjuainted with Krasmus, with 
 whom he maintained an intimate frieudship. Hi; 
 was promoted to various positions, — made D.D. 
 1504, and Dean of St. Paul's 15(15. His great 
 reform w.as to introduce expository ]n-eacliing, 
 and a perpetual divinity-lectnn! on three days in 
 each week, in St. Paul's Church. By his well- 
 known disapproval of auricular confession, celi- 
 bacy of the clergy, and otlu^r Ronuui jiractices, 
 he was considered by the faithful littli- short 
 of a heretic : hence he was subject to a variety of 
 persecutions. He wrote Absolutissimus de octo ora- 
 tionis partimn constnii'lione Lihetlus. London, L531); 
 llndinienla (Jraininaticis, London, 1510 (a book de- 
 signed for use in St. Paul's Scliool, and dedicated 
 to its first master, the famous (jeorgc Lilly); 
 iJaihj JJerolions, or (In; ( '/,ristian\i Morninij and 
 Kveninij Sacrifice (Darling mentions only the edi- 
 tion of 1093). For his life, see the skelcli, with 
 portrait, in Fuli.ku's Atnl Ilidecicns (sic), Nich- 
 ols's ed.,I.,onilon, 18(i7, vol. I. jip. 1 12-125; .Sami'KI, 
 Knight: A//"« of Colel, Lomlon, 1724, Oxford, 
 1823; and recently in Skkiioii.m : 'J'lie Ojford 
 Reformers if 1J^8 [C'olet, Krasniua, and More], 
 London, 1807, 3d ed., 1887. 
 
 COLIGNY, Gaspard de, b. Feb. 10, 1517, at 
 Chatillon-sur-Loing. in the department of Loiret; 
 d. in Paris. Aug. 24, 1572 ; was the second son 
 of Gaspard de Chatillon, Marshal of France (d. 
 1522), and Louise de Montmorency, a sister of 
 the famous constable of France, but became the 
 head of the family, when, in 1.533, the elder 
 brother, Odet, was made a cardinal. Gaspard was 
 a grave, pure, and proud character. Francis de 
 Guise was his only friend. He fought with 
 great distinction in Germany, Italy, and Spain, 
 advanced rapidly on the military career, and was 
 in 1547 made coninuxuder of the French infantry, 
 among whose wiU hordes he knew how to estab- 
 lish discipline. In 1552 he was made Admiral 
 of France, and in 1555 Governor of Picardy. As 
 such he signed the armistice of Vaucelles. Feb. 
 5, 1550; and, when Henry H. broke it, he felt 
 both hurt and confounded. lie was an honest 
 man. and the jiapal dispensation weighed very 
 little w ith him. Xevertheless, the war once re- 
 newed, he fought with all his might; and after 
 the defeat of the constable at St. Quentiu, Aug. 
 
 10, 1557, he actually saved Paris by holding the 
 city of St. Qnentin for seventeen days. On its 
 surrender he was carried a jirisoner into the Neth- 
 erlands, where he was retained, first at Ecluse, 
 then at Ghent, until the peace of Chateau-Cam- 
 bresis (1559). But from the prisons of Philip 
 
 11. he returned a Protestant. He was not entire- 
 ly a stranger to the Reform.ation. His mother 
 was familiar with the "new ideas," and no priest 
 was summoned to her de.ath-bed (1547). His 
 tutor, Berauld, was a friend of Erasmus. His 
 wife, Charlotte de Laval, was strongly attracted 
 by the movement; and his brother Andelot had 
 opienly embraced Protestantism. In the solitude 
 of the pri.son the truth began to dawn upon the 
 mind of (iasjiard; and <a letter from Calvin, Sept. 
 4, 1558, brought fuller clearness. 
 
 "\\'hen they entered the military arena, the 
 youthful friendship of Gaspard de Coligny and 
 Francis de Guise soon became a jealous rivalry ; 
 and some years later, when, in the fiebl of politics, 
 they found themselves placed respectively at the 
 head of two opposite parties, their rivalry grew 
 into a deadly enmity. During the reign of Fran- 
 cis II. (iuise lived at the coiu't in power and 
 splendor; Coligny, on his family est.ate, Chiitillou, 
 in quiet retirement. But when Francis IL sudden- 
 ly (lied (Dec. 5, 1500), and Henry HI. ascended the 
 thrones the position of tlie two party-leaders was 
 for a moment completely nu'ersed. Coligny came 
 into ]iower, and he and his brother .\ndelot worked 
 in perfect unison with the Chancellor I'Hopital. 
 Persecutions ceased, toleration was shown upon 
 both sides, and there were fair )irospects of end- 
 ing the conflict with a peaceable settlement. But 
 on March 1, 10.52, the nuissaere of Vas.sy took 
 place, and on .\pril 2 the first religious war began 
 with the occupation of Orleans by Andelot. On 
 the one si<le, the Roman Catholics, the (!ni.ses, 
 and Antoine of Navarre ; on the other, the Prote.s- 
 tants, Coligny. the Prince? of Condd, .and Henry 
 of Navarre; ami between the two parties, the 
 court, the weak and vacillating king, and the 
 craftilv-calculating queen-dowager, Catherine of 
 Medici. The war actually ended with the assiis- 
 sination of Fr.ancis de (Jui.se by Poltrot lie Mt'rey, 
 in the camp before Orleans, Feb. 24, 1,503; and
 
 COLIGNY. 
 
 309 
 
 COLLEGE. 
 
 Marcli 19 peace was concludfi<I at, Aiiiboise, by 
 which freefiniii of conscience, ami, witliiii certain 
 limits, liberty of \vorshi]i, were granted to the 
 Protestants. I?iit the liatred between the House 
 of Guise and (Joligiiy was only deepened by the 
 events. I'oltrot declared that he had been en- 
 couraged to murder Francis de Guise by t'oligny, 
 Beza, etc. ; and although the acts of tlie pro- 
 cess (corap. Mi'moires il<'_ Vnnde, IV. 285, 339 ; 
 Hkza : Hist. E<-clt.<<. d<:i Ei/U.srs llrfonnces, II. 291, 
 1310, 318) show, tliat, in tliis form, the accusation 
 was an infamous calumny, it is, nevertheless, 
 jiossible that Coligny was not altogether ignorant 
 of what happened. 
 
 Four years of peace followed. But in the 
 mean time tlie development of affairs in the 
 Netherlands, the imprisonment of Egmont and 
 Horn (.Sept. 9, 1507), and rumors of a plan to 
 capture the Prince of C'onde and Coligny, made 
 the Protestants suspicious ; and the second reli- 
 gious war began. Coligny's scheme of taking 
 possession of the person of the King at Monceaux, 
 near Meaux, failed (Sejit. 27, 1507) ; but the vic- 
 tory at St. Denis (Nov. 10, 1507) led to the peace 
 of Longjumeau (March 23, 1508), by which tlie 
 .agreement of Amboise was renewed. The en- 
 mity, however, between the Roman-Spanish and 
 Protestant-English parties, was too fierce not to 
 break the peace ; and within the same year the 
 third religious war began. It ended with the 
 peace of St. Germain (Aug. 2, 1570), after the bat- 
 tles of Janiac, Monoontour, and Arnay le Due. 
 I5y this peace the cause of Protestantism in France 
 seemed to be much improved. Charles IX. was 
 averse to the Spanish direction which French 
 jiolitics lately had shown. Coligny was called 
 to Blois Sept. 12, 1571 ; and the king seemed to 
 listen to him with confidence. The negotiations 
 for a marriage between Marguerite of Valois and 
 Henry of Navarre finally succeeded. April 11, 
 1572, the marriage contract was signed, and Aug. 
 18 the wedding ceremony was celebrated. But 
 Aug. 22, when Coligny, at eleven o'clock in the 
 night, returned from the Louvre to his house (the 
 present No. 144 Rue Ilit'oli), he was fired upon 
 twice by one Mavirevel, wdio escaped, and was 
 brought home hard wounded. The next day the 
 king visited him ; but their intercourse was inter- 
 rupted by the arrival of the queen-dowager. On 
 the way back to the Louvre, the king confessed 
 to his mother, that Coligny had given him cer- 
 tain warnings with respect to liis councillors ; and 
 in the following night tlie men of the Duke of 
 Guise penetrated into the house of Coligny, mur- 
 dered him, and threw his body into the street, 
 where the young Francis de Guise severed the 
 head from the body. The head was sent, it is 
 said, to Konie ; while the body was dragged 
 through the streets, and finally suspended in the 
 gallows of AIountfau(;oii. Meanwhile the INIas- 
 sacre of the Day of St. Bartliolomew took place, 
 and several days elapsed before Jlarshal jlont- 
 morency had the body taken down and buried. 
 An act of Parliament, Oct. 27, 1572, declared 
 Coligny guilty of treason, and decreed that his 
 escutcheon should be broken by the hangman, 
 his castle be razed to the ground, and his chil- 
 dren and children's children be treated as infa- 
 mous ; but it was cancelled by another act of 
 Parliament, June 10, 159!i. 
 
 Lit. — Of the writing.s of Coligny, the manu- 
 script of a history of the religious wars was 
 burnt by Catherine of Medici. A number of 
 his letters have been publisiied in Bullclin ilc In 
 Siicii'li' (If r Ilislolri'. (lu I'rijiexlanthmc I'rnrn-aia, 
 Paris, 1852, especially in series I., II., XIV., and 
 XXII., and in Arcliircs dea Missiorts Srieiilifinues 
 lit Lillc'mlrcs, series III. Tom. 2, 3. His life 
 was written by Fhanz Hotmann: Gnsjiarh Co- 
 hinii ^f^ll/ni. . . . Villi, 1575, translated into Eng- 
 lish by Golding, London, 1576; Mkyi.ax : Vie de 
 Gnspard de Culir;ni/, Paris, 1802 ; Tkssier : VAmi- 
 ral Ciilif/iii/ Paris, 1872; [Be.sant: Culif/ni/ and 
 the Failure nf the French Refnrmatiim, N.Y., 1879; 
 cf. B.\iui) : llislori/ of llie Rise of the IIu(/uenots of 
 France, N.Y., bS79, 2 vols.] ' Til. scilOTT. 
 
 COLLATION, in canon law, the conferring or 
 bestowing of a benefice by a bishop who has it 
 in his gift or patronage. Collation differs from 
 institution, in tliat it proceeds at the bishop's 
 own motion ; and from jiresentation, in that it is 
 the act of the bishop himself, while presentation 
 is properly the act of a patron offering his clerical 
 nominee to tlie bishop for institution into a bene- 
 fice. See Dictionary nf the Enr/lish Church, s. v., 
 London and N.Y., n.d'. (1881).' 
 
 COLLECT, a short [irayerused in the Western 
 churches, witli these peculiarities, according to 
 Blunt : " ( 1) All invocation ; (2) A reason on which 
 the petition is to be founded ; (3) The petition 
 itself, centrally placed, and always in few words; 
 (4) The benefit hoped for ; (5) A memorial of 
 Christ's mediation, or an ascription of praise, or 
 both." The two principal derivations are from 
 collectas: ((() Because it was the prayer said in 
 the early times for the people " when assembled 
 (collectus) in one church, with the whole body of 
 the clergy, for tlie purpose of proceeding to an- 
 other; " or (i) Because " it indicates a prayer of- 
 fered by the priest alone on behalf of the people, 
 whose suffrages are thus collected into one voice, 
 instead of being said alternately by priest and 
 people, as in versicles and litanies." Many of 
 the collects now in use in the Roman-Catholic 
 and Episcopal churches are undoubtedly very 
 old, being composed by Popes Leo the Great (440- 
 401), Gelasius (492-490), and Gregory the Great 
 (590-604). See art. Collect in Smith and Cheet- 
 ii.\ii's Did. of Christ. Antit/. ; also Blunt's An- 
 notated Hook- of Common Prayer, p. 69; Bright'.s 
 Ancient Collects, pp. 198 sqq. 
 
 COLLEGE. The word "college" is used in 
 many senses, always, or nearly always, implying 
 a limited company, meeting in one place, bound 
 by common laws, and associated for mutual sup- 
 port in the promotion of a definite object. A 
 college is a society of colleagues; as of cardi- 
 nals, electors, physicians, preceptors, or scholars. 
 Its purpose in a more restricted use is to pro- 
 mote learning. Its grade may vary from a school 
 for boys to an association of learned men ; but it 
 usually suggests the promotion of a liberal educa- 
 tion in distinction from a practical or elementa- 
 ry training. 
 
 In this country the words "college" and 
 " university " have been unfortunately used as 
 synonymous, so that the distinction between the 
 two is commonly forgotten ; but in England and 
 on the Continent, and among careful writers in 
 America, the separate functions are clearly recog-
 
 COLLEGE. 
 
 310 
 
 COLLEGE. 
 
 nized. It is the business of a college to train 
 youth at an early age, commonly before they have 
 reached their majority, in studies which discipline 
 the mind, and store it with useful knowledge. It 
 is the business of a university to advance and 
 quicken those who have been trained. In many 
 cases the students of ■ a college dwell within 
 college walls, dine at a common table, attend 
 religious worship in their own chapel, and are 
 governed in their daily conduct by prescribed 
 regulations under the constant care of their 
 tutors. Their ages, their needs, and their tastes 
 are supposed to be so nearly alike, that substan- 
 tially the same treatment may be given to them 
 all. It is the distinctive office of a university to 
 hold examinations, and confer degrees, and also to 
 provide for the advanced education of those who 
 have been trained in the fundamental sciences. 
 The university may comprise one or more col- 
 leges and schools. Its teachings (as distinguished 
 from those of the colleges it includes) are broad- 
 er, and adapted to maturer minds. The true 
 university teacher advances the science which he 
 professes, and brings forward, in lectures or pub- 
 lications, the results he has reached; while the 
 college instructor may fitly be devoted to the 
 routine of instruction, and excel by patiently 
 going over and over w'ith his scholars funda- 
 mental principles. 
 
 The earliest colleges in this country were Har- 
 vard, AVilliani and Mary, and Yale ; and their 
 influence has powerfully controlled tlie higher 
 education in America from colonial times until 
 now. They were based on the model of the 
 colleges of Oxford and Cambridge,' and there 
 are some points of resemblance between their or- 
 ganization and that of Trinity College, Dublin. 
 There are traces, also, of Scotch influence, at least 
 in the two New-England colleges, and of the 
 English public schools. All three were chartered 
 by the State, were avowedly devoted to the main- 
 tenance of Christian doctrine (as held by the 
 Puritans at Harvard and Yale, and as held by 
 ♦he Cliurch of England at William and Mary). 
 They sustained daily religious services, provided 
 lodgings and a common table, were taught by 
 a rector, with subordinate teachers in the lan- 
 guages and mathematics, and at tlie close of an 
 appointed course of studies conferred the IJache- 
 lor's degree on succe.ssful .scholars. 
 
 The pupils in these colleges were usually over 
 fourteen years of age at entrance, and often took 
 their first degree as early as eighteen. The no- 
 tion that the acquisition of tliis honor was only 
 "the commencement " of an education, and that 
 the progressive scholar would conic; forward a 
 few years later for his second degree of Master, 
 was recognizi^d from tlie beginning; although, 
 for the want of professors who had the learning 
 and the leisure to carry on tin; instruction of 
 graduate students, there was but little efficiency 
 in this part of the .scheme. The form, however, 
 has been constantly obsi.-rved of encouraging 
 Bachelors of Art to proceed to the degree of Mas- 
 ter ; thus implying that the freer study of the 
 university rightly follows the limited training of 
 the colleges. lu reci'iit years th(! second dcrgree 
 
 ■ ProfcHHor F. B. Dr-xlcr MuyM, tliut, atnonnc tho (Mirly r-nil- 
 granu to Now KiiKlnnd, libuiit aixxy wertr fruiu Cambridge, mid 
 twenty were from Oxfurd. 
 
 lias in many places been restored to its proper 
 dignity, and" is now conferred only by examina- 
 tions in advanced and non-professional studies. 
 
 Upon the type thus described, — an American 
 variety from an English germ, — most of the 
 colleges which were established during the eigh- 
 teenth century were formed. They were not 
 exactly alike, but so nearly of the same pattern 
 that '• the American college " still bears its own 
 marked features, readily traced in charters, cus- 
 toms, buildings, schemes of study, and popular 
 phraseology. To distinguish it from the schools 
 of professional training which have grown up in 
 later days, it is often called -the college proper," 
 an infelicitous but significant phrase. Around 
 the central college other institutions have in 
 manyjilaces been planted, — the schools of the- 
 ology, law, medicine, and science ; and the group 
 of seminaries thus formed is not infrequently 
 termed the university in distinction from the 
 college. 
 
 As the three colleges just named have been the 
 models to wliicli later colleges h.ave referred, a 
 few words in regard to the origin of each may bo 
 given. 
 
 Harvard College, at Cambridge, Mass., dates 
 from 1636. Two years later it received a gener- 
 ous bequest from Rev. John Harvard of Charles- 
 town, whose name it has since borne. Instruc- 
 tions began in 1038; the first rector assumed 
 office in 1610 ; in 1012 the governor, deputj'- 
 governor, and magistrate of the jurisdiction, 
 the teaching elders of six adjoining towns, and 
 the president of the college, were constituted the 
 overseers; and in 1650 "the corporation" was 
 formally chartered. 
 
 At New Haven, Conn., a college was proposed 
 by Rev. John Davenport, soon after the settle- 
 ment of the town, in 1638 ; but, on account of the 
 successful progress of the college at the Bay, the 
 project was not pushed forward until 1700, wlien 
 several of the ministers of the neighborhood gave 
 their books for "founding a college in Con- 
 necticut. " Instructions began soon afterward ; 
 and in 1718 a gift from (Jov. Elihu Yale fixed 
 his name upon the new institution. The first 
 charter was granted in 1701, and a second in 
 171.5. 
 
 Soon after the settlement at Jamestown, in 
 1U07, a university was projected at Henrico; but 
 the diiricullies were not overcome at once, and 
 it w.as 1660-61 when an act of the (Jrand Assem- 
 bly made " provision for a coll<'dge." In lf)93 a 
 cliarter was received from William and Mary, 
 and in 1700 the first ConnMenceinent was held. 
 It received royal, colonial, aiul private benefac- 
 tions ; and we are told by its historian that "in 
 1776 it was the riclu'st college in North .\nierica." 
 
 Between 1700 and the Declaration of Iu<lepend- 
 ence six colleges were added to the three already 
 named ; and, before the close of tho eighteenth 
 century, seventeen more were added to the list. 
 Since then, the number has rajiidly increased, 
 though all will admit that many of the institu- 
 tions which are enrolled as "colleges" are poorly 
 endowed, and imperfectly taught. A discrimi- 
 nating re|)ort on tliis subject is much to be 
 desired. The list in the United-States comiliis- 
 sioner'.f report for 1878 includes 3.')8 colleges and 
 universities, with 3,880 instructors and 57,087
 
 COLLEGE. 
 
 511 
 
 COLLBGIAL. 
 
 students ; hut these figures are not of much value 
 without elaborate statements in respect to the 
 character of the instruction which is given. 
 
 Among the new institutions are the universities 
 of Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Cali- 
 fornia, and other Western States, commonly in- 
 cluding professional schools of law and medicine 
 with the collegiate departments. Colleges of 
 agriculture and the mechanic arts, fostered by the 
 national land-grant of 1802, are to be found in 
 all the States. To a limited extent the older 
 colleges have received assistance from the State; 
 but their chief reliance has been the generosity 
 of individuals. There is a long list of noble 
 benefactors, beginning with Harvard and Yale, 
 whose names will be held in honor by those who 
 watch the progress of knowledge. In the West, 
 donations of land from the United-States Gov- 
 ernment have greatly aided the foundation of 
 colleges and universities. 
 
 The most noteworthy innovation upon the 
 traditional college system was made by the foun- 
 dation of the University of Virginia, in 1820. 
 " The class-.system," tlien regarded elsewhere as 
 of great value, was not introduced; great free- 
 dom was allowed in the choice of studies ; and 
 much stress was given to examinations. Gradu- 
 ally many of the ideas there introduced have 
 been adopted in other places. The rapid growth 
 of science, and the demand for instruction in 
 modern languages and literature, have caused 
 important changes in the college courses, and 
 tend to-day toward the encouragement of op- 
 tional or eclectic plans of study. 
 
 The Johns Hopkins University, which was 
 opened in Baltimore in 1870, with a generous 
 and unconditioned endowment, has been organ- 
 ized in such a way as to give prominence to uni- 
 versity methods in distinction from collegiate. 
 In the middle of its fifth year ninety graduates 
 of colleges were enrolled among its students, 
 twenty of whom hold fellowships; four scientific 
 journals are published ; and there are excellent 
 collections of apparatus and books adapted to 
 research. 
 
 Within the last few years there has been a 
 loud call for collegiate education for women. 
 To a limited extent, some of the colleges for 
 men have been opened to women ; but at the 
 present time more favor seems to lie given to 
 new and independent endowments for the in- 
 struction of women ; and the foinidations which 
 bear the name of Smith, Vassar, Wellesley, and 
 Taylor, give promise of the highest utility. 
 
 The tendency to a separation of colleges from 
 common schools is much to be regretted. Care- 
 ful in(juiries show that the number of college 
 students in proportion to the population has 
 diminished. College-bred men, for one reason 
 or another, are less called upon than formerly to 
 assume the lead in public affairs : they are less 
 concerned in the administration of the common- 
 school system. All this is liere mentioned with 
 regret; but there is not space to discuss the rea- 
 sons, or point out the remedies. On the other 
 hand, the colleges grow in wealth, in libraries, 
 in museums, in admirable buildings: they grow 
 more liberal, also, in their instructions, and are 
 heartily sustained by the most enlightened men 
 in Church and State. As we review the politi- 
 
 cal, the literary, the scientific, and the religious 
 history of the lan<l, we perceive, that, after all, it 
 is the college-bred men who liave moulded our 
 affairs, and given to this country its present 
 standing as an enlightened and prosperous re- 
 public. D. L'. (JILilAX. 
 
 COLLEGIA NATIONALIA, or PONTIFICIA, 
 colleges for the education of missionaries des- 
 tined to go into Christian, but not Koman-Catho- 
 lic, countries. The first institution of this kind, 
 the Co/lefjiuin Gerinanicnm, was founded in Rome, 
 in 1552, by Ignatius Loyola, and was at the same 
 time a monastic and an educational establish- 
 ment. It had a theological faculty, and enjoyed 
 all the rights of a Roman university. It was 
 governed by a rector, who, like all the teachers, 
 belonged to the order of the Jesuits ; and it 
 stood under the protectorate or special authority 
 of a conmiittee of six cardinals. The committee 
 was to coninnniicate with trustworthy emissaries 
 in Germany ; and those emissaries had to select 
 among the Germans, Frisians, Swiss, and Scandi- 
 navians, a number of young men between sixteen 
 and twenty-one years old, able-bodied, well gifted 
 in a general way, and specially endowed with an 
 easy, pleasant, and impressive address. Before 
 leaving Germany, the 3'oung men wei'e informed 
 of the method and purpose of the institution ; 
 and before adopted as pupils, generally after the 
 lapse of a year of probation, they took an oath 
 to labor for the Roman-Catholic Church as long 
 as they lived, to go, without a moment's hesita- 
 tion, at the time and to the place appointed by 
 the protectors, not to try to evade their assumed 
 task by entering a monastical order, etc. By this 
 means the Roman-Catholic Church hoped to cre- 
 ate an effective propaganda among the German 
 heretics, — able disputants connected with their 
 adversaries by thesecretsynipathy of common race, 
 common language, etc. (jregory XIII. founded 
 a number of similar colleges in Rome, — a Creek 
 (1577), an English (1579), a Maronite (1584), 
 an lUyrian, a Hungarian, etc. The Hungarian 
 college was in 1584 connected with the German 
 (see JuLiu-s Cordara : C'olle(/u Germanici el Hnn- 
 ijarici Hisloria. Rome, 1770). Some of these col- 
 leges died out, but others were added. Also the 
 constitution of the whole congregation de propa- 
 ganda Jitlt underwent some changes, especially in 
 1022. But the idea on which the institution was 
 based proved a fertile and vigorous one. See 
 Ukis.^x Ceiuu : Elat pn'senl de I'Eylise C'al/iolique, 
 .Amsterdam, 1710; yoli:ia Slalinlica delle Missioni 
 Cai/i(il(tlie ill lulto il Motidu. Rome, 1843, pp. 21- 
 27 ; Me.ier : Die ProjxK/anda, Gottingen, 1S52, 
 Part I. pp. 73-91, 225-245. mejek. 
 
 COLLEGIAL or COLLEGIATE CHURCHES, 
 in contradistinction to cathedral churches, are in 
 the Roman-Catholic Church served by a body of 
 canons, regular or secular, living together in coi- 
 leijia, and in the Anglican Chu'-ch by a dean and 
 a number of canons ; while the cathedral churches 
 are always served by a bishop. In Xew-York 
 City the "term "Collegiate Church " is applied to 
 a corporation in the Reformed (Dutch) Church, 
 which owns a large amount of property, inclusive 
 of three churches, with their mission-churches. 
 Out of the income their ministers' salaries and 
 other expenses are paid. The fact of several 
 clergymen upon an equality in the government
 
 COLLEGIALISM. 
 
 512 
 
 COLLINS. 
 
 of the same body of coinmuaicants is true also of 
 several other churches in the country ; but the 
 term "collegiate " is not so commonly applied to 
 these latter churches. 
 
 COLLEGIALISM, or COLLEGIAL SYSTEM, a 
 technical term denoting a peculiar conception of 
 the relation between Church and State, which de- 
 veloped in the ecclesiastical jurisprudence of Ger- 
 many during the seventeenth and eighteenth 
 centuries. The name, first used by J. H. Bohner 
 of Ilalle, was derived from the Roman law, which, 
 before Constantine, considered the Christian con- 
 gi'egatious as collegia illicilu. 
 
 The Reformation ass\iraed that the enforcement 
 of the First Commandment belonged to the oifice 
 of the divinely-instituted State government. In 
 Germany, consequently, every petty state had its 
 own church ; and it was considered pai't of the 
 government's duty to exclude any other form of 
 religious worship but the true one from the terri- 
 tory. In Switzerland the Reformed Church was 
 organized on exactly the same principle as the 
 Lutheran Church in Germany, ■ — as a State insti- 
 tution, founded, maintained, and superintended 
 by the secular government. As soon, however, 
 as the Reformation penetrated into France, where 
 it met with a decided opposition from the side of 
 the State authority, the Reformed Church was 
 compelled to organize itself as an independent, 
 self-governing association ; and in Germany, too, 
 various circumstances soon made a re-organiza- 
 tion on a modified principle necessary, as, for 
 instance, when the peace of Westphalia (1648) 
 placed several churches on equal terms on the 
 same territory. With the altered practice fol- 
 lowed an altered theory. In his Jh.s- llt'lli cl Paris 
 (1625) Hugo Grotius defined the State as an asso- 
 ciation based on a contract, by which each mem- 
 ber sacrifices a certain portion of his individual 
 freedom in order to have the enjoyment of the 
 rest guaranteed by the a.ssociation. In his De 
 Ilahitu lU'liyionis Cliristiaiire ad Vitam Civilem 
 (1686) Pufendorff showed that religion and reli- 
 gious worslnp did not belong to that portion of 
 his freedom wliicli an individual sacrificed by 
 entering the State; and Pufendorff 's school at 
 Ilalle further developed collegialisni, or the colle- 
 gial system, as the true view of the relation be- 
 tween Cliurch and State. The last step was taken 
 by C. M. I'faff in iiis Akaih misclic Ileden ilher 
 das Kii-i-Iirnrrclil, Tiibingon, 1712, in which he de- 
 monstrates the contradiction between the innate 
 principle of lint Christian Church lierself, and 
 tliat princiiile iqiou which she actually had been 
 organized in G<'rniany. It must be noticed, how- 
 ever, that even I'faff tries to prove by a curious 
 and artificial train of reasoning that the actual 
 organization, though flatly contradicting (lie natu- 
 ral principle, is, nevertheless, perfectly just. 
 
 Lit. — Dav. Nkttki.iii.adt : Dc 'I'rilnts Si/slc- 
 7ualihiis l)<Kliiiia,(jtc., Ilalle, 1783; Staiii. : Kircli- 
 enverfuss. niicli Lclire uiid Reclil d. I'rulKslanlfn, 
 Erlangen, 1810 ; Kichtku : Gescliichle d. ecantj. 
 Kinftciwer/ass. in Deulschtaiid, Leipzig, 1851 ; 
 Me.ikk : G lundlarjen d. Lulli. Kirrlnnrcijimcntcs, 
 Rostock, I8til. " .VK.IKK. 
 
 COLLECIANTS, ..i RHYNSBURGERS, a frac- 
 tion of the Rcunonstrants formed by the tlirce 
 l)ea,sant8, Joiiann, Adrian, and (iilbert van der 
 Codde, and the fisherman Anton Corneli.son, who 
 
 afterwards were joined by Dr. Kamphusen. Dur- 
 ing the persecutions which resulted from the 
 synod of Dort, the scattered Arminians held their 
 meetings at Warmond, in the neighborhood of 
 Leyden. But soon the above-mentioned persons 
 and their followers separated, and held independ- 
 ent meetings, which they called collegia, at the 
 neighboring village of Rhynsburg. They adopted 
 prophecy, and called them.selves prophets. In 
 many respects they resembled the Quakers. They 
 rejected all symbolical books and a regular min- 
 istry. He who was called upon by the Spirit 
 stood forth and preached. To serve in war, to 
 hold a civil office, they considered incompatible 
 with Christianity. Like the Anabaptists, they 
 used innnersion at baptism. The sect spread 
 rapidly in Holland and West Friesland, but be- 
 came extinct in the latter part of the eighteenth 
 century. ILVGENBACH. 
 
 COLLIER, Jeremy, b. at Stow-cum-Qui, Cam- 
 bridgeshire, Sept. 23, 1050; d. in London, April 
 20, 1720. He took his M.A. at Cambridge, 
 1070; entered the ministry, but at the Revolution 
 he refused to take the oaths, and was impris- 
 oned (1088 and 1092) for .advocating the cause 
 of James II. In 1007 he won considerable fame 
 by his Essays upon screral Mond Suhjecls, of which 
 a second series appeared 1705, and a third 1709. 
 The essays cover much ground, and are interest- 
 ing, and in their way valuable. In 1698 he 
 issued A Short View of the Profaneness and hn- 
 fuorality of the English Stage, a vigorous attack 
 which was as vigorously resisted, but resulted in 
 the reformation of the stage. The most valua- 
 ble of his works is An Ecclesiastical Uistorij of 
 Great Britain, to the End of the lleign of Charles II. 
 (1708-18), new edition, with lif« of the author, 
 London, 1840, 9 vols. He also translated and 
 continued jMorery's Great Historical, Geographical, 
 Genealogical, and Poetical Dictionary (1701-21), 
 and translated the Meditations of Marcus Aurcli- 
 us, London, 1701. 
 
 COLLINS, Anthony, an English deist; b. at 
 Ileston, in ^liddlesex, June 21, 1070; d. in Lon- 
 don, Dec. 13, 1729. He was a country gentleman, 
 educated at Kton and Cambridge, a justice of 
 peace, and the intimate friend of Locke. Ills 
 best known work is A Discourse <;/' Frecthinl'ing, 
 occasioned hg the Rise and Gruicth <f a Sect called 
 Freethinkers, London, 1713. This was attacked, 
 and, in the judgment of most, demolished, by Bent- 
 ley, under the pseudonyme of Phileleutherus IJp- 
 sicnsis. Swift also wrote against it a pamphlet 
 in his inimitable style, il/r. Collins's Discourse 
 of Freethinkuig, jint into plain English, liy wag of 
 abstract, for the use of the Poor. Collins tried to 
 ]irove that all .sound belief must be based on free 
 incjuiry, and, furlhcr, that the adoption of rational- 
 istic principles would involve the abandi'unient 
 of a belief in supernaturalism. The book was 
 weak, the critics were strong; and Collins went to 
 Holland to avoid the storm he had raised. Never- 
 theless, he .soon returned again, and renewed the 
 attack. In 1715 appt'ared ills brief hn/uiry Con- 
 cerning IluvHin I.ihrrty, a defence of necessitarian- 
 ism. In 1724 he published his Discourse on the 
 Grounds and Iteasims if the Christian Hcllf/ion, to 
 show, that since tlie fnlfilnient of )irophecy is the 
 only valid proof of Christianity, and such " ful- 
 filment" i.s only accomplished by fraud, or .at
 
 COLLN. 
 
 513 
 
 COLOGNE. 
 
 least by unwarraiitofl liberty with the text, tliere- 
 fore Cliristiaiiity has no valiil proof. In rejily to 
 Edward Chandler (see title), he wrote Scheme of 
 Literal Prophecy considered (1727). These three 
 works, as well as his earlier. Vindication of the 
 Divine Attributes, an attenijit to show tluit we can 
 attain to a true, even if limited, knowledjje of 
 the divine attributes, and Priestcraft in Perfection 
 (1709), an attack on the clergy, were published 
 anonymously; but the authorship was really no 
 secret. See Stephen: Histori/ of Eni/lish Thour/hl. 
 2d ed., London and New York, 1881; Caiuxs: Un- 
 belief in Ihe Eighteenth Centunj (Edinburgh, 1881), 
 pp. 37-78. 
 
 COLLKI, Daniel Georg Conrad von, b. at Oer- 
 linghausen, in the principality of Lippe-Detmold, 
 Dec. 21, 1783; d. at Breslau, Feb._ 17, ls;j:5 ; 
 studied tlieology at Marburg, Tubingen, and 
 Guttingen, and was appointed professor of the- 
 ology at Marburg in 1816, and at Breslau in 1818. 
 In 1830 he published, together with his friend 
 David Schulz, Uber theologische Lehrfreihcit, 
 which called forth from Schleiermacher a Send- 
 ■schreiben, in Theol. Studien vnd Kritiken, 1831, pp. 
 1-39, also, in Schi.eif,rm.\cheu's SammtHche 
 Werke, P. 1, vol. 5, p. 007. Ctilln was a moder- 
 iite rationalist, and his treatise a warning against 
 certain orthodox formulas. In his Scndschreihen, 
 Schleiermacher said that a rationalist might use 
 orthodox formulas without any hesitation, men- 
 tally reserving his own conception; which remark 
 caused much astonishment, and was vehemeutlj' 
 attacked. Col In and Schulz also published Zirei 
 Antwortschreiben, Leipzig, 1831. Besides a num- 
 ber of articles to periodicals, and minor essays, 
 CoUn's principal work is his BMische Theoloyie, 
 Leipzig, 1836, 2 vols., of which especially the 
 Old-Testament part is highly valued. See his 
 biography by Uavid Schulz, prefaced to liis 
 Biblische Theologie. 
 
 COLLYRIDIANS, according to Epiphanius 
 (Hicres, 78), a party of enthusiastic women in 
 Arabia, who considered themselves priestesses of 
 Marv, and, on the day consecrated in her honor, 
 carried cakes (noUvpig) around in a solemn pro- 
 cession, which were presented as a sacrifice to 
 the Virgin, and then eaten in common. Epipha- 
 nius considered the whole affair as idolatry: 
 probably it arose from the Pagan harvest-feasts 
 in honor of Ceres. hekzou. 
 
 COLMAN, an Irish missionary; d. at Inishbo- 
 fin, County Mayo, Ireland, Aug. 8, G76. lie was 
 consecrated Bishop of Lindisfarne in Nortli Brit- 
 ain. 061, and in 664 held with Wilfrid (see title), 
 in the presence of King Osway, at Whitby, a pub- 
 lic debate upon the Easter controversy and other 
 points then in dispute between the Scoto-Irish 
 portion of the Christian population of Britain 
 and the Anglo-Catholic. Defeated by popular 
 vote, Colman, accompanied by all his Irish, and 
 thirty of his English monks, returned to the 
 parent Monastery of Ily, Ireland. In 668 he 
 removed to the Island of Inishbo-finne, now Inish- 
 bofin, off the west coast of Mayo. Dissensions 
 arising between his Irish and English monks, he 
 placed the latter in a new monastery at Mayo, but 
 lived himself on the island. 
 
 COLMAN, Benjamin, D.l)., b. at Boston, Oct. 
 Ifl, 1073 ; d. there Aug. 29, 1717. He was gradu- 
 ated at Harvard College 1092, ordained in Lon- 
 34- I 
 
 don, Aug. 4, 1099, as pastor of the Brattle-street 
 ('luirch, Boston, of which he was the first minis- 
 ter. He was made D.D., by the University of 
 (llasgow, 1731. lie published several volumes 
 of sermons, besides jiamphlcts and smaller writ- 
 ings. See the list in the bibliograpliical apjien- 
 dix to Dr. Dextpr's Conr/ret/ationalisin (N.Y., 
 1880), in addition, Ernngelical Sermons, Collected 
 (1707, 1722, 3 vols.), Poem on Elijah's Translation 
 (1707), Observation on Inoculation (1722), Treatise 
 on FamUij Worship (nZQ). See E. Tukkll: The 
 Life and Character of the Reverend Benjamin Col- 
 man, D.D., Boston, 1749. 
 
 COLOCNE, situated on the Rhine, and now a 
 city of about a hundred and forty thousand iu- 
 haliitants, was from very old times a place of 
 importance, and has at various times played a con- 
 spicuous part in church history. It was tlie chief 
 seat of the Ubii. When conquered by the Ro- 
 mans, it rose rapidly. Agrippina, the daughter 
 of Germanicus, and the spouse of Claudius, was 
 born there, and planted a Roman colony there : 
 hence the name of the place, Colonia A r/rippinen- 
 sis. While belonging to the Romans, it was the 
 metropolis of Germania Sccutida. 
 
 In the beginning of the fourth century the city 
 was Christian, and the scat of a liishop. In 313, 
 on occasion of the Donatistic controversies. Mar 
 ternus is mentioned as Bishop of Cologne ; and 
 in 314 his name is found under the acts of the 
 Council of Aries. But in 330 the city was taken 
 by tlie Franks, and Christianity had to labor under 
 very difficult circumstances till the conversion of 
 Clovis (496). In the hands of the Franks the 
 city was the metropolis of the Ripuarians until 
 the time of Charlemagne, when it was incor- 
 porated with the empire. Hildebald, Bisliop of 
 Cologne (784-819), was by Charlemagne made 
 archicapellanus in 794, and archbishop in 799; 
 the dioceses of Utrecht, Lifege, Bremen, Miinster, 
 Osnabriick, and Minden, forming his province. 
 The territory, however, of the new archbishop- 
 ric, underwent many modifications. In 834 it 
 lost Bremen, which was transferred to Hamburg. 
 Nevertheless the see prospered, and increased 
 both in power and wealth. Archbishop Heribert 
 (999-1021) was chancellor of the German Em- 
 pire, and received the electoral dignity. 
 
 Among the most prominent of the archbishops 
 of Cologne are Rainald of Dassel (1159-67) and 
 Conrad of Hochstaden (1238-61). Rainald was 
 a great friend of Frederic I., who conferred many 
 and large donations on the see, mostly, though, 
 of Italian estates, which soon were lost. From 
 Italy, Rainald brought to Cologne the remains of 
 the Three Holy Kings, of the martyrs Felix and 
 Nabor, of St. Apollinaris, and otlier relics which 
 added to the fame of the Church. Conrad founded 
 the cathedral in 1248, but was by the unruly citi- 
 zens compelled to remove the residence to Bonn. 
 Hermann V. (1515-48) favored the Reformation, 
 but was excommunicated and deposed. Gebhard 
 II. (1577-83) openly embraced Protestantism, but 
 was also deposed and excommunicated. For 
 nearly two centuries in succession the see was 
 occupied by Bavarian princes, who squandered 
 its wealth, neglected the discipline, and coquetted 
 with France. Joseph Clemens (1688-1723) was 
 only eighteen years old when he was enthroned. 
 Clemens August 1., who was only fifteen years
 
 COLORS IN THE BIBLE. 
 
 ni 
 
 COLORS IN THE BIBLE. 
 
 old wheu he was made Bishop of Ratisbon, was 
 Bishop of Hildesheim and of Osnabriich, and 
 Grand Master of tlie Teutonic order, at the same 
 time he was Archbisliop of Cologne. Under 
 Anton Victor, a son of the Emperor Leopold II.. 
 the archbishopric w;is secularized (ISOl) ; one part 
 of its territory falling to France, others to Nas- 
 sau, Hesse-Darmstadt, etc. 
 
 By the Congress of Vienna (1815) the territory 
 was again gathered together, and hud under the 
 Prussian crown ; and in 182i the archbishopric 
 was re-established. But the relation between the 
 Roman-Catholic archliishop at Cologne and the 
 Protestant minister of state at Berlin soon became 
 very difficult, and under Droste-Vischering (1835- 
 45) it came to a crisis. The troubles arose from 
 the mixed marriages. Droste-Vischering forbade 
 his priests to sanction any such marriage, unless 
 both parties promised that all the children should 
 lie educated in the Roman-Catholic faith ; and 
 the Prussian minister, Altenstein, answered by 
 having the archbishop arrested (1837). The case 
 ended with a compromise (1840) equally unsatis- 
 factory to both parties. 
 
 The Cathedral of Cologne — one of the most 
 famous, and also one of the finest, specimens of 
 Gothic architecture — was founded in 1'248. In 
 13:22 the choir was consecrated, and in 1437 the 
 southern tower was ready to receive its bells. 
 From that time, and up to the middle of the 
 present century, the work with the building pro- 
 ceeded very slowly : at times it stopped alto- 
 gether. But in 1842 Friederich Wilhelm IV. of 
 Prussia appointed a sum of fifty tlionsand dollars 
 a year for the completion of the structure, and a 
 building association was formed. Rich contri- 
 butions came in from everywhere in Germany ; 
 and on Oct. 1.5, 1880, the completed Catholic 
 catliedral was consecrated in the presence of the 
 Protestant Emperor, William I., and his Protes- 
 tant court, while the archbishop was absent, being 
 in e.\ile. The length of the building is four 
 hundred and eighty feet ; the breadth, two hun- 
 dred and eighty-two feet; the height of the cen- 
 tral aisle, a hundred ami fifty-four feet ; that of 
 the towers, five hundred feet. The largest of the 
 bells weighs eleven tons. 
 
 Lit. — Meiu.ng und Rkisciikut: Die Bixchiife 
 und Erzhisc)iii/'e con Ciitit, Cologne, 1843; PoD- 
 j.KCii: Gescliiclile iler Krziliocexe KiJlii, Mainz, 1870; 
 W'. MAUKKNiiRECiiKit : Die preusKisc/ie Kirchenpo- 
 lilik u. ilcn Kiilncr Kirr/ienslreil, Stuttgart, 1881. 
 
 COLORS IN THE BIBLE. Thenamesof colors 
 whirli arr iii''iitiiiii.-.l in the; Old Testament are 
 (1) W/iite, hrif/lit, /talc, ijrai/, creiwi-coloreil ; (2) Yet- 
 loa; f/reen ; (3) JieiJ, fox-coloreil, ochre-red, crimson; 
 (4) Purple, violet ; (5) IHack, hro'vii. Of the natural 
 colors noticed in the Bible we find white, black. 
 red, green, but very seldom yellow. Some colors 
 were more preferred to others. Thus white 
 dresses were the raiment of a gentlennin (as the 
 black coat in our days) ; purple, the garuK'nt of 
 the prince.s, and the sign of royal dignity. Each 
 color had its special significance. Light colors 
 were the e.'cpre.ssion of joy ; dark, that of sorrow 
 (2 Sam. i. 21; Mai. iii. "ll). White wa.s also 
 .symbolical of innocence: hence the raiment of 
 angeU (Mark xvi. 5; .John .\x. 12) and of glo- 
 rified saints (Rev. xix. 8, 14). White w;is sym- 
 boli&il of victory, iu opposition to black, which 
 
 denoted evil (Zech. vi. 2, 6). Red was sym- 
 bolical of bloodshed. But this color, of which 
 the Hebrews seem to have had a clear conception, 
 was also regarded as an element of personal 
 beautj' (comp. 1 Sam. xvi. 12; Cant. ii. 1, where 
 the lily is the red one for which Sj'ria was famed ; 
 Cant. iv. 3, vi. 7, where the complexion is com- 
 pared to the red fruit of the pomegranate ; and 
 Lam. iv. 7, where the hue of the skin is redder 
 than rubies, contrasting with the white of the 
 garments before noticed). 
 
 Looking at the artificial colors, we notice (1) 
 the purple. This color was obtained from the 
 secretion of a species of shell-fish found in various 
 parts of the Mediterranean Sea, especially on the 
 coasts of Phcenicia. Robes of this color were 
 worn by kings (Judg. viii. 2G) and by the highest 
 officers, civil and religious (comp. Esth. viii. 15; 
 Dan. V. 7, 16, 29 ; 2 Jlacc. iv. 38). Purple dresses 
 were also worn by the wealthy and luxurious 
 (Jer. X. 9; Ezek. xxvii. 7). Next to purple we 
 notice (2) scarlet. This dye was produced from 
 an insect somewhat resembling the cocliineal, 
 j w hioli is found in considerable quantities in .Arme- 
 nia and other Eastern countries. Robes of this 
 color were worn by the luxurious (2 Sam. i. 24; 
 Prov. xxxi. 21; Jer. iv. 30; Lam. iv. 5), and it 
 was also the appropriate hue of a warrior's dress, 
 from its similarity to blood (Xah. ii. 3). (3) Blue, 
 or rather violet. This dye was also procured from 
 a species of shell-fish found on the coast of Phoe- 
 nicia, and was used in the same way as purple, 
 as the color of dresses worn by the princes and 
 nobles (Ezek. xxiii. 6) ; and Bab^-lonian idols 
 were clotlied in robes of this tint (Jer. x. 9). 
 Another red color was the vermilion, a pigment 
 used in fresco-painting, either for drawing figures 
 of idols on the walls of temples (Ezek. xxiii. 
 14), or for decorating the walls and beams of 
 houses (,Ier. xxii. 14). 
 
 Si/mboticnl Sir/ni/ica»ce of the Colors. — Purple, 
 blue, scarlet, and white are the four colors of the 
 Mosaic cultus. The four were used in combina- 
 tion in the outer curtains, the veil, the entrance- 
 curtain, and the gate of the court, as also in the 
 ephod, girdle, and breastplate of the high priest. 
 The first three, viz., purple, blue, and scarlet, 
 were used in the pomegr.inates about the hem of 
 the robe of the high priest. Exclusivelj' blue 
 were the robe of the high prie-st, the lace of the 
 high priest's breastplate, the lace on his mitre, 
 and the fifty loops of the curtains. Exclusively 
 white were the breeches and mitre of the high 
 priest. The cloths for wrapping the sacred ves- 
 sels were either bliu-, scarlet, or purple. White 
 were also tin' clothes of the lower priests. Added 
 to this th(^ bine ribbon and the fringe of the 
 Hebrew dress, we perceive at once the use and 
 application of the colors used in the Hebrew 
 service. The red is only used once (Exod. xxvi. 
 14). Black is excluded everywhere, as well as 
 yellow and green; which is significant. That 
 purple, blue, scarlet, and white were used only 
 is not merely aceiilental, but rather the outgrowth 
 of tlie consciousness of their significance. The 
 reason for the use of the white to the total ex- 
 clusion of the black is ea.sy to perceive. Bl.ack, 
 as it ab.sorbs all colors, and thus buries the light, 
 is the symbol of death, and of every thing that 
 tends towards death. But life, light, holiness, and
 
 COLORS IN THE BIBLE. 
 
 515 
 
 COLUMBA. 
 
 joy, on the one hand, and cessation, death, dark- 
 ness, malice, q,nd sorrow, on the other hand, are 
 biblical contrasts, of which wliite and black are 
 the repre.sentative.s of this twofold series of oppo- 
 sites. White, however, reflects the linht; hence 
 it symbolizes purity and victory. Whilst the 
 third riderof the Apocalypse sits on a black liorse, 
 bringiiic: with him famine, and with it di'ath ( Hev. 
 vi. .'5), the Persian liorses in the eiijlith vision of 
 Zechariah are white, because no worldly power 
 had ever sliown .a more noble disposition towards 
 I.sr.ael than the dynasty of the Acha'menidi's, 
 which set the exiles free, and promoted, the build- 
 ing of the temple. 'I'lie first of the four .apoca- 
 lyptic riders has a white liorse; for he went 
 forth to conquer. The " Ancient of days," i.e., 
 the Ever-living (Dan. vii. 9), appears in a gar- 
 ment white as snow : even the hair of his head 
 is like the pure w'ool. And thus, likewise, the 
 glorified Christ (Rev. i. 14). Even the throne of 
 God which Ezekiel saw is white. White de- 
 notes the victory and triumph of tlie light : 
 hence we understand why the garments of the 
 priests were white. Even the high priest wore 
 the so-called golden robes over the white ones; 
 and in the temple which Ezekiel saw in his vision 
 the priests w'ore white garments only. The robes 
 of the priests are, according to their natural color, 
 white, a.s the angels and blessed appeared to tlie 
 seers, and as the garments of Jesus became white, 
 whilst on the mount of transfiguration, " like the 
 light." White is the color of the light; and what 
 the light is to the luitural world God is above 
 all, and to every creature. lie is light, and gives 
 light, or he is holy, i.e., holy love. Suppose that 
 the colors in the garments of the priests have ref- 
 erence to their office, viz., to act as the medium 
 between God and his congregation, it will be 
 their duty to go before the people in holiness and 
 purity. 
 
 Connected with white is its opposite, the fox- 
 color of the scaiiel. as the emblem of fire. The 
 red horses in the first vision of Zechariah bring 
 about bloody war; and the fox-colored, a consum- 
 ing fire. But light and fire are opposites accord- 
 ing to the ethical idea of Holy \Vrit; viz., the 
 light is the symbol of communicating love, the 
 fire, that of consuming anger. When Isaiah de- 
 scribes the sins of his people, he speaks of them 
 as lieing red like scarlet, not like purple. The 
 scarlet along with the white in the high priest's 
 garment means, therefore, to say that he is not 
 only the servant of the God of love, but also 
 of the God of anger. As to the purple and blue, 
 which are always connected, be it along with 
 white and scarlet, or between, as they are only 
 two kinds of one and the same purple color, which 
 again is not a natural but an artificial color, 
 consisting of red and vioh't. they refer to a two- 
 fold attribute of the royal King. — the purple to 
 tlie majesty of God in his glory, and the blue to 
 God's majesty in his condescension. The purple 
 of the garments of tlie high priest denotes, there- 
 fore, that he is a servant of that God of whom 
 the song at the Red Sea says, '' The Lord will 
 reign for ever and ever" (Exod. xv. IS) ; and the 
 song of Moses, " And he was king in Jeshurun " 
 (Deut. xxxiii. 5). The red color of the red 
 lieifer, whose ashes, mixed witli water, were to 
 be used in purification of the unclean, had also 
 
 a symbolical signification, lied is the color of 
 blood, which, again, is the life. The animal 
 intended as antidote against uncleanness through 
 contact with a dea<l body was to be without bh'm- 
 ish, and upon which never came yoke, and thus 
 represented in its color a picture of fresh and 
 vigorous life. Maybe that tlie colors of the twelve 
 precious stones which were on the breastplate of 
 the high priest had a .symbolical significance as 
 to their relation to tlie twelve tribes whose names 
 were engraved on them (Exod. xxviii. 17-21). 
 This, at least, may be derived from Jewish tra- 
 dition. [Compare the art. Far/jin (Vm'^. "colors") 
 in the Bilile dictionaries of .Smith, Winer, Ham- 
 burger, Riehm, and Scheiikel. See also Bahk: 
 S)/inl)olik ties monaisclii-ii Cullux, Heidelberg, 1837- 
 39, I. pp. 303 sq.]. DKI.ITZ.SCH CB. PICK). 
 
 COLOSS/E. This Phrygian city was situated 
 upon till- Eyrus, a branch of the M;eander, twelve 
 miles above Eaodic;ea. In ancient days it was 
 an important place, standing as it did on the line 
 of travel from Eastern to Western Asia: but 
 after the time of Cyrus it declined ; so that wlien 
 Paul wrote his epistle it was a small town, and 
 is now extinct. Liglitfoot says it "was without 
 doubt the least important church to whicli any 
 Epistle of Paul was addressed. Xot a single 
 event in Christian history is connected with its 
 name ; and its very existence is only rescued 
 from oblivion, when, at long intervals, some bishop 
 of Colossaj attaches his signature to the decree 
 of an ecclesiastical synod." The variation in the 
 spelling of the name is an indication of the insig- 
 nificance of the place. Should it be Colossa>, or 
 ColassiB ? The Codex Sinailicus gives K.o?.ocaaL in 
 the title, and, i. 2, KoAoaaatli , but, in the headings 
 of the pages and the subscription, Ko/.aaaatic. The 
 former .spelling is found upon coins and in classi- 
 cal authors, and seems to be the correct, the latter 
 the vulgar, form. 
 
 The church at Colossfe was not founded by 
 Paul, but probably by Epaphras, during Paul's 
 three-years' sojourn at Ephesus (A.D. 54-57). 
 
 COLOSSIANS, Epistle to. See P.wl. 
 
 COLUMBA, St., or Columbkille ; b. at Gartan, 
 County Donegal, 7tli December, 5'21 ; d. at lona, 
 Whitsunday. 9th June, 597. Like many of the 
 Celtic saints, he was of princely descent; and this, 
 no doubt, contributed to his influence, and per- 
 haps to the blemishes, as well as to the virtues, of 
 his character. He was educated in part under St. 
 Finnian of Moville, and in part under St. Finnian 
 of Clonard, from whose school so many noble 
 missionaries sprang. He early gave himself to 
 mission-work in his native country, and, previous 
 to his departure from it, had founded many reli- 
 gious houses — monasteries in form. Christian 
 colonies in reality — in the midst of a still bar- 
 barous people. The chief of these were Derry, 
 founded in 545, and Durrow. erected in .553. The 
 cause usually assigned for his expatriation from 
 Ireland is the part he took in a great contest in 
 vindication of the right of sanctuary in his mon- 
 asteries, and stirring up war against the king 
 who had violated it. For this he is said to have 
 been excommunicated, and to have been enjoined 
 as a penance, or to have voluntarily consented, to 
 go into exile, that he might gain for Christ as 
 many from among the Pagans as he had occa. 
 sioued the loss of among the Christians of Ireland.
 
 COLUMBA. 
 
 516 
 
 COLUMBA. 
 
 But he was thoroughly actuated by the missionary 
 spirit, then so characteristic of his countrymen; 
 and his expatriation is more likely to have been 
 prompted by this, and desire to sustain and pro- 
 mote the cause of Christianity in Alban. which 
 seemed to be threatened by the misfortunes of 
 the Dalriad Scots under his relative, King Conal. 
 With twelve like-minded companions, he sailed 
 from Derry in 503. in a currach, or skiff, of wicker- 
 work covered with hides ; and touching first at 
 Colonsay, and then, according to some, at the 
 ■chief fort of his relative on the mainland, he 
 passed on to the little island since made famous 
 by his residence and labors, — the Island of Hy, 
 loua, or, as Dr. Reeves says it should be written, 
 lova. (See Iona.) Bede says that this island 
 was presented to him by the Picts : but the Irish 
 annalists claim the credit of the gift for his rela- 
 tive, the king of the Dalriad Scots. Probably the 
 concurrence of both was sought for the greater 
 security of the infant establishment as a home for 
 himself and his companions, a centre of mission- 
 ary work among surrounding Pagans, and a shelter 
 for such converts as might desire to lead a more 
 thorough Christian life than they could among 
 their Pagan relatives. After erecting a humble 
 monastery, according to the custom of his country, 
 he set himself to gain for Christ the nearer Pictish 
 tribes. Having met with sonu; success among 
 these, he next essayed to visit Briide, the king of 
 the whole nation, in his fort by the Ness, to make 
 known the truth to him. We maj- dismiss as 
 legendary the details of his biographer as to the 
 miracles he wrought to secure access to the reluc- 
 tant king, believing, with Bede, that it was his 
 teaching and holy life that ultimately gained for 
 him the hearts of the king and the nation ; and 
 liolding that the real miracle needed was his 
 steadfast faith in the Master he served, and un- 
 wearying devotion to that Master's work. In his 
 fir.st visits he maj' have addressed the Picts through 
 an interpreter; and he liad among his companions 
 at least two of Iro-Pictish descent, Comghall and 
 Cainnpch, who would be able as well as accepta- 
 ble interpreters to the chiefs of this nation. 
 But the Pictish dialect was so nearly allie<l to his 
 own, that he could have no difficulty in acquiring 
 it. With the aid of his companions lie strength- 
 •ened and oonfirmcii the Christian Scots, and ulti- 
 mately won over to the Christian faith the Picts 
 of the North, as well as the tribes on the banks 
 of the Tay, and i-ven the inhabitants of Fife, once 
 partially evangi'lizi'd by .St. Niniaii. lie founded 
 among them, ajiil in the islands of the West and 
 North, religious liouses. — littli- Christian colo- 
 nies. — all in subordination to the mothcr-hou.se 
 of Iona, and under his own direction. His reli- 
 gious establishments in Ireland also continued 
 under his guidance, and were occasionally visited 
 by liini. One visit he paiil to Ireland in the year 
 57.") was especially noteworthy, as he took with 
 liim .'Milan, wliojn he had inauginaled as successor 
 to Conal iu the kingdom of the .\rgyllsliire Scots, 
 and secured his more entire independence of Ire- 
 land. The evening of liis ilays was pa.ssed in 
 his island home, and the closing scene was par- 
 ticularly touching. The day before lie died, 
 ascending the hill which overhioked the nu)nas- 
 tery and its little farm, he stood surveying it for 
 some time, and, lifting up but h his hands, bestowed 
 
 on it his parting blessing. Returning to his hut, 
 he resumed his daily task in transcribing the 
 Psalter, and proceeded to the place where it is 
 written, '• They that seek the Lord shall not lack 
 any good thing." '• Here," he said at the close of 
 the page, " I must stop : what follows let Baithene 
 write;" indicating him apparently as his succes- 
 sor. After some time he lay down to rest ; but, 
 when the bell for matins rang, he hastened to 
 the church, and, ere the brethren could join him, 
 he had fainted before the altar. Unable to speak, 
 he made a feeble effort once more to raise his right 
 hand to bless them, and, with joy beaming in his 
 face, passed to his rest and rew ard. 
 
 Coluniba was "of lofty stature and noble bear- 
 ing. He could express himself with ease and 
 gracefulness, and had a clear, commanding voice." 
 •■ He w as a man of quick perception and gi-eat 
 force of character,— one of those masterful minds 
 which mould and sway others by mere force of 
 contact." His faith in its essence was tliat of 
 the church of his day, though by his isolation he 
 may have been jireserved from some of the errors 
 which were already creeping in elsewhere. He 
 had an intense love for the word of God, and 
 spent much time in reading, studying, and copying 
 it. He gave much time also to prayer, and to 
 the guiding of the communities w hich put them- 
 selves under his care, endeavoring to train them 
 in useful arts as well as in Christian knowledge. 
 At times he failed to curb an imperious temper, 
 and inspired with awe, not only his enemies, but 
 his votaries, as if his motto were that afterwards 
 appropriated by his adojited country, — " Netno me 
 impunc ktcessit." But all in all his character was 
 a singularly noble one, and he deserves to be held 
 in lasting remembrance as the Apostle of Caledo- 
 nia. Twenty-four churches or other religious 
 foundations are said by Dr. Reeves to have been 
 dedicated to him in Pictland, and thirty-two in 
 other parts of Scotland, and thirty-seven in 
 Ii'eland. Three Latin hymns of considerable 
 beauty are attributed to him; and in the an- 
 cient Irish Liher IJi/miioni>ii, in which they are 
 preserved, there is also a preface to each, describ- 
 ing the occasion on which it was composed. 
 Some Irish poems have also been ascribed to 
 him, but apparently without .so satisfactory evi- 
 dence, though tliey are undoubtedly ancient. 
 
 Lit. — 'J'lic Life of Si. CuIuiiiIhi, Founiler of 
 Uji, written by Adamnan, ninth abbot of that 
 IVhmastery, etc., with Notes and Dissert;itions by 
 William "Reeves, D.D., M.R.I.A, Dublin, -Ito, 
 18.')7. New edition of above, with English 
 translation, and re-arrangement of notes by 
 W. 1". .Skene, being Vol.A'L of "The Historians 
 of Scotland. Edin., 1871, 8vo. 7V«' /,//'" of St. 
 Columhd, lilt' Ajioslle and Patron Saint if the An- 
 cient l^iiix and .Sco/.s etc., by Joiin Smith, D.I)., 
 Edin., 1708. Act<t ilirema S. Ciihunliiv Ahliati.i, in 
 Colgan's "Trias Thaumatnrga Lovanii." I(i4.j-17, 
 fol. Life, in Pinkerton's "Vita; Antiqua: Sancto- 
 rum," 1789, 8vo. Life, in Montalc'mt>ert's " Les 
 Moines d'Occident,"' Vol. HI., pp. !)9, . . . 332, 
 Paris, 1800-77, 8vo. Notices in Skene's "Celtic 
 Church," M'Lacldan's, Lanigan's, Neander's 
 histories, Greith's "Geschichte der altirischeu 
 Kirclie " (Freiburg, 18(i7), and Ebrard's " Dii^ iro- 
 schottische Missionsl^irciie der6.,7..u. 8., .lahrh." 
 ((iule.riiloh, 1873.) .\1,K.\. F. MITCIIKLI..
 
 COLUMBANUS. 
 
 >17 
 
 COMENIUS. 
 
 COLUMBANUS, b. in Leinster, Iroland, about 
 5J:i ; il. in l>ol>liio, Glo ; was odiicatfid at I'angoi- ; 
 went about !'>'.)'>, with twelve brotlier-nionks, to 
 France, and settled in the wilderness of the 
 Vosges, where, on the ruins of the Castle of Anne- 
 gray, lie founded a monastery after the Irish 
 model ; that is, a school at once for ascetic devo- 
 tion and sacred learning. The undertaking was 
 eminently successful. Similar estalilishments 
 arose at Luxeuil, Fontaine, Resan<,-on, etc.. an<l 
 in the next generation all the most prominent 
 members of the clergy of Gaul had been educat- 
 ed in Columban"s schools. But the success en- 
 gendered jealousy. Brunhilde, the grandmother 
 o. King Theodoric, was afraid of tlie influence of 
 the austere monk, and used the discrepancies be- 
 tween him and the Frankish Church with respect 
 to the computation of Easter, the tonsure, the 
 monastical organization, etc., so cunningly, that a 
 synod condenmed him, and banished him from 
 the country. He found refuge with Chlotar of 
 Neustria, and afterwards went to Austrasia, where 
 King Theodebert also received him well. He 
 settled on the shore of the Lake of Constance, at 
 Bregenz, where he took possession of an aban- 
 doned church, and enjoyed the support of the 
 bishop. But in 012 Theodebert was defeated by 
 Theodoric, and his dominions were conquered, 
 and incorporated \\ith the realm of the Salian 
 Franks. Columban once more was homeless. 
 He went to Italy, and obtained the protection of 
 Agilulf, King of the Lombards. On the Trebia, 
 south of Pavia, he founded a new monastery, 
 Bobbio, which soon became a prominent centre of 
 learning and studj'. There he died, according to 
 general acceptation, on Nov. 1.5; according to 
 Marlyrol. Rom., on XI. Cat. Decumh., according 
 to the biography by Jonas, on //. Cal. IJcccmb. 
 
 As a pupil of Bangor, and son of the old Irish 
 church commuMit\', Columban occupied a very 
 peculiar position with respect to Rome and the 
 Pope. He deviated from the Roman Church in 
 many points of rites, liturgy, and government ; 
 and, though he acknowledged Rome as the me- 
 tropolis of the Church, the idea of a papal primacy 
 was entirely foreign to him. In 602 he addressed 
 a letter to Gregory I. to defend his computation 
 of Easter; but he received no answer. Two more 
 letters, one to Boniface III., after the condennia- 
 tion of the Gallic .synod, and one to Boniface IV., 
 in the controver.sy of the Three Chapters, had 
 the same fate. But in spite of their small effect, 
 the general tone of these letters shows the inde- 
 pendence of the writer. More difficult to decide 
 is the point of difference between the Roman and 
 the Iro-Scottish Church with respect to monasti- 
 cal organization and rules. Two documents, both 
 referring to the subject, but of a very different 
 character, are still extant, — the Retjula Cnhimbani 
 and the Reijulii Caniihialh Fralrum tie Ifihernia. 
 The former is a thoroughly biblical direction 
 towards a Christian life in evangelical fi-eedom : 
 the latter orders that he who neglects to make 
 the sign of the cross over the spoon before eat- 
 ing shall be punished by a sound whipping; 
 that he who speaks to a layman shall be punislied 
 by singing a number of hymns, etc. But while 
 the character of the Hfr/ula Culumbani corresponds 
 very closely with that of Columban's sermons, 
 which are genuine, the Liber Poenilenlialis Colum- 
 
 bnni, which coiTesponds to the Reyula Ccnnobialis, 
 is evidently spurious. 
 
 Lit. — The works of Columban were edited 
 by Fleming, Louvain, ICdT ; his Rec/ula is found 
 in Coil, licf/., I. 10(i, ed. liolsten Brockie; his 
 Ijiography liy Jonas, in /Ic/. Sajicl. Ord. S. lien., 
 II. ;!. See EiiRAitr): Die. Irofcliolllxclic Missions- 
 /cin-lir. AUG. WEltNEK. 
 
 COLOMBIA, United States of, contain, accord- 
 ing to the census of bS71 (not so very ndiable), 
 2,010, :52!) inhabitants, besides about a hundred 
 thousand Indians living in a state of savagery. 
 The religion of the State is Roman-Catholic. 
 The Church is governed by the Archbishop of 
 I?ogotd and the Bishops of Popayan. Cartagena. 
 Santa Marta, Antioquia, Panamd, and Pamplona. 
 The number of priests, however, is insufficient. 
 In 18.51 there were thirty-two monastic establish- 
 ments, with six hundred and ninety-seven in- 
 mates ; but the number is decreasing. For tlie 
 education of the clergy a theological faculty and 
 four seminaries are provided ; but the provision 
 is inadequate, and the moral influence of the 
 clergy on the population is said to be small. 
 Since 1851 other denorainations have the liberty 
 of public worship: but ihi Protestants of Bogota 
 liave no church, and form no congiegation ; they 
 have only a separate cemetery. The Christiani- 
 zation of the Indians is still one of the great 
 problems of the government. G. FLIT"'. 
 
 COMBEFIS, FranQois, b. at Marmade, in the 
 department of Lot-et-Garonne, 160.5; d. in Paris, 
 March 23, 1679 ; entered the Dominican order in 
 1624 ; taught theology and philosophy in several 
 of the schools of the order, but retired, and de- 
 voted himself exclusively to the restitution of the 
 texts of the works of the Fathers, for which pur- 
 pose he was pensioned by the French clergy. 
 His principal works are Graco-Lalitice Palrum 
 Bihliolliecce Novum A aclunrium, Paris, 1648, 2 vols, 
 fob, which work displeased the papal court on 
 account of the openness with which tlie Monothe- 
 letic controversy was represented; Bibliolheca Pa- 
 trum, Paris, 1662, 8 vols, in fob reprinted 1747; 
 a complete edition of the works of Basil the 
 Great. 1679, 2 vols. ; the works and fragments of 
 Amphilochus, Methodius, Andreas of Creta, St. 
 Maxinius. etc. 
 
 COMENIUS, Latinized form of Komensky, 
 Johann Amos, the last bishop of the Church of 
 the Bohemian Brethren ; b. at Niwnitz. Moravia. 
 July 28, 1592 ; d. in Amsterdam, in November. 
 1670. After studying theology at Herborn and 
 Heidelberg, he eiitered the ministry, and had 
 charge, first of the parish of Prerau, afterw'ards 
 of tiiat of Fulnek. In 1624 he and his co- 
 religionists were expelled from Bohemia, and 
 in 1627 he settled at Lissa in Poland. Driven 
 away, also, from this place, in 1654, he finally 
 settled in Amsterdam. As a preacher, and leader 
 of the Church, he enjoyed a great reputation ; and 
 his Ltibi/rintli der Welt und Parodies de.'i Hcrzcns 
 and Unum Neces.iarium belong to the best which 
 the Church of the Bohemian Brethren produced. 
 But his greatest fame he attained as a peda- 
 gogue. His Gevfliiele S/traclienlur and Orbis 
 Pictu.'i were tran-^ilated into all European lan- 
 guages ; the former even into Persian and Arabic, 
 and reprinted over and over again for two cen- 
 turies. He was specially invited to England (by
 
 COMMENDA. 
 
 518 
 
 COMMODUS. 
 
 Parliament, 1642), Transylvania (by Rakoezy, 
 1650), Sweden, etc.. to examine and reform the 
 whole educational department; and many of the 
 ideas of Rousseau and Pestalozzi may be found 
 in his writings in fully develojied form. [He 
 was even invited, through Governor Winthrop, 
 to succeed Henry Dunster as president of Har- 
 vard College. See Cotton M.^thei'.'.s Mtignalia, 
 4th book, pt. 1, § 5, ed. Hartford, 1853, vol. ii. 
 p. 14. For biographies, see Criegern : Johann 
 Amos Comenius, als Tiieoloy, Leipzig, 1881 ; 
 Laurie : The Life and Educational Works of 
 Comrnius, London, 1881.] PAUL KLEINERT. 
 
 COMMENDA, or in coinmendam, from the Latin 
 rommendare, "to intrust;" a term .applied when 
 the administration of an ecclesiastical office and 
 the enjoyment of its revenues are, for some rea- 
 son, temporarily intrusted to a person already 
 holding another ecclesiastical officii. As the 
 canon law forbade the accumulation of offices, 
 the way in which tlie popes evaded the law, and 
 indulged their nepotism and favoritism, was to 
 give offices in cominendain, but for lifetime ; and 
 so general became this irregularity, that tlie 
 Council of Trent felt unable to cope with the 
 evil, and confined itself to making some restric- 
 tions. 
 
 COMMERCE AMONG THE HEBREWS. The 
 ancient Hebrews, whose descendants became tlie 
 commercial people of the globe, were not origi- 
 nally predestinated for commerce and traffic on 
 account of their theocratic position, although 
 Palestine possessed all the conditions for com- 
 mercial enterprises. The many enactments for- 
 bidding the intercourse with Gentiles, rather 
 tended to impress the belief that commerce was 
 ill becoming a theocratic people; which was not 
 the case witli agriculture, on account of the 
 many religious duties connected with it. On the 
 whole, foreign trade was, indeed, contemplated 
 by the law, and strict rules for morality in com- 
 mercial dealings were laid down by it (Deut. 
 xxviii. 12, XXV. 1.3-16; Lev. xix. 35, 3(i) ; and 
 the tribes near the sea and the Phcenician terri- 
 tory appe.ar to have engaged, to some extent, in 
 maritime affairs (Gen. xlix. 13; Deut. xxxiii. 
 18; .Judg. V. 17); but the spirit of tlie law was 
 more in favor of agriculture, and against foreign 
 trade (Deut. xvii. 10, 17; Lev. xxv.). .\s the 
 country was rich in produce, the possibility for 
 ai] exi>ort trade was given (Deut. xxviii. 12) ; 
 and we know tliat Phcenicia was supplied from 
 Judiea with wheat, honey, oil, and balm (1 Kings 
 v. 11; Ezek. xxvii. 17"; Acts xii. 21)). Until 
 the time of Solomon, the Hebrew nation may be 
 said to liave had no foreign trade. The earliest 
 cont.acl of the Hebrew.s with foreign trading 
 nations was in the time of tin- patriarchs. Witli 
 the exception of the Ishmaelites. or Midianitcs, 
 wlio, on account of their desciMit from Islimael, 
 were related with the Hebrews, all trading 
 nations mentioned in Scripture were mostly 
 llamites, modified, iierhajis, .somewhat througli 
 .Semitic elements. I'romineiit among these ii.a- 
 (ions were especially the I'ho'iiiciaiis (comp. Isa. 
 xxiii. ; Lzek. xxvii. 17 ; Joel iii. l m\.). During 
 the reign of Solomon the peojile of Israel h.id an 
 active part in tin; ti;ide of tln^ woild, mainly 
 rupresent^'d by the king him.self. Against the 
 prohibition of the law (Deut. xvii. 16), lie im- 
 
 ported from Egypt liorses for himself and other 
 
 kings. Ships were built for him in Eziongeber. 
 which, with Hiram's ships, used to sail into the 
 Indian Ocean, and every three years brought 
 back gold, silver, ivory, etc. (1 Kings ix. 26, x. 
 11; 2 Chron. viii. 17, ix. 10). After Solomon's 
 death the maritime trade declined, and an at- 
 tempt made by Jehoshaphat to revive it proved 
 unsuccessful (1 Kings xxii. 48, 40). After the 
 exile the places of public market were chiefly 
 the open spaces near the g.ates, to which goods 
 were brought for sale by those who came from 
 the outside ; and the traders in later times were 
 allowed to intrude into the temple, in the outer 
 courts of which, victims were publicly sold for 
 the sacrifices (Zech. xiv. 21 ; >Iatt. xxi. 12; John 
 ii. 14). Under the ^Maccabees, Joppa was forti- 
 fied (l Mace. xiv. 34), and Herod the Gre.at 
 made C'a5sarea a port. Hut all trade was mainly 
 in the hands of the Greeks; and t!ie .Tews did not 
 care much for it, as long as they lived in the land 
 of their fathers, and could devote themselves to 
 agriculture. Pharisaic separatism from the un- 
 circuincised, it is true, quenched the spirit of 
 traffic ; although the prophets Hosea (xii. 7), 
 Amos (ii. 6, viii. 5 sq.), INIicah (vi. lU sq.) had 
 greatly to complain against injustice and unf.air- 
 ness in dealing. Their present position in the 
 commercial world, the Hebrews owe in part to 
 their exile among other nations, in part to the 
 position which they occupy among such nations, 
 which excluded them from political rights. Comp. 
 Herzi'Eld Gexcliiclilc dcs Hanilels bei den Juden 
 im Allerllium, Braunschweig, 1879 [the arts. Com- 
 vierce, in Kitto's Cyrlop. and in Smith's Diet. 
 vf the Bihli~\. LKYRER. 
 
 COMMINATION (threaten in<i) SERVICE is an 
 addition to the usual service on Ash- Wednesday 
 in the Church of Kngland, so called from the 
 opening address, or exhortation to repentance, 
 which contained a list of God's curses against 
 sin. It was a substitute introduced by the Re- 
 formers for the sjirinkling of ashes on Ash- 
 Wednesday. 
 
 COMMODIANUS, b. at Gaza in Syria, and edu- 
 cated in Paganism; was by the reading of the 
 lUble led to Christianity, and stands in the his- 
 tory of the Churcli as one of lierfiist Latin poets. 
 Two of his works are still extant, — Itmtnictiones, 
 consisting of eiglity acrostics of partly apolo- 
 getic and polemical contents, partly parenetical, 
 written in the third decade of tlie tliird century, 
 first edited by KuiAi.rii's, Toiil, lO.'X), last by 
 OEni.EU, in (;ei!M)i)I!1''s liililiolh. /'air. 7w-c/(.<. Lat., 
 XIII., Leipzig. 1817; and Carnun A/ioloi/cticiim, 
 consisting of ten hundred and fifty-three verses, 
 written in 24!J, first edited by PiiRA,in the .Syjiti- 
 lei/. Solenmcnsc. Paris, 18.52, '!". I., last by KiixscH, 
 ill Zeit.tchrifl f. il. hialor. Thro/of/ie, XLlI., 1872. 
 In both iioeins the author shows liiniself to be 
 addicted to Chiliasm and Patri|ia.ssianism. In 
 formal res]iect it is noticeable that he models his 
 verses, not on the principle of ijuantity, but on 
 the jirinciple of accent. A new edition has been 
 given by VA. Ludwig, Lei[izig, 1877. KHEUT. 
 
 COMMODUS, Koman enqieror from 180 to 
 l;i2; sui-ccimIimI his father, Marcus Aurelins, but 
 resembled him very little. Not from any just 
 apiireciation of Christianity, but from utter in- 
 difference to all religion, he left tue Christians
 
 COMMON. 
 
 619 
 
 COMPOSTELLA. 
 
 at peace. Accordiiie: (o I'io Cas.sius (72, 4) it 
 was liis cniiciil)iii(! M:irci:i, wlio, tlioii},'li not a 
 Cliristiaii herself, induoiMl liiiii to stop tlie ])erse- 
 cutioiis. Ireiia-us ."iuys (Adv. liter., 4, .'!()) that 
 Christians held position.s, even in the imperial 
 palace. As the laws against the Christians still 
 existed, instances of martyrdom continued to 
 occur. Thus the senator Appollonius was decapi- 
 tated. IIEKZOU. 
 
 COMMON LIFE, BRETHREN OF. See ]'.ui;tii- 
 i!KN (IK Tnr, CoMMiix ]^im:. 
 
 COMMON PRArER. See Litukgiks. 
 
 COMMUNICATIO IDIOMATUM, a dogmatical 
 term, referring to the relalion between tlie divine 
 and tlie human nature as united in the one per- 
 son of Christ. While the ancient church, during 
 the Nestorian, ^lonophysitic, and IMonntheletic 
 controversies, confined itself to sim)ily asserting 
 the fact of the personal union of the two natures, 
 the Lutheran theologians, in tlie dogmatic inter- 
 est of their doctrim^ of the eucharistic presence, 
 undertook to expound its internal relations, which 
 resulted in the doctrine of an actual transfer of 
 attributes or properties of tlie one nature to the 
 other. There are logically (on the basis of the 
 Chalcedonian dyophysitism) four possible kinds 
 of this interchange of attriliutes, — (1) The com- 
 munication of attributes of one nature to the 
 whole person {(jcntis idimndlinim) ; (2) The execu- 
 tion of personal acts and functions by one of the 
 two natures (i/cnusfij>ofelesmaticuni), (3) The trans- 
 fer of divine attributes to the human nature 
 ((/enus majeslatlciuii) ; (4) The transfer of human 
 attributes to the divine nature (tjenus kennticum 
 or tupeinolicum). Tlie first three were adopted 
 and taught by the Formula of Concord (1577) 
 and the scholastic Lutherans of the seventeenth 
 century. The fourth was rejected on the ground 
 of the unchangeableness of tlie divine nature, but 
 has been adopted by the modern Kenoticists, as 
 Thomasius, Gess, and others. The whole theory 
 is very artificial. The Reformed and Anglican 
 churches rejected the third kind as destructive 
 of the necessary limitations of the human nature 
 of Christ, to which the Lutherans ascribed om 
 nipotence. omnipresence, and omniscience, even 
 in the state of his humiliation. The most recent 
 work on the subject is IIkkmann Schulz: Die 
 Lehrc foil fh'rGoilhcil ( '/iri.ili. Ciimiiiuiiicalio Jilioma- 
 /i(m, Gotha, 188L There is also a long article on this 
 title by Schenkel, in Ilerzog, ed. L,and one by H. 
 Frank, in Herzog, cd. IL See art. Christology. 
 
 COMMUNION. See LoHii's Supper. 
 
 COMMUNION OF THE DEAD. See Dead, 
 
 COMMIXION OF. 
 
 COMMUNION OF SAINTS, a dogmatic ex- 
 pression in the third article of the .\postle.s' 
 Creed: "I believe iu the Holy [Catholic] Church, 
 the communion of saints." Iu the creeds in the 
 GreekC'hnrch the phrase is not found. We find 
 it in the \\'est, for the first time, in Faustus, I?isho]) 
 of Reji, Southern Gaul, about 45.5; also in the 
 church at Aquileja, iu Rufinns' Kxponilin .Si/mholi, 
 where it is exjilaini'd of the Christian Church, 
 made up, from the beginning, of the saints. The 
 words express the coniiiion Christian idea that in 
 the Church one enjoys the society of the saints, 
 shares in their divine gifts, and looks forward to 
 the final blessedness. Hence in the creed, closely 
 linked with such communion, are the ideas of the 
 
 forgiveness of sins, and eternal life; for in the 
 communion of the Church one attains to these 
 things. 'J'he Roman-Catholic Church expresses 
 the development of lier ideas of the saints, and 
 of cfuunumion with them, in the explanation 
 given in the Roman Catechism of the jihrase, — 
 Communion is in the sacraments and other gr.a- 
 cious gifts to the Church, and in the fellowship 
 of her members with one another. Tlie commun- 
 ion of saints is therefore only in the Roman- 
 Catholic Church. Distinction is made between 
 the faithful upon the earth, the saints in heaven, 
 and the souls iu purgatory : yet are these classes 
 one; .so that the saints' prayers avail for those on 
 earth, while ]irayers, masses, and good works help. 
 
 Th(^ churches of the Reformation rejected these 
 ideas. Luther declared the Church was the body 
 of believers, who by faith were saints: hence 
 the ]ihrase was exegetical of the "Holy Church." 
 So, also, the Reformed Church at first in its 
 .syml)ols, the First Helvetic, and the Scotch Con- 
 fession of 1500. Calvin, liowever, did not accept 
 the phrase in this way, but ratheras a description 
 of a peculiarity of tlie Church; for he says (Bk. 
 IV., chap, i., § .3), "It excellently expresses the 
 character of the Church ; as though it had been 
 said that the saints are united in the fellowship 
 of Christ oil this condition that whatever benefits 
 God bestows upon them they should mutuallv 
 communicate to each other." He is followed in 
 the Genevan and Heidelberg Catechisms, and in 
 the Westminster Confession. J. kostlin. 
 
 COMMUNISM means the abolition of personal 
 property, or the surrender of all individual rights 
 in property to the community, which acts as the 
 proprietor proper in all relations, both to other 
 communities and to its own memliers. Whether 
 the communistic character of the primitive 
 Church of Jerusalem (.\cts ii. 44, 45) was the 
 result of incidental circumstances, or whether 
 there is in Christianity an innate tendency to- 
 wards communism, has been a much debated 
 question, differently answered, for instance, by 
 the Church of England and the Moravian .Soci- 
 ety. But none, except sectarian fanatics such as 
 Thomas Miinzer, have ever held that communism 
 was an essential element of Christian life (conip. 
 Lamennais). Whenever communism has been 
 practised by small communities, and as an ap- 
 pendi.x to, or natural consequence of, a religious 
 principle, it has proved successful. The history 
 of mon.asticism gives ample illustrations; lay- 
 societies also, as, for instance, the Beghards. But 
 preached or practised simply as a principle of 
 national economy, as the ou\y means to reconcile 
 the niillionnaire and the jiroletaire, it has always 
 ended in foolishness and failure. See Revb.\ud: 
 Hifnniialcura Moilenis, Paris, 184o; Suduk: //«- 
 Idirc (Iu CoiHiinini.wi, Paris, 1850; Nokdiioff: 
 Coiiimuni.itic .Societies of lite United JStatc.i, New 
 York, 1874. See Socialism. 
 
 GOMPETENTES. See Catfciiktics. 
 
 COMPLINE, or COMPLETINUM, or COM- 
 PLETORIUM, tlie last of the canonical hours 
 forcuninion prayT, celebrated respectively at the 
 first, third, si.xth, ninth, eleventh, and twelfth 
 hour of the day. See Order of Compline iiccord- 
 inij to the Jllustrious (_'liurch of Saruvi, London, 
 1881. See Canoxicai. Horits, 
 
 COMPOSTELLA, The Order of the Knights of
 
 COMPTON. 
 
 520 
 
 COMTE. 
 
 San lago de. According to a Spanish tradition, 
 the apostle James the Elder, son of Zebedee 
 (Acts xii. 2), who was beheaded in Jerusalem 
 (44), came to Spain, and suffered martyrdom 
 there. The place of his suffering was called ad 
 Sanctum Jacabum Ajjoslolum, or Giacoino Poxtolo : 
 hence Corapostella. The legend is first recorded 
 in the ninth century by Walafried Strabo, in his 
 Poema tie 12 Apostolis: and, though the Bolland- 
 ists still maintain it, it has been abandoned even 
 by Roman-Catholic writers, as, for instance, 
 Natalis Alexander. Among the people, however, 
 it always found much favor; and it made Com- 
 postella the most celebrated and most frequented 
 place of pilgrimage in Spain. It also gave the 
 name to one of the richest and most renowned 
 military orders in Spain, founded in 1161 by 
 Don Pedro Fernandez, confirmed by Ccelestine 
 III., and not dissolved until 1835. HEUZOG. 
 
 COMPTON, Henry, Bishop of London; b. at 
 Compton, 1632; d. at Fulham, near London, 
 July 7, 1713. He was Bishop of Oxford, 1674. 
 and in the following year transferred to London, 
 made a privy councillor, and intrusted with the 
 education of the prince.sses Mary and Anne. 
 His opposition to Koman Catholicism was firm, 
 and cost liim his councillorship, and his suspen- 
 sion on the accession of James II.; while his 
 liberality toward the Nonconformists was unusu- 
 ally great. He joined the side of William and 
 Mary in the Revolution, and crowned the king. 
 His prosperity returned. He regained his former 
 positions, and was appointed one of the revisers 
 of the liturgy ; but the close of his life was imbit- 
 tered by his disappointment at not receiving the 
 primacy. He wrote A Treatise of the Holy Commu- 
 nion (London, 1677), and translated from the Ital- 
 ian The Life of Donna Olyinpia Maldachiui (1667), 
 and from the French Tlie Jesuits' IntriQues (1669). 
 
 COMTE, Auguste, the founder of the positivist 
 school of philosophy, was b. at Montpellier, Jan. 
 12, 17!)S, and d. in Paris, Sept. 5, 1857. He 
 entered the Ecole Poh/lechniijue in 1814, and con- 
 tinued to live in I'aris alter the school was 
 broken up in 1816, giving lessons in mathematics. 
 For a short time he was tutor in the family of 
 Casimir Perier. In 1818 he made the acquaint- 
 ance of .St. .Simon, and soon became one of his 
 most enthusi.'istic disciples. But the sustained 
 energy and systematic power of the pupil could 
 not fail to outgrow the authority of a master 
 whose inspirations were mainly due to his loose 
 mental habits. In 1824 a comiilete and violent 
 breach took place. From .St. .Simon, however, 
 Comte received the first impul.se towards pliiloso- 
 phy, a number of loose but brilliant ideas, and 
 the whole informing tendency of his .system. 
 
 In 1825 Comte married, and in 1826 he began 
 the first series of lectures on positive philosophy. 
 But after the third lecture lie was overcome by 
 a cerebral derangement, and for a whole year he 
 was confined in a lunatic-asylum. In 1828 the 
 lectures were renewed. In 1830 the first volume 
 of /,(( I'hiloso/iliic Positive was ]iMblished. In 
 1833 Comte was ^appointed examiner at the ad- 
 mission to the ICcole I'oti/tec/inii/ua, and in 1842 
 he finished his great work by the ]iublication of 
 the sixth volume. According to its ground-plan, 
 this work is simply a re-arrangement of the 
 hierarchy of the sciences on a new priuciple, — 
 
 the positive principle, in contradistinction to the 
 
 theological and metaphysical principles. Moving 
 from tlie more simple and abstract to the more 
 complex and concrete, the scale runs thus : 
 mathem.atics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, bi- 
 ology, and sociology. There seems to be nothing 
 alarming in this. .Vs here represented, positiv- 
 ism is a method, r.ather than a doctrine. It be- 
 comes a doctrine, however, partly by that which 
 the method exclu<les (all inquiry into the causes 
 of phenomena, all theology, all metaphysics), ami 
 partly by that which the method adds (a new 
 science, the great panacea for all the sufferings 
 to which flesh is heir, — sociology). Comte meant 
 that the revolutionary state of modern society is 
 solely due to the mental anarchy into which 
 theology and metaphysics have led us. The 
 only w.\v out of this confusion is the positive 
 philosophy; for the only cognition which can 
 compel universal acceptance, and unite all minds 
 into perfect agreement, is that which refuses to 
 pay any regard to the cause of a phenomenon, 
 and simply confines itself to ascertaining the law 
 of the evolution of [ihenomena; and that is just 
 the sole object and contents of positive philoso- 
 phy. .\s soon, therefore, as the laws of social 
 and political evolution are recognized in their 
 positive shape, stripped of all theological and 
 metaphysical dreams, new and satisfactory forms 
 of social and political life will present them- 
 selves, and revolution will cease forever. 
 
 Some remarks in the preface to the sixth vol- 
 ume of La Philosophie Positire caused Comte's 
 dismission from his position at the Ecole Poly- 
 techni(/ue in 1842: and from that time till his 
 death "he lived as best he could," receiving sup- 
 port .at one time (1842-45) from some English 
 friends of J. Stuart Mill, and at another (after 
 1848) from public subscriptions. )ther calami- 
 ties were added. In 1842 he separated from his 
 wife. Meanwhile he w;is busy with his Si/st'eme 
 lie la Politique Posilice, of which the first volume 
 •appeared in 1851, the fourth and last in 1854. 
 It proposes to found a new religion, — the religion 
 of liumanity. But while positivism as a philo- 
 sophical school h.as exercised, and is still exer- 
 cising, a most powerful influence on modern 
 civilization, positivism as a religion has proved 
 a miser.able failure. Comte describes the devel- 
 opment of human intellect as having passed 
 through two stages, — the theological, at which 
 all phenomena are explained as the effects of hid- 
 den, supernatural, divine causes ; and the meta- 
 physical, .at which the causes are defined as a 
 kind of mystical entities, which form the real 
 substance underlying all phenomena. These two 
 st.ages passed, tin' third is reached, — the posi- 
 tive, at which no more questions are made about 
 the causes of phenomena; only the laws of the 
 evolution are ascertained. As this description 
 is itself the definition of a law, it is evident that 
 positivism, tin; religion of humanity, can have no 
 theology. Hut it has no (iod, either. Humanity 
 is an iileal, and can never be made a god ; and, 
 at this time of tin; day, to try to press tlio devel- 
 opment of mankind back to that tnoment when 
 the (ireek tragedy was produced, when the god 
 was the ideal, wlnui religion and art were still 
 slumbering on each other's bosoms, is simply 
 futile. Still worse: iu 1845 Comte fell desper-
 
 CONCEPTION. 
 
 CONCORD. 
 
 ately in love with Madame Clotilde <le Vaiix, 
 wlio died in tlie followinjj; year; and, in liis 
 plans of orf;;ani7,al.ion which he laid for the 
 church of hiuiianity, memories of this passion 
 mix in a most disajjreeable maimer with remi- 
 niscences from the palmiest days of the Roman- 
 Catholic Church. It is true, as Mr. Morley says 
 in the last edition of Jinri/cln/xvdid ISrilainika, 
 that the queer dreams of the Si/sliiiiK de la 
 /'.(>!ilii/ue Positive are not altoi;ether incidental, 
 hut foreshadowed in the earliest writings of 
 Comte. But it is also true, as .1. Stuart Mill says 
 in his essay on Positivism, tliat there is "a Rulf " 
 between that book and the J'/iilosa/i/iic I'osilii-e. 
 'The latter has a relation to theology; it excludes 
 it: the formc^r has none ; it oidy counterfeits it. 
 
 Of La J'hili)soji/iie Positive, l\Iiss Harriet Mar- 
 tinean has given an excellent English condiMisa- 
 tion in 2 vols., London, \ii7)'i. The Calechism of 
 Positivism was translated into English by Dr. 
 Congreve in 18.j8; the I'olitii/tie Positive, anony- 
 mously, in 1875-77. E.ssays on positivism have 
 been written by .1. Stuart Mill, Herbert Spencer, 
 JIuxley, etc. See, also, Fiskk: Oul/ities of Cosmic 
 /'/litosoplii/. Host., 1874, 2 vols.; Lkwks: Biorj. 
 Hist, of Pliilosophij, Lond., N. Y., 4th ed., 1871, 
 2 vols.' (vol. ii.). ' CLEMEMS PETERSEN. 
 
 CONCEPTION, Feast of, a festival of the 
 lloman-Cathdlic t'hureh which is celebrated Dec. 
 8, in honor of the immaculate conception of the 
 Virgin Marv. See I.mm.\cul.'VTE Coxckption. 
 
 CONCEPTION OF OUR LADY, Nuns of the 
 Order of. This religious order was founded by Bea- 
 trix, sister of James, first Count of I'oralego, Por- 
 tugal, in 1481; confirmed by Innocent VIII. 1489; 
 given the rule of St. Clara by Cardinal Ximenes, 
 but liy .Julius II. given a separate rule in 1.511. 
 
 CONCEPTUALISM denotes an intermediate 
 stand-point between nominalism and realism. 
 Rejecting, on the one side, nominalism, which de- 
 tines the universalia as merely subjective notions, 
 as mere words {voces), and, on the other side, real- 
 ism, which defines the universalia as the very 
 essence of all individual existence, Abelard tried 
 to define the universalia as sermones ; that is, as 
 mental conceptions, which, though in themselves 
 merely the result of an intellectual process, never- 
 thele.ss corresponded to something real, existing 
 in all individuality. The stand-point W'as after- 
 wards more clearly defined by Petrus Lorabardus 
 and Albertus Magnus. 
 
 CONCLAVE means the assembly of cardinals 
 convened in order to elect a new pope. Up to the 
 latter part of the eleventh century, the pope was 
 elected by the clergy and peojde of Home; but 
 by a decree of 1059 Nicholas II. gave the whole 
 election into the hands of the cardinals, to the 
 exclusion of the clergy and the people ; and by a 
 decree of 1179 Alexander III. constituted a major- 
 ity of two-thirds of the conclave sufficient to make 
 an election valid. At times, however, it proved 
 very difficult to procure such a majority. When 
 Clement IV. died at Viterbo (l"j(i8) seventeen 
 months elapsed, and no agreemi'nt was arrived 
 at. Bonaventura, the general of th(^ Minorites, 
 then induced the inhabitants of Viterbo to shnt 
 up the cardinals in the palace; and there they sat 
 for a whole year, but still no agreement. Finally 
 .somebody liit upon the device of depriving the 
 building of its roof, and exposing the electors to 
 
 the whims of the weather ; and the very same 
 day (iregory X. was elected. This experience 
 led the Second council of Lyons (1274) to estab- 
 lish a number of minuto rules for conducting a 
 conclave, which, in the main, are still adhered 
 to. The cardinals are absolutely 8ei)arated from 
 the surrounding w'orld, the windows and doors 
 of the assembly-room having been walled up, all 
 but one. If no agreement has been arrived at 
 after the \;ipsi: of three days, only one meal a 
 day is served to the electors, and, after the lap.S(! 
 of eight days, only bread and wine, etc. The 
 method of electing generally used is the ballot; 
 and, concerning this point, too, a number of 
 minute rub's have been established in order to 
 ])revent fraud. Every morning a ballot is cast, 
 followed in the evening by an "acccssit ; " lh;it 
 is. if the morning ballot has led to no result, any 
 of the electors is allowed to transfer his vote to 
 that one of the candidates whom he can expect 
 thereby to get elected. In spite of the minute 
 rules, however, which govern the proceeding.s, 
 and in spite of the solemn oath which binds the 
 electors, the history of the papal conclave is 
 crowded with the meanest and grossest frauds 
 and intrigues which any election can present. 
 See T. A. Trollopk : On the Papal Conclaves. 
 
 CONCOMITANCE denotes tlie doctrine, that, 
 when Christ's body is present in the Eucharist, 
 his blood is so too, and that, the godhead and 
 manhood of Christ being inseparable, Christ 
 himself. God and man, is present in the Eucha- 
 rist when either his body or his blood is present. 
 This doctrine forms the basis for the disciplinary 
 rule of the Koman-Catholic Church, withholding 
 the cup from the laity in the administration of 
 the Lord's Supper, 
 
 CONCORD, Formula of (FonH«/n Concordia), 
 the last of the six symbolical books of the 
 Lutheran Church, was issued on the fiftieth anni- 
 versary of the Augsburg Confession (.June 25, 
 1580), and was signed by three electors, twenty 
 dukes and princes, twenty-four counts, four bar- 
 ons, and thirty-five free cities. Since the death 
 of Luther (1546) alarming dissensions h.ad in- 
 vaded the Church, and a split between the ultra- 
 Lutheran orthodoxy and the Melanchthoniau 
 Crypto-Calvinism seemed imminent. The neces- 
 sity of unity and concord was very strongly felt, 
 however; and in 1567 Duke Cliristoph of Wiir- 
 tendjerg, and Landgrave William IV. of Ilesse- 
 Cassel, commissioned .Lacob Andreii to draw up 
 a formula, based upon the Confession of Augs- 
 burg, and capable of uniting all the Lutheran 
 churches of Germany. The attempt failed ; but 
 in 1.573 Andrea tried again, and the so-called 
 Suabian Concordia — a remoulding of his famous 
 six sermons On the Differences of the Lutheran 
 Church — found much favor. On the instance 
 of Duke Lewis of Wiirtemberg and IMargrave 
 Charles of Baden, Lucas Osiander, Balthasar P>i- 
 dembach, and Abel Scherdinger compo,sed, in 
 1575, the Formula of ^laulbronn; and in the 
 following year the Elector of Saxony invited a 
 number of theologians to meet at Torgau. and 
 to form, on the basis of these two formulas, a 
 third one acceptable to all parties. The residt 
 was the so-called Book of Torgau, which w;is 
 sent to all the Protestant princes of Germany, 
 and ou which the elector received no less than
 
 CONCORDANCE. 
 
 522 
 
 CONCORDANCE. 
 
 twenty-three more or less elaborate criticisms. 
 A new committee of tlieoloj;^iaiis, amoii<r whom 
 were Martin Chemnitz, Nicolaus Selnecker, Da- 
 vid Chytrsus. etc., was formed to digest and 
 utilize these criticisms. They began tlieir meet- 
 ings at Bergen, near Magdeburg, in 1577 ; and the 
 final result of their labor was the Formula Con- 
 cordia. It was immediately accepted by Saxony, 
 Brandenburg, Brunswick, W'iirtemberg, Baden, 
 Hamburg, Liibeck, etc. ; but it was rejected by 
 Hesse, Anholt, Lauenburg, Holstein, Nassau, 
 Strassburg, Frankfort, Spires, Worms, Xeurem- 
 berg, Bremen, etc. Outside of Germany it was 
 .accepted by Hungary, Sweden, and Denmark; 
 though in the last-mentioned country it was first 
 rejected, and its publication was forbidden under 
 penalty of deatli. The Formula consists of two 
 parts, — the Epitome, and the Soiut Repetition and 
 Declaration, each containing twelve articles. 
 
 Lit. — Best edition of tlie Formula, Mi.'LLF.u : 
 Die symhiilisrhen Biicher dcr evanrj. luth. Kirche, 
 fourth edition, Oiitersloh, 1S7G; [Eng. trans, of 
 the Epitome in Scii.\ff: Creeds, IH. 9-_'-lS0.] 
 See GiisCHEl,: Die Concordienformel nach Hirer 
 Oeschichle, Leipzig, 1858; F. H. R. Fu.\XK : Die 
 Thfolof/ie der Concordienformel, Erlangen, 1858- 
 Go, 4 vols. [Sciiafk: Creeds of Christendom, vol. 
 L, L'o8-340]. F. FKANK. 
 
 CONCORDANCE, from Latin concordare, to 
 agree: hence a collection of passages which in 
 one respect ar/ree with one another. Concord- 
 ances are of two kinds, verbal and topical : the 
 first gives tlie exact ])lace in the text where a 
 certain word can be found ; the second is an or- 
 derly analysis of the contents of the work. It is 
 evident concordances can be made to any work, 
 and we liave them upon classic authors (e.g., 
 Shakspeare, Milton, Pope, Tennyson, etc.); but in 
 this article we treat of those upon the Bible, for 
 which, of course, there has been most demand. 
 
 L /,/ir/.V. — Cardinal Hugo dk S. C.\ro (d. 
 12G3) led the way. In 1244, with the help of 
 five hundred Dominican monks, he prepared a 
 concordance upon the Vulgate (see Bici.larmin: 
 De Script, eccles. ad nnn. 12^5, pp. 247 sqq.) as an 
 aid in liis Commentari/ on llie Bible. Since the 
 verse-divisions did not yet exist, he supposed 
 each chapter divided arbitrarily into seven parts, 
 which he di-signated by as many letters consecu- 
 tively (e.g. terra. Gen. i. a; i.e., the word terra 
 is in the first jiart of Gen. i.). The work was 
 defective and short, as in the references merely 
 words, and not sentences, were given. It was 
 called Coiicorilnitiia: S. ,/acohi, because Hugo pre- 
 pared it at the Convent of St. .Jacob, in I'aris. 
 The moidis of this house found it most useful in 
 preparing their sermons, but at the same time 
 they recognizi'(l its defects; and so .John of Der- 
 lington, Hichard of Stavensby, an<l Hugo of 
 Croyndon (about 1250) set iibout to correct it by 
 adding the words in immediate connection. This 
 made Hugo'.s work .a veritable concordaiuie in our 
 gense of the term. On account of the Knglish ex- 
 traction of tlie revisers, their work was known as 
 the Eni/li.ih ('oriron/anre. TIk! next buihler upon 
 H ugo"8 foundation was Con- u A I) OK Hai-iikiistadt, 
 oroi'GKliMAXY (de .Atcmannia), niK Ki.dkh, who, 
 towards the end of the thirteenth century, furth<'r 
 iii.|iroved the original work by subdividing the 
 _ Bliortiir chajiters into four parts each (letters a-d), 
 
 while the longer were, as usual, divided into 
 seven (letters a-g), and by reducing the number 
 of words cited in connection with one another, 
 which materially reduced its size. This new sort 
 of concordance entirely supplanted the old, and 
 was the one printed. The influence of this con- 
 cordance is seen in the printing upon the margin 
 of the Vulgate, even as late as 182(5, in an edition 
 printed at Frankfurt, of the letters Conrad used 
 to divide the chapters. During the Council of 
 Basel (1431-49) a grave defect in the concord- 
 ance was discovered. John of Hagusa, a very 
 learned man (d. 1444), held an animated di.s- 
 cussiou with Bohemians at the council, upon 
 the true meaning, in the Bible, of the particle 
 nisi, and later, with Greeks at Constantinople, 
 whither the council had sent him, over the true 
 meaning of per and ex. But the concordance 
 failed him just here; for it did not contain par- 
 ticles. He determined to remedy this defect, 
 and, unable himself to command the time, in- 
 trusted the task to the Spanish doctor of theology, 
 .John of Suabia, who alphabetically arranged 
 the particles, and then, in 1437, published the 
 work, with an historical introduction. Sebastian 
 Brant carried the first edition of it through the 
 pre.s3 of John Peter and John Froben, in Basel, 
 1496, under the title Concordanticc parlium sire 
 dictionum indeclinahilium lotius Bililim (" Concord- 
 ance to the particles or indeclinable words in the 
 entire Scriptures"), as the second part of the 
 Conrad Concordance. And so the defect in 
 Hugo's Concordance was supplied. The first 
 printed concordance bore the title Fratis Conradi 
 de Alemannia Ord. Pradic. Coneordantice Bibliorum, 
 etc., Argentorati (Strassburg), c. 1470, 2d ed.. 
 1475. Bindseil (see Lit.) gives a list of sixty- 
 four concordances to the Vulgate : of these, that by 
 Robert Stephens, Geneva, 1555, deserves especial 
 mention. In it he introduced the verse-numbers 
 alrc^ady used in his Greek-Latin Testament. The 
 hist is by F. P. Duthipon: Bibliorum Sacrorum 
 Concordantite, 7th ed., Paris, 18MI. 
 
 H. HEBREW. — The. first Hebrew concord- 
 ance was made by Rabbi Isaac (or Moudecai) 
 Nathan. The origin of the work, according to the 
 author's preface, was as follows: he was disturbed 
 by the repeated challenges of his Christi:in com- 
 panions, and, in his search after materials for an 
 answer, lighted upon a Latin Bible concordance. 
 By diligent use of this he repidled the attacks, 
 and, having tested its great utility, determined 
 to pre|)are a concordance to the Hebrew Bible, 
 which he conceived would be more useful than a 
 mere translation of the Latin. Accordingly he 
 began the work in 1 138, and finished it, having 
 called in many helpers, in 1448. He kept the 
 chapter-divisions of the Vulgate, but added ver.se- 
 divisions of his own. Thi? concordance was first 
 printed at Venice, by Daniel Ikmibi-rg, in the 
 year 1524, under the title t!'"t!'JNTTip:ip XIpJH 
 3"nj TSD; i.e., The Lit/hi to tlie\y(n/,ridlcd "Concor- 
 dances." An interesting jioint in connection 
 with this title is the f;ict that the final word is a 
 mere transliteration, in llebri'W characters, of the 
 Latin Conrordatitiw. After the worils, allihaheti- 
 cally arrang(!d, are explanations in raliliinical 
 characters, and then the ])assages in which they 
 occur. Kditions of this work appeared subse- 
 quently at Venice (1504) and at Basel (1581),
 
 CONCORDANCE. 
 
 523 
 
 CONCORDANCE. 
 
 under Buxtorf s supervision ; and a Latin trans- 
 lation (poor and very defective) was made by 
 Heiiclilin, Basel, luoC. An unprintcd Latin 
 translation l>y Nicliolas Fuller is preserved in the 
 lioilleian Library, Oxford. 
 
 The second Hebrew concordance was under- 
 taken by the Franciscan scholar, Makius dk 
 ('alasio, appointed by Pope Paul V. public 
 teacher of IIe[)rew at Rome. He wrote a Hebrew 
 grammar and dictionary; d. Jan. 24, 1G20. He 
 was over seventy wlien ho bef^an the concord- 
 ance, and at his death left it not quite ready for 
 the press. By papal command it was given over 
 to the MinoriU? general, Benignus of (ienua, who 
 employed upon it the Minorite provincial, Michael 
 Angelus of St. Romulus, ]irofessor of theology 
 and Hebrew. It was finally printed in four folio 
 volumes, in Rome, 1621, under the title Concor- 
 danliie Sacrorum Bibliorum llehrniconim. Each 
 word was accompanied by its different nie.anings 
 in both Hebrew and Latin, then the correspond- 
 ing words in the other Shemitic languages, with 
 Latin interpretations, and finally the Bible pas- 
 sages in which the word is found, — Hebrew 
 verses on the right hand, Latin on the left. This 
 concordance was three times jniblished, — Cologne 
 (1640), Rome (10u7), Loudon (1747-49), 4 vols. fol. 
 
 The third concordance was begun by Jon.wx 
 Bu.\TORF TiiK Elder, and finished by his .son 
 Joh.ann Buxtorf, Basel, 1032, fol. It was pro- 
 fessedly an improved edition of Nathan's. It is, 
 therefore, upon the same general plan. Each 
 word is followed by Natlian's explanations in 
 rabbinical characters, but also in Latin. An im- 
 provement is the assignment of the different 
 forms to the different pa.ssages in which tliey 
 occur, instead of massing the passages together. 
 A great many missing references were supplied, 
 errors corrected, and, not the least, at the end a 
 concoidance of the Chaldee words in the Old 
 Testament. Yet two defects are pointed out by 
 Buxtorf himself: ceitain particles are missing, 
 and all the proper names. Modern edition, edited 
 by Bernhard Biir, Stettin, 1801. Two abridg- 
 ments of Buxtorf 's great work were published : 
 one at Wittenberg, 1053; the other, edited by 
 Christian Raw, under the title Fount of Sion, 
 Berlin and Frankfort, 1077. 
 
 The two defects already noticed in Buxtorf 
 were remedied, as far as the Hebrew particles 
 ^vere concerned, in the Concordance of Chris- 
 tian NoLPK, Copenhagen, 107!), small quarto. 
 Later came other Hebrew concordances; among 
 others Dr. .Toii.x T.\ylor's Hebrew CuncorJance 
 adapted to the Fn(/lish Bible, disposed after the man- 
 ner of Buitorf, London, 1754-57, '2 vols. fol. 
 
 These were superseded when Baron Tauchnitz 
 brought out that of Dr. Jui.ius Furst, assisted 
 tlirougliout by Dr. Franz Dehtzsch (to whom 
 he generously ascribes great praise), Librurum 
 Sacrorum Veteri.i Testamenti Cimcordantice He- 
 braicce atque Chatdaicee, Leipzig, 1840, folio. Tliis 
 well-known and elaborate work is based upon 
 Buxtorf, but is a great improvement upon the 
 original. Yet even in it are wantiug most of the 
 Hebrew particles and pronouns, and all proper 
 names. Fiirst follows Buxtorf's plan. He gives 
 under each word the explanations in the r.ibbini- 
 cal character; then arranges the different inflec- 
 tions of the word iu regular order, and under 
 
 each the passages in unpointed Hebrew. There 
 are eight apjiendixes: 1. Etymological Index; 
 2. Exiilan.atoiy List of Bible names (pointed 
 Hebrew), to which is appended a syllabus of 
 Ethnic-Hebrew (i.e., Phfcnician) names; 3. A 
 Lexicon of .Aramaic and New Hebrew (i.e., the 
 correspondences to Ilelirew, arranged in alpha- 
 i)etical onler) ; 4. An Etymological Table; 5. A 
 Scheme; of the Formation of Words: fl. "Propylaea 
 Ma.sora; " (an ordcily arrangement of the Masoretic 
 notes); 7. "Chronicles of tlie Holy Tongue" (en- 
 tirely iu unpointed Hebrew); 8. A Comjiarativc 
 Table of Arabic, Syriac, Aramaic, and Hebrew. 
 
 But Furst's bonk, by its unwieldy size, and use 
 of Liitin tliroughout, is uiiadapted to the wants 
 of the ordinary English student. For liis benefit 
 the Enr/lishntait's Hebrew and Chaldee Concordance 
 was prei>ared, ilesigned 1830, published London, 
 1813, 3d ed,, 18(i0, 2 vols. The editor, who also 
 paid for the work, was George V. Wigram, who 
 contributes an eccentric preface. Among thu 
 coU.aborators were S. P. Tregelles and B. David- 
 son. The work is superior. Each page presents 
 (1) The Hebrew word (pointeil) ; (2) Its pronun- 
 ciation; (3) In the case of nouns, the gender, of 
 verbs, the moods and tenses; (4) The ]iassages 
 of Scripture in whicli the words occur, quite fully 
 printed, the title-words being distinguished by 
 Italics. The appendixes are (1) Hebrew and 
 English index (after each Hebrew word the vari- 
 ous English terms by which it is rendered in 
 the authorized version are given in alpli.abeti- 
 cal order) ; (2) Table of the variations of chap- 
 ter and verses in the English and Hebrew Bibles; 
 (3) List of proper names (pronounced), together 
 with their occurrences, with index to the same. 
 The work is very painstaking and useful, but is 
 defective in that it makes no distinction between 
 the inflections of the nouns ; e.g., father and Jtii 
 father are under the same liead. 
 
 The Hebraist's Vade Mecum, edited by Mr. 
 Wigram (a verbal index to the Hebrew and 
 Chaldee Scriptures), London, 18G7, is valuable. 
 It gives all the words, grammatically arranged, 
 and under each form the passages wherein it 
 occui's. A revised and corrected edition of B. 
 Davidson's excellent Concordance of the Hebrew 
 and Chaldee Scriptures appeared iu London, 1876, 
 under the care of the Rev. Joseph Hughes. 
 
 HI. GREEK. — Euthalius Rhodius, a monk 
 of St. B.asil, is said to liave finished (1300) a con- 
 cordance to the entire Bible iu Greek. But the 
 work was never printed, if, indeed, it was ever 
 written. These Greek concordances are usually 
 either to the Old Testament with the Apocrypha, 
 or to the New Testament. We consider first, 
 
 (1) The Concordances to the Old 'Testament and 
 Apocrypha. — The Jirsl was made by Coxhad 
 Kirciier, Frankfort, 1607, and was a Hebrew- 
 Greek, rather than a (!reek, concordance, inas- 
 much as the work follows the order of the Hebrew 
 words, placing the corresponding Greek word 
 after it. Each Hebrew word had its Latin trans- 
 lation ; and then, witliout alphabetical arrange- 
 ment, followed the various Greek equivalents, 
 with the passages iu w hich they occur. There is 
 a register of the Greek words, and a distinction 
 made between canonical and apocryphal passages. 
 
 But the second independent coucordance is 
 niupJj more valuable. It appeared under the
 
 CONCORDANCE. 
 
 524 
 
 CONCORDANCE. 
 
 title Abraiiami Trommi Concordantict Gracm 
 Versionis vult/o dicta LXX. Inter/>retu7ii, cujus iwccs 
 xecmvlum orilinem elementorum sermonis Grceci di- 
 geslCE recensentur, contra alque in opere Kirchcriano 
 fiiclum fuerat. Anistelodami (Anisterdara) et 
 Trajecti ad Ulieiium (Utreclit), 1718, 2 vols. fol. 
 Tills is a gemiiue Greek concordance, containing 
 the Greek words in ])roper order, with their mean- 
 ings in Latin, the corresponding Hebrew words 
 alphabetically arranged below, and under them 
 the p.assages in the canonical and apocryphal 
 books. When tlie word occurs in any of the 
 Greek versions, — Aquila, Theodotion, or Sym- 
 machus, — the passages are put below those from 
 the Septiiagint, as are also tlie passages from the 
 Apocrypha. The work cost Tronim sixteen 
 years' labor, and he was eighty-four when it ap- 
 peared. It is still the standard work. 
 
 Troinm's derogatory remarks on Kircher led to 
 the publication, by Professor John Gagnier, of 
 Vindicim Kiixlierianre aniiiiadreivionex in nmms 
 Ahr. Trommii Concordantias f/racas versionis LXX., 
 Oxford, 1713. 
 
 - (2) Cuiicordancen to Vie New Testament. — The 
 first appeared under tlie title ^vfiguvia, y avXAt^i^ 
 ri7c dtadr)K7/i: T7]r KQivr/f (literally, '• Symphony, the 
 gathering-together of the New Testament "), 
 Uasel, 1.51*5. It was the work during eight years 
 of Xystus Betulk.ius (Sixtus Birken), librarian 
 of the city library at Augsburg. Tlie references 
 are only to books and chapters, as verses did not 
 then exist. 
 
 The second was brought out by IIexry Stk- 
 FiiF.NS, the famous printer, Paris, 1504. Stephens 
 did not do the work liimself, but merely wrote tlie 
 preface. In this concordance the verses, invented 
 by his father, Robert Stephens, are for the first 
 time u.sed in a Greek concordance. The Greek 
 words are interpreted in Latin. 
 
 The third was by Erasmus Schmip, Witten- 
 berg, l(i38. It corrected the faults of the two 
 concordances mentioned, and won at once univer- 
 sal api)lause. In 1717 Ernst Salomon Cyprian 
 brought out a new edition containing a few cor- 
 rections. Pagster (London, n.d.) has published 
 a ;{'2mo edition of it. 
 
 'Ihf. foarlk is Kaui. IIkrmann I?rudei;'.s, under 
 the title 'Vafiulov tCiv r^f Katvf/i^ Oi(zOi/Kjj(; '/J.^fuiv 
 (" Treasury of the words of the New Testament "), 
 Leipzig, 1812. This is the latest and best con- 
 cordance to the Greek Ne.w Testament, and is to 
 be credited to the famous publisher, Karl Chris- 
 tian Tauchnitz. 
 
 Besides the above, there is the Enr/lishiiian'.i 
 Greek Concordance of tlie New Testament (London, 
 1810, 5th ed., 1808), edited and jiaid for, as was 
 tlie Enf/Usliman's Hebrew (^jnconlance, by George 
 v. Wigram, and prefaced in the same eccentric 
 manner. 'I'he work is excellent, and by English 
 readers is decidedly to !»! ))ref<'rred to all others. 
 It give.s all the woi'ds of the (irc'ck New Testa- 
 ment in alphabetical order, U(x'or(ling to their iiii- 
 inflected forms, as in a ilietionaiy. Each wind is 
 transliterated; but no further attempt is made 
 to indicate il,s pronunciation, exce]it by marking 
 a. diaeresis or a long vowel. L'ndcr the word are 
 the pa.ssages from the ICn</ti.ili New Testament in 
 which the word, in its various ca.ses or tenses, etc., 
 aiipears, the translation of the word being Itali- 
 cized ; e.g., intytvuoKo (cpiginOsko). On next line, 
 
 Matt. vii. 10: "Ye shall know them by their 
 fruits." Mark ii. 8 : " And immediately when Je- 
 sus perceived " etc. At the close is an English- 
 Greek index, by means of which the English 
 reader can see how many words in Greek are 
 used to express the English, and a Greek-English 
 index, dift'erently arranged, which performs ex- 
 actly the opposite service. 
 
 In 1870 appeared .1 Critical Greek and I-^nt/lish 
 Concordance of the New Testament. Prepared hi/ 
 CHAIU.ES F. iluDSOX, under the direction of Hor- 
 ace L. Hastings. Jieciseil and completed hi/ Ezra 
 AnnoT, Boston, 3d ed , 1875, .508 pp. 12nio. The 
 smallest and most convenient complete Greek- 
 English concordance. Novel in plan, and schol- 
 arly in execution, it has been indorsed by all 
 examiners. The preface gives a minute account 
 of its genesis and execution. It gives the Greek 
 words in dictionary order, the English transla- 
 tions of the authorized version alphabetically, in 
 bold-faced type, and by each all the pass.ages 
 where the translation is found. Thus, /icra^ij, 
 between, Matt, xviii. 15. etc. ; mean-while, .folin 
 iv. 31 ; next, Acts xiii. 42. At the dose all the 
 proper names are given and assigned ; then follow 
 an index of the English words, an appendix of 
 various readings in larger clauses, and a supple- 
 ment giving the readings of Tischendorf's eighth 
 edition, which vary from those of his seventh 
 edition. The last two parts are the work of that 
 admirable scholar. Professor Ezra Abbot. 
 
 IV. 5}7tV.4C.— Carl Schaaf published at 
 Leyden (1709) a Lexicon Si/riaeutn Concordantiale, 
 omnes Nori 'J'eslamenti Si/riaci voces — complectens. 
 As the title indicates, it is more a lexicon than a 
 concordance ; yet its completeness is sufficient to 
 allow its use in this way. 
 
 V. GLiRM.iN. — 1. The honor of preparing 
 the first concordance to any modern version be- 
 longs to Johannes Sciihotkr, who published 
 Concordant: lies Newen Testaments zu teutsch, 
 Strassburg, 1524, folio, — a concordance to Lu- 
 ther's version. 
 
 2. Conrad Ac.ricoi.a (Bauer) first brought 
 out a concordance upon the entire German Bible, 
 Concordantia lUhliorum, Das ist hil/lisrhe Concor- 
 dant: end Verzeichniiss der I'iiniinihsten Wiirtcr, 
 Frankfurt-a.-M., KilO. In 1012 he issued an 
 appendix, which sn|>iilied deficiencies. Editions 
 ai)))eared 1021. 1()32, and 1010, which incorporat- 
 ed the appendix. Chkistia.n Zeisius (in Leii>- 
 zig, 1658) brought out an improved concordance 
 based upon Agricola's. 
 
 3. Friedkicii La.nckiscii issued Concordantim 
 Bihliorum Geiinanico-Hehraico-Grceca; Deutsche, 
 Hebraiscke und Grierhische liiliel, Leipzig u. 
 Frankfurt-a.-M., 1077, folio. This was a truly 
 important work, and w<'ll received; 2d ed., 11)88, 
 3d ed., lOilO, 4th ed., 1705, each edition being 
 carefully revised and improved. Notwithstand- 
 ing the jiains already taken, (Christian Keineck 
 found it woith while to jirepare a iifth edition 
 (1718). Lanckisch himself die.l in 100!), before 
 the first appearance of his laborious wcirk, which 
 had lhes(^ objects, — to revise, correct, and enlarge 
 the Zeise eiiition of Agricola; to arrange under 
 e.acli German word the (Jn^ek or Hebrew words 
 of which it was the translation ; to jilaco next 
 to every IIei)rew word a (ireek letter, and to 
 every Greek word a Latin letter, and then to ush
 
 CONCORDANCE. 
 
 r.2r 
 
 CONCORDANCE. 
 
 these letters to represent the wm-d in the passaojes 
 quoted from Lutiier's IJilile, so that tlio reader 
 seeing the letter would know of what Hebrew or 
 Greek word the German was the translation. 
 
 4. The Crudeu of (iermany is GorrFUiEi) 
 BiJciiNK.u. His concordance, moreover, agrees 
 with Cruden's in that it is a so-called Ilciil Von- 
 cordanz, i.e., it contains detinition.s and notes. 
 After the notes come the texts, as in other con- 
 cordances. It appeared in two forms. Of the 
 smaller the 1st edition appeared Jena, 1740; 
 2d, 1740; 3d, 175G; 4th, 17(io; oth, 1770: of the 
 larger the 1st edition appeared Jena, 1750; 2d, 
 1757, 2 vols. ; 4th, 1705. Up to 1770 the small- 
 er or Hand-Concorilanz was a widely-circulated 
 ■work; but in that year the publisher failed, and 
 the concordance oddly fell into disuse. The ap- 
 pearance of Wichmann's Concordance (Dessau 
 und Leipzig, 1782, new ed., 1806, 2 parts), and 
 the theology of Biiohner, were two causes opera- 
 tive against the work. It would not sell at any 
 price ; and the remaining copies were about tii 
 fall into the paper-manufacturer's hands, when 
 their then owner determined to make a final 
 attempt. He employed Dr. II. L. Heubner to 
 revise the work, ami got out a new edition (the 
 Cth, Ilalle, 1840) at an increased price. His 
 confidence was justifieil by results. Once more 
 BUclmer was the popular work : the 7th edition 
 appeared 1844; 8th, 1850; 11th, liraunschweig, 
 1859; 1.5th, 1877. In 1871 the first American 
 edition appeared in Philadelphia (published by 
 I. Kohler), provided with a Preface by Dr. 
 Schaff, and an Appendix of eight thousand and 
 sixty omitted passages by Professor A. Spiith. 
 The work answers, in a measure, the piirposes of 
 a Bible-dictionary: thus an historical sketch of 
 Jerusalem is given under the name. 
 
 VI. FRENCH. — Of these may be mentioned 
 Mark Wilks: Concordance des Saintes Ecritures, 
 Paris, 1840. 
 
 VH. ENGLISH. — The first concordance was 
 entitled The Concordance of the New Testament, 
 most necessari/ to be had in the hands of all soche as 
 desire the communication of am/ place contained in 
 the New Testament, London, n.d., but certainly 
 before 1540, and vei-y probably by the printer 
 John Day, though attributed to a "Mr. Thomas 
 Gybson." The first concordance to the eiitire 
 Bible was by JoH.\ Makuecke, entitled A Con- 
 cordance, that is to sale, a Worke wherein, by the 
 ordre of the letters A, B, C, ye maie redely finde any 
 ittorde conleiyned in the Bible, London, 1550, folio. 
 The references are only to chapters. In the same 
 year appeared a translation from the German, A 
 Briefe and a Compendious Table, in maner of a 
 Concordance, iijtenyni/ the waye to the jirincipnll Ilis- 
 tories of the whole Bible, and the most comon articles 
 grounded anil comprehended in the Newe Testament 
 and Olde, in maner as amply as doeth the great Con- 
 cordance of the Bible. Gathered and set forth by 
 Henry BuUinijer, Leo Jude, Conrade Pelliciine, and 
 by other ministers of the Church of Liijurie (Zurich). 
 Translated from the Uyijh Almayne into Enylish by 
 Walter Lyiine. To which is added a translation of 
 the Third Booke of Machabees. This was a trans- 
 lation of the Index Bililiorum of Conrad Pellican, 
 Zurich, 1837. See additional titles in Darling's 
 Cyclo/iaidia Bibliographica. Subjects, folio, 185.0. 
 He enumerates six concordances made between 
 
 1.578 and 1737, of which the mo.st important w.is 
 by Samuki. Nkw'man, London, lO.jO, r(^i)rint/!d 
 at Cambridge, 1720, and generally known as the 
 Cambridr/e (.'iinrordance. 
 
 But all thes<i attempts were forgotten on the 
 publication by Alexandeu Chuue.s of his Com- 
 jiti/te Concordance to the Holy Scriptures of the Old 
 and New Testament, London, 1737. This work 
 is likely to keep its ])lace as tlic best of all tlio 
 concordance.s, so long as King James's Versioji 
 remains in use. It has appeared in different 
 .shapes, and with more or less completeness. 
 The original work contains explanatory notes on 
 important words, exhibiting oftentimes much 
 acutene.ss, and always profound piety. Those 
 editions which contain them are therefore de- 
 sirable. The concordances of Brown, Cole, and 
 Eadie, are only revisions of Crudon. The So- 
 ciety for Promoting Christian Knowledge issued 
 an edition (London, 1850), which i.s an improve- 
 ment upon his, inasmuch as it is more comjilete ; 
 for Cruden does not give all the words of the 
 Bible, and is especially defective in {>ropcr 
 names. There are several American editions of 
 Cruden : the most to be commended is that o£ 
 Dodd, Mead, & Co., New York. 
 
 The latest, best, and most comprehensive con- 
 cordance is by Hobekt You.ng, LL.D. : Analyti- 
 cal Concordance to Ike Bible, Edinburgh, 1879, 
 4th revised ed., 1881. According to the title- 
 page it is "on an entirely new plan, containing 
 every word in alphabetical order, arranged under 
 its Hebrew or Greek original, with the literal 
 meaning of each, and its pronunciation ; exhibits 
 ing about three hundred and eleven thousand 
 references, marking thirty thousand various read- 
 ings in the New Testament, with the latest in- 
 formation on biblical geography and antiquities, ^ 
 etc.; designed for the simplest reader of the Eng- 
 lish Bible." It is the outcome of forty years' 
 labor, and took Dr. Young "nearly three years 
 (from six a.m. to ten p. M.) merely to carry it 
 through the press." It has been well received, 
 and needs only revision in accordance with the 
 revised version to be a work of permanent val- 
 ue. For the first time we have a really com- 
 plete concordance. Very curiously in the first 
 edition all reference to the " Holy Spirit " and 
 " Holy Ghost " under " Holy " was missing. By 
 means of this concordance the merely English 
 reader may become to no inconsiderable degree a 
 Bible critic. 
 
 Akin to a concordance is an analysis. Such a 
 one was that made by Matthew 'Talbot, Lon- 
 don, 1800, quarto, revised and reproduced in 
 America by Nathaniel West, D.D., New York, 
 1853, which was again thoroughly revised and 
 greatly improved by Profes.^or Roswell D. 
 Hitchcock, D.D., LL.D., and issued under the 
 title Neiu anil Complete Analysis of the Holy Bible, 
 N. Y., 1870. It is the best work of its kind. 
 Besides the analysis proper, it contains Cruden's 
 Concordance as revised by Dr. Eadie, and sev- 
 eral appendixes, including a brief Dictionary of 
 Reliyious Denominations, Sects, Parlies, and Asso- 
 ciations. 
 
 See H. E. Bindseil : Concordantiarutn Homeri- 
 carum .specimen cum Proleyomtnis in ipiibus prceser- 
 tim Concordantice biblicie recensentur earumque 
 oriyo el proyressus declarantur. Kalis, 1807; the
 
 CONCORDAT. 
 
 526 
 
 CONCORDAT. 
 
 same : Ueber die Concordanzen, in Theol. Stiiflie7i 
 u. Kriliien. 1870 SAMUEL M. JACKSON. 
 
 CONCORDAT means a treaty between the 
 Pope, as tlie head of tlie Roman-Catliolic Church, 
 and a temporal sovereign, concerning the rela- 
 tions between the State and the Church. The 
 name was first used in 1418 for those agreements 
 on reform which Martin V. made with the nations 
 of the Council of Constance. But it soon became 
 general, tliough, officially, a distinction is still 
 made between concordats and conventions; the 
 latter name being applied to treaties with sover- 
 eigns not belonging to the Roman Church. There 
 is, however, a striking difference between the 
 earliest concordats and those of a later date. 
 Thus the Concordat of Worms (Sept. 23, 1122) 
 contains nothing but concessions from the side of 
 the emperor. He gives up the right of investiture 
 ■with ring and staff; he guarantees the freedom 
 of the elections and consecrations of bishops in 
 Germany; he promises to restore all ecclesiasti- 
 cal estates in his possession, etc. But from tlie 
 beginning of the fifteenth century, when national 
 kingdoms were consolidating and monarchical 
 states organizing, the concordats changed char- 
 acter. It was now the Pope who had to make 
 concessions ; or, at all events, the concessions be- 
 came reciprocal. 
 
 The motion that the principal measures of re- 
 form should be agreed upon before the new pope 
 was elected could not be carried in the Council 
 of Constance ; and when Martin V. was elected 
 (Nov. 11, 1417), it soon became evident that he 
 intended to frustrate the reform. Nevertheless, 
 concordats were made with France, Germany, 
 and England. The two first are dated May 2, 
 1418; the last, July 11. All three are given by 
 Vox DEI! Hardt in liis (T^cum. Conxtanfiense Con- 
 di.. Leipzig, 1700, in toni. I p. 105.), torn. IV. 
 p. 156."), and torn. I. p. 1079, respectively. That 
 with England was considered as final, those with 
 France and Germany only as provisional. The 
 principal features of the.se concordats are limi- 
 tation of the number of cardinals, and provis- 
 ions with respect to their appointment, revenues, 
 etc. ; restrictions of the appi^als to the Pope, of 
 papal dispensations, of indulgences, etc. ; provis- 
 ions with respect to annates and other papal 
 ta.xes, to commendaa, etc. ; very severe rules 
 against simony, etc. 
 
 The opposition of the episcopal .system to the 
 papal .system, which had showed itself already in 
 the Council of Constance, became still more ap- 
 parent in the Coiuicil of Basel. A series of the 
 decrees of that council was adopted by the French 
 clergy, .July 7, 14-)8, and, under tlii! name of the 
 Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, incorporated with 
 the law of France. The popes, however, never 
 recognized the Pragmatic Sanction : at times it 
 was not maintained even by the French kings; 
 and Aug. 18, lOlfi, a new concordat was con- 
 cluded between Leo X. an<l Francis I., the 
 principal feature of which was. that it left the 
 nomination of bishops to the king, but made no 
 provision with respect to the term within which 
 the papal institution should follow. Much hag- 
 gling between the pa|ial curia and the royal gov- 
 ernment was the necessary result; and in U!82 
 the French clergy, headed by Bossuet. issued tlie 
 famous declaration in which the princijiles of 
 
 the episcopal system and the National Church 
 were formally asserted. See Hlsloire contenant 
 I'Origine de la Prai/maliijue Sanction et des Concor- 
 dalx, in Trailes de Drnits et Libertes de I'Eglise 
 Gallkane, Paris, 1731, tom. I. 
 
 By the Revolution, the Roman-Catholic Church 
 was abolished in France, but re-established by 
 the concordat of July 15, 1801, concluded between 
 Pins VII. and Napoleon Bonaparte. It was ex- 
 tremely humiliating to the Pope; and the high- 
 handed manner in which Napoleon carried on 
 the negotiations did not sweeten the pill. The 
 number of bishops was reduced from a hundred 
 and fifty-eight to sixty ; and the right of nomina- 
 tion was vested in the first consul. All claims 
 to property confiscated by the Revolution were 
 renounced, and the clergy were to be paid by the 
 State at a fixed rate. The worship should be 
 free, though subject to the general police regula- 
 tions of the country, etc. ^Vithout awaiting the 
 final consent of the Pope, Napoleon published 
 the concordat in the Monileur as part of the law 
 of France, and together with the concordat a 
 number of organic articles which the Pope had 
 never seen, and never would recognize. See PoR- 
 T.\LIS : Discour.i, Rapports, etc., sur le Concordat de 
 1801, et leu Articles Oryaniquen, Paris. 1845; Me- 
 moirs lies Cardinal Consrdri, Paris, 1864, 2 vols. ; 
 Haussonvillk : L'1-lylise Romaine el le Premier 
 Empire, Paris, 1S08; Aug. Tiikiner: Histoire 
 des deux Concordats, etc., Paris, 18B9. After the 
 restoration, the papal curia and the royal gov- 
 ernment labored in unison to etfect a complete 
 change. The concordat of 1801 was abolished, 
 and that of 1516 was restored. It was intended 
 to re-establish a number of episcopal sees, and to 
 endow them with real estate, etc. But, when 
 the proposition was laid before the chambers, it 
 met with such an opposition, that it had to be 
 abandoned. After the revolution of 1830, the 
 concordat of 181)1 was again adopted ; and, though 
 somewhat modified, it still forms the basis for the 
 relation between the (iallican Church and Rome. 
 
 'I"he reformatory decrees of the Council of 
 Basel were also adopted in Germany by the diet 
 of Mayence, March 26, 1439, though not in ex- 
 actly the same form as in France. The decrees 
 specially empha-sized by the Inslrumentum Ac- 
 cejitationis (see Kocii: Snnc/io I'rngmalica Ger- 
 manorum Illustrata, Strassburg, 1789) are those 
 concerning the regular recurrence of (voumenical 
 councils and the Po])e"s snlunission to them, con- 
 cerning provincial synods, the discipline of the 
 clergy, the appeals to the Pope, the annates, etc. 
 Eugene IV. tried to make resistance, and deposed 
 the archbishoji-electors of Treves and Cologne, 
 the two first prelates of the Cermiin Church, but 
 also known as the two stanehest adherents of the 
 Council of Basel. At the diet of Francfort, how- 
 ever (Marcii 21, 1440), all the electoral ]>rini'esof 
 Germany agreed to present an nllimahtm to the 
 Pope, — either he should accept the decrees of the 
 Council of Basel, restore the two archbishops, 
 convoke an wcumenical council in some (ierinan 
 city on May 1, 1447, or they would leave hia 
 guidance, and follow the council; which might 
 mean that they would follow Felix V., the Anti- 
 pope. lOiigene IV. yielded, lie accepted the 
 Concordata I'rincipnm h'riinrnfordensis , and bis 
 successor, Nicholas V., confirmed it. See Kocr,
 
 CONCORDAT. 
 
 527 
 
 CONCUBINAGE. 
 
 1. c. p. 197. Some modifications, liowover, wore 
 iiitroduocd in the final text of the concordat, 
 among othc>r.s a passage about restitution for 
 lo.sses wliich the papal see inifjht incur from the 
 restrictions of the appeals, indulgences, dispensa- 
 tions, annates, etc.; and the fullilfnent of this 
 obligation gave occasion to a new conconiat, that 
 of .Aschaffenburg, concluded at Vienna with 
 Frederic HI., Feb. 17, 1118. liy this agreement 
 (he Po[ie gained great advantages, especially with 
 respect to the nomination ami institution of bish- 
 ops. The relation between the (Jerinan Church 
 and Rome was thereby made vague and uncer- 
 tain, and remained so until, in the beginning of 
 the present century, the influence of the French 
 Revolution, the wars with France, and the disso- 
 lution of the German Empire, produced a com- 
 plete change. 
 
 The confusion began to break into the German 
 Church immediately after the peace of Luneville 
 (1801), when Germany adopted the French idi-a 
 of secularizing the ecclesiastical estates ; and at 
 the time of the Congress of Vienna it had become 
 so complete, that only five bishops were left in 
 the whole church of (iermany. The curia, how- 
 ever, did not want a new organization : it simply 
 demanded a restitution of the slalus quo atile hel- 
 ium, the restoration of the ecclesiastical property 
 and revenues, the re-establishment of the eccle- 
 siastical principalities, etc. This was soon found 
 to be an impo.ssibility ; and in 1815 negotiations 
 began between the Pope and the various German 
 states. Concordats were concluded with Bavaria 
 in 1817, with Prussia and Hanover in 1821, with 
 Baden and Wiirtemberg in 1827, with Hesse in 
 1829, etc. The most remarkable of all the Ger- 
 man concordats is that with Austria of Aug. 18, 
 185.5. See MoY and Vering: Arcltiv. fiir kalkol. 
 KirckenrechI , 21, 22. In Austria the Josephine 
 traditions were still continued, though tempered 
 by the character of ruler and the spirit of the 
 government. After the confusion of 1848, how- 
 ever, a strong re-action set in ; and the result 
 was a concordat, which, in the middle of the 
 nineteenth century, actually attempted to gal- 
 vanize into life the principles of the middle ages. 
 It opens with the declaration that the Roman- 
 Catholic Church shall enjoy all its prerogatives 
 and privileges in full and unimpeded, that is, no 
 other denomination shall be tolerated; and it 
 ends by cancelling as nidi and void all Austrian 
 laws which are opposed to the doctrines and prac- 
 tices of the Roman-Catholic Church. The most 
 important institutions in .social life, the most i]n- 
 portant forms of personal life, the school, the 
 university, literature, .science, art, matrimony, etc., 
 were delivered up, bound hand and foot, to the 
 papal curia. But the ex|ierinient failed. Most 
 of the provisions of the concordat couhl not possi- 
 bly be carried out; and the effect of those wdiich 
 could became so strikingly apparent in the battle 
 at Sadowa, that, in spite of the protest of the 
 Pope, no further effort was made to carry them 
 out. After the declaration of the new dogma of 
 the infallibility of the Pope in 1870, the whole 
 concordat was abolished. 
 
 For details respecting the other countries, 
 .Savoy, Spain, Naples, etc., see the respective arti- 
 cles. The most important works on the question 
 iu general are, E. Mijnch : Vollsliindige Sammlung 
 
 alter ilUeren unrl neneren Konkordale, Leipzig, 
 18.'5I)-31, 2 vols.; Nassi : Cunventiones fie liehiu 
 EcL, Mayence, 1870. ME.IEU. 
 
 CONCUBINAGE AMONG THE HEBREWS. 
 
 See Makuiaok am<).\(; rni; IIi:niiKws. 
 
 CONCUBINAGE. The word has two entirely 
 different .senses, — a good, as in application to 
 Hebrew usage, and a nad, as in use among u.s. 
 The ancients recognized inferior wives, who yet 
 had rights, and whose children were legitimate. 
 The Romans had three sorts of " marriages," which 
 might be simultaneous in any particular case. 
 The highest was a genuine marriage, with certain 
 rites. The children were full heirs: the wife wa.s 
 maler familias. In the second sort the wife wa.s 
 called a uxor tanlum (" wife " only, in contradis- 
 tinction to mater J'amilUis, "mother"). No for- 
 malities were required, only residence for a year 
 uninterruptedly in the man's house. The bond 
 was a loose one, for an absence of tliree succes- 
 sive nights broke it. The third .sort was simple 
 concubinage. The children were not called bas- 
 tards, yet they could not inherit This last con- 
 dition was legalized. Tlie Justinian Code calls it 
 ticila cnnnuetudo ("allowed custom"). This legal 
 concubinage is still known in Germany, Austria, 
 and Denmark, where morganatic (" left-handed," 
 because the man gives the left hand) marriages 
 occasionally take place between persons of vary- 
 ing ranks, e.g., a prince and a connnoner. In 
 such cases neither the wife nor the children have 
 claim upon the man's name, title, or estate ; yet 
 the marriage is real, as among the Romans, in the 
 sense that infidelity in the woman is adjudged 
 adultery. 
 
 The Christian Church was founded in a com- 
 munity accustomed to far laxer notions on the 
 relations of the sexes than ours ; and some schol- 
 ars see in Paul's demand that " a bishop nnist be 
 the husband of one wife" (1 Tim. iii. 2) a repu- 
 diation by the apostle of tho.se who had concu- 
 bines. The Church could not legislate against 
 such unions in all cases; yet for a married man to 
 have a concubine was declared to be adultery. 
 So Augustine, in Sermo CCXXIV. (.Migne's ed., 
 tom. V. 1093). But the connnon ca.se, where 
 the man was unmarried, was differently dealt 
 with. The Apostolical Constitutions, dating from 
 before 325 (see title), in a section (}'iii. 32) re-. 
 puted to come from Paul, siiys, " Let a concubine 
 who is slave to an unbeliever, and confines her- 
 self to her master alone, be received;" but, "if 
 one of the faithful hath a concubine, if she be 
 a bond-.servant, let him leave off that way, and 
 marry in a legal manner; if she be a free woman, 
 let him marry her in a lawful nuimier : if he does 
 not, let him be rejected." It may be said, there- ■ 
 fore, that, before the fifth century, the Church 
 tolerated concubinage. So the Council of Toledo 
 (.\.D. 400) in its seventeenth canon : " If any one 
 has not a wife, but instead, a concubine, let him 
 not be kept from communion " (Hefele, Concilien- 
 (leschtchte, 1st ed., vol. ii. p. 07). But, from that 
 time on, the Church frowned upon the custom. 
 So Leo I. (458), in his decretals, declared mar- 
 riage was the only moral sexual union, although 
 he did not directly condemn concubinage. See, 
 also, the canons of the following .synods, as given 
 in Hefele, vols, iv.-vii. : Mantua (827), Paris 
 (829), Mainz (851), c. 12, " Whoever has a con-
 
 CONCUBINAGE. 
 
 CONFERENCE. 
 
 cubinc not regularly pledged to him can leave 
 lier, and many another;" c. 1-3, " \\'hoever has 
 both wife and concubine must be kept from com- 
 munion; not so he who has only the latter." 
 'I'ribur (89.5), c. 3S, "Jlarriage is only allowable 
 among equals. A man who already has a concu- 
 bine can marry ; but, if he has maiTied an eman- 
 cipated slave, he must remain faitliful to her." 
 The great .synod in Rome (1059), c. 12, '• A lay- 
 man who lias both wife and concubine will be 
 excommunicated." Piacenza (lOO.j), which i.s very 
 strong, c. 1, "Xobody will be allowed to do pen- 
 ance who does not renounce concubinage, liate, and 
 other deadly sins." The Roman synod of 1099 also 
 forbade the Eucharist to all living in concubinage. 
 The Hungarian national synod at Ofeu (1279), 
 c. 47, "Xo laic may publicly have a concubine." 
 Xougarot (130.3), c. 14, '• All notorious conciibl- 
 nators, usurers, and adulterers are to be publicly 
 announced as excommunicated;" c. 5, no concu- 
 bine was to be tolerated by the priests, under 
 penalty of a heavy fine. Valladolid (1322), c. 22, 
 " A married man who has openly a concubine, and 
 also every unmarried man who has an infidel con- 
 cubine, is ipso facto excommunicated." Benevent 
 (1331), c. 57, " Xo married man is allowed a con- 
 cubine." I'alencia (13S8), similar to Valladolid. 
 Copenhagen (1425) ordered the parish priests to 
 announce to those living in concubinage that they 
 must separate within a year. As will be seen by 
 the above-quoted canons, concubinage was a very 
 common practice; and the reason why it lasted, 
 notwithstanding its repeated condemnation, was 
 l)ecanse the clergy very commonly set the example, 
 for the Church called their unions with women, 
 which were to all intents and purposes marriages, 
 " concubinages," and in many places the payment 
 of a yearly tax to the bishop secured tliem immu- 
 nity from molestation. See Celib.\cy. It was 
 therefore evident to the earnest moralists that the 
 evil auiong the laity could best be reached tlirough 
 the clergy : hence the reform-legislation in the 
 Council of Basel (1431-49), which was of the mo.st 
 rigorous description. The guilty priests were to 
 be punished with loss of position, imprisonment, 
 and fine. Concubines and all suspicious women 
 were to be driven from the liouses of the clergy, 
 and the children born of such unions were not to 
 be allowed to remain with their father. 
 
 In the wake of this earnest eii'ort to clear the 
 Church of reproach came the Lateran Council 
 (1516), imdertlie guidance and inspiration of Leo 
 X., which inauguraUui chnn^li-legishition against 
 the unmarried men who had concubines. The 
 Council of Trent (1513-G3) likewise, not only put 
 this sort of concubinage under the ban of the 
 Church (sess. XXIV., c. 8, J)e lief. Matrimonii), 
 but revised the marriage legulations, and thus 
 made the distinction between concubinage and 
 man'iage more iirononnced; for tlie bridegroom 
 and bride must pidiiish their intention before tlieir 
 own pa.stor ami two witnesses. According to the 
 present law in the Roman-Catholic (Tnurh, every 
 commerce of the .sexes other than in lawful mar- 
 riage is forbidd(tn and punisliable. If. afti^r thn'e 
 warnings, the concniiini' is not given up, both 
 parties are put nndi-rthe ban ; and it", in the course 
 of a year, a 8ei)aration does not take place, tlie 
 »;oiicnl)ine i.s remored, if necessary, by the civil 
 power. The cunon.s of the Council of 'I'rent (.sess. 
 
 XXIV., De Sacramento Matrimonii) have nothing 
 to say about concubinage. In canon 2 we read, 
 " If anj' one saith that it is lawful for Christiana 
 to have several wives at the same time, and that 
 this is not prohibited by any divine law, let him 
 be anathema." This is rather a prohibition of 
 polygamy (Schaff, Creeds, \ol. ii. p. 195). — In 
 Protestant churches the immorality of concubin- 
 age has never been doubted. It constitutes ample 
 ground for the excommunication of a member. 
 The connivance by the Lutheran Reformers at 
 the bigamy of Philip of Hesse is an exceptional 
 ca.se. " SAMUEL M. JACKSON. 
 
 CONCURSUS DIVINUS, a dogmatical term 
 referring to the relation which exists, in the evo- 
 lution of nature and history, between the divine 
 agency, as cattsa Jinalis, and the natural agencies, 
 as causce efficientes. In the Bible the idea does 
 not occur. The Bible says that the earth covers 
 itself with grass and herbs, that men and animals 
 nudtiply, etc. ; and it also says that it is God who 
 covers the earth with grass and herbs, and God 
 who makes men and animals multiply. And. 
 again, the Bible says that we act from the impulses 
 of our own hearts, and it also says that in <!od 
 alone we live, and move, and have our being. The 
 idea belongs to the dogmatic speculation, and is 
 the result of philosophical reflection. It has been 
 most elaborately expounded by the schoolmen 
 (Thomas Aquinas) and the theologians of the 
 old Lutheran orthodox school (Gerhard. Qnen- 
 stedt); while modern dogmatists seem most in- 
 clined to leave the questio.i in the form it has in 
 the Bible, and refer the whole matter to philoso- 
 phy. 
 
 CONDIGNITY and CONCRUITY, or vieritum 
 de condif/no and merilum de covrjriin, are terms n.scd 
 by the schoolmen after Thomas Aquinas in their 
 attempts at reducing the doctrines of grace into 
 one harmonious system ; meritmn de conr/ruo de- 
 noting the inborn ability of the human will to 
 perform certain works of a lower order of obedi- 
 ence, thereby throwing itself in the direction of 
 divine grace, while merilum de condiijno denotes 
 the ability to perform works wliich are pleasing 
 and acceptable to God, after the infusion of grace, 
 and by the aid of the .Spirit. 
 
 CONE, Spencer Houghton, D.D., b. at Prince- 
 ton, \..I., April 30, 1785; d. in New York, Aug. 
 28, 1855. After teaching for several years, in 
 1805 he went on the stage, and played w ith great 
 success. But in 1812 he became a journalist, and 
 in 1815 a Baptist minister; and the cliajilain to 
 Congress, 1815-10. He was pastor of the Baptist 
 church in Alexandria, D.C, 18Ui-23; of the 
 Oliver-street Church, New York, 1823-41, and of 
 the first Bajitist Chinch, from 1841 till his death: 
 a corresponding secretary ot the .\merican Bible 
 Society, 1832-35, but resigned because of its action 
 in the niatter of th(! Burme.se translation of the 
 New Testament; and w.is the leader in the forma- 
 tion of the American and Foreign Bilile Society 
 (1831)), and later of the American Bible I'nion 
 (18.)0), of botli of which siicielies he was presi- 
 dent. See Bini.K. SociKTiKs, ]>i). 203. 2t)l. His 
 Memoir was written by his sous, New York, 18,57 
 
 CONFERENCE. I. — In the Roman-Catuo- 
 Lii; CiiUKtir llir term is n.sed to describe, (1) the 
 .a,ssiMid>lies of priests called by theni.Helves ot free 
 choice pa.storal conferences, and (2), tiio.se called
 
 CONFERENCE. 
 
 329 
 
 CONFERENCE. 
 
 by the constituted colleges of priests, chapter 
 conferences. 1. Although the Roman-Catholic 
 Cliurch docs not forbid, she by no means favors, 
 such irri'gular gatherings. She demands tliat 
 they shall be limiteil both in numbers and in 
 topics, ami shall be under the entire control of 
 the onlinariat. The amount of liberty enjoyed 
 may, therefore, bo imagined. Yet such course is 
 eminently wise, for Rome has never pretended to 
 be the friend of free speech or ot progress. 
 
 2. The second kind of conference first took 
 place in the ninth century, as a cons(^qu(!nce of 
 the great size of the diocesan synods, which made 
 it impossible for all the clergy to meet together ; 
 so district meetings were ordained. These con- 
 ferences were held upon the first day of every 
 month, if it was not a feast (hence the name 
 Calenilir), and were called by the archpresbyter 
 or dean. Ilarduin gives account of several. One 
 was held in London, 1237 ; but after that date 
 there is no record of any, until, in l.Oti.'), Cardinal 
 Carl Borromeo issued directions for their organi- 
 zation and guidance, and accordingly several met. 
 They were looked upon as substitutes for the dio- 
 cesan synods, but have failed to become general 
 in the Roman-Catholic Church. See Wetzkk u. 
 Wktte, Kirchen-Lexlkon, s. " Conferenzen " (1st 
 ed. vol. ii. pp. 760-709). 
 
 II. — In the LuTiiKUAN Church in Germany 
 there are diocesan clerical conferences, at which the 
 superintendents preside. For the conference in 
 the Lutheran Church of the United States see title. 
 
 III. — Two famous and fruitful English eccle- 
 siastical gatherings are known as conferences. 1. 
 The Udinplnii Court Conference. Hampton Court, 
 which is near London, the favorite residence of 
 Henry VIII., and one of the principal royal pal- 
 aces until Geoi'ge 1 1., was built by Cardinal W'olsey, 
 and by him given to his king. There, on Saturday, 
 Monday and Wednesday, Jan. 14, 16, and 18, 1601 
 (old style, 1003), a conference between four lead- 
 ing Puritans, and nine bishops, and eight deans, 
 was held, presided over by King James I., who 
 also took a leading part in the discussions. The 
 leaders were John Whitgift, Archbishop of Can- 
 terbury, Richard Bancroft, Bishop of London, and 
 ])r. John Reynolds, President of Corpus Christi 
 College, Oxford, the spokesman for the Puritans. 
 The conference was nominally called to discuss the 
 usages complained of by the Puritans ; such as non- 
 residence, pluralities, the use of the cross in bap- 
 tism, the cap and the surplice, and other ceremonial 
 jieculiarities: but in reality tlie prelates were so 
 insolent toward their adversaries, and so servile 
 to the king, and the Puritans were so intimidated, 
 that discussion was impossible. Yet the confer- 
 ence had one most important result, — the revision 
 of our English Bible. Dr. Reynolds suggested 
 it; and the king, seeing in the proposition a 
 chance to immortalize his reign, at once assent- 
 ed, and ordered the work to be done. And so 
 appeared, seven years thereafter, King James's 
 Version. Besides, the conference made some 
 alterations in the Liturgy, forbade women's bap- 
 tizing of inf,ants (formerly frequent), inserted "re- 
 mission of sins " in the Rubric of Ab-solution, and 
 altered some words in the Dominical Gosjiels. 
 See Fuller : Church Histori/ of Britain, vol. v. pp. 
 266-303; Teggs's ed., London, 1808, vol. iii. pp. 
 193-215; PuocTOU : Histortj of the Book of Com- 
 
 85 — 1 
 
 mon Prtii/er, lip. 88-93; Schafk: Creeds, vol. i. 
 pp. 7().)-70!). 
 
 2. 'Th(! Sacoij Conference wius held in the Sa- 
 voy Palace, London, from A])ril 15 to July 2.'5, 
 1601, b(itween twenty-one Episcopalians (twelve 
 bishops and nine assistants) and an equal number 
 of Presbyterians. The object of the meeting was 
 the revision of the Prayer-book ; but such was 
 the temper on both sides, that no results were ar- 
 rived at. Baxter embodied the changes desired 
 by the Pviritans in his Liturgy, the hasty work of 
 a fortnight. The book was never u.sed, yet ha-s a 
 certain value. It wa-s republished by I'rofessor 
 C. VV. Shields of I'rinceton, Philadelphia, 1807; 
 new edition, \ew York, 1880. 
 
 IV. — In the Metiiodist-Epi.scopal Ciiurcm 
 in America there are ftiur judicatories .so named. 
 1. The General Conference, which meets once in 
 four years, is compo.sed of ministeiial and lay 
 delegates ; one ministerial for every forty-five 
 members of each .\nnual Conference, and two 
 lay for each Annual Conference. Two-thirds of 
 the whole number of delegates constituti; tlie 
 quorum. The two classes of delegates deliberate 
 together, but vote separately whenever such sepa- 
 rate vote is demanded by a third of either order. 
 One of the general superintendents presides. 
 The conference has full power to make rules and 
 regulations for the Church, provided .such enact- 
 nu'nts do not alter in essentials the doctrine nor 
 the polity of the Church. ^^ Prodded, nevertheless, 
 that iqion the concurrent recommendation of 
 three-fourths of all the members of the several 
 Annual Conferences who shall be present and 
 vote on such reconnnendation, then a majority of 
 two-thirds of the General Conference succeeding 
 shall suthce to alter any of the restrictions [except 
 in relation to doctrine] ; and also, whenever such 
 alteration sh.all have been first reconnnended by 
 two-thirds of the General Conference, so soon as 
 three-fourths of the members of all the Annual 
 Conferences shall have concurred as aforesaid, 
 such alteration shall take effect " {Book of Disci- 
 pline, ed. of 1880, tlf 03-72, pp. 47-52). _ 
 
 2. The Annual Conference appoints its own 
 place of meeting; but the length of its sessions, 
 over a \\ eek, is determined by the bishop who pre- 
 sides. There are now (1880) ninety-four annual 
 conferences (Discipline, pp. 231-258). Attendance 
 is obligatory upon all travelling preachers. The 
 conference takes cognizance of all matters prop- 
 erly ecclesiastical, collects statistics of member- 
 ship, baptisms, church-property, Sunday schools, 
 benevolent collections, ministerial support, and 
 current expenses, and publishes the same. It 
 elects and ordains deacons and elders. Particular 
 attention is given to the mission churches; and all 
 those able to support themselves are not allowed 
 to remain on the list of its missions. A certified 
 copy of the minutes is sent to the General Con- 
 ference (Discipline, TfH 73-80, jip. 53-61). 
 
 3. The District Conference is composed of the 
 travelling and local preachers, the exhorters, the 
 district stewards, and one Sunday-school superin- 
 tendent and one class-leader from each pastoral 
 charge in the district. It meets once or twice a 
 year. A bishop, or else the presiding elder, pre- 
 sides. Minutes sent to the Annual Conference. 
 Its province is the superintendence of church 
 matters in the district in a manner similar to the
 
 CONFESSION OF FAITH. 
 
 530 
 
 CONFIRMATION. 
 
 Quarterly Cdn'fereace ('Discipline, IHT 87-94, pp. 
 Ul-(i8). 
 
 4. The QuavterlyConference "is composed of all 
 the travelling and local preachers, exhorters, stew- 
 ards, class-leaders, and trustees of the churches 
 in the circuits or stations, and the first superin- 
 tendents of our Sunday schools ; said trustees and 
 superintendents being members of our church, 
 and approved by the Quarterly Conference." 
 The presiding elder, and, in his absence, the 
 j)reacher-in-charge, is president. The regular 
 business of the conference is to hear complaints, 
 and to receive and try appeals, take cognizance of 
 all the local preachers and exhorters in the cir- 
 cuit or station, to inquire into their usefulness, to 
 license proper persons to preach, and to try, sus- 
 pend, deprive of ministerial office and credentials, 
 expel or acquit, any local preacher against wliom 
 charges may be preferred, to elect trustees and 
 also stewards, and to supervise the Sunday schools 
 within the circuit, and to remove unworthy super- 
 intendents. The order of business in the respec- 
 tive successive Quarterly Conferences is minutely 
 and 'clearly laid down. 
 
 V. — The AVesleyans of England and Ireland 
 have annual conferences attended by all the min- 
 isters. The Freewill Baptists, as well as 
 other minor religious bodies, call their annual 
 meeting by this term. 
 
 COtsJFESSION OF FAITH. See Creed. 
 
