BIOLOGY LIBRARY 
 
CELLULOSE 
 
CELLULOSE 
 
 AN OUTLINE OF THE CHEMISTRY OF 
 
 THE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS OF PLANTS 
 
 WITH REFERENCE TO THEIR 
 
 KATURAL HISTORY AND INDUSTRIAL USES 
 
 BY 
 
 CROSS & BEVAN 
 
 (C. F. CROSS, K. J. BEVAN, AND C. BEADLE) 
 
 NEW IMPRESSION 
 
 LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 
 
 39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON 
 
 NEW YORK, BOMBAY, AND CALCUTTA 
 
 1910 
 
 All rights reserved 
 
PREFACE 
 
 TO 
 
 THE SECOND EDITION 
 
 SOME of the published criticisms of the book appearing to 
 indicate a certain misunderstanding of its plan and purpose, 
 we think it opportune to further and more specifically explain. 
 
 The chemistry of cellulose is necessarily a chemistry of 
 colloidal, uncrystallisable substance : hence the relationships 
 of any derivative to the parent substance is not established 
 by a comparison of composition and properties, but requires a 
 complete statistical account of the reaction. Even then it is 
 generally impossible to measure attendant changes of mole- 
 cular condition, or, to put it more precisely, changes of 
 dimensions of the reacting unit, accompanying the formation 
 of derivative compounds. 
 
 It is consequently impossible in the present state of our 
 knowledge to write a chemistry of cellulose in the terms of 
 the thoroughly systematised branches of the science. We have 
 therefore adopted the plan of classifying the empirical subject- 
 
 263900 
 
vi Preface to the Second Edition 
 
 matter, as a necessary first step in progress from the purely 
 empirical. From the methodical treatment of the subject-matter 
 under such heads as Hydrolysis, Oxidations, Ester formation, 
 and other special synthetic reactions a certain order has 
 been introduced, from which there result at least prominent 
 suggestions of the underlying constitutional relationships. 
 
 So far has this proceeded that it is possible at this date to 
 propose constitutional formulae for even so complex a body 
 as a lignocellulose, such as would be a consistent summary of 
 the experimental facts as to composition and reactions. It 
 would, however, be premature to attempt this in any other 
 way than as a working hypothesis to guide investigations. 
 There remains, indeed, still unsolved the problem of the actual 
 condition of matter in these complex colloidal forms rela- 
 tively to the gaseous and liquid states, and pending a solution 
 of this major problem, we can only continue on the basis of 
 progressive empiricism which we originally adopted. 
 
 The present is therefore in the main a reprint of the 
 former edition with a small portion of the text rewritten and 
 the addition of an appendix giving an account of more impor- 
 tant recent contributions. 
 
 4 NEW COURT, LONDON, W.C. 
 February 25, 1903. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 THE purpose of this short work on a large subject is to con- 
 solidate the scattered contributions of investigators, with more 
 especial reference to the work of the past fifteen years. By 
 this later work the subject has been considerably widened, 
 not merely through the growth of the subject-matter, but by 
 notable additions of experimental methods on the one hand, 
 and theoretical generalisations on the other. In reviewing the 
 present position of cellulose chemistry the work has taken the 
 form of a monograph as distinguished from a textbook. In 
 adopting the freer form of writing we have reserved a certain 
 latitude of treatment, in view of the fact that * Cellulose ' has 
 not yet been accorded a definite position in the specialised 
 sections of organic chemistry , and also because we find it 
 necessary to address ourselves to original workers, and from 
 time to time to point out with particular emphasis the weaker 
 points in the evidence for the theoretical conclusions. At 
 such points suggestions are given of subject-matter for further 
 research, which it is our desire to stimulate. In presenting 
 this work, on the other hand, to the masters and ' past masters ' 
 of the science it would have been out of place to have adopted 
 
viii Preface 
 
 the more positive method of a textbook, or to have entered 
 into the more minute detail of a handbook. 
 
 In the incidental treatment of the technology of the subject 
 we have endeavoured to maintain the scientific perspective 
 rather than to discuss the practical details of processes. 
 
 The photo-micrographs included in the work are from the 
 expert handiwork of our friend Mr. J. CHRISTIE, F.R.M.S., of 
 72 Mark Lane, E.G., to whom we record our best thanks for 
 this interesting addition to the subject-matter. 
 
 The book is printed upon a paper carefully selected as 
 composed of the ' normal ' celluloses, and to the exclusion of 
 the inferior ' celluloses ' ordinarily employed for the manufac- 
 ture of printing papers. Upon the reasons for this preference 
 we have something to say in the text (p. 305). 
 
 We have to thank our friend Mr. J. C. CHORLEY for contri- 
 butions of experimental results, and for kind assistance in con- 
 nection with the proofs. 
 
 4 NEW COURT, LINCOLN'S INN, LONDON, W.C 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PART I 
 
 PAGB 
 
 THE TYPICAL CELLULOSE AND THE CELLU- 
 LOSE GROUP i 
 
 PART II 
 COMPOUND CELLULOSES 
 
 LlGNOCELLULOSES 89 
 
 PECTOCELLULOSES AND MUCOCELLULOSES . . .214 
 ADIPOCELLULOSES AND CUTOCELLULOSES . . . . 225 
 
 PART III 
 EXPERIMENTAL AND APPLIED . . 242 
 
 APPENDIX I 311 
 
 PHOTO-MICROGRAPHS 312 
 
 APPENDIX II (1903) 313 
 
 INDEX OF AUTHORS 321 
 
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS 323 
 
CELLULOSE 
 
 PART I 
 
 THE TYPICAL CELLULOSE AND THE 
 CELLULOSE GROUP 1 
 
 CELLULOSE is the predominating constituent of plant tissues, 
 and may be shortly described as the structural basis of the 
 vegetable world. The ordinary flowering plant is a complex 
 structure, and its several parts are also complex that is, are 
 made up of cells. These cells exhibit an infinite variety of 
 form, the main lines of differentiation necessarily conforming 
 with variations in function. The growing cell is, of course, 
 nitrogenous, the living functions depending upon its proto- 
 plasmic contents. What we have to deal with, however, is 
 the cell, less the cell-contents of whatever kind, whether 
 'organic' that is, concerned in the assimilating or other 
 living functions of the cell or of the nature of by-products 
 of metabolism excreted or thrown off from the main stream 
 of matter undergoing elaboration into the essential structures 
 of the plant. We have to deal, in fact, with the cell-wall 
 or envelope, to which the term cel/ulose has been applied as 
 to a chemical individual. There are, as might be expected, a 
 great many varieties of cellulose, and the term must be taken 
 as denoting a chemical group. The celluloses, taken as a 
 1 Sometimes abbreviated to the short title * Cellulose.' 
 
 B 
 
Cellulose 
 
 ,lie following characteristics : colourless sub- 
 stances insoluble in all simple solvents, generally but variably 
 resistant to processes of oxidation and hydrolysis, non-nitro- 
 genous, and having the empirical constitution characteristic 
 of the carbohydrates^ i.e. C n H 2m O m . Their reactions are those 
 of * saturated' compounds. Their empirical formulae and 
 relationships to the carbohydrates of low molecular weight 
 further indicate ' single-bond ' linking of their C atoms as 
 exclusively prevailing. It must be noted here that the typical 
 celluloses are not separated from the plant in a ' pure ' state, 
 but in admixture or in intimate chemical union with other 
 compounds or groups of compounds. The latter are distin- 
 guished by greater reactivity, e.g. they readily yield to alkaline 
 hydrolysis (* pectic ' bodies), to oxidation (colouring matters), 
 or to the action of the halogens. In the latter is included 
 the very important group of lignified celluloses or lignocellu- 
 loses (woods) distinguished by the presence of keto-hexene 
 groups in union with the cellulose, and therefore combining 
 directly with the halogens. These points are sufficient to 
 indicate the principles underlying the general method adopted 
 in the laboratory for the isolation of cellulose from vegetable 
 raw material which consists in (i) Alkaline hydrolysis 
 boiling the tissue or fibre in solution of alkaline hydrates (1-2 
 p.ct. NaOH), and after washing (2) exposure to the action of 
 a halogen chlorine gas or bromine water at the ordinary 
 temperature, and (3) second alkaline hydrolysis boiling in 
 alkaline solutions, e.g. sodium sulphite, carbonate, or hydrate, 
 to complete the resolution and to dissolve away the products 
 formed from the non-cellulose constituents by the preceding 
 treatment. 
 
 In the case of very refractory substances such as the hard 
 woods, it is sometimes necessary to repeat the treatment with 
 ihe halogen. After such treatment and thorough washing the 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 3 
 
 material is treated exhaustively with alcohol and with ether to 
 remove fatty or resinous by-products of the oxidation. 
 
 Cellulose obtained in this way from raw fibrous materials, 
 e.g. cotton, flax, hemp, ramie, is a white substance distinguished 
 by more or less lustre and translucency, retaining the structural 
 characteristics of the raw material, of 1*5 sp.gr., and as a 
 chemical individual distinguished amongst C.H.O compounds 
 by its negative or non-reactive characteristics. 
 
 In the brief account which ensues, of the general chemistry 
 of cellulose, cotton-cellulose is taken as the type. The points 
 of differentiation of other members of the group from the type 
 will be noted subsequently. 
 
 The empirical composition of the pure cellulose is repre- 
 sented by the percentage numbers 
 
 C 44'2 
 
 H ,..., 6-3 
 
 O .,..., 49'5 
 
 corresponding with the statistical formula C 6 H 10 O 5 . These 
 numbers represent the composition of the ' ash-free ' cellulose. 
 All vegetable tissues contain a greater or less proportion of 
 inorganic constituents of which a certain proportion are 
 retained by the cellulose isolated, as described, or by any of 
 the processes practised on the large scale in the arts (infra}. 
 The celluloses burn with a quiet luminous flame, leaving these 
 inorganic constituents as an ash, retaining more or less the 
 form of the original. In cotton the average proportion of 
 ash is o*i-o'4 p.ct. The composition of the ash has, no 
 doubt, certain specific relationships to the several celluloses, 
 their constitution and origin ; but such correlations are at 
 present too obscure for useful discussion. 
 
 In the preparation of filter paper for quantitative work it is 
 important to eliminate the ash constituents as far as possible, 
 and this is effected by treatment with hydrofluoric and other 
 
 2 
 
4 Cellulose 
 
 acids * Swedish ' filter paper of good quality contains from 
 o-o3~o*o5 p.ct. ash constituents, and constitutes the purest 
 form of cellulose with which we can deal. 
 
 Cellulose and Water. Cellulose Hydrates. All 
 vegetable structures in the air-dry condition retain a certain 
 proportion of water or hygroscopic moisture, as it is termed 
 which is readily driven off at 100, but reabsorbed on exposure 
 to the atmosphere under ordinary conditions. The mean per- 
 centage of this * water of condition ' varies from 6 to 1 2 in the 
 several celluloses ; and in any particular cellulose will vary 
 on either side of this mean number to the extent of 1-2 p.ct. 
 with the extreme range of ordinary atmospheric conditions 
 of temperature and tension of aqueous vapour. 
 
 The authors have made experiments on the * drying ' of cellu- 
 loses in a current of carbonic acid gas. The * hygroscopic 
 moisture' (6 -8 p.ct.) is rapidly driven off from the air-dry fibrous 
 celluloses at 90-100, and there is a further small loss of water 
 (ip.ct.) on raising the temperature to 180. The loss at 100- 
 120 is 0*5 p.ct. ; after that the loss is slow and probably due to de- 
 composition. Gelatinous celluloses in the form of films (see p. 28) 
 when dried at 90- 1 00 also show a further loss, but much greater at 
 higher temperatures. Thus in one experiment an air-dry film lost 
 8-6 p.ct. on drying at 100 ; an additional 3-9 p.ct. on raising 
 the temperature to 160. 
 
 In an earlier age of the science the question might have 
 been discussed whether this absorption and retention of water 
 is a chemical or physical phenomenon ; but this is rather a 
 question of terms. The main points to be noted are (i) the 
 property of attracting water is a property of the cellulose 
 substance itself, and is not in any way dependent upon the 
 form in which it occurs. The amorphous modifications of the 
 celluloses obtained by solution and reprecipitation in various 
 ways (infra) are equally * hygroscopic.' 
 
 (2^ The phenomenon is definitely related to the presence of 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 5 
 
 OH groups in the cellulose molecule, for in proportion as 
 these are suppressed by combination (with negative radicles to 
 form the cellulose esters) the products exhibit decreasing 
 attractions for atmospheric moisture. It is to be noted that 
 some of these synthetical derivatives are formed with only 
 slight modifications of the external or visible structure of the 
 cellulose, of which, therefore, the phenomenon in question is 
 again shown to be independent. 
 
 (3) The 'condition* of the fibre-substance in respect of 
 hygroscopic moisture is an important factor of such properties 
 of fibre as make up its spinning qualities ; it also seriously 
 affects the tensile strength of papers and cellulose textiles. 
 
 (4) A study of the hydration and dehydration phenomena 
 of the celluloses indicates an unbroken continuity in the series 
 of cellulose-water compounds or cellulose hydrates ; of which 
 series the * water of condition ' or hygroscopic moisture of a 
 cellulose represents the final terms. 
 
 The proportion of water held by the celluloses in an atmosphere 
 saturated with aqueous vapour is necessarily very much greater 
 than in the ordinary atmosphere, partially saturated at the same 
 temperature. (See H. Miiller, Pflanzenfaser, p. 3.) 
 
 The * moisture of condition ' is a factor of some moment, first in 
 the buying and selling of fibrous products, and secondly in the 
 processes by which they are worked up (spinning, and 'finishing'). 
 
 (1) In a delivery of ico/. value of a fibrous material, e.g. 
 paper pulp or half stuff, the ordinary variations in the atmospheric 
 moisture may occasion a difference of I/, to 2.1. in the value. It is 
 important, therefore, to have a normal standard of reference. In 
 the case of wood pulp or cellulose in which there is a large com- 
 merce it is customary to fix this at 10 p.ct., which means that 100 
 of air-dry pulp give 90 'dry' at 100 C. 
 
 If, therefore, in any test the percentage of dry pulp is estimated 
 at any figure, the corresponding percentage of 'normal' air-dry pulp 
 (10 p.ct. Aq) is obtained by adding -*- to the percentage of dry pulp. 
 
 (2) Cotton-spinning is carried on under special and carefully 
 regulated conditions of temperature and atmospheric moisture, 
 
6 Cellulose 
 
 which have been arrived at as the result of accumulated observa- 
 tion and experience. Raw cotton, however, is not by any means 
 a pure cellulose, and the spinning properties of the fibre are to a 
 certain extent conferred by the substances associated, in admixture 
 or combination, with the cellulose. There is no doubt, however, 
 that the physical properties of the cellulose are largely modified 
 by its water of condition ; and the fine adjustments of these ulti- 
 mate fibres to the conditions of the spinning frame, more espe- 
 cially in regard to the drawing and twisting, largely depend upon 
 the maintenance of an * optimum ' of hydration of the cellulose. 
 
 (3) Finishing processes textiles and paper. The ' finish ' of 
 textiles and papers for the market is of very various kinds. The 
 last operations are those of closing and 'surfacing,' and consist of 
 the mechanical treatments of beetling, mangling (textiles), calen- 
 dering, and glazing (textiles and paper). 
 
 The finish is considerably affected by the condition of hydra- 
 tion of the fibre, and this is affected by the method of drying up 
 (air-drying or hot-drying) and the amount of moisture present in 
 the fibre when submitted to the mechanical treatments. The 
 operation of causes of this kind is necessarily somewhat obscure. 
 The student should address himself to the work of observation of 
 the phenomena of hydration of the celluloses, studying all the 
 conditions which affect, and the changes which accompany, the 
 loss and gain of water. 
 
 It is evident from a very superficial examination of the plant 
 world that the celluloses originate in the gelatinous form, i.e. in 
 a condition of extreme hydration. Hydrates of identical cha- 
 racteristics are obtained on precipitating cellulose from solutions 
 in the several special solvents to be subsequently described. 
 These hydrates differ in certain respects from the anhydrous or 
 dehydrated celluloses ; thus they dissolve in strong nitric acid, 
 and in solutions of the alkaline hydrates of moderate concen- 
 tration, they also are more readily attacked (hydrolysed) by 
 boiling dilute acids and alkalis. It is necessary to keep this 
 in view in regard to the determination of cellulose in fresh 
 tissues. A previous dehydration of the tissue by air-drying or 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Croup 7 
 
 by long immersion in alcohol confers upon the cellulose a much 
 greater resistance to hydrolytic actions, with the effect of in- 
 creasing the proportion of cellulose surviving the treatments 
 previously described as necessary for the elimination of the non- 
 cellulose constituents. 
 
 Some more important aspects of these phenomena are dealt 
 \vith in a paper upon 
 
 The Hydration of Cellulose (J. Soc. Chem. Ind. 4).Jn an 
 investigation of the celluloses of green fodder plants the authors 
 showed that by a preliminary artificial dehydration by long im- 
 mersion in alcohol the quantity of cellulose isolated by the usual 
 process of alkaline hydrolysis and oxidation was considerably in- 
 creased. 
 
 The following numbers obtained with a crop of oats may be 
 cited as typical. 
 
 Percentage Cellulose Isolated. 
 
 <) (V 
 
 Directly After alcoholic dehydration Difference 
 
 Leaves 28-2 35-4 7-2 
 
 Stems 29-5 34-5 5-0 
 
 It is a matter of ordinary observation that the maturing of 
 vegetable tissues is attended by loss of water, and it is clear from 
 these results that the growing plant contains hydrated modifications 
 of cellulose, which by mere dehydration are converted into the more 
 resistant forms. It must also be recognised that the line of cellu- 
 lose has to be drawn in an arbitrary manner. Products which are 
 the residues of treatments of a certain degree of intensity must be 
 so defined, and are not to be regarded as chemical individuals in 
 the strict sense of the term. 
 
 The hydrates of cellulose generally react with iodine in 
 aqueous solution, giving an indigo-blue colouration. They also 
 exhibit an increased ' affinity ' for those colouring matters which 
 dye cellulose directly. 
 
 In all the more essential properties, however, no distinction 
 can be drawn between the celluloses and their hydrated modifi- 
 cation. 
 
8 Cellulose 
 
 Solutions of Cellulose. Cellulose is insoluble in all 
 simple solvents, water included. In presence of certain metallic 
 compounds, however, it combines rapidly with water, forming 
 the gelatinous hydrates just described, which finally disappear 
 in solution in the water. Of these solvents of cellulose the 
 simplest is (i) ZINC CHLORIDE IN CONCENTRATED AQUEOUS 
 SOLUTION (40 p.ct. ZnCl 2 ). The solution process requires 
 the aid of heat (60-100), and may be carried out as follows : 
 4-6 pts. ZnCl-2 are dissolved in 6-10 pts. water and one pt. 
 cellulose (cotton) stirred in till evenly moistened. The 
 mixture is set aside to digest at a gentle heat. When the 
 cellulose is gelatinised the solution is completed by exposure 
 to water-bath heat, stirring from time to time and renewing 
 the water which evaporates. In this way, a homogeneous 
 syrup is obtained. This solution is employed in the arts for 
 making cellulose threads or filaments which are carbonised 
 for use in the incandescent electric lamp ; the ' carbon ' so 
 obtained having a sufficient resistance to mechanical strain with 
 the suitable degree of electric conductivity (resistance) for the 
 requirements of the lamp. In preparing the cellulose thread 
 the viscous solution is allowed to flow from a narrow orifice 
 into alcohol which precipitates a hydrate a hydrated cellulose- 
 zinc-oxide of sufficient tenacity for manipulation as a thread. 
 It is freed from zinc oxide by digestion in dilute hydrochloric 
 acid and copious washing. The cellulose zinc chloride solu- 
 tion is also precipitated by water, retaining a much larger pro- 
 portion of water (of hydration). After thorough washing and 
 drying a product is obtained retaining from 18-25 P- ct - 
 ZnO ; the variation in the proportion of ZnO to cellulose, no 
 doubt, corresponding with variations in molecular weight of 
 the latter, and these depending upon the molecular condition 
 of the original cellulose and the conditions of the solution 
 process. 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 9 
 
 (2) ZINC CHLORIDE AND HYDROCHLORIC ACID. If the 
 ZnCl 2 be dissolved in twice its weight of aqueous hydrochloric 
 acid (40 p.ct. HC1) a solution is obtained which dissolves 
 cellulose rapidly in the cold. This alternative process has 
 certain advantages over the preceding, and is useful in labora- 
 tory investigations. So far it has received no industrial 
 applications. It is to be noted that the cellulose dissolved in 
 this reagent undergoes a gradual lowering of molecular weight 
 (hydrolysis). 
 
 This process of dissolving cellulose is of value in the investi- 
 gation of fibrous products in the laboratory in cases where an acid 
 solvent is preferable, and where it is necessary to avoid heat. 
 
 If to the solution of pure cotton cellulose in this reagent bromine 
 be added in quantity sufficient to colour the solution, the colour 
 persists for a lengthened period, showing that there is no absorption 
 of the bromine, and that, therefore, there are no C = C groups 
 in the cellulose molecule. With the lignocelluloses (see p. 138), 
 which are also soluble in this reagent, and are known by other 
 reactions to contain C = C groups, there is considerable absorption 
 of bromine. 
 
 It is also noteworthy that if this solution of cellulose be 
 coloured with CrO 3 , it persists for some time in the unreduced 
 state. There cannot, therefore, be any free CO.H groups in the 
 cellulose molecule, and the observation rather throws doubt on the 
 
 c\~v 
 
 existence of such groups in an 'acetal' form CH<^Q^' 
 
 (3) AMMONIACAL CUPRIC OXIDE. The solutions of the 
 cuprammonium compounds generally, in presence of excess of 
 ammonia, attack the celluloses rapidly in the cold, forming a 
 series of gelatinous hydrates which finally pass into solution. 
 The solutions of the pure cuprammonium hydroxide are more 
 active in producing these effects' than the solutions resulting 
 from the decomposition of a copper salt with excess of 
 ammonia. Two methods are in common use for the preparation 
 of these solutions, which should contain : 
 
IO Cellulose 
 
 10-15 p.ct c Ammonia (NH,) 
 2-2 -5 . Copper (as CuO) 
 
 (1) To a solution of a cupric salt, ammonium chloride is 
 added, and then sodium hydrate solution in sufficient excess ; 
 the blue precipitate is thoroughly washed upon a cloth filter, 
 squeezed, and re-dissolved in ammonia solution of 0*92 
 sp.gr. 
 
 (2) Thin sheet copper is crumpled up, placed in a glass 
 cylinder and covered with strong ammonia. Atmospheric air 
 is drawn by aspiration so as to bubble through the liquid 
 column at such a rate as to amount per hour to about forty 
 times the volume of liquid used. In about six hours a solution 
 is obtained of the composition given above (C. R. A. Wright). 
 
 Under the latter conditions the action of the solution upon 
 the cellulose may be made simultaneous with its production. 
 For this the cellulose and metal are mixed together as inti- 
 mately as possible and exposed as described to the action of 
 aqueous ammonia and oxygen. 
 
 There are various ways of accelerating the preparation of the 
 cuprammonium solution from the metal. Thus, as compressed 
 oxygen is now an ordinary commodity it is easy to substitute the 
 pure gas for the atmospheric mixture, with the result that the 
 volume of gas passing through the solution may be considerably 
 reduced, and therefore the loss of ammonia lessened. 
 
 The oxidation of the copper is facilitated by contact with a metal 
 which is 'negative ' to the copper in presence of ammonia ; or this 
 differential disposition of the copper to be attacked may be more 
 directly attained by means of the electric current, the copper to be 
 attacked being brought into conducting connection with the 
 negative, and the second metal with the positive pole of a battery 
 the latter being inserted in a porous pot within the alkaline 
 liquid (Hime and Noad, English Patent 7716/89). 
 
 The solutions of cellulose in cuprammonium are of little 
 stability, the cellulose being readily precipitated by the 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group ir 
 
 addition of neutral dehydrating agents such as alcohol, sodium 
 chloride (and other salts of the alkalis), and even sugar. 
 From a study of these solutions, indeed, Erdmann concluded 
 (J. Pr. Chem. 76,385) that they were not solutions of cellulose 
 in the strict sense of the term, the cellulose being rather 
 gelatinised and diffused through the solution as a highly 
 attenuated (hydrated) solid of this description. Cramer, on 
 the other hand, showed by osmotic experiments that this 
 inference was unfounded and that the solution of the cel- 
 lulose may be regarded as complete. According to modern 
 views on the subject of solution generally, and the solution 
 of colloids in particular, the lines drawn by the older inves- 
 tigators of these phenomena are of arbitrary value ; gelati- 
 nisation being expressed as a continuous series of hydrations 
 between the extreme conditions of solid on the one side and 
 aqueous solution on the other. This point will be further con- 
 sidered later on. 
 
 The evidence goes to show that the solution process, though not 
 the result of an oxidation of the cellulose such as would be attended 
 by reduction of CuO is attended by a disturbance of the * balance 
 of oxidation * of the cellulose molecule. By prolonged contact with 
 the cuprammonium the cellulose does in fact appear to be oxidised 
 (to oxycellulose) (Prudhomme, J. Soc. Dyers and Col., 1891, 148). 
 
 The ammonia also undergoes oxidation, and the cuprammonium 
 solutions, after keeping, will be found to contain a considerable 
 quantity of nitrite (ibid.). Cotton cellulose does not appear to be 
 hydrolysed by the process of solution, that recovered from the solu- 
 tion by precipitation by acids &c. having approximately the same 
 weight as that of the fibre originally dissolved. 
 
 There are celluloses, on the other hand, which are partially 
 hydrolysed, and when reprecipitated the cellulose recovered is 
 found to be in defect, and the solution to contain dissolved carbo- 
 hydrates. 
 
 Further investigation of these points is much needed, i.e. 
 quantitative determination of the oxidation and hydrolysis of the 
 
12 Cellulose 
 
 several celluloses under treatment with the cuprammonium reagent 
 The evaporation of the cuprammonium solutions of cellulose upon 
 glass surfaces gives a film of the mixed cellulose-cupric hydrate, 
 but of little tenacity. It will appear as we proceed that high tensile 
 strength of a film obtained from solutions of cellulose compounds 
 indicates a relatively high molecular weight, and conversely, a 
 brittle product is evidence that in forming the compound the mole- 
 cular weight or aggregation of the cellulose has been lowered. 
 
 According to recent investigations of E. Gilson (Chem. 
 Centr. 1893, ii. 530) cellulose maybe crystallised from its solu- 
 tion in cuprammonium. If such solution is left to stand in a 
 loosely closed vessel the ammonia escapes, cellulose being pre- 
 cipitated together with hydrated copper oxide. On removing 
 the latter by treatment with hydrochloric acid, the cellulose is 
 stated to remain in the form of nodular crystals. It is also 
 stated that when sections of cellulosic tissues are allowed to 
 remain for some time in contact with the reagent, then gradu- 
 ally washed with ammonia and water, the interior of the cells 
 are found to contain the cellulose in crystalline form. This 
 requires confirmation. 
 
 These cuprammonium solutions are, of course, deprived of 
 their copper by digestion upon zinc, the latter metal replacing 
 the copper in solution and, under carefully regulated conditions, 
 without precipitating the cellulose, so that a colourless solu- 
 tion of the latter in zinc-ammonium-hydroxide results. Some 
 of these solutions have been observed to be laevogyrate. 
 Cotton cellulose in i p.ct. cuprammonium solution was found 
 by Levallois to show a rotation of 20 ; the rotation, however, 
 is not constant, but varies with the concentration and the ratio 
 of cupric oxide to cellulose in the solution. These observations 
 have been called in question by Bechamp, but reaffirmed by 
 the former observer, and apparently on sufficient evidence. 
 
 On adding a solution of lead acetate to these solutions of 
 cellulose a precipitate is obtained of a compound of cellulose 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 13 
 
 with lead oxide, but of variable composition ; the compound 
 w(C 6 N 10 O 5 .PbO) appears to result from the treatment of the 
 ammoniocupric solution with finely divided lead oxide. 
 
 This property of gelatinising and dissolving cellulose has 
 been taken advantage of in important industrial applications 
 of the cuprammonium compounds. Vegetable textile fabrics 
 passed through a bath of the cuprammonium hydroxide are 
 'surfaced' by the film of gelatinised cellulose, which retains 
 the copper oxide (hydrate) in such a way that it dries of a bright 
 
 * malachite' green colour. By this treatment the fibres are 
 further compacted together, and the fabric acquires a water- 
 resistant character. The presence of the copper oxide is also 
 preservative against the attacks of mildew, insects, &c. If the 
 fabrics are rolled or pressed together when in the gelatinised 
 condition they become firmly welded together on drying, and 
 a variety of compound textures are produced in this way. 
 
 These fabrics are sold under the style or description of 
 
 * Willesden ' goods ; the manufacture being in the hands of a 
 company whose works are situated at Willesden. The 
 company's processes are based on the patents of Drs. J. 
 Scoffern and C. R. A. Wright (q.v.\ 
 
 AMMONIACAL CUPROUS OXIDE. According to M. Rosen- 
 feld (Berl. Ber. 12, 954) a concentrated solution of cuprous 
 chloride in ammonia dissolves cellulose rapidly. 
 
 The reaction of cuprammonium with cellulose, although iden- 
 tified with the name of Schweitzer, appears to have been first 
 noticed by Mercer. He employed a solution of ammonia of 0-920 
 sp.gr. saturated at the ordinary temperature with the cupric oxide 
 (hydrate) and diluted with three volumes of water. Mercer investi- 
 gated the reaction in regard to the influence of the conditions of 
 treatment, showing that it was retarded by the presence of salts, 
 and hence that the solutions obtained by decomposing the copper 
 salts with excess of ammonia were much less active than equivalent 
 solutions of the pure hydrate. He also showed that the activity of 
 
14 Cellulose 
 
 the solution was considerably retarded by raising its temperature, 
 becoming yery slight at 100 F. 
 
 Mercer's favourite method of demonstrating the reaction con- 
 sisted in applying a solution of cupric nitrate to cotton cloth in 
 spots t decomposing the nitrate by plunging the cloth into a weak 
 solution of caustic soda, washing to remove the alkali, partially 
 drying in the air at ordinary temperatures, and exposing the cloth 
 to the vapour of ammonia. In this way the cellulose was fully 
 acted upon in the portions containing the oxide. The demon- 
 stration is an interesting one, and should be repeated by the 
 student. 
 
 Theory of Action of Cellulose Solvents. The causes 
 underlying the processes of dissolution of cellulose above de- 
 scribed will become more apparent as we proceed in the dis- 
 cussion of its special chemistry. For the present it is sufficient 
 to point out that they depend upon the presence in the cellu- 
 lose molecule of OH groups of opposite function, basic and 
 acid, and that the compounds formed with the solvents are 
 of the nature of double salts. 
 
 Qualitative Reactions and Identification of Cellu- 
 lose. The properties of cellulose which we have already dis- 
 cussed afford the means of identifying it : that is (i) by reason 
 of its resistance to the action of oxidising agents, to the halo- 
 gens and to alkaline solutions it is obtained as a residue from 
 the treatment of vegetable tissues by these reagents in succes- 
 sion ; (2) it is soluble to gelatinous or viscous solutions in 
 the reagents above described viz. ZnCl. 2 .Aq, ZnCl 2 .HCl.Aq, 
 
 and Cu<T M TT 3 x-TT 4 /^' fr m which it is obtained by pre- 
 ^vJN A! 3 rs JnL^U 
 
 cipitation in the amorphous form or as a gelatinous hydrate. 
 These hydrates react in many cases with iodine, giving a blue 
 colouration ; the reaction is determined upon the original 
 cellulose by simultaneous treatment with iodine and a de- 
 hydrating solution. 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 15 
 
 The most effective reagent is prepared as follows : zinc is 
 dissolved to saturation in hydrochloric acid and the solution 
 evaporated to 2-0 sp.gr. ; to 90 parts of this solution, are 
 added 6 parts potassium iodide dissolved in 10 parts water, 
 and in this solution iodine is dissolved to saturation. By this 
 reagent cellulose is coloured instantly a deep blue or violet. 
 
 A superficial examination usually suffices to identify cellulose in 
 the mass, and an examination with the microscope establishes the 
 histological characteristics of the substance. There are cases, 
 however, in which distinctive tests require to be applied, and these 
 will be selected in order of convenience. Thus, by means of the 
 chemical tests, cellulose has been identified as a constituent of 
 many animal tissues (see p. 87) ; in these cases, of course, it could 
 be identified in no other way. 
 
 It will be seen as we proceed that a number of the properties 
 of cellulose are common to many of the ' compound celluloses ' 
 which are widely distributed in the plant world ; these are, how- 
 ever, differentiated by the special reactions depending upon the 
 compounds or groups with which the cellulose may be com- 
 bined. 
 
 Lastly, the cellulose group proper includes a number of sub- 
 stances which are differentiated from the typical cotton cellulose 
 in some specific property. These will be noted subsequently. 
 
 Compounds of Cellulose. The chemical inertness of 
 cellulose is a matter of every-day experience in the laboratory, 
 where it fulfils the important function of a filtering medium in 
 the greater number of separations of solids from liquids. The 
 functions which it discharges in the plant world as well as the 
 numberless uses which it subserves in the world of humanity 
 are all referable to the predominance of these negative 
 characteristics. Cellulose, however, is a poly-hydroxy- com- 
 pound, and enters into a number of reactions characteristic of 
 the alcohols. These reactions, and the products of synthesis 
 resulting from them, we shall deal with in order, proceeding 
 from the less to the more definite. 
 
i6 
 
 Cellulose 
 
 In a general way the inertness of cellulose may be compared 
 with that of inorganic salts, more particularly those which result 
 from the combination of the weaker acids and bases. Cellu- 
 lose in reaction shows both acid and basic characteristics, and, as 
 we shall see, these properties may be explained by proximity of 
 its OH groups to CO and to CH 2 groups respectively within the 
 molecule. 
 
 It appears, moreover, that these OH groups are in a condition 
 of reciprocal suppression, requiring the application of powerful 
 reagents or severe conditions to bring them into reaction. 
 
 This condition of its OH groups appears to be associated with 
 the endothermic constitution or configuration of the cellulose 
 molecule. There is a good deal of evidence physiological and 
 chemical that the formation of cellulose is associated with the 
 absorption of energy beyond what may be taken as normal to a 
 saturated compound of the empirical formula C 6 H 10 O 5 . 
 
 DILUTE ALKALIS AND ACIDS. It has been shown that 
 pure bleached cotton enters into reaction with the acids and 
 basic oxides when plunged even into cold and highly dilute 
 solutions of these compounds (Mills). In illustration of this 
 point the following results of experiments may be cited : 
 
 Reagent 
 
 Temperature 
 
 Time 
 
 Weight absorbed 
 
 H 2 S0 4 
 HC1 
 NaOH 
 
 4 
 i 
 ii 
 
 3 mins. 
 it 
 ii 
 
 0-00495 
 
 0-00733 
 
 O -02020 
 
 The molecular ratio of the absorption of the two latter 
 viz. 3HC1, loNaOH appears to hold good for a somewhat 
 wide range of conditions ; and it may be noted that the same 
 ratio was observed for silk, though the observation can only be 
 regarded as a coincidence. 
 
 These reactions of cellulose have been by no means exhaus- 
 tively investigated ; as our knowledge of the group of celluloses 
 and of their differentiations one from the other is extended, it 
 becomes necessary to institute a careful comparison in regard to 
 this property of * absorbing ' reagents. 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 17 
 
 An examination of the structureless cellulose regenerated from 
 solutions of cotton as alkaline thiocarbonate (see p. 29) shows an 
 important differentiation from the original cellulose (bleached 
 fibre). This form of cellulose, after careful purification, was found 
 to combine with the caustic alkalis in dilute solution, in much 
 larger proportion ; thus from solutions of 3*1 p.ct. Na.,0 the cellu- 
 lose removed, i.e. combined with, the alkali to the extent of 5- 6 
 p.ct. of its weight. With the dilute acids, on the other hand, no 
 increased combination was observed. 
 
 This phenomenon has been more recently studied from the 
 independent standpoint of thermal equilibrium. It has been 
 shown that when pure cotton is plunged into dilute solutions 
 of the acids and alkalis, liberation of heat takes place (Vignon). 
 The rise of temperature was found to be slow, and, under the 
 conditions chosen for the experiments, ceases after the lapse of 
 seven to eight minutes. The following are typical results in 
 calories per 100 grms. of cotton. 
 
 
 
 KOH 
 
 NaOH 
 
 HC1 
 
 H_SO 
 
 Raw cotton 
 Bleached . . 
 
 1-30 
 2-27 
 
 105 
 2 -2O 
 
 0-65 
 0-65 
 
 0'6o 
 0-58 
 
 It would appear from these results that cellulose has the 
 properties of a feeble acid, and of a yet feebler base. From 
 the comparative insignificance of the ' affinities ' involved, it 
 might be inferred that they could have but a small determining 
 value in regard to the uses or applications of cellulose. Recent 
 researches, however, have shown that the combinations of 
 cellulose with colouring matters, i.e. the dyeing properties of 
 the fibre-substance, are largely dependent upon a play of 
 ' affinities ' of this order and narrow range. Vignon concludes, in 
 fact, from a careful and exhaustive survey of dyeing phenomena, 
 including the action of mordants, that they depend chiefly upon 
 the interaction of groups of opposite chemical function, viz. 
 
 c 
 
1 8 Cellulose 
 
 basic and ' acidic,' present in the colouring matter or mordant 
 and the substance with which it combines. 
 
 This explanation certainly covers a wide range of such re- 
 actions, but we shall find that the molecular constitution of the 
 fibre-substance is also an important factor. This point will 
 be discussed subsequently. 
 
 Capillary Phenomena. The absorption and trans- 
 mission of solutions by cellulose is attended by a number of 
 special effects. Schonbein appears to have been the first to 
 observe that strips of unsized paper, of which one end was 
 placed in an aqueous solution, e.g. of a metallic salt, will 
 absorb and transmit the water more rapidly than the dissolved 
 salt, which is therefore ' filtered out ' ; further, that to the 
 various salts, cellulose manifests varying degrees of re- 
 sistance to transmission in solution. These phenomena have 
 been further studied by Lloyd (Chem. News, 51, 51) for 
 metallic salts, 1 and by F. Goppelsroeder (Berl. Ber. 20, 604) for 
 various colouring matters ; the results of their observations 
 constituting the beginnings of a method of * capillary analysis 
 or separation.' The subject is comparatively new and not yet 
 systematised, but the method is undoubtedly capable of con- 
 siderable extension. 
 
 Contrasted with the relatively feeble attractions of cotton 
 cellulose for the acids and bases of low molecular weight there are a 
 number of cases ot special combinations which take place in much 
 higher proportions. 
 
 Thus the fibre removes a considerable quantity of barium 
 hydrate on digestion with the solution ; and from solutions of the 
 basic salts of lead, zinc, copper, tin, aluminium, iron, chromium, 
 c. the fibre takes up considerable but variable proportions of the 
 respective basic oxides. The formation of these compounds 
 underlies the well-known processes of ' mordanting' practised by 
 the dyer and printer of textiles. The theory of these processes will 
 
 1 More recently by E. Fischer and Schmidmer, Lieb. Ann. 272, 156. 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 19 
 
 be found fully treated of in the t'^xt-books of these arts. We can 
 only call attention to those properties which are common to the 
 group of basic oxides capable of acting as mordants, viz. (i) 
 they are all oxides of di- or polyvalent elements ; (2) they form 
 colloid or gelatinous hydrates ; (3) their salts dissociate in solu- 
 tion into acid and basic salt ; (4) they are soluble in the alkaline 
 hydrates either directly or in presence of* organic' hydroxy- com- 
 pounds. Certain of the acid oxides of the metals are also removed 
 by cellulose from solutions of these salts, but in relatively small 
 proportion ; of these the stannic compounds are most important 
 from the point of view of application as mordants. 
 
 Amongst ' organic ' acid bodies, tannic acid is conspicuous for its 
 'affinity' for cellulose. From aqueous solutions of tannic acid 
 cotton fibre takes up as much as 7-8 p.ct. of its weight ; and the 
 process of mordanting with this compound is one ot the most 
 generally useful. 
 
 The combinations of cellulose with colouring matter open up a 
 number of interesting problems. A colouring matter may be said 
 to dye a fibre or substance when it forms with it a Make' com- 
 pound, a lake being merely a pigment form of the colouring matter 
 in which its essential physical properties are preserved. By recent 
 investigation the properties determining lake formation have been 
 shown to be definitely correlated with the molecular constitution of 
 the colouring matter, i.e. more particularly with the nature and dis- 
 position of its chromogenic groups (NH 2 : SO 3 H, COOH, NO 2 , 
 N.OH, and OH groups). 
 
 An excellent treatment of this subject will be found in two papers 
 by C. O. Weber in the J. Soc. Chem. Ind. 10,896, 12,650, to which 
 the student is referred. A discussion of these problems is outside 
 the scope of this work. It may, however, be pointed out that, as of 
 course the phenomena of dyeing depend upon reciprocal attraction, 
 we may confidently expect that further investigation will lead to a 
 correlation of the specific or selective attractions of cellulose for 
 colouring matters, with its molecular constitution. It should be 
 remembered that there are three factors of the problem : (i) the 
 constitution of the colouring matter ; (2) that of the substance with 
 v.hich it combines ; and (3) the condition of the colouring matter 
 in solution, and the causes which determine its transference to the 
 solid with which it is brought into contact. Of these we have pre- 
 
 ca 
 
2O Cellulose 
 
 else knowledge of the first only ; the * theory of solution ' is a 
 recent development, and the third factor is at present to be dealt 
 with only speculatively ; and of the constitution of the celluloses 
 we have at present only a general knowledge. 
 
 The further investigation of these problems is therefore probably 
 the most promising direction from which to approach the position 
 of the actual molecular constitution of the celluloses. 
 
 The actions of dilute alkaline and acid solutions at higher 
 temperatures are, of course, more pronounced. The mineral 
 acids of concentration, equal to semi-normal at the boiling 
 temperature, rapidly destroy in the sense of disintegrating 
 cellulose fibres, producing an important molecular change in 
 the cellulose itself. The modified cellulose is brittle and 
 pulverulent, and will be more fully described as the product 
 of the action of concentrated hydrochloric acid, viz. as hydro- 
 or hydracellulose. The time required for completing this 
 change varies of course with the temperature and the concen- 
 tration of the acid. The acid treatments of cellulose textiles, 
 which are necessary incidents of bleaching and dyeing opera- 
 tions, are carried out as a result of practical experience well 
 within the limits of safety ; such treatments being for the most 
 part in the cold (<yo F.) and at strengths of 0-5-2-0 p.ct. 
 (HC1 1 H 2 SO 4 ). In dyeing operations requiring an acid bath 
 and the boiling temperature, * free ' mineral acids are as much 
 as possible avoided, acetic acid being substituted. This acid 
 is without sensible action on cotton. 
 
 The action of the acids in disintegrating cellulose structures 
 is undoubtedly hydroiytic, and of the same order, for instance, 
 as their action upon cane sugar. The ' inversion ' of saccha- 
 rose by boiling with the dilute acids is not, it must be remem- 
 bered, a simple process of hydration ; according to the usual 
 equation, 
 
 C|,H W U + H 3 = C 6 H 12 6 + C 6 H 12 6 , 
 
 Dextrose Levulose 
 
Ttie Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 21 
 
 these products of the hydrolysis being susceptible of ' conden- 
 sations,' in which the reverse action is determined. On the 
 other hand, it has been recently shown (Wohl) that the con- 
 ditions may be so chosen as to exclude the latter, viz. by ope- 
 rating in the cold and in presence of a minimum of water, in 
 which case we get the surprising result that the hydrolysis of 
 the sugar is determined by ^Vrr p.ct. of its weight of HC1. 
 
 Applying these considerations to the case of the more 
 complex cellulose molecule it is easy to see that it may undergo 
 a series of hydration changes, with attendant resolutions, with- 
 out any change of its empirical formula. The disintegrating 
 action of the dilute acids appears to be of this kind. 
 
 The action of the aqueous acids upon cellulose has been investi- 
 gated by various observers, amongst others by Grace Calvert, 
 Girard (Compt. Rend. 81, 1105), C. Koechlin (Bull. Mulhouse, 
 1888). The latter observer gives the results of a study of the 
 limiting conditions of action of aqueous sulphuric acid at various 
 degrees of concentration. What may be called the critical con- 
 centration of the acid lies between the limits of 60-80 B. Thus 
 with the mixture of 3 vols. of concentrated acid and 8 vols. water 
 i.e. an acid of 69 B. at the ordinary temperature, its action 
 upon cotton does not become evident until after three hours' 
 exposure. With an aqueous acid containing 100 grms. H 2 SO 4 per 
 litre and at 80 C. the first appearances of change in the cotton are 
 noticed at the expiration of five minutes ; after thirty minutes' 
 exposure there is sensible disintegration ; and the completion of 
 the action, i.e. conversion into a friable mass of hydrocellulose, 
 requires an exposure of 60 minutes' duration. 
 
 To alkaline solutions at high temperatures, cotton cellulose 
 is, on the other hand, very resistant. Solutions of caustic soda 
 of 1-2 p.ct. Na 2 O are without sensible action upon cotton 
 at temperatures considerably over 100. The principal opera- 
 tions in the process of bleaching cotton and linen textiles con- 
 sist in drastic alkaline treatments of this kind, whereby the 
 * non-cellulose ' constituents of the fibre are for the most part 
 
22 Cellulose 
 
 saponified and removed in solution in the alkaline lye. The 
 oxidation processes which follow viz. treatment with the 
 hypochlorites, permanganates, &c. in dilute solution although 
 they may be regarded as the bleaching processes proper, really 
 accomplish very little beyond removing residues or by-products 
 of the alkaline treatment. It is also evident that resistance to 
 alkaline treatment is a very important condition in the every- 
 day uses of cellulose textiles. 
 
 H. Tauss has recently investigated the action of alkaline 
 solutions upon various celluloses at high temperatures (J. Soc. 
 Chem. Ind. 1889, 913; 1890, 883). Purified cotton cellulose, 
 digested with solutions of sodium hydrate of 3 p.ct. Na^O three 
 times in succession, is attacked and converted into soluble 
 products in the following proportions, increasing with the temper- 
 ature at which digested : 
 
 I atm. pressure . . . 12*1 p.ct. 
 
 5 > X 5'4 
 
 10 ,, . . 20-3 
 
 Strong aqueous solution of ammonia is without sensible action 
 en cellulose until a very high temperature is reached. At 200 
 combination ensues, and the entrance of the NH 2 residue into the 
 cellulose molecule is evidenced by the increased attraction of the 
 product for colouring matters, approximating to that of the animal 
 fibres. (L. Vignon.) 
 
 We have mentioned that digestion with 3 p.ct. solutions of soda 
 (Na. 2 O) at high temperatures produces a certain conversion of 
 cellulose into soluble substances. Solutions of 8 p.ct. (Na 2 O) 
 strength have been found to give the following results (Tauss, 
 loc. tit.} : 
 
 I atm. pressure . 22*0 p.ct. dissolved 
 5 > 58' 
 
 10 > ... 59*0 
 
 In connection with these observations it is to be noted that a 
 process of estimating the cellulose in compound celluloses (wood) 
 has recently been proposed (Lange, Zeitschr. f. Physiol. Chem. 14), 
 and adopted by other observers, based upon the action of strong 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 23 
 
 solutions of sodium hydrate at high temperatures upon the ligni- 
 fied tissue. It is assumed that the non-cellulose constituents of the 
 woods (see p. 172) are exclusively attacked by the treatment : 
 which, however, is by no means the case, as the results of Tauss 
 (loc. ctt.} sufficiently show. Quantitative results obtained by this 
 method have, therefore, only a limited value ; and, as estimations 
 of ' cellulose,' are subject to large and variable errors. 
 
 CONCENTRATED SOLUTIONS OF THE ALKALIS. Cold solu- 
 tions of the alkaline hydrates of a certain concentration exert 
 a remarkable effect upon the celluloses. Solution of sodium 
 hydrate, at strengths exceeding 10 p.ct. Na. 2 O, when brought 
 into contact with the cotton fibre, at the ordinary temperature, 
 instantly changes its structural features, i.e. from a flattened 
 riband, with a large central canal, produces a thickened cylin- 
 der with the canal more or less obliterated. These effects in the 
 mass, e.g. in cotton cloth, are seen in a considerable shrinkage 
 of length and width, with corresponding thickening, the fabric 
 becoming translucent at the same time. The results are due 
 to a definite reaction between the cellulose and the alkaline 
 hydrates, in the molecular ratio C 12 H 20 O 10 : 2NaOH, accom- 
 panied by combination with water (hydration). The com- 
 pound of the cellulose and alkali which is formed is decom- 
 posed on washing with water, the alkali being recovered un- 
 changed, the cellulose reappearing in a modified form, viz. 
 as the hydrate Ci 2 H 20 O 10 .H 2 O. By treatment with alcohol, 
 on the other hand, one half of the alkali is removed 
 in solution, the reacting groups remaining associated in the 
 ra tio Ci 2 H 20 O, : NaOH. The reaction is known as that 
 of Mercerisation, after the name of Mercer, by whom it was 
 discovered and exhaustively investigated. Although, however, 
 it aroused a good deal of attention at the time of its dis- 
 covery, it remained for thirty years as an isolated observation, 
 i.e. practically undeveloped. Recently, however, the alkali 
 
24 Cellulose 
 
 cellulose has been made the starting-point of two series of 
 synthetical derivatives of cellulose, which must be briefly 
 described. 
 
 An interesting account of Mercer's researches on this subject 
 is given in 'The Life and Labours of John Mercer' (E. A. Par- 
 nell, London, 1886), a work which may be particularly commended 
 to the young student. 
 
 From the points established by Mercer in connection with this 
 reaction the following may be further noted : 
 
 At ordinary temperatures a lye of i -225-1*275 sp.gr. effects 
 * mercerisation ' in a few minutes; weaker liquors produce the 
 result on longer exposure, the duration of exposure necessary being 
 inversely as the concentration. Reduction of temperature produces, 
 within certain limits, the same effect as increased concentration. 
 The addition of zinc oxide (hydrate) to the alkaline lye also increases 
 its activity. Caustic soda solution of i-ioo sp.gr., which has only a 
 feeble * mercerising ' action, is rendered active by the addition of the 
 oxide in the molecular proportion, Zn(OH) 2 : 4NaOH. 
 
 The condition of the cotton also affects the result. The ordi- 
 nary bleaching process, with its treatment with boiling alkaline 
 lye under pressure, brings the cellulose into a condition relatively 
 unfavourable, the best results being obtained by a preparatory 
 treatment consisting of (i) boiling with water only, (2) bleaching 
 in a warm bath (60-70 C.) of hypochlorite (bleaching powder) pre- 
 pared with addition of lime. 
 
 In regard to the physical changes of the fibre-substance result- 
 ing from the treatment, the effects in the mass, i.e. in yarn or cloth, 
 are seen in shrinkage of linear dimensions, with a corresponding 
 increase in thickness. The percentage of shrinkage observed is 20- 
 25. The ' mercerised' fabric shows an increase of strength, i.e. re- 
 sistance to breaking strain, of from 40-50 p.ct. Another important 
 feature of the * mercerised ' fabrics is an increased dyeing capacity. 
 These changes of form and in properties were investigated by 
 W. Crum (Chem. Soc. Journ. 1863). 
 
 The changes in the minute structure of the cell he showed 
 to be similar to those which accompany the process of ripening 
 i.e. from the flattened riband form of a collapsed tube to the 
 cylindrical form resulting from the uniform thickening of the 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 2$ 
 
 cavity of the cell wall. Owing to this thickening the cavity of 
 the cell is almost obliterated. Another effect of the alkali is to 
 produce a peculiar spiral twisting of the fibre, which further 
 explains the shrinkage of cloth in the process of mercerising ; the 
 shrinkage being in part due to the felting together of the twisted 
 fibres, after the manner of wool fibres in the process of 'fulling 'cloth. 
 
 CELLULOSE THIOCARBONATES. When * mercerised ' cot- 
 ton, or more generally an alkali-cellulose (hydrate), is exposed 
 to the action of carbon disulphide at the ordinary temperature, 
 a simple synthesis takes place, which may be formulated by the 
 typical equation : 
 
 X.ONa + CS 2 = CS. . 
 
 The best conditions for the reaction appear to be when the 
 reagents are brought together in the molecular proportions : 
 
 C 6 H, 5 2 NaOH CS 2 f Ql . 
 162 2x40 76 L30-40H 2 U]J 
 
 the second ONa group being in direct union with the cellu- 
 lose molecule, which reacts, therefore, as an alkali cellulose. 
 The resulting compound may therefore be described as an 
 alkali-cellulose-xanthate. It is perfectly soluble in water, to a 
 solution of extraordinary viscosity. The course of the reaction 
 by which it is produced is marked by the further swelling of 
 the mercerised fibre and a gradual conversion into a gelatin- 
 ous transparent mass, which dissolves to a homogeneous solu- 
 tion on treatment with water. 
 
 To carry out the reaction in practice, bleached cotton is 
 treated with excess of a 15 p.ct. solution of NaOH, and 
 squeezed till it retains about three times its weight of the solu- 
 tion It is then placed in a stoppered bottle with carbon 
 disulphide, the quantity being about 40 p.ct. of the weight 
 of the cotton. After standing about three hours at ordinary 
 temperatures, water is added sufficient to cover the mass, and 
 
26 Cellulose 
 
 the further hydration of the compound allowed to proceed 
 spontaneously some hours (e.g. over night). On stirring, a 
 homogeneous liquid is obtained, which may be diluted to any 
 required degree. 
 
 Thus prepared, the crude solution is of a yellow colour, due 
 to by-products of the reaction (trithiocarbonates). The pure 
 compound is obtained either by treatment of the solution with 
 saturated brine or with alcohol. It forms a greenish-white 
 flocculent mass or coagulum, which redissolves in water to a 
 colourless or faintly yellow coloured solution. Solutions of 
 the salts of the heavy metals added to this solution precipitate 
 the corresponding xanthates. Iodine acts according to the 
 typical equation : 
 
 CS Na + NaS CS + J = * NaI + CS ' S-f CS ' 
 
 The compound, which may be described as a cellulose 
 dioxythiocarbonate, is precipitated in the flocculent form ; it 
 is redissolved by alkaline solution, in presence of reducing 
 agents, to form the original compound. 
 
 The most characteristic property of the cellulose xanthates is 
 (a) their spontaneous decomposition into cellulose (hydrate), alkali, 
 and carbon disulphide or products of interaction of the latter. 
 When this decomposition proceeds in aqueous solution, at any 
 degree of concentration exceeding i p.ct. cellulose, a jelly or 
 coagulum is produced, of the volume of the containing vessel. 
 These highly hydrated modifications of cellulose lose water 
 very gradually, the shrinkage of the ' solid ' taking place sym- 
 metrically. The following observations upon a 5 p.ct. solution 
 (cellulose), kept at the ordinary atmospheric temperature, will 
 convey a general idea of the phenomena attending the regene- 
 ration of cellulose from the alkali xanthate. The observations 
 were made upon the solution kept in a stoppered cylinder ; 
 after coagulation the solution, expressed from the coagulum of 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 27 
 
 cellulose by spontaneous shrinkage, was removed at intervals. 
 Original volume of solution, 100 c.c. 
 
 Time in days 
 
 Coagulation . . 8th day 
 First appearance 
 of liquid . . 
 
 Vol. of cellulose 
 hydrate 
 
 Diff. from TOO c.c. 
 =vol. expressed 
 
 1 6th 
 
 . 98 c.c. . 
 
 2 C.C. 
 
 20th ,, 
 
 . 83-5 . 
 
 . 16-5 
 
 25th 
 
 .72-0 . 
 
 . 28-0 
 
 3oth ,, 
 
 . 58-0 . 
 
 . 42-0 
 
 40th 
 
 .42-8 
 
 . 57-2 
 
 47th 
 
 . 38-5 . 
 
 . 61-5 
 
 The shrinkage from a 5 p.ct. to a 10 p.ct. coagulum of cellu- 
 lose hydrate is therefore extremely slow and fairly regular ; 
 from 10-12 p.ct. there is considerable retardation; and at 
 12-15 p.ct. the coagulum may be considered as a hydrate, 
 stable in a moist atmosphere. It follows from these observa- 
 tions that if a 10-12 p.ct. solution be allowed to coagulate 
 spontaneously, the resulting cellulose hydrate will undergo very 
 small shrinkage if kept in a moist atmosphere. These obser- 
 vations indicate the uses which can be made of the solution in 
 preparing cellulose casts and moulds. 
 
 As regards the problem of hydration and dehydration of 
 the cellulose there are, of course, other methods of approxi- 
 mately determining the 'force ' by \\hich the water molecules 
 are held. It is a problem of wide significance, by reason of the 
 important part played by such hydrates in the economy of 
 plant life. Further investigations of the problem, therefore, 
 by the various known methods are being prosecuted. 
 
 (ft) Coagulation by heat. The solution may be evaporated 
 at low temperatures to a dry solid, perfectly resoluble in water. 
 If heated at 70-80, however, the solution thickens ; and at 
 80-90 the coagulation, i.e. decomposition, is rapidly com- 
 pleted. If the solution be dried down at this temperature in 
 
28 Cellulose 
 
 thin films, it adheres with great tenacity to the surface upon 
 which it is dried. On treatment with water, however, the 
 cellulose film may be detached, and when freed from the by- 
 products of the reaction the cellulose is obtained as a homo- 
 geneous transparent colourless sheet or film, of great toughness, 
 which, on drying, hardens somewhat, increasing in toughness 
 and preserving a considerable degree of elasticity. From the 
 properties of the solution and of the cellulose regenerated from 
 it, it will be readily seen that both are capable of extensive 
 applications. 
 
 QUANTITATIVE REGENERATION OF CELLULOSE FROM 
 SOLUTION AS THIOCARBONATE. Very careful experiments have 
 been made to determine the proportion of cellulose recovered 
 from solution as thiocarbonate. Weighed quantities of Swedish 
 filter paper were dissolved by the process, and the solutions 
 treated as follows : (a) Allowed to ' solidify ' spontaneously at 
 15-18. (b) Coagulated more rapidly at 55-65. (c) Sul- 
 phurous acid was added in quantity sufficient to combine with 
 one-third of the alkali present in the solution the resulting 
 solution being colourless : this was then set aside to coagulate 
 spontaneously. The regenerated celluloses were exhaustively 
 purified, by boiling in sodium sulphite solution, digesting in 
 acid, digesting in water, &c., and, repeating the treatments 
 until pure, they were finally dried for some days at 60 and 
 finished at 100. 
 
 The following results were obtained : 
 
 Weight of original cellulose Weight of regenerated cellulsse 
 
 (a) 17335 I748o 
 
 (6) 17415 I756o 
 
 (f) 18030 1-8350 
 
 The results show a net difference of 1*1 p.ct (increase), a 
 quantity which, for practical purposes, may be neglected. As, 
 however, the empirical composition of the regenerated cellulose 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 29 
 
 indicates hydration to 4C G Hi O 5 .H 2 O (infra), and a corre- 
 sponding gain of 2*7 p.ct., it appears that there is a slight 
 hydrolysis of even this very pure form of cellulose. From 
 subsequent observations (p. 61) it will appear that the hydro- 
 lysis falls upon an oxycellulose, probably present in all bleached 
 celluloses. 
 
 The cellulose regenerated from the thiocarbonate differs 
 from the original cellulose, so far as has been ascertained, in 
 the following respects : 
 
 (1) Its hygroscopic moisture, or water of condition, is some 
 3-4 p.ct. higher, viz. from 9-10*5 p.ct. 
 
 (2) Empirical composition. The mean results of analysis 
 show C=43'3, H=6'4 p.ct., which are expressed by the 
 empirical formula, 4C 6 H 10 O 5 .H. 2 O. 
 
 (3) General properties, in the main, are identical with 
 those of the original, but the OH groups of this cellulose are 
 in a more reactive condition. Thus this form of cellulose is 
 acetylated by merely heating the acetic anhydride at its boiling 
 point, whereas normal cellulose requires a temperature of 180. 
 ( Vide Cellulose Acetates.) 
 
 As regards reaction in aqueous solution we may notice that 
 it has a superior dyeing capacity, and also combines with the 
 soluble bases to a greater extent : e.g. if left some time in 
 contact with a normal solution of sodium hydrate it absorbs 
 from 4'5~5'5 p.ct. of its weight in combination. 
 
 Towards the special solvents previously described it 
 behaves similarly to the normal or fibrous cellulose ; the 
 solutions obtained are, however, more viscous and less gela- 
 tinous. 
 
 THEORETICAL VIEW OF THE THIOCARBONATE REACTION OF 
 CELLULOSE. The occurrence of this reaction, under what may 
 be regarded as the normal conditions, proves the presence in 
 cellulose of OH groups of distinctly alcoholic function. The 
 
30 Cellulose 
 
 product is especially interesting, as the first instance of the 
 synthesis of a soluble cellulose derivative i.e. soluble in 
 water by a reaction characteristic of the alcohols generally. 
 The actual dissolution of the cellulose under this reaction we 
 cannot attempt to explain, so long as our views of the general 
 phenomena of solution are still only hypotheses. There is 
 this feature, however, common to all the processes hitherto 
 described, for producing an aqueous solution of cellulose (i.e. 
 a cellulose derivative), viz. that the solvent has a saline cha- 
 racter. It appears, in fact, that cellulose yields only under the 
 simultaneous strain of acid and basic groups, and therefore we 
 may assume that the OH groups in cellulose are of similarly 
 opposite function. In the case of the zinc chloride solvents 
 there cannot be any other determining cause, and the soluble 
 products may be regarded as analogous to the double salts. 
 The retention of the zinc oxide by the cellulose, when pre- 
 cipitated by water, is an additional evidence of the presence of 
 negative or acidic OH groups ; and, conversely, the much more 
 rapid action of the zinc chloride in presence of hydrochloric 
 acid indicates the basicity of the molecule, i.e. of certain of 
 its OH groups. On the other hand, in both the cuprarn- 
 monium and thiocarbonate processes there may be a disturbance 
 of the oxygen-equilibrium of the molecule ; and, although there 
 is no evidence that the cellulose regenerated from these 
 solutions respectively is oxidised in the one case, or deoxidised 
 in the other, it is quite possible that temporary migration of 
 oxygen or hydrogen might be determined, and contribute to 
 the hydration and ultimate solution of the cellulose. But, 
 apart from hypotheses, we may lay stress on the fact that these 
 processes have the common feature of attacking the cellulose 
 in the two directions corresponding with those of electrolytic 
 strain ; and it is on many grounds probable that the connection 
 will prove to be causal and not merely incidental 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 31 
 
 The thiocarbonate reaction more especially throws light on 
 that somewhat vague quantity, the ' reacting unit ' of cellulose. 
 We use this term in preference to that of molecular weight ; for 
 the latter quantity can be determined only for bodies which 
 readily assume the simplest of states, and which can be ascer- 
 tained by physical measurements to be in that state ; whereas 
 in the case of cellulose the ordinary criteria of molecular 
 simplicity are quite inapplicable. 
 
 We have formulated the synthesis of the thiocarbonate as 
 taking place by the interaction of C b H 10 O 5 : 2NaOH : CS 2 ; 
 or in approximate percentage ratio : 
 
 Cellulose : Alkali : Carbon Bisulphide = 100 : 50 : 50 ; 
 or, again, in terms of the constituents estimated in the analysis 
 of the product : 
 
 Cellulose : Alkali (Na 2 O) : Sulphur = 100 : 40 : 40. 
 If now the crude product be precipitated from aqueous 
 solution by alcohol or brine, and again dissolved and re- 
 precipitated, the ratio changes to 100 : 20 : 20 ; and, through 
 a succession of similar treatments, the ratio of alkali and 
 sulphur to cellulose continually diminishes the product, how- 
 ever, preserving its solubility. In fact, no definite break has 
 been observed in the continuous passage from the compound 
 as originally synthesised to the regenerated cellulose (hydrate). 
 It is clear, therefore, that the reacting cellulose unit is a con- 
 tinually aggregating molecule ; and if in the original synthesis 
 it appears to react as C 6 H IO O S , so in a thiocarbonate 
 containing, e.g. only 4 p.ct. Na 2 O, the unit is ioC 6 H 10 O 5 . 
 There being, moreover, no ascertainable break in the series, 
 we have no data for assigning any limiting value to the reacting 
 unit under these conditions. All we can say is, that the 
 evidence we have points to its being of indefinite magnitude ; 
 and we can see no a priori reason why it should not be so. 
 
 In discussing this reaction we have left out of considera- 
 
32 Cellulose 
 
 tion the part played by the water. It may be noted that a 
 i p.ct. solution of cellulose (as thiocarbonate) will * set ' to 
 a firm jelly of hydrate, of the volume of the containing vessel; 
 and that even at 0-25 p.ct. cellulose, gelatinisation of the 
 liquid occurs in decomposition. We have also pointed out 
 that a hydrate containing only 10 p.ct. cellulose is a sub- 
 stantial solid which gives up water with extreme slowness. 
 
 Cellulose, therefore, affords conspicuous illustrations of the 
 property which the ' colloids ' have, as a class, of * fixing ' water, 
 and of the modes in which this property takes effect. In regard 
 to the causes underlying this peculiar relationship to water, we 
 know as yet but little. It is to be noted that the group of 
 colloids comprises bodies of very various chemical function, 
 acids, bases, salts and compounds of mixed function, as in the 
 complex carbohydrates and proteids ; the only possible feature 
 common to so varied a group would be that of molecular 
 arrangement, favouring the aggregation of the molecules, to- 
 gether with those of water, to groups of indefinite magnitude. 
 On this subject, however, conjectures must, for the present, do 
 duty for a theory which can only be shaped by further in- 
 vestigation. 
 
 Cellulose Benzoates. The alkali celluloses also react 
 with benzoyl chloride, according to Baumann's method, to form 
 the corresponding benzoates. 
 
 (a) Mercerised cellulose. This form of alkali cellulose, 
 treated with benzoyl chloride in the cold and in presence of 
 excess of alkali, gives a mixture of products, the numbers 
 obtained indicating that reaction occurs in the ratios, 
 
 C f ,H 10 5 : C 6 H 5 .COOH and C 6 H 10 O 5 : 2 C 6 H 5 COOH. 
 
 Cellulose Benzole acid 
 
 Within the limits of concentration, producing the specific 
 'mercerising' action the lower limit being at about 12-5 
 p.ct. NaOH the degree of benzoylation is inversely as the 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 33 
 
 concentration of the alkaline solution. The fibrous benzoate 
 produced under these conditions shows necessarily a much 
 increased volume ; examined microscopically the features of 
 minute structure of the fibre are seen to be much accentuated. 
 The hygroscopic moisture of the product is 2-3 p.ct. of its 
 weight, i.e. from J to \ that of the original cellulose. This 
 weakened attraction for atmospheric moisture invariably 
 attends the substitution of the OH groups in the celluloses 
 by acid residues. 
 
 ($} Soluble alkali celluloses. The hydrates precipitated 
 from solution in the zinc chloride and cuprammonium solu- 
 tions dissolve in solutions of the alkaline hydrates ; and the 
 benzoates obtained from these solutions, by treatment with 
 benzoyl chloride, are curdy precipitates, which may be purified 
 by solution in glacial acetic acid, filtering, and reprecipitating 
 by water. Obtained in this way, the benzoates approximate 
 
 in composition to C 6 H 8 O 3 <Q ^ 7 ^[ -"'Q. They melt at a high 
 
 temperature to a clear liquid, which solidifies to a transparent 
 resinous mass. By friction the compound becomes highly 
 electric, a property common to the esters of cellulose. 
 
 The compound dissolves in acetic anhydride ; on heat- 
 ing for some time at the boiling-point of the liquid, a partial 
 replacement of the benzoyl by acetyl groups occurs, and at 
 the same time a further acetylation of the cellulose. 
 
 The compound gives, on analysis, numbers corresponding 
 with the empirical formula, 
 
 C 6 H 6 O.O.C 7 H 5 0.(O.C 2 H 3 O) 3 . 
 
 This group of benzoates and mixed esters requires further 
 and exhaustive investigation, as a study of their composition 
 and constitution cannot fail to throw much light upon that of 
 the parent molecule. 
 
 We now leave the alkali celluloses, and the synthetical 
 
 D 
 
34 Cellulose 
 
 products which we have seen to be obtainable from them, to 
 deal with those esters which are formed by direct synthesis with 
 acid radicals. It will become evident, as we proceed with the 
 description of the derivatives of cellulose, that it only yields, 
 with any facility, such as result from reaction of its OH groups 
 with mixed radicals. It will appear from the composition of 
 the resulting esters about to be described that the empirical 
 unit C 6 H 10 O 5 contains at least three OH groups ; of the 
 remaining O atoms one certainly is carbonyl oxygen, though, 
 as it exists in the cellulose complex, it manifests no 'outside* 
 activity. It is brought into play, however, in a number of 
 the decompositions of cellulose, and those determined by the 
 non-oxidising acids are chiefly to be noted in regard to this 
 point. It will become evident also that the molecular changes 
 by which this group is set free are, in effect, decompositions, 
 in the sense of a breaking down of the complex. The function 
 of the remaining O atom is obviously a problem of moment 
 in regard to the question of the constitution of cellulose, and 
 it will appear that the solution of the problem presents con- 
 siderable difficulties. 
 
 Cellulose Acetates. The acetylation of hydroxy-com- 
 pounds generally affords the simplest evidence as to their OH 
 groups, their number and disposition or arrangement, in the 
 molecule of the compound. 
 
 In the cellulose group, however, the problem is complicated 
 (i) by the difficulties of preparation and purification of the 
 acetates. The solutions are highly colloidal, and the ordinary 
 criteria of purity of the products are wanting. 
 
 (2) By the difficulties of analysis ; the direct { saponification ' 
 numbers often varying considerably from those obtained by 
 distillation of the volatile acid (after saponification), and both 
 numbers often failing to agree with the results of ultimate 
 analysis. 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 35 
 
 (3) Some of the methods of acetylation certainly involve a 
 change of molecular weight, and we have no criterion of the 
 relation, in this respect, of the acetate to the original 
 cellulose. 
 
 It must be understood, therefore, that the cellulose acetates 
 about to be described are of undetermined molecular weight, 
 and afford only an empirical expression of the number of OH 
 groups in the undetermined unit .(C 6 H 10 O 5 ), which itself 
 may vary under acetylation. 
 
 These considerations affect the value of deductions to be drawn 
 from the composition of the acetates, as to the number of reactive 
 OH groups in the unit molecule of cellulose. 
 
 On a priori grounds we should expect a maximum of 40 H in 
 the unit C H 10 O 5 . For a long time, however, the 'triacetate' was 
 considered to represent the highest degree of acetylation. This 
 acetate, however, was obtained at an elevated temperature (180) at 
 which a variety of molecular complications are possible. 
 
 Acetates have been obtained by the following methods : 
 (a) Interactions of cellulose and acetic anhydride. On 
 boiling cotton with acetic anhydride and sodium acetate, no 
 reaction occurs. Heated at 180 in a sealed tube, in the 
 proportion by weight of i of cellulose to 6 of the anhydride* 
 the cellulose is converted into the triacetate (Schutzenberger). 
 With the reagents in the proportion of 1:2, a mixture of 
 lower acetates is formed. The latter are insoluble in glacial 
 acetic acid ; the triacetate, on the other hand, is freely soluble. 
 The solution is highly viscous, and passes with extreme 
 slowness through filter paper. Filtration, however, is greatly 
 facilitated by addition of benzene to the solution. The acetate 
 also dissolves when heated with nitrobenzene, the solution 
 gelatinising on cooling, even when highly dilute. 
 
 The cellulose acetates are easily saponified by dilute 
 solutions of the alkaline hydrates, more rapidly in presence of 
 alcohol (50 p.ct. vol.). 
 
 oa 
 
36 Cellulose 
 
 (3) Cellulose and acetic anhydride in presence of zinc 
 chloride. In presence of a relatively minute proportion of 
 zinc chloride, cellulose and acetic anhydride react at 110-120. 
 The product, according to Franchimont, is the triacetate 
 described above. According to later investigations, however, 
 the acetylation proceeds further under these conditions, the 
 numbers obtained indicating the formation of a tetracetate, and 
 sometimes still higher numbers have been obtained. The 
 following numbers show the quantitative relationship of the 
 higher acetylated derivatives of a compound C G H 10 O 5 : 
 
 Yields on saponi- 
 
 fication 
 C H Acetic acid Cellulose 
 
 Triacetate . . QoH^Og 288 50-0 5-5 62-1 56-2 
 Tetracetate . . C, 4 H 18 O 9 330 50-9 5-6 727 49-1 
 Pentacetate. . C le H 20 O 10 372 51-6 5-3 80-6 43-2 
 
 In dealing with the evidence as to the composition of these 
 products, however, we must further remember that the formula 
 C 6 Hi O 5 has only a statistical value, i.e. that the molecule 
 of cellulose is a complex aggregate ; and if the molecule is 
 partially resolved during acetylation, this may occur by way of 
 hydrolysis or addition of OH groups. It is more than 
 probable that, in presence of ZnCl. 2 , the acetylation is com- 
 plicated in this way. It is always to be observed that, on 
 pouring the product of the reaction into water, a fluorescent 
 solution is obtained ; and, further, that the cellulose regene- 
 rated from acetates prepared by this method is oxidised by 
 cupric oxide in alkaline solution (Fehling's solution). These 
 reactions indicate the liberation of the CO groups of the 
 original cellulose during acetylation, and the reaction is not of 
 such simplicity that we can draw any certain conclusions from 
 the products as to the problematical O atom or atoms in the 
 unit C 6 H 10 O 5 , 
 
 (<:) Cellulose and acetic anhydride in presence of iodine. 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 37 
 
 The addition of iodine in relatively small proportion (^ p.ct.) 
 determines the solution of cellulose in acetic anhydride at 
 120-130. By this method an acetate is obtained free from 
 coloured by-products, and the yields of the product are remark- 
 ably uniform. In a series of experiments in which the propor- 
 tions of cellulose and anhydride were considerably varied, 
 the following yields were obtained per 100 parts cellulose : 
 
 176, i75> i77> J 74; 
 
 the yield calculated for the triacetate being 177. The uniformity 
 in these numbers, however, is somewhat illusory ; as in certain 
 cases the product is entirely soluble in acetone, and gives on 
 analysis the numbers calculated for a triacetate ; in other cases 
 the product is resolved into a soluble fraction giving high 
 saponincation numbers (75 p.ct. acetic acid), and an insoluble 
 fraction giving low numbers (48 p.ct. acetic acid ; calc. for 
 diacetate, 49). The evidence from these several processes 
 is somewhat conflicting, as to the composition of acetates 
 higher than the triacetate, and their relationship to the parent 
 molecule. 
 
 (d) Cellulose regenerated from solution as thiocarbonate. 
 This form of cellulose has been found to react directly with 
 acetic anhydride, under what may be considered the normal 
 conditions. At 110-120 the cellulose is gradually dis- 
 solved, to a solution of quite extraordinary viscosity, which is 
 so marked that the limit of concentration is not higher than 
 10 p.ct. of the acetate (5 p.ct. cellulose), beyond which 
 point, i.e. the reaction is practically arrested. It is necessary, 
 therefore, to use a very much higher proportion of anhydride 
 to cellulose (20 : i) than in the reactions previously described. 
 The acetate thus obtained appears, from all its properties, to 
 be a true derivative of cellulose. Thus it may be prepared 
 in films of great tenacity and remarkable lustre ; and the 
 
3S Cellulose 
 
 cellulose regenerated by saponification retains the film form, 
 shows no tendency to be further hydrolysed by the alkaline 
 solutions used for saponifying, and is unaffected by boiling with 
 alkaline cupric oxide. The analyses of this acetate show satis- 
 factory concordance of numbers with those calculated for a 
 tetracetate : [C 6 H 6 O.(O.C 2 H 3 O) 4 ]. 
 
 The specific gravity of this acetate is 1*210. It is soluble 
 in acetone, methyl alcohol, glacial acetic acid, and nitrobenzene. 
 It dissolves in concentrated nitric acid (as do the cellulose 
 acetates generally), and is precipitated on dilution, apparently 
 without change. 
 
 This compound is of ' critical ' value in elucidating the con- 
 stitution of cellulose. If the above formula be established by 
 further and exhaustive investigation, the cellulose ' unit ' must 
 be C 6 H 6 O.(OH) 4 ; this is consistent with a cyclic arrangement 
 of the carbon nuclei, and probably a symmetrical disposition 
 of the OH groups. This question will be referred to subse- 
 quently. 
 
 Cellulose and Nitric Acid. Cellulose Nitrates or 
 Nitro-Celluloses. The action of nitric acid on starch 
 was investigated to some extent by Braconnot in 1833, who 
 found that a very rapidly burning body was produced, and 
 which was called xyloidine. Pelouze further investigated 
 this substance in 1838, and also similar bodies from paper, 
 linen, &c. which he held to be identical with the one 
 from starch. Schonbein is generally credited with the 
 discovery of gun cotton in 1846. It appears to have been 
 almost simultaneously discovered by Bottger, and also by 
 Otto. 
 
 Whenever cellulose, in any form, is brought into contact with 
 concentrated nitric acid at a low temperature a nitro-product, or 
 a nitrate, is formed. The extent of the nitration depends upon 
 the concentration of the acid ; on the time of contact of the 
 
TJie Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 39 
 
 cellulose with it, and on the state of the physical division of 
 the cellulose itself. 
 
 Knop, and also Kamarsch and Heeren, found that a mixture 
 of sulphuric acid and nitric acid also formed nitrates of cellu- 
 lose ; and still later (1847), Millon and Gaudin employed a 
 mixture of sulphuric acid and nitrates of soda or potash, 
 which they found to have the same effect. 
 
 Although gun cottons, or pyroxylines, are generally spoken of 
 as nitro-celluloses, they are perhaps more correctly described 
 as cellulose nitrates, for unlike nitro-bodies of other series, 
 they do not yield, or have not as yet done so, amido-bodies on 
 reduction with nascent hydrogen. Eder gives the following as 
 general properties of the cellulose nitrates: (i) when warmed 
 with alkaline solutions, nitric acid is removed in varying quan- 
 tities dependent on the strength of the alkaline solutions 
 employed ; (2) treatment with cold concentrated sulphuric 
 acid expels almost the whole of the nitric acid ; (3) on boiling 
 with ferrous sulphate and hydrochloric acid, the nitrogen is 
 expelled as nitric oxide ; the reaction is used as a method of 
 nitrogen estimation in the cellulose nitrates ; (4) the alkaline 
 sulphydrates, ferrous acetate, and many other substances 
 convert the nitrates into ordinary cellulose. 
 
 Several well-characterised nitrates have been formed, but it 
 is a very difficult matter to prepare any one in a state of purity, 
 and without admixture of a higher or lower nitrated body. 
 
 The following are known : 
 
 Hexa-nitrate, C 12 H 14 O,(NO 3 ) 6 , 1 gun cotton. In the 
 formation of this body, nitric acid of 1-5 sp.gr. and sulphuric 
 acid of i '84 sp.gr. are mixed, in varying proportions, about 3 
 of nitric to i of sulphuric; sometimes this proportion is reversed, 
 
 1 To represent the series of cellulose nitrates so as to avoid fractional 
 proportions the ordinary empirical formula is doubled and the nomen- 
 clature has reference to this double molecule. 
 
4O Cellulose 
 
 and cotton immersed in this at a temperature not exceeding 
 10 C. for 24 hours : 100 parts of cellulose yield about 175 of 
 cellulose nitrate. The hexa-nitrate so prepared is insoluble 
 in alcohol, ether, or mixtures of both, in glacial acetic acid 
 or methyl alcohol. Acetone dissolves it very slowly. This is 
 the most explosive gun cotton. It ignites at 160-170 C. 
 According to Eder the mixtures of nitre and sulphuric acid do 
 not give this nitrate. Ordinary gun cotton may contain as 
 much as 12 p.ct of nitrates soluble in ether-alcohol. The 
 hexa-nitrate seems to be the only one quite insoluble in ether- 
 alcohol. 
 
 Penta-nitrate, C 12 H lft O.5(NO 3 ) 5 . This composition has 
 been very commonly ascribed to gun cotton. It is difficult, if 
 not impossible, to prepare it in a state of purity by the direct 
 action of the acid on cellulose. The best method is the one 
 devised by Eder, making use of the property discovered by De 
 Vrij, that gun cotton (hexa-nitrate) dissolves in nitric acid at 
 about 80 or 90 C., and is precipitated, as the penta-nitrate, by 
 concentrated sulphuric acid after cooling to o C. ; after mix- 
 ing with a larger volume of water, and washing the precipitate 
 with water and then with alcohol, it is then dissolved in ether- 
 alcohol, and again precipitated with water, when it is obtained 
 pure. 
 
 This nitrate is insoluble in alcohol, but dissolves readily in 
 ether-alcohol, and slightly in acetic acid. Strong potash solu- 
 tion converts this nitrate into the di-nitrate C[ 2 H 18 O 8 (NO ;J )2. 
 
 The tetra- and tri-nitrates (collodion pyroxyline) are 
 generally formed together when cellulose is treated with a more 
 dilute nitric acid, and at a higher temperature, and for a much 
 shorter time (13-20 minutes), than in the formation of the 
 hexa-nitrate. It is not possible to separate them, as they are 
 soluble to the same extent in ether-alcohol, acetic ether, acetic 
 acid, or wood spirit. 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Celhilose Group 41 
 
 On treatment with concentrated nitric and sulphuric acids, 
 both the tri- and tetra-nitrates are converted into penta-nitrate 
 and hexa-nitrate. Potash and ammonia convert them into di- 
 nitrate. 
 
