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ina' ^bbmttttr Srimr* 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION; 
 
 SHOWING THE EMPLOYMENT OF 
 
 BRICKWORK AND MASONRY 
 
 PRACTICAL CONSTEUCTION OF BUILDINGS. 
 
 BY 
 
 R SCOTT BURN, 
 
 Author of "The Hand-Book of the Mechanical Arts," and Editor of 
 'The New Practical Guides to Masonry, Bricklaying, Plastering, and Carpentry," etc. 
 
 VOL. I. TEXT. 
 
 LONDON AND GLASGOW: 
 
 WILLIAM COLLINS, SONS, <fe COMPANY. 
 
 1877. 
 
 [All rights reserved.] 
 

 PKEFACE. 
 
 THE following pages are designed to form a sequel to the 
 elementary volume on the same subjects which the student 
 will find named in the series of which both volumes form 
 parts. Like the preceding volume, this concerns itself with 
 much that is also elementary, and this in order to be in 
 conformity with the Syllabus of the Department of Science 
 and Art on which its arrangement is based; but it takes the 
 student several steps further on in the study of the subjects. 
 In these he is introduced not only to a higher and a wider 
 class of practical work, but to the consideration of the intro- 
 ductory elements of the theories upon which certain depart- 
 ments are based. While, therefore, its letterpress descriptive 
 matter will be found as full as the plan of the work and the 
 space at command admits of, a glance at its pages will show 
 that this also is the characteristic of its illustrations. More, 
 indeed, may be said than this; for the diagrams in wood 
 alone, independently altogether of the accompanying volume 
 of Plates, are numerous to an extent seldom seen in works 
 of the class. From this point of view, indeed, it may be 
 said to stand alone in this class of literature which is mainly 
 addressed to students of the practical arts, or to those students 
 who, without intending to carry out practically any of its 
 departments, may have a desire to become acquainted with 
 the subjects in a general way. This profuseness of illustra- 
 tion is designed, however, to serve highly important and 
 
4 PREFACE. 
 
 useful ends, one of which only may be named here. A single 
 diagram may, but in literature of this class generally does, 
 serve to illustrate a subject or several subjects, so that they 
 may be understood at a glance; but which diagram, if dis- 
 pensed with, would require the giving of a large amount 
 of letterpress, which, however clearly expressed, would fail 
 to serve its practical purpose. Hence it was the desire 
 of the author, numerous as were the diagrams decided on, to 
 give more rather than fewer of them; but this, the nature 
 of the series of which the volume forms a part, would not 
 admit of, he was therefore compelled to keep them to the 
 number as now given, but which, nevertheless, is such, 
 as already stated, to make it almost unique in its class. 
 The same reason prevented certain letterpress descriptions 
 of theories, etc., being so extended as was desired; never- 
 theless, both departments, letterpress and illustrations, are 
 so full and explicit, that the design originally intended 
 to be carried out, of giving the two great departments of 
 Brickwork and Masonry, and that of Carpentry or Timber 
 Work in one volume, had to be abandoned for lack of space 
 to combine the two, hence the appearance of the one in its 
 present form. These points it is deemed necessary to state, 
 as they will explain to the student the reason why the plan 
 of publication, as originally announced, had to be changed; a 
 change, however, by which he is a decided gainer, as it has 
 admitted of a fulness of description and illustration, which the 
 smaller space it commanded in the original plan would not 
 have given, and this far beyond the extra difference in the cost 
 of the volume which the new arrangement involves. Full, 
 however, as the volume as now presented to the student is 
 in illustration, with the description of the essential points of 
 
PREFACE. 5 
 
 construction, neither its plan, nor scope, or scheme, as in 
 the case of the elementary volume, admits of any attempt 
 being made to present the student with exhaustive descrip- 
 tions of the various departments. These belong to the 
 province of complete treatises on Building Construction, 
 written expressly to meet the wants of those who are 
 practically engaged in the daily carrying out of important 
 works. To such treatises the student is therefore referred, 
 as for example the author's own two works in 4to, The New 
 Practical Guides; one taking up Masonry, Bricklaying, 
 and Plastering; the other Carpentry and Joinery, to which 
 may be added the volume in Folio, entitled Modern Archi- 
 tecture and Building. Those several works contain notices 
 of useful patented improvements, and of important modern 
 works on the large scale executed both here and on the 
 Continent, in the arts on which they treat; but which, how- 
 ever interesting and valuable, are obviously out of place in 
 a purely educational work like the present. At the same 
 time, this reference to them will serve to the student of this 
 volume a practical purpose, as he has reason to know it did 
 in the case of the elementary volume, and will also, he 
 trusts, be his best excuse for giving the special notice of 
 them now named. 
 
 E, S. B. 
 April 1876. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I. BRICKWORK. 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PA OK 
 
 Mechanical Free Hand Drawing Drawing Instruments 
 Drawing Scales Plans Elevations and Sections Work- 
 ing Drawings of a Building Free Hand Sketches of 
 Details, ....... 9 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 ON THE EMPLOYMENT or BRICK IN CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Forms of Brick Bond in Brick Setting Old English Bond 
 Flemish Bond Double Flemish Bond Comparative 
 Methods of Old English and Flemish Bonds Varieties of 
 Bond Hollow Brickwork Internal Walls joining Exter- 
 nal Walls at Right Angles Brick Piers Fireplaces, 
 Flues, and Chimney Stalks Arches A String Course 
 A Corbel Brick Coping for Wall Woodwork in com- 
 bination with Brick, ..... 27 
 
 PART II. STONEWORK. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 VARIETIES OF STONEWORK. 
 
 Random or Rough Rubble Ashlar Work Kentish Rag-stone 
 
 Work, 01 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS ILLUSTRATIONS OF WORK IN STONE. 
 Weathered and Throated Cills Window and Door Jambs- 
 String Courses Cornices Joining of Stone Blocks, . 102 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 FOUNDATIONS. 
 
 Varieties of Soil Rock Clay Beds of Shale Coarse and 
 
 Dry Sand, etc., . . . . . . 115 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 WALLS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Footings of Stone Walls Retaining or Revetment Walls, . 126 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 ARCHES. 
 
 Varieties of Arches: the Elliptical, the Gothic, the Tudor, the 
 Ogee, the Moorish, &c. Groined Arches Domes and 
 Conical Arches Supporting Arches Flat Arches Con- 
 struction of Arches, ..... 141 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 SEWERS, DRAINS, TANKS, AND WALLS. 
 Definitions and Construction of Sewers, etc., . . . 155 
 
 CHAPTER VII, 
 CONCRETE BUILDING. 
 
 Composition of Concrete Concrete in combination with Tim- 
 ber Pointing Stonework in combination with Brick, . 159 
 
 PART in. -MATERIALS USED IN BUILDING 
 CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 TIMBERS. 
 Varieties of Seasoning Preservation, ... 173 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 BRICK AND STONE. 
 
 Composition of Bricks Fire-bricks Stones Terra Cotta 
 
 Artificial Stone Marbles Slate Tiles, . . .179 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 lames, Mortars, Cements, Concrete, Asphalte, . . 185 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 METALS. 
 
 Cast-iron Wrought or Malleable Iron Lead, . . 189 
 
 INDEX, ........ 195 
 
BUILDING CONSTRU 
 
 BBICEWOKK AND MASONRY. 
 
 PART I. BRICKWORK. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Mechanical and Free-Hand Drawing Drawing Instruments Draw- 
 ing Scales Plans Elevations and Sections Working Drawings 
 of a Building Free-Hand Sketches of Details. 
 
 .1. Drawing Appliances Board and T-Square. The 
 principal appliances required by the pupil in the preparation 
 of drawings used in building construction are (1.) The draw- 
 ing board; (2.) The "T" square; (3.) "Set" squares and 
 curves; (4.) Kulers. (1.) The drawing board is, for common 
 purposes, well enough made of fir or pine; but for superior 
 boards, a mahogany, bay wood, sycamore, or plane tree wood 
 makes a capital board. The wood, of whatever kind, should 
 be thoroughly seasoned, as damp or unseasoned wood is sure 
 to warp when made up into the drawing board; and the 
 preservation of a perfectly flat surface is for this, it need 
 scarcely be said, a desideratum. The shape of the board is 
 rectangular, that is, having a greater length than breadth. 
 It may be made of any dimensions deemed advisable; where 
 a wide range of drawing work is to be carried out, including 
 detail drawings, as well as smaller plans and sections, it is 
 useful to have several sizes of boards. For the work for 
 beginners a useful one will be two feet long by sixteen to 
 eighteen inches broad. The body of the board should be 
 provided with cross pieces v at each end, grooved at their 
 edges, into which pass the tongues formed at the ends of the 
 
10 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION, 
 
 body or main surface of the board; the object of these cross 
 pieces is to prevent the body from warping. In large draw- 
 ing boards, the back is provided with a series of cross pieces 
 having the same object in view. (2.) The " T-square " 
 This is so called from being composed of a thin blade or flat 
 ruler, varying in breadth from one inch and a half up to three 
 or four inches, according to the length of the square, and 
 from three-sixteenths up to five-sixteenths of an inch in 
 thickness. To one end of this the " head " or " butt " is 
 secured at right angles, the two pieces thus assuming the 
 form of a cross or " T," hence the name. In some forms of 
 " T-square," the blade is fastened in the centre of the head 
 or butt, so that on each side of the blade there is a recess 
 formed, so that when the inner edge of the head is drawn 
 along the edge of the drawing board, the blade will slide 
 along the surface of the board at right angles to the head. 
 In other forms of "T-square" the blade is secured to the 
 upper side of the head, the sliding recess or rebate being thus 
 below the blade. Another form of "T-square" is that in 
 which the head is made in two thicknesses, lying flat one 
 upon another, and connected together with a central thumb 
 screw. The blade of the square is secured to the upper of 
 these two pieces, and by means of the screw the lower half 
 of the head can be adjusted to form any desired angle with 
 the upper half of the head. The result of this arrangement 
 is, that by sliding the lower half of the head along the edge 
 of the board, the blade of the square will slide along the 
 surface at the corresponding angle to which the head was 
 adjusted. This form of " T-square " is very useful when a 
 number of lines parallel to one another, but not at right 
 angles to, or parallel with the edge of the board, are required 
 to be drawn. When this form of adjustable " T-square " is 
 used for ordinary drawing, when the head of the square is 
 desired to be at right angles to the blade, it is necessary to 
 see that the thumb screw is screwed tightly up to prevent 
 the lower half of the head from separating and getting out of 
 line with the upper half of the head. The use of the " T- 
 square " in the drawing of lines on the paper secured on the 
 surface of the board, will be now explained. Suppose the 
 head of the sauare to be sliding along the lower edge of the 
 
DRAWING APPLIANCES. 11 
 
 long side of the board (which in practice is always placed 
 next the draughtsman, or nearest the outside edge of the 
 table upon which the board is placed while the drawing 
 operations are going on), the blade at right angles to it is 
 sliding along the surface of the paper, with its edges parallel 
 to the ends, so that all lines drawn along the edges of the 
 blade of the square will be at right angles to the side of the 
 board; and all these lines, at whatever distances they may 
 be from each other, will be parallel to one another. By 
 shifting the square so that the head will now slide along the 
 right-hand end of the board, the blade will slide along the 
 surface of the paper with its edges parallel to the sides of the 
 board, so that lines drawn along the upper edge, while they 
 will be all parallel to one another, at whatever distances they 
 may be drawn from each other, will be at right angles to the 
 lines drawn when the blade was in. the previous position, as 
 before explained. When long lines are required to be drawn 
 upon the surface of the paper or on the board, at right angles 
 to each other, this shifting of the square so that its head 
 shall slide along the lower edge and right hand edge of the 
 board is necessary; but when short lines are required to be 
 drawn at right angles to any line or lines drawn along the 
 edge of the square when in any position, they may be drawn 
 without shifting the position of the " T-square " by using (3.) 
 the " set square" This is made of a thin piece of hard wood, 
 the edges of which are made perfectly smooth and square 
 that is, at right angles to the surface; the form is usually a 
 " right-angled triangle " that is, at which the hypothenuse 
 is at an angle of 45 to the base. By sliding the base of this 
 along, and keeping it in close contact which can easily be 
 done with a little practice with the edge of the " T-square " 
 lying in accurate position on the board, all lines drawn along 
 the " perpendicular " of the " set square " will be at right 
 angles to the lines drawn along the edge of the " T-square," 
 so that these lines can be drawn without shifting the " T-- 
 square." When this " right-angled triangle " form of " set 
 square " is used, all lines drawn along its hypothenuse will 
 be at an angle of 45 to those lines drawn along the edge of 
 the " T-square," the base of the " set square " sliding as 
 before along the edge of the " T-square." Other forms of 
 
12 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 " set squares " are used; a very commonly used one having 
 the hypothenuse line forming an angle of 60 with the base 
 line, this form being useful in putting down isometrical 
 drawings (see Technical Drawing p. 7.) " Curves " are 
 pieces of thin hard wood, the edges of which are cut to 
 various curved lines, the interior surface having also cut out 
 from it portions, the edges of which also form various curved 
 lines. These are useful for drawing curves not easily or con- 
 veniently described by the compasses, or which form part of 
 eccentric curves not describable by compasses. Those are to 
 be had in great variety. (4.) " Bulers" are made of two 
 kinds " ordinary " and " parallel." " Ordinary rulers " made 
 of hard wood are flat, and of various lengths and breadths, 
 and are useful for drawing lines between points to which the 
 " T square " is not conveniently applicable. One of the edges 
 of the ruler is often made with a bevel, but we prefer both 
 edges to be square to the face. The edge of a " set square " 
 affords a good ruling surface, if long enough. " Parallel 
 rulers," as their name indicates, are for drawing lines 
 parallel to one another, to which the ordinary " T square " 
 is not applicable, or not conveniently so. They are of two 
 kinds the old fashioned, consisting of two blades, connected 
 by brass links; and the single ruler, with wheels or rollers 
 at each end. This is the modern form of the instrument; 
 and when the draughtsman becomes accustomed to its use, it 
 is very much quicker in its operation than the double- 
 bladed parallel ruler. But a beginner is apt to make mis- 
 takes in its use, hence by some the old-fashioned ruler is 
 preferred. 
 
 2. Drawing Instruments. A. complete set of drawing 
 instruments comprises a very considerable number of pieces, 
 several, however, being duplicates, so far as the principle 
 of their construction and the mode of using them is con- 
 cerned, but of different sizes and forms; but a very wide 
 range of work can be done by the aid of the following: (1.) 
 The " large compasses," with shifting leg, into which can be 
 put (a) a leg carrying a pencil, and (b) a leg carrying a pen, 
 for the drawing of pencilled and inked circles and parts of 
 circles. (2.) The " spring compasses," one leg of which is 
 adjustible by means of a spring acted upon by a small set 
 
DRAWING PAPER AND PENCILS. 13 
 
 screw. By this instrument, when a measurement is taken in 
 the compasses as in dividing a line into any number of equal 
 parts if the measurement is either a trifle too long or too 
 short, the accurate measurement may be taken by adjusting 
 the screw. (3.) "Spring dividers" these are small com- 
 passes for taking small measurements, the legs of which are 
 connected by a spring and a screwed link, the latter being 
 provided with a small set screw, so that an accurate adjust- 
 ment of the divider is easily attainable'; and, when once set, 
 the measurement taken will be retained, as the screw and 
 spring keep the legs always at the same distance. This con- 
 venience is very great when the same measurement is to be 
 often repeated in making the drawing. (4.) The " pencil 
 bow compasses," for describing small circles and parts of 
 circles in pencil. (5.) The "ink bow compasses," for describ- 
 ing small circles and parts of circles in ink. (6.) The 
 " drawing pen." The above named instruments will not be 
 here further described. Without them the pupil cannot even 
 begin to the work of drawing, he must, therefore, purchase 
 them; and a few minutes' examination of them will convey 
 to him a more satisfactory notion of their peculiarities and 
 uses than pages of description here. Fuller remarks upon 
 them will, however, be found in the work on Technical 
 Drawing, page 6. To the above will be required a common 
 (7.) foot-rule. 
 
 3. Drawing Paper and Pencils. For the purposes of the 
 beginner good cartridge paper will do well enough ; for 
 superior drawings the regular drawing papers should be 
 used; they are made in sheets of different sizes, as "demy," 
 " royal," " imperial," etc., and of the different makes, that of 
 " Whatman's " if not the best enjoys the highest reputa- 
 tion. The pencil most useful is that marked H H, although 
 that marked H will be found, perhaps, most useful for the 
 first lessons for beginners. The pencil should be cut so as to 
 form a long, fine point; some prefer to finish the point round, 
 some chisel-shaped, or flat edged. A piece of very fine sand- 
 paper is useful to finish the point, after being firsb pointed 
 by means of the knife. India-rubber is used to erase pencil 
 lines, "Indian" or "China" ink to work them in and make 
 them permanent. This is rubbed down with a little water in 
 
14 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 colour dishes; these can be had of various sizes. For 
 beginners, the paper may be fastened down upon the board 
 by means of small drawing pins stuck into the corners, or by 
 pieces of gummed paper at the same places. The method of 
 stretching the paper by damping it and gluing it to the 
 board by the edges will be found fully described in the 
 volume on Technical Drawing. 
 
 4. Scales used in Drawings. The scale to which drawings 
 are constructed are conventional arrangements by which the 
 proportion is maintained between the measurement which the 
 drawing gives, and the actual length of the same parts when 
 constructed, should be. Thus, a part of any building 15 feet 
 in length could obviously not be drawn full size on paper; 
 but if the length of each actual foot was supposed to be 
 represented by a distance of an inch, a piece of paper a 
 little over 15 inches in length would allow the line to be 
 drawn; with a margin over, the line on the drawing paper 
 would be 15 inches in length; but if the conventional 
 measurement adopted was named in the drawing, it would 
 be known that the line would be representing a line which 
 in actual practice would be 15 feet in length. The formation 
 of scales, of which the above is the general principle, is a 
 matter comparatively simple, and will be found further illus- 
 trated in fig. 1, Plate I. Thus, suppose it is desired to 
 construct a scale of " 2 inches to the foot," take in the com- 
 passes from a "foot-rule" the distance or extent of two 
 inches, then draw any line, as a b, fig. 1, Plate I., and from 
 any point c, which will be the " zero "or " " point of the 
 scale, set off the distance in the compasses any number of 
 times as there are to be feet in the scale, from c towards 6, 
 on the line a b, to d and c. The size of the Plate here limits 
 the number of times the distance c d and b twice to three. 
 Then each of the distances will represent a " foot." But as 
 there are inches in the foot to be arranged for in the scale, 
 divisions must be made to represent these inches; the large 
 division to the left hand, as from the zero point, c to d, is 
 that usually allotted to the inch division, this being divided, 
 in large scales, into twelve equal parts, each representing an 
 inch; but if the scale be small, as in fig. 10, then these first 
 divisions, as a b, fig. 3, Plate I., is only divided into four 
 
USE OF THE SCALES IN DRAWING PLANS, 15 
 
 parts, as a f, f e, d e, e b, each of these representing three 
 inches, the extent or length of an inch in these small scales 
 being guessed at. This is exemplified in the scale in fig. 10, 
 which is a scale of " inch to the foot," or of " 4 feet to the 
 inch." Fig. 8 is a scale of " 2 feet to the inch," or, as more 
 commonly expressed, a scale of " J inch to the foot." Fig. 9 
 is a scale of " 3 feet to the inch." Fig. 11 is a scale for a 
 detail drawing, "one -fourth full size" or of a foot, or " 3 
 inches to the foot." Fig. 14 is a scale of of a foot; or two- 
 thirds of full size. Fig. 15, a scale of |- of a foot or of full 
 size, both with " eighths " marked. Fig. 4 shows the scale 
 of 2 inches to the foot completed, with the division in the 
 first division to the left indicating inches, all the larger 
 divisions being feet. Fig. 2 represents a scale of " 1 yard to 
 the 2 inches," the last division, a b, being divided into three, 
 as a d, d e, and e 6, each division representing a foot, the 
 other divisions, as bf, representing a yard. Fig. 7 represents 
 a scale of 10 feet to f of an inch, used like the last in laying 
 down drawings of general plans, where the distances and 
 measurements are great. In this scale of tenths, the last 
 division is divided into ten equal parts, each representing a 
 foot, and each of the larger divisions represent ten feet. Fig. 
 12 is a scale of " 5 feet to the inch; " and fig. 13, " 10 feet to 
 the inch," with " inches " marked. Fig. 5 is a scale of " 1 J 
 inches to the foot; " fig. 6, a scale of " 1 inch to the foot." 
 
 5. Practical Use of the Scales in Drawing Plans, &c. 
 To take measurements from scales is a simple matter. Sup- 
 pose the drawing, of which the dimensions of various parts 
 are required to be taken, is drawn to a scale of " 1 inch to 
 the foot; " and suppose that a certain distance from point to 
 point of any given line in the drawing is taken in the com- 
 passes, then, by applying it to the scale, as, say, that in fig. 6, 
 which is a scale of 1 inch to the foot, while one leg of the 
 compasses is in the point 4, while the other reaches to the 
 point 6 in the last division of inches, then the measurement 
 of the distance in the compasses, and by consequence that of 
 the part represented in the drawing, is shown to be 4 feet 6 
 inches. Again, suppose that to a general plan a scale of " 10 
 feet to three quarters of an inch " is attached, and the actual 
 length of a line taken in the compasses from the drawing be 
 
16 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 required to be known; if by applying the compasses to the 
 scale, as in fig. 7, Plate I., the one leg of which being at the 
 division marked 50, and the other reaches to the point 5 on 
 the division to the left; then the distance is known to be 55 
 feet. 
 
 To lay down measurements from a scale is the exact con- 
 verse of the above, and is simply done. Thus, suppose that 
 on the line a e, fig. 1, Plate II., it is desired to lay down a 
 line, as a b, representing the side of a box, as a b Q d, and 
 that the drawing is to be made to a " scale of J of an inch to- 
 the foot." First, draw the line a e along the edge of the 
 square, in a light pencil line; if the length of the side of the 
 box, as a b, is to be 8 feet 9 inches, then on the scale, as in 
 fig. 10, Plate I., put the point of one leg of the compasses in 
 the division to the right, marked 8, and draw out the com- 
 passes till the point of the other leg reaches exactly to the 
 point indicating the ninth division on the division of inches 
 to the extreme left of the scale; then take this distance, and 
 with one point of the compasses, on the line a e, at a, meas- 
 ure from a to b, this will give a line in length equal to 8 feet 
 9 inches, as desired. The depth of the box, as a c, which we 
 shall suppose to be 1 foot 2 inches, is measured from the 
 scale in fig. 10, Plate L, in the same way, and the mode of 
 drawing it is as follows : Suppose that the edge of the square 
 is coincident with the line a b, previously drawn; move the 
 square so that the edge be a little below the line, as f g in 
 fig. 1, Plate II.; then take the "set square," as represented 
 by the dotted lines at h, and, putting the base on the edge of 
 the square, as gf, slide the set square till the perpendicular 
 of the base be coincident with the point b, on the line a e, 
 and draw a line along the edge b d ; then slide the " set 
 square " along the edge of the " T-square," till its perpen- 
 dicular be coincident with the point a, in the line a e; next, 
 from the scale in fig. 10, Plate I., take the distance in the 
 compasses of 1 foot 2 inches, by measuring from the first 
 large division marked 1 to the second small division in the 
 part o, 12; and, with this distance in the compasses, set one 
 leg in the point c, and with the other mark a point in the 
 line a c, at c ; next, move the " T-square " up the board till 
 its upper edge be coincident with the point c, and draw a line 
 
USE OF THE SCALES IN DRAWING PLANS. 17 
 
 along the edge cutting the line b d in the point d; the out- 
 line of a b c d will then be drawn, and the lines a b, c d will 
 be parallel to each other, as will also a c, b d. Dimensions, 
 when marked on drawings, are usually put in as shown in 
 
 fig. 1, Plate II., between marks as -= >, with a dotted 
 
 line; the acute angles of the marks being the limits of the 
 line of which the dimensions are figured.* In some draw- 
 ings, owing to the complications of the parts, or to preserve 
 the drawing itself from being marked with figures, the 
 dimensions are indicated in the manner shown in fig. 1, 
 Plate II.; the lines, as c a, d b, being extended in dotted 
 lines to a short distance beyond the drawing, and the dotted 
 
 line put between the marks -c >. as shown. The other 
 
 measurement in this diagram is indicated in like manner at 
 
 k e. In finished drawings these dimension marks = - -= 
 
 should be put in neatly and carefully. This will best be 
 done by the aid of the "set square," as shown in fig. 2, 
 Plate II. Thus, let a b be the dotted line terminated by the 
 dimension marks at a and b ; let c d represent the upper edge 
 line of the " T-square," and the dotted triangle, d e f the 
 " set square," the base, e, d of which is placed on the edge, 
 c d } of the "T-square;" adjust the " set square" so that its 
 hypothenuse, ef, is coincident with the point b; then along 
 the edge draw a short line, marked in the diagram by a 
 strong black line; the corresponding angular line is drawn 
 in at a, by sliding the " set square " along the edge of the 
 " T-square," till the point in the hypothenuse is coincident 
 with the point a. The reverse angular line is put in by 
 reversing the position of the " set square," as shown by the 
 dotted lines, g c h; the angular lines should all both be of the 
 same length. In place of putting to drawings the scale in 
 the manner as indicated in fig. 10, Plate I., it is the practice 
 of some architects and builders to write merely on the draw- 
 ing the scale to which it is made, as " scale, 1 inch to the 
 foot,* " scale, J- inch to the foot," and so on. Some make 
 the matter more simple still, by merely writing " ^th scale," 
 
 * The figures, as " ," put to the foot of the diagrams to follow in 
 this volume, are meant to denote the scale to which the drawings 
 are made. Thus, in fig. 1, " " means that the scale of the drawing 
 is " , or one-fourth of an inch to the foot." 
 
 31 B 
 
18 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 or " one-eighth scale ; n or " T ^th scale," or " one-twelfth 
 scale." This does not mean that the -Jth scale, for example, 
 is " Jth of an inch to the foot," but that it is |th of a foot, 
 or " equal to a scale of 1 J to the foot." A T ^th scale is thus 
 equal to 1 inch, as there are 12 inches to the foot, and is 
 equal, therefore, to a scale of " 1 inch to the foot; " a ^th 
 scale is equal to " half an inch to the foot; " a Jth scale equal 
 to " 2 inches to the foot." But in all cases it is by far the 
 most satisfactory method to draw a properly divided scale to 
 each drawing. The easier methods above named go on the 
 assumption that in the office, scales (on ivory or box-wood) 
 of various sizes are at hand, from which the specific dimen- 
 sions of certain parts can be taken; but drawings are often 
 referred to in the actual carrying out of the work, in circum- 
 stances where these scales are not available, so that it is 
 better to put a properly divided scale to each drawing as 
 I'ecommended. At all events, this should be done in the 
 drawings of pupils beginning practice. Scales of tenths, as 
 in figs. 7 and 13, Plate I., are, as already stated, used for 
 laying down drawings of general plans, as block plans, where 
 the measurements are long. As a useful lesson in drawing, 
 and as further exemplifying the use of scales, we shall sup- 
 pose fig. 3, Plate II., to represent the plan of the ground upon 
 which a house is to be erected. The scale to which this is 
 drawn being that in fig. 7, Plate I., which gives 10 feet to 
 three-quarters of an inch, the first thing to be done is to draw 
 a line representing a b in fig. 3, Plate II., along the upper 
 edge of the " T-square," the blade of which is parallel to the 
 lower edge of the drawing board the butt or head of the 
 " T-square " being thus placed on the edge of the right hand 
 end of the drawing board. The length of the line a b is 
 marked in the drawing as shown to be equal to 35 feet. This 
 is taken from the scale in fig. 7, Plate I., by putting one 
 point of the compasses in the division marked " 30," and 
 extending the other to the point " 5." in the division to the 
 extreme left of the scale. Then, from any point on the line 
 a b, fig. 3, Plate II., as a this point being selected so as to 
 put the drawing when finished as nearly in the centre of the 
 paper as possible mark off the distance taken from the scale 
 to the point, as 6, fig. 3, Plate II. ; the length of the line a b 
 
USE OF THE SCALES IN DRAWING PLANS. 19 
 
 will then be equal to 35 feet, measured from the scale, fig. 7, 
 Plate I. The next point is to obtain the position of the 
 point c in the drawing, fig. 3, Plate II. On the drawing 
 which is being thus copied extend by a very fine and light 
 pencil line so that it can be easily erased the line d c to 
 some distance beyond the point c, as, say, to the point e. 
 Next, at right angles to the base line a b, draw another line, 
 lightly put in by a pencil line, so as to cut the line d c 
 extended in e. On the paper on the drawing board draw 
 now a line from a (or, rather, from the points on the drawing 
 board corresponding to the point a in the copy, which is sup- 
 posed to be fig. 3, Plate II.), perpendicular to a b; this can 
 be done by shifting the " T-square " so that the blade will be 
 run parallel to the end of the board, the head or butt running 
 along the lower edge of the drawing board; or, if the line is 
 not too long, the " set square" can be used, as described in 
 connection with fig. 1 . Take from the copy the distance a e. 
 and measure it on the scale, fig. 7, Plate I., and set off, from 
 a on the drawing board, this distance, cutting the line a e in 
 the part e. Through e draw along the edge of the square . 
 which is again shifted, so that its blade shall be in its original 
 position, that is, parallel to the lower edge of the drawing 
 board a line ef; this line will correspond to the same line 
 in the copy, fig. 3, Plate II., and will be the same distance 
 from the line a b. Take in the compasses the distance e c 
 from the copy, and measure it from the scale, fig. 7, Plate I., 
 and from the corresponding point e on the drawing board, 
 set off this distance from a e to c; the position of the point 
 c will thus be obtained, and, if the operations have been 
 correctly performed, the length of the line a c, when meas- 
 ured from the scale, fig. 7, Plate I., will be found to be as 
 marked 33 feet 6 inches. In practice, where the copy is to 
 be the same size as the original, the length of the lines a e 
 and e c need not be measured from the scale, but simply 
 transferred from the copy to the drawing board, as above 
 described. The next operation is to measure from the scale 
 the distance c d 22 feet, and transfer it to the drawing board, 
 or, rather, the paper on its surface. On examination of the 
 copy, the line d g will be found to be exactly at right angles 
 to the line c d. The " set square " should then be brought 
 
20 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 into use, and by it the line d g should be drawn of same 
 length, and on it the distance taken from the scale namely, 
 1 3 feet, set off from d to g. The line g h will be found, on 
 examining the copy, to be parallel to a b; draw, then, on the 
 paper the line g h at right angles to d g, or parallel to a 6, 
 and make it equal to 7 feet; join h b, and the plan is com- 
 plete. The line b h is not at right angles to the line a b; and 
 the accuracy of the drawing will be tested by measuring this; 
 and if the drawing be correct, it will be found to be 20 feet. 
 But in place of the copy being accurately drawn as it is 
 supposed to be, in fig. 3, Plate II. the case may be supposed 
 that the copy might be a rough outline sketch, something 
 like the form of fig. 3, with the dimensions or measurement 
 marked on it; in this case, if the pupil was desired to make 
 an accurate drawing to scale of this rough sketch, no such 
 facilities for ascertaining the position of the point c in 
 relation to the point b a would be afforded such as we have 
 described. The pupil would therefore have a very different 
 process to go through before he could make his drawing. 
 We have also stated that by examination of the copy he 
 could ascertain whether the line d g was or was not at right 
 angles to c d. This could only be done if the copy was 
 accurately drawn, and very simply by placing the copy on 
 the drawing board, and marking the base line parallel to the 
 edge of it, by means of the " T-square," and then shifting the 
 square to test the line d g. Examination like this can, after 
 a little practice, be very quickly made. But, if a rough 
 sketch was provided, the line d g might be put in obliquely, 
 as also the line g h. The pupil will find in the volume 
 noted on page 14 full instructions how to draw from rough 
 sketches, or from the ideas of his own mind, which, in the 
 case of original work, take the place of rough sketches. 
 For the method of constructing and of using << diagonal 
 scales," see the volume noted on page 14, 
 
 6. Scales for Detail or Enlarged Drawings. These are 
 constructed on the principle already explained for scale, for 
 general plans, but are designed to give facilities for measuring 
 fractions of the inch, just as the division to the extreme left 
 of scales, such as in fig. 6, Plate I., give fractions of the foot 
 And as there are eight equal parts in an inch, which are 
 
PLANS, ELEVATIONS, AND SECTIONS. 21 
 
 technically called " eighths of an inch," the last division of 
 the scale to the left is divided into eight equal parts, each of 
 which is equal to Jth of an inch as read off from the scale. 
 A scale constructed on this principle is shown in fig. 14, 
 Plate I., which is a scale of 3 inches to the foot. The 
 measurements are taken from this in the same way as already 
 described, so far as feet and inches are concerned; but if, in 
 the measurement, parts of an inch be given, the compasses 
 are extended to the point indicating the measurement in the 
 last division of the scale to the extreme left. Fig. 15 is a 
 scale of |ths of a foot, or |ths of full size. Detail drawings 
 in practice, as a rule, are drawn to scales, some regular pro- 
 portion of a foot, as Jth of a foot, or " 3 inches to the foot," 
 Jth or " 2 inches to the foot," and sometimes half size, which 
 is equal to " 6 inches to the foot." The scales being named 
 in the order above given, as "one-fourth full size," "one- 
 sixth full size," " one-half size." When details are made, 
 say half size, no regular scale is required to be constructed; 
 as all the measurements can be taken from the ordinary foot 
 rule, for all that is necessary is to take half of the full size 
 measurements which the object would present: thus, if a 
 distance was 6 inches, 3 inches would be taken; if 4 inches, 
 2 inches, and so on. Again, if the detail would be drawn to 
 41 one-fourth full size," one-fourth of the full size measure- 
 ments would be taken : thus if the measurement was 8 inches, 
 2 inches would be laid down on the drawing; if 6 inches, 1 J 
 inches would be taken from the ordinary foot rule, and so on. 
 In these, the eighths of an inch, if any, in the measurement, 
 would be approximately taken or allowed for : thus, f ths of 
 an inch, or " six-eighths " in a detail drawing " half full size " 
 would be represented by a measurement of three-eighths; an 
 eighth by half this or " J^th " of an inch, and so on. 
 