 CONFESSION OF SINS. Roman-Catholic 
 writers like to date the institution of private or 
 auricular confession back to tlie very first days 
 of the Christian Chiwcli. See Bixterim: Dcnl- 
 icUrdir/Keile>t,lii2'^'-y-i,\. 1,3; Klee : Die lieidile, 
 1823; SiEMEUs: Die sacrament. Beichte, 1814. 
 Already Dallasus, however (Z)e Sacramcn'.ali s. 
 Auric. Confcssione, Geneva, 1031), proved that 
 this assertion rested on a confusion between pri- 
 vate and public confession. See, for the latter, 
 the article on I'enance. Private confession ori- 
 ginated in the monastery, wliere only transgres- 
 sions of the rules of tlie order were subject to 
 public confession and penance. According to its 
 idea, monastic life presupposes all sin impossi- 
 ble but sin in thought, and this was to be con- 
 fessed privately to the abbot. See .Ieuome : De 
 Reijul. Monacliur., in Op. XI. 499; and Basil: 
 lleyul. Breo., in Op. H. 492. Outside the monas- 
 terj% private confession at first met with opposi- 
 tion from the side of the clergy. The Bishops 
 of Apulia and Canqiania demanded that sins 
 confessed in private should be made publicly 
 known to the congregation ; and it was this 
 demand whicli first caused Leo the Great to 
 officially recognize and confirm private confession 
 as a li^gal institution. See Op. Lconi.i M., ed. 
 Balleui.m, Ep. 1G8. In the eiglith and ninth 
 centuries tlio practice thus legalized was made 
 compulsory. The synod of Liege (710) decreed 
 that every person shovdd confcs.s once a yvnr to 
 the priest of lii.s parish ; and the can. 21 of 
 the Lateral! Council of 121.3 confirms the old 
 establislied custom. Clirodegang's rules (Manst, 
 XIV. 313) demanded that ccclesia.stics should 
 confess twice a year; an<l, while the synods of 
 the .sixteenth century reconniiended lay ])e(iple to 
 confes.s frequently, tliey made the confession of 
 ecclesiastics weekly (1L\rt/.iieim, \TL 079). 
 The Council of Trent (sci'3. '2o, can. 10) decreed 
 
 that nuns should confess once a month. It wa-s 
 also hi the thirteenth century that the formula of 
 absolution used by the priest, Domirms nhsulvnt 
 (" Jlay the Lord absolve thee "), was changed to 
 E</n le uhsnh-o ("I absolve thee"). When the 
 right of hearing confessions was granted to the 
 Doininiean order, conflicts arose with the paro- 
 
 chial clert 
 
 and in 1321 the chancellor of the 
 
 University of Paris denianiied that confessions 
 made to a Dominican friar should be repeated to 
 the priest of the parish, but Pope .John XXII. 
 refused his confirmation. The Keformers abso- 
 lutely rejected compulsory confession, though the 
 Lutheran churches generally retained confes.'don 
 in some form as a preparation to the celebration 
 of the Lord's Supper. VON ZEZSCHWITZ. 
 
 CONFIRMATION. In the Apo.stolic Church 
 baiitisin was invariably connected with imposi- 
 tion of hands, by which act the gift of the Holy 
 Spirit was communicated, and without which the 
 sacrament was not complete. From several pas- 
 sages, however, of the Xew Testament (such as 
 Ileb. vi. 2, Acts xix. 0, viii. 12-19) it would .seem 
 as if these two features were or could be kept 
 separate ; the latter, tlie imposition of hands, 
 being considered an apostolical, and afterwards 
 an episcopal, prerogative ; and this direction tlie 
 development took during the first century. Ter- 
 tullian describes the sacramental act as consist- 
 ing of three distinct elements. — the baptism 
 proper, the anointing with chrism, and the impo- 
 sition of hands. The question of the validity of 
 heretical baptism gave occasion to a still sharper 
 separation between these elements, as the Jiarty 
 which refused to repeat tlie baptism maintained 
 the necessity of the imposition of hiiiuls; and 
 the circumstance that the baptism jnoper was 
 administered by the lower ranks of the clergy, 
 while the imposition of hands was reserved tor 
 the bishops, finally caused a separation also in 
 time between these two acts. Both Jerome and 
 Augustine were opposed to the tendency involved 
 in this development; but the interest of tlie hie- 
 rarchical system, and the tremendous growth of 
 this interest, finally forced the measure through; 
 and by the synods of Lyons (1271) and Flonuice 
 (1439) the imposition of iiands by the bishop, 
 the cpi.scopal act of confirmation, was establislied 
 as the second sacrament of the Koman-Catholic 
 Church. 
 
 The sacrament, which, in accordance with the 
 various aspects from wliich it may be viewed, is 
 called confinnatin, sipilluni, consiipiittio, cliriama, 
 unclio, or imposilio 7>ia>iijiii, is administered by 
 the bi.shop at various places of his diocese, and 
 at various times of the year, according to con- 
 venience. The catechumen must have filled his 
 seventh year. lie lias generally a .sponsor, and 
 receives a confirmation-name. A spiritual prep- 
 aration is recommended, but not deniaiuled : the 
 external signs — fasting, cutting off the liair, etc. 
 — are siiflieient. The princijial featun^ of the 
 act is the anointing with tlie chrism. After an 
 introduction with prayer, the liislii)]) makes tlie 
 sign of the cross on the forehead of the eatechu- 
 iiien with the prepare<l and consecrated oil, ad- 
 dre.ssing him as follows: Sii/no te ,v(V/r(» orari.^ et 
 confirino Ic rhrifinntc siiluli.i. Tlie sacrament is 
 not absolutely necessary, but cannot bi^ repealed : 
 its effect is the fouimunicalion of the Holy Spirit,
 
 CONFLICT OF DUTIES. 
 
 531 
 
 CONFUCIUS, 
 
 ail equipnieiit for thu battle of life. In the 
 lireek Church it lias essentially the same charac- 
 ter as ill the Koiiiaii, with the exception that it 
 can be adiniiiistered by every priest. 
 
 From the very first the Keforiiiers rejected con- 
 tirinatioii as a sacramental act, — partly because it 
 lacks the true characteristics of a sacrament (it 
 was not established by Jesus ; and it involves no 
 divine promise), and partly because it detracts 
 from the sacrament of baptism. Calvin has es- 
 l«!cially expounded this latter point with great 
 vigor. It was not the idea, however, of the Ite- 
 fonners simply to abolish the institution without 
 putting any thing in its place. There is also an 
 evangelical conhrination, though without any 
 sacramental character. Most closely this new 
 institution resembles the old Roniau-Catliolic in 
 the Anglican Church, where it is administered 
 by the bishop or his assistants, and while the 
 catechumens are still very young. In the other 
 lleformed churches, and al.so in the l^utheran, it 
 was often put in a certain relation to the first 
 communion as a preparation for the sacrament 
 of thu Lord's Supper; the catechetical exercises 
 being its most characteristic feature. It was not 
 generally adopted, however, nor did it develop 
 any high degree of vigor until the time of Spener. 
 His idea of confirmation was that of a renewal of 
 the baptismal pact, a conscious and responsible 
 jussuinption, by the individual him.self, of the 
 vow, which, at his baptism, had been made for 
 him by his sponsors. Its principal features were 
 the catechetical exercises, the confession, and the 
 vow, and its purpose a kind of new-kindled or 
 revived devotion. In this form it was almost 
 unanimously and universally adopted by the 
 Lutheran churches of Germany and Scandinavia. 
 In the Calvinistic churches ot the United States 
 a public confession of faith, prior to the fir.st 
 communion, is the substitute for confirmation. 
 See Baciimann : Die Konjirmalimi der Kate- 
 chumenen in der eoangdischen Kirchc, Berlin, 
 18.32. C. WElZS.iCKER. 
 
 CONFLICT OF DUTIES. See Duties, Con- 
 1 i.u^r OK. 
 
 CONFUCIUS (a name Latinized from Kiing 
 fu-tsze, i.e., the "Master Kung") was born in the 
 district of Tsow, in the feudal kingdom of Ln, 
 now the southern part of Shantung, in the year 
 5.51 B.C. His father was governor of the district 
 at the time, — a man of prowess, and honored by 
 his country, who died at the age of seventy-three, 
 when his son was three years old. His mother, 
 though struggling with poverty, carefully cher- 
 ished his love of learning; but our information 
 concerning his early training is .scanty and legen- 
 dary. His grave demeanor and precocious mind 
 early attracted attention, and he was led to study 
 carefully the ancient laws and records. At nine- 
 teen he married. The following year he became 
 a keeper of granaries, and overseer of public 
 fields, in which the reforms he instituted gained 
 liim the favor of his sovereign. Induced by the 
 disregard for law among his countrymen to ex- 
 amine more closely the ancient writings, and 
 satisfied as to the ability of their teachings to 
 check existing evils, he oegan to gather puyiils 
 around him. Although only twenty-two, his 
 reputation attracted many young men to his 
 house ; and tlieir numbers increased as the value 
 
 of his instructions was recognized. The death 
 of his mother when he was twenty-four afforded 
 him opportunity to offer a sincere tribute to her 
 memory, and al.so to revive an old custom of 
 retiring from olhce in order to mourn three years, 
 upon the death of a jiarent. His exanijile ha.s 
 been followed to the present day. With the 
 exception of a visit to the court of the Duke of 
 Lu, he devoted the next ten years of his life to 
 still further .study and instruction of his numer- 
 ous disciples, all the while rising in influence a.s a 
 public t<:aclier and learned man, one who wa.s 
 (|ualified to rule and advise in affaii's of the state, 
 'i'his course of life he continued till he was thirty- 
 four years old, when liis wi.sh to enter [lublic 
 .service was gratified. One of the chief minister.') 
 of Lu on his death-bed (B.C. 017) advised his son 
 to join the school of Confucius to learn the nature 
 of ceremonial observances, in order to better per- 
 form his othcial duties. He and a near relative 
 did so ; and they gave new eclat to the master, 
 who was ere long, at their representation, sent by 
 his sovereign, Duke Chao, to the imperial court at 
 Loh-yang, to study the rites then in use, so as to 
 introduce them into Lu. He went as a private 
 man, to see and learn, which he was i)ermitted to 
 do without restraint, and returned home the same 
 year. 
 
 Soon after, Duke Chao was obliged to fly to the 
 .adjoining state of Tsi to save his life ; and Con- 
 fucius followed as a loyal subject. Not approv- 
 ing his position there, the sage returned home. 
 He was now known as a great teacher. Lu was 
 distracted by civil strife, from which he managed 
 to keep aloof during the next fifteen years. In 
 the year 500 Duke Chao's brother Ting caine into 
 power in Ln, and the rival factions were gradu- 
 ally put down. Confucius was fifty years old 
 when he was appointed magistrate of the town 
 of Chung-tu. The influence of his stern virtue, 
 and the wisdom of his administration, wrought a 
 speedy revolution in the social and economical 
 condition of the place. The next year he was 
 rai.sed to be minister of crime, in which he intro- 
 duced many reforms to simplify and enforce the 
 administration of justice. These reforms, how- 
 ever successful, excited the envy of neighboring 
 lords, whose efforts finally succeeded in seducing 
 the ruler of Lu to remove the sage from office 
 (B.C. 496). 
 
 During the next thirteen years he wandered 
 from state to state, at one time honored, at anoth- 
 er in danger of his life, but always surrounded 
 by a band of faithful disciples. In many respects 
 it was the most useful and influential period of 
 his career. When sixty-six years old, he returned 
 to Lu, and employed his remaining years in com- 
 pleting his literary works. He died 478 B.C., at 
 the age of seventy-three. His wife and only son, 
 Kung Li, had both died before him; but he was 
 honored and mourned by many attached followers. 
 His tomb at Kiuh-fau in Shantung is surrounded 
 by an extensive collection of temples, halls, and 
 courts, and has been recently described by Rev. A. 
 Williamson in his Jmirnei/fs in North China, vol. I. 
 chap. xiii. His descendants still live in that 
 region, and the head of the family is known as 
 the Sacred Duke Kung. Though discouraged 
 and neglected at the end of his career, Confucius, 
 through his literary works, was destined to com-
 
 CONFUCIUS. 
 
 532 
 
 CONGREGATIO. 
 
 )iel such homage from his fellow-men as no other 
 man lias ever had, and which amounts in reality 
 to worship. In every city of China, down to 
 those of the third order, there is a temple to him, 
 and in every college and school he is venerated 
 and adored. 
 
 The ideal of Confucius, to tlm attainment of 
 which all his etforts and teachings were directed, 
 was a condition of happy tranquillity prevailing 
 throughout the empire. He considered that this 
 could be accomplished by maintaining the sacred- 
 ness of the universal obligations of liuman society; 
 viz., those between sovereign and minister, be- 
 tween father and son, between husband and wife, 
 between elder and younger brother, and between 
 friends, each one faithfully performing the recip- 
 rocal duties arising from each. lie claimed, to a 
 oerUiin degree, miliniited authority for the sover- 
 eign over the minister, father over the son, liu.s- 
 band over the wife, elder brother over younger; 
 and he enjoined kind and upright dealings among 
 friends, thus inculcating as his leading tenets 
 subordination to superiors, and virtuous conduct. 
 In harmony with the practical character of his 
 system, he taugiit, with great minuteness, rules 
 for social intercourse, and laid special stress upon 
 the care and education of the young, which he 
 regai'ded as the foundation of tlie welfare of the 
 state. His teachings in regard to political and 
 social morality are based essentially upon the 
 same gi'ounds. He taught that the sovereign 
 was the father of his people, and as such entitled 
 to the same obedience, mingled with reverence, 
 wliich is due from a child to its parent. His idea 
 of goviirnmeiit was a jiaternal despotism. But 
 on tlie otiier hand, ascribing great importance to 
 the power of example, he insisted upon personal 
 rectitude and good government as the jiledges 
 and arguments for a ruler's maintenance in power. 
 The genei'al tendency of the philosophy of Con- 
 fucius is good ; and, compared with that of fireece 
 and Rome, it takes precedence by the purity of 
 iUs teachings and the attention paid to the rules 
 governing the connnon intercourse of life; but is 
 inferior to them in the profundity which was ex- 
 hibit/ed by those philosophers in their gropings 
 after truth. 
 
 Throughout his works and teachings Confucius 
 seldom referred to the great problems of human 
 condition and destiny. To his practical mind 
 the consideration of theology and metaphysics 
 seemed uncertain and useless in its results ; and 
 he evaded, it he, did not rebuke, his disciples, for 
 prying into things beyond tliinr depth. " To 
 give one's self earnestly," said he, "to the duties 
 due to men, and, while respecting spiritual be- 
 ings, to keep aloof from them, may be called 
 wisdom." Tliis contains tiie essence of his teacli- 
 in'j;s ill regard to the ancient creed of China. 
 \Vliile, he enjoined res|)ec.t for its twofold worshi)i 
 :ind ndigious observances, enforcing his command 
 by his exainp)le, yet he crushed out every spiritual 
 t(!ndency by di.scount«nancing speculation iijion 
 higher tilings. It ha-s been questioned whether 
 he even did not <loiibt the exist<!nce of a divine 
 I'ower, a:id regard the uiiivei'se as !i vast self- 
 sustaining mechanism ; but he undoubtedly gave 
 occasion to his disciples for siicji a belief by his 
 silence upon the subject, and liis use of the iiideli- 
 nite term "lieaven." 
 
 For twenty-three centuries Confucius has held 
 complete sway over the minds of nearly a third 
 of the human race. The source of this influence 
 may be ascribed to the use of the Four Books 
 and the Five Classics as text^books. In adopting 
 them as the text-books at the national exanuna- 
 tions, the rulers of China took the best moral 
 giudes their litei'ature afforded, and trained their 
 rising youth in the best principles of government 
 they possessed. Kot only does every scholar 
 learn at the lap of Confucius, but all civil offices 
 are reached only after going through the com- 
 petitive examinations in those nine classics. His 
 doctrines are thus deeply impressed upon the Chi- 
 nese mind. But, however great his influence has 
 been in the past, it is destined to wane in the 
 near future. His syst^-m is not capable of being 
 expanded proportionately with the progress of the 
 nation, for it lacks the high sanctions and the 
 vital force of Christianity. 
 
 For particulars of the life and times of Con- 
 fucius, see Leggk : Chinese Classics, vol. I. chap. 
 V. of the Prolegomena, pp. 56-120, ed. 1861; it 
 contains all that is really trustworthy. See also 
 Pauthikr : La Chine, pp. 121-183 ; Tiiohnton : 
 Hist, of China, vol. I. pp. 151-21.5; Mc'moires con- 
 ccrnant les Chinois, torn. HI. and V. passim. The 
 Ahn'<ie Historique ties principaux trails de la Vie de 
 Con/'ucius contains twenty-four native drawings, 
 finely engraved by Holman, Paris, illustrating 
 those ancient times. Lkggf. : 'J'he Ueligions of 
 China ; Confucianism and Taoism compared with 
 Christianili/,'honA., 1880. S. WELI.S WILLt.VM.S. 
 
 CONGREGATIO DE AUXILIIS DIVINE 
 GRATI/E. The name is applied to the commi.s- 
 siou ordered by Pope Clement VHl., in 15i)S, to 
 examine the Jesuit Molina's book, Concordia lilicri 
 arbilrii cum t/ratia ("On Harmony between the 
 Freedom of the Will and Divine Grace"), Lisbon, 
 1588. The occa-sion of this famous examination 
 was briefly this : A Spanish Dominican, Domiui- 
 cus Banen, issued a book on the doctrine of grace, 
 which w.is aimed at the newly-established order 
 of the Jesuits. Molina prepared the above-men- 
 tioned book, which received ere i.ssue the appro- 
 bation of the censor of books in the Spanish 
 Inquisition, and of the Portuguese arch-inquisi- 
 tor, who had examined it on conqilaint of lianez. 
 The work met at first with almost universal aji- 
 plau.se. The Dominicans alone, >mdor the leader- 
 ship of lianez, opposed it strenuously, on the 
 ground that it was Semi-Pelagian in its te.achings, 
 inasmuch as it emphasized the freedom of the 
 human will at the cost of divine grace, really 
 made the divine action dependent on the human, 
 and thus impeached the authority of Augustine 
 and Thomas A(iuinas, and revived the old Pela- 
 gian and Semi-Pelagian theology. It was said, 
 moreover, that the Moliuists denied the necessity 
 of divine grace at all in the work of human salva- 
 tion, and ascribed to purely natural works the 
 first, rank of merit. 
 
 So between the Dominicans and the Jesuits a 
 great fight broke out, and continned for many 
 years. In the begiiniing of 15;»8 the Pope ordered 
 the formation of the .so-calleil " Cougregatio de 
 auxiliis diviiue gratia'," to examine Molina's book. 
 After tlinu'. months and eleven sittings, nine out 
 of the ('level! examiners condemned the book in 
 the strongest term.s; and the result of a second
 
 CONGREGATION. 
 
 CONGREGATION. 
 
 examination, at the papal order, was precisely the 
 xaiiK'. Meanwhile inlluence of all kinds w:is 
 lirouglit to bear in favor of Molina; and accord- 
 ingly th(! I'ope ordered a del)ate between the two 
 partii^s, wlio, however, argued on tlie (juestions 
 in dispute rather tliun upon Molina's book. As 
 the I'ope himself inclineii to the Donunican .side, 
 the .lesnit Gregor Vaknitia very shrewdly ad- 
 dressed himself directly to him, and with such 
 effect, that the I'ojie did not condenni Molina's 
 book, but determined upon a .second debate. This 
 liegan March 20, 1002, in tlie Vatican, before the 
 I'ope, and lasted four years. 'J'he debaters wei-c 
 cardinals, bishops, doctors of theology, censors, 
 generals of the Dominican and .Jesuit orders, and 
 professed theologians. After listening for some 
 three years to the discu.ssion of Molina'.s book, the 
 I'ope formed the odd notion to read it himself, 
 but unhappily died (March •■(, 1005) ere lie could 
 find time to do .so. TIk; weary debate continued 
 under his successor, I'aid V., until Aug. 28, 1007, 
 wlien Paul V. closed the proceedings, and after- 
 wards issued an order allowing each party to 
 teach as it pleased, so long as it did not call the 
 other heretical. Thus ended the struggle of many 
 years. It was a virtual victory for tlie .Jesuits, 
 who obtained full lilierty to preach their ]ierni- 
 cious doctrines to the i^resent corruption of Ro- 
 man-Catholic theology. 
 
 Naturally the history of this Conrjreyatio was 
 one of the burning questions in the subsequent 
 .Jansenist controversy. Sautainour and other 
 .lansenists circulated the history written by Peg- 
 na, Coronell, and I)e Lemos, along with a decretal, 
 said to have been prepared, but not promidgated, 
 by Paul v., in which he condemned Molina. 15ut 
 it may be a forgery. In the begiiming of the 
 eighteenth century a Donuuican, Ilyacinth Serry 
 (under tlie name Augustine Le Blance), and a .lan- 
 .senist (anonymous), published at Lyons another 
 history. To meet this, the Jesuit Levin I\Ieyer, 
 under the name of Theodore I'>leutherins, pre- 
 pared his llistoria Controversiarum de divinm gra- 
 lice auxiliis .tub. P. Sixto V., Clemcnle VIII., el 
 Paulo v., Antw., 1705. See complete and inter- 
 esting art. Conijreriatin de (iiixiliis, in Wkt/.f.k U. 
 M'lii.TK : Kirchen-Laxikoii, 1st ed. .'ol. ii. pp. 780- 
 704; also G. ScuNicKMANN : Weilcre Knln-ickcl. d. 
 llwvdslifch-mijlinis. Cimlrov. Dof/)iicrii/esc/iich. .'^Iiidie, 
 rreib.-ini-Lreisgau, 1881. BAMUEL M. J.VCKSOX. 
 
 CONGREGATION (Hebrew '^np, or ni;', a.f- 
 sembly : Greek innXrjma, those called toijclher, from 
 Ka'Mu, to call: see further, on etymology, under 
 t'nuKCH), an as.sembly, a gathering of people for 
 cither political or religious purposes. 
 
 1. Sci{irTUR.\L Usage. — In the Old Testa- 
 ment the word denotes the Hebrew people in its 
 collective capacity, under its peculiar aspect as a 
 holy community, held together by religious rather 
 than by political bonds (l)eut. xxxi. ;50; .Josh, 
 viii. 35; 1 C'hron. xxix. 1). The congregation 
 was governed, ere Israel had a king, by a coun- 
 cil of seventy elders, chosen from the chiefs of the 
 tribes and head of families (Num. xvi. 2, xi. 10). 
 In post-exilian days this council developed into 
 the Sanhedrin. By this council the king was 
 chosen (1 Sam. x. 17 ; 2 Sam. v. 1 : 1 Kings xii. 
 20; 2 Kings xi. 19). In the New Testament 
 the word is used of the Christian Church at large, 
 
 or in a local congregation as the translation of 
 
 iKKhiaia. See Ciiuncir. 
 
 II. Ecclesiastical Usage. 1. General. — 
 The primitive congregations were niod(-lled ui>on 
 the .synagogue, and governed by the elders, who 
 were styled " pi'esbyters," or "bishojis;" whili- 
 deacons cared for the temporalities; but in all 
 the arrangements and proceedings the enlin' con- 
 gregation took part. With the growth of the 
 ])riesthood in anthorii;y, especially because of 
 the development of the mass, the congi'egation 
 decreased in power, until the lionian Churcli 
 reached, long before the Ileforniation, its present 
 .system of government, in which the l'oi)e, as the 
 representative of Christ, appoints for each dioce.so 
 the bishop, who, in turn, appoints the parochial 
 clergy, and thus the congregational jiower is 
 reduced to a minimum. Yet the primitive; idea 
 is .so far recognized, that each parish h.as its .so- 
 called piilrini ("church fathers "), who, however, 
 although chosen by the congregations, have very 
 limited powers. The churclies of I Ik; lieforma- 
 tion, both Lutheran and Heforined, rejected the 
 papal theory, and restored in a measure the i)iimi- 
 tive system. The Lutheran Church vindicates 
 the rights of the congregation to representation 
 and expression in the ecclesiastical courts, to com- 
 plaint against pastors offensivi! in doctrine or con- 
 duct, to at least a negative vote in the choice of 
 pastors, and of local self-government. Yet so 
 closely allied are these churches to t,li(! state, that 
 they are considerably under its control. The !!(> 
 formed Church gives much more authority to the 
 congregation. It is republican in its idea. Cal- 
 vin taught the complete identification of Chnrcli 
 and State. He organized the presbyteiT, com- 
 po.sed of both teaching and ruling elders, as the 
 board of control, into its hands placed the govern- 
 ment of the churches, and made it responsible for 
 the care of things temporal and spiritual ; in all 
 which, however, the congregations took more or 
 less active part. According to the old Ueformed 
 principle, the presbyter exercised his functions for 
 life, and another was cho.sen to till his place at 
 death. Congregationalism in England and Amer- 
 ica has developed most fully the principle of inde- 
 pendence (see those articles). See ^I E.i kr : Leiirbueh 
 dex Kirchenrechts, M ed., Gottingen, 1809. 
 
 2. Roman Catholic. — In the Roman Church 
 the term is applied, (a) To the committees of cardi- 
 nals appointed by the Pope to expedite the busi- 
 ness of the Roman curia. These congregations 
 are eleven in number, thus named : (1) Of the In- 
 quisition, or the Holy Office ; (2) Of the Council 
 (i.e., of Trent, which decides ca.ses arising out 
 of misunderstanding of that council's decrees) ; 
 (:'.) Of Bishops and^Regulars : (1) Of the Index : 
 (5) Of the Ritual; (G) Of Consistorial Affairs; (7) 
 Of the Election, Examination, and Residence ot 
 Bishops; (8) Of the Propaganda; (9) Of Ecclesi- 
 astical Immunities; (10) Of Indulgences and 
 Sacred Relics; (11) Of Extraordinary Ecclesias- 
 tical Affairs. Besides the .seregular congregation.s, 
 there are others which have been called to meet 
 emergencies, or supplv tenqiorary sen'ice; .is 
 those" of Study, of the Fabric of St. Peter (t<> 
 keep the building in repair, etc.), and of Cererno- 
 nials. See Cardinals; Curia, Roma.n-. (t>) To 
 communities which are bound by monastic vows, 
 yet are not monkish, for contemplative, ascetic,
 
 CONGREGATIONALISM. 
 
 534 
 
 CONGREGATIONALISM. 
 
 or practical purposes. (1) Some of these congre- 
 gations are removed from tlie world, others attend 
 unto nursing or education. They are modelled 
 upon the pattern of the monastic orders, and 
 differ in the strictness of their rules. Their 
 members are laity of both sexes. (2) Besides 
 these, are communities of clergy, who may live in 
 society, and do not assume the vow of poverty, 
 although they all take the vow of chastity. Some 
 of these congregations have been very useful to 
 the Roman Churcli ; such as the Congregation of 
 the Brothers of Christian Love, the Congregation 
 of the Oratory, the Redemptorists, etc. (■}) The 
 so-called "congregation orders," branches of the 
 Benedictine order, which have sprung up under 
 the leadership of energetic monks, or from the 
 exigencies of the times, and have assumed partial 
 independence of the original order. To tliis 
 class belong the Congregation of the Camaldules, 
 of Clnny, the Cistercians, — all of the eleventh 
 century. From the latter, under the lead of the 
 Abbot Bouthillier de Ranee (1GG2), was developed 
 the strict and severe Trappist Congregation, 
 (c) Tiie word " congregation " is applied mito 
 the meetings held separately by the different 
 nations (English, German, French, Italian, and 
 Spanisli) which were represented at the Council 
 of Constance (1414-18). The Emperor Sigis- 
 mund introduced the plan of voting by 7mlinns, 
 giving only one vote to the nation; and therefore 
 it was necessai-y in such meetings to find out the 
 national sentiment as expressed by the represen- 
 tatives ; and as the majority would vote on the 
 impending measure, so the vote was ca.st. {(/) In 
 France the congregation of the regular canons 
 of Sainte-Geuevieve is called the " Congregation of 
 
 •L- " CO 
 
 f ranee. 
 
 III. — In Scotland the title " Lords of the Con- 
 gregation " is given to the chief .subscribers to the 
 Pir.st Covenant, which was signed at Edinburgh, 
 Dec. 3, 1.557. The title came from tlie frequency 
 with which the word "congregation" occurs in 
 tlie document. See the text in IIktiierinoton's 
 llUt. nf Ike Cli. of Sent., chap. ii. 
 
 CONGREGATIONALISM, English. L Thedis- 
 tiiiguishing principles of English Congregation- 
 alism are, — 
 
 1 . That Jesus Christ is the only head of the 
 Church, and that the word of God is its only 
 statute-book. 
 
 2. That visible churches are distinct assem- 
 blies of godly men gathered out of the world lor 
 pun'ly religious purposes, and not to be con- 
 founded with the world. 
 
 .■{. That these separate churclies have full 
 power to choose their own oflicers, and to main- 
 tain discipline. 
 
 4. That, in respect of their internal manage- 
 ment, they are each independent of all other 
 churches, and equally independent of state con- 
 trol. 
 
 Kiiglish Congregationalism is not merely a 
 development of English I'uritanism. It is an 
 iiidi'p"ndent systi'm of church government, as 
 fundamentally uistinct from Episcopacy and 
 Presbyti-rianism, as they are from each other. 
 
 II. Amongst the refugees to the Continent 
 from the Marian jirrsecul.ion, there were ri^jire- 
 eentatives of both the hierarchical and I'rcsbyte- 
 riaii systems, lieylin, in his llUlory of the lie/or- 
 
 motion, when speaking of the troubles of Frank- 
 fort says, " A new discipline was devised by 
 Ashley, a gentleman of good note among the 
 laity there, and his party, whereby the superin- 
 tendency of pastors and elders was laid aside, and 
 the supreme power in all ecclesiastical causes 
 put into tlie hands of congregations " (^Hist. lief. 
 Ft. 11., 62, 3). Thus it is seen that Congre- 
 gationalism is co-eval with the otlier forms of 
 church government which exist in England. 
 
 But those who embraceil and advocated this 
 system were few and weak, and, because of the 
 opjiosition they encountered, were obliged to 
 seek concealment. Little is known of their 
 actual history; but Henry Ainsworth and John 
 Robinson recognize the existence of a separatist 
 church in England, in the early days of Queen 
 Elizabeth, of which Jlr. Fitz was pastor before 
 Robert Browne published the system with which 
 his name is associated. There is evidence that 
 it was not a mere company of godly men, but a, 
 cliurch organization, having a pastor and deacon, 
 Richard Fitz and Thomas Rowland, both of 
 whom died in the Old Bridewell prison before 
 1571. 
 
 III. But, though Robert Browne may not have 
 been the first English Congregationalist, he has 
 claims to be called the founder of English Con- 
 gregationalism ; as he was the man who first 
 clearly developed its principles, and brought 
 them into public tiotoriety. His singular career 
 in connection with these jirinciples commenced 
 about the year 1571, when, for disseminating 
 doctrines regarded as .seditious, he was cited 
 before the Ecclesiastical Commissioners. He re- 
 fused to appear, claiming his privilege as domes- 
 tic chaplain to the Duke of Norfolk. His first 
 desire appeai-s to have been to reform the gross 
 evils he found prevailing in the parochial assem- 
 blies ; but he came at length to the conclusion 
 that the parishes were in such bondage to the 
 bishops, that reformation was impossible. The 
 evil was the natural outcome of the existing 
 ecclesiastical constitution. 
 
 About 15S0 he went to Norwich, holding this 
 belief, that, if reformation were impossible, 
 " every tru(! Christian was to lea^ e sucli parishes, 
 and to seek the church oC God wheresoever." 
 Here his principles were fully developed, and 
 here he founded a Congregational church. He 
 w.as .at Bury St. Ednunul's in 1581, setting forth 
 his views, and influencing the jieople. In this 
 town, where in 1583 the first martyrs of Congre- 
 gationalism suffered, and where its principles 
 were baptized in blood, it was found that his 
 spirit lingered even till the year lOlG, when the 
 Independents attempted to form a church under 
 the guidance of the renowned Catlierinc' Chidley. 
 This church adopted a covenant which breathes 
 unmitigated lirownism, and will give us a good 
 idea of its spirit. 
 
 "Convinced in conscience of the evil of the 
 Church of England . . . fidly sep.arated, not 
 only from them, but also from those who com- 
 municate with tlu'iii, either pulilicly or Jirivately ; 
 we resolve by the grace of (ioil imt to return 
 unto their vain inventions, tlu'ir human <levices, 
 their abominable idolatrii'S or superstitions high 
 jilaces wliivh were built und dedicated to idola- 
 try, etc."
 
 CONGREGATIONALISM. 
 
 635 
 
 CONGREGATIONALISM. 
 
 Browne cleveloped the principles of Coiigrega- 
 tioiialism iimn! perfectly, miil held tliciii iiior^f 
 consi.tti'iitly, than tlmsc who came after him; but 
 he held them mieharitably. lie not only denied 
 that the parochial assemblies could in any sense 
 be rewarded as Christian churches, but refused 
 communion witli any who were identified with 
 them. His little church at Norwich was perse- 
 cuted by puritans as well as by hierarchists, as 
 local records abundantly prove; and he and they 
 concluded "that the Lord did call them out of 
 p^ngland." In the autumn of 1581 they emi- 
 grated in a body to Middleberg, where, in conse- 
 quence of tludr attempting a too rigorous in- 
 ternal discipline, the church was distracted and 
 divided, as the result of which he relinquished 
 his office, and removed to Scotland iu DecemlxM', 
 1583. There he protested against "the whole 
 discipline of Scotland," and was cited to appear 
 before tlie authorities. At length he returni'd to 
 England, where after various trials and suffer- 
 ings, which apparently' unhinged his intellect, he 
 at least outwardly conformed to the EstaVilished 
 Church, about 15S(i, and accepted preferment in 
 it. 
 
 IV. Henry Barrowe and John Greenwood 
 caught the falling flag, and held it aloft for a sea- 
 son, till they, in their turn, were imprisoned, and 
 at length executed, .\pril 6, 1,593. During their 
 imprisonment they wrote much and well in e.xpo- 
 sition and defence of their principles; but it is 
 to be noticed that Barrovve's Congregationalism 
 differed from that of Browne in one important 
 particular. Seeking to avoid the evil, as he 
 thought, of too much democracy in the govern- 
 ment of the church, he placed that government 
 in the hands of the eldership, and not in the 
 whole brotherhood, — a modification which pre- 
 vailed in the churches for many years. 
 
 V. In loi)2 an Act of Parliament was passed, 
 entitled " An Act for the Punishment of Per- 
 sons obstinately refusing to come to Church." 
 Its object was utterly to extinguish the Brown- 
 ists and Separatists, who had by this time in- 
 creased, if not to a very considerable number, at 
 least so much as to become a formidable body. 
 Barrowe and (jreenwood were condemned and 
 executed under the powers of this Act; but its 
 principal effect w.is to drive the greater number 
 of these Brownisfs from the country, many of 
 whom removed to Holland. There Francis 
 Johnson became tlie pastor, and Henry Ains- 
 ■worth the teacher, of a Brownist, or rather Bar- 
 rowist church at Amsterdam. Barrowism, it 
 was found, could be woi-ked in two ways. Men 
 of liberal principles could respect the feelings 
 and opinions of the brotherhood ; whilst men of 
 autocratic temperament could ignore them. 
 There were men of both these classes at Am- 
 sterdam, and after a while this church divided; 
 the liberal party, under Ainsworth, leaving the 
 rest under Johnson. But in lOOS, before this 
 separation, Smyth, Clifton, and John Robinson, 
 with the members of the Scrooby Church, came 
 to Amsterdam : they found the church here in an 
 unsettled state, and "contentions ready to break 
 out." Consecpiently they resolved to remove to 
 Leyden, that they migiit not be involved in them. 
 In the following year they carried out their 
 purpose. 
 
 VI. When Robinson arrived in Holland, ho 
 
 was a strict lirownist; but, after his settlement 
 at Leyden, he modified his views anil practice 
 respecting fellowship. Divine light, brought to 
 his mind through intercourse with Dr. William 
 Ames and others, led him to admit to the com- 
 munion of his church members of other churches 
 not reformed according to his model ; which 
 churches he would not deny to be true churches, 
 though he saw it necessary to separate from tliem. 
 In regard to the Dutch churches, he allowed Iiis 
 own people to unite with them in ordinary wor- 
 ship, but not in sacraments and discipline. His 
 jiractice in this respect has been genc'rally fol- 
 lowed by churches of this order in succeeding 
 times, and he has therefore not improjierly been 
 called the Father of Modern (,'ongregationalism. 
 The church increased in Leyden, and grew in 
 grace under Robinson's ministry, and for ten 
 years enjoyed rest and peace. But anxious to 
 live in a country they could call their own, in 
 which they could also enjoy their religious free- 
 dom, and desirous also of carrying the gospel to 
 the heathen, they resolved to emigrate. On July 
 1, lO'iO, one hundred and one members of this 
 congregation left Leyden, — a Pilgrim band; 
 and on the 11th December in the same year, the 
 first company of them from " The Mayflower" 
 landed in America, on Plymouth Rock. Robinson 
 remained at Leyden, intending to follow the pio- 
 neers with the residue of tlie church ; but he died 
 at Leyden in 16l'o, before they left. Though 
 decided in his opinions, he was no bigot in the 
 matter of church government. AVhereunto he 
 ha<l already attained by the light given to him, 
 he walked by that rule, and then jiatiently waited 
 till (Jod should reveal more unto him; and when 
 the first Pilgrims left Leyden he urged them to 
 pursue the same course. 
 
 VII. After the church was scattered of -which 
 Richard Fitz was pastor, we find brief notices of 
 other societies of the same character, w hich ap- 
 peared from time to time like islands in mid 
 ocean : but, after the general banishment of the 
 Brownisfs and Separatists in loHJ, scarcely any 
 of these little societies remained, and, if any ex- 
 isted, they were compelled to remain in conceal- 
 ment; and it was not till lUKi.when Henry Jacob 
 returned to England from Holland, where he had 
 been in communion with Ames and Robinson, 
 that a church was organized in Southwark, 
 which has had a continuous existence to the 
 present time. Jacob continued in the pastorate 
 eight years, and then emigrated to Virginia. He 
 wiis succeeded by John Lathrop, who, being sum- 
 moned before the High Commission to ansvper 
 .articles touching the keeping of conventicles.in 
 order to avoid tlie consequences, sailed to America 
 in 1634. Henry Je.ssey .apparently succeeded him 
 in the pastoral office. A second church was 
 formed by Mr. Hubbard in 1(!2L to which John 
 Canne afterwards ministered: and for it a house 
 of worship was opened iu Deadman's Place, South- 
 wark. in 1040-41. 
 
 VIII. The victims of Laud and Wren, in the 
 reign of Charles I., were Puritans, and not Sepa- 
 ratists. Many of these went over to Holland, 
 which they called " their hiding-place," and 
 which proved to be their training-school ; for 
 there they -were led to embrace the principles the
 
 CONGREGATIONALISM. 
 
 536 
 
 CONGREGATIONALISM. 
 
 maintenance of which gave them the distin- 
 guished position they occupied in tlie new era 
 which presently commenced. Sliortly after the 
 opening of the Long Parliament (Nov. o, 1640), 
 several of those who had gone to Holland as 
 PinitaEis returned as Congregationalists. Such 
 were Thomas Goodwin, Nye, Burroughes, Hooker, 
 .Sympson, and Bridge. The cause of their ex- 
 ile, the course they pursued in Holland, and the 
 I'urpose they desired to effect on their return, can 
 best be presented in their own words (Yarmouth 
 C'h. Bk.): "The urging of Popish ceremonies 
 .•ind divers innovated injunctions in the worship 
 and service of God by Bishop Wren and his in- 
 struments, the susjiendingand silencing of divei's 
 godly ministers, and the persecuting of godly 
 men and women, caused divers of the godlj' in 
 Norwich, Yarmouth, and other places, to remove, 
 and to pass over into Holland, to enjoy the lib- 
 erty of their conscience in God's worship, and to 
 J'ree Ihemsel rex from liiinian inrentinnx. 
 
 ".After they came into Holland, divers joined 
 themselves to the church in Rotterdam, and 
 abode members of that church five or six years ; 
 among whom were Mr. William Bridge and Mr. 
 .fohn W.ard, who also were chosen otiicers of the 
 church there. But after the glad tidings of a 
 liopeful Parliament, called and convened in Kng- 
 land, was reported to the church aforesaid in 
 Kotterdam, divers of the church (whose hearts 
 God stirred up lofurllier the lii/ht tltei/ now sain, by 
 all lawful means, in their aim country, — not trith- 
 oul hope of enjoying lilierly there. — after nmch 
 advising with the church, and seeking God for 
 direction) returned, with the assent, approba- 
 tion, and prayers of the church, into England, 
 .•tc." 
 
 These men, with a few others holding similar 
 jirinciples, soon found themselves, not an insig- 
 nificant company of returned exiles, but chosen 
 and honored members of the .-Assembly of Di- 
 vines, which was gathered to give advice to the 
 Parliament of England on matters concerning 
 religion. One consequence of their accejitance 
 of this position was, that they felt themselves 
 constrained to advise and entreat "all ministers 
 and people to forbear for a convenient time the 
 joining of them-selves into church societies of any 
 kmd whatsoever;" in the liopi^ that they might be 
 comprehended in some new national organization. 
 or at any rate permitted to form Congregational 
 societies, which should enjoy a full toleration. 
 The Presbyterians far outnumbered them in the 
 y\ssembly; and these, urged on by Baillieand the 
 Scots divines, and backed up by the Scots army, 
 were altogether disinclined to allow a toleration ; 
 whereupon these "di.ssenting brethren" argued 
 incessantly, vmtil, the power of Cromwell being 
 ill the ascendant, more liberal counsels )>revailed. 
 Congregational churches were now formed gen- 
 erally in the kingdom; and during th<^ Cominou- 
 wealth ami Protectorate we find them of two 
 iliffereiit types. 
 
 dntUerrd churches were .societies formed by the 
 voluntary adhesion of Christians, having no re- 
 spect to parochial boundaries; and Iheir ministers 
 were in no sense (at least at (irst) ]iarisli minis- 
 ters, but were chosen and maintaine(l by the 
 churches themselves. 
 
 licfo) mat churches, on the other hand, were 
 
 those formed in parishes, the rectors or vicars 
 of which, happening to embrace Congregational 
 principles, selected the godly inhabitants of tlieir 
 parishes, and formed them into Congregational 
 societies. 'J'liese societies met in the parish 
 churches, and the ministers continued to receive 
 their maintenance from the tithes. The greater 
 number of both these types eventually found 
 I their way into Cromwell's comprehensive estab- 
 lishment, where orthodox men of all tolerable 
 opinions on church government labored together 
 in considerable harmony. 
 
 The doctrines held by the Congregationalists 
 of this period, and the discipline maintained by 
 them, are set forth in the " Confession agreed on 
 at the meeting of messengers from the Congrega- 
 tional churches at the Savoy Palace," held imme- 
 diatelv after the death of the Protector, .Septem- 
 ber, 1658. 
 
 It was necessary that this Congregationalism, 
 true but mixed, should be delivered from secular 
 entanglements, should lie shaken and sifted, that 
 only those things which could not be shaken might 
 remain. The restoration of Charles II. followed 
 in 1660, and the sifting began. 
 
 IX. The hierarchy was re-established, and the 
 Episcopal Church re-instated in its former posi- 
 tion. All the ministers officiating in churches, 
 who had not been legally presented by the patrons, 
 were removed, if the old sequestered incumbents 
 wore living, and the latter were at once restored. 
 On Bartliolomew Day, Aug. 24, 1662, all other 
 ministers who could not submit to the require- 
 ments of the new Act of Uniformity were ejected 
 from their cures. More than two thousand min- 
 isters, many of them among the best and best 
 qualified of the time, were thus sent forth to 
 endure poverty, persecution, and contenqit. ]\Iost 
 of these men were I'resbyterian iu their ideas of 
 church government; but twenty-six years of stern 
 repression, often involving imprisonment, drew 
 them very much nearer to their fellow-suft'erei"s 
 of the Congregational order, several of whose 
 churches lived on through all the persecution, and 
 continue to the present day. 
 
 X. After the Kevolution in KiSS a new era 
 commenced. The Act of Toleration was pa.ssed. 
 1'he Congregational churches w Inch survived came 
 outof theirconcealmeut. Most of the old meeting- 
 houses were then built which were known to the 
 last generation. Now these are almo.st all re- 
 moved. Tlie new churches which were then 
 formed were of two classes, — Congregational, 
 according to the .Savoy jilatforni of order, and 
 Presbyterian. The latter liad no presbyteries, 
 and thus resenibh'd the Congregational, except in 
 this one point, that tlieir elders had greater jxiwer 
 than those of the Congregational churches. Both 
 jiarties had become more tolerant in spirit; and 
 the leaders on both sides thought they could unite. 
 
 In 1691 Heads of Agreenu'ut were di-awn up; 
 old naniesof distinction were discarded; the union 
 was declared, and henceforth all were to be known 
 as The United Brethren. I5ut differences in j'riii- 
 ciples, and perha|is, too, infirmities of temiier, 
 I>revented the smooth working of the idan, and 
 it w.as abandoned. The alteiniit, however, was 
 not without result. The more general rules of the 
 Heads of Agreement took the place of the stricter 
 requirements of the Savoy Confession iu matters
 
 CONGREGATIONALISM. 
 
 537 
 
 CONGREGATIONALISM. 
 
 of church jjovernincnt, ami now they almost uni- 
 versally prevail. 
 
 XI. After the death of King William III. at- 
 tempts were nuado to deprive dissenter.s of the 
 restricted liberties they had secured ; but the death 
 of Queen Anno, the last of the Stuarts, put an 
 end to such endeavors; and, under the present 
 reigning family, those liberties have been ex- 
 tended, disabilities have been removed, and the 
 day seems not far distant when religious equality 
 shall be enjoyed. 
 
 XII. In English Congregationalism since the 
 Revolution, the power of the eldership has been 
 but little recognized : the cliurches have managed 
 their own .affairs, and have been jealous of their 
 independency. So much has this jealousy pre- 
 vailed, that, though they liave never repudiated 
 associations and councils, they have not till lately 
 encouraged them. Informal meetings of minis- 
 ters and fraternal associations have often had cases 
 of doubt or difficulty brought before them for 
 advice; but no organization existed specially to 
 meet such cases. Of late, however, some county 
 unions have appointed committees of reference, 
 which may be called togetherif any of the churches 
 desire their .assistance ; and some churches have 
 resolved, that when difficulties arise, especially if 
 they are of a threatening kind, they will at once 
 seek the advice of neighboring churches. 
 
 XIII. " Tiie Congregational Union of England 
 and Wales " was, after much consideration and 
 amidst many fears, formed in 183.3. It meets to 
 deliberate, not to legislate ; to advise, not to com- 
 pel; and its Declaration of Faith is not a creed to 
 be subscribed. It meets twice in the year, — in 
 the spring, in London ; in the autumn, in one or 
 other of the larger provincial cities or towns; and 
 its influence is quickening and healthful. Its pro- 
 fessed object is " to strengtlien the fraternal rela- 
 tions of the Congregational churches, and facili- 
 tate co-operation in every thing affecting their 
 common interests; and also to maintain corre- 
 spondence with the Congregational communities 
 throughout the world." Under its auspices Mr. 
 Benjamin Ilanbury published his Historical Me- 
 morials relalini/ to Independents, 3 vols. 8vo, 1839- 
 44. Two other volumes were published, entitled 
 Tracts and Treatises of John de Wi/cliffe, and Se- 
 lect Works of Rec. Darid ClarLson, B.D. ; and the 
 project of printing The Works of John llobinson, 
 3 vols. fcp. Svo, 1851, was approved, and after- 
 wards carried out by the Rev. R. Ashton. The 
 Union has published fifteen courses of Congre- 
 yational Lectures, delivered 1833-51, and six other 
 courses of a more recent date. 
 
 XIV. About the middle of the eighteenth 
 century the churches felt the necessity of more 
 intercourse and communion with sister-churches 
 than they had up to that time been enabled to 
 maintain; and gradually associations were formed 
 in almost every county, their objects, in addition 
 to the manifestation of fraternal sympathy, being, 
 generally, to encourage and sustain liorae mission- 
 ary work, and to assist the weaker cliurches 
 within their bounds. Of late years the convic- 
 tion has been growing, tliat there were districts 
 in the country which were not able to accomplish 
 these ends effectively by reason of the sparseness 
 of the population and the poverty of the churches; 
 and it lias been resolved to form a Union of Un- 
 
 ions, the design of which is, tliat the stronger and 
 wealthier districts should contribute to aid those 
 which are more feeble. The Congregational 
 Cliurch-Aid and Home Missionary Society was 
 therefore formed in 1878, with these objects in 
 view: (1) To aid the weaker churches; (L') To 
 [ilant and foster new churclies; and (3) To do 
 evangelistic work in spiritually destitute i)laces; 
 and to do these things through tlie existing 
 county associations, all of which contribute to a 
 common fund, whicli is distributed to each as 
 tliey severally need, or as nearly as possible in 
 this proportion. 
 
 XV. With reg.ard to the growth of English 
 Congregationalism, it may be stated that in 
 1710, less tliaii a generation after the Revolution, 
 tlie number of Congregational and Presbyterian 
 churches in England was 800 ; in 1851 the Con- 
 gregationalists alone ])Ossessed 3,244 jjlaces of 
 worship in England and Wales. The summary 
 given ill the Congregational Year-Book for 1885 
 shows the total number of churches, branch 
 churches, and preaching-stations in England and 
 Wales, to be 4,347 ; and the total number of pas- 
 tors, lay-preachers, and evangelists, to be 2.723. 
 Within tlie same limits, there are 14 Congrega- 
 tional colleges, having 44 professors, and 415 
 students for the ministry : from all which it will 
 be seen that the denomination is growing in 
 numbers and strength. Its periodical literature 
 is represented by The British Quarterli/, The 
 Evanr/elical Magazine, The Conr/reyalionalist, The 
 Nonconformist and Independent, etc. 
 
 Lit. — • C.\lamy: Abridi/ment of Baxter's " His- 
 torijofhis Life and Times," with Account of Ejected 
 Ministers, 1702, 8vo; 2d ed., 2 vols. 8vo, 1713; 
 continuation, 2 vols. 8vo, 1727 ; the whole ar- 
 ranged by S.^MUEL Palmer, as The Noncon- 
 formisl Memorial, best ed., 3 vols. Svo, 1802; 
 Neai, : Ilistorij of the Puritans, 1st ed., 4 vols. 8vo, 
 1732-38; 2d ed., 4to, 2 vols. 1754; new ed., the 
 best, 5 vols. Svo, reprinted from Toulmin's edi- 
 tion, 1822 ; JosHU.v Toulmin : Historical Vietv of 
 the State of Protestant Dissenters in England, Svo, 
 1814 ; BoGUE and Bennett : History of Disscnt- 
 cre, 4 vols. Svo, 1808; Bennett: History of Dis- 
 senters, continuation, Svo, 1839 ; 'Wilson : His- 
 tory if Dissenliny Churches in London, 4 vols. Svo, 
 1808-14 ; BuooK : Lices of Puritans, 3 vols. Svo, 
 1813; T. Price: History of Protestant Noncon- 
 formity in Enyland, 2 vols. Svo, 1830; Fletcher: 
 History of the Revived and Proijress of Independency 
 in Enyland, 4 vols. fcp. Svo, 1S49 ; Stougutox : 
 Ecclesiastical History of Enyland from 1640-1702, 
 Churches of the Civil Wars, Churches of the Com- 
 monwealth, Churches of the Restoration, 5 vols. Svo, 
 1800-73; new edition called History of Religion in 
 Enyland from the Opening of the Long Parliament 
 to the End of the Eighteenth Century, 6 vols. fcp. 
 Svo, 1881; Spiritual Heroes, 12mo, 1850; Church 
 and State 200 Years Ago, fcp. Svo, 1862, etc.; 
 Vaugh.\x : History of England under the Stuarts, 
 1840 ; Waddington : Coni/ret/ationcU History, 5 
 vols. Svo, 1873-80 (vol. I., A.l). 1200-1567; vol. 
 II., 1567-1700; vol. IIL, 1700-1800; vol. IV., 
 1800-50); H. Skeat: Hislori/ of the Free Churches 
 of England, Svo, 1st ed., 1807," 2d ed., 1869; spe- , 
 cially Dexter: Congregationalism, 1 vol. largo 
 Svo, 1880. Several county histories of Congrega- 
 tional Churches, — IIallky: Lancashire its Puri-
 
 CONGREGATIONALISM. 
 
 538 
 
 CONGREGATIONALISM. 
 
 lani^m and Noncottformitij, 2 vols. 8vo, 1869, 2d 
 fd., 1 vol. 1872; T. W. Davids: Annals of Evan- 
 ijelical Nonconfarmitii in Essex, 1 vol. Svo, 1863 ; 
 J. Browxe : History of Congrcfjationalism in Nor- 
 folk and Suffolk, 1 vol. Svo, 1877 ; J. Sibree and 
 M. Caston: Independency in Warwicksfiire, 1S55 ; 
 Waddixgton : Surrey Congregational History, 
 1866; Miall: Yorkshire; etc. 
 
 JOHX BROWNE (Wrentham, Suffolk, Eng.). 
 
 COK4GREGATIONAL1SM IN THE UNITED 
 STATES denotes a system of belief in general 
 liistorical agreement with the Reformed Confes- 
 sions, and a polity comliining the principle of the 
 autonomy of the local churcli with that of the duly 
 of fellowsliip between sister churches. 
 
 I. History. — " The Mayflower " bore to 
 Plymouth, in New England, an organized Chris- 
 tian church (1620). Under the increasingly lib- 
 eral teaching of John Kobinson, its pastor, it 
 had already passed into the second stage of inde- 
 pendency, viz., se7ni-separatism, and was thus pre- 
 pared to influence the formation of the earliest 
 churches of the Puritan or Nonconformist emi- 
 gration. The members of these churches had also 
 been providentially trained, by removal to the 
 New AVorld, and the circumstances in which they 
 here found themselves, to form a polity in har- 
 mony with the Pljnnoutli pattern. Thus arose 
 what was called the New-England way, the Middle 
 toay between Broirnism and Preshyterianism, and 
 the Congregational way. 
 
 The Plymouth Church remained alone until 
 1029. In 1048 the number of churches in New 
 England had increased to fifty-one ; viz., two in 
 New llampsliire, nine in Plymouth Colony, thirty 
 I in the Colony of Massachusetts, five in Connecti- 
 ' cut, five in New Haven Colony. There were also 
 two or tliree on Long Island, and one in Virgmia. 
 The jieriod thus indicated (1020-18), closing with 
 the completion of the Cambridge Platform, is tiie 
 creative era of American Congregationalism. Tlie 
 leading writers and the "organizing minds" were 
 Cotton, Hooker, Norton, Davenport, and ]\Iather. 
 
 The early f'ongregationalists held to the pi'in- 
 ciple that a church should be conijiosed of persons 
 wlio give crediljle evidence of regeneration Ijy the 
 Holy .Spirit, though ".severity of examination is 
 to be avoided," and " tlie weakest inc'asureof faith 
 is to be accepted in those tliat desire to be ad- 
 mitted into the churcli, liecause weak Cliristians, 
 if sincere, have the substance of that faith, 
 repentance, and holiness wliich is required in 
 cluirch-niembers ; and such have most need of 
 the ordinances for tlieir confirmation and growth 
 in grace" (Cainl/. Plat. c. xii.). Baptized chil- 
 <lren were recognized as members, yet not as in full 
 communion; whicli could only be obtained u]ion 
 personal pi'ofession of repentance from sin, and 
 of faitli in Jesus Clirist. A demand soon sprang 
 up fur a reliixalion of tliese terms of admission. 
 Ill the (,'oloiiies of New Haven and Massachusetts 
 <:hurcli-memliershi]) had liecii made a nece.ssary 
 <|iialification for the franchise: in the other Colo- 
 nies it was of unipiestioiialile civil and jiolitical 
 advantage. Under tliese conditions it would be 
 strange if desire for civil rights and political 
 influence had not moved .some of the coloni.sts to 
 seek a change in tlia terms of clmrch-member- 
 Bliip. If, however, such motives operated, no 
 traces of them appear in the diucus.fions of the 
 
 time which have come down to us. Tlie clergy, 
 rather than the laity, were foremost in the move- 
 ment for relaxation ; and it is clear that at least 
 tiie main reason, and the one which controlled 
 the course of events, was religious, — tlie desire 
 to extend the privileges and blessings of church- 
 fellowship. The traditional principle, and, still 
 more, the inherited feeling, that persons un- 
 baptized were as Pagans, probably had a great 
 influence. Still the principle of a regenerated 
 membership was too strongly held to be dis- 
 carded ; and so a compromise was made, by which 
 baptized persons of orthodox belief and reputa- 
 ble life, upon covenanting with the church, were 
 allowed to offer their children in baptism. The 
 covenants in use were so evangelical and fuU, 
 that it is difficult to understand how they could 
 have been taken by persons who were not ready 
 and willing to enter into full communion. They 
 were, however, understood to imply something 
 less than a full profession of personal repentance 
 and faith. The principle of membership upon 
 lower terms being thus once admitted, it received 
 development, until, in some churches, the sacra- 
 ment of the Lord's Supper was administered to 
 all who took what has been called the " Half- 
 way Covenant ; " and Solomon Stoddard advo- 
 cated the theory that " the Lord's Supper is 
 instituted to be a means of regeneration." The 
 influence of tliis modification and practical aban- 
 donment of the primitive belief of the Congrega- 
 tional churches deserves more thorough, exact, 
 and comprehensive investigation than it has yet 
 received. The worst effect, doubtless, was the 
 diminution, in the public mind and conscience, of 
 a sense of the oliligations of personal religion ; 
 and this disastrous result was wide-spread. 
 
 The evils thus introduced were partially arrest- 
 ed by the " Great Awakening," — a religious re- 
 vival under the preaching of the elder Edwards, 
 Whitetield, and others, which added, it is claimed, 
 from twenty-five thousand to thirty thousand com- 
 mmiicants to tlie churches, and led to the aban- 
 donment of the ]ilan of the Ihdf-iray Covenant. 
 Before, however, this result was fully reached, a 
 large number of ehurclies, chiefly in Eastern 
 Massachusetts, became Unitarian in failli. Tlie 
 effect of the trials through wliieli the churches 
 passed in tliis defection \\;is very important as to 
 doctrine, jiolity, and Christian activity; the disci- 
 pline, though sevin-e, proving to be very salutary. 
 This chapter, also, in the liistory of the denomi- 
 nation, has not yet found its historian, though 
 ^■ery valuablt! contributions to it liave been made. 
 [See Gili-KTt: Hist. Mag., 1871, pp. 221-a24 ; 
 Clark : Hist. Sketch of the Cong. Churches in 
 Mass.; Bi'RdESs: Pages from the Ecclcs, Hist. 
 ofN. E.; Ellis: Half-Cent, of the Unit. Contro- 
 versy; Punch aui) : Hist, of Cong., vol. V. pp. 
 .5.57-694.] 
 
 In 1708 a synod, convened at Saybrook by order 
 of the Legislature of Connecticut (which now 
 included the? Cok)ny of New Haven), adopted 
 what is called the Sayhrook Platform; viz., the 
 Saroy Confssion of Faitli, tlie Heads of Agreement 
 (wliich had iiiiileil Presliyterians and Congrega- 
 tionalists in England), and Articles for the Admin- 
 istration of Church Dutci/ilinc, the cliief peculiarities 
 of wliich are tlie union of ehurclies witli their 
 pastors in consociations, of ministers in assoeia- 
 
 I
 
 CONGREGATIONALISM. 
 
 >39 
 
 CONGREGATIONALISM. 
 
 tions, and the foniiatiou of standing councils. 
 All the early Connecticut churches came sooner 
 or later into this scheme ; l>ut it has been, in later 
 times, largely superseded by the conference sys- 
 tem. ■ 
 
 In 1801 a Plan of Union was adopted by the 
 Presbyterian General Assembly and the General 
 Association of Connecticut, with reference to 
 churches forming in new settlements. This was 
 abrogated by the Albany Convention of Congre- 
 gatioualists in 1852, experience proving that it 
 operated to their disadvantage. Since then, the 
 growth of Congregationalism outside of New Eng- 
 land, particularly at the West, has been rapid. 
 
 The following general sj'nods have been held : 
 in 1637, at Newtown, with reference to the Anti- 
 nomian teachings of Rev. John AVheelwright and 
 Mrs. Anne Hutcliinson; in 1046-48, at Cambridge, 
 where the Westminster Confession was adopted, 
 " for the substance thereof," and a Platform of 
 Church Discipline framed ; in 1852, at Albany ; 
 and in 186.3, at Boston. The last two synods 
 dealt particularly with questions relating to the 
 spread of Congregationalism. From the same 
 conditions of progress sprang the National Coun- 
 cil, which has met triennially since 1871. 
 
 Local synods of special importance were held ; 
 in 1662, at Boston, "a synod of elders and mes- 
 sengers from all the cliurches in the Massachu- 
 setts Colony," w^hich agreed upon the so-called 
 Half-way Covenant, and commended in a qualified 
 way Consociationism ; in 1679, at Boston, the 
 " Reforming Synod ; " in 1708, at Saybrook. 
 
 Congregationalists have from the beginning 
 stood in the front rank as respects educational, 
 benevolent, and missionary operations. Schools 
 were established in the Colonies almost from the 
 beginning. The endowment of Harvard College 
 began as early as 1636. In 1647 an act was passed 
 by the General Court of Massachusetts, which 
 established a system of common schools. Jlore 
 than twenty important colleges are now wholly 
 or ]i;u-tially under the care of Congi'egationalists, 
 with numerous academies. "A great hope and 
 inward zeal" for missionary labor inspri-ed the 
 Pilgrim Fathers. An order passed by the General 
 Court of Massachusetts (Nov. 19, 1644) elicits 
 from Dr. Palfrey (Hist, of N. E., II. 189) the 
 connnent, that, with possibly a single exception, 
 "the General Court of Massachusetts was thus 
 the first missionary society in the history of Prot- 
 estant Christendom." Shortly before this, John 
 Eliot, the " Apostle of the Indians," had liegini 
 his work among them. The American Hoard of 
 Commissioners for Foreign Missions was instituted 
 by the General Association of ]\Iassachusetts in 
 1810: in 1826 w-as formed the American Home 
 Missionari/ Society, witli which were connected 
 previous organizations. In addition to these two 
 societies, the following were commended to the 
 churches by the last (1880) National Council : the 
 Congregational Publishing Societg; the American 
 Missionary Association ; the American Congrega- 
 tional Union; t\ie American College and Education 
 Society; the Western Education Society ; the New 
 West Education Commission. 
 
 For the early history of Congregational churches 
 in the Southern States and in the Dominion of 
 Canada, see Punciiard, Hist, of Cong., vol. iv. 
 chaps. 12, 1.3, 17, 18, 19. 
 
 II. Doctrine. — Congregationalism emphasizes 
 the principle, that the Scriptures are the only 
 authoritative rule of faith and practice. Its un- 
 derstanding of that rule is expressed in the creeds 
 of its local cliurches, and in the .symbols which 
 its general synods and other organizations have 
 commended. These formulas of faith are not 
 imjiosed, either upon individual members of the 
 cliurches, or upon the local churches or other 
 ecclesiastical bodies. Each candidate for inem- 
 bersliip, each church or conference, seeking recog- 
 nition, determines freely what is accepted as of 
 faitli. On the other hand, each organization 
 decides for itself wluither the confession of an 
 applicant is sufiicient. As general standards, or 
 testimonies, the AVestminster Confession (adopted 
 substantially by the .synod of 1646-48^ and the 
 Savoy Confession (adopted by the SJ^lods of 1680 
 and 1708) have held the foremost rank. The Na- 
 tional Council of 1805 declared its adherence to 
 the faith "substantially as embodied" in these 
 confessions, and added an impressive statement 
 of the "fundamental truths in wliich all Christians 
 should agree," and on the basis of which catholic 
 fellowship and co-oi>eration can exist in the work 
 of extending the Redeemer's kingdom (^Burial 
 Hill Declaration). The indefiniteness of the word 
 "substantially," and the growing and prevalent 
 conviction that the AA'estminster and Savoy Con- 
 fessions fail to represent adequately the present 
 beliefs, led the National Council at St. Louis 
 (Nov. 15, ISSO) to appoint a committee of seven 
 to " select from among the members of our 
 churches, in different parts of our land, twenty- 
 five men of piety and ability, well versed in the 
 truths of the Bible, and representing different 
 shades of thought among us, who may be willing 
 to confer and act together as a commission to 
 propose, in the form of a creed or catechism, or 
 both, a simple, clear, and comprehensive exposi- 
 tion of the truths of the glorious gospel of the 
 blessed God, for the instruction and edification of 
 our churches." This commission has been formed, 
 and is expected to publish the result of its labors. 
 
 This eii'ort to secure a new statement of belief 
 has its roots in the doctrinal discussions origi- 
 nated or promoted by the elder Edwards. The 
 practical problems presented to the churches by 
 the immense home missionary work devolved 
 upon them have also had an important influence. 
 Theology has been cultivated with special refer- 
 ence to preaching; and preaching has aimed at 
 conversion, and the promotion of active benevo- 
 lence. The chief discussions have related to 
 "questions of anthropolog\' and soteriology." 
 The controversies with Unitarianism and C'ni- 
 versalism have widened the range of inquiry. 
 The attention given to theology, especially in New 
 England, has been remarkable in its extent and 
 degree ; and what is known as the " New-England 
 Theology " has exerted a powerful influence in 
 other comnnmions than the one m which it has 
 most flourished. 
 
 For an account of this theology, and special 
 references, see Professor H. B. Sjiitii's additions 
 to Hagexbach's Hist, of Doctrines, II. 183. 192, 
 435-452, N.Y. ed., 1868; lb. : Hist, of the Church 
 of Christ in Chronol. Tables: JIcClintock and 
 Strong's Cyclopiedia, II. 479, X. 327, art. on 
 New England Theology, by President Warren.
 
 CONGREGATIONALISM. 
 
 540 
 
 CONGREGATIONALISM. 
 
 Among leading theologians may be mentioned, 
 John Robinson, John Cotton, Thomas Shepard, 
 Samuel Willard, Jonathan Edwards, sen., Joseph 
 Bellamy, Samuel Hopkins, Jonathan Edwards, 
 jun., Timothy D-night, John Smalley, Jesse A{> 
 pleton, Asa Bui'ton, Xathaniel Emmons, Leonard 
 AVoods, ]Moses Stuart, Bennet Tyler, Lyman 
 Beecher, Xathauiel W. Taylor, Horace Bushnell, 
 C. G. Finney, Enoch Pond, Edward Beecher, 
 Edwards A. Park. 
 
 III. Polity. — The Congregational polity is a 
 body of usages as well as a system with princi- 
 ples. These usages are set forth in platforms 
 and manuals, which are recognized by courts of 
 law and ecclesiastical councils, although their 
 authority is declarative, and not canonical. It is 
 of chief importance to mark the fundamental 
 principles of the system, as it is by these that 
 usages nnist be tested. 
 
 A. Tlie Formal Principle. " The Holy Scrip- 
 tures, and especially the scrijitures of the New 
 Testament, are the only autlioritative rule for the 
 constitution and administration of church gov- 
 ernment ; and no other can be imposed on Chris- 
 tians as a condition of membership and com- 
 mmiion in tlie church " (^Boston Plalfonn, Pt. I. 
 chap. i. 1). "The New Testament contains in 
 express precept, or in the practice of the apostles 
 and primitive churches, all the principles of church 
 organization and government" (Constitution of 
 the Illinois and of other Associations). 
 
 The Cambridge Platform asserted more than 
 this; viz., that "the parts of church government 
 are aU of them exactly described in the word of 
 God ... so that it is not left in the power of men 
 ... to add, or diminish, or alter any thing in the 
 lea.st measiu-e therein." So John Robin.son and 
 the early Congregationalists generally. Tiie best 
 thought and aspiration of the next century rec- 
 ognized more fully the light of nature and the 
 province of human reason. Near its beginning. 
 Rev. John "Wise argued, on rational grounds, that 
 the best species of government is a democracy, 
 and that it is to be presumed that Christ has 
 prescribed such a form to his churches. He also 
 <iuietly assumed this to be the polity derived 
 from the Scriptures by the framers of the Cani- 
 bridg(! Platform. Congregationalism, in accord- 
 ance with the spirit of tho age, became democratic, 
 and also less rigid in its claim to a complete 
 prescriptive basis in the Scriptures. The prog- 
 ress of more recent times in exegetical and his- 
 torical theology has strengthened this tendency. 
 
 B. The Material Principle. — This is a combina- 
 tion of tho two priiu^iples of the self-government of 
 local churches and of their ohlirjation to jireserve 
 church communion. The distinctive character of 
 Congregationalism arises from its union in one 
 system of tlieso two princijiles. Its formal prin- 
 ciple has been admitted by other bodies. The 
 autonomy of (lie local clmrch is also elsewhere 
 conceded. Tho claims of fellowsb.ip also have 
 been admitted. Congregationalism alone lias 
 endeavored to blend local sclf-govi'rnment and 
 church communion, to unite tlicin in one organic 
 constitution, and to develop whatever agencies 
 are requisite for this end. It lias been aptly 
 described, from this point of view, as an ellipse, 
 the two principles of autonomy and fellow.ship 
 being the /oci. The Cambridge Platform makes 
 
 this definite, complete, and fundamental state- 
 ment : '■ Although churches be distinct, and there- 
 fore may not be confounded one with another ; 
 and equal, and therefore have not dominion one 
 over another ; yet all chm'ches ought to preserve 
 church communion one with another, because 
 they are all united mito Christ, not only as a 
 mystical, but as a political head, whence is derived 
 a communion suitable thereunto." 
 
 Besides recognizing the obligation of fellowship, 
 Congregationalism supplies the needed instrmnen- 
 talities. It provides organs of fellowship. 
 
 One of these is an ecclesiastical council, — " the 
 agenc)' by which the churches determine with 
 whom they will be in fellowship as Christian 
 churches." 
 
 Another such organ is a conference or associa- 
 tion of churches, — the agency through which 
 chm'ches in fellowship co-operate in advancing, 
 the kingdom of Christ. 
 
 These local or district bodies now generally unite 
 in forming a state association or conference, which 
 meets annually, and also the National Council, 
 which meets triennially. For a fuller account of 
 these bodies we must refer to their several con- 
 stitutions, which present minor diversities. 
 
 The action of a council is advisory, and not 
 juridical ; yet it is the recognized agency through 
 which a decision is reached of all questions of 
 ministerial and ecclesiastical fellowship. For the 
 constitution and more special functions of coun- 
 cils, see Boston Platform and the accepted maim- 
 als by Upham, Punchard, Dexter, and others. 
 The same, also, for customs and usages. 
 
 Associations of clergymen for mutual improve- 
 ment and for co-operation were early formed. 
 Under the system of consociationism they became 
 an integral part of the system. In New England, 
 and to some extent elsewhere, they have for 
 many years examined and approbated candidates 
 for tlie Christian ministry. Out of New England 
 and districts adjacent they are passing away, and 
 their fiuictions are devolved on properly ecclesi- 
 astical bodies. Where they still tlourish, the ten- 
 dency is to regard them less as public and more 
 as private bodies; although bj' common consent 
 they render service in various ways in resjxjct tO' 
 questions of ministerial fellowship and certifica- 
 tion. 
 
 Originally tho ministry w-as limited in theory 
 to occupants of the oflice of pastor or teacher in 
 a particular church. This conception was soon 
 outgrown, yet, until comparatively recent times, 
 was allowed largely to deteriniue in the churches 
 the methods of ministerial disci]iline. The Boston 
 Platform gave a broader deliuitiun, which lias 
 been generally accepted. The National Council 
 at St. l^ouis (KSSO) adopted a resolution definitely 
 recognizing the ii'sponsibility of every ordained 
 minister to the cominuuiou of the churches. See 
 the MiXT'TE.s. 
 
 A review of tlu; history of Congregationalism 
 as a polity shows a progressive -practical adjust- 
 ment of tlie two princijiles, autonomij and the duty 
 of felloivship. 
 
 l)uriiig the eighteenth century, in connection 
 with the increasing purpase to secure political 
 independence, ;ind with other movements in the 
 public mind, the original conception of church 
 communion was overshadowed. Tho organiza- 
 
 I
 
 CONGREGATIONALISM. 
 
 341 
 
 CONNOTATA. 
 
 tion of the Union of States, tlie outbreak of 
 Unitarianisni, with tlio lessons it enforced, tlie 
 growtli of the missionary sjiirit, the ]iropagation 
 of Congregationalism in thi; West, the necessity 
 •of a definite basis of co-operation in order to a 
 national extension of the system, liave restored the 
 neglected element to its due influence. At the 
 same time the principle of self-government and 
 the riglits of individual liberty and responsibility 
 are sacredly cherished and guarded. 
 
 IV. Statistics. These are printed annually 
 ill The Cont/ref/ational Year Book, Cong. Pub. 
 Soc, Boston, Mass. The latest statistics (col- 
 lected in 188.5) give as the number of 
 
 Churolies 4,170 
 
 Members 418,.504 
 
 In sabbath schools 510,.'5H9 
 
 Ministers 4,043 
 
 Tlie following theological seminaries are Con- 
 gregational : — 
 
 Andover (Mass.), opened . . . 1808 
 
 Bangor (Me.), opened .... 1817 
 
 Yale (New Haven, Conn.), opened . 1822 
 
 Hartford (Coini.), opened . . . 1834 
 
 Oljerlin (O.), opened .... 1835 
 
 Chicago (III.), opened .... 1858 
 
 Pacific (Oaldand, Cal.), opened . . 1869 
 
 Periodicals. — Bihliolheca Sacra, Andover, 
 Mass. (quarterly) ; Ncw-Enr/lander, New Haven, 
 iConn. (bi-monthly). Religious Newspapers. 
 — Conr/ref/ationalist and Boston Recorder, Boston, 
 Mass.; Christian il/f'n-o;-, Portland, Me. ; Vermont 
 Chronicle, Montpelicr, Vt. ; New Hampshire Jour- 
 nal, Concord, N.H. ; Heliginus Herald, Hartford, 
 Conn. ; Advance, Chicago, 111. ; Pacijic, San Fran- 
 cisco, Cal. 
 
 V. Lit. — (I.) Original Sources and Authori- 
 ties. John Robinson : Works of, with a Memoir, 
 3 vols., London and Boston, 1851 ; W. Bradford : 
 History of Plipn. Plantations, printed for the Mass. 
 Hist. Soc., 1856 (ed. by C. Ueane, LL.D.) ; U). : 
 A Dialogue (printed by Dr. Deane), Boston, 1870 ; 
 Nathaniel Morton ; New England's Memorial, 
 reprinted in Boston by Cong. Pub. Soc, 1855; 
 E. \V'iNSLOw : Briefe Narration (reprinted in 
 Alex. Younk, Chronicles of the Pilgrim Fathers, 
 Boston, 1844); J. Wintiirop: Journal (latest re- 
 vised ed., with notes by J. Savage, 2 vols., 
 Boston, 1853) ; R. M.\ther : Church Government 
 discussed (answer to thirty-two questions), Lon- 
 don, 1643 (see Felt: Eccles. Hist, of N.E.); Ih.: 
 Answer to Herle, 1644; to Rutherford, 1647 (see 
 Hanbury : Hist. Memorials) ; J. Cotton : The 
 Doctrine of the Church, to which are committed the 
 Keyes of the Kingdom of Heaven, London, 1642 ; 
 III. : The Keyes of the Kinqdom of Heaven, Lond., 
 1644 (reprinted Boston, I'SoL') ; lb. : The Way of 
 ■the Churches of Christ in New England, Lond., 
 1645 ; II). : The Way of Congregational Churches 
 Cleared, Ijond., 1643; .f. Norton: Responsio ad 
 Totnm QiuEstioniim Syllogen a clariss. Viro Dom. 
 Gul. Apollonio propositam, Lond., 1648; T. Hook- 
 er: A Survey of the Summe of Ch. Discipline, 
 Lond., 1648; I. JIatiier : The First Principles of 
 New England, Cambridge, 1675 (contains John 
 Cotton's Plan for Conferences) ; Ih. : A Di.^^quisi- 
 lion Concerning Eccles. Council.% Boston, 1716, ag. 
 1870 ; C. Mather : Ratio Disclplitice, Boston, 1726 ; 
 Ih. : Magnolia Chrisli Amiricana., Lond., 1702, 
 Hartford, 1820, 3d ed., 1855, 2 vols. ; A Platform 
 s/f Church Discipline, Cambridge, 1649 (and fre- 
 
 quently since) ; A Confession of Faith, pAc, with 
 Jleads of Agreement and Articles for the Admin, 
 of Ch. Discipline, New London, 1710 (the Say- 
 brook Platform) ; .T. Wise: The Churchc.i' Quarrel 
 Espoused, Boston, 1710 (reprinted Boston, 1860); 
 //;. : A Vindication of the Government of N. E. 
 Churches, J5os(on, 1717 (copious abstracts or cita- 
 tions from most of the foregoing works, and many 
 others, may be found in Handury Ecclesiastical 
 Memorials, 3 vols., London, 1844, and in Felt, 
 Eccles. Hist, of Neiv England, Boston, vol. I., 
 185."., vol. n., 1862); T. C. Upham: Ratio Dis- 
 ciplina;, Portland, 1829 ; Geouge Punciiard: A 
 View of Congregationalism, Salem, 1840 (Itli ed., 
 Boston, 1856); E. Po.\i>: A Manual of Congrega- 
 tionalism, Portland, 1818, revised ed., Bangor, 
 1859; Preston Cummings:^! Dictionary of Con- 
 gregational Usages and Principles, Bosfon, 1852; 
 IL M. Dexter: Congregatlonali.wi; What it is. 
 Whence it is. How it icorks, etc., Boston, 1865 (5th 
 ed., 1879) ; lb. : A Handbook of Congregationalism, 
 Boston, 1880; AV. Davis: Congregational Polity, 
 U.^ages, and if«t', Boston, 1865; K. Roy: A Manu- 
 al of the Principles, Doctrines, and Usages of the 
 Cong. Churches, Chicago, 1861) (and many times 
 since) ; Platform, 1865, Boston, 1872 ; A. H. Ross: 
 Ohio Manual for Cong. Churches, 1874, Toledo, 
 1875. 
 
 (ir.) General Histories, Essays, Reports, etc. 
 .T. Hunter: Collections concerning the Early His- 
 tory of the Founders of New Plymouth, Lond., 1849, 
 again 1854; ,T. Fletcher: Hist, of Independency, 
 4 vols., Lond., 1842, again, 1862; D. Neal : Hi.tt. 
 of New England, 2 vols., Lond. ,1720, again, 1747; 
 lb. : Hist, of the Puritans, 4 vols., Lond. 1732-38, 
 again, 1754, 1793-70, 1837; B. Trumbull; Hist, 
 of Conn., 2 vols., N. Haven, 1818; J. S. Clark: 
 Histor. Sketch of the Congregational Churches in 
 Mass., Boston, 18,58; IL F. Uhden : The N.E. 
 Theocracy, Boston, 1858 ; Contributions to the Eccles. 
 Hist, of Conn., N. Haven, 1861; Contributions to 
 the Eccles. Hist, of Essex Co., Mass., Boston, 1865; 
 E. Buck : Massachiwietts Eccles. Law, Boston, 1866 
 (revised ed. n.d.) ; J. G. Palfrey: Hist, of New 
 England, 4 vols., Boston, 186.5-75 ; A. H. Quint : 
 Congregationalists (in McClintock and Strong's 
 Cyclopcedia), N. York, 1868 ; L. Bacon: Genesis 
 of the N.E. Churche.% N.Y., 1874; J. Wadding- 
 ton : Congregational Hist., 4 vols., London, 1869- 
 78; J. Punchard: Coni/ref/ationalis7n in America, 
 2 vols., Boston, 1880-81 '(vols, iv., v., of Hist, of 
 Cong.) ; H. M. Dexter : Congregationalism as 
 seen in its Literature, N.Y., 1880 (A Bibliog. Ap- 
 pendix gives 7,250 titles, with localities and index, 
 an invaluable collection) ; numerous articles in 
 Cong. Quarterly, Boston, 20 vols., 1859-78: Neio- 
 Englander; liibliotheca Sacra, State Minutes; 
 Year Book of the Amer. Cong. Union, 6 vols., 
 1854-59; Proceedings of the General Convention at 
 Albani/, 18.52; Debates and Proceedings of the Na- 
 tional'Council {\mb), Boston, 1866; Minutes of the 
 National Council (1871, 1874, 1877, 1880, 4 vols.), 
 Bostcill. K. C. SMYTH. 
 
 CONNEXA, in scholastic usage, are such con- 
 cepts as must necessarily be thought of together; 
 e.g., creator and creation. 
 
 CONNOTATA, in scholastic usage, are con- 
 cepts which necessarily suggest one another; 
 e.g., father suggests the idea of son, son that of 
 father.
 
 CONON. 
 
 542 
 
 CONSCIENCE. 
 
 CONON, pope from Oct. 21, 686, to Sept. 21, 
 687 ; was a Thracian by birth, and educated in 
 Sicily. The report that he commissioned St. 
 Kilian to go as a missionary into Eastern Franco- 
 nia is whoUy unhistorical. 
 
 CONON ITES, the followers of Conon, Bishop 
 of Tarsus in Cilicia in the beginning of the seventh 
 century ; held certain tritheistic views, wliicli, 
 through Conon, they had derived from Johannes 
 Philoponus. In other points, as, for instance, 
 witli respect to the resurrection of the body, Jo- 
 liannes and Conon disagreed very much. Tlie 
 sect had disappeared at the end of the seventh 
 century. 
 
 CONRAD OF MARBURG, See Konkad of 
 MAiiiiuiiu. 
 
 CONRING, Hermann, b. at Norden in East 
 Friesland, Xov. iJ. lOiXi ; d. at Hehnstadt, Dec. 
 12, 1681 ; was educated at Helmstiidt and Leyden, 
 and became professor at Hehnstadt in 1632, first 
 in natural philosophy, then in medicine, and finally 
 in law. He was one of the most learned men of 
 his age, and in the field of theology he wrote a 
 number of valuable treatises on the jm'idical posi- 
 tion of the Protestant Church in its relation to 
 the Roman-Catholic Church, the empire, etc., — 
 De Conslilutioiie Episcoporum Gcrmanke (1647), De 
 CoHCillas (1650), Defensin Ecclesice Protestantiwn 
 adversum duo Pontijicinrum Aryumenta (1654), De 
 Germanorum Imperio Romano, etc. The edition 
 of his works by Gobel, Brunswick, 1730, in six 
 volumes in folio, does not contain his medical 
 works ; also a number of his letters are omitted. 
 
 CONSALVI, Erode, Marchese di, b. in Rome, 
 June 8, 1757; d. there Jan. 24, 1824. The last 
 representative of an old Roman family, he received 
 a careful education, first in the College of Frascati, 
 afterwards, when he had adopted the Church as 
 liis career, ]i\ the Academia Ecclesiastica in Rome. 
 In the last days of Pius VI. he was nunister of 
 war ; and this position, as well as his strong aver- 
 sion to the French Revolution, caused him to be 
 very severely treated when the French occupied 
 Rome in 1798. Immediately after the accession 
 of Pius VII., he was niads; a cardinal, and secre- 
 tary of state, Aug. 11, 1800, and in this latter 
 ([uality he concluded the concordat with France, 
 July 15, 1801. But he soon became utterly dis- 
 agrcitable to Napoleon ; and in 1806 he was com- 
 pelled to resign, and was banished to Rlieims. 
 .Vfter the fall of Napoleon, however, he was re- 
 turned to his ollice ; and the restoration of the 
 ]iapal dominions nearly in their old extent was 
 ilue to his remarkable di])loinatical skill. He also 
 succeeded in eoncludiug advantageous concordats 
 with Spain, Xaples, .Vuslria, Ru.ssia, etc. His 
 internal government was less successful. He had 
 at last no other means of protecting the country 
 against the robbers and burglars with whom it 
 swarmed, but pensioning Ihem. See Haktiioi.dy : 
 ZUi/e (inn ilcm Lebeii ilea Kardiudh Consalvi, Stutt- 
 gardt, 1824; Mimoires du Cardinal Consahi, Paris, 
 1861, 2 vols. MEJKR. 
 
 CONSCIENCE (New-Testament Greek, amci. 
 <l'/o(f). 'J'|]<; word conies to us from the I/itin 
 I'ongfiux, comfii'Dtifi (" conscious," " con.sciou.s- 
 ness") ; but neither Greek nor Roman used it in 
 our 8en.se. It had no religious bearing. It is 
 unknown to tN; Old Testament, never used by 
 oui- Lord, aox ijy tlie New-Testament writers ex- 
 
 cept Paul (and those inspired directly by him) and 
 Peter. But Paul makes direct appeal to the con- 
 science (2 Cor. iv. 2; Rom. ii. 15, xiii. 5, 6), and 
 speaks of "weak" consciences (1 Cor. viii. 7, x. 
 25 sqq.). Elsewhere he uses it of the Christian 
 conscience exclusively (Acts xxiii. 1 ; 2 Tun. i. 3). 
 In the Epistle to the Hebrews (ix. 9) the word is 
 a short expression for the state of mind of those 
 under the old covenant. The pre-Christian " con- 
 science " is, according to Paul, the divinely 
 ordered ground of obedience (Rom. xiii. 4 sqq.), 
 or, generally speaking, the moral sense which 
 sides with the requirements of the law (ii. 14 sq.) 
 because of a self-judgment testifying to the inner- 
 most fact (ix. 1; 2 Cor. i. 12)," and therefore to 
 be placed alongside of that of the Searcher of 
 hearts (2 Cor. v. 11; Rom. ii. 15, 16), and which 
 also can judge the actions of others (2 Cor. v. 11, 
 iv. 2). But Paul never hints at a conscious au- 
 tonomy through the conscience, nor at any differ- 
 ence between the pre-Christian and Christian 
 conscience. The New Testament knows nothing 
 of a coercive conscience ; rather it may be weak^ 
 narrow, erroneous (1 Cor. viii. 7 sqq.). There 
 can be " conscience," or a consciousness of guUt, 
 which is removed by purification (Heb. x. 2). 
 
 The discussion of the " weak " conscience leads 
 Paul to recognize the individuality of conscience. 
 This was an important advance. He lays down 
 the law that one should follow his own conscience, 
 not another's, even though his conscience be 
 weak, else moral personality were destroyed (1 
 Cor. X. 29 sqq., cf. viii. 10 sqq.). — By the blood 
 of Christ the conscience is cleansed, and so the 
 Christian has a "good" conscience (Rom. ix. 1; 
 2 Cor. i. 12 ; Heb. ix. 14, x. 22 ; in 1 Pet. iii. 21 
 it is connected with baptism), and struggles ear- 
 nestly to keep it (Acts xxiv. 16; Heb. xiii. 18; 
 1 Pet. iii. 16). This Christian "good" con- 
 science is not the certainty of reconciliation, but 
 the nm-ror of the moral condition in its truest 
 colors. Hence its chief characteristic is its sin- 
 cerilji (2 Cor. i. 12), which testifies to its purity 
 (1 Tim. iii. 9; 2 Tim. i. 3). Its opposite is a 
 branded, defiled conscience (1 Tim. iv. 2; Tit. 
 i. 15), the witness of con.scious wickedne.ss (1 Tim. 
 i. 19) ; and therefore the " faith unfeigned '*■ 
 stands or falls with the " good " or " pure " con- 
 science (1 Tim. i. 5, 19, iii. 9, iv. 1, 2). 
 
 There is no evidence that Paul considered con- 
 science as competent to give of itself a correct 
 knowledge of God, nor that from him the word — 
 like "faith," "love," "spirit" — passed info the 
 early Christian curi'ent speech: on the contrary, 
 the word is .seldom met with in the oldest Chris- 
 tian literature, and first comes \i\> frequently 
 when exegesis arose. Chrysostom gave the earli- 
 est clear expression to the idea of a " commanding, 
 authoritative" con.science; but both .Vugustine 
 and Pelagius repeat the popular idea of moral 
 consciousness. The connection between "con- 
 .science" and "consciousness" was emphasized 
 by the schoolmen in the interest of their sub- 
 jective views of ethics. The most jjcculiar thing 
 about the first scientific treatment of con.science 
 by Alexander of Hales and Thomas Aquinas was 
 the introduction of the idea of rrmTr/pj/aic (literally, • 
 clo.in wdlchiiiij), " the inner guard keeping watch 
 and ward over the hidden sources of the will," 
 which was identified with conscience, and at the-
 
 CONSCIENCE. 
 
 543 
 
 CONSECRATION, 
 
 same time distinguished from it. The word 
 came from JeroiiK? ; but the solioolmen, under 
 the influence of th(! Aristotelian psyelioli)};y, 
 found in it the practical intellect ; i.e., what th<'y 
 called the poteiilia or liahiltis of the moral jiriuci- 
 ple. Coiiscienlia, on the other hand, denot<'d the 
 application of this ni/nleresis to the individual. 
 Jt is therefore, according to Thonuas Aquinas, 
 only an actit.i. Witli its application came in the 
 idea of fallibility ; and so the door was opened to 
 all sorts of hair-splitting judgments, notably by 
 the wi-iters of books njion casuistry. The Jesuits 
 carried tliis direction the farthest ; but tliey 
 ignore si/ntcresi.i, and call conxcientia a prejudice 
 which probabilism removes. By (Jersdn and 
 other mystics the synlcresis defined the longing 
 and power of the soul to come into immediate 
 contact with God. See Kaiii.ku: St'iiliarmn, i/tias 
 de fonsc, § 5. For the scholastic theory, and 
 especially for the si/nlcresis, the best work is W. 
 Gass : Die' Lehre von Geicissen, Berlin, 186!), pj). 
 43 sq., 210 .sq. The Jesuits to read are Escob.vk : 
 ♦ Lilier Tlicnl. Moral., Ludg., 1641, specially chap, 
 v., and (iItry: Comp. Tlieol. il/o;'«/., Brux., 1853, 
 specially chap. iv. 
 
 During the middle age the idea of conscience 
 was developed far beyond the New-Testament 
 limits, and plaj'ed a prominent part in the Refor- 
 mation. Lutlier used the word in the sense of 
 consciousness of duty, and appealed to its tri- 
 bunal for its ap]iroAal of the doctrine of justifica- 
 tion by faith. Calvin calls conscience " the sense 
 of divine, imperial justice." Home has since that 
 day developed her casuistry ; and Protestantism 
 has ever called upon the religio-moral individual 
 conseiou.suess. Conscience is now recognized as 
 an inalienable possession, but the idea itself has 
 undergone no fui'ther development. 
 
 A school of Protestant casuistry has sprung 
 up for the settlement of cases of conscience and 
 theological doubts, which indulges too much in 
 the old minute subdivisions, but yet seeks to 
 form " pure and good " consciences. Theologians 
 speak of the " Christian " conscience, by which 
 one is to govern his life. The phrase " innate 
 ideas" was abandoned for tlie "moral sense." 
 Rousseau talked about an instinct which led to 
 morality, — a quite different thing from the " con- 
 science " of the Reformation. Kant, on the other 
 side, emphasized dutji, and the " inner court." 
 His influence was long felt. Fichte defined con- 
 science as "the innnediate con.sciousness of spe- 
 cific duty." But of late conscience has been 
 considered [particularly by the school of Herbert 
 Spencer] a product of education. 
 
 With the individuality of conscience is con- 
 nected "liberty" of conscience, which primarily 
 means that God, and not man, decides rightfully 
 how a man shall worship. But this liberty is 
 not license. It is abu.sed, when in its luime pre- 
 tended worship is turned into an orgy. It is 
 denied, when any one church undertakes to say 
 what worship shall be rendered in other churches. 
 
 Lit. — Exegetical and Historical. J. T. Beck : 
 Umrisn (ler hi/ilixc/ieii Seelenlclirc, Stuttgart, 1843, 
 3d ed., 1S77; Eng. trans.. Outline of Biblical Psy- 
 c/iolo;/;/, Edinburgh, 1877; Ch. F. Scumid : 
 Chrisiliche Sittenlehre, Stuttg., 1861, 2d (title) ed., 
 1867. § 22; Jaiixel : De conscicnticc nolione, Ber- 
 lin, 1862; H. CuE.MER : Bihiisch-theologisches Wor- 
 
 lerhuch iler neutestamentlichen GrOcitdl, Gotlia, 1867, 
 3d ed., 1881; Eng. trans., BiUico-Oreek Lexicon, 
 Edinburgh, 1878, 3d ed., 1881 (sub ElAu) ; Smk- 
 DING : Paulin. Gewetennteer, Utrecht, 1873; M. 
 Kaiii.icu: Das Gewissen, 1. Halfte, Allert/ium u. 
 Neues Teftamenl, Halle, 1878. 
 
 Critical and Theological. Wuttkf, : Handhuch 
 der clirinllichcn SiUenlehre, Leipzig, 1862, 2 vols., 
 3d ed., 1875; R. Hokman.n : Die Lehre von dem 
 Cjewi.«<:7i, Leipzig, 1866 ; Quaatz: De con.icienlice 
 apud Kantium nolione, llalle, 1867 ; W. Gass : Die 
 Lehre vom Gewissen, Berlin, LStjO; A. IIit.sciil: 
 ifeher das Gewissen; Ein Vorlrar/, Bonn, 1876 
 (32 pp.); Gust. Sciin.ZE : Ue.lier den Widerstreil 
 tier P/licliten, Halle, 1878 [Bp. Sa.nderson: Lee- 
 lures on Conscience and Human Lnw,o\\. byBp.Clir. 
 Wordsworth, Oxford, 1877; A. WKiixicKK: fXie 
 lielir/ion des Gewissens als Zukunflsideal, Berlin, 
 188(i; F. KiiciiLEu: Zur Freilieil des Gewi.isens. 
 Eine reiigionsphilosophisch - kirchenpolitiiche Uludie, 
 Leipzig. ISSl]. M. KAHLER. 
 
 CONSCIENTIARII, the followers of ^Litthias 
 Knutsen, a candidate of theology, b. at Olden- 
 l)urg, Schleswig, who came to Jena, September, 
 
 1674, and boasted to have gathered arouiul him 
 six hundred students and peasants from Jena and 
 Altorf. His opinions were infidel and atheistic ; 
 but he professed to have derived them by an appeal 
 to conscience. It is needless to add tliat his con- 
 science allowed him and his followers to lead 
 licentious lives. The Jena University authorities 
 felt called upon to deny all connection with the 
 scandalous sect, and deputed Professor J. iSIusaus 
 to write for them. The result was Ahlehnung der 
 ausgespreufjten abscheidiclien Verleumdung, oh vdre 
 in der Universildt Jena eine neue Sekte der soge- 
 nannten Gewi.isener ent.-<landen, Jena, 1674, 2d ed., 
 
 1675. After this we hear no more of the sect. 
 A letter of Knutsen is rejirinted in Hisloria Atheismi 
 a Jenkino Thomasio. .See Adeluxg: Gesch. d. 
 menschlicJien Narrlieit, Leipzig, 1785-99, 8 vols. 
 
 CONSECRATION. This term means to set 
 apart for lioly uses, and is variously applied. In 
 the Bible both per.sonsand things — vessels (Josh, 
 vi. 19), profits (Mic. iv. 13), fields (Lev. xxvii. 
 28), cattle (2 Chron. xxix. 33), individuals (Num. 
 vi. 9-13), and luitions (Exod. xix. 6) — were .sepa- 
 rated to God's sen-ice. In the ecclesiastical sense 
 it is limited to persons and things distinctively 
 holy. Thus churches, bishops, and the elements 
 in the Lord's Svipper, are consecrated. For the 
 two latter u.ses of the word see Bisiioi" and Lokd's 
 SupPEU respectively. This article is limited to 
 the 
 
 Consecration of Churches. 1. The idea of set- 
 ting a))aTt by solenni and peculiar ceremonies a 
 building for the exclusive use of God's servant.s 
 and service would seem to he inborn. All na- 
 tions have sacred places in whicli esoteric rites 
 are performed. Accordingly the Jews had such 
 places, and ]ire-eminently a temple wliose corise- 
 cration had in it supernatural elements. It may 
 well have been that synagogues were consecrated, 
 although there is no record of the fact. Christian 
 churches are mentioned in the third century (.see 
 Architectvre, Christian), and perhaps were 
 formallv consecrated ; so that, although Eusebius 
 (fourth" century) in iiis Life of Constantine gives 
 the first account of such consecrations, the form 
 used may have been in part traditional. Of espe-
 
 CONSECRATION. 
 
 544 
 
 CONSILIA EVANGELICA. 
 
 cial Interest is the accoiint of Constantiue's con- 
 secration of the church called the " Martyrium " 
 over the holy sepulchre at Jerusalem. From all 
 parts of the empire bishops assembled, besides an 
 immense concourse of clergy and laity. The ser- 
 vices included discourses of different varietieg, 
 and were held Saturday, Sept. 13, 335. Tlie dedi- 
 cation of St. Sophia in Constantinople (3G0) was 
 with "prayers and votive offermgs." 
 
 In later times it became customary to build 
 chmxhes over the tombs of martyrs; and then 
 relics came to be regarded as " absolutely essen- 
 tial to the sacredness of the building, and the 
 deposition of such relics in or below the altar 
 henceforward formed the central portion of tlie 
 consecration-rite." All the ancient rituals of con- 
 secration now extant belong to this later period. 
 
 These consecrated buildings were henceforth 
 set apart exclusively for religion. Xo eating or 
 dj-mking was permitted in them, nor any carrying 
 of arms. This latter jirohibition speedily made 
 them asylums; and the Theodosian code extended 
 the privilege to the "various surroundings of a 
 church, where meals might be taken, and sleeping- 
 quarters established, for any length of time. By 
 anotlier law, however, it was modified by exclud- 
 ing public debtors, slaves, and Jews from benefit- 
 ing by it in future ; and Justinian afterwards 
 excluded malefactors." 
 
 2. The modern Church of Rome, in the mat- 
 ter of consecration of churches, retains the an- 
 cient usage, although the rite itself is commonly 
 designated as a '• dedication." The ceremony 
 has been thus described: "The relics which 
 are to be deposited in the altar of the new 
 church are put into a clean vessel, together 
 with three grains of incense, to whicli a piece of 
 jiarchment is added containing the day of the 
 month and year, and the name of the ofiiciating 
 bisliop. Three crosses are painted on each of the 
 church walls, and over each cross a candle is placed. 
 On the morning appointed for the ceremony, the 
 bishop, arrayed in his pontifical vestments, and at- 
 tended by the clergy, goes to the door of the church, 
 where they recite the seven penitential psalms, 
 after wliich he makes a tour of the church-walls, 
 sprinkling them in the name of the Holy Trinity. 
 This rite being i)erformed, he knocks on tlie 
 church-door with his pastoral staff, repeating 
 from I'salm xxiv., Allollile portas, el introlih Rex 
 Gloria; ('lift up, O gates, and the King of Glory 
 shall come in '). A deacon shut up in the church 
 demands, Quis fsl isle Rex Gloria: ? (' Who is this 
 King of Glory?') To which the bisliop answers, 
 Doininun forll.i el poleim, Dnminus polcii.i in prw- 
 lio (' The Lord strong and mighty, the Lord 
 mighty in battle'). At tlie same tiine the bishop 
 crosses the door, repeating the following verse: 
 Ecce Cruris sir/num, fui/ianl phaiilaxmala euncia 
 (' Behold the sign of the Cross, flee every kind 
 of evil spirit, flee'). On the admission of the bish- 
 op and clergy into the church, tlie Veni Creator 
 is sung. Then one of the sub-deacons takes ashe.s, 
 and sprinkles them on the pavement in the form 
 of a cro.ss. Next follow the litanie," and other 
 parts of divine servicii ; after which, the bishop 
 with his pastoral staff' describ<^s, as witli a pen, 
 two alphabets [the (ireek and Latin] in the ashes 
 sprinkled by tne de;icoii, and prori'cds to con- 
 secrate the altar by sprinkling it with a mixture 
 
 of water, wine, salt, and ashes, in the name of 
 Jesus Christ. The consecration of the altar is 
 followed by a solemn procession of the relics, 
 which are deposited under it with great ceremony. 
 During the whole of this imposing solemnity the 
 church is finely adorned, and tapers are lighted 
 upon the altar. Mass is afterwards performed by 
 the bishop, or by some otlier person." 
 
 3. But outside of Rome, in the Greek and all 
 other Episcopal churches, some form of consecra- 
 tion has always been used. In the Church of 
 England and the Episcopal Church of this coun- 
 try there is no authorized form of consecration 
 for churches ; but one prepared by the bishops in 
 1712 is used on both sides of the ocean. It is 
 printed in the Prayer-Book. In the Methodist- 
 Episcopal and other Protestant denominations the 
 setting-apart of buildings for divine service is 
 usually called their '■ dedication," and the forms 
 vary greatly. That used in the Metliodist Church 
 is given in § 501 of the Book of Discipline (ed. 
 1880), and consists of Scripture readings, prayers, 
 a sermon, etc., all which service is conducted by 
 the minister. 
 
 CONSENSUS GENEVENSIS, drawn up by 
 Calvin for tlie purpose of uniting the Swiss Re- 
 formed churches with regard to the doctrine of 
 predestination, appeared at Geneva in 1552, having 
 received the signatures of all the pastors of that 
 city. But beyond Geneva it acquired no sjnnboli- 
 cal authority. The attempts to enlist the civil 
 government in its favor created dissatisfaction 
 and opposition in Berne, Basel, and Zurich. See 
 NiEMEYER : Colleclio Confessionum, Lips., 1840, 
 pp. 218 sqq. ; Sch.\ff : Creeds of Christendom, 
 New York, 1877, 3 vols., vol. I. p. 474. 
 
 CONSENSUS TIGURINUS was drawn up by 
 Calvin, in concert with BuUinger and the minis- 
 ters of Ziirich, in 1540, for the purpose of uniting 
 the Swiss Reformed churches with regard to the 
 doctrine of the Lord's Supper. It appeared at 
 Ziirich and Geneva in 1551, was adopted by tlie 
 churches of Zurich, Geneva, St. Gall, Scliaff- 
 hausen, tlie Grisons, Neuchatel, and Basel, and 
 favorably received in France, England, and parts 
 of Germany. See Niemeyer : Colleclio Conf. in 
 Eccles. Ref. public. Lips., 1840, pp. 191-217; 
 ScHAEK : Creeds of C/iristcndom, 3 vols., New 
 York, 1877, vol. 1. p. 471. 
 
 CONSILIA EVANGELICA. In contradistinc- 
 tion to the pnecepla, the Roman-Catholic Church 
 calls such moral rules as are not obligatory on all 
 Christians consilia erant/elica. By ado]iting and 
 fulfilling them, a Christian ri.ses .above that stage 
 of holin(!ss and virtue, which, strictly speaking, 
 can be demanded from him, and acquires a, so to 
 speak, superlluous merit which can be transferred 
 to others. Already, very early, people believed 
 that traces of such rules could be found in the 
 New Testament (see Matt. xxv. 21 ; Luke xvii. 
 10; 1 Cor. vii. 10, 25; comp. IIeumas: Pastor 
 Simil., III. 5, 3; OitioEN : Ad Rom., III., in tom. 
 IV. p. 507, edition by De la Rue); and the doc- 
 trine began to develop, comprising, at first, only 
 the three vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience, 
 with reference to M:itt. xi.x. 11,21 ; Luke xiv. 20. 
 With Thomas Aiiuinas the distinction between 
 pracepla and consilia is fully developed (.S'i/hi..1I. 
 i, (luest. lOM); and in the mean time the lunnber 
 of vows inrreased from three to twelve, referring
 
 CONSISTENTES. 
 
 545 
 
 CONSTANCE. 
 
 to such places as IMatt. v. 20, 35, 39, 42, etc. Tlie 
 three original vows, however, contiiuied to be 
 ■considered as the pracipita et sulislaiUialia perfec- 
 tionis cons'dia; and on tlu-ni was based a whole 
 series of doctrines on nionasticisin and a cont(^in- 
 plative life, on the distinction between a higher 
 and a lower virtue, on the merits of the saints, on 
 the thesaurus operum supcrcroijalionis, etc. 
 
 Uefore the criticism of the Reformation this 
 whole illusion vanished. Not only was the dis- 
 tinction between prcucepta and consilia completely 
 disregarded, but tlie whole series of doctrines de- 
 veloped from it was decidedly rejected. As in a 
 sound moral system there can be no adiaphora, 
 so in a sound moral life there can be no opera 
 supererogatoria ; and tliat which, in the Scripture 
 passages above referred to, the Konian-Catholic 
 Church mistook for peculiar moral rules of a 
 higher order, is nothing but a necessary regard to 
 individual circumstances. See Confess. August., 
 art. VI. ; Apologia, cap. VI. ; Form. Concord., art. 
 VI. ; and the first Protestant theologians, as, for 
 instance. Ciikm.nitz: Loci TkeoL, par. 102. The 
 Roman-Catholic dogmatists felt the difficulty, and 
 for a long time they used to settle the question of 
 opera supererogationis in a hasty and vague way, 
 until Mohler tried to take up anew the half-for- 
 gotten subject in his Symholik oder Darstellung 
 der dogmatischen Gegensdize der Katholiken unci 
 Protestanten, Mayence, 1832. A fresh investiga- 
 tion of the matter by Baur, Nitzsch, Rothe, and 
 others, led to a second destruction of the whole 
 web. See H. W. J. Thiersch : Vorlesungen Uher 
 Katholizmus und Protestantisnius, II. 160, 2d ed., 
 Erlangen, 1848, 2 vols. K. SCUWARZ. 
 
 CONSISTENTES. See Penitents. 
 
 CONSISTORY means, in the Roman-Catholic 
 Church,, a meeting of the College of Cardinals, 
 presided over by the Pope, and, in the Lutheran 
 Church, a mixed board of ecclesiastical and lay 
 officers, generally appointed by the sovereign of 
 the country. The papal consistories, or consisto- 
 ries of cardinals, are either public, when the Pope, 
 surrounded by the cardinals, receives the foreign 
 ambassadors, and public affairs are decided by his 
 allocutions ; or private, when only the cardinals 
 are admitted, and affairs are discussed. In the 
 Lutheran churches the consistories often perform 
 the functions of the bishop, administering and 
 superintending ecclesiastical affairs, and in some 
 countries exercising jurisdiction and inflicting 
 penalties. In the Reformed churches the con- 
 sistory corresponds to the session of the Presby- 
 terian Church. 
 
 CONSTANCE, The Council of, sat from Nov. 
 5, 1414, to April 22, 1418, and was the .second of 
 those three councils, which, during the fifteenth 
 centuiy, were convened for the purpose of re- 
 forming the Church, head and members ; that of 
 Pisa being the first, that of Basel the last. It was 
 •called by Pope John XXIII. and the Emperor 
 Sigismund; and its three great objects were to 
 heal the papal schism, to examine the heresy of 
 IIus and tlie religious disturbances tliereby caused 
 in Bohemia, and to carry through a general reform 
 ■ of the Church. It was attended by twenty-nine 
 cardinals, three patriarchs, thirty-three archbish- 
 ops, about one hundred and fifty bishops, more 
 than one hundred abbots, more than five hundred 
 .monks of different orders, and a similar number 
 36-1 
 
 of professors and doctors of theology and canon 
 law, besides princes, noblemen, ambassadors, etc. 
 The I'ope was also present. He rode into the city 
 on Oct. 28, with great magnificence, sixteen hun- 
 dred hor.ses carrying his retinue and luggage. 
 The emperor arriviul on Christm;w Eve ; but he 
 had only one thousand horses in his train. The 
 total nundx-r of visitors to the city during the 
 council is computed, at the lowest rate, at fifty 
 thousand ; but of tlie.se, more than one-third were 
 mountebanks, money-lenders, strolling actors, and 
 prostitutes. The most prominent and most influ- 
 ential members of the council were I'ierre d'Ailly 
 and his ]iupil Ger.son. 
 
 The Council of Pisa (1409) liad attempted to 
 put an end to the schism by deposing botli 
 Gregory XII. (Angelo Corraro), who resided in 
 Rome, and Benedict XIII. (Petro de Luna), who 
 resided at Avignon, and electing in their .stead 
 Alexander V. But the result was simply, that 
 there now were three popes instead of two ; and 
 the confusion continued uiuibated, when, after the 
 death of Alexander V. (in 1410), the leaders of 
 the Pisan council elected John XXIII. (Baltha- 
 sar Co.ssa). All the three popes were invited to 
 Constance, but only John was present in person. 
 He was a dissijjated and unprincipled rascal, ready 
 at any time for any crime ; but he was courageous, 
 shrewd, inexhaustible in .shifts and intrigues, and 
 equal to any emergency. He hoped to lord it 
 over the council by means of the very great num- 
 ber of Italian prelates, who, mostly dependent 
 upon him, accompanied him to Constance. But 
 in this he failed. The order of business adopted 
 by the council w'as that of working and voting by 
 nations ; and in the plenary sessions the Italian 
 nation, though ever so heavily represented, had, of 
 course, only one vote beside the four other nations, 
 — the German, French, English, and Spanish. lie 
 now endeavored to urge upon the assembly the 
 view that the Council of Constance was nothing 
 but a simple continuation of that of Pisa, which 
 had formally condemned his two rivals, and, in- 
 directly at least, legitunized his own election. 
 But in this, too, he failed; and the party of Pierre 
 d'Ailly finally succeeded in carrying a motion that 
 all the three popes should be compelled to abdi- 
 cate, and a new papal election take place. John 
 abdicated in the hope of being re-elected ; but he 
 soon became aware of his mistake, fled in the dis- 
 guise of a groom, protested, was caught, and was 
 finally brought to acquiesce in the decisions of 
 the council. In its fifth plenary session (April 6, 
 1415), the assembly agreed that an (ecumenical 
 council, legally convened, and fully representative 
 of the Church, has its power directly from Christ, 
 and its decrees are consequently obligatory on all, 
 even on the Pope. Jlay 29, 1415,'John XXIII. 
 was deposed; July 4, 1415, Gregory XII. volun- 
 tarily abdicated ; July 20, 1417, Benedict XIII. 
 was deposed; and Nov. 11, 1417, Cardinal Odo 
 Colonna was elected Pope, and assumed the name 
 of Martin V., who closed the council April 22, 
 1418, at its forty-fifth session. 
 
 The Bohemian affairs were treated with great 
 thoroughness; for Hus was burnt July 6, 1415, 
 and Jerome of Prague, May 30, 1416. But a 
 final settlement was not arrived at, still less a 
 satisfactory one. It was the school-wisdom of 
 the university which here overwhehued and tried
 
 CONSTANTINE. 
 
 546 
 
 CONSTANTINE. 
 
 to crush the free evangelical movement of popu- 
 lar life. Still more conspicuously the council 
 failed in its reform plans. A collegium refurinu'- 
 torium was formed in August, 1-115 ; but charac- 
 teristically enough for the whole situation, when 
 Cardinal Zabarella read aloud to the assembly 
 the decree of April 16, lilo, he wilfully left out 
 the passage it contained on the power of the 
 council to undertake reforms in the Church. It 
 was the lower clergj', the monks, the doctors, and 
 professors, led by Pierre d'^Villy and Gerson, and 
 supported by the emperor, who denumded re- 
 forms. But the abuses in which reforms were 
 necessary — such as the appeals to the Pope and 
 the papal procedure, the administration of vacant 
 benefices, and the giving in commendam, simony, 
 dispensations, indulgences, etc. — were the very 
 sources from which the Pope, the cardinals, 
 and the huge swarm of ecclesiastical officials in 
 Rome, drew then- princijial revenues. In fighting 
 against reforms, the cardinals fought pro aris el 
 focis, and they proved unconquerable. The em- 
 peror wished the question of reform discussed 
 and decided before the election of a new Pope ; 
 but the cardinals declared that the worst ailing 
 of the Church was its lack of a head : and, when 
 Martin V. was elected, he understood how to 
 bury away the whole affair quietly and smootlily, 
 by grave hesitations and cautious procrastinations. 
 
 Lit. — H. v. d. H.^rdt: Maijn. _CE<um. Con- 
 slant. Concil., Leipzig, 1700, 6 vols.; Bourgeois 
 DU Chastenet : Nouv. Hi.tl. du Cone, tie Con- 
 stance, Paris, 1718 ; Lenf.\nt : Nisi. <lu Cone, rle 
 Const., Paris, 1714-27 ; RovKo : (Jesehichte d. Con- 
 zil zu C,1748; WESSE.MiEHf; : Kirclunversamml. 
 d. 15 und 16th Jahr., 1840; M.\NSi, vol. XXVI. 
 and XXVll.; Hefele, vol. VIII. ; Uolrich 
 KiCHEND.\L : Concilium ze _ Coslenz (photolith. 
 facsimile), Karlsruhe, 1881. ' G. VOIGT. 
 
 CONSTANTINE is the name of two popes. — 
 Constantine, .Marcli 2.'), "OS-April 8, 715, w'as a 
 Syrian by birtli, but fully adopted the policy of 
 the Roman see, and pursued it with success. 
 Though he was summoned to Constantinople by 
 Justinian II., and compelled to stay there for 
 two years (709-711), he returned to his see with- 
 out loss of prestige, and in the monothelistic in- 
 trigues which were started after the assassination 
 of Justinian II. and the elevation of Philippikus 
 Bardanes, he ooposed the emperor with great 
 vigor, and was jacked by the Roman people. 
 See Lib. pnnlif., Ii. 1 ; J.\i-i-E: He(i. I'onlif. Roman., 
 p. 17;!. — A second Constantine occupied the 
 papal chair from 707 to 70S. lb. was a brother 
 to Toto, duke of Xepi, a violent adventurer, and 
 with him he rose and fell. After Toto's death 
 he was depo.sed, and confined in the Jlonastery 
 of Cella Nova, wiiere he was tiv'atcd with great 
 cruelty. The dale of his death is not known. 
 See Lib. ponl., II. l:)!!, in the; Vila Slejthan., IV; 
 .r..\ri--K : /'('/. f'oiitlf. Hi, infill. , ]>. 19-S. II.mtck. 
 
 CONSTANTINE THE GREAT AND HIS 
 SONS. 1. Constantine, KoMian ICniperor from 
 aOO to li'■^~ ; was liorn in 274, at Xaissus in Upper 
 Jloesia, a son of Constantius Chlorus and Helena, 
 and was, after the deatli of his father at York 
 (July '25, yOO), ])roclaimed eniiieror by the legions 
 of (laul. lie inniicdiately took possession of 
 ■Britain, Oaul, and Spain ; and after a series of 
 biilliant victories over Alaxentius, ending with 
 
 the bloody battle at the Milvian Bridge, just 
 under the walls of Rome, he also became master 
 of Italy (312). He now ruled over the Western 
 Empire, as Licinius over the Eastern : but war 
 broke out between them in 314 ; and in 323, after 
 the battle of Chalcedon, in which Licinius was 
 killed, Constantine became sole lord of the whole 
 Koman world. lie died in 337, at Xicomedia. 
 
 Tradition tells us that he was converted to 
 Christianity suddenly, and by a miracle. One 
 evening during the contest with jNlaxentius, he 
 saw a radiant cross appearing in tlie heavens, with 
 the inscription, "By this thou shalt conquer." 
 The tradition is first mentioned by Eusebius, in 
 his De Vila Conslanlini, written after the em- 
 peror's death. This miracle has been defended 
 with ingenious sophistry by Roman-Catholic his- 
 torians and by Card. Dr. Xe^\•man (Two Essays 
 on Biblical and on Ecclesiastical JMiracles, 3d ed.. 
 Loud., 1873, pp. 271 sqq.), but cannot stand the 
 test of critical examination. Constantine may 
 have seen some phenomenon in the skies ; he 
 was no doubt convinced of the superior claims 
 of Christianity as the rising religion ; but his 
 conversion was a change of policy, rather than of 
 moral character. Long after that event he killed 
 his son, his second wife, several others of his rela- 
 tives, and some of his most intimate friends, in 
 passionate resentment of some fancied infringe- 
 ment of his rights. In his relation to Christian- 
 ity he was cool, calciilating, always bent upon 
 the practically useful, always regarding the prac- 
 tically possible. He retained the office and title 
 of Pontifex Maxiinus to the last, and did not re- 
 ceive Christian baptism until he felt death close 
 upon him. He kept Pagans in the highest posi- 
 tions in his innnediate surroundings, and forbade 
 every thing which might look like an encroach- 
 ment of Christianity upon Paganism. Such a 
 faith in such a character is not the i-esult of a 
 sudden conversion by a miracle : if it were, the 
 effect would be more miraculous than the cause. 
 Judging from the cluiracter both of his father and 
 mother, it is jirobable that ho grew up in quiet 
 but steady contact with Christianity. Christianity 
 had, indeed, become .something in tlie air which 
 no one oixupying a prominent posit i(m in the 
 Roman worhl coidd remain entirely foreign to. 
 But the singular mixture of political carefulness 
 and personal indiiference witli which he treated 
 it jiresupposes a relation of observation I'ather 
 than impression. He knew (.'hristianity well, but 
 only as a power in the Roman Eui|iire ; and he 
 protected it as a wise and far-seeing statesman. 
 As a jiower not of this woi'ld, he hardly ever came 
 to und(H'stand it. 
 
 His first edict concerning (lie Christians (Rome, 
 312) is lost. By the second (iMilaii, 31:i) he granted 
 them, not only free religious woi'ship and the rec- 
 ognition of the State, but also n']iaratiou of ]ire- 
 viously incurred lo.s.ses. Banished men who worked 
 on the galleys or in the mines W'ere recalled, con- 
 fiscated estates were restored, etc. A series of 
 edicts of 315, 310, 319, 321, and 323, conijileted 
 the revolution. Christians were admitted to tlie 
 offices of the State, both military and civil ; the 
 (Un-istian clergy was exemjited from all municipal 
 burdens, as were the Pagan priests; the enuinei- 
 pation of Christian slaves was facilitated; tiews 
 were forbidden to keep Cliristian slaves, etc. .\n
 
 CONSTANTINE. 
 
 547 
 
 CONSTANTIMOPLE. 
 
 edict of 321 ordprcd Sunday to be celebrated by 
 cessation of all work in pulilic. When Constan- 
 tine became master of the whole empire, all these 
 edicts were (ixtended to the whole realm, and the 
 Roman world nioi'e and more assumed the aspect 
 of a Christian state. One thing, however, puz- 
 zled and annoyed the emperor very much, — the 
 dissensions of the Christians, their perpetual sciuab- 
 bles about doctrines, and the fanatical hatred 
 thereby engendered. In the Roman Knipire the 
 most different religions lived peacefully beside 
 each other, a!id her(! was a religion which could 
 not live in peace with itself. For political rea- 
 sons, however, unity and harmony were necessary ; 
 and in 325 the Emperor convened the first great 
 ceciimenical council at Nica^a to settle the Arian 
 controversy. It was the first time the Chri.stian 
 ChiU'ch and the Roman State met each other fac(> 
 to face ; and tlie impression was very deep on both 
 sides. When the emperor stood there, among th(! 
 three hundred and eighteen bishops, tall, clad in 
 purple and jewels, with his peculiarly haughty and 
 sombre mien, he felt disgusted at those coarse and 
 cringing creatures who one moment scrambled 
 sportively around him to snatch up a bit of his 
 munificence, and the next flew madly into each 
 other's faces for some incomprehensible mystery. 
 Nevertheless, he learnt something from those peo- 
 ple. He saw that with Christianity was born a 
 new sentiment in the human .heart hitherto un- 
 known to mankind, and that on this sentiment 
 the throne could be rested more safely tlian on 
 the success of a court-intrigue, or the victory of 
 a hired army. The only rational legitinuition 
 which the antique world had known of the king- 
 ship was descent from the gods ; but this au- 
 thority had now become a barefaced lie, and was 
 diflicult to use even in the form of a flattery. 
 At -Nicsea, however, the idea of a kingship of God's 
 grace began to dawn upon mankind. Constantine 
 also met there with men who must have charmed 
 and awed him by their grand simplicity, bunhnied, 
 ■ and almost curbed, as he was by the enormous 
 complexity of Roman life. After the Council of 
 Nica;a, he conversed more and more frequently 
 and intimately with the bishops. His interest in 
 Christianity grew with the years ; but, as was to 
 have been foreseen, he was sin'e to be led astray, 
 for the needle lacked in the compass. He was 
 more and more drawn over to tlie side of the Arians, 
 and it was an Arian bishop who baptized him. 
 
 2. Of Constantine's three sons (I) Constantine 
 II. died early; (2) Constans belonged to the 
 Nicffian party, and enforced (in 349) the re-in- 
 statement of Athanasius in Alexandria; while 
 (3) Constantius was at one time almost the leader 
 of the anti-Nic;"ean party, and interfered in the 
 affairs of the Church in a very high-handed man- 
 ner. He fell out, however, with the rigorous 
 Arians; and his success in propagating semi- 
 Arianism was probably small, just as his violent 
 measures against Paganism (lie forbaile sacrifice 
 under penalty of death) proved almost futile. 
 
 Lit. — Sources to the life of Constantine are 
 given by I. \'ogt, ///.<?. Litt. Constmit. Magni, 
 Hamburg, 1720. The principal one is that of 
 the contemporary bishop, Euserius, his friend 
 and admirer, Eng. trans., London, 1845. See, 
 also, Manso : Leben Konstuntins, Breslau, 1817 ; 
 BuBCKHARDT : Die Zeit Konsiantin des Grossen, 
 
 Rasel, 185.'! ; A. dk Broglik : I'l^f/lM el l' Empire 
 (in (jualrihiin sii'cle, I'aris, 18.57, 4 vols.; Kki.m: 
 Ueherlrill Konslmilins zum Christenthum, Ziiricli, 
 1802; Dhmktkiadks : Die. clirisllichc li(-<jie-ruuii 
 a. Orthniliixie Kaiser Consianliii des Grosxeii, Miin- 
 chen, 1878; E. IlKVDENRicicn: fncerti nuelnris 
 de ConKlnntiiio mar/no eiusque maire Helena libellus. 
 /•' codlcllms primus edidit, Leipzig, 1879 (pp. 30) ; 
 BitiKOKH: Constaidln der Grosse als Rellglnns- 
 j>ollll/cer, Gotha, 1880 (pp. 48) ; E. L. Cr'rTs: Con- 
 stantlne tlie Great, London and New York, 1881 ; 
 cf. SciiaI'F: Illst. of the Christ. Church, vol. ii. 
 pp. 10 sq(l. CI.H.MKNS rKTEUSEN'. 
 
 CONSTANTINOPLE was built between 328 
 ami ■V-}(K by Conslantine the (ireat, and named 
 alter him. The old Byzantium, which, according 
 to tradition, had occujiied the site for nearly one 
 thousaiul years, was not altogether without com- 
 mercial and political consequence ; but the impor- 
 tance of tlie place was, of course, manifold 
 increa.sed when it bi^came the imperial residence. 
 It had long been felt that the natural centre of 
 the Roman Empire was not Rome any more, that 
 it lay farther to the oa.st, that it was impossible 
 to defend and develop the eastern part of the em- 
 pire from Rome, etc. Probably there were also, 
 in Rome, traditions which ConstantiiK?, as the 
 first Christian emperor, wished to escape from, 
 since he had not power to break them. He chose 
 Byzantium for his new capital, and spent immense 
 sums of money in relmilding and adorning it. 
 Strong walls and commodious harbors were con- 
 structed ; gorgeous palaces, baths, and theatres 
 were erected; numerous magnificent churches 
 were built, — that of the Apostles, that of St. 
 Sophia, afterwards reliuilt by Justinian, etc. 
 After a short time the city numbered a hundred 
 thousand inhabitants. 
 
 The character of this new capital during the 
 first centuries of its life is weU known from the 
 writings of St. Chrysostom. It was elegant but 
 prodigal, feverish in its aspirations, over-refined 
 in its enjoyment, and lax in its morals. AVhat 
 it produced was brilliant and gorgeous, but there 
 was often poison in it. A striking feature was 
 the prominent part which women played in its 
 life. They cultivated the artistic forms, until, in 
 Byzantine literature and art, the ideal contents 
 were completely suffocated ; and they introduced 
 the same formalism into actual life. They nursed 
 the court-intrigues until Byzantine government 
 became a mere scuffle between the eunuchs of 
 the antechamber ; and they transferred this trick- 
 ery to the affairs of the Church. Xevertheless, 
 as a mere rival to Rome, Constantinople has been 
 of invaluable service to the Christian Chiu-ch, 
 howsoever her direct influence may be considered. 
 
 The Bishop of Constantinople belonged origi- 
 nally to the metropolitan diocese of Heraclea. 
 But just as the political prestige of Rome formed 
 the most powerful impulse in the development of 
 the papacy, exactly in the same manner the po- 
 litical prominence of Constantinople forced the 
 Constantinopolitan epi.scopacy out of the shadow. 
 The Council of Constantinople (381) decreed in 
 its can. 3 that the Bishop of Constantinople should 
 have the title of Patriarch (like the bi.shops of 
 Alexandria, Antioch, .lerusalem, and Rome), 
 and should rank next to the Bishop of Rome, no 
 other reason being alleged, but that Constant!-
 
 CONSTANTINOPLE. 
 
 548 
 
 CONSTANTINOPLE. 
 
 iiople was the new Rome, the second capital of 
 the empke. The Council of Chalcedon (451) 
 went still farther. Its can. 28 gave the Bishop 
 of Constantinople equal rank with tlie Bishop of 
 Rome, and the right of superintendence, ordina- 
 tion, and convocation of STOods for Pontus, Thra- 
 cia, and Asia. The Concilium Quinisexlum (692) 
 repeated, confirmed, and even enlarged all these 
 privileges. Of course, the bishops of Rome pro- 
 tested. Leo I. rejected con. 28 of the Council 
 of Chalcedon rather uiconsistently, as he accepted 
 all its other decrees ; and Gregory I. almost for- 
 got liiraself when John Ignatius in 587 assumed 
 the title of Qicumenical Patriarch. These pro- 
 tests, and the shrewd manner in which the Roman 
 bishops played upon tlie ever-recurring difficulties 
 between the Constantinopolitan patriarchs and the 
 Constantinopolitan emperors, contributed much 
 to prevent the formation of a Constantinopolitan 
 papacy, but could not prevent a split between the 
 Roman and the Greek Church ; which latter 
 article see. 
 
 The succession of the Constantinopolitan bish- 
 ops is almost completely known (see F.\bri- 
 Cius : Bibl. Gnec, VI. p. 707): and in many 
 cases a mere glance over the list gives an insight 
 into the turbulent events of this history ; as, for 
 instance, when Ignatius, Callistus, and Pliilotheus 
 are found to have been deposed and re-instated, 
 etc. Four periods may be conveniently distin- 
 guished : the first, to the controversy with Photius 
 (861), or the complete separation from the AVest 
 (1054) ; the second, to the establisliment of the 
 Latin dynasty, during which (1204—61), tlie Patri- 
 arch of Constantinople removed to Xice ; the 
 third, to the conquest of Constantinople by the 
 Turks (1453) ; and the fourtli, to our times. 
 During the first centuries of the Turkish rule 
 the patriarchs of Constantinople, charged not 
 only with the ecclesiastical, but also, to some ex- 
 tent, with the civil jurisdiction over their flock, 
 presented a sad picture of weakness, injustice, 
 simony, fraud, and violence. (See Heineccius : 
 Abbitdum/ tl. all. und neutn f/riech. KircJie, I. p. 
 46, and "III. p. 49; Thomas S.mith : De Eccl. 
 Grccc. Statu Hodicrno, in his Opuscula, Rotterdam, 
 1716 ; Geii) : Darstellung d. RechtzuMandcs in 
 Griechenlnnd wcirend d. turk. Herr-schaft, Heidel- 
 berg, 1835.) By the consolidation of the Russian 
 Churcli their power lost in compass, b>it their 
 misuse of it can hardly be said to liave lost any 
 thing in intensity. See the articles on Greek 
 Church, Bul/;aria, etc. H.^MMEit-PiiiCSTAi. : Coti- 
 slanlinopel und der Bosphoru.<, Vienna, 1822, gives 
 in the first volume a complete list of the sources 
 to the older history of Constantinojile. [A. 
 Mai!i: AST ; [ai cic hi/:(tuline uu sixihne siecle, Paris, 
 18&1.] GAS8. 
 
 CONSTANTINOPLE, Modern. Since 1453 
 Constantinople has been a Mohannnedan city, 
 the I'esidence of the calipli, and tiie nietrojjolis 
 of the Moslem world. It has gradually become, 
 also, the principal .seat of Moliammedan learning. 
 It is said tliat there are not less tliaii forty tliou- 
 sand students (or softas) in tin- religious schools of 
 the city, coming from all parts of the empire ; and 
 the rdeina (or hjarned doctors of tlir law) are tlie 
 most influential body of men in tlie city. In 
 these scliriols they t^-ach the Arabic and Persian 
 languages, tlie Koran, the commentaries u]»in it, 
 
 and the Sheraat, or sacred law ; but the majority 
 of the students enroll themselves simply to escape 
 the conscription, and comparatively few become 
 ulema. There are also secular schools, including 
 a Lycee founded under French influence ; but they 
 are not well managed, and exert but little influ- 
 ence. The military, naval, and medical schools, 
 supported by the government, are more important, 
 but of inferior quality. Outside the palace and 
 the ranks of tlie idtma and the sqfta.-<, there is now 
 but little fanaticism among tlie Mohammedans of 
 Constantuiople, and the othcial classes are sup- 
 posed to be generally atheistical. The decay of 
 the temporal power of the Sultan has weakened 
 his influence as caliph, so far that his authority 
 over the ^Mohammedan world is now only nomi- 
 nal. Sultan Ilamid has made great efforts to 
 revive it, but without much success. It seems 
 probable that the calij-ihate will ultimately be 
 transferred to Mecca, and become a purely spirit- 
 ual office. Constantinople will then cease to be a 
 Mohammedan city. 
 
 The non-Mohammedan population of Constan- 
 tinople occupies a peculiar position. There are 
 some sixty thousand foreignei'S, who are under the 
 exclusive jurisdiction of the diplomatic and consu- 
 lar authorities of their respective countries. There 
 are some forty thousand Jews of Spanish descent, 
 who are Turkish subjects, but under the authority 
 of their own Haham Bashi. There are also seven 
 Cliristian communities — the Greeks, Armenians, 
 Bulgarians, Latins, Armeno-Catholics, Protes- 
 tants, and SjTians — which liave separate organi- 
 zations, and " enjoy special immunities," or, more 
 justly, aa-e under special disabilities. The Mo- 
 hammedan conquerors of the Byzantine Empire 
 adopted the plan of dealing with all non-Moliam- 
 medans whom they found in the country en masse 
 as communities and not as individuals. These 
 communities were regarded by the Turks as reli- 
 gious rather than national, and their religious 
 chiefs were recognized as their official representa- 
 tives at the Sublime Porte. They were nomi-' 
 nated by the conimunities, and appointed by the 
 Sultan, their rights and duties being carefully spe- 
 cified in the impeiial iradc which confirmed the 
 apjioiiitment. Tlie results of this system have 
 been both good and bad. It has consolidated 
 and preserved the churches, but it has secular- 
 ized tlieni. It has protected the Christians from 
 persecution to a certain extent, but has left them 
 witliout any interest in the government, and 
 helpless in the hands of their own ecclesiastics. 
 Viewed from a Turkish stand-point, it lias pre- 
 served the purely Mohammedan character of the 
 government; but it has insured its ultimate de- 
 struction. Since the Crimean war the Turks liave 
 seen what was coming, and have made some half- 
 hearted attempts to escape this result. Tiiey have 
 souglit to divide \\\i the Christian communities, 
 to modify their charters, and to create an Utto- 
 man nationality to include Mohammedans and 
 Christians, "with equal rights .and duties;" hut 
 these attenqits have failed thus far because the 
 Sultan and the ulema are unwilling to modify the 
 essentially Moliammedan character of the govern- 
 ment. 
 
 Thi^ autliority of the religious cliiefs of the 
 Christian (■(immunities has lieeii very much weak- 
 ened; but, so far as the Turkish Government is 
 
 \
 
 CONSTANTINOPLE. 
 
 549 
 
 CONTARINI. 
 
 conceniecl, this has been more than counterbal- 
 aiicetl by the rapid growth of national feeling, 
 the increasing influence of the laity, and the gen- 
 eral progress of enlightenment in these conniiuni- 
 ties. They are more oj)posed to jSIohannnedan 
 rule than ever before. They would submit to 
 the Sultan as a civil ruler under proper European 
 guaranties ; but they think that the time has come 
 when Constantinople must soon cease to be a 
 Mohannnedan city. 
 
 Some important religious changes deserve to be 
 mentioned here. The Greek Patriarch, since the 
 beginning of the century, has lost most of his im- 
 portance. He no longer has any authority over 
 Greece, Servia, Montenegro, or Roumania ; and 
 by the Bulgarian schism he lost four million of 
 his flock. His church numbers about two million 
 at the present time. The Iloman-Catholic Church 
 has made but little progress in Turkey during 
 this century ; but it has made great efforts to 
 Latinize its Oriental branches, and, in spite of 
 an important schism in the Armeno-Catholic 
 Church, it has been generally successful. It has 
 many schools in Constantinople, but they are gen- 
 erally of a low order, and devoted to propagan- 
 dism. 
 
 The Armenian Chirrch has made important 
 progress in enlightenment. It has adopted a lib- 
 eral constitution, which limits the power of the 
 ecclesiastics, and increases that of the laity. It 
 encourages education and reform, and has ceased 
 to persecute those who. adopt evangelical views. 
 An independent Bulgarian exarch has been rec- 
 ognized by the Porte, and a new church organized, 
 which is in doctrinal agreement with the other 
 orthodox Oriental churches, but liberal, and in- 
 clined to reform. Tliere are but few Bulgarians 
 in Constantinople, but this is the seat of the exar- 
 chate. 
 
 Protestantism has also been officially recognized 
 as one of the authorized religions of the empire. 
 It has its official vek'd at Constantinople ; but most 
 of its adherents are in Asia Minor, Armenia, and 
 Syria. Its establishment resulted from the labors 
 of American missionaries, whose influence for 
 good has extended far beyond the circle of their 
 converts. 
 
 Among the most interesting institutions in mod- 
 ern Constantinople are Robert College and the 
 American School for Girls at Scutari. Robert 
 College was foimded in 18G3, by the munificence 
 of Mr. C. R. Robert of Xew York, and under the 
 direction of Rev. Cyi'us Hamlin, D.D., formerly a 
 missionary of the American Board. It was de- 
 signed to give to the people of the East, without 
 distinction of race or religion, an educational in- 
 stitution in all respects equal to the best Ameri- 
 can colleges ; and it has won the respect and 
 confidence of all the nationalities of the empire. 
 It has now fifteen professors and two hundred 
 and twenty-seven students. While not in any 
 sense sectarian, it is a Christian college ; and it 
 has already exerted an influence for good which 
 can hardly be over-estimated. 
 
 The .school at Scutariwas established later; but 
 it is doing for girls essentially the same work 
 which Robert College is doing for yonng men. 
 
 Jlodern Constantinople is no longer what it was 
 even fifty years ago. The material civilization of 
 Europe has invaded it and transformed it. Steam- 
 
 ships, railways and tramways, telegraphs, and 
 news]iapers have forced their way into it. 'I'he 
 streets aie lighted with gas. Ready-made cloth- 
 ing and Manch('ster cottons have transformed the 
 peo]i|c. (ireat fires have desolated the city, and 
 made way for stiff European hou.ses built of brick 
 and stone. The janizaries have disajipeared. - 
 The European amlia.ssad6r.s, wlio used to submit 
 quietly to every indignity, now dine with their 
 wives at the Sultan's table, and dictate his poli- 
 cy. Tlie Christian riii/nh no longci- trembles in 
 presence of a Turk, nor gets down from his hor.se 
 when he pas.ses the palace, 'i'he Mohammedan 
 smokes his pipe in Ramazan if he pleases ; and 
 the Christian eats meat in Lent without fear of 
 the Patriarch. The vices ami follies of Europe 
 have been added to those of the East; and, while 
 there have been many changes for tlie lietter, it 
 may be doubted whether, on the whole, there is as 
 much genuine religious faith in the city as there 
 was fifty years ago. geouge \VASHBUR^f 
 
 (Preftident of Robert Colk-[;i-, Constantinople). 
 
 CONSTANTINOPOLITAN CREED. See Ni- 
 CENE Creed. 
 
 CONSUBSTANTIATION, a technical term 
 denoting the Lutheran view of the elements of 
 the Lord's Supper, in contradistinction from the 
 Roman-Catholic view, — transubstantiation. Ac- 
 cording to the Roman doctrine, the bread and the 
 wine are by the consecration transformed into 
 the flesh and blood of Christ : while, according to 
 the Lutheran doctrine, the bread and wine remain 
 bread and wine ; though, after the consecration, 
 the real flesh and blood of Christ co-exist in and 
 with tlie natural elements, just as a heated iron 
 bar still remains an iron bar, though a new ele- 
 ment, heat, has come to co-exist in and with it, 
 — an illustration which Luther himself has used 
 in his letter to Henry VIII. It is but proper to 
 state that the Lutheran divines repudiate the 
 popular term " consubstantiation," in the sense of 
 a. permanent connection of the elements with the 
 body and blood of Christ. They confine this 
 connection to the act of the conmiunion. 
 
 CONTARINI, Gasparo, b. in Venice, Oct. 16, 
 1483; d. at Bologna, Aug. 24, 1542; descended 
 from a noble Venetian family, and received a very 
 careful but entirely secular education. He w'rote 
 De Immorlalilate Animi adi-ersus Pomponatium, but 
 from a purely rational point of view. In 1.521 
 he was sent to Ciermany as ambassador of the 
 republic to Charles V. ; and he accompanied the 
 emperor back to Spain. After the conquest of 
 Rome he contributed much to bring about a 
 reconciliation between the Pope and the emperor, 
 and between the emperor and the i-epublic. The 
 depth of his interest, and the compass of his ca- 
 pacity as a statesman and diplomatist, he proved 
 by his work Dc Magislralihu^ el Repuhliru Venc- 
 lorum. From early youth, however, he had been 
 open to strong religious impressions. In the days 
 of Leo X. he had joined the Omlor'mm Sti Ainoris; 
 and in Venice he stood at the head of the move- 
 ment which wished a reform of the Churcli, and 
 was willing to work for it. Thus, when Paul 
 HI. in 1535 suddenly and imexpectedly niade 
 him a cardinal, he accepted tlie position without 
 hesitation. In 1537 he was made a member of 
 the connuittee formed for the purpose of examin- 
 ing the state of the Church, and making proposi-
 
 CONVENT. 
 
 550 
 
 CONVERSION. 
 
 tions to its reform ; and when Paul III. received 
 his Consilium de Emendanda Ecclesia without of- 
 fence, if -not with favor, he was full of hope and 
 confidence. But nothing came of the matter. 
 Under Paul IX. the ti-eatise, which had been 
 published without the knowledge of Contarini, 
 and circulated hi Germany with Luther's annota- 
 tions, was put on the Index. As imsuccessful 
 was his mission as papal legate to the Diet of 
 Ratisbou (1541). He was fully convinced of 
 the necessity of reform ; but Luther, whom he 
 had met at Worms, he disliked, and the German 
 reform in its popular shape he utterly distrusted. 
 He wanted a reform from the liead. The evan- 
 geUcal doctrine of justification by faith he had 
 accepted, but only in its positive form, not so as 
 to exclude the whole false practice of the Roman 
 Churcli. In Ratisbon he did not win the Protes- 
 tants, and he roused the suspicion of the Roman- 
 ists. After his return he was made papal legate 
 at Bologna ; but he lived to see the re-action set 
 in, and his friends fleeing to foreign countries to 
 escape the Inquisition. His works were pub- 
 lished in Paris (1571) and in Venice (1589). In 
 the latter edition, however, the text of the trea- 
 tise on justification is mutilated and altered. See 
 Brieger: Th. Gasparo Contarini und das Regens- 
 hurger Concordienwerk; 187U ; Die Rechtfertigungs- 
 lehre der Card. Contarini, by the same, in Studien 
 und Kritiken, 1872, I. ; Christoffel : Card. 
 Contarinix Lehen und Schrif/en, in Zeitschrift f. his- 
 torisr/ip Thi'ologie, 1875, II. C. WEIZSACKER. 
 
 CONVENT means both the whole establish- 
 ment in which a society of monks or nuns are 
 settled, its buildings, rules, purpose, etc., and the 
 meeting of those members of the institution who 
 are entitled to give their advice on certain points 
 of adininistratiou or government. 
 
 CONVENTICLE (Latin, conveulicidum) meant 
 in the primitive church any meeting for the sake 
 of religious \vor.ship, but is, since the time of 
 Charles II., applied in English only to the meet- 
 ings of the dissenters from the Church of Eng- 
 land. 
 
 CONVENTICLE ACT, the first passed 1664, 
 the second April 11, 1070; repealed by the Tolera- 
 tion Act, May 24, 1689. According to the first, 
 " If any person alxjve the age of sixteen, after 
 the 1st of July, 1664, shall be present at any 
 meeting, under color or pretence of any exercise 
 of religion, in other manner than is allowed by 
 the liturgy or practice of the Church of I^ngland, 
 where shall be five or more persons than the 
 household, shall for the first offence suffer three 
 months' iniprisoMinent, \ipon record made upon 
 oath under the hand and seal of a justice of the 
 peace, or pay a sum not exceeding five pounds ; 
 tor the .second offence, .six montlis' imprisonment, 
 or ten pounds ; and, for the tliird offence, the 
 offender to lie lianislied to .some of tlie American 
 plantations for seven years, excejiting New Eng- 
 land and Virginia, or pay one hundred pounds; 
 and in case they return " [i.e., ere the seven 
 years], "or make tlieir escape, such persons are to 
 lie adjudged felons, and sutler death without 
 benefit of (Hergy. Sheriffs or justices of the; 
 peac(!, or otliers commissioned by (liem, are eni- 
 powereil to dissolve, dissipate, and break up idl 
 unlawful conventicles, and to tak(' into custody 
 auch of their number as thi'V think lit. 'I'lu'y 
 
 who suffer sucli conventicles in their houses or 
 barns are liable to the same forfeitures as other 
 offenders. The prosecution is to be within three 
 months. Married women taken at conventicles 
 are to be imprisoned for twelve months, unless 
 theu- husbands pay forty shillings for their i-e- 
 demption. This act to continue in force for 
 three years after the next session of Parliament." 
 In 1670 the act was renewed in a modified form ; 
 the fines were lowered, and the risk of exile was 
 removed. On the other hand, the chance of 
 escape was made nmch less ; for any justice of 
 the peace who refused to execute the act was 
 fined five pounds, and the greatest encourage- 
 ment given to informers. 
 
 The Conventicle Act is a blot on English his- 
 toi-y. It caused much suffering to innocent 
 worthy people. It was not even administered 
 impartially ; for, as Neal testifies, the Roman 
 Catholics were not molested. See Neal : History 
 of the Puritans, part iv., chaps. 7, 8 (Harper's ed., 
 vol. ii. pp. 251, 206). 
 
 CONVERSION (Hebrew naitv, "return," "re- 
 pentance" [only once, Isa. xxx. 15], from JIU', "to 
 turn ; " Greek /itruvoia, " a change of mind ; " ima- 
 Tpo(pi/ [once. Acts xv. 3], " a turning towards or 
 about;" Latin, convei-sio) denotes tlie act in which 
 the soul estranged from God turns back to him in 
 order that it may sliare afresh in his grace. It is 
 a return, because man re-enters his former posi- 
 tion towards God, which he had lost by the fall. 
 It is also a turning-froju,.hecause former sins are 
 abandoned (Acts xiv. 15), and, again, a change 
 of mind (Acts xxvi. 20). By nature the "slave 
 of sin," and therefore a "child of wrath" (Eph. 
 ii. 3), and "dead" (Eph. ii. 1; Col. ii. 13), he 
 is renewed in the spirit of his miiul, and puts 
 on " the new man, which after God hath been 
 created in righteousness and holiness of truth " 
 (Eph. iv. 24). But how can this radical change 
 be made? Not by his own unaided will (John 
 XV. 5), nor any more without his will (Acts iii. 19 ; 
 2 Pet. iii. 9). The condition, therefore, is the 
 divine aid ; and so repentance is a gi/l of God 
 (Acts xi. 18 ; Phil. ii. 13), and therefore some- 
 thing to be thankful for. Yet every Christian 
 knows that he has not hccu forced to re]ient ; rather 
 he has earnestly desired the altered lite. In this 
 work of God, therefore, the hunum and the divine 
 acts stand side by side, and Ooth nmst be equally 
 recognized, not the one at the expense of the 
 other. 
 
 It is a i>roblem to find exactly where the human 
 meets the divine. Pelagians, Semipelagians, Syn- 
 ergists, h.ave in vain tried to solve it. The Lu- 
 tlieran doctrine on the means of grace (the AVord 
 and sacraments) .solves it. This is, that these 
 " means " are divine gift.s, which convey llie Spirit 
 to their recijiient, and thus lie is strengthened, and 
 awakened into new energy. But the grace is not 
 irresistil>le, on the contrary, can be etl'ectually 
 and utterly resisted. The will formed by this 
 grace is no longer bound liy sin, luit inclined 
 towards (Jod. Weak Ihongh it may be, it is 
 capable of upward growth. God is in it, and he 
 will see to its <l(>velo])m(Mit. 
 
 No one can lay down laws for the process of 
 conver.sion. One man is quickly turned about: 
 to another a long .struggle is requisite. In the 
 foiiuer case there will bo found a preparation
 
 CONVERSION. 
 
 551 
 
 CONVULSIONISTS. 
 
 unconscious though the subject be of it. Talte 
 the crucial case of Paul (Acts ix. 1-22). His 
 was a sudden conversion : yet the three days l.ie- 
 tween the appearance of Christ to him upon his 
 journey from Jerusalem to Damascus, and the 
 visit of Ananias, nmst not be overlooked ; for, 
 diu'ing those hours of enforced cessation from 
 work, the truth of that new faith for which Jews 
 like himself so gladly died, may have been borne in 
 vipon his soul. Even so in the cases of the jailer a( 
 Philippi, there was an acquaintance with Paul's 
 preaching (Acts xvi.) ; yea, the malefactor on the 
 cross (Luke xxiii. 40 sqq.) showed that alreadj' he 
 liad been impressed by Christ. 
 
 When we speak of the baptized, we must bear 
 in mind that such, by the very fact of their bap- 
 tism, stand upon quite a different plane from the 
 vinbaptized. They are no longer " natural " men 
 in the above sense of the word. Each of them 
 has been accepted by God, called bj' his name, and 
 had the seeds of the new life sown in his heart ; 
 for baptism is the " laver of regeneration " (Tit. 
 iii. 5). Regeneration is not, however, the same 
 thing as conversion. It is ratlier that act of divine 
 grace whereby God sets the new manhood in a 
 num, not as the ultimate fruit, but as a seed. It is 
 therefore conceivable, and indeed actually, though 
 rarely, the case, that this " seed " steadily grows 
 imto its perfection. For such there is no "con- 
 version " necessary. But for the great majority 
 the seed sown in baptism is partially killed ; yet 
 not entirely. The grace of baptism affords a 
 basis for the divine operation. By other means 
 of grace the process of growth is effected, particu- 
 larly by the word of God, in the form of preach- 
 ing (Rom. X. 17) in its two forms of law and 
 gospel. They work together, — the law, repent- 
 ance; the gospel, faith. It is indeed true that 
 preaching has a similar effect upon baptized and 
 unbaptized ; but, in the former, conversion is only 
 necessary when the grace of baptism is lost, wiiile 
 in the latter it is indispensable to salvation. 
 
 Conversion must not be confounded with sanc- 
 tification. The former has its end and conclusion 
 in justifying faith. It is a continuous process 
 which can be hastened or retarded. Sanctification 
 begins when conversion has done its work. It is 
 the fulfilment of the divine call to perpetual 
 struggle against besetting sin, through daily re- 
 newing of repentance and faith, until, in the day 
 of Jesus Christ, the flesh and all its works are for- 
 ever removed. Again : conversion and justifica- 
 tion must be distingirished. Conversion is the 
 reaching-out after union with God : justification 
 effects this union. It declares that the fall is 
 healed, the separation from God ended, the rela- 
 tion between man and God (begun in baptism) 
 finally established. See the Lutheran Confessions 
 and their adherents, especially Frank : Tlieolotjie 
 der Konkordienformel, Erlangen, 1858. BURGER. 
 
 The above expresses the evangelical Lutheran 
 view of conversion. Calvinists emphasize the 
 divine factor, and generally maintain that grace 
 works iri-esislibli/ in the elect. Arminians, on the 
 other hand, emphasize the liiiman factor, deny irre- 
 sistible grace, yet affirm that grace is the " be- 
 ginning, continuance, and accomplishment of all 
 good." The two terms, conversion and regeneration 
 are often confounded, but should be carefully dis- 
 liinguislied Conversion (^lio-dvoia) is a human act 
 
 of turning from sin, and turning to God, and may 
 be repeated: regeneration (^TTaMyycveaia , Tit. iii. 
 5, and the verb " to be born again," of the Spirit, 
 "from God," uvaycvviwitai, 1 Pet. 1. 3, 2-3, and 
 yemUofiac livuOtv, or in Otoi, or in- nvcv/iaTor, John i. 
 13 ; iii. 5, 0, 8) is a divine act, the work of the 
 Holy Spirit, and, like the natural birth, incapable 
 of repetition. Baptismal regeneration is rejected 
 by both Calvinists and Arminians. It is, how- 
 ever, taught by the High Anglican theologians 
 (see Bujx'r : Diclionar;/ of Doclrinal and Jlislurical 
 Tlicolorjy, art. Baptism). Tiie Calvinistic view of 
 conversion is given in Hodgk : Systematic The- 
 oUmjij, vol. iii. chap, xv., "Regeneration;" the 
 Arminian, in Watson : Institutes (29th ed. N.Y.), 
 vol. ii. cliaii. -^xiv. See Rf.gkneration. 
 
 CONVOCATION, in the Church of England, 
 an asseml)ly of the bishops and clergy by their 
 respective metropolitans, in pursuance of royal 
 order, within the provinces of Canterbury and of 
 York. Its sessions are contemporaneous with 
 those of Parliament, and concern ecclesiastical 
 affairs. Each convocation has two hou.ses, • — the 
 Upper, which consists of the bishops ; and the 
 Lower, of the deans, archdeacons, proctors for 
 the chapters, and proctors for the i>arochial 
 clergy. Their actions were foi'merly of gi'eal 
 importance; but since Ilem-y VIII.'s tune they 
 have been shorn of their power. In consequence 
 of the Bangorian Controversy (see Bishop IIoai>- 
 ley), the Convocation of Canterbury, which has 
 always been by far the more important body, 
 was prorogued in 1717 ; and no license from the 
 Crown for the transaction of business was ob- 
 tained until 1861. In this body originated the 
 Anglo-American Bible-revision movement, Feb- 
 ruary, 1870 (see Canteruky). See the article 
 Convocation in Encyl. Brit., 9th ed., vol. VI. 
 pp. 325-330. In the Episcojjal Church in America 
 there is no body exactly corresponding to Convo- 
 cation. See Episcop.\l Church. T. Lath- 
 bury: History of the Convocation of the Church of 
 England, and of the Anglican Ecclesiastical Coun- 
 cils, from the Earliest Period, London, 1842. 
 
 CONVULSIONISTS is the name of a fanatical 
 section of the Jansenists. In 1727 the Dean 
 Frangois of Paris died, and was bm-ied in the 
 Cemetery of St. Medard. A "Jansenist every 
 inch," he had belonged to the Appellants, and 
 died with the appeal in his hand. His saintly 
 life, the ascetic practices which caused his death, 
 and the extraordinary charity which made him 
 divide his great revenues among the poor, had 
 made a most effective propaganda for Jansenisni 
 and the Appellants among the lower classes in 
 Paris. In 1729, when the intrig-ues of Abbe 
 Dubois, the violence of Cardinal Fleury, and, 
 more than any thing else, the retractation of M. 
 de Xoailles, "Archbishop of Paris, had brought 
 the victory into the hands of the Jesuits, it was 
 suddenly reported that miracles were wrought on 
 the grave of Francois, God himself thus bearing 
 witness against the Pope and his hated bull U>n- 
 genitus. People crowded in great numbers to the 
 cemetery, and when they reached the grave they 
 were often overtaken by violent fits 'of convul- 
 sions : hence the name. In this state they prophe- 
 sied, and testified against the Indl ; and a guaranty 
 of the truth of their prophecies and testimonies 
 was given by the instantaneous cures from dis-
 
 CONYBEAKE. 
 
 552 
 
 COOKE. 
 
 eases which they experienced. In 1732 the com- 
 motion became so gi'eat, that the king ordered 
 the cemetery shut up, and the grave watched by 
 military; but the miracles continued, now wrought 
 by earth from the grave, or by water from a 
 neighboring spring. Large books were written, 
 containing testimonies to the miracles by eye- 
 witnesses, and illustrations representing tlie most 
 remarkable convulsions. Fifst the I5ishop of 
 Montpellier, then other bishops, and finally a 
 number of prominent persons from the court and 
 the aristocratic circles, were caught by the move- 
 ment. The Jesuits were in despair. They de- 
 clared that the miracles, which they could not or 
 dared not deny, were wrought by the Devil. But 
 none would believe them. It took nearly twenty 
 years before the roused energy had fully spent 
 itself, and the party disappeared, broken up by 
 internal dissensions. See Pieure Boyer : V'ie 
 (ie M. Franfoi.i de Paris, Paris, 1731 ; h.\ Toste : 
 Leitres thc'ologiques sur les cnnvulsiunnaires, Paris, 
 1733; MoNTGEROx: La verile des miraclfs operes 
 a I'inlercession de Fraiu/ois de Paris, Paris, 1737 ; 
 and the article Jansexism. 
 
 CONYBEARE, William Daniel, b. at Bishops- 
 gate, Eug., June 7, 17S7; d. near Portsmouth, 
 Aug. 12, 1857. In 1839 delivered the Bampton 
 Lecture on the Christian Fathers during the Ante- 
 \icene Period. He was made Dean of Llandaff 
 in 1845. The majority of liis writings were upon 
 geological topics ; and of the Geological Society 
 he was an early and stanch friend. 
 
 CONYBEARE, William John, son of the pre- 
 ceding, d. 18.")7. He was a fellow of Trinity 
 College, Cambridge, and a frequent contributor 
 to the Edinburf/h Review, upon ecclesiastical and 
 social topics, of which essays the most famous 
 was on Church Parties, i.e., the parties within the 
 Anglican Church. He also wrote a novel. Perver- 
 sion, or the Causes and Consequences of Infidelity, 
 London, 18.50. But liis title to fame rests upon his 
 labor, in conjunction with the Rev. J. S. Ilowson 
 (now Dean of Chester), upon the Life and Letters 
 of St. Paid, London, 18.50-,52, 2 vols., .since often 
 reprinted in Knglaud and the United States. Of 
 the twenty-eight chapters of this work Mr. Cony- 
 beare contributed nine; but these include the 
 speeclies and letters of Paul, all of which he 
 translated and annotated. His translations are 
 spirited and faithful. A volume of his Sermons 
 preached in the Chapel lioi/al, Whitehall, London, 
 appeared London, 181 1 ; and liis E.i.iai/s, Ecclesias- 
 tical and Social, have been collected and pub- 
 lished. 
 
 COOK, Charles, the fatlier of IMethodism in 
 France :itiiI Switzerland; ii. in London, May 31, 
 1787; d. at Lausanne, Feb. 21, 18.58. Merle 
 d'AubigncS said of him, " 'J'lu! work which John 
 Wesley did in the Britisli Kingdom, Charles 
 Clook did upon the Continent, except that it, was 
 not so extensive." He went to France in 181G, 
 was indefatigable in labor, and largely through 
 his agency was tliere a revival of religion among 
 French I'rotestants under tiie Restoration. Ho 
 organized numerous little soc"ieties, wliich eithcn- 
 joined the Reforme<l Churcli, or continued ind(v 
 pendent. One of the most important controver- 
 .sie.s he carried on — for he must needs fight his 
 way — was with Cdsar Malan, upon tlie doctrine 
 of Predestination, which led to his laiblication of 
 
 his valuable work, L' Amour de Dieu pour tous les 
 honuncs. See his Life by J. P. Cook, Paris, 1862. 
 
 COOK, Emile F., son of the preceding; b. in 
 Xiort (Devix-Sevres), 1830; d. at Hyeres, in the 
 south of France, Jan. 29, 1871. He was educated 
 in Lausanne and the A\'esleyan institutions in 
 England; ordained in 1854; and in 1866 came 
 to Paris to be pastor of the Wesleyan Congrega- 
 tion there. He came to America as delegate to 
 the General Conference of the Evangelical Alli- 
 ance held in New York Oct. 2-12, 1873, and escap- 
 ed shipwreck in the ill-fated Ville du Havre (Xo\'. 
 22, 1873), only to die on land. See Mrs. Hough- 
 ton : Stori/ of Emile Cook's Life, Phila., 1881. 
 