 Cellulose di-nitrate, C 12 H 18 O 8 (NO 3 )2, is formed by the 
 action of alkalis on the other nitrates, and also by the action 
 of hot dilute nitric acid on cellulose. The di-nitrate is very 
 soluble in alcohol-ether, acetic ether, and in absolute alcohol. 
 Further action of alkalis on the di-nitrate results in a complete 
 decomposition of the molecule, some organic acids and tarry 
 matters being formed. (See infra.') 
 
 The above account of the cellulose nitrates may be regarded 
 as representing a fair digest of the extensive literature of the 
 subject, so far as regards the composition and properties of the 
 more important and definite products. A better grasp of the 
 relationship of these products to one another and to the parent 
 molecule will be obtained from the researches of Vieille 
 (Compt. Rend. 95, 132), a short account of which follows. 
 From the title of this author's communication, ' Sur les degres 
 de la nitrification limites de la cellulose,' it may be concluded 
 that it is a study of the nitrations of cellulose (cotton) under 
 the condition of progressive variations, with the view of 
 determining the maximum fixation of the nitric group cor- 
 responding to such variations. The most important factor 
 of the process is the concentration of the nitric acid, which 
 was the variant investigated. The temperature was kept con- 
 stant 11 C. and the nitrating acid (nitric acid only) was 
 employed in very large excess (100-150 times the weight of 
 cellulose), so as to avoid disturbance of the results by rise 
 of temperature or by dilution of the acid. The products 
 were analysed by Schloesing's method, and the analyses are 
 expressed in cc. NO (gas) (at o and 760 mm.) per i grm. of 
 substance. 
 
Cellulose 
 
 of acid 
 
 Composition 
 (approximate) 
 
 Analy is 
 of product 
 cc. NO 
 per i grm. 
 
 Properties of products 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 Structural features of cotton pre- 
 
 I-502 
 1-497 
 
 I NO,H.JH 8 { 
 
 202-1 I 
 I97-9 j 
 
 served ; soluble in acetic ether ; 
 not in ether-alcohol 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 C 24 H, (N0 3 H) 10 IO 
 
 I-496 
 1-492 
 I-490 
 
 I N0 3 H.iH 2 I 
 
 I94H j 
 1837 | 
 
 Appearances unchanged ; soluble in 
 ether-alcohol ; collodion cotton 
 C 24 H,,(NO,H),0 U 
 C 34 H a4 (NO,H) B 12 
 
 
 
 
 Fibre still unresolved ; soluble as 
 
 1-488 
 I-483 
 
 } N0 3 H.pI.O j 
 
 
 above, but solutions more gelatinous 
 and thready 
 
 
 
 
 C, ( H 2t5 (N0 3 H) 7 13 
 
 
 
 
 Dissolve cotton to viscous solution ; 
 
 1-476 
 1-472 
 
 i NO,H.|H,0 I 
 
 
 products precipitated by water ; 
 gelatinised by acetic ether ; not 
 
 1-469 
 
 j I 
 
 
 ether-alcohol 
 
 
 
 
 C 8l H ffl (NO J H) M 
 
 1-4^3 
 
 - , . X- _ 
 
 ) f 
 
 128-6 ( 
 
 Friable pulp ; blued strongly by 
 iodine in KI solution; insoluble in 
 
 I 4OO 
 
 I'APf 
 
 \ NO a II.H.O \ 
 
 1227 j 
 
 alcoholic solvents 
 
 433 
 
 
 115*9 ] 
 T _o._ 
 
 C,,H 3U .(NO :( H)0, S 
 
 1450 
 
 j \ 
 
 lob 9 ( 
 
 C 24 IUN0 8 H) 4 W 
 
 In regard to the time factor, or duration of exposure to the 
 acid required to give the maximum number, this was in all cases 
 controlled by observation. Thus with the acid HNO 3 .^H 2 O 
 (1-488 sp.gr.), after 48 hours the product was still blued by 
 iodine, and gave 161 c.c. NO ; whereas after 62 hours' ex- 
 posure the iodine reaction was not obtainable, and the maximum 
 number (1657 c.c. NO) was obtained. At the slightly lower 
 gravity 1-483, an exposure of 120 hours was necessary. At the 
 still lower gravity when the cotton (nitrate) passes into solution, 
 the maximum is very rapidly attained (5 minutes). 
 
 The highest nitrate obtained as above, with nitric acid only, 
 is somewhat lower than when sulphuric acid is present. Under 
 these latter conditions the author regards the highest nitrate 
 obtainable as C 24 H 18 (NO. J H) 11 O 9 . 
 
 THERMAL CONSTANTS. By calorimetric observation on the 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 43 
 
 process, it has been ascertained that the heat liberated is 11-12 
 cal. per unit of HNO 3 reacting. This 'heat of formation' 
 is approximately equal to that which is observed in converting 
 starch into the corresponding nitrates. 
 
 HEAT OF COMBUSTION. The total combustion of gun 
 cotton by free oxygen evolves heat equal to 2,300 cal. (H 2 O of 
 combustion liquid), or 2,177 ca ^- w i tn tne H 2 Oas gas or vapour, 
 per i grm. of the compound. Collodion cotton gives the corre- 
 sponding numbers 2,627-2,474 cal. ; gun cotton exploded in 
 confined space gives 1,071 cal. (H 2 O of combustion liquid). 
 
 PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION of gun cotton exploded in a 
 closed vessel vary in relative amount and in composition 
 with the ' density of the charge,' or the pressure developed 
 at the moment of explosion. Thus the CO 2 and H increase 
 with the density of charge ; theCH 4 also, but, being present in 
 very small ratio (o o-i'6 p.ct. maximum), it may be neglected. 
 The following equations may be taken as fairly representing 
 the combustion of 2C24H 18 O 9 (NO 3 H) 11 , under varying con- 
 ditions : 
 
 Density of charge 
 
 o-oio . . . 33CO + i5CO 2 + 8H 2 + 2iH 2 O + iiN 2 
 
 0-023. . . 3oCO + i8CO 2 +iiH 2 + i8H 2 O+iiN 2 
 
 0-200. . . 27CO + 2iCO 2 +i4H 2 +i5H^O+nN 3 
 
 0-300. . . 26CO + 22CO2+I5H2+I4H.P + IIN, 
 
 Under the ordinary conditions of explosion in firearms with 
 maximum density of charge, the quantities of gas produced 
 approximate more and more closely to the limit : 
 
 2 4 CO + 24CO 2 + i7H 2 + i2H 2 O + nN 2 . 
 
 Under * explosion,' it will be seen that no nitric oxide or 
 other nitrous gases are formed ; but when a slower combustion 
 takes place, with the products of combustion escaping freely 
 
44 Cellulose 
 
 under a pressure nearly equal to the atmospheric as in a 'miss 
 fire ' the percentage composition (by vol.) of the gases is 
 
 NO 247 
 
 CO 41-9 
 
 C0 2 18-4 
 
 H 7'9 
 
 N 5-8 
 
 CH 4 1-3 
 
 lOO'O 
 
 (See Karolyi, Phil. Mag. 1863, 266; also Abel, Phil. Trans. 
 1866, 269 ; 1867, 181.) 
 
 INDUSTRIAL USES OF THE CELLULOSE NITRATES. These 
 products find a number of highly important uses both for de- 
 structive and constructive purposes. As far as these uses in- 
 volve, or are based upon, essential properties of the products, 
 they may be briefly noticed here. 
 
 EXPLOSIVES. The products of which gun cotton or other 
 nitrated celluloses is the essential constituent are of three 
 main classes : (i ) containing the nitrates only ; (2) the nitrates in 
 admixture with inorganic salts containing oxygen * available' 
 for combustion, or aromatic nitro-derivatives, c. ; (3) the 
 nitrates in admixture with, or solution in, nitro-glycerin (blast- 
 ing gelatine, ballistite, or cordite). An account of these 
 modern explosives, with determinations of their constants of 
 explosion, will be found in a paper by Macnab and Ristori, 
 Proc. R. S. 1894, 56. 
 
 CELLULOID, XYLONITE, &c. The lower nitrates are worked 
 up with solvents of a special character (acetone, camphor, c.), 
 with or without admixture of various substances, into plastic 
 masses, which are then cut and moulded into articles of most 
 varied form and use. 
 
 COLLODION, COLLODION VARNISHES, COLLODION FILMS. 
 The lower nitrates, dissolved in ether-alcohol or other solvents 
 (amyl acetate and benzene, &c.), form transparent solutions, 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 45 
 
 which on evaporation leave the nitrate as a glass-clear film of 
 considerable elasticity and tenacity. The products, both in 
 solution and in the form of films, are applied in numerous 
 directions, chiefly in connection with photography. 
 
 It is important to observe that these nitrates preserve in a 
 remarkable degree the essential physical properties of the 
 original cellulose, which will be most obvious by comparison 
 of the above products with those obtainable with the cellulose 
 regenerated from solution as thiocarbonate. But this is still 
 better illustrated by the processes of converting the nitrates 
 into a continuous thread, available as a textile material. This 
 product is known as artificial silk. Various inventors have 
 devised means for * spinning ' solutions of cellulose nitrates 
 into thread, one of which may be briefly described as having 
 reduced the operation to one of extreme mechanical simplicity. 
 It is essential to the production of a thread of sufficient tensile 
 strength as directly obtained to stand the strain of the 
 drawing process, that the solutions employed contain a certain 
 minimum proportion of the dissolved nitrate. Dr. Lehner, of 
 Zurich, 1 after investigating the various problems involved, found 
 that, whereas ordinary collodion containing such a proportion 
 of the pyroxylin (10-12 p.ct.) in solution is unworkable under 
 the prescribed conditions, the adding of dilute sulphuric acid 
 causes a molecular change, and gives the solution the requisite 
 fluidity. With such a solution the conversion into thread is 
 effected as follows : The solution, carefully filtered and free 
 from all bubbles, is caused to flow by way of glass tubes to a 
 lower level, where it is delivered through a much narrowed 
 opening with a steady constant flow. The shorter limb ending 
 in this fine orifice is contained in a glass cell filled with water. 
 
 1 See original German patent D.P. 58508/1890. The earlier pro- 
 cesses of De Chardonnet (1885) and du Vivier (1889) must also be men- 
 tioned. See D.P. 38368/1885 and 46125/1888. Also Br.Pat. 2570/1889. 
 
46 Cellulose 
 
 On emerging, therefore, the solution is at once coagulated to a 
 transparent jelly, and of considerable toughness. On applying 
 a slight pull to the jelly, grasped with the fingers or forceps, a 
 thread is produced ; and on fixing the end to a light wheel re- 
 volving at a definite rate, the thread is drawn off continuously 
 of uniform diameter. Several threads being twisted together 
 in the usual way of ' silk-throwing,' the artificial textile thread 
 is produced. After being deprived of water of hydration the 
 threads acquire the high white lustre of * boiled-off' silk. 
 
 In this state, however, it is the explosive nitrate, containing 
 ii-i2 p.ct. N. To fit it for consumption, therefore, the 
 ' silk ' is * denitrated ' by treatment with ammonium sulphide 
 in the cold. This process in no way affects the lustre of the 
 thread, and when properly carried out gives a product not more 
 inflammable than ordinary cotton. 
 
 The * artificial silk ' has been found to have a tensile 
 strength equal to 70 p.ct. of that of the natural product, of 
 the same degree of fineness. Its elasticity is inferior in about 
 the same proportion ; but it has a higher lustre and is pro- 
 duced at much less cost. It appears, therefore, capable of 
 considerable industrial use. 
 
 OTHER DECOMPOSITIONS OF THE CELLULOSE NITRATES. 
 In addition to the explosive resolution into gaseous products, 
 of these cellulose esters, they are susceptible of a more gradual 
 process of decomposition, into which they pass spontaneously 
 under certain conditions yielding a complex of products, 
 some of low molecular weight, e.g. carbonic, formic, oxalic, 
 saccharic, and nitroxy-acids ; others of closer relationship to 
 the original cellulose, gummy acid bodies which have been 
 described as belonging to the pectic series. Observations of 
 these decompositions have been made by various chemists 
 (Maurey, Bechamp, Kuhlmann, Pelouze, De Luca, Compt. 
 Rend. 28, 343; 37, 134; 42, 676; 59, 363; 59, 487; 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 47 
 
 Divers, Journ. Chem. Soc. [2], i, 91), but have thrown but 
 little light on the chemistry of cellulose. 
 
 A resolution of similar character is determined by a gradu- 
 ated treatment of the nitrates with the alkaline hydrates (solu- 
 tion). This has been investigated by W. Will, from the more 
 theoretical point of view suggested by the title of the com- 
 munication containing his results, viz. * Ueber Oxybrenz- 
 traubensaure, ein neues Product des Abbaues der Cellulose/ 
 Berl. Ber. 24, 400. 
 
 The process yielding this characteristic product, hydroxy- 
 pyruvic acid, consisted in treating the ether-alcoholic solution 
 of pyroxylin (with 11*2 p.ct. N) with a 10 p.ct. solution of 
 sodium hydrate, shaking the two layers of solution together 
 from time to time, until decomposition was complete ; or 
 setting aside for 24 to 30 hours, when it completes itself 
 at ordinary temperatures. The alkaline solution is acidified 
 and warmed, to complete the removal of the lower oxides 
 of nitrogen, and treated with phenylhydrazine in presence 
 of acetic acid (excess). The osazone of the ketonic acid, 
 COOH CO CH 2 OH, is thus obtained. The acid itself 
 was also directly isolated from the original alkaline solution 
 after neutralising, by precipitation as lead salt, and decom- 
 posing in the usual way with hydrogen sulphide. 
 
 The author's purpose in studying the reaction was the 
 elucidation of the constitution of cellulose ; and, although the 
 results so far are too fragmentary for the drawing of definite 
 conclusions, they indicate a direction in which the problem 
 may be successfully attacked. It is obvious that progress in 
 this direction must lie by way of processes of regulated dissec- 
 tion, and of these there are very few under sufficient control to 
 be available. It is therefore to be hoped that this decom- 
 position will be more fully investigated, especially as, from a 
 private communication, we learn that the characteristic product 
 
48 Cellulose 
 
 is obtained in relatively large proportion, indicating a principal 
 direction of cleavage of the cellulose molecule. 
 
 Attempts to arrive at the molecular weights of these compounds, 
 benzoates and acetates as well as nitrates, by the method of Raoult 
 have, so far, led to no result The esters of cellulose appear to 
 produce an abnormally large and, moreover, variable depression of 
 the glacial point of acetic acid which is a general solvent of 
 these derivatives such that no conclusion can be drawn from the 
 observed depressions, as to the molecular magnitude of these 
 compounds, in the undissolved condition ; and if we interpret the 
 depressions of freezing-point observed in the acetic acid solutions 
 according to the usually accepted view, we must regard the 
 molecules, when dissolved, as undergoing disaggregation or 
 dissociation. There is no a priori objection to this view, and it 
 appears, in fact, to be in harmony with many of the characteristics 
 of cellulose in reaction, viz. those in which it resembles, to a certain 
 extent, the inorganic salts. 
 
 Cellulose and Sulphuric Acid. Cotton cellulose is 
 rapidly attacked and dissolved by concentrated sulphuric acid. 
 The initial product may, perhaps, be regarded as a cellulose 
 sulphuric acid, but a rapid molecular disintegration ensues, 
 and there results a series of sulphates of the general formula 
 C 6H H 10ft O SH _ x (SO 4 ),. The resolution of the cellulose molecule 
 is a progressive phenomenon, and is accompanied by increase 
 of dextro-rotation and reducing power (CuO) in the product. 
 
 The free acids are amorphous bodies, very hygroscopic, 
 soluble in alcohol and water ; on boiling the aqueous solution 
 they are completely hydrolysed to glucose and sulphuric acid. 
 The Ca, Ba, and Pb salts of the acids are obtained by neu- 
 tralising with the respective oxides in aqueous solution and 
 precipitating by alcohol. On boiling with water these salts 
 lose one-half their sulphuric acid according to the equation 
 
 (Honig and Schubert, Monatsh. 6, 708 ; 7, 455.) 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 49 
 
 The reaction may be described, therefore, as a progressive 
 hydrolysis of the cellulose through a series of dextrins, to a 
 carbohydrate of minimum molecular weight. This transform- 
 ation of cellulose to a sugar was established early in the cen- 
 tury (Braconnot, 1819). Recent investigation has established 
 the identity of this sugar with dextrose (rotation, [n] = 53*0). 
 The process of. hydrolysis consists in the following stages : the 
 cellulose (50 grms.) is dissolved in strong sulphuric acid (250 
 gr. H 2 SO 4 -f 84 gr. H 2 O) in the cold, and the solution allowed 
 to stand ; diluted till the acidity equals 2 p.ct. H 2 SO 4 , and 
 boiled 3 hours. The isolation of the dextrose in the crystal- 
 line form is accomplished in the usual way. (Flechsig, Zeitschr. 
 f. Physiol. Chem. 7, 523.) 
 
 The reaction between cotton cellulose as well as other cellu- 
 loses of the cotton group (p. 79) and sulphuric acid is, in regard 
 to ultimate products, of the simplest character, resulting in their 
 conversion into dextrose, and in quantitative proportion (Flechsig). 
 
 The reaction in the case of other celluloses, e.g. wood cellulose, 
 is more complicated. The initial solution in the concentrated acid 
 is dark coloured, and on diluting and boiling there is a consider- 
 able formation of insoluble products. Although dextrose is 
 obtained as one of the ultimate products of the hydrolysis, it is 
 only in relatively small quantity (Lindsey and Tollens, Annalen, 
 267, 371), and appears to be accompanied by other carbohydrates. 
 It will be shown subsequently that the celluloses of this group are 
 oxycelluloses, containing reactive CO groups and very readily con- 
 densing to furfural. The hydrolysis in such cases would, no doubt, 
 be attended by condensations and other complications. 
 
 The subject has been recently and more exhaustively in- 
 vestigated by A. L. Stern (Thesis for D.Sc. Lond. Univ. 1894), 
 and we give a short extract of the results which he obtained. 
 
 ( i ) Composition of body produced by dissolving cellulose in sul- 
 phuric acid. In addition to the determination of the empirical 
 ratios of the constituents in the products isolated as Ba salts, 
 they were examined in solution for optical rotation and reduction 
 
 
 
50 Cellulose 
 
 of cupric oxide. The former are expressed in terms of (d\ and 
 the latter in terms of dextrose reduction K=ioo (o'4535 grin. 
 dextrose equivalent to i grm. CuO). (a) Solution of cellu- 
 lose at 5. (b) Solution at 15. In both cases the compound 
 obtained was C 6 H 8 O 3 (SO 4 ).2Ba ; the compounds were with- 
 out action on Fehling's solution ; the ' opticity ' varied directly 
 with the temperature of the solution-reaction viz. for (a) it 
 was + 24 ; for (b) + 54. The yield of soluble Ba salt was 
 48 p.ct. of the theoretical; the residue of the cellulose remains 
 associated with the BaSO 4 , obtained on neutralising the acid 
 liquid with BaCCV 
 
 Hydrolysis of the product. The compounds in solution were 
 treated for 30 minutes at 100 in presence of free sulphuric 
 acid (2 p.ct. on the solution). The acid products were 
 isolated in each case as Ba salts. Compounds of identical 
 formula were obtained viz. C 18 H 28 O 13 (SO 4 ). 2 Ba. The yield 
 amounted to (a) 95 p.ct., (b) 80 p.ct. of the total calcu- 
 lated. The remainder was converted into dextrose. The 
 opticities of the products were different, viz. (a) for Ba salt 
 + 25; (&) for Basalt, + 7 5. The CuO reductions were, for (a), 
 K=2 3 - 3 ; for(J),K=i8-i. 
 
 (2) Graduated hydrolysis of the disulphuric ester. The 
 initial product of the empirical composition C 6 H 10 O 3 (SO 4 ) 2 
 was then subjected to hydrolysis in graduated stages, the con- 
 ditions being as before, and the stages being defined by the 
 duration of the hydrolysis, the products being exhaustively 
 investigated at periods of 7, 15, 20, and 30 minutes. The results 
 are summarised as follows : 
 
 C 6 H 8 O 3 (SO 4 H) 2 , when boiled with 2 p.ct. H.SO 4 , yields 
 successively, 
 
 C 6 H 8 3 (S0 4 H) 2 C H,0 4 .S0 4 H 
 C 6 H 8 3 (S0 4 H) 2 3 C 6 H y 4 .S0 4 .H. 
 1 This residue should be investigated. 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 5 1 
 
 No sugar (dextrose) is formed down to this stage, the result 
 indicating a loss of sulphuric acid, and the formation of the 
 monosulphuric ester, C 6 H,,O 4 .SO 4 H, as the limit. This pro- 
 duct, as the original disulphuric ester, is without action on 
 Fehling's solution. 
 
 Subsequently the following were obtained as products of 
 the further hydrolysis. 
 
 5C 6 H 9 O 4 SO 4 H C 12 H, 9 O 9 SO 4 H 
 2 C G H 9 O 4 SO 4 H C 12 H 19 O 9 SO 4 H. 
 
 This stage indicates further resolution of the monosulphuric 
 ester ; this takes place rapidly and is difficult to control. 
 
 The hydrolysis was then proceeded with for longer periods, 
 30-120 minutes. The results are thus summarised : sugar is 
 formed, and acid products, with increasingly less barium and 
 sulphuric acid. The sugar formed is dextrose. The following 
 products were investigated : 
 
 6H 2 SO 4 .C 12 H 18 O 9 ioH.SO 4 C 6 H 9 O 4 .2HSO 4 C 12 H l9 O 9 
 
 H 2 SO 4 C 12 H 18 O 9 HSO 4 C 12 H 19 O 9 
 
 H 2 SO 4 C 12 H 18 O 9 4C,,H 19 O 9 SO 4 H 
 
 H 2 SO 4 C 12 H 18 O 9 4Ci 2 H 19 O 9 SO 4 H.2C 6 H 12 O 6 . 
 
 The corresponding Ba salts of these products contain more 
 Ba than is necessary to saturate the acid group SO 4 H. It is 
 highly probable that one of the OH groups of the resolved 
 cellulose molecule acquires acid functions. 
 
 The series of degradation products of the cellulose molecule 
 are termed cellulose-sulphuric acids by the author ; but this 
 designation is misleading. 
 
 The most important features of this careful study of the 
 molecular dissection of cellulose are, (i) the fact that the 
 molecule can be very considerably resolved without freeing 
 the aldehydic CO groups ; (2) the differentiation of two of 
 the OH groups of the C 6 unit, as having a superior basic or 
 
 2 
 
52 Cellulose 
 
 alcoholic function ; and (3) that with the breaking down of the 
 molecule, OH groups of the cellulose units are brought into 
 play with acid functions. 
 
 It will be noted that up to this point we have been dealing 
 with compounds of cellulose products obtained by synthetical 
 reactions with acid and basic groups and with salts ; in all of 
 which the reacting molecule is maintained at or near its 
 maximum weight (magnitude). We have mentioned incident- 
 ally, on the other hand, that the cellulose molecule, in the sense 
 of the reacting unit, is a variable quantity ; and that, while 
 under certain conditions the tendencies are towards aggregation 
 (thiocarbonate reaction), under others the tendency is towards a 
 progressive disintegration. This is notably the case in the reac- 
 tion with sulphuric acid just described, in which there is a per- 
 fectly graduated transition from the complex colloid molecule 
 to the simple dextrose unit, a crystallisable solid of low molecular 
 weight. These considerations lead up to the study of the 
 
 Decompositions of cellulose, which we shall find group 
 themselves under the headings 
 
 (a) Decompositions determined by the non-oxidising acids 
 the changes resulting from addition or subtraction of H 2 O. 
 
 (b) Decomposition by oxidants, with attendant or second- 
 ary effects of hydrolysis and condensation. 
 
 (c) Decompositions by ferments ; (d) by heat. 
 
 None of these decompositions of cellulose are of a simple 
 character. Any aggregate change of composition can, of course, 
 always be determined ; as, however, we have no knowledge of 
 the molecular magnitude and configuration, either of the parent 
 molecule or of its derivatives i.e. such as preserve the general 
 characteristics of the celluloses we are limited to the statistical 
 study of these reactions, together with general inferences based 
 upon their particular character. 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 53 
 
 (a) NON-OXIDISING ACIDS. (i) Sulphuric acid, of 1*5-1*6 
 sp.gr. (H 2 SO 4 .3H 2 O), produces the effects previously de- 
 scribed, but in such a way as to be controlled within the 
 earlier stages of molecular resolution. Unsized paper plunged 
 into the cold acid, diluted to the above formula, is rapidly 
 attacked, the paper becoming transparent owing to the swell- 
 ing and gelatinisation of the fibres. The reaction quickly 
 becomes one of solution ; but if the paper be transferred, 
 after short exposure, to water, the acid compound is at once 
 decomposed and the resulting gelatinous hydrate of cellulose 
 precipitated in situ. The product, after exhaustive washing 
 and drying, is obtained as parchment paper. This modification 
 of cellulose gives a tough translucent sheet, necessarily very 
 much less absorbent than the original. 1 
 
 The compound itself, from its resemblance to starch, 
 has been termed amyloid. It is represented by the formula 
 (C 12 H 22 O 1 i)> the semi - hydrate of (C 6 H 10 O 5 ). Like 
 starch, the compound is coloured blue by iodine, and the joint 
 action of iodine and sulphuric acid is frequently used in dia- 
 gnosing cellulose. As a further result of the reaction, the 
 product differs from cellulose, in containing active CO groups ; 
 it reacts with phenyl hydrazine salts, and is oxidised by CuO in 
 alkaline solution. 
 
 Effects of a similar character are produced by treating 
 cellulose with concentrated solutions of phosphoric acid and 
 zinc chloride. 
 
 (2) Nitric acid, of 1*4 sp.gr., also produces (without oxi- 
 dation) an effect of a similar character. A short immersion 
 of unsized paper e.g. filter paper in the acid, followed by 
 copious washing, has a considerable toughening action, due to 
 superficial conversion of the fibres into a gelatinous hydrate. 
 
 1 See Guignet on ' Soluble and Insoluble Colloidal Cellulose, and Com- 
 position of Parchment Paper,' Compt. Rend. 108, 1258. 
 
54 Cellulose 
 
 These changes are marked by a shrinkage in linear dimen- 
 sions of about T Vth : the tensile strength of the paper thus 
 treated is about ten times that of the original. (J. Chem. Soc. 
 47, 183.) 
 
 (3) Hydrochloric add> both in the form of gas and con- 
 centrated aqueous solution, rapidly disintegrates cellulose 
 tissues. The product, obtained from cotton, after washing and 
 drying, is a white powder which under the microscope is seen 
 to consist of angular fragments of the original fibres. It has 
 been termed hydrocellulose by Girard, who first described this 
 product, and hydracellulose (Witz), the latter term being, per- 
 haps, preferable. According to Girard, the product may be 
 represented as w(C 12 H 2 2O 11 ) as having, i.e. the same em- 
 pirical composition as the above-described amyloid. From 
 cellulose it also differs similarly to the latter, in the presence of 
 free CO groups and the greater reactivity of its OH groups. 
 Thus it reacts with acetic anhydride at its boiling point ; the 
 acetylation, however, does not proceed very far. 
 
 The product is dissolved by nitric acid (1-5 sp.gr.) without 
 oxidation, and from the solution a series of nitrates are obtained: 
 (i) the lowest nitrates, by spontaneous evaporation of the solu- 
 tion in their fibres \ (2) higher nitrates, by precipitation with 
 water ; and (3) the highest nitrates, by precipitation with sul- 
 phuric acid. 
 
 From these properties it may be concluded that, in general 
 molecular configuration, these derivatives are similar to cellulose, 
 but are so modified that the typical reactions take place under 
 much less extreme conditions. 
 
 The action of this acid we should expect to be one of 
 dehydration ; and, although the final product has the composition 
 of a hydrate, there is every reason to regard the hydration as 
 a secondary result, following the molecular rearrangement 
 caused by the initial dehydration. 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 55 
 
 Although, therefore, the products resulting from the action 
 of hydrochloric and sulphuric acids (1*55 sp.gr.) are identical 
 in empirical composition, they are the very opposite in physical 
 characteristics, and the actions of these acids certainly take 
 very different courses. 
 
 It should be noted that the action of sulphuric acid at 
 greater dilution (1-3 sp.gr.) approximates closely to that of 
 hydrochloric acid, the product being a disintegrated and 
 friable mass of the hydracellulose. 
 
 The non-oxidising acids generally produce similar results, the 
 degree of action being proportionate to their hydrolytic activity. 
 
 A curious practical application of these processes of disin- 
 tegrating cellulosic tissues may be noted in evidence of the 
 fundamental chemical distinction of the vegetable (cellulose) fibres 
 from those of animal origin (silk and wool). The latter are very 
 resistant to the action of acids. From a wool-cotton fabric, there- 
 fore, the cotton is easily separated by soaking the fabric in dilute 
 sulphuric acid, and, after removing the excess of acid, drying down 
 on a hot floor. The disintegrated cellulose is then completely 
 removed by dusting out, leaving the wool unaffected. A similar 
 result is obtained with hydrochloric acid ; or by treatment with 
 certain chlorides which are dissociated, on heating, into hydrochloric 
 acid and basic oxide e.g. aluminium chloride or chlorhydrate. 
 
 On the other hand, the animal fibre-substances are extremely 
 sensitive to the action of alkalis, to which, as we have seen, the 
 celluloses are very resistant. The student should compare the 
 constitution of the substances in question, so far as they have been 
 elucidated, with that of cellulose, and for that purpose should read 
 Bed. Ber. 1886, 850 ; J. Soc. Chem. Ind. 12, 426. 
 
 This activity being conspicuously feeble in the case of acetic 
 acid, this acid has but little action upon cellulose, and therefore 
 finds extensive use in the printing of cotton and linen fabrics. 
 
 Solutions of the mineral acids are extensively used in the 
 'souring' operations of the bleacher and dyer. They are 
 usually employed cold, and the operation of souring is always 
 
56 Cellulose 
 
 followed by copious washing. Failure to remove the acid, 
 even the last traces, results in disintegration or ' tendering ' of 
 the fabric on drying. 
 
 (b} Decompositions of Cellulose by Oxidants. It 
 has been already pointed out that cellulose is comparatively 
 resistant to the action of oxidants ; that most of the processes 
 for isolating or purifying (bleaching) cellulose depend, per 
 contra^ upon the use of oxidising agents, which readily attack 
 the 'impurities' with which it is combined or mixed in raw 
 fibrous materials. The cellulose resists the action of these 
 oxidising agents, and, further, withstands in a high degree the 
 action of atmospheric oxygen. It is this general inertness of 
 the compound which marks it out for the unique part which it 
 plays in the vegetable world and in the arts. 
 
 It must be again noted that this high degree of resistance to 
 hydrolysis (alkaline) and oxidation belongs only to cotton cellulose 
 and to the group of which it is the type, and which includes the 
 celluloses of flax, rhea, and hemp. A large number of celluloses, 
 on the other hand, are distinguished by considerable reactivity, 
 due to the presence of * free ' CO groups, and are therefore more 
 or less easily hydrolysed and oxidised. The ' celluloses ' of the 
 cereal straws and esparto grass are of this type, and hence the 
 relative inferiority of papers into the composition of which they 
 enter. (J. Chem. Soc. 1894,472.) 
 
 On the other hand, we have now to study those processes 
 of oxidation to which it yields more or less readily. 
 
 A. OXIDATION IN ACID SOLUTIONS. (i) Nitric acid 
 (i*i-i*3 sp.gr.) attacks cellulose at 80-100, at first slowly, 
 then more rapidly, but tending to a limit at which the action 
 again becomes very slow. This limit corresponds with the 
 formation of a characteristic product of oxidation oxycellulose. 
 This substance, which is white and flocculent, when thrown 
 upon a filter and washed with water, combines with the latter to 
 form a gelatinous hydrate. It requires, therefore, to be rapidly 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 57 
 
 washed with dilute alcohol. It amounts to about 30 p.ct. of 
 the cellulose acted upon, the remainder being for the most 
 part completely oxidised to carbonic and oxalic acids. On 
 ultimate analysis it gives the following numbers: 
 
 C 43'4\ r TT 
 H tn J 6 6 * 
 
 It dissolves in a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids, and 
 on pouring into water, the nitrate C 18 H 2 3O,3(NO 3 )3 separates 
 as a white flocculent precipitate. From the low number of 
 OH groups reacting with the nitric acid, it may be concluded 
 that the compound is both a condensed as well as an oxidised 
 derivative of cellulose. This oxycellulose dissolves in dilute 
 solutions of the alkalis, and on heating the solutions they 
 develop a strong yellow colour. Warmed with concentrated 
 sulphuric acid it develops a pink colouration similar to that of 
 mucic acid. The compound exhibits generally a close re- 
 semblance to the pectic group of colloid carbohydrates. 
 
 The by-products of this oxidation are carbonic and oxalic acids, 
 together with the lower nitrogen oxides. The solution, examined 
 at any stage, appears to contain traces only of intermediate pro- 
 ducts of oxidation of the cellulose. The reaction is divisible into the 
 two stages: (i) the conversion of the cellulose into hydracellulose, 
 evidenced by its breaking down to a fine flocculent powder ; and 
 (2) the oxidation of the hydracellulose. 
 
 The oxycelluloses resulting from this process differ from those 
 formed by the action of CrO s (infra), in giving small yields only of 
 furfural (2-3 p.ct.) on boiling with HClAq (ro6 sp.gr.). It is also to 
 be noted that the carbon is higher than that of the oxycelluloses, 
 giving large yields of furfural (p. 84). These points suggest that, 
 side by side with oxidation, combination of the negative oxy-groups 
 with the more basic groups of unattacked molecules takes place, 
 giving derivatives of the nature of esters. And, indeed, the re- 
 action may be even more complicated. It is clear, from the com- 
 position of the nitrate, that the proportion of basic OH groups is 
 reduced to a minimum. 
 
53 Cellulose 
 
 The reaction requires further systematic research in the light of 
 our increased knowledge of the constitution of the simpler carbo- 
 hydrates and the simple products of their oxidation. 
 
 (2) Chromic arid, in dilute solutions, attacks cellulose with 
 extreme slowness ; in presence of mineral acids oxidation 
 proceeds more rapidly, but at ordinary temperatures is still 
 very slow. The action is, therefore, easily controlled within any 
 desired limit, the oxidation being in this case of course directly 
 proportionate to the amount of CrO 3 presented to the fibre. 
 The oxidation is accompanied by disintegration, and the 
 insoluble product is an oxidised cellulose, or oxycellulose, the 
 yield and composition of which bear a simple relation to the 
 amount of oxidation to which the cellulose is subjected. Its 
 properties are similar to those of the oxycellulose above 
 described. It dissolves in a diluted mixture of sulphuric and 
 hydrochloric acids (57 p.ct. H 2 SO 4 , 5*5 p.ct. HC1), and on 
 diluting and distilling with HC1 of 1*06 sp.gr., is decomposed 
 with formation of furfural, C 4 H 3 O.COH, the yield of this alde- 
 hyde being proportionate to the state of oxidation of the 
 product. 
 
 This is illustrated by the subjoined results of observations : 
 
 Weight of CrO 3 employed Yield of Yield of furfural 
 
 cellulose oxycellulose p. ct. of oxycellulose 
 
 47 1*5 93*o 4'i 
 
 47 3*o 8 7'0 6-3 
 
 47 4'5 82-3 8-2 
 (Berl. Ber. 26, 2520.) 
 
 The first effect of treatment with CrO 3 appears to be that of 
 simple combination ; reduction to the Cr 2 O 4 then ensues, and the 
 further deoxidation requires the presence of a hydrolysing acid. 
 
 From the statistics of the reaction it appears there is little ' de- 
 struction ' of the cellulose ; and, as the oxidation is not attended 
 by evolution of gas (CO.^), we may assume that the reaction 
 consists simply in oxidation with the fixation of water. A certain 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 59 
 
 proportion of the products are dissolved by the acid solution, and 
 of the insoluble residue (oxycellulose) a large proportion is easily 
 attacked and dissolved by alkaline solutions. The product is no 
 doubt, therefore, a mixture ; and, indeed, it would be hardly conceiv- 
 able that an aggregate like cellulose should be equally and simul - 
 taneously attacked. 
 
 The reaction is so perfectly under control that it must be 
 regarded as giving a regulated dissection of the molecule of cellu- 
 lose, and therefore is an especially attractive subject for exhaustive 
 investigation. 
 
 The carbohydrates of low molecular weight are similarly 
 oxidised by chromic acid, and the product of oxidation 
 similarly resolved with formation of furfural. 
 
 It is to be noted with cellulose, as with the carbohydrates 
 of low molecular weight, that by oxidation its equilibrium is 
 disturbed in such a way that carbon condensation is easily 
 determined. This fact is of physiological significance and will 
 be referred to subsequently. 
 
 (3) Of other acid oxidations which have not been particu- 
 larly investigated we may mention the action of Cl gas in 
 presence of water, of hypochlorous acid, and of the lower 
 oxides of nitrogen in presence of water. Generally the result of 
 these treatments is similar : the formation of insoluble products 
 having the properties of the oxycelluloses above described, and 
 soluble products which are oxidised derivatives of carbohydrates 
 of low molecular weight. These, however, are usually obtained 
 in relatively small quantity. 
 
 Atmospheric oxidation of cellulose if it could be proved to take 
 place would fall in this category, as cellulose surfaces undei 
 ordinary conditions of exposure would be found to be normally acid. 
 From the evidence we have of the condition of paper and textiles of 
 the flax group after centuries of exposure to ordinary atmospheric 
 influences, we may conclude that the oxidation of the normal cellu- 
 loses under these conditions is excessively slight. 
 
60 Cellulose 
 
 B. OXIDATIONS IN ALKALINE SOLUTION. (i) Hypo- 
 chlorites, in dilute solution ( < i p.ct.) and at ordinary tem- 
 peratures, have only a slight action upon cellulose ; a fact of 
 the highest technical importance, since hypochlorite of lime 
 (bleaching powder) is the cheapest of all soluble oxidising 
 compounds, and the most effective oxidant of the coloured 
 impurities which are present in the raw cellulose fibres or 
 formed as products of alkaline hydrolysis. 
 
 While the normal celluloses withstand these bleaching oxida- 
 tions, there are many celluloses widely differentiated from the 
 cotton type which are eminently oxidisable, and, at the same 
 time, susceptible of hydrolysis. The 'celluloses' of esparto and 
 straw are of this kind (see p. 84), and the economic bleaching of 
 paper pulps prepared from these raw materials can hardly be 
 expected to follow upon the same lines as that of 'rag' pulp 
 (cotton and linen). A study of the factors involved in the pro- 
 cess will be found in a paper entitled ' Some Considerations in the 
 Chemistry of Hypochlorite Bleaching' (J. Soc. Chem. Ind. 1890). 
 These factors are in addition to temperature and concentration 
 (CL,O) of the bleaching solution the nature of the base in union 
 with the hypochlorous acid, and its proportion to the acid. A 
 knowledge of the operation of these factors will enable the bleacher 
 to control a process which is usually carried out on an entirely 
 empirical basis. 
 
 The resistance of cellulose to the action of these solutions 
 necessarily has its limits, and when these are exceeded, the 
 fibre-substance is oxidised and disintegrated, and an oxy- 
 cellulose results. These effects are rapidly produced by the 
 joint action of hypochlorite solutions and carbonic acid. The 
 oxycellulose formed in this way acquiring the property of selec- 
 tive attraction for certain colouring matters notably the basic 
 coal tar dyes its presence in bleached cloth is easily detected 
 by a simple dyeing treatment consisting in immersing the 
 oxidised fabric in a dilute solution (0*5-2 'o p.ct.) of one of 
 these dye stuffs, e.g. methylene blue. Local over-oxidation 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 6 1 
 
 may be diagnosed in this way with certainty, and bleachers' 
 damages may be thus ascertained and often traced back to 
 the operating cause in the light of this ' oxycellulose ' test. 
 (J. Soc. Chem. Ind. 1884.) 
 
 The oxycellulose or disintegrated fibre resulting from this 
 process of oxidation differs but little in empirical composition 
 from cellulose itself, probably owing to the fact that the more 
 highly oxidised products are dissolved in the solution of the 
 oxidant, which is, of course, basic. Its reactions indicate 
 the presence of free CO groups, and it readily undergoes 
 further oxidation by atmospheric oxygen, the oxidation being 
 much accelerated by temperatures over 60. The OH groups 
 of this oxycellulose are also more reactive than those of the 
 original cellulose, acetylated derivatives being obtained by 
 boiling the product with acetic anhydride. 
 
 The facts in relation to the conversion of cotton cellulose into 
 oxycellulose by the action of bleaching powder were first made 
 known by George Witz in 1883 (Bull. Soc. Ind. Rouen, 10,416; 
 u, 169). 
 
 Since when a number of papers have been published dealing 
 with special aspects of the phenomena theoretical and practical. 
 Of these we may cite : Schmidt, Dingl. J. 250, 271 ; Franchimont, 
 Rec. Trav. Chim. 1883, 241 ; Nolting and Rosenstiehl, Bull 
 Rouen, 1883, 170, 239 ; Nastjukow, Bull. Mulhouse, 1892, 493. 
 
 It is probable on many grounds that the oxidised products 
 obtained from cellulose by the action of the hypochlorites in 
 the manner described are mixtures of one or more oxycelluloses 
 with residues of unoxidised cellulose. More recent investiga- 
 tion has led to the conclusion that the extreme product of 
 oxidation is an oxycellulose of the empirical formula C 6 H, O 6 , 
 which is freely soluble in dilute alkaline solutions in the cold ; 
 and that cellulose oxidised by hypochlorite solutions is a 
 variable mixture of this product, with hydracellulose, and un- 
 altered cellulose. (Xastjukow.) 
 
62 Cellulose 
 
 By drastic oxidation of cellulose by the oxy halogen com- 
 pounds i.e. by treatment with chlorine or bromine in presence 
 of alkaline hydrates the molecule is entirely broken down to 
 the simplest products. With bromine, i.e. hypobromite, some 
 quantity of bromoform is obtained ; carbon tetrabromide is 
 also easily obtained and identified. (Collie, J. Chem. Soc. 
 65, 262.) 
 
 (2) Permanganates. The permanganates in neutral solu- 
 tion attack cellulose but slowly, and they may therefore be 
 usefully employed as bleaching agents. In presence of alkalis 
 a more drastic oxidation is determined. The degree of oxida- 
 tion is, of course, dependent upon the conditions of treatment. 
 The following general account of a particular experiment and 
 its results will illustrate its main features. 
 
 2 2 "6 grms. cellulose, with 400 c.c. caustic soda solution ; 
 50 grms. KMnO 4 added in successive small portions ; tempera- 
 ture, 40-50. Proportion of cellulose to oxidising oxygen, 
 2C 6 H 10 O 5 : 7O. 
 
 The main products were : 
 
 (a) Oxycellulose . . . 10*5 grms., approximately 50 p.ct, 
 () Oxidised carbohydrates in 1 g- 
 
 solution . . ./ 3 ' S " " l6 " 
 
 (7) Oxalic acid ... 4*3 f n 2 >i 
 
 (5) Carbonic acid, water, and~l 
 traces of volatile acids . / 
 
 () The oxycellulose gelatinised on washing, and was 
 similar to the product obtained by the action of nitric acid. 
 
 (/3) The oxidised carbohydrate in solution resembled 
 'caramel' in appearance. The compound or mixture was 
 precipitated by basic lead acetate, and isolated by decomposing 
 the precipitate \vith hydrogen sulphide, filtering and evaporating. 
 On distillation from hydrochloric acid, furfural was obtained 
 in large proportion. 
 
 (3) Extreme action of alkaline hydratei. When fused at 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 63 
 
 200-300 with two to three times its weight of sodium or potas- 
 sium hydrates, cellulose is entirely resolved, the characteristic 
 products being hydrogen gas, and acetic (20-30 p.ct.) and 
 oxalic acids (30-50 p.ct.). Generally the reaction takes 
 the same course as with the simpler carbohydrates, resolution 
 of the cellulose into molecules of similar constitution no doubt 
 preceding the final resolution, which appears to be an 
 exothermic or explosive reaction. 
 
 Distinguished from the two groups of decomposition which 
 v:e have now considered viz. those determined (i) by hydro- 
 lytic agents, (2) by oxidising agents (under hydrolysing con- 
 ditions) are those of a more intrinsic character, determined 
 rather by the addition or withdrawal of energy, than by reaction 
 with outside molecules. 
 
 C. RESOLUTION BY FERMENT ACTIONS. This group of 
 decompositions of cellulose is necessarily a very wide one. In 
 the * natural ' world of living organisms, of course, no structures 
 are permanent ; and although cellulose distinguishes itself by 
 relative permanence and resistance to the disintegrating actions 
 of water and oxygen, the differentiation in this respect is only a 
 question of degree, and all cellulosic structures are subject to 
 the law or necessity of redistribution. 
 
 The directions of redistribution are chiefly three .viz. (i; In 
 the assimilating processes of the plant a cellulosic structure is 
 broken down, reabsorbed into the supply of plastic nutrient 
 material, and re-elaborated. 
 
 (2) Structures which have ceased to play a part in the 
 general organisation of the plant are cast off and then exposed 
 as ' dead ' matter to the play of the redistributing agencies of 
 the natural world. The processes of ' decay ' take various 
 forms according to the conditions to which they are exposed. 
 The humus of soils, peat, lignite, and all forms of coal present 
 various forms of the residual solid products of the decay of 
 
64 Cellulose 
 
 cellulosic structures, the remainder having been dissipated 
 and restored to the general fund of matter in circulation, in the 
 gaseous form viz. as CO 2 and CH 4 . 
 
 (3) In the processes of animal nutrition plants and vegetable 
 substances are, of course, most important factors. In the course 
 of animal digestion the vegetable substances are attacked by 
 the fluids of the alimentary tract and resolved into proximate 
 constituents fulfilling the requirements of the organs of assimi- 
 lation ; and in addition to these decompositions, which are 
 largely hydrolytic in character, more fundamental resolutions 
 are observed in which the carbohydrate molecules are com- 
 pletely broken down, i.e. with formation of gaseous products. 
 
 Processes of the first of these three groups are well known 
 to plant physiologists ; tissues of a cellulosic character are 
 specialised to serve as reserves of nutrient material, or reserve 
 material is stored up within a cellulosic cell wall which requires 
 to be broken down in order that the supply may be liberated. 
 In the seeds of the Gramineae, more especially the barleycorn, 
 this process of reabsorption of a cellulosic tissue has been care- 
 fully studied, and there is no doubt that the process of breaking 
 down the cellulose is due to the action of a special ferment a 
 cellulose-dissolving enzyme. It must be noted here that the 
 celluloses susceptible of this simple form of hydrolysis are ot 
 very different constitution from the typical cotton cellulose, 
 and the features of this differentiation will be discussed subse- 
 quently. Taking cellulose, however, as a general expression 
 for the colloid carbohydratas, we may regard them as having 
 the property of yielding to the hydrolytic activity of special 
 enzymes. 
 
 As the student is now considering ferment actions he may take, 
 in illustration of these general views, the alcoholic fermentation of 
 dextrose. The main products of this decomposition alcohol and 
 carbonic acid are so related that the decomposition may be ex- 
 plained as resulting from migration of oxygen in the one, and of 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 65 
 
 hydrogen in the other and opposite direction within the molecule : 
 a decomposition, therefore, of the electrolytic type. Nothing is 
 known of the intermediate stages of the resolution of the C G H, 2 O a 
 into 2 [C a H 5 OH + COJ ; the decomposition is rather of an ex- 
 plosive character, and we have so far no means of investigating its 
 mechanism. 
 
 The sugars are, of course, not * organised ' as such into cellular 
 tissue, but are built up into aggregates of specialised constitution. 
 The reabsorption of such aggregates into the general circulation 
 of nutrient material of the plant, as indicated under (i), is the re- 
 sult of proximate resolution of these aggregates. It must be borne 
 in mind here that changes of this order have been brought to 
 light by physiological and histological methods ; and with very 
 little regard to the chemistry of the changes or, indeed, the actual 
 composition of the tissue substance. Later investigations are 
 differentiating these tissue-substances altogether from the celluloses 
 of the cotton type, and in reading this section the student may be 
 reminded that in the classification of the celluloses (which 
 follows later, p. 85), it will be shown that so-called 'celluloses' 
 susceptible of hydrolytic degradation are of an inferior order of 
 molecular aggregation probably rather resembling that of the 
 starch- dextrin series. 
 
 We may note here more particularly an important paper by 
 Brown and Morris (J. Chem. Soc. 1890, 57, 458) upon the 
 * Germination of some of the Graminese.' It is generally known 
 that the cell wall of endosperm cells containing nutrient substances, to 
 be supplied to the embryo in its earliest stages of growth, are broken 
 down, as a preliminary to the appropriation of the cell contents. 
 The general mechanism of the process has been elucidated by 
 the above observers, even to the localisation of the cellulose- 
 dissolving enzyme (cyto-hydrolyst). This enzyme does not exist 
 in the resting seed but is formed in the process of germination. 
 From a cold water extract of an air-dried malt the enzyme is pre- 
 cipitated by alcohol. An extended investigation of its activity 
 showed that it rapidly disintegrates the parenchymatous tissue of 
 the potato, carrot, turnip, apple, beet, c. The elegant methods 
 of experiment pursued by the above authors are typical of chemico- 
 biological work, and should be thoroughly mastered by the 
 student. 
 
66 Cellulose 
 
 In the second group of resolutions, constituting ' decay,' 
 various micro-organisms play an important part. The extreme 
 resolution takes place according to the equation 
 C 6 H 10 5 + H 2 = 3 C0 2 + 3 CH 4 
 
 (Hoppe-Seyler, Ztschr. Biol. 10, 401). This decomposition 
 is determined by the amylobactermm, and may be taken as 
 typical. Pure * fermentations ' of cellulose have, however, 
 been but little investigated. 
 
 In the decay of plant structures we have to deal with a 
 complex of compounds and with celluloses of very various 
 character. Again, therefore, we can only treat of these 
 processes in their broad and general features. These are, in 
 the main, (i) complete resolution, of the kind described and 
 formulated above : (2) a tendency in the precisely opposite 
 direction, i.e. towards condensation of the carbon nuclei to 
 still more complicated forms, accompanied by the splitting off 
 of water. These processes are concurrent as they are in the 
 decompositions by heat, about to be described. As visible and 
 tangible results of this tendency to carbon accumulation we 
 have the vast aggregations of peat, lignite, and coal in all its 
 forms in the earth's crust, which are the residues of the flora 
 of a past geological age. In the coal measures, moreover, 
 there is abundance of gaseous carbon compounds also stored 
 tip. These being chiefly marsh gas and carbonic acid, the 
 process of coal formation, in its earlier stages, appears to have 
 been similar in all respects to those which we can observe 
 around us as attending the decay of vegetable matter in the 
 mass. 
 
 These decompositions are necessarily of a complex character, 
 and are, no doubt, largely dependent upon the presence of nitro- 
 genous substances. We may cite in illustration the disintegration 
 of leaf parenchyma in the well known process of * skeletonising.' 
 Leaves of the poplar, pear, &c. are covered with water and set aside 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 67 
 
 in a warm place (35-45). In the course of a week or so the paren- 
 chymatous tissue is so far broken down and gelatinised that it is 
 easily detached from the * skeleton tissue ' constituting the vena- 
 tion of the leaf. This is a cellulose, or rather lignocellulose (see 
 p. 92), of the more resistant type ; and the process affords a simple 
 means of differentiating the cellulose group in regard to resist- 
 ance to hydrolytic agencies. 
 
 The 'rot-steep' or retting of flax is another important illus- 
 tration. The separation of the bast fibres of the plant from the 
 cuticular tissues on the one side, and the woody stem on the other, 
 is greatly facilitated by the breaking down of the parenchymatous 
 tissue with which the bast cells are in contact ; it is this tissue 
 which rapidly * rots ' under the treatment, and the process is 
 another illustration of ' natural ' differentiation of cellulosic tissues. 
 
 The third group of decompositions involves the much 
 debated question of the ' fate ' of cellulosic tissues in their passage 
 through the alimentary canals of animals, or, to put it more 
 narrowly, the feeding or nutritive value of cellulose. We may 
 take it that the typical cotton cellulose would not be sensibly 
 affected by a passage through the most powerful processes of 
 animal digestion. There are, on the other hand, a number 
 of celluloses which would be, and undoubtedly are, readily 
 digested ; and the further consideration of this point may be 
 deferred until we have dealt with the specific differences 
 exhibited by the various members of the cellulose group, more 
 particularly in relation to acid and alkaline hydrolyses, under 
 which groups of decompositions the digestive processes may be 
 generally included. 
 
 Special mention may be made of the results of an investiga- 
 tion, by Horace Brown (J. Chem. Soc.), of the question of the 
 presence of a cellulose-dissolving enzyme in the digestive tract of 
 herbivora. After exhaustive inquiry the author establishes the 
 conclusion that the enzyme is secreted by the plants themselves, 
 and comes into activity under the favourable conditions provided 
 by the digestive organs and processes of the animai 
 
 F2 
 
63 Cellulose 
 
 D. DECOMPOSITION BY HEAT. DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLA- 
 TION. Destructive distillations of cellulosic raw materials con- 
 stitute an extremely important group of industrial processes ; and 
 if we include the coals in such a classification, the hydrocarbons 
 of coal tar must be regarded as products of a series of trans- 
 formations of cellulose, of which the final stages are determined 
 by destructive distillation. By the direct action of heat, 
 however, upon the celluloses proper, 'aromatic ' products 
 hydrocarbons and phenols are obtained in relatively small 
 quantity. The main products are (i) gases : carbonic 
 anhydride, carbonic oxide, and methane ; (2) liquids : water, 
 acetic acid and furfural, methyl alcohol, and small quantities of 
 hydrocarbons and phenols ; (3) solids : paraffins and aromatic 
 hydrocarbons in small quantity, and the residual charcoal. 
 
 The proportions of these products necessarily vary with all 
 the conditions of the distillation, chiefly (i) rapidity of heating 
 and (2) maximum temperature attained. Recent investigations, 
 in which these conditions were carefully regulated and the 
 products of distillation estimated, have led to more definite 
 results than those of previous date. It must be borne in mind 
 that the term Cellulose has been used in a somewhat loose way, 
 and by some writers or compilers of articles as synonymous 
 with the cellulosic raw materials generally. * The destructive 
 distillation of cellulose ' has in consequence been described as 
 including the woods. It is important now to differentiate 
 between the products obtained from the typical cotton cellulose 
 and compound celluloses, such as the woods. These differences 
 will be noted more particularly when treating of the latter 
 group. At this point we give the results obtained for (a) raw- 
 cotton, (b) bleached cotton (Ramsay and Chorley, J. Soc. 
 Chem. Ind. n, 872), and (c) cellulose (cotton) regenerated 
 from solution as thiocarbonate. 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 69 
 
 (a) () (c) 
 
 
 d) (2) (3) d) 
 
 (2) 
 
 <*) 
 
 (2) 
 
 Weight (grms.) . 
 
 45 60 50 67 
 
 45 
 
 54 
 
 50 
 
 Charcoal, p.ct. 
 
 33-33 30-00 33-00 34-33 
 
 34-44 
 
 36*0 
 
 42-0 
 
 Distillate ,, . . 
 
 5333 50-oo 46-00 43-32 
 
 51-11 
 
 43*0 
 
 44-0 
 
 Carbon dioxide, p.ct 
 
 . 6-66 9-53 ii-oo 5-22 
 
 7-77 
 
 10-0 
 
 7'4 
 
 Oiher gases (diff.) 
 
 6-68 10-47 10-00 17*13 
 
 6-68 
 
 n-o 
 
 6-6 
 
 
 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 
 
 loo-oo 
 
 loo-o 
 
 loo -o 
 
 
 Composition of Distillate. 
 
 
 
 
 P.ct. of cellulose 
 
 
 
 
 
 Acetic acid . . . 
 
 2-44 1-31 175 
 
 2'II 
 
 i -5 
 
 2-0 
 
 Methyl spirit . . 
 
 7-07 3-94 
 
 10-24 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tar 
 
 "~~ ^"33 12*00 9*7O 
 
 . _ ._.- 
 
 
 
 
 Gases. 
 
 
 
 
 
 C.c. C.c. C.c. 
 
 C.c. 
 
 Cc. 
 
 Cc. 
 
 Vol. per TOO grms. 1 
 excluding CO 2 I 
 
 1 4,900 4,500 7,000 
 
 2,240 
 
 2,200 
 
 8,000 
 
 
 Composition p.ct. 
 
 
 
 
 Carbon monoxide . 
 
 . 76-90 85-74 76-20 
 
 54'14 
 
 52-46 
 
 80-0 
 
 
 v66 2-80 v^4 
 
 8-50 
 
 4-7-2 
 
 4'O 
 
 Residual gas . . 
 
 J wv O JT" 
 
 . 19-44 11-46 20-46 
 
 ** J*-* 
 
 3736 
 
 T" / O 
 
 43 -n 
 
 *r 
 
 16-0 
 
 The decomposition by heat is accompanied, in the case of 
 two of the above products viz. the raw cotton (a), and the 
 cellulose regenerated from the thiocarbonate solution (c) by a 
 well-marked exothermic reaction. 
 
 The distillation being carried out in a glass flask heated in 
 an air bath, and the temperatures within the flask and in the 
 surrounding air space being carefully noted, it is observed that 
 at about 325 the former rises suddenly several degrees, and the 
 rise is accompanied by a rush of gases. The reaction is not 
 observed, however, in the case of the bleached cotton. 
 
 This exothermic resolution of the molecule we are not yet 
 in a position to interpret, though we may conclude that it is 
 the expression of some special constitutional feature. It is 
 attended with the formation of gaseous products, of which 
 the greater proportion are the oxides of carbon. It will be 
 
7O Cellulose 
 
 seen that, although the proportions of gaseous products vary 
 considerably, the ratio of CO 2 to CO shows a general con- 
 cordance, and is approximately that of their molecular weights. 
 There is, therefore, ground for supposing that the disruption of 
 the molecules is preceded by the accumulation of oxygen in 
 the one direction, and of hydrogen in the other direction, 
 within the molecule, reaching a maximum with the formation 
 
 of a group (^Q]>O, which is then split off explosively, and at 
 
 the same time resolved. The complementary phenomenon is 
 the further condensation of the residues to form the ' pseudo- 
 carbon,' or charcoal, in which the carbon is accumulated 
 relatively to the hydrogen and oxygen, and contains ap- 
 proximately two-thirds of the carbon of the original cellulose. 
 
 The constitution of the carbonaceous residues of the process 
 or charcoals is at present problematical. The subject his been 
 discussed by the authors, in a paper on the Pseudocarbons (Phil. 
 Mag. May 1882), a name suggested for the designation of this group 
 of compounds which may be taken to include the coal series. This 
 paper contains a general discussion of the composition of these 
 substances chiefly devoted to showing that they are not tfb be 
 regarded as containing * free ' carbon. They are, in fact, C.H.O 
 compounds, and yield derivatives with chlorine, nitric acid, and 
 sulphuric acid, similar to those obtained by Sestini from the bromic 
 or ulmic group of compounds. 
 
 Synthesis of Cellulose. With a large number of 
 carbon compounds it is possible to dissect them molecularly 
 in such a way that the component groups or residues may be 
 put together and the original molecule or compound recon- 
 stituted. This is the ordinary history of the synthesis of these 
 compounds, of which the modern science furnishes innumerable 
 instances. In the case of cellulose only one process has been 
 described which may be considered as a constitutional dissec- 
 tion, and that is, the breaking down of the molecule by sulphuric 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 71 
 
 acid. In the final result the process may be interpreted as a 
 simple hydrolysis into dextrose molecules that is, the acid plays 
 an intermediate part only, combining with the molecule by 
 simple synthesis, and interchanging with water molecules in 
 presence of excess of the latter. The intermediate terms of 
 the dissection process are not sufficiently under control to be 
 followed with that degree of precision which is possible in the 
 case of other complex carbohydrates, notably starch, which 
 are hydiolysed by relatively minute quantities of enzymes or 
 ' unorganised ferments.' Even if this were possible there appears 
 at present no prospect of building up the cellulose molecule by 
 reversal of the process, as our much more complete knowledge 
 of the starch molecule has brought with it no suggestion of a 
 constructive process following inversely the lines of its hydro- 
 lytic dissection. 
 
 It appears, therefore, on the experimental evidence tha 
 cellulose is built up of molecules of simple carbohydrates, but 
 in what manner there are none but hypothetical indications. 
 On the other hand, certain processes have been brought to 
 light which are undoubtedly direct syntheses of cellulose from 
 particular carbohydrates of low molecular weight. Of these two 
 may be cited as typical, one of which (a) is due to the action 
 of an unorganised ferment resembling diastase, the other (b) is 
 produced by a micro-organism. 
 
 (a) As a result of a change which is observed to be set up 
 ' spontaneously ' in beet juice, a white insoluble substance is 
 formed, and separated in lumps or clots ; this substance has all 
 the characteristics of cellulose. After separating this insoluble 
 cellulose the solution gives with alcohol a gelatinous precipitate 
 resembling the hydrates of cellulose previously described. 
 These results are independent of the so-called viscous or mucous 
 fermentations. That the process by which the cellulose is 
 formed has the essential features of a fermentation process, is 
 
72 Cellulose 
 
 seen from the fact that when the lumps or clots are transferred 
 to a solution of pure cane sugar, or beet molasses, a further 
 formation of the cellulose ensues. When the process proceeds 
 in neutral solution no carbonic anhydride is evolved ; but in 
 presence of acids this gas is evolved, and at the same time 
 acetic acid is formed in the solutions. 
 
 E. Durin, by whom these phenomena have been investigated, 
 (Compt. Rend. 82, 1078; 83, 128), regards the ferment as 
 allied to diastase, and states that fresh solutions of diastase itself 
 act on solutions of sugar to form the soluble cellulose, precipit- 
 able by alcohol. There is also some evidence that cellulose 
 may be formed from cane sugar in the plant by processes ot 
 this kind. It may be noted here that the general view current 
 amongst plant physiologists has been that ' starch is the material 
 from which plants elaborate their tissue substances or cellulose.' 
 The recent researches of Brown and Morris, however, have rather 
 discredited this view, their elaborate and ingenious experiments 
 going to show that cane sugar is probably the immediate 
 mother substance from which the plant cell builds up cellulose, 
 starch being rather a reserve form for what may be regarded as 
 the excessive energy of assimilation in sunlight, being in turn 
 hydrolysed as required to feed the more continuous process of 
 tissue formation. 
 
 (^) A. J. Brown has more recently made observations upon 
 * An Acetic Ferment which forms Cellulose ' (J. Chem. Soc. 
 49, 432). The 'vinegar plant' takes a membranous form, 
 which in microscopic examination is seen to be clearly differen- 
 tiated from the zooglcea form of the Bacterium Aceti. It is, in 
 fact, composed of bacterial rods of 2/j length contained in a 
 membranous envelope. This envelope has the properties and 
 composition of cellulose. 
 
 Pure cultures of the organism placed in solutions of levulose, 
 mannitol, and dextrose, reproduce the growth in question, com- 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 73 
 
 posed, i.e. of the bacteria enveloped in a * collecting medium ' 
 of cellulose. The proportion of cellulose formed, to the soluble 
 carbohydrate disappearing, is highest in the case of levulose. 
 
 It is remarkable that the cellulose formed, when hydrolysed 
 by sulphuric acid, gives a dextro-rotary sugar. The organism 
 also has the power of determining the oxidation of ethyl alcohol 
 to acetic acid, and of dextrose to gluconic acid. But its 
 characteristic property is that of the building up of cellulose 
 from the carbohydrates of lowest molecular weight, whence its 
 descriptive name Bacterium Xylinum. 
 
 The synthesis of cellulose is a problem involving the whole ques- 
 tion of * assimilation ' of ' organic ' substance by the plant. It has 
 been held generally by physiologists for a long time that starch 
 is the first visible product of assimilation in the plant cell. On this 
 subject the student should read Sachs's classic work on * Vegetable 
 Physiology,' the investigations of this observer having contributed 
 in a very important degree to the establishment of the above view. 
 A priori, perhaps, it appears somewhat singular that the plant 
 should invariably proceed by way of starch to the elaboration of its 
 permanent tissue. Recent researches of Horace Brown and G. H. 
 Morris (J. Chem. Soc. 1893, 604) throw doubt upon the con- 
 clusion from the experimental side. Again, we recommend to the 
 student a careful study of the work of these authors, not merely for 
 the results obtained and described, but for the excellent plan of the 
 investigations. We give a few of the main conclusions in which these 
 investigations issued. * It is perfectly true, as pointed out by 
 Sachs, that starch is the first -visible product of assimilation ; yet 
 there can be little doubt (as was, in fact, anticipated by Sachs him- 
 self) that between the inorganic substances entering into the first 
 chemical process of assimilation and the starch there is a whole 
 series of substances of the sugar class, and that it is from the last 
 members of this series that the chloroplasts, under normal con- 
 ditions, elaborate their starch. Both under the natural conditions 
 of assimilation and the artificial conditions of nutrition with sugar 
 solutions the chloroplasts form their included starch from ante- 
 cedent sugar.' 
 
 Observations on the secretion of diastase by the leaves of 
 
74 Cellulose 
 
 flowering plants, the variations of diastatic activity with the con- 
 ditions of assimilation, and the relations of diastase to the starch 
 and sugars (including maltose) present in the leaves lead to the 
 important conclusions which we give in the words of the original : 
 
 ' Looking at the results all round, they are, it seems to us, 
 decidedly opposed to the view that either dextrose or levulose is 
 the first sugar formed by assimilation, and point to the somewhat 
 unexpected conclusion that, at any rate in the leaves of Tropaeolum, 
 cane sugar is the first sugar to be assimilated by the assimilatory 
 processes. There seems every reason to believe that this cane 
 sugar . . . functions in the first place as a temporary reserve 
 material, and accumulates in the cell sap of the leaf-parenchyma 
 when the processes of assimilation are proceeding vigorously. 
 When the degree of concentration of the cane sugar in the cell 
 sap and protoplasm exceeds a certain amount, which probably 
 varies with the species of plant, starch commences to be elaborated 
 by the chloroplasts, this starch forming a somewhat more stable 
 and permanent reserve material than the cane sugar, a reserve to 
 be drawn upon when the more easily metabolised cane sugar 
 has been partially used up.' 
 
 From these authors' experiments it also appears that, in the 
 translocation of the sugar through the leaf stalk into the stem, it 
 takes the form of dextrose and levulose. The former, however, 
 being more quickly used up in the respiratory process, there is a 
 larger proportion of the latter passing over into the general 
 metabolic circulation. 
 
 The starch, on the other hand, migrates in the form of maltose, 
 and this appears to be, in a sense, a starvation phenomenon that is, 
 it is only put under contribution to the general supply of nutrient 
 material when, and in proportion as, the carbohydrates of lower 
 molecular weight are used up. 
 
 These researches obviously constitute an important advance 
 towards the elucidation of the elaborating functions of the plant 
 cell. What the actual first step may be in the building up of 
 tissue-substance, is still a matter of conjecture. The prominent 
 facts presented to us are, (i) that carbonic anhydride is decomposed 
 in the plant cell, the whole of the carbon being retained, and part 
 of the oxygen restored to the atmosphere ; (2) that this decomposi- 
 tion takes place under the influence of the protoplasmic contents 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 7$ 
 
 of the living cell ; but, although, therefore, nitrogen must be 
 regarded as essential to the process, the plant builds up non- 
 nitrogenous materials, both immediate and ultimate. (3) That the 
 source of energy which determines these constructive changes is 
 that of the sun's rays ; that portion of the solar radiation chiefly 
 concerned being included between the wave lengths T T$$TO 
 YDOTjTnr rnm., with a maximum effect corresponding to the yellow, 
 green of the spectrum. 
 
 Generally, it may be fairly assumed that the CO 2 of the atmo- 
 sphere is 'loosely' synthesised with protoplasmic products or chlo- 
 rophyll, 1 and so brought within the range of the specific molecular 
 activities, representing what we know in the aggregate as vitality. 
 
 Constitution of Cellulose. From the preceding general 
 account of the properties and reactions of the typical cotton 
 cellulose we might be expected to be able to deduce its consti- 
 tutional formula. We have, however, already pointed out that 
 no purely chemical synthesis of any compound similar to 
 cellulose has been attempted ; we are, therefore, without the 
 essential criterion of the correctness of any general formula 
 which might be proposed, if only as a condensed expression of 
 the relationship and functions of its constituent groups. 
 
 But although no such formula can be proposed having any 
 but a speculative and a tentative value, it will be a useful guide 
 to future investigation to sum up those reactions which throw a 
 direct light upon the function of the molecule as a whole, and 
 of its constituent groups. 
 
 (1) The resolution by sulphuric acid, and subsequent hydro- 
 lysis of the esters formed in the reaction, into simple carbo- 
 hydrate viz. dextrose molecules. Cellulose is, therefore, in this 
 sense an anhydro-aggregate of the aldose groups C 6 H 12 O 6 . 
 
 (2) Partial resolution under the action of hydrochloric acid, 
 attended by the setting free of CO groups. 
 
 In cellulose the carbonyl groups are ' suppressed ' ; that is, 
 
 1 This view is specifically formulated by E. Fischer, Berl. Ber. 1894., 
 3231. (Dec. 10). 
 
76 Cehulose 
 
 they either exist in combination as in the acetals or are 
 susceptible of an alternative form, the carbonyl becoming 
 hydroxyl oxygen. 
 
 (3) Complete proximate resolution, by ' fusion' with alkaline 
 hydrates, into hydrogen, carbonic, oxalic, and acetic acids. 
 The yield of the latter tending to a maximum of 30-35 p.ct. 
 indicates that the grouping CO CH 2 is an important element 
 in the constitution of the unit groups. 
 
 (4) Negative characteristics. These are (a) those which 
 characterise generally the saturated compounds in which 
 group cellulose must be classified, (b) Resistance to alkaline 
 hydrolysis, (c) Resistance to oxidising actions up to a certain 
 limit of intensity, (d) Resistance to acetylation : requiring 
 either very high temperature or the presence of an auxiliary 
 (ZnCl 2 ) for the determination of reactions of its OH groups 
 with the acid oxide. 
 
 (5) Synthetical reactions. Of these the more definite are 
 those which yield the esters, viz. nitrates, acetates, and ben- 
 zoates. The highest nitrate obtainable appears to be the tn- 
 nitrate (hexanitrate in the C J2 formula) ; the highest acetate the 
 tetracetate (C 6 formula). A higher degree of acetylation has 
 been obtained, but there is undoubted evidence that this results 
 from molecular resolution (hydrolysis). The conclusion to 
 be drawn from the relationship of these esters to the parent 
 molecule is that, of five O atoms in the formula C 6 Hi O 5 , four 
 react as OH oxygen with retention of the original configura- 
 tion of the molecule. 
 
 The thiocarbonate reaction further elucidates the functions 
 of the OH groups, and the resistance of the molecule to hydro- 
 lysis. It constitutes a further distinction of the celluloses from 
 starch, as a type of molecular configuration ; starch failing to 
 give any definite indications of this reaction, and, in contrast to 
 cellulose, being eminently susceptible of hydrolytic resolution. 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 77 
 
 To sum up these more prominent points in the evidence of 
 constitution, we are entitled to regard cellulose as conforming, in 
 regard to its ultimate constituent groups, to the general features 
 of the simpler carbohydrates of well-ascertained constitution, 
 but differentiated by a special molecular configuration resulting 
 in a suppression of activity of the constituent groups in certain 
 respects, but on the other hand conferring greater reactivity is 
 others. This molecular configuration involves primarily the 
 question of the mode of arrangement of the carbon with the 
 qualifying hydrogen atoms within the unit groups which, for 
 the reasons given, may be assumed to be of the dimensions of 
 C 6 ; and, secondly, the grouping of these into the aggregate 
 which may be regarded as constituting the true molecule of 
 cellulose. Next in importance are those modifications of con- 
 figuration which are bound up with the disposition of the C 
 atoms. 
 
 In regard to carbon configuration the evidences are rather 
 indirect than determinable by the actual properties of cellulose 
 itself. The choice obviously lies between a chain and cyclic 
 formula for the unit groups. The balance of evidence is in 
 favour of the latter and on the following grounds : (i) the 
 general differentiation of cellulose in regard to stability, which 
 points to a symmetrical formula, as distinguished from the normal 
 chain upon which the hexoses are represented ; (2) the for- 
 mation of a cellulose acetate of the composition C 6 H 6 O (OAc) 4 , 
 in which only 2n carbon valencies are taken up in ' outside ' 
 combination ; (3) the simple and manifold transitions of cellu- 
 lose in the plant world into keto R. hexene and benzene 
 derivatives. The process of lignification in the plant cell is 
 characterised by the formation of groups of the general form 
 
 (OH), (OH), 
 
78 Cellulose 
 
 which remain intimately associated with the cellulose, of the 
 cell or fibre in combination, as a compound cellulose, there- 
 fore (lignocellulose, see p. 137). These derived celluloses 
 exhibit a close general conformity with the parent type that 
 is, apart from, or in addition to, the special properties and 
 reactions due to the presence of the hexene ring, all the typical 
 characteristics of the cellulose proper. 
 
 Although, however, the hexene ring is thus shown to be 
 represented in compounds identified with the * organic ' func- 
 tions of the plant cell, this does not appear to be the case with 
 the fully { condensed ' benzene ring. Aromatic compounds are 
 foi med in profusion, it is true, in the general range of plant life, 
 but when they appear it is in the unorganised form, i.e. as 
 excreted products of metabolism. The same appears also to 
 hold for the terpene series. 
 
 It may also be noted here that the supplies of raw mate- 
 rials hydrocarbons &c. for the enormous modern industry in 
 ' aromatic ' products are derived from the products of coal 
 distillation, and therefore may be traced back to a cellulosic 
 origin. 
 
 The Cellulose Group. Thus far we have been dealing 
 mainly with one member of the very numerous class of plant 
 constituents comprehended in the term 'cellulose.' While the 
 properties and characteristics of cotton cellulose are in such- 
 wise representative that this substance may be regarded as 
 the typical cellulose, the differentiation of this, as of every 
 other group of tissue constituents, in conformity with func- 
 tional variation, necessarily covers a wide range of divergencies. 
 
 The celluloses of the plant world, so far as they have been 
 investigated from the point of view of chemical constitution, 
 group themselves as follows : 
 
 (a) Those of maximum resistance to hydrolytic action, and 
 containing no directly active CO groups. 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 79 
 
 (//) Those of lesser resistance to hydrolytic action, and con- 
 taining active CO groups. 
 
 (c] Those of low resistance to hydrolysis, i.e. more or less 
 soluble in alkaline solutions and easily resolved by acids, with 
 formation of carbohydrates of low molecular weight. 
 
 Group (a). In addition to the typical cotton cellulose 
 which, it is to be noted, is a seed-hair there may be included 
 in this group the following fibrous celluloses which constitute 
 the bast of exogenous flowering annuals : viz. the celluloses of 
 Flax (Linum usit), Hemp (Cannabis sativa), China Grass 
 (Rhea and Boehmeria species) ; and of the lesser known 
 Marsdenia tenacissima, Calotropis (gigantea), Sunn Hemp 
 (Crotalaria juncea). 
 
 As in the case of cotton, the celluloses of the fibres are con- 
 sidered in the form of the white (or bleached) and purified 
 residues resulting from the treatment of the raw materials by 
 processes of alkaline hydrolysis and oxidation more or less 
 severe in character. For the purification of the celluloses in 
 the laboratory the methods usually practised consist in (i) 
 alkaline hydrolysis, i.e. treatment with boiling solutions of 
 sodium hydrate, carbonate, or sulphite ; (2) exposure to bro- 
 mine water or chlorine gas ; or when oxidation alone is suffi- 
 cient for the removal of the ' impurities/ to solutions of the 
 hypochlorites or permanganates (in the latter case followed by 
 a treatment with sulphurous acid to remove the MnO 2 de- 
 posited on the fibre-substance) ; (3) repetition of (i) for the 
 removal of products rendered soluble by (2). 
 
 Special accounts of these raw fibrous materials are contained 
 in Spon's ' Encyclopaedia Industrial Arts'; 'Die Pflanzenfaser,' 
 Hugo Miiller (A. W. Hofmann's ' Bericht.' Braunschweig, 1877); 
 ' Report on Indian Fibres and Fibrous Substances,' Cross, Bevan, 
 and King (Spon, London, 1887) ; and 4 Chemische Technologic cL 
 Gespinnstfasern/ O. N. Witt (Braunschweig, 1888). 
 
8o Cellulose 
 
 It has been already pointed out that these celluloses occur in 
 admixture or combination with other substances, often grouped 
 together in the term non-cellulose ; cellulose and non-cellulose 
 being usually separated jointly from the plant, and constituting 
 the 'raw fibre.' The raw fibre is therefore usually a compound 
 cellulose, though in some cases a compound of a very weak order. 
 These points will be best illustrated by a careful study of com- 
 mercial flax. Flax is made up of the pure fibre, which is a 
 compound cellulose, with a certain admixture of the tissues with 
 which it is in contact in the stem. These adventitious components 
 are largely got rid of, first in the processes of breaking and scutching, 
 and afterwards in the further refining processes of hackling and 
 preparing, by which the spinner brings the fibre into the proper 
 condition for the twisting or spinning process proper. But the 
 yarn still retains residues of the cuticular cells and wood (sprit), 
 which then require to be broken down, or converted into cellulose, 
 by the chemical processes of bleaching. It is the former which 
 occasion the major difficulties of the linen bleacher. As a result of 
 the intimate association of the fibre with the >uticle of the stem, 
 flax, as finished for the market, contains an unusually large propor- 
 tion of oil-wax constituents, i.e. from 3-5 p.ct. of such bodies, soluble 
 in the special solvents. These may be separated by fraction- 
 ation into (a) ceryl alcohol and derivatives (esters), and (b) a mixture 
 of oily bodies of ketonic character. 
 
 For more detailed investigation of this group of flax constituents 
 see Hodges, Proc. R. 1. Acad. 3, 460 ; and Cross and Bevan, 
 J. Chem. Soc. 57, 196. 
 
 This oil-wax complex plays an important part in the ordinary 
 process of flax 'line' spinning, and the failure of many of the 
 artificial processes of 'retting' flax may be explained by the 
 deficiency of the resulting fibre in these constituents. In the 
 breaking down of the cuticular celluloses, whether in the retting 
 (rot-steep) or bleaching process, these waxes and oils are separated. 
 Their elimination from the cloth necessitates the very elaborate 
 treatment by which the ' Belfast Linen Bleach ' is obtained. 
 
 These constituents are adventitious impurities, the bast fibre 
 itself being a pectocellulose (see p. 214), easily resolved by alkaline 
 saponification into cellulose on the one hand, and soluble modifica- 
 tion of the pectic group on the other. Although, therefore, the 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 8 1 
 
 considerable loss of weight of flax cloth in bleaching (20-30 p.ct.) 
 falls mainly in the early alkaline treatment, the chief difficulties 
 are in the breaking down of the more resistant bodies derived 
 from the cuticle, including chlorophyll. 
 
 The celluloses of this group thus purified may be taken 
 as chemically identical with cotton cellulose, investigation 
 having so far failed to differentiate them. It must be noted, 
 however, that the several members of the group present dis- 
 tinct morphological characteristics, and differ also in such 
 external properties as lustre and 'feel.' These are in part 
 correlated with the differences in minute structure, but they are 
 no doubt in part differences of substance. So far, however, 
 we have no knowledge of the proximate constitution of these 
 substances, and can therefore say nothing as to the causes of 
 difference in this respect. 
 
 On the other hand, the essential identity of these cellu- 
 loses is established in regard to ultimate composition and in 
 reference to the following properties and reactions : 
 
 (1) Resistance to hydrolysis and oxidation, and other nega- 
 tive characteristics, indicating a low reactivity of the CO and 
 OH groups. 
 
 (2) Their relationships to the special solvents previously de- 
 scribed, including the thiocarbonate reaction. 
 
 (3) Formation of esters, nitrates, acetates, benzoates. 
 
 Of the above, it is sufficient in general laboratory practice 
 to examine cellulose in regard to ultimate composition, resist- 
 ance to alkaline hydrolysis, behaviour with solvents, and re- 
 actions with sulphuric acid (solution without blackening) and 
 nitrating mixture (H 2 SO 4 and HNO 3 ) ; the ' nitration ' pro- 
 ceeds without oxidation, and gives a higher yield of product, 
 160-180 p.ct. according to the condition. 
 
 Group (b). These celluloses are differentiated from the 
 former group (i) by ultimate composition, the proportion of 
 
 G 
 
82 Cellulose 
 
 oxygen being higher ; (2) by the presence of active CO groups ; 
 (3) in certain cases by the presence of the O.CH 3 group. 
 
 The general characteristics of the group are those of the 
 oxycelluloses. It has recently been shown that these oxidised 
 derivatives of the normal celluloses are further characterised 
 by yielding furfural as a product of acid (HC1) hydrolysis. 
 The yield of this aldehyde is, in certain cases, increased by 
 previous treatment of the oxycellulose with a reagent prepared 
 by saturating sulphuric acid of 1-55 sp.gr. with HC1 gas. In 
 this reagent the oxycelluloses dissolve ; and on then diluting 
 with HC1 of ro6 sp.gr. and distilling, maximum yields of 
 furfural are obtained, the yield being a measure of the increased 
 proportion of oxygen beyond that corresponding with the 
 formula C C H 10 O 5 . 
 
 Celluloses of this class are much more widely distributed in the 
 plant world than those of the cotton type ; they appear, from recent 
 observations, to constitute the main mass of the fundamental tissue 
 of flowering plants, in which they usually exist in intimate mixture 
 or combination with other groups more or less allied in general 
 characteristics. It appears, from a survey of the contributions ot 
 investigators to the subject of cellulose, that research has been very 
 much confined to the fibrous celluloses, more particularly to such 
 as receive extended industrial use. The time has come, however, 
 when systematic research is much needed to establish at least 
 a preliminary classification of the ' cellular ' celluloses upon the 
 lines of chemical constitution. Constitution, taken in relation to 
 physiological function, is an attractive subject of research ; and it is 
 in the plant cell, where synthetical opeiations are predominant, that 
 we have to look for tlie foundations of the * new chemistry,' which 
 may be expressed broadly as the relation of matter to life. 
 