 7. Plans, Elevations, and Sections. The various struc- 
 tures, and parts of structures, met with in building con- 
 struction, are solids, having length, breadth, and thickness, 
 and sides more or less numerous, according to their form. 
 The paper on which the drawings connected with building 
 construction are made, having only surface, that is, length 
 and breadth, some method of representing upon a flat surface 
 the form of solids, so as to show each side and the peculiarities 
 
22 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 in construction dependent on, or connected with, that side 
 is obviously required. The delineation upon paper of an 
 object which is a solid is, technically speaking, a " projection;" 
 and the peculiar method of projection employed in building 
 construction is called "orthographic projection/' For the 
 principles of this, and other kinds of projection, as "isomet- 
 rical," the pupil is referred to the volume in this series on 
 Plane and Solid Geometry. The projection of any body 
 taken on a line parallel to its base, or as viewed when look- 
 ing down upon it in the direction of a line at right angles to 
 its surface, is called a "plan," as fig. 4, Plate II., which may 
 be supposed to represent the plan of a house, or of a box with 
 the lid or top taken off. Plans of houses, in reality, " hori- 
 zontal sections," taken on a line, at a distance a little above 
 the ground level, which line is parallel to the base. A 
 " section " is the view of an object, representing it as it is 
 supposed to appear, when it is cut either horizontally or 
 vertically by a line parallel to any given line in the plan. 
 Thus, fig. 4, Plate II., may be taken as a " horizontal sec- 
 tion," on the line a b, in fig. 5, Plate II., showing the 
 thickness of the walls of the house, or the thickness 
 of the sides of the box, as the case may be. The section 
 in fig. 6, Plate II., is called a "longitudinal section," or 
 a "longitudinal vertical section," on the line a b in the 
 plan, fig. 4, Plate II., this line being parallel to the front and 
 back lines. If the section was taken on the line c d , fig. 4, 
 Plate II., the section would be called a "transverse or cross 
 section," or a " transverse vertical section." " Elevations " 
 are views of the vertical or standing part of objects, and are 
 called " front elevations," " back elevations," " end eleva- 
 tions," or "side elevations," according to the side from 
 which the object is viewed; the point of view being taken 
 irom a point at right angles to the surface of the front, back, 
 end, or side of the object. Thus, fig. 5, Plate II., is a front 
 elevation, and gives the height of the openings e, f, and g, in 
 plan, fig. 4, Plate II., the breadth of which only is there 
 given; fig. 7, Plate II., is the "end elevation," A, fig. 4; 
 fig. 8, Plate II., the "end elevation," B, fig. 4, Plate II. 
 If the object were a house, these two end elevations would 
 be distinguished by the points of the compass to which they 
 
PLANS, ELEVATIONS, AND SECTIONS. 23 
 
 looked, as " west-end elevation," " east-end elevation." The 
 "back elevations" of fig. 4, Plate I., will be the same as fig. 
 5, omitting the openings e and /, with the opening g, the 
 same as in fig. 5, Plate II. Where there are peculiarities in 
 the back part different from the front part of any object, a 
 back elevation would be necessary. The pupil desirous 
 further to pursue the subject of drawings is referred to the 
 volume noted in p. 14. But we give a few examples of a 
 simple kind to show methods of copying and laying down 
 drawings. In fig. 9, Plate II., we give a drawing showing 
 a "front elevation" of a building, of which, in fig. 10, we 
 give part " ground plan." The two drawings are placed in 
 relation to each other to show the method of taking the lines 
 of an elevation from the distance given in the ground plan, 
 and vice versd. A glance at the two figures 9 and 10, in 
 Plate II., will show this; the dotted lines being carried up 
 from the plan to give the lines of front elevation, or carried 
 down from the elevation to give the lines of the plan. The 
 letters of the two diagrams, figs. 9 and 10, show correspond- 
 ing parts; and the pupil, by a study of these should be able 
 to understand, to see the principle of the method adopted, and 
 be able to apply it to other subjects of a like nature. In 
 Plate III., fig I, we give a diagram showing the method of 
 "laying down" or " setting out," the principal lines of the 
 elevation of building in fig. 9, Plate II. The line a 6, fig. 1, 
 Plate III., is first drawn as the "ground line" or "base 
 line." Near the centre of this line, as at the point c, a line 
 c d is drawn at right angles to a b. This is the main 
 "centre line" of the building, and corresponds to the line 
 k I, in fig. 9, Plate II. From c the distances, c e, e g (equal 
 to the distance of centre lines m n, op, fig. 9, Plate II.) are 
 set off; and lines ef,gh, are drawn parallel to c d; these 
 give the centres of the side wings, a 6, c d, fig. 9, Plate II. 
 The heights of the points r, s, t (taken from the copy of the 
 drawing in fig. 1, Plate III., being to a larger scale than 
 that in fig. 9, Plate II.), are then to be set off from the base 
 line a 6, fig. 1, Plate III., to the points f, h, d, and b, and 
 lightly pencilled lines drawn through these, parallel to the 
 base line a b. The distance of the terminating lines of these 
 lines on each side of the centre line, p o, k I, m n, fig. 9, 
 
24 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Plate IT. , should then be taken and set off from points / k 
 and d, on both sides of the centre lines ef, c d, and g h, this 
 will give the width of the respective parts. The heights of 
 the top and bottom lines of windows, as i and e, fig. 9, 
 Plate III., should then be taken and set off in the lines, 
 e f, g h, fig. 1, Plate III., to the points, m n, o p, and 
 through these points lines drawn parallel to a b. the full lines 
 show the parts when inked in, the dotted lines represent the 
 lightly pencilled in lines at the first operation. Fig. 2, 
 Plate I., is an enlarged sketch of the window e, in fig. 9, 
 Plate II., showing the method' of drawing it. First, draw a 
 " centre line," a b, and a " base line," c 5, at right angles to 
 this; then set off the various heights, as 6, e, and f y those 
 taken from the copy, or the scale according to dimensions 
 given. Then take half the width of opening and set this 
 distance off, on each side of the centre line, a b, to the points, 
 g and k; then draw parallel to a b lines g k, h i, making the 
 line drawn through f parallel to c d. Measure next to the 
 end s c d, and draw I c, m n parallel to a b. Fig. 3 shows 
 the lines required to draw the door in fig. 6, Plate II., fig 4 
 being an enlarged sketch, showing the method of putting in 
 the panels; in this a b is the " centre line " of the door, 
 corresponding to a b in fig. 3, and the line c d, fig. 4, Plate 
 III., gives the top line of panels, the widths of the panels 
 being set off from the point a, to e and f. Fig. 5 shows the 
 method of drawing a pediment terminating a roof. The line 
 a b gives the upper line of last number of the cornice, and 
 c e the centre line of roof; from b, set off the height b c, 
 measure from a to d, and join c d. Fig. 6, Plate II., is a 
 front elevation of a house, the leading lines of which are 
 given in fig. 7, showing the method of commencing the 
 drawing; fig. 8, Plate III,, is pediment of door; fig. 9, 
 drawing, enlarged, of chimney stalk, and fig, 10 shows the 
 method of drawing in the " quoins; " the distance, a b, being 
 divided into nine equal parts, and lines drawn through them 
 parallel to c d; the line a b is the outside boundary line, and 
 the projections of the quoin stones inward from this are 
 given by measuring from the point e to y*and g; and draw- 
 ing from these, lightly pencilled in lines, the intersection 
 of which, with the lines drawn through the points 1, 2, 3, 
 
PLANS, ELEVATIONS, AND SECTIONS. 25 
 
 etc., parallel to c d, give the widths or breadths of the 
 quoins. 
 
 8. As forming a practical exemplification of the connection 
 of plans, elevations, and sections, with one another, we give, 
 in Plates IV., V., and VI, a set of "plans" of a cottage 
 villa. The student should carefully note the connection of 
 one drawing with another, so as to be able to lay down in 
 elevation from a plan, etc., taking the measurements in 
 order. The plans, elevations, and sections, form what is 
 called a "set" of drawings, but in addition to these a 
 number of other drawings are also prepared; these, as 
 already stated in a previous paragraph, are known as 
 "details" or "detailed drawings," which, in number and 
 elaboration of finish, vary according as the architect may 
 consider necessary, or as the builder or contractor may 
 require. 
 
 9. These detail drawings, when commencing anything of an 
 elaborate character, in which the lines and parts are numerous 
 and complicated, are of course drawn in the manner and by 
 the aid of all the appliances already described. But in a 
 great many instances, the architect is often, while " upon 
 the ground," called upon to furnish the workmen quickly 
 with "free-hand sketches" of various parts, which, while 
 yielding no pretensions to accuracy of measurement of these 
 parts, or even of drawing, serve nevertheless to afford to 
 the workmen the necessary information as to the form of the 
 part required, and as no "scale" can, of course, be given, the 
 dimensions are simply marked upon the sketches, as in figs. 1, 
 2, and 3, Plate VII. Free-hand sketches of various parts, 
 for the guidance of the workmen, do not require to be finely 
 executed, they must of course indicate accurately the form or 
 outline and the connection of the various parts. There are 
 some draughtsmen, however, who have a wonderful facility 
 in executing sketches which, although called "rough," possess 
 all the accuracy and finish of work done carefully in the 
 study. Not many, however, possess this ready faculty; and 
 although its possession is greatly to be desired, a less perfect 
 capacity will be found useful enough for every-day work. 
 While a facility to execute rough free-hand sketches of various 
 parts is useful to the practical man in preparing drawings of 
 
26 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 parts which require the instant attention of the workman, 
 the converse is of course of equal utility to the practical man, 
 in enabling him to take sketches on the spot, from which 
 afterwards, in the quietness of his study, he can prepare 
 finished drawings; care being taken to mark all the dimen- 
 sions in their proper places. Enough in connection with 
 which the student will find in other works of this series has 
 been said on the subject of drawing to enable the student to 
 gather up its chief principles; and to induce him to devote 
 that time to their fuller study, or the special works devoted 
 to their elucidation, which will impart to him the knowledge 
 necessary in following'out the pursuits to which he may have 
 devoted his career. We now, therefore, proceed -to the more 
 immediate purposes of our work; taking up first that division 
 of construction which treats of Brickwork. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 ON THE EMPLOYMENT OF BRICK IN CONSTRUCTION, 
 
 10. Forms of Brick. The brick used in building is rec- 
 tangular in form, as shown in fig. 1; the usual dimensions 
 being nine inches in length, four and a half in breadth, and 
 two and a half to two and three-quarter inches in thickness. 
 In Vol. I. on Building Construction, Elementary Course in 
 this Series, the student will find in Chapter II., Art. 1, 
 illustrations of the various forms of bricks used in plain 
 work, and to this, therefore, we refer him, giving here only 
 that modification of the plain brick generally used, as in fig. 1; 
 in which the upper and lower sides or surfaces are provided 
 with indentations, as in fig. 2, which serve the purpose of 
 "keys," or by which the mortar obtains a better hold of the 
 brick than when the surface is plain. 
 
 Fig. 1. Fig. 2. 
 
 11. Bond in Brick Setting. In Building Construction, 
 
 Elementary Series, Art. 3, Vol. I., we have explained the 
 
 necessity which exists for setting bricks in such a way that 
 
 when placed together in walls, etc., their relation to each 
 
28 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 other will be such that as firm a union between the separate 
 pieces will be formed as is possible in a series so made up. 
 This mode of setting bricks is known by the general term 
 " bond, " and of which there are in use commonly two 
 methods. 
 
 Ig. "Old English Bond," and "Flemish Bond." In fig. 3 
 we illustrate the " Old English bond," in which the courses 
 are made up alternately of a row of " stretchers " a a, and of 
 " headers " b b. In the illustrations to follow, the headers 
 will be indicated by crossed lines. In " Flemish bond," as 
 illustrated in fig. 4, the courses are formed by "stretchers "a, 
 and "headers" b, being placed alternately in the same course. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 In both of these bonds, the bricks are so placed that they all 
 break joint, and all the joints of the corresponding class of 
 bricks run in the same line vertically. Thus, in fig. 3 the 
 "stretchers" a a, a a, a a, in the courses, are all exactly in line 
 above one another, the "headers" b b being also so placed with 
 relation to each other. 
 
 Of these two forms or kinds of " bond," the Old English 
 (fig. 3) is admitted to be the strongest, although the "Flemish" 
 is said, or thought to be, the most pleasing to the eye. In 
 
OLD ENGLISH AND FLEMISH BONDS. 
 
 29 
 
 Old English bond the courses can be made up with whole 
 bricks; in the "Flemish," in practice, broken or cut bricks are 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 often required. But even in the "Old English bond" there 
 is an exception to this. If the drawing of a wall be made, 
 it will be found that at the quoins or angles terminating the 
 the wall, as a a in fig. 5, the courses cannot be completed with 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 whole " headers " and " stretchers," so that they will all ter- 
 minate vertically over each other breaking joint; to secure 
 
30 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 this parts of bricks are used, these being termed "closers" or 
 "closures." Thus, suppose fig. 5 to represent the termination 
 of a wall, or the corner where two walls meet, and the bond 
 to be " Old English" or "English bond," as it is more briefly 
 and generally known. In this the first course is a course of 
 "stretchers;" the next row, according to the bond, is a row 
 of "headers;" the first one c breaks joint with the stretcher 
 b below it; but the next header d falls with its joint right 
 above or coincident to the joint between the two stretchers b b 
 in the course below, so that there is no "bond" secured. This 
 is sure to happen when the student considers that the breadth 
 of a brick is exactly half its length; so that when the breadth 
 s--.^ is presented, as at c, fig. 5, to 
 
 form a "header," two headers, as 
 c and d, will bring the face line 
 of the second header c? in a line 
 with the face line of the end of 
 the stretcher b below. Here 
 comes in the use of the "closer" 
 or " closure," which, in the row 
 of headers, is a half brick, as a, 
 Fig'. 6. fig. 6; the whole brick, com- 
 
 pleted by the dotted lines, being cut in the direction 
 of its length. " Closers " of three-quarters of a brick, as 
 a a, fig. 7, of a quarter of a brick, shown by the dotted lines 
 b, are also used generally in a course of stretchers. A "bat" 
 is generally understood to be half of a brick cut through in 
 
 Fig. 7. Fig. 8. 
 
 the direction of its breadth, as in fig. 8, although the term is 
 very often applied to broken brick of whatever size or pro- 
 
OLD ENGLISH BOXD. 31 
 
 portion it may bear to a whole brick. The "closer" should 
 be the last brick but one in a course, as shown in fig. 9, this 
 being done to finish the course with a whole brick. Fig. 9 
 illustrates courses of " English bond," a being the course of 
 "stretchers/' bb those of "headers/' cc the "closers." 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 13. Old English Bond. In fig. 10 we illustrate the first 
 course of a brick wall in "English bond," equal to one brick 
 long in thickness. The wall being terminated at one end, 
 the first course is made up of "stretchers," the second, as 
 in fig. 11, of "headers." The use of closers is shown in 
 fig. 10. Supposing the second course to be laid as at a , 
 the outer edge of the brick a being flush with the ends of 
 the stretcher cd, shown in dotted lines ef, it is obvious 
 that the joint g would be exactly above the joint A, so 
 that there would be no bond between the two courses. By 
 using a "closer," as a a in fig. 11 which in this case is 
 half a brick cut in the direction of the length of the brick 
 it will be seen that the whole of the joints are so disposed 
 that they are above or behind the solid parts of other bricks. 
 This is illustrated in the elevation, fig. 12, and set that the 
 joints of corresponding courses headers or stretchers are 
 
32 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 all in a line above one another, as the joints a a a a of the 
 courses of stretchers, and b b of the courses of headers. In 
 all cases the " headers " in the illustrations are cross-lined, 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 to distinguish them from the stretchers. The sections are 
 given, as the disposition of the bricks are different from 
 that shown at the end-elevations. The student should in 
 
 Fig. 11. 
 
 all cases thoroughly comprehend the arrangement, and it 
 will be advisable to make out the construction by means 
 
OLD ENGLISH BOND. 
 
 33 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
34 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 of actual bricks, or model bricks, which, being small, are 
 more convenient to handle than the actual bricks. The 
 method of setting the bricks at the corner of two walls, 
 one brick thick, as in fig. 10, is shown in figs. 13 and 14, 
 fig. 13 being first and fig. 14 second course. 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 
 In fig. 15 we give an illustration of a wall two bricks in 
 thickness, in English bond, being the first course, the second 
 course being, as in fig. 16, the mode of setting bricks at the 
 
FLEMISH BOND. 
 
 35 
 
 angles of the wall, as illustrated in figs. 17 and 18; fig. 17 
 being the first course, fig. 18 being the second, also an eleva- 
 tion in one diagram. 
 
 Fig. 17. 
 
 Fig. 18. 
 
 14. Flemish Bond. In fig. 19 we give the first course of 
 a wall equal to one brick length in thickness, fig. 20 being 
 the second course. In fig. 21 we give the first course of a 
 wall equal in thickness to the length of two bricks, fig. 22 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION, 
 
 Fig. 21. 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
DOUBLE FLEMISH BOND. 
 
 37 
 
 being the second course. In fig. 23 we give the first course, 
 and in fig. 24 the second course, of the corner wall corres- 
 ponding to figs. 19 and 20; and in fig. 25 the 
 fig. 26 the second course, of the corner wall correspj 
 figs. 21 and 22. 
 
 first. 
 
 Figs. 23, 24. 
 
 15. Double Flemish Bond.In this both the back and 
 front of wall are in Flemish bond, that is, headers a and 
 stretchers b alternate in each course. But it will be observed 
 that in one, say the first course in fig. 27, the headers c c 
 are not full headers, as a a, but only half bricks, giving the 
 appearance in the elevation of whole bricks, but not being 
 in reality so, the same is seen in the other course, second, 
 as in fig. 28 ; the headers ccc being only half bricks. It 
 will be observed also that they alternate in the courses. 
 
38 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Tig. 26. 
 
 The headers, as d d in fig. 27, being only half bricks, a a 
 being the whole headers. In fig. 28 c c c are the half and 
 dd the whole headers. The result of the arrangement of 
 bond, as given in these two figures, is the creation of a series 
 of joints not broken, that is, of vertical fissures or lines, as 
 
DOUBLE FLEMISH BOND. 
 
 39 
 
 a b cd in fig. 29, which is a cross-section of the wall on the 
 line a I' in figs. 27 and 28. 
 
 Fig. 29. 
 
40 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Fig. 1, Plate VIII., is the first course of a two brick 
 wall in double Flemish bond, with both sides alike. In 
 this there are no half headers, as c c in figs. 27 and 28, 
 all the headers being whole bricks. The section in fig. 3, 
 Plate I., shows the much better vertical bond obtained by 
 this arrangement than in that in figs. 27 and 28. The joints 
 a a a a breaking against the solid parts of the brick 6 6, 
 above and below. Fig. 2, Plate VIII., is the second course 
 of fig. 1, Plate VIII. 
 
 16. On the Comparative Merits of " Old English " and 
 " Flemish Bonds." In Elementary Building Construction, 
 Vol. I., Art. 10, the student will find a remark by Sir C. 
 Pasley on this subject, this eminent authority holding, 
 with the majority of writers, that the " Old English " is 
 the strongest of our two kinds of bonds. The subject, how- 
 ever, is one of such importance that the student should, at 
 this advanced stage of his study in connection with it, have 
 the advantage of knowing what can be said on both sides, and 
 on the subject of bonds generally; and to a much fuller 
 extent than the scope of our Elementary volume admitted 
 of. The following remarks are from the pen of Mr. George 
 Ho well, who wrote the paper on the "The Brickwork, of the 
 Paris Exhibition of 1867," and which was published by the 
 Society of Arts, in a volume devoted to a series of similar 
 papers on the various branches of technical knowledge exam- 
 plified in that celebrated exhibition : 
 
 " Many architects and clerks of works," says Mr. Howell, 
 " select Old English bond for heavy buildings, on account 
 of its superior strength. I cannot, of course, deny that its 
 strength might exceed that of the Flemish bond if carried 
 out in all its integrity, but this I affirm, without fear of 
 contradiction, that Flemish bond is equal to every possible 
 and impossible emergency. I defy any architect to point out 
 any one instance of its failure to sustain, without fracture, 
 any superincumbent weight or pressure ever brought to bear 
 upon it. The reason of failure, when any such has taken 
 place, is not the weakness of the style of the bond, but the 
 want of bond by snapping header after header, sometimes for 
 whole courses, in order to save a few front bricks, whether 
 red rubbers or malms. If the courses are laid regularly and 
 
MERITS OF "ENGLISH" AND "FLEMISH" BONDS. 41 
 
 fairly, the headers being properly and constantly placed then- 
 whole length in the wall it cannot fail; I defy it to do so. 
 Nevertheless, the Old English bond should always be used in 
 rough work, inside and outside, as it is a little quicker in 
 practice, and all the * bats' can thereby be used up with 
 facility. And in this there is no fear of failure with regard 
 to strength, as walls never split or separate in the centre; 
 their fractures are generally due to the foundations, for a 
 heavy pier will settle more than a light one, and hence it 
 frequently happens that the fracture takes place through the 
 arches of windows or doors. If I were asked whether the 
 Old English bond or style cannot be made to look well for 
 front work, I would answer Yes. But it will always look 
 heavy and confused. It can never have the light appearance 
 of Flemish bond, which I will now examine in all its details, 
 with such examples as I saw in Paris. 
 
 " This bond, as I before stated, consists of alternate header 
 and stretcher in the same course. It should be started thus : 
 first a stretcher, then a header and stretcher, to the end of 
 the piece of wall or pier, always taking care that there be a 
 stretcher at either quoin (sometimes this cannot be done in 
 very small piers; the brick layer will then reverse one of the 
 quoins). This first course being /run out,' start the next 
 course with a header, then a ' closer ' (a quarter brick), then 
 a stretcher, etc., till the end of the second course, taking care 
 that both quoins are started alike, as I before pointed out. 
 The following rules should be observed : First, if there be 
 any 'broken bond,' i.e., if in running out your bond you 
 find it does not finish alike at both quoins, then start from 
 each quoin and work to the centre, so that the broken bond, 
 if there be any, may fall in the middle of the pier. Some- 
 times it will require two headers instead of one, if so, let them 
 follow each other all up the pier until its finish ; if you do 
 not, it will detract from the entire piece. Sometimes it will 
 require three headers, then you will find it will require two 
 stretchers in the next course, and so on all up the wall (this 
 is not considered broken bond). In some instances it will 
 require a three-quarter, but this should at all times be avoided, 
 if possible. Never, under any circumstances, place a closer 
 in the middle, or any other portion in the wall or pier, 
 
42 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 except at the angles next to the header, as before described. " 
 To be particular with regard to this I give the following 
 examples : 
 
 From the sketches by Mr. Howell, we have prepared 
 illustrations uniform in style with our other subjects, showing 
 the arrangements; thus, in fig. 2, Plate "VIII., an illustration 
 of a perfect "specimen of Flemish bond." Fig. 1, Plate IX., 
 an illustration of "broken bond two headers in the centre," 
 a b the centre line of the wall, the two headers, c and d, 
 e and f. In fig. 2, Plate IX., an illustration of what is 
 "considered a perfect bond;" in this, there are three headers 
 c, d, and e, in the centre, in one course, and two stretchers 
 f and g in the other. Fig. 3, Plate IX., illustrates "broken 
 bond," with a "three-quarter" brick as c in the centre at a b. 
 
 " The beauty of brickwork will very much depend upon 
 the 'perpends' being perfectly kept, that is, the perfect regu- 
 larity of the perpendicular joints right up the building, 
 stretcher over stretcher, and header over header, shoulcPbe 
 kept parallel; so also should the broken bond, if any occur. 
 If this be neglected, the beauty of the work is entirely 
 destroyed. The work should also be kept upright, and level 
 on the face, the bricks being laid 'square to the line.' 
 
 "I have been thus precise, because I found some of these 
 rules entirely disregarded in Paris. In the first place, the 
 French workman uses a three-quarter at the quoins on the 
 top of the stretcher, instead of a header and closer, as in the 
 examples. Thus the pleasing effect of our quoins in England 
 is entirely lost. I found this rule almost universally broken 
 in Paris. 
 
 "Second. If they have broken bond, they seem to be 
 altogether indifferent as to whether it continues parallel with 
 itself, up the pier, or whether it be closed from side to side. 
 I shall give some examples of the improper work I saw in 
 Paris, and indicate the proper style, as we should do it in 
 England. 
 
 "I shall first take some of the buildings on the Champs 
 de Mars. There is the Turkish building, wii?h five courses 
 of red Flemish bond, alternate with 1 5 inch blocks of red 
 and white. There were three quarters at all external quoins, 
 and a three-quarter followed by a header at the quoins of 
 
MERITS OF "ENGLISH" AND "FLEMISH" BONDS. 
 
 43 
 
 all openings. In one pier there are three-quarter, header, 
 stretcher, and a closer, as in fig. 4, Plate IX. It should 
 have been a stretcher on either side and a header in the 
 centre, with a header and closer in the next course, and a 
 stretcher in the centre, as in fig. 5, Plate IX. Another pier 
 had two headers, one stretcher, and a header as in fig. 6, 
 Plate IX. It should have been two stretchers and a header, 
 as in fig. 30. In several instances there was what we term 
 
 Fig. 30. 
 
 chimney bond two stretchers and a header, as in fig. 23, 
 when it should have been two stretchers and a header, as 
 in fig. 5, Plate IX. One larger pier had header, closer, 
 stretcher, header, stretcher, header, and three-quarter. It 
 should have been header and closer on either side, followed 
 by stretchers, and two headers in the centre." 
 
 On the subject of bond in brickwork, the eminent authority 
 Mr. Gwilt, in his "Rudiments of Architecture," has the 
 following remarks, ^which will be practically useful to the 
 student : 
 
 " In building brick walling, two points necessarily press on 
 
44 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 us. The first, that the wall be as strong as possible in the 
 direction of its length; the other, that it be so connected in the 
 direction of its thickness that it be not capable of separating 
 in that direction, or, in other words, that in the latter respect 
 it consists not of two thicknesses. 
 
 " To produce the greatest strength in the direction of the 
 length, independent of extraneous aid, such as that afforded 
 by bond timber, plates, etc., it must be evident that the 
 mode which gives the greatest quantity of longitudinal bond, 
 as in the thickness that which gives the greatest of transverse 
 bond, is to be preferred. Now, in a piece of walling four 
 bricks long, four bricks high, and two bricks in thickness, 
 constructed in English bond, there will be thirty-two stretchers, 
 twenty-four headers, and sixteen half-headers to break the 
 joint, or prevent one joint falling over another; whereas, in 
 a piece of walling of equal size constructed in Flemish bond, 
 there will be only twenty stretchers and forty-two headers, 
 thus giving the English bond an evident superiority in the 
 direction of length, and showing its inferiority in transverse 
 strength. Expedients have been adopted to give the Flemish 
 bond greater strength in its longitudinal direction, but none 
 are sufficiently effectual to prevent the wall opening in the 
 vertical joints, where there are great inequalities of pressure 
 upon it; under these circumstances the Old English bond is 
 unequivocally recommended, though the other has a more 
 pleasing exterior, at least, as some persons think. 
 
