CO 
 
 1 
 
 
 
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 i 
 
 CO 
 SO
 
 THE 
 
 MANNERS 
 
 AND 
 
 CUSTOMS 
 
 O F T H E 
 
 R O MANS. 
 
 Tranflated from the FRENCH. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 Printed for JOHN and PAUL KNAPTON, at 
 the Crown in Ludgate-Street. MDCCXL.
 
 Stack 
 Annex 
 
 5 
 THE 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 INTRODUCTION, Page i 
 
 BOOK I. 
 
 The Manners and Cuftoms of the Romans, 
 confidered principally in private life, 1 3 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 I. Of 'names , and when they were given. II. Re- 
 gifter of the births of children. III. Of adoption. 
 
 IV. Manner of educating children, ibid. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 I. Manner of life of the firft Romans. II. Of the 
 education of their youth. III. Few laws of the 
 firft Romans. IV. Praife of the firft Romans. 
 
 V. Education of females. VI. Tafte of the 
 Romans for martial exercifes, 18 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 I. Of eloquence. II. Origin of the profejfion of 
 advocates. III. Decline of the fciences. IV. 
 Ignorance of the early times. V. No public 
 fchools. VI. Manner of writing. VII. Of 
 letters epiftolary. VIII. Moderation ofAuguftus 
 and Tiberius : IX. Magnificent titles of the 
 Emperors and Senators. X. Of the politenefs 
 of the Romans. XI. Place of honour on the 
 A 2 right. 
 
 2000766
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 right. XII. Emperors faint e by a kifs. XIII. 
 RefretJ paid to the ladies. XIV. Wine prohi- 
 bited to women, 22 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 J. Of habits. II. Of the robe called Toga. III. Of 
 the robe Pnetexta. IV. Of the Latus-clavus. 
 V. Of the Bulk. VI. Of the robe Lacerna. 
 VII. Of the 'Synthefis. VIII. We Pullata. 
 IX. The Pciluclamentum. X. Military habits. 
 
 XI. Ufeoflinnen. XII. Of girdles. XIII. Tbs 
 women wort no ft ays. XIV. Colour of habits. 
 XV. #^;Y<? a*/ *# times of rejoicing. XVI. 
 Rarity of filk, 32 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 J. Off yf s. ll.Head-drefsoftbemen. III. Time 
 of taking the Toga virilis, or robe of man- 
 hood. IV. The firft beard. V. Maids when 
 marriageable. VI. Powder of goldufed in the 
 hair, VII. .Rz// &*>. VIII. Long beards. 
 
 IX. Different head drefs of the Roman ladies. 
 
 X. Pendants at the ears and other rich orna- 
 ments. XI. Pearls, diamonds, and other jewels. 
 
 XII. Pendants at the ears. XIII. Pendants 
 worn by men. XIV. Jewels much in fajhion 
 amongft the Roman ladies. XV. Of rings and 
 feah) 40 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 J, Gold rings peculiar to the Knights. II. Atten- 
 tion of the roman ladies to improve their beauty. 
 III. Falfe teeth IV. Of the toilets of the la- 
 dies. V. Manner of dre/ing the legs. VI. Of 
 
 Jboes.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Jhofs. VII. Of the military drefs for the legs, 
 V! T I. Drefs of the legs worn by the magift rates. 
 ~\.. The fame of flaves. X. The antient Ro- 
 mans went barefoot, 45 
 
 CHAP. VII. 
 
 I. Of Utters. II. Chariots of the Emperors* 
 II L Chariots for travelling expeditioujly. 
 IV. Kind of poft. V. Of the great ways or 
 roads. VI. MeJJengers of the galleys. VII. Form 
 of the chariots ', 5 1 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 I. Of houfes. II. Unknown kind ofplaifer. III. 
 Grandeur of Rome. IV. Manner of building 
 houfes. V. Courts of houfes. VI. Height of 
 houfes. VII. JVo chimneys. VIII. Portable 
 furnaces. IX. 7&W of ftoves to heat rooms. 
 
 X. Manner of cooling apartments in fummer. 
 
 XI. /F&#/ w/?<i inftead of glajs for windows is 
 unknown. XII. Of ciflerns. XIII. O/ &$*'- 
 /^///jy. XIV. 7^//y, <?r certificate, of hofyita- 
 lity. XV. Porticos for the different Jeafons. 
 
 XVI. Rooms to eat in on the tops of the houfes. 
 
 XVII. O/ /tfrarw. XVIII. */&. XIX. 
 5/w. XX. O/ /^ Therm*. XXI. Tfo 
 Ti'^r //&<? ^r/? bath of the Romans. XXII. 
 Simple beds of the antient Romans. XXIII. 
 Beds. XXIV. Form of beds. XXV. Of feats. 
 XXVI. Tapeftry. XXVII. Tafee for painting 
 and fculpture. XXVIII. Tables of curious 
 wood. XXIX. Of ve/els and plate, 55 
 
 CHAP.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 I. Divifan of the night. II. Of the lamps tifed 
 during the right. III. Divifton of the day. 
 IV. Firfi fan-dial. V. Of the Clepfydra, or 
 water- clock. VI. Ufual occupations of the day. 
 VII. O/ patrons and clients. VIII. Manner 
 of devoting criminals. IX. RefpecJ of clients 
 for their patrons , t>8 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 I. Qf /& /&>** Awr. II. O/ <ta?r. III. Af- 
 fairs tranfacJed in the Forum. IV. Magnifi- 
 cence of buffets. V. Of the beds ufed at tables* 
 
 73 
 CHAP. XI. 
 
 I. Bills of fare given the guejls. II. Of the King 
 of the fe aft. III. Of the crowns of flowers and 
 ivy. IV. Of the healths drank. V. Number of 
 courfes. VI, Mulled wines. VII. .Afo ta/>- 
 do/&. VIII. Table- cloths firjt ufed. IX. O/ 
 the diverfwns with which feafts were atten- 
 ded. X. Hour of fupper. XI. O/ //fo mz- 
 faft. XII. O//^ fe<?r. XIII. G< / 
 chance. XIV. Lotteries, 77 
 
 CHAP. XII. 
 
 Romans. II. 
 
 Romans. III. ^7w prohibited to wo- 
 men. IV. Of vintages. V. Q/d wi;;* efteemed. 
 
 VI. Laws for retrenching the luxury of the table. 
 
 VII. Supper given Cicero and Pompey by Lucul- 
 lus. VIII. Lucullus compared to Curius Den- 
 taiusy 84 
 
 CHAP.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. XIII. 
 
 I. Of phyficians. II. Inftitution of hot bath*. 
 
 III. Of bakers. IV. Of arts andfciences. V* 
 
 of architecture. VI. Of fculpture. VII. Of 
 
 painting^ 90 
 
 CHAP. XIV. 
 
 1. Divifton of the y6ar. II. ?"/&<? Julian year, 
 III. 2>#r of the foundation of Rome. IV. Af^- 
 #<?r of dating by Confuljhips. V. Of new-year's 
 gifts. VI. Divifion Of the months, 95 
 
 CHAP. XV. 
 
 I. Calends, time for payments. II. Ofufury. Ill* 
 Inter efls of money. IV. Of bankers. V. Of the 
 great -place, or Forum Romanum. VI. Of tht 
 tribunal for harangues. VII. Of /^ military 
 pillar, from whence the miles of Italy were 
 computed^ 98 
 
 CHAP. XVI. 
 
 I. Ofdijlances. II. Of the Roman feet. III. O/ 
 land-meafure. IV. 0//& Bafilicas. V. O/ //- 
 quid meafure. VI. Of the Roman pound. VII* 
 Of the Jhambles, and public granaries, 101 
 
 CHAP. XVII. 
 
 I. O/ /&<? /<?/d o/ .Mzrf. II. O/" /fo exercifes in 
 the field of Mars. III. O/ few. IV. Qf 
 y^/(?y ^y aucJion. V. Punijhment of prodigals. 
 VI. Chaftifement of Jlaves. VII. O/ Afe ^^ 
 franchifement ofjlaves. VIII. Manner of ma- 
 A 4
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 king /laves free. IX. Duties of freedmen to 
 their mafters, 104 
 
 CHAP. XVIII. 
 
 I. Of the diftribution of corn to the People. II. 
 Freedom of Rome granted to phyficians . III. 
 Dijlribution of provifions. IV. Dijlribution of 
 money to the People upon the accejjion of each 
 Emperor. V. Annihilation of the privileges of 
 the Roman citizens. VI. Liberality of AuguJ- 
 tus to fuch as bad children, 117 
 
 CHAP. XIX. 
 
 I. Privileges of married perfons. II. Penalties or* 
 dained againft celebacy. III. Of marriage. IV. 
 'The day after the nuptials. V. Of divorces. VI. 
 'The wife retained her maiden name after mar- 
 riage. VII. Law againft debauching maids , 
 VIII. Of 'courtezans, 120 
 
 BOOK II. 
 
 The different kinds of government, and 
 magiftrates of the Romans, 128 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 I. Of the government of the Kings. II. Government 
 of the Kings mixed. III. Interregnum. IV. 
 Expulfwn of the Kings, ibid. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 \ 
 
 I. Of the Confuls . II. Time of their election. III. 
 Confuls eleft. IV.OftheLicJors. V . Rejpeft 
 paid the Confuls. VI. Provinces allotted the 
 Confuls. VII. Deference of the Romans for 
 
 age.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 age. VIII. Alliance of the Plebeians with ths 
 Patricians, 1 32 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 I. Plebeian Conful. II. In what manner the 
 Plebeians attained the Conful/hip. III. Aboli- 
 tion of the Confuljhipi 137 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 I. Of the Decemviri. II. Of the military Tri- 
 bunes. III. Of the Diftator. IV. Caufes of 
 the feditions of the People. V. Of the Tribunes 
 of the People. VI. Power of the Tribunes of 
 the People. VII. Decree ufed by the Senate 
 againft the Tribunes of the People. VIII. Re- 
 fpett for the Tribunes of the People. IX. Co- 
 optation. X. DiJJenfton between the Nobility and 
 People , advantagious to the Commonwealth^ 
 
 141 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 I. Of what kind the Commonwealth was. II. 
 Manners of Salluft's time described. III. Ve- 
 nality of fit ff rages. IV. Difference of the State 
 and of the Se'nate under the Emperors. V. 
 Haughtinefs of the Roman citizens in the time 
 of the Commonwealth. VI. Refpeft paid to 
 the Roman people by foreign powers. VII. Sta- 
 tue of Tiber, to which fatirical pieces and lam- 
 poons were affixed, 1 50 
 
 CHAP.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 I. Of the Senators. II. Senators called Fathers* 
 III. Income necejjary to qualify a perfon for thi 
 dignity of Senator. IV. Fortunes to qualify 
 Senators and Knights at the difcretion of the Em- 
 perors. V. Title of Clarifiimus, or Moft II- 
 luftrious, given to the Senators. VI. Prefents 
 made by the Commonwealth. VII. Time when 
 the Senate's authority was greateft. VIII. Man- 
 ner of giving opinions and voting in the Senate. 
 IX. Senators called Senatores Pedarii, 157 
 
 CHAP. VII. 
 
 I. Of the Knights. II. Of the Prince oftheTouth. 
 
 III. Robe called Anguftus-clavus. IV. Gold- 
 ring of the Knights. V. Knights that farmed 
 the public revenues. VI. Of the Nobility. VII. 
 The Prcztor. VIII. The Prztorium, IX. The 
 Great Pr&tor, or Prsetor Urbanus. X. Pro- 
 vincial Praetors, 164 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 I. Different tribunals at Rome. II. Manner of 
 citing before the judge. III. Duumviri. IV. 
 Punifljment inflifted. V. Executioners of jujlice^ 
 
 171 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 I. Cenfor, II. Function of the Cenfors. III. Ad- 
 judication of the farms of the Commonwealth. 
 
 IV. Of the Prince of the Senate. V. The Cu- 
 rule sEdiles* VI. We Plebeian &diles. VII. 
 
 The
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Qu&ftor. VIII. Comptrollers of the Quezf* 
 tors. IX. Other kind of Quaftors. X. Of 
 Proconfuls. XI. Reducing into a province, 
 what it was. XII. Of the inferior officers of 
 the Commonwealth, . 174 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 I. Laws of the Aufpices. II. Election of the ma- 
 giftrates. III. AJfemblies by Curia;. IV. Af- 
 Jemblies by Centuries. V. Advantage of the 
 Nobility in the ajfemblies by Centuries. VI. Af- 
 femblies by Tribes. VII. Patricians obliged to 
 appear at the tribunal of the People. VIII. 
 Every ninth day market-day. IX. Of Candi- 
 dates. X. Corruption of fuffrages, 187 
 
 CHAP. XI. 
 
 I. Of the two different kinds of magiftrates. II. 
 Curule magiftrates. III. Magiftrates of the 
 colonies. IV. Right of Latium, or of the La- 
 tins. V. Magiftrates of the municipal cities, 
 
 2OI 
 
 CHAP. XII. 
 
 I. Maxims of ft ate under the Emperors. II. Change 
 in the offices. III. Prafett of the Treafury. 
 IV. Pnefe&us Praetorio. V. Roman magi- 
 ftrates both of the Sword and Robe. VI. Of the 
 -name of Emperor. VII. The Empire become 
 elective . VIII. Manner of acknowledging the 
 new Emperors. IX. Divifwn of the Empire. 
 X. Diadem ufed by the Emperors, 206 
 
 BOOK
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 to obtaining a triumph. VIII. Defcription of 
 triumphs. IX. Of the ovation, or lejfer tri- 
 umph. X. Of the FecialeSy 289 
 
 BOOK IV. 
 
 Of the religion of the Romans j of their 
 different Shews, and of the cuftoms ob- 
 ferved in them, 308 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 I. Of the religion of the Romans. II. Of the Pon- 
 tiffs. III. Of the Augurs. IV.OftheArufpices. 
 V. Of the Feflals. VI. Functions of the Vef- 
 tals. VII. Puni/hment of the Feftals, for break- 
 ing their vow of virginity. VIII. Privileges 
 of the Veftals. IX. Liberty of the Veflals. 
 X. Superb train of the veftals, ibid. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 I. Of the Duumviri who kept the books of the 
 Sybils. II. Of the Quindecimviri. III. Of 
 the worjhip paid to the Gods. IV. Origin of 
 the public games. V. Public thankfgivings for 
 good fucceffes. VI. Of the f acred, games. VII. 
 Funeral games. VIII. Games of the Circus. 
 IX. Defcription of the Circus's. X. Chariot- 
 races. XI. Horfe-races. XII. Foot-races. 
 XIII. O/ dancing. XIV. O/ /& Pyrr&V 
 dance j 317 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 I. Of the Scenic games ^ or games of the theatre. 
 II. Defcription of the theatres. III. Of dancing. 
 IV. <y *& wrf/2; <?/ the affors. V. O/ /&? 
 
 mines.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 mimes. VI. Of the pantomimes. VII. Of 
 mufic. VIII. Of rope-dancers. IX. Of the 
 games of the amphitheatre. X. Of the chace. 
 XI. Of fifoing. XII. Excejfive paffion of the 
 Romans for the Shews, 326 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 I. Of the Apotheofis. II. Of funerals. III. In- 
 combuftible cloth. IV. Of fepulchres. V. Of 
 the tombs called Hypogea. VI. Of mourn- 
 ing. VII. Of Gladiators. VIII. Difcbarge or 
 exemption of Gladiators. IX. Gladiators made 
 free. X. Gladiators that ferved in the army^ 
 
 337 
 
 THE
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 to the God of war would render them more for- 
 midable. It is highly probable that they did 
 not invent the fable of the divine extraction of 
 Romulus and Remus, till long after their time ; 
 for it would have gained very little credit with 
 their cotemporaries. 
 
 It is not eafy to believe, that the Romans 
 formed their fyftem for aggrandizing them- 
 felves in thefe weak beginnings : Or did the ex- 
 ample of their founder, folely intent upon ex- 
 tending his little territory, infpire them with 
 that idea ? It is probable, that his maxims 
 founded in good policy, feemed to thofe who 
 introduced the republican government highly 
 proper for feconding their ambitious fcheme, 
 which Romulus firft defigned, and his faccef- 
 fors had neglected. The latter acting only ac- 
 cording to their different gemiufles and particular 
 views, did not enter into a plan of policy, that 
 was not fully unravelled and perfectly under- 
 ftood til] under the Commonwealth. For o- 
 mitting to tread in the fteps of Romulus, they 
 formed, during the fpace of two hundred and 
 forty years, only a very frnall ftate y like the 
 reft of the little ftates of Italy. Perhaps alfo 
 the Romans partly owed their fyftem for ag- 
 grandizing their empire to the high, hopes, 
 which their augurs, and aufpices had made them 
 conceive from the foundation of Rome \ for 
 they promifed them no lefs than the empire of 
 the world, which they aflured them was to be of 
 eternal duration. From all thefe facts it refults, 
 that Rome very early had formed to herfelf a 
 plan of government, as appears from the max- 
 ims conftantly obferved as long as the Common- 
 wealth fubfifted ; a plan from which, neither 
 the. changes, made in the form of the govern- 
 ment,
 
 INTRODUCTION, 3 
 
 ment, ftOf the different kind of magiftrates 
 Cfeatid, erer made her depart. Adverfity it- Pol b 
 felf fetVtd only to augment the ccnftancy and Frag <?. 
 refolution of the Romans, inviolably attached 69. 
 at lucfe f.ime to the maxim of never treating. ^^ 
 with the enerfiy. This paffion for aggrandizing mav - s rg . 
 themfelves had taken fueh deep root in the hearts/^ /y- 
 <*f thefe haughty republicans, that the eonqueft^ <"^ 
 of one country only ertflafhed their dtflre to p ^{ e e " s a r ter 
 conquer others. their *- 
 
 The policy firft employed by Rome, fur paf- 
 
 // 
 
 fed any thing that could be" expected from ****** 
 people fd grofs as they were in the'ir manners : p c i icy ' f 
 fot what could be mor Wifely imagined in fueh tbefrjt 
 l#tali beginnings, than to make ^heir fifft viclo- Roma _ 
 ries augment their forces, by obliging the W*-^." 
 qtiered people to incorporate tfeemfelves with 
 the vidlofs, and artfulty to call in religion to 
 fender both lefs fat-age, and make them reliflb 
 ^Ws proper to form them for obedience atfd 
 good government ? If the Kings who fucceeded 
 Romulus had followed his excellent Maxims, 
 ihey would have carried fheir conquefts farther j 
 but the Common wealth foon knew how to cuki- 
 Vafe thoie firft feeds of policy^ Which always 
 fupplied her with afiiired refources. Covering 
 their exceffive defire of rule under the fpecious 
 eutfiek of ofSctous aimity and good-will, thole 
 ambidfeus republicans hstd the art to improve 
 what pai^d amoftgft their neighbours to their 
 own advantage : and : if differences arofe be- 
 tween them, they never fai-kd 16 interpofe' their 
 mediation, joining always the weaker fide to re- 
 duce the ^rewiger, and thereby preparing the 
 Way for fubje^ling it in the fequel. Romd irt 
 this manner concealed her fecret views under the 
 reil- of g^ncrofiey aftd jaftiee : but lite threw off 
 B 2 that
 
 4 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 that difguife, afibon as fhe perceived herfelf 
 fufficiendy powerful alone for the execution of 
 her ambitious projects, and fhewed that the 
 outfide of juftice with which me adorned herfelf, 
 had no other fource than her want of power. 
 Polyb. What Polybius tells us of the difference between 
 "Vol. Ill t ne Carthaginians and King Maffinifla concern- 
 ^g g c ' ing fome diftricts of land, which they agreed to 
 refer to the decifion of the Roman People, is 
 an authentick teftimony of this truth ; the fol- 
 lowing; are the author*s own terms. The caufe 
 
 ^j 
 
 of the Carthaginians was always bad in the 
 judgment of the Roman People ; not becaufe 
 they wanted good reafons to fupport it, but be- 
 caufe the judges thought it for their intereft to 
 Dion.Hal. judge fo. The Roman People had fhewn the 
 1 ii-c.i2.f ame fp ir i t i on g before, in adjudging lands in 
 Veil. Pat difpute between the Ardeates and Aricini to 
 1. i.e. 12. themfelves, whom thofe people had chofe to 
 arbitrate between them. And lafrly, the de- 
 ftruclion of Carthage, a barbarous and cruel 
 piece of policy, leaves it beyond all doubt, that 
 Rome obferved juftice no farther than as it fuited 
 Tac. 1. 2. ner interefts. It was alfo from a fpirit of poli- 
 cy, and not the fenfe of humanity, that fhe 
 made it a law to herfelf at firft, to leflen the 
 taxes of the provinces me conquered : but her 
 real end was to make her rule appear gentle, in 
 order to allure neighbouring ftates, and to pre- 
 vent by that moderation the revolts that might 
 have been excited in newly fubjecled provinces. 
 Nothing (hews better the genius of her po- 
 licy, than what me did after having avenged 
 herfelf upon Philip King of Macedonia, who 
 Polyb. had affifted Hannibal. She affected to publifh 
 Frag, c 9. in the Ifthmian Games, where all Greece was af- 
 fembled, that the Roman People reinftated all 
 
 the
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the cities of Greece in their liberty ; that they 
 had undertaken the war againft Philip with that 
 view, and that they defired no other reward 
 than the glory of fo beneficent a conduct. This 
 declaration was a mere illufion, and the more, 
 as the Senate had reimburfed themfelves for the 
 expences of the war, not only out of the plun- 
 der which had been taken in it, but alfo by con- 
 fiderable fums which they had exacted from Phi- 
 lip on granting him a peace. But their real 
 motive was to reduce the power of that Prince, 
 which gave umbrage to the Commonwealth, 
 whilft they were fecretly refolved upon the fu- 
 ture conqueft of all Greece. This magnificent 
 difplay of difmtereftednefs tended to efface the 
 fufpicions, which che Greeks might have con- 
 ceived, and was defigned to dazzle them with 
 the name of liberty, of which they were always 
 fo fond, and to prevent them from feeing, that 
 Rome was forging them heavier chains than 
 thofe from which me boafted to have relieved 
 them. Such was the artful policy of the Com- 
 monwealth, which is very obvious throughout 
 the whole courfe of her hiftory. By thrufting 
 herfelf into the affairs of her neighbours, fheFrag. c. 
 continually made way for the fuccefs of her fe- 1 13- 
 cret views, and found means not to leave her ci- 
 tizens unemployed, which might have been of 
 pernicious confequence : for Rome pafled fov^n fat. 
 fmall a part of her time without making war, 1. 2.0.38. 
 that the temple of Janus, which was fhut only 
 during peace, was Ihut only twice from the 
 foundation of Rome till the reign of Auguflus, 
 the firft time under Numa, and the fecond after 
 the firft Punic war. Hence it followed, that 
 being always in arms, fhe became extremely 
 expert in the art of war. However, till the ar- 
 
 B 3 rival
 
 6 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 rival of Pyrr hus in Italy, me had made that art 
 confift only in a fierce and cbftinate courage, 
 and her military difcipline in a miftaktn and 
 excefiive feverity. Bat thai Prince's manner of 
 making war opened her eyes : me began to karn 
 that fcience from him , Hannibal made her pro- 
 found in it, and Scipio at the fame time had the 
 addrels to foften what was too fevere in her dif- 
 PUit. in cipline. 'Marius after gave it a better form ; 
 and Casfar at length put the laft hand to it. By 
 this policy and difcipline, which perfectly fuited 
 the plan formed by the Roman Commonwealth 
 for aggrandizing her power, me fjcceeded to 
 make herfelf the miftrefs of almoft the whole 
 world. When the fprings which fet this great 
 body in motion are known, the hiflory of it is 
 read with much more fatisfaction , becaufe the 
 mind being no longer intent upon tracing them 
 out, devotes itfelf wholly to the pleafure of foU 
 lowing the facts, and the delight which their 
 variety affords. But it is no lefs neceffary to 
 know the Manners and Cuftoms of the people 
 whofe hiftory one reads , that knowledge lead- 
 ing us to that of their genius and character, and 
 almoft rendering us their cotemporaries, or at 
 lead ferving to give them a lefs foreign air. 
 It were therefore to be wifhed, that thofe who 
 undertake to write the Roman hiftory, or that 
 of any other nation, would begin by placing 
 good obfervations upon the policy and peculiar 
 character of fuch people by way of prelimina- 
 ries in the front of their work > which could not 
 but add to the reader's improvement and fatif- 
 fadion. 
 
 To have fome knowledge of the Manners and 
 Cuftoms of the Romans, it is r.ccefiary to di- 
 ftinguifh times : for from the foundation of 
 
 Rome,
 
 INTRODUCTION. ) 
 
 Rome, till fiie extended her conquefts beyond 
 the bounds of Italy, fhe retained a fimplicity 
 and integrity of manners, that did her more ho- 
 nour even than her triumphs. The virtues, of 
 which fhe has left UB examples that conftitute the 
 ornament of her hiftory, are the love of her 
 country and of public good in preference to 
 private intereft and often life itfelf, a greatnefs 
 of foul and force of mind, that made her re- 
 gard difgraces and adverfity as the lot and inhe- 
 ritance of human nature, and at the fame time 
 as the ornaments of her conftancy and refolu- 
 tion ; an intrepidity of entire proof againft the 
 greateft dangers ; an admirable generofity, that 
 often extended even to her enemies , a love of 
 fimplicity and averfion for luxury, which con- 
 fine themfelves to the fimple oceafions of na- 
 ture ; to which might be added the contempt of 
 riches, if it were not obvious, that it was rather 
 the habit of poverty, than a real virtue in effect 
 of choice. Accordingly* when they had fubjected 
 opulent ftates, they purfued riches with amazing 
 ardor , every one in particular making it his 
 fole ftudy to amafs them, without any fcruple 
 or regard to the means. The exceffive avarice 
 of CrafTus, Verres, and fo many others, are 
 proofs of this ; and what Jugurtha faid in fly- SalM- m 
 ing from Rome, that it wanted only a purcha- gurl 
 ier to fell itfelf, is a ftill ftronger teftimony of 
 it. That Prince faid fb with good grounds ; for 
 after having corrupted the generals of the armies 
 fent againft him by the Commonwealth with his 
 prefents, he found the Senate no lefs eafy in that 
 refpect. Accordingly, in procefs of time, the 
 too great opulence and ambition of her citizens VeU - Pat - 
 were the rocks upon which the Roman liberty ' 
 was fhipwrecked j the civil wars, which were a 
 B 4 kind
 
 3 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 kind of prelude to the flavery of the State, de- 
 riving themfelves from thofe fources. 
 
 Aflbon as Rome had carried her arms into 
 Afia, luxury, effeminacy, feafting, debauche^ 
 ry, and the love of riches and pleafures, were 
 feen in a fliort time to fucceed the antient fimple 
 and frugal kind of life ; fo that (he feemed to 
 have contracted the vices of all the nations fhe 
 had fubjected to her power. She did not fall 
 into thefc exceffes till about an hundred and 
 fifty years before the end of the Common- 
 wealth. 
 
 The times when all the virtues we have juft 
 mentioned fhone out moft, were about the arri- 
 val of Pyrrhus in Italy and the two firfl Punic 
 wars -, the artificial fpirit of the Commonwealth 
 notwithftanding always fubfifted, with this dif- 
 ference, that fhe preserved appearances in thofe 
 days with a nicer attention than fhe did after the 
 augmentation of her power had left her nothing 
 to fear from her neighbours. 
 
 Lib.o c i Valerius Maximus dates the introduction of 
 III. luxury at Rome about the 561 ft year of its foun- 
 Epodaof dation, immediately after the defeat of Philip 
 luxury. King O f Macedonia, and attributes it to the 
 fuppreflion of the law Oppia, by which women 
 were prohibited to wear habits of different co- 
 lours, to ufe more than half an ounce of gold in 
 their drefs, and to be drawn in chariots with 
 two horfes within the diftance of a thoufand pa- 
 ces from the city ; unlefs fome facrifice were to 
 be made. 
 
 But what occafioned the abrogation of this 
 law, was the tafte which the Romans had alrea- 
 dy began to contract for the foft and voluptuous 
 life of the Afiatics : for the date of luxury and 
 rorruption of manners at Rome ought to be 
 
 fixed
 
 INTRODUCTION. 9 
 
 fixed at the time, when the army fent againft 
 Antiochus, after having fubjected the provinces 
 of Afia, brought back from thence the vices 
 with the fpoils of the conquered. Their progrefs 
 indeed did not appear confiderable, till after the 
 deftruction of Carthage , which made Velleius Veil. Pat. 
 Paterculus not date its beginning till then ; after 1. 2. c. 4 
 which it became fo rapid and general, that 
 Rome entirely changed afpect. It will not be 
 ufelefs to note this difference of times with at- 
 tention. 
 
 Ir muft be obferved, that the Roman People 
 were at firft compofed only of two Orders, the 
 Patricians and Plebeians : the firfb included the 
 whole nobility ; but from the time that the 
 Gracchi were Tribunes of the People, and had 
 paffed the law, which transferred the cognizance 
 of certain caufes from the Senators to the 
 Knights, the latter formed a fecond Order of 
 the Nobility, and then the Roman People were 
 divided into three Orders, of which the laft 
 confifted of the inferior citizens, the Burghers 
 or Plebeians. For the minifters of religion 
 formed no feparate Order. They were con- 
 founded with the Nobility, who referved to 
 themfelves the fuper in tendance of the facrifices, 
 and the dignities of religion, which they con- 
 ftantly engrofled till the 446th year of Rome, 
 when the People were admitted to fhare in theLiv.1. 10. 
 dignities of Augur and Pontiff. The third Or- 
 der contained only free perfons, who were alfo 
 diftinguifhed into three kinds. Firft, thofe who 
 were born free, and of parents who had always 
 been fo ; thefe were called Ingenui : fecond ly, 
 the children of freedmen, called in Latin Liber- 
 tini ; and thirdly, freedmen themfelves, who 
 from (laves had been fet at liberty by their ma- 
 
 fters:
 
 io INTRODUCTION. 
 
 fters : for as long as they continued flaves, they 
 
 could not be ranked amongft the People. 
 
 IV - Thefe three Orders were included in the ge- 
 
 ^'T^neral diftribution of the Roman People made at 
 
 Roman d- firft by Romulus, in dividing Rome into Tribes 
 
 tizeas. or Quarters, which he fub-divided into a certain 
 
 pion Hal. num b cr o f Curie ^ or Wards. Servius Tullius, 
 
 3> the fixth King, in order to have a more exact 
 
 knowledge ot the forces of the Roman People, 
 
 inftituted the Cenfus 7 or general review of all 
 
 Ibid. 1. 4. the Roman citizens, wherein every father of a 
 
 c ' 5- family was obliged to give in a faithful account 
 
 of his flaves, his freedmen, and adlual refidence, 
 
 upon pain, for fuch as difobeyed this regulation 
 
 or delivered falfe accounts, of being publicly 
 
 Senec.Ep. whipped, and afterwards fold for flaves. This 
 
 95- . mufter was to be renewed every fifth year, as 
 
 Dion.Hal. . - - 
 
 1 4 c. 4. we 
 
 the Cenfors. 
 
 v - . He alfo inftituted Chiefs, or rather Syndics, 
 ^""nia- * n ever 7 visage : they were to take an account 
 ges to take ? the inliabitans and their eftates ; and as often 
 /^Cenfus.as levies were to be made, or taxes to be raifed, 
 Dion.Hal ~ lt was tne bufinefs of thofe Syndics to lift fol- 
 
 G 4 ^ ers > anc ^ to k vv tne capitation. They were 
 2 'alfo to take care that the lands in their diftricls 
 were well cultivated. To facilitate this mufter 
 in the country, he inftituted a feftival called Pa- 
 nagalia, in honour of the tutelary Gods of each 
 village, to whom they erefted altars. All the 
 inhabitants of each viJlage were obliged to af- 
 femble annually on a certain day, to offer pub- 
 lic facrifices upon them to thofe Divinities, and 
 ro bring thither a fmall piece of coin of diffe- 
 rent fpecies, the men of one kind, the women 
 of another, and the children of a third ; fo that 
 in putting each fpecies by itfclf and counting 
 : them s
 
 INTRODUCTION. 11 
 
 them, he who prefidcd at thefe facrifices, knew 
 immediately the number, age, and fex, of theDion.Hal. 
 whole aflembly. Servira Tuilhis afterwards di- *' 4' c> 5 * 
 ftributed the Roman Peopk into fix Clajfes, ac- 
 cording to their having more or kfs eftate, and 
 divided each Clafs into a certain number of C?- 
 turies, of which he made another divifion, the 
 one of fuch as were above forty-five years old, 
 and the other of the Toutb, that is to fay, thofe 
 between feventeen and forty- five. For amongft 
 the Romans a man was deemed of the number 
 of the Toutb till that age. This latter body was 
 intended to aft abroad, and compofed the ar- 
 mies which ferved in the field -, and out of the 
 other, the troops which remained to guard the 
 city were compofed. To thefe two bodies of 
 troops he added four Centuries, two of which 
 confided only of artificers, and the other two of 
 performers on mufical inftruments ; all four to 
 follow the armies. The firft Clafs contained 
 the richeft citizens, and the reft of the fame in 
 proportion down to the fixth, in which thofe 
 were ranked, whofe fortunes did not amount to 
 twelve hundred and fifty drachmas. Thefe were 
 a multitude of the poorer fort, which were cal- 
 led Proletarii, becaufe they were ufeful to the 
 State only in the propagation of children ; be- 
 ing exempt from ferving in the armies, and 
 from paying any taxes on account of their po- 
 verty. They therefore only made up number ; 
 and were called alfo for that reafon Capite Cenft. 
 Though this Clafs was far the moft numerous, 
 Servius made it but one Century, in order that 
 it might have lefs fhare in the affairs of the go- 
 vernment, as we mail fee when we come to 
 fpeak of the Comitia^ or afiemblies of the Ro- 
 man People. The great number of citizens 
 
 made
 
 12 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 made it necefiary to augment that of the Tribes 
 from time to time, which at length rofe to thir- 
 ty-five. The Tribe in confequence did not con- 
 tinue to fignify the Quarter where the citizen 
 lived, as it had at firft ; but only a certain part 
 of the People, of which it confided, and which 
 however ftill retained the name of Tribe. Thus 
 the Roman People was diftributed in five man- 
 ners ; the firft by Tribes, the fecond by Curies 
 or Wards, the third by Gaffes, the fourth by 
 Centuries, and the fifth, by the three Orders of 
 the State, the Senators, the Knights, and the 
 People. The important circumftances which 
 arofe from thefe different diftributions, and the 
 changes which were made in them, will be fuc- 
 ceffively related in this work, as occafion mail 
 naturally introduce them. 
 
 BOOK
 
 [ 13 ] 
 
 BOOK THE FIRST. 
 
 "The MANNERS and CUSTOMS of the 
 Romans-) conjidered 'principally in 
 private life. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 I. Of names, and when they were given. II. Re- 
 gift er of the births of children. III. Of adop- 
 tion. IV. Manner of educating children. 
 
 C 
 
 U S T O M S being things attached to 
 the actions of man in the courfe of 
 
 life, to fpeak of them with fome order, 
 
 it is neceffary to follow him through his different 
 ages, and to begin with him at his birth. As 
 they are eftablifhed only in effect of the relati- 
 on and conformity which they have with the 
 manners of a people, the defcription of the one 
 is, to ufe the expreffion, a lively portrait of the 
 other. 
 
 The Romans, and efpecially perfons of di- 
 ftinction, had ufually * three names, and fome- 
 times four, when they had been adopted : The 
 
 * Si quid tentaveris unquam 
 
 Hifcere, tanquam habeas tria nomina. 
 
 Ju<v. Sat. V. v. 127. 
 
 If tbou dare murmur, if tbou dare complain 
 With freedom, like a Roman Gentleman. 
 
 firft
 
 14 . MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 firft name, or preenomen ; the nomen^ or that of 
 the family from which they defcended ; and the 
 cogiwrnen^ or that peculiar to the branch ot a 
 family. It is certain, that it was the cuflom 
 with them from the beginning to have two 
 names, though Appian of Alexandria fays the 
 contrary in- his preface. All their Kings except 
 Romulus had two, as well as his mother, who 
 was called Rhea Sylvia. In procefs of time the 
 Romans, to diftinguifh themfelves the better, 
 took a thrrrf, either from feme mark of the 
 Pl ut . body, or fome quality of the mind. Plutarch 
 Quaeft- in his Roman queftions affufes us, that the Ro- 
 Rom.io2. man women had two names, and the men three. 
 To a fon they gave the name of the family on 
 the ninth day after his birth j to x daughter on 
 the eighth ; though Julias Capitalinus, in his 
 hiftory of Claudius Albinus, fays, a fon was 
 named, and. a feail given on that oecafion, the 
 feventh day after his birth. But the $"$nomfn 
 was not given him till he took the toga, viriliSi 
 or the gown of manhood, that is to fa-y at feven- 
 teen, nor to the daughters till their marriage. It 
 is observed, that as long as the Commonwealth 
 fu-bfifted, the. Romans were careful to preferve 
 the name, of the family frotfc which they de- 
 fcended ; the eldeft generally took th pr&no* 
 men of his father, as in the families of the FabiL, 
 Cornelii, Claudii, and many others ; as to the 
 younger brothers, they called themfelves indif- 
 ferently by any other firft names. But under the 
 Emperors they do not appear to have had the 
 fame attention. During fome time the women 
 had alfo peculiar firft names, which, were wrote 
 the wrong end upwards , for inflance C. and M. 
 reverfed figniiied Caia and Marcta. This was 
 a manner of exprefling the feminine gender, but 
 
 this
 
 Chap. I. OF T HE ROMANS. 15 
 
 this cuftom was dropt in procefs of time. If 
 the females were only daughters, the name of 
 their houfe was given them alow, and fbme- 
 times foftened with a diminutive as 'Tulliola, in- 
 ftead of fullia. If there were two of them, 
 they were diftinguifhed by the words fenwr and 
 jumor^ and if more they were called the firft, 
 fecond, third, &c. Theie names were alfo 
 made diminutives , as Stcundilla the fecond, 
 Quartilla the fourth. The Emperor Marcus spartian. 
 Aurelius made an ordinance at Rome, whereby in vit. M. 
 all free perfons were obliged to deliver m ac- Aur ^|- 
 counts of all their children, in thirty days from ^ efy ^ er O c 
 the birth of each child, to the treafurer of the the 'births 
 empire, in order to their being depofited in fattf children. 
 temple of Saturn, where the public axSs were 
 kept. And for the fame purpofe he created 
 officers in the provinces, who acled as regrfters ; 
 in order that if any one difputed another's 
 freedom of condition, as often enough hap- 
 pened, he might diefend himfetf by having re^ 
 courfe to thofe depofites. 
 
 They had even in the times of the Kings be- 
 gan, to take cognizance of the number of the 
 children born in Rome, of thofe who died there, 
 and of fiich as took the robe of manhood. For j)j on fj a j 
 Servius Tullius had ordained that a fmall piece 1. 4. c 4. 
 of money mould be carried to the temple of 
 Juno, for the birth of every child ; one to the 
 temple of Venus Libitina on the death of each 
 perfon , and laftly, one to the temple of Youth 
 for. every one that took the toga virilis. But 
 thofe precautions did not fuffice to afcertain a 
 perlon's freedom of condition. 
 
 As. to the flaves, they had at firft no- other 
 
 names but thofe of their mafters; afterwards 
 
 thofe- of their countries was added to them ; and 
 
 2 when
 
 16 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 when they were made free they took their 
 matter's -pranomen^ and the nomen or name of 
 his family, but not the cognomen, inftead of 
 which they retained their own -prcenomm. There 
 was alfo another name which was taken in cafe 
 of adoption. 
 
 III. When a perfon had no children amongft the 
 Ofadop- R ornanSj he was allowed to adopt the fon of a 
 relation or friend. During a certain fpace of 
 time the magiftrates were applied to for this 
 purpofe, and afterwards the people affembled 
 by Curies. The father of the child adopted was 
 afked, whether he would renounce his fon, with 
 the whole extent of his paternal power, and the 
 right of life and death over him ? The Empe- 
 rors afterwards affumed this right to themfelves, 
 and they were applied to for permifllon to adopt ; 
 they even granted it to women who had no chil- 
 dren. Adoption was alfo made by will, both 
 with refpect to name and eftate. This did not 
 take place till the Praetor had authorized it, af- 
 ter the death of the adopter. 
 
 Dion. Caff. Thofe who were adopted, took the name of 
 1. 46. their fathers by adoption, adding to them only 
 thofe of the families from which they defcended. 
 There were feveral things to be obferved by him 
 who defired to adopt. In the firft place it was 
 requifite, that the adoption mould not dilho- 
 nour the family of the adopter : hence a Patri- 
 cian was not allowed to adopt a Plebeian ; but 
 a Plebeian might adopt a Patrician. It was 
 alfo necefifary, that the adopter mould be eigh- 
 teen years older than the adopted, and that he 
 mould have no children. The PrafeRus urbh 
 was to judge of thefe conditions ; and after 
 having examined into them, he either confirm- 
 ed or rejected the adoption : if he granted it, 
 
 they
 
 Chap. I. OF THE ROMANS. 17 
 
 they caufed it afterwards to be ratified by ano- 
 ther magiftrate. 
 
 It is probable, that the manner of educating IV. 
 children differed in the more or lefs happy ages Manner of 
 of Rome. In the beginning it was fuited to 
 the hard and auftere life of the firft Romans - 9 
 but it became more delicate, as luxury and ef- 
 feminacy gained ground. If we carry our 
 curiofity fo far as to defire to know in what 
 manner they treated the earlieft infancy, 
 find that they fwaddled children up in bands and Antiq. 
 folds, almoft in the fame manner as the mo- 
 derns. 
 
 \ 
 
 CHAP.
 
 i8 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 I. Manner of life of the firft Romans. II. Of 
 the education of their youth. III. Few laws of 
 the firft Romans. IV. Praife of the firft Ro- 
 ;. V. Education of females. VI. fafte 
 of the Romans for martial exerctfcs. 
 
 t. AS long as the Romans had only a territory 
 Manna- cfl\ o f fmall extent, and devoted themfelves 
 ptfncip^y to arms a "d agriculture, the educa- 
 t ^ on f tne ^ r youth was confined almofh entirely 
 Dion. Hal to thofe employments ; and it was not till after 
 1. 2. c. 8.j iav i n g carried their arms into Greece, the afy- 
 lum and abode of the arts and iciences, that 
 they were capable of inftructing their youth 
 learnedly. During a long ipace of time, the 
 principal magiftrates of Rome fubfifted folely 
 from fmall eftates in the country, that they 
 cultivated with their own hands, though they 
 refided actually in the city ; between the cares 
 of which, and thofe of the country, they di- 
 Dion.Hal. vidcd their time. \Ve fee an example of this in 
 1. 10. c. 3. the perlbn of Quintius Cincinnatus, whofe whole 
 & 5- eftate confided in four acres of land, and who 
 was found holding the plow, when the deputies 
 of the Senate came to inform him, that he was 
 declared Dictator. It is evident that fuch a 
 kind of life required no very refined education : 
 accordingly the fathers did not transfer that care 
 Oftbeedu-* others, and as their children advanced in 
 cation of years , they inftructed them in the laws, 
 their youth. -^ themfelves had been inftructed in them, 
 and infpired them by their example with 
 the love of their country : They alfo taught 
 
 them
 
 Chap. II. of THE ROMANS. 19 
 
 them how to ufe arms, and all the exercifcs ne- 
 ceflary in war, endeavouring by their irifrruc- 
 tions to make them capable at once of becoming 
 good foldiers, good citizens, and good magif- 
 trates. Indeed at that time, in order to dif- 
 charge the functions of the laft worthily, if we 
 except a fupreme knowledge of the interefh of 
 the Commonwealth, they had no occafion for 
 abundance of ftudy ; as before the compiling of II ^- 
 the laws of the twelve tables, they had very few J^ a ^f t 
 written ones , and thofe known only to the Romans. 
 Patricians. They had no other rules in ad- VaI - Max - 
 judging caufes, but a certain equity and up- ' 2> c> 5" 
 rightnefs of mind , from which the judges 
 feldom departed. Happy, if they could al- 
 ways have retained virtues more ufeful to them 
 than all the laws, that could not prevent the 
 corruption of their manners. Salluft has given -pj. 
 us in few words the praife of thefe times, when Praife of 
 the Roman virtue was at its higheft point, where tbefrji 
 he fays, that Valour in War, and Tuftice in *'?**'" 
 
 r. t r i i t i r i ^ a ^- m 
 
 Peace, were the lole bulwarks or the citizens Cadi, 
 and commonwealth. 
 
 Thofe who were for giving their children aLiv. 1. 9. 
 more extraordinary education , fent them a- 
 mongft the Hetrurians, a neighbouring people, 
 from whom they had borrowed moft of their 
 religious ceremonies, and the enfigns of honour 
 annexed to dignities , as Liclors, who preceded 
 their Kings and magiftrates, the Curule chair of 
 ivory, &c. It was alfo in imitation of the He- 
 trurians, that Rome had Augurs , for that people 
 were judged to excel in fiich kind of fuperftiti- 
 ons, of which the Romans were no lefs ena- 
 moured than them. 
 
 As to the education of females, it was con- y. 
 fined to domeftic economy withindoors, and Education 
 
 C 2 tQof females.
 
 2O MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 to works that fuited it, * as fpinning of wool, 
 which their mothers taught their daughters : for 
 in thofe early times the Roman ladies confined 
 themfelves within their own families, and did 
 not go abroad without neceffity : but in propor- 
 tion as the Roman manners foftened, they were 
 more communicative of themfelves, and at 
 length not the lad to take advantage of the 
 too great liberty and even licence, which the cor- 
 ruption of manners introduced. 
 