 It is to be noted that the differentiation of many of these celluloses 
 from the typical cotton is, in regard to empirical composition, only 
 slight. There appear, on the other hand, to be more important 
 differences of constitution. Thus pine-wood cellulose dissolved in 
 sulphuric acid, the solution diluted and boiled, and further treated 
 by the isolation of crystallisable carbohydrates, yields these (i.e. 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 83 
 
 dextrose) in only small proportions. (Lindsey and Tollens, Lieb. 
 Ann. 267, 370.) 
 
 Investigation has stopped short at this negative result. It would 
 be of interest, therefore, to isolate the products formed in the re- 
 action with the concentrated sulphuric acid, so as to characterise 
 them, at least generally. Until this is done, or some other method 
 proximate resolution is worked out in detail, we can only say that 
 the constitution of these celluloses is in some important feature 
 radically different from that of the typical cellulose. 
 
 An account of recent investigations of these 'celluloses' will 
 be found in Berl. Ber. 1893, and a more special treatment of 
 the subject, ibid. 1894, and J. Chem. Soc. 1894 (C. Smith). 
 
 Of this group of the natural oxycelluloses the following 
 have been more particularly investigated : 
 
 (i) Celluloses from woods and hgnified tissues generally. 
 Lignified tissues are made up of compound celluloses, to be 
 subsequently described (see Lignocelluloses, p. 91), from which 
 the celluloses may be isolated by a number of treatments, all 
 depending upon the relative reactivity of the so-called ' non- 
 cellulose ' constituents, which in combination with the celluloses 
 make up the compound cellulose, lignocellulose or wood sub- 
 stance. These non-cellulose constituents are readily attacked 
 and converted into soluble derivatives ; and there are various 
 industrial processes for preparing celluloses (paper pulp) from 
 raw materials of this class, depending upon the direct conversion 
 of the former into such soluble compounds. The isolated 
 celluloses show the following general characteristics (Berl. 
 Ber. 27, 1061) : 
 
 Elementary composition ! . 42 '*~_ 43 ' S P ' Ct Yield of fur- 
 fural^ by solution and hydrolysis (HC1), 2-6 p.ct. Reactions 
 with phenylhydrazine salts and magenta-sulphurous acid, indi- 
 cating the presence of active CO groups. These celluloses 
 are necessarily less resistant to oxidation and hydrolysis, but 
 
84 Cellulose 
 
 show in all other respects a close general agreement with the 
 normal cotton cellulose. 
 
 (2) Celluloses from cereal straws, from esparto, &*c. These 
 celluloses are isolated from the matured stem, or haulm, by 
 digestion with alkaline lye at elevated temperatures. They are 
 also of considerable industrial importance, being largely used 
 in the manufacture of the cheaper kinds of writing and printing 
 papers. 
 
 Recent investigation has shown that these celluloses are 
 strongly differentiated from the normal, and are in fact pro- 
 nounced oxycelluloses. The following are the characteristics 
 of difference : 
 
 Ultimate composition, after treatment with hydrofluoric 
 acid to remove siliceous ash constituents : 
 
 Oat straw cellulose Esparto cellulose 
 
 (I) (2) (0 (2) 
 
 C . . . 42-4 42-4 4178 41-02 
 H . . .5'8 5-8 5-42 5-82 
 
 Yield of furfural by solution and hydrolysis (HC1) : 
 
 Oat straw cellulose Esparto cellulose 
 
 I2'5 I2'2 
 
 Reactions. In addition to those with Fehling's solution, 
 phenylhydrazine salts, and magenta-sulphurous acid indicating 
 the presence of active CO groups, the celluloses give a 
 characteristic rose-red colouration on boiling with solutions ot 
 aniline salts. This reaction serves to identify their presence 
 in papers, and from the depth of the colouration, the percentage 
 may be approximately estimated. 
 
 Investigation has also established the following points in 
 regard to the oxidation and deoxidation of these oxycelluloses. 
 
 They are gradually oxidised in dry air at the temperature 
 of the water-oven, undergoing discolouration ; the yield of fur- 
 fural, by hydrolysis, showing a progressive increase. They are 
 deoxidised, on the other hand, by neutral and alkaline reducing 
 
The Typicat, Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 85 
 
 agents. Thus after lengthened exposure to solutions of zinc- 
 sodium hyposulphite, prepared by the action of zinc dust upon 
 sodium bisulphite, the yield of furfural which is a measure of 
 the degree of oxidation was reduced, in the case of esparto 
 cellulose, from 12*6 to 8-9 p.ct. 
 
 A still further deoxidation results from solution of these oxy- 
 celluloses as thiocarbonate, and regeneration of the cellulose 
 by heating the solution at 80-100. The regenerated cellulose 
 approximates to the normal, yielding only 2 p.ct. furfural 
 on hydrolysis. It is to be noted, however, that esparto cellu- 
 lose, in common with all the celluloses of this group, is partly 
 hydrolysed to soluble derivatives by this treatment ; the re- 
 generated cellulose amounting to 80 p.ct. of the original weight 
 dissolved. The soluble portions yield furfural on hydrolysis, 
 amounting (in a typical experiment) to 4*0 p.ct. of the original. 
 
 The celluloses of this group are dissolved by concentrated 
 sulphuric acid to dark coloured solutions. On diluting and 
 boiling they are resolved into carbohydrates of low molecular 
 weight ; dextrose appears to be invariably formed, and in many 
 cases also mannose ; but only very small yields of either 
 carbohydrate have been so far obtained. 
 
 Group (c). This includes the heterogeneous class of non- 
 fibrous celluloses which we have defined as of low resistance 
 10 hydrolysis, being easily resolved by boiling with dilute acids, 
 and being also more or less soluble in dilute alkaline solutions. 
 This group has been but little studied, and therefore can only 
 be generally characterised. Physiological research has shown 
 that there are a large number of cellular, as distinguished from 
 fibrous * celluloses,' which are readily broken down (hydrolysed) 
 by the action of enzymes within the plant itself, whether as a 
 normal or abnormal incident of growth. Thus in the germina- 
 tion of starchy seeds, the cell walls (cellulose) of the starch-con- 
 taining cells are broken down, as a preliminary to the attack 
 
86 Cellulose 
 
 upon the starch granules themselves, to form the supply of nu- 
 trition to the embryo. In an exhaustive investigation of the 
 germination of the barley, Brown and Morris have thrown a 
 good deal of light upon this particular point, which they empha- 
 sise in the following words : * that the dissolution of the cell 
 wall invariably precedes that of the cell contents during the 
 breaking down of the endosperm is a fact of the highest physio- 
 logical importance, and one which for the most part has been 
 strangely overlooked.' 
 
 A similar, but abnormal, dissolution of cell walls is that 
 which occurs in the attacks of parasitic organisms upon the 
 tissues which they invade. 
 
 These processes are well known to physiologists, who, how- 
 ever, generally regard ' cell-wall ' and ' cellulose ' as substan- 
 tially identical terms. The chemical differentiation of the sub- 
 stances comprising cell walls is, on the other hand, an 
 entirely new field of research ; but although investigation 
 has not gone very far, the results are sufficient to show that 
 the celluloses of this order are enormously diversified. The 
 variations already disclosed are (i) those of the carbohydrates 
 yielded by ultimate hydrolysis, and (2) those of molecular con- 
 figuration or condensation. We have already seen that the 
 celluloses of the cotton group (a) yield dextrose as the ultimate 
 product of hydrolysis ; those of group (b) yield, in addition to 
 dextrose, mannose and probably other bodies ; and the group 
 we are at present discussing yield, in addition, galactose, and 
 the pentoses xylose and arabinose. In illustration we may cite 
 a few examples. Thus GALACTOSE has been obtained as a pro- 
 duct of hydrolysis of the cell walls of the seeds of Lupinus 
 luteus, Soja hispida, Coffea arabica, Pisum sativum, Cocos 
 nucifera, Phcenix dactylifera, &c. MANNOSE is obtained in 
 relatively large quantity from the * ivory nut,' and from a very 
 large number of other seeds ; and PENTOSES, from the seeds 
 
The Typical Cellulose and the Cellulose Group 87 
 
 of the cereals and of leguminous plants. It appears, therefore, 
 generally that a large number of plant constituents which have 
 been denominated by the physiologists as * Cellulose ' have 
 little more title to be considered as such than has starch. 
 However, external resemblances count for something, at least in 
 the beginnings of classification, and substances of the type we 
 are considering may be conveniently grouped with the cellu- 
 loses ; but we should propose to apply to them the term 
 PSEUDO-CELLULOSES, or HEMICELLULOSES as has been pro- 
 posed by E. Schulze. Our group (c) of pseudo-celluloses may 
 therefore be defined as Substances closely resembling in 
 appearance the true celluloses, but easily resolved into simple 
 carbohydrates by the hydrolytic action of enzymes, or of the 
 dilute acids and alkalis. 
 
 Animal Celluloses. Tunirin a compound of the em- 
 pirical composition of cotton cellulose, and resembling it in a 
 number of its properties and reactions is isolated from the 
 mantle of Ascidia and other invertebrate species by exhaustive 
 hydrolytic treatments. Such resistant residues have been in- 
 vestigated by Schmidt (Annalen, 54, 318), Berthelot (Compt. 
 Rend. 47, 227), Lowig and Kolliker (J. Pr. Chem. 39, 439), 
 Schafer (Annalen, 160, 312), and more recently by Franchimont 
 (Compt. Rend. 89, 755). From these later investigations it 
 appears that the sugar obtained as the product of ultimate hydro- 
 lysis is identical with the dextrose obtained from the vegetable 
 celluloses. From this and its reactions generally, which differ in 
 some respects from those of the normal cellulose, Franchimont 
 concludes that the compound is undoubtedly a cellulose, but 
 cf different constitution from the normal. Cellulose has also 
 been identified as a constituent of the protozoa. Investigations 
 of one of these organisms Ophrydium versatile -by Halli- 
 burton showed the investing matrix of a colony of these ciliated 
 
88 Cellulose 
 
 protozoa to consist in the main of a cellulose similar to that of 
 the Tunicata (Q. J. Micr. Soc. 1885, 445). 
 
 These scattered observations indicate that the special 
 constitutional type or configuration of the celluloses is not con- 
 fined to those of vegetable origin. There is, of course, no reason 
 in the nature of things that the distribution of the type should 
 be limited to the plant world. It is quite possible, in fact, that 
 the animal fibres, and more generally the colloids of the animal 
 skeleton, may prove to be of similar carbon configuration to 
 that of the celluloses. A systematic investigation of such a 
 possibility has, so far as we know, not been attempted. Sugges- 
 tions have been made in, it is true, rather a wild way that the 
 silkworm is engaged in converting the cellulose of the mulberry 
 leaf into silk. It is impossible to say, a priori, how far the 
 digestive processes in an organism of this order may be destruc- 
 tive in character, but an exhaustive physiological investigation 
 would throw light on the point. It is clear, of course, that the 
 animal organism is not constructive in the same sense as the 
 plant cell, and it is an interesting subject for speculation and 
 experimental inquiry how far the vegetable products constituting 
 the food of animals are broken down by the digestive process ; 
 or, in other words, how far they may preserve their constitutional 
 features in being synthesised to * animal ' products. 
 
PART II 
 COMPOUND CELLULOSES 
 
 IN dealing with the isolated celluloses it has been shown that 
 the processes by which they are isolated or purified are based 
 upon the relative reactivity of the compounds with which the 
 celluloses are combined or mixed, in the raw or natural 
 products of plant life. These natural forms of cellulose are, of 
 course, multitudinous. Remembering the infinite variety of 
 the vegetable world, the endless differentiation of form and 
 substance of the tissues of plants, it might be presumed that 
 the chemical classification of these products would present 
 unusual complications. 
 
 Investigation, however, has shown, and continues to show, 
 that this great diversity of substance, as revealed by proximate 
 analysis, exists upon a relatively simple chemical basis. The 
 compounds constituting the fundamental tissue of plants may, 
 in fact, be broadly classified in correspondence with the three 
 main types of differentiation of the cell wall long recognised by 
 the physiologists, viz. lignification, suberisation, and conversion 
 into mucilage. That is to say, in addition to the celluloses 
 proper and hemi- or pseudo-celluloses which may be defined 
 as polyanhydrides of the normal carbohydrates, ketoses and 
 aldoses there are three main types of compound celluloses in 
 which the celluloses as thus defined exist in combination with 
 other groups, as follows : 
 
 Lignocelluloses. The substance of lignified cells and 
 
9O Cellulose 
 
 fibres, notably the woods of which the characteristic non- 
 cellulose constituent is a R. hexene derivative. 
 
 Pectocelluloses and Mucocelluloses. Comprising a 
 wide range of tissue constituents of which the non-cellulose 
 constituents are colloidal forms of the carbohydrates, or closely 
 allied derivatives, easily converted by hydrolytic treatments into 
 soluble derivatives of lower molecular weight, and belonging 
 to the series of ' pectic ' compounds, or hexoses, &c. 
 
 Adipocelluloses and Cutocelluloses. The substance 
 of cuticular and suberised tissues in which the cellulose is 
 associated with fatty and waxy bodies of high molecular weight. 
 
 To deal with these groups in detail would involve a survey 
 of the entire vegetable kingdom ; of which, on the other hand, 
 but a very small section has been subjected to systematic 
 investigation. It is true, of course, that an immense number 
 of proximate analyses of vegetable products have been put 
 upon record ; but the analytical methods adopted have been of 
 the empirical order, and their results, stated under such terms 
 as> ' crude fibre,' ' non-nitrogenous extractive matters/ cannot 
 be regarded as 'systematic' in the sense of constitutional 
 diagnosis. We shall therefore confine ourselves to an account 
 of typical members of the above groups, and such as have been 
 investigated by molecular, as opposed to statistical methods. 
 
 Fremy has devised (Compt. Rend. 83, 1136) a system ot 
 chemical differentiation and classification of vegetable tissue con- 
 stituents, which, although it has found but little favour, and is in 
 fact generally rejected by critical writers on this subject, may be 
 briefly noted here. 
 
 The classification embraces (a] celluloses, including para- 
 cellulose' and ' metacellulose ' in addition to the normal cellulose ; 
 (b} vasculose ; (c) cutose ; (if) pectose and pectic compounds ; and 
 (<?) nitrogenous bodies. 
 
 The celluloses (a) are differentiated by treatment with the 
 cuprammonium reagent: Cellulose' dissolves directly ;' para- 
 
Compound Celluloses 91 
 
 cellulose' (epidermis of leaves, &c.) dissolves after boiling- with 
 hydrolysing acids ; ' metacellulose ' (found chiefly in lichens) 
 remains insoluble after the acid treatment. 
 
 Vasculose is insoluble in cuprammonium ; it is readily dissolved 
 on heating at high temperatures with solutions of the alkalis. It is 
 attacked by all oxidising agents. It may be selectively attacked 
 by dilute nitric acid. Vasculose is said to abound in hard woods, 
 the hard concretions of pears, &c. It appears to be identical with 
 the lignocellulose of this treatise ; the non-solubility in cupram- 
 monium being' a statement of doubtful value. 
 
 Cutose is the substance of the transparent cuticular membrane 
 of leaves &c. It has been further studied by Fremy, and the 
 results of the later investigations are given in this treatise, p. 229. 
 
 Pectose and pectic constituents. These have also been further 
 investigated by Fremy, and his results are noted in connection 
 with the pectocelluloses, p. 216. 
 
 In the main, therefore, the lines of this classification are 
 adopted in this treatise, but that is probably because, and in so 
 far as, they have a physiological basis. Chemically speaking, the 
 classification is of little value, since it rests chiefly upon the actions 
 of hydrolytic agents. Fremy' s experimental work, on the other 
 hand, is of a certain empirical value apart from the conclusions 
 drawn from the results ; but as it does not contribute to the 
 solution of constitutional problems it will not be reproduced here. 
 An exhaustive account of the researches will be found in Ann. 
 Agron. 9, 529. 
 
 Of the three groups of compound celluloses, the lignocellu- 
 loses stand first in order of importance. Not only are they by 
 far the most widely distributed, but they have a physiological 
 and a special chemical significance which mark them out as the 
 arena of some of the most interesting processes presented by the 
 many-sided synthetical activity of the plant cell. 
 
 Of the lignocelluloses there are two well-defined types : 
 (i) the bast fibre of the Corchorus species, known in commerce 
 as jute ; (2) the woods, i.e. the lignified tissues of perennial 
 stems. The former, being a simple tissue and an annual 
 growth, is a more promising subject for the investigation of the 
 
92 Cellulose 
 
 general chemistry of lignification than the woods, which are, of 
 course, complex structures and subject to continuous modifica- 
 tion with lapse of time and in adaptation to the varying neces- 
 sities of the plant. For this, amongst other reasons, the jute 
 fibre has been more thoroughly investigated than the woods. 
 The results of these investigations will therefore be reproduced 
 at some length. It will simplify the treatment of the subject 
 if we first give a brief account of the fibre-substance in theo- 
 retical terms ; afterwards the methods of investigation by which 
 the theoretical conclusions have been established will be given 
 in greater detail, and in strict sequence of the lines upon which 
 the celluloses proper have been described. 
 
 Lignocelluloses. (i) The Jute Fibre. The jute 
 fibre-substance differs strikingly in composition and re- 
 
 /- Tr- 
 actions from the celluloses. With its higher L_ ratio, viz. 
 
 CU6-47; H 6-1-5-8 therg are associated the characteristics 
 
 O 47*9-47*2 
 
 of an unsaturated compound i.e. it contains C=C groupings, 
 and these are localised in C 6 rings. These rings are, further, 
 of ketonic or quinonic character (containing a CO group), and 
 appear to be linked, by O, into complexes of the magnitude of 
 C, 8 . They combine readily with chlorine, in presence of water, 
 and the resulting quinone chlorides are bodies of definite 
 properties and reactions. 
 
 A second characteristic constituent of the fibre-substance 
 is a furfural -yielding complex, which appears to be an oxycellu- 
 lose derivative, a polyanhydride passing by hydration into an 
 oxycellulose of the ordinary type. 
 
 The third main constituent is the cellulose of the fibre, 
 which can only be isolated by chemical treatments selectively 
 attacking the ' non-cellulose ' in which the two previously de- 
 scribed constituents are comprised. The reagents available for 
 
Compound Celluloses 93 
 
 Ihe purpose are chiefly the halogens, the halogenated deriva- 
 tives of the non-cellulose being dissolved away by treatment 
 of the product with alkaline solutions. The cellulose thus iso- 
 lated is not homogeneous, but is made up of a more resistant 
 a- and a less resistant /3-cellulose more or less resistant, 
 i.e. to the action of oxidants and hydrolytic agents. By other 
 reactions, therefore, in which the oxidising or hydrolysing 
 conditions are more severe, the /3-cellulose is converted into 
 soluble derivatives. Such are, digestions with dilute nitric 
 acid ; with permanganates, in presence of alkali in excess ; 
 with solutions of the bisulphites at elevated temperatures. This 
 /3-cellulose is characterised by the presence of O.CH 3 groups. 
 The a-' cellulose ' is an oxycellulose. 
 
 There are other minor characteristics of the non-cellulose 
 portion of the fibre-substance which remain to be noticed. 
 These are (i) the presence of OCH 3 groups, in larger propor- 
 tion than in the /3-cellulose ; (2) the presence of a CH 2 .CO 
 residue, which is split off as acetic acid, under various hydrolytic 
 treatments of the fibre-substance, probably in union therefore, 
 as a side chain, with the R. hexene groups ; (3) the presence of 
 a body giving the characteristic reactions of the pentaglucoses. 
 The pentosans are, in fact, obtainable in small quantity as 
 products of alkaline hydrolysis of the fibre-substance ; and the 
 furfural-yielding constituent of the non-cellulose, already de- 
 scribed as a condensed oxycellulose derivative, might be assumed, 
 on this evidence, to possess the pentose configuration ; but the 
 evidence available so far is not such as to give a definite 
 solution of this point. 
 
 These are the main points of constitutional differentia- 
 tion of the lignocelluloses from the celluloses proper. It has 
 been largely the custom to describe the compound celluloses 
 of this class as mixtures of cellulose and non-cellulose, the 
 latter being described generally as 'encrusting matters,' or 
 
94 Cellulose 
 
 under the more special term lignin, in recognition of its, or 
 their, well-defined individuality. 
 
 This view will be found inconsistent with the results of the 
 systematic investigation of this particular fibre-substance, as 
 indeed of the Signified celluloses' generally. They are 
 found to be very uniform in composition ; the cellulose 
 and non-cellulose are in intimate combination, resisting severe 
 hydrolytic treatment ; and in a large number of reactions the 
 typical characteristics of the celluloses are preserved. Therefore 
 the substantive term Cellulose is used in describing them, with 
 the addition of the adjective or qualifying prefix. Where we 
 have to speak of the non-cellulose-x:omplex we shall use the 
 term lignone, indicating thereby its ketonic characteristics. 
 
 We may sum up these outlines of the constitutional 
 features of the jute fibre-substance in a general diagram : 
 
 L ignocellulose. 
 
 Cellulose Lignone (non-cellulose) 
 
 Cellulose a Cellulose J8 Furfural-yielding Keto R. hexenc 
 
 Containing Containing complex group 
 
 oxidised groups O.CH J groups and secondary constituents 
 
 O.CH 3 and CH,CO 
 groups residue 
 
 With this preliminary general survey in view, the experi- 
 mental treatment of the subject matter will be more readily 
 appreciated in its bearings upon the constitutional problem. 
 
 Methods of Quantitative Estimation of Constituent 
 Groups. The groups above described may be regarded as 
 the proximate constituents of the fibre-substances, and they 
 may be quantitatively estimated by particular methods of 
 proximate resolution, which must be described in some detail. 
 
 (i) CELLULOSE. Chlorination method. For the elimina- 
 tion of the non-cellulose, by conversion into soluble derivatives, 
 various methods are available. One method only gives maxi- 
 
Compound Celluloses 95 
 
 mum yields of cellulose, and for the reason that it is based 
 upon a well-defined reaction of the lignone group, admitting of 
 perfect control. This group, or rather its R. hexene constituent, 
 reacts with chlorine gas, in presence of water, to form a quinone 
 chloride, without, at the same time, affecting its union with the 
 furfural-yielding complex. On treating the chlorinated fibre 
 with sodium sulphite solution, the lignone chloride is dissolved, 
 and at the same time converted into a brilliant magenta 
 colouring matter. The undissolved residue (75-80 p.ct.) is 
 the cellulose of the fibre. The process is carried out as 
 follows : % 
 
 About 5 grms. of the fibre weighed after drying at 100 are 
 (a) boiled for 30 minutes with a dilute solution of sodium hydrate 
 (i p.ct. NaOH), which is kept at constant volume by addition of 
 water. The fibre is well washed on a cloth or wire gauze filter, 
 squeezed to remove excess of water, opened out, placed in a 
 beaker, into which (b) a slow stream of washed chlorine gas 
 is passed. Rapid reaction ensues, and the fibre changes in 
 colour, from brown to a bright golden yellow. To ensure 
 complete conversion of the lignone, it is necessary to leave the 
 fibre for some time (from 30-60 minutes) in the atmosphere 
 of Cl gas. (c) The chlorinated fibre is removed, washed once 
 or twice with water to remove hydrochloric acid, and placed 
 in a 2 p.ct. solution of sodium sulphite ; the solution is gradu- 
 ally raised to the boiling point, a small quantity of caustic soda 
 solution is added (0-2 p.ct. NaOH calculated on the solution), 
 and the boiling continued for 5 minutes, (d) The cellulose 
 is now thrown upon a cloth filter and washed with hot water. 
 It will be found to be almost pure, i.e. white ; but to remove 
 the last residues of the non-cellulose, it may be bleached by 
 immersion in a dilute solution of hypochlorite (0*1 p.ct. 
 NaOCl) for a few minutes, or treated with dilute permanganate 
 solution (0*1 p.ct. KMnO 4 ), It is well washed from these 
 
96 Cellulose 
 
 oxidising solutions, treated with sulphurous acid on the filter, 
 well washed with water, squeezed, dried and weighed. 
 
 The cellulose estimations by this method give what may be 
 considered the maximum yield ; other methods attack the 
 /3-cellulose more or less, giving products which are dissolved 
 and removed. These methods may be briefly noticed. 
 
 (2) Bromine water (Hugo Miiller). This halogen, and in 
 the form of aqueous solution, fails to saturate the R. 
 hexene groups in one operation ; hence the alternate treat- 
 ment with bromine water in the cold, and boiling alkaline 
 solution, requires to be once, twice, or even three times 
 repeated. The yield of cellulose is 2-5 p.ct. lower, and 
 the process is by comparison tedious. 
 
 The difference in yield is due to the attendant oxidation 
 and hydrolysis of the /3-cellulose. 
 
 The following experimental determinations bear upon this 
 point : 
 
 A specimen of jute gave the following percentages of cellulose 
 under various methods of treatment : 
 
 (1) 73-74 P- ct - Bromine water (cold) and boiling aqueous 
 ammonia alternately till pure. 
 
 (2) 74-76 p.ct. Chlorination at ordinary temperatures, fol- 
 lowed by alkaline hydrolysis. 
 
 (3) 80-9, 80-6, 79-9, 82 'o, 81*3, 84-5, in individual experiments in 
 which the treatments were varied as follows : (a) chlorination at 
 05 ; (b} followed by digestion in dilute sulphuious acid at 0-5 ; 
 (c) hydrolysis with sodium sulphite solution, at first cold, afterwards 
 raised to boiling. 
 
 From these results it appears that, by excluding oxidising con- 
 ditions and graduating the hydrolysis of the chlorinated derivative, 
 a considerable proportion is separated in the form of fibrous cellu- 
 lose ; this portion, under other conditions, is hydrolysed to soluble 
 derivatives. 
 
 (3) Nitric acid and potassium chlorate (Schulze). This 
 method consists in a prolonged digestion 10-14 days) of 
 
Compound Celluloses 97 
 
 the fibre-substance, at ordinary temperatures, with nitric 
 acid of i*io sp.gr., containing potassium chlorate (o*5-o*8 p.ct. 
 of the weight of the fibre) previously dissolved in the acid. 
 The lignone is attacked jointly by nitrogen and chlorine oxides, 
 and largely converted into derivatives, soluble in the acid 
 solution. The /3-cellulose is also considerably attacked 
 (oxidised), and the action extends to the more resistant (a) 
 cellulose. The residues of the lignone are dissolved away by 
 boiling the washed fibre with dilute ammonia. 
 
 The process has been largely used in investigations of the 
 lignpcelluloses ; but the results, both as to yield and composi- 
 tion of the ' cellulose, are, for obvious reasons, of subordinate 
 value. 
 
 (4) Dilute nitric acid at 50-80. By digesting the fibre- 
 substance with nitric acid (5-10 p.ct. HNO 3 ) at 60, the lignone 
 is entirely converted into soluble derivatives ; the /3-cellulose 
 is also hydrolysed and dissolved ; the residue of the treatment 
 being the more resistant ci-cellulose. The interaction of the 
 lignone and the acid is of use in elucidating the constitution of 
 the non-cellulose groups, and will be subsequently described 
 from this point of view. As a process of cellulose isolation, the 
 reaction is carried out as follows : 
 
 The weighed fibre is placed in a flask and covered with 
 three times its weight of 10 p.ct. HNO 3 . It is heated for 
 some hours at 60 until the fibre has changed to a pale lemon 
 yellow colour, the solution being of a bright yellow. After 
 washing away the acid by-products the residual cellulose is 
 boiled with a solution of sodium sulphite, which removes 
 the last traces of lignone derivatives. It may then be finally 
 washed on a cloth filter, squeezed, dried and weighed. The 
 yields of cellulose by this method are 63-65 p.ct. of the fibre. 
 
 (5) Sulphite and bisulphite processes. By digestion with 
 solutions of the sulphites of the alkalis, or of the bisulphites 
 
 H 
 
98 Cellulose 
 
 of the alkaline earths, at high temperatures, the lignone groups 
 are attacked and dissolved, as the result of a specific reaction, 
 which will be subsequently dealt with in its bearings upon 
 the constitution of the lignone molecule. 
 
 As a ' cellulose process,' the reaction may be carried out as 
 follows : 
 
 Neutral sulphite. The fibre is sealed up with five times its 
 weight of a 6 p.ct. solution of sodium sulphite (Na 2 SO 3 .7H 2 O). 
 
 Bisulphite of lime or magnesia. The fibre is sealed up 
 with five times its weight of the bisulphite solution containing 
 3 p.ct. total SO 2 . 
 
 The digestion is carried out at high temperatures either in 
 glass tubes or autoclaves of metal, according to the circum- 
 stances of the laboratory. In the latter case, iron vessels may 
 be used with the neutral sulphite, but to prevent reaction with 
 the metal, the solution should contain sodium carbonate ( the 
 weight of the sulphite). For the bisulphite treatment a lead- 
 lined digester is required. The maximum temperatures 
 necessary are 180 for the neutral sulphite, 160 for the bi- 
 sulphite process. 
 
 The temperature is raised gradually to the maximum, at 
 which it is maintained for 2-3 hours, the entire duration 
 of digestion necessary being from 6-8 hours. At the expira- 
 tion of this time, the vessels are cooled off, the contents 
 thrown on to a cloth filter, the residual cellulose washed 
 thoroughly with hot water, and finally purified by treatment 
 with dilute hypochlorite (0-5 p.ct. NaOCl) or permanganate 
 solution. After washing from the oxidising solution, the cellu- 
 lose is treated with sulphurous acid, from which it is thoroughly 
 washed, squeezed, and dried for weighing. 
 
 The yields of cellulose are from 60-65 P* c ^ > tne /3-cellu- 
 Icse being, under this treatment, also hydrolysed and dis- 
 solved. 
 
Compound Celluloses 99 
 
 Furfural-yielding Complex. 1 It has been found, so far, 
 impossible to isolate this constituent of the fibre-substance ; in 
 the mean time, we are limited to indirect methods of arriving at 
 its constitution and its quantitative relationship to the ligno- 
 cellulose molecule. It has been established, by the elaborate 
 researches of Tollens and his pupils, that the condensation to 
 furfural of those carbohydrates which, from their constitution or 
 configuration, readily yield this special product of dehydration, 
 admits of such control that the yield of the aldehyde may be 
 regarded as constant, and an exact measure, therefore, of the 
 parent molecule. The general method of conversion is that of 
 boiling the substance with hydrochloric acid of 1*06 sp.gr. (12 
 p.ct. HC1). For the estimation of the resulting furfural, various 
 methods have been proposed and practised ; the final selection 
 resting with that which consists in converting the aldehyde 
 into its hydrazone, which is then gravimetrically estimated. 
 
 A careful survey of the evidence upon which this selection 
 is grounded, together with an elaborate account in detail of the 
 methods both of the conversion of the carbohydrate into the 
 aldehyde in question, and its estimation as described, will be 
 found in a recent paper by Flint and Tollens (Landw. Vers.- 
 Stat. 42, 381-407), which should be closely studied. 
 
 The process may be outlined as follows : (a) The weighed 
 fibre (5 grms.) is placed in a flask, covered with 100 c.c. of 
 hydrochloric acid of ro6 sp.gr. The flask is fitted with a 
 double-bored indiarubber cork, carrying (i) the connection 
 to the condenser, the usual bent glass tube, (2) the tubulus 
 of a stoppered * separating funnel.' The flask is heated, 
 preferably in a bath of oil or fusible metal, so that the rate of 
 distillation is about 2 c.c. per minute. The distillate is col- 
 
 The designation 'furfural-yielding complex' or carbohydrate may be 
 conveniently shortened to furfiirose or furfurosan in accordance with the 
 modern nomenclature of the group. 
 
TOO Cellulose 
 
 lected in portions of about 30 c.c., and when each such quan- 
 tity is obtained, a corresponding quantity of the acid is admitted 
 to the flask through the separating funnel. The distillation is 
 continued until a drop of the distillate ceases to give the well- 
 known reaction of the aldehyde (rose-red colouration with 
 aniline acetate, in presence of acetic acid) . 
 
 (b) Conversion into hydrazone. To ensure constant results 
 it is important that constant conditions be adopted. The 
 hydrochloric acid is neutralised with sodium carbonate, a 
 slight excess being used ; the solution is then made acid with 
 acetic acid. The distillate is made up to a constant volume, 
 and, as it is necessary to keep the proportion of sodium chloride 
 approximately constant, any deficiency of volume is made up 
 with a salt solution of corresponding concentration. 
 
 The phenylhydrazine solution is made up with 12 grms. of 
 the base, 7*5 grms. glacial acetic acid, and water to 100 c.c. 
 
 The formation of the hydrazone takes place according to the 
 reaction 
 
 C 5 H 4 O 2 + Ph.N 2 H 3 = C 5 H 4 ON 2 HPh + H 2 O. 
 
 and in any series of determinations with the same 
 substance, the quantity of phenylhydrazine solution necessary 
 to be added is, therefore, approximately known. The quantity 
 is controlled by testing the solution with aniline acetate, drops 
 of the solution being placed upon filter paper moistened with 
 the reagent. The solution is set aside for the separation of the 
 hydrazone, which is much facilitated by continuous stirring. 
 The hydrazone is collected in a filtering tube, containing a 
 perforated plate of platinum or porcelain upon which a circle 
 of filtering paper is laid, the filtration and washing of the pre- 
 cipitate being expedited by the use of the pump. The filter 
 tube, with its contents, is dried preferably in vacuo at 60-70, 
 or in a slow current of dried air at this temperature. It is 
 then weighed. Having been weighed together with the filter 
 
Compound 
 
 paper before the experiment, the difference of the weight gives 
 the weight of hydrazone obtained. From this weight, that of 
 the furfural is calculated as under. 
 
 Furfural = [Hydrazone x 0-538]. The factor 0-538 is the 
 mean number obtained from an extended series of experi- 
 mental determinations. The variations of the results obtained 
 from the theoretical are due to the slight and varying solubilities 
 of the hydrazone in salt solutions of varying concentration. 
 For more exact approximation, the factor must be selected 
 according to the exactly ascertained conditions of its precipita- 
 tion, and the corresponding value determined by Flint and 
 Tollens (loc, at.) being used in calculating from the hydrazone 
 tc the aldehyde. 
 
 In the case of the lignocelluloses we are not able to calcu- 
 late the results to their final expression, i.e. the weight of the 
 parent substance from which the furfural is obtained, for the 
 reason that the constitution of the latter has not been 
 definitely ascertained. The fibre-substance certainly contains 
 pentosanes, and the pentose xylose has been isolated in small 
 quantity as a product of alkaline and acid hydrolysis (Tollens, 
 Berl. Ber. 1889, 1046). As, however, the evidence goes to 
 show that other furfural-yielding groups probably oxidised 
 hexose derivatives are present, we are limited to an approxi- 
 mate estimate of the quantity of the entire furfural-yielding 
 complex. This approximation is furnished by multiplying the 
 weight of hydrazone by 1*1 ; or, in other words, the weight of 
 the furfural-yielding constituents may be taken together at 
 about twice the weight of the furfural obtained. 
 
 Apart from all hypothetical considerations, however, the 
 yield of furfural is an important constant of the fibre-substance, 
 which may be determined as described, within the limits of 
 satisfactorily small errors of experiment. 
 
 Keto R. Hexene Constituent. The characteristic 
 
: .' Cellulose 
 
 reaction of this group is its combination with chlorine, the 
 quantitative features of which have been the subject of careful 
 investigation. The chlorinated lignone is a body of 
 definite and uniform composition, represented by the empirical 
 formula C 19 H 18 C1 4 O 9 . It is still a complex containing a 
 quinone chloride, allied to mairogallol (C 18 H 7 Cl n O l0 ) and 
 leucogallol products of chlorination of pyrogallol, under care- 
 fully regulated conditions in combination with the furfural- 
 yielding complex. The combination with the chlorine is 
 attended by molecular hydration, in consequence of which 
 the chlorinated lignone is split off, more or less, from its con- 
 densed union with the cellulose. 
 
 As in the preceding case, therefore, we are dealing with a 
 reaction which, though perfectly definite and characteristic of 
 constituent groups of the parent molecule, cannot be inter- 
 preted in terms of these groups without introducing hypothe- 
 tical considerations. The reaction will be discussed subse- 
 quently from this point of view. In the mean time it is sufficient 
 to point out that the reaction is uniform in its empirical features, 
 that these may be quantitatively studied, giving what we may 
 term the constants of chlorination of the fibre-substances, viz. 
 (i) the chlorine combining with the hexene groups of the 
 fibre-substance as quinone chloride ; (2) the chlorine com- 
 bining with hydrogen, and set free as hydrochloric acid. It is 
 found, in the case of jute, that (i) and (2) are approximately 
 equal, and therefore that the reaction is unattended by second- 
 ary oxidations of the fibre-constituents to any notable extent. 
 
 The following are the details of the methods of estimating 
 these constants of chlorination. 
 
 (i) Volume of chlorine disappearing in chlorination. The 
 method of observation is fully described in J. Chem. Soc. 
 1889, 169. The fibre-substance is prepared in the usual way, by 
 previously boiling for 10-15 minutes in dilute alkaline solution 
 
Compound Celluloses 103 
 
 (i p.ct. NaOH). This treatment is carried out in duplicate, one 
 of the treated specimens being washed off with water, dilute 
 acid (acetic), and finally water, and dried, for the estimation of 
 the loss of weight in the alkaline treatment, (a) The second 
 portion, after thorough washing from the alkaline treatment 
 and finally with distilled water, is squeezed so as to retain a 
 minimum of water, introduced into a glass bulb of extremely 
 thin walls, and sealed off. (b) The bulb is carefully introduced 
 into a bottle previously filled with chlorine gas, collected over 
 warm water and inverted with a glass plate placed on the mouth, 
 and in such a way that a minimum quantity of water is left 
 in the bottle. In any case a suitable quantity of coarsely 
 pounded glass should be introduced with the bulb, in order 
 to prevent the fibre being unduly wetted, which would retard the 
 absorption. The bottle is closed with an indiarubber cork, well 
 coated with paraffin, through which passes a bent tube. Through 
 this tube the bottle is brought into connection with any suitable 
 gas-measuring apparatus permitting accurate measurement of 
 the vacuum formed in the bottle as the reaction proceeds. 
 All parts of the apparatus being brought to a constant tempera- 
 ture, the bulb containing the fibre is broken by a blow against 
 the sides of the bottle. The chlorine is absorbed with rapidity, 
 and observations of the absorption are made from time to 
 time. If an apparatus such as a Lunge's nitrometer is used, 
 the apparatus is adjusted at its extreme mark, i.e. full of air. 
 As the volume of gas in the reaction flask shrinks, the liquid 
 levels in the measuring apparatus are adjusted in the usual 
 way. The reaction may be considered at an end when no 
 further absorption is noted during an interval of 10 minutes. 
 It is advisable to insert a stopcock between the reaction bottle 
 and the measuring apparatus, so that the latter may be cut off 
 after each observation of volume. 
 
 In calculating from the observed numbers, it is only neces- 
 
IO4 Cellulose 
 
 sary to note that the gas disappearing in combination is a 
 volume observed under the conditions of the experiment ; it is 
 corrected therefore for temperature, barometric pressure, and 
 the partial pressure of aqueous vapour, and the corrected 
 number reduced to the weight of the chlorine taking part in 
 the reaction. This weight is 16-17 p.ct. of the weight of the 
 fibre-substance. 
 
 The quantity of the latter which may be conveniently taken 
 is 1-2 grms. ; the quantity of gas, measured under ordinary 
 conditions, required for 2 grms. of the lignocellulose is 100- 
 120 c.c. It is advisable to take a reaction bottle, of capacity 
 equal to twice this volume. 
 
 The errors of experiment in such a determination are not 
 very considerable ; they may be minimised by keeping the 
 reaction bottle submerged in water of constant temperature, 
 and shielding it from the light, to prevent interaction of 
 the chlorine and water; also by observing the precautions 
 usual in the measurement of gas volumes. 
 
 (2) Determination of HCl formed in the reaction. The 
 quinone chloride formed in the reaction is slightly soluble in 
 water, but almost insoluble in a solution of common salt (20 
 p.ct. NaCl). By washing the chlorinated fibre with a neutral- 
 ised salt solution, the hydrochloric acid may be removed. The 
 reaction bottle being disconnected, the salt solution is poured 
 down the sides, the fibre and bottle being further washed once or 
 twice with the salt solution. Residues of chlorine are removed 
 by passing a current of air for a minute or two through the solu- 
 tion, which is then treated with standard alkali in the usual way. 
 
 The chlorine converted into hydrochloric acid is, in the 
 case of jute, approximately one half the total chlorine entering 
 into reaction, i.e. from 8-8*5 P- ct - The reaction appears, 
 therefore, to be one of simple substitution of hydrogen. In 
 the case of other lignocelluloses, yet to be examined, it is 
 
Compound Celluloses 105 
 
 found to be in excess of the half, as a result of oxidising actions. 
 This point should be borne in mind. 
 
 (3) Control observations. (a) The chlorine in combina- 
 tion in the chlorinated fibre may be directly estimated by any 
 of the standard methods by which the ' organic ' molecule is 
 broken down and the chlorine liberated as hydracid. 
 
 The chlorinated fibre itself is, for obvious reasons, some- 
 what difficult to deal with. The chlorinated product may be 
 dissolved by treatment with pure sodium hydrate, by which 
 treatment it is largely decomposed. To complete the isolation 
 of the chlorine as sodium chloride, the solution and washings 
 are boiled down to dryness, and heated for some time at 200- 
 300 C. An iron dish may be used for this treatment. The 
 soluble chloride is dissolved out and precipitated as silver 
 chloride, in presence of nitric acid. 
 
 (b) The cellulose may be isolated in the usual way, by boiling 
 the fibre-substance with sodium sulphite solution, and further 
 treating the cellulose as described, p. 95. The resulting solution 
 and washings of the cellulose may also be employed for the 
 estimation of the chlorine, the organic products being destroyed 
 by oxidation with nitric acid. Sufficient silver nitrate being 
 previously added, the oxidation may be carried out in an open 
 flask attached to an upright condenser. 
 
 The chlorination has also been studied in a different way. (i) 
 for the estimation of the total chlorine combining ; and (2) for 
 proving that no destructive oxidation takes place. 
 
 Weighed quantities of the fibre-substance were chlorinated (a) 
 after boiling in water, (b] after boiling in I p.ct. NaOH solution. 
 Duplicate specimens were weighed after these treatments and 
 without chlorination, and the statistics are worked out upon the 
 weights of the fibre-substance after treatment. After chlorination 
 the products were transferred to a bell jar containing an ample 
 supply of solid potassium hydrate ; the vessel was exhausted, and 
 the fibrous products left for some days. After a second similar 
 exposure in vacuo over solid KOH, and with addition of sulphuric 
 
106 Cellulose 
 
 acid (in separate vessels), the specimens were exposed for a short 
 time to a temperature of 100 in a water-oven and weighed. The 
 combined chlorine was then estimated. The following are the 
 results : 
 
 J (a) (*) 
 
 Weight of fibre-substance chlorinated , * 1-912 I '6 12 
 
 Combined chlorine determined * 0*142 O^SS 
 
 2-054 1765- 
 
 Chlorinated fibre obtained . 2*038 1763 
 
 Loss due to oxidation .... 0-016 0-002 
 
 These results, in conjunction with independent observations of 
 the hydrochloric acid formed, further confirm the conclusion as to 
 the simplicity of the reaction. 
 
 The percentages of chlorine combining viz. (a} 7*4, (&} 9-4 
 vary on either side of what may be taken as the mean number, viz. 
 8-0 p.ct. In both cases it was no doubt impossible, under the con- 
 ditions of the after treatment, to entirely remove the HC1. The 
 difference in favour of (a) shows the importance of the preliminary 
 treatment with the alkali ; without this the chlorination is incomplete. 
 
 Estimations of Secondary Constituents. (a) 
 Methoxyl (O.CH 3 ) is estimated by the now well-known and, in 
 fact, standard method of Zeisel. The fibre-substance is boiled 
 with hydriodic acid ; the resulting methyl iodide is washed in an 
 apparatus of special construction, to remove traces of hydriodic 
 acid, and passed into an alcoholic solution of silver nitrate, 
 with which it reacts to form silver iodide. A constant current 
 of carbonic anhydride is passed into the reaction flask and 
 through the entire apparatus, so that the methyl iodide may be 
 continuously carried forward and quantitatively decomposed. 
 
 The calculation from silver iodide to methoxyl is, of course, 
 simple (AgI=O.CH 3 ). 
 
 This constituent of the lignocellulose molecule we have 
 every reason to regard as a characteristic constant, and its 
 determination is therefore of importance. Its constitutional 
 relationship will be discussed subsequently. 
 
 (b) The CO.CH^ residue. In a number of decompositions 
 
Compound Celluloses 107 
 
 of the fibre-substance, acetic acid is formed. The maximum 
 yield is obtained in the process of decomposing by digestion 
 with dilute nitric acid. As it is also formed in considerable 
 quantity by dissolving the fibre in sulphuric acid, in the cold, 
 and obtained from the solution by diluting and distilling, it 
 must, in such case, be regarded as a product of hydrolysis, and 
 not of oxidation of the lignocellulose. The problem of its 
 constitutional relationship will be discussed in due course. 
 The estimation of the acid in the latter case need not be dealt 
 with, but it is necessary to describe the method by which it is 
 estimated after being liberated by the nitric acid treatment. 
 The weighed quantity of fibre is placed in a flask and treated 
 with 4 times its weight of 5 p.ct. nitric acid. It is digested for 
 5-6 hours at 90, with the flask heated in a water-bath, and 
 attached to an upright condenser. The lignone being entirely 
 resolved, the acid solution is poured off", and the fibrous residue 
 washed with hot water. It is then digested with 5 p.ct. of its 
 weight (original fibre) of sodium carbonate dissolved in a small 
 quantity of water, which completes the removal of the lignone 
 derivatives from the residual cellulose. The solution and 
 washings are added to the original acid liquid. It is now 
 necessary to destroy the residues of nitric acid before distilling 
 for the volatile acid. A small quantity of sulphuric acid is 
 added to the liquid, in a flask, which is then digested for some 
 hours upon metallic iron. The solution is then boiled for 
 some time, with the flask attached to an upright condenser. 
 Urea is then added, and the solution distilled, taking care that 
 the sulphuric acid is present in slight excess. For the complete 
 removal of the acetic acid it is necessary to distil over as much 
 of the contents of the flask as possible, and to repeat the 
 distillation at least twice, adding a certain volume of water to 
 the flask, and taking over an equal volume of the distillate. 
 The distillate is then made up to a definite volume and 
 
io8 Cellulose 
 
 titrated. A portion is drawn off and tested for nitric and 
 nitrous acids. If free from these acids, the titration number 
 may be taken as representing the acetic acid. Otherwise a 
 fraction of the distillate must be further treated for the elimi- 
 nation of the nitrogen acids. For this purpose it is acidified 
 with sulphuric acid, and digested for some hours with a ' copper- 
 zinc couple.' The solution is then poured off, and distilled, as 
 before described, from a slight excess of sulphuric acid. 
 
 These determinations of acetic acid are destined to con- 
 tribute, in an important way, to the solution of constitutional 
 problems, and the student should master the details of the 
 somewhat laborious process above described. 
 
 In certain cases, other volatile acids may be formed. It 
 is advisable to control the results by testing the distillate 
 qualitatively, and should there be indications of the presence 
 of other acids, e.g. formic acid, a fraction should be redistilled 
 from chromic acid, and the distillate again titrated. 
 
 The distillates also may be divided, a portion being titrated, 
 and the acid in a portion converted into silver salt in which 
 the silver is determined. 
 
 Having thus described in general terms the constituent 
 groups of the typical lignocelluloses, and more specially the 
 methods by which they may be quantitatively estimated, 
 directly or indirectly, it is necessary to point out that so far 
 nothing has been said as to the mode of union of these groups 
 in the fibre-substance. The evidence on this side of the subject 
 will be given in due course. It is sufficient, for the present, to 
 remember that we are dealing, on an empirical basis, with the 
 well-ascertained chemical constants of lignification constant 
 for any given lignocellulose, but varying considerably from 
 member to member of this wide and varied group of plant 
 constituents. It may not be out of place also to insert at this 
 point a caution against the possible inference that the above 
 
Compound Celluloses 109 
 
 groups are sharply separated from one another. As the 
 student becomes more familiar with the subject, he will find 
 the constituent groups ' overlapping ' in an unmistakable 
 manner, with suggestions of probable genetic connections. 
 
 Keeping, however, for the present, to the strictly empirical 
 view, we proceed to the systematic account of the jute fibre as 
 the typical lignocellulose. 
 
 The JUTE FIBRE is the isolated bast of plants of the species 
 Corchorus (Order Tiliaceae), an annual of rapid growth, usually 
 attaining a height of 10-12 ft. in the few months required, 
 in the Indian climate, for the maturing of the plant. This 
 great length of stem is attained without branching, and the 
 separation of the bast from the wood and cortex is a manual 
 operation of the simplest kind. The plants, after being cut 
 down, are steeped or retted for a short period in stagnant 
 water ; the stems are then handled individually ; the wood 
 being broken, the bast is easily stripped and freed by washing 
 from the softened cellular cortex. The fibre is supplied to 
 commerce in long lengths, or strands, representing nearly the 
 full length of the parent stem. As, however, the lower portion, 
 6-8 ins. from the root upwards, is more or less reticulated, this 
 is usually cut off, and these rejections constitute the jute 'butts' 
 or 'cuttings' largely used as the raw material for special 
 classes of wrapping papers. The textile fibre is of a brown to 
 silver-grey colour in the finer sorts. The individual fibres, or 
 spinning elements (filaments), are complex structures ; in cross 
 section they are seen to be bundles of the ultimate fibres, the 
 number of which varies from 7 to 20. The ultimate fibre itself is 
 of short length, 2-3 mm. ; it is of circular or polygonal section, 
 with a central canal sometimes nearly obliterated, from the 
 thickening of the cell wall. These bast fibres taper off at their 
 extremities, and are built up by apposition to form the complex 
 filament or bundle. 
 
no 
 
 Cellulose 
 
 The fibres or filaments are somewhat matted together in 
 the strands by reason of the great pressure under which 
 the bales are packed, and also in part owing to the presence, in 
 the tissue, of mucilaginous or pectic bodies (parenchymatous 
 residues c). Jute requires, therefore, a softening treatment as 
 a preliminary to the preparing operations of the spinner. It is 
 opened out from the bales, dusted, and passed through a series 
 of heavy fluted * breaking' rollers, being simultaneously sprinkled 
 with water and whale-oil. By this treatment the subdivision 
 and drawing of the fibres in the hackling, or combing, and 
 spinning processes is greatly facilitated. For the purposes of 
 laboratory investigation the fibre may be freed from adventitious 
 impurities by boiling in weak solutions of sodium carbonate, 
 washing well to remove soluble matters, and rubbing well in a 
 stream of water, to remove residues of cortical parenchyma. 
 
 The bast fibre thus obtained is somewhat harsh to the touch, 
 coloured as described, more or less, and having a certain amount 
 of lustre. 
 
 Its specific gravity is 1*436 (Pfuhl), 1*587 after purification 
 by boiling in alkaline solutions (Cross and Bevan). 
 
 The following results of proximate analyses of various specimens 
 are given by Hugo Miiller, Pflanzenfaser, p. 59. 
 
 
 Long 
 
 fibre 
 
 
 
 
 
 Brown 
 
 
 
 Nearly colour- 
 
 Fawn 
 
 cuttings 
 
 
 less specimen 
 
 coloured 
 
 
 Ash. 
 
 0-68 
 
 
 
 
 
 Water 
 
 9'93 
 
 9-64 
 
 12-58 
 
 Aqueous extract . 
 
 1-03 
 
 I-6 3 
 
 3'94 
 
 Fat and wax . . 
 
 0-39 
 
 0-32 
 
 o*45 
 
 Cellulose . . . 
 
 64-24 
 
 63-05 
 
 6174 
 
 Incrusting substances and j 
 
 
 
 
 pectic constituents. Dif- I 
 
 24-41 
 
 25-36 
 
 21-29 
 
 ference from 100 . 
 
 
 
 
 To compare these results chiefly for cellulose with the 
 
Compound Celluloses in 
 
 authors' results given in the text, the numbers must be calculated 
 to dry substance (i.e. multiplied by i*i). 
 
 The authors have not isolated pectic acid from the fibre- 
 substance proper ; but jute * cuttings ' often contain a considerable 
 quantity. 
 
 Composition. The inorganic constituents amount to 
 from 0-8-2-0 p.ct., and are obtained, on burning the fibre, 
 as a brownish-coloured ash, of which the preponderating 
 constituents are silica (35 p.ct.), lime (CaO 15 p.ct.), and 
 phosphoric acid (P 2 O 5 1 1 p.ct.). Manganese is usually present 
 in small quantity (Mn 3 O 4 075 p.ct). 
 
 The organic portion, or fibre substance proper, varies some- 
 what in composition, the subjoined numbers representing the 
 mean range of variations : 
 
 C . . . . 46 -0-47 'O p.ct. 
 H . . . . 6-3- 5'8 
 
 In dealing with the jute fibre substance in contradistinction to 
 the jute fibre, the results are referred to the substance taken as dry 
 ( 1 00) and when the result would be seriously influenced, as ash- 
 free. 
 
 For ' statistical ' purposes, therefore, the fibre-substance may 
 be represented by the empirical formula C 12 H 18 O 9 . There 
 is plenty of evidence for the view that lignification is an in- 
 trinsic process of chemical change of cellulose, and it might 
 therefore be inferred that the process is one of dehydration : 
 Ci2H 2 oOio H. 2 O = Ci 2 H 18 Og. 
 
 As an illustration of the superficial meaning of such 
 numerical relationships, we may cite here the results obtained 
 by A. Pears in cultivating the jute plant under the more 
 artificial conditions of growth in a * hot house ' in this country. 
 A normal growth of the plant was secured, in the sense 
 that the seed saved gave a satisfactorily high proportion of 
 germination in the second year of cultivation, and from both 
 cultivations good specimens of the bast fibre were separated in 
 
112 
 
 Cellulose 
 
 the usual way. The composition of these specimens was de- 
 termined as follow** 
 
 Fibre grown in 1892 Fibre grown in 1893 
 
 C 43-0 43-5 
 
 H . . . . 6-1 
 
 In further illustration of the results obtained in these 'artificial 1 * 
 cultivations of the fibre, we reproduce the various numerical 
 
 Constituents and 
 reactions 
 
 Method 
 
 Jute pro- 
 duced in 
 England 
 (1892) 
 
 Normal 
 fibre 
 
 
 
 Moisture . . 
 
 Drying at 100 
 
 11-4 
 
 10-3 
 
 __ 
 
 Inorganic con- 1 
 stituents J 
 
 Ash 
 
 1-6 
 
 1-2 
 
 
 
 
 ,1 p.ct. solution) 
 
 
 
 
 Alkali hydrolysis 
 
 NaOH 
 
 J (i) 10 mins. f 
 J boiling . J 
 
 14-8 
 
 8-0 
 
 j Loss of 
 I weight 
 
 
 1 (2) 60 mins. ) 
 ^ boiling . ^ 
 
 20 'O 
 
 18-0 
 
 > 
 
 
 ,20 p.ct. solu-s 
 
 
 
 
 ' Mercerisation * 
 
 J tion NaOH in L 
 
 I2'2 
 
 8-0 
 
 t> 
 
 
 1 the cold . ) 
 
 
 
 
 Nitric acid reso- 
 lution . 
 
 5 p.ct. 1 
 HNO,.Aq > 
 
 * 8 hours at 70 
 
 37*0 
 
 37-0 
 
 if 
 
 f Residue 
 l oxycellulose 
 
 Cellulose . 
 
 Chlorination &c. 
 
 75 '2 
 
 75*0 
 
 
 
 Chlorine absorp- 
 tion 
 
 J. Chem. Soc. | 
 55. 199 > 
 
 137 
 
 16-6 
 
 - 
 
 Iodine absorp- 
 
 /Excess of iv 
 4 normal solu- 1 
 
 6-0 
 
 6-0 
 
 
 tion . . 
 
 I tion in KI . J 
 
 
 
 
 Nitration . . 
 
 /Equal volumes^ 
 
 ofHN0 3 i- 5 ; 
 1 H 2 S0 4 i-82. ) 
 
 130-0 
 
 145 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .Increase of 
 
 Ferric ferricyan- 
 ide reaction . 
 
 J. Soc. Chem. i 
 Ind. 1893 i 
 
 133 '0 
 
 124 
 
 J weight un- 
 1 der equal 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ conditions 
 
 Thiocarbonate 
 reaction 
 
 \. Chem. Soc. \ 
 
 1893,837 . ; 
 
 45-0 
 
 4S'0 
 
 /P.ct. of 
 J fibre un- 
 ( dissolved 
 
 Carbon percent- 
 age . 
 
 / Co m b u s ti o n \ 
 \ with CrO, and \ 
 ( H2SO 4 . ) 
 
 43-0 
 
 46-5 
 
 
 
Compound Celhdoses 113 
 
 determinations given in the original paper (J. Chem. Soc. 1893, 
 
 967). 
 
 The preceding table contains the results of a more extended 
 scheme of investigation than is required for special and more 
 practical purposes. The results, however, all have the value of 
 ' constants,' depending as they do upon definite properties of the 
 fibre-substance. It is an amplification of the scheme adopted by 
 Webster (J. Chem. Soc. 43, 23), working in collaboration with the 
 authors ; and, again, of that given by the authors in the Reports 
 Col. and Indian Exhibition, 1886. 
 
 For the fibre grown in 1893, fr m the seed saved from the above, 
 the following constants were determined (J. Chem. Soc. 1894,471); 
 
 C H 
 
 Elementary composition . . 43*5 6*O 
 
 Furfural yield . . . . . . 8*55 p.ct. 
 
 Cl absorption , 15*0 ,, 
 
 The chief feature of these results is the preservation of the 
 essential constitutional features of the lignocellulose with such con- 
 siderable variation from the normal in elementary composition. 
 
 Notwithstanding this wide divergence in composition, the fibre- 
 substance showed all the essential characteristics of constitu- 
 tion of the ordinary product. The observed difference is, 
 therefore, in the main associated with hydration ; and lignifica- 
 tion is evidently a process which is independent of dehydrating 
 conditions. 
 
 The lignocelluloses, however, under normal conditions of 
 growth are progressively dehydrated, and in nearly all cases, 
 therefore, are characterised by high carbon percentage (46-51). 
 These considerations lead up to the general question of the 
 relationships of the jute fibre to water. 
 
 Jute Fibre and Water. Lignocellulose Hydrates. 
 The hygroscopic moisture of ordinary jute varies, under normal 
 atmospheric conditions, from 9-12 p.ct, the variation being, 
 of course, chiefly dependent upon temperature and * dew point,' 
 or rather the percentage saturation of the air with aqueous vapour. 
 
 I 
 
114 Cellulose 
 
 In an atmosphere saturated at ordinary temperatures jute takes 
 up 23 p.ct. of moisture. 
 
 The hydration of the fibre-substance, in the more permanent 
 sense of definite combination with H 2 O molecules, is determined 
 under conditions which will appear in the succeeding sections 
 of the subject. 
 
 Solutions of Lignocellulose. The jute fibre is attacked 
 and dissolved by the solvents already described under * Cellulose ' 
 (p. 8), viz. : 
 
 (1) Zinc chloride concentrated aqueous solution. 
 
 (2) Zinc chloride solution in HC1 ; and 
 
 (3) Cuprammoniun solutions. 
 
 From these solutions the lignocellulose is precipitated, on 
 dilution (i and 2) or acidification, as a gelatinous hydrate ; the 
 precipitation is, however, incomplete the proportion remaining 
 in solution varying from 15-25 p.ct., according to the condi- 
 tions of solution. There is, however, no difference in reactions 
 between the soluble and insoluble fractions, and on ultimate 
 analysis both are found to have the empirical composition of 
 the original fibre-substance. Although, therefore, the ligno- 
 cellulose is a complex of various groupings, it behaves in this 
 respect as a homogeneous product, and the bond uniting the 
 groups together is not resolved by simple hydrolytic agencies 
 (see infra, p. 134). 
 
 In the case of the ZnCl 2 .HCl reagent the fibre-substance is 
 progressively hydrolysed on standing. This is illustrated by the 
 following determinations of the proportion of the lignocellulose 
 reprecipitated from such solution. 
 
 (a) Precipitated at once : ppt. 78-4 p.ct. of the original. 
 
 () After standing 16 hours : ppt. 29-4 p.ct. of the original. 
 
 Qualitative Reactions and Identification of the 
 Lignocelluloses. Whereas the reactions of the celluloses 
 are mostly negative, jute (and the lignocelluloses generally) is 
 
Compound Celluloses 115 
 
 distinguished by a number of characteristic reactions. In 
 addition to those already described as admitting of quantitative 
 estimations, the following are the more important : 
 
 (1) Salts of aniline (and many of the aromatic bases), in 
 aqueous solution, colour the fibre a deep golden yellow. 
 
 (2) The Coal-tar dyes generally combine freely with theligno- 
 celluloses. In ' staining ' sections of plants and parts of plants 
 for microscopic observation, the lignocelluloses are dyed by 
 the majority of soluble coal-tar dyes. Their ' affinities ' for 
 colouring matters are, in fact, similar to those of the animal 
 fibres, silk and wool, although differing radically from them, 
 not only in constitution, but in containing no nitrogen (NH 2 
 groups). 
 
 (3) Phlorogludnol) in hydrochloric acid, gives the deep 
 magenta colouration characteristic of the pentaglucoses. The 
 reagent is prepared by dissolving the phenol to saturation in 
 HClAq (ro6 sp.gr.). 
 
 (4) Iodine is absorbed from its solutions in potassium 
 iodide in large quantity, colouring the fibre a deep brown. 
 
 (5) Chlorine combines with the fibre with avidity, as already 
 described ; the chlorination is made evident by treatment 
 with sodium sulphite solution, which develops a deep magenta 
 colouration. This reaction is characteristic. Conversely, the 
 fibre-substance may be employed as a reagent for the identifi- 
 cation of chlorine, or may, in certain cases, be used for absorb- 
 ing the gas. 
 
 (6) Ferric chloride colours the fibre- substance to a dark 
 greenish tint the reaction being due to traces of tannins. 
 
 (7) Ferric ferricyanide the red solution obtained by mixing 
 together ferric chloride and potassium ferricyanide in equivalent 
 proportions gives a highly characteristic reaction (subsequently 
 described in detail), the fibre-substance rapidly decomposing 
 the compound to * Prussian blue,' the pigment being taken up 
 
 I 2 
 
n6 Cellulose 
 
 by the fibre-substance in very large quantity (50 p.ct. of its 
 weight). 
 
 (8) Chromic acid, in aqueous solution, combines with the 
 lignocellulose, and is then very slowly reduced to the inter- 
 mediate oxide (CrO 3 .Cr 2 O 3 ). 
 
 (9) Potassium permanganate is rapidly reduced, the MnO 2 
 produced colouring the fibre a deep brown. After treatment 
 with sulphurous acid, which removes the oxide, the lignocellu- 
 lose will be found to have been bleached by the treatment. 
 On repeating this treatment once or twice, with dilute solution 
 of KMnO 4 , the lignocellulose is obtained of a cream or greyish- 
 white colour, the loss of weight sustained in the bleaching 
 being small (2-4 p.ct.). 
 
 Compounds of Jute Lignocellulose. The fibre- 
 substance itself being a complex or compound cellulose, and 
 susceptible of decomposition (a) by hydrolytic treatment in 
 which, however, the union of the constituent groups is pre- 
 served and (b) by reagents which selectively attack the con- 
 stituent groups, it is obvious that we are limited in the prepa- 
 ration of compounds which may be regarded as compounds of 
 the lignocellulose molecule as a whole. We shall first describe 
 those which result from reactions of the OH groups of the 
 lignocellulose. These are more active than in the celluloses. 
 We have already pointed out that the fibre combines freely 
 with colouring matters. The phenomena of dyeing being 
 now well established, as the result of interaction of salt-forming 
 groups in fibre-substance and colouring matter, i.e. a species of 
 ' double salt ' formation, we may deduce from the considerable 
 and very general * affinity ' of the lignocelluloses for the coal- 
 tar colouring matters, that they contain OH groups of both 
 acid and basic function, and much more disposed to reaction 
 than those of the celluloses. 
 
 Absorption nf acids and alkalis from dilute aqueous solutions. 
 
Compound Celluloses \\j 
 
 This phenomenon, already described as a property of the cellu- 
 loses, is more pronounced with the jute fibre. The following 
 absorptions have been determined by the authors from normal 
 solutions of the respective reagents : 
 
 Normal hydrochloric acid. (a) Fibre digested with 8 
 times its weight of solution, 10 minutes at 15 C. ; (^) with 20 
 times its weight. 
 
 (*) (<*) 
 PI Cl absorbed . . 0*85 i-i p. ct. on fibre-substance 
 
 Normal sodium hydrate. Fibre digested with 20 times 
 its weight of solution. 
 
 () (ft 
 N&/) absorbed . .3*0 3-6 p.ct. on fibre-substance 
 
 It is to be noted that the molecular ratio of the absorptions 
 is approximately that observed in the case of cotton, viz. 
 3HC1 : 10 NaOH. 
 
 The hydrolysing action of the alkalis (a] and non-oxidising 
 acids (fr) may be regarded as an extension of this phenomenon. 
 (a) The alkalis and alkaline compounds in aqueous solution 
 attack the fibre- substance in the ratio of their hydrolysing and 
 saponifying activity ; and, as in the action of the solvents pre- 
 viously described, the lignocellulose is attacked as a whole. 
 In the systematic comparison of the vegetable fibres (i.e. com- 
 pound celluloses) it is important to determine their relative 
 resistance to alkaline treatments under standard conditions. 
 It is usual, for this purpose, to determine the loss of weight 
 sustained by the fibre on boiling with a i p.ct. solution of 
 sodium hydrate (i) 5 minutes, (ii) 60 minutes. Under this 
 treatment jute loses on the average 
 
 (i) (ii) 
 
 8-0 15-0 
 
 No change in the composition of the fibre- substance is 
 occasioned by the treatment, the portion dissolved showing the 
 essential characteristics of the original fibre. It is precipitated 
 
n8 Cellulose 
 
 in part on acidifying the solution, and the gelatinous precipitate 
 gives the characteristic reactions of the original fibre. The 
 fibre is further but slightly affected in structure and physical 
 properties by the treatment. 
 
 At temperatures considerably above the boiling point the 
 action of dilute solutions of the alkaline hydroxide (1-3 p.ct. 
 Na 2 O) takes a different course ; the non-cellulose is attacked 
 and converted into soluble derivatives, and the fibre-bundles 
 are more or less disintegrated. Such processes are, in fact, used 
 on the large scale for the preparation of paper-making pulp 
 (cellulose) from the lignocelluloses. 
 
 (b) On digesting the fibre with dilute solutions of the mineral 
 acids at 60-80, the lignocellulose is again progressively 
 dissolved, the loss of weight sustained by the fibre being 
 proportional to the hydrolysing activity of the acid, and to the 
 conditions of the digestion. In this case also the lignocellulose 
 is attacked as a whole, the insoluble fibrous residue preserv- 
 ing the essential characteristics of the original fibre. The dis- 
 solved portion may be isolated when sulphuric acid (5-7 p.ct. 
 H 2 SO 4 ) is used as the hydrolysing acid by neutralising the solu- 
 tion with barium carbonate, filtering, and evaporating to dryness. 
 The soluble modification of the fibre-substance is obtained as 
 an amorphous, brown, gummy solid, having the same empirical 
 composition as the original fibre. 
 
 On prolonged digestion with the dilute acids (5-7 p.ct. 
 H._>SO 4 ) the loss of weight sustained by the fibre approximates to 
 a limit at about 30 p.ct. As a result of the treatment, the fibre 
 is disintegrated, the residue being obtained as a mass of brittle 
 fragments. It is to be noted that the disintegration is not a 
 progressive dissection of the ultimate fibres such as results 
 from the alkaline digestions above described but is the result 
 of a change in the physical properties of the fibre-substance 
 
Compound Celluloses 119 
 
 itself; the disintegration which ensues is characterised by 
 fracture of the fibre-bundles or filaments. 
 
 The following results of particular experiments may b2 cited : 
 
 Fibre digested with 7 p.ct. H S SO 4 
 
 (1) 1 8 hrs. at 60-80 : loss of weight, 12-0 p.ct 
 
 (2) 12 hrs. at 80-90 : 97 
 
 (3) 42 hrs. at 80-90 : 23*0 
 
 The investigation of the products from (3) gave the following 
 results : 
 
 (a) Soluble. Isolated by neutralising with BaCO 3 . Evapora- 
 tion, solution of residue in alcohol, evaporating solvent and 
 drying at 105 gave, on combustion : 
 
 Calc. C 1S H,.0. 
 
 C 46-29 46-08 47*05 
 
 H 575 5'95 5'88 
 
 This substance gave with Cl the characteristic quinone chloride, 
 and on boiling with hydrochloric acid, furfural. 
 
 On adding phenylhydrazine acetate to the concentrated solu- 
 tion of the product and heating at 90^100, an osazone is formed: 
 it separates as a coagulum of characteristic greenish-yellow colour. 
 After washing and drying, the product may be purified by solution 
 in toluene ; from which solution satisfactory crystallisations are 
 obtained. A series of these compounds has been obtained with 
 melting points ranging from 110-130, and containing from 9-10 
 p.ct. nitrogen. Their relationship to the original fibre-substance 
 has not yet been determined. 
 
 (b) Insoluble. The brittle fibrous residue gave with chlorine the 
 characteristic reaction, and the cellulose isolated in the usual way 
 amounted to 75 p.ct. of the weight of the product. 
 
 The action of the acids proceeds, as stated, to a limit 
 which is determined by the concurrent effects of condensation. 
 If the fibre be then washed and boiled for a short time in 
 alkaline solution, it is again rendered susceptible of attack by 
 the hydrolysing acids, with further conversion into soluble 
 derivatives. 
 
 If the acid solutions are boiled, the dissolved product is 
 
1 20 Cellulose , 
 
 decomposed with formation of furfural and acetic acid ; when 
 formed at temperatures below 70, it may be regarded as a 
 soluble hydrate of the lignocellulose, or more correctly a 
 derivative of low molecular weight in which the characteristic 
 groupings of the parent molecule are preserved. 
 
 Concentrated solutions of the alkaline hydrates. The struc- 
 tural changes produced in the fibre by treatment with solu- 
 tions of caustic soda of 'mercerising' strength (15-30 p.ct. 
 NaOH) are remarkable. The fibre-bundles are resolved more 
 or less ; the cell wall of the individual fibres undergoes con- 
 siderable thickening, such that the central canal is almost 
 obliterated. The visible effects of these changes of minute 
 structure are (i) a shrinkage in length of the strands of fibre 
 (15-20 p.ct.) ; (2) a considerable refinement of the spinning 
 units or filaments ; (3) the filaments have a wavy or crinkled 
 outline, resembling that of wool. 
 
 The following experimental results may be cited : 80^35 grms. 
 fibre (air-dry) treated with 300 c.c. of 25 p.ct. solution NaOH, 
 six hours in the cold ; washed, acidified, washed and dried ; 
 weighed, air-dry, 75-5 grms. Loss of weight, 6 p.ct. Shrinkage in 
 length, from 4 ft. to 3 ft. 8 in., i.e. 17 p.ct. 
 
 An extended series of experiments upon normal specimens of 
 the raw fibre, with varied conditions e.g. concentration of alkali, 
 15-33 p.ct. NaOH ; duration of treatment, 5 minutes to 48 hours 
 showed an average loss of weight of 7*5 p.ct., with slight vari- 
 ations only on either side of this mean number. The same speci- 
 men of jute lost 1 1 -9 p.ct in weight on digesting 48 hours in more 
 dilute alkali (6-5 p.ct. NaOH), and II p.ct on boiling for 5 
 minutes in alkali of the same concentration. 
 
 The cellulose constants of the fibre are unaffected by the treat- 
 ment 
 
 The chemical changes are more complex than with the 
 celluloses, for reasons which will appear when the constitutional 
 relationships of the constituent groups of the fibre-substance 
 
Compound Celluloses 121 
 
 are discussed. Empirically the results of the treatment are as 
 follows : 
 
 A certain proportion of the lignocellulose is dissolved ; but 
 the dissolved portion, as well as the fibrous residue, gives the 
 characteristic reactions of the original. When the latter is 
 chlorinated, and the cellulose isolated in the usual way, the 
 percentage yield is found to be unaffected by the treatment. 
 The character of the cellulose is somewhat altered, however, as 
 it is obtained in continuous strands ; and when dried, the 
 filaments of jute cellulose have a certain amount of coherence. 
 So far there is a general resemblance to the changes produced 
 in cotton cellulose on mercerising, i.e. the effects are chiefly 
 hydration chattges. The differences, on the other hand, are 
 brought into evidence when the alkali-lignocellulose is exposed 
 to the action of carbon disulphide. 
 
 The thiocarbonate reaction which ensues is of a remark- 
 able character. The lignocellulose is gelatinised more or less 
 in the reaction, but on treatment with water it is not dissolved 
 to a homogeneous solution, but swells up enormously, the 
 hydration proceeding to almost indefinite limits. The following 
 results of an experiment may be cited : 
 
 4'5 grms. fibre, treated with excess of 12 p.ct. solution of 
 NaOH, squeezed, and exposed to CS 2 (2*0 grms.) in a stoppered 
 bottle 24 hours. On treatment with water, the gelatinised fibre 
 occupied a volume of 300 c.c. ; and for separation of the un- 
 dissolved fibre, dilution to 750 c.c. was necessary. The 
 following determinations were made : 
 
 (a) Undissolved fibre . . . , . .427 
 
 (b] Dissolved reprecipitated by HC1 , , 43'3 
 (b'} Soluble after acidification . . . . .14*0 
 (a) Gave the reactions of the original fibre-substance. 
 
 (b} Gave only a slight reaction with Cl and Na 2 SO 3 . 
 (b') Consisted mainly of the furfural-yielding constituent. 
 
 The following results of particular experiments are of interest : 
 
122 Cellulose 
 
 (1) Ten grms. raw jute (with 10 p.ct. moisture), purified by 
 boiling in dilute solution Na 2 CO 3 ; washed, squeezed, and placed 
 in bottle with 4 grms. CS 2 . When evenly diffused, treated with 25 
 c.c. of 15 p.ct. NaOH and left 48 hours. 
 
 Insoluble product (after purifying), 7-053 grms. (dry) ; yield on 
 9 grms. (dry), 78-4 p.ct. Gave 4-1 p.ct. furfural on distillation 
 (HC1). 
 
 (2) Conditions exactly as in (i), with which it was comparative 
 in regard to effect of varying the reaction ; viz. in this case the jute 
 was first treated with the NaOH, and afterwards sealed up with 
 4 grms. CS 2 . 
 
 Insoluble product, 7-004 grms., 77-8 p.ct The variation in 
 question was therefore without effect. The filtrate from the in- 
 soluble residue was treated with zinc acetate in excess, which has 
 been found to precipitate the dissolved fibre-constituents. The 
 precipitate was then decomposed with HC1 in excess, and the now 
 insoluble fibre-products washed, purified, dried, and weighed. 
 Weight, 0-980 grm. On distillation with HC1 this gave 0-031 grm. 
 furfural ; the filtrate from this insoluble product gave none. 
 
 The undissolved fibre was chlorinated, and the cellulose sepa- 
 rated in the usual way : 5728 grms. obtained, i.e. 81-8 p.ct. on pro- 
 duct, or 63 p.ct. of original lignocellulose. The results are as 
 follows : 
 
 The furfural-yielding groups have been attacked ; the total yield 
 of the aldehyde is reduced by 50 p.ct., the reduction falling chiefly 
 upon the portion hydrolysed and dissolved. The a-cellulose is un- 
 affected, the keto R. hexene groups also. The portion dissolved 
 appears to be the /3-cellulose and the furfural-yielding constituent 
 of the lignone. 
 
 (3) The above conditions were maintained, varying the duration 
 of action of the alkali ; it was left 48 hours before adding the CS 2 . 
 The results were : 
 
 Insoluble fibre, 6-82 grms. =75 '8 p.ct. 
 
 Giving cellulose (after Cl &c. ), 5 76 grms. = 64 p. ct. of the original. 
 
 Under constant conditions as regards the reagents, the results 
 are therefore independent of the mode of carrying out the reaction. 
 The reaction requires further investigation, as it appears capable 
 of throwing light upon the actual mode of union of the constituent 
 groups in the lignocellulose. 
 
Compound Celluloses 123 
 
 The results obtained are, however, by no means constant, 
 but vary considerably with variations in the conditions of 
 treatment. The causes of these variations lie in the complex 
 character of the lignocellulose. In the celluloses alcoholic 
 characteristics predominate ; in the lignocelluloses the presence 
 of phenolic OH groups, of CH 2 .CO and CH 2 .CO.O groups, 
 and of ketonic oxygen (see p. 137) must largely modify 
 the alcoholic functions of the cellulosic OH groups. They 
 are, in fact, in condensed union with these more negative 
 groups, and this union is only partially resolved in certain 
 directions, and further cemented in others, by the alkaline 
 treatment. It is probable that the alkali may have the 
 effect of further condensing or synthesising the aldehydic 
 groups. 
 
 It is evident, on the other hand, that the entire molecule 
 is opened up for the entrance of water molecules, and the 
 prominent result of the reaction is the consequent hydration of 
 the lignocellulose. It is this aspect which leads us to describe 
 the reaction under the heading of the * Compounds of the 
 Lignocellulose.' The attendant hydrolysis is a secondary 
 result which will be referred to subsequently. 
 
 Compounds of the Lignocellulose with Metallic 
 Salts. We are still dealing with those synthetical reactions of 
 the lignocellulose (OH groups) which take place in presence 
 of water. The resulting compounds are necessarily of a 
 variable and ill-defined character, owing to the complex nature 
 of the lignocellulose, the tendency to selective reaction 
 with its constituent groups, and to consequent partial hydro- 
 lysis. 
 
 The combinations already described as taking place with 
 the alkalis and non-oxidising acids are seen to be of a feeble 
 and transitory character. With many of the salts of the heavy 
 metals the reactions are more pronounced, but they are also 
 
124 Cellulose 
 
 of too indefinite a character to require more than a passing 
 notice. Generally we may regard reaction as occurring only 
 with such as undergo pronounced dissociation on solution in 
 water, which dissociation is exaggerated by the fibre-substance. 
 The lignocelluloses present merely a particular case of the 
 general theory of the action of 'mordants,' its combinations 
 with the 'mordanting' oxides being similar to those of the 
 cellulose, differing only in the higher proportions of the oxides 
 taken up. 
 
 There is one reaction, however, of a specific character, 
 already alluded to, which merits description in detail that is, 
 the interaction of the lignocellulose and ferric ferricyanide. 
 
 This reaction has been described in a paper by the authors 
 in the J. Soc. Chem. Ind. 1893, the experimental portion of 
 which is now reproduced, with certain alterations of minor 
 import. 
 
 A REACTION OF THE LIGNOCELLULOSES AND THE THEORY 
 OF DYEING. The red solution obtained by mixing aqueous 
 solutions of ferric chloride and an alkaline ferricyanide, which 
 may be regarded as containing ferric ferricyanide, reacts as is 
 well known with the more easily oxidisable ' organic ' com- 
 pounds, oxidising them and being itself reduced to the lower 
 mixed cyanides, i.e. Prussian blue and similar compounds 
 (Watts' Diet. ii. 248). The reactions of this solution with 
 the lignocelluloses, and notably jute, are remarkable and cha- 
 racteristic. Not only is the conversion into the blue pigment 
 very considerable in proportion to the weight of fibre substance, 
 but the colouring matter is deposited within the fibre in such 
 a way as to give the effect of a homogeneous dye. Thus if 
 this particular fibre, suitably purified by previously boiling in 
 dilute alkaline solutions and washing, be plunged into a \ deci- 
 normal solution of the reagent (prepared by mixing decinorrnal 
 solutions of the reagents in equal volumes) the fibre-substance 
 
Compound Celluloses 
 
 12$ 
 
 rapidly dyes to an intense blue-black with a gain of weight 
 of from 20-50 p.ct. ; and the dyed fibre examined under 
 the microscope is of an intense transparent blue with all the 
 characteristics, that is to say, of a ' solid solution ' of the 
 colouring matter. 
 
 The following is a brief account of the results of quantita- 
 tive observations. In our first series of observations we used 
 a solution of ferric chloride containing Fe 2 Cl 6 , equivalent to 
 0-0976 Fe 2 O 3 in 10 c.c., and an equivalent solution of ferri- 
 cyanide. Five equal portions, each weighing 2762 grms., of 
 jute fibre were treated with the mixture of the above solutions 
 in equal volumes, in the proportions and with the results given 
 in the subjoined table. 
 
 Vols. of solution 
 
 Increase 
 
 Increase 
 
 Fe ; O 3 
 
 Fe.O, 
 
 Ferric 
 chloride 
 
 Fern- 
 cyanide 
 
 of 
 weight 
 
 per cent. 
 of fibre 
 
 added as 
 Fe.,CN. 
 
 blue 
 cyanide 
 
 C.c. 
 