 "In both species, the length of a brick being only nine inches 
 and its width only four and a half, in order to break joint 
 vertically at the end of the first stretcher from a quoin, it is 
 necessary to use a quarter brick, or bat, called a queen closer, 
 in order to preserve the continuity of the bond. The bond 
 may, however, also be preserved by the insertion of a three- 
 quarter bat at the angle in the stretching course; this bat is 
 called a king closer. Each of them leaves a horizontal lap 
 of two inches and a half for the next header. 
 
 " In carrying up walling, the whole should be brought 
 forward as nearly as possible together, not more than four or 
 five feet in height at a time, in order to prevent unequal 
 bearing upon the foundations. Care should also be taken to 
 lay bond timber in pieces as long as circumstances will admit. 
 
VARIETIES OF BOND. 
 
 45 
 
 Some prefer it through the centre of the wall, in which case, 
 should there be linings of woodwork inside the buildings, 
 wooden plugs must be provided in the face of the wall to 
 nail them to. When the face of the bond timber is flush 
 with the face of the wall, these, of course, will be unnecessary. 
 
 " It is of great importance that the mortar beds should be 
 as thin as possible. In good sound work, four courses will 
 not rise more than eleven inches and three-quarters; and the 
 cement should be such as will quickly set, so that the 
 superincumbent weight may not press the joints closer, and 
 cause settlements. Whenever there is reason for supposing 
 from the nature of the soil, or from the foundations being 
 partly new and partly old, that the whole work will not 
 come to its bearing equally, it is prudent to carry up such 
 parts as are in this condition separately, and to leave what 
 is called a toothing at the ends of those parts, to be filled in 
 when the whole has settled. 
 
 " In summer time all the bricks should be wetted previous 
 to being laid, which process causes them more immediately 
 to unite with the mortar. But in winter the reverse of this 
 practice should be followed to prevent the frost penetrating 
 the work, for which reason unfinished walling should always 
 be covered up at that period." 
 
 Fig. 31. 
 17. Varieties of Bond. (a). Garden Wall Bond In this 
 
46 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 three stretchers, as a a a, fig. 31, and one header, as b, alter- 
 nate in each course. This is used only in garden walls. 
 
 (b). Bond with Jive courses of Stretchers and one of Headers. 
 Another variety of bond is illustrated in fig. 32, in which 
 five courses of stretchers and one course of headers are used, 
 aaa being the stretcher, b b the header courses. This bond 
 is much used in Scotland. 
 
 Fig. 32. 
 
 (c). Another variety of English and Flemish Bond. Infig. 1, 
 Plate X., we give the first course; in fig. 2, the second course; 
 and in fig. 3, the section on line a b in figs. 1 and 2, of a 
 variety of English bond for a wall equal to one and a half 
 bricks in thickness. In fig. 4, the first course; in fig. 5, 
 second; and in fig. 6, section on line a b in figs. 4 and 5, two 
 bricks in thickness. In fig. 1, Plate XL, we give the first 
 course; in fig. 2, the second course of a two brick thick wall 
 in Flemish bond; and in fig. 3, section on line a b of another 
 variety of bond. If the student will refer to fig. 15, showing 
 the bond, which is that recommended by Sir C. Pasley, he 
 will find a considerable difference in the disposition of the 
 bricks. In fig. 1 5 the lines of each pair of stretchers run right 
 through, unbroken, fnsn back to front; while in fig. 4, Plate 
 X., the lines of the stretchers, a b, c d, strike against the 
 ends of the header bricks, e and f. By referring also to fig. 
 
VARIETIES OF BOND. 47 
 
 21, which is a two-brick wall in Flemish bond, of the variety 
 recommended by our authority, the student will perceive that 
 the same difference exists, the lines running through from 
 back to front; while in fig. 1, Plate XI., the lines of the 
 stretchers, a b and c, strike against the solid parts of the 
 headers, de andj Considerable diversity of opinion exists 
 as to which of these two bonds is the best. On the principle 
 of "breaking joint," the bonds in fig. 1, Plates III. and IV., 
 would appear to be stronger than those in figs. 15 and 21. 
 
 (d). Header Bond. In fig. 4, Plate XI., we give the first 
 course; in fig. 5, second course; and in fig. 6, section on line 
 a b of a variety of bond known as " header bond," from 
 headers being alone used, excepting at points, such as the 
 termination of a wall at an opening, where stretchers, as a a, 
 are used. Some architects use this bond, as it gives, as they 
 suppose, a much neater appearance to its exterior elevation than 
 the English. But while this may be the case, it is obviously 
 not so strong, as in each alternate course a number of half 
 bricks, as b b, are of necessity used. 
 
 (e). Diagonal Bond. This variety of bond is used where 
 thick walls in English bond are constructed, the peculiarity 
 being that the interior part of the wall is made up by bricks 
 not lying either at right angles, or parallel to the face of the 
 wall; but with bricks placed at an angle, as illustrated in fig. 
 33, it is only applicable to walls not thinner than two brick 
 lengths, and to English bond. This kind of bond is useful 
 in filling up the interior of foundation courses, which are 
 usually of considerable thickness. Fig. 33 is the arrangement 
 of the internal bricks, placed diagonally, of a wall equal in 
 thickness to the length of two bricks. The " first course " is 
 made up in the usual way in English bond for a wall of the 
 required thickness, with two lines of headers; the " second 
 course " is shown at a a a, the bricks inclining to the left, but 
 bounded by the outside courses of stretchers running along 
 the upper side d d, and the lower side eej the " third course '* 
 is shown at bbb, the bricks inclining to the right, in the 
 contrary direction to that which they assume at a a. It will 
 be observed that triangular spaces, as c c c, are left open 
 between the ends of the inclined bricks a a, bb, and the 
 inner edges of the outside courses running in the lines dd, 
 
48 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 e e, // g g, these may either be filled up with mortar, or 
 may be left open ; thus, in some measure, giving to the wall 
 the peculiarities of hollow brickwork (for the varieties of 
 which, see the succeeding paragraphs). 
 
 &ff^"/-&'t&& : ^^ 
 
 
 Fig. 33. 
 
 In the " third course " b b b, the outside courses at//, gg, 
 are made up of a series of half bricks or bats breaking joint 
 with the stretchers at d d , e e in second course a a. The 
 "fourth course" is the same as the "first," namely, two lines 
 of headers. In the drawing, fig. 33, the diagonal bricks, 
 a a, b b are laid at an angle of 45, but in practice the angle 
 varies more or less from this according to the thickness of 
 the wall. If the student will make up a course of two lines 
 of headers, with model bricks, and the second course with 
 the outsides of two lines of stretchers, he will find the middle 
 space of a much greater width than will admit of the dia- 
 gonally placed bricks, as a a, b b, being placed at an angle of 
 45 U . If placed at this angle, he will find that the ends of 
 the bricks do not touch the inner edges of the outside line 
 of stretchers; to enable them to do this, as in fig. 33, the 
 bricks will have to be placed at an angle somewhat like that 
 
VARIETIES OF BOND. 49 
 
 shown by the line hk; that an angle of 45 will not suit 
 will be made more clearly evident by inspecting Plate XII., 
 where the four courses of a wall equal in thickness to three 
 and a half bricks are shown, and the diagonal bricks placed 
 at an angle of 45, as in figs. 2 and 3; bufc if these are 
 measured in thickness it will be found that this is less than 
 the thickness of three lines of headers and one of stretchers, 
 making up the first course, as in fig. 1. The space a a a, 
 fig. 2, left in the second course to be filled up, the bricks 
 placed diagonally, is obviously equal to two brick lengths in 
 width; and therefore if two bricks are used for the diagonal 
 filling up, they would assume an angle comparatively little 
 away from that of a perpendicular line. At an angle of 45, 
 two bricks as b c, in fig. 33, would not fill up the space a a, 
 as in fig. 2, Plate XII. In diagonal bond, the courses of 
 diagonally placed bricks are always reversed, as at a a, b b ; 
 if in the first diagonal course, the bricks incline to the left, 
 in the next course they should incline to the right. The 
 courses of diagonally placed bricks may follow in succession, 
 but another course of common English bond may intervene 
 without destroying the bond as a whole, care only being 
 taken to reverse the position of diagonally placed bricks in 
 the successive courses. 
 
 (/). " Herring-bone " Bond. This is a species of diagonal 
 bond, but in which the angular filling up is made up of two 
 lines of bricks placed at reverse angles in the same course; 
 thus in figs. 2 and 3, Plate XII., the bricks a a are placed at 
 an angle reversed as compared to that at which the bricks b b 
 are placed. In addition to the triangular spaces left at the 
 junction of the ends of the brick with the outside line of 
 stretchers and headers, the position which the bricks aa,bb 
 assume to each other creates a series of voids, as d d, which 
 may be fitted up with half bricks or bats, as at d d, or left 
 open as at e, although it is not the practice to leave them 
 open. The wall, if built in diagonal bond proper, would 
 have the space filled up by two bricks, as b and c in fig. 33; 
 but at an angle considerably greater than that of 45, as 
 there shown, and for the reasons already stated. This angle 
 in practice is very easily formed, as the space left in the 
 course dictates it at once. In Plate XII., fig. 1 is the "first," 
 
 31. D 
 
50 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 fig. 2 the "second," fig. 3 the "third," and fig. 4 the "fourth," 
 course of a wall in English bond, equal in thickness to three 
 and a half bricks. It will be observed that while the bricks 
 in one course, fig. 2, are reversed in position, these positions 
 must be again reversed, as a whole, in the next course, fig. 3 ; 
 thus, in fig. 2, the upper row of bricks a a incline to the left, 
 the lower b b to the right, while in fig. 3, a a incline to the 
 right, and b b to the left. 
 
 Fig. 34. 
 
 (g). Cross-lond. Fig. 34 illustrates what is called "cross- 
 bond," and which is much used in Germany. This bond 
 differs from our English bond by the interposition of a 
 second course of stretchers, as a a, the joints of which fall in 
 the centres of the bricks of the first course c d, as the joint e 
 of brick a above the centre of the brick c; the same portions 
 of the bricks of the stretching course coming in every fifth 
 course, as fg and hi. This combination of "cross" with 
 
VARIETIES OF BOND. 
 
 51 
 
 common "English" bond gives a very good transverse 
 bond to a brick wall "built according to it, as illustrated in 
 fig. 34. In figs. 1 to 8, Plate XIII., and in figs. 37 to 39 
 inclusive, we give illustrations of "bond" as used in Belgium, 
 where there are some fine specimens of brickwork, the thick- 
 ness of the bricks, we may here remark, being much less 
 
 Fig. 35. 
 
 than that adopted here ; this gives a stronger wall than 
 thick bricks. In fig. 1, Plate XIII., we give the first course 
 of a wall one brick length in thickness; fig. 2, Plate XIII. , 
 
52 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION". 
 
 being the second course; fig. 3, Plate XIII., the elevation, 
 and fig. 4, Plate XIII., cross section on the line a b in fig. 3. 
 
 Fig. 36. 
 
 In fig. 5, Plate XIII., we illustrate the first course of a wall 
 equal in thickness to a brick and half length; fig. 6, Plate XIII. 
 the second course; fig. 7 elevation, and fig. 8, Plate XIII., 
 cross section on the line a b, in fig. 7, Plate XIII. ; fig. 35 first 
 
HOLLOW BRICKWORK. 53 
 
 course of a wall equal in thickness to two bricks and a half; 
 fig. 36 second course; fig. 37 section on line a b. 
 
 Fig. 37. 
 
 18. Hollow Brickwork. Walls are now constructed, to 
 SL very large extent, in such a way that they present a hollow 
 space or vacuity in the interior, this not only affecting a con- 
 siderable saving in bricks, but tending very much to keep 
 the exterior face of the wall dry or damp-proof, and this to a 
 very considerable degree of completeness. This latter point 
 will be obvious on slight consideration, inasmuch as, should 
 the outer or weather surface of the wall be defectively built, 
 either with bad bricks or through careless and bad "pointing," 
 in heavy rains, especially if these be accompanied by high 
 winds blowing in the direction of the walls, the wet or damp 
 which may pass through the outer skin, so to call it, of the 
 wall, will pass down the sides of the cavity or hollow, and 
 not through the inner skin of the wall next the room. In 
 building " hollow walls " or " cavity walls," as they are in 
 some districts named, the bond requires to be altered so as 
 to meet the peculiarities of the kind or variety of wall deter- 
 mined upon. 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 (a). In fig. 38 we give a drawing of a mine with hollow 
 wall, built according to the bond proposed by Mr. Dearn. 
 
 Fig. 38. 
 
 Fig. 39. 
 
HOLLOW BEICKWORK. 
 
 55 
 
 In this, rows of headers, a a, a a, alternate with rows of 
 stretchers b b, but the stretchers b b are placed on the edge; 
 thus giving throughout the whole length of the wall a hollow 
 space or vacuity c c. The appearance of this wall in elevation 
 is also shown in the diagram; but the usual method of dis- 
 posing the bricks in elevation is shown in fig. 39, where the 
 stretchers are so disposed that the joints, as c c, of one (b) do 
 
 Fig. 41. 
 
 oi bonding the angle at the meeting of two walls, fig. 40 
 not coincide with the row of stretchers next in succession, as 
 a, but with the next but one, as ddj the joint a of two con- 
 tiguous stretchers being above the solid part of the stretcher 
 b in the course of stretchers below. Fig. 40 shows the method 
 
56 BUILDING CONSTRUCTIOX. 
 
 being the "first course," fig. 41 the "second course." This 
 method of building effects a saving of about one-third of the 
 bricks and one-half of the mortar. Fourteen inch walls are 
 built by having header bricks fourteen inches long. 
 
 (b). In fig. 1, Plate XIV., we give an elevation and plan 
 of first course, and in fig. 2, same Plate, an elevation and 
 plan of second course of a brick and half thick hollow wall, 
 giving as in "Dearn's method," fig. 38, the hollow or "cavity" 
 in the centre of the wall. But the continuity of the cavity 
 is broken by the cross or tie bricks a a, which break joint 
 with the two stretchers in the opposite side of the wall. 
 The positions of these are reversed in the successive courses; 
 thus, in fig. 1, Plate XIV., the header, or tie or cross brick a, 
 is towards the outside, while in fig. 2, Plate XIV., the stretchers 
 b b are outside, and the header, tie or cross-brick a, at the 
 inside, of the wall. In fig. 3, Plate XIV., we give elevation 
 and plan of first course, and in fig. 4, Plate XIV, elevation 
 and plan, second course, of a two brick thick wall at the 
 angles. Here the cavity or hollow is not in the centre, but 
 towards the inside of wall, and is not contiguous but broken 
 by cross, header, or tie bricks a a a; the positions of these are 
 reversed in the second course, as will be seen by inspecting 
 the drawings in the one course as fig. 4, Plate XIV., they 
 are a a in the interior of the wall, in the other course, fig. 3, 
 Plate XIV., they are towards the inside of wall. It will be 
 observed that in figs. 3 and 4, Plate XIV., the length of each 
 vacuity b b is greater than at c c; in figs. 1 and 2, Plate XIV, 
 the cross or tie bricks a being at greater intervals in the two- 
 brick, than in the brick-and-half wall. It will be further 
 observed that the bond gives a very peculiar elevation to the 
 wall, as at a and b, in figs. 3 and 4, Plate XIV., and that 
 the sides are not similar. Figs. 1 and 2, Plate XV., show 
 another method of arranging the bond which gives in eleva- 
 tion English bond on both sides. 
 
 19. Bond in connection with the Internal Walls 
 joining External Walls at Eight Angles. In fig. 42 
 we give an illustration of a wall equal in thickness to 
 one brick, in English bond, this being the first course, 
 fig. 43 being the second. Fig. 44, the first course of a 
 wall of same thickness ; but in Flemish bond, is illustrated; 
 
WALLS AT RIGHT ANGLES. 57 
 
 fig. 45 being the second course. In fig. 46, Plate XVI., 
 we give an illustration showing the junction of a wall two 
 bricks thick with another wall two and a half bricks thick, in 
 " English bond," this being the first course, fig. 47, Plate XVI. 
 
 Fig. 43. 
 
 being the second course. In fig. 48, Plate XVI., the first 
 course, showing the junction at right angles of walls each 
 two bricks in thickness is given; fig. 49, Plate XVII., being 
 the second course. In this arrangement, the wall a a is in 
 English, the wall B B in Flemish bond. In figs. 50 and 51, 
 Plate XVII., we illustrate an arrangement shown by Sir 
 C. Pasley in treating of bond, in his work alluded to in 
 the Elementary Volume of Building Construction (Brick and 
 
58 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Stone Work). In this, B B may be supposed to be a pier, 
 as that of a park wall, from one side of which a wall a a, 
 two bricks thick, leads off to the left; while a wall only one 
 
 Fig. 45. 
 
 brick thick leads off to the right, or C may be a small pro- 
 jecting pier, equal in projection to the line a at C, in fig. 50, 
 Plate XVII. ; in this case the second course would be ter- 
 minated by the brick b being three-quarters of a brick in 
 length. The student will find other examples, under this 
 head, in the Elementary Vol. on Building Construction 
 (Brick and Stone Work). 
 
 20. Footings of Walls. The object of the footing of a 
 wall is to form a bearing surface, so as to afford a secure 
 foundation for the superincumbent wall to rest upon. In 
 Plate XYIIL we illustrate the method of laying out footings 
 adapted for walls from one brick to four bricks thick, showing 
 
REVEALS OR JAMBS. 
 
 59 
 
 also the "bond." Fig. 7 is the footing for a "one-brick 
 wall," fig. 6 for a " brick-and-half wall," fig. 5 for a " two- 
 brick wall," fig. 4 for a " two-and-half brick wall," fig. 3 for 
 a "three-brick wall," fig. 2 for a " three-and-half brick wall," 
 and fig. 1 for a " four-brick wall." Fig. 8 is a perspective 
 view of the footing of a four-brick wall as in fig. 1, finishing 
 with a one brick as in fig. 7. 
 
 21. Window and Door Openings, Reveals, Jambs, &c. 
 The openings in brick walls made to receive doors and 
 windows, are in some districts technically called "voids." 
 The vertical sides of the opening to right and left of the 
 "void" are called "reveals," or "jambs," according to their 
 position. The vertical sides towards the external side of the 
 wall are called " reveals," as the part c } fig, 52 7 formed by 
 
 Fig. 52. 
 
 the " return " from the external face of wall a a, and the 
 external face b b of the door or window frame represented by 
 the dotted lines b b. The depth of the part c from a to b is 
 usually half a brick, although much finer architectural effect 
 can be obtained by having a deeper reveal. The mode, 
 sometimes still adopted, which was so prevalent in the last 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Fig. 55. 
 
SQUARE JAMBS. 
 
 61 
 
 century, of bringing the front of the sash frame of a window 
 formed so as to be flush, or nearly so, with the face of the 
 wall, should be discarded. The inside return or recess 
 formed behind the face e e of the inner wall, and the back of 
 the door or window frame, is called a "jamb," as d e, fig. 52. 
 " Jambs " are of two kinds " square " as at a b d e, and 
 " splayed " as at a b d e e, fig. 52. The corresponding letters 
 indicate corresponding parts. Figs. 53 and 54 illustrate a 
 " square reveal," or "jamb," in a two-brick wall, fig. 53 being 
 "first," and fig. 54 being "second course," and in English 
 
 Fig. 57. 
 
 bond. A similar reveal, but in Flemish bond, is illustrated 
 in fig. 55, which is the first, and in fig. 56, which is the 
 
62 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 second course. The student will observe that in fig. 56 the 
 bond with the half closer a, and the half brick b } is bad. 
 
 Fig. 59. 
 
 " It is usual, therefore," says Sir Charles Pasley, " to throw 
 in a brick so cut as to form both pieces (as a and b) in one. 
 
SQUARE JAMBS. 
 
 63 
 
 This is called a * king closer; ' and if it were practicable, it 
 ought to be formed," as shown by the line c d efg k, with a 
 shoulder h g, " but as it cannot conveniently be out in that 
 
 Fig. 61. 
 
 manner, it is cut obliquely as " at a in fig. 57. The same 
 figure shows the arrangement in the bond, b being the header 
 cut as at a, the stretcher being also cut as at c. In fig. 58 
 
64 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 we illustrate the first course of a splayed jamb for a two-brick 
 thick wall; in fig. 59, second course, in English bond. In 
 fig. 60 the first, and in fig. 61 the second course, of a splayed 
 
 Fig. 63. 
 
 jamb two-and-a-half bricks thick; and in fig. 62, first course 
 in English bond; and in fig. 63, second course of a splayed 
 iamb of a similar kind, but in Flemish bond. 
 
BRICK PIERS. 
 
 65 
 
 22. Brick Piers. Fig. 64 is the " first course " of a two- 
 brick square pier or column; the second course is precisely 
 the same, with this difference, that the bricks are so disposed 
 that the side a c, in fig. 64, is turned round to take the place 
 
 Fig. 65, 
 
 of the side a 6, this arrangement being sHown in fig. 65. This 
 example is in English bond. Figs. 66 and 67 are the first and 
 second courses of a pier of same size, but in Flemish bond. 
 
 31. E 
 
66 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 In Plate XIX., fig. 1 is the plan of the first course of a 
 pier two and a half bricks square, in Flemish bond, fig. 2 the 
 
 c - 
 
 Fig. 66. 
 
 Fig. 67. 
 
 second course, and fig. 3 the elevation. Fig. 4 shows another 
 arrangement of fig. 1, with half closers. In fig. 5 we give 
 the plan of first course of a pier three bricks square, in fig. 6 
 the second course, and in fig. 7 part elevation, this being in 
 English bond. "In piers," says Sir Charles Pasley, "built 
 according to English bond, each course shows wall headers 
 
FIREPLACES, FLUES, AND CHIMXEY STALKS. 67 
 
 and stretchers alternately, the heading course of one side 
 being the stretching course of the next side, on the same 
 horizontal level, and the closers of the heading courses are 
 continued right across the whole pier, from one side to the 
 other, by which means perfect bond is obtained. In piers 
 of one, two, or three bricks square, and in others whose sides 
 are measured by whole numbers, all the bricks of the stretch- 
 ing courses are whole bricks; but in piers of two and a half, 
 three and a half, or four and a half bricks square, and in all 
 others whose sides involve half a brick, it is necessary that a 
 line of half bricks shall be introduced in or near the middle 
 of each stretching course to make up the proper thickness, or 
 in lieu of half bricks, one line of headers may be introduced 
 into the middle of the stretching courses, in the core of the 
 wall only." As regards piers in Flemish bond there are few 
 dimensions which yield correct bond in every course. " In 
 fact," says Sir C. Pasley, "of square piers, only the two 
 and a half brick square, the four brick square, the five and 
 a half brick square, and the seven brick square, afford that 
 regularity." Fig, 4, Plate XX., is plan and elevation of a two- 
 and-a-half brick pier, in Flemish bond, fig. 5 second course. 
 Fig. 1 first course, fig. 2 second course, and fig. 3 elevation, 
 of a three-brick pier in Flemish bond. In fig. 1, Plate XXI., 
 first course, fig. 2 second course, and fig. 3 elevation, we give 
 of a three and a half brick pier. 
 
 23. Fireplaces, Flues, and Chimney Stalks. In this 
 country the fireplace is what is known as "open," in contra- 
 distinction to the closed fireplaces or stoves of continental 
 countries. The fuel in open fireplaces is consumed in an iron 
 grate of various degrees or varieties of ornamentation, this 
 being enclosed in a brick (or stone) fireplace, of which the 
 first elevation shows generally an arched opening, as in fig. 68. 
 The solid part, as a a, is the front wall, generally termed the 
 "chimney breast," b b being the arched opening of the fire- 
 place. The brickwork of the fireplace does not rest simply 
 upon the joists or beams of the floor, in the case of floors with 
 joists, but upon parts projecting from the wall, called "jambs," 
 as A and B in fig. 1, Plate XXIII. ; in the case of cellar or 
 basement rooms it starts at once from the floor. These 
 "jambs" serve also the important purpose of continuing the 
 
8 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 "fines," by which the smoke is conveyed from the fireplaces 
 to the open air. These flues are not of the same width 
 of the fireplace opening as at b b in fig. 68, but they are 
 
 Fig. 68. 
 
 contracted, a little above the level of the finish of the arch 
 of the fireplace opening, to the dimensions of the flue; this 
 construction is generally termed the "throat" of the flue, as 
 at a a in fig. 69. In the case of floors where timber joists 
 are used, in order to prevent accidents arising from the com- 
 munication of the heat of the fireplace to the wood-work, a 
 flat stone, called a "hearth" stone, is placed immediately below 
 the grate; and still further to prevent accidents, this hearth 
 stone does not rest upon the joists/, but upon a brick arch 
 called a trimmer arch, d d, fig. 70, a a being the hearth stone, 
 b the side of jamb, e the wall, and c the "trimmer joist" (see 
 Carpentry), against which the end of the earth butts; the 
 other end butting against the wall e e. In the case of a single 
 fireplace, the arrangement of this flue is a very simple matter, 
 as the flue merely runs straight up, or may be slightly bent 
 out of its course, to the open air; but in the case of a house 
 with several stories, and several apartments in each storey, 
 the arrangement of the flues become a much more complicated 
 
FIKEPLACES, FLUES, AND CHIMNEY STALKS. 
 
 69 
 
 affair, and requires the exercise of no small degree of care 
 and skill on the part of the designer. Col. Pasley gives some 
 very useful remarks on this subject, and illustrates them by 
 
 ':' . ' ' 
 
 Fig. 69. 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 various diagrams; from these we have prepared the subjects 
 in Plates XXIII. and XXI V., illustrating the arrangement 
 t>r plan of the flues of a fireplace, in all the floors of a six- 
 
 Fig. 70. 
 
 storeyed house, two houses adjoining. In Plate XXIII., 
 fig. 1 is the plan of the jambs of the "basement floor," in 
 which, of course, there is no flue, the same remark applying 
 to the plan of the jambs of the ground floor, at the level of 
 that floor, as shown in fig. 2. But the "flues" begin to show 
 
 Fig. 71. 
 
 themselves in the "jambs," immediately above the "chimney 
 throat," at ground floor, as shown in fig. 3 ; in which C C are 
 
FIREPLACES, FLUES, AND CHIMNEY STALKS. 71 
 
 Fig. 72. 
 
72 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 the flues of the kitchen chimney, brick and half square, these 
 being always larger than the flues of fireplaces of living rooms, 
 as at D D, which are generally brick and half long by one 
 brick wide. In Plate XXIY., fig. 1, the plan of the jambs 
 of the first floor is given, in which C C are the kitchen flues, 
 D D the parlour flues, corresponding to C C, D D in fig. 3, 
 Plate XXIII., E E being the flues of the drawing-room in 
 the first floor. This plan, like that of fig. 3, Plate XXIII., 
 is taken at level above throat of first floor chimney. In fig. 2, 
 Plate XXIV., the plan above level of chimney throat of 
 second floor is given; the additional flues F F being the flues 
 of the fireplaces in second floor. In fig. 3 the plan at roof is 
 shown of all the flues, G G- being the flues of the third or attic 
 floor. The woodcut in fig. 69 is a cross-section on the line c d y 
 fig. 2 ; Plate XXIV., and fig. 71 section on a I, same figure. 
 
 Fig. 73. 
 
 Fig. 72 illustrates the arrangement of the bricks in the 
 gathering of the throat of the flue above a fireplace a b. 
 
FIREPLACES, FLUES, AND CHIMNEY STALKS. 
 
 73 
 
 In some cases the outside wall, as a, fig. 73, of a small flue is 
 carried outside the general line of wall; in this case the flue 
 wall a a is supported upon a stone plank c c. "We now show 
 the construction of flues "bond" of the bricks of which they 
 are made. In fig. 74 we give the first course, and in fig. 75 
 
 Fig. 74 
 
 Fig. 75. 
 
 the second course of a single flue 9 inches square inside, 
 that is a brick square, the outside walls being half a brick 
 thick. In fig. 76 we give the first, and in fig. 77 the second 
 course of a range, single, of three flues two, a and 5, 9 by 14 
 inches; one, c, 14 inches square, brick and half. The divisions 
 between the flues, as d and e, are technically called "withs," 
 the outside walls in this case are half brick thick. In fig. 78, 
 Plate XXII., we give the first, and in fig. 79, the second 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Figs. 76, 77. 
 
FIREPLACES. FLUES, AND CHIMNEY STALKS, 75 
 
76 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 course of a single range of flues, in which the outside walls 
 are one brick thick; the arrangement of the courses being 
 in English bond. A double range of flues with outside 
 walls and "withs" of half brick thick is given in fig. 80, 
 Plate XXI., first, and in fig. 81 second, course. In Plate 
 XXV., fig. 1, we give the first, and in fig. 2 the second, 
 course of a double range of flues with outside walls one 
 brick thick. In Plate XX VI., fig. 1, we give elevation 
 of a brick steam-engine chimney shaft between 60 and 
 70 feet high; in fig. 2 sectional plan showing the connec- 
 tion of the horizontal flue leading from the steam-engine 
 furnace to the vertical shaft or flue b of the chimney, in 
 fig. 1. Fig. 3 is an alternative design for the cap on top a. 
 In Plate XXVII., we give various sections of the chimney. 
 
 24. Arches. In a succeeding paragraph, the subject of 
 arches, the theoretical principles, the method adopted in 
 practice upon which they are constructed, and the various 
 forms in use is briefly described after the discussion of the, 
 
 1> 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 Fig. 82. 
 
 division on masonry. At this point it is only considered 
 necessary to describe the various forms of brick arches. An 
 
ARCHEP. 
 
 7T 
 
 arch proper Is an arrangement of bricks or stones formed 
 wedge shape. The first of these on each side of the open- 
 ing, which is covered by the arch, being laid on what is 
 called the abutment course, as a in fig. 83, the bed or junc- 
 tion lines of the adjacent stones radiating towards the centre 
 from which the curve of the arch is described or struck, as 
 the lines b b to the centre c, fig. 83. The bricks or stones 
 
 Fig. 83. 
 
 are laid during the construction of the arch upon a 'timber 
 framework called a " centre " (see division on " Carpentry "); 
 and if the form or arrangement, and the putting together of 
 the stones or bricks be correctly designed, the whole will 
 
78 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 remain in equilibrium, when the centring or timber frame is 
 removed, and be calculated to bear and resist heavy weights 
 and strains placed on the upper side of the arch. The central 
 stone of an arch, as d, fig. 83, is called the " key-stone." The 
 external or upper bounding curve of the arch, as the line ef t 
 is called the " extrados," or the " back of the arch," the inner 
 or lower line, g h, the " intrados," or soffit of the arch. The 
 line, as c i } from which the arch stones spring, is called the 
 " springing line." The distance or full width of spring, as 
 double the distance A c in the drawing, fig. 83, is called the 
 *' span " of the arch. The highest part of the arch, as 6, is 
 called the " vertex," or the " crown of the arch." The first 
 >stone, asj, is called the "springer," and this rests upon the 
 " impost " or " abutment," represented by a. The walls 
 behind the arch, as k k, are called the " haunches." The 
 separate stone blocks in a stone aroh^ are called "voussoirs." 
 The central one, as d, being, as already explained, the " key- 
 stone." In brickwork, arches are known as "French," 
 " straight," "semicircular," "segmental," "scheme," "cam- 
 ber" arches; and according to the way in which they are 
 built are called " rough," " cut," and " guaged " arches. To 
 these may be added the " relieving " and " inverted " arch. 
 We now proceed to illustrate these various forms. The 
 " French arch," illustrated in fig. 84, is in reality, no arch at 
 all (see description of fig. 83), and is an arrangement which 
 should never be adopted. The " straight '' or " flat " arch is 
 illustrated in fig. 85, The line or end, c d, is called the " skew 
 back." All the brick joints converge to a point, the manner 
 of finding which for any width of opening the student will 
 find described in the volume entitled Technical Drawing for 
 Architects and Builders. When the bricks are cut to some- 
 what near the wedge form, which they assume, the arches 
 are called " rough arches." 
 