 After Rome had rendered her citizens more 
 
 opulent by her conquefts, they gave their chil- 
 
 dren mafters to inftruct them in exercifes and 
 
 Plut. in the fciences. Paulus /Emilius did fo : Cato, 
 
 vit. P. who was very fond of the antient fimplicity, 
 
 ^ H | ll> inftructed his fon himfelf not only in Grammar, 
 
 rit. Citon. f r m n * s ^ me tnev were ^ or knowing the lan- 
 
 * Unde haec monilra tamen, vel quo de fonte, requim ? 
 Praeftabat caflas humilis fortuna Latinos 
 Quondam, ncc vitiis contingi parva fiaebat 
 Tefta labor, fomnique breves, & vellere Thufco 
 Vexatz, duraeque manus, ac proximus urbi 
 Annibal, & ftantes Collina in turre mariti. 
 Nunc patimur longse pacis mala ; fevior armis 
 Luxuria incubuit, viftumque ulcifcitur orbem. 
 NuJlum crimen abeft, facinufque libidinis, ex quo 
 Pauperras Romana perit. - Juv. Sat. VI. v. 285, &c- 
 
 You ajkfrom ivbenct proceed tbefe monftrout crimes? 
 Once poor, and therefore cbafic, in former times 
 Our matrons -a:ere : no luxury found room 
 In lofiu-roof^d honfes, and bare walls of lome ; 
 Their bands with labour harJendnxhile 'twas light, 
 jJnd frugal Jleep fufplyd the quiet night, 
 While pinci>d iritb 'want, their hunger held ''em Jlralglt, 
 When Hannibal e was hofii'ring at the gate. 
 But 'wanton nyiu, and lolling at our eafe, 
 Wefujfer all the in<vefrate ills of peace, 
 And ivajleful riot ; u.-ho/e deftrucli*ve charms 
 A*venge the <vanquifljd mcorld on our victorious arms. 
 No crime, no arts of lewdnefs, are unknown 
 Since poverty, our guardian God, is gone. Dry den. 
 
 guage
 
 Chap. II. OF THE ROMANS. 21 
 
 guage by rules, but in the laws, and all the ex- 
 erciies of war, without excepting even wreftling, 
 in which the combatants fought naked with 
 each other. 
 
 The Romans were fo fond of excelling in aDj^ ; n 
 the exercifes of war, that Julius Caefar from hisvit. J. 
 infancy accuftomed himfelf to ride a horfe full Caefer. 
 fpeed with his hands behind his back, though he 
 had only a flat faddle and no flirrops, accord- 
 ing to the cuftom of thofe times. The princi- VI. 
 pal perfonsof the Commonwealth knew fo 
 how to ufe arms, that the fame Caefar made the 
 Senators and Knights inftruct the gladiators, 
 who were to fight before the people ; believing Suet, in J 
 that their leflbns would improve them more than Sf fan n * 
 thofe of thefencing-mafters. The places where * 
 perfons formed themfelves in this art were called 
 Paleftr<Zi a name which was however common 
 to all places, where bodily exercifes were prac- 
 tifed. At the doors of thefe houfes a ftatue of 
 Hercules was placed, which ferved inftead of a 
 fign, as an arm with a foil denotes a fencing- 
 mafter's now in France. There were alfo 
 m afters, who taught the art of (hooting with a 
 bow. 
 
 CHAP.
 
 22 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 I. Of eloquence. II. Origin of the profejjlon of 
 advocates. III. Decline of the fciences. IV. 
 Ignorance of the early times. V. No public 
 fcbooh. VI. Manner of writing. VII. Of 
 letters epijiolary. VIII. Moderation of Auguftus 
 and Tiberius. IX. Magnificent titles of tie 
 Emperors and Senators. X. Of the politenefs 
 ef tbs Romans. XI. Place of honour on the 
 right. XII. Emperors falute by a kifs. XIII. 
 Refpeft paid to the ladies. XIV. Wine pro- 
 hibited to women. 
 
 T pHE art of fpeaking in public foon be- 
 
 Ofeia- came part of the education of youth, and 
 
 quence. was cultivated even by perfons of more ad- 
 vanced years. After Rome had made choice 
 of the Republican conftitution, eloquence feem- 
 ed abfolutely necefiary. For without the talent 
 of fpeaking, how was it poffible for them to 
 fhare in the government, propofe laws, delibe- 
 rate upon the interefts of the Commonwealth, 
 and obtain offices ? In confequence they copied 
 the Greeks in familiarizing themfelves with elo- 
 quence from their earlieft youth : and the more 
 powerful the Commonwealth became, the more 
 fhe cultivated that art. But it did not attain its 
 higheft perfection till after a very confiderable 
 time, during which the neceflity and habit of 
 fpeaking in public ferved them inftead of art. 
 It was not till ffter their commerce with the 
 Greeks, that charmed with the beauty of the 
 Val. Max.difcourfes of their orators, they were defirous 
 1. 2. o i. of learning the rules of eloquence, and for that 
 
 purpofe
 
 Chap. III. OF THE ROMANS. 23 
 
 purpofe called in makers from Greece. Under 
 thefe matters thole great orators were formed, 
 who mewed, that the Romans were capable of 
 equalling the Greeks in eloquence. The tafteApp.Alex 
 for it was become fo general towards the end ofl. e 
 Cicero's life, that even the fair &x conceived it 
 for their glory. Hiftory gives us an example 
 of this in the perfon of Hortenfia, daughter of 
 the famous orator Hortenfius. The difcourfe is y a i Max 
 ftill extant, which fhe pronounced in public, i. 8. c, 3. 
 for exempting the Roman ladies from the tax, 
 which the Triumviri had laid upon fourteen 
 hundred of them, to raife troops againft Brutus 
 and Caflius. Befides this obligation to fpeak in 
 public upon the affairs of the ftate, which were 
 either tranfacled in the Senate or the affembly 
 of the People, there was one peculiar to thole 
 the people had chofen for their patrons, who in Dion Hal 
 that quality were obliged to defend their clients, J - 2 - c - 4- 
 and to plead themfelves, or to caufe their friends 
 to plead for them, without any other advantage, 
 except the glory of fupporting the interefls of 
 thofe, who were under their protection. But 
 affbon as the Emperors had deprived the People 
 of the right of chufing their magistrates, and 
 of giving their fuffrages in trials and public de- 
 liberations, as we mail fee in the fequel, patrons 
 and clients becoming mutually ufelefs, fubfifted 
 no longer. Particulars having patrons no longer 
 to defend their caufes, confided them to citizens, 
 whom they judged moft eloquent, and belt 
 verfed in the laws. Eloquence, till then difin- 
 terefted, and actuated * folely by the love of 
 glory and public good, became, in effect of 
 wenality, a fource of mean avidity and fordid 
 lucre. Such was the rife of the profeffion of 
 C 4 advo-
 
 24 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 II. advocates. Juvenal *, in his feventh fatire, ri- 
 of dixies thofe of his time, who affected to appear 
 public in litters, dreft magnificently, and 
 vacates, with a great train ; and who carried their often- 
 Tac. An. tation fo far, as to wear gems of great value on 
 L. 11 '. their fingers at the bar, in order to pafs for ex- 
 
 Phn. jun. 1-1 11- 
 
 l.c.Ep.zi. tremely rich, and to make their employers pay 
 the dearer for their fervice. They came at 
 length to exact fuch great fums, that it became 
 neceffary to make regulations for fixing their 
 fees. This tafte for eloquence fubfifted a great 
 while under the Emperors, and with the profef- 
 
 * Purpura vendit 
 
 Caufidicum, vendunt amethyftina : convenit iliis 
 Et ftrepitu & facie majoris vivere cenlus. 
 At fincm impenfe non fervat prodiga Roma. 
 Ut redeant veteres, Ciceroni nemo ducentos 
 Nunc dederit nummos, nil! fulferit annulus ingcns. 
 Refpicit hoc primum qui litigat, an tibi fervi 
 Odlo, deccm comites, poft te an fit fella, togati 
 Ante pedes. Ideo condufta Paulus agebat 
 Sardonyche, atque idco pluris, quam Coflus agebat, 
 Quam Bafilus. Rara in tenui facundia panno. 
 
 Juv. Sat. VII. v. 135, & c . 
 Kor can I wonder at fucb tricks as thefe ; 
 The purple g arments raife the lawyer s fees, 
 And fell him dearer to the tool that bu<;s : 
 High pomp and Jlate are ufeful properties. 
 The luxury of Rome 'will know no end\ 
 Fcr ft ill the Icfs we have, the more wefpend. 
 Tritft eloquence tojbcv: our parts and breeding ! 
 ^Sot Tuf/y KOI'.' could get ten groats bf pleading, 
 Unlefs the diamond glittered on his hand : 
 H'ralttf* all the rhefrick clients underjland. 
 Without large equipage, and loud expencc, 
 The prince of orators would fearce [peak fenfe. 
 Pauhis, ^;ho with magnificence did plead, 
 Grew rich, whilft tattei-'d Callus bcggd his bread. 
 If 'ho to poor i-f7/i/us his canfe would truft, 
 Tho ncerfofull of pity, ne'er fo jujl ? 
 ills clients, unregarded, claim their due : 
 For eldqunxc in rags was never true. 
 
 Mr. Ch. Dryden. 
 
 fion
 
 Chap.III. OF THE ROMANS. 25 
 
 (ion of arms, long conftituted the principal oc- 
 cupation of the Romans. 
 
 More than an hundred years before the end of 
 the Commonwealth, they had ceafed to cultivate 
 their lands themfelves, and had abandoned that 
 care to their (laves, who alfo followed trades ; 
 matters making them work in their houfes up- 
 on every thing neceffary to life. When their 
 conquefts had opened their way into Greece, 
 they fent their youth to Athens to ftudy elo- 
 quence and the Greek tongue, which became 
 the language of the fciences amongft the Ro- 
 mans, becaufe they had them from the Greeks. 
 There were few perforis, except the lowed of 
 the People, who were not acquainted with the 
 Greek poets, and principally Homer, of whom Suet, in 
 they took pleafure in learning at leaft the fined vit.^ 
 paflages, in order to be able to quote fome o 
 his verfes on occafion. This tatfe prevailed . 
 long after the twelve Csefars, in whofe time it 
 was much in fafhion ; the Greek tongue being 
 fpoke fo commonly then at Rome, that it was 
 familiar even to the * ladies. 
 
 On 
 
 * Quasdam parva quidem, fed non toleranda maritis. 
 JNam quid rancidius, quam quod non fe putat ulla 
 Formofam, nifi quae de Tufca Graecula fafta eit, 
 De Eulmonenfi mera Cecropis? Omnia Graccc, 
 Cum fit turpe magis noftris nefcire Latine. 
 Hoc {crmonc pavent, hoc iram, gaudia, curas, 
 Hoc cuncla effundunt animi fecreta. Quid ultra? 
 Concumbunt Grace. Dones tamen ifta paellis. 
 Tune etiam, quam fextus & oftogefimus annus 
 Pulfat, adhuc Grsce ? Non eft hie fermo pudicus 
 In vetula, quoties lafcivum intervenit illud 
 Zu\i i -bv-x.*. Jw. Sat. VI. v. 183, &c. 
 
 Some faults, though fmall, intolerable grow : 
 For what fo naufeous and affefted too, 
 As thofe that think they due perfection 'want. 
 Who have not learnt to /ijj> the Grecian cant ? 
 
 In
 
 26 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 On their return from Athens the youth were 
 obliged to follow the bar, and to plead caufes 
 Plut. m in fome cities of the provinces. Cato, though 
 vit.Caron. employed in the improvement of his eftate in 
 the country, went to plead in the neighbouring 
 cities. Tiberius, before he was Emperor, car- 
 ried his fon Drufus to Padua to practice the elo- 
 quence of the bar, though he had already been 
 Suet, in honoured with a triumph. Tiberius hi mfelf had 
 vit, Tib. pi ea d ec i before the tribunal of Auguftus ; and 
 though he was Emperor, pleaded fometimes for 
 his friends. Nero alfo frequented the bar as an 
 advocate ; which was alfo pradifed by others of 
 Plut. in the firft rank. Auguftus was fo fond of ap- 
 vit.J C Spearing eloquent, that he harangued every day 
 viT Aug. during the war at Modena, and never fpoke to 
 the People without having prepared himfelf for 
 Id. r;vii.jt in a particular manner. Domitian was the 
 Do -i L. on jy Emperor who treated the Learned injuri- 
 oufly : he banimed all the philofophers from 
 Rome and Italy. 
 
 In procefs of time, that is to fay, fome time 
 before the feat of the empire was removed into 
 the Eaft, the fciences and eloquence began to 
 be lefs cultivated. The Barbarians admitted 
 into the Roman armies, occafioned this decline. 
 Many of them, of a rude and favage difpoii- 
 
 In Greece their whole accomplijbments (hey fiek, 
 
 Their faJJnon, breeding, language, mttft be Greek : 
 
 But ranv in all that does to Rowe bf 'o>:g, 
 
 They fcorn to cultivate their mother-tongue. 
 
 In Greek they fatter, all their fears they fi>eak, 
 
 Tell all their ficrets, nay, ike? fold, in Greek: 
 
 E^n in the feat of lo-oe they ufe that tongue. 
 
 Such a/fe flattens may became th? young: 
 
 But thou, old hag, of thi-eefcore years and three, 
 
 Is feeding of thj parts in Greek for tbee ? 
 
 Z(i ^ ij . . Djyden. 
 
 tion,
 
 Chap. HI. OF THE ROMANS. 27 
 
 tion, having obtained the empire, introduced 
 great changes of manners. It is observed, that 
 under Maximin Galerus, a Dacian by origin, ' S7 m 
 who fucceeded Dioclefian, eloquence was entire- Decline of 
 ly aboliflied , the advocates and civilians were /&/* 
 either banimed, or killed : arts and fciences 
 feemed pernicious, and men of learning odious, 
 to him. The judges, whom he fent into the 
 provinces, were grofs and ignorant foldiers, who 
 not being attended by able lawyers, far from 
 regarding the laws, had no other rule but their 
 caprice. Adrian had fet a very different exam-Spartian. 
 pie ; for he difpenfed juftice afiifted by feveral 1 - I -* n - l 
 civilians, with whofe knowledge and integrity 
 he was acquainted. This mixture of Barbarians 
 with the Romans very much altered the purity 
 of the Latin tongue, and made it degenerate by 
 little and little into a grofs idiom, from the ex- 
 alted height of elegance and purity, to which it 
 had only attained by degrees in the time of Ci* 
 cero and Auguftus. Polybius, who lived above 
 an age before Auguftus, informs us, that in his 
 time the Romans could not interpret the 
 
 treaty made .with the Carthaginians by the 
 two firft Confuls without difficulty. The Latin 
 tongue attained its perfection under Auguftus ; 
 but it began to be adulterated and to corrupt 
 foon after. 
 
 Before the taking of Rome by the Gauls, IV. 
 that city is obferved to have been extremely jg- Ignorance 
 norant : fo few of the citizens could read 
 write, that the letters of the alphabet were al- 
 mail unknown there. The characters ufed byl 
 the fir ft Romans, were the feme as thofe of the 
 antient Greeks. Dionyfius HalicarnaiTenfis re- 
 lates, that in the temple of Diana, built by Syl- 
 vius Taliius upon the Aventine hill, there -were
 
 
 28 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 ftill to be feen in his time the decrees of the af- 
 Dion.HaL fembly, held in confequence of a treaty of alli- 
 1. 4. c. 4- ance w jth the Latines, engraven upon a pillar of 
 brafs in thofe antient characters ; from whence 
 he prefumes with fome foundation, that the 
 Romans derived their origin from the Greeks. 
 V. During three ages there were no public fchools 
 No public at Rome for teaching children to read and write ; 
 fcbools. tne j r p aren ts, when they were capable, took that 
 'care upon themfelves. It is alfo pretended, that 
 Liv. 1. 7. 'the nail of brafs, which was antiently driven 
 every year upon the Ides of September, that is 
 to fay the thirteenth, into the wall of the tem- 
 ple of Jupiter Capitolinus, was originally in- 
 vented to afiift the ignorance of the People in 
 knowing the number of years, who in order to 
 that had only to caft their eyes upon that of the 
 nails. But in procefs of time, that cuftom was 
 converted into a religious ceremony, to avert pub- 
 lic calamities, as if the nail had been indued with 
 t Tuch a virtue. The honour of driving it into 
 the temple was at firft attached to the Magiftrate 
 called Prator Major or Urbanus^ afterwards to- 
 the Confuls, and at length to a Dictator. 
 Vi. The Romans for writing ufed tablets, made 
 Manner ofo the bark of tree cut very thin and covered 
 writing. over flightly with wax, upon which they marked 
 the letters with an iron bodkin, that was flat at 
 the top, to efface upon occafion what had been 
 wrote : when thofe iron bodkins were prohibi- 
 ted, that they might not be ufed as daggers, 
 gold ones came into fafhion. They alfo ufed 
 vellom * or parchment of different colours, yel- 
 low, purple, and wjiite, upon which they wrote 
 
 - , 
 
 * Sic raro fcribisj ut toto non quater anno . ** 
 Mcmbranam pofcas. //jr. L. (I. Sat. 3. 
 
 in
 
 Chap. III. OF THE ROMANS. 29 
 
 in letters of gold or filver with reeds inflead of 
 quills. They had alfo for the fame ufe leaves of 
 a certain Egyptian plant, called papyrus, pro-Pun.!'. 13. 
 perly prepared ; from which our paper, though c - I2 - 
 very different, takes its name. They alfo wrote 
 upon very fine linnen cloth, of which they made 
 books in the form of rolls, which they unrolled 
 as they read, and called each leaf or roll, vclu- 
 men. They had alfo a fhort way of writing, 
 which was much in ufe under the Emperors, % 
 that is to fay, with marks, of which each figni- 
 fied a word. With this invention, which is 
 afcribed to Maecenas, the favourite of Auguftus, Dion Caff, 
 they wrote as fad as one fpoke, and could evenl. 55. 
 follow the mod rapid difcourfe. Suetonius tells suet, irf 
 us, that the Emperor Titus wrote by abbrevia vit. Tit. 
 tions as faft as one could fpeak. The depofitions Vef P- 
 of witnefles, judiciary proceedings, deliberations 
 of the Senate, and all the public acts, were re- 
 duced in that manner to writing, fo that what- 
 ever had been pronounced or treated was taken 
 dov/n word for word. Thefe fort of writers, or 
 rfgifters, were called Notarii, from their man- 
 ner of writing by notes or marks: thofs who 
 copied fair what had been fo wrote in fhort hand, 
 were called Librarii and Antiquarii. Thefe notes 
 or marks were different from figures, which were 
 the fame that are dill ufed under the name of 
 the Roman cypher, and are only numeral letters 
 taken from the alphabet. 
 
 They had a general form in writing letters : VII. 
 they generally began with the name of the wri- f lettcri 
 ter, and of the perfon to whom they were ad- 
 dreffcd, and concluded v/ith the term Vale, Fare- 
 well, or Adieu. They only obferved, when they 
 wrote to a psrfon of fuperior rank, as to a Con- 
 ful, or Emperor, to write the Confui's or Em- 
 peror's
 
 30 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 peror's name firft. When a Conful or an Em- 
 peror wrote, they always placed their own name 
 before thofe of the perfons to whom thty addref- 
 Tacit fed themfelves. Auguftus and Tiberius would 
 An "g L 2 'not fuf&r themfelves to be called Lords; but 
 VIII. tne ' r fucceffors, far from the fame moderation, 
 Madura- thought fit, not only to be called Lords, but 
 ' a ~thac in writing to them the mod magnificent 
 T epithets Should be added, as the Moft higb, Mofl 
 IX.* facreh Invincible, and the like. In the body of 
 the letter, the terms Tour Clemency^ or Tour Pi- 
 
 " 
 
 cent titles , were u f ec j as we now f a y "Xour Maiefiy ; 
 the -". > / ,././' 
 
 
 riven the -. . . . ,.. 
 
 Emperors an ^ in procefs Of time the title of Clanjfitnus, or 
 
 and Sena- Mojt MuftfioUs, was given to the Senators and per- 
 
 tcrs *, fons of the firft rank. The letters of the Em- 
 
 " 7 'perors upon affairs of importance were always 
 
 under two feals. ' The epiftolary ftile of the 
 
 Romans in the time of the Commonwealth 
 
 breathed their free fpirit, and anfwered the form 
 
 x - ufed in the beginning of the letter. This was 
 
 ifteLh cf not ^ lom tne ^ r want i n g politenefs, efpecially af- 
 tbe Ro- ter they had quitted the aufterity of their antient 
 manners, and became emulous of the Greeks : 
 for when any one came to vifit them, they ne- 
 ver failed to meet him halfway, and to embrace 
 and take him by the hand, though of an inferi- 
 -Suet. in or rank. When only two were together, the 
 vu. Ner. r jg nt h an d was the place of honour. If any one 
 XI. entered whilfl they were fitting, they rofe up to 
 The right do him honour, and did not meet in the flreets 
 hand the without faluting each other, in the morning 
 
 place rfho- . t JT'A j L 
 
 f ndllf J with the word Aw, and in the evening with 
 
 Plut. in Sahe : and in taking their leaves they always 
 
 fc vit. Pomp. u f e d t ne compliment Vale. It was the cuftom 
 
 f T {**** C 
 
 J- to cover their heads with a corner of their 
 
 robes, to defend them from the injuries of the 
 
 Id. In vit. weather j but when any acquaintance accofted 
 
 Tib.Grac. them,
 
 Chap. III. OF THE ROMANS. 31 
 
 them, they immediately uncovered. Kiflingthe 
 mouth or the eyes, was a way of faluting much 
 practifed amongft them, either by way of compli- 
 ment upon forne dignity, or fome happy event. 
 Slaves kifled their mafter's hand, who held it 
 out to them for that purpofe. There were alfo 
 occafions, wherein the foldiers kifled the hands 
 of their general, as upon his quitting his office j 
 and they even ftruck him in the hand, when 
 he went to vifit them in their tents, whilft fick. 
 
 The Emperors alfo faluted their principal s ^ et - in 
 officers by a kifs, as the Prtzfeffus Prcstono, tne Herod 1 
 Pro-confuls, and perfons of diftinguifhed merit, xil."' 
 Thefe marks of favour differed according to the Emperors 
 more or lefs kind and humane character of the-^*"^ " 
 Emperor. The Romans treated the women, xill. 
 married or unmarried, with fo much honour Honour 
 and refpect, that it was prohibited to fay t\\tt ai Jtbela- 
 leaft immodeft word in their prefence : and^"' 
 when they met them in the ftreets, they always 
 gave them the way , which was obferved even, 
 by the magiflrates themfelves. They carried 
 'decency fo high, that the fathers took cafe ne- 
 ver to embrace their wives before their daugh- 
 ters. The near relations were permitted to kifs Aul. Cell, 
 their female kindred on the mouth; but it was 1 - 10.0.23. 
 in order to know whether they fmelt of wine ; plm- *' 14 * 
 for they were not allowed to drink it. This ' xiV- 
 regularity and purity of manners fupportcd Wine pro- 
 themfelves only during the five firft Centuries, 
 and hardly fo long, for they began to decline 
 towards the end of the fifth. However, it is 
 allowed, that at the time when the Romans 
 were moft polite, they never attained to that 
 refined urbanity, or elegance of manners, which 
 was in a manner natural to the Athenians. 
 
 CHAP-
 
 32 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 I. Of habits. II. Of the robe called Toga. III. Of 
 the rcbe Prastexta. IV. Of the Latus-clavus. 
 V. Of the Bulia. VI. Of the robe Lacerna. 
 VII. Of the Synthefis. VIII. The Pullata. 
 IX. I'be Paludamentum. X. Military habits. 
 XL Ufeoflinnen. XII. Of girdles. XIII. Tfo 
 women wore no flays. XIV. Colour cf habits. 
 XV. JiPfeV* fofe'/ j / 0/" rejoicing. XVI. 
 
 J. A S to the manner in which the Romans 
 
 Of habits. /\ dreffed themfelves, if we look back into 
 
 the early times, we find their habits made only 
 
 of different fkins of beafts, to which fucceeded 
 
 coarfe woollen fluffs, which they improved and 
 
 made finer in procefs of time : for the life of 
 
 the firft Romans was fo rude and grofs, that it 
 
 differed little from that of favages. When 
 
 woollen (luffs were introduced, they made 
 
 themfelves ample tunics, with large fleeves, and 
 
 fo fhort, that they fcarce reached the elbow. 
 
 But we find under the Emperor Conflanune, 
 
 that they came down almoft to the wrift. Over 
 
 this ample tunic they bound a girdle or fam, 
 
 and above all a robe without fleeves, like a large 
 
 II. cloak, open before, called Toga. One end of 
 
 Oftb(role\t was brought over the left moulder, in order 
 
 "z/k/To- tnat the right arm might be the more at liberty ; 
 
 luct in an ^ when they wanted to aft in that habit, they 
 
 vit. Aug. wrapped it round the body like a fafh, and 
 
 made it fad with a knot. 
 
 When the Romans became more opulent, the 
 'Toga was made of fine woollen cloth, generally 
 white ; however, they wore them of different 
 
 colours.
 
 Chap. IV. OF THE ROMANS. 
 
 colours. They quitted it in times of mourning 
 and public calamities, to exprefs affliction. It 
 was originally an habit of honour, and prohi- 
 bited to the common people, who went about 
 the city in the tunic only : but being become 
 common to almoft * every body, it diftinguifh- 
 ed the rich from others only by the finenefs of 
 the ftuffj and its being more ample. It was 
 even common to both fexes, till the women of 
 quality made ufe ot the robe called -f Sfola, and 
 then the || 'Toga was worn only by the vulgar 
 women and courtefans. 
 
 The robe called Prcetexta had a great refem- 
 blance to the Toga, and was worn by children p 
 of quality ; by boys, from the age of fourteen, p]j n . i. g. 
 till they took the %bga Virilis, the habit of man- c 48. 
 hood, at feventeen \ and by girls, from the time^ e11 - Pat> 
 of puberty, till they were married. It was cal- ' 
 led Pratexta, from being bordered with pur- 
 ple. The magiftrates, priefts, and augurs, wore 
 it in certain ceremonies. The Senators had un- 
 der this robe a tunic ample enough, called La- IV. 
 tus-davus, which was long taken literally for an Ro ^ e La- 
 habit adorned with large ftuds of purple like tus ' clavus> 
 nail-heads, but has fmce been di (covered to fig- 
 nify only a ftuff with large (tripes of purple, 
 
 * Fortuna non mutat genus. 
 Videfne, facram metiente te viam 
 
 Cum bis ter ulnarum toga, 
 Ut ora vertat hue & illuc 
 Liberrima indignatio ? 
 
 Hor. Epod. 4. Ad Menam Pompeii LlbertUm. 
 
 f Numquid ego 
 
 Magno prognatum depofco coni'ule cunnum, 
 Velatumque i'to/a, mea cum conferbuit ira ? 
 
 || Nee magis 
 
 ' tenerum eft femur, aut cms 
 
 Reftius ; atque ctiam melius perfaepe Togata. 
 
 D the
 
 34 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 the fame as that called Anguftus-clavus, which 
 was peculiar to the Knights to diftinguifh them 
 from the Senators, and which was alfo only a 
 fluff with narrower ftripes of the fame colour. 
 The children of the Senators did not wear the 
 tunic Latin-clams till after having taken the 'To- 
 ga virilis. Till then they had no other marks 
 of diftinction befides the robe Pratexta, except 
 V. what was called Bulla, which was a little heart, 
 Of the or globe of gold, that hung down on their 
 
 T?nlli 
 
 Antiq du^ rea ^ s - ^nly tne children of the Curulc, that 
 
 P. Mont- is to fay the great, magiflrates were allow- 
 
 fauc. ed to wear the * Bulla. They had befides ma- 
 
 :t - ny other kinds of robes, which all refembled 
 
 Rom.ioi. tne ^S a ver Y mucn i tne f rm f them. That 
 Piin. ibid, called Trabec,, was only a little fhorter, and 
 s.ftriped with purple and white, and in procefs of 
 time with gold. We are told, that it had been 
 affected by the Kings of Rome. The Lacerna 
 ltW a cloak for bad weather, and worn over the 
 Lacema. 'Toga. At firft it was only ufed in war ; it was 
 s- ;j er -' nv tied before with a buckle, and had an hood ad- 
 au ' c ' "ded to it, called Cucullus^ which was taken off 
 at will. They had coarfe ones for winter, and 
 fine for fummer, but both of woollen fluff. Till 
 Cicero's time, thefe cloaks were ufed only by 
 the People, but as they were found commodious, 
 all the world came into them, at firfl for the 
 country, and afterwards for the city. The la- 
 dies themfelves wore them when they went out 
 
 * Cum primum pavido cuftos mihi purpura ceffit, 
 Bullaque fucciadls laribus donata pependit. 
 
 Per/. Sat. V. v. 30. 
 
 When fir ft my childijh robe rtjignd tee charge, 
 And left me uncwjind to live at large ; 
 When norM ffiy golden Bulla (hung on high 
 To hvujioltl Gods) dedard me paft a bey. Dryden. 
 
 in
 
 Chap. VI. OF TfcE ROMANS. 35 
 
 in the evening ; and perfons of quality, and 
 even the Emperors, put them on over the 
 *Toga t when they went to the Forum or Circus : 
 but thofe of the People were either brown or 
 white, of the Senators, purple, and of the Em- 
 perors, fcarlet. However it was cuftomary to 
 quit this cloak by way of refpect* in the pre- 
 fence of the Emperor. 
 
 The Syntbefis was another kind of very large VII. 
 robe or cloak, which they put on to eat in, as ^ Syn- 
 a more commodious habit for lying upon the^^j 
 beds at table. Martial tells us that in his time, Epig.i4i. 
 there were perfons, who out of an air of magni- 
 ficence, changed them often during the repaft. 
 
 The Pullata Veftis was an habit worn for vill. 
 mourning, and generally ufed by the common T^PuL 
 people. The colour of it was black or brown, lata - 
 and the famion much the fame as the Lacerna, 
 having alfo an hood for the head. 
 
 The Paludamentum was a military rbbe, like jv. 
 that which the Greeks called Cblamys. It was We Pain- 
 worn over the cuirafs, and was fattened with a en " 
 buckle on the right moulder ; fo that all the 
 right fide was uncovered for the more eafily 
 moving of the arm * as we fee it in antique fta- 
 tues. The military habit was a clofe-bodied tu- X. 
 nic, which reached half way down the thighs, Military 
 over which the cuirafs was put. With the mili- '* 
 tary habit, when they performed fome exercifes* 
 or rode on horfeback, they put on certain 
 drawers called Campe/ire, which ferved them 
 inftead of breeches : for they did not com- 
 monly wear them with long habits. AmongftVell. Pzt. 
 the military habits may alfo be reckoned a kind 1 - * c.z6. 
 of veft, called Sagum^ which the foldiers ufed 
 in the army, and wore over the cuirafs. Befides 
 all thefe different garments, there were fome 
 D 2 peculiar
 
 36 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 peculiar to certain dignities and ceremonies, as 
 the robe of triumph. Plautus in his comedies, 
 which appeared at Rome about the five hundred 
 and fixty-fixth year from its foundation, fpeaks 
 of feveral other kinds of habits, of which we 
 know no more than the names, and which who- 
 ever mould undertake to defcribe, would give us 
 only mere conjectures ; it not being pofiible to 
 know all the different modes of them, nor 
 the times when they were in fafhion. For tho* 
 they did not change often, it is however cer- 
 tain, that luxury and the commerce with foreign 
 nations, introduced feveral at different times. 
 XL Under thefe robes they ufually had two tu- 
 Vfe of tin- nics ; that next the fkin ferved inftead of a 
 Lam r in m * rt: > for they wore no linnen. According to 
 vit. Alex. Lampridius, Alexander Severus was the firfk 
 Sever. Emperor who ufed it : but the ufe of it did not 
 become common till long after him. They did 
 indeed remedy the inconveniences, which arofe 
 from the want of linnen, in bathing fo often as 
 they did. This under-tunic was the fineft. 
 Thofe of the men were clofe-bodied, without 
 fleeves, and reached no lower than halfway the 
 leg, differing in that from the women's, which 
 were longer and wider, and had fleeves, but 
 came no lower than the elbows : they 
 were made to fit clofe at the neck. If they 
 were left open at top, it was looked upon as 
 an air of liberty of one over-defirous to pleafe. 
 The other tunic, which was very large, was 
 worn longer by the women, than the men, and 
 next immediately to the robe. In procefs of 
 time both men and women wore two or three 
 tunics, without including that next their fkin, 
 and as that next the 'Toga was very large, they 
 ufed a girdle or fafh to keep it clofe, and bind 
 
 it
 
 Chap. IV. OF THE R O M A N S. 
 
 it back when neceffary. Thefe falhes were dif- XII 
 ferent according to the age of the wearer, and O 
 
 r i i /* i 1-1 i -L. 
 
 ferved alfo to put the money in, which people v j t Alex- 
 carried about them. A perfon was not thought Sever, 
 to be dreft decently without this cincture, and it 
 was a mark of diffblute manners not to have 
 one, or to wear it too loofe. Suetonius, fpeak- Suet, in- 
 ing of Julius Cadar, whofe youth was not very vit. J. 
 regular, relates, that Sylla ufed to advife the no- 
 bility, ut puerum male pracinttum caverent, to i. 43. 
 take care of the youth with the loofe gd*n. 
 Perfius fays in the fame fenfe, Sat. III. 
 
 Non pudet ad morem difcinfti vivere Natttz. 
 The men affected to wear it very high ; and the 
 ladies placed it immediately under their bo- 
 foms, which it ferved to fuftain -, for they nei- XIII. 
 ther ufed ftays, nor bodice. This girdle was^ <zw/8/ * 
 called Caffula^ and the part of it where they ^J^jL-x. 
 placed their jewels Stropbium. But from the be- ifid. 1. 19. 
 ginning of the Commonwealth, they added toe. 33. 
 the girdle an ornament, which was affixed to 
 it, and marked the feparation of the breads. 
 This was generally adorned with gold, pearls 
 or other jewels, and made fo as to forma kind 
 of breaft-plate or ftomacher. Luxury added 
 another robe or veil over this habit with a long 
 train, which was called Symare. It was fattened 
 on the right moulder with a clafp more or lefs 
 rich, in order to leave the arm at - liberty, 
 which the ladies wore uncovered as well as the 
 men. This Symare falling full from the other 
 fhoulder, formed a great number of plaits, 
 which gave abundance of grace to this habit ; 
 and for that reafon it was worn by the actrefles 
 upon the ftage. > XIV. 
 
 The moft general colour of the Roman ha- f^ ^ 
 bits was white, which, except purple peculiar torJL! Caff. 
 D 3 the in vit. 
 
 Sever.
 
 38 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 the great offices, was deemed the moft honou- 
 rable. The citizens in public rejoicings gene- 
 rally appeared in white robes, to denote their 
 XY joy. Plutarch tells us, they did the fame on 
 White ba- private occafions of rejoicing, and that they 
 bits worn wore a white * habit on their birth-days, which 
 in times offay celebrated annually, by giving a feaft to 
 
 reioifinf. , r -nr ri- j-n.- 
 
 Plat. Qu. th^r friends, rerions or quality were cuitin- 
 Rom. guifhed, as we have faid before, by the finenefs, 
 neatnefs, and whitenefs of their habits : and we 
 find in authors of thofe times, that they often 
 fent their robes to the fuller to be cleaned and 
 Suet, in w hitened. The inferior people, to avoid that 
 ^44. expence, generally wore brown cloths. Appian 
 Appian. informs us, that from Julius Gefar's time, 
 de Bell, diftindtion of habit was no longer obferved at 
 Civ. 1. 2. R ome j t h a t the freedmen were confounded 
 with the other citizens ; tint the fiave was dreft 
 like his mafter ; and that except the habit of 
 Senator, the ufe of all the reft was indifferently 
 Suet, in allowed to all the world. In Domitian's time 
 VIL Dom. we find, that the Tribunes of the legions wore 
 the robe Latus-clavus. 
 
 It was not the cuftom amongft the Romans 
 
 to wear any arms in the city, fword, dagger, or 
 
 even cane or ftaff; which continued to be ob- 
 
 Ibid. in ferved till Adrian's time. The Emperors them- 
 
 vit. Galb. felves conformed to this cuftom, except Galba, 
 
 who, as Suetonius relates, wore a dagger, which 
 
 hung from his neck. 
 
 When the Roman ladies went abroad in the 
 city, they were generally dreft in white ; and 
 in fucceeding times chofe indifferently the co- 
 
 * Die rcpoxia, natala, aliofve dierum 
 
 Feftos albatus celebrat. Hor. L. IL Sat. \\. v. 60. 
 
 . Ncgato, 
 
 Jupiter, baec il!i, quamvis tc albata rogarit. 
 
 Ptrf. Sat. II. v. 40. 
 
 lour
 
 Chap. IV. OF THE ROMANS. 39 
 
 lour they liked bed : The freed-women were 
 dreft in black. Valerius Maximus tells us, that Val. Max, 
 they did not go abroad without having their 1 6. c. ?. 
 heads covered with veils; but that cuftom, 
 which virtue dictated, foon vanimed with pu- 
 rity of manners. They were always attended 
 by their women, to whom, after the twelve 
 Casfars, fucceeded Eunuchs. Such as walked 
 in the ftreets alone, were either courtezans or 
 the wives of the common people. As to the 
 fluffs they wore, they were entirely of wool 
 under moft of the Emperors, and were diftin- 
 guifhed only by the work, finenels, and colour. 
 Auguftus wore no other. Suetonius obferves, Suet in 
 that one day, that Emperor feeing a number vit.Aug. 
 of Romans in an aflembly dreft in dirty robes, n 4' 
 cried out in great rage : See thofe Romans, thofe 
 mafiers of the world, what a figure they make in 
 their long robes ! which mews that luxury of 
 drefs, at leaft amongft the men, did not prevail 
 in his time'. Heliogabalus was the firft Empe- pj croc j. ; n 
 ror, who wore a robe made entirely of filk,Hcliog. 
 which was then called Holoferica, becaufe filk 1-5- 
 came from the country of Seres, now called 
 Cathay. Silk was fo fcarce in thofe times, that 
 it was fold for its weight in gold ; and above 
 fifty years after we find its price not dimi- 
 nimed, by Aurelian's anfwer to his wife, who Vopiic. in 
 only defired him to let her wear a robe made en-^ ur - 1>2 "* 
 tirely of filk and dyed in purple. He refufed her 
 with faying, That he was far from valuing 
 thread and gold at the fame price. This Em- 
 peror would not wear a robe of filk ; and only 
 permitted women of quality to have tunics 
 dyed in purple, whereas before they were not 
 permitted to wear that colour. Changeable co- 
 lours were very much the tafte of thofe times. 
 D 4 CHAP.
 
 40 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 I. Of fluffs. II. Head-drefs of the men. III. Time 
 of taking the Toga virilis, or robe of man- 
 hood. IV. Tbefirft beard. V. Maids when 
 marriageable. VI. Powder of gold ufed in the 
 hair. VII. Falfe hair. VIII. Long beards. 
 
 IX. Different head-drefs of the Roman ladies. 
 
 X. Pendants at the ears and other rich orna- 
 ments. XL Pearls, diamonds, and other jewels. 
 XII. Pendants at the ears. XIII. Pendants 
 worn by men. XIV. Jewels much in fajhion 
 amongft the Roman ladies. XV. Of rings and 
 feals. 
 
 j 'T > H E Romans manufactured fluffs, in 
 Of Ruffs. * which they mixed a little filk : they made 
 fome, in which there were flripes of filk, gold, 
 and linnen. Linnen did not begin to be com- 
 monly ufed, till toward the declenfion of the 
 empire, when Egyptians came to fettle amongft 
 them, and they made ufe of it in imitation of 
 that people. 
 
 II The young Romans in the time of the Com- 
 
 ?/5monwealth, generally went bareheaded, and 
 en - fome wore a cap : but they moft frequently co- 
 'ib Grac verec ^ tne ^ r neac k with a corner of their robe. 
 " The women combed back their hair, and tied 
 III. it in a knot ; the boys did the fame, till they 
 Time of took the toga virilis, which was at the age of 
 taking the f even t eeR< This period was diflineuifhed by a 
 
 toga vin- r n , r . .. r i i 
 
 j;- feait given to their relations and friends, by 
 way of rejoicing, that the young man was be- 
 come capable of ferving the Commonwealth. 
 At the end of the feaft, the robs Pr&teKia was 
 
 taken
 
 Chap. V. OF THE ROMANS. 41 
 
 off, and one entirely white put on him. His 
 father attended by his friends conducted him af- 
 terwards to the temple, to make the cuftomary 
 facrifices, and return thanks to the Gods, and 
 from thence he was brought to the Forum, to 
 teach him to quit the life of a child, and lead 
 that of a man. They alfo entertained their re- TV. 
 lations and friends, when their children attained Tbefrjt 
 the age of puberty, and when their beard was** flr ^ < 
 fhaved for the firft time. The hair of their 
 heads was cut off at the fame time, which was a 
 religious ceremony ; for part of it was thrown 
 into the fire in honour of Apollo, and the reft 
 into the water in honour of Neptune, becaufe 
 hair is produced by humidity and heat. As to 
 the beard, it was kept out of fuperftition in fome 
 box of value, as Nero's was, who put his intog uet - m 
 a box of gold, which he dedicated to Jupiter vit. Ne- 
 Capitolinus. It was ufual enough to ftiave for ron - Dion - 
 the firft time on taking the toga virilis : fome 
 however deferred it longer, and to thefe it gave 
 occafion for another feaft and ceremony : for 
 this action was confidered as an act of religion. 
 As to the maids, when they attained the age of V. 
 marriage, they offered their babies to Venus, the Mauls 
 Bulla, the little heart or ball of gold, mentioned ^/^" 
 above, which hung from the neckupon the breaft, Perf Sat. 2. 
 wastaken from them : but they retained the robe ld - Sat - 5- 
 Pratexta, which they continued to wear till 
 married. In the beginning of the reigns of 
 the Emperors, the Romans curled and perfumed 
 their hair with fcented oils. Afterwards thofe yj 
 who affected a greater refinement of drefs, pow- Geld-duft 
 dered it with gold-duft, in order to make them- to powder 
 felves appear the more beautiful. The Empe-^^n' 
 
 r IT j r* ir i Trebell. 
 
 rors Lucius Verus and Gallienus wore it in their p ] i j 24 . 
 hair. This famion was taken from the Afiatics , 
 
 for
 
 42 MANNER? AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 for it fubfifted among the Jews in the time of 
 Solomon, as we find in the hiflorian Jofephus. 
 VII. It was alfo about the beginning of the empire, 
 Falfe hair, that the ufe of perukes or falfe hair, for thofe 
 Suet. Oth. W j 10 j^j ii tt i ej was introduced. The Emperor 
 Ocho, who had not much, ufed falfe. It is 
 probable that this cuftom did not fubfift in Ju- 
 lius Qefar's time ; for otherwife he would have 
 ufed it, to prevent his baldnefs from being per- 
 ceived, and the rather becaufe it was thought a 
 deformity in thofe days. Accordingly his fol- 
 diers did not fail to reproach him with it at his 
 triumph, faying with a loud voice, Cahu?n 
 incechum duximus C&farem ; mariti, fervate uxo- 
 VIII res ' They wore tne beard long from the be- 
 Long ginning of the Commonwealth, as we fee in the 
 btardi. account of the taking of Rome by Brennus, ge- 
 neral of the Gauls. In the time of Scipio, and 
 _ unc ^ er t ^ ie E m P erors > tne y cut it ' tne y began to 
 I ^o. 3 wear tnem J n S again under Adrian, as appears 
 on the medals of the Emperors. From the 
 medals and antique marbles is alfo to be known 
 IX. how much the head-drefs of the Roman ladies 
 Diferent varied in different times. It confided always of 
 t^fll their hair ; and the fole difference was in the 
 man ladies, manner of difpofing it. They ufually divided 
 it before into equal parts with a bodkin, and 
 the wives were diftinguifhed from the maids by 
 the manner in which it was feparated : however, 
 there are antique buftos, in which there is no 
 feparatipn. They curled and adjufled it diffe- 
 rently, for they covered it with a net, put it in- 
 to a kind of purfe which came, clofe about the 
 head, tied it behind in form of a knot, or bound 
 it back and plaited it with ribands. They took 
 great care to warn it in order to make it more 
 beautiful and mining, as is ftill practifed in fome 
 parts of Italy ; and they uled the moft exquifite 
 2 per-
 
 Chap. V. OF THE ROMANS. 43 
 
 perfumes and effences in it. During a great 
 length of time they covered their heads with ^. 
 
 i ui i M T> i j * i \r 
 
 large black veil. Pearls and jewels were all 
 
 a part of their ornaments. They wore pendant 
 
 at their ears, adorned their head-drefs 
 
 jewels, and fometimes twifted their locks in C j 2 * 
 
 chains of gold. c . 35. 
 
 It is tobeobferved that among the Romans, Hor. 1. i. 
 and even all the antients, pearls were much Sat 
 more efteemed than they are at prefent, zndofpear/s 
 that diamonds were very fcarce, not becoming diamond^ 
 common till after the commerce with the Indies, andpre- 
 They did not know even how to cut and polifh JJfJJ fl nes ' 
 them to fuch perfection as the moderns do. But c . 4> 
 as to coloured ftones, they were not fcarce ; 
 and they knew how to cut them either hollow 
 or in relief perfectly well. The Roman ladies 
 wore necklaces and bracelets, not only of pearls 
 but precious ftones. The antique ftatue oicars. 
 Lucilia, the wife of Lucius Verus, Marcus Antiq. de 
 Aurelius's collegue, reprefents her with bracelets ^? nt j au - 
 of three rows. They had alfb another kind of c ' ' 
 bracelet, called Spinther^ which they wore near juv. Sat. 6. 
 the elbow on the left arm. During a long feries 
 of time, under the Commonwealth, only the 
 freedmen and their children had their ears bored 
 to diftinguifh them from thofe born of free 
 parents. But when luxury had gained ground, xiIL 
 young people of quality, and even men, caufed Pendants 
 their ears alfo to be bored, in order to wear in the e ars 
 pendants and pearls in them like the women. fuetjCxf. 
 It is obferved that Caefar, before he obtained Lamprid. 
 the empire, did this fafhion great honour, in vit - 
 which prevailed till Alexander Severus prohi-g ex j 
 bited the ufe of it to men. As to jewels, the xiv. 
 Roman ladies were fo fond of them for a time, Jewels 
 that Lollia Paulina, whom Agrippina caufed uch ' n 
 to be put to death, for. having attempted to 9 **" 
 
 marry
 
 44 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 marry the Emperor Claudius in competition 
 
 - w ^ ^ er ^d f tnem to r ^ e amount f almoft 
 ' J ' an hundred and fifty thoufand pounds. Luxury 
 at length became fo general, that the wives of the 
 commcn people \vore rings, or a kind of chains 
 XV. of filver aboiK their feet. This tafte for jew- 
 Qf rings els prcduccd another for rings, which both men 
 ax feels. anc \ -/.'omen wore. At firft they had only 
 r : ;gs of iron or gold, according to the diffe- 
 rence of condition, which ferved them as feals, 
 and which they wore on the fourth finger. 
 They afterwards added a ftone finely engraved 
 to it by way of feal : and when luxury had taken 
 place of this firft fimplicity, the ufe of gems 
 and precious ftones was introduced. They wore 
 them on the fore-finger by way of ornament ; 
 afterwards they added another on the little 
 finger, * fo that all the fingers had them, ex- 
 cept the middle one. At length through a re- 
 finement of luxury, they ufed to change them 
 according to the feafons, and *j- had light rings 
 for fummer, and heavy ones, let with larger 
 Hones, for winter. 
 