 Cc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 IO 
 
 IO 
 
 OT35 
 
 67 
 
 0-195 
 
 O*I23 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 0-489 
 
 177 
 
 0390 
 
 0-230 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 0768 
 
 27-8 
 
 0-5^5 
 
 0-373 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 I '025 
 
 37'i 
 
 0-781 
 
 0-510 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 1-161 
 
 42-0 
 
 0-976 
 
 0-601 
 
 It will be noticed that the Fe. 2 O 3 fixed by the fibre is pro- 
 portional to the quantity taken, viz. approximately two-thirds 
 in each experiment ; but the corresponding increase in weight 
 of the fibre due to the blue cyanide fixed is somewhat variable. 
 The cyanide, in fact, is shown by analysis to vary in composi- 
 tion slightly in the ratio Fe : CN, more considerably no doubt 
 in its condition of hydration. The ash left on ignition of the 
 dyed fibre we find to contain no soluble basic constituents, 
 therefore no K 2 O appears to be fixed. 
 
 Analysis of blue cyanide fixed by the fibre. A specimen 
 of fibre, dyed blue under the above conditions and weighted 
 
126 Cellulose 
 
 to approximately 20 p.ct, was analysed, the total Fe being 
 determined as Fe 2 O 3 , the CN as NH 3 . 
 
 Fe 2 O 3 = 6-i p.ct. = 4-27 Fe; N = 3'is p.ct = 5*85 CN. 
 Whence the ratio 
 
 or 
 
 Fe:CN = i 13. 
 
 A portion of the fibre was further treated until the increase 
 of weight amounted to 40 p.ct., and then analysed with the 
 following result : 
 
 Fe 2 O 3 = 14-0 p.ct. = 9*8 Fe N = 9-3 p.ct. CN. 
 
 Fe:CN = 9| : 9L3 = . I7S . 0-357 = 1 : 2. 
 56 20 
 
 By the continued interaction of the fibre- substance and the 
 ferric fcrricyanide the Fe'" appears to be deoxidised, and in 
 exhausting the fibre-substance with dilute alkali in the cold, 
 ferrocyanide is dissolved, as of course is to be expected. 
 
 It is obvious that we are dealing with an aggregate and 
 the product of a mixed reaction ; the ratios Fe 2 (CN) 6 and 
 Fe 3 (CN) 6 determined as above for the product in successive 
 stages are therefore not to be taken as more than approximate 
 indications of the composition of the colouring matter deposited 
 in the fibre. 
 
 The mechanism of the reaction and the question of the 
 composition of the resulting blue cyanide are further elucidated 
 by the following experiments : 
 
 Equivalent solutions were prepared as above, and in two 
 experiments with equal weights of fibre the solutions were 
 mixed in the proportions : 
 
 A. 3 of ferric chloride to 2 of ferricyanide \ 
 
Compound Celluloses 
 
 127 
 
 The results observed, which were somewhat unexpected, 
 are given below. 
 
 Increase of 
 weight in 
 fibre 
 
 Analysis of dyed product 
 
 Fe 2 0. 
 
 N 
 
 Ratio Fe : CN 
 
 P.ct. 
 2O 
 17 
 
 P.ct. 
 
 9-6 
 8-4 
 
 P.ct. 
 4-8 
 4-0 
 
 Fe 8 (CN) a 
 
 Fe 4 (CN) n 
 
 The N in these analyses was determined by the Kjeldahl 
 method, in the previous cases by the soda-lime combustion. 
 It appears, therefore, that the blue cyanide deposited in the 
 earlier stages of the reaction is fairly constant in composition 
 notwithstanding considerable variations in the proportions of 
 the reagents in the solution from which it is abstracted by the 
 fibre ; and the ratio of Fe to CN in the fibre cyanide complex 
 is approximately 1:3. By the last-cited experiment it is also 
 shown that the rearrangement of the Fe and (CN) which takes 
 place within the fibre-substance is to a certain extent inde- 
 pendent of the condition of the Fe in the solution, i.e. 
 whether added as basic Fe or ag in the ferricyanogen complex. 
 
 The main points of the reaction have been sufficiently 
 elucidated by the results described, and it is unnecessary to 
 put on record a large number of quantitative results which 
 merely confirm those already given. It should be noted, how- 
 ever, that the limit of the reaction has not been investigated : 
 on occasions we obtained increases of weight of 50 and even 
 80 p.ct, but at this degree of loading the natural lustre of 
 the fibre had given way to the dull and dusty look of a fibre 
 weighted to excess. 
 
 We have now to consider the mechanism of the reaction 
 which has been in some measure elucidated by further experi- 
 ments. 
 
 To explain it as the result of reduction of the ferric iron 
 
128 
 
 Cellulose 
 
 either of the chloride or the ferricyanide by the fibre-substance 
 will be found to be inadequate. The following experiments 
 show that either reagent taken singly is but slightly affected by 
 prolonged contact with the fibre-substance. 
 
 Equal weights (2-835 g rm s.) of the purified fibre were 
 placed 
 
 (a) In a solution (30 c.c.) of FeCl 3 r6 grm. per 100 c.c. 
 
 (b) In a solution (30 c.c.) of K 3 FeCy 6 3*3 grms. per 
 100 c.c. 
 
 (c) In a solution prepared by mixing the above (30 c.c. of 
 each). 
 
 After standing some hours (a) and (b) were squeezed and 
 interchanged, and left some minutes. The fibre from each 
 was then washed off, dried, and weighed with the following 
 results : 
 
 
 
 Weight of dyed fibre 
 
 Increase of weight 
 
 Colour 
 
 
 
 P.ct. 
 
 
 () 
 (*) 
 
 2-93I 
 
 2-846 
 
 3'3 
 0'3 
 
 Indigo-blue 
 Medium-blue 
 
 w 
 
 3-550 
 
 25-2 
 
 Blue-black 
 
 It appears, therefore, that the lignocelluloses absorb but 
 little 1 oxide from a neutral solution of ferric chloride, and 
 there is only partial reduction of the oxide so fixed : and also 
 that ferricyanide is slightly reduced by the fibre-substance in 
 neutral solution and without sensible combination with the 
 ferricyanogen or ferrocyanogen group. 
 
 The reaction in question is therefore specific as between 
 the ferric ferricyanide and the fibre-substance. 
 
 That the formation and fixation of the blue product is not 
 the result of reduction in the liquid is further shown by the fact 
 
 1 The maximum we have observed to be taken up from a normal solu- 
 tion of the chloride is 0-4 p.ct. , and that after 48 hours' immersion. 
 
Compound Celluloses 129 
 
 that it is not appreciably affected by the presence of oxidising 
 agents such as chromic acid. 
 
 The alternative conclusion is that it is due to a coagulation 
 or precipitation of the ferric ferricyanide by the fibre-substance, 
 in the first instance, followed by a rearrangement of its con- 
 stituents by specific combination with the fibre constituents. 
 
 Collateral evidence in support of this view is afforded by 
 the behaviour of the ferricyanide with another typical colloid, 
 viz. gelatin. Solutions of gelatin give with the ferric ferri- 
 cyanide a voluminous coagulum of a greenish colour, and the 
 reaction is approximately a quantitative one, but of course 
 depending to some extent upon the conditions of precipitation. 
 The following relations were determined : 
 
 One series of experiments 
 
 A white gelatin (containing 16*5 p.ct. hygroscopic mois- 
 ture and 2-86 p.ct. ash constituents) was weighed out in 
 quantities of 2 grms. (=1-613 dry an< ^ ash-free gelatin) and 
 dissolved. The solutions were variously diluted and treated 
 with half decinormal solution of the ferric ferricyanide added 
 from a burette. 
 
 (1) To completely precipitate in the cold 23 c.c. were 
 required. 
 
 (2) To completely precipitate at 50 C. 24-5 were required 
 
 (3) To a third quantity 32 c.c. of the ferricyanide solution 
 were added. 
 
 The precipitates were collected, dried, and weighed ; the 
 weights were: (i) 1*990; (2) 2-031; and (3) 2-077 respec- 
 tively. The mean weight 2*032 shows an increase of weight 
 of 2 1 '6 p.ct. An estimation of Fe 2 O 3 in the product gave 
 6'o p.ct., the proportion being rather lower than in the 
 case of the fibre-cyanide product, which, with the same gain 
 in weight, contains 7 p.ct. Fe<,O 3 . The coagulum is in this 
 case, however, only slightly blue, darkening gradually on 
 
 K 
 
1 30 Cellulose 
 
 standing. On treatment with a reducing agent such as dilute 
 sulphurous acid, the coagulum swells to a deep blue transparent 
 jelly. 
 
 This interaction of gelatin and ferric ferricyanide is there- 
 fore rather of the character of a simple coagulation or combina- 
 tion of colloids by dehydration. 
 
 We have reason for assuming a similar relationship between 
 the fibre-colloid and the ferricyanide as the first cause of the 
 precipitation. The conversion of the colourless into the 
 coloured cyanide may be then accounted for by what we know 
 of the constitution of the fibre-substance. 
 
 We have in this complex all the conditions (i) for a 
 deoxidation of Fe"', (2) for union with ferric and ferrous 
 oxides, and (3) combination with HCN. 
 
 Such changes as would be determined by these relations, 
 when brought into play, are of the minor order and consistent 
 with the characteristics of the product, i.e. an intimate mole- 
 cular union of the complex fibre-substance, slightly oxidised at 
 the expense of ferric oxide, and the ferroso- ferric cyanide. 
 
 Further investigation has confirmed the interpretation 
 given in the communication which is reproduced above. It is 
 evidently a reaction in which the entire fibre -substance takes 
 part. The ferroso-ferric cyanide being a saline compound, and 
 the lignocellulose containing both acid and basic groupings in 
 combination, and being in that sense analogous to the inorganic 
 salts, the reaction may be regarded as in the main a species of 
 double-salt formation. In this respect it stands on the same 
 footing as the majority of dyeing reactions. But in the forma- 
 tion of the blue ferroso-ferric cyanide from the red ferricyanide 
 the special chemistry of the lignocellulose comes into play. 
 It may be fairly assumed that the deoxidation of the ferric 
 oxide is due to aldehydic groups, the fixation of hydro- 
 cyanic acid may be referred to aldehydic and ketonic oxygen, 
 
Compound Celluloses 131 
 
 the fixation of ferroso-ferric oxide more particularly to the 
 quinone or keto R. hexene groups of the non-celhrose ; the 
 resulting combinations being, however, rather of a ' molecular ' 
 character, they reunite to form the coloured lake or 'double salt ' 
 represented by the dyed fibre. Without reference, however, to 
 explanations of the mechanism of the reactions, which are for 
 the present more or less hypothetical, the following are the 
 facts to be emphasised in conclusion : 
 
 (1) It is a reaction in which the lignocellulose manifests 
 itself as a homogeneous compound. 
 
 (2) It is unique in the range of dyeing phenomena both in 
 regard to the formation of the colouring matter by definite 
 chemical reaction, and the very large proportion in which it is 
 fixed by the fibre-substance. 
 
 This aspect of the reaction will be found discussed in the origi- 
 nal paper (loc. cit.\ and in a second communication on the sub- 
 ject (J. Soc. Chem. Ind., April 1894) in reply to criticisms by 
 C. O. Weber (ibid., March 1894). 
 
 Compounds of Lignocellulose with Negative 
 Radicals. (a) Lignocellulose esters. (i) Benzoates. The 
 interaction of the lignocelluloses with the alkaline hydrates 
 and benzoyl chloride has been only superficially investigated. 
 Fixation of the benzoyl radical certainly takes place ; the fibre- 
 substance gains considerably in weight (36 p.ct.), and analyses 
 of the products give results corresponding with the empirical 
 formula C^H^O^, which represents the fixation of i benzoyl 
 residue upon the empirical molecule Ci 2 H 18 O 9 of lignocellu- 
 lose. This proportion is about one half that of cellulose 
 (C, 2 H2oO 10 ) under the same conditions. The result accords 
 with the observation of the partial yielding only of the fibre- 
 substance under the thiocarbonate reaction. From both we 
 may conclude that the ratio of alcoholic OH to the total oxygen 
 of the lignocellulose is low in comparison with cellulose. 
 
 K 2 
 
132 Cellulose 
 
 (2) Acetates. The fibre-substance reacts directly with 
 acetic anhydride at its boiling point ; the product shows a con- 
 siderable gain in weight upon the original lignocellulose, and its 
 reactions are altogether different. It will be obvious that the 
 product in this case will not stand in simple relationship to the 
 parent molecule. In the first place the CO.CH 2 groupings of 
 the lignocellulose are liable to further condensation and re- 
 arrangement ; under the condensing action of the anhydride 
 furfural groupings may be completed, which would then react 
 with the anhydride to form furfuracrylic acid (Berl. Ber. 1894, 
 286), which, again, would condense with the OH groups of the 
 cellulose ; and lastly, the keto R. hexene rings are open to 
 reaction with the anhydride in various ways. In view of these 
 various directions of probable reaction, and the further com- 
 plications in regard to the analysis of the product, resulting from 
 the presence of CO.CH 2 and CH 2 .CO.O residues in the ligno- 
 cellulose molecule, the investigation of the reaction is deferred 
 until the constitution of the fibre-substance itself is elucidated. 
 It cannot then fail to afford confirmatory evidence of great 
 value, both as to the constitution of the constituent groups 
 and their mutual relationships within the molecule. 
 
 (3) Nitrates. The * nitration ' of the jute fibre has been 
 studied by O. Miihlhauser (Dingl. J. 283, 88) and the authors. 
 On plunging the fibre into the well-cooled 'nitrating' acid 
 (H 2 SO 4 -fHNO 3 ) it is instantly coloured to a dark red. After 
 remaining in the acid for about 5 minutes, evolution of 
 gaseous products is observed. If the fibre be then removed 
 and rapidly washed, the red colour of the nitrate gives place to 
 a golden yellow. The product when dry is found to be some- 
 what weakened (disintegrated) by the treatment, and harsher to 
 the touch than the original jute. It is, of course, explosive, and 
 takes fire at 160-170. It is soluble in acetic acid and acetone, 
 and is gelatinised by nitrobenzene and acetic acid. 
 
Compound Celluloses 
 
 133 
 
 The following results of experiments (Miihlhauser) may be 
 cited. The fibre-substance was purified previously to nitration 
 by boiling in alkaline solution (i p.ct.NaOH), thorough wash- 
 ing, and drying at 100. The acids used in nitration were 
 of maximum strength. 
 
 The results may be given in the form of a table as under : 
 
 Ratio of acids in nitrating 
 mixture (by weight) 
 
 Proportion of 
 mixture to 
 fibre (by 
 weight) 
 
 Duration 
 of nitration 
 (, hours ) 
 
 Yield of 
 nitrate 
 p.ct. 
 
 Containing N 
 p.ct. (Eder's 
 method) 
 
 
 
 
 
 (i) (z> 
 
 iH.SO 4 iHNO, 
 
 10 : i 
 
 I 
 
 130 
 
 12-10 II'SO 
 
 2 
 
 15 i 
 
 2} 
 
 132 
 
 12-26 I2-O4 
 
 3 
 
 15: i 
 
 3 
 
 136 
 
 12-03 11 '80 
 
 2 > 
 
 15: i 
 
 3-4 
 
 H5 
 
 12-03 11-96 
 
 The products were purified by exhaustively washing, diges- 
 tion in dilute solution of Na 2 CO 3 , and again washing. 
 
 An extended series of observations by the authors established 
 the following points : 
 
 (1) A gradual increase in yield with increase in duration of 
 exposure to the nitrating acid (at ordinary temperatures) up to 
 5-6 minutes, the maximum of 145 p.ct. being then attained. 
 
 (2) After that oxidation supervenes, soluble products are 
 formed, and the yield of insoluble nitrate diminishes. 
 
 (3) The increase in yield again observed on prolonged 
 exposure is a secondary result of the decomposition, alcoholic 
 OH groups being liberated from combination and then taking 
 part in the reaction. 
 
 A microscopic examination of the nitrated fibre (Miihl- 
 hauser) showed that nitration by prolonged exposure was 
 attended by resolution of the fibre-bundles into ultimate fibres, 
 and these showed a shrinkage in volume (diameter). 
 
 With the view of testing the homogeneity of the product, 
 specimens were exposed to the graduated action of alkaline 
 
1 34 Cellulose 
 
 solutions. One of these, digested 52 hours with sodium 
 hydrate solution (i p.ct. NaOH), sustained a loss of 22 p.ct. in 
 weight. The insoluble residue, on analysis, was found to 
 contain 12-3 p.ct. N. A second specimen, heated with a 
 0*5 p.ct. solution of sodium carbonate 3 hours at 90-100, 
 lost 25 p.ct. of its weight. The residue gave, on analysis, 
 12-25 P- ct - N. 
 
 From these observations, which the authors can fully 
 confirm, the important conclusion was drawn by Miihlhauser, 
 and may be given in his own words : 
 
 ' Auch in diesem Falle hatte eine gradweise Abspaltung 
 nicht stattgefunden : die Zerstorung erstreckte sich, wie in 
 alien Fallen, auf das ganze Molecul.' The lignocellulose 
 behaves under nitration as a homogeneous body. It is important 
 to note at this point the convergence to this same conclusion, 
 of the evidence drawn from three independent lines of investi- 
 gation : (i) the general physiology of the elaboration of the 
 fibre ; (2) the resistance of the fibre-substance, so far as regards 
 the union of the constituent groups, to the action of hydrolytic 
 agents ; and (3) the homogeneous nature of the products of 
 synthesis, such as the nitrates just described. This evidence 
 compels the view that the fibre-substance is not merely a 
 mixture of cellulose with * non -cellulose ' constituents, but that 
 these are compacted together into a homogeneous, though 
 complex molecule, by bonds of union of a strictly * atomic ' 
 character. 
 
 (b) Compounds of Lignocellulose with the Halo- 
 gens, (i) Chlorine. The reaction of the fibre-substance with 
 chlorine has been already described. We have now to deal 
 more particularly with the product. 
 
 The derivative in question is dissolved in large proportion 
 by treating the chlorinated fibre with alcohol after first washing 
 (to remove HC1) and squeezing. The alcoholic solution may 
 
Compound Celluloses 135 
 
 be concentrated by evaporation, and on then pouring into 
 water, the product is precipitated in yellow flocks. On washing, 
 and drying at 100, and analysing, it gives the following 
 results : 
 
 Calc. C I9 H 18 C1A 
 
 C 42-82 .... 42-85 
 
 H 3-40 .... 3-38 
 
 Cl 26-83 .... 26-69 
 
 The product, obtained as above described from various 
 specimens of fibre, has been repeatedly analysed. It has been 
 analysed after fractional precipitation from solution in glacial 
 acetic acid ; also, after, then again exposing for a long period to 
 an atmosphere of chlorine gas, followed by suitable purification, 
 and always with results in close concordance with the above. 
 It is evident, therefore, that we are dealing with a complex of 
 a definite character. This complex is the tignin of earlier 
 observers, but which, in recognition of its ketonic characteristics, 
 is better termed lignone. From the fibre-substance exposed 
 to the action of dilute sulphuric acid (5 p.ct. H 2 SO 4 ) for some 
 hours at 60-80 previously to chlorination, a derivative is 
 obtained, having identical characteristics and composition. 
 This further confirms the definite character of the lignone 
 complex, and the resistance of its constituent groups to hydro- 
 lytic actions. 
 
 The chlorination of the lignocellulose evidently resolves in 
 great measure the union of the lignone to the cellulose residue, 
 as the lignone chloride is largely dissolved away by exhaustive 
 treatment with simple solvents. The residue of chloride which 
 ultimately resists the solvent action gives the characteristic 
 reaction with sodium sulphite, and is probably therefore the 
 same product. The splitting off of the chloride is evidently a 
 secondary result, no doubt an effect of hydrolysis. It is to be 
 noted that the presence of water is essential tc the reaction ; 
 
1 36 Cellulose 
 
 the fibre-substance in the dry state does not react with chlorine 
 even when heated with the gas (60-80). 
 
 The residue, after removing the lignone chloride, is a 
 cellulose, containing, i.e. no ' unsaturated ' groups, but yield- 
 ing, on distillation with HC1, from 4 to 8 p.ct. furfural. It is to 
 he regarded, therefore, as a mixture of a normal cellulose (a) 
 and a cellulose (/?) which is readily condensed to furfural. 
 Since the total weight of furfural obtainable from the ligno- 
 cellulose is not affected by the chlorination, it may be con- 
 cluded that the ' furfuroids ' of the original lignocellulose are 
 in the main associated with the cellulose complex, and from 
 the yields of cellulose, that the principal constituent is this 
 ft cellulose constituting 20 p.ct. of the complex. It appears 
 from later researches of the authors that a proportion of 
 actual furfural derivatives, notably hydrodyfurfurals, are pre- 
 sent in the lignocellulose, to which, in fact, certain of their 
 characteristic colour reactions are to be ascribed. These, 
 however, are small in amount, and being easily removed, 
 without affecting the essential character of the lignocellulose, 
 may be regarded as products of secondary changes. 
 
 In the reaction of the lignocellulose with chlorine it is 
 found that HC1 is formed approximately equal in weight to 
 the Cl, combining as lignone chloride. It is to be concluded, 
 therefore, that the reaction is simple and unattended by 
 secondary oxidations of any moment. 
 
 The lignone complex when chlorinated, though readily 
 removed from the cellulose, has not been further resolved by 
 any treatments which can be accounted for by quantitative 
 statistics. The evidences as to its constitution are as follows : 
 (i) As regards the constituent group which combines with 
 chlorine. The lignone chloride when carefully heated gives a 
 sublimate containing chloroquinones ; treated with nascent 
 hydrogen it yields trichloropyrogallol ; the reaction with 
 sodium sulphite is identical with that of the chlorinated deriva- 
 
Compound Celluloses 137 
 
 lives of pyrogallol, viz. mairogallol and leucogallol. These 
 chlorides in turn have been shown to be derived from oxy- 
 quinone groups of the general type 
 /CH=CH X 
 
 co < c _ _ C > CH ' 
 
 (OH), (OH), 
 
 (Hantzsch and Schniter, Berl. Ber. 20, 2023.) 
 the presence of which in the lignone complex consistently 
 accounts for the most characteristic features of the ligno- 
 cellulose. (2) The residue of the lignine complex, while of 
 similar empirical composition, i.e. approximately, C 2n H 2n O n , 
 has very different constitutional relationships. Since it readily 
 breaks down under the action of dilute chromic acid in the 
 cold, to acetic acid as a main product, it might be formulated 
 by one of the many alternative CO-CH 2 groupings ; and with 
 the keto-R.-hexene groups above the entire complex may be 
 expected to show the constitutional features of the pyrone group. 
 
 The further chlorination of the lignone chloride in solution in 
 glacial acetic acid has been studied by the authors (J. Chem. Soc. 
 1883,43, 18-21). 
 
 The products investigated were obtained from jute (a), and 
 from the fibre (f.v.b.) of the monocotyledonous Musa paradisiaca 
 (b). The analysis of the further chlorinated products showed a 
 higher percentage of chlorine (3375), the results also establishing 
 for both products the empirical formula C 38 H 44 C1 U O 16 . The re- 
 action needs further investigation. 
 
 The similarity should be noted of the empirical formulae of the 
 halogenated derivatives of these unsaturated fibre-compounds with 
 those established by Sestini for the so-called sacchulmic com- 
 pounds (Gazzetta, 1882, 292 ; J. Chem. Soc. 1882, 1182). These 
 compounds are obtained from the carbohydrates by various 
 processes of dehydration, and, more particularly, spontaneous de- 
 compositions or decay of vegetable (cellulosic) matter (* humus '). 
 
 (2) Bromine. Bromine attacks the lignocelluloses in 
 presence ot water ; the brominated compound which results 
 
138 Cellulose 
 
 resembles the quinone chloride above described, but the re- 
 action with this halogen is relatively incomplete. After remov- 
 ing the brominated product by hydrolysis with alkaline solutions, 
 and again exposing to bromine water, further reaction of the 
 same kind ensues. Proceeding in this way the lignone con- 
 stituent is completely removed as alkali soluble derivatives, 
 and cellulose is isolated. 
 
 If, on the other hand, the lignocellulose be dissolved in 
 the ZnCl 2 .HCl reagent (p. 9) and bromine added, the con- 
 ditions are more favourable for combination. On precipitating 
 by water, after standing some time, a brominated derivative is 
 obtained, containing 10*2 p.ct. Br (equivalent to 4-5 p.ct. Cl). 
 After standing 16 hours, during which period the cellulose 
 is largely hydrolysed to soluble derivatives, a brominated 
 derivative is obtained, containing 19-5 p.ct. Br (equivalent 
 to 8 p.ct. Cl). Even under these conditions, therefore, the 
 bromine is taken up in considerably less proportion than 
 the chlorine. When the lignone is completely isolated 
 from the cellulose, e.g. by digestion with alkalis at elevated 
 temperatures, it is then brominated in higher proportion. 
 Compounds C 17 H, 4 Br 4 O 6 , C 1<5 H 12 Br 4 O 5 , CsjH^gB^Oio have 
 been obtained from the non-cellulose of esparto, isolated from 
 the alkaline by-products of the papermaker's boiling or pulping 
 process (p. 209 ; J. Chem. Soc. 41, 94). 
 
 (3) Iodine. The lignocelluloses absorb iodine from its 
 aqueous solution and are coloured a deep brown. The re- 
 action has been quantitatively investigated, showing that jute 
 takes up 12*5 p.ct from decinormal solution in potassium iodide, 
 but the proportion varies according to the concentration of 
 the solution and conditions of the digestion. When these are 
 kept uniform the proportion of the halogen absorbed is con- 
 stant. The resulting compound, however, is of a loose descrip- 
 tion, the iodine being easily removed by solvents. 
 
Compound Celluloses 
 
 139 
 
 The following experiments with iodine solution in potassium 
 
 10 
 iodide may be cited : 
 
 Weight of fibre 
 
 Vol. and composition of solution 
 
 Absorption p.ct. 
 
 2-II7 
 
 2-635 
 2726 
 2-463 
 2'50O 
 
 6oc.c. s l 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 3 
 
 30 
 
 12-2 
 
 II'3 
 
 13-0 
 
 9-0 
 9-8 
 
 The absorption, therefore, depends upon the ratio of fibre-sub- 
 stance to iodine solution. This is more clearly shown by the 
 following parallel determinations : 
 
 Weight of fibre 
 
 Vol. and comp sition of solution 
 
 Absorption p.ct. 
 
 2-223 
 
 2-374 
 2-560 
 
 22'2 C.C.^Ll + 22 C.C. Aq 
 
 237 i +47 '4 
 25-6 +76-8 
 
 6-01 
 4'8 
 3-2 
 
 It was finally established that, on digesting the fibre-substance at 
 1 8 C. with twenty times its weight of the iodine solution as 
 ordinarily prepared, the absorption is constant at 12-9-1 3-3 p.ct. 
 
 It is to be noted that the celluloses also absorb a certain 
 proportion of iodine under similar conditions, viz. 3-4 p.ct. 
 when digested with 20 times their weight of the decinormal 
 solution. 
 
 Decompositions of Lignocelluloses, with Reso- 
 lution into Constituent Groups. We have already 
 shown that the lignocelluloses are attacked by hydrolytic 
 agents and partially resolved into soluble products. These 
 products, though doubtless of lower molecular weight than 
 the original fibre-substance, preserve its essential characteristics, 
 and the results show that the lignocellulose reacts as a homo- 
 geneous compound. When exposed, on the other hand, to the 
 
140 Cellulose 
 
 action of bodies which selectively attack particular groups, its 
 highly complex constitution is brought into evidence. 
 
 The reactions with the halogens just described, although 
 reactions of combination, also partake of the character of 
 decompositions, as the evidence has shown. We have now to 
 deal with the decompositions of the lignocellulose in their 
 order, and to emphasise the evidence which they afford as to 
 the relationships of the constituent groups of its complex 
 molecule. 
 
 (i) Non-oxidising acids. (a) Hydrochloric acid. The fibre- 
 substance boiled with the acid of moderate concentration 
 (i - o6 sp.gr.) is profoundly attacked. Furfural distils, and may 
 be quantitatively estimated as already described (p. 99). 
 
 The residue is a brownish-black mass of high carbon 
 percentage, presenting some features of resemblance with the 
 original, chiefly in its reactions with chlorine and nitric acid. 
 It is an ill-defined complex, however, and has been only super- 
 ficially investigated. 
 
 (b) Hydriodic acid acts similarly in the earlier stages ot 
 its action. The reaction with this hydracid is made use of in 
 the quantitative estimation of the O.CH 3 groups of the ligno- 
 cellulose. The following determinations have been made in 
 normal specimens : 
 
 (0 (2) 
 
 OCH, . 4*5 4 -6 p. ct. of lignocellulose 
 
 The acid acts, of course, as a deoxidising acid, and the 
 residue of the reaction is deserving of investigation with the 
 view to determine the limit of deoxidation. 
 
 (c] Sulphuric acid. The dilute acid at the boiling tempera- 
 ture acts similarly to hydrochloric acid ; the volatile products 
 of the decomposition are furfural and acetic acid. In the con- 
 centrated acid the lignocellulose dissolves, forming a purple 
 brown solution. On pouring the solution into water a 
 
Compound Celluloses 141 
 
 'condensed' product is precipitated in dark brown flocks; 
 when dried it has the following composition : 
 
 C 64-4 
 
 H .... 4*4 
 
 O 31*2 
 
 On diluting and distilling, acetic acid is obtained. The 
 amount formed in this way is 4-5 p.ct. of the lignocellulose. 
 Acetic acid is therefore a product of hydrolysis of the ligno- 
 cellulose, which contains a certain proportion of CH 2 .CO.O 
 groups. 
 
 Nitric acid (dilute), in presence of urea, acts as a 
 non-oxidising acid, and similarly to the above. 
 
 Other acids act in similar directions, and in greater or less 
 degree, according to the nature of the acid and the conditions 
 of its action. 
 
 Alkalis. The hydrolysing action of the alkalis in boiling 
 aqueous solution has already been discussed. 
 
 At elevated temperatures (150-180) solutions of the 
 alkaline hydrates (2-3 p.ct. Na^O) effect a complete resolution 
 of the cellulose and lignone, the latter being obtained in 
 solution in the form of acid derivatives. In addition to 
 acetic acid the solution contains acids of high carbon per- 
 centage, which are precipitated on adding mineral acids to the 
 alkaline solution. These bodies have been investigated by 
 Lange (Zeitschr. Physiol. Chem. 14, 217), but as the products 
 described by him were obtained from lignocelluloses of another 
 group viz. the woods and under more severe conditions of 
 treatment, they will be dealt with subsequently. Jute, however, 
 yields very similar products, viz. acid bodies of high carbon 
 percentage (60-6 1), giving Cl substitution derivatives. The 
 cellulose retains residues of these bodies, but they are easily 
 eliminated by treatment with hypochlorite solution. The 
 cellulose is then obtained as a white pulp, consisting of the 
 
142 Cellulose 
 
 disintegrated fibre-elements or ultimate fibres. The yield from 
 normal specimens is about 60 p.ct. Only the more resistant 
 cellulose a survives the treatment, the cellulose /3, together with 
 the lignone complex, being converted into soluble derivatives. 
 
 Extreme action of alkaline hydrates. With the caustic 
 alkalis in concentrated solution and at temperatures exceed- 
 ing 120, much more drastic decompositions take place, 
 the entire molecule being attacked. For complete resolution 
 into simple molecules (oxalic, acetic, and carbonic acids) the 
 proportion of alkaline hydrate to lignocellulose requires to be 
 2-3 to i, and the temperature raised to 250, and maintained 
 at that point for some hours. Thus, on heating jute for 8 
 hours at 250 with 3 times its weight of KOH, the yields of 
 the main products were : acetic acid, 37-0 p.ct. ; oxalic acid, 
 53-3 p.ct. of the lignocellulose (J. Soc. Chem. Ind. n, 966). 
 The action is an oxidising action, in the sense that hydrogen 
 is expelled ; gaseous carbon compounds (CO, CH 4 ) are formed 
 in relatively small quantities. 
 
 DECOMPOSITIONS BY OXIDANTS. (i) Acid. Certain of 
 these are more important as contributing to the elucidation of 
 constitutional points. 
 
 (a) Chromic add. The direction of attack of this oxidant 
 depends upon the auxiliary conditions, chiefly upon the 
 presence of hydrolysing acids. With the CrO 3 alone, the 
 interaction with the lignocellulose is at first one of simple 
 combination ; afterwards the CrO 3 fixed is gradually deoxidised. 
 Under these circumstances the lignocellulose suffers a very 
 slight loss of weight. In presence of acids, however, the fibre- 
 substance loses in weight, and the insoluble residue is affected 
 more or less. The following results may be cited in illus- 
 tration : 
 
 CrO z alone. (i) 4*5 grms. jute, containing 0*7 p.ct. ash 
 constituents, digested 18 hours in i p.ct. solution CrO 3 
 
Compound Celluloses 
 
 143 
 
 (2500.0.) at 15-18. Weight of product, 4-5 5 grms. ; with ash, 
 5'o p.ct. ; CrO 3 fixed, equivalent to 4*2- p.ct. Cr a O 3 . 
 
 (2) 1-8 grm. fibre ; 100 c.c. i p.ct. CrO 3 ; 16 hours at 15*. 
 Product, 1-82 grm. ; ash, 4-3 ; CrO 3 fixed, equivalent to 37 p.ct. 
 Cr 2 O 3 . 
 
 CrO 3 and acetic add. r8 grm. fibre; 100 c.c. I p.ct. 
 CrO 3 containing 4 grms. acetic acid : (a) digested 16 hours, 
 (&) digested 20 hours. 
 
 Product 
 
 P.ct. of original 
 
 Ash p.ct. 
 
 C p.ct. in product 
 
 (a) 170 
 (*) I'6S 
 
 94 '4 
 917 
 
 1-8 
 1-8 
 
 43'2 42-8 
 42-O 
 
 The products were largely soluble in dilute alkaline solutions ; 
 the lignocellulose reactions were faint ; the characteristics of 
 the products were those of the oxycelluloses. 
 
 CrO- 3 and sulphuric acid (dilute). (i) o'9 grm. fibre ; 100 c.c. 
 solution containing 0-874 CrO 3 and H 2 SO 4 : (a) r6 grm., (b) 
 3-2 grms., (c) 4-8 grms. 
 
 Product 
 
 P.ct. of original 
 
 CrOa consumed 
 
 
 
 (a) 0-840 
 
 (6) 0-801 
 (c) 0768 
 
 93'3 
 89-0 
 
 3 5 -3 
 
 0-510 
 0-470 
 0-430 
 
 Traces only of 
 gaseous pro- 
 ducts evolved 
 
 The solution of the fibre-substance increases with the increase 
 of hydrolysing acid ; the deoxidation of the CrO 3 slightly de- 
 creasing. 
 
 (2) Jute, 0-9 grm. ; 100 c.c. solution containing variable 
 quantities of CrO 3 and H 2 SO 4 as under (CrO 3 solution, 0*842 
 CrO 3 per 10 c.c. ; H 2 SO 4 = 7-59 per 10 c.c.) : 
 
 
 
 (0 
 
 (2) 
 
 (3) 
 
 (4) 
 
 CrO, solution . 
 H SO 4 solution 
 
 IO C.C. 
 10 C.C. 
 
 15 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 25 
 
 Yield of oxycellulose 
 
 72-8 p.ct. 
 
 65-0 
 
 53-3 
 
 45^ 
 
144 Cellulose 
 
 The oxycelluloses obtained were soluble in alkaline solutions 
 and in nitric acid (1*43 sp.gr.). Under these more severe con- 
 ditions there is an increasing evolution of gas, and from (4) 
 75 c.c. were collected. 
 
 In the process of oxidising with chromic acid in presence of a 
 hydrolysing acid (H 2 SO 4 ), acetic acid is formed. Oxidised by its 
 own weight of CrO 3 in presence of excess of normal sulphuric acid, 
 the fibre- substance yields from 12-13 P-ct. C 2 H 4 O 2 . 
 
 It is evident that chromic acid oxidations of the fibre-sub- 
 stance can be controlled within any prescribed limits. From 
 the investigations, of which the above are typical series of 
 experiments, it was concluded 
 
 (i) That the keto R. hexene groups yield most readily to 
 the action, and may in fact be selectively attacked and elimi- 
 nated ; (2) that with a net loss of weight of 10 p.ct. the ligno- 
 cellulose is converted into an oxycellulose containing 42-43 
 p.ct. carbon, and yielding the same percentage of furfural (HC1 
 distillation) as the original fibre. The furfural-yielding com- 
 plex is not, therefore, radically affected by the treatment. (3) 
 As the amount of oxygen expended (CrO 3 deoxidised) is rela- 
 tively small approximately i mol. per unit weight C, 2 H, 8 O 9 
 of lignoceliulose and would appear to be chiefly consumed 
 in oxidising the portion passing into solution, the relatively 
 large reduction in carbon percentage of the insoluble residue is 
 due to simultaneous fixation of water. (4) It appears, in fact, 
 that the furfural-yielding complex is by such action converted 
 into an oxycellulose. 
 
 Chromic Acid and Sulphuric Acid (Cone.). When the ligno- 
 cclluloses are dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid, the addition 
 of chromic acid determines complete combustion of the carbon to 
 gaseous products CO 2 and CO. The proportion of CO formed is 
 usually very small. As both gases, however, have the same mole- 
 cular volume, a determination of the total gas evolved gives by 
 calculation the carbon contents of the substance. The method is 
 
Compound Celluloses 145 
 
 available for analytical purposes, and will be found fully described 
 in J. Chem. Soc. 53, 889. 
 
 As i mgr. of lignocellulose gives approximately 0*9 c.c. CO 2 
 under ordinary conditions, it will be seen that trustworthy results 
 can be obtained with very small quantities of substance ; and as 
 the entire operation takes only a very few minutes, the method is ex- 
 tremely useful for rapid approximate analyses of products obtained 
 in the course of investigation. 
 
 () Nitric acid. In the interaction of nitric acid with the 
 fibre-substance, in presence of sulphuric acid, it has been 
 already shown that decomposition (oxidation) supervenes after 
 a few minutes' exposure. The acid (1*5 sp.gr.) alone attacks the 
 lignocellulose still more rapidly and energetically ; as the oxi- 
 dation is of a * wholesale ' character, its investigation would not 
 throw much light upon the constitution of the fibre-substance. 
 The acid of 1-43 sp.gr. acts more gradually; there is direct 
 combination in the first instance attended by deoxidation. A 
 yellow product is obtained differing but little in weight from 
 the original, and containing 2*0-2*5 P- c *- N. With the pro- 
 gress of the oxidation there is considerable disintegration of 
 the fibre-substance and conversion into soluble derivatives, 
 but of an ill-defined character. With the dilute acid, on the 
 other hand, a very gradual resolution ensues, and the reaction 
 has been carefully investigated. The main results determined 
 are these : the lignocellulose is entirely resolved into insoluble 
 cellulose (a) and soluble derivatives of the remaining groups, 
 with a proportion of acid (HNO 3 ) equal to 25 p.ct. of the fibre- 
 substance. The specific action of the acid takes place at any 
 dilution not exceeding 30 Aq : iHNO 3 (by weight), and any 
 temperature within the range 40-100. The most convenient 
 conditions are with the acid at 7-10 p.ct. HNO 3 and temperature 
 60-80. Under these conditions there is considerable evolution 
 of gas, and of very complex composition. 
 
 The course of the reaction may be thus described. The 
 
 L 
 
146 Cellulose 
 
 lignocellulose is changed in colour to a bright yellow which 
 gradually changes to lemon yellow, and after some hours' diges- 
 tion, to white. If the digestion be interrupted at the yellow 
 stage, the fibre washed and digested with boiling alcohol, a 
 bright yellow solution is obtained ; and on driving off the 
 alcohol a gummy body is left, characterised by great instability, 
 reducing Fehling's solution in the cold, yielding furfural on 
 boiling with acids, and progressively decomposed on heating at 
 100 (in presence of water) with evolution of gaseous products. 
 The substance retains from 1-2 p.ct. N, but in a very un- 
 stable form, being entirely split off on heating with water. 
 This ill-defined product we may term, for obvious reasons, the 
 intermediate body. These results will be appreciated from 
 the following statement of the final products of the decom- 
 position. 
 
 Lignocellulose and Dilute Nitric Acid. 
 , *^^ mm ^ m ^ mi ___ ^ 
 
 Solid products : Cellulose a Oxalic acid Intermediate 
 
 63-66 p.ct. 4-0-5-5 p.ct. body, 5-3-5-8 
 Volatile acid: Acetic acid, 14-18 p.ct. 
 
 Gaseous products \ From H NO* From fibre-substance 
 
 N,0 4 . N 2 2 . N 2 0. N 2 . HCN CO.. CO. HCN 
 (Representing about 50 p.ct. 
 of the N of the HNO 3 ) 
 
 The most notable features of the decomposition are 
 (i) As regards theHNO 3 (a) The reaction depends upon 
 the presence of nitrous acid ; the addition of urea entirely 
 arrests the specific action of the acid, and it then behaves 
 exactly as the non-oxidising mineral acids, (b) The direct 
 deoxidation of nitric acid never proceeds beyond the formation 
 of NO ; the presence of N 2 O indicates the formation of a 
 hydroxime, and its decomposition by further reaction with 
 nitrous acid. The formation of HCN also appears to result from 
 the dehydration of a product of this nature, and this conclu- 
 sion is confirmed by the observation that HCN appears in 
 
Compound Celluloses 147 
 
 greatest quantity at the end of the reaction and as the tempera- 
 ture is raised to 100. (c) The presence of N 2 indicates a still 
 further deoxidation or hydrogenisation of the N to ammonia. 
 
 (2) As regards the fibre- substance, the keto R. hexene 
 groups are rapidly oxidised, and entirely broken down. No 
 ' aromatic ' products are formed, and the result is in perfect 
 accord with the general view we have taken of their consti- 
 tution. 
 
 The furfural-yielding complex and the fit-cellulose group 
 are more gradually resolved, and both probably contribute to 
 the large yield of acetic acid. It is obvious that the constitu- 
 tion of both groups is of a special type, unlike the normal 
 grouping of the carbohydrates. 
 
 The reaction has been also studied in connection with 
 another group of the lignocelluloses viz. the woods and will 
 be again referred to (p. 212). 
 
 Joint action of oxides of nitrogen and chlorine. F. Schulze's 
 method of eliminating the non-cellulose groups of the ligno- 
 celluloses, in the isolation and estimation of cellulose, has 
 been already described. It consists in a prolonged diges- 
 tion in the cold with nitric acid (ri sp.gr.), with addition of 
 a small proportion of potassium chlorate. The reaction has 
 not been investigated in regard to the by-products. The 
 mechanism of the decomposition will be evident from what 
 has been stated in regard to the actions of chlorine and of 
 nitric acid upon the lignocellulose. 
 
 (?) ALKALINE OXIDANTS. The actions of this group of 
 reagents are of considerable technical importance, as upon 
 them depend the various bleaching methods in common 
 practice ; but they have not been sufficiently investigated to 
 throw light on theoretical points. 
 
 Potassium permanganate acts, of course, as an oxidising 
 agent pure and simple. The limit of deoxidation in basic or 
 
 I. 2 
 
1 48 Cellulose 
 
 neutral solution is the oxide MnO 2 , which is deposited upon, 
 and in intimate combination with, the lignocellulose. If re- 
 moved by treatment with sulphurous acid it does not further 
 attack the lignocellulose, the treatment merely revealing the 
 bleaching action accomplished in this stage of the deoxidation. 
 By treatment with sulphuric acid the lignocellulose under- 
 goes further oxidation, and with hydrochloric acid chlorine is 
 liberated and combines with the fibre-substance. These re- 
 actions are, however, of little importance. The permanganate 
 bleach is too costly for general adoption in the case of jute 
 fabrics. From its simplicity, it is a useful treatment in the 
 laboratory, whether for removing coloured impurities from the 
 raw fibre, or from cellulosic products separated by any of the 
 processes already described. 
 
 Hypochlorites. Bleaching powder solution (calcium hypo- 
 chlorite) and the equivalent sodium compound act, in pre- 
 sence of excess of the base, as oxidising compounds ; but as 
 by oxidation and attendant hydrolysis, acid derivatives are 
 formed from the lignocellulose, the use of a ' neutral ' solution 
 of the bleaching solution often leads to chlorination of the 
 fibre-substances, owing to liberation of hypochlorous acid. 
 Neglect of this probability has led to disastrous results in the 
 bleaching of jute piece goods ; and a full discussion of the 
 matter, in both practical and theoretical bearings, will be found 
 in the Bull. Soc. Ind. Mulhouse, 1880. 
 
 The danger is avoided by ensuring the presence of excess 
 of base ; this is more easily controlled in solutions of the soda 
 compound, which are therefore to be preferred. After 
 bleaching with the hypochlorites, the fibre or fabric should be 
 well washed, and plunged for a short time into sulphurous acid 
 solution which removes the last traces of oxidising compounds. 
 After again washing, the lignocellulose may be dried without 
 change of colour. 
 
Compound Celluloses 149 
 
 Hypobromites. The hypobromites of the alkalis attack 
 the lignocelluloses profoundly ; amongst the final products of 
 decomposition bromoform and carbon tetrabromide are ob- 
 tained in some quantity. (Compare N. Collie, J. Chem. Soc. 
 1894, 262, which contains the results of a general investiga- 
 tion of the reaction.) 
 
 In regard to the alkaline oxidants it may be said generally, 
 in conclusion, that they attack the non-cellulose constituents 
 of the lignocelluloses in greater degree, but their action extends 
 to the cellulose also. They are therefore of little present use 
 as * pioneer reagents,' and have moreover secured no syste- 
 matic investigation. 
 
 Other Decompositions of Lignocellulose. There 
 are a number of decompositions remaining to be described 
 which do not fall within any group classification : these will 
 now be dealt with in the order of their importance. 
 
 Interaction of lignocdlulose with sulphites and bisulphites. - 
 Jute, when heated at high temperatures with solutions of the 
 alkaline sulphites, or of the bisulphites of the alkaline earths, 
 is directly resolved into cellulose (insoluble) and soluble com- 
 pounds of the lignone complex with the sulphites. A similar 
 treatment of pine-wood, attended by the same results, is 
 the basis of the now highly developed * sulphite wood pulp ' 
 industry. The process and the reactions upon which it is 
 based will be described in detail in a later section ; and as the 
 general principles apply to the lignocellulose with which we 
 are dealing, it is unnecessary to anticipate the fuller treatment 
 of the subject. 
 
 The theory of the reaction is deducible from the following 
 considerations : The lignocellulose when heated with water 
 only, at high temperatures (140-160), is profoundly attacked ; 
 a considerable proportion of the fibre-substance passes into 
 solution (hydrolysis), and the residue of disintegrated fibre 
 
1 50 Cellulose 
 
 resembles the product obtained by digestion with dehydrating 
 acids. It is obvious, a priori, that a reaction of this kind will 
 proceed to the limit representing equilibrium between the 
 hydrolysing and condensing influences. If, now, a substance 
 be present capable of uniting with the products of hydrolysis 
 in such a way as to prevent them entering further into reaction, 
 the resolution will proceed without secondary complications to 
 the limit determined by the constitution of the lignocellulose. 
 Sodium sulphite is a reagent fulfilling these conditions : acid 
 products combine with the base, and aldehydic products with 
 the bisulphite residue. In this case, however, the hydrolysis 
 being thrown chiefly upon the water, a high temperature (i 60) 
 is required to effect complete decomposition. By substituting 
 bisulphites, the hydrolysis is aided from the first by sulphurous 
 acid, and the decomposition is completed at lower temperatures 
 (130-140). That the hydrolysing action of sulphurous acid is 
 a powerful factor is evident from the fact that an aqueous 
 solution of this acid, containing 7-8 p.ct. SO 2 (which, of course, 
 requires to be prepared under pressure), will itself resolve the 
 lignocellulose at the lower temperature of 95-105. The reac- 
 tion with the bisulphites is, however, in many respects simpler, 
 and complete decomposition is effected with solutions con- 
 taining 3-4 p.ct. SO 2 . 
 
 The yield of cellulose is 63-66 p.ct. of the lignocellulose, 
 and is composed therefore of the more resistant a cellulose ; 
 the /3-cellulose is hydrolysed under these conditions also, and 
 passes into solution with the lignone. The soluble derivatives 
 preserve the features of the original lignone ; combining with 
 the halogens to form substitution products, and yielding furfural 
 on boiling witn hydrochloric acid. All the reactions of the 
 product indicate that it is a sulphonated derivative of the 
 lignone complex of the original fibre. For the further discus- 
 sion of the reaction see p. 198. 
 
Compound Celluloses 151 
 
 The following observations upon the behaviour of the fibre when 
 treated with water at high temperatures may be cited. The experi- 
 ments were conducted in glass tubes. 
 
 (1) Heated 12 hours at noC. : Slightly attacked. Loss in 
 weight, ii-o p.ct. 
 
 (2) Heated 10 hours at 120-130: Onry slightly attacked. 
 Heated further 10 hours : Fibre disintegrated. Loss of weight, 
 27-5 p.ct. Solution contained furfural. 
 
 (3) Heated 9 hours at 140: Completely disintegrated. Loss 
 of weight, 22 -6 p.ct. 
 
 Analysis of Disintegrated Fibre* 
 
 C 48-30 p.ct. "I Yield of cellulose (Cl method), 76-8 p.ct. ; 
 H 5-16 p.ct. /calculated on original fibre, 59-5 p.ct. 
 
 (4) Heated with water and barium carbonate 9 hours at 140 : 
 Colour changed to brown. Fibre not disintegrated. Loss of 
 weight, 20-0 p.ct. Product yielded : cellulose, 79-3 p.ct. ; calcu- 
 lated on original, 63-5 p.ct. 
 
 (5) Heated with solution sodium sulphite (5 p.ct.) 10 hours at 
 120-130 : Loss of weight, 19-0 p.ct. Fibre disintegrated ; fibre 
 and solution colourless. Cellulose p.ct. on product, 84-6 ; p.ct. on 
 original fibre, 687. 
 
 (6) Heated with sodium bisulphite solution (2-6 p.ct. SO.,) 10 
 hours at 115: Fibre disintegrated; fibre and solution coljur- 
 less. Loss of weight, 19 p.ct. Cellulose p.ct. on product, 73-5 ; 
 p.ct. on original fibre, 65*4. 
 
 Animal digestion of the lignocelluloses. The urine of 
 the herbivora contains hippuric acid as a characteristic con- 
 stituent. The origin of this compound, and more particularly 
 its benzoyl group, has been the subject of considerable dis- 
 cussion and controversy, but the evidence points unmistakably 
 to the lignocelluloses of the various fodders as the source of 
 the product. It appears from what we now know of the con- 
 stitution of the lignone complex, that its R. hexene and 
 CO CH 2 groups may, without unduly straining the probabili- 
 ties, be regarded as undergoing transformation, in the processes 
 
152 Cellulose 
 
 of animal metabolism, to the compound in question. The 
 problem has been specially investigated by Meissner and 
 Sheppard (1866), Stutzer (Berl. Ber. 8, 575), Weiske (Ztschr. 
 Biol. 12, 24). 
 
 Spontaneous decomposition of the lignocelluloses. Jute is 
 sometimes baled in a damp state, or wetted by sea water in 
 course of shipment, and the fibre in the interior of such bales 
 is found to undergo considerable chemical change, attended 
 by structural disintegration. A specimen of the fibre thus dis- 
 integrated was found to present the following features : 
 
 Soluble in water ..... icro p.ct. 
 Soluble in i p.ct. NaOH . . . 23-0 ,, 
 Cellulose 60-4 58-8 
 
 The aqueous exhaust of the fibre was astringent to the 
 taste, was precipitated by gelatin solution, and gave coloured 
 reactions with iron salts. It was digested on barium car- 
 bonate, filtered, evaporated, and the residue resolved by 
 alcohol into (i) a soluble body of 'neutral' characteristics, 
 which on analysis gave numbers expressed by the empirical 
 formula C 26 H 34 O 16 . This substance, on fusion with potash, 
 gave some phloroglucol and a large yield of protocatechuic 
 acid. (2) An insoluble body, the Ba salt of an acid, which on 
 analysis gave numbers expressed by the formula BaC 2 9H 42 O 2 9. 
 The investigation of these products dates from 1880 
 (J. Chem. Soc. 41, 93), and they were not examined for 
 determination of the now well-established 'constants' (p. 157). 
 From the above results, only the main features of this sponta- 
 neous decomposition of the lignocellulose are evident, viz. a 
 resolution of the lignone complex into more and less oxidised 
 groups ; the latter representing transition to aromatic products 
 of definite and ascertained relationships, the former having 
 features in common with the group of pectic compounds. But 
 they have the additional interest of suggesting, in a very direct 
 
Compound Celluloses 153 
 
 way, the origin of the astringent substances or tannins, widely 
 distributed throughout the plant world ; and not only of the 
 tannins, but more generally derivatives of the trihydric phenols. 
 This problem is of the greatest interest both from the chemical 
 and physiological standpoints. It involves varied transitions 
 from aliphatic to cyclic compounds, and a prominent feature 
 of the synthetic activity of the plant, the elucidation of which 
 is the immediate objective of organic chemistry. 
 
 Of the endless variety of excreted products in vegetable growth 
 e.g. essential oils, waxes, alkaloids, and * aromatic ' products 
 the tannins have specially attracted the attention of physiologists. 
 An important monograph on the subject has recently appeared : 
 Grundlinien zu einer Physiologie des GerbstorTs, by G. Kraus, 
 Leipzig, 1888. The work contains the results of extensive experi- 
 mental investigation of the origin, distribution, fate, and function 
 of tannins in normal growths. A resumt of the evidence shows 
 generally : 
 
 (1) That the tannins are formed in leaves under the same con- 
 ditions as are necessary for general assimilation, but is an inde- 
 pendent process. The tannins thus formed are transmitted through 
 the leaf stalk, and distributed through the permanent structures. 
 
 (2) They are also formed in processes of growth in the dark, e.g. 
 growth of rhizomes, unfolding of buds, &c. 
 
 (3) Also in isolated cells and tissues, where they remain. 
 
 (4) The tannins take no further direct part in plant assimilation ; 
 they are end-products. 
 
 In dealing with the question of the sudden increase observed 
 in passing from the sap to the heart wood of many trees, the 
 author speaks as follows : * The only satisfactory explanation would 
 be the assumption that the tannin in this case is formed locally, i.e. 
 in the wood-tissue itself, the parent substance being the tissue of 
 the medullary rays and wood-parenchyma. As to the possible 
 mechanism of such a process, however, we are in total darkness.' 
 That, we venture to think, is no longer the case. 
 
 Destructive Distillation. The decomposition of jute 
 by destructive distillation has been specially investigated by 
 
154 Cellulose 
 
 Chorley and Ramsay, who obtained the following results 
 (J. Soc. Chem. Ind. n). 
 
 Weight of fibre .71 grms. 73 grms. 
 
 P.ct. P.ct. 
 
 Charcoal . . . . .2871 32*87 
 
 Total distillate . . 5770 43'iS 
 
 Carbonic anhydride . 12 -33 
 
 Other gases (and loss) ... H'65 
 
 100-00 
 
 Volume of gas .... 3,000 c.c. 2,500 c.c 
 per 100 grms. . . 4,220 3,420 
 
 Composition of Products p,ct. 
 
 f Carbon monoxide . . 
 
 Gas . \ Oxygen .... 
 
 I Residual gas . . . 
 
 P.ct. fibre 
 
 |- Tar ..... 1478 6-85 
 
 Distillate -I Acetic acid .... 0*40 1-40 
 
 I Methyl alcohol . . . 10-08 
 
 The chief features to be noted in the products are the low 
 yields of charcoal (compare p. 69) and acetic acid, and the 
 high yields of carbonic oxide and methyl spirit. The thermal 
 features of the decomposition are remarkable : heated gradually 
 to 320 the temperatures within the distilling flask and external 
 to it follow the ordinary course ; but at 320 (external) the 
 temperature within the flask rushes up to 375, the change 
 being marked by a much increased evolution of gas. 
 
 The destruction of a complex substance such as the ligno- 
 cellulose, by heat, involves a highly complicated web of reac- 
 tions, which it would be impossible to disentangle in detail 
 and in such a way as to throw light on the fate of particular 
 groups. In the main there are, of course, the two opposing 
 factors at work dissociation, giving products of lesser, to those 
 of the least molecular weight (gases) ; and condensation, giving 
 
Compound Celluloses 155 
 
 products of greater complexity, up to those of indefinite 
 molecular weight (charcoal or pseudo-carbon). More definite 
 features of the condensation are the closing of the C 4 O ring 
 (furfural) and the further condensation of the hexene to 
 benzene rings. But to study these and other changes in 
 reference to the parent molecule, it would be necessary to carry 
 out an elaborate series of quantitative observations, varying 
 not only the physical conditions of the distillation (temperature, 
 time, &c.), but the chemical factors by the admixture with the 
 fibre-substance of reagents of known function. Until we have 
 such results the imagination is free to go to work upon such 
 slender materials as are available. 
 
 General Conclusions as to the Composition and 
 Constitution of Jute Lignocellulose. Having thus set 
 forth the general chemistry of the typical lignocellulose, it is 
 important to select and bring together those facts which bear 
 more particularly upon the problem of its constitution. This 
 problem, it may be remarked, cannot be divorced from its 
 essentially physiological aspects : a plant is an assemblage not 
 merely of products, but of processes ; and in investigating a plant 
 tissue, we have not merely to ascertain the quantitative rela- 
 tionships of its constituents, but from the point of view of 
 physiology or organic function to distinguish between organic 
 and excreted products ; further, to endeavour to arrive at their 
 genetic relationships. The history of every tissue is one of 
 continuous modification, and the excreta of plants are, in many 
 cases, the last links of a long chain of transformations. Where 
 such compounds are formed as by-products of the assimilative 
 processes, we cannot as yet hope to have any definite clue to 
 their origin ; but where they originate independently, either by 
 intrinsic or extrinsic modification (e.g. oxidation) of a tissue- 
 substance, the clue may be expected to be found in the consti- 
 tution of the tissue-substance itself. Or, to put it in another 
 
I $6 Cellulose 
 
 way, if we find associated with a tissue an excreted product of 
 general constitutional resemblance thereto, we cannot avoid 
 the suggestion of genetic relationship. The suggestion be- 
 comes an hypothesis upon which investigation can proceed. 
 The lignocelluloses, for instance, afford many indications of 
 such relationship to the tannins. In the jute fibre, tannins are 
 always present in small quantity ; the characteristic R. hexene 
 groups of the lignocellulose occupy a definite and close rela- 
 tionship to the trihydric phenol, pyrogallol, to which many of 
 the tannins stand in direct constitutional relationship ; and we 
 have described an instance of ' spontaneous ' transformation of 
 the lignocellulose into a substance having the essential charac- 
 teristics of the tannin group. The general discussion of this 
 question belongs to a later section of our subject (see p. 179). 
 It is introduced here in order to show that we cannot attempt 
 to formulate a molecule of a lignocellulose on the lines of a 
 carbon compound of ascertainable molecular weight and such 
 relationships of its constituent groups as are sharply defined 
 and verifiable by synthesis. It is true that when attacked in 
 detail the lignocellulose is resolved into well-differentiated 
 groups, which may be regarded with reservation as consti- 
 tuents of the parent molecule ; the reservation being that 
 unless and until the lines of cleavage are proved to be in- 
 variable, we cannot consolidate the results of various direc- 
 tions of resolution into a homogeneous view of the parent 
 substance. 
 
 We will now point out how far the problem is solved by the 
 evidence available. 
 
 (i) THE LIGNOCELLULOSE A HOMOGENEOUS COMPOUND 
 FATHER THAN A MIXTURE. The evidence for this conclusion 
 is as follows (a) Physiological : general uniformity in composi- 
 tion and reactions ; does not vary with age of fibre (i.e. from root 
 
Compound Celluloses 157 
 
 upwards) nor with thickening of cell wall (incrustation) ; pre- 
 serves essential features through wide range of differences in 
 empirical composition, resulting from differences in conditions 
 of growth, (b) General resistance to resolution (into proximate 
 constituents), by the action of solvents and hydrolytic agents 
 generally, (c) Behaviour in synthetic reactions, chiefly in ferric 
 ferricyanide reaction and formation of nitrates ; resistance of 
 molecule to resolution. 
 
 (2) GENERAL CHARACTER OF LIGNOCELLULOSE CONSIDERED 
 AS A WHOLE. The alcoholic characteristics of the lignocellulose 
 are inferior to those of cellulose : the reactive OH groups are 
 fewer in proportion ; CO groups of aldehydic, ketonic, and acid 
 function are present in union, more or less, with the more basic 
 OH groups. Th? characteristic reactions of the compound 
 (lignone group) are those of unsaturated compounds, and it is, 
 by comparison with the celluloses, greedy of oxygen. 
 
 (3) CONSTANTS OF THE FIBRE IN REACTION. In this con- 
 nection we refer only to such reactions as throw light upon 
 the relationships of constituent groups, and therefore reactions 
 of decomposition. 
 
 Cellulose. Cl method : average yield, 75^0 p.ct. ; raised, by 
 minimising conditions tending to hydrolysis and oxidation, to 
 78-82 p.ct. 
 
 Br method : average, 72*0 p.ct. ; may be raised similarly 
 to 74-76 p.ct. 
 
 Nitric acid (dilute) method, 63-66 p.ct. Alkali method, 
 56-60 p.ct. Bisulphite method, 60-63 p.ct. 
 
 The cellulose is a variable, the variations being due to 
 greater or less hydrolysis. The lignocellulose contains a 
 cellulose of resistant characteristics and a cellulosic constituent 
 which is either isolated as cellulose or dissolved with the 
 lignone complex according to the treatment. This latter 
 
158 Cellulose 
 
 cellulose, when isolated, contains O.CH 3 groups. The whole 
 cellulose complex gives the following results on analysis : 
 
 *" **I8~ 
 
 Ultimate analysis.!^ 4 jT ' ' ' 4 *' 8 
 
 Proximate . . O.CH, 1-2 Furfural . 6-8 p. ct. 
 
 The cellulose is a hydrate, and a mixture of two celluloses : 
 the /^-cellulose contains the methoxyl groups, and gives 
 furfural with condensing acids. 
 
 Lignone. Chlorination. Cl combining with lignone, S'o 
 p.ct. ; Cl combining as HC1, 8*0 p.ct., calculated on the ligno- 
 cellulose. Composition of lignone chloride, C 19 H 18 C1 4 9 
 (containing 267 p.ct. Cl), from which we may assume 
 Ci9H 22 O 9 as the approximate formula for the lignone 
 complex. 
 
 From these statistics, and on the assumption that there are 
 no hydration changes of any moment, we may calculate the 
 lignone complex to constitute a little over 20 p.ct. of the 
 lignocellulose. 
 
 Continuing this statistical and approximate method of 
 investigation and calculating to carbon percentages 
 
 Cellulose (anhydride), 44*4; lignone, 57*8. 
 80 x 44-4 -f- 100 = 38-52 
 20 x 57-8-5- 100 = 11-56 
 
 47-08 p.ct. C in lignocellulose. 
 
 These results confirm the evidence of the 'quantitative' 
 character of the chlorine reaction. 
 
 From a study of the ester reactions of the lignone chloride 
 and of the original lignone group, it is to be concluded that 
 the former contains not more than one alcoholic OH group, 
 even when isolated by treatment of the chlorinated fibre with 
 
Compound Celluloses 159 
 
 sodium sulphite solution. Both in union and under resolu- 
 tion, therefore, the two main complexes preserve their general 
 character of complex anhydrides. The union resists the 
 action of all simple hydrolytic treatment, but yields at once 
 when the condition of oxidation or the specific attack of 
 negative groups (NO 2 , C1 2 O) is superadded. 
 
 It has been shown by the quantitative statistical stu ly of 
 these several reactions, and by the composition of the pro- 
 ducts, that each has its characteristic line of reso ution or 
 cleavage of the original lignocellulose complex. While the 
 lines of separation of the a-cellulose and /J-cellulose residues 
 are well marked, it is doubtful whether the /3-cellulose is as 
 sharply separated from the lignone complex. Under the 
 chromic acid treatment it certainly appears that a portion of 
 the latter is converted into a cellulose (oxycellulose), as a 
 result of attendant hydration ; moreover the general features 
 of the lignone are largely those of products obtained by the 
 action of condensing agents upon the carbohydrates, and it is 
 not improbable that the general configuration might be so 
 retained that combination with water would restore the carbo- 
 hydrate, i.e. cellulose, character. Again, if the /3-cellulose is a 
 keto-cellulose, as it appears to be, it may exist in a condensed 
 form in the lignocellulose, and thus have features as much in 
 common with the lignone as with the a-cellulose. 
 
 These considerations justify the use of the group-term 
 lignocellulose, and at the same time show that the constituent 
 groups lignone-cellulose must not be too easily regarded as 
 fixed quantities. It leaves open the question as to whether 
 the lignone is not genetically connected with the cellulose. 
 This is an important physiological probability which will be 
 met with again in considering the chemistry of the 
 i.e. the lignocellulose of perennials. 
 
160 Cellulose 
 
 furfural. 
 
 P.ct. of lignocellulose. 
 
 Yield from original fibre-substance . . 8-9 
 
 Yield after chlorination .... 8-9 
 
 P.ct. of products. 
 
 Yield after CrO 3 treatment .... 8-9 
 
 Yield from isolated cellulose Cl method . 7-8 
 
 The origin of this characteristic product of decomposition 
 is localised mainly in the cellulose complex, the group from 
 which it is derived being isolated as a cellulose (/3-cellulose) 
 by the chlorination method. The lignocelluloses in their 
 'natural* condition appear also to contain hydroxyfurfurals 
 in small proportion, and to which their characteristic colour 
 reactions with phenols, especially phloroglucinol, are probably 
 due. 
 
 Methoxyl. The presence of O.CH 3 groups is another 
 characteristic feature of lignification, i.e. of a lignocellulose. 
 In jute the total yield is 4-6 p.ct. ; the major proportion of the 
 methoxyl is localised in the lignone complex. A certain pro- 
 portion appears in the cellulose isolated by the chlorination 
 process, which is further suggestive of the relationships of the 
 lignone to the /3-cellulose previously discussed (p. 159). 
 
 Assuming that the whole of the O.CH 3 is contained in the 
 lignone complex, the empirical formula assigned to this may 
 be calculated to contain two such groups, and would become 
 C 17 H 16 O 7 .2OCH 3 , a formula similar to that arrived at for a 
 product obtained from the lignone of coniferous woods (p. 201), 
 viz. C 24 H 24 8 .(OCH 3 ) 2 . 
 
 Acetic acid is an important product of resolution of the 
 lignocelluloses by the action of hydrolytic and oxidising 
 agents, and under conditions of very limited intensity. The 
 source of this product is the lignone complex, and when this 
 is broken down by treatment with chromic acid (in presence 
 of sulphuric acid) the yield amounts to 50-70 p.ct. of its 
 
Compound Celluloses 161 
 
 weight. The conditions of its formation point to its being a 
 product of hydration rather than oxidation ; it is probable 
 that more complex ketonic acids are first produced, and 
 further resolved on distillation, especially in presence of excess 
 of the oxidant. 
 
 It appears from this that the lignone complex contains, 
 associated with the oxyquinone groups, a large proportion of 
 CO.CH 2 groups, the configuration of which remains undeter- 
 mined. It is probable that groups allied to dehydracetic acid 
 are represented, and a pyrone grouping of a portion of the 
 complex would account for the production of acetone as a 
 first product of destructive distillation (pp. 154-206). 
 
 (2) Other Types of ' Annual ' Lignocelluloses. The 
 chemistry of the jute fibre might be presumed to cover the 
 essential features of the lignification of bast fibres generally ; so 
 far as investigation has gone, this appears indeed to be the case. 
 This statement, of course, must not be taken as suggesting 
 identity of constitutional features. Comparative investigation 
 of the bast tissues of the dicotyledonous annuals generally has 
 not as yet been attempted. Such work is called for, and it is 
 impossible to predict the influence which the results might 
 have in extending our grasp of the physiology of the exogenous 
 stem. Of those which are lignocelluloses, jute is undoubtedly 
 typical, and the methods adopted for this fibre may be ex- 
 tended to the group. 
 
 The process of lignification, however, is by no means limited 
 to particular tissues, and we have now to deal with other 
 representative cases of the formation of lignocelluloses in 
 4 annual ' structures. 
 
 * GLYCODRUPOSE.' The hard concretions of the flesh of the 
 pear are composed of a lignocellulose giving the typical re- 
 actions of the jute fibre. This product was investigated some 
 years ago by Erdmann (Annalen, 138, 9). The concretions 
 
 M 
 
1 62 Cellulose 
 
 are isolated from the parenchyma of the fruit in which they are 
 imbedded, by long boiling with water, rubbing down to a pulp, 
 washing away tne cellular debris, and thus, by continued 
 mechanical action and washing, entirely freeing them from the 
 matrix of softer tissue. The substance of these concretions 
 gives constant results on elementary analysis, expressed by the 
 empirical formula C 24 H 36 O 16 ; to this complex Erdmann gave 
 the name Glycodrupose, and he regards it as resolved on boiling 
 with hydrochloric acid according to the equation : 
 
 C 24 H 36 I6 + 4 H.O = 2 C 6 H 12 O 6 + C,,H ao O 8 . 
 
 Glycodrupose Glucose Drupose 
 
 Drupose, on fusion with potash (KOH), yields aromatic 
 products amongst which pyrocatechin was identified. Glyco- 
 drupose, on boiling with dilute nitric acid, gives a residue of 
 pure cellulose. These results were repeated by Bente (Berl. 
 Ber. 8, 476), and in general terms confirmed, though the ana- 
 lytical results varied somewhat from the above. 
 
 From our present point of view, the interpretation of these 
 results by these investigators is open to question in more than 
 one direction, but they certainly establish the following points : 
 
 The concretions represent a compound cellulose, of which 
 the non-cellulose is easily converted into aromatic derivatives. 
 This compound cellulose gives constant results when analysed, 
 whether for its elementary or proximate constituents, and is 
 therefore a chemical individual. The authors, on the other 
 hand, in investigating the product some years ago, noted a very 
 close resemblance in all the reactions of this complex with 
 those of jute. It may therefore be included amongst the Ligno- 
 celluloses. It may be also noted that the formula assigned to 
 the complex by Erdmann differs by only one O atom from 
 the empirical formula which we have used for the jute sub- 
 stance : 
 
 Ci 2 H 18 O 8 Ci 2 H ]8 O 9 
 
 Glycodrupcse Jute Hgnocellulose 
 
Compound Celluloses 163 
 
 The authors have made (1883) the following determinations of 
 the constituents of these concretions : 
 
 Inorganic constituents (ash) . . . 0-91 
 
 Cellulose 26*0 34'2 
 
 1 Furfural 18*0 p.ct. 
 
 Loss on boiling in 12 p.ct. HC1 (30 mins.) . 53-6 
 
 In conclusion, we can only call attention to the desirability of 
 re-investigating the product, and, upon the evidence of close 
 similarity to the typical lignocellulose, of adopting, at the outset, 
 the general plan of investigation laid down for such compounds. 
 
 The formation of a lignocellulose under such totally dif- 
 ferent conditions from those which obtain in a flowering stem 
 is of especial significance in regard to the physiology of the 
 production of such compounds. 
 
 THE LIGNOCELLULOSES OF CEREALS. Both in the straws of 
 cereals, and the seed envelopes of the grain, there is a typical 
 and characteristic process of lignification. With the formation 
 of quinone-like bodies, as in jute, there is associated the produc- 
 tion in the tissue of a large quantity of pentosan derivatives. 
 
 The composition of brewers' grains has been carefully inves- 
 tigated by Schulze and Tollens (Landw. Vers.-Stat. 40, 367), 
 and an abstract of their results is given in Section III. p. 259. 
 From the more recent results of Tollens this material has been 
 found to yield 16-03 p.ct. furfural, corresponding to 26-93 p.ct. 
 of pentosan. A considerable proportion of the pentosan con- 
 stituents may be directly hydrolysed to pentaglucose ; on the 
 other hand, a not inconsiderable proportion is so intimately 
 united to the cellulose as to resist hydrolytic treatments of 
 some severity. The lignone constituent was not specially 
 
 1 The furfural was estimated by the colorimetric method of comparison 
 with a standard solution of furfural (V. Meyer, Bed. Ber. n, 1870), the 
 only method available at the time. As a specimen of jute similarly investi- 
 gated gave 10-6 p.ct. furfural, it is probable that the above determination 
 is 2-3 p.ct. in excess of the true number. 
 
 M2 
 
164 Cellulose 
 
 investigated by Tollens in regard to its more characteristic 
 groups, the researches being chiefly directed to the furfural- 
 yielding groups. What we have to emphasise is the recognition 
 by Tollens that in this tissue-substance the various groups are so 
 united as to constitute a homogeneous complex. This tissue 
 has the closest resemblance to the grain -bearing straws^ which 
 have been recently investigated by C. Smith and the authors 
 (J. Chem. Soc. 1894, 472 ; Berl. Ber. 1894, 1061). 
 
 The starting-point of these researches was the observation, 
 already noted (p. 84), that the celluloses, isolated from their 
 stem tissues, themselves give a large yield of furfural when 
 boiled with hydrochloric acid ; at the same time none of the re- 
 actions of the pmtaglucoses. It appears from these researches, 
 and from subsequent results, that from germination, continu- 
 ously with the growth of the stem, there is a steady increase in 
 the proportion of furfural-yielding constituents, and that these 
 are mainly utilised in building up the permanent tissue of the 
 stem. These results are noted part passu with lignification, and 
 they further generalise the chemical features of the process 
 which were brought out in connection with the jute fibre viz. 
 
 (1) the cellulose of a lignified tissue is, when isolated, found 
 to be invariably an oxidised and furfural-yielding cellulose ; 
 
 (2) in the non-cellulose, pentosan groups are present in associa- 
 tion with an easily hydrolysable oxycellulose, and with unsatu- 
 rated or keto R. hexene groups. 
 
 As lignocelluloses, the straws are generally differentiated from 
 the typical lignocellulose, (i) by their structural complexity ; 
 (2) by their lower carbon and proportionately greater oxygen 
 percentage ; (3) by the relative susceptibility of the non-cellu- 
 lose to hydrolysis; (4) by the much lower percentage of cellu- 
 lose and the composition of this cellulose. 
 
 As a consequence of these differences, the straws are more 
 easily attacked by the thiocarbonate treatment. The following 
 
Compound Celluloses 165 
 
 are the results of an experiment carried out under the usual 
 conditions. 
 
 Undissolved by treatment 40*3 p.ct 
 
 Soluble and reprecipitated by acids . . 32*4 
 ,, and not reprecipitated by acids . . 27-3 M 
 
 The straws and products of this class have thus been 
 investigated in various directions, but by no means exhaus- 
 tively. A systematic investigation on the lines of research 
 herein indicated would be a valuable contribution to our 
 knowledge. 
 
 * Crude Fibre.' ' Rohfaser.' In connection with the ligno- 
 celluloses of cereals, the opportunity arises to discuss an artificial 
 product with which agricultural chemists are familiar under the 
 above description. In arriving at the nutritive value of food-stuffs 
 it is necessary to discriminate between digestible and indigestible 
 constituents. It has long been known that to the former belong 
 chiefly the proteids, the water-soluble carbohydrates and fats ; and 
 to the latter, in general terms, the cellular tissue of vegetable 
 food-stuffs. Between these two extreme groups lies the aggregate 
 of compounds known as * non-nitrogenous extractive matters.' It 
 will be evident from discussions in this treatise (p. 86) that this 
 complex admits of being resolved, by various processes of hydrolysis 
 and oxidation, into carbohydrates of known constitution, or deriva- 
 tive products which determine the constitution of the groups from 
 which they are formed. This aggregate is dissolved by treatment 
 with weak hydrolytic agents, acid and alkaline, and the residue is 
 the complex in question, known as crude fibre. A standard process 
 for estimating this complex, which has been largely, in fact gene- 
 rally, used by agricultural chemists, is that known as the ' Weende 
 method.' This consists in boiling the material to be analysed with 
 dilute sulphuric acid (1-25 p.ct. H..SOJ, and afterwards with 
 dilute alkaline solution (1-25 p.ct. KOH), washing, drying, and 
 weighing the residue. As the process of animal digestion may be 
 briefly defined as an exhaustive series of hydrolyses under alter- 
 nately acid and alkaline conditions, the method in question cer- 
 tainly gives a crude measure of the proportion of the material 
 resisting the natural process of digestion. On the other hand, as 
 
1 66 Cellulose 
 
 an ' aggregate ' method it is open to a good deal of objection ; and, 
 with the general advance of chemical and physiological methods of 
 observation, the time has come for a revision of the subject, in 
 order that the line separating * digestible ' from ' indigestible ' 
 matters may be defined more in accordance with directly ascer- 
 tained facts. 
 
 In order to show in general terms the nature of the constituents 
 'digested,' i.e. dissolved by the artificial process, we give an abstract 
 of a report upon ' Determinations of Crude Fibre and their 
 Defects,' by C. Krauch and W. v. d. Becke, Landw. Vers.-Stat. 
 27, 5 (1882). 
 
 The residue from the treatments by the Weende method is 
 generally assumed to be * cellulose and woody fibre,' and, by in- 
 ference, that these constituents resist the attack of the boiling acid 
 and alkali. These authors determined the proportions dissolved 
 from typical food-stuffs by the two treatments, together with the 
 elementary composition of the aggregates, with the following 
 results : 
 
 (a) Dissolved by the boiling dilute acid ; (b] by the alkali ; and 
 (c) residue. 
 
 () (*) (c) 
 
 Rye (gram) .... 52-12 26-48 21*40 
 
 Meadow hay .... 28-30 21-85 49*85 
 
 Clover hay .... 19-47 26-17 54*36 
 
 Elementary Composition of Aggregates 
 
 (a) (b) Residue 
 
 c 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 H 
 
 o 
 
 x- 
 C 
 
 H 
 
 --v 
 
 o 
 
 Rye 
 
 47-6 
 
 6-03 
 
 46-36 
 
 55 
 
 12 
 
 7-68 
 
 37-23 
 
 55-n 
 
 7-58 
 
 37-03 
 
 Meadow hay . 
 
 50 
 
 12 
 
 7-08 
 
 42-80 
 
 56 
 
 42 
 
 6-49 
 
 37-09 
 
 46-38 
 
 6-36 
 
 47-26 
 
 Clover hay . 
 
 42 
 
 99 
 
 6-44 
 
 50-57 
 
 5i 
 
 12 
 
 6-35 
 
 42-53 
 
 .49-08 
 
 6-63 
 
 44-29 
 
 The above results are calculated with exclusion of the nitrogenous 
 constituents (albuminoids) and ash. From the high C percentage 
 of the constituents dissolved, it is evident that the lignocelluloses 
 are attacked. 
 
 In more direct criticism of the assumed digestibility of the 
 'N-free extractive matters,' the authors investigated cereal 'meals.' 
 The starch was estimated by the malt extract process, and the 
 * N-free extractives ' by the Weende method, with the following 
 results : 
 
Compound Celluloses 167 
 
 () (J) to 
 
 Starch 62-48 42-02 26-61 
 
 N-free extractives . . . 70-38 64*8 66-50 
 
 These specimens were selected in accordance with gradations 
 in recognised feeding value from a to c, gradations corresponding 
 approximately with the ascertained proportions of starch, but alto- 
 gether at variance with the numbers for * N-free extract.' 
 
 In further illustration of the same point the authors cite the 
 following more complete analysis of meals (Brunner, Landw. 
 Ztg. VVestfal, 1877, p. 19). 
 
 () (6) to 
 
 Proteids 15-56 15-89 17-35 
 
 Fat 2-53 2-74 5-63 
 
 N-free extractives . . . 65-87 65-23 65-28 
 
 Crude fibre .... 8-33 9-17 6-84 
 
 Ash ..... 771 6-97 4-90 
 
 Direct estimation of starch by 
 
 malt method . . . 27-93 3*4 53*^3 
 
 It is again evident that the 'N-free extractives' are not a 
 measure of the nutritive value ; but, on the other hand, by a direct 
 estimation of the starch, the method becomes more complete. 
 
 The authors then completed their investigation by taking as the 
 basis of observation food-stuffs deprived of fats, by extraction with 
 ether-alcohol, and starch, by digestion with water and malt extract 
 at 50-60. The residue, which they termed ' Grundsubstanz,' was 
 then subjected to the Weende method of hydrolysis ; and by deter- 
 minations of elementary composition of the residues, the com- 
 position of the dissolved constituents was arrived at. 
 
 The specimens investigated were three grades of wheat-brans 
 (pollards) and two specimens of rice meal. The materials operated 
 on, viz. residues from the treatments above described, had the 
 following composition : 
 
 C . 
 H . 
 
 N . 
 O . 
 
 Ash 
 
 
 Brans 
 
 Rice meal 
 
 () 
 51-82 
 
 W o 
 
 50-38 
 
 to 
 48-32 
 
 00 
 
 51-3 
 
 to 
 
 39-2 
 
 7 -oo 
 
 6'34 
 
 6-38 
 
 7-09 
 
 5-12 
 
 3-17 
 
 2-74 
 
 0-84 
 
 5-14 
 
 0-58 
 
 37'22 
 
 39-81 
 
 4337 
 
 32-17 
 
 34-82 
 
 0-79 
 
 073 
 
 1-09 
 
 4-30 
 
 20-28 
 
1 68 Cellulose 
 
 or, calculated to C,H,O compounds only 
 
 () (*) to (ft to 
 
 C . . .52-06 50-28 48-69 53-92 48-34 
 
 H . . .7*07 6-37 6-42 7-63 6-38 
 O . 40-87 43-35 44-89 38-47 45-28 
 
 (a) The following were the results of the first treatment, boiling 
 in 1-25 p.ct. H 2 SO 4 , in regard to the percentage and elementary 
 composition of the N-free constituents dissolved : 
 
 () (*) 
 
 > 43 "^7 49 '62 
 
 Elementary / <f9 6 47'O 3 
 i o "^.4. C *AO 
 composition ^ > H 
 O 44-70 47-51 
 
 () And on subsequently boiling 
 
 () (^) 
 Proportion 1 
 dissolved }' 20>I 4 I2 '75 
 
 Elementary / 57^7 57'6 3 
 . . \ H 7-6<; 7-02 
 composition 1 ' 7 
 
 to 35-18 35-35 
 
 to 
 52-15 
 
 49-17 
 6-48 
 44-35 
 
 with dilute 
 to 
 
 43-55 
 
 (d) (0 
 
 20-72 8-84 
 50-26 40-4 
 
 7-46 8-78 
 42-28 50-81 
 
 potash 
 (d) (c) 
 20-55 20-57 
 
 57-62 53-44 
 7-31 666 
 35-07 39-60 
 
 It may be noted that the albuminoids are almost entirely 
 removed by these treatments, as is evident from the determinations 
 of N in the residual crude fibre, viz. : 
 
 N 0-17 o-oo o-oo 0-42 0-37 
 
 The conclusions drawn from these results are, that the con- 
 stituents dissolved are of relatively high C percentage, that they 
 consist in large proportion of the lignocelluloses of the raw material. 
 and that therefore the residual crude fibre is a product of purely 
 empirical, and in fact arbitrary value. 
 