 25. The "semicircular arch" is illustrated in fig. 1, Plate 
 XXVIII. The " segmental arch," as indicated by its name, 
 is formed by an arc or part of a circle. In fig. 3, the 
 diagram shows the method in which, in practice, the bricks, 
 not being cut to suit the converging form, are placed in the 
 arch, the outer part being filled up with mortar. When the 
 bricks are arranged so that their joints all converge to the 
 
ARCHES. 
 
 79 
 
 centre of the arc, as fig. 5, Plate XXVIII., the segmental 
 arch is then called a "scheme" arch. In the upper part of the 
 figure certain lines are indicated, these form part of the true 
 
 Fig. 84. 
 
 lines of a scheme arch, the method of finding which will be 
 found in the work named at end of last paragraph. When the 
 curve of the segmental arch is very flat, the centre from which 
 it could be described being very distant from the intrados of 
 
80 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 the arch, the bricks have their joints converging to points 
 nearer the arch, and are all therefore cut to different forms : 
 
 Fig. 85. 
 
 the: arch is called a "camber arch." The segmental arch in 
 fig. 86 also illustrates what is called a "relieving arch," the 
 
 Jig. 86. 
 
 office of which is to take off or relieve the pressure of the 
 wall above the wood lintel a b, which is stretched across 
 the opening; c is a wood brick, a c the arch. Fig. 87 
 
A STRING COURSE. 
 
 81 
 
 illustrates an adaptation of the segmental arch, in the arch 
 of a fireplace, see a preceding paragraph. Fig. 88 is 
 what is called a "skew or rampant" arch, fig. 89 is a 
 segmental arch, brick and half in depth, fig. 86 being only 
 one brick. The "inverted arch 11 is illustrated in fig. 4, 
 Plate XXVIII. 
 
 Fig. 87. 
 
 26 In fig. 90 a " trimmer arch " is illustrated, being that 
 used to support the hearth-stone, a a, of a fireplace b, c the 
 "trimmer joist," d d the arch, e e the wall. 
 
 27. A String Course. Fig 2, at a b, Plate XXIX., 
 illustrates a " string course " adapted to a brick wall. The 
 part a, which projects beyond the normal line, ef, of wall, is 
 the "string course," which is thus shown to be a part or 
 
 31. F 
 
82 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 course of brick running horizontally along the face of wall. 
 It is usually placed between the two stories of a building, 
 and is designed to break the uniformity of the flat surface of 
 
 wall. It forms part also of a 
 "cornice," a form of which is 
 illustrated in fig. 2, Plate XXIX., 
 the simpler, perhaps the simplest, 
 form of cornice being illustrated 
 in fig. 1, Plate XXIX. Orna- 
 mentally formed and differently 
 coloured bricks are now much 
 used for string courses. 
 
 28. A Corbel is in a manner a 
 string course, inasmuch as it is a 
 part which projects from the nor- 
 mal surface line of wall. While 
 "string courses" are employed 
 externally and for the purposes 
 of ornament, or presumed orna- 
 ment, corbels are generally used 
 internally, and for the purpose 
 of supporting beams, etc. Corbels 
 for supporting wall plates are 
 only used, as a general rule, in 
 stories other than the ground 
 floor; the joists and wall plates 
 of ground floors being carried by 
 small "sleeper walls" or "piers" 
 starting from the ground, and 
 projecting from the wall. This 
 is the best practice; the most 
 usual, however, being the inser- 
 tion and building in of the joists 
 in the wall itself. 
 
 29. Brick Coping for Wall. 
 A form of brick coping for a 
 
 Fig. 89. brick-and-half wall is illustrated 
 
 in fig. 3, Plate XXIX. The part a a is also called a 
 "gathering course," other forms are shown in figs. 4 and 5. 
 In fig, 90a a simple form of coping is shown, in which a 
 
BRICK COPING FOR WALL. 
 
 Fig. 88. 
 
 Fig. 90. 
 
84 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 course of slate a a is surmounted by the brick course b b, 
 the " drip " falling from the slate. In fig. 906 the last course 
 is made up of half round bricks a a. In fig. 90c the coping 
 is nlade up of bricks a a, and a projecting course, brick-and- 
 half b b. 
 
 a 
 
 Fig. 90a. 
 
 Fig. 906. 
 
 Fig. 90c. 
 
 30. Wood-work in Combination with Brick. The wood- 
 work connected with or built into brickwork, is of three 
 
WOODWORK IN COMBINATION WITH BRICK. 
 
 85 
 
 kinds, " chain timber," " bond timber " wall plates, and 
 " wood bricks." Chain timbers so called are timbers running 
 longitudinally and in the centre of the brickwork, and com- 
 pletely hid by it. In place of these timbers, hoop-iron bond 
 
 Fig. 91. 
 
 is now used. Wall plates are usually of depth of two courses 
 of brick, and are laid so that their outer edge is flush with 
 the face of the brickwork. When laid on cross walls on 
 both sides, the walls are so cut that when the wall plates 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 I _J 
 
 n 1 
 
 Fig. 92. 
 
WOODWORK IN COMBINATION WITH BRICK. 87 
 
 decay it wont give way. The plan of carrying the wall 
 plates upon projecting brick corbels, is an arrangement in 
 every way the best to be adopted. "Bond timbers," so 
 known, are in fact the pieces of wood which are built into 
 the walls, and to which the finished woodwork lining the 
 walls of the apartments is secured. The arrangement of bond 
 timbers is shown in fig. 91, the first as a a, usually called 
 the " skirting bond,'* is placed at a height of six inches from 
 the floor board b b, and is so called as to it the skirting board 
 is nailed; the wall plate supporting the joists of the floor 
 above is at c c, and between it and the skirting board a a 
 other bond timbers are placed at equi-distant intervals, as 
 d d. They are usually carried round the whole sides of the 
 apartment, stopping short at the chimney breasts some nine 
 inches, " Wood bricks " a a, fig. 92, are inserted at intervals 
 between the bond timbers at the opening of doors and win- 
 daws. These do not go through the thickness of the wall, 
 but stop short at the line of reveal. The number of wood 
 bricks generally used is twice that of the bond timbers, and 
 they are so arranged that they rest upon the upper surface of 
 one of the bond timbers, as b in fig. 92, where this terminates 
 at the window or door opening. In modern work of the best 
 kind, the use of bond timbers is being rapidly superseded by 
 the use of " hoop iron ;; already described, as from the very 
 nature of the system the student will perceive that it weakens 
 the wall, and tends to make its strength dependent upon the 
 soundness of the timber, and also to increase the liability to 
 fire. 
 
 By the use of templates, or plates of stone, and by the 
 use of hoop-iron bond, and by hooks and timber plugs or 
 small wedges, the number of bond timber and wood bricks 
 may be greatly lessened. 
 
 The mortar used in brickwork should be of good consist- 
 ency, not too thin, and the joints should be thin, that is, too 
 much mortar should not be used, The thickness of a joint, 
 when finished off, is usually half an inch. The bricks must 
 be well pressed into the mortar till it is squeezed out at the 
 sides, when it is finished off with the trowel, pointing being 
 deferred till the mortar has set (see remarks on "pointing"). 
 All the bricks must be carefully cleansed from dust, otherwise 
 
88 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 proper adherence between their surfaces and the mortar will 
 not take place. To prevent this, and to aid good adhesion, 
 the bricks should be thoroughly wetted in water before being 
 set, this precaution is of the greatest importance in brick- 
 work, and should never be neglected. 
 
PAET II STONEWORK. 
 
PAKT II. STONEWOKK. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 VARIETIES OF STONEWORK. 
 
 21. Stone for the building of walls is employed in various 
 ways: first, "random or rough rubble;" second, "coursed 
 rubble;" third, "ashlar," to which maybe added a fourth 
 kind, known as " Kentish rag stone," which, although used 
 in ancient times, is now being again extensively adopted in 
 the building of churches, etc., the style of which is mediaeval. 
 "We shall briefly describe the above in the order given. 
 
 22. Random or Bough Rubble. This, illustrated by 
 rough sketch in fig. 93, consists in using stone of all sizes 
 
 Fig. 93. 
 
 just as they may come from the quarry, without being squared 
 or dressed. The sizes should be as uniform as possible, 
 although this is not always looked after. The bond is 
 obtained by fitting in the inequalities of the stones to each 
 other as well as their form and size admit. The main 
 strength of the wall built in this fashion depends upon the 
 goodness of the mortar; but by using, now and then, large 
 
92 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 stones which go across the wall, extending through its thick- 
 ness from back to front, these being supported by stones as 
 well fitted in as possible, and mortar of first-rate quality be 
 used, excellent and strong walls can be obtained by this 
 method. Walls built on this method hundreds of years ago 
 are as strong as ever; but the mortar used in those days was 
 really mortar, and so strong that old rubble walls are stronger 
 in the parts where mortar is used than at the parts where the 
 stone is met with. In random or rough rubble walling the 
 mortar is not only used in building the stones employed, but 
 is also used in what is called " flushing " or " grouting," that 
 is, pouring it in a thinnish condition into the spaces or 
 interstices between the stones, thus making the whole, when 
 the mortar is dry, a solid mass. Excellent and strong walls 
 are now built in which stones are employed in every way too 
 small to be used even for the poorest of random rubble work, 
 by using Portland cement concrete for grouting or flushing 
 up the interstices between the stones. A description of this 
 method will be found at another part of this work. 
 
 23. Coursed Rubble. This, as shown in the rough sketch 
 in fig. 94, is the employment of stones, not dressed or but 
 
 Fig. 94. 
 
 roughly so, as they come from the quarry, but chosen of sizes 
 somewhat uniform and of the same thickness in each course, 
 so that a uniformity of line in the course is obtained; hence 
 the name. The stones vary in depth, dependent upon the 
 condition in which they come or are sent from the quarry, 
 but they are carefully fitted and well laid in mortar. Bond 
 is obtained by the use of " stretchers " and " headers," these 
 serving the same office as the bricks; corresponding names in 
 brickwork, a stretcher being a stone laid the long way along 
 the length of face of wall, a " header " being a stone placed 
 
KANDOM OR ROUGH RUBBLE. 
 
 93 
 
 lengthways across the breadth of the wall. Headers are also 
 sometimes known as "throughs" or "binding stones," from 
 stretching completely across the wall from front to back; but 
 the term "through" is more correctly applied when so used; 
 as in coursed rubble work, a " header " stone may not go 
 right across the wall, but may stop short, this being the case 
 in walls the front of which is built of coursed rubble, with the 
 backing of rough or random rubble. This is illustrated in. 
 fig. 95, in which a are the " headers," but are not "throughs," 
 
 Fig. 95. 
 
 c the stretchers, b the random or rough rubble backing. In 
 the wall of which fig. 1, Plate XXXI., is a rough sketch, the 
 face is of coursed rubble work, as also the back, while the 
 centre is filled in with rough or random rubble work d. In 
 this b b are the " stretchers," b b the " headers," and c c a 
 "through." The distinction between a "header" and a 
 " through " is thus illustrated, as also at a a, in fig. 2, Plate 
 XXXI. In the coursed rubble work no two joints of the 
 successive courses should be broken, that is (see Brickwork), 
 the joints of two stones in the last laid course must fall upon 
 the solid part of the stone of the course below. 
 
94 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 24. Ashlar Work. In this the stones are of large size, 
 the minimum depth or thickness of each block being 12 inches. 
 All the stones are carefully dressed either by the pick or by 
 the chisel, and the joints carefully made, so that the courses 
 should all run parallel to one another, and be horizontal. In 
 superior ashlar work the faces are all f ' rubbed," so as to 
 present a perfectly smooth surface. The faces of the stone 
 have different names applied to them, thus the bottom b c of 
 a block, a b c d, fig. 3, Plate XXXI, is termed the " bottom 
 bed;" the top, c d, the "top bed." The vertical joint to the 
 front is called the " face," that to the back " the back." The 
 bond is obtained by using " headers " and " stretchers " laid 
 alternately in each course. 
 
 25. Ashlar work may be laid with the joints close, as in 
 fig. 5; or they may be finished as in figs. 6 and 7, Plate 
 XXXI. The strongest form for a stone is that of a cube, in 
 which all the dimensions are the same; but blocks of this 
 kind are rarely used, from the difficulty that exists in getting 
 good bond with them. Stones are therefore, for ashlar or 
 squared work, employed in the form of rectangular pressure, 
 a safe proportion being that in which the length is two ta 
 three times the thickness, and the width or breadth twice the 
 thickness. In the case of very hard stones, the length and 
 the width may be much increased beyond these proportions. 
 In place of using very long stones where the stone is of a 
 soffcish character, it is better to use shorter stones, obtaining 
 bond by a careful disposition of the blocks, so as to get the- 
 joints to cross or interlace as much as possible. In " block 
 in course," which is a modification of ashlar work, in which 
 the heights of the courses are not uniform, and the thickness 
 of the blocks less than that of those used in " ashlar work " 
 proper, the thicker and thinner courses should follow each, 
 other, and the stones should be so disposed of, that those in 
 each alternate course should be made to extend further into 
 the thickness of the wall than those of the course immediately 
 above and below. In the course above and below all "voids" 
 a window or a door opening is called technically a " void " 
 great care is required in the disposition of the bordering 
 stones. In ashlar work the stones for facing the wall are, as 
 a rule, from two feet four inches to two feet and a half in 
 
ASHLAR WORK. 
 
 95 
 
 length, from twelve to eighteen inches in depth, and from 
 four and a half to nine or ten inches in thickness from face 
 to back, headers being thicker in this direction than the 
 stretchers. In " coursed rubble," or " block in course," the 
 depths of the faces of stones is less than that used for ashlar 
 work. While the depth of stones for ashlar work facing is, 
 as a rule, never less than twelve inches, the depth for coursed 
 rubble is less than twelve, generally nine inches. Stones for 
 ashlar work are often worked so that the width of the back, 
 as a, fig. 96, is less than that of the face, as b. This gives a 
 series of cavities or hollows, as c c, forming beds for the 
 mortar and for packing. The close joint to the front is often 
 only three-quarters of an inch in depth, although the stone 
 is often dressed so as to make a close joint from d to e of four 
 inches, the side receding from c to / to form the cavities, 
 as cc. 
 
 Fig. 96. 
 
 Fig. 97. 
 
 26. Plate XXX. illustrates a method of arranging blocks 
 for ashlar work in the front of a house. A modification of 
 ashlar wall is known as " block in course," the stones being 
 of a less depth in thickness than in ashlar work, varying 
 from 11 to 8 inches. In fig. 4, Plate XXXI., we give an 
 
96 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 illustration of " block in course " work, being part of the end 
 wall of a house; a a the " longs," and b b the " shorts " of the 
 " long and short " quoins, c c the " block in course " stones. 
 In fig. 8, Plate XXXI., we give the return of same wall to 
 the front; a a, bb, the corresponding quoins in fig. 4, Plate 
 XXXI., c c the window opening, d d the window sill, e e the 
 "head,"yy, g g the ashlar stones. 
 
 27. Kentish Key-stone Work is illustrated in fig. 97. 
 The stones being selected about the thickness of a brick, and 
 well laid in first-class mortar. 
 
 28. The following remarks on "masonry," of different 
 kinds, conveying much that is of a highly practical character, 
 are taken from a paper read by Mr. Rawlinson before the 
 Liverpool Architectural Society: 
 
 " Hewn Ashlar Masonry. Hewn ashlar masonry, if set 
 stone and stone, or with thin beds of mortar, and the face 
 work is either backed up with rubble or with bricks, must 
 be weak. Neither science nor care can make such hybrid 
 work strong, nor preserve it true in line, on face, vertically, 
 or horizontally; the backing will shrink and ' draw ' the face 
 work. I have not seen the Parthenon, and cannot, therefore, 
 pronounce positively as to the subtle curves said to exist in 
 the upper lines of the walls; but from experience I am led 
 to think these curves may be the result of * drawing,' by the 
 backing and by the weight of the roof combined. The main 
 front of St. George's Hall is straight at the ground line; at 
 the cornice it curves inward, from angle to angle, regularly 
 and truly, and in a most beautiful, and, if you like, ' subtle ' 
 curve, having a verted line of some four inches. The angles 
 cannot shrink. The central portion of wall, being most free, 
 shrinks most, and the inward draw is evenly and regularly 
 modified up to the angles. I do not believe a straight cornice 
 line can be found in any building of any length and height, 
 unless there are numerous inner and cross walls to counteract 
 the shrinking and binding actions named. 
 
 " The walls at St. George's Hall were set out true; they 
 were carried up truly; the shrinking and inward bending took 
 place subsequently. I noticed it, and understood the reason, 
 and in building the attic walls or courts which were added 
 soon after Mr. Elmes left England I backed the faced ashlar 
 
ROUGH RUBBLE MASONRY. 97 
 
 with pillars of ashlar in equal courses of Runcorn stone, as 
 may now be seen. I have never tested these walls, however, 
 to see if they remained in line. 
 
 " Masonry may be denned as the art of constructing with 
 stone upon a plan or system calculated to insure durability. 
 The structure may be a single fence wall of dry random 
 rubble; or it may be the most complicated and elaborately 
 carved cathedral. Betwixt these extremes there are many 
 varieties of masonry. 
 
 " Rough Rubble Masonry. This class of work, whether 
 set dry or in mortar, consists of stones of small dimensions, 
 upon which no labour has been bestowed, other than that 
 necessary to raise them from the earth or quarry. No stone 
 should be larger than one man can lift; and a skilful worker 
 always finds a place for each stone after he has once taken it 
 in hand. As denned by Johnson, 'A mason that makes a 
 wall meets with a stone that needs no cutting, and places in 
 his work.' 
 
 " Rough or Random Rubble Masonry may be set dry, or it 
 may be set in mortar; but dry, it forms fence walls, retaining 
 walls, and backing, to prevent the earth coming in contact 
 with masonry or brickwork as behind retaining walls of 
 rubble set in mortar, of coursed wall stone, or ashlar; or to 
 protect foundation walls from clay, marl, or wet earth, 
 
 "Rough Rubble Masonry consists of 1. Random rubble 
 set dry, as in moor and field fence walls. Examples may be 
 seen in Cumberland, and in most mountainous district. 
 
 " 2. Eandom rubble set in mortar. EXAMPLES fence walls, 
 house walls, and other structures. 
 
 "3. Coursed rubble set in mortar. EXAMPLES rubble 
 etone, levelled up in courses, generally the depth of ashlar, 
 or single quoins. 
 
 " 4. /Snecked rubble set in mortar. EXAMPLES rubble stone 
 having the faces ' snecked,' that is, the rough taken of so as to 
 present a more even surface, the beds remaining undressed. 
 
 " Rubble masonry is also used as backing to many varieties 
 of masonry, the face of a wall, bridge, and abutment, or 
 other structure, may be of wall-stone, of block in course, or of 
 ashlar, and the backing may be of rubble; or there may be 
 two faces, with a filling or ' hearting ' of rubble. 
 
 3 i G 
 
98 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 " Although ' random rubble ' forms work of the rudest 
 class, it is not certain that untutored men would construct 
 it, as considerable experience and skill are required to wall 
 small unhewed stone in line on face and in form. At pre- 
 sent there are districts in England, and in the British Isles 
 generally, where men are educated as 'random rubble 
 wallers/ and follow the practice as a distinct branch of 
 trade, and cannot execute masonry in any other form. 
 
 " Cyclopean Masonry. This form of masonry seems to have 
 been adopted for military and for religious purposes by the 
 aborigines of countries wide apart. There are remains of 
 Cyclopean construction older than written history. Most 
 known examples blend with myths, and are to be found in 
 the deserts of India, of Asia, of Central America, and in 
 Druidical remains spread over Europe. 
 
 " Cyclopean masonry is essentially barbaric, whether the 
 stone be rough and unhewn, or hewn and squared, or hewn 
 and fitted in angles and irregular forms. The temples of 
 Egypt, of Palmyra, and of Greece may be exceptions; but like 
 many exceptions confirm the rule. Masonry, in its highest 
 branches, consists in the art of constructing with small 
 stones. EXAMPLES the best abbeys and cathedrals. Mr. 
 Sharp states that few stones in the grand and elaborate 
 structures exceed a cube of two feet square : most of the 
 stones are of less dimensions, or such as a man could carry. 
 
 " The newest forms of masonry most in use for modern 
 purposes may be specified as : 
 
 "Random rubble set dry; random rubble set in mortar; 
 random rubble set with quoins, joints, and architraves, and 
 levelled in courses; snecked rubble, generally set in courses; 
 rubble with ashlar binders; rubble in alternate courses with 
 bricks or with tiles; flint rubble , whole or cut; boulder or 
 pebble rubble, whole or cut. Flint and pebbles are generally 
 used with brick, tile, or stone quoins and courses. Slate 
 rubble, this is set in horizontal beds having an angle of 45, or 
 at any intermediate angle, and examples may be found vertical. 
 Herring-bone rubble, where flat bedded stones are found, this 
 example of masonry may be seen. The Romans frequently 
 used it, not only for face work, but to back ' squared wall- 
 stone/ or to form the ' hearting ' to their military walls. 
 
ASHLAR. 99 
 
 "Intermediate betwixt true rubble and regular coursed 
 wall-stone, or ashlar, there are forms of masonry in which 
 stones are set irregularly labour being required to produce 
 irregularity. Much of this class of work has neither econ- 
 omy, beauty, or strength to recommend it. 
 
 " Wall-stone squared and bedded; coursed wall-stone set dry ; 
 coursed wall-stone set in mortar; rough faced wall-stone ; 
 pitch faced wall-stone; scabbled wall-stone; punched wall- 
 stone; skutched wall-stone; bousted wall-stone. 
 
 11 There are other forms of finish for the face of coursed wall- 
 stones, and the beds and joints generally rise in finish to 
 accord with the faces, that is, 'rough faced? or 'pitch faced' 
 wall-stones will have beds and joints; 'rough pitched, 1 
 'punched? or 'skutched off' wall-stones, have a higher 
 finish on the face, will have clean bousted beds and joints. 
 Coursed wall-stones vary in depth up to 9 inches. 
 
 " Block in Course. This form of masonry may have all the 
 varieties as named for ' coursed wall-stone,' the difference 
 consisting in dimensions alone. 'Block in course' may 
 commence from 9 inches (the depth of each course), upwards 
 until it verges into 'rough ashlar.' The engineer or 
 architect should, however, in all cases, specify the dimensions 
 for coursed wall-stone and block in course, as also that which 
 is to constitute the differences betwixt these and ashlar; and 
 all the other varieties of masonry should be defined. 
 
 "Parpoints: Stones with two Faces. Parpoints may con- 
 sist of wall-stone, block in course, or ashlar. Stones of this 
 denomination are used in walls such as ' battlements ' or 
 ' parapets ' to bridges. The faces may be rough, or rubbed, 
 or of any intermediate grain of workmanship. 
 
 " Ashlar. Ashlar forms the main feature in true masonry. 
 The stones are always set in true courses, and the depth may 
 be from 12 inches to any available thickness. The beds and 
 joints should always be chisel dressed; that is, drafted and 
 bousted off. 
 
 " The varieties of finish for the face of ashlar are too numer- 
 ous to describe. The work may be ' rough faced,' 'frosted? 
 ' sparrow pecked,' ' rock faced,' ' drafted and pecked,' or 
 ' punched,' in a variety of ways, or 'diamonded? or 
 'reticulated? or 'rowed? either horizontally, diagonally, 
 
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 or herring bone. There are varieties of ' drafted and bousted 
 work,' ' random tooled,' and ' stroked tooling,' as also ' rubbed ' 
 or ' polished faces.' 
 
 " Ashlar may also have all the varieties of rustic, from a 
 plain chamfer to the compound of fillet and segment. 
 EXAMPLES Somerset House, Whitehall Chapel, Junior United 
 Service Club, Terrace, Prince's Gate, Hyde Park, and numer- 
 ous public and private buildings in the metropolis and 
 throughout England. 
 
 " Sir Walter Scott, in ' Marmion/ describes most graphi- 
 cally a peculiar form of masonry which 
 
 * Still rises unimpaired below, 
 The courtyard's graceful portico; 
 Above its cornice, row and row 
 Of fair hewn facets, richly show 
 Their pointed diamond form.' 
 
 All masonry ought to depend upon gravity for stability. 
 
 "Rustics, rough faces, rock work, and other analogous 
 forms of masonry, are not necessarily any stronger, because 
 of the mass on the face beyond the bed bearing lines. 
 
 " Acute angles, either in beds or in joints, are not allow- 
 able. Any angle more acute than a right angle tends to 
 weakness. 
 
 " Bent beds in arch stones, or in masonry generally, must 
 be weak. 
 
 "Mitre joints are not legitimate masonry all mouldings 
 must be returned. The mouldings will mitre; the bed or the 
 joint square. 
 
 " Weight over spaces tends to weakness. Pyramidal formed 
 arches are objectional. 
 
 "Ashlar should have harmonious proportions. On face 1, 
 3, 5, on bed never less than the depth of the face, and 
 square full to the back of the ashlar; slab veneering is false 
 masonry. 
 
 " Arch stones should have a just proportion to the open- 
 ings, and to the ashlar generally in which they are set. 
 
 "Projecting stones, bearing weight on acute angles are 
 weak, and this mode of construction is false in masonry. 
 
 "The springing line in arches must be the line of greatest 
 strength. Pyramids do not stand on their apex. 
 
ASHLAR. 101 
 
 "Combination of rustic and of moulded masonry are 
 incompatible with strength or with beauty. 
 
 " Single stone architraves, mullions, and groins are a cause 
 of weakness. The bedding of the courses should be carried 
 throughout. 
 
 " Single stone columns are weak, especially those of laminar 
 sandstones or of limestones. Built columns, like those of 
 the Madeleine in Paris, are better masonry. 
 
 " Sham jointing should never be resorted to. 
 
 " Mouldings ought to accord with the stone in which they 
 are cut. Classic mouldings cannot be cut in sandstones so as 
 to show and endure. 
 
 " Buildings constructed out of the stones of a district are 
 most in keeping with the landscape. 
 
 "Ashlar faced walls should not be backed with brickwork 
 or with rubble, without precautions to prevent shrinking or 
 separation of the parts. 
 
 " Deep quoins and their courses produce weak work, espe- 
 cially in towers and in spires. 
 
 " Notched and broken coursed masonry is only allowable 
 where the stone of the district is unsuitable for a more regular 
 form of masonry. To spoil good stone for the sake of such 
 i initation is false in masonry and extravagant in architecture. 
 Put every stone to its best use in the best form, and not in 
 the worst form. 
 
 " Horizontal openings cannot be spanned with vertical 
 jointed masonry; columns, architraves, and piers must be 
 covered with single stones or with an arch; joggles, dowels, 
 and cramps cannot make such work good masonry. 
 
 " All building stones having had an aqueous formation, 
 such as stratified sandstones and limestones, should rest on 
 their natural beds. 
 
 Combinations of brickwork and stones for face work are 
 allowable under certain conditions. Perfect courses of bricks 
 may alternate with courses of stone. Combinations of various 
 sorts of stone are allowable. Perfect courses of stone may 
 alternate in variety." 
 
CHAPTER II 
 MISCELLANEOUS ILLUSTRATIONS OF WORK IN STONE. 
 
 29. In Plate XXXII. we illustrate a doorway with, section 
 and details. Fig. 1 is the front elevation, showing relieving 
 arch a a a, with top and side stone dressings b b. The door 
 is approached by stone steps fg h i, bounded or enclosed on 
 either side \>y the low parapet walls jj, fig. 3, in plan, and 
 terminated by the pillars k k, of which, in figs. 4 and 5, we 
 give enlarged details, fig. 4 being the section of " cap," fig. 5 
 of " base." Fig. 2 is a vertical section of the doorway, the 
 letters of which correspond with those of the other drawings, 
 d being a wood beam or lintel, e the upper part of the door. 
 In Plate XXXIII. we give drawings of a bay window, of 
 which fig. 1 is the front elevation, a b being the central 
 line, c c the centre or principal side light, d d the side light, 
 these being separated by the stonework e e. Fig. 2 is vertical 
 section, fig. 3 part of shutter of central light, fig. 4 section 
 and elevation of dado or skirting-board, fig. 5 enlarged view 
 of corresponding parts in fig. 1. 
 
 In Plate XXXIV. we give in fig 1 part elevation of a 
 house in the Continental style, with details in figs. 2, 3, and 
 4. From this will be gathered alternative views of window 
 and door dressings, in addition to those already given. In 
 Plate XXXV. we give part elevation in fig. 1, part vertical 
 section in fig. 2, and plan in fig. 3 of a military gateway, 
 taken from Continental drawing of military work. 
 
 30. Weathered and Throated Gills or Sills. Window 
 cills or sills are generally finished as shown in the drawing 
 in fig. 98; a a the upper side outside the window frame, the 
 outside line of which is shown at b. This is made sloping 
 so as to allow the rain to flow easily off, and this slope or 
 bevel is called the " weathering." To prevent the rain from 
 
WEATHERED AND THROATED CILLS OR SILLS. 
 
 103 
 
 passing along the under side of the cill from c to the wall d. 
 a groove e is cut running along the whole length of the cilL 
 
 Eg, 98. 
 
104 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 This catches the wet, and the rain drops vertically from the 
 outside line of groove; the groove is called the "throating." 
 
 Fig. 102. 
 
 \ 
 
 k 
 
 Fig. 101 
 
 Fig, ^03. 
 
 Fig. 104. 
 
WINDOW AND DOOR JAMBS. 
 
 105 
 
 In our drawing, / is the plan of under side of cill showing 
 the groove, g front elevation, h and i show different methods 
 of " weathering " and " throating." 
 