 Saepe notatus 
 
 Cum tiibus anneilis, modo Leva Prifcu? inani 
 Vixit inaequalis. Hor. Sat. VII. I. z. 
 
 Cum verna Canopi 
 
 Crifpinus, Tyrias humero revocante lacernas, 
 Ventilet aeftivum digitis fudantibus aurum, 
 Nee fufferre queat majoris pondera gemmae, 
 Difficile ell Satiram nn fcribere. Ju'v. Sat. f. 
 
 WT:e n I btbold tbefpaijan of conquer 
 Crifpinus, both in birth and manners i;i7e, 
 Pacing in pomp, ivitb cloak of Tyrian dye 
 Chang d oft a day for needlefs luxury ; 
 And fending oft occajion to be fannd, 
 Ambitious to produce his lady band; 
 Cbargd with light Jammer rings bis fingers fuc eat 
 Unable to fupport a gem of weight: 
 Sucbful/bme objtcls meeting every where, 
 'Tis bardta write, but harder toforbtar. Dry den. 
 
 CHAP.
 
 Chap. VI. OF THE ROMANS. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 I. Gold rings peculiar to the Knights. II. Atten- 
 tion of the Roman ladies to improve their beauty. 
 III. Falfe teeth. IV. Of the toilets of the la- 
 dies. V. Manner of dr effing the legs. VI. Of 
 Jhoes. VII. Of the military drefs for the legs. 
 
 VIII. Drefs of the legs worn by the magiftrates. 
 
 IX. The fame of {laves. X. 'The antient Ro- 
 mans went barefoot. 
 
 ONLY the Knights and Senators were per- j 
 mitted to wear the gold ring in the early Gold rings 
 times of the Commonwealth. It was long ^.peculiar to 
 diftinction peculiar to the dignity of Roman theKni Z hts 
 knights, as appears from what Dion relates in 
 refpedt to Mcenas the freedman of Sextus Pom- 
 peius, whom Auguftus made a Knight. That D . Q p,- 
 author obferves, that he granted him permifiioni. . 8> 
 to wear the gold ring , a privilege which could 
 only be conferred by the Prince on his freedmen, 
 becaufe aptiently none but Senators or Knights 
 could wear this ring. 
 
 We mail not be furprized that fo fimple a 
 diftin&ion was ufed to exprefs the fecond order 
 of the Nobility, when we confider, that till 
 the war with Tarentum gold was very icarce at 
 Rome. In procefs of time the opulence of her 
 citizens emboldened them, towards the end of 
 the Commonwealth, to wear the gold ring in- 
 difcriminately. Pliny obferves, the Knights pji n 1 33, 
 were not the only perfons graced with that or- c. i . 
 nament in the time of the fecond Punic war, 
 as Hannibal, after his victory at Cannae, caufed 
 three bufhels of them to be collected out of the 
 2 fpoils
 
 46 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 fpoils of the Romans, which he fent to Car- 
 Appian. thage: which agrees with what A ppian relates, 
 dc Bell, that in the laft Punic war the Tribunes of the 
 L y b ' Roman legions were diftinguiflied from the fol- 
 diers by the gold rings which they wore on 
 their fingers, whilft the latter had only iron 
 ones. The firft Emperors granted that favour 
 to many of their freedmen. There is reafon to 
 believe diat the ring of the Knights had fome- 
 thing peculiar in it to exprefs their dignity : 
 but authors do not give us the lights one could 
 defire upon this head. Soon after the twelve 
 Caefars, all the free-born Romans wore the gold 
 ring, the freed- men one of filver, and the 
 flaves one of iron. 
 
 As long as the Romans led a fimple, fru- 
 gal, and laborious kind of life, their wives, 
 after their example, employed in domeftic 
 cares, which they even divided with their flaves, 
 were more attentive to fhine by their virtues* 
 than by the fplendor of their ornaments. But 
 when riches had given them a tafte for the 
 conveniences of life, they referred the care of 
 their houfhold to their freed- women, and were 
 folely engroffed by that of pleafing ; a care un- 
 known to their grandmothers, fhut up in the 
 inmoft part of their houfes, and devoted to ufe- 
 ful occupations. It was at rhis time, that the 
 cuflom of chufmg nurfes for their children a- 
 mongft their flaves and freed-women became 
 ufual ; idolatry for their beauty having taken 
 place of their maternal tendernefs. At length, 
 the ladies ufed all that art could furnifh them 
 with, in order to appear beautiful, and fupply 
 what nature had denied them. Not only orna- 
 ments and paint were employed, but tl moft 
 exceflive refinements of luxury and volupuiouf- 
 
 nefs
 
 Chap. VI. OF THE ROMANS. 47 
 
 nefs became common. The authors of thofe 
 times, and efpecially the fatyric poets, abound 
 with fine ftrokes upon this head. To mew to JT. 
 what an height they carried their paffion for Attention 
 their beauty, it fuffices to repeat what Dion toim P rgeve 
 Caffius fays of Poppaea, firft miftrefs, and af-, "' 
 terwards wife of Nero, whom he caufed to be jbion Caff, 
 followed in all his journeys by herds of me- ! 60. 
 afies, the milk of which was ufed to make her 
 baths, for preferving the whitenefs and delicacy 
 of her fkin. The Roman ladies were fo cu- 
 rious in this refpect, that they ufed a certain 
 compofition for preferving the frefhnefs of their 
 complexions, with which they made a palte, 
 that they laid upon their * faces like a rnafk. 
 They had alfo recourfe to white cerufs ; and as 
 to red, Plautus is the only author of thofe 
 times that mentions their ufing it, which he calls 
 Purpunflum, Horace fays nothing of it any 
 where. They took no lefs care of their teeth ; III. 
 and the art of fubftituting falfe ones to thok Fa! f e feet ^- 
 they wanted, was already very common, 
 well as that of making and painting an eye- 
 
 Fotda afpeftu, ridendaque multo 
 
 Pane tumet facies, aut pinguia Poppaeana 
 Spirat, & hinc miferi vifcantur labra mariti. 
 
 . Fovetur 
 
 Tot medicaminibus, coftaaque filiginis offas 
 Accipit & madidae ; facies dicctur, an ulcus ? 
 
 Juv. Sat. VI. 
 
 She duly once a month renews her face', 
 Mean time, it lies in davub, and bid in greafe. 
 Tbofe are the hmbanfs nights ; Jk e craves her due t 
 He takes fat kijfts, and is jluck in glue : 
 But to the Iwd adulfrer nuben jhe jieers, 
 Frefo from the bath, in brigbtnefs Jhe appear t- 
 
 But badft tbou feen her plaifter'd up before, 
 
 'Twas/e unlike a face, it feem d a fore . Dryden. 
 
 brow
 
 4$ MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 brow fuccefsfully. The fame authors alfo in- 
 form us of their attention in confulnng their 
 glafles for the adjuftment of their head-drefs 5 
 * defcribing ingenioufly their ftarts of rage and 
 revenge, when the women who drefled them, 
 that were either their (laves or their freed- 
 women, did not fucceed according to their 
 IV. liking. Hence we may conclude, that they did 
 Of tke A-not employ lefs time at their toilet, than the la- 
 ^la&e** *^ es f tne prefent age ; but then it was in them 
 an act of religion, and facrificing to Venus and 
 the Graces. We do not find it mentioned any 
 where, that they made ufe of patches to exalt 
 the whitenefs of their fkin, and improve the 
 air of their features : in all probability that aid 
 was unknown to them. At length they carried 
 their luxury fo far as to ufe pearls and precious 
 ftones upon their legs and feet, which was al- 
 fo done by fome of the Emperors. 
 v - The ufual drefs for the legs both of men and 
 women were of two kinds ; the one clofe, the 
 other open. The latter was a kind of fandals, 
 Ibt focL compofed of foles which covered the bottom 
 of the feet, and were fattened to ribbands, or 
 thongs of leather, that came crofs the foot in 
 
 * Nuda huuicros Pfecas infelix, nudifque mamillis, 
 Altior hie quare cincinnus ? Taurea punit 
 Continue flexi crimen facinufquc capilli. 
 Quid Pfecas admifit ? Qmenam eft hie culpa puellas, 
 Si tibi difplicuit nafus tuus ? Juv. Sat. VI. 
 
 She hurries all her handmaids to the tajk ; 
 
 Her head alone nvill tnxenty drejfers ajk. 
 
 Pfecas the chief, with breajl andjhoulders bare 
 
 trembling, confiders ei^ry facred hair : 
 
 If any ftraggler from his rank be found, 
 
 A pinch mujl for the mortal fin compound, 
 
 Pfecas is not in fault : but in the glafs 
 
 The dames offended at her own ill face. Dry den. 
 
 different
 
 Chap. VI. OF THE ROMANS 49 
 
 different manners, and were twifted feveral 
 times round the leg above the ancle. The o- 
 ther, which was clofe, covered the foot, andftfc&^fc 
 came as high as the thickeft part of the leg : 
 it had an opening before, which was laced. 
 Horace and Ovid inform us, neatnefs and de- 
 cency required, that the drefs of the leg, whe- 
 ther fandal or bufkin, fhould fit well and e- 
 ven upon it. The fhoe annexed to it ended VI. 
 in a point that turned back a little, and 
 that reafon was called in Latin Calceus roftratus. 
 For fome time the ladies wore a kind of high- 
 heeled bufkins, or pantofles, which made them 
 appear taller. The advantage of this kind of 
 buskin to the wearer, made the ufe of it com- 
 mon in weddings, in order to give the flature 
 of the bride a more graceful appearance. The 
 drefs of the legs worn by officers and foldiers, unitary 
 and which was called military, differed in no-tlrefi<jft&i 
 thing from the clofe fort, or bufkin, except in/* eti 
 its being ftronger and fitter for marching, hav- 
 ing the fole ftudded with nails. The ufual drefs 
 of the legs worn by men was made of black 
 leather, and that of women either of white of 
 red fluff. On ceremonial occafions that of the . 
 great Magiftrates, as well as of the Emperors, Drefs of 
 were of purple: the Senators, Patricians, and^A' 
 their children, wore by way of diftindion be- wor ? y 
 
 j j fnGpt* 
 
 tween the ancle and heel, a kind of * crefcent ofjj ra tes 
 gold, filver, or ivory, fometimes fet withPlut.Qu. 
 pearls and precious ftones, which ferred them Rom - 7^ 
 inflead of buckles for fattening on their fhoes. 
 
 * Foelix, & fapiefls, & nobilis; & generofus, 
 Appofitapi nigrse lunam fubtexit alutse. 
 
 Juv. Sat. VII. v. 192. 
 
 Wife, happy, noble, generous bef.de, 
 
 Claffd the blatk bujkin with iht crtfeni'f pride. 
 
 E Sueto*
 
 ?o MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 Suet, in Suetonius tells us that Auguftus affecled to wear 
 vit. Aug. {k^ fomething higher than ufual, in order to 
 feem taller than he was. We cannot tell what 
 kind of drefs for the feet this was , for in an- 
 tient monuments we find nothing that can give 
 us an idea of it. To conclude, the drefs of the 
 feet of the Romans varied at different times. 
 jX At firft, and during a great length of time, 
 Dnfs of they were made of undrefs'd leather. As to 
 the feet flaves, they were not permitted to wear fhoes 
 <wcrnfy at R omej but only a kind of wooden fandals. 
 5C They generally walked barefoot, which was 
 The antient long practifed even b^ the Roman citizens in 
 Romans fa t } me o f t h e Commonwealth. For it is ob- 
 weat r '-f erve( j 9 t hat Scipio, f Cato, and in later times 
 Plut. in Germanicus, went almoft always without fhoes, 
 vh. Caton.for the fake of conforming in that refpect to 
 the fimplicity of their anceftors, from which 
 however Rome had much departed in Cato's 
 time, and {till more in the time of Germanicus. 
 Luxury and (loth had attained to fuch an height, 
 that in the time of Cicero, not only the ma- 
 giftrates, and principal perfons of the Com- 
 monwealth, but even all the citizens of fortune 
 of both fexes, were carried both in the city, 
 and when they went to take the air in the coun- 
 Cic. pro try. The rich citizens had * faddle-horfes ex- 
 Milone. prefsly for that ufe. 
 
 f- Quid ? fi quis vultu torvo ferus, & pede nudo, 
 Exiguaeque togas fimulet textore Catonem, 
 Virtutemne repraefentet morefque Catonis ? 
 
 Hor. L. I. Epift. 19. 
 
 ' How ? 
 
 Barefoot Jkould any one, with look aujlere. 
 Like Cato, a foort vulgar tunic wear, 
 Would be, with that contempt of drefs, affume, 
 The manners, virtues, of that foul of Rome? 
 
 * Et Appiam mannis terit. Hor. Epod. 4. 
 
 Andffurm tke Abbian ivitb his pacing nags. 
 
 CHAP-
 
 Chap.VJI. OF THE ROMANS. 51 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 1. Of litters. II. Chariots of the Emperors. 
 
 III. Chariots for travelling expeditioufly. 
 
 IV. Kind of poft. V. Of the great ways or 
 roads. VI. MeJJengers of the galleys. V 'II. Form 
 of the chariots. 
 
 CArriages, which multiplied flill more un- j. 
 der the Emperors, were either clofe or Of lit 
 open litters, carried by * fix or eight men, who 
 were generally flaves. There was room in them 
 only for two, and both were under cover from 
 the weather : the former did not become com- 
 mon till under the Emperors. According to 
 Dion Cafllus, the Emperor Claudius was the j)j on Q/T, 
 firft who ufed them. The ufe of them after- 1. 60. 
 wards became general, except for the ladies, 
 who, according to the fame author, in his time 
 were carried only in little open litters. They 
 were more or lefs magnificent, according to the 
 quality, rank, or luxury that prevailed. They 
 were alfo ufed in travelling, as we find in Plu- 
 tarch's Life of Cicero, who commanded his do- 
 medics to fet down his litter, when Herennius, 
 who was fent by Mark Antony to kill him, 
 overtook him. We muft not however ima- 
 gine, that they knew no other carriages, as in 
 the time of the Kings they made ufe of cha- 
 riots. Tullia, the wife of Tarquin the Proud* 
 commanded the coachman who drove her cha- 
 
 * 
 
 Cum jam fexta cervice feratur 
 
 Hinc atque inde patens. Jw- Sat. I. v. 64. 
 
 When lolling at his eafe, 
 
 Meecenas-like the happy rogue he fees, 
 
 Born by Jjx iveatyd Jla<ues in open view. Dryden. 
 
 E 2 riot,
 
 52 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 riot, to drive over the body of her father, that 
 lay in the ftreet. From the reign of the laft 
 Kings, the Roman ladies ufed a kind of cha- 
 riot called Carpentum^ but only in certain cere- 
 monies : and Livy tells us, that about the three 
 hundred and fixty firft year, under the Military 
 Tribunes, they were granted the privilege of 
 ufing another kind of chariot called Pilentum^ 
 which was covered, whereas the other was open ; 
 upon condition however that they fhould ufe it 
 only in going to the facrifices, games, and on 
 feftival days ; and that on other days they 
 Ihould appear only in open chariots. But the 
 fimplicity of the life of the Romans, and their 
 indigence, rendered that regulation ufelefs. 
 When equipages became common, the litter 
 was preferred : for during the Commonwealth 
 chariots were only ufed in certain ceremonies of 
 religion, for the pomp of triumphs, and the 
 races of the Circus. In the two laft they had 
 only two wheels. It was not till late enough, 
 under the Emperors, that the ufe of chariots, 
 which afterwards became fo common, was in- 
 )ionCafl. troc j ucec j j as j- ne E m p eror Adrian ufed only a 
 
 litter in the city. There were two kinds of 
 
 chariots, as well as waggons for baggage, the 
 
 one with two, and the other with four, wheels. 
 
 The firft were the leaft, and the ufe of them 
 
 was more antient than of thofe with four, which 
 
 were larger and more modern : the Emperors 
 
 and principal Magiftrates were the firft that 
 
 jr ufed them. Magnificence was no lefs evident 
 
 Chariots i equipages than other furniture. The Empe- 
 
 oftbe Em- rors had chariots of filver, and others gilt with 
 
 perors. g O }^ anc j filver, and adorned with ivory and 
 
 1 r-!in otner precious materials. Alexander Severus 
 
 vit. Aurel. permitted even the common people to adorn 
 
 Dion Caff. them 
 
 1.6o.
 
 n 
 
 Chap. VII. OF THE ROMANS. 53 
 
 them with filver : for in that Emperor's time 
 they were the equipages moft ufed at Rome, 
 where litters were entirely laid afide. The cha- 
 riots of the Emperors, and perfons of great 
 diftinction, were drawn either by mules or 
 white horfes, which were more efleemed. Some 
 Emperors had alfo armed chariots, which they 
 made ufe of in the field to break the enemy. 
 
 The Romans in travelling, for the fake of jjr. 
 expedition, made ufe of certain fmall chariots Chariots 
 with two wheels, which were very light, becaufe^' 
 ufually made of ofiers. There was room in * 
 them only for one to fit, and they were drawn 
 by three mules one before the other. This cha- 
 riot ferved them inftead of the modern poft- 
 chaifes, except that it was not pofiible to travel 
 in them at eafe, being neither covered nor flung. 
 Suetonius probably fpeaks of the fame equipage, g uet 
 when he fays, that Julius Csefar travelled anvit. J.Ca>f. 
 hundred miles a day in an hired chariot j which 
 might on fome occafions fupply the expedition 
 of pofts, the Romans having none regular. 
 Auguftus indeed had an idea of fuch an inftitu- iv. 
 tion, when in order to be informed of what paf- Kind of 
 fed in the provinces with greater difpatch, he^' . 
 
 r j c i u * i j kuet. m 
 
 cauled young perfons who ran, to be placed at v] - t Aug. 
 fmall diftances from each other. He inftituted& Veip. 
 public carriages, which Antoninus Pius render- 
 ed more commodious for travellers. The latter 
 defigned alfo to have repaired the great ways or 
 roads, which had been the care of the Com- 
 monwealth, long before the reign of the Empe- 
 rors. She had caufed great roads to be made 
 from Rome to the extremities of Italy. There 
 are ftill to be feen magnificent remains of thofe v. 
 called the dppian, Flaminian, and jEmilian, f the 
 ways, which .have fubfifted about two thoufand^f ' or 
 E 3 years,
 
 14 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 years. They are paved with fuch hard ftones, 
 that they are rather polifhed than worn ; and fo 
 well joined, that in fome places the whole 
 breadth of the way feems of one piece : There 
 is on each fide a path raifed above a foot for 
 the convenience of foot-travellers. In the Em- 
 peror Vefpafian's time, there were peribns ex- 
 prefsly appointed to go and come between Oftia 
 and Rome. They went their ftage barefoot j 
 VI - and were called meffengers of the galleys : but 
 .this falls exceedingly fhort of the potts, fo well 
 
 leys. eftablifhed in the prefent age. 
 
 Suet, in Trebellius Pollio is the only author who men- 
 
 * \ T r 
 
 TJ^'i T> i tions fufpended chariots on the occafion of Ze- 
 
 Treb. Pol. , % j /- , , r 
 
 1 z -_ nobia, who appeared in fuch a chariot in the lu- 
 VII. perb triumph of Aurelian , for amongft the an- 
 Form of tiq U e marbles and medals, which reprefent tri- 
 chanots. um pj ia j cnar i o ts, we find none fufpenued or 
 flung. They appear in the form of a tub or. 
 drum adorned and carved, and placed upon 
 two or four wheels, without either a roof a- 
 gainft the weather, or a feat for the coachman, 
 unlefs he fate on the fide of the front of that 
 fort of chariot, to which generally two mules a- 
 breaft were harnaffed. There are reprefentations 
 of thefe chariots, wherein, though embellifhed, 
 we fee them drawn, like waggons, by a yoke 
 of oxen. One might conjecture that they made 
 ufe of oxen when they travelled ; for they em- 
 ployed thofe animals more commonly than hor- 
 fes in drawing, and plowed their lands only 
 with them. 
 
 But to continue the hiflory of luxury i it was 
 not confined to the drefs of the ladies -, it ex- 
 tended univerfally ; but it mewed itfelf in no- 
 tlvng fo much as in the public buildings, and 
 even private houfes. 
 
 CHAP-
 
 Chap. VIII. OF THE ROMANS. 55 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 I. Of houfes. II. Unknown kind of plaifter. III. 
 Grandeur of Rome. IV. Manner of building 
 houfes. V. Courts of houfes. VI. Height 
 of houfes. VII. No chimneys. VIII. Por- 
 table furnaces. IX. Kind of ftovcs to heat 
 rooms. X. Manner of cooling apartments in 
 fummer. XI. 'What ufed inflead of glafs for 
 windows is unknown. XII. Of cifterm, XIII. 
 Of hofpitality. XIV. Tally, or certificate, of 
 hofpitality. XV. Porticos for the different fea- 
 fons. XVI. Rooms to eat in on the tops of the 
 houfes. XVII. Of libraries. XVIII. Baths. 
 XIX. Stoves. XX. Of the Therm*. XXI. 
 The Tiber the frft bath of the Romans. XXII'. 
 Simple beds of the antient Romans. XXIII. 
 Beds. XXIV. Form of beds. XXV. Of feats. 
 XXVI. Tapejlry. XXVII. Tajte for fainting 
 and fculpture. XXVIII. Tables of curious 
 wood.. XXIX. Of vejfels and plate. 
 
 TH E city of Rome, till the time when 
 it was burnt by the Gauls, confifted 
 of thatched houfes and poor cottages. That ca- 
 lamity proved adyantagious to it ; for it was 
 rebuilt in a more folid and commodious man- 
 ner. However, it is obferved, that till the ar-pn n .i _ 
 rival of Pyrrhus in Italy, the houfes were co-c. 10. 
 vered only with planks and boards. The Ro- 
 mans in their buildings ufed bricks more com- 
 monly than (tone ; and for mortar and plaifter, 
 lime mixed with fand, or with a certain red 
 earth, which they ftill ufe in that country. 
 They had the fecret of making mortar, which 
 became harder than ftone itfelf, as appears from 
 E 4 the
 
 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book J. 
 
 the ruins of their buildings. They did not not 
 II. know the plaifter of France, cajled plaifter of 
 ijler Paris, which to this day is not ufed by the 
 
 I)folcair.g reatefl P art of Itaj y- Auguftus faid that 
 i. 5.6. ' he had found Rome of brick, but fhould 
 leave it of marble. From whence may be 
 judged the magnificence of the houfes and pub- 
 lic buildings eredted in his time. Under the 
 firft Emperors marble was employed in them 
 more commonly than ftone had been before. 
 To adorn them, every thing moft curious 
 and valuable was ufed ; gilding, paintings, 
 ivory, fine woods, precious ftones ; none of 
 which were fpared. The pavement of the low- 
 er apartments were either inlaid marble, or Mo- 
 faic work. The city was never more magnifi- 
 cent than after Nero Jiad caufed it to be fet on 
 fire, at which time two thirds of it were burnt 
 HI down. It is faid that after it was rebuilt, there 
 Grandeur were forty-eight thoufand houfes feparate from 
 f Romt - each other in it : for that Emperor, in caufing 
 fac. Ann. ^ j^f^ to ^ e re b u i] t} ordered that they mould 
 
 be feparate from each other, and even fixed 
 their height. From this period, and long after 
 Trajan, it was the moft fuperb city in the world : 
 and if we confider the great number of its pub- 
 lic buildings, their beauty and folidity, of which 
 fome fubfiil to this day, we mail agree that the 
 Romans fought no lefs to immortalize them- 
 felves by their works, than by their actions. 
 To re fled; upon the great number of baths or 
 < Tberm&i which were vaft and fumptuous build- 
 ings, the BafiHcG, or public halls, which for 
 magnificence gave place to them in nothing ; 
 the Theatres, Amphitheatres, Circus's, Nauma- 
 (hice, Forums, and other public ftrudliures, a- 
 mongfl which were libraries open to all lovers of 
 
 the
 
 Chap. VIII. OF TH E R O M A N S. 57 
 
 the fciences, * where the ftatues of thofe who had 
 excelled in them, were placed in honour of their 
 memories ; and laftly, to confider the aque- 
 ducts, which had been made for bringing better 
 waters than thofe of the Tiber : all exprefs the 
 immenfe power and grandeur to which Rome 
 had attained. The very common-fewers argued pij n . i. 36. 
 this: they were fo many great vaulted ftreetsc. 15. 
 made under thofe of the city, in order to keep 
 it always clean, by receiving the filth, which 
 they carried off into the Tiber, by the means 
 of ftreams, that were exprefsly turned into thefe 
 fubterraneous canals. All this, with the fine 
 ftru&ure of private houfes, formed a city as 
 much above all others in its magnificence and 
 beauty, as the extent of its power. This fmall 
 Iketch fuffices for giving an exact idea of it : 
 more particular accounts would be foreign to 
 my fubjecl. 
 
 When the Commonwealth was at the height IV. 
 of its greatnefs, the houfes of principal perfons^?"" f 
 were laid out in fuch a manner, that before the ^ e kSf eSt 
 gate there was a kind of portico fupportcd by 
 pillars, and intended to flicker the clients from the 
 weather who came in the morning to pay their 
 court to their patron. The court was ufually V. 
 furrounded with flights of chambers, that open- c arfs f 
 ed into porticos. At the entrance of the houfe' e J( 
 was a large hall, or rather -f- gallery, adorned 
 
 with 
 
 * Beatus Fannius ultro 
 
 Delatis capfis & imagine ; cum mea nemo 
 
 Scripta legal. Her. L. I. Sat. iv- 
 
 To Ctefars library bleft Fannius flies, 
 
 'There leaves his bufto, and his rhapfodies : 
 
 Whilft none read what I 'write. 
 
 f Tota licet veteres exornent undique cerae 
 
 Atria, nobilitas fola ell atque unica virtus. 
 
 7w. Sat. VIH. 
 Lonz
 
 58 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 with the ftatues in wax, filver, or marble, of 
 the matter of the houte's anceftors, with a fhort 
 account of their greateft actions. In this place 
 people waited till the great perfon was vifible. 
 
 Polyb. 1.6. However, according to Polybius, there was a 
 room on the top of the houfe, which was con- 
 fidered as a kind of chapel, in which the figures 
 of their anceftors were placed. Care \vas taken 
 on certain feftival days and public folemnities 
 to uncover and adorn them. When any man 
 of confideration of the family died, thefe figures 
 were carried in proceffion at his funeral ; at which 
 time the reft of the body was added to them, 
 in order to make the likenefs the greater. They 
 were dreft according to the dignities thofe they 
 reprefented had enjoyed ; in the Confular robe, 
 if they had been Confuls ; in the triumphal, 
 if they had triumphed ; and fo on of the reft. 
 It is eafy to reconcile the difference of other au- 
 thors from this paflage of Polybius, by obferv- 
 ing that thofe authors are pofterior to him ; that 
 in his time, pomp and luxury had not made Ib 
 great a progrefs as under the Emperors i that 
 under them, the Romans fetting no bounds to 
 their magnificence, had halls below or porticos 
 in their houfes, where they placed great fhuuea 
 of marble, or fome other precious materials, 
 which did not hinder them from keeping the 
 buftos of the fame anceftors in upper apartments, 
 in order to ufe them in funeral ceremonies, as 
 being more commodious to carry than marble 
 ftatues. 
 VI. All the houfes were of two ftories, without 
 
 Height of including the low one at bottom under the 
 
 tke boufes. 
 
 Long galleries of ancejlors, and all 
 
 The fo'lies ^vLich ill grace a country kail, 
 
 Challenge.no wonder or ejleem from me. 
 
 Virtue a/ene is true nobility. Stepney. 
 
 firft.
 
 Chap. VIII. OF THE ROMANS. 59 
 
 fir ft. On the firft were halls of audience and 
 lodging-rooms, and on the fecond, the eating- 
 rooms and the apartments of the women. It is 
 not known how their chimneys were made, and VII. 
 whether they had any except in their kitchens :AW4/- 
 it appears however that they feldom had any m" e - 
 the apartments , but to fupply the want of them 
 they had portable furnaces, or fire-pans, in which Vlir. 
 they burnt a certain wood, that being rubbed Portable 
 with the dregs of olives after the oil was prefled/^**'"' 
 out of them, did not fmoke. Seneca fays, that IX. 
 in his time certain pipes were invented, which K'"df 
 being affixed in the walls, warmed the 
 bers equally to the upper ftory, by the means of 
 ftres made in furnaces difpofed along the bottom 
 of the walls. We find that during fummer, to x. 
 cool the rooms, they alfo made ufe of pipes, Manner of 
 which rofe from vaults, from whence they drew cooll "S a ~ 
 the cool air, which they difperfed in its courfe /*^^ r> 
 into the apartments. We are Hill in ignorance XL 
 as to what they ufed in their windows, for let- V/bat ufed 
 ting the light into rooms, and to keep out 
 injuries of the weather : it was perhaps 
 cloth, or fome fluff equivalent to it. For it i 
 certain, though glafs was not unknown to them, 
 as they made drinking-veffels of it, that they 
 did not ufe it like us for windows. Nero em- 
 ployed for that ufe a certain tranfparent ftone 
 like alabafter, cut in fquares, through which the 
 light appeared. And the hiflorian Jofephus Jofeph. in 
 fpeaks of a different kind of fubftance applied j e at - plu " 
 to that ufe, but without explaining himfelf clear- n> 
 ly. He tells us that the Emperor Caligula, gi- 
 ving audience to Philo, ambaflador from the 
 Jews of Alexandria, in a gallery of one of his 
 palaces near Rome, ordered the windows to be 
 ihut, upon account of the wind that incommo- 
 ded
 
 60 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 dec! him. He adds, that thofe windows, which 
 , kept out the wind, and Jet in only the light, 
 
 were fo clear and fhining, that they might have 
 been taken for rock-criftal. He would not 
 have had occafion to have made fo loofe and 
 indeterminate a defcription, if they had been 
 glafs, which was fo well known by the vefiels 
 made of it. It was perhaps a kind of ftone 
 which, Pliny fays, was common in Spain, 
 would fplit in leaves like flate, and was as 
 tranfparent as glafs. We do not know whe- 
 ther it was as brittle ; but it is certain that it 
 admitted the rays of light, and might be feen 
 through : it was perhaps Talk. But there are 
 many things of antiquity of which we have but 
 imperfect notions. This is not our cafe in re- 
 
 XII. fpect to cifterns : we are certain that there were 
 Ofcijlerm. public as well as private ones, in great houfes. 
 
 The inner court, which was called Impluvium^ 
 was contrived in fuch a manner, as to receive 
 the rain-water from the whole building, which 
 it conveyed into the ciftern. 
 
 In the times of Rome's grandeur, her princi- 
 pal citizens built fpacious houfes, in order to 
 have fpare-apartments for the flrangers who vi- 
 
 XIII. fited them, thinking it for their honour to exer- 
 Ofhofpita- c if e hofpitality in imitation of the Greeks. This 
 ??' j j hofpitality was a correfpondence between perfons 
 
 of different countries, who through friendfhip 
 contracted this mutual obligation with each other, 
 and even tranfmitted it to their defcendants. 
 The pledge and certain evidence of this conven- 
 tion, confifted of a piece of marked wood, that 
 
 XIV. they called TeJJera bofpitalitatis, of which no 
 'Tally or nearer idea can be given than to compare it 
 certificate w \fa thofe tallies, that certain trades ufe to ex- 
 , pids the quantity of what they fupply. In the 
 
 2 fame
 
 Chap. VIII. OF THE ROMANS. 61 
 
 fame manner thefe Tefferce were a piece of wood 
 marked, and fo cut, that feparate it made two, 
 but joined again, it tallied fo exactly, as mewed 
 it had been but one , befides which fome cha- 
 racters were cut upon it. It was by this method 
 they knew the perfons with whom they had 
 contracted engagements of hofpitaliry. For 
 when they had entered into that contract, each 
 kept one of thefe tallies, which did not only ferve 
 thofe who had this right, perfonally, but alfo 
 fuch as they thought fit to lend it to ; fo that 
 the bearer of this kind of certificate was as well 
 received, lodged, and entertained, as he to 
 whom it belonged. 
 
 To make an end of giving an idea of the 
 manner in which the houfes of perfons of con- 
 dition were laid out : They had all porticos, or xv. 
 piazzas, to walk in under cover from the fun Porticos 
 and weather, and fituated to the Eaft for the^.^f- 
 conveniency of the different feafons, with apart- S^/ * 
 ments for fummer and winter, and rooms only feafons. 
 to eat in, which were always in the higheft part 
 of the houfe. This was a cuftom fo generally xvi. 
 eftablimed amongft them, that almoft all the Rooms to 
 country- houfes had a tower above the body o eat u! * 
 the building, which ufually was but one ftory, 
 and upon the top of that tower was a room with 
 large openings on all fides folely to eat in. Thus 
 with the pleafure of the table they could unite 
 that of viewing the beauties and various pro- 
 fpects of the neighbouring country. 
 
 In many houfes ot the perfons of fortune were 
 fine libraries, and baths in all thofe of the xvri 
 rich, which were always placed near the eating- Oflibra- 
 rooms, becaufe it was the cuftom to bathe be- rz "- 
 fore they fat down to table. For from the time 
 that the frequent ufe of baths had been brought 
 from Greece and Afia to Rome, the Romans 
 
 conceived
 
 62 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book 1. 
 
 conceived a great tafte for them, and thought 
 
 them as efiential to health, as nourifhment it- 
 
 felf ; which obliged them to erect public ones, 
 
 XVIII. that multiplied to fuch a degree, that under the 
 
 Ofbatbs. Emperors they amounted to eight hundred. 
 Agrippa only, in the reign of Auguftus, cau- 
 fed above an hundred to be built. They were 
 ufually laid out in different apartments, which 
 formed different baths, of which the two firft 
 were for the common people, who paid fcarce 
 half a * farthing per head for the ufe of them, 
 and children were admitted gratis. As to others, 
 the price augmented in proportion to the man- 
 ner in which they were ferved. There were 
 people to do all neceiTary offices. In each of 
 them were hot, warm, and cold baths, fo that 
 every one might chufe. There were chambers 
 on the fides for undrefling and dreffing, where 
 people were rubbed, and trimmed with nippers. 
 To clean the (kin they made ufe of a certain in- 
 ftrument, which they called -f Str'tgil, made of 
 filver, copper, or ivory, bent like a fcythe , and 
 afterwards to fmooth it, they rubbed it with a 
 pumice-ftone. They next poured odoriferous oils 
 prepared for that ufe upon it. In thefe baths 
 XIX. were ftoves. The authors of thofe times obferve, 
 
 Offtovet. that the news of all that paiTed in the city was 
 fpread at the baths, and even that || works of 
 wit were firft read there. 
 
 -Dum tu quadrante lavatum 
 
 Rex ibb. HOT. L I. Sat. ill, 
 
 Wbilft for a farthing battfd you Jirut a King. 
 f I, puer, & flrigiles Crispin i ad balnea defer. 
 
 Per/. Sat. V. 
 
 Go boy, and fcrapers bear to Crifpins bath. 
 |! In medio q'ji 
 
 Scripta foro refonent funt multi, quiqne lavantes. 
 
 Hor. L. I. Sat. iv. 
 
 The Forum rings with verft y tbe batbs refound; 
 
 Crouds of repeating bards in bath art found. 
 
 At
 
 Chap. VIII. OF THE ROMANS. 63 
 
 At the firft eflablifhment of public baths at 
 Rome, there were diftinct ones for the men and 
 women , but they infenfibly became common, 
 with this difference only, that the men were 
 ferved by men, and the women by women. 
 The Emperor Adrian perceiving how indecent Dio. Caff. 
 this was, ordered different baths for each fex. 1. 60. 
 Marcus Aurelius did the fame : but Heliogaba- 
 lus fuppreffed thofe ordinances, which were re- 
 vived, but with little fuccefs, by Alexander Se- 
 verus -, fo that this indecent cuftom fubfifted a 
 confiderable length of time even among the 
 Chriftians, notwithflanding the remonftrances of 
 the minifters of the church, and was not entirely 
 abolifhed till after the Emperor Conftantinc. 
 At length, the public baths were fo common, 
 and the ufe of them fo general, that Pliny ob- 
 ferves, there were three in the village near his 
 country-houfe. This amazing number of pub- 
 lic baths, of which fome were magnificent 
 ftructures, ferved no lefs for the convenience 
 than embellHhment of that great city. The XX. 
 mod fuperb baths however were ftill far remote Of the 
 from the beauty and extent of thofe called Ther- ^ herm3E - 
 mce, which were alfo public baths, but almoft 
 all built by the Emperors , in which their prin- 
 cipal view feems to have been, to difplay their 
 magnificence, having fpared nothing that might 
 give an high idea of it. For they were fpacious 
 and magnificent edifices, adorned with porticos 
 and galleries of extraordinary extent, and fu- 
 perb architecture, which contained not only 
 baths, but every thing elfe that could render 
 them agreeable. We find that there were libra* 
 ries in them ; witnefs the ^hermcz of Dioclefian, 
 whither the Ulpian library had been carried. 
 There were places in them allotted to the exer- 
 2 cifes
 
 64 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 cifes of the body, and even to thofe of the 
 mind, as it was cuftomary to afiemble under 
 thofe porticos, and works of wit were repeated* 
 and youth taught there. It were needlefs to add, 
 that newfmongers affembled there, as we have 
 already faid that they frequented the other pub- 
 lic baths. It is for this reafon the poets often 
 gave them the epithet of Garrulce. The open 
 places and galleries ferved for the exercifes of 
 the body ; leaping, wreftling, throwing the 
 Difeus, foot-ball, and another game with a ball, 
 which came near enough to what we call Long or 
 Welch Tennis. For the Romans, who in early 
 times had cultivated the exercifes of the body 
 only as they conduced to render them more war- 
 like, cultivated them in procefs of time, as 
 conducive to health. Wreftling feemed very 
 proper for rendering the body more fupple and 
 vigorous, and thereby lefs fubjecT: to the infir- 
 mities which arife from too much indolence 
 Suet, in and ina&ion. It was with this view that Au- 
 ric. Aug. guftus often exercifed himfelf in playing at foot- 
 ball, and that kind of tennis of which we have 
 fpoke. Befides thefe places of exercife, there 
 were others planted with trees, where people 
 walked in fummer. The baths in them were of 
 all kinds, even of fea- water, to which peculiar 
 virtues were ufcribed. There were ftoves alfo 
 in the Ibermce^ as in the other public baths. 
 They were diftributed into different apartments, 
 confiding of halls of extraordinary extent, the 
 extremely lofty rooms of which were fupported 
 by pillars of the mod exquifite marble. The 
 pavement was alfo marble and Mofaic work, 
 with which the walls were covered, and adorned 
 with gilding and paintings of great value. But 
 their principal ornament was the prodigious 
 
 number
 
 Chap. VIII. OF THE ROMANS. 
 
 number of marble ftatues, figures, and vafes of 
 the beft matters. The Emperors took pleafure 
 in collecting in thefe places moft of the excel- 
 lent pieces of painting and fculpture, which the 
 Romans had brought to Rome from the princi- 
 pal cities of Greece and Afia. The fame mag- 
 nificence extended to all the reft of thole edifices i 
 for even the place in which were kept the per- 
 fumes, odoriferous oils, effences, and drugs$ 
 with which thofe who had bathed were rubbed 4 
 was no lefs adorned ; the vafes, in which they 
 were preferved, were either of marble* or fome 
 curious matter. The vefiels in which people 
 bathed, were of fine marble, oriental granite or 
 porphyry, though of an extraordinary fize, as 
 may be judged from thofe which have been found 
 in the ruins of thefe buildings, moft of which 
 ferve at this day for the public fountains at 
 Rome. Thus there is no room for thinking, 
 that the authors, who have fpoke of the magni^ 
 licence of the Therma, intended to impofe. Be- 
 fides fuch large bathing- veflels, there were great 
 bafons full of water for fuch as defired to exer- 
 cife themfelves in fwimming , fo that nothing 
 had been forgot, that could contribute either to 
 pleafure or amufement. A great number of 
 flaves of both fexes were appointed to take care + 
 that thefe 'Thermce were kept equally clean and 
 commodious. After this fhort defcription, it is 
 eafy to perceive the difference between the Tber- 
 mas and other baths : for befides that the latter 
 had neither the magnificence nor extent of the 
 former, moft of them had not porticos in them 
 for the exercifes of the body. The Tbermce of 
 Caracalla and Dioclefian were the mofl fpacious 
 and fuperb j and were confidered with reafon 
 amongft the principal ornaments ofthisfirft city 
 of the world, 
 
 F B.:t
 
 66 
 
 XXI. 
 "Re Tiber 
 tbefrR 
 bath of the 
 Romans. 
 
 XXII. 
 Simple 
 beds of the 
 
 XXIII. 
 -Beds. 
 
 XXIV. 
 Form of 
 beds. 
 
 XXV. 
 Of feats. 
 
 XXVI. 
 
 OfTa- 
 peftries. 
 
 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 But before the Romans had quitted their 
 rough and auftere kind of life, they had no other 
 bath but the Tiber, whither they went to wafh 
 and exercife themfelves in fwimming. In thole 
 times they contented themfelves with lying upon 
 beds of ftraw or dried leaves, with no other 
 covering but fkins of beafts, which ferved 
 them alfo for mattreffes. But in procefs of 
 time, the example of the people they fubjec~ted, 
 and the opulence they began to enjoy, induced 
 them to fupply themfelves with all the conveni- 
 encies, or rather fuperfluities, of life. Accord- 
 ingly they had not only feather and the fineft 
 down-beds, with mattrefles of wool, * but they 
 adorned their bedfteds with figures in relief, and 
 inlaid work : they made them alfo of ivory, 
 and even maffy filver, with coverings of fine 
 purple, enriched with gold. The beds repre- 
 fented in the antique marbles, are very different 
 from ours : they were made almoft like our 
 couches or fettees, with a back and fides that 
 ran from the head to the feet, being open only 
 before. Thefe beds, which had neither tefter nor 
 curtains, were fo high, that they could not be 
 got upon without lome fort of fteps. They 
 had different kinds of feats, fome made like 
 ftools, and others like folding chairs, and chairs 
 with backs and without arms. For tapeftries 
 they made ufe of rich fluffs, wherein were fi- 
 
 * Nemo inter curas, & feria duxit habendum, 
 Qualis in Oceani fluftu teiludo nataret, 
 Clarum Trojugenis faftura ac nobilc fulcrum : 
 Sed nudo latere, & parvis frons aeiea le&is 
 Vile coronati caput oflendebat afelli. Juv. Sat. XI. r. 87. 
 // was rot then a Roman s anxious thought. 
 Where large ft tortoife-Jhelh nvere to be bought, 
 Where pearls might of the greatefi price be bad, 
 And Jbining jewels to adorn bis bed, 
 That be at <vaft expence might loll bis em^tj head. 
 
 Congreve. 
 
 gures
 
 Chap. VIII. o F T tt E R O M A NS. 67 
 
 gures of animals : but the walls of their apart-- 
 merits were generally covered with marble, 
 wainfcot , or adorned with works in relief, 
 or only ftatues, which ferved inftead of tapeftry. 
 When ftatues began to grow into efteem with 
 them, the fculptors repreiented them in the 
 !70g-0, and afterwards naked in the manner of 
 the Greeks, or with the cuirafs in the Roman 
 mode. The fpoils of the city of Syracufe, xxvff 
 which Marcellus brought to Rome and difplayed Taftefor 
 in his triumph, gave birth to the love of paint- painting 
 ing and fculpture amongft the Romans, which ane *f clt fy" 
 they had little regarded before. They after- 
 wards extended their curiofity to many other 
 
 things, that did not deferve it. The define of 
 
 VWTTT 
 
 having tables of curious wood, or adorned with ^/ i* 
 
 filver, was of this number : the moft efteemed car / WJ 
 and the moft coveted wood for this kind of wood. 
 works was the lemon of Mauritania. As to plin>1 33- 
 their veflels, they ufed none during a great c 'xxix. 
 length of time under the Commonwealth, ex.- Of <ve/eh* 
 cept of earth or wood j to which they adhered 
 fo ftriftly, that in the year 477, the Cenfor^' ^ x< 
 C. Fabricius excluded P. Cornelius Rufinus ' 
 from the Senate, a perfon of Confular dignity, 
 who had filled the office of Dictator withdif- 
 tinction, becaufe he had about ten or twelve 
 pounds of filver plate in his houfe. In thofe 
 times the fumptuary laws were exactly obferved : 
 but a great change enfued afterwards, and filver 
 plate became as common, as it had before been 
 rare : they even had gold-plate. One of the 
 freedmen of the Emperor Claudius cauled a fil- Tac> 3> 
 ver dim to be made, that weighed five hundred 
 pounds. We may conjecture from hence, to 
 what an height the magnificence of buffets was j 33< 
 carried, of which I 'mail fay fomething, when 
 I come to fpeak of the Roman meals. 
 
 F 2 CHAP-
 
 68 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 I. Divifwn of the night. II. Of the lamps ufed 
 during the night. III. Divifion of the day. 
 IV. Firft fun-dial. V. Of the Clepfydra, or 
 water-clock. VI. Ufual occupations of the day. 
 VII. Of patrons and clients. VIII. Manner 
 of devoting criminals. IX. Refpeft of clients 
 for their patrons. 
 
 I. '"j"" 1 H E Romans divided the night into four 
 Divi/umef A equal parts, each of three hours, which 
 the right. t h ey callec j w a t c fa^ reckoning by the firft, fe- 
 cond, third, and fourth watch, according to the 
 cuftom obferved in the army, where the guard 
 was relieved four times during the night. Part 
 of it they employed either in the pleafures of 
 jj the table or in ftudy. They ufually made ufe 
 W the of lamps, which were placed in fconces with 
 aWfeveral branches. Rich perfons , refiners in 
 the i uxur y ? nac j branches made of Corinthian brafs, 
 of curious workmanfhip. The ufe of wax was 
 not unknown to them ; but they generally burnt 
 lamps, from whence came the Latin proverb, 
 Tempus & oleum perdidi, to fay, / have loft my 
 labour, 
 
 As to the day, during a very great length of 
 a^time, they diftinguifhed its different parts only 
 the day. by fun-rife and fun-fet : No other difference is 
 Plm. 1.7. men tioned in the laws of the twelve tables. It 
 was not till fome time after the inflitution of 
 thofe laws, that they divided it into two equal 
 parts, the fore and after-noon. For till the four 
 hundred feventy-feventh year of Rome, when 
 IV. Papirius Curfor caufed the firft fun-dial that ap- 
 Tirfifun- peared 
 
 dial.
 