 The subject is also exhaustively treated by A. Muntz, in a 
 brochure entitled * Recherches sur 1'alimentation et sur la produc- 
 tion du travail' (Ann. Agron. 1877-8, No. 2). This contains the 
 results of a very elaborate inquiry into the muscular work of the 
 horse in relation to the food consumed. The inquiry involved the de- 
 termination of the nutritive value of typical fodders, as its necessary 
 basis> and the author's conclusions in regard to the ' cellulose ' 
 constituents of these food-stuffs are noteworthy. After showing 
 
Compound Celluloses 
 
 169 
 
 that these all contain celhtloses easily hydrolysed by dilute acids 
 to ' glucoses ' thus clearly anticipating the later work upon the 
 celluloses of Class C (p. 85) the author makes the following 
 statement in regard to the cereal straws : 
 
 ' L'exemple le plus frappant de cet effet nous est oflfert par la 
 paille, dans laquelle le microscope ne nous fait decouvrir aucune 
 trace d'amidon et dans laquelle pourtant on dose d'apres les 
 methodes ci-dessus indiquees 20 p.ct. d'amidon ' : the method 
 consisting in hydrolysing with dilute sulphuric acid (2 p.ct H.,SO 4 ) 
 at 108, and titrating, in alkaline solution, with Fehling's solution 
 as in glucose estimations. Celluloses thus easily hydrolysed may 
 be assumed also to be digestible by the animal organism, and to 
 have a value equal to that of starch. In the case of starchy fodders, 
 however, the author adds to his scheme a method for the exclusive 
 estimation of starch, and selects the process of diastatic conversion. 
 In determining crude fibre (described in the original as * cellulose 
 brute') the method of alternate digestion (at 108) with dilute acid 
 (2 p.ct. H 2 SO 4 ) and alkali (5 p.ct. KOH) was adopted. The residues 
 from these treatments were found to have the composition, and 
 to be formed in the proportions, given in the annexed table : 
 
 
 
 Oats 
 
 Beans 
 
 Bran 
 
 Hay 
 
 Straw 
 
 Yield p.ct. . . . 
 
 12-42 
 
 8-61 
 
 6-38 
 
 29-83 
 
 39-77 
 
 !p 
 JT 
 Q 
 
 45'55 
 6-28 
 48-17 
 
 45-00 
 6-48 
 48-52 
 
 49-93 
 6-99 
 43-08 
 
 48-05 
 6-36 
 45'59 
 
 47-62 
 
 6-35 
 46-03 
 
 the high C percentage being referred to the * ligntn* group remain- 
 ing in combination with the cellulose. The proportion of nitrogen 
 in these residues surviving the treatment is from 0-2 to 0-3 p.ct. 
 which is neglected in the calculations. In criticising this process 
 the author clearly states that it is of purely statistical and approxi- 
 mate value, even as a measure of non-digestible constituents ; and 
 as a determination of cellulose, valueless, if not altogether mis- 
 leading. 
 
 Having found in effect that from 20-25 P- ct - of the substance of 
 straws yields to acid hydrolysis in the same way as starch, and 
 that the constituent so attacked appeared to be of the nature of 
 cellulose, the following method is proposed for estimating the 
 
Cellulose 
 
 cellulose proper (cellulose rtelle) : The substance (straw) is di- 
 gested with dilute hydrochloric acid (7 p.ct. HC1) for some hours, 
 washed, and treated with strong ammonia until all matters soluble 
 in this reagent are removed ; it is then treated with cuprammonium 
 solution. After exhaustive action of this solution, the cellulose is 
 precipitated from the solution by the addition of acetic acid in 
 slight excess, washed, dried, and weighed. The following results 
 were obtained : 
 
 Process No. I. 
 Cellulose estimated as described by solution in cuprammonium . 49-44 
 
 Process No. 2. 
 
 Cellulose dissolved in the process of estimating crude fibre . 21 '99 
 Cellulose present in ' crude fibre ' (3977 p.ct.) calculated from 
 its composition l 26-54 
 
 Total . . . "48-53 
 
 The concordance of these numbers is perhaps misleading, since 
 the lignocelluloses are attacked by cuprammonium. The errors of 
 the two processes compensating one another, the author arrives at 
 a determination of cellulose approximating to that of the now 
 standard methods. 
 
 In dealing with the group of substances indeterminees, i.e. the 
 residue of constituents not determined by the standard methods 
 of analysis, the author arrives at conclusions similar to those con- 
 tained in the paper above noted. By the statistical method he 
 finds the composition of this complex in typical fodder plants to 
 be as under : 
 
 
 
 Oats 
 
 Maize 
 
 Beans 
 
 Bran 
 
 Hay 
 
 Straw 
 
 c . . . 
 
 46-8 
 
 45'5 
 
 44'I 
 
 45*6 
 
 513 
 
 477 
 
 H . . . 
 
 6-2 
 
 6'5 
 
 6-2 
 
 6'3 
 
 6-2 
 
 6-1 
 
 ... 
 
 47'0 
 
 40-0 
 
 497 
 
 48-1 
 
 42-4 
 
 46-2 
 
 numbers which indicate large variations in composition, and there- 
 fore in nutritive value. 
 
 The author's elaborate method of proximate analysis certainly 
 
 effects a more complete resolution of this heterogeneous group ; 
 
 and the complete scheme of investigation, devised to minimise 
 
 the errors of the standard methods, is worthy of attention. It would 
 
 1 I.e. as a mixture of cellulose and lignin. 
 
Compound Celluloses 
 
 171 
 
 take us too far from the purpose of this discussion to reproduce 
 the scheme in full detail ; it will be sufficiently grasped from the 
 subjoined statement of the complete results of analysis of straw. 
 
 
 
 Proportion of elementary 
 
 
 Constitu- 
 
 constituents 
 
 Ull 
 
 ents esti- 
 
 
 
 mated p.ct. 
 
 C 
 
 H 
 
 O 
 
 N 
 
 Hydrolysable cellulose (equi- 
 valent to starch) 
 
 } 21-99 
 
 977 
 
 1-36 
 
 10-86 
 
 
 
 Glucose .... 
 
 0'34 
 
 0-14 
 
 0-02 
 
 0-18 
 
 
 
 Fatty matters 
 
 1-26 
 
 0-97 0-15 
 
 0-14 
 
 
 
 Crude cellulose (crude fibre) . 
 
 3977 
 
 18-96 2-53 
 
 18-28 
 
 
 
 Pectic acid .... 
 
 0-89 
 
 0-37 
 
 0-04 0-48 
 
 
 
 Albuminoids. 
 
 3*95 
 
 2-12 
 
 0-28 
 
 0-92 
 
 0-63 
 
 Sum of elementary constitu- 
 ents ..... 
 
 1 _ 
 
 32-33 
 
 438 
 
 30-86 
 
 0-63 
 
 Total, by elementary analysis 
 of original straw 
 
 } - 
 
 48-27 
 
 6-35 
 
 44-75 
 
 0-63 
 
 Differences = Elementary con- 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 stituents of substances un- 
 
 31-80 
 
 15*94 
 
 1-97 
 
 13-89 
 
 o-oo 
 
 determined 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 Whence is deduced the per- 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 centage elementary compo- 
 sition of undetermined con- 
 
 - 
 
 50'13 
 
 p.ct. 
 
 6-19 
 p.ct. 
 
 43-68 
 p.ct. 
 
 
 
 stituents .... 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 lOO'OO 
 
 
 
 
 
 With the aid of the methods of more recent introduction (see 
 p. 261), the group of * undetermined constituents' of the older 
 analytical schemes may be much more completely resolved ; and 
 these methods, added to those above outlined, afford a scheme of 
 sufficient completeness for all the present requirements of agricul- 
 tural or physiological research. 
 
 We have devoted some space to the consideration of these 
 results, not only on account of the importance of the subject, but as 
 an illustration of the statistical method of inquiry to which chemico- 
 physiological investigations have been largely limited. By the 
 later work on the chemistry of the more complex carbohydrates, 
 the way is opened for direct investigation of the nutritive value of 
 the group of constituents formerly aggregated as N-free extrac- 
 
172 Cellulose 
 
 lives. The subject is of wide interest, involving questions of import- 
 ance to the agriculturist and physiologist ; but the methods by which 
 it requires to be attacked are for the most part purely chemical, 
 and such as are described in more or less detail in this treatise. 
 
 Having now dealt with the more prominent types of ligni- 
 fication in plants and tissues of ' annual ' growth, it remains 
 to deal with the lignocelluloses of perennial stems. 
 
 (3) Woods and Woody Tissues. The stem of an 
 exogenous perennial is a complex of structural elements of 
 varied form and function. Of these we may distinguish three 
 main groups : (i) vessels, (2) wood cells proper, and (3) 
 medullary tissue. When compacted together to form the per- 
 manent woody tissue, these groups appear to be indistinguish- 
 able chemically ; they all undergo ' lignification ' ; are charac- 
 terised by the same reactions ; and, although it has been 
 stated that they are variously resistant to the action of destruc- 
 tive reagents, the variation has not been satisfactorily referred 
 to any fundamental differences of composition. These points 
 are well discussed by Sachsse in his Chemie u. Physiologic 
 d. Farbstoffe, Kohlenhydrate u. Proteinsubstanzen (Leipzig, 
 1877), and we abstract a short resume of his treatment of the 
 subject. 
 
 To the action of the concentrated non-oxidising acids 
 (HC1.H 2 SO 4 ) the vessels are generally more resistant. This is 
 especially the case, however, in the earlier stages of growth. 
 Thus sections of fleshy roots (Daucus Carotd], treated alter- 
 nately with dilute potash and concentrated hydrochloric acid 
 (2-3 days' digestion), are disintegrated by the treatment, the 
 cellular tissue being entirely broken down ; the vessels, how- 
 ever, survive, and are isolated free from the cellular matter in 
 contact with which they were built up. But with older tissues, 
 on the other hand, no such differentiation is observable : the 
 three groups of structural elements are equally attacked by 
 
Compound Celluloses 1 73 
 
 purely hydrolytic treatments, however, they may be varied, both 
 as to reagents and conditions of action. 
 
 Similar results are noticed with oxidising agents. Thus 
 chromic acid solution (20 p.ct.) attacks the parenchymatous 
 tissue of young growths much more rapidly than the vessels, 
 which, with a careful regulation of the treatment, may by its 
 means be isolated more or less perfectly. In the woods the 
 reagent appears to attack the vessels more rapidly than the 
 wood cells and medullary tissue ; but any difference of action 
 is not such as to permit of an isolation of the one or other 
 group. 
 
 Schulze's reagent (HNO 3 and KC1O 3 ) also attacks the 
 several groups more or less uniformly, the differences noted 
 being rather as between woods of different ages and species ; 
 thus sap wood is more resistant than heart wood, and the ' soft ' 
 than the * hard ' woods. 
 
 In view of these results, the methods of classification 
 adopted by Fre'my will be seen to rest upon very insecure 
 foundations. The basis of the classification is the resolution 
 of the substance by successive treatment with HC1 (dilute and 
 cone.), H 2 SO 4 .H 2 O, cuprammonium, alkaline hydrates, &c. 
 Thus the following individuals have been isolated and defined 
 as follows : cellulose, paracellulose (soluble in cuprammonium 
 after treatment with acids), metacellulose (insoluble in cupram- 
 monium) and vasculose (Fremy, Compt. Rend. 48, 862 ; 
 Urbain, Ann. Agron. 9, 529). This classification has been 
 severely criticised by Kabsch (Pringsheim, Jahrb. f. Wiss. Bot. 
 3, 357), and is entirely rejected by Sachsse (loc. tit.}, Hugo 
 Milller (Pflanzenfaser, p. 7), and other authorities ; and it is 
 unnecessary to add anything to the criticisms of these writers. 
 
 There have been many attempts to resolve the woods into 
 proximate constituents, but the authors have for the most part 
 concluded, from their investigations, (i) that the fundamental 
 
174 Cellulose 
 
 tissue of the woods i.e. the woods freed from adventitious con- 
 stituents such as tannins, colouring matters, resins, &c. is 
 composed of substances which cannot be resolved by hydro- 
 lytic treatments into proximate components ; and (2) that there 
 is a striking uniformity in composition of the fundamental tissue 
 of the woods, notwithstanding their structural complexity ; 
 and this uniformity embraces not merely the individuals of a 
 species, but extends over the widest range of such products. 
 
 Mention should be made here tola, general property of the woods^ 
 and lignocelluloses discovered and investigated by C. Wurster, 
 viz. that of fixing atmospheric oxygen in the form of a peroxide, 
 giving the reactions of the typical hydrogen peroxide. One of 
 these is the oxidation of the methylated derivatives of paraphenyl- 
 endiamine to red colouring matters and this reaction is equally 
 and generally characteristic of the woods. Wurster has, in fact, 
 reduced the reaction to an approximate quantitative estimation of 
 the proportion of ' mechanical wood pulp ' in papers. The reagent 
 in question is incorporated in definite proportion with a pure 
 cellulose paper, which is used as a ' test paper ' ; the paper to be 
 tested being moistened with water, and the test paper pressed into 
 the moistened part. The depth of colour is compared with standard 
 coloured papers constituting a scale, the oxidising effects producing 
 the colour being also expressed in terms of normal iodine solution. 
 The percentage of wood in the paper corresponds to the depth of 
 colour produced on the test paper. 
 
 For an account of Wurster's researches, which have been 
 extended to a number of organic products, and are of considerable 
 physiological interest, see Berl. Ber. 1887, 20, 808 (Quantitative 
 Bestimmung des Holzschlififes im Papier), and also pp. 256, 263, 
 1030, 2631, 2934. From these it appears that the reaction, in the 
 case of the woods, is the expression of quinonic constitution of 
 characteristic (hexene) groups. 
 
 EMPIRICAL COMPOSITION (ELEMENTARY ANALYSIS) OF 
 WOODS. The uniform composition of the woods has been for 
 many years regarded as established on the basis of the analyses 
 of Chevandier (Ann. Chim. Phys. [3], 10, 129), which are still 
 
Compound Celluloses 
 
 175 
 
 retained in all text-books, and may therefore be reproduced 
 
 here. 
 
 
 
 Beech 
 
 Oak 
 
 Birch 
 
 Poplar 
 
 Willow 
 
 Carbon . . . 
 Hydrogen 
 Oxygen . . . 
 Nitrogen . . . 
 
 49-89 
 6-07 
 
 43'" 
 0-93 
 
 50-64 
 6-03 
 42-05 
 1-28 
 
 50-6I 
 6-2 3 
 42-04 
 I -12 
 
 50-3I 
 6-32 
 
 42-39 
 0-98 
 
 5175 
 6-19 
 41-08 
 0-98 
 
 A series of determinations has also been made by Gottlieb 
 (J. Pr. Chem. [2], 28, 385). These include the elementary 
 analyses of the woods, and the calorific equivalents in heat units 
 per i grm. burned. 
 
 Inorganic 
 
 Organic 
 
 Calorific equivalent 
 
 Ash 
 
 Wood 
 
 c 
 
 H 
 
 N 
 
 Heat units per i grm. 
 
 0'37 
 
 Oak 
 
 50-16 
 
 6-03 
 
 ___ 
 
 4,620 
 
 o-57 
 
 Ash 
 
 49-18 
 
 6-27 
 
 
 
 4,7H 
 
 0-50 
 
 Hornbeam 
 
 48-99 
 
 6 -20 
 
 
 
 4J28 
 
 0'57 
 
 Beech 
 
 49-06 
 
 6-ii 
 
 0-09 
 
 4<770 
 
 0-29 
 
 Birch 
 
 48-88 
 
 6-06 
 
 O'lO 
 
 4,771 
 
 0-28 
 
 Fir 
 
 50-36 
 
 5-92 
 
 0-05 
 
 5,035 
 
 o-37 
 
 Pine 
 
 50-3 1 
 
 6 -20 
 
 0-04 
 
 5,085 
 
 Cellulose 44-4 
 
 6-2 
 
 4,146 
 
 These results have been extended by G. W. Hawes (Amer. 
 J. Sci. [3], 7, 585) to the woody tissues of Acrogens e.g. 
 Lycopodium, Equisetum, Aspidium, c. and from his inves- 
 tigations he concludes that the same general relationship 
 obtains for these as in the forest trees above given, 
 
 PROXIMATE ANALYSIS. A large number of the woods are 
 characterised by special constituents, more or less of the nature 
 of excreta. To deal with these would lie outside the scope of 
 the present treatment of the subject. We are strictly limited 
 to the fundamental tissue of the woods, considered as ligno- 
 celluloses. Hugo Miiller (Pflanzenfaser, 150) gives the re- 
 sults of analyses of a representative series, the most important 
 
I 7 6 
 
 Cellulose 
 
 numbers being the percentages of cellulose isolated by the BrAq 
 method. His results are comprised in the following table : 
 
 Wood 
 
 Water 
 
 Cellulose 
 
 Aq extract 
 
 Resin 
 
 Non-cellulose 
 
 Birch . 
 
 12-48 
 
 55'52 
 
 2-6 5 
 
 I'H 
 
 28-21 
 
 Beech . 
 
 12-57 
 
 45 '47 
 
 2-41 
 
 0-41 
 
 39'H 
 
 Box . 
 
 12-90 
 
 48-14 
 
 2-6 3 
 
 0-63 
 
 3570 
 
 Ebony . 
 
 9-40 
 
 29-99 
 
 9-99 
 
 2-54 
 
 48-08 
 
 Oak . 
 
 13-12 
 
 39*47 
 
 12-20 
 
 0-91 
 
 34-30 
 
 Alder . 
 
 10 70 
 
 54-62 
 
 2-48 
 
 0-87 
 
 31-33 
 
 Lignum Vitae 
 
 10-88 
 
 32-22 
 
 6-06 
 
 1563 
 
 35'2I 
 
 Lime 
 
 10-10 
 
 53-09 
 
 3-56 
 
 3'93 
 
 29-33 
 
 Chestnut 
 
 12-03 
 
 52-64 
 
 5-4I 
 
 i-io 
 
 28-82 
 
 Fir 
 
 12-87 
 
 53-27 
 
 4-05 
 
 1-63 
 
 28-I8 
 
 Mahogany 
 
 12-39 
 
 49-07 
 
 9-9I 
 
 1-02 
 
 27-61 
 
 Poplar . 
 
 I2-IO 
 
 62-77 
 
 2-88 
 
 i'37 
 
 20-88 
 
 Pine . 
 
 13-87 
 
 5 6 -99 
 
 1-26 
 
 0-97 
 
 26-91 
 
 Teak . 
 
 11-05 
 
 43-12 
 
 3-93 
 
 374 
 
 38-16 
 
 Willow. 
 
 11-66 
 
 5572 
 
 2-65 
 
 1-23 
 
 2874 
 
 An account of the applications of Fremy's method of proximate 
 analysis to the woods will be found in J. Chem. Soc. 1884, 46, 
 860 (abstracted from Urbain, Ann. Agron. 9, 529-547). 
 
 Thus oak wood was purified by treatment with alcohol-ether 
 (losing 4 p.ct.), and afterwards with water and weak alkaline 
 solutions (losing an additional 10 p.ct). The residue, or ligno- 
 cellulose proper, is treated with cuprammonium to remove 
 cellulose ; the residue boiled with dil. HC1, and again digested with 
 cuprammonium to remove paracellulose ; the residue is vasculose. 
 Analysed in this way, the lignocelluloses of oak and poplar give 
 the following results : 
 
 Cellulose Paracellulose Vasculose 
 
 Oak . . . .27-05 42-90 30-05 
 
 Poplar .... 34'io 45-95 19-95 
 
 When this method has been employed in investigations, the 
 results should be compared with the results of the methods 
 adopted in this treatise. The reagents employed will be found to 
 be not selective in their action according to the distinctive consti- 
 tutional features of the component groups of the woods. 
 
 Schulze investigated the resolution of the woods into 
 cellulose (insol.) and non-cellulose (sol. derivatives) by the 
 
Compound Celluloses 
 
 177 
 
 process of digestion with nitric acid (dilute) and KC1O 3 (p. 96). 
 The cellulose was estimated and analysed ; the following are 
 representative results : 
 
 Wood 
 
 Elementary composition of 
 isolated cellulose 
 
 Proximate composition of wood 
 
 c 
 
 H 
 
 Cellulose (esti- 
 mated) 
 
 Non-cellulose 
 (diff.) 
 
 Beech 
 Oak . 
 
 Alder 
 Acacia 
 
 4771 
 
 44 '5 i 
 43-96 
 44-29 
 
 44 '54 
 
 6-05 
 6-00 
 
 5'95 
 6-09 
 6-oi 
 
 48-41 
 
 45 -7 
 47 '97 
 5 2 '94 
 58-11 
 
 5^59 
 54-13 
 52-03 
 47-06 
 41-89 
 
 A further consideration of these results by the statistical 
 method, taking the empirical composition of the woods as 
 the basis of comparison, led Schulze to adopt the formula 
 C| 9 H 24 O, (C = 55-3 p.ct.) as approximately representing 
 the composition of the non-cellulose or lignone complex a 
 formula which is in very close agreement with that which we 
 have adopted for the lignone of the typical lignocellulose. 
 
 N. Schuppe has also investigated the composition of woody 
 tissue, upon similar lines and with similar results (Pharm- 
 Journ. [3], 14, 52). He arrives at the formula C 19 H 18 O 8 for the 
 lignone complex, and at the mixed expression 
 
 5 C 6 H 10 3 .C 19 H 18 8 
 
 as representing the average composition of woody tissue. 
 
 It is evident from these results that woody tissue is similarly 
 constituted to the typical lignocellulose, the main difference 
 being the higher percentage of carbon (higher proportion of 
 lignone) and lower proportion of cellulose. 
 
 We have not as yet endeavoured to connect the process of 
 lignincation in any definite way with the products viz. the 
 lignocelluloses but the moment has now arrived for briefly 
 setting forth a general theory of the process. It is many years 
 
1/8 Cellulose 
 
 since Sachsse definitely propounded the view that the ligno- 
 celluloses are products of metabolism of cellulose. 
 
 Comparing cellulose, Ci 8 H 30 O 15 , withlignone calculated to 
 a C, 8 formula, viz. C 18 H 24 O, , the latter could be formed from 
 the former by dehydration ( 3H 2 O)and deoxidation ( O 2 ). 
 Sachsse preferred to formulate the process hypothetically as 
 under (' FarbstofTe,' &c. p. 146) 
 
 C24H 4 oO 2 o C 6 H 6 O 5 5^0 C 18 H2 4 O 10 , 
 
 Cellulose Lignone 
 
 the unknown complex C 6 H 6 O 5 undergoing further change, 
 either oxidation to CO 2 , or condensation to aromatic products 
 (tannins). This view is based entirely upon physiological 
 evidence, the chemistry of the process being hypothesis, pure 
 and simple. But we are now in a position to supply a more 
 substantial and consistent chemical basis. 
 
 (1) The celluloses isolated from the lignocelluloses are all 
 oxycelluloses i.e. contain furfural-yielding groups. Oxidation 
 of the celluloses upsets the molecular equilibrium ; the oxy- 
 products are relatively unstable, and easily condensed to closed 
 chain derivatives. The celluloses also contain, in certain cases, 
 methoxyl groups. 
 
 (2) The non-cellulose contains, in addition to the closed 
 hexene rings and methoxyl groups, a characteristic and con- 
 densed cellulose derivative. This group we can only diagnose 
 by indirect means. But a careful review of the evidence leaves 
 no doubt that the cellulose on the one hand, and keto R. 
 hexene derivatives on the other, regarded as extreme members, 
 are connected by an intermediate product or group of products, 
 which can be transformed (a) into cellulosic derivatives ; (^) into 
 acid products of low molecular weight, chiefly acetic ; (<:) into 
 closed ring compounds, amongst which furfural is prominent 
 
 It is impossible to draw any line of separation between 
 these main groups : the ' intermediate ' constituent in some 
 
Compound Celluloses 1/9 
 
 reactions (e.g. chlorination) remains united to the R. hexene 
 groups ; in others passes into cellulose, and is isolated as such 
 (regulated oxidation by CrO 3 ) ; in others it is broken down, 
 and this destruction takes place at the expense of cellulose. 
 These considerations are dealt with at greater length in a paper 
 by the authors, * Celluloses, Oxycelluloses, Lignocelluloses ' 
 (Berl. Ber. 1893, 2520). 
 
 (3) Regarding lignification as a process of continuous 
 modification of cellulose, and the woods as representing the 
 extreme limits of such a process, these should show an 
 increase in lignone at the expense of cellulose ; which is in fact 
 the case. Lignocelluloses in the first year of growth contain 
 7<D-8op.ct. cellulose ; the woods, on the other hand, 50-60 p.ct. 
 
 (4) The woods often contain aromatic products of definite 
 and well-ascertained constitution. We have given some of the 
 evidence for the view that the tannins in heart woods are direct 
 products of transformation of the lignocelluloses of the tissue. 
 We shall presently see that aromatic products are formed in 
 large quantity in the process of destructive distillation of the 
 woods, some of the most characteristic of these being pyrogallol 
 derivatives. We have also seen that the origin of the hippuric 
 acid of the herbivora has been traced to the lignocelluloses of 
 the fodder plants. It is, therefore, generally established that 
 the lignocelluloses are connected on the one hand with the 
 celluloses, and on the other with the derivatives of benzene, 
 through a series of intermediate products ; and in the present 
 state of knowledge it is not difficult to account for the relation- 
 ships which exist as genetic. 
 
 (5) The most convincing evidence, however, is that 
 furnished by a general review of the numerical constants of the 
 lignocelluloses. We have already alluded to the general 
 uniformity in composition of the woods, and therefore for 
 our immediate purpose we select a typical wood (beech) for 
 
 K 2 
 
i8o 
 
 Cellulose 
 
 comparison, on the more essential points, with the typical 
 ' annual ' lignocellulose viz. jute. 
 
 Jute 
 Beech . 
 
 Elementary 
 composition 
 
 Proximate 
 resolution 
 
 Quantitative reactions of 
 non-eel mlose 
 
 Carbon 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 Cellu- 
 lose 
 
 Non- 
 cellulose 
 
 Methoxyl 
 
 Furfural 
 
 Cl combining 
 
 46-5 
 49'I 
 
 
 
 75 
 55 
 
 25 
 45 
 
 4'0 
 6'2 
 
 8-2 
 12-8 
 
 8-0 
 
 120 
 
 In regard to the number thus obtained for beech, i.e. after 
 merely boiling in water, it is necessary to point out the cause of 
 the difference from the number given on p. 195, viz. 8 - o obtained 
 after exhaustion with alkali, and calculated on the product so 
 exhausted. The alkaline treatment removes a complex made up 
 of pentosan, acetic residue, and keto-hexene constituents, the 
 removal of which gives a residue approximating in composition to 
 the jute lignocellulose ; whereas in the complex removed, the pro- 
 portion of the R. hexene groups, which react with chlorine^ 
 is much higher ; and hence the increased proportion of Cl com- 
 bining. 
 
 It is unnecessary to enlarge upon the simple relationships of 
 these numbers. Sachsse's theory of lignification, it must be 
 remembered, was based upon purely physiological grounds, 
 and could only be supported by the meagre evidence of such 
 empirical determinations as were then available. Now that 
 we bring to bear the results of quantitative determinations 
 based upon specific constitutional features, and find these 
 perfectly consistent with this theory, the time has arrived to 
 press its consideration as a generalisation of wide import, con- 
 cerning the constructive processes of the organic world. The 
 theory briefly expressed, and in its more enlarged scope, is this : 
 that the process of lignification consists in a series of pro- 
 gressive and intrinsic modifications of a cellulose or oxycellulose 
 
Compourd Celluloses 181 
 
 tissue, the products of modification remaining associated with 
 the residues of the parent substance in a state of combination 
 or of intimate mixture, the final products of metabolism 
 (aromatic products, pentosans, &c.) being excreted and taking 
 no further part in the organic processes of the tissue. 
 
 We pass now from general deductions as to the con- 
 stitution of the woods to the consideration of the results 
 of special investigations (a) of particular constituents or 
 reactions of the woods as a class ; (b) of particular woods. 
 
 (a) With the advance of analytical methods, characteristic 
 constituents of the woods may now be determined with pre- 
 cision. Estimations of furfural and methoxyl have been carried 
 out in extended series, and the results are significant for their 
 uniformity on the one hand, and for the indications of pro- 
 gressive variation with the progress of lignification on the 
 other. 
 
 (i) ESTIMATIONS OF FURFURAL. furfural-yielding consti- 
 tuents. In a recent publication of Professor Tollens (Zeitschr. 
 Ver. f. d. Riibenzucker Industrie, 44, No. 460) he gives a resume 
 of results obtained by himself and others who have collaborated 
 with him in the investigation of the furfural-yielding con- 
 stituents of plant tissues. The following numbers have been 
 selected as the mean results for the more important woods : 
 
 Wood 
 
 Yield of furfural p.ct. 
 
 Hard woods 
 Pine 
 
 Beech 
 Oak 
 Birch 
 
 12-6 
 107 
 
 137 
 S-o 
 
 De Chalmot has made a more extended series of deter- 
 minations (Amer. Chem. Journ. 16, 224), the results of which 
 are given in the table on p. 182. 
 
 There is therefore a striking uniformity amongst the woods 
 
132 
 
 Cellulose 
 
 of the Dicotyledonese in regard to this constituent or group 
 of constituents, and an equally striking divergence in the case 
 of the woods of the Coniferae. This differentiation of the 
 Coniferae will be dealt with in the section devoted specially to 
 the group (p. 197). 
 
 Species 
 
 Family | 
 
 Liriodendron tulipifera 
 
 Magnoliaceae 
 
 9-5 
 
 Magnolia acuminata 
 
 Magnoliaceae 
 
 88 
 
 Prunus pennsylvanica 
 
 Rosaceae 
 
 9-8 
 
 Cercis canadense 
 
 Leguminosae 
 
 10-5 
 
 Acer dasycarpum 
 
 Sapindacese 
 
 n-o 
 
 Liquidambar styraciflua 
 
 Hamamelideae 
 
 105 
 
 Ilex opaca 
 
 Ilicineae 
 
 12-3 
 
 Ampelopsis quinquefolia 
 
 Vitacese 
 
 10-4 
 
 Cornus florida 
 
 Cornaceae 
 
 10-8 
 
 Nyssa sylvatica 
 
 Cornacese 
 
 10-4 
 
 Fraxinus americana 
 
 Oleaceae 
 
 8-7 
 
 Fraxinus platycarpa 
 Juglans cinerea 
 Gary a alba 
 
 Oleaceae 
 Juglandaceae 
 Juglandaceae 
 
 87 
 9-6 
 10-6 ; 
 
 Salix spec. 
 
 Salicineae 
 
 10-5 i 
 
 Betula spec. 
 
 Cupuli erae 
 
 117 
 
 Fagus ferrug : nea 
 
 Cupuli ferae 
 
 10-5 
 
 Quercus Phellos 
 
 Cupuliferae 
 
 10-8 
 
 Quercus alba 
 
 Cupuliferoe 
 
 10-2 
 
 Quercus rubra 
 
 Cupuliferae 
 
 10-8 
 
 Quercus nigra 
 
 Cupuliferae 
 
 107 
 
 Ulmus americana 
 
 Unicacese 
 
 87 
 
 Platanus occidentals 
 
 Platanae 
 
 10-8 
 
 Juniperus virginiana 
 
 Coniferae 
 
 5 ' 2 
 
 Pinus strobus 
 
 Coniferae 
 
 37 
 
 Pinus mitis 
 
 Coniferse 
 
 4'4 
 
 Tsuga canadensis 
 
 Coniferae 
 
 3-0 
 
 De Chalmot has further investigated the question of the 
 life-history of the woods in reference to this group of con- 
 stituents, and has established the important conclusion that 
 they preserve a more or less constant ratio to the entire wood- 
 substance. The determinations were made upon the wood of 
 particular and successive rings in horizontal sections, the posi- 
 tion of the rings in the section determining the age of the wood- 
 
Compound Celluloses 183 
 
 substance. The following observations may be cited (loc. ciL 
 p. 225) : 
 
 Wood of Quercus nigra. 
 
 Furfural 
 2-12 years old . . . . . IO'6 p.ct. 
 
 69 ...... 10-5 
 
 109-110 10-3 
 
 Liriodendron tufipifera* 
 
 19-21 years old 9-8 p.ct, 
 
 59-60 9-4 
 
 Magnolia acttmtnata. 
 
 Year rings of this tree not distinctly discernible. 
 Younger than 10 years . . . 8-8 p.ct. 
 Old heart wood 8-4 
 
 Platanus occidentalism 
 
 4-10 years old 9-8 p.ct. 
 
 71-79 (Heart wood) . . 97 
 
 Prunus pennsylvanidct. 
 
 f(l) 4-12 years old .... 1 0-8 p.ct. 
 
 '(2) . . . 10-4 
 
 (i) 60-70 ,, .... 9'8 
 U2) 9'6 
 
 In the above it will be observed there is a slight diminution 
 in the furfural with age, but the maximum difference may be 
 taken at i p.ct. on the wood, or approximately 10 p.ct. on the 
 furfural-yielding constituents themselves. 
 
 In other specimens, on the other hand, a slight increase was 
 observed, thus : 
 
 Juglans cinerea 
 
 f(l) 4-18 years old . . . . 
 
 Furfural 
 9'i p.ct 
 
 8-9 
 
 
 
 
 0*5 , 
 
 Fraxinus americana. 
 2-7 years old ..... 
 
 8-9p.ct 
 9*4 , 
 
1 84 Cellulose 
 
 It is therefore established by these results that the furfural 
 yielding constituents of the wood-substance undergo very little 
 change with age. It is necessary to point out that De Chalmot 
 uses the term * pentosan ' as identical with * furfural-yielding 
 compound/ but this requires some qualification. The forma- 
 tion of furfural is an empirical and an aggregate result, and, 
 while specially characteristic of the pentoses, is also a property 
 of certain oxidised derivatives of the hexoses, notably glycuronic 
 acid. It is probable that the furfural may be formed imme- 
 diately, in this case also from a C 5 derivative, a product of 
 resolution of the glycuronic acid a view which is supported by 
 the observation that the acid when boiled with hydrochloric 
 acid yields carbonic anhydride in quantity corresponding with 
 the equation 
 
 C 6 H 8 6 = C 5 H 4 O 2 + C0 2 + 2H 2 O, 
 
 viz. 26-5 p.ct. CO 2 . The yield of furfural, on the other hand, 
 is only 15*3 p.ct. ; but this discrepancy may very well result 
 from secondary condensations of the C 5 aldose (Mann and 
 Tollens, loc. cit.\ in consequence of which only the small pro- 
 portions are decomposed in the second stage according to the 
 equation. 
 
 The import of these qualifying considerations is, perhaps, 
 rather physiological than chemical, showing that a number of 
 minor changes may be taking place in the furfural-yielding 
 groups without affecting their proportion to the lignocellulose 
 as measured in terms of this end-product of their decomposi- 
 tion. 
 
 There is evidence that such changes do take place with age, 
 resulting in the formation of pentosans as such. The dicotyle- 
 donous woods all contain the body known as wood gum (Holz- 
 gummi), which appears to consist, for the most part, of xylan. 
 This substance is extracted by treatment of the ground wood 
 (sawdust) with solutions of sodium hydrate (2-5 p.ct. Na^O) in 
 
Compound Celluloses 185 
 
 the cold ; from the solution the * gum ' is precipitated on the 
 addition of alcohol. The yield varies from 10-20 p.ct. of the 
 weight of the wood. The gum is easily hydrolysed by boiling 
 dilute acids with formation of xylose. Jute, on the other hand, 
 gives only very small yields of this product, Tollens obtaining 
 only 1 75 p.ct. by digesting the fibre with 5 p.ct. NaOH solution. 
 This product also yields xylose on hydrolysis. 
 
 It is this difference of yield of the proximate product which 
 requires to be emphasised, as it is altogether out of proportion 
 to the relative yields of furfural. With the progress of 
 lignification, in fact, there is probably a progressive formation 
 of pentosan resulting from molecular changes within the 
 particular group. These pentosans differ from the parent sub- 
 stance or complex in readily yielding to hydrolysis, and to 
 this extent may be regarded as dissociated or split off from 
 the fundamental tissue-substance in other words, as excreta 
 or end-products of metabolism. This view necessarily is in- 
 volved in the wider question of the physiological significance 
 of the furfural-yielding constituents of plants. De Chalmot 
 has published a series of communications in elucidation of 
 this question, under the titles * Soluble Pentoses in Plants/ 
 * Pentosans in Plants, '&c. (Amer. Chem. Journ. 15, 16). One 
 important result of these investigations is the conclusion that 
 pentosans are not formed in any perceptible quantity by the 
 assimilation process. This is equivalent to the statement that 
 they must arise by secondary transformations of the hexoses 
 before or after their elaboration into the permanent tissue of 
 the plant. 
 
 Investigations, of the germination process in relation to 
 pentosans have given variable results : in some cases there is 
 an increase in the total pentosan, in others a decrease ; and in 
 certain cases the pentosans of the seeds, e.g. of Tropaolum 
 ma/us, appear to behave as ' reserve materials.' The authors 
 
1 86 Cellulose 
 
 have also investigated this question by studying the germina- 
 tion of barley. In the germination of barley there is not only 
 an increase in the ' total pentosan,' but the early permanent 
 tissue is found to contain a considerable proportion of these 
 furfural-yielding constituents. Of these constituents, moreover, 
 more than 80 p.ct. resist the process of alternate digestion in 
 cold dilute acids and alkalis ; they are not therefore pentosans 
 in the ordinary acceptation of the term. On the other hand, 
 the pentosans proper are found in relatively large proportion 
 in the later stages of growth of the cereal straws ; and, again, 
 the evidence leads us to regard the pentosans as secondary 
 products of metabolism, in contradistinction to primary products 
 of assimilation. It is evident from this brief outline that the 
 physiology of the pentosans their origin, fate, and general 
 significance is still, in many directions, problematical. In 
 regard, however, to the narrower problem of lignification, we 
 may sum up the evidence as follows : The formation of furfural- 
 yielding products invariably accompanies lignification. These 
 products exist in the earlier stages of lignification in the 
 cellulosic form, but with age (perennial stems) are gradually 
 transformed into pentosans of relatively low molecular weight, 
 and ceasing to occupy any organic relationship to the tissue. 
 The proportion of these constituents is uniform (18-24 p.ct.) 
 over a wide range of woods hitherto investigated, and varies, 
 moreover, but little with the age of the wood ; the proportion 
 is, however, much less in the woods of the Coniferae (6-9 p.ct.), 
 which therefore represent lignification of another chemical 
 type (see p. 197). So far no relation has been traced between 
 the percentage of ' pentosan ' and the physical properties of the 
 woods. 
 
 Before passing from this section of the subject we must 
 describe somewhat more in detail the characteristic product, 
 wood gum, already briefly noticed. 
 
Compound Celluloses 187 
 
 Wood gum was first isolated and investigated by 
 T. Thomsen (J. Pr. Chem. [2], 19, 146), and Poumarede and 
 Figuier (Annalen, 64, 388). It is obtained from the woods of 
 the ash, elm, oak, beech, willow, cherry, &c., by digestion with 
 solutions of the alkaline hydrates as already described. The 
 following particulars of later investigations by Wheeler and 
 Tollens (Landw. Vers.-Stat. 39, 437) are noteworthy. After 
 extraction from beech wood, and precipitation by alcohol, the 
 product is purified by digestion with alcohol and hydrochloric 
 acid, and washing first with alcohol and then ether. It is ob- 
 tained thus as a white powder. In alkaline solution it exhibits 
 strong laevo-rotation (a)D = 6g'6. The yield is approxi- 
 mately 15 p.ct. of the wood. Hydrolysed with boiling acids it 
 gives a large yield of crystallisable xylose. Cherry wood under 
 the same treatment yields 12-13 P- c ** f tne product, also 
 yielding xylose as the chief product of acid hydrolysis. It is 
 noteworthy, on the other hand, that ' cherry gum,' the well- 
 known exudation from the tree, yields the isomeric pentaglucose 
 arabinose as the chief product of hydrolysis. 
 
 The cereal straws also yield, under similar treatment, 14-17 
 p.ct. of the product, but retaining a large proportion of the in- 
 organic constituents of the straw, chiefly silica. This product 
 shows a stronger rotation, viz. (a) D = 84 'i. With the aid of 
 heat in the alkaline digestion, a much larger yield of the pro- 
 duct (26 p.ct.) is obtained. 
 
 Wood gum is insoluble in cold water, but slowly dissolves on 
 boiling with water ; on cooling, the solution is strongly opal- 
 escent ; but on the addition of alkali in small proportion, a per- 
 fectly clear solution is obtained. The compound is insoluble in 
 aqueous ammonia, and, in the process of isolating it, the raw 
 materials are therefore usually subjected to a preliminary diges- 
 tion with dilute ammonia, which removes colouring matters, &c. 
 
 Numerous (elementary) analyses of wood gum have given 
 
1 88 Cellulose 
 
 numbers corresponding approximately with the empirical 
 formula C 6 H 10 O. ; , which is confirmed by more recent results 
 (Tollens). The only value of these results, however, is to esta- 
 blish a normal carbohydrate ' formula. The more important 
 problem of its constitution has been elucidated, as already noted, 
 by its yielding the pentaglucose xylose as the main product of 
 proximate hydrolysis (acid), and furfural as the ultimate product 
 (HC1). The most recent analyses of Tollens gave the following 
 results : 
 
 Furfural Xylose 
 /Specimen i . . .3878 74-26 
 
 Wood gum J .!! ' ' ' 46-90 89-82 
 
 ,, iii . . 48-08 92-02 
 
 * iv . . . 33-30 6373 
 
 These specimens were from beech wood, variously pre- 
 pared : No. i by the process already described ; Nos. ii and 
 iii by extraction with alkaline solution, after boiling the raw 
 material with dilute sulphuric acid ; No. iv by extraction with 
 boiling milk of lime. It is evident from these results that 
 wood gum is a pentosan the amorphous anhydro- aggregate 
 of xylose or xylan mixed or combined with variable propor- 
 tions of a carbohydrate of similar empirical composition, prob- 
 ably a cellulose derivative. It also generally contains meth- 
 oxyl (2 '6 p.ct. O.CH 3 ). These observations further confirm the 
 view that the pentosans are derived from hexose groups, and 
 represent the final terms of a series of transformations of which 
 * wood gum ' as directly obtained may be taken as representing 
 the intermediate terms. 
 
 METHOXYL DETERMINATIONS. The O.CH 3 group, as a 
 chemical constant of lig?rification, has been brought into promi- 
 nence by the investigations of Benedikt and Bamberger ; their 
 most important communication on the subject appearing 
 under the title, * Ueber eine quantitative Reaction des Lignins ' 
 (Monatsh. n, 260-267). Employing the perfected method of 
 
Compound Celluloses 189 
 
 Zeisel, these observers have made an elaborate series of estima- 
 tions, the results being expressed as percentages of methyl 
 (CH 3 ) calculated on the dry substance. They are as under : 
 
 A. WOODS. 
 
 CH, p ct. 
 
 Maple 
 
 ,, 
 Acacia 
 
 > 
 Birch 
 Pear . 
 Oak . 
 
 Stem . . 
 ,, extracted 1 
 ,, shavings 
 Branch ... 
 Extracted ... 
 3 years old 
 Stem .... 
 
 Acer Pseudo-plat anus, L. 
 
 Robinia Psetid- Acacia, L. 
 
 Betula alba . . 
 Pyrus communiS) L. 
 Quercus pedunculatus . 
 
 3-06 
 3-06 
 
 2-86 
 
 
 
 
 ?,-63 
 
 Alder. . 
 
 
 Alnus glutinosa . 
 
 2-89 
 
 Ash . 
 i> 
 
 M 
 
 Fir . . 
 t> 
 
 Stem .... 
 Shavings from stem 
 Stem shavings extracted . 
 Shavings from branches . 
 f Shavings from branches "I 
 1 extracted . . . J 
 Stem .... 
 ,, . 
 
 Fraxinus excelsior, L. . 
 >t i 
 t> ** 
 
 99 > 
 
 it 
 
 Abies excelsa . 
 
 271 
 
 2-69 
 2-66 
 
 2 91 
 2-15 
 2-39 
 
 
 (central zone) 
 
 
 2 '59 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 2-32 
 
 " 
 
 
 Abies pectinata, DC. 
 
 
 
 
 Pimts sylvestris, L. . 
 
 2*25 
 
 
 Stem . 
 
 Pinus laricis . . 
 
 2-05 
 
 2'12 
 
 Cherry . 
 
 
 Prunus Avium, L. . 
 
 2-s8 
 
 Larch 
 
 
 Larix europ&a, DC. 
 
 I'99 
 
 
 
 
 2-68 
 
 Lime . . 
 Mahogany . 
 
 ,,.... 
 
 Tilia parvifolia . 
 Sivietenia Mahagoni, L. 
 
 2-56 
 2-66 
 
 Walnut * 
 
 
 Tuslans regia, L. . . 
 
 2-27 
 
 > 
 Poplar 
 
 Shavings from stem . 
 Stem .... 
 
 Populus alba . . 
 
 2-69 
 2'59 
 
 1 ' Extracted ' signifies previously exhausted with water, alcohol, 
 and ether. Otherwise the specimens were analysed without previous 
 preparation. 
 
190 Cellulose 
 
 Beech . Stem .... Fagus sytvatica 
 > n ,, 
 
 shavings 
 
 Ulmus campestris 
 
 ., . shavings extracted . ,, 
 Willow .... Salixalba 
 
 CH.p.ct 
 3-02 
 
 2-62 
 270 
 2-92 
 275 
 2-31 
 
 B. FIBROUS PRODUCTS. Natural and prepared. 
 
 Jute (Lignocellulose) ,1*87 
 
 Swedish filter paper . . . . . . . . . cro 
 
 Cotton o-o 
 
 Flax, unbleached .... Linum usi'atissinnim . 0*0 
 
 Hemp ,, . . . Cannabis sativa . ,0-29 
 
 China grass,, ..... Bohmeria nivea . .0-07 
 
 Sulphite (Cellulose) .... Pinus sylvatica . . 0-34 
 
 C. MISCELLANEOUS. 
 Cork Quercus suber , . 2*40 
 
 > >, . . 2*47 
 
 Nutshells Juglans regia . .374 
 
 Lignite (Wolfsberg) . . . . . . . . .2-44 
 
 Brown coal 0*27 
 
 From these determinations it is evident that the formation 
 of methoxyl groups is an essential feature of lignification, and, 
 moreover, that the formation takes place with remarkable 
 uniformity over a wide range of woody tissues. This uni- 
 formity is, indeed, such that Benedikt and Bamberger proposed 
 to adopt the ' methoxyl number ' as the quantitative measure of 
 any wood lignocellulose present in an unknown fibrous mixture, 
 e.g. for determining the proportion of ' mechanical wood pulp ' 
 in papers. From the above table it would be easy to calculate 
 the degree of approximation (probable error) to be attained, 
 and we may be satisfied to note that the approximation is 
 sufficiently close to make such determinations distinctly valu- 
 able for the purpose in question. These authors were also 
 enabled to draw from their results certain conclusions of 
 physiological significance, viz. : (i) there is in the woods a slight 
 
Compound Celluloses 191 
 
 progressive increase of methoxyl with age ; (2) there is a higher 
 proportion of methoxyl in the wood of the branches as com- 
 pared with the main stem ; (3) the proportion of methoxyl is 
 unaffected by * extracting ' the wood, i.e. it is a characteristic 
 constituent of the wood-substance (lignocellulose) itself. 
 
 THE ACETIC RESIDUE. Acetic acid is produced in a 
 number of the decompositions of the lignocelluloses (ante, 
 p. 1 60). It is obtained more readily, and in larger proportion, 
 from the (dicotyledonous) woods than from jute (et similia). 
 The following reactions producing acetic acid may be cited : 
 
 (1) Alkaline hydrolysis. The solutions obtained by treating 
 beech wood with dilute aqueous alkalis contain acetic acid 
 (acetate of soda), which is separated by distillation after acidi- 
 fication. The proportion is large, amounting to 7-8 p.ct. on 
 the wood. 
 
 (2) Acid hydrolysis. Acetic acid is formed on digesting the 
 woods with dilute sulphuric acid at 60-100. Larger yields 
 are obtained by dissolving the wood-substance in concentrated 
 sulphuric acid in the cold, diluting and distilling. 
 
 (3) Oxidising processes. (a) Acid. The wood, in fine 
 shavings, is covered with normal sulphuric acid, and oxidised 
 at ordinary temperatures, with its own weight of chromic acid 
 (CrO 3 ) added in successive quantities. The solution on distil- 
 lation yields acetic acid, equal to 5-6 p.ct. of the weight of 
 the wood (dicotyledonous). The following are the results of 
 actual determinations : 
 
 Beech Sycamore Birch 
 
 5*0 p.ct. 5-2 p. cL 6-0 p.ct 
 
 Oxidised with dilute nitric acid (10 p ct. HNO 3 ) at 
 60-100 (ante, p. 146), very much larger quantities of acetic acid 
 are obtained, viz. from 10-15 P- c ^ of the weight of the wood. 
 
 (b) Alkaline. The maximum yields are obtained in the 
 drastic decomposition, determined by heating with the alkaline 
 
192 Cellulose 
 
 hydrates at 200-300. The quantity obtained in this way is 
 from 30-40 p.ct. of the weight of the wood, together with a 
 considerable quantity of oxalic acid. 
 
 (4) Destructive distillation of the woods (see p. 204) also 
 determines the formation of acetic acid. The following estima- 
 tions of comparative yields are given by W. Rudnew (Dingl. J. 
 264, 88 and 128), the woods being 'distilled' in glass vessels 
 at 150-300. 
 
 Linden . . , 10-24 
 Birch . 9-5 
 Aspen . . , S'o6 
 
 Oak . 7'9 
 Pine .5-6 
 Fir . . 5-2 
 
 Wood celluloses (birch and pine), isolated by the Schulze 
 process, gave under similar conditions the following yields : 
 
 Birch cellulose 6'2 
 Pine ,, . ... 5'O 
 
 From these results it is evident that the CO.CH 2 grouping is 
 a characteristic constitutional feature of the lignocelluloses. It 
 also occurs in derivative forms amongst the products of decom- 
 position of the lignocelluloses by 'natural processes. Thus, e.g., 
 in hippuric acid, benzoyl-amido-acetic acid (p. 151), and in 
 phloroglucol, regarded as 3CO.CH 2 , which occurs in the plant 
 world in a number of derivative forms, and is obtained from 
 several of the natural tannins as a product of fusion with 
 alkaline hydrates. We are not yet in a position, however, to 
 localise the CO.CH 2 groups in the complex lignocellulose 
 molecule, and we cannot go beyond a summing-up of the 
 evidence in general terms. 
 
 (i) Acetic acid is a product of simple hydrolysis, both acid 
 and alkaline, of the lignocelluloses, the proportion being from 
 3-6 p.ct. of the parent substance. 
 
 The formation of an acetic residue is thus a characteristic 
 feature of lignification. If derived from a hexose group (cellu* 
 
Compound Celluloses 193 
 
 lose), it should be formed correlatively with the furfural-yielding 
 compounds ; and the quantitative relations of the two certainly 
 confirm this view. Thus the hypothetical decomposition may 
 be formulated as under : 
 
 2 C 6 H 12 6 = 2C ft H 10 6 + C 2 H 4 2 , 
 2x150 60 
 
 and the pentosans of wood represent in effect a percentage 
 approximately five times that of the acetic acid obtainable 
 by simple hydrolysis. 
 
 In the jute fibre also, the smaller proportion of the fur- 
 fural-yielding constituents is associated with a similar smaller 
 proportion of the acetic residue. The formation of both 
 therefore increases, paripassu, with age, which is in accordance 
 with the view of a common origin. 
 
 (2) The celluloses, and the 'carbohydrates' generally, are 
 susceptible of the 'acetic condensation.' The normal cellu- 
 loses, however, require the application of drastic treatments, 
 e.g. fusion with alkaline hydrates or warming with concentrated 
 sulphuric acid, both of which treatments are of an oxidising 
 character. The oxy celluloses, on the other hand notably the 
 straw celluloses give a considerable yield of acetic acid 
 (together with furfural) on long boiling with 10 p.ct. sulphuric 
 acid. The maximum yield is obtained by dissolving the oxy- 
 cellulose in the concentrated acid in the cold, diluting and dis- 
 tilling. In this way the authors have obtained a yield of 
 9-10 p.ct. of the acid, calculated on the oxycellulose. 
 
 These observations confirm the view that lignification is a 
 process of transformation taking place in oxidised celluloses, 
 or oxycelluloses, and following as a secondary result of the dis- 
 turbance of equilibrium set up by the oxidation. 
 
 (3) In addition to acetic residues converted by hydrolysis 
 into acetic acid there appears to be a CO.CH 2 nucleus, a 
 dehydracetic residue, which is the source of the increased 
 
 o 
 
194 Cellulose 
 
 yields of acetic acid under the action of dilute nitric acid. Of 
 this constituent of the non-cellulose groups we have some 
 indirect knowledge. Thus, in the case of jute, we have given 
 to the entire lignone complex the statistical formula Ci 9 H 22 O 9 . 
 A portion of this, reacting with chlorine to form mairogallol, 
 may be approximately formulated as C, 8 H 18 O 9 = 3[C 6 H 6 O 3 ], 
 If we therefore resolve the complex into 
 
 C 6 H 6 3 20CH, C U H 10 4 , 
 
 Keto R. hexene Methoxyl 
 group 
 
 we are left with the highly condensed group CiiH| O 4 , con- 
 taining the furfural-yielding constituents, and also yielding 
 acetic acid as described. 
 
 The constitution of this complex must be considerably 
 removed from that of the ordinary carbohydrates. Whether 
 hexoses or pentoses are represented, either must be in the form 
 of a polyanhydride ; and the acetic residues are also probably 
 of the dehydrated or CO.CH 2 form. 
 
 The further investigation of this problem is the work of the 
 immediate future, and it is with the view of setting forth some 
 of the probabilities involved that the discussion has been 
 pushed somewhat beyond the limits of ascertained fact. 
 
 THE CHLORINATION REACTION. The reactions of the wood 
 lignocelluloses with chlorine have not been systematically in- 
 vestigated. It must be remembered that a wood tissue is a 
 complex structure, and although it will have become evident 
 that there is a remarkable uniformity in chemical composition, 
 still a mixture is always less attractive as a basis of investigation 
 than a homogeneous substance such as the jute fibre. It has, 
 however, been sufficiently established by research that the re- 
 action of the dicotyledonous woods with chlorine is identical 
 in general features with that of the typical lignocellulose i.e. a 
 yellow-coloured quinone chloride is formed, giving the same 
 briliiant colour reaction with sodium sulphite ; and on treat- 
 
Compound Celluloses 
 
 195 
 
 ment with alkali there is a complete resolution into cellulose 
 (insoluble) and soluble derivatives of the lignone complex. 
 
 The coniferous woods, on the other hand, react somewhat 
 differently, the chief distinctions being that the wood substance 
 is changed in colour to an orange red, and the product does not 
 give any marked colour reaction with sodium sulphite. In 
 both cases the percentage of chlorine combining with the ligno- 
 cellulose is the same as with jute, viz. 8*0 p.ct. 
 
 Comparative experiments upon four typical woods gave the 
 following statistics of reaction with chlorine. The results are 
 given in terms of the lignocellulose proper, i.e. the residue from 
 exhaustion with the alkaline solution (i p.ct. NaOH). 
 
 
 
 Pine 
 
 Beech | Sycamore 
 
 Birch 
 
 , , ( Residue from alk. treatment, or i 
 ^ a ' \ lignocellulose : p.ct. on wood ) 
 
 89 
 
 82 
 
 8 4 
 
 87-5 
 
 / Cl. combining : p.ct. on (a) 
 
 7 '5 
 
 7'5 
 
 9'0 
 
 7-0 
 
 (b) \ Acidity after chlorination calc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ( as HC1 
 
 23-5 
 
 19*5 
 
 21'0 
 
 iS'O 
 
 (c) Cellulose : p.ct. on (a) 
 
 72-0 
 
 65-0 
 
 70-0 
 
 72-5 
 
 These must be regarded as preliminary results, but they serve 
 lo confirm the view we have taken of the general and close 
 similarity of the woods to the typical jute lignocellulose. It has 
 not been determined whether the whole of the 'acidity' developed 
 in the above chlorinations is due to H Cl, or to acid products (e.g. 
 acetic acid) split off from the lignocellulose. 
 
 The chlorinated derivatives have not been closely investi- 
 gated. The authors have isolated one of these products ob- 
 tained from a Spanish mahogany, the chlorination being pre- 
 ceded by the usual treatment with boiling dilute alkali (i p.ct. 
 NaOH). This product was found to contain 30*4 p.ct. Cl. 
 
 In regard to investigations involving the chlorination of 
 these lignocelluloses, two points must be borne in mind : (i) As 
 regards preparation of the material. To ensure a complete 
 reaction the wood must be reduced to the finest possible 
 
 shavings. (2) In regard to the preliminary treatment with 
 
 o 2 
 
196 
 
 Cellulose 
 
 boiling alkali. The woods are not attacked as a whole as with 
 the jute fibre, the furfural-yielding constituents (pentosans) 
 yielding much more readily than the fundamental tissue or 
 lignocellulose proper. In systematic investigations following 
 the lines laid down in the case of the jute fibre, the latter 
 should be taken as the basis of observation, and not the entire 
 wood substance. 
 
 The reactions which we have so far discussed are, in the 
 main, reactions of decomposition. Synthetical reactions of 
 the wood lignocelluloses have been still less investigated. 
 Here, again, there is little to attract the chemist in the pre- 
 sent state of our knowledge, owing to the necessary complexity 
 of the reactions involved. From such reactions as have been 
 studied, if only in a general and superficial way, it appears that 
 the proportion of reactive OH groups is still less in these ligno- 
 celluloses than in those of which jute is the type. Thus, to 
 select the reaction of nitration : The maximum yield of 
 nitrate is considerably lower in the woods than in jute ; more- 
 over, the reaction is complicated by a destructive oxidation 
 which supervenes at a very early stage of exposure to the 
 action of the mixed acids. The following series of determina- 
 tions of yield in the case of mahogany wood illustrate this 
 point. In (a) the wood was used in its raw state ; in (b) it was 
 previously purified by boiling in dilute alkaline solution. 
 
 Nitrating acid : equal volumes of H 2 SO 4 and HNO 3 (i'43 
 sp.gr.) in excess. 
 
 Duration of exposure 
 
 Yield of nitrated wood 
 
 to acid 
 
 
 
 
 (*) 
 
 (*) 
 
 Miiis. 
 
 P.ct. 
 
 P.ct. 
 
 I 
 
 106-6 
 
 115-6 
 
 2 
 
 Il8'4 
 
 121 -0 
 
 3 
 
 I26-5 
 
 127-2 
 
 4 
 
 JI2'7 
 
 I25-3 
 
 5 
 
 108-8 
 
 I23-I 
 
Compound Celluloses 197 
 
 After three minutes' exposure, therefore, in both cases 
 oxidation supervened, accompanied by conversion into soluble 
 products ; this destructive oxidation being much more marked 
 in the case of the raw wood substance. Jute, under similar 
 conditions of treatment, would have given a maximum of 145 
 p.ct., and the nitrate is much more resistant to the continued 
 action of the acid mixture. 
 
 These results are, of course, of slight value only ; but they 
 serve to give emphasis to the general conclusion that lignifica- 
 tion is a process of condensation and etherification of OH 
 groups, accompanied, and in part conditioned, by condensa- 
 tion in regard to carbon configuration. Similarly, also, the 
 woods show considerably more resistance to the actions of 
 solvents of cellulose than jute lignocelluloses ; notably to the 
 thiocarbonate reaction, to which they yield only in very slight 
 degree and after prolonged exposure. 
 
 From this general view of the reactions of the woods con- 
 sidered as a class of the lignocelluloses, we proceed to consider 
 special investigations of particular woods. 
 
 Woods of the Coniferae. These woods are of very 
 great industrial importance, not merely for their uses as such, 
 but as the raw material for the preparation of the * sulphite 
 wood pulp,' now produced on an enormous scale in connection 
 with the paper industry. The ultimate fibres of these woods 
 are of greater length than those of the dicotyledonous woods ; 
 in addition there are well-marked features of distinction in 
 chemical composition from the latter, which have already been 
 noted. 
 
 The chemistry of these woods was investigated some years 
 ago by Erdmann (Annalen, Suppl. 5, 223). The wood of 
 Pinus abies purified from adventitious constituents by boiling 
 in acetic acid, and subsequent exhaustion with water, alcohol 
 and ether gave, on ultimate analysis, constant numbers, viz. 
 
198 Cellulose 
 
 C, 48-4 ; H, 6-3 p.ct. From these results, together with general 
 observations on the chemical behaviour of the substance, it 
 was concluded that it is a homogeneous compound, having the 
 empirical formula C 30 H 46 O2i. Erdmann further concluded 
 that this compound is resolved by hydrolysis with dilute 
 acids into glucose (soluble) and a residue C 2 6Ho 6 O n , which 
 he terms lignose, and the original compound therefore 
 glycolignosc. Lignose was further found to yield, on fusion 
 with potassium hydrate, pyrocatechol and protocatechuic 
 acid. 
 
 These results, or rather the interpretation of them, is incon- 
 sistent in many respects with the results of subsequent investi- 
 gations. The experimental facts, however, remain ; and the 
 researches are worthy of notice, as one of the earliest attempts 
 to elucidate the constitution of the lignocelluloses as a definite 
 chemical problem. 
 
 The ' sulphite pulp ' process would appear to offer a much 
 more promising field of investigation, since it not only deter- 
 mines a satisfactorily sharp separation of cellulose (pulp) from 
 non-cellulose (soluble sulphonated derivatives), but with the 
 minimum of chemical modification of either group. Notwith- 
 standing these specific advantages of the process, considered 
 as a method of proximate analysis, and numerous investigations 
 of the soluble by-products (' sulphite liquor '), the constitution 
 of the latter, and therefore of the original lignocellulose, still has 
 to be expressed in very general terms. The most important 
 contribution to the subject is that of Lindsey and Tollens 
 (Annalen, 267, 341), of which the following is a brief account. 
 The solution used in these researches was that resulting from 
 the ' Mitscherlich process,' which consists in a prolonged diges- 
 tion of the wood after subjection to a preliminary mechanical 
 disintegration with a solution of calcium bisulphite. The 
 solution is usually prepared to contain CaO 1*35 p.ct, SO 2 
 
Compound Celluloses 199 
 
 4'4 p.ct., and is used in the proportion of 5-7 parts to i part of 
 wood. In the digestion, the temperature is gradually raised to 
 1 60 C. 
 
 The particular specimen of * waste liquor' (1*055 s P-g r -) 
 used in the above researches contained 9-5 p.ct. of ' total 
 solids in solution' (dried at 100), of which 0*58 p.ct. wasCaO. 
 The solution has a pale brownish-yellow colour, and reduces 
 Fehling's solution strongly. 
 
 A systematic examination for the presence of carbohydrates 
 of low molecular weight and known constitution gave for the 
 most part negative results as follows : 
 
 (a) On boiling with HC1 (16 p.ct on the solution) after 
 evaporation to a suitable volume, traces only of levulinic acid 
 were obtained ; showing the general absence of such carbo- 
 hydrates. (Annalen, 243, 333 ; Berl. Ber. 22, 370.) 
 
 (b) On oxidation with nitric acid no saccharic acid was 
 formed, showing the absence of dextrose or dextrose-yielding 
 compounds. (Annalen, 249, 222.) 
 
 (c) On oxidation with nitric acid, traces of mucic acid were 
 obtained, showing the presence of galactose (or galactan) in 
 small proportion. (Annalen, 232, 186, 205.) 
 
 (d) The solution was acidified with sulphuric acid, boiled 
 some time, neutralised (CaCO 3 ), filtered, evaporated to a 
 syrup, and boiled with strong alcohol. The clear solution was 
 poured off, the alcohol evaporated, and the resulting syrup 
 mixed with phenylhydrazine acetate. An insoluble hydra- 
 zone was obtained, which proved to be mannose hydrazone. 
 An approximate estimate of the quantity showed o*5~o'8 
 p.ct. on the solution, i.e. about 6-7 p.ct. of the 'organic 
 solids.' 
 
 (e) On c distillation ' with hydrochloric acid, furfural was 
 formed in some quantity. After precipitation of the bulk of 
 the organic substances in solution with lead oxide, a solution 
 
2OO Cellulose 
 
 was obtained which gave the brilliant colour reactions of the 
 pentoses, and xylose was identified in the solution by precipita- 
 tion with phenylhydrazine. 
 
 (/" ) Experiments were also made with the view of deter- 
 mining alcoholic fermentation (yeast) of the dissolved com- 
 pounds. Small quantities of alcohol were obtained, but the 
 maximum yield corresponded to 1*2 p.ct. only of carbo- 
 hydrate. 
 
 The major proportion of the dissolved organic substances 
 was found to be a gummy body with the usual ill-defined 
 physical properties of the class of organic colloids. On the 
 other hand, this body behaved, in many respects, as a homo- 
 geneous complex ; and although it was found impossible to 
 resolve it into proximate constituents of definite character- 
 istics, it yielded a number of synthetical derivatives, from 
 the analysis of which, compared with that of the gum itself, 
 the conclusion resulted as to the homogeneity of the 
 complex. The complex was obtained in various forms as 
 follows : 
 
 (1) As a precipitate on adding hydrochloric acid to the 
 original liquor. 
 
 (2) As a lead compound by precipitation of the wood 
 liquor with lead acetate. 
 
 (3) The lead compounds were decomposed by treatment 
 with sulphuric acid, and the solution treated with alcohol. A 
 portion of the gum was precipitated as a flocculent mass, and 
 a second fraction was obtained on evaporating the filtrate. 
 
 (4) A brominated derivative was obtained by treating the 
 original wood liquor with bromine. 
 
 The following empirical formulae represent the results of 
 ultimate analyses of these products, together with methoxyl 
 determinations. 
 
Compound Celluloses 2OI 
 
 (1) From analyses of HC1 precipitate : 
 
 C 24 H 24 (CH 3 ) 2 SO 12 . 
 
 (2) Calculated from analyses of PbO compounds : 
 
 (3) From direct analyses of gums obtained from PbO pre- 
 cipitates : 
 
 (a) Precipitated by alcohol : C 24 H 24 (CH 3 ) 2 SO, 2 . 
 
 (b) Soluble in aqueous alcohol : C 24 H 24 (CH 3 ) 2 SO,2. 
 
 (4) Brominated derivative : 
 
 The S is present in this complex as a sulphonic residue 
 (SO 3 H) ; the parent molecule, i.e. the non-cellulose or lignone 
 complex of pine wood, may be regarded as approximately 
 C 24 H.2 4 (CH 3 ). i O 1 o. Certain definite conclusions may be drawn 
 from this empirical study of its derivatives. 
 
 (1) It is evident that it represents a highly condensed 
 molecule. Taking the 'carbohydrate' formula to which it 
 most nearly approximates, viz. C 24 H 24 Oi 2 , this represents 
 
 4 C 6 H 12 O 6 -i2H 2 O. 
 
 In addition to condensation expressed by dehydration, 
 CH=CH groupings are also represented, as appears from 
 the bromination of the product. The authors not having 
 prepared the corresponding chlorinated derivative, we are not 
 able to compare the grouping of the hexene rings of this com- 
 plex with those of jute, especially as the reactions of the 
 chlorinated wood are distinct from those of jute. There is, 
 however, an unmistakably close general similarity. 
 
 (2) It is evident that the condensation is of a type which 
 resists hydrolytic treatment of a very energetic character ; and 
 that the constituent groups of the lignocellulose are united 
 together by stronger bonds of synthesis than O-linking. 
 
202 Cellulose 
 
 (3) With regard to the mechanism of the reaction in the 
 original resolution of the lignocellulose, it is of a complex 
 character ; and the synthetic equilibrium of the products in 
 the resulting solution is, no doubt, different from that repre- 
 sented by the parent complex. We may very well assume 
 that the reaction involves the following factors : (a) the hydro- 
 lytic action of the sulphurous acid ; (b) the formation of 
 aldehyde bisulphite compounds ; (c) the probable sulphona- 
 tion of side chains of the general form #.CH : CH.COH, 
 as in the well-known reaction of cinnamic aldehyde with 
 sodium bisulphite ; (d) the saturation of acid OH groups 
 by CaO. 
 
 These researches are, it will be seen, an important prelimi- 
 nary elucidation of the problem of the composition of this 
 interesting industrial product, and afford general conclusions 
 as to the constitution of the non-cellulose constituents of the 
 lignocelluloses, which entirely confirm the deductions given in 
 preceding sections of this treatise. 
 
 In regard to the pulp or insoluble product of the original 
 reaction, which is, as already stated, an industrial product of 
 the greatest importance, it represents the cellulose of the wood 
 together with residues of the non-cellulose in small proportion, 
 not removed by the treatment. The presence of the latter is 
 marked by the colour of the product, which is usually a greyish- 
 pink. A large quantity of the pulp is used in this crude or 
 unbleached condition ; but for white papers a preliminary 
 treatment with bleaching powder is practised, the proportion 
 required being from 15-25 p.ct. of the weight of the pulp. 
 The process is attended by a loss of weight of from 8-12 p.ct, 
 owing to conversion of the more oxidisable constituents of the 
 pulp into soluble derivatives. 
 
 It is to be noted that the yield of bleached cellulose by this 
 process is, as in many other cases, considerably inferior to that 
 
Compound Celluloses 203 
 
 obtained by the process of chlorination, &c. By the latter 
 the authors obtain 60-65 P- ct - of cellulose from the coniferous 
 woods, whereas the c sulphite process ' yields about 50 p.ct. 
 This is another instance of the variable character of the ' cellu- 
 lose constants ' of fibrous products ; the cellulose being a 
 product of resolution or decomposition, and varying both in 
 character and proportion with the conditions of the treatment 
 by which isolated. 
 
 With the exception of the woods of the Coniferae, none 
 of the woods have been submitted to exhaustive investigation 
 so far as regards the fundamental tissue or lignocellulose proper. 
 It appears, in fact, that such investigations have only been 
 rendered possible by the general advances of the science 
 during the last few years, more especially in the province of the 
 carbohydrates. This work upon the carbohydrates of lower 
 molecular weight, together with the preliminary work upon the 
 general features of lignification recorded in this treatise, opens 
 out a very wide field for future work in the direction of reducing 
 the phenomena of elaboration and metabolism in the plant to 
 exact molecular expression. In regard to such investigations 
 we may point out here that of those types of lignification which 
 have been so far studied, four may be selected as showing well- 
 marked features of differentiation, viz. : 
 
 ' Annual ' products ' Perennial ' products 
 
 Cereal straws ; Jute bast Dicotyledonous woods ; Coniferous woods 
 
 each and all of which call for extended investigation, i.e. 
 individually as presenting a problem of chemical constitution, 
 and comparatively with the view to connect the variations in 
 composition with variations in the physiological factors of 
 their origin and growth. 
 
 There are, of course, a number of woods characterised by 
 the secretion or excretion of particular products, such as more 
 
204 Cellulose 
 
 particularly the dye woods, logwood, brazil wood, sapan, &c., 
 &c. These characteristic products are well-defined, mostly 
 crystallisable compounds, the constitution of which is deter- 
 mined entirely without reference to the physiological problem 
 of their origin or their relationship, genetic or otherwise, to the 
 tissues in which they are stored up. 
 
 The purpose of this treatise is, however, strictly limited to 
 the chemistry of fundamental tissue ; outside this lies the 
 indefinitely wide territory of plant secretions into which we 
 make no attempt to enter. 
 
 We have now, in concluding our account of the lignocellu- 
 loses, to deal briefly with certain industrial processes which 
 throw further light on the chemistry of the lignocelluloses. 
 
 (i) DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION. The products of the 
 destructive distillation of the woods are extremely numerous 
 and of varied constitution, comprising, in fact, representatives 
 of all the more important groups of C,H, and C,H,O com- 
 pounds. The formation of these products depends upon 
 various factors : (a) the composition of the wood itself, and 
 (^) the conditions of distillation. 
 
 Ramsay and Chorley have made careful comparative 
 investigations of typical dicotyledonous woods oak, beech, 
 and alder and their results afford a general idea of the influ- 
 ence of these factors. The tables on the opposite page may 
 be cited in illustration (J. Soc. Chem. Ind. 1892). 
 
 These results, as regards the solid residue (charcoal) and 
 gaseous products and their relation to the conditions of distil- 
 lation, are very complete and require no further discussion. 
 The increase of gas at the higher temperature of distillation is 
 formed at the expense of the charcoal, and CO at the expense 
 of CO 2 . 
 
 In addition to these observations on the products, the 
 authors also found that the distillations were marked, as in the 
 
Compound Celluloses 
 
 205 
 
 
 
 Oak 
 
 Beech 
 
 Alder 
 
 Weight of wood 
 
 P.ct. of charcoa 
 P.ct. of distillat 
 P.ct. ofCO 2 ab 
 Difference to m; 
 
 Volume of gas a 
 
 P.ct. 
 composition of 
 this gas 
 
 P.ct. of pitch 
 
 the wood . 
 
 taken in grms. . 
 1 
 
 167 
 
 180 
 
 134 
 
 24-55 
 58-69 
 9-58 
 7-18 
 
 26-66 
 59'33 
 9 ! 23 
 478 
 
 2537 
 5970 
 970 
 5 - 23 
 
 
 >orbedbyKOH . 
 ike up loop.ct. . 
 
 fter absorbing CO, 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 7,000 c.c. 
 7077 
 
 I'll 
 
 14-90 
 1332 
 
 7,200 c.c. 
 73'H 
 
 1*02 
 
 1-49 
 18-71 
 
 5-64 
 
 6,000 c.c. 
 
 73'47 
 1-52 
 
 i-59 
 
 20-11 
 4-3I 
 
 Olefines . . . 
 CH 4 . . . . 
 N by difference . 
 
 from distillate on 
 
 9-58 
 613 
 1-36 
 
 ii'ii 
 
 6'54 
 608 
 
 15-67 
 
 5 '90 
 11-17 
 
 P.ct. of acetic acid 
 P.ct. of methyl alcohol . . 
 
 Maximum temperature in each case about 500. 
 
 
 
 Oak 
 
 Beech 
 
 Alder 
 
 Weight of wood taken in grms. . 
 
 181 
 
 I8 7 
 
 150 
 
 
 -,.- 
 
 74-22 
 
 74*66 
 
 
 C6'7C 
 
 C-2M.7 
 
 ?4"OO 
 
 P.ct. of CO 2 absorbed by KOH . 
 Difference to make up 100 p.ct. . 
 
 5" 3 3 
 6-40 
 
 3-49 
 
 7'49 
 4-82 
 
 8-00 
 334 
 
 Volume of gas after absorbing CO , 
 
 p -- f |o: : : : 
 
 4,000 c.c. 
 
 92-25 
 
 5,000 c.c. 
 
 87-36 
 
 I'll 
 
 4,000 c.c. 
 84-61 
 i 6; 
 
 composition of J ;;,, 
 tbis S aS (N b'y difference I 
 
 2-96 
 
 4-89 
 
 4-15 
 
 7-38 
 
 4-32 
 9-42 
 
 P.ct. of pitch from distillate . . 
 
 7-69 
 
 5'S8 
 
 7-49 
 6 -02 
 
 H'33 
 
 ^76 
 
 P.ct. of methyl alcohol . . . . 
 
 1-32 
 
 5-3I 
 
 1075 
 
 Maximum temperature .... 
 
 344 
 
 380 
 
 343 
 
 case of jute, by a strongly exothermic reaction occurring in all 
 cases at about 320. 
 
 From the general literature of the subject, which is some- 
 
206 Cellulose 
 
 what scattered, we find that the following compounds have 
 been identified amongst the liquid products : 
 
 Aqueous distillate Tar 
 
 Acids Alcohol Aldehydes, Hydrocarbons, 
 
 Chiefly Acetic. Chiefly Methyl Ketones, &c. Phenols, &c. 
 
 Also Formic ( Acetaldehyde Paraffins 
 
 Propionic \ Furfuraldehyde Toluene 
 
 Butyric / Acetone Xylene 
 
 Valerianic, &c, ] Methyl-propyl ketone Creosol 
 
 Crotonic acid I Methyl ethyl ,, Guaiacol 
 
 f Methyl formate Methoxy-deri- 
 
 ( Methyl acetate vatives of py- 
 
 rogallol 
 Methyl - pyro- 
 gallol 
 
 Propyl pyro- 
 gallol 
 
 A large number of these derivatives are obviously formed 
 by secondary reactions. What chiefly concerns our subject is 
 to distinguish, if possible, the primary products of the decom- 
 position. 
 
 A careful survey of the evidence leaves no doubt that the 
 main products, as to relative quantity, are the primary pro- 
 ducts, viz. : 
 
 Methyl alcohol Acetic acid Furfural and Pyrogallol derivatives 
 
 In regard to the two former, interesting conclusions are 
 drawn by Ramsay and Chorley from their results (loc. #/.). 
 It will be noted that these products are constant for the indi- 
 vidual woods, over a wide range of temperatures of distillation, 
 and it is probable that they are formed as it were explosively, 
 i.e. in the exothermic reaction above described. 
 
 In regard to the relationship of furfural and acetic acid to 
 each other, the following results of observations upon a par- 
 ticular distillation of alder wood may be cited. 
 
Compound Celluloses 
 
 207 
 
 No. 
 
 Temperature 
 
 Time 
 
 Quantity of 
 distillate 
 
 Furfural 
 
 Acetic acid 
 
 
 
 Hours 
 
 Less than 
 
 Grm. 
 
 Grm. 
 
 I 
 
 200 
 
 2 
 
 I C.C. 
 
 0*05 
 
 o-o 
 
 
 
 
 c.c. 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 200-230 
 
 2 
 
 4-5 
 
 0-09 
 
 1-28 
 
 3 
 
 230-250 
 
 I 
 
 6-0 
 
 0-096 
 
 1-95 
 
 
 
 Min. 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 250-270 
 
 25 
 
 4'5 
 
 0-05 
 
 0-88 
 
 5 
 
 270-290 
 
 25 
 
 4-5 
 
 0-064 
 
 0-83 
 
 6 
 
 290 310 
 
 IS 
 
 3-5 
 
 0-086 
 
 o-o 
 
 7 
 
 3IO 320 
 
 IO 
 
 5-0 
 
 0-142 
 
 0-79 
 
 8 
 
 3 20 330 
 
 IO 
 
 5-0 
 
 0-I70 
 
 0-78 
 
 9 
 
 330 340 
 
 15 
 
 4-5 
 
 0-237 
 
 0-87 
 
 . - Totals . . . 
 
 0-985 
 
 8-18 
 
 Both are formed continuously, and increase towards the end 
 of the distillation. Special observations were also made on 
 the yield of acetic acid from oak (183 grms. of wood), with the 
 following results : 
 
 No. 
 
 
 
 Yield 
 
 Containing acetic 
 acid 
 
 
 
 Cc. 
 
 Grms. 
 
 I 
 
 Up to 120 
 
 20 
 
 
 2 
 
 120-180 
 
 10 
 
 0-1756 
 
 3 
 
 180-240 
 
 IO 
 
 07320 
 
 4 
 
 240 260 
 
 10 
 
 I -0248 
 
 5 
 
 260-300 
 
 10 
 
 I -4640 
 
 6 
 
 300-310 
 
 10 
 
 1-5372 
 
 7 
 
 310-322 
 
 IO 
 
 I -0980 
 
 8 
 
 322-350 
 
 *5 
 
 2-3424 
 
 9 
 
 350 450 
 
 About 10 
 
 1-6104 
 
 On comparing the woods with one another the only very 
 noteworthy feature of difference is the very large yield of 
 methyl spirit obtained from alder wood. The acetic acid re- 
 sults are approximately constant for this series of woods. 
 
 In regard to the aromatic products it is important to note 
 the predominance of pyrogallol derivatives, and that many of 
 these are characterised by the OCH 3 group. 
 
208 Cellulose 
 
 This strongly confirms the view we have taken of the con- 
 stitution of the hexene constituents of the lignocelluloses. The 
 completion of the benzene ring under the conditions of the 
 distillation indicates its occurrence in the ordinary life- history 
 of the wood. Unfortunately the mechanism of the condensa- 
 tion is too complex to follow, and so, in fact, of the entire 
 process. What is required is an extended investigation of this 
 destructive decomposition under the conditions of variations 
 determined by the addition of reagents, added to promote 
 reaction in one or other direction. All that we can deduce 
 from the results of investigations as they stand is a general con- 
 firmation of previous discussions of the constitutional relation- 
 ships of the constituent groups of the lignocelluloses. 
 