 COOKE, Henry, D.D., LL.D., the champion of 
 Orthodoxy agauist Arianism in the Irish Church ; 
 b. at Grillagh, County Londonderry, Ireland, 
 May 11, 1788; d. in Belfast, Sunday, Dec. 13, 
 1868. After graduation at the Glasgow Uni- 
 versity, he was ordained (1808) pastor of Dun- 
 eane in County Antrim, but remained only two 
 years. He then held successively charges at 
 Donegore, near Templepatrick, in County Antrim 
 (1811-15), at Killyleagh, County Down (1818- 
 29), in Belfast (1829) till his death. He was 
 elected in 1817 professor of sacred rhetoric, and 
 president of the faculty in the Assembly's Col- 
 lege at Belfast ; but, yielding to the urgent request 
 of his congregation, he renniined their preacher. 
 He was a man of eloquence, tact, and influence. 
 He was raised up to destroy Arianism in Ireland, 
 and he did the work appointed him. From the 
 first year of his preaching mito the last, he strove 
 earnestly for the Orthodox views on the person of 
 Christ, and for the consequent gTowth of piety. 
 The opposition to him at the start was very gi'eat. 
 It is striking proof of the intensity of his devo- 
 tion, that not finding himself able to cope success- 
 fully with the Arian leaders, who were men of 
 nuich culture and learning, he studied for three 
 years in Glasgow University and Trinity College 
 (1815-18), and resumed his ministry with much 
 increased mental stores. The fight he waged reads' 
 like a romance. He defeated liis opponents again 
 and again. He stennned the tide of popular .sym- 
 pathy, and tui-ned it strongly and jiermanently to 
 Orthodoxy. He drove Arianism out of the col- 
 leges, synods, and congregations of the Irish Pres- 
 bjierian Church; so that in 1829, after a crushing 
 defeat in the synod of Ulster, at Lurgan, the 
 RemoiLStrant .synod of Ulster was formed by the 
 Arians. But it has not flourished in Ireland; for 
 to-day there are not four thousand adherents, 
 while in England Presbyterian ism became almost 
 entirely Arian. (The present I'rosbyterian Church 
 in that country is an exotic, being inqiorted from 
 Scotland.) Tliis victory may jiroperly be put, 
 under God, f-o the credit of Henry Cooke ; for his 
 W'as the indomitable energy, tlie facile learning, 
 the jiolished tact, and the worldly itrudence, w hicli 
 coinbined to make him triumphant. He won 
 golden opinions: his brethren rejoieed to honor 
 him. He was made in 1829 D.l). by Jefferson 
 College, Pennsylvania, and LL.D. by 'I'rinity Col- 
 lege, Dublin. Three times he was elected mod- 
 erator of the General Assembly. He was made 
 ju'ofessor in the Assembly's College, and through- 
 out his long settlemc'iit hi Belfast he was their 
 most admired and tlironged preacher. In privata 
 life he was simple, dignified, and gentle. For
 
 COOKMAN. 
 
 COPTS. 
 
 him to live was Christ. See J. L. Pokteu : Ufv 
 and Times of Henry Cooke, D.D. LL.D., London, 
 1871, new edition, Belfast, 1S75. 
 
 COOKMAN, George Grimston, b. in Kingston- 
 upon-Hull, Yorkshire, Eng., Oct. 21, 1800; lost 
 at sea in the steamship President, March, 1841. 
 He became a Methodist preacher in 1823, and in 
 1825 settled in America, first in Philadelphia, 
 and became an itinerant preacher, although liis 
 purpose in leaving England was to convert the 
 negroes. From the first year of his ministry he 
 took a commanding position. His speech at a 
 meeting of the Young Men's Bible Society in 
 New Brunswick, N.J., in the j-ear 1828, was one 
 of his earliest platform addresses, but innnedi- 
 ately established his reputation as a first-class 
 orator. He served upon various circuits. In the 
 spring of 1838 was sent to Washington, and in 
 the winter was elected chaplain of the United- 
 States Congress. Here he won fresh laurels, and 
 not only human plaudits, but the approval of his 
 conscience ; for he did not shun to declare the 
 whole counsel of God. In the spring of 1811 the 
 expiration of that Congress terminated his chap- 
 laincy. He then determined to revisit England. 
 He was made a fraternal delegate to represent 
 the American Bible Society at the anniversary 
 of the British and Foreign Bible Society, and 
 bearer of tlie first despatches to the British Gov- 
 ernment from the incoming administration of 
 Gen. Harrison. He preached a farewell sermon 
 in the Capitol, — one of the greatest oratorical 
 triumphs of his life. He sailed from New York 
 March 11, and was never heard of more. He 
 wrote no books ; and with the exception of a 
 few sermons and a volume of Speeches (N.Y., 
 1841), there are no pulilished products of his 
 genius. — Gookman, Alfred, son of the preceding, 
 b. at Columbia, I'enn., Jan. 4, 1828; d. in New- 
 ark, N.J., Nov. 13, 1871. He was licensed as an 
 exhorter in the Jlethodist-Episcopal Church in 
 Baltimore, Nov. 1, 1845. He held various ap- 
 pointments in connection with different confer- 
 ences, and lived the life of a popular and beloved 
 Methodist minister, carrying on his work in 
 church and chapel, camp-meeting and private, 
 going from place to place, and everyw'here doing 
 that blessed work whose record is on high. He 
 left no publications of importance. See H. B. 
 RiDGAWAY : The Life of the Rer. Alfred Cook- 
 man, with some Account of his Father, the Ilev. 
 George Grimston Cooknmn, N.Y., 1873. 
 
 COPE (Latin capa), a long cloak reaching from 
 the neck to the heels, open in front, but fastened 
 at the top by a clasp; was known in antiquity as 
 one of the most common fashions of overcoat, 
 then adopted as an ecclesiastical vestment, and 
 worn, until quite recently, in the English Church, 
 by bishops in Parliament, by canons at corona- 
 tions, and on other simihir occasions. 
 
 COPLESTON, Edward, an English prelate; b. 
 at Offwell, Devonshire, Feb. 2, 1770; d. near Chep- 
 stow, Oct. 14, 184!). He was elected a fellow of 
 Oriel College, Oxford (1795), and in 1802 appomt- 
 ed professor of poetry. In 1813 he published 
 the substance of his famous lectures under title 
 Prelectiones Academicce. In 1814 Provost of Oriel 
 College, he became in 1826 Dean of Cliester, and 
 took the degTee of D.D. by diploma, and in 1828 
 Bishop of Llandaff, and I)ean of St. I'aul's. He 
 
 published, besides articles, several important theo- 
 logical works, of which the best is Emjuiry into 
 the Doctrines of Necessity and Predestination, Lon- 
 don, 1821. Dr. AVhateley edited his Jiemains with 
 Reminiscences of las Life. See, also, W. J. Coi'Lks- 
 To.\ : Memoirs of E. Coj/leston, with Selections from 
 his Diary and Correspomlence, J^omlon, 1851. 
 
 COPPING (Coppin, Copyn), John, a martyr of 
 Congregationalism, a layman of liury Saint Ed- 
 nniiuls, who was hanged on Friday, .June 5, 1;".83, 
 for "dispersing of Brovvnes (Robert) bookes and 
 Harrisons bookes." In 1570 he was eonjmitted 
 at Bury by IIk; connnissary of the bishop for dis- 
 obedience to the ecclesiastical laws, and was im- 
 prisoned in all seven years, although not very 
 strictly. In August, 1578, a cliild was born to him ; 
 and, because there was no minister in the place 
 who "could make a sermon," he refused it baptism 
 for four months. This action aggravated his 
 case. During his long imprisonment he and his 
 fellow-prisoner, I'luicker. found means of circulat- 
 ing Browne's books against the (.'hurch of Eng- 
 land ; and for this offence they were both hanged. 
 See DexteU : Coin/reqalionalism, us seen in its 
 Literature, N.Y., 1880 (pii. 208-210). 
 
 COPTS AND THE COPTIC CHURCH. Egjpt 
 Projier, that is the Valley of the Nile from tlie 
 sea up to Assuan, contains at present a jiopula- 
 tion of about five millions and a qiuirter, of 
 which the five millions are Mohammedans, and 
 the rest Christians. Of the Christians, by far the 
 greatest and most interesting portion belongs to 
 the Coptic Cliurch, a native institution of the 
 country ; while a minor portion belongs to various 
 foreign churches. 
 
 Ethnographically speaking, the Copts have de- 
 scended directly from the old Egyptian population, 
 so far as this was a juire and unmixed race at the 
 time when Christianity was introduced in the 
 country, during the Koman and Byzantine rule. 
 While the mass of the people, after embracing 
 Islam, suffered a considerable influx of Arabian 
 blood, the Copts kept pure their blood as well as 
 their creed. Their very name pi'oves their direct 
 connection with antiquity. The word " Copt " is 
 not derived from Coptos, a city in L'jiper Egj-pt, 
 whither the Egyptian Christians are said to have 
 sought refuge during a persecution, nor from 
 Jacobites, the sectarian name of the comnmnity, 
 but from 'Aijin-Tiof, of which it is an ablireviation 
 or corruption. When the Arabs conquered Eg^^^pt, 
 Greek was the language spoken in the country ; 
 and "Ghubt" or "Ghibt"is still the name by 
 which the Arabian tongue designates those among 
 the natives who kept aloof from the conquerors, 
 and strove to preserve intact their religion and 
 their nationality. A still stronger evidence of 
 this connection is the Coptic language, essentially 
 the same as the old Egyptian tong-ue, and, for this 
 very reason, of the greatest philological and liis- 
 torical interest. It is not spoken any more. In 
 popular life, private as well as public, it has been 
 completely superseded by the .\rabic tongue ; but 
 it is still" used in divine service, studied bj^ the 
 priests, and taught in the schools. It is written 
 with Greek letters; and only in a few cases, i:i 
 which the Greek aljihabet liad no sign for tl.a 
 Egyptian articulation, the old Demotic characters 
 have been retained. The tj-pical character, finally, 
 and certain usages and customs, point directly
 
 COPTS. 
 
 554 
 
 COPTS. 
 
 towards old Egj"pt. Circumcision, for instance, 
 performed together with baptism, and total absti- 
 nence from pork, are peculiarities which the Copts 
 hardly have adopted from the hated Moslems. 
 
 With respect to religious and ecclesiastical rela- 
 tions, the present Coptic Church is a continuation 
 of the old Monophysitic Church of Egji^t. By 
 the zeal of the Syrian monk Jacob-el-Baradai 
 (whence the sect name, Jacobites), Monophysitism 
 spread to such an extent in Egypt that nearly 
 the whole population adopted it ; and neither the 
 decrees of the Council of Chalcedon (451), con- 
 demning its doctrines, nor the edicts of the em- 
 peror, were able to eradicate it. The party of 
 the Orthodox Church were called " Melechites ; " 
 that is, royalists, because they were supported by 
 the state, by the emperor. The party was very 
 small ; but it comprised the officials, it commanded 
 the troops, it had the power. Between the two 
 parties, bloody contests arose, in which not only 
 the populace partook, but also the swarms of 
 fanatical and pugnacious monks and hermits 
 which covered the neighborhood of Alexandria 
 and the deserts on both sides of the Nile Valley. 
 The steadily repeated attempts of suppression 
 from the side of the Byzantine Government pro- 
 duced a steadily increased exasperation among 
 the Egpytian Christians ; and the result was, that 
 the latter actually hailed the Arabs (in 638) as 
 liberators. Xot only they made no resistance 
 against the invaders, but they actually aided them 
 ia driving out the Imperialists, and in taking 
 Ijossession of the country. In recognition of their 
 services, they w-ere at first treated with mildness 
 and regard by the conqueroi'S, and many privi- 
 leges were granted to them. But by degrees, as 
 the proselytizing zeal of the ISIosIems came into 
 active play, and large portions of the Christians 
 proved willing to abandon their faith, persecu- 
 tions were instituted against the stubborn ones, 
 and tiie Coptic Church has suffered much from 
 the intolerance and fanaticism of Islam. 
 
 The Copts form at present nowhere in Egypt a 
 compact population. They are scattered all over 
 the country, mostly in small communities. They 
 are most strongly rejiresented in Fayflm (the 
 famous oasis in Middle Egypt) and in Cairo, 
 where the connnunity numbers about ten thou- 
 sand souls. Their total number is about two 
 huiulred thousand. But, in spite of its circum- 
 .scribed dimensions, the Coptic Church lias a very 
 elaborately articulated hierarchy and a numerous 
 clergy. At tiie head stands the I'atriarch, who, 
 like all the higher dignitaries, is taken from 
 among the monks. He resides in C'aii'o, but is 
 still styled " Mutran-el-Iscanderijeh " (Metropo- 
 lite of Alexandria), and regarded as tlie successor 
 of St. iSIark. Next to the; I'atriarch ranks the 
 ubunn of the .Vbyssinian Church, residing at C!on- 
 dar; then follow the liishops, of whom there are 
 no less than twelve; then the lower clergy, arch- 
 priests, priests, and deacons; and finally the in- 
 mates ot tlio monasteries, monks and nuns, whose 
 rules are said to be very strict. There are quite 
 a number of monasteries, and some of them 
 date back to the first Christian centuries. One of 
 the most prominent among them is that of St. 
 .Vnthony, aituate<l in the Eastern JJesert. The 
 I'atriarch is always tak<;n from among its nioidis. 
 Celibacy ia common among the clergy, though 
 
 not universal. In the Coptic, as in other Oriental 
 churches, marriage is forbidden only to the regular 
 clergy and to the higher grades of the secular 
 clergy. GeneraUy the clergy is much revered by 
 the people ; though the stand-point it actually 
 occupies, spiritually and niorall}', does not com- 
 mand respect. Of theological education very little 
 is found, even among tlie highest dignitaries. 
 The priests know generally uotiung of the Bible 
 but the Ctospels and a few Psalms : they can read 
 Coptic, but they cannot understand it. Unfortu- 
 nately their morals are not better than their 
 theology. They are avaricious, and full of swin- 
 dling and lying. As they are poor, and without 
 any fixed pay of any kind, the most make their 
 living by begging, and shifts of all kinds. But 
 the worst of all is, they drink. Drunkenness is 
 the besetting sin of the Coptic Church : head and 
 members drink raki together, and even the church 
 festivals are often disgraced by frightful out- 
 bursts of this vice. 
 
 The church-buildings are generally miserable, 
 dirty, and out of repair. Only in Cairo and 
 Alexandria are there large and comely churches : 
 that of Alexandria was built in 1871. The 
 Church of jSIary, however, at Old Cairo, is no- 
 ticeable; as it dates from the sixth century, and 
 is the oldest Christian church in Eg\-j:it. It is 
 built over a grotto, in which JIary is said to have 
 lived wdth the infant Jesus dm-ing her stay in 
 Egypt. The interior of the churches is generally 
 divided uito several parts. The Holiest of the 
 Holy contains the altar, but is entirely concealed 
 from the eyes of the congi-egation. In the Holy 
 the priests otficiate. In the room occupied by the 
 congregation a place is set apart for the women. 
 As the building is, so is the service, — mean, mo- 
 notonous, unimpressive, and without dignity. It 
 consists mostly of recitation of passages from the 
 Bible or the Liturgy, in the Coptic or in the Arab 
 language ; no preaching, or, at all events, very 
 seldom. Still the service is very long, beginning 
 at daybreak, and ending with a kind of agape 
 [and, as the custom is to stand, all are supplied 
 with crutches of the proper height to lean upon]. 
 Again : as the service in the church, so the life in 
 the congregation, — dull, dead, a mere routme. 
 Fasting, and prayers to the virgin and the saints, 
 are considered essential features of piety. Of 
 late, however, European and .\mericau missiona- 
 ries have brought some life into this inert mass. 
 The first attempt was made by the English Church 
 Missionary Society (1825), and with marked suc- 
 cess. In 1855 the L'nited Presbyterian Church 
 of Nortli .\nierica entered the field; and in 1875 
 it founded at Sint a pi'oniising' seminary for the 
 education of young Co]>tic preachers. The St. 
 Chrischona Society at Basel began in 1861 the 
 foundation of several missionary stations in con- 
 nection with their mission in Abyssinia; but the 
 uiulertaking was abandoned in 1872. For the 
 Coptic Version, see Bini.K Vkusions. 
 
 Lit. — Makhizivs: Jlisloria Coptorum, trans- 
 lated from the Arab into Latin, by II. I. Wetzer, 
 1828; Ei>. AV. Lamc: T/ie Modern Ju/i/plians, 
 London, 1800; M. LUttkb: yEr/i/plciis Neue Zeil, 
 Leipzig, 2 vols. ; [C. Abki, : Koplische Utitersueh- 
 uitijen, Berlin, 1870-77; H. Bnuiiscn-BKY : Der 
 Baudes Tinnpeh Stilomc's nach der koptinchen Bibel- 
 versiov, Leipzig, 1870 (-55 pp.); E. Uevillout :
 
 COQUERBL. 
 
 555 
 
 CORDOVA. 
 
 Aporrijphes copies ilu Nouveau Tealament, Paris, 
 187G ; P. DF. Lagarde : Bruchslilcle der koptis- 
 che.n Uehersetzung cles Allen Texlatnenls, in his 
 Orienlalia, Gottingen, 1870; E. IIkvii.lout : Le 
 concile de Nicee d'aprls tcs texles copies et les di- 
 verses collections canoniques, Paris, 1881; A. J. 
 Butlek: Ancient Coptic Churches of Ju/ypt, Lon- 
 don, 1884, 2 vols. M. LllTTKE. 
 
 COQUEREL.Athanase Laurent Charles,Fr(Mich 
 
 Protestant lilioral theologian ; li. at Paris, Aug. 25, 
 1795 ; d. there .fan. 'J, 1S(J8. Tie studicil theology 
 at the Protestant seminary of Montanlian, and 
 was ordained 1816, an<l from 1817 to 1832 was 
 pastor of the French church at Amsterdam. In 
 1832, on the invitation of Baron C'uvier, he came 
 to I'aris to be colleague to Marron. He was very 
 outspoken on behalf of Protestant liberalism, and 
 founded successively tlie journals, Le Prolcstant 
 (1831), Le Libre Examen (183-1), and Le Lien 
 (1841), for the atlvooacy of his opinions. By 
 the latter he labored to unite the factions of 
 Frencli Protestantism. He was also a member of 
 the Consistory of the Legion of Honor (in reward 
 for his vigorous defence of the Laiiversity of 
 Paris), and of the National Assembly of 1848, and 
 of the Legislative Assembly; but after the coup 
 d'etat of Dec. 2, 1851, he confined himself exclu- 
 sively to professional duties. " His last days were 
 saddened by the predoiiunance of Orthodoxy in 
 the French Protestant Church." He was an elo- 
 quent preacher, a prolific writer, and a popular 
 speaker. Eight volumes of his .sermons were 
 published between 1819 and 1852. He wrote, be- 
 sides. Biographic sacree (1825-26), Hisloirc sainte 
 et analyse de la Bible (1839), Orthodoxie moderne 
 (1842), Christologie (1858). These and other of 
 his works have been widely circulated at home, 
 and translated into English, Dutch, and German. 
 
 COQUEREL, Athanase Josue', son of the pre- 
 ceding; b. at Amsterdam, June 10, 1820; d. at 
 Fismes (Marne), July 24, 1875. He was an even 
 more pronounced liberal than his father, whom 
 he succeeded as editor of Le Lien in 1849, and 
 kept the position until 1870. In 1852 he joined 
 in founding the Historical Socieli/ of French Prot- 
 estantism ; in 1858 published, beside others, his 
 remarkable Jean Calas et sa famille ; Libres etudes ; 
 and La conscience et la foi (1867). Among his 
 translated works is Fii-st Historical Transforma- 
 tions of Christianity, Boston, 1867. 
 
 CORAM. See Mohammed. 
 
 CORBAN (Old Testament t31.p, "offering," 
 iupov, oblalio ; in New Testament, KopfJuv; Vulgate 
 explains by donum). The word occurs very fre- 
 quently in the Hebrew text of Leviticus and Num- 
 bers, but only in those books in the Old Testament, 
 and once in the New Testament (Mark vii. 11). 
 It means " an offering to God, of any sort, bloody 
 or bloodless, but particularly in fulfilment of a 
 vow." The teaching of the scribes, which our 
 Lord so vigorously repudiated, was, that a son 
 might say to his parents, in respect to any thing 
 they might require, " It is corban [i.e., devoted] 
 that whatever of mine thou mightst have been 
 profited by me," and henceforth be free from all 
 claim upon him for their sujiport. Or, according 
 to Luther's paraphrastic note, " Corban means an 
 offering; and it was as much as to say, 'Dear 
 father, I would willingly give it to thee ; but it is 
 corban : I count it better to give it to God than 
 
 to thee, and it will help thee better.'" Josephu.s 
 relates that Pilate spent the money which was 
 corban, and as such dejKjsited in the temple, upon 
 aipmducts {War, If. 9, 4). Matthew u.ses the word 
 KopjSavai (Matt, xxvii. (>) to indicate the trea-sur}'. 
 It was in the court of the women, where stood 
 thirteen clicsts, called " trumpets " from their 
 form, to receive the money offered in tlie t<'mple. 
 
 CORBINIAN, whosf! true name was Waldekiso, 
 was licirn al Charlrettes, near Mehm, in France, 
 towards the close of the seventh century, and died 
 as Bisho]) of Freising, in Upyier Bavaria, Sept. 8, 
 730. II(! was one ot those Franks wlio labored 
 in the service of the Prankish major ilomus for the 
 establishment among the Germans of ecclesiasti- 
 cal order and authority, and may bo considered 
 as precursors of St. Boldface. They generally 
 labored under the sanction of the Pope, and must 
 be distinguished from the Iro-Scottish missiona- 
 ries; but the result of their labor was so insig- 
 nificant, that St. Boniface and the popes completely 
 disregarded them. The life ot Corbinian has 
 been written by Aribo, his fourth successor in the 
 Episcopal see of Freising, and is found in Act. 
 Sand. (BollantI) Sept., III. p. 281 ; Butler : Lives 
 of the Saints, II. p. 434. 
 
 CORDELIERS, anamegenerallygiven in France 
 to the Franciscan monks, because they wear a rope 
 tied aroimd the waist. According to tradition, it 
 originated during the wars between Louis IX. 
 and the Saracens, in the following manner : the 
 king, seeing the monks pursuing the enemy, asked 
 who they were, and was answered that they were 
 the men corde lie's. 
 
 CORDOVA, the Corduba of the ancients, appears 
 twice in the history of the Chm-ch as the source 
 of a remarkable influence, — first, in the middle 
 of the ninth century, when it was the meeting- 
 place of one of the most fanious synods ever held 
 ill Spain, and next, during the period between 
 the tenth and the thirteenth centuries, when it 
 was the seat of one of the most celebrated schools 
 in Europe. 
 
 The Synod of Cordova was convened in 852, 
 on the instance of the Caliph Abderrhaman II. 
 Many Christians, especially monks, impelled by 
 fanaticism, and a mistaken idea of the merit of 
 martyrdom, studiously provoked the !Mohanime- 
 dans among whom they lived, simply in order to 
 stir up persecution, and win the martyr's crown. 
 A majority of the synod, among which were 
 Bishop Hostegis of Malaga, and Bishop Recafrid 
 of Sevilla, carried a decree forbidding this kind 
 of voluntary martyrdom ; but a minority — among 
 which were the presbyter Samson, author of an 
 Apologeticus contra Hostegisum, the monk Alvarus, 
 author of a Vita S. Eulogii, and Eulogius himself 
 — protested ; and practically the minority retained 
 the field. The synod was styled the impium con- 
 ciiiabalum, its acts were destroyed, and we know 
 its proceedings only from the works of Eulogius. 
 See Aguirre : Collectio Conciliorum Omnium His- 
 paniee, Rome, 1693, III. 149 j_ W. Baudissix: 
 Eidogius nnd Alvar, Leipzig, 1872. 
 
 The School of Cordova was founded in 980 by 
 the Caliph Ilakem II. Before that tune, both 
 theology and jurisprudence had been cultivated in 
 Cordova by tamous teachers; but, by Hakeni's 
 energy and support, chairs were erected also for 
 other branches of learning, teachers were invited,
 
 CORINTH. 
 
 556 
 
 CORPUS CHRISTI. 
 
 and a complete university began to flourish. In 
 the beginning of the twelfth centurj- this institu- 
 tion had a library of about six hundred thousand 
 books, and the best astronomical observatory in 
 the world ; and it was renowned as the centre of 
 the study of astronomy, mathematics, medicine, 
 and philosophy. A little later it became the prin- 
 cipal seat of the Arabian study of Ai-Lstotle ; 
 and thus it became a mediator between the an- 
 tique philosophy and the medireval speculation. 
 Its most famous teacher was Averroes, and his 
 most famous pupil was Maimonides. See Jour- 
 dain: Reckerches critiques sur . . . traductions 
 lateinsd'Arislote,7a.r\?.,\8Vi;'E. Rex.\x : Ai-crrocs 
 et I' Averroisme, 2d ed., Paris, 1861; Lasinio : 
 Studii soprn Aicrro'e, Florence, 187-5; and in gen- 
 eral II. JIiDDF.LDORPi" : De Inslitutis Literariis in 
 Hispnhia, Gottingen, 1870. ZOCKLER. 
 
 COR'INTH, tlie "Star of IleUas," and the capi- 
 tal of Achaia, stood on the isthnms, which, 
 stretching between the Gulf of Corinth and the 
 Gulf of ^Egina, connects the Peninsula of Jlorea 
 with the Greek mainland. It was defended by a 
 citadel built on a lofty rock, Acro-Corinth, which 
 rose just in the rear of the city. It had two 
 harbors, — Cenchrea? on the Gulf of ^Egina, and 
 Lechieum on the Gulf of Corinth ; and it com- 
 manded two very important commercial routes : 
 one east to west, between Asia IMinor and Italy ; 
 and one north to south, through Macedonia and 
 Greece. 
 
 The old Greek city — rich, beautiful, the capital 
 of the Achaian League, the arena of the Isthmian 
 games — was totally destroyed by Lucius Mum- 
 mius (146 B.C.) ; and for a whole century its site 
 lay bare and desolate. But in 4i B.C., Caesar 
 settled a colony of Roman freedmen there, and 
 the colony prospered prodigiously. The new city 
 ■was made the capital of the Roman province of 
 Acliaia. Gallio, the brother of Seneca, was pro- 
 consul during Paul's first visit there. It soon 
 became one of the most important commercial 
 places on the Mediterranean ; but its character 
 was somewhat peculiar. It was not a Greek city, 
 nor a Roman one. Its population was extremely 
 heterogeneous. A nunierous colony of Jews 
 settled there wlien driven away from Rome by 
 Claudius, and among them were Aquila and 
 Priscilla. Everybody went to Corintli to make 
 money, or to spend it. All nations were repre- 
 sented there ; but nearly the only bonds which 
 held the inhabitants together were their connnon 
 enter)>rises and their common debaucheries. 
 
 Paul visited the city three times, — first in 53 
 (Acts xviii. 11), theu between 51 and iJ7 (accord- 
 ing to 1 Cor. xvi. 7; 2 Cor. xii. 1.3, 14, xiii. 1), 
 and finally in 57-58 (.Vets xx. 2). From Corinth 
 he wrote hi,s Epistle to the Romans (Acts xx. 2, 
 3; com]). 1 Cor. xvi. 0; Rom. xvi. 1); and to 
 the Christians of Coriutli he wrote two epistles. 
 
 CORINTHIANS, Epistles to the. See Paul, 
 Episti.is of. 
 
 CORNELIUS, Bisliop of Rome from June, 2.51, 
 to Se|)t. 14, 2.52, adopteil a mildiM- view of the 
 case of those who liad fallen olT from Die Cliurch 
 during the persecution of Dccius, and corre- 
 sponded about the matter with Cyprian ; of w-hich 
 correspondfrnce several letters from each si<le are 
 Still extant, and given among Cyjirian's works. 
 In Rome itself there was a minority which favored 
 
 the severer views of the Bishop of Carthage ; and 
 the head of this party, Ndvatianus, became the 
 first autipope. 
 
 CORNELIUS A LAPIDE (van der Steen),h. at 
 Boehaff, in the diocese of Lifege, in 1568 ; d. in 
 Rome, March 12, 1637 ; was professor of exegesis, 
 first at Louvaiu, and afterwards in Rome, and 
 wrote commentaries on nearly all the books of 
 the Bible. On account of the ample quotations 
 from the fathers which they contain, these com- 
 mentaries enjoyed great favor in the Roman- 
 Catholic Church, and are still used. Collected 
 editions appeared at Antwerp, Paris, Lyons, and 
 Venice. An edition in 20 vols. 4to appeared at 
 Lyons in 1872. See T. W. Mo.ssm.\n : The Great 
 Commentani of Cornelius a Lapide, London, 1S81. 
 
 CORONAtl QUATUOR, "the Four Crowned 
 Brotliers," is the common name of four martyrs 
 — Severus, Severianus, Caipophorus, and ^'icto- 
 rinus — who suffered martyrdom in Rome during 
 the persecution of Diocletian. Their festival 
 falls on Xov. 8. The old chm-ch built in their 
 honor is mentioned by Gregory the Great. It 
 was repaired in 841 by Leo IV., and rebuilt, 
 after a conflagration, by Paschalis II., and again 
 by Paul V. One of the cardinal-prie.sts takes his 
 title from it. See Butler : Liccs of the Saints, 11. 
 300. 
 
 CORPORAL, or CORPORALE, is the white 
 linen cloth with which the remnants of the con- 
 secrated elements are covered ; also, and usually, 
 the linen cloth, never decorated in the Roman 
 Church, upon which the Eucharist is laid. The 
 name and texture are derived from the story of 
 the wrapping of our Lord's dead body (Luke 
 xxiii. 53). Originally it was large enough to 
 cover tlie altar. 
 
 CORPUS CATHOLICORUM denotes the Ro- 
 man-Catliolic states uf (IrruKiny so far as they 
 were united into one body, and acted as such in 
 their relations with the Protestant states, — the 
 Corpus Eranr/elicorum. The thing existed long 
 before the name. As early as the Diet of Spires 
 (1529) and the Peace of Nuremberg (1532), traces 
 of such a union are apparent from the unanimity 
 witli which the members act ; and at the conclu- 
 sion of the Peace of AVe.stphalia (1648), the unity 
 is completely constituted : it has its representa- 
 tives and its organs. The name was still avoided, 
 however. Tlie Roman-Catholic Ch\n'cli could not 
 and would not otlicially recognize a body whose 
 rights and liberties might prove so niatiy limits to 
 her own authority; and with respect to the Peace of 
 Westphalia, whicli arranged the relations between 
 the Roman-Catholic and the Protestant states of 
 the empire as between two bodies, the Pope never 
 gave his sanction. Nevertheless, towards the cipse 
 of the seventeenth century the name came into 
 general >ise, and was employed otliciiilly by the 
 union itself. With the dissolution of the Ger- 
 man iMnjiiri' in 1806 the union disajipeared. See 
 Colti'ts l',\ ANi;l IK OHl'M. SKfllEf KKK. 
 
 CORPUS CHRISTI (the Body of Christ), the 
 name of a festival of tlie Poman-Catholic Church 
 ill honor of the transubstantiation. It was in- 
 stituted in 1264 bv I'rban IV.; and, after the 
 times of Clement V^., it became one of the most 
 imposing pageantries of the Honian Church, the 
 consecrated host being carried about in a mag- 
 nificent procession, and exhibitetl for adoration.
 
 CORPUS DOCTRINE. 
 
 557 
 
 CORVEY. 
 
 The origin of this fiwtival was the vision of Juli- 
 ana, prioress of the Nunnery of St. Corneli, near 
 Liege, recorded in lier Life, in Act. Sand., April 
 5. Slie saw the moon fully illuminated, with 
 the exception of one dark spot, and was told that 
 this dark spot referred to the lack in the C'hui'ch 
 of a festival in honor of the transnlistantiation. 
 See J. C. Danniiaukk : De festo Corporis Christi, 
 Strassliurg, KiO'J. 
 
 CORPUS DOCTRIN/E is the common name, 
 wliich, iu llie sixteenth century, tlie Protestants 
 applied to certain colUnitions of doctrinal treatises 
 made for the purj)ose of forming an authorized 
 and normative representation of a certain ty]ie of 
 faith, or of a certain individual church. The first 
 oi these collections — the so-called Corpus Doclrirue 
 Philippicum, or Misnicion, afterwai'ds Corpus Doc- 
 trinm Chrisliance — was pulilished at Leipzig in 
 1560, and consisted of all the principal doctrinal 
 and confessional writings of Melanchthon, — the 
 Confi'.isio Auf/u.^lnna, Apologia, Confessio Saxonice, 
 Loci Theolofjici, Examcn Ordinandorum, Kesponsio 
 ad Articulos Baoaricm Inquisitionis, together with 
 the Refutatio Serrcli. It was issued first in a 
 German edition, and shortly after also in a Latin, 
 and was accepted by Saxony and other evangeli- 
 cal countries ; not witliout opposition, though. It 
 represented exclusively the influence of Melanch- 
 thon ; and since the adiaphoristic controversy a 
 sharp distinction had been drawn between his 
 stand-point and orthodox Lutherdom. In tlie 
 very same year tlie Corpus Doctrince Christiana: 
 was publislied, appeared the Corpus Doctrince of 
 the City of Hamburg, consisting of five confes- 
 sional declarations, issued since 1548 liy the clergy 
 of Hamburg. It was strongly Lutheran in its 
 character ; and still more strongly so was the Cor- 
 pus Doctrince of the City of Brunswick, which 
 appeared in 1563, and consisted of the Ecclesias- 
 tical Ordinance of the City of Brunswick by I. 
 Bugenhagen, the Confessio Aur/ustana, the Apolo- 
 gy, the Articles of Smalcald, and the Articles of 
 Liineburg. A remarkable specimen of these col- 
 lections is the Corpus Pomeranicum, made in 1561. 
 Up to that date, the Corpus Doctrince Chrisliance 
 had been accepted as the authorized representa- 
 tion of the Pomeranian Church; but an addi- 
 tion was now made of the Greater and Lesser 
 Catechisms of Luther, the Articles of Smalcald, 
 and some minor treatises of Luther, by which 
 addition the exclusively Melanchthonian tendency 
 of the Corpus was thought to be duly counterbal- 
 anced. All these Corpora Doctrince — and many 
 more might be mentioned, as, for instance, the 
 Corpus Pratenicum, Corpus Thurinr/icum, Corpus 
 Brandenburijicum, etc. — lost tlieir importance 
 when the Formula Concordia: was ]iroduced, and 
 accepted as the common Corpus Doctrince of the 
 whole Lutheran Church. 
 
 Lit. — Fenerlinus : Bibliotheca Symholica 
 Evangetica Lutherana, Baumgarten: Erlduterun- 
 gen der im christlichen Concordienbuch enthaltenen 
 symbol ischen Schriften ; IIeppe : Die Entstehung 
 und Fortbildunq d'cs Lutherthums. HEPPE. 
 
 CORPUS EVANGELICORUM, also called Cor- 
 pus Sociorum Augustance Confessionis, denotes the 
 imion into one body of all the Protestant states of 
 Germany. From the earliest days of the Refor- 
 mation, various Protestant princes had tried to 
 unite all the Protestant states into a permanent 
 
 confederacy, or, at least, to establish a regular 
 "correspondence" between them. In the diets it 
 often proved necessary to treat the interests ot 
 an individual state as a common Protestant inter- 
 est; and, as the Koman-Catholic states from the 
 very first appeared and acted as a unit, both 
 parties gradually came into the habit to treat with 
 each other dc corpore ad corpwi. Its coinj)lete con- 
 stitution, however, the Corpus Eiangclicoruiu did 
 not obtain until July 22, Hio-i, when it was organ- 
 ized under the leadership of the Elector of Saxony. 
 All Protestant interests, general and special, were 
 placed under its authority, and it corresponded 
 indejieiulently w ilh the emperor and with the .sepa- 
 rate states, and even with foreign powers. When, 
 in the latter part of the seventeenth century, the 
 electoral house of Saxony was converted to Ko- 
 manism, the Corjnis Ecnngelirurum came unMer the 
 leader.ship of a Pionuin-Catholic prince ; but the 
 danger of throwing the country out of the alli- 
 ance, together witli its ruler, determined the 
 union to bear witli this singular anomaly. With 
 the dissolution of the German Eniiiire tfie Corpus 
 Ecangelicorum also dissolved. See 11. W. v. 
 BuLOW : i'eber Gcschiclilc und Verfassuitq des 
 C. E., Regensburg, 1795 ; [A. Frantz : Das Katho- 
 lischen Directorium des Corpus Evangclicorum, Mar- 
 burg, 1880.] HEPPE. 
 CORRESPONDENCES. .See Swede.nhorgi- 
 
 ANISM. 
 
 CORRODI, Heinrich.b. at Zurich, July -SI, 1752, 
 
 d. there Sept. 14, 1793 ; studied theolog\- in Ilalle, 
 under Sender, and was in 1786 appointed pro- 
 fessor of morals and natural law in the gj-mna- 
 sium of his native city. He was considered one 
 of the great lights of the rationalism of his age; 
 but his works, Geschichte des Chiliasmus (1781), 
 Geschichte des jiidischcn vnd christlichen Bibelka- 
 nons (1792), Beitrdge zur Beforderung des verniinf- 
 ligen Denkens in der Religion (1780-93), have had 
 no influence, and are now of no interest. 
 
 CORVEY, the famous AVestphalian abbey, the 
 centre of the Saxon and Scandinavian mission, 
 and for a long period the principal seat of learn- 
 ing among the Germans, was a colony from the 
 Monastery of Corbie, in the diocese of Amiens. 
 The subjugation of the Saxons by Charlemagne, 
 the slow progress of Christianity among them, 
 and, more especially, the education of a number 
 of young Saxons in Corbie, finally rijiened the 
 idea with Abbot Adalhard of sending out some 
 of his older monks to make a permanent settle- 
 ment in Saxony. The first attempt was made 
 in 815 ; and the place chosen was Sollinge, near 
 the present city of Uslar. But the locality was 
 too unfavorable ; and, after seven years of hard 
 labor and vain exertions, the settlement had to 
 be moved to the imperial villa of Hyxori, the 
 present Hbxter, on the bank of the Weser. Here 
 it thrived prodigiously under the name of Corbeja 
 Nova, or New Cors'ey, in contradistinction from 
 Corbeja Aurea, or 'Vetus, the mother-convent. 
 During the lifetime of Adalhard it remained 
 united to Corbie under the same abbot ; but after 
 his death it obtained its own abbot, Varinus, 
 and, after the lapse of a short time, it completely 
 outshone the old place. Louis the Pious endowed 
 it with Iloxter, Eresburg, and Meppen, and gave 
 it the right of coining money, besides many other 
 privileges. Count Gerolt bequeathed to it all his
 
 CORVINUS. 
 
 558 
 
 COSSIT. 
 
 estates in 851. The transference of the rentains 
 of the martjT Vitus from the Abbey of St. Denis, 
 in 836, contributed still more to tlie material 
 prosperity of the young institution, as the Saxons 
 believed that the possession of these relics woidd 
 secure them good luck and the ascendency over 
 the Franks. But the real reason for the success 
 was, of course, the energy' and talent of the first 
 settlers and their immediate pupils, — Ansgar, 
 Rimbert, Autbert, Gautbert, Nithard, Unni, etc., 
 the great Scandinavian missionaries, and Bruno 
 of Cologne, Thiagrin of Halberstadt, Bruno of 
 Verden, Wegbert of Hildesheira, Folkmar of Pa- 
 derborn, etc., celebrated as leaders in the German 
 Church. As its missionary activity came to a 
 close, Corvey gradually developed as a seat of 
 learning and an educational institution of the 
 greatest importance. It possessed an excellent 
 library. It kept at one time twenty-four profess- 
 ors. In its schools were taught not only theology 
 and languages (Latin and Greek), but also the 
 sciences. History was cultivated with great suc- 
 cess. The work of Bovo I. is lost; but Widu- 
 kind's history of Saxony is still extant (Acs Geslce 
 Saxonicce in Pertz : Mon. iii. pp. -lOS-467). But 
 during the Thirtj'- Years' War it suffered severely. 
 Its library and archives were destroyed or lost ; 
 its estates and privileges were taken away from 
 it, and very little was restored after the Peace of 
 Westphalia. 
 
 Lit. — JoH. Letzxer : Corveyische Chromic, 
 Hamb., 1593; C.F. Paullixi: Thealrum lUusl. Vi- 
 rorum Corbejcc Saxonicce, Jena, 1686 ; JoH. Fried. 
 Falckex : Enlwurf einer Ili^lorite Corbejensis di- 
 plomaliccE, Brunswick, 1738 ; and Codex Traditio- 
 nutn Corhejensium, Leipzig, 17.")2 ; P.\rL Wigan'D : 
 Geschichte Corceys, IliJxter, 1819, imfinished, end- 
 ing at 1146. G. H. KLIPPEL. 
 
 CORVINUS, Antonius.b. Feb.27, 1501, at AVar- 
 burg, near Paderborn ; d. at Hanover, April 5, 
 1553; was educated in the Monastery of Loccum, 
 from which he was expelled on account of his 
 liolding Lutheran views; studied theology at 
 Wittenl>erg, from 1523 to 1526 ; was a preacher 
 at Goslar from 1528 to 1531, and at Witzenhausen 
 from 1531 to 1511, and labored during the last 
 part of his life for the introduction of the Refor- 
 mation in the Duchy of Kalenberg-Gbttingen. 
 In 1546, however, Duke Erich II. was converted 
 to Romanism ; and on Nov. 1, 1549, Corvinus was 
 .seized at Patt<>,nsen by Spanish soldiers, and car- 
 ried to Kalenberg, where he was imprisoned for 
 three years. Without very great creative power, 
 he had a considerable talent fo rorgani/.ation ; aiul 
 He labored with faithfulness and patience in the 
 cause of the Reformation. See Bauint. : Lehen 
 Corcinus, Hanover, 1749; L'uluoun : Ein Scnd- 
 hriefvon Antonins Corvinus mil einer hiographischen 
 Einhitunfi, Gottingen, 1853. 
 
 COSIN, John, isi.sliop of Durham, and a leader 
 of till' AiiglD-Caiholics; 1). at Norwich, Nov. 30, 
 1594; d. in London,. Ian. l.'j, l(i72. He was edu- 
 cated at Caius College, Cambridge, and after 
 ser^'ice its dome.stic chaplain to the Bishop of 
 Durliain, jirebendary of Durham, and archdeacon 
 of the East Riding of Yorkshire, was elected 
 master of Peterliouse, Ciimbridge, in 1()34. In 
 1639 he was made vice-ehiiiuellor, and Dean of 
 Peterborougli, lii40, but in tlie next year was se- 
 questered from all his benefice.?, an<i imiwached 
 
 for popish practices by the House of Commons, 
 but dismissed on bail, and not again called for. 
 In 1642 he was concerned in sending the plate of 
 the University of Cambridge to the king, and in 
 consequence was ejected from his mastersliip. He 
 went to France ; but at the Restoration he was 
 restored, and in December, 1660, raised to the see 
 of Durham. He wa,s distinguished for learning 
 and controversial ability, and wrote several note- 
 worthy books : A Collection of Private Devotions 
 in the Practice of the Ancient Church, called the 
 Hours of Prayer, taken out of the Holy Scriptures, 
 the Ancient Fathers, and the Divine Service of our 
 own Church, London, 1627, 9th ed., 1693 (a manual 
 prepared by royal command for the use of the 
 Queen's maids of lienor) ; Historia Transuhstantia- 
 tionis Papalis (Eng. trans.. History of Popish Tran- 
 substantiation, London, 1676, new ed. with memoir 
 by J. S. Brewer, 1840) ; A Scholastical History of 
 the Canon of Holy Scripture, or the certaine and iti- 
 dubitale books thereof, as they are received in the 
 Church of Enyland, London, 1657. These and 
 his other writings are published in the Library 
 of Anylo-Catholic Theology, Oxford, 1843-55, 5 
 vols. 
 
 COSMAS and DAMIANUS, two brethren from 
 Arabia; lived in Cilicia, wliere they practised 
 medicine without taking any fees, and were mar- 
 tyred during the persecution of Diocletian, hav- 
 ing refused to oifer sacrifice on the Pagan altars. 
 They are commemorated by the Roman Church 
 on Sept. 27, and were reverenced during the 
 middle ages as the patron saints of physicians 
 and druggists. An order of spiritual knights, 
 devoting themselves to take care of pilgrims, was 
 instituted in the eleventh century, and named 
 after them, but met with no success. See Act. 
 Sanctor., .Sept. 27 ; Butler : Lives of the Saints, 
 II. p. 526. 
 
 COSMAS INDICOPLEUSTES, an Egyptian 
 merchant, who, in the middle of the sixth ceiitur)', 
 navigated the ^Mediterranean, the Red Sea, tlie 
 Persian Gulf, and even visited India, whence his 
 surname. Tired of the business of the world, 
 he became a monk, and wrote, among other works, 
 which are lost, A Christian Topography of the 
 World, in Greek and in twelve books, which has 
 come down to us, and is found in Monte.\u^'ON : 
 Colt. Nov. Patr. Orcrc, Paris, ]70(), ^ol. II. pp. 
 113-346, and G.vm.andi : liibl. Vcterum Patrum, 
 vol. xi., Venice, 1770. The general idea which 
 the author entertains of the earth, as a jiarallelo- 
 gram, flat, and coxered with a vault, is absurd ; 
 but his remarks on details are often acute and 
 striking, and his book is by no means without 
 interest. 
 
 COSSIT, Franceway Ranna, b. in Claremont, 
 N.IL, April 24, 1790; d. at Lebanon, 'J'enn., July 
 3, 1863. He was graduated at Mi<ldlebury Col- 
 lege, 1813, and received tlicre the degree of D.D. 
 in 1839. His parents were Episcopalians, and 
 after a nwnber of years of teaching he was or- 
 dained as a minister of that denomination. Cir- 
 cumstances led him to go to Tennessee, and there 
 he mi^t Cmnberland Presbyt«u-ians. Their meth- 
 ods and success greatly interested him; and, after 
 a careful consideration of the matter, he decided 
 to become one of them (1822). He rose to 
 eminence in Ids ni^w relations. He was elected 
 successively the first President of Cumberland
 
 COSTUME. 
 
 559 
 
 COUNCIL. 
 
 College, at Princeton, Ky., and of Cumberland 
 University at Lebanon, Tenn. lie was also Presi- 
 dent of tlie IJoard of Foreij^n and Domestic Mis- 
 sions of tlu; Cumberland Presbyterian Church, 
 cstablisher and editor of a religious weekly, The 
 Jianner of I'dice, and in other ways a power. He 
 published 'J'lie Life and Times of Finis Eivintj, 
 Nashville, 1S."):5. 
 
 COSTUME, See Clothing ajiono tiik He- 
 brews, Dkess amono the Early Christians, 
 Vestments ok the Clergy. 
 
 COTELERIUS (Cotelier), Jean Baptiste, b. at 
 Nismos, in December, I'JLi?; d. in Paris, Auc;-. lt(, 
 1(580; studied theology and ])Iiilosophy in J'aris; 
 W'as in KiOT counnissioned by Colbert to investi- 
 gate and catalogue the (jreek nuinuscrijits of the 
 Koyal Library, and became professor in (ireek at 
 the Koyal College in lOTO. His principal work is 
 his edition of the Apostolical Fathers, — Barna- 
 bas, Clement, Hernias, Ignatius, and Polycarpus, 
 — Paris, 1072, in two volumes. Most of the copies 
 of the original edition were consumed by a confla- 
 gration ; but there are later editions by Clericns, 
 of 1098 and 1724. Cotelier also published Ecdes. 
 GrcEC. Mnnumcnta, Paris, 1077-88, 3 vols., and 
 Ilomilice IV. in Psalmos, Paris, 1001, which he 
 ascribed to Chrysostom. See A.ncillgn : Me'- 
 moires, p. 379 ; Niceron : Menioires, IV. p. 243 ; 
 and Baluze's Letter to Bigot, after the preface to 
 vol. II. of Patr. Apost. IIAGEN-BACH. 
 
 COTTON, George Edward Lynch, Bishop of 
 Calcutta; b. at Chester, Oct. 29, 1832; accidents 
 ally drowned at Kooshtea, on the Ganges, Oct. 6, 
 1866. He was graduated at Trinity College, 
 Cambridge, appointed head master of Marlbor- 
 ough College in 1852, and in 1858 Bishop of Cal- 
 cutta, and metropolitan in India and Ceylon, 
 and " by his piety, courtesy, catholicity of senti- 
 ment, and high accomplishments, obtained the 
 esteem of all parties." He wrote Doctrine and 
 Practice of Christianily, 3d ed., London, 1853; two 
 volumes of Sermons, 18.55 and 1858; and since 
 his death. Sermons preached to Enr/lish Congrega- 
 tions in India, London, 1867, and his Memoir, with 
 Selections front his Journals and Correspondence, by 
 his widow, London, 1870, have been published. 
 
 COTTON, John, b. at Derby, Eng., Dec. 4, 
 1585; d. at Boston, U.S.A., Dec. 23, 1652. He 
 was graduated at Trinity College, Cambridge, 
 but was a fellow of Emmanuel College. For 
 twenty years he was vicar of St. Botolph's, Bos- 
 ton, Lincolnshire, and a noted Puritan ; but, on 
 being cited by Laud for not kneeling at the sacra- 
 ment, he fled to London, and thence to America, 
 landing in Boston Sept. 4, 1033. He took, in 
 the New World, even a more prominent position 
 than he had taken in the Old. On the 17th of 
 October he was ordained teacher of the First 
 Church in Boston (see Dexter : Congregational- 
 ism, as seen in its Literature, p. 422), and colleague 
 of Mr. John Wilson. In 1042 he was invited, 
 along with Thomas Hooker of Hartford and 
 John Davenport of New Haven, to sit in the 
 Westminster Assembly of Divines ; but no one of 
 them went (see Dexter, p. 6.53). He died of 
 lung-fever in consequence of exposure in crossing 
 the ferry to Cambridge. Cotton Mather, his 
 grandson, says of him, " If Boston be the chief 
 seat of New England, it was Cotton that was the 
 father and glory of Boston " (Magnalia, third 
 
 book,* chap, i., ed. Hartford, 185.5, p. 2.52). Ex- 
 travagant prai.se, yet indicative of Cotton's ]iosi- 
 tion and character, which are thus set forth by 
 Palfrey : he was " far from being the ruling sjiirit 
 of the Colony," yet " acting with others, and 
 advised and instructed and checked by them, he 
 rendered it memorable service. . . . t'here was 
 no mistake in the opinion which his neighbors 
 universally entertained of his devoted piety. . . . 
 He had acuteness and learning for controversv, a 
 moving eloquence foi- the pulpit, and an affection- 
 ate and winning address, and a knowledge of 
 connnon business, which, in the less imlilic duties 
 of the saered office, secured to him great power" 
 (Ilistori/ of New ICngland, vol. 11. p. 410). 
 
 He was a voluminous writer: Dexter mentions 
 thirty-six of his jniblications. The most impor- 
 tant of these are. Questions and Answers upon 
 Church Government (written, not printed, 1034); 
 'The Wttij of Life (1041) ; A Brief Exjiosition of 
 the Whole liook' of Canticles (1642); The Churches 
 I'esurrerlion and The Powring ort of the Secen 
 Vials [his famous Lectures on the Revelation] 
 (1042) ; The Kei/cs of the Kingdom of Heaven, and 
 Power thereof, according to the M'ord of God (1644), 
 reprinted Boston, 18.52; The Way of the Churches 
 of Christ in New England (1045) ; 'The Grocnds 
 and Endes of the Bapti.wie of the Children of the 
 Faithfull (1047) ; 'The Wag of Congregational 
 Churches cleared (1048) ; A Briefe Exposition of 
 Ecclesiastes (1654) ; The Neir Covenant (16.54) ; 
 Exposition of the 'Thirteenth Chapter of the Revela- 
 tion (1055). See Cottox Mather: Magnalia 
 Chrisli Americana, ed. Hartford, 1855, vol. I. jip. 
 252-280. 
 
 COUNCIL (concilium). In the history of the 
 Christian Church, the councils form centres of 
 development with respect to doctrine and liturgy 
 and constitution. They grew up from the veiy 
 needs of the Church ; and in the Apostolic Coun- 
 cil at Jerusalem (reported in Acts xv.) they 
 found their model and their legitimation. 1"lie 
 first councils or synods of which we have a reliable 
 account were held in Asia Minor, against the 
 Montanists, and not earlier than the middle of 
 the second century (Eusebius : Hist. EccL, V. 
 10). One, said to have been held in Sicily, in 
 125, against the Cnostic Heracleon, and another, 
 said to have been held in Home by Bishop Teles- 
 phorus (d. 139), are entirely unhistorical. A little 
 later, towards the close of the second century, 
 a number of councils were held — at Ephesus, 
 under the leadership of Polycrates ; in Palestine ; 
 at Osrhoene in Mesopotamia ; in Pontus ; and in 
 Gaul, under the leadership of Irenseus — concern- 
 ing the Easter question ; and from the same time 
 dates a pas.sage in Tertullian (De Jejutnis, 13), 
 showing that" this custom, which had originated 
 in the Eastern countries, among the Greeks, now 
 began to attract the attention of the Latins in 
 the Western countries. The first Latin s\-nods 
 were held in the beginning of the third century, 
 in North Africa, where, under Cyprian, they be- 
 came very frequent. Meanwhile they lost in the 
 East the "aspect of being something extraordinary. 
 According to a letter from Firmilian. Bishop of 
 Ciesarea m Cappadocia, to C\-prian {Ep. 75), coun- 
 cils were held regularly twice a year in Asia 
 Minor in the beginning of the third century ; that 
 is, they had become a fixed institution, part of the
 
 COUNCIL. 
 
 560 
 
 COUNCIL. 
 
 constitution of the Church. Gradually they also 
 grew in dimensions, especially after the middle 
 of the third century. Thus the synod of Iconium 
 in Phrygia C-ioG) was frequented by bishops both 
 from Galatia and Cilicia ; and the synod of Aries 
 (314), not only by bishops from {iaul, but also 
 by bishops from "Brittany, Germany, Spain, and 
 North Africa. In course of time the diocesan 
 synod developed into the metropolitan synod, and 
 tills, again. into the patriarchal council, until finally 
 the great cecumenical council, authoritative to the 
 ■whole Chm-ch, could be convened. 
 
 The first eight cecumenical councils (325-869) 
 form a group by themselves. They were convened 
 by the emperors (Roman and Byzantine); they 
 received their impulses from the Greek C'hiu'ch ; 
 and they are principally of doctrinal interest. 
 They form, so to sjieak, the mental process by 
 which the Christian Church became conscious of 
 the full meaning and proper bearing of its own 
 fundamental doctrines ; and, though the later logi- 
 cal systematization and philosophical argmnenta- 
 tion have modified the outlines of the definitions, 
 none of the dogmas then settled has ever afterwards 
 essentially been changed. The Council of Nica;a 
 (325), convened by Constantine the Great, fre- 
 quented by three hundred and eighteen bishops, 
 and led by Hosius of Cordova, and Athanasius of 
 Alexandria,- and the Council of Constantinople 
 (381), convened by Theodosius the Great, fre- 
 quented by a hundred and fifty bishops, among 
 them the two celebrated Cappadocian bishops, 
 Gregory of Nazianzen and (Jregory of Nyssa, set- 
 tled tlie dogma of tlie Holy Trinity so far as re- 
 gards the constituents whicli necessarily go into the 
 definition ; and only the dialectical relations be- 
 tween these constituents were left to be elaborated 
 by the aftertirae. See Arianism. The Council 
 of Ephesus (431), convened by Theodosius II. and 
 Valentinian III., frequented by about two huiulred 
 bishops, among them Cyrillus of Alexandria, and 
 the Council of Chalcedon (451), convened by 
 Marian, freipiented by five or six hundred bishops, 
 and led by the representatives of Bishop Leo of 
 Rome, laid the foundation upon which the ortho- 
 dox christology of our days is still resting. See 
 Nestokius, Elityciiks, and Monophvsitks. It 
 is noticeable, with respect to these two councihs, 
 first, that the invitations were not issued to the 
 bishops, but only to the metropolitans, to whom 
 it was left to select sucli of their bishops as they 
 wanted to be present at the councils ; next, that 
 Bishoji Coelestine of Rome instructed his repre- 
 sentatives at the Council of E])hesns not to par- 
 ticipate in the discussion, but simply to give the 
 decision, — an attitude which was assumed still 
 more pronouncedly by the representatives of Bish- 
 op Leo of Rome at the Council of Chalcedon. The 
 fifth necutnenical council did not meet until a cen- 
 tury later (553). It .sat in Constantinople, but 
 was frequented by only a hundred and fifty liish- 
 ops, mostly belonging to the Eastern Church, and 
 it is generally considered as a mere epilogue to 
 the Coimcil of Clialcedon ; vvhilir the sixth O'cu- 
 inetiical council, also sitting in Constantinople 
 (080). and convened by Constanline I'ngonatos, 
 actually carried the christological discussion a 
 stf!p farth(-r. See Monotiiki.itkh. The ]>art 
 which the bishops of Rome |ilayed at these two 
 lost councils wa.s not so a<lvantageou8 as that they 
 
 had played at tlie two preceding ones. Pope Vi- 
 gilius was present in person in Constantinople 
 (553), and subscribed the decrees of the council ; 
 but those decrees met with an obstinate resistance 
 in the Western Church and among the Monothe- 
 lites, who were excommunicated and anathema- 
 tized as heretics in 680, as was also Pope Honorius, 
 
 — a fact rather embarrassing for the dogma of pa- 
 pal infallibility. The seventh cecumenical coun- 
 cil, convened at Nicaea (787) by the Empress Irene, 
 was chiefly concerned with the question of image- 
 worship; the eighth, convened in Constantinople 
 (869) by Basilius Maredo. with the affairs of Plio- 
 tins : but the authority of both, especially that of 
 the latter, was nearly confined to the Greek world. 
 The schism between the Eastern and \Vestern 
 Church had now become complete, and it has 
 lasted until the present day. 
 
 The second group of cecumenical councils (869- 
 1311) belongs exclusively to the Western Church, 
 and gives a very vivid picture of the growth and 
 culmination of the papal monarchy. For two 
 centuries and a half after the Council of Constan- 
 tinople (869), there were held in the Western 
 Church only provincial and national synods, in 
 Spain, France, England, and Germany. Though 
 several of these synods, especially those held in 
 France, exercised great influence on the history 
 of the Church, none of them obtained authority 
 throughout the whole Church. The series of oecu- 
 menical councils is opened again with the Lateran 
 synods, thus called from their place of meeting, — 
 the Church of St. John Lateran in Rome. There 
 are four belonging to this period, — the Jirst, con- 
 vened by Calixtus II. (1123), and frequented by 
 about three hundred ecclesiastics, for the solemn 
 establishment of the concordat of Worms, by 
 which the emperor renounced the riglit of investi- 
 ture with ring and staff; the second, convened by 
 Innocent II. (1139), and frequented by about a 
 thousand ecclesiastics, for the purpose of cancelling 
 all the decrees issued by the antipope Anaclet ; the 
 third, convened by Alexander III. (1179), of merely 
 disciplinary interest; and the fourth, convened by 
 Innocent III. (1215), and frequented by four hun- 
 dred and twelve bishops, and eight hundred abbots 
 and priors, besides by ambass.adors from the By- 
 zantine court, and a great number of jirinces and 
 noblemen, — one of the most brilliant ecclesiastical 
 assemblies which ever met. Its debates encom- 
 passed the whole field of ecclesiastical legislation, 
 
 — doctrine, liturgy, discipline, etc. ; and both 
 the results and the form of these debates give 
 evidence of the towering height to which the 
 Papacy h.ad reached. The dogma of transubstan- 
 tiation was promulgated, the decree of auricular 
 confession was issued, the Intpiisition and other 
 courts of heresy w'ere established, etc. But these 
 and other measures did not originate in the as- 
 sembly itself : they were, so to speak, dictated to 
 it by the curia, as ap]>ears from the new formula 
 under which they were adopted, — sarra uiiircrsidi 
 si/nodo (i/iproliantfi sancunus. To this grouj) also 
 belong the two councils of Lyons, of which the 
 first was convened by Innocent IV. (1245), for 
 the ]iurpose of excommiiiiicating and deposing 
 the ]Om|ieror Frederic II. ; the second by (iregory 
 X. (1274), to accomplish the union between the 
 Greek and the Latin Church; and, finally, the 
 Council of Vienne, convened in 1311 by Clement
 
 COURAYER. 
 
 661 
 
 COURT. 
 
 "V., by which the order of the Templars was 
 
 ■dissolved. 
 
 AVith the " Bahyloniaii captivity " the Papacy 
 begins to decline, and by the great schism it ac- 
 tually .seems to be brought very near ruin. To 
 heal the schism was also one of the jirincipal ob- 
 jects of the Councils of I'isa (1400) and of Con- 
 stance (1414-bS). At the .same time there aro.se 
 within the Church itself a strong re-action against 
 the prevailing corruption ; and the demands of 
 reform were loud, not only in the (Council of Con- 
 stance, but still more in the Council of Basel 
 (1431-43), and even in the fifth Lateran synod 
 (1512-17). The proceedings of these councils, — 
 the great reformatory councils of the fifteenth 
 and sixteenth centuries, — in which, liowever, all 
 €ndeavors of reform were bafHed by the curia, are 
 described in separate articles, as are those of the 
 Council of Trent (1.345-03), who.se principal busi- 
 ness tran.saction was tlie condemnation of the (ier- 
 inan Reformation. After the Council of Trent, 
 no oecumenical council was held until that of the 
 Vatican (1869-70), by which the dogma of the 
 infallibility of the pope was declared. 
 
 Lit. — -Mansi: Sacrorum Conciliorum nova el 
 mnplissima CoUectio, Florence, 1759 sqq., 31 vols, 
 fob; Harduin: Colleclio maxima Conciliorum (jen- 
 tral. el provinc, Paris, 1715 sqq., 12 vols, fob ; 
 Hefele : Conciliengeschichle, Freiburg, 1855-74, 
 7 vols. [2d ed., 1873 sqq., Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 
 vol. I., 1871, vol. II., 187t;.] G. V. LECULER. 
 
 COURAYER, Pierre Franqois Le, b. at Rouen, 
 Nov. 17, 1681 ; d. at London, Oct. 16, 1776 ; was 
 canon regular of the Abbey of Ste. Geuevifeve 
 in Paris, taught theology and philosophy in its 
 schools, and had charge of its library. In 1723 
 he published at Brussels a treatise on the validity 
 of English ordinations, in which he declared, that, 
 in the episcopacy of the Anglican Church, there 
 had occurred no breach of succession since the 
 days of the apostles; and this assertion roused 
 such a storm among his Roman-Catholic co-reli- 
 gionists, that he felt compelled to leave France. 
 He sought refuge in England, where he was well 
 received, and obtained a pension. He published 
 at London, 1737, a French translation of Paolo 
 Sarpi's history of the Council of Trent. 
 
 COURCELLES, Etienne de (Curcellaeus),b. at 
 Geneva, May 2, 1586 ; d. in Amsterdam, ^lay 22, 
 1659 ; studied theology under Calvin and Beza, 
 and afterwards in Heidelberg, and was appointed 
 pastor at Boi.s-le-Roi, near Fontainebleau, in 1614. 
 In 1621 he became pa.stor at Amiens; but, having 
 refused to subscribe the decrees of the synod of 
 Dort, he was deposed. He afterwards gave in a 
 qualified assent, and was appointed pastor at 
 Vitry, but gave up this position in 1634, went to 
 Amsterdam, and became (in 1637) Episcopius's 
 successor as professor of theology in the Remon- 
 strants' College. Besides his edition of the Greek 
 text of the New Testament, he wrote Vindicia 
 Anninii (1645), Defensio BInmlelli (1657), Di.iserla- 
 tinnes (16.59), etc., which appeared in a collected 
 edition, Amsterdam, 1675. 
 
 COURT AND LEGAL PROCEEDING AMONG 
 THE HEBREWS. In the oldest times the heads 
 of tribes, or of chief hou.ses in a tribe, were the 
 judges. In the times of Moses, the latter, who 
 combined in his person all theocratical offices, was 
 Ihe judge ; but, as the burden became heavier, he 
 
 37 — 1 
 
 appointed, by the advice of Jethro, heads over 
 thousands, over hundreds, over fifties, and over 
 ten.s, to arrange smaller nuitters, whilst in more 
 imixirtant cases his counsel was to be sought. In 
 ajijiointing judges, moral and inttdlectual qualifi- 
 cations were considei'ed ; but it is jjrobalili; that 
 Moses regarded the trilial constitution ; and this 
 supposition .seems to follow from Dent. i. 15: "I 
 took the chief of your tribes." When the people 
 settled in Canaan, the elders of thi; city and the 
 heads of the tribes adjusted all legal matters. 
 During the period of the judges, in bo far as they 
 stood at the hea<l of the people or of single tribes, 
 the judgment was exercised by them; and of 
 Samuel we know that he judged in several cities 
 of the country, and appointed his sons judges at 
 Beersheba (1 Sam. viii. 2). Afterwards the kings 
 acted as judges; and from 2 Chron. xix. 8-11 we 
 know that Jehosha]>hat appointed a high tribunal 
 at Jerusalem, to which the Levites, priests, and 
 chiefs of the fathers, belonged. The prophets 
 al.so exercised judicial functions. After the re- 
 turn from Babylon, the Sanhedrin adjusted all 
 legal matters. 
 
 The legal proceeding was very simple. The 
 complaint was made either by the parties them- 
 selves (Deut. xxi. 20, xxii. 16), or by others. 
 Both parties had to appear before the judge, 
 who had to hear and to investigate verj' carefully 
 the matter (xxv. 1). Two or three witnesses were 
 necessary, especially in penal cases; and, when 
 capital punishment was decreed, the witnesses 
 were the first to exercise it. Whoever committed 
 perjury was subjected to the same punishment 
 which had otherwise threatened the accused. 
 When parents brought their disobedient sons 
 before tlie judge, no witne.ss was required. Some- 
 times the lot was used in exercising judgment 
 (cf. Josh. vii. 14; 1 Sam. xiv. 40 sq., etc.). An 
 immediate divine judgment is mentioned in the 
 case of a woman suspected of adultery. The sen- 
 tence was given orally, but in later times also in 
 writing (Job xiii.26; Isa. x. 1). All documents 
 and contracts were legal when signed before wit- 
 nesses. That oppression, bribery, partiality, and ' 
 false witnesses often perverted the right and the 
 law, we see from the many censures which the 
 prophets pronounced. [P. B. Benxy: The Crimi- 
 nal Code of the Jews, accordinci to ihe Talmud Masse- 
 chclh Sipdiedrin, London, 1880.] DELITZSCU. 
 
 COURT, Antoine, the organizer of the "Church 
 of the Desert," the restorer of the Reformed 
 Church in France; was born at Villeneuve de 
 Berg, in the department of Ardfeche, May 17, 
 1696, and died at Lausanne, June 15, 1760. He 
 lost his father when he was four years old, and 
 grew up in poverty under the shadow of the 
 martyrdom of Brous.son and Ilomel, and among 
 the wonders and miseries of the wars in the Ce- 
 vennes. Reports of people' who were burnt alive, 
 put on the rack, sent to the galleys, or hunted 
 down like wild beasts, for the sake of their faith, 
 made his daily bread; but these poor and dismal 
 circumstances proved to be the right tutor for his 
 character. When Louis XIV. is.sued the edict of 
 March 8, 1715, declaring that there was no Prot- 
 estantism in France, the young man stood ready 
 to give the lie to the royal bravado. 
 
 The situation was exceedingly difficult. A 
 circle of edicts closed around Protestantism, and
 
 COURT. 
 
 562 
 
 COVENANT. 
 
 kept it walled up as in a tomb. Marriages con- 
 secrated by a Reformed minister were considered 
 by the civil law as mere concubinage, and chil- 
 dren of such a marriage were treated as bastards. 
 To preach Protestant ideas was death on the gal- 
 lows. To participate in Protestant worship was 
 imprisonment, or labor in the galleys. And in 
 these circumstances no change took place at the 
 death of Louis XIV. The regent continued the 
 persecutions. From 1715 to 1723 seven Protes- 
 tant meetings were surprised, and the men were 
 sent to the galleys, the women to the Aigues- 
 Mortes. In 1718 Etienne Arnaud was hanged as 
 a "preacher of the desert." Houses and villages 
 w-ere razed to the ground : whole counties were 
 fired. Nor was the internal state of the Protes- 
 tant congregation without its dangers. While one 
 part, the " newly-converted " as they were called, 
 gradually relapsed into Romanism, another, in- 
 fluenced by the prophets of the C'amisards, was 
 led astray by a spiritualism which rejected the 
 Bible as norma ei rer/ula Jidei, and produced secta- 
 rianism. Nevertheless, in 1711-15 Court made 
 his first journey as a travelling preacher through 
 the Cevennes, Languedoc, Dauphine, to Marseilles; 
 and on Aug. 21, 1715, the first synod met at sun- 
 rise in a place where two roads cross each other, 
 near Nimes. Only a few persons were present; 
 but a church ordinance was agreed upon, with 
 regular services, with synods, and with a church 
 discipline; and thus the " Church of the Desert" 
 was founded. 
 
 In 1720 Court visited Geneva, and established 
 a connection and intercommunication between the 
 Reformed Church of Switzerland and that of 
 France. For a similar purpose he also began a 
 correspondence with William Wake, Archbishop 
 of Canterbury. In 1722 he returned to France, 
 and continued his work under innumerable dan- 
 gers, but with very great success. Congregations 
 were formed in Poitou, Bretagne, Agenois, Fois, 
 Provence, and Picardie. After an inteiTuption 
 of sixty-si.x years, the first national synod met on 
 May 16, 1726. In 1728 the evangelical num- 
 ■ bered about two hundred thousand in Languedoc 
 and Dauphine. In Languedoc (with liouergue 
 and Vivarais) there were a hundred and twenty 
 pari-shfis with tliree synods and four ministers 
 (Corteis, Court, Durand, Roger). In 1729 Court 
 retired, and settled at i^ansanne, where, some 
 years earlier, lie had established a school for the 
 education of ministers for the Reformed Church 
 of France. Only once more (in 1711) he again 
 visited his native country; but, lie continued to the 
 last to labor for the "Church of the Desert," and 
 his work prospered in spite of cruel persecution. 
 In 1711 the church had thirty-three ministers, 
 and sixty-two in 176:J. In the former year Nor- 
 mandie numbered seventc^eii parishes, Poitoii 
 thirty, Dauphine sixty. Nimes alone contained 
 twenty thousand Protestants ; and it began to 
 dawn upon the French Ooveriiment that a change 
 of [lolicy with respect to its evangelical subjects 
 was absolutely necessary. 
 
 Lit. — The principal work on Court is Ed- 
 MONI) IIu(iiiKs : Aut. Court, Hint, rle lareslaurnlinn 
 (lu I'rolestanlhme en France, 2d ed., Paris, 1872. 
 See, also, Pkykat : Hist, ihx I'nstfum du Ik'serl, 
 Paris, 1812; Couiiikkk: llist.de Vegtise reformde 
 <U Monlpellitr, P.«.ri«, IbGl; J. G. Bau.m : Mc- 
 
 moires de Pierre Carriere, dil Corteis, Strassburg, 
 1861; D. Benoit: Un martyr du desert, Jacques 
 Rofjer restaurateur du protestanisme dans le Dau- 
 phine. Toulouse, 1875. VON' polexz. 
 
 COUSIN, Victor, b. in Paris, Nov. 28, 1792: 
 d. at Cannes, Jan. 11, 18G7; was educated in 
 Lycee Charlemagne and Ecole Normale, and be- 
 gan to lecture on philosophy in 1815 in the 
 Sorbonne, where he soon gathered a great num- 
 ber of enthusiastic students around his chair. 
 In 1821, when the re-action thought itself strong 
 enough to indulge its passions. Cousin was dis- 
 charged ; but lie was re-instated in 1828, and, 
 after the revolution of 1830, he was made coun- 
 cillor of state, director of Ecole Normale, peer 
 of France, and for a short time (1840-41) minis- 
 ter of public instruction in the cabinet of Thiers. 
 After the coup d'etat of Dec. 2, 18.51, he retired 
 into private life. His principal works are, Cours 
 de I'fdsloire de la philosoplde, 3 vols., Paris, 1840; 
 Cours de Vhistoire de la pldlosopliie moderne, 
 Paris, 1841 (translated into English by AVight, 
 New York, 1852) ; Du rrai, du beau, et du hien, 
 Paris, 1849 (translated into English by Wight, 
 New York, 1854). The direct influence which 
 Cousin exercised on Christian theology was not 
 great, and may be limited to his edition of Abe- 
 lard's works (1836-46). But indirectly his ac- 
 tivity was of great consequence. He changed 
 the whole character of the French philosophy. 
 He led the students of philosophy among his 
 countrymen from the materialism of the eigh- 
 teenth century in France to the idealism of the 
 Scotch school; and, again, he dissolved the dog- 
 matic method of the French and Scotch philoso- 
 phy, and introduced the dialectic method of 
 German philosophy. A complete system he did 
 not produce, lie was an eclectic, l>ut his eclec- 
 ticism was not a mere mosaic. The vigorous 
 understanding and vivid representation of the 
 various philosophical systems which he gives, 
 are everywhere permeated by a spirit of idealism, 
 which, in the latter part of his life, drew him and 
 his pupils nearer and nearer to Christianity. 
 
 COVENANT, an agreement or mutual obliga- 
 tion, contracted deliberately and with solemnity. 
 1. Theological Use. God's convenant with men 
 signifies his solemn promise or engagement (Gen. 
 xvii. 14; Exod. xxxiv. 10; Dent. iv. 13; Isa. 
 lix. 21). The Hebrew word for covenant is from 
 n^2 ("to cut"), and has reference to the practice 
 of cutting animals in two, and passing between the 
 ])arts, ill ratifying a covenant ((Jen. xvii. 14; Jer. 
 xxxiv. 18). The term "the covenants," in Roni.ix. 
 4, refers to the various promises made to Abraham 
 and t he otlier patriarchs. The most important use 
 of tlie word is, however, in relation to the two great 
 dispensations which are distinguished as the Old 
 and New, or as the Covenant of the Law and 
 the Covenant of the (Jospel. Tlie former was 
 made with the children of Israel, through Moses, 
 and rested much in the outward ceremonies and 
 observances which the law enjoined (meats and 
 drinks, and divers washings, and carnal ordi- 
 nances). The new covenant was made through 
 Christ, sealed by his own lilood, and secures to 
 every believer tlie blessings of salvation and 
 eternal life (comp. Exod. xx. 24; (Jal. iii. 15, 
 17; Heb. viii. 6 sqq.). The titles "Old and 
 New Testaments" arose from the inaccurate
 
 COVENANTERS. 
 
 663 
 
 COVENANTERS. 
 
 rendering in the Latin Vulgate of tlie word 
 "covenant" (iiaOr/Krj) by Icxiaineiiluin. It woulil 
 be a decided gain if the correct titles could be 
 used. In the revised version of the New Testa- 
 ment, the word "covenant" is everywhere the 
 translation of (UaOf/Ktj in the text, with "testa- 
 ment" in the margin (e.g., Malt. xxvi. 28). Hut 
 the American revisers (Classes of I'asswjes, X.) 
 prefer that " the word ' testament ' be every wliere 
 changed to 'covenant' without an alternate in 
 the margin, except in Ileb. ix. 1.5-17." 
 
 2. Ecclesiastical Use. The Congregational- 
 ists and Baptists apply the term "covenant" to 
 the agreement between tlie members which i.s 
 appended to the confe.ssion of faith drawn up by 
 each church independently. It is either original, 
 or derived from some authoritative symbol. On 
 the " National Covenants " of Scotland, see Cove- 
 nanters. 
 
 3. Covenant of Salt is a covenant in whose 
 sealing or ratification a seal was used, imparting 
 to it an inviolable character (Lev. ii. 13 ; Num. 
 xviii. 19; 2 Chr. xiii. .5). 
 
 COVENANTERS. The name given to the 
 Scottish Presbyterians, or a portion of them, of 
 the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, derived 
 from a form of agreement called a "Covenant," 
 by which they bound themselves for religious and 
 patriotic ends. The first document of the kind 
 was drawn up in 1580, at the request of King 
 James VI., by his chaplain, John Craig, and was 
 firstcalled "The king's Confession." Afterwards 
 it was called "The National Covenant; or, the 
 Confession of Faith." It was subscribed in 1580 
 by the king, and by persons of all ranks in 1581 ; 
 and its object was to maintain the reformed reli- 
 gion and the king's majesty, in opposition to the 
 machinations of Romanism. In 1.596, on occasion 
 of a memorable revival of earnest religion, it was 
 proposed that the Covenants be renewed ; and the 
 proposal was very cordially carried out by the 
 General Assembly in the Little Church of Edin- 
 burgh, March 30, 1596. In 1638, when prelacy 
 was overthrown, the Covenant was again renewed, 
 with a bond binding the subscribers "to adhere 
 to and defend the true religion, and forbear the 
 practice of all innovations already introduced into 
 the worship of God ; and to labor by all means 
 lawful to recover the purity and liberty of the gos- 
 pel as it was professed and established before the 
 aforesaid innovations." It was subscribed by 
 barons, nobles, gentlemen, burgesses, ministers, 
 and commons, a memorable scene occurring at 
 its subscription in Greyfriars' churchyard, Edin- 
 burgh, where it was first publicly read and signed. 
 It was approved by the General Assembly 1638 
 and 1639, and ratified by the Parliament of Scot- 
 land in 1640 ; and, besides the people, it was sub- 
 scribed by Charles II. at Spey in 1650, and at 
 Scoon in 1651. 
 
 Another document, drawn up by commissioners 
 of the English Parliament and the Westminster 
 Assembly, and by committees of the Scottish 
 Estates and the General Assembly, was called 
 " The Solemn League and Covenant for Refor- 
 mation and Defence of Religion, the Honor and 
 Happiness of the King, and the Peace and Safety 
 of the Three Kingdoms of Scotland, England, 
 and Ireland." This Covenant, besides binding 
 the subscribers to maintain the Reformed Church 
 
 in its integrity, according to the word of God, 
 pledged them "to endeavor the extirpation of 
 jiopery, prelacy (i.e., chureli government by arch- 
 bishops, bishop.s, their chancellors and commi.s- 
 sai'ies, deans, deans and chapters, archdeacons, 
 and other ecclesiastical officers depending on that 
 hierarchy), superstition, heresy, schism, jirofane- 
 ness, and whatsoever shall be found contrary to 
 sound doctrine and power of godliness, lest we 
 partake in other men's sins, aiid thereliy be in 
 danger to receive of their plagues ; and that the 
 Lord may be one, and his name one, in the three 
 kingdoms." The Covenant contained, among other 
 clauses, a very explicit declaration of loyalty to the 
 king. It was ajijiroved by the (ieneral A.sseinbly 
 of the Church of Scotland, and by both Houses of 
 Parliament, and the assembly of Hivines in Eng- 
 land, and taken and sub.scribed by them in the 
 year 1643. it was thereafter, by the same author- 
 ity, taken aiul subscribed by all ranks in Scotland 
 and England the same year; ratified by the Scot- 
 tish Parliament in 1644; again renewed, and taken, 
 with an acknowledgment of sins and engagement 
 to duties, by all ranks in 1648, ami by Parliament 
 in 1049 ; and (with the older Covenant) subscribed 
 by Charles II. at Spey in 1650, and at Scoon in 
 1651. The most characteristic feature of the Sol- 
 emn League and Covenant as compared with the 
 National Covenant was the repudiation of prelacy. 
 
 King Charles I. was so exasperated at the pro- 
 ceedings of 1038, that he gathered an army, and 
 advanced towards Scotland, to compel submission. 
 The Covenanters prepared to meet him, and in- 
 trusted the command of their troops to Gen. Leslie ; 
 and it was on this occasion that tlie banner was 
 displayed "for Christ's crown and covenant." 
 The Scotch obtaining some successes, a peace was 
 concluded, but broken by the king in the follow- 
 ing year, and once more renewed. 
 
 After the Westminster Assembly and the sign- 
 ing of the Solemn League and Covenant, war 
 broke out again. The Marquis of Montrose made 
 a great stand in Scotland for the royal cause, but 
 in vain. Then came the flight of Charles I. to 
 Scotland, his surrender into the hands of the 
 English, and finally his execution. This event 
 filled the Scots with consternation, and immedi- 
 ately Charles II. was proclaimed king. Coming 
 to Scotland, he took the Covenants, though this 
 turned out to be an act of pure hypocrisy. Their 
 intense loyalty to the king threw the Covenanters 
 into antagonism to Cromwell and those with whom 
 they were really at one. But when King Charles 
 was restored in 1660, instead of having the Cov- 
 enants respected, and the Presbyterian Church 
 purified from abuses, a bitter persecution followed 
 that lasted for twenty-eight years. 
 
 The " Act rescissory " rescinded all acts passed 
 between 1638 and 16.50. In 1062 it was declared 
 by the obsequious Scottish Parliament, that the 
 ordering and disposal of the external government 
 and policy of the Church doth properly belong 
 unto his Majesty as an inherent right of the crown, 
 by virtue of his royal prerogative and supremacy 
 in causes ecclesiastical." In the exercise of this 
 prerogative, so utterly opposed to the principles 
 of the Covenanters, episcopal government was 
 restored. The Covenants were denounced, and 
 all who supported them proclaimed traitors. In 
 1661 the Marquis of Argyle was beheaded, and
 
 COVENANTERS. 
 
 564 
 
 COVERDALE. 
 
 James Guthrie also died on the gallows. Diocesan 
 courts were instituted, and no minister was allowed 
 to remain in a parochial charge without satisfying 
 them. A commission headed by the Earl of Lau- 
 derdale was sent over the west country to enforce 
 this law, when, to the great surprise of the com- 
 missioners, four hundred ministers resigned their 
 charges rather than submit to the unlawful con- 
 ditions. The ejected ministers were prohibited 
 from holding meetings for worship under pain of 
 death. Fines and imprisonment were inflicted 
 on those who attended such services, and were 
 found to have abetted the Covenanters. Detach- 
 ments of troops headed by such men as Sir James 
 Turner, and Graham of Claverhouse, scoured the 
 country, persecuting all who were suspected of 
 being friendly to them. Sometimes resistance was 
 offered to the soldiers. A rising took place in 
 Galloway in 1666, which terminated in the defeat 
 of the insurgents at Rullion Green among the 
 Pentland Hills near Edinburgh. Another battle 
 took place at Drumcloy, where the Covenanters 
 defeated Claverhouse; but at Bothwell Bridge 
 they were vanquished. At Sanquhar, in 1680, a 
 declaration was drawn up, disowning Charles 11. 
 as king, in consequence of his having acted as a 
 tyrant, and violated the constitution of the coun- 
 try. Conspicuous among the authors of this 
 declaration was Richanl Cameron, who gave his 
 name to the body called in common parlance 
 Cameronians, but more strictly Reformed Presby- 
 terians. At Airdmoss, in 1680, Cameron and his 
 friends gave battle to the royal troops; but they 
 were defeated, and Cameron himself was killed. 
 The year before (in 1679) James Sharp, Arch- 
 bishop of St. Andrews, formerly a Presbyterian 
 minister, who was accused by his brethren of be- 
 traying the Presbyterian cause, was attacked by 
 some Covenanters on Magus Moor, near St. An- 
 drews, and put to death. 
 
 The state of things underwent little alteration 
 until the Revolution occurred in 1688; James 
 II. being dethroned, and William and Mary 
 coming to the tlirone. During the reigns of 
 Charles II. and James II. tlie cases of persecu- 
 tion were very numerous, and in many cases most 
 harrowing. It was reckoned, that, in twenty- 
 eight years, eighteen thousand persons were either 
 banished or put to death. At the. Revolution 
 the Covenanters ceased to be distinguished by 
 that title, with the exception of a small body who 
 had been followers of Cameron, and who stood 
 out against the Revolution settlement as not 
 being a sufficient recognition of great Bible prin- 
 ciples in the constitution both of the Churcli 
 and of the State. See Camkuonian.s. 
 
 Very different estimates have been formed of 
 the Covenanters, acconling to the ecclesiastical 
 and religious proclivities of their judges. By 
 high-churchmen they have been denounced as 
 coarse, fanatical, intolerant, cruel, and unscrupu- 
 lous ; by high Presbyterians tliey have been ex- 
 tolled as men of the highest godliness, cliampiona 
 of liberty, lioly martyrs and confi'ssors. the saviors 
 of their country. It is very certain that between 
 1580 and 1688 the friends and ujiholders of 
 the Covenants embraced nearly all of the mo.st 
 learned, devout, and earnest ministers of the 
 church, and many laymen in high position. The 
 real lovers of the gospel were Covenanters, and 
 
 the revivals of earnest religion were associated 
 witli them. The rugged character of the times, 
 the general want of a tolerant spirit, and the ab- 
 sence of suitable leaders, may have led to ex- 
 cesses, and caused some degeneracy in the move- 
 ment in its later stages. But the stand for 
 freedom, civil and religious, made by the Cove- 
 nanters, was of the noblest character, and con- 
 ferred incalculable benefit on both Church and 
 State. Had they been crushed, ecclesiastical 
 liberty would have almost perished within the 
 Reformed churches of Europe. 
 
 Among some of the friends of the Covenants 
 an opinion has sometimes prevailed that they 
 bound all the succeeding generations of Scotsmen, 
 inasmuch as they were entered into by a corporate 
 body, — the nation, which never dies. This opin- 
 ion has but few supporters, and is manifestly 
 extreme and untenable. Those who made the 
 Covenants bound themselves very firmly ; but 
 they could not bind those who came after them; 
 nor could these come under the obligation of the 
 Covenants, except in so far as they were person- 
 ally willing to do so. 
 
 See the various Histories of the Church of 
 Scotland, Presbyterian and Episcopalian ; his- 
 torical writings of Dr. M'Crie, and his Vinilka- 
 tion of the Scottish Covenanters; The Fifty-Years' 
 Strurji/le of the Scottish Cocenanlers, by James 
 Dodds; Sir Walter Scott's Tales of My Landlord ; 
 Cunningham's and Flint's St. Giles Lectures on 
 the Covenanters, etc. [John T.wi.or: The Scot- 
 tish Covenanters, London and N.Y., 1881 ; Schaff: 
 Creeds, vol. 1, i>p. G8.j-6!)6.] W. G. BLAIKIE. 
 
 COVERDALE, Miles, b. at Coverham, in the 
 north riding of Yorkshire, and probably in the 
 district that gave him his name, Coverdale, which 
 lay in what was called Richmondshire, about 
 1488; d. in London, and buried, Feb. 19, 1569, in 
 the chancel of St. Bartholomew. (AVhen this 
 church was taken down, in 1840, his remains were 
 removed to St. Magnus.) He studied philos- 
 ophy and theology at Cambridge, became priest 
 at Norwich, 1514; entered the Augustine friars, 
 Cambridge convent, whose prior in 1533 was 
 Robert Barnes (martyr), by whom, probably, 
 Coverdale was converted to Protestantism ; for 
 about this time he appeared as the champion of 
 the new faith, and would have been persecuted 
 but for the known fact that Crnmwell was his 
 patron. As it was, in 1.528 he went to the Conti- 
 nent. Nothing certain is known of Coverdale's 
 whereabouts until the appearance of his Bible in 
 London, in lo.'io. See E.sci.isii Bini.K Vehsions. 
 In L>!8 he went to Paris, and wliile there super- 
 intended a new edition of a diglott, the Latin 
 and the Englisli side by side. The first edition 
 was ]irinted and |inlilishi'd in that year by James 
 Nycolson, but was unauthorized liy Coverdale, 
 and full of errors. This second edition was printed 
 by Fraunces Regnault in Paris, and ]niblished by 
 Richanl Grafton and Ivlward Whitei-luirch, Lon- 
 don. In Paris, Coverdale made the revision of 
 Matthi'w's nil)le, known as the "Great Bible," 
 because of its size. Tlui printing was begun in 
 Paris, inhibited Dec. 17, 15)J8, and finished in 
 London, .\pril, 1539, probably under the personal 
 superintendence of Coverdale. At Cruinwell's 
 execution (July 28, 1540) Coverdale went to Ger- 
 many, and was pastor of a church at Bergzabern,
 
 COWL. 
 
 565 
 
 COWPER. 
 
 near Strassbura; On his rotiini, in 1548, he was 
 made one of Edward Vl.'schajiUiins, and almoner 
 to the Queen-dowager, Catliarine I'arr. In 1550 
 he was appointed a member of the commission 
 against the Anabaptists, and on Aug. 14, 1551, 
 Bishop of Exeter ; and so extreme was his poverty, 
 that the usual payment of " first-fruits " was re- 
 mitted in his case. On the accession of Mary 
 (1553) he was deposed, imprisoned, and banished. 
 He owed his escape from death to the intercession 
 of the king of Denmark, whose chaplain was 
 Macalpine, Coverdale's brother-in-law. Again an 
 exile, he lived for a while at We.sel in Friesland, 
 as pastor of an English congregation, then at 
 Bergzabern, and finally at Geneva, where, with 
 characteristic zeal and self-forgetfulness, he 
 shared in tlie production of the Genevan Bible. 
 In 1559 he returned to England, — Mary being 
 dead, — but was not re-instated in his bishopric. 
 From 15G4 to 1500 lie was rector of St. Magnus 
 the Martyr, London Bridge, but resigned the po- 
 sition l)ecause of infirmity, or because of his 
 Puritanical views in the matter of vestments, 
 which had prevented his re-iiistatement in his 
 bishopric. No more guileless man is reckoned 
 among the heroes who gave the Anglo-Saxon race 
 its precious versions of the word of God. But he 
 did more than translate the Bible. He busied 
 himself in making his countrymen acquainted 
 with the Reformers by translations from II. Bul- 
 linger, Lutlier, Calvin, and others, by publishing 
 (1504) a collection of the letters of 'the martyrs 
 (Cranmer, Ridley, Hooper, etc.). He also wrote 
 original pieces of a religious character. See his 
 Writings and Translations, and Remains (edited 
 for the Parker Society, Camb., 1844, 1846), and 
 Letters nf the Martyrs (edited by the Rev. E. 
 Bickersteth, London, 1837). Darling's Cijclo- 
 pcedia Bihlio(jrapliia gives a list of Coverdale's 
 writings. 
 
 COWL, corresjionding to the Latin ciicuUa, 
 means primarily tlie hood which the monk draws 
 over the head to prevent the eyes from glancing 
 right or left. But, as this hood was the most 
 characteristic part of a monk's dress, — and in- 
 deed it was the only article specially mentioned 
 in the Rules of St. Benedict (c. 55), — cowl grad- 
 ually came to be applied to the whole monastic 
 garment, corresponding to the Latin casula. 
 
 COWLES, Henry, D.D., a commentator; b. in 
 Norfolk, Conn., April 24, 1803; d. at Janesville, 
 AVis., Sept. 0, 1881. He was graduated at Yale 
 College, 1820; studied theology; was from 1828 
 to 1835 a pioneer missionary on the Western Re- 
 serve in Ohio; from 1835 to 1843, professor, first 
 of Greek and Latin, and then of Hebrew, in Ober- 
 lin University; from 1843 to 1803 he was editor 
 of The Olierlin Evangelist. In 1803 he began his 
 Conunentari/, which eventually extended to sixteen 
 volumes, covering the entire Bible, and completed 
 it in 1881. It was published by D. Appleton & 
 Co., New York, and intended for the educated 
 laity. He was a man of strong practical sense, 
 and of excellent judgment. 
 
 COWPER, William, poet and hymnologist, b. 
 at Great Berkhanipstead, Hertfordshire, Nov. 15, 
 1731 ; d. at East Dereham, Norfolk, April 25, 
 1800. He came of gentle blood. His father was 
 one of George II. 's chaplains ; and his grandfather 
 was a judge, and brother of the first Earl Cow- 
 
 per, the Lord Chancellor. He was a delicate 
 cliild; and his "fagging" experiences in theWest- 
 niinstor public school told sadly upon him, and 
 may have, in part, induced his subsequent mad- 
 ness. At eighteen he began the study of law, 
 an<l at thirty-two was nominally engaged in its 
 jiracticp, but really given up to literature. When 
 las income began to be insufficient, he was nomi- 
 nated by influential friends clerk of the journals 
 of the House of Lords; but, the right of nomina- 
 tion being disputed, he was required to submit to 
 an examination, and nervous dread of the ordeal 
 unsettled his reason (already affected by grief 
 over Ills uncle's refusal to allow him to marry his 
 daughter), and he had to be put under medical 
 care, in the private madhouse of Dr. Cotton, who 
 was a pious man. While there he was converted 
 by reading a Bible which had been purposely put 
 in his way. In 1705 he went to Huntingdon, and 
 there formed acquaintance with the Unwins, and 
 made his home with them. In 1767 Mr. Unwiii 
 was killed by a fall from his horse ; and Mrs. 
 Unwin and Cowper moved to Olney, on the invi- 
 tation of the famous Rev. John Newton, one of 
 the great lights of the Evangelical party, to which 
 the pair belonged. But this new relation was 
 fraught with danger to tlie hypochondriacal Cow- 
 per; for the life they now led was one continuous 
 round of religious exercises. The only redemp- 
 tive feature is the contact Cowper had with the 
 poor, by which he enlarged his knowledge of life, 
 and at the same time drove away melancholy. 
 But again Cowper went mad ; and it was not until 
 after sixteen months, during which Mrs. Unwin 
 assumed entire charge of him, that he recovered 
 his reason under Dr. Cotton's skilful treatment. 
 The departure of Newton was a favoring provi- 
 dence for him. Another was Mrs. Unwin's sug- 
 gestion that he should write poetry. He had 
 already joined Newton in writing the Olnei/ Hijinns 
 (1779), and contributed sixty-eight to Newton's 
 two hundred and eighty; but he now took a 
 broader field, and produced Tlie Moral Satires 
 (1782). It was then he met Lady Austen, who 
 by her vivacity, her tact, and knowledge of the 
 world, exerted the most beneficent influence upon 
 him. It was she who told him the story of John 
 Gilpin, which he has immortalized, and set him 
 The 7\isk-, by which he achieved fame. Soon 
 Lady Austen left, and Lady Ilesketh, his cousin, 
 — another woman of the world, — came, and like- 
 wise favorably affected the poet. He then gave 
 English literature a number of minor poems, and 
 notable translations from Homer (1791) and Hor- 
 ace. In 1794 he obtained a pension of three 
 hundred pounds. The last four years of his life 
 were passed under a cloud. His reason was well- 
 nigh destroyed, and the only original poetry he 
 wrote was The Castaicag. After his death his 
 charming letters were collected and published. 
 
 Cowper's hymns are among the most popular ; 
 such as, God moves in a m;/sterions iray ; Oh for 
 a closer walk with God ; 'There is a fountain filled 
 with blood. There is no gentler, purer, more 
 winning character among English poets than 
 William Cowper; and there is no better letter- 
 writer among English authors. 
 
 Lit. — The best Life is by Southey, published, 
 in connection with his works, London, 183.3-37, 15 
 vols.; reprinted, with additional letters, by Boh\
 
 cox. 
 
 566 
 
 CRAMER. 
 
 1853-54. A good sketch is given by Goldwix 
 Smith, in the English Men of tellers series, N.Y., 
 18S0. 
 
 COX, Samuel Hanson, one of the gifted ora- 
 tors of his day ; b., of Quaker parentage, at Rah- 
 way, N.J., Aug. 25, 179:3; d. at Bronxville, N.Y., 
 on Saturday night, Oct. 2, 1880. Abandoning 
 law, he studied theology, and was pastor of the 
 Presbyterian Church in Mendham, N.J., from 
 1817 to 1821, when he settled in New- York City, 
 first as pastor of the Spring-street, and in 1825 
 of the Leight-street, Presbyterian Church. He 
 was one of the founders of the University of the 
 City of New York. In 1833 he went to Europe. 
 In London he attended the anniversary of the 
 British and Foreign Bible Society as delegate 
 from the American Bible Society, and delivered 
 a memorable address. He had entered Exeter 
 Hall after the meeting was begun, and during an 
 address which scathed the Americans for their 
 " institution " of slavery. He was announced the 
 next speaker, and secured for himself a hearty 
 welcome by the following exordium : — 
 
 " My lord, twenty clays ago I was taken by the tug 
 ' Hercules ' from the quay in New York to the good 
 ship ' Samson,' lying in the stream. Thus, my lord, 
 ^ going from strength to strength, from mythology to 
 Scripture, — by the good hand of the Lord I w.is 
 brought to your shores just in time to reach this 
 house, and to enter, in the midst of the burning de- 
 nunciations of my beloved country that have fallen 
 from the lips of tlie gentleman who just sat down. 
 He has reproiiehed that country for the existence of 
 slavery, which I abhor as much as he. But he did 
 not tell you, my lord, tliat, when we revolted from 
 your government, one of the reasons alleged was the 
 tact that your king had forced that odious institution 
 upon us in spite of our remonstrances, and that the 
 original sin rests with you and your fathers." [Hav- 
 ing adduced from memory the well-known facts of 
 history to prove this position, he continued], "And 
 now, my lord, instead of indulging in mutual re- 
 proaches, I propose that the gentleman shall be 
 Shem, and I will be Japheth, and, taking the mantle 
 of charity, we will walk backward and cover the 
 nakedness of our common ancestor." 
 
 Theeffect was instantaneous and overwhelming. 
 
 He was professor of p.astoral theology at Au- 
 burn, 1834 to 1837, but in the latter year a»cept- 
 ed a call to the Finst Presbyterian Cliurch of 
 Brooklyn, and there remained until 18.54, when 
 his voice failed, and ho resigned, and moved to 
 Oswego, N.Y. During tlie last twelve years of 
 his life he lived in retirement. He left no works 
 of any consequence behind him; but his genera- 
 tion remembers his remarkable s.ayings, such as 
 the opening of liis pr.ayer as moderator of the 
 General Assembly (New School) in Philadelphia, 
 1846 : " O Lord Jesus Christ, thou art the ne plus 
 ultra of our desire, the sine qua mm of our faith, 
 and the ullima Thute of our hope ; " and his chai'- 
 acterization of the letters D.l). after a name as 
 "setui-Iunar fardels." 
 
 CRABBE, George, poet; b. AUleburgh, Suf- 
 folk, Dec. 24, 1751; d. at Trowbridge, Feb. 3, 
 1832. His career was somewhat checkered. Edu- 
 cated .OS a surgeon, he abandoned his ])rofession 
 in 1780, and for a time was a literary adventurer 
 in London, where he endured much suffering 
 until he won the patron.age of Edmund Iturke, 
 and was enabled to publish The Lihrarii (\~^\). 
 By the help of Thurlow he entered the Church ; 
 and, although ho never rose to fame or position 
 
 as a preacher, he enjoyed the esteem of his pa- 
 rishioners. In 1783 he issued The Village, his first 
 great success. His poems are still read. Though 
 religious in their tone, few of them are suited for 
 singing as hymns. See his Complete Works, with 
 Memoirs bij his Son, London, 1834, 8 vols., reprint 
 in 1 vol., 1867. 
 
 CRADOCK, Samuel, a nonconformist divine; 
 b. 1020; d. at Bishop's Stortford, in Hertfordshire, 
 Oct. 7, 1706. He was educated at Emmanuel 
 College, Cambridge; became a fellow ; was eject- 
 ed in 1662 from his living at North Cadbury in 
 Somersetshire. He wrote Knowledge and Practice, 
 London, 1659, 4th ed. with eight new chapters, 
 1702; The Apostolical History, 1672; The History 
 of the Old 7'eslament methodised, 1683, in Latin, 
 at Leyden, 1685; Harmony of the Four Evangel- 
 ists, 1668; Exposition of the Revelation, 1690. 
 
 CRAIG, John, one of the Scotch reformers; b. 
 1513; d. in Edinburgh, Dee. 12, 1600. He was a 
 Dominican monk, but, converted by Calvin's In- 
 stitutes, condemned by the Inquisition in Rome to 
 be burnt for heresy. The execution was stayed by 
 the death of Pope P.aul IV. ; and the mob opened 
 his prison, and he escaped. He returned to Scot- 
 land, became the colleague of John Knox, wrote 
 the National Corenant in 1580, and compiled part 
 of the Second Book of Disciplitie. 
 
 CRAIG, John, d. in Loudon, Oct. 11, 1731; 
 author of the extraordinary TheologioB ChrU- 
 tianm Principia ^Fathematini, London, 1699, 
 reprinted, with a learned preface, at Leipzig, 1755, 
 in which he endeavors " to calculate the duration 
 of moral evidence, and the authority of histori- 
 cal facts. By this mode the author attempts to 
 show that the proofs of the Christian religion 
 will cease in a certain number of years in propor- 
 tion as the force of the testimony decays." Ac- 
 cording to his reasoning, Christianity will last 
 until 3144, and then disappear, " unless the sec- 
 ond coming of Christ prevent its extinction." 
 
 CRAKENTHORPE, Richard, b. at Strickland, 
 in Westmoreland, 1507; fellow of Queen's Col- 
 lege, Oxford, 1598 ; d. at his rectory of Black 
 Notley, in Essex, 1624. His fame rests on his 
 controversial writings: Popish Falsifications, Lon- 
 don, 1607; A Defence of Justinian, 1616; The De- 
 fence of Constantine, u'ith a Treatise on the Pope's 
 Temporal Monarchic, 1621 ; Defensio Ecclesias An- 
 (/licantr, 1625, republished in the Library ofAnglo- 
 'Cathnlic Theology, Oxford, 1847. 
 
 CRAMER, Johann Andreas, b. <at Jtihstiidt, Sax- 
 ony, Jan. -27, 1723; d. at Kiel, June 12, 1788; 
 studied theology at Leipzig, and took his degree 
 of magisler in 1745; became p.astor of Crellwitz 
 in 174X, and of Quedlinburg in 1750; was in 17.54 
 invited to Copenhagen as court-preacher to the 
 Danish king; removed in 1771 to Liibeck as 
 superintendent; and was in 1774 appointed pro- 
 fessor of theology in Kiel, and in 17>>4 ch.ancellor 
 of the university. His character as a theologian 
 is that of a jiopularizer of rationalism, and the 
 means ho employed were those ot a mistaken 
 poet. But the almost incomprehensible! pathos 
 with which ho jireaehed about virtue .as the safest 
 ste]iping-stono to happiness, and the almost nau- 
 seous sentimentality with which he expounded 
 the beauties of the liible as the noblest a'sthetical 
 and literary enjoyments, corresponded exactly to 
 the taste ot the time ; and he exercised a consid-
 
 CRANMBR. 
 
 567 
 
 CRATO VON CRAFFTHEIM. 
 
 erable influence, both in Germany and Denmark, 
 though his writings — Sermons (22 vols., 1755-71), 
 Poems (4 vols., 1782-91), Translations of Chrys- 
 ostom (10 vols., 1748-51), Bossuet (7 vols., 1757- 
 86), the Psalms in verse (4 vols., 1702-03) — have 
 fallen into oblivion. Clemens Petersen. 
 
 CRANMER, Thomas, Archbishop of Canter- 
 bery; b. at Aslacton, Nottinghamshire, July 2, 
 1489; burnt at the stake in OxforJ, iVlarcli 21, 
 1556. He was appointed fellow of Jesus College, 
 Cambridge, 1510 or 1511; married, and lost wife 
 and child in a year, before 152.'J ; ordained priest 
 1523; made D.D. 1523; met Henry VIII. 1529, 
 and by him commissioned to prepare a work 
 upon divorce, which should show, that, inasnmch 
 as Henry's marriage with Catharine of Ai-agon 
 was with his brother's widow, it was illegal and 
 therefore void, and hence the king was released 
 from it, and might marry whom he pleased, the pa- 
 pal bull to the contrary notwithstanding. In Jan- 
 \iary,1530, he accompanied the embassy to Bologna, 
 and in Rome offered to dispute in the king's favor 
 upon this point before the Pope. For his services 
 he henceforth stood high in the king's favor, and 
 was consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury, ISIarcli 
 30, 1533. In this spiritual capacity he pronounced 
 the king's marriage with Catharine of Aragon 
 null and void, and crowned Anne Boleyn, whom 
 the king had secretly married, queen in her stead ; 
 but in 1536 he pronounced this latter marriage 
 null and void, and went again through the farce 
 of marrying the king to Anne of Cleves, and then 
 dissolving tlie bonds, July, 1540. In 1541 he 
 disclosed to the king the infidelity of Queen 
 Catharine Howard. He was regent for Edward 
 VI., under whom he hastened the Reformation 
 in the Church. He supported the claims of Lady 
 Jane Grey, although Mary was the rightful heir. 
 For this conduct 5lary hated him, and his doom 
 was determined upon. He was tried upon the 
 counts of treason and heresy. But the first was 
 abandoned, and he was condemned to death on 
 the second. In his cell he was visited by emissa- 
 ries who promised him life and liberty if he would 
 recant. He consented, and six times humiliated 
 himself, each time more than before. At length, 
 on Saturday, March 21, 1556, Cranmer, no longer 
 archbishop, a prisoner condenmed, stood in St. 
 Mary's Church, Oxford, in order to make the 
 public recantation which he had promised. But, 
 to the amazement of all, he declared that he 
 repented more of his recantations than of all the 
 acts of his life, and so, as his riglit hand had 
 offended, that should first be burnt. He held 
 the hand in the flames, ciying out, " This liand 
 hath offended, this unworthy hand." 
 
 Cranmer is not a hero, but does not deserve the 
 severe censure of IMacaulay. He was the man 
 for his times, and by his pliancy preserved the 
 cause of the Reformation, through a reign of ter- 
 ror, for better times. Yet he did not make a 
 very thorough work of reform when he had op- 
 portunity, although he introduced the important 
 novelty of an English Liturgy in 1544. During 
 Edward's reign he circulated the Bible, sanctioned 
 the marriage of priests, and reduced the mass to 
 the Protestant communion. 
 
 His writings relate exclusively to Reformation 
 questions, evince wide reading, but no profound 
 thought. Yet, by his mastery of the thoughts of 
 
 others, Cranmer made a very skilful and influen- 
 tial advocate of tlie truth. He is the principal 
 author of the Thirty-nine (at first forty-two) 
 Articles of Religion, and of the Anglican Prayer- 
 Book (in its Englisii dress), which are the noblest 
 and most enduring monuments of his labors. 
 
 Lit. — Remains of Archbishop Cranmer, CoUecied 
 and Arranged by Rev. II. Jenkyns, Oxford, 1834, 
 4 vols. ; Sthypk : Memorials of Cranmer, Oxford, 
 1840, 2 vols., and hy Eccl.Hisl. Soc, Oxford, 1847- 
 !54, 4 vols.; 'Todd : Life of Cranmer, London, 1831, 
 2 vols. ; Le Bas : Life of Cranmer, London, 1833, 2 
 vols., reprint N.Y., 1 vol. The Parker Society 
 has republished Cranmer's Writings and Disputa- 
 •lions relative to the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper, 
 Cambridge, 1844, and Miscellaneous Writings and 
 Letters, 1840, together, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 CRASHAW, Richard, b. in London, 1613; d. 
 at Loretto, Italy, 1050. The son of- a fiery anti- 
 Romanist, and educated at Cambridge, he was 
 ejected from his fellowship in Peterhouse College, 
 1044, fled to France, embraced the Roman-Catho- 
 lic religion, in 1046 became secretary to Cardinal 
 Palotta, and in 1650 a canon of the Holy House 
 of Loretto. There is no religious poetry in 
 English so full at once of gross and awkward 
 images and imaginative touches of the most ethe- 
 real beauty. The faults and beauties of his very 
 peculiar style can be stuilied best in the Hymn to 
 St. Theresa. His poems, in Latin and English, 
 were first collected in one volume by W. B. Turn- 
 bull, London, 1858 : a private edition, in two 
 volumes, was published in 1872, edited by the 
 Rev. A. B. Grosavt. 
 
 CRATO VON CRAFFTHEIM (Johannes Krafft), 
 b. at Breslau, Xov. 22, 1519; d. there Oct. 19, 
 1585; entered in 1534 the University of AVitten- 
 berg to study theology, and lived for six years in 
 the house of Luther, where he also formed an in- 
 timate friendship with Melanclithon. His feeble 
 healtli, which made it difficult for him to preach, 
 induced him to give up the tlieological career, 
 and from 1543 to 1549 he studied medicine at 
 Leipzig and Padua. In' 1560 he was appointed 
 city-physician in Breslau ; aiul his ciu'es and writ- 
 ings rapidly made such a fame for him, that in 
 1560 he was called to Vienna as body-physician 
 to the emperor. He was made an Imperial Coun- 
 cillor, ennobled, etc., and, both under Ferdinand 
 I. and JIaximilian II., he exercised great influ- 
 ence. Under Rudolph II. he was for a short time 
 dismissed ; but he was speedily recalled and re- 
 mained till 1581, when he retired into private 
 life. His stay at the court of Vienna was of tho 
 greatest importance for the cause of the Reforma- 
 tion in Austria. All the intrigues of Bishop 
 Hoseus and the Jesuits he baffled, and it was not 
 until after the death of Maximilian II., and dur- 
 ing the latter part of the reign of Rudolph II., 
 that the Jesuits really gained the ascendency. 
 He exercised, also, considerable influence on the 
 development of the Reformation in Germany. 
 He belonged originally to the JMelanchthonian 
 school, and fouglit with gi-eat zeal against the Fla, 
 cians ; but gradually he was won completely oyei 
 by the Reformed Church ; and the troubles which 
 disturbed liis last days arose, not from his being 
 a Protestant, but from his being a Calvinist. See 
 Henschel : Crato von Crafftheim's Leben und 
 drztliches Wirlen, Breslau, 1853 ; Gillet : Crato
 
 CRAWFORD. 
 
 568 
 
 CREATION. 
 
 von Craffiheim und seine Freunde, Francfort, 1860, 
 2 vols. GILLET. 
 
 CRAWFORD, Thomas Jackson, D.D., b. at 
 St. Andrews, Scotland, in 1812, where his father 
 was professor of moral philosophy, having been 
 the immediate predecessor of Dr. Thomas Chal- 
 mers. As a minister of the Established Church, 
 he filled successively the charges of Cults in Fife, 
 Glamis in Perthshire, and St. Andrews in Edin- 
 burgh. On the death of Dr. John Lee, he was 
 appointed professor of Divinity in the University 
 of Edinburgh. His principal works were on the 
 Atonement, and on the Fatherhood of God. 
 On the former subject he maintains the old 
 Calvinistic doctrine, and criticises the modern 
 theories of Bushnell, Robertson of Brighton, 
 Young, and others. On the subject of the 
 Fatherhood he controverts certain views main- 
 tained by Dr. Candlish in his Cunningham Lec- 
 tures on that subject. He died in (ienoa, Oct. 
 11, 1875. [His books are : The Fatherhood of 
 God, considered in its General and Special Aspects, 
 and particularly in Relation to the Atonement, with 
 a Review of Recent Speculations on the Subject, 
 (with reply to Dr. Candlish), Edinburgh, 1806, 
 2d ed., 1868; The Doctrine of Holy Scripture 
 respecting (he Atonement, Edinburgh, 1871, 3d ed., 
 1880 ; The Mysteries of Clirislianity (being the 
 Baird Lecture for 1874), Edinburgh, 1874 ; The 
 Preaching of the Cross, and other Sermons, Edin- 
 burgh, 1876.] W. G. BLAIKIE. 
 
 CREATION. One of the points in which Juda- 
 ism differs most conspicuously from the Pagan- 
 ism of antiquity is its cosmogony, — its doctrine 
 of a creation out of nothing, and progressing 
 through six days. The Paganism of antiquity 
 has nothing which shows even a distant resem- 
 blance with such an idea. Stoicism is the true 
 precursor of modern monism. God and the 
 world, force and matter, are absolutely one, and 
 every trace of dualism is anxiously avoided. Pla- 
 tonism is dualistic; but its dualism has something 
 of the vagueness of a dream. God is not wholly 
 immerged in the world, the idea in matter. Yet 
 the world is eternal, like God : matter is eternal, 
 like the idea. Creation is only an informing pro- 
 cess of the idea in matter, a formative activity 
 of God in the world. 
 
 Adopted by Christianity, the Hebrew doctrine 
 of creation became the very basis of the Christian 
 view of nature. But Christianity is a living 
 growth, and not, like Judaism or Islaniism, a mere 
 crystallization. The Christian view of nature 
 receives perpetually new impulses from the sci- 
 ence of nature, and thus it came to pass, that, in 
 course of time, the doctrine of creation under- 
 went numerous modification.s, though modifica- 
 tions of interpn'tution only. The keynote was 
 retained, though the harmonies into which it was 
 developed were very various. Indeed, the history 
 of the doctrine of creation is for many centuries 
 the history of natural science. 
 
 Down to the middle of the eighth century the 
 Christian view of nature was more or less influ- 
 enced by I'liilo and the Alexandrian school. In 
 the two first centuries the Christian apologists 
 and polemists were occupied with refuting the 
 theories of emanation, and the vague dualism 
 held by the I'agans and the Gnostical sects ; but 
 most of their writings are lost. TertuUiau's Ad. 
 
 versus Hermogenem, however, gives a good in- 
 stance. Hermogenes denied the creation out of 
 nothing, because, in that case, God would also 
 have been the creator of evil. Tertullian refuted 
 him. • With Origen the influence of Philo became 
 visible. His great commentary on Genesis is 
 lost, with the exception of some fragments ; but 
 a homily by hiin on the Creation is still extant in 
 a Latin translation ; and this work, together with 
 various passages in his De Principiis and Adversus 
 Celsum, give a complete representation of his 
 views. The principle of the biblical narrative 
 he retains; but the details he transforms from 
 facts into symbols. The act of the creation was 
 the work of one moment, and the progressive 
 succession of the biblical representation is an 
 accommodation to the wants of the human under- 
 standing. The separation between the dry earth 
 and the sea on the third daj' means the separa- 
 tion between the good works a man does and the 
 wild waves of his passions, etc. From Origen 
 this method of allegorization spread widely in the 
 Eastern Church. In the Western Church, Au- 
 gustine occupies the principal place among the 
 writers on Christian cosmogony. In his earlier 
 commentary. De Genesi contra Manichaos, as well 
 as in books XI. -XIII. of his Confessiones, and book 
 XX. of his De Cicitate Dei, where he also treats 
 the subject, a method of allegorization is applied 
 not essentially different from that of Origen 
 and the Eastern Church ; but in his great com- 
 mentary De Genesi ad Literam the allegory often 
 assumes the character of casuistry. Like Lactan- 
 tius and Ambrose, Augustine was well versed in 
 natural science. He knew what was known in his 
 time, and he applies his knowledge with great 
 boldness. Doubts and objections are heaped up 
 in the form of questions. Were the venomous 
 animals and the beasts of prey created before the 
 fall of man, or after? Why were only terrestrial 
 animals, and no fishes or marine animals, present 
 in Paradise when Adam named the animals? etc. 
 The questions are often more subtle than the an- 
 swers are satisfactory. In the track of Augustine 
 followed all the commentators down to the time 
 of Beda. 
 
 During the middle ages, from the eighth cen- 
 tury to the period of the Reformation, the whole 
 range of theology, its exegesis as well as its dog- 
 matics, was under the sway of the Aristotelian 
 philosophy ; and the influence is conspicuous also 
 in the manner in whicli the doctrine of creation 
 was treated, both by the mystics and the scholas- 
 tics. Of Hugo of St. Victor, the father and 
 representative of French mysticism, two exposi- 
 tions of the dogma of creation are still extant, — 
 one in his Annolationes Elucidatorinio the Penta- 
 teuch, and one in tlie opening chapters of his De 
 Sacr<tnii:ntis Fidei. The idea of an instantaneous 
 creation, introduced by Origen, and retained by 
 Augustine, ho abandons, and follows strictly the 
 biblical narrative in its progression from one day 
 to another, introducing at each stage a chapter 
 of natural history, forme<l after the Ari-stotelian 
 method of classification and description, but modi- 
 fied by an addition of a peculiar moral mysti- 
 cism. Curious is his exposition of the creation, 
 on the first day, of the primitive light as a radi- 
 ant cloud rising above the earth, and throwing 
 a dim light over chaos; and, on the fourth day.
 
 CREATION. 
 
 569 
 
 CREATIONISM. 
 
 of the sun whicli is made out of tht' radiant 
 cloud by a kind of traiisforitiation similar to that 
 which took place at Cana when Jesus made wine 
 out of watnr. Quite another character, and yet 
 not without a certain air de Jhmillc, show the Li- 
 bri Sentenliarum by Petrus Louibardus, the true 
 representative of mediaeval scholasticism. P^very 
 trace of subjective mysticism, or of merely indi- 
 vidual conviction, has disapi)eared : the founda- 
 tion of the whole buildinc; is the tradition of 
 the Church; and the great problem is, by means 
 of the huge engine of the Aristotelian logic, to 
 bring all the various elements of the tradition 
 into harmony with each other. It is principally 
 Augustine, Heda, Alcuin, and Hugo of .St. Victor, 
 from whom Petrus Lombardus draws in his expo- 
 sition of the dogma of creation. Augustine's 
 view of a simultaneous creation of the whole 
 world in one instant he mentions, praises, and 
 then cautiously drops as not conformable to the 
 tradition of the Church. The works of the later 
 schoolmen consist, with regard to the dogma of 
 creation, to a great extent, simply in comtuenting 
 upon the sentences of Petrus Lomliardus. 
 
 Contemporary with the Reformation, there 
 opens a new era also in the history of natural 
 science. The Spanish and Portuguese discov- 
 eries in the latter piart of the fifteenth and the 
 beginning of the sixteenth centuries completely 
 changed the ruling view of the form of the earth : 
 there were antipodes. As completely, Coperni- 
 cus changed the ruling view of the position of 
 the earth in the universe : the system was helio- 
 centric. The old idea of the earth as a flat disk 
 covered with a semicircular expanse of crystal, 
 on which the sun and the moon and the stars 
 were moving, had to give way; and in the seven- 
 teenth century it began to provoke a smile. But 
 however great the change was, it seems not to 
 have affected the truly religious people in any 
 great degree. Luther, though utterly averse to 
 the Copernican system, wrote his great commen- 
 tary on Genesis, and Calvin wrote his, without 
 coming into any conflict witli natural science. 
 Indeed, the enemy which the new science of na- 
 ture had to encounter was not the Church as 
 such, still less the Church in the nobler and 
 truer sense of the word, but the old science of 
 nature, the Aristotelian influence, the scholasti- 
 cism which had made itself a part of the Church, 
 and thereby had come into iiossession of a great 
 power. In all the bitter attacks which were made 
 upon the new science of nature, it was not the 
 Church which struck the blows, but the old sci- 
 ence of nature; and it could strike with so much 
 the more effect as it had succeeded in making 
 people believe that its case was also the case of 
 the Church. This was a mistake, however. There 
 was no real antagonism between the tendencies 
 and results of the new science and the true doc- 
 trines of the Church. On the contrary, the only 
 influence which thi^ revival of the study of nature 
 in the period of the Reformation can be said to 
 have had on the expositions of the dogma of 
 creation is, that the commentators began to keep 
 more closely to the w'ords of the biblical narra- 
 tive, and to avoid more carefully any trace of alle- 
 gorization. But there came a time when natural 
 science felt called upon to construct a doctrine 
 of creation ; and from that moment the middle of 
 
 tile eighteenth ccntur}', until our time, a more or 
 le.ss noisy controversy has gone on bftween the 
 orthodox Jiarty of the Church and the radical 
 students of natural philosophy. 
 
 It was, in the beginning, chiefly from the sci- 
 ence of geology that the arguments against the 
 biblical representation were drawn. Evidences 
 dei-ived from the most authentic document (the 
 earth itself), and by the most infallible method 
 (scientific observation), were marched up to show, 
 that, instead, of a creation in .six days, there was, 
 indeed, a progressive development through huge 
 periods. The scriptural narrative was ridiculed 
 as childish; and captious questions were put to 
 those w ho still adhered to its very letters. These 
 attacks from the geologists were met on one side 
 with great coolness. " When God made the 
 rocks," there was answered, "he also made the fos- 
 sils embedded in them." Especially the English 
 literature is rich in instances of people obstinate- 
 ly refusing to acknowledge that geological evi- 
 dences have or can have any bearing on the cor- 
 rectness of the biblical representation of creation. 
 See Henry Cole : Popular Gcoloyi/ suhrcrsii-e 
 of Divine Revelation: Geohge Youxg : Geolotpj of 
 Scripture; Petei! Macfarlane: Exposure of 
 the Principles of lilodern Geoloipj, etc., — all from 
 the third decade of the present century. On the 
 other side it was urged that the geological evi- 
 dences contradicted only the exterior form of the 
 biblical view, its a'sthctieal costume, not its inner 
 religious idea ; and, on the basis of this vague 
 and yielding proposition, the biblical narrative 
 was represented and treated as a kind of poetry, 
 as a myth. Variously developed instances of 
 this method are frequent in German literature : 
 Schleiermacher, Paulu.s, Strauss, ;\Iarheinecke, 
 Bretschneider, etc. Meanwhile attempts were 
 also made to reconcile the two antagonists, and 
 that in a double way, — first by tlie theory of resti- 
 tution, then by direct harmonizing. The former 
 method, the theory of restitution, tries to accom- 
 plish the reconciliation by placing the geological 
 periods as a development of chaos independent of, 
 though sometimes co-ordinate with, the creation, 
 and was adopted both by the rationalists, Rosen- 
 miiller, Michaelis, etc., and the theosophists of 
 .Schelling's school, Martin, Baader, etc. The di- 
 rect harmonization was first tried by Cuvier, but 
 further developed by Buckland and Lyell, and 
 found its completion in Hugh Miller; Foot- 
 prints of the Creator (1852). But, shortly after, 
 the whole question received a new point by the 
 .appearance of Da u win's Ori/jin of Species, and 
 the rise of the theory of evolution, — a phase of 
 the question which is still under treatment. See 
 Evolution. 
 
 Lit. — ZiicKLER: Theologie und Naturwissen- 
 sckafl, GUtersloh, 1877-79, 2 vols., a very elabor- 
 ate representation of the historical development 
 of the whole question, from wliicli the above arti- 
 cle is derived. 
 
 CREATIONISM denotes one of the three theo- 
 ries of the origin of the human spirit : traducian- 
 ism and pre-existenceare the two others. In his 
 commentary on the Canticles, Origen describes 
 these theories thus : " The question is, first, 
 whether the human spirit is created, or has ex- 
 isted from the beginning (pre-existence) ; next, 
 if created, whether it was created once for all.
 
 CREATIONISM. 
 
 570 
 
 CREED. 
 
 and connected in such a way with the body as to 
 be propagated, along with it, by natural genera- 
 tion (traducianism), or whether it is created suc- 
 cessively, and, in each individual case, added 
 from without, in order to vivify the body forming 
 in the womb (creationism)." 
 
 The first of these theories (pre-existence) origi- 
 nated with Plato. lie taught that all human 
 souls had existed from the very beginning, 
 though only in the realm of potentiality. Still 
 and silent they sleep there, until they, one by 
 one, through the birth of a child, enter into the 
 realm of actuality. Origen adopted this theory, 
 and introduced it into Christian theology. It 
 was widely accepted throughout the Eastern 
 Church. The christological development, how- 
 ever, after the Council of Xicaja, made the view 
 almost untenable; for when two natures are as- 
 sumed in Christ, a divine and a human, what 
 can be the relation in the pre-existence between 
 his divine and his human spirit V The final 
 condemnation of Origen, under Justinian, threw 
 a still deeper shadow over Ids ideas. Yet the 
 theory of the pre-existence of the soul was still 
 held by the last of the father.s, Maximus, and by 
 tlie first of the schoolmen, John Scotus Erigena; 
 and it has recently been revived within the new- 
 rationalistic school of theology in Sweden. Its 
 able and eloquent champion, Viktor Ilydberg, 
 protests that it forms the basis of the whole 
 psychology, morals, and eschatology of the New 
 Testament. Julius Jliiller, in his great work on 
 the Doctrine of Sin, defends the pre-existence in 
 order to explain the problem of hereditary guilt. 
 Dr. Edward Beechei', in his Conflict of Aj/cs, 
 advocated the same view in America. But the 
 origin of sin is thus only put back to prehistoric 
 times, not explained. 
 
 In the AVesterii Churcli traducianism was for 
 some time the pre\ailing view. It was first 
 taught by Tertullian, who, from the palpable 
 unity of the human race, and the easily observed 
 propagation per traducem of qualities and pro- 
 ]iensities, not to say of virtues and vices, from 
 parents to children, inferred that the human 
 soul, once created ip. Adam, naturally propagated 
 itself along with the body by generation. But 
 this tlieory, whicli corresponds so well with the 
 jieculiar materialism of Tertullian, — he protests 
 that every thing real nmst have a body, and he 
 consequently ascribes materiality, not only to the 
 soul, but also to God {iJi, Aniinii, chai'. 9), — was 
 unable to satisfy the deepest religious instincts 
 of mankind; and, as, the theoiy of the pre-ex- 
 istence of tlie soul iiad become untenable, on 
 account of the above-mentioned christological 
 difficulties, creationism grailually developed, aiul 
 came, though without any formal or official 
 declaration, to be considered the orlhoilox view, 
 both in the Eastern and in the AVestern Church. 
 ])uring the Pelagian controversy the question 
 was nnich debateil ; but Augustine i-efrained 
 from giving any definite answer. He accepted 
 the premi.ses of traducianism, the unity of the 
 liuuu'in race, and tiie transmission of qualities 
 and [iropen.sities l)y inheritance ; but he rejected 
 the conclusion, the materiality of the soul, and 
 led the way to tlie new theory, which confined the 
 jTopagation l)y generation to the material sphere 
 (to the body^, and assumed a cuncursus divittuf, 
 
 a new creation, at the origin of each new indi- 
 vidual. With Jerome and Leo the Great the 
 theory is almost complete ; and with the school- 
 men, Anselm, Peter Lombard, Thomas Aquinas, 
 and others, it forms a conspicuous part of the 
 whole theological system. Dr. Charles Hodge 
 thus states the arguments for it: L It is more 
 consistent with the prevailing representations of 
 the Scriptures, which is that the spirit comes 
 directly from God; 2. It is also most consistent 
 with the nature of the soul, which is indivisible; 
 3. It explains the freedom of Christ's soul from 
 sin, although he was conceived and born of a 
 wonuui. T/ieoloi/i/, ii. pp. 70-72. On the other 
 hand, traducianism most easily explains the 
 problem of hereditary sin, and has been adopted 
 by all the orthodox Lutheran divines. See 
 LuTHARDT: Kompendiiim lUr Doriniatik, p. 107. 
 
 Each of the three tiieories represents an ele- 
 ment of truth, — the theory of pre-existence, the 
 ideal pre-existence of man in the divine mind ; 
 creationism, God's agency in the origin of each 
 human soul ; traducianism, the parental agen- 
 cy. But it is well to remember the woi'd of 
 Augustine on this difficult subject: ^' Non sum 
 aiisiis ali</iiiil dc/inire, quia Jhleor me nescire" ("I 
 do not venture to define a matter of which I must 
 confess mvself to be ignorant"). 
 
 CREDENCE TABLE, a table or shelf on whicli 
 the sacramental bread and wine were put before 
 their consecration. 
 
 CREDNER, Karl August, b. at Waltershausen, 
 near (Jotha, Jan. 1(1, 17!i7 : studied at Jena, 
 Breslau, and (Jottingen ; lived for several years 
 as a tutor (1821-27), and was appointed professor 
 of exegesis at Jena (in 1828) and (in 1832) at 
 Giessen, where he died in the summer of 1857. 
 He belonged to the rationalistic school of the- 
 ology, and his rationalism became more and 
 more conspicuous in his works as he grew older. 
 Nevertheless, his labors as a biblical critic, espe- 
 cially his investigations of tlie origin of the 
 books of the New- Testament and of the history 
 of its canon, are valuable, not only on account of 
 their richness of information, but also on account 
 of the clearness and objectivity of the represen- 
 tation. His principal works are, Beilriige zur 
 Kinlcilnnfi in ilie hiliii.trlicn Schriflen (I. 1832, II. 
 1838), JCinlriliiiii/ in'.t Nctie Trsloniml (1830, gen- 
 erally considered his chief work, but unfinished), 
 yiur Ges(-hlrhlc des Kimons (Ilalle, 1817), and Ge- 
 schiclile des nciiteslamenlliclifn Kanon, edited after 
 his death by Volkmar, Berlin, ISfiO. ZOCKLER. 
 
 CREED. A creed is a confession of faith for 
 ]>ublic use. It may be of any length, and in any 
 form. It may merely state the essentials of be- 
 lief, or the entire body of doctrine. It may be 
 written or oral, secret or published. It nuist, 
 however, be authoritative, — the recognized tenets 
 of the body from which it i.ssues. It may be 
 professedly limited in its constituency, or lay 
 down the law for th(! world. 
 
 Creeds n<!ver prece<lo faith, but presuppose it. 
 They emanate from the inner life of the Church, 
 inilcpendeutly of external occasion. They would 
 h.ave existed, even if there had been no doctrinal 
 controversies. They are tin; pulses of tlut spir- 
 itual life. They are, indeed, not the foundations 
 of the. Church; but they are, in a sense, the 
 cement which unites the stones of the building.
 
 CREED. 
 
 571 
 
 CRISPINUS. 
 
 Tlin Chuicli lias only one foundation, wliicli is 
 Christ, lint many Ijuilder.s: hence hei' creeds are 
 many and different. The lack of agreement is 
 rather in detail than in cardinal truth : so, if 
 there is a dissensus, there is also a consensus ; 
 and by both the Church nnuiifcsts her corporate 
 and individual life. 
 
 A creed may proceed from the n;(Mu'ral life of 
 the Church in a particular age witliout any indi- 
 vidual authorship (as the Ajiostles' Creed), or 
 from an (.ecumenical council (the Nicene Creed), 
 or from the synod of a particular church (the 
 Decrees of the Synod of Dort), or from a number 
 of divines commissioned for tlic purpose by 
 ecclesiastical authority (the Thirty-Nine Articles 
 of the Church of England), or from one indi- 
 vidual, who acts in this case as the organ of his 
 church or sect (the Augsburg Confession and 
 Apology, composed by Melanchthon), the creeds 
 of Congregational and Baptist churches, drawn 
 up by the pastor. What gives it binding force 
 is the formal sanction or tacit acquiescence of the 
 body it represents. In the Protestant system 
 the creed is not co-ordinate with, but alicai/s 
 subordinate to, the Bible ; for in the best case 
 it is oidy an approximate and relatively correct 
 (■xposition of revealed truth. Tt follows, there- 
 fore, that the creed not only may be, but should 
 be, improved when the Church's increased knowl- 
 edge from the Bible and Christian experience 
 <lemands it. The creed is the answer of man 
 to the w^ord of God. lie should be willing to 
 give a better answer if he can. The creed and 
 till! Bible are related as stream and fountain, 
 'i'he authority of the latter is divine and abso- 
 lute : that of the former is human and relative. 
 The Bible regulates the general religious belief 
 and practice of the laity as well as the clergy : 
 the creed regulates tlie public teaching of the 
 officers of the Church, just as constitutions and 
 tauons regulate her government ; liturgies and 
 hymn-books, her worship. Any higher view of 
 the authority of symbols is unprotestant and 
 essentially Ronumizing; for the Greek and Ro- 
 man churches regard the Bible and tradition 
 ;is two co-ordinate sources of truth and rules of 
 faith, and claim absolute and infallible authority 
 for their confessions of faith. 
 
 To the question. Of what use are creeds ? the 
 answer may be made, that, when they are jiut in 
 due subordination to the Bible, they are of great 
 use as summaries of the Bible doctrines, aids to 
 their sound understanding, bonds of union among 
 their jirofessors, public standards, and guards 
 against false doctrine and practice. In the form 
 of catechisms they are of especial use in the in- 
 .struction of children and in the systematic up- 
 building of the believer in the faith. — Numerous 
 and by no means contemptible are the objections 
 to creeds. They are said to impede the study of 
 the Bible, to interfere with the liberty of con- 
 .science and the right of private judgment, to 
 produce hypocrisy, intolerance, bigotry, and so. 
 by way of re-action, dissent, dogmatic indiffer- 
 ence, and infidelity. But these objections apply 
 particularly to the creeds of state churches, and 
 also, in a modified degree, to those of denomina- 
 tions, if they are supposed to have been written 
 under any special divine guidance. But because 
 ereeds are objected to is no good reason for re- 
 
 jecting them. The benefits claimed for them 
 can be obtained in no other way; and it is hard 
 to see any valid objection to a plain and full 
 statement of belief, provided it is a real belief. 
 What luis done most to bring creeds into disre- 
 pute has been the notorious discreiiaucy between 
 the actual belief of a particular church and the 
 creed printed in its standards. A church whose 
 clergy do not believe the creed they profe.ss to 
 believe has a plain duty before it, — to nuike a 
 creed which shall express their belief. 
 
 The creeds of Christendom may be divided 
 into four classes,. — the tpcumenical, and those of 
 the three nuiiu divisions of the Church, the 
 Greek, Latin, atul Evangelical. The _/ii:st are 
 concerned chiefly with theology proper and chris- 
 tology : they are the Apostles', Nicene, Chalce- 
 don, and Athanasian. The second class embrace 
 those setting forth the distinctive faith of the 
 Greek Church, particularly in distinction to 
 Rome, which so long and so cunningly tried to 
 subjugate her: hence their distinguishing ele- 
 ments concern the doctrine of the Procession of 
 the Holy Sprit and the Papacy. The third class 
 are the Roman creeds, from the Council of Trent 
 (1543-63) to the Council of the Vatican (1S70). 
 The foiirlli class, the Evangelical, are the most 
 numerous, and are subdivided into Lutheran and 
 Reformed. These agree almost entirely in their 
 jM'incipal tenets, but differ in their doctrines of 
 divine decrees and of the nature and efficacy of 
 the sacraments, especially the mode of Christ's 
 presence in the Lord's Supper. They date mainly 
 from befoi'e 1650. — See Sciiaff, Creeds of C/iris- 
 /eiidniii (3 vols.), for further information and 
 abundant literature. 
 
 CRESPIN, Jean, b. at Arras; studied law at 
 Louvain, and began to practise as an advocate in 
 Paris, but embraced Protestantism, and fled in 
 1.54:8 to Geneva, where he established a pj-inting- 
 house ; was made a citizen in 1555; and d. 1572. 
 Like many other celebrated printers he was him- 
 self an author, and wrote, besides other books, 
 L'Esliil dc I'Eylise (Geneva, 1562) and Ilislotre 
 des Marli/rs (Geneva, 1554), giving the history of 
 the martyrs of the sixteentli century. The latter 
 became a very famous book, was translated into 
 Latin by Claude Baduel, and repeatedly reiirinted 
 with additions, 1570, 1619, etc. The first-men- 
 tioned was translated into English, T/kj KsUile of 
 the Church, London, lGt)2. 
 
 CRIIVIINAL, Hebrew. .See CouitT and Lkgal 
 
 PuOIKEni-NOS .VMONG THE IIebKEVVS. 
 
 CRISP, Tobias, b. in London, 1600; d. there 
 Feb. 27, 1643. He took his doctor's degree at 
 Balliol College, Oxford. He was the leader of 
 the Antinomi'ans, although personally an amiable 
 and benevolent Christian. His closing years 
 were ruffled by controversy. After his death 
 fourteen of his sermons were published under the 
 title, Christ Alone Exalted, London, 1043, 4th ed., 
 with Memoirs and Notes. 1701 ; Christ made Sin, 
 16111 ; new ed. by Dr. Gill, 1832. 2 vols. Svo. 
 
 CRISPINUS and CRISPINIANUS, two brothers 
 of a distinguished Roman family; left Rome in 
 I the beginning of the reign of Diocletian, and 
 \ went to Gaul to labor for the conversion of the 
 ! Pagans. They settled at Soissons, and main- 
 i tained themselves, after the example of Paul, by 
 , the works of their hands : tliey were shoemakers.
 
 CRITIC! SACRI. 
 
 Of. 
 
 CROMWELL. 
 
 In their missionary labor they seem to have been 
 very successful until tliey were martyred by the 
 Emperor Maximiliaiius. They are commemo- 
 rated by the Uonian Church on Oct. 25, and 
 venerated as the jiatron saints of the shoemakers. 
 See BuTLKU : Llrc< of t lie S(iiiil.<, II. pp. 21()-212. 
 
 CRITICI SACRI, a thesaurus of Bible antiqui- 
 ties and exeg-esis produced by combinina; the 
 labors of many of the best English and Continen- 
 tal scholars of the sixteenth and seventeenth 
 centuries. It was undertaken and published by 
 Cornelius Bee (London, 1C0(J, 9 vols, folio), a 
 London bookseller, as an appendage to ^Valton's 
 Polyglot, under the direction of Bishop Pearson, 
 John Pearson, Anthony Scattergood, and Francis 
 Gouldman. It was reprinted at Frankfort, under 
 the care of Gurtler, in IGSo, 7 vols. Best edition. 
 Crilici Sacri, sii-e aiutolala doclissimunau riroruni 
 in Veins uc Nuvtnn Teslamctiluni, q'jiJnuf acreilunt 
 Iraclatus varii tlieulnyico-pliilohxjici (9 vols.), Et 
 Thesaurus theoltKjico-phUolotjlcns, et Tliesaurus Xovus 
 (4 vols.), in all 13 vols., Amsterdam, 1U98-1732. 
 See Daklixg's Cyclop. Blhliiji). for table of 
 contents. 
 
 CRITICISM, Textual. See Bible Tkxt, New 
 Testament. 
 
 CROCIUS, Joliann, b. at Laasphe, in Hesse, 
 July 23, 1.590 ; d. at Marburg, July 1, 10.59 ; stood 
 for many years at the head of the Church of 
 Hesse-Cassel, which occupied a distinct position 
 between the Conjessin Amjustana and Calvinism. 
 After studying at Ilerborn and ilarburg, he be- 
 came court-preacher at Cassel in ltJ12, and in 
 1017 first professor of theology at ilarburg. But 
 in 1G21 the Duke of Ilesse-Darmstadt, by the aid 
 of Tilly's soldiers, expelled the Reformed, or, as 
 they called themselves, Evangelical, professors, 
 from Marburg; and Crocius retired to Cassel, 
 where he resided till after the Peace of West- 
 phalia. Those of his writings in which his 
 religious stand-point is best defined are C'onimen- 
 tiirius tie A uijust. (Confess. (Cassel, 1017), Illustrritio 
 Dtsserlatioiiis Osnahriii/ensls (Cassel, 1G47), IM Ec- 
 i-le.ii(e Unihite el Scliismate (Cassel, 10-50). The 
 most remarkable of his polemical writings are 
 .-Inti-Ileciuius (104:!) and Aiiti-Weii/eliiis (1051). 
 
 CROMWELL, Oliver, Lord-Protector of the 
 Comni'mwi'altli of ICngland, b. at Huntingdon, 
 Ajiril 2-0, 1599; d. at 'Whitehall. Sept. :j, "l058. 
 He studied for a year at Cambridge University 
 (10I(i-17^, but left it on the di-atirof his father, 
 and applied Idmself to law. In 1020 he married, 
 and settled down on Ids jiatrimonial estate. In 
 1028 he represented lluntijigdon in Parliament, 
 and in 104O Candoidge in the famous Long Par- 
 liament. His sturdy independence was shown by 
 his vigorous opposition to t\u- rcjyal interference in 
 the drainage of Die. Beclford fens, whicli won him 
 the sohrlijuet •• Lord of the Fens." Wlien in 1012 
 war between King and Parliament broke out, 
 Cromw(!ll raised a company of volunteers to help 
 the people's side. He perceived that the strengtii 
 of his cause lay rather in its righteousness than 
 in the ndlitary skill and training of his troops; 
 and the more generally the latter believed in this 
 fact, the more invincible would they be. Accord- 
 ingly lie gathered around him a thou.sand men, 
 selected on this jirinciple; and his n^giment, the 
 famous " Ironsides," who went into batth; sing- 
 ing psuhns, justified hia wisdom, for it was never 
 
 I 
 
 beaten. During the memorable struggle between 
 the Cavaliers and Roundhead.s. Cromwell w.as the 
 most prominent figure : and altliough, at the be- 
 ginning, he knew nothing of tactics, he developed 
 so much skill that he defeated the royalists on 
 the hard-fought fields of Marston Moor (July 2, 
 1044), Xa.-ieby (June 14. 1045), and Preston (.\ug. 
 17, 1048). He was a member of the High Court 
 of Justice which tried Charles I., and as such 
 signed the warrant for his execution, Jan. 29, 
 1049. In August, 1049, he was nominated lord- 
 lieutenant and commander-in-chief in Ireland, 
 and by a strong hand put down opposition. The 
 .Scotch Presbyterian advocacy of the royalist side 
 — for Prince Charles had signed the "Co\enant, 
 and captivated the national heart — led to his 
 recall. Being made captain-general of all the 
 forces of the Commonwealth. June 20. 10.50. he 
 marched into Scotland, and was completely suc- 
 cessful, by trusting in Cod, and keeping his pow- 
 der dry. The victories of Dunbar (Sept. 3, 10.50), 
 of Kd'inburgh (Dec. 19, 10.50), of Perth (Aug. 2, 
 1051). put the country under him. The battle of 
 Worcester, Eiig. (.Sept. 3, 1G51), ended the wai'. 
 Cromwell returned to London, and took up his. 
 residence at Hampton Court, Oct. 12, 10.51 ; dis- 
 solved Parliament (which had become a mere 
 "Rump," and so it was appropriately called) 
 April 20, 1053 ; formed a Council of State .Vpril 
 30; summoned the Little (Barebone's) Parlia- 
 ment, which lasted from Julj' 4 to Dec. 12 ; be- 
 came Lord-Protector Dec. l(i ; and was solemnly 
 installed in AVestminster Hall. " He showed 
 himself equal to the hard task he had undertaken, 
 by sharp, decisive means keeping down plotting 
 royalists, jealous Presbyterians, and intractabli; 
 levellers, and by a bold and magnanimous for- 
 eign policy making England greater and more 
 honored than ever. He interfered for the protec- 
 tion of the Vandois Protestants, cruelly perse- 
 cuted by the Duke of Savoy, and had a large 
 sum (£37,097) raised for their relief." He also 
 informed the Pope that he would take tlie first 
 opportunity to send a fleet into the Mediterranean 
 to visit Civita \'ecchia. and .so the sound of his 
 cannon should be heard in Rome itself. He had 
 to rule mostly without parliaments, since they 
 gave him so much trouble. The one before the 
 last offered him the title of "king;" and he was 
 disposed at first to accept it, but finally declined 
 it (May S, 1057), and was- again installed iu the 
 Protectorate with greater solemnities and added 
 power. 
 
 .^t length th(! weight of cares and domestic 
 afflictions broke down even his strength ; and 
 Friday, Se]it. 3, 1058, tlie anniversary of so many 
 triumphs, lie won his greatest victory, that over 
 death and l\u- grave. He was interr<'d in Henry 
 VH. Chapel, at Westminster, with uniieard-of 
 funeral pomp, Nov. 23, 1()58; but on Jan. 30, 
 16(11, by order of Charles 11., his remains were 
 hanged, beheaded, and buried at Tyburn. 
 
 One of the most remarkable reversals of his- 
 torical jiidgmeuts iu modern times is in relation 
 to Cromwell. Hy the simple presentation of 
 Cromwell's letters and sjieeches iu elironological 
 order, w ith sutlicient explanatory matter to render 
 them intelligible, Tlioinas Carlyle produced this 
 ehangi' in jiopular sentiment. From being ca- 
 luinniati'd, Cromwell was praised. Tlie old epi-
 
 CROSIER. 
 
 573 
 
 CROSS. 
 
 thets "regicide," "usurper," "tyrant," "fanatic," 
 "bigot," "hypocrite," were exciianged for those 
 ■of "statesman," " patriot," "wise, just, and reli- 
 gious ruler." The latter epithets express the 
 truth about this man, who was not only the 
 greatest Englislunan, but tlie greatest nuin, of 
 his age, and who deserves the reverence of all 
 time. Possessed for a long period of absolute 
 authority, he used it moderately. J.,iving with 
 luirrow-minded, ]>ersecuting Puritans, he cher- 
 ished lenient sentiments, and promoted religious 
 liberty. lielonging to the Puritan party, he 
 spoke in Bible language, as they did, and lield 
 as tenaciously to their sombre but iirofound the- 
 ology ; but in many respects he was uidike tliem, 
 and was far too great to be .sectarian. His pre- 
 diction has been fulfilled : " 1 know God has been 
 above all ill reports, and will in his own time 
 vindicate me." 
 
 Lit. — C'l.'VRENDOX: History of the Rebellion 
 (a contemporary history), best ed., Oxford, 18:59, 
 7 vols. ; John Fokstku : Li/'a of Cromwell, in his 
 Slatesiiien of the Coiiintonweulth of Encjland, Loudon, 
 1840, 7 vols, (adverse) ; TiioiMAs Caulyle : Olirer 
 Cromwell's Letters and Speeches, with Elucidations 
 <ind a Connecting Nurratice, London, 1845, 5 vols, 
 (an epocli-making book) ; J. H. ilEiu.E d'Au- 
 BiGNii: The Protector, a Vindication, N. Y., 1848; 
 P. W. CoKMSH : Life of Olirer Cromwell. Lond., 
 1881 ; and the histories of England by Hume, 
 Hallam, and Macaui.ay. s. m. jacksox. 
 
 CROSIER, or CROZIER, the pastoral staff of 
 tlie bishop, the emblem of liis office as shepherd 
 of the flock of God, the symbol of his right to 
 ride the flock, and his duty to support it. It is 
 borne before him when lie appears officially, 
 though not outside the territory over which he 
 exercises jurisdiction. Th(S crosier of the bishop 
 terminates in a hook, that of the archbishop in 
 a floriated cross, that of a patriarch in a cross 
 with two, and that of the Pope in a cross with 
 three, transverse bars. The emblem, however, 
 does not seem to be of Christian origin. The 
 staff lias always been the emblem of the office of 
 the king, the judge, and the priest; and on old 
 bas-reliefs the Roman augur is represented with 
 a hooked staff in his hand, very similar to the 
 bisliop's crosier. 
 
 CROSS, The Cross as a Sif/n and a Si/mhol. — 
 The cross has been used ererywhere and through 
 all times as a means of marking and adorning. 
 Among Pagan tribes, both in the Old and in tlie 
 New World, it occurs under every possible form, 
 as representative of natural forces, or accessory to 
 idols; and after the crucifixion of Christ it be- 
 came the true symbol of Christianity. The cus- 
 tom of making the sign of the cross with the 
 liand or the finger, as a means of conferring 
 blessing, or preserving from evil, is very old. 
 liasil the Great refers it back to the apostles. 
 Cyin-ian (De Unit. Eccl.) and the Apostolical 
 Constitutions (III. 17) mention the sii/num Christi 
 as a part of the baptismal rite ; and Lactantius 
 (Inst. Die, IV. 27) speaks of it as especially fear- 
 ful to t]ie demons by tlie baptismal exorcism. 
 Prudentins (llipnn. G) advises to apply it every 
 night, before sleeping, to the foreheail ami the 
 breast, as a preservative against lemptations and 
 bad dreams. In the Western Church it was made 
 with the tlmnil), in the Eastern with the first 
 
 finger, among the Arnienians and the Raskolnik 
 witli the iiulex and the niichlle finger. In the 
 fifth century it became customary to apply the 
 sign at the beginning of treaties, diploniatical 
 notes, etc., instead of an invocation of the name 
 of God, and at the end, beside the name of the 
 signer, as a token of trustworthiness. Ecclesias- 
 tics always used it in this way. The Greek 
 emperor used to ]nit a red cross before his name 
 when signing ; the IJyzantine princes, a green ; 
 the English kings, a golden. In the Lutheran 
 Church the custom of making the sign of the 
 cross was continued : in the French Reformed 
 and most Calvinistic churches it was abandoned 
 as not warranted by Scripture, and as supersti- 
 tions. 
 
 The sign made with the hand or the finger was 
 the crux iisualis : the cross actually executed in 
 some kind of material was the crux exemplata. 
 According to a passage in Teutullia.v {Apolnget. 
 l(i), cruces exemplatce, made of woo<l, and painted, 
 must have occurred even at his time ; and Chrys- 
 osto)n, in his homily on the divinity of Christ, 
 speaks of them as found everywhere, — in the 
 houses, market-places, deserts, along the roads, 
 on the hills, on bedsteads, arms, utensils, etc. In 
 the fifth century they first appear on the toraijs. 
 
 The anchor 
 
 bol 
 
 + 
 
 Jt' 
 
 the Buddhist Soastika sym- 
 
 and the monogram of Christ. 
 
 ■^ 
 
 which can be traced back to the third or even to 
 the second century, were not cruces dissitntilatce, but 
 independent symbols occurring along with the 
 crosses. The first actual representation of the 
 cross dates from the second half of the fourth cen- 
 tury. When Constantine adopted the cross in the 
 lahariim, and afterwards had liimself represented 
 as the victor, with the cross over his forehead, the 
 start was made ; and soon crosses were seen on 
 helmets, bucklers, and standards, on crowns and 
 sceptres, on coins and seals, etc. Their principal 
 application, however, they found in the cliurch- 
 buildings, and in certain parts of the worship. In 
 the jirocession the cross was the chief object; and 
 the most important feature in the consecration of 
 a church-building was the planting of the cross. 
 At the time of the crusades the cross became tlie 
 ground-plan of the whole church-construction, 
 and at the same time it rose prodigiously in popu- 
 lar reverence and enthusiasm by being the Chris- 
 tian banner over against the crescent. 
 
 Thus variously employed, the cross assumed 
 various forms ; and the staurologia, from avavpog, 
 " a cross," became a special part of heraldry. Of 
 these forms the principal are : I. The crux de- 
 
 cussata, 
 
 V 
 
 N 
 
 , afterwards called the Burgundina 
 
 cross, or the cross of St. Andrew, because the 
 apostle Andrew is said to have suffered death 
 
 on it; 11. The 
 
 crux conimi 
 
 s.sa, , 
 
 in the form 
 
 of the Greek letter Tan, was the cross on which 
 the apostle Philip died, and is also called the 
 Egyptian cross, or the cross of St. Anthony, be- 
 cause by that St. Anthony is said to have stayed 
 
 i
 
 CROSS. 
 
 574 
 
 CROSS. 
 
 the plague, and destroyed the idols of Egypt; 
 
 III. The crux immissa or crux onUnaria, ~T~, the 
 
 Latin cross, on wliich, according to general ac- 
 ceptation, Christ suffered; IV. The Greek cross. 
 
 +■ 
 
 consisting of four equally long arms ; V. 
 
 The cross of St. Peter, or the inverted Latin cross, 
 on which the apostle Peter suffered, he holding 
 himself unworthy to suffer in exactly the same 
 
 manner as Christ: VI. Tlie double cross 
 
 ■+• 
 
 \vhose ujiper bar refers to the inscription by 
 Pilate on the cross of Christ; VII. The triple 
 
 ^*- 
 
 of which the first form is used 
 
 by the Pope, the second by the Raskolniks. The 
 lowest bar in the first form has no particular 
 meaning; in the second it refers to the lir/nuiu 
 .-iuppedantum. 
 
 The Cross as an Instrwneyjt of Death ; Crucifix- 
 ion; the Cross of Christ. — The cross which ^vas 
 used as an instrument of death, arowpof, nKuXctji, 
 aavii (crux, stijirs), occurs under a double form : as 
 a plain vertical stake tu which the convict was 
 tied or nailed, with the hands above the head; or 
 as a vertical stake provided with a cross-bar Qmli- 
 Imlum), to which the convict was fastened in the 
 same way, but with the arms outstretched. The 
 cross of St. .Vndrew is an invention of niediajval 
 legends. The New Testament gives no decisive 
 indications with respect to the form of the cross 
 on which Christ suffered ; but it is impossible that 
 a correct tradition should not have been formed 
 on this point, and it is the Latin cross, the crux 
 immissa or ordinaria, which is spoken of by Jus- 
 tin : Dial. c. l^ryph., 91, and ApoL, 1, 55; Iue- 
 N^US: Ado. Ilcer., II. 24, -1 ; Tektuli.ian : Adc. 
 JiuL, 10; FiKMicus Maticknus: De Errore Pro- 
 fan. Relig., 2L The vertical stake was a little 
 above tlie ordinary height of a man (Appui.n.nTS : 
 De Asino Aur., III. 17; Catul. : Ej>i(jr., 107). 
 Sometimes, however, it was considerably higher 
 (Suetonius, didha, 9), and it was so in the case 
 of Christ (John xix. 29). To the stake was fa.s- 
 tened a kind of saddle {scdile) for the support of 
 the body; and Justin, lri,>na'us, and Ti'rtullian 
 speak of such a <levice in connection with the 
 cross of Christ. 'Vht'. hi/j/o/iudiuin, on the contrary, 
 or suiipedantnin, which formed a .similar support 
 for tiie feet, and which is well known from all 
 mediiPval representations of the crucifixion, is 
 first mentioned by (JitEiiouY <ji' Touus, De Gln- 
 ria Marti/r., 1, 0, and is liistorically ]iot well war- 
 ranted. 
 
 Crucifixion as a punishment of death was com- 
 mon among the old Indians, .Vs.syrians, I'crsians, 
 Scythiajis, Kgyptians, Plnenicians, Carthaginians, 
 and even among the Greeks and .Maceilonians. 
 After the conquest of Tyrus, .Mexander the (Jreat 
 ordered two thousand Tyrians to be crucified as 
 a ])unishnient for tlie resistance which the city 
 had made. The Israelites used to cruciiy those 
 who liad been dccapitati'il or stoned, as a further 
 aggravation of the iiunishnient. The Homans 
 learned crucifixion from tlie Carthaginians; but 
 
 among them it always rerrfained asup/dicium ser- 
 vile (itou.: Sat., I. 3, 80-83; Cic. : In Vcrrem. V. 
 66), applied only to slaves or to the meanest crimi- 
 nals, such as highw.ay robbers, assassins, and reb- 
 els. Tiberius oi'dered tlie priests at the Temple of 
 Isis to be crucified, because by fraud they had in- 
 duced a distinguished Roman lady, Paulina, to 
 surrender herself to the lust of a certain ]Menedas 
 (JosKPiius: Arch. 18; 3,4). After the conquest 
 of Jerusalem, Titus could not find place enough 
 for the crosses, and not crosses enough for the 
 Jews he wanted to punish (JoSEPHUs: Bell. Juil., 
 V. 11, 1). In the oldest times the execution was 
 performed by soldiers, commanded by a centurion 
 or tribune on horseback (Tacitus: Ann., 3, 14; 
 Sexec.\ ; De Ira, 1, 16), afterwards by specially 
 appointed persons, appuritores, belonging to tlie 
 retinue of the procurator prorinciie. 
 
 The execution generally took place just out- 
 side the city, beside the most frequented road 
 (Quixtili.\n : DecL, 274; Cicero: In Verrem, 
 V. 60; Tacitus: Ann., 1.5, 44; Livius VIII., 
 15), and was preceded by a scourging, performed 
 either in the ]>r(ctorium, or on the w-ay to the place 
 of execution (Josephus: Belt. Jud., 5, 11; Liv- 
 lus, 33, 36; Curtius, 7, 11, 28). The victim 
 carried the cross himself, that is, the cross-bar 
 {patihulam') ; and, when the soldiers compelled 
 .Simon of Cyrene to carry tlie cross of Chi'ist, it 
 was simply a coarse joke. Having arrived at the 
 place of execution, the victim was stripped naked, 
 and nailed, with the arms outstretched, to the 
 cross-bar, which then w as hauled up. and fastened 
 to the stake. At the same time the body w;is 
 brought in position on the sedile, and finally the 
 feet were nailed to tlie stake. The scarf around 
 the loins, and the crown of thorns, found in all 
 Christian representations of Christ crucified, are 
 additions of the imagination; and the representa- 
 tions of the medireval German painters — Christ 
 being nailed to the cross while the cross is still 
 lying on the ground — are wrong, .\ccording to- 
 Cyprian, Gregory of Tours, and old Christian art, 
 a nail was driven through each foot : according to 
 (iregory Nazianzen, Nonnus, and modern Chris- 
 tian art, the feet are placed crosswise, and one 
 nail driven through them both. The administr.a- 
 tion of a somniferous potion was a Jewish custom. 
 The punishment of crucifixion was abolished by 
 Con.stantine the (Jreat. 
 