 Chap. IX. OF THE ROMANS. 69 
 
 peared there to be affixed to the wall of the tem- 
 ple of Quirinus, they had never ufed any me- 
 thod for meafuring time. With this help they 
 divided the day into hours, and had only fun- 
 dials till the year 585, when Scipio Nafica for 
 the firfl time made ufe of the water- clock 
 ( Clepfydra ) amongft them, which fhewed the 
 hours day and night, by the means of a glafs 
 veffel filled with water, on which fwam a fmall 
 piece of cork with a needle in it, that pointed 
 to the hours marked along the veflel, by finking 
 in proportion as the water ran out through an 
 hole made on purpofe at the bottom of the glafs. 
 In this manner they arrived at dividing the day 
 into twelve hours, of which the firft began with 
 fun-rife, and the twelfth ended with fun-fet ; 
 which made the hours unequal in the different 
 feafons, being longer in fummer, and fhorter in 
 winter ; but at the fixth half the day was always 
 fuppofed to have elapfed. 
 
 After having explained the diviiion made of VI. 
 the day by the Romans, I proceed to their ufual Uf**leccu- 
 occupations, and their diftribution of them du-^fJ'T. 3 ' 
 
 T i r 11 cc i * /* T the " a J- 
 
 ring it. It began for all affairs with * fun-rife : Mart. 1. 4* 
 the two firft hours were taken up by their cli- 
 ents paying their duty to their patrons, and in 
 conciliating the affection of their fellow-citizens, 
 whofe fuffrages were necefiary for the attain- 
 ment of the dignities of the Commonwealth. 
 They allotted thefe duties to the beginning of 
 the day, in order to employ the reft of it in 
 the fervices they might have occafion mutually 
 to render each other, in quality of patrons and 
 clients. 
 
 * Agricolam laudat juris legujnque peritus, 
 
 Sub galli cantum confultor ubi oftia pulfat. Hor. Sat. I. 
 
 The lawyer vvnui the farmer's life is beft 
 
 When at the <.* i the clients break his re>\ Horneck. 
 
 3 The
 
 70 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 VI F. The people's cuflom of chufing patrons and 
 Of patrons p rote ^; Ors out o f the Senators and Nobility, is 
 " afcribed to Romulus. The protected called 
 rhemfelves clients, from the affiduiry with which 
 they cultivated their patron's favour. Romu- 
 lus's view in this was to eftabiim union between 
 the two orders, by rendering them mutually ne- 
 ceflary to each other. This inftitution, if really 
 of Romulus, as it is faid, gives us an advanta- 
 gious idea of his political abilities. Dionyfms 
 Halicarnafienfis leflens the glory of it a little, 
 by affirming that he borrowed the greateft part 
 of the form of his government from the Greeks. 
 This tie between the two orders became ft ill 
 ftronger and more ufeful in the times of the 
 Commonwealth, becaufe the Nobility ftood in 
 need on many occafions of the fuffrages of the 
 People. 
 
 Dion Hal. The patrons were obliged to afllft their clients 
 1.2. c-4- with their counfels and credit, and to defend 
 them in their abfence, as well as prefent , to 
 take their caufe upon themfelves, if any injuftice 
 were done them, or they were cited before the 
 judges j and to do all for them that a father does 
 for his children, as well on account of what re- 
 garded money, as in pecuniary contracts. The 
 patrons inherited the eftates of their clients, who 
 died inteftate, and without heirs. The clients 
 on their fide undertook no affair without confult- 
 ing them ; it was their duty to give their voices 
 in the public aflemblies in their favour, or for 
 thofe for whom their patrons made intereft. 
 They were alfo obliged to afllft them in mar- 
 rying their daughters ; to furnifh them with for- 
 tunes, if the fathers had not fufficient eftates ; 
 and to pay their ranfom, and that of their fons, 
 when they were taken prifoners by the enemy. 
 
 But
 
 Chap. IX. OF THE ROMANS. 71 
 
 But they were difcharged from the laft obliga- 
 tion, when the Commonwealth had prohibited 
 the ranfoming of prifoners of war. They were 
 alfo obliged to advance the money, if their pa- 
 tron loft a law-fuit, and even the fines laid on 
 them by the public, and that without ufe or in- 
 tereft. Their purfe was alfo to be open to their 
 patrons, to fupport their dignity and the ex- 
 pences the public good required them to be at, 
 as if they had been their own relations. Both 
 patrons and clients were equally prohibited to 
 accufe each other of crimes ; to give evidence, 
 or vote againft each other ; and to efpoufe the 
 party of one another's enemies. If a perfon VIII. 
 were convicted of having done any of tne ^ e ^^ r ^ 
 three things, he was obnoxious to the law pa fifed cr ; m j n a/ f . 
 by Romulus againft traitors, and after correction 
 it was lawful for any citizen to kill him, as a 
 victim devoted to Pluto God of hell. For it 
 was the cuftom of the Romans to devote thofe, 
 whom it was lawful to kill with impunity, to 
 fome God,and principally the infernal divinities. 
 The clients paid their patrons fo much refpect, ix. 
 that they went in the morning to their doors to Refpea of 
 wait their rifmg, as well as the freed men, with""""' 
 this difference however, that the latter paid that Suet, in 
 duty to their matters twice a day, morning and VItgGalbl 
 evening, and the others only in the morning. 
 But both the clients and freedmen accompanied 
 their patron's litter through the ftreets on foot, 
 who thought it for their honour to have a nume- 
 rous train. It was with that view patrons in 
 procefs of time gave thofe, who attended them, 
 * the Sportula : this was a retribution in money 
 
 * Nonne vides quanto celebretur fportula fumo ? 
 
 Ju<v. Sat. III. v. 249. 
 
 See with 'what fmoke our doles we celebrate. Dryden. 
 F 4 OF
 
 72 ' MANNERS AND CusxoMr Book I. 
 
 or victuals. After the Plebeians had at length 
 obtained the power of poffeffing the dignities 
 of the Commonwealth, they alfo became pa- 
 trons, and had clients, through the credit and 
 Authority, which the offices they had filled, ac- 
 quired them. But under the Emperors, the 
 People having no longer any (hare either in the 
 elections of the magiftrates, affairs of (late, or 
 judgments, in which only the Magiftrates and 
 the Emperor then prefided, nothing remained of 
 patrons and clients, except the names, mutually 
 void of the obligations before annexed to them. 
 The name of client was given folely to thofe, 
 who accompanied the rich and powerful in the 
 city, to fwcll their train, to whom on that ac- 
 count was given what was called Sportula^ 
 which, as we have faid, was either a fmall 
 piece of money, or a portion of provifions, 
 diftributed to them at the doors of the perfons 
 they had attended ; and the latter retained the 
 name of patron, upon account of that falary. 
 In this manner the pride of the rich enabled part 
 Tac. Hift. of the poor citizens to fubfift. The right of pa- 
 l 2. tronage however, if we may believe Tacitus, 
 fubfifted ftill in refpect to freedmen. That hif- 
 torian fays in the life of Vitellius, that this 
 right of patronage, which he had reftored with 
 the applaufe of the Senate and People, became 
 ineffectual, through the deceit of the freedmen, 
 who either fecreted their fortunes, or put them 
 isnder the protection of the great. 
 
 CHAP-
 
 Chap. X. OF THE ROMANS. 
 
 73 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 I. Of the third hour. II. Of dinner. III. Af- 
 fairs tranfafled in the Forum. IV. Magnifi- 
 cence of buffets. V. Of the beds ufed at ta- 
 bles. 
 
 TH E two firft hours being employed as j. 
 above, the third was ufually allotted voOftbe 
 the Bar, or particular affairs, till the fifth, 'MrJ 
 which was that of dinner. This was a ve iy o/ <# 
 flight repaft, and in a manner a fimple refrefh- Suet, in 
 ment, till the principal meal, which was thevit. Aug 
 fupper : and in confequence they never invited 
 any body to dinner. From thence to the fe- 
 venth hour was a time of repofe, which is ftill 
 a cuftom in Italy, that they call pafjing the noon. 
 The eighth hour was employed in exercifes of 1 - 2 - 
 the body ; after which they bathed ; and about V " t e 
 the ninth went to fupper. However, in the m it. 
 early times of the Commonwealth, when they 
 applied themfelves more to their domeftic af- 
 fairs, than pleafures, they did not fup till fun- 
 fet. By this diftribution of time we may fee 
 the difference between their manner of paffing 
 their time, and ours. Their affairs, whether jjj 
 public or private, being tranfacted in the Fo-4/airs 
 rum, kept them a part of the day from home. tranfaSe 
 The public Ihews of the Circus, Amphitheatre, in the F " 
 and Theatre, which became fo common under 
 the Emperors, that they were exhibited almoft 
 every day, might alfo employ the reft ; fo that 
 fupper-time arid night were all that remained 
 for their private diverfions, and for entertaining 
 their friends and relations at home : for they 
 feldom were without fome of them at this meal. 
 
 The
 
 47 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 The rooms where they ate were places adorned 
 
 and folely allotted to that ufe. It was there, 
 
 according to the fortune of the mafter of the 
 
 houfe, that more or lefs magnificence was dif- 
 
 IV played in fuperb buffets laden with vefiels, ftill 
 
 Magnifi- more valuable for their exquifite workmanihip, 
 
 ana cf tnan f or the gold, filver, or other exquifite ma- 
 
 buftts. ter i a j s O f w hich they were compofed. Mod 
 
 of them were the fruits of their victories, and 
 
 the fpoils of the provinces they had conquered, 
 
 and ferved rather to make a magnificent mew, 
 
 than for any neceflary ufe. 
 
 I(id 1 20. To 8 k ac k to the early times, when fim- 
 
 c. 2 . plicity and modefty prevailed, we find that the 
 
 Romans ate fitting upon benches or feats round 
 
 the table : but after their commerce with the 
 
 Greeks and Afiatics, whom they piqued them- 
 
 felves upon imitating, they introduced, inftead 
 
 $. of chairs or ftools, the ufe of beds round the 
 
 Of the faft table. They were ufually of a round form : 
 
 f e f, at one fide was always left open to receive the fer- 
 
 vice in the middle ; and the beds were placed, 
 
 one at the head, and two on each fide, there 
 
 Plut. in being only three at each table. On each of the 
 
 vit. Pomp. g rea eft there was room only for four perfons ; 
 
 viTVug. f r they ^ not a PP rove having more than 
 
 Mart.l 1 1. twelve at the fame table. The common beds 
 
 Ep. 53. were only for * three j and the number that 
 
 pleafed them moft was f nine, feven, or three, 
 
 having a fingular prejudice for an odd number. 
 
 The 
 
 * Tertia ne vacuo ceflaret culcitra lefto, 
 
 Una fimus, ait. Jaw. Sat. \ r . 
 
 That the third bolfttr may not v:axt a guefi, 
 Sup -luit/j mi, fays bis LorJjkip. 
 
 j- Fumraus ego, & prope me Vifcus Thurinu?, & infra 
 Si memini Varius: cum Servilio Balatrone 
 Vib : dius ; quos Maecenas adduxerat Umbras. 
 Nomentanus crat fuper ipUim, Porcius infra. 
 
 Hor. L. II. Sat. viii. 
 Sir,
 
 Chap. X. OF THE ROMANS. 75 
 
 The matter of the houfe placed himfelf upon 
 the bed at the end of the table, from whence 
 he could fee the whole difpofition of the fer- 
 vice, and give his domeftics orders with moft 
 eafe. The place above him he refer ved for 
 one of the guefts, and that below him for his 
 wife : for the Roman ladies were prcfent at en- 
 tertainments with the men, which was not the 
 cuftom amongft the Greeks. But the moft di- 
 
 ftinguifhed place was the laft upon the middle * 
 
 bed. It was called for that reafon the Confularqu j. ' 
 
 place, becaufe it was really That given the Con- 
 
 fuls, when they went to eat at the houfes of their 
 
 friends. They lay upon thefe beds with their 
 
 left elbow on a pillow, or kind of bolder. At 
 
 the beginning of this cuftom, the women thought v a l. Ma* 
 
 it indecent for them to lie down at table, and 1.2. c. i. 
 
 ufed to fit upon the beds : but that fcruple was 
 
 foon removed, and they took their places at 
 
 them in the fame manner as the men. * Horace 
 
 in one of his Satires informs us, that a canopy 
 
 was placed over the table. Though the exam- 
 
 ple of the Afiatics had not a little contributed 
 
 to introduce that manner of lying at table a- 
 
 mongft the Romans, it was however alfo afcri- 
 
 bed to the cuftom of bathing immediately be-Lamprid. 
 
 fore eating ; becaufe on quitting the bath, the in vit. He- 
 
 .body having occafion for repofe, they threw lio s ab - 
 
 themfelves upon beds, which they found too 
 
 commodious to quit, when it was neceflary to 
 
 Sir, Ifatfirjl\ and 'flay ', I think "'twas fo, 
 Turinus next, ^'ibidius fat below, 
 Next Balatro ; belvw him Porcius lies 
 
 All uninvited ; but, as Lords are wont, 
 M&cenas brought them all on his account. Creech. 
 * Interea fufpenfa graves aulasa ruinas 
 
 In patinam fecere Hor. L. II. Sat. VIII. 
 
 But cwbilft be talKd, and ivhilft he praiid the fjb, 
 De-ivn came the canopy into the dt/h, 
 
 eat.
 
 76 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 cat. For the guefts bathed at the perfon's houfe 
 who invited to fupper ; and it was for this rea- 
 fon, that it was always obferved in building 
 houfes, to place the apartment of the baths near 
 that where they ate. Thcfe beds for the table 
 were covered with purple, and other rich fluffs. 
 They were low and without backs, differing in 
 thofe refpeds from the beds where they palled 
 the night, and not much unlike couches or fet- 
 tees. Some were in the form of an half- moon, 
 and others a little raifed at the end next the ta- 
 ble, for the more commodioufly fupporting 
 thofe on them whilft they were eating. Of all 
 the different forms of them, the laft was the 
 moft modern. On quitting the bath, the guefts 
 put on the robe worn at feafts or fuppers, 
 called in Latin Synthcfis. This robe, of which 
 the form is not known to us, was fhorter than 
 the reft. It muft be confefied, that we are 
 ftill ignorant of abundance of thefe cuftoms, 
 notwithftanding all the lights, which the mo- 
 derns have endeavoured to extract from the 
 authors of thofe times, and fome relievos which 
 have conveyed the reprefentation of them down 
 to us. In one, among the reft, we fee a wo- 
 man at table lying upon one of thefe beds, and 
 a man clofe to her, whofe fhoes are taking off, 
 and who feems preparing to take his place alfo 
 upon it : for cleanlinefs required that the fhoes 
 fhould be taken off on this occafion. The 
 woman feems to recline a little on one fide, 
 fupported by her left elbow, with no other 
 habit, except a tunic without fleeves, and a 
 drapery that furrounds her from above the gir- 
 dle to the feet : this perhaps is the Synthefis of 
 which we have fpoke. She has a kind of purfe 
 with her hair in it, that comes clofe about her 
 head. 
 
 CHAP-
 
 Chap. XL OF THE ROMANS. 77 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 I. Bills of fare given the guefts. II. Of the King 
 of the feafl. III. Of the crowns of flowers and 
 ivy. IV. Of the healths drank. V. Number 
 of courfes. VI. Mulled wines. VII. No fa- 
 ble-cloths. VIII. Table-cloths frjl ufed. IX. 
 Of the diverfwns with which feafts were at- 
 tended. X. Hour of fupper. XL Ofthebreak- 
 faft. XII. Of the dinner. XIII. Games of 
 chance. XIV. Lotteries. 
 
 HP H E firft thing done was to give the guefts I. 
 
 A an exact and circumftantial lift of the cour- Bil/s of 
 fes, and all the difhes of which the feaft 
 compofed. Before they began to eat, they 
 dice in order by way of diverfion to decide who 
 fhould be * King of the feaft. He was obeyed II. 
 during the whole entertainment, and regulate 
 the number of healths that were drank. 
 guefts were prefented f with wreaths of flowers Conv. 1. 
 
 and c - 4- 
 
 * Jam te premet nox, fabulsque manes, 
 Et domus ex ills Plutonia : quo fimul mearis 
 
 Nee regna vini foitiere tails. Hor. L. I, Od. iv. 
 
 The grim conqueror death 
 Advances fwift to Jlop thy breath ; 
 
 And once dej>rii?d of light, 
 Were tvrapt in mifts of endlefs night : 
 Then no more Jhall mirth and wine 
 Our loves and <wit refine. 
 
 Quern Venus arbitrum 
 
 Dicet bibendi? Id. L. II. Od. vii. 
 
 Let's try n.vbom the cajl Venus /hall affign 
 The monarch of the %lafs, the King of wine. 
 \- Difplicent nezae philyra coronsR. 
 
 Id. L. I. Od. xxxviii. 
 Crowns wrought with too much art difpleafe. 
 
 Ell in horto, 
 
 Phylli, neftendis apium coronis : 
 Eft hedcra: vis 
 
 Malta,
 
 78 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 and ivy, to which was afcribed the property of 
 preventing the effects of the fumes of wine by 
 their coolnefs : after having rubbed their hair 
 
 III. with odoriferous * efTences, they put thofe crowns 
 Of the upon their heads, and wore them during the 
 rrfr-uw 9/^ w hoi e entertainment. Some time before it en- 
 iv y ded, which was when the healths began to go 
 
 IV. round brifldy, the matter of the houfe caufed a 
 Of the great cup, richer and more adorned than the 
 
 reft, to be brought, which was therefore called 
 f- Cuppa magiflra, the principal cup, out of 
 which the company drank round the healths of 
 thofe they loved. If it was a miftrefs, they of- 
 ten by way of gallantry obliged the lover to 
 drink as many times as there were letters in her 
 name. 
 
 V. Their fupper ufually confifted of three cour- 
 cT ^fes: but fometimes out of an excefs of magnifi- 
 
 CyMrfC** *** 
 
 Malta, qua crincs religata fulges. 
 
 Id. L. IV. Od. si. 
 
 To crown thy bair 
 
 My far/ley grni-s ; my ivy /--wines 
 
 'To grate thy head, and make tbee fair. Creech. 
 * Cur non fub aha vel platano, vel hac 
 Pinu jacentes lie temerc, et rofa 
 Caros odorati capi!los> 
 
 Dum licet, Aflyriaque nardo 
 
 Potamus unfti? Hor. L. II. Od. xi 
 
 Why underneath a pltajing myrtle Jhade, 
 On fl&wry banks Jupiaely laid, 
 
 Are -it'* fo flow to Jpfiid a day ; 
 And, tvhilft grtj hairs are crown d with rofe, 
 Or od'roia oil our heads derfowt, 
 
 To quajfottr cares arjcay ? Creech. 
 
 Quis udo 
 
 Dcproperare apio coronas 
 
 Curarve myrto ? // L. II. Od. vii. 
 
 WTjo par/ley twines, or myrtle btaghi, 
 To grace our mirth, and Jhade our brows? Creech, 
 t Poft hoc ludus erat cuppa potarc magiftra. 
 
 Id, L. It. Sat. ii. 
 
 The next J^trt was, before the feaft broke up, 
 To drink the mafter-bewl, the peremptory c*p. 
 
 cence
 
 Chap. XL OF THE ROMANS. 79 
 
 cence and defire to entertain, they were aug- 
 mented [] to feven. The firft was of fallads of 
 lettkes and olives ; with which oyfters of the 
 lake Lucrinus, fo famous for that mell-fifh, and 
 other the like things to excite the appetite, were 
 ferved up. The fecond was compofed of roaft- 
 meats, and the moft fubftantial diflies, amongft 
 which difties of fifti were always intermixed, of 
 which they were fuch great lovers, that without 
 them they would not have thought themfelves 
 well entertained. And for the third fervice, it 
 was compofed of fruits and paftry. There were 
 domeftics, whofe peculiar office it was to pre- 
 fide at the difpofition of the dimes, and ferved 
 as Maitres ft hotel in France ; fbme to take care 
 of the diftribution of the wines ; and others, to 
 cut * the victuals, in quality of carvers. There 
 were even fervants who during the fummer did 
 nothing but drive away the flies with great fans 
 made of feathers, which had an handle, as fome 
 antique relievos reprefent. The void left at one 
 end of the table made it eafy for the domeftics VJ 
 to ferve in this manner. They loved mulled Mulled 
 wines. Horace fpeaks of that of -f Falernus, wines. 
 mingled with honey to render it the more agree- Plin - * l 3- 
 able. There were not cloths on the tables j but c ' * 
 
 No table- 
 Quis fercula feptem clotht. 
 
 Secreto csenavit avus? "Juv. Sat. I. 
 
 Or which of our fore-fathers fared fo well, 
 
 As on feven di/hes at a private meal? Dry den. 
 
 * Saltantem fpedes, & chironomonta volanti 
 
 Cultello. - Juv. 5at V. 
 
 ^be carver dancing round each dijh furvejs 
 ' With flying knife . Dry d en . 
 
 f - Niii Hyniettia mella Falerno 
 
 Nc bi.seris diluta --- Hor. L. 2. Sat. ii. 
 
 - Nor drink Fakrnian wine 
 
 Unlefs Hymettus honey with it join. 
 
 2. they
 
 80 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 they were |j cleaned before every courfe with a 
 wet fpunge, at which time the guefts alfo wafh- 
 ed their hand. They had alfo a manner of 
 fubftituting to the firfl fervice, another table en* 
 tirely covered -, and fo on with all the reft to 
 
 ^ e enc * ^ ^ e enterta i nment - It was not till 
 cloths &y? un d er tne ^ Emperors that the Romans began 
 ufed. ' to ufe table-cloths, which were at firft ftriped 
 L am P r - in with purple and even gold. When they went 
 Sever t eat at the houfes of others, they caufed a nap- 
 Mart. Liz. kin to be brought, which, when they returned, 
 Ep. 29. ferved for their domeftics to carry home fome 
 Camll. pieces of the fupper. They might even fend 
 **' z * fome of it to their wife or a friend, without its 
 being thought extraordinary. A gueft had alfo 
 the liberty of bringing a friend with him ; and 
 that fupernumerary was called a * Shadow, in al- 
 lufion to the fhadow that follows the body ; 
 as thofe who came of themfelves without 
 being invited or brought by fome of the guefts 
 were called Flies ; alluding in like manner 
 to thofe troublefome infedls. Good cheer was 
 not ^ e on ty pl ea f ure f tne entertainment 
 
 mufic had often a (hare in it. Women- fing- 
 ers, and performers upon inftrumcnts, were ad- 
 remitted, or elfe the guefts themfelves fupplied 
 
 attended A ._ D . . r . r 
 
 Plut. in their place. Dancers, mimes, and pantomimes, 
 vit.LucuH. 
 
 g His nbi fublat's, puer alte cinftus acernam 
 Gaufape purpureo menfam perterfit, & alter 
 Sublegit quodcunque jaceret inutile. 
 
 Id. L. II. Sat. viii, 
 
 'This dijb remtrJd, two ready fer<vanti come, 
 Ore clean d the table, fotbtr fiuept tbt roam, 
 And gather 'd up the relifis of the feaft, 
 The bones, and all that might offend the gueft. Creech, 
 * Si memini, Varius, cum Servilio Balrirone 
 Vibidius; quos Mecznas addux?rar umbrai. 
 
 Bar. L. II. Sat. viii. 
 Sttnote, p. 74, -;. 
 
 who 

 
 Chap. XL OF THE ROMANS. 81 
 
 who reprefented fcenes in dumb fhew, were alfb 
 called in, and another fort of people, a kind of 
 jefters, whofe profefTion it was to tell pleafant 
 ftories to make the company laugh. Even 
 *f works of wit were read there : in a word, 
 they endeavoured to groupe whatever could 
 amufe and divert. As they fupped at the ninth T X. 
 hour, that is to fay three hours before fun fet H uro f 
 (for we muft not forget, that their hours were,\ff rr ^] . 
 different from ours, being much fhorter in win- Ep. 8. 
 ter and much longer in fummer,) that was be- 
 ginning in fufficiently good time, for uniting all 
 thefe diverfions with the only meal they had in 
 the day. For in the morning they ate only a XI. 
 little bread to break their faft ; and their dinner, r 
 which they did not take till the fifth hour, 
 hardly more confiderable, confuting only ofc. 2. 
 fbme fruits, according to the feafon. And as to XII. 
 
 f~)fjL J' 
 
 eating between meals, none did that except^ 
 artifans and workmen, who, according to thesuet in 
 antient cuftom, fupped at fun-fet ; fo that only vit. Aug. 
 the fupper defer ved to be confidered as a meal. 
 That was the only time they could pafs in do--^- * 20 * 
 meftic pleafures , becaufe, as we have faid be- pi u 2 t ' 
 fore, their affairs, public and private, the Shews Quzft. 
 and exercifes of the body, employed them from Conr. L 8. 
 home, till the time they went to fupper. Thefe ^ 6 ' 
 two laft occupations, which were of the number 
 of pleafures, ferved them inftead of our private 
 amufements : for gaming was not fo common XIII. 
 amongft them, as amongft us. There were /-?*"" 
 
 of chance* 
 
 f Ecce inter pocuia quxrunt 
 
 Romulidse faturi, quid dia poemata narrant. 
 
 Ptrf. Sat. I. 
 
 Who by their fathers is at feafls renown d, 
 And often quoted when the bo-iuls go round, Dry den. 
 
 G even
 
 82 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 even * laws, that prohibited games of chance, 
 which prohibitions were fufHciently well ob- 
 ferved, as long as the Commonwealth fubfifted. 
 Suet, m g ut t h e g ames O f chance being the tafte of feve- 
 & Claud. ra ^ Emperors, they got the better of the laws, 
 and became fo common, that -j- Juvenal declaims 
 ftrongly in his Satires againft thofe who ruined 
 themfelves by them. The games of chance of the 
 Romans, of which the knowledge has come down 
 to us, were played with a kind of dice. That cal- 
 led || Talus, was played at with throwing four of 
 
 * Nefcit equo rudis 
 Haerere ingenuus puer, 
 
 Venarique timer, ludere docYior 
 Scu Graeco jubeas trocho, 
 
 Seu mails vetita legibus alea. 
 
 Hor. L. III. Od. xxiv. 
 Noiv to the nolle youth *tis toe much pain 
 
 'The fleeds impetuous fre to rein ; 
 To rifque the manly dangers ofthechace: 
 
 But fofter arts of.thefe take place > 
 To p/ay at billiards with Sir Courtly Nice, 
 
 Andcurfe the barbarous laws, that would abolijh dice. 
 
 \ Alea quando 
 
 Hos animos? neque enim loculis comitantibus itur 
 Ad cafum tabula?, pofita fed luditur area. 
 Praslia quanta illic difpenfatore videbis 
 Armigero ! fimplexne furor feftertia centum 
 Perdere ; & horrenti tunicam non reddere fervo ? 
 
 Ju<v. Sat. I. 
 
 When were the dice with more profufion thrown ? 
 The well filTd fob's not emptied no<w alone, 
 But gamejlers for whole patrimonies play ; 
 The fteward brings the deeds which mujt convey 
 The loft eftate : What more than madnefs reigns, 
 Wlien one Jhort fitting many hundreds drains, 
 And not enough is left him to fupply 
 Board-wages, or a footman s livery ? Dry den 
 
 | Poftquam illi jufta chiragra 
 
 Contudit articulos ; qui pro fe tollerer, atque 
 Mitteret in phimum Talos, mercede diurna 
 
 Conduftum pavit. Hor. L. II. Sat. vji. 
 
 Struck by tht gout, juft offspring of the pox, 
 Who keepj a wretch, to put bit dice itb 1 box. 
 
 thofe
 
 Chap.XL OF TfcE ROMANS. 83 
 
 thofc dice f at once j and when three fixes came 
 up, the caft was called Venus, which fwept all 
 the money ftaked : Teffera^ another, was played 
 only with three dice || upon a table marked like a 
 chequer : and that of even and odd, was much 
 ufed amongft them. They had alfo another 
 game, which they called Latrunculi, that did 
 not depend upon chance, but upon the {kill of 
 the gamefters. They did not ufe dice in it, but 
 certain figures which they difpofed upon a che- 
 quer, as is done at chefs, to which it came ve- 
 ry near. Thefe were their domeftic games : but 
 often, when the Emperors gave entertainments, 
 before they began, by way of amufement, they 
 caufed a lottery to be drawn* of which all the xiV. 
 tickets that were diftributed gratis amongft the Oflotti- 
 
 f lefts, gained fome jewel, or other prize. The r ^- 
 mperor Heliogabalus had one, that he com- 
 pofed out of pleafantry, of which half the tick- 
 ets were beneficial, and the other half gained 
 only ridiculous things of no value. There was, 
 for inftance, in one ticket fix flaves, in another 
 fix flies ; in one a vafe .of value, and in another 
 an earthen pot ; and fo on of the reft. 
 
 Thefe lotteries were an ingenious and gallant 
 contrivance for difplaying their liberality, and 
 rendering the feaft more lively and affecting, in 
 putting the guefts into a good humour before- 
 hand. 
 
 Effigies quo 
 
 Tot bellatorum, fi luditur alea pernox 
 Ante Numantinos ? Ju<v. Sat. VIII. 
 
 *<Tis meer burlefque, that to our gen' rait praife 
 Their progeny immortal Jiatues raife. 
 Yet (far from that old gallantry) delight 
 To game before their images all night. Stepney. 
 
 Hunc alca decoquit. Per/. Sat. V. 
 
 G 2 CHAP-
 
 84 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 I. Of the meats of the Romans. II. Of the diet 
 of the fir ft Romans. III. Wine prohibited to 
 'women. IV. Of vintages. V. Old wine 
 ejleemed. VI. Laws for retrenching the luxury 
 of the table. VII. Supper given Cicero and 
 Pompey by Lucullus. VIII. Lucullus compa- 
 red to Curius Dentatus. 
 
 I- T> U T to return to the meals of the Romans, 
 Of the J3 the meat which they mod frequently ufed, 
 
 meats of , c j- ? 
 
 the Ro- was P or k as f r extraordinanes, they gave ve- 
 
 mant. nifon and wild and tame fowl: but * peacocks, 
 
 Plin. 1. 8. cranes of Malta, and -f nightingales, were con- 
 
 JdY'io fibred as delicious meats. It is related, that 
 
 c. 2o& ! 22. ne Cn. Aufidius Lucro, having difcovered a 
 
 method of fattening peacocks, got every year 
 
 fixty thouland fefterces by the fale of them. 
 
 Lucullus, famous for the expence of his table, 
 
 caufed thrufhes to be fattened, and had them all 
 
 the year round. 
 
 It appears, as may be collected from authors 
 of thofe times, that the profufion of provifions 
 
 * Vix tamen eripiam, pofito pavone velis quin 
 Hoc potius quam gallina tergere palatum, 
 Corruptus vanis rerum : quia veneat auro 
 Kara avis, & pifta pandat fpe&acula cauda. 
 
 Hor. L. II. Sat. ii. 
 
 Yet can 1 fcarce prevail to make you take 
 The barn - door fowl, and peacock's Jlejh forfake : 
 'Tis fcarce, 'tis dear, attraft and pleafe you fo t 
 And the gay fpreading train, a. raree-Jkanu. 
 
 f Quinti progenies Arri, par nobile fratrum, 
 
 Nequitia, & nugis, pravorum & amore, gemellum, 
 Lulcinias foliti itnpenfo prandere coemptas, 
 Quorfura abeant fani ? creta an carbone notandi ? 
 
 Hor. L. II. Sat. iii. 
 The Jons of Arrus, tbofe of high renown, 
 Thofe famous bully-brothers of the town, 
 *The mojl agreeing pair in cvfry 'vice, j 
 
 Still fed en nightingales of coftly price : > 
 
 And iverf they mad or fober, fools or 'wife ? Creech. J 
 
 was
 
 Chap.XII. OF THE ROMANS. 85 
 
 was the reigning tafte ; and that they made the 
 merit of an entertainment confift as much in that, 
 as in rare and exquifite dimes, of which the de- 
 licacy alone would not have fatisfied, if abun- 
 dance had not been united with it. For whole 
 wild-boars were ferved up, in which fometimes 
 other things, whole alfo, were put : thofe other 
 things were fo difpofed in them, that the laft 
 were always the leaft, to the bignefs of a night- 
 ingale. A wild-boar prepared in this manner, 
 was called a Trojan wild-boar, in allufion to thespartian. 
 horfe full of troops, by which the city of Troy in vit. Eli 
 was taken. Pyramids of fowl and game of all 
 kinds were alfo ferved : whence we ought to be 
 the lefs furprized at that prodigious dim of 
 Claudius's freed-man, which for its immenfe 
 magnitude might have ferved for a table. 
 
 But if we go back to the early times, we mail 
 find that the Romans lived almoft folely upon 
 milk, herbs, and roots, which they cultivated 
 and drefi"ed with their own hands -, and that 
 their nourilhment, during a confiderable length Val. Max 
 of time, confifted only of a kind of grofs *pap, ] - 2 - c - 5 
 compofed of meal and boiling water, which fer- 
 ved them inftead of bread ; that when they be- 
 gan to ufe bread, they had none for a great 
 while but of unmixed rye ; and that very long 
 under the Commonwealth, wine was fo fcarce 
 about Rome, that in the facrifices, the libations 
 to the Gods were made only with milk. "Wine 
 did not become common there till about the fix 
 
 * Ponebant igitur Tufco farrata catino 
 
 Omnia tune. Juv. Sat. XI. 
 
 &u( earthen platter s held the homely mefs. Congreve. 
 
 Altera coena 
 
 Amplior, & grandes fumabant pultibus ollje. 
 
 Jtfv. Sat. XIV. 
 
 Gigantic hinds, as foon as work nuas done, 
 their huge fots of boiling pulfe would run. 
 
 Mr. J. Dryden, junr. 
 
 G 3 nun*
 
 86 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 hundredth year from its foundation, when vines 
 III- were planted. It was in thefe times of fimpli- 
 
 ~\Vme pro- j tv ^t women were prohibited to drink it ; 
 fritted to ] . V . r . . 
 
 'women. an " * or tnat rea ' on their near relations were per- 
 Plin.l. 14. mitted to falute them, when they came to their 
 P- I2&I 3-houfes, in order to fmell whether they had 
 Val. ^ a *- drank an y j which if difcovered gave their huf- 
 : bands a right to punifli them. According to Di- 
 pnyfius Halicarnafienfis, Romulus was both the 
 author of the law which permitted an hufband 
 to kill his wife, if he found her in adultery, and 
 to punim wives that drank wine with death. 
 Valerius Maximus relates, that one Egnatius 
 Metellus having killed his wife, whom he found 
 drinking wine out of the calk, Romulus ac- 
 quitted him of the murder. Fabius Pictor fays 
 alfo, that a Roman lady having picked the lock 
 of a cheft in which were the keys of the place 
 where the wine was kept, her parents ftarved 
 Jier to death : men were alfo forbade to drink it 
 till the age of thirty. Tertullian, in his Apo- 
 logetic, mentions the laws by which thefe pro- 
 hibitions were made , anci fays, they ordained, 
 that not above an hundred pence mould be ex- 
 pended upon an entertainment, and that only 
 one fowl mould be ferved up in it, and that not 
 fattened. But towards the declenfion of the 
 Commonwealth, and under the firft Emperors, 
 the women were not only accuftomed to drink 
 wine, but carried the excefs of it as far as the 
 men. 
 
 * v - The vintage was confidered as a time of di- 
 
 ^'^"yerficn, in which thofe employed in it, had the 
 
 liberty of jeering all paffengers, who had no 
 
 Herod.1.8. right to complain. The vines were planted at 
 
 the feet of trees, and made to creep up them, 
 
 in order to form bowers, as is ftill pradtifed in 
 
 Italy. The wine was prefer ved in great earthen 
 
 refiels,
 
 Chap. XII. OF THE ROMANS. 87 
 
 veflels, well flopped with pitch ; though they 
 were not ignorant of the method of making 
 cafks ; for they ufed them for carrying it from 
 place to place, as well as tanned fkins of beafts, 
 and green goat- fkins, The older* the wine V. 
 was, the more it was in efteem : to know its 
 age, they marked the year upon the vefTel. 
 They prefer ved it an hundred years and up- 
 wards : for which purpofe they put it in an up- 
 per room, and not in vaults as we do, which 
 appears no lefs extraordinary than their -f- cuftom 
 of warming water to drink in fummer as well 
 as winter. 
 
 They carried the luxury and debauch of the VI. 
 table fo far, that there was a neceffity for mak - Lawt f. r 
 ing new laws to retrench them : but they were^T^l 
 little obferved. Tacitus remarks, that the ex- ofthetablf 
 traordinary luxury of the table prevailed about T^ 1 -3 
 an hundred years, having began about the time 
 of the battle of Actium, and continued till the 
 reign of the Emperor Galba. However, we 
 may judge to what an excefs it had attained, 
 even before the battle of Pharfalia, which was 
 
 * O nata mecum Confule Manlio, 
 
 Seu tu querelas, five geris jocos, 
 
 Seu rixam, & infanos amores, 
 
 Seu facilem, pia tefta, fomnum : 
 Quocumque le&um nomine Mafficum 
 Servas, moveri, &c. Hor. L. III. Od. xxi. 
 
 You, my good cajk, are of a date 
 With Conful Manlius, and me ', 
 Produce your charge whatever it be, 
 Or love, orflrife, or loud debate, 
 Or gentle Jleep, or e wit ferenely free. 
 On fuch a day, for fuch a friend, 
 
 With Majjlc juice our fouls refne. Creech. 
 
 t -Quis aquam temperet ignibus, 
 
 Quo praebente domum 
 
 taces. Id. L. III. Od. xix. 
 
 Who warms the 'water for our wine, 
 Or ^where nve fup, your houfe or mine. 
 
 G 4 prior
 
 88 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I, 
 
 prior to the other by twenty years, from what 
 Plutarch relates in the life of Lucullus, whofe 
 table was fuppofed to be the beft, and mod 
 vn - . fplendidly ferved. Cicero and Pompey con- 
 ero certe d between them to have the pleafure of 
 and Pom- taking him unprovided \ and being alone with 
 fey ty Lu- Lucullus, told him, they would fup with him, 
 U p 0n condition that he would not fpeak to his 
 fervants, to order any thing extraordinary. He 
 agreed, and only faid before them, that he would 
 fup in the room Apollo. The magnificence of 
 the fervices furprized Cicero and Pompey the 
 more, as, not having left him, he had not had 
 opportunity to give particular orders. But after 
 Lucullus had for fome time enjoyed the pleafure 
 of their furprize, he confefied to them, that af- 
 foon as his fervants knew in what room he was 
 to eat, they were thereby inftructed as to the or- 
 der, quantity, and quality, of the courfes, and 
 the expence of the fupper ; that being regulated 
 for every apartment. The expence of the A- 
 pollo was fixed at fifty thoufand drachmas of 
 filver, which according to the prefent value of 
 that metal, amounted to above twelve hundred 
 and fifty pounds. This inftance fuffices to fhew, 
 to what an height the luxury of Rome and the 
 riches of her citizens rofe. It was the fame Lu- 
 cullus who caufed thofe fine gardens to be made 
 at Rome, which afterwards were the Emperors; 
 and who, to preferve fea-filh, and to have them 
 when he would at his table, caufed canals to be 
 made, for bringing the fait warer into refervoirs 
 at his country- houie near Naples. It is faid al- 
 fo, that it was he who caufed a way in the form 
 of a grotto to be cut through the rocky moun- 
 tain of Paufilypum, which is faid to be the fame 
 through which people actually pafs at this day 
 in the way from Naples to Puzzuolo. He was 
 
 no
 
 Chap. VIII. OF TH E R O M A N S. 89 
 
 no lefs fumptuous in drefs : for a . Roman Prse- 
 tor, who was to give games to the public, de- 
 firing him to lend him an hundred purple robes 
 tor the ac~bors, Lucullus anfwered, that he could 
 lend him two hundred, if he wanted them. This 
 was having a very well furnifhed wardrobe ; and 
 we may conjecture that the ftore-room, where 
 the moveables were kept, was no lefs fo. But viir* 
 to go back only two hundred years, and com- 
 pare Lucullus with M* Curius Dentatus, w 
 was Conful in the year 462 from the foundation 
 of Rome, we mall have a very fingular con- 
 traft. 
 
 When the ambafladors of the Samnites cameVal. Max. 
 to treat with that Conful, they found him at ta- 1 - 4- c - 3- 
 ble fitting on a bench, and eating herbs out of 
 an earthen dim. That extreme indigence of the 
 chief magiftrate of the Commonwealth, having 
 flruck the ambafladors at firft, they believed 
 they might take the advantage it feemed to give 
 them, for endeavouring to engage him in their 
 interefls ; and took occafion to offer him in the 
 name of their nation a confiderable fum of mo- 
 ney : but he refufed it with a fmile of contempt, 
 and told them, that he chofe rather to command 
 the rich, than to be fo himfelf ; and that they 
 fhould remember, he was neither to be over- 
 come in arms, nor corrupted with prefents. 
 This ftroke is certainly admirable, if too much 
 pride were not difcernible in his anfwer : but that 
 ought not to be deemed a perfonal vice, which 
 was common to his whole nation. This con- 
 traft agrees the better, as both thefe Romans 
 were of Confular dignity, had both had the ho- 
 nour of triumph, and as nothing can better 
 image the different manner of living at thefe 
 different periods. 
 
 CHAP.
 
 9<J MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 I. Of phyficians. II. Inftitution of hot baths. 
 
 III. Of bakers. IV. Of arts andfciences, V. 
 
 Of architecture. \\.Offculpture. VII. Of 
 fainting. 
 
 Plin. 1.26. rr* H E luxury of the table, and the excefies 
 A with which it was attended, introduced 
 difeafes the Romans had not known before. 
 I. The art of phyfic, for which they had hitherto 
 Of pfyfeci- expreffed fo much repugnance, leemed neceflary 
 "** to them ; for they had been very long without 
 being willing to admit it amongft them, having 
 only tolerated it in the time of the plague. 
 They confidered it as fuperfluous, and even pre- 
 Plin. 1.29. judicial. Though in the 535th year from the 
 c. i . foundation of Rome, fome phyficians had come 
 from Greece to Rome, they had however no 
 fixed eftablifhment till the year fix hundred. 
 Phyfic at that time included Pharmacy and Sur- 
 gery. The phyficians not only compofecT me- 
 dicines, but performed all chirurgical operations 
 themfelves, though they had then but a very 
 imperfect knowledge of anatomy, which did 
 not begin to be cultivated till about two ages 
 ago. As long as the Romans led an hard and 
 laborious life, they had difpenfed with the want 
 of phyficians, without having been the worfe in 
 jj confequence. They had not thought in the 
 Inftitution fame manner in refpe<5b to hot baths, as in the 
 of hat 454th year from the foundation of Rome, they 
 y*h. b e g arl to ufe them. Some years before they had 
 l o ' 7< caufed barbers to come from Sicily. Pliny tells 
 us, that till then, it had not been the cuftom 
 amongft them to cut their hau;, or to fhave. 
 
 We
 
 Chap. XIII. OF THE ROMANS. 91 
 
 We may judge, from this little care of their per- 
 fons, the hard and grofs life which they led. 
 Their fimple manners, the inftitutions of their 
 founder, and of the Commonwealth, which pro- 
 hibited the exercife of any other profefiions but 
 thofe of arms and agriculture, had given them 
 a contempt for all other arts , fo that they left 
 commerce and trades to ftrangers and flaves. 
 Hence it was only in proportion as luxury and 
 effeminacy gained ground, that arts and trades 
 began to introduce themfelves at Rome. For as 
 long as the Romans confined themfelves to the 
 fimple necefiaries of life, they either prepared 
 them with their own hands, or employed their 
 flaves in doing fo ; fo that no public baker was III. 
 feen in Rome till the year 580 , every body Of taken. 
 making their own bread afld even rneal at home. ' ** 
 For the Romans had no mills, but bruifed their s t . Aug. 
 corn in mortars with a peftle by ftrength of arms de Civit. 
 to extract the flower. They were fo much ac- Del J - 6< 
 cuftomed to do every thing themfelves, that c '^' 
 long after the introduction of luxury, the ladies 
 continued to employ themfelves in fpinning 
 wool , and we find that the Emperor Auguftus Suet . 
 fcarce wore any habits which were not made v h. Aug. 
 either by his wife, daughter, or nieces. To 
 put a flop to the progfefs of the corruption of 
 manners, it was thought, proper in 636. to ba- 
 nifli from Rome by a decree of the Cenfors, all 
 the arts which miniftered only to pleafure, ex- 
 cept the players upon the flute, becaufe they 
 were employed in the ceremonies of religion. 
 Julius Caefar made alfo fome regulations for re- 
 trenching luxury. He prohibited litters, pur- 
 ple robes, and jewels ; permitting only per- 
 fons of a certain age and quality to wear them, 
 and thofe only fome days of the year. But the 
 
 modera-
 
 92 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 moderation of Auguftus was of more efficacy 
 againft luxury, than all thefe ordinances. Un 
 der his fucceffor, they were but a weak fence 
 againft a torrent, which every day became 
 more impetuous. The corruption of man- 
 ners, luxury, and effeminacy continually aug- 
 mented, till they at length occafioned the ruin 
 of the empire. 
 