 (2) PROCESSES OF DISINTEGRATION BY REAGENTS. A. 
 Proximate resolutions. The various processes of preparing 
 a papermaker's pulp from the woods admit of a simple 
 theoretical classification on the basis of the foregoing treat- 
 ment of the subject. The table on p. 209, from a paper of 
 the authors (Forestry Exhibition Reports, Edinburgh, 1886, 
 No. 20), gives such a comparative survey, together with the 
 names of the inventors more prominently associated with the 
 origination of the several methods. 
 
 The general principles of the classification are briefly these : 
 The lignocelluloses are readily attacked by hydrolysing agents, 
 even water. The attack of these agents is accompanied by the 
 inverse processes of condensation, which may be and are many- 
 sided, owing to the presence of OH groups of the most varied 
 function. A limit is therefore reached when the product is 
 sufficiently condensed to resist further attack. There are two 
 general ways of extending the limit : (i) strengthening the 
 hydrolysing action, either by concentration of the reagent, or 
 by increase of temperature ; (2) preventing the reverse action 
 by fixing reactive groups in combination. These more active 
 
Compound Celluloses 
 
 209 
 
 O 
 
 si 
 
 S3, 
 
 III 
 
 o < as 
 
 UP5O 
 
 u 
 
 S IS" 
 
 55 O H 
 U J L> 
 
 i* 
 
 M jf 
 
 3 i * g f 
 
 11333 
 
 8 t 
 
 .a .-o ^ 
 
 J llll 
 
 e 
 
 S - 1= a o 
 
 !ff| 
 
 33 -8 3 >1 S 
 
 ' - * 5! 
 
2io Cellulose 
 
 groups are chiefly two, viz. aldehydic and acid ; and hence the 
 employment of sulphurous acid and bisulphites on the one 
 hand, and alkalis on the other, for the purposes as indicated in 
 the table. 
 
 The application of these principles is well illustrated by 
 taking any of the processes in series of variations. Thus the 
 sulphite processes : 
 
 (a) Sulphurous acid alone is capable of resolving wood into 
 cellulose (insoluble) and non-cellulose (hydrolysed), and soluble 
 derivatives. The acid, however, owing to its feeble hydrolysing 
 power, requires to be used in 7 p.ct. solution (SO 2 ) prepared 
 under pressure ; and, again, to prevent reverse action, the limit 
 of temperature employed is 105. (See 'The Pictet-Brelaz 
 Process of Preparing Wood Cellulose,' Cross and Bevan. 
 Spon : London, 1889.) 
 
 The hydrolysing action of the SO 2 .Aq, ordinarily very 
 feeble, is perhaps also more powerful in relation to aldehydic 
 condensations. 
 
 (b) The bisulphites. The addition of the base lowers the 
 hydrolysing action of the acid ; a higher temperature (150-160) 
 is theiefore required. The base, however, serves to saturate 
 acid groups, and the process is further aided by sulphonation 
 in the CH CH groups ; the presence of the excess of bi- 
 sulphite prevents reversal by condensation of aldehydic groups. 
 
 (c) Neutral sodium sulphite. In this case the hydrolysing 
 action is still feebler, and a higher temperature is required 
 (160-180). 
 
 In presence of the lignocellulose complex, undergoing 
 decomposition, the sulphite is dissociated, the base going to 
 acid groups, and the acid sulphite residue to aldehydic groups. 
 
 In all the above processes, moreover, the resolution is aided 
 by deoxidation of the lignocellulose constituents, a certain 
 proportion of sulphate being formed. 
 
Compound Celluloses 2 1 1 
 
 The alkaline processes involve reactions of a totally 
 different character. In the sulphite processes the resolution 
 of cellulose from lignone is a comparatively simple process ; 
 the latter is obtained as a soluble derivative but little changed 
 in essential chemical features from the condition in which it 
 existed in the wood (see p. 178). The alkalis determine, on the 
 other hand, a highly complex decomposition ; the products 
 are extremely numerous, and for the most part ill-defined. An 
 analytical study of these products will be found in the Papier 
 Zeitung, 1878, 226, 242. A prominent feature of the de- 
 composition is the liberation or formation of acid groups, and 
 the consequent * saturation ' of the alkali. The hydrolysing 
 power of the alkaline solution is continually diminished, and 
 the alkali has therefore to be used in excess ; and according to 
 the amount taken in excess, so, inversely, is the temperature 
 necessary for completing the decomposition. The additional 
 presence of reducing agents, such as sulphides, appears to have 
 a certain influence upon the result. But since the organic 
 products themselves, in presence of the alkali, are of a power- 
 fully deoxidising character, any influence would probably be 
 traceable to specific reactions between the sulphur and the 
 constituents of the wood. 
 
 The acid processes we consider with exclusion of the 
 sulphite processes. They divide themselves into the two 
 groups : (a) resolution by non-oxidising acids (dilute H 2 SO 4 
 and HC1) ; (V) by oxidising acids (dilute HNO 3 ). 
 
 In the former we have a process of some theoretical interest, 
 consisting of boiling with HClAq, neutralising, and bringing 
 the solution into alcoholic fermentation. It is stated in the 
 historical notices of the industrial development of the process 
 that it was worked for some time on a commercial scale (Payen, 
 Wagn. Jahresber. 1867). In such treatments the limit of 
 resolution is rapidly attained, and the residue is in the brittle 
 
 p 2 
 
212 Cellulose 
 
 and friable condition of the more ' condensed ' products. The 
 limit is obviously determined by the inability of such acids to 
 enter into any permanent synthetical combination with the con- 
 stituent groups of the wood-substance, which remain therefore 
 open to mutual interaction ; hence their further condensation, 
 and the building up of more resistant forms of lignocelluloses. 
 The reaction with nitric acid, on the other hand, is of a totally 
 different order : the acid hydrolyses and oxidises in the first 
 instance, but the specific and characteristic decomposition which 
 ensues (described in detail, p. 146) is the result of direct synthesis 
 of the lower oxides of nitrogen with the lignone groups. The 
 final products of resolution of the non-cellulose, or lignone, 
 are the simplest acids carbonic, acetic, and oxalic. 
 
 The extreme oxidising action of nitric acid has been investi- 
 gated by Wheeler and Tollens (Annalen, 267, 367) in the case of 
 pine-wood, the wood being heated for 6 hours at 90-100, with 10 
 times its weight of nitric acid (1-4 sp.gr.) diluted with \ water. The 
 lignone constituents are, of course, entirely broken down in the 
 reaction, the greater proportion of the cellulose also. The residue 
 was an oxycellulose, amounting to 17 p.ct. of the weight of the wood, 
 having the composition : 
 
 Calc. C 36 H 90 O SI 
 =6C S H 10 0.+O 
 
 C 43'4i .... 4372 
 H 6-19 , , . . 6-07 
 O 50-40 . . . 50-20 
 
 Its properties were those of the oxycelluloses obtained by the 
 action of nitric acid upon cotton. 
 
 The peculiar feature of this oxidation is the survival of a 
 residue so little different in empirical composition from the wood 
 cellulose itself. 
 
 The results of these various treatments confirm entirely the 
 views advanced as to the constitution of the lignocelluloses, 
 and, conversely, a grasp of these views enables us to predict, 
 with a satisfactory approximation, the results of treatments not 
 specifically investigated. 
 
Compound Celluloses 213 
 
 B. Ultimate resolutions. (i) The extreme action of the 
 alkaline hydrates at 200-300 is an industrial process of some 
 importance for the preparation of oxalic acid from waste wood. 
 An exhaustive investigation of the process, more especially of 
 the conditions determining maximum yields of the acid, has 
 been made by W. Thorn (Dingl. J. 210, 24). The optimum 
 temperature for the decomposition is 240, but at this point a 
 relatively large proportion of the alkali is required for complete 
 decomposition, viz. 4 parts hydroxide to i part wood. Potas- 
 sium gives higher yields than sodium hydroxide : the maxima 
 obtained under the condition of heating in closed vessels 
 were, 52 p.ct. (NaOH) + 66 p.ct. (KOH) ; heated in thin 
 layers, the yield in the latter case was increased to 80 p.ct. 
 
 The maximum yields from various woods observed by the 
 author, and calculated on the dry woods, were : 
 
 Pine, 947 ; Poplar, 93-14 ; Oak, 83-4 ; Box, 86-4. 
 
 By a more graduated but still severe treatment with the 
 alkaline hydrates, G. Lange obtains the following characteristic 
 products of resolution : 
 
 (1) Cellulose (insoluble), and in the alkaline liquid. 
 
 (2) Two complex acids, or groups of acids (lignic acids), 
 described below. 
 
 (3) Formic and acetic acids, and traces of the higher fatty 
 acids. 
 
 (4) Protocatechuic acid and catechol j (5) ammonia and nitro- 
 genous bases in small quantity. 
 
 The lignic acids are of definite composition so far as is 
 established by uniform results of elementary analysis, which are as 
 follows : 
 
 Wood from which 
 obtained 
 
 Lignic cid soluble in 
 alcohol 
 
 Lignic acid insoluble in 
 alcohol 
 
 Beech . 
 Ash 
 Pine 
 
 C H 
 6l'5 5'5 
 6i'6 5-5 
 61-3 5-0 
 
 59'0 5 '4 
 58-8 5-2 
 60-5 5-2 
 
214 Cellulose 
 
 Nothing, however, has as yet been established in regard to the 
 constitution of these products. 
 
 They are no doubt in the main derived from the non- 
 cellulose or lignone complex, but the author's numbers do not 
 warrant his view that the attack of the alkali is confined to this 
 complex ; it is evident that the cellulose is considerably attacked 
 also, and the method cannot be recommended as a process for 
 cellulose estimation. For the original papers see Zeitschr. PhysioL 
 Chem. 14, pp. 15,217. 
 
 (2) Chromic acid in presence of sulphuric acid (cone.) de- 
 termines complete conversion of the carbon of the woods 
 into the gaseous oxides CO 2 and CO ; the proportion of 
 the latter is small. The reaction is available, therefore, as 
 a combustion method, under the conditions previously de- 
 scribed. 
 
 Pectocelluloses and Mucocelluloses. The second 
 great division of the compound celluloses are those of which 
 the non-cellulose constituents are related to the ' pectic ' group 
 of compounds. Hugo Miiller (Pflanzenfaser), in stating the 
 results of proximate analyses of raw fibrous materials, completes 
 the list of constituents with an undetermined aggregate de- 
 scribed as ' Incrusting and intercellular substance and pectic 
 constituents, calculated from loss ' i.e. having determined ash, 
 water, water extract, fat and wax, and cellulose, the residue is 
 estimated by calculation, and stated under the above aggregate 
 description. The question of * incrustation ' is rather morpho- 
 logical than chemical. In the lignocelluloses we have ample 
 evidence that the process of lignification is an intrinsic trans- 
 formation of tissue-substance. It is, of course, consistent with 
 this view that there should be a concurrent process of deposi- 
 tion of substance external to the cells themselves, destined for 
 
Pectocelluloses and Mucocelluloses 215 
 
 the binding or cementing of the cells together into a compact 
 tissue. But it is important not to confuse effects, even though 
 they may proceed from the same cause. In the lignocelluloses, 
 the view of incrustation of the cells is too often transferred to 
 the chemistry of the cell-substance, which comes to be regarded 
 as composed of cellulose merely overlaid with non-cellulose 
 constituents which mask its reactions. These views, we main- 
 tain, should be kept distinct. 
 
 The morphology of cell formation teaches that with growth 
 a differentiation of a portion of the cell wall takes place, which 
 in the fully developed condition of the tissue constitutes the 
 division of cell from cell and completes their individualisation. 
 A true ' intercellular ' region is then formed, and chemical 
 differentiation no doubt often takes a different course in this 
 region ; but it has not yet been established that differentiation 
 of the cell-substance does not take place simultaneously in the 
 same direction though in lesser degree. In the lignocellu- 
 lose this certainly appears to be the case ; in the pectocelluloses, 
 which we are about to consider, the problem is more difficult to 
 investigate by chemical and microchemical observation, owing 
 to the absence of any well-marked reactions of the pectic 
 compounds. 
 
 We must now give a brief outline of the chemistry of this 
 group. Their characteristic property is that of yielding gela- 
 tinous hydrates, in which they closely resemble the mucilage- 
 yielding constituents of many seeds, fruits, and rhizomes e.g. 
 linseed, the seed of Plantago Psyllium, the roots of Orchis 
 Morio, &c., many of the Salvia species, the fruit of the 
 quince (Cydonia vulgaris), &c. While, however, the empirical 
 composition of the latter is that of the carbohydrates, viz. 
 C ;i H 2m O m , the pectic group are distinguished by empirical 
 formulae with considerably less hydrogen in proportion to the 
 carbon and oxygen, the general approximate formula being 
 
2i6 Cellulose 
 
 C m H 3m O m . A second feature of distinction is that, while the 
 
 2 
 
 former yield on hydrolysis hexoses and pentoses, the latter give 
 the series of pectic acids, this distinction corresponding with the 
 higher proportion of oxygen which characterises the group. It 
 is necessary to qualify these conclusions somewhat by pointing 
 out that the empirical formulae determined by the original in- 
 vestigators of these compounds viz. Fremy (Ann. Chim. Phys. 
 [3] 2 4> 5)> Chodnew (Ann. Chem. Pharm. 51, 355) have been 
 called in question by later observers. Thus Reichardt (Archiv 
 d. Pharm. [3] 10, 116) concludes that they are to be regarded 
 as gelatinisable carbohydrates (see Tollens, Kohlenhydrate, 
 p. 243). 
 
 On the other hand it will be found that the pectocelluloses 
 differ from the celluloses by increased proportion of oxygen ; 
 and their acid character is further shown by their retaining 
 a relatively large proportion of basic mineral constituents 
 (ash). 
 
 The general relationships of the group as determined by 
 the earlier observers are these : Pectose^ the insoluble mother 
 substance of the group, occurs in mixture or union with the 
 cellulose of the parenchyma of fleshy fruits and roots, e.g. 
 apples, pears, turnips, &c. This is hydrolysed by boiling 
 dilute acids or alkalis, or by a ferment enzyme (pectase) 
 secreted in the tissue, to pectin (C 32 H 48 O 32 , Fremy), the 
 solutions of which readily gelatinise. By continued hydro- 
 lysis (boiling water) this is further modified to parapectin, 
 and by alkalis to metapectin and parapectic acid and pectic 
 acid (C 3 2H 44 O 3 o, Fremy ; C 12 H 16 O U , Regnault ; C 12 H 16 O 10 , 
 Mulder; C 14 H 22 O 14 , Chodnew). 
 
 The final product of hydrolysis is metapectic acid. To 
 this acid Fremy assigned the formula C 8 H , 4 O 9 . Later investi- 
 gations have established its general identity with arabic acid 
 
Pectocelluloses and Mucocelluloses 217 
 
 a complex acid which is the main constituent of gum-arabic. 
 Gum-arabic yields, on graduated hydrolysis, a complex of 
 glucoses (galactose, arabinose) and a series of arabinosic 
 acids, e.g. C 2 3H 38 O 2 2, and compounds differing from this by 
 + C 6 Hi O 5 . It appears, therefore, generally, that the pectic 
 group are compounds of carbohydrates of varied constitution 
 with acid groups of undetermined constitution, associated to- 
 gether to form molecular complexes, more or less homogeneous, 
 but entirely resolved by the continued action of simple hydro- 
 lytic agencies ; and the pectocelluloses are substances of similar 
 character in which the carbohydrates are in part replaced by 
 n on- hydroly sable celluloses. The general characteristics of the 
 pcctocelluloses are therefore these : they are resolved by boiling 
 with dilute alkaline solutions into cellulose (insoluble) and 
 soluble derivatives of the non-cellulose (pectin, pectic acid, 
 metapectic acid) ; they are gelatinised under the alkaline 
 treatment ; they are ' saturated compounds,' not reacting with 
 the halogens, nor containing any groups immediately allied to 
 the aromatic series. 
 
 Compound celluloses of this kind are enormously diver- 
 sified in composition, structural character, and distribution, 
 and the group, having none of the sharp lines of differentiation 
 and demarcation presented by the lignocelluloses, cannot be 
 handled at all in the same way. 
 
 We must confine ourselves, therefore, to the one or two 
 more definite types which have been investigated. 
 
 Flax. Commercial flax is a mixed product. The bast 
 fibre proper constitutes from 20-25 P- ct> f tne entire stem, 
 and is more or less imperfectly separated from the wood on the 
 one side, and the cortical tissue-elements on the other, by the 
 ordinary processes of retting and scutching. These residues are 
 visible with the naked eye, but are brought into clearer evidence 
 by means of reagents, followed by microscopic examination. 
 
2 1 8 Cellulose 
 
 Thus the wood is an ordinary lignocellulose, and gives the 
 characteristic reactions ; the cortical tissue is again distinguished 
 from the fibre proper by reacting strongly with magenta- sul- 
 phurous acid. The presence of the cortical tissue is also 
 marked by the large proportion of * oil and wax ' constituents 
 present in the fibre (3-4 p.ct.). Excluding these adventitious 
 constituents the fibre proper is a pectocellulose. That the non- 
 cellulose constituents of flax are pectic compounds was first 
 established by Kolb (Bull. Soc. Ind. Mulhouse, June 1868). 
 According to his observations, the precipitate obtained on 
 acidifying the alkaline solutions from the 'boiling' of flax 
 goods consists of pectic acid. 
 
 The proportion of these constituents varies from 14-33 
 p.ct. in the different kinds of flax, the variations being in part 
 due to the plant, i.e. to physiological habit and conditions of 
 growth ; in part to the different methods of retting the plant 
 and extracting the fibre. After well boiling with the dilute 
 alkali (1-2 p.ct. NaOH) the fibre-substance consists of flax 
 cellulose, with residues of the wood (sprit), cuticular tissues, 
 and oils and waxes associated with the latter. By exposure 
 to chlorine (after well washing and squeezing) the wood is 
 attacked in the usual way, and is then easily resolved by 
 alkaline treatment. To purify the cellulose it requires to be 
 boiled out with alcohol, and finally treated with ether-alcohol 
 to remove the oil-wax residues. In this way flax cellulose is 
 isolated in the laboratory in an approximately pure condition. 
 It might appear from the outlines of this laboratory method 
 that the bleaching of flax goods, which consists substantially 
 in the isolation of the pure flax cellulose, is a comparatively 
 simple process. This is not so, however. The exigencies of 
 economical and safe treatment of textile fabrics prescribe 
 certain narrow limits of chemical treatment ; and the removal 
 of the more resistant wood (lignocallulose) and cuticle 
 
Pectocelluloses and Mucocelluloses 219 
 
 fadipocellulose) under these conditions involves a reiterated 
 round of treatments consisting of 
 
 Alkaline hydrolysis . . Boiling in solutions of NaOH, Na 2 CO 3 ,&c. 
 
 O "d t* n ( Hypochlorite solutions and atmospheric 
 
 * I oxidation (grassing). 
 
 Souring .... Treatment with dilute acids in the cold. 
 
 It must be remembered, however, that the problem is not the 
 removal of the non-celluloseconstituentsof the fibre itself these 
 disappear almost entirely in the earliest alkaline treatments 
 but of com pound celluloses of the other two main groups. 
 
 The further investigation of the pectose of flax fibre has not 
 been prosecuted according to the methods of later years. Such 
 investigations will, no doubt, be undertaken in due course. 
 
 FLAX CELLULOSE has been mentioned incidentally to the 
 general treatment of the celluloses. So far no reactions have 
 been brought to light in which it is differentiated from cotton 
 cellulose, with perhaps one exception, viz. its lesser resistance to 
 hydrolysis. Thus H. Miiller mentions (Pflanzenfaser, p. 38) 
 that flax cellulose isolated by the bromine method lost, on 
 boiling five times with a dilute solution of sodium carbonate 
 (i p.ct. Na. 2 CO 3 ), 10 p.ct. of its weight. The statements of 
 R. Godeffroy (abstracted in J. Soc. Chem. Ind. 1889, 575), 
 that flax cellulose is distinguished from cotton cellulose by its 
 reducing action upon silver nitrate in boiling neutral solution, 
 are erroneous, the reaction resulting from residual impurities, 
 which, for the reasons given, are extremely difficult to isolate. 
 Flax cellulose may therefore, for the present, be regarded as 
 chemically indistinguishable from cotton cellulose. 
 
 The oil and wax constituents of the raw fibre will be 
 described under the group of adipocelluloses. 
 
 OTHER PECTOCELLULOSES. As far as investigation has pro- 
 ceeded, it appears that pectose, or pectose-like substances, are 
 associated with all fibrous tissues of the unlignified order. 
 
220 Cellulose 
 
 And indeed in the lignocelluloses themselves pectous sub- 
 stances make their appearance with increasing age. Thus the 
 lower portions of the isolated jute bast jute cuttings or butts 
 when boiled in alkaline solution yield products which cause 
 the solution to gelatinise on cooling ; and the gelatinous product 
 is insoluble in alcohol, distinguishing it, as pectic acid, from the 
 products of hydrolysis of the lignocellulose itself, which are dis- 
 solved, after precipitation, by alcohol. It must be remembered, 
 however, that in the 'jute cuttings ' the adhesion of the bark 
 and cortical parenchyma to the true bast fibre is such that we 
 are dealing with a complex tissue, and the source of the pectic 
 acid may be in the parenchyma of the tissue and not in the 
 bast fibre. On the other hand, we have shown (p. 152) 
 that in the spontaneous decomposition of jute, lying in the 
 damp state, gelatinous acid bodies are formed, indistinguish- 
 able from pectic acid. It would not be difficult, therefore, to 
 account for the pectic constituents of the bast tissue towards 
 the root end, as products of degradation of the lignocellulose 
 itself. 
 
 Reverting, however, to the non-lignified fibres such as China 
 grass, or Ramie (Bohmeria species), and the 'nettle fibres 'gene- 
 rally, hemp, and even raw cotton these all contain pectic bodies 
 associated with the cellulose, which are hydrolysed and dis- 
 solved by treatment with boiling alkalis. But these pecto- 
 celluloses have not been sufficiently investigated as compound 
 celluloses to admit of any useful classification on the basis of 
 particular constitutional variations of their non- cellulose con- 
 stituents. 
 
 The monocotyledonous fibre-aggregates, whether fibro- 
 vascular bundles (Phormium, Aloe fibres, Musa, &c.) or entire 
 plants (Esparto, Bamboo stems, Sugar Cane), are largely made 
 up of pectocelluloses, with a greater or less proportion of ligno- 
 celluloses. But the constitution of these non-cellulose con- 
 
Pectocelluloses and Mucocelluloses 221 
 
 stituents is as yet quite unknown, and we have therefore none 
 but the general basis of classification. 
 
 In the same way also the parenchymatous tissue of fruits, 
 fleshy roots, &c. the typical pectocelluloses must be, for 
 the present, dismissed with the bare mention. 
 
 The investigation of these substances belongs rather to the 
 province of general carbohydrate chemistry than to the 
 narrower cellulose group ; and the problems involved are in 
 many respects rather morphological and physiological than 
 purely chemical. 
 
 These same considerations apply also in great measure to 
 the mucilaginous constituents of plant tissues, though certain 
 of these have been investigated by modern chemical methods. 
 The relationship of these substances to cellulose is indicated 
 
 (a) by the histology of the tissues, which shows them to be 
 associated with the cell wall^ rather than with the cell contents ; 
 
 (b] by their empirical composition, which is approximately that 
 of cellulose ; (c) by their reactions with iodine, by which they 
 are coloured variously from blue to violet, as are the hydrated 
 modifications of cellulose (Sachsse, Farbstoffe, &c. p. 161). 
 Beyond superficial observations of reactions (iodine) and 
 gelatinisation with water, these compound celluloses which 
 may conveniently be termed mucocelluloses had been but 
 little investigated (Sachsse, loc. cit.) until the systematic work 
 of Kirchner and Tollens, and Gaus and Tollens (Annalen, 
 175, 205 ; 249, 245), upon the mucilages and gums. Of these 
 typical researches we give a brief account. 
 
 (i) QUINCE MUCILAGE was prepared by digesting 50 grms. 
 with i litre of warm water, pouring off, and repeating the 
 digestion ; filtering the mucilage by squeezing through cotton 
 cloth, and precipitating the dissolved product by the addition 
 of hydrochloric acid and alcohol. After washing with alcohol 
 and ether the product was dried, forming brittle fibrous masses ; 
 
222 Cellulose 
 
 the yield amounted to 8-10 p.ct. Ultimate analysis of the 
 products, retaining 5-6 p.ct. inorganic constituents, gave the 
 following numbers, varying between the extremes 
 
 C 46-52 44-17 
 
 H 5-88 6-15 
 
 Corresponding to the formula C, 9 H 2S O H C, 8 H 30 O I5 
 
 The product was then investigated for the presence of typical 
 carbohydrate groups. 
 
 Oxidation with nitric acid gave no mucic acid and no 
 saccharic acid. Galactose and dextrose groups are therefore 
 absent. On the other hand, furfural was obtained in some 
 quantity (6-45 p.ct. furfuramide) on distillation with acids. 
 The substance therefore contains pentose groups. 
 
 Hydrolysis with dilute sulphuric add. On boiling with 
 the acid, the product is resolved into 
 
 And a mixture of 
 
 Cellulose Gummy bodies and Glucoses 
 
 Insoluble and Precipitated by alcohol Soluble in 
 
 amounting to from neutralised alcohol 
 
 23 p.ct. solution 
 
 From the soluble products it was found impossible to isolate 
 any glucose in the crystalline form. The solution, on the 
 other hand, certainly contained compounds of this group, since 
 it was strongly dextro-rotary, reduced Fehling's solution to 
 an amount equal to 62 p.ct. that of dextrose, and gave, with 
 phenylhydrazine, an osazone melting at 162, and giving results 
 on analysis corresponding with a mixture of osazones of a 
 pentose and hexose. 
 
 It is evident from these results that the mucilage is com- 
 paratively resistant to hydrolysis ; by its behaviour, in fact, it is 
 shown to be much more nearly related to the cellulosic than 
 the starch type of ' saccharo-colloids.' It is for this reason 
 that we direct special attention to this remarkable group of 
 compounds, since their further investigation cannot fail to 
 
Pectocelluloses and Mucocelluloses 
 
 223 
 
 throw light upon the problems discussed in the earlier sections 
 of this treatise. 
 
 (2) SALEP MUCILAGE was prepared from the tubers pre- 
 viously pulped by grinding in a mortar, the details of pre 
 paration being exactly as for the above. The mucilage was 
 precipitated by alcohol in white threads which hardened under 
 further treatment with alcohol (dehydration). 
 
 The dry substance (retaining 1-5 p.ct. mineral constituents) 
 gave on analysis numbers approximately those of cellulose 
 (C 6 H 10 6 ), viz. : 
 
 C . 44'58 
 
 II .... 6-63 
 
 The hydrolysis of the product, by boiling with dilute add 
 (1*25 p.ct. H 2 SO 4 ), was investigated in relation to the influence 
 of the time factor upon the three products, cellulose, gum, 
 and glucoses : the former being estimated by direct weighing ; 
 the latter, in terms of dextrose, by titration with Fehling's solu- 
 tion ; the result, subtracted from the total dissolved products, 
 giving the yield of gum. 
 
 Duration of hydrolysis 
 
 Cellulose 
 
 Gam 
 
 Glucose 
 
 \ hour 
 
 16-84 
 
 
 
 11-46 
 
 i . 
 
 I4-93 
 
 4933 
 
 41-93 
 
 2 hours 
 
 
 44-92 
 
 53-29 
 
 3 
 
 11-58 
 
 29-91 
 
 71-27 
 
 4 M 
 
 12-76 
 
 1870 
 
 Sl'37 
 
 5 ,. 
 
 12-41 
 
 16-02 
 
 75-97 
 
 7 
 
 9-04 
 
 6-87 
 
 74-76 
 
 It will be noted that the sum of the percentages in some 
 cases exceeds 100, and in some is in defect. 
 
 These observations are explained by the attendant phe- 
 nomena of hydration and dehydration ; and the disappearance 
 of ' glucose ' after the fourth hour, when it reaches a maximum, 
 is evidently due to condensation of aldehydic groups. 
 
224 Cellulose 
 
 The further investigation of the product established in this 
 case the absence of galactose 23\&pentose groups, but the presence 
 of dextrose groups in small proportion. The product of 
 hydrolysis yielded a mixture of osazones in which the deriva- 
 tives of dextrose and mannose appear to be represented. 
 
 But again the constitution of the products of hydrolysis 
 is left in a state of incomplete elucidation. That the authors' 
 methods failed to solve these problems further than has been 
 shown is a further illustration of the complexity of the sub- 
 ject. It is, in fact, the expression of the difficulty invariably 
 experienced with products of the cellulose class, viz. resist- 
 ance to hydrolysis ; and it is from the internal evidence of the 
 difficulties experienced by such practised investigators that 
 we are the more inclined to regard these products, although 
 soluble in water, as cellulose derivatives. 
 
 In regard to other mucilages, we may briefly mention the 
 more important, in order to give some idea of the distribution 
 of these compounds in the plant world. 
 
 AMYLOID is the name applied to a mucilaginous product 
 obtained from the seeds of a number of the Leguminosae, 
 e.g. Tamarindus indica, Hymenaa Courbaril, and Schotia lati- 
 folia (Schleiden, Beitrage z. Botanik, i. 168). It is soluble 
 in boiling water, partly also in cold. It is precipitated by an 
 alcoholic solution of iodine as a blue flocculent mass. 
 
 A similar substance was obtained by Frank (Pringsheim, 
 Jahrb. f. Wiss. Bot. 5, 15) from the membranes of the coty- 
 ledon cells of Tropceolum majus. This product was also 
 definitely proved to be formed at the expense of starch. 
 
 LICHENIN is the soluble constituent of the membranes of 
 Cetraria islandica (' Iceland moss ') and other similar lichens 
 (Knop and Schnedermann, Annalen, 55, 164). It is extracted 
 by treating the plant product with cold dilute hydrochloric acid 
 and adding alcohol to the solution ; or by boiling with water, 
 
Pectocelluloses and Mucocelluloses 225 
 
 after previously purifying the raw material by digesting with 
 dilute alkaline solutions in the cold. According to Honig and 
 Schubert (Wien. Akad. Ber. 96, [2] 685), lichenin is accom- 
 panied in the plant by an amorphous form of starch. 
 
 On hydrolysis lichenin yields crystallisable dextrose, and 
 on oxidation with nitric acid, saccharic acid. With glacial acetic 
 acid it yields an amorphous triacetate, C 6 H 7 O 2 (C 2 H 3 O2),v 
 
 CARRAGHEEN MUCILAGE is obtained from the seaweed 
 Fucus crispus (C. Schmidt, Annalen, 51, 56) on boiling with 
 water. This raw material is characterised by the presence of 
 galactose groups, yielding 22 p.ct. mucic acid on oxidation with 
 nitric acid, and also crystallisable galactose on hydrolysis with 
 boiling dilute acids. 
 
 This concludes our brief notice of the pectocellulose group. 
 It appears that there are two well-marked sub-groups of these 
 products : (i) the pectocelluloses proper, occurring in structures 
 of a more permanent character fibrous and parenchymatous 
 tissues of the stems and roots of Phanerogams ; (2) pecto- 
 celluloses occurring chiefly in seeds and fruits of Phanerogams 
 and the tissues of Algae ; distinguished from the former by yield- 
 ing to the action of water, giving the peculiar solutions known as 
 mucilages. Hence the proposed name mucocelluloses for the 
 parent tissue-substance having these properties. 
 
 These groups are further distinguished by the characteristics 
 of their hydrolysable constituents, the former yielding com- 
 plexes in which acid features predominate ; the latter yield 
 neutral solutions, and in fact, on ultimate hydrolysis, various 
 hexoses and pentoses. 
 
 Adipocelluloses and Cutocelluloses. Cork and 
 Cuticularised Tissues. The plant represents, in the one 
 view, an assemblage of synthetical operations carried on 
 within a space enclosed and protected from the destructive 
 
 Q 
 
226 Cellulose 
 
 influences of water and unlimited atmospheric oxygen. The 
 protecting external tissues are those which we are about to 
 describe as constituting the third important group of com- 
 pound celluloses These tissues contain, in admixture with 
 the tissue-substance, a variety of oily and waxy products 
 (easily removed by mechanical solvents), the presence of which 
 adds very considerably to the water-resisting property of the 
 tissue. It will be seen as we proceed, however, that the tissue- 
 substance, after being entirely freed from these adventitious 
 constituents or oily excreta, yields a large additional quantity 
 of such products when decomposed by 'artificial' processes 
 of oxidation and saponification. By this and by its empirical 
 composition (infra) the tissue-substance will be seen to contain 
 * residues ' of high carbon percentage and molecular weight, and 
 closely allied in chemical structure to the oil and wax compounds 
 found in the ' free ' state in the tissue as it occurs in the plant. 
 These groups are associated in combination in the tissue with 
 cellulose residues, and hence the description of such complexes 
 as adipocelluloses. 
 
 CORK in its ordinary form is a complex mixture containing 
 not only oils and waxes, but tannins, lignocelluloses, and nitro- 
 genous residues. The following are the results of elementary 
 analysis : (a) of cork purified by exhaustive treatment with 
 ether, alcohol, and water; () of cork (Quercus subcr] without 
 purification ; (c) of the cork tissue of the cuticle of the potato 
 (tuber) purified by exhaustion with alcohol. 
 
 () (*) W 
 
 C . . . .67-8 657 62-3 
 
 H .... 87 8-3 7-1 
 
 O . . . .21-2 24-5 27-6 
 
 N .... 2-3 1-5 3-0 
 
 The analyses are calculated on the ash-free substance 
 (Dopping, Annalen, 45, 286 ; Mitscherlich, Annalen, 75, 305). 
 
Adipocelluloses and Cutocelluloses 227 
 
 These investigators succeeded in isolating cellulose from 
 cork, but by complicated and drastic methods of treatment, 
 such as would break down the greater proportion of the cellu- 
 lose into soluble derivatives. These treatments were : (i) drastic 
 oxidation with nitric acid ; (2) alternate treatments with boiling 
 dilute hydrochloric acid and 10 p.ct. solution of potassium hy- 
 drate. The proportion thus isolated amounted to 2-3 p.ct. only. 
 
 The authors, on the other hand, have observed that the non- 
 cellulose of cork is entirely converted into soluble derivatives 
 by the process of digestion at high temperatures with solutions 
 of the alkaline sulphites as described, p. 150. In this way a 
 residue is obtained preserving the form, i.e. cellular structure, of 
 the original cork, and amounting to 9-12 p.ct. 
 
 The details of a particular experiment were as follows : 10*995 
 grms. cork, 20 grms. Na.SO 3 .7H 2 O, 2 grms. Na 2 CO a , dissolved in 
 500 c.c. water. Digested 3 hours at 75 Ibs., and 4 hours at 125 Ibs. 
 pressure. Residue bleached with sodium hypochlorite solution. 
 Yield of cellulose, 1-34 grms. ; 12-1 p.ct. 
 
 In the proximate analysis of cork M. Siewert found 10 p.ct. 
 of constituents soluble in alcohol, which were further resolved 
 
 into 
 
 Wax, in crystalline form . . 175 
 
 Fat acid, non-crystallisable . . 2*50 
 
 Acid (2), non-crystallisable and of fatty character . 2-25 
 
 Tannic acid, soluble in water . . . . . 2-50 
 
 ,, soluble with difficulty . . . . I-oo 
 
 The crystallised wax is termed by Siewert phellyl alcohol, 
 C 17 H 28 O. It melts at 100, and dissolves in 500 parts boiling 
 alcohol. The acid bodies are described as (i) decacrylic acid, 
 C 10 H 18 O 2 (m.p. 86), soluble in 52 parts boiling alcohol; (2) 
 eulysin, C 2 4H 36 O 3 (m.p. 150), soluble in cold alcohol. 
 
 According to Hohnel (Wien. Akad. Ber. 76) and Kugler 
 (Dissert, on Suberin, Halle, 1884), the cork-substance proper 
 is a mixture of cellulose with lignocellulose and two charac- 
 
 03 
 
228 Cellulose 
 
 teristic compounds, cerin and suberin. Cerin has the empiri- 
 cal formula C^H^O. Suberin is of a fatty nature, and yields 
 stearic acid and phellonic acid (C 22 H 42 O3) on saponification. 
 
 In regard to the nomenclature of these compounds, we may, 
 consistently with the plan of this treatise, adopt the terms Suberose 
 and Cutose for the compound adipocelluloses as they occur in the 
 plant, and Suberin and Cutin for the non-cellulose groups united 
 to the cellulose to form the entire complex. 
 
 This complex of substances has been further investigated 
 by Fliickiger (Arch. Pharm. 228, 690), who obtains glycerol as 
 a product of saponification, showing the presence of the more 
 ordinary glycerides of the fat acids ; he otherwise confirms, in the 
 main, the results of Kugler (supra). Still more recently by C. v. 
 Wissenburgh (Chem. Centr. 1892, ii. 516) ; but the later results 
 throw no further light on the more important aspects of the 
 problem. These are obviously the questions of the constitu- 
 tion of the main tissue-substance and the physiology of its 
 formation, as well as that of the waxy excreted products which 
 accompany it. 
 
 In suberose, as in cutose, it is to be noted that Fremy over- 
 looks the cellulose residue. V. Wissenburgh (loc. cii.} makes the 
 more positive statement that cork contains no cellulose. Both 
 observers a) pear to be in error on this point. 
 
 There is some more conclusive evidence on these points in 
 the earlier work of Dopping and Mitscherlich. It is found 
 in effect that when rasped cork yielding to solvents 7-10 
 p.ct. of fatty constituents (supra) is oxidised with nitric acid, 
 it yields 40 p.ct. of fatty acids, and acids identical with those 
 obtained from the oxidation of fats and oils under similar 
 condkions, chiefly suberic acid. It is evident, therefore, 
 that the cork tissue is largely made up of constituents standing 
 in very close constitutional relationship to the natural fats and 
 oils, though possessing very different physical properties. 
 
Adipocelluloses and Cutocelluloses 229 
 
 These relationships have been more definitely made out by 
 Fre'my, in his investigations of the closely allied compound 
 which constitutes the epidermal or cuticular tissue of the leaves, 
 stems, &c., of Phanerogams. As the characteristic constituent 
 of cork is termed suberin, so Fremy terms this cuticular tissue- 
 substance cutin or cutose. To prepare this substance, the cuti- 
 cular tissue ('peel') of the apple, e.g., is treated with boiling 
 dilute acids, followed by digestion with the cuprammonium re- 
 agent (p. 10 ) ; then again with boiling acid, and dilute alkali 
 (KOH) ; finally the residue is treated with alcohol and ether. 
 In this way a nitrogen-free residue is obtained having the 
 empirical composition 
 
 C . . . 73-66 p.ct. 
 
 H . ii'37 ,t 
 
 O . 14-97 
 
 Not only by these results, but by the study of the proximate 
 resolutions of this substance it is shown to have the closest 
 relationships to the carbon compounds of the 'wax' class 
 (Compt. Rend. 48, 667). 
 
 In a later investigation of the products of saponification of 
 this substance, Fre'my worked upon a raw material similarly 
 prepared, but having the composition C 68*3, H 8-9, O 22*8. 
 This compound is termed cutose, in substitution for cutin. 
 Cutose is slowly attacked by boiling alkaline solutions ; a pro- 
 duct is dissolved, of the same empirical composition as cutose 
 (comp. Lignocelluloses, p. 157), but of a fatty nature. It is pre- 
 cipitated on acidifying the solution ; the precipitate is soluble 
 in ether-alcohol, and when isolated is found to melt below 
 100. Under more drastic treatment with alkaline solutions 
 the dissolved products are found to be a mixture. Precipitated 
 by acids and treated with boiling alcohol the mixture dissolves ; 
 on cooling, the solution deposits an acid (m.p. 85) in yellow- 
 coloured flocks, which after fusion form a brownish translucent 
 
230 Cellulose 
 
 friable mass. This is a compound of stearoeutic acid and oleo- 
 attic acid (infra), into which it is resolved by further treatment 
 with alkali. The alcoholic filtrate from the solid acid when 
 evaporated gives a viscous residue, of an acid body, okocutic 
 acid. 
 
 By the further action of very concentrated potash solution 
 in the yellow acid, stearoeutic acid is formed. The potash 
 salt of this acid is white and translucent, insoluble in water and 
 cold alcohol, soluble in boiling alcohol. The free acid (m.p. 
 76) is also insoluble in cold alcohol, slightly only on boiling, 
 but dissolves in benzene and in acetic acid on warming. The 
 acid also dissolves freely in alcohol in presence of oleocutic 
 acid. A similar result is seen with the potassium salt, which, 
 though insoluble in water, dissolves in an aqueous solution of 
 potassium oleocutate. 
 
 The composition of these two acids is as under : 
 
 Stearoeutic Acid. 
 
 C 75-00 
 
 H 1071 
 
 O 14*28 
 
 which is expressed by the formula C. 28 H 48 O 4 . This formula is 
 confirmed by the analysis of the salts of the acid. 
 
 Oleoculic Acid. 
 
 C 66-66 
 
 H 7-91 
 
 O 25-42 
 
 expressed by the formula C 14 H2oO 4 . 
 
 Cutose is regarded by Fremy as a complex of these two com- 
 pounds, in the proportion of i mol. stearoeutic acid : 5 mols. 
 oleocutic acid. These acids undergo alteration on heating 
 at 100 in presence of water, passing into insoluble modifi- 
 cations of higher melting point. The original molecular con- 
 dition, however, is restored on heating with alkaline solutions. 
 
Adipocelluloses and Ciitocelluloses 231 
 
 Fremy also made observations upon suberin (or suberose), 
 \vhich yielded similar products of saponification. He there- 
 fore concluded that the two products are substantially identical. 
 The products of oxidation by nitric acid are also indistinguish- 
 able, viz. chiefly suberic and succinic acids. 
 
 These results suggest, from the purely chemical standpoint, 
 that the cellulose of the tissue and the waxy products of excre- 
 tion stand to one another in a genetic relationship, and the 
 cutose or suberose occupies an intermediate position. The 
 question of a direct conversion of cellulose into wax taking 
 place in these cuticular tissues was definitely raised and dis- 
 cussed by De Bary in his investigations of this group of plant 
 constituents (Bot. Ztg. 1871). It appears from these researches 
 that wax-alcohols are certainly not contained in the cell-sap or 
 protoplasm, and that their origin must be in the cuticular 
 tissues themselves ; but the parent substance may be either 
 cellulose, or some compound built up with it in the ordinary 
 course of elaboration. This question is left for the present 
 undetermined. It should be borne in mind, on the other hand, 
 that we have a great number of direct observations upon the 
 physiological equivalence of the carbohydrates and the fats, 
 both in the animal and vegetable worlds ; and although the 
 mechanism of the transformation of the one into the other 
 group of compounds remains unelucidated, it is after all not 
 more difficult to imagine than the condensation to furfural. It 
 is, however, not the purpose of this treatise to carry discussion 
 into purely speculative regions ; and it is sufficient to state the 
 conclusion that there is ample ground for adopting as a work- 
 ing hypothesis that carbohydrates, or possibly cellulose, are 
 transformed into cutose or suberose, and these, again, into free 
 waxy bodies of lower molecular weight, the whole process repre- 
 senting the change known as cuticularisation or suberisation. 
 
 In all the researches above described there is no attempt to 
 
232 Cellulose 
 
 travel outside the empirical region of preparing products of 
 decomposition answering to the more obvious criteria of de- 
 finite composition. Further investigation will need to attack 
 the more important constitutional problems presented by these 
 products. Some preliminary observations in this direction have 
 indeed been made. 
 
 Thus on p. 190 we have cited Benedikt and Bamberger's 
 determinations of the methyl number of cork (Quercus suber\ 
 the percentage of CH 3 as O.CH 3 being 2-45, which is approxi- 
 mately the mean number determined for the woods. The 
 authors have made determinations of furfural, with results as 
 
 under : 
 
 Cork 4-5 p.ct. 
 
 Cuticle of apple (purified) . . 3-5 ,, 
 
 Also of the yield of acetic and oxalic acids resulting from fusion 
 with alkaline hydrate (3 parts by weight NaOH), the fusion 
 being completed at 280, with results as under : 
 
 Acetic acid . . . . 6'O p.ct. 
 
 Oxalic acid . . . .2-1,, 
 
 These, however, are aggregate results, and cannot be specifi- 
 cally referred to the particular constituents of the cork, viz. 
 cellulose, lignocellulose, the suberin constituents proper, or the 
 ' free ' waxy constituents. They indicate, however, the direc- 
 tions of research in which results will be obtained, complement- 
 ary to the work of Fremy, on the more characteristic products 
 of decomposition of the adipocelluloses. 
 
 In another direction also results have been obtained 
 throwing some light on the constitution of these complexes, 
 viz. in investigations by Hodges (R. Irish Acad. Proc. 3, 460) 
 and the authors (J. Chem. Soc. 57, 196) of the cuticular 
 constituents of flax. 
 
 The flax was treated, in the form of yarn, with boiling 
 alcohol ; a bright (chlorophyll) green solution was obtained, 
 
Adipocelluloses and Cutocelluloses 
 
 233 
 
 from which, on cooling, a flocculent magma separated. This 
 was filtered, and washed with alcohol, and on treatment with hot 
 water melted to a greenish resinous mass (product A). 
 
 The alcoholic filtrate on distillation gave a brownish-green 
 pasty residue (product B). 
 
 These products, examined for nitrogen and mineral matter, 
 gave the following results : 
 
 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Mineral matter 
 
 Phosphoric acid P a O. 
 p.ct. of ash 
 
 A . 
 
 O-09 
 
 17 
 
 7-0 
 
 B . 
 
 0-29 
 
 J-I 
 
 18-4 
 
 These numbers are explained by the presence of residues of 
 chlorophyll. 
 
 The complex A yielded, on saponification with alcoholic 
 potash a large proportion of ceryl alcohol (C 2 7H 35 OH), which 
 was proved to exist in the original substance, in great measure 
 in the uncombined state ; and at the same time a mixture of 
 oily ketones, the solutions of which were dichroic (orange 
 green). These ketonic bodies were found to be soluble in 
 sodium acetate solution, reacting in this solution with phenyl- 
 hydrazine (acetate), yielding crystalline precipitates. 
 
 The residue from saponification of A, after removing these 
 compounds, was an inert resinous substance. 
 
 By regulated fusion with sodium hydrate it was decomposed, 
 with formation of a mixture of acid bodies from which cerotic 
 acid (C2 7 H 54 O 2 ) was isolated. The complex B contained (a) 
 carbohydrate derivatives soluble in water, and giving with boil- 
 ing hydrochloric acid a copious yield of furfural ; (b) ceryl 
 alcohol (about 10 p.ct.) and (c) the dichroic ketones (about 
 1 8 p.ct.) above described ; (</) acid bodies (50-60 p.ct.) of a 
 fatty character, giving soluble alkaline salts and insoluble salts 
 with the alkaline earth metals, insoluble also in alcohol. 
 
234 Cellulose 
 
 In regard to the localisation of these compounds in the 
 flax fibre, it is evident that they are associated with the cuticular 
 tissue, which inference is directly confirmed by analyses of a 
 waste product of the spinning mill ('preparing' process) known 
 as * hackler's ' dust. Hackling is a process of combing the 
 fibre, and the dust which accumulates in the treatment, when 
 examined microscopically, is seen to consist, for the most part, 
 of the cortical parenchyma and cuticular tissue. A specimen 
 of this product was found to contain 7*3 p.ct. mineral* con- 
 stituents (ash) and 14-5 p.ct. moisture. Alcohol and ether 
 extracted 117 p.ct. of its weight (15 p.ct. calculated on the 
 dry, ash-free substance), the extract having the same general 
 characters as that obtained from the flax itself. Extracted 
 with petroleum ether, the proportion dissolved amounted to 
 8*4 pet. (10 p.ct. on the dry, ash-free substance). Estima- 
 tions of nitrogen in the original substance gave (i) 1*8 p.ct., 
 (2) 2'i p.ct, of which one-sixth existed in the form of ammonia 
 or amido-compounds. 
 
 Lastly, in reference to this complex of cuticular by-products, 
 it must be remembered that the flax plant is subjected to the 
 retting or rot-steeping process, as a preliminary to the 
 mechanical treatments for separating the fibre (bast) from the 
 stem. The characteristics of the resulting spontaneous fermen- 
 tation are those of butyric fermentations. In such decomposi- 
 tions, of course, the wax- alcohols and ethers can take no part, 
 but the oily products of lower molecular weight (acids and 
 ketones) are no doubt in part formed as products of decom- 
 position of a parent substance susceptible of this species of 
 hydrolysis. The entire subject requires extended investigation. 
 Systematic research would, of course, localise the substance 
 whether cellular tissue or cell contents undergoing this parti- 
 cular decomposition, and the result would throw direct light 
 upon the origin of fatty substances in the normal living pro- 
 
Adipocelluloses and Cutocelluloses 235 
 
 cesses. The importance of these constituents as auxiliaries to 
 the spinning qualities of the fibre lends the additional technical 
 interest to the results of such researches ; and more generally 
 the special functions of the adipocelluloses in protecting the 
 tissues beneath them from penetration by water point to the 
 desirability of adapting the artificial processes of waterproof- 
 ing (cellulose) textiles to the lines laid down by the natural 
 process. 
 
 These observations bring us to the close of a brief notice of 
 this third group of compound celluloses. The brevity of the 
 treatment is the expression of the very small amount of research 
 which has been devoted to the subject. There are many 
 scattered references to particular products isolated from vege- 
 table tissues by treatment with ' fat and wax ' solvents. But a 
 description of these falls outside the scope of the present 
 treatise, which is confined to the treatment of tissue-con- 
 stituents, with such incidental references to adventitious or 
 excreted products as appear to be genetically connected with 
 the tissue in which they are found. 
 
 From this point of view it appears to be established, by 
 similarity of constitution, that the oils and waxes found in the 
 free state in association with the adipocelluloses are closely 
 related to the non-cellulose constituents of the latter ; and that 
 they are either degradation products of the latter, or both have 
 a common origin in some anterior form. It is this important 
 physiological problem which future researches must solve. 
 
 General View of the Cellulose Group. The elabora- 
 tion of the compounds which constitute the subject-matter of 
 this treatise is, in point of mass-effect, by far the main work of 
 the vegetable kingdom. The functions of these compounds in 
 plant life are obviously in part structural or mechanical, in 
 part chemical. The cellular tissue of the plant being regarded 
 
236 Cellulose 
 
 as the seat of the essential vital operations of elaboration and 
 metabolism, the fibrous and vascular systems in addition to 
 taking their specialised part in the general distribution of 
 nutritive and other matters are the strengthening elements, 
 whereas the cuticular tissues are mainly concerned in closing 
 off and protecting the tissues beneath from the unregulated 
 action of water and air. In regard to the chemical relationship 
 of the tissue-substances to the vital processes by which they are 
 formed, and to which they in turn contribute, we have little 
 but indirect evidence and conjecture to go upon. So far as 
 this evidence is of a purely chemical nature, it has been dealt 
 with in the preceding sections. But it depends in great 
 measure upon the results of investigation by physiological 
 methods, and for such results the special treatises must be con- 
 sulted. We have to deal, in conclusion, with those changes of 
 the tissue-substances, celluloses and compound celluloses 
 which accompany or follow the cessation of vital activity. 
 
 The term ' death ' is perhaps more difficult to apply to the 
 vegetable than to the animal organism. In a perennial plant 
 the active life, in the sense of the elaboration of new material, 
 is bound up with portions only of the structure. In an 
 ordinary forest tree, for instance, the leaves are these active 
 agents ; the trunk or stem tissues, on the other hand, are largely 
 depleted of the organic nitrogenous matter (protoplasm) upon 
 which the vitality depends ; they have ceased to live in the full 
 sense of the term, but, on the other hand, they are known by 
 casual observation to live, in the sense opposed to decay. 
 There are, therefore, various phases of life in the plant recog- 
 nised by ordinary observation, and more exactly defined by 
 the physiologist ; but these phases graduate by insensible stages 
 into the region where decay and chemical disintegration are 
 predominant. If, therefore, it is difficult for the physiologist 
 to draw the line between the life and death of a cell, it is still 
 
Adipocelluloses and Cutocelluloses 237 
 
 more so for the chemist, who deals with the cell-substance. 
 Another phase or aspect of the vital process, of which also the 
 science of to-day gives a very slender account, is that of the 
 organic connection of the vast assemblage of cells which con- 
 stitute a vegetable organism more particularly the subordina- 
 tion of each unit to the general life- history of the plant, and the 
 extraordinary complex of adjustments which this involves. 
 These, again, are hardly problems for the chemist, save, perhaps, 
 in regard to the organic relationship of the cell-wall to the 
 protoplasm by which it is formed. 1 The most striking general 
 feature of the cellulosic group is that they are non-nitrogenous ; 2 
 it might be reasoned, therefore, that they are, from the first, 
 excreta, and never live in the full sense of the word. Without 
 pushing these considerations into an argument of doubtful 
 value, we may conclude that from the moment of origin the 
 history of the cellulose group is one of progressive withdrawal 
 from the region of the vital processes proper, and that to again 
 enter that region they must undergo a process of proximate 
 resolution as a result of action from without. This reabsorption 
 
 1 The views obtaining on this point are summed up by Goodale at 
 p. 218 of ' Physiological Botany,' under the heading ' The Relations of 
 the Cell Wall to Protoplasm.' They are, in the main, two: (i) The 
 cell wall is formed, by the solidification upon the exterior of a protoplasmic 
 mass, of matters previously dissolved in it, the pellicle thus formed being 
 regarded as an excretion or secretion. This view is held by Hofmeister 
 (Pflanzenzelle) and Sachs. (2) The cell wall is directly produced by 
 conversion of the outer film of protoplasm into cellulose, with which other 
 gioups may be mixed or combined (Schmitz, Sitz. d. Niederrh. Ges. Bonn, 
 1880). This conclusion is based upon the observation that the volume of 
 protoplasm in a cell decreases pari passu with increase of the cell wall, and 
 upon the phenomena which attend thickening of the cell wall. 
 
 The distinction between these theories, however, is rather morphological 
 than chemical ; and the view expressed in the text may be taken as con- 
 sistent with either theory of the actual mode of formation of the cell wall. 
 
 2 We are not aware of any specific proof of the assumption that the 
 celluloses are ab initio non-nitrogenous. It is possible that they contain 
 MH 2 residues in the earlier phases of growth. 
 
238 Cellulose 
 
 of cellulosic tissues is a frequent phenomenon ; the process 
 by which the tissue is broken down is of the character of an 
 ordinary hydrolysis, i.e. is determined by enzymes, and postu- 
 lates therefore a cellulose susceptible of molecular disaggrega- 
 tion. The * hemi-celluloses ' (p. 87) are compounds of this 
 order, and occur chiefly in seed-tissues, where they serve as 
 reserve materials for the early growth of the embryo on germi- 
 nation. The more resistant celluloses and compound cellu- 
 loses are obviously destined for more permanent functions, and 
 they have been dealt with in this treatise under the term ' per- 
 manent tissue.' But permanence is a relative term. We have 
 already endeavoured to trace the changes and modifications 
 which these substances undergo in the normal life of the 
 plant : lignification, for instance, has been dealt with as a 
 progressive chemical transformation of celluloses, differing 
 probably ab initio from those of the normal type ; and evidence 
 has been given in terms of the constitution of these compounds, 
 showing them to be highly reactive and susceptible of modifi- 
 cation in various directions under treatment in the labora- 
 tory. 
 
 We have now to follow the fate of these substances in the 
 ordinary processes of the natural world. Under these cir- 
 cumstances, c death ' is succeeded by a variety of processes of 
 decay and destruction. These are in part intrinsic, in part 
 determined by outside agencies ; they are of the two kinds : 
 processes of resolution, and processes of combination or con- 
 densation, which are usually concurrent. The former have 
 been dealt with on p. 66. These are fermentation processes 
 attended with evolution of gaseous products. The latter are 
 defined by an extended series of their products, viz. humus, 
 peat, lignite, and the coals. The chief characteristic of this 
 series of degradation products of plant tissues is the accumula- 
 tion of carbon at the expense of oxygen and hydrogen. This 
 
Adipocelluloses and Cutocelluloses 
 
 239 
 
 is illustrated by the following results of elementary analyses, 
 calculated in all cases on the ash -free substance (W. A. Miller, 
 Org. Chem. ed. 1869, 139-146). 
 
 
 Oak wood 
 
 Decayed 
 oak wood 
 
 Humus 
 from decayed oak 
 
 Peat 
 
 
 Dartmoor 
 
 Vulcain 
 
 c . 
 
 5O-2O 
 
 53-50 
 
 54-o 
 
 56-0 
 
 5973 
 
 59-57 
 
 H . 
 
 6-08 
 
 5-16 
 
 
 4'9 
 
 5-9i 
 
 
 O . 
 
 4374 
 
 4I-34 
 
 40-9 
 
 39*1 
 
 31-82 
 
 32-38 
 
 N . 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2-54 
 
 2-09 
 
 A p p r o x. \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fo r m u 1 a [ 
 
 C 34 H 48 O.j 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CjoH^Og 
 
 
 
 (C,H,0) ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coals. 
 
 
 
 Lignite 
 Buvey 
 
 Scotch 
 
 Wigan 
 Cannel 
 
 Newcastle 
 
 Anthracite 
 
 c . 
 
 67-85 
 
 78- 4 6 
 
 82-29 
 
 87-97 
 
 91-87 
 
 H . 
 
 57 6 
 
 S-ii 
 
 5-68 
 
 5-3I 
 
 3'33 
 
 . 
 
 N . 
 
 2339 1 
 
 0-58 ; 
 
 1373 
 
 f 8-31! 
 \2-i8 j 
 
 6 7 2 
 
 i 3-oi 
 
 1 0-84 
 
 A p p rox. -I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f o r m u 1 a [ 
 
 Cj 7 H. J8 O 7 
 
 C 25 H 3 A 
 
 CAO. 
 
 c^o, 
 
 C 40 H 16 
 
 (C,H,0) ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The coals are chemical aggregates of altogether unknown 
 constitution. By certain observations, however, they are 
 definitely connected with the earlier members of the above 
 series ; thus they yield substitution derivatives with chlorine 
 (Cross and Bevan, Chem. News, 44, 185), and yellow acid pro- 
 ducts on treatment with nitric acid, of similar composition to 
 those obtained from humic compounds, natural and artificial 
 (infra). The products of their destructive distillation (coal tar), 
 which it is needless to say have been exhaustively investigated, 
 throw, it is true, a certain light on their constitution ; but they 
 are too complex for the establishment of definite relationships 
 to the parent molecules. 
 
 HUMIC COMPOUNDS : HUMUS. These series of compounds 
 
240 Cellulose 
 
 are normal constituents of all soils in which they fulfil im- 
 portant functions. They are produced in the ordinary decay 
 of buried vegetable matter. They are generally of acid pro- 
 perties, and are dissolved by alkalis to brown solutions ; they 
 have the characteristics of unsaturated compounds, being 
 readily acted upon by the halogens. They closely resemble the 
 products of decay of forest woods under ordinary conditions. 
 As chief constituents of such mixtures, Mulder recognised 
 geic acid, C 20 H 12 O 7 ; humic acid, C 2 oH 12 O 6 ; and ulmic acid, 
 C 20 Hi 4 O 6 . These names and formulae, however, have little more 
 than empirical value. Products closely similar to these are ob- 
 tained on a large number of decompositions of the carbohydrates, 
 both simple (sugars &c.) and complex (starch, cellulose, &c.). 
 Those obtained by long boiling of the sugars with dilute acids 
 have been carefully investigated by Sestini (Gazzetta, 10, 121, 
 240, 355). The products are of two classes : (a) soluble in 
 alkalis, sacchulmic acid, C 44 H 40 O 16 ; () insoluble, sacchulmin, 
 C 44 H 38 Oi 5 ; both yielding,however, the same substitution products 
 with the halogens, of which the following may be mentioned : 
 dichloroxysacchulmide, C n H 8 Cl 2 O 6 (or C44H 3 2O 8 O24), and 
 sesquibromoxysacchulmide, C 22 H J8 Br 3 O n (or C 44 H 3G Br 6 O 2 2). 
 Products very similar to these have been obtained by the 
 authors from the alkaline by-products of the esparto pulping 
 process, viz. by acidification and purifying the precipitate, 
 a body of constant composition, C 42 H 48 O 8 , converted by treat- 
 ment with HC1 and KC1O 3 into the derivative C 44 H 46 C1 8 O 20 
 (J. Chem. Soc. 38, 668 ; 41, 94). The lignic acids described 
 by Lange (see p. 213), and obtained by the action of alkaline 
 solutions upon the woods, are also of similar composition. 
 
 On further treatment (fusion) with the alkaline hydrates, these 
 products yield ' aromatic ' derivatives, of which protocatechuic 
 acid is obtained in largest quantity (Lange, loc. tit. ; Demel, 
 Monatsh. 3, 769). It must be admitted, however, that the 
 
Adipocelluloste and Cutocelluloses 241 
 
 entire group of products under consideration is extremely 
 ill-defined, and requires to be much more exhaustively in- 
 vestigated to establish definite relationships with the carbo- 
 hydrates from which they result. 
 
 Reverting to the aspect of their natural history, it is clear 
 that the functions of this diversified group are completed in a 
 very remarkable way by this property of carbon condensation. 
 In proportion as they are attacked by destructive agencies, the 
 residue tends to constitute itself into a complex of increasing 
 resistance ; and so the chemistry of the vegetable world, which 
 depends in its proximate relationships upon the properties of 
 polyhydroxy derivatives of the C 6 unit, is ultimately a most 
 striking manifestation of the properties of the carbon atom 
 itself. 
 
242 Cellulose, 
 
 PART III 
 EXPERIMENTAL AND APPLIED 
 
 THE foregoing general and theoretical treatment of the subject 
 will carry with it a number of suggestions to readers of original 
 and independent habit of mind. Students accustomed to the 
 critical appreciation of essays in the ordering of such subject- 
 matter will have noted the imperfect state of development to 
 which the investigations hitherto prosecuted have brought our 
 knowledge of the celluloses and compound celluloses ; and an 
 appreciation of these imperfections implies the possession of 
 the key to the effectual remedy, i.e. to those directions of 
 investigation most certain to lead to valuable contributions to 
 the subject. Students, however, are by no means generally of 
 this class. The habit of initiation and enterprise in scientific 
 work is perhaps rare, not because of want of capacity, so much 
 as of opportunity and the abiding stimulus of necessity. A 
 main purpose of this treatise is to encourage original investi- 
 gation by opening out, in more definite terms than has been 
 done, the view of a region of the res publica natura extremely 
 rich in possibilities. This view should not be limited, moreover, 
 to the more ardent few who have imaginative and speculative 
 tendencies. The mastery of method is in itself a useful objec- 
 tive, and the subject of cellulose involves a number of experi- 
 mental methods which are not merely essential to the work of 
 pioneer investigation, but a necessary part of the general 
 training of the chemist. 
 
Experimental and Applied 243 
 
 In the following pages attention is directed specially to 
 experimental methods, whether for purposes of demonstration 
 or of training in analytical processes of general usefulness. 
 These methods have been described in general terms in the 
 earlier sections ; and for the present purpose we shall continue 
 to avoid minute description of practical details, referring the 
 student to the easily accessible accounts of the actual processes 
 to be found in current literature. At the same time, suggestions 
 are included for a course of study, whether of general treatises 
 or special publications on particular subjects, designed to 
 familiarise the student with the work of investigators in this 
 field of natural science. 
 
 Laboratory and Research Notes. 
 
 Morphology of Cellulose. The study of cellulose and of the 
 plant fibres generally involves on every hand questions of form and 
 structure, i.e. the form and dimensions of the individual cell or 
 fibre, and the structure or anatomy of the tissue of which it is a 
 unit member. 
 
 Microscopic examination and investigation are, therefore, the 
 necessary complement of the chemical study of vegetable sub- 
 stances. 
 
 The histological study of minute structure is dealt with in all 
 the standard text-books of the microscope. The structure and 
 elaboration of plant tissues, and the anatomy of the exogenous and 
 endogenous stems are fully described in the text-books of botany 
 which must be consulted. Goodale's Physiological Botany (Ivison : 
 New York) is especially to be recommended. 
 
 The most important works treating specially of the minute struc- 
 ture of plant fibres are Wiesner, Mikroscopische Untersuchungen 
 (1872), Die Rohstoffe des Pflanzenreichs (1873) J Vetillart, Etudes 
 sur les fibres ve'getales textiles (Paris, 1876). Useful information 
 will also be found in Spon's Encyclopedia of the Useful Arts, article 
 'Vegetable Fibres' ; and * Indian Fibres and Fibrous Substances' 
 (Cross, Bevan, and King : London). 
 
 As a useful application of microscopic method the student 
 
 R 2 
 
244 Cellulose 
 
 should sow some flax (linseed) and examine the stem at intervals 
 throughout the growth of the crop, noting the development of the 
 bast fibre which constitutes commercial flax and its structural 
 relationship to wood and cortex. 
 
 Mount as permanent preparations the typical paper-making 
 celluloses : cotton, flax, hemp, wood, esparto, and straw. Note 
 dimensions and typical characteristics. Study the photomicro- 
 graphs of raw materials (sections appendix), And an account of 
 methods of photographing, in Indian Fibres, p. 15. 
 
 Bleaching-, or Isolation of Cellulose from Raw Fibres. Take 
 flax and jute as typical raw materials. 
 
 Flax. Extract the fibre in continuous extraction apparatus 
 (Soxhlet) with fat solvents e.g. alcohol ether. Make quanti- 
 tative estimations, and for study of properties of oil-wax extract 
 see Cross and Be van, J. Chem. Soc. 57, 196. 
 
 Boil extracted residue with 2 p.ct. solution NaOH one hour. 
 Examine solution for pectic bodies and note properties. Wash, 
 and bleach fibre in o - 5 p.ct. solution sodium hypochlorite ; wash 
 off, treat with sulphurous acid, wash, dry, and weigh. Note that the 
 fibre though colourless has a blackish look. A second portion boil 
 as before, wash, and digest in bromine water some hours. Wash 
 and boil out in carbonate of soda solution. Wash and return to 
 bromine water. Repeat till brilliant white cellulose obtained. 
 Note the gradual disintegration of the woody portions (* sprit ') 
 which adhere to the fibre. 
 
 Jute fibre. Boil 15 minutes in I p.ct. NaOH solution ; wash oft", 
 squeeze, and expose to chlorine gas one hour. Note formation of 
 yellow chlorinated derivative of non-cellulose. Wash off and 
 place in 2 p.ct. solution sodium sulphite. Raise to boil, adding a 
 little NaOH. Wash off and treat residual cellulose with sulphurous 
 acid. Wash off, dry, and weigh. 
 
 Pine wood. Take deal shavings or 'wood-wool' and proceed 
 as with jute, repeating the treatment with chlorine until pure 
 cellulose obtained. 
 
 Contrast these laboratory methods with those of the bleach 
 works (cotton, linen) and the paper-maker's * pulping ' processes, 
 for which see the standard text-books on these subjects, more 
 especially Chemistry of Paper Making (Griffin & Little : New- 
 York, 1894). 
 
Experimental and Applied 245 
 
 Note the correlations of lustre and external appearance with 
 minute structure. 
 
 RAPID-COMBUSTION METHOD. Study method of com- 
 bustion with chromic acid in presence of sulphuric acid (Cross and 
 Bevan, J. Chem. Soc. 53, 889). 
 
 Inorganic or Ash Constituents. Burn specimens of pure cellu- 
 lose and raw materials and estimate ash. Note that the ash con- 
 stitutes an inorganic skeleton of the original. Soak a cotton fabric 
 (muslin) in solutions of ammonium chromate, aluminium acetate, 
 or magnesium acetate ; dry and burn. Note that a coherent ash 
 is obtained preserving the structure of the original fabric. A process 
 of this kind is used in making the hoods for the ' incandescent ' 
 gas burners ; oxides of the rare earth-metals being used for the 
 purpose. 
 
 Take an ordinary filter or blotting paper ; estimate the ash, and 
 a second portion digest in dilute hydrofluoric acid in a lead or 
 platinum vessel. Wash off with distilled water, dry, and determine 
 the ash. It will be found to be considerably reduced, owing to the 
 removal of silica and siliceous compounds. The ash in cellulosic 
 raw materials is much higher than in the bleached celluloses ; 
 notably in the straws. The proportion of silica is exceptionally 
 high. It was frequently affirmed in the older text-books that the 
 rigidity of the straws was due to this constituent, but special culti- 
 vations in absence of silica give a straw of normal appearance 
 and rigidity. The structural properties of these stems are there- 
 fore referable to their 'organic' components. 
 
 Hydration and Dehydration. For a wider discussion of hydra- 
 tion and dehydration types as applied to the elucidation of 
 the special chemistry of the carbohydrates, the student should 
 read a paper by Baeyer, ' Ueber die Wasserentziehung und ihre 
 Bedeutung fur das Pflanzenleben u. die Gahrung ' (Berl. Ber. 
 1870, 363); or the translation by Armstrong (J. Chem. Soc. [2], 
 
 9, 330- 
 
 The absorption, osmotic and capillary phenomena resulting 
 from the interaction of cellulose and aqueous solutions should be 
 carefully studied. Much work remains to be done on this subject. 
 The student should acquaint himself with Pfefifer's methods of 
 determining osmotic pressures, and the bearings of the phenomena 
 of osmosis on the theory of solution. 
 
246 Cellulose 
 
 Cellulose Solvents. Prepare solutions of cotton and other 
 celluloses by treatment with zinc chloride. To dissolve I part 
 cellulose take 4-5 parts Zn.Cl 2 , dissolve in 5-7 parts water, add 
 the cellulose, heating in a porcelain dish over a water-bath. Stir 
 from time to time, and add water to replace that which evapo- 
 rates. 
 
 Precipitate the solution (i) by pouring into water. Wash till 
 free from Zn salt, dry, and weigh. Burn off the cellulose, and 
 estimate the residue of Zn.O. 
 
 (2) Pour into dilute hydrochloric acid. The precipitate will be 
 cellulose hydrate free from ZnO. Wash thoroughly, dry, and weigh. 
 
 Calculate to original cellulose, and show that the molecule is 
 hydrated. Control by examining the solution in which the cellulose 
 was precipitated for dissolved products of hydrolysis. 
 
 (3) Precipitate by pouring the solution into alcohol in a fine 
 stream, or by spreading the viscous solution as a thin film on glass. 
 Submerge the whole in alcohol, and detach the coherent film of the 
 cellulose compound. Digest with HCl.Aq to remove Zn.O. Wash, 
 and dehydrate by lengthened exposure to alcohol. 
 
 The progress of the action of the zinc chloride solution should 
 be followed up microscopically. Cotton fibres are mounted in the 
 strong solution, covered with cover glasses, and the glass slips 
 ranged on a hot surface, so that they may acquire a temperature of 
 80-90. Examine from time to time under low and high power, 
 noting the progress of the disintegration, swelling-up, and rupture 
 of the cell wall. The structural points may be further differentiated 
 by staining with iodine. To apply the iodine without precipitating 
 the dissolved cellulose it is necessary, after dissolving the iodine in 
 a little potassium iodide in the usual way, to dilute with 40 p.ct. 
 zinc chloride solution. A drop of this solution may be added to the 
 solution on the slide without otherwise affecting the cellulose than 
 staining the fibrous residues. 
 
 Dilute ammoniacal solutions of cuprous oxide are without action 
 upon cellulose. An interesting demonstration of the difference 
 between the cuprous and cupric oxides in this respect may be carried 
 out as follows : Cuprous chloride is prepared by the action of hydro- 
 chloric acid upon copper, with addition of potassium chlorate in suc- 
 cessive small quantities. The chloride is washed with water free 
 from oxygen, and, after settling, portions of the magma of crystals 
 
Experimental and Applied 247 
 
 and water are placed upon a filter paper, which is then transferred 
 to a bottle provided with an indiarubber cork. Through the cork, 
 glass tubes are passed, and so arranged that a stream of coal gas 
 may be led into the vessel to completely expel the air. After ex- 
 pelling the air, a little strong ammonia solution is introduced by 
 means of a separating funnel previously inserted through the cork. 
 No change in the substance of the paper is observed. The stream 
 of coal gas is now stopped, and atmospheric air is introduced. 
 Reaction rapidly ensues, with development of the blue colour of 
 the ammoniacal cupric compound, accompanied by solution of the 
 cellulose. The details of the arrangement of the experiment are 
 immaterial, and may be varied in a number of ways. 
 
 On the theory of the action of cellulose solvents, read a paper 
 by the authors in Bull. Soc. Chim. 1893, 295. 
 
 Cellulose Xanthate. In preparing the solution of the cellulose 
 thiocarbonate for use in the laboratory it is better to employ a ' rag ' 
 cellulose (cotton and linen) disintegrated by the process of 'beat- 
 ing ' in a paper mill, which can be easily procured. If obtained 
 in the moist condition the cellulose may be air-dried previously 
 to treating with the 15 p.ct. solution of NaOH. The cellulose and 
 the alkaline lye may be thoroughly incorporated by grinding 
 together in a mortar in the calculated quantities to finish the 
 alkali cellulose so as to contain 
 
 Cellulose, 100; caustic soda (NaOH), 45 ; and water, 250-300; 
 
 or the cellulose may be treated with the 15 p.ct. NaOH solution 
 in excess, and, after standing some time, the cellulose may be 
 drained off on a filter of perforated zinc and squeezed to retain 
 three times its weight of the solution. 
 
 As the process of 'mercerisation' requires some time for com- 
 pletion, it will be found advantageous to set aside the moist alkali 
 cellulose in a closed bottle for two or three days before sub- 
 jecting it to the solvent reaction. This reaction proceeds spon- 
 taneously at the ordinary temperature ; the alkali-cellulose and 
 carbon disulphide (40-100 parts cellulose) are brought together 
 in a stoppered bottle, vigorously shaken together for a minute 
 or two, and set aside for two or three hours. The resulting 
 yellowish mass is covered with water and allowed to stand some 
 hours, then vigorously stirred with addition of water, in quantity 
 
248 Cellulose 
 
 calculated to produce a solution of any desired percentage strength 
 (cellulose). 
 
 The progress of the reaction should be followed by microscopic 
 examination of the fibre at intervals. The rupture of the cell walls 
 is preceded by an exaggeration of the structural details of the fibre, 
 which will be found useful in differentiating cotton from celluloses 
 of other types. 
 
 From the solution of the crude thiocarbonate the solid product 
 is precipitated, in the form of a gelatinous hydrate, by various 
 ' neutral ' dehydrating liquids or solutions : of these the most 
 convenient are alcohol and a solution of common salt, and the 
 modus operandi may be instructively varied in the following 
 ways : 
 
 (1) Alcohol. The solution maybe poured into a photographer's 
 developing dish to a depth of, say, inch, strong alcohol may then 
 be poured upon the solution, the dish covered with a glass plate, 
 and set aside. Coagulation of the cellulose product proceeds gradu- 
 ally, and after some time a coherent slab is obtained of a greenish 
 colour, the yellow by-products of the reaction having been dis- 
 solved by the alcohol. 
 
 Or the solution may be caused to flow in a fine stream into the 
 alcohol, when the cellulose xanthate (hydrated) will be precipitated 
 as a continuous gelatinous thread. In the latter case it is advisable 
 to add a certain quantity of alcohol to the crude solution, which can 
 be done without causing precipitation, the xanthate being soluble 
 in dilute alcohol. Such a solution will obviously be more sensitive 
 to the further action of the alcohol, and precipitation in slender and 
 uniform threads is facilitated. 
 
 (2) Brine. If prepared from the commercial salt, the solution 
 should be freed from magnesia by previous treatment with sodium 
 carbonate and filtering. The precipitation may be carried out as 
 described under (i), or any surface may be coated with the 
 crude solution, and the xanthate precipitated upon the surface by 
 immersion in the brine. The xanthate, purified by any of these 
 treatments, may be redissolved in water, and again precipitated by 
 a repetition of the treatment. With each precipitation the ratio of 
 both alkali and sulphur to cellulose in the product is considerably 
 diminished. 
 
 The precipitated xanthate may be treated with solutions of 
 
Experimental and Applied 249 
 
 suitable salts of the heavy metals, and the cellulose xanthate of the 
 metals prepared. 
 
 Cellulose is regenerated from the solution in various ways which 
 may be practised by the student : (a) the solution may be set aside 
 in any suitable vessel for some days ; (b] it may be heated at 80- 
 90 in a water bath ; (c) it may be spread upon a glass plate or 
 other surface, dried at 60 C., and finally heated for some minutes 
 at 100 C. 
 
 The masses or films obtained are washed to remove the alka- 
 line by-products ; and the cellulose bleached, if necessary, by treat- 
 ment with sodium hypochlorite in dilute solution (0-5-1-0 p.ct. 
 NaOCl). Of the special uses of the solution in the laboratory, the 
 following may be particularised : 
 
 (1) In Microscopic Work. In preparing fibres for cutting in 
 cross section, they may be worked up with the viscous solution into 
 a strand or pencil, the cellulose being regenerated spontaneously or 
 otherwise. Such a strand may be cut with or without a microtome, 
 or may be further ' embedded ' in cellulose by submerging it in the 
 viscous solution and coagulating. In some cases the crude solution 
 may be used ; in others the solution should be previously dis- 
 colourised (and neutralised) by treatment with sulphurous acid. 
 
 (2) In diffusion experiments (osmosis) the regenerated cellulose 
 is of use in the preparation of membranes or diaphragms, the 
 cellulose being either used alone, or a compound diaphragm may 
 be made by coating paper or cloth with the thick solution, and 
 'fixing' the cellulose by any of the methods described. 
 
 Important results may be expected from a study of osmotic 
 transmission through this form of cellulose. The passage of 
 crystalloids through the cellulose, especially in its hydrated forms, 
 appears to be exceptionally rapid. 
 
 Theoretical Notes. Determinations have been made in which 
 known weights of pure cotton cellulose have been dissolved as 
 thiocarbonate, the cellulose regenerated, spontaneously and in 
 other ways, then carefully purified and weighed. The cellulose 
 recovered shows a slight increase upon the original. It may be 
 taken, therefore, that the molecule undergoes no permanent dis- 
 aggregation under the treatment, and it is even probable that the 
 cellulose maintains a high molecular weight in solution. In con- 
 trast to its behaviour under the severe alkaline treatment, it has 
 
250 Cellulose 
 
 been noted that when dissolved in zinc chloride, more especially 
 in presence of hydrochloric acid, there is a progressive hydrolysis 
 of the molecule, with conversion into soluble products. 
 
 It is evident, therefore, that the hydration of cellulose has 
 nothing in common with hydrolysis ; the cellulose molecule 
 appears to have an indefinite capacity for combining with water 
 and for undergoing an extensive series of hydration changes with- 
 out affecting its fundamental constitution. 
 
 Cellulose is usually regarded as a 'condensed' derivative, pre- 
 senting more or less analogy with starch. But in resistance to 
 hydrolysis there is a marked and very important distinction, the 
 due interpretation of which will no doubt result in establishing for 
 the celluloses a special constitutional type. 
 
 We write the cellulose unit as C 6 H 10 O 5 , remembering that this 
 merely represents the empirical facts of its ultimate elementary 
 composition. It is of course evident that at least one of the O 
 atoms is present as carbonyl oxygen. Further, we may regard 
 the constituent groups of the molecule as grouped around the CO 
 or negative, and a CH 2 or positive centre. There are many evi- 
 dences of a ' polarity ' of this character manifested by cellulose, as 
 by other ' carbohydrates,' in reaction. The thiocarbonate reaction 
 proper we may regard as localised at the more negative OH groups, 
 i.e. those in proximity to CO, which are held in combination by the 
 alkali used in mercerisation or the formation of alkali cellulose. 
 
 The attendant phenomena of mercerisation indicate a consider- 
 able degree of hydration of the cellulose (combination with water), 
 associated with the entrance of the alkaline groups. This gela- 
 tinous condition of the alkali cellulose hydrate conforms with the 
 characteristics of the earlier stages of the process of solution of 
 colloids. The completion of the process requires in this case the 
 additional strain of the carbon disulphide, evidently acting as an 
 acid group. It is certainly noteworthy, as already pointed out, 
 that all the solvents of cellulose (as cellulose) are of a saline cha- 
 racter, and may be regarded as forming with the cellulose, by 
 reciprocal combination with its acid and basic groups, compounds 
 analogous to the double salts. The actual mechanism of solution 
 we cannot pretend to follow. The modern theory of solution in the 
 hands of its most advanced exponents confines itself to the inves- 
 tigation of the molecular condition of substances in solution ; and, 
 
Experimental and Applied 251 
 
 in the case of electrolytes, it is sufficiently established that solution 
 is attended by dissociation into ions. 
 
 This aspect of solution may very well be taken up in dealing 
 with the solution phenomena of the carbohydrates. The lower 
 members of the series, in solution, show in most cases considerable 
 sensitiveness to the action of acids and bases, and form a number 
 of ' molecular ' compounds with salts such as sodium and caloum 
 chlorides which may very well be considered as double salts- 
 This indicates a saline character of the molecule in solution. The 
 phenomena of alcoholic fermentation also point in the same 
 direction. The resolution of a dextrose molecule into alcohol and 
 carbonic acid has entirely the characteristics of an electrolytic 
 split ; and it is fair to assume that the molecule in aqueous 
 solution already manifests a * strain ' in the direction in which 
 cleavage ultimately takes place. In regard to cellulose in solution, 
 it is also reasonable to assume a similar 'polarisation' ; and the 
 reactivity of the cellulose regenerated from solution is explained 
 by assuming that this polarity is in a measure retained. 
 
 In regard to the hydrates of cellulose, and the extraordinary 
 power which cellulose has of solidifying water, it appears that 
 cellulose must have the capacity of absorbing into itself the 4 energy 
 of condition ' of water. 
 