 The Inrention ami the liaisinr/ of the Cross. — 
 In 326 the Kniperor Coiistantine determined to 
 build a church on (iolgotha; and his mother Hele- 
 na, who was staying at that time in Jerusalem, 
 tried, together with Bishop Macarius, to make 
 out tlu! exact spot on wliieh the cross of Christ 
 had stood. Two centuries before, however, the 
 Emperor .Vdrian h;id made the place of the cru- 
 cifixion completely unrecognizable : the sacred 
 tomb had been filled uji, and a temple in honor 
 of Jupiter and Venus erected over it. Neverthe- 
 less, by extensive excaviitions tlie rock-tomb wa.s 
 found ; and close by were discovered tlie threo 
 crosses, together with the nails which hail lieeii 
 u.sed at the execution, and the tablet with I'ilate's 
 inscription. The (luestion now arose, w hich of 
 th(; three crosses was that of Christ. There was 
 one of them to wliicli the talilel filt.ed liest ; Init 
 more ilecisive testimony was necessary, and Maca- 
 rius knew Jiow to produce it. A distinguished
 
 CROSS. 
 
 CRUCIGER. 
 
 lady of Ji'nisalcm wsts sick unto death. Slie was 
 lirouglit to till' jilaco, and iiiado to toueli tlio tlirce 
 Drosses. The empress and a great i>uiii)>er of 
 spectators were pi'esent. She touched the two 
 first crosses witliout any effect at all, Imt hanlly 
 had she laid lier hand on the third before she rose 
 from her coucli perfectly cured, healthy and 
 strong. Eusebius, who was contemporary with 
 these events, does not seem to have known them ; 
 but lialf a century later tliey were generally 
 known and accepted. The miracles, however, 
 did not end with the " invention " of the cross. 
 One part of it, together with the nails, the em- 
 press sent to her son; but the larger part was 
 framed in silver, and intrusted to ^lacarins to be 
 preserved in the jirincipal chnrch of Jerusalem. 
 Chips of this cross w'ere presented to distin- 
 guished persons; after a while they were sold, 
 and very soon an enormous trade in chips of the 
 genuine cross sprang up. Everybody -wanted 
 them. They were incased in silver and gold. 
 and worn as amulets around the neck. But the 
 great marvel was, that, though cartloads of such 
 chips were shaved from the cross, the bulk of 
 the cross itself was not thereby diminished. 
 
 In 615 Jerusalem was taken and burnt by the 
 Persian King, C'hosroes II., and thousands of its 
 inhabitants were killed, or carried away in cap- 
 tivity. Before the catastrophe, the Patriarch 
 Zacharias had hidden the holy cross in a .sealed 
 box; but the box was discovered, and carried 
 away among the other spoil. But in tJ2y a re- 
 verse of fortune took place. Siroes, the son of 
 Chosroes 11., was defeated by the Emperor Herac- 
 lius ; and one of the conditions of peace was the 
 return of the holy cross. The box was restored 
 with the seal unbroken ; and in 031 the cross was 
 brought back to Jerusalem by the emperor him- 
 self. He carried it on his back up the (iolgotha, 
 and there it was again " raised " in its old place 
 in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. In com- 
 memmoration of this event a festum exallationis 
 <vuc/.s- was instituted, just as a fistiim irirenlintiis 
 i-7-ucis had been instituted in commemoration of 
 the discovery of the cross. The former of these 
 festivals is celebrated on Sept. 14, and enjoys 
 great reputation in the Eastern Church. In the 
 Western Church it was introduced by Honorius I. 
 
 The Cruciji.r,(i)iil Pirlhriiit llcpresenlalions of the 
 Crucifixion. An artistic representation of Christ 
 crucified was something utterly foreign to the 
 primitive church : it sufficed to have him repre- 
 sented to the mind's eye through the apostolic 
 word. And when, in course of time, the artistic 
 instinct began to api:)roach the subjects of sacred 
 history, it preferred the idea of Christ as the 
 good shepherd who gives his life for the rescue 
 of his flock, to that of Christ as the high priest of 
 the human race, sacrificing liimself for the sins 
 of the world. It did so, led on by the peculiar 
 gay and cheerful traditions of all antique art, 
 and naturally repelled by the horrors of the 
 actual crucifixion ; and in doing so it was un- 
 doubtedly in harmony with the spiritual char- 
 acter of an age whose rest auil joy and comfort 
 was Christ resurrected, not Christ crucified. The 
 first representation of the crucifixion consisted 
 of the cross plain and simple and alone ; then 
 followed a symbolical expansion, — the cross and 
 the lamb, the cross leaning against the shoulder 
 
 of the lamb, or the land) fastened uiion the cross; 
 then the figure of Christ brought in some exter- 
 nal coiniection with thi^ cross, — Clirist as teacher, 
 holding the cross in his right hand on tlie sar- 
 cophagus of Probus (d. 395), or Christ as teacher, 
 with the cross in the background in the Church of 
 St. I'udentiana, built in 308: but Christ nailed 
 to the cross is not represented until about thu 
 middle of the fifth century. Tlie bronze relief 
 in the Church of St. Sabina in Home, founded in 
 430, seems to be the very earliest representation 
 of the kind : the ivory relief in the British Mu- 
 seum dates, prolial)ly, froin the same time. In 
 Olio the ]\Ioid< Anastasius Sinaita painted in his 
 '0(!;?;(if a picture of Christ crucified, with the 
 liead surrounded by a glory, and heavily inclin- 
 ing to the one side, with the hair parted in the 
 middle; of the forehead, and the beard forked, 
 with the blood drijiping from the wounds of the 
 hands, w itli the feet nailed separately to the hij- 
 popodium, with the whole body wiung by agony, 
 etc.; and that picture became the typical repre- 
 sentation from wliich the painters of the Eastern 
 Church never deviated. In the Western Church 
 the representations were much more various, and 
 of an opposite type: not the suffering Son of 
 God, but the lord of life defeating death, was 
 the idea. The expression of pain was idealized 
 or abandoned altogether : Christ appieared with 
 a crown on his head, and clad in a purple robe. 
 During the controversies between the Eastern 
 and Western churches. Cardinal Humbert re- 
 proac^hed the Eastern paintei's that they repre- 
 sented Christ as a dying man ; while the Patriarch 
 Ciirularius reproached the ^Vestern painters that 
 they represented him as a fancy king. In the 
 thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, however, the 
 Byzantine type began to exercise influence on 
 Western Europe; and, after Giotto, a more healthy 
 realism gained ascendency. In the crucifix, too, a 
 similar difference of type was recognizable; but 
 in the Eastern Church the crucifix disappeared 
 during the iconoclastic controversies. In the 
 Western Church the crucifix was very frequently 
 met with, not only in the churches, as an object of 
 puljlic devotion, but also and especially in the 
 houses, as an object of private devotion. 
 
 Lit. — Justus Lii'.sius : De (.'nice Lihri III., 
 Antwerp, 1.595; I. Stoukbaueu: Kun.il))e.-:chichle 
 d. Kniizes, SchaffhausiMi, 1870; O. Zockler: 
 Das Knu:: Chri.'<li, Gutersloli, 1875 \_The cross of 
 Christ (translated), London, 1878; E. v. Bux- 
 SKX : JJas Symbol dcs Kreuzes hei alien Nationen u. 
 die Entstc'hung des Kreiizsi/mhol der christ. Kirche, 
 Berlin, 187G; W. C. Prime: Holy Cross, A Hisf- 
 torij of the Incention, Presercation, and Disappear- 
 ance of tlie Wood knoii-n as the True Cross, N. Y., 
 1877]; II. FuLDA : Das Kreuz nnd i/ie Kreuzigung, 
 Breslau, 1878; DoniiEirr : Zur Jwdstehungsge- 
 schichte des Kreuzes. 1880. H. MERZ. 
 
 CRUCIGER, Kaspar, the trusty but modest 
 and ciuiet collaborator of Luther; was born at 
 Leipzig, Jan. 1, 1504, and died at Wittenberg, 
 Nov. 1(3, 1548. In 15J1 he removed with his 
 parents to Wittenberg, where he studied theology 
 under Luther and Melauchthon, also medicine, 
 natural history, and the Hebrew language. From 
 1524 till 15-28 he was rector of the Johannes 
 School in Magdeburg, but returned in the latter 
 year to Wittenberg as preacher and professor;
 
 CSUDEN. 
 
 576 
 
 CRUSADES. 
 
 aided Luther iu the tiauslation of the Bible, aud 
 partook, mostly as secretary, iu the numerous 
 disputatious of the day. lie was an expert iu 
 short-hand writiug, and thus preserved many of 
 Luther's sermons and lectures. Some of his 
 letters aud orations are found in Carpus Rej'urma- 
 torum XL, XII. 
 
 CRUDEN, Alexander, the author of the Con- 
 cordance ; li. at .Vberdeeu, May 31, 1701; d. in 
 London, Xov. 1. 1770. He was graduated at 
 IMarischal College, Aberdeen : took the degree of 
 M.A., aud was about to be licensed, when sud- 
 denly he first revealed that lunacy from which 
 he suffered in a greater or less degree all his life. 
 From 1722 to 17-J2 he taught; but at the latter 
 date he settled in Loudon as bookseller, and cor- 
 rector of the press, and eventually became book- 
 seller to the queen. In 1737 he issued his im- 
 mortal work, A Comjdete Concordance of the lloli/ 
 Scriptures of the Old and Ncu- Testctnents (ito), 
 dedicated to Queen Caroline. His means liaving 
 been exliausted by the printing of his book, he 
 was obliged to sell his stock in trade. This step 
 naturally produced a return of his malady. He 
 was confined in a private asylum, but escaped. 
 He then issued (^March. 1739) The London Citizen 
 Exceeding Injured ; f/icinf/ an account of his secere 
 and long canipiaiyn at Bethnal Green for nine tceeks 
 and six dai/s ; the Citizen being sent there in Marcli, 
 1738, hg lloherl Wlghtman, a tioloriouslg conceited, 
 whlmslcid man ; irhere he icas chained, handcujjhl, 
 stralt-walstcoaled, and hnprisoneil ; with a history 
 of Wlghtman s Blind Bench, a sort of court that 
 met at Wlghtman's room, and unaccountably j/ro- 
 ceeded to pass decrees in relation to the London 
 Citizen, etc., and iustituted legal proceedings 
 against AVightman, the proprietor of the asylum, 
 and Dr. Munro the physician. He pleaded his 
 own cause, it is needle.ss to add, unsuccessfully, 
 yet had a report of the trial printed, and dedicat- 
 ed to tlie king, George II. He resumed his occu- 
 I>ation of corrector of the press ; and, with the 
 exception of a few days iu 17o3, he was not again 
 iu confinement. His unbalanced mind led him to 
 do very odd things. He thouglit himself called to 
 be the public censor; assumed the title "Alex- 
 ander tlie Corrector," and tried to reform public 
 manners, esjiecially in regard to keeping Sunday. 
 He akso habitually carried a sponge, with which 
 he effaced all inscriptions tluit were of an im- 
 moral tendency, according to his notions. He 
 appeared as parliamentary candidate of the city 
 of London, applied for knighthood, sought to 
 marry a daughter of a loid-mayor of London ; 
 and, to further these and other wild schemes, he 
 jiublished extraordinary ]iampldets. in 1701 he 
 issued a new edition of his concordance, again in 
 quarto; and the labor it cost liim, iu connection 
 with his i)rofessional jiroof-reading for the Public 
 Advertiser (a dailv paper), hud a most beneficent 
 effect ui>on liis health ; so that llienceforth he 
 was little troubled. In 170!( the third edition 
 (Ito) appeared. It is satisfactory to record, that, 
 for the second, he rec<-ived live hundred ]iounds, 
 and for the third three liundred ])ounds more, be- 
 side twenty copies on fine iiajter. He was thus 
 reimbursed for hi.s early expenditure, and ac- 
 quired a comforlal)le jiroperty. His (.'oncordance 
 wiis not a monetary .speculation, but originated 
 aud was carried on in a sincere luvu for tiic liiblu, 
 
 and desire to promote its study. He prepared 
 
 also an Account of the History and Excellency of 
 the Holy Scriptures, a Scripture Dictionary (pub- 
 lished posthumously at Aberdeen), the very 
 elaborate verbal Index affixed to Bishop New- 
 ton's edition of Jliltou's Poetical Works, and an 
 autobiography, under the title, Adreutures of 
 Alexander the Corrector. 
 
 Cruden was a most excellent man, kind-hearted, 
 benevolent, fearless in the discharge of duty, a 
 public-spirited citizen, and a humlde, devout 
 Christian. The definitions in his concordance, 
 which are unha])pily omitted in so many editiou.s, 
 are strongly Calvinistic ; but he was no bigot. 
 He was a memlier of Dr. Guyse's Church (Inde- 
 pendent), aud proved by a blameless life of enthu- 
 siastic, albeit eccentric philanthropy, how deeply 
 interested he was in the cause of humanity, 
 which is the cause of God. He was found dead 
 upon his knees in the act of prayer. 
 
 See the well-written and copious Memoir of 
 Mr. Alccander Cruden, by S.\muel Bl.\ckburn, 
 prefaced to the 10th London edition, 1824, re- 
 printed by Dodd and Jlead, New York. 
 
 CRUSADES, The conquest of Jerusalem by 
 the Mohammedans, and the insults offered to the 
 most sacred memories of tlie Christian world, 
 roused such a feeling of shame and indignation 
 throughout Christendom, but especially iu West- 
 ern Europe, that a series of wars, called crusades, 
 from the cross which was worn by all partici- 
 pants as a badge, was undertaken for tlie purpose 
 of reconquering Palestine. The chief motive 
 power in this movenie;H was at first pure' reli- 
 gious enthusiasm, helped on, it m.ay be, by the 
 ample ecclesiastical indulgences .and great social 
 exemptions which were granted to all wlio took 
 the cross ; and the idea which precipitated whole 
 nations like a rushing stream towards the Holy 
 Laud, no doubt continued to be the principal 
 impulse in many a noble heart. But gradually 
 the restless and adventurous spirit of the age. 
 which, in this fight for the gloiy of (iod, found 
 satisfaction for its coarsest cravings without any 
 disturbance of its gross superstition, transformed 
 the religious contest about the Holy Land into 
 a riimantic tournament between tlie Christian 
 knight and tlie Moslem w'arrior ; aud finally po- 
 litical ambition and commercial greed degrailed 
 till' whole undertaking into a mere means of 
 iutrigue, speculation, and fraud. The number 
 of these wars is seven ; but there were several 
 minor expeditions, such as the ]nem.ature rushiug- 
 owards under I'eter the Hermit, the Children's 
 Crusade, etc., whicli art' not counted, because 
 they miscarried at the very outset. 
 
 i; — The first crusade (lOiXi-i)!)) was led by 
 Godfrey of Bouillon, Duke of Lorraine; Hugh of 
 Vermandois, a brother of the king of I'rance; 
 Robert, Duke of Xormandy, a son of William 
 the CoiKpu'i-or; Bolieinnnd of Tarent; and Tan- 
 creil of ilauteville, the son and the nepliew of 
 Uobei-t Guiscard, etc. The ]iowerfiil address 
 of Urban II., delivered to .an enormous audienci; 
 at Clermont in Xoveudier, 100."), and answered 
 with an unanimous "God will it!" may be con- 
 sidered as the real starting-point of the first 
 crusade. The organization of so huge an enter- 
 prise was, of course, slow and difficult. Aug. 1,'5, 
 1090, was fi.xcd as the day on which tli(! armies
 
 CRUSADES. 
 
 i>( i 
 
 CRUSADS£ 
 
 should begin to move. IJiit peo^ilo could not 
 wait. One swarm start'd in Mardi under Peter 
 the Hermit, another a little later tinder AValter 
 the Penniless, a tliird under (iottschalek ; but 
 all these swarms, after coniniittinj,' horrilile ex- 
 cesses and crimes, melted away under the resist- 
 ance and punishment of the Maj;yars, the Slavs, 
 and the Greeks. The regular armies, moving liy 
 sea and by land, united in C'onstantinoiile ii] the 
 last days of l()!»fl; and June 21, l()f)7, Nicava 
 was captured; but Antioch wa.? not taken until 
 June 3, 1098; and Jerusalem not until July l.'j, 
 1099. All the Jews in the city were burnt alive 
 in the synagogue: all the infidels — some say 
 seventy thousand — were massacred. Through 
 the desolate streets the victors went in a ]iroces- 
 sion to the Church of the Resurrection, singing 
 their hymns, and wading in blood. Shortly after, 
 the kingdom of Jerusalem was established, and 
 Godfrey was made king. The sources to the 
 history of the first crusade, reports by eyewit- 
 nesses and contemjioraries (among whicli the 
 llistoria de Ilierofoli/Jiia, by William of Tyre, is 
 the most important), are collected in Bongau- 
 sius : Gesia Diiper Fraiicos, Hanover, IGll. See, 
 also, Matthew of Edessa : Itecil dc la premiere 
 croixade, trans, from the Armenian by Edouard 
 Delauiier, Paris, 1850; II. Syuel: Gesrhiclde d. 
 erften Kreuzzuejcs, Leipzig, 1841, 2d ed., 1881 ; 
 II. II.\genjieyer: Peter der Eremite, Leipzig, 
 1S79. 
 
 II. — The second crusade (1147) was caused 
 by the conquest of Edessa by the Mohammedans, 
 and their advance against Jerusalem. The reli- 
 gious enthusiasm of the West was rekindled. 
 Eugene III. placed himself at the head of the 
 movement; and Bernard of Clairveaux 2>reaclied 
 the crusade in France and Germany, promising 
 certain victory, promising even tliat God would 
 smite the hosts of the infidels by a miraculous 
 interferer.ee. Two brilliant aruiii>s, led by Con- 
 rad HI. of Germany and Lewis VII. of France, 
 moved toward the East. But the Byzantine 
 emperor was more afraid of the crusaders than 
 of the Turks. lie made peace secretly with 
 them; and chiefly by his treacliery the (German 
 army was wasted in tlii; defiles oi" Asia Minor. 
 Tlie French army also suffered severely ; and, 
 when the remnants of the magnificent army 
 joined King Baldwin III. before the walls of 
 Damascus, famine, disease, dissensions, and the 
 treachery of the Pallanes (the Christian inhaliit- 
 auts of the besieged city, descendants of the first 
 crusaders), soon brought the whole undertaking 
 to a sorry end. Consternation, anger, and de- 
 spair filled the whole of Germany and France ; 
 and Bernard added what he could to the misery. 
 lie saved his fame as an inspired prophet by 
 declaring the crusading armies unworthy of vic- 
 tory, and the defeat a divine punishment of their 
 sins. See Kugleu : GeschiclUe des ziceiten Kreuz- 
 zuges, Stuttgart, ISGG. 
 
 III. — Oct. 3, 1187, Jerusalem was taken by 
 Saladin, and Gregory VIII. preached a new cru- 
 sade. Frederic Barbarossaof Germany, Phillippe 
 Auguste of France, and Richard I. (Cceur-de- 
 Leon) of England, followed the summons; and 
 all Christendom paid tlie Saladin tithe to support 
 the undertaking. Frederic Barbarossa forced 
 his way through Asia Minor, but was drowned 
 
 38—1 
 
 in the Kalykadniis (July 10, 1190); ami Ids 
 army was much reduced when it reached Acre 
 li'.d by his .son, Frederic of Snabia. The Freneli 
 and I'.nglish kings arrived by sea, splendidly 
 e(piipped, and in full vigor; but the siege of the 
 city was long, and cost, it is said, about three 
 huiuli-ed thousand lives; and, immediately after 
 its captnre, Phillijipe Auguste returned to France. 
 Richard continued tiie contest, but rather as if 
 it were oidy a chivalre.sque toninament between 
 himself and Saladin; and the result was very 
 meagre, — permission for tlie Christian jiilgrinis 
 to visit Jerusalem. He left the Holy Land in 
 1192; but on his journey Viack to England he was 
 captured by Duke Leopold of Austria, and sold 
 to the emperor, Henry VI., who, to the great 
 scandal of the whole Christian world, made a 
 good bargain by exacting an immense ransom. 
 See Chronicles and Alemorials of Richard 1., edited 
 by W. Stubbs, 1864; Thaye.no : De Expedi- 
 liotie Asiatica Frederici I., in Fuebek : Script. 
 Rcrum German., I., append.; Spalding: Ge- 
 schiclUe des Konlf/reichs Jerusalem, Berlin, 1803; 
 Veubot : Ilistoire drs Chevaliers de Si. Jean de 
 Jerusalem, Amsterdam, 1732; W. F. Wii.cke: 
 Geschichte des Tempelherrenordens, Berlin, 182G- 
 3o. 
 
 IV. — How the spirit from which the crusades 
 originated liad changed in the course of little 
 over a century, became sadly apparent when 
 Innocent III. preached the fourth crusade (1203). 
 A immber of the most distinguished noblemen — 
 Thibaut of Champagne, Simon of Montfort, 
 Baldwin of Flanders, etc. — assembled at Venice 
 with about twenty thousand combatants. But 
 Venice demanded eighty-five thousand marks 
 silver for the transfer of the crusaders to the 
 Holy Land; and, as they were unable to pay this 
 sum in cash, they went first to Dalmatia, where 
 they conquered Zare for Venice, and then to 
 Constantinople, which they also conquered (April 
 12, 1204), and where they established a Latin 
 Empire under Baldwin of Flanders. To the 
 Holy Land they never went. The Pope felt 
 shocked, and summoned a new crusade. He was 
 answered by the children. In France arose a 
 movement in 1212 which even the government 
 W'as not able to suppress. Thousands of chil- 
 dren, boys and girls, often of the teuderest age, 
 took the cross, and rushed in feverish enthusiasm 
 towards the Holy Land. Some sw'arms reached 
 Italy ; and there they melted away, by hunger 
 and disease, in the waves, and in the slave-mar- 
 kets. Two regular armies were organized in 
 1217 by Andrew II. of Hungary, and Count Wil- 
 liam of Holland. But, Andrew having left the 
 enterprise with the best part of his troops, the 
 rest of the armies went, not to the Holy Land, 
 but on a roblier-expedition to Egyj)t, where most 
 of them perished in the Xile floods. See Geoe- 
 FKOi de Vili.e-IIauuouin : Hisloire de la con- 
 fjucsle de Constantinople, Paris, 1C5G; G. Z. Gray : 
 The Children's Crusade, New York, 1872; L. 
 Stueit : Deilrdi/e zur Gcschichle des vierlen Kreuz- 
 zu(/es, Anklam, 1877. 
 
 v., VI., VII. — The complete failure of the 
 undertaking of Andrew II. and Count William 
 was generally ascribed to the Emperor Frederic 
 II., who had taken the cross in 1215, but steadily 
 refused to fulfil the promise given. Compelled
 
 CRUSIUS. 
 
 578 
 
 CRYPTO-CALVINISM. 
 
 by the Pope, Gregory IX., he finally embarked 
 (Aug. 1.5, 1227) at Briiudu.sium, but returned a 
 few days afterwards, protesting that he was , 
 sick. Utterly proyoked, the Pope put him under [ 
 the ban; and' the next year he actually went on 
 the expedition. He was yery successful. Pales- ] 
 tine was reconquered ; and in 1229 lie crowned 
 him.self King of Jerusalem, and returned to 
 Europe, defying the Pope and the exconininniea- 
 tion. Jerusalem, lioweyer, was not long in the 
 possession of the Christians. The uproar which 
 the Mongolian ayalanche caused in Southern and 
 Western Asia reached also the llo\y Land. 
 The Chawaresmians. a Turkish tribe, overran 
 the whole country, and (1247) Jerusalem was 
 taken and pillaged. In the following year 
 Louis IX. of France took the cross for the rescue 
 of the city, and landed with a great armament 
 in Cyprus. After spending tlie winter on that 
 island, and making still further preparations, 
 he went (in 1219) to Egypt, and conquered 
 Damiette and JIansura. But, wlien he attempted 
 to ])enetrate farther into the country, he suffered 
 yery severe losses, and was finally compelled to 
 surrender with his whole array. In 1251 it cost 
 France most of its wealth to ransom its King and 
 its warriors. Xotwithstanding this great mis- 
 fortune. Louis IX. did not give up the idea of 
 delivering the Holy Land from the sway of the 
 infidels. In 12G9 lie began a new crusade, the 
 last ; and the whole French nobility followed 
 him. Political reasons led liim to open the cam- 
 paign with an invasion of Tunis ; and there lie 
 died (Aug. 2-1, 1270). His son and successor, 
 Phillippe III., made peace with Tunis, and re- 
 turned to France. See Joixville: Hisloire de 
 Si. Louig, edited by Charl. du Fresne, Paris, 
 1GG8. 
 
 Lit. — Friedrich Wilkex : Gcscliichle d. 
 Kreuzziige, Leipzig, 1807-26, 7 vols.; Micn.wn: 
 Histoire des Croisadex, Paris, 1S25, translated by 
 liobson, London, 1S51, reprinted New York, 
 1S80, :J vols.; Mills: Ifislnn/ of the Crusades, 
 London, 1828; Keiohtlky: The Crusades, Imii- 
 don, 1817; Puoctoij : Ilislori/ of tlie Crusades, 
 Philadelphia, reprint, Ib'A; G. "W. Cox: The 
 C'rusn(/c,<, London, 1871 ; 11. lliiiiiUfiiT: BiitrCuje 
 cur 6'e.s'e/i /(•///(' (/<;'/• AV(«cchV/c, Berlin, 187 4-7S, 2 vols.; 
 AV. E. DuTlo.N : .1 JJistori/ of the Crusai!es, Lon- 
 don, 1877; B. Ki'(iLEu: O'rscliichle der Kreuzziii/e, 
 Berlin, 1880; A. de Lapokte : Les croisades el 
 le pai/s hitin de Jerusalem, Paris, 1881. See, also, 
 till' wnrks nii'iitioiii'd in the course of this article. 
 
 CRUSIUS, Christian August, b. at I^eima, near 
 Merseburg, Jan. 10, 1715; studied theology and 
 philosophy at Li^ijizig; wa.s appointed professor 
 there, first in ])hilosophy (1741), and then in the- 
 ology (17.)0), and died there Oct. 18, 177,"). In 
 philosopliy h(! wa.s a stanch adversary of H'olff. 
 He wrote a .series of treatises on logic, p.syehology, 
 metaphysics, and morals, in din-ct opposition to 
 the Woiflian system. In mor:ils he basiMl the 
 idea of duty on tiiat of divine authority, while 
 Wolff derived it from the idea of perfection 
 (Jiei/rill' der clirisltichen Mnndllieoliigie, Leipzig, 
 1772, 2 vol.s.). In theology lie defended the tradi- 
 tion of the Church, as an element in true exegesis, 
 against Ernest!, whose exegetieal princii)le ad- 
 mitted only u purely grammatical interpretation 
 {^Ili/ponmemuta ad Thail. I'rcjjhelicum, Leipzig, 
 
 17G4. three parts, of which the last has appeared 
 independently, under the title Commentarivs in 
 Jesakun, 1779). During the last part of liis life 
 the students of the university were divided into 
 two camps, the Crusiaus and the Ernestiaiis; but 
 the noble rejiose of his mind was not disturbed 
 by the contest. E. SCHWARTZ. 
 
 CRYPT (Latin cn/pla; Greek Kpiirrti, "a hidden 
 place ") meant in its classical use any subterra- 
 nean room or passage, and was applied both to 
 the sewer and the fruit-cellar. By an easy transi- 
 tion it afterwards came to denote the subterra- 
 nean cemeteries of the Christians, the so-called 
 catacombs, or, more piroperly, such single passages 
 and galleries of them in which martyrs or saiiit.% 
 were buried. As it became customary to erect 
 chapels, or even churches, on the surface of the 
 catacombs, just over the grave of a martyr, and 
 with an opening under the altar which allowed 
 to look down into the grave, into the crypt, it was 
 natural that afterwards — though the cathedrals 
 were not built over the graves of the martyrs, 
 but the graves of the martyrs were dug under 
 the altar of the cathedral — the name "crypt" 
 was transferred also to these excavations under 
 the choir of the basilicas and churches of the 
 Uomanesque st3ie, which sometimes were so ex- 
 tensive as to form whole subterranean churches, 
 and often were used as places of interment for 
 bishops and archbisliops. With the Romanesque 
 style the crypts disappeared. 
 
 CRYPTO-CALVINISM is the term properly 
 api>lied to those Germans who secretly held the 
 Calvinistic doctrine on the eucharist (i.e., the 
 spiritual presence of Christ), while tliey rejected 
 that on predestination. Luther's view of the 
 Lord's Supper implied the ubiquity of Christ's 
 body. Melanchthon's later view agreed essen- 
 tially with Calvin's ; and for a number of years it 
 w.as that entertained by the majority of Lutheran 
 divines, even at AVittenbeig and Leipzig, and at 
 the court of the Elector of Saxony : it was also 
 in various ways oflicially recognized with the 
 Augsburg Confession of lolO. But as soon as 
 the two views were labelled "Luther's," "Cal- 
 vin's," there was no doubt in tlie juiblic mind 
 wliich should be accepted. Tlie first to call 
 attention to the true authorship of Melanchthon's 
 view was Joachim AVestphal, a rigid Lutheran 
 minister at Hamburg, who in 1.552 opened war 
 upon those who denied the corporeal presence, 
 and the literal eating of Christ's body even by 
 unbelievers. Calvin took part in the contro- 
 versy, and appealed to Melanchthon, who, how- 
 ever, prudently declined to take active part in 
 the strife, although he never concealed his essen- 
 tial agreement with Calvin. (See Corp. Reform., 
 vol. viii. p. •'5G2.) His followers were now stig- 
 matized as Crypto-Calvinists. The controversy 
 was carried all over Germany with incredible 
 bigotry and superstition. In Bremen and Heidel- 
 berg tlie Calvinistic view prevailed; but in Wiir- 
 temberg and Saxony it was finally condemned, 
 and in the latter kingdom its defenders suffered 
 exile and even death. In tiie American Lulheran 
 Church the charge of Crypto-C;ilvinism was in 
 1881 renewed against the Missouri Lutherans; 
 not, however, for holding the Calvinistic doc- 
 trine of the l^ord's Suiiper, for they hold rigidly 
 to Luther's view, but for defending the (semi-
 
 CUD WORTH. 
 
 FilVi 
 
 CULDBES. 
 
 Calviiiistic) dnctrine of uiicoiulitional election as 
 tauohtiii tlie Fnnmila of Coiu-ord. See Sciiakk's 
 ('r<-cils of ('lirislriiilniii. vol. i. Jip 27!l-28.j. 
 
 CUDWORTH, Ralph, Kn-lish Platoiiist; b. at 
 Aller, SoiiiLTsetshirc, l(il7; (1. at Cauibridgc, JuMe 
 2(), 1()8H. He was ctluoatcd at Emmamud Collcfrc, 
 Cambridge; was fellow of liis e(dlei;e, and M.A., 
 10:3',); master of Clare Hall, (':Mid)ridKe, \MTt-U, 
 and Ilebrew professor, lti45 till deidli ; rector of 
 North Cadbury, 1C.50-G2; D.D., lOol ; master of 
 Christ's Collejre, 1054-02; rector of Aslnv(dl, in 
 Herefordshire, 1003; and prebendary of Glouces- 
 ter, 107s. As a iihilosopher and theolojiian he occu- 
 pied an iMtermediatepositionbetween the Puritan- 
 ic and Itomauiziny tendencies of his time; and, 
 withouttakingactualjiart in the controversies upon 
 cliurch government and doctrine, he stood boMly 
 forth as the champion of revealed religion against 
 the reigning ileisni. Besides a Discourse conccni- 
 iiig the True Xolion of the Lord's Supptr, u-ilh two 
 Ser/noiis (16-1 J), T/ie Union of Christ and the 
 Chui-ch (164l'), tiie posthumons Treatise on Eter- 
 nal and Immuttdile Mortditi/, published by Bishop 
 Chandler in 1731, and ,1 Treatise on Free Will, 
 edited by Rev. John Allen, 1838, he wrote the 
 great work upon which his fame rests. The True 
 Intellectual Hi/stem of the Universe, ivherein all the 
 Reason and. Philosophij of Atheism is refuted, and its 
 Impossihilitt/ flenionslraled, 1678, fob ; 2d ed., with 
 Life of the author by Dr. BiHCH, 1743, 2 vols. 
 4to; Abridgment of 1st ed. by Rev. TiiOM.\s 
 Wise, 1706, 2 vols. 4to ; Latin translation by 
 MosiiEiM, Jena, 173o, 2 vols, fob, with improve- 
 ments, Leyden, 1773, 2 vols. 4to ; original Eng- 
 lish edition, reprinted, Andover, U.S.A., 1837, 
 2 vols. 8vo ; enlarged edition, containing transla- 
 tion, by John Harrison, of MosiiEUi's valuable 
 Notes, and also an Index; London, 1845, 3 vols. 
 8vo. 
 
 The treatises quoted above are parts of a 
 gigantic whole, of the refutation whicli Cudworth 
 had planned to give tlie doctrine of necessity as 
 held by atheists, deists, and some Christian 
 theists. The treatise on Morality contends in 
 platonic phraseology for the independence of 
 moral distinctions, and that they are discerned 
 directly by the reason. The treatise on Free 
 Will is a direct answer to the necessitarian doc- 
 trines of Ilobbes, as propounded in his Letter to 
 the Marquis of Newcastle, on Liberty and Neces- 
 sity (10.54). Cudworth did not thoroughly work 
 out any more than the first part of his scheme. 
 He caUed it The True Intellectual System; because 
 its position over against the refuted errors made 
 it true, and it was intellectual in distinction from 
 physical systems, like the Ptolemaic, Tychonic, 
 and Coperaicau. The occasion of its apjiearance 
 was the philosophy of Ilobbes; and therefore a 
 comprehension of Ilobbes is an indispensable 
 necessity to the compreliension of Cudworth. 
 Ilobbes (1588-1070) was the fashionable philoso- 
 pher of the time; because his political views sup- 
 ported tlie despotic [lolicy of the restored mon- 
 archy of Charles II., and his materialistic and 
 necessitarian ethics sanctioned the corrupt moi-als 
 of the Cavaliers. Cndworth entered the lists 
 against him. and, as President Porter says, had 
 him '■prominently in mind, even when criticis- 
 ing the ancient necessitarians and materialists." 
 Tlie True Intellectual System in dealing with mate- 
 
 rialistic atheism considers four species, — "tlie 
 atomic, adopted by Democritus, Epicurus, and 
 Hobbes, which recognizes no other substances 
 than material atoms, and no other forces than 
 their movements; the hylopalhic, maintained Ijy 
 Ana.ximander, which makes infinite matter devoid 
 of nnderstauding and life, form all tilings by a 
 a 'secretion or segregation,' which takes place 
 according to inherent law ; the hylozoic, asserted 
 by Strato of Lanqjsacus, which explains every 
 thing by thc^ supposition of an inward, self-or- 
 ganizing, plastic life in matter; and the cosnio- 
 plastic, perhaps held by Seneca and the younger 
 Pliny, which represents the univei'se as an organ- 
 ized being, like a plant, with a spontaneous and 
 necessary but unconscious and unreflective devel- 
 opment." The enormous learning of the book 
 has liindered its usefulness. .So fully did he 
 state the views he intended to refute, that it was 
 claimed in his day that he was at heart an atheist 
 himself; and in ours the number of his quota- 
 tions has led superficial readers to suiijiose that 
 he had little original to say, whereas he is in 
 reality profound, acute, and fresh. 
 
 Cudworth is a storehouse whence much precious 
 material has been taken by many a lesser writer. 
 But to the disgrace of his university tliere is no 
 complete edition, even of his printed works; 
 while many of his manuscripts lie unprinted in 
 the British Museum and elsewhere. The publi- 
 cation of the first part of his Intellectual Si/stem 
 was delayed seven years in consequence of court 
 opposition ; and the dread of a theological war 
 restrained him from compileting it. It would 
 seem that adverse circumstances even yet debar 
 him from his proper pdace and representation in 
 literature. He was the leader of the Cambridge 
 Platonists. See Platonists, Camuridge. 
 
 CULDEES. The derivation and meaning of 
 this name, and the exact functions, habits, and 
 opinions of those who bore it, have been the sub- 
 ject of much controversy, if not also, as Dr. 
 Reeves asserts, of much mystification. But by 
 the publication, in our day, of so many of the 
 old records relating to their establishments, Brit- 
 ish scholars are coming to agree in a different 
 opinion respecting them, though Dr. Ebrard still 
 ably defends the long-received view. That view 
 was not, in any sense, as it is sometimes charged, 
 an invention of Presbyterians seeking historical 
 support for their system. It came to them from 
 Hector Boece ,aiid other pre-Ileformation histori- 
 ans, anil at first was substantially aocepited by all 
 Protestants, who, perhaps, were too eager to find 
 historical ]irototypes or precursors in the primi- 
 tive Church. Nor, if the old Protestant view 
 is aljandoned. should we be warranted without 
 qualification to accept what some have proposed 
 to substitute for it, and altogether to identify the 
 Culdees of the British Isles with certain disor- 
 derly canons cleric of the Continent. The fol- 
 lowing are in brief the conclusions of Mr. Skene 
 respecting them, than whom no one has treated 
 the subject more learnedly and impartially. The 
 mon.astic Church of the Columbites, after the 
 fervor of its first zeal had passed away, was as- 
 sailed by a twofold disintegrating influence : 1st, 
 The introduction of a secular clergy from abroad ; 
 and, 2d, An influence from within in favor of in- 
 creasing asceticism, leading not a fesv, in whose
 
 CULDEES. 
 
 380 
 
 CULDEES. 
 
 breast the fire of piety still glowed, to abandon 
 the ceuobitical life for the cell of the anchorite. 
 This form of ascetic life had long existed in the 
 (liristiau Church, and had come to be regarded 
 bvmanv as a liiglier form of it than the cenobiti- 
 ■cal; and the name DeicoUr came in time to be 
 assigned to those who followed it, as that of 
 ClirixticoUe was extended to ordinary Christians, 
 or specially appropriated to Cenobites. Such 
 jireference for the solitaiy over the cenobite life 
 had occasionally been shown in early times 
 among the Columbite monks; and many of their 
 monasteries had their desert, cave, carcair, or lone 
 islet, to which one seized with a longing for soli- 
 tary comumnion with God could retreat for a 
 longer or a shorter time. It was towards the end 
 of ihe seventh, or beginning of the eighth, cen- 
 tury, that tills passion for a solitary life increased 
 so much among them, that it tended greatly to 
 break up the regular niona.stic system, and became 
 embodied in what is termed the third order of 
 Irish saints, as distinct from the second or Co- 
 lumban, as that was from tlie first or Patrician. 
 •• These were holy presybters and .a few bishojis 
 . . . who dwelt in desert places, and lived on 
 herbs and water and the alms of the faithful. 
 They shimned private property : tliey despised all 
 earthly things, and wliolly avoided all whispering 
 and backbiting ; and lliei/ /tad different rules and 
 iiiusses, and different tonsures: " or, in other words, 
 with all their fervor they belonged, many of them 
 at least, to the party in South Ireland, who, in 
 the course of the seventli century, conformed to 
 the Roman tonsure, time of observing Kaster, etc. 
 Before the close of that century they not only 
 lived in strict solitude, but seem at times to have 
 formed " hermitical establishments," where a 
 number of so-called hermits lived in separate cells, 
 but within a common enclosure; and the nomen- 
 elatnre of the Continental hermits began to appear 
 among them in an Irish form, Cei/e De being- 
 applied to them as an equivalent of Deicula, 
 meaning primarily socias, and secondarily servus, 
 or famtilus Dei. The Latinized Irish form of 
 Ceile IJe was Colidcei; its Scottish form, when it 
 appeared later, Callethci and Kehilei. Callidiei 
 is the name applied by .locelin to the sinijnlares 
 cleriri of Kentigern's church, who lived in .sepa- 
 rate huts around it. Keledei is the name which 
 came to be used in Scotland generally to denote 
 the Culdeea. Historically they made tlieir 
 appearance in the territory of the Soutliern I'icts 
 after King Nechtan had i'X|ielled the old Colum- 
 ban monks for relusing to conform to the Roman 
 lime of obsirving Kasti'r ; and Mr. Skene sup- 
 })0ses that .\damnan liimself, after breaking 
 with the strieti-r party at lona, may have had to 
 do with the introduction of them. .So he thinks 
 may .St. .Serf or Servanus, to whom he a.ssigns a 
 later dati' than that of I'alladins or Kentigern, 
 and whom lie snppose.s to liave been, by the 
 mother-side, of I'ictish descent. He is specially 
 connected witii tiie liislory of tin; church in Fife 
 in his time; and it is in connection willi the 
 house founded by him at Lochleven that Cul- 
 dees are first referred to in actual documents as 
 '•Keledei liermits, who serve or sliall serve God 
 there." However they may have been originally 
 introduced, they came in time to occu]>y many of 
 the old seats of the Columbite monks within the 
 
 Pictish kingdom, as at St. Andrews, Abernethy, 
 Lochleven. Brechin, Humblane, Duukeld, Muthill, 
 Rosemarkie. Dornoch, Lismore, Monymusk. etc. 
 Of course they were independent of lona, and 
 indeed, so far as appears, of all external con- 
 trol, till, in the end, the strong hand of tlie 
 king was laid on them; for, whatever their origi- 
 nal fervor and unworldliness, they had mostly, 
 long before this, fallen away from what their 
 first patrons had meant them to be. The high- 
 est offices in their establishments were often in 
 the hands of laymen, nominally monks it may 
 be, but not clerics, and not qualified to perform 
 any spiritual function, at best devolving such 
 functions on some substitute with inferior emolu- 
 ments ; at times making no provision for them 
 at all. Thus in some cases the establishment itself 
 fell into ruin; and its site was marked only by 
 some holy well or old churchyard remaining, and 
 the lands around passing by a peculiar tenure, 
 from father to son in the family of some former 
 abbot or superior. To meet and remedy this 
 state of matters was one main object of tlie refor- 
 mation begun under IMalcolm Canmore and his 
 good Queen Margaret, and completed by the 
 pious King David, which, whatever .shortcomings 
 it may have had, certainly substituted earnest, 
 educated, and zealous monks in place of those 
 whose zeal had sadly decayed, and their influence 
 been lost. The old endowments, to a large ex- 
 tent, were transferred to the newly founded or 
 restored bishoprics, and to the new orders of 
 monks; the Culdees being generally absorbed 
 into these, or gradually superseded by them. 
 After the thirteenth century, all trace of them 
 disappears, save, perliaps, in connection with tlie 
 old Church of St. l\Iary of the Rock, at St. An- 
 drews, over whicli King Constantine had once 
 presided, and the provost of which, down to the 
 time of the Reformation, continued to be insti- 
 tuted by lay investiture on the part of the king. 
 In conclusion, it is but right to add, that not all 
 the anchorites had degenerated from tlieir first 
 original, even in the days of Queen Margaret. 
 Her biographer, as quoted by Mr. Skene, expressly 
 .states, that at this time "there were many in the 
 kingdom of the .Scots, who in different jilaces, 
 enclosed in separate cells, lived in the flesh, but 
 not according to the flesii, in great straitness of 
 life, and even on earth lived the life of angels. 
 In them the queen did her best to love and ven- 
 erati! Christ, and freciuently to visit them with 
 her presence and converse, and to commend her- 
 self to tlieir ))rayeis. . . . Whatever was their 
 desire slie devoutly fulfilled, either in recovering 
 the poor from their poverty, or relieving tlie 
 attlicted from the miseries wliich oppressed 
 them." Among those better anchorites, Mr. 
 [ Skene; includes the Cuhlees of Lochleven, to 
 whom the king and queen gave the town of Hal- 
 christie, aii<l to whom, as to (ho.se living devoutly 
 in a school of all virtues, liislio]) Fothad some- 
 time before had given the Church of Auclitei- 
 derran. Even these met witli h.iish treatment 
 at the hands of King David. (For references to 
 the ojiinions and jiractices of the Culdees, see 
 art. Kki.tic CmmcH.) 
 
 Lit. — The Culdees nfthe llritisli Islamls, as Ihei/ 
 ii/)/iiiir in Iliston/, with an ap|)endix of evidence 
 by \\. Reeves, li.D., Dublin, 1S(M, 8vo. " Cel-
 
 CULLBN. 
 
 iJ81 
 
 CUMBERLAND CHURCH. 
 
 tic Scotland," by "W. F. Skene, Esq., vol. IT., 
 Church and Culluiv. Edin., 1877. St-e also Ge- 
 schichte (li'i- all-irischrn Kiirhe, von Karl .lohann 
 Oreith, Kreiburer, 1807, Svo. and Jlin iro-achol- 
 tische Atlssi/m^--Kir<-ht:, von Dr. 11. U. Ebrard, 
 (iiitersloli, 1873, 8v(i, also Grub's Clmrch llixlin-y 
 (if Scotlaiul, and notes to Dr. Joseph Kobertson's 
 HialMta Si-otki;. See art. Keltische Kirrlie by 
 SciioKi.i., in Herzog, second edition, vol. viii. pp. 
 
 334-.355. .\LEX. F. MITCHELL. 
 
 CULLEN, Paul, D.D., b. at Pro.spect, Co. Kil- 
 dare, Ireland, April 27, 1803; d. in Dublin, Oct. 
 24. 1878. Educated at Koine, became arclibi.shop 
 of Armagh (18.')0), archbishop of Dul)lin (18.53), 
 cardinal-priest (1800). lie was the main supjiortcr 
 of the Koman-Catholic Universitv of Dublin. 
 
 CUMBERLAND PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH 
 is a growth of the jiresent century. It originat- 
 ed in the remarkable revival of religion which 
 began, in 1707, to develop itself in South-western 
 Kentucky, under the labors of Rev. James Mc- 
 (jre.ady of the Presbyterian C'luirch. This re- 
 vival rapidly grew to such proportions as to create 
 a demand for ordained ministers of the gospel 
 greater than could be supplied. This circum- 
 stance caused the Cumberland Presbytery to or- 
 dain certain men who could not quite meet the 
 theological and educational requirements of the 
 Confession of Faith and Form of Ciovernment to 
 which that presbytery was amenable. This pro- 
 duced dissensions in the synod of Kentucky., to 
 which the Cumberland Presbytery belonged, and 
 whicli culminated, in 1806, in the dissolution of 
 the presbytery. The synod annexed to the ad- 
 joining Transylvania Presbytery the members 
 who had not been placed under prohiliition to 
 preach the gospel and administer its ordinances, 
 by the committee appointed by the synod, in 1805, 
 to take charge of the matter. The Cumberland 
 Presbytery had taken the ground in the contro- 
 versy, that the proceedings of the committee ap- 
 pointed by the synod were unconstitutional, and, 
 of course, that the pro.scribing act was unconsti- 
 tutional and void. Nevertheless, from a general 
 respect to authority, and from an obvious desire 
 to procure a reconciliation, and enjoy peace and 
 quietude as far as possible, both the proscribed 
 members, and those who had promoted their in- 
 duction into the ministry, and sympathized with 
 tliem, constituting a majority of the presbytery, 
 organized themselves into what they called a 
 council, determining in this manner to carry for- 
 ward the work of the revival, to keep the congre- 
 gations together, but to abstain from all proper 
 presbyterial proceedings, and await wliat they 
 thought would be a redress of their grievances. 
 This council continued their organization from 
 Deceuiber, 1S0.'>, to February, 1810. Hy tliat 
 time they became satisfied tliat they had nothing 
 to hope, eitlier from the synod or the General 
 Assembly. .As a last resort, and in order to save 
 wiiat they represent to the General -Assembly as 
 " every respectable congregation in Cumberland 
 and ttie Harrens of Kentuckj'," two of the pro- 
 scribed ministers. Finis Ewing and Samuel King, 
 assisted by Samuel McAdow, one of those who 
 had been placed under an interdict by the com- 
 mission for his participation in what they de- 
 nominated the irregularities of the presbytery, 
 re-organized the Cumberland Presbytery at the 
 
 house of Mr. McAdow, in Dickson County, Ten- 
 nessee, on the 4th of February, 1810. It was or- 
 ganized as an ind('i«'ndeiit jiresbytery. It will be 
 observed that it was a re-organization of a pres- 
 bytery which had been dissolved, and which had 
 received its nanu^ from its locality. The church 
 which gr(!w up from these beginnings naturally 
 took the name of its first presliytery as a prefi.\. 
 Hence tliis church is called, from the circum- 
 stances of its origin, '• The Cumberland Presby- 
 terian Churcli." This church has grown with 
 exceeding rapidity, extending from Pennsylvania 
 to the shores of the Pacific, and from the Lakes 
 to Louisiana and Texas. 
 
 The new presljytery immediately set forth a 
 synopsis of its theology and principles of action 
 by which it proposed to be governed. Its theolo- 
 gy was Calvinistic, with the exception of the 
 offensive doctrine of predestination, so exp)re.ssed 
 as to seem to embody the old Pagan dogma of 
 i;ece.ssity or fatality. The construction which 
 they, in opposition to the letter, or form, of the 
 Calvinistic symbols, put upon the " idea of fa- 
 tality," was : (1) That there are no eternal repro- 
 bates; (2) That Christ died, not for a part only, 
 but for all mankind, and for all in the same sense ; 
 
 (3) That infants dying in infancy are saved 
 through Christ and the sanctification of the Spirit; 
 
 (4) That the Spirit of God operates on the world, 
 as co-extensively as Christ has made the atone- 
 ment, in such a manner as to leave all men in- 
 excusable. The exception of this one " idea of 
 fatality," corresponding to these four points, 
 must have meant and included only their antipo- 
 des : (1) Eternal reprobation; (2) An atonement 
 limited to the elect member; (3) The salvation 
 of only elect infants ; (4) The limitation of the 
 opierations of the Spirit to the elect. Aside from 
 these points, covered by the exception, the doc- 
 trine of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church, as 
 set forth in its Confession, was, according to the 
 opinion of its founders, identical with that of 
 the AVestminster Confession. In the year 1813 
 the Cumberland Presbytery had become so large, 
 that it divided itself into three presbyteries, and 
 constituted the Cumberland Synod- This synod, 
 at its se.ssions in 1816, adopted a confession of 
 faith, catechism, and system of church order, in 
 conformity with the principles avowed upon the 
 organization of the first presbytery. The Con- 
 fession of Faith is a slight modification and 
 abridgment of the Confession of Faith of the 
 Presbyterian Church. The Larger Catechism 
 was omitted, and also some sections of the chaii- 
 ter on " God's Eternal Decrees." A revised Con- 
 fession was adopted in 1883. 
 
 In 1826 its first college was organized, under 
 the supervision of the church. It was located 
 at Princeton, Ky. In 1842 it was transferred to 
 Lebanon, Tenn., and the name changed to Cum- 
 berland University. It is composed of four 
 scliools — preparatory, academic, law, and theo- 
 logical ;, each school "having its own corps of pro- 
 fessors and lecturers. It is one of the oldest, and 
 , has long been one of the most prominent and use- 
 ful, educational institutions in the .South-west, not- 
 withstanding the great difficulties under which it 
 has had to struggle much of the time. The church 
 now has colleges at Tehuacana, Tex., Lincoln, 
 111., and Waynesburg, Peun., besides a number
 
 GUMMING. 
 
 i>S-l 
 
 CUMMINS. 
 
 of liigh scliools and academies under presbyte- 
 rial and synodical control. It has only one 
 theological "school, — the one in connection with 
 Cumberland University at Lebanon, Tenn. It 
 employs four regular professors, and the course of 
 study extends through two years of ten mouths 
 each. 
 
 In 1830 the first newspaper under the jiatron- 
 age of the church was published : it was a week- 
 ly religious and literary jounial published at 
 Princeton, Ivy. The church now has under its 
 patronage three weekly newspapers, one quarterly, 
 and one monthly, besides the usual Sunday-school 
 magazines and papers. Its boards of publication 
 and education are at Xashville, Tenn. ; that of 
 missions (sustaining five missionaries in the for- 
 eign field, besides doing much mission-work at 
 home), in St Louis, Mo.; that of ministerial re- 
 lief, and its Woman's Board of Foreign ^lissions 
 (sustaining four missionaries in Japan), at Evans- 
 ville, Ind. .Since ISSl several synods have been 
 consolidated, and several new ones created. The 
 l^ublished statistics for 1885 are as follows: — 
 
 Synods, l24 ; presbyteries, 118 : ordained minis- 
 ters, 1,538; licentiates, 234 ; candidates, 21-1; con- 
 gregations, 2,491; elders, 9,534; deacons, 3,179; 
 added by letter, 4,208 ; total increase of member- 
 ship during the year, 15,295 ; adult baptisms, 
 6,821 ; infant baptism.s, 2,013 ; total in commun- 
 ion, 126,911 ; total attending Sunday school, 
 65,385; funds contributed for church building 
 and repairing, fl73,591 ; paid pastors, 8265,879 ; 
 presbyterial purposes, $9,051 ; charity, $10,985 ; 
 total contributions, $477,564: value of church 
 property, .•82,319,006. 
 
 Lit. — FixisEwing: Lectures in TVieo/oji/, Nash- 
 ville, 1824 ; J.\MKs S.MITH : History of tite Vliristian 
 Church fro>n its Oriijin to the Present Time, includ- 
 ing a Histori/o/ihe Cumberland Presbyterian Church, 
 Nashville, 1835; Robert David.sox : History of 
 the Presbyterian Church in Kentucky, with a Pre- 
 liminary Sketch of the Churches in the Valley of Vir- 
 yinia. New York, 1847 ; F. R. Cossit : Life and 
 Times of Finis Ewing, Nashville, 1853; David 
 LoW'KY : Life of Her. Robert Donnel, Nashville, 
 18()7 ; RicUAKD Bkakd: Biographical Sketches of 
 Some of the Karly Ministers of the Cumberlanil 
 Presbyterian Church, Nashville, 1867, 2 vols. ; The 
 same : Lectures on Systematic Theology, Nashville, 
 1870. 3 vols. ; The same : Why am I a Cumberland 
 Presbyterian ? Nashville, 1874 ; E. B. Cius«ian : 
 Origin and Doctrines of the Cumberland Presbyterian 
 Church. Nashville, bS75. K. v. FOSTER 
 
 (I'rofuKhor ill 'riuMlogicul School, Lebanon, Trliii.). 
 
 CUMMING, John, D.D., b. in Aberdeenshire, 
 Scotland, Nov. 10, 1807; d. in London, July 5, 
 1881. lie studied at King's College, Aberdeen ; 
 was tutor near London ; ordained pastor of the 
 Scotch Church, Crown Court, Covent (iarden, 
 London, in 1832, and resigned only a short time 
 before his death. lie was a member of the 
 Established Church of Scotland, and strongly 
 opposed to the disruption of 1SI3. Ilis repute a,s 
 a preacher was for nniny yeais very great, due 
 rather to his topics than to his genius. His great 
 themes were Prophecy and Roman Catholicism ; 
 and they exactly suited his fervid, imiiassioned, 
 brilliant mind. He jiorlrayed the future as if it 
 were the present, and saw in it the final, desper- 
 ate conflict of Protestantism with Romanism, i 
 
 j His publications were originally discourses. They 
 ' include the Apocalyptic Sketches (1849), The Great 
 I Tribulation. (1859), The Great Preparation, or Re- 
 demption Draiceth Xigh (1861), The Destiny of 
 Nations (1864), Soutiding of the Last Trumpet 
 (1867), The Fall of Babylon Foreshadowed in her 
 Teaching, in History, and in Prophecy (1870), and 
 The Seventh Vial, or the Time of Trouble Begun 
 (1870). In the last volume he (juotes reliable 
 evidence in proof that the .Scripture predictions 
 have been fulfilled, and stands firmly by his own 
 interpretation of prophecy. 
 
 CUMMINS, George David, D.D,, first bishop of 
 the Reformed Episcopal Church; b. near Smyrna 
 Del., Dec. 11, ls22; d. at Lutherville, near Balti- 
 more, ]\Id., June 26, 1876. lie was graduated 
 from Dickinson College (1841), and, after a 
 two-years' licentiate in the Methodist-Episcojial 
 Church, became (spring, 1840) an Episcopalian 
 minister, and assistant at Christ Church, Balti- 
 more. He afterwards held the following charges: 
 1847, Church Church, Norfolk, Va. ; 1853, St. 
 James's Church, Richmond, Va. ; 1855, Trinity 
 Church, Washington (in May, 1857, he held the 
 first religious service in the new hall of the 
 Capitol ; in July, 1857, he received the degree of 
 D.D. from Princeton College); 1858, St. Peter's, 
 Baltimore; 1S63. Trinit\' Church, Chicago. In 
 these different fields of labor he greatly endeared 
 himself to his congregation. On June 1, 1866, 
 he was elected, and on Nov. 15 he was conse- 
 crated, assistant-bishop of Kentucky. lie was 
 speedily recognized as a leader of the Evangeli- 
 cal party in the Protestant-I^piscopal Church. 
 He shared the belief that a revised prayer-book 
 would meet the dilficulties. He clung to the idea 
 of reform witliin the Church : so wlien, in the 
 summer of 1869, the necessity of separating was 
 put to him, he could not acknowledge it, but per- 
 severed in ilis efforts against abuses, greatly crip- 
 pled by his subordinate position, for he could not 
 forbid what he disliked. At length, thinking the 
 time for decisive action had come, he wrote (on 
 Nov. 10, 1873) to his senior bishop, declaring 
 that he could no longer .seem by his presence to 
 countenance the ritualistic practices of certain 
 churches of his diocese ; that he had lost all liope 
 that this system of error could be or would be 
 eradicated by any action of the Church ; and, 
 lastly, that the abuse he had received for com- 
 muning with his fellow Christians during the 
 (ienei-al Conference of the Evangelical Alliance 
 in New York (October, 1873) liad convinced 
 him that he must take his place where he could 
 give open expression of the Christian brotherhood 
 without alienating those of his own household of 
 faith : and accordingly he witiidrew from the Epis- 
 copal Church, and was in consequence deposed 
 from the ministry. Conferences with some who 
 were like minded followed, and out of them 
 grew the " Reformed Episcopal Cliurch " (for its 
 history, see title). In this new enter]irise ISishop 
 Cummins entered with all his energy, for it lie 
 willingly spent himself; but the burden of labor, 
 and the far heavier burden of abuse, the bitter 
 ness of finding that few had the courage or the 
 conscience to follow where he led, in comparison 
 with the many who were expected .so to do, broke 
 him ilown, and aft«'r a brief illness he died. The 
 Church which he founded reveres his memory as
 
 CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS. 583 CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS. 
 
 a man eloquent, conscientious, and devout. See 
 Mkmoik of (iiconcK David Cummins, D.D., 
 
 Jurst Bishi}/! o/' tin; Itrfniiniid K/tiscojin.l C/turt'h. 
 Jill his WIfr. Nf'w York, 187S. 
 
 CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS. Tlie cunei- 
 form, or \vi^cli;i'-slKi|iiHl, characters were used by 
 various peoples of Western Asia from tlie earliest 
 historic times down to Alexander's conquest. 
 They even appear occasionally still later. They 
 orin;inated in picture-signs, now lost, which were 
 jirobably traced on papyrus, or some lilje material, 
 and degenerated slowly into mere collections of 
 lines and .angles. When clay talilets were sub- 
 stituted foi' papyrus, and the characters were 
 made by the pre.ssure of a chisel-like instrument, 
 the lines easily became wedges ; and thus the 
 wedge was gradually adopted as the normal ele- 
 ment of the character. 
 
 The earliest specimens known to us of cunei- 
 form writing are in the Accadiau language, which, 
 together with the Sumerian, a dialect of the same 
 tongue, was spoken by a cultivated people of 
 Habylonia. (SeeAcCAD, AssviuA, B.viiYLONiA, 
 SiiiXAK.) They were probably its originators, 
 and perhaps the inventors of the picture-signs 
 out of which it was developed. From them it 
 yiassed to the Shemitio Babylonians, who pos- 
 sessed their land by invasion, and thence to the 
 Assyrians, the Medes, and the Persians; while the 
 Assyrians, in their turn, gave it to the people bor- 
 dering on Lake Van, on tlie confines of Armenia. 
 Little is known as yet of the Vannic language; 
 the Persian simplified the original system, so that 
 it closely approached an alphabet; the Medes 
 seem to have nearly followed the Babyloni.ans ; 
 while the Babylonians and Assyrians had in the 
 main developed the principles of the Accadian 
 writing. 
 
 The use of picture-characters in its simplest 
 stage requires merely that there be attached to 
 each character the sound of the riame belonging 
 to the object pictured. But the Accadians had 
 gone farther, and had not merely combined two 
 or more characters into a third, representing a 
 compound word, but had .sometimes given this 
 compound character an entirely new pronuncia- 
 tion. Moreover, they had so far forgotten the 
 picture-origin of the characters, ihat in many 
 cases these came to represent mere syllables; e.g., 
 the character meaning -'hand " might be used for 
 the prejiosition '' to," simjily because both were 
 jironounced iu. In short, the system, at first 
 purely iileof/raphic, began to be also plioiielic. 
 
 When the characters were adopted by the 
 .Shemitie Babylonians, certain difficulties arose. 
 The Accadian language had a .'^mailer number of 
 sounds than the Shenutic, and yet it had some 
 sounds which the latter had not. There was 
 need, therefore, of various adaptations. Accadian 
 signs were used not only for identical, but also 
 for kindred, Shemitie sounds. For example, the 
 Accadian </ had to serve for the .Shemitio li and /, 
 .sometimes for / .■ and tlie .\ccadian '/, not found 
 in Shemitie. was made to represent the Shemitio 
 A. The weaker .Shemitie gutturals and the qui- 
 escents. having no equivalent in Accadian. were 
 commonly not represented at all in the Assyro- 
 Babylonish. But there was a further complica- 
 tion. ^Vhile a .Shemitie pronunciation was given 
 to characters used as ideograms, and the same 
 
 sounds were often employed for the same charac- 
 ters used .as .syllables, the Accadian sounds were 
 also retained as syllabic values. Thus one char- 
 acter may be variously read as hilii (.V.s.syrian for 
 "house"), as the .syllable I/it, or .as the .syll.able 
 r, which in Accadian is aword meaning " liou.se." 
 Furthermore, both the Accadians and their .She- 
 I mitic conciuerors represented words of kindred 
 meaning by a .single character; e.g., the Assyrian 
 has one sign for inn ("eye"), piinii ("face"), and 
 amuni (•• to see "). 'I'his character could likewise 
 be used as a syllable, and was then pronounced 
 ill (from Assyrian inu), si, or liiii: the last two 
 sounds belonged to the character in Accadian, 
 and were adopted with it by the Shemitie invad- 
 ers. The difficulty of reading which this polyph- 
 onj' involved was diminished by certain habits 
 in regard to the employment of particular v.alues, 
 such as that a phonetic was preferred to an ideo- 
 graphic value, and an open to a clased syllable; 
 that a phonetic value ending in a vowel is often 
 followed liy one beginning with the same vowel, 
 etc. After the first steps in the decipherment of 
 the cuneiform characters had been t.aken, still 
 more important helps to further I'eading were 
 found in the inscriptions themselves. Such are: 
 (1) Bi- and tri- lingual texts; (2) P.ar.allel texts 
 in the same language; (-3) Dictionaries, vocabu- 
 laries, and glosses, giving the pronunciation and 
 meaning of ideograms. In all these cases the 
 values which are simjilest, and most e.asily learned, 
 are made to explain more unusual or difficult ones. 
 Assistance h.as been derived al.so from the repre- 
 sentations on the bas-reliefs .acconqianying many 
 inscriptions; and general information gained 
 from Greek and other historians has had some 
 value for the decipherer. 
 
 Ilistori/ o/Deciplieriiuiit. — The first in.scriptions 
 read wei-e Persian. In IfllS De Figueroa, a 
 .Spanish ambassador, visited and described the 
 ruins of Persepolis, calling special attention to 
 the cuneiform inscrijitions there; and in 1621 
 Pietro dellaValle expressed the (correct) opinion 
 that tliey were to be read from left to right. For 
 generations no further progress was made ; but 
 in 1774-78 a new impulse was given to investi- 
 gation, when Carsten Xiebuhr jiublished an ac- 
 count of his travels in the Orient, with many 
 plates of inscriptions from Persepolis. He no- 
 ticed that there were three distinct kinds, often 
 parallel, and was followed in liis attemjits to de- 
 cipher, at least the sinqilest kind, by Olaf Tychsen 
 and F. Miinter. But (jeorg Kriedrich Grotefend 
 of Hanover, Germany, was the first to succeed in 
 this task. He deciphered in the year 1802 two 
 short Persian in.scriptions from Xiebuhr's collec- 
 tion. Ivnowing that at Persepolis the .\cha;me- 
 nian kings had built palaces, and assuming th.at 
 these brief inscriptions contained royal names, he 
 adopted the suggestion of Miinter, that a certain 
 oft-re|ieated character must stand for " king,'' and 
 observed that eacli of liis inscriptions contained 
 tills character, and two groups of characters be- 
 side. The first group in one he perceived to be 
 the same with the second group in the other; 
 and in the one the sign for "king" followed only 
 the first group, while in the other it followed 
 both. He inferred that three persons were named 
 (two royal, and one not), and tli.at the rel.ationship 
 between the three was that of son, father, and
 
 CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS. 584 CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS. 
 
 grandfather. The translations, " Xerxes the King, 
 son of Darius the King," and " Darius the King, 
 son of Ilystaspes," proved to meet all the re- 
 quirements; and not oidy was this translation 
 found, after many tests, "to be correct, but the 
 number of accurately known letters in the Old 
 Persian was raised, by this one decipherment, from 
 two to eleven, besides othprs read with ajiproxi- 
 mate accuracy. Some decades later (18:50) E. 
 Burnouf and C. L.assen contributed materiall}' to 
 furtlier progress : X. AVestergaard and A. Iloltz- 
 mann followed. In 1837 Henry C. Rawlinson 
 discovered the gre.at tri-lingual inscription of 
 Darius on the cliff of Behistun ; and through the 
 labors of these scholars, together with E. Ilincks 
 and J. Oppert, a full knowledge was gained of 
 the old Persian characters ami language. Jlean- 
 tirae, the discoveries in Babylon and Nineveh 
 had begun. Rich (1820) brought to England a 
 small box of stone fragments from Nebi-.Tunus 
 and Knyundjik, opposite Mosul. Botta (1843- 
 45) unearthed the palace of Sargon, at Khorsabad. 
 and the Louvre received its treasures. Botta was 
 succeeded in the work by Place ; and A. II. Layard 
 (1845-51) not only brought to light four great 
 palaces at Xinirud, but made brilliant discov- 
 eries in the mounds of Xebi-Junus and Knyund- 
 jik. Further excavations were made in the same 
 region by Ilormuzd Rassam (1852-54), — to whom 
 belongs the credit of discovering the palace of 
 Tiglath-pileser I. at Kileh-Shergat, and the 
 crowning glory of unearthing the libr.ary of 
 Asurbainpal at Kuyundjik, — by George Smith 
 (1873-70 : he died at Aleppo on his third expedi- 
 tion, 1870), and by Rassam again, since 1870. In 
 Babylonia, Fresnel and Oppert made a valuable 
 collection (1851-54) ; but the boat which held it 
 capsized in the Tigris (1855), and all was lost. 
 Something was done by Loftus and Taylor (1853- 
 55) ; and since 1878 II. R.assam (.see above) has 
 made important discoveries in Babylonia as well 
 as in .\ssyria. A va.st amount of material for tlie 
 decipiherer has thus been gathered. It was found 
 that the inscriptions were chiefly in a character 
 like the third species in the tri-lingual inscriptions 
 nu-ntioned above. The Persian proper names of 
 the first species already deciphered gave the pro- 
 luniciation of many signs in the parallel species, 
 and in this way became the key to the whole As- 
 syro-Babylonish language. As early .as 1849 De 
 Saulcy discovered that the language was She- 
 mitic: Ilincks found that the signs represent 
 (words and) syllables, not h'tters. II. (". Raw- 
 linson ]iul)lislicil and translated the Babylonian 
 text of the Behistun inscription (1851) : Oppert, 
 Menant, Xorris, Fox 'i'albot, Lenormant, fol- 
 lowed, with granunatical and lexical as well as 
 epigraphic studies. The lu^w science began to 
 rouse wide enthusiasm ; and since 1870 it has been 
 pushed with redoubled vigor liy Rawlinson, .Smith, 
 Sayci', Pinches, and others in lOngland; Oppert, 
 Menant, Lenormant, Pognon, and Guyard in 
 France; and by .SchraihT, Friedrieli Delitzsch, 
 llaupt, Lotz, and llomniel in (iermany. 
 
 Tlie second species of cuneiform writing in the 
 tri-liugual inscriptions proved to be in the ancient 
 Median language, which 3till needs fuller investi- 
 gation. The Accadian, with its dialect tlie Sn- 
 Jnerian, was reached through the medium of the 
 Assyrian by the aid of very numerous bi-lingual 
 
 tablets, — Accadian texts with Assyrian transla- 
 tions, either interlinear or in parallel columns. 
 
 Some of the far-reaching results of the decipher- 
 ment of the cuneiform inscriptions are these : 
 the discovery of several new languages, the proof 
 that Shemitic culture is largely derived from the 
 non-Shenutic Accadians. new light on the his- 
 tory of Shemitic wanderings and on long jieriods 
 of sacred and profane historj-. The early chapters 
 of Genesis, and the period of the kings, from 
 .■Miab to the close of the exile, are the parts of 
 the Bible which receive special illustration. 
 
 The contents of the inscriptions, as well as the 
 materials inscribed, are most various. Stone 
 slabs, gems, clay tablets, glass, and metals are all 
 employed; and the subject-matter is historical, 
 poetical, mythological, religious, official, com- 
 mercial, astronomical, and mathematical. 
 
 A few of the most striking inscriptions are: 
 accounts of the creation and the flood ; the Epony m 
 Canon, or list of officials whose names mark 
 successive yeai's ; records of the As.syrian kings, 
 Shalmaneser II, (contemporary of Ahab, Jehu, 
 and Ilazael), Tigl.ath-pileser II. (Pul), Slialm.a- 
 neser IV., who besieged Samaria, Sargon, his 
 successor, who took it. >Senn.acherib (who describes 
 his campaign in Palestine, and names Ilezekiah 
 as king of Jerusalem), Esarhaddon, and A5ur- 
 banipal, the last great Assyrian king; records of 
 the Babylonian and Persian kings, Xebuchad- 
 nezzar, Nabonidus, Cyrus (his capture of Babylon 
 is described), and Darius. 
 
 The cuneiform inscriptions are preserved chiefly 
 in the British Museum ; some, particularly those 
 of Sargon, are in the Louvre in Paris ; a few are 
 in Berlin .and elsewhere. The sculptured and 
 inscribed slabs owned by several American mu- 
 seums all date from the Assyrian king Asurn.a.sir- 
 pal (B.C. 883-858); and the inscription is the 
 same on all, with only slight variations. It cele- 
 brates the restoration of the ancient city of Calah 
 (Xinn-ild). 
 
 Lit. (Selected: most important works starred). 
 — 1. Texts:— Fj. Botta and E. Fi,.\Nr>iN; *^fonu- 
 ment de Xinine, 5 vols., Paris, 1849-50 (texts in 
 III. and IV.); A. II. L.\Y.\ui); I»scripti<itis in the 
 Cuneiform ( /mraclei; London, 1851 ; IL C. Raw- 
 linson (with XoRitis, .Smith, and PixciiK.s) : 
 *Cuneiform Inscription.'! of Western Asia, vols. I.- 
 V., London, 180.5-81; Victok Place: Ninive et 
 PAssi/rie, 3 vols., Paris, 1800-09 (one volume 
 contains texts) ; F, Lknorma.nt : C/ioix ile Texles 
 Ciinc'i/hrnies inr'Jits, I. -III., P;iris, 1873-75; Fr. 
 Dki.itzsch : *Ass>/risclie Lesestiirl-e, 2te Aufl. Leip- 
 zig, 1878; P. IIaui't: *A/,-ka(lisclie u. Sumeri.iche 
 Keilsclirifltexte, I.- IV., Leipzig, 1881. 
 
 2. 1'exls or Transliterntinns, with Translations and 
 Commentaries. — C. Lasskn : Die altpersisclien 
 Ki-ilinsehriften, Bonn, 1836; *Voltslundi(je Zu- 
 .■iammensteHnni) alter bis 1S45 hekanni (jemaehler 
 all/tersi.irlien Keilinsriiriften, mit I-Jrklariinr/, Bonn, 
 1845; II. C. Rawmnso.v: *TIh> Persian Cnneiform 
 Inscriptions at Behistun deciphered and translated ; 
 with a Memoir. London, 1849; F. SriEOKL : *Die 
 leltpersischen Keilinschriften, Leipzig, 1802, 2te 
 Aufl., 1881 ; J. Oim'KIIt: I.e Peuple et hi l.ampie 
 ile.K Medes, Paris, 1879 ; H. C, Rawi.in.so.n : *M'em- 
 oir on the Jialtiflmiittn and Assi/rian Inseriplions 
 (Babylonian Text of B<'hist. Iiiscrip.), London, 
 1851 ; J. OlTEUT ; *Les Inscriptiont de Dour
 
 CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS. 
 
 585 
 
 CUNNINGHAM. 
 
 Sarkwiiui, Paris, 1870; J. JIknant : * Inscriptions 
 de Uammourabi Roi de ]iahi/lone, Paris, 1803 ; 
 *Cal(dof/ue d<:i (,'i/Undres OrioiUiux du Cabinet 
 Royal (ies Mi'daillcs ("i la Ifni/e, The Hague, 1878; 
 J. Ori'liRT aiidJ. Menant: Documcntu Juridiques 
 de I'Assijric et_ de la C/ialde'e, Paris, 1877; V. Lf.- 
 xormant: Etudes Accadiennes, Paris, 1873-79, 
 Tome II. G. Smith: History of Assurhanijial, 
 London, 1871 ; History of Sennacherib, London, 
 1877; E. A. Budge: Assyrian Texts, London, 
 1880; History of Esarhaddon, London, 1880; E. 
 Schuadek: *Die Keilinschriften it. das Atte Testa- 
 ment, Iste Aufl., Giessen, 1872, 2te Aufl. in press 
 1881; Die Hollenjahrt der Istar, Giessen, 1874; 
 P. Haupt : *Die sumerischeu Familiengesetze, I., 
 Leipzig, 1879; F. Hommel : Zwci Jagdinschriftcn 
 Asurbanibals, Leipzig, 1879 ; W. LoTZ : *Inschrif- 
 ten Tiglalh-pileser's L, Leipzig, 1880 ; H. Pognon : 
 *L' Inscription de Bacian, Paris, 1879-80. 
 
 3. English Translations. — Records of the Past, 
 Vols. I., IIL, v., VIL, IX., XL, London, 1874- 
 79. Translations by W. St. C. Boscawen, E. 
 A. Budge, W. B. Finlay, J. IIalevy, W. 
 Houghton, F. Lexorm.\nt, J. Menant, J. Op- 
 PEKT, T. G. Pinches, II. C. Rawlin.son, J. M. 
 RoDWELL, A. H. Sayce, G. Smith, H. Fo.x. 
 Talbot. 
 
 4. Phonological. — J. Menant: Syllabaire As- 
 syrienne, Paris, 18C1-73; G. Smith: Phonetic 
 Values of Cuneiform Characters, London, 1871; F. 
 Lenormant : Les Syllabaires C unciforines, Paris, 
 1877; E. Schuader : Assyrisches Syllabar, Berlin, 
 1880. (See also 1, 2, and 5.) 
 
 5. Grammatical. — E. Hincks: *Spea)nen Chap- 
 ters of an Assyrian Gcammor, Journal R. A. Soc, 
 1866; J. Oppert : Elements de la Grummaire As- 
 syrienne, Paris, 1860, 2ifenie ed., 1868; E. Schra- 
 DER : *Die assyrisch-habylonischen Keilinschriften, 
 Leipzig, 1872; A. H. S.\yce : Assyrian Grammar 
 for Comparative Purposes, Lond., 1872; Elementary 
 Assyrian Grammar, icith Syllabary, 2d ed., London, 
 1876; Assj/rian Lectures, London, 1877; F. Lenor- 
 mant : Etudes Accadiennes, Tomes I., HI., Paris, 
 1873-79; J. Mexant : Manuel de la Langue As- 
 syrienne, Paris, 18S0; P. Haupt: Assyrische Gram- 
 matik (in preparation 1881). (See also 2.) 
 
 6. Lexicid. — E. Norris : * Assyrian Dictionary, 
 Vols. I.-HL, London, 1868-72 (incomplete at 
 author's death) ; E. Chossat : Repertoire Assyri- 
 enni', Lj'on, 1879; Fr. Delitzscii ; *A.tsyrisches 
 Wiirtcrbuch (in preparation 1881). (Also v.arious 
 vocabularies and glossaries appended to texts, 
 etc. : see 2.) 
 
 7. Historical and Literary. — J. Bonomi : Nine- 
 veh and Its Palaces ; The Discoveries of Bolta and 
 Layard applied to the Elucidation of Holy Writ, 
 London, 18.52; G. Smith: The Assyrian. Eponym 
 Canon, London, 1874; *The Chaldean Genesis, 2d 
 ed., by Sayce, London and New York, 1881; G. 
 Rawlinson : Fire Gnat Oriental Monarchies, 4th 
 ed., London, 1880, Xew York, 1881; E. Schua- 
 der: * Die KeUinschriften u. dieGeschichtsfortsetzung, 
 Giessen, 1878 ; M. Duncker : Geschichie des Alter- 
 ?/i»m.«,5te Aufl., Berlin, 1878-80, Eng. trans, in prog- 
 ress, 5th vol., London, 1881; Fr. Dei.itzsch: *Wo 
 lag das Parodies? Leipzig, 1881; F. MI'rdter: 
 Kurzgefasste Geschichte Babylonicns und Assyriens 
 iiach den Keilschriftdenhnalern, Stuttgart, 1882 ; 
 F. Lenormant : I^es Premieres Cicilisations, Paris, 
 1874; La Langue Primilioe de la Chaldee, Paris, 
 
 1875; La Divination et la Science des Presages, 
 Paris, 1875; Chaldean Magic, London, 1877; Les 
 Dieux de Dabylone et de I'Assyrie, Paris, 1877 ; Le.s 
 Origines de I'lJistoire, Paris, 1880. 
 
 8. Discovery and DeciphermetU. — C. Nieuuhr : 
 * Reisebeschreibungcn nach Arabien u. andern uinlie- 
 gendcn Ldndern, 15d. II., Copenhagen, 1778; G. F. 
 Grotefend: *Praeviade cuneatis (juas vocatit in- 
 scriptionibus Persepolitanis legendis et explicandis 
 relalio, Gottingen, 1802; also in Ilcercn's Historical 
 Researches, Asiatic Nations, London, 1816, vol. 
 II.,App. II. ; Rich: Babylon and Perscpolis, Loa- 
 don, 1839 ; A. H. Layard : *Nineveh anil Its lie- 
 mains, 2 vols., London, 1819; * Discoveries in the 
 Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon (2d expedition), 
 London, 1853; W. K. Loftus : *Chald(rji and 
 Susiana, London, 1857; J. Oppert: *Expi'ilition 
 Scientifque en Me'sqpotamie , 1851-54, Paris. 1857- 
 64 ; J. RIenant : ^Eli'mints d'epigrajiliieAssyrienney 
 Expose des travaux qui ont prepare la lecture et I'in- 
 terpretation des inscriptions de la Perse et de I'Assy- 
 rie, 2ieme edition, Paris, 1864; Tn. Benfey: 
 Geschichte der Sprachwissenschaft u. orientalischen 
 Philologie in Deutschland, Mun., 1809; G. Smith: 
 Assyrian Discoveries, Lond., 1874; H. Rassam: 
 Recent Assyrian and Babylonian Research, Victoria 
 Institute, 1880. FRANCIS BROWN. 
 
 CUNNINGHAM, William, D.D., an eminent 
 Scotcli theologian and controversialist; b. at 
 Hamilton, Oct. 2, 1805; d. in Edinburgh, Dec. 14, 
 1861. He studied at Edinburgh under Dr. Chal- 
 mers and others ; was licensed as a preacher in 
 1828 ; settled as a minister in Greenock in 1830 ; 
 translated to Trinity College Church, Edinburgh, 
 in 1834 ; appointed professor in the Xew College 
 in 1843, and principal (in succession to Dr. Chal- 
 mers) in 1847. From his student-days his great ■ 
 capacity for theological learning and singular 
 controversial power were apparent. lie threw 
 himself with great energy into the strife in the 
 Church of Scotland, which began to become ear- 
 nest about the time of his settlement in Edin- 
 burgh. Both his ecclesiastical learning and his 
 debating power found a splendid field, as the 
 strife advanced, in conflict with such learned men 
 as Lord Medwyu and .Sir 'William Hamilton. In 
 the General Assembly his speeches were singu- 
 larly weighty and telling. To his combativeness 
 he added a simple, cliildlike nature, a warm 
 lieart, and a blunt, honest manner; so that, while 
 his foes spoke of liim with dn-ad and horror, his 
 friends were devotedly attached to him. As a 
 professor he had a remarkable power of inspiring 
 his students with confidence in himself, and en- 
 thusiasm for their studies. When appointed pro- 
 fessor, he was requested by the General Assembly 
 to go to America, and make himself acquainted, 
 witii the methods of study pursued there. Among 
 other friendships thus formed was one of unusual, 
 warmth and sympathy for Dr. Hodge of Princeton. 
 In theology Dr. Cunningham was a thorough Cal- 
 vinist. His works (chiefly posthumous) were : His- 
 torical Theology [Edinburgh, 1862], 2 vols.; The Re- 
 formers and the Theology of the Reformation [1862] ; 
 Discussions on Church Principles [1863]; Lectures', 
 on the Evidences, Canon, etc. [X. Y.. 1878]; Ser-, 
 monsfrom 1828 to 1860 [1872], etc. His Life was \ 
 written by the late Rev. James Mackenzie, and Rev. 
 Dr. Rainy, who succeeded iiim as prof essor of church 
 history, Edinburgh, 1871. w. G. BLAIKIB.
 
 CURCELL^US. 
 
 bS6 
 
 CURIA ROMANA. 
 
 CURCELL>€US, Stephanus. See Courcelles. 
 
 CURATE denotes, in the Church of England, 
 the lowest degree of ministers, licensed by the 
 ■bishop, and employed by the incumbent of a 
 'parisii as his assistant, either in the same church, 
 ■or in a chapel of ease, but removable at pleasure 
 iby the bishop or the incumbent. Thei'e was 
 formerly a distinction made between perpetual 
 and temporary curates, the former not being 
 removable ; but this distinction has been abol- 
 ished by 31 and 32 Vict., chap. 117, which con- 
 fers the title of vicar on all perpetual curates. 
 In the Anglican Prayer-Book the name is some- 
 time.? used in a general sense, denoting the in- 
 •cumbent of any kind of ecclesiastical office with 
 which is connected the care of the souls of the 
 parish ; and this is aLso the original meaning of 
 the name in the Roman-Catholic Church. There 
 too, however, citratus came, in the course of the 
 fifteenth centur}-, to be used only for the vicars 
 or assistants of the regular incumbents of the 
 churches, though the office never sank so low in 
 social resjject as in the Anglican Church. The 
 Council of Trent forbade to employ temporary 
 curates, removable at pleasure (sess. vii. chap. 
 5, 7, de reform.'). In the performance of their 
 duty, in their cura actualis, the real incumbent 
 of the church, the parochus primiticus, exercises 
 only a cura hahilualis. 
 
 GURATE, Perpetual. See Curate. 
 
 CURETON, William, a distinguished Oriental 
 scliolar, especially in Syriac ; b. at Westbury, 
 Shropshire, ISOS; d. there June 17, 1S64. He 
 was educated at Christ Church, Oxford ; was 
 sub-librarian of the Bodleian (1834), assistant 
 keeper of the manuscripts in the British JNIuseum 
 (1837-50), chaplahi to the queen (1847), canon 
 of Westniinster, and rector of St. jNIargaret's, 
 AVestniinster (1849). Ilis services, especially to 
 Ijiblical and patristic learning, were very great, 
 us a mere enumeration of the titles of his ]iubli- 
 cations will show : Si/rlac Version of t/ie Epislles 
 of Ignatius (1845) ; Catalogue of Arabic Manu- 
 scripts in the British Museum (1S4G); Vindicice 
 Jgnatianm, or the Genuine Writings of St. Ignatius, 
 <is exhibited in the Ancic7it Si/riac I'cr.'iion, vindi- 
 cated from the Charge of Ihresi/ (1S4G) ; Coipus 
 Jgnatianum, a complete collection of the Ignatian 
 Epistles, genuine, interpolated, and .spurious, 
 together witli numerous extracts from tlieni, etc., 
 in Syriac, Greek, and Latin; an English transla- 
 tion of the Syriac text, copious notes and Intro- 
 duction (184.)); John, Bishop of Ephesus,the Third 
 Part of his Kcclesiastical Jlistnr;/ [in Syriac], 
 (1853;; the same, translated by Dean Smith, 1860; 
 Spicilegiunt iSi/riacum, containing }icniarl,s of Bar- 
 dtsan, Meliton, Ambrose, ami ^laru-Bar-Serapion, 
 ■tvith an English 'Translation and I^'otes (1855); 
 Quatuor Enangeliorum Syriace, recens.onis uiiti- 
 liiiissima:, atque in occldeute adhuc ignotm (/uod 
 :.aj,er<:st (1858). 
 
 CUREUS, Joachim, b. at Freistadt, Silesia, in 
 1532; studied theology ami pliilo.sophy at Wit- 
 tenberg (1550-51), and medicine at I'adua and 
 Bologna (1557-59), and settled as [■ractical pliy- 
 .sician at Glogau, where he died in 1.573. lie 
 was a ]iassionate disciple of Melanchthou, and the 
 author of the famous Exegesis Perspicua cl Ferme 
 Integra Conlroversiir. de Satra C'cena, which ap- 
 peared anonymously at Leipzig in 1574, by the 
 
 same publisher who had issued the Corpus Philij^- 
 picum. The work is a defence of a semi-Calvin- 
 istic view of the sacrament of the Lord's Supper, 
 and occasioned the elector August of Saxony to 
 discharge all those of his counsellors and theo- 
 logians who leaned towards Melanchthon. The 
 work has been reprinted at Jlarburg in 1853 by 
 \Y. Scheffer. 
 
 CURIA ROMANA denotes the whole body of 
 officials which together forms the papal govern- 
 ment. As the Pope is Bishop of Rome, arch- 
 bishop of a province of seven bishoprics, primate 
 of the Roman-Catholic Church, and, up to 1859, 
 occupant of a large territory, the States of the 
 Church, the organization of the papal govern- 
 ment consequenth' developed in each of these 
 directions. Generally, however, the archbishop 
 employs no special officials for the performance 
 of his archiepiscopal duties, but simply uses his 
 episcopal officers for these functions too; and 
 exactly in the same manner it was originally 
 simply the presbytery of his episcopal diocese 
 which joined the Pope in the administration of 
 important affairs, whether episcopal, or archi- 
 episcopal, or primatial; while cases of minor 
 consequence were left to him to be disposed of 
 personally, in capella, or by the aid of liis chap- 
 lains. The College of Cardinals, the chief organ 
 of the papal government, developed around the 
 papal see exactly in the same manner as the 
 chapter aroiuid any other episcopal see. See 
 
 C--iI!DIN.\L. 
 
 In the episcopal chapter it was the t\io princi- 
 pal members, the arch-deacon and the arch-pres- 
 byter, who transacted all business; while the 
 chapter proper, the former presbytery, stood by 
 as a board of advice. So, too, in the College of 
 Cardinals, where the affairs were divided be- 
 tween the cardinal-camerlengo (the arch-deacon) 
 and the cardinal- vicari us (the arch-presbyter). 
 The cardinal-camerlengo is already mentioned in 
 the lilicr diurnus as the most influential member 
 of the presbytery as its representative. To him 
 belonged the jurisdiction and the llnances of the 
 diocese ; and he appointed his three principal 
 sub-officials himself, — the vice-camerlengo for 
 the criminal jurisdiction, the auditor canierce for 
 the civil jurisdiction, and the treasurer (tcsoriere) 
 for the finances. To Mie canlinal-vicarius be- 
 longed nil the ecclesiastical affairs of the diocese, 
 and lie had a suffragan bishop among his sub- 
 officers. As the papal possessions increased, the 
 sejiaration between these two offices became more 
 sharply marked. All secular interests were 
 gathered under the cardinal-camerlengo, and he 
 became a state-ollicer in the modern sense of the 
 word: all ecclesiastical interests gathered under 
 the cardinal-vicarius, and he became [iractically 
 the Bishop of Rome. The granting of benefices, 
 however, and the power of tiie keys (/lotesla.^ 
 ligandi et solccndi), the Popc^ reserved for liim.self, 
 or rather for a special officer, the cardinal-peni- 
 tentiary. To these three grand offieiM's was 
 added, though not until llie latter jiart of the 
 fifteenth century, a fourth, — tlie cardinal-patron, 
 or, as he is now generally called, the cardinal- 
 secretary-of-state. IIo began as a kind of minis- 
 ter of the papal household, became tlien, on 
 account of his daily and intimate intercourse 
 \\ith the I'opi;, the ministi r of foreign affairr-.
 
 CURIA ROMANA. 
 
 587 
 
 CURIO. 
 
 ami assumed finally a position as niinistoi' of the 
 iiitfi'ior, too, having tlif command of the papal 
 troops and the direction of the papal lpgat<'S, 
 which placed nearly the whole administration of 
 the Papal States, both the patrimony proper and 
 the legations, iu his hands. The centre of the 
 \vliole machine was of course the Pope, to whom 
 the final decision of all questions belonged, and 
 who, in connection with the consistoiy, exercised 
 a general superintendence. 
 
 The whole organization, such as it Iiad devel- 
 oped and was working in the beginning of the 
 sixteentli century, before the Council of Trent, 
 comprised the College of Cardinals assembling in 
 consistories, the two signatures (Signalura Graticc 
 and liignalwa Juslitkc), the Pocinlenliaria, the ]!ola, 
 the Dalaria, and the Chancery. The last-men- 
 tioned, the CanccUuria Apostolica, w-as simply a bu- 
 reau of expedition in wliich the affairs treated by 
 tlie College of Cardinals and in the signatures re- 
 ceived their final business form, and were issued. 
 The Dalaria originated as a mere department of 
 the chancery, as a kind of board of control, in 
 which all ingoing and outgoing communications 
 were dated and registered ; but, on account of the 
 great importance which this simple function had 
 for all cases of benefices, the department soon 
 became independent, and gradually came to exer- 
 cise a considerable influence. The Rota was the 
 Supreme Court of Christendom, and an immense 
 amount of business flowed into its I'ooms. It 
 consisted of twelve members {audilores), — three 
 liomans, one from Bologna, one from Ferrara, 
 one alternately from Tuscany or Perugia, one 
 from Venice, one from Milan, one German, one 
 Frenchman, and two Spaniards. It lost some of 
 its importance when the ISiijnulura Juslitke was 
 established above it as a court of appeal for Italy; 
 and bj- degrees, as the jurisdiction of the Pope 
 w as confined on the one hand to a small number 
 of cases, on the other, first to the Papal States, 
 tlien to the City of Rome, and finally to the pal- 
 ace of the Vatican, the Rota and the S'ujnatura 
 JuitiliiK shrank into mere shadows. The Sirjna- 
 liira Graike and the Pcenitendaiia treated all cases, 
 assorting to i\i6 posleslas legamli et solvendi dispen- 
 sations, indulgences, etc., the former in a more 
 private and personal way, the latter j>ublicly and 
 officially. Affairs of dogmatics, liturgy, finance, 
 general policy, appointment of bishops, etc., be- 
 longed to the College of Cardinals, among whose 
 members every country, diocese, monastic order, 
 etc., had its special pi-olector, who reported on its 
 affairs, pleaded its cause, and took care of its 
 interests. 
 
 From the middle of the sixteenth century, 
 however, a great change was effected in this or- 
 ganization by the establishment of the so-called 
 Cungreyaliones, committees of cardinals formed 
 for some special range of business. The oldest 
 of these congregations is the Sancla Congregalio 
 Romance et Universalis Inqiiisilionis, or Sancli Offi- 
 cii, generally called Sant' Cfficiu, founded in 1542, 
 on occasion of the German Keformation, and with 
 the object of eradicating all heresy : it was after- 
 wards considerably enlarged by the addition of 
 the S. Congr. Judicis Librorum Proliihiloruin for 
 watching the literatures. A second congrega- 
 tion, S. C. CardinaliuiH Cuncilii Tridenttni Inlcr- 
 2>rdtum, or Congrcgatiu ConciUi, or Conciglio, was 
 
 founded in 1.504 for the correct publication and 
 true interpretation of the decrees of the Council 
 of Trent. Its verdicts (I'csohilioues, dcclaralinnes) 
 enjoy great authority ; and a collection of them 
 ('J'/iisauriis Hesolulianmii), comprising over one 
 liundred volumes, has appeared since 1718. Three 
 other congregations were founded by Sixtus V. ; 
 namely, .S. ('. suiter negoliis EpiKcnpornm (ft Regu- 
 larimn, oi- Vescori et Regular!, for all episcopal and 
 monastical affairs; S. C. Rituuin,iov rituals, lit- 
 urgy, canonization, etc.; and .S'. C. ConsiMariaUs, 
 to prepare all business matter before it is brought 
 into a regular consistory. Of the congregations 
 established in the seventeenth century, the most 
 important are De Propaganda Fide (1G22), for 
 the centralization of all mission business ; S. C. 
 Immunitalis Ecc/esiastica; (1626), to guard against 
 any encroachment from the side of the State on 
 the privileges of the Church ; S. C. Indulgen- 
 tiarum (1669), etc. The Gerarchia Cattolica for 
 1878 mentions still more congregations. The re- 
 lation between these congregations and the old 
 authorities still existing often gives rise to very 
 difficult questions. Generally, however, the old 
 and the new authorities are equally competent ; 
 and he who has any business to transact can 
 clioose the party with which he prefers to deal, 
 for reasons of clieapness, speed, personal connec- 
 tions among the officials, etc. 
 
 Lit. — OcTAViANUS Vestrius : Introductio in 
 Romance Aidce Actionem, Venice, 1.564 ; Bangen : 
 Die rOmische Kurie, MUnster, 1854 ; BoNix : De 
 Curia Romana, Paris, 1859; [X. Barbier de 
 MoNTAULT ; La sacre college des canlinaux de la 
 sainte e'glise romaine, Paris, 1879 ; W. Ribbeck : 
 Friedrich I. u. die romische Curie in den JaJiren 
 1157 his 1159, Leipzig, 1881.] mejee. 
 
 CURIO, Ccelius Secundus, b. at Cirie, near 
 Turin, May 1, 150.3; d. at Basel, Nov. 24, 1569; 
 one of those numerous Italians, who, attracted by 
 the evangelical movement of the Reformation, 
 were compelled by the counteraction of Rome 
 to leave their native country, and seek refuge 
 beyond the Alps. While studying classical lan- 
 guages, history, and jurisprudence at Turin, he 
 became acquainted with the writings of Luther, 
 Melanchthon, and Zwingli, through an Augustini- 
 an monk, Hieronymus Niger; and the impression 
 he received was so strong, that he immediately 
 set out for Germany in order to study the new 
 theology. But, on the order of the Cardinal- 
 bishop Boniface of Ivrea, he was arrested near 
 Aosta,and imprisoned. Releasedaftertwo months, 
 he was brought to the Monastery of St. Benignus 
 to continue his studies ; but after half scandaliz- 
 ing and half seducing the monks by his views, 
 which he never desisted from preaching, he fled 
 from the monastery, visited Rome and other 
 It.alian cities, and finally settled at Milan, where 
 lie married Margaretha Blanca of the distin- 
 guished family of Isachi. In order to avoid the 
 w\ar troubles, he successively removed to_ Pied- 
 mont, Savoy, Pa\-ia, where he lectured in the 
 university ; but, as he was zealous in defending 
 and preaching the evangelical views, he was 
 seized at Paviaby the Inquisition, and incarcerat- 
 ed. He escaped, however, and found refuge in 
 Venice, and at the court of the Duchess Renata of 
 Ferrara. On her recommendation, he obtained a 
 position at the University of Lucca. But he had
 
 CURTIUS. 
 
 688 
 
 CUSANUS. 
 
 hardh' begun to teach, before the Pope demanded 
 that he be delirered up; and, when the city de- 
 clared itself unable to defend him, he fled (in 
 1542) to Switzerland, wliere he was professor of 
 literature, languages, and rhetoric, first at Lau- 
 sanne (1543-4t), and then in Basel. As a hu- 
 manist teacher he earned a great reputation, and 
 received splendid offers from Maximilian 11. , the 
 Duke of Savoy, and even from Pope Paul IV. ; 
 but he declined to leave Basel, where alone he 
 felt free and safe. He was not, strictly speak- 
 ing, a theologian, but took great interest in all the 
 theological movements of his time, and was not 
 ■without influence. In Basel he stood at the head 
 of that latitudinarian group of Italians which 
 gathered there ; and he was looked upon with 
 suspicion, not only by the Roman Catholics, but 
 also liy Calvin and the orthodox Lutherans. His 
 most widely known and most characteristic work 
 is his PaaquUii Ecslatici, a satire on the papacy 
 and the Koinan Church, Geneva, 1544. A posi- 
 tive representation of his religious stand-point 
 may be found in his ChrintiancE Religionis Instilulio, 
 Basel, 1549. But the work which caused the 
 most contradiction from all sides was his De 
 Amplilmline Bead Retjni Dei, 1554. 
 
 Lit. — A complete list of the materials for his 
 life is given by Schelhorn : Amcenit. Lit. XIV. 
 p. 382. See, also, E. Coquekel ; De Cmlii S. Cu- 
 rioiiis Vila, Paris, 1856, and M'Crie : Hislori/ <;/" 
 the I'roi/rexs ami Suppression of the Reformation in 
 Italii, Edinburgh. 1827. WAGENMANN. 
 
 CURTIUS, Valentin (Korte, or Kortheim) b. 
 at Li-lius, in Brandeijlmrg, Jan. 6, 1493; d. at 
 Lubeck, Nov. 20, loUT ; came to Rostock to study 
 theology in 1512, and entered the order of the 
 Franciscans, but embraced the Reformation, and 
 was nia<le Protestant preacher at the Church of 
 the Holy Spirit in 1528; married in 1532; was 
 called to Lubeck in 1534, and made superintend- 
 ent in 1554. Liibeck was at that time the centre 
 of orthodox Lutherdom in Northern Germany, 
 and Curlius occupied a prominent place in the 
 conventions and disputations of that time. He 
 drew up tlie Formula Lubecensis (15()0), which, up 
 to 1G85, was signed by every ecclesiastic appointed 
 in the city, and the Protestalio contra Si/noiluin 
 Triilenlinam (1501). But he was also very eager 
 to have the English refugees of 1554 expelled 
 from tlie city on account of their Calvinism. See 
 C. H. Stakcke: Liilicclisc/ie Kirchen-I/istorie, 
 Hamburg, 1724 ; J. H. Gekcken: Dissertatio de 
 Form. Luh., Gottingen, 1755. 
 
 CUSANUS, Nicolaus(Nicolai Krypffs, or Krebs), 
 also known as Nicholas de Cusa; b. at Cues, or 
 Cusa, a village on the Moselle, in the diocese of 
 Treves, 1401 ; d. at Lodi, Aug. 11, MC.l ; was the 
 Bon of poor parents, but was by Count Ulrich of 
 Manderscheiil, in who.se service he had entered, 
 .sent to the scliool of the Brethren of the Common 
 lAii:, at Deventer, and then to the University of 
 I'adua, where he studied law, and took the degree 
 in 1424. He lost, however, the very first case 
 ill whidi lie jileaded, at Mayence; and this deter- 
 mined liim to leave the legal career altogether, 
 and enter the Church. For several yeai'S he 
 studied mathematics and astronomy, Hebrew and 
 Greek, piiilosuphy and theology, with great zeal ; 
 and he was Arclideacon of Liege, when, in 1433, 
 he was sent lu the Council of Basel. There he 
 
 attracted general attention by his De Catholica 
 Concordantia and De Auctoritate prcesidendi in 
 Concilio Generali. In the former he declares 
 that the papal authority is not tied up with the 
 Roman see; that the true successor of Peter is- 
 he who is duly chosen by the representatives of 
 Christendom, and not he who incidentally occu- 
 pies the chair of Rome ; that the donation of 
 Constantine is a fable ; that the secular princes- 
 are completely independent of the Pope in all 
 secular affairs, etc. In the latter he vindicates 
 the authority of the oecumenical council above 
 that of the Pope ; and, when he concedes to the 
 Pope the right to preside at the oecumenical 
 council, this right is one of honor only, not of 
 ]iower, etc. Nevertheless, some years later we 
 find him travelling in Germany as papal legate, 
 and defending in the diets of 1440-42 the very 
 opposite views. He had in the mean time become 
 a friend of Eugenius IV. ; and he served hira 
 with great devotedness on many important mis- 
 sions, — to Constantinople, to work for the union 
 of the two Churches; to Germany, to gather 
 money for the building of the Church of St. 
 Peter, etc. Nicholas V. also showed him great 
 confidence, and made him cardinal in 1448, and 
 Bishop of Brixen in 1451, in spite of the protest 
 of Archduke Sigismund. During the Congress 
 of Mantua he was the Pope's vicegerent in 
 Rome, and published his Crihratio Alchorani. 
 His troubles with Sigismund disturbed his last 
 days (when the duke imprisoned the bishoj), and 
 the bishop excommunicated the duke) ; and un- 
 happily the decision of the emperor in his favor 
 was not given until after his death. 
 
 The extraordinarj' change in Cusa's views has 
 generally been explained as the result of ambi- 
 tion and cowardice. He saw that nothing could 
 be attained in the Church except by standing on 
 the Pope's side, and he was tempted. He saw 
 that his \iews could not be carried through with- 
 out causing a complete revolution, and he was 
 frigliteued. There is, however, in Cusa"s charac- 
 ter, nothing at all to justify such an explanation. 
 He was an honest, open, simple-hearted man, 
 who for truth's sake could have sacrificed his 
 worldly pros]>ects, even his life, without regret, 
 without tear, without the least trace of the mar- 
 tyr's bravado, if he had only known the truth. 
 Hut there was just the hitch. In his intellect, 
 though he actuallv broke with the tradition of 
 the .schoolmen, and though he often is spoken of 
 as the dawn of modern ]>hilos(iphy, there was 
 just that kind of confusion and obscurity, which, 
 with an honest man who is too naive to conceal 
 any thing, nuikes such a glaring inconsistency 
 almost a matter of course. In his books De Docta 
 Ii/niirantin and Dr Conjecturis, his two principal 
 pliilus(>|ihical works, he defines the relation be- 
 tween absolute truth and tlie human mind as one 
 of complete incongruity. Absolute truth the 
 human mind is utterly unable to grasp : it can 
 only form opinions, conjectures, about it. But, 
 when the intellect can establish no other relatioir 
 than that of conjecture between itself and abso- 
 lute truth, an honest character can, just because 
 it is honest, hardly escajic, at least once in the 
 course of its development, to be thrown from that 
 stand-point which it holds over to tlie very oppo- 
 site, unless it can keep itself forever oscillating
 
 GUSH. 
 
 389 
 
 GUSH. 
 
 k 
 
 in a sceptical dilemma. But Cusa was not a 
 sceptic, citluT intellectually or morally. Intel- 
 lectually lie was a realist, not without a tint of 
 materialism. lie was a great mathematician. 
 His propositions for tlie improvement of the 
 -Julian Calendar resembled those adopted after- 
 wards by (iregory VII. He anticipated Coperni- 
 cus in his views of the earth's position in the 
 planetary system. He was the father of Giordano 
 Bruno. Morally he was a mystic, with a .strong 
 leaning towards asceticism. He taught that 
 glimpses of the absolute truth could be caught 
 by means of intuition, which aided the mind in 
 divining, as spectacles aid the eyes in seeing. He 
 was a pupil of Meister Eckardt. The speculative 
 result of this singular combination was an ob- 
 scure and inconsistent pantheism — God as the 
 maximum has nothing outside himself, the world 
 is a finite condensation of the maximum — wliich 
 frightened his contemporaries ; and the practical 
 result is a number of mystico-materialistic ab- 
 surdities — -De Quadratura Circuli, De Nocissimis 
 Diehus, according to which the universe should 
 perish in 1734 — which deter a modern reader. 
 But of cowardice and ambition, and other moral 
 blemishes, there is not much in the man. Cusa's 
 works make three volumes, and have been pub- 
 lished three times; last edition by Henri Petri, 
 Basel, 1565. 
 
 Lit. — Hartzheim: Vila N. de Cusa, Treves, 
 1730 ; ScHAUPFF : Cardinal und Bischof Nic. von 
 Cusa, Mayence, 1843 (only the first volume has 
 appeared) ; Dux : Dei- deutsche Cardinal Nic. von 
 Cusa und die Kirche seiner Zeit, Ratisbon, 1847, 2 
 vols, (according to C. Schmidt, in Herzog's Real- 
 •encyclopadie, lengthy and unsystematic) ; ZiM- 
 mermann: Nic. Cusanus als Vorldufer Leihnitzens, 
 Vienna, 1852 ; Jager : Der Slreit des Card. Nic. 
 ■von Cusa mil Herzog Sig. von Oslerreich, Inns- 
 bruck, 1861, 2 vols. ; Stumpf : Die politischen 
 Ideen Nic. von Cues, Cologne, 1805 ; Scharpff : 
 Nic. van Cusa als Reformatur, Tubingen, 1871 ; 
 KiCHARD Falckenberg : Phdosophie d. Nic. von 
 Cusa, Breslau, 1880. 
 
 CUSH (Hebrew aO, Egyptian Kas, KS, or Kes, 
 Assyrian Kusi and Miluhki, LXX. MSioTria, Vyl- 
 gate ^Ethiopia, except Gen. x. 6-8. 1 Chron. i. 8- 
 10, where LXX. have Xo6f, Vulgate Chus) is a 
 name applied in the Old Testament to a person, 
 a land, and a people. As a person, Cu-sh is the 
 first son of Ham, having five sons of his own, — 
 Seba, Havilah, Sabtah, Kaamah, Sabtechah, — 
 and being also the progenitor of Ninirod (Gen. x. 
 6-8). Two sons, Sheba and Dedan, are assigned 
 to Kaamah (v. 7). The Scripture-writer appears 
 to look back to Cush, with his sons and grand- 
 sons, as the founders of peoples known in his 
 time; and, where these names are elsewhere men- 
 tioned (except 1 Chron. i. 8-10, which repeats 
 Gen. X. 6-8), they refer, not to the founders, but 
 to the peoples descended from them, and to the 
 lands (some in Asia, some in Africa) where these 
 peoples lived. Seba (X?P, Ps. Ixxii. 10; Isa. xliii. 
 3, xlv. 14) denotes probably an African people ; 
 Havilah (nS'lH, Gen. ii. 11, x. 29, xxv. 18; 1 
 Sam. XV. 7. and see Eden), an Asiatic, and per- 
 haps an African as well, for Ptolemy (Geogr. iv. 
 7, 27) puts the people 'A/iaA/rm on the sinus 
 .Aia/UTtji CXi^aXirri^), along the African coast near 
 
 the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb; Sablah (nnpp), prob- 
 ably an Asiatic (an old commercial town of Ara- 
 bia was called laiij3aiia') ■ Raamak (rin;;^, Ezek. 
 xxvii. 22), Sheba (N3E', 1 Kings x. 1 f . ; Job vi. 
 19; Ps. Ixxii. 10; Isa. Ix. 6; Jer. vi. 20; Ezek. 
 xxvii. 22, xxxviii. 13; comp. Gen. x. 28 and xxv. 
 3), and Dedan (p'1, Isa. xxi. 13 ; Ezek. xxvii. 15, 
 20, xxxviii. 13; comp. Gen. xxv. 3), were all three 
 Asiatic (Arabian) peoples; Sal/lcchah (KDriDD) 
 was ])robably Asiatic also ; and the great territory 
 of Cush, divided among these peoples, formed 
 the southern boundary of the inhabited world as 
 known to the Hebrews. The appearance of 
 Sheba and Havilah among the descendants of 
 Shem through Joktan (Gen. x. 28, 29), and 
 of Sheba and Dedan as descendants of Shem 
 through Abraham and Jokshan (Abraham's son 
 by Keturah, Gen. xxv. 1-3), points to a mixture 
 of blood in these peoples, unless we have to do 
 with different tribes bearing like names, which 
 cannot be proved. 
 
 Cush, as applied to a land, is further used in a 
 more limited sense (Gen. ii. 13, and elsewhere in 
 the Old Testament, — twelve passages in all). 
 On the Cush of Gen. ii. 13 see Eden. In the 
 other eleven passages it denotes thp Nile Valley 
 southward from Egypt, with the lands between 
 the Nile and the Red Sea, from Syene (Ezek. 
 xxix. 10) as far south as the junction of the Blue 
 and White Nile. The earlier boundaries toward 
 the south were quite vague; and, even when Cush 
 became a well-defined province and kingdom, 
 tribes of the same origin with the historical 
 Cushites dwelt outside its borders. In a sense 
 which would include these, the African Cush ex- 
 tended into Abyssinia, and perhaps covered it; 
 but the restricted sense is the ordinary one in use. 
 In the Book of Esther (i. 1 and viii. 9) Cush is 
 named as the extreme south-west limit of the 
 kingdom of Ahasuerus. 
 
 This land of Cush was called by the Greeks 
 Mfp6»;, from its ancient capital city (native name 
 Aleru or Merua, "white cliff"), situated near 
 Mount Barkal, and identical with Napata. 
 
 The people of Kas {Kes or KiH) are, in the 
 Egyptian records, always distinguished from ne- 
 groes (Nahasi), both in name and in appearance. 
 They are depicted with Caucasian features, and 
 their color is red or brown. They appear to be 
 kindred with the Egyptians. It is believed that 
 the ancestors of all the historic inhabitants of the 
 Nile Valley came of a single stock (Cush and 
 Mizraim are brothers, Gen. x. 6), and had a 
 common home in Asia. One stream of immigra- 
 tion entered North-eastern Africa by the Isthmus 
 of Suez, and became the Egyptian people ; an- 
 other, starting from the same source, moved down 
 into Southern Arabia; then a part crossed the 
 Red Sea into Africa, and occupied the region 
 described above, becoming the historic Cush ; as 
 such they are named some twenty-five times in 
 the Old Testament; others remained in Arabia, 
 and it is possible that reference is had to these 
 in 2 Chron. xxi. 16 : " Arabians that were near 
 the Ethiopians." (As to the theories that an- 
 other branch wandered northward, and became 
 the Phoenicians of history, and that Babylonia 
 was peopled by colonists from the African Cush, 
 see Ph<enicia, Nimrod.)
 
 CUSH. 
 
 590 
 
 CUTHBERT. 
 
 The (African) Cushites are first mentioned in 
 the Egyptian records of tlie twelfth dynasty (Lep- 
 sius, c. B.C. 2350), which fought successfully 
 against them. During the reign of the Ilyksos in 
 Egypt, the native Egyptian kings, forced south- ! 
 ■ward, came into closer contact with the Cushites ; ' 
 and, after the expulsion of the Hyksos (seven- 
 teenth century B.C.) Kas was treated as a prov- 
 ince of Egypt, and had an Egyptian governor. 
 In the time of the twenty-first dynasty it gained 
 its independence; and. in the eighth century B.C., 
 the Cushite king, Piankhi I., conquered all Egypt. 
 The twenty-fifth dynasty of Manetho is composed 
 of Cushite" kings, — Shahak (Sahacn =N1D ['•■'], '- 
 Kings xvii. 4), Sliabala/c (Sebichu), and Tahamqa 
 (Tirhaka). The relation between these kings is 
 obscure ; and, besides these, Miamuu Nut, succes- 
 sor, and perliaps son, of Piankhi, figures on the 
 monuments. The Cushite kings of Egypt came 
 repeatedly in contact with the Hebrews. Iloshea 
 of .Samaria tried to form an alliance with So 
 against the Assyrians (2 Kings xvii. 4). Isa. 
 xviii. seems to imply like proposals from the 
 Cushites to the Hebrews. Sennacherib's march 
 through Philistia was checked by the approach 
 of Tirhaka, the most formidable of all the Cush- 
 ite kings. Both before and after this time, there 
 is mention of individual Cushites who lived in 
 Palestine : Ebed IMelech (Jer. xxxviii. Vff., xxxix. 
 IG if) is a notable example. The Cushite control 
 of Egypt ended with the defeat of Tirhaka and 
 the establisliraent of an Assyrian protectorate on 
 the Lower Nile by Esarhaddon (King of Assyria 
 B.C. G81-0GS) ; and an attempt of Tirhaka to 
 regain a foothold tliere was foiled by Asurbani- 
 pal, son of Es.arhaddou, about B.C. GOG. After 
 this we find Ethiopian soldiers in the service of 
 Egyptian rulers (Jer. xlvi. 9; Ezek. xxx. 4 f.) ; 
 but Tirhaka's successors were powerful monarchs 
 in their own domain, and were still reigning at 
 tiie old Meroe when Cambyses made his unsuc- 
 cessful attempt to conquer Ethiopia (B.C. 524). 
 As late as B.C. 450 Herodotus speaks of the 
 " long-lived Ethiopians," whose capital was at 
 this old Meroe. The later Meroe, the island in 
 the south, near Khartum, was included in the 
 empire of Tirhaka and his succes.sors, but proba- 
 bly did not become the capital of the kingdom till 
 about the third century B.C., under Erganienes, 
 contemporary with I'tolemy Philadeliihus. The 
 later Greek wrilt'rs begin to distinguish froni the 
 civilized Meroites various ruder Cushite tribes, 
 such as the Blummyes, Megabares, and Troglo- 
 dytes. Tlie.se occupied the territory from the 
 Lake of Axum, in Abyssinia, up to the Egyptian 
 boundary, and were the ancestors of the present 
 Bega, or liischari tribes. 
 
 The Cushite kingdom existed until after the 
 Christian era (.Vets viii. 27 names Candaoe, Queen 
 of Ethiopia); but by degrees the Nubians, who 
 had been crowded out by the Cushites, began to 
 get the ui^per hand of it, and at length it dis- 
 appeared. The precise date of its extinction is 
 unknown. 
 
 In person the Cushites were large, strong, and 
 liand.some. Thi'ir land produc-ed corn and costly 
 woods, such as ebony and balsam ; of iiiinc'rals 
 they exported gold and gems; besides these they 
 drove a large trade; in catth; and rare animals, as 
 well as in negro slaves. These arc all depicted 
 
 on the monuments as articles of tribute paid to 
 
 Egypt- 
 
 The culture and religion of the Cushites were 
 derived from Egypt, and began to take firm root 
 among them as early as the time of the Hyksos. 
 They developed the arts thus received ; so that, 
 toward the end of the eighteenth dynasty, not 
 only the natural products named above, but ar- 
 tistic furniture, covered with woven stuiis of 
 many colors, shields lined with variegated skins, 
 chariots of gold and iron, rich garments, ear-rings, 
 and bracelets, together with other fine work in 
 gold, appear in a representation of tribute-offer- 
 ings. 
 
 The language of the African Cushites was dis- 
 tinct from the Egyptian, and is represented by 
 that of the modern Bischari ; but they employed 
 the Egyptian hieroglyphs from an early time. 
 A peculiar demotic character which abounds in 
 the neighborhood of the Island of !Meroe is not 
 yet deciphered, but is believed to belong to the 
 later Cushite period, probably since the time of 
 Ergamenes. 
 
 The land and jieople of Cush are usually called, 
 after the Greek writers (so in the LXX., the Vul- 
 gate, and the Authorized Version), Ethiopia and 
 Ethiopians ; but the Cushites must be carefully 
 distinguished, not only from the Nubians and 
 negro tribes generally, but also from the Shemitic 
 people of Abyssinia, who spoke the Ge'ez (Ethi- 
 opic) language, and have transmitted to us a con- 
 siderable Christian literature. These also came 
 across the sea from Arabia, but cannot be traced 
 back beyond the Christian era. See Abyssixiak 
 Church. 
 
 Of Cush, the Benjamite (Septuagint Xnvci, 
 Vulgate Cliusi), who is luinied in the inscription 
 of Ps. vii., nothing further is known. He must 
 have been a persecutor pf David, and was, per- ! 
 haps, an instrument in the hands of Saul. 
 
 Lit. — R. E. Lkpsu s : Briefe aiis ^Egi/plen, 
 yEthiopien u. der llatbhisel des Sinai, Berlin, 1852; 
 Nuhisclic Grammatik (Einleitung), Berlin, 1880; 
 G. Ebeks : .Ei/i/pti'n n. die Bilcher ]\f(»ie's, Bd. I., 
 Leijizig, 18GS ; it. BuU(;scir-BKY : IJis/ori/ o/Er/i/pt 
 under the Pliaraalis, 2d Eng. ed.. Loud., 1881, 
 2 vols. ; G. IvAWLixsoN : Origin of Nations, Loud., 
 1877, N.Y., 1881 ; Ilistonj of Ancient ICi/i/pl, Lond. 
 and N.Y., 1881, 2 vols. ' FR.VNCI.s' iiROWN. 
 
 CUTHBERT, St., d. at Fame, March 20, 087; 
 was born, in the fir:;t half of the seventh century, 
 in Nortliumlu-ia, beyond the Tweeil, of humble 
 descent. While shepherding his flock one night 
 (in 051), he received, it is saiil, a heavenly revela^ 
 tion in form of a vision, and went immediately 
 to the Mona.stery of Melrose (the Old Melrose, 
 situated at the conlluence of the Leader and the 
 Tweed), whose prior, Boisil, admitted him into 
 till' brotherhood. Melrose was a colony from Lin- 
 disfarne, but was ,at this time sending out colo- 
 nies herself. Cuthbert accompanied one wliich 
 went to Kipon to found a monastery on a spot 
 presented to tliem by .Mehlrith ; and served there 
 as /w.ililiunts (witli whom rests the entertainment 
 of strangers), liut when .Mchfrith adopted the 
 liomau views of East<'r, the tonsure, etc., tho 
 monks of Kipon could not agree with liira. They 
 returned home to Melrose in OGl; and in the same 
 year, I'.oisil having died of the plague, Cuthbert 
 succeeded him as jirior. Afterwards, however,
 
 CUTTY-STOOL. 
 
 591 
 
 CYPRIANUS. 
 
 Cuthbrrt must have adopted the Roman views 
 himself ; for in 0(il he was called as prior to 
 Lindisfarne expressly for the purpose of introdu- 
 cing those views among the monks of that monas- 
 tery; in which task he succeeded. For twelve 
 years he staid at Lindisfarne ; but in G7fi the 
 ascetic tendency of his disposition gained upon 
 liim : ho resigned his office, and settled as a her- 
 mit in one of the small islands of Fame. In 
 C84 he was prevailed upon to return to Lindis- 
 farne as its bishop, but only for two years. In 
 68G he went back to his hermitage on the lonely 
 island, and there he died. 
 
 Already during life Cuthbert was reverenced 
 by his lirothcr-monks as a saint, and for centuries 
 after his death his fame was still increasing. 
 The power of working miracles was ascribed to 
 him, and even to his remains. Before he died, he 
 gave permission that his corpse might be brought 
 to Lindisfarne, on the condition that the monks 
 vowed never to desert it. Consequently, when 
 the Danes took the monastery (in 875), and the 
 monks fled, they carried C'uthbert's corpse along 
 with them on a bier for eight years, until (in 883), 
 they were settled at C'hester-le-Street. Overtaken 
 here, too, by the Danes, they began their wander- 
 ings again in 990, but were finally settled in 992 
 at Durham, in whose cathedral Cuthberfs re- 
 mains now rest. 
 
 Lit. — Of C'uthbert's own writings, Ordinaliones 
 and Prrncepla Vila; Rcf/ulnris; nothing has come 
 down to us ; but the materials for his biography 
 are very rich. The oldest life of him was written 
 between 698 and 70.^, by some unknown brother- 
 monk, either from Lindisfarne or Melrose, and is 
 printed in Acl. Sanrl. (March 20), and in Steven- 
 son's edition of Bcdic Opera Minora (pp. 259-284). 
 Of the two Lives by liede, the oldest is in verse, 
 the best in prose, both printed in Stevenson's 
 B. Op. Min. (pj). 1-43, 4.5-137) and in Act. Sand. 
 (March 20). The Ilisloria Translalionmn S. C. 
 from the eleventh century, the Reginakli Mnnacki 
 Dunelmensis Lihelhis de . . . from the twelfth cen- 
 tury, and treating especially of his miracles, and 
 the so-called Irish life from the fourteenth cen- 
 tury, have been published by the Surtees Society. 
 A full account of the materials for the history of 
 St. Cuthbert is found in IIakdy ; Deac. Cat. I., 
 297-317. Seealso James Raine: Saint Cuthbert, 
 Durham, 1828; A.C. Fuyer: Cuthbert of Lindis- 
 farne. London. 1881. 
 
 CUTTY-STOOL, a small raised seat or gallery 
 in old Scottish churches, where unchaste men and 
 women were obliged to sit during three Sundays, 
 while they were rebuked by the minister, if they 
 would be received to communion again. 
 
 CYAXARES. See Dakius. 
 
 CYCLE. See Year, The Church. 
 
 CYCLOP/EDIAS. See Dictionaries. 
 
 CYPRIAN, Ernst Salomon, b. at Ostheim, Fran- 
 conia, 1073 ; studied at Jena, and was appointed 
 professor of philosophy at Helmstedt, 1699, rector 
 of the gymnasium of Coburg, 1700, and member 
 of the Over-Consistory, in 1713, in Gotha, where 
 he died in 1745. Friedrich Wilhelm I. of I'rus- 
 ,sia, who considered the controversies between the 
 Lutheran and Reformed Churches " a bitter sauce 
 mixed by the priests," conceived the plan of 
 effecting a union between all Protestant churches; 
 and at first it seemed as if the plan would suc- 
 
 ceed. At this juncture, Cyprian appeared as one 
 of the few stanch champions of the old ortho- 
 dox Lutheranism, .and wrote three pamphlets, 
 Ah(/edrunr/ener Unterricht, etc. (1722), Authcntir/tie 
 Rcchtferliyunij, etc. (1722), and Das Urtheil emj- 
 tishcr TIteoloficn von dcr Synode zu Dortrechl und 
 ihrer Lehre (1723), which by their rich historical 
 illustrations give considerable information about 
 the whole question. 
 
 CYPRIANUS, Thascius CaDcilius, which last 
 name he assumed in honor of an old presbyter, 
 Cajcilius, who was instrumental in his conversion 
 to Christianity, was born in Northern Africa, 
 towards the close of the second, or in the begin- 
 ning of the third, century, and educated at Car- 
 thage, where, in the fourth decade of the third 
 century, beheld a prominent position as a teacher 
 of rhetoric. He was a man of wealth. His house 
 and gardens were beautiful, his landed property 
 considerable. lie was also a man of elegance 
 and dignity, both in dress and manners, both in 
 literary productions and in business affairs. Of 
 the history of his conversion nothing is known, 
 but he was baptized in 245 or 246. Immediately 
 after baptism he gave away a part of his fortune 
 to tlie poor ; and all his time he seems to have 
 devoted to the study of the Bible and the Chris- 
 tian writers of the second century. His Epistola 
 ml Donatum, De Idolorum Vanitate, and Lihri HI. 
 Testimoniormn adv. Judeves, in the last two of 
 which works he closely follows Minucius Felix 
 and Tertullian's Apotogeticus, belong to this 
 period. 
 
 The African Church was at this period flourish- 
 ing enough externally, but internally its state 
 was rather precarious. The long peace it had 
 enjoyed (nearly thirty years) had slackened the 
 zeal and tlie discipline of its members. Even 
 the character of the episcopate had suffered. 
 Many of the bishops were engaged in agricidture 
 or trade, or even in usury. Instances of fraud 
 and swindling occurred among them. Sometimes 
 they were so ignorant that they could not instruct 
 the catechumens, nor distinguish between ortho- 
 dox and heretical compositions. Under such 
 circumstances the conversion of a man like 
 Cyprian naturally made a sensation, and awak- 
 ened expectations. In 248 the episcopal chair 
 of Carthage became vacant, and he was elected 
 bishop. It is characteristic, however, that it 
 was the lower mass of the church-members which 
 carried his election, while a portion of the pres- 
 bytery opposed it to the very last. The poor, the 
 ignorant, the humble, of the Church of Carthage, 
 felt how good it would be to them to have for 
 their bishop a man of wealth, a m.au of learning, 
 a man of social standing. They knew of Cyprian 
 that he was liberal with liis means, that he wa.s 
 possessed of brilliant literary talents, that he 
 showed both decision and tact in business trans- 
 actions, and they would hear of no refusal. 
 Between July 248 and April 249 he was conse- 
 crated bishop. The opposition did not dissolve, 
 however, after its defeat. On the contrary, it 
 became more firmly organized ; and it soon found 
 a point from which an attack could be made. 
 Early in 250 Decius issued the edict for the sup- 
 jjression of Christianity, and the persecution 
 began. Measures w'ere first taken against the 
 bishops and officers of the church : by slaying the
 
 CYPRIANUS. 
 
 592 
 
 CYPRIANUS. 
 
 shepherds it was hoped the flock would be stolen. 
 The proconsul on circuit, and five commissioners 
 for each town, administered the edict ; but, when 
 the proconsul reached Carthage, Cyprian had 
 fled. 
 
 In his book De Lapsis, and in his letters to his 
 contjregation, to his fellow-bishops of the African 
 Church, and to the clergj' of Rome, Cyprian 
 defends very adroitly the line of conduct he had 
 adopted; but none of the reasons which he prof- 
 fers — the necessity of preserving himself for the 
 good of his church, the direct command of God 
 through a vision, etc. — are quite acceptable, and 
 with the idea of heroism they are altogether in- 
 compatible. But it must be remembered, first, 
 that martyrdom had not yet become a fashion, a 
 rage, the necessary close of a distinguished life, 
 the greatest grace which God could grant. "When 
 the Decian persecution broke out, Dionysius of 
 Alexandria, Gregory Thauraaturgus, Maximus 
 of Xola, and many other bishops, did as Cyprian, 
 — fled before the storm. Next, the edict was 
 directed, pvrincipally if not alone, against the 
 V)ishops, — a circumstance which could not but in- 
 fluence their policy. In Rome the congregation 
 left, for this very reason, the episcopal chair un- 
 occupied for sixteen months after the martyrdom 
 cf Fabian. Finally the individual character 
 must be taken into account. Cyprian was a man 
 of education, not of genius ; he reasoned from 
 facts, not from enthusiasm ; he acted upon con- 
 victions, not npon passion. But with such char- 
 acters every thing grand is the result of a slow 
 growth, not of a moment's inspiration; and the 
 i-emark of Augustine about Cyprian's style, that 
 it ripened with age, growing simpler, nobler, 
 and more fit to express the fulne.ss of Christian 
 truth, must be applied also to his conduct. Never- 
 tlieless, his fliglit gave his enemies a dangerous 
 weapon in hand. Towards the close of 250 he 
 sent the two bishops, Caldonius and Ilerculanus, 
 to Carthage with money f<u- the poor, with spirit- 
 ual aid for the weak, with disciplinary power for 
 those who had fallen. Rut in Carthage Caldonius 
 and Ilerculanus met with the most determined 
 opjwsition from the side of Felicissimns, a deacon ; 
 and when Cyprian excommunicated Felicissimns, 
 five presbyters, headed by Novatus, took np his 
 cause : a schism thus broke out. In spring of 
 231 Cyprian returned; and the great question 
 of the re-admission into i\w. Church of the la]->si, 
 especially of the lihcllaUci, was now to be decid- 
 ed. The most extreme views found defenders. 
 Oueparty refused altogether to re-admit the lapsi: 
 another granted them re-admission without any 
 restriction at all. Cyprian adopted a middle 
 course : after due penance he re-admitted those 
 ■who had fallen. In the synods of Carthage (251 
 and 252) he carried through his policy, and it 
 became the policy of the whole Christian Church. 
 The two other parties, however, in wliich his ad- 
 versaries were mixed up in a most singular man- 
 ner (see tlie articles on Frdicinslmus, Novalianus, 
 and Novntu.s), appointed each an anti-bishop, 
 Maximus and Fortuuatus. The schism was thus 
 complete. 
 
 It would seem, however, that the authority of 
 Cyprian was in no way impairi^d Iiy this scliism. 
 The practical wisdom, the inexhaustible energy, 
 and the great self-abnegation with which lie 
 
 administered to the weal of his flock during the 
 horrible plague which reached Carthage in 252 
 (see his De Mortalitate and De Eleomosijnix), drew 
 all true Christians close to their bishop; and the 
 schismatics were forgotten. At the time when 
 the controversy concerning baptism broke out 
 between him and Bishop Stephen of Rome (255), 
 Cyprian stood undisputedly as the prominent 
 and most influential leader in the Christian 
 Church. The Roman Church held that baptism 
 administered in due form was valid, even when 
 administered by a heretic, and admitted baptized 
 heretics and schismatics by simple imposition of 
 hands; while Cyprian protested that there was 
 no baptism outside of the orthodox church, and 
 baptized, or rather re-baptized, heretics and 
 schismatics, before admitting them into the 
 church. The Roman view held the ground ; 
 but it is very instructive to notice the relation 
 in which Cyprian places himself to the Bishop 
 of Rome. Acknowledging Rome as the natural 
 centre of Christendom, and the successor of 
 Peter as primiia inter pares, he recognizes the 
 precedence as one of honor only, and by no means 
 as one of power. Of a feeling of subordination, 
 of a yielding to a higher power of jurisdiction, 
 there is in all his tracts and letters not the least 
 trace. The papacy was not yet born. On the 
 contrai-y, it is Cyprian who is styled Papa by 
 the Roman bishop; and he does not give back 
 the title to his interlocutor. 
 
 In spring of 257 Valerian's edict against the 
 Christians was issued, and in August, Cyprian 
 appeared before the proconsul. Aspasius Paternus ; 
 and, when he refused to offer s.acrifice to the 
 Roman state-gods, he was banished to Curubis, a 
 lonely place on the seashore, but only a day's 
 journey from Carthage. He lived there eleven 
 months, in decent retirement, and in stead)' com- 
 munication with his flock. A new proconsul, Ga- 
 lerius Maximus, recalled him ; but sliortly after 
 a much severer edict was issued, and (Aug. 13) he 
 was again arrested. On Sept. 13 the trial began, 
 and the next day the proconsul pronounced 
 reluctantly tile sentence of death by the sword. 
 "■Deo Gralia.i!" Cyprian exclaimed. The exe- 
 cution followed immediately. But the proceed- 
 ings were carried on, from the side of the State, 
 with a regard for the victim which shows the 
 great weight he carried in public opinion ; and 
 the execution was witnessed with a synqxitiietic 
 awe which was still vibrating in people's hearts 
 when Augustine preached. 
 
 Lit. — Till' first collected edition of Cyprian's 
 works is that by Er.vsmus (Basel, 1520): among 
 the later are those bv (ioi.DiioiiN (Leipzig, 1838- 
 39, 2 vols.), and G." IlAitTKi. (Vienna. 18G8-7], 
 3 vols.). The last is by far the best: it rests 
 upon a critical compai'ison of above forty manu- 
 scripts. Translations into Engli.sh of his trea- 
 tises On Morlaliti/, On the Lord's Prayer, etc., are 
 numerous. Of his complete works there are 
 two, — by Maushali. (London, 1717, fob), and 
 l)y R. E. AVai.i.is, in AiUe-i\lcene Library, vols. 
 VIII. , 1808, and XIIL, 1SC9. 
 
 The sources to Cyprian's life .are, besides hi.s 
 own writings and the church-history of Euse- 
 V)iiis, Pontius, De Vila Cipriani, and the Ada 
 Procon.iularia Marli/rii Ci/priani, both given by 
 Itui.NAKT, Act Mart., ll., and the former in
 
 CYPRUS. 
 
 593 
 
 CYRIACUS. 
 
 anost editions of his works. Among modern 
 treatments of liis life are, J. Peauso.v : Annales 
 Ci/prianici, Oxford, 1G82 ; H. Dodwkll: Diss. 
 C'l/pr., Oxford, 1084; A. F. Gkrvaisk : La 
 vie (le St. Ct/]}rien, Paris, 1717; Rkttbeug: 
 Those. C. Cijprianus, Gcittingen, 1831 : G. A. 
 Poole: Life and Times of C, Oxford, 1810; 15. 
 Fkchtuup: Der heiliye Cyprian. I. Cyprian's 
 Ltben, Jliinster, 1878 ; O. Ritsciil : Cyprian von 
 Kiirthayo unci die Verfassuny der Kirche, Gottingen, 
 1885. 
 
 Referring to special points of Cyprian's doc- 
 trines are J. Sage : Principles of the Cypriunic 
 Aye, London, 1G95, and Vindication of the P., 
 London, 1705 ; W. Jameson : C. Isotimus, Edin- 
 burgh, 1705 (directed against the preceding) ; 
 Reuchlin: De Doctrina Cypr., I. -III., Strasburg, 
 1751-54; G. MUlleu: Ohseroationes in C, Gera, 
 1771 ; ScHMlEDEK : IJber die Sckrift de Unitate 
 Ecclcsia:,- Leipzig, 1822; J. H. Reinkens : Die 
 Lehre d. h. C. von d. Einheit der Kirche, Wiirz- 
 burg, 1873. llAGENBACn (LEIMBACH). 
 
 CY'PRUS, a large fertile island of the Medi- 
 terranean Sea, triangular in form, a hundred and 
 fifty miles long, and from fifty to sixty miles 
 broad. Its principal towns were .Salarais at the 
 east, and Paphos at the west, end of the island. 
 Its chief goddess was Venus, who had a famous 
 temple at Paphos, and hence was called the 
 Paphian goddess, as well as Cypria. The island 
 was colonized in early times by the Phoenicians. 
 It is called Chittim in the Old Testament. The 
 Greeks gave it the name Kypros, perhaps from 
 the plant of that name, which is our henna. Cop- 
 per, and articles in copper, made the inhabitants 
 rich. Cyprus was successively tributary to the 
 great empires of antiquity, and finally fell under 
 Rome (B.C. 58). Cicero was proconsul there 
 (B.C. 52). In the reign of Trajan (117 A.D.) 
 the Jews there revolted, massacred the Greek 
 inhabitants, but were massacred themselves. In 
 the division of the Roman Empire the island fell 
 to the East; in the seventh and ninth centuries 
 the Saracens seized it ; but each time it quickly 
 lapsed again into the hands of the Byzantine 
 emperors ; but from them the Crusaders, under 
 Richard I. of England, wrested it (A.D. 1191), 
 and gave it to "the titular king of Jerusalem, 
 as some compensation for the loss of the holy 
 city." Later the Genoese and Venetians held it, 
 until in 1570 the Turks dispossessed the Vene- 
 tians. By a secret treaty of Lord Beaconsfield 
 with the Sultan (1878), the island was secured by 
 the English Government. Gen. Cesnola's excava- 
 tions tliere have been of extraordinary interest 
 and value (Cesnola : Cyprus; its Ancient Cities, 
 Tombs, and 'Temples, N. Y., 1877). 
 
 In the Acts alone Cyprus is mentioned. The 
 gospel very quickly reached it; and the response 
 to the Master's command, " Go," was very prompt 
 (Acts xi. 19, 20; of. xxi. 16). Barnabas was a 
 Levite of Cyprus (iv. 30), and naturally began 
 there his missionary activity (xiii. 4), and sailed 
 thither after his dispute with Paul (xv. 39). 
 The other New-Testament references are purely 
 geographical. All the notices of Cyprus occur- 
 ring in ancient writei-s can be found in Meur- 
 sn Opera, vol. iii., Flor., 1744, and in Engel: 
 Kypros, eine Monoyraphie, Berlin, 1841, 2 vols. ; 
 Jr. Loher : Cyprus, History and Description, 
 39 — 1 
 
 abridyed, with much additional matter, by Mrs. A. 
 B. Joyner, N.Y. , 1878 ; (Anonymous) Leokosia, the 
 Capital of Cyprus, London, 1881. 
 
 CYRE'NE, the capital of a small province, and 
 the chief city of Libya, in Northern Africa. 
 Modern Tripoli corresponds to the province. It 
 was a Greek city, dating from B.C. 031. Alex- 
 ander the (ireek granted tlie Jews, who formed 
 about a fourth of its population, the rights of 
 citizenship on equal terms witli the Greeks. 
 After Alexander's death, the city became a de- 
 pendency of Egypt, and in B.C. 75 became a 
 Roman province. The New-Testament allusions 
 to it are of singular interest. Simon, a Cyrenian, 
 bore our Lord's cross (Matt, xxvii. 32_); Cyrenians 
 were present at Pentecost (Acts ii. 10, vi. 9), 
 and of them were some of the earliest j^reachers 
 of the gospel (Acts xi. 20, xiii. 1). The city 
 was destroyed by the Saracens in the fourth cen- 
 tury, and is now desolate. 
 
 CYRENIUS. See Quikinius. 
 
 CYRIACUS (synonymous with Dominicus, "be- 
 longing to the Lord ") is the name of several 
 persons, some legendary and some historical. 
 Thus the Ada Sanctorum conta\n no less than 
 eleven saints of this name, among whom are a 
 deacon of Rome, who was sentenced to the gal- 
 leys under Diocletian, fled to King Sapores of 
 Persia, and was beheaded under Maximian ; and 
 a pope of Rome, who resigned his office, and 
 followed St. Ursula and her eleven thousand 
 virgins to Cologne, where they all suffered mar- 
 tyrdom. It has jiroved impossible to get a pla.ce 
 for this pope in the papal succession ; but then it 
 has been suggested that the cardinals may have 
 erased his name from the catalogues, from indig- 
 nation over his abdication! The Church of St. 
 Cyriaous, however, in Neuhausen, near Worms, 
 boasts of possessing his remains. 
 
 Historical are Cyriacus, Patriarch of Constan- 
 tinople in the time of Gregory I., and Cyriacus, 
 IMetropolite of Carthage in the time of (iregory 
 VII. The former was presbyter and aconoinicus 
 of the Church of Constantinople, when (in 595) he 
 was elected patriarch, on the death of John IV. 
 Like his predecessor, he assumed the title of 
 " fficumenical Patriarch," and a synod of Con- 
 stantinople confirmed the title ; but these pro- 
 ceedings were met with the most violent protests 
 from Gregory I. of Rome, who wrote letters upon 
 letters to the Emperor Mauritius and to the other 
 patriarchs of the Orient, denouncing the a.ssunip- 
 tion as scandalous, perverse, punishable, anti- 
 Christian, Satanic, etc. (see J.\ffe : Rec/esta Pon- 
 tif, 1105, 1109, 1111). In 602 Mauritius was 
 dethroned by Phocas, a rude and coarse soldier ; 
 and disagreement soon arose between the em- 
 peror and the patriarch. Gregory I. was too 
 wide awake not to avail himself of such an 
 opportunity; and, according to Roman historians, 
 Phocas issued an edict in which he designated 
 the Bishop of Rome as caput omnium ecclesiarum. 
 But the edict does not exist, and is probably a 
 mere fable. At all events, the edict had not 
 appeared when Cyriacus died (Oct. 7, 606) ; and 
 the connection which some authors have thought 
 to find between the imperial edict and the death 
 of the patriarch is mere fiction. See Greyorii 
 L Epistoke, VII. 
 
 Cyriacus of Carthage, living in the latter part
 
 CYRIL OF ALEXANDRIA. 
 
 594 
 
 CYRIL LUCAR. 
 
 of the eleventh centurj', was one of the last Chris- 
 tian bishops of Northern Africa, lie refused to 
 perform uncauonical consecration ; and for this 
 reason some of his flock accused him before the 
 Saracenic emirs, who tortured him in a most 
 cruel manner. He addressed himself to Gregory 
 VII., and received from him letters of consola- 
 tion and exhortation. See Greyorii VII. Rei/ixtr., 
 L. 22. 23; and Jaff^: Reg. Pont, ad ann., 107;5, 
 Sept. 1.5. No. 3.557. m-agexmanx. 
 
 CYRIL OF ALEXANDRIA was b. in Alex- 
 andria, towards the close of the fourth century, 
 and d. there in 444. After living for several 
 years as a monk in the Nitrian Mountains, he 
 succeeded his uncle Theophilus on the patriar- 
 chal chair of Alexandria, in 412. Like his prede- 
 cessor, he distinguished himself by his violence 
 against any deviation from what he considered 
 orthodox faith. He expelled the Novatians from 
 their church, and robbed their church-treasury; 
 he led in person the mob which drove all Jews 
 away from Alexandria in 415; and he took part, 
 .at least indirectly, in the foul murder of Hy- 
 patia. He became most notorious from his con- 
 troversy with Nestorius, Patriarch of Constanti- 
 nople. Xestorius refused to give to IMary the 
 prsedicate iSforoxof : this occasioned Cyril to write 
 a treatise (429), explaining the union of the logos 
 and the human nature in Christ, and the birth of 
 the logos by Mary, and to issue an encyclic letter 
 to the Egyptian monks, warning them against 
 Xestorianism. The controversy between the two 
 patriarchs soon became very excited ; and both 
 endeavored to gain the emperor, Theodosius II., 
 and Pope Celestine, over on his side. Celestine 
 finally decided against Nestorius, and commis- 
 sioned Cyril to excommunicate him if he did not 
 recant within ten days. Cyril consequently con- 
 vened a synod at Alexandria, and the an.athema 
 was spoken against any one wlio refused to give 
 to ^lary the disputed praidicate. Xestorius an- 
 swered with a countei'-anathema, and both ap- 
 pealed to an oecumenical sjmod. This, the third, 
 was called by the emperor, at Ephesus, 431. But, 
 before Jolin of Antioch and his bishops arrived, 
 the synod condemned Nestorius and liis doctrine 
 of the two natures in Christ. The Antiochi.an 
 bishops (from thirty to forty) tlien formed an in- 
 dependent synod, and condemned Cyril ; and the 
 emperor confirmed both condemnations, — both 
 that of Nestorius and that of Cyril. The party 
 of the latter, however, succeeded in g.iining over 
 the emperor; and Cyril was re-instated in liis 
 see, while Nestorius was sent bark to liis monas- 
 tery. A reconciliation was afterwards effected 
 between Cyril and John of Antioch; but the 
 former continued to look with suspicion at the 
 Antiochian school, especially at Diodorns of Tar- 
 sus, and Theodoras of Mojisuestia, whom he con- 
 sidered the true fathers of Xestorianism. Besides 
 liis dogmatical works. ('y>'il wrote ten liooks of 
 Apologetics against Julian, and a number of 
 homilies. His collected works have been edited 
 by J. AuDKUT, I'ari.s, 1<)3.S, 4 vols. fol. His Life 
 lias been writfj^n by Kkxandot : Uisl. I'lilrinrc/ia- 
 riim Alfix., Paris, 1713; Kui-am.ik: C'l/ritliis nm 
 Alexamlria, Mainz, Issl. c. BtJltK. 
 
 CrRIL LUCAR (Cyrillus Lucaris, Kyrillos Lou- 
 karis, i.e., Cyril, .'-on of Lmar). Patriarch of Con- 
 8tantino{)le ; b. loUb or 1572, in Candia (Crete) ; 
 
 strangled to death, by order of the Sultan, in 
 Constantinople, 1638. He studied and travelled 
 extensively in Europe, and was for a while rector 
 and Greek teacher in the Russian seminary at 
 Ostrog, in modern Volhynia, a part of Western 
 Russia, formerly Lithuania. In French Switzer- 
 land he became acquainted with the Reformed 
 Church, and embraced its faith. Subsequently 
 he openly professed it in a letter to the professors 
 of Geneva (1636) through Leger. a minister from 
 Geneva who had been sent to Constantinople, 
 and conceived the bold scheme of ingrafting Prot- 
 estant doctrines on the old oecumenical creeds of 
 the Eastern Church, thereby effecting her reforma- 
 tion. In 1593 he was ordained in Alexandria a 
 priest of the Greek Church, and afterwards archi- 
 mandrite by his uncle, who was the patriarch. In 
 1595 he went as exarch to Poland to oppose the 
 union of the Greek and Latin churches; from 
 this event dates his hatred of the Latin Church. 
 In 1602 he was elected Patriarch of Alexandria, 
 and of Constantinople in 1621. In 1623 he was 
 deposed by the intrigues of Jesuits, and banished 
 to the Island of Rhodes, but re-instated mainly 
 through the exertions of the English ambassador 
 at the Turkish court. In 1629 he wrote in Latin 
 his remarkable Confession, and in Greek in 1631,. 
 with an addition of four questions and answers. 
 It was published in both languages at Geneva, 
 1633. It expresses his own individual faith, 
 which he vainly hoped would become the faith 
 of the Greek Church. It is divided into eighteen' 
 brief chapters, each fortified with Scriptui'e refer- 
 ences. Eight chapters contain the old Catholic 
 doctrine, while the rest bear a distinctively Prot- 
 estant character; thus in chap. ii. he asserts that 
 the authority of the Scriptures is superior to tlie 
 authority of the Church, since the Scriptures 
 only are infallil)le, and defends their circulation, 
 excluding the Apocrypha. In chap. iii. he accepts 
 the Calvinistio doctrine of the decrees; in chap. 
 XV. he maintains that the eacraments are two in 
 number, and that faith is the condition of their 
 .application, and in cli.ap. xvii. that there is a real 
 but spiritual presence. As might be supposed, 
 Cyril was persecuted. Five times he was de- 
 posed, five times re-instated. He was well aware 
 that his foes were m.any, and his stanch friends 
 few. The Jesuits, with the aid of the French 
 ambassador at the Sublime Porte, spared no 
 intrigues to counteract and clieckraate his Prot- 
 estant schemes, and to bring aliout instead a 
 union of the Greek hierarchy wifli Rome. Even 
 the priiiting-pre.^s. wliicli he had imported from 
 England on which to print his Confession and 
 several catechisms, was, on their instigation, de- 
 stroyed by the Turkish Government. At length 
 they succeeded in their unprincipled designs. 
 They accused him of cons]iiring .against the gov- 
 ernment. He was strangled by order of the Sul- 
 tan, and his body was thrown into the Bospho- 
 rus. His friends surrouii<Ie(l the palace of his 
 successor, Cyril of Benea, who liad been a cliief 
 instigator of his murder, crying, " Pilate, give 
 us the dead, that we may bury him." But it 
 was not until the body, once thrown up by tlie 
 tide, hivd been again pushed upon the unwilling 
 watirs, and again returned, that it was given over 
 to the dead man's adheriMits. C>Til of Beroea 
 was himself soon after deposed and anathema-
 
 CYRIL OP JERUSALEM. 
 
 595 
 
 CYRILLUS. 
 
 tized for fraud, extortion, and the part he took in 
 Cyril Lucar's death ; and the next patriarch, Par- 
 thenius, granted the reformer a decent burial. 
 
 Cyril unfortunately left no followers able or 
 willing to carry on his work. His doctrines 
 were denounced by the Patriarch Cyril of Beroea 
 and the synod of Constantinople held in 1638 ; 
 which condemnation was confirnied by the synods 
 of Jassy, in Moldavia, 1642, and of Jerusalem, 
 1672. The two latter synods saved the honor of 
 Cyril's name and his patriarchal dignity by boldly 
 denying the authenticity of his Confession, and 
 contradicting it by written documents from his 
 pen. It is, however, a vain invention which at- 
 tributes it to Cornelius van der Haga, ambassa- 
 dor of the United Netherlands to the Sublime 
 Porte. Cyril sincerely loved his church, and 
 ardently longed to bring her back to the primi- 
 tive faith, and to guard her against the seductions 
 of Rome. The (Jreek Church of his day was 
 surely in a humiliating condition under the Mo- 
 hammedan yoke and amid the toils of Rome. 
 Cyril may have looked longingly upon Protestant 
 aid, which he knew was to be obtained only on 
 condition of acceptance of the Protestant faith. 
 lie certainly did his best to bring about this de- 
 sired result. He entered into corresiiondence 
 with Protestant divines in Switzerland, IloUaud, 
 and England (e.g., with Abbot, Archbishop of 
 Canterbury), sent promising youths to Protestant 
 universities, and enlisted the press to circulate 
 tlie truth. But all was in vain. Yet not all ; for 
 his nobility of thought and conduct, his ability 
 and courage, his sincerity and piety, have en- 
 deared his memory to that nation which he was 
 fain to lead to the liberty and religion of Christ. 
 
 Cyril Lucar has a peculiar claim upon Bible 
 students, because he presented the famous uncial 
 codex Alexaudrinus, denominated codex A. (see 
 Bible-Text, N.T.), to Charles I. of England, 
 1G28. He also translated the New Testament 
 into the modern Greek language, Geneva (or Ley- 
 den), 1638, Loudon, 1703. 
 
 Lit. — Cyuillus Lucaris : Confessio Christi- 
 o/pfe_^rfet (Latin), Geneva, 1629; c. addilam. CijrilU 
 ((Jreek and Latin), 1633, aud often; French 
 translation, Jean Aymon : Leilrcs anecdotiquen 
 dc Cyrille Lucar et sa cotifcssion de foi, avec des 
 remarques ; concile de Jerusalem, etc., Amsterdam, 
 1718; Thomas Smith: Collectanea de Ci/rillo 
 Lucari, London, 1707 ; the same : Miscellanea, 
 which contains Narratio de vita, studiis, r/estis et 
 marti/rio C. L., Hal., 1724; Kimmei. : Monumenta 
 Jidei eccl. orient., Jena, 1850, 2 vols. ; J. Mason 
 Neale : Historij of the Holy Eastern Church, 
 London, 1847-50, 4 vols. II. p. 356 sqq. ; Aloy- 
 sius PiCHLEK : Geschichte des Prolestanlismus in 
 der orienialischen Kirche im 17. Jahrhundcrl, oder: 
 Der Patriarch Cyrillus Lucaris und seine Zcit, Miin- 
 chen, 1862; the same: Geschichte der lirchlichen 
 Ti-ennunr/ zicischen dem Orient und Occident, Miin- 
 chen, 1804, 1865, 2 vols.; A. Mettetal: Ci/r. 
 Lucar, Strassburg, 1869 ; Wii.nEi.M Gass : Si/m- 
 holik der griechischen Kirche, Berlin, 1872, and his 
 art. in Herzog, ed. U., vol. ix. pp. 5-11 ; P. 
 Trivier : Un patriarche de Constantinojile, Paris, 
 1877; Schaff; Creeds of Christendom, I. 5i-oS. 
 
 CYRIL OF JERUSALEM, b. probably in 315; 
 d. probably March 18, 386 ; spent his w^hoie life 
 in Jerusalem, \^here he was consecrated deacon, 
 
 in 335, by Bisliop Makarius, and presbyter, in 315^ 
 by Bishop Maximus, and where he finally be- 
 came bishop himself. In the Arian controversy 
 he tried to maintain a neutral position, in which, 
 however, he did not succeed. After the death of 
 Maximus, or, as Socrates and Sozomen have it, 
 after the expulsion of Maximus by the Arians, 
 Cyril became bishop by the aid of this party. 
 At all events, he was consecrated by Acacius of 
 Cajsarea, who was an Arian. 15ut the harmony 
 between him and Acacius did not last long. Ac- 
 cording to the seventh canon of the Council of 
 Nice, the Bishop of Jerusalem ranked immedi- 
 ately after the Bishops of Rome, Alexandria, and 
 Antioch, though with reservation of the right 
 of the Bishop of Ca;sarea as metropolite. From 
 this point the disagreement began; but it was 
 greatly inflamed by religious discrepancies. Acar 
 cius cited Cyril before him; and, when the latter 
 declined to apprar, the former had him deposed 
 by a council of only a few bishops (358). Cyril 
 apjjealed to another and larger council, held at 
 Seleucia (359), and mostly composed of Semi- 
 Arians ; and this council deposed Acacius. But 
 in 360 a still larger council of Arians, held in 
 Constantinople, confirmed the deposition of Cyril; 
 and it was only the death of Constantius and the 
 accession of Julian which enabled Cyril to re- 
 turn to his see. During the last twenty years he 
 lived in comparative peace and quiet, though he 
 was expelled twice more, under Valens. 
 
 Of the works ascribed to Cyril, the homilies 
 are certainly sjjurious, though with the exception 
 of the one on the impotent man at the Pool of Be- 
 thesda, first published by Thomas Milles in 1703, 
 which seems to be genuine. The letter addressed 
 to the Emperor Constantius, and giving an ac- 
 count of a vision of a radiant cross in the heavens, 
 is, at all events, much interpolated. But the cate- 
 chcses, or catechetical lectures, are genuine, and 
 are of the greatest interest, both for the history 
 of the Christian dogmas, and for the true under- 
 standing of the liturgy and catechetical methods 
 of the ancient Church. They were edited by J. 
 Prevot (Paris, 1608), Thomas Milles (Greek and 
 Latin, Oxford, 1703, foL), and A. A. Toutee (Paris, 
 1720, fob, reprinted at Venice, 1763). There is a 
 translation of them in German by Feder, Bam- 
 berg, 1786. See Van Vollenhoven: Specimen 
 Theol. De Cijr. Hier. Cat., Amsterdam, 1837 : I. 
 Tii. Putt : De Ciirilli Hier. Orationihus Cat., 
 Heidelberg, 1855; [Newman's preface to the Li- 
 hrary of the Fathers, II. 1; C. Petit: Vie des. 
 Cijrille de Jerusalem, Paris, 1877]. C. BUEK. 
 
 CYRILLUS and METHODIUS, the apostles of 
 the Slav.s. In the sixth and more especially in 
 the eiglith century, the Slavs penetrated across the 
 Danube and the Balkan, into Macedonia, Epirus, 
 Thessalia, Hellas, and Peloponnesus, and took 
 permanent possession of those regions. Towards 
 the close of the eighth century they were Chris- 
 tianized from Thessalonica, in which place Greek 
 civilization, stimulated by the influx of the Slav 
 elements, burst into a fresh bloom. It was also 
 from Thessalonica that the conversion of the 
 Slavs outside the Greek Empire was effected. 
 Cyrillus and Methodius were born there in the 
 first half of the ninth century. 
 
 Cyrillus, whose true name was Constantinus, 
 studied philosojihy at Constantinople, obtained
 
 CYRILLUS. 
 
 596 
 
 CYRILLUS. 
 
 the friendship of the learned Photius, was for 
 some time a teacher himself of profane science, 
 and was given the surname "the Philosopher," 
 which he retained ever after. Soon, however, the 
 religious tendency of his nature gained the ascen- 
 dency. He entered the clerical estate, took up his 
 abode in a monastery, together with his brother 
 Methodius, removed thence, and finally settled 
 in the solitude of the mountains. At the same 
 time he began to take active part in the dogmati- 
 cal controversies. He had a dispute with Photius 
 about the unity or duality of the soul ; he de- 
 fended the worship of images ; he distinguished 
 himself as a Christian apologist against the Mo- 
 hammedans; and in this last direction went also 
 Jiis first activity as a missionary. 
 
 Among the Chazari, a Tartar tribe occupying 
 the regions between tlie, north-eastern shore of 
 the Black Sea and the lower course of the Wolga, 
 Jews and Mohammedans liad for some time been 
 busy making proselytes. Cliristian missionaries 
 had also visited them ; and when, in 800, they 
 addressed tlie emperor, Michael III., on the ques- 
 tion, he sent Cyrillus to them. In order to pre- 
 pare himself properly for the mission, Cyrillus 
 first settled at Cherson, and began to study the 
 language of the Chazari ; and it was in Cherson 
 that he came in possession of tlie remains of 
 Clement of Kome, which he afterwards always 
 carried about wherever he went. After due prepa- 
 ration he penetrated deeper into the country; and, 
 under the protection of the chief, he preached 
 and lield disputations in defence, and for the 
 propagation, of Christianity. It also seems that 
 a considerable number of the inhabitants decided 
 in his favor: but there is not the least trace of 
 any eliurch organization among them ; and, some 
 jears later on, the majority of the Chazari had 
 adopted either Judaism or ^Mohammedanism. 
 Having eilected the release of a number of Greek 
 captives, Cyrillus returned witli the relics of St. 
 Clemens to Constantinople, where he lived in 
 ascetic seclusion, togetlier with his brother, until 
 a field of practical activity opened before them. 
 