 IV. Every body knows, that the time when 
 Of am the arts and fciences were in their higheft 
 
 andfcien- luftre at R om e 5 was t h a t of Auguftus : the de- 
 
 licate tafte and fuperior genius of that Prince 
 
 did not a little contribute to their improve- 
 
 ment. The latter did not fupport themfelves 
 
 there fo long as the former, of which the de- 
 
 cline did not appear fenfible, till after the Em- 
 
 peror Septimius Severus, when the arts de- 
 
 V. generated. Thofe in which the Romans fuc- 
 
 Qf arcbi- ceeded beft after the Greeks, were architecture 
 
 teSure. an j fculpture. However, it is obvious from 
 
 the works in relief come down to us, that 
 
 they were no great matters of the rules of per- 
 
 fpective -, for we find houfes, towers, and 
 
 other edifices in them, of which the diftances 
 
 are fo ill obferved, that the human figures near 
 
 them, are larger than the buildings themfelves ; 
 
 though in other refpects the workmanfhip is 
 
 highly finifhed. To prove this we have only 
 
 to fee the defigns that have been taken of the 
 
 yj columns of Trajan and Antonine. As to their 
 
 Of feulp- ftatues, and particularly thofe that are naked, 
 
 tun. f ar from appearing to want art, it is obferved, 
 
 befides the elegance of the contours, and the 
 
 juft proportions, that they have an exactnels of 
 
 .anatomy, which feems the more admirable, ns 
 
 the Romans had but a very imperfect know- 
 
 ledge of that fcience. But it is to be believed, 
 
 that
 
 Chap. XIII. OF THE ROMANS. 93 
 
 that the frequent Shews, wherein the wreftlers 
 and gladiators combated naked, making them 
 familiarly acquainted with all the different ex- 
 terior motions of the mufcles, nerves, and or- 
 gans, ferved them inftead of a fchool of ana- 
 tomy. Befides which, the number of flatues 
 was fo prodigious at Rome, either on account 
 of the multitude of divinities adored there, or 
 of the great men, to whom they were erected 
 out of gratitude for their fervices, that this part 
 of fculpture muft have been much more culti- 
 vated, than any other art. Hence it is not fur- 
 prizing, that they attained to that height of 
 correclnefs and elegance, which we obferve in 
 the ftatues come down to us. 
 
 As to paintings, it is not faid that they car- vn. 
 ried them to fo high a perfection as the Greeks. Of paint- 
 We muft refer ourfelves on this fubject to the"- 
 authors who fpeak of it ; works of this kind 
 not being a fufficient proof againft the injuries 
 of time like thofe of architecture and fculpture, 
 we cannot judge of them ourfelves, as of the 
 others, of which many ftill fubfift ; unlefs we 
 are fatisfied to form a general judgment upon a 
 fingle piece, or one at lead confidered as * fuch, 
 becaufe the mod entire of all that have been 
 difcovered to the prefent time. It is a fmall 
 piece of a wall, found near Rome amongft 
 the ruins of antiquity, upon which the cere- 
 
 * There is another piece of three years ago in the ruins of 
 
 the fame kind of painting in the palace of Augujlus Co? far 
 
 frefco in the Mufaum of Dr. upon mount Palatine. There 
 
 Mead. It reprefents Augujlus is a fine print of it, done by 
 
 in a pavilion giving a diadem Baron, infer ted in the article 
 
 to fame Prince, tvhofe figure is of painting in the Hijlory of 
 
 effaced, ivitb Maecenas, Agrip- the Arts and Sciences of the 
 
 pa, and other courtiers attend- Antients, tranjjated from the 
 
 ing. It was found alout French of M, Rollin. 
 
 2 mony
 
 94 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 mony of a marriage is painted in frefco. It is 
 commonly called the Aldobrandine marriage., 
 becaufe it is preferred in the Aldobrandine pa- 
 lace. It is fet in a wall, and covered with a 
 cafe, in which it is locked up, This frag- 
 ment is entire enough in refpect to what it con- 
 tains : the colours are not very much faded, 
 though fo many ages have elapfed fmce it was 
 painted, and it is only in water-colours ; the 
 fecret of painting in oil not having been dif- 
 covered till about three centuries ago. It is ob- 
 ferved from it, that they were ignorant of the 
 art of diftributing lights, and of uiing fhades 
 to advantage : which gives reafon to conjecture, 
 that painting had not attained to the degree of 
 perfection, wherein it is at prefent. 
 
 CHAP-
 
 Chap. XIV. OF THE ROMANS. 95 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 I. Divifion of the year. II. 'The Julian year. 
 III. Tear of the foundation of Rome. IV. Man- 
 ner of dating by Confuljhips. V. Of new- 
 year's gifts. VI. Divifion of the months. 
 
 AFTER having feen the divifion made 
 by the Romans of the day, it is not im- 
 proper to know that of the year and months. 
 
 Romulus made the year begin with the month 
 of March, and to confift only of ten months. 
 The firft day of the year, which was the 
 that month, the miftreflfes waited upon 
 flaves of their own fex at fupper, as the matters R m. 14* 
 did upon the men-flaves at the time of the Sa- 
 turnalia, which was to excite them to ferve well 
 during the reft of the year. 
 
 Numa afterwards reformed this diftribution p i ut Jn 
 of the year, and divided it into twelve months, vit. Num. 
 making ic begin with January. This divifion, Liv. 1. 1. 
 though lefs defective than the firft, was ftill 
 fubject to great errors, which Julius Csefar cor- p .. j g 
 reeled, with the afiiftance of the famous mathe-c. 2 $. 
 matician Sofigenes of Alexandria, in making Dio. Caff, 
 the year confift of three hundred and fixty^S- 
 five days and fix hours, which before was only 
 three hundred and fifty-four, and one day that 
 Numa had added to them out of fuperftition, to 
 make the number odd, which made twelve Lu- 
 nar months. But Julius Caefar, becaufe there jj 
 was fix hours remaining every year, invented Julian 
 the Bifiextile, which is a natural day, or twenty-_K* r - 
 jfour hours added to each fourth year. The re- 
 formation of the calendar, with which the year 
 
 called
 
 96 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 called Julian from Julius Qefar began, was 
 made forty-five years before the Chriftian /Era, 
 to reckon from the circumcifion of Jefus Chrift, 
 and not from his birth, which happened in De- 
 cember, in the feven hundred and eighth year 
 from the foundation of Rome. 
 III. It is faid, that the foundations of Rome were 
 Ytarojthe began the twenty-firft of April, in the third 
 
 foundation f h fmh Olympiad. 
 
 of Rome. / >, J r c , 
 
 Befides the manner or reckoning the years 
 
 ... 0/ rfr m its foundation, the Romans, immediately 
 
 dating after the inftitution of the Commonwealth, dated 
 
 with the alfo with the year of the Confulfhip, in imitati- 
 
 Conful/bip. on o f the Athenians, who fixed their chronology 
 
 by the year of the Archons. This was the 
 
 more commodious, as the Confuls were annual, 
 
 and entered upon office the firft day of every 
 
 year, which was the firft of January. But in 
 
 procefs of time, as the Emperors often created 
 
 feveral the fame year, the names only of thofe, 
 
 who had been Confuls in the beginning of the 
 
 year, were ufed in the dates. 
 
 v It was ufual on that day to wifh one ano- 
 
 Of ne-iu- ther happinefs, and to fend prefents. Under 
 year'sgtfti- the Emperors this was become fo much the cuf- 
 
 Herod.1- 1 tom j n regard to them, that r'l the courtiers and 
 
 Dio. Caff . . , . . 
 
 1.54. principal citizens carried them new-year s girts. 
 
 VT As to the months, they divided each of them 
 
 Divifonof in t o fhree parts ; that is to fay, the Calends, 
 
 the months, the Nones, and the Ides. The firft was called 
 
 Plut. Calends from the old Latin word calare to call ; 
 
 OH*"' becauie antiently one of the minor Pontiffs called 
 
 the people together that day, to declare the fef- 
 
 tivals to them, and how many days there were 
 
 to the Ntties, which differed according to the 
 
 month % , and from this word Calends is derived 
 
 the word Calendar. The Nones fo called, be- 
 
 caufe
 
 Chap. XIV. OF THE ROMANS. 97 
 
 caufe nine days before the ides, ufually hap- 
 pened the fifth of the month. Four months 
 they fell upon the feventh, March* May, July* 
 and October. In the firft cafe, the fecond of 
 the month was dated IV. Nonas, the prepofition 
 ante being underllood ; the third, tertio Nonas j 
 the fourth, pridie Nonas ; and fo of the fecond, 
 always decreafing. All the months had .eight 
 Ides, which began on the thirteenth or fifteenth, 
 according as the month had more or Jefs nones. 
 Thus the next day after the nones, they faid 
 VIII. Idus, the eighth before the ides, and the 
 day following VII. Idus, the feventh, decreafing 
 daily to the eve of the ides, which it was the 
 cuftom, as in refpect to the nones, to call the 
 day before the ides, pridie Idus. After the ides, 
 it was neceffary to reckon how many days there 
 were to the calends, or the firft of the next 
 month. The months of thirty-one days, which 
 have only four days of nones, as January, 
 Auguft and December, had each nineteen days 
 wrote ante Calendar, or XIX. Calendas, &c* 
 March, May, July, and October, which have 
 thirty-one days, of which fix were marked with 
 the word Nones, had only feventeen days ante 
 Calendas, XVII. Calendar &c. April, June, 
 September and November, which have thirty 
 days, have four nones and eighteen ante Calen- 
 das. February has only fixteen. Thus, for the 
 month of January, they faid the nineteenth be- 
 fore the calends of February : but for the great- 
 er facility, and to avoid error, it is bed to turn 
 upon occafion to the Roman Calendar at the end 
 of din/worth's Dictionary. The Romans often 
 ufed the word calends for that of months, and 
 faid three calends for three months. 
 
 H CHAP.
 
 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 I. 
 
 Calends, 
 time for 
 payments. 
 Plut. 
 Qasft. 
 Rom. 25 
 
 II. 
 
 Of ufury 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 Calends, time for "payments. II. Of ufury. 
 III. Interefts of money. IV. Of bankers. 
 
 V. Of the great place i or Forum Romanum. 
 
 VI. Of the tribunal for harangues. VII. Of 
 the military pillar, from whence the miles of 
 Italy were computed. 
 
 THE 
 th< 
 
 III. 
 
 i 
 c. 4. 
 
 Tacit 1.6. 
 
 fuperflition of the Romans made 
 them imagine the days after the nones, 
 ides, and calends, unfortunate. As for the 
 morrow after the laft, it might well be confide- 
 red as unlucky by thofe who had it not in their 
 power to fatisfy their creditors -, for the * ca- 
 lends were the fixed days for payments, it being 
 the cuflom amongft them to lend money at fo 
 much per cent, per month. And as ufury was 
 one of their predominant vices, which had 
 fubfifted from the beginning of the Common- 
 wealth, and which had occafioned many fedi- 
 tions, the laws of the twelve tables had regu- 
 lated the intereft of loans at one per cent, per 
 month. It was at length reduced to half, which 
 ^made fax. per cent, per annum. But notwithftand- 
 ing all thefe ordinances, they had fuch a pro- 
 
 Odifti & fugis, ut Drufonem debitor <eris: 
 Qui nifi, cum trifles mifero venere Calendae, 
 Merccde aut nummos unde undeextricat, amaras 
 Porrefto jugulo hiftorias captlvus ut audit. 
 
 Hor. L. I. Sat. iii. 
 Tufidius rich in money out at ufe, 
 And lands t yet fears to be efteemd profufe ; 
 For five times double be ix'ill fums engage ; 
 And fues young heirs <vcben xe^wly come to age; 
 The great /} prodigals be prejfcs rnofl, 
 And lends them money till their landt are /oft. 
 
 Creech. 
 
 penfity
 
 Chap. XV. OF THE ROMANS. 99 
 
 penfity to ufury, and it became fo "f* excefilve 
 from time to time, that it was necefiary to add 
 ftill farther regulations. It was in the Forum 
 that the bankers kept their offices, as well 
 thofe who received the revenues of the Com- 
 monwealth. In every city of Italy not entirely 
 inconfiderable, there was a company of bank- 
 ers, who kept their counting-houfes in the 
 public place. People depofited their money 
 with them, in order to improve it , and alfo 
 applied to them, when they had occafion to 
 borrow at intereft. When they had fet down 
 the name of any one in their books, That a- 
 mounted to an obligation ; and their accounts 
 were admitted as evidence in law. 
 
 What was called at Rome the Forum Roma- V. 
 num, occupied the place now called 
 Vaccino. This place, which was adorned 
 feveral temples, was furrounded with porticos num . 
 and galleries, in which were fhops, where all 
 forts of merchandize were fold. This place 
 ferved for many ufes : for it was a market ; the 
 ./Ediles and Prsetors exhibited the public games 
 in it ; it ferved alfo for the afiemblies of the 
 people on public affairs ; and the Pnetor ren- 
 dered juftice there. There was in it a place co- yj 
 vered over, where flood the tribunal for \\z-Ofthetri- 
 rangues, called Roftrum, becaufe adorned vj\^" nal f or 
 the beaks of the mips, which had been taken *"**" 
 
 f- Divesagris, dives pofuis in foenore nummis 
 Quinas hie capiti Mercedes exfecat ; arqac 
 Quanto perdilior quifque eft, tanto acrius urget: 
 
 Hor. L. 1. Sat. ii. 
 
 Drufo, that notorious dun 
 
 Who lubentbe Calends come fe-~uerely Jites, 
 
 And if the debtor does not pay the ufi, 
 
 He's clapt in goal, and hears a tedious bill, 
 
 A killing fcrl y item and item ftill. Creech. 
 
 H 2 from.
 
 loo MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 From the Antiates in the firft fea-fight gained by 
 the Romans the 41 6th year from the founda- 
 tion of Rome. It was from this tribunal that 
 laws were propofed to the People, and they 
 were treated with upon all affairs in general. 
 In a part of this place they alfo elected certain 
 magiftrates : it was called the Comitium, becaufe 
 in the beginning the people affembled there, 
 when only the Comitia Curiata, or affemblies 
 by Curia, took place. Thofe who afpired at 
 dignities came thither to canvafs fuffrages. 
 Thefe different occafions always drew thither a 
 great concourfe of people. Befides which it 
 was the cuftom of the Romans to afiemble in 
 the Forum, to tranfact their private affairs, as 
 VII. well as thofe of the public. It was in this place 
 The milli- the Emperor Auguftus caufed the milliary pillar, 
 tf/*/^- called Milliarium Aureum, to be erected, from 
 vit. Aug. which, as from the centre of the capital of the 
 empire, they reckoned the miles to all the diffe- 
 rent places of Italy. 
 
 CHAP,
 
 Chap. XVI. OF THE ROMANS. 101 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 I. Of diftances. IT. Of the Roman foot. III. 
 Of land-meafure. IV. Of the Bafilicz. V. 
 Of liquid meafurc. VI. Of the Roman pound. 
 VII. OftheJbamUes, and -public granaries. 
 
 DISTANCES of place was reckoned i. 
 amongft the Romans by a thoufand gpo-Ofdiftari* 
 metrical paces, of five feet each ; and by ftadia "*' 
 or furlongs, which confifted of an hundred and 
 twenty-five geometrical paces, or fix hundred 
 and twenty-five feet. The Roman foot was jr. 
 about an inch iefs than the French, and was di- Of the Ro~ 
 vided two ways, that is to fay, into fixteen d\- man f oot - 
 gits, which were its lead parts, and twelve 
 inches. They alfo ufed another meafure, which 
 was the Roman Palm. That which they called 
 the common palm, was three inches or four 
 digits , and the great palm was twelve digits or 
 nine inches. Four and twenty ftadia, or three 
 miles, made an ordinary French league. Frompj ut j n 
 that pillar, on the great ways or roads, werevit. Grac, 
 ftones at the end of every mile in the form of 
 pillars, on which the number of miles from 
 thence to the milliary pillar at Rome were 
 marked. After the example of the capital, the 
 principal cities of the empire caufed milliary 
 pillars to be let up in the midft of them. As 
 to the manner of meafuring land, they had III. 
 other meafures, the particulars of which are ^s>0f land- 
 follow. The Roman perch was ten feet , thef/j^T'* 
 Clima contained fixty feet every way ; the letter c \'* ' * 5 
 Aftm was an hundred and twenty feet long byPlin.L 18. 
 four broad , the fquare A ft us was an hundred 3- 
 
 H 3 andj^f,, 
 
 C. IO.
 
 102 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Bookl. 
 
 and twenty feet on all fides ; and two fquarc 
 Acfus made the Jugerum> which was as much 
 land as a yoke of oxen could plow in one day. 
 The Verfus was alfo a fquare meafure of land, 
 of an hundred paces every way ; and the H<z- 
 redium contained two Jv.gera. 
 
 Rome in procefs of time became too large 
 and populous for the Forum alone to contain its 
 affemblies : there were feveral others where 
 markets were alfo kept , but the firft was always 
 called the Forum, by way of eminence, be- 
 caufe the moft antient. In moft of thefe places 
 Of tie tne Va ^ buddings, called Eafiliccs^ were erected, 
 which were of an oblong form, adorned with 
 colonnades and porticos open on all fides. 
 Juftice was difpenced here ; and under the por- 
 ticos merchants affembled, as in the places cal- 
 led exchanges in great trading cities : at the en- 
 trance of them all forts of merchandifes were 
 fold. There were to the number of twenty 
 Bafilica at Rome, when it was in its moft flou- 
 rifhing condition. 
 
 \Yc mud obferve,that almoft all commodities 
 Of liquid wer e fld by weight at Rome, to which even 
 liquid meafures were reduced. 
 
 It will not be improper to give the names of 
 thofe meafures in this place ; from the weight of 
 fome of which, it will be eafy to know that of 
 each in particular. 
 
 The * Ctikus held twenty ampbora. 
 
 The Amt>bora, forty urna. 
 
 The Urna, four Congii. 
 
 The Cojigiiis contained the weight of ten 
 pounds or fix Sextarii. 
 
 * 'The Culeus contained 520 quarts, and the Amphora a 
 tittle left than 26, acmrding to the obfer-vation of a famous mo- 
 
 The
 
 Chap. XVI. OF THE ROMANS. 103 
 
 The Sextarius^ two Hemince, or Cotylce. 
 
 We muft obferve that there were two kinds Plin - 1- ? 
 of Sextarii ; that called Co/Irenes, or of the jj 2 ' 
 army, which held twice as much as the other : c I2 . 
 the common Sextarius weighed twenty ounces. Id. 1. 14. 
 
 The Hemina contained two Quart arii. iu 2 % 
 
 The Quartarius contained two cyathi^ and an ^ auc ' 
 half. 
 
 The Cyathus was fubdivided into other fmaller 
 meafures , about which all authors do not 
 agree. 
 
 The Roman pound confided only of twelve vr 
 ounces, as it does to this day at Rome : but it Of the 
 is faid to have been heavier by about an Roman 
 ounce. P ttnd ' 
 
 Amongft the other buildings remarkable for yil. 
 their magnificence were reckoned the fhambles Of the 
 and public granaries, that were great 
 of which the infide formed a great fquare, fur- 
 rounded with porticos and a colonnade. For the' 
 Romans, out of a wife precaution, had ufually 
 corn for above a year in Rome, in order to 
 fupport plenty, and not to be diftre0ed in times 
 of dearth. The price of it was taxed, and it 
 was fold out of thefe granaries. The tribute 
 which fome provinces of the empire paid in 
 corn, ferved to fill thefe granaries. 
 
 H4 CHAP.
 
 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 I. Of the field of Mars. II. Of the exercifes in 
 
 the feld of Mars. 411. Of Jlaves. IV. Of 
 fates by auttion. V. Puhi foment of prodigals. 
 
 VI. Chafiifement of Jlaves. VII. Of the en- 
 franchifement of Jlaves. VIII. Manner of 
 
 making /laves free. IX. Duties of freedmen to 
 
 their mafters. 
 
 I. 'TP H E field of Mars was confidered as the 
 Of the A mod confiderable place next to the Forum 
 fottof Romanum. It was fo called from a fmall tem- 
 ple in it dedicated to that God. It was fituated 
 without the walls of the city near the Tiber, 
 and was much larger than any of the other pub- 
 lic places. It was there that the great aiTem- 
 blies of the people for the mufter, called Cen- 
 fus or Lujlrum, were held, which was made 
 every five years. The greaf magiftrates, as the 
 Confuls, Cenfors, and Tribunes, were elected 
 in it. The levies of the armies were made 
 there ?, the dead bodies of the principal Citizens 
 and Emperors were burnt there j the Roman 
 youth went thither to exercife themfelves in 
 riding, driving chariots, running foot-races, 
 fhooting with the bow, ufing the fling, darting 
 the javelin, and throwing the Difcits or quoit. 
 It was alfo here, that the generals, who came 
 to Rome to demand the honour of a triumph, 
 halted with their troops ; for they were not al- 
 lowed to enter the city, whilft they made that 
 demand. Here alfo \vasan houfe for the recep- 
 tion and lodging of foreign ambafladors. It 
 was at firft only a fimple plain, or meadow 
 
 near
 
 Chap. XVII. OF THE R O M A N S. 105 
 
 near the Tiber, as the name which it had re- 
 tained from thence fhews : but the edifices after 
 erected in it, made it a magnificent place, tho* 
 without the walls of the city : for the Capitol 
 being no longer fufficiently large to receive all 
 the ftatues and trophies of the great men of the 
 Commonwealth, they were fet up in .the field 
 of Mars, which contributed very much to its 
 embellifnment. We muft not believe that only jj 
 the youth addicted themfelves to thefe military Of the ex- 
 exercifes. They were fo much the tafte of ' 
 
 Romans, that they continued the ufe of di 
 as long as health and vigour of body would 
 permit. 
 
 Marius, Pompey, Julius Csefar, and all the 
 great captains of the Commonwealth, took plea- 
 fure in exercifing themfelves in public, and to 
 mew their addrtfs even at the moft advanced age. 
 Plutarch informs us, that Marius not having beenPlut. in 
 able to obtain the command of the armies againft vit - Mar - 
 Mithridates, which was given to Sylla, affected, 
 though old and worn out with the fatigues of 
 war, to repair every day to the Campus Mar- 
 tius, where he exercifed himfelf amongft the 
 youth, and mewed that he was ftill able to 
 handle his arms. After having obferved to 
 what excefs the Romans carried the luxury of 
 their tables, furniture, and buildings, it is not 
 improper to fpeak of the great number of their 
 flaves, in which part of their luxury confift- 
 ed : for the riches of a citizen were computed 
 from the number of his flaves. They valued 
 themfelves upon having fo prodigious a multi- 
 tude of them, that they were ufually diftinguifh- 
 ed by nations. It were eafy to quote many Tacit. 1. 3 
 Roman citizens , of whom each had above 
 twenty thoufand flaves in his fervice. They 
 
 were
 
 io6 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 III. were diftinguifhed into three forts : thofe who 
 Of flaws, h ac i b^ ta k en j n war> tna t were ufually fold 
 
 by auction -, thofe bought of dealers, who traf- 
 ficked for them in markets ; and laftly thofe 
 born in their matter's houfes of fathers and mo- 
 
 IV. thers that were flaves. But before we enter into 
 Of fate* a farther detail, it is necefiary to explain in 
 & <M fT*what manner fales by auction, which were called 
 
 '' fub hafta, were made amongft the Romans. A 
 fpear or fhort pike was planted, where the 
 criers flood, who like our auctioneers, fold the 
 thing put up to the higheft bidder. This cuf- 
 tom might owe its origin to fomething of the 
 like nature practifed before the tribunal of the 
 Praetor, where the fame kind of weapon was 
 planted, when he gave audience. The fame 
 was done in the public fales, probably to denote 
 that they were made according to law. 
 
 As to the flaves, whom the dealers expofed 
 to fale in the markets, fome carried a garland 
 or wreath of flowers on their heads, to fhew 
 Aul Cell, they were to be fold ; others a kind of cap or 
 1. 7. c. 4. hat ; which fignincd, that the feller would not 
 warrant for them. They carried a fcrole hang- 
 ing at their necks, on which their good and bad 
 qualities, health and infirmities, virtues and 
 faults, were fpecified. There was alfo another 
 fort : thefe were thofe, who being free, either 
 fold themfelves voluntarily, or became flaves to 
 their creditors. For the Roman laws allowed 
 the creditor to caufe his debtor, who had not 
 wherewithal to pay him, to be adjudged to him 
 LIv. 1. 8. as a flare, till the 424th year of Rome, when 
 a regulation was made, by which only the 
 gcods of a debtor, if a Roman citizen, and 
 not his perfon, were for the future to be at the 
 difpofal of the creditor, of whatfoever nature 
 
 the
 
 Chap. XVII. OF THE ROMANS. 107 
 
 the debt might be. This law was made upon 
 account of Publius the ufurer's bad treatment of 
 young Papirius, who had made himfelf a flave 
 to difcharge a debt of his father's. As to thofe 
 who fold themfelves voluntarily, it was the ef- 
 fect of excefiive indigence, which often pro- 
 ceeded only from debauchery and profulion. 
 The Emperor Adrian feems to have intended to V. 
 remedy that diforder, by decreeing corporal p 
 nimment againft fuch as fquandered away their 
 fortunes: for he caufed them to be publicklyspart.1. i. 
 whipt in the midft of the amphitheatre, and af- 
 terwards they were fuffered to go where they 
 pleafed. It is not known whether this wife in- 
 flitution took place after that Emperor's death. 
 As to thofe who had been ruined by fome ac- 
 cident, if they were reduced to afk * charity, 
 they carried a little table hanging at their necks, 
 reprefenting the cafualty which had reduced 
 them to that miferable condition ; as a fhip- 
 wreck, a fire, &c. in order to mew that bad 
 conduct had not brought them to mifery. TheLiv. l.z. 
 mafters had power of life and death over all Dk>. Caff, 
 their flaves, and caufed them to be chaftifed ^ 54- 
 when he thought fit. There were however re- 
 gulations for moderating that feverity, and 
 
 * Sed cujus votis modo non fuffecerat aurum, 
 Quod Tagus & rutila volvit Paftolus arena, 
 Frigida fufficient velantes inguina panni, 
 Exiguafque cibus, nicrfa rate naufragus affem 
 Dum rogat, & pifta fe tempeftate tuetur. 
 
 Jw. Sat. XIV, 
 
 Thus he 
 
 Whofc facred hunger, all the floret that lie 
 In yellow Tagus could not fatisfy ; 
 Does nwj in tatter'd cloaths, at feme lanes end, 
 A painted Jiorm for (barity extend. 
 
 J. Dryden jun. 
 
 checking
 
 io8 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 checking the violence and cruelty of the mailers, 
 of which fome, through excefs of avarice, 
 would not even caufe their (laves to be taken 
 care of when they fell fick, but fent them to an 
 ifland in the Tiber, called the ifland of JEfcu- 
 lapius, becaufe there was a temple in it dedi- 
 cated to that divinity : it is now called the 
 ifland of St. Bartholomew. There they were 
 left without any afliftance under the aufpices of 
 Dio. Caff. tne God of Medicine. It was to remedy thefe 
 1. 60. diforders, that the Emperor Claudius pafled a 
 decree, that every fick (lave, abandoned by his 
 mailer, mould be declared free, when he reco- 
 Spart. in vered his health. And under the Emperor 
 vit. Adri- Adrian it was ordained, that every mafter who 
 ***' mould kill his (lave without fufficient caufe, 
 mould fuffer death. If he treated them too 
 cruelly, they could compel him to fell them at 
 a reafonable price. The fame Prince decreed 
 alfo, that their capital crimes mould be brought 
 before the ordinary tribunals -, and, becaufe the 
 laws permitted, that all the (laves of a man kil- 
 led in his own houfe might be put to the quef- 
 tion, he limited this cuftom to fuch of them 
 only as were witneffes to the murder, and might 
 have prevented it. 
 
 As the (lave- merchants fold them at a much 
 higher price, according to the talents they pof- 
 feffed, they were very induftrious to find fuch 
 as had geniufies for arts and fciences, in order 
 to have them inftrucled. Mailers did the fame 
 in refpecl to the (laves whom they had in their 
 houfes : fo that fome of them proved not only 
 very happy in the arts, but alfo very knowing in 
 the fciences. The latrer were deftined to the 
 education of the children of the family, and the 
 other exercifed trades for the benefit of their 
 
 i matters.
 
 Chap. XVII. OF THE ROMANS. 109 
 
 matters. However, after having finilhed the 
 work prefcribed them, fome time was allowed 
 them to be applied to their own advantage ; 
 which formed their flock, with the four buihels 
 of corn per month for their fubfiftance, befides 
 what they might gain over and above by their 
 induftry and ceconomy. The mailer had no 
 right over this flock ; but all the reft was his 
 property. With this permiffion of amaffing 
 fome little matters, they had no right however 
 to make wills. The names they were called by 
 were taken from the different fervices in which 
 they were employed : the groffeft did the mofl 
 laborious and meanefl works , the reft were 
 folely employed in country-bufmefs, where they 
 cultivated their matter's lands under managers, 
 who were alfo flaves. This was the moft ufual 
 practice amongft the Romans, after they left off 
 cultivating their lands themfelves ; or if they 
 farmed them out, it was ftill to one of the moft 
 knowing of their flaves, who engaged to pay 
 his matter a certain fum on that account ; and 
 if by his labour and induftry he raifed more 
 from it, the overplus was for his own benefit. 
 The freedmen alfo fometimes farmed their maf- 
 ters lands. The reft of the flaves were employ- 
 ed in the fervice of their matter's perfon, and 
 at his houfe in the city. Some of them were p j aur 
 appointed to have an eye over the reft, and to vr. 
 chaftife them, when they had done amifs. T^Cbajiife- 
 ufual punifhment of flaves was the whip ; an' 
 in order to it they were tied up by the feet, or 
 under the arm-pits, when they were to continue 
 long in that condition ; and a great weight was 
 made faft to their feet, to prevent them from 
 kicking thofe who fcourged them. Slaves were 
 prohibited to hold afiemblies or have feafts 
 
 amongft
 
 no MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I, 
 
 amongft themfelves, to prevent them from ex- 
 citing revolts, of which there had been many, 
 that could not be quelled immediately. To ob- 
 lige them to be vigilant for the fecurity of their 
 matters, there was a law, which ordained, if any 
 perfon was killed by one of his flaves, that not 
 only thofe who were actually in their matter's 
 houfe, hut fuch alfo as were made free by his 
 will, if in the houfe at the time of his death, 
 mould be executed. This law continued in 
 force in the Emperor's Nero's time, and took 
 place on the occafion of Pedanius Secundus, 
 who, as Tacitus informs us, was killed by one 
 ac - -H'of his flaves. There were flaves at Rome, that 
 belonged to the ftate. They were employed in 
 works ; viz. in building, making of high- 
 ways, and extinguifhing fires. If their great 
 number were fometimes prejudicial to the Com- 
 monwealth through their revolt, it mutt howe- 
 ver be owned, that it was a reiburce to her in 
 great extremities -, for we find, that after the lofs 
 of the battle of Cannae, me formed trcops of 
 her flaves, promifing them liberty, if they be- 
 haved like men of courage. It was alfo a 
 means for augmenting the number of her citi- 
 zens : for a matter in making his flave free, 
 made him a Roman citizen ; and for that effect 
 his name was immediately after infcribed upon 
 the Praetor's regitter, with the caufes of his en- 
 franchifement. In this manner it was eafy for 
 the Commonwealth to retrieve the lofles occafio- 
 ned by wars. 
 
 As flaves were made free from different mo- 
 tives, there were alfo different manners of giving 
 VII. them their liberty. It was ufually by will, or in 
 jjf e o f their matter, either out of gratitude for 
 offices they had received from them, 
 
 I Or
 
 Chap. XVII. OF THE ROMANS. in 
 
 or intereft, when the mafter agreed with his 
 flave for the price of his liberty. It alfo hap- 
 pened in times of fcarcity, that the mafters, 
 through a refinement of avarice, often gave their 
 flaves liberty, in order to have a mare in * thepjion.Hal. 
 diftributions of corn, made monthly by thel. 4. c. 6. 
 Commonwealth to each citizen, at a much 
 lower price than it was worth. They did the 
 fame under the Emperors, in order to partake 
 not only in the gratuitous diftributions of corn, 
 but largefies of money and other things* Au- Suet, in 
 guftus inftituted regulations during his reign to v it-Aug. 
 prevent thefe abufes, in making manumuTionsj^ ' 
 and the freedom of Rome more difficult to ob- ' 
 tain. As to the making free by Will, not in- 
 tereft, but vanity, was often the motive for it. 
 For the Romans carried that beyond the bounds 
 of life, efpecially after luxury became predo- 
 minant. They held it for their honour that 
 their funerals mould be as magnificent as pofli- 
 ble ; and the great number of flaves made free 
 by will, that attended their obfequies, conm-i 1 . JJ* 
 buted to augment the pomp of them. 1 4 . c . 5. " 
 
 Conditional manumiflions were made fome- 
 times : thefe were, when the mafter retained 
 certain fervices during his life ; fo that the flaves 
 did not enjoy entire liberty, till after his death. 
 There was a particular cafe, wherein the mafter 
 made his flaves free during his life for his own 
 Security : this was, when he was confcious of 
 being guilty of fome crime puniihable by the 
 
 * Libertate opus eft, non hac ut quifque Velina 
 Publius emeruit, fcabiofum tefferula far 
 Poffidct. Per/. Sat. V. 
 
 O Freedom, firft delight of human kind, 
 Not that which bondmen from their majlersfnd, 
 The privilege of doles ! Dryden. 
 
 laws,
 
 U2 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Bookl. 
 
 laws, and gave them their liberty for fear of 
 being convicted by their being put to the 
 rack ; which could not be done, after they 
 were become Roman citizens by being made 
 free. But if a fiave had undergone fome fevere 
 punifhments, as the whip, the prifon, and been 
 branded in the face for fome bad action, whieh 
 was not uncommon, he could not be immedi- 
 ately made free like others : it was neceflary 
 for him to flay a certain time, enjoying at firft 
 only what was called the Icfier liberty. 
 
 When a flave was made free, his head was 
 
 fhaved, and his mafter after carried him before 
 
 the Praetor. There was no neceffity for that 
 
 magiftrate to be on his Tribunal for that pur- 
 
 pofe ; neither did it fignify, where they found 
 
 VIII. him. In prefenting the flave he faid, Hum 
 
 \Janncr off }om j nem l^ ert/fn e jj~ e V0 i . e manu emitters : I 
 
 "ave^free. dffire that this man may be free ; and the Pne- 
 tor anfwered, Dico cum liberum ejje mere Qxi- 
 ritum : I declare him free according to the cuftom 
 of the Romans. In pronouncing thefe words, 
 he gave him a gentle flroke with his ftaff of 
 office upon the head. Feftus however tells us, 
 that it was the mafter \vho pronounced thefe 
 words, and that in faying them he touched the 
 flave with his flaft, and made him turn quite 
 round, which was called in Latin Vertigo--, and 
 this has the authority of a paflage in * Perfius. 
 The flaves of the Roman People had one ad- 
 vantage which others had not, and which was 
 very confiderable. This was, that on receiving 
 their liberty they became at the fame time Ro- 
 man citizens as well as their mailers. The hope 
 of this ought not a little to have contributed to 
 
 * -Quibus una Quiritcm 
 
 Vertigo fecit. Perf. Sat. V. 
 
 a 'Turn a freeman be became. 
 
 render
 
 Chap. XVII. OF THE ROMANS. n 3 
 
 render the misfortune of their condition the 
 more fupportable. They had not the fame ad- 
 vantage at firft. Servius Tullius, to augment 
 the number of the citizens, granted this right 
 to all the freed-men, and ordained that they 
 fhould become Ronran citizens, and enjoy all 
 the privileges annexed to that condition at the 
 fame time. Dionyfius Halicarnafienfis, who Dion. Hat. 
 relates this, obferves, that abundance of abufesl- 4- c. 6. 
 were introduced in thefe manumiffions : that at 
 firft only the good fervices and qualities of the 
 Haves had determined their mafters to give them 
 their liberty ; but that in his time, under Au- 
 guftus, they mod commonly received it either 
 as the reward of crimes and debauches, or in 
 effect of the matter's avarice ; which only aug- 
 mented the corruption of manners, in giving 
 fuch bad citizens to the Commonwealth. As 
 liberty always depended upon the mafter, and 
 it was the fupreme good of the flave ; thofe 
 who were become freed-men, were not only, 
 in gratitude, obliged to retain abundance of re- 
 fpect for their mailers^ but they were ftill fub- 
 ject to certain indifpenfable duties. We have jtf. 
 feen. that they were obliged to attend at their D* f ' f s c ~ 
 
 /" ,7 
 
 mailer's houfe twice a day, morning and even-' , ^ 
 
 . . J . , .to tbnr 
 
 ing, to accompany him either about the city, mfl j} er s. 
 or in the Forum, in order to augment his train ; 
 and they were even obliged to affift him, if he 
 was reduced to poverty. There were punifh- 
 ments inftituted for them, if they failed in re- 
 fpect : they were either obliged to return into 
 flavery, or were fent to work in the mines. 
 The freed-menj to diftinguifh their condition, 
 had their heads fhaved, their ears bored, and 
 wore a kind of little hat or cap. During a cer- 
 tain time, under the Commonwealth, they were 
 
 I not
 
 n MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 not permitted to make wills, though they might 
 receive legacies left them by the wills of ethers : 
 but in procefs of time they had that permif- 
 fion. They could not marry one born the 
 daughter of a Roman citizen ; and though, 
 when they were firft mad* free, they could en- 
 joy the privileges annexed to the condition of 
 a Roman citizen, they could not attain any but 
 the fmall offices of the Commonwealth. They 
 were indeed more favoured by certain Empe- 
 rors, whofe freed-men became all-powerful, 
 Suet in Claudius, Nero, and Heliogabalus. The lat- 
 vit Claud, ter admitted them into all the great offices, even 
 Herodian. the ConfuHhip. Their children had their ears 
 bored as well as the fathers, to diftinguifh them 
 from the citizens born of free parents. I have 
 already obferved that they were called Libertini. 
 They, were capable of being regifter'd in the 
 Tribes, of ferving in the Roman legions, and 
 even of being admitted to the dignity of 
 Knight. 
 
 The privileges of fuch as had the quality of 
 Roman citizens were in general, not to fuffer 
 Liv. 1. 10. corporal punifhments, as imprifbnment, the 
 rack, whipping, or death, except by the judg- 
 ment of the Roman People, to whom they had 
 a right to appeal from any other judge, or to 
 the Emperor, after the fubverfion of the Com- 
 monwealth. It was to them it belonged to vote 
 for the election of magiftrates, in the public 
 deliberations, and in the judgments rendered 
 D-on.HaLby the People. This quality gave a father 
 1. 2. c. 8. power of life and death over his children, and 
 even to fell them for flaves, provided they were 
 not married. Children pofiefled nothing as their 
 own in the life- time of their fathers, who had 
 a right to difpofe of the whole fortune of the 
 2 family.
 
 Chap.XVII. OF THE ROMANS. 115 
 
 family. None but Roman citizens alfo could 
 be adopted, or admitted to inherit the eftate of 
 another citizen by will, whofe eftate, according 
 to the laws, could not revert to any one that 
 was not a Roman citizen. In order to a will's 
 being good, it was neceffary that it mould have 
 been made in the prefence of other citizens. 
 It was not lawful for any citizen to marry a 
 wife, whofe father was not of the fame condi- 
 tion ; without which the marriage was deemed 
 void, and the children born of it were declared 
 baftards. It was neceffary to be a Roman citi- 
 zen, for being admitted into offices, and lifted 
 in the legions. In the time of the Common- 
 wealth, it feldom happened that a Roman citi- 
 zen was punifhed in any other manner than by 
 fine, or banifhment, which was the fimple pro- 
 fcription. But Sylla, during his ufurped Dicta- Applan, 
 tormip, was the inventor of that called the pro-1 i- 
 fcription of the head, and the prohibition of p . lac ' "?. 
 fire and water, becaufe it extended to life, and vl 
 ordained, that the profcribed perfon mould be 
 killed, wherever he was found. Banifhment, 
 which till then had been the greateft punimment 
 a citizen was made to fuffer, became the feaft 
 under the Emperors, who inflicted it for very 
 flight caufes. It was alfo under them, that the 
 Roman citizens began to lofe their privileges. 
 They had no longer any mare either in the pub- 
 lic deliberations, or public judgments : the Em- 
 perors fupprefled thofe rights, and aflumed them 
 to themfelves. The Emperor Tiberius depri- j)j on CafT. 
 ved the People of the right of electing the ma-1. 57. 
 giftrates, in order to confer it upon the Senate ; 
 and the citizens were no longer exempt from 
 the taxes, from which the Commonwealth hadpi i;t . in 
 difcharged them, when me had attained to thevit. Paul. 
 I 2 higheft^ mi1 '
 
 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 higheft degree of power. That politic Prince 
 even caufed the citizens to be put to the rack. 
 Though the Emperors invaded part of the pri- 
 vileges of the citizens, they did not do the 
 fame in refpect to the diftribution of corn, 
 which cuftom the Commonwealth had began : for 
 they not only took care to continue it, but alfo 
 augmented it in fuch manner that it became pre- 
 judicial, in augmenting that enervate floth, to 
 which the Roman People afterwards abandoned 
 themfelves, and of which the Barbarians knew 
 how to take the advantage to the ruin of the 
 Empire. But for the better explaining fo im- 
 portant an event, it is necefiary to go back, 
 and to trace the origin and progrefs of the lar- 
 gefies made to the Roman citizens. 
 
 CHAP-
 
 Chap. XVIII. OF THE ROMANS. I1? 
 
 CHAPTER XVIIL 
 
 I. Of the diftributiom of corn to the People. II. 
 Freedom of Rome granted to phyficians. III. 
 Diftribution of provifwns. IV. Diftribution of 
 money to the People upon the acceffion of each 
 Emperor. V. Annihilation of the privileges of 
 the Roman citizens. VI. Liberality of Auguf- 
 tus to fuch as had children. 
 
 AFter the Commonwealth had deprived Per- i. 
 feus of the kingdom of Macedonia, which Of the di- 
 fhe reduced into a province, and had feized < 
 all its treafures, me found herfelf powerful^ 
 enough to difcharge her citizens from part of the 
 taxes which they paid before. Gracchus, b 
 come Tribune of the People, affecting popula- Alex, de 
 rity, patted a law by which the Common wealth p racch - 
 was to fupply the Roman citizens with corn at ' 
 a very low price out of the public granaries. 
 Claudius, another Tribune of the People, rofe 
 upon this liberality through policy, and prevail- 
 ed, that it mould be diftributed amongft them 
 gratis. Cato of Utica, to gain the common p] ut .i n vih 
 People, whom he faw exceflively attached toCaton. 
 the party of Csefar, perfuaded the Senate to do 
 the fame ; at which time, to the number of three 
 hundred thoufand citizens fhared in thefe diftri- 
 butions intended only for the pooreft, of whom 
 a lift had been taken. Qefar reduced the num- Suet, in 
 ber of them to an hundred and fifty thoufand ;vit. Aug. 
 and being defirous after his triumph to diftinguim, 
 himfelf by his liberality, he gave the value of a A - an ^ 
 mma of filver, worth about an hundred drachmas, bell. civ. 
 to every citizen. He alfo gave the freedom of 1- 2 c. 33: 
 the city to phyficians, and to all who profefled r }" , 
 
 * M?t*8ClQMt f f 
 
 13 tne ibt city z-
 
 n8 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 wen to ply- the liberal arts in Rome. He ordained befides, 
 
 faans. tha,- t h e Praetor fhould annually draw by lot the 
 
 vit^cSf names * f me R0t included in the hundred and 
 
 Ibid. fifty- thoufand, to fupply the places of the dead. 
 
 Ibid. *- Auguftus made this diftribution of corn month- 
 
 Ibid. ly ; and fometimes diftributed money. The 
 
 farther we advance under the Emperors, the 
 
 more we fee thefe diftributions augment ; many 
 
 JunCapit.of the Emperors having caufed even habits to 
 
 in vit. Ma- i) S given the people. Severus exceedingly aug- 
 
 ^ m '. r . mented the number of thofe who fhared in 
 
 Vopiic, in . . ... . 
 
 vit .Aurel.them, having left a prodigious quantity of corn 
 Spartian. for that purpofe. Marcus Antoninus caufed 
 in vie. even the little children and daughters of the 
 Sever. new c j t j zens to fe included in that number. 
 Vopifc. in Vopifcus relates, that Aurelian, after his triumph 
 vit. Aurel. ovcr Zenobia, ordained that a loaf of rye mould 
 be diftributed every day to each perlon upon 
 the lift of diftributions. The fame author af- 
 III. terwards obferves, that he had ordained, that 
 tnlu- w j nej ojl^ bread, and pork, mould be diftribu- 
 SJ,/ 'ted to the Roman people ; and that it was his 
 will, that this diftribution fhould be perpetual : 
 but he does not fay, whether this was executed 
 !y- after his death. He adds, that he had feveral 
 W'i'Zu .times caufed white tunics with fleeves to be di- 
 nlyto Attributed. Herodian, in the life of Heliogaba- 
 Peopu on lus, fays, that it was the cuftom, on the accefli- 
 tbe accef- on o f ever y Emperor, to diftribute money to 
 ^.^^the People. \Vnat continued, and even aug- 
 Hcrod.1.5. mented, thefe liberalities, was, that the Empire 
 often falling into the hands of ambitious per- 
 fons, who nad attained it only by artifice and 
 violence, they endeavoured to cover them, \.nd 
 conciliate the affection of the People by thefe 
 largeffes. Spartianus tells us, that after the af- 
 faflmation of Macrinus, robes, lacern*, of a 
 
 rofc
 
 Chap. XVIII. OF THE ROMANS. 119 
 
 rofe colour, were found, which that ufurper had 
 caufed to be prepared, in order to be diftribu- 
 ted amongft the People, when he arrived at 
 Rome. Caracalla had before caufed habits to 
 be given them. The diftribution of corn con- 
 tinued to be made at Rome, after the feat of 
 the Empire was transferred to Conflantinople. 
 It was not the fame in refpect to the other pri- 
 vileges, annexed, to the condition of Roman ci- 
 tizen, which were infenfibly loft, and at laft to- 
 tally annihilated under Conftantine. Perfons of Y- 
 all nations, who for a confiderable time had ^ aat *"J a : 
 
 . ' , . . . . tion of the 
 
 been received into the Roman legions, were. privileges 
 then admitted into offices and dignities. Au-<f the Ro- 
 guftus, to retrieve the lofs of the great number man clti ~ 
 of Roman citizens who had fallen in the civil^'yj 
 wars, when he muttered the People in the feve- Liberality 
 ral quarters of the city feparately, gave each oftf-duguftuj 
 the inferior people, who mewed him legitimate ^j^ 
 children of both fexes, a thoufand fmall feller- children. 
 ces, to facilitate the marrying of them. 
 