 Fig. 105. 
 
 31. Window and Door Jambs in masonry are the stones 
 forming the upright sides or linings of the door or window, 
 on the top of which the arch, the lintel, or the brest-summer 
 rests. These are made either plain, or have their outer 
 corner and face more or less ornamented with mouldings 
 and panels in stone work. Fig. 99 illustrates in section 
 a a and in elevation b 6, a door jamb moduled or moulded, c 
 
106 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 is the rebate or recessed part into which the door fits. The 
 various illustrations on the plates and woodcuts show the 
 different styles of window heads and side dressings, and how 
 they vary, and are more or less elaborate according to their 
 
 Fig. 106. 
 
 style. Fig. 100 illustrates part elevation of a window in the 
 "Domestic Gothic" style, fig. 101 being part section, and 
 fig. 102 part plan. In fig. 103 is part elevation of a door in 
 same style, fig. 104 being the section. In figs. 105 to 109 
 
STRING COURSES. 
 
 107 
 
 we illustrate window heads in the different Gothic styles, fig. 
 
 105 being the "Norman," fig. 106 the "Semi-Norman" or 
 
 Transitive style, from the semi-circular 
 
 in the pointed arch; fig. 107 the "Early 
 
 English" (fig. 107 being the external, 
 
 fig. 107 a the internal elevation), fig. 
 
 108 the " Decorated," and fig. 109 the 
 
 "Perpendicular" style. The student 
 
 desirous to gather up examples of door 
 
 and window heads, will find a great 
 
 number of designs in different styles in 
 
 the author's large work, entitled the 
 
 New Guide to Masonry, Bricklaying, 
 
 and Plastering. 
 
 42. String Courses. We have al- 
 ready illustrated a string course in bricks, 
 being a course projecting a slight dis- 
 tance from the face of wall. In stone 
 work string courses are more or less 
 ornamental, as in the example in fig. 
 110, in which a is the section, b the 
 
 Fig. 107. 
 
 front elevation. Quoins, the stones placed at the " corners 
 of walls, one being longer than the other, but both of the 
 
108 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 same height, except in what are technically called " longs 
 and shorts," in which one is of greater depth or height 
 than the other. Generally, the arrangement of quoins i/j 
 returned at the other face of the wall, in which case it is 
 simply a repetition of the arrangement described. Fig. Ill 
 is another form of quoin. 
 
 Fig. 108. 
 43. Cornice. Fig. 112 illustrates this form in section. 
 
JOINING OF STONE BLOCKS. 
 
 109 
 
 "What is called a Hocking cornice is illustrated in fig. 113 in 
 section a and front elevation 6, c the block or heavy stone 
 which finishes and gives its name to the arrangement. The 
 drawing also illustrates the use of a leaded bolt d d in secur- 
 ing the various parts together. 
 
 Fig. 109. 
 
 44. Joining of Stone Blocks. In work required to be of 
 great strength, as in the case of sea walls, etc., stones, in 
 
110 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 addition to being joined by mortar or cement, are secured 
 together by means of "joggles," "dowels," "cramps," and 
 "bolts." In fig. 114 we illustrate a form of "joggle," in 
 which a projecting part a is cut in the face or end of one 
 stone, this fitting into an indented part b in the stone adjoining. 
 
 Fig. 110. 
 
 Fig. Ill, 
 
 c c is front elevation of the stones 6, d d of a. Figs 115, 116, 
 117, and 118 show other forms of joggles for stones. In fig. 
 119 is shown the application of the joggle to a door jamb, 
 the lower end of which has the projecting part b, which passes 
 
JOINING OF STONE BLOCKS. 
 
 Ill 
 
 Fig. 112. 
 
 Fig. 114. 
 
112 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 into a hole cut in the step or landing, c d is a plan of the 
 foot of a b. In fig. 120 one method of joining stones by the 
 
 35=^1 
 
 Fig. 115. 
 
 Fig. 116. 
 
 "TijOiili 7 TnrVi 7 rnrr^h ^ '''*''' -iis 
 
 |g^ 
 
 
 te 
 
 G^so^a 
 
 Fig. 118. 
 
 Fig. 117. 
 
 Fig. 119. 
 
 " dowel " system is illustrated : a b the two stones to be 
 joined, b c the " dowel;" this is passed into groves cut in the 
 face of stones, as shown in section at d, in line ef, and in 
 
JOINING OF STONE BLOCKS. 
 
 113 
 
 3i 
 
 Fig. 122. 
 
114 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 cross section at g, in line h i. A form of " iron cramp " is 
 illustrated in fig. 121 at a a, this being let into an indenta- 
 tion or groove cut in the face of the stones b c, as shown 
 in section at d e, f being the side elevation of the cramp. 
 Kg. 122 illustrates the method of "leading" iron bolts, 
 bars, rails, etc., into stone work; in this a a is the stone; if 
 the bolt b is to be leaded into the horizontal surface of the 
 stone, a hole c c is cut into the face, the end of the bolt b 
 inserted, and molten lead poured into the hole surrounding 
 the bar and holding it fast. If the bolt as d is to be fastened 
 into the vertical face of the stone, after the bar or bolt is 
 inserted in the hole cut in the vertical face, a species of cup 
 is formed of plastic clay surrounding the iron, and open at 
 the upper surface, this serves to hold and retain the molten 
 lead till it cools and fastens in the iron, after which the clay 
 is removed. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 FOUNDATIONS. 
 
 45. FOUNDATIONS may be divided into two classes : First, 
 those in which the bed or soil upon which the building is to be 
 raised is naturally of a sound and fit character; and second, 
 those in which we find certain faults therein, such as the 
 presence of water, soft and yielding parts, and which have 
 to be met or counteracted by special means. In the first 
 class, the best material is rock, or beds of stone which 
 are found to be undisturbed, gravel of a good sound char- 
 acter; strong compact clay without yielding parts, or cracks 
 and fissures in which water the great enemy of all good 
 foundations may deposit itself; beds of shale; coarse and 
 dry sand, the beds of which are prevented by being sur* 
 rounded by other and sound material, from spreading laterally, 
 an evil which must be carefully guarded against; solid and 
 loamy or stony earth. All these materials, when found 
 under sound and safe circumstances, form good beds for 
 building upon; "generally, wherever we find a sound crust 
 free from water we have a good foundation water in any 
 shape or quantity we must look on as our most dangerous 
 enemy, and therefore we must expel it, or build so as to 
 resist its destructive influence." We have named shale as 
 one of the good materials, and also clay upon which to build; 
 but in some cases these materials are so apt to be acted upon 
 by the weather, that they will, when exposed to its action 
 for a few days, run or melt away, so to say, into thin sludge 
 of a peculiarly easy character for yielding. Should these 
 materials, therefore, be met with, with this liability, the only 
 sound way to meet the defect is by covering the bed with a 
 layer of lime concrete. Soils of the very best character are 
 often so disposed that it is not practicable to build or start 
 
116 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION-. 
 
 from a foundation bed on the same level; in such cases the 
 inequalities must be made perfectly level, and the whole 
 foundation brought up to the same or a uniform height 
 throughout before the building proper is commenced. In 
 rocks, the projecting parts must be levelled, and the cavities 
 filled up with concrete or rough masonry, and should the 
 declivity be very great, the whole must be benched out, or 
 cut into what may be called steps, the general aim being to 
 have the foundation courses resting upon beds at right angles 
 to the pressure, as in fig. 123, where, if the wall a is vertical, 
 the bed b of the foundation must be horizontal; just as 
 the bed c is at right angles to the line of pressure of the 
 wall d. 
 
 Fig. 123. 
 
 The unsound or unsafe materials upon which buildings are 
 made, that is, those soils formed by bringing soil from other 
 localities, and depositing it by taking it out of the carts or 
 waggons, this kind of soil, if built upon, requires to be well 
 consolidated and rammed before the building is begun; and 
 to stand a considerable period before it is built upon, to allow 
 of settlement; but it is a class of soil which is not calculated 
 for heavy buildings. Coarse and yielding natural soil, peat, 
 sludgy clay, are all unsound materials upon which to build, 
 and the worst of all is quicksand. 
 
 With unsound soils, which have a tendency to yield 
 laterally, or are of too soft and yielding a character upon which 
 to place great weights, certain artificial methods must be 
 
FOUNDATIONS. 117 
 
 adopted by which these defects are to be remedied. In the 
 latter case, where the soil is soft and yielding; the use of 
 concrete in making a bottom area on which to build is greatly 
 to be recommended, and, in this case, let it be remembered 
 that the broader the surface of concrete on which the build- 
 ing is to rest the better this extension of the bearing surface 
 of a foundation is a point too often overlooked, but is one of 
 the most vital importance. It often happens that there is 
 good, firm, and compact soil lying beneath a top layer of 
 looser soil; the digging of trial holes at certain points over 
 the area of the intended foundation is an expedient which 
 should be adopted in order to ascertain whether this be the 
 case or not. If so, the loose soil should be dug out till the 
 compact soil be reached; and a layer of concrete placed over 
 the area. If the compact soil be at too great a depth below 
 the yielding soil to be easily reached, or at a moderate 
 expense, then it will be advisable to drive wood iron- 
 pointed piles till they reach the firm soil. When this is 
 done, then the piles must all be cut off level, and a timber 
 platform placed upon them, upon which the foundation is 
 built. In loose and treacherous soil, this extension and 
 firmness of foundation bed is often obtained by the use of a 
 timber platform in place of concrete, this is often termed a 
 grillage, and is illustrated in fig. 124, in which a a are the 
 piles driven into the soil, b b the cross-pieces, c the string 
 pieces connecting the heads of piles together. When this is 
 constructed, the soil is either well rammed in behind the 
 spaces, as d d; or if the soil be soft, the spaces may be dug 
 out, and concrete filled in. The use of timber is, however, 
 not to be recommended in cases where it is exposed to alter- 
 nations of wetness and dryness; for in such cases it will soon 
 decay, and decay will in all probability take place unequally, 
 so that unequal settlement of the foundation will be the 
 result. Concrete is therefore to be recommended in place of 
 timber. Sand is sometimes used in compressible soils, and 
 forms an excellent bed for the foundation if it can be retained 
 within the trench, so as to prevent all lateral movement. 
 Where the soil has a tendency to yield laterally, it is 
 necessary, in addition to the precaution already described, as 
 beds of concrete or timber grillages, that the whole space must 
 
118 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 be enclosed with either a single or a double row of piles. The 
 piles must be driven quite close together, and when thus used 
 is known as "sheet piling" (see fig. 125). The method illus- 
 trated in fig. 124 is a very good one, to be adopted in cases 
 
 Fig. 124. 
 
 where the soil is such that no firm places can be met with 
 over the area of the foundation; the spaces, as d, between 
 the piles being dug out for some depth and filled up with 
 concrete. Some recommend the concrete to be covered with 
 a timber platform upon which to build; but for reasons 
 already stated this is not to be recommended. In some cases 
 the use of piles alone driven over the area of the foundation, 
 and the soil dug out from behind the heads of the piles and 
 filled up with concrete, will be found to give an enicient bed 
 
FOUNDATIONS. 
 
 119 
 
 for the foundation. If springs are met with intersecting the 
 line of foundation, they must be cut off, this being done by 
 diverting their course by means of drains, or culverts of a 
 character more or less complicated according to the difficulties 
 of the work. 
 
 Fig. 125. 
 
 Foundations in water are of a much more complicated and 
 difficult character than any of those we have described; for 
 not only have the foundation works themselves to be of as 
 difficult if not more difficult nature than those on land, but 
 the dangerous element of water has to be met with, and if 
 possible wholly excluded. An exception in this latter 
 requisite is met with in the case of foundations made wholly 
 of piles, in which case the water is not excluded, but the 
 piles are driven through it, and into the soil beneath to such 
 a depth as to secure as firm a hold of the soil as possible for 
 them. The arrangement of the piles varies according to cir- 
 cumstances and to the notions of the designer; but all have 
 for their aim the rearing of the superstructure, be that a 
 pier, or a bridge, on as firm and unyielding a foundation of 
 wood pile as can be obtained. In fig. 126, Plate XXXVI. , 
 we give an example of a bridge a on pile foundation, being a 
 cross section, fig. 127, Plate XXXVI., being an elevation of 
 one of the piers; fig. 128 being the plan taken just above 
 water level, and fig. 129 plan above roadway; the letters 
 I. w., h. w., indicating "low water" and "high water" 
 
120 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 respectively. In place of ordinary piles as shown, which 
 especially when of great length possess disadvantages which 
 render their use rather to be avoided than otherwise, " screw 
 piles" are now very often used; the under part of the pile 
 being provided with a screw, by means of which the pile is 
 gradually and gently forced into the soil, without the use of 
 the violent blows to which ordinary piles are subjected. In 
 other cases, hollow cast-iron cylinders of greater or less 
 dimensions are used in place of piles to form the foundation, 
 the cylinders being gradually sunk into the soil; and when 
 the proper depth is reached, the interior is emptied of its 
 solid contents by pumps or other means, and filled up with 
 concrete. If the depth to be reached is great, a number of 
 cylinders are used, one being bolted to the other. Another 
 method of forming foundations in water other than piling, in 
 which the bed of the river is so hard and solid as to require 
 no excavating, is to throw in masses of stone till the surface 
 is reached, when the superstructure is commenced. Should 
 the river bottom be very uneven, the site of the foundation 
 is levelled by the ordinary means used in such cases. In 
 place of blocks of stone, masses of concrete are sometimes 
 used, being lowered into their places by appropriate machin- 
 ery. The third and last method we shall notice of making 
 foundations under water, in which the soil or site has to be 
 laid previously dry, is by the formation of timber structures 
 called " coffer-dams," by which the water is excluded from 
 the site of foundation, leaving it dry for the purposes of 
 excavating, laying the masonry, etc. Fig. 130 illustrates the 
 ordinary method of constructing a coffer-dam : a a, the outside 
 row of piles placed between three or four feet apart from 
 centre to centre, connected together by a continuous row of 
 horizontal timber b b called string pieces, and also at intervals 
 by cross-pieces c c, which serve to keep the heads of the piles 
 together, and also as a foundation for the platform for the 
 men to work from; inner cross-pieces d d are placed so that 
 the sheeting piles e e come close up to them; the space 
 between the two rows is filled up with clay puddling ff well 
 rammed down, so as to make the whole water-tight, and keep 
 the inner space in which the building g g is formed. In fig. 
 131, a continental method of forming a coffer-dam, in which 
 
FOUNDATIONS. 
 
 121 
 
 concrete or beton is used to prevent the bottom water or 
 springs from rising, and to form a solid foundation in which 
 the building is to be raised, is shown, by which the inner 
 space a a, in which the building b b is raised, is kept dry 
 
 Fig. 131. 
 
 by enclosing it by two row of piles c c, d d, between which 
 the clay puddling g g is rammed; the piles being connected 
 by cross-pieces e e, ff the bed of beton or cncrete. In some 
 cases, a single row of sheeting piles is all that is required to 
 enclose the space in which to raise the foundation. This is 
 shown in fig. 132, Plate XXXVII., which is an elevation of 
 a stone pier, designed to carry a timber bridge across a water- 
 
122 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 way; the stones, a a, show a method sometimes employed of 
 preventing lateral movement of the piles. Fig. 133, Plate 
 XXXVII., shows cross section of fig. 132, Plate XXXVIL; 
 fig. 134, plan at level of water, and fig. 135, Plate XXXVIII., 
 plan at level of road. 
 
 To the student desirous of gaining full information on the 
 subject of foundations, we may be permitted to name our 
 large work, The New Practical Guide to Masonry, Brickwork, 
 and Plastering, and as a practical supplement to what we 
 have given, we take from the pages of the Artizan the follow- 
 ing valuable remarks : 
 
 " When in a strange locality, one of the best means to 
 acquire practical information with regard to foundations, is 
 to examine the means employed by our neighbours with 
 regard to similar buildings; and also what success or fail- 
 ure followed those means, thereby at little expense we may 
 judge of the fitness of such a system of foundation, the value 
 of, and the resistance offered by the substratum; we may 
 be enabled to judge of their errors, and faults of omission or 
 commission, and avoid them accordingly. At the least, the 
 information thus acquired will guide us in deciding on a 
 system. Our next method of acquiring information is by 
 the boring rod ; by this means we easily ascertain to a con- 
 siderable depth the nature of the various layers of earth, as 
 regards their composition, density, and dryness, and therefore 
 their compressibility; and, by boring, we ascertain the dips 
 of the beds, often another important consideration; in alluvial 
 soils which have been much disturbed by the agency of 
 water, it is often necessary repeatedly to apply the boring 
 rod, as it is not unusual in such disturbed soils to find very 
 great differences in an area of a few feet; the sites of towers, 
 chimney shafts, piers, angles of buildings, especially require 
 such attention. 
 
 " It is not always by increasing the depth of the founda- 
 tions that we gain strength; depth is only serviceable when 
 we sink through a soft bed to attain one of greater density, 
 and it is very possible to pierce through a sound upper crust 
 only to reach one of a softer or more compressible kind; 
 but by increasing the width of foundations, we always gain 
 strength, as we thereby increase the bearing surface; hence 
 
FOUNDATIONS. 123 
 
 the advantage of footings. If, for instance, on an area of a 
 square yard, we have superimposed a weight of 10 tons, we 
 shall have 2488 Ibs. on each foot of area; for 10 tons = 22,400, 
 and this divided by 9 = 2*488 per foot; but suppose a footing 
 of 6 inches on each side, and we shall have an area of 12 feet, 
 and 22,400 divided by 12 = 1366 Ibs. per foot; give another 
 spread of 6 inches, when we have an area of 25 feet, or only 
 896 Ibs. per square foot; it is evident how much by means 
 of such spread we diminish the effect of superincumbent load. 
 By the same means we greatly diminish the danger of unequal 
 settlement, from which more than any other cause, proceed 
 the rents so common in walls, and hereafter ruin. It is 
 scarcely necessary to say how advantageous wide footings are 
 to isolated bearing points, such as buttresses or piers^which, 
 on a small area of support, may have to bear a much greater 
 load than a continuous wall. It is by no means a difficult, 
 long, or tedious process to calculate sufficiently near, for a 
 practical approximation, the bearing weights of different 
 parts of a building, and therefrom by spread of footings to 
 counteract any tendency to unequal settlement; and it is 
 not the thickness nor the length of the wall which should 
 regulate the spread of footings, but rather the height, and 
 the load upon it. We must therefore never lose sight 
 of the fact, that settlement, regular or unregular, is pro- 
 duced by the compression of mortar or cement, and by 
 that of the earth on which the walls bear, the latter more 
 particularly. 
 
 " If we could always depend on the regularity of compres- 
 sion of a surface supporting a wall, we should have nothing 
 to fear from settlement, as far as the wall itself was con- 
 cerned, as it would settle down regularly and uniformly 
 throughout its length and thickness ; but except, in a few 
 instances, this is not to be expected, and it is, as before 
 observed, from the irregularity of settlement that the danger 
 arises; this unequal compression to which soils are liable 
 renders of still further importance the necessity of spreading 
 the footings of those parts of a building which have the 
 heaviest loads to bear. 
 
 " We have, however, another means of counteracting that 
 unequal compression which produces unequal settlement; and 
 
124 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 this is by pounding the seat of a wall. The rammer or 
 pemming mell sometimes weighs one hundredweight, when it 
 is worked by two men, and it is sometimes very much 
 lighter, only weighing a few pounds, and in the shape of an 
 inverted truncated cone. A wall, 3 feet thick and 40 feet 
 in height, weighing 19,600 Ibs. would give a weight of 6533 
 Ibs, per foot, and with footing of 1 foot on each side, 3920 
 Ibs.; it has been ascertained by pemming, or pemning, com- 
 pression equal to that produced by such weight may be ob- 
 tained; but, setting these figures aside, it is sufficient for us 
 to know that very considerable compression may be obtained 
 foy pemming. 
 
 " Where we can bed upon landings, these should be laid 
 after the earth has been well rammed and levelled, and then 
 the landings themselves should be carefully rammed. Whilst 
 on the subject of pemming, it should be observed that as fast 
 as walls are built up, the earth should be pemmed in equally 
 on each side, clay at bottom, but not at top. 
 
 " On the subject of natural foundations, we may observe 
 of clay, which we have already said offers a solid natural 
 foundation when sound and tolerably dry, that it is, however, 
 apt, in some situations in dry weather, to crack, thereby 
 offering rents for the percolation of water in considerable quan- 
 tities after heavy rains, and if such drainage reach to below 
 the footings, it is likely to be injurious; it is therefore 
 necessary that the foundations be excavated below the depth 
 to which such fissures might reach. We may remark on 
 gravel, that when it is of a loose coarse nature, it may be 
 greatly consolidated by pouring over it some fine grouting, 
 having a good quantity of sand in it, or by lime water alone. 
 When in a foundation otherwise sound, we meet with a fault 
 or shake, it will generally be sufficient to dig a hole, and 
 entirely clear out any loose rotten stuff, and fill in with 
 sounder material, and often it will be sufficient to ram a few 
 large stones carefully into such cavities. 
 
 " One necessary precaution which we must never fail to 
 observe in all foundations, is the keeping of the excavations 
 perfectly dry; the sound preservation of the bed on which 
 we intend to build necessitates this, as well as economy as 
 regards quantities of excavation and masonry; for it 'must 
 
FOUNDATIONS. 125 
 
 be remembered that any earth which has been lying under 
 water is totally unfit for building upon." 
 
 The drainage of the site of the building is therefore of the 
 utmost importance, and should be thoroughly carried out; 
 for which purpose not only should the area of site be inclosed 
 by catch drains; but the area itself be crossed by cross and 
 smaller drains, leading into the larger and outside drains. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 WALLS. 
 
 46. IN the chapters we have already given, this subject 
 has been partially or incidentally treated of, more especially 
 under the head of " Brickwork;" what we have now to give 
 is more of a special character. Walls have been classified 
 according to the pressure or weight which they sustain, and 
 the way in which that weight is applied to or supported by 
 the wall. Thus "walls of enclosure," or walls enclosing 
 spaces, have only their own weight to carry, being subjected 
 to no cross or transverse strains; and have obviously or 
 different office to fulfil from walls which have weights to 
 support, as floors, roofs, or ordinary buildings. We have 
 already considered the case of brick walls, and partly that 
 of stone walls, but in connection with the latter we have yet 
 to consider an important part of the subject, viz : 
 
 47. The Footings of Stone Walls. The object of footings 
 in stone is the same as that for brick walls, as already 
 explained, see Art. 20, also Plate XVIII. The stones for 
 footings should be chosen as large as can be conveniently 
 obtained, and square stones are not so good as those which 
 are rectangular in plan. It is not essential that the courses 
 should be all of the same thickness; but it is essential, in 
 order to prevent unequal settlement, that all the stones in 
 the same course should be of the same thickness. The length 
 of the stones should be such, if possible, that they will reach 
 across the full breadth of the footings. This, when the walls 
 are to be of considerable thickness, is not always easily 
 secured; but the difficulty may be obviated by having some 
 of this length, others being snorter, the disposition being as 
 in fig. 136, a a being the larger, b b the shorter stones. 
 Where the short stones are all of equal length, and the 
 
FOOTINGS OF STONE WALLS. 
 
 127 
 
 larger ones of equal length also, the disposition may be as in 
 fig. 137. In these all the stones form headers, as viewed 
 from the front line; but in the case of stones of the 
 
 Fig. 137. 
 
 lengths, as in fig. 137, they can be disposed to give headers 
 and stretchers alternately, as in fig. 138. In fig. 139, 
 another disposition is shown, the length of the stones being 
 equal to two-thirds of the full thickness of the wall, and the 
 breadth of the stones one-third of this. In this disposition, 
 the shorter stones, a, and the larger ones, b, are placed at 
 
128 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Fig. 138. 
 
 Tig. 139. 
 
FOOTINGS OF STONE WALLS. 
 
 129 
 
 opposite sides of the wall ; the spaces c c being filled in with 
 stones of the necessary size, or with rubble grouted with lime, 
 as at d. When mortar in a thinnish condition is poured 
 into, so as to fill up the interstices of the stones, the operation 
 is called "grouting." "When stones of length less than two- 
 thirds of the full thickness of the wall cannot be obtained, 
 more care is required in their dis- 
 position, so that the vertical joints 
 may be above the solid part of the 
 course beneath, and as near the 
 centre of its length as possible; the 
 joints of the back of a stone, as a, 
 in fig. 140, falling upon the solid 
 part of the stone, as b, below it. 
 The breadth of the " set off" in each 
 course should not exceed three to Fig- 140. 
 
 four inches. The distance from- the face of the stone c to the 
 face of the stone d, fig. 140, above it, is called the " set off." 
 "Walls of enclosure" may be built either of brick or 
 stone set in mortar, or if of no great height, the mortar may 
 be dispensed with, and the wall will then be called a " dry- 
 stone wall," chiefly used in hilly, pastoral, and rural districts 
 for the enclosing of fields. In fig. 141, Plate XXXVIII., 
 we give the elevation of an enclosing wall a b, thirty feet 
 high, as proposed by Col. Pasley, the thickness of wall at the 
 top is equal to 1J bricks, this increasing at intervals of six 
 feet with " set-offs," as shown in the illustration, to 5 J to 4 . 
 bricks on the footings, each step on these to be three courses 
 at least, and 3J to 1^ bricks thick in that part which appears 
 above the ground. At surface of ground, width of the 
 buttress 9 bricks or 6 feet diminished to 6J bricks at top; 
 the thickness of the buttress at' the surface is thus one-fifth 
 of the height of the wall. In fig. 142, Plate XXXVIII., 
 the thickness of the wall a a is 1J- bricks, the height from 
 ground b to under side of coping c 10 feet; the distance of the 
 buttresses d d from each other to be 13J ft., the thickness on 
 the face 2|- bricks, and the projection from face of wall a a, 
 equal to half a brick. Enclosing walls of stone are often 
 built with a " batter " or slope on both sides, the amount of 
 batter being one part of breadth of base to six of the height, 
 
130 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 this amount of batter may either be arranged with off-sets, as 
 in fig. 141, Plate XXX VIII., or the surface may be uniform 
 from top to bottom. Hubble walls are usually built with 
 both sides vertically, the mean thickness being one-sixteenth 
 of the height. Walls are, when of a superior kind, generally 
 furnished at top with a coping, this is furnished with the 
 upper surface, much sloping that is " weathered," so that the 
 rain may run easily off, and to prevent this from passing 
 along the under side of coping to the wall, its course is 
 stopped by the channel cut the whole length of the coping, 
 and which is the " throating." In Plate XXIX. we give in 
 fig. 3 a coping for a 1|- brick wall, and in fig. 143 a stone 
 coping with the weathering to one side, and in fig. 144 with 
 this to both sides, the sections are at a, the elevations at &, 
 
 Fig. 143. 
 
 Fig. 144. 
 
 c c the weathering, d e the throating. Walls of a superior 
 kind are often surmounted by balustrades, as in fig. 145, a a 
 being part elevation, b b being vertical section. 
 
 48. Retaining or Revetment (sometimes spelt revetement) 
 Walls. These are used for the purpose of enclosing earth, 
 as in the case of an embankment, or water, as in the case of 
 a dock or sea wall; in both cases the wall being built so as 
 
RETAINING OR REVETMENT WALLS. 
 
 131 
 
 to resist lateral pressure; the term, however, is properly 
 employed only in the case of an embankment of made earth. 
 
 Fig. 145. 
 
 The usual form of a retaining wall is shown in fig. 146, the 
 front or face of the wall a a being made with a batter, 
 amounting usually to one part base to six parts perpendi- 
 
132 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 cular, although the proportion of perpendicular is often much 
 greater than this; the back of wall b b being perpendicular, 
 c the embankment, d a parapet wall, the back is frequently 
 
 Fig. 146. 
 
RETAINING OR REVETMENT WALLS. 
 
 133 
 
 stepped out as in fig. 147, Plate XXXVIII., and in some 
 instances both back and front are curved as in fig. 148. Col. 
 Pasley recommends the form of which fig. 147, Plate 
 XXX VIII. , is the back, the front wall not shown in the 
 engraving .being perfectly perpendicular; this, he says, is 
 better than walls with sloping faces, as in fig. 146, with the 
 backs perpendicular to the slope, as in this case the rain gets 
 easily into the joints, which it does not in the form in fig. 
 147. Retaining walls are often constructed in the form of 
 
 Fig. 149. 
 
 Fig. 150. 
 
 what is called "dwarf" or "leaning" walls, as illustrated in 
 fig. 149, the wall a a reaching only to a certain height, and 
 the embankment b b behind, sloping away from it either at 
 
134 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 the natural or some other angle of repose. Revetment walls 
 are often strengthened by having what are called " counter- 
 forts" at the back, or buttresses as in fig. 150, a a the wall, 
 b b the counterfort, which is usually rectangular in section 
 as at c, but sometimes trapezoidal as at d; great care is 
 requisite to bond the wall to the counterfort. A more 
 modern expedient for adding stability to retaining walls is 
 the following, illustrated in fig. 151, in which a a is the 
 
 Fig. 151. 
 
 wall; an iron rod b b passes through this, being secured in 
 front by a pressing plate and screw nut; and the other 
 end is passed through the broad and deep iron plate c, 
 which is held by the soil of the embankment. The rod b b 
 should pass through the wall a a at a point, two-thirds of the 
 height of a from the top, which point is technically called 
 the "centre of pressure;" what is called the "line of rap- 
 ture" is that angle at which the materials slip from the 
 embankment at any point. Some authorities do not approve 
 of counterforts, believing that buttresses built to the front 
 would add more to the stability of the wall than counterforts. 
 "Where counterforts or buttresses are used, they have the 
 effect of diminishing the thickness of the walls. An authority 
 whom we afterwards quote gives the following as a rule for 
 ascertaining the additional mean thickness a wall derived 
 
RETAINING OR REVETMENT WALLS. 135 
 
 from the use of counterforts : " Multiply the length of the 
 counterfort by its mean width, and divide the products by 
 the distance from centre to centre of the counterforts." The 
 drainage of the earth forming an embankmant behind the 
 retaining wall is a matter of the utmost importance; in order 
 to facilitate this, and the removal of such water as might 
 otherwise collect behind the wall, it is necessary to keep 
 openings at intervals in the length, and at different heights, 
 these, technically called " weepers," admit of the water pass- 
 ing from the soil behind to the drain in the road in front. 
 Before forming or filling up the embankment behind the 
 wall, it is a good precaution against future accidents to 
 allow the mortar of the work to be firmly set, and a great 
 point will be gained if the resources of the designer will 
 admit of his filling up the immediate back of the wall for 
 some depth behind with loose material, such as broken bricks, 
 stones, etc. Where there is likely to be much moisture in 
 the soil, it will be advisable to set the work of the wall on 
 hydraulic mortar. Great care is necessary in depositing and 
 ramming the soil near the wall, the more completely the soil 
 can be made to slip, or have a tendency to slip, from the wall 
 the better. Each kind of soil has got what is called its 
 " angle of repose," that is, when tipped or allowed to fall or 
 lie naturally, it will assume a certain angle at which all 
 slipping forward will cease. In the soil, therefore, behind the 
 embankment, the greater this angle of repose is, the less will 
 be its tendency to press against the wall. The thickness of 
 retaining walls at the top is usually one-tenth of the whole 
 height, the thickness being increased by offsets of half a brick 
 wide, and at two feet intervals, the batter of front not less 
 than one-sixth of the vertical height, the thickness of the 
 base not less than one-fourth of the height, all the courses 
 should have their joints at right angles to the batter. About 
 half the mean thickness of the retaining wall gives the 
 length and width of square counterforts, the distance of 
 which from centre to centre is usually from 13 to 15 or 16 
 feet. In the case of trapezoidal counterforts, the length e f 
 (see fig. 150), is equal to two-tenths of the vertical height of 
 wall + 2 feet, the width a b' one-tenth + 2 feet, and c d' two- 
 thirds of a b'. 
 