 It would be important to determine the physical constants 
 volume and vapour tension of the water, in the form of a series 
 of definite hydrates of cellulose. This would afford a measure of 
 transference of energy from the water to the cellulose. 
 
 Cellulose Benzoates. These reactions have been studied only 
 under ordinary conditions of temperature, and under conditions 
 where there is considerable loss of the anhydrochloride in waste 
 reaction with the alkali. This impedes the direct synthetical 
 reaction between the cellulose and benzoyl residues, and causes 
 large variations of the product. The reaction is necessarily diffi- 
 cult to control, especially in the case of the insoluble alkali cellu- 
 loses, and requires further systematic investigation from this point 
 of view, which will also result in the formation of definite and uni- 
 form products, i.e. so far as is attainable with a reaction in which 
 the original substance and derivative are both insoluble in the 
 reaction medium. 
 
 The conditions requiring systematic variation are (l) the 
 
252 Cellulose 
 
 temperature : the reaction should proceed at the lowest limit 
 of temperature ; (2) the conditions of mercerisation : the reaction 
 would probably be favoured by employing a certain proportion of 
 zinc oxide in replacement of sodium hydrate ; and (3) the liquid 
 medium. There is, of course, a rapid hydrolysis of the benzoyl 
 chloride by the solution of sodium hydrate ; and there are various 
 ways which suggest themselves of retarding this waste reaction. 
 
 The precipitation, as benzoates, of modifications of cellulose 
 soluble in alkaline solutions should prove a valuable aid to investi- 
 gation ; but, before the method can be applied to the investigation 
 of substances and mixtures of unknown or lesser known composi- 
 tion, it will be necessary to characterise the products obtainable 
 from the normal celluloses. There are in plant tissues a widely 
 diffused group of substances having the external characteristics of 
 the resistant celluloses, or celluloses proper, but which are readily 
 soluble in alkaline solutions. In the course of an ordinary 
 proximate analysis these are usually * dismissed ' as * non-nitro- 
 genous extractive matters ' ; which, of course, is but a very loose 
 description. 
 
 We have seen that hydrated modifications of the normal cellu- 
 lose are themselves soluble in alkaline solution, and it would 
 appear that in this condition they are generally more reactive. 
 
 There are two practical problems suggested by the properties 
 of these hydrates : (i) Do they yield to the processes of animal 
 digestion ? and (2) how far can the processes adopted by the 
 paper-maker for isolating cellulose from complex fibrous materials 
 be limited, to prevent the solution of celluloses either existing or 
 hydrated in the raw material or tending to pass into such modifi- 
 cations ? 
 
 The investigation of these questions will be found to be greatly 
 facilitated by a method of separating the soluble celluloses from 
 solutions. The benzoates give promise of affording such a method 
 of separation, and invite investigation from this point of view as 
 much as from that of their intrinsic theoretical interest. 
 
 Cellulose Acetates. The 'suppression' of the OH groups of 
 cellulose is evidenced by its not reacting with acetic anhydride 
 at its boiling point ; whereas the poly-hydroxy-compounds gene- 
 rally are acetylated under these conditions, and many even react 
 with acetic acid itself. We may find some explanation of this in 
 
Experimental and Applied 253 
 
 the evidence that we have of a species of saline or ethereal con- 
 stitution which characterises cellulose in many of its reactions. It 
 is probable that the OH groups of opposite function exert a 
 mutually repressive influence ; and acetic anhydride, being essen- 
 tially a condensing agent, is unable to determine the liberation of 
 the CH groups into the condition in which they can react. 
 
 On the other hand, the presence of certain reagents in relatively 
 small proportion is sufficient to disturb the equilibrium, and 
 reaction results. An elevated temperature also determines reac- 
 tion, and obviously for a similar reason, viz. that the equilibrium 
 of the molecule holds only for a certain range of conditions. 
 
 For these reasons it may be considered doubtful whether a 
 cellulose acetate in the strictest sense can be obtained. Acetates 
 are, however, obtainable which satisfy the { general ' a priori defini- 
 tion viz. which by saponification yield a carbohydrate having the 
 negative characteristics of cellulose, and in contradistinction to 
 acetates which, though obtained from cellulose, yield on saponifi- 
 cation a carbohydrate more or less soluble in the alkaline solution, 
 and reducing CuO. 
 
 Parchmentising Process. The student should make careful 
 statistical observations upon this reaction. An unsized paper 
 should be used ordinary * waterleaf ' or filtering paper. The acid 
 should be placed in a * photographic ' dish of suitable size ; the 
 sheet immersed in this and, after suitable exposure to the action 
 of the acid, transferred at once to a dish of water. After staying 
 in this first wash water for some time they must be thoroughly 
 washed in a flow of water until neutral. The sheets having been 
 weighed before treatment, and the moisture estimated in portion 
 of the same paper the product must also be weighed after drying. 
 It is necessary also to determine the cellulose dissolved by the 
 process, for which purpose the acid and first wash water may be 
 treated. These may be mixed and a certain fraction boiled, the 
 dextrose formed being estimated by any of the well-known methods ; 
 or the solution may be neutralised with lime evaporated, and the 
 total carbon estimated, by the method of combustion, with CrO s 
 and H 2 SO 4 . 
 
 The product may also be further examined (i) for loss of 
 weight in boiling with dilute alkaline solutions ; (2) CuO reduction 
 in presence of alkalis (Fehling's solution) ; and (3) degree of 
 
254 Cellulose 
 
 acetylation, which is a measure of the OH groups rendered 'free' 
 or reactive by the process. A systematic series of observations 
 embracing these points would be a useful contribution to our 
 knowledge. 
 
 * Toughening ' Action of Nitric Acid upon Papers. The student 
 should read the original paper of Francis (J. Chem. Soc. 47, 183) 
 and repeat his observations on the toughening of filter paper by 
 this process. 
 
 Preparation of Hydrocellulose. This reaction may also be 
 studied by the student statistically. A given weight of a pure 
 bleached cellulose fabric, preferably in the form of rag, is exposed, 
 in the air-dry condition, to hydrochloric acid gas in a closed vessel. 
 The reaction is complete when the fabric breaks down on slight 
 pressure to an impalpable powder. It may, however, be more 
 conveniently washed in the original form of cloth, which it will 
 retain sufficiently notwithstanding the disintegration which has 
 taken place to withstand a current of wash water, carefully ad- 
 mitted to the bottom of the vessel. The product when pure may 
 be dried and weighed, and its properties and reactions determined. 
 
 The student should convert the product into the corresponding 
 nitrates. One part of the product (dried at 105 C. and cooled in 
 a dry atmosphere) is gradually stirred into 5 parts of concentrated 
 nitric acid (HNO 3 of 1*5 sp.gr. and colourless). The gummy solu- 
 tion of the nitrate may be treated in various ways for the separa- 
 tion of various products. 
 
 (a) It may be diluted with a small proportion of water, gradually 
 stirred in so as to keep the product dissolved ; the solution then 
 poured on to a glass plate, and the acid evaporated at a temperature 
 of 40 C. in a free draught of air. The product is then washed, and 
 detached as a film from the glass. 
 
 (b) The concentrated or somewhat diluted solution may be 
 pouied into water or spread on a glass plate, which is then plunged 
 beneath water contained in a suitable vessel. 
 
 (c) The precipitation may be effected by sulphuric acid the 
 acid being added drop by drop to the concentrated solution, or 
 the solution poured into the sulphuric acid. In either case the 
 mixture must be carried out without sensible rise of temperature. 
 
 Preparation and Diagnosis of Oxycelluloses. The student of 
 cellulose technology will find it necessary to study the original 
 
Experimental and Applied 255 
 
 papers (loc. cit.\ and to repeat the experimental demonstrations 
 therein given, of the formation of these oxycelluloses, and the 
 methods of diagnosing their presence in textile fabrics. 
 
 It is to be noted that the ordinary bleached celluloses of the 
 cotton group all give a small proportion of furfural (o'3-rop.ct.) on 
 boiling with hydrochloric acid(ro6 sp.gr.), which may betaken as 
 indicating the presence of an oxycellulose in proportionate quantity. 
 Jt is probable also that the somewhat increased reactivity of 
 bleached cotton may be due to formation of oxycellulose. 
 
 Study of Methods of Bleaching. The student should compare 
 the bleaching actions of potassium permanganate and sodium 
 hypochlorite from the point of view of bleaching effect, and 
 relative consumption of oxygen. It must be noted that the per- 
 manganate (i.e. Mn. 2 O T ) is deoxidised to the dioxide MnO 2 , which 
 is deposited as the brown-coloured hydrate upon the cellulose ; 
 the depth of colour is therefore a measure of the oxidation which 
 has taken place, generally or locally. The oxide is removed by 
 treating the substance, after washing from the alkali simultaneously 
 set free, with a solution of sulphurous acid, the interaction of the 
 reagents producing dithionic acid. With the disappearance of the 
 brown oxide the bleaching effect produced by the original oxidation 
 is at once apparent. 
 
 While the action of the permanganates upon the cellulose is 
 necessarily that of simple oxidation, the hypochlorites may act in 
 two ways : (i) a simple oxidation ; (2) chlorination. The latter 
 effect is usually small, the proportion reacting in this way depend- 
 ing upon the temperature of the solution and also the nature 
 of the base with which the hypochlorous acid is combined. See 
 * Some Considerations on the Chemistry of Hypochlorite Bleaching ' 
 (J. Soc. Chem. Ind. 1890). 
 
 Formation of Acetic Acid from Cellulose. The student should 
 read the account of a systematic investigation of these reactions by 
 J. F. V. Isaac and the authors (J. Soc. Chem. Ind. 1892). 
 
 The maximum yields of 30-40 p.ct., which are obtained under 
 the most favourable conditions, point to a CO CH. ( 'residue' in 
 the cellulose molecule itself, as the immediate source of the acetic 
 acid. 
 
 Ferment-hydrolyses of Cellulose. It is obvious that chemical 
 compounds destined to transmit, accumulate, and otherwise respond 
 
256 Cellulose 
 
 to, the form of energy which we are bound to express by the some- 
 what colourless term ' vital force ' must exhibit a specially plastic 
 constitution. The peculiar sensitiveness of the carbohydrates as 
 a group to fermentation and other decompositions is not sufficiently 
 accounted for by the constitutional formulas assigned to them. 
 
 Destructive Distillation. Theoretical Notes. We may by care- 
 ful consideration form some mental picture of the consequences 
 of the addition of heat to compounds of this class. As a preliminary 
 it is necessary to remember generally the distinction between the 
 purely chemical and the chemico-physical view of the constitution 
 of matter. According to the former, cellulose is a compound 
 .C 6 H, O 5 , of which the ultimate constituent groups CO CH. 2 
 CHOH are arranged in a certain way in the C 6 units ; and these, 
 again, are grouped together in a special configuration which, when 
 elucidated, will represent the molecular constitution of cellulose. 
 The correlative of this view is that of the intrinsic or internal 
 energy of the compound. This is expressed as a crude aggregate 
 on the thermo-chemical view as what is known as the ' heat of 
 formation,' which, in the case of carbon compounds, is the difference 
 between the sum of the heats of combustion of its constituents, 
 and the heat of combustion of the compound itself, expressed in 
 arbitrary units of mass, usually the gramme, but in molecular 
 ratios. The methods of determining combustion-heats are neces- 
 sarily subject to errors of observation of some magnitude ; but, 
 even with much closer approximation to accuracy, the number of 
 calories per gram-molecule of a compound evolved on burning is 
 still of only empirical and statistical value, even when applied to 
 compounds related in differential series. 
 
 Whatever the meaning of the constant of energy, which we regard 
 as associated with every particular configuration of matter, it is at 
 least obvious that all compounds with which we are familiar repre- 
 sent an equilibrium of matter and energy under the conditions of 
 observation ; and as combination is generally associated with loss 
 of energy, so, vice versd, the introduction of energy implies decom- 
 position or tendencies to decomposition. The communication of 
 energy in the form of the electric current, as in electrolysis, is 
 usually attended by more or less simple decompositions, more or 
 less easy, therefore, to follow. Th~ effects of heat, on the other 
 hand, are complicated by recombinations of the products amongst 
 
Experimental and Applied 257 
 
 themselves, more especially in the regions of high temperatures, 
 rendering it somewhat difficult to distinguish the primary from 
 secondary products. 
 
 Generally we may take the saturated compounds of lower 
 molecular weight as direct products of the decomposition : these are 
 water, oxides of carbon, methane, methyl alcohol, formic and 
 acetic acids, &c. Volatile compounds, either hydrocarbons or their 
 derivatives, containing unsaturated C H nuclei, result from re- 
 arrangements of the component groups of the original celluloses ; 
 these are olefines and aromatic hydrocarbons, furfural, phenols, 
 aromatic methoxy-derivatives, c. ; the residue of the process or 
 charcoal represents the extreme limits of condensation of the 
 carbon nuclei. 
 
 One important general feature of the decomposition is notice- 
 able as connecting the decomposition with those determined by 
 electrolysis and fermentation in the case of compounds of similar 
 constitution, that is, the accumulation of hydrogen in the one direc- 
 tion, and oxygen in the other. Thus we have, on the one hand, 
 methane and a large number of compounds containing the CH 3 
 and O.CH 3 group ; and, on the other, CO and CO r Acetic acid 
 represents an intermediate equilibrium, viz. of CH 4 and CO 2 . We 
 have already seen that the introduction of the alkaline hydrates so 
 alters the character of the decomposition that acetic acid becomes 
 a main product of decomposition ; and the remainder of the re- 
 action consists in the production of the more fully oxidised oxalic 
 acid (with CO.,), * balanced,' so to speak, by the formation and 
 liberation of hydrogen. These considerations illustrate the views 
 which may be applied to the elucidation of the very complex pro- 
 blems in dissociation, generally presented by destructive distillation. 
 
 Constitution of Cellulose. Theoretical Notes. It is, perhaps, 
 premature to approach the problem of the constitution of cellulose, 
 as the molecule of cellulose is at present an altogether unknown 
 quantity. It will be instructive to the student to study, for their 
 general bearing on the subject, the investigations which have been 
 devoted to the elucidation of the structure of the starch molecule, 
 notably those of O'Sullivan (J. Chem. Soc. 1872), Brown and 
 Morris (ibid. 1889, 449-462), Lintner and Dull (Berl. Ber. 26, 
 
 2533). 
 
 These researches are based on the study of the hydrolytic dis- 
 
 S 
 
258 Cellulose 
 
 section of the molecule, which breaks down ultimately into maltose 
 when invertase is employed, or into dextrose when the hydrolysis is 
 completed by acids, the intermediate terms being the uncrystal- 
 lisable dextrines. Owing to the obviously simple relation of the pro- 
 ducts of resolution to the original molecule, we are justified in con- 
 cluding that starch represents an aggregate of considerable mole- 
 cular magnitude ; the ultimate constituent C 6 groups being linked 
 together by oxygen. The evidence, in fact, goes to show that starch 
 is of the same constitutional type as the bioses (e.g. cane sugar and 
 maltose) and trioses (e.g. melitriose). The combination of two 
 glucose residues, to form a biose, takes place in one of two ways 
 i.e. either one or both of the typical CO groups takes part in the 
 condensation ; in the former case (e.g. maltose) the free carbon yl 
 determines aldehydic properties, which disappear, in the latter case, 
 (e.g. cane sugar) with the suppression of the second CO group. 
 
 In starch, the linking of the glucose residue is of the dicarbonyl 
 type, and it consequently fails to react with phenylhydrazine, 
 and does not reduce Fehling's solution. In the hydrolysis of 
 starch the carbonyl linkings are broken down successively, the 
 process be^ng similar to that which takes place with the triose above 
 named, which is first resolved into melitriose and fructose, the 
 former then splitting into glucose and galactose. (See Scheibler 
 and Mittelmeier, Bed. Ber. 26, 2930.) 
 
 Cellulose is identical with starch in empirical composition 
 (#.C (i H 10 O 5 ), and similar, in being an aggregate of hexose groups ; 
 but for resolution into the latter, cellulose requires the severe 
 treatment of solution in concentrated sulphuric acid. 
 
 To give full value to these characteristic differences, we must 
 pronounce for a corresponding difference in molecular configu- 
 ration. 
 
 The problem must next be considered from the point of view 
 of function of the reactive groups of cellulose. The student should 
 be reminded that carbon chemistry is very much a chemistry of 
 function. The idea of chemical function grew but slowly with the 
 study of the 'inorganic' elements, and indeed of the carbon 
 compounds also, so long as 'it was limited to individuals and 
 groups more or less isolated. It was a chemistry of jumps and 
 gaps. In modern 'organic' chemistry, on the other hand, the 
 carbon compounds are presented to us in extended series of 
 
Experimental and Applied 259 
 
 progressive differentiations which are therefore, in the limited 
 sense of the term, ' organically ' related. The differentiations are of 
 two kinds : (i) the reactive groups (CO, OH, &c.) may vary in 
 number and position ; (2) the substantive group (C W H ;W ) may vary 
 in configuration (aliphatic, cyclic, condensed, &c., hydrocarbons). 
 To trace the corresponding variations in function or reactivity is a 
 very important part of every investigation ; and the student should 
 diligently study the papers of original workers, and familiarise 
 himself with such general expositions of the science, from this 
 point of view, as he will find in the opening chapters of Beilstein's 
 great work, Handbuch der organischen Chemie ; and more espe- 
 cially, in regard to the carbohydrates, in Tollens' monograph, 
 Die Kohlenhydrate (Breslau, 1888). 
 
 The student should endeavour to form a critical estimate of the 
 position of cellulose in relation to starch and others of the 
 ' saccharo-colloids' (Tollens), to which it is most nearly allied. 
 Such an estimate must be based upon the comparative study of 
 reactions. 
 
 Comparing cellulose with starch we find the former resistant 
 to hydrolysis and acetylation, but giving the highly characteristic 
 thiocarbonate reaction. These differences are differences of function 
 or reactivity of OH groups on the one hand, and of the linking 
 together of the unit groups on the other. 
 
 We have then to consider whether these differences are 
 sufficient to constitute the cellulose group a special type of 
 constitution. We think they are. 
 
 Assuming the unit group C C H ]0 O 5 , and decomposing this, 
 on the evidence before us, into C 6 H 6 O.(OH) 4 , we have but few 
 alternatives. The conclusion we draw can only be expressed 
 within the limits of these alternatives, and therefore in general 
 terms, as follows : (i) The C atoms of the unit groups are com- 
 bined in a closed ring ; (2) the linking of the unit groups is not an 
 oxygen, but a carbon linking ; (3) the synthesis of the unit groups 
 together may be assumed to occur between the CO of one group 
 and the CH 2 of another, giving the alternative form CH C(OH). 
 
 LIGNOCELLULOSES OF CEREALS. The student should 
 read the special papers on the subject, Berl. Ber. 1894, and J. 
 Chem. Soc. 1894. 
 
 The cereal straws in which maybe included the envelopes of the 
 
 S 2 
 
260 Cellulose 
 
 seeds of these and allied species are of complex constitution. The 
 tissues, in addition tobeinglignifiedmoreor less (see Lignocelluloses* 
 p. 92), contain, as an essential constituent, the characteristic com- 
 pound known as wood gum (Holzgummf}. Wood gum is the 
 colloid anhydride of the pentaglucoses, yielding the crystallisable 
 pentoses, xylose and arabinose, when hydrolysed by boiling dilute 
 acids. The pentosans are dissolved by dilute solutions of the alka- 
 line hydrates in the cold, from which solutions they are precipitated 
 on acidification, and more completely in presence of alcohol. The 
 pentosans, when boiled with hydrochloric acid (ro6 sp.gr.), of 
 course yield furfural, and it is sometimes assumed that the quan- 
 tity obtained from straw is a direct measure of the pentosans pre- 
 sent. This conclusion requires qualification, and it is necessary to 
 divide the furfural-yielding constituents into the two groups : (a) 
 the pentosans, easily hydrolysed, and obtained as above described ; 
 () the oxycelluloses, resisting hydrolytic actions of some intensity. 
 Together with the investigations above cited, the student should 
 read an account of the researches of Schulze and Tollens (Landw. 
 Vers.-Stat. 40, 367) upon the composition and constitution of the 
 substance of * brewers' grains.' This material consists obviously 
 of the more resistant seed-envelopes of the barley, the greater por- 
 tion of which remains unaffected by the malting and mashing pro- 
 cesses. The following scheme represents the method of examination 
 pursued by the authors with indications of the results obtained: 
 
 Acid Hydrolysis. Boiling with 4 p.ct. aqueous H 8 SO 4 
 
 I I 
 
 Solution InsoL Residue 
 contains pentose, (45 p.ct. of original 
 chiefly xylose, some Still giving reactions of 
 arabinose pentosans) 
 ' I 
 
 Exhaustive treatment with Digestion with 5 p.ct. 
 
 cuprammonium, filtering JS'aOH.Aq 
 
 and precipitating acid ; 53-2 I 
 
 p.ct. dissolved and repre- j | 
 
 cipitated Solution. Pentosan Residue 
 
 giving xylose sol. in cu- 
 
 on hydrolysis prammonium 
 
 With very slight 
 residue 
 
Experimental and Applied 261 
 
 An important conclusion from these experiments is, that the 
 cellulose and pentosan constituents of these tissues exist together, 
 in combination rather than in mere admixture, the complex also 
 containing the characteristic lignin groups. (See Lignocelluloses, 
 p. 156.) 
 
 General Methods for Identification of Carbohydrate Groups 
 (HexoseS) Pentoses, 
 
 The researches of Tollens and others (Landw. Vers.-Stat. 39, 
 401) have contributed considerably towards the completion of 
 methods of proximate resolution of such mixtures as it has been 
 customary to define by the term ' non-nitrogenous extractive matters.' 
 in the investigation, more particularly of vegetable food-stuffs and 
 fodder plants, the so-called * Weende } method of Henneberg has 
 been generally adopted. This consists in the direct determination 
 of fat, protein, ' crude fibre,' and ash ; and the sum of these consti- 
 tuents subtracted from 100 is represented as 'non-nitrogenous 
 extractives.' These are the less resistant carbohydrates in question, 
 and concerning these it is important to determine whether they 
 contain (i) the true (hexa) carbohydrates or their anhydrides ; and 
 (2) the presence or absence of (a) dextrose, (b] galactose, (c) levulose, 
 (d) other carbohydrates, more especially mannose ; and (3) the 
 presence or absence of the pentaglucoses. It is also often necessary 
 to estimate these compounds quantitatively. It is also necessary 
 to keep in view the probable presence of derivatives of these com- 
 pounds or group, more particularly the oxidised derivatives. It will 
 be obvious that no generally applicable scheme of analysis can be 
 laid down ; but the following methods of diagnosis are typical, and 
 should be carefully worked out by the student. 
 
 (1) General identification of true (Jiexa) carbohydrates by levu- 
 linic acid reaction (Tollens, Ann. 243, 315). The substance is 
 heated for 20 hours at 95-98 with HCl.Aq (no). Levulinic acid 
 is extracted by exhaustion with ether, converted into the zinc salt 
 (cryst.), and this into the silver salt C 6 H 7 O 3 Ag, yielding 48*43 p.ct. 
 Ag on ignition. 
 
 (2) Identification of dextrose groups by Jormation of saccharic 
 ac i& The substance is oxidised by digestion with HNO 3 (1*15 
 sp.gr.) ; the saccharic acid converted into the acid potassium salt, 
 and this into the silver salt, giving 50-94 p.ct. Ag on ignition. 
 
262 Cellulose 
 
 (3) Identification of galactose groups by conversion info mucic 
 acid. 1 The substance is oxidised with HNO 3 (1*15 sp.gr.); the 
 mucic acid crystallising out directly, owing to its insolubility. Galac- 
 tose yields 75 p.ct. of its weight of the acid. 
 
 (4) Identification oflevulosegroups by reaction with resorcinoL 
 Levulose may be sometimes identified by the relative ease with 
 which it is converted into levulinic acid. Oxidising methods are 
 not available owing to the ease with which it breaks down into 
 acids of lower molecular weight. The reaction with resorcinol in 
 presence of HC1 a fiery red colouration may be relied on. The 
 reagent is prepared by dissolving 0-5 grm. resorcinol in 60 c.c. 
 HC1 of I '09 sp.gr., with which the solution to be tested is gently 
 warmed. 
 
 (5) Identification of mannose as phenylhydraz one. Mannose is 
 easily distinguished by its property of reacting in neutral dilute 
 solution with phenylhydrazine (acetate) to form an insoluble hydra- 
 /one, which may be further identified by determining its melting 
 point (188). 
 
 (6) Identification of pentaglucoses and oxycelhtlose. These are 
 the furfural-yielding carbohydrates, and their identification and 
 estimation depend upon their conversion into furfural by boiling 
 with HC1 (i'o6). In quantitative determinations the latter is esti- 
 mated as hydrazone. 
 
 Lignocelluloses. Laboratory Notes. It will have been evi- 
 dent to the student that the chemistry of the lignocelluloses is 
 that of a highly reactive molecule, and therefore is different in 
 a great many respects from the celluloses. The reactions of 
 the fibre-substance have also been dwelt upon more in detail 
 than in the case of cotton cellulose, and it will therefore be un- 
 necessary to do more than collect at this point those reasons 
 which are typical and characteristic, and which are useful in the 
 laboratory eitfier for demonstration or in the investigation oi 
 unknown materials. 
 
 (i) Qualitative Reactions. Colour reactions with phloroglucol 
 (solution in HC1), aniline sulphate (aqueous solution) with iodine 
 (absorption with development of brown colour), ferric ferri- 
 cyanide (deep blue dye) with magenta sulphurous acid, and with 
 
 1 The methyl hexoses are similarly oxidised to mucic acid. (E. Fischer, 
 BerL Ber. 1894, 385.) 
 
Experimental and Applied 263 
 
 coal-tar dyes in great variety (simply dyeing or staining phe- 
 nomena). 
 
 (2) Solutions of the Lignocelluloses. In cuprammonium, in zinc 
 chloride (saturated aqueous solution), and zinc chloride in HC1 ; 
 partial solution under the thiocarbonate reaction. This reaction 
 should be carefully followed up with the microscope, more 
 especially the extraordinary combination which takes place with 
 water on covering the fibre, after the reaction, with water. 
 
 (3) Hydrolytic Agents. (a) Concentrated solutions of caustic 
 soda (10-25 P- ct ' NaOH) in the cold. This reaction should 
 be studied quantitatively, and should be also followed up with a 
 microscopic observation of the fibre under action. 
 
 (b] Dilute alkali solutions. These constants, quantitatively 
 determined in terms of loss of weight, are important. The usual 
 conditions are a I p.ct. solution of caustic soda in large excess ; the 
 specimen being boiled for 10 minutes, and a second for 60 minutes, 
 keeping the volume of the solution constant. The fibre is then 
 washed off and treated with a little dilute hydrochloric acid, again 
 washed, and dried. 
 
 (c) Dilute acids. The observation of the action of boiling 
 dilute sulphuric acid (i p.ct. H.^SO,) is of use in differentiating 
 one lignocellulose from another. The fibre may be boiled for 60 
 minutes with an excess of I p.ct. acid, keeping the volume of 
 the solution constant. The fibre is washed free from acid, dried, 
 and weighed. 
 
 (4) Cellulose Estimations. On this subject see Cross and 
 Bevan, J. Chem. Soc. 1882. The following methods should be 
 worked : 
 
 (a) Bromine method. The fibre is boiled in dilute alkali, washed, 
 and placed in saturated bromine water and left for some hours, 
 afterwards washed and boiled in dilute ammonia. The fibre is 
 then washed and returned to the bromine water, and again boiled, 
 after digestion, in ammonia. The treatment is repeated so long 
 as any residues of a yellow colour are seen in the boiling alkaline 
 solution. The cellulose is finally washed with dilute acid and then 
 with water, dried, and weighed. 
 
 (b) Chlorine method. This involves not only a determination 
 of cellulose, but of the amount of chlorine disappearing in reaction, 
 and also the amount of hydrochloric acid (Read, Cross, and 
 
264 Cellulose 
 
 Bevan, J. Chem. Soc. 1889, 199). Instead of the bulb there 
 described as blown on the end of a tube, a simpler method 
 consists in blowing a thin bulb and inserting the prepared fibre, 
 and after insertion, drawing of the bulb. It is then placed in the 
 reaction flask, containing an atmosphere of chlorine. The flask or 
 bottle is closed with a cork well covered with paraffin, and bored 
 with one hole to admit the glass tube connecting with the 
 measuring apparatus. When the levels are all adjusted, the bulb 
 is broken by a blow against the side of the bottle. For further 
 particulars see the paper above cited, also for the estimation of 
 the hydrochloric acid formed. The cellulose estimation, by boiling 
 the chlorinated fibre with sulphite of soda solution, &c., and 
 washing off, has been already described (see p. 95). 
 
 (c) Nitric acid process. The weighed fibre is placed in a flask, 
 and digested with 5 p.ct. nitric acid at 60. The gaseous products 
 may be collected and examined. Digestion is continued until the 
 yellow colour which at first results gives place to white. If 
 arrested at an earlier stage the residues of non-cellulose may be 
 removed by treating with weak alkaline solution. The cellulose 
 is washed, treated with dilute acid, again washed, and dried for 
 weighing. The yield is from 60-66, considerably less, therefore, 
 than by either of the above methods. 
 
 In reference to the theory of the action, show that by adding urea 
 the specific action of the acid is entirely arrested, and it becomes 
 similar to that of hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid dilute. The 
 specific action also has a limit in reference to the concentration 
 of the acid, which must contain at least 3 p.ct. HNO 3 . 
 
 (cT) Chromic acid process. This process should be investigated 
 with chromic acid only, and with the addition of acetic acid and of 
 sulphuric x:id. In the first case, the action is extremely slow, and 
 there is considerable combination of the oxide with the fibre- 
 substance. The presence of the hydrolysing acid causes the 
 specific oxidation of the non-cellulose constituents. In dilute 
 solution this takes place without evolution of gas. The product 
 may be tested from time to time by washing off a small portion, 
 exposing to chlorine, and afterwards plunging into sodium sulphite 
 solution. When this reaction ceases, arrest the experiment, wash 
 off the product, dry, and weigh. After weighing, compare this oxy- 
 cellulose mixture with the celluloses obtained by the above 
 
al and Applied 265 
 
 processes. In experiments where sulphuric acid is added as the 
 hydrolysing acid, the solution should be distilled and the volatile 
 acid estimated. 
 
 (e) Alkali oxidations. Study the continued action of hypo- 
 chlorite of sodium and of hypobromite, continuing the action until 
 the specific reactions of the fibre disappear and a residue of 
 cellulose is obtained. 
 
 (/) Sulphite processes. For these the experiments must be 
 conducted in sealed glass tubes or in a lead-lined digester. The 
 fibre is sealed up with 7 or 10 times its weight of a solution of 
 bisulphite of lime, and heated for 8 hours, raising the temperature 
 gradually to 140 in the case of jute, or 160 in the case of woods. 
 The products are thrown out into a dish and the insoluble cellulose 
 filtered off, and the soluble products may be examined for the 
 reactions described on p. 200. If neutral sulphite is used, take a 
 5 p.ct. solution of crystalline salt, and in this case raise to 160. 
 
 (5) Furfural Estimations. --The method used has been subject 
 to extensive investigations, as stated in the text, the details 
 finally adopted being those of Flint and Tollens (Landw. Vers.- 
 Stat. 1893, 42, 381-407). The fibre is boiled with hydro- 
 chloric acid, of i *i sp.gr., in a flask attached to a condenser. 
 The volume is kept constant by the addition of acid of this 
 strength to the flask. The furfural which distils is converted into 
 hydrazone in the neutralised solution, and estimated as such, with 
 careful attention to all the precautions given in the paper above 
 cited. The results are uniform, and the method is an important 
 one for the student to master. 
 
 (6) Methoxyl Determinations. The fibre -substance is boiled 
 with concentrated hydriodic acid. Methyl iodide is formed, and is 
 carried forward by a stream of carbonic acid through a special 
 apparatus. The full details of the method are given in the original 
 paper of Zeisel (Monatshefte f. Chem. 1885, vi. 989), and is also 
 described in Vortmann's Anleitung 2. Chem. Anal. Org. Stoffe. 
 (Leipzig, 1891). This method is of growing importance in the 
 investigation of vegetable substances, and should be thoroughly 
 mastered by the student. 
 
 (7) Nitration. The * nitrating ' acid is a mixture of equal volumes 
 of nitric acid (1-5 sp.gr.) and sulphuric acid (1*83), previously 
 mixed and cooled. The weighed quantity of the fibre-substance, 
 
266 Cellulose 
 
 dried at 100, is added to this mixture. The time and condition of 
 treatment may be varied, and the influence of the variations noted. 
 The product is removed from the acid and at once dropped into 
 a large volume of water. It is then exhaustively washed until 
 entirely free from soluble acid products, dried and weighed. The 
 products may be analysed for nitrogen by the standard methods. 
 
 (8) Ferric Ferricyanide Reaction. The solutions of ferric 
 chloride and ferricyanide are prepared at normal strength, and 
 mixed in equal volumes previously to the experiment. The fibre- 
 substance is weighed and plunged into the red solution and allowed 
 to remain, with occasional stirring. The deposition of the blue 
 cyanide wiihin the fibre-substance should be carefully observed 
 under the microscope, and the gain in weight should be determined 
 under varying conditions of digestion. The blue dyed product 
 may be analysed in various ways to determine Fe and N. 
 
 (9) Dyeing Operations. The fibre may be prepared by a pre- 
 liminary boil in weak alkaline solutions. It should then be dyed 
 up in the ordinary way. with coal-tar colours typical of the various 
 groups. It will be found that the lignocellulose has a very varied 
 dyeing capability, corresponding with the great variety of re- 
 active groups which it contains. A systematic investigation of 
 this question is very much wanted. 
 
 (10) Ultimate Analysis. The elementary analysis of fibre-sub- 
 stance may be carried out by any of the standard combustion 
 methods. In respect to the mineral constituents (ash), these must 
 be determined in the usual way, by completely burning the fibre 
 in a platinum dish, and an allowance made for the carbonic acid 
 retained by the ash. With regard to the moisture, the fibre may 
 be dried at 100-105, and in transferring to the combustion appa- 
 ratus, care must be taken that no absorption of moisture takes place. 
 
 The Woods may be treated in the same way as the lignified 
 fibres, provided they are previously reduced to a state of the finest 
 possible division. For this purpose the well-seasoned wood 
 should be cut into shavings, with a fine plane. As stated in the 
 text, there is much need for a thoroughly systematic examination 
 of the woods comparatively with the typical lignocellulose, and there 
 is also room for investigating those woods which contain colouring 
 matters belonging to the aromatic group. In view of the more 
 complex constitution of the woods, care must be taken, in bringing 
 
Experimental and Applied 267 
 
 out the results, to distinguish between the fibre-substance proper 
 and constituents easily removed by hydrolysis. Thus, to institute 
 an exact comparison of the woods with the jute fibre, both 
 should be taken after preliminary boiling out with dilute alkaline 
 solutions under the same conditions, the residue being washed 
 and dried after this treatment, and weighed in this condition for 
 the several determinations. What is required is the comparative 
 determination of the essential 'constants of lignification,' that 
 is to say, elementary composition, hydrolysis numbers, cellulose, 
 chlorine combining, furfural, methoxyl, nitration, and ferric ferri- 
 cyanide reactions. 
 
 The Pectocelluloses. This group involves the general methods 
 of investigation of the carbohydrates of lower molecular weight, 
 for the reason that the non-cellulose constituents are easily hy- 
 drolysed to soluble bodies by alkalis, and are then further broken 
 down by acid hydrolysis to carbohydrates of definite and known 
 constitution. In the examination of these compound celluloses, 
 therefore, the methods of investigation to be found in standard 
 works on the carbohydrates must be followed. The general 
 scheme is that given in the text, p. 261 ; and as typical raw materials 
 the following should be studied : flax, esparto, and fleshy paren- 
 chyma, such as found in the turnip, apple, pear, and similar 
 fruits ; as bodies yielding the pectic acid series, and for the group 
 of mucocellulose which yield the neutral carbohydrates (hexoses 
 and pentoses), the investigations of Tollens (p. 223) should be 
 repeated. 
 
 TheAdipocelluloses. This ground is in a very undeveloped con- 
 dition, and much investigation will be required to establish the es- 
 sential chemical features of this particular compound cellulose. It 
 would be necessary to distinguish carefully between excreted by- 
 products and the essential cuticular tissue. The most promising 
 direction of investigation seems to be that resulting from previous 
 treatment of the tissue by one of the sulphite processes. The 
 drastic oxidations with nitric acid, and treatments with concentrated 
 alkalis, are too severe to enable any conclusions to be drawn with 
 certainty, from the products obtained, to the constitution of the 
 parent molecule ; but a preliminary resolution into cellulose and 
 non-cellulose, by a method involving a minimum of change, affords 
 a much better basis for such investigations. As far as we know, 
 
268 Cellulose 
 
 this has only been investigated in a preliminary way, as stated in 
 the text (p. 227), and an exhaustive study on these lines offers 
 a most promising field of research. 
 
 INVESTIGATION OF RAW FIBROUS MATERIALS. 
 
 These various processes admitting of quantitative observation 
 of results the results being the constants of the individual fibres 
 having been studied with raw materials of known composition, 
 and belonging to one or other of the groups, may be applied to 
 fibres of unknown composition, and to complex mixtures, in which 
 two or more of the compound celluloses are represented. The 
 investigation of fibres of unknown composition proceeds on the 
 following lines : (a) a general examination with reagents, to deter- 
 mine whether lignified or not ; (b] a general histological examina- 
 tion, determining its structural characteristics. A specimen is 
 boiled for some time in caustic soda solution (i p.ct. NaOH), then 
 teased out, and the ultimate fibres measured. The length of the 
 ultimate fibre is one of the most important criteria of value of 
 a fibre. Cross-sections are cut and examined, to determine the 
 general features of the fibre-bundle : the average number of fibres 
 in the bundle, the dimensions, and the divisibility of the bundle. 
 For a detailed account of these methods the student must read the 
 special treatises on the subject (p. 243). 
 
 Proceeding with the chemical examination. If the microscope 
 has revealed the presence of cuticular tissues, the raw material 
 should be extracted with ether-alcohol in a continuous extraction 
 apparatus, and the quantity of extract determined. The residue is 
 treated for the estimation of cellulose by the methods previously 
 described. The attendant reactions must be carefully observed. 
 The percentage of cellulose is the most important of the chemical 
 constants. The quality of the cellulose should be noted. It 
 should be examined for resistance to further hydrolysis, and to 
 oxidising agents, e.g. Fehling's solution, permanganate, &c. On 
 these results, it is classified as of the cotton or normal group, the 
 jute or wood cellulose group, or the esparto and straw group. The 
 general character of the non-cellulose constituents will have 
 appeared from their reactions ; further evidence is obtained by 
 examining the solutions from the preliminary alkaline hydrolysis, 
 and from the hydrolysis following the chlorination process. The 
 
Experimental and Applied 269 
 
 latter should be carried out with certain precautions (see p. 96), 
 and the chlorinated fibre may be washed, and the washings titrated, 
 to determine the HC1 formed. 
 
 The fibre may then be subjected to any of the special treatments, 
 according to the group to which it is assigned. 
 
 Fibrous raw materials of more complex constitution must be 
 examined with reference to external appearance, and the direc- 
 tions of application for which intended. If for the isolation of 
 a textile fibre, the material is subjected to a prolonged boiling 
 with sulphite of soda solution (2 p.ci. Na 2 SO 3 ). The progress of 
 the disintegration is watched, and when the adventitious tissues 
 are sufficiently softened, the disintegration is aided by mechanical 
 means crushing, rubbing, &c. and the cellular debris washed 
 away in a stream of water. When perfectly cleaned, the proportion 
 of fibre obtained is estimated. In the case of bast fibres, the entire 
 bast may be stripped from the wood at an early stage, and the 
 further purification proceeded with as described. 
 
 Where the raw material is to be examined for paper-making 
 purposes although it is possible to calculate with a fair amount of 
 accuracy, from the quantitative data obtained on the small scale, 
 the probable value of the material to the papermaker it is ad- 
 visable to carry out an experiment on a larger scale, under conditions 
 similar to those which usually obtain in the papermaker's pulping 
 process. For this purpose special apparatus is necessary. Thus, 
 to make a complete examination, the material require:; to be boiled 
 under pressure with a quantity of caustic soda calculated from the 
 data obtained on the small scale, and this must be carried out in a 
 digester capable of resisting steam pressure up to (say) about 100 Ib. 
 per square inch. After the digestion the pulp must be removed, 
 washed on a wire gauze filter, and then put through a quantitative 
 bleach operation. For this purpose the pulp should be well broken 
 up, placed in about 30 times its weight of water (estimated), and 
 bleaching powder solution is added, calculated to (say) 20 p.ct. 
 on the weight of the pulp obtained, which will be approximately 
 known from the cellulose estimations by the laboratory methods. 
 W 7 hen the material is bleached, an aliquot portion of the residual 
 liquor is drawn off, and in it the residual hypochlorite is estimated 
 by the usual methods. The difference gives the amount actually 
 consumed in bleaching the pulp. The pulp is then washed off and 
 
270 Cellulose 
 
 treated with a little antichlor (sulphite of soda), and again washed. 
 It is then pressed up in suitable moulds, which may be easily made 
 by attaching perforated zinc to square frames of wood. Further 
 than this, if it is required to make an actual paper-making experi- 
 ment with pulp, this must be prepared by beating in a model 
 beater, and then converted into sheets by the hand process. The 
 details of such manipulation are, of course, highly technical, and for 
 organising such a plant and process, the assistance of an expert 
 would be required. Having determined the yield of cellulose by 
 the laboratory method, and ascertained its characteristics, the yield 
 by the alkali boiling and bleaching process, and the proportions 
 of caustic soda and of bleaching powder required for the isola- 
 tion of the pure cellulose, complete data are at hand for valuing 
 the raw material by comparison with staple materials of the same 
 class. 
 
 The application of these methods to the investigation of green 
 plants in physiological investigations, or to fodder plants, green or 
 otherwise, is a province in which it is difficult to lay down definite 
 schemes. The choice of method must depend largely upon the 
 subject to be investigated, and for the present that is to say, until 
 our knowledge is more complete the selection must remain more 
 or less arbitrary. The following general considerations will serve 
 as guides in selecting methods suitable for particular inquiries. 
 Thus in green plants it is important to distinguish between what 
 we may call ' permanent ' or fundamental tissue, and cellulose or 
 lignocellulose. The fundamental tissue might be defined as the 
 assemblage of cells which constitute the plant, or part of the plant, 
 less the cell contents, including all excreted products. Therefore, 
 to isolate such a complex we must proceed by way of selecting 
 reagents calculated to remove particular constituents, or groups ot 
 constituents, with the least action upon the cell wall, or cell substance 
 proper, of whatever kind. In investigation of the permanent tissue 
 of the Gramineae which the authors are prosecuting, the following 
 process is used for its isolation : 
 
 (1) The material is exhausted with boiling alcohol. 
 
 (2) It is digested for 6 hours in cold dilute caustic soda (i p.ct. 
 NaOH). It is washed off from this solution, first cold and then 
 boiling hot. 
 
 (3) It is digested for some hours in cold dilute hydrochloric acid 
 
Experimental and Applied 271 
 
 (i p.ct. HC1), and again washed off cold and hot. The residue 
 from this treatment is defined as * permanent tissue.' 
 
 If, now, a plant or plant-substance were to be investigated con- 
 taining a large portion of starch, it would be necessary to precede 
 these hydrolytic treatments by a process acting selectively on the 
 starch, viz. the substances reduced to a fine state of division, boiled 
 for a short time with water, left to cool, and treated with malt ex- 
 tract, being digested for some hours at the most favourable tem- 
 perature for conversion. After this, which should follow the alcoholic 
 exhaustion, the remainder of the processes may be proceeded with 
 in order. (Compare V. Stein, Exper. Stat. Record, 5, 613, from 
 Ugeskr. f. Landmand, 39, 706.) Such a residue will contain a cer- 
 tain proportion of ash constituents and nitrogen, for which, in certain 
 cases, allowance must be made, by the usual methods of determining 
 and calculating. The difference between this product and that 
 known as ' crude fibre ' (Weende method) will be noted. The im- 
 portant aspect of these methods and their differences is appreciated 
 in dealing with a complex such as the constituents which yield 
 furfural. Of these, the product known as wood gum (pentosan) is 
 soluble in dilute alkaline solutions in the cold, and would be elimi- 
 nated under these treatments ; but the furfural-yielding constants 
 are only partially eliminated by the treatment, even from non-ligni- 
 fied tissues. But, in the mean time, it is not safe to follow on the 
 older lines, which usually were held to sharply divide group from 
 group. We may affirm generally that no hydrolytic process can 
 effect any such separation, and this is particularly to be noted in re- 
 gard to the furfural-yielding constituents. It is advisable, therefore, 
 to bear in mind that any process selected is more or less arbitrary, 
 and gives results which, while they may be perfectly valid under 
 conditions of strict comparison, are not to be interpreted outside 
 these comparisons except with reservation. This will be specially 
 appreciated when the results of the proximate analyses are taken 
 as evidence of feeding value. This entire subject is very much in 
 need of revision, and we hope that both the theoretical matter and 
 the experimental methods described in this treatise will contain 
 suggestions of methods by which these problems can be more 
 effectively solved. 
 
 The Analysis of Textiles and Paper. The various processes of 
 quantitative determination that have been described are available 
 
272 Cellulose 
 
 for the examination of fibrous mixtures, with a view of determining 
 their composition. In textile fabrics this matter seldom arises, 
 unless in the broader distinction of the vegetable from the animal 
 fibres. The subject is exhaustively treated by H. Schlichter 
 (J. Soc. Chem. IncL 1890, 9, 241), The vegetable fibres are 
 separated as a group by the process of boiling with the alkaline 
 hydrates (5-10 p.ct. solution), which dissolves the nitrogenous 
 animal fibres, Leaving the vegetable fibres not, of course, un- 
 acted upon, but sufficiently so to enable the method to be re- 
 garded as a quantitative separation. The distinguishing of the 
 various vegetable fibres, thus separated, from one another is only 
 possible by microscopic observation with the additional aid of reac- 
 tions. No general directions can be given for investigations of this 
 character. They involve experience of histological methods, and 
 acquaintance with the characteristics of minute structure, and of the 
 special features which render their quantitative estimation possible 
 within a sufficient approximation for all practical purposes. The 
 examination of papers involves the identification of the vegetable 
 fibres only. The composition of a paper is first generally indicated 
 by its appearance. It is only in the mixed class of white papers 
 that investigation has to be carried out in minute detail. The fol- 
 lowing are briefly the methods adopted, so far as these are chemical : 
 
 (1) The paper is treated with aniline sulphate solution in the 
 cold. The presence of mechanical wood pulp is indicated by the 
 yellow stain produced, and the proportion approximately by the 
 depth of colour. Many of the ground woods, it may be remaiked, 
 yield a pulp of sufficient whiteness to be used in what maybe called 
 white paper, and is frequently present in ' white ' and ' toned ' 
 printing papers. 
 
 (2) The paper is boiled with the solution of aniline sulphate. 
 The presence of esparto and straw * celluloses ' is indicated by the 
 characteristic rose-red reaction. Papers giving no colour reaction 
 with aniline sulphate are probably composed of rag fibres (cotton 
 linen), with or without bleached wood cellulose. It is evident that 
 the approximate composition of a paper is thus very quickly deter- 
 mined by its chemical reactions ; but it is often necessary (3) to 
 make quantitative estimations within narrower limits, and for these 
 a microscopic investigation is at present the only method to be re- 
 commended. The examination is, of course, facilitated by taking 
 
Experimental and Applied 273 
 
 advantage of chemical reactions to differentiate the fibres, the 
 method then consisting in the approximate estimation by actually 
 counting the fibres visible in the microscopic field according to 
 their identity, and averaging the results over a sufficient number of 
 separate examinations, and, where possible, by separate observers. 
 This, again, is a species of investigation which requires considerable 
 experience, which cannot be communicated in the form of working 
 directions. 
 
 (4) For actual quantitative work, of course, any of the reactions 
 of which full details have been given in the earlier sections of 
 the work are available. Thus, for instance, in white paper, found 
 as above to be composed of rag fibres and celluloses of the Gra- 
 mineae only (esparto and straw), it will be evident that, as the 
 latter yield 12-14 P- ct ' of furfural on boiling with hydrochloric 
 acid, and the former at the outside 0*5 p.ct., a furfural estimation 
 in the usual way (p. 99) would give a close approximation to 
 the proportions of the two groups of cellulose. In the case of 
 mechanical wood pulp, if the proportion is high, there are two or 
 three reactions available as a quantitative estimation. First, the 
 statistics of chlorination according to the methods described on 
 p. 104. Secondly, estimation of furfural ; but this is only available 
 in the absence of celluloses of the Gramineas. Thirdly, methyl esti- 
 mations ; which, again, depends on the ascertained absence of other 
 fibres also containing this group. Fourthly, the colour reactions 
 with derivatives of /-phenylene-diamine, as described on p. 174. 
 And, lastly, the elementary analysis might even be made and taken 
 as a basis for calculating the proportion. These brief notes will be 
 sufficient to show the student how to set to work in the laboratory 
 to examine these particular mixtures of fibres with the help of the 
 reactions previously described in detail. 
 
 Principles of Cellulose Technology. 
 
 Following these notes of laboratory and general experimental 
 methods, we shall briefly discuss the applications of theoretical 
 principles and deductions to the practical processes of the arts. 
 The celluloses and compound celluloses are familiar to us in 
 multitudinous forms, both * useful ' and ' ornamental ' ; and the 
 processes by which they are manufactured, or treated for various 
 
 T 
 
274 Cellulose 
 
 purposes after being manufactured, involve the special chemistry 
 of the raw materials at every turn. It must be confessed that 
 the arts of spinning, weaving, bleaching, and dyeing have been 
 highly developed upon a very slender chemical foundation so 
 far as regards the raw materials themselves. There is no doubt, 
 on the other hand, that an ample field for technological develop- 
 ments will be opened up by the systematic application of the 
 more definite chemical knowledge now available. It may in 
 fact be affirmed as a general principle, established also by long 
 and invariable experience, that there are no results of chemical 
 investigation, however recondite they may appear, which are not 
 in their due order absorbed into the province of technology. 
 As it is the province of the technologist to give a complete 
 account of his processes in terms of the factors which contri- 
 bute to the result, it will be very evident, from the ensuing 
 discussion of cellulose technology, that much remains to be 
 done before the industries of fibre-preparing, spinning and 
 paper-making, bleaching, printing and dyeing, can be said to 
 rest on such a basis. 
 
 Preparation of Fibres from Fibrous Raw Materials. 
 Processes with this object divide themselves into two groups : 
 (a) for the separation of spinning fibres, (b) of paper-making 
 fibres. While the latter are almost exclusively chemical, the 
 former are as exclusively mechanical, and require therefore but 
 a brief general notice, (a) The spinning fibres are mostly 
 obtained from annual growths. With the exception of cotton, 
 which is a seed-hair, they form part of complex structures, and 
 are themselves either localised into a special tissue (bast fibres, 
 see Appendix, figs. 1-4), or scattered more or less irregularly 
 (ribro- vascular bundles of monocotyledons, see figs. 5, 6). 
 Structurally they are differentiated, as fibres or elongated cells, 
 from the cellular tissue by which they are surrounded, the com- 
 ponent cells of which are spherical or cubical, with more or less 
 
Experimental and Applied 275 
 
 elongated deviations. Chemically the ' fibres ' are differentiated 
 by their superior resistance to the attack of hydrolytic agencies. 
 It is a matter of common observation that 'fleshy' structures 
 are more perishable than fibrous. The chemical constitution 
 of the tissue-substance of this less resistant order has been only 
 superficially investigated ; generally the parenchyma of flower- 
 ing stems may be classed with the pectocelluloses. Where the 
 fibrous raw materials are subjected to a preliminary treatment, 
 with the object of facilitating the separation of the fibres from 
 non -fibrous tissue, it is always a process of hydrolysis, and 
 usually the ' natural ' or spontaneous process of fermentation. 
 
 Thus flax and jute, to select the prominent types, are treated 
 by the process of retting or steeping. This consists in sub- 
 merging the stems in stagnant water ; a spontaneous fermenta- 
 tion is set up, with the result that the less resistant (cellular) 
 celluloses are disintegrated and broken down. In the case 
 of flax the retted * straw ' is dried off, still containing the fibre. 
 This is separated by the mechanical process of breaking and 
 scutching. In the case of jute the bast layer is separated at 
 once from the retted stem, by the manual operation of stripping ; 
 and freed from cortex and adhering residues of parenchyma, 
 by beating the strips upon water. It may be stated generally 
 that these processes have not been systematically studied with 
 the view of localising the effects produced. An investigation of 
 the subject with the more precise methods of diagnosis now 
 available would be a most valuable contribution to theoretical 
 and industrial science. 
 
 As an illustration of the desirability of more precise in- 
 formation, the history of the attempts to substitute the natural 
 by artificial processes, in the case of flax, may be cited. Vari- 
 ous chemical treatments of the stem or straw have been pro- 
 posed, and indeed worked. The yield of fibre in this plant 
 being relatively high (18-23 P- ct -)> an ^ the value of the fibre 
 
 T2 
 
276 Cellulose 
 
 being also high (407. to 6o/. per ton), such treatments are not 
 precluded on economic grounds. Moreover, as the natural 
 conditions most favourable for retting are not to be counted 
 on in the capricious climates of temperate regions where the 
 flax is chiefly grown, an artificial process admitting of exact 
 control is very much to be desired. 
 
 The difficulties to be overcome are not so much those of 
 separating the fibre as of separating it in a condition as favour- 
 able for spinning as the product of the natural process or pro- 
 cesses. 
 
 The analysis of the fibre shows that, in addition to the 
 pectocellulose or fibre proper, there is present an unusual 
 proportion of oil-wax constituents (3-4 p.ct). It appears 
 from later investigations of the spinning process (infra) that 
 the ' natural ' balance of these constituents constitutes the 
 ' optimum ' of spinning properties. All the artificial processes, 
 which are usually treatments with hot alkaline solutions, disturb 
 this balance, removing both pectic and oily constituents. 
 Moreover, the oils found in the * natural ' product are in part 
 produced in and by the retting process ; and the pectic con- 
 stituents of the fibre are present, not only in different propor- 
 tion, but in different condition chemically. As a matter of 
 history, these processes have failed technically i.e. in producing 
 a fibre with the high spinning qualities of the ordinary product 
 and with commercial results more or less disastrous. Had 
 investigators based their labours upon the natural model, as 
 defined by exact chemical investigation, such failures would 
 have been obviated. 
 
 But investigation is still needed to elucidate (i) the changes 
 produced in the oil-wax components during retting ; (2) the 
 effect of the retting process upon the pectic constituents of the 
 fibre proper. Upon the results of such investigation it might 
 be possible to devise an artificial process giving similar results, 
 
Experimental and Applied 277 
 
 but the balance of conditions to be observed is necessarily 
 one of very fine adjustment. Any artificial treatment hitherto 
 attempted resembles the natural in being a process of hydro- 
 lysis ; the reagents to be used have been of the alkaline group, 
 and employed at relatively high temperature conditions 
 which make it extremely difficult to limit and regulate their 
 action. 
 
 The authors have made investigations of the 'retting' 
 action of dilute solutions of sodium carbonate, silicate, and 
 sulphite comparatively with the soda soaps, and with the 
 natural process. Of these several reagents the action of the 
 soda scraps alone resembles that of the natural process, the 
 4 straw ' thus treated behaving in the scutching process very 
 similarly to the ordinarily retted product. But the scutched 
 fibre is of inferior spinning quality owing to the partial removal 
 of the pectic and oily constituents. 
 
 Treatments of spinning fibres, after removal from the plant, 
 are sometimes resorted to in order to improve the working 
 qualities of the fibre in the mechanical processes of refining 
 and drawing preparatory to the actual spinning process. The 
 great desiderata in a yarn are uniformity and strength, and 
 yarns are valuable in proportion to fineness. The spinning 
 unit in all the vegetable fibres, with the exception of cotton 
 (and perhaps rhea), is a complex or bundle of the ultimate 
 fibres. In the processes of hackling and drawing, it is sought 
 to reduce or divide the bundles to the maximum of fineness. 
 In flax the subdivision of the bundles is carried very far and 
 without auxiliary treatment. In jute, on the other hand, the 
 bundles are much more firmly compacted ; and, as a lignocellu- 
 lose, it possesses none of the ' gummy ' properties of the pecto- 
 celluloses, and is also relatively deficient in oily constituents. 
 This fibre is subjected therefore to a preliminary treatment with 
 oily aqueous mixtures of varying composition, the incorpora- 
 
2/8 Cellulose 
 
 tion of which greatly improves the spinning qualities. The 
 treatment and its effects are, however, rather mechanical than 
 chemical. Hemp has been chemically treated for the same 
 general purpose, by a process devised by the authors, con- 
 sisting in a digestion of the fibre with dilute solutions of basic 
 sodium sulphite at high temperatures. This enables the fibre 
 to be drawn and spun to finer numbers, and has proved 
 especially valuable in the manufacture of the finer counts of 
 shoe-threads. 
 
 Rhea, or China grass, is a fibrous material that also requires 
 chemical treatment preparatory to spinning, but for a different 
 reason. This fibre is separated from the mature stems by 
 stripping the entire bast and cortex from the wood. The 
 ribbons thus obtained are treated by various processes for the 
 removal of what is commonly termed the 'gum.' The pectic 
 constituents of the fibre and parenchyma readily yield to the 
 action of alkaline solutions, and the disintegrated cellular 
 residues are then easily removed by mechanical operations. 
 
 The process of purification is, in the case of this fibre, 
 carried to the full extent of isolating a pure cellulose. The 
 ultimate fibre, being of the unusual length of 40-200 mm., is a 
 spinning unit of sufficient dimensions, comparable with the flax 
 filament. Its spinning qualities are, on the other hand, inferior 
 to those of flax, and it is probable that much better results 
 would be obtained with this fibre by spinning it in a condition 
 more nearly that in which it occurs in the plant. 
 
 Generally it may be said that the chemical treatment of 
 these fibres preparatory to the mechanical operations of the 
 spinner has been investigated on purely empirical grounds. 
 There are a number of questions of both theoretical and 
 practical import which await systematic inquiry. The purpose 
 of this superficial and general discussion of the subject is to 
 indicate some of the directions in which the theoretical con- 
 
Experimental and Applied 279 
 
 elusions arrived at in the earlier sections of this work may 
 be applied. 
 
 SPINNING PROCESSES. The various spinning processes for 
 converting into yarn the fibres obtained as above described are 
 for the most part purely mechanical operations. They depend 
 in an important way upon the minute structure of the spinning 
 unit, whether that is an ultimate fibre (cotton, rhea cellulose) 
 or a complex filament (flax, hemp, jute, &c.) ; and therefore? 
 indirectly upon the chemical properties of the fibre-substance. 
 These questions are exhaustively treated by Vetillart in his 
 work upon the Vegetable Textile Fibres. There is one process 
 only which directly involves the question of the chemical com- 
 position of the fibre-substance, and that is, the ' wet process ' 
 of flax spinning The history of flax spinning shows three 
 periods of development : (i) At first the fibre was spun dry in 
 the same manner as jute is at this day. (2) It was found that 
 the drawing properties of the fibre were much improved by 
 maceration in cold water, and the wet spinning enabled the 
 fibre to be spun to much finer qualities of yarn. (3) A still 
 further advance was made by the introduction of hot water, 
 this treatment taking place on the spinning frame, the roving 
 running through a trough of water kept at 50-60, and receiv- 
 ing its final drawing and twisting immediately as it emerges 
 from the trough. This may be considered the universal pro- 
 cess of spinning fine flax line yarns at the present day. 
 
 There have been numerous attempts to realise a still 
 further improvement by alkaline treatments of the most varied 
 kind, either on the spinning frame itself i.e. by adding the 
 alkaline reagent to the * spinning trough ' or by a previous 
 treatment of the roving. Such processes, however, have only 
 come into limited use. A more successful attempt to still 
 further raise the spinning qualities of flax is that of C. C. 
 Connor, of Belfast, who patented in 1888 a process based upon 
 
2So Cellulose 
 
 the results of the authors' investigations of the constituents of 
 the fibre. From these results it appeared that a considerable 
 proportion of the oily constituents were of a ketonic character, 
 and were readily emulsified by treatment with solutions of such 
 salts as sulphite and phosphate of soda. 
 
 The addition of such salts to the ' spinning trough ' might 
 be expected to bring about a much more perfect distribution 
 of the oil-wax components throughout the fibre-substance than 
 is possible by treatment with hot water. The pectic con- 
 stituents, also being further attacked than by hot water, 
 might be expected tp be brought into a more favourable 
 condition for yielding to the drawing action of the frame. 
 Experience has verified these predictions, and the working of 
 the process on the large scale has shown conclusively that in 
 the coarser Russian flaxes there existed an undeveloped margin 
 of spinning quality which is fully realised under the new 
 process. As it has also been shown that the weight of yarn 
 spun from a given weight of roving is r >t sensibly different 
 from that obtained by the ordinary hot-water process, it is 
 evident that these alkaline salts, under the conditions adopted, 
 do not exert any undue solvent action on the constituents of 
 the fibre, but are limited in their action to bringing about the 
 optimum condition for drawing and subdividing the fibre- 
 bundles. The salts are used in the process in the form of 1-2 
 p.ct. solution, the proportion being adjusted to the quality of 
 the flax. 
 
 (b) The paper-making fibres are obtained from very various 
 sources, largely from the rejections of the spinning and weaving 
 industries (scutching tow and waste, jute butts, spinning 
 wastes, rags and cuttings of all kinds). In addition to these 
 there are a number of vegetable raw materials which are 
 treated directly for coil version into fibre or pulp e.g. esparto, 
 straw, wood. 
 
Experimental and Applied 281 
 
 The processes of treating wood have already been discussed, 
 as they admit of classification on strictly theoretical lines, and 
 afford a useful illustration of the general principles of the 
 relation of the cellulose to the non-cellulose constituents of the 
 compound celluloses. In extending this classification to the 
 wider range of raw materials above indicated, it is necessary to 
 remember the general features of the three groups of compound 
 celluloses, and more particularly the conditions under which 
 they are resolved into cellulose and non-cellulose, observing 
 also that any process of resolution to be available for the 
 purpose in question must be limited in its attack as much as 
 possible to the non-cellulose components. The following may 
 be laid down as a broad principle of economy in such treat- 
 ments : effects required to be produced should be separately 
 accomplished, and obtained by specific reagents. It must be 
 conceded at once that this is an ideal seldom realisable. The 
 treatments of the papermaker are nearly always * overhead' 
 treatments, in which one process and one reagent is employed 
 to work a very complex mixture of chemical decompositions. 
 But because practice tends to stereotype itself on the lines of 
 apparent simplicity, it is not for the chemist to accept this 
 order of things as unassailable. Experience has shown, and is 
 continually showing, that * division of labour ' in reactions is as 
 economical as it is in other branches of work; and it is a 
 particular purpose of this discussion to suggest a careful re- 
 vision of these ' overhead ' treatments, with the view of improv- 
 ing methods wherever possible. 
 
 The pectocelluloses from our present point of view need no 
 discussion. They are easily resolved by alkaline hydrolysis of 
 the simplest kind, i.e. boiling at the ordinary boiling temperature 
 with solutions of the alkalis. The resulting cellulose would be 
 approximately pure and structurally disintegrated, Le. in the 
 condition of ultimate fibres. 
 
282 Cellulose 
 
 The lignocelluloses present problems of a totally different 
 character. The more resistant members of the group viz. the 
 woods are * pulped ' by various processes which have been 
 already described. Some of these depend upon a specific 
 attack of the non-cellulose constituents, whether by way of 
 synthesis with the reagents employed (sulphite processes) or 
 radical decomposition (nitric acid process) ; others may be 
 rather described as * overhead ' treatments, in which a highly 
 complex series of chemical changes are determined which are 
 by no means confined to the non-cellulose constituents, but 
 affect the cellulose also, and prejudicially in regard to yield. 
 Such are the alkali processes. The typical lignocellulose jute 
 stands on a different footing from the woods. The latter are 
 used either (i) as ' mechanical wood pulp,' obtained by merely 
 grinding the wood ; (2) as ' chemical pulp,' which is a more or 
 less pure wood-cellulose, obtained by the processes previously 
 described. Jute, on the other hand, is largely, in fact chiefly, 
 used as a disintegrated and purified lignocellulose^ ' pulped ' by 
 a process which leaves the cellulose and non-cellulose still in 
 intimate combination. The process giving this intermediate 
 product is that of boiling with lime at relatively low tempera- 
 tures (105-115). It is applied to the rejected root ends 
 ('cuttings'), which contain also 'pectic' (incrusting) consti- 
 tuents and residues of cortical and past parenchyma. These 
 are resolved by the treatment, and the fibre-bundles of the 
 lignocellulose proper are largely disintegrated, a certain propor- 
 tion being also hydrolysed and dissolved. The product (pulp) 
 is therefore a purified lignocellulose, in a condition easily 
 yielding to the subsequent mechanical operation of beating. 
 
 Jute may be treated for the isolation of a jute cellulose by 
 any of the processes described for the woods. A process also 
 used to some extent is that of chlorination, the fibre being first 
 prepared by boiling in a weak alkali, and, after washing, 
 
Experimental and Applied 283 
 
 exposing in closed chambers to an atmosphere of chlorine gas, 
 afterwards removing the chlorinated product by again boiling 
 in alkali. This process is the laboratory method of isolating 
 cellulose applied on the large scale. In the form of cellulose, 
 however, jute comes into unfavourable competition with the 
 woods, and the process is therefore not much used. 
 
 The adipocelluloses come into consideration in this connec- 
 tion, merely as adventitious tissue-constituents. They are a 
 source of considerable difficulty on account of their resistance 
 to the attack of reagents. They occur, of course, chiefly in such 
 raw materials as are entire stems or leaves, e.g esparto and 
 straw, and are characterised by admixture with chlorophyll 
 (esparto) and oil-wax constituents. For the removal of the latter 
 the alkaline treatment is relied upon, the conditions of which 
 for the purpose require to be much more severe than for the 
 non-cellulose of the fibre-constituents proper. The cuticular 
 cells themselves are only slightly attacked by the process, and 
 are obtained in the pulp, in which they are easily recognised 
 under the microscope by their very characteristic form. The 
 neutral waxes are obtained at the end of the boiling process in 
 mechanical mixture with the mass of pulp and liquor, and they 
 collect on the surface of the lixiviating vats used in the continu- 
 ous process of washing esparto pulp. The treatment of such 
 raw materials, in which all the compound celluloses are repre- 
 sented, is perhaps the best illustration of what has been expressed 
 by an ' overhead ' treatment. The ordinary processes are, in 
 fact, a crude aggregate effect, and it is more than probable that 
 means may yet be devised for more specific treatments, in 
 harmony with the broad principle of economic chemical work. 
 In all these industrial processes for isolating cellulose, moreover, 
 the yield is considerably less than what may be considered the 
 theoretical, i.e. the proportion isolated by the method of chlori- 
 nation (p. 95). For these raw materials which have been more 
 
284 Cellulose 
 
 especially mentioned, the following may be taken as the com- 
 parative yields : 
 
 Laboratory method. 
 
 (Yield of dry cellulose on dry raw 
 
 material.) 
 
 Esparto . 50-55 p.ct. 
 Straw . . 50-55 
 Wood . . 50-55 
 
 Papermakers methods. 
 
 (Yield of air-dry pulp on air-dry 
 
 raw material.) 
 
 43-47 P'Ct. Alkali process 
 33-37 > > 
 
 35-43 , it 
 
 42-48 ,, Bisulphite 
 
 It is obvious, therefore, that the cellulosic constituents of 
 the fibres are considerably attacked, and that there is an ample 
 margin for improved results in regard to quantity as well as 
 quality of the fibre produced (pulp). 
 
 BLEACHING PROCESSES. These processes appear to divide 
 themselves into the two groups : (a) the bleaching of textiles ; 
 (b) of paper pulp. It will be evident, however, from the present 
 treatment of the subject, that bleaching is a process of purify- 
 ing a cellulose or compound cellulose from adventitious con- 
 stituents, whether mechanically mixed with the tissue or fabric, 
 or chemically united to the ultimate fibre-cellulose ; and on this 
 view of the subject bleaching treatments divide themselves 
 into (i) processes for fat purification of a compound cellulose, with 
 removal of colouring (or discolouring) matters (jute textiles ; 
 flax yarn, ' creaming ' and half bleaching process ; linen textiles, 
 part bleaching ; pulps for wrapping and coloured papers) ; (ii) 
 processes for the isolation of a pure cellulose (cotton textiles, 
 linen textiles, papermaker's cellulose). 
 
 The bleaching process proper is the whitening or decolourising 
 process which follows such alkaline treatment as those already 
 described. The bleaching is invariably a treatment with oxi- 
 dising agents, usually alkaline ; ' bleaching powder' or calcium 
 hypochlorite is the 'staple' reagent. Other hypochlorites 
 (sodium and magnesium), obtained by double decomposition 
 from the former, are largely used, and oxidising solutions obtained 
 
Experimental and Applied 285 
 
 by the electrolysis of solutions of the chlorides (chiefly MgCl 2 ) 
 are also now extensively used (Hermite process). 
 
 Chemically, therefore, the bleaching processes of the arts 
 consist essentially of the two treatments : (i) alkaline hydrolysis 
 followed by (2) alkaline oxidations. 
 
 In the processes of the first group the alkaline treatments 
 are of the milder order, the purpose being to dissolve and 
 remove the minimum of non-cellulose constituents, consistently 
 with obtaining a uniform and sufficiently high colour (bleach) 
 in the finished product. As therefore a large proportion of the 
 more oxidisable (non-cellulose) constituents is retained in the 
 pulp or fabric, the consumption of the bleaching agent in the 
 after process is relatively high. It is in fact used up, not in 
 selectively oxidising those constituents which are the colouring 
 matters of the alkali- boiled fibre or fabric, but obviously in 
 a general oxidation of the non-cellulose constituents in the 
 order of oxidability. 
 
 Two processes may be considered as typical of this group : 
 
 (i) Jute fabrics and jute pulp. Jute itself may be whitened 
 considerably by regulated oxidations. In the case of this fibre, 
 however, it is difficult to control the action of bleaching 
 powder. The avidity of the lignocellulose for chlorine is such 
 that should any free hypochlorous acid be formed in the solu- 
 tion, chlorination of the fibre immediately results. The pre- 
 sence of the lignone chlorides in the fibre is a source of con- 
 siderable danger. Being unstable they are gradually decom- 
 posed, with liberation of hydrochloric acid, which rapidly 
 disintegrates the fabric. The neglect of this property of the 
 lignocellulose has led to disastrous consequences in manufac- 
 ture. An industry established some years ago for the bleaching 
 and printing of jute cloth was ruined through the wholesale 
 ' tendering ' of the goods from this cause. The process 
 adopted consisted in (a) boiling in weak alkaline solutions 
 
286 Cellulose 
 
 (carbonate and silicate of soda), (3) bleaching with calcium 
 hypochlorite solution in a closed vessel (Mason Kier) ; after 
 which the cloth was washed, ' soured ' in weak acid, washed up, 
 and dried. The prin ting processes were those ordinarily employed 
 for cotton goods, the colours being developed and fixed by the 
 usual process of steaming, in an atmosphere of dry stream at 
 4 Ib. (per square inch) pressure. It was in the latter case that the 
 discolouration and tendering effect chiefly showed themselves. 
 The cause being traced, the remedy was easily devised, the 
 process being modified as follows : (a) in the bleaching 
 process, sodium hypochlorite was substituted for the lime 
 compound and in this way the chlorination of the fibre-sub- 
 stance was arrested ; () as a last treatment, after souring and 
 washing, the goods were run through a solution of sodium 
 bisulphite (i p.ct. SO 2 ), and dried after squeezing. In this 
 way a residue of the normal sulphite (Na 2 SO 3 ) was left in the 
 cloth, and this was found to prevent discolouration in the 
 steaming process. 
 
 In this method of bleaching, the loss of weight of the fabric 
 was from 8-12 p.ct, the colour obtained being the pale 
 cream shade of the highly purified lignocellulose. The results 
 obtained by bleaching with permanganates are superior to those 
 with the hypoch'orites, but at much greater cost. The process 
 is therefore but little used industrially. 
 
 (2) Linen yarn and doth: partial bleach. In the linen 
 industry, in addition to the full bleaching of shirtings, sheetings, 
 cambrics, &c., there is a large practice in partial bleaching of 
 various grades. These processes are familiarly designated as 
 1 whitewashing/ in contradistinction to the ' bottom bleaching ' : 
 in the former the non-cellulose constituents are only partially 
 removed, and the residues whitened by bleaching agents ; in 
 the latter they are entirely eliminated, leaving the residue of 
 pure flax cellulose. The partial bleaches in question are 
 
Experimental and Applied 287 
 
 obtained by a light alkaline boil, followed by a treatment with 
 bleaching liquor (hypochlorite), these treatments being once or 
 twice repeated for higher grades of bleaching. The consump- 
 tion of bleaching powder is relatively large (10-30 p.ct. of the 
 weight of the goods), a considerable proportion being used up 
 in oxidations which do not contribute to the bleaching effect 
 proper. The processes are therefore not economical in the 
 strict sense of the term, and are capable of considerable 
 improvement in the direction of a more specific attack of the 
 coloured constituents of the yarn. In various grades of paper 
 making, also, similar half-bleaches are practised. 
 
 Jute (cuttings and waste) is boiled in lime and bleached 
 with bleaching powder solution, the resulting pulp being of a 
 yellow to a yellowish-white colour, still retaining a large pro- 
 portion of the non-cellulose constituents of the original fibre, 
 and giving all its characteristic reactions. Flax wastes (scutch- 
 ing tow) are boiled with lime or soda to soften and disintegrate 
 the residues of wood (sprit), and the pulp is bleached with 
 hypochlorites. 
 
 The principle of these treatments is, however, one and the 
 same for all, and is sufficiently illustrated by the examples 
 discussed. 
 
 (b) The second group of bleaching processes, of which the 
 goal is a pure cellulose (or oxycellulose), differ from the above 
 in this general and important particular : the chemical work is 
 thrown chiefly on the alkaline boiling processes, the bleaching 
 treatment proper being limited to the oxidation of the coloured 
 residues from these treatments. Thus in cotton bleaching, while 
 the consumption of caustic soda may be taken at 80-100 Ib. 
 per ton of cotton goods, the bleaching powder required is 
 less than 30 Ib. per ton, a proportion of which is wasted in the 
 unavoidable losses attending the washing away of residual 
 liquors. In both cotton and linen bleaching of this order, 
 
288 Cellulose 
 
 moreover, the bleaching solutions are used in a highly dilute 
 form (0-5-2-0 p.ct. bleaching powder). In papermakers' 
 cellulose bleaches, while it is true that by far the greater pro- 
 portion of the chemical work of purification is thrown upon the 
 pulping process, the consumption of bleaching powder in the 
 bleaching process proper is in some cases considerable. In 
 the bleaching of rag pulp (cotton and linen) the average con- 
 sumption is from 2-5 p.ct. ; in straw and esparto pulp, 10-15 
 p.ct ; and sulphite wood pulp, 15-25 p.ct. In these latter cases 
 we have a further illustration of * overhead ' treatments i.e. in 
 order to produce a certain result in a given time and a single 
 process, a large amount of waste energy is expended. These 
 celluloses are, as we have already seen, very different constitu- 
 tionally from the normal type : they are easily hydrolysed, and 
 in the alkaline bleach liquor a considerable further proportion 
 of the fibre-constituents are dissolved and undergo oxidation of 
 a perfectly useless character. To minimise these wastes of the 
 oxidising agent, the practice of intermediate washing is some- 
 times resorted to ; and by thus separating the effects of hydro- 
 lysis and oxidation, the latter is controlled into the directions of 
 useful, i.e. bleaching oxidations. The economy of bleaching 
 powder which results is very considerable, and it is not a little 
 remarkable that so rational a plan is not more generally 
 adopted. 1 
 
 Of the textile bleaches of this group there are two which 
 may be selected to illustrate general principles, viz. the cotton 
 bleach and the linen full bleach. 
 
 In COTTON-CLOTH BLEACHING the most important process 
 is the alkali boil. The treatment is varied to suit the great 
 variety of goods which undergo the process, but for our present 
 
 1 A very thorough treatment of papermakers' bleaching processes will 
 be found in Griffin and Little's 'Chemistry of Paper Making '(1894), 
 chap. v. pp. 275-300. 
 
Experimental and Applied 289 
 
 purpose we need consider but the one in which caustic soda 
 is used. With this reagent, in the form of a 1-2 p.ct. 
 solution of NaOH, cotton goods are effectively cleared of their 
 non-cellulose impurities in a single treatment. The conditions 
 of the process are : (i) a saturation of the goods with the 
 alkaline lye, usually effected by passing the goods in continuous 
 length through the hot liquor, removing the excess by squeezing, 
 and piling up in the 'kier,' or boiling-vessel; (2) the boiling 
 process, in which the goods are subjected to the further action 
 of the alkaline lye at temperatures of 105-115, and under 
 corresponding steam pressures. The liquor is kept in circula- 
 tion through the goods, and the ' boiling ' is continued from 
 six to ten hours. 
 
 After this treatment the goods are washed free from the 
 alkaline lye and the dark coloured soluble products of the 
 action, and are then of a greyish-brown colour. The residual 
 impurities are then removed in the bleaching process proper, 
 which consists in exposing the goods to the action of bleaching 
 powder solution. The goods are then washed and * soured,' 
 to remove basic residues. This round of operations is some- 
 times repeated, though with weaker solutions, in the case of 
 heavy goods, or of goods made of the more refractory 
 Egyptian cottons, which contain a red brown colouring matter. 
 The process, however, need not be followed into its technical 
 details. It is one of great simplicity, and aptly illustrates the 
 resistance of the normal cellulose to alkaline hydrolysis and 
 oxidation under somewhat severe conditions. The fibre itself 
 loses from 7-10 p.ct. in weight under the treatment. The 
 products removed in solution have been investigated by 
 Dr. E. Schunck, who resolved the dissolved products into 
 (a) Cotton wax, a neutral wax, melting at 80-86, having the 
 composition C 80-3, H 14*4 ; (b) Fat acid, which appeared to 
 be a mixture of palmitic and stearic acids. The analytical 
 
 u 
 
290 Cellulose 
 
 numbers obtained were C 75*5, H 13*0. (c) Pectic acid, a 
 gelatinous acid body, having the composition and properties of 
 the acid described by Fremy. (d) Two colouring matters 
 (i) soluble in alcohol, (2) insoluble having the following 
 composition ; 
 
 d) (> 
 
 C 58-48 577 
 
 H 5-80 6-05 
 
 N 5-30 874 
 
 (Mem. Lit. and Phil. Soc. Manchester, [3] 4.) 
 
 In addition to these substances, which are constituents of 
 the fibre proper including residues of cell-contents the 
 alkaline treatment breaks down the residues of the seed 
 envelopes (motes) which survive the mechanical operations of 
 preparing, and find their way into the yarn. The proportion 
 of these by weight is, however, relatively insignificant, though 
 they are a source of some difficulty to the bleacher. 
 
 There can be little doubt that the cotton cellulose under- 
 goes certain molecular changes during the process of a normal 
 bleach. From what we know of its constitution and reactions 
 we may affirm that it does not remain inert under treatments 
 of this severity ; but our methods are not sufficiently refined for 
 differentiating the product from the cellulose as contained in 
 the raw cotton. There is perhaps one exception to be noted, 
 which is, that the bleached cotton yields from o'2-o'6 p.ct. of 
 furfural on boiling with hydrochloric acid, which may be taken 
 as an indication of the presence of a small proportion of 
 oxycellulose. 
 
 As already pointed out, cotton is very easily oxidised to 
 oxycellulose under the joint action of calcium hypochlorite (in 
 dilute solution) and carbonic acid. The researches of Witz, 
 who established the general conditions of these oxidations, 
 were carried out at a date (1882 -85) when there were none but 
 
Experimental and Applied 291 
 
 qualitative reactions (dyeing phenomena &c.) available for 
 demonstrating the formation of oxidation products. As it is 
 probable that condensation to furfural is a property of these 
 oxycelluloses, and the estimation of this product is reduced to 
 a method of precision, it would be important to investigate 
 the cotton in three stages, viz. : (i) in the raw state ; (2) after 
 alkaline treatments of varying degrees ; and (3) after bleaching 
 processes of various kinds and degrees, for the presence of 
 furfural-yielding constituents and their quantity. 
 