 Rastislav had just formed a great Slav Empire 
 on the eastern boundary of Germany. Its name 
 was Moravia: its boundaries are uncertain, and 
 were probably somewhat variable. A number of 
 Jiis subjects were Christians, converted by Ger- 
 man missionaries from Passau and Salzburg. 
 I5ut, with German missionaries of that time, con- 
 version to Cliristianity meant, first and foremost, 
 political submission ; and tliis was the verj' reason 
 wliy Hastislav wanted the whole matter put into 
 the liands of the Greek Church. The Greek mis- 
 sionaries employed only instruction, no violence, 
 and tliey wei-e always willing to adapt themselves 
 to national peculiarities. Hy their aid only an 
 indeiMMident Slav Church could be reared; and, as 
 it was only such a cliurcli wliich could fit into 
 the politic fabric of Kastislav, lie was eager to 
 invite Greek missionaries to come to ^Moravia. 
 CyriUus and Methodius accepted the invitation. 
 They were well prejiared for the task. Tliey un- 
 derstood the Slav language; perliaps they tliem- 
 sc'lves belonged to a family of Grecized Slavs: 
 at all events, they must have heard the Slav 
 language at Thessalonica from their early youth. 
 Cyrillus had even formed an idea of influencing 
 I *he Slavs in a literary way. lie had translatecl 
 
 parts of the Bible into Slav, and invented au 
 alphabet, by means of which the translation could 
 be put in writing. 
 
 In 863 the two brothers arrived at the court of 
 Rastislav, where they were well received ; and the 
 labor began. They founded a seminary for the 
 education of native priests; they distributed 
 the holy writings in Slav translation": thc^y taught 
 the people, preached, and celebrated divine ser- 
 vice, in the vernacular tongue, etc. The effect. 
 was very great. The German priests, with their 
 Latin liturgy, which they did not uiiderstangl 
 themselves, and their perpetual hagglincs about 
 tithes and revenues, returned to their respective 
 dioceses ; and an independent national church 
 began to arise among the Slavs. Pope Nicholas 
 I. was well aware of the importance of this fact, 
 and summoned the two brothers to Home to have 
 their work legitimized. The summons was 
 immediately obeyed. Cyrillus always nourished 
 a kind of mystic enthusiasm for Rome ; and 
 Nicholas I. was much beloved on account of the 
 rare wisdom and full trustworthiness which he 
 had evinced in the Bulgarian affairs. Accompa- 
 nied by a great number of pupils, the brothers 
 set out for Rome in 8G7, carrying thither the re- 
 mains of St. Clemens. When they reached the 
 city, Nicholas I. had died. But Adrian II. adopt- 
 ed, with respect to the Slav mission, the policy of 
 his predecessor; and the organization of a Slav 
 Church, independent both of the Greek and the 
 German Church, and corresponding directly with 
 the see of Rome, was agreed upon. Of the Slav 
 translation of the Bible, of the Slav liturgy, the 
 Pope took no umbrage, not even of the Greek 
 dogmatics. Cyrillus died in Rome, Feb. 14, 
 868; and Methodius returned alone to Moravia, 
 having been consecrated archbishop of the new 
 church. 
 
 The establishment of the Slav Church was, to 
 some extent, an encroachment upon the rights 
 of the Archbishop of Salzburg; and in 871 a me- 
 moir appeared, setting forth how the countries 
 now belonging to the diocese of Methodius origi- 
 nally had received Christianity from Salzburg, 
 and how the Greek Methodius h:ul seduced the 
 people, and allured them away from the doctrine, 
 liturgy, and language of the Roman Church. On 
 the merely juridical side of the ([uestiou this 
 memoir made no impression, either in Jloravia. or 
 in Germany, or in Rome. But Pope John VIII. 
 was very much averse to the use of the Slav lan- 
 guage in divine service, and considered that the 
 time had come to take back the concession which 
 his predecessors had granted. He consequently 
 ordered Methodius to substitute the Latin for the 
 Slav language; and, when this order was disre- 
 garded, he summoned him to Rome. But when 
 Methodius arrived in Rome, and began to explain 
 the whole matter, the Pope understood that ho 
 could not treat the Slav Church in this high- 
 handed manner, without throwing it directly into 
 the arms of the Patriarch of Constantinople. 
 Methodius returned from Rome in 880 with an 
 express confirmation of the use of the Slav lan- 
 guage in his Church, and with his doctrines and 
 practices fully justified. 
 
 In the mean time a suffragan see had been es- 
 tablished at Neitra, and its first occupant was 
 Wiching. But AViching was a vehement adver-
 
 CYRUS THE GREAT. 
 
 CYRUS THE GREAT. 
 
 sary of Methodius and the Slav churches. As 
 Swatopluk, tlic successor of Rastislav, also leaned 
 towards (ierniauy, Wiching succeeded, by suppos- 
 ititious letters from the Pope, exciting him against 
 Methodius, whose jiositioii became more and more 
 difficult. Methodius addressed himself to the 
 I'ope for supi^ort. and the Pope answered him 
 very kindly March 2:5, 8«1. But John VIII. died 
 in 882 ; and in the contest with Wiching, Swato- 
 pluk, and tin.' German prelates, Methodius finally 
 succumbed. Ilis successor, Gosrad, a Slav, was 
 expelled. The Slav language and liturgy wei-e 
 abolished in the service, and supplanted by the 
 Latin ; the Slav priests were persecuted, and 
 finally banished : they fled to Bulgaria, whither 
 they brought the Slav translation of the ]}ible. 
 The deatli-year of Methodius is not known : it va- 
 ries between 881 and 910. The Painionian legend 
 gives April 6, 885. The Bohemians and Mora- 
 vians celebrated the thousandth jubilee of their 
 apostle, July 5, 1863. Cyrillus and Methodius 
 were canonized in 1881, under Pope Leo XIII. 
 
 Lit. — The sources to the life of Cyrillus and 
 Methodius, among wliich, singularly enough, there 
 are no Byzantine, have been gathered by Scn.\- 
 TARIK in Stdtcische Allcrliimer (11. 471), and by 
 Giuzel: Geschiclded. Slawenapostcl (Apji. 1-72). 
 See, also, y4 (.7. Satict. March, II. II; Assem.\ni ; 
 Kalendaria Eccel. Universm III.; Doisuowsky: 
 C. und M., Prague, 1823, and Mahrische Lec/ende 
 von C. und M., Prague, 1820; PinL.\RET: C. und 
 J/., Milan, 1847 ; Wattenijacii : Beitrdge z. Ge- 
 schirlite d. christ. Kirclic in Miihrcn und Bohmen, 
 Vieniui, 1841). ALBUEcnT VOCiEL. 
 
 CYRUS THE GREAT (date of birth unknown, 
 d. B.C. 529) is named in the following passages 
 of the Old I'estament, — 2 Chron. xxxvi. 22, 23; 
 Ez. i. 1-8, iii. 7, iv. 3, 5, v. 13, 14, 17, vi. 3-5, 
 14 ; Isa. xliv. 28, xlv. 1; Dan. i. 21, vi. 28, x. 1. 
 For his history in detail we must look to Greek 
 ■writers, particulai'ly Herodotus, Xenophon, and 
 Ktesias, and to scanty but invaluable contem- 
 porary records in the cuneiform character. His 
 early life is obscured by conflicting traditions, 
 through which only a few general facts may be 
 clearly distinguished. Cyrus (Persian K'ur'ush, 
 Babylonian Kuras, Hebrew V}')'3, Greek Kiipof; 
 the meaning is in dispute) was the descendant of 
 a line of kings ruling in Anzan (Babylonian An- 
 kin, or ASfnn), a country known to the nations 
 west of it as Elam (highland). They had estab- 
 lished themselves there by invasion, not many 
 generations before Cyrus, whose genealogy is 
 traced in the inscriptions no farther than his 
 great-grandfather, Teispes. The order is as fol- 
 lows : Cyrus, Cambyses, Cyrus, Teispes. What 
 relation this royal line had sustained to Persia, 
 the country south-east of Anzan, we camiot cer- 
 tainly tell ; but to Media on the north it had proba- 
 bly paid a continuous or occasional tribute. 
 Herodotus and Xenophon tell us that Cyrus's 
 mother was Mandane, the daiighter of Astyages, 
 King of Media : this is opposed to the testimouy 
 of Ctesias, and is unlikely. It is still more un- 
 likely that Astyages sought to kill his grandson, 
 because he was heir to the throne (Herodotus). 
 All traditions, however, point to a sojourn of 
 Cyrus at Astyages' court, pi'esumably as liostage. 
 M'^hile there, he no doubt observed the degeneracy 
 
 of the Median kingdom, and the disaffection of 
 the nobles from Astyages, who estranged them 
 by his arbitrariness and favoritism. In B.C. 5.58,, 
 probably at the death of Cambyses his father, 
 Cyrus ascended the throne of Anzan ; and his 
 ordinary title in the contemporary cuneiform rec- 
 ords is " King of Anzan," rarely " King of the 
 land of Persia." How .soon the struggle with 
 Astyages began is not clear; but its decisive set- 
 tlement was not reached till 5.50, when, in the 
 midst of a campaign, the scildiers of Astyages 
 revolted, and delivered him into Cyrus's hands. 
 Cyrus then seized and plundered the royal city 
 Ecbatana. After the fall of Media, and the 
 voluntary or forced acknowledgment of Cyrus's 
 authority by several tributary peoples, with Ar- 
 menia already his friend, he soon turned his 
 attention toward Lydia. Cra?sus, its king, was 
 overcome, and Sardis captured iu 547; and while 
 the general of Cyrus was reducing the whole 
 Ionian coast to submission, Cyrus liimself marched 
 toward the East. The following eight years were 
 spent in triumphant campaigns, which made his 
 power felt even beyond the Indus. But a further 
 achievement was in store for him, less difficult, as 
 it proved, than many others, but of far-reaching 
 importance. He must become master of Baby- 
 lonia. In the month Tannnuz (July), B.C. 538, 
 he entered Accad, or Northern Babylonia, with a, 
 powerful army. The empire which Xebuchad- 
 nezzar had made so terrible bad, however, become 
 outwardly reduced and inwardly weak. Xaboni- 
 dus the king was too inactive to secure the enthu- 
 siasm of the people, and too negligent of the 
 gods and temples to retain the suiiport of the 
 powerful hierarchy. Accad revolted from him, 
 and none were more eager than the [iricsts in 
 welcoming the conqueror. Cyrus entered Sippa^ 
 ra (" City of the Sun," comp. Heb. D^J^flp) with- 
 out striking a blow ; and two days later his 
 general, Gobryas, occupied Babylou, where Nabo- 
 nidus, who had fled from the field at the time of 
 the revolt, was taken prisoner. Cyrus followed 
 in person nearly four months later (3d Marches- 
 van), and appointed Gobryas and others to official 
 positions. Nabonidus died before the close of 
 the year. 
 
 Cyrus's religious policy began at once to show 
 a marked diilerence from that of Nabonidus. 
 He repaired the shrines ; he issued a proclama- 
 tion calling Merodach and Nebo "his lords," and 
 recognizing his victory as due to them; his son 
 Cambyses presided at a great religious festival; 
 he pacified tributary jieoples by restoring to them 
 the images of their gods which had been brought 
 to Babylon. Among those wliose religious feel- 
 ings he thus regarded were the captive Hebrews, 
 to whom he at the same time restored certain 
 political and social rights. The coming of this 
 deliverer had been foretold to them (Isa. xliv. 
 28, xlv. 1 sqq., xlvi. 1 sqq ; Jer. 1.. li., etc.), and no 
 doubt they welcomed him with joy and hope. 
 This hope was gratified by an edict, transmitted 
 to us in two fragments (Ez. i. 2-4, vi. 3-5), in 
 which he gave them permission to return to Jeru- 
 salem, and directed that Jehovah's temple should 
 be there rebuilt at the expense of his own treasu- 
 ry. This was evidently in pursuance of his set- 
 tled policy of conciliation. The remaining years
 
 CYRUS THE GREAT. 
 
 598 
 
 CYRUS THE GREAT, 
 
 ■of Cyrus were spent chiefly in reducing to order 
 the affairs of his rast empire. Some dated 
 tablets prove, that, as early as B.C. 532, he set 
 Cambyses on the throne of Babylonia as semi- 
 independent ruler of that province. He himself 
 was doubtless engaged elsewhere. His last expe- 
 dition was against a people in the north-east 
 (either the Jlassagetce or the Derbikkas), and it 
 ended in his death from wounds received in battle 
 B.C. 529. His tomb, of doubtful genuineness, 
 is still to be seen on the plain of Murgab, north 
 of Persepolis. 
 
 Cyrus was not a monotheistic zealot : he was 
 probably a polytheist, and no Zoroastrian at all. 
 His own records show him uttering the same lan- 
 guage in regard to Merodach that Ezra puts into 
 his mouth with reference to Jehovah. It can 
 hardly have had much depth of meaning in either 
 case. But he was politic and considerate, know- 
 ing how to use the sentiments of others for large 
 political ends ; and, even if his friendly treatment 
 of the Hebrews sprang mainly from a desire to 
 have attached subjects on a threatened frontier, 
 lie was none the less their deliverer from bondage. 
 
 In the nature of the case he could not organize 
 his vast conquests as Darius afterwards did. If 
 he had been born heir to a great empire, instead 
 of having to create one, his administrative power 
 would have had freer play. As it was, tlie quali- 
 ties of a determined, rapid, successful, politic, 
 benignant conqueror, are those that will perpetu- 
 ate his fame. 
 
 Lit. — 51. DujfCKER : GescMchte des Alterthums, 
 oth ed., Berlin, 1878-80, 4 vols., Eng. trans., 
 London, 1877-82, 6 vols. ; F. Ju.sti : Gescldchte 
 Persiciis (in W. Oncken's AUgemeine GescldclUe), 
 Berlin, 1879 ; George RAWLiN.soNr : Five Great 
 Oriental Monarchies, 4th ed., London, ISSO, New 
 York, 1881; Sir Henry Rawlixson : Clay 
 Cylinder of Cyrus the Great, Journal of the Royal 
 Asiatic Soc, January, 1880 ; T. G. Pinches : 
 Capture of Babylon by Cyru^, from Transactions 
 of Soc. for Bib. Archseol., vol. vii., 1880; J. 
 Halevy : Cyrus et le Retour de V Exile, Revue des 
 Etudes Juives, 1880 ; V. Floigl : Cyrus and 
 Herodot, Leipzig, 1881 ; E. Babelon : Les in- 
 scriptions cunciformes relatives a la prise de Bahylone 
 par Cyrus, Paris, 1881. FRANCIS BROWN.
 
 DACH. 
 
 599 
 
 DALBBRG. 
 
 DACH, Simon, b. at Memel, July 29, 1605; d. 
 
 at K(inigsberg, April 15, 1059 ; studied at Kbnigs- 
 l)erg, Wittenberg, and Magdeburg, and became 
 teaclier in the cathedral school of Kouigsberg in 
 1G:?3, co-rector in loyO, and professor of poetry 
 in the university in 1039. He was the most 
 prominent member of what, in the history of 
 (Jerman literature, is called the School of Konigs- 
 berg, and wTote a great number of poems, social 
 and religious ; the former without any value, the 
 latter highly esteemed. They were printed sepa- 
 rately, on loose leaves ; but there are compre- 
 hensive collections of the original prints in the 
 libraries of Konigsberg, Breslau, and Berlin. 
 The Prussian hymn-books of 1605 and 1675 con- 
 tain many of his religious poems. The Churhran- 
 denburgische Rose, Adlei; Like, und Scepter (1680) 
 contains the verses he wrote in honor of the reign- 
 ing dynasty. A selection of his poetry, and a life 
 of him, is found in Karl Goedeke and Julius 
 Tittmann: Deutsche Dichter d. ITten Jahrhun- 
 i/erts. Leipzig. 1876. 
 
 D'ACHERY. See Achery, D'. 
 
 DA COSTA, Isaak, b. in Amsterdam, Jan. 14, 
 1798; d. there April 28, 1860; belonged to a rich 
 and distinguished family of Portuguese Jews, 
 but embraced Christianity in 1821. He studied 
 jiu'isprudence and belles-lettres at Leyden, and 
 developed, under the influence of W. Bilderdyk, 
 into one of the most briUiant poets of the Dutch 
 literature. His poetical works appeared in three 
 volumes at Harlem (1861). But, besides being 
 a great poet, he was one of the most energetic 
 and influential of modern Christian apologists. 
 Possessed of comprehensive knowledge and con- 
 siderable critical power, he opposed the anti- 
 Christian tendencies of the age, especially the 
 Tiibingen school, with a zeal and perseverance 
 which had effect also outside of his own country. 
 He worked principally as a lecturer, and his 
 apologetical works originated in the lecture-room. 
 The most important was The Four Witnesses 
 (1840, translated into English by D. Scott, Lon- 
 don, 1851), directed against D. F. Strauss's Leben 
 Jcsu. His Life has been written by H. J. Koenen, 
 in Handelingen van de Maatschappy der Nederl. 
 Letterkunde, 1860. J. J. VAN OOSTERZEE. 
 
 DAGGETT, Oliver Ellsworth, D.D., b. at New 
 Haven, Conn., Jan. 14, 1810 ; d. in Hartford, 
 Sept. 1, 1880. He was graduated at Yale Col- 
 lege (1828) ; was pastor of the South Church, 
 Hartford, and of the First Congregational Church, 
 Canandaigua, N.Y., twenty-three years; pastor of 
 Yale College three years, and of the Second Con- 
 gregational Church, New London, Conn. ; and 
 was one of the compilers of the Connecticut Hymn- 
 Bonl-, 1845. 
 
 DA'GON (llJl great fish), a PhilLstine divinity, 
 having a marine body, and human face and hands. 
 Philo Byblius, followed by others, falsely derived 
 the name from Ziruv (corn), and designates the 
 god as Zffif upoTpioc (the god of agrictdture) . That 
 tlie former derivation is correct is plain from 
 1 Sam. V. 4, where it is reported, that, when the 
 
 hands and face were broken off, only " Dagon " 
 
 was left. The English version puts in what 
 is not in the Hebrew, " the stump of Dagon." 
 Dagon is allied to the Syrian female divinity, 
 Atargatis (also called Derceto), and is probably 
 tlie same as the Assyrian iisii-god, Odakon, men- 
 tioned by Berosus. He Iiad temples in Ashdod 
 (1 Sam. V. 3 sqq.), where, on two successive 
 idghts, his image fell to the floor when the ark of 
 the Lord was placed beside it, and at Gaza (Judg. 
 xvi. 23 sqq.). This latter Samson pulled down 
 by pushing out the two colunms. Cities in Judah 
 (Josh. XV. 41) and Asher (xix. 27) wei-e called 
 Beth-dagon ("home or temple of Dagon "). 
 
 DAILL^, Jean, b. at Chatellerault, Jan. 6, 1594; 
 d. at Charenton, April 15, 1670; .studied at the 
 seminary of Saumur, under Camero and Gonia^ 
 rus ; was an intimate friend of Amyraut and 
 Cappel ; lived for a number of years in the house 
 of Gov. du Plessys-^Iornay as tutor to his grand- 
 son, with whom he visited Italy, ^\■here he made 
 the acquaintance of Sarpi at Venice, Switzerland, 
 England, and Holland ; and was in 1626 ap- 
 pointed pastor at Charenton, that is, to the Re- 
 formed Congregation of Paris. His print;ipal 
 work is his treatise De usu Pntrum (1336), trans- 
 lated into English (1651) under the title, A Trea- 
 tise concerning the right Use of the Fathers in the 
 Decision of Controversies that are at this Day in 
 Religion, re-edited by Jekyll, London, 1841, Pliila- 
 delphia, 1842. His Exposition of the Pliilippians 
 and of the Colossians have also been translated 
 into English by Sherman, London, 1841. 
 
 D'ALLI, or D'AILLY. See Ailli. 
 
 DALBERC, Karl Theodor (baron, arch-chan- 
 cellor of the German Empire, prince-primate of 
 the Rhenish Confederacy, grand duke of Frank- 
 furt), was b. at Hernsheim, Feb. 8, 1744, and d. 
 at Regensburg, Feb. 10, 1817. He studied fir.st 
 law at Gottingen and Heidelberg, but entered 
 afterwards the church, advanced rapidly, and be- 
 came, as governor of Erfurt (from 1772), one of 
 the centres of literary and political life in Ger- 
 many, a friend of Goethe, the IMsecenas of Schiller, 
 an intimate of Joseph II. Some very spirited 
 writings of his belong to this period : Betrach- 
 tungen iiher d. Universum (1777), Verhiiltniss zwischen 
 Moral und Staatskunst (1786), etc. In 1787 he 
 was appointed coadjutor and successor to the 
 Elector of Mayence, and in 1788 coadjutor to the 
 Bishop of Mayence. In the same year he was 
 consecrated Archbishop of Tarsus, and in 1797 he 
 was made provost of the chapter of Wtii'zburg. 
 When the French invasion began, in 1797, he 
 belonged to the patriot party ; and for several 
 years on he stiU clung to the old establishment 
 of the emjjire. But he was unable to withstand 
 Napoleon, who alternately coaxed and threatened 
 him, until he became a mere tool in his hands. 
 He was present at the coronation in Paris (1804) ; 
 he signed the Rlienish Confederacy in 1806, and 
 was made prince-primate; he accepted in 1810 
 the title and function as grand duke of Franc- 
 fort ; but he paid in honesty what he got in
 
 DALE. 
 
 600 
 
 DAMASCUS. 
 
 honors. After the battle of Leipzig he tried to 
 explain his relation to Napoleon, but in vain. 
 With a pension he retired from public life. Ilis 
 biography has been written by B. A. Kramer, 
 Leipzig, 1821, and also by J. Miji-LER, AViirzburg, 
 IsTl. KLiJPFEL. 
 
 DALE, James Wilkinson, D.D., b. in New Cas- 
 tle County, Del., Oct. l(j, 1S12: d. at Media, 
 Fenn., April 19, 1881. He was graduated at 
 the University of Pennsylvania in 1831, and at 
 Andover Theological Seminary. He also studied 
 medicine with a view to more efficient missionary 
 .service in India: but the financial difficulties of 
 the American Board prevented his dejiarture, 
 and for seven years he held an appointment from 
 the Bible Society of Philadelphia, to distribute 
 Bibles throughout the State. From 1845 to 18G6 
 he was pastor of the united Ridley and Middle- 
 town Presbyterian churches in Delaware County, 
 Pennsylvania, from 1866 to 1871 pastor of the 
 Media, and from 1871 to 1876 of the Wa3'ne, 
 Presbyterian Church. 
 
 Dr. Dale was a man of intense activity. He 
 issued many sermons, and labored zealously in 
 behalf of total abstinence. His reputation, how- 
 ever, was made by his elaborate works ujion 
 baptism, in which he defends pedobaptism and 
 sprinkling. The volumes are. Classic Baptism 
 (Philadelphia, 1867), Judaic (1871), Johaiinic 
 (1872), Christie and Patristic (1S74). Condensed 
 statements of his views will be found in The Cup 
 and the Cross, Philadelpliia, 1872, and in his 
 article Baptism, contributed to this Ci/ctojxedia 
 .shortly before his death. 
 
 DALMA'TIA, a mountainous district on the 
 east of the Adriatic Sea, visited by Titus (2 Tun. 
 iv. 10). 
 
 DALMATIC (Dabnatica sc. vestis), a white tunic 
 with Icing and wide sleeves, worn by rich and dis- 
 tinguished persons, at one time by the Koman 
 senators, derived its name from the province 
 Dalmatia, in which it was first manufactured. 
 By a decree of Pope Sylvester I., 335, it was made 
 a part of the deacon's vestment, and as such 
 adorned by two longitudinal stripes behind. It 
 corresponded to the culohium. u.sed in the Greek 
 Cliurcli. wliicli, lunvever, was without .sleeves. 
 
 DAMASCUS (usually called Esh-Shdm, also 
 Dimishk), situated at the base of tlie Anti-Leli- 
 anon Mountains, in latitude 33° 32' N., longitude 
 36° 20' K., a hundred and tliirtv-throe miles north- 
 north-east of Jerusalem, and a^iout fifty miles east 
 of the Mediterranean, at an altitude of 2,260 feet 
 above the sea, is one of the oldest and most re- 
 markable cities in the world, — remarkable both 
 on account of the beauty of its location and on 
 account of the interest of its history. It is called 
 the "Eye of the Desert." The Aloliammedans 
 regard it as the best earthly reflection of paradise. 
 
 Joseplms affirms tliat tlie city was founded by 
 Uz, the son of Aram ; and it was certainly known 
 in the days of the patriarchs, as Alirahani's trusted 
 servant hliezer was a native of Danuiscus ((Ion. 
 XV. 2). It is often mentioned in the Old Testa- 
 ment, also in the Acts, and twice in tiie Epistles 
 of Paul (fial. i. 17, and 2 Cor. xi. 32). David 
 conquered it after a bloody w<ar (2 Sam. viii. .5, fl) ; 
 but, under Solomon, an adventurer made himself 
 King of Damascus, and foimded an emiiiro, witli 
 which the Israelites came thenceforth often into 
 
 •saolent conflict. In 732 B.C. the kingdom of 
 Damascus lost its independence, conquered by 
 Tiglath-pileser ; and the prophecy of Isaiah was 
 thus fulfilled (Isa. xvii. 1-3). Alexander the 
 Great conquered Syi-ia in 333 B.C. After various 
 fortunes, the country became a Roman province 
 in 63 B.C. At the time of Christ, Damascus hadl 
 several Jewish synagogues. In the Byzantiuef 
 Empire it became the residence of a Christian 
 bishop next in rank to the Patriarch of Antioch, 
 and numbered several churches and a cathedi'al 
 in honor of John the Baptist. In 634 A.D. it 
 fell into the hands of Islam ; and ^loawj'ah, the 
 first caliph of the Omeiyades, made it the capital 
 of the ^Mohammedan Empire (661), and raised it 
 to great splendor. During the crusades it shared 
 the changing fortunes and misfortunes of the cities 
 in the Holy Land. Saladin made it his head- 
 quarters in his campaigns with the Franks, and 
 in 1516 it passed into the possession of the Turk- 
 ish Sultan. The cross has never since displaced 
 the crescent. Damascus is still a provincial capital 
 of Turkey. 
 
 The most important event which took place in 
 Damascus, and one of the most important events 
 in the history of mankind, is the conversion of 
 St. Paul. It is reported three times in the Acts 
 of the Apostles (ix. 1-22, xxii. 4-20, xxvi. 12-20), 
 and several tunes alluded to m the Epistles of St. 
 Paul. It occurred a few years after the crucifixion 
 of Christ, and a few weeks after the martyrdom 
 of St. Stephen, about 37. An old tradition points 
 out the place at a distance of about five miles 
 from the city, at a iiomt where the dhect road 
 from Jerusalem crosses the one from Banias and 
 Kefr Ilauwar, near an oasis and a fountain, in 
 view of the ndnarets of the city, the majestic 
 Ilermon, and the bare ridge of the Anti-Lebanon. 
 The window in the wall through which Paul was 
 let down in a basket (2 Cor. xi. 33), the house of 
 Ananias, and the house of Judas, are also .shown ; 
 and "the .street which is called Straight," and in 
 which Ananias was to inquire after Saul of Tarsus, 
 still bears that name. 
 
 At jirescnt the ci(y is a hotbed of ISIoIiamme- 
 dan fanaticism : the Moslems mingle curses on 
 the Christians with their prayers to Allah. Every 
 Christian there remembers the frightful massacre 
 in 1860. Taking advantage of the disturbances 
 among the Druses in the Lebanon, the Moslems 
 arose, on the 9th of July, against the Christians; 
 and on that day and the following about three- 
 thousand adult males were murdered in cold blood, 
 and many others afterwards died of their wounds, 
 or perished in the desert. The Turkish Govern- 
 ment looked on without interfering. A whole- 
 some lesson, however, was given to the Moslem."* 
 by the French expedition, and the punishment it 
 inflicted upon the guilty; but the hatred is .still 
 burning, and restrained only by fear. 
 
 Since 1843 tlie United Presbyterian Church of 
 America and the Presbyterian Clnneh of Ireland 
 have jointly maintained a mission in Damascus, 
 with a church for converts from the Jews and the 
 Greek Christians, and with schools. The London 
 Society for the Conversion of the Jews has also a 
 mission there. 
 
 Lit. — PoRTEU : Fire Years in Datnascus, [^on- 
 don, 18.")5; Sciiakf: Through Bible Lands, New 
 York, 1878, pp. 301 .sqq.
 
 DAMASUS. 
 
 601 
 
 D^.NCB. 
 
 DAMASUS is the name of two popes. — Damasus 
 
 I. (:56G-3S-1) was born in Koine, (pi'obalily '■Mi), 
 and made archJeacon in 85."). His election to 
 the episcopal see was contested liy tlie deacon 
 Ursicinu.s, and the contest s])read even into the 
 provinces, lie was a standi opponent of Arian- 
 ism, and lield one synod in Home (in ;!(i8), wliich 
 condennied tlie two Illyrian liishops Ursacins and 
 Valens, and anotlier (in ;i7<l), wliieli condemned 
 Auxentins of Milan. He stood in intimate rela- 
 tions to Jerome, whom he encouraged to revise 
 the Latin translation of the Bible. He showed 
 also great interest for the artistic improvement 
 of the Roman Catacombs. After liis death he 
 was canonized. His festival falls on Dec. 11. His 
 works, consisting of letters and poems, appeared 
 in Rome 1(>!S and 17;")4, and in Paris 1840. See 
 also Martin Rade : DamiiKiif:, Bischofvon Rum., 
 Freiburg in B., 1882. — Damasus II. was Bishop 
 of Brixen, when, in lOtS, he was elected Pope by 
 the influence of Henry III. ; but he died twenty- 
 three days after his accession. 
 
 DAMIANUS, or DAMIANI, Peter, b. at Raven- 
 na, 1007 ; d. at Faenza, Fel>. 2o, 1072 ; studied 
 at Ravenna, Faejiza, and Parma, and taught for 
 several years in Ids native city, with great suc- 
 cess, but retired, when about thirty years old, 
 suddenly and unexpectedly, to the herndts of 
 Fonte Avello, near Gubbio. Here, too, he dis- 
 tinguished himself; was made jirior and abbot, 
 enlarged and consolidated the congregation, and 
 brought into fashion a new system of flogging- 
 penance. The flogging, performed with a leath- 
 ern thong on the bare back, accompanied the 
 recitation of the psalms, and followed along with 
 the measure of the verses. To each psalm lie- 
 longed a hundred strokes ; to the whole psalter, 
 fifteen thousand. But three thousand strokes 
 were computed to be equal to one year of damna- 
 tion, and an energetic person could by one day's 
 work make up for several years of penance. 
 The fashion became a rage ; and monks flogged 
 themselves to death after the music of the psalms ; 
 and Damiani himself had to interfere, and try to 
 moderate the enthusiasm. Meanwhile his fame 
 grew prodigiously. The whole party among tlie 
 Italian monks who inclined towards an austere 
 view of monastic life looked to him as their 
 leader. Miracles were ascribed to him ; and when 
 Henry HI. came to Italy he found it necessary to 
 make the hermit liis ally, in order to have his 
 reforms accepted by the people. With Gregory 
 VI. and Clement II., Damiani coiTespouded ; and 
 to Leo IX. he sent his Liher Gomorrhianus, com- 
 paring the life of the clergy to that of the men of 
 Sodom and (tomorrah. To the Hildebrand party 
 he belonged, so to speak, by nature ; and in 10.58 
 Stephen X. called liim from the hermitage to the 
 papal court, and compelled him to assume the 
 offices of Bi.shop of O.stia and head of the College 
 of Cardinals. This position, however, did not suit 
 him, and he fled back to the hermits. But he 
 became, nevertheless, one of the most active mem- 
 bers of the Hildebrand party. In 1059 Nicholas 
 
 II. sent him as papal legate to Milan ; and he 
 succeeded in reforming the clnn-ch, and bringing 
 it into due submission to the Roman see. After 
 the death of Nicholas II. he was very active for 
 Alexander II., and did much for his cause in 
 Florence, Monte Casino, and Clugny. In 1062 
 
 ho became the confessor of Agnes, the widow of 
 Henry III.; and in 1009 he was .sent as papal 
 logatt! to Henry IV., on account of his intimate 
 relaiions both with the father and the mother of 
 the young prince. Henry submitted. Hi.s last 
 gi'eat pi'actical undertaking was the ref(jrm of 
 the churcli of his native city. 
 
 Lit. — 'I'lie works of Damiani, among wliich 
 are many hymns and a number of sarcastic epi- 
 grams, werc^ collected by C'ajctaii, and appeared 
 in Home, 1000, in 4 vols. tol. ; later editions in 
 Paris, 1010, 1042, 1003, and at Venice, 174«. The 
 sources of his life are found in Act. Snncl., Feb. 
 23, and Act. Sand. Ord. S. Ben. His biography 
 has been written by Jacob LADFjifiii, in Latin, 
 Rome, 1702, and by Neukirch, in German, Got- 
 tingen, 1876; [J. Kleinermann.s : Pelrus Dami- 
 ani ill sein. Leben ii. Werken, nach d. Qiiellen 
 dari/rsfclll. Sfeyl, 1882]. ALBRECHT VOGEL. 
 
 DAMIANUS, ST. See Cosmas and Dajiiaxus. 
 
 DAMIANUS, d. 001; Patriarch of Alexandria, 
 inclined towards monophysitism, and maintained 
 views concerning the Holy Trinity very similar 
 to those of Sabellius. " The godhead," he said, 
 "of the Father, tlie Son, and the Holy Sjiirit, 
 forms one single substance, in such a manner that 
 the three persons of the Trinity are not God each 
 by himself and separately, but only when united 
 together." The adherents of this view were called 
 Damianites, or, after their meeting-place in Alex- 
 andria, the Anr/elluiii, Angelites. Their adversa- 
 ries called them Tetradites, TerpadiTm, because they 
 had four gods — -the Father, the Son, the Holy 
 Spirit, and the Divine Being — in which tho.se 
 tliree were united. 
 
 DAN. See Tribes or Israel. 
 
 DAN>EUS, Lambert, b. at Beaugenzy, in 1.530; 
 d. at Castres, 1595 ; studied, first law at Orleans, 
 afterwards theology at Geneva, and wa» made 
 pastor in Chien, but driven away by persecution 
 in 1563; fled from France after the Massacre of 
 the night of St. Bartholomew (1572), and was 
 pastor in Geneva, and citizen of the city from 
 1581 ; accepted an invitation to Leyden, but was 
 compelled to give up the position after the fall of 
 Leicester ; was finally made pastor and professor 
 at Castres, in the Kingdom of Navarre. A list 
 of his works, exegetical, dogmatical, ethical, etc., 
 is given in Ha.\g, La France Prolcstante. IV. p. 
 194. He was one of the first to treat Christian 
 ethics separately from dogmatics. His Commen- 
 tary on the Minor Prophets was translated into 
 English by Stockwood, London, 1594. 
 
 DANCE AMONG THE HEBREWS. The He- 
 brew language has several expressions denoting 
 the art of "dancing." Thus we find rakait, which 
 means to akip, or leap for joy (Eccl. iii. 4); kirker, 
 " to jump or spring " (2 Sam. vi. 14, 16); chagag, 
 " turning round in a circle ' ' (1 Sam. xxx. 16) ; and 
 chill, " to twist," probably referring to the wkirling^ 
 motions of the dances (Judg. xxi. 21). Occa- 
 sions for dancing were either solemn anniversa- 
 ries in common life, or anniversaries partaking 
 of a religious chaj-acter. In the Old Testament 
 dancing in connection with divine service is men- 
 tioned only in 2 Sam. vi. 14. When it is said, 
 " Return, return, O Shulainite ; return, return, 
 that we may look upon thee. What will ye see 
 in the Shulamite? As it were the company of 
 *wo armies " (Song of Songs, vi. 13), a form of
 
 DANCERS. 
 
 602 
 
 DANIEL. 
 
 dancing is probably meant, which is still used 
 in the liarenis, wlieie two rows of dancing-girls, 
 in accordance with the orders given by a leader, 
 perform their dances. At the dance the maidens 
 made use of a tambourine, as is still customary 
 in the East. From the time of Alexander the 
 (ireat, Greek dances became customary in tlie 
 East ; and of the dances as were common among 
 the Jews on the Feast of Tabernacles, or on the 
 Day of Atonement, nothing is said in the Old 
 Testaiiu'nt. They are the outgrowth of later 
 
 JllilaisiH. LEYRER (B. PICK). 
 
 DANCERS, wild enthusiasts of the thirteenth 
 and fourteentli centuries. Religious dancing, of a 
 reverent and decorous sort, as, for instance, among 
 the Shakers, has been occasionally introduced into 
 Christian worship ; but the sect of the Dancers, 
 who were enthusiasts, first appeared in 1374, on 
 the Lower Rhine, dancing in honor of St. John, 
 altliough why he was selected no one knows. In 
 July of that year they made tlieir appearance at 
 Aachen. — a crowd of men and women dancing 
 hand in liand, either in pairs or in a circle, on the 
 streets, in the chinx-hes, in private houses, wher- 
 ever they might be, without shame, without rest, 
 hour after hour, luitil they dropped from sheer 
 exhaustion. Then convulsions set in : tliey felt 
 severe pain in the abdomen, and so they cried out 
 lustily, until by cloths wound tightly about theii- 
 waists, by blows with the fists, or even by being 
 trodden on, tliey got relief. During the dance 
 they sang, " Here sent Johan, so so, frish ind fro, 
 here .sent Johan," and encoiu'aged themselves to 
 renewed exertions by crying, ''Frish, fri.skes." 
 They also employed unintelligible expressions, 
 wliich were, of course, interpreted as calls upon 
 ludieard-of demons ; visions visited them : in 
 short, these dancers were thorough-going fanatics. 
 liul the mania s]ii'ead in a short time through all 
 the Low Country, and even into France : wlier- 
 ever these dancers went, they found ready imi- 
 tators. Cliildren left tlieir jiareuts, and joined 
 the wandering, crazy throng; wives forgot their 
 houses, maidens their duties; all classes sent 
 recruits. Of course, immorality quickly .showed 
 itself, for thieves and libertint's improved the op- 
 portunity. But at la.st tlie clergy bestirred them- 
 selves. The evil was universally attributed to 
 demoniacal possession, aiul therefore it was to be 
 cured by .solemnly exorcising tlie devil. Tliis 
 was done with great success, although it was 
 almost a year before the excitement entirely died 
 out; and for several years afterwards sporadic 
 cases of dancing were found. In Cologne, where 
 these had been freijnent, much time was required 
 to get the nuLstery. 
 
 In the next century, the fifteenth, religious 
 dancing again made its a])]iearan(e ; but the e])i- 
 deinic was milder than before, and of a dilferent 
 character. In Strasburg, for instance, during the 
 
 Elagne in MIS, tliisform of I'lithnsiasm appiMied; 
 ut the dancers now went to tlu; church, not to 
 dance there, but to be liealed. On advice they 
 ■were collected an<l sent in divisions, under ))roper 
 supervision, to the Cliapel of .St. \'itiis at Rotes- 
 tein, where the mass was ceh^brated for them, an<l 
 tliey were led around the altar in solemn jiroces- 
 !^ion: hence our name for the di.sease ".St. \'itus"s 
 Uance" (chorea). Cases of tlu- malady, and oc- 
 iifLsionally very many, occurred up to the .seven- 
 
 teenth century: they were always attributed to 
 demoniacal possession, and treated accordingly. 
 Since then it has been rare, although a case of 
 this maniacal dancing occurred in Ohio a few 
 years ago, on the breaking-up of a religious gath- 
 ering, and the confusion had to be put down by 
 force. See Forstemaxn : Die christ. Gcissler- 
 geselhchaflen, Ilalle, 1S2S; IIecker: Die Tanz- 
 wtillt eine ^'olksk-nnd-Zieit im Mitlelaltei; Berlin, 
 1832. See 11. M.\li,et, in Ilerzog ed. I. 
 
 DAN'IEL ('7S'.J-1 God is my judge), the fourth, 
 of the greater prophets. He was of noble, per- 
 haps royal descent, and was carried off, in the 
 reign of Jehoiakim, into exile by Nebuchadnezzar. 
 '\^'ith three other Hebrew youths he was, by com- 
 mand of the king, selected for his comeliness of 
 person and talent, to receive special training for 
 service at coiu-t. He became a conspicuous per- 
 sonage in the realm, and was promotf d by Nebu- 
 chadnezzar to be "rider over tl;e whole province 
 of Babylon, and chief of the governors over all 
 the wise men of Babylon " (Dan. ii. 48). During 
 the subsequent reign of Belshazzar he seems to 
 have withdrawn into retirement (v. 11), from 
 which he was summoned to the impious feast 
 which just preceded the overthrow of that mon- 
 arch. In the subsequent reigns of Darius and 
 Cyrus he held high office, and in the former the 
 most distinguished in the kingdom, next to the 
 king (vi. 2). In addition to his great prosperity, 
 three prominent features in his life are to be no- 
 ticed. (1) His devotion to principle. . He began 
 his career by refusing to partake of that which he 
 had been taught to regard as unclean (i. 8). The 
 temptations of preferment and court favor coidd 
 not corrupt him. He would h.ive perished in the 
 furnace rather than have bowed down to the 
 golden image (Dan. iv.) : indeed, he was thrown 
 into the lions' den for refusing compliance with 
 an injunction forbidding for thirty days prayer to 
 (ioil (vi.). (2) His di.iliiu/iiislii'il wisdom. He was 
 known above all the iiuigicians and astrologers 
 of the realm for .skill in iaterpreting visions and 
 dreams (i. 20). To this he added jiractical knowl- 
 edge of statecraft. (3) His /"earfev.vnc.w. He hesi- 
 tated not to convey to Nebuchadnezzar the news 
 of (ioil's jiurpo.se to abase him (iv. 32), and to 
 interpret in the |iresence of the royal revellers 
 the doom of Belsha/.zar (v. 28). Ezekiel refers 
 to Daniel as a pattern of righteousness (xiv. 14) 
 and of wisdom (xxviii. 3). His life bears a strong 
 rcsenibkince to that of Joseph, who, also an exile, 
 acquired the highest dignities at a foreign court, 
 and gave one of tlie most conspicuous illustrations 
 of fidelity to Ood under the most trying tempta- 
 tions, ilis career is also a coiiifortiug examide 
 of (iod's protection of his ]>eople. 
 
 DANIEL, Book of. There is testimony, outside 
 the limits of the book which bears his name, to 
 the life of Daniel. Ezekiel twice (xiv. 14, xxviii. 
 3) refers to him as a well-know n pcrsnuage. Tlie 
 first i^assage was written .092 B.C. If Daniel Wiw 
 de)iorted to Babylon in the third year of Jehoia- 
 kiin's reign ((ioii B.C.), he must have been, at 
 the timi! of Ezekiel's first mention, about thirty 
 years old; for at the date of deportation he liad 
 already i)as.si'd the years of childhood (Dan. i. 4). 
 
 In order to a just judgment of the book, two 
 things must be taken into consideration : (1) 
 Nowhere in the book itself is any direct clauu
 
 DANIEL. 
 
 003 
 
 DANIEL. 
 
 made to Danii'lio authorsliip [but see cliaps. 
 vii.-xii. and remarks below] ; and (2) Jn the 
 Hebrew canon the work is pkiced among the 
 Hagiogra))lia, and not among the l^rophets. This 
 location deterniincs nothing certainly as to the 
 date of composition, but proves, that, althongh 
 Daniel was endowetl with prophetic vision, he was 
 not in the strict sense a projihet l)y vocation. The 
 work is certainly derived from Uanielic traditions, 
 a statement justified by the above references in 
 Ezekiel, which speak of a Daniel of the exile 
 period, who was a wise and righteous man. A 
 comparison with the apocryphal additions which 
 pretend to narrate facts of his life, fully establishes 
 the majestic sinijilicity of the book, and its accu- 
 rate acquaintance with Babylonian and Persian 
 institutions. The book is divided into two parts 
 of six chapters each. Its language is the Aramaic 
 from chap. ii. 4 to chap. vii. : otherwise Hebrew. 
 The Hebrew, wlien compared with that of the 
 ancient authors, as well as the Misclina, exhibits 
 many peculiarities, and much harshness of style, 
 but bears resemblance to that of the chroniclers 
 who wrote at the opening of the Greek period 
 {third century B.C.). The Aramaic is distin- 
 guished from the later Aramaic of the Targums, 
 as, for example, the 'T has not yet been abbreviated 
 iirto 1. With the Book of Ezra it is the oldest 
 monument in existence of East-Aramaic. The 
 Aramaic was used in the Babylonian realm, at the 
 side of the Assyrian ; and the transition from 
 Hebrew needs no other explanation than that the 
 author desired to let the Chaldaeans speak in their 
 own tongue. The work throughout is homogene- 
 ous : and the theory of Lenormant and Zockler, 
 that the work contains interpolations, is resorted 
 to in the interest of the Danielle authorship, but 
 is withont facts to warrant it. Tlie Greek names 
 of three musical instruments, sackbut, psaltery, 
 and dulcimer (^ai^apK, cvfiijiuvia, xpa'Anjptov, chap. iii. 
 5), seem to indicate a date in the second century 
 B.C. It is possible, but. as Lenormant himself 
 acknowledges, very improbable, that these should 
 have been known in Babylon in the time of Nebu- 
 chadnezzar. But we know from I'olybius (Athe- 
 nasus, X. 52) that the dulcimer was a favorite 
 instrvmient at the court of Antiochus Epiphanes 
 (175-104 B.C.). Tills seems to be more than a 
 mere casual coincidence. 
 
 The truth of the historical narrative has been 
 questioned ; but it must be granted that savants 
 in Assyriology ai-e more conservative in their 
 judgment on this point than others. Lenormant 
 says he is moie and more impressed with the 
 genuineness each time he peruses the book. Op- 
 pert thinks he has found the very pedestal on 
 which the image of Dura rested. Talbot illus- 
 trates the punishment of the fiery furnace from 
 inscriptions. These investigators find confirma- 
 tive testimony of Nebuchadnezzar's insanity in 
 Berosus, Abydenus, and Josephus. In 1854 an 
 inscription was discovered at Mugheir, containing 
 the name of Belsar-usnr, son of Nabonahid. In 
 regard to other historical difficulties advanced, it 
 must not be overlooked that chap. v. 30 speaks 
 only of the death of Belshazzar, not necessarily of 
 the termination of the Chaldsean monarchy. It 
 is difficult, also, to harmonize the account of Da- 
 rius with the records of profane history, and no 
 place may have yet been found iu contemporary 
 
 accounts for his dynasty ; but it deserves, on the 
 other hand, to be carefully notici^l that tlie in- 
 •scriptions of the first two years of Cyrus's reign 
 designate him as " King of Nations," and for the 
 first time in its third year is he styled "■ Kinr/ of 
 Jiahi/ton, King of Nations ' The attempt of Le- 
 normant to clear uj) the difficulty by supposing 
 Dai-ius to have been a viceroy of Cyrus fails. 
 The book evidently lets a Median monarchy follow 
 the Chaldican. 
 
 As regards the monarchies (see Dariu.s) of 
 Nebuchadnezzar's dream (chap, ii.), which Menant 
 thinks have the ring of a woi'd-foi'-word paraphrase 
 of some cuneiform inscription, the old interpreta- 
 tion (Hengstenberg, etc.) represents them as re- 
 spectively the Chalda>an, Medo-Persian, Grecian, 
 and Roman. But the later and better view 
 (Ewald, Bleek, Zockler, etc.) agrees in making 
 the last monarchy to be the Grecian, thus exclud- 
 ing the Koman entirely. 
 
 With chap. vii. begin the visions, and from the 
 .second verse Daniel sjieaks in the first person. 
 This chapter narrates a vision of four l>easts 
 coming up out of the sea, in appearance like a 
 lion, a bear, and a leopiard, and the fourth " dread- 
 fid and terrible," with ten horns (ver. 7). A 
 little horn (the eleventh) gi'ows up among the 
 ten horns of the fourth beast, and plucks up three 
 of their number by the roots. Then the Ancient 
 of days appears, who destroys the beasts, and con- 
 fers upon " the Son of man coming in the clouds " 
 (ver. 13) a kingdom which is indestructible. The 
 beasts of this vision refer to the same monarchie.i 
 as the image of chap, ii., and the Son of man 
 corresponds to the stone cut out of the mountain. 
 While our first impulse is to interpret the fourth 
 bea.st to be the Koman Empire, the vision ol 
 chap. viii. forces us to the former conclusion, that 
 it was the Grecian. There (chap, viii.) the Medo 
 Persian is represented by the ram, and the Gre 
 cian (ver. 21), so it is expre,ssly .stated, by the goat, 
 which overcomes the ram. At first it has ouw 
 horn, whose place is subsequently taken by four 
 others. A fifth then grows out, which reaches to 
 heaven, casts down some of the stars, tramples 
 them under foot, and oppresses nations, and es- 
 pecially the saints for two thousand three hun- 
 dred days (Hebi'ew, eveinny-morniny). This great 
 horn is Alexander the Great, and tlie other four, 
 stretching "toward the four winds of heaven" 
 (ver. S), the Macedonian, SjTian, Egyptian, and 
 Thracian dynasties. The little horn (ver. 9) which 
 desolates the sanctuary (vers. 11, 12) is Anti- 
 ochus Epiphanes. The termination of the two 
 thousand three hundred days (ver. 14) is marked 
 by the reconsecration of the temple in 164 B.C., 
 an event which the Jews have since commemo- 
 rated by a yearly festival, beginning the 25th of 
 Kislev. It being settled that the little horn o£ 
 chap. viii. is Antiochus, tliere can be no doubt 
 that we should interpret the fourth beast of chap, 
 vii. and the fourth world-kingdom of chap. ii. as 
 the Grecian, and not the Roman, Empire. Th& 
 conduct of the "little horn" (chap, viii.) and the 
 fourth beast (chap, vii.) towards the saints ii 
 the same, — cruel and relentless; and, though there 
 are variations in the descriptions, they are no 
 greater than those between the fourth beast of 
 chap. vii. and the fourth kingdom of chap. ii. 
 This view is further favored by the correspond-
 
 DANIEL. 
 
 604 
 
 DANIEL. 
 
 ence in the periods during which the desolations 
 dI the arch-enemy continue. According to chap, 
 vii. 25 they last "for a "time, and times, and the 
 di\-iding of time" (l-|-2 + | = 3i). According to 
 ix. 27 they stop in the middle of the week, or 
 after three days and a half; and cliap. xii. 7 
 agrees with this description. Turning back to 
 chap. viii. 19, these desolations are said to occur 
 just before the "end of the indignation." Com- 
 paring all these statements, we find the measure- 
 ment to be the same, and are again forced to the 
 conclusion that the fourtii beast of chap. vii. is 
 identical with the " little horn " of chap. viii. 
 which Gabriel interprets to be " Grecia " (ver. 21). 
 The result, tnen, we finally reach is, that the four 
 kingdoms preceding that of the Messiah, of 
 chaps, ii., vii., and viii., are the Chaldean, Median, 
 Persian, and Greek. That the Median and Pei'- 
 sian were distinct is confirmed by the additional 
 fact that the ram of cliap. viii. 20 had two horns, 
 and tliat, while Cyrus is styled " King of Persia " 
 (x. 1), Darius never is. The symbolism of the 
 iron legs, with feet composed in part of iron, and 
 in part of clay (chap. ii. ), is well borne out by the 
 Grecian kingdom, which was divided after Alex- 
 ander's death. The admixture of iron and clay 
 is explained by the intermarriage of the Egyptian 
 and Syrian dynasties (xi. 6, 17). Tlie ten horns 
 (or toes) are ten kings (vii. 24) : (1) Seleucus 
 Kicator, 312-280; (2) Antiochus Soter, 279-261 ; 
 (3) Antiochus Theus, 260-246 ; (4) Seleucus Cal- 
 linicus, 245-226 ; (5) Seleucus Ceraunus, 225-223 ; 
 (6) Antiochus the Great, 222-187 ; (7) Seleucus 
 Philopator, 186-176 ; (8) Ileliodorus, who held 
 the throne for a short time ; (9) Demetrius, the 
 lawful successor of Philopator; (10) Ptolemy VI., 
 in whose favor Cleopatra laid claim to the throne. 
 These three last, Antiochus Epiphanes (the 
 "little horn") superseded (vii. 24). 
 
 The second great historical problem is the 
 seventy weeks (7-t-62-t- 1). At the beginning of 
 the single week (ix. 27) the IMessiah will be cut 
 off, the city and sanctuary destroyed, and a flood 
 and desolations will occur'. In the middle of the 
 week sacrifices are to cease. This week is the 
 time of the Antiochian persecution (see vii. 25, 
 xii. 7). In 176 Onias 111., the high priest (.l/c.s- 
 aiah, comp. I>cv. iv. 3, Hebrew), fell, and in 170 
 B.C. Antiochus jilundered the temple, cut down 
 forty thovisand .Jews, and was bent upon the ex- 
 termination of the whole luition and its religion. 
 His death occurred 164 B.C., seven years (one 
 week) afterwards; in tlie middle of which period 
 (three days and a half), or the year 167, the sacri- 
 fices were abolished, and ()lym])ian Zeus intro- 
 duced into the temjile. Sixty-two weeks precede 
 this period. [Dr. Delitzsch divides ix. 25 in the 
 middle, after the expression "seven weeks;" so 
 that the .seven refers to tlie first, and the sixty-two 
 to the second, clause. We may also state here 
 that he refers the term " Messiah " to the high 
 prie.st (Ivtv. iv. 3), and " prince " to Antiochus (ix. 
 26), but the "Messiah-j)rince " of v. 25 to Christ.] 
 During these sixty-two weeks (434 years) .Jerusa- 
 lem was built. Counting ba<;k from 170 H.C., 
 this would give us the date 005 B.C., wliich is 
 the fourth year of .Iclioiakim's reign, and the year 
 of the battle of Carchemish, and the first year of 
 Nebuchadnezzar's reign. The other seven weeks 
 followed the 02+1. That we are justified iu re- 
 
 garding the sixty-two weeks as antecedent, and 
 the seven weeks as subsequent, to the one week, is 
 apparent from the fact that the end of the period 
 62-1-1 is marked by a terrible judgment (ix. 26); 
 the end of the whole period, 62-t-l-)-7 (seventy 
 weeks), on the other hand, by the final salvation, 
 etc. (ver. 24). This obliges us to put the seven 
 weeks after the 62+1. Here, however, we meet 
 the difticulty. that, if we count from 164 B.C. (the 
 end of the 62+1 weeks) the seven weeks (forty- 
 nine years), we do not reach the birth of .Jesus. 
 "Wieseler avoids the difficulty Ijy assuming that 
 the seven weeks stand for an indefinite jieriod, 
 like the .Juliilee Year. But the difficvdty still re- 
 mains an unsolved mystery. As for the words of 
 Christ (Matt. xxiv. 15), they certainly establish 
 the prophetic character of Dan. ix. 26 sq.. but, 
 while he refers the prophecy to the destruction of 
 .Jerusalem, it does not follow that it was not ful- 
 filled before (under Antiochus), and will not be 
 fulfilled again in antichrist (2 Thcss. ii. 4). The 
 first fulfilment of a prophecy may be only partial. 
 It is not necessarily exhaustive. 
 
 In spite of the conclusion to which we have 
 thus arrived, that Antiochus Epiphanes is the 
 stand-point from which Daniel makes his eschato- 
 logical observations, we cannot draw an abso- 
 lutely certain inference that the book was written 
 in the period of the Seleucida\ But the weight 
 of the considerations cannot be denied, which 
 make for a date at this time (the middle of tlie 
 second century B.C.). — a man of God incorpo- 
 rating into a work of consolation for the Jews, 
 Babylonian and Persian traditions, and ]iropliecies 
 of Daniel which had been handed down. The 
 more exact date which commends itself to us for 
 its composition is the winter of 168 B.C., soon 
 after the ignominious third Egyptian campaign 
 of Antiochus, and the attack upon .Jerusalem by 
 ApoUonius. frz. dklitzsch. 
 
 To the above discussion, in which the author 
 with great learning presents his own view, it is 
 proper to add the following ujioii (lie chronology 
 of Daniel, and the question of i/cnuiiicnex.t. 
 
 1. Clironoloyy. — The interpretation of the 
 seventy weeks (four hundred and ninety years), 
 and the explanation of the fourth kingdom (or 
 fourtli lieast of chap. vii.). are so closely related, 
 that the determination of the one settles the 
 other. Jf the fourth kingdom be the Boman 
 Empire, then the seventy weeks tei'iiiinate in the 
 events of Christ's life and the years immediately 
 .succeeding. If the fourth kingdom, however, 
 be the Greek Empire, then the weeks tcrniinate 
 in the events of the lite of .'\ntiochiis I'.piphanes 
 (175 IS. C. -164 B.C.). This is on the sujiposition 
 that (he .seventv weeks be reckoned in the order 
 of 7+62+1 (chap. ix. 25). But the author of 
 the foregoing articli> changes this order, making 
 the seven vveeks come last ((i2+l + 7). In this 
 he follows 'I'ertiillian and Tlieodoret, and agrees 
 with llofman, Wieseler, and others. 'I'his enables 
 him to interpret the fourtli kingdom to be the 
 (irecian I'jnpire, and at the same time to hold, 
 that, at the end of tlie seventy vveeks, the Messiah 
 came. 
 
 In general, the interiiretatioiis ooncerning the 
 seventy weeks, and the inojihecies tlierewith con- 
 nected, may be reduced to four: — 
 
 1. Tliey have their fulfilment in the events of
 
 DANIEL. 
 
 605 
 
 DANIEL. 
 
 the life of Antiocliiis Epiphanes (175 B.C.-1G4 
 B.C.). He died at the teriniuatiou of the last 
 week (164 B.C.), in tlie middle of which (107 
 B.C.) the sacrifices (by his sacrilege) were vio- 
 lently discontinued in the temple. 
 
 2. The propliecies were fulfilled in Aidioclius 
 Epiphanes, but, in accordance with the view of 
 a cyclical and progressive fulfilment of prophecy, 
 were fulfilled again at the time of Christ, au<l 
 ■will be fulfilled once more at his second coming. 
 
 3. The third view is the one generally preva- 
 lent in the cluu'ch, — that reference is exclusively 
 to events of Christ's life and the time that fol- 
 lowed, some including the I'ope of Rome in the 
 fulfilment. Tliis view denies all allusion to 
 Antiochus Epiphanes. Dr. Pusey, in his ex- 
 tended work on Daniel, places tlie inception of 
 Christ's ministry at the beginning of the last 
 ■week, liis death in the middle, and the rest of the 
 week (tliree years and a half) lie refers to the 
 years that immediately follow. 
 
 4. The modified view elaborated in the pre- 
 ceding article. Antiochus Epiphanes fulfils the 
 events of the single week ; but the seven weeks 
 (forty-nine years) follow upon these events, and 
 the prophecy connected with theiu (ix. 2o) refers 
 to Christ. 
 
 As regards these views, the following may be 
 said. The first view must be discarded, as it 
 denies the proplietic character of the work and 
 the reference to the kingdom of Cln-ist, which 
 the book evidently intends. The stone cut out 
 of the mountain, and the JMessiah the Prince 
 (ix. 25), can only refer to Christ and his king- 
 dom. The second view (Westcott, in Smith's 
 Bible Dictionary, and others) does not sufficiently 
 account for the definiteness of the prophecy of 
 the Messiah. But the cyclical principle of inter- 
 pretation may still be applied as Delitzsch him- 
 self does. The third view, while the most plausi- 
 ble, strains the significance of the expressions in 
 chap. ix. 25-27. Eor example, the death of 
 Christ in the middle of the last week can hardly 
 be made to fulfil the "words. " and in the midst 
 of the week he shall cause the sacrifice and the 
 oblation to cease" (ix. 27). These did not cease 
 in fact till the destruction of .Jerusalem, forty 
 years afterwards. Another consideration bearing 
 against this view is, that no event can be found 
 to correspond with the end of the single week, 
 ■which is at the same time the end of the whole 
 period of .seventy weeks. We then turn to the 
 view in Dr. Delitzsch's article. The arguments 
 he gives in its favor need not be repeated. The 
 events in the life of Antiochus correspond so 
 exactly to the minute details of the prophecy, 
 that the conclusion can hardly be escaped that 
 they refer to him. The change in the oi'der of 
 counting the weeks to 62-|-l-|-7 has much in its 
 favor, and carries us back exactly to the battle of 
 Carchemish as a starting-point. The conclusion 
 of the 62-1-1 weeks has a character so different 
 from the conclusion of the whole seventy weeks, 
 that we are almost shut up to this way of count- 
 ing. The pi-incipal objection to this view is, 
 that the interval from the death of Antiochus to 
 the birtli of Christ is a hundred and sixty-four 
 years, while the prophecy only allows seven 
 ■*eeks (forty-nine years). 
 
 II. Genuineness. — The received date of tlie 
 
 Book of Daniel is 570-536 B.(;. 1'he date given 
 by some modern critics is 175-160 B.C. The first 
 to deny the Danielle authorsliip was Porphyry 
 (233-302 A.D.). No further attempt was made 
 to discredit it till many centuries later, by Spinoza 
 and Sir Isaac Newton. Tlie first critical attack 
 of much weight was made by Bertholdt in 1803. 
 It has since been one of the burning questions 
 of biblical criticism ; such .scliolars as Bleek, De 
 Wette, Ilitzig, and Ewald, denying the autlien- 
 ticity, and Ilengstenberg, Ihivernick, (iaussen, 
 Anberlen, Pusey, and Mo.ses Stuart, as.serting it. 
 
 Ari/umenis cif/ainst llie Genui)ieness are : 1. Pliilu- 
 hx/iail. Nothing can be certainly determined 
 from the Hebrew and Aramaic used, although, 
 as indicated above, the peculiarities ratlier make 
 for the early date. As for the Greek terms em- 
 ployed for the musical instruments (chap. iii. 7), 
 Bertholdt adduced ten. But tlieir number lias 
 been reduced to three (see above); and only in 
 the case of one of these is the evidence unques- 
 tionable (Lange's ('onnnentary, p. 26). It is argued 
 that no Greek instruments were known at Baby- 
 lon before the conquest of Alexander, and there- 
 fore the work could not have been composed at 
 the received date. This argument, however, pre- 
 sumes too much. Rather is it likely tliat Baby- 
 lon, the "city of merchants" (Ezek. xvii. 4), had 
 intercourse with the Greeks even before the fifth 
 century B.C. ; and, according to Strabo (xiii. 
 3, 2), a brotlier of the Greek poet Alcajus ser\-ed 
 in tlie armies of Nebuchadnezzar. 
 
 2. Historical. There are several difficulties 
 under this head deserving special mention here. 
 Two errors are professedly found in chap. i. 1, 
 and cliap. ii. 1. In the first passage the state- 
 ment is made that Nebuchadnezzar besieged Je- 
 rusalem in the third year of .Jehoiakim's reign. 
 This is said to contradict Jer. xlvi. 2, where the 
 event is referred to the fourth year of his reign. 
 A proper explanation is secured l)y ascribing the 
 first passage to Neljuchadnezzar's departure for 
 .lerusalem (comp. Jonah i. 3), the second for the 
 actual arrival, not forgetting the loose usage of 
 the terms "day" and "year" amongst the He- 
 brews. The second apparent error affords more 
 difficulty ; but a deeper study of the scriptural 
 chronolog'y more than vindicates our author. 
 Chap. i. 5, Daniel is said to liave been in tutelage 
 three years. But Nebuchadnezzar is called King 
 (chap. i. 1) at the time of the siege of Jerusalem; 
 and it was in the second year of his reign (chap, 
 ii. 1) that he dreamed his dream. There seems 
 to be no place for these three years. We shall 
 see that the term " king " was only given to 
 Nebuchadnezzar by anticipation at the siege 
 (chap. i. 1), Nabopolassar being then king, and 
 that Daniel's statement is strictly accm'ate in 
 chaps, i. 6, ii. 1. Nebuchadnezzar's actual reign 
 began about a year after Daniel's arrival in 
 Babj'lon. Tliis is proved by the folio-wing calcu- 
 lation. Jehoiakim's reign lasted seven years 
 after tlie siege (2 Chron. xxxvi. 5). His son 
 Jehoiachin, after a short reign of three months 
 (2 Chron. xxxvi. 0), was carried into captivity. 
 He had spent thirty-seven years in captivity when 
 Evil-Merodach began to reign, and his predeces- 
 sor, Nebuchadnezzar, died (2 Kings xxv. 27). 
 Counting up, we have fully forty-four years from 
 the siege of Jerusalem till the death of Nebuchad-
 
 DANIEL. 
 
 606 
 
 DANNHAUER. 
 
 nezzar. But that monarch, as we know from 
 other sources, only reigned fortv-three years. 
 This would make his reign begin a'bout one year 
 after the siege. With this year, and the state- 
 ment that it was not till the second year of his 
 reign that he had his dream, we have an inten-al 
 suiticient to comprise the three years of Daniel's 
 tutelage after his deportation to Babylon. Two 
 other historical difficulties may be mentioned. 
 In the list of kings given by Berosus, Belshazzar 
 is not mentioned. Great stress was at one time 
 laid ujxm this omission. But the scriptural 
 account has been fully confirmed by an inscrip- 
 tion found by Sir H. Rawlinson in 1854 among 
 tablets obtained at !Mugheir. It mentions a Bil- 
 shar-uzur, a son of Nabonidus, whom that mon- 
 arch associated with himself on the throne. This 
 enables us to understand how Daniel could be 
 called the "third ruler" (v. 16, 29). It is said 
 that profane history knows nothing about Darius 
 the Mede, King ot Babylon. Various explana- 
 tions have been given ; the one identitMng him 
 with Cyaxares II., whom Xenophon said preceded 
 Cyrus, having perhaps most in its favor. It was 
 not uncommon for individuals to bear two names, 
 just as Daniel did himself. Some future dis- 
 covery may clear up this difficulty as satisfactorily 
 as the preceding one has been. 
 
 3. The main objection is based upon the super- 
 natural events and prophecies which the book 
 records. The mu-acles are said to be too porten- 
 tous to be authentic, and the prophecies too mi- 
 nute and definite to accord with the general spirit 
 of the genuine prophecies of the Old Testament. 
 This objection seems to imply a dogmatic prepos- 
 session averse to the belief in the miraculous. 
 But, leaving this aside, it may be said that the 
 peculiar position of Daniel and the Jews in exile 
 demanded a striking exhibition of divine power, 
 such as was given in other exigencies of Old- 
 Testament history. 
 
 Ari/uments for the Genuineness. — 1. Tlie work 
 is eitlier by Daniel, or else an imposture. The 
 justice of tills dilemma is denied by many critics ; 
 but. on the very face of it, the work seems to 
 shut us up to one of these two views. In chaps, 
 vii.-sii. the author speaks of himself as Daniel. 
 2. Christ refers to it (Matt. xxiv. 15) as a proph- 
 ecy sjXjken b;/ (fnitiiv did) Daniel. 3. According 
 to Josephus (AnI., XI. 8, 4), the book was i)laced 
 before Alexander (350-.'i23 B.C.). 4. The work 
 betrays an accurate and minute acquaintance 
 with Babylonian and Persian manners, such as 
 only a contemporary could be expected to liave, 
 as in tlie description of the courtiers' dress (iii. 
 21), punishment by burning alive (iii. G), pre.s- 
 ence of women at feiusts (v.), etc. 5. The whole 
 spiritual tone of the book, which distinguishes it 
 in a marked manner from tlic aiwcryphal addi- 
 tions, makes .strongly for the genuineness. To 
 these arguments the following considerations 
 must be noted. Whetlier we .settle upon the 
 later or earlier date, the work, in both cases, re- 
 mains a jirnpluri/ of Christ. And, second, too 
 much stress cannot be laid upon the fact that 
 the great A.ssyriologists do not grant the conclus- 
 ions reached by critics unfavorable to the genuine- 
 ne.ss. Monumental evidence is always decisive 
 as against arguments based upon induction. 
 Discoveries in Babylon have already confirmed 
 
 statements of Daniel which were denied by 
 critics. Thej- may be expected to do so in the 
 future. 
 
 Lit. — Commentaries. — Against genuine- 
 ness: Sir I. Newton; Observations upon Ike Prophe- 
 cies, Lond., 1733; Bertiioldt (1806); Vox Lex- 
 GERKE (1835) ; IIitzig(1S50). — For genuineness : 
 besides those of the Reformers, Hengstenberg : 
 1831 (trans.); Havernick, 1832; Avberlen, 
 18.56 (trans.); Moses Stvart, Boston, 1850; 
 B.\RNES : Notes, New York, 1853 ; Speaker'.s 
 Com. New York, 1876; ZiicKLER. in Laxge (Eng. 
 trans.). New York, 1877. — Rohlixg. Mainz.1876; 
 O. Bardenhewer: Des heili/jen Hippol>/lus ran 
 Ro7n Commentar zuin Buche Daniel, Freiburg-i.- 
 Breisgau, 1877. 
 
 Sjiecial works bearing on the genuineness : 
 Bleek, in Berl. Theol. Zeitsch. III.. 1822. and in 
 his Einl. ins A. T., Berlin, 1865: LicKE : Einlei- 
 lung ill d. Ojfenb. Johannis, etc., Bonn, 18.52: De 
 Wette : Einl., 8th ed., revi.sed by Schrader, 1869, 
 Berlin, 1852; Keil: Einl. in d. A. T., Frankfurt- 
 a.-M., 2d ed., 1859; Ewald: Propkelen d. A. B., 
 Stuttgart, 1841; Hof.maxn: Weissayung u. Er/iil- 
 lunq. Nordlingen, 1844; D.widson : Introd. to the 
 0. 'T., London. 1856; K. B. Pi'sey: The Prophet 
 Daniel, nine lectures, Loudon, 18.54 ; Perowne, 
 in the Contemp. Reeiew, 1866 ; Westcott, in 
 Smith's Bible Did. s. v. ; Rieii.m, in his Hand- 
 ii'Srlerbuch des bib. Alterlnms; E. Reuss: Die Ge- 
 schichte d. heil. Schrifien A. T., Braunschw., 1881. 
 — Historical and Assyriological works vindicat- 
 ing the authenticity: JM. voN Niebuhr: Gesch. 
 As.^urs u. Babel.; George Rawlinson: Historical 
 Evidences, 1860 ; Oppert : Expe'dition scientifique 
 en Mesopotamie, t. i., Paris, 1863; Lenormant : 
 La dicination et la science, etc., Paris, 1875; 
 George S.mitii : Explorations in A.sst/ria. and A nc. 
 IIi.ll. of A.isi/ria, 1876. — Monographs on special 
 points: Reichei, : Die 70 Jahreswochen, in Stud, 
 u. Kril., 1858; AViesei.er: Die 70 Wochen u. d. 
 63 Jahncochcn, 1839 ; S. P. Tregelles : Bern, on 
 V^isions of Daniel, London, 5th ed., 18t)4 : P. S. 
 Desprez: Daniel and John, or the Apocalypse of 
 the Old and the Neir 'I'eslainents, London, 1878. 
 For further literature .see ZiicKLEK, in Laxge: 
 Coituiieiilari/, p. 51 sq(j. ]). S. SCHAFF. 
 
 DANIELi Apocryphal Additions to. The.se ex- 
 ist only in tireck, and are, 1. The Song of the 
 Three Ilohj Children, which purports to give the 
 triumphant song of Daniel and his companions 
 in the furnace (Dan. iii. 23); 2. Hislori/ of Susan- 
 na, who was cleared from the charge of adultery 
 by the shrewdness of Daniel ; 3. The Ilistori/ of 
 Bel and the Dragon, an exaggeration of the mirac- 
 ulous deliverance of Daniel (vi.). There is no 
 evidence that, these woi'ks ever formed a part of 
 the Hebrew text, and no sufficient proof that they 
 even li:id .\ramaic originals. 
 
 DANNHAUER, Konrad, b. at Breisgau, 1603 ; d. 
 at Strasliiu-g, 1666; studied theology at Marburg, 
 Altorf, and Jena, and was ap]iointed professor at 
 Strasburg in 1628, and pastor of the Cathedral 
 Church in 1638. He was the teacher of Sjieuer, 
 but does not seem to have made any great ini- 
 pre.ssion on him; nor could he, as the whole 
 character of his activity was essentially polemical. 
 He was an ardent champion of Lutheran ortho- 
 doxy, and wrote against the Romanists, Uodo- 
 moria Spirilus Papa: and llijana Friburgica;
 
 DANTE. 
 
 607 
 
 DANTE. 
 
 against the Calvinists, Ilodoiuoria Spiriltis Cal- 
 viniani and Rcfonnirte Salve, and against tlic syn- 
 cretistic tendency of one wing of tlie Lutheran 
 Church, represented by Calixtus, .Ui/sleriinit Si/ii- 
 cretismi Detecti. His polemical zeal, however, for 
 the purity of doctrine, was connected with per- 
 sonal piety, deep practical earnestness, — his Kate- 
 chismitsmilch forms 10 heavy vols, in 4to. — and 
 comprehensive learning, as seen from his Hudosu- 
 phia and Theolo<;ia Conscieii/iaria. See Tiioluck : 
 Akadeinischcs Leben d. 17 Jahi'hunderls, II. p. 
 126. THOLUCK. 
 
 DANTE ALIGHIERI, b. at Florence, between 
 May 18 and June 17, 120.5; d. at Kavenna, Sept. 
 14, 1321. Dante is a contraction for Durante, by 
 which name he was baptized. The family name 
 of his mothei'. Donna Bella, is unknown. His 
 teacher was Brinietto Latini, a pliilosopher and 
 historian, under whom he learned the classic poets, 
 rhetoric, and the elements of mathematics. He 
 also applied himself to painting and music, and 
 later to theology and philosophy, and became 
 master of all the science of his age. 
 
 He belonged to the Guelph or Papal party, and 
 fought with distinction at the battle of Campab 
 dino in 1289, in w'hich the Ghibellines or Imperial 
 party were utterly and finally I'outed. 
 
 In 1295 he became a member of the Arte degl'i 
 Speziali, or druggist's guild, and in 1300 was chosen 
 one of the six priori in whom the executive power 
 of the State was lodged. The Guelph party be- 
 came split into the Bianchi and Neri (Whites and 
 Blacks). Dante was instrumental in banisiiing 
 the leaders of both parties ; but the next year 
 the Neri, returning, enlisted the aid of Cliarles of 
 Valois. To defeat this combination, Dante, with 
 three others, was sent to Rome to secure the veto 
 of Pope Boniface VIII. ; but the delay gave the 
 advantage to the Neri, and on Dante's return he 
 was arraigned on a cliarge of peculation, and was 
 sentenced, in January, 1302, to a heavy fine and 
 to perpetual banishnjent. From this time he 
 espoused the Ghibelline side, until he gradually 
 detached himself from both parties, and created 
 a party for himself. 
 
 In 1292 he married Gennna Donati, by whom 
 he had seven children, and whom he never saw 
 after his banishment. The history of his exile 
 is obscure. He appears at Arezzo, Verona, Padua, 
 Milan, whither he went to meet Henry of Luxem- 
 burg on his assumption of the iron crown ; at Paris, 
 Lucca, Venice, and finally at Ravenna, where he 
 died, of a malarial fever, at the age of fifty-six 
 years and four months, and where his remains 
 still rest. 
 
 Literary Works. — 1 . The Vila Nnova ; or, life 
 renewed by love. Its inspiration was Beatrice 
 Portinari, whom he made the subject of an ideal 
 passion, and afterwards the incarnation of divine 
 philosophy in the Commedia. The Vita Nuova is 
 the story of this passion. It is written in prose, 
 in short chapters, interspersed with brief poems, 
 to each of which is appended a short explanation 
 in prose. It contains tlie first hint of the Comme- 
 dia, and without it the latter cannot be thoroughly 
 understood. Its date is somewhere from 1295 to 
 1307. 
 
 2. Convito ; or. The Banquet. An incomplete 
 work projected in fourteen treatises, only four 
 of which were written. It was intended to be a 
 
 handbook of the knowledge of the age. Date 
 uncertain. 
 
 3. Canztmiere ; or, Minor Poems, a collection of 
 songs, ballads, and sonnets, some of them by 
 other hands. 
 
 4. l)e Monarchia (On 3tonrirchi/), date l)etween 
 1310 and 1313. Written in Latin, and consisting 
 of three books, in which he tries to prove that 
 monarchy is the normal and divinely instituted 
 form of "government ; that Itome is its divinely 
 appointed seat, and the Roman sovereign God's 
 civil vicegerent; that man with his double nature 
 is subject to a double order, temporal and spirit- 
 ual, the empii-e and the papacy, the Pope being 
 God's spiritual vicegerent, and, like the emperor, 
 having his legitimate seat at Rome, and being, 
 though the two jurisdictions are indejicndent, in 
 some sense supei'ior to the emperor, as the mortal 
 interest of man is subordinate to the innuortal. 
 
 5. Dc Vuiguri Eloqniu {On J'opidar Eloijuence), 
 also in Latin. It treats of poetizing in the vul- 
 gar tongue, and of the different Italian dialects ; 
 and its object is to establish the Italian language 
 as a literary tongue, and to give rules for the com- 
 position of Italian poetry. It was projected in 
 four books, but only two are extant. 
 
 6. Latin Epistles, fourteen in numliei'. 
 
 7. De Aijita el Terra (On Water and JCarll). 
 
 8. The Bucolic Eclogues. Two epistles m Latin 
 hexameters, in answer to an invitation to come to 
 Bologna and compose a great Latin work. 
 
 9. Dioina Commedia. Composed during the 
 nineteen years between Dante's banishment and 
 death. He called it Commedia, because, though 
 beginning harshly, it ends pleasantly, unlike 
 tragedy, which, witii a pleasing beginning, issues 
 in a catastrophe. The term '•divina"is a later 
 addition ; the original title is " Incipit Comcedia 
 Dantis Alif/kierii Florentini nationc non morihus." 
 "The subject of the whole work," he says, "taken 
 literally, is the state of souls after death regarded 
 as a matter of fact; taken allegorically, its subject 
 is man, in so far as by merit or demerit in the 
 exercise of free will he is exposed to the rewards 
 or punishments of justice." 
 
 'Phe cosmogony of the poem is liased u]ion the 
 Ptolemaic system. The central point of the uni- 
 verse is tlie centre oi the earth. The globe is 
 divided into two elemental hemispheres, — the east- 
 ern, of land ; and the western, of water. .Jerusa- 
 lem is the centre of the land hemisphere : and the 
 lowest point of Hell is directly under it, and forms 
 the centre of gravity. Hell is in the form of a 
 hollow inverted cone divided into nine concentric 
 circles, each devoted to the )iunishnient of a differ- 
 ent class of sins. Purgatory is a lofty island- 
 mountain in the western heniisiihere, its shores 
 washed by the western ocean. From its base a 
 path rises in a spiral of three circles, forming 
 Aute-Purgatory, and terminating at tlie Gate of 
 St. Peter, the entrance to Purgatory proper, a 
 series of seven concentric terraces girding the 
 mountain, and communicating with each other 
 by steps in the rock. On each terrace one of the 
 seven sins is expiated. The soul then emerges to 
 the Earthly Paradise on the summit, where it 
 bathes in the River Lethe, and drinks the wateis 
 of Eunoe, thus obliterating the memory of earthly 
 sin and sorrow, and awakening the memory of 
 good.
 
 DANTE. 
 
 608 
 
 DANTE. 
 
 Above the Purgatorial Mount rise the nine 
 heavens, each a hollow revolvmg sphere, enclosing 
 and enclosed, and ending with the Primwn Mobile, 
 or Crystalline Heaven, which controls the motions 
 of the lower spheres. Outside this is the Empy- 
 reau, the abode of God and of the saints, who, 
 arranged in the form of a rose, surround a vast 
 lake of light. 
 
 The poem consists of three parts, or cantice. — 
 Inferno, Purgatorio, Paradise, — each part divided 
 into thirty-three cantos in allusion to the years of 
 Christ's earthly life. Dante, in the midst of his 
 life-journey, finds himself astray in a gloomy and 
 savage forest, where he is met by the shade of 
 Virgil, sent by Beatrice to conduct him through 
 the three worlds. Passing tlirougli the succes- 
 sive circles of Hell, they reach tlie apex, where Lu- 
 cifer sits, and, climbing by the .shaggy hair of the 
 fiend round his haunch, they pass the centre of 
 gravity, and make their way to the shores of I'ur- 
 gatory. Ascending the terraces, oU the sixth of 
 which they are Joined by the poet Statins, they 
 reach the Earthly Paradise, where A'irgil leaves 
 Dante to the guidance of Beatrice, in whose com- 
 pany he ascends through the successive heavens 
 to the presence of the Eternal. 
 
 The poem is written in the terza rimu. the lines 
 being hendecasyllabic. The scheme of rhyme 
 consists of six lines, the rhyme falling on the fir.st 
 and third, the second and fourth, while the fifth 
 introduces the basis of the next group of rhymes, 
 interlocked with its predecessor by the sixth line, 
 W'hich retains the rhyme of the second and fourth. 
 The poem is a pictiu'e of mediaeval society at the 
 end of the thirteenth and the begininng of the 
 fourteenth century. Its range of allusion is en- 
 cyclopaedic. Great as is Dante's pictorial power, 
 his real sublimity is moral. He rises highest in 
 depicting human character and human passion. 
 The intense moral purpo.se of the Commcdia divests 
 even the hideous details of the Inferno of vulgarity. 
 Under his pervading conception of man as the 
 inheritor of a moral destiny, distinctions of time, 
 race, and jjosition, disajipear, and cla.ssic heroes 
 and mytliological creations mingle with popes, 
 martyrs, and Christian emperors. Ilis terrible 
 satire respects neither civil nor ecclesiastical dig- 
 nity. The poem is packed witli similes, allegories, 
 portraits, historical and personal references, and 
 theological and pliilo.sophical disquisitions. It is 
 intensely per.sonal, often egotistic, revealing the 
 poet's consciousness of his own genius, tingi^d with 
 the bitterne.s.i of his stern and deeply wounded 
 spirit, and recording his cruel wrong and his co- 
 lossal scorn, yet revealing also the sympathy and 
 tenderness of a givat soul. No work " more faith- 
 fully depicts a noble character in its .strength and 
 dignity." Dante is impatient of vagueness. He 
 is intensely realistic. In his pictures every space 
 is measm-ed, every region majiped, every dimension 
 noted as in a sciiedule. Ilis very teiliousness in 
 certain |>laces grows out of his determination to 
 express his thought on all sides. In his sublimest 
 passages he is attentive to <letails. His similes 
 are cho.sen without regard to their .source, with 
 the single view of illustrating his thought ; and 
 the most grotesque images apj)ear amid the very 
 Mubliinities of heaven. I h- unites a delicate sen.se 
 of color and .sound to his wonderful .sense of form. 
 The qualities of hia genius are <lefinitene.ss, inten- 
 
 sity, sincerity, and brevity. The faults of the 
 poem are grotesqueness and obscurity. 
 
 Dante as a figure of history is many-sided. 
 As a politician, he represents the ideal of the Holy 
 Roman Enqiire, a universal Christian monarchy, 
 consisting of the Roman Enquire and the Roman 
 Churcli. As a theoldtjian, he is the voice of medi- 
 aeval faith, "the painter of its visions," and the 
 exponent of the law of man's moral being in the 
 light of mediaeval creeds and in the' terms of 
 the scholastic philosophy. 
 
 As a man of letters:, he is the founder of modem 
 literature, and the creator of Italian poetry. He 
 broke loose from the scholastic Latin of literary 
 Europe, and out of the mass of Italian dialects 
 created a noble, pure, uiuversal Italian. 
 
 He is the Jirst Cftrit^tian poet. Christianity fur- 
 nishes the main motive of the Commedia. The 
 poem is the first great exponent of the struggle 
 of the human will and the aspiration of the hu- 
 man soul toward God. Its highest ideal of beauty 
 is Christian : it is pervaded with the sense of 
 moral responsibility, moral destiny, and the sanc- 
 tifying power of sorrow. 
 
 The literature is enormous. Vid. for bililiof/raphi/ 
 Fei{H.\zzi B.\ss.\xo, Mdiimilt Dantesco (1H(J5-71), 
 and CoL05in de B.^tixk. JJibliographia Dantesca, 
 •2 vols., Prato, 1845-18. 
 
 Illustrutice. — EitsCH and GrI'BEk's Ettcyclo- 
 piidie. art. Dante, by L. G. Blanc ; Storia della 
 Vila ili Dante, Fr.\ticei,li, Firenze, 1801 ; Dante 
 Aliyhieri, seine Zeit, sein Lehen, nnd seine Werke, 
 Sc'AUT.AZZiNi, Biel, 1860; Dante e it sua Secolo, 
 Firenze, 1865; Dante e la Philosophie Catholique 
 au triezieme .Siecle, Oz.\xam, Paris, 1845; Ueber 
 Dante, C.\Ri. WnrK, Breslau, 18:31; Quando e 
 da chi sia Composto I'Ottimo Cominento a Dante, 
 C'.\Ki. AViTTE, Leipzig, 1847 ; Dante und die ita- 
 lienisch Fraye, C'.\i!L Witte, Halle, 1861 ; Dante 
 ForscUunipn, C.\Ri. AViTTE, Halle, 1869; Vita di 
 Dante, Bai.bo, 2 vols., Turin, 1839 ; Dante Stitdien, 
 ScHi.ossEk, Leipzig, 1855; Studien iiber Dante, 
 Ruth, Tiibingen, 185.3; Ueber die Qnellen zur Le- 
 bensc/eschichte Dantes, Pai'K, (iorlitz, 1862. 
 
 Po/ndar Manuals. — J. A. Symoxds: An Intro- 
 duiitiim to the Sindi/ of Dante, London, Smith & 
 Elder, 1872; M.mua Bossetti: A .Shadow of 
 Dante, Boston, Roberts Brothers, 1872; H. C. 
 Bari.ow: Critical (.'ontribuliuns to the !>tudijofthe 
 Divina Commedia, London, 1864; Vincenzio 
 BoT r.\ : Dante as Philosopher, Patriot, and Poet, 
 u-ith an Anah/sis of the Dicina Commeilia, N.Y., 
 1865; James Russei.l Lowei.i, : E.ssay on 
 Dante, in Amony mi/ Boohs, Boston, O.sgood & Co., 
 1876. 
 
 Editions of the DIrina Commedia. — Over three 
 hun<lred. Con I'esposillone di Chr. Landinu, col. 
 Comento del P. Bai.hassarke J^omhardi, 5 vols., 
 Minerva Press, Padua, 1822; Col. Com. di Fi:. 
 DA BiiTE, :i vols., Pisa, 1858-62 ; Hicorrelta sopra 
 quattro del pin antorevole Irsti a penna, da Carlo 
 WiTTE, Berlin, 1862; Nuovamente riredutn nel tcsto 
 e dichiarala, da BuiNON'E BiANcni, Firenze, 1863; 
 Col. Cum. di P. FiiATlcEl.l.i. Firenze, 1873, the 
 best aiul most convenient edition for the ordinary 
 student. Col. C(nn. di Antonio Fiorento, ed. 
 1'. Fanfani, Bologna, 1S66. Col. Com. di (J. A. 
 ScAUTAZziNi, Brockhais, Leipzig, "promises to 
 supersede all others." 
 
 Enylish Translations. — Rev. Uemky Boyi>,
 
 DANZ. 
 
 609 
 
 DATHE. 
 
 1785-1802; Rev. Henry Francis Carey, Lon- 
 don, 1814, new ed., 1844, New York, Api)letons, 
 1865; IcHAiiDi) WuKiiiT, London, 184:!; Day- 
 man, 1843; C. 15. Caylev, London, 1851-55; J. 
 A. Carlyi-e (Inferno), in prose, London, 1848, 
 reprinted in New York (Harjiers); I^oncfellow, 
 3 vols., Boston, Ticknor & Fields, 18()7 ; T. W. 
 ]*.\i!soxs {Infi'rno iind I'iir</alorio), Boston, 1843, 
 ISti" ; C. E. Norton, \'ila Nnoru, with essaj'S and 
 notes, Boston, Ticknor & Fields, 18Ci7. 
 
 German translations are nunierons. Among 
 the best, Phii.ai.etiies (King .John of Saxony), 
 1839-77; Witte, Bi.anc, Kaxneoiesser. 
 
 Minor Works. — Opere Minuri, con le Annolnz. 
 di A. M. Friscioni, 2 vols., Venet., 1741; the 
 same : Con note e illusf. ili P. Fuaticei.i.i, 3 vols., 
 Firenze, 1861-62 ; Vila Nuora e Canzoniere, com- 
 mentati da G. R. Giuliani, Firenze, 1808; Mon- 
 archUi Libr. 1 and 2, Carl Witte, Halis, 1867; 
 Epistole ed. e ined. per Cura di Ai.ESs. Touni, 
 Livoriio, 1842; Amori e Rime di Danle, JIantiia, 
 1823. MARVIN" R. VINCENT. 
 
 DANZ, Johann Andreas, b. at Snndhausen, near 
 Gotha, 16.")4; d. at Jena, Dec. 22, 1727; studied 
 theology at 'Wittenberg, and Hebrew under Ks- 
 dras Kdzardi, at Hamburg; visited Holland and 
 F>ngland. and was made professor of theology at 
 Jena in 1713, being at the same time professor 
 in Oriental languages. He wrote a Hebrew 
 grammar, — Nucifranf/ilinlinn, Jena, 1086, called 
 Lilerolor Ehru'o-Chuldteaus in the second edition, 
 Jena, 1000, — formed a school of Oriental philolo- 
 gists, and was himself considered the greatest 
 Orientalist of his age. Though a friend of Spener, 
 his private life does not seem to have been so very 
 edifying. See Tiioluck : Das a/cademische Lehen 
 des 'l7. Jahrhunderts, Halle. 18.'53, I. p. 148, and 
 Das kirrldirhe Lehen d. 17. Jahr., 1802, II. p. 183. 
 
 DANZ, Johann Traugott Leberecht, b. at Wei- 
 mar. Jlay 31, 1709; d. at Jena, May 15, 1851; 
 studied theology at Jena and Gottingen ; was for 
 some years rector of the Latin School of Jena; 
 and became professor of theology in the university 
 there in 1810, from which position he retired in 
 1837. He was an exceedingly prolific writer. 
 His principal theological works are; Lehrburh d. 
 Christ. K i rchen f/escli ichte, Jena, 1818-20 ; Lil/ri Syni- 
 holiei Eccl. ll.-C, dedicated to Gregory XVI., 
 Weimar, 1830 ; Unioersabcorterhuch d. Theol. Lite- 
 ratnr, Leipzig, 1843, etc. But besides on theology, 
 he wrote also on the history of hmnan eating 
 (18o0), on the march of the French against India 
 (1808, etc.), and translated and edited jioems. 
 His theological works became antiquated during 
 his own lifetime. 
 
 DARBOY, Georges, Archbishop of Paris; b. at 
 Fayl-Billot in Haute-ilariie, Jan. 10, 1813; mur- 
 dered by the Communists in Paris, May 27, 1871. 
 His brave death called popular attention to his 
 noble life. He was a bold, independent thinker, 
 and a strenuous opponent of Ultramontanism. 
 He endeavored to suppress the Jesuits and the 
 religious orders within his diocese, voted against 
 the infallibility dogma in the Vatican Council, 
 yet, like many another opponent, hastened to sub- 
 mit to the decree. By his energy, measiu-es tor 
 the relief of the sick and wounded in the Franco- 
 Prussian war were successfully organized and sus- 
 tained. He braved the terrors of the Comnmne, 
 unwilling to leave his post. On April 4, 1871, 
 40—1 
 
 ho was arrested by the Comnumists as a liostage, 
 and confined in the prison at Mazas, and then in 
 that of La Koqnette, wliere he was brutally .shot 
 by the wretched miscreants. He died in the 
 attitude of blessing, with words of forgiveness on 
 his lips. He was made Archbishop of Paris 
 January, 1803. His works were numerous : chief 
 were a translation of the works of St. Denis the 
 Areopagite, 1845, 2 vols., and ]'ie de St. Tliomas 
 Becket, 18.59, 2 vols. See, also, his CEurres pasto- 
 j-(des (posthumous), Paris, 1870, 2 vols. 
 
 DARBYITES. See Plymouth Brethren. 
 
 DAR'IC. See Money. 
 
 DARi'US (OT")7, Greek Aapelar^ Persian Ddraja- 
 wus, Babylonian cuneiform Dariijarus, meaning 
 the reslrainer, which was an epithet applied to a 
 god or mighty king). Several kings of this name 
 are mentioned in the Old Testament. 
 
 1. Darius the Mede (Dan. v. 31, etc.), "the 
 son of Ahasuerus" (ix. 1). There is no mention 
 of this character in jirofane history ; but it would 
 be rash to atfirm that tlierefore he did not exist, 
 since our knowledge of Babylonian aifairs is far 
 too defective. The Bible, which is yet unim- 
 peached, and whose marvellous accuracy is at- 
 tested by recent discoveries, makes him the 
 immediate successor of Belshazzar, whom he slew, 
 and king of the Clialdccans at sixty-two years of 
 age. and tlierefore the immediate predecessor of 
 Cyrus. But no satisfactory explanation of this 
 jNIedian interregnum has yet been given. Some 
 would identify Darius the Mede with Cyaxares 
 II. of Xenophon's Ci/ropa-dia (so Josephus, Antiq. 
 x. 11, 4), who was the son and successor of 
 Astyages, and uncle of Cyrus. If this identifica- 
 tion, whicli is only one of many, stands, the notice 
 of Darius's ascent to the throne is compatible 
 with the taking of Babylon by Cyrus, who acted 
 really as his lieutenant. 
 
 2. Darius, son of Ilystaspes (in the Babylonian 
 cuneiform Ustaas/ipi), the founder of the Perso- 
 Aryan dynasty, B.C. 521-480 (Ez. iv. 5,24 ; Hag. 
 i. 1, 15;"Zech. i. 1, 7, vii. 1). The principal of 
 his cuneiform inscriptions (mostly trilingual) is 
 the famous one at Behistun, which relates his 
 dethronement of the magician Gaumata (Pseudo- 
 Smerdis) and his six allies, and the overthrow of 
 other rivals. Darius appears in these inscriptions 
 as a very pious man. His reign was very pro.s- 
 perous. With this agrees the Bilile record, which 
 relates, that in the second year of his reign, — the 
 date given to the prophecies of Haggai and Zecha- 
 I'iah, — Darius, having found in the palace at Ec- 
 batana a decree of Cyrus ordering the building of 
 the temple, renewed the order; and the work was 
 resumed, money supplied for it, and in the sixth 
 year it was finished (Ez. vi.). The Bible record 
 implies piety, generosity, and wealth. 
 
 3. Darius" the Persian (Neh. xii. 22). usually 
 identified with Darius Codomannus, the antago- 
 nist of Alexander the Great, and who reigned 
 from B.C. 330 to 330. 
 
 See the commentaries on the above-mentioned 
 books, and also the article Darius, by Kautzsch, in 
 Ilerzog's Enri/ktopcidie, 2d ed. 
 
 DATARIUS. See Curia. 
 
 DATHE, Johann August, an eminent Oriental 
 scholar and biblical critic, b. at Weissenfels, 
 Saxony, July 4, 1731 ; d. at Leipzig, March 17, 
 1791. He became professor of Oriental literature
 
 DAUB. 
 
 610 
 
 DAVENPORT. 
 
 at Leipzig in 1763. His chief work was Libri 
 V. T. ex i-fceiisinne lexlus Hebra-i el i-ersionwn an- 
 ilquarmn Latine versi, jiotisque philologicis et crilicis 
 illustrati. Hallae, 1791, 6 vols. : besides tliis lie 
 edited Erpenius' Syriac Psalter (Halle, 176S), vol. 
 1 of Glassius' Philologia Sacra (Leipzig, 1776), and 
 Walton's Prolegomena (Leipzig, 1777). His minor 
 works appeared posthumously, edited by E. F. \\. 
 Rosermiuller, Opuscula ad crisin el interpretalionem 
 V. T. speclantia, Leipzig, 1796. 
 
 DAUB, Karl, b. at Cassel, March SO, 176.5; 
 studied at ilarburg, and was appointed professor 
 of theologj' in 1794, at Heidelberg, where he 
 died Kov. 22, 1836. He was the founder of the 
 speculative school of theology. But though the 
 idea he pursued — a scientific argumentation of 
 the Christian dogma as a necessary part, or, in- 
 deed, as the very kernel, of philosophical truth — 
 has played a conspicuous part in the history of 
 inodern theology, the result of his individual 
 efforts has fallen into oblivion. The rapid devel- 
 opment of the German philosophy in his age 
 compelled him to change basis repeatedly, — in 
 1801 (Lehrhuch der Katechelik) he is still with 
 Kant; but in 180.3 (Orlhudorie iind Heterodoxie) he 
 has left for Fichte, and in 1806 (I'heologiiviena), 
 he has already reached Schelling. Schelling he 
 then follows for several years (Ein/citiing in ilas 
 Stttdium der Dngmalik, 1810) ; but in 1816 (Judas 
 Jsckariolh) it is evident that he is steering 
 towards Hegel, and in the Hegelian philosophy 
 he finally anchors (Die dogmatische Theologie jet- 
 ziger Zeit) 1833; and it is perhaps this circum- 
 stance, which, in spite of his great talent and 
 genuine piety, gave to his speculation the aspect 
 of a brilliant chimera. See Rosexkranz : 
 Erinnerungen an Dauh, Berlin, 1837; Strauss: 
 Parallelen zwisclien Scldeiennacher vnd Daub, in 
 ClKtraili.risliktn und Kritiken, Leipzig, 1839. 
 
 D'AUBICNE. See Merle D'Aubigne. 
 
 DAUNT, Achilles, B.D., Dean of Cork; b. at 
 Tractou Abbey, County Cork, Ireland, Aug. 23, 
 1832 ; d. at St. Anne's, Blarney (six miles from 
 Cork), Monday, June 17, 1878. He was gradu- 
 ated from Trinity College, entered lioly orders, 
 and, after faithful ser\-ice elsewhere, was called to 
 be rector of St. Matthias', Dublin, a most imiwr- 
 tant post. His preaching attracted great crowds, 
 and his private labors drained his strength, but 
 blessed many. He went aliout doing good. He 
 was made Canon of St. Patrick's, and in 1875 Dean 
 of Cork. His life was too busy for authorship. 
 After his death, friends issued liis .six Donnellan 
 Lectures, delivered in Dublin (The Person and 
 OJfiers of the Holt/ Spirit, I.,ondon, 1879), and com- 
 piled from his discourses The Morning of Life 
 and Other Gleanings, l^ublin, 1881. See F. K. 
 Wynne : Spent in the Sen-Ice, A Memoir of the 
 Very Rev. Achilles Daunt, D.D., London, 1879, 
 3d <-<\., ISSO. 
 
 DAVENANT, John, D.D., Bishop of Salisbury; 
 b. in l^ondoii about lo70; d. at Cambridge, April 
 20, 1641. He was made M. A. at (jueen's College 
 Caml)ridge, 1.594, professor of theology, 16t)9, 
 master of )iis college, 1014, sent by James L, 
 with three other divines, to the svnod of Dort, 
 1618, raised to tlie .see of Salisbi'iry, l(i21. Ik- 
 was a divine of great learning anil piety. He 
 wrote Kxpositio Epistoltc D. J'aiili ad Colosscnses, 
 Cambridge, 1627, trans., Loudon, 1831, 2 vols. ; 
 
 Disserlationes duce, de Morle Chrisli, et de Pradesti. 
 natione, Cambridge, 1630 : Prrrlectiones, etc., Cam- 
 bridge, 1631, trans., A Treatise on Jnsiijicalion 
 . . . together with Translations of the Determina- 
 tions, London, 1844-46, 2 vols.; .4;i Exhorta- 
 tion to Brotherly Communion between the Protestant 
 Churches, Cambridge, 1641 (the Latin original 
 appeared 1640). Fuller relates, that, when he 
 was on his death-bed, "he thanked God for this 
 his fatherly correction, because in all his lifetime 
 he never had one heavy affliction, which made 
 him often much suspect with himself whetlier he 
 was a true child of (iod or no, until this his last 
 sickness. Then he sweetly fell asleep in Christ, 
 and so we softly draw the curtains about liim '' 
 (Church History of Britain, Tegg's ed., vol. iii. 
 p. 470). 
 
 DAVENPORT, Christopher (known as Francis 
 cus a Sancta Clara), an English Komanist ; b. in 
 Coventry, 1598 ; d. IMay 31, 1680. He was edu- 
 cated at Oxford and Douay, entered the order of 
 St. Francis, and became a missionary in England, 
 and chaplain to Queen Henrietta Maria, wife of 
 Charles I., and subsequently to Queen Catharine 
 of Braganza, wife of Charles II. He was repeat- 
 edh' chosen provincial of his order in England 
 because of his zeal and ability in furthering the 
 Roman-Catholic cause. His works were published 
 at Douay, 1665. 2 vols. fol. 
 
 DAVENPORT, John, brother of the preceding; 
 b. at Coventry, Eng., 1597; d. at Boston, Mass., 
 March 15, 1670. He was educated at Oxford, 
 and when nineteen years old began to preach in 
 London, and eventiudly became rector of St. 
 Stephen's, Coleman Street. He won great regard 
 by his piety and learnmg. In 1026 he joined in a 
 scheme to pui'chase imjirojjriatlons (church lands 
 in the hands of laymen), and " with the jirofits 
 thereof," says Cotton Mather, ''to maintain a con- 
 stant, able, and painful ministry in those parts of 
 the kingdom where there was most want of such 
 a ministry. But Bislioji Laud looking with a 
 jealous eye on this undertaking, least it might in 
 time give a secret growth to nonconformity, he 
 olitained a bill to be inhibited in the exchequer- 
 chamber by the king's attorney-general against 
 the feoffees that had the management of it. The 
 issue of the business was this: the court con- 
 denuied their proceedings as dangerous to the 
 Church and .Stale, pronuinicing the gifts, ftojf- 
 nicnts, and ronlrieances made to be uses aforesaid, 
 to be illegal, and so dissolved the same, conliscat- 
 ing their money unto the king's u,se. Yet the 
 criminal jiart referred unto was never jirosecuted 
 in the star-chamher. because the design was gener- 
 ally approved, and niuHitud(>s of di.screet and de- 
 vout men extreamly icsented the mine of it." 
 Soon after this he was converted to P\iritan prin- 
 ciples by .John Cotton, and hence "fell under the 
 notice and anger "of Laud; to avoid which in 
 the fall of 1633 lie went to Amsterdam, and be- 
 came colleague to Mr. Paget. Here, however, 
 his objection to the ba]>tizing of children of non- 
 profes.sors was used against him ; anil in 1635 he 
 ri'turned to London. Having l>een one of tlie 
 )>rocurers of the )iatenl for the JMassaehiisett.s 
 Colony (1628), although liis name was not men- 
 tioned through fear of Laud's o)ii)osition, he 
 finally set sail I hither, and arrived in Boston 
 June 26, 1637; but on March 30, 1638, he .sailed
 
 DAVID. 
 
 611 
 
 DAVID. 
 
 for Quinniiiiack (now New Haven), where lie 
 started a new colony. For thirty years he .serv<>(l 
 this people as pastor. With Cotton and Hooker 
 he was invited to sit in the Westniinstci' Ass(Mn- 
 bly, but his congregation declined to allow him 
 to go. In 101)7 he was called to the First Church 
 of Boston, and there died of apoplexy. 
 
 John Davenport was one of the great men of 
 early New-lCngland days who united learning 
 with piety, and knowledge of men with kindness 
 of heart. He was involved in all the general 
 troubles of his day, compelled by his position to 
 take part in the secular government no less than 
 in the ecclesiastical. Thus in the beginning of 
 New Haven Colony he was elected one of the 
 " seven pillars " to support the civil government. 
 He vigorously opposed the " Half-way Covenant " 
 (see CoNOKEGATiONALisM ill the U.S.A.), and it 
 was as the great champion of the old ideas that he 
 was called to Boston. His reputation for learn- 
 ing caused the Indians to call him " So big study 
 man." He wrote, however, comparatively little. 
 See list in Dexter : Conyreyal iduaUsm n.t sei'n in 
 its Literature, Appendix. Of most interest are TIic 
 Saints Anchor-Hold in All Storms and Tempests 
 (1661, 24mo, pp. viii, 232), and Tlie Power of 
 Congrerjational Churches A.^serted and Vindicated 
 (1672, i6mo, pp. x, 164). See Cotton Matiiei: : 
 Magnolia Christi Americana, Bk. HI. chap, iv., 
 ed. Hartford, 1855, vol. i. pp. 321-331. 
 
 DA'VID (beloved), the youngest son of Jes.se, of 
 the tribe of Judah ; b. in Bethlehem, according 
 to the common reckoning, B.C. 1085; d. in Jeru- 
 salem B.C. 1015. While a fugitive from Saul, 
 he headed a band of freebooters (1 Sam. xxii. 
 1, 2), whose centre of operation was the cave, or, 
 if we read niXO for ^'I'i;?, the stronghold of Adul- 
 1am, either near the city of Adullam, in the low- 
 country of Judsea, about ten miles south-west 
 from Jerusalem, or, accoriling to tradition, in the 
 Wady Khuritun, amid the movmtains of Jud<ea, 
 near Bethlehem. On the death of Saul, the tribe 
 of Judah chose David king, and he reigned for 
 seven years at Hebron, while Ishbaal (Ishbo- 
 sheth) had his capital at ISIahanaim. The son of 
 Saul gradually lost his hold on the allegiance of 
 the ten tribes. The desertion of Abner brought 
 matters to a climax, and after the murder of Ish- 
 baal the twelve tribes came under David's sway 
 (2 Sam. v.) Jerusalem was captured, and made 
 the capital of the united kingdom. David was 
 king in all forty years (B.C. 1055-15). His 
 reigu was prosperous and memorable. Israel 
 possessed the Pronused Land well nigh entirely. 
 David gave them their iirst military organization 
 (1 Chron. xxvii. 1 sqq.). 
 
 As a Psalmist. — Later Jewish tradition, as re- 
 corded in the Talnuul, ascribes the entire book of 
 the Psalms to David : modern critical scepticism 
 denies that he MTote a single one. The truth lies 
 between these extremes. The Hebrew titles in 
 the Psalter ascribe to David seventy-three Psalms 
 out of the hundred and fifty; the Septuagint, 
 eighty-eight. Of these, many, no doubt, are not 
 his ; how many cannot be accurately determined. 
 Ewald allows him to have written Ps. iii., iv., vii., 
 viii., xi., XV., xviii.,xix., xxiv., xxix., xxxii.. ci. 
 To those in the Psalter should be added his dirge 
 over Saul and Jonathan (2 Sam. i. 19-27) and 
 the two psalms in 2 Sam. xxii., xxiii., of which 
 
 the first re-appears in a slightly altered form as 
 Ps. xviii. The uncertainty as to the authorship 
 of the different psalms neces.sitates their very 
 cautious use as sources of his biography. He re- 
 mains, however, the " Sweet Singer of Israel," and 
 the " Father of Hebrew Psalmody." See Psai.ms. 
 
 Character. — The character of David has been 
 very differently judged. In his own day he was 
 the idol of his people ; to the subsequent pi'ophets 
 and priests he was the njodel king ; to the later 
 Jews, his kingdom typified the kingdom of the 
 Messiah, of whom he was himself a type. Hi.s 
 piety, his zeal for Jehovah, his tender compassion, 
 his generous sympathy, his bold enterpri.se, his 
 dauntless courage, entitle him to admiration. He 
 is recognized as the worthy leader of the chosen 
 jjeople, and, next to Abraham, the Father of the 
 Faithful, comes David, the man after God's own 
 heai-t. Some writers, such as Bayle, Voltaire, 
 and, in our day, Kuenen, have slighted David's 
 claims upon the enthusiasm of the Church, and 
 sought to emiihasize his faults so that they might 
 sneer at his religion. But the best refutation of 
 this detraction is the Bible record, so free from 
 flattery, so candid and comprehensive, and yet 
 leaving the impression that its subject was a hero, 
 a man cast in a rare mould. It should be borne in 
 mind that his likeness is sketched with a hdelity 
 unrivalled in antiquity. His sayings and doings 
 fill well-nigh three entire books of the Old Testa- 
 ment, while references to him are found upon 
 almost every page of the Bible. He comes before 
 us in every light, — as shepherd, musician, cham- 
 pion, courtier, fugitive, chief, warrior, king : what 
 life could be more varied? In a more domestic 
 way he appears as obedient son, respectful youn- 
 ger brother, modest youth, ardent lover, faithful 
 friend, tender husband, and indulgent father. AH 
 along the line of his development, private and 
 public, his piety is marked. The psalms he wi'ote 
 attest the depth of his love for God, and his un- 
 wavering confidence. His character was essen- 
 tially the same from the days when under the 
 glistering stars, as boyish poet, he sang, '• The 
 heavens declare the glory of Jehovah" (Ps. xix.), 
 until the day when as aged monarch it was said 
 of him, " The prayers of David, the son of Jesse, 
 are ended" (Ps. Ixxii.). He was by no means 
 perfect. He was compassed with infirmities ; but 
 he mourned his defections, and was pardoned. 
 The struggle with his passionate nature, strong 
 and proud, was kept up incessantly, and. though 
 oft defeated, he conquered at last. The sins for 
 which he is to-day mocked were precisely those 
 of an Oriental king. He was the man after God's 
 own heart, not in his sins, but in his repentance 
 and in his earnest effort after a higher and purer 
 life. 
 
 Criticism of the Te.rt.- — The narrative in the 
 Books of Samuel, tha Kings, and the Chronicles, 
 is derived from different sources, official and 
 traditional. Much attention has been given, 
 especially of late, to the text; and, according to 
 the critics, several errors of arrangement, and a 
 few interpolations, are discoverable. But the 
 changes demanded in the Hebrew text, so far as 
 the history of David is concerned, are neither 
 numerous nor important. In only one case does 
 this criticism merit particular notice here. All 
 students of David's life are aware, that, in tbe
 
 DAVID. 
 
 612 
 
 DAVIES. 
 
 story of Goliath (1 Sara, xvii.), the common 
 text" represents Saul as ignorant of David (xvii. 
 55-58) ; whereas, according to xvi. 19-23, David 
 played before him, and was his armor-bearer. 
 The best explanation of this difficulty is that 
 David had grown out of Saul's recognition. But 
 a comparison of the Hebrew and the Septuagint 
 shows that the latter omits xvii 12—31, 55-xviii. 
 5. These verses read together like parts of an 
 independent narrative of the same event. Ac- 
 cordinglv. those who consider the Septuagint text 
 purer than the Masoretic remove all difficulties in 
 tliis narrative by omitting the verses referred to. 
 It should, however, be remarked tliat such emi- 
 nent Hebrew scholars as De Wette, Ewald, and 
 Bleek, consider tiiat the Hebrew text of the 
 Goliath episode " has not been corrupted or inter- 
 polated, but tliat the two sections (from whatever 
 source originally derived) form an integral part 
 of the work as it came from the hand of the 
 writer or compiler; " and also that we should be 
 cautious in accepting the authority of the Septua- 
 gint upon any point ; for we do not know what 
 manuscripts lay before the Alexandrine trans- 
 lators, nor whether they were not willing, as in 
 this case, to omit a portion of the original He- 
 brew text to secure a more consistent narrative. 
 At tlie same time, reverence for the word of God 
 compels honest endeavor to obtain a pure text. 
 
 Lit. — H- Ewald: Gesch. d. V. Isr., 3d ed., 
 Gbttingen, 1866, III. 76 sq., Eng. trans., III. 
 54—202; Stanley: Lectures on the Jewish Church, 
 2d series, London, 1865 : Hitzig ■ Gesch. d. V. 
 Isr.., Leipzig, 1869, I. 135 sqq • Guatz • Gesch. d. 
 Juden, Leipzig, 1874, vol. i ; Seixecke: Gesch. 
 d. V. Isr., Gbttingen, 1876, I. 283 .sqq. — Special 
 biographies — S Chandler: A Critical History 
 of the Life of David, London, 1766, reprinted, 
 Oxford, 1853, 2 vols.; F. W Kimmmachek: 
 David, der Kiinii/ von Israel, Berlin, 1866 (Eng. 
 trans., David, the King of Israel, Edinburgh, 1867, 
 and N.y., 1868); J. J. .Stahklin: Das Lchen 
 Davids, Basel, 1866; W. M. Tavloi; : David, 
 King of Israel, X.Y., 1875; Bii.-i.vxcirET : I'he 
 Man after God's own Heart ; Chapters on the 
 Life of David, London, 1877 ; A. Maclarex : 
 The Life of David as reflected in his Psalms, Lon- 
 don, 1880. SAMUEL SI. JACKSON. 
 
 DAVID (Welsh Deivi), St., d. 601; the most 
 eniiiii-iit of Welsh saints, a semi-mytliical per.son- 
 age, about whom nothing can be definitely as- 
 serted. Rev. Charles Hole, in Smith and Waoe, 
 Diet. Christ. Biogr., relates the story of his life, 
 leaving out the fabulous element, tinis : He s])ent 
 ten years of his youth in the .study of the Bible, 
 and afterwards founded a monastery, which in 
 memory of him is now called St. David's. He 
 won .so high a re]nitation for tlieological learning, 
 that the orthodox compelled him to leave his 
 retirement to defend tlieir side againsl tlie I'ela- 
 gians in the synod of Brefi. His wonderful suc- 
 cess led to his election to tlie primacy of the 
 British Church. .Sliortly after, hi; convened 
 another .synod for the same purpo.se, — to destroy 
 Pelagianism, — and succeeded -so grandly tliat the 
 synod bore the name, "Synod of Victory." I'p 
 to this time tlie archie])iseopal city was tlie fa- 
 mous Koman fortress on the L'sk, Caerleon ; but 
 T)avid removed to Meiievia, "one of the |)orts 
 from which Mhi]>s jja.ssed over hito Ireland," 
 
 probably because "the tide of the Saxon con- 
 quest drove the British Church to cultivate closer 
 relations with their Celtic brethren opposite." 
 His primacy was marked by tlie division of Wales 
 into dioceses. Personally saintly and zealous, 
 liis rule was apostolic in character and results. 
 
 DAVID, Christian. See Moravians. 
 
 DAVID-HA-COHEN, a learned rabbin; b. at 
 Lara. Spain, about the beginning of the seven- 
 teenth century ; d. at Hamburg, 1674. He was 
 successively cliief of the synagogues at Amster- 
 dam and Hamburg. Suspicion — it would seem 
 unfounded — of his being a Christian led to his 
 deposition from the latter post. His title to 
 fame rests upon his Corona Sacerdotum, a Tal- 
 mudical and rabbinical dictionary, finished down 
 to liesh, but only printed to Yod, Hamburg, 1667. 
 It cost the author forty years of labor. In Am- 
 sterdam, 1648, a specimen was published, under 
 tlie title Civitas David. 
 
 DAVID GEORGE, or JORIS. See Joris. 
 
 DAVID NICETAS. See Nketas. 
 
 DAVIDISTS, followers of David Joris. See 
 
 JOKLS. 
 
 DAVID OF DINANTO (so called from Dinant, 
 a town ill Belgium, on the Meuse) lived in the 
 beginning of the thirteenth century; was Magis- 
 ter Artium and Theologice from the University of 
 Paris, and stands as one of the most prominent 
 representatives of that pantheistic tendency which 
 now and then became very apparent during the 
 middle ages. He is by some called a disciple of 
 Amalric of Bena, and by others, his teacher. 
 The truth seems to be. that the two systems, in 
 spite of their internal resemblance, originated 
 independently of each other. That of David is 
 imperfectly known, however. His work. Quaterni, 
 or Quaternuli, is lost : only fragments of it have 
 come down to us through Albertus Magnus and 
 Thomas Aquinas. It was condemned by the 
 synod of Paris (1209), and burnt (JMartexe, 
 ilies. Nov. Anecd., IV. 163). The author him- 
 self escaped the stake only by rapid flight. See 
 KuiixLElx: Amalrich von Bena tind D. v. D., in 
 Studien und Kritiken, 1847, I. 2; Haureau: De 
 la pliil. .'icholast., Paris, 18.j0, I. p. 414; Jundt; 
 HIstoire du panthe'isme pojndaire, Paris, 1875, p. 
 14. A. .lUNDT. 
 
 DAVIES, David, a distinguished Independent 
 I5re;ulirr of A\'ali's; b. in Carmarlliensliire, .lune, 
 176i!, d. at Swansea, Dec. 16, 1816. After a 
 short ministry at Trefacli lie went to Swansea, 
 where his preaching revolutionized the morals of 
 the town. He was a fertile hymn-writer, and 
 .seventy of his hymns have passed into Welsh 
 hymn-books. E I'axtox \U>or> [I'hrislmas Evans, 
 London, ISSl) di'Vcites a ehajiter to Davies. 
 
 DAVIES, Samuel, an elixpient Presbyterian 
 preaclici-, and president of Princeton College; b. 
 of Welsh ancestry, in New Castle County. Dehi- 
 ware, Nov. 3, 1724 ; d at Princeton, Feb. 4, 1761. 
 His mother, to use liis own words, was " one of 
 the most eminent saints he ever knew upon 
 eartli." He pursued cla.ssical .studies under a 
 minister, and subsequently in the seliool .at Fagg's 
 Manor. In 1716 he entered upon liis ministry 
 at Hanover, A'a., having received a governmental 
 license to "officiate in and around Hanover at 
 four meeting-hou.ses." His ministry wa,s very 
 successful, attracting people from great distances.
 
 DAY. 
 
 Bib 
 
 DEACON. 
 
 In 1753 lie was depvited to go to Great riritain 
 with Gilbert Tennent, to solicit funds for I'rince- 
 ton College. The effort resulte<l in a collection 
 of move than fonr thousand pomids. During 
 Mr. Davies' visit abroad lie was listened to by 
 admiring crowds wherever he jireached. In 1750 
 he succeeded .lonatluui Edwards in the presidency 
 of the institution for which he had recently done 
 so much. lie lies liuried at Princeton. Ilis ser- 
 mons were elaborately prepared, and are among 
 the be.st pi-oducts of the American pulpit, as re- 
 gards both their tone and matter. They were 
 first printed in London, 1767-71, 5 vols. The 
 best American edition appeared in New York, 
 1851, 3 vols., with Bior/r. Memoir by Alheut 
 Barnes. See (iii.i.ETT: Hixl. Pres-li. Chrirr/t, 
 Philadelphia, 18(54, vol. I., chaps, vii., viii. 
 
 DAY, AND DIVISIONS OF TIME, AMONG 
 THE HEBREWS. The Jewish day was reckoned 
 from evening to evening, probably because of the 
 use of a lunar calendar. The sabbath was the 
 only day with a name : the others were simply 
 numbered. The day was divided into morninr/, 
 noon, and night (Ps. Iv. 17), and also into six 
 unequal parts, which were again stibdivided : 1. 
 Dawn, subdivided into (iray dawn and rosi/ dawn ; 
 2. Sunrise ; 3. The heal of the /lay, about nine 
 o'clock (1 Sam. xi. 11 ; Xeh. vii. 3, etc.); 4. The two 
 noons (Gen. xliii. 16 ; Deut. xxviii. 29) ; 5. The 
 cool (lit. wind) of the day, before sunset ((jen. iii. 
 8); 6. Eveniti;/. The phrase "between the two 
 evenings," of Exod. xii. 6, xxx. 8, probably means 
 "between the beginning and end of sunset." 
 Hours are first mentioned in the Bible in Dan. iii. 
 6, and hence were probably of Babylonian origin. 
 The .lews got their first sun-djal from Babylon 
 (2 Kings XX. 11). In our Lord's time the division 
 was common (John xi. 9). The third, sixth, and 
 ninth hours were devoted to prayer. The Jews, 
 before the captivity, divided the night into three 
 watches, from sunset to midnight (Lam. ii. 19), 
 from midnight to cock-crow (Judg. vii. 19), from 
 cock-crow to sunrise (Exod. xiv. 24). In the 
 New Testament, mention is made oifour watches, 
 because the Greek and Roman division was then 
 adopted. 
 
 The word " day " is used figuratively, and 
 rather for a period than for a set time ; thus, a 
 day of ruin (.lob xviii. 20), the day of Christ 
 (John viii. 56), tlie judgment-day (Joel i. 15). 
 The days of creation were creative days, stages in 
 the process, but not days of twenty-four hours 
 each. 
 
 A day's journey (Gen. xxxi. 23 ; Exod. iii. 18) 
 was not a definite stretch, but the distance trav- 
 elled in a day, yet this ordinarily would be twenty- 
 five or thirty miles. 
 
 Day of the Preparation is the synagogue name 
 for the day on whose evening a sabbath or a fes- 
 tival began. On it the necessary preparations 
 were made ; as, on Friday the food was cooked, 
 or on the day before the Day of Atonement, which 
 was a strict fast-day, enough food was eaten to 
 satisfy for the ensuing twenty-four hours. Ac- 
 cording to Exod. xii. 3-6, the preparations for 
 the Passover were appointed to last four days. 
 On the last day a strict inquiry was instituted 
 ■whether any leaven was in their dwellings. 
 
 The " Preparation of the Passover " in John 
 xix. 14 means the Paschal Friday, or the Friday 
 
 occurring during the week of the Pa-ssover, as in 
 vers. 31, 42. On that Friday (the 15th of Nisan) 
 Christ was cru<'ilied. 
 
 DAY, Jeremiah, D.D., LL.D., a president of 
 Yale ('ollege; b. at New I'reston, Conn., Aug. 3, 
 1773; d. at New Il.aven, Conn., Aug. 22, 1867. 
 He was graduated from Yale College, 1795; be- 
 came professor of mathematics and natural phi- 
 lo.sophy there 1801, and president, 1817. He 
 resigned, 1846. Besides a sei'ies of mathematical 
 te.xt-books, he wrote, A n Inquiry respeetini/ the setf- 
 determminy Power of the Will', 1838, 2d ed. 1849 
 (a refutation of Cousin), and An Examination of 
 President Edwards on the Will, 1841 (a co!icilia- 
 torv :ind apologetic defence of Edwards). 
 
 DEACON (I'/uAOTOf, diaconus, also i^mkuv, diacones, 
 in ('yjirian's works, and in synodical decree.s), 
 i.e., minister, helper. 
 
 1. In the New Testament. The term in its 
 generic sen.se is used of all ministers of the gos- 
 pel as servants of God or Christ (1 Thess. iii. 2 ; 
 1 Cor. iii. 5; 2 Cor. vi. 4, xi. 23; Col. i. 7, iv. 7; 
 1 Tim. iv. 5), also of magistrates (Rom. xiii. 4). 
 In a technical .sense it tlenotes the second and 
 lower class of congregational officers; the other 
 class being the presliyters (elders) or bishops 
 (overseers). Deacons first appear in the sixth 
 chapter of Acts (under the name of the "seven "), 
 and afterwards repeatedly in Phil. i. 1 ; 1 Tim. 
 iii. 2, 8, 12. 
 
 (1) Oriyin of the Diaconate. This is related 
 Acts vi. 1-7. It had, like the presbyterate, a pre- 
 cedent in the Jewish synagogue, which usually 
 employed three officers for the care of the poor 
 (see Lightfoot, Hor. Ilehr. ad Act., VI. 3). W- 
 tringa and some other writers (also Plumptre in 
 Smith's Diet.) wrongly derive it from the office 
 of the Chazzan (vnrnii-tK, Luke iv. 20 ; .John vii. 
 32), which was merely that of a sexton or beadle. 
 The diaconate grew out of a special emergency 
 in the congregation of Jerusalem, in consequence 
 of the complaint of the Hellenists, or Greek Jews, 
 against the Hebrews, or Palestinian Jews, that 
 their vvidows were neglected in the daily ministra- 
 tion (jv Tj) Sianovia ry KaHii/i^pwrj) at the common 
 love-feasts (Agape). Hence the apo.stles, who 
 had hitherto themselves attended to this duty, 
 caused the congregation to elect from their midst 
 seven brethren, and ordained them by prayer and 
 the laying-on of hands. The congregation, in a 
 spirit of impartiality, and consideration for the 
 minority, chose seven Hellenists, if we are to 
 judge from their Greek names ; namely Stephen 
 (the protomartyr, and forerunner of Paid), Philip, 
 Prochorus, Nicanor, Timon, Parmenas, and Nico- 
 las. Greek names, however, were not luicommon 
 among the Jews at that time. The diaconate, 
 therefore, like the presbytero-episcopate. grew out 
 of the apostolic office, which at first embraced all 
 the ministerial functions and duties (the hanovia 
 Tuiv Tpajie^Civ, as well as the imKOvia tov /joyov). 
 Christ chose apostles only, and left them to divide 
 their lalior under the guidance of his Spirit, with 
 lu'oper regard to times and circumstances, and to 
 found such additional offices in the church as 
 were useful and necessary. 
 
 The seven (ol eiTTd) elected on the occasion re- 
 ferred to (Acts vi. 3, cf. xxi. 8) were not extraor- 
 dinary commissioners or superintendents (Stanley, 
 Plumptre, W. L. Alexander), but deacons in the
 
 DEACON. 
 
 614 
 
 DEACON. 
 
 primitive sense of the term ; for, altkough they 
 are not called '• deacons " in the Acts (which never 
 uses this term), tlieir office is expressly described 
 as an office of help {iianovia), or serving at the tables 
 (iioKovciv 7paT7e;at(. Acts vi. 1. 2). p:xegetical 
 tradition is almost unanimously in favor of this 
 view, and the latest and best commentators sus- 
 tain it (comp. Meyer, Alford, Hackett, Lange- 
 Lechler. .Jacobson. Ilowson and Spence, on Acts 
 vi. 3; also Lightfoot, Philippians, ip)^. 185 sqq.). 
 In the ancient church the number seven was con- 
 sidered binding; and at Rome, for example, as 
 late as the middle of the third century, there were 
 only seven deacons, though the number of pres- 
 byters amounted to forty-six (Euseb., Hist. EccL, 
 vi. 43). There is indeed a difference between the 
 apostolic and the ecclesiastical deacons, a differ- 
 ence which is acknowledged by Chrysostom, fficu- 
 menius, and others ; but the latter were univer- 
 sally regarded as the legitimate successors of the 
 former, — as much so as the presbyters were the 
 successors of the presbyter-bishops of the New 
 Testament, — notwithstanding the changes in 
 their duties and relations. '• In these eai-ly days," 
 says Alford, on Acts vi. 3, '• titles sprung out of 
 realities, and were not mere hierarchical classifi- 
 cations." 
 
 (2) The Duties. The diaconate was instituted 
 first for the care of the poor and the sick. Those 
 who held the office were alms-distributers and 
 nurses ; the deacons for the male portion of the 
 congregation, the deaconesses for the female. But 
 this care was spiritual as well as temporal, and 
 implied instruction and consolation as well as 
 bodily relief; for Christian charity uses poverty 
 and affliction as occasions for leading the soul to 
 the source of all comfort. Hence Paul counts the 
 helps and ministrations (^uvri?jiipcir) among the 
 spiritual gifts (1 Cor. xii. 28). Hence the ajv 
 pointment of such men for the office of deacons 
 as were of strong faith and exemplary piety (.\cts 
 vi. 3; 1 Tim. iii. 8 sqq.). The moral qualifications 
 prescribed by Taul are essentially the same as 
 those for the bishop (presbyter). Hence the 
 transition from the diaconate to tlie jiresbyterate 
 was easy and natural. Stephen jireached, and 
 prepared the way for Paul's ministry of the Gen- 
 tiles; and Philip, another of the seven deacons of 
 Jerusalem, subsequently labored as an evangelist 
 (Acts viii. 5-40, xxi. 8). But they did this in 
 the exercise of a special gift of preaching, which 
 in the afKJstolic age was not confined to any par- 
 ticular office. Tlie patristic interpreters under- 
 .stand the passage in 1 Tim. iii. 13, of promotion 
 from the office of deacon to that of presbyter ; 
 but '• the good standing " («nX()f jia^/^uc) which is 
 gained by those who "liave served well as deacons '" 
 refers to the honor rather than to the promotion 
 (See Wiesinger, JCllicott, i'lunqitre, and Speaker's 
 Com. on 1 Tim. iii. 13.) We should not con- 
 found the liberty of the apostolic clinrch with the 
 fixed ecclesiastical order of a later age. In the 
 fulness of the Holy Spirit, ami under the guid- 
 ance of inspired apostles, tlie church of the first 
 century stood above the need of the mechanism 
 of office, and divine charity was the leveller and 
 equalizer of all class distinctions. 
 
 Lit. — Commentaries on Acts vi. 1-G, and 1 
 Tim. iii.; ItoTiri: : Aufdnqe der chrisll. KIrche 
 (1837), pp. lOa sqq. ; Soil At i' : Ilislurij of the Apust. 
 
 Church, § 134, pp. 532 sqq. ; Lightfoot : The 
 Christian Ministry, in his Com. on Philippians. pp. 
 179 sqq. ; E. Hatch: The Organization of the Early 
 Christian Church (Oxford, 1881), pp. 2ti sqq. 
 
 II. Deacons in the Catholic Chi-rch. After 
 the departure of the apostles, during the mysteri- 
 ous period between A.D. 70 and 150, of which 
 we have so little information, that change in the 
 ecclesiastical organization must have taken place 
 which we find pretty generally established towards 
 the close of the second century. The bishops 
 were raised above their fellow-presbyters, and re- 
 garded as successors of the apostles ; the presby- 
 ters, at first simply pastors and teachers, were 
 clothed with sacerdotal dignity ('• prie.sts "), which 
 in the Xew Testament appears as the common 
 property of all Christians ; and the deacons became 
 Levites, subject to the priests. They are often 
 compared to the Levites of the Old Testament. 
 These three officers constituted the three clerical 
 orders (ordines majores) in distinction from the 
 laity. An act of ordination marked the entrance. 
 No one could become a bishop without passing 
 first through the two lower orders ; but in some 
 ca.ses a distingiiished layman, as Cyprian and 
 Ambrose, was elected bishop by the voice of the 
 people, and hiu-ried through three ordinations. 
 
 The deacons continued to be what they were in 
 the apostolic age, — the almoners of the charitable 
 funds of the congregation. Jerome calls them 
 "ministers of the tables, and of widows." They 
 liad to find out and to visit the aged, the widows, 
 the sick and afliicted, the confessors in prison, 
 and to administer relief to them under the direc- 
 tion of the bishop. But in the course of time 
 this primary function became secondary, or passed 
 out of sight, as the sick and the poor were gath- 
 ered together into hospitals and almshouses, the 
 orphans into orphan-asylums, and as each of these 
 institutions was managed by an appropriate officer. 
 
 The other duty of tlie deacons was to assist m 
 public worship, especially at baptism and the holy 
 comuumion. They arranged the altar, presented 
 the offerings of the people, read the gospel, gave 
 the signal for the departure of the unbelievers 
 and catechumens, recited some prayers, and dis- 
 tributed the consecrated cup (in the absence of 
 the priest, the bread also), but were forbidden to 
 offer the sacrifice. Preaching is occasionally men- 
 tioned among tlieir privileges, after the examples 
 of Stephen and Philip, but veiy rarely in the West. 
 Hilary the Deacon (Pseudo-.Vmbrose), in his com- 
 mentary on Eph. iv. 11, says that originally all 
 the faithful jireached and baptized, but that in 
 his day the deacons did not jireach. In .some 
 cases they were forbidden, in others authorized, 
 to preach. The I'ontificale Romanum, however, 
 defines their duties and privileges with the words, 
 " JJiaconiini opportct minislrare ad allare, haplizare, 
 et prwdicare." They stood near the bishops and 
 presbyters, who were seated on their thrones in 
 the church ; but they were dejiuties and confiden- 
 tial advisers of the bishops, and often sent on 
 important mi.s.sions. This intimacy gave them 
 an advantage, and roused the jealousy of the pres- 
 byters. The archdeacon (see that art.) occupied 
 a position hardly inferior to that of the bisliop, 
 and hence he is called ocnlus episcoj>i. lie trans- 
 acted the greater part of the business of the dio- 
 cese. The canonical age for deacon's order was
 
 DEACON. 
 
 61/ 
 
 DEACONESS. 
 
 twenty-five, according to Num. viii. 24; but the 
 Council of Trent reduced it to twenty-three (Sess. 
 xxiii. cap. 12). 
 
 The diaconate was the necessary step to the 
 priesthood, "2ix iliacnno ordinatur preshijlur" (Je- 
 ronie) ; but not all deacons were promoted to tlie 
 second order. In the West they could not become 
 priests if they continued in the marriage relation. 
 The Council of Trent forbids marriage to all the 
 clergy ; the Greek Cliurch, only to bishops. 
 
 Lit. — TiiOMASSiN : Veins ac Nava Eccleske 
 Disciplina, Pars I. lib. i. cap. 51-53 ; lib. ii. cap. 
 29-33 ; BiNTERiM : Denkwiirdigkeiten, etc., I. 
 335-386; Suicer: Tliesaiirus,s.y., iiannvoi; C\s,l'. 
 ZiEGLER ; De diaconiti et diaconissis Veteris Eccle- 
 si(e, Viteb., 1678; Bingham: Antiqu. 1. ii. c. 20; 
 AuGUSTi: Denktourdigkeilen^ Bd. xi. 194 sqq.; art. 
 Deacon, in Smith and Cheetam, I., .526-532 ; Ja- 
 eOBSON (Mejer) : Diakon, in Herzog. 
 
 III. Deacons in the Protestant Churches 
 have different meanings and functions. 
 
 (1) In the Cliurch of England and the Protestant 
 Episcopal Cliurch of the United States they form 
 one of the three sacred orders, as in the Greek 
 and Roman churches. The canons require tlie 
 age of twenty-three years (as tlie Council of Trent) 
 before ordination. The deacons are permitted to 
 perform any of the divine offices except pronoun- 
 oing the absolution, and consecrating the elements 
 of the Lord's Supper. In practice the diaconate 
 is merely a stepping-stone to the presbyterate. 
 The Episcopal deacons are what in other churches 
 are called candidates or licentiates of the ministry. 
 The archdeacon in England is a priest, and a per- 
 manent officer next after the bishop, with a part 
 of the episcopal power and jurisdiction : he is ex 
 officio examiner of candidates for holy orders, and 
 has a seat in convocation. The institution dates 
 from Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury, the first 
 prelate who appointed an archdeacon in )iis dio- 
 cese (A.I). 1075). 
 
 (2) In the Lutheran Church the " diaconus " is 
 merely a title, inherited from the Roman Church, 
 of certain assistant clergymen and chaplains of 
 svibordinate rank, but equal standing with or- 
 dained ministers. In recent times they are often 
 called second or third i^reacher or pastor. Luther 
 desired the restoration of tlie apostolic deacons 
 for the care of the poor and the church property 
 (Works, XIII. 2464, ed. Walcli). But in Ger- 
 many the civil government has assumed the control 
 of the ecclesiastical funds. 
 
 (3) In the Reformed Churches the apostolic 
 diaconate was revived, as far as circumstances 
 would permit, with different degrees of success. 
 In the Reformation of the Church of Hessia 
 (1526) it was prescribed that each pastor (episco- 
 pus) should have at least three deacons as assist- 
 ants in the care of the poor. Tlie Church of 
 Basel in 1529 made a similar provision. Calvin 
 regards the diaconate as one of the indispensable 
 offices of the church, and the care of the poor 
 {cum paupcrum) as their proper duty (Instil. 1. 
 iy. c> o, 9). The Reformed Confessions acknowl- 
 edge this office (Conf. Gallicana, art. XXIX. ; 
 Cu7if. Belgica, Art. XXX. and XXXI.). In the 
 Dutcli and German Reformed Churches the dea- 
 cons are " to collect and to distribute the alms and 
 other contributions for the relief of the poor, or 
 the necessities of the congregation, and to provide 
 
 for the support of the ministry of the go.spel." 
 The Presbyterian Church in the United States of 
 America teaclies, in its form of government (chap. 
 vi.), "The Scriptures clearly point out deacons as 
 distinct officers in the church, whose business it i.s 
 to take care of the poor, and to distribute among 
 them the collections which may be raised for their 
 use. 'I'o them, also, may be properly committed 
 the nianagemeiit of tlie temporal affairs of the 
 church." But in practice this article is much 
 disregarded ; and many Presbyterian congrega- 
 tions have no deacons at all, and leave tlie charge 
 of the temporalities of the church either to the 
 lay elders, or to a board of trustees, who need not 
 be communicant members, but simply pew-holders. 
 
 (4) In the Congregational or Indejiendentchmchea 
 the deacons are veiy important officers, and take 
 the place of the lay-elders in the Presbyterian 
 churches. At first the Pilgrim Fathers of New 
 England elected ruling elders ; but the custom 
 went into disuse, and their duties were divided be- 
 tween the pastor and the deacons. See II. M. Dex- 
 ter, Congregationalism, Boston, 1876, pp. 131 sqq. 
 
 (5) In the Methodist-Episcopal Church the dea- 
 cons constitute an order in the ministry, as in the 
 Episcopal Church, but without the jure divino 
 theory of apostolical succession. They are elect- 
 ed by the annual conference, and ordained by the 
 bishop. Their duties are, " 1. To administer 
 baptism, and to solemnize matrimony; 2. To as- 
 sist the elder in administering the Lord's Supper; 
 3. To do all the duties of a travelling preacher." 
 Travelling deacons must exercise their office for 
 two years before they are eligible to the office of 
 elder. Local deacons are eligible to the office 
 of elder after preaching four years. See The Doc- 
 trines and Discipline of the Meth. Episc. Church, 
 ed. hji Bishop Harris, New York, Section xv. 246, 
 xvi. 248-251, xx. 302-304. PHILIP schaff. 
 
 DEACONESS (') Ad/coi'of, dcaKoviaaa, diaconissa, 
 diacona), a female church-officer. The office 
 dates from the apostolic era; but the official 
 term does not occur till after the apostles' time. 
 Phoebe was a deaconess (Rom. xvi. 1, servattt) 
 in the Church of Cenchrea, and had lent assist- 
 ance, amongst many others, to the Apostle Paul. 
 The women whose names are given in Rom. xvi. 
 12 were probably deaconesses. No other traces 
 of the office are found in the New Testament. 
 The other passages usually adduced (Tit. ii. 3; 
 1 Tim. iii. 11, v. 9 .sqq.) are not to the point. 
 The opinion that the last passage (Schaff : 
 Gesch. der apost. Kirche) refers to deaconesses 
 is without sufficient foundation. It would, in- 
 deed, be surprising if Paul had fixed the sixtieth 
 year for entering upon an office which must have 
 demanded much labor and hardship. Nor can 
 we agree with Neander, who finds here only a 
 reference to the widows to be supported; for 
 widows of a younger age might be Just as deserv- 
 ing of support. 'The reference is rather to admis- 
 sion to that which was subsequently known as the 
 Order of Widows {rayiia xnp"^)- They held among 
 their sex a relation something like that of the 
 presbyters. (See Tit. ii. 3.) This order is at- 
 tested by Chrysostom (Ho7n. 39), Epiphanius 
 (Hxr. 79, 4), Tertulliau (De Virg. Velandis, 9), 
 etc. The eleventh canon of the synod of Laodi- 
 cea, which abolished the office, calls them " Elder 
 Widows " (viduK seniores) in distinction from the
 
 DEACONESSES. 
 
 616 
 
 DEACONESSES. 
 
 deaconesses, who also soon received the name of 
 widows. This interchange of appellations is ac- 
 counted for by the fact that deaconesses were at 
 first selected from the widows. But they were 
 not drawn exclusively from this class, much less 
 from aged widows. Tertullian speaks of a girl 
 of twenty years being admitted to the order of 
 widows (m vuluatuni). They were consecrated to 
 their office by the laying-on of hands of the bishop 
 and his blessing. The Nicene Council forbade 
 this consecration in order to avoid giving the ap- 
 pearance as if the deaconess was consecrated to 
 perform priestly functions (Epiphan., Har. 90, ?>). 
 
 Their duties consisted in the care of the poor, 
 sick, and imprisoned. In some churches they 
 prepared the female catechumens for baptism 
 (4th Council of Carthage, xii.) and assisted in 
 the immersion of female believers (Const. Ap. 
 viii. 28). The order of deaconesses, however, had 
 not a protracted existence. The first synod of 
 Orange (-l-tl) and that of Epaon (517), abolished 
 it in France. The names " deaconess " and " arch- 
 deaconess" continued to be used, but, as in the 
 Greek Church, only as designations of officers in 
 convents. They are still found at Constantinople 
 at the end of the twelfth century, aiding at tlie 
 communion. The total disappearance of the dea- 
 coness is, to a large extent, due to the State's 
 having assumed the care of the poor and the sick, 
 as also to the gradual introduction of infant 
 baptism, and the administration of the rite by 
 sprinkling, which made the assistance of women 
 unnecessary. HERZOQ. 
 
 Lit. — See the Church Histories of Neander, 
 ScHAFF, etc. ; J. S. HowsON : Deaconesses, Lon- 
 don, 1860, 2d ed., 1862; G. Uhlhorn (Eng. 
 trans.. Christian Charily in the Ancient Church, 
 New York, 1883); Schafer : Die weibliche Dia- 
 konie in ihrem ganzen Umfange dargestellt, Ham- 
 burg, 1879-83, 3 vols. 
 
 DEACONESSES, Institution of, is of recent 
 origin in tlie Protestant Cluach. Among the rare 
 notices of the existence of deaconesses since the 
 Reformation are those in connection with the 
 church of Wesel from \i>7o to 1610, and the Piiri- 
 tan clmrch of Amsterdam. In Gov. Bradford's 
 Dialogue it is stated that there was one deaconess 
 " who visited the sick, relieved the poor, and sat 
 in a convenient jilace in the congregation, with a 
 little birchen rod in lier hand, and kept little chil- 
 dren in great awe from disturbing the congrega- 
 tion " ( You.NG : ( 'hronicles of the Pilgrim Fathers of 
 I'll/mouth [16()2-lf!2o], Boston, 1841, pp. 44.5 sq.). 
 
 The organization of a Protestant female diaco- 
 nate was accomplished in 1830, \inder Pastor 
 Fliedner, in Kaiserswerth-on-tlic-Khiue. The 
 movement was not in the interest of a mere 
 revival of an ancient chnrchly order, nor meant 
 to be a copy of tlie Roman Catholic sisterhoods. 
 It grew out of a deeply-felt need of trained nurses 
 for hospitals. Pastor Fliedner, who had already 
 been very active in providing reli(!f for the poor 
 and criminal classes, was stnick willi the con- 
 trast in Englnnd between the fine architecture of 
 the hospital buildings and the incompetency of tlie 
 attendants within. He proposed to remedy the 
 defect by training nurses, atul in 1836 organized 
 " The Order of Deaconesses for the Rhenish Prov- 
 inces of Westphalia," and opened a hos]iital and 
 training institution at Kaiscrswcrth. This insti- 
 
 tution, which has grown to large proportions, edu- 
 cates three kinds of deaconesses. 'The first class 
 are nurses, and devote themselves to the care of 
 the sick, the poor, and the fallen in Jlagdalen 
 asylums. The second dedicate themselves to 
 teaching; and the third class, the parochial dea- 
 conesses, aid nunisters in parish-work. The 
 fundamental conditions of admittance to the 
 diaconate (after the regular course of training) 
 are Christian character and a strong constitution. 
 Among the others are these : the candidate must 
 be between eighteen and forty years of age, nmst 
 be unmarried (or a widow), and must consecrate 
 herself for five years to the office. The Kaiser.s- 
 werth deaconesses take no vows, wear no cruci- 
 fixes, and are distingiiished by simplicity, but not 
 necessarily uniformity, of dress. One of the chief 
 characteristics of the order is, that, unlike the sis- 
 terhoods of charity in the Roman Catholic Church, 
 they are presided over by men. 
 
 Besides supplying many institutions in Ger- 
 many, this institution on the Rhine has under its 
 control in foreign lands the Protestant hospitals 
 in Constantinople (since 1852), Jerusalem (1851), 
 Alexandria (since 1857), and the deaconess .semi- 
 naries of Smyrna (18.53), Florence (1860), etc. 
 It has, moreover, become the mother of many 
 similar training institutions in difierent parts 
 of the world, — in Paris (1841), Strassburg and 
 St. Loup (1842), Dresden and Utrecht (1844), 
 Berne (1845), Stockholm and Berlin (1847), etc. 
 !Miss Florence Jsightingale went through a thor- 
 ough course of training under Pastor Fliedner 
 before taking charge of the Female Sanitarium in 
 London ; and Mrs. Fry, after a visit to Kaiser.s- 
 werth, established the first English institution of 
 the kind in Devonshire Square, London. The 
 large North London Deaconesses' Institute was 
 formed on the Continental plan in 1861. In 1849 
 Pastor Fliedner brought w ith him to America four 
 nurses, who became the nucleus, under tiie du'ec- 
 tion of Dr. Passavant, of an institution for deacon- 
 esses at Pittsburg. The statistics of 1881 for the 
 whole order are 53 homes and 4,748 deaconesses 
 at work in 1,436 stations. 
 
 The sisterhoods of the Church of England and 
 the Episcopal Church in the United States are 
 to some extent independent (though subsequent) 
 in origin and in practice from the order of dea- 
 conesses which liail its origin at Kaiserswerth. 
 The fir.st was the Sisterhood of Mercy, organized 
 in 1848 by Miss Sellon. Dr. Gooch (an eminent 
 physician) and Southey liad before urged organi- 
 zations in the Protestant Church similar to the 
 Bdgnines; but nothing came of it. Mi.ss Sellon 
 and three other ladies were led to bind tiu-in- 
 selves in an .association for the relief of the suf- 
 ferings of the ]ioor which came under their 
 observation in l)evon])ort and Plymouth. They 
 adopted a uniform dress, the use of the eroRs, 
 etc. They gradually gathered around them at 
 Devonpori. a House for Destitute Children, a 
 House of Peace for Elder Girls, and an Industrial 
 School. Miss Sellon was known as Mollier Su))e- 
 rior. The leaning towards the Roman idea of 
 the nun was so strong, that Dean Howson pa.sses 
 them by in his work. In this connection he ex- 
 ])res.ses himself in " favor of a free and flexible 
 parochial diaconate, but not of a strictly organized 
 sy.stem of the conventual kind" (Deaconesses, p.
 
 DEAD. 
 
 617 
 
 DEATH. 
 
 xii). — The Sisterhood of St. John the Baj)tist at 
 C'lewer was t'ounded in 1849, and devoted itself 
 more especially to the reformation of fallen 
 women. In his charge May 2, 1S50, tlie Bisliop 
 of Lon<lon emphatically coinniended the Kaisers- 
 werth institution. Since that time, many sister- 
 hood.s, with varions names, have been formed in 
 England, and in IS.jS-Gl woman's work was a 
 special subject of consideration iji the convocation 
 of Canterbury. The late Sister Dora belonged 
 to the sisterhood of the Good Samaritans, but 
 subsequently withdrew. The Sisterhood of the 
 Holy Communion was organized by the late Dr. 
 Muhlenberg in jSTew-York City in 184.5. The 
 results have been excellent. Since 1858 they 
 have been in charge of St. Luke's Hospital, since 
 1866 of St. Johnland, and more recently have 
 labored effectively in the so-called midnight mis- 
 sion, etc. In 1863 the Sisterhood of St. jMary 
 was organized in New York, in 18.5.5 the Order of 
 Deaconesses for the diocese of Maryland, etc. 
 
 Lit. — Mrs. Jamieson: Sisterhoods of Charity, 
 Lend., 1855; IIowson : Deaconesses, Lond., 2d ed., 
 1862; Miss Goodm.\n: Sisterhoods in the Church 
 of Eni/land, Lond., 1863; Ludlow: Woman's 
 Work 'in the Church, Lond., 1866; Henry C. 
 PoTTEll : Sisterhoods and Deaconesses, New York, 
 1873 ; TiiDii. ScHAFEK : Geschichte der iceiblichen 
 Diakunie, Hamburg, 1879. D, S. .SCIIAFF. 
 
 DEAD, Communion of. In the ancient church 
 the custom existed of putting a piece of the eucha- 
 ristic bread as viaticum into the mouth of Chris- 
 tians who by sudden death had been prevented 
 from communing. The proof of this statement 
 is the prohibition of the practice by the following 
 councils, — Hippo, A.D. 393 (Ilefele, Concilien- 
 geschichte, vo\. ii. p. 52); CV(/-//(fi(/e (third), A.D. 
 397; Auxerre, A.D., 578, "one nuist not give the 
 dead either the eucharist or the kiss, nor cover the 
 body with the velum or the altar-cloth " (Hefele, 
 vol. iii. p. 41) ; Quinisexta or Trullan Synod of 
 Constantinople, can. 83 (Hefele, vol. iii. p. 311); 
 to which Balsamon adds, the bishojis were given 
 the eucharist after their death, to protect them 
 from demons while on their way to heaven. This 
 idea was at the bottom of the custom. Later, a 
 piece of the consecrated bread, instead of being 
 put in the mouth of the corpse, was simply laid 
 upon the breast, and buried with it. Gregory the 
 Great tells, in the second book of his Dialogues, 
 how Benedict of Nursia did this in the case of a 
 young monk who had left his monastery and gone 
 home without permission, but in consequence had 
 died on his return-journey, lest the earth should 
 refuse to harbor his dead body. Another trace 
 of the custom is found in the ninth century. The 
 monk Yso relates that when the body of Othmar, 
 Abbot of St. (iallen, was moved, under his head 
 and upon his breast were found round pieces of 
 bread. Some of these were replaced, others pre- 
 served in a box as witness of the holiness of the 
 man. Yso himself was ignorant of the object of 
 the bread, — a proof how entirely the early custom 
 liad vanished even from memory. See C. .1. W. 
 AuGUSTi: Christliche Archdolot/ie, VIII. 231 sqq., 
 IX. 566, 567; Joseph Bixoha.m : Anti<iuities, VI. 
 425-427. OEORG eduaud steitz. 
 
 DEAD, Prayers for the. See Purgatory. 
 
 DEAN, from the Latin decanus, originally a 
 military term designating the leader of a decania, 
 
 or body of ten Roman soldiers. The woid early 
 acquin^l the more general meaning of overseer 
 of a small number of inferiors. It was used in 
 households for the over.seers of slaves, and sub- 
 sequently in Constantinople for police otticials. 
 The term, jiassing over into ecclesiastical usage, 
 has had different applications. (1) Monastic 
 deans, \\ hose authority extended over ten novices 
 (Augustine, l)e Mor' Eccl. I. 31). (2) A pres- 
 byter appointed by the bishop to visit and oversee 
 a part of his diocese. He had su]>ervision of the 
 official and private conduct of tlie priests, presided 
 (from the ninth century on) at their district con- 
 ventions, etc. His title was archipreshi/ter, and 
 liis office is generally held to correspond to that 
 of rural dean (Kichter, Kirchenrecht, p. 234). (3) 
 The dean of a cathedral. He is a recognized 
 cathedral officer as early as the eighth century ; 
 and the Council of Aix-la-Chapelle (817) subor- 
 dinated the provost to the dean. In the English 
 Church the dean is the next ecclesiastic to the 
 bishop. In general they are divided into deans 
 of cathedrals and rural deans. The bishoprics of 
 Sodor and Man, Liverpool, St. Allians, and Truro 
 have no deans. The deaneries of the " Old Founda- 
 tion," i.e., tho.se of date prior to the Reformation, 
 are elective : those of the " New Foundation," 
 i.e., created by Hem-y VIII., are appointed by 
 the crown. The jurisdiction of the dean is 
 supreme in his cathedral in all matters except 
 those which affect doctrine. The deans of West- 
 minster and Windsor are independent of all 
 superior ecclesiastical authority. (4) The rural 
 deans of England are clergynien appointed by the 
 bishop "to execute the bishop's processes, and 
 inspect the lives and manners of the clergy and 
 people within their jurisdiction" (Phillemore, 
 Eccles. Law). The guilds of the middle ages 
 had their deans, and the title is still given to an 
 officer in some universities. The oldest cardinal 
 is the dean of the Sacred College, and has an 
 authority second only to the Pope. 
 
 Lit. — Du Caxge : G/ossarium : Smith and 
 Cheetham : Dictionary of Christian Anti(/Hities ; 
 J. GuiL. HoFMANX : De Decanis el Deconissis, 
 Wittenberg, 1739 ; Phillimore : Ecclesiastical 
 Law. 
 
 DEATH. 1. Definition. — Death stands in 
 direct contrast to life. As an event, it is inipos- 
 silile to God, who is absolute Life (Ps. xxxvi. 9; 
 John V. 26) ; but it happens to all men (Heb. ix. 
 27), there having been only two exceptions in 
 human history, — Enoch (Heb. xi. 5) and Elijah 
 (2 Kings ii. 11). Among the Greeks, Thanatos, 
 or death, was represented as a god, and the twin- 
 brother of sleep (Ilesiod and Homer). They 
 endeavored to exclude all that is revolting from 
 the idea. The representation of it, however, at a 
 later period, under the figure of a priest in sable 
 garments, cutting the hair from the heads of the 
 dying to offer it to the gods of the under-world, 
 betrays the natural dread of death conunon to 
 the race. The Romans brought forward promi- 
 nently the awful features, describing death as a 
 pitiless divinity, pale, and haggard of aspect, fur- 
 nished with black wings, etc. The mythologies 
 of northern nations presented him under the 
 figures of a fowler spreading his net, or a reaper 
 with sickle in hand, or a .skeleton. Jlilton's 
 descriptions, as might be expected, are grand but
 
 DEATH. 
 
 618 
 
 DEATH. 
 
 terrible. The '■ Porti-ess of Hell-gate," who gave 
 Death birth, says, — 
 
 ..." I fled, and cried out, ' Death! ' 
 Hell trembled at the hideous name, and sighed 
 From all her caves, and back resounded, • Death! ' " 
 
 Par. Lust, ii. 785. 
 
 And again, at hearing Satan's plan of tempting 
 the race. — 
 
 . . . "And Death 
 Grinned horrible a ghastly smile, to hear 
 His famine should be tiUed," etc. 
 
 Par. Lost, ii. 845. 
 
 In the Scriptures death is also personified, and 
 described as intelligent (Job xxviii. 22), as sitting 
 on a pale horse (Rev. vi. S), or cast with hell 
 into the lake of fire (Rev. xx. 14). It has always 
 excited man's fears. The very thought he has 
 endeavored to banisli from his mind. The Ro- 
 mans did not even write in their epitaphs the 
 words, '• he died," but only indicated the years of 
 the departed's life. Scripture likewise expresses 
 this universal sentiment of mankind, when it 
 calls death the king of terrors (Job xviii. 14), 
 and an occasion of suffering and fear (Ps. Iv. 4 ; 
 Heb. ii. 15). But it also speaks of it as a relea.se 
 from pain (Job iii. 17), the passage to a better 
 life (2 Cor. v. 4), as "being gathered to his peo- 
 ple " (Gen. XXV. 8), a taking-down of the pilgrim's 
 temporary tent (2 Cor. v. 1), a slee{:>ing with the 
 fathers (1 Kings ii. 10), or with Christ (1 Cor. 
 XV. 18 ; 1 Thess. iv. 13-15), and a departure into 
 lieavenly mansions (John xiv. 2). 
 
 There are three kinds of death mentioned iu 
 the Scriptures, — physical death, spiritual death, 
 and the second or eternal death. Plti/sicat death 
 is the dissolution of the body into its component 
 ]iarts. The spirit takes its flight (Kccles. xii. 7), 
 and the body passes back into the dust from 
 -which it was taken (Gen. iii. 19; Eccles. iii. 20). 
 In tills respect man resembles the brute, which, 
 however, lias no fear or terror in the presence of 
 death. The time of this dissolution is known to 
 God only (Ps. xxxi. 15; Matt. x.w. 13). It must 
 be regarded as a benignity for the righleous man 
 (Xuni. xxiii. 10; Rom. vii. 24), but as a dread 
 calamity to the impenitent, whom it ushers to his 
 own place (Acts i. 25). — Lijiirilual deatli is a 
 state of sin and darkness, in which we are alien- 
 ated from God, who is the fountain of life and 
 light (1 John i. 5), and are con.sequently destitute 
 of true spiritual life. The whole world, at the 
 coming of Christ, W'as sitting in the shadow of 
 this death (Luke i. 79). All men, without excep- 
 tion, are dead in trespasses and sins (Ki)h. ii. 1, 
 5; Col. ii. 13; comp. Luke xv. 32). Our Lord 
 became subject unto the death of the body, but 
 was always in communion with the Father, and 
 free from sin. Tlie entrance u|)on a life; of faith 
 is called ari.sing from the dead (Kpli. v. 14), or 
 Leconiing alive unto God (Rom. vi. 11). Spir- 
 itual death is not a stagnant condition, but a 
 jirogre.ssive slate, the heart becoming more liar- 
 dened, the eyes more blind (John xii. 49; Rom. 
 i. 21), the coiisciiince seared a-s with a hot inni 
 {1 Tim. iv. 2), and the ])leasure in lust and 
 iiatred of God incii-iised (Rom. i. 20-31).. — The 
 stcuiiil or i:li:rii(il death signifies tlie complete 
 ruin of tlie individual from the stand-jioint of 
 <iod. The per.Honalily is not destroyed; but 
 Ood's image ia wholly defaced, and heavenly 
 
 blessedness forfeited. The soul suffers final ship- 
 wreck. This terrible doom of the second death 
 is described under the figure of a lake burning 
 with fire and brimstone, into which tlie finally 
 impenitent are ca.st (Rev. xx. 14, xxi. 8). Those 
 who overcome (Rev. ii. 11), and are partakers of 
 the " first resurrection " (regeneration, comp. 
 Eph. V. 11, etc.), shall in no wise be hurt of it 
 (Rev. XX. 6). The same idea is expressed by 
 the expressions "perishing" (John iii. 15), and 
 "eternal punishment" (Matt. xxv. 46). 
 