136 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 The following remarks on retaining walls, taken from a 
 paper read before the Society of Civil and Technical 
 Engineers, will usefully and practically conclude this division 
 of our work. A retaining wall may yield bodily in three 
 ways. 
 
 " 1. It may turn over, revolving forward upon the fore- 
 most point of the base. 2. It may slip forward while still 
 retaining its erect position. 3. The earth may yield to the 
 pressure of the superincumbent weight. 
 
 " The same three things may occur within the substance 
 of the wall itself, viz : 
 
 "LA portion of the wall may break loose from the lower 
 part and fall forward. 2. The upper part may slide upon 
 the course below it. 3. The material of which the wall is 
 composed may be crushed by the pressure. 
 
 " The prism of earth between the wall and the line of rup- 
 ture has a tendency to slide down the line of rupture as 
 down an inclined plane, thus exerting a pressure upon the 
 wall at one-third of its height parallel to the line of rupture. 
 By setting off a length in this direction to represent the 
 pressure, and a vertical length to represent the weight of the 
 wall, the resultant pressure upon the base is found. If the 
 centre of pressure fall within about three-eighths of the 
 width of the base from its foremost edge, it may be con- 
 sidered a safe proportion. The farther back the centre of 
 gravity of the wall lies, the farther back will be the centre of 
 pressure, thus showing the advantage of giving a batter, 
 and especially a curved batter, to the wall. By considering 
 each point in the height of the wall as the base of a distinct 
 wall, it will be seen that the wall may taper off to a point 
 at the top, giving a triangular profile. 
 
 "To .prevent the courses sliding upon one another, it is 
 best to lay them square with the batter, sloping slightly 
 downwards towards the back; an inclined base will also pre- 
 vent the foot of the wall from being pushed forward upon 
 the earth below it. The yielding of the earth below the 
 foundations is a frequent cause of failure, which should be 
 guarded against by extended footings, or in bad ground by 
 the use of piles. A very good example of this is seen in 
 the quay wall at Rouen, which stands on a bank of soft 
 
RETAINING OR REVETMENT WALLS. 137 
 
 mud, the river deepening rapidly in front, and is supported 
 upon a system of piles braced together by transverse 
 timbers. 
 
 " Thus far walls of uniform section only have been con- 
 sidered; but by the use of counterforts, the centre of gravity 
 may be thrown further back, and an increased strength be 
 obtained with the same materials. Care must be taken to 
 insure a perfect bond between them and the body of the 
 wall; or, as in the case of the old Humber dock, the latter 
 may be forced forward, leaving the counterforts some feet 
 behind. A still greater advantage is gained by placing the 
 buttresses in front, or by building deep piers at intervals 
 with vertical arches between them, which system has been 
 adopted upon the Harnpstead Junction, and the Metro- 
 politan railways. 
 
 "Another point requiring great attention is drainage. 
 Earth saturated with water not only being heavier, but its 
 natural slope being greatly flattened, its action approximates 
 to that of a dense column of fluid. On the eastern incline 
 of the North-Western Railway, the sides of a cutting through 
 the London clay are supported by retaining walls about 25 
 feet high, having a curved batter; the wall upon one side 
 bulged considerably in consequence of the accumulation of 
 water behind it; the other one stood firm, the inclination of 
 the strata acting as a natural drain. The falling wall was 
 operated upon by boring through it and inserting drain pipes, 
 reaching 10 feet into the clay, which had the effect of letting 
 off the water and preventing any further lodging. To make 
 all sure, cast-iron struts were thrown across from one wall 
 to the other. Iron struts are used with great advantage on 
 the North London Railway, and also on the Metropolitan 
 Railway. 
 
 " In the latter case the walls are constructed on the prin- 
 ciple of deep piers of brickwork at intervals of 1 1 feet, having 
 vertical brick arches turned between them backed with con- 
 crete. They are carried up straight to a height of 15 feet 
 above the rails, where the struts are placed; above this point 
 the face has a batter of 1 in 8, the back being still vertical. 
 The struts are made in two lengths; bolted together in the 
 centre, and staged with T irons, which run longitudinally 
 
138 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 from one to the other. The feet of the piers are retained in 
 position by brick inverts, backed with concrete. 
 
 " The material employed in retaining walls must necessarily 
 depend upon local consideration, the necessary qualifications 
 being weight and resistance to crushing, Rowsley sustain- 
 ing an embankment of the Midland Railway extension to 
 Britton, about 25 feet high. There being a quarry in the 
 immediate neighbourhood, it was built dry, of sandstone 
 grit, 11 feet thick at the bottom, 5 feet 6 inches at the top, 
 and with a batter of 1 in 4. Where mortar or cement is 
 used, the work must not be exposed to great pressure 
 until it is well set. In the late extension of the Surrey 
 docks, owing to the sudden lowering of the water, por- 
 tions of one of the walls (although 20 feet thick in brick 
 and concrete), bulged to such an extent as to necessitate 
 reconstruction. 
 
 " Concrete, from its cheapness and monolithic character, is a 
 first-rate material for retaining walls; but, as it disintegrates 
 upon exposure to the weather, it should be protected with a 
 facing of brick or stone (good care being taken to insure a 
 perfect bond), as in the extension of the London docks, at 
 Shadwell, or by iron piling and plates, as in the Brunswick 
 Wharf at Blackwall. Mr. Mallet's buckled plates are well 
 adapted for this purpose." 
 
 A few notes on the footings of ordinary walls will be a 
 usefully practical supplement to what we have given in 
 Art. 47. 
 
 In some instances where our soil is very unsound, walls 
 are laid upon planking, as in fig. 152, resting upon bearers, 
 of which there is sometimes a double row. Col. Pasley 
 recommends the following, as in fig. 153, Plate XXXVIII., 
 in which the wall rests upon the sleepers b b, two " chain 
 timbers " a a resting upon this, and a third chain timber c 
 being placed some two feet higher in the centre of the wall. 
 In structures used for domestic purposes, it is scarcely 
 necessary to say that it is of the utmost importance that the 
 walls be kept dry and free from damp; the drainage of the 
 site already insisted upon is as essential in house construc- 
 tions. It is usual, in order to keep the walls dry, to have 
 near the ground level, a course which is called a damp-proof 
 
FLOORS. 
 
 139 
 
 Fig. 152. 
 
 I 
 
 Fig. 155. 
 
140 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 course, this being either sheet lead, tar, or slate, or some other 
 material impervious to wet. Fig. 154 shows the method 
 patented by Mr. Taylor, in which the damp-proof course is 
 made by hollow bricks as shown. Fig. 155 shows a method 
 of surrounding the footing c c of the walls a a with concrete 
 b b; dd being the ground level, ff the floor, g g the cross 
 drain pipes, e e the soil; it will be safer if the soil e e is dug 
 out, and the space filled up with concrete as at b. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 ARCHES. 
 
 UNDER the division of Brickwork we have given the 
 definition of the general terms connected with arches; we 
 purpose in this section to give, as briefly as possible, a general 
 review of the leading practical facts connected with their 
 construction, prefacing this by a glance at the different forms 
 
 a 
 
 Fig. 156. 
 
 which the arch assumes according to the views of the builder, 
 or to the style of architecture in which it belongs, the 
 
142 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Fig. 157. 
 
 Fig. 158,. 
 
 Fig. 159. 
 
 Fig. 160. 
 
ARCHES. 
 
 143 
 
 Fig. 161. 
 
 Fig. 162. 
 
144 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 method of describing these, the student will find in the 
 Technical Drawing Book for Architects and Builders. The 
 oldest, most generally adopted, and simplest form of arch 
 is that known as the semi-circular arch a, fig. 155a. The 
 "segmental" arch, fig. 156, described from one centre as 
 
 Fig. 162a, 
 
 Fig. 162&. Fig. 162c. 
 
 a, the segmental, described from two centres as a b, fig. 
 157, this last approaches the Gothic arch (see Technical 
 Drawing for Architects and Builders, Part II., Design), 
 which is supposed by some to have had its origin in the 
 
GROINED ARCHES. 
 
 145 
 
 intersection of Norman or semi-circular arches as shown at the 
 part c b d, fig. 155a, which is produced by the two semi-circles 
 described from the centres a and d. The " elliptical " arch, 
 fig. 158, fig. 159, is the "lancet," pointed, or Gothic arch, 
 chiefly used in our early English style of architecture; fig. 
 1 6.0 is another form of Gothic arch, less pointed, and usually 
 adopted for the later styles of Gothic architecture; fig. 
 161 is the "Tudor" or "Domestic Gothic" arch, described 
 from four centres; fig. 162 is the "Ogee" arch; fig. 162a 
 is an ogee of another form; fig. 162?, an ogee with an 
 equilateral arch; fig. 162c, a form of ornamental arch some- 
 times used in decorative work; and fig. 163, the "horse 
 shoe " or Moorish arch. 
 
 Fig. 163. 
 
 49. Groined Arches " are those which, springing in two 
 contrary directions, do, as it were, intersect each other, and 
 meet in such a manner as to abut against and afford each 
 other mutual support. In this case, square piers form the 
 piers, whilst the walls and pilasters engaged in them form 
 the abutments of the series of ground arches, and it is most 
 convenient that all the arches should be of equal span and 
 height. Fig. 164 represents in plane form square piers sup- 
 porting part of a series of groined arches, which we shall 
 suppose to be all semi-circular, and equal to each other. The 
 3 i. K 
 
146 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 dotted lines ff, g g, show the highest parts of a, the crowns 
 of each of the two arches depending upon those piers which 
 intersect each other at right angles in the point c, at the 
 crown or summit of the groin. The lines drawn parallel to 
 //; 9 9) which meet at right angles to the diagonal abde, 
 
 \ 
 
 Fig. 164. 
 
 show the longitudinal joints of the intrados of the two 
 intersecting arches. The lines ab,de, represent the meeting 
 lines of the two arches, the ridges of these with semi-circular 
 axes being regular ellipsis, of which a b is equal to a trans- 
 verse half of the conjugate axis, being equal to the radius of 
 the semi-circular arch by which the groin is formed." In the 
 same figure we give the development at h h of the ridge of 
 a semi-circular arch on the diagonal line i e, the supports of 
 the arches being at a, e, i, and j. The student will find in 
 the work entitled Technical Drawing for Students of Archi- 
 tecture and Building Outline Drawing, full instructions 
 
DOMES AND CONICAL ARCHES. 
 
 147 
 
 how to develop groined and other arches. The " dome " is a 
 hemispherical arch. 
 
 There is an " important difference between the dome and 
 the common arch, usually called a cylindrical or cylindroi- 
 dal arch, to distinguish it from the former. The common 
 arch cannot stand at all without its centering, unless the 
 whole curve be completed; and when finished, the crown or 
 upper segment tends to overset the haunches or lower seg- 
 ments. The dome, on the contrary, is perfectly strong, and 
 is a complete arch without its upper segment, and thus as the 
 pressure acts differently, there is less strain upon the haunches 
 and abutments of a dome than on those of a common arch 
 of the same curve, as shown in the vertical mid-section of 
 dome. Hence a sufficient dome may be constructed with 
 much thinner material than would be proper for a common 
 arch of same section. 
 
 Fig. 165. 
 
 In fig. 165, we illustrate a conical arch as for a kiln, glass 
 work, or hop kiln. This construction has all the bricks or 
 stones at right angles to the sides, and radiating towards the 
 
148 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 centre, and is remarkably strong, so much so that a kiln 
 of the greatest usual height may be built of one brick 
 thick only. 
 
 "We have already explained that the last stones of an arch 
 towards its extremities rest upon side supports of stone or 
 brick, which are termed "abutments;" but if there be a 
 series of arches, the supports of the intermediate arches, and 
 of half of the two extreme arches are called " piers." In. 
 the case of abutments, they sustain or have to resist both 
 the vertical pressure which is caused by the weight of the 
 stones or bricks composing the arch, and the action of the 
 arch which has a tendency to spring outwards at the haunches, 
 and force the abutments away from the arch. Piers in the 
 case of a series of arches springing from the same level, and 
 of equal span, receive only the pressure arising from the 
 weight of the stones receiving no thrust. Figs. 166 and 
 166a, illustrate a series of three arches supporting a street, 
 cited by Col. Pasley as being built at Chatham ; a a the abut- 
 ments, b b the piers, c c the arches, d d the roadway. A semi- 
 circular arch, as in figs. I55a and 166, is sometimes termed 
 a " full centre" arch, the under side or soffit of which being 
 the half of a cylinder, this being terminated at the ends 
 by planes, which are technically known as the " heads " of 
 the arch, those being at right angles to the " axis of the arch," 
 which is a line drawn through the centre point of the span 
 at the extremities of the arch, such an arch being also known 
 as a right arch. When the heads are placed on lines oblique 
 to the axis, then the arch is termed a skew arch, as in fig. 
 167. The railway system introduced that of the oblique 
 skew arch; its requirements frequently necessitating the 
 crossing of roads, canals, etc., at angles other than that of a 
 right angle, as the bridge abed, fig. 167, crosses the road 
 efg h. In cylindrical arches, the courses which are all 
 horizontal are all built at right angles to the heads or faces 
 of the arch; but in the skew bridge, in which the inclina- 
 tion of the courses is constantly changing, this variation 
 being greatest at the crown of the arch, and gradually de- 
 creasing towards the springing, the lines of the courses form 
 a series of curved lines, technically termed the "twist;" 
 while, in semi-circular and segment arches, the voussoirs are 
 
SUPPORTING ARCHES FOR ROADS. 
 
 __9jrL__ 
 
 TO NEXT 
 PIE.R. 
 
 .\ / 
 
 ^T-. CENTRE. \xt.ir<E. 
 
 Fig. 166. 
 
 IGGa. 
 
150 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION". 
 
 made generally of the same breadth. The joints between 
 the faces of the arch are also continuous, and are termed 
 " coursing joints," the courses being termed " string courses." 
 The joints along the curve break joint, and are therefore not 
 continuous, the joints being termed "heading joints;" and 
 those of two series, of course, being termed a " ring course." 
 
 Fig. 167. 
 
 Fig. 168. 
 
 In skew bridges, we have already noticed the lines of the 
 heading and coursing joints form spiral lines. The space 
 between the heads or faces of the arch above the arch may 
 
FLAT ARCHES. 
 
 151 
 
 be filled in either with earth or with masonry or brickwork; 
 if of masonry, the filling in is termed the "capping," although 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 Fig. 169. 
 
 Fig. 170. 
 
152 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 wards on each 
 a a, fig. 168, 
 
 this may be applied whatever the material may be. Before 
 the capping is formed, it is now usual to cover the extrados 
 of the arch with asphalte, and in some cases concrete, to keep 
 
 the water from filtering 
 through the joints of the 
 arch. In a series of 
 arches the capping a 
 little above the arch, 
 and between the arches, 
 is made to slope down- 
 side, as 
 so that a 
 
 drain, as b, may be placed 
 at the lower side to carry 
 off the water. This being 
 an important work, is 
 covered with a small arch 
 of dimensions sufficient 
 to admit of the passage 
 of a man to examine the 
 condition of the drain 
 when necessary. To ad- 
 mit of a good bond 
 between the upper sur- 
 faces of the voussoirs and 
 the stones of the capping, 
 the former are left rough 
 or chisel dressed. 
 
 Flat arches of stone 
 corresponding to the 
 scheme in French arches 
 of brick (which see) 
 when of one piece, are 
 generally termed lintels 
 or plate bands. When 
 Fig. 171. the span is considerable, 
 
 this may be made of more pieces than one; figs. 169 and 
 170 illustrate two ways in which this may be done, fig. 169 
 by joggles, and fig. 170 by elbowed joints. In fig. 171 we 
 illustrate the arrangement of the stones of the faces of arches 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF ARCHES. 
 
 153 
 
 where two arches are in juxtaposition; and in fig. 172, Plate 
 XXX VIII. , the mode of joining the horizontal courses with 
 the voussoirs at the springing in fig. 173, Plate XXXYIII., 
 
 Tig. 174. 
 
 Fig. I74a. 
 
 Fig. 1746. 
 
 at the crown of an arch, and, in fig. 174, the method of filling 
 in the inside of the arch with brickwork, being one of the 
 heads of the arch, a being stone, b brick. 
 
154 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 The stones of an arch give to the centring various pres- 
 sures from the abutment or springing line a, fig. 174&, up 
 to a, an angle of 32, the stones may be said practically to 
 have no weight on the centre; at an angle of 45, the stone 
 b has a weight equal to one-quarter of its full weight ; at 
 57, c one-half its weight; and at 62, as in fig. 1746, it has 
 its full weight upon the centre, where the depth of the stone 
 is twice that of its width. At this angle a weight a, sus- 
 pended from the centre of gravity b, falls within the joint 
 line c d. When this is the case, the stone exercises its full 
 weight. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 SEWERS, DRAINS, TANKS, AND WELLS. 
 
 SEWERS, DRAINS, TANKS, and WELLS are formed with arches 
 turned either in brick, stone, or concrete. A sewer may be 
 defined as the larger or leading conduit or culvert, which, 
 
 Fig. 176. 
 
 placed in the centre of the street or road, is used to convey- 
 to the point of delivery the drainage matters of a town; 
 
156 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 while a drain is a conduit of much smaller section, which 
 conveys the drainage matter of each separate house, or a series 
 of houses, to the main drain or sewer. In fig. 175 we illus- 
 trate the form of brick drain now rarely used, the earthen- 
 ware tube system, as in fig. 176, being almost now universally 
 used in place of it, Fig. 177 illustrates an old form of brick 
 sewer with semi-circular arched top a, segmental arched 
 
 Fig. 178. 
 
 bottom b, c being the drain connecting with the houses. In 
 fig. 178 we illustrate, in a a, a later form of brick sewer, 
 and at bb the latest, and believed to be the best form, known 
 
SEWERS, DRAINS, TANKS, AND WELLS. 
 
 as the egg-shaped sewer, when not required to be of very 
 large sectional area. 
 
 Tanks for the storage of water are generally lined with 
 brickwork or masonry set in cement, and arched over with a 
 semi-circular arch, as a a, in fig. 179; and provided with an 
 
 Fig. 179. 
 
 invert arch at bottom, as b b. Where the brickwork is not 
 set in cement, a layer of puddled clay, c c c c, should be well 
 rammed in all round the brickwork ; this resting upon a layer 
 of stones d d d ; the capping, or filling up e e, is also finished 
 with a stone filling up. It is usual to have a man-hole, as./, 
 for gaining access to the tank when required; this is covered 
 by a stone cover. 
 
158 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION". 
 
 Wells are formed with what may be called horizontal arches, 
 or rings of brickwork or masonry, the ring, in course of being 
 built, being supported by a wooden platform, called a curb or 
 
 Fig. 180. 
 
 Fig. 181. 
 
 Fig. 182. 
 
 drum, of which, at c c', in fig. 180, we give half plan; in 
 fig. 181, elevation, and in fig, 182, section. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 CONCRETE BUIIJ)ING. 
 
 50. A STYLE of building recently introduced, and becoming 
 rapidly extended, is that known as concrete. In the chapter 
 on "Materials" which succeeds this, the student will find 
 the various kinds of cement usually employed in construc- 
 tion described. The kind of concrete now employed in the 
 building to which we have above alluded, and which we 
 purpose briefly describing, is made up of Portland cement, 
 as the binding or cementing material, mixed with gravel, 
 small pieces of burnt clay, broken bricks, furnace slag, coarse 
 sand, or any other hard substance the size of which is not 
 too great. The proportion of cement to these materials 
 varies from one part of cement to three of the materials, to 
 one part cement to six of the materials. The whole are well 
 mixed together, and then water is added to bring the whole 
 to the consistency of mortar. 
 
 Concrete may be used as a building material eit'her in 
 combination with timber or alone, forming in the latter ease 
 what may be called a " monolithic " structure, in which the 
 whole may be said to be of one piece. We shall first describe 
 the method of using concrete in combination with timber; 
 for which purpose we shall avail ourselves of parts of a series 
 of articles the author wrote for The Field. 
 
 "Figs. 183 and 184 illustrate in a general way the 
 method of combining the timber work with the concrete 
 fig. 183 representing the timber framework waiting to be 
 filled in; fig. 184 showing different methods of filling in. 
 The spacing out of the vertical timbers will depend upon the 
 position of doors and windows, as a general rule the width 
 of the window should regulate the width between all tho 
 uprights or vertical posts, as a a, b b, fig. 183. The spacing 
 
160 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Fig. 183. 
 
 Fig. 184. 
 
CONCRETE BUILDING. 
 
 161 
 
 being determined upon, the fixing of the posts is the next 
 point to be arranged. It is scarcely necessary to say that it 
 is essential to have the posts truly perpendicular or l plumb ;' 
 to ensure this the mason's plumb-line and straight-edge must 
 be used. And, although not absolutely necessary, the minor 
 horizontal filling- in pieces, as cc, fig. 183, should be level or 
 truly horizontal; this, however, is necessary in the case of 
 the horizontal piece, d d, fig. 183, which serves as the wall- 
 plate to support the roof timbers. The foot of the vertical 
 uprights, as a a, bb, fig. 183, should be charred or slightly 
 burnt on the surface, for a depth of 13 or 15 inches; this 
 
 Fig. 185. 
 
 will prevent the timber decaying, although if it be well sur- 
 rounded with concrete there will be little chance of this 
 happening. (See fig. 1 85.) The holes for the posts should be 
 
162 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 at least 6 inches deeper than the depth to which it is 
 intended they should be placed, and this space filled in with 
 concrete, as at a a, fig. 185. The post should then be fitted 
 in, and jammed up at the sides with wedges of stone or pieces 
 of brick till the perpendicular is secured. The post next in 
 position should then be put in, and finally the diagonal 
 braces, as/y, fig. 183; so that, the entire framing being put 
 up, one part will support the other. The trench between the 
 posts, running as in a line g g g, fig. 183, is next to be cut, 
 which is to form the foundation trench of the walls or filling 
 in between the timbers. This should be of 
 such a depth that the bottom should be 9 inches 
 below the level of the intended finished floor 
 surface of the rooms, and the width 6 inches 
 beyond the sides of the vertical posts b b, as 
 at c and d in fig. 185; the dotted lines e e e 
 indicate the position of the foundation trench 
 relative to the vertical post b b. Another 
 method of making the lower part of the build- 
 ing which, although more expensive, will 
 perhaps be thought by some to look better, 
 and will therefore be worth the extra cost 
 is illustrated in fig. 186, where a is a founda- 
 tion course of brick or stone, into which the 
 upright posts b b are built, the course being 
 finished with a splayed front c; and if this 
 course be made of stone, holes will require to 
 be cut at intervals, into which the upright posts should be 
 morticed. 
 
 " The formation of ground floors is a very easy matter in 
 concrete, they form a hard surface, easily kept clean and in 
 good repair, the method of forming them is shown in fig. 185, 
 in which ff is supposed to be the soil. This is excavated all 
 over the floor space to a depth of 6 inches; 4 inches of this 
 depth is to be filled up with broken stones or pieces of hard 
 brick about 2 inches in diameter, and these are to be well 
 rammed down, and left with an even, level surface. Above 
 this layer of stones or bricks, or any other kind of hard sub- 
 stance as smith's clinkers, iron-furnace slag, etc. the con- 
 crete cement is poured to a depth of 2 inches, as h h. This 
 
CONCRETE BUILDINGS. 
 
 163 
 
 should be laid in such a way that no part of the surface, when 
 once laid down, need be passed over without the necessity of 
 walking over it. This will best be secured by beginning to 
 lay the cement down at one end, gradually working towards 
 the other. If a few flat boards (the wider the better) be 
 laid upon the floor surface before it sets, no harm will be 
 done by working over it. As the cement is laid down, the 
 surface should be carefully levelled. If the floor is required 
 to be boarded, all that is necessary to be done is to place 
 fillets of wood 3 inches deep by 2 inches broad at proper inter- 
 vals on the surface of the stone layer, g g, fig. 185, imbedding 
 these in the cement, h h. When the floor is finished these 
 will be 1 inch above it, and to these the flooring boards will 
 be secured. If the floor is boarded, skirting boards can be 
 added all round, being secured to wood bricks embedded in 
 the wall cement in the manner already described. 
 
 Fig. 187. 
 
 "The vertical posts, as in, 6g. 183, being all fixed with 
 pieces of stone or brick, and wedged up ' plumb,' the founda- 
 
164 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 tion trench should be filled up with the concrete to the floor 
 level. When this is ' set,' the filling in of the walls or the 
 spaces between the posts may be begun. A very simple 
 method of forming 'moulds' for this is illustrated in fig. 
 187, where boards, as a a , are tongued and grooved on their 
 edges, and further secured by cross clamps, b b. The depth 
 of these united may be most convenient for working, but 
 that of 30 inches to 3 feet will be found the most easy to 
 handle. The length should be such that 
 they will either take in one or two 
 spaces between the vertical posts, the 
 ends of the moulds coming up as near 
 as may be, so as to be flush with the 
 face of the post, as c, fig. 187. There 
 are of course two sets of moulds, one 
 on each side of the post c, as a a on the 
 outside, d d on the inside. In the 
 simplest work of concrete building, as 
 in erecting long ranges of walls, as in 
 fig. 188, or as in outbuildings for the 
 farm, the easiest way to secure the 
 moulds in the posts, so as to keep 
 Fig. 188. them in place while the concrete is 
 
 being filled up and till it sets, will be to fasten the ends to 
 the edges of the posts by means of large screw nails or screw 
 spikes. 
 
 " The holes made in the posts to receive the ends of the 
 screw spikes may be filled up afterwards with wood plugs 
 when the work is finished. The screw spikes should be pro- 
 vided with eye holes, to admit of the insertion of a small 
 lever by which to turn them home. In fig. 187 another 
 method is adopted to secure the sides of the moulds to the 
 posts. This is an iron ' clamp,' e e, with turned-in ends, ff; 
 these being provided with screw plates, g g, and handles, by 
 means of which the clamps take a tight hold of the ends of 
 the mould. Two of these clamps will be required at each end 
 of the mould, one at top and one at bottom; unless where 
 the depth of the mould is not great, when one clamp in the 
 centre of the mould will be found sufficient to hold the 
 mould. The clamp or clamps will, of course, be required at 
 
CONCRETE BUILDINGS. 
 
 165 
 
 each end of the mould, or four clamps to each mould. The 
 fixing of the mould will be an easy matter at the straight 
 portions of the walls, the only difficulty met with will be at 
 the corners or l returns/ where one wall runs at right angles 
 to the other. The posts at each corner should be square, the 
 side equal to the depth of the other posts; if this depth be 
 nine inches, the corner posts should be nine inches square. 
 Supposing the front spaces are being filled up, the moulds 
 will be filled by means of the clamps up to the post at the 
 corner, in the way already described; but in filling up the 
 first space on the end wall this will not be available, as the 
 front wall will prevent the end of the inside mould being 
 clamped to the inside face of the corner post. To enable the 
 end of the inside mould to be clamped, a piece of wood will 
 have to be secured to the inner face of the corner post, so as 
 to afford a point of resistance to the mould and clamp; or a 
 small groove may be made on the inside of the front wall, 
 close to the inner side of corner post, so as to admit the end 
 of the mould to be inserted while the mould is being filled 
 with the concrete. This groove can afterwards be filled up 
 with cement. The operation of filling in the returns at the 
 corner seems to be a difficult one; but in reality it is not so 
 
 Fig. 189. 
 
 this operation being more difficult in description than in 
 ;the actual practice. Any intelligent workman will, when the 
 work reaches the corners, be able to see at a glance what 
 will be needed to carry the one end of the inside mould 
 
166 
 
 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 which is nearest the post, the other end being easily clamped 
 
 on the next post in succession ; 
 while the outside mould will 
 be clamped easily at both ends 
 on the outside of the posts. 
 
 " The mould for a fireplace is 
 by no means complicated; and 
 the flue, where there is a second 
 storey, can be made in the tube 
 by using a drain tube for a 
 circular mould; or a wood 
 mould might easily be made, 
 giving this a small degree of 
 'draw' or taper. As the 
 height of the fireplace and 
 chimney increases, the mould 
 is simply supported upon small 
 pieces of wood, let in and built 
 into the upper surface of the 
 layer immediately preceding, 
 the pieces of wood being cut 
 off, or altogether taken out 
 when the chimney is finished, 
 and the holes they leave filled 
 up with cement. In figs. 189 
 and 190 we illustrate the 
 mould, and mode of working it, 
 for the construction of a chim- 
 ney and fireplace; this being 
 supposed to be a section taken 
 at a little above the level of 
 the floor. In fig. 189, which 
 is an elevation, a a shows the 
 floor level, b b two of the par- 
 tition posts, the fireplace being 
 supposed to be in the centre of 
 the house, c c the first part or 
 height of the jambs, dd the 
 mould placed in position to 
 make the second height, this 
 
 Fig. 190. 
 
CONCRETE BUILDING. 
 
 167 
 
 being supported by the small pieces of wood e e, which are 
 taken out or cut off as above described. In fig. 190 plans 
 <a a is the partition wall, b b the mould, c c supports of 
 wood. The circular part d, in dotted lines, shows the way 
 of using a drain tube as a mould to form a flue ; or it may be 
 made of the usual rectangular form as at e, wood being 
 employed to form the mould. 
 