 I 4 CHAP-
 
 120 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I f 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 II. PenaliieL 
 
 __ V. Of di<{fflrte$. 
 
 VI. llje wife retained her maiden-name after 
 'iage, VII. LCSJJ a'gainfl debauching maids. 
 Of 
 
 I. Privilees o married 
 
 I T H the view of facilitating marriages, 
 the Commonwealth had long before an- 
 ma/ks of diftinction to married perfons, 
 in order * to difcourage libertinifm, and to mul- 
 tiply the number of the citizens. For it was 
 ord<(fied, that amongft the People, fuch as were 
 Suet- in married mould have places in the theatre, fepa- 
 vit. Aug. rate f rom j-hofe O f t j ie foidiery ; that the mar- 
 ried magiftrates, or fathers of families, mould 
 alfo have precedency to their collegues who 
 were not fo, and that they mould enjoy the 
 fame advantage in the cafe of competition for 
 IT offices. Befides which, me had inftituted pe- 
 Pevaitiet " '^'alties and fines againft thofe who were for living 
 ordc&id in celibacy. As the Romans were much addict - 
 againft te- ed to faperftition, and they extended it to every 
 VaMUax tn ^ n tncv ^^ ll ls no wonder, that marriage 
 1. 2. c./9.was celebrated amongft them with fo many 
 Tacit. I 3. 
 
 * Diva, producas fobolem, patrumque 
 Profperes decrcta fuper jugandis 
 Foeminis, prolifque novas feraci 
 
 Lege mariu, Hor. Carm. Jec, 
 
 Goddefi of births 
 
 Give us a race mature and Jlrong* 
 Ar.d all thoje facred ftatutes llefs, 
 fhat guard the nuptial bed from ivrorrg, 
 And crown the State with fair inert aft. 
 
 cere-
 
 Chap. XIX. OF THE ROMANS. 
 
 -f ceremonies, obferved the more fcrupuloufly, 
 gsjthgy believed its happinefs depended on them. 
 TKefiHrthTng they did was to take the aufpices 
 before the nuj^llals, in order to know the will of -fr 
 the Gods ; and they carefully avoided 
 ting them upon one of thofe days, which theyl. 2. c. 
 held to be unfortunate. PJitfaj-ch, tells us, thatpi ut . 
 they did not marry maids upon public holi- Quasi 
 days ; and that the widows were permitted to R m - 2 S- 
 marry upon them, in order that they might be ' 105 " 
 feen by fewer people ; the generality being em- 
 ployed upon thofe days in^Temrnzf&g-the- feft 1- 
 . val Tkre fhows, that fecond_jrjarriag;p; were <yi$:vfA 
 not in efteem amongft the Romans. The mar-^w, < i>, 
 riage was ufually treated with the bride's father, 
 from whom fhe was afRed. When 
 was drawn up, it was fealed withjjie leais o: 
 the parents ; and fometimes the portion was de- 
 pofited in the hands of the Augur, who had ta- 
 ken the aufpices. Wives, according to the law 
 of Ronjulus^ had tEe advantage of inheritffig 1 - 2 - 
 the '*fomjneof their hufbandl, if they died in- 
 teftatr. Wherr'hr-teft children, the wife divi- 
 ded it equally with them. There were alfo 
 people, who made it their profefilon tojn^gocjU^ 
 ate marriages, and to whom fome gratification^ ' 
 
 'TM T? J ' J U 
 
 was given. The kmperors ordained that this ' 
 prsemium mould be in propoijiaft-ttJ^the value 
 of the fortune. The age for^cnnrra m^vas not 
 
 f Conventum tamen & paftum & fponfalia, noftra 
 Tempeftate paras, jamque a tonfore magiftro 
 Pcdteris, & digito pignus fortafle dedifti. 
 
 Jwo. Sat. VI. v. 25. 
 
 Ttt thou, they fay, for marriage dojl provide ; 
 // this an age to buckle with a bride ? 
 
 y fay thy hair the curling art is taught, 
 wedding ring perhaps already bought. Dryden. 
 
 2 fixed 

 
 122 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 Suet, in fixed before Auguftus ; but that Emperor or- 
 vir. Aug. dained, that tneymT5uld not be made, tiirboth 
 Mr parties were marriageable. A maid however 
 might be contracted at ten years of age, becaufe 
 fhe was deemed marriageable at twelve. 
 
 The bridegroom before the nuptials fent his 
 intended bride an iron ring without anyftones 
 in it, which was the ceremony ...of ^ohtraj^ 
 PHn 1. 3 3- Upon the ^ijffpg ^Vj in drefling the brTJ?s 
 c - 1 - head, it was the cuftom to part her hair with 
 Plut. in the point of a fpear, and to divide it in fix 
 Quzft. tjeffes, a ft er t he manner of the Veftals, to im- 
 Rom. '-ply that- me would live chaftly with her huf- 
 Pband. On her head they put a wreath of flow- 
 ers of vervain, and other herbs, which me had 
 gathered herfelf, and over that wreath a veil, 
 which was fometimes adorned with precious 
 Hones. They made her put on a pair of 
 fhoes of the fame colour of the veil, formed 
 in the manner of ftilts . or bufkins, which 
 raifing her higher than thofe commonly worn, 
 made her ftature appear to the greater advan- 
 tage. There was anciently another ceremony 
 ufed amongft the Latins, which was to put a 
 yoke upon the necks of thofe who affixed 
 themielves to each other, to fignify that mar- 
 riage is a real yoke ; and from thence it had 
 
 - 
 
 [al. US Latin name cnniu?itim r The firft Romans 
 a ceremony in their marriages, which 
 ca liecl (Jjg^rw/w; this was to make the 
 w-married coup! Pe'aT a cake made only of 
 wheat, fait, and water, which the prieft had 
 offered to the Gods, in order to imply by that 
 /^common and facred food, the indiffoluble union 
 f which was to fubfift between them. This cere- 
 
 i rC^WT&fV^fa^ , i 
 
 -X j\ mony was obferved arferwards only in the mar- 
 ' of the Pontiffs and^riffthnrH. TH bride 
 
 was
 
 Chap. XIX. OF THE ROMANS. 123 
 
 was drafted in a long robe quite plain, either ,4 
 white or laffron- colour, _as were ufually the vells^j^fi ^ ( 
 worn by brides. Her lam or girdle Was made ofpiin. 1. 21. 1 
 wool, and tied in a knot called Herculean^ which c- 8 
 the hufband unloofed when me was put to bed, in* 
 yoking theGoddefs Juno, that his marriage might 
 be as fruitful as that of Hercules. They feigned to 
 take the bride out of the arms of her mother to give,/), " 
 her to her hufband. This was done by the light ofPK 
 five torchesof pine-tree or white-thorn ; for the. 
 nuptials were always celebrated in the evening. 
 I'noTe ktrches were carried by young children cal- Rom. 2. 
 led Huerilautii becaufe they were warned and per- 
 fumed before- fiand. Their number of five was Ibid. 
 myfterious, as well as the reft of the ceremony : 
 it was in honour of five Divinities, of whom ^ 
 they faid thofe who married flood in need : thefc 
 were Jupiter, Juno, Venus, Diana, and the 
 Goddefs of Periuafion. The bride was led by 
 two young children, of whom each held her 
 
 one hand, and a third carried before her the 
 torch of Hymen, which it was the cuftom for 
 the friends ot born parties to take away, left 
 it mould be made ufe of in fome enchantment, 
 that might fhorten the life of one of them : for 
 great virtues were afcribed to this torch. WJuJft Terent. 
 the bride was conducted in this manner to herAdelph. 
 hufband's houfe, every one fung Hymen 
 
 and invoked Thalafilus, who was married 
 to one of the Sabines forcibly carried off by theRom. 31. 
 firft Romans. A diftaff was carried behind the PHn. 1. 8. 
 bride with a fpindle, and a trunk or bafket, in c> 4 8i 
 which was her toilet. She was fprinkled with 
 the Ltiflral or holy water, m_order that mejnight 
 enter chaftc into the houfe of her huiband. Af-^Vv >JL \ 
 foon as fhe arrived .at the door, which was 
 adorned with garlands of flowers ; ad green 
 
 boughs,
 
 MANI 
 
 124 Mp MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 boughs, fire and water were prefented to her, 
 Plut. to fignify that me was to mare, in the whole for- 
 Quaeft- .tune of her hufband. At the fame time it was 
 Rom. i & t j ie cu fl- om to a fk ner h er n ame, to which fhe 
 
 anfwered Qaia, to imply that fhe would be asr 
 good an houle-wife as Caia Caecilia, the mother 
 Plin. 1.29. f Tarquinius Prifcus. She afterwards put wool 
 c 2. upon the door, and rubbed it with oil, or the 
 Q Ut ' ft fat of pork, or of a wolf. The attendants then 
 Rom. 20. carr i e d her over the threfhold of the door, tak- 
 ing particular care that fhe did not touch it, 
 becaufe that would have been of very bad au- 
 gg^r, and immediately after, the keys of the 
 houfe were delivered to her, to fignify that the 
 whole management of it was configned to her. 
 She was then made to fit down upon a meep- 
 fkin with the wool on it, to put her in mind 
 that me was to work. When the marriage-feaft 
 was over, and the hufband was for going to bed, 
 the qijju-ial-hpH was prepared -, and after the ma- 
 trons, called Pronultfi who accompanied the 
 bride, had made anend of giving her inflructi- 
 ons, they put her into the genial bed, fo called, 
 becaufe it was prepared in honour of the huf- 
 band's genius. When the bride was a widow 
 that married again, great care was taken to re- 
 move out of the chamber, not only the bed, 
 but all the other furniture, that had been ufed 
 by the firft hufband ; and even the door of the 
 chamber was changed. The batchelors and 
 maids, on leaving the married pair, defired 
 them to live happily together ; and before the 
 doors were fhut, and they were left alone, the 
 hufband threw * nuts to the children to divt 
 
 the 
 
 * Da nuces pueris, incrs 
 Concubine ; fatis diu 
 
 LufifU
 
 Chap. XIX. OF THE ROMANS. 125 
 
 the attention of the curious by the noife they 
 made in fcrambling for them ; at which time 
 free fongs, called Eefcennine ..ffgpfifj ^^ rf ^ fung, 
 which were thought nece'flary againft the charms 
 that might prejudice the confummation of the 
 marriage. Care was taken, that there mould beplut. 
 no light in the nuptial chamber for the firftQi^ft- 
 night, either to fpare the bride's modefty, or to Rom> 6 *' 
 prevent the hufband from perceiving her defects St.Auguft. 
 at firft. The Romans made an irtltoity of thede civic. 
 Gods intervene at this time, and afcribed abun-^ 1 ' * ^ 
 dance of little trivial employments to them, for ' 9 jy 
 which it was necefiary to addrefs each of th 
 feparately. The day after the nuptials, the 
 band made a feaft at home, at which the bride, 
 who lay by her hufband on the bed at table, 
 leant upon him with a familiar air. She then 
 renounced all fhame, and talked with fo little 
 referve, that to defcribe difcourfes of exceffive 
 freedom, it was common to fay 5% /5<? talked like 
 bride. Prejjnts were made them that day, an 
 the married pair $crificed to the Gods. The Rom. 9. 
 hufband, according to cuflom, was obliged in 
 returning from the country to give his wife no- 
 tice, before he entered his houfe : but if he hap- 
 pened to furprize her in adukery,.Jt was lawful 
 tor him to put her to death. _ The cafe was not , 
 
 Lufifti nucibus. Lubet 
 
 Jam fervire Thalaffio. 
 
 Concubine, nuces da. Catull. Ep. LIX. v. 131. 
 
 Hafte, Jlovj lover, come away ; 
 Throw the boys the nuts to play : 
 Quit, for Jbame, thy childifo pleafuref t 
 For thy bride and nuptial treafures : 
 Hafte, if is thy wedding-day ; 
 Throw the nuts, and come away. 
 
 the
 
 126 /''' MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book I. 
 
 the Time in rcfpect to the wives: for if they 
 " furprized their hufbands with other women, they 
 dared not object to it. If a hufband, who had 
 found his wife tardy, did not put her away, he 
 might be cited before the judges, as having pro- 
 ftituted her himfelf. 
 
 Adultery was one of the three caufes for which 
 ,.*? fr divorces were allowed amongft the Romans : but 
 +Z*** they were prohibited by the laws to have more 
 wives than one at once. When the divorce 
 took place on that account, the hufband kept 
 his wife's portion : the two other cafes were bar- 
 renjjjefs, and ill-humour. The divorce was 
 made in writing, in this form : 'Take away what 
 belongs to you, Res tuas tibi habeto : thg_kys 
 which had been given her upon the day ofmar- 
 Val. Max. riage were then taken from her. The firft who 
 1. 2. c. i. was divorced from his wife was^^_jaj^iUus^ 
 it was upon the account of barrennels, in the 
 52oth year of Rome. More than five ages, 
 which elapfed without any one's making ufe of 
 '\ that permiffion, evidence the regularity of the 
 manners of the firft Romans. It was not the 
 fame afterwards : it was often employed, and 
 principally from the time of-Sjdia, and under 
 VI. the Emperors. The married women always 
 retained their maiden- names, and did not take 
 fe of their hufbands. If it happened, that a 
 /. Roman citizen had corrupted a free maid, the 
 laws obliged him either to marry her without a 
 portion, or to give her one luitable to her con- 
 ngi dition : but their facility in difpofing at will of 
 23f their flaves, and the great number of courtezans, 
 maids. rendered this cafe the lefs frequent. As to cour- 
 f) f fn '_ tezans, a free-born woman, or one wliofe father, 
 sums. or hufband, had been a Roman Knight, was 
 
 not
 
 Chap. XIX. OF THE ROMANS. 127 
 
 not permitted to exercife the profeflion of a cour- 
 tezan : only the freed-woman had that liberty. 
 But the corruption of manners, which increafed 
 perpetually, prevented thefe ordfi&nces from be- 
 ing pundlyali^ obferved. T^iti^s informs us, Tacit. 1. 2. 
 that tiKe~~women who defired to exercife this 
 profeflion publicly, were obliged to declare it 
 before the magiftrate. He adds, that their an- 
 ceftors had believed them fufficiently punimed 
 by the fhame of fuch a confeffion. They cau- 
 ied themfelves to be entered upon the regifters 
 of the /Ediles, and at the fame time changed 
 their names. When they quitted this kind of 
 life to lead one more regular, they refumed their 
 own names. Xer^iiiiafluJays, that which they 
 bore during their debauched courfe, was wrote 
 upon their chamber-door, with the price of 
 their favours. We find in Juvenal, that MeiTa- 
 lina took the name of Lycifca : this was un- 
 doubtedly that which me gave herfelf in the 
 places of delxd>ch. Domitian deprived courte-Suet. in 
 zans of the ufe of littT$, and of the right to m Dom * 
 receive legacies and to inherit eftates. The Em- 
 ro^Tmt^g prohibited the keeping of flews in 
 Rome ; but that decree did not long fubfift. :/d<^f Ipv 
 Though the Roman government was exceeding- 
 ly intent upon preferving good manners, cor- 
 ruption however prevailed in contempt of wife 
 regulations. In proportion as the manners of 
 the people grew corrupt, the government fuf- 
 fered confiderable changes, notwithftanding the 
 perpetual attention ot the Romans to prevent 
 every thing that might tend to its prejudice, 
 efpecially during thej^cramonvyealth. 
 
 BOOK
 
 12$ 
 
 BOOK THE SECOND. 
 
 Of the different kinds of govern- 
 ment, and magift rates, of the 
 Romans. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 I. Of the government of the Kings. II. Govern- 
 ment of the Kings mixed. III. Interregnum* 
 IV. Expulfwn of the Kings. 
 
 R 
 
 KO M E was at firft governed by Kings, 
 who were elected by the People with 
 the approbation of the Senate, which 
 ment of however did not fuffice alone ; for it was necef- 
 the Kings. f ar y that the augury taken from the flight of 
 birds Ihould be favourable, without which the e- 
 lection could not take place. The Senate ferved in 
 fome meafure as a limitation of the power of the 
 Kings, who did nothing confiderable without 
 taking their advice. After the King had given 
 his opinion upon an affair, the majority of 
 voices decided it, and what had been -decided, 
 the King afterwards propofed to the people, and 
 caufed it to be confirmed by their fuffrages. 
 His power extended to religion, the revenues, 
 and the army, leaving the care of other affairs 
 
 to
 
 Chap. 1. OF THE ROMANS. 129 
 
 to the Senators during the war. In time of 
 peace he adjudged the caufes of particulars in 
 perfon ; and his judgments had the force of 
 laws, though there were befides two of the prin- 
 cipal citizens, who adminiftred juftice in the 
 room of rhagiftrates, called Duumviri ; but 
 that was only in criminal affairs. The marks 
 of the fovereignty were the crown of gold, the 
 purple robe, the ivory chair, and the fcepter, 
 Upon the top of which was an eagle. The Kingpj ut 
 was attended by twelve Lictors, or Serjeants, Quxft. 
 each carrying a bundle of rods bound together Rom - ^1" 
 with a leathern thong, in the midft of which was 
 an ax, with the blade appearing above them. 
 Thefe Lictors ferved him in the double capacity 
 of guards and officers to execute juftice and his 
 commands j whether it were to cut off an 
 head, or whip a criminal , which were the 
 ufual punimments amongft the Romans. Un 
 iuch occafions they unbound their rods, and 
 made ufe of the thongs for binding the crimi- 
 nals, of the rods for whipping them, or the ax 
 for cutting off the head. 
 
 Though Romulus had taken the name of fj. 
 King, which defcended to his fucceffors, theG0wr- 
 governmeht however which he had formed, in ment f _ 
 conjunction with people drawn together from 3 \{^ omemtxt 
 fides, was not purely monarchical j becaufe it 
 was necefiary that the Senate, whom he had 
 compofed out of the principal of them, mould 
 regulate the public affairs jointly with him ; 
 and the People were alfo affembled in order to 
 give their confent, when the queftion was to 
 make peace or war. Thefe new fubjecls, moil 
 of them accuftomed to live by rapine, and who 
 had only put themfelves under a chief for the 
 K fake
 
 130 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 fake of continuing it with impunity, could not 
 have been reconciled to a conflitution purely 
 monarchical. Romulus was afiaffinated, only 
 becaufe the Senators fufpedted, that he intended 
 to eftablim fuch a government. 
 
 III. When the election of a King did not imme- 
 Interreg- diately take place, and there was an Interreg- 
 
 Dion Hal mm ^ or ^ ome tt me tne government veiled in 
 1.2. c.i 5. the hands of the Senators, who ruled each in 
 Plat, in his turn, dividing themfelves for that purpofe 
 vit Num. by tenSj o f wn ich numbers each had the com- 
 mand for fifty days. Every one of thefe ten 
 had the fole authority for five days ; during 
 which he had all the enfigns of the royal dig- 
 nity, and was called Inter rex. It was he who 
 aflembled the people for the election of a King. 
 That authority pafled fuccefnvely to all the 
 reft of the Senators, who governed as long as 
 the interregnum fubfifted ; which euftom was 
 alfo obferved during the Commonwealth, when 
 the magiftrates were either abfent or dead, and 
 the ftate was fallen into a kind of anarchy. If 
 they did not think fit to create a Dictator, an 
 Interrex, or Governor, was chofen out of the 
 Senate, who after having ruled fome days, af- 
 fembled the people for the election of Confuls 
 or Military Tribunes. During the time of 
 that office, and of the Dictatorfhip, all the 
 other magiftrates, except the Tribunes of the 
 people, abdicated their authority. 
 
 The monarchical government fubfifted two 
 hundred forty-four years under feven Kings, of 
 which Tarquin firnamed the Proud was the 
 laft, in effect of endeavouring to fet himfelf 
 above the rules which his predeceffors had ob- 
 ferved, and to reign as a tyrant. The Romans 
 
 did
 
 Chap. I. OF THE ROMANS. 131 
 
 did not wait his death for changing the form 
 of the government. The violence and cruelty 
 of Tarquin infpired them with that implaca- 
 ble hatred for the name of King, which they 
 retained ever after. This was the real caufe 1^- 
 of the expulfion of that Prince ; the violence 
 ufed by Sextus in regard to Lucretia being only 
 the pretext for it. 
 
 K 2 CHAP-
 
 132 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 I. Of the Confuls. II. ttme of their election. 
 III. Confuls eleft. IV. Of the Liftors. V. 
 Refpeft paid the Confuls. VI. Provinces al- 
 lot ted the Confuls. VII. Deference of the Ro- 
 mans for age. VIII. Alliance of the Plebeians 
 with the Patricians. 
 
 I 
 
 JL 
 
 MMEDIATELY after the 
 
 of the Tarquins, the Commonwealth com- 
 rnenced. It was governed by two annual ma- 
 giftrates, called Confuls, who were chofen by 
 the People aflembled in the field of Mars. 
 
 The time of the election of thefe magiftrates, 
 as well as that when they entered upon office, 
 differed. In the beginning the election was 
 lime 'of ma de in the month of January, and they ente- 
 theirelec- red upon office on the ides of March, in re- 
 tion. membrance that Romulus had made the year 
 begin with that month, and in order to leave 
 the Confuls elect a fufficient interval, between 
 their election and inftallation, for informing them- 
 felves in the affairs of the Commonwealth , which 
 cuftom was always obferved in all the changes 
 that happened in the ftate, except in fome par- 
 ticular cafes. For when in effect of a new re- 
 gulation, they entered upon the exercife of their 
 office on the firft of January, which was the 
 firft of the year by the reformation made in the 
 calendar of Romulus, they were elected in the 
 month of Auguft, in order that they might al- 
 ways have time to take cognizance of the pub- 
 lic affairs. Thefe two different times for the 
 election of thefe magiftrates, were not the only 
 
 variations
 
 Chap. II. OF THE ROMANS. 133 
 
 variations in that refpect ; there were others alfb, 
 generally occafioned by the divifions that hap- 
 pened between the Nobility and People, that 
 either retarded the election of thefe magiftrates, 
 or caufedit to be anticipated. During the inter- m. 
 val between their election, and entrance uponCWM 
 office, they were called Confutes defignatt^ Con- "'&' 
 fuls elect ; and in that quality were received in 
 the Senate, where they were treated with abun- 
 dance of deference. Immediately after the People Veil. Pat. 
 had elected the new Confuls in the field of 1. z. c. 92. 
 Mars, the Conful in office, who had fummoned 
 the afTembly, and prefided in it, declared with 
 a loud voice the perfons elected . If one of 
 them happened to die during the year of their 
 Confulfhip, another was elected for the re- 
 mainder of it, but without power to call the 
 aflembly for electing thofe who were to fuc- 
 ceed. Immediately after their election, they 
 went to the Capitol, attended by the Senate and 
 People, to offer facrifices to Jupiter Capitoli- 
 nus, and to make vows for the profperity of 
 the Commonwealth. They afterwards fwore to 
 obferve the laws, and to maintain the privileges 
 of the Roman people , and to act in all things 
 for the good of the Commonwealth. 
 
 They retained all the enfigns of the fove- JV 
 reignty at firft, with twenty-four Lictors ; butq/ tie 
 they were reduced to twelve foon after the crea- 
 tion of that magiftracy. They wore the robe 
 bordered with purple, called Pratexta ; fate in 
 the affemblies in an ivory chair, with a ftaff of 
 ivory in their hand, and were carried about the 
 city in a litter. The doors of their houfes were 
 adorned with laurels ; and when they were pre- 
 fent at any feaft, the moft honourable place was 
 always given them, and they were reconducted 
 K 3 to
 
 134 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 to their houfes ; which was never done for any 
 V- other perfon in their prefence. As a greater 
 Refpea^ mark of distinction, the people not only rofe 
 Confab! U P' wnen tne y paffed by, but alfo all the other 
 magiftrates were obliged to do fo under penal- 
 Aur. Vit. ties ; as happened to the Praetor Decius, who 
 "11 ft^' not r ^ m S U P wnen the Conful Scaurus paffed, 
 the latter avenged that contempt of his dignity 
 upon the fpot, in caufing that Prsetor to be 
 made to rife up by force, and ordering the 
 pleadings before him to be difcontinued. This 
 example fufficiently mews how great refpect 
 Val. Max. was paid to thefe magiftrates. If they were met 
 1. 2. c. 2. by perfons on horfeback, the latter were obliged 
 to alight immediately. All the other magif- 
 trates were fubordinate to them, except the Dic- 
 tator, and the Tribunes of the People. After 
 their election, they drew lots for the command 
 of the armies ; for that command was a princi- 
 pal part of their function. When the dominions 
 of the Common wealth were extended, the go- 
 vernment of provinces were afiigned them. Sem- 
 pronius Gracchus in the 631(1 year of Rome 
 paffed a law on that head, which continued in 
 force, as long as the Commonwealth fubfifted. 
 VI. It was, that the Senate, before the affemblies for 
 Provinces tne election of Confuls and Prsetor, mould allot 
 two P rov ^ nces ' m which the two Confuls that 
 mould be elected were to command. The Con- 
 fuls elected drew lots for thefe provinces which 
 on that account were called Confular. The fame 
 thing was practifed in refpect to the Prsetors, 
 and the provinces afiigned them, were called 
 Prtstorian. When the Commonwealth had ex- 
 tended their conquefts, the two Confuls not be- 
 .ing fufficient to command the different armies 
 
 me
 
 Chap.II. OF THE ROMANS. 135 
 
 fhe had in the field, Proconfuls were nominated 
 to fupply their places. 
 
 The Confuls governed in their turns ; the el-Tac. 1. 2. 
 deft, or he who had moft children, entered up- 
 on office the firft month, and the other the month 
 following: for it muft be faid, to the praiie of 
 the Romans, that all conditions of them we 
 attentive to exprefs refpect and deference for the 
 perfons of the greateft age. The Conful actual- 
 ly in office, had all the enfigns of honour : he 
 was preceded by twelve Lictors, whilft the 
 other had but one. It was he alfo who difmif- 
 fed the Senate, when aflembled, in thefe words, 
 Vos non longius moramur , Patres Confcripti : 
 We detain you no longer, Confer ipt Fathers. They 
 regulated whatever related to public affairs, be- 
 fore they took the field. They alfo gave audi- 
 ence to the ambafladors in the Senate, where they 
 propofed all affairs that were to be deliberated 
 upon ; and they were charged with the execution 
 of whatever was refolved. They had a right to Appian de 
 afiemble the Senate ; but the confent of both BelL Civ - 
 Confuls was neceflary to that, except one of the 
 two wereabfent ; in which cafe the order of him 
 at Rome fufficed. They could alfo affemble the 
 people to propofe to them what they pleafed. 
 Both the one and the other in confequence deli- 
 berated according to the plurality of voices : 
 but as to the Confuls, they could not conclude 
 any thing without the advice of the Senate, and 
 the confent of the People. As they commanded 
 the armies, they made all the preparations of 
 war ; levied the foldiers ; appointed the officers ; 
 and had an abfolute authority over the auxiliary 
 troops. They could punifh the officers or fol- 
 diers who ferved under them, and difpofe of the 
 military cheft as they thought fit, having a trea- 
 furer under them for that purpofe, called Quaftor, 
 K 4 There
 
 136 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 There was a body of troops in the army named 
 
 the Pratorian cohort ; which ferved as the gene- 
 
 Varro 1 2 ra ^ s g uarc ^- ^ was ^ called, becaufe antiently, 
 
 & 5 . ' before the inftitution of the office of Praetor, 
 
 Cic 1. 3. that name was given to the Confuls alfo, and fig- 
 
 ^ e le S- nified the fuperiority of their charge, the word 
 
 being derived from the verb -prcseffe^ to pre- 
 
 fide. It is from the fame word, the name of 
 
 Pratcrium was given to the general's tent. 
 
 To conclude, thefe annual magiftrates having 
 fucceeded the Kings, exercifed moft of their 
 functions ; and in the beginning, as there was 
 no Praetors, they alfo adminiftred juftice, and 
 adjudged the differences of the citizens. Soon 
 after their inftitution, reftrictions were laid up- 
 on their authority, by making it lawful to ap- 
 peal from their decrees to the People, as fu- 
 preme judges: but nothing diminifhed their au- 
 thority more than the Tribunes of the people, 
 over whom the Confuls had no authority. The 
 dignity of Confuls were conferred at firft only 
 upon Patricians: but in the 3871!! year of Rome, 
 a Plebeian Conful was elected for the firft time. 
 The People afterwards obtained permiffion to 
 enjoy all the offices of the Commonwealth, as 
 well as the Nobility. The latter believed them- 
 JlRmct ^ e ^ ves * much above them, that they made a 
 of the p&.law againft allying by marriage with the Ple- 
 ieians beian families, but in the 3o6th year of Rome, 
 
 jo*'*' they were obliged by the vigorous conduct of 
 Patricians. , ^ ., / 
 
 $he Tribunes, to confent to thofe alliances. 
 
 CHAP-
 
 Chap. III. OF THE ROMANS. 137 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 I. Plebeian Conful. II. In what manner the 
 Plebeians attained the Confuljhip. III. Aboli- 
 tion of the Confuljhip. 
 
 THIS partition of the Confulfhip between 
 the Nobility and People, happened at a 
 time when there was i^ot the leaft room to ex- 
 pect it : for the Patricians had aflumed the up- 
 per hand in fuch a manner, that the Plebeians 
 were upon the point of finking under their vi- 
 olence and cruelty. What occaiioned this 
 change is too fmgular, not to deferve a place 
 here. A trivial raillery, joined with the jea- 
 loufy of rank between two fifters, was of fuffi-/ 
 cient force to produce what the moft lively am- manner 
 bitton of the Plebeians had attempted in vain.^^" 
 Livy relates this important fact as follows. $&- taiaed tfa 
 bius Ambuflus the Patrician had two daughters, Confuljhip. 
 the one married to Licinius Stolo the Plebeian, Liv. 1. 6. 
 and the other to Ser. Sulpicius of a Patrician 
 family. The former happening to be one day 
 with her fitter, at the time when the latter's 
 husband, who was Military Tribune, returned 
 from the Forum \ the Lictors, that walked be- 
 fore him, according to cuftom ftruck the door 
 with the end of the fafces, to fignify the return 
 of that magiftrate. That extraordinary noife, 
 and the fight of the Lictors, terrified the wife 
 of Licinius, who did not know the caufe of 
 them ; and fhe exprefled her furprize to her 
 fitter, who anfwered her only with a fmile of 
 difdain, which intimated in a more lively man- 
 ner than any thing fhe could have faid, the dif- 
 ference there was between the wife of a Pa- 
 trician,
 
 138 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 trician, and that of a Plebeian. At the fame 
 time the numerous train which reconducted Sul- 
 picius, and the honours fhe faw paid to him, 
 effectually excited an agitation within her, which 
 was the more acute, as her husband being a Ple- 
 beian, fhe could not hope to fee the like ho- 
 nours at her own houfe. Her filler's contempt, 
 and the fuperiority of rank, to which the fex 
 is naturally fo fenfible, made her fall into a me- 
 lancholy, which the hufband and father of that 
 lady foon perceived, to whom fhe was equally 
 dear. The latter at length, after much folici- 
 tation to extort a fecret from her, which fhe 
 only kept to make him the more defirous to 
 difcover it, learnt from her the fubject of her 
 chagrin. He confoled her, and promifed that 
 flie fhould not be long in pain on that account. 
 In confequence, by his intrigues and credit, he 
 caufed his fon Stolo to be created Tribune of 
 the People. Stolo then, urged by his wife, 
 and feconded by his father-in-law, after long 
 ftrnggles, notwithilanding the oppofition of the 
 Patricians, pafled the law, whicr^ ordained, 
 that the Confuls for the future fhoulci be elected 
 out of the Plebeians as well as Patricians ; and 
 Stolo himfelf was elected Conful. To attain 
 this dignity it was neceflary to be at leaft forty- 
 two or forty-three years of age, and to have 
 patted through the offices of Quadtor, JEdik, 
 or Prastor. A perfon c % ould not be elected Con- 
 ful for the fecond time, till after a fpace of ten 
 years : but thefe rules were not always obferved. 
 The authority of the Confuls was never more 
 extenlive, than when the Commonwealth was 
 in fome urgent danger and a Dictator was not 
 created. The Senate then made a decree, 
 which gave them unlimited power, and of 
 
 which
 
 Chap. III. OF THE ROMANS. 139 
 
 which the form was in thefe terms : Dent operam 
 Confutes, ne quid detrimenti capiat RefpuUica : Let 
 the Confuls take care> that the Commonwealth fuffers 
 no prejudice. Thefe magiftrates were however not 
 difpenfed from rendering an account of their 
 conduct, if they were accufed before the Peo- 
 ple. Only themfelves had a right, on quitting Liv. 1. 4. 
 their office, to call an afifembly for the election ApgjJ- 
 of their fucceflbrs : but if by accident they both c e ivil ^ Ie 
 happened to die, an Interrex was created to 
 , prefide in the aflembly. On the expiration of 
 their Confulfhip, the government of a province 
 was given them in quality of Proconfuls. TheApplan. 
 precaution taken to change the Confuls every 
 year, was no lefs falutary to the Commonwealth 
 in time of peace, than prejudicial to it in time of 
 war. For different Generals not having the 
 fame ability and valour, the Commonwealth 
 experienced fad inconveniences from thence 
 fometimes. However, as it often happened, 
 that he, who had commanded in chief one year, 
 would ferve the next without repugnance in 
 quality of Lieutenant-General, (for with them 
 the love of their country was fuperior to a fri- 
 volous notion of honour) the latter's capacity 
 might in fome meafure fupply what was want- 
 ing in the General : but as tfcfi was not always 
 the cafe, it was not a certain method for obvi- 
 ating this inconvenience. This dignity began 
 to decline in authority, and continued always 
 in the fame flate from the firft Triumvirate of 
 Pompey, Caefar, and CrafTus ; and the Empe- 
 rors laid it under new and ftill greater reftri- 
 ctions. They nominated whom they pleafed to 
 that office, and often filled it themfelves. It 
 fubfifbed indeed a great while under them ; but 
 almoft as a mere titular honour without power , de Bell. 
 the Emperors having left it only the right of Civ. 1. i. 
 
 calling
 
 140 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 calling and difmiffing the Senate, and of ren- 
 
 Herodian dering juftice to particulars. However, when 
 
 * 2 - an Interregnum happened, or the Empire was 
 
 in difpute between two competitors, they had 
 
 the adminiftration of affairs. 
 
 When a Prince was for rendering a perfon il- 
 luftrious, he granted him the privilege of wear- 
 ing the Confular robe, though he had not been 
 Conful. He alfo granted the honours, that is 
 to fay the Triumphal robe, and the privileges 
 Tac. 1. 3. annexed to a Triumph, to thofe whom he 
 thought fit to favour with peculiar marks of his 
 benevolence, though they had never triumphed, 
 nor even done any remarkable exploit : thefe 
 were court-honours, which the Emperors be- 
 flowed on thofe who had the good fortune to 
 pleafe them. Tiberius was the firft who caufed 
 the oath of fidelity to be taken by the Confuls j 
 which was obferved ever after. This office was 
 
 ition j ft slimed by the Emperor Tuftinian in 
 
 cf the Con- c _, . J * * 
 
 the year of Chnft 541. 
 
 CHAP-
 
 Chap. IV. OF THE ROMANS. 141 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 I. Of the Decemviri. II. Of the military Tri- 
 bunes. III. Of the Dictator. 'IV. Caufes of 
 the /editions of the People. V. Of the Tri- 
 bunes of the People. VI. Power of the 'Tri- 
 bunes of the People. VII. Decree ufed by the 
 Senate againft the Tribunes of the People. 
 
 VIII. Refpeff for the Tribunes of the People. 
 
 IX. Cooptation. X. DiJJenjion between the No- 
 bility and People, advantagious to the Common- 
 wealth. 
 
 AS long as the Commonwealth fubfifted, the 
 government by Confuls was the moft fixed, 
 having fuffered only fome interruptions at dif- 
 ferent times ; of which the firft was in the 3O4th 
 year of Rome, after the return of the deputies 
 lent into Greece to collect laws. The Confuls 
 were then fuppreffed, and ten magiftrates cre - n/ . I' 
 ated, who, on account of their number, were 
 called Decemviri. They were nominated for 
 compiling thofe laws, and to form a Body out 
 of them agreeable to the character of the Peo- 
 ple, and the conftitution of the Commonwealth ; 
 for the Romans had very few before. Thefe 
 ten magiftrates prepared the laws of the XII. 
 Tables, which during a great length of time 
 compofed the whole Law of the Romans : for 
 at the beginning, except fome regulations made 
 by Romulus, there was no other law, in a man- 
 ner, but the will of the Prince. Numa indeed 
 made feveral, to which he fubjected even the 
 Prince : but from the time of the Kings to that 
 of the twelve Tables, thofe made by the Peo- 
 ple tended only to defend them againft the op- 
 
 prefiions
 
 II. 
 
 Military 
 Tribunes. 
 
 142 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 prefiions of the Nobility. Theie Decemviri 
 had an authority like that of the Kings or Con- 
 fuls ; and as long as they fubfifted there was no 
 other, except that of the Tribunes of the Peo- 
 ple. But having abufed their power, they 
 were fupprefled at the end of three years ; and 
 the perfon appointed Interrex^ or Governor, 
 created two Confuls. Five years after thofe magi- 
 ftrates were fupprefled, and others with the like 
 authority inftituted in their Head, called Mili- 
 tary Tribunes. At firft they were only three in 
 number: they were afterwards augmented to 
 fix, and even more, according to the will of 
 the People and the occafions of the Common- 
 wealth, part of whom might be elected out of 
 the order of the Plebeians. Thefe magiftrates 
 fubfifted about feventy years ; after which Con- 
 fuls were re-eflablifhed, who governed as be- 
 fore, to the end of the Commonwealth : for 
 the time, whilft there was a Dictator, ought not 
 to be confidered as a change in the government ; 
 Dictator, becaufe the Dictators were extraordinary magi- 
 ftrates, only created in great emergencies, and 
 who could not continue in office longer than fix 
 months ; and even without waiting the expira- 
 tion of that term, they voluntarily depofed 
 themfelves, as foon as they had put an end to 
 the troubles which had occafioned their nomi- 
 nation. They were nominated by the Con- 
 fuls, though their power extended over them, 
 and was abfolute : for immediately after their 
 creation all the other magiftrates abdicated their 
 authority, except the Tribunes of the People. 
 The Dictator appointed the Mafter or General 
 of the Horfe, who put his commands in exe- 
 cution, and ferved under him as his lieutenant. 
 This chief magiftrate had, as the mark of his 
 2 fupreme 
 
 III. 
 Of the 
 
 Liv. 1. 4.
 
 Chap. IV. OF THE ROMANS. 143 
 
 fupreme authority, twenty-four Lifters, who 
 carried thefafces with axes before him, in which 
 they differed from thofe born before the Con- 
 fuls, which had no axes, from the time of Va- 
 lerius Publicola, who, to appear more popular, 
 had patted a law, that prohibited the Confuls 
 to add them to their fa/ces, unlefs they were out 
 of Rome. However, to mew that this dignity 
 was not entirely independent, there was a law, 
 that the Dictator mould not appear on horie- pj ut> - m 
 back in the army, till he had obtained perm if- vit. Fab. 
 fion from the Senate and People. The firft Max - 
 Dictator was Titus Lartius Flavus, who was 
 created to appeafe a fedition of the People in 
 the 257^ year of Rome ; and Julius Ca?far 
 was the laft, who under the name of Imperator^ 
 Emperor, revived the monarchical government : 
 it was in his time that the office of Mailer of 
 the Horfe was fupprefTed. 
 
 All thefe changes, which happened in the IV. 
 government, proceeded folely from the extreme Cau fe s f 
 defire of the Senate to lord it to the prejudice 'f^o 
 of the People ; which gave birth to abundance People. 
 of tumults. And indeed all the feditions that 
 arofe in the time of the Commonwealth, are to 
 be referred only to two caufes in general ; firft, 
 the haughty and cruel manner with which the Pa- 
 tricians treated the People, and elpecially in re- 
 fpect to exceffive ufury ; and as at firft there 
 were no Tribunes to defend them from thofe 
 violences, the People were under the neceffity 
 of having recourfe to violent meafures. The fe- 
 cond caufe, which continued to the end of the 
 Commonwealth, was a jealoufy of authority, 
 which made them always apprehend, that the 
 Patricians, in augmenting their power, would 
 reduce them into entire fubjection, and deprive 
 
 them
 
 144 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II* 
 
 them of what they called their liberty, which 
 was no more than the power to balance the au- 
 thority of the Senate. In confequence, as foori 
 as the People perceived any thing on foot, that 
 might tend to the augmentation of the power 
 of the Patricians, they prefently took the alarm, 
 and even refufed to obey the magiftrates. Frorri 
 thence arofe thofe tumults and commotions, to" 
 which the Senate had no other means to put a 
 flop, than by employing the People, as they 
 did, in almoft continual wars with their neigh- 
 bours. For in thofe times the love of glory, 
 and their country, reunited them for a time, 
 and made domeftic difienfions ceafe. But as 
 the caufe of them always fubfifted, they revi- 
 ved from time to time, as occafion arofe : how- 
 ever, they became lefs frequent, after the Peo- 
 ple were admitted into all the great offices of 
 the Commonwealth, as well as the Nobility. It 
 is obferved, that till the 62ift year of Rome, 
 when Tiberius Gracchus, a man of a violent 
 bufy difpofition, was Tribune of the Peo- 
 ple, all the differences, which arofe between 
 the Nobility and People, were terminated 
 amicably, and without fhedding of blood. 
 Veil. Pat. This Tribune animated the two Orders in fuch 
 1. 2. c. 3. a degree againft each other, that they came to 
 blows, in which himielf perifhed. The ad- 
 vantage the People derived from the firft fe- 
 ditions, was permifiion to create themfelves two 
 v. annual magiftrates, called from thence 'Tribunet 
 OftbeTri- ^ fa People^ becaufe their principal functions 
 
 tbt PMfb^ tnft to P re ^ crve rne i r privileges, and to defend 
 
 them againft the oppreflions of the Patricians. 
 
 Plut. Qu. For this reafon their houfe was open to every 
 
 Rom. 8 1. body at all hours, and they were not allowed to 
 
 abfent themfelves from Rome more than a day, 
 
 2 nor
 
 Chap. IV. OF THE ROMANS. 145 
 
 nor to lie out of the city, except it were at the 
 feftival called Ferics Latin<z<> When all the ma- 
 giftrates went to offer a common facrifice to Ju- 
 piter for the Latine nation upon the Alban moun- 
 tain. The Jurifdiction of the Tribunes did 
 not extend beyond the city. The two firft 
 were created about the 26oth yeaf of Rome \ 
 but foon after three more were aflbciated with 
 them, which made the number five l thirty- 
 ieven years after it was augmented to tefl. The Dion Hal, 
 Senate was the more willing to acquiefce in mill- * 6 ' 
 tiplying their number, becaufe they rightly per- 
 ceived, that the greater/ it was, the eafier it 
 would be to difunite them, and to bring over 
 fome one of them always to their party j and 
 by that means that they iKould be the better 
 able to elude the oppofition, which they fore* 
 faw would rife up againlr. moft of their de- 
 crees : for in the deliberations of the Tribunes* 
 the oppofition of only one of them, without 
 giving his reafons for it, fufficed to render them 
 null. The Senate foon perceived the error they 
 had committed, in having given occafion for 
 thefe Plebeian magiftrates by their haughty and 
 rigorous treatment of die People : for their au* Vt. 
 thority was fuch, that they had power to afiem- 
 ble the People ; to propofe what they pleafed 
 them j to put a ftop to the deliberations of 
 Senate ; and to prevent the pafling of its de- 
 crees by only pronouncing the word Veto^ I 
 forbid it ; and when they confirmed them, they Val. 
 only fet the letter Tat bottom, which fignifiedl- 2. 
 Tribuni. Dionyfius Halicarnafienfis tells us, 
 that the Senate on an occafion, wherein the 
 Tribunes of the People oppofed.a decree for Je* 
 vying an army to aid the Tufculans in the 
 3OOth year of Rome, acted as follows. See- 
 
 L ing
 
 146 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 VII. ing that the people refufed to lift, and not being 
 ecre j, able to compel them through the oppofition of 
 rieSenate tne Tribunes, they pafTed a fecond decree, by 
 again/} /^which they ordained that all thofe, who refufed 
 Tribunes o/to obey the firft, fhould be confidered as impi- 
 
 TT P & ous ' as t ^ ie bJ ec ^ f ^ e wrat h of the Gods, 
 1. 10. c. 8. and as fuch excluded from civil Society. This 
 was an extraordinary meafure, to which they 
 had recourfe, when they could ufe no other ; 
 but it was of no great effect, the people having 
 more regard to their Tribunes, who were their 
 protectors, than to imaginary penalties. And 
 laftly, they had a kind of general infpection 
 over all the magiftrates, except the Dictators, of 
 whom however they fined fome on quitting their 
 offices. They could oblige all the other ma- 
 giftrates, and even their own Collegues, to ap- 
 pear before the People, during the term of their 
 office. They even carried their authority 
 fo far fometimes as to imprifon the Confuls : 
 however, notwithftanding fo great a power, 
 they did not enter the Senate during its delibera- 
 tions , and were only admitted into it, when 
 the Confuls fent for them, and fome affair, 
 which concerned the intereft of the People, was 
 in queftion. They waited without, fitting on 
 benches in the porch of the place where the Se- 
 VIII. nate afTembled. They were treated with fuch 
 RefpeB refpect, that it was prohibited under fevere pe- 
 paid to > nalties to fay the leaft infolent word to them ; 
 the S// an ^ were regarded as facred perfons, who were 
 not named without adding the epithet Sacro- 
 Plut. fanfti : they had however no exterior mark of 
 Quaeft. dignity, being only preceded by a fingle offi- 
 Rom. 8 1. cer? called Viator^ who was a kind of fer- 
 jeant. They were elected in the afiemblies by 
 Cwrar, or centuries, till the z82d year of Rome, 
 i when
 
 Chap. IV. o F T H E R O M A NS. 
 
 when thofe magiftrates obtained a law, that 
 their election fhould be made for the future in 
 the afifemblies by Tribes -, and at the fame time 
 that all which concerned the People fhould be 
 tranfacted for the future in the fame affemblies ; 
 becaufe the aufpices were not taken in them as 
 in the two other kinds of Comitia or afTemblies, 
 and experience had fhewn that the augurs, who 
 took the aufpices, being Patricians, knew how 
 to render them always favourable to the defigns 
 of the Nobility. Amongft all the privileges 
 annexed to the Tribunefhip, there was one en- 
 tirely peculiar to that dignity. When thofe ma- 
 giftrates were elected, if the aflembly of the 
 People did not fill up the ufnal number on the 
 day of the election, thofe who were elected hadLiv. 1. 3. 
 a right to nominate the Collegues that were want- 
 ing , and they were deemed as legitimate Tri- 
 bunes, as thofe who had been chofen in the af- 
 fembly of the People. This was called the ix. 
 right of Co-optation, but it fubfifted only till theC 
 3O5th year of Rome, when the number of the *- 
 Tribunes not having been filled up on the day 
 of election, thofe, who were elected by this 
 right of Co-optation^ nominated two Patricians 
 of Confular dignity for their Collegues ; at 
 which the People being offended, they foon after 
 pafled the law "Treboma, which ordained, that 
 the Tribune, who prefided at the election of the 
 Tribunes of the People, mould be obliged to 
 continue the election, till the number of ten 
 was fully completed by the fuffrages of the 
 People; and this annihilated the right of Co-op- 
 tation. This example of two Patricians nomi- 
 nated Tribunes of the People, is the only one 
 of the kind, for which Livy, who relates it, does 
 not add the reafon : and if, we find, towards 
 L 2 the
 
 148 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 the end of the Commonwealth, that Clodius, 
 who was of a Patrician family, caufed himfelf 
 to be elected Tribune of the People, fupported 
 by the party of Casfar, in order to banifh Ci- 
 cero, whofe declared enemy he was, it was not 
 till after he had caufed himfelf to be adopted 
 by a Plebeian becaufe that office, according to 
 the law of its inftitution, could be given only to 
 Plebeians. From the beginning of the Tribune- 
 fhip, its power continually augmented by the 
 application and induftry of thofe inverted with 
 it, who extended it fo much, that they appeared 
 almoft mafters of the government. Sylla du- 
 ring his Didtatorfhip very much reduced the 
 power of the Tribunes : he even pafled a law 
 in the 6y2d year of Rome, by which every ci- 
 tizen that had been Tribune of the People, was 
 declared incapable of attaining any other ma- 
 giftracy. But after Sylla, that is to fay, the 
 679^ year of Rome, Cotta began to reinftate 
 it ; and Pompey afterwards in the 68 jd year of 
 Rome,reftored it entirely to its former luftre,which 
 Suet, in fubfifted till 730, when the Senate conferred the 
 vit. Aug. w hole Tribunitian authority on Auguftus. That 
 Prince retained it, and it defcended after him 
 to all the Emperors fucceflively. However that 
 office, though deprived of its authority, conti- 
 nued to fubfift till the reign of Conflantine, when 
 Suet, in * c was abolilhed : but even under Auguftus, the 
 vit. Aug. Nobility began to be admitted into it indiffe- 
 rently with the Plebeians. 
 