 2. Orit/in of death. Sin and death are indis- 
 .solubly associated together in the Old and Xew 
 Testaments. Death is not merely the natural 
 fruit of sin (Jas. i. 15), but its ju.st punishmeut 
 or wages (Gen. ii. 17 ; Rom. vi. 23), and expre.s- 
 sion of the divine wrath (Ps. xc. 7-lU ; Rom. ii. 
 5-8). V,'e are subject to it because we are sub- 
 ject to tlie law of sin, and in virtue of our union 
 with Adam (Rom. v. 17; 1 Cor. xv. 22). — It 
 lias been denied by some (Pelagius, the Socinians, 
 etc.) that [ihysical death was included in this 
 penalty. The body is regarded as having been 
 mortal before the fall. This view is in contradic- 
 tion of what seems to be the plain meaning of 
 the words, •• In the day thou eatest thereof thou 
 shalt surely die " (i.e., begin to die, or become 
 mortal — Gen. ii. 17), when read in the light 
 of the curse in Gen. iii. 19, " Unto dust thou 
 shalt return." Although our first parents did not 
 actually return to dust the very day they sinned, 
 nevertheless, the principle of death then began to 
 work in them (Augustine, J)e Pecc. Mer., 1. 21). 
 Nor is it necessarily true tliat the body is mortal, 
 especially when we consider its union with (he 
 soul. ]\Ian was created in the image of God, and 
 this might have kept him from the fate of the 
 brutes (Dorner, Theolfigij; Oehler, T/ieol. nf the 
 0. T., sect. 39). Tliis physical immortality was, 
 however, conditional upon his maintaining the 
 state of iniiocenc)'. 
 
 3. Abolition of death. Christ has abolished 
 death (2 Tim. i. 10). This lias been accom- 
 plished by the defeat of him who had the power 
 of death (Ileb. ii. 14), and the spoliation of the 
 kingdom of darkness (Epli. iv. S; Col. ii. 15). 
 Clirist could not be holden of deatli (.\cts ii. 24), 
 and triumphantly ro.se from the grave. Tlie 
 ilead were raised by his word of ])o\vei' ( Mark v. 
 41; Luke vii. 15; John xi. 44). He ([iiickens 
 with new spiritual life whom he will (J<iliii v. 21 ; 
 E]ih. ii. 5) ; so that moral death has no more 
 dominion over us (Rom. vi. 9). Ex)>re,ssed from 
 the stand-point ot human activity, he that be- 
 licveth is " ]ias.sed from deatli unto lift? " (John v. 
 24). The death of the body becomes, for those 
 thus spiritually revived, a sleep (1 Tliess. iv. 14) 
 and a rest from labor (I!ev. xiv. 13), from wliicli 
 thev shall be rai.sedto an estate of eternal ble.s.sed- 
 iiess (1 Cor. XV. 21, 22; 1 Thess. iv. 13-16). Tlie 
 .sea, then (Rev. xx. 13), as well as all earthly 
 graves, shall give up their dead. And .so effec- 
 tive is tills (piiek"ning jiower of Christ, that tliey 
 who are raised by liim can nevermore die (I.,nke 
 XX. 36); and .so perfect is the lif(^ in heaven that 
 there is no death there (Rev. xxi. 4). 
 
 Lit. — Sc-iit iiKitr : I'criiunflli/e ii. Sclirl/if/c- 
 wrt.s-.ve Gcdunken r. 7'o(/(', 2d ed., Jena, 1749; Dodd: 
 Ilijluctlons on Deatli, Lonil., 1763 (many editions) ; 
 Kicvuuii ; Lchrc v. d. Sundc it. d. Tode, etc.,
 
 DEATH. 
 
 619 
 
 DECALOGUE. 
 
 Ilaiiib., 1836; Mai': Tom Tode,iL Solde d. Siin- 
 </t'H, etc., Kiel, 1841; Waonku: D. Tod hclfitch- 
 iel V. Sliindjiunklr d. Niilurtriasoifi-linflcii, 'id fd., 
 liit'lcf. I'So.'i; FK|-Kitl!ACll : (Icdanken Ub. Toil n. 
 UiislerbUchkiil. Leipz., 1847; Ai,(;ei!: Crilical 
 llisl. of llic Ddclriiii' of a Future Life (fliaii. ii.). 
 18f)4, "loth fcL, with six new chapti'i-s, Boston, 
 1878; .SriEss: Enlirirkliiiiiixiifxrii. d . VorsUUiniijini 
 i: Zuxliinde n. d. Tiidf (cliap. iii.), .Icna, 1877. 
 For i'ullci- literature see EzitA Ahhott's A/.s7 of 
 Workf. in Ai,(;eii. U. S. BCIIAFF. 
 
 DEATH, Dance of. A famous subject of art 
 in tlie fiftcfiith century. Deatli, in the figure of 
 a skeleton, is depicted in tlie company of repre- 
 sentatives of every class of society. None are too 
 Iioly, none too rich, none too powerful, to evade 
 his presence. The artists introduced jiope anil 
 clei'gy, emperor and aristocracy, as well as the 
 artisan and beggar, into their pictures. The fell 
 enemy is represented in the most various attitu<les ; 
 now harshly tugging at the victim, and now gently 
 leading him; now walking arm in arm, and now, 
 beating him ; now smiling as he jiolitely guides 
 the bfind man, now gloating, as with spear he 
 transfixes the knight. An hour-glass is very 
 generally found somewhere in the pictures. The 
 IJance of Death w^as painted on tlie walls and 
 windows of churches, on house-fronts, in illumi- 
 nated books, and on Ijridges. The oldest .are 
 those of Minden (lo83), Dijon (143G), and Basel 
 (1141) ; the iirincipal ones, those of Basel, Berne, 
 and Erfurt. Moral and descripti\-e verses were 
 frequently printed below the pictures, and usually 
 closed with such sentences as, " Death awaits all," 
 *' Death awaits thee also," " Cruel Death is near," 
 etc. Hans Holbein is the only painter of fame 
 associated with these curious works of art. He, 
 however, never went fartherthan to make sketches. 
 These were engraved on wood by Liitzelburger, 
 and appeared at Lyons (1.5.'S8), but, as Peignot 
 says, are totally different in sjiirit from the repre- 
 sentations in Basel. As might be expected, they 
 were cliaracterized by humor and poetic imagina- 
 tion. 
 
 Lit. — Peignot : Ilechcrchcs .shc Ux Dunnes des 
 Moris, Dijon et Paris, 1826; Doice: The Dance 
 of Death, Loud., 1833; Massmanx : Literatur d. 
 Todtentdiizc, etc., Leipz., 1841; FouToui. : La 
 Danse des Moris, Paris, 1844 ; Smith : Holbein's 
 Dance of Death, Loud., 1840. D. S. SCHAFF. 
 
 DEB''ORAl^(ni3-|, a bee). (1) The nur.se of 
 llebekali (Tien. xxxv. 8). (2) Judge and prophet- 
 <>ss. She judged Israel from under a palm-tree 
 in Mount Ephraim. All that we know of her is 
 given in .ludges (iv., v.). By her heroic example 
 iind suggestion she became the savior of her coun- 
 try from the yoke ot .Jabin, the Canaaniti,sh king. 
 With great boldness she summoned Barak to 
 .strike against the oppres.sor. After securing her 
 ]iromi.se to go with him (iv. 8) to battle, he gath- 
 <'red togetlier ten thousand men from the tribes of 
 Zebulon and Xaphtali. The battle was fought on 
 the banks of the Kishon, and the Canaauites were 
 completely routed. Their captain, Si.sera, leap- 
 ing from his chariot, fled on foot. He was exe- 
 cuted while asleep in the tent of Jael. In chap. 
 V. Deborah sings an impassioned and splendid 
 ]ia>an over the victory. She blesses God for liis 
 lielp, describes in vivid colors the preparations for 
 tlie battle, taunts the tribes that timidlv remained 
 
 behind, praises the two which went, describes the 
 battle-.scene, "the stars in their courses fighting 
 again.st Si.sera" (v. 20), exalts the deed of .Jael, 
 " bles.sed above women " (v. 24), .and ])ortrays with 
 keen inmy the exjiect.ation among the women of 
 Si.sera's palace, and the anxiety of his mother at 
 the delay in his return. Sec Gessnek : Das Lied 
 ilrr Ihlinriili iiliirsitzt und erliiutert, (iuakenbrtick, 
 1n70 (21 ]ip.) ; also the Com. on Judij. V. 
 
 DECALOGUE (Cireek ten vords), the more ex- 
 act designation of the Ten Commaudnients, which 
 in Hebrew are called " Ten Words " (Exod. xxxiv. 
 28; Deut. x. 4, etc.). It is recorded in Exod. 
 XX. 2-17 and Deut. v. 6-21. The only important 
 variation in these accounts is the motive urged 
 for the observance of the Sabbath. The account 
 in Exodus recalls God's rest after the six days of 
 creation ; th.at of Deuteronomy falls back upon the 
 bondage in Egypt. This variation in the letter is 
 easily exjilained on tlie hypothesis that the same 
 author wrote both records. There have been three 
 arrangements of the Decalogue, — the Talmudic, 
 the Augustinian (adopted by the Roman-Catholic 
 and Lutheran churches), and the Hellenistic, the 
 view of Philo, .Tosephus, Origeu, the Greek and 
 Reformed cliurches, etc. The following table 
 exhibits the differences, the record in Exod. xx. 
 being used : — 
 
 AUUUBTIMA.N. 
 
 A;;ainst iduls and im- 
 
 OgCB (.^-6). 
 Blasphemy. 
 
 The Snhbath. 
 
 Filial ubcdience. 
 
 Murder. 
 
 Adultery. 
 
 Tlieft. 
 
 False witness. 
 
 "Thouslialt not covet 
 thy neighbor's house 
 (17, a). 
 Coveting. Thereatof V. 17. 
 
 The Ten Commandments were inscribed on two 
 tables of stone (ICxod. xxxii. 1.5). IIow were they 
 distributed? The Paraschim, or divisions for 
 public reading in the Ilelirew Bible, favor the 
 division of three for the first table, seven for tlie 
 second. This arrangement would give .seventy- 
 six words for the first, and ninety-six for the 
 second. Tlie contents, however, of the Command- 
 ments, outweigh this consideration, and favor five 
 for each of the tallies. The first table would then 
 contain our duties to God, parents being repre- 
 sented as his representatives, or the so-called duties 
 oi pielij ; and the second table our duties to our 
 neighbor, or the duties of jirobitij. Paul's group- 
 ing (Rom. xiii. 0) seems to favor this division. 
 
 The Decalogue is the summary of God's will to 
 Israel. Although its injunctions are negative 
 rather than positive, and social rather than per- 
 sonal, yet they contain the whole duty of man in 
 his double relation to his Maker and his fellow, 
 as our Lord affirmed (Luke x. 27, 28). Its rno- 
 tives are dr.awn exclusively from this life, and its 
 threats and promises re.ach no farther. This is 
 sufficieiitly explained by the circumstance that 
 the Decalogue was primarily meant for the nation 
 of Israel. But God's law" for a nation cannot 
 contradict his law for the individual man as such. 
 Even in the Tenth Commandment, although the 
 reference is principally to the external act, there 
 seems also to be an allusion to the thought of 
 sin. P.aul is right therefore in calling lust (Rom. 
 vii. 7) a violation of this Coniinandmeiit. I«i:t 
 
 TALMUDIU. 
 
 1. "I am the Lord," 
 
 etc. (V. 2) 
 -. Against idols and 
 
 images (3-6). 
 ."J. Blasphemy. 
 
 4. TheSobbotli. 
 
 5. Filial obedience, 
 t). Murder. 
 
 7. Adultery. 
 
 8. Theft. 
 
 'J. False witness. 
 
 HELLENISTIO. 
 
 Against idols (v. 3). 
 
 Against images (4-(J). 
 
 Blasphemy. 
 
 The Sabbath. 
 
 Filial obedience. 
 
 Murder. 
 
 Adultery. 
 
 Tlieft. 
 
 False witness. 
 
 I
 
 DECAPOLIS. 
 
 620 
 
 DEDICATION. 
 
 ill the code of the khigdoni of God (ilatt. v. 'Ii- 
 32) Christ made no distinction between commit- 
 ting adultery, and coveting a neighbor's wife. 
 Tlie law for "a j")eople concerns the outward com- 
 mission of sin : the law- for the individual deals 
 with it at its roots. The Commandment for the 
 observance of the Sabbath, like the other Com- 
 mandments, is a part of the eternal law of Cjod. 
 The life of man is to be an alternation between 
 labor and rest, and he should set apart one day 
 out of the .seven for hi.s spiritual interests, and to 
 recruit Ins physical strength. FUZ. HEUTZSCH. 
 
 The circumstances under which the Ten Com- 
 mandments were sjioken give to them a unique and 
 solemn authority above all the other legislation 
 of the Mosaic code. Thunderiugs and lightnings 
 attended their transmission (Exod. xix. 16); and 
 they alone were preserved upon tablets of stone, 
 which were inscribed by the very hnger of the 
 Almighty (Exod. xxxi. 18). There is a striking 
 contrast between the contents of the Ten Com- 
 mandments and the. Sermon on tlie Mount. The 
 former issue forth from the holiness and majesty 
 of Jehovah, which cannot tolerate sin ; the latter, 
 from the love of Christ, who pities the sinner. The 
 former address a sinful world, and demand abso- 
 lute obedience : the latter are gracious and merci- 
 ful in tone. The very surroundings in which the 
 Commandments and the .Sermon on the Mount 
 were .spoken bring out this contrast. Siiuii itself 
 is a silent tho\igh powerful sermon, jireacliing the 
 terrible majesty of .Teho\ah. Its stern, lonely, 
 and awful scenery was no less fit a place for the 
 jiromulgation of the Law than the green banks 
 and the smiling waters of Galilee were for the 
 preaching of the Beatitudes. But the gospel has 
 iKjt sujierseded the Ten Words of Sinai, nor abol- 
 islied their authority. "They are endiedde<l," 
 .says Dean Stanley, " in the heart of the Christian 
 religion. Side by side with the Prayer of our 
 Lord and with the Creed of his churcli, tlun' ap- 
 pear inscrilxMl on our churches, read from our 
 altars, taught to our children as the foundation 
 of all morality" (Jiivish Churcli, Lect. vii.). 
 
 Lit. — See the Commentaries on Exodus. 
 Kurtz: Hist, of (he 0. Curttiianl ; Ewali) : Hist, 
 of Israel (vol. ii.) ; .Sr.\xi,KY : ///.</. of the Jewhh 
 Ch. (cliap. vii.) ; Gkfkckk.n : IJeber d. vcrschied. 
 Eintheiiunqen d. lJcl,alo(/.i, eti-. ; Okiileu : Theol. 
 of the O. T., Edinb., 1875; L. I-kmmi:: D. reli- 
 t/ionsi/eKch. Bedeutuuf) d. Del'(do(j.i, Breslau, 1880; 
 IC. A. Wasiiiilkn : The Social Lair if (lod, Seniious 
 on the Ten (.'rjiiiiniinihiienls, \.Y., 1875, new ed., 
 1881; Smith: Jiili. Did., urt. Ten Coniinniidmenl.i 
 (hy Trofcssor I'mmptui;) ; Enc>/c. lira., Deca- 
 lo(jn<- (l'ri)IVssor ^V. !{. S.mitii). D. S. SCIIAFF. 
 
 DECAP'OLIS, tlie region of tlie ten cities, 
 wIkjsc names were, .says I'liny, Scythojiolis, Ilip- 
 pds, Gadara, Bella, l'liila<lel)>iiia, tierasa, Dion, 
 Canalha, Kaphana. Damascus. Six are now 
 deserted, and th<' last is tlii! only one deserving 
 the ('liithet '•city." Thev were first built by tlie 
 followers of Alexander l.lie Great, and were re- 
 l)iiilt by the Itomans B.C. Ii."). The n'gion was 
 near the Sea of (ialilee, ])robably on \nM\ sides of 
 the .Jordan. It is three times refeiied to ill the 
 Bible (.Matt. iv. L'o ; Mark v. 20, vii. 111). 
 
 DECIUS, Cajus Messius Ouintus Trajanus, was 
 b. Iiiu:iiil> till' r\ii>i- lit llie seciiiid ceMliny at Ibi- 
 d.'dia, near Sirmiiim, in Lowi'i' I'aiiiiuuia; distin- 
 
 
 guislied himself in the army, and was made ai 
 senator under Philip the Arab. When (in 249)- 
 the legions rebelled in ^Ia;sia and Pannonia, lie 
 was sent to siqipress the insurrection ; but the 
 soldiers compelled him to place liimself at their 
 head. He assumed the imperial .title, defeated 
 Philip at Verona, and ascended the throne. lie 
 was a man of great plans. He wanted once more 
 to make the Roman Empire one compact mass, 
 governed from Rome ; and he was as successful 
 as energetic in suppressing internal wars, throw- 
 ing back foreign invaders, and establishing gen- 
 
 i eral peace. But, in his attempt to re\ive the 
 old Roman spirit and institutions, he met with a 
 
 I formidable adversary, Christianity. Like Trajan 
 he considered the Christians as merely forming 
 a Icind of secret society ; but he hated them be- 
 cause he feared them. They were a power, and 
 he determined to destroy them. In 250 the edicts 
 purporting the complete eradication of Christi- 
 anity appeared, and the persecution began. Ac- 
 cording to the old manner of counting, this 
 
 I persecution is reckoned as the seventh ; but in 
 
 I reality it w.as the first general attack. It took the 
 Christians by surprise. Horror spread every- 
 where through the congreg.ations; and the number 
 of la])xi of e\ery description {Ihurificati, nacri/tcufi, 
 tihellalici, actafacientes, etc.) was enormous. There 
 was no lack, however, of such as remained firm, 
 and suffered martyrdom rather than yielding;, 
 and, as the persecution grew w ider and more in- 
 tense, the enthusiasm of the Christians and their 
 power of resistance grew stronger and strongi>r. 
 The edicts were originally directed against the 
 officers of the Church. Origen was martyred, 
 C^ljrian fled ; but the persecution had in many 
 places reached the humblest members of the con- 
 gregation, when the movement suddenly collapsed 
 by the emperor's death : he fell (in 252) in a 
 battle against the Goths on the Lower Danube. 
 The sutferings which the Christians luul under- 
 gone were terrible; but tlu; history of the Church 
 proves, that, if not necessary, they were certainly 
 not superfluous. The .sources to tlu^ history of 
 the Decian jier.secution are Euskbu's : Ilixl. Eccl. 
 VI., -10-42 : and Cyi'iuaxis : De Lajit:is and E/jis- 
 lola . ALBHECIIT VOGEL. 
 
 DECREE, DECRETAL. In the canonical seii.se- 
 the latter is an authoritative rescript of a ]ioi>e in 
 reply to .some <|ueslioiis. The original name was 
 decretale conslilidnin. or decrclalls tfislola ; after- 
 wards dccrelalis. A decree is a pa]ial ordinance 
 enacted with the advice (jf the cardinals, but not 
 as respoii.se to au iiuiuirv; while a canon is a law 
 ordained by a general or ]irovincial synod. 
 
 DECRETALS, Isidorian. See PsKiDo-lsiDd- 
 
 UIA.N Dl'CKl 1 AI.S. 
 
 DECRETUM, Gratiani. See Canon Law. 
 
 DEDICATION, Feast of the, instituted to com- 
 memorate the imrgiiig of the teinjile, and the re- 
 building of the altar under .ludas Maccaba'us. 
 Cliisleii (Dee. 25), P,.C. 111.5, after the iiollution 
 and sacrilege of Anticjchns Epiphanes (B.C. lliS). 
 The feast lasted eight days, and in general fea- 
 tures, especially in joyfuhu'ss, resembled the Feast 
 of Tabernacles (during which the dedication of 
 the first Temple had takcni ]ilaco : cf. 1 Kings 
 viii. 2), only that attendance at Jerusalem was 
 
 not obligatory. 
 wan sung every 
 
 Ilallel (Ps. cxiii.-cxviii.) 
 day. The iiKideni .lews keep
 
 DB DIEU. 
 
 621 
 
 DEISM. 
 
 it on Dec. 12. The feast is referred to in Jolin 
 X. 22, also 1 Mace. iv. 52-50, and Joseplius, 
 
 Aniiij. xii. ^, <i. 
 
 DE DIEU. See DiEli, ni-.. 
 
 DE DOMINIS. See AxriioNV i>K Dominis. 
 
 DEFECTUS SACRAMENTI, a canonical term 
 for otfence-s against the marriage ideal. See Hrco 
 Saciisse: Die Lekre vom Defeclun Sacrainaiifi, Ber- 
 lin u. Leipzig, 1881. 
 
 DEFENDER OF THE FAITH (Fii/ri Defensor), 
 a title borne by the sovereigns of England. It 
 was bestowed upon Henry VIII. by Leo X., in a 
 bull Oct. 11, 15:21, in recognition of the king's 
 book (De Septem SacrameidU) against Lnther, and 
 was confirmed by Clement ^'IL Leo's bull is in 
 the British Museum. The Pope subsequently, 
 for his conduct in suppressing the religious 
 houses, deposed Henry, and took the title from 
 liim; but by 35 Henry VIIL, cap. 3, "An act 
 for the ratification of the king's styles and 
 titles," Parliament restored it to him, and made 
 it part of the titles of the sovereign of England 
 forever. 
 
 DEFENSOR MATRIMONII is an officer in every 
 diocese in the Koman-C'atholic Church deputed, 
 according to the bull Dei iiiiseraliuue of Benedict 
 XIV. (Nov. 3, 1741), to in-event by all proper 
 means the dissolution of the marriage-tie where 
 any proceedings to that end have been begun. 
 
 DEGRADATION denoted in the ancient church 
 a punishment by which the offender was moved 
 from a higher to a lower grade of office : the pres- 
 byter became a deacon ; the deacon, a sub-deacon, 
 V. s. o. Later on, but before the twelfth century, 
 the term came to denote the severest punish- 
 ment which could be inflicted on a priest : namely, 
 tlie deprivation of his orders. He was actually 
 stripped, — the bishop, of the mitre, crosier, and 
 ring ; the common priest, of the chasuble, stole, 
 chalice, and paten. In case of heresy he was then 
 surrendered to the civil authorities : in other 
 cases he was generally shut up in the dungeon of 
 some monastery for lifetime. See Deposition. 
 
 DEGREES, Songs of. See Ps.^lms. 
 
 DEGREES, Academic. The bestowal of aca- 
 demic degrees is an ancient, convenient, and much- 
 perverted method of publicly proclaiming the 
 attainments of a scholar. It is a usage inlierited 
 from mediaeval times, and fi'om lands where civil 
 and ecclesiastical titles conveyed important rights 
 and privileges. Originally the bestowal of aca- 
 demic honors was so carefully guarded, that tlie 
 recijiients were encouraged and aided by their 
 possession ; and this is still true to a certain ex- 
 tent. But of late, and especially in the United 
 States, degrees have been awarded by so many 
 feeble institutions, on such slight pretexts, and 
 under so many names, that their value is much 
 lessened, and the honor needs to be defined before 
 its worth, or want of worth, can be known. The 
 idea of a degree was substantially this : After the 
 completion of a novitiate, or course of fundamental 
 studies, the student was graded or ranked among 
 those who were devoting their lives to learning. He 
 reached the ''Commencement" of a scholar's life: 
 lie was graduated a bachelor of arts. By pur,suing 
 liis studies for a longer period, he might attain to a 
 second or higher degree, — that of master or doc- 
 tor. From having a right to interpi-et a text-book, 
 he advanced to the right of speaking or teaching 
 
 by authority. The degree of doctor might thus 
 be reached in arts or iihilosophy, in theology, in 
 mediinne, and in civil or cancin law, or in both, 
 and tlie title corresponding miglit bi' indicated Ijy 
 the abbreviation.s, A.M., Ph.D., M.I)., S.T.D., 
 D.C.L., LL.D., or J.U.D., — the usage varying 
 in different universities and at different times. 
 From time to time those who did not come for- 
 ward by regular courses to these degrees were 
 admitted to tliem cau.sd honoris, and sometimes 
 the gradiuite of one university received honors 
 from aiKjther ; and thus the custom of academic 
 compliment grew uj). The right of conferring 
 degrees was usually, though not exclusively, re- 
 stricted to universities. The university was a 
 corporation of gi-eat dignity and weight, quite 
 transcending in its powers tlie tributary colleges. 
 Its rights were protected by civil and ecclesiasti- 
 cal edicts, carefully considered. In the L'nited 
 States, colleges have exercised the right of bestow- 
 ing degrees ; and charters for colleges and universi- 
 ties have been readily obtained. Academic titles 
 have been multiplied needlessly ; so that now the 
 L'nited-States Bureau of Education reports eleven 
 varieties of the baccalaureate degree, and enumer- 
 ates .several hundred institutions which claim 
 State authority for their diplomas. It is not 
 strange, under these circumstances, that " bogus " 
 degrees have been offered for sale. The remedy 
 for this state of affairs seems to lie in an absolute 
 neglect of academic titles, or a limitation of their 
 use to the institution which confers them, or an- 
 nouncement of the source from which they are 
 derived. D. C. GILM.^N. 
 
 DEI GRATIA. Following the example of Paul, 
 who protests that he has been called to the apos- 
 tleship by the "will of God," the bishops, as the 
 successors of the apostles, vei-y early began to use 
 similar designations of themselves. Felix of 
 Rome (356) styled himself per yraliam Dei episco- 
 pns ; and similar expressions — Dei or Christi nom- 
 ine, miseratione, miserieordia, etc. — soon became 
 common among ecclesiastics. Afterwards also 
 secular persons of high rank, kings, and dukes, 
 adopted this style. [Agilulf (591) called himself 
 Gratia Domini rex totius Italia'; Ethelbert (605), 
 Dei (jratia rex Aitylorum ; Charlemagne, Dei r/ralia 
 rex reyniqiie Francurum rector, etc.] See Geis- 
 LER : De tilulo, Nos Dei yratia, Leipzig, 1677; 
 TiLESius : De sensu lituli Nos Dei ijratia, Regi- 
 niont, 1723 ; Heumann : De litulo Dei yratia, Got- 
 tingen, 1727. MEJEE. 
 
 DEISM designates that view of God, which, as 
 against atheism, recognizes his real existence ; as 
 against pantheism, his distinctness from the 
 world ; and, as opposed to theism, represents him 
 not merely as transcendent above the woi'ld, and 
 distinct from it, but also separate, in the sense, 
 that, having once created the world, he is not 
 immanent in it as its providential ruler and 
 guide, but allows it to pursue an independent 
 course. This philosophical definition is, however, 
 of recent date. In the history of doctrine, Deisni 
 is that conception of Christianity which finds in 
 it only a religion of nature, accejiting it so far as 
 it agrees with reason, and discarding from it as 
 nngenuine whatever is not consonant therewitli. 
 It is on the one hand pure naturalism, declaring 
 natural religion to be the norm and sum of the 
 Christian religion, and, in its treatment of the
 
 DEISM. 
 
 622 
 
 DEISM. 
 
 Uible, rationalism, in that it accords to reason 
 .mrestricted authority to investigate and exphiin 
 Christianity and its records. 
 
 Deism tlourislied in England in the seventeenth 
 and eighteentli centuries, and was an indirect 
 product of tlie strife of parties within and with- 
 out the pale of the Anglican Church. In this 
 strife was engeiulered the impulse to find, outside 
 of all, religious ground upon whicli all could 
 unite. The principles of three philosopliers were 
 also, to some extent, responsible for its rise. Ba- 
 con (d. 1620) laid down the principles of empiri- 
 cism as tlie gauge of knowledge ; and while he 
 himself made a sharp distinction between knowl- 
 edge and faith, philosophy and theology, others 
 took up his principle, and applied it to theology 
 as well as to philosophy. Thomas Hobbes (15SS- 
 1079) derived all knowledge from sense-percejv 
 tion and the reason (sensualism), affirmed that 
 disinterested affection did not exist, accorded to 
 the sovereign tlie higliest official position in the 
 Church, and denied that tlie contents of God's 
 Word could ever be contrary to reason, though they 
 might be above it. Ilobbes has been called the 
 "Grandfather of Kiiglish freethinkers." John 
 Locke (d. 1704) likewise affirmed the sovereign 
 right of human reason to determine not only the 
 reality, but the true meaning, of a revelation. 
 Revelation cannot teach any thing contradictory 
 of reason, but such things, however, as reason 
 may not have itself discovered. That Christianity 
 is not a product of reason, but in agreement with 
 it, is the fundamental proposition of his work, 
 The Reasonableness of C/irislianili/ (1605). 
 
 Of the Deists, properly so called, the first is 
 Lord Herbert of CnERurRv (1581-1648). In 
 Ills two principal works, De Veritale (1621) and 
 De Reliyione GenlUiiim (1015), he assigns to reli- 
 gion a high place, and designates it as the only 
 distinguishing characteristic of man. He laj"s 
 down five fundamental principles {nolitke com- 
 munes), of which he affirms the (jualities of having 
 been received at all times and in all places (^sem- 
 per et ubiijiie). They are, (1) The existence of 
 God, (2) Obligation to worship, (3) Virtue, the 
 chief concomitant of worship, (1) Repentance 
 from sin, (5) Rewards and punishments in this life 
 and the life to come. These five [irinciples are 
 sufficient for salvation, and in<lependent of revela- 
 tion (which he did not declare to be impossible, 
 only not needed). The obscuration of the pure 
 and jirimitive religion based upon tliese princi- 
 ples, hi! attributes to the jiriests. — Lord Herbert 
 was closely followed by Cii.\iti.ES Ui.ouXT (1654- 
 Oo), in liis Anima Muwli (107!)), and iiis post- 
 liumous work. Oracles of Reason (1695). — John 
 ToLA.ND (1670-1722) is tlie next figure, and his 
 Christianiiji not Mi/sterioiis marks an eiioch. He 
 lays down the propositions that the teachings of 
 the gosi)el are ncitlier contrary to reason nor 
 above it, and that Christianity contains nothing 
 really niyst<;rious (\.('.., not before revealed). Tlie 
 mysteries in Scripture wen; not a part of Cliris- 
 tianity in its original form, l)ul Jewish and hisi- 
 tlien excrescences. In liis Aini/nlor lie suggests 
 doubts of some of the records of tlie Xew Testa- 
 ment. — Anthony Coi-i.ins (1676-1729) defended, 
 in \n» Discourse of Freelliinkiiiji i\~V-\), free thought 
 as a ])rivilege wliicli none hail a right to suppress. 
 Jle afiirmcd that the Scriptures allowed it, the 
 
 prophets themselves of the Old Testament were 
 great freethinkers, Clirist exhorted to search tlie 
 Scriptures, and I'aul recognized this freedom of 
 .iudgment by the use of arguments and jiroofs. 
 This book, whicli is written in a spirit of bitter 
 hostility to the Church, called forth many works 
 in reply, of which the most powerfid was that of 
 Richard Bentley. In his Discourse of (lie Grounds 
 and Reasons of the Clirlstian Retli/ion (1724), Col- 
 lins again attacked Christianity by an application 
 of Winston's principle, that its main argument is 
 prophecy and prophecy as interpreted allegori- 
 cally. lie affirms that the belief that Jesus was 
 the Jlessiah was gotten, not from Christ, but 
 based upon the Old Testament. If the argu- 
 ment from prophecy, so he reasoned, \\"as strong, 
 Cliristianity stood. But the argument depended 
 upon an allegorical interpretation of prophecj'. 
 This was weak : hence the conclusion, which, 
 however, is only inferentially found in this work. 
 This attack upon the projihetic basis of Chris- 
 tianity w<as followed by an assault upon the mira- 
 cles by Thomas Woolstox (1669-1733). In 
 his Discourses on ^Ilracles (1727-30) he explains 
 fifteen miracles, and finds in the suspicious look 
 of the narratives, and the character of the persons 
 introduced, grounds for the conclusion, that, taken 
 literally, the narratives ai'e absurd ami incredible, 
 and therefore are meant to liave only a mystical 
 sense. His ablest opponent was Sherlock, in his 
 Trial of the Witnesses (1744). — The Karl of 
 Sn.irTESBi:KY (d. 1713) does not strictly belong 
 to the Deists, but leans in that direction. In his 
 Characteristics (1711) lie attacked Christianity 
 covertly. According to him, its purpose was to 
 advance morality. But Ma ptiikw Tinhai, (1656- 
 1733), called by Skelton the •' Great Apostle of 
 Deism," represents deism in its highest develop, 
 ment. In his Chrlsllanlli/ as Old as the Creation 
 he maintains the propositions that natural religion 
 is absolutely perfect, and that Christianity is 
 genuine only so far as it agrees with natural 
 religion. In this sense both date from the crea- 
 tion. He defines religion to be the discipline of 
 morality in obedience to the will of (iod, or 
 conduct guided by the reason of tilings. This 
 morality is perfect, and stands not- in need of a 
 revelation. This work may be called the Deist's 
 Primer. — Tiioma.s Chuui! (1679-1717), a glove- 
 maker, follows next. His work. The True Gospel 
 of J. Christ Asserted, takes up the discourses, 
 works, and commandments of Christ. Tlie au- 
 thor comes to the conclusion that Christ enjoined 
 only what reason commands ; thai his mission 
 was to restore the true moral conceiition of life 
 which Jewish and heathen folly had blunted ; and 
 that Christianity consists not of confession and 
 assent, but of active morality. He reiterates the 
 projiosition of Tindal, that the gospel is identical 
 with natural religion. — Thomas ."^IiutcAX (d. 
 1743), in his Moral Phlloso/dier, cnrrwd tliedeisti- 
 cal principle to the extreme, by affirming a deep 
 chasm between the Old and New Testaments, 
 crilicising the Old severely, and discarding atone- 
 ment and other doctrines of the Xew as corrupt 
 dregs of Judaism. — Lord BoMNcnitoKE's (1078- 
 1751) works betray a low view of religion, which 
 he regards purely as a handmaid of llie Stale. 
 In .spite of Ins disclaimer to the title Deist, lie, too, 
 identifies Cliristianity with ualiu'al religion. —
 
 DE KOVEN. 
 
 623 
 
 DEMON. 
 
 Finally, Dodwki.l tuf. Youngku, in his C/irls- 
 tiaiiili/ not Foundeil on AiY/itmenl (1712), declares 
 against all rational faith, ami all attempts to 
 ground faith in reason, and ]iroves that it is not 
 reasiin, hut the gracions ojieration of the Holy 
 Spirit, whieh ean lead to genuin(^ faith. In David 
 Hume (1711-7U), Deism, or the attempt (o identify 
 Christianity with natural religion, ran off into 
 scepticism. Hut, while this was taking place, the 
 Methodist revival came, and ushered in a better 
 era of faith. (*. V. I.ECHLER. 
 
 Lit. — JoHX Lel.4Nd: View of the Principal 
 Deistical Writers, 2 vols., 17.'54 ; Thorschmidt : 
 Versuch einer rottst. Enyl. Freyitenk(r-Bibliothek\ 
 1765-67 ; Leciiler : Geschichte d. Etif/I. Deismus, 
 Stuttgart, 1841 ; A. S. Farr.\k ; //(V/. of Free 
 Tkouijht (chap, iii.), Lond., 186:!; Kev. Thomas 
 Hunt: lieliy. Tliought in Enijland, Lond., 1S70- 
 72, 3 vols.; Leslie Stepiie.v: IIi.il. of Engl. 
 Thought in the 18th Cent., 2 vols., 2d ed., ICew 
 York", 1881; ,I()HN Caiuns: Unbelief in the ISth 
 Cent., Edinl... 1881. 
 
 DE KOVEN, James, D.D., a leader of the High- 
 Church party in the Episcopal Church; b. at 
 Middletown, Conn., Sept. 19, 1831; d. at Eacine, 
 Wis., March 19, 1879. He wa.s warden of Ka- 
 cine College from 1859 to his death. In 1875 he 
 was elected Bishop of Illinois ; but his extreme 
 High-Church views prevented his confirmation. 
 He was noted for elocjuence of speech, and ear- 
 nestness of manner. See the posthumous volume 
 of his Sermons Preached on Various Occasions, 
 with an Introduction by Morgan Dix, S. T D., 
 N.Y., 1880. 
 
 DELUGE. See Noah. 
 
 DEMETRIUS is the name of three kings of 
 Syria noticeable in Jewish history. — Demetrius I., 
 Soter C^uTT/p "the savior"), 162-150 B.C., was 
 educated in Rome, whither he was sent as a hos- 
 tage hy his father, .Seleucus IV. When Antiochus 
 IV. died (164 BC ), Demetrius claimed the 
 crown ; and when the Roman Senate jireferred 
 his cousin, Antiochus V., he fled from Rome, 
 landed at Tripolis in Phcenicia, obtained the sup- 
 port of the people of Syria, put Antiochus V. to 
 death, and took possession of the country. Once 
 seated on the throne, he was recognized by the 
 Romans ; but difficulties soon arose. In the con- 
 test then raging in Juda?a, lie took the side of the 
 Greek party against the nationalists. He suc- 
 ceeded in establishing Alcimus as high priest in 
 Jerusalem ; but later on his generals, Nicanor and 
 Bacchides, were repeatedly defeated liy Judas 
 Maccabseus, and the latter finally concluded a 
 treaty with Rome which expressly forliade Deme- 
 trius to interfere in the affairs of Juda>a. In other 
 points, too, he ran counter against the Roman 
 interests ; and his violence and extravagance 
 gradually turned the hearts of his own subjects 
 away from him. A\'hen Alexander Balas stepped 
 forward as pretender to the throne, Demetrius 
 looked in vain around to find allies. Jonathan, 
 the successor of .ludas Maccabfeus, the Romans, 
 etc., espoused the cause of Alexander; and Deme- 
 trius fell in the battle against him. — Demetrius 
 II., Nicator (NwuTijp, •' the victor "), 147-127 B.C., 
 a son of Demetrius Soter ; escajied to Cnidus 
 under the usurpation of Alexandei', but returned 
 in 148, and defeated the usurper, though he was 
 still supported by Jonathan. The relation be- 
 
 tween Demetrius and Jonathan, and Jonathan '.<5 
 succe.ssor, Simon, was always uncertain, IVjr De- 
 metrius was false and faithless: nevertheless, 
 the Jews sided with liim, and aided him mate- 
 rially (luring the rebellion of Tryphon. In 138 
 B.C. ho invaded I'ai'tliia, but was taken prisoner, 
 and kept in captivity for nearly ten years. .Anti- 
 ochus Sidete.s, who in the mean time occupied the 
 throne of Syria, also invaded Parthia ; and, w hen 
 Demetrius succeeded in defeating him, lie returned 
 to Syi'ia, but was assassinated sliortly aftei', per- 
 hajis by his wife Cleopatra.. — Demetrius I IT., 
 Euccerus (Evtmpof), 94-88 B.C., a grandson of 
 Demetrius Nicator ; became King of Syria, to- 
 gether with his brother Philip, after the death of 
 Antiochus Eu.sebes. He defeated Alexander Jan- 
 nseus, but was prevented from any further inter- 
 ference in Jewish politics liy the breaking-out of 
 a war between him and his brother. He was 
 defeated, and sent to Parthia, where he was de- 
 tained in captivity till his death. — The history of 
 Demetrius 1. and II. is told in the Books of the 
 ^Maccabees ; that of Demetrius III., in JosephuS-' 
 Ant. XIII. 
 
 DEMETRIUS, Bishop of Alexandria from 18& 
 to 231 ; took a vivid interest in the catechetical 
 school, and ajipointed Origen teacher when Clem- 
 ent left (203). Afterwards he .sent Origen on 
 an important mission to the Roman governor of 
 Arabia ; but the friendship between them was 
 finally transformed into open opposition. In 228 
 Origen was ordained presbyter at Ca'sarea; but 
 in 231 Demetrius excommunicated him. .See 
 Orioex. 
 
 DEMETRIUS CYDONIUS, a Greek theologiah 
 of the fourteenth century ; was b. at Thessalonica 
 or Constantinople; occujiied a prominent position 
 at the court of John Cantacuzeiuis, and retired 
 with him from public life, and became monk in 
 1355. Afterwards he went to !Milan to .study the 
 Latin language and theology, and spent the latter 
 part of his life at Cydoiie in Crete ; d. after 1384. 
 He has written and translated much ; liut most of 
 his works remain in manuscript. Of his Greek 
 translation of the Summa of Thomas Aquinas, 
 one part, De contemncnda morle, has been edited 
 by R. Seii.er, Basel, 15.53, and Kuixoel, Leip- 
 zig, 1786. His Monodia was published in Latin 
 and Cireek bj- Combefis, in Scriptores post The- 
 ojihanem ; and his De processione Sjtiritus Sancli 
 was translated into Latin by C'.\nisius, in his 
 Lerliones Antiquce, Ingolstadt, 1604. 
 
 DEMISSION, The name, in Scotch Presby- 
 terian churches, for the act whereby a minister 
 resigns his charge. 
 
 DEMIURGE. See Gnosticism. 
 
 DEMME, Charles Rudolph, D.D., an eminent 
 Lutlieran minister; b. at IMulilliausen, Thuringia, 
 April 10, 1795; d. in Philadephia. i^ept. 1, 1863. 
 He was severely wounded in the battle of Water- 
 loo; on recovery he studied theology; emigrated 
 to America (1818), rose to distinction, and from 
 1825 to 18.59 he was chief pastor of St. Mi- 
 chael's and .St. Zion's churches, Philadelphia. He 
 edited a German translation of Jo.seplius, adding 
 numerous and valuable notes. 
 
 DEMON (Greek Ciaifiuv), improperly rendered 
 deril in King .James's version, is one of the .spirits 
 of the kingdom of darkne.ss. There are many 
 demons, but only one devil (Satan). In early
 
 DEMONIACS. 
 
 G24 
 
 DEMONIACS. 
 
 Greek, Homer (//., xvii. 98, 99) uses the term iii- 
 terchangeably with iJfof, a god. Somewhat later 
 ill Ilesiod the demons are beings intermediate 
 between the gods and men (Oil 121). Plato I 
 (Symp., p. 202) fixes the term in this sense, and 
 enumerates as among their number the departed 
 spii-its of good men. It was believed that the}' 
 became tutelary genii, who presided over indi- 
 vidual destiny. Socrates speaks constantly of his 
 demon. In the Septuagiiit the word is employed 
 to represent the Hebrew words "gods" (Ps. xcv. 
 .3), "devils" (Deut. xxxii. 17), "pestilence" (Ps. 
 xci. 6), etc. In Joseplius it is always used of evil 
 spirits. He defines demons to be the spirits of 
 the wicked (De Bell. Jud., vii. 6, 3). In the Xew 
 Testament the term is employed several times in 
 the general sense of heathen deities (Acts xvii. 
 IS ; 1 Cor. X. 20) ; but as a rule the term is used 
 for evil spirits who believe and tremble (Jas. ii. 
 19), recognize Jesus to be the .Son of God (^latt. 
 viii. 29), and are the agents of Satan (jMatt. xii. 
 24). See Demoxi.\cs. 
 
 Lit. — YouxG : Demonology, or Ihc Scripture 
 Doctrine of Devih, ISoG ; R. Gilpin : Damonolo- 
 f/ia Sacra, new ed. by A. Grosart, Edinburgh, 
 1867 ; il. D. C'oxwAY : Demonolor/i/ and Devil 
 Lore, London and N. Y., 1878, 2 vols. ; Dk Visser : 
 De Diemonologie ran het Oude Testament, Utrecht, 
 1880. See, also, Faumeu : Denwniacs of the New 
 Testament, London, 1775 ; and Fell : Demoniacs, 
 London, 1779. 
 
 DEMONIACS. Among the most striking mi- 
 racles (■!' our Lord were the cm'es of those 
 possessed with demons. The condition of these 
 unfortunate persons calls our attention to the 
 activity of the j)Owers of darkness in the world 
 and the connection of human life with a terrible 
 realm of fallen si^irits. This class of cases is 
 known neither to the Hebrew Scriptures nor 
 [with some doubtful exceptions] to post-apostolic 
 times. 
 
 1. The representations of the New Testament. 
 Persons under the influence of demons are said 
 to be " po.sse.ssi'd with demons" (Matt. iv. 21, 
 etc., Greek t^ai/iovi^u/uvm), or " vexed with un- 
 clean spirits" (Luke vi. 18, etc., ivox?.ovfiivoi, etc.). 
 The spirits which produce this condition are 
 called "demons" (Matt. x. 8, etc.), "spirits" 
 (Matt. viii. l(i, etc.), and " unclean .spirits " (Matt. 
 X. 1). The cure, with allusion to the demons, is 
 termed "casting out" (Matt. viii. IG), and, with 
 allusion to the victims, "healing" (Luke vi. 18, 
 ^epaTTtveiT&ai; JIatt. XV. 28, (aoi^ni). Tlic.se various 
 terms are of thein.selves a sullicient evidence that 
 the Xew-Testaineiit authors did not intend to 
 designate a mere bodily disease. The demons 
 are the bad spirits who com|)0.se the realm of 
 darkness, and serve Satan. This is clearly taught 
 in the pa.ssage (Matt. xii. 21-29) in wliich Hik-I- 
 zebub is called the ])riiice of demons. The influ- 
 ence of the demons upon their victims was made 
 evident in every case by aiTections of the body. 
 The .soul ha.s lost its control of the body. He- 
 tweeu the two a foreign influence lias injected 
 it.self, wliicli acts deleteriou.sly upon the bodily 
 orgaiLS of the soul. But nowiiere does the ilemon 
 take the ])lace of the .soul. It does not take up 
 its habitation in the soul, nor exert its iiiflueiiec 
 directhi ui)on the spiritual nature. It attacks 
 lirst the nervous system, and works through it, 
 
 producing the same symptoms as are produced 
 by other agencies distui'biug the bodily organism. 
 Demoniacal agency is not exerted through the 
 .spii'itual upon the moral nature (this was the 
 way in which Judas was aiiected, who, however, 
 was not possessed with a demon, — John xiii. 
 27), but through the physical upon the rational 
 nature. The demonized state showed itself in a 
 kind of clainoyance, the demons recognizing 
 Christ to be tlie Son of God (Luke iv. 31), in in- 
 sanity (Jlark V. 3 sqq. ; Luke viii. 27), epilep.sy 
 (Luke ix. 9). dumbness (!Matt. ix. 32, xii. 22), 
 lamene.ss (Luke xiii. 11), and blindness (Matt, 
 xii. 22). Ill all these cases the victim, as well as 
 his acquaintances, attributes the unnatm'al state 
 to demonic agency. If the demonic influence was 
 in the first instance physical, the question arises, 
 whether, perchance, the cause of the infirmity is 
 not to be looked for in moral offences. The case 
 of the lunatic boy settles the question in the nega- 
 tive, and shows that the two were not necessarily 
 connected. He was possessed from childliood. 
 Demonic possession is, therefore, a misfortune 
 w hicli results from the fall and sinful condition of 
 the race, and originates in the disturbing agency 
 of dark powers upon a soul which is jxiwerless to 
 resist. Our Lord's cures of this intirmity were 
 effected by a cominand directed to the demon 
 (Matt. viii. 10). He gave the disciples po^\er to 
 do the same (Matt. x. 1) ; and even Jews who 
 did not belie\-e in him seem to have exercised it 
 (JIatt. xii. 27). Joseplius {De Dell. J., vii. 6, 3) 
 mentions the formulas and roots which were used 
 by the Jews, and which were reported to have 
 come down from Solomon. In this connection 
 it is well to notice that the demons usually tore 
 their victims as they were about to be cast out 
 (Mark ix. 20), and the victims trembled for fear 
 of the cure (JMark v. 7). 
 
 2. Down to the eighteenth century the view 
 prevailed ^lni^"el•sally that satanic agency was ex- 
 ercised, and jiroducedtho infirmities attributed to 
 demons in the New Testament. There was a dif- 
 ference of o]iinioii about the origin of the demons, 
 .some holding that they were the souls of departed 
 men (Philostratus, ApolL, I. 18) ; others, that 
 they were tin.' spirits of the giants who perislied 
 in the flood (Pseudo-Clementines, viii. 18) ; and 
 still others, that they were fallen angels. In the 
 middle ages it was held that they still pursued 
 and po.sses.sed men ; and the great question w as 
 upon the power of exorcism. In the eighteenth 
 century there came a violent change, which can 
 hardly excite surprise when the trials of tlie 
 witches of the preceding two centuries are remem- 
 bered. Ilobbes (Leviutlian) was the first to express 
 doubts. He was followed by Lardner (17'i8) and 
 Farmer (177."i) in Kngland, and Sender (17()0) in 
 Germany. The latter made the express statement, 
 that demoniacal possession was nothing more 
 than in.sanity, or some other natural di.sease. 
 From him tlut view )iassed into all ralionali.slic 
 commentaries. That disea.ses accomjianied demo- 
 niacal possession there can be no doubt ; but the 
 question is, whether the diseases are to be attrib- 
 uted to ii;itnral causes or to demonic agency. 
 Keference has been made to the belief in demonic 
 possession prevalent in the heathen \\(irld before 
 and at the time of Clirist, and the conchisiou draw n 
 that it was a mere superstition of the time. JIany
 
 DEMONIACS. 
 
 625 
 
 DENIS. 
 
 ■of the instances referred to, as the excitement of 
 the Corybantes and Bacchanals (Herodot., iv. 79, 
 Etirip. , Bacch., 29'i »qq.)> have nothing analogous 
 to the possession of the New Testament, which 
 was involuntary. However, it is plain from the 
 above reference to Joseplms, that the .lews knew 
 of persons so afflicted, and that the heathen also 
 attempted to expel evil spirits with fornndas of 
 exorcism (Plutarch, Sympos., vii. 5, and JiUcian, 
 Philop., IG). But, even if these were not real 
 cases, they do not prove those of the New Testa- 
 ment to be false. Alongside of the light of reve- 
 lation in Isi'ael vv'ent the twilight of heathendom, 
 and at the side of prophecy those human antici- 
 pations which concealed an element of the truth. 
 On the otlier hand, if it be granted that no cases 
 >of the kind occur now, this cannot disprove 
 their real existence. Refuge is also liad to the 
 explanation that Christ accommodated himself to 
 the view current in his day. They were purely 
 physical jnaladies ; but they were popularly held 
 to be the result of demonic agency, and Jesus 
 fell in with the belief. But, leaving aside the 
 argument that such a method of procedure is at 
 •discord with his moral character, there are pas- 
 sages which are wholly inconsistent with this ex- 
 planation. In Luke xi. 17-2U he makes demonic 
 agency the subject of a didactic discourse. And 
 ^gain : he not only never speaks a word to dis- 
 courage the popular belief, but repeatedly speaks 
 ■on the presumption that such agency was the 
 immediate cause of infirmities (Matt. x. 8, xvii. 
 21 ; Luke x. 17 sqq.). Some, feeling the force of 
 these considerations, have, passing beyond the 
 theory of accommodation, affirmed that Jesus, as 
 well as his contemporaries, was in error as to the 
 •cause of the diseases (Paulus). Christ, who is 
 the truth, teaches that there is a kingdom of 
 darkness. On rational grounds notliing can be 
 said in objection to the doctrine promulgated by 
 him, that this kingdom is composed of beings of 
 other endowments than our own, who, having 
 fallen into sin, now employ their powers against 
 God and man. Experience confirms what Jesus 
 has taught, that they influence our moral free- 
 dom. Passing one step further, it can hardly be 
 ■contested, that, in addition to this agency upon 
 man's spiritual nature, they may act through his 
 physical nature upon Ids rational soul. 
 
 3. The teaching of the New Testament about 
 the victims of demonic possession is not iu con- 
 tradiction to the principles of physiology. It is 
 a well-ascertained fact that the soul, with its 
 desires, and power of volition, exerts its influence 
 on the body, and is no less influenced by it. A 
 fever, for example, attacking the body of a pious 
 man, poisons the blood of the brain, and thus 
 affects the soul, till it is filled with the most insane 
 fancies. Through dyspepsia men become gloomy 
 and despondent. Frequently a spiritual malady is 
 removed by removing a bodily complaint. With 
 these facts, and the well-known facts of animal 
 magnetism before us, the agency of demons be- 
 comes intelligible. If effects between man and 
 man can be produced by animal magnetism, and 
 the diseases of the body can produce disturbances 
 of the soul, so tlie beings of another world may 
 influence and disturb botli the physical and ra- 
 tional natures of man. ebr.vrd. 
 
 Lit. — Lardnek: On the Case of the Demoniacs 
 41 — 1 
 
 mentioned in the N. 7'., London, 1758; Skmlkr : 
 Commenliitio de Diemonicis, etc., Halle, 1760; 
 Hugh Faumeu: linsaij on the Denions of The 
 N. 7'., London, 1775; W. Wouthingto.n : An 
 Impartial liupdri/ into the Case of the Gospel Demoni- 
 acs, London, 177'S (llugli Farmer replied, 1778, 
 and W'orthington made rejoinder, 1779) ; Xka.n- 
 DER : Life of Christ (Am. trans, pp. 145-157) ; 
 Trench : Miracles (Am. ed., pp. 160 sqq.) ; 
 Enci/cl. liritan., art. Dentonolor/y. 
 
 DEMPSTER, John, an eminent Methodist edu- 
 cator; b. in Florida, Fulton County, X.Y., Jan. 
 2, 17!)1 ; d. at Kvanston, 111., Xov. L'8, 1803. He 
 was admitted into the Methodist Uenesee Con- 
 ference in 1816. From 1847 to 18.54 he was pro- 
 fessor in the Biblical Institute, which he founded, 
 first at Xewbury, Vt., soon afterwards removed 
 to Concord, X.IL, and now at Boston as the 
 School of Theology, Boston University. From 
 1855 till his death, he was professor in the Garrett 
 Biblical Institute, Evanston, 111. " The great 
 work of his life was the organization of theologi- 
 cal seminaries in the ]\Iethodist-Episcopal Church. 
 After eighteen years of labor he saw two of these 
 (Concord and I^vanston) in full operation, largely 
 as the fruit of his own industry, energy, and per- 
 severance." The only volume of his published is 
 Lectures and Addresses, Cincinnati, 1864. 
 
 DEMPSTER, Thomas, a Scotch writer, b. at 
 Cliftbog, Aberdeenshire, Aug. 23, 1579 ; d. near 
 Bologna, Sept. 6, 1625. He studied at Cambridge 
 and Paris, and was professor at Pisa and Bologna. 
 He stood high in papal favor, and was remarkably 
 gifted. His chief work is Hisloria Ecclesiaslica 
 Gentix Scotorum, a biogTaphical dictionary of 
 Scotchmen, — a very curious book, more remarka- 
 ble for its fictions than for its facts ; for he has 
 not liesitated to claim as Scotchmen authors who 
 never saw Scotland, and to describe minutely the 
 lives of imaginary persons. 
 
 DENA'RIUS. See Money. 
 
 DENCK, Johann, or Hans, one of the unruly 
 elements which disturbed and impeded the move- 
 ment of the Reformation ; is first known as rector 
 of a .school in Basel, whence he moved, in 1523, to 
 Xm-emberg, on the recommendation of CEcolam- 
 padius, as rector of the school of St. Sebaldus. 
 In Nuremberg, however, he inunediately began 
 to preach openly the wild ideas he had adopted 
 from Thomas Miinzer and the Anabaptists; and 
 in 1524 he was expelled from the city. In 1525 
 he was also expelled from Augsliurg, in 1526 from 
 Strassburg, in 1527 from Worms. By the influ- 
 ence of (Ecolamjiadius he was allowed to return 
 to Basel ; and there he died, from the plague, in 
 November, 1527. In connection with L. Ilaetzer 
 he translated the prophetical books of the Old 
 Testament, Worms, 1527; and the translation 
 has its value. See L. Keller : Ein Aposlel der 
 Wiedertdufer (Denk), Leipzig, 1882. 
 
 DENIS, St., the first bishop of Paris, the apostle 
 of the Franks, and the patron-saint of France ; 
 came to Gaul about 250, — according to Gregor'v 
 of Toiu-s (d. 595), Hist. Frank. I. 28, — and died 
 by the sword, in Paris, probably under Aurelian 
 (272). According to the Acts of the martjT, also 
 dating from the sixth century {Act. Sanct., Oct. 9). 
 he was sent into the country by Bishop Clement 
 of Rome, and was accompanied by Rusticus, a 
 priest, and Eleutherius, a deacon. In Paris they
 
 DENMARK. 
 
 626 
 
 DENMARK. 
 
 were all three torturei.1 and beheaileJ, and thrown 
 into the Seine ; but tlieir corpses were rescued by 
 a pious woman, and interred in a church near by, 
 on the Montniartre (Miiitx Marti/rum, as tradition 
 has it ; though .l/o».v j/ecc«r/iwas the original name 
 of the place). See Davix, La Tradition sur le 
 premier Tombeau de St. Deiii/s, Paris, 1876. Thence 
 the relics were brought to the afterwards so famous 
 Abbey of St. Denis, founded in tlie middle of tlie 
 seventh century by Dagobert I., and consecrated 
 to the memory 6i the apostle of the nation over 
 which he ruled, — the Franks. In the first half 
 of the ninth century, Ililduin, Abbot of St. Denis, 
 wrote, at the request of Louis the Pious, a life of 
 the saint (Patrol. Latina, cvi. 'J'-i) ; and here, for 
 the first time, St. Denis is identified with Diony- 
 sius the Areopagite. But all that great and 
 admirable activity which the Abbey of St. Denis 
 developed in the field of French hi.story from the 
 ninth to the fourteenth century is concentrated 
 upon the idea that Dionysius the Areopagite is 
 the patron-saint of France, the star of French his- 
 tory. Abelard had his doubts, but was whipped 
 into silence; and it was not until the middle of 
 the seventeenth century that Lauuoy (De Areopa- 
 giticis Hllduiiii, Paris, 1041, and De Duobus Di- 
 ony.siis, Paris, 1010) and Sirmond (Diss, in qua 
 ostenditur D. p. et D. a. discrinten, Paris, lOll) 
 succeeded in exploding the more than audacious 
 hypothesis. On account of the prominent part 
 which St. Denis played in French life (the soldiers 
 charged with his name on their lips), his shrine 
 grew innnensely rich, and the abbey became a 
 storehouse, crowded and crammed with invaluable 
 historical memorials. See Felibien: Histoire de 
 i'Abb. de S. D., Paris, 1706. But during the 
 Revolution it was most barbarously and shame- 
 fully plundered (Nov. Vi, ITM) by a mob led by 
 one of its own priests ; and its relics, jewelry, 
 etc., were carried on six carts into the Convention, 
 where they disappeared. 
 
 DENMARK. The Christianizationof Denmark 
 began in thf eightli century, and was completed 
 in the elevi'uth. Willibrord was the first Chris- 
 tian missionary wlio visited the country (about 
 700). Ansgar"(8()0-8().")) became its apostle. But 
 it was in Ireland that tlie Danish vikings fir.st 
 heard tlie tales about the " White Clirist; " and it 
 was Knglish priests and monks, who, in the reign 
 of Canute the Great (lOPl-:!.")), finally converted 
 the Danish people, and organized the Danish 
 Churcli. The Anglo-.Saxon missionary under- 
 .stood the Danes, and was understood by them ; 
 wliile the Frankisli or Franco-Saxon was com- 
 pelled to use interpreter.s, or learn a foreign lan- 
 guage. 
 
 Denmark belonged originally to the archi-opis- 
 copal .see of Ilaniburg-BremiMi, and the relation 
 was generally very pleasant. It was purely po- 
 litical rea.sonswhicn made the Danish kings lianker 
 aftt^ran iiide])eiiileiit Danish archbishop. In 1101 
 tliey got liim settled at l-uiid ; and in 110.') began 
 the contest between the royal power and the 
 liierarchy. In the latter jiart of the thirteeiitli 
 century the contest reacli(-d its climax ; Imt the 
 liierarchy was utterly vaii<|nislied. It f<juglit in 
 Denmark at many disadvantages. The Konian 
 law never cro.s.sed the Kider. The law of tlie 
 land wii.H a national growth, on which it proved 
 impossible to ingraft the canon law. Tints 
 
 the Koman Church remained an institution with- 
 out any basis. It had no head, either. The Pope 
 was too far away. Even among the clergy he 
 could not enforce his decrees without the aid of 
 the king, which, however, the king often was- 
 foolish enough to give hiin, as, for instance, 
 in the case of celibacy; but the Peter's-Pence 
 was never paid, and the appeals were rare. On 
 the whole, the temperature was too low for the 
 Roman Church. Tlie papal lightning froze before 
 it struck. When an archbishop was killed, he 
 made no miracles. Tlie Inquisition was sonie- 
 tliing entirely unknown. The Koman Church was 
 rich ; liut it had, comparatively, no power, and 
 when the Reformation came it could make no 
 resistance. There .seems to have been no spon- 
 taneous reformatory impulse among the Danes. 
 The movement came from Germany ; but it spread 
 instantaneously through the whole people, and. 
 at the Diet of Copenhagen (1.536), the Roman- 
 Catholic Church was quietly abolished; its whole 
 authority, spiiritual and secular, was abrogated, 
 and ^•ested in the crown ; all its property was con- 
 fiscated, and divided between the king and tlie 
 nobility ; and the bishops themselves, all but one. 
 signed the instrument of the transaction. 
 
 In Denmark the period of the Reformation was 
 one of new beginnings in almost every field of 
 human life. But the spring was very short, and 
 there came no summer. A fiendish current of 
 intolerance set in. Protestants of the French Re- 
 formed Church, who sought refuge in the country, 
 weie rudely dri\en away ; and a royal ordinance 
 of 15S0 made death the penalty for introducing 
 a copy of the Formula Concordia into the realm. 
 But in the seventeenth century the Danish Church 
 developed one of the strictest forms of ortho- 
 dox Lutheranism : also one of the most barren. 
 There was a church, but hardly any religion; 
 formulas enough, 'but no life; much di.sputation, 
 but without ideas ; and the learned parson, who 
 often played the part of the court-fool in the 
 mansion of the nobleman, was generally, by his 
 peasant Hock, considered a kind of magician. 
 
 Ill the first half of the eighteenth century the 
 pietists came, in the train of a German princess 
 who became Queen of Denmark. There was a 
 little too much "blood " and "wounds" in their 
 preaching, and a little too much prohiliition ami 
 punishment in their disciiiline ; but thev brought 
 life. 'I'hey clo.sed the theatres, tethered literature, 
 put ])Oor people in the stocks, and fined the rich 
 ones, when they did not go to church twice every 
 Sunday, etc. But they brought With them the 
 Confirm.atioii, which jnoved one of the noblest 
 moral agencies in Danish society, and a new kind 
 of hymns, which melted the indifference of the 
 preceding century into enthusiasm, thougli of a 
 somewhat sentimental descrii)tion. How deep an 
 imi>ri'ssion the jiietists made became apjiareiit 
 from their encounter with the rationalists. Ra- 
 tionalism was also a foreign importation, but from 
 France, rather tlian from (iermany, and reached 
 Denmark in the latter part of the fighteeiith cen- 
 tury. The radicals among the ]iarty pro|iosed to 
 use the churches as ))iiblic warehou.ses, and employ 
 the ministers as lecturers on agriculture and po- 
 litical economy ; but such proiiositions had, of 
 cour.se, no other effect than producing some scan- 
 dal and laughter. (iuito otherwise with tin?
 
 DENMARK. 
 
 627 
 
 DBRESER. 
 
 milder, moi'c cautious, ami more dignifieJ form 
 of rationali.sm, with its fin« artistic taste, ami 
 broad sciciilitic sense. It took possession of tlie 
 cliuirli and tlie school; and, wlieresoever it came 
 in contiict with the pietism of tlie peasants, it used 
 force. See article on Bai.lk. 
 
 The overthrow of rationalism in Denmark, in 
 the tlurd decade of tlie present century, took 
 place with an almost dramatic effect. Its chief 
 representative, II. N. Clausen, a young man, but 
 a man of great ability, was professor of tlieology 
 in the university, ami stood as the acknowledged 
 teacher of the Danish Church. Suddenly he was 
 most violently attacked by X. F. S. Grundtvig, 
 then a minister in the church. Grundtvig was 
 an offshoot of the pietists; but the old, narrow, 
 and somewhat low-bred pietism was here trans- 
 fused wdth the young enthusia-sm of the Konian- 
 tic school, and connected with a strong, practical 
 instinct of liberty and democracy. It was not 
 the old family pietism, whose exclusiveness was 
 almost sure to run counter to any form of an 
 established church, but a grand idea of the will 
 of God, which demanded a whole people for its 
 realization. See article on Guuxdtvig. The con- 
 troversy ended with a lawsuit (1827). Grundt- 
 vig was suspended, forbidden to perform any of 
 the offices of the Christian ministry, put under 
 royal censorship, etc. Then the contest began. 
 Clausen's victory produced just lieat enough in 
 the hearts of his adversaries to allow Gruudtvig's 
 ideas to germinate ; and a party began immedi- 
 ately to form. In 1840 it was necessary to re- 
 instate Grundtvig in his office. In 1850 it was 
 evident that the Danisli people was going to be- 
 long to him, whatsoever might become of the Dan- 
 ish Church. Before lie died, his pupils held the 
 most prominent places both in the church and the 
 school, and were numerous enough in the constitu- 
 tional representation of the people to turn the 
 scales the way they wanted. There is now hardly 
 a mouse-hole in the Danish Church in wdiich the 
 influence of N. F. S. (irundtvig is not visible; 
 while the influence of II. !Martensen and Soren 
 Kierkeguard has hitherto hardly penetrated be- 
 yond the literature. 
 
 During all these vicissitudes the constitution of 
 the Danish Church has remained almost unaltered 
 for three centuries. It was established by the 
 diet of Copenhagen in 153G. The " Evangelical 
 Lutheran Church " was then called tlie " Church 
 of the Country," and no other denomination was 
 tolerated. Tlie legislation of the absolute mon- 
 archy, under Christian V. (1070-09), confirmed 
 this constitution, and it was not abrogated by 
 the freer constitution of June ■>, 18i!). The 
 " Evangelical Lutheran Church " is here called 
 the " Church of the People," and is, as such, en- 
 titled to the support of the .State ; but other de- 
 nominations were allowed free exercise of their 
 religions, and all social or political disqualifica- 
 tions or restrictions attached to religion were 
 abolished. The changes w^hicli have taken place 
 sdiice 1819 all point in the direction of greater 
 freedom. A law of April 4, 185.5, dissolved the 
 parochial bound so far as to allow any member 
 of a parish to join the congregation of a neigh- 
 boring minister. The law of May 15, 1868, al- 
 lowed the establishment of free congregations 
 within the Established Church, that is, of congre- 
 
 gations that choose and pay tlieir ministers them- 
 selves. The sabbath-law of April 7, 1870, forbids 
 all business, " inside and outside the house," be- 
 tween nine a.m. and four I'.M. on Sundays and 
 holidays, but does not interfi-re with the old cus- 
 tom, according to which Sunday evening is consid- 
 ered the most proper time for social gathering.s 
 and merry-making. Of the iuliabitants of the 
 country, 1,709,583 ai'e Lutherans, 4,290 Jews, 
 0,223 Baptists, 1,707 belong to the Reformed 
 Church, etc. ; and these figures, taken from the 
 census of 1870, are nearly identical with those of 
 the census of 1800. CLEMENS PETERSEN- 
 
 DENS, Peter, b. at Boom in Belgium, 1090; d. 
 at Maliiii's as archpriest of St. Rumold's Cliurch, 
 Feb. 1.5, 1775; was tlie author of a TheoliKjia Mo- 
 rails et Do(/matica, which was often reprinted (e.g. 
 Dublin, 1832, 4 vols.), and much u.sed as a text- 
 book in Iioman-Catholic seminaries. .See J. F. 
 ISeik; : Si/nopxix of llie TIk nloqii of Peter Dens, 
 Philadelphia, 181(i, 4tli ed. ISliii. 
 
 DENUNCIATIO EVANGELICA, a term of 
 canon law and Roman-Catholic morals, means 
 the denunciation of sin before an ecclesiastical 
 authority. But as every civil case — for instance, 
 the non-payment of a debt — may be conceived of 
 as a sin, it may, according to the principle in- 
 volved in the dciiunciatio ecanyelica, be drawn 
 into an ecclesiastical court. 
 
 DEPOSITION, a term of canon law, wlilch, in 
 the ancient chui'ch, meant the deprivation not 
 only of benefice and office, but also of orders, 
 but which, from the beginning of the twelfth cen- 
 tury, came to mean, in contradistinction to degi'a- 
 dation, a simple deprivation of benefice and office, 
 but not of orders. .Vfter deposition, re-instate- 
 inent is possible, but after degradation not. In 
 some free Protestant churches, however, not de- 
 pendent on .State .authority, degradation and depo- 
 sition are synonymous. See Degrad.\tion. 
 
 DEPRIVATION "the taking-away" (deprivatiu), 
 for cause, of a clergyman of the Church of Eng- 
 land from his preferment. There are two sorts 
 of deprivations, — dejirivalio a benejicia, when the 
 deprivation is from the living simply, in punish- 
 ment of an atrocious offence ; and depricalio ah 
 officio, deprivation of clerical standing, or degi-Or 
 dation (which see). 
 
 DEPUTATUS, in the Greek Church ((!E7r6ra7 0(), 
 means a lower class of ecclesiastics, who, on 
 solemn occasions, accompany the bishops or dea- 
 cons with lighted tapers, but form no special order 
 themselves. In tlie Roman Church, deputali 
 occur as directors of reyiunculw. As the diocese 
 is divided into deaneries, so the larger deaneries 
 are sometimes divided into regiuncula: : and the 
 director or superintendent of sucli a division, the 
 df'pu/nliis, is generally subject to the authority 
 of the dean, though, in some cases, he ranks im- 
 mediately under the bishop, and the dean is 
 simph' jiri/tiii.i iiiler pores. 
 
 DERESER, Thaddaus Anton, b. Feb. 9, 1757, 
 at Fahr in Franconia; d. July 10, 1827, at Bres- 
 lau; studied philosophy and theology at AViirz- 
 burg and Heidelberg; was ordained a priest 
 (1780), and appointed professor of Oriental lan- 
 guages in the I'niversity of Bonn (1783) ; moved 
 in 1790 to Strassburg, in 1797 to Heidelberg, and 
 in 1807 to Freiburg. In 1810 he was made par- 
 ish priest at Carlsruhe, but was dismissed in
 
 DBRHAM. 
 
 628 
 
 DESCARTES. 
 
 ISll, on account of a funeral sermon over the 
 Grand Duke of Bade; became professor at the 
 Lyceum of Luzerii in 1811, but was suddenly 
 discharged in 1S14, and was in 1815 made pro- 
 fessor in Breslau. He belonged to the liberal 
 wing of the lloman Church, and his Tu es Ptlrus 
 (1790) was put on the Index. He published 
 commentaries, and a translation of the Old Tes- 
 tament. 
 
 DERHAM, William, b. at Stowton, near Worces- 
 ter, Kng., Xov. 27, 1657 ; d. at Upminster, where 
 he had been rector since 1689, April 5, 1735. lie 
 was graduated from Oxford, 1675, made F.Iv.S., 
 1702, canon of AVindsor, 1716, D.D., Oxford, 
 1730. He was the author of tlie once famous 
 Phijsko-lheology, London, 1713 (the substance of 
 his Boyle Lectures for 1711, 1712), new ed., 1798, 2 
 vols., French trans., Rotterdam. 1726, German 
 trans., Hamburg, 1730; Astro-theology, London, 
 1714, 4th ed., 1726, French trans., Paris, 1729, 
 German trans., Ilambiu'g, 1765 : Christo-theology 
 (a sermon on Acts xxvi. 28), London, 1730 ; and I 
 A Defence of the Church's Right in Leasehold Estate, 
 London, 1731. See Account of his Life and Writ- 
 ings, in last edition of his Pliysico-theoiogy. 
 
 DERVISH, or DERVISE, a' Persian word, signi- 
 fying '■ tlie sill of the door," or those who beg 
 from door to door. Dervishes are a Mohamme- 
 dan approach to Christian monks, while tlie 
 ulemas are the secular clergy. They are bound 
 by oaths of poverty, cliastity, and liumility, and 
 live together in comnumities, under the headship 
 of a sheik. But, unlike monks, some of them 
 are allowed to marry, and live outside of the 
 convent, although they must pass at least two 
 nights of every week within. There are numer- 
 ous orders of dervishes, the largest and most 
 popular being the Mederis (from ]Mevlevi Jelal 
 ed-Din cl-Kumi, a Persian poet of the thirteentli 
 century) and the Rufais (from .Sheik Alimed 
 Rufai, who dates from 11S2), called by travellers 
 tlie •' whirlers " or •• dancers," and the " howlers," 
 respectively. The former is joined by persons of 
 the highest I'ank ; Imt, if they do not go beyond 
 the first stage, they may meet all requirennMits 
 by saying a few prayers at lioiiie, and wearing 
 for a lew minutes every day the sacred cap. Rut 
 he who sets out seriously to win the goal of full 
 membership must undergo one thousand and one 
 days of menial labor, during whicli he is called 
 "jackal." Then lie is given tlie woollen belt with 
 its cabalistic "stone of contentment," the ear- 
 rings .shaped liki! the horseshoe of All, the mantle, 
 the rosary with the ninety-nine names of (iod, 
 and the laj, or white cap. The public .services 
 they conduct are certainly fanatical, and yet wit- 
 nessed by the i)eople with the utmost decorum and 
 solemnity. The Dancing Dervishes, dies.s('d in 
 white flowing gowns, and with high white hats 
 of stiff woollen stuff, after ineliminaiy exercises 
 of prayer and prostration, whirl around u|u)n the 
 left heel to the music of flutes ami tambourines, 
 ring within ring, without touching each oIIum', 
 their hands outstretched, their eyes half clo.sed, 
 and their faces fanatically illumined, all the time 
 quietly liut clo.sely watched by the sheik. 'I'liev 
 keeji up this extraordinary performance, willi 
 brief intervals of rest, for an hour, and give a 
 performance once a week. 'I'lie Howling Der- 
 vishes, either in line or a ring, sway themselves 
 
 backward and forward, crying incessantly and 
 with all their might, "Xa ilahd ill' Allah" (" Xo 
 (jod but Allah "), until they drop from sheer 
 exhaustion. It is a wild sjiectacle, which, to a 
 European, has neither dignity nor sense, but im- 
 presses one with the tremendous power of fanati- 
 cism. 
 
 Besides the members of the regular orders, 
 there are many dervishes in the ^lohammedan 
 world who wander about and sujjport themselves, 
 and even acquii'e great wealth, by their incanta- 
 tions, feats of legerdemain, and other kinds of 
 more or less conscious impostiu'e. The dervishes 
 as a class have great power among the people, 
 but are dreaded by the sultans, because they do 
 not recognize the legal exposition of the Koran, 
 nor acknowledge the authority of any other than 
 their spiritual chief, or of Allah himself speaking 
 directly to them. See J. P. Brown: History of 
 the Dervishes, Philadelphia, 18G8 ; Osman-Bev : 
 Lcs Imams et les Derciches, pratiques, superstitions et 
 mcLurs (Its Inures, Paris, 1881. 
 
 DE SACY. See Sacy, De. 
 
 DE SALES. See Sales, De. 
 
 DESCARTES, Rene (Renatus Cartesius) was b. 
 at La Haye in Touraine, March 30, 1596, and d. 
 in Stockholm, Feb. 11, 16.50. lie received his 
 first education in the College of the Jesuits, at La 
 Fleche, and served afterwards (1617-22), first 
 under Maurice of Nassau, then under Maximilian 
 of Bavaria, and finally under Tilly, noi. from any 
 passion for war, but in order to gather knowledge 
 of men and manners. In the latter part of liis 
 life he travelled much, for the same purpose. 
 He visited Italy and Denmark, England and 
 Hungary. His home he fixed in lloUand (from 
 1629), for the sake, he says himself, of that quiet 
 and seclusion which he found necessary for a 
 meditative life, but more probably in order to be 
 safely out of the reacli of the Roman-Catholic 
 Church. In 1649 he went to .Stockholm on the 
 invitation of Queen Christina, the eccentric 
 daughter of Gustavus Adolphus. 
 
 In pursuance of the principle de omnibus est dti- 
 bitandum ("you shall doubt about every thing"), 
 Descartes arrived at his cogito ergo sum (" I am, 
 because I think ") as an ultimate fact of con- 
 sciousness whicli cannot be doubted. From this 
 point of primary unity between thought and 
 l)eing, — the corner-stone of the ontological evi- 
 dence of the existence of (iod. — he developed a 
 system of unmitigated dualism. In man, for 
 instance, soul and Isody toiu'li each other only at 
 one single point, the pineal gland of the brain, 
 and animals are mere machines ; a doctrine which, 
 with some of his disciples, — the physician I)(?la- 
 forge, the theologian ^lalebranche, etc., — gave 
 rise to very singular conceptions. In the social 
 circles of Paris his jihilosoiihy was received with 
 great enthusiasm. The Duke de Luynes trans- 
 lated his Latin writings into French, and Ro- 
 hant's lectures were frequented by ladies and 
 gentlemen of the highest rank. The congrega- 
 tions also accepted it ; that of the Oratory, IJe- 
 ruUe, Malebranche, etc. ; that of Port Royal, 
 Arnauld, Xicole, etc. The Jesuits, howmer, 
 proved averse ; and at their instance the Roman 
 curia forbade the printing and reading of Des- 
 cartes' writings. In France the prohibition wa.s- 
 enforced by a royal decree ; but it fell soon into
 
 DESERT. 
 
 629 
 
 DETERMINISM. 
 
 desuetude, as many of the most promiiieiit char- 
 acters of the Galilean Church, Bussuot, F(!nelon, 
 etc., were Cartesians. In llollauil, too, llescartes' 
 philosophy exercised consideralile inrtaence on 
 theology; though at one time it was accused of 
 being atheistic, and generally was confounded 
 with the views of Cocceius. When, however, 
 Descartes' doctrine of vortices had been com- 
 pletely superseded by Newton, and his views of 
 innate ideas were abandoned for those of Ilobbes 
 and Locke, Cartesianisni gradually lost all direct 
 influence, and lived on oidy through its con- 
 tinuators, Leibnitz, Wolff, etc. 
 
 The principal works of Descartes are, D!scours 
 tie la Melhode (Leyden, 1637), Medilatimies de 
 Prima Philusopliia, Paris (1041), Princijjia P/iiloso- 
 phiie (Amsterdam, 1044), of wliich three works an 
 Englisli translation was published in Edinburgh, 
 1858. A collected edition of his works appeared 
 at Amsterdam, 1092-1701, in 8 vols. ; another 
 was given by V. Cousin, Paris, 1824-20, 11 vols., 
 to which were added some (Eueres Incdites, Paris, 
 1859-60 ; (JEucres pldlosophiques de Descartes, Paris, 
 1835, 4 vols., ed. by Garnier, with life and analy- 
 sis. See, also, A. Kocii . Die Psychologie Descartes', 
 si/stemalisch u. historisch-h-itisch bearbeitet, Miin- 
 chen, 1881. His life was written by A. Baillet : 
 La Vie de M. des Carles, Paris, 1091, 2 vols. The 
 principal works on Descartes are, Bouii.lier : 
 Histoire de la PIdlosophie Carte'sienne, Paris, 1854 ; 
 S.\ISSET : Pre'cursettrs et Disciples de D., Paris, 
 1802 ; Millet : Descartes, sa vie, ses travaux, ses 
 decouvertes avant 1637, Paris, 1867; Jeaunel: 
 D. et la princesse palatine, Paris, 1S69 ; Boudas- 
 Demoulin : Le Cartesianisme,Va.ris,lS7i; J. P. 
 Mahaffy : Descartes, London, 1880. A new Eng. 
 trans, of the Meditations, by Richard Lowndes, 
 London, 1878. See, also, art. God. 
 
 DESERT is the English equivalent in tlie Au- 
 thorized Version for four Hebrew words, no one 
 of which means "a sandy waste," but, on the 
 contrary, simply "unfilled pasture-land, which 
 may be covered with a luxuriant vegetation." 
 The four words are : 1. Arahah (n3"li^,), the name 
 of the remarkable depression which runs from 
 the Sea of Galilee to the Gulf of Akabah ; this 
 tract, though now waste and parched, is capable 
 of culti>'ation (the Hebrew word occurs only in 
 tlie propliets Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel) ; 2. 
 Midbar^^y}^, "pasture-land"); 3. Horbah (n3-in) 
 occurs only three times in the Hebrew (Ps. cii. 6; 
 Isa. xlviii. 21 ; Ezek. xiii.4); 4. Yeshimon (pO'C/'). 
 See Young's Concordance under Desert, for the 
 151 ble )iassages. 
 
 DESERT, Church of the. See Camisards, 
 Huguenots. 
 
 DES MARETS, Samuel (Latin, Maresius), b. 
 at Oisi'niont, Picardy. Aug. 9, 1.599; d. at Gron- 
 ingen. May IS, 1073 ; studied theology at Saunuir 
 and Geneva ; and was appointed jjastor at Laon 
 (1020), professor at Sedan (1024), pastor at Maes- 
 tricht (1032), and at Bois-le-Duc (1030), and 
 professor at Groningen (1043). Though up to his 
 twelfth year he took no otlier food than milk, and 
 though, in his very first controversy with the 
 Jesuits at Laon, he was stabbed in t)ie chest by 
 way of argumentation, he was one of the most 
 jirolitic and most rabid polemics of tlie Reformed 
 Churcli, pursuing with equal zest the liberal ten- 
 dency represented by tlie Academy of Saumur 
 
 (AmjTaut), the Socinians, and the Jesuits. He 
 wrote more than a hundred works, of which a list 
 is given in La France Protestante ; but they ai'e 
 now all foi-giitti-n. 
 
 DESMARETS DE SAINT-SORLIN, Jean, 1). 
 in Paris, 1595; d. there l(i70 ; began his public 
 career as a debaucluMl fool, and ended it as a 
 hypocritical rascal, equally ridiculous and equally 
 vicious in both characters. Before his conversion, 
 he manufactured poetry of all descriptions : after 
 his conversion, he nuinufactured visions of the 
 worst kind. His Les Dclices de I'espril, l^ai-is, 
 1058, fob, pretends to be a connnentary on the 
 Revelation, by which he felt authorized to promise 
 Louis XIV. and the Pope an army of one hun- 
 dred thousand faithful to destroy the Turks and 
 the Jansenists. He is now known only from the 
 infamous manner in which he brought Simon 
 jMorin to the stake, and from Nicole's Lettres 
 imayinaires, Paris, 1604-66. 
 
 d'ESSERVANT, in the Galilean Church, means, 
 first, a priest ajipointed by the bishop to perform 
 all ecclesiastical functions in a parish during a 
 vacancy; second, a priest occupying an ecclesia 
 succnrsalis. In contradistinction to the ecclesia 
 parochialis (the true parish-church), there are 
 in France, Belgium, and the Rhenish Provinces, 
 a great number of auxiliary churches (ecclesice 
 succursales), organized in places where the congre- 
 gation was found too large for the parish-church, 
 whose occupants, the desservants, differ from the 
 curates only by having a smaller salary, and by 
 standing more directly under the control of the 
 bishop. 
 
 DESUBAS (Mathieu Majal), a pastor of the 
 Desert, so called from his birthplace ; b. at 
 Desubas, 1720 ; d. as a martyr, at Montpellier, 
 Feb. 2, 1746. As pastor of Vivarais he sat in the 
 National Synod of Bas Languedoe, Aug. 18, 1744, 
 and distinguished himself by his wisdom and 
 patriotism. He was arrested April 0, 1745, and 
 taken to Vernoux. The supplications of a throng 
 of his parishioners were answered by a round of 
 musketry, and so the " massacre of Vernoux " 
 took place. He was tried, condemned to die, and 
 accordingly executed, at the age of twenty-six. 
 See D. Benoit : Une rictime de l' intolerance au 
 X VIII. sibcle. Desubas, son ministtre, son martyre 
 (1720-46), d'apr'es des documents inedits, Toulouse, 
 1879. 
 
 DETERMINISM is the common name for all 
 those theories of the human will which represent 
 it as absolutely determined by motives which lie 
 entirely outside of it, thereby reducing its free- 
 dom to a mere delusion. Tliere is a dogmatic de- 
 terminism, which, in order to glorify the majesty 
 of (iod, excludes all other causality from human 
 action but God himself (Luther, De servo arbitrio); 
 and there is a philosophical determinism, which 
 explains all human actions as residts of surround- 
 ing circumstances (La Mettrie). There is a 
 fatalistic determinism, which places God himself 
 in the grip of an iron necessity (the ancient idea 
 of Nemesis, Islam) ; and there is a pantheistic de- 
 terminism, which makes even the faintest gleam 
 of human freedom vanish into the darkness of a 
 natural process (the Hindoos, Stoicism, Spinoza). 
 Indeed, like the chameleon, determinism is capa- 
 ble of assuming the color of any thing which 
 happens to be next to it, and fanaticism is as apt
 
 DEUTSCHMANN. 
 
 630 
 
 DEVAY. 
 
 to produce it as indifference ; but it is always 
 characterized by placing freedom and necessity in 
 such an opposition to each other that the former 
 disappears. One of the most interesting forms 
 under which determinism lias appeared in theolo- 
 gy is that which it received from Schleiermacher 
 and his school. See I. P. Komaxg : Ueher Willens- 
 freihed und Delenninhmus, Bern, 1S35. 
 
 DEURHOFF, William, b. in Amsterdam, 1050; 
 d. thfre 1717; was a basket-maker by profession, 
 but a speculative genius by nature ; studied the- 
 olog\- and philosophy, tliough in a desidtory and j 
 uus\"stematic way ; lectured in the evenings, often I 
 to large audiences ; wrote books, which were pub- 
 lished in a collected edition (171o), and caused 
 considerable stir in the Dutch Reformed Church. 
 His special study was Descartes; and the Cartesian 
 occasionalism found great favor with him. Still, 
 his ideas of God as a mere force pervading the 
 universe, and of the individual human soul as a 
 mere modification of the one thinking substance, 
 show his affinity to Spinoza. 
 
 DEUSDEOIT, also called Deodatus, Adeodatus, 
 sometimes Adeodatus I,, in opposition to the 
 usual bearer of tliat name (see title) ; b. in Kome, 
 according to one report ; the son of a sub-deacon, 
 Stephanus ; and chosen Pope in 61.5, after the 
 death of Boniface IV. ; d. 618. His life is con- 
 nected with legends, and his pontificate with false 
 decretals ; but he has passed into the galaxy of 
 Roman-Catholic saints, and is commemorated 
 Xov. 0. IIEKZOG. 
 
 DEUSINC, Herman, b. at Oroningen, JIarch 
 14, Hl.'il; (1. there Jan 3, 17-J2 ; studied, first 
 mathematics and medicine, but afterwards the- 
 ologj', and made himself known as one of the most 
 extreme representatives of tlie typical school of 
 .scriptural interpreters, by his Ilisturiti Al!ei/<irica 
 V. et N. Testamenli (1690), Commenlnrhis MijMi- 
 cus in Dcraloijum (1700), and j\li/xlcrium S. 
 Triadas (1712). Having been accused of heresy, 
 and excounnunieated by the Dutch Reformed 
 Church, he jninccl thi' AValloon Church. 
 
 DEUTERO-CANONICAL. Si^e .ArocKVi-iiA. 
 
 DEUTERON'OMY. See Pi;m ATircii. 
 
 DEUTSCH, Emanuel Oscar Menahem, an emi- 
 nent Oriental .schiilar; b. of Jewish jjurenls, Oct. 
 28, 18'20, at Neis.se, Prussian Silesia; d. at Alex- 
 andria, Egypt, May V2, 187.!. His uncle, a learned 
 rabbi, gave him his early education, and he 
 studied at Berlin. From 18.").5 to his death he was 
 assistant in the library of tlie British Museum. 
 He contributed articles to (,'hamliers's Kncyflo- 
 pcrdia, Kitto's and .Smitli's Bibh; dictionaries, 
 and to various periodicals. Prom childhood Ik; 
 was a student of the Talmud, and inteiuled to 
 write an elaborate volume upon it. In October, 
 1867, he jiublished an article on The Tiihnud, in 
 The QiHirterlji He.iiiir. By it he became famous. 
 The article was translateil within a year into 
 French, fieruian, Russian, .Swedish, Dutch, and 
 Danish. But hard work induced di.sease, and 
 deatli drew on apace. Twice he visited the Fast, — 
 in I860 and 1.S72. Besides in Ib.'brew, Deutsch 
 made remarkable attainments in Sanscrit, Chal- 
 dee, Aramaic, ami Pluenician. Ills Remainn, 
 edited by Laily .Strangford, with a brief sketch, 
 appeared, London and New York, 1871. 
 
 DEUTSCHMANN, Johann, b. at Wittenberg, 
 Aug. 10, 162.J; d. there Aug. 12, 1706; waa pro- 
 
 fessor of theology from 1G57, and was one of the 
 most curious representatives of the orthodoxy of 
 that time. A\'ith an almost furious hatred of the 
 younger Calixtus and Spener, he connected an 
 almost ridiculous love of the so-called Theoloqia 
 paradifiaca, and was very busy in pi-oving tliat 
 not only the Old Testament, but also the faith of 
 the patriarchs, and even of Adam, harmonized 
 with the Confcsaio Aiu/ustana and the Formula 
 Cuncordice. i>i/7nI>olum Aposlolicuiu Adami is the 
 title of one of his works. THOLUCK. 
 
 D^VAY, Mityas Biro, one of the most promi- 
 nent of the Hungarian Reformers; was born in 
 the village of Deva in Tran.sylvania, towards the 
 close of the fifteentli or in the beginning of the 
 sixteentli century ; and died, jirobably in Debrec- 
 zin, about 1.517. In luL'3 he studied "in the Uni- 
 versity of Cracow, where the Hungarians from 
 Transylvania and the Theiss Valley formed a 
 peculiar nation. In 1527 he was active in his 
 home as a Roman-Catholic priest; but in 1529 
 he went to AVittenberg, where he staid, for one 
 year and a half, in the house of Luther. After 
 returning home, he preached the new doctrines, 
 first in Ofen, then at Kaschau, and published two 
 pamphlets, De fiinrtormn dornulunie, against the 
 worship of saints, and a more systematical repre- 
 sentation of the theology of the Reformers, in 
 fifty-two )iropositions ; which two pamphlets, how- 
 ever, circulated only in manuscript copies, because 
 as yet there was no printing-press in Hungary. 
 At the instance of Thomas .Szal.iLiizy, Bishop of 
 Erlau, he was arrested, and kept in prison, first 
 at Likava, then at I'ressburg, and finally in 
 Vienna. He was soon released, liowever ; but 
 when, immediately after his release, he took up 
 again his former business as a preacher of the 
 new doctrines, he was arrested once more, and 
 kept in prison for nearly three years (1532-31). 
 Released a second time, he settled at Sarvar, in 
 the county of AVasch, mider the protection of 
 Count Xiidasdy, a jiowerful Hungarian magnate, 
 who flad espoused the cause of the Reformation. 
 In 1537 he again visited AVittenberg, and went 
 thence to Basel, where he published his J)i.ijiiilalio, 
 etc., a refutation of the ( '(ii.iur(r, etc., w hich Gre- 
 gdr Szegedy, the provincial of the Franciscans in 
 Hungary, and mi^nber of the .Sorbonne, had 
 written against liis fifty-two projiusilions. On his 
 return to .Siirviir he put up a jirinting-press there, 
 and published his Orlhoi/ni/i/iia l.'n(/<irira,thii first 
 book printed in Hungary, and containing a gram- 
 mar of the Hungarian language, and extracts of 
 Luther's minor catechism, written in Hungarian. 
 Justly realizing with what kind of weapons the 
 Reformation was most likely to win in the contest, 
 lie was also a zealous teacher in the school which 
 Johannes Sylvester, another Ilnngariaii Uelormer, 
 had founded at SiSrvar. But this noble activity 
 came to a sudden stop by th<! invasion of the 
 Turks in 1510. Devay fled to Switzerland, and 
 did not return until 1512, when he settle<l at De- 
 breczin, under tlie ]irotection of (!(>unt Valentin 
 Tiirok, a relative of Niida.sdy, and, like him, a 
 Protestant. In Switzerland h(^ liad become 
 acquainted with Zwingli's views of the l^onl's 
 Supper, and a<lopted them; and he now preached 
 them openly in Debreczin, to the disgust and 
 scandal of Lutlierand tlie Wittenberg Reformers. 
 In one of the last years of his life he published
 
 DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 631 
 
 DEVIL. 
 
 a text-book for use in tlie religious instruction in 
 the scliools. It was wiittrii in Hungarian, and 
 jirobably printed in Cracuw. Jle was also tlie 
 author of a very popular hymn, in which the 
 principal articles of the Protestant faith were 
 given in substance. UKVKCZ. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT, Theological and Historical, 
 is held in ditt'erent shapes. (1) Tlie evangelical 
 I'rotestant theory maintains that Christianity 
 objectively considered is ])erfect in Christ and 
 the New Testament, V>ut that its understanding 
 and application is gradual, an<I jirogressiug from 
 age to age. In this sense there can be no his- 
 tory -without motion and development. (2) The 
 rationalistic theory holds that Christianity itself 
 is imperfect, and will ultimately be superseded 
 by philosophy or a humanitarian religion, or that 
 reason will take the place of the Bible as a rule 
 of faith and action. {'■>) Tlie Iloman-Catholic 
 theory, as advocated by Cardinal Newman, in his 
 Decehpiiient of C/iriglian Doclrine, London, 184.3, 
 written just before he went over to Rome, but 
 never indorsed by the Roman Church, is that the 
 New Testament contained the germs of certain 
 doctrines, i.e., those distinctive to the Roman and 
 Greek Catholic Churches, which, under divine 
 care, have been developed into their present shape. 
 It is true that the doctrines and practices of these 
 churches can be traced to very early times ; but 
 that is quite a different thing from allowing that 
 such development was always in the way of truth 
 and purity. One of the most vigorous replies to 
 Dr. New-man was W. A. Butler's Letlcrs on the 
 Decelopinent of Chrisi'ntn Doctrine, in rej/li/ to Mr. 
 Newman's Essay, Dublin, 18.50. See, also, 1'iiilip 
 Schaff: W/ial is Cliurch Ilislori/? A Vindication 
 of the Idea of Historical Deoelopmcnt, Phila., 184G. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT, Scientific. See Evolution-. 
 
 DEVIL, an apostate angel, the ruler of the 
 kingdom of darkness, the enemy of all good, and 
 the source and promoter of all evil. Ilis chief 
 designations ai-e Satan (!'?'?), meaning adrersuri/, 
 and Devil (iSmJoAof ) , calumniator. Ma shall treat 
 the subject by giving the Old and New Testa- 
 ment doctrine, and by presenting the views that 
 have prevailed at various periods of the church. 
 
 1. Tlie Old Testament does not contain the 
 fully-developed doctrine of Satan tliatis presented 
 in the New Testament. It does not portray him 
 as at the head of a kingdom, ruling over kindred 
 natures, and an apostate from the family of God. 
 The belief in evil spirits, the Slierim and Sedim 
 (Dent, xxxii. 17; Isa. xiii. '21, xxxiv. 11, etc.), 
 is distinctly alluded to. Their element is the 
 night, and their habitation w^aste places. It was 
 forbidden to offer sacrifices to them (Deut. xxxii. 
 17; Ps. cvi. 37, etc.). In the older books, God 
 is described as the .source from which come in- 
 fluences no.\ious to man, such as hardening Pha- 
 raoh's heart (Exod. viii., etc.), smiting the first 
 born (Exod. xii. 20) ; but there are not want- 
 ing references to evil spirits, to whom are at- 
 tributed evil agencies, as the evil spirit which 
 troubled Saul (1 Sam. xvi. 1-1), and the lying 
 spirit among the jirophets of Ahab (1 Kings xxii. 
 20 sqq.) In this connection the two parallel 
 statements of 2 .Sam. xxiv. 1 and 1 Chron. xxi. 
 I, should be compared, and it will be found that 
 the same event is attriliuted in the first ]iassage 
 ti-) God as its author, which in the second is at- 
 
 tributed to Satan (comp. in the New Testament 
 Euke xii. .^ and lleb. ii. H). The rare mention 
 of evil sjiirits in the Hebrew .Scriptures is to be 
 explained, on the one hand, tiy the jealous mono- 
 tlK'ism of the Hebrews; and. on the other, the 
 subordiuatiun of evil to (iod's supreme power and 
 jmrpose agrees exactly with the more definite 
 statements of our Eord and his apostles. 
 
 The term " Satan " is used in the general sense 
 of adversary (Ps. cix. 6, etc.), but more particu- 
 larly also as tlie spirit of evil, who comes in collis- 
 ion with the jilaus of God, and plots the hurt of 
 man. It is not definitely stated, in the account of 
 the fall, that the serpent wlio tempted Eve was the 
 Devil, or his agent. The first identification of the 
 two is in the Book of AVisdom (ii. 2'.'> sq.), and 
 is taken for granted by John in the expression, 
 •• that old serjient called the Devil " (Rev. xii. 9 ; 
 eomii. John viii. 41). This inference is justified 
 by the words which the serpent used, and agrees 
 exactly with the portrait of the Devil as the 
 tempter (6 mi/miiuv). The only other reference to 
 Satan in the Pentateuch is Lev. xvi. 8. Aaron 
 is there instructed to cast ui)on each of two goats, 
 on the great day of atonement, a lot, "one for 
 the Lord, and the other lot for A:a:el " (marg.). -, 
 This certainly means an evil spirit, if not Satan 
 himself. In the Book of Job he is definitely ' 
 brought out as a distinct jiersonality. He pre- 
 sents himself before the Lord with the sons of 
 (iod (i. 0), and, after questioning the motives of 
 the patriarch, secures permission to tempt and 
 torment him, but not to kill him (i. 12). The 
 Ci/cl. Brit, assumes too much when it says (art. 
 Dccil), " Satan is not represented as the imper- 
 sonation of evil or .as a spiritual a.ssailant of the 
 patriarch. The evils with which he assails Job 
 are outward evils." This is in the line of Herder, 
 Eichhorn, and others, who affirm that Satan vi'as 
 a good angel, delegated by God as his agent. 
 But, if he was a good angel, liow could the evil 
 design originate with liiin of bringing Job by 
 bodily plagues, and, as we suppose, spiritual 
 doubts, to curse God? The whole conversation 
 between him and the Almighty (i. 7-12) leaves 
 the impression that he was the restless (ver. 7) 
 agent of evil. In Zech. iii. 1 he is jiortrayed as 
 standing at the side of Joshua the high priest 
 to assail him. These descriptions complete the 
 jiortraiture of the Old Testament, which, if it is 
 far from being as full as that of the New, lias no 
 traits di.ssonant with it. 
 
 2. The New Testament is full of allusions tc 
 the personality and agency of the Evil One. 
 His character is drawn in strong colors, because 
 he is the adversary of the kingdum of grace 
 which Christ came to establish, and rules over 
 the kingdom of darkness with which thi.s" shall 
 be engaged in a life-and-death-struggle. He 
 bears tlie titles of Tempter (1 Thess. iii. 5), Beel- 
 zebub and Prince of devils (Matt. xii. 24), the 
 Evil One (JIatt. vi. 1:3, xiii. 19, etc.). Prince of 
 this world (John xii. 31, xiv. 30, xvi. 11), God 
 of this world (2 Cor. iv. 4), Prince of the power 
 of the air (Ejih. ii. 2), the dragon and the ser- 
 pent (Rev. xii. 9, xx. 2). He has a kingdom 
 (Matt. xii. 20) which i.5 hostile to the kingdom 
 of Christ (.Vets xxvi. 1 ;), and dominates over a 
 realm of demons (Matt. ix. 34). Created one 
 of the angels, he became an apostate (John viii.
 
 DEVIL. 
 
 632 
 
 DEVIL. 
 
 44), and fell from heaven (Luke x. 18; Jude 6). 
 He is the bitter and indefatigable adversary of 
 the kingdom of grace, but will ultimately be 
 overthrown, and cast into everlasting punishment 
 (Matt. XXV. 46; Rev. xxi. 10). ife endeavoreil 
 to traduce Clirist himself (Matt. iv. 1), worked 
 among the apostles (John xiii. 2), and worketh 
 in the children of disobedience (Eph. ii. 2). 
 Conversion is the passage and deliverance from 
 his kingdom of darkness to the kingdom of light 
 (Col. i. 13). He is restlessly sowing seeds of 
 error and doubt in the chui-ch (Matt. xiii. 39), 
 blinding the eyes of thein that believe not (2 Cor. 
 iv. 4), goes about as a roaring lion (1 Pet. v. 8), 
 and has the power of death (Heb. ii. 14). Chri.st 
 has given a more definite description of him 
 (John viii. 44) as a "murderer and liar." Ilis 
 chief characteristics are power and craft. He is 
 as a "strong man " (Matt. xii. 29), and his subtle- 
 ty (corap. Gen. iii. 1) is exhibited in treacher- 
 ous snares (2 Tim. ii. 26), wiles (Eph. vi. 11), 
 and devices (2 Cor. ii. 11), and the delusive shift 
 of transforming himself into an angel of light 
 (2 Cor. xi. 14). 
 
 It was to undo the desolation, and destroy the 
 works of this Satan, that the Sou of God w;is 
 manifested (1 John iii. 8). It has been attempted 
 to make liim out to be a mere personification of 
 evil, and to show that evil exists only as it is 
 found in the human heart. .Schleiermacher 
 thinks that Jesus accommodated himself to the 
 ideas and language that then jirevailed in Judaea, 
 but did not himself regard Satan as a real and 
 living person. But certainly this is beneath tlie 
 dignity of Christ. He would hardly, in speak- 
 ing of him, make use of such strong language, 
 and bid the disciples beware of liis craft and 
 power. In the exposition of the parable of the 
 tares he makes the didactic statement tliat the 
 enemy who sowed them was the Devil (Matt. 
 xiii. 39). 
 
 The .Satan of the Scriptures is a portrait inde- 
 pendent of Persian mythology. lie and -Vhriman 
 agree only in this, that they are alike spirits of 
 evil. In suboidinate i)articulars they are dispar- 
 ate. Alirinian rules over oue-luilf the world, and 
 is independent of Onnuzd. .Satan's dominion is 
 limited, and subject to the supreme authority of 
 God. Ahriman is co-eternal with Ormuzd, .Satan 
 is a creature who apostatized from the trutli. 
 
 3. The church fatliers agreed in reiiresenting 
 Satan as an apostate, and the inveterate enemy 
 of the Church and the believer. Tlie work of 
 the atonement was regarded by Irenanis, Origen, 
 etc., as a price paid to .Satan. During tlio nuddle 
 ages the belief in the Devil took the wildest 
 shapes. He was represented w ith lioriis and lioofs, 
 painted on bridges and canvas, regarded as liv- 
 ing in witches and gliouls ; and Luther afterw ards 
 found an ea.sy explanation of mosquitoes, mice, 
 and similar troublesome creatures, in his creative 
 agency. The liogoinili went so far as to call 
 him the elder brother of Christ, .so great was the 
 dread of his power. The Keformers clung with 
 tlieir deep con.sciousness of sin also to tlie belief 
 in Satan. The strong individuality of Luther is 
 nowhere more clearly ajiparent than in Ids ima- 
 gined visions of the Evil One;, at whom he once 
 threw his ink-bottle. On another occasion lie 
 said, "I heard some one walking on the floor 
 
 above my head ; but, as I knew it was only the 
 
 Devil, I went quietly to sleep." The rationalists 
 
 deny the existence of Satan as a mere superstition. 
 
 Even .Schleiermacher with great ability combats 
 
 the view of a personal .Satan ; but later theolo- 
 
 , gians, like Martensen, Nitzsch, Twesten, Julius 
 
 1 iliiller, Dorner, etc., hold firmly to his person- 
 
 I ality. Three of the greatest' poets of three 
 
 languages have given pictures of Satan, his 
 
 i rebellion, and his realm, — Dante, Jlilton, and 
 
 Goethe. 
 
 How Satan came to fall is a deep question 
 which has been differently answered, but can 
 hardly be settled. Milton, following the ancient 
 fathers, represents (i. 37) pride as the motive. 
 
 . . . "His iirkle 
 Had cast him out from lieaven witli all his host 
 Of rebel angels." 
 
 And again (i. 261),— 
 
 ..." My choice 
 To reign is worth aiubitiou, though in hell." 
 
 ]Martensen says he was " Christ's yovmger 
 brother, and became (iod's adversary, because 
 he was not content to be second, but wanted to 
 ! be first ; because he was unw illing to bear the 
 ! light of another, and wanted to be the light 
 I itself." Jacob Bohme: " Lucifer envied the Son 
 I his glory; his own beauty deceived him, and 
 he wanted to place himself on the throne of the 
 .Son." An attempt has even been made to fix the 
 date of that apostasy. Lange thinks it occurred 
 on one of the days of the creative week ; while 
 Kurtz and others hold that the formless and void 
 chaos of the world (Gen. i. 2) w.as the result of 
 Satan's fall. In connection with these views it 
 is not irrelevant to quote the words of Hugh Miller 
 (^Text. of lite Rods, p. 112) : " The reptile selected 
 as typical of the gre.at fallen spirit that kept not 
 his first estate is at once the reptile of latest ap- 
 pearance in creation, and the one selected by 
 [ihilosophical naturalists as representative of a 
 reversed process in the order of being." What- 
 ever may be said of these theories, three things 
 may be stated as fixed : 1. The possibility of Sa- 
 tan's apostasy is as conceivable as the fall of 
 man; 2. The inveterate and undying hostility of 
 Satan to tin' kingdom of Christ makes the denial 
 of eternal punishment on the gnnnid of the di- 
 vine compa.ssion untenable; 3. In jwoportion as 
 the Christian consciousness of sin is deeii does 
 the belief in the jier.sonal agency of Satan pre- 
 vail. The denial of the personal Satan is the 
 first ste]> in the denial of the sinfulness of sin. 
 In the Xew Testament it is thi? struggle between 
 the kingdom of Christ and the kingdom of Satan 
 which causes ajiostlcs to glow in the description, 
 and draws forth the vivid exhortations to fight 
 manfully and w ith the armor of God, and to re- 
 sist by prayer and vigilance. We may say with 
 Dorner, that the conviction of a great struggle 
 going on between the two kingdoms of darkness 
 and light, a struggle in which we all may take 
 liart, is adapted to jiroduce an earnest conception 
 of evil, and develop watchfulness and tension of 
 the moral energies. .*^ee art. Dkmox. 
 
 Lit. — Works on Dogmatics (English systems 
 do not treat the subject at length) : Schi.kiek- 
 MAcni-.ii (§§ 44, 4.5) ; Mahtknsk.n (pp. 213-231); 
 LA.NiiK (ii. 569 sijq.) ; Van Ostkrzee, vol. ii. pp.
 
 DEVOTION. 
 
 633 
 
 DIATBSSARON. 
 
 413-422 (Am. trans., New York, 1S74), and 
 especially Dorner : Ckrisll. Glauhcn.itehrc (vol. 
 ii. pp. 1S8-217); Lf.cky : Hixl. lidlioticiliam in 
 Europe, vol. i. — Special work.s : Anski.m : De 
 Caxn Dinboli ; Mayer: Ifisfnr. Dialmli, Tuhing., 
 1780, 2d ed. ; Daub : ./ii(/a.i Ischnriol, ISIO ; 
 G. liosKOi'-F : Oi:iclt. d. Tenfcis, 18(J!», 2 vols. ; two 
 powerfid .sermons of Roukkt South : The De- 
 nipn of ('Itrisl's liicaniation lo DeMroi) the Worku 
 of the Deoil, and Satan Himself Trnnsformed into 
 an Anqel of Lii/hl : IlilLEM.VNN : He/len </. Satan, 
 Leipzig, 1^75. ' i>^ s. .'^cilAFF. 
 
 DEVOTION, DEVOTIONAL EXERCISES, and 
 BOOKS OF DEVOTION. By devotion we mean 
 every sort of exerci.se of the soul, prayer and 
 meditation, whether public or private, free or set. 
 Devotional exercises include two distinct ele- 
 ments : the fir.st consists in the more or less self- 
 conscious determination to turn the attention to 
 things divine ; the second, the exaltation of the 
 soul to God. To these exercises belong public, 
 family, and private worship, consisting in reading 
 of the Bible, prayer, praise, meditation, and ex- 
 hortation. There is danger of viewing devotions 
 as purely external matters, and therefore in per- 
 forming them perfunctorily, as a mere matter of 
 duty. But, the closer one walks with God, the 
 less constraint will one feel. Devotional exercises 
 will be privileges most highly valued. But, 
 whatever the feeling in respect to them, they 
 should be carefully maintained, as habits of 
 prayer will produce praying habits. By services 
 at stated times we are far more likely to see God 
 at last than if we postponed them until we "felt 
 like it." 
 
 Books of devotion characterize every phase of 
 church life and history. The temper of the times 
 is reflected by them. Such books as T/ie Shep- 
 herd of Hennas, Augiistine's Confessions, Thomas 
 A Kempis' Imitation of Christ, Tauler's Sermons, 
 the Theolor/ia Germanica, mark the pulse of an 
 ascetic though sjiiritual life. Those written by 
 Protestants breathe an altogether different spirit. 
 Jeremy Taylor's Holi/ Livinij and Hob/ Di/inif, 
 Baxter's Saints' Evertastinr/ Rest, Bohme's Wai/ 
 to Christ, Arndt's True Christianity, Bunyan's Pil- 
 grim's Progress, Doddridge's Rise and Progress of 
 Religion in the Soul, are books addressed to those 
 who live in homes, not to those in cloisters. In 
 the Roman-Catholic Church the writings of Fran- 
 cis de Sales, Fenelon. Molinos, and others, though 
 full of heavenly piety, are not so well adapted 
 to men and women tossed to and fro by worldly 
 cares and business. These books, and many 
 others, are gifts from God of inestimable worth. 
 Their perusal has been of saving efficacy unto 
 many, and cannot be too strongly recommended. 
 At the same time, devotional reading must be 
 mingled with Scripture and prayer, and followed 
 by direct effort in practical Christian work. Tlie 
 defect of present-day Protestantism is that it is 
 too active and too little meditative. It needs to 
 be recalled to the duty of acquainting itself with 
 the devotional thoughts of the ages, and of 
 spending time in devotion. 
 
 No devotional volume should be suffered to 
 usurp the place of the Bible. Only from it do 
 ■we receive the rays of divine light unrefracted. 
 The devotions of the church in public and pri- 
 Tate should make more of Scripture reading. In 
 
 non-liturgical churches it is too commonly cur- 
 tailed. If the words of (Jod were heard more, 
 and the wonls of man less, in our churches, it 
 would be better for us. 
 
 DEWID, St. See D.wiD, St. 
 
 DE WETTE, W. M. L. See AVettk, De, W. 
 M. L. 
 
 DE WITT, Thomas, D.D., b. at Kingston. X.Y., 
 Sept. li:!, 17!ll ; d. in Xew York City, May 18, 
 1874. lie was graduated at Union College, 181)8, 
 and at the New Brunswick Theological Seminary, 
 1812; pastor of the Reformed Dutch churches of 
 Hopewell and New Ilackensack, N.Y., 1812-2.5; 
 of Hopewell alone, 1825-27; and one of the Col- 
 legiate Church pastors. New York City, from 1827 
 till his death. He edited The Christian Intellii/en- 
 cer. 1831-43 ; was vice-president of the New York 
 Historical Society for thirty years, and its presi- 
 dent from 1870 to 1.S72. He was an honored citi- 
 zen of New York, and for many years one of its 
 favorite preachers and jiastors. By all who knew 
 him esteemed for his manj' virtues, pre-eminently 
 for his humility and simplicity. Ilis writings 
 consisted, for the most part, of occasional sermons 
 and translations from the Dutch, relating to 
 ecclesiastical history. The latter are found in 
 The Christian Intelligencer (ISHO-Ti), The Historical 
 Collections of the State of New York; and in 7'he 
 Docninriilari/ History of the Slate of Neic York. 
 
 DIABOLUS. See Devil. 
 
 DIACONIGUM means, in ecclesiastical writings, 
 sometimes a text-book for the duties and func- 
 tions of a deacon, but more often a separate 
 building of apsidal form, adjoining the basilica, 
 just south of the bema, and communicating with 
 it through a door in the side- wall. In this build- 
 ing, the modern vestry or .sacristy of the church, 
 the deacons kept the holy vessels and vestments, 
 prepared and lighted the incense, etc. No priest 
 of a lower order was allowed to enter it. 
 
 DIA'NA OF THE EPHESIANS. In the city of 
 Ephesus was one of the wonders of the world. — 
 the Temple to Diana. But this goddess is not to 
 be confounded with tlie Artemis of the Greeks, 
 or the Diana of the Latins. She was a nature 
 goddess, and the point of similarity is in her 
 nourishing power over all life. She was not, like 
 Artemis, the goddess of the chase, the chaste and 
 virgin sister of Apollo. For a description of her 
 temple and her image, see Ephesus. See, also, 
 A. Claus : De Diance antiquissima apud Grcecos 
 natura, Breslau, 1881. 
 
 DIASPORA, a term applied to the Jews who 
 were scattered through the Roman world (Jas. 
 i. 1; 1 Pet. i. 1). See Captivity. On the 
 Moravian diaspora, see Moravians. 
 
 DIATESSARON (literally, through four) is ap- 
 plied to the combination of the four Gospels in 
 one consecutive narrative. While the harmony 
 of the accounts is thus brought out, the individu- 
 ality of the writers is lost. The eaidiest diates- 
 saron was Tatian's, in the second century. See 
 Theodor Zahn, on Tatian's Diatessaron, in the First 
 Part of his Forschungen zur Gesch. des neulcs- 
 tament. Kanons, Erlangen, 1881. Tregelles says 
 that this work "led to a confusion and intermin- 
 gling, on the part of transcribers, of the words 
 and expressions of one Gospel with that which 
 was found in another," and thus " had more effect 
 i apparently on the text of the Gospels in us«
 
 DIAZ. 
 
 634 
 
 DICKINSON. 
 
 throughout the church than all the designed 
 falsifications of Marcion and every scion of the 
 Gnostic blood " (Home's Introduction, vol. iv. p. 
 40j. Tatian has had many followers. A few- 
 are, to mention only modern English works, W. 
 Greenwood, London", 1765 ; J. White (with Greek 
 text), Oxford, 1799, new ed., 1856; T. Thirlwall, 
 3d ed., London, ISOi; J. D. Macbride, Oxford, 
 1837; John Forster, 3d ed., London, 1847; W. 
 Stroud (with Greek text), London, 1853; 7"he 
 Gospels Consolidated, London (Bagster's) ; F. Gar- 
 diner, Audover, 1871 ; T/ie Life of our Lord in the 
 Words of the Four Ecamjelists, N.Y., 1877. See 
 list in Dakling, Cyclopcndia BibUographica, also 
 Harmony of the Gospels, Tatian. 
 
 DIAZ, Francisco, a Dominican monk ; born at 
 S. Cebriau de Maynelas in Castile; went as a 
 missionary to the Philippine Islands in 1G32, and 
 in 1635 to China, where he was killed during a 
 persecution, Nov. 1, 1646. He wrote a catechism 
 in Chinese and a Chinese-Spanish dictionary. 
 
 DIAZ, Juan, b. at Cueu9a, in Castile; studied 
 in the University of Paris, and was converted to 
 the Protestant faith in 1540. He was present at 
 the diet of Ratisbon, December, 1544, aud his 
 conversations with Pietro Malvenda and the other 
 Spanish priests stirred up the Spanish fanaticism 
 and jiride to the highest pitch. His brother, 
 Alphonzo, who was an officer at the papal court, 
 hastened to Germany with the fixed purpose to 
 kill him ; and March 27, 1546, he perpetrated the 
 foul deed, at Neuburg-on-the-Dauube. In Ger- 
 many this fratricide produced general horror ; 
 but the emperor and the Pope approved of it, and 
 the murderer was not punished. He committed 
 suicide, however, in 1551. Juan Diaz wrote a 
 confession of faith, Christiance Religionis Sunnna, 
 which was published at Neuburg, 1546, put on 
 the ludex by Pius IV., 1564, and translated into 
 French, 1565, and into Spanish, 1865. In tlie 
 epistolary part of Opera Calvini are found several 
 letters of Diaz. SeeHoKHMKu: Spanish Reform- 
 ers of Two Centuries, from 1520, Lond., 1874. 
 
 DI'BON, in Moab, now called Dhiban, about 
 twelve miles east of the Dead Sea, and three 
 miles north of the Anion, is now an extensive 
 ruins, covering the tops of two adjacent hills. 
 It is referred to several times in the Bible (Num. 
 xxi. 30, xxxii. 34; Josh. xiii. 9, 17; Isa. xv. 2; 
 Jer. xlviii. 18, 22 ; called Dimon, Isa. xv. 9). The 
 famous MoAitiTE .Stone was found liere(see title). 
 
 DICK, John, D,D., an eminent Scotcli theo- 
 logian, son of a clergyman; b. in Aberdeen, Oct. 
 10, 1761; d. in Glasgow, Jan. 25, 1833. He 
 belonged to tlie Secession Church ; was settled 
 first at Slateford, near Kdinburgh, and in 1801 
 over Greyfriars Cliurch, (ilasgow. He received 
 his title of D.D. from Princeton, 1815. In 1819 
 he became j)rofes.-ior of theology in the Tlicologi- 
 cal Seminary of the Secession Church. His 
 principal woric is his Lectures on TlieoUxjij (2d 
 ed., Kdinburgh, 1834, 4 vols), which was for 
 many years used as a text-book in theological 
 seminaries. Besides the usual topics, he takes 
 up the evidences of Christiauity, and gives an 
 exposition of the Decalogue, llis other works 
 are, An Essay on Inspiration (1800) and Lectures 
 on the Acts (Glasgow, 1805-08, 2 vols., 3d ed., 
 1848). Sec American edition of liis Lectures, 
 New York, 1830, 2 vols., with a biography. 
 
 DICK, Thomas, LL.D., a Christian philosopher; 
 b. at Dundee, Scotland, Nov. 24, 1774; d. at 
 Edinburgh, July 29, 1857. He was for two 
 years (1803-05) in the ministry of the Secession 
 (United Presbyterian) Church of Scotland, but 
 spent the rest of his life in teaching and in 
 literary labor. His first work appeared in 1824, 
 The Christian Philosopher, or the Connection oj 
 Science with Religion. It was a great success, 
 and determined him to follow still farther the 
 line of combined instruction and edification. 
 Perhaps the best know-n of his works are, The 
 Philosophy of a Future State (1828), Celestial 
 Scenery (183'8), The Sidereal Ilearens (1840), The 
 Solar System (1840), The Practical Astronomer 
 (1845). Their circulation lias been very large. 
 Several of his books have been translated into 
 different languages, the last-mentioned even into 
 Chinese. They are written in a simple aud 
 admirable style, and present the result of much 
 study in an interesting form ; while the religious 
 reflections attest the piety of the author, and 
 edify the reader. Shortly before his death the 
 government granted him a pension, in recogni- 
 tion of his great services. There are two Ameri- 
 can editions of his works, both in print, Cincin- 
 nati, 2 vols. Svo, and Phila., 10 vols, in 5, 12mo. 
 
 DICKINSON, Jonathan, a prominent Presby- 
 terian divine, and first president of Princeton 
 College; b. at Hatfield, Mass., April 22, 1688; 
 d. at Elizabeth, N.J., Oct. 7, 1747. He gradu- 
 ated at Yale College, 1706, and in 1708 settled 
 at Elizabeth. He covered an extensive area, 
 preaching regularly to six or seven congregations. 
 He not only exerted a permanent influence in 
 building up churches, but was an acknowledged 
 leader in tlie old synod of Philadelphia, and sub- 
 sequently in the synod of New York. Although 
 a strong Calvinist, and sound in the doctrines 
 of the Westminster Confession, he nevertheless 
 firmly opposed the binding authority of creeds 
 and confessions drawn up by uninspired men, 
 when the question of subscription was brought 
 up before synod in 1727. 
 
 Dickinson took a prominent part in the meas- 
 ures which led to the formation of the synod of 
 New York (1745), the second of tlie Presbyterian 
 Church in the United States. David Brainerd 
 and Indian missions found in him a warm friend. 
 He also took a deep interest in education, and 
 was the most jironiinent among tlie founders of 
 Nassau Hall (Princeton College). Under his 
 counsel a charier was received for the institution 
 in October, 1746. He was elected president, but 
 only lived to perform the duties a single year. 
 Dr. Gillett (Jlist. Presh. Ch., I. 40) characterizes 
 him as a man of " rare sagacity, calm judgment, 
 and unshrinking firmness." Dickin.son's writings 
 are considered to be among the soundest esjxisi- 
 tions of Calvinism that America has produced. 
 Dr. John Krskiue said that the Briti.sh Isles had 
 not ]iioduced any writers on divinity in tlie eigh- 
 teenth century equal to Dickinson and Jonathan 
 Edwards. His works arc. Four Sermons on tlie 
 Reasonableness of Christianity, Bost. , 1732; Dis- 
 play of God's Special Grace, Bost., 1742 ; Familiar 
 Letters itpon Subjects in Religion, Boat., 1745 ; 
 Vindication of God's Saving Free Grace, Bost., 
 1748 ; True Scripture Doctrine conce7-ning Some 
 Important Points in Christian Faith (an able dis-
 
 DICKSON. 
 
 635 
 
 DICTIONARIES, 
 
 cussion of the five points of Calvinism), Phila- 
 delphia, 1841 ; complete edition of his Sermons 
 and Tractf, Edinburgh, 1793. See Sprague's 
 Annah, III. 11. 
 
 DICKSON, David, a commentator; b. at Glas- 
 gow, 158.3; d. in 1602-63. He was professor of 
 philosophy in (jlasgow after his graduation; from 
 1618 to 1641 he was minister in Irvine, after 
 which he was professor of divinity at Glasgow 
 and Edinburgh, and was ejected at the Restora- 
 tion in 1662. lie wrote A sliort Explanation of 
 the Epistle to the Hebrews (Aberdeen, 1631, re- 
 printed London, 1839), A brief Exposition of the 
 Gospel of Matthew (London, 1651), A brief Expla- 
 nation of the Psalms (London, 1655, 3 vols, re- 
 printed Glasgow, 1834, 2 vols), IVierapeutica 
 Sacra (in Latin, Edinburgh, 1656, in English, 
 2d ed., 1697), Exposition of all the Epistles (f659). 
 See WoDRO\v'.s A short Account of the Life of the 
 Rev. Dacid Diel:son, in vol. ii. Select Biographies, 
 edited for the Wodrow Soeieli/, Edin., 1847. 
 
 DICTATES OF POPE GREGORY (Dictatus 
 Papa', Dictatus Grei/orii VII., Dictatus Hilde- 
 brandini) consist of twenty-seven short proposi- 
 tions relating to the supreme power of the Pope, 
 and are fouud among the works of Gregory VII., 
 inserted between the fifty-fifth and fifty-sixth of 
 his epistles. By modern critics they are generally 
 considered spurious. See Moshkim : Church- 
 Hislon/, English translation, 1854, vol. ii. p. 161. 
 
 DICTIONARIES AND CYCLOP/EDIAS, Bibli- 
 cal, Ecclesiastical, and Theological. I. The 
 following are the best known and most useful 
 Bible Dictionarie.s. — Augustine Calmet : 
 Diclionnaire historiquc, critique, chronologiqiie, e/e'o- 
 graphique et litte'ral de la Bible, Paris, 1722, with a 
 supplement, 1728, 4 vols. fol. This work was 
 the first of its kind, and has been often reprinted, 
 translated, and abridged. It is now superseded. 
 The best reproduction of it is by Dr. E. Robin- 
 son, Boston, 1832. Georg Benedict Winer: 
 Biblisches Real-Worterbuch zuni Ilandgebrauch fiir 
 Studirende, Candidaten, Ggmnasiallehrer u. Predi- 
 ger ausgearbeitet, Leipzig, 1820, 2 vols. 8vo; 3d 
 ed., enlarged and much improved, 1847, 1848. 
 Still valuable ; it lias never been translated. 
 John Kitto: Cyclopedia of BibHc<d Literature, 
 Edinburgh, 1845, 2 vols. 8vo, 3(1 ed., thoroughly re- 
 vised, much enlarged and improved by Dr. W. L. 
 Alexander and a staff of contributors, Edinburgh, 
 1862-66, 3 vols, royal Svo ; the first to combine 
 the labors of specialists under editorial manage- 
 ment. H. Zeller (ed): Biblisches ]]'(n-terbuch, 
 Stuttgart, 1857, 2 vols., 3d ed., Karlsruhe, 1884; 
 William Smith: Dictionary of the Bible, London, 
 1860-64, 3 vols. Svo, a monument of British bib- 
 lical scholarship; American edition by II. B. 
 Hackett and Ezra Abbot, with the co-operation 
 of a number of American scholars, N.Y., 1868- 
 70, 4 vols. 8vo. The American edition is an 
 improvement upon the English original, in cor- 
 rectness, fulness, and usefulness (e.g., by means 
 of cross references). Patrick Fairb.^irn: The 
 Imperial Bible Dictionary, Edinburgh, 1865, 2 
 vols, royal 8vo. Like Smith's, it is a composite 
 work, but of a more popular character. John 
 Ayre : The Treasury of Bible Knowledge, London, 
 1866, 2d ed., 1868, small 8vo, 943 pp., double 
 column ; excellent, an immense amount of well- 
 digested iuformatioii packed into a very small 
 
 space. Daniel Schenkel : Bibel-Lexikon, Leiii- 
 zig, 1869-7.'5, 5 vols. Svo ; written by a number 
 of scholars of the liberal (i.e., more or less 
 sceptical) school. E. G. A. Rieiim: Ilandwiirter- 
 buck des biblischen Altertnms, Bielefeld, 1877-84, 
 repre.sents the conservative biblical scholarship of 
 (iermany. Si-ol : Dictionnaire de la Bible, Paris, 
 1S77. A. R. Fausset: The Englishman s Bible 
 Cyclopaedia, London and N.Y., 1878, 2d ed., 1881. 
 Unlike the last two mentioned, this work is of 
 single authorship. Its plan is peculiar in that 
 it is expository as well as critical, and therefore 
 a partial substitute for a commentary on the 
 whole Bible. — Among the smaller Bible diction- 
 aries two claim mention, — that published by the 
 American Ti-act Society, A Dictionary of the Holy 
 Bible, for General Use in the Study tf the Scriptures, 
 N.Y., 1859, pp. 534, and that published by the 
 American Sunday School Union, A Dictionary of 
 the Holy Bible, including Biography, Natural His- 
 tory, Geograpihq, Topoqraphq, Arcltnology and Litera- 
 ture, Phila., 1880, 3d ed., 1885, pp. 960. The 
 first was originally prepared by Dr. Edward Rob- 
 inson, and is a model of condensation, accuracy, 
 and felicity of expression, but is now a little 
 antiquated. The second was edited by Dr. Schaff, 
 and is more comprehensive, embracing every name 
 in the Bible, and utilizing the most recent discov- 
 eries and researches of the Palestine Exploration 
 Societies. Both these dictionaries are copious- 
 ly illustrated, and contain maps. Of quite difl'er- 
 entaim is J. Hamburger : Iteal-Encyclojmdie des 
 Judenthums. Wiirterbuch fiir Gemeindi, Schule vnd 
 Ilaus, Neustrelitz, 1874-83, 2 parts, 2d ed., 1884 
 sqq. It is recommended in emphatic terms by 
 Dr. Franz Delitzsch. The object of the author 
 is to treat alphabetically not only these historical, 
 geographical, and natural-history articles, but 
 also those ethical, dogmatical, and juridical arti- 
 cles which require explanation to the reader of 
 the Bible or the Talumd. It is written by a Jew 
 for Jews. 
 
 II. Dictionaries of the Bible Languages. 
 — Hebrew and Chaldee. — The standard source of 
 Hebrew lexicogi-aphy is still Gesenius: Novus 
 Thesaurus phitologicus critictis Lingua; Hebrcece et 
 Chaldace Veteris Teslamenti, Leipzig, 1829-5S, 
 3 vols. But besides this, there are immerous 
 manuals. The best is Gesenius: Ilebrdisches und 
 Chalddisches Handworterbuch iiber das Alte Testa- 
 ment, Leipzig, 1812, 2 vols. ; 10th revised ed. by 
 Jliihlau and ^'oIck, 1S86, 1 vol., with improve- 
 ments which should be incorporated in the Eng- 
 lish translations by Edward Robinson (Boston, 
 1836; revised, 1854; 20th edition, 1872), Samuel 
 Prideaux Tregelles (London, 1847; newed., 1857). 
 Much used, but, because of its philological theo- 
 ries, considered by competent critics inferior to 
 Gesenius, is Furst: Hebrdisches und Chalddisches 
 HanilwOrterbuch iiber das Alte Testament, Leipzig, 
 1857-61, 2 vols.; 3d ed., completed by V. Ryssel, 
 1876. The English translation is by Samuel 
 Davidson, Leipzig, 1865, 1866; 4th ed., 1871. A 
 third dictionary is B. Davies : Compendious and 
 Complete Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old 
 Testament; with English-IIebreiv Index Revised, 
 ivith Statements of Principles of Hebrew Grammar, 
 by E. C. Mitchell, D.D., Andover, 1879 (re- 
 printed from the third Eng. edition). The 
 German originals of Gesenius and Fiirst have
 
 DICTIONARIES. 
 
 636 
 
 DICTIONARIES. 
 
 German-Hebrew indexes; but these have been 
 dropped in their translation. An index to Gese- 
 nius has appeared separately. J. L. Potter : 
 Englisk-Hehrew Lexicon ; Index to Gesenius's He- 
 brew Lexicon, Boston, 1872. A more elaborate 
 work is M. Schulbaum : Neue^, voUstaniUges 
 deutsch-Ziehraisches Wbrterhuch mil Beriicksichligung 
 der lalmudischen imd neiihebrdischen Literalur, Lem- 
 berg, 18S1. Besides these large works, there are 
 many small, handy volumes, of which the best 
 probably is Bagster's Pocket Hebrew-Enylish Lexi- 
 con, containing all the Hebrew and Chaldee Words 
 in the Old Testament, London [n.d.], pp. 287. — 
 A work sui generis is B. Davidson : The Anabjt- 
 ical Hebrew Lexicon, London. In it every sepa- 
 rate word in the original Old Testament is parsed, 
 and referred to its proper conjugation or declen- 
 sion, primitive form or root. Thus every gram- 
 matical difficulty is solved, and anybody who 
 knows the Hebrew letters can by the use of this 
 volume read the Hebrew Old Testament. 
 
 Greek. — The best is C. L. W. Grimm: iexi'- 
 con Grceco-Latinum in Libros Novi Testamenti, 
 Leipzig, 1867, 2d ed., 1879, which entirely super- 
 sedes the work upon which it is based, Wilke : 
 Ctavis Novi Testamenti, Dresden, 1839, 2d ed., 
 1850. Professor J. H. Thayek of Andover has 
 in press (1882) a translation of Grimm, with im- 
 provements. Li English the best is E. Robin- 
 son : A Greek and English Lexicon of the New 
 Testament, New York, 1836; new ed. revised and 
 in great part rewritten, 1850. There is also 
 E. W. BuLLiNGEK ; Critical I^exicon and Concord- 
 ance to the Engli.ih and Greek New Testament, Lon- 
 don, 1877. There are numerous abridged and 
 condensed New-Testament Greek Dictionaries, 
 among them Greenfield : Polymicrian Greek 
 Lexicon (32mo), and T. .S. Green : Pocket Greek- 
 English Lexicon to the New Testament, both pub- 
 lished by .S. Bagster and Sons, London. This 
 firm also publishes The Analytical Greek Lexicon 
 to the New Testament, which is upon the same plan 
 as that of the Analytical Hebrew Lexicon men- 
 tioned above, and similarly facilitates the acqui- 
 sition of the original. — On a different plan from 
 any of the above, not a complete dictionary, but 
 very vahiable for exegesis, is H. (kemek: Bib. 
 Theol. Wiirterbnch, Gotha. 1867; 2d ed., 1872; 4d 
 ed., 1886; English trans, by Kev. William Ur- 
 wick (Biblico-Theoloi/ical Lexicon of N.T. Greek), 
 Edinb., 1878; .'Jd ed., 1886. 
 
 in. Dictionaries ok Particular Bible 
 Topics. — On the proper names of the Bible. — 
 A List of the Proper Names occun-ing in the Old 
 Testament, London, 1841 (anonymous, a professed 
 compilation from (Jesenius and Simonis, and 
 therefore in many cases needing revision); Al- 
 fred ■Ione.s: The J'roper Names of the Old Tes- 
 tament, Exjjoundcd and Illustrntcd, London, n.d. 
 (Bagster'.s) ; The Proper Names of the Old 'Tes- 
 tament, 7t'ilh an Appendix of the Hebrew and Ara- 
 maic A^ames ni the New Testament, London, 1859 ; 
 W. I". Wilkinson : Personal Names in the Bible 
 Inlerpreteil and Illustrated, fjOndon, 1865; T. G. 
 Bkiiarrkll: A Complete .Alphabeticidly Arranged 
 Biblical Biography, Indianapolis, 1867; William 
 Henderson: A Dictionary and Concordance of 
 the Names of Persotis anil I'laces . . . in the Old 
 and New Testaments, Edinburgh, 1860 (a very 
 Keritorious work). On the geographicai names. 
 
 — G. H. Whitney: Handbook of Bible Geography, 
 N.Y., 1875; revised ed., 1870; 'DeSaulcy: Dic- 
 tionnaire topographique abrc'ge de la Terre Sainte, 
 Paris, 1877. 
 
 IV. General Biblical, Ecclesiastical, 
 AND Theological Dictionaries. — J. New- 
 ton Brown: Encyclopeedia of Religious Knowl- 
 edge, Brattleborough (N.H.), 1835; revised by 
 Rev. G. P. Tyler, 1858; reprinted in Philadel- 
 phia, 1875. The book in matter and illustrations 
 belongs to a former generation. J. Aschbach : 
 AllgemeinesKirchen-Leiikon, Frankfurt a-M., 1846- 
 50. A useful and reliable work ; written by 
 Roman-Catholic scholars. AVetzer und Welte: 
 Kirchen-Lexikon. Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1847-56, 
 12 vols, (the 12th is supplementary) : 2d ed. 
 begun by Cardinal Hergenrothei-, continued by 
 Dr. Franz Kaulen, 1880 sqq. (to be completed in 
 ten vols.). The best Uoman-Catholic cyclopaedia. 
 The first edition was moderately liberal ; the 
 second is in the hands of Ultraniontanists. J. J. 
 Herzog : Heal-Encyklopadie fiir proteslantische 
 Theologie und I\irche, published by Rudolph Bes- 
 ser, vol. 1, Hamburg, 1854, vols. 2-9, Stuttgart 
 u. Hamburg, 1854-o8, vols. 10-21, Gotha, 1858- 
 66, in all 22 vols.; 2d ed. revised au<l j'artly re- 
 written, Leipzig (Ilinrichs), 1877 sqq., vols. 1-7 
 by J. J. Herzog and G. L. Plitt (d. Sept. 10, 
 1880), vols. 8 sqq. by J. J. Herzog and A. Hauck. 
 This is the great storehouse of German theology 
 in all its branches, and is the basis of the present 
 work. J. H. A. Bomberger: The Protestant 
 Theological and Ecclesiastical Encyclopiedin. beinff 
 a Condensed Trunslation of Herzug^s lieul-Ency- 
 clopcedia, tcith Additions from other Sources. Phila., 
 1860, 2 vols., begun in 1856, but never complet- 
 ed, and now superseded by the new Herzog. 
 McCuNTOCK AND STRONG: Cyclopccdia of Bibli- 
 cal, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literal are, 'N.Y., 
 1867-81, 10 vols. : two supplementary volumes 
 were published 1884 and 1886. The work was 
 begun in 1853. It is the most complete religious 
 cyclopaedia in the English language. Its vocab- 
 ulary is said to embrace about 50,000 titles. 
 The literature, given under each article, has been 
 brought down to date. The work is profusely 
 illustrated throughout, and contains several new 
 maps. In tlie original distribution of tlie work 
 Dr. Strong had charge of the biblical depart- 
 ment; but after Dr. McClintock's lamented 
 doatli, in 1870, the heavy burden of the wliole 
 work fell upon him. Different occa.sional con- 
 tributors and several persons constantly employed 
 have materially aided in carrying out tlie exten- 
 sive scheme. In each department, dictionaries 
 and text-books have been freely and often liter- 
 ally u.sed, especially Smith, Kitto, and Herzog ; 
 but this was in accordance witli the announce- 
 ment of the editors, and many additions liave 
 been made from less accessible .sources. The 
 editors have .secured a noteworthy freeilom from 
 theological bias by employing persons of the 
 various denominations to write regarding their 
 respective interestji, tlieological and biographical. 
 The Cyclopirdia h:is many defects, ty]ingraphical 
 and otherwise, especially in the earlier volumes. 
 Not a few articles bear nnirks of mechanical 
 compilation, and undue prominence is given to 
 minor biographies ; nevertheless, it is a most 
 useful coLIectiuu of iuiormatiou upon a very
 
 DIDEROT. 
 
 637 
 
 DIDIMUS. 
 
 wide range of topics, and a monumental work of 
 American industry and perseverance. F. Licii- 
 TENBERGEK: Enryclopc'ilif (lex sciences religie.uises, 
 Paris, 1877-82, 13 vols. Scholarly, clear, and 
 concise, designed to meet the wants of French 
 Protestants, as Herzog meets those of the German 
 Protestants. Joseph Schaklek : llanillexikon 
 der kalholischen Theologie, Regensburg, 188U sqq. 
 First volume finished 1881, to be completed in 
 4 vols. ; quite full, very well done. 
 
 V. Special Ecclesiastical ok Theologi- 
 cal Dictionaries. — C. Buck: A TheoUxjiral 
 Dictionary, London, 1802, 2 vols. 8vo., 1821, 1 vol., 
 edited and much improved by Rev. Dr. E. Hen- 
 derson, London, 1847, reprinted, Phila., 18(59 (a 
 book of permanent value, noted for its conciseness 
 and fairness) ; William Staunton : Diclionary 
 of the Church, N.l'., 1839, enlarged ed. under title 
 An Ecclesiastical Dictionarij, N.Y., 1804; Wil- 
 liam Farquhar Hook : .4 Church Dictionary, 
 London, 8tli ed., 1859, reprinted, Phila., 1854; 
 John Eadie: The Ecclesiastical CyclojHe(lia,hon- 
 don, 1861; John Henry Blunt: Dictionary of 
 Doctrinal and Historical Theoloyy, London, 1870, 
 2d ed., 1872 ; the same : Dictionary of Sects, Here- 
 sies, and Schools of Thought, London, 1874 (two 
 excellent volumes, written from the High-Cliurch 
 .stand-point); Dictionary of the Eui/lish Church, 
 Ancient and Modern, London and N.Y., 1881; 
 Addis and Arnold: Catholic Dictionary. 1884; 
 Benton : Church Cyclopcedia, Phila., 1884. 
 
 VI. Dictionaries of Christian History, 
 Antiquities, or Biography. — Siegel: Hand- 
 ibuch der christlich-kircldichen Alterthiimer, Leipzig, 
 1836-38, 4 vols. ; Chekuel: Dictionnaire historique, 
 Paris, 1855; W. D. Fuhrm.4NN: Handioiirterbuch 
 derchristlichen Religions- u. Kircliengeschichte, Halle, 
 1826-29, 3 vols. ; Neudecker : All gemeines Lexi- 
 con der Religions- ii. christlichen Kirchengeschichte, 
 Weimar, 1834-37, 5 vols. ; Martigny : Diction- 
 naire des antiquites chretiennes, Paris, 1865; J. 
 CoRBLET : Vocahidaire des symholes et des attributes 
 employes dans I'iconographie chrc'tienne, Paris, 1877; 
 Smith and Cheetham : Dictionary of Christian 
 Antiquities, London, 1875, 1880, 2 vols. ; S.mith 
 AND Wace : Dictionary of Christian Biography, 
 Literature, Sects, and Doctrines, London, vol. i., 
 1877, vol. ii., 1880, vol. iii., 1882, vol. iv., 1886. 
 The two works just mentioned are wonderfully 
 comprehensive in their respective fields, embra- 
 cing every proper and descriptive name of their 
 period, but cover only the first eight Christian 
 centuries. It is intended to follow them with 
 other volumes which shall continue this system- 
 atic analysis oi <;hurch characters and life to 
 modern times. F. X. Kraus : Real-Encyklopddie 
 der christlichen Alterthiimer, Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 
 1880 sqq. The illustrations are professedly taken 
 from Martigny, but the letterpress is original and 
 excellent. Samuel m. jackson. 
 
 DIDACHE. See end of voL L 
 
 DIDEROT, Denys, b. at Langres, in Cham- 
 pagne, Oct. 5, 1713 ; d. in Paris, July 30, 1784 ; 
 was educated in the Jesuit college of his native 
 city; studied law for a short time, and tlien en- 
 gaged in literature in general. He began with 
 translations of the English deists, and then be- 
 came a preacher of deism himself. In 1746 he 
 published his Pensees Philosophiques ; but the first 
 work in which he proved himself an original 
 
 thinker was his Letter on the Blind, 1749. It 
 was, however, a little too sharp for the taste of 
 the time : he was prosecuted, and put in the 
 dungeon of Vincennes for three months. Here 
 he conceived the idea of the great work of his 
 life, the Enci/clopedie, of which the first volume 
 appeared in 1751, the last in 1772. In 1759 its 
 publication was forbidden; and D'Alembert, Tur- 
 got, and others of his most brilliant collaborators, 
 left him. Aided only by mediocrities, and com- 
 pelled to employ all kinds of shifts in order to 
 avoid the interference of the police, he finished 
 the work alone and with enormous toil. He was 
 not exhausted, however. Besides the Encyclo- 
 pedic, he has written a multitude of comedies, 
 criticisms, spirited improniiitus {Regrets on my 
 old Dressing-goicn), philosophical controversies 
 (D'Alemhert's Dream), etc. The collected edition 
 of his works, by Asse'zat and Tourneux, Paris, 
 1877, comprises twenty volumes ; his correspond- 
 ence with Grimm, Paris, 1829, fifteen volumes. 
 Diderot was not a dogmatical philosopher, but a 
 critic; and his criticism, though in many respects 
 excellent, whether it treats of art or science, has 
 often an aphoristic character. But, in spite of the 
 almost total absence of positive propositions, the 
 informing tendency of this criticism is nowhere 
 doubtful : it is a somewhat coarse materialism, 
 tinged with a very prosaic sentimentalism and a 
 rather low-bred humor, — a character very fre- 
 quently met with among the philanthropic athe- 
 ists or atheistic philanthropists of the eighteenth 
 century. 
 
 DlDYMUS.called "the Blind," b. in Alexandria, 
 308; d. there 395; became blind in the fourth 
 or fifth year of his age, according to Jerome and 
 Palladius, but became, nevertheless, one of the 
 most learned men of his time. He was one of 
 the last directors of the catechetical school of 
 Alexandria, laboring there for more than fifty 
 years. Jerome, Palladius, Ambrose of Alexandria, 
 Evagrius, Isidore of Pelusium, etc., were among 
 his pupils. Though he fought with great zeal 
 against the Arians, he was condemned as a heretic 
 by the second council of Nice, because he defended 
 the Xlspi upxCii' of Origen. Of his many writings, 
 — of which a complete list is given by Jerome, De 
 Vir. III., and by Fabricus, BiUioth. Grceca, v., 
 viii., — only the following have come down to us. 
 
 I. A work on the Trinity, translated by Jerome, 
 and found among his works, and published sep- 
 arately at Cologne, lool, and at Ilelmstadt, 1614. 
 See J. Basnage: Animadcersiones in. Didymum. 
 
 II. A short commentary on the canonical and 
 Catholic epistles, translated into Latin by Epi- 
 phanius Scholasticus, and found in Max. Bibt. 
 Pair., Lyons, 1677, Tom. iv. p. 319. III. Frag- 
 ments of a Greek work against the Manicheans, 
 given by Basnage, I.e. IV. Three books on the 
 Trinity, discovered by Aloysius Mingarelli, and 
 published by his brother, Rome, 1764. See 
 GuERicKE : /)e Schola Alexandrina, i. 92-97; ii. 
 83-96, 332-377. herzog. 
 
 DIDYMUS, Gabriel, b. at Joachimsthal, in Bo- 
 hemia, 1487; d. 1558. He studied in Prague and 
 Wittenberg; entered the order of the Augustines 
 in 1502, and was ordained a priest in 1513, but 
 embraced the Reformation in 1521. He was one 
 of those vehement characters which it often 
 proved difficult for Luther to manage. He fol-
 
 DIEPENBROCK. 
 
 638 
 
 DIETRICH. 
 
 lowed Carlstadt in his eccentric attack on the 
 schools and universities ; and, though he after- 
 wards was brought to repentance by Luther, he 
 left Wittenberg, and was minister, first at Alten- 
 burg, then at Torgau, from which latter position 
 he was dischai-ged by ^laurice of Saxony, on 
 account of his opposition to the Interim of Leip- 
 zig, in 1549. He afterwards lived in retirement. 
 See Terxe : Nachi-ichl von des G. Didi/mus fatalem 
 Leben, Leipzig. 1737. ' HERZOG. 
 
 DIEPENBROCK, Melchior, b. Jan. 6, 1798, at 
 Bocholt, in the principality of Salm-Salm ; d. at 
 Johannesberg, in Austrian Silesia, Jan. 20, 1853. 
 As a boy he was remarkable for the exuberance 
 of his spirits. lie was sent from one educational 
 institution to another, no teacher being able to 
 curb his feeling of independence. Even from 
 the military scliool of Bonn he was dismissed for 
 insubordination, and, after serving for some time 
 as a lieutenant iu the Prussian army, he was 
 advised by his superiors to resign his position. 
 But an incidental meeting with Sailer, in 1817, 
 changed his character at once and completely. 
 He began to study theology ; was ordained priest 
 in 1823; and lived for several years with Sailer, 
 as his secretary. He studied especially the medi- 
 eval mystics, gave out an edition of the works 
 of Suso (1829), and published a volume of reli- 
 gious poetry, Geistiit-her Bliilhenstrauss. In 1815 he 
 was elected Prince-bishop of Breslau. The rela- 
 tion between the Prussian Government and the 
 Roman-Catholic Church was at that period very 
 cordial. The government found a valuable aid 
 in the church against the liberal aspirations of 
 the people ; and more than once it was Diepen- 
 brock who finally carried tlirough the govern- 
 ment's schemes of taxation and other measures 
 by his pastoral letters to his flock. In 18.50 he 
 was made a cardinal. See his Life by FoERSTKn, 
 Breslau, 1859, and J. H. Reixkexs, Leipzig, 1881. 
 
 DIES IR/t. The opening words of one of the 
 most celebrated Latin liynnis from the middle 
 ages, still used in the Rouian-Catholic Church 
 at funeral services. It was probably written by 
 Thomas of Celano iu the miildleof the thirteenth 
 century, and sprung from Zejih. i. 15 (see the 
 Vulgate), and Ps. xcvi. 13, xcvii. 3, cii. 20, etc. 
 Suggestions from earlier judgment-hymns seem 
 also to have been worked into the fabric. Trans- 
 lations of it in all civilized languages may be 
 counted by the hundreds ; bnt none equals the 
 original. Dr. Schaff {Clirhl in iiunr/, Loudon ed., 
 1870, p. 290) tlius characterizes this remarkable 
 hymn : " The secret of the irresistible power of the 
 Dies Irie lies in the awful grandeur of the theme, 
 the intense earnestness and pathos of the poet, the 
 simple majesty and solemn nnisic of its language, 
 the stately metre, tlie triple rhyme, and the vowel 
 assonances chosen in striking adaptation to the 
 sense, all combining to produce an overwhelm- 
 ing effect, as if we lieard tlie final crash of the 
 universe, the commotion of the opening graves, 
 the trumpet of the archangel that summons the 
 quick and the dead, and iis if we saw the ' King 
 of tremendous majesty' seated on the throne of 
 justice and mercy, and ready to dispense ever- 
 lasting life or everla.sting woe." 
 
 See V. G. Li.soo ; Vie.i Ira:, Berlin, 1810; H. A. 
 Daniel: T/ienuurus Ili/mnoloyicus, Leipzig, 18.55, 
 JI. 1U3-131, V. 110-110; AuKAUAM Colk: Diet 
 
 IrcE in Thirteen Orir/inal Vejsions, New York, 4th ed. . 
 1866 ; 77(e Secen Great Ilijmns of the Meili(eval 
 C/i iirrJ>, New York, 3d ed., 1867. 1'he best English 
 translations are by Irons, Alford, Trench, Cole, 
 and Dix, the latest is by Charles Elliott. D.D., 
 published in The Standard, Chicago, Feb. 24, 1881. 
 
 DIESTEL, Ludwig von, a German theologian 
 of the liberal school in Old-Testament exegesis ; 
 b. Sept. 28, 1825; d. May 1.5, 1879. He was edu- 
 cated at Konigsberg, Berlin, and Bonn ; in the 
 latter university he was privatdoceut (1851), aud 
 then extraordinary professor of theology (1858) 
 until 1862, when he went to Greifswald as ordi- 
 nary professor. He subsequently was called to 
 Jena, 1867, and to Tiibingen, 1872, where he died. 
 His best work is the Geachichte des Alten Testa- 
 ments in der christlichen Kirche, Jena, 1868, a full 
 history of Old-Testament exegesis down to the 
 present time. 
 
 DIET (Latin dies, day). The earliest diets of 
 the German or Holy Roman Empire were assem- 
 blies in which the emperor discussed with his 
 subjects the common interests of the empire. 
 Originally all members were bound by their 
 feudal tenure to be present : absence cost them 
 not only their votes, but also rendered them liable 
 to fine. Thus the diet was a feudal, not a repre- 
 sentative, parliament. But, since gradually the 
 feudatories of the emperor became independent 
 sovereigns, the diet was at last a mere congress 
 of princes, in which the emperor, instead of pre- 
 siding in person, was represented by a delegate, 
 called "principal commissarius,"and to which the 
 princes sent envoys; the right of suffrage belong- 
 ing, not to individuals, but to certain territories 
 or districts. The diets consisted of three bodies, 
 who met and voted in separate colleges : (1) The 
 electoral college; (2) The princes of the empire, 
 spiritual and temporal; (3) The free imperial 
 cities. When the three colleges agreed, the de- 
 cree, or recess as it was called, was submitted to- 
 the imperial sanction ; but the emperor had no 
 power to modify it. The diet met regularly twice 
 a year, — in the spring, to discuss general matters ; 
 in the autumn, finance. From 1663 it met in 
 Regensburg. The power of the dii't steadily de- 
 clined after the Thirti,-- Years' War (1018-48). 
 The diets of great religious importance — for re- 
 ligion, of course, was a topic of discu.ssion — are 
 Worms (1.521), which issued an edict of outlawry 
 against Lutlier ; Spires (1520), which allowed 
 choice of religion to the several states; Spires 
 (1529), at which the name "Protestant" origi- 
 nated; Augsburg (1530), where the famous Con- 
 fession was presented; Augsburg (1555), famous 
 for the " Religious I'eace of Augsburg," which 
 regulated thi' civil relations of the Lutherans. 
 
 DIETRICH, Veit ( Vitus Theodorus, or Theo- 
 doricus), b. at Nuremberg, 1500; d. there March 
 24, 1.519; studied theology at Wittenberg, and 
 became the amanuensis of l^uther in 1527, and 
 preacher to the Church of St. Sebaldus in Nurem- 
 berg, in 15.30. He translated into (Jernian, aiul 
 edited, a number of Luther's and IMclanchthon's 
 minor writings; wrote sermons and hynnis and 
 iin Ai/nidltiic/dcin f'iir die I'farrherrn an (I d em Land 
 (1513) ; and maintained a lively correspondence 
 with all the most i>rominent of the Reformers. 
 See SriionEi, : yuchric/Uen von Uem Leben vnd 
 Hchri/len, V. D., Niiruberg, 1772.
 
 DIETRICH. 
 
 639 
 
 DIOCESE. 
 
 DIETRICH OF NIEM, b. at Niem, or Niehoim, 
 in Westphalia, between 1338 and 1348 ; became 
 Scriptor AiiDalfilifua in the papal cliancelry in 
 Avignon, 1371 ; followed Gregory XI. to Rome 
 in 1377, and held the position there of papal 
 prothonotary and abbreviator, until 1118, after 
 'S'hich time nothing is known abont him. See 
 H. V. Saukrland: Lcben des Die/rich von Nie- 
 heim, Gdttingen, 1875 ; Lenz : Drei Traklate, 
 Marburg, 1870. According to Lenz, tlie follow- 
 ing works are by Dietrich of Niem : De modia 
 uniendi ac refoniiandi eccleaiam in concllio un'wer- 
 sali, though it is printed by Hardt, in ISUujnum 
 CEc. Concilium ConsUint. II., as a work of Ger- 
 son ; and Aoisamenta pulcherrima de necessita/e ref- 
 ormationis in capite el in membris, printed by Hardt, 
 I.e., as a work of Ailli. P. tsch.vckert. 
 
 DIEU, Louis de (Lodewyk), b. at VUessingen, 
 April 7, 1590 ; d. at Leyden, Dec. 22, 1012 ; was 
 appointed pastor at Middelburg in 1613, and at 
 VUessingen in 1617, and professor at the A\'al- 
 loon College, in Leyden, in 1619. He was a 
 distinguished Orientalist, and published a Com- 
 pendium HebneiccE Gnnnmalica:, Leyden, 1626 ; 
 Grammatica Trilinguis, Hehraica, Syriacci, el Chal- 
 daica, Leyden, 1628 ; and a Persian grammar, 
 1639. His extensive knowledge of Oriental lan- 
 guages and history he applied with success to the 
 exegesis of the Bible. Hi.s exegetical writings 
 were published in Amsterdam, 1693, collected 
 under the title of Critica Sacra. 
 
 DIQBY, Sir Kenelm, b. at Gothurst, Bucking- 
 hamshire, Eng., June 11, 1603; d. in London, 
 June 11, 1665. Educated in the Protestant reli- 
 gion, in Paris he became (1636) a Roman Catho- 
 lic, as his father had been, after he had been 
 graduated from Oxford (1621), been knighted by 
 Charles I., and given various high positions. On 
 his return to England (1638), he joined the Royal- 
 ist side ; was imprisoned by order of Parliament ; 
 was released by request of the French queen- 
 dowager, and in 1043 retired to France, where he 
 formed an intimacy with Descartes, and wrote his 
 Treatise on the Nature of Bodies (London, 1644), 
 Peripatelick Institutions (London, 1646), Treatise on 
 the Soul (London, 1669). By the friendship of 
 Cromwell he was permitted to live in England. 
 At the Restoration he returned to London; was 
 one of the first council of the Royal Society. His 
 other works are : A Conference about a Choice of 
 Religion, Paris, 1636, London, 16.54 (justifying 
 his conversion); Letters (on the same subject), 
 London, 1651; Obserrations on licligio Medici, Lon- 
 don, 1643 ; ^-1 Treatise of Adhering to God, London, 
 1654 ; On the Cure of Wounds bg the Powder of 
 Sgmpathg, London, 1658 (one of liis curious hob- 
 bies), bee I'/ie Private Memoirs of Sir K. Digbg, 
 written bg himself, London, 1827. 
 