 "In fig. 191 is illustrated the method by which pannelled 
 surfaces, more or less ornamental in outline, may be indented 
 or made depressed below the line of general surface of wall- 
 
 **' BfMWMMCfVtfi i - .- y.'-; .'. . .'. ,-. .'; >"i c i^'J-y.-^iiLTsiii^i' -i- ""'^ 
 
 Fig. 191. 
 
 a being the boarding of the mould, to which is fastened a 
 board, as b or d, cut so as to give the desired form; elevation 
 at c and e; g and /show the method of fixing wood bricks or 
 grounds, g being the side of the mould, /the ground or brick 
 made tapering so as to prevent its being easily pulled out, or 
 rendered loose. A method of forming semi-circular groves 
 or channels in some cases useful for small surface drains 
 is shown at i; to a flat board jj the semi-circular piece i is 
 nailed, and this is pressed into the surface of the concrete 
 h h. 
 
168 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 " Where the wall is not formed with a combination of con- 
 crete and timber, but made solid, more complicated and 
 stronger moulds than those described will be required, 
 especially if the wall be of any considerable thickness; but 
 for low walls, as of single storied buildings, and enclosing 
 walls, the mould shown in the figure will be strong enough. 
 A number of patentees are in the market who let out on hire, 
 moulds and all the necessary apparatus; amongst those who 
 are best known as concrete builders who do this, or are 
 ready to contract themselves for the raising of any kind of 
 structure, however complicated, in solid concrete, are the 
 Messrs. Tall, Drake, and Osborne." 
 
 51. Pointing. The outer joints of all walls being most 
 exposed to the weather, are filled in with mortar after the 
 wall is finished; this filling in is termed " pointing." Some 
 prefer to point the outer joints at the same time as the 
 building progresses, that is, while the mortar is soft; others 
 after the wall has been for some time completed, and the 
 mortar has set hard. This latter is the better practice. 
 "When followed, the mortar must be scraped well out of the 
 joints, cleaned from all adhering dust by a brush, and well 
 wetted. The mortar used for pointing, which should be poor, 
 with rather an excess of sand, the sand being of fine and 
 uniformly large grain, and little water should be used in 
 mixing it; this is then well pressed into the joint, and either' 
 made smooth by rubbing with the tool, or finished off with 
 what is called a "rule joint" pointing. In this form of 
 pointing, the mortar or cement for an hydraulic cement is 
 often used for pointing in place of mortar projects above the 
 surface of the contiguous bricks, and the two edges made 
 quite parallel, with the surface flat or left slightly concave. 
 Pointing, although a simple operation, is in reality a difficult 
 thing to do well; the contraction and expansion continually, 
 going on in a climate so variable as ours is, preventing the 
 proper adhesion of the mortar to the bricks and stones, and 1 - 
 allowing the formation of cracks or crevices by means of 
 which the rain gains access to the joints in the various 
 courses. To obviate this, some have endeavoured to make 
 the form of pointing such that it will throw off the water, 
 but no plan yet introduced has been thoroughly successful. 
 
POINTING. 
 
 169 
 
 In cases where the walls are much exposed to the weather, 
 it will be better to use hydraulic cement, and to caulk this 
 
 I I 
 
 11 
 
 LL 
 
 Fig. 192. 
 
 well into the joint; and then rub the outer surface well till 
 the joint is quite hard and compact. What is termed flash 
 pointing is the application of a 
 coat of mortar or of cement to 
 the surface of a wall to preserve 
 it from the weather. All upper 
 work, as copings of walls, cornices, 
 etc., should be set in cement. 
 
 52. Stone Work in Combina- 
 tion with Brick. In this kind of 
 work, of which, in fig. 174, we 
 have already given an illustration, 
 the great object to be attained is 
 proper bond between the two 
 materials. In fig. 192 we give an 
 illustration of a facing of rubble 
 work with a two-brick thick facing ; Fig. 193. 
 
 and in fig. 193, a facing of ashlar work with a backing of 
 brick. 
 
 i I 
 
PAET III. 
 
 MATERIALS USED IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
PART III. 
 
 MATERIALS USED IN BUILDING 
 CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 TIMBERS. 
 
 53. THE woods or timbers used in building construction 
 are very numerous, but some are employed in such limited 
 bulk, that it is not necessary to take up space by a descrip- 
 tion of their peculiarities. These are chiefly of home growth, 
 such as larch, poplar, beech, ash, and are only used in the 
 localities in which they are grown. 
 
 The timbers mostly used by builders are of foreign 
 growth, the principal places irom which they come being 
 North America and the north of Europe, and the varieties 
 chiefly fir and oak, these being the two kinds principally 
 used for heavy carpenter's work. English oak is preferred, 
 however, to that of foreign growth, although the cultivation 
 of the oak tree does not take the high place it did in British 
 industries, since timber has been so extensively superseded by 
 iron in the construction of ships. The most highly esteemed 
 of our home growths is that of the county of Sussex. 
 
 Oak is the most valuable of all our timbers for purposes 
 in which strength and a capability to resist those atmospheric 
 and other influences which cause other timbers so speedily 
 to decay; for outside work exposed to rain, etc., oak is there- 
 fore to be preferred before any other kind. Of the American 
 oaks, the "White Oak" (quercus albus) is among the most 
 
174 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 valuable; the next in value to this is the " Rock Oak," or 
 Kock Chestnut Oak (quercus primes montecola) ; and the 
 most valuable and durable of all is the Live Oak (quercus 
 virens). 
 
 Of the different varieties of fir the kind of timber most 
 extensively used for building purposes, both for external 
 and internal work those which come from the shores of 
 the Baltic are more esteemed than those which come from 
 America. The varieties chiefly used are the " white" and 
 the "yellow" pines, of which the former is that produced 
 from the tree known to botanists as the " Pinus Abies" 
 in the woods of the north of Europe, " Pinus Strobus" in 
 the forests of North America. The white pine of the north 
 of Europe yields the " deals" known in the trade as " spruce 
 deals," these coming from Norway. The yellow pine of 
 North America is known as the Pinus Nictis, the latter, 
 or yellow pine, being produced by the tree known as the 
 "Pinus Sylvestris." Of these the white pine of the Baltic 
 is preferred to that of America, although, as already stated, 
 this remark applies to all the firs or pines in use. The 
 best of all the pines in use is the "pitch" or "red pine," 
 the produce of the Pinus Resinosa. The firs of the north 
 of Europe are generally known as "Baltic," "Memel," 
 "Dantzic," "Christiana," and "Dram" or "Drontheim," 
 these being often, however, classed under one name, " Baltic;" 
 This custom, however, leads to practical errors, as the varieties 
 above named possess different qualities, giving them greater 
 value for certain kinds of work than other varieties; thus 
 " Memel" is not so well adapted for outside work as " Riga;" 
 while Dantzic, being generally free from knots, works well, 
 and is therefore good for joiners' work. Christiana makes 
 capital deals for the covering of roofs. The firs of America 
 are known under the one title generally of "American 
 pines." 
 
 For inside work white pines are used, they are free from 
 resinous matters and they work freely under the joiner's 
 tools; the pitch pines and the yellow pines are used for work 
 requiring greater strength and durability than the white 
 pines give; but of late they have become favourite woods 
 for inside work where no paint is used, the resinous matter 
 
TIMBERS. 175 
 
 present in them giving rise to what the trade calls " humour" 
 or the veins or grain. The above are chiefly used for car- 
 penters' work, although, as will have been noticed, they are 
 also used for joiners' work; but there are other woods used 
 almost solely by the joiner, of these the chief is " mahogany," 
 this being of two kinds, " Honduras" and " Spanish," of 
 which the latter is the most valuable. "Rosewood" and 
 " walnut" are also used by the joiner for occasional work 
 of a high quality, but chiefly by the cabinetmaker for 
 furniture. 
 
 Timbers, as they come from our foreign ports, are in the 
 form of square blocks of great length, and known as " balks" 
 or "baulks," the section usually being a square of 18 inches 
 on the side. Balks are sometimes designated as logs. For 
 heavy works, such as bridge work, and the large under- 
 takings of the civil engineer, balks are often used just as 
 they come from abroad; but for the. general purposes of the 
 building trades, they are cut up into thinner and narrower 
 pieces, which are known as " deals," " planks," and " battens," 
 although the term " deal" may be said to include, and is often 
 used as including all. A " deal," correctly classifying it, is 
 9 inches in width and 3 in thickness;" a "plank" is from 
 11 to 12 inches in width; a "batten" is cut from a deal, 
 and averages 6 inches in width, but varies from 2 to 7, and 
 from f ths to 2 inches in thickness. The terms " stun " and 
 "boards" are of wide signification. "Stuff" includes all 
 pieces of timber used for the purposes of the interior work 
 of the joiner, as contra-distinguished from the " timbers" of 
 the carpenter; "boards" are generally pieces in which one 
 thickness is under 2 J, and the breadth greater than 4 J inches. 
 Boards are cut out from deals, and according to the number 
 sawn from a deal, so is the designation of the board ; if four 
 boards are cut they are called "four-cut stuff," if three, 
 " three-cut stuff." 
 
 54. Timber, like all other building materials, is liable to 
 decay, and this from a variety of causes, the attacks of 
 insects, of fungi, etc. The presence of sap or moisture in the 
 wood is, generally speaking, the cause or predisposing cause 
 of decay in timber; hence the schemes and methods adopted 
 to get rid of this. In some cases the treatment of the timber 
 
176 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 commences before the trees are cut down; all timber, or 
 rather all timber trees, are composed of, first, the " heart- 
 wood," or central part of the tree, the hardest and most 
 durable of all, known by its greater density and its darker 
 colour; second, the " sap-wood," of much less density than 
 the heart-wood, and containing, as its name imports, the 
 greatest proportion of sap; third, the "bark," which, in the 
 majority of cases, is useless, the most striking exception to 
 this being the bark of the oak, which possesses a high value 
 for tanning. 
 
 Methods have been tried to get the sap-wood solidified 
 before cutting down the tree, either by " barking" or strip- 
 ping it of its bark, or by making an incision so as to allow 
 the sap to flow through it from the sap-wood, to which 
 the incision reaches, allowing the tree to stand till it dies; 
 and in the case of barking, which is done early in the 
 spring, allowing the tree to stand till the <( leaf springing" 
 period arrives, when it is cut down. "Where either of these 
 methods have been tried, the sap-wood has been found to 
 be increased in density, to a much more appreciable extent 
 in the case of barking than in that of " girdling/' as incision 
 is called. 
 
 The general method, however, in use to obtain timber with 
 the least degree of sap-wood in it, is to "fell" or cut the 
 timber in those months of the year in which the least quan- 
 tity of sap is present in the wood. The months selected are 
 July in the summer, and all the winter months. Much 
 diversity of opinion exists upon this point, and some recent 
 experiments have shown that during the two most severe of 
 the winter months, December and January, the sap in the 
 tree is in the greatest quantity; the point is one which yet 
 requires to be decided after a much more extensive and care- 
 fully conducted series of experiments than have yet been 
 accorded to it. 
 
 55. The plan of treatment in which the greatest reliance is 
 placed for getting rid of the sap of timber is its " seasoning.'"' 
 This is effected in a number of ways, either by stripping the 
 bark from the trunk, cutting off the branches, allowing it 
 to lie for a certain period in a situation as little exposed to 
 damp and weather as possible, and thereafter cutting the tree 
 
TIMBERS. 177 
 
 into smaller timbers or deals, and storing these up in such a 
 way and in such situations, as will best allow of the sap 
 escaping from them, and preventing the access of rain and 
 damp, and of strong sunshine. This is called, and pro- 
 perly, the "natural method of seasoning." Next in order 
 comes the " water seasoning," which consists in placing the 
 timber in water, so that, in process of time and the opera- 
 tion is one requiring much of this the soluble matters are 
 washed out of the timber, and their place taken by water, 
 which is more easily got rid of by exposure to the air, or 
 the process of natural seasoning, which may be said to be 
 gone through also in connection with water seasoning. The 
 next in order is " artificial seasoning," which, briefly described, 
 is the subjecting of the timber to currents of hot air, and this, 
 if well done, is found to be not only the quickest method, but 
 one which adds greatly to the density and durability of the 
 timber. Timber is often seasoned by "steaming" it, this 
 being, however, done chiefly in cases where the timbers have 
 to be curved or bent; this process being facilitated by the 
 steaming, which, however, is found also to act as a preventa- 
 tive of decay. 
 
 56. Decay in timber calls for methods for its preservation, 
 which are often confounded with its seasoning, but which is a 
 process quite distinct. 
 
 The methods of preserving timber are exceedingly nume- 
 rous. The most dreaded of all the causes of decay in 
 timber is the "dry rot." For this a great number of 
 cures or preventatives have been proposed; but the best 
 of all is generally understood to be the keeping up of 
 a good circulation of air amongst the timbers of every 
 construction. 
 
 It is impossible here to enter upon the subject of preser- 
 vation of timber, or to describe the methods in use, or which 
 have been proposed. The most popular is that of impreg- 
 nating the timber with creosote, or oil of tar, known from 
 the name of its inventor, Mr. Bethell, " bethellizing." This, 
 however, while efficient, not only spoils the colour by making 
 it black, but renders it very liable to be quickly consumed, 
 should a fire break out. There are other methods in use 
 which do not affect the colour of the wood, or render it more 
 
 M 
 
178 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 combustible, such as Boucherie's, Kyan's, and Burnett's, 
 in which chemical salts are fused into the pores of the 
 timber. 
 
 'The student desirous to know more upon the subject 
 of timber, will find all the points fully described in our 
 large work, The New Practical Guide to Carpentery and 
 Joinery. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 BRICK AND STONE. 
 
 57. BRICKS are composed of clay, or clayey earth, moulded 
 into a form almost universally rectangular, and thereafter 
 subjected to a high temperature in a kiln or clamp, changing 
 the substance from a soft to a hard, half-vitrified condition. 
 Bricks are best made from clay in which a certain percentage 
 of silica (two-thirds), and of alumina (one-third), are found. 
 The next best soil is that of loam, the next marls, while the 
 worst is that of a sandy soil, possessing little cohesive power. 
 The colour of a brick depends much upon the nature of the 
 soil, and its soundness upon its homogeneous nature: for the 
 more free it is from all extraneous matter not contributing 
 to the necessities, so to say. of the material as above stated 
 such as vegetable matters, small stones or pebbles, especially 
 of limestone or ironstone, the better the bricks. A good 
 brick should, when struck, give out a clear ring; and its 
 fracture should show a close, dense, and uniform texture, 
 and free from all holes, and also from all stones and foreign 
 substances. Bricks are classified by the trade under different 
 names, which, however, vary in different localities, the two 
 great divisions may be said to be " good, hard, and sound 
 stock" brick, which are the best; " place," or inferior, as they 
 are in some places called "seconds;" brick much softer and 
 quite inferior to stock bricks; and third, "clinkers," or 
 " burrs," that is, bricks which are over-burnt, being those 
 gen3rally got from the arch of the kiln; the best bricks being 
 in the body or centre, while the sides yield, as a rule, softish 
 bricks. These classes are often subdivided, especially the 
 " stock" bricks, of which there is a great variety. 
 
 Bricks are often known from their localities, such as 
 Suffolk, Kent, and Staffordshire bricks. 
 
180 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Fire-bricks are those used to line furnaces with, and being 
 composed of clays, chiefly, if not wholly, of silica and alumina, 
 are capable of standing a great degree of heat; the Stour- 
 bridge fire-brick is perhaps the best, but the Windsor is much 
 esteemed. 
 
 58. Stones. Building stones may be classed under one or 
 other of the three following, namely, the "granites," the 
 "sandstones," and the "limestones." Another classification 
 has been adopted, as the " siliceous," under which the granites 
 and the sandstones are comprised; the "calcareous," which 
 takes in all the limestones; and the "argillaceous," the chief 
 of which is slate. The first classification is practically the 
 most simple. 
 
 (a.) Granites are of two kinds, the "grey" and the "red," 
 and when combined in certain parts of buildings, as columns, 
 panels, and the like, produce very pleasing effects. The 
 granites are composed of grains of mica, felspar, and quartz, 
 and are intensely dense and hard, and consequently the most 
 difficult and expensive to work under the mason's tools; but 
 they are the most durable of all building stones, and are 
 capable of taking the highest degree of polish. Granite, 
 like other stones, is, however, of various qualities, according 
 to the foreign substances with which its proper constituents 
 may be mixed. Thus any of the iron minerals, especially 
 the protoxides and sulphurates, render the granite more 
 subject to decay than if not present, while an admixture of 
 "hornblende" is thought to make it tough, that of "schorl" 
 brittle. 
 
 (b.) Sandstones. The varieties of sandstones are very 
 numerous. The principal are Mansfield, Kinton, Heddon, 
 Darley Dale, of the English, and Craigleith of the Scottish 
 sandstones, take the highest rank for non-liability to disinte- 
 gration. The quantity of matter disintegrated in grains of 
 the Darley Dale being -121, of Craigleith -6; while the 
 "Heddon" sandstone, the quantity stood at 1(H grains. 
 The cohesive power of Craigleith being 200-8 (cuts in 2 inch 
 cubes), of Darley Dale 25-3, of Heddon 141-7. Of the two 
 Craigleith is the hardest, although it works freely under the 
 tools, it containing of carbonate of lime nearly three times as 
 much as that of Darley Dale. The Darley Dale stone is of 
 
STONES. 181 
 
 a brownish colour, the grain is close and compact, and hardens 
 much on exposure to the air. The colour of Craigleith stone 
 is lightish grey, it works freely under the tool, lasts well, and 
 is highly esteemed by builders. The Yorkshire sandstones 
 have a high reputation for paving and flagging purposes, but 
 they are largely used for general building purposes; their 
 colour varies from a light creamy to a brownish hue. Sand- 
 stones are generally classed as the "red" and the "grey," 
 which latter is, however, more generally known as "free- 
 stone." 
 
 (c.) Limestones. This class has many varieties, and which 
 are classed under three heads: (1), Magnesian limestone; 
 (2), the oolitic limestones; and (3), the shelly limestones. 
 The oolitic formation of these yields the stones which have a 
 very wide and high reputation, such as the " Bath" and the 
 "Portland" stones. The "Portland" has the highest value 
 as a building stone. There are three principal kinds of this 
 known best by their colour, the " white," which is the " best 
 Portland stone," and the "cream coloured," which has a 
 close grain, and stands the atmosphere well, and thence the 
 " brown," which is the worst of the three; its texture is loose, 
 and of a sandy character, and is very liable to decay. " Bath" 
 stone is largely used, and stands next to Portland in reputa- 
 tion and value; it is of various qualities, some being softer 
 than others, the colour is a light creamy, that of Portland 
 whitish brown. Of the magnesian limestones, that of Bolsver 
 in Derbyshire is perhaps the best known; but those of York- 
 shire, such as Roche Abbey, are also well known and exten- 
 sively used. 
 
 59. Stone is in many instances peculiarly liable to decay. 
 The atmospheric influences acting very strongly upon some 
 varieties, causes them to crumble away, especially if the air be 
 much tainted with smoke, and the gases from various manu- 
 factures carried on in large and populous places. London is 
 a marked example of this, as there is scarcely a stone which 
 does not, sooner or later, succumb to its atmosphere, although 
 the stones may have had a high reputation for durability in 
 other districts, or in their own immediate localities. Many 
 methods have been proposed, and many substances intro- 
 duced, by which this decay may be prevented, or its progress 
 
182 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION". 
 
 stopped, in the event of its having commenced. The two 
 processes now best known are Ransome's and Zrerelmey's, to 
 which may be added that introduced by the " Indestructible 
 Paint Company." The student will find a full account of 
 various processes in our large work already referred to. 
 
 60. Of the miscellaneous building materials remaining 
 to be noticed are (1) terra cotta ; (2) artificial stone, 
 (3) marbles; (4) slates; (5) tiles, roofing, and paving. These 
 we shall notice in their order, devoting a special paragraph 
 to limes, mortar, concrete, cements, and asphalte. 
 
 (1). Terra Cotta, which although it has been long known 
 by a variety of high sounding names, is really brick material, 
 but brick of the highest quality, produced from the purest 
 and best clay, and moulded and burnt with the greatest care. 
 Thus produced, the material lays claim, and with justice, to 
 a high place as a building material, and is capable even, at 
 least in many cases, of supplanting stone, this being more 
 especially true where ornamentation is to be carried out to 
 any extent; the ornaments in terra cotta, well moulded, 
 being produced at a much cheaper rate than the ornaments 
 cut by hand in stone. A very fine and recently erected 
 example of the use of terra cotta is to be met with in the 
 " Royal Albert Hall," Kensington. Terra cotta possesses a 
 hard and dense body, with a fine surface quite untouchable 
 by any of the causes which bring about decay in stone, and 
 possesses moreover a beautifully diversified, or, what may be 
 called, a grained-coloured surface, which vies with that of 
 rich and old marble. 
 
 (2). Artificial Stone. Various attempts have been made 
 from time to time to introduce an artificial stone, but how- 
 ever successful some of these may have been in so far as the 
 making was concerned, none have been commercially success- 
 ful, with the exception of that invented and introduced by 
 Mr. Ransome. But this process has not only been commer- 
 cially successful, but successful in the sense of its yielding a 
 product which can, in point of durability and density, rival 
 that of our best stones; but where much ornament has to be 
 introduced, can compete with them thoroughly in point of 
 economy. The student will find a full description of this 
 process in our large work already alluded to; but for our 
 
STONES. 183 
 
 present purposes, it will suffice to say that the process con- 
 sists in uniting the particles of sand into a solid mass by 
 means of a solution of flints in caustic soda; the mixture of 
 solution and sand is thoroughly incorporated by means of a 
 mill, and is then moulded into any desired form by hand, or 
 by specially prepared moulds if the object is much orna- 
 mented. But although the mass in large objects, the core 
 may be of broken brick, etc. is thoroughly solid, hard, and 
 dense, the solution (a silicate of soda) is soluble, so that if 
 the mass was exposed to the weather, it would be washed 
 out; to render it insoluble, the object is dipped into or 
 saturated with a solution of chloride of calcium, by which 
 means the whole is hardened and rendered impervious to the 
 action of the rain. 
 
 (3). Marbles are limestones, the surfaces of which are 
 capable of taking on a fine polish, they are seldom used for 
 external, being chiefly employed for internal, work, as chim- 
 ney pieces and the like. There are numerous varieties of 
 marbles, having names according to some striking peculiarity 
 when polished; the finest and purest of white marbles is the 
 celebrated Carrara., used almost exclusively by sculptors for 
 statuary. Some of the marbles present a very singular ap- 
 pearance from the sections of fossil shells present in the mass. 
 A very costly variety is that known as verd antique, the 
 beautiful green colour which distinguishes it being derived 
 from the veins of serpentine present in it. 
 
 (4). Slate, strictly speaking, should have been classed 
 under the head of argillaceous stones, of which it is the most 
 valued and useful member. The slate used for roofing 
 possesses the property of being easily laminated or split up 
 into plates of varying thicknesses, the surfaces of which have 
 a kind of polish naturally, but which can be increased in a 
 very considerable degree by artificial means. Slates for 
 roofing are cut up into certain sizes, the form being almost 
 universally rectangular; although this varies in cases of 
 ornamental plates. 
 
 The following is a list of the names by which the sizes are 
 known and their dimensions : " Imperials," 30 in. by 24 in.; 
 "Queens," 36 in. by 24 in.; "Rags," 36 in. by 24 in.; 
 "Duchesses," 24 in. by 12 in.; "Countesses," 20 in. by 
 
184 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 10 in.; "Ladies," 15 in. by 8 in.; "Doubles," 13 in. by 6 in., 
 these last are also known as Welsh slates. 
 
 (5). Tiles. "Roofing tiles, as already stated, are of two 
 kinds, "plain" and "pan;" the size of the "plain" tiles is 
 10 J in. in length by 6J in. in width, and five-eighth of an 
 inch thick; of the "pan" tile, 13 J in. in length, 9J in. in 
 width, and half an inch in thickness. Flooring tiles vary in 
 size, and are of various forms. Those known by the name 
 of encaustic tiles are very beautifully coloured, and an 
 immense variety of designs have been introduced into the 
 market by the makers. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 LIMES MORTARS CEMENTS CONCRETES ASPHALTE. 
 
 61. Limes are of two kinds, " common " and " hydraulic." 
 The common lime will only harden in the air, not in water; 
 the hydraulic, as its name imports, hardens in water as well 
 as in the air. The common limes used to be, and are often 
 still, called " fat or rich limes," from the rich oily looking 
 paste unctuous also to the touch which they produced. 
 Hydraulic limes were termed poor or meagre limes, forming 
 a thin paste. Comparatively little is known on the subject 
 of lime?, and a good deal of confusion arises as to their 
 names, designations, and qualities. The French engineers, 
 and markedly M. Vicat, have paid much attention to the 
 subject, and the works and papers they have written are the 
 best which are to be met with; those of M. M. Yicat and 
 Petot being specially worthy of perusal. Sir Charles Pasley 
 in this country has paid much attention to this subject, and 
 his papers are worthy the notice of the student. (See his 
 work, Observations on Limes, Calcareous Cements, etc.) 
 
 Lime, as we know it in the form of lime-shell, i.e. un- 
 slaked lime, is not found naturally in this condition, but it 
 is very widely distributed amongst the limestones, the 
 marbles, and the chalks, in combination with the carbonic 
 acid which forms so marked a constituent of these minerals. 
 By subjecting these to the action of heat in one or other of 
 the methods of " lime burning " in use, the carbonic acid is 
 drawn off, and the product known chemically as the " oxide 
 of calcium " is what is called limestone. The common limes 
 are very numerous, and are generally named from the locality 
 in which they are obtained. After being burned, the lime- 
 stone is called "quick lime;" when this is slaked or slacked 
 with water, or allowed to remain exposed to the air, so that 
 
186 'BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 
 
 it takes up a portion of its moisture (air-slaking), the quick- 
 lime is converted into a fine powder, a " hydrate of lime." 
 When this powder or hydrate of lime is mixed up with a 
 certain proportion of sand and water, the mixture is termed 
 " mortar." If the mortar is made from a lime which is 
 hydraulic, it is called "hydraulic mortar." The hydraulic 
 limes owe their property of hardening under water to the 
 presence of a certain proportion of clay mixed with the lime. 
 The " Dorking " and " Hailing " limes used so much in the 
 metropolis are both slightly hydraulic, but not to that ex- 
 tent as to enable them to harden under constant exposure 
 to water, although they stand atmospheric moisture well. 
 But the favourite lime at present amongst the trade is the 
 "Blue lias," obtained at Lyme Regis, Barrow, and a few 
 other places. This lime gives the best of our hydraulic 
 mortars, and contains as much as twenty per cent, of clay. 
 
 (2.) Mortars. As already stated, mortar is made by mix- 
 ing slaked lime with sand, the whole being mixed with water 
 to a proper consistency for working. In Dorking and Hall- 
 ing limes, a good proportion of sand to lime is used three to 
 one, which may be said to be the general proportion for 
 ordinary or slightly hydraulic lime; for the blue lias, or 
 limes which are more highly hydraulic, take a less proportion 
 of sand, as they contain naturally alumina, and generally 
 also a proportion of silica. A good proportion will be, for 
 ordinary work, equal parts sand and lime; but for parts 
 exposed to weather, to each part of lime half of sand. The 
 sand used should be clean and sharp, and free from all vege- 
 table mould, etc. It will make all the better mortar if it be 
 washed. Sea-sand should always be avoided, as the salt con- 
 tained in it will afterwards efloresce and give out or absorb 
 damp. In slaking limestone, it should be spread out in a 
 layer about six inches in thickness, and the water about four 
 gallons to the cwt. sprinkled or thrown over it. Grout is 
 a mortar in a thinner state than usually employed for brick 
 or stone setting, so that it can be run in between the inter- 
 stices of the stones, etc., and fill the spaces up. Grout may 
 either be of a common or an hydraulic mortar. 
 
 (3.) Hydraulic Cements contain more silica and alumina 
 and less of the carbonate of lime, than do the ordinary 
 
CONCRETES. 187 
 
 hydraulic limes. They differ from these also in this, that 
 while hydraulic lime, slaked like common limes, hardens 
 under water slowly, the hydraulic cements do not slake and 
 harden very rapidly under water. The cement known as 
 " Roman," is made from a natural cement stone found in the 
 island of Sheppy, and contains 5 5 '40 per cent, of lime and 
 4 6 '00 of clay. "Portland cement" is made from the nodules 
 of conglomerate stones containing clay and limestone, and 
 sometimes a small percentage of silica, found on the banks 
 of the Medway in this country and at Boulogne in France. 
 These nodules are subjected to a high degree of heat in a fur- 
 nace, and thereafter all foreign matter, scorified portions, etc., 
 picked out from the mass of the proper nodules, which are 
 then ground into a fine powder, and when mixed with water 
 forms what is known as Portland cement, and which has by 
 far the highest reputation amongst practical men of all the 
 cements yet introduced. Generally speaking, the hydraulic 
 cements require mixing with sand, but Portland cement may 
 be used without sand. It sets with comparative slowness, 
 so that a good quantity may be mixed at once and used, 
 without the inconvenience of immediate or very quick har- 
 dening. For the making of concrete it is particularly valu- 
 able. Hydraulic cements can be made artificially by mixing 
 lime with clay, and subjecting the mixture to heat. Mortar, 
 to resist the action of fire, is made by subjecting any kind of 
 marly clay to heat, till it is a " grey clinker," and then grind- 
 ing this till it is equal in grain to coarse sand. This powder 
 is then mixed with fresh ground lime in a dry state, in the 
 proportion of three parts of the clayey powder to one of the 
 lime, and then by the addition of water, making a mortar 
 of it. 
 
 (4.) Concretes. This term is applied to a mixture of lime, 
 sand, and gravel, in the dry state. "When thoroughly mixed, 
 water is added till the whole mass is of sufficient thinness to 
 be poured into the place of final deposit, as foundation courses, 
 etc. The proportions of the materials are two or three of 
 sand to one of lime, according to the quality of the lime; if 
 hydraulic, as the " blue lias," less sand may be used, and one 
 of gravel, equal in bulk to the sand. The mixture is made 
 in a mill if in large, and with a spade if in small quantities. 
 
188 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Concrete expands very much in setting, but this is gradual. 
 It is generally considered necessary to " tilt" or throw in the 
 concrete into the trenches, etc., from a height, but this we 
 believe to be an erroneous practice and not necessary; indeed, 
 if the height is considerable, serious injury is done to the 
 concrete in disturbing its particles. The term beton is applied 
 by French engineers to a mixture of hydraulic mortar with 
 pieces of broken brick, stone, gravel, and the like. It is more 
 economical than concrete, inasmuch as the hydraulic mortar is 
 only necessary to fill up the spaces between the stones etc. 
 When the stones or pieces of broken brick, or other hard 
 vitrified material, as smithy fire and furnace clinkers, iron 
 slag, etc., are about the size to pass through a one-and-three- 
 quarters to a two-inch ring, and the sand and gravel (fine) 
 in equal proportions, the beton will be of the best propor- 
 tions. Portland cement makes a first-class concrete mixed 
 with sand, in the proportion of from three to seven parts to 
 one of the cement; the former proportion makes the strongest 
 concrete useful for floors, pavements, and the like, the latter 
 to form a mortar, which, after the nature of beton work, is 
 used to fill up the interstices between pieces of broken brick, 
 stones, etc., in the formation of walls, or of masses or blocks 
 of concrete. (See Division on Work in Stone, etc., Vol. II. ). 
 (5.) Asphalte. This material, which is a bituminous 
 mastic, has been largely used of late years in the formation 
 of pavements, and for covering surfaces, flat roofs, and foun- 
 dation courses, to prevent damp, etc. Asphalte is, properly 
 speaking, a bituminous mastic, being a combination of mineral 
 tar with bituminous limestone (natural asphalte or porous 
 limestone) powdered. 
 