 The classification of cotton-cloth bleaches into 'market 
 bleach,' ' madder bleach,' &c., involves no important question 
 of principle ; and for description in detail of the variations of 
 treatment practised in the several grades, the technological text- 
 books must be consulted. We would specially mention, in pass- 
 ing, the article on ' Bleaching,' in Watts' Dictionary (Applied 
 Chemistry, new edition), which gives an excellent survey of the 
 history of development of the art. It may very well be assumed 
 by those familar with this history that we have arrived at terminal 
 excellence in the art. From the economical point of view it 
 is, perhaps, difficult to see any unexplored margin. But, on the 
 other hand, there is evidence of important recent progress in a 
 direction of improvement, which will be evident from the 
 following considerations. A web or fabric of cotton must be 
 always considered by the technologist from the point of view 
 of minute structure, the structure being that of the ultimate 
 fibre, complicated by the spinning twist and the interlocking of 
 the yarns in the weaving. The penetration of cotton goods in 
 the mass by liquid reagents is obviously a highly complicated 
 process. In the first place, complete penetration is probably 
 possible only by previous exhaustion of the air contained in 
 the tubes ; and, secondly, penetration of the substance of the 
 cell wall must involve osmotic phenomena. Osmosis is compli- 
 cated in two directions : first, by the filtering-out of the active 
 
 U 2 
 
292 Cellulose 
 
 reagent employed in the treatment ; and, secondly, by physical 
 changes in the cotton itself or its non-cellulose constituents. 
 In the alkaline treatments of cotton it is of importance that 
 the action of the alkali, water, and heat should be as nearly 
 as possible equal and simultaneous throughout the mass. The 
 advance of the caustic alkali process over the successive treat- 
 ments with lime and soda ash of the older methods consists 
 chiefly in this, that by the more rapid action of the more 
 powerful alkali, secondary changes of the more oxidisable non- 
 cellulose constituents are reduced to a minimum ; and these 
 are dissolved away by a single operation, with a minimum 
 residue of products to be removed in the bleaching process 
 proper. In the ordinary processes of bleaching, the result 
 attained is simply measured by the appearance of the cloth. 
 The printer, however, requires something more than a good 
 white. The operations of calico printing in many cases involve 
 a dyeing process, not of the whole cloth, but of the design or 
 pattern printed with suitable mordants, the cloth itself being 
 required to resist the colouring matter of the dye bath. Many 
 * market bleaches ' are therefore very inferior in point of purity 
 of the cellulose to the * madder bleach ' of the printer, and 
 will dye up with alizarin and similar colouring matters, which 
 the latter will resist under the same conditions. It is in regard 
 to this important distinction, and the further refinement of the 
 bleaching process for the ' madder bleach,' that progress con- 
 tinues to be made. 
 
 Linen bleaching, The full bleach of flax goods, which 
 consists in the isolation of the pure cellulose, is a much more 
 complicated process than the bleaching of cotton-cloth, though 
 based upon identical principles, and involving for the most part 
 precisely similar methods. 
 
 The proportion of non-cellulose constituents in flax is very 
 high, varying from 20-35 P- ct - f tne weight of the fibre, 
 
Experimental and Applied 293 
 
 according to the conditions of growth and the methods of 
 separating and preparing the fibre. The greater proportion, 
 being pectose-like substances, are easily attacked by alkaline 
 hydrolysis ; but the removal of a large weight of such products 
 from a mass of cloth is not an easy operation. The alkaline 
 treatments are therefore graduated, and are three or even four 
 times repeated before the cloth is considered ready for the 
 bleaching treatment. There are then the additional complica- 
 tions of the wood residue (sprit) and cuticular constituents 
 which very much protract the after processes, or bleaching 
 proper. These processes may be divided into series, the first 
 of each series being the process of treating with dilute solu- 
 tions of the hypochlorites. These involve prolonged exposures 
 (6-12 hours), the cloth being entirely submerged in the solution. 
 After this follows usually the souring process, and to this 
 succeeds a light boil in progressively weaker alkaline solutions. 
 These treatments, with intermediate washings, constitute the 
 'round.' After each round, the cloth, or rather the residue of 
 non-cellulose constituents, is in the most favourable condition 
 for the further attack of the oxidising or bleaching agent. 
 These processes are repeated until the impurities are finally 
 eliminated. In addition to these treatments, which are those 
 practised by the cotton bleacher, linen undergoes the process 
 of 'grassing,' i.e. is spread out upon grassfields and exposed 
 for one or two days to the action of light and air and the other 
 influences of the * weather.' This process follows an alkaline 
 treatment of the cloth, whether in the earlier or later stages, 
 when the cloth is in the most favourable condition for the 
 action of the atmospheric oxygen. The linen is also treated 
 by a special process of mechanical rubbing with a strong soap 
 solution. 
 
 The complications of the process are such that the full linen 
 bleach takes from three to six weeks to accomplish. They 
 
294 Cellulose 
 
 are due to the highly resistant character of the cuticular 
 tissues and by-products which are associated with these 
 tissues, or formed during the process of breaking them 
 down ; and, in lesser degree, to the wood residues. Both of 
 these have to be entirely eliminated without injury to the 
 cellulose. 
 
 The process is therefore a complete illustration of the gene- 
 ral chemistry of the compound celluloses, and the order of 
 their resistance to hydrolysis and oxidation, i.e. to the chief 
 destructive influences of the natural world. 
 
 It cannot be said that the process has been subjected to 
 exhaustive chemical investigation, such as would reveal the 
 steps by which the various non-cellulose impurities are broken 
 down. From the more theoretical account of these constitu- 
 ents in the earlier sections of this book we may, however, form 
 a tolerably correct estimate of the progress of the breaking- 
 down process. But at the same time a full investigation by 
 chemical and microscopic methods is much more to be desired, 
 and could riot fail to throw considerable light upon the 
 important industrial problems involved. 
 
 DYEING AND PRINTING PROCESSES. It appears, a priori, 
 that these processes of colouring the textile fibres are the result 
 of interaction of colouring matter and fibre-substance as a 
 definitely molecular phenomenon ; and the progress of in- 
 vestigation is confirming this view more and more. At this 
 stage, however, the ' theory of dyeing ' is still the subject of 
 active controversy, and a decisive statement must therefore be 
 avoided. The discussion ranges itself round the two opposed 
 views of dyeing : (i) as a mechanical, and (2) as a chemical 
 process. At the present time, however, these terms have lost 
 much of the significance attached to them in the early days of 
 the controversy. In those days ' solution ' itself was regarded 
 as a ' mechanical ' or * physical,' in contradistinction to a 
 
Experimental and Applied 295 
 
 1 chemical,' process. As, however, the c constants of solution,' 
 i.e. the properties of bodies in solution, are now definitely corre- 
 lated with molecular weight, the distinctions obviously vanish 
 in this case, and the corresponding terms are absorbed in that 
 of more comprehensive significance viz. * molecular.' So also 
 it may fairly be stated in connection with the phenomena of 
 dyeing. If solution is defined as the homogeneous distribution 
 of one substance through the mass of another regarded as the 
 solvent, the dyeing process is a special case of transference of a 
 body from one solvent to another, and a dyed fibre is a solid 
 solution of the colouring matter in the fibre-substance. The 
 conditions determining the transfer, in the process, from water 
 to fibre-substance are certainly complex : they depend (i) upon 
 the constitutional relationships of fibre-substance and colouring 
 matter ; (2) upon osmosis and all those conditions by which it 
 is influenced. 
 
 In regard to the first and chief factor, a very superficial 
 view of dyeing processes points to the important influence of 
 the chemical properties of the fibre-substance. But, in 
 extending this view to a detailed discussion, we are met at once 
 by the great disparity between these two groups of carbon 
 compounds, i.e. fibre-substances and colouring matters, in 
 their relationship to the science. The latter are, as a class, 
 bodies of the most definitely ascertained constitution, and are 
 synthesised, in many cases, by 'quantitative' reactions from their 
 constituent groups ; whereas the constitution of the former is 
 still highly problematical in every direction. A comprehensive 
 view of dyeing phenomena is necessarily, therefore, deferred 
 until the latter group shall have been more fully investigated. 
 At the same time, we have positive knowledge of the reactive 
 groups of the fibre-substances, sufficient to indicate the part 
 which they play in dyeing phenomena ; and these reactions 
 have already been discussed, in the case of the celluloses, as a 
 
296 Cellulose 
 
 species of double-salt formation. On the more general view 
 of dyeing, this is in fact a well-grounded hypothesis, viz. that 
 as the colouring matters available for dyeing show invariably 
 a * saline ' constitution, and the formation of * lakes ' with 
 inorganic bodies is due to reaction with salt-forming groups 
 as also the fibre-substances in reaction show a similar differen- 
 tiation into acid and basic groups the interaction of the two 
 groups of compounds in the dyeing process is, on the more 
 general view, a special case of double-salt formation. But even 
 should this hypothesis be found to afford a consistent general- 
 isation of the whole range of dyeing phenomena, it carries us 
 only a certain length as a theory of dyeing. We have next 
 to deal with the selective relationships of the two groups of 
 carbon compounds, i.e. the particular ' colouring affinities ' of 
 the soluble colouring matters or dye-stuffs. Speaking gene- 
 rally, for instance, the celluloses are resistant to such solutions ; 
 the number of dye-stuffs giving a direct dye on cotton is ex- 
 tremely limited. In striking contrast to the celluloses, on the 
 other hand, the lignocelluloses are distinguished by ' cosmopo- 
 litan ' relationships, resembling the animal fibres wool and silk, 
 in being dyed directly with a wide and varied range of colouring 
 matters. This at once suggests that the essential factors 
 of the dyeing process are molecular and constitutional, i.e. 
 chemical, in the narrow sense of the term, rather than structural ; 
 and this conclusion is strongly emphasised by everything which 
 has preceded this discussion in regard to the constitution of 
 these typical groups of fibre-constituents. Further, by chemical 
 modification of the celluloses, their dyeing capabilities are con- 
 siderably modified ; thus the oxycelluloses were shown by Witz 
 to exhibit not merely an increased attraction for colouring 
 matters of the ' basic ' class, but a diminished attraction for 
 those of the class more acid in character and generally requir- 
 ing to be dyed with mordants. Of these two groups the fol- 
 
Experimental and Applied 297 
 
 lowing were cited by Witz as typical. The oxycelluloses show 
 
 An increased attraction for 
 Methylene blue 
 Hofmann violet 
 Malachite green 
 Safranine red 
 Fuchsine red 
 Bismarck brown 
 
 A diminished attraction for 
 
 Diphenylamine blue, sulphuric 
 
 acid 
 
 Induline blue, sulphuric acid 
 Indigo sulphonate 
 Tropaeoline orange 
 Eosine red 
 
 in comparison with the cellulose. (See Bull. Soc. Ind. Rouen, 
 [10] 5, 416 ; [n] 2, 169 ; Dingl. J. 250, 271 ; 259, 97 ; J. 
 Soc. Chem. Ind. 1884.) 
 
 Here also structural factors are eliminated, and the vari- 
 ables are again constitutional. 
 
 Selective attractions of more narrowly specific character are 
 exhibited, on the other hand, by both the celluloses and ligno- 
 celluloses, of which typical instances may be discussed. 
 
 Thus, in the case of the celluloses, modern discovery has 
 added to the coal-tar dyes a number of compounds which dye 
 cotton directly to full shades, and are therefore known as 
 cotton colours. Although, however, these are synthetic pro- 
 ducts, and therefore bodies of known constitution, no general 
 constitutional relationship of these compounds has yet been 
 established such as to account for their * specific affinities ' to 
 the celluloses. This, of course, complicates the phenomena, and 
 shows that other factors, in addition to those of constitution as 
 ordinarily understood, contribute to the result. Of such we 
 may instance as probably operative the molecular condition of 
 the colouring matter in aqueous solution. 
 
 Of all the colouring matters having this particular relation- 
 ship to the celluloses, the most noteworthy is the dye-stuff 
 known by the trivial name 'primuline,' a complicated colour-base 
 derived from thiotoluidine.. The sulphonic acid of this highly 
 * condensed ' product combines freely with cellulose when the 
 latter is treated with its dilute aqueous solution as in ordinary 
 
298 Cellulose 
 
 dyeing process. The combination is of so stable a nature that 
 the base may be diazotised upon the fibre without loss, and 
 then may be further synthesised with chromogenic phenols 
 and bases to form a range of dyes of varying shades. Such 'in- 
 grain' colours constitute an important theoretical and practical 
 advance, and their production by synthetical processes upon the 
 cellulose itself is a further proof that the bond of union of dye- 
 stuff to fibre-substance is ' chemical ' as ordinarily understood. 
 
 Another application of these peculiar relationships of dye- 
 stuff to fibre results from the observation that the diazoprimu- 
 line upon the cellulose is in a highly photo-sensitive condition, 
 a brief exposure to sunlight sufficing to decompose it with 
 evolution of (gaseous) nitrogen. From this observation has 
 resulted the diazotype process of ' positive ' photographic 
 printing (Green, Cross and Bevan, Berl. Ber. 23, 3131). 
 
 The important feature of this process, from the point of 
 view of the present discussion, is the sensitiveness of the diazo 
 derivative when prepared upon the cellulose basis, compared 
 with its relative stability in the free state. The most reasonable 
 explanation of this increased sensitiveness appears to be that 
 the product exists in the cellulose in a condition of solution- 
 dissociation, a solid solution of the product in the colloid cellu- 
 lose having the essential characteristics of solutions in liquid 
 solvents. According to this view, the diazoprimuline, being 
 molecularly disaggregated, is in a more ' responsive ' condition 
 to the decomposing action of the light-energy ; and hence the 
 decomposition. It is no purpose of this discussion, however, 
 to advocate any particular views, but merely to introduce the 
 various aspects from which this in many respects unique dyeing 
 process of the celluloses may be regarded, and to point out 
 that judgment as to the underlying causes must for the present 
 continue to be suspended. 
 
 The lignocelluloses afford a still more characteristic dyeing 
 
Experimental and Applied 299 
 
 reaction in their property of taking up the blue cyanides from 
 solutions of ferric ferricyanide. It is not a question here of a 
 merely superficial oxidation of the fibre-substance by the ferri- 
 cyanide, and a staining of the fibre with the resulting blue 
 cyanide. From the detailed description previously given (p. 1 24) 
 it is seen to be a specific reaction between the fibre-substance 
 and the ferricyanide, taking place in altogether unique quan- 
 titative proportions. It does not depend upon any anterior 
 reduction by the fibre-substance, as it is unaffected by the 
 presence of powerful oxidising agents ; nor upon the relation- 
 ships to the fibre-substance of either ferric oxide or hydroferri- 
 cyanic acid, since in any other form of combination they exert 
 but slight action. From the evidence, it appears probable that 
 the lignocellulose takes up the ferric ferricyanide as a whole, in 
 the first instance such combination having rather the features 
 of a ' physical ' reaction and then redistributes its constituent 
 groups in such a way that the ferric oxide is deoxidised with 
 formation of the blue ferroso-ferric cyanide. In this second 
 effect the constitution of the characteristic groups of the ligno- 
 cellulose is the active cause. 
 
 These two reactions or groups of dyeing phenomena have 
 been instanced, not only because they are of critical and unique 
 value as test-problems for any theory of dyeing, but as further 
 illustrating the varied aspects of the subject of cellulose 
 chemistry. With progress in the theory of dyeing, it is highly 
 probable that the effects themselves may come to be available 
 as criteria of constitution of the fibre-substances ; in the mean 
 time it is equally probable that further elucidation of these 
 problems in other directions may contribute materially to the 
 establishment of a theory more generally acceptable than the 
 much controverted views at present held. 
 
 In the processes of printing the vegetable textile fabrics the 
 same general considerations obtain. The treatments are, how- 
 
3oo Cellulose 
 
 ever, much more diversified ; and their scientific basis, so far as 
 regards the chemical function of the fibre-substance as an active 
 cause, is even less elucidated than in the more simple operations 
 of dyeing. In the absence of any specific contributions of 
 investigators, no attempt can be made to deal with so wide a 
 range of effects. With a wider knowledge of the chemical 
 functions of the constituent groups of the fibre-substances, it 
 will be easy to devise critical experiments in solution of the 
 very various problems presented. 
 
 The industrial uses of the celluloses and compound cellu- 
 loses are of wide and varied range. They depend, of course, 
 largely upon the external and physical properties of the natural 
 products : but if less obviously, certainly in a not less important 
 degree upon the special chemistry of these substances. Their 
 industrial value again depends upon the conditions of supply, 
 the agricultural questions of yield, and the economic questions 
 of production and preparation in a fit state for the further manu- 
 facturing operations by which they are finally shaped for use. 
 
 In the province of textile fibres this threefold qualification 
 constitutes an effectual limitation of the number available, and 
 the numerous abortive attempts to exploit others of the end- 
 less variety of vegetable fibres have invariably followed from 
 neglect of one or other of the essential conditions of qualifica- 
 tion. These qualifications are in effect the constants of the 
 fibres, all expressible in numbers, the results of measurements 
 or observations of quantitative relationships. Thus, to select 
 in illustration the flax fibre, the following are the * constants ' 
 which mainly determine its value : 
 
 Agricultural (constants of "I Yield of * straw ' per acre, 
 raw material) . . . J Yield of fibre on ' straw.' 
 
 Morphological or structural ] T ,, .. . . .,, 
 
 , f . * , f Length of ultimate fibre, 
 
 (physical constants of fibres) J 
 
 (Proportion of cellulose and resist- 
 ance of cellulose to hydrolysis 
 and oxidation. 
 
Experimental and Applied 301 
 
 There are many considerations of subsidiary importance : 
 thus, on the agricultural side, the habit of the plant and cost 
 of cultivation ; on the mechanical or structural side, the sepa- 
 ration of the fibres from the stem, the uniformity, fineness, and 
 divisibility of the fibre-bundles ; and on the chemical side, 
 the relationship of the cellulose to the non-cellulose constitu- 
 ents both adventitious (wood and cuticle) and essential (the 
 pectic constituents of the fibre proper). A careful considera- 
 tion of these quantities or properties as factors of value will 
 almost tempt the reader, if of a mathematical turn of mind, to 
 propose a numerical expression of value somewhat as follows : 
 
 Taking V = value (in the sense of utility), 
 Y = yield of fibre per acre, 
 L = length of ultimate fibre, 
 P = percentage of cellulose in fibre, 
 
 then V = c. YLP (c being a constant). 
 The factors Y, L, P would require to be qualified by the 
 introduction of the subsidiary factors ; and although these are 
 not expressible in so definite a form, they can be brought to a 
 sufficiently exact approximation. It is not the purpose of this 
 inquiry, however, to attempt a complicated special discussion 
 involving considerations outside our general plan of treatment. 
 With this general suggestion of the relationships of our sub- 
 ject, taken as a whole, to industry, we revert to the considera- 
 tion of the purely chemical problems presented by the celluloses 
 and allied compounds in use. These problems are in effect 
 those of destruction and disintegration. 
 
 Of the textile fibres cotton and flax are by far the most impor- 
 tant, and the position which they occupy is very largely deter- 
 mined by the properties of their cellulose basis. This cellu- 
 lose is amongst C.H.O compounds very much what silver and 
 gold are amongst the metals, manifesting, that is, a high degree 
 of resistance to the chief disintegrating agencies of the natural 
 
3<D2 Cellulose 
 
 world oxygen and water. Both fibres have been used from 
 the remotest antiquity, though the manufacture of cotton tex- 
 tiles in Europe is of quite modern growth. At the time of its 
 introduction it was used for padding and filling purposes and 
 for manufacture into paper. The spinning of the short staple 
 fibre into yarn is an art borrowed from the East, where it has 
 been practised from the remotest antiquity. 
 
 Of both cotton and flax, however, we have sufficient record 
 in the substantial form of manufactured products to be able 
 to pronounce them for practical purposes indestructible save by 
 the mechanical agencies of wear and tear. In ordinary use, 
 however, they require periodical cleansing ; and the severe 
 treatments of the laundry, chemical and mechanical, lead to 
 more or less rapid disintegration. Very little attention is paid 
 to this industry from the chemical point of view, of which the 
 chief regulating principles are those of economic and rapid 
 handling. Occupying as it does a somewhat ' inferior ' posi- 
 tion in human affairs, it appears to be beneath the notice of 
 technologists. The result is unfortunate, as the very common 
 experience of the household will testify. 
 
 The cleansing of vegetable textiles by alkaline solutions, 
 wherever and however practised, is a chemical process ; and it 
 is high time that laundry work, conducted as it now is upon 
 the scale of an enormous special industry, should be more 
 consistently organised as a chemical industry. Great progress 
 in this direction would be made by modelling the procedure 
 of the laundry upon the general principles of treatment of these 
 textiles in the manufacturing industries ; i.e. in the case of 
 cotton and linen goods the lines of treatment should be gene- 
 rally similar to those of bleaching and finishing though, of 
 course, differing considerably in degree. As a matter of experi- 
 ence, the chemical disintegration of thece textiles in the course 
 of laundrying is considerable, chiefly through ignorance or 
 
Experimental and Applied 303 
 
 neglect of the chemical properties of the celluloses on the one 
 hand, and the cleansing agents employed on the other. This, 
 again, is a subject opened up in definite directions of inquiry 
 by the matter of this treatise, and it is to be hoped that the 
 chemical history of a shirt or tablecloth may come to be 
 written at no distant period, and with special attention to 
 those conditions which make for longevity. 
 
 Of the uses of vegetable textiles in their unbleached or 
 partially bleached conditions there is little to be said from the 
 chemical side. It should be remembered that half-bleaching 
 treatments are fraught with some danger, owing to the chemical 
 changes (oxidation or chlorination) in the residual non- cellu- 
 lose constituents ; and to minimise these dangers a final treat- 
 ment with sulphite or bisulphite of soda is to be recommended. 
 The authors have in mind not only the facts in connection 
 with jute bleaching mentioned on p. 286, but have been called 
 in to adjudicate upon damages occurring in the bleaching 
 'out ' of flax goods woven with creamed or half-bleached yarns. 
 These have been frequently found to retain substantial quan- 
 tities of ' chlorine ' (bleaching powder), and it is quite re- 
 markable the length of time of persistence of these residues of 
 hypochlorites in contact with flax goods. Their presence 
 must involve a gradual oxidation of the entire fibre-substance, 
 which together with the acidity of the oxidised non-cellulose 
 effects a steady disintegration of the fabric. So long indeed as 
 goods are treated altogether without reference to the molecular 
 results of the treatments, sound practice is the result of tra- 
 dition and correct intuitions, and the chances are far too 
 numerous in favour of malpractice. If at any time there 
 should be an extensive exposure of the secrets of the ' damage 
 room,' it might occasion wonder that a stronger case should 
 not have been made out for the scientific regulation of these 
 industries. 
 
304 Cellulose 
 
 The second great branch of the cellulose industry is that of 
 paper. Here also we meet with a large proportion of fabrics 
 composed of unbleached or partially bleached materials, in 
 reference to which there is little to be said from the point of 
 view of their chemistry. They are used for 'inferior' purposes, 
 such as wrappings ; they serve their purpose, and there are no 
 problems of especial import presented by the chemical history 
 of the fibres in this particular form. 
 
 But it is otherwise with papers used for writing and print- 
 ing. In this category permanence is a first desideratum. 
 Books and records have more than a passing value, and it is 
 essential that they should be committed to pages suitably 
 resistant both to chemical and mechanical wear and tear. On 
 the other hand, we may safely aftirm that there is no public 
 opinion in this country upon this important subject. Where 
 preferences for high-class papers exist they are based rather 
 upon aesthetic and other recondite considerations than upon 
 any judgment as to composition and the relation of their con- 
 stituents to the destructive agencies of the natural world. On 
 this basis white papers admit of a very simple classification 
 into three main groups : (A) those composed of the normal 
 and resistant celluloses only e.g. cotton, linen ; (B) those 
 composed of celluloses containing oxidised groups or oxy- 
 celluloses e.g. wood-cellulose, esparto and straw celluloses ; 
 (C) those containing, in admixture with the above, ground wood 
 or mechanical wood pulps (lignocellulose), many of which are 
 sufficiently 'white ' as not to prejudice a paper from the point 
 of view of colour. 
 
 Of the above, Class A stands beyond criticism. From the 
 discussion of the chemistry of the celluloses it is evident that 
 they fulfil all the requirements of inertness, and this may be 
 taken as a confirmation of the extensive experience which we 
 have of the lasting properties of the celluloses. Throughout 
 
Experimental and Applied 305 
 
 the middle ages these fibres were the staple raw materials for 
 production of papers, and in books that have come down to us 
 from these times there is sufficient evidence of resistance to 
 the natural processes of disintegration. 
 
 Fibres of Class B have been introduced in response to the 
 enormously increased consumption of paper in this century, 
 and it becomes important to consider how far they fail, or may 
 on chemical evidence be predicted to fail, in regard to the 
 properties which distinguish the former class. It is evident 
 that chemically they are of totally different constitution, 
 esparto and straw diverging from the normal type much more 
 considerably than the wood-celluloses. It is a matter of ob- 
 servation that all papers containing these celluloses are liable 
 to discolouration under the ordinary conditions of wear and 
 tear. Chemists will have made the further observation that in 
 the atmosphere of the laboratory, reference books, or rather 
 the paper upon which they are printed, are liable to peculiar 
 discolourations. Thus, in laboratories where coal-tar products 
 are handled it is a frequent experience that our journals 
 change from white to bright pink, and even where there is 
 no direct contact with the atmosphere of the laboratory 
 it is common to see the pages change to various shades of 
 brown. This browning can be produced in a very short time 
 by exposure to the heat of the water-oven, and it has also 
 been shown that under these conditions the fibre undergoes 
 oxidation which is sufficiently marked to be measured by 
 an increase of yield of furfural on boiling with hydrochloric 
 acid. It is clear, therefore, that these reactive oxycelluloses 
 are inferior in an important chemical sense, and their use in 
 books is open to the very obvious objection that the books are 
 more perishable. Of course, it is perfectly true that a large 
 amount of literature is of the ephemeral kind, and in this pro- 
 vince such questions as we have raised do not enter ; on the 
 
 x 
 
306 Cellulose 
 
 contrary, paper being very much cheapened by the use of these 
 celluloses, a great advantage is gained. It must be insisted 
 upon, however, that authors and publishers should have a defi- 
 nite judgment as to the papers to which they commit their 
 productions, and it would be of the greatest utility to exhaus- 
 tively investigate these particular celluloses from the point of 
 view of their resistance to the natural processes of decay. 
 
 CLASS C. The presence of lignocellulose is a more extreme 
 departure from the sound basis of composition represented by 
 Class A. The lignocelluloses are not only more generally 
 reactive than the celluloses of Class B, but are easily attacked 
 by atmospheric oxygen (see p. 174). Added to these chemical 
 defects they are inferior in the mechanical properties which 
 contribute to the strength of the sheet of paper, and therefore 
 papers of this class are only permissible where lasting properties 
 are a question of no moment whatever. 
 
 In addition to these questions of the composition of the 
 fibres or pulps, the practice of loading papers with china-clay, 
 sulphate of calcium, and so forth, is also another of the causes 
 which lead to disintegration of modern papers as compared 
 with those of former days. There is, of course, the other side 
 to this question, the addition of these mineral diluents having 
 certain positive advantages not to be overlooked. The danger 
 of any practices of this kind only enters when they are 
 not measured at their proper utility. Paper is largely ' taken 
 for granted' by consumers. In a great many, perhaps the 
 majority of cases this unenquiring consumption is not attended 
 with any serious consequences ; but, on the other hand, it is 
 quite obvious that it is attended with dangers of a very grave 
 character, when we are dealing with records of value for all 
 time. This, of course, is largely a question for posterity, to 
 whom we are handing down a literature produced upon 
 grounds for the most part of mere commercial expediency. 
 
Experimental and Applied 307 
 
 It is high time, as we have said before, that a public opinion 
 should be formed upon this subject, and it can only be formed 
 upon a recognised classification of papers, based upon their 
 chemical and mechanical ' constants,' which are determinable 
 by laboratory investigation. In Germany considerable pro- 
 gress has been made in the fixing of standards of quality and 
 securing their adoption by the trade. This classification by 
 fixed standards has been systematically worked out in the 
 Government Testing Station at Charlottenburg, and the records 
 of the institution contain a number of important monographs 
 upon the various factors of quality of papers. As these, how- 
 ever, contain no very direct contributions to the chemistry of 
 cellulose, we have only to call attention to the general result of 
 the investigations. In our own country the character of the 
 paper trade differs in many respects from that of the Continent ; 
 and this would necessitate a special classification and series of 
 standards. So far, however, as this classification is based upon 
 differences of chemical composition the lines of demarcation 
 are simple and sharp, and the general recognition of these will 
 initiate a movement in the direction of specific uses of papers 
 according to their qualities and properties. 
 
 Outside the province of textiles and papers there are many 
 other uses of cellulose of great industrial importance, many 
 of which have been dealt with incidentally in the foregoing 
 pages. The nitrates of cellulose are the basis of manufactures 
 which have been developed within our own period of history. 
 They are used on the one hand as a plastic and constructive 
 material, on the other as an explosive and destructive agent ; 
 these uses affording remarkable illustrations of the chemical 
 and physical properties of cellulose. In regard to the former, 
 the use of the nitrated compounds of cellulose is open to the 
 very obvious objection of high inflammability. The combined 
 nitric acid is in fact a necessary evil ; and from what we now 
 
308 Cellulose 
 
 know of cellulose in aqueous solution as thiocarbonate (p. 25), 
 its * gratuitous ' character becomes still more prominent. The 
 nitric groups are merely a factor of a particular process of 
 solution of cellulose; they do not modify in any essential 
 respect the properties of the parent molecule, but render these 
 available by bringing the cellulose into a condition of homo- 
 geneous solution. Lehner's ' artificial silk ' process illustrates 
 these considerations in a very direct way. For the spinning of 
 the thread the solution as nitrate is necessary ; but the sub- 
 sequent process of denitration changes the physical properties 
 of the product in so small a degree as to escape detection 
 otherwise than by the application of special tests. The pro- 
 ducts known as celluloid, xylonite, &c., are not subjected to 
 any denitration process ; but the cellulose products obtainable 
 by means of the cellulose xanthate are so similar to these that 
 the plastic properties of cellulose itself are more than ever 
 apparent as the essential basis of these manufactures. The 
 same facts are illustrated by the acetates of cellulose. When 
 these are prepared under carefully regulated conditions they 
 exhibit the same properties in solution as the nitrates, i.e. high 
 viscosity and coalescence, on evaporation of the solvent, to a 
 homogeneous elastic solid. It is evident, therefore, that the 
 nitrates of cellulose in such uses will be subjected to the ordeal 
 of a severe competition, and in certain directions must be dis- 
 placed by the parent substance itself or by derivative com- 
 pounds at present known or yet to be discovered. 
 
 The manufacture of explosives composed exclusively or partly 
 of the cellulose nitrates is now an industry of enormous pro- 
 portions. For many years after the introduction of gun-cotton 
 as an explosive its application was limited by its denomination 
 as a 'high explosive,' i.e. for blasting and similar purposes. 
 The researches of later years have shown that by changing the 
 physical condition of these 'high explosives' their explosive 
 
Experimental and Applied 309 
 
 combustion may be brought under perfect control, and they 
 therefore become available as propulsive explosives, i.e. in 
 artillery and small arms. In these directions they are rapidly 
 displacing the charcoal or black powders which have done so 
 much service to the human race in the past centuries ! A 
 special advantage of these nitrocellulose powders from the 
 military point of view is that, owing to their perfect combustion 
 to gaseous products, their explosion is a ' smokeless ' one : 
 hence their general and popular designation. The basis of these 
 'powders' is a mixture of nitroglycerin and * nitrocellulose.' 
 The nitrates of cellulose are gelatinised by nitroglycerin, and 
 by varying the proportions homogeneous plastic mixtures of 
 varying consistency are obtained. With small proportions of 
 the cellulose compounds, 7-8 p.ct., a gelatinous mass is ob- 
 tained, known industrially as ' Blasting Gelatine.' With lower 
 proportions, gradations of consistency are obtained in the 
 mixture which is the basis of explosives of the * Gelignite ' 
 class. With the cellulose nitrates increased to 40-50 p.ct. a 
 semi-solid product is obtained, which is worked up into threads 
 or ribands and constitutes the military smokeless powders 
 (' ballistite,' 'cordite,' &c.). The product resulting from the 
 mixture of these two ' high explosives ' burns quietly when 
 ignited, and, burning from the surface^ the combustion is 
 perfectly under control, and can be easily regulated to avoid 
 detonation. A second class of ' powders ' is made by mixing 
 the nitrocellulose and a certain proportion of barium nitrate 
 with a smaller proportion of camphor or nitrobenzene to allow 
 of their being worked up to a suitable form. Such are the 'E.G.,' 
 'S.S.,' and other ' sporting' powders. In many of the latter the 
 nitrocelluloses employed are prepared by nitrating the celluloses 
 of Class B (supra) isolated by the processes of the papermaker j 
 in some cases also nitrated lignocelluloses are employed. 
 
 These industries are in a highly developed condition, the 
 
3io Cellulose 
 
 manufactures being carried on with the greatest precision, on 
 the basis of an extensive empirical knowledge of the properties 
 of the products. It must be admitted, however, that, in the 
 absence of any precise knowledge or even accepted theories of 
 the constitution of the cellulose nitrates, there remains a vista 
 of progress to be opened out by the solution or partial solution 
 of this important problem. 
 
 So, in fact, it may be said, generally and in conclusion, of 
 the industrial uses and treatments of the celluloses. All of 
 great and some of the greatest importance in human affairs, and 
 all highly developed upon an extremely slender foundation 
 of exact knowledge of the raw materials, it is probably true 
 that the cellulose industries have in many directions attained 
 a position of terminal excellence, measured from the point of 
 view of an empirical technology of the subject-matter. It may 
 be said with greater certainty that future progress will go hand 
 in hand with the progress of scientific investigation. 
 
 It is a province of applied chemistry where, as in many 
 others, the distinctions between ' Science ' and * Practice ' exist 
 only in the minds of those who grasp neither the one nor the 
 other. Manufacturers and technical men, if they will only take 
 the trouble to inform themselves, must see that an enormous field 
 of natural products and processes about to be explored has 
 a number of industrial prizes and surprises in store ; scientific 
 men who have to undertake the pioneering work in this field 
 will find sufficient stimulus to effort in the promise of progres- 
 sive discovery. It is to be hoped that some suggestions of 
 matter for research will be conveyed in the foregoing brief 
 account of the present position of the chemistry of cellulose. 
 
APPENDIX I 
 
 THE illustrations which follow, reproduced from sections of typical 
 raw materials from amongst those dealt with in the preceding 
 pages, are designed to convey an outline view of their general 
 features of structure and arrangement in the plant. 
 
 The subjoined scheme of classification of fibrous raw materials 
 is based upon these structural or anatomical features considered 
 as the necessary basis of their varied applications in the arts. 
 The selection of types in illustration has been made in accordance 
 therewith, and as it is a sufficient key to their selection and 
 arrangement it is reproduced (from Indian Fibres, p. 18) without 
 further comment or explanation in detail. 
 
 Fibres 
 
 Fib 
 
 gates 
 
 DICOTYLEDONOUS 
 
 Bast fibres only, in bundles 
 or filaments. 
 
 Chemical Composition. 
 
 (A) Pectocelluloses. 
 
 (B) Lignocelluloses. 
 Examples : Flax (A) ; 
 
 jut* (B). 
 
 Entire bast tissues. 
 Entire stems. 
 
 Chemical Composition. 
 (D) Mixtures of ligno- and 
 
 pecto-celluloses. 
 Examples : Adansonia ; 
 
 woods. 
 
 MONOCOTYLEDONOUS 
 
 Fibfo-vascular bundles and 
 fibre bundles, sometimes 
 
 enclosed in cellular sheath. 
 
 Chemical Composition. 
 Usually mixtures of (c) 
 
 pecto-, ligno-, and cuto- 
 
 cellulose. 
 Examples : Sisal ; Phor- 
 
 mium tenax. 
 Whole plants or parts of 
 
 plants. 
 
 Chemical Composition. 
 Mixtures of pecto-, ligno-, 
 
 and cuto-celluloses. 
 Examples: Esparto j straw, 
 
 bamboo. 
 
 It is important to note that the cotton fibre the chemical 
 prototype of the celluloses does not fall within the above classifi- 
 cation. As a 'seed hair' it stands apart. The cutocelluloses are 
 non-fibrous, and constitute a structural class (E) also outside the 
 above, though occurring in C and D in admixture with the fibrous 
 constituents proper. 
 
PLATE I. 
 
 A. 1 i. FLAX Linum usitatissinmm. x 150. 
 Transverse section of stem. 
 Beginning at periphery : 
 Layer of cuticular cells. 
 Intermediate cortical parenchyma. 
 Bast fibres in groups flax fibres proper. Note secondary 
 
 thickening of cell walls. 
 Cambium region. 
 Wood. 
 
 1 These letters refer to the grouping of the table, page 311. 
 
PLATE II. 
 
 A. 2. RAMIE, RHEA, OR CHINA GRASS B&hmeria nivea 
 x 150, 
 
 Transverse section of bast region only. 
 
 East fibres, distinguished by their large area from adjacent tissue. 
 
PLATE III. 
 
 B. 3. JUTE Corchorus capsularis. x 50. 
 
 Transverse section of stem. 
 
 Wedge-shaped complexes of bast bundles extending from the 
 cambium to cortex. 
 
PLATE IV. 
 
 B. 4. JUTE Corchonis capsularis. x 300. 
 
 Transverse section of portion of bast. Showing anatomy of 
 fibrous tissue, form of bast fibres, and thickening of cell walls. 
 
PLATE V. 
 
 C. 5. SISAL HEMP Agave Sisalana. x 300. 
 Transverse section of single filament. 
 
 Kidney-shaped complex of lignified fibres almost enclosing 
 vessels, the whole surrounded by parenchymatous tissue. 
 
PLATE VI. 
 
 C. 6. OIL PALM LEAF Elceis guineensis. x 300. 
 
 Transverse section of part of leaf, showing two classes of fila- 
 ments : 
 
 1. Large fibro- vascular bundle. 
 
 2. Smaller bundle of thick-walled fibres without vessels. 
 
PLATE VII. 
 
 l\ 7. ESPARI : .'/: - . - - 
 
 Averse s*ec: 
 
 L'ppe* >; : .r impose ^ - 
 
 w; alic ? hairs. Anr^ : - - , 
 
 :r.:et5;:er:^v : . 'r.^b. ~ - - 
 
 - . , - _,. [3 iMC.cn! 
 
 oegioo ! . ;a;::s QI bridgt - - 
 
 , - 
 
PLATE VII. 
 
 ESPARTO Macrochloa (Stipa) tenacissima. x 50. 
 Transverse section of leaf. 
 Upper side composed of projecting ribs and deep bays fringed 
 
 with siliceous hairs. Areas of chlorophyll-bearing parenchyma 
 
 interspersed with fibre- vascular bundles. 
 Lower side composed of prosenchymatous fibres. In central 
 
 region of each rib, bands or bridges of thick-walled lignified 
 
 cells extending from lower to upper epidermis. 
 
PLATE VIII. 
 
 I). 8. ESPARTO Macrochloa (Stipa) tenadssima. x 150. 
 Transverse section of central ribs, <S:c. 
 
 General features of preceding section in greater detail, and show- 
 ing more clearly the band or bridge of lignified tissue passing 
 from lower epidermis between the chlorophyll areas and sur- 
 rounding the large fibre-vascular bundle. 
 
PLATE IX. 
 
 D. 9. STRAW (WHEAT) Triticum vulgare. x 150. 
 Transverse section of stalk. 
 Hypodermal layers composed of strongly lignified and thickened 
 
 fibres with small fibre-vascular bundles. 
 Larger f.v.b. disposed through thin- walled parenchyma. 
 
PLATE X. 
 
 
 D. 10. WOOD Pinus sylvestris. x 150. 
 Longitudinal section. 
 
 Tissue chiefly composed of the characteristic tracheides with 
 numerous ' bordered pits,' intersected by medullary rays. 
 
PLATE XL 
 
 J 'f. BA LCO M e . 
 
 D. ii. WOOD Tilia grandiflora. x 150. 
 Longitudinal section. 
 
 Wood fibres, woody parenchyma, and large pitted vessels with 
 oblique septa. 
 
PLATE XII. 
 
 E. T2. RAFFIA Raphia Ruffia. x 300. 
 
 Transverse section of epidermal tissues constituting the commer- 
 cial fibre. 
 
 Cortex of upper surface, with bundles of hypodermal fibres with 
 strongly thickened walls. 
 
PLATE XIII. 
 
 -> *V* / V ' f":.*, "- Iirr 
 
 . \ :.">"'>; .t Xt|; ^; 'XJ^ X- 
 
 L:H: \ /^t ,>/.- ;^ 
 
 E. 13. RAFFIA Raphia Ruffia. x 300. 
 Surface view. 
 Cortical cells with serrated outline and stomata. 
 
PLATE XIV. 
 
 E. 14. BOTTLE CORK Quercus suber. x 300. 
 
 Transverse section. 
 Thin-walled cork cells. 
 
APPENDIX II 
 
 IN the period 1895-1900 succeeding the publication of the first 
 edition of this work, there have appeared a number of contribu- 
 tions to the general chemistry of * Cellulose,' the more important 
 of which have been recorded and discussed in a volume of 
 ' Researches on Cellulose ' by the present authors, published in 
 1901. 
 
 It will be of interest to our readers to follow the main lines of 
 growth of the subject ; and we therefore give a brief outline, and in 
 very general terms, of these later developments. 
 
 Cellulose. Constitution. An observation of fundamental im- 
 portance is the direct conversion of cellulose into a crystalline 
 furfural derivative under the action of the halogen hydracids. 
 Empirically the reaction in the case of hydrobromic acid may be 
 expressed by the equation : 
 
 C 6 H 10 O 5 + HBr- 3H,O = C 6 H 5 O 2 Br 
 
 the product being a brom-methyl furfural. The condensation 
 takes place readily at 100 C. in presence of anhydrous ether. A 
 particular point of interest arises in regard to the generalisation of 
 the reaction as one specially characteristic of the ketoses, *. the 
 keto-hexoses. The conversion of the typical levulose is represented 
 as follows : 
 
 j TT TT TT T T 
 
 OH.C.C. C C C CH OH - OCC : C.C : C.CH,Br. 
 :H Oi ;H OH; OH Hi H 
 
 (H. J. H. Fenton. Chem. Soc. J., rooi, 361.) 
 
 The yields of the a>-brom -methyl furfural from various forms of 
 cellulose were found to be high (33 p.ct.), higher indeed than from 
 
 Y 
 
3 1 4 Cellulose 
 
 levulose. The reaction is therefore a main reaction, and shows 
 that cellulose under these conditions breaks down, at least in large 
 parf, to ketohexose units. By these investigations therefore the 
 polyaldose view of the constitution of cellulose is directly called in 
 question. We have found on other grounds that a ketonic 
 formula is to be preferred (ist ed. p. 77), the fifth O atom having 
 ketonic rather than aldehydic function. This is consistent either 
 with an open chain or closed ring formula for the assumed C 8 
 unit. There are general grounds of preference for the latter. But 
 this is a matter of speculation and hypothesis. 
 
 A point to be noted in connection with Fenton's researches is 
 that the normal celluloses (of the cotton group) give higher yields 
 of the furfural derivative than the cereal celluloses (group C), 
 which on the other hand are characterised by high yields of furfural 
 under the action of aqueous condensing acids. This decomposi- 
 tion is referred by many chemists to the presence in the cereal 
 celluloses of a pentose anhydride. In view of these later facts the 
 explanation, which is on other grounds doubtful, becomes unneces- 
 sary. It is clear that the transition from the normal chain to the 
 C 4 O ring is equally characteristic of hexose as of pentose units, 
 and the assumption that 'furfural yielding ' is equivalent to * pentose ' 
 or * pentosane ' carbohydrate, falls away. 
 
 A second point to be noted arises in connection with the ex- 
 haustive study of the action of ethereal hydrobromic acid on the 
 celluloses. In a succession of treatments with the acid, diminish- 
 ing yields of the brom-methyl furfural are obtained, and the final 
 residue has the composition and character of the humic or ulmic 
 series of complex derivatives described on p. 240. M. Gostling. 
 Proc. Chem. Soc. 18, 250). 
 
 It is probable from later investigations of our own that pyrone 
 groups are formed as an alternative or complementary course of 
 condensation of he carbohydrates, and are represented in these 
 complex products. 
 
 On the broad and general question of the actual constitution of 
 cellulose there is as yet but little positive evidence. It is a ques- 
 tion of proximate arrangement and configuration of ultimate con- 
 stituent groups which we assume to be of C rt dimensions, and to be 
 represented by the ordinary molecular formulas. But we have no 
 conception of a molecule of cellulose, and no data as to its dimen- 
 sions. We have positive evidence as to a reacting unit, but of 
 variable dimensions, and the more definite synthetical reactions of 
 
Appendix II 315 
 
 cellulose are expressed in terms of these units. But in these 
 reactions the factor of mass, as distinct from relative molecular 
 mass, has to be taken into consideration ; and, to cite a particular 
 case, the recent elaborate investigations of W. Will on the nitra- 
 tion of cellulose, and the decompositions of the nitrates by heat, 
 lead to the conclusion that in both directions there are no breaks 
 of continuity corresponding with definite reacting units of relatively 
 small dimensions. (Infra, p. 317.) 
 
 This problem of the relation of molecule to mass necessarily 
 also arises in regard to the structural peculiarities of cellulose. 
 The conversion of cellulose into films, threads, and generally into 
 solids of continuous dimensions, has shown that the mechanical 
 properties of these solids are a direct function of the molecular 
 state of the parent substances, whether celluloses or cellulose 
 derivatives. Thus the hydrocelluloses (p. 54) are formed from the 
 ribrous celluloses at the expense of their tenacity : similarly, when 
 converted through soluble derivatives into continuous solids, these 
 are brittle and of low tenacity. The normal acetates give tough 
 rilms ; but if the acetylation is carried to the point that chemical 
 disintegration begins, as evidenced by the presence in the product 
 of reactive CO groups, the product gives brittle films. 
 
 These considerations may be borne in mind in regard to the 
 future investigation of the problem. But the problem is without 
 present promise of solution, and it must be admitted that we have 
 no criterion of the kind or degree of association of the molecular 
 units in the complex aggregates of the cellulose group. 
 
 Esters. On the general subject of the nitric esters of the 
 carbohydrates Will and Lenze have made investigations leading 
 to the conclusions that whereas the aldoses are fully esterified, the 
 hexoses giving pentanitrates and the pentoses tetranitrates, the 
 ketoses with n.OH groups yield nitrates containing n 2. O.NO 2 
 groups as a maximum, the two remaining OH groups passing into 
 the anhydride form. These nitrates of the ketose-anhydrides are 
 distinguished by much greater stability. (Berl. Ber., 1898, 68.) 
 
 The authors have investigated the reaction of formation of 
 these nitric esters under the usual conditions of treatment of the 
 celluloses with a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acid, and conclude 
 from their experiments that the latter acid reacts also with the 
 cellulose hydroxyls. The fixation of SO 4 H residues in some 
 quantity is proved by analysis of the products formed under 
 certain conditions ; and the fact has to be taken into account 
 
 Y 2 
 
3 1 6 Cellulose 
 
 under all conditions of treatment, especially in regard to the very 
 important question of ' stability,' and the uses of these products 
 as explosives. (Cross, Bevan, and Jenks. Berl. Ber. 34, 2496.) 
 
 The highest derivative in this series of esters being the 
 trinitrate on the C 6 formula the fact is shown to be consistent 
 with the presence of 4.OH groups in the cellulose unit, which 
 now must be taken as finally established by the general recog- 
 nition of the highest acetate as a tetracetate, and as a true 
 cellulose derivative. A higher degree of acetylation implies a 
 hydrolysis of the cellulose, which is confirmed by a study of the 
 properties of such derivatives. These conclusions have been 
 verified and extended by the later investigations of Z. H. Skraup 
 of the acetylation of starch and cellulose. (Berl. Ber. 1899, 2413.) 
 In regard to the lower limits of acetylation it is stated in this 
 volume (p. 35, ist ed.) that the normal celluloses do not react with 
 acetic anhydride at its boiling temperature. Investigations by the 
 authors have shown that this statement, current in the text-books, 
 is erroneous; a mono-acetate (C) is formed under these condi- 
 tions. This product is insoluble in all the solvents of the cellulose 
 esters, and moreover resists the action of cuprammonium solutions. 
 
 The authors have further investigated the benzoat'es of 
 cellulose, and the conditions of their formation by interaction 
 of cellulose and benzoyl chloride in presence of alkalis. From 
 these esters mixed esters have been obtained by the action of 
 nitrating acid. The benzoyl residues are converted into nitro- 
 benzoyl, and further reaction ensues with the residual OH groups 
 of the cellulose. 
 
 The following conclusions appear to be justified : the highest 
 benzoate is the dibenzoate, or on the C 12 unit the tetrabenzoate. 
 Taking 8.OH groups as the maximum in this unit, five only react 
 in these mixed esters, as compared with six as a maximum in the 
 simple nitric esters. (See ' Researches on Ce^ulose,' pp. 34-40.) 
 
 From points of view other than the purely theoretical, various 
 and important investigations of cellulose esters have been published 
 in recent years. 
 
 Lunge and Bebie have carried out an elaborate enquiry into 
 the constants of nitration of the normal cellulose ; chiefly concern- 
 ing the yields and composition of the nitrates under definite varia- 
 tions of the more important chemical and physical conditions of 
 the reaction. The results constitute the most extensive series of 
 numerical records hitherto published, for which the original papers 
 must be consulted. (Ztschr. Angew. Chein. 1901, 483. See also 
 O. Guttmann, Chem. Ztschr. I. No. 12.) 
 
Appendix II 317 
 
 The authors with A. Luck have also investigated the actions 
 of diluted solvents upon the fibrous nitrates, under the action of 
 which they are converted into dense structureless forms with 
 elimination of the products causing instability. The process is the 
 basis of technical developments based upon the more perfect con- 
 trol of the process of gelatinisation or * colloidisation,' an 
 essential condition of the use of these products as restrained 
 or progressive explosion. (A. Luck and C. F. Cross. J. Soc. 
 Chem. Ind., 1900.) 
 
 The most important event in connection with the scientific and 
 technical development of this subject has been the foundation in 
 Germany of the Research Institution of Neu Babelsberg, Berlin. 
 (Central Stelle fur Wissenschaftlich-technische Untersuchungen.) 
 This institution, mainly devoted to the technology of nitrocellulose 
 explosives, has published two brochures on the question of the 
 stability of the cellulose nitrates. Full abstracts of these com- 
 munications will be found in the Journal Soc. Chem. Ind. 1901, 
 609, 617 ; 1902, 1470-1. We can only notice here the main result 
 of the elaborate investigations of Prof. Will in its bearing on 
 the scientific side of the subject. It has been established that the 
 normal stable nitrates when heated at high temperatures in an 
 atmosphere of dry carbonic anhydride are continuously decom- 
 posed with a regular disengagement of nitric oxide, the decomposi- 
 tion taking place according to the typical equation : 
 
 C 12 H 15 (N0 2 ) 5 10 C 10 H 3 N0 8 + 4 NO + 6H,O + 2 CO 
 
 and reaching the limit represented by the formation of the end- 
 product in question. The points to be noted in the composition 
 of this product are the retention of one-fifth the original nitrogen 
 and the loss of I-C atom for each C 6 unit. Until the constitution 
 of this empirical residue has been elucidated we cannot go beyond 
 the statistical relationships established. The prominent general 
 feature of the decomposition or dissociation is its regularity, i.e. 
 continuity, upon which the * stability' tests are based. It suggests 
 a similar continuity in the original ester reactions. 
 
 We may briefly note here the publication of a book under the 
 title * Smokeless Powder, Nitrocellulose, and Theory of the Cellu- 
 lose Molecule/ by J. B. Bernadou : New York, 1901 (London : 
 Chapman & Hall, Ltd.). This work contains, in addition to the 
 author's interesting speculations and records of experimental 
 
3 1 3 Cellulose 
 
 work, a resume of important recent investigations of Vieille and 
 Mendeljeff. 
 
 Cellulose Sulpho-carbonates (Viscose). The authors have 
 published an account of later researches into the nature and con- 
 stitution of this series of compounds. The main point established 
 is that the affinity of the cellulose xanthogenic acid is consider- 
 ably higher than that of the fatty acids, and generally higher than 
 that of the monocarboxylic acids. Consequently the solutions of 
 the crude compound may be treated e.g. with acetic acid in 
 excess without decomposing the alkali salts of the cellulose 
 sulphocarbonic acid. The acetic acid, on the other hand, entirely 
 decomposes the by-products of the original reaction and reactions 
 of spontaneous decomposition. By this means the isolation of pure 
 compounds of this series is much facilitated, the separation from 
 sodium acetate on addition of alcohol being satisfactorily sharp. 
 
 The following stages in the process of reverse decomposition 
 
 ,OX 
 have been established : The general formula C S\ having 
 
 X SNa 
 
 been verified with satisfactory precision, and X being the cellulose 
 residue of various dimensions, it is found that when freshly pre- 
 pared X lies between C 6 and C ]2 , and the compound is not 
 precipitated by dehydrating agents : as X approaches C, the 
 xanthate is precipitated by alcohol, and readily redissolves in 
 water : the C 24 xanthate is precipitated by smaller proportions of 
 dehydrating agents from alkaline solutions, and is entirely pre- 
 cipitated by acetic acid ; in other words, is insoluble in water. The 
 cellulose when reaggregated to these dimensions is not soluble as 
 a sodium xanthate, but requires the further combination of its 
 OH groups with the alkaline hydrate to produce a soluble com- 
 pound. These stages are well defined, and by their general 
 recurrence in the course of investigations to the apparent exclusion 
 of intermediate stages, it is suggested, though it cannot be finally 
 affirmed, that the decomposition as it actually occurs in the solu- 
 tion takes place in the later stages by units of C,, dimensions. 
 
 The analysis of viscose solutions is obviously much simplified 
 by these observations. By volumetric estimation, using succes- 
 sively normal acetic and hydrochloric acids, the alkali combined 
 with the cellulose is determined, and the number can be confirmed 
 by titration with a standard iodine solution. (Berl. Ber., 1901, 
 34, 1513-20.) 
 
II 319 
 
 Ligno-celluloses. The authors have shown that the colour 
 reactions of the lignocelluloses with phenols are not characteristic 
 of the lignone complex as such, but are due to break-down products 
 in all probability to hydroxyfurfurals. These bodies have been 
 prepared by the interaction of furfural and hydrogen peroxide in 
 presence of iron salts : they give reactions with phloroglucinol 
 and resorcinol, identical with those of the lignocellu'oses in their 
 natural state. (Cross, Bevan,and Briggs. Berl. Ber.33, 2132.) These 
 reactive constituents of the natural lignocelluloses are easily 
 removed by treatment with oxidants in regulated small propor- 
 tions, the lignocellulose undergoing only small losses of weight, 
 and retaining its essential chemical characteristics unchanged. 
 
 Further studies of the lignone complex in the case of the jute 
 fibre have somewhat modified the conclusions set forth in the first 
 edition, and the text has been accordingly rewritten in those 
 portions. 
 
 The furfural-yielding constituent is more probably a cellulose 
 or an anhydride, and appears with the cellulose complex when 
 isolated by the chlorination process. The lignone is thus to be 
 considered as distinct from this /3-rellulose and from the hydroxy- 
 furfurals. These latter may be formed from the /3-cellulose by 
 processes of hydrolysis and condensation, and oxidation occurring 
 ' naturally. 3 It is certain that active oxygen is always present on 
 the surface of the lignocelluloses, indicating a slow and progressive 
 auto-oxidation of the fibre substance. The observations and 
 ingenious investigations of W. J. Russell (Nature, vol. 65, p. 200) 
 have emphasised these phenomena by showing that they are 
 associated with 'emanations' which act upon sensitive photo- 
 graphic surfaces, and produce an image of the objects. Russell 
 considers that the evidence so far accumulated points to these 
 emanations being hydrogen peroxide. 
 
 The problem of the constitution of the characteristic lignine 
 complex is so far simplified. Its most important constituent 
 groups are: (i) the benzenoid group, combining directly with 
 chlorine ; and (2) a group or groups of approximate formula 
 C., m H 2m O m , which break down by gentle oxidation and hydrolysis 
 finally to acetic acid as a main product, with probable formation 
 of ketonic acids of low molecular weight as intermediate stages. 
 The complex contains a minimum proportion of hydroxyl groups 
 and of methoxyl groups. 
 
 Some further light has been thrown on the relationships of 
 
32O Cellulose 
 
 cellulose to lignone groups in the lignocellulose complex, by later 
 investigations of certain lignocellulose esters. 
 
 The benzoate prepared by treating with benzoyl chloride in 
 presence of alkali is a monobenzoate, calculated to the simplest 
 empirical formula C I2 H I8 O 9 . The benzoyl group enters the 
 cellulose residue ; the lignone is unaffected, and when removed by 
 the ordinary treatment a cellulose benzoate is left as the end 
 product. 
 
 On boiling the lignocellulose with acetic anhydride, an acetate 
 is formed, which analyses as a diacetate of the empirical unit 
 C 12 H 18 O 9 . The complete statistics, however, appear to show 
 that the ester reaction is attended by internal dehydration through 
 interaction of other groups of the complex. The lignone group, 
 however, retains its general characteristics, and may be removed 
 by similar treatment as the original, and the cellulose is separated 
 in the form of a diacetate (C 1<2 ). 
 
 The benzoate (supra) also reacts with acetic anhydride, and 
 the proportion of acetyl groups entering is not affected by the 
 presence of the benzoyl group. 
 
 These ester reactions taking place in the cellulose group, it is 
 further established that the lignone complex contains no OH 
 groups reactive under these conditions, and also that there are no 
 free aldehydic groups. 
 
 These reactions are of use in the investigation of the ultimate 
 constitutional problems which continue to engage the attention of 
 the authors, and to which it is hoped other chemists will be 
 attracted by the publication of these evidences of more definite 
 progress. 
 
INDEX OF AUTHORS 
 
 ABEL, 44 
 
 Cross and Witt, 148 
 
 Armstrong, 245 
 
 Crum, W., 24 
 
 BAEYER, 245 
 
 DEM EL, 240 
 
 Bary, de, 231 
 
 Dopping, 226 
 
 Bebie, 316 
 
 Durin, E., 72 
 
 B^champ, 46 
 
 Du Vivier, 45 
 
 Beilstein, 259 
 
 
 Benedikt and Bamber- 
 
 
 ger, 1 88, 232 
 
 ERDMANN, u, 161, 
 
 Bernadou, 317 
 
 197 
 
 Berthelot, 87 
 
 
 Briggs, 319 
 
 FENTON, H. J. H., 
 
 Brown, A. J., 72 
 
 313 
 
 Brown, Horace, 67 
 
 Fischer, E., 262 
 
 Brown and Morris, 65, 
 
 Fischer and Schmid- 
 
 257 
 
 mer, 18 
 
 Brunner, 167 
 
 Flechsig, 49 
 
 
 Flint and Tollens, 99, 
 
 
 265 
 
 CALVERT, Grace, 21 
 
 Fluckiger, 228 
 
 Chalmot, de, 181, 185 
 
 Franchimont, 61, 87 
 
 Chardonnet, de, 45 
 
 Francis, 254 
 
 Chevandier, 174 
 
 Frank, 224 
 
 Chodnew, 216 
 
 Fremy, 90, 91, 173, 
 
 Collie, 62, 149 
 
 176, 216, 229 
 
 Cross and Bevan, 7, 
 
 
 61, 70, 79, 80, 83, 
 
 
 113, 124, 131, 137, 
 
 GANSand Tollens, 221 
 
 138, 142, 152, 164, 
 
 Gilson, 12 
 
 208, 232, 240, 244, 
 
 Girard, 21 
 
 247. 259, 263 
 
 Godeffroy, R., 219 
 
 Cross, Bevan, and 
 
 Goodale, 237, 243 
 
 Briggs, 319 
 
 Goppelsroeder, 18 
 
 Cross, Bevan, and 
 
 Gostling, M., 314 
 
 Jenks, 316 
 
 Gottlieb, 175 
 
 Cross, Bevan, and 
 
 Green, Cross, and Be- 
 
 King, 243 
 
 van, 298 
 
 Griffin and Little, 288 
 Guignet, 53 
 Guttmann, O., 316 
 
 HALLIBURTON, 87 
 Hantzschand Schniter, 
 
 137 
 
 Hawes, G. W., 175 
 Hime and Noad, 10 
 Hodges, 80, 232 
 Hoehnel, 227 
 Hofmann, A. W., 79 
 Hofmeister, 237 
 Honig and Schubert, 
 
 48, 225 
 Hoppe-Seyler, 66 
 
 KABSCH, 173 
 Karolyi, 44 
 Kirchner and Tollens, 
 
 221 
 
 Knecht, 55 
 Koechlin, C., 21 
 Kolb, 218 
 Krauch and V. d. 
 
 Becke, 1 66 
 Kraus, 153 
 Kugler, 227 
 Kuhlmann, 46 
 
 LANGE, 22, 141, 214, 
 
 240 
 
 Lehner, 45 
 Lenze, 315 
 Lindsey and Tollens, 
 
 49, 83, 198 
 Linlner and Dull, 257 
 
3 22 
 
 Cellulose 
 
 Lloyd, 1 8 
 
 J x>wig and Kolliker, 87 
 I,uca, de, 46 
 Luck, A., 317 
 Lunge, G., 316 
 
 MACNAB and Ristori, 
 
 44 
 
 Mann and Tollens, 184 
 Maurey, 46 
 Meissner and Shep- 
 
 pard, 152 
 Mendeljeff, 318 
 Mercer, 24 
 Meyer, V., 163 
 Miller, W. A., 239 
 Mitscherlich, 226 
 Muhlhauser, 132 
 Muller, Hugo, 5, 79, 
 
 no, 175, 214, 219 
 Muntz, 1 68 
 
 NASTJUKOW, 61 
 Nolting and Rosen- 
 stiehl, 6 1 
 
 O'SULLIVAN, 257 
 
 PARNELL, 24 
 Payen, 211 
 Pears, A., ill 
 
 Pelouze, 46 
 Poumarede and Fi- 
 
 guier, 187 
 Prudhomme, II 
 
 RAMSAY and Chorley, 
 
 68, 154, 204 
 Reichardt, 216 
 Rosenfeld, 13 
 Russell, W. J., 319 
 
 SACHS, 73, 237 
 Sachsse, 172, 221 
 Schaefer, 87 
 Scheibler and Mittel- 
 
 meier, 258 
 Schleiden, 224 
 Schlichter, 272 
 Schmidt, 61, 87, 225 
 Schmitz, 237 
 Schulze and Tollens, 
 
 163, 260 
 Schunk, 290 
 Schuppe, 177 
 Scoflfern and Wright, 
 
 J 3 . 
 
 Sestmi, 137, 240 
 
 Skraup, Z. H., 316 
 Smith, 83, 164, 259 
 Spon, 79, 243 
 Stein, 271 
 Stern, 49 
 
 Stutzer, 152 
 
 TAUSS, 22 
 Thomsen, 187 
 Thorn, 213 
 Tollens, 101, 181,259, 
 
 261 
 Toilens and others, 261 
 
 URBAIN, 173 
 
 VETILLART, 243 
 
 Vieille, 41, 318 
 Vortmann, 265 
 
 WATTS, 291 
 Weber, 19, 131 
 Webster, 113 
 Weiske, 152 
 Wheeler and Tollens, 
 
 187, 212 
 Wiesner, 243 
 Will, 47, 315, 317 
 Wissenburgh, 228 
 Witt, O. N., 79 
 Witz, 61, 297 
 Wurster, 174 
 
 ZEISEL, 106, 189, 265 
 
INDEX OF SUBJECTS 
 
 ACETATES of cellulose, 34, 252,316 
 Acetic acid, formation from cellu- 
 lose, 255 
 
 anhydride, action upon cellulose, 
 35, 316 ; upon regenerated cellu- 
 lose, 37 
 
 condensation, 193 
 
 residue in woods, 191 ; product 
 of simple hydrolysis of ligno- 
 celluloses, 192 ; characteristic 
 feature of lignifi cation, 192, 319 
 
 Adipocelluloses, 90, 225, 226 ; 
 proximate analysis, 227 ; general 
 methods of investigation, 267 
 
 Aloe fibres, 220 
 
 Amylobacterium, 66 
 
 Amyloid, 53, 224 
 
 Aniline dyes, action on jute fibre, 
 
 "5 
 
 salts, action on jute fibre, 115 
 Arabic acid, 216 
 Arabinose, 86, 216 
 Arabinosic acid, 216 
 Ascidia, 87 
 
 BACTERIUM xylinum, 73 
 
 Ballistite, 44, 309 
 
 Bamboo stems, 220 
 
 Belfast Linen Bleach,' 80 
 
 Benzoates of cellulose, 32, 251, 316 
 
 Blasting gelatin, 309 
 
 Bleaching, isolation of cellulose 
 from raw fibres, 244, 255 ; linen 
 yarn, 286 ; jute cuttings, 287 ; 
 cotton, 288 ; ' market bleach,' 
 madder bleach,' 291 ; linen, 292 
 
 ' Brewers' grains,' composition of, 
 163, 260 ; method of examina- 
 tion, 260 
 
 Brom-methyl furfural, 313 
 
 Butyric fermentations, 234 
 
 CARBOHYDRATES, 2 ; general me- 
 thods for identification, 261 ; 
 nitration, 315 
 
 Carragheen mucilage, 225 
 
 Celluloid, 44, 308 
 
 Cellulose, I ; empirical composi- 
 tion, 3 ; hydrates, 4 ; their re- 
 action with iodine, 7 ; of green 
 fodder plants, 7 ; solutions of, 
 8 ; in zinc chloride, 8 ; in 
 zinc chloride and HC1, 9 ; in 
 ammoniacal cupric oxide, 9 ; 
 in ammoniacal cuprous oxide, 13, 
 246 ; threads or filaments in 
 electric lamp, 8 ; crystallised, 12 ; 
 theory of action of solvents, 14 ; 
 qualitative reactions and identi- 
 fication, i ; compounds of, 15; 
 with dilute alkalis and acids, 16 ; 
 with colouring matter, 19 ; capil- 
 lary phenomena, 18 ; action of al- 
 kaline solutions at high tempera- 
 tures, 22 ; action of concentrated 
 alkaline solutions, 23 ; thiocar- 
 bonates, 25, 318; their spontane- 
 ous decomposition, 26 ; their co- 
 agulation by heat, 27 ; quantative 
 regeneration of cellulose from 
 solutions of thiocarbonate, 28 ; 
 
Cellulose 
 
 purification by alcohol and by 
 brine, 248 ; uses in microscopic 
 work, 249 ; theoretical notes, 249 ; 
 regenerated cellulose from thio- 
 carbonate, 29 ; reaction with 
 acetic anhydride, 37 ; theoretical 
 view of thiocarbonate reaction, 29, 
 316. Reacting unit, 31 ; benz- 
 oates, 32, 316 ; soluble alkali, 
 33 ; acetates, 34 ; interactions 
 with acetic anhydride, 35 ; and 
 acetic anhydride in presence of 
 /.inc chloride, 36 ; in presence of 
 iodine, 36 ; nitrates or nitrocel- 
 luloses, 38 ; their general pro- 
 perties, 39 ; approximate com- 
 position (table), 42 ; thermal 
 constants, 42 ; heat of combus- 
 tion, 43 ; products of combus- 
 tion, 43 ; industrial uses, 44, 
 307 ; gradual decompositions, 46. 
 Action of sulphuric acid, 48 ; 
 transformation to a sugar, 49 ; 
 composition of body produced by 
 dissolving in HSO 4 , 49. De- 
 compositions of, 52 ; by non- 
 oxidising acids, 53 ; practical 
 application, separation of cotton 
 from wool fabric, 55 ; by oxidants, 
 56 ; in acid solutions, 56 ; in 
 alkaline solutions, 60 ; resolution 
 by ferments, 63 ; resolution con- 
 stituting 'decay,' 66; by con- 
 densation of carbon nuclei, 66 ; 
 feeding or nutritive value of, 67 ; 
 destructive distillation of fibrous, 
 of regenerated from thiocarbonate, 
 68 ; tables, 69 ; constitution of, 
 reactions throwing light upon it, 
 75 ; theoretical notes on, 257 ; 
 three subdivisions in group, 78 ; 
 purification in laboratory, 79 ; 
 4 cellular,' 82, 85 ; from woods 
 and lignified tissues, 83 ; elemen- 
 tary composition, 83 ; yield of 
 furfural, 83 ; from cereal straws, 
 esparto, 84 ; their ultimate com- 
 position, 84 ; yield of furfural and 
 reactions, 84 ; results from solu- 
 tion as thiocarbonate, 85 ; re- 
 generated from straw and esparto 
 
 cellulose thiocarbonate, 85 ; 
 pseudo- or hemi-, 87 ; a con- 
 stituent of protozoa, 87 ; com- 
 pound, 89 ; adipo- and cuto-, 90 ; 
 pecto- and muco-, 90 ; Fremy's 
 classification, 90 ; para- and 
 meta-, 90; ligno-, 91, 92; (see 
 Jute) a and &, from jute fibre, 
 93 5 general view of the group, 
 235 ; processes of decay and 
 destruction (tables), 239 ; morpho- 
 logy, 243 ; technology, principles 
 of, 273 ; preparation of fibres 
 from raw material, 276 ; flax, 
 and jute, 275 ; spinning, 279 ; 
 bleaching, 284 ; of jute, 285 ; 
 linen yarn, 286 ; jute cuttings, 
 287; cotton, 288 ; constitution of, 
 
 313 
 
 Cell-wall, differentation of sub- 
 stances composing, 86 
 
 Cerin, 228 
 
 Ceryl alcohol, 80 
 
 China grass, 79, 220, 278 
 
 Chloroplasts, 73 
 
 Coal, 66, 238 
 
 Collodion varnishes, 44 ; films, 44 
 
 Colloidal cellulose, 53 
 
 Combustion, rapid method, 245 
 
 Condition, water of, 5 
 
 Cordite, 44, 309 
 
 Cork, 225, 226 
 
 ' Crude fibre,' Weende method of 
 estimation, 165 
 
 Cutin, 228 
 
 Cutocelluloses, 90. See Adipocellu- 
 loses 
 
 Cutose, 90, 229, 230 
 
 DECACRYLIC acid, 227 
 Dehydration, 245 
 Dextrose, 64, 74, 86, 222, 261 
 Diastase, 71 ; secretion by flower- 
 ing plants, 74 
 Diazotype process, 298 
 Drupose, 162 
 Dye woods, 204 
 Dyeing processes, 294 
 Dynamite, 309 
 
Index 
 
 325 
 
 ELECTRIC lamp, 8 
 
 Enzyme (cyto-hydrolyst), 65 ; in 
 
 digestive tract of herbivora, 67, 
 
 216 
 
 Esparto, 84, 220 
 Eulysm, 227 
 Explosives, 44, 308, 317 
 
 FERMENT, acetic, form ing cellulose, 
 72 ; hydrolyses of cellulose, 255 
 
 Ferric ferricyanide, action on jute, 
 115 ; theory of dyeing, 124 ; be- 
 haviour with gelatin, 129 
 
 Fibres, raw, investigation of, 269 ; 
 fibre constants, 300; numerical 
 expression, 301 
 
 Films, 4, 44 
 
 Filter paper, 3 
 
 Finishing processes, 6 
 
 Flax, 79, 80 ; retting and scutching, 
 217; cortical tissue, 217; flax 
 fibre proper a pectocellulose, 
 methods of isolation in laboratory 
 and in practice, 218 ; flax cellu- 
 lose, 219 
 
 Food in relation to work, Muntz's 
 researches, 168; tables, 169,170, 
 171 
 
 Fremy's classification, 173 
 
 Furfural, product of acid hydrolysis 
 of oxycelluloses, 82 ; reagent for 
 obtaining, 82 ; furfural-yielding 
 complex, 98 ; estimation of, 99 ; 
 oxidation of, 319. See also Jute 
 
 , 86, 199, 2l6, 222, 262 
 
 (ilycerol, 228 
 
 Glycodrupose, 161 
 
 Glycolignose, 198 
 
 (ilycuronic acid, 184 
 
 Green fodder-plants, 7 ; investiga- 
 
 tion of, 270 
 Grundsubstanz, 167 
 Gum-arabic, 216 
 Gun-cotton, heat and products of, 
 
 combustion, 43. See Cellulose 
 
 nitrates 
 
 HACKLER'S dust, 234 
 Hackling, 80, 234 
 Hemi-celluloses, 87 
 
 Hemp, 79 
 
 Hexoses, identification, 261 
 Hippuric acid, 192 
 Humus, 238, 239, 314 
 Hydracellulose, 54 
 Hydration, 245 
 Hydrocellulose, 54 
 Hydroxyfurfural, 317 
 Hydroxypyruvic acid, 47 
 
 JUTE, 91 ; composition of fibre, 92 j 
 furfural-yielding complex, 92 ; 
 cellulose isolated not homo- 
 geneous, 93 ; quantitative esti- 
 mation of cellulose constituents, 
 94 ; by chlorination, 94 ; by bro- 
 mination, 95 ; by treatment with 
 nitric acid and potassium chlorate, 
 96 ; with dilute nitric acid, 97 ; 
 by sulphite and bisulphite pro- 
 cess, 97; estimation of furfural- 
 yielding complex, 99 ; of keto R. 
 hexene constituent, 101 ; estima- 
 tion of constants of chlorination, 
 1 02 ; empirical formula, 102 ; 
 determination of HC1 in reaction, 
 104 ; control observations, 104 ; 
 estimation of secondary constitu- 
 ents (methoxyl) by standard me- 
 thod of Zeisel, 106 ;CO.CH 2 resi- 
 due, 107 ; systematic account of 
 fibre ; 'butts ' or ' cuttings,' 109, 
 287 ; sp.gr., no ; analysis of va- 
 rious specimens (table), I IO; com- 
 position, ill ; empirical formula, 
 in; artificial cultivation by A. 
 Pears, in; analysis of cultivated 
 fibre (table), 112 ; lignocellulose 
 hydrates, 113; solutions of ligno- 
 cellulose, 114, 263; qualitative 
 reactions and identification, 115, 
 262 ; action of aniline salts and 
 coal-tar dyes, 115, 262 ; action of 
 phloroglucinol, iodine, chlorine, 
 ferric chloride, ferric ferricyanide, 
 115, 262, 266; chromic acid, 
 potassium permanganate, 116; 
 compounds of jute cellulose, with 
 acids and alkalis, from dilute 
 solutions, Il6, 263 ; from concon- 
 
326 
 
 Cellulose 
 
 trated solutions of alkaline hy- 
 drates, mercerisation^ 120 ; thio- 
 carbonate reaction, 12 1 ; com- 
 pounds with metallic salts, reac- 
 tion with ferric ferricyanide, and 
 theory of dyeing, 124; com- 
 pounds with negative radicals, 
 benzoates, 131 ; acetates,nitrates, 
 132 ; lignocellulose under nitra- 
 tion behaves as a homogeneous 
 body, 134; compounds with the 
 halogens, chlorine, 134; bromine, 
 137 ; iodine, 138, 263 ; resolution 
 into constituent groups, 139; by 
 hydrochloric, hydriodic, sulphuric 
 acid, 140 ; nitric, dilute, in pre- 
 sence of urea, 141, 264; by alkalis, 
 141 ; by acid oxidants, chromic 
 acid, 142, 264 ; chromic and sul- 
 phuric, 144 ; strong nitric, 145 ; 
 joint action of oxides of nitrogen 
 and chlorine, 147 ; by alkaline 
 oxidants, potassium, perman- 
 ganates, 147 ; hypochlorites, 148; 
 hypobromites, 149 ; interaction 
 with sulphites and bisulphites, 
 149, 265 ; animal digestion, 151 ; 
 spontaneous decomposition, 152; 
 destructive distillation, 153 ; 
 general conclusions as to com- 
 position and constitution of ligno- 
 cellulose, 155 ; lignocellulose 
 considered as a whole, 157, 319 ; 
 ultimate analysis, 266 
 
 KKTO R. hexene constituent of 
 
 lignocelluloses, 101. See Jute 
 Kieselguhr, 309 
 
 LEUCOGALLOL, 102 
 Levulinic acid, 199 
 Levulose, 74, 262 ; condensation 
 
 of, 313 
 
 Lichenin, 2?4 
 Lignification, 92 
 Lignin, 94 
 Lignite, 66, 238 
 Lignocellulose, 91, 92 ; esters, 131 ; 
 
 of cereals, composition of brewers' 
 
 grains, 163 ; straws, how differ, 
 entiated from typical lignocellu- 
 lose, 164. See Jute 
 Lignone, 94, 319, 320 
 
 MAIKOGALLOL, 102 
 
 Maltose, 74 
 
 Mannose, 86; hydrazone, 199; 
 
 identification, 262 
 Meals, analysis of, 167 ; rice meal, 
 
 167 
 Mechanical wood-pulp, estimation 
 
 in paper, 174 
 Mercerisation, 23, 120 
 Metapectic acid, identical with 
 
 arabic acid, 216 
 Metapectin, 216 
 Methoxyl determination in woods, 
 
 1 06, 188, 265 
 Mitscherlicli process, 198 
 Mucic acid, 199 
 Mucocelluloses, 90. See Pectocellu- 
 
 loses 
 Musa, 220 
 
 NITRIC acid, toughening action on 
 
 papers, 254 
 Nitrocelluloses, or cellulose nitrates, 
 
 38, 309, 315, 316 
 Nitroglycerin, 309 
 
 OIL- WAX complex in flax, 80 
 Oleocutic acid, 230 
 Ophrydium versatile, 87 
 Oxycellulose, 56, 82 ; preparation 
 
 and diagnosis, 254 ; identification, 
 
 262 
 Osazone, 222 
 
 PAPER, analysis of, 271 ; perma- 
 nence a first desideratum in writ- 
 ing and printing paper, 304 ; dis- 
 integration of modern, 306 
 
 Paper-making fibres, 280 
 
 Parapectic acid, 216 
 
 Para pectin, 216 
 
 Parchmenting process, 253 
 
Index 
 
 32; 
 
 Peat, 66, 238 
 
 1'ectase, ferment enzyme, 216 
 
 Pectic acid, 216, 290 
 
 Pectin, 216 
 
 Pectocelluloses, 90 ; how distin- 
 guished from mucocelluloses, 215; 
 general characteristics, 217 ; flax, 
 217 (which see) ; China grass or 
 Ramie, nettle fibres, monocoty- 
 ledonous fibre aggregates, 220 ; 
 parenchymatous tissue of fruits, 
 221 ; mucilaginous constituents 
 of plant tissues, quince mucilage, 
 221 ; salep mucilage, 223 ; amy- 
 loid, lichenin, 224 ; carragheen 
 mucilage, 225 ; general methods 
 of investigation, 267 
 
 Pectose, 90, 216 
 
 Pentaglucoses, 93, 262 
 
 Pentosans, 93, 185, 186 
 
 Pentoses, 86 
 
 Phloroglucinol, action on jute, 115, 
 192 
 
 Phormium, 220 
 
 Powders, smokeless, 309 ; sporting, 
 
 309 
 
 Printing processes, 294 
 Pseudocarbons, 70 
 Pseudocelluloses, 87 
 Pyrocatechol, from woods of Coni- 
 
 ferae, 198 
 
 Pyrocatechuic acid, 198 
 Pyroxylins, 39 
 
 QUINCE mucilage, 221 
 
 RAMIE, 220 
 
 Retting, 67, 80, 234, 277 
 Rhea. See China grass 
 Rot-steep, 67 
 
 SACCHARIC acid, 261 
 Salep mucilage, 223 
 Sehultze's reagent, 173 
 Scutching, 80 
 
 .silk, Dr. Lehner's artificial, 45, 308 
 
 Skeletonising, process of, 06 ; a 
 
 simple means of differentiation^ 
 
 Spinning processes, 279 
 
 Stability of nitrocelluioses, 317 
 
 Stearocutic acid, 230 
 
 Straws, cereal, behaviour in thio- 
 carbonate reaction, 164 ; wood 
 gum in, 187 
 
 Suberin, 228, 231 
 
 Suberose, 228, 231 
 
 Sugar cane, 220 
 
 Sugars, 65 ; cane sugar first assimi- 
 lated, and probable immediate 
 mother substance of cellulose, 72 
 
 TEXTILES, analysis of, 271 
 Thiocarbonate of cellulose, 25, 318. 
 
 See also Cellulose 
 Tissue-substance, first step in 
 
 building-up of, 74 
 Tunicin, 87 
 
 VARNISHES, collodion, 44 
 Vase u lose, 90 
 Viscose, 25, 247, 318 
 
 WEKNDE method, 165 
 
 ' Willesden ' goods, 13 
 
 Wood-gum, 187 
 
 Woods, 91 ; structural elements, 
 172 ; Fremy's classification, 173 ; 
 general property to form hydrogen 
 peroxide, and estimation of 
 mechanical wood-pulp in papers, 
 174 ; empirical composition, 1/4 ; 
 tables, 75 ; proximate analysis 
 table, 175 ; resolution into cellu- 
 lose and non-cellulose, 177 ; dis- 
 cussion of Sachi,se's view that 
 lignocelluloses are the products of 
 metabolism of cellulose, 178 ; 
 estimation of furfural (table), 182; 
 de Chalmot on life-history of 
 woods, 182 ; wood gum, 184, 
 187 ; in cereal straws, 187 ; 
 analyses, 1 88 ; methoxyl deter- 
 minations, 188, 189 ; acetic 
 residue, 191 ; destructive dis- 
 tillation, 192 ; chlorination of 
 wood lignocelluloses, dicotyledo- 
 
328 
 
 Cellulose 
 
 nous, 194 ; coniferous (table), 
 195 ; synthetical reactions, nitra- 
 tion, 196; chemistry of woods of 
 Coniferae, 197 ; investigation of 
 sulphite pulp process, 198 ; 
 empirical formulae with methoxyl 
 determinations, 201 ; yields of 
 pulp, 202 ; destructive distilla- 
 tion, 204 ; tables, 205, 256 ; 
 Ramsey and Chorley's tables, 
 207 ; disintegration by reagents, 
 proximate resolutions, 208; table, 
 
 209 ; sulphurous acid, bisul- 
 phites, neutral sodium sulphite, 
 
 210 ; alkaline processes, acid pro- 
 
 211 ; ultimate resolutions, 
 
 extreme action of alkaline hy- 
 drates, 213 ; chromic, in pre- 
 sence of sulphuric, acid, 214, 266 
 
 XANTHATES of cellulose, 26, 247, 
 318. See Cellulose thiocarbon- 
 ates 
 
 Xylan, in wood gum, 184 
 
 Xylonite, 44, 308 
 
 Xylose, 86 
 
 'ZEISEL,' standard method of esti- 
 mating methoxyl, 106, 189, 265 
 
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