 The Senate and Nobility, by endeavouring 
 to engrofs the government of the Common- 
 wealth to themfelves, furnifhed the People with 
 this means of having more mare in it, than 
 they prefumed even to hope at firft : for the 
 Nobility in the beginning had fo much the fu- 
 
 periority
 
 Chap. IV. OF THE ROMANS. 149 
 
 periority in the public deliberations, that af- 
 fairs were decided by plurality of voices, before 
 the People could give theirs. Befides this difad- 
 vantage, they were alfo excluded from the offices 
 of Conful, Dictator, other principal magiftra- 
 cies, and the command of armies, which were 
 given only to the Patricians : but by the in- 
 trigues and efforts of the Tribunes, they at 
 length attained all thofe dignities as well as the 
 Nobility. A fpirit of diflenfion always pre- x. 
 vailed indeed between the two orders : but not- 
 withflanding the troubles it fometimes occa- 
 fioned, an happy emulation fubfifted between 
 them, which rendered both more intent to pro- People ad- 
 mote the interefts of the Commonwealth. 
 
 was the fame fpirit, which induced them 
 ... i i * , 
 
 have a vigilant eye over each other : for when 
 
 a magiftrate quitted his office, if he had failed 
 in any thing, the Plebeians caufed him to be 
 cited before the People, to give an account of 
 his conduct, and to inflict upon him the punifh- 
 menthedeferved. 
 
 L 3 CHAP-
 
 150 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 I. Of what kind the Commonwealth was. II. 
 Manners of SallujTs time deferred. III. Ve- 
 nality of fuff rages . IV. Difference of the Slate 
 and of tie Senate under the Emperors. V. 
 Haugbtinefs of the Roman citizens in the time 
 of the Commonwealth. VI. Refe3 paid to 
 the Roman people by foreign powers. VII. Sta- 
 tue of Tiber , to which fatirical pieces and lam- 
 poons were affixed. 
 
 j Y N this manner a jealoufy, which would have 
 Form of -* been pernicious to every other Comrnon- 
 tbe Com- wealth, became advantagious to Rome ; which 
 ^OT^W//->m ews the excellency of i:s form, wherein it dif- 
 fered from others : for it was neither purely arif- 
 tocratica], nor purely democratical. It was 
 compofed of both, to which the Romans, not- 
 withftanding their averfion for the monarchical 
 form, had annexed what they had found bed in 
 it, and was wanting to the two other kinds of 
 Polyb.16. Common wealth. Thus their government was 
 an aflfemblage of the three, and fupplied out of 
 all three together what was wanting to each in 
 particular. But as the work of man can never 
 be entirely perfect, their government, notwith- 
 ftanding all their care and application, did not 
 fail to be liable to inconveniencies, which only 
 encreafed with time, and infenfibly drew on the 
 ruin of the Commonwealth. Cicero fays, that 
 there were always three factions in the State ; 
 that of the Great, who were for having the go- 
 vernment purely ariftocr.iticil \ that of the Po- 
 pular, who favoured the people ; and that of 
 
 the
 
 Chap.V. OF THE ROMANS. 151 
 
 the Politic, who kept a certain medium between 
 thofe who flattered the People, and thofe who 
 favoured the Nobility upon all occafions. But 
 fo long as the one did not entirely outweigh the 
 others, and duly balanced them, they were fo 
 far from being hurtful, that they were advanta- 
 geous to the Commonwealth. What the Ro- Polyb. 1.6. 
 mans had retained from the monarchical form, 
 vefted in the perfons of the Confuls ; the Se- 
 nate by its functions reprefented the ariftocratical 
 government, as the People did the democratical 
 by the power they had. For it was by the fuf- 
 frages of the latter that the Confuls and Magi- 
 ftrates were elected : the People alfo decreed the 
 rewards and punifhments they deferved ; and it 
 was before them, that they rendered an account 
 of their conduct when accufed, the People 
 having the fole power of condemning without 
 appeal, and of either either rejecting or ap- 
 proving the laws propofed to them. In a word, 
 the power of the magiftrates, and of the diffe- 
 rent orders of the Commonwealth, was fo hap- 
 pily divided, that the one was capable of be- 
 ing a barrier againft the other, whenever they 
 were for acting independently, and doing any 
 thing prejudicial to the Commonwealth j and 
 therein confifted the wife difpofition of this 
 State, and that liberty, which was for five 
 hundred years the idol of the Roman people, to 
 which it was ready to facrifice every thing, and 
 which the ambition and opulence of its citizens 
 fubverted. Salluft makes this evident in re- II. 
 ferring to thefe two caufes, as the fources of allM*"* r *f 
 the diforders of the Commonwealth. At firft, t fjf d '. 
 fays he, the mfatiable defire of riches augmen-/W. 
 ted, and then that of power ; for opulence na- 
 turally generates the thirft for honours. That 
 L 4 author
 
 s MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 author continues the defcription of the manners 
 of his times in thefe terms. Avarice bammed 
 faith, probity, and good manners ; to which 
 fucceeded pride, cruelty, contempt of the 
 Gods, and venality of all things. The Ro- 
 mans employed the riches, that were the fruits 
 of their avarice, in procuring themfelves the 
 dignities, of which the fame riches had infpired 
 them with the defire, and bought the fuffrages 
 HI. of the People. Thus avarice produced venality, 
 of and venality injuftice : for afibon as that per- 
 n i c j O us abufe was tolerated, and fuffrages were 
 fold, all the wife ceconomy of this edifice of 
 State was no longer of proof againft dorms. 
 The Commonwealth feemed only to wait the 
 rifing up of a more audacious, and more enter- 
 prizing citizen than the reft. Accordingly, Sylla 
 was not long before he (hewed how eafily it might 
 be fubverted, in making himfelf Dictator by 
 force and violence. Csefar afterwards taking 
 him for his model, compleated the ruin of the 
 tottering Commonwealth : but it is probable, 
 that all ambitious and enterprizing as he was, 
 he would never have dared to carry things to 
 that extremity, without Sylla's example, who 
 had opened him the way, and demonftrated the 
 pofiibility of the fuccefs. And in confequence 
 Sylla may be confidered as the man, who gave 
 the mortal wound to the liberty of the Roman 
 people. Salluft fhewsalfo, that the violences com- 
 mitted under the ufurped Dictatorfhip of Sylla, 
 carried depravity of manners to its greateft 
 v height. It was alfo at that period thofe diffe- 
 Vlffertnce rent P art i es began, to which the luft of fupreme 
 tf the State power gave birth in the Commonwealth, and 
 andoftbe which at length occafioned its ruin. Such was 
 * r at t l e un ' the government of Rome, and the changes it;
 
 Chap. V. OF THE ROMANS. 
 
 underwent till the time of the Emperors, with 
 whom the monarchical State recommenced, which 
 introduced many other alterations. The Senate, 
 which had always been lofty and majeftic during 
 the Commonwealth, funk into the moft abject 
 flavery under the Emperors, and carried its flat- 
 tery to fuch an excefs, as to beftow applaufes 
 upon all the follies of the Emperor Caligula, 
 the moft extravagant of all men. The Romans, 
 fo attentive of old to the public good, had no 
 longer any thoughts but of their private fortunes ; 
 but what feems at firft the hardeft to reconcile, V. 
 is the fudden change of thaJ fpirit of indepen- Haugbti- 
 dency and exceeding haughtinefs of difpofiti-^^ . 
 on into fo abject and implicit a fubjection. For //-,*,. 
 during the Commonwealth, the meaneft Roman der the 
 citizen believed himfelf above foreign poten- Cwz f ? w ~ 
 
 t r r -.'wealth. 
 
 tates , nor was there ever any nation fo proud y e] j Pat< 
 and haughty. Eveiy thing indeed conduced tol. i.e. u 
 render them fo : their continual victories had in- Val - Max 
 fpired them with boldnefs to treat the greateft c> *' 
 Kings with extreme cruelty ; and to be allured 
 of this, we need only read what Polybius fays 
 of Popilius Laenas, ambafiador from the Se- 
 nace and People of Rome to Antiochus Epipha- 
 nes, at that time the greateft Prince of the Eaft, 
 who was befieging Pelufium, a city which be- 
 longed to young Ptolomy King of Egypt. 
 That Roman approaching Antiochus, who re- 
 ceived him with a gracious falute, and held out 
 his hand to him in token of amity, did not 
 vouchfafe to return that civility, and prefenting 
 him the tablets, which contained the decree of 
 the Senate, defired him to read it. Antiochus, 
 after having done fo, told him that he would 
 confult his council upon it : but Popilius, who 
 happened to have a little ilick in his hand, drew 
 2 a cir-
 
 154 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 a circle upon the fand round the King, and bade 
 him not go out of it, till he had given a precife 
 anfwer. That Prince furprized at fo bold and 
 haughty an action, was mute for fome time, 
 and replied at Jaft, I will do what the Roman 
 people defire. Popilius, and thofe of his train, 
 then took that Prince by the hand, and faluted 
 him as a friend. The Senate, by that decree, 
 prefcribed to Antiochus, that he /hould imme- 
 diately put an end to the war with Ptolomy, 
 whom the Roman people had taken under their 
 protection. In this manner the Roman people 
 acted in refpect to the greateft monarchs. The 
 terror of their arms had made fuch ftrong 
 imprefiions, that not only the tributary Kings, 
 but the Princes in alliance with them, did not re- 
 fufe to come to Rome in perfon to render an 
 account of their conduct, when it feemed to be 
 fufpected by the Senate and People, before 
 whom their caufe was pleaded, like that of pri- 
 vate per fons. Hence it was not extraordinary 
 for thefe citizens to fee Kings at their feet, im- 
 Appian. ploring their protection. A II the powers in ai- 
 de Bell, liance with the Roman people, the provinces, 
 ^ iv - and confiderable cities of the empire, had each 
 fome Senator, who ferved them as a patron with 
 the republic, and whofe protection and fervices 
 they purchafed by great prefents , which were 
 one of the fources of thofe prodigious fortunes 
 that were feen before the foil of the Common- 
 wealth, and which were not fo common under 
 the Emperors, thofe fources having dried up, 
 afibon as the Commonwealth was at an end. 
 Dio Qff. F r thofe patrons were no longer employed ; 
 1.57. and the governors of the provinces could not 
 pillage fo eafily as before, a ftop being put to 
 that by the vigilance of the Procurators fent 
 
 into
 
 Chap.V. OF THE ROMANS. 155 
 
 into them by the Emperors. The Senators, 
 whofe power was become very narrow, were no 
 longer applied to ; it was to the favourites and 
 freedmen of the Emperors to whom recourfe 
 was had, and of whom protection was bought. 
 
 But the better to fhew the refpedl and fubmif- 
 fion of the foreign powers for the Roman peo- Ke fP efi 
 
 T n 11 -I r i i paid to the 
 
 pie, I mail again have recourie to the hiltorian R oman 
 Polybius. He relates, that Prufias King di People by 
 Bithynia having come to Rome exprefsly to con-f or "S a 
 gratulate the Senate upon the victory gained o^'-rp^lyb*' 
 Perfeus the laft King of Macedonia, he had the Frag. 97. 
 abject meannefs to appear dreft as a freedman, 
 and to fay to them : Behold your freedman, ready 
 to obey you in all things. Advancing after to 
 the place where the Senate was aflcmbled, he 
 flopt at firft at the door, with his arms hanging 
 down, kiffed the thremold, and afterwards the 
 footftool of the feats of the Senators, faying to 
 them at the fame time : I falute you, my tutelar 
 Gods. What could he have done more, except 
 he had facrificsd to them ? After thefe inftances 
 we ought to be lefs furprized, that the Roman 
 people abandoned themfelves to that haughti- 
 nefs which feemed natural to them, than to fee 
 them on a fudden fo bafe and creeping under the 
 Emperors. And what ought ftill to augment fac. 1. r. 
 our furprize is, that the Senate was the firft body 
 of the State, which fet the example of the moft 
 contemptible adulation, in praifing the moft 
 enormous irregularities of the Emperors ; whilft 
 the reft of the people mewed, in murmurs fuffici- 
 ently loud, that the fpirir of liberty, by which 
 they were animated of old, was not entirely 
 extinguifhed in them. They retained it long 
 after; for Tertullian in his Apologetic, re- 
 proaches the Romans with holding difcourfes 
 
 full
 
 156 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 full of difrefpeft for the Emperors in the C/ra, 
 VII. theatres and amphitheatres ; and of affixing, 
 f according to cuflom upon the ftatue of Tiber, 
 ^ at i res an< ^ lampoons againft them. This paf- 
 fage (hews us, that this ftatue of Tiber ferved 
 emi and for the fame ufe, as that of Pafquin at this day ; 
 lampoons W j 1 j c [ 1 ^as occasioned that kind ot poems to be 
 
 were af- .. . . . , 
 
 fxed. calkd Pasquinades. 
 
 To comprehend how this extraordinary 
 change could happen in fo fhort a time, it is ne- 
 Vell. Pat. ceffary to remember, that the civil wars, excited 
 1. 2. 0.47. by the ambition of the citizens, had deftroyed 
 I- moft of the antient families, educated in that 
 fpirit of liberty and loftinefs j for the fury of 
 thofe wars fell heavieft upon the Nobility. Ti- 
 berius afterwards, in effect of his cruel policy 
 and extreme diftruft, caufed alfo a great num- 
 Dio Caff. ^ >er f tnem to perish : fo that the Senate was 
 1. 56. no longer compofed, but either of perfons edu- 
 cated during thefe troubles, and prepared for the 
 yoke by the experience of the fate of their fel- 
 low-citizens, or of the fons of freedmen and 
 ftrangers of all the provinces of the empire, 
 newly made citizens, to whom fuch meannefles 
 did not appear fo odious. It is no wonder that 
 the Senate, compofed of fuch perfons, fhould 
 fooner adapt themfelves to the yoke, than the 
 reft of the people, and give the firft proofs of 
 it. Thus did the civil wars prepare and bring 
 on a change fo confiderable with fuch rapidity. 
 
 CHAP-
 
 Chap. VI. OF THE ROMANS. 157 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 I. Of the Senators. II. Senators called Fathers. 
 III. Income nece/ary to qualify a perfon for the 
 dignity of Senator. IV. Fortunes to qualify 
 Senators and Knights at the difcretion of the Em- 
 perors. V. Title of Clariflimus, or Mod II- 
 luftrious, given to the Senators. VI. Prefents 
 made by the Commonwealth. VII. Time when 
 the Senate's authority was greateft. VIII. Man- 
 ner of giving opinions and voting in the Senate. 
 IX. Senators called Senatores Pedarii. 
 
 IT is now time to fpeak of the Senators in r 
 particular, and to Ihew the origin of that au-o/- t h e s e . 
 guft body, the number of which it was compo- naton. 
 fed, and the qualifications neceffary for being 
 admitted into it. It owed its inftitution to Ro- 
 mulus, who formed it at firft of an hundred 
 perfons ; he afterwards doubled that number, andLiv. 1. i. 
 Tarquinius Prifcus in his reign augmented it to 
 three hundred, at which number it was long 
 fixed. It ceafed to be fo at laft ; for fometimes 
 it rofe to feven, and fometimes to nine hundred, 
 and a thoufand, which was of very fhort dura- 
 tion. Auguftus reduced it to fix hundred. The Suet, in 
 Kings nominated the Confuls at firft ; and after vit. Aug. 
 their expulfion, the Confuls ufed the fame right, 
 till the Cenfors were created, who having pow-y al ^ ajf 
 er to degrade, and to reduce thofe who hadj u. c 9. 
 done any thing unworthy of their rank into an 
 inferior order, and alfo to place the citizens in 
 an higher or lower clafs, according to their for- 
 tunes, had alfo power to fill up the vacant pla- 
 ces in the Senate. And if we find in fome paf- . 
 fages of the Roman hiftory, that the People ' 
 
 fometimes
 
 158 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 fometimes nominated Senators, it was only in 
 extraordinary cafes. None were pitched upon 
 for thefe vacancies, but either perfons who had 
 pailed through the great offices, or Knights. 
 This dignity was not hereditary : it was acqui- 
 red only by merit, or fervices rendered the Com- 
 monwealth. Their children were ranked amongft 
 the Knights. The Emperors having afterwards 
 affumed the authority of Cenfors to themfelves, 
 which office they fupprefled, conferred the dig- 
 rity of Senator on whom they thought fit. The 
 " Senators were called Fathers out of refpecl, and 
 becaufe i* was tne ' r duty to be Fathers of the 
 then. People : which was the reafon that the name of 
 Plut. Patricians was given their defcendants. But 
 Ronf 2 tne y were diftinguifhed i nto two kinds, the great 
 ' Patricians, defcended from the Senators created 
 by Romulus, and the fmall. To diftinguilh 
 the latter, they were at firft called Patres con- 
 fcripti, becaufe wrote upon the fame lift with the 
 antient Senators : but in procefs of time, that 
 name became common to the whole body : for 
 they were called fo in addrefiing difcourfe to 
 them when affembled. It is faid, that thofe who 
 defcended from thefe firft Senators, to exprefs 
 the antiquity of their nobility, wore * fmall 
 crefcents of filver or ivory in their fhoes, which 
 ferved them inftead of buckles. As it was ne- 
 ccflary, that there mould be a certain number of 
 Senators in their afiembly to render their decrees 
 authentic, thofe who were abfent on the day fixed 
 Dion Caff, were fined. Aus:uftus augmented that fine, and 
 
 c? *-> ' 
 
 55- caufed an ordinance to be made upon that head, 
 
 * Appofitae nigrje lunam fubtexh alutae. 
 
 Juv. Sat. VII. deQuintil. 
 fbe crefcent claffd bit Spanijb-leatber j[hoe. 
 
 that
 
 Chap. VI. OF THE ROMANS. 159 
 
 that no decree fliould pafs, if the affembly did 
 not confift of four hundred Senators. It ufual- 
 Jy met three times a month during the Com- 
 monwealth, upon the calends, nones, and ides ; 
 but under Auguftus only twice, upon the ca- Suet, in 
 lends and ides of every month. The Senators vlt - Au - 
 were convoked by a proper officer, whereas the 
 aflemblies of the People were called by found of 
 trumpet. There was no fixed place for the af- 
 femblies of the Senate : but they always met 
 in a temple, as in thofe of Concord, Ju- 
 piter Capitolinus, Caftor and Pollux, Apollo, 
 &c. It was previoufly necefiary that the temple 
 fhould have been confecrated by the Augurs: 
 and it was for that reafon that the halls, or Cu- 
 ritSj called Hoftilia, Julia, or Pompeia^ had been 
 confecrated by the Augurs, in order to the Se- 
 nate's aflembling in them. 
 
 None could be admitted to this dignity till in. 
 thirty years old ; and it was neceffary then to Income ne 
 have pafled through the Confulfhip or other prin- "-0*$. to 
 
 i n~ 11 \ CL f i qualify a 
 
 cipal offices, and to have at leait five and twenty p er fo n f r 
 thoufand crowns a year for fupporting it with Senator. 
 honour. This regulation was not made till long 
 after the inftitution of the Senate, and when the 
 Commonwealth was become opulent. For at 
 firft the citizens were only diftributed into dif- 
 ferent clafles, according to the eftates which they 
 had ; and long after the eftablifhment of the Re- 
 publican State, the poverty of a citizen did not 
 prevent him from rifing to the higheft dignities, 
 and from filling them with fuitable decency -, be- 
 caufe during the time of his being in office, the 
 Commonwealth fupplied him with all that was 
 neceflary, when he was obliged to appear in 
 public : for except on thofe occafions, they lived 
 at home as private perfons. The Emperor Au- 
 guftus,
 
 160 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 guftus, not thinking even that eftate fufficient, 
 fixed the revenue of a Senator at about four 
 thoufand five hundred pounds a year. The Se- 
 nators were not permitted to trade in any man- 
 ner : but it is probable, that in procefs of time 
 fome of them were concerned in farming the 
 Dion Caff, public revenues, as the Emperor Adrian ordain- 
 ! 6- ed, that no Senator mould be capable of farm- 
 ing the public taxes, either in his own, or the 
 name of another. If any confiderable lofs hap- 
 pened to them in their fortunes, which deprived 
 them of the eftate prefcribed, the Cenfor in 
 making the mufter or Cenfus, ftruck them off 
 the lift of the Senators, to place them on 
 that of the Knights, which was below it. And 
 it was ft ill neceflary, that they mould have an 
 eftate left, fuitable to the fecond order, to which 
 they were reduced ; otherwile they were put in- 
 to the third, which was that of the People. But 
 IV. when there was no longer any Cenfus, nor Cen- 
 Fort f" es J fors except the Emperors, the quantity of for- 
 
 quahfy Se- ,. r r * ', 
 
 naters W tune to ipaliiy a benator, as well as that of a 
 Knights at Knight, depended on the will of the Emperors. 
 the difcre- During a great length of time, it was the cuftom 
 
 s to rece ^ ve none i nto tn ' s frft or ^ er > Dut tn f e 
 called Patricians : but at length even the third 
 
 were equally admitted, provided they had pafled 
 through the great offices of the Commonwealth, 
 and had a fufficient eftate. Such of the Patri- 
 cians however, who by diminiming their eftates 
 had been removed into an inferior order, did 
 not lofe the quality of Patricians, which facili- 
 tated their advancement to the firft dignities of 
 the Commonwealth, and their re-admiffion into 
 the order from which they had fallen, affoon as 
 they had acquired fufficient fortunes for that 
 purpofe. Thus we fee that there were three 
 
 kinds
 
 Chap. VI. OF THE ROMANS. 161 
 
 kinds of Patricians, according to the three or- 
 ders of the Commonwealth ; and that there were 
 in like manner three kinds of Plebeians, aflbon 
 as the People had obtained a right to lhare in all 
 the dignities of the State. 
 
 The marks of diftindion of the Senators were 
 the robe Laius-cla-vus^ or with a large border of 
 purple. They had the moft honourable place 
 at the Shews, which in the theatre was the or- 
 cheftra. Some time after the firft Emperors, 
 the title Clariffimus^ Moft Illuftrious 9 was firft^ v - 
 given to all the Senators. CUriffi- 
 
 When the Commonwealth thought proper tomus given 
 acknowledge the fervices received from fome theSena ' 
 King in alliance with her, the Senate fent a Se- '"yr 
 nator to him, in quality of ambaflador, to car- p r efents 
 ry him the prefent of the State, which confifted 
 of an ivory ftaff, like that which the Confuls 
 carried, and the fame kind of robe, as that worn 
 by generals in their triumphs. Thefe were the 
 moft honourable marks of her gratitude. This Tacit. 1. 4. 
 cuftom was obferved under the Emperor Tibe- 
 rius j but we do not find that it fubfifted after 
 him. 
 
 The time when the Senate's authority was VII. 
 greateft, muft be dated from the expulfion off 1 **? 
 
 i T^ 1 1 r n - r i .the Senate i 
 
 the Kings, till lome inort time after the creation aut hority 
 of the Tribunes of the People, when upon the iv 
 occafion of Coriolanus, a law was pa fled, 
 which it was ordained, that every Roman citi- 
 zen, Patrician or other, when cited, mould be 
 obliged to anfwer before the People afiembled 
 in the Comitia Tributa, or by Tribes. For till 
 then no affair had been referred to the People, 
 except by a Senatus-confultiim, that is lay, a de- 
 cree of the Senate : the Kings themfelves had 
 conformed to this cuftom out of confideration 
 M for
 
 162 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 for the Senate. The diminution of the power of 
 *be Senate, and the increafc of that of the People, 
 be^;: r.: this period : for till then the Patricians 
 had acknowledged no judge but the Senate alone. 
 Thofe who are ever fo little read in the Ro- 
 man hiftory know, that all which related to the 
 adminiftration of the Common wealth was tranf- 
 acted in the Senate, except the creation of ma- 
 giftrates, new laws, and declarations of war 
 and peace, which only the People had power to 
 make. 
 
 VIII. The manner of giving opinions and voting in 
 Planner c/ t he Senate, was not always the fame. In the 
 giving opt- ^j-jy t j mes t h e y began by the oldeft Senators, 
 
 nions ana . J . _ ' i 
 
 voting in and the reft went on each according to his age, 
 
 tbe Senate, till k came to thofe who had no deliberative 
 
 voices or right to fpeak. Afterwards, when 
 
 Aul. Gell.'there were Cenfors, the opinion of the Prince of 
 
 A 4 ian'de 1 ^ ^ nate was ^ r ^ ta ken, and the moft antient 
 
 bell/dv. e p erions f Confular dignity fpoke next. \Ve 
 
 1. 2. find, that in Cicero's time the Confuls elect 
 
 S " et j '" r ave f ^ e ^ r opinions firft. Suetonius tells us, that 
 
 *' x in Caefar's time, the perfon on whom the Con- 
 
 ful had conferred that honour in the beginning 
 
 of the year, continued to fpeak firft during all 
 
 the reft of it. Under the Emperors, their will 
 
 ferved as a rule : for as the Prince prefided 
 
 in the Senate, he demanded the opinion of 
 
 him firft, whom he thought fit to do that ho- 
 
 Suet in nour : h wcver ne more ufually began with 
 
 vit. Aug. tne Confuls. When any one had opened an 
 
 affair, and the queftion was to put it to the vote, 
 
 thofe who approved it went to the fide of the 
 
 fpeaker, and thofe of a different opinion to the 
 
 other fide j fo that it was eafy to fee at one 
 
 glance, on which fide the plurality of voices 
 
 was, without having occafion to collect them. 
 
 2 This
 
 Chap. VI. OP THE ROMANS. 163 
 
 This was called in Latin, Pedibus in alicujm fen- 
 tentiam ire, from whence thofe who had no de- 
 liberative voices, or right to fpeak, were called 
 Stnatores Pedant. All who had pafied through 
 Cunule offices, though they were not Senators, 
 were admitted into die Senate ; but they had not 
 deliberative voices. 
 
 The right of calling the Senate was at firft in 
 the Kings : and under the Commonwealth, in 
 the' Confuls, Dictator, Matter -of the Horfe, 
 Prastors, Governor of Rome, and Tribunes of 
 the People : but an inferior magiftrate could not 
 afiemble it, except in the abfence of the fuperi- 
 or ; which rule did not extend to the Tribunes 
 of the Peopk. 
 
 M 2 CHAP-
 
 164 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 I. Of the Knights. II. Of the Prince of tie Toutb. 
 III. Robe called Anguftus-clavus. IV. Gold 
 ring of the Knights. V. Knights that farmed tie 
 public revenues. VI. Of the Nobility. VII. 
 The Pr#tor. VIII. The Pratorium. IX. The 
 Great Prator, or Prastor Urbanus. X. Pro- 
 vincial Prtetors. 
 
 I. "^^ EXT to the order of Senators was 
 Of the J.^1 that of the Knights, which was the fecond 
 Knights. j n ^g Commonwealth. They were created to 
 ferve in the army, and at firft compofed all the 
 Roman horfe ; but foon after there was a dif- 
 ferent cavalry. They had an horfe kept at the 
 public expence given them, which was armed 
 and caparifoned ; and that diftinguifhed them 
 from the reft. But in procefs of time, the whole 
 Roman cavalry, in imitation of that of the 
 Greeks, had the fame advantage, except the 
 troops called the light-horfe. At every Cenfus^ 
 the Cenfors made the Knights pafs before them 
 in review, calling each by his name; and thofe 
 who had not the * eftate prefcribed by the law 
 for keeping their rank, that is to fay fomething 
 lefs than half what a Senator ought to have, or 
 had committed any aclion repugnant to gcod 
 manners, were ftruck out ot the lift of Knights. 
 
 -Exeat, inquit 
 
 Si pudor eft, & de pulvino furgat equeflri, 
 
 Cujus res legi non fufScit. Jw- Sat. III. 
 
 Pack hence, and from the cover d benches rife, 
 
 (The Majler of the ceremonies cries) 
 
 Tins is no place for you, ivboje fmall eftate 
 
 Does not amount to the Equejlrian rate. Dryden. 
 
 The
 
 Chap. VII. OP THE ROMANS. 165 
 
 The horfe kept at the public expence was taken 
 from them, and they were placed in the third 
 order, that is to fay that of fimple citizens. 
 Thofe alfo, whofe horfes appeared in a bad con- 
 dition, were ftruck off the lift ; but only for a 
 time, and they might be re-inftated at another 
 Cenfus. 
 
 During the Commonwealth, the Prince of 
 the Youth was chofen out of the order of 
 Knights: he was fo called, becaufe he was 
 the head of the young nobility in the feafls and 
 games. He whom the Cenfor called firft at the 
 review which he made every Cenfus, was ac- 
 knowledged Prince of the Youth. They chan- 
 ged in that manner, becaufe that place could be 
 filled only by a young man : but under the Em- 
 perors, it was given only to the prefumptive 
 heirs to the Empire, or to the near relations of T ac j. I2 . 
 the Emperor , and it was himfelf who nomina- 
 ted to that place. 
 
 The Knights were reviewed every year on VaI - ^ Iax - 
 the Ides, of July. They appeared then in pomp, 2> c 
 with all the marks of honour annexed to their 
 order, and with wreaths of olive upon their 
 heads, carrying in their hands the military or- 
 naments, which their valour had obtained from 
 their generals. This march began at the tem- 
 ple of Honour, which was without Rome, and 
 ended at the Capitol. It was not allowed at this 
 time to cite them before the judges, in order 
 that they might not fail to be prefent at this ce- 
 remony. 
 
 The Knights, as well as the Senators, by way 
 of diftin<5tion wore a robe bordered with pur- 
 ple, but narrower, to fhew the difference ; for 
 which reafon it was called Awvftus-davus. They n , IIT - 
 
 u j _L c j i i r.i Kobecalled 
 
 nad their nxecl places at the Shews next imme-^ n g ul | 
 M 3 diatelyclavus.
 
 i66 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 IV. diately to the Senators. The gold ring on the 
 Gold ring finger was alfo a distinction annexed to the rank 
 Kaifbtt ^ K^g^ but ^ became common in time to 
 others, for infenfibly all the Romans wore it, ex- 
 cept the freed-men. Auguftus granted Mufa, 
 Dion Caff, his phyfician, who was only a freed-man, per- 
 1 53- million to wear a gold ring upon his finger, and 
 his whole profeffion at the fame time. The 
 HenxU-3 Emperor Septimus Serenas, after the defeat of 
 his competitor Albinus, gave the like permifiion 
 to all his foldiers. The Knights, long before 
 the end of the Commonwealth, were exempt 
 from their principal function, which was to ferve 
 in the army, and did nothing more than the reft 
 , v - of the citizens. But at the fame time they were 
 Knights, ft. U j.j ous to enrich themfelves by farming the re- 
 
 farmers of r , ^ III-I-M 
 
 the rrve- venues Of the Commonwealth, which privilege 
 nues of tbefoey caufed to be given themfelves, exclufively 
 Common- Q f a ]j ot h erSe i^ Knights who entered into 
 this fcheme, were divided into as many focieties 
 as there were provinces that paid tribute. Be- 
 Tacit. 1,4. fides this advantage, Cains Gracchus being be- 
 ing become Tribune of the People, and ddiring 
 to bring over the Knights into his party, ren- 
 dered them more powerful than they had ever 
 Veil. Pat. been, by giving them cognizance of the crimes 
 l 9. c. '3- o f public extortion and malverfation, which be- 
 
 Appian de, 
 
 bell. civ. longed before to the Senators. It was at this 
 1. i. time the Knights formed a fecond order of 
 the Nobility, as we have obfcrved already. 
 Gracchus gave them th r s prerogative, under 
 pretence that the Senators had fuffered themfelves 
 to be corrupted in acquitting Aurelius Cotta Sa- 
 linator, and Manius Aquilius, conquerors of 
 Afia, who had been accufed of embezzeling 
 the public money. This was in fome meafure 
 iubjedting the firft order of the Commonwealth 
 
 to
 
 Chap. VII. OF THE ROMANS. 167 
 
 to the fecond ; becaufe if the Senators were ac- 
 cufed of malverfations on quitting their offices, 
 the Knights became their judges. Thofe of the 
 fecond order, who had pofleffed the great ma- 
 giftracies, were admitted into the Senate, but 
 without having deliberative voices, or right to 
 fpeak. At length the horfe kept at the public 
 cxpence was fupprefied : however, we do not 
 find That had taken place in the time of Caligu- 
 la i as Suetonius tells us, that in a review of the Suet, in 
 Knights made by that Emperor, he deprived Vlt - Cahg. 
 thofe of their horfcs who had a note of infamy 
 upon their names. This fupprefTion therefore 
 cannot be dated, till between the reigns of Ca- 
 ligula and Vefpafian : for Pliny fays, that in his 
 time the Knights had no longer any horfes kept 
 at the expence of the public. When any place 
 was vacant in the Senate, they were generally 
 filled up by perfons of this fecond order. It 
 became exceedingly numerous, particularly un- 
 der the Emperors, moft of whom admitted their 
 freed- men, or whomfoever they thought fit, to 
 the dignity of Knight and even of Senator, 
 which they beftowed indifferently upon perfons 
 of all the provinces of the Empire, and often 
 where merit had no mare in that gift. The Se- 
 nate in confequence loft much of its authority at 
 that time, having no other part in the govern- 
 ment, than what the Emperors thought fit to 
 give it. The good Princes however did no- 
 thing without confulting it ; but the bad either 
 had no other rule but their will, or abandoned 
 themfelves entirely to the councils of their freed- 
 men ; fo that all power was lodged in the hands 
 of vile flaves, who abufed it. Though the twoTac. 1. 1 1. 
 firft orders of the Commonwealth were obliged Suet in 
 to have a certain eftate, we muft not believe, Vlti 
 M 4 that
 
 i68 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 VI. that Nobility was to be acquired amongft the 
 Ofbobt- R omans folely by riches. It was only a wife 
 precaution of the Commonwealth, which, by 
 that regulation, intended to prevent indigence 
 from being the occafion of committing any 
 thing unworthy of their rank by the two firft 
 orders of the State : for only the children of 
 thofe, who had paffed through the great offices, 
 became noble. It was on this account, that the 
 firft of a family, who attained thofe dignities, 
 were called Nc-vi homines, New men, as being 
 the authors of the Nobility of their family. 
 Appian.de This is the reproach which Catilina made Cicero, 
 BelJ Civ. when he was preferred to the Confulfhip before 
 ' * him, becaufe he actually was the firft noble- 
 man of his family. Nobility in confequence 
 was no longer confined to the two firft orders, 
 when the Plebeians were admitted into the great 
 offices. 
 
 The firft dignities of the Commonwealth, 
 next to the Confulfliip, were that of Prstor, 
 Cenfor, JEdile and Qusftor. 
 
 yjj The Praetorfhip was annual, and conferred 
 The Pra- w ' tn tne &me aufpices as the Confulfhip. This 
 tor. dignity was inftkuted in the 388th year of 
 Rome. The abfence of the Confuls, who ufu- 
 ally quitted Rome to command the armies in the 
 field, gave birth to this charge. It was thought 
 proper, that there mould be a magiftrate in the 
 city to adminifter juftice in their ftead , for that 
 VIII. was the principal function of this office ; which 
 The Prae- occafioned the name of Pretorium to be given 
 io,-ium. tne p} ace> where juftice was difpenced. He was 
 considered, in the quality of judge, as the pro- 
 tector of widows and orphans. During the ab- 
 itnce of the Confuls, the Pr.ttor had equal au- 
 thority with them. He had a rght to afitmble 
 
 the
 
 Chap. VII. OF THE ROMANS. 169 
 
 the Senate, and to prefide i' the public games. 
 He was alfo obliged to exhibit Shews during the 
 year of his office, and to celebrate the feaft of 
 the Bona Dea t or good goddefs, in which his 
 wife prefided ; for the men were excluded from 
 it. He had alfo right to decree and proclaim 
 the public feafts : he could make and annul laws, 
 but not without the approbation of the People, 
 and the advice of the Senate. He kept a re- 
 gifter of all the freedmen that were enfranchifed 
 at Rome, and of the caufes why made free. He y a j ^ ax 
 had a right in the abfence of the Confulsto com-1. 9. c.iz. 
 mand the armies : he wore the robe Prcstexta ; 
 was honoured with the Curule chair, and two 
 Lictors, who v/alked before him in Rome, and 
 fix out of the city. He was attended by a re- 
 gifter or fecretary, and other inferior officers, 
 called Accenfi, becaufe they fummoned the Peo- 
 ple to aifemble on the Procter's order. He alfo 
 commanded the Quasftors, who ferved him as 
 lieutenants, and to whom he referred a part of 
 the affairs of his office. The Prastor called ix, 
 Urbanus or Major rode a white horfe as a di- The Gnat 
 ftinction of honour. A fword and a fpear were 
 planted upright before the Prsetor's tribunal, 
 whilft he gave audience. At firft there was 
 but one : but as the multitude of affairs drew a- 
 bundance of fl rangers to Rome, a fecond was 
 created, folely to adminifter juftice to them. In 
 the beginning thefe places were filled up only by 
 Patricians ; four were afterwards added to make 
 the number fix. Thofe four took cognizance 
 of certain public crimes, extortion., canvafiing 
 votes prohibited by the laws, and high-treafon, 
 which laft amongft the Romans intended all 
 crimes againft the liberty and privileges of the 
 citizens. In proportion as the number was mul- 
 tiplied,
 
 170 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 tiplied, which afterwards amounted to fix, the 
 
 peculiar cognizance of different affairs were af- 
 Suet in ^g ne d to each of them. Julius Casfar created 
 Tit J Of. two, who were called Praetors of Ceres, becaufe 
 
 they took care that provifions of corn were 
 
 brought to Rome. 
 
 The aggrandifement of the Commonwealth 
 
 occafioned the number of the magi ft rates to be 
 
 X. augmented. Affoon as (he extended her con- 
 
 Prawncia/quefts out of Italy, fhe made provincial Prae- 
 
 Pneton. tors to g overn j-h^ conquered people. They 
 
 adminiftered juftice, and commanded the troops 
 in their provinces, where they received the fame 1 
 honour as in the city, being like them invefted 
 Appian. with this office only for a year. Appian tells 
 de Bell, us, that in the war with Antiochus the Great, 
 S 7 r ' the Romans fent Proprietors into the pro- 
 vinces newly conquered, to whom they gave 
 half the power of Confuls, with half the ho- 
 nours, which confided in having fix Lictors 
 with their axes, whereas the Confuls had twelve. 
 When the Roman magiftrates tried an affair, 
 the judges wrote their opinions, and threw them 
 into an urn, from whence they were taken out, 
 and the caufe adjudged according to the plura- 
 lity of voices. 
 
 CHAP-
 
 Chap. VIII. OP THE ROMANS. 171 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 I. Different tribunals at ROVM. II. Manner of 
 citing before the judge. III. Duumviri. IV. 
 Pumjhment infitRed. V. Executioners ofjvfiice. 
 
 IN the time of the Commonwealth there j. 
 were three tribunals , for they pleaded, either Different 
 before the People in the general aflemblies, be- tribunals 
 fore the Praetor, who was the ufual judge, or at Rome ' 
 before the judge commiffioned by the Praetor. 
 Thefe magiftrates could not be abfent from. 
 Rome above ten days ; and when they pafied 
 fentence of death upon any one, they quitted the 
 robe bordered with purple to put on a mourning 
 one. The citations to appear before the Prastor j, 
 were verbal: but if a perfon, after being, fum- Manner of 
 moned verbally, refufed to appear, the laws of citing be- 
 the twelve tables gave permiflion to drag \\\mf ore the 
 before that magistrate by force, encircling his^ &' 
 neck for that purpofe in a corner of his robe. 
 There was alfo another manner of citing before 
 the judge ; this was to touch the tip of the ear 
 of the perfon cited in the prefence of a witnefs. 
 This method of citing obliged the perfon cited 
 to appear before the judge. In the fame man- 
 ner, when they took any one to ferve as a wit- 
 nefs, they * touched the end of his ear, afking 
 him, Will you be a witnefs for me ? 
 
 The Praetor had not fo extenfive a power un- 
 der the Emperors as under the Commonwealth. 
 
 Licet anteftari ? Ego vero 
 
 Oppono auriculam. Hor. L. I. Sat. ir, 
 
 Will you be witnefs, Sir? I turn my ear 
 
 7 f r ' J 
 
 Auguftus
 
 172 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book IJ. 
 
 Suet, in Auguftus took from him the cognizance of 
 TJL Aug. abundance of affairs , and transferred it to 
 the prefect or governor of Rome. The fuccel- 
 fors of that Prince fuccefiively diverted the Prae- 
 tors of many affairs, to give them to other 
 officers. And when the dignity of Prafecfus 
 Pr&torio was become in a manner the fole great 
 office, and the fecond place of the empire, many 
 things were taken from the Prsetorihip and at- 
 tached to it, fo that this antient office became 
 then of Iktleconfideration, in comparifon with 
 what it had been during the Commonwealth. 
 Tac. 1. i.Tiberius nominated the Prastors ; but \ve find 
 Id. 1. 14. in Tacitus, that Nero left the nomination of 
 them to the Senate, and ordained, that thofe 
 who appealed to the Senate from any judgment 
 given by the inferior judges, ihould depofit the 
 fame fum, as thofe who appealed to the Empe- 
 ror : which mews that in appeals to the Empe- 
 ror, it was neceffary to depofit a fum, that 
 Tacitus does not fix ; and which ferved as a 
 fine, in cafe of lofing the caufe. 
 
 Though Nero had left the nomination of 
 Praetors to the Senate, it reverted after him to 
 the Emperors, as well as that of all the ma- 
 giftrates. 
 
 Under the Commonwealth chicanery had not 
 infected the tribunals ; and when eloquence 
 Jhone out there, only the orator's addrefs and 
 fubtlety in making the laws fpeak in favour of 
 HI. his caufe, were to be apprehended. Amongft 
 Duumviri the judges inferior to the Praetor, were two cal- 
 Uv. I. i. ] e( j Duumviri, who took cognizance only of 
 criminal matters. They could condemn to 
 death : but when the criminal was a Roman ci- 
 tizen, he could appeal from their fentence to the 
 People. Tnis office was in great confideration, 
 i as
 
 Chap. VIII. OF TJ*E ROMANS. 173 
 
 as well on account of the power annexed to it, 
 as its antiquity, having been inftituted by King 
 Tullus Hoftilius, on occafion of the murder 
 committed by Horatius, the conqueror of the 
 three Curiatii, on his fitter -, and it had conti- 
 nued from thenceforth during the Common- 
 wealth. 
 
 Amongft the puniftiments inflicted amongft iv. 
 the Romans, there was one peculiar to them, Pumjh- 
 but not ufed againft the Roman citizens : it wasj?5 w 'y*~ 
 to brand the criminal in the forehead with the^ z 
 letter S, and fometimes more letters, or even 
 whole words, according to the nature of the 
 crime. That thefe characters might remain the 
 longer, ink was laid upon them , which punifh- 
 ment mailers ufually inflicted upon their (laves. 
 We have already obferved, that in the begin- y. 
 ning of the Commonwealth, the Lictors acted Executlo- 
 as executioners : but under the Emperors, fol- nen . f 
 diers, and fometimes young gladiators, were^ 1 "' 
 employed, in order to enure them to the fhed- 
 ding of human blood. There were however 
 executioners of juftice at that time, who had 
 their fixed abode in a particular quarter. 
 
 CH AP-
 
 174 MANNERS AMD CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 1. Cenfor. II. Fun^fion of the Cenfors. III. Ad- 
 judication of the farms of the Commonwealth. 
 IV. Of the Prince of the Senate. V. The 
 Curule Mdiles. VI. The Plebeian JEdiles. 
 VH. The Queefior. VIII. Comptroller s of the 
 Qyeftors. IX. Other kind of Qu&ftors. X. 
 Of Proconfuls. XI. Reducing into a pro- 
 vince , what it was. XII. Of the inferior of - 
 faers of the Commonwealth. 
 