 DIMAN, Jeremiah Lewis, D.D., b. at Bristol, 
 R.I., May 1, 1831; d. at Providence, R.I., Feb. 
 3, 1881. He was graduated from Brown Lhii- 
 versity. Providence, R.I., 1851 ; studied privately 
 for a year; entered the Theological Seminary at 
 Andover, Mass., completed the junior and middle 
 years; went to Europe, 1854; studied in Halle 
 and Berlin ; returned, 1856 ; was ordained in the 
 Congregational Church ; pastor, first at Fall River, 
 Mass., 1856-60, and then at Brookline, Mass., 
 1860-64. In 1864 he was inaugurated professor 
 of history and political economy in Brown Uni- 
 
 versity, and held the position at his death. Pro- 
 fessor Diman was a ripe scholar and a most 
 catholic Christian. After his death, two books, 
 made up of his lectures and sermons, appeared ; 
 The Thcistic Argument, and Orations and Essags 
 [and sermons], with Memorial Discourse, hy J. 0. 
 Murray, D.D., both Boston, 1881. 
 
 DIMISSORY LETTERS (litcrte dimis.wria; or 
 ditnissorialis) is the name of a kind of documents 
 by which a person belonging to the jurisdiction 
 (diocese, congregation) of a certain ecclesiastic 
 is by him formally permitted to withdraw from 
 his authority, either forever (litene dimissoriw 
 perpetu(e), or for a particular purpose, such as 
 ordination (lilcra: dimissorim temporales). 
 
 DIMCZRITES (from iiiioipia, two-thirds) is the 
 name of the adherents of Apollinaris the Youngei', 
 so called, because, in the person of Christ, they 
 recognized oidy two human elements, — the i'f tv 
 uloyoc, and the body; the divine Logos taking the 
 place of the vov^, tlie 'ivxn AoyiKii. Sozomen (Hist. 
 EccL, VI. 25) calls them Vitalians from Vitalis, 
 their bishop in Antioch; and Facundus of Iler- 
 mione (Pro Defensione trium Capilulorum, Paris, 
 1079), Synousiastes, because they taught that the 
 flesh of Christ was of an eternal and heavenly 
 nature, forming one substance with his godhead'. 
 The last name, howevei', is applicable only to one 
 of the two parties of Apollinarists, the Polenii- 
 ans, thus called from their leader Polemo, \\ho, 
 according to Photius (^Bibl. Cod., CCXXX.), de- 
 clared that the doctrine of two natures in Christ 
 wa.s a mere invention by Athanasius, the two 
 Gregories, Basil the Great, and the Italian bish- 
 ops. The other party, the Valentinians, tlius 
 called from Valentinus, who is said to have kept 
 very closely to the doctrines of Apollinaris (Theo- 
 doret., Hcer., IV. 8, 9), held the very opposite 
 views. Augustine's division of the sect (De dono 
 perseverantice, 69) — into those who recognize no 
 soul in Christ, those who recognize no rational 
 soul, and those wlio consider the divine Logos 
 itself transformed into flesh — is consequently 
 not fully correct. nKRZOG. 
 
 DINANT, or DINANTO, David of. See David 
 OF Dinanto. 
 
 DINTER, Gustav Friedrich, b. at Borna, in 
 Saxony, Feb. 29, 1760; d. at Konigsberg, May 
 29, 1831; studied theology and philosophy at 
 Leipzig, and was appointed pastor of Kitscher 
 (1787), and director of the normal college of Dres- 
 den, in 1797. For the sake of his health he left 
 Dresden in 1807, and settled as pastor of Gornitz, 
 where he founded a normal school and business 
 college. The school was very successful ; and in 
 1816 he was called to Konigsberg as professor of 
 theology, and president of the board of education. 
 He was a very prolific writer, and a rationalist 
 every inch ; but he was a man of great tact, and 
 never touched the vulgar, or made fuss about the 
 unnecessary. His Schullehrerbibel (Bible for the 
 Schoolmasters) is the most widely known of his 
 productions, and caused much controversy. See 
 ScHW.\BE : Zur Geschichte der Schidlehrerbibel, 
 etc., Xeustadt-on-the-Oder, 1826; Hoffmann: 
 Uber Werth und Brauchbarkeil d. D. Schullehrer- 
 bibel, Bunzlau, 1828. His Autobiography (Neu- 
 stadt-on-the-Oder, 1829) gives insight both into 
 his character and his system. 
 
 DIOCESE ((iioifc7/(7if). It was quite natural that
 
 DIOCLETIAN. 
 
 640 
 
 DIODORUS. 
 
 the civil division of the empire, which Constan- 
 tine undertook, into dioceses, and the dioceses 
 again into provinces, shoidd be transferred to the 
 church, so that each diocese was placed under an 
 exarch or patriarch, and each province under a 
 metropolitan. In the course of time, however, the 
 name "diocese" changed its meaning, and was 
 applied, from the beginning of the ninth century, 
 to any territorial circumscription of ecclesiastical 
 authority, but more especially to the episcopal. 
 The earliest name for a bishop's see was parish 
 (jTa(ioih.ia). The right of founding or changing 
 dioceses belonged, after the fourth century, to 
 the metropolitan and the provincial synod (f. 50, 
 Can. XVI. qu. I. [Cone. Carthag., II. o. 390, c. 5] 
 c. 51, ead. \_Conc. Cart/tar/., III. a. 397, c. 20]); 
 but in the Western Church it was, after the 
 eleventh century, reserved to the Pope, like all 
 other causce episcopates (c. 1. X. de Ininslatiune 
 episcopi. I. 7, Innocent. III. a. llliS). 
 
 DIOCLETIAN, or DIOCLETIANUS, Caius Au- 
 relius Valerius, Roman emperor, 284-305; was 
 b. at Salona, in Dalmatia, 245 (the son of a 
 freedman), and d. there 313, having committed 
 suicide by poison. He entered the army as a 
 simple soldier, but rose rapidly, and was elected 
 emperor at Chalcedon. after the assassination 
 of Cams and Xumerianus. lie took up his resi- 
 dence at Nicomedia, and appointed JIaximian 
 co-eraperor (Augustus) in 280, and Galerius and 
 Constantius Chlorus, Caesars in 292. In the be- 
 ginning of his reign he paid no particular atten- 
 tion to the Cliristians : they were found in the 
 army, the administration, and in the very palace. 
 But Galerius, who was wholly in the hands of 
 the Pagan priests, persuaded liim that the total 
 destruction of Christianity was necessai'y to the 
 preservation of the empire ; and in 303 the per- 
 secution began suddenly and violently. An 
 imperial edict of Feb. 24 ordered the Cliristian 
 service to cease, all copies of the Bible to be sur- 
 rendered and burnt, and all Cliristian church- 
 buildings to lie jiulled down. Another edict 
 ordered all Cliristians who held offices in the 
 administration or in the army to sacriftce to the 
 gods under penalty of discharge ; and it declared 
 that a Christian had no rights as a citizen or free 
 man, tliata Cliristian slave could never be manu- 
 mitted, etc. A third edict of the same year 
 ordered, that, of the Christians who had been 
 imprisoned, those who were willing to sacri- 
 fice should be released, while those who refused 
 should be compelled by force. Finally, a fourth 
 edict of 304 ordered that all Christians, without 
 any exceptions, should be compelled to sacrifice ; 
 and the employment of tortures of all kinds was 
 allowed. The effect of these edicts was really 
 startling. Among the Christians a great num- 
 ber hastened to surrender their books, to deny 
 their faith, and sacrifice to the. idols ; but a still 
 greater mmibcr remained firm and faithful in 
 spile of the nick, even in spite of death. Among 
 tlie I'agans many magistrates were very lenic-nt, 
 conniving at the various artifices which some 
 Christians employed, and looking with disgust 
 at the strange excitement uiuh^r which others 
 pressed towards martyrdom, lint in other places 
 the wildest fanaticrism ami the basest forms of 
 hatred and revenge were let loose, and the Chris- 
 tians suffered unspeakably. The persecution 
 
 spreail over the whole empire, with the exception 
 of the north-western part, where Constantius 
 Chlorus contented himself with the destruction 
 of the church-buildings ; and it continued un- 
 abated, also, after the abdication of Diocletian 
 and Maximian in 3u5. Towards the close of his 
 life (311) Galerius issued an edict in which he 
 confessed tliat his whole policy with respect to 
 the Christians had been a failure, that he had 
 decided to give it up, and to return to status quo 
 ante, etc. But Maximinus and Maxentius, the 
 son of JIaximianus, renewed the persecution ; 
 and it was onlj' the victories of Constantine, the 
 son of Constantius Chlorus, which finally brought 
 it to an end. 
 
 Lit. — EusEBics : Hist. Eccl., chap. VUI. ; 
 Lactaxtius : De Morlihus Persecutorum, chap. 
 VH. sqq. ; Gibbon: Decline and Fall, etc., chap. 
 XIII. ; A. VoGEi, : Der Kaiser Diokietian, Gotha, 
 1857 ; [Mason : The Persecution of Diocletian, 
 Cambridge, 1870]. ALBRECIIT VOGEL. 
 
 DIODATI, Giovanni, b. at Geneva, June 6, 
 1.370 ; d. there Oct. 3, 1649'; was made professor 
 of Hebrew, in Geneva, 1597, in 160!) professor of 
 theology, succeeding Beza, and resigned in 1645. 
 He attended the synod of Dort as a delegate from 
 Geneva, and was one of the committee of six 
 ajipointed to draw up the account of its proceed- 
 ings. He translated Sarpi's History of the Coun- 
 cil of Trent into French, and ahso published an 
 Italian translation of the Bible (1603) which is 
 still much used in Italy, though it is a paraphrase 
 rather than a translation ; and a French transla- 
 tion (1644). Of his va^-ious theological works 
 tiie best known is Annotattones in Biblia (1607), 
 translated into English, Pious and Learned Anno- 
 tations upon the Holy Bible, plainly Expounding the 
 7nost Difficult Places thereof London, 1648, 3d ed. 
 (and best), 1651, folio. See ScnoxKi. : .T. Diodafi, 
 1844 ; E. DE Bi'DE ; /. D., Lausanne, 1879. 
 
 DIODORUS, Presbyter of Antioch. consecrated 
 Bishop of Tarsus 378 ; d. in 394 : was. as an 
 exegetist, one of the masters of the .\ntiochian 
 school, and in dogmatic re.spects its founder. He 
 descended from a distinguished family in An- 
 tioch, and studied classical literature in Athens, 
 and Christian lore under Eusebius of Emesa 
 (Jeuome: Vir. III., c. 119). Thus equipped, he 
 commenced on the great work of his life, — to 
 defend the faith of the ortliodox church, and to 
 reali/.e the ascetic ideal of Christian virtue. A 
 walking skeleton, looking more like a shadow 
 than a man, lie moved around among the tumul- 
 tuous stir of Antioch, where Pagans and Jews 
 and Christian lieretics of every descri]>tion met 
 and mixed together, fighting each other at all 
 other points, but ]>erfectly agn^ed in their attacks 
 on th(^ orthodo.x church. He had, however, vigor 
 and strength enough to take it up witli them all; 
 and the zeal and success wilh which he combated 
 I'latonists and Porphyriaiis, Manicha-ans and 
 ApoUinarists, etc., made his name one of the 
 most revered and most feared in the Eastern 
 Church. 
 
 Curiously enough, however, although during 
 the ascendency of the. .\rians in Antioch hewrought 
 persistently to keep together the remnants of the 
 orthodox churcli, assembling with them for wor- 
 ship in all kinds of secret i>laces, and, when even 
 that became impossible, visiting them one by one
 
 DIOGNBTUS. 
 
 641 
 
 DIONYSIUS AREOPAGITA. 
 
 in their houses ; although the Council of Con- 
 stantinople (•581) appointed him who was only 
 Bisliop o£ Tarsus Metropolitan of Cilicia (So- 
 CRAT. : IliM. JCcc/., 5, 8), and an imperial ediot 
 {Cod. T/ieos., I. XVI., tit. 1, I. 3) mentions him a.s 
 the fourth of those bishops who were to give judg- 
 ment in any question of orthodoxy ; although he 
 ■was a friend of Basil the Great, and numbered 
 Chrysostom among his pupils, — hardly fifty years 
 elapsed after his death before tlie .shadow of 
 heresy fell upon his own name. Tlie Nestorian 
 controversy was the cause. In harmony with the 
 whole tendency of the Autiochian school, and 
 eager to emphasize every thing human in Christ 
 in opposition to the strained idealism of the 
 Alexandrian school, he developed, in his contro- 
 versy with Apollinaris, a theory of the relation 
 between the two natures in Christ which sjilit 
 the God-Man into two persons, the Son of God 
 dwelling in the son of David as in a house or in 
 a garment. The two works of his relating to this 
 subject are Tlpdc tovc avvmctaaTu; and Uepl lov dyimi 
 ■mev/iaTo; (Phot. : Bibl. Cud., 102) ; fragments of 
 the former work in Marius Mercator (ed. Baluze, 
 p. 349) and Leontius Byzantinus (Neslor. el 
 Eutych., 1, 3, in Canis. lectiones antiques, edit. 
 Basnage, I. p. 591). A view so singularly me- 
 chanical could, of course, not satisfy the more 
 daveloped christological demands. Already 
 Cyril of Alexandria (432) tried to have the 
 ■writings of Diodorus and his pupil Theodore 
 of Mopsuestia condemned; and the condemna- 
 tion actually took place in 499. 
 
 Diodorus' works have dogmatic interest also 
 on other points. He is the founder of the cosmo- 
 logical argument for the existence of God (Jlepi 
 cifiapfiii'ric, Phot.: Bibl. Cud., 228); he opposed 
 the doctrine of everlasting punishment (IIcp; 
 oi/iomfilas, in AssEMANi : BihI. Orient., III. 1, 
 p. 324), etc. As an exegete he followed and 
 further developed the principle of the Antiochian 
 school ; which article see. The twenty-three 
 fragments on Exodus, published by Pitra, Spici- 
 leg. Solesmeni, Paris, 1852, I. p. 269, are not of 
 any great interest. A complete list of the works 
 ■of Diodorus has been given by Suidas (ed. Bern- 
 hardy, I. p. 1379), by the Nestorian metropolitan, 
 Ebed Jesu (Assemax. : Biil. Orient., III. l,p. 28), 
 and by Fabricius (BiOl. Grcec, ed. Harles., IX. 
 p. 277). SEMISCH. 
 
 DIOGNETUS, The Epistle to, one of the most 
 precious relics from Christian antiquity, hardly 
 equalled, either in spirit or form, by any other 
 work from the post-apostolic age. It is not the 
 novelty, however, nor the richness of its ideas, 
 nor the depith of its dogmatic expositions, nor 
 the acuteness of its apologetic argumentation, 
 which secures this prominent place to it. In all 
 these respects it is not beyond the average, and 
 in man}' points it approaches very near to heresy. 
 The extraordinary charm which it exercises 
 springs from the noble simplicity of a faith 
 which grasps the divine truth of Christianity as 
 an inner experience, and from the perfect, clas- 
 sical education, which, in bold and striking but 
 fully harmonious expressions, bears witness to 
 this fact. The author does not share in the nairete 
 of the faith of the apostolic fathers, nor has he 
 any interest in an elaborate speculation. His 
 theological stand-point is that of the transition 
 42-1 
 
 when faith and knowledge, though still essen- 
 tially one, are just about to break away from 
 each other. 
 
 With respect to its form, the epistle is an 
 answer to a series of questions put forward by 
 Diognetus, a distinguished and educated I'agan, 
 concerning Christianity and the Christians ; but, 
 in his rapid sketch of Christian life and doctrine, 
 the author makes no pretension to reveal the 
 deeper Christian mysteries. The author himself 
 is unknown. In the oldest nianu.script, from the 
 thirteenth century, t)ut destroyed by the conflagra- 
 tion of Strassburg in 1870, the epistle was placed 
 with several (pretended) works of Justin, and 
 blunderingly ascribed to him. But tliat is impos- 
 sible. The style of the epistle and the style of 
 the genuine works of Justin cannot belong to 
 the same person. Still greater, perhaps, is the 
 discrepancy of ideas. The epistle speaks of the 
 Pagan gods as mere idols made by human hands; 
 while Justin considers them as symbols, or even 
 real apparitions, of demonic powers. The epistle 
 gives a very harsh and sweeping verdict on Juda- 
 ism, denying its divine origin, its character of 
 revelation, and the ethical worth of its institu- 
 tions ; while Justin places the Old and the New 
 Testament in providential connection with each 
 other. The date of the epistle is undoubtedly 
 the second century, though no external witnesses 
 bear testimony. The newness of Christianity, 
 and the ignorance of it among educated Pagans ; 
 the predominant feeling among the Christians of 
 being strangers in this world, and the passionate 
 hatred to them among the Jews and the lower 
 classes of the Pagans ; the steadily growing 
 church, and the increasing self-consciousness 
 among the Christians of being the leaven of the 
 world, — all the most prominent features of the 
 sketch pioint to the second century. 
 
 Lit. — The epistle was first published by 
 H. Stephanus, Strassburg, 1592, and recently by 
 Otto, in Opera Justini, 1843, 2d ed., 1849, and 
 with annotations separately, Jena, 1845, 2d ed., 
 Leipzig, 1852. New contributions to a critical 
 revision of the text have been given by IIollen- 
 liERG: Der Brief an Diognet, Berlin, 1853; Hefe- 
 le: Patr. Apust. Opp., ed. 4, Tubingen, 1855; 
 and Krenkel : Ep. ad Diognet, Leijizig, lb60. 
 — See, also, Grossheim : De Ep. ad Diog., 
 1828; Semisch: Justin d. jl/art., Breslau, 1840, 
 1842, 2 parts, I. p. 172 ; Snock : Intr. in ep. ad. 
 Diog., Leyden, 1861 ; Harnack : Patr. Aposl. 
 Opp., Leipzig, 1875, I. p. 214 ; [J. Dkaseke : Der 
 Brief an Diognetos, Leipzig, 1881. — An English 
 translation of the epistle is in the Ante-Nicent 
 Library, I. p. 303, Ediu., 1867.] SEMISCH. 
 
 DIONYSIUS AREOPAGITA, citizen of Athens, 
 and member of the Areopagus, was converted to 
 Christianity by Paul (Acts xvii. 34). According 
 to f^usebius {Hist. Ecd.. 3. 9, and Const. Apost., 
 7, 46), he was the first bishop of Athens; and a 
 later tradition tells us that he suffered martyr- 
 dom there. 
 
 At the conference held in Constantinople (533), 
 at the instance of Justinian, between the Ortho- 
 dox and the Severians, the latter quoted, among 
 other ecclesiastical authorities, also Dionysius 
 the Areopagite against the synod of Chalcedon; 
 and when the former objected that Athanasius 
 and Cyril certainly would have used such an
 
 DIONYSIUS AREOPAGITA. 642 DIONYSIUS OF ALEXANDRIA. 
 
 authority against Nestorius, if he had existed 
 and been kno-mi to them, the Severians asserted 
 that Cyril had actually quoted the works of 
 Dionysius in his books against Diodorus of Tar- 
 sus and Theodore of Mopsuestia, as might have 
 been seen from the copies of those books in the 
 libraries of Alexandria. The -works here referred 
 to are: I. Ufp' "/f oipavian kpacix'ia^ ("On the 
 Heavenly Hierarchy ") ; H. Ilfpi -w cKKAriaiaaTiKiK 
 iepapxiag'(" On the Ecclesiastical Hierarchy"); 
 
 III. Utpi -Snuv bvofiuTuv (■' On the Xames of God "); 
 
 IV. rifpi iniarmrj^ -d^oTioyia^ (" On Mystic Theolo- 
 gy ") ; and v., — ten letters (the eleventh is spu- 
 rious), all evidently belonging to the same author. 
 They are mentioned for the first time in the 
 records of the above conference ; but after that 
 time they are very frequently spoken of. Severus 
 himself, mouophysite patriarch of Antioch from 
 51-3, often quotes them, and so does Ephraim, 
 orthodox patriarch of Antioch from T:>2Q. Com- 
 mentaries upon them were written by Joannes 
 Scythopolitanus in the sixth century, and by 
 Maximus Confessor in the seventh. Pachymeres 
 paraphrased them in the thirteenth. In the 
 Greek Church they enjoyed, on the whole, a 
 great reputation, though the genuineness of their 
 authorship was not altogether undoubted. 
 
 In the Western Churcli, Gi'egory the Great is 
 the first who refers to these writings (Horn., 34, 
 in Ev. Luc); but when the Byzantine emperor, 
 Michael the Stammerer, sent a copy of them to 
 Louis the Pious in 827, they soon became better 
 known ; and after the invention of Abbot Hil- 
 duin, combining Dionysius the Areopagite, and 
 St. Denis the patron saint of the Franks, in one 
 person, they became quite celebrated. Joannes 
 Scotus Erigena translated them into Latin at the 
 instance of Charles the Bald, and he was him- 
 self deeply influenced by them. In the Western 
 Church, among the schoolmen, the Areopagite 
 became a leader towards mysticism, a teacher of 
 mystical theology. Hugo of St. Victor, .\lbertus 
 Magnus, Thomas Aquinas, Dionysius Carthu- 
 sianus, etc., drew their inspiratiou from him. 
 C'orderius has shown how much, for instance, 
 Thomas Aquinas owes to the Areopagite. The 
 Platouisls of tlie Italian renascence also appre- 
 ciated him very much, as did other humanists, 
 for instance, Jolm Colet, Dean of St. Paul's in 
 London, who were swayed by Dionysius" angelol- 
 ogy, not to speak of the poets, Dante, Milton, 
 etc. (Cf. Jo. Colclus super opera Dinni/sii. Two 
 Treatises on the llicrnrcliies nf Dioni/sius by Dean 
 Colet. Now Jir.ll pulitislifd with a Irnnslalion, intro- 
 duction anil tiolrs lnj ./. //. /.ujiton, London, 1SG9.) 
 
 The devclopuu^nt, liowever, of literary criti- 
 cism (Laurentius Valla, Erasmus, etc.), one of 
 the most prominent features of the period of the 
 renascence, could not help destroying, first the 
 invention of llilduin (the identification of Diony- 
 sius the Areopagite and St. Denis), and then the 
 glory of the apostolic date of the authorship. 
 Tlie internal evidences of a later date, besides 
 tlie total absence of mention or quotation up to 
 the conference of Constantinople (■"'•'}■(), were too 
 .striking and too strong, — the difference lictween 
 the pompous and infiated style of the writings 
 and the simjilicity of the apostolic ago; the use 
 of theological terms which were not formed until 
 the fourth century ; references to an elaborately 
 
 developed church ritual and church government; 
 allusions to later persons and events, as, for 
 instance, to the martyrdom of Ignatius, and to 
 " Clement the Pliilosopher " (Clemens Alexan- 
 drinus) : appeals to " ancient traditions," etc. 
 Even Roman-Catholic theologians (Sirmond, 
 Launoi, Jlorinus) gave in ; and the attempts of 
 the Jesuits (Halloix, Delrio, Xatalis Alexander, 
 Schelstrate, etc.) to vindicate the authorship of 
 Dionysius the Areopagite -nere easilj' met and 
 I'educed by Dallaeus, Le Nourry, etc. 
 
 The non-authorship of Dionysius the Areopa- 
 gite once agreed upon, the question arose, by 
 whom, then, and at what time, these works were 
 written ; and a number of hypotheses were prof- 
 fered, from that of Baumgarten-Crusius, placing 
 the author at Alexandria, in the third century, to 
 that of Westcott, placing him at Edessa, at the 
 beginning of the sixth century. The general 
 outcome, however, of the critical researches is, 
 that the philosophical, and more especially the 
 mystical, ideas expounded in these books pre- 
 suppose that later development of Neo-platonism 
 which was due to Proclus ; and. as Proclus died 
 485, the date of the authorsliip of the books 
 seems to coincide with the date of their first 
 notice. 
 
 Lit. — The works were first printed at Basel, 
 1539 (Greek). By P. Lansselius they were 
 edited (Greek and Latin), Paris, 1615. Tne best 
 edition is that by the Jesuit, Balthasar Corderius, 
 Antwerp, 1034 (containing the commentaries of 
 Maximus and the paraphrase of Pachymeres), 
 whicli was reprinted at Paris, 1(J44, Venice, 1755 
 (with augmented apparatus), Brixia;, 1854, and 
 by Migne. — Comp. L. G. V. Engeliiaedt : Die 
 angebl. Schriften d. A. D., Sulzbach, 1823, De Dion. 
 J'lotini:., Erlangen, 1820, and De On'yin Script. 
 Dion., Erlangen, 1823; B.4UMG.\UTE.N-CRrsu'S : 
 De Dion. A reopa//., Jena., 1S2'3; D.^mioY: CEuvres 
 de St. Deiiys, Paris, 1845; G. A. Meyeu : Dion. 
 .4reo;)a5., lialle, 1845; Biekm.\nn: De Christolog. 
 Dion. Arcopag., Vratisl., 1848; F. Hipler : 
 Dionys. der Areopag., 1861; [Westcott: Dion. 
 Areopag., in Contemporary Review, May, 1867]; 
 Joii. NiEMEYEU : Dion. Areop., Halle, 1869; 
 [Fowi.er: Dion., in Relation to Art, in the Sacristy, 
 February, 1872 ; J. K.\nakis : Dionysius der Are- 
 opagite nacli seinem Character als J'hilosoph ilar- 
 gestelll, Leipzig, 1881 (35 pp.)] W. MOLLER. 
 
 DIONYSIUS OF ALEXANDRIA, also called 
 //((' d'rtal, a pupil of Origen, succeeded Heraclas 
 in 232 as director of the catechetical school, and 
 in 247 as bishoji. \ few years later on (250) he 
 was overtaken by the Decian persecution. He 
 fled, as did Cyprian; but, unlike him, he did 
 not afterwards assume a severe attitude towards 
 those who liad become lapsi during the persecu- 
 tion. On the contrary, the mild discipline which 
 he exercised he defended both in letters to his 
 friends and colleagues, and, according to Ense- 
 bius (Ili.1t. ICcct., VL 46), in a separate book. 
 He was a man of a mild and kind temper; aiul 
 the position he occupied in the schism of Nova- 
 tian, in the controversy concerning heretical bap- 
 tism, etc., was th:it of a mediator. Dnring the 
 persecution of A'alerian he was banished (2.57), 
 first to Kephron in Litiya, and then to Kolhithian 
 in the Mareotis ; but the edict of (Jalienus (260) 
 allowed liini to return to Alexandria. In the
 
 DIONYSIUS OF CORINTH. 
 
 643 
 
 DISCALCEATI. 
 
 last part of his episcopacy the city was fearfully 
 devastated by uin'oar, murder, plague, and fam- 
 ine, of which a striking pictui-e is found in Euse- 
 bius, lli^t. EecL, Vn.'_>l2. 
 
 Dionysius is generally considered the most 
 prominent of Origen's pupils. lie opposed suc- 
 cessfully the chiliastic views revived by Nepos ; 
 and his critical comparison between the Gospel 
 and the Revelation by St. John is a model pro- 
 duction of the older Alexandrian school. His 
 opposition to Sabellianism was less successful : 
 he stood on the very verge of heresy, but re- 
 treated safely through a liook dedicated to Diony- 
 sius of Rome. Of his many works, polemical, 
 ascetic, exegetical, and apologetical, only frag- 
 ments have come down to us. Most of these are 
 found in Euskbius : Ilis/. Eccl., VII. They have 
 been collected by (iALlandi: Bibl. Vet. Pair., 111. 
 p. 481, by KouTii ; Rillqnm Sacra, Oxford, 1814, 
 II. and IV. Cf. FIIrstku : De doclrina D. M., Ber- 
 lin,lS65; Dittkicii: Dionysius,Vve\h., 1867; Roch: 
 D."iiU'rilie Nalur," Leipzig, lSH-2. WEIZSACKER. 
 
 DIONYSIUS OF CORINTH became bishop of 
 that city in 170, and wrote eight letters, — to the 
 Lacediemoniaus, Athenians, Nicomedians, etc., — 
 which enjoyed a great reputation in tlieir time, 
 and are greatly praised by Jerome. They are 
 lost, however ; and only fragments of them have 
 been preserved by Eusebius : Hist. Eccl., iv. 23. 
 
 DIONYSIUS OF ROME, bishop, 259-269, suc- 
 ceeded Xystus, having been presbyter of the 
 Roman Church under Stephen. He was a 
 Greek by birth, and maintained a lively connec- 
 tion with the Greek Church. When Dionysius 
 of Alexandria, in his controversy with the Sabel- 
 lians, went too far in the opposite direction, and 
 defined the nature of the Son as a mere creation, 
 Dionysius of Rome stepped forward, and com- 
 pelled him to retract. Afterwards the two 
 Dionysii, of Rome and Alexandria, acted in uni- 
 son against Paul of Samosata in the councils of 
 Constantinople (264 and 269). 
 
 DIONYSIUS EXIGUUS (" the Little "), a Scythi- 
 an by birth, but one of the most conspicuous and 
 influential men of the Latin Church in the sixth 
 century ; acquired his vast learning in Rome, and 
 d. there, ;is abbot of a monastery, 556. He trans- 
 lated a number of Greek works into Latin : Ra- 
 TERius : EpiKtola Pcuschalis, Vita St. Packomii; 
 Proclus : Laudatlonem in Murium, and his epistle 
 to the Armenian clergy; Gregouy of Nyss.\ : 
 De condidone hominia, etc. But that which has 
 made his name most famous is his collection of 
 canons and decretals (see Canon Luw), and his 
 Ci/clus Puschalis, which forms the basis of the 
 Christian or Diouysian era. See Era. 
 
 DIONYSIUS THE CARTHUSIAN, also called 
 Rickil, from his birthplace, or Leniris, the name 
 of his family, was b. in 1403, in the diocese of 
 Liege, the present Belgian Limburg ; studied 
 theology and philosophy in Cologne, and entered 
 in 1423 the Carthusian Monastery of Roerraonde, 
 where he d. in 1471. He boasted of his iron 
 stomach, which allowed him to practise the 
 severest ascetical exercises, and of his iron head, 
 which enabled him to write more than one hun- 
 dred works. He also boasted of receiving divine 
 inspirations and revelations, on account of which 
 he enjoyed a great reputation, obtained the title 
 of Doctor Ecstaticu.<i, and was taken into the 
 
 intimacy of kings and kaisers. But when his 
 chief work — Enarrutiones, or Cummenlurii on the 
 whole Bible, a heap of quotations from the 
 Fatliers and mystico-allegorical trifles — was 
 printed at Cologne (in 7 vols., 1530-36), in order 
 to be used as a thunderbolt against the Re- 
 formers, it proved entirely ineffectual. His Life, 
 written by a brother Carthusian, Theodorich 
 Loer, was published at Cologne (1532), and is 
 found in Act. Sanct., March 12, Tom. II. p. 275. 
 Some information about his ecstasies is given by 
 Dorlaudus in his Chronicon Carthusiense, Cologne, 
 1608. nERZOG. 
 
 DIOSCUROS succeeded Cyril, in 444, as Bishop 
 of Alexandria, and presided in 449 over the so- 
 called Robber synod at Ephesus, which deposed 
 Flavian, Patriarch of Constantinople, but was 
 himself condemned and deposed by the cecumeni- 
 cal council of Chalcedon (457), and banished to 
 Gangra, Paphlagonia, where he died, 4.54. See 
 EuTYCiiES and EriiESus. 
 
 DIPPEL, Johann Konrad (C/iristianus Deinocri- 
 /!«), b. at Frankenstein, Aug. 10, 1673; d. at 
 Witgenstein, April 25, 1734; represents a curious 
 mixture of rationalism and mysticism, frivolity 
 and pietism. After studying at Giessen, he went, 
 in 1693, first to Wittenberg, and thence to Strass- 
 burg, where he lectured on alchemy and chiro- 
 mancy, and preached against the pietists, but 
 was expelled on account of debt and disorderly 
 conduct. In 1677 he published, under the pseudo- 
 nyme of Christianus Democritiis, his Orthodoxia Or- 
 thudoxorum, in 1698 his Pupimnus Protestanlium 
 vaputans, and in 1699 his Wein uitd Oel in die 
 Wunden dcs (/estuubten Papstthuins ; but these 
 books in which he rejected the doctrines of in- 
 spiration, atonement, etc., were suppressed by 
 the censor. After practising in Berlin as an 
 alchemist, inventing the oleum Dippelii, the Berlin- 
 blue, etc., and in Amsterdam as a physician, he 
 settled at Altona, but was arrested on account 
 of some incautious remark on the Danish Gov- 
 ernment, and imprisoned in Bornholm from 1719 
 till 1725. After his release he went to Stockholm, 
 where he found a flattering reception, and was 
 about to be made Bishop of Upsala, when, for the 
 second time, some incautious remarks interfered 
 with his career. He was banished, but found a 
 refuge at the castle of Witgenstein, the home of 
 all religious enthusiasts and philosophical curi- 
 osities. See his Life by II. V. Hoffmann, Darm- 
 stadt, 1783 ; and W. Bender, Bonn, 1882. 
 . DIPTYCHS (dtTT-vxa tabuke hipartita), a buok 
 or tablet, consisting of two leaves folded together, 
 and made of gold, silver, ivory, or some kind of 
 fine wood. On these tablets were written down 
 the names of such persons, living or dead, as 
 were to be specially mentioned in the prayer 
 preceding the consecration, — benefactors of the 
 church, teachers, popes, patriarchs, metropolitans, 
 and bishops. To have one's name registered in 
 the diptychs was considered a great honor, and 
 to have it struck out was synonymous with ex- 
 communication. In the twelfth century the dip- 
 tychs fell out of use in the Latin Church ; but 
 they are still in use in the Greek and Armenian 
 churches. 
 
 DIRECTORY OF WORSHIP. See WoR^^mr. 
 
 DISCALCEATI, or BAREFOOTED MONKS 
 and NUNS, is the common name of all such reli-
 
 DISCIPLES OF CHRIST. 
 
 644 
 
 DISCIPLES OF CHRIST. 
 
 gious orders, or branches of religious orders, as 
 wear saudals, or nothing, instead of shoes. There 
 are Barefooted Augustines, Carmelites, Capu- 
 chins, Franciscans," etc. It is generally the 
 strictest divisions of the orders which adopt this 
 feature. 
 
 DISCIPLES OF CHRIST, or CHRISTIANS. 
 
 A'ame. — This religious people, sometimes called 
 " Campbellites," or " Campbellite Baptists," in 
 accordance with their cherished principles of 
 union and apostolic simplicity, wish to be known 
 only by the names applied to followers of Clirist 
 in the inspired Word. They reason from 1 Cor. 
 iii. 4, and kindred passages, that sectarian names 
 are unscriptural, and causes of division; and in 
 harmony with Acts xi. 26, xxvi. 28; 1 Pet. iv. 
 IG; and Rev. xxi. 9, as individuals and as a 
 people, call themselves simply '• Disciples of 
 Christ," or " Christians," and their churches, 
 " Churches of Christ," or. using the adjective, 
 "Christian Churches." Under this title they 
 plead for the union of all lovers of Christ. 
 
 History. — As a distinct body of believers they 
 date from the early part of the present century. 
 Simultaneously, in different parts of the United 
 States, arose teachers among the religious de- 
 nominations, who pleaded for the Bible alone, 
 without auy huuiaa addition in form of creeds or 
 formulas of faith, and the union of Christians of 
 every name upon the basis of the ajiostles' teach- 
 ing. This movement assumed most notable pro- 
 portions in Virginia, Ohio, and Kentucky. In 
 1823 Alexander Campbell (see title) of Bethany, 
 Va., began to set forth with great vigor and 
 learning, in a periodical entitled T/ie Christian 
 Baptist, the plea for a restoration of the original 
 gospel and primitive order of things, as under 
 the apostles. It was not a reformation tiiat was 
 sought, but a restoration, a renewal of the ancient 
 landmarks of the Christian religion. But, as long 
 before as 1811, he had publicly advocated the 
 principles already stated, and had organized the 
 first regular organization at Brush Hun, Penn., 
 May 4, 1811, with thirty members. Tiie Camp- 
 bells, father and son, having been convinced of the 
 Scripture necessity of immersion, were themselves 
 immersed, and imjnvssed the doctrine and prac- 
 tice upon theirfollowers. From that hour Thomas 
 Campbell gave place to his sou Alexander, who 
 was afterwards the soul of the niovemeiit. In 
 1813 the Brush Run Church united with the Red- 
 stone Baptist Association, and ten years later with 
 the Mahoning .\ssociatioii in tlie \\'cslern Reserve 
 of Ohio. In 1827 the liajitist cluirchi'S withdrew 
 fellowship from those who contended fortlie Bible 
 alone, and the followers of Campbell organized 
 themselves anew. Since the death of Alexan- 
 der Camjibell (18UG), the religious people known 
 as " Cliristians," or "Disciples of Christ," liave 
 made their niiglitiest strides. They number now 
 in the United .Stati-s six liundred tiiousand com- 
 municants, fifty-one liuiulred churches, and tliirty- 
 eight hundred ministers, besides having many 
 churches in JCngland and Australia, and missions 
 in France, Denmark, Turkey, and Jamaica. 
 Their .strength in this country lies chiefly in tlie 
 West and iSoulh-west; Illinois, Indiana, and Ken- 
 tucky liaving the largest bodies. 
 
 EiJucaliijiKil Enterprises. — 'I'hey are active in 
 the work of education, supporting two universi- 
 
 ties (the North- Western Christian University, 
 Indianapolis, Ind., and Kentucky University, 
 Lexington, Ky.) and thirty-two colleges and 
 seminaries of high grade, the best known of 
 which are Bethany College in West Virginia, 
 founded in 1840 by Alexander Campbell, and 
 presided over b}' him until his death; and Iliram 
 College, Iliram, O., of which James A. Garfield 
 was for a time president. They publisli forty 
 religious periodicals. 
 
 The most jnominent man among them was the 
 late President, James A. Garfield, who was an 
 active member of this body, and, by his elevation 
 to the chief m.agistracy of the United States, did 
 nuich to bring the principles of the disciples into 
 notice. He was baptized liy Elder William A. 
 Lillie, IMarcli 4, 1850. For five years, while a 
 teacher at Iliram College, he preached the doc- 
 trines of the cliurch with great eloquence and 
 success, until 1850, when his political career 
 began. During all his subsequent life, until his 
 death, Sept. 19, 1881, he was devoted to the church 
 of his choice, a trustee of Iliram and Bethany 
 Colleges, and actively interested in the local 
 churches at Washington and Mentor, and the 
 general missionary enterprises of his brethren. 
 
 Doctrine and Practice. — The Disciples endeavor 
 to follow closely New-Testament models. In 
 agreement with what are termed Evangelical 
 Christian?, they accept the divine inspiration of 
 the Holy Scriptures; the revelation of God in the 
 tri-personah'ty of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit; 
 the all-sufficiencj' and alone-sufficiency of the 
 Bible as tlie revelation of God's will and a rule 
 of faith and pr.actice to his creatures; the divine 
 excellency of Jesus as the Clirist the Son of God, 
 — his incarnation, doctrines, miracles, death as a 
 sin-offering, resurrection, ascension, and invest- 
 ment with supreme authority ; the per.sonal mis- 
 sion of the Holy Spirit to convict the world of 
 sin, and to comfort and sanctify Christians; the 
 alienation of man from God, and his dependence 
 upon the divine mercy in Christ ; the necessity 
 of faith and repentance to salvation ; the im- 
 portance of baptism and the Lord's Supper as 
 divine ordinances; the duty of observing the 
 Lord's Day in memory of the de.ath and i-esurrec- 
 tion of Jesus Christ; the necessity of righteous- 
 ness, holiness, and benevolence in Christians; 
 the divine appointment of the Church of Christ, 
 composed of all who by faith and obedience con- 
 fess his name, with its ministry and .services for 
 the edification of tlie church and conversion of 
 the world; the fulness and freeness of the gospel 
 to all wlio will accept it on the New-Testament 
 coiulitioiis; the final judgment, with the reward 
 of the righteous, and the punislinieiit of the un- 
 godly. 
 
 The Disciples hold, that, while both Old and 
 New Testaments are equally inspired, lioth are 
 not e(]iially binding upon Christians. Tlie Old 
 Testament was (iod's will with reference to the 
 Jews; the New, (iod's with reference to us, God 
 having spoken unto us by a Son. Accepting fully 
 the Sori|iture statements concerning the Godhead, 
 they repudiate all jiliilosophical speculations, both 
 of Trinitarians and Unitarians. They do not 
 u.se the theological terms common to the schools, 
 but insist on "the form of .sound words "given 
 in the Scriptures. Accepting the Bible as the
 
 DISCIPLES OP CHRIST. 
 
 645 
 
 DISCIPLINE. 
 
 all-sufficient revelation of the divine will, they 
 repudiate all authoritative creeds and human 
 bases of fellowship. Receiving .lesus in all his 
 divinity and Christhood, they accept the trutli 
 that he is the Christ, as the one article of faith, 
 the creed of the cliurch. the fundamental fact of 
 the Christian religion and belief ; faith in that, 
 with all the heart, being all they ask in order to 
 baptism and church-membership. Recognizing 
 the agency of the Holy .Spirit in conversion, they 
 repudiate all theories of special spiritual opera- 
 tions outside of the Word, but demand that the 
 sinner shall hear, believe, repent, and obey the 
 gospel, trusting God to do the rest. Admitting 
 the necessity of faith and repentance, they sub- 
 mit no other tests, no human formula of belief ; 
 but on a confession of Christ, and assurance of 
 heartfelt desire to abandon sin, and work right- 
 eousness, men are baptized, and received into the 
 church. Accepting baptism as a divine ordinance, 
 they insist that "he that believeth and is bap- 
 tized shall be saved." They bid men " Repent, 
 and be baptized for the remission of sins," and 
 claim that the evidence of pardon and of the gift 
 of the Spirit is not in dreams or visions, but in 
 the sinner's knowledge of his heartfelt acceptance 
 of the terms of pardon, and his assurance of the 
 faithfulness of God. Claiming the Lord's Supper 
 a divine ordinance, they consider it not as a 
 sacrifice, but a memorial feast, and keep it on 
 every first day of the week, meeting as the Lord's 
 people, and recognizing neither open nor close 
 communion. The Lord's Day they regard not 
 as the sabbath, but a New-Testament appoint- 
 ment in memory of the resurrection. The Church 
 of Christ with them is not a sect, liut a divine 
 institution. Sects are not branches of the church, 
 but are unscriptural : God's people are to be 
 gathered from them, and united in the "one 
 body," of which Christ is the Head. 
 
 In regai-d to the action of baptism, the Disciples 
 are in accord with the Baptists. Immersion with 
 them is the only baptism that is scriptural, and 
 that could be universally accepted. As to the 
 subjects of baptism, they receive to th.at ordinance 
 only believers in Christ. With respect to the 
 design of baptism, they accord more with Pedo- 
 baptists. They baptize '• for the remission of 
 sins," and claim that the sinner, in obeying this 
 ordinance, appropriates God's promise of pardon, 
 relying on the divine testimony, " He that be- 
 lieveth and is baptized shall be saved," i.e., 
 pardoned. The Disciples date the beginning of 
 the Christian institution fi-om Pentecost, not from 
 Abraham, Moses, nor John the Baptist. The 
 Jewish institution, they claim, passed away when 
 Christ exclaimed, "It is finished." All things 
 then became new ; and the New Testament con- 
 tains the history, constitution, and laws of the 
 Church of Christ. In church government they 
 have no distinction of clergy and laity. Their 
 government is congregational, with evangelists, 
 bishops or elders, and deacons. The Bible is their 
 only book of doctrine and discipline. 
 
 The special plea of the Disciples is the restora- 
 tion of original apostolic Christianity, and the 
 union of all Christians. They insist, that as, in 
 the beginning, there was one spiritual brother- 
 hood, — one body with one Lord, one faith, and 
 ene baptism, — Uiere should be but one to-day; 
 
 that all party names, creeds, and organizations 
 shoulil be abandoned, and the church have no 
 creed but the Bible, no law but the Lord's, no 
 name but the Master's ; and that, as the l)asis of 
 that primitive union w.as the common teaching 
 of Christ and the apostles, nothing is now essen- 
 tial to the union of Cliristians but the apostles' 
 teaching, and nothing is essential to the conversion 
 of the world l)ut the union and co-operation of 
 Christians with the apostles' teaching or testi- 
 mony. 
 
 Those desiring further acquaintance with " tha 
 Disciples of Christ "can secure all information. 
 fr6m Central Book Concern, 180 Kim St., Cincin- 
 nati, O. FREDERICK D. POWEK. 
 (Ristor Vermont-Ave. Chrietian Church, Waphington, D.C.^ 
 
 DISCIPLINA ARCANI. See Arcani Disci- 
 
 PLINA. 
 
 DISCIPLINE. Tlie Christian congregation, 
 like every other community, needs discipline for 
 the sake of self-protection, in order to suppress 
 or eliminate any thing that might impair or 
 destroy its life. But, as the Christian congrega- 
 tion is a community of the faithful, the character 
 of its discipline is purely spiritual. The object 
 of all church-discipline is to prevent scandal, 
 with a further view to retrieving the offender 
 himself ; and the only means which can be em- 
 ployed for this purpose is, properly speaking, 
 e.xclusion, partial or total, from the community. 
 A punishment which has a civil effect is inad- 
 missible. 
 
 The centre of the whole scriptural doctrine of 
 ecclesiastical discipline is tlie passage Matt, xviii. 
 15-18; and its practical application in the apos- 
 tolical church we learn from 1 Cor. v. and 2 Cor. 
 ii. 4-8. A member of the Corinthian congrega- 
 tion had taken his stepmother for a wife, and 
 the congregation had made no objection. Paul 
 then wrote to the Corinthi.ans, that he who had 
 done that deed should be excommunicated, and 
 "delivered unto Satan ; " and his words produced 
 such an impression, not only on tlie congregation, 
 but also on the offender, that, when he wrote 
 again to the Corinthians, Paul could recommend 
 mercy. It is, however, not only for such flagrant 
 offences as tlie above that he demands punish- 
 ment, but also for such minor failings as idle- 
 ness, by which a man is made a burden to his 
 fellow-men ('2 Thess. iii. 6) ; and the danger 
 against wliich he warns the congregations most 
 urgently is heresy, for it eats like a canker (2 
 Tim. ii. 17). A heretic, after admonishing him 
 once or twice in vain, reject (Tit. iii. 10) ; do 
 not even bid him God speed (2 John 10, 11). 
 The punishment, however, raust never be ad- 
 ministered in a spirit of retaliation. Church 
 discipline, though ever bo necessary for the self- 
 protection of the church, has its last and highest 
 aim in the reconciliation of the offender; and in 
 the spirit of love it must dictate its punishments 
 (2 Cor. ii. 6-8V 
 
 The apostolical institutions of excommunicalion 
 and reconciliation lived on in the post-apostolic 
 church, and during the period of persecution 
 became even more peremptory in their demands. 
 Under Decius, whose goal seems to have been 
 the total destruction of Christianity, there oc- 
 curred, by the side of the most admirable exam- 
 ples of faithfulness, so frequent instances of
 
 DISCIPLINE. 
 
 646 
 
 DISCIPLINE. 
 
 defection, that a special regulation for the recon- 
 ciliation of the lapsed became a necessity. This 
 regulation, which continued valid down to the 
 fifith centur}', established a course of penance 
 (see art.) which ran through various stages, and 
 comprised a period of several years; but its 
 severity naturally called forth devices of evasion 
 and subterfuge, such as the libelli of the con- 
 fessors (see art.); and at various times and in 
 various places church-discipline became some- 
 what lax. A re-action towards greater severity 
 followed, and the Montanists arose, declaring 
 that the excommunicated ought to remain for 
 their whole life in a state of penance, and the 
 Novatians, declaring that the church had no 
 right at all to forgive the laps! their sins, though 
 the Lord might be willing to do so, etc. When 
 the persecutions ceased, and the Christian Church 
 became the Church of the State, great numbers 
 of unconverted and thoroughh" worldly people 
 entered it as members, and thereby discipline 
 was almost lost. It became not only laser, but 
 entirely changed character. Already in the sixth 
 century there existed casuistical regulations of 
 penance-fines. Tlie first book of penance in the 
 Greek Church was written by Johannes Jejuna- 
 tor. Patriarch of Constantinople (d. 595). A new 
 re-action followed, and the Donatists arose, de- 
 manding that the church should be kept abso- 
 lutely pure, and declaring that one who had been 
 excommunicated could never administer the sac- 
 raments. But no re-action against the degene- 
 ration of the discipline of the church was of 
 any avail from the moment the church adopted 
 the theory of indulgences, and put it into prac- 
 tice. 
 
 Under Gregory the Great the doctrine of pur- 
 gatory became the doctrine of the church ; and 
 on this foundation Peter Lombard reared tlie 
 theory of indulgence, according to which the 
 church has tlie power, not only to transform 
 the punishments of purgatory into earthly pun- 
 ishments, but also to transform tlie latter into 
 simple money-fines. The most prominent among 
 the schoolmen followed in the track of the 
 Lombard ; and in VHA Clement VL solemnly 
 confirmed the theory of the dogmatists. The 
 punishments wliich the church inflicted were 
 generally alms, pilgrimages, fasts, participation 
 in a crusade, etc. ; but, if any of these forms of 
 punishment was found too inconvenient, a sum 
 of money could be substituted lor it. The great- 
 est ecclesiastical punishments which the middle 
 ages knew were the great ban and the interdict; 
 and, so far as they consisted in exclusion from 
 communion with the church, they both presented 
 the true character of church-discipline. But this 
 character of pure spirituality they entirely lost; 
 first by being administered, not for spiritual 
 offences against the Church, but for secular (juar- 
 rels with the Pope; and next by the dclivering- 
 up of the victim of the ban by the Clinrch to 
 the State, for civil punishment; which, in case 
 of heresy, consisted in death. Indeed, it is 
 enough to mention the name of the Inquisition 
 in order to show what the apostolical institution 
 of church-discij)linc became in the hands of the 
 Koman-Catholic hierarchy. 
 
 From these aberrations the lleformation re- 
 turned to the priuciplcs of the apostolic church. 
 
 Two years after he nailed his theses on the church- 
 door of Wittenberg, Luther published his Sermon 
 vom Bann (1519), in which he rejects the great 
 ban and the surrender of the victim to the secu- 
 lar authorities, and retains only the minor ban, 
 in the sense in which it is defined in Scripture. 
 He not only rejects civil punishment in every 
 form, but he also insists upon the just motive, — 
 the reconciliation of the offender. At first he 
 always placed the congregation in the foreground, 
 and the office in the background ; but after the 
 contest with the enthusiasts, and the dangerous 
 crisis into which they threw the Reformation in 
 Germany, he began to change his views, and to 
 emphasize the offices. Church-discipline became 
 a part of soul-cure. Thus it is treated in the 
 symbolical books of the Lutheran Church, — the 
 Augsburg Confession, the A]iology, the Articles 
 of Smalcald, etc. In the Lutheran churches, 
 however, this whole side of the life of the church 
 was onlj' very feebly developed, and not always 
 in the right direction. AV'here the Church is a 
 State-establishment, and the highest episcopal 
 authority is vested in the head of the State, 
 church-discipline is apt to become a matter of 
 civil legislation. Thus princes ordered their 
 subjects, under heavy penalties, to go to church 
 thrice every Sunday; if not, the poor were 
 scourged, or put in the stocks, and the rich were 
 fined. Very often no distinction can be made 
 between church-discipline and police-regulations. 
 The Rationalists, of course, abolished all such 
 laws ; but at the same time they also swept away 
 every trace of church-discipline, and it was not 
 until after 1848 that the question was again 
 mooted within the Lutheran Church. 
 
 In the Reformed Church, with its strong sym- 
 pathy for the Old Testament, with its view of 
 the congi-egation as the chosen flock of the Lord, 
 organized as it was under the form of a theocracy, 
 but wholly repudiating the private confession, it 
 was ijuite natural that its discipline should be 
 estal)lished, not on the merely negative principle 
 of preventing evil, but on the positive principle 
 of producing good ; as a kind of superintendence 
 and regulation, not only of the life of the congre- 
 gation in its totality, but also of that of each 
 individual member. In Zurich, Zwingli trans- 
 ferred the whole church-discipline to the magis- 
 trate ; and he considered it right that a meniber 
 for whose improvement simple excommunication 
 proved insuflicient should be further prosecuted 
 and ]iunished. In (ieneva, Calvin formed a spe- 
 cial consistory for church-discipline, composed 
 of elders, magistrates, and clergymen ; but this 
 consistory, too, added heavy civil penalties, even 
 death, to the ban. In the Reformed Church 
 discipline became a social institution, whose aim 
 was to form a holy congregation by superintend- 
 ing the moral purity of the members; and, thus 
 organized, it was exercLsed with much greater 
 vigor, and developed much fuitlicr, than in the 
 Lutheran Church; though in the course of time 
 it was much modified and mitigated, in France, 
 the Netherlands, Scotland, and America. 
 
 Lit. — lioKMNG : Grundsiilzc cvanr/clisch-htlher- 
 ischcr Kirchenver/assunr/, Erlangen, 1850, 3d ed., 
 1852. See IIaunack : I'raklisclie T/ie<iloi/ir, Krlan- 
 gen, 1877, 1878, vol. II. ; [.1. J. van Oostkkzkk: 
 Practical Thcoluyy, Loud, and N.Y., 1878, pp. 536
 
 DISCIPLINE. 
 
 647 
 
 DIVORCE. 
 
 «qq. ■, Galli : Die Lutherischen und Calvinischen 
 Kirdienstrafen, Breslau, 1879]. BUCHIlUCKER. 
 
 Chukch-Disciplink in the United States. 
 — In the Episcopal Church the disci pHiie is laid 
 down ill the canons. It relates mainly to the 
 Allergy ; but laymen can be kept from tiie sacra- 
 ment of the Lord's Supper on conviction of seri- 
 ous offences. 
 
 In the Presbyterian Church discipline is in 
 the hands of the session, or the governing board 
 of each local church, consisting of the pastor and 
 elder.s; but, if the party feels aggrieved, an 
 appeal can be made to the next higher court, 
 the presbytery, thence to the synod, and thence 
 to the general assembly. The method of trial in 
 all such cases is minutely laid down in book ii. 
 of the Form ofGooernmenl. In the Northern Pres- 
 byterian Church, reference to the highest court 
 •can only be made when the points involved are 
 doctrinal or constitutional. Discipline is defined 
 to be "the exercise of that authority, and the 
 .application of tliat system of laws, which the 
 Lord .lesus Christ has appointed in his church." 
 The subjects of discipline are "all baptized per- 
 sons." The offence must be jiublic, or such as 
 demands the cognizance of the church judicatory; 
 but private exhortation must first be employed. 
 
 Similar in definition and practice of discipline 
 are the Dutch Reformed and German Reformed 
 Churches. See The Constitution of the Reformed 
 {Dutch] Church in America, Arts. XI.-XIV., and 
 Constitution of the Reformed [German] Church of 
 the United States, Part iii. 
 
 In the Congregational Church, discipline is a 
 purely congregational matter ; and there can be 
 no appeal. See H. M. Dexter : Congregational- 
 ism, Boston, 4th ed., 187G, pp. 188-195. 
 
 In the Methodist Church, " an accused member 
 shall be brought to trial before a committee of 
 not less than five, who shall not be members of 
 the quarterly conference (and, if the preacher 
 judge it necessary, he may select the committee 
 from any part of the district), in the presence of 
 the preacher-in-charge, who shall preside in the 
 trial, and cause exact minutes of the evidence 
 and proceedings in the case to be taken. In the 
 selection of the committee the parties may chal- 
 lenge for cause." The various causes of such 
 action are stated. "The accused shall have the 
 right to call to his assistance as counsel any 
 member in good and regular standing in the 
 Methodist-Episcopal Church." If the pastor-in- 
 charge dissent from the finding of the committee, 
 he can appeal to the ensuing quarterly confer- 
 ence. Expulsion is the penalty for unworthy 
 conduct on the part of accused members. See 
 The Doctrines and Discipline of the Jilethiidist-Epis- 
 copal Church, 1880 (N.Y., 1880), pp. 141-151. 
 
 For discipline in the case of the clergy, see 
 Degradation ; Deposition ; Polity, Ecclesi- 
 astical. 
 
 DISCIPLINE, Book of, in the Methodist-Epis- 
 copal Church, is a volume published every four 
 years, after the meeting of the General Confer- 
 ence. The volume for 1880 contains six Parts : 
 I. Origin, Doctrine, and Rules ; II. Government 
 of the Church ; III. Administration of Disci- 
 pline ; IV. Educational and Benevolent Institu- 
 tions; V. Temporal Economy; VI. Ritual of 
 the Church. 
 
 DISCIPLINE, First and Second Boolr.« of. The 
 frsl was composed by Knox, ^VinraIn, Rosse, 
 and Douglas (in 15fJ0), and approved by the 
 Assembly, but not ratified by the privy council. 
 The second was approved by the Assembly of 
 1578, "inserted in the registers of a.s.sembly 
 (1581), sworn to in the National Covenant, 
 revived and ratified by the Assembly (ItJ.'JS), and 
 by many other acts of Assembly, and according 
 to which the church government is established 
 by law (1592 and 1690)." It is the Presbyterian 
 standard on order and government. 
 
 DISEASE. See Medicine. 
 
 OISMES {decimcE), the tenth part, or tithe, of 
 the value of each spiritual benefice, which, to- 
 gether with the annats, or the entire income of the 
 first year of possession, was paid yearly to the 
 Pope by the Western Church. The tax was evi- 
 dently based upon Num. xviii. 10. See Taxes, 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 DISPENSATION. As soon as the Church be- 
 came fully organized as a religious community, 
 he who broke the established order fell, of course, 
 out with the Church, and could be reconciled to 
 her only by repentance and by doing penance. 
 Brotherly love, however, might forgive the offence, 
 and remit the punishment ; and by degrees, as the 
 canon law developed its many and severe pre- 
 scripts entirely in the spirit of the Old Testament, 
 relaxation was felt to be indispensable. In dif- 
 ficult cases, especially of marriage, questions were 
 addressed to Rome, and Rome answered ; and in 
 this way the bishops of Rome saw fit to arrogate 
 to themselves a right of dispensation. Bishops 
 and synods protested, not from any moral hesi- 
 tancy, but simply from a desire to have for them- 
 selves a share of the piower ; but the Pope came 
 out of the struggle victorious, and this right of 
 dispensation became, in his hand, a very rich 
 source of influence and revenue. The bishops 
 held the right only in a few and unimportant 
 cases, though it was understood that they could 
 exercise it in cases of danger, when it was impossi- 
 ble to address the Pope himself. See Thomas- 
 sin : Vetus ac nova ecclesiie disciplina. Pars II. 
 lib. III. cap. 24-29 ; Ferraris : BiUlotheca ca- 
 nonica s. r. dispensalio ur., 19,20. 
 
 DISPERSED. See Diaspora; Captivity. 
 
 DISSENTER. The epithet can be properly 
 used only of those who dissent from the doctrine 
 or order of an established church. In England it 
 is synonymous with nonconformist : in Scotland 
 the name was given to adherents of the secession 
 church. Dissent in England once implied more 
 or less persecution, but the disabilities are be- 
 ing gradually removed by successive legislation. 
 See Congregationalists (England); Eng- 
 land, Church of; Nonconformity; Puri- 
 tans. 
 
 DISTAFF'S DAY, ST., the day after Twelfth 
 Day, also called St. Rock's Day. 
 
 DISTINCTIO RATIONIS RATIOCINANTIS 
 designates in the scholastic terminology a purely 
 subjective logical distinction, not one objective 
 in the matter itself ; while distinctio rationis ratio- 
 cinatce. designates a distinotion merely thought of, 
 but yet i-esting upon good grounds. 
 
 DIVINATION. See Magic. 
 
 DIVORCE. The earliest notion of the relation 
 between a child and a parent seems to have been
 
 DIVORCE, 
 
 648 
 
 DIVORCE, 
 
 that of property ; and hence the man who sought 
 for a wife bought a daughter from her father for 
 this purpose. But in time the money went, in 
 many tribes, w ith the daughter to lier husband ; 
 yet the feeling still was that shewas her hus- 
 band's property. If she was unfaithful to_ him, 
 he had the right of putting her to death : if she 
 did not suit him, he could "send her back to her 
 friends. But his infidelity to her gave her no 
 corresponding rights against her husband. The 
 earliest conception of adultery was, that a mar- 
 ried woman must be one of the parties ; but a 
 married man could not be guilty of this crime 
 with au unmarried woman. The penalty for the 
 crime was commonly death, but might be, by act 
 of the husband, mitigated into sending away or 
 divorce. It would seem, that, when the crime was 
 committed, the trial of the woman, according to 
 the practice among the .Jews, came, in time, to be 
 put into the hands of "righteous men" (Ezek. 
 xxiii. 45), in which passage a public trial is evi- 
 dently thought of. Probably all that the hus- 
 band ordinarily did was to put away a guilty wife; 
 but, if she were caught in the act, he could kill 
 her and her paramour. 
 
 There is in the Hebrew Scriptures no evidence 
 that the woman could get herself divorced from 
 her husband; and Josephus {Antiq. xv. 7, 10), 
 when he speaks of Salome's sending a bill of 
 divorce to t'ostabarus, adds that this was not in 
 accordance with Jewish law ; so that a woman 
 separated by her own act from her husband could 
 not marry another, but only if she were put away 
 by her first husband. What meaning, then, are 
 we to give to JIark x. 12 V Was the wife's power 
 to put away a husband creeping in among the 
 Jews, who lived under Greek or Roman law? or 
 did our Lord give a rule to his apostles, as future 
 teachers of the heathen world? 
 
 Divorce on the husband's part was at first un- 
 restricted. But in Deut. xxiv. 1 two restrictions 
 were laid upon it: the one of them, that a "bill of 
 divorce" should be given to the wife, which would 
 show that she had committed no crime, and might 
 marry again ; and the other, that the first husband 
 could never tako back the wife so put away, in case 
 the second husband should repudiate her. This 
 would greatly pollute the land (.Ter. iii. 1). The 
 cause or causes of divorce in Deuteronomy, u.s., 
 are expressed by the words ervalli ilnbiir, the mean- 
 ing of which, since the times of Ilillel and Sham- 
 mai, in the century before Christ, has been matter 
 of dispute. They occur also in Deut. xxiii. 11, 
 and may be rendered " uncleanness or filtiiiness 
 from a tiling" in a moral sense, as Shammai's 
 school imderstood them, or any thing disgusting 
 or un|ileasaut in a physical sense, as was llillel's 
 opinion. The passage in Mai. ii. 10, " For the 
 Lord the God of Israel saith that he iiateth put- 
 ting away," indicates a moral and humane dis- 
 like of what was once tolerated. 
 
 Our Lord and the apostle Paul go far beyond 
 these restrictions on divorce. Christ (Matt. v. 
 31, 32, xix. 3-0 ; Mark x. 2, 12), without giving 
 a code of rules, sets aside the practice allowed 
 in Deut. xxiv. 1 to the husband, and forbids tlie 
 putting-away of a wife, and marrying another, 
 except for the cause of her fornication. To this 
 he adds that the woman thus divorced commits 
 kdultery by her marrying another man, and that 
 
 this new husband is involved in the same guilt : in 
 other words, adultei-y is the only cause for which 
 a man can put away his wife, and for which, as- 
 Mark adds, a woman can put away her husband, 
 without violating this commandment. In Matt. 
 xix. 3-9 and JIark u.s. our Lord places before 
 his disciples his views concerning marriage, which 
 accorded entirely with this prohibition. The 
 union commenced by marriage was so close that 
 they became one flesh, and could not cease to be 
 such by one of the parties tearing away his body, 
 except by a violent disruption, from the other. 
 This was the original idea in the institution, 
 which really opposed polygamy also ; and it was- 
 a departure from the original law of our nature 
 when Moses, on account of the Jews' inveterate 
 attachment to an evil usage, " sufferer! them to 
 put away their wives." Adultery only can sepa- 
 rate this close union ; and there can be no mar- 
 riage of either consort to any one else, except on. 
 this account. 
 
 Of the addition in Mark to what is contained 
 in ^latthew we have spoken already. The passage 
 in Luke xvi. 18 completes the teaching of our 
 Lord found in the Gospels on this subject. It con- 
 tains no exception or qualification, as if all re- 
 marriage after divorce were adultery. But the 
 pa.^sage is found in company with others with 
 which it has a very remote connection. ' It seems 
 to have been a portion of the Sermon on the 
 Mount, and must be interpreted by the fuller 
 account in Matthew. 
 
 In no other place does our Lord act as a legis- 
 lator and an amender of the law of Moses; and 
 even here he gives no body of rules, but confines 
 himself to a single command. The command 
 itself is confined to that case which was touched 
 in Deuteronomy. One may still ask whether the 
 guilty party, divorced on account of adultery, may 
 marry again : the answer must be affirmative, in 
 so far as the adulterer or adulteress ceases to be 
 one flesh with his or her former partner. But, as 
 such adultery would be a capital crime by Jewish 
 law, there was less need of saying any thing fur- 
 ther about it, and it is a wonder that it can be 
 tolerated in any Christian country. 
 
 The apostle Paul, in 1 Cor. vii. 10-10, gives 
 directions to the Corinthian Church, which may 
 be called a supplement to our Lord's commands, 
 as contained in the synoptical Gospels. These 
 directions consist of two parts, one of which is 
 intended to meet a case which would have oc- 
 curred wluMi both husband and wife were pro- 
 fessed Christian believers (vers. 10, 11). A wife 
 is commanded not to separate herself (xupi^c'Sai) 
 from her husband; to which is added, that, if she 
 be already in a state of separation from him, she 
 is to remain unmarried, or be reconciled to him. 
 The husband aLso is not to put away his wife. 
 Here we remark, first that the word denoting "be 
 or become reconciled " implies a previous dissen- 
 sion which led the wife to withdraw from her 
 husljand's society. But did the .apostle have in 
 mind a disagreement arising out of the husband's 
 .adultery ? We are led to believe, from the terms 
 I used, that the Greek word X"P''Viunt denotes simple 
 separation unattended with divorce, as if it were 
 a transaction not formally taking pliico before a 
 civil court. She had left lier husband, and was 
 I living apart. As long as she lives apart, let her
 
 DIVORCE. 
 
 649 
 
 DIVORCE. 
 
 contract no new marriage, or return to her hus- 
 band when their strife shall have ceased. In ac- 
 cordance with this interpretation we understand 
 the husband's puttinjr away the wifi^ not to include 
 the crime of adultery on her part : otherwise the 
 apostle would come into collision willi our Lord's 
 clear permission of divorce on account of adul- 
 tery; and this permission he must have been ac- 
 quainted with, as is shown by the words, " to the 
 rest speak I, not the Lord," evidently showing, 
 that in ver. 10 he refers to the words of Christ, 
 with which he, and probably the Corinthian 
 Church also, was familiar. 
 
 The apostle's other precept relates first to cases 
 where either husband or wife was still an unlje- 
 liever, but might wish to live with his or her 
 Christian partner. In this case the Christian 
 was not to leave the unbeliever (vers. 12-14). Or 
 again: the unbeliever might wish to separate him- 
 self or herself from the Christian. The apostle's 
 direction here is, if the unbeliever depart (X"P'- 
 ftrai), that is, live separate, let him depart (x^pi-- 
 ffffSu,) as in vers. 10, 11. In such cases the 
 Christian wife or husband is not in bondage, 
 that is, is under no such obligation, or in such a 
 state of bondage, as to feel constrained to con- 
 tinue the marriage connection. This feeling 
 might be cherished in the hope of saving the 
 unbelieving husband or wife ; but this was too 
 uncertain an event to demand that the Christian 
 should keep up the family Ufa when the heathen 
 was bent on separation, and when God had called 
 believers in peace, i.e., to be in the ethical condi- 
 tion of peace. Thus the believer is to be passive, 
 and not active, in the separation, and is not to 
 feel that the possibility of saving a heathen wife 
 or husband at any expense of strife is a duty. 
 Here in ver. 15 and in ver 10 the word ;i:<jpifo^ai 
 must be understood, we must believe, as simple 
 separation; although this has been much disputed. 
 
 From Christ's precepts it follows that a mar- 
 riage is dissolved by adultery, so that the innocent 
 party may marry again, and that other separa- 
 tions are not included in this permission. 
 
 On these foundations the practice of divorce in 
 Christendom has been placed, after long strug- 
 gles of Roman law for a looser practice, which we 
 have no room to unfold. The Catholic doctrine 
 of the sacraments modified the view of marriage, 
 and so of divorce, by forbidding second marriages 
 after divorce for cause of adultei-y; and divorce 
 became simply separation d mensa el loru, in every 
 case where the parties were both Christians. 
 Where one of them was a heathen, the Roman 
 Church simply withheld a permission conceded by 
 Christ to remarry in that one case, but enjoined 
 nolhiny neu). And to this may be added, that 
 cases of nullity, of which Christ says nothing, 
 were multiplied by enlarged civil and by spiritual 
 relationships. The dissolution of such marriage, 
 however, is not an act of divorcing, but of pro- 
 nouncing a marriage in form no marriage in sub- 
 stance, and therefore void ab initio. It cannot be 
 denied that the Catholic Church, by its sacramen- 
 tal theory applied to marriage, takes the most 
 sacred of all natural institutions out of the hands 
 of the civil power in great measure. It can en- 
 dure what is called civil marriage, although loath 
 to make any concession : but divorce it must keep 
 under its control ; its principle being that re-mar- 
 
 riagc, while a husband or wife is living, places 
 a person outside of the pale of the Cliurcli. 
 
 In Protestant countries, when the new State 
 churches were founded, they were very consid- 
 (!rably under the control of civil powers, which 
 asserted their own rights of controlling marriago 
 and divorce. Yet the State law concerning di- 
 vorce was not framed, we believe, without the con- 
 currence or the lead of the theologians. All the 
 Prote.stant states, excepting England, legislated 
 at an early date on divorce, starting from the 
 assumption that divorce for adultery was sanc- 
 tioned by Christ, and for desertion by the apostle 
 Paul. England dissolved marriage by act of 
 Parliament in cases where adultery was proved; 
 and separations were under the control of eccle- 
 siastical courts. This continued until 1857, when 
 a new court was established, having jurisdiction 
 in matters pertaining to marriage and divorce, 
 and the old ecclesiastical courts lost this juris- 
 diction. The law of divorce was ahso altered. 
 Divorce absolute may be granted for adultery of 
 the wife, or for adultery, connected with certain 
 other crimes, of the husband; and judicial sepa- 
 ration may be granted to either party for adul- 
 tery, cruelty, or causeless desertion for two years 
 or more. 
 
 Other Protestant countries in modern times 
 have greatly multiplied the causes for which di- 
 vorce or separation may be obtained, by adding 
 to the original two causes stated already such 
 others as cruelty, imprisonment for crime, drunk- 
 enness, contagious or incurable disease, and even 
 insanity. In some countries incompatibility of 
 temper, in some, mutual agreement, with no alle- 
 gation of crime, are allowed to be causes for 
 divorce absolute. In one of the United States 
 the judges are left free to grant divorce when 
 they think that the happiness of the marriage 
 relation requires it. Separation a mensa et toro is 
 one of the reliefs generally provided for parties 
 petitioning to have their marriages terminated by 
 law ; but a number of the States of the American 
 Union grant divorce absolute alone. 
 
 In the Catholic countries of Europe either no 
 absolute divoixes are granted, or both divorce 
 and separation are allowed for their respective 
 causes, or the law is so made as to suit the reli- 
 gious confessions of the parties bringing suits 
 before the courts. France is an example of the 
 first plan, which, since the restoration of the Bour- 
 bons, has remained until now, notwithstanding a 
 number of attempts in the chambers to alter the 
 law. Belgium follows the French code civil, 
 which prevailed there before the separation from 
 France in 1815, in allowing both divorce and, 
 separation. Austria modifies the law according 
 as Catholics, Greeks, Protestants, and Jews peti- 
 tion for divorce ; and Switzerland acts on a some- 
 what similar principle. 
 
 Nowhere is the problem of divorce so poorly 
 solved, or so charged with danger for the future,- 
 as in the United States. It is certainly an alarm- 
 ing fact that the ratio of divorce to marriage is 
 as one to ten, or even greater, in some States; 
 and that in another State it has sunk, within 
 twenty years, from the ratio of one to fifty-one, 
 down to the ratio of one to twenty-one. Hap- 
 pily, these and similar indications of a g^reater 
 ratio than is elsewhere known are now exciting
 
 DIVORCE. 
 
 650 
 
 DOCTOR. 
 
 the attention of many Christian people, as is 
 shown by the recent formation of the New-Eng- 
 land Divorce Reform League, in which all the 
 Christian denominations are united with a hearty 
 interest. 
 
 The evils of divorce in the United States are 
 felt in no one quarter of the Union, but are more 
 exactly kno^vn in the Eastern States. If the laws 
 grant dissolutions of marriage for grounds which 
 Christians cannot find to be justified iu the Scrip- 
 tures, it must injure the church, and society suf- 
 fers still more. Loose laws aggravate the evils 
 they are made to relieve. If any partners in 
 marriage were told by the State that they can be 
 separated on declaring, for instance, their mutual 
 consent and desire before the court, they would, 
 of course, be tempted mentally to put, " as long 
 as we agree," into the place of " until death do 
 us part." The ideal of marriage would then be 
 lowered. It is no longer the close union denoted 
 by " twain becoming one flesh," or by God's join- 
 ing man and wife together, so that man may not 
 put them asunder; but it is a contract made be- 
 tween two persons for their own convenience, and 
 made with the less caution because either can 
 put the other away. The real closeness of the 
 imion cannot be preserved unless the parties feel 
 the truth of what Christ says of it. Then, again, 
 law, in a country like ours, is liable to constant 
 changes for the worse, if the feeling of the sanctity 
 of the marriage is not sustained; but this feeling 
 cannot be sustained without some religious sense 
 of the nature and ends of marriage. Bad laws 
 tend to make bad husbands and w-ives, and hence 
 bad families. The laws of divorce and the 
 opinion of society will act upon one another. 
 
 When the laws respecting divorce and the 
 opinions concerning divorce in the New Testa- 
 ment are in conflict, there is no question, in most 
 ■cases, what is the duty of Christians. The law 
 •can be permissive only ; that is, it may leave it 
 to individuals to choose whether they will make 
 •use of the license it aifords them or not. It does 
 not oblige them to bring suits for dissolution of 
 marriage, even in the case when a husband or 
 •wife h;is been unfaithful in their marriage rela- 
 tions. The offence may be condoned, and they 
 may live togetlier still. And again : law could 
 uot, without being tyrannical, roquix-e a church, 
 •which has disciplined one of its members on 
 account of divorce an<l re-marriage contrary to 
 the rule of Scripture, to restore him to his stand- 
 ing. Hut, altliough this be true, a church may 
 be brought into great perple.xity when State law 
 opens a gate which the law of the New Testament 
 shuts. For the thoughtless are tempted by the 
 law to do what is held to be unlawful by the 
 Church; while tlu- Church has no o]ition in regard 
 to e-xercising its discijiline ujion offenders within 
 its folds. The State's permission is no more of a 
 bar to discipline in such case tlian if the churcli- 
 inember had opened an authorized gambling or 
 <lrinking house. Jiut if the law had agreed in 
 its jirovisions with the Church, there would have 
 been no such trouble, and those who, in the case 
 .supposed, ha<l been led by the .Slati' into unlawful 
 marriages, would, in all juobability, have been 
 «leten-ed from committing such an otfc^nce. 
 
 There is, however, one case which deserves no- 
 tice on account of its diliiculty. Two irreligious 
 
 persons have connected themselves in marriage, 
 one of whom had put away a wife or husband for 
 an offence not recognized by the law of Christ as 
 justifying divorce. They live for years together, 
 and have a family. At length they become be- 
 lievers in Christ, and apply to the church for 
 admission. In such an extreme case as this, sh.all 
 the request be denied? Shall they be required 
 to live apart afterward, until the former husband 
 or wife of one of them shall die ? AVe leave the 
 settlement of this case to casuists, glad that it is 
 rare, and only remarking that its pieculiarity con- 
 sists in the performance of important duties 
 which cannot be performed when once the parties 
 are separated. 
 
 Lit. — Some of the works touching divorce 
 are : Selden : Uxor Ebraica, in his Works, Lon- 
 don, 1726; Meyeru. ScnoMAHS : AtlisclierProccss, 
 Halle, 1824; Kein : JRom. Pni-alrtcht; Winer: 
 Realworterhuch, 3d ed., 1847; SaalschI'TZ : Mo- 
 saisches Redd, 2d ed., Berlin, 1857; Strippel- 
 MANN : Das Ehescheidungsrecht, Cassel, 1854 ; 
 Walter (R. C): Kirclicnrecld, l-Sth ed., Bonn, 
 1861; RiCHTER (Protestant)- Kirclienrcclil, Gth 
 ed., Leipzig, 1861 (with a copious literature) ; 
 Murray IioFrM.A.NN: Law of Divorce, N.Y., 
 1873; J. Greve : Die Ehescheidung nach der Lehre 
 des N. T., Leipzig, 1873; Woolsey : Divorce and 
 Divorce Legislation, N.Y., 1869, new ed., 1882. 
 See also art. Ehe, by Goschen, in Herzog, 1st 
 ed. vol. iii. (1855), and by Carl Beck, in 2d ed. 
 
 vol. iv. (187!»). THEODORE D. WOOLSEY. 
 
 DIXON, James, b. in Leicestershire, 1788; d. 
 at Bradford, Yorkshire, Dec. 28, 1871. He was 
 president of the British Conference (1841), and 
 delegate of the Wesleyan Conference to the 
 General Methodist Conference of the United 
 States. He wrote Methodism in its Origin, Economij, 
 and Present Position (printed by the Methodist 
 Book Concern, N.Y., 1843). 
 
 OOANE, Ceorge Washington, D.D., LL.D., 
 Protestant- Episcopal Bishop of New Jersey; b. 
 May 27, 1799, in Trenton, N.J. ; d. at Burlington, 
 N.J., April 27, 1859. He was graduated from 
 Union College, N.Y., 1818; admitted to holy 
 orders, 1821; was consecrated bishop, Oct. 31, 
 1832. He was energetic, indefatigable in labor, 
 but had bitter enemies and numerous contro- 
 versies. His writings in prose and verse were 
 collected by his son, who prefaced them with a 
 Memoir, T/ie Life and Writings of G. W. Doane, 
 D.D., N. Y., 1860, 4 vols. An edition of his »SV)H(/.9 
 hg the Wag, under the same editorship, appeared, 
 N. Y., 1875. His best known hymns are, " Softly 
 now the light of day," and " Thou art the way: 
 to the(! alone." 
 
 DOBRIT2HOFFER, Martin, b. at Gratz, in 
 Styria, 1717 ; d. in A'icnna, July 17, 1791 ; entered 
 the Society of Jesus in 1736, and went in 1749 to 
 Paraguay as a mission.ary among the -Miipones 
 and Guaranas, but returned to Europe in 1767, 
 when the Jesuit missionaries were expelled from 
 Spanish America. In 1784 he published his 
 Ilisloria de Aliiiionihus, Vienna, 3 vols., which 
 was translated into English by Sara Coleridge, 
 Accoxmt of Ike Ahipoms, an Equestrian People of 
 Pnragtiag, London, 1822, 3 vols. 
 
 DOCETISM. See Doketism. 
 
 DOCTOR (teacher). Originally tliere ■were 
 only two degrees iu graduation, — bachelor and
 
 DOCTRINAIRES. 
 
 651 
 
 DOCTRINES. 
 
 master; aud doctor was given to certain masters, 
 probably as a merely honorary desig'nation. The 
 evolution of the doctorate as a third university 
 degree above that of master cannot be distinctly 
 traced. The law faculty at Bologna is said to 
 have conferred it as early as the twelfth century ; 
 but the story that Irnerius originated the cere- 
 monial of investiture, and Bulgarus first took the 
 degree, is probably a fiction. The University of 
 Paris conferred their first degrees in divinity 
 upon Peter Lombard and Gilbert de la Portree 
 (1150). In England the degree was first given 
 under John (1207). The degree in law aud 
 divinity is given now in England and America 
 without examination. 
 
 The term Doctor of the Church is applied to 
 four of the Greek fathers (Athanasius, Basil, 
 Gregory Nazianzen, and Chrysostom), and to 
 twelve of the Latin Church (Ambrose, Augustine, 
 Jerome, Hilary, Gregory the Great, Chrysologus, 
 Leo I., Isidore of Seville, Thomas Aquinas, Ber- 
 nard, Bonaventura, and Alphouso Liguori). 
 
 The church officer who had charge of the in- 
 structionof thecatechumens was called in the early 
 church Doctor audienlium. The title Doctor is used 
 in the present Greek Church ; thus the interpre- 
 ters of the Gospels, Epistles of Paul, and the 
 Psalms, are called Doctors of the Gospels, the Apos- 
 tle, and the Psalter respectively. 
 
 Doctor is also part of the epithet describing 
 the most prominent quality or trait of several 
 of the great schoolmen of the twelfth and thir- 
 teenth centuries : thus, Thomas Aquinas, D. (i.e.. 
 Doctor) Angelicus ; Johannes Bonaventura, D. 
 Seraphicus ; Johannes Duns Scotus, D. Subtilis ; 
 Raimundus LuUus, D. I lluminatus ; Alanus de 
 Insulis (de I'Isle), D. Universalis ; Durandus d. 
 S. Pour<;aiu, D. Resolutissimus ; Gregorius de 
 Rimini, D. Authenticus; Johannes Taulerus, D. 
 Iltuiiiinatus ; Johannes Gersonus, D. Christianissi- 
 mus : Alexander Hales, D. Irrefragahiiis ; Roger 
 Bacon, D. Admirabilis ; William Occam, Z). Sin- 
 gularis. For the Jewish Doctors of the Law, see 
 Rauhins. 
 
 DOCTRINAIRES is the common name of two 
 religious associations which originated, independ- 
 ently of each other, in Italy and France. In 
 Italy the association of the Padri delta Dotlrina 
 Christiana was founded in Rome (1562) by Mar- 
 cus de Sadis Cusani, a nobleman from Milan, 
 for the purpose of instructing the people, more 
 especially the children, in the catechism. Under 
 Pius V. it spread rapidlj'. In France the asso- 
 ciation of the Doctrinaires, or Peres de la Doctrine 
 Chre'tienne, was founded by Caesar de Bus, priest 
 and canon of Cavaillou. He gathered a number 
 of young priests ; aud after due preparation he 
 sent them into the streets, and out upon the high- 
 ways, to catechise every one they met; while he 
 ■walked himself from house to house, offering to 
 instruct any one, young or old, ignorant or edu- 
 cated, in the catechism of the Roman-Catholic 
 Church. The association prospered, and in 1597 
 Clement VIII. confirmed the constitution. See 
 Helyot : Histoire des Ordres Monastiques, etc., 
 Paris, 1714-19. HKRZOG. 
 
 DOCTRINES, The History of Christian, did 
 not become an independent branch of theologi- 
 cal learning until the latter part of the eigh- 
 teenth century. Before that time, it was treated 
 
 simply as a chapter of dogmatics or church- 
 history. But the richness of its materials, and 
 the importance of its study, naturally led to a 
 more elaborate treatment. The first ini|iulse 
 was given by the rationalists: Ch. W. Fhanz 
 Walcii : (ledanken v. d. Gtschirhte d. Gluuhens- 
 /e/(?-c, (iottingen, 1750; Eunesti, 1759; Skmlek* 
 Einleituntj zu S. J. Baumyartens Glaulenslehre, 
 1759 ; and RiissLER : Lelirbei/riJ)' der chr. Kirche 
 in lien S ersten Jahrhunderten, Frankfurt-a-M., 
 1777. In the earlier Protestant theuUigy the 
 subject forms only an appendix, either to church- 
 history or to dogmatics. Sec the Mufidchurg 
 Centuries, Basel, 1559-74. Chemnitz : lixamen 
 Conciiii Tridentini, Frankfurt, 1015; JoH. Geu- 
 HAKD : Confessio Cathviica, Leipzig, 1079. Twice, 
 however, it was treated independently, — by Pe- 
 TAvius, a Roman Catholic {Opus de theoloi/icis 
 dogmatihus, Paris, 1644-50, 5 vols, fol.), and by 
 FoRBESius A Corse, a Scotchman of the Re- 
 formed Church (histitutiones historico-theologicce de 
 doctrina Christiana, Amsterdam, 1045) ; but in 
 both cases the treatment was more argumentative 
 than truly historical. The rationalists found 
 the method by wiiich a history of Christian doc- 
 trines can be written, but they failed to find the 
 right stand-point from which it ought to be writ- 
 ten. They did not understand that the whole 
 sum of Christian truth has been given in the 
 teachings of Christ and the apostles; that, how- 
 ever great may be the difference between the 
 confession of the church of our day and that of 
 the primitive church, in precision, elaborateness, 
 etc., nothing new has been added; that the his- 
 tory of a dogma is simply an evolution of form, 
 put in motion by a craving for a deeper concep- 
 tion of the idea, and, at every stage of its move- 
 ment, authorized in its results by the consent 
 of the whole church. They hold the history of 
 Christian doctrines as a contest between merely 
 subjective opinions about religious matters, with- 
 out any foundation in a given revelation, and 
 without any regulation from an inherent logic. 
 The same stand-point was occupied by MtJN- 
 scher, the most erudite of the historians of 
 Christian doctrines (Handbuch d. chr. Dogmen- 
 geschichte, Marburg, 1793-1809, 4 vols., and 
 Lehrbuch d. Dogmengeschichte, 1812, 2d ed., 1819, 
 3d ed. by Coelln and Neudecker, Cassel, 1832-38). 
 But a change took place under the influence of 
 Neander and Schleiermacher, and the results have 
 been very rich: Baumgarten-Crusiu.s : Lehr- 
 buch d. Dogmengeschichte, Jena, 1832, and Com- 
 pendium d. chr. Dogmengeschichte, Leipzig, 1840- 
 40, 2 parts, the 2d part edited by C. Hase; the 
 Lehrbiicker oi Hagenbach, Leipzig, 1840, 5th ed., 
 1867 [several times trans, into English, as by Dr. 
 U. B. Smith, N.Y., 1861-02, 2 vols., last in Clark's 
 Foreign Theological Library, 1880-81, 3 vols.]: 
 Baur, Tiibingeii, 1847, 2d ed., 1858; Marhein- 
 ecke, Berlin, 1849; Neandeu, edited by Jacobi, 
 Berlin, 1857, 2 parts; Schmid, Kordlingen, 1859, 
 3d ed., 1877; [Shedd : A History of Chrktian 
 Doctrine, N.Y., 1863, 2 vols.]; Nitzsch: Grand- 
 riss d. christlichen Dogmengescldchte, I., Patris- 
 tische Periode, Berlin, 1870; Thomasius : Dog^ 
 mengeschichte der alien Kirche, Erlangeu, 1874, and 
 Dogmengeschichte d. Mittelalters und d. Reformat 
 (io)iszet/, edited by Plitt, 1870; [Landerer: Neu- 
 este Dogmengeschichte, Heilbronu, 1881]. Comp.
 
 DOD. 
 
 652 
 
 DOEG. 
 
 also Th. Kliefoth: Einlekung in die Dogmenge- 
 schichte, Parohira, 1839. H. SCHMID. 
 
 DOD, Albert Baldwin, a Presbyterian scholar 
 and divine; b. at Mendham, N.J., March 24, 
 1805 ; d. at Princeton, Nov. 20, 1845. He was 
 graduated at the College of New Jersey in 1822, 
 and at tlie Princeton Seminary, and was professor 
 of mathematics in the college from 1830 to his 
 death, teaching in his latter years architectnre and 
 political economy in addition. He was widely 
 read, and gifted with a philosophical mind of rare 
 power. His contributions to Tlie Princeton Review 
 are remarkable, especially those on phrenology 
 (April, 1S38) and on capital punishment (April, 
 1842). Some of them are reprinted in The 
 Princeton Essai/s, N.Y. ; and one, on Transcen- 
 dentalism, was issued separately. 
 
 DOD, John, Puritan, called the Z)eca/o<//s( from 
 his work named below ; b. at Shotledge, Che- 
 shire, 1547 ; d. as rector of Fawesley , Northampton- 
 shire, August, 1645. He was fellow of Jesus 
 College, Cambridge, and then pastor for many 
 years ; eminent for Hebrew learning. His wit 
 was also famous; and his .Sai/ings were proverbial, 
 and to be found in cottages. He wrote, in con- 
 nection with Robei't Cleaver, Expositions of the 
 Ten Commandments, London, 1606, 18th ed., 1032 ; 
 Of Proverbs. 1608; Of the Lord's Prayer, 1635. 
 
 DO'DANIM, a people descended from Javan, 
 the son of Japheth, and therefore neighbor to the 
 Greek (Gen. x. 4; 1 Chron. i. 7 : in the last 
 passage Rodanim in almost all Hebrew MSS.). 
 The " sons " of Javan may be thus distributed, — 
 Elishah, perhaps Sicily ; Turskish, Tartessus in 
 Spain ; Kittim, Cyprus and adjacent islands ; and 
 Do'laiiim. Ithbdes. WOLF BAUDISSIN. 
 
 DODDRIDGE, Philip, D.D., a celebrated dis- 
 senting (Independent) divine, and writer of hymns ; 
 son of a merchant, and last of twenty children ; 
 was b. in Loudon, June 26, 1702; d. at Lisbon, 
 Oct. 26, 1751. From infancy he was of infirm 
 con.stitution. He enjoyed the instructions of 
 pious parents, and early turned his attention to 
 the ministry. lie was first settled at Kibworth 
 in 1723. In 1729 he became assistant at Ilar- 
 borough, and head of an academy by the choice 
 of a general meeting of <lissenting ministers. 
 The same year he was called to Northampton ; 
 he here continued his activity as teacher, and was 
 very successful. He was forced, by the rapid de- 
 velopment of consumptive tendencies, to seek for 
 health in a milder climate. He went to Lisbon, 
 where he died, and lies buried in the English 
 graveyard. 
 
 Dr. Doddridge was a man of great jViety, and 
 practised strict habits of self-examination. He 
 •was as scrupulous in his habits of study ; rising 
 at five in the morning, and laying out |)lans of 
 study, and subjects of sermons, months ahead. 
 He made it a rule to avoid controversy, and 
 showed .sym])atliy with the Methodists, — a course 
 which lUvw u|)on him the charge of " trimmer 
 and double-dealer." 
 
 Among his works, the most important are Life 
 of Colonel Gardiner, The Familij Expositor, A Coin- 
 mentarij on the Nein Testament (which became a 
 household work in England), and The Rise ami 
 Progress of Religion in the Soul (1745), which he 
 wrote at the suggestion of Dr. Watts. With tlie 
 PUgrim'a Progress, Henry's Commentary, and Al- 
 
 leine's Alarm, it has been more extensively used 
 as a stimulus to piety than any other work in the 
 English language. As an author of hymns he 
 was very pi-olific. Among the more favorite ones^ 
 are, " Awake, mj' soul, stretch every nerve," and 
 " Grace, 'tis a charming sound! " 
 
 Lit. — Works of the Rev. P. Doddridge, D.D., 
 with a Life by Rev. Job Orton, 10 vols., Leeds, 
 1802; Correspondence and Diary of Dr. Doddridge, 
 5 vols., London, 1829; Andrew Kippis: Life of 
 Dr. Philip Doddridge, in the Biographia Britan- 
 nica, London, 1778-93, 5 vols. (A-F all pub- 
 lished); Charles Stanford: Philip Doddridge, 
 Loudon, 1881. 
 
 DODWELL, Henry, a learned though whimsi- 
 cal theologian; b. at Dublin, October, 1641; d. at 
 Shottesbrooke, Berkshire, June 7, 1711. He was- 
 a fellow of Trinity College, Dublin, but resigned 
 on taking orders (1666), and settled in London 
 (1674) ; wrote in defence of the Anglican Church, 
 and made such a reputation that he was appointed 
 Camden Professor of History at Oxford in 1688, 
 but lost the position in 1691, on the accession of 
 William HI., by refusing to take the oath of alle- 
 giance, for he had joined the party of James II. 
 He defended the non-juring bishops, declaring 
 those "schismatics" who submitted, and himself 
 left the Anglican communion, but afterw-ards- 
 changed his mind, and as publicly recognized the 
 authority of the " schismatics," and shortly be- 
 fore his death re-entered the Church of England, 
 His works were numerous, particularly in the 
 various departments of classical literature, and 
 attest great industry and learning, but little 
 judgment. He is remembered for his assertion, 
 in his Disserlationes in Irenaum (Oxford, 1689), 
 that the New-Testament demoniacs were epilep- 
 tics, and for his Epistolary Discourse, pz-oving from 
 the Scriptures and the First Fathers that the Soul i.i 
 7iaturally Mortal, hut immortalized actually by the 
 Pleasure of God, to Punishment, or to Reward, by 
 ite Union with tlie Divine Baptismal Spirit, London, 
 1706. He raised a violent opposition, but vigor- 
 ously defended himself. He connected iramor- 
 talit)' with baptism, and also advocated priestly 
 absolution. In private life he was exemplary, and 
 strict to asceticism. Curiously enough one of his- 
 sons (Henry) became noted for scepticism, and 
 another (William) for orthodoxy. — See Works 
 abridged, ivith an Account of his Life, by Francis- 
 Brokksmv, H.l)., London, 1715. 
 
 DOEDERLEIN, Johann Chrlstof, b. at AVind- 
 .sheim, in Franconia, Jan. 20, 1745; d. at Jena, 
 Dec. 2, 1792; studied at Altorf ; was made pro- 
 fessor in theology there in 1772, and moved in 
 1782 to Jena. Ot his exegetical works, his Jesaias 
 (1775) and Solomon's Wisdom (1778) were much 
 appreciated; but it was more especially in the 
 field of dogmatics that he exercise<l influence, 
 Institutio thvol. C'AW.s/mHo; (1780) forming a tran- 
 sition from the old orthodoxy to the dawning 
 rationalism. In the same spirit ho also edited 
 the Theoliigisrhe liibliotlui: from 1780. 
 
 DO'EG,an Edoniite servant of Saul, wlio being 
 at Nob, probably on account of conjectured lep 
 rosy, saw the interview between Ahimelcch and 
 David, and I'eported it to Saul, whose anger was 
 so raised that he put the entire priesthood at 
 Nob to death, with the solitary exception of Abi- 
 atliar who escaped to David, and the settlement
 
 DOGMA. 
 
 653 
 
 DOGMATICS. 
 
 destroyeil. in wliich bloody proceediDg Doeggave 
 the first blow (1 Sam. xxii.). 
 
 DOGMA (dreek iijyfia) iim.-ins, first, a fixed and 
 final resolution, especially wlien havincf a public 
 and general character, — a decree. In this sense 
 tlje Septuafjint and the New Testament use it for 
 all obligatory prescripts with respect to practical 
 life, for the decrees of civil authorities (Esth. iii. 
 9 ; Dan. ii. 13, vi. 8; Luke ii. 1), for the decrees 
 of the apostles (Acts xvi. 4), and for tlie Mosaic 
 decrees (Col. ii. 14; Eph. ii. 15). Next, it de- 
 notes in tlie language of the pliilosophers, more 
 ■especially in tliat of the Stoics, such definitions 
 ■of principles and ideas as are considered settled 
 forever, and raised above doubt. Thus Plato 
 applies it (De Hep., VII. 538 Sleph.) to those 
 axioms of the philosophy of the good and beau- 
 "tiful -which he wanted children to learn in the 
 school. Finally, it means such propositions or 
 sentences, expressive of ethico-religious truths, 
 as are believed to have originated from a divine 
 revelation. Thus Josephus (Contra Apion., I. 8) 
 ■calls the contents of the sacred books of the 
 Jews iitov doyiiara; and for the application of the 
 name to the Christian revelation, see Ignatius : 
 Ad Magnes., 13; Origines : De Princ. Fragm., 
 IV. 158; Clement Alexandrinus: Strom., VII. 
 p. 763, etc. 
 
 DOGMATICS (from dogma, see above) means 
 the systematic representation and scientific argu- 
 mentation of the tenets of a religious community. 
 Judaism and Mohammedanism might have their 
 dogmatics, like Christianity, and partially have. 
 Generally, however, the name is confined to the 
 systematic treatment of the Christian verities as 
 they have been divinely revealed and historically 
 developed and comprehended. 
 
 A Christian science (that is, a philosophical ex- 
 position of the ideas of Christianity, and a scien- 
 tific argumentation of the truth of these ideas) 
 arose very early in the Church ; but, as it arose 
 almost exclusively as a defence against the at- 
 tacks of Pagan or Jewish civilization, it naturally 
 assumed the character of apologetics, and that 
 character it retained down to the beginning of 
 the fourth century. (SieQ a.vt. Apologetics.) When 
 ■Christianity became the State religion of the 
 Roman Empire, it needed the apology no more : 
 but the scientific spirit, once awakened within 
 its bosom, was not destined to go to sleep again ; 
 it only changed object. From the fourth to the 
 ninth century it was engaged in a scientific defini- 
 tion of the Christian truths, in the formulation 
 of the Christian dogmas ; and this task was per- 
 formed through a continuous series of literary 
 controvei'sies, rising now and then into furious 
 ■contests. With the beginning of the ninth cen- 
 tury this fermentation was about finished ; and 
 then followed, down to the beginning of the six- 
 teenth century, a period in which all the doctrinal 
 results of the preceding debates were most cai-e- 
 fully gathered and sifted by the schoolmen, while 
 at the same time the reasoning methods of the 
 Greek philosophy were applied to their exposi- 
 tion. A new fermentation took place with the 
 Reformation, shorter, because less comprehensive, 
 but equally sharp and bitter. After the lapse of 
 a century, or little more, it ended with the estab- 
 .lishment of the Protestant Confessions. 
 
 While moving through these various stages of 
 
 apologetics, polemics, scholasticism, and confes- 
 sional ism, Christian science found no necessity 
 of making any distinction between the tlicoretical 
 and the jiractical aspect of its subject. 'I'he whole 
 Cliristian truth, so far as it existed in the Church 
 under the form of well-defined doctrine, was em- 
 braced in its contents. Theology treated not 
 only of the nature of God and his relation to the 
 world, but also of the duties which this relation 
 involves for man ; not only of the person of Christ 
 and the end and aim of his activity, but also of 
 the hopes which this aim involves for man ; not 
 only that which a Christian believes, but also 
 that which he acts ujion. There are instances 
 in early Christian literature, in which practical 
 questions and practical principles are treated in- 
 dependently in separate works ; as, for instance, 
 by Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, and others : 
 but it happened incidentally. The sacra doctrina 
 (Anselm), the loci iheologici (Melanchthon), the 
 Institutio religionis Christiariw (Calvin), etc., made 
 no distinction between theoretical and practical. 
 The schoolmen considered a chapter on the vir- 
 tues, often strongly marked with an influence 
 from Cicero, as an indispensable part of the 
 science which they taught. The distinction was 
 not made until the latter part of the seventeenth 
 century, when the sac7'a doctrina, the loci theologici, 
 etc., begin to branch off into two independent 
 parts, — one practical (ethics), and one theoretical 
 (dogmatics), each from that time following a 
 course of its own, though, of course, under 
 steady interaction with its partner. The name 
 dogmatics theotogia dogmatica was first used by 
 Hildebrand (1G92), then by Niemeyer (1702), 
 Jiiger (1715), and so on. In English and Ameri- 
 can theology it has not superseded the older 
 name of " Systematic Theology." 
 
 After this separation, by which dogmatics was 
 established as an independent branch of Christian 
 science, as its theoretical division, the questions 
 which have exercised the greatest influence on its 
 further development are, From what sources can 
 dogmatics draw its materials? and. According to 
 what norms has it to treat them ? To the Roman- 
 Catholic Church it proved comparatively easy to 
 answer these questions. She presents in Scrip- 
 ture and tradition a double field from which her 
 dogmatists can gather their materials ; and in 
 the decisions of the living Church, of the infallible 
 Pope, she has established an absolute norm for 
 the truth of a dogma and for its correct interpre- 
 tation. It must not be inferred, however, from 
 the utter arbitrariness of this norm, that, within 
 the Koman-Catholic Church, dogmatics has sunk 
 down to a mere registration of the piapal whims: 
 on the contrary, Roman-Catholic dogmatics has 
 now and then admitted fertile impulses from. 
 other powers, and now and then utilized them 
 with considerable freedom. (See art. Hermes, 
 and K. Werner : Geschichte der kathoUschen Theo- 
 logie seit dem Trienter Konzil, Munchen, 1807.) 
 Much greater difficulties the Protestant churches 
 experienced in answering the above-mentioned 
 questions : for they rejected the Roman-Catholic 
 norm altogether ; and of the two Roman-Catholic 
 sources they recognized only the one. Scripture, 
 to the exclusion of the other, tradition. Indeed, 
 in the Protestant churches. Scripture became at 
 once the only dogmatic source and the true dog-
 
 DOGMATICS. 
 
 654 
 
 DOGMATICS. 
 
 matic norm. But again : from these almost revo- 
 lutionary proceedings it must by no means be 
 inferred" that the old Protestant dogmatics drew 
 its whole contents, new and fresh, from Scripture : 
 on the contrary, besides its arliculi puri, which 
 were derived directly from Scripture, it had its 
 arliculi jiiixd, which were derived from the general 
 religious consciousness ; and though these arliculi 
 mijcti were not to be adopted as part and parcel 
 of Christian truth until they were proved by 
 Scripture, they became the channel through which 
 a great mass of merely traditional materials were 
 carried from the Roman-Catholic dogmatics into 
 the Protestant. (See G.iss : Gescliichte der proles- \ 
 tanlischen Dogmatik, Berlin, 1854-67, 4 vols.) 
 
 In course of time this incongruity between the 
 contents of the old Protestant dogmatics and the 
 dogmatic contents of Scripture became too palpa- 
 ble to pass by unnoticed. Criticism began its 
 work. It did not confine itself, however, to 
 censuring the above incongruity, but attacked, 
 under the form of rationalism, the very position 
 Scripture held as the norm of Cliristian truth. 
 It rejected the doctrine of the inspiration of 
 Scripture; it denied that Scripture is itself a 
 divine revelation ; it accepted Scripture only as 
 the first, the most authentic, and consequently 
 the most authoritative, testimony to the divine 
 revelation in Christ. By degrees its own position 
 became perfectly clear : it assumed human rea- 
 son as the highest norm for revealed truths (D. 
 F. Strauss), — a self-contradiction which must 
 lead to the denial of all revelation, that is, out 
 of Christianity. The lasting result, however, of 
 the rationalistic criticism, was the distinction 
 between a purely scriptural dogmatics developed 
 into an independent branch of the theological 
 system, under the name of Biblical Theology, and 
 the whole sum of Christian truth such as it has 
 grown up from Scripture in Christendom during 
 a period of nearly two thousand years. The 
 question then arose, where to seek that supple- 
 mentary constituent, which, together with Scrip- 
 ture, could form the absolute norm for this truth ; 
 and it is on this question tliat modern dogmatics 
 is divided ; Schleierinacher presuming to have 
 found what he sought in the "pious self-con- 
 sciousness;" J. T. Beck and Schenkel, in the 
 " conscience ; " II. Plilt, in the " inner religious 
 experience ; " II. Marten.sen, in a " perfect media- 
 tion between the ideas of Scripture and the ideas 
 of modern civilization," and so on. J. KOSTLIN. 
 
 Lit. — Only the chief works can be mentioned. 
 I. ROMAiX CATHOLIC. — (The two great 
 standard works — Bki-i.aumin, DispiitritionKs de 
 conlrocersiia clirlslldiia: Jidci, Kome, 1581-93, 3 
 vol.'i. fol., re])rinted at Home, 1832-40, 4 vols. 
 8vo, and Bossukt, Exposilion de la doclrinc de 
 I'dgliae calholirjue stir les malicres de co»lroi:erse, 
 Paris, 1671 — belong to polemics rather than to 
 dogmatics.) Giovanni Pkukonk: I'rwkciiones 
 Iheoloi/icte, Rome, 1835 sqq., vols, (more than 
 twenty-five editions liave been published at Tu- 
 rin, Brussels, Regensburg, Innsbruck, and Paris); 
 the same : I'rwU'Ctioncs Ihculogicm in Compendium 
 redaclcr., Rome, 1845, 4 vols., ed. xxxvi. Ratisbo- 
 neusis III., Regen.tburg, 1881, 2 vols, (also in 
 many editions and different languages) ; II. 
 Ki.kk: KathoUsche Dni/mdlili; Mainz, 183.5, 4th 
 ed., 1801; F. R. Dikuinoku: Lehrbuch der kalh. 
 
 Dogmatik, Mainz, 1847, 5th ed., 1865 ; Th. M. J. 
 GousSET : The'ologie dogmatifjve, ou exposilions des 
 preuves et des dogmes de la religion calholique, 3d 
 ed., Paris, 1850. 4 vols. ; H. Schmid : Katholische 
 Dogmatik, Schaffhausen, 1852-55, 2 vols.; Fr.\nz 
 Friedhoff : Katholisrhe Dogmatik, MUnster, 1855, 
 2d ed., 1871, 2 vols.; M. J. Scheeben: Hand- 
 huch der kallioUsclien Dogmatik, Freiburg, 1873 
 sqq., 3 vols. ; Joseph Sprixzl : Handhuch der 
 fundamental Tlieologie, AVien, 1870 ; J. KatsCH- 
 TH.\LER : Tlieologia dogmatica calliolica specialis, 
 Regensburg, 1876-80, 3 vols. ; Boxomelli : Hum- 
 ma tntius tJieologiie dogmaticce, Milano, 1878; II. 
 IIuRTER : Theol. dogmat. compendium, Innsbruck, 
 1876; the same: Medulla theoloqice dogmatiae^ 
 Innsbruck, 1870, 2d ed.. 1885; li. Th. Simar : 
 Lehrbuch der Dogmatik, Freiburg, 1879-80, 2 vols. ; 
 MiciiELLs: Katholische Dogmatik, Freiburg-i-B., 
 1880; A. GiLLY : De locis theologicis, Lyon, 1881. 
 
 II. PROTESTANT. A. Co.xtinental. 1. 
 Lutheran. — Philipp Melanchthon : Loci com- 
 munes rerum theologicarum, seu llypolyposes llieo- 
 logicce, AVittenberg, December, 1521 (many edi- 
 tions in the author's lifetime, each one more 
 enlarged ; translations in German, French, and 
 Italian ; modern ed. by E. Prenss, Berlin and 
 Leipzig, 1864-75, 9 vols. ; reprint of original edi- 
 tion by Professor G. L. Plitt, Eriangen, 1864) ; 
 Martin Chemnitz : Loci theologici, Frankfurt-a- 
 M., 1592 (posthumous lectures upon Melanch- 
 thon's book) ; Matthias Hafenreffer : Loci 
 theologici, TUbingen, 1600, revised ed., 1603 (sev- 
 eral subsequent editions, reprinted Stockholm, 
 1612 and 1686); L. Hutter: Compendium loco- 
 rum theologicorum, Wittenberg, 1610 (Eng. trans , 
 Phila. 1875) ; Johaxn Gerhard : Loci theolo- 
 gici, Jena, 1610-22, 9 vols., new ed., Leipzig, 
 186.3-76, 10 vols.; ABRAn.\M Carlov : Si/stema 
 locorum theologicorum, AA'ittenberg, 1655-77, 12 
 parts; J. F. KiixiG : Theologica positira, Rostock, 
 1604, 13th ed., Leipzig, 1711; J. A. Quenstedt : 
 Thcologia didactico-polemica seu systema theologica, 
 Wittenberg, 1685-96, 2 vols.; J. W. Baier: 
 Compend. theol. positivcB, Jena, 1686, new ed. by 
 Preuss, Berlin, 1864; D. Hollaz : Examen theol. 
 acroam., Starg., 1707; J. F. Buddeus : Institu- 
 liones theol. dogmat., Leipzig, 1723; J. D. Miciia- 
 EI.IS : Comjiendium theol. dogmat., Gottingen, 1760 
 (German trans., 2d ed., 1784): J. C. DiiiiER- 
 LEIN : Inslitutio llicologi chrUl. , NUrnberg, 1780 
 (German trans., 1785 sqq., 12 vols.) ; S. F. 
 Mi^RUS : I^pitomc theologies christians, Leipzig, 
 1789, 5th ed., 1820; G. C. Storr: Doctrince 
 Christiana: pars thcor. e libris sacris repetita, Stutt- 
 gart, 1793 (German trans., 1803, 2d ed., 1813); 
 F. V. Reixii.\ui): Vorlcsunqen i'lher die Dogmatik, 
 Sulzbach, 1801, 5th ed., 1824; AV. M. 4^. de 
 Wette: Lehrbuch der christlichcn Do<imatik in 
 ihr. histor. Entir., Berlin, 1813-21, 2 vols., :id ed., 
 1831-40; K. H.\se: Lchrhuch der ev. Dogmatik, 
 Stuttgart, 1826, 6tli od.,1870; the same: liutt(rus 
 rcdicirus, Leipzig, 1829, 12th ed., 1883 (an excel- 
 lent comiiondiiini for students, although now 
 superseded by Luthardt's); A. D. Cii. Twestkn : 
 Vorlesunqcn iibrr iH< Dogmatik der ev. luth. Kirche, 
 Hamburg, 1820-29, 4th ed., 1837, 2 vols, (very 
 vahuibli', but unfinislu'd); (i. Cii. Knapp: I'or- 
 lesungen iiber die christlichcn Glauhenslehre tiach 
 dem Lehrbf griff' der ecanqelischen Kirche, Ilalle, 
 1827, 2 vols., '2d ed., 1835, 1836 (Eng. trans, by
 
 DOGMATICS. 
 
 655 
 
 DOGMATICS. 
 
 L. Woods, Jan., D.D., Lectures on Christian The- 
 ology, Andover, 1831, 18:50, 2 vols., N.Y., 1808, 
 
 1 vol., — onco much used in American semina- 
 ries) ; K. T. NiTZScii : Si/stcm iler christUchcn Lehre, 
 Bonn, 18'29, fjtli ed., 1851 (Eng. trans.. System, of 
 Christian Doctrine, Edinbuvffli, 1849); IT. SciiMiD: 
 Die Doynidlik dcr en. luth. Kirche, Erlangen, 1843, 
 etli ed!, Frankfiirt^a-M., 1876 (Eng. trans.. The 
 Doctrinal Theoluyi/ of the Lutheran Church. I'liila., 
 1876); II. jMautensex: Den christcliije Duyniatilc, 
 Copenhagen, 1841) ((ierman trans., Kiel, 1850, 
 4tli ed., 1858; author's own revised German 
 trans., Berlin, 1850; Eng. trans.. Christian Dor/- 
 malics, Edinburrjh, 186(jj; (j. Tiiomasius: Christi 
 Person ii. IVerl: Darstelluncien iler ev. luth. Dog- 
 matik vom Mittelpankt der Christoloqie aus, Erlan- 
 gen, 1853-61, 3 parts, 2d ed., 1856-63; F. A. 
 PlULirn : Die kirchhche Glaubenstehre, Stuttgart, 
 1854-71, 5 vols., 3d ed., 1883 sqq. (strong Luther- 
 an) ; C. E. Luthardt: Kom/ietidium der Dog- 
 matik, Leipzig, 1865, 6th ed., 1882 (a most useful 
 work); K. F. A. Kahnis; Die lutherische Dog- 
 malik, Leipzig, 1861-68, 3 vols., 2d ed., 1874, 
 1875, 2 vols. ; F. N. R. Fk.\nk : System der 
 christlichen Geirissheit, Erlangen, 1870-73, 2 vols., 
 2d ed., 1881; Samuel Spkecheu: The Ground- 
 icork of a System of Erangelical Lutheran Theology, 
 Phila., 1879 (American Lutheran). 
 
 2. Reformed. — LTlkicii Zwingli: Christiana; 
 fidei breois clara expositio, Zurich, 1536, in Opera, 
 ed. Schuler and Schulthess, vol. iv. 42-79; John 
 Calvin : Institutio chrislianic religionis, Basel, 
 1536, final form, Geneva, 1559 (often reprinted 
 and translated; e.g., by Thomas Norton, Lon- 
 don, 1578; see Calvin) ; Wolfgang Musculus: 
 Loci communes sacrce theologice, Basel, 1573 (Eng. 
 trans.. Commonplaces of Christian Religion, Lon- 
 don, 1578); Peteu Mautyu: Loci communes, 
 Basel, 1580 (Eng. trans.. Commonplaces, London, 
 1583) ; Petek Mastricht : Theorelica-praclica 
 theologia, Amsterdam, 1682-87 {ed. nova, Utrecht, 
 1699, 2 vols., again, Amsterdam, 1724, 1 vol.) ; 
 H. WiTSius : De ceconomia fcederum del cum 
 hominibus, Leuward, 1687 (Eng. trans., Tlie 
 Economy of the Covenants, new ed., London, 1837, 
 
 2 vols.); Fr. Turretin : Instilutio theologice elen- 
 ticce, Geneva, 1682-88, 3 parts, ed. nova, Utrecht, 
 1701, 4 vols, (reprinted in his Opera, Edinburgh, 
 1847, 4 vols.); Benedict Pictet: Theologia Chris- 
 tiana, Geneva, 1696, 11 vols. ; the same : Theologie 
 chretienne, Amsterdam, 1702, new ed., Geneva, 
 1721, 3 vols. (Eng. trans., from the Latin) ; Chris- 
 tian Theology, Phila., Pres. Board, 1845; J. F. 
 Staffer : Institutiones theologice polemicw universce, 
 Tigurum (Zurich), 1743, 5 vols., 2d ed., 1752; 
 the same : Grundlegung zur wahren christlichen 
 Religion, Ziirich, 1746-53, 12 vols. ; Herman 
 Venema (1697-1787) : Institutiones theologicm 
 (Eng. trans., from the inedited and unprinted 
 manuscript by Rev. A. W. Brown, Institutes of 
 Theology, Edinburgh, 1850, reprinted, Andover, 
 1853) ; Alex. Schweizer : Die Glauhenslehre 
 der ev. reformirten Kirche, aus den Quellen belegt, 
 Zurich, 1844-47, 2 vols. ; the same : Die pirotestan- 
 tischen Centraldogmen in Hirer Entwicklung inner- 
 Jialh der reformirten Kirche, Ziirich, 1854, 1856 ; 
 J. H. A. Ebrard : Christliche Dogmatik, Kiinigs- 
 berg, 1851, 2 vols. , 2d ed., 1862, 1863 ; H. Heppe : 
 Die Dor/jnatik der ev. refonnirten Kirche, Elber- 
 feld, 1861 ; Van Oosterzee : Christelijke Dog- 
 
 matiek, Utrecht, 1870-72, 2 parts, 2d ed., 1876 
 (Eng. trans.. Christian Dogmatics, London and 
 N.Y., 1874, 2 vols.); Julius Mijller : Dog- 
 ■matische Abhandlunqen, Bremen, 1870. 
 
 3. Specidative. — IC. Daub : 1'heologumena,Hei- 
 delberg, 1806 ; F. Sciileiermaciier : Der christ- 
 liche (jlaube nach den Grundsiitzcn der ev. Kirche, 
 Berlin, 183.5, 2 vols.; J. P. Lange: Christliche 
 Pogmafik, Heidelberg, 1849-52, 3 vols.; Daniel 
 Sciienkel: Die christliche Dogmatik vom Staud- 
 jiunkte des Gewisscns aus dargcslcltt, Wiesbaden, 
 1858-.59, 2 vols.; A. Schweizer: Die christliche 
 Glaubenslchre nach protestiintischen Grundsatzen 
 dargestellt, Leipzig, 1863-72, 2 vols., 2d ed., 1877; 
 Alhreciit RiTscnL : Die chrisdiche Lehre von der 
 Rechtfcrtigung und Verslihnung dargestellt, Bonn, 
 1870-74 ; Richard Rothe : Do(/matik, ed. by 
 Schenkel, Heidelberg, 1870, 2 vols., 2d ed., 1878; 
 Isaac August Dorner: Systejn der christlichen 
 Glaubenslchre, Beriin, 1879-81, 2 vols. (Eng. 
 trans., Edinburgh, 1880-82, 4 vols.). 
 
 4. Rationalistic and Pantheistic. — C. A. Am- 
 mon : Sumnia theol. christ., Gdttingen, 1803, 4th 
 ed., Leipzig, 1830; K. G. Bretschneider: 
 Ilandbuch der Dogmatik der ev. luth. Kirche, Leip- 
 zig, 1814-18, 2 vols., 3d ed., 1828, 2 vols. ; J. A. 
 L. Wegscheider : Institutio theol. christ. dogmat., 
 Halle, 1815, 8tii ed., 1840; Karl Hase : Gnosis, 
 oder evang. Glaubenslchre fiir die Gibildeten, Leip- 
 zig, 1827-29, 3 vols., 2d ed., 1869-70, 2 vols.; 
 D. F. Strauss : Die cliristliche Glaubenslchre in 
 Hirer geschichtlichen Enttvicklung und im Kampfe 
 mit dcr modernen Wissenschafi dargestellt, Tubin- 
 gen, 1840-41, 2 vols. ; A. E. Biedermann: Christ- 
 liche Dogmatik; Zurich, 1869, 2d ed., 1884-85, 2 
 vols.; R. A. Lii'Sius: Lehrbuch der evangelisch- 
 protestantischen Dogmatik, Braunschweig, 1876, 2d 
 ed., 1879 ; O. Pfleiderer : Grundriss der clirist- 
 lichen Glauliens- unit Sitlenslchre, Berlin, 1880. Cf. 
 O. F'lI'OEL : Die speculative Tlieologie der Gegen- 
 wart kriliscli beleuchtet, Kothen, 1881. 
 
 5. Moravian. — II. Plitt : Zinzendorfs The- 
 ologie, Gotha, 1869 sqq. (1 Bd., Die ursjjrungiiche 
 gesunde Lehre Zinzendmfs, 1723-42). 
 
 B. English and American. 1. Church of 
 England. — TuoM.\s Rogers: The Catholic Doc- 
 trine of the Church of England, an Exposition of the 
 I'hirty-riine Articles, London, 1579, new ed., Cam- 
 bridge, 1854; Richard Hooker: Eight Books of 
 the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity, London, 1594 sqq. 
 (not completed), best edition by John Keble, in 
 Works, Oxford, 1836, 4 vols., 6th ed., 1874, 3 
 vols. ; John Pearson : An Exposition of the Ajios- 
 tlcs' Creed, London, 1659 (often reprinted and 
 edited, e.g. by Rev. Temple Chevallier, D.D., for 
 the Syndics of the Liniversity Press, Cambridge, 
 1849, 2d ed. , 1877) ; George Bull : Defensio Fidei 
 Nicence, London, 1685; William Beveridge : 
 Thesaurus TheologiciL'! ; or, a Complete System of 
 Divinity. London, 1710-11, 4 vols., new ed., 1828, 2 
 vols.; the same : Exposition <f the Thirty-nine Arti- 
 cles (first complete edition, Oxford, 1845, 3d ed., 
 1847); Gilbert Burnet : Exposition of the Thirty- 
 nine Articles, London, 1699 (numerous editions, 
 e.g., by J. R. Page, London, 1843) ; Thomas 
 Stackhouse : A Complete Body of Divinity, Lon- 
 don, 1729, 3d ed., 1755; Thomas Rid(;eley •. 
 A Body of Divinity, London, 1731-32, 2 vols., new 
 ed. revised and corrected, Loudon, 1844, and N. Y., 
 1855, 2 vols. ; George Tomline : Elements of
 
 DOGMATICS. 
 
 656 
 
 DOKETISM. 
 
 Christian Theology, London, 1815, 2 vols., 14th 
 ed., by Henry Stebbins, D.D., 184.3, 2 vols.; 
 Thomas R. Jones : An Exposition of the Thirty- 
 nine Articles by the Reformers, Loudon, 1849 ; Ed- 
 ward Harold Browxe : An Exposition of the 
 Thirty-nine Articles, Historical and Doctrinal, Lon- 
 don, iS50-53, 2 vols., 9th ed., 1871, 1 vol., Am. ed. 
 by Bp. 'Williams of Connnecticut, X.Y., 1865; O. 
 Adolphus: Compendium Theologicum; or. Manual 
 for Students in Theology, 4th ed., Cambridge, 1873; 
 A. P. Forbes: An Explanation of the Thirty-nine 
 Articles, Oxford and London, lS67"(High Church) ; 
 JoHX Raxdolpu : .4 Course of Lectures delivered 
 to Candidates for Holy Orders, Comprising a Sum- 
 mary of the Whole System of Theology, London, 
 1869-70, 3 vols. ; R. W. Jelf : The Thirty-nine 
 Articles of the Church of England explained in a 
 Series of I.ectu)-es,l.ondon, 1673; J.Miller: The 
 Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England, 
 London, vol. 1, 1878. 
 
 2. Calvinistic. Congregational. — Jonathan 
 Edwards (1703-58) : Works (several editions, 
 e.g., N.Y., 1869, 4 vols.) ; Samuel Hopkins 
 (1721-1803): Works, with Memoir, Boston, 18.54,3 
 vols.; Nathaniel Emmoxs (1745-1840): Works, 
 v:ith Memoir, Boston, 1861-63, 6 vols. ; Timothy 
 DwiGUT (1752-1817) : Theology Explained and 
 Defended in a Series of Sermons, Middletown, 
 Conn., 1818, 5 vols., new ed., N.Y., 1846, 4 vols. ; 
 Leon.\rd Woods (1774-1854) : Writings, Bos- 
 ton, 1860, 5 vols. ; Ralph AVardlaw : Systematic 
 Theology, Edinburgh, 18.50, 3 vols.; Nathaniel 
 WiLLi.\M T.\YL()R (1786-1858): Essays, Lectures, 
 etc., upon Select 'Topics in llercaled Theology, N.Y., 
 1859 ; Charles G. Finney : Lectures on Sys- 
 tematic Theology, Oberlin, 1846, new ed., 1878; 
 Enoch Pond: Lectures on Christian Theology, 
 Bo.ston, 1867. 
 
 Presbyterian. — -George Hill: Lectures in Di- 
 vinity, Edinburgh, 1821, 3 vols., N.Y., 1867 ; John 
 Dick: Lectures on Theology, '2(1 ed., Edinburgh, 
 1836, 4 vols., N.l^, 1871'; James Richards: 
 I^ectures on Aatural Philosophy and Theology, 
 N.Y., 1846; Thom.\s Chalmers: Institutes of 
 Theology, Edinburgh, 1849 ; A. A. Hodge: Out- 
 lines of 'Theology, N.Y., 1800, re-written and en- 
 larged ed., 1879; Richard Beard (Cumber- 
 land Presbyterian) : Lectures on 'Theology, Nash- 
 ville, Temi., 1871, 3 vols.; Charles IIodge: 
 Systematic Theology, N.Y., 1872-73, 3 vols.; H. 
 li. Smith : System of Christian 'Theology, 1884. 
 
 Baptist. — John Gill: A Complete Body of 
 Doctrinal and Practical Dirinity, new ed., London, 
 1839, 2 vols.; Alvah IIovey: Manual of Sys- 
 tematic 'Theology and Christian Ethics, Boston, 1877 ; 
 J. M. Pendleton : Christian Doctrines, Phila., 
 1878. 
 
 3. Arminian and Methodist. Sources and Dutch 
 Works. — Ja.mes Arminius: Opera Theologica, 
 Franc, 1031 (Eng. trans, by James and AVilliam 
 NicJiols, London, 1825-75, 3 vols.) ; .Simon Epis- 
 copius : Ojiera 'Theologica, AmsU^\\\niu, 1650-65, 
 2d ed., London, 1678, 2 vols. ; Philip Limiiorch : 
 Theologia Christiania, Amst., 1()>>0 (Eiig. trans., 
 A Complete System of ])ivinity, London, 1702, 2 
 vols.). Modern Engli.ih Works. — Richard \Vai- 
 80n: Theoloqical Institutes, Lon<lon, 1822-28, 3 
 vols., 8th ed., 18.50, 4 vols., reprinted in N.Y. 
 (ed. by Dr. J. McClintock, 1850), Kasliville, etc., 
 many editions ; W. B. Pope : A Compendium of 
 
 Christian Theology, London, 1875-77, 3 vols., re- 
 vised ed., London and N.Y^., 1879-81, 3 vols.; 
 Miner Raymond : Systematic Theology, Cincin- 
 nati, 1877-79, 3 vols. 
 
 4. Friends. — Robert Barcl.w : Theologiee 
 Veros Christiance Apologia, Amsterdam, 1676, Eng- 
 lish translation (by the author). An Apology for 
 the True Christian Divinity, [Aberdeen?] 16t8, 8th 
 ed., Birmingham, Eng., 1765, reprinted Phila., 
 
 1855. SAMUEL M. JACKSON. 
 
 DOCS among the Hebrews were not so highly 
 esteemed as they are among us. They were not 
 man's companions and friends. While useful 
 as the guardian of herds (Job xxx. 1 ; Isa. Ivi. 
 10), they are often spoken of as disturbers of the 
 night (Ps. lix. 6, 14; Isa. Ivi. 11), and devourers 
 of dead bodies : hence to be unburied was a re- 
 volting thought and a curse (1 Kings xiv. 11, 
 xvi. 4, xxi. 19, 23, xxii. 38; 2 Kings "ix. 10, 36; 
 Ps. Ixviii. 23; Jer. xv. 3). They appear in 
 Bible proverbs, thus : " Against any of the chil^ 
 dren of Israel shall not a dog move his tongue " 
 (the exodus would be safe, Exod. xi. 7); "He 
 that passeth by, and meddleth with strife belongs 
 ing not to him, is like one that taketh a dog by 
 the ears" (the folly of meddling, Prov. xxvi. 
 17) ; " As a dog returneth to his vomit, so a fool 
 returneth to his folly " (the hopelessness of sin, 
 Prov. xxvi. 11, quoted in 2 Pet. ii. 22). Th* 
 Hebrews were forbidden to sacrifice dogs (Isa. 
 Ixvi. 3) as several nations of antiquitj' did ; and 
 the word was an epithet of that which was un- 
 clean, profane, and altogether vile (cf. 1 Sam. 
 xvii. 43 ; xxiv. 14 ; 2 Sam. ix. 8 ; 2 Kings viii. 13; 
 Phil. iii. 2; Rev. xxii. 15). So foreigners were 
 called " dogs " by the Jews (Matt. xv. 26), even 
 as Christians are now by the Mohammedans. In 
 the Orient to-day the dog is a filthy, ignoble cur, 
 howling in the streets, and making night hideous 
 by his barks and yelps, whose only redeeming 
 feature is his capacity to fill the position of 
 scavenger. RUETScni. 
 
 DOKETISM (docetism) is a theory according to 
 wliich Christ had no real body : his appearance 
 in the actual world was only a magical appari- 
 tion, his body a phantom, his birth and death 
 visions. The origin of this theory seems to date 
 very far back. Ideas of the kind are refuted in 
 1 John iv. 2 and 2 John vii. ; and in one form or 
 the other the theory entered into nearly all Gnostic 
 .systeins, as, for instance, in those of Saturninus, 
 Basilides, Valentiuus, Marcion, etc. Towards 
 the close of the second century there existed a 
 sect called Doketw, SoKirai (Tiieodoret, E/k 82 ; 
 Clem. Alex., Strom. 7, 17; Euseb., Hist. Eccl. 6, 
 12). The root from which the theory sprung was 
 the idea of matter as being the cause of evil. 
 Ascribing all evil to matter, it seemed necessary 
 to represent Christ as entirely disconnected with 
 the material world ; and gnostioal subtlety hoped 
 to do tliis without making his work festally unreal. 
 Undoubtedly, however, the theory was often con- 
 nected with a peculiar superficiality of feeling 
 which transformed the deepest religious instincts 
 of liunian nature into a merely a;sthetieal ])laying 
 willi iiitcDcetual ideas; as, for instance, when Basi- 
 lides taught that it was Simon of Cyrene who 
 was crneificil under the disguise of Jesus, while 
 Jesus stood by, in the disguise of Simon of Cy- 
 rene, and laughed at his persecutors.
 
 DOLCINO. 
 
 GST 
 
 DOMINIC. 
 
 DOLCINO was b. in the diocese of Novara; 
 a son of a jiriest, and joined in I'-'Ol the sect of 
 the Apostolic Brothers; whicli see. After the 
 death of Segarelli (1300) he became the h:ader 
 of tlie sect, and made an armed resistance to the 
 troops sent to arrest him; but in 1307 lie was de- 
 feated and burnt. Of the three works he wrote, 
 the third and last has perished altogether ; but of 
 the two others, extracts and fragments are still 
 extant. The first was written in 1300, the second 
 in 1303 •, and both are addressed to the scattered 
 members of the sect. He distinguishes four 
 stages in the historical development of provi- 
 dence. The first begins with the patriarchs, the 
 second with Christ and his apostles, the third 
 with Sylvester and Constantine the Great, and 
 the fourth and last with Segarelli and himself. 
 Each stage is good by itself; but degeneration 
 makes reform, and the development of a new 
 stage, necessary. Thus, when the great masses of 
 Pagans adopted Christianity in the fourth cen- 
 tury, the Christians were compelled to assume the 
 responsibility of riches in order to show how the 
 goods of the earth shall be used to the glory of God 
 and for the sake of the poor. But the attempt 
 proved a failure ; and neither the rules of St. 
 Benedict, nor the still severer rules of St. Francis 
 and St. Dominic, were able to mend matters. The 
 true reform, the return to the example of Christ, 
 the transformation of all earthly relations, mar- 
 riage, property, etc., into spiritual relations, comes 
 with the fourth stage, ushered in by Segarelli and 
 Dolcino. In his first book (1300) Dolcino an- 
 nounced that in 1303 all his enemies should be 
 vanquished, and the whole Christian world gath- 
 ered into the sect. In his second book (1303) he 
 was compelled to announce a postponement of one 
 ] year, which he did without losing the confidence 
 of his followers. There are, indeed, in his works 
 both true religious enthusiasm and a sharp sense 
 of the corruption of the Church ; but both are 
 blurred by the whims of a sensuous and ill- 
 regulated inagiuation. 
 
 Lit. — Historia Dulcini and Addkamentum, in 
 MuRATORi : Scriptores Rerum Italicurum, IX. 425 
 ■ sqq. ; Mosheim: Ketzergeschichte, p. 193 sqq. ; 
 SCHLOSSER : Abdlard und Dulcin, Gotha, 18o7 ; 
 Baggiolini : Dolcino e i Pataretii, Novara, 1838 ; 
 Krone : Fra Dolcmo und die Patarener, Leipzig, 
 1814. C. SCHMIDT. 
 
 DOMICELLA. See Chapter. 
 
 DOMINIC, St., and the DOMINICANS. Do- 
 mingo de Guzman, the founder of the Dominican 
 order, was b. 1170, at Calaruega, in the diocese of 
 Osma, Old Castile, and d. in the Monastery of St. 
 Nicholas, at Bologna, Aug. 6, 1221. From his 
 sixth year he was educated by his uncle, who was 
 archpresbyter at Gumyel de Yean ; and when he 
 was fourteen years old he entered the University 
 of Palencia. In 1194 he was made a canon, and 
 afterwards sub-prior of the chapter of Osma, 
 where lie aided the Bishop Diego de Azevedo in 
 introducing the rules of St. Augustine. lie also 
 labored, and with great success, as a missionary 
 among the Mohammedans and heretics of the 
 neighborhood. In 1204 he accompanied Diego 
 on a diplomatical errand into Southern France, 
 and there he came into contact with the Albigen- 
 ses. The task of converting these revolters 
 .against the faith and authority of Home had 
 
 43 — 1 
 
 been intrusted to the Cistercians ; but they had 
 utterly failed, and were about to give up the 
 work, when, in an assembly at Montpellier, Diego 
 and Dominic persuaded them to go on. But the 
 success was slight: only a few were converted. 
 Diego soon left for his diocese ; also the Cister- 
 cians withdrew; and Domhiie with a few follow- 
 ers was left alone in the field. From Bi.shop 
 Fulco of Toulouse he received some support; 
 but the foundation of an asylum for girls at 
 Prouille, in the diocese of Toulouse, was nearly 
 the only result of his activity. 
 
 This nunnery of Prouille became the place of 
 i-endezvous for Dominic and his followers until 
 the Cellnnis joined the brotherhood, and presented 
 them with a house in Toulouse. The Roman 
 curia also showed that it felt obliged to Dominic: 
 it offered him the bishopric of Beziers. innocent 
 III. had no confidence in prayers and preaching 
 as weapons against heretics. The sword and the 
 battering-ram he considered more effective ; and 
 after the assassination of his legate. Cardinal 
 Castelnau, he preached a crusade against the 
 Albigenses. Dominic and the brotherhood fol- 
 lowed in the wake of the terrible army as a kind 
 of court of inquiry. All suspicious or suspected 
 persons were placed before this court; and, hav- 
 ing been convicted of heresy, they were passed on 
 to tlie stake. After the end of the war Domi- 
 nic determined to transform the bi'otherhood he 
 had founded into a permanent w'eapon of attack 
 against heresy, into an order of predicant monks. 
 Bishop Fulco, who liked to see his diocese becom- 
 ing the seat of a new monastic order, was charmed 
 at the idea, and accompanied Dominic to Rome, 
 where the fourth council of the Lateran was just 
 assembled (1215) ; but the council determined 
 that no new order should be founded, and the 
 petition of Dominic was left unheeded. He did 
 not give up his idea, however; and finally Inno- 
 cent III. gave his consent on the condition that 
 the brotherhood should adopt the rules of some 
 older, already recognized order, and organize itself 
 in the simpile form of colleges of canons. The 
 brotherhood chose the rules of St. Augustine, to 
 which were added some others from the statutes 
 of the Praemonstratensians, — silence, poverty, 
 fasts, complete abstinence from flesh, linen clothes, 
 etc. ; but the prospects of success were very small. 
 Then Innocent III. died (July 17, 121(j) ; and hia 
 successor, Honorius III., held a much more favora- 
 ble opinion of the efficacy of a predicant order. 
 Dominic hastened to Rome ; and in December 
 (same year) Honorius confirmed the statutes, and 
 gave the order, as its symbol, a dog with a 
 lighted torch in his mouth; the order being des- 
 tined to watch the Church like a dog, and to 
 illuminate it like a torch. The brotherhood now 
 began to develop a great activity for the pur- 
 pose of spreading the order. Some went to 
 Spain, others to Paris, where a monastery was 
 founded in the house of St. Jacob, whence the 
 Dominicans in France were afterwards called 
 Jacobins. Dominic himself founded monas- 
 teries in Metz and Venice. During a visit to 
 Rome he began to pireach to the lower servants 
 of the papal household, who were allowed, it 
 seems, to live on without any spiritual care at 
 all ; and he was then appointed Magisler Sacri 
 Palalii, or court-preacher to the Pope, an office
 
 DOMINIC. 
 
 658 
 
 DOMITIAN. 
 
 •which still exists, and still is held by a Domini- 
 can. Still the order would not grow. Some- 
 thing was missing in order to insure success, and 
 it took time before Dominic discovered what it 
 was. 
 
 In 1219 he seems to have been present at the 
 chapter-general held by the Franciscans at Assisi. 
 There he saw how an ostentatious display of 
 poverty and destitution, an almost crack-brained 
 passion for dirt and rags and all the disgusts of 
 misery, made the monks accepted by the mass 
 of the people as brethren : consequently, he im- 
 mediately threw himself upon the track pointed 
 out by the Franciscans. At the chapter-general 
 which the Dominicans held in 1220, in the Mon- 
 astery of St. Nicholas, at Bologna, the order 
 renounced the possession of pi'operty in any form 
 or shape, and declared for complete poverty, and 
 the daily begging of the means indispensable to 
 the sustenance of life. When the next chapter- 
 general was held in Bologna (1221), sixty monas- 
 teries were represented, and members were sent 
 to far-off places to make new foundations. Thus 
 Dominic lived to see his order successful ; and 
 twelve years after his death (1233) he was him- 
 self canonized by his friend Gregory IX. 
 
 Many external circumstances were favorable 
 to the prosperity and rapid growth of the order 
 after it first got started. Mendicant and predi- 
 cant monks cannot live in a desert. The large 
 city is their natural "environment;" and city- 
 life entered just at this time upon a period of 
 brilliant development. Other orders, for in- 
 stance the Cistercians, saw their opportunity, and 
 moved into the city ; but none found it so easy 
 to strike root there as the Dominicans. The 
 most miserable hut was good euougli for them : 
 the next day they began begging and preaching. 
 Their povertj-, however, soon became a mere simu- 
 lation. In 1425 Martin V. recalled the prohibi- 
 tion to possess real estate or other property. 
 Donations and bequests poured in upon the order. 
 It built monasteries and churches ; and art is 
 indebted to it for some of the finest specimen.^ of 
 Gothic architecture. StiU greater was the influ- 
 ence which it exercLsed on science. In 1228 the 
 teachers of the University of Paris left tlie city 
 on account of some squabbles witli Queen Blanca, 
 and retired with tlieir pupils, partly to Rheinis, 
 partly to Angers. A chair was tlien established 
 for a Dominican monk, and in 1230 another was 
 added. Thus tli(^ mendicant orders got a foot- 
 hold in the universities (fcjr the Franciscans soon 
 followed); and not only did they vindicate their 
 place in the teeth of a most vehi'nient opposition, 
 but they finally usurped th(^ whole space, and 
 became the means by which the Church succeeded 
 in crushing all free science. Scholasticism is 
 not simply a scientific form whicii the Domini- 
 cans found ready-made, and were compelled to 
 adopt : in its latest, most elaborate, but also 
 narrowest and most unnatural phase, it is a pro- 
 duction of the Domiriioans themselves ; and dur- 
 ing its reign the history of tlieology, [ihilosophy, 
 science, was hardly more than a rivalry lietween 
 the Dominicans and the Franciscans. The con- 
 troversy between 'i'liomists and Scotists — the 
 controversy concerning the exemption of Mary 
 from liereilitary sin — began and ended in this 
 rivalry. The Dominicans were victorious; and 
 
 many great and good men they produced, — Al- 
 bertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas, Meister Eck- 
 art, Johann Tauler, Heinrich Suso, Savonarola, 
 Las Casas, Vincent Ferrier, and Vincent of Beau- 
 vais. They have given the Church more than 
 eight hundred bishops, a hundred and fifty arch- 
 bishops, sixty cardinals, and four popes. But 
 they gradually degenerated. At the beginning 
 of the Reformation they held supreme sway over 
 theological science; but they were shockingly 
 ignorant, and by their activity as dealers ia 
 indulgences they actually prostituted the Church. 
 Still worse : they lacked the power of regenera- 
 tion, such as the Franciscans proved themselvea 
 possessed of, by the formation of reformed con- 
 gregations ; and the end of their long labors 
 through six centuries was a severe rebuke by the 
 head of the Church, when, on Dec. 8, 1854, Pius 
 IX. promulgated the dogma of the immaculate 
 conception of the Virgin, — a dogma they had 
 always opposed. 
 
 Lit. — Biography of St. Dominic by Jordanus, 
 his successor as general of the order, in Acta 
 Sanctorum, Aug. 1; Helyot : Ilistoire des Ordres 
 Monastiques, Paris, 1714-19, 8 vols. ; Annates 
 Ordinis Prcedicatorum, Rome, 1746; Hurter : 
 Geschichte Innocenz des Dritlen, IV., 282-312; 
 Lacordaire : Vie de St. Dominique, Paris, 1840 ; 
 Caro : St. Dominique et les Domitdcains, Paris, 
 1853 ; [Kleinermanns : Der dritte Orden von der 
 Busse des heitigen Dominicus. Queltenmdssige Dar- 
 stellunq. Dulmen. 1885.] ALBEECHT VOGEL. 
 
 DOMINICAL LETTER, a letter (one of the 
 first seven in the alphabet) which is used in eccle- 
 siastical almanacs to represent Sunday. For 
 general tables, and directions liovv to find the 
 Dominical Letter, see the Book of Commoa 
 Prayer. 
 
 DOMINICA, or DIES DOMINICUS, the Lord's 
 Dav. or Sunday. See Lord's D.\y. 
 
 DOMINICA In ALBIS, the first Sunday after 
 Easter. 
 
 DOMINCALE, a fair linen cloth used by wo- 
 men wlien receiving the Lord's Supper; either a 
 napkin, upon which the bread was laid instead 
 of upon their liai'e hand, or a veil. 
 
 DOMINICUS LORICATUS. See Damiani, 
 PktkI!. 
 
 DOMINIS, DE, MARC ANTHONY. See An- 
 
 TIU)NV 1)1, DdMINIS. 
 
 DOMITIAN, Roman emperor 81-96; is com- 
 monly spoken of as having originated the second 
 great persecution of the Christians. The whole 
 affair amounts to this: first, under Vespasian and 
 Titus a tax was levu>d upon the .lews for Jupi- 
 ter Capitolinus ; and Suetonius tells us {Domil., 
 12), that, under Doniitiau, tliis tax was extended 
 also to such as lived after the manner of the Jews 
 without acknowledging themselves to lie Jews, or 
 such as concealed their race and religion. Second, 
 during the reign of Doniitiau the accusation of 
 atheism is first heard of ; and instances of con- 
 demnation on account of tiiis crime are men- 
 tioniMl without any special statement, however, 
 that the victims were Christians; only Dio Cas- 
 sius says (07, 14) tliat all who were converted to 
 Judaism were accused of atheism. Finally, we 
 are told by I'.usebius, that, during the reign of 
 Doniitiau, many Cliristians suffered martynlom. 
 It is in liie liglit of these facts that Tertulliau'a
 
 DOMITILLA. 
 
 659 
 
 DONATISTS. 
 
 report (Apo!of/el., 5) must be read, of Domitian's 
 attempt to porsecuto the Christians, and of his 
 later abandonment of the plan. The investijja- 
 tions which the emperor made conccrnin.a; the 
 descendants of David (Euseb., III. V2 and 20) liad 
 a merely political object. As he was told that 
 those people were politically dangerous, he sum- 
 moned two of them to his presence, and ques- 
 tioned them about Christ and his kingdom. But 
 when they an.swered that the kingdom of Clirist 
 was not of this world, and should not begin until 
 the world had perished, he sent them away with 
 contemjit. See Fr. Overbeck : Studien ziir 
 Geschickle d. alien Kirche, Schloss-Chemnitz, 1875, 
 1, 93 ; AuBE : Histoire des persecutions de PEglife 
 jusqu'a la Jin des Antonins, Paris, 1875; [Keim : 
 Rotn. u. d. Christenthum, Berlin, 1881]. IIERZOG. 
 
 DOMITILLA, according to Suetonius {Domilian, 
 18) and Dio Cassius (67, 14) a niece of the Em- 
 peror Domitian, married to her cousin, the Con- 
 sul Flavius Clemens, and banished to the Island 
 of Pandateria where her husband was decapitated 
 on the charge of atheism or Judaizing ; accord- 
 ing to the Acts of Martyrdom of Nereus and 
 Achilleus (May 12) and Eusebius, quoting from a 
 contemporary Pagan chronicler, Brutius, she was 
 a niece of the consul Flavius Clemens, and ban- 
 ished to the Island of Pontius. Whether there 
 were two Domitillas, or only one, and how, in the 
 latter case, the two reports are to be reconciled, 
 is still an ojien question. The Acts of Martyrdom 
 of Nereus and Achilleus are undoubtedly a spu- 
 rious fabrication ; but the monuments of the 
 catacombs, from the so-called Ccemiterium Domi- 
 tillce, prove that they have a historical kernel. 
 See Mommsen: Corpus Inscr., VI. 1, 1876, p. 172; 
 AuBE: Hist, des persecutions, FaTis,lS7o; df. Ros- 
 si : BuHetino, Rome, 1875 ; Northcote : Roma 
 Sotterranea, London, 1877; Lightfoot : Clement 
 of Rome (Appendix), London, 1877. 
 
 DOMNUS. See Donus. 
 
 DONALDSON, John William, b. 1812; d. in 
 London, Feb. 10, 1861. He was graduated at 
 Cambridge, won eminence as a classical scholar ; 
 vrrote The New Cralylus (1839), and Varronianus 
 (18-14). His Jashar, or Fragmeyits of Oriijinal 
 Hebrew Songs inserted in the Masoretic Text of the 
 Old Testament (1854), which was written in Latin, 
 and attempts to " reconstitute the lost book of 
 Jashar from the remains of old songs and histori- 
 cal records, which, according to the author, are 
 incorporated in the existing text of the Old Testa- 
 ment," raised a great storm. He showed very 
 plainly his latitudinarian principles, characteris- 
 tic recklessness of statement, and lack of judg- 
 ment. At the same time the book is very learned, 
 and contains much valuable information. Of all 
 the criticisms of it, that by Perowne is the best. 
 See the article on Jasher, in Smith's Dictionary of 
 the Bible. 
 
 DONATI. See Monasticism. 
 
 DONATION OF CONSTANTINE, an alleged 
 imperial edict by which ("onstantine the Great is 
 said to have bestowed Rome and Italy as a gift 
 on the papal see in 324. The document, which 
 exists both in a Greek and Latin text, was not 
 produced, however, until the middle of the eighth 
 century, in a letter from Pope Adrian I. to Chai le- 
 niange ; but from that time it was firmly believed 
 in until Laurentius Valla exposed the fraud. 
 
 Dante (Inferno, XIX. 112-118) alludes to the fic- 
 tion, believing the fact, but deploring the effect, 
 in the famous lines: — 
 
 " Ah, Constantiue! of how much ill the cause, 
 Not thy conver.sioii, but those rirh domains 
 That the first wealthy Pope received of thee! " 
 
 See MI'ncii : Ueber die erdichtete Schenkun// Con- 
 stnntin des Grossen, Freiburg, 1824 ; Mack : De 
 Donatione a C. M. sedi Apost. ohlala, JIunich, 
 1861. 
 
 DONATISTS. As a direct result of the perse- 
 cution of Diocletian, there arose among the Chris- 
 tians a great enthusiasm for sufferings, and even 
 for death, for the sake of the faith. They were 
 demanded to surrender their sacred books; l)ut 
 not only did many refuse to comply with this de- 
 mand, but some even stepped forward purposely, 
 and boasted that they had the books, and could 
 by no means be forced to give them up. The 
 name of a traditor, that is, one who has surren- 
 dered his Bible, became extremely odious. Men- 
 surius, Bishop of Carthage, openly opposed the 
 fanaticism of the voluntary martyrs and the 
 extravagant reverence sliown to confessors. He 
 sent his archdeacon, Csecilianus, into the prisons 
 where the confessors sat, and had the crowds 
 which gathered there in enthusiastic devotion 
 dispersed by force. But thereby the fanatics 
 became only so much the more excited, and it 
 was to be expected that they would seize upon 
 the first opportunity to avenge themselves. In 
 305 a synod was convened at Cirta ; but, before 
 the synod was opened, the primate of Numidia, 
 Bishop Secundus of Tigisis, proposed that an 
 investigation should be made, whether there 
 were any traditores among the assembled. The 
 result of the investigation was, that nearly every 
 one of the bishops present was proved guilty of 
 the crime, in some form or other. Suspicion fell 
 even upon Secundus himself. He was conse- 
 quently compelled to drop the investigation; 
 but he, nevertheless, saw fit to assume the at- 
 titude of a guardian of the discipline of the 
 Church, and, when he heard of the troubles which 
 had occurred in Carthage, he sent a warning to 
 Mensurius and Csecilianus. Mensurius died 311, 
 and, according to the common course of affairs, 
 the archdeacon succeeded the bishop ; and, as 
 Csecilianus was known to hold the same views as 
 Mensurius, the moderates hastened to elect him, 
 without awaiting the arrival of the Numidian 
 bishops, and without inviting the primate. Se- 
 cundus of Tigisis, to perform the consecration. 
 The Numidian bishops felt much offended at the 
 slight shown to them, and allied themselves with 
 the rigorists. Secundus convened a synod, and 
 summoned Cajcilianus to defend himself. As 
 Csecilianus did not appear before the synod, he 
 was deposed and excommunicated, and Majoi'i- 
 nus was elected in his stead. When Majoriuus 
 died (in 313), Douatus, called the Great, became 
 his successor. 
 
 Thus the schism originated in the Church 
 of Carthage. There were two bishops and two 
 congregations. From the capital it spread 
 through the whole province. A majority of 
 the country people, and a considerable number 
 of bishops, declared in favor of Donatus. Out- 
 side of Africa, however, C:ecilianus was generally 
 recognized as the legitimate bishop; and the
 
 DONATISTS. 
 
 660 
 
 DONATISTS. 
 
 opposite party (the pars Majorini, afterwards the 
 pars Doiiali, the Donalianl, or Donatista) were 
 considered as schismatics who had separated 
 from the true Catholic Church. In an edict of 
 513 Constantine the Great promised the Church 
 of Africa his protection ; but the Donatists were 
 -expressly excluded from the imperial favor. 
 They iruniediately addressed themselves to the 
 emperor, and begged him to examine their com- 
 plaints against Csecilianus. He consented, and 
 appointed a committee of five bishops from Gaul, 
 with Melchiades, Bishop of Rome, at its head. 
 The committee summoned Caecilianus, and ten 
 African bishops of each party, to its presence. 
 Donatus of Cas» Nigrse was the spokesman of 
 the Donatists ; but, in spite of all his exertions, 
 C»cilianus was acquitted, and Donatus was de- 
 posed. The other Donatist bishops were allowed 
 to retain their office and dignity, on the condi- 
 tion that they returned to the Catholic Church. 
 But the condemned would not submit. They 
 complained to the emperor of the partiality of 
 the verdict, and begged that some jui'ldically edu- 
 cated persons might be sent to Africa, to hear wit- 
 nesses, and gather evidence, and the case be laid 
 before a synod of bishops. Their request was 
 granted, and imperial commissioners appeared 
 in Carthage. But the commissioners decided in. 
 favor of C'jecilianus. The Donatists became ex- 
 tremely excited on account of this verdict, and 
 in an unfortunate moment they appealed directly 
 to the emperor. Constantine was astonished 
 and disgusted, that he, a Pagan, was asked to 
 decide upon the internal affairs of the Christian 
 Church ; but he accepted, nevertheless, the ap- 
 peal, summoned Crecilianus and his accusers to 
 Milan (^1(5), and condemned the latter as guilty 
 of calumny. All further resistance now became 
 a crime against the imperial majesty; but the 
 Donati.sts, nevertheless, refused to submit. Con- 
 stantine preferred, however, to ignore the whole 
 affair ; and, although no less than two hundred 
 and seventy Donatist bishops were present at a 
 synod held in 330, the policy adopted by the em- 
 peror would probably have proved the best way 
 of healing the schism. 
 
 Constans, however, did not continue his father's 
 policy, and the severity with which he treated 
 the Donatists immediati-ly produced very strange 
 effects. Africa suffc-rcd at that time much from 
 a vicious kind of ascetics, — the so-called Circum- 
 cellirmc's. An affiliation took place between these 
 Circnmci:Ui(ini:s and the lower elements of the 
 Donatist party ; and the result was a complete 
 uproar, wliicli, however, was speedily suppressed 
 by Taurinus (315). At this time Caecilianus died, 
 and an opportunity presented itself of healing tlie 
 BchisMi by recognizing tlie Donatist bishop. But 
 the Donatists bad made themselves so despised and 
 hated, that a compromise was impossible. Gratus 
 succeeded Ciccilianus as Catholic bishop, and the 
 schism continued. Soon a new uproar broke out. 
 As most of tlie Donatists belonged to the poor 
 class, and many were completely destitute, Con- 
 stans sent (in 318) I'aul and Macarius to Africa 
 to try to reconcile them by means of a liberal 
 support. I$ut Donatus the Great declared witii 
 vehein<;MCie against this attemjit of .si'duction; 
 and Donatus of Bagai met tlie negotiators at the 
 bead of a swarm of armed Circumctlliuucs. The 
 
 commotion, however, was speedily suppressed. 
 Donatus of Bagai was decapitated, Donatus the 
 Great was banished, and the Donatist churches 
 were closed. A complete change took place in 
 the condition of the party when Julian ;iscended 
 the throne. It was his policy to fight the Catho- 
 lic Church by means of heretics and schismatics. 
 The Donatists were immediately allowed to use 
 their churches, and their banished bishops re- 
 turned. Donatus the Great had died ; but Julian 
 appointed Parmenianus his successor, and estab- 
 lished him in Carthage by means of force. The 
 Donatists had for a short time the power, and 
 they did not use it sparinglj'. But Valentinian I. 
 and Gratian issued again very severe laws against 
 them (373 and 375). 
 
 Meanwhile the inner decay of the sect had 
 begun. One of its most jirominent members, 
 Tychonius, distinguished for his great learning, 
 and appreciated as the author of the Rec/nlas sep- 
 lem ad investigandum intelUgentiam Sarrriruiit Scrip- 
 turarum, rejected the Novatian views held by most 
 Donatists, and objected to the ostentatious exclu- 
 siveness of the party. Such milder and more 
 moderate views found many adherents : and Pri- 
 mianus, the successor of Parmenianus, belonged 
 to the moderate side of the sect, and came soon 
 in conflict with the extremists, at whose head 
 stood the deacon Maximianus. The conflict was 
 very bitter ; and, when he ventured to excommuni- 
 cate Maximianus, the extremists convened a 
 .synod (393), deposed him, and elected Maximi- 
 anus bishop in his stead. Thus there were three 
 bishops in Carthage; and, just as the sect in this 
 way was gliding down into a state of dLssolntion, 
 it encountered its most decided and most power- 
 ful adversary, Augustine. After writing several 
 books against the sect, as it would seem, without 
 any great effect, Augustine himself consented to 
 an appeal to force, referring to Luke xiv. 'I'i. A 
 synod of Carthage (405) petitioned the Emperor 
 Honorius to issue penal laws against the Dona- 
 tists. The petition was granted : laymen should 
 be fined, clergymen banished, and the chui'ches 
 closed. But Honorius could not afl'ord to make 
 any more enemies than those he already had, and 
 in -tO!) he issued an edict of toleration; but this 
 edict raised such a storm in the Catholic Church, 
 that it had to be immediately repealed. A dis- 
 putation was then arranged in Carthage (411), 
 Collalio cum Donatistis. Two hundred and eighty- 
 six Catholic and two hundi'ed and seventy-nine 
 Donatist bishops were present : Augustine and 
 Aurelius were the speakers of the former ; Primi- 
 anus and Patilianus, those of the latter. For 
 three days the debate lasted, but no result was 
 arrived at. Finally the imperial commissioner de- 
 clared the Donatists vanquished, and very severe 
 nueasures were decided upon against them. In 
 414 tliey lost all eivil rights; in 415 they were 
 forbidden to assemble for worshipping, under 
 penalty of death. Nevertheless, they liad not 
 become extinct, when, in the seventh century, 
 the Saracens occujiied tlie country, aud destroyed 
 the African Church. 
 
 Lit. — Optatus Milkvitanus : De Schismate 
 Doiuilistarum, edit, by Du Pin, Paris, 1700; Au- 
 (iUSTiN.: Contra c/iislulam Panneniani, iJc bapliwio, 
 Coidra lileras Pcliiiinti, Contra Cresconiiim ; NoKl- 
 sius: llistoria JJuiuilislariim, edit, by Ballerini^
 
 DONATIVE, 
 
 661 
 
 DOOLITTLE. 
 
 Verona, 1729 ; RinnEK : Donalus u. Auynstinus, El- 
 berfeld, 1858; [Dkutscii: Drei Aclcii.itiickr z. Gesch. 
 d. Dnnalismus, Berlin, 1875]; Volter: D. Ursprimy 
 d. D., Freib.-ini-Br., 1883. ALBRECUT VOGEL. 
 
 DONATIVE is a benefice conferred on a per- 
 son by the founder or patron, without either 
 presentation, institution, or induction by tlie ordi- 
 nary : rcsifjnation therefore is to the patron. 
 
 DONATUS VESONTIENSIS, the only son of 
 Duke Waldelenus ; was educated in the Monas- 
 tery of Luxenil (Luxocium) by St. Columban, 
 and was in 624 elected bishop of his native city, 
 Besanijon ( Vesontio). There he founded a nun- 
 nery, Jussanum, and wrote for it a statute-book 
 in seventy-seven chapters, which on account of its 
 minute prescripts forms an interesting historical 
 document. When the abbess said grace at the 
 table, and a nun forgot to answer " Amen," she 
 was served with six strokes of a whip : when a 
 nun forgot to have herself blessed before walking 
 outside the cloister wall, she was punished with 
 twelve strokes, etc. See Holstenius : Codex 
 Regularum monast, et canonic, I. p. 375. 
 
 DONATUS OF CAS/E NIGRff. See Dona- 
 
 TISTS. 
 
 DONATUS THE GREAT. See Donatists. 
 