^7^ 
 
 
 
 <* > V 
 
 \v. *A *, 
 
 ; 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 METALS-CAST-IKON WROUGHT OH MALLEABLE 
 IRON LEAD. 
 
 62. Iron, as we have elsewhere remarked, is obtained from 
 what are called " ores," of which the following are those 
 chiefly used in the manufacture of iron, placing them in the 
 order of their value, or their percentage, of iron contained in 
 them: (1) Brown Hematite, or hydrated peroxide of iron, 
 yielding as much as eighty parts of iron, out of one hundred 
 parts of the ore; (2) Magnetic, a black oxide of iron, yield- 
 ing seventy-two parts of metal out of one hundred parts of 
 the ore; (3) Red Hematite, or peroxide of iron, yielding sixty- 
 nine parts out of a hundred; (4) Blackband, or carbonate of 
 iron, yielding thirty-eight parts out of a hundred; (5) Clay- 
 band, yielding thirty parts out of a hundred. The two last, 
 generally classed as the " argillaceous" iron ores, are those 
 from which the largest proportion of the iron made in this 
 country is obtained, on an average one ton of iron is obtained 
 from two and a half tons of the ore. Of these ores the clay- 
 band was at one time chiefly used for the manufacture of 
 iron, till the discovery of the blackband, which is commonly 
 known as "ironstone." Richer ores are now used in the 
 manufacture, such as the oolitic ores, found chiefly in the 
 Cleveland district in Yorkshire, but also in smaller quantity 
 in Northamptonshire, Wiltshire, Oxfordshire, and Lincoln- 
 shire. 
 
 The now famous red hematite ores in this country are 
 found principally at Ulverstone in Lancashire, near More- 
 combe Bay, and in several parts of Cornwall. The im- 
 purities of the ore, which tend to reduce the valuable 
 quality of the iron, are sulphur, phosphorus, and gangue. 
 This last is composed of quartz and clay, and forms that 
 part of the refuse of the smelting process known as slag. 
 
190 . BUILDING CONSTRUCTION". 
 
 "When the first of the above-named impurities (sulphur) is 
 present in the ore in considerable quantity, the iron is apt 
 to be brittle when hot, or as the quality known in the trade 
 as "red-short;" when the second impurity (phosphorus) is 
 much present, the iron is apt to be brittle when cold, or has 
 the quality known as " cold-short." The gangue is very in- 
 fusible, needing the mixture of a fleet, ordinary limestone, 
 with the iron ore, coal, or coke put into the blast furnace. 
 In some instances, in order to render them more easily 
 smelted, the iron ores are roasted or calcined by mixing 
 them with fuel, and setting fire to the heap thus formed. 
 The ore, coal, coke, and fleet are put into the blast furnace, 
 and the blast of either cold or hot air put on ; and the iron 
 passes from it in the shape of a carbide of iron, or cast-iron 
 of commerce. The iron, as it flows from the furnace, is run 
 into moulds, forming the well known pig-iron; the different 
 qualities being numbered 1, 2, and 3, these being known as 
 "foundry," and 4, 5, and 6, these being classed as "forge" iron. 
 
 Before the introduction of the hot blast system, in which 
 the air forced into the furnace is brought to a very high 
 temperature, 500 to 700, by being passed through a series 
 of pipes heated in a special furnace, coke was used as the 
 fuel, but now, by the use of the hot blast, coal is used. Oast- 
 iron is of two kinds or classes, the "grey and white," the grey 
 showing, when broken, a granular appearance, more or less 
 distinct; it is soft and easily melted, and it contains a large 
 percentage of carbon, not chemically combined, but forming 
 graphite, and the presence of which imparts the grey colour. 
 The " white " iron is hard and brittle, requires the highest 
 temperature to fuse it, and when fractured presents not a 
 granular, like grey iron, but a laminated, crystallised, glassy 
 appearance. The pig-iron, known as " No. 1," abounds in 
 this so-called graphite, and it is to its abundance in it, and 
 in irons of this class, of which it forms the extreme example, 
 that their soft fluid and easily melted character is owing, the 
 excess of the suspended graphite materially affecting, as it is 
 supposed it does, the tenacity of the iron, by separating the 
 various crystals, and thus reducing the cohesive attraction 
 of the particles. 
 
 From the properties above noted of cast-iron, " No. 1," it 
 
IRON. 191 
 
 is much used in the foundry for casting small and orna- 
 mented articles where much strength is not required, but 
 where an easily running metal adds to the sharpness of the 
 casting. It is also used for adding to less easily melted 
 irons, as those of " No. 2 " and " No. 3." These numbers 
 contain less carbon than "No. 1," and are also harder, 
 stronger, and more tenacious. While the specific gravity of 
 "No. 1" varies from 69 to 72, that of "Nos. 2 and 3" varies 
 from 70 to 75. By mixing " Nos. 1, 2, and 3," in various 
 proportions, a great variety of what are technically called 
 " makes " of iron are produced in a wide range of degrees 
 of hardness, from the fluidity of "No. 1," up to the hardness 
 of, and brittleness which characterises the "No. 4" now to be 
 noticed. This iron is a " white " iron, contains little carbon, 
 is of a crystalline character, and requires a high temperature 
 to melt it; its chief use in the foundry being to mix with 
 the softer numbers. The same remarks apply, more or less 
 modified, according to circumstances, to "Nos. 5 and 6." 
 "No. 3" is much used in combination with "No. 1," and 
 what is called scrap-iron, or old iron, this being obtained 
 from various sources, and therefore of various qualities, is 
 for the purposes of heavy castings, where articles are re- 
 quired to be strong, and yet easily worked with the chisel 
 and file, as in the case of toothed wheels and the like. 
 
 Between these two classes of cast-iron, the grey and the 
 white, may be put the mottled, so called from the appearance 
 the fractured part shows; it is more open than the grey iron, 
 and when the greyish tinge in its colour predominates, it, 
 says an able authority, "makes excellent castings," and when 
 of a lighter colour, "is advantageously employed for the 
 manufacture of soft iron; it admits of being readily turned 
 and filed, and takes a good polish." The object of the iron 
 founder is to mix the various qualities of iron now described 
 in such proportions as will yield a quality of iron suitable 
 for the purpose for which the object is cast. The following, 
 on "mixtures" usually employed, will be useful here. 
 
 Nos. 1 or 2, Staffordshire or Scotch, may be used for small 
 and ornamented castings. Nos. 1 and 2 Welsh, having much 
 less carbon, are rather too hard to be used for this class of 
 work. Where the castings are very fine, the addition of a 
 
192 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 little arsenic will give the requisite degree of fluidity to the 
 iron; but as a rule, No. 1 of Scotch iron will be found all 
 that is requisite for them. A mixture of Nos. 1 and 3, or 
 of No. 1 with a small proportion of scrap-iron, will do for 
 machine work, which requires to be strong, and also tena- 
 cious, so as to resist shocks. For girders, bressummers, etc., 
 a mixture of No. 1 Welsh; this is better than No. 1 Scotch 
 or Staffordshire, with Nos. 3, 4, or No. 1 Welsh with a large 
 quantity of hard scrap of good quality. For columns, pillars, 
 etc. , and castings submitted to compressible strain, a mixture 
 of No. 1 Welsh, with a greater proportion of the Nos. 3 
 and 4, are used in casting for girders. 
 
 The opinions held as to the effect of the hot blast upon 
 iron prepared by its means are very varied, some being 
 directly in favour, others being as directly against the good 
 effect it has upon the quality of the iron. The highest 
 authorities in this country state that the probability is that 
 it injures the quality of the softer, while it improves that of 
 the harder irons. It is scarcely necessary to say that the 
 mixtures of pig-iron named above, when used for casting the 
 various parts used in the arts, is melted a second time, and 
 run into the required moulds, the furnace employed being 
 designated a " cupola." 
 
 63. Malleable Iron. When cast-iron, while in a melted 
 condition, is exposed to the action of the atmosphere in a 
 high-temperature reverberatory furnace, and stirred or moved 
 about by a process which is technically known as "pud- 
 dling," the carbon is got rid of, and the mass is converted 
 into iron capable of being wrought or hammered and welded, 
 and hence called wrought or malleable iron. 
 
 When the iron in the reverberatory furnace has, by the 
 mixing or puddling process, become sufficiently viscous or 
 agglutinated, it is withdrawn from the furnace in lumps or 
 balls, which are what is called "shingled," that is, passed 
 between squeezing rollers, and finally formed into definite 
 shapes by a large hammer. Previous to being puddled, the 
 cast-iron is generally refined in a peculiarly arranged furnace, 
 in which the metal is subjected to a blast of hot air, the iron 
 thus partially decarbonised is then taken to the reverberatory 
 or puddling furnace. 
 
MALLEABLE IRON. 193 
 
 In the celebrated process of making wrought-iron, invented 
 by Mr. Bessemer, the cast-iron is converted into steel or 
 malleable iron, without the intervention of the puddling pro- 
 cess, thus saving a vast deal of exhausting and exceedingly 
 expensive labour. Briefly described, the process consists in 
 forcing air into contact with the molten cast-iron, which is 
 placed in a closed vessel. Good castings should have their 
 outer skin or surface smooth and clear, uniform, and without 
 break ; all the angles sharp, denned, and clear. A broken 
 section should show no air holes or flaws, the texture should 
 be close, with a decided shining or metallic lustre, the colour 
 lightish blue-grey, uniformly over the whole of the section; 
 any variations in colour, as darker and lighter patches, indi- 
 cate unsound castings, as do also the presence of parts which 
 are highly crystalline in texture; the most decided sign of 
 an unsound casting is the presence of air bubbles. To detect 
 these is difficult when the skin is unbroken; but by striking 
 all over the surface with a hammer, the sound will give some 
 indications, more or less distinct, of their presence or absence. 
 It is generally the custom, in order to obtain a certain 
 strength in the metal of which beams and column castings, 
 etc., are made, to specify a certain "mixture" to be used; 
 but so uncertain a metal is cast-iron, that the best way will 
 be to specify that the beams, etc., shall be cast so as to have 
 a certain strength when tested. If there are a number of 
 the same kind, one should be selected at random in order to 
 be tested till it breaks, the results under different weights 
 to be carefully noted. The broken object should be examined 
 in section as above described. 
 
 64. Lead is largely used in building construction for the 
 lining of cisterns, for the making of pipes, for the " flashing" 
 of the ridges of houses, the junction of chimney-stalks with 
 roofs, of gables, etc., etc. The metal is found in combination 
 with sulphur chiefly, although much is extracted from the 
 carbonate of lead, which is found naturally in what may 
 be called popularly in the condition of an ore of lead. 
 When lead is found in combination with sulphur, it is termed 
 galena, and which yields on an average some 86 per cent, 
 of lead; the carbonate of lead yielding some 68 per cent. 
 Derbyshire, in this country, is famous for its lead mines, 
 3 i. v 
 
194 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 some of which are very ancient, many, however, are now 
 exhausted. The specific gravity of lead is great, being eleven 
 and a quarter times that of water; the melting point is 612. 
 It possesses great ductility, and can be formed into a variety 
 of shapes with great ease. In conjunction with other metals, 
 it forms a variety of useful alloys, and is largely used in the 
 industrial arts in a variety of ways. 
 
 The paint or pigment known as " white lead," is a white 
 carbonate, containing a small proportion of oxide of lead. 
 Another combination is the oxychloride of lead, composed 
 of one atom of oxide and one of chloride of lead. "Red 
 lead," much used by machinists, is a mixture of two oxides 
 of lead. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 ACUTE angles, 100. 
 
 Angle of repose, 135. 
 
 Appliances, drawing, 9. 
 
 Application, of fire-bricks, 180. 
 
 Arch stones, 100. 
 
 Arch, Tudor or domestic, 145. 
 
 Arches in brickwork, varieties of, 76-81. 
 
 Arches in stonework, 141. 
 
 Arches, construction of, 153. 
 
 Artificial stone, 182. 
 
 Artificial stone, process of forming, 183. 
 
 Ash, 173. 
 
 Ashlar, 99. 
 
 Ashlar faced walls, 101. 
 
 Ashlar, varieties of finish for, 99. 
 
 Ashlar work, 94-96. 
 
 Ashlar work, principles of, 94. 
 
 Ashlar work, rustics in, 100. 
 
 Asphalte, composition of, 188. 
 
 Asphalte, uses of, 188. 
 
 Atmospheric influence on stone, 181. 
 
 BALKS or Baulks, 175. 
 
 Baltic timber, names of, 174. 
 
 Bath and Portland stones, 181. 
 
 Battens, planks, deals, 175. 
 
 Baywood, 9. 
 
 Beams and columns castings, testing the 
 
 strength of, 193. 
 Beech, 173. 
 
 Bent beds in arch stones, 100. 
 Beton, 188. 
 Blackband ore, 189. 
 Block in course, 99. 
 Boards, 175. 
 Board and T square, 9. 
 Board for drawing, 9. 
 Bolts for joining stone blocks, 110. 
 Bond in brick setting, principles of, 27, 28. 
 Bond, Old English, in brickwork, 31-35. 
 Bond, Flemish, 35-37. 
 Bond, varieties of, in brickwork, 45, 46. 
 Bond, with five courses of stretchers, and 
 
 one of headers in brickwork, 46. 
 Bond header, 47. 
 Bond, diagonal, 47-49. 
 Bond, herring-bone, 49, 50. 
 Bond in connection with external walls, 
 
 joining external walk at right angles, 
 
 56-68. 
 
 Bow compasses, pencil, 13. 
 Bow compasses, ink, 13. 
 Brick, composition of, 179. 
 Brick building in piers, principles of, 67. 
 Brick, forms of, 27. 
 
 Brick setting in bond, principles of, 27, 28. 
 Brick piers, 65. 
 
 Brick coping for walls, 82-S3. 
 
 Brick and stone, 179. 
 
 Brick or stone walls of enclosure, 129 
 
 Brick in combination with stonework, 
 
 169. 
 
 Brick and stones, combinations of, 101. 
 Brick in combination with woodwork, 
 
 84-88. 
 
 Bricks, trade classification of, 179. 
 Brickwork, bond with five courses of 
 
 stretchers, and one of headers, 46. 
 Brickwork, headers in, 46. 
 Brickwork, hollow, 53-56. 
 Brickwork in Old English bond, 31-35. 
 Brickwork, king closer in, 63. 
 Brickwork, stretchers in, 46. 
 Brickwork, string course in, 77. 
 Brickwork, varieties of bond in, 45, 46. 
 Brown Hematite ore, 189. 
 Buttresses or counterforts, 134. 
 Building, concrete materials used in, 159. 
 Building materials, varieties of, 182. 
 
 CAMBER arch , 80. 
 Carrara marbles, 183. 
 Cast-iron, two kinds of, 190, 191. 
 Cast-iron, conversion of, into malleable 
 
 iron, 192, 193. 
 Cements, hydraulic, 186. 
 Cements, Roman and Portland, 187. 
 Chimney stalks, flues, and fireplaces, 
 
 67, 76. 
 
 Clay band ore, 189. 
 Coffer dam, description of, 201. 
 Cold short, 190. 
 
 Combination of stone and brickwork , 169. 
 Combination of rustic and mould 
 
 masonry, 101. 
 Combination of brickwork and stones, 
 
 101. 
 
 Common and hydraulic limes, 185. 
 Comparative merits of Old English and 
 
 Flemish bonds, 40-45. 
 Compasses, large, 12. 
 Compasses, spring, 12. 
 Composition of asphalte, 188. 
 Composition of brick, 179. 
 Composition of granites, 180. 
 Composition of timber trees, 176. 
 Concretes, preparation of, 187. 
 Concrete, uses of, 188. 
 Concrete building, materials used in,|159. 
 Concrete building, two ways, 159. 
 Concrete building in combination with 
 
 timberwork, 159. 
 
 Concrete building combined with timber- 
 work, principles of, 159-167. 
 
196 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Concrete walls, solid, 168. 
 Conical arch, 147. 
 Construction of arches, 153. 
 Conversion of cast-iron into malleable 
 
 iron, 192, 193. 
 Corbels in brickwork, 82. 
 Cornice in stone, 108. 
 Counterforts and buttresses, 134. 
 Coursed rubble, 92. 
 Coursed rubble set in mortar, 97. 
 Coursed masonry, notched and broken, 
 
 101. 
 
 Courses, string in stone, 107. 
 Cramps for joining stone blocks, 110. 
 Cross bond, 50, 53. 
 Curves for drawing, 12. 
 Cyclopean masonry, 98. 
 Cylindrical or cylindroidal arch, 147. 
 
 DAMP-PROOF course, 138. 
 
 Deals, planks, battens, 175. 
 
 Decorated Gothic, 107. 
 
 Deep quoins, 101. 
 
 Description of flash pointing, 168. 
 
 Description of coffer-dam, 120. 
 
 Detail or enlarged drawings, scales for, 
 
 20, 21. 
 
 Diagonal bond, 47-49. 
 Different classification of stones, 180. 
 Dome or hemispherical arch, 147. 
 Domestic Gothic, 106. 
 Door and window jambs, 105-107. 
 Door and window openings, reveals, 
 
 jambs, 59-64. 
 
 Double Flemish bond, 37-40. 
 Dowels in joining stone blocks, 110. 
 Drain, 156. 
 
 Drainage, importance of, 125. 
 Drawing appliances, 9. 
 Drawing board, 9. 
 Drawing, curves for, 12. 
 Drawing instruments, 12. 
 Drawing paper and pencils, 13. 
 Drawing pen, 13. 
 Drawing, plans, elevations, and sections 
 
 in, 21-26. 
 Drawing plans, practical use of the scales 
 
 in, 15. 
 
 Drawing rulers, 12. 
 Drawing, set square for, 11-16. 
 Drawings, scales for detail in, 20, 21. 
 Drawings, scales used in, 14. 
 Dry rot in timber, 177. 
 Ductility of lead, 194. 
 Dwarf or leaning walls, 133. 
 
 EARLY English Gothic, 107. 
 Elevations, 22. 
 
 Elevations, plans, and sections in draw- 
 ing, 21-26. 
 Elliptical arch, 145. 
 Enclosure, walls of, 115. 
 English and Flemish bond, variety of, 46. 
 English oak, 173. 
 
 FIRE-BRICKS, application of, 180. 
 
 Fireplaces, flues, and chimney stalks, 
 67-76. 
 
 Flash pointing, description of, 168. 
 
 Flat arch, 152. 
 
 Flemish and Old English bond, 28-31. 
 
 Flemish bond, 35-37. 
 
 Flemish bond, double, 37-40. 
 
 Flemish and Old English bonds, compa- 
 rative merits of, 40-45. 
 
 Flemish and English bond, variety of, 
 46, 47. 
 
 Flooring and roofing tiles, 184. 
 
 Floors, 139. 
 
 Flues, fireplaces, and chimney stalks, 
 67-76. 
 
 Flushing or grouting, 92. 
 
 Foot rule, use of, 13, 14. 
 
 Footing of walls, 58. 
 
 Footings of stone walls, 115. 
 
 Forms of brick, 27. 
 
 Foundations, two classes of, 126. 
 
 Foundations, general directions for form- 
 ing, 115-125. 
 
 Foundations, valuable remarks on, 122- 
 125. 
 
 French arch, 78. 
 
 GALENA, 193. 
 
 General directions for the footing of 
 stone walls, 115. 
 
 General directions for forming founda- 
 tions, 115-125. 
 
 Gothic arches, varieties in, 106, 107. 
 
 Gothic, early English, 107. 
 
 Granites, grey and red, 180. 
 
 Granites, composition of, 180. 
 
 Ground arch, 145. 
 
 Grouting or flushing, 92. 
 
 HEADER, bond, 47. 
 Headers and stretchers, 127. 
 Headers, 92, 93. 
 Headers in brickwork, 46. 
 Hematite ore, brown, 189. 
 Herring-bone bond, 49, 50. 
 Hewn ashlar masonry, 96. 
 Hollow brickwork, 53-56. 
 Hoop-iron bond in brickwork, 85. 
 Horizontal openings, 101. 
 Horseshoe or Moorish arch, 145. 
 Hydraulic and common limes, 185. 
 Hydraulic cements, 186. 
 
 INK bow compasses, 13. 
 
 Instruments for drawing, 12. 
 
 Internal walls joining external walls, 
 
 bond in connection with, 56-58. 
 Inverted arch, 81. 
 Iron, 189-192. 
 Iron, malleable, 192, 193. 
 
 JAMBS, reveals, door openings, windows, 
 etc., 59-64, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 197 
 
 Jambs, two kinds of, 61. 
 Joining of stone blocks, 109-114. 
 Joggles in stonework, 110. 
 
 KENTISH rag-stone work, 96. 
 King closer in brickwork, 63. 
 
 LAECH, 173. 
 
 Large conmasses, 12. 
 
 Lead, uses of, 193-194. 
 
 Lead, ductility of, 194. 
 
 Leading of bolts, rails, etc., into stone- 
 work, 114. 
 
 Limes, common and hydraulic, 185. 
 
 Limes, mortars, cements, concretes, 
 asphalte, 185-188. 
 
 Limestones, varieties of, 181. 
 
 Live oak, 174. 
 
 MAGNESIAN limestone, 181. 
 
 Magnetic ore, 189. 
 
 Mahogany, 9. 
 
 Mahogany, 175. 
 
 Malleable iron, 192, 193. 
 
 Malleable iron, conversion of, from cast- 
 iron, 192, 193. 
 
 Marbles, varieties of, 183. 
 
 Masonry, rpugh or random rubble, 97 
 
 Masonry, rough rubble, 97. 
 
 Masonry, cyclopean, 98. 
 
 Masonry, hewn ashlar, 96. 
 
 Materials used in concrete building, 159. 
 
 Measurements, to lay down from scales, 
 16-20. 
 
 Metals, cast-iron, wrought-iron, maUeable- 
 iron, lead, 189-194. 
 
 Miscellaneous illustrations of work in 
 stone, 102. 
 
 Mitre joints, 100. 
 
 Moorish or horse shoe arch, 145. 
 
 Mortar, course rubble set in, 97. 
 
 Mortar, random rubble set in, 97. 
 
 Mortar, snecked rubble set in, 97. 
 
 Mortars, preparation of, 186. 
 
 Mouldings, 101. 
 
 NAMES of Baltic timber, 174. 
 
 Names and dimensions of slates, 163. 
 
 Norman or semicircular arch, 145. 
 
 Norman Gothic, 106. 
 
 Notched and broken coursed masoniy,101. 
 
 OAK, white, 173. 
 Oak, rock, 174. . 
 Ogee arch, 145. 
 
 Old English and Flemish bond, 28-31. 
 Old English bond in brickwork, 31-35. 
 Old English and Flemish bonds, com- 
 parative merits of, 40-45. 
 Oolitic limestones, 181. 
 Openings, horizontal, 101. 
 Ore, magnetic, 189. 
 Ore, blackband, 189. 
 Ore, clayband, 189. 
 
 PARALLEL rulers, 12. 
 
 Parppints, stones with two faces, 99. 
 
 Pencil, bow compasses, 13. 
 
 Pencils and drawing paper, 13. 
 
 Pen for drawing, 13. 
 
 Perpendicular Gothic, 107. 
 
 Piers in brickwork, 65. 
 
 Pine, yellow, 174. 
 
 Pines, American, 174. 
 
 Plane tree, 9. 
 
 Planks, battens, deals, 175. 
 
 Plans, elevations, and sections in draw- 
 ing, 21-26. 
 
 Pointing wall joints, 168. 
 
 Poplar, 173. 
 
 Portland and bath stones, 181. 
 
 Portland and Roman cements, 187. 
 
 Practical use of the scales in drawing 
 plans, 15. 
 
 Preparation of concretes, 187. 
 
 Preparation of mortars, 186. 
 
 Preservation of timber, 177. 
 
 Principles of brick building in piers, 67. 
 
 Principles of ashlar work, 94. 
 
 Principles of uniting wood work with 
 brick in building walls, 87. 
 
 Principles of combining timber with 
 concrete building, 159-167. 
 
 Process of forming artificial stone, 183. 
 
 Projecting stones, 100. 
 
 Proper arch, 77. 
 
 Puddling, 192. 
 
 QUALITIES of terra cotta, 182. 
 Quoins in stone walls, 107, 108. 
 
 RANDOM or rough rubble, 91, 92. 
 Random or rough rubble masonry, 97. 
 Random rubble, various settings of, 98. 
 Red lead, 194. 
 Red hematite ore, 189. 
 Red short, 190. 
 Red and grey granites, 180. 
 Relieving arch, 78. 
 Retaining walls, remarks on, 136-138. 
 Retaining or revetment walls, 136-140. 
 Reveals, jambs of window, and door open- 
 ings, 59-64. 
 
 Revetment or retaining walls, 130-140. 
 Road supporting arch, 149. 
 Roman and Portland cements, 187. 
 Roofing, slates for, 183. 
 Roofing and flooring tiles, 184. 
 Rosewood, 175. 
 
 Rough rubble or random, 91, 92. 
 Rough rubble masonry, 97. 
 Rough or random rubble masonry, 97. 
 Rulers for drawing, 12. 
 Rulers, parallel, 12. 
 Rubble, coursed, 92. 
 Rubble, coursed set in mortar, 97. 
 Rubble, snecked set in mortar, 97. 
 Rustics in ashlar work, 100. 
 
108 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 SANDSTONES, varieties of, 180. 
 
 Scales, practical use of, 15. 
 
 Scales, practical use of, in drawing plans, 
 
 Scales used in drawings, 14. 
 Scale to take measurement from, 16-20. 
 Scales for detail or enlarged drawings, 20. 
 Scheme arch, 79. 
 Seasoning of timber, 176. 
 Sections, elevations and plans in draw- 
 ing, 21-26. 
 Segmental arch, 78. 
 Semi-Norman Gothic, 107. 
 Semicircular arch, 78. 
 Set square for drawing, 11. 
 Sewer, 155. 
 
 Sewers, drains, tanks, and wells, 155-158. 
 Sham jointing, 101. 
 Shelly limestones, 181. 
 Sills, or tills weathered or throated, 102- 
 
 105. 
 Single stones, architraves, mullions, and 
 
 groins, 101. 
 
 Skew bridge arch, 150. 
 Slates for roofing, 183. 
 Slates, names and dimensions of, 183. 
 Snecked rubble set in mortar, 97. 
 Solid concrete walls, 168. 
 Spring compasses, 12. 
 Spring dividers, 13. 
 Stonework in combination with brick, 
 
 169. 
 
 Stone or brick walls of enclosure, 129. 
 Stonework, varieties in, 91-101. 
 Stones with two faces, parpoints, 99. 
 Stonework, miscellaneous illustrations of, 
 
 102. 
 
 Stone walls, quoins in, 107-108. 
 Stone blocks, joining of, 109-114. 
 Stonework, joggles in, 110. 
 Stone blocks, bolts for joining, 110. 
 Stone blocks, cramps for joining, 110. 
 Stone blocks, dowels for joining, 110. 
 Stone walls, footings of, 115. 
 Stones, different classifications of, 180. 
 Stones, Portland and Bath, 181. 
 Stone, atmospheric influence on, 181. 
 Stone, artificial, 182. 
 Stone columns, single, 101. 
 Stone and brickwork, combinations of, 
 
 101. 
 Stonework, leading of bolts, rails, etc., 
 
 into, 114. 
 
 Stone and brick, 179. 
 Straight arch, 78. 
 Stretchers and headers, 127. 
 Stretchers, 92-93. 
 Stretchers in brickwork, 46. 
 String courses in stone, 107. 
 String course in brickwork, 81. 
 Sycamore, 9. 
 
 T SQUARE AND BOARD, 9, 10, 16. 
 
 Tanks, 157. 
 
 Terra cotta, qualities of, 182. 
 
 Testing the strength of beams and column 
 
 castings, 193. 
 Throated and weathered sills or cills, 102- 
 
 Tiles for roofing and flooring, 184. 
 Timber trees, composition of, 176. 
 Timber, seasoning of, 176. 
 Timber, dry rot in, 177. 
 Timber, preservation of, 177. 
 Timbers, varieties of, 85. 
 Trade classification of bricks, 179. 
 Trimmer arch, 81. 
 Tudor or domestic Gothic arch, 145. 
 Two classes of foundations, 126. 
 Two kinds of cast-iron, 190, 191. 
 Two kinds of jambs, 61. 
 
 UsESofasphalte, 188. 
 Uses of concrete, 188. 
 Uses of lead, 193, 194. 
 
 VARIETIES in Gothic arches, 106, 107. 
 Varieties of arches in stonework, 140- 
 
 145. 
 
 Varieties of bond in brickwork, 45, 46. 
 Varieties of building materials, 182. 
 Varieties of finish for ashlar, 99. 
 Varieties of limestones, 181. 
 Varieties of marbles, 183. 
 Varieties of sandstones, 180. 
 Varieties of stonework, 91-101. 
 Varieties of wall stone, 99. 
 Variety of English and Flemish bond, 46. 
 Various methods of seasoning timber, 177. 
 Various settings of random rubble, 98. 
 
 WALL, brick coping for, 82, 83. 
 
 Wall joints, pointing of, 168. 
 
 Wall stone, varieties of, 99. 
 
 Walls, ashlar faced, 101. 
 
 Walls, dwarf or leaning, 133. 
 
 Walls of enclosure, 115. 
 
 Walls of enclosure in brick or stone, 129. 
 
 Walls, revetment or retaining, 130-140. 
 
 Walls, footing of, 58. 
 
 Walnut, 175. 
 
 Weathered and throated sills or cills, 102- 
 
 105. 
 
 Wells, 158. 
 White pine, 174. 
 White lead, 194. 
 
 Window and door jambs, 105-107. 
 Window and door openings, reveals, 
 
 jambs, etc., 59-64. 
 Woods, 9. 
 Wood-work in combination with brick. 
 
 84-88. 
 Work, ashlar, 94-96. 
 
 WILLIAM COLLINS AND COMPANY, PRINTERS, GLASGOW. 
 
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY 
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 COLLINS' SERIES OF SCHOOL ATLASES Continued. 
 
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