 DONNE, John, D.D., divine and poet, son of a 
 merchant; b. in London, 1573; d. March 31, 
 1631. He was educated at Oxford and Cam- 
 bridge, but did not take a degree. In 1592 he 
 renounced the Roman-Catholic faith, and subse- 
 quently wrote two polemical treatises against it, 
 — Pseudo-Mcirti/r (1610), and Ignatius his Con- 
 clave (1611). He followed civil pursuits, until, 
 induced thereto by James I., who had read the 
 Pseitilo-Maiii/r, he took oi'ders (in 1614), a step to 
 which he had been urged seven years before by 
 Dr. Morton, afterwards Bishop of Durham. He 
 was immediately appointed royal chaplain, in 
 1620 Dean of St. Paul's, and in 1630 preached 
 his last sermon, which was afterwards published 
 under the title, Death's Duel. lie is buried in 
 St. Paul's Cathedral. Donne's poetical works 
 ■were excessively admired by his own generation, 
 praised by Dryden, and paraphrased by Pope. 
 His published sermons are marked by metaphysi- 
 cal insight and poetical unagery. 
 
 Lit. — LXXX. Sermons, with a Life by Izaak 
 Walton, London, 1640 ; Essays in Divinity, Lon- 
 don, 1651 ; The Works of John Donne, D.D., ed. 
 by Dean Alford, London, 1839, 6 vols. ; Cole- 
 ridge ; Notes on Donne, Works, vol. v. pp. 73 
 sqq. (Am. ed.). 
 
 DONNELL, Robert) one of the early leaders in 
 the Cumberland Presbyterian Church ; b. in Guil- 
 ford County, North Carolina, April, 1784; d. at 
 Athens, Ala., May 24, 1854. His parents early 
 moved to Tennessee. Under a deep conviction 
 of the m-gent need of more ministers, he offered 
 himself in 1806 to the so-called " Council " of the 
 Cumberland Presbytery, who encouraged him to 
 exercise his gifts as a catechist and exhorter. 
 He preached independently of ecclesiastical con- 
 nection, and for the most part in Alabama, until 
 1811, when he placed himself under the care of 
 the newly organized Cumberland Presbytery. 
 From that time on he labored incessantly, in 
 Tennessee, Alabama, and Western Pennsylvania, 
 organizing many churches, and winning the posi- 
 tion of a leader in his denomination. He preached 
 
 the opening sermon at the First General Assem- 
 bly of tlie Cumberland Presbyterian Church. 
 He is the author of Thoughts on Various Suhjicts, 
 last ed., NasliviUe, 1880. 
 
 Lit. — LowRY : Life of Rev. Robert Donncli, 
 Nashville, 1867 ; Beaud: Biogr. Sketches of Some 
 of tlie Earli/ Ministers of the Cumberl. I'resh. 
 Church, 2 vol's., Nashville, "1867. 
 
 DONNELLAN LECTURE, The, was founded 
 by the provost and .senior fellows of Trinity Col- 
 lege, Dublin, with a legacy of twelve liuiidred 
 and forty-three pounds, left by Miss Anne Don- 
 nellan, dated Feb. 22, 1794, " for the encourage- 
 ment of religion, learning, and good manners.'* 
 The lecturer is elected on the 20th of each Novem- 
 ber, and delivers six sermons upon sucii topic as 
 the board may designate. Perhaps the best 
 known volumes thus produced are Graves, Lec- 
 tures on the Pentateuch, London, 1807, 2 vols., and 
 Daunt, The Person and Offices of the Holy Spirit, 
 London, 1879. 
 
 DONOSO-CORTES, Juan (Marquis de Valde- 
 gamas), h. May 9, 1809, at Valle de la Serena, in 
 Estreniadura ; d. in Paris, May 3, 1853; studied 
 law in Seville ; settled in Madrid in 1830, and 
 engaged in literature and politics. In 1837 he 
 entered the Cortes as a representative of the city 
 of Cadiz, and took his seat as a member of the 
 moderate-liberal section of the house. But the 
 study of Bonald and De Maistre, and his ac- 
 quaintance with the queen-mother, Jlarie-Chris- 
 tine, gradually changed liis views ; and in 1849 he 
 suddenly startled his party and his country with 
 a bitter denunciation of all liberal principles, and 
 the demand for a dictature. In 1850 he was sent 
 as ambassador to Berlin, and afterwards to Paris, 
 where he died. In 1851 he published his Essay 
 on Catholicism, Liberalism, and Socialis7n, which 
 was innnediately translated into French and Ger- 
 man, and in 1862 also into English, by Madeleine 
 Goddard, Philadelphia. It is an eloquent and 
 brilliant plea for the ideas of Gregory VII. and 
 Innocent III., against modern philosophy ; and it 
 ushered in the Em'opean re-action of the latter 
 part of the nineteenth century. A collected edi- 
 tion of his works was published in Madrid by 
 Tejado, 5 vols., 1854-55, and also at Paris, in 
 French, by Louis Veuillot, 3 vols., 3d ed., Lyon, 
 1876. 
 
 DONUS I., or DOMNUS, pope 676-678, is 
 noticeable only on account of his passion for 
 adorning the churches of Rome. — bonus II. is 
 sometimes put down as having reigned a short 
 time in 974, between Benedict VI. and Boniface 
 VII. ; but his whole existence depends upon an 
 error of the copyist. See Giesebrecht, in Jahr^ 
 biicher d. deutschen Reichs, 1840, vol. H., part I., 
 p. 141. 
 
 DOOLITTLE, Justus, b. at Rutland, N.Y., 
 June 23, 1824; d. at Clinton, N.Y., June 15, 
 1880. He was graduated from Hamilton College 
 in 1846, and Auburn Seminary, 1849 ; from 1849 
 to 1869 and from 1872 to 1873 missionary in 
 China, at Foochow, Tientsin, and Shanghai. He 
 was the author of The Social Life of the Chinese, 
 N.Y., 1865, 2 vols, (an exhaoistive treatment for a 
 limited district of China), and Vocabulary and 
 Handbook of the Chinese Language, Romanized in 
 the Mandarin Dialect, New York, 1872, 1873,. 
 2 vols.
 
 DOOLITTLE. 
 
 06: 
 
 DORT. 
 
 DOOLITTLE, Thomas, Xoncouformist ; b. at, 
 Kidderminster, 1630 ; educated at Cambridge ; ; 
 settled in London ; ejected for nonconformity in 
 11)62 ; kept a private school, and preached till his 
 death, May 24, 1707. Among his works, -nhich 
 ■were very popular, were A Treatise concerning the 
 Lord's Supper, 9th ed., 1675; A Call to Delaying 
 Sinners, 1683; A Complete Body of Divinity, 1723, 
 folio ; Love to Christ Necessary to Escape the Curse 
 at His Coming, reprinted 1830. 
 
 DOORKEEPERS. See Ostiarii. 
 
 DORA, Sister (Dorothy Wyndlow Pattison), b. 
 at Hauxwell, Yorkshire, Jan. 16, 1832; d. at Wal- 
 sall, South Staffordshire, Tuesday, Dec. 24, 1878. 
 Her father was rector of Ilauxwell, and a man of 
 means ; yet she voluntarily left her position in 
 society, and in 1804, after three years of village 
 school-teachmg, joined the Church of England 
 "Sisterhood of the Good Samaritans." In 186.5 
 she was sent to the Cottage Hospital at "Walsall, 
 then under the charge of the sisterhood. She 
 quickly developed that marvellous capacity botli 
 for nui'sing and general management wliich made 
 her so famous. In Walsall she labored until 
 1876, and only left oil to die. Her life there was 
 a practical embodiment of the spirit of Christ. 
 Her biography is more thrilling than a novel, and 
 yet the changes of lier life were few. By unwav- 
 ering courage and unfailing devotion she won the 
 respect of all, and was recognized as the friend 
 of every patient in the wards, and of every poor 
 body in the town. She was one of the noblest of 
 women. Like her Master, she went about doing 
 good. The anecdote told of one of the railroad 
 employees reveals the regard in which she was 
 held. He was asked why he thought her monu- 
 ment ought take the form of a statue ; and he 
 said, " Why, nobody knows better than I do that 
 we sha'n't forget her, no danger of that; but I 
 want her to be there, so that when strangers 
 come to the place, and see her standing up, they 
 shall ask us, ' Who's that? ' and then we shall say, 
 ' H'Vio'i- that V — ' Why, that's our Sister Dora.' " 
 
 In the exercise of her profession she had the 
 unquestionable advantages of good birth, liberal 
 education, excellent health, fine personal appear- 
 ance, abundant animal spirits, great natural 
 shrewdness and tact. Walsall is a manufactur- 
 ing town, and accidents are constantly occurring. 
 Sister Dora became a skilful surgeon as well as 
 nurse. But the secret of her influence was, after 
 all, her religion. She was not content to heal the 
 body simply : she aimed to touch the heart, to 
 convert the soul ; and to many she was thus, in 
 a spiritual as well as a physical sense, a savior. 
 See Makgaret Lonsdalk : Sister Dora, London, 
 1880 (22d ed., 1881), reprinted, Boston, 1880. 
 
 DORCAS SOCIETY. The name comes from 
 the good iricnd oT tli(! poor mentioned in Acts ix. 
 36, and fitly describes its work, which is to pro- 
 vide the poor with clothing, or else with materials 
 to make up. Such societies are common in con- 
 nection with churclies, and afford Christian wo- 
 men useful employment. Dorcas is the Greek 
 equivalent of Tabitha, an Aramaic form of the 
 Hebrew word whicli means " gazelle," and was a 
 favorite name for women among Hc^brews and 
 Greeks, becausi' the gazelle was considered to be 
 the standard of beauty. Dorcas must have been 
 comparatively rich, and was probably of some 
 
 rank. Peter restored her to life after she had 
 been some time dead. 
 
 DOROTHEA, a vh'gin martyred at Cresarea, 
 Cappadocia, probably during the persecution of 
 Diocletian, and celebrated by the Roman Church 
 on Feb. 6. See Act. Sand. Fehr. I., p. 771. Dif- 
 ferent from this Dorothea is the Prussian Doro- 
 thea, who, after reaching the forty-fourth year of 
 her age, and having borne nine children, deter- 
 mined to devote herself to an ascetic life (1394), 
 and took up her abode in a cell near the cathedral 
 of ]\larienwerder, where she lived according to a 
 rule which she pretended to have received from 
 the Lord himself. After her death (1404) many 
 miracles took place at her grave ; and the grand- 
 master of the Teutonic knights applied to Boni- 
 face IX. for her canonization. But, when the 
 investigation began, it was learned that in a 
 vision Dorothea had seen one of the former 
 grand-masters in hell, and had predicted the 
 downfall of the order ; after which the proceed- 
 ings were stopped. The people, however, contin- 
 ued to reverence Dorothea as the patron-saint of 
 Prussia. See S. Tii. Chr. Liliexthal : Hislona 
 Beatce Dorothea, Danzig, 1744. 
 
 DOROTHEUS, Bishop of Martianopolis in 
 Mcesia, and a zealous Xestoriau, joined, at the 
 Council of Ephesus (431), the party opposite to 
 Cyril, and pronounced Cyril's excommunication. 
 Shortly after he was excommunicated himself; 
 and when his congregation refused to accept his 
 successor, he was banished to Ca?sarea in Cap- 
 padocia. He left some letters which are found 
 in the Synodicon, Nos. 78, 115, and 137, and in 
 Baluze : Concil. N. Coll. 
 
 DORT, Synod of, the largest and [next to the 
 Westminster Assembly] the most imposing synod 
 ever held within the bounds of the Reformed 
 churches, was convened by the States-General at 
 Dort (Dordrecht), Nov. 13, 1618, and adjourned 
 May 9, 1019. The Arminians, or Remonstrants, 
 after the death of Arminius (1609), had at their 
 head Simon Episcopius, professor at Leyden, and 
 included among their number John of Barneveld 
 (Advocate-General of Holland) and the learned 
 scholar and statesman Hugo Grotius. At the 
 head of the Calvinists, or Counter-Remonstrants, 
 stood the stadtholder Prince Maurice of Orange. 
 In 1609 Barneveld and (jlrotius, against the wishes 
 of Mavirice, concluded a twelve-years' truce with 
 Spain. This brought upon them, and, by conse- 
 quence, upon the Remonstrants, the charge of 
 (lishjyalty liy the adherents of Maurice. The 
 conviction soon spread that the party which had 
 endangered the nation should be condemned by a 
 common act of all the states. Tliis led to the 
 thought of an orthodox national sjaiod ; and the 
 interest excited by the general subject was so 
 great, that everywhere large meetings were held 
 to discuss it. 
 
 In November, 1617, the States-General passed 
 an act convoking a synod at Dort to settle reli- 
 gious issues. The synod was designed to be a 
 national assembly. The Reformed churches of 
 other lauds (with the single exception of Anlialt) 
 were requested to send deh'gtitea; but it was par- 
 ticularly stated in the invitation that llicir ]ires- 
 ence and counsels were desired in oi-iler (hut a 
 more cautious conclusion concerning the contro- 
 versies prevalent in the Church of the Nether-
 
 DORT. 
 
 663 
 
 DOUAI. 
 
 lands might be arrived at. Twenty-eight dele- 
 gates iu all came from Germany, tlie Palatinate, 
 Switzerland, and England. [The four delc^gates 
 selected by the National Synod of France were 
 forbidden being present by the king. The Eng- 
 lish commi.ssioners (chosen by James I.) were 
 Carleton, Bishop of Llandaff; Davenant, after- 
 wards Bishop of Salisbury ; Samuel Ward, pro- 
 fessor at Cambridge ; Joseph Hall, afterwards 
 Bishop of Exeter and A'orwich ; and Walter 
 Balcanquall, a Scotchman, and chaplain to the 
 king. Among the Dutch delegates were thirty- 
 one ministers, five professors, and twenty elders. 
 There were also eighteen commissioners appointed 
 by the States-General. 1 All of the delegates from 
 the Netherlands belonged to the Calvinistic party, 
 the three Remonstrants regidarly elected from 
 Utrecht being denied seats. 
 
 The synod convened Nov. 10, 1018, and, after 
 listening to a sermon in the Great Church of Dort, 
 chose at its second sitting John Bogerniann, a 
 pastor at Leeuwarden, its president. The Re- 
 monstrants were treated from the first as an ac- 
 cused party ; and at the fourth sitting Episcopius 
 and twelve other Remonstrants were summoned 
 to appear at the expiration of fourteen days 
 before the synod, and defend their doctrines. In 
 the interval a committee was appointed to pre- 
 pare a new translation of the Bible, whose labors 
 subsequently gave birth to one of tlie most accu- 
 rate versions in any language. The question of 
 the administration of baptism to the children of 
 heathen parents in India was also discussed. 
 
 At the twenty-second session, the thirteen Re- 
 monstrants appeared before the synod. Episco- 
 ' plus, who managed the defence, spoke with ranch 
 •eloquence, but gave offence by his confidence 
 and boldness of statement. He declaimed the 
 synod to be a schismatical assembly. His judges 
 reprimanded him for his temerity ; and after he 
 had given the Remonstrant coustruction of the 
 five articles, or "knotty points," of Calvinism, 
 a protracted discussion took place, which was 
 brought to a close at the fifty-seventh session 
 (Jan. 14, 1619), the Remonstrants being excluded 
 from the floor. This done, the synod occupied 
 itself with the preparation of articles refutmg 
 Remonstrant tenets and the definition of the five 
 articles, until, at the hundred and thirty-sixth 
 session (April 23, 1619), the "Canons of Dort," 
 teaching strict views of predestination, were 
 passed. The delegates, however, from England, 
 Hesse, Nassau, and Bremen, had argued persist- 
 ently in favor of recognizing a conditional uni- 
 versalism ; that is, the divine intention and sin- 
 cere offer of salvation to all men. The synod 
 then unanimously, with the exception of the dele- 
 gates from Hesse and England, voted the sen- 
 tence upon the Remonstrants of ecclesiastical 
 rebels and offenders, and that as such they were 
 to be excluded by the synods and classes from 
 their ecclesiastical places. Before adjournment, 
 the Heidelberg Catechism and the Belgic Con- 
 fession were indorsed. In the hundred and 
 forty-fourth session the synod repaired to the 
 Great Church, where the canons and the sentence 
 were read in Latin to an overflowing audience. 
 The next session, the hundred and forty-fifth 
 (May 9, 1619), was its last. 
 
 The canons of the Synod of Dort are infralap- 
 
 sarian, and do not express the deepest and ulti- 
 mate conclusion of the Calvinistic system, which 
 is proved by the opposition of Gomarus, profess- 
 or at Leyden, a supralapsarian Calvinist. The 
 synod ignored the s])irit of union embodied in 
 the Second Helvetic Confession, just as in 
 (iermauy the Fornmla of Concord had done 
 in effacing the impress of Welanchthon, and in- 
 corporated the old predestinariaiiism into its 
 canons. II. IIEPPE. 
 
 Lit. — The Acts of the Synod were officially 
 published in 1020 at Dort: Acta Syn. nation. 
 Dorlrechti hahila: ; and from the Remonstrant 
 side, Acta el Scripta synodaiia, etc., llerderwyci, 
 1620 ; John Hales (who was present at the ses- 
 sions) : Letters from the Synod of Dort, in his 
 Golden Remains, Lond., 1059 trans. ; Hist. Cone. 
 Dordraceni, ed. by J. L. Mosheim, Hamburg, 
 1721; Thomas Scott: The Articles of the Synod 
 of Dort, with a History of the Events, etc., Lond., 
 1818; Alex. SciiWEiZF.u: Cen^raWo^men, Zurich, 
 vol. ii. (1850), pp. 141 sqq. ; P. Schakf : Creeds 
 of Christendom, vol. I. pp. 508 sqq., New York, 
 yd ed., 1881 ; F. Buhrmann : De Dordlsche Synode 
 en de godsdiensttwisten in hct hci/in der 17c ecuw, 
 Amsterdam, 1881 sq. The best discussions of the 
 Five Points are by Wnrrnv (Lond., 1710) on the 
 Arminian side, and by Jonathan Dickinson 
 (Phila., 1741) on the Calvinistic side. See Ar- 
 MiNiANisM, Five Articles of. 
 
 DOSITHEUS, a false Messiali among the Sa- 
 maritans, and founder of a religious sect, on a 
 line with Simon Magus and Menander. Very 
 little is known of him ; and the uncertainty of 
 the reports is increased by his being confounded 
 with an older Dositheus, the teacher of Zadok, 
 w'ho foimded the sect of the Saduceeans. His 
 appearance was probably contemporary with that 
 of Christ, or perhaps a little later. In those days 
 of great religious excitement among the Samari- 
 tans, he presented liimself as the prophet prom- 
 ised in Deut. xviii. 18 ; which passage, according 
 to Samaritan doctrine, is the only true Messianic 
 prophecy ever given (Okigen : Contra Celsum, I. 
 p. 44 ; VI. p. 282, ed. Spencer ; Epiph. ; Hceres, 
 I. 13). The most prominent feature of hia 
 doctrines was the severe stress he laid upon the 
 prescripts of the law, especially concerning the 
 sabbath. The number of his followers was 
 probably never great ; but the sect lived on, never- 
 theless, down into the sixth century. Theophi- 
 lus, a Persian, wrote against them in the fourth 
 century (Assem. : Bibl. Orioit., I. 42) ; and in 
 588 the Samaritans and Dositheans disputed in 
 Egypt about Deut. xviii. 18 (Photius : Bibloth. 
 Cod., 230). [Cf. Smith and Wace: Diet. Chr. 
 Bioy., S.V.] G. UHLHORN. 
 
 DOUAI, or DOUAY, a town of France, in the 
 department of Le Nord, on the Scarpe ; grew gradu- 
 ally during the middle ages into a place of some 
 commercial and industrial importance under the 
 sway of the counts of Flanders ; passed after- 
 wards into the possession of the dukes of Bur- 
 gundy ; fell then as an inheritance to the crown 
 of Spain, and was in 1667 conquered by France. 
 In 1568 William Allan founded there a college, or 
 " seminaire," for the education of Roman-Catholie 
 priests destined for the English mission. Though 
 supported only by private subscription, it flour- 
 ished. In a short time it had a hundred and fifty
 
 DOVE. 
 
 664 
 
 D'OTLY. 
 
 scholars and ten professors. But it made the 
 town the headquarters of the Roman-Catholic 
 Englishmen living on the Continent, and tlie hot- 
 bed of all their intrigues. Campian and his col- 
 leagues, Sherwin and Criant, came from Douay. 
 This gave rise to great disturbances ; and, after a 
 Huguenot riot, the college was compelled to move 
 (157S), but found an asylum at Kheims, under 
 the protection of the Diike of Guise. In 1593, 
 however, the college returned to Douay ; and in 
 1602 the Old Testament of the so-called Douay 
 Bible was issued there. See T. F. Knox : The 
 First and Secotjd Diaries of the English College, 
 Douai, and an Appendix of Unpublished Documents. 
 With an Historical Introduction, London, 1878. On 
 the Douay version, see English Bible Veusions. 
 
 DOVE. More than fifty times this bu'd is men- 
 tioned in the Bible ; and it is the only one that 
 could be offered in sacrifice, and was usually 
 selected for that purpose by the less wealthy 
 (Lev. V. 7, xii. 6 ; Luke ii. 24) ; and, to supply the 
 demand for it, dealers in this kmd of birds sat 
 about the precincts of the temple (Matt. xxi. 12, 
 etc.). The raising of doves was from an early 
 day a pursuit peculiar to the Jews (Isa. Ix. S) ; 
 although there were also many wild doves in Pal- 
 estine (Ezek. vii. 16), which built their nests in 
 clefts of the rocks (Jer. xlviii. 28 ; Cant. ii. 1-i), 
 or at least sought a refuge there when chased 
 (Ps. xi. 1). The flight of the dove was employed 
 by the poet as a figm'e of swiftness (Ps. Iv. 6 ; 
 IIos. xi. 11; Isa. be. 8). In songs of love, the 
 eyes of the beloved, as expressive of attachment 
 and of innocence, are compared with those of the 
 <love (Cant. i. 15, iv. 1). The voice of the dove 
 is represented by the poets as a sigh, as an expres- 
 sion of sorrow (Isa. xxxviii. 14, lix. 11 ; Xali. ii. 
 7). To tlie white and glimmering phunage refer- 
 ence is made in Ps. Ixviii. 13. The dove was the 
 harbinger of reconciliation with God (Gen. viii. 8, 
 10 sqq.), and is frequently mentioned as the em- 
 blem of purity and innocence (Matt. x. 16). In 
 Christian art the dove is employed as the emblem 
 of the Holy Ghost (cf. John i.32). ' B. PICK. 
 
 DOW, Lorenzo, an eccentric Methodist preacher; 
 b. at Coventry, Conn., Oct. 16, 1777 ; d. at George- 
 town, D.C., i"eb. 2, 1834. He began itinerating 
 in 1708, but was dropped by his conference shortly 
 after, and never joined any other, although in 
 doctrine and practice lie was a Methodist. He 
 travelled and preaclicd through England and Ire- 
 land, as well as througli the United States, and 
 introduced canip-mcetings into England. His 
 eccentricity ehowed itselt in dress and manners ; 
 but, although he was in consequence called " crazy 
 Dow," his fearless earnestness and native elo- 
 quence won him listeners and converts. He was 
 a voluminous writer. See Dealings of God, Man, 
 and the Devil, as Exemplified in the Life ef L. Dow, 
 withhis lKn'/injr.?,N.Y., 1854, new ed., 1875; Peck: 
 Earbi Methodism, N.Y., 1800. 
 
 DOWLING. John, h. in Su.ssex, Eng., May 12, 
 1807; d. in Xew York, July 4, 1878. Ho is best 
 known by liis I/istori/ of Romanism, N.Y., 1845, 
 of whicli a revised pilition ap]>eared in 1871. He 
 was paslor of the Berean Baptist Church in New 
 York city f<jr niany years. 
 
 DOXOLOGY ((SoJoAoyia, glorifcalio, gloria). 
 There are a greater and a minor doxology. Tlie 
 former — Doxologia major, Gloria in txcehis, Jlijm- 
 
 nus Angclicus — consisted originally only of the 
 few words communicated in Luke ii. 14, Gloria 
 in excelsis Deo el in terra pax hominibus bona volun- 
 tatis. Early, however, an addition was made, first 
 in the Greek Church, and then in the Latin, 
 probably due to Hilary, Bishop of Poitiers, who 
 died 366; and in the fifth century the Doxologial 
 major read thus : " Glorj' to God on high, and on' 
 earth peace to men of [his] good will. We praise 
 Thee, we bless Thee, we worship Thee, we glorify 
 Thee, we give thanks to Thee for Thy great glory. 
 O Lord God, heavenly King, God the Father 
 Almighty ; O Lord, the only-begotten Son, Jesus 
 Christ; O Lord God, Lamb of God, Son of the 
 Father, that takest away the sins of the world, 
 have mercy upon us ; Thou that takest away the 
 sins of the world, receive our prayer; Thou that 
 sittest at the right hand of the Father, have mercy 
 upon us; For Thou alone art holy. Thou only, 
 Jesus Christ, with the Holy Ghost, art most high 
 in the glory of God the Father. Amen." [Gloria 
 iti excelsis Deo et in terra pax hominibus bonce volun- 
 tatis. Laudamus te, benedicimus te, adoramus le, 
 glorifcamus te, gratias agimus tibi propter magnam 
 gloriam tua/n. Domine Deus, rex coelestis, Deus 
 Pater omnipotens ; Do'mine, Fill unigenite, Jesu 
 Christe ; Domine Deus, agnus Dei, Filius Patris, qui 
 tollis peccata mundi, miserere nobis : Qui tollis pecca- 
 ta viutidi, suscipe deprecationem noStrain ; Qui sedes 
 ad dexteram Patris, miserere 7)obis ; Quoniam tu solus 
 sanctus, tu solus Dominus, tu solus latissimus, Jesu 
 Christe, cum Sancto Spii'ilu in gloria Dei Patris. 
 Amen.] Considerable opposition was made to this 
 addition, but suppressed by the fourth Council of 
 Toledo, 633. Down to the twelfth century the 
 Doxologia major was used only by the bishops, and 
 by the priests only at Easter. In olden times it 
 seems to have been used principally at Christmas. 
 In the Lutheran Church the Gloria in excelsis was 
 retained in its Latin form for a long time as an 
 essential element of the divine service, and has been 
 often thus used, even in the nineteenth century. 
 [It is a regular part of the seiTice in the Epis- 
 copal Church, but only in the English version.] 
 
 The Doxologia minor consisted originally of tlio 
 simple formula, Gloria Patri et Filio el Spiritui 
 Sancto in scecula sa:culo7-u7n, and the translation 
 was left free, whether " Glory to the Father and 
 the Son and the Holy Spirit," or " Glory to the 
 Father in the Son and the Holy Spirit," or " Glory 
 to tlie Father through the Son in the Holy Spirit." 
 When the Arians, liowever, intentionally confined 
 themselves to the two last formulas, the Church 
 forbade them as heretic, and an addition was 
 made; "as it was in the beginning, is now and 
 ever sliall be, world without end " [_sicut erat in 
 principio ct nunc et semper et in sa;cula steculoruml. 
 At divine sen'ice the Doxologia minor was used at 
 the end of each hymn : the priest intonated, and 
 the choir responded. 
 
 The term "doxology," or "doxological formula," 
 is also applied to those passages of glorification 
 with whicli a prayer may end, as, for instance, iu 
 Romans xvi. 27 ; Eph. iii. 21 ; and tlie Lord's 
 Prayer sucli as it is found in Matt. vi. 13, in tlie 
 lexlus receptus [also to the verse or verses com- 
 monly sung either at the beginning or end of the 
 service]. M. IIEUOLD. 
 
 D'OYLY, George, the commentator ; b. in Lon- 
 don, Oct. 31, 1778; d. Jan. 8, 1840. lie was
 
 DRABICIUS. 
 
 GGC 
 
 DREAMS. 
 
 fellow of Corjiiis Clivisti College, Canibridgp, and 
 rector in various places. In eonuection with 
 Kichanl Mant, afterwards Bisliop of Down, lie 
 edited JVdten, Tixplanutary and Pracliral, uii ilic 
 AuOwnzfd Version vf the Bible, taken jirincipallij 
 from the Most Kminent Writers of the l.'nileil 
 Church of Kne/land and Ireland, London, Ibll, 
 3 vols. 4to, ed. (and improved) by Bishop IIo- 
 bart, X.Y., 1S18, 2 vols. 4to. The work has had 
 a large sale, chietly among Episcopalians. 
 
 DRABICIUS, Nicol, b. at Stradteiss, Moravia, 
 1585; grew up in a community of liolieniian 
 Brethren, and from IGIG worked as an evangeli- 
 cal preacher, but fell out with the Pi-otestaut 
 clergy of the neighborhood, and moved in 1029 
 to Lednitz in Hungary, where he lived in great 
 poverty, engrossed by theosophical stiulies. From 
 February, lG-'58, he jiretended to receive divine 
 revelations, and projJiesied that the house of 
 Austria should be overthrown in 1057, that Lewis 
 XIV. should be made Roman emperor in lOtiO, 
 that the Papacy should be abolished, and the 
 C'liurch reformed, etc. As his prophecies Ijeeame 
 too disagreeable to the Austrian Government, lie 
 was arrested and executed for crimen Ucsee inajes- 
 tatis, July 17, 1G71. His prophecies made some 
 impression, however, and were published by J. A. 
 Coraenius in 1G57, under the title Lux in Tenebris. 
 In 1050 they were republished, in connection 
 with other prophecies of the same kind, binder 
 the title Historia Reoelationum, etc. There is a 
 third edition from 1665, and with the original 
 title. See Kolku : Disp. de N. Drabitio, Alten- 
 burg, 1791. HAGENBACn. 
 
 DiRACHM, DRACHMA. See Momey. 
 
 DRACONITES, Johannes (properly Drach, or 
 Track, sometimes, also, named after his native 
 city), b. at Karlstadt, 1494 ; was appointed 
 teacher in the jihilosophical faculty at Erfurt, 
 and canon of the Church of St. Severin, but 
 declared for Luther, and went in 1523 to Witten- 
 berg. In the same year he was chosen minister 
 at Miltenberg, but was soon driven away by the 
 Romanist clergy of tlie neighborhood, and re- 
 turned in 1524 to Wittenberg. After being min- 
 ister at Waltershausen for a few years, he was 
 professor of theology at Marburg from 15:34 to 
 1547, and at Rostock from 1551 to 1560. But 
 there was something restless in the man's chai'ac- 
 ter; and in 1560 he retired to Wittenberg, where 
 he died, April 18, 1566. He was a good Hebrew 
 scholar, and wrote commentaries on fienesis, the 
 Psalms, (Miadiah, Daniel, etc. But his princijial 
 work is his Biblia Pentapla, which occupied him 
 for many years, but of whicli only fragments have 
 been published. 
 
 DRACONTIUS, Blossius /Emilius, a Latin 
 poet who flourished during the reign of the 
 younger Theodosius, in the beginning of the fifth 
 century. He was probably a native of Spain. 
 His great poem in heroic verse on the creation, 
 Hexaemeron, was first published at Paris, 1500, 
 together with the Genesis of Claudius Marius Vic- 
 tor, then at Paris, 1610, by Sirmond, together with 
 the Opuscula of Eugenius of Toledo, and in a 
 version corrected and enlarged by Eugenius, 
 and finally at Rome, 1791, by Arevali, together 
 with the jioem De Deo, of which the Hexaimeron 
 evidently is a fragment. This last edition is re- 
 printed ill iliujjE : Patrolugia, LX. Some minor 
 
 poems by Dracoutius were pnblislied at l^eipzig, 
 187o, by Fried, de Duhii. 
 
 DRyESEKE, Johann Heinrich Bernhardt, b. at 
 Briiiiswiik, .Jan. 18, 1774 ; d. at Potsdam. Dec. 
 8, 1849. He was in Bremen lbl4, and since 
 1832 Bishop (general supinuntendent) of Prussian 
 Saxony, from which position he retired in 1843. 
 Possessed of an extraordinary power of (eloquence 
 and a very impressive j)ersoiial appearance, he 
 became one of the most celebrated jiuljiit orator.s 
 of modern Germany, and was much admired. 
 But he lacked that sharp decision of character 
 and that wide range of intellect which alone are 
 able to sustain a fami^ under trying circumstances. 
 He was educated among rationalists, but he soon 
 burst tlie narrow bands of their doctrines. The 
 rich sympathy of his nature connected him with 
 all that was great and growing in his time. In 
 1814 he jiublished Predii/ten i'lher Drutschland's 
 Wiederijeburl, 3 vols., and in 1817 Das Ileiliye 
 auf der Diihne. He had an interest both in poli- 
 tics and the theatre. Even his theology went 
 thro\igh a considerable development. His Predig- 
 tcn fur denkende Verehrer Jesti, 1804-12, 5 vols., 
 represents a Pelagian and merely humanitarian 
 stand-point; but his Vom Peieh Oottcs, 1830, 3 
 vols., shows a much deeper conception of the 
 truths of Christianity. He was a brilliant meteor 
 of his time, — brilliant, more light tliaii heat, — 
 a meteor passing away. THOLfCK. 
 
 DRAGON. In the apocryphal book Bel and 
 the Dragon, mention is made of the worship of a 
 dragon (i.e., a large serpent) at Babylon. But, 
 as we do not read elsewhere of such a thing 
 among the Assyrians and Babylonians, it has 
 been rashly conjectured that this apocryjihal book 
 was written in Egypt, where we know the sjiecies 
 of idolatry was common, and that this worship 
 was very anhistorically introduced. But upon 
 Babylonian inscriptions there is frequent repre- 
 sentation of gigantic serpents, which plainly had 
 a religious meaning; and often upon Assyrian 
 representations of sacrifices, near the altar are 
 two serpents bound upon staffs. Moreover, Dio- 
 dorus Sioulus (II. 9) says that there was a ser- 
 jient in the right hand of Hera in the Temple of 
 Bel, and that Rhea stood near two large silver 
 serpents. In the Assyrian inscriptions one reads 
 of the " great sei-pent with seven heads " (Fried. 
 Delitzsch : Assi/rische Sludien, Heft I. p. 87). 
 
 The reverence of serpents was common in other 
 Shemitic 2:ieoples, altliougli among the Phoenicians 
 there is no certain trace of it. Indeed, almost 
 all peoples have called serpents " wise ; " and far 
 outside of Shemitism one finds serpent-worship. 
 See Baudissin : Die Si/mlotik der Schlange im 
 Semitismus, in his Studien zur semitischen lielir/ions- 
 i/eschichte. Leipzig, Heft I., 1876 (pp. 25.5-292), 
 and art. Apokryphen des A. T., in Ilerzog, 2d ed., 
 
 vol. i. p. 499. WOI.F BAUDISSIN. 
 
 DRAM. See Money. 
 
 DREAMS, among the Hebrews, as universally 
 in antiquity, were thought to be of importance, 
 as lifters of the veil. At the same time the word 
 is used as a symbol of total destruction, because 
 dreams are usually totally forgotten when one 
 awakes (Job xx. 8; Ps. Ixxiii. 20: Isa. xxix. 7 
 sq.). We find in the Bible descriptions of dreams 
 from the two frequent causes, — conscience and 
 fear. Thus from the latter came the dreams oi
 
 DRELINCOURT. 
 
 G66 
 
 DRESS. 
 
 Pharaoh and his chief baker and butler (Gen. xl.); 
 of the Midiauitish soldiers (Judg. vii. 13 sqq.). 
 But these are not referred to divine agency, 
 although the power of their interpretation is 
 (Gen. xl. S, xli. IG; Dan. i. 17). Of dreams from 
 an awakened conscience we mention that of 
 Abimelech (Gen. sx. 3) and of Laban (Gen. xxxi. 
 2S). In general the dream corresponded to the 
 character. Sometimes the imagination was the 
 vehicle of revelation, in which case imagery indi- 
 cated the divine will. So Joseph saw the sheaves 
 bowing to his sheaf (Gen. xxxvii. 7), and Nebu- 
 chadrezzar the image (Dan. ii. 30 sq.). 
 
 The prophets also had dreams, which are spo- 
 ken of as, like Urim, a legitimate way of finding 
 out the future (1 Sam. xxviii. 6). The false 
 prophets particularly depended upon them, and 
 hence the test was given that only those prophets 
 ■who encouraged the people iu the worship of God 
 •were to be listened to (Deut. xiii. 1-5: Jer. xxiii. 
 2.5; Zech. x. 2). The prophetic gift was also 
 called forth in the interpretation of dreams : so 
 Joseph, and particularly Daniel. Joseplius re- 
 lates the prophetic dreams of Archelaus and his 
 wife Glaphyra, and how the first was interpreted 
 by Simon the Essene (Aiilicj., XVII. 13, 3, 4). 
 He likewise claims to have himself received pro- 
 phetic dreams (War, III. 8, 3). — [Dreams have 
 been vehicles of divine revelation, but as such 
 always inferior to visions. The greater number 
 of such dreams recorded in the Bible " were 
 granted to those who were aliens to the Jewish 
 covenant; and, where dreams are recorded as 
 means of God's revelation to his chosen servants, 
 they are almost always referred to the periods of 
 their earliest and most imperfect knowledge of 
 him." See Fr.vxz Dklitzscu: A iii/slem of Bib. 
 Psychol., Edin., 1867,2ded.,Ger. orig.,Leip., 1861.] 
 
 Also art. Vi.sIO.NS. L. DIESTEL (Ilerzog. cd. I.). 
 
 DRELINCOURT, Charles, b. at Sedan, July 
 10, 15!l.j; d. in Paris, Nov. 3,1669; was educated 
 at Sedan and Sauinur, and was pastor of the 
 Reformed Churcli of Charenton, near Paris, from 
 1620 to his deatli. He was a very prolific writer; 
 and two of his works achieved quite an extraor- 
 dinary success : Consoldlions de fame fidcli: contrc 
 les J'r<ujeurs de la mort, whicli was rejirinted in 
 more than forty editions (the last of 1810), and 
 translated into .several foreign tongues. In Eng- 
 lish it appeared under the title, T/ie C/irislitni's 
 Uefence ar/ninst the Fears of Death, anil to wliich 
 De Foe wrote (1705) his famous Introduction, 
 A True Ilelatiiiu of the Apparilinn <f Mrs. Veal 
 after her Death to Mrs. Bari/rare, in whicli the dead 
 lady recommended Drelinconrt'.s book. This in- 
 genious advertisement of the book i,< said to have 
 greatly lielpiMl its sali! (Pith ed. 1732); for, if the 
 righteous cli-ad approved of it, surely the living 
 might read it with profit. Drelincoiu't wrote also 
 VUites charitahlfs, which was reprinted several 
 times, variously iu 5 or 3 or 2 vols., and trans- 
 lated into si'vcral biuguages. 
 
 DRESDEN COUNCIL. Sec Piiii.ii-pisr.s. 
 
 DRESS OF THE HEBREWS. .Se Clothing 
 
 AM) OK.NAMKN rs AMil.Nci IIIK IIkhkkws. 
 
 DRESS OF THE EARLY CHRISTIANS. There 
 
 never h;is \fi'\\ a iiarticular Christian costume, 
 The early Christians, both clergy and laity. 
 dressed like their I'agan neiglilmrs, and .according 
 to thuir station. 'I'h<; Epistle of .James testifies 
 
 to great inequality in this respect, even in the 
 assemblies conducted by the apostles themselves. 
 James does not blame the rich man for wearing 
 the "fine" clothing any more than he commends 
 the poor man for his "vile" clothing; but he 
 does blame those who paid respect to a man 
 in proportion to the value of his clothes. The 
 virtues of humility and modesty conflict with 
 extravagance in dress, and therefore the latter 
 has alw.ays been recognized as unbecoming a 
 Christian. Some of the exhortations savor, how- 
 ever, too much of asceticism. Tints Clement 
 OF Alexandria (close of second century) would 
 have his hearers not only eschew ornaments, 
 silks, all embroidered and dj'ed goods, partic- 
 ularly purple, but have the men and women dress 
 precisely alike {Stromata, ii. 10, C. in Ante-Nicene 
 Lihrari/, vol. i. pp. 25.5-263). More stringent are 
 the demands of Tertullian (d. about 245), who 
 inveighs against either sex wearing gold, jewels, 
 or dyed garments, or having the hair elaborately 
 dressed, or in any way making a show. The 
 Christian, he claims, should be modest and hum- 
 ble, and not only be so, but seem so. Then fol- 
 lows this striking pass.age : " Such delicacies as 
 tend by their softness and effeminacy to unman 
 the manliness of the fiiith are to be discarded. 
 Otherwise I know not whether the wrist that 
 has been wont to be surrounded with the palm- 
 like bracelet will endure till it grow into the 
 numb hardness of its own chain. I know not 
 whether the leg that has rejoiced in the anklet 
 will suffer itself to be squeezed into the gyve. 
 I fear the neck beset with pearl and emerald 
 nooses will give no room to the broadsword. . . . 
 Go forth [to meet the angels] already arrayed in 
 the cosmetics and ornaments of prophets and 
 apostles, dr.awing your whiteness from simplicity, 
 your ruddy hue from modesty; painting your 
 eyes with bashfnluess, and your mouth with 
 silence ; implanting in your ears the words of 
 God ; fitting on your necks the yoke of Christ " 
 (De Cultii Feminarum, ii. 13, T. in Anie-Nicene Li- 
 brary, vol. i. pp. 331, 332). To the same intent, 
 CvpitiAN, in his intere.sting and forcible treatise 
 On the Dress of Virybis, earnestly counsels Chris- 
 tian women to lay aside all luxury in dress, all 
 dyed fabrics, and all ornaments: "For (iod 
 neither made the sheep scarlet or purple, nor 
 taught the juices of herbs and shell-fish to dye 
 and color wool, nor arranged necklaces with 
 stones set in gold, and with jiearls distributed in 
 a woven series or numerous cluster, wherewith 
 you would hide tlie neck which he made, that 
 what God formed in man may be covered, and 
 that may be seen upon it which tlie devil \iaa 
 invented" (c. 14). lie is especially .severe ujx)ii 
 the use of cosmetics and jiaints: "The work of 
 (iod, and his fashioning and formation, ought in 
 no manner to be a<lulterated, cither with the 
 application of yellow color, or with black dust or 
 rouge, or with any kind of meilicament wliich 
 can corrupt the native lineaments" (c. 15, Cyprian 
 in Atite-Nieene LIhrari/, vol. i. jip. 343, 344). 
 
 Two strange freaks of the ascetic spirit were 
 for women to cut off tlieir hair, and to wc:ir men's 
 (i.e., monks') clothes (in onler to show that for 
 the saints there was no longer male or female), 
 as was done among the Eustathians. These were 
 coudemued by the synod of Gangra (A.D. 370),
 
 DRESS. 
 
 GG7 
 
 DRUIDISM. 
 
 in canon 13, "If any woman, under pretenco of 
 asceticism, changes lier apparel, and, instead of 
 the usual women's clothes, wears those of men, 
 let her \n; accursed; " and in canon 17, "If any 
 woman, mider pretence of asceticism, cut off her 
 hair, wliich (iod has given her as reminder of 
 her subjection, let lier be accursed" (llefele, 
 Concilkni/escliic/ilc, i. § 01). The frequency of 
 the denunciations of luxury proves how common 
 the failing was. Indeed, the Chui'ch has never 
 been able to curb this passion. 
 
 DRESS OF THE CLERGY. See Vkstments. 
 
 DREW THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY. Drew 
 Theological Seminary is one of the fruits of the 
 centenary of American Methodism, which was 
 duly commemorated in 1866. In this year Jlr. 
 Daniel Drew proposed to give two hundred and 
 fifty thousand dollars for ministerial education. 
 The Gibbons property, near Jladison, N..J., was 
 purchased. The spacious mansion was found emi- 
 nently suitable for the work of instruction : two 
 other buildings for the use of stvidents, and four 
 homes for professors, were also provided. The 
 grounds of the seminary comprise a hundred 
 acres of land, much of it well wooded. It was 
 the intention of jMr. Drew to add to his original 
 gift the sum of two hundred and fifty thousand 
 dollars for endowment, but his fin.ancial reverses 
 defeated liis plans. Through the efforts of the 
 then president, the Kev. Dr. ,1. F. Hurst, a new 
 endowment of three himdred thousand dollars 
 was subscribed, which is now in process of col- 
 lection. The number of students is at present 
 upwards of eighty. Tiiere are five departments 
 of study ; viz., New-Testament exegesis, Old- 
 Testament exegesis, practical theology, .system- 
 atic theology, and historical theology. The first 
 president of the seminary was the Kev. Dr. John 
 McClintock, who died in 1870. His immediate 
 successors, Drs. Foster and Hurst, have been 
 elected to the episcopal office. The present presi- 
 dent is Rev. Dr. Henry A. Buttz, who is also pro- 
 fessor of New-Testament exegesis. His associates 
 in the faculty are James Strong, S.T.D., pro- 
 fessor of Hebrew exegesis; John Miley, D.D., 
 professor of systematic theology ; George K. 
 Crooks, D.D., professor of historical theology; 
 Samuel F. Upham, D.D., professor of practical 
 theology. The library contains fifteen thousand 
 volumes. Since the year 1869 the seminary has 
 sent out into the ministry of the Methodist- 
 Episcopal Church two hundred and fifty-nine 
 graduates. GEORGE K. CROOKS. 
 
 DREY, Johann Sebastian, b. at Killingen, Oct. 
 16, 1777; d. at Tubingen, Feb. 19, ISoo; was 
 ordained priest in 1801, and appointed professor 
 of catholic theology at Ellwagen in ISl'J, and in 
 1817 at Tubingen, from which position he retired 
 in 1816. Ilis principal work is his ClirislUche 
 Apolofietik, Alayence, 1838—17, 3 vols. In connec- 
 tion with Gratz and Hirscher he founded in 1819 
 the Thcolofjisclie Quarlahchrift, one of the ablest 
 periodicals of the lioman-Catholic Cluuxh. 
 
 ORONTHEIM (Norwegian Tromlhjem; Latin 
 Nirlarosia), the seat of the first Christian bishop- 
 ric in Norway, founded in 1020. Norw.ay belonged 
 originally to the archiepiscopal diocese of Ham- 
 bin'g-Breinen, after 1104 to that of Lund, but ob- 
 tained in 1152 its own metropolitan, who resided 
 in Drontheim. The cathedral of the city, contain- 
 
 ing the shrine of the patron saint of tlie country, 
 •St. Olaf, was one of the largest and most mag- 
 nificent church-biuldings in .Scandinavia ; but it 
 was never finished. In the tiiiw of tlii^ Kcforma- 
 tion it was literally plundered. Sliortly after, it 
 was struck liy lightning, and partially liurnt down. 
 Only the choir is still staniling. and in repair. 
 
 DROSTE ZU VISCHERING, Clemens August, 
 Baron von, b. at JNlunster, Jan. 22, 1773; d. there 
 Oct. 10, 18-15 ; was consecrated priest in 1798, 
 and in 1807 elected vicar-general liy the chapter 
 of his native city. In 1813 ho resigned becau.se 
 he was oppo.sed to Napoleon; but after the lat- 
 ter's fall he again assumed his ofTice, and adminis- 
 tered the diocese of Miinster until 1820, when he 
 formally abdicated on account of disagreement 
 with the Prussian Government. He retired into 
 private life until 1835, when he was appointed 
 Archbishop of Cologne. 
 
 Before being installed, he .subscribed to the con- 
 vention concluded between the govermnent and 
 the Roman-Catholic bishops, but did not keep it ; 
 and when his pi'oceedings, governed by tlie maxim 
 that the State is absolutely subordinate to the 
 Church, became too arbitrary, the Prussian Gov- 
 ernment had him arrested (Nov. 20, 1837). The 
 aft'air caused great excitement, mostly, though, 
 of a literary character. About two hundred, 
 pamphlets were issued pro et contra; but a result 
 was not arrived at. Droste was not re-installed. 
 He was compelled to choose a co-adjutor ; but the 
 Roman priests were allowed to carry on a fanatic 
 agitation among the people. 
 
 The writings of Droste are few, and not re- 
 markable. The most characteristic of his stand- 
 point are Ueber tlie Rdigionsfreiheil der Katholi- 
 I'en, 1817, and Ueher den Frieden unter der Kirche 
 und den Skialen, 1843. Tlie principal sources for 
 the study of the whole movement are, KiiEix- 
 wai.d: Ada Hislorico-ecclesiasdca, II. and HI.; 
 luEx.Ki's (Gieseler) : Ueber die ciilnische A/ir/e- 
 lerjetdieit, Leipzig, 1838; Commonitorium ad archi- 
 tjjiscopnin Cotoniensem, Lyons, 1837; Gorres : 
 Alhanasius, 1838; K. Hase: Die beiden Erz- 
 bischi'fe, Leipzig, 1830. 
 
 DROZ, Fran9ois Xavier Joseph, b. at Besan- 
 (,on, Oct. 31, 1773; d. in Paris, Nov. 5, 18.50; 
 studied law in Paris ; served three years in the 
 army of the Rhine; was appointed teacher in the 
 Ecvle Cenlrale of his native city, and settled in 
 1803 in Paris, where he devoted himself exclu- 
 sively to literature. His Essai sur Pari d'etre 
 lieureux, Paris, 1800, is the production of an out- 
 spoken sceptic of tlie epicurean description. His 
 I'ensces sur le Christianisme, Paris, 1842, contains 
 many deep and sincere conceptions of Christian 
 truths, though strongly tainted with Romanism. 
 Ilis principal works, however, are De la phitoso- 
 phie morale, Paris, 1823, and Hisloire de Louis 
 AT/., P.%ris, 1838-42, 3 vols. 
 
 DRUIDISM is the general designation of the 
 religion of the old Celtic race. The derivation 
 of the name is uncertain, — from the Greek ipH 
 " an oak ; " or from the Celtic deru, " an oak," and 
 udd, " lord ; " or from the Celtic de, " god," and 
 roui/d, " speaker," etc. Nor is our knowledge of 
 the doctrinal system and hierarchical organiza- 
 tion of Druidism any more certain, gathered as it 
 is from stray notices by Latin and (jreek writers, 
 beginning with Ca;sar, aud from some few remi-
 
 DRUSES. 
 
 668 
 
 DRUSES. 
 
 niscences in old Irish songs. The Druids per- 
 formed various functions in Celtic society- They 
 were the teachers and poets, the prophets and sor- 
 cerers, the judges and priests, of the people. Ac- 
 cording to function they were divided into classes, 
 — bards, vates. and druids proper, of wliich the 
 last class ranked first. The dark oak-groves were 
 their temples ; and there reigned not ovdy mystical 
 wisdom, but also abominable savagery. Iluman 
 sacrifices were oftered up with peculiar cruelty. 
 Of an equally mixed character was their doctrinal 
 system : it was based upon faith in one supreme 
 being. But this monotheism of an Oriental de- 
 scription was siugularl}' blended with wild poly- 
 theism and stupid superstition, belief in Hesus, 
 Tentates, the misteltoe, the snake-egg, etc. The 
 conflict between Druidism and Christianity seems 
 to have been long and very severe, but very little 
 is known with certainty about the matter. 
 
 Lit. — Toland: Critical HiMoi-y of the Celtic 
 Religion, in a collection of his essays, London, 
 1726, 2 vols. ; Pelloi'TIER : Histoire iles Celles, 
 Paris, 1740-50, 2 vols.; Stukei.ey: Slonehciu/e, 
 London, 1740, and Ahuri/, London. 174;$; Frick : 
 Commentalio de Dniidis, I'hn, 1744 ; Davies : .1///- 
 tlioloffi/ and Rites nf the British Druids, London, 
 1809; Thierry: Histoire des (ro «/(//.<, Paris. 1828 ; 
 Barth : Ueber die Dniiilen der Kellcn. Eriangen, 
 1828; HiGGi.vs: Celtic Druiils, London, 1829; 
 Reynaud: L'Esprit de la Gaule, Paris, 1800; 
 F. Ferk : Ueber Druidisinus in Noricum mit RiicL- 
 sicht ■ auf die Stellung der Gescliichlsforschung zur 
 Keltenfrage, Graz, 1877 (50 pp.); .Tdiin Eliot 
 lIo\v.\Ri): The Druids and their Religion, London, 
 n. d. (S. Bagster & Sons). 
 
 DRUSES. Occupying the western slope of the 
 Lebanon and the whole .\ntilebanon, from Bey- 
 rout in tlie north to Sur or TjTe in tlie south, 
 and from the Mediterranean in the west to 
 Damascus in the ea.st, there lives under Turki.sh 
 supremacy, but enjoying a considerable measure 
 of political freedom, a peculiar people, the 
 Druses, whose religion is as mysterious and per- 
 plexing as is their ethnography. The name 
 Druse, or more properly Dnrns, is probably de- 
 rived from Darasi, the founder, or one of the 
 founders, of their religion ; but they themselves 
 derive it from an Arab verb (^darisa), to which 
 they ascribe v.arious fanciful meanings. Refer- 
 ring to their religion, tliey call themselves Miiirah- 
 hidnn ("Unitarians"), and their creed Tuuliid 
 (" Unitarianisni "). 'I'hey have also some .settle- 
 ments east of Palestine, in the Hauran (tlie Au- 
 ranitis of (ireek writers), and at .Safed in I'ales- 
 tine Proper; and they number about .seventy 
 thousand men, not reckoning women and chil- 
 dren. A number of Cryplo-Dru.ses (that is, 
 nru,ses according to religion, but not according 
 to descent) a.rv, said to live in the neighborhood 
 of Cairo, where their religion first originated. 
 The Druses ]iro]>er, tbe mountaineers of the 
 Li'banoM and .\ntilebaMon, are probably, like the 
 Maronites with wlioni tliey live in close contact, 
 descendants of the olil .'lyrians. The report that 
 they descend from a French colony settled in the 
 Li'banon during the crusade by a certain Count 
 Dreux, is ;i mere fiction. 
 
 The creed of the Dru.ses is a child of Moliani- 
 incdanism ; but in some of its fundami'ulal and 
 most characteristic tenets it completely repudi- 
 
 ates the very spirit and essence of the mother- 
 creed, and approaches Christianity. Its origin 
 must be .sought for among the Shiites. the great 
 antagonists of the .Sunnites, and more esjtecially 
 among the Batiniya, or Batenians, one of the 
 most radical sects of the .Shiites. The Batiniya 
 interpret the Koran on the principle that every 
 exterior must have a corresponding interior ; 
 that, consequently, every pas.sage of the Koran 
 must have behind its plain grammatical sense a 
 deeper, occult, allegorical meaning. This princi- 
 ple was by one grouji of the Batiniya (the Kara- 
 mita, or Karamatians) actually u.sed as a means 
 to destroy all faith in a divine revelation, and 
 led finally to absolute materialism and atheism. 
 The furtiier step taken by the Druses, and which 
 brought them not oidy out of Mohammedanism, 
 but in eonrtict with it, was their doctrine of in- 
 carnation. There is no god but God. they say 
 with the Jloluinnnedans, and he is mdcnowable 
 to nuin : .senses cannot gra.sp liim, woi'ds not 
 define him. But he has revealed himself to man, 
 they add, by taking upon himself the form of 
 nuvn, by incarnation (an idea which to a Moham- 
 medan is utter abomination) ; and the last of 
 these incarnations which has taken place, and 
 ever will take place, is that of Hakim Biamrillahi 
 (caliph from 1019 to 1044), the sixth of the 
 Fatimides. In 1040 he first claimed publicly, in 
 the mosque of Cairo, to be the incarnated (iod; 
 and with that year begins the era of the Dru.ses. 
 
 Hakim, who on his accession to tlie throne- 
 assumed the surname of Biamrillahi (that is, he 
 who judges by the command of God), was a 
 cruel and half-crazy tyrant, yielding without 
 restraint to the freaks of a diseased mind, an 
 object of terror and scorn to his own people. 
 Dviring the twenty-five years of his reign he suc- 
 ceeded in killing about eighteen thousand men. 
 He hated the Christians and the Jews, and 
 ordered them to be marked off, so as not to be 
 mistaken for Mohannnedans : the Christians with 
 blue clothes, the Jews with black; the Christians 
 with a cross three feet long, and weighing five 
 pounds; the Jews with a heavy wooden club, etc. 
 About thirty thousand Christian churches and 
 monasteries were destroyed in Egypt and Syria 
 by his commands. One little trait is very cliarac- 
 teristic of this man, who became the god of the 
 Druses. The ladies of Cairo gave liim offence 
 by their extravagance an<l luxury. .Suddenly he 
 ordered, that, under ])enalty of death, no woman 
 .should show her.self in the streets, or even look 
 out of the doors and windows. 'l"he effect of 
 this order was that many women wlio luid none 
 to take care of them ilied of starvation. Hakim 
 belonged (o tlie Batiniya, and was very anxious 
 for the jpiopagation of their doctrines. But h(^ 
 had a fuither ]iurpose of his own. In 1040 his 
 favorite, Isma<'l Darasi, a Persian by birth, sud- 
 denly a]i]ieared in the mosque of Cairo, and 
 began to ex]i<umd to the astonished audience that 
 Hakim was .Vllali incarnated. Peojile were very 
 indignant. A riot ensued, an<l lasted for .sevi-ral 
 (lays. Hakim dared not defeiul Darasi, who fied 
 to Damascus, where he soon aftei- began lo preach 
 his new doctrines among the mountaineers of 
 the Lebanon, .\nolher attemjil, by Haidara Fer- 
 i gani. to get the divinity of llakini n'cognized. 
 I failed as signally. Finally, however, Haiusa sue-
 
 DRUSILLA. 
 
 6G0 
 
 DU BARTAS. 
 
 •ceeded in managing the affair. lie was also a 
 Persian by birlli, ami liv('<l at a niosqne just out- 
 side; of Cairo. But lie was shrewd and cautious. 
 lie gatliered discij^les in a (jidet way, and sent 
 them out as ud.ssionaries. Preparations were 
 made also in otlicr ways. Ilaliim eeased to Jiray 
 in tlie mosque, sent no jjre.senls to the Kaaba, 
 ]irevented people from pilgrimizing to Meeea, ete. 
 Ill spite, however, of tiie caution of the leaders, a 
 new revolt broke out. Ilamsa's hon.se was plun- 
 dered and torn down, and lie liiiii.self was saved 
 only with great difficulty. The ujiroar was finally 
 suppressed; but the fanaticism of tlie orthodox 
 had been rou-sed to such a pitch, that .shortly 
 after (1044) Hakim was mysteriously killed. 
 
 Meanwhile Darasi had labored witli great suc- 
 cess among tlie Dru.ses. His ea.'y morals (cha.s- 
 tity was not enjoined, drunkenness was not pjro- 
 hibited), and also his liberality with money, drew 
 much people to him ; but he was finally rejected 
 by his own party. A disagreement arose between 
 him and Hainsa, and he was assassinated. Ham- 
 sa became the real founder of tlie new religion, 
 at least so far as regards its theoretical or doc- 
 trinal foundation. After his banishment from 
 Egypt he developed a great activity as a writer. 
 Later on, Behaeddin, or Moctana, also acquired 
 great celebrity as an author. His books circu- 
 lated from Calcutta to Constantinople. One of 
 them was addressed to Constantine VIII. ; another, 
 to Michael the Paphlagonian. But the later his- 
 tory of the sect is very obscure. Professing 
 IMohammedanism externally, the Druses kept for 
 ii long time their sacred books and their religious 
 rites a deep seci-et ; and it was not until the latter 
 part of the eighteenth century tliat any thing 
 certain became known about them outside of 
 tlieir own people. — For their wars with the Jla- 
 ronites, .see JIaroxite.s. 
 
 Lit. — ApLKK : Druse Catechism, in Museum 
 Cuficum Burjianum, 178:.' ; and tlie same work, 
 edited and translated by Eichhorn, in Reperlori- 
 vut f. h'M. und mori/cnld. Lhteratur ; Vkntvi!e: 
 Historical Memoir on the Druses, as an appendix 
 to the Memoirs of Baron de Totle, London, 1786 ; 
 SiLVESTRE DE Sacy : Expose' de la Religion des 
 Druses, Paris, 1828 (the princijial work on the 
 subject, containing large extracts from tlie works 
 of llamsa, Behaeddin, etc.) ; Pli. Wolfi" : Die 
 Drusen und Hire Vorlaufcr, 1842; Churchill: 
 Ten Years' Residence in Mount Lebanon, London, 
 18.j3, 3 vols., and Tlie Druses and Maronites under 
 the Turkish Rule from 18^0 to 1860, London, 1802; 
 E.'VRL OK C'.\i:n.\rvox : Recollections of the Druses 
 of the Zeit/noH, Loudon, 18G0; II. Guys: La tlic- 
 Of/onic des Druses, Paris, 1863, and La nation 
 Druse, Paris, 1804. A. G. HOFFMAXN. 
 
 DRUSILLA, a daughter of llerod Agrippa I., 
 and sister to Herod Agrippa II.; was first mar- 
 ried to Azizus, King of Emesa, from whom she 
 "was divorced, and afterwards to Felix, pirocurator 
 of Judsea. She was present at Cfesarea, where 
 Paul was brought before Felix, and preached to 
 him (Acts xxiv. 24). According to Josejjhus 
 (Ant., XX. 7, 2), she perished in the eruption 
 of Vesuvius (79 A.D.), together with her son 
 Agrippa. 
 
 DRUSIUS, Johannes (Jan van der Driesche), 
 b. at Oudenaarde, June 28. 1.").50; d. at Franecker, 
 J)'eb. 12, 1616; was educated at Ghent, Louvain, 
 
 and Cambridge, whither his father went when ho 
 was banished, for religious reasons, from llio X(;th- 
 erlands, 1567. In Camln-idgo he .studied Hebrew 
 under Cevallier, and in 1572 lie was liimself made 
 professor in Hebrew at Oxford. After the peace 
 of (Jhent (1576) he returned to his native; coun- 
 try, and was maile jirofessor of Hebrew at Leyden 
 in 1577, and at Franeek(;r in 1585. It was his 
 principle never to allow the dogmatical contro- 
 versies of his time to liave any influence on tlic 
 result of his scientific re.searclies ; but this prin- 
 cijilc; was often misunderstood. He was consid- 
 ered an nnde(;ided and vacillating character, and 
 attacked from different sides. Xevertliele.ss, by 
 his vast learning and great ability, he drew many 
 students from luigland, Germany, and Denmark 
 to his lecture-room, and contrilmted much to 
 brhig the Dutch universities into a fiourishing con- 
 dition. His principal work is his annotations to 
 the Old Testament, incor]iorated with the Critica 
 Sacra. Detailed information of his life and writ- 
 ings is found in his Vita, by his sou-in-law Abel 
 Curiander, Franecker, 161G. .See Diestkl : Ge- 
 schichle d. Altcn Testaments in d. christlichcn Kirclie, 
 Jena, 1860, pp. 317-555. E. BERTIIEAU. 
 
 DRUTHNIAR, Christian, a learned monk in 
 the first half of the ninth century; was b. in 
 Aquitania, and taught, first in Corbie, and after- 
 wards in Stablo, in the dioce.se of Liege. In 
 Stablo he wrote a commentary on the Gospel of 
 St. Matthew, distinguished for its clearness, and 
 remarkable on account of tlie emphasis it lays upon 
 the historical .sense as that which must be studied 
 first, and never be lost sight of. This cominen- 
 taiy was published by Secer, Ilagenau, 1530; and 
 Secer's text was incorporated witli the Bihl. Patr., 
 Cologne (Tom. IX.), and the 31. Bihl. Patr., 
 Lyons (Tom. XV.). It was to be expected, how- 
 ever, the exegetioal principle of the author would 
 lead him to reject the doctrine of Paschasius 
 Radbertus concerning the transmutation of the 
 elements of the Lord's Supper ; and, indeed, the 
 commentary contains passages which flatly con- 
 tradict the Roman-Catholic doctrine of transub- 
 stantiation. Roman-Catliolic theologians, there- 
 fore, prefer another text, by a Franciscan monk, 
 Sixtus of Siena, in which the pas.sages in question 
 occur in a wording just diiferent enough to make 
 the contradiction disappear. UERZOG. 
 
 DRYANDER. See Enzinas, Francisco de. 
 
 DUALISM forms the opposite to monism. 
 AVhile monism dissolves all differences and con- 
 trasts into a final unity, — the absolute idea of the 
 Hegelian school, the indestructible matter of the 
 present English school, — according to dualism 
 existence itself is based on a contrariety which 
 appears in pliilosophy as spirit and matter, in 
 theology as God and the world, in p.sychology as 
 soul and hoAy, and in morals as good and evil. 
 The crudest forms of dualism occur in certain 
 Christian heresies, establishing tlie contrarieties 
 as eternal principles; of monism, in certain phases 
 of modern materialism, reducing even the moral 
 differences into illusions. 
 
 DU BARTAS, Guillaume Salluste, b. at Mont- 
 fort, in tlie department of Gers, 1544 ; served in 
 the Huguenot army ; undertook several missions 
 to foreign Protestant courts, and received in the 
 battle of Ivry, March 14, 15!;0, a severe wound, of 
 ^^hich ho died in the follov.ing July. His poem on
 
 DUBOSC. 
 
 670 
 
 DU CANGE. 
 
 the creation. La premiere semalne, made a deep im- 
 pression, and represents tlie Puritan movement of 
 
 religion, just as Konsard represents tlie sceptical. 
 In 15Si lie published La sccumle stmaine, an epic 
 destined to comprise the whole period from the 
 creation to the revelation in Christ, but unfin- 
 ished. There is a collected edition of his works 
 from 1G29. His WeeLs were translated into Eng- 
 lish bv.I. Svlvester, l.ondon, 1641. 
 
 DUBOSC, Pierre, b. at Bayenx, Feb. 21, 1623; 
 studied theology at Montauban and Saunuir ; be- 
 came minister of the Reformed Congregation of 
 Caen in 1615 ; was banished from France in 1685, 
 and settled at Rotterdam, where he died Jan. 2, 
 1692. lie was one of the most prominent pulpit- 
 orators of his time, and among the first to aban- 
 don the old dry doctrinal exposition, and employ 
 illustrations and rhetorical lan"uage to make the 
 Christian truths impress the neart and the im- 
 agination. Two collections of his sermons ap- 
 peared at Rotterdam, 1G92, in 2 vols., and 1701 in 
 4 vols. His son-in-law, Legendre, wrote his life, 
 Rotterdam, 1691; enlarged edition, 1716. 
 
 DUBOURC, Anne, b. at Rioni, in the depart- 
 ment of I'uy de Dome, 1531; burnt at the stake 
 in Paris, Dec. 23, 1559; was professor of civil law 
 in the University of Orleans, when, in 1557, he 
 was appointed consclller-tierc to the Parliament of 
 Paris. In his father's house he became acquainted 
 with the doctrines of the Reformation ; and, as he 
 was conscientious, he made a deep study of the 
 Scriptures, the fathers, and the early church- 
 history, before he undertook to decide upon the 
 question. He had not embraced the Reformation, 
 however, when he was called to Paris. But he 
 lieard mass for the last time, Easter, 1558; and 
 shortly after lie began to frequent the meetings 
 of the Reformed Congregation in Paris. In the 
 Parliament most of the younger members inclined 
 towards the Reformation ; and of the older mem- 
 bers some of the most prominent, as, for instance, 
 the president Ilarlay, Seguier, etc., were in favor 
 of very mild proceedings against the so-called 
 heretics. There was, liowever, another party in 
 the Parliament, — a party of fanatical Romanists, 
 — led by Minard, Le Maistre, and St. Andre ; and a 
 conflict was not slow in arising. In the Gninilc 
 Cliiimbre, — that division of the Parliament in 
 which the civil affairs of the king, the crown, the 
 university, etc., were treated, — the Romanists had 
 llie majority; whik; the friends of the Reforma- 
 tion had the majority in the Clirunlire ile la Tour- 
 iiellc, — that division to which all criminal matters 
 belonged. In the spring of 1559 tlie Cliamhre ilc 
 la Tournelle condemned four citizens of Toulou.se, 
 who were accu.sed of rejecting the doctrine of 
 Iransub.stantiation, to bani.shment; while at the 
 same time, the Granite Chaiiihre condemned a 
 jpoor vine-dre.sser, Pierre Chenet, to the stake for 
 the same crime. In order to reconcile tliis di.s- 
 crepancy, the procurator-general, liourdin, con- 
 voked a Mercuriide ; that is, a plenary a-ssembly 
 of all the divisions of the Parliament, thus called 
 because it always convened on ^\'(■dnesday, — 
 Dies Mercurii. From the protracted and bitter 
 debate, it was evident that the friends of the 
 Reformation wenr in the majority; and the Ro- 
 manists then addressed themselves directly to the 
 king, Ili-iiry II. The king aiii)eared ]«'rsonally 
 in the Parliament, at the liead of an imposing 
 
 escort, and reproached it for the lukewannneBS 
 it showed with respect to the Chm-ch. Dnbourg 
 spoke immediately after the king, and spoke with 
 great openness and eloquence ; but the king 
 became so provoked that he immediately ordered 
 Dubourg arrested. Legally, a member of Parlia- 
 ment could be judged only by tlie Parliament 
 itself. Xevertheless, the king appointed a com- 
 mittee to investigate the case of Dubourg, and 
 the committee consisted of the most enraged 
 Romanists. Dubourg appealed successively ii 
 the archbishops of Paris, Sens, and Lyons; but 
 the appeals were not accepted. An appeal to the 
 Pope was still possible ; but Dubourg refused to 
 have any thing to do with "Antichrist." The 
 death of Henry II., July 10, 1559, only made the 
 situation .still more desperate; as, by the accession 
 of Francis II., the (Juises came into power. It 
 was evident that the life of Dubourg was wanted. 
 All exertions of his friends, Coligny, the elector 
 Friedrich HI., of the palatinate, etc., were in 
 vain. For a moment Dubourg wavered. The 
 first confession he presented was ambiguous, and 
 was considered as a surrender by the Romanists ; 
 but he soon recovered, and the confession which 
 he finally gave in, and which has often been 
 printed, is a masterpiece of clearness, precision, 
 and completeness. Dec. 21 the verdict was given, 
 and two days afterwards the execution followed. 
 See La vraye histoire conlenant I'iiiiijue juijcmcnl et 
 fausse procedure contre Anne Dahoury, Anvers, 
 1561, reprinted in the Mcnwircx de L'oudc, Lon- 
 don, 17-13. TIL srilOTT. 
 
 DU CANGE, Charles Dufresne, Sleur, b. at 
 Amiens, Dec. IS, 1610; d. in Paris, -Vug. 16, 
 16S8 ; studied law at Orleans, but soon abandoned 
 the juridical career, and devoted himself exclu- 
 sively to the study of the history of the middle 
 ages, living first at Amiens, afterwards (from 
 1668) in Paris. He was a scholar of the very 
 first rank, his industry equalling his accuracy; 
 and at the same time he was a man of extraordi- 
 nary loveliness of character, modest and disinter- 
 ested. By his labcn- he re.scued the liistory of the 
 middle ages from that dense obscurity into wliich 
 the Renascence and the Reformation had thrown 
 it. His principal works are Olosnariuni mcdice et 
 inJimiF Lalinitali.i, an<l (rlossariuiu media' el infimw 
 Grm-ilatis. The former, which is not simply a 
 <lictionary of the Latin language during a certain 
 period, but an encyclopa'dia of the history, geog- 
 rapliy, arclueology, etc., of that period, appeared 
 first in Paris, 1678, 3 vols, fob, then at Frankfurt, 
 11)81 and 1710, Venice, 1733-36, 6 vols, fol., 
 OjK ra el sludia y[iinachorum O. S. Bened. ; wliich 
 edition was ri'ininted at Basel, 1762, with a sup- 
 plement by the Benedictine monk Carpentier, in 
 ■1 vols., 1766, of which an extract was publisheil 
 at Halle, 1772-81, 6 vols. ; the last complete edi 
 tion, by Ilenschel. <'nib(idying the labors of pre- 
 vious editors, Paris. 1840-50, 7 vols, [new ed. 
 by Leopold Favre, Xiort, 1883 .s(iq. D;iyman 
 and Hessels's Med. Lai. En;/. Did. has been given 
 up]. The (ireek glossariuni appeared in I'aris. 
 l(iS8, 2 vols, fol.'^ The first work whicli Dii 
 Cangi^ published was his Histoire de I'ein/nre 
 de Vnnslanliniijde sous les enipereurs Jhuniiis, 
 I'aris. lli.")7: the last, not appearing until alter 
 his death, was liis edition of ('lironirfin Pas- 
 fh(di, I'aiis, 1688. Several of liis works still
 
 DUCHOBORTZI. 
 
 671 
 
 DUFF. 
 
 remain in inaiiuscript. See LfcoN Faickuk: 
 Essai siir la cie et les ouvrages dc ])u C(uiye, Paris, 
 1852. IIEKZOG. 
 
 DUCHOBORTZI, a sect which originated in 
 tlie Knssian Cluircli aliout 174(1. 'I'lieir doctrinal 
 syst(Mn is variously dcscrilied. By some they are 
 said to adhere i'aithl'nlly to the concej)tions ol' the 
 Cliristian doctrines whieli the Unssian C'hurcli 
 has adopted ; while others tell ns that they have 
 developed these conceptions into a fancifnl mysti- 
 cism, dissolving the idea of trinity into merely 
 different forms of action, placing the fall before 
 the creation, etc. In their jiractical tenets they 
 resemble the Quakers. Tliey refuse to take 
 oaths, to serve in the army, to partake of the 
 sacraments, etc. ; and they reject a liturgically 
 arranged service, a sacerdotal class, etc. The 
 sect arose among the Molokans, and was very 
 severely persecuted by Catherine II. Under 
 Alexander I. they were tolerated, and a settle- 
 ment was granted the)u near the Sea of Azov, 
 whence they were removed in 18o7 to the Cau- 
 casus. See Lex/. : De Duchoworzis Commentaiio, 
 IJorpat, 1829 ; W. Gass : Symbolik d. griechiscJien 
 Kirche, Berlin, 1872, pp. 430 sqq. 
 
 DUCHOWNY CHRISTIANY. SeeMoLOKANi. 
 
 DUDITH, Andreas, h. at Buda, 1.533; d. at 
 Breslau, 1089 ; studied at Breslau and Verona. 
 In the latter place he made the acquaintance of 
 Reginald Pole, and accompanied him to England 
 in 15.53, when, after the accession of Mary, the 
 cardinal returned home as the legate of Julian 
 in. Over Paris, Budith went the following year 
 back to Hungary, and was made provost of Felhe- 
 viz. Once more he visited Italy, wliere he trans- 
 lated Pole's biography from the Italian into 
 English (Venice, 15(j3, London, 1090) ; and after 
 his return he was made apostolical prothonotary, 
 count-palatme, and bishop of Tina. In 15G2 he 
 was sent to the Council of Trent as representative 
 of the Hungarian clergy ; and the five speeches 
 he made there contain many attacks on the 
 Reformation, though he advocated the use of 
 the cup in the Lord's Supper also for laymen. 
 In 1565 the Emperor Maximilian sent him on a 
 diplomatical errand to King Sigisnumd of Po- 
 land, and there he fell passionately in love with 
 one of the queen's maids-of -honor. He resigned 
 all his ofiices, married her, and settled at Smigla 
 in Bohemia: afterwards he also left the Roman 
 Church, and embraced Socmianisrn. But, though 
 Paid V. put him under the ban, both Maximilian, 
 and after him Rudolf II., continued to protect 
 him and to use liini. The last ten years of his 
 life he spent in Breslau. His works were edited 
 by Renter, Offenbach, IGIO ; his Five Speeches 
 appeared at Halle, 1743 ; his BiogTaphy was writ- 
 ten by Stief, Breslau, 1756. HERZOG. 
 
 DUFF, Alexander, D.l)., a very eminent mission- 
 ary in India ; was born at the farndiouse of Auch- 
 nahyle, in Moulin, Perthshire, Scotland, April 25, 
 1806 ; d. in Edinburgh, Feb. 12, 1878. He studied 
 at the University of St. Andrews, under Dr. Chal- 
 mers and others, and was licensed to preach the 
 gospel in 1829. At the age of twenty-three he was 
 appointed first missionary to India of the Church 
 of Scotland. On his way to Calcutta he was 
 shipwrecked, and lost all his books, — a circum- 
 Ptance that threw him the more earnestly on 
 the divine arm for support and guidance. Hav- 
 
 
 ing lieen left to adopt the mode of aggre.ssive 
 operations which he deemed most expedient in the 
 circumstances, he resolved to make an "'ducational 
 institution a leading feature in his j)lan, jjartly in 
 order to (rain up native evangelists, and partly to 
 scatter the darkiu'ss as.sociated with the Hindoo 
 religion. There was a ixjwerful l>arty in Calcutta, 
 the old Orienlali.sts, who thought that any progres.s, 
 intellectual or social, to be made in India, uuist bo 
 on the old lines, recognizing the traditions, preju- 
 dices, and otlier abs\u'dities which the past had 
 consecrated. Duff looked on all tliat as nonsense, 
 and felt assured that the Hindoo nnnd was quite 
 ready to be carried onward on the lines of Western 
 civilization and progress. Practical effect was 
 given to this conviction in his Calcutta .school, 
 which was conducted on two great jirinciples, — 
 fii'st, that Christian Scriptures were to be read in 
 every class able to read them, and to be used as 
 tlie foundation and pervading salt of the school; 
 and, .second, that through the English language 
 the science of the West was to be taught, notwith- 
 standing the revolution it must inevitaljly cau.se 
 in many Hindoo notions, including some of the 
 most sacred and venerable beliefs. On these lines 
 Duff worked from the very beginning, and worked 
 with such etTect that liis school was extremely 
 popular among the natives ; and the Orientalist 
 party were placed Iton: de comhai. Quite a revo- 
 lution, indeed, was effected. At the same time 
 the mission did not want for striking spiritual 
 fruit. Among its early converts were a number 
 of young men of great power and promise ; and 
 the esteem in which they were Ixeld was evinced by 
 the fact that the Church Missionary and other soci- 
 eties got some of them as their agents, and they 
 turned out to be very u.sef ul in their work in India. 
 
 Returning liome in ill health in 1834, Duff, on 
 recovering, made a tour through Scotland, and 
 most wonderfully increased the interest in his 
 mission. His speeches in the General Assembly 
 were wonderful specimens of gushing eloquence, 
 and made a profound impression. The degree of 
 D.D. was conferred on him by the Uiiiversity of 
 Aberdeen. 
 
 After his furlough lie I'eturned to India, and 
 prosecuted his work. The disruption of the Scot- 
 tish Church in 1843 was in one way a gi"eat trial; 
 although he and all the other missionaries of the 
 Church to both Jew and Gentile had no hesitation 
 in throwing in theii' lot with the Free Church. 
 As the property of the mission belonged legally 
 to the Establishment, Duff was strijiped of every 
 thing. His trust in God remained ; and he was 
 enabled to build up a new institution from the 
 foundation, and equip it as well as the old had 
 been. The influence of his work continued to 
 increase. Intere.sting conversions took place. Pub- 
 lic storms raged whenever a conspicuous youth 
 was baptized ; but they passed away, and it be- 
 came apparent to all that tlie tree which Duff had 
 planted was spreading forth its roots as Lebanon. 
 
 In 1850 he again returned home, and .sought to 
 rouse the Free Church to new and more energetic 
 efforts in the cause of missions. He was called 
 in 1851 to the chair of the General Assembly. 
 He also visited America, under the auspices of 
 Mr. George II. Stuart of Pliiladelphia, and by his 
 overwhelming appeals and eloquence made a deep 
 impression both in Canada and the United States.
 
 DUPRESNE. 
 
 t),J 
 
 DU MOULIN. 
 
 He retui-netl to India, and continued his labors 
 for some years ; but, his Iiealth utterly failing, 
 he retiu'ned jiermanently to Scotland in 1SG4. 
 Appointed Convener of the Foreign Missions 
 Committee, lie had the chief management of the 
 foreign work of the Free Chm'ch, and showed his 
 catholicity by the deep interest he took in South- 
 African missions, and especially b\- the share he ; 
 had in organizing the Livingstonia mission on 
 Lake Xyassa. In 1867 he was appointed first 
 professor of evangelistic theology in the Free 
 Church. 
 
 Dr. Duff took an active interest in many im- 
 portant movements of the home church. He was 
 an active promoter of the proposed union of the 
 Free, United Presbv-terian, Reformed Presbjle- 
 rian, and English Presbyterian churches, which, 
 however, came to no satisfactory result. He was 
 deeply interested in the Colportage Society of 
 Scotland, of which, for a time, he was president. 
 He took an active part in the preparations for the 
 General Presbyterian Comicil at Edinburgh, but 
 ■was xmable to be present, through illness. His 
 strength contmued to decline thereafter, and on 
 Feb. 12, 1878, he fell asleep. His Life was writ- j 
 ten bv George Smith, LL.D., Edinburgh and 
 
 ls'.Y.,'lS80. W. G. BLAIKIE. 
 
 DUFRESNE. See Du C.\xge. 
 
 DUGUET, Jacques Joseph, b. at Montbrison, 
 on the L'pptT Loire, Dec. !», 1649 ; d. in Paris, 
 Oct. 2.3, 17o3 ; entered the Congregation of the 
 Oratory in l()ti7, but left it in 1686, when its 
 members were compelled to subscribe a con- 
 demnation of Jansen. Afterwards he lived for 
 some time in Brussels with A. Arnauld, and at 
 various places in France, always in retirement, 
 and always pursued by the ruling power in the 
 Church. He was a pi-olific writer, and one of 
 the best writers among the Jansenists. His 
 Traite de la prt'ere pnbiKjue, etc., Paris, 1707, was 
 often reprinted, and so were his Lrttres sur dicers 
 sujets de morale, etc., 1718, originally in 3 vols., 
 but afterward enlarged to 10 vols., and his Ex- 
 plication du mi/slere de la pas.iioti, 1722, originally 
 in 2 vols., but afterward enlarged to 14 vols. 
 He also wrote Explicalions of (ienesis (6 vols.), 
 Job (4 vols.), and other parts of the Bible. A 
 biography of liim is found in that edition which 
 Goujet has given of his Institution d'un prince, 
 etc, 1739. See also Andre: L'cspril de M. Du- 
 guel, etc., Paris, 1704. 
 
 DU HALDE, b. in Pari.s, Feb. 1, 1074; d. there 
 Aug. 18, 1713; entered tlie Society of Jesus in 
 1708; succeeded Father Legol)ien as editor of 
 Letlres c'dijinnles et curienscs ecriles dcs missions 
 e'lrant/'cres, of whicli he published vols. IX.- 
 XXV'I., and wi'ote The (Imcral Ilistori/ of China, 
 Paris, 173.'), 1 vols., translated into Fiigli.sh by 
 Brookes, Lomlon, 1730, 4 vols. 
 
 DULCINISTS. See Doi.ciNo. 
 
 DULIA (vc/i'Kv). The Koman Church teaches 
 that saints and angels should receive dnlia (rever- 
 ence), the Virgin hyper-dulia (the Iiighest kind of 
 reverence), and llie Persons ol the 'Irinitj' lalrcia 
 (adoration, or wor.sliip proper). Tlic distinction 
 between these three kind.s of worsliip is generallv 
 obscured by tin; laity, wlio not only pray as much 
 and as fervently to one class of divine helpers as 
 to the other, but wlio, it is probable, pray quite 
 as much to the images us to the persons imaged. 
 
 It is, liowever, by this fine distinction that th» 
 Churcli rids herself of the charge of idolatry. 
 
 DU MOULIN, Charles, b. in Paris, 1.500; <1. 
 there Dee. 27, l.")(iij; studied law in Orleans ami 
 Poitiers. -V fault of pronunciation debarred him 
 from success as a pleader ; but in Paris, where hi; 
 settled in 1539, and where, in 1542, he joined the 
 Reformed Congregation, he soon acquired great 
 celebrity as a consulting lawyer. Of his many 
 writings (fifty-two in number), two are of gi-eat 
 interest to church-history. In 1551 he published 
 liis famous Commenlairc sur VEdit des petites dales, 
 in which he shows that Henry 11. was right, 
 when, as a move in his contest with the Pope, lie 
 forbade the exportation of gold or silver froni 
 France to Rome. And so victorious was the argu- 
 mentation, that the Pope unmediately dropped 
 the question so far as the king was concerned ; 
 but brought the author to trial for heresy, and 
 when he was acquitted the priests caused a riot, 
 and had his house pillaged. Du Moulin fled ; 
 and from this moment till his death he moved 
 from one place to another (Strassburg, Tubingen, 
 Geneva, Lyons, etc.), everywhere attracting peo- 
 ple by his learning and acuteness, but always 
 pursued by the Roman Church. He returned to 
 Paris in 1504, and published his Consultation sur 
 le fait du Concile de Trent : but the Parliament 
 of Paris, though approving of his views, con- 
 demned his book. He was imprisoned, and re- 
 leased only by the exertions of Jeanne d'Alhret. 
 After his death the priests said that he had se- 
 cretly returned to the bosom of the Roman 
 Cliurch ; but they have told the same story about 
 numy others without proving it. 
 
 DU MOULIN, Pierre (Molinccus), b. at Buhy, 
 on the boundary of Normandy, Oct. 10, 1568 ; 
 d. at Sedan, ISlarch 10, 1658 ; was educated in 
 Paris and Sedan, and studied at Cambridge (1.588- 
 92) and Leyden, where he was made professor, 
 first of ancient languages, and afterwards of phi- 
 losophy. In 1599 he was ordained and appointed 
 pastor of Charenton, near I'aris, and chaplain 
 to Catherine of Bourbon, a sister of Henry IV. 
 With this last appointment began his career as the 
 most vigoroiis and brilliant controversialist of tli«! 
 French Reformed Church. According to the fash- 
 ion of the day, a disputation was arranged (l(i02) 
 between Du Moulin and a Roman-Catholic .schol- 
 ar, PalmaCayet, in the presence of Catherine, lier 
 husband (who was a Roman-Catholic), and others. 
 Du Moulin's victory was unque.stionable ; and the 
 books he ])ublished in consequence of the dispu- 
 tation — Eaux de Siloe pour esteindre le purr/aloirc 
 1602, and Accroissement des eaux de Siloe, La 
 Rochelle, 1604 — attracted much attention. Of 
 still greater importance, while iirodtu-ing a inucli 
 wider and deeper impression, were his controver- 
 sies with the Jesuit Cotton about the dogmatics 
 and morals of the order, Tretite-deux dcmiimlcs pro- 
 pose'es park P. Cotton, etc., La Rochelle, 1607, and 
 Geneva, 1035 ; with the Jesuit Gontier about 
 transulistantiation, Veritable uarrc de la conference 
 enire les sicurs Du Moidin et Gontier, 1009, and 
 Apolof/ie pour la sainte chic ilu Seir/neur, Geneva, 
 1610 ; and with the Dominican Cocffelcau, Ana- 
 tomic du Here du sieur C, Geneva, 1625. lint 
 liis masterpiece as a controversialist is his ISou- 
 clier de la foi/, the most complete work of the 
 ! kind produced by tlic French Reformed Churcli,
 
 DUNCAN. 
 
 G73 
 
 DUNIN. 
 
 and, though now antiquated in form and tone, 
 still valuable on account of its learning and keen- 
 ness. The Jesuit Arnoux, confessor to the king, 
 ]ireached against the Itefonned Confession ; and 
 l)u Jloulin took up the challenge, and wrote 
 Di'fense de la confession de VKglhe rcfonm'e de 
 France (Charenton, l'il7), Bouclier dc la foy 
 (Charenton, 1G17, 3d ed., 1019, last ed., 1845, Kng. 
 trans., London, 1031), and Fuites ct c'msions du 
 sieiir Arnoux (Charenton, 1G19.) It was, however, 
 not only the Roman-Catholics who had to smart 
 under his polemical ire, but also the various sects 
 of his own denomination, especially the IJemon- 
 strants. A bitter controversy arose shortly after 
 the death of Henry IV., consequently in a very 
 critical moment, between him and Tilenus, pro- 
 fessor of theology at .Sedan ; and they were not 
 reconciled until i017. In that year Du iMoulin 
 ■was engaged by the connnission of the National 
 Synod of Vitrc, to prepare a formula consenstif, in 
 •which all sects or parties of the Reformed faith 
 would agree ; but the formula consensus turned 
 out the Anatomie de rAnninianisme, Leyden, l(il9, 
 — a harsh and scathing criticism of Arminianism. 
 Meanwhile his position at Charenton, always diffi- 
 cult, became actually dangerous. For many years 
 he had stood in intimate connection with James I. 
 of England. Already in 1004 he wrote Defense 
 de la foy pour Jacques I.; and in 1015 James I. 
 proposed to him to make an attempt at uniting the 
 whole Reformed Church. In 1019 he wrote a letter 
 to James I. to induce him to aid his son-in-law, 
 the Elector of the Palatinate. The letter was 
 intercepted, and the Jesuits hoped to construe it 
 as treason. Du Moulin was compelled to flee, and 
 sought refuge in Sedan, wliich belonged to the 
 dominion of the Duke of Bouillon. He was made 
 professor of theology, and spent the rest of his 
 life there, somewhat more quietly, though never 
 giving up what seemed to be his nature, — criti- 
 cism and polemics. To this period belong his 
 Nouceaule du. papisme, etc. (Sedan, 1027), and 
 Anatomie de la Messe (Sedan, 1036, I'd ed., 1038, 
 last ed., 1851, translated into German and English, 
 and still studied with profit on account of the 
 mastership with which the unnatural and the 
 imreasonable in the scholastic argumentation of 
 transubstantiation is exhibited). See Bullet in de 
 la Socie'lu de I'Histoire du Pro/estantisme, VII., 
 pp. 170, 345, 532, where his autobiogra]ihy is 
 given ; Ayjiox : Synodes nationaux de France, 
 II. p. 273, containing a list of his works ; Ar- 
 M.-^ND : Essai sur la vie de Da Moulin, Strassburg, 
 184G. C. SCHMIDT. 
 
 DUNCAN, John, LL.D., a Scotch Orientalist; 
 b. at Gilcomston, near Aberdeen, 1796 ; d. in 
 Edinburgh, Saturday, Feb. 20, 1S70. He was 
 graduated from the University of Aberdeen, 1814 ; 
 studied divinity in Edinburgh, and was licensed 
 June 24, 1825. In 1826, under the influence of 
 Cesar !Malan, he was converted ; in 1831 he was 
 settled in Glasgow ; went in 1841 to I'esth as mis- 
 sionary of the Church of Scotland to the Jews ; 
 in 1843 he became professor of Hebrew and 
 Oriental languages in New College, Edinburgh, 
 and served in that capacity until his death. He 
 was an extraordinary man : learned in several 
 dejiartments, gifted as a talker, and profound as 
 a thinkei-, he impressed all he met. His .students 
 did not get much Hebrew instruction.. <or he was 
 
 ^1 — I 
 
 a very ))oor teacher; but they were inspired by 
 his spirit so eminently godly. He lived above the 
 world, an<l drew them up with liim. His religious 
 experience comprehended all grades, from scepti- 
 cism to faith. His most brilliant period intel- 
 lectually was when farthest fi'om God; but his 
 most fruitful was dm'ing his latter years, when 
 he showed a simple piety whicli was based upon 
 personal knowledge of the deep things of (iod. 
 Many stcu'ies are told of his eccentricity ; but the 
 charm of his biography lies in its revelation of a 
 rare personality. See D.wid Buown : Life of 
 the Late John Duncan, LL.D., Eilinburgh, 1872, 
 2d revised ed. same year ; the same : John Duncan 
 in the Pulpit and at the (Jomniunion-Tahle, I'^diu- 
 burgh, 1874 ; also his striking sayings in Wii.- 
 Li.^M K.N'iGirr : Colloquia I'eripatcticet, by the late 
 John Duncan, LL.D., 2d ed., Ediidiurgh, 1870. 
 
 DUNGAL, the author of the Responsa contra 
 pcrccrsas Cluudii sentenlias, ■KritU'U in 828, against 
 Claudius of Turin, and edited by Masson, Paris, 
 1008, and in Bill. Patr. Max:, XIV. He was a 
 Scotchman. But very little is known about his 
 life. By some {Hist. Litt. de la France, IV., p. 493) 
 he is identified with a certain Dungal of St. 
 Denis, who wrote .some Latin poems (i\lAi'.Ti:NK 
 ET Durand: Ampl. Coll., VI. p. 811) and an 
 Epistola ad Carolum Maijnum de duplici eclipsi 
 solari (D'Achery : Spiciler/ium, HI. p. 324). 
 More jirobably he is identical with that Dungal 
 whom Lothar mentions in one of his decrees as 
 teacher in I'avia. 
 
 DUNIN, Martin von, b. at Wal, a village of 
 Western Poland, Nov. 11, 1774 ; d. at Posen, Dec. 
 20, 1842 ; was educated in the Collegium Ger- 
 manicum in Rome, and was appointed Archbishop 
 of Gnesen- Posen, 1831. 
 
 In Poland the validity of the canon law re- 
 mained unquestioned up to 1708 : it was even spe- 
 cially confirmed and extended by a bull of Bene- 
 dict XIV., Aug. 8, 1748. But by the treaty of 
 Feb. 13, 1768, between Poland, Ru.ssia, England, 
 Prussia, Denmark, and Sweden, the canon law 
 was suspended in various fields of social life. 
 Thus mixed marriages were declared legitimate ; 
 and it was determined, that, of the children, the 
 boys should be educated in the religion of the 
 father, and the girls in that of the mother. This 
 rule was continued in those parts of Poland 
 which were incorporated with Prussia, and no 
 trouble arose from its application until 1836. 
 Inspired, no doubt, by the behavior of Droste 
 zu Vischering, Archbishop Dunin suddenly de- 
 manded permission of the Prussian Government, 
 either to go hack to the regidations of 1748, or to 
 ask the Pope for new instructions. As neither 
 was granted, the archbishop issued a jiastoral 
 letter (Jan. 30, 1838) to his clergy, in which he 
 simply forbade the priests to consecrate a mixed 
 marriage, or to admit any Roman-Catholic who 
 lived in unconsecrated wedlock to the sacraments. 
 But this injimction was annidled by a royal 
 decree of June 25, 1838 ; and legal proceedings, 
 were begim against the ai'chbishop. Feb. 23, 1830, 
 the siqireme court of Posen gave the ■I'erdict that 
 the archbishop had transgressed his power, and 
 that the transgression should be punished with 
 deposition, and incarceration in one of the for- 
 tresses for half a year. The king transmuted the 
 incarceration in a fortress to simple residence in
 
 DUNKERS. 
 
 074 
 
 DUNSTAN. 
 
 Berlin ; but, when the archbishop wilfully left the 
 capital to go to his diocese, he was arrested, and 
 confined at Colberg. On the accession, however, 
 of Friedrich Wilhelm IV., in 18-10, a compromise 
 was effected : the archbishop was re-instated on 
 the condition of modifying his pastoral letter in 
 harmony with former practice. 
 
 Lit.— K. IIase: Die heiden Erzhischofe, Leipzig, 
 18.39; Rixtel: Verlheidiyuny d. E. von Gnesen- 
 Posen, AVurzburg, 18-59 ; PonL : Martin v. Dunin, 
 Marienburg, 1843. H. F. JACOBSON. 
 
 DUNKERS. See Tuxkers. 
 
 DUNS SCOTUS, Johannes, was b. in 1260 
 or 1274, according to Matthteus Veglensis and 
 Dempster, at Duns, in the southern part of Scot-' 
 land ; according to Leland and others, at Duns- 
 tane, in Xorthumberland ; according to Wadding, 
 in Ireland ; d. at Cologne, 1308. He early became 
 a Franciscan, and studied theology at Oxford, 
 under AMlliam de Vuarra (Varro). When the 
 latter went to Paris, Duns succeeded to his chair, 
 and taught in Oxford with great success. He is 
 said to have had three thousand pupils. It was 
 especially his keenness and subtlety which im- 
 pressed people; for which reason he received the 
 title of doctor xuhtiH<s. While in Oxford he wrote 
 a commentary upon the Sentences of the Lom- 
 bard, — Ojius Oxoniense. About l-jOl he went to 
 Paris, and there he also lectured on the Sentences; 
 which lectures afterwards were published under 
 the title Riqmrtatn Pari.-:iensia. In 1305 he obtained 
 the degree of doctor. After the order of Clement 
 V. he held a grand disputation with the Domin- 
 icans concerning the immaculate conception of 
 Mary. He came out victorious. Even the marble 
 .statue of the Virgin, standing in the disputation 
 hall, bowed to him when he descended from the 
 cathedra; and it became a rule in the university, 
 that he who obtained a degree there should take 
 an oath to defend the doctrine of the immaculate 
 conception. In 1308 Duns was sent to Cologne, 
 by the general of his order, to contend \\ith the 
 Beghards, who were numerous in those regions, 
 and with the Dominicans, who refused to accept 
 the new dogma. He was received with great 
 honors, but died in the same year from apoplexy. 
 
 The best edition of his works is that by Watl- 
 ding, Lyons, 1039, in 12 vols. fol. The first four 
 volumes contain his miscellaneous writings on 
 grammar, logic, etc. ; vols. V.-X., the Opus Oxo- 
 niense; vol. XL, the lit'jiortuta Ptirisieitsid ; and 
 vol. XII., the Quodlihrla. Tliese works give strik- 
 ing evidence of the comprehensive scholarship of 
 their author. Duns was not only familiar with 
 the writers of his own time and tlie early middle 
 ages, but he was also dei-jily convc^rsaut with the 
 works of the fathers, and he had studied both the 
 Greek and the .\rab philosophcMs. From Averroes 
 and Avicenna lie borrowed many Platonic and 
 Xeoplatonic ideas. Porphyry and Aristotle he 
 specially treated of : Qiiestiimes in (/iilni/ue iinlrer- 
 salia Porplii/rii, his connnentary on Aristotle's 
 inetai)hysics and /> niiinid, (■t(^ 
 
 The ditfcrence between Duns Scotus and 
 Thomas .\quin;is is very striking. It lodged 
 deep in the natures of the two men, and it became 
 a stirring element in the after-history of scholas- 
 ticism. In their idea.s of (jod, 'J'liomas is always 
 inclined to emjihasize necessity. Duns, freedom ; 
 for Thomas had a natural bent towards generali- 
 
 zation. Duns a vivid sense of individuality. While 
 to Thomas the relation between God and the world 
 is a relation of substance. Duns vindicates the free 
 causality of God ; and while the Thomistic con- 
 ception of the Trinity retains a shade of modalism, 
 Duns fully carries through the distinction between 
 the persons of the Trinity, the attributes of God. 
 etc. The genius of Thomas was speculative: that 
 of Duns was critical ; and his method is, conse- 
 quently, negative destruction of error rather than 
 jjositive construction of truth. But, just as his 
 natural bent towards individualism never made 
 him a nominalist, so his natural talent for criti- 
 cism never made him a sceptic. His .scepticism 
 refers only to the argumentation, and arguments 
 he may destroy until he has no other basis for 
 truth than the absolute will of God and the vol- 
 untary submission of man ; but this basis, the 
 truth of the divine revelation, and the authority 
 of the Established Church, he never touches. 
 
 The relation between God and the world was 
 to scliolasticism the great problem, and in the 
 system of Duns Scotus this problem received an 
 original and bold treatment. Kepresenting (iod 
 as the absolutely self-sufficient and self-controlling 
 subject, he tries to give to the world a higher 
 degree of independence and substantiality than 
 it ever could attain in a system of emanation or 
 Pantheism. But the solution is incomplete. In 
 his innermost being, in his very essence, God 
 remains unknown and unknowable to niaiu and 
 con.sequently his will can never become the direct 
 and natural contents of the will of man. The 
 will of God is an enigma, manifested only in the 
 form of arbitrary conniiands : the will of man is 
 an empty form, receiving its contents through 
 voluntary submission to external authorities, — 
 the Church. 
 
 The life of Duns Scotus lias been Mritten by 
 ^1ai Tn.Ki'S Veolexsis, in Tliesaurn.i Dihliograpli- 
 iciis ; by Wadding, in his edition of Duns" works, 
 vol. I.; by Ferciii, Cologne, 1022; tiizMAX; 
 Janssex, Cologne, 1022; Colcan, Antwerp, 
 1055. His .system has been treated by Ai.her- 
 <;oM : liesolutio doctrinm Scotica; Lyons, 1043; 
 IIiehonvmis he Fortixo: .Summa thcologica ex 
 Sfotis ojieribns ; do.vxxES DE Rada : ControrersifV 
 tlieolofficw Inter Tliomnm et Scotnm, Venice, 1599 ; 
 BoXAVEXTru.\ B.\K(): ./. Buns Scotus, Cologne, 
 1604, 3 vols.; Bau.mcartkx-Crvsius : De theo- 
 lof/ia 5co/i, Jena, 1820 ; Karl Werner: Sprach- 
 lo(]ik des J. D. S., Wien, 1877; [M. SciiXEin: 
 Die Kiirperlelire des Johannes Duns Scotus tinil i!ir 
 ]'er/iultniss zum T/ioinismus und Atoviismus, Mainz, 
 1879; Karl Werner: Johannes Duns Scotus, 
 Wien, 1.S81]; besides Erdmaxx, Sxiii'iiL, Kitter, 
 I'eherweg, etc., in their works on the history of 
 j.hiliisophv. A. DOUXER. 
 
 DUNSTAN, St., b. at Glastonbury, 924; d. 
 May 19, 9SS ; was educated by Irish monks, .set- 
 tled in his native city, and was twice introduced 
 into the king's hou.sehold, but was both times 
 diiveii away l)y the envy of the rouyli soldier- 
 courtiers. After taking the monastic vow. he 
 lived for some time in retirement, studying and 
 teaching; but King Edmund niaih' him Abbot 
 of (ilastoiibuiy, and .appointed him treasurer of 
 the whole kingdom. I'nder the reign of Edred 
 (!»10-955). Dunstan .seems to have been the real 
 ruler of the country. Under Edwy he was com-
 
 DUNSTER. 
 
 675 
 
 DU PLESSIS MORNAY. 
 
 jielled to flee tlie coiiiiti-y (955), and sook refuge 
 in Ghent, but only for a .short time. When Edgar 
 succeeded in cstalili.sliiii;;' liini.sclf on tlie tlirone 
 of Jlercia and Nurtlunnliria, Dimslan rctnrned 
 to power, and was made Hi.shop (jI' \\'orc<vst<'i- and 
 London, anil finally Arehbi.shop of ('antcrlmry. 
 In spite of intrigues and conspiracies, he reniaininl 
 ill power under Kdward and I'^thelred ; and it is 
 a significant fact that the really successful inva- 
 sions of the Danes began immediately after his 
 death. As a character he is variously described. 
 Some represent liiin as a reformer of tlie .Saxon 
 clergy of his time, and as a woi'ker of miracles ; 
 and the fact of his canonization shows the indebt- 
 edness of the Church to him. Others represent 
 liim as a statesman ; and, indeed, for many years 
 he ruled England with great energy and wisdom. 
 Several works liave been ascribed to him, — a 
 commentary on the Benedictine rule, a lier/iilaris 
 Concordia, etc.; but the authorship is doubtful. 
 For his life, .see Act. SancL, ]\Iay 19; E. W. 
 KonF.RT.soN : DunnUin and hix Polici/, in Historical 
 Essays: Dk.w Hook: Lices of the Archlnshops of 
 Cunterlniri/. 
 
 DUNSTER, Henry, first president of Harvard 
 University; b. in England; d. at .Scituate, Mass., 
 Feb. 27, KiSD. He was educated at Magdalen 
 College, Oxford ; emigrated to America, and was 
 chosen president of the recently established col- 
 lege at Cambridge, Aug. 27, 1040, but compelled 
 to resign Oct. '24, 1G54, on account of his Baptist 
 views, and spent the rest of his days in retirement. 
 He assisted in revising the version of the pisalms 
 luade by Eliot, Wilde, and Mather. He was a 
 learned, modest, and pious man. See Jeremiaii 
 Chaplin : Life of Henri/ Dunster, Boston, 1872. 
 
 DUPANLOUP", Felix Antoine Philippe, b. at 
 St. Felix, Savoy, Jan. 3, 1SU2; d. at Laincey in 
 Loiret, Oct. 11, 1878; studied in Paris; was 
 ordained priest in 1825; became confessor to the 
 Count de Chambord in 1827. catechist to the 
 Orleans princes in 1828, and almoner to Madame 
 la Dauphine in 1830, but retired from all these 
 I>ositions after the Revolution, and was appointed 
 superior of the diocesan seminary of Paris in 
 1837, and Bishop of Orleans in 1849. He belonged 
 to the group of Liberal or Gallican Catholics, but 
 submitted to the decisions of the Vatican Council 
 in 1870. While young, he kept aloof from the 
 circles of De Maistre and De Lamennais ; when 
 old, he opposed the definition of tlie dogma of 
 papal infallibility. On the other hand he labored 
 zealously to awaken the French people from its 
 religious apathy, and fought bravely against the 
 Life of Jesus, l)y Kenan, his former pupil. A 
 similar position of mediation he occupied in ,the 
 field of education, l.)etweeii Veuillot, who wanted 
 the Latin classics driven out of the schools, 
 and the LIniversity of Paris, which wanted to 
 forbid the religious orders in the schools. One 
 of his best works is his L' Education, Paris, 1855- 
 57, 3 vols. His Qiuvres Choisies appeared in 
 1861 in 4 vols. See F. Lagrange : Life of 
 Dupanloup, translated by Lady Herbert, London, 
 1 sso. 2 vols. 
 
 DUPERRON, Jacques Davy, b. .at Bern, 1559; 
 d. in Paris, .Sept. 5, 1518; descended from Protes- 
 tant parents, from .St. 1^6, in \ormandy, who, 
 during the persecutions against the Huguenots, 
 had sought refuge in Switzerland. Having re- 
 
 ceived an office in tlie liouseliold of Henry HI., 
 and. finding Ids religion an embarra-ssment in a 
 court career, he embraced Romanism, was or- 
 dained jiricst, and devoted him.self to religious 
 liolemics and jiroselyti/.ing. IIc^ was instrumental 
 in till' conversicjii of Henry IV'., and w.as by liim 
 made liishop of Evreux. He also aided the King 
 in proi'uring a divorce from Margaret of ^'alois, 
 and in 101)0 he was made firand-almoiwr of 
 France, and ^Vrchbishop of Sens. In 1004 Clem- 
 ent VIH. invited him to take jiart in the di'batcs 
 of the VonijrKijatio de Auj-itiis concerning the 
 Molinistic controversy, followed his advice in 
 deciding the question, and nuule him a cardinal. 
 His works appeared in Paris, 1020-22, 3 vols. fol. 
 First volume contains his 'J'raite sur V Eucharistie 
 against Dii Ple.ssis-Mornay. See F£ret : Le Car- 
 diiud Duperron. Paris, 1877. HERZOG. 
 
 DU PIN, Louis Ellies, b. in Paris, June 17, 
 10.'i7 ; d. there .June 0, 171!) ; was made a doctor 
 of the Sorboiine in 1084, and professor at the Col- 
 h'ge de France ; but on account of his opposition 
 to the bull f'jiii/enitus, imd having as a .lansenist 
 signed the cas de conscience, he was banished to 
 Chatelleroult, and, though he afterwards was al- 
 lowed to return to Paris, he was never restored to 
 his professorship. He partook with much zeal in 
 the negotiations for a union between the Greek 
 and Roman churches, which w-ere started on occa- 
 sion of the vi.sit of Peter the Great in Paris, 1717, 
 and he corresponded with Archbishop Wake of 
 Canterbury concerning a union of the churches 
 of England and France ; which correspondence is 
 given in the third appendix to Maclaine's transla- 
 tion of Mosheim's Church History. His principal 
 work is his celebrated liiljliothhjue unirersellc des 
 autenrs ecclcxia.itiijue.'i, which provoked Bossuet 
 and the clergy in general by its liberality, and at 
 one time was stopped by an act of Parliament, 
 but again allowed to appear under the title of 
 Nourelle 1iU>., etc. The work appeared in I'aris, 
 1080-1704, in 58 vols. 8vo, and at Am.sterdani, 
 in 19 vols. 4to : there is an English translation 
 of it in 17 vols, fob, London, 1093-1707. A com- 
 plete list of Du Pin's numerous writings is found 
 in NiCERON : Memoires, II. pp. 25-48. Notices 
 of his life are given by himself in the last volume 
 of his great work. 
 
 DU PLESSIS-MORNAY, properly PHILIPPE 
 DE MORNAY, Seigneur du Plessis-Marly, b. at 
 Buhy, Normandy, Nov. 5, 1549 ; d. at La Foret- 
 sur-.Sevre, Nov. 11, 1023; one of the most promi- 
 nent leaders of the French Protestants during 
 one of the most critical periods of their history. 
 Carefully educated, he was about to join the Prot- 
 estant army under Conde, in 15G7, when a fall 
 with his horse threw him on the sick-bed. In 
 1508 he started on a great tour through Europe, 
 visited Italy, Austria, Bohemia, Germany, the 
 Netherlands, and returned to Paris in June, 1572. 
 A pamphlet he wrote concerning the .Spanish 
 dominion in the Netherlands attracted the atten- 
 tion of the Prince of Orange ; another, concern- 
 ing the expediency for France to support the 
 Netherlands introduced him to Coligny. Only 
 with great difticnlty he escaped the massacre of 
 Aug. 24, 1572. He fled to England, and entered 
 upon an unsteady career of many yeai"s, spent 
 partly on the battle-field, partly at the writing- 
 desk, partly in diplomatioal negotiations. la
 
 DU PLESSIS-MORNAY. 
 
 676 
 
 DURAND. 
 
 1575 lie married ; and it is cliaracteristic of the 
 earnest piety of his -nife, that she desired her 
 husband to give her as a wedding-present a reli- 
 gious treatise ; and accordingly he wrote for her 
 his Difcours tie la vie el de la morl, Lausanne, 
 157(), Paris, 1580; translated into English, Lon- 
 don, 1576 : Latin. Francfort, 1585. Among his 
 writings from this time are Traitc de I't'glise (Lon- 
 don, 157S; translated into English, 1579; German, 
 1589; Italian, 1591; Latin, 1594), and Trciilc tie 
 la a-rilc de la rellyion chn'tienne (Paris, 15S2; 
 Leyden, 1583 ; Lyons, 1597, etc). Jleanwliile 
 he had made the acquaintance of Henry of Na- 
 varre, and the acquaintance soon grew into friend- 
 ship. He became Henry's most intinuite and most 
 trusted adviser ; and he fought for him and the 
 cause he represented in the battles, in the cabinets 
 of the Protestant princes, and in the literature : 
 Remonstrance u la France ; Dectarallon du rnij de 
 Navarre ; Declaration et protestation da roy de 
 Navarre, etc. After the assassination of the Duke 
 of Guise, and the revolt of the League, lie suc- 
 ceeded in bringing about a reconciliation between 
 Henry IIL and Henry of Xavarre, and his re- 
 ward was the governorship of Saumur, where at 
 last (1589) he was able to prepare a home for hini- 
 .self and his family. He made Saumur a strong 
 fortress, and he made it also the seat of a flour- 
 ishing Protestant academy. When Henry IV. 
 changed his faith in order to secure the crown of 
 France, the friendship between him and Du 
 Plessis-JIornay of course cooled off : but the lat- 
 ter continued to labor with unabated energy for 
 the Protestant cau.se, and contributed much both 
 to the internal organization of the party and 
 to the just enforcement of the edicts concerning 
 their social position. In 1598 he published De 
 rinstitution, usage et doctrine du saitit sacrament de 
 I'lCuchiristie : and the book made a great sensation. 
 It bc'canie, iieverthele.s,s, instrumental to a deep 
 humiliation for its author. Du Plessis-Mornay 
 had always had a weakness for religious disputa- 
 tion, and was more than willing to accept the 
 proposition for a great debate with Duperron at 
 Fontainebleau, in the i)re.sence of tlu^ king and 
 the court, Kidd. It becanu' evident, however, that 
 the disiuitation was simply a trap into which Du 
 Plessis-Mornay had been allured, and also that 
 the king was privy to the affair, for tlu; selection 
 of the judges by the king was unfair; and Du 
 Plessi.s-.Mornay was handed flu; list of the sup- 
 jiosed errors which he was to correct not sooner 
 than late in the night preceding the debate, .so 
 that he was compelled to work all night, and was 
 therefore jaded when the debate began ; yet he 
 acquitte<l himself very creditably. A number of 
 works of edification and the famous Le mijslcre 
 d'inifjuiti', an attack on the Papacv, belong to (he 
 last [lart of his life. In KiJl, wlien the religious 
 war broke out afresh, lie retired to his castle, 
 La Foret^-iur-Sfevre. 
 
 Lit. — The chief source for a description of liis 
 life is Mtmoires et mrrcs/jondancs de Du I'lrssls- 
 Mornatf, Paris, 18Jt s(iq., who.se lirst volume 
 contains (he Mi'moires ilc Madame de Mornni/ ; 
 David J>ictji:i:s : Ifistoire de la vie de T/i. d. .1/., 
 Leyden, 1017. [The following English transla- 
 tions of Moruay's works have appeared: A Nota- 
 ble Tnalise of the Church, London, 1570, ;!d ed., 
 ICOG; A Works concerning the Truncsse of tlte 
 
 Christian lieliyit/n (translation began by Sir Philip 
 Sidney), 4th ed., 1017 ; A Christian ami Goilhj 
 View of Life and Death, 1590 (another tran.slation 
 by the Countess of Pembroke, 1000); Fmcrc Books 
 of the Institution, Use, and Doctrine of the Holy 
 Sacrament of the Eucharist, 1000.] POLENZ. 
 
 DUPREAU, Gabriel, French theologian and 
 philologist: b. ;it ^larcoussis (He de France), 
 1511 ; d. at Pcronne, April 19, 15f^8. His Latin 
 name was Prateoliis. He was for many years a 
 professor in the College of France in Paris. His 
 principal work was De Vitiis, sectis, dogmalibus 
 onniijini harcficnnnn. Paris, 1509. 
 
 DURAND OF ST. POURCAIN (Durandus de 
 Sancto Porciano), the mo.st prominent representa- 
 tive of scholasticism in the fourteenth century ; 
 was b. towards the close of the thirteenth century 
 in the village of St. Poiir(,-ain, in the present de- 
 jiartment of Puy de Dome, and entered very early 
 the Dominican order at Clermont. After study- 
 ing in the ^lonasterv of St. Jacques, in Paris, 
 where (June 26, 1303) he signed the apfieal of 
 Philip the Fair to a general council, he taught 
 in the L'niversity of Paris as licenliatus et doctor, 
 and was by Clement V. called to Avignon as 
 Lector Curice et Magister .S. Palatii. John XXII. 
 made liim Bi.shop of Puy-eii-Velay, 1318, and in 
 1326 Bishop of Meaux, where he died Sept. 10, 
 1334. 
 
 Of his works a number still remain in manu- 
 script in the National Library in Paris : the most 
 important, however, have been printed. I. Com- 
 menturius in Lil/ros Sententiarum Lomhardi, which 
 Gerson recommended to his pupils as the best 
 work on the subject; printed in Paris, 1508; 
 Lyons, 1533 ; Venice, 1571, etc. II. Stattda 
 Sipwdi Aniciensis, over which synod he himself 
 presided (1320), edited by Gissey, Lyons, 1020. 
 
 III. De Orlgine Jurisdictionvm, etc., an argument 
 in the controversy between the French prelates 
 and Philip the Fair concerning the amenability 
 of the clergy to the civil courts, iirinteil, together 
 with other tracts to the same jmrpose, Paris, 1.500. 
 
 IV. Tractatus de statu animarum, etc., a polemical 
 tract against the view of Pope John XXIL, that 
 (he departed souls are not able to see God per 
 cssenliam, nor to feel perfectly happy until they 
 have re-assumed their bodies. 
 
 His surname Doctor resoluti.isimus he received 
 from the resoluteness ^vitll which he adopted and 
 followed the principle that there is no huniaii 
 authority above (he human rea,son ; th.at a man 
 who bends his reason before any human authority 
 degrades himself into a beast, etc. The first 
 consequence of this principle was an open split 
 between faith and knowledge, between theology 
 and philo.sophy. The .\nselniian ])roposition, 
 credo ut iiiteltigam ("I believe, that I nuiy know"), 
 and its complement, f/uaro Intrllii/ere ut criihim 
 (" I .seek to know, that I may believe "), he reject- 
 ed, though they form (he very foundation of 
 scholasticism. Theology and ]>hiloso]>hy have, 
 he said, nothing to ilo with each other. 'J'lie 
 question then arose. When it h;is only fjiitli for 
 its contents, is theology then a science'.' And he 
 boldly answered. No, thereby oiienly breaking oft' 
 from the Thomistic school, which delined theology 
 as the science of God. He made the object (or 
 subject, as he called it) of theology (o be man, 
 and declared the Scriptures i^erc fur practical
 
 DURAND. 
 
 677 
 
 DURY. 
 
 liel]i in attaining heaven by good works. Thus 
 lie completely inverted theology : man was the 
 centre around which theology turned. 
 
 In regard to the sacraments, he denied that 
 they had any inherent efficacy : they are merely i 
 divinely ordained conditions of grace. Hence the 
 benefit came not from the sacrament as such, but 
 directly from (jod. Nor do the sacraments confer 
 any spiritual quality upon the recijuent ; but he 
 <leclared, that, just as the stamp of the mint sets a 
 certain value upon a coin, so the sacraments set 
 the divine seal upon an existing relation between 
 God and man. He divided tlie sacraments into 
 two classes : those strictly such, and those such 
 only in a wider sense. Among the latter he puts 
 marriage. He disputed the current scholastic 
 teaching resjiecting trtinstihslannation, which lie 
 declared to be un.scriptural and unintelligible, 
 and preferred to say •traiisj'ormalion, since the 
 material of the bread changed its form, and took 
 on that of the Body of Clirist. By these views 
 he prepared the way for the reformers of the six- 
 tee:ith century. See reviews of his ideas in the 
 liistories of philosophy by Stockl, I'ebkrwko, 
 Haure.vu, Pkantl, and J. Lauxoy : S>/llalms 
 ratidiiuiii, etc. (a defence of Duraiid), in Opera, 
 vol. I. ]iars 1, Geneva, 16:5(i. wagenmann. 
 
 DURAND, Guillaume, suruamed Speculator ; b. 
 at Puimoisson, in Pnjveuce, about 1230; d. in 
 Home, 129G; taught canon law at Modena; was 
 by Gregory X. sent as legate to the Council of 
 Lyons (1274), and wrote Rationale ilirinorum 
 officiormii, Mayence, 1453, of which the first part. 
 The Si/mhotixin of Churches and Church Ornaments, 
 has been translated into English by J. M. Jveale 
 and B. Webb, Leeds, 1843 ; Speculum Juris, Rome, 
 1474 (whence his surname); besides several other 
 juridical works. 
 
 DURBIN, John Price, D.D,, b. in Bourbon 
 County, Kentucky, 1800; d. Oct. 17, 1876. From 
 1834 to 1845 he was president of Dickinson Col- 
 lege. He was a most eloquent preacher, and an 
 efficient secretary of the Missionary Society in 
 the Methodist-Episcopal Church from 1850 to 
 1872. He wrote Obsercatiuns in Europe, N.Y., 
 1844, 2 vols., and Oliseroations in E(/i/pt, Palestine, 
 S;/ria, and Asia Minor, N.Y., 1845, 2 vols. 
 
 DURY, John (Durie, Durye, Duraeus), is gener- 
 ally supposed to have been born in Scotland, 
 altliough Whitlock, in his Memorials, represents 
 that he was of German birth. Possibly he was 
 born of Scotch parents settled in Germany. At 
 all events, he is first known as minister of the 
 English company of merchants at Elbing in 
 Prussia, whence in 1628 he addressed a letter to 
 Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, "for tlie 
 obtaining of aid and assistance in this seasonable 
 time, to seek for and re-establish an ecclesiastical 
 peace among the evangelical churches." This 
 was the beginning of his life-work as the great 
 peacemaker of his century. He received encour- 
 agement from the pastors of Danzig, and went to 
 England with favorable letters from them in 
 1630, and succeeded in enlisting Sir Thomas 
 Kowe, the Archbishop of Canterbury, and the 
 Bishop of London, in his cau.se. In 1631 he re- 
 turned to the Continent, and received letters of 
 commendation from the king of Sweden, and 
 prosecuted his work among divines in Hesse, 
 Hanau, and the Palatinate, and especially before 
 
 the meeting of the Protestant States at Heilbronn 
 and Frankfort, and corrosjionded with the chief 
 universities of (lermany and Holland. In 1633 
 he again went to Kngland, and conferred with 
 Archbishop Laud, and received declarations from 
 Bishops !^l()l■toIl, Hall, and Davenant, which he 
 published in 1634, in connection with a treati.se, 
 Sententia- de P(U'is rationilius inter Krani/elicos (also 
 apart in 1638, and in English in 1641). He 
 returned to the Continent to the meeting of the 
 Protestant States at Frankfort, which ]ias.sed a 
 resolution that they "ilid judge his work mo.st 
 laudable, most acceptable to (iod, and most neces- 
 sary and useful to the Church." Once more re- 
 turning to England, he received encouragement 
 from King Charles I., and went with commen- 
 dations to the Continent, visiting the States of 
 Holland, the various classes, synods, and universi- 
 ties, passing then into Germany, and through Swe- 
 den and Denmark, everywhere winning friends 
 to his cause (from 1635 to 1640). Among these, 
 Calixtus of Helmstadt was most energetic. In 
 1639 he presented to Sir Thomas Kowe a Sum- 
 mar;/ Discourse concerning the work of Peace 
 Ecclesiastical (published 1641). He passed over 
 into Phigland in 1641, and jire.sented a petition to 
 the House of Commons, urging " that the blessed 
 and long-sought4'or union of Protestant churclies 
 may be recommended unto the publick prayers 
 of the church," and " that his majesty with your 
 honour's advice and counsell, might be moved to 
 call a general synod of Protestants in due time, 
 for tlie better settling of weighty matters in the 
 church which now troidile not only the con- 
 sciences of most men, but disturb the tranquillity 
 of publick states, and divide the churches one 
 from another, to the great hindrance of Chris- 
 tianity and the dishonour of Religion." He also 
 issued a Memorial concerning Peace Ecclesiastical, 
 in 1641, addres.sed "To the King of England and 
 the Pastors and elders of the Kirk of Scotland 
 meeting at St. Andrews." .Soon after, he ac- 
 cepted the position of chaplain to the princess 
 royal of England at the Hague, and then became 
 pastor of the English Church at Rotterdam. The 
 commencement of the civil wars in England dis- 
 turbed all his plans. But he did not weary in 
 his efforts. He became a member of tlie A\'est- 
 minster Assembly of Divines, and was diligent 
 in his labors for peace. He took part in the dis- 
 cussion with the Independents, publishing in 
 1644 Aji Epistolary Discourse, discussing how 
 far and vitli what limitations Independents 
 should be tolerated. In 1647 he issued A model 
 of Church Gorernment. In 1649, by the recom- 
 mendation of Parliament, lie became the Libra- 
 rian of St. .Tames, under the supervision of \\'hit- 
 lock, and issued in 1650 The Reformed Lihrari/ 
 Keeper, and other kindred publications. He pro- 
 tested and labored against the execution of the 
 king, and with the Presbyterians, although with 
 an irenic spirit. He thus brought on himself 
 the ridicule of Prynne, who calls him "the time- 
 serving Proteus, and ambidexter divine." In 
 reply he published in 1650 a tract, in which he 
 vindicates himself as "the unchanged, constant, 
 and single-hearted peacemaker." Under the Com- 
 monwealth he persevered in his irenic efforts, 
 assembling the Presbyterian and Congregational 
 ministers of Loudon on several occasions, "to
 
 DUTOIT. 
 
 678 
 
 DWIGHT. 
 
 compare their own differences, and join with nie 
 in the design of my negotiations towards the 
 churches." A declaration was penned, and sulv 
 scribed by the heads of the universities and tlie 
 ministers" of London, both Congregational and 
 Presbyterian, authorizing him to advocate that 
 business among the churches in their name ; and, 
 securing the support of Cromwell, he journeyed 
 to the Swiss churches for the pwpose. He issued 
 in 1654 An earnest plea fw gospel Comviunion, 
 and also A summarie Platform of the heads of a 
 body of' Practicall Divinity. 
 
 He renewed his efforts at the Restoration 
 through Lord Chancellor Hide and the Earl of 
 Manchester, but in vain, and left England to 
 spend the rest of his life on the Continent. In 
 166'2 he issued in Amsterdam his Irenicormn 
 Traclatuum Frodromus, and continued to work in 
 a more quiet way until an advanced age. In 
 1674 he issued at Frankfort Maniere d'expliijuer 
 r Apocalypse par elle meme, etc., and seems to have 
 died soon after at Hesse, where he enjoyed the 
 protection and support of the Princess Sopliia. 
 For furtlier information we refer to A hrief Rela- 
 tion of that which hath been lately attempted to pro- 
 cure Eccl. Peace among Protestants, by Samuel 
 Ilartlib, Lond., 1641 ; A declaration of John Durie, 
 Lond., 1660; Reid's Alemoirs of Westtninster Di- 
 vines, Paisley, 1811 ; and Clialmer's Biographical 
 Dicliiinury. ' C. A. BRIGGS. 
 
 DUTCH. See Holland; Reformed Chui!C1i. 
 
 DUTIES, Conflict of, is a misnomer, strictly 
 speaking ; for duty is always the one thing to bo 
 done : lience there cannot be several duties which 
 clasli. But the phrase as used leally means that 
 one is in doubt what to do, or that tlie conflict 
 is between duty and inclination : as soon as duty 
 is obeyed, the conflict ceases. The supposed col- i 
 lision of duties occupied large space in books of 
 casuistry ; but the plirase .should vani.sli, as the 
 thing it expresses is iniaginarv. 
 
 DUTOIT, or DUTOlf-MEMBRINI, Jean Phi- 
 lippe, b. at Moudon, in the canton of Vaud, I'L'l ; 
 d. at l.ausiume, Jan. "Jl, 1703; has interest botli 
 as a local revivalist of considerable power, and as 
 a representative of mysticism within tlie pale of 
 the French Reformed Clnnch. He studied the- 
 olog\' at Lausanne, and became (in 1750) ac- 
 quainted witli the works of Madame Guyon, 
 which made a great imjiression njion him. To 
 him Madame rhiyon is a dicrub, a seraph, etc. ; 
 and licr works are sacred liooks, divine writings, 
 inspired by the Holy Spirit, the divine logos. 
 Nevertheless, the practical tendencies of his Prot- 
 estant and biblical stand-point preserved him 
 from the extreujes of (juieti.sni. Though he 
 never oceiipieil any official position in the church, 
 he was a, frefiuent and very succes.sful preacher. 
 He actually drove Voltaire out of Lausanne. 
 After 1750 lie ceased to )>reacli, on account of ill 
 health ; and a circle of friends then began to 
 form around him, and spread his infhuMice among 
 the nias.ses, not without some cliicaneries from 
 tlir' friends of Voltaire, but without any .serious 
 imi>ediment. His two principal works are Phi- 
 losophic ilivinc (17!)3, ;! vols.) and Philosophic 
 chre'liiiinc (1800-19, 4 vols). He also jiuhlished a 
 new edition of the Letters of Miidawc (Juyon, aug- 
 mented with (he Corrrspondnnce secrete ilc M. 
 dt Ftnelon avcc I'auleur, London. 1767. 5 vols. 
 
 See Jules Chavanxes : Jean Philippe Dutoit. 
 Lausanne, 1865. ItERZOG. 
 
 DUTY. See Kthrs. 
 
 DUVEIL, Charles Maria, b. at Metz, Lorraine; 
 d. in London about 1700. He was born a Jew. 
 and educated in that faith : but study led him 
 successively to enter the Roman-Catholic, the 
 Episcopal, and the Baptist churches. His woiks 
 embrace a Literal Exposition of the Canticles (Lon- 
 don, 1079, in Latin), and (in English) Literal 
 Exposition of the Minor Prophets (London, 1680). 
 A Literal Exjilanation of the Acts of the Apostles 
 (London, 16f^5, new ed.. London, 1851). 
 
 DUVERCIER, DE HAURANNE, Jean, generally 
 known under the name of St. Cyran, was b. at 
 Bayonne, 1581, and d. in Paris Oct. 11, 1643. 
 While he studied at Louvain, lie Viecame ac- 
 quainted with Jansen ; and jierl'ectly agreeing in 
 their contempt of schola^tici.sni, and enthusiasm 
 for the fathers, especially Augustine, they spent 
 several years together at Bayonne (1611-10), and 
 afterwards maintained an intimate correspondence 
 through life. In 1620 Duvergier was made abboti 
 of the Monastery of St. Cyran. at Brenne, in 
 Poitou ; but the severity of his reforms, and his 
 violence in introducing them, caused such an 
 opposition that he left his abbey, and settled in 
 Paris. Having been ajipointed court-preacher 
 and confessor to Henrietta of France (married to 
 Charles 1. of England), he undertook to re-organize 
 the Roman-Catholic Church in England after the 
 model of the Gallican Chnrcli, and wrote a work 
 upon the subject (Petrii Aunlii Theologi opera), 
 which ■nas accepted by the general convocation 
 of the French clergy, luit which brought him into 
 strife with the .lesuits. In 103.") he was made 
 confessor and director of the Abbey of Port Royal; 
 and tlie reforms he succeeded in introducing tliere 
 form the great work of his life. But the jealousy 
 and hatred of the Jesuits, once aroused, continued 
 to pursue him; and in 1638, .a few days after the 
 death of .lanseii, he was arrested by order of 
 Richelieu, and kept imprisoned at A'incennes 
 until the death of the cardinal, Feb. 0, 1643. 
 One of his principal works is his Sommc des failles, 
 written in 10"J5 against the .Jesuit (iarasse. See 
 Saintk-15]-.ivk. : Ilislolre de Port-Royal, Paris, 
 184(Mi(l. 
 
 DWIGHT, Timothy, an eminent American 
 teacher, preacher, and theologian ; b. at North- 
 ampton, .Mass., j\Iay 14, 17.')"-'; d. at \ew Ilaven, 
 .Ian. 11, 1817. His mother was a daughter of 
 .Jonathan Edwards. Dwight was graduated at 
 Vale College in 170!), where lie was a tutor from 
 1771 to 1777. For more than a year he was 
 a chaplain in the army of the Revolution. From 
 1783 to I7fl5 he was at the head of an academy 
 in (ireenfield. Conn. From 1795 to his death he 
 was president of Yale College, where he acquired 
 a very high reputation as an instructor and al.so 
 as a preacher. His sermons in the college chajiel 
 constituted a .^iy.stem of divinity, and were i>ul>- 
 lislied, with a jn'ef-atory memoir, in 1818, under 
 the title of Theology Ex/ilained and Difcndcd. 
 This work attained to great i>opularity, not only 
 in this country, but al.so in Great Britain. It 
 taught a moderate Calvinism, with an avoidance 
 of extreme statements, but in general consonance 
 with the Fdwardean or Xew -England theology. 
 Its freedom from metapliysical refinements, and
 
 DWIGHT. 
 
 679 
 
 DWIGHT. 
 
 the warmth of Christian fet'liiifr pervading it, con- 
 tribwted to its wiilo diffusion. President Dwiglit, 
 in tlie earlier part of his life, published two ex- 
 tended poems, — 77ie Conquest of Canaan (178.')) 
 and Greenfield Hill (1701). These are not read 
 at the present day; but liis hymn, "I love thy 
 kingdom. Lord," is used wherever the English 
 language is spoken. Other writings of Dr. Dwight 
 are Travels in New England (1S22, 4 vols.), Ser- 
 mons on. Miscellaneous Suhjecls (1828, 2 vols.), 
 besides minor publications. The fame of Dr. 
 Dwight in his own time was due in no small 
 degree to his conversational powers, his impres- 
 sive eloquence as a preacher, and his uncommon 
 influence as an instructor of youth. (.Sprague's 
 Annals of the American Pulpit, Sprague's Life 
 of Dwight, and Memoir prefixed to his System of 
 Theology.) Q. P. FISUEB. 
 
 DWIGHT, Sereno Edwards, son of the preced- 
 ing, li. at drceiifield, Conn., May 18, 178(1; <\. at 
 riuladel])!iia, Nov. 30, 1850. lie was graduated 
 at Yale College, 1803; tutor there 1S0(J-10, and 
 a lawyer lSlO-1."). In 1810 he entered the min- 
 istry; 1817-26 was pastor of the Park-street 
 church, Boston, resigned on account of health; 
 1828-31 taught in New Haven; 1833-3.'5 was 
 president of Hamilton College, Xew York. "He 
 was an able preaclier, a good writer, and a capti- 
 vating teacher." His most cekdirated work was 
 T)ie llehreiv Wife (an essay on the lawfulness of 
 marriage with a deceased wife's sister), 183<J. 
 He also wrote a life of his great-grandfatlier, 
 Jonathan Edwards, prefaced to his edition of 
 Edwards's works in 10 vols., N.\'., 1830. See 
 Memoir by his brother, Rev. Dr. W. T. Dwight, 
 in a volume of Select Discourses, 1851.
 
 THE DIDACHE. 
 
 The new articles in the supplementary volume xvii. of the rovioed edition of Hcrzog, which appeared November, 1886, havo 
 been anticipated partly in the third volume of this Encyclopedia, partly in the Dklimiari/ of Contemporary Divinet (Abbott, 
 Dorner, Lange, etc.), except the following article of Dr. Hariiack, on the newly discovered htdachr., which hafl also appeared 
 as a separate pamphlet under the title : Die ApoKtellehre uud die Jiidisr/ien beiden Wege, Leipzig, 1886. It ought to be In- 
 serted ou p. Go", but for convenience' salie is placed at the end of the volume. 
 
 DIDACHE, or The Teaching of the Apostles, 
 
 a document discovered by Bryennios, in the Jeru- 
 salem Convent at Constantinople, in the year 1873, 
 but not published until the close of 1883. It 
 then appeared with his prolegomena and notes, 
 and at once awakened extraordinary and well- 
 grounded interest in all parts of Christendom, so 
 that in two years the number of works upon it, 
 including editions, translations, essays, and long- 
 er and shorter articles, constituted a special liter- 
 ature of about two hundred numbers. It is 
 indeed of the greatest importance for the earliest 
 church history. 
 
 1. Contents and Arranrjement. — It is in two, or 
 perhaps rather three, parts, of which the first con- 
 tains the laws of Christian morality, and brief 
 instrtictions in the specific eccle.siastical acts 
 which gave Christian character to the Church 
 (chaps. 1-10) ; the second, directions for churchly 
 intercourse and life (chaps. 11-15); while the 
 closing chapter (chap. 16) is an exhortation to 
 be ready for the coming of the Lord. The first 
 part, again, contains, in close connection (1) in 
 chaps. l-(i, under the form of a description of 
 the " Two Ways," the way of life and the way of 
 death, the laws of Christian morality ; while (2) 
 in chap. 7, Baptism ; (3) in chap. 8, fasting and 
 daily prayer; and (4) in chaps. 9, 10, the eucha- 
 ristic prayers, are treated. In regard to specific 
 points : Baptism should be preceded by fasting ; 
 the Lord's Prayer should be said three times every 
 day ; the Lord's Supper .should be partaken of 
 only by the baptized; and the " Prophets" were at 
 liberty to use, instead of the Eucharistic prayers 
 given, such thanksgivings as they would. The 
 second part lays down rules for the treatment of 
 the teachers of the Divine Word and the peripa- 
 tetic brethren, and gives distinguishing tests of 
 
 • their character, and also the ordinances each con- 
 gregation should observe. 
 
 2. Title, Address, and Purport. — Originally the 
 title was, " The Teaching of the Lord, through 
 the Twelve Apostles, to the Nations ; " but this 
 was shortened to " The Teaching of the Twelve 
 Apostles," and the Twelve were considered the 
 authors. (See the facsimile of the heading and the 
 first line, in Schaff's edition, p. -1.) By "the na- 
 tions " are meant the Christians who have come 
 from heathenism, just as the epistle "to the He- 
 brews " is addressed to the Christians who have 
 come from Judaism . The document, consequently, 
 is not addressed to catechumens, — for it is cer- 
 tainly not at all adapted to lead persons to Chris- 
 tianity, — but to those already Christian, who 
 might learn from it how they should conduct 
 their lives upon gospel principles, and what they 
 were to impress on the newly won brethren. 
 
 6376 
 
 3. Transmission in the Manuscript, and Integrity. — 
 The present text has comparatively few errors, 
 yet the appearance of the document in later re- 
 censions has raised suspicions whether it is so 
 free from interpolations as it seems to be. 
 
 4. Language and Vocabulary. — Its idiom is Hel- 
 lenistic, more exactly the idiom of the .Septuagint 
 in the poetical books, and that of the Old-Testa- 
 ment Apocrypha. There are numerous Hebraisms, 
 but the Greek is better than that of Hennas. The 
 style is simple, popular, and concise. The docu- 
 ment contains 2,190 words (about 10,700 letters), 
 552 different words. Of these, 504 are foimd also 
 in the New Testament; 38 of the remaining 48, in 
 the Septuagint, Barnabas, or other older Greek 
 writers. 
 
 5. Sources. — There is no known primitive 
 Christian writing which, so original in disposition 
 and form, is so dependent upon older writings. 
 But the author avows his dependence, for he seeks 
 merely to set forth the teaching of the Lord 
 through the twelve apostles, and finds no room 
 for his own ideas. There are eight expre.ss quota- 
 tions : two (14: 3; 16 : 7) from the Old Testament, 
 five (8:2; 9:5; 11:3; 15: 3, 4) from the Gospel, 
 and one (1:6) from some Sacred Scripture to us 
 unknown. The Old Testament is, moreover, fre- 
 quently drawn upon in the first five chapters, not 
 only the Decalogue but the Old-Testament Wisdom 
 literature (Proverbs, Sirach, Tobit, etc.). The 
 Old Testament alone is " Sacred Scripture : " of a 
 New-Testament Canon there is no trace. Yet the 
 author does not merely in the five cited places 
 draw from the written Gospel : he weaves into his 
 writing throughout references and longerorshorter 
 citations, twenty-three in all, from what he calls 
 "the Gospel," and which he presupposes his readers 
 know. Seventeen of the twenty-three citations are 
 from Matthew; but it must not be therefrom con- 
 cluded that " the Gospel " is simply Matthew, for 
 other citations are plainly combinations of the 
 text of Matthew and Luke, — text-combinations 
 strikingly like the text of Tatian's Diatessaron. 
 In the citations there is no trace of John's Gospel ; 
 but the Eucharistic service is conceived on the 
 lines of John 6th, without, however, directly bor- 
 rowing any thing from that chapter or the 17th. 
 The Pauline Epistles are not cited, or anywhere 
 plainly u.sed ; yet traces of their acquaintance are 
 possible. More important are certain resem- 
 blances to Jude and 2 Peter. There is no trace 
 of any acquaintance with the Pastoral Epistles. 
 The much-disputed question, as to the relation 
 of the " Teaching " to the Epistle of Barnabas and 
 the Shepherd of Hermas, is to be thus answered : 
 It is in the highest degree probable that Barnabas 
 is prior to the "Teaching," for these reasons:
 
 THE DIDACHfi. 
 
 .chaps. 1:1, 2; 2:2-7; 3:7-6:2, of the "Teach- 
 ing" agree substantially, if not verbally, with 
 Barnabas lS-20; but the order of the phrases is 
 different, and while that in Barnabas is confused 
 tliat in the " Teaching " is clear. In the descrip- 
 tion of the " Two Ways," the " Teaching " offers 
 further (1) in chap. 1 :2-5, a series of evangelical 
 sayings ; (2) in 1 : 6, a fragment from an un- 
 known older writing ; (3) in 3 : 1-G, a section imi- 
 tated from the Old-Testament Wisdom literature ; 
 (4) in 2 : 2, 3, 5, 6 ; 3 : 8 ; 4 : 2, 8, 14, a series of 
 larger or smaller additions to the sections com- 
 mon to it and Barnabas. Barnabas, on the other 
 hand, offers in the chapters in question only a 
 couple of phrases (chap. 19:2, 3, 8), an unintel- 
 ligible sentence (chap. 19:4), and some words, 
 more than that given in the " Teaching." Now, 
 when, of two writers, A brings material called say 
 Hi, but C brings m -f- n, it cannot be decided apriori, 
 who is the surety for the other, since omissions 
 are as possible as additions ; but when C expressly 
 calls his writing a compilation, and further states 
 that it has been borrowed, then it is impossible 
 to consider the writing of A as an extract from C. 
 Further, chap. 16 of the " Teaching " is in verses 
 1 and 3-8, confessedly a mere compilation of 
 evangelical passages and Zech. 14:5, together 
 with a tradition of the Antichrist. But verse 2 
 does not come thence, but has in Barnabas 4 : 10, 9, 
 an almost verbally exact parallel. Now, were Bar- 
 nabas later, he surely would have appropriated the 
 only verse in this passage of the "Teaching" which 
 is peculiar. Is it credible that he would not? 
 Hence it is alone probable, that, since all the other 
 verses of chap. 16 are borrowed, this verse (16:2) 
 is also borrowed. Further (and this appears to 
 me to be stUl more decisive of the priority of Bar- 
 nabas), the author of Barnabas is of the con- 
 viction that the last times have already come 
 (chap. 4:3, 9) : the author of the " Teaching," 
 on the other hand, is not of this opinion. For 
 the foregoing reasons, the judgment must be, that 
 the " Teaching " as it now is given in the Con- 
 stantinopolitaii MS. is secondary to Barnabas, 
 and is either dependent upon it, or from materials 
 already used by Barnabas ; and the possibility is 
 excluded that Barnabas copied from the " Teach- 
 ing " as we have it in tlie Constantinopolitan MS. 
 The relation between the " Teaching " and Her- 
 mas is more uncertain. There are only two par- 
 allels, Teacli. 1:5, cf. Maud. ii. 4-6, and the very 
 doubtful one Teach. 5, cf. Mand. viii. 3-5. That 
 the " Teaching " had Hernias as source, may not 
 be safely affirmed, in view of the variations in 
 these passages in different recensions; but the 
 opposite is certainly excluded. Lately, American, 
 Englisli, and French scholars have Wrought for- 
 ward numerous parallels to cliaps. 1-5 from Pliilo, 
 Pseudo-Phokylides, the Sibylline books, and of 
 especial value from the Talmud and Midrash. 
 If, from these chapters, chap. 1 : 3-6 be omitted, 
 tlien the remainder has alrao.st nothing specifically 
 Christian about it, and the little it lias can be 
 shown by the n.se of other original doeuments to 
 lie additions. Therefore it is an extremely prolia- 
 lile conjecture, that the "Two Ways " is a Jewisli 
 production, intended for proselyti^s, derived from 
 tlie Decalogue and an amplification of its com- 
 mands, whicli along with tlic Old Testami'nt has 
 come over into the Christian Church. 
 
 6. Author's Standpoint. — This much-discussed 
 point is commonly decided by saying that it was 
 Jewish Christian, in the sense that its author be- 
 longs to a circle detached from the Gentile Chris- 
 tians, and attached in some way to the Jews as a 
 nation. But the idea is false and misleading. 
 The facts are these : (1) The author maintains com- 
 plete silence upon circumcision and all the other 
 Jewish rites ; (2) he calls the Jews, in the two 
 places where he mentions them, " hypocrites," and 
 warns against fasting on the same day with them ; 
 (3) not a word is said of observing the Mosaic 
 law, nor is preference shown to any nation in 
 Christendom; (4) in the long eschatological sec- 
 tion (chap. 16), taken from Matthew, the passages 
 referring to Jerusalem, the Jewish people, and the 
 temple are wanting, nor is there any mention of 
 a glorious kingdom in Palestine, although the 
 author presupposes a visible kingdom of Christ, as 
 his belief in a double resurrection proves; (5) 
 Matthew and Luke, or a recension of them, and 
 not the Gospel to tlie Hebrews, are used, perhaps 
 also the Pauline Epistles ; (6) Jesus is not called 
 the Son, but the God, of David ; (7) the " Teach- 
 ing" passed over into the use of the Catholic 
 Church. 
 
 The arguments of Schaff for the Jewish-Chris- 
 tian but not anti- Pauline character of the "Teach- 
 ing," with our answers to them, are these : (1) 
 Only the Twelve, but not the Apostle Paul, are 
 named. — But in this respect the author's usage is 
 similar to that of many undoubtedly Gentile Chris- 
 tian writers, before the close of the New-Testa- 
 ment Canon. (2) Tlie style and phraseology are 
 Hebraistic. — But that is not remarkable in view 
 of the Jewish origin of Christianity, and the use of 
 the Old Testament. (3) The author calls the 
 prophets "high priests." — But this was the rule 
 among the Gentile Christians. (4) He demands 
 the first fruits for the prophets. — So did Paul, the 
 Gentile Christian Church of the earliest times, 
 and especially after Justin's day. (5) He warns 
 against fasting with the Jews on Monday and 
 Thursday, enjoins fasts on Wednesday and Fri- 
 day, and names Friday TapaoKnti, and uses Jewish 
 divisions of times. — But even if tlie author had 
 set the fasts upon the Jewish fast-days, this would 
 have been no sign of Jewish Christendom, any 
 more than the practice of the Quartodecimanians 
 was : the consideration of the week in a religious 
 sense explains the use of the Jewish names for 
 the days, and he is entirely silent respecting the 
 sabbatli. (6) The injunction thrice daily to re- 
 peat the Lord's Prayer is plainly adapted from 
 Jewisli custom. — But besides what has been said 
 under (5), it should be remarked, that we do not 
 know exactly what hours for prayer were in the 
 author's mind, and that, even if he had enjoined 
 the Jewish hours, that would not have been specifi- 
 cally .Jewish Christian. (7) The author conceives 
 of Christianity substantially as the highest moral- 
 ity: he is a moralist in (lie better sense of the 
 word, like James and .Matthew; to (he former, 
 indeed, he is spiritually allied, and almost entirely 
 ignores the atoning dc^atli of Christ and the mys- 
 teries of the faith. — To answer this argument 
 would t;ike too much space; cf. Harnack's Dog- 
 7m'>i(/e.schichle, 1 : 61 sij(i., 101) sqi]., 21 5 scjcp (8) The 
 author does not attack the Jowisli religion. — But 
 Ihen he attacks nobody. (9) He not only lays
 
 THE DIDACIIfi. 
 
 stress upon the (Jewish Christian) prohibition of 
 meat offered to idols, but acts fortii the oliservance 
 of the Jewisli laws respectiiifir food as the suniuiit 
 of Christian perfection, althouEfh not then indis- 
 pensable. — To forbid meat offered to idols was 
 universal in Christian churches in the empire, 
 after the first centui'y : cf. Keim, Aus dem Urchris- 
 Iptilhuin, pp. 88 sqq. ; and, as for the second point, 
 no one ever made such a claim, for by " food," in 
 chap G : 3, is most certainly meant, not the Jewish 
 but the ascetic regulations, as Schiirer, the high- 
 est authority upon Jewish ordinances, maintains. 
 The standpoint of the author of the " Teaching " 
 is that of ordinary Gentile Christianity. 
 
 7. Time and Place of Composition. — Internal 
 evidence cannot decide the time, because the 
 " Teaching " is avowedly a compilation, and some 
 of its sources are very old. External evidence 
 proves that it nmst be before 105 A.D., for 
 Clemens Alexandrinus quotes it as " Scripture." 
 A number of negative facts taken tor/ether show 
 that it is earlier than ICO A.D., for it shows no 
 traces of the following : (1) a New-Testament 
 Canon, or of the authority of the Pauline Epistles ; 
 
 (2) a regula fidei a,\\A regular dogmatic instruction ; 
 
 (3) a monarclucal episcopate : there are only bishops 
 and deacons, and the first rijte in tlie congregation 
 is given not to them, but to the prophets and 
 teachers; (4) an ordered church service, like that 
 to which Justin testifies ; (5) a regular adminis- 
 trator of baptism, while it gives the congregation 
 authority to depose bishops and deacons, etc. ; 
 
 (6) symbolical ceremonies accompanying baptism ; 
 
 (7) a yearly Easter festival ; (8) prohibition of 
 blood and things strangled ; (9) tithe ordinances ; 
 (10) excommunication ; (11) Alontanism, and (12) 
 the characterization of heretics; (13) any refer- 
 ence to the church as in the midst of a heathen 
 and hostile world. Other marks seem to fit it 
 better in the time between A.D. SO and 120 than 
 between A.D. 120-160; e.g., its treatment of 
 apostles, prophets, and teachers. But we must 
 guard against giving definite dates to documents 
 of primitive Christianity, for we do not at all 
 know the steps of the development of the old 
 Christianity in the empire to Catholic Chris- 
 tianity in regard to most of the provinces, and in 
 regard to none fully ; while we liave good grounds 
 for believing, that in many provinces primitive 
 customs long maintained their sway, and were 
 done away at last by a stroke. 
 
 Having set the limits for the " Teaching " be- 
 tween A.D. 70 and 165, we ask. Is there any thing 
 to prove that it must have been written after some 
 Christian generations had passed? With the 
 greatest probability in our favor we say, Yes, these 
 facts ; (1) Apostles and prophets no longer occupy 
 their primitive position, hence the strongest con- 
 servative measures are enjoined ; (2) the respect 
 for the prophets is declining, hence the exorbi- 
 tant demands on the church and the violent 
 threats; (3) the mistrust of the "old prophets," 
 who belong to a past generation, — these are not 
 the Old-Testament but older Christian prophets ; 
 
 (4) the present text shows in the " Two Ways " 
 of chap. 1 certain lowerings of evangelical de- 
 mauds, and in the appendix to the same, in chap, 
 ti, a contra.st between a higher and a lower Chris- 
 tian morality ; (5) the injunction of the first fruits, 
 fixed prayers, and of fasts, which in Gentile Chris- 
 
 tian lands is the indication of a later time, and 
 the beginning of a development which afterwards 
 assumed larger dimensions; (6) the remark of the 
 autlior that bi.shops and deacons " minister to you 
 the ministry of the prophets and teachers : there- 
 fore despise them not, for they are those that are 
 the honored among you with tiie prophets and 
 teachers" (chap. 15 : 1, 2), cannot apply to the prim- 
 itive state of things ; (7) the regulation of fasting 
 before baptism, and permission to pour; (8) the 
 escluitological closing section has not (he glow 
 which the prayers copied have, and lacks the 
 description of the glorious kingdom of Christ 
 upon the earth. These observations aie strength- 
 ened by noticing the author's u.se of our Matthew 
 and perhaps our Luke, and in a comparatively 
 late form too ; and the relation of the " Teaching " 
 to Barnabas, which cannot, liowever, be more 
 exactly dated than between A.D. 96-125. All 
 these considerations show that the writing cannot 
 be set earlier than A.D. 120 with certainty, or ear- 
 lier than A.D. 100 with any probability, but that 
 the probable limits are A.D. 120 and 165, and in 
 this space the earlier dates are in most cases freer 
 from difficulty than the later. 
 
 The place of composition was probably Egypt, 
 as its external history, the source, and various in- 
 dications (e.g., the omission of (iaaAtia in the 
 doxology to the Lord's Prayer, which is also lack- 
 ing in the Sahidic version of Matthew, — also, it is 
 true, in Gregory of Nyssa), — seem to prove. 'I'he 
 arguments for Syria, derived from mention of the 
 bread "upon the hills" (chap. 9:4), and from 
 the adoption of the " Teaching " into the " Apo.s- 
 tolical Constitutions," are not decisive; for the 
 mention occurs in a prayer most probably copied 
 by the author, and the Syrian forger had the 
 library of Eusebius at his command. 
 
 8. Histoi'i/ in the Cliiuc/i. Jtecensions. — The first 
 part, called "The Two Ways," wasof Jewi.sh ori- 
 gin, and was a catechism for the n.se of proselytes; 
 but passed over into the Christian Church, and was 
 used as an address at baptism. The author of 
 the Epistle of Barnabas incorporated this writing 
 into his. Another unknown Christian described 
 this Jewish instruction-book as the " Teaching of 
 the Apostles," and added chaps. 7-) 6. This edi- 
 tion is now lost. The present one, the Didaclic 
 of the Constantinopolitan MS., has inserted, in 
 order to give evangelical coloring to the Jewish 
 original, chap. 1:3-2:1. The following table 
 brings out the genesis of the " Teaching: " — 
 
 THE JEWISH "TWO WAYS." 
 
 (IN VARIOfS FORMS.) ,( 
 
 I ■' 
 
 Barnabas. 
 
 The first rcce iiBtoa of the 
 '' Teaching of the Apostles." 
 
 The Latin 
 Tersiou. 
 
 The Apostolical 
 CaDona. 
 
 The Be cond 
 
 recen sioH 
 
 of the 
 
 " Teac hini: 
 
 of • 
 
 Apos t 
 
 the 
 
 ties." 
 
 The Apostolical 
 
 ConstitutiOQS, 
 
 CVII. 
 
 The Witnesses. — Before Clemens Alexandrinus 
 no use of the "Teaching" can be proved. Ou 
 the other hand, Clemens employs it in several
 
 THE DIDACHfi. 
 
 places, and in one (Strom. 1 : 100) actually calls 
 it [holy] "Scripture." Evidences of its use have 
 been found in Origen, who also called it "Holy 
 Scripture." This accounts for Eusebius' enumer- 
 ation of it among the avn^sydixcva-mda. It is also 
 reproduced in part in the Syntagma doctrina and 
 iu the Fides Niccena, attributed to Athanasius. 
 It was probably worked up in the "Apostolical 
 Canons," and surely in the " Apostolical Consti- 
 tutions," and in "the false Ignatian Epistles. 
 Athanasius in his thirty-ninth Jubilee Epistle — 
 written in A.D. 387 — mentions it, as does Ni- 
 cephorus in his "Stichometry." In the Occi- 
 dental Church there is no mention before Cyprian. 
 It is, however, cited in the pseudo - Cyprian 
 writing, " De aleatoribus " of the third century, 
 in the " Exhortatio S. Bonifacii Episcopi de 
 Abrenuntiatione in Baptismate ; " in Lactantius, 
 and in Rufinus' translation of Eusebius' Church 
 History. 
 
 9. Importance. — From chap. 7 to the end it is 
 a source of the first rank for the points it covers, 
 — Baptism, Fasts, Prayers, the Eucharist, Apos- 
 tles, Prophets, Teachers, Sunday, the Episcopate 
 and Diaconate. But its greatest importauce lies 
 in the fact that it enables us so much better to 
 understand the organization of the earliest Chris- 
 tian churches, where the interest of early Chris- 
 tianity lay, and how it became the heir of Judaism 
 in literary respects. 
 
 10. Literature. — Aii5o;tv '■"" <'<ji5eKq anoBToWuv ix 
 Toil iepoaoXvfUTiKoi ;ffipoj'pd^ou vvv itpurov ludiiojiivri 
 . , . VTtb ^iXoBiov Bpvtvviov /xcrpOTToXlTov NtKO- 
 fitlSciac. 'Ev KuvaravTivovno^ei. 1883. [This was 
 the first edition, and it is provided with prole- 
 gomena and notes, etc.] Harnack: Die Lehre 
 der zifolf Apostel nebst Untersuchungen zur altesten 
 Geschichte der Kirchenverfassung und des Kirchen- 
 rechts, Leipzig, 1884; Hitchcock and Brown: 
 Teaching of the Twelve Apostles (translation and 
 brief notes). New York 1884, new edition, revised 
 and oreatly enlarged, 1885 ; Sabatier : La Di- 
 dache, Paris, 1885 (the most thorough French edi- 
 tion) ; ScHAFF : The Oldest Church Manual, called 
 the Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, New York, 
 1885 (contains the complete literature on the sub- 
 ject diligently collected and briefly criticised, mak- 
 ing it a very thankworthy and exceedingly careful 
 work), 2d ed. of this most important and com- 
 prehensive work upon the subject in the English 
 language, 1886; C. Taylor: The Teaching of the 
 Twelve Apostles, tvith illustrations from the Talmud, 
 Cambridge, 1886 ; articles byMcGiFFERT(.i4n(/o!'er 
 i?eyie;«, April, 1886); WARFiELD(Bi6. 5acra, Janu- 
 ary, 1886, on " The Two Ways," a very thorough 
 piece of work; Andover Review, July, 1886. [See 
 also Warfield in the "Journal of the Society of 
 Biblical Lit. and Exegesis," June, 1886, Notes on 
 the Didache. For further literature, see Schaff, 
 2ded.,pp. 140-158,297-306.] ADOLF HARNACK.
 
 university of California 
 cr.i.THFRN REGI0t4AL LIBRARY FACILII T 
 ^°%elrn "his material to the l.brary 
 from which it was borrowed. 
 
 PSD 2343 
 
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