 I. Tl^T EXT to the dignky of Praetor was that 
 Cenfor. \^ o f Cenfor. It was created about the year 
 of Rome 312. There were only two of them. 
 To be admitted to that office, k was neceflary 
 to have firft paffed through that of ConfuJ. At 
 firft it was not annual like the reft, and its du 
 ration was fixed at five years 5 but it was after- 
 wards reduced to eighteen months. The elec- 
 tion of Cenfors was made in. the field of Mars 
 by the People. After having returned the af- 
 fembly thanks for that honour, they repaired to 
 the Capitol to take pofTeffion of their office, and 
 fwear to act nothing out of enmity or favour, 
 U but to adhere to equity in all things. They had 
 Funaions two principal functions ; the firft confifted in 
 
 
 
 f tbe taking the Cenfus, or number of the citizens and 
 
 Cenfors. va i uat i on o f ^\ r fortunes, from whence they 
 
 had the name of Cenfors. It was taken every 
 
 five years, and that fpace of time was called 
 
 Luftrum^ on account of the expiatory facrifice, 
 
 called Luftrationy which thofe magiftrates caufed 
 
 to be made for purifying the people, after the 
 
 Dion.Hal. Ccnfus was over. The Cenfits was inftituted by 
 
 3. 4. c. 4. Servius
 
 Chap. IX. OF THE ROMANS. 175 
 
 Servius Tullius King of the Romans. His fuc- 
 cefibr Tarquin the Proud difcontinued it : but 
 it was revived under the Confuls, who took 
 chat function upon themfelves. As they were 
 often too much employed to have leifure to take 
 the O/fo,and for that reafon there had been none 
 for feventeen years, it was thought proper to 
 create two Cenfors. We have already mentio- 
 ned the penalty ordained for fuch as gave in falfe 
 accounts of the Cenfus, and therefore we fhall 
 not repeat it here. The fecond function of the 
 Cenfors was to prefide in die conftruction of pub- 
 lic buildings, for which they agreed with the un- 
 dertakers ; in collecting the taxes of the Com- ^ 
 monwealth, which they farmed out, and ad- jdjudica- 
 judged to the tax-farmers in the open Forum, tioneftbt 
 They were alfo charged with the civil govern-/* 7 " f 
 ment of the city, and infpected into the nian-^'J^*^ 
 ners of the inhabitants. For that purpofe they cic. in 
 kept an exact regifter of the names, eftates, and Rull. 
 profeflions of every individual, as alfo of the plut - m 
 number of their children and flaves. In this 
 regifter, every citizen was placed in his clafs, 
 and tribe, according to his fortune. The Cen- 
 fors at the time of the Cenfus transferred them 
 from an higher to a lower, according to the in- 
 creafe or diminution that might have happened 
 in their efbates : which was the more eafy for 
 thefe magiftrates to do, as it was themfelves 
 who eftimated them. They did this, in order 
 that the afTerTments might be the jufter, and the 
 better proportioned to p|ople's abilities : for all 
 the citizens included in the mufter made every 
 luftrum, payed a tax of fo much per head, 
 except thofe of the fixth clafs, who were ex- 
 empted on account of this poverty, as we have 
 
 already
 
 176 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 IV. already obferved. The Cenfors alfo nominated 
 y.*** f the Prince of the Senate, that is to fay, the prin- 
 
 rrtnce of . , r r , , , . * , ~ . 
 
 the Senate. CI V^ P er *on or that body, who in the begin- 
 ning had a right to fpeak and vote firft : but in 
 after-times the Confuls cdrtferred that honour 
 upon whom they thought fit, as we have faid 
 in fpeaking of the Senate. It was conferred 
 every Cenfus , and might be given to the 
 fame perfon feveral times, as Plutarch, in the 
 life of P. TEmilius, tells us in refpect to M. 
 ./Emilius Lepidus, who was four times invefted 
 with it. After the fall of the Commonwealth, 
 there was no longer any Prince of the Senate but 
 the Emperor himfelf ; which quality he re- 
 tained for life. The Cenfors alfo nominated 
 perfons to the dignity of Senator, in order to 
 
 L!v. 1. 9. fill up the vacant places. They had power to 
 degrade Senators and Knights, and to diveft 
 the latter of the horfe kept at the expence of 
 the public, when either the one or the other had 
 committed any action unworthy of their rank. 
 They could deprive a fimple citizen of the 
 right of fuffrage, and his other privileges, if 
 he had deferved it, ana make him liable to pay 
 all the taxes laid upon ftrangers. They had 
 power to lay a fine upon fuch as had lived to a 
 certain age without marrying : for as we have 
 already obferved, the Commonwealth, from the 
 intereft it had in preferving itfelf made celibacy 
 dimonourable. The Cenfors were charged with 
 the care of caufing water to be diftributed to 
 the citizens according to their occafions : we 
 muft underftand here the water of fountains, 
 which was brought to Rome by aqueducts ; for 
 they did not commonly ufe that of the Tiber 
 for drinking. They allb repaired the public 
 roads, and reftrained luxury, and the fuperfiu- 
 
 ous
 
 Chap. IX. OF T H E R O M A N S. 177 
 
 ous expences of particulars. On the expiration 
 of their office, they were obliged to draw up 
 a fummary account of what had pafled during 
 their adminiftration, which was engraved on 
 tables of brafs, and kept in the place called the 
 Temple of the Nymphs. If one of the Cen- 
 fors happened to die, the other was obliged to 
 abdicate his office, and two new Cenfors were 
 elected. A perfon could be Cenfbr only once 
 in his life. They had not power to call the 
 afifemblies of the People, nor to make any law. 
 They were liable to be made to give an ac- 
 count of their conduct to the Tribunes of the 
 People, and the Curule jEdiles. This magi- 
 ftracy did not fubfift under the Emperors. We 
 find in Suetonius, that Auguftus caufed a re- Suet iri 
 view of the People to be made by ten men,vit. Aug. 
 whom he demanded of the Senate ; which wasp IonC * ff - 
 not obferved by the other Emperors, except' 53 ' 
 . Claudius, who caufed a general mufter of the Tad. u. 
 citizens to be taken, when they were found 
 to amount to fix millions nine hundred and for- 
 ty four thoufand , for it does not appear that 
 his fucceflbrs followed his example. Theodo- 
 fius endeavoured to re-eftablim this office ; but 
 the Senate oppofed it, and the Cenibrfhip con- 
 tinued attached to the Imperial dignity. 
 
 The /Ediles were alfo civil magistrates. They V. 
 were annual, and to the number of four, of^.9""^ 
 whom two were honoured with the Curule chair. ' es ' 
 They were elected out of the Patricians, as well 
 as the Pnetors, till the Plebeians attained to all 
 the dignities ; for which reafon they were 
 called the Great or Curule ^Ediles. They 
 were created in order to prefide at the ce- Liv. 1. 6. 
 lebration of the games called the Great or the Id ] - / 
 Roman Games, folemnized to difcharge- a vow 
 N made
 
 178 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 made to Jupiter. They had the care of the 
 public buildings, facred edifices, Fora, mar- 
 kets, tribunals of juftice, walls of the city, and 
 theatres. They were obliged to exhibit games 
 to the public at their own expence during the 
 year of their office. In procefs of time, 
 when the places at the Shews were diftinguifhed, 
 it was they who regulated and afllgned each 
 that which belonged to him, and took care that 
 no diforders were committed there. It was a 
 part of their function to examine dramatic 
 pieces-, and they had authority over the actors, 
 whom they rewarded when they had performed 
 their parts well. In a word, every thing that 
 was neceffary to the repairing or embellifhment 
 of the city, was under their jurifdiction. The 
 f' two others, who were called the inferior or Ple- 
 Phbelan beian jEdiles, becaufe they had not the honour 
 jEdilu. of the Curule chair, and were to be elected out 
 Dion.Hal. o f tne People, were of a more antient inftitu- 
 tion than the two former. For they were cre- 
 ated foon after the Tribunes of the People, and 
 at the requcft of thofe officers ; who being at 
 firft but few in number, demanded afliftants to 
 fliare with them in their functions. But fome 
 time after, when the number of the Tribunes 
 of the People was augmented, the care of the 
 public baths was afiigned to thefe inferior JE- 
 diles; as alfo to repair and cleanfe the aque- 
 ducts, common-fewers, and ftreets; to caufe 
 the decrees of the Senate, and the ordinances of 
 the People, to be obferved ; to prevent ufury, 
 and to viftt the public houfes, in order to pre- 
 vent diforders. No one could (land for this 
 office, till the age of thirty-feven or thirty-eight. 
 Julius Casfar added two more to their number, 
 who were called Cereals^ becaufe they had the 
 
 care
 
 Chap. IX. OF THE ROMANS. 179 
 
 care of corn, meat, weights and meafures. They 
 alfo fee a price upon provifions for man and 
 horfe ; and if they were not good, they caufed 
 them to be thrown into the Tiber. The J- 
 diles were entirely fupprefied under the Empe- 
 ror Conftantine. The /Edileftiip and office of 
 
 Quseftors were (leps to the attainment of moreT ' }li 
 ^*- ,, , , , ,. .r & 13. 
 
 considerable dignities. 
 
 The Quaeftorfhip might be attained at the vil. 
 age of twenty-feven : it was annual, like the%^f- 
 Confulfhip, and almoft as antient. P . IU J: I".. 
 
 A r fi i ii vit.Publ;c. 
 
 At firft only two were created, who were-jv^i . 1 1. 
 elected by the People, and always out of the 
 body of the Senators-. We find in Livy, thatLiv. 1. 3. 
 they had power to afiemble the People. In the 
 338th year of Rome, the People having de- 
 manded to have a mare in this magiftracy, their 
 number was augmented to four, of whom two 
 were for the city, and the other two attended 
 the Confuls in the field. They had the keeping ibid. 
 of the public treafure ; but afterwards thofe to 
 whom that office was confided, were called Tri- 
 bunes : that treafure was kept in the temple of 
 Saturn. The Quasftors had the care of receiv- 
 ing the revenues of the Commonwealth, and of 
 entering an account of receipts and difburie- 
 ments. Thofe who attended the Generals in 
 the army, and who were fent into the provin- 
 ces, kept alfo an account of their revenues as 
 well ordinary as extraordinary, and of the fpoils 
 taken in war : for it was their bufmefs to fee 
 them fold, in order that the fums raifed from 
 them might be brought into the public treafury. 
 They kept the military enfigns, that is to fay, j)j on j^l. 
 the Roman Eagles, which were generally of fil-l. n. c. 
 ver, and laid up in the public treafury, when 12 - 
 the armies were not in the field. They gave 
 N 2 out
 
 180 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 out the pay, and diftributed the provifions a- 
 mongft the troops. When the Generals of the 
 army demanded triumphs of the enemy, they 
 attefted the truth of their actions upon oath, in 
 order that it might be judged whether fuch de- 
 mands were juft, and the advantages gained de- 
 ferved that honour. The increafe of the power 
 of the Commonwealth made the augmentation 
 of their number to twenty neceffary. Thefe 
 Comptnl- QH 3 ^ 01 " 5 na d Comptrollers with them, and none 
 krt oft&ebut perfons of known probity were admitted 
 %u*jlors. into that office ; for which reafon perfons who 
 had been Confuls thought it an honour to exer- 
 cife it. We have already fcen, that the Prs- 
 tor referred part of his affairs to the Quasftors -, 
 for they took cognizance of the canfes, which 
 related to the public debts. But after the expi- 
 ration of the Commonwealth, the change of 
 government induced a confiderable one alfo in 
 the functions of that office. The Procurators 
 of the Emperors, who were exprefsly created 
 to have the care and adminiftration of the re- 
 venues in the provinces of the Empire, where 
 their employment was like that of Receivers- 
 General of the finances in France, diverted the 
 Provincial Quaeftors of their principal fun- 
 ctions -, whom Nero afterwards deprived of the 
 cognizance of the caufes which related to the 
 public debts, to transfer it to the Prefect of 
 Tac. 1. ii the city. Tacitus, who relates this fact, ob- 
 & '3- ferves, that this office had almoft always been 
 bellowed upon merit till the time of theie chan- 
 ges, when it became the reward of Shews ; be- 
 caufe under the Emperors it was conferred only 
 upon thofe who engaged to exhibit games to 
 the public at their own expence, which was not 
 Tac *na.P rac ^fcd before. But at length this dignity 
 1 1 6.* was
 
 Chap. IX. OF THE ROMANS. 181 
 
 was made fome kind of amends for all its lofies, 
 by the honour which the Prince did the Quas- 
 ftors in making choice of them to fpeak in his 
 name to the Senate, when he either could not, 
 or would not, go to it himfelf. 
 
 In the time of the Commonwealth, there ix. 
 were other officers, who alfo bore the name of Other 
 Quakers, though their functions were diffe-~ s ^|f 
 rent from thofe of the former. The Senate""^ ' 
 fent them from time to time into the provinces, 
 to make informations, and to try criminal af- 
 fairs. They had alfo more authority and pri- 
 vileges than thofe of Rome ; for in the pro- 
 vinces to which they were fent, they could af- 
 fume the Curule chair, Lictors, and the other 
 marks of honour peculiar to the principal ma- 
 giftrates. They had alfo the care of receiving 
 EmbafTadors and foreign Princes, of attending 
 them by way of doing them honour, of pro- 
 viding them houfes, of delivering them the 
 prefents of the Commonwealth, and of execu- 
 ting' all that the Senate decreed. Plutarch, inpiut. QU. 
 the Roman Queftions, tells us, that the foreign Rom. 43. 
 embafTadors who came to Rome, went firft to 
 the Tribunes or keepers of the public treafure 
 at the temple of Saturn to enter their names ; 
 that a prefent was fent them ; that when they 
 fell fick, they were taken care of at the ex- 
 pence of the public -, that if they died, the 
 State folemnized their funerals at its expence ; 
 but that all thofe expences were afterwards re- 
 trenched, on account of the great number of 
 ernbafTadors who came to Rome ; and that only 
 the cuftom of entering their names fubfifted in 
 his time. 
 
 Befides thefe different Quseftors, there were 
 
 others alfo at Rome and in the Provinces, 
 
 N 3 whofe
 
 182 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 whofe fole function was to regifter and receive 
 
 fines. 
 
 X. The fame neceffity that there was for multi- 
 Qf Pro- plying officers for the provinces, had obliged 
 confus. ^ g ate [o create p rocon f u l s f or commanding 
 
 the armies in the room of the Confuls, and to 
 govern the provinces, into which they were 
 lent by the Senate. The maxim of the Com- 
 monwealth, in proportion as me made con- 
 quefts, being to form them into governments, 
 XT. which was called reducing them into provinces, 
 Reducing me began by depriving thofe conquered coun- 
 
 into a pro- ^^ Q f ^jj. Qwn j aws aRC j m agiftrates. She 
 
 what it obliged them to receive the Roman laws ; and 
 was. according as the province was more or lefs con- 
 fiderable, fent into it a Proconful, a Prsetor, 
 or a Proprietor, to govern it, who adminiftered 
 juftice, and commanded the troops ; and alfo a 
 Qugeftor, to take care that the tributes impofed 
 upon them were paid. Sicily was the firft 
 country out of Italy, reduced into a province. 
 When the freedom of Rome was granted to a 
 province or city, it continued no longer reduced 
 App'an. into a province. Appian relates, that before the 
 de Bell. war w j t jj t ^ e Allies, the provinces of Italy were 
 affigned to Proconfuls. Thofe governors were no- 
 minated only for a year, after which the Senate 
 fent others. If the government happened to be on 
 the frontiers of a country, v/here there was a 
 war, of which the conduct had been confided 
 to the governor, the term of his adminiflration 
 was fometimes prolonged, that he might ter- 
 minate the war : but this could only be done by 
 an ordinance of the People in their affembly. 
 The Proconfuls, Prastors, and Proprastors, had 
 fometimes three Lieutenants under them in their 
 governments, according to their extent ; for in 
 decreeing thofe provinces, the Senate fixed the 
 
 extent
 
 Chap. IX. OF THE ROMANS. 183 
 
 extent of each of them, regulated the number Tac. ]. 6. 
 of troops, affigned funds for their pay and fub- ^ 9- . 
 iiftance, and nominated the lieutenants to com- 
 mand under the governors. Thefe Proconfuls, 
 or governors, carried with them into their pro- 
 vinces a certain number of young perfons of 
 diftinction, called Contubernaks^ in order to 
 teach them the trade of war j and they formed 
 a kind of court for the governor. Before he 
 quitted Rome, he went to the Capitol to facri- 
 fice, and put on the robe of war, called Palu- 
 damentum^ which denoted the command of the 
 troops ; and which was alfo done by thofe who 
 took the field to command the armies of the 
 Commonwealth. They quitted Rome in a kind 
 of pomp, preceded by their Liclors carrying 
 the rods and axes, and attended by their friends 
 to a certain diftance from the city. They go- 
 verned their provinces according to the Roman 
 laws, and the cuftoms obferved by the magi- 
 ftrates at Rome. The year of their office was 
 computed from the day they began to exercife 
 the functions of it, and not from that of their 
 nomination. When a fucceffor was fent one 
 \vhofe time was expired, the latter refigned the 
 troops under his command to him, and could 
 not defer his departure above thirty days after 
 the arrival of his fucceflbr. If, when his year 
 was elapfed, nobody was fent to fucceed him, 
 he however quitted his government, but left his 
 lieutenant to command in it, till the new gover- 
 nor arrived \ and at his return he gave the Se- 
 nate an account of his adminiftration. He alfo 
 drew up a fummary of it, which was depofitedcic. pro 
 in the Treafury thirty days after the account he Archia 
 had given the Senate. The Proconfuls had the 
 
 N 4 fame 
 
 p ! ut ' 

 
 184 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II, 
 
 Cjc in fame honours in their provinces, as the Confuls 
 Verrem. at R ome) to vvhom they gave place in all things, 
 when prefent. 
 
 This was the order obferved during the Com- 
 monwealth, which was changed under the Em- 
 * perors. For Auguftus being become mafter of 
 the Empire, and defiring that all the forces of 
 the Empire mould be at his difpofal, believed 
 as a politician that it was proper to retain a Iha- 
 dow of the Commonwealth, and for that pur- 
 Dion Caff pofe in the 7z6th year of Rome, he made a 
 kind of partition of the adminiftration of the 
 Empire, to which he annexed the appearance of 
 the government of a certain number of provin- 
 ces, that being in the centre of the Empire, had 
 no occafion for troops. The Senate fent gover- 
 nors, with the name of Proconfuls or Propraetors, 
 into thofe provinces 1 , who adminiftered juftice in 
 them, but they had neither the command of 
 the troops, nor the adminiftration of the finan- 
 ces, both the one and the other being confided 
 to perfons fcnt into them by the Prince ; that is 
 to fay, the command of the troops to officers 
 nominated by him, and the finances to his Pro- 
 curators. Auguftus, in order to have all the 
 troops entirely at his difpofal, referved to him- 
 felf the frontier provinces, of which the people 
 were moft warlike, under pretence of difcharg- 
 ing the Senate from the cares of war. The 
 governors whom he nominated to thofe provin- 
 ces, were called Prasfccls : they adminiftered 
 juftice and commanded the troops in their go- 
 vernment. 
 
 Thefe were the principal dignities of the Com- 
 monwealth. Though thofe who were in veiled 
 with them, were elected only to command the 
 
 armies,
 
 Chap. IX. OF THE ROMANS. 185 
 
 armies, and to be at the head of the moft im- 
 portant affairs of the State, it was however ne~ 
 ceflary for thofe purpofes to have a particular 
 commiflion, decreed by the people in their affem- 
 bly. It was in this manner, that the commiflion plut. in 
 to carry on the war againft Mithridates was gi-vit.SylI.& 
 ven to Sylla ; and that of clearing the fea of 
 pirates to Pompey ; and many others of the 
 fame nature. When fuch a commiffion,. which 
 was called ia Latin imperiiim, was united with 
 the magiftracy, the latter became the more con- 
 fiderable in effecT: of it. The cuftom was, du- 
 ring the Commonwealth, for thofe who quitted 
 the great offices to draw lots for the provinces Veil. Pat. 
 they were to govern. It libfifted under Au-l-2-c-i n- 
 guftus : but after him the Emperors nominated 
 perfons to the government of provinces. As to 
 the other dignities, which were called Minores, 
 inferior , I omit them to avoid fwelling this 
 treatife too much. 
 
 All theie great magiftrates had officers to act: XIL 
 
 **' ^ /~\ j 1 
 
 under them in their functions, as Regifters 
 Secretaries , and Fiatores, whofe fole cmpl 
 ment it was, to let the abfent Senators 
 the days when the Senate was to aflemble. 
 They had others whofe bufinefs it was to call 
 the names of the caufes as they came on, to 
 make filence, and to give the magiftrates notice 
 when their prefence was necefiary. Thofe cal- 
 led Statores carried the orders of the magiftrates 
 to accufed perfons to appear on a certain day, 
 and feized criminals. There were alfo in- 
 terpreters to explain the difcourfe of am- 
 baffadors, and letters from foreigners. The 
 Serjeants or Criers, in Latin Prcecones^ who 
 cried the moveables and eftates that were to be 
 
 fold
 
 i86 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 fold by auction, and who publifhed, and pro- 
 claimed the laws with a loud voice, and what- 
 ever elfe it was neceffary to make known to the 
 People. All thefe low officers of the Common- 
 wealth were comprized in the general name of 
 A^paritoreS) becaufe they were always near the 
 magiftrates to receive their orders. Thefe offi- 
 ces were generally held by freed-men, the Ro- 
 man citizens thinking fuch employments beneath 
 them. 
 
 CHAP-
 
 Chap. X. OF THE ROMANS. 187 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 I. Laws of the Aufpices. II. Election of the ma- 
 giftrates. III. Affemblies by Curia. IV. Af- 
 fembiies by Centuries. V. Advantage of the 
 Nobility in the affemblies by Centuries. VI. Af- 
 femblies by 'Tribes. VII. Patricians obliged to 
 appear at the tribunal of the People. VIII. 
 Every ninth day market-day. IX. Of Candi- 
 dates. X. Corruption of fuff rages. 
 
 I Have already faid, that the Romans were 
 exceedingly fwayed by the fuperftition 
 Aufpices, and that they undertook nothing o, 
 any confequence, without having taken them. 
 This cuftom had began with Rome itfelf: for 
 Romulus had not contented himfelf with only 
 caufing the Aufpices to be confidered as an act 
 of religion, but had made a law, by which it 
 was ordained, that no one mould accept the fo- 
 vereignty, nor any other great office, or the 
 command of armies, without having firft con- 
 fulted the Aufpices to know the will of the Gods, 
 and found them favourable. The inftitution of 
 that law was rather the effect of the policy of 
 Romulus, than of his religion. For in appropri- p] ut . ] n 
 ating to himfelf, as he did, the function of Au-vit. Rom. 
 gur, he deprived the Senate and People, who 
 fhared in the adminiftration of the State with 
 him, of the power of undertaking any thing 
 contrary to his will, having it at his option to 
 declare the Aufpices good or bad, as they fuited 
 his interefts. The Patricians in the beginning 
 
 ^j t? 
 
 ot the Commonwealth acted in the fame man- 
 ner, in order to extend their authority ; and re- 
 fcrved the dignity of Augur to themfelves. The 
 
 law
 
 i88 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 law of the Aufpices was obferved exactly under 
 the Commonwealth, till the Plebeians had at- 
 tained to be admitted into all dignities : but 
 being no longer of ufe to favour the views ei- 
 ther of the one or the other, it fell to the ground 
 Dion. Hal. infenfibly of itfelf. Dionyfius Halicarnafienfis 
 1. 2. c. 3- tells us, that this law fubfifted no longer in his 
 time, and that only the form of it had been pre- 
 ferved ; that in order to this, thofe who were 
 invefted with offices and dignities, paffed the 
 night under a tent, from whence they went out 
 the next morning at break, of day, to fay certain 
 prayers in an open place : That then fome Au- 
 gurs who were there, and whom the public paid 
 for this kind of offices, came to them, and de- 
 clared that they had feen lightning on the left 
 hand, though they had actually feen none : and 
 that the perfon who flood for the dignity, im- 
 mediately went and accepted it. 
 II. The magiftrates were elected in the afiembHes 
 EUaion c/ o f t h e p e0 pi e) which were called Comiiia, and 
 grates ma y ^ e con fidered as the aflemblies of the States ; 
 for they included the three orders of the Com- 
 monwealth. The mod important affairs were 
 tranfacted in them : the laws and ordinances 
 were promulged ; caufes, which were to be heard 
 before the tribunal of the People, were adjudged , 
 and peace and war deliberated upon, in them : 
 but as to war, the conduct of it appertained 
 to the Senate and Confuls. There were three 
 different manners of calling thefe afTemblies, ac- 
 cording to the different diitnbutions of the Ro- 
 man People, by Curia, Centuries, and Tribes. 
 III. The firft was the mod antient, for it owed its 
 Corr.it'u inftitution to Romulus, who when he divided 
 l ; , Rome into three Tribes, fub-divided it into 
 1 2 & , thirty Curia, Each Curia confifted of a certain 
 
 diftrict
 
 Chap. X. OF THE ROMANS. 189 
 
 diftrict of the city, which had its peculiar Divi- 
 nity, with a prieft named Curio y and a place to 
 afiemble in, called Curia, ia order to offer fa- 
 crifices to that Divinity at certain times. All 
 the people of each Curia were obliged to be pre- 
 fent at them, and they concluded with a feaft 
 compofed of the meat of the victims facrifked. 
 To fpeak in modern terms, thefe Curies formed 
 in a manner fo many parifhes, over all which 
 another prieft, called Curio Maximus, prefided 
 in things relating only to religion. He was 
 elected by the People afiembled by Cu- 
 ria , and the other Curiones by each particular 
 Curia. In the afifemblies by Curia, only the 
 citizens inhabiting Rome gave their fuffrages : 
 thofe of the country and other cities were not 
 fummoned to them. Thefe affemblies were pro- 
 claimed by a kind of Serjeant, who went from 
 Curia to Curia. They were held in a part of 
 the Forum Romanum, which from thence retain- 
 ed the name of Comitium. Elections and pub- Dion.Hal, 
 lie deliberations pafied at firft in thefe affemblies, * 4- c - 1 3- 
 till Servius Tullius, in inftituting the Cenfus, 
 made a new diftribution of the People by Gaf- 
 fes, divided into Centuries, according to which IV. 
 the People were afiembled by Centuries. He Comit 'f 
 diftributed the whole Roman people into fix 
 Clafles, each according to the value of the citi- 
 zen's eftates, and fub-divided them into an hun- 
 dred fourfcore and thirteen Centuries. The firfl 
 Clafs was compofed of the mofb diftinguifhed 
 and the richeft, whom he divided into fourfcore 
 and eighteen Centuries, including the eighteen 
 of the Knights, whom he added to this Ciafs. 
 The four following, each of which he fub-divi- 
 ded into a certain number of Centuries, were 
 compofed of the citizens of inferior fortunes, 
 
 but 
 
 Centuri- 
 ata.
 
 190 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 but ftill with regard to more or lefs. The fixth 
 Clafs confifted of thofe, who were not worth 
 twelve hundred and fifty drachmas, and all the 
 poor j and was reckoned only as one Century, 
 though far the moft numerous. We muft ob- 
 ferve, that the word Century is not to be taken 
 literally in this place ; and that it is only ufed 
 to exprefs an indefinite number of citizens of 
 each Clafs, obliged to contribute to the arming 
 of an hundred men. Thus in the firft Clafs, 
 which confifted of the richeft citizens, it was ne- 
 ceffary to include a fmaller number of citizens 
 to fupply that expence j and for that reafon there 
 were more Centuries in it than in the other Claf- 
 fes, in which, the lefs fortunes the citizens had, 
 it was necefTary to include the more of them for 
 furnifhing the fum prefcribed : and that occafi- 
 oned the Gaffes, that were leaft rich, to confift 
 of the fewer Centuries. This fuperiority in num- 
 ber of the Centuries of the firft Clafs, gave it a very 
 great one in the affemblies, called Comitia Centu- 
 riata, in which the voices were computed by Cen- 
 turies, and taken according to the order of the 
 Claffes, beginning always with the firft. In 
 confequence, when all the fufFrages of this Clafs 
 were unan i mous as fometimes happened, it 
 tL co u\d determine alone in public affairs, without 
 Comitia its being neccffary to proceed to the votes of the 
 Ccnturi- re fi- . becaufe it exceeded them all in the num- 
 ber of its Centuries : fo that the Patricians, and 
 the richeft citizens, engroffed the principal mare 
 in the government ; the reft, to ufe the expref- 
 fion, making only ineffectual number. But at 
 the fame time, by this diftribution, they in a 
 great meafure fupported all the expences of the 
 State, that is to fay, the taxes and military fer- 
 vice : for the poor were exempt from them, as 
 2 we 
 
 n
 
 Chap.X. OF THE ROMANS. 191 
 
 we have already feen. To render this the more 
 fupportable, Servius Tullius transferred all pow- 
 er to them, in ordaining, that the aflemblies, 
 which had hitherto been held only by Curitz, 
 mould be held for the future only by Centuries. 
 We find however in hiftory, that Brutus, after Dion- Hal. 
 the expulfion of the Kings, aflembled the Peo- 1 ' ? c - X 5- 
 pie by Curia. During the holding of any kind 
 of aflemblies, an enfign was planted upon the 
 top of the Capitol, which was ftruck aflbon as 
 they were over. Under the Commonwealth the 
 People, being difgufted with feeing the Patrici- 
 cians and the rich fole arbiters of all delibera- 
 tions in the aflemblies by Centuries, prevailed 
 at length, with the aid of their Tribunes, that 
 the aflemblies mould be held by Tribes. The VI. 
 firft time they were held in this manner, was c it!: 
 about the 265^1 year of Rome, upon the occa - DbivHal- 
 lion of the trial of Coriolanus, who had drawn i. 7 . c . 9. 
 upon- himfelf the hatred of the People by his 
 rigid and haughty behaviour, and was accufed 
 of embezzling the public money. He was 
 condemned in confequence, notwithstanding the 
 intrigues and efforts of the Patricians in his fa- 
 vour ; which was the firft inftance of a Patri- 
 cian's being cited before the tribunal of the Peo- 
 ple : for till then the Patricians had acknow- 
 ledged no other than that of the Senate. But vil. 
 in the 3o6th year of Rome, the Tribunes of Patricians 
 the People pafled a law, which ordained, that%^ /0 
 the Patricians, as well as the Plebeians, mould *ff^ 
 be obliged to obey the decifions of the aflemblies naloftbt 
 by Tribes, and that they mould have the force P^ple. 
 of laws. From thenceforth, no citizen was ex- 
 empted from appearing before the tribunal of 
 the People, when cited. 
 
 In
 
 192 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 In the Ccmitia Tributa, or affemblies by 
 Tribes, all fuch as were Roman citizens, in what- 
 foever part of the dominions of the Common- 
 wealth they refided, had a right to vote except 
 they had been deprived of it by the Cenfor for 
 fome delinquency, as may be feen in the article 
 of Cenfors. Thefe Comitia were held in the 
 field of Mars, as well as thofe by Centuries. 
 They were proclaimed by found of trumpet, or 
 kind of cernet, (and not by the mouth of a 
 fummoner, as the aflemblies by Curies were) 
 three market-days fucceffively, which were held 
 VIII. every ninth day. This interval was allowed, 
 Every that thofe who had a right to give their fuffra- 
 
 nt \a^ ^ es ' anc * W ^ re ^ lc ^ e ^ m tne countr y or colonies, 
 T! might be informed of them. During the time 
 
 from the firft to the laft of three fucceflive mar- 
 ket-days, notices were fixed up in all the crofs- 
 ways, and mod public places of the city, where- 
 in the affairs to come on in thefe aflemblies 
 wre fpecified. But if the queftion was to pro- 
 pofe fome law, the People were advertiied of 
 it, and it was expofed to the public wrote on a 
 table, that the People during that time might 
 confider it, and be the be:ter able to fpeak upon 
 it on the day of the afiembly. When any one 
 was cited before the People to take his trial, he 
 was alfo allowed twenty-feven days, or three 
 market-days > and on the firft of thofe three 
 days, the People being aflfembled, the accufer 
 alcended the tribunal of harangues, and affign- 
 ed the acculed the third market-day for his ap- 
 pearance -, in order that the People might have 
 time to take cognizance of the affair, and the 
 accufed to prepare for his defence. In the af- 
 femblies by Tribes, it was not necefiFary to com- 
 municate the matters on which they were to de- 
 liberate,
 
 Chap. X. OF THE ROMANS. 193 
 
 liberate, previoufly to the Senate, nor to take 
 the A-jfpices, as was done in the afTemblies by 
 Curia and Centuries, that were liable to being 
 di (miffed without proceeding to bufmefs, when 
 the Aufpices were not favourable, which practice 
 degenerated into an abufe. It was often made 
 ufe of as a pretext for breaking up aflemblies, 
 when it was forefeen, that they would not prove 
 favourable to what was to be propofed. Before 
 the votes in the Camilla by Tribes were taken, 
 the Tribe which was to vote firft was drawn by 
 lot ; which was alfo done in the affemblies by 
 Curies ; and from the 51 2th year of Rome, 
 when the whole People were divided into thirty- 
 five Tribes, in which the Centuries were inclu- 
 ded, the fame was obferved in the aflemblies by 
 Centuries, in which the Tribes firft, and after- 
 terwards the Centuries, were made to draw lots, 
 without regard to the order of the latter, as be- 
 fore. Thefe new difpofitions in the manner 
 of holding the aflemblies, did not occa- 
 fion the changing of their names ; and though 
 that of Century no longer fignified the number 
 of thofe who contributed to arm an hundred 
 men, as the foldiery were then armed and paid 
 out of the public treafury, the fame name how- 
 ever was always ufed in the diftribution of the 
 Roman People. Appian relates in his firft book 
 of the civil wars of the Romans, when the Com- 
 monwealth granted the freedom of Rome to the 
 inhabitants of Italy whom fhe called her allies, 
 that they were not distributed into the thirty-five 
 Tribes of the city, left they fhould exceed them 
 in number, but that they were formed into new 
 ones, fub-divided into Decuria, and gave their Ve ,j p 
 fuffrages laft, which were often fuperfluous, be- 1. 2 . c. 20. 
 caufe the old ones were more than half the 
 O Tiibes.
 
 194 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 Tribes. In procels of time, this difadvantage, 
 which was obferved, gave birth to new divifi- 
 ons, and they were at length incorporated into 
 the old tribes, of which the number continued 
 Grat. de fixed at thirty-five. In all the afiemblies the 
 Rom. 1. 1 . fuffragcs were conftantly given with a loud 
 c - 4- voice, till the 6i4th year of Rome, when the 
 cuftom of fcrutinies was introduced. The Peo- 
 ple at that time, being no longer checked by 
 the fhame of giving their votes to bad citizens, 
 fuffered themfelves to be corrupted by bribes, 
 and introduced a venality of fuffrages, that was 
 foon fatal to the Commonwealth. The aflem- 
 blies by tribes, confifting of all the Roman ci- 
 tizens in general, were more common than o- 
 thers, becaufe every thing that related to the 
 People in particular, was tranfacted in them. 
 The Plebifcita, or ordinances of the People, 
 which were not of the jurifdidion of the other 
 aflemblies, as well as the election of the ma- 
 giftrates, were made in them. Thefe Plebifcita 
 were not fubmitted to the examination of the 
 Senate. Every different kind of afiembly had 
 its peculiar fpecies of affairs afligned to it, as 
 certain kinds of trials, deliberations, and the 
 election of particular magistrates, which howe- 
 ver were not always the fame, and varied, as 
 appears from the many changes, of which the 
 augmentation of the Roman People, and the 
 lhare the Plebeians attained in the government, 
 were the principal caufes. For in the begin- 
 ning, the magiftrates of every kind were elec- 
 ted in the aflemblies by Curia. "When the af- 
 femblies by centuries took place afterwards, the 
 great magiftrates were elected in them, and af- 
 terwards in the afiemblies by tribes. There re- 
 mained nothing for the afiemblies by Curie, 
 
 except
 
 Chap. X. OF THE ROMANS. 195 
 
 except the confirmation of the perfons who had 
 been elected in thofe by centuries, the promulga- 
 tion of laws, and the creation of priefts, which 
 they ftill retained. In them the taking of the 
 aufpices, a ceremony unknown to the affemblies 
 by tribes, was indifpenfibly neceffary. After 
 the municipal cities of Italy had obtained the 
 freedom of Rome, as they were alfo for fharing 
 in the election of the inferior magiftrates, it was 
 no longer peculiar to the affemblies by Curies , 
 but was transferred to thofe by tribes, on condi- 
 tion however, that thofe elections mould be 
 confirmed by the Curia > that they might not be 
 exempted from the law of aufpices attached to 
 thofe affemblies. At length we find in Cicero's 
 time, that this cuftom was obferved no longer 5 
 and that the Romans contented themfelves with 
 retaining the form of it, in continuing to affem- 
 ble only thirty Lictors, who reprefented the 
 thirty Curia t in order to make known the aufpi- 
 ces it was the cuftom to take in them. 
 
 Hiftory is not fo clear as it were to be wimed 
 in refpect to the times of thefe variations. A 
 magiftrate conftantly prefided in all thefe affem- 
 blies, who opened them with a difcourfe upon 
 the affair that was to come on, whether it were 
 the election of a magiftrate or any thing elfe. 
 The elections of the magiftrates were always Dio Fal. 
 preceded by a Senatus-confultum, or decree of thel. 1 1. c. z, 
 Senate, that ordained an affembly of the Peo- 
 ple. But all thefe different kinds of affemblies 
 were not exempt from influence and canvafling. 
 Thofe practices even became fo frequent, that it 
 was neceflary to make laws to prevent them : but 
 thofe laws were fo far from putting a ftop to 
 them, that they ferved only to make the Ro- 
 mans more ingenious in continuing them. 
 
 O 2 Some
 
 196 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 Some time before the fall of the Common- 
 wealth, the factions, which the luft of power 
 had generated in the State, employed diftribu- 
 tions of money to the people for gaining their 
 Plut. in faffrages. Such a corruption manifeftly de- 
 vit. Pomp, nounced the approaching ruin of the Common- 
 wealth, and accordingly was one of the princi- 
 pal caufes of it. 
 
 IX. Thofe who ftood for offices were called Can- 
 Of comb- difat^ becaufe during the two years that they 
 Polyib 1. demanded them they were obliged, when they 
 10. appeared in the affemblies of the People, to 
 have only a white robe on without the tunic un- 
 derneath, to remove all fufpicion of carrying 
 
 P1 . money about them to purchafe fuffrages, and in 
 flut. in J * j j 
 
 vit. Cori- order to be able, if they had received wounds 
 
 ol. & in the army, to (hew them wirh the greater cafe 
 l - to the people in opening their robe, and thereby 
 ? to conciliate their favour. Thefe robes were 
 whitened with chalk, which made their colour 
 more lively than that of thofe ufually worn by 
 the Romans, which made the Candidates the 
 more remarkable. They were called fo from 
 the word candere to be white. The firft thing 
 they did was to obtain the magiftrate's permif- 
 fion to harangue, or to caufe others to ha- 
 rangue, the people, in order to conciliate their 
 favour, and obtain their confent, in refpect to 
 the offices they defired. In thofe difcourfes they 
 did not fail to fet off the candidate's merit and 
 fervices, and thofe of his anceftors. The firft 
 year was employed in making friends amongft 
 fuch as had moft credit, and in endeavouring to 
 render themfelves agreeable to the People. After 
 having effected that, they informed the magi- 
 ftrate of it; and prevailed upon him to put them 
 upon the lift of thofe who ftood for office. The 
 2 magiftratc
 
 Chap. X. OF THE ROMANS. 197 
 
 magiftrate after having made enquiries into the 
 candidate's manners, confuhed with the Senate, 
 whether he fhould be admitted into the number 
 of thofe, that were to be prefented to the Peo- 
 ple. Though that had been granted, he had 
 ft ill the Tribunes of the People to fear, who 
 had power to exclude him on the day of elec- 
 tion. Befides this it was neceflary to have all 
 the qualities requifite to the office in queftion ; 
 and if a perfon ftood for the Confulfhip, it was 
 neceflary to demand it himfelf; that dignity 
 not being conferred on the abfent. It was not 
 neceflary to make intereft during fo confiderable 
 a fpace of time, if the candidate was well known 
 from the fervices he had done in the armies, 
 and particularly if he was actually employed in 
 them ; in which cafe it fufficed that he appeared 
 at Rome a little before the election. Marius 
 acted in that manner, when he was elected Tri- 
 bune of the People, and afterwards Conful. 
 The law Tullia prohibited all candidates to givePlut. in 
 games or feafts to the public; left the fuffrages vlt Mar - 
 of the People mould be obtained by their 
 means. But in other refpects nothing was 
 fpared for attaining them : carefies, intrigues, 
 largefles were employed ; and towards the end x. 
 of the Commonwealth they went fo far as even Corruption 
 to corrupt the diftributors of the ballots, who^^** 
 in delivering them to the people for the fcruti-^' 
 ny, dexteroufly dipt a piece of gold under 
 them to each perfon. For after the fuffrages 
 ceafed to be given viva vote, ballots were ufed, 
 upon which for the election of magiftrates the 
 names of the candidates were written, and as 
 many of them diftributed to each citizen, as 
 there were competitors. Bur if the queftion was 
 to pafs fome law or decree, which had been 
 O 3 propofed
 
 198 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 propofed to the People, only two ballots were 
 given to each voter, the one to approve, and 
 the other to reject. Upon the firft were an U 
 and an R, which fignified utirogas^ as you pro- 
 pofe ; and on the negative one was the letter A, 
 the initial QtAntiquo, I aboli/h. If the queftion 
 were to pafs judgment either for condemning 
 or acquitting any one, three ballots were given 
 each citizen, of which one had an A upon it, 
 that fignified abfolvo, I acquit ; another a C, 
 which fignified condemno, I condemn ; and on 
 the third were an N and an L, to exprefs non 
 liquefy it does not fufficiently appear. This laft 
 was ufed, when the accufed perfon could not 
 juftify himfelf entirely, and however did not 
 abfolutely appear guilty. 
 
 When the day of the election arrived, the 
 candidates, after having appeared on the Quiri- 
 nal hill, in order to mew themfelves the better 
 to the whole people, went down into the field 
 of Mars, accompanied by their relations and 
 friends, at the head of whom there always was 
 fome perfon of great diftinction in the Com- 
 monwealth, to fupport their demand by his pre- 
 fence, and affift them in rendering the fuffrages 
 favourable. At this time they treated every in- 
 dividual with great refpect, defiring their inte- 
 Cic. in r eft, taking them by the hand, and faluting 
 Pifon. eac j 1 ky hj s name . f or xhat was thought polite- 
 Tac. 1. 1 2. nefs amongft the Romans-, and therefore the 
 candidate had ufually along with him one of 
 thofe perfons called * Nomendators y who told 
 
 him 
 
 * Si fortunatum fpecies & gratia praeftat ; 
 
 Mercemur fervum, qui diftet nomina, lasvum 
 Qui fodiat lams, & cogat trans ponderadextram 
 Porrigere. Hie multum in Fabia valet, ille Velina } 
 
 Cuilibet
 
 Chap.X. OP THE ROMANS. 199 
 
 him the names of the citizens he did not know. 
 To conclude, they were fo fawning on thefe oc- 
 cafions, that they embraced the knees of thofe 
 whofe fuffrages they follicited. The manner of 
 taking the voices, after lots had decided which 
 Century or Tribe Ihould begin, was to make 
 them file off over a little bridge, made for that 
 purpofe, in the field of Mars. This bridge 
 terminated in a large inclofure, called wile from 
 its refemblance to a flieep-fold. When the af- 
 fembly of the People was not held in the field 
 of Mars, but in a place where there was not 
 conveniency for this wile 9 the want of it was 
 fupplied with cords, that formed a kind of en- 
 clofure, into which each century or tribe was 
 made to file off. At the entrance of the bridge 
 flood thofe who diftributed the ballots, from 
 whom each as he parted received fuch as fuited 
 the affair in queftion j after which every one 
 went and threw that which he thought fit into 
 the urn or bafket ; for both were ufed for re- 
 ceiving the ballots. They were placed at the 
 entrance of this enclofure, and near them per- 
 
 Cuilibet hie fafces dabit, eripietque curule, 
 
 Cui volet importunus, ebur ; frater, pater, adde 
 
 Ut cuique eft aetas ; ita quemque facetus adopta. 
 
 Hor. L. I. Ep. 6. 
 
 If flew and favour happinefs create, 
 
 Let us put in for offices of ftate; 
 
 Buy us ajla*ve, to jog us on the Jlde, 
 
 To tell us each mans name, his rank, his pride. 
 
 Extend yonr pinion d arm, Sir, if you can, 
 
 dnd feize his hand: You do not know your man : 
 
 The Fabian tribe is his, the Velian too ', 
 
 In Rome there s nothing that he cannot do ', 
 
 Confer the Fafces, or the Curule chair, 
 
 Or <wbom he does not like, of both debar. 
 
 According to their years, fame fathers call, 
 
 Some brothers ; courteoujly adopt them all" 
 
 O 4 fons
 
 2oo MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 fons of diftirtguifhed probity, who were ap- 
 pointed to take care that nothing paffed contrary 
 to the rules. After the votes of one century or 
 tribe were taken in this manner, the reft did the 
 fame, till there was a fufficient number of fuf- 
 frages to determine the affair. 
 
 When it was the election to fome dignity, 
 after having found which of the candidates had 
 the majority of voices, the magiftrate who pre- 
 fided in the aflembly, declared him elected with 
 a loud voice, and he was conducted home to his 
 houfe in pomp. If at the time when the Peo- 
 ple were aflembled for the election of magi- 
 ftrates, a tempeft arofe, they broke up, but lefs 
 upon account of the badnefs of the weather, 
 than through a fpirit of fuperftition, which 
 made them confider that bad weather, as a fign, 
 that the prefent aflembly was not agreeable to 
 the Gods, and it was adjourned to another day. 
 But however if the magiftrate were eleded be- 
 fore it began, his election ftood. No magi- 
 ftracy of the Commonwealth could be attained 
 till after having ferved ten years in the Roman 
 armies. For which reafon none were admitted 
 into office till twenty-feven *, the age for lifting 
 into the Roman legions beginning at feventeen. 
 There were however fome in refpect to whom 
 this law was difpenfed with, as Scipio Africa- 
 nus, Pompey and Auguftus, upon whom the 
 great dignities of the Commonwealth were con- 
 ferred, before they were of the age required, 
 and without having previoufly pafled through 
 the other offices : for the higheft were generally 
 attained only by degrees j and if a perfon's fa- 
 ther was a prifoner of war amongft the enemy, 
 he could not be raifed to any magiftracy during 
 
 his continuing fo. 
 
 CHAP-
 
 Chap. XI. OF THE ROMANS. 201 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 I. Of the two different kinds of magistrates. II. 
 Curule magijl rates. III. frlagift rates of the 
 colonies. IV. Right of Latium, or of the La- 
 tins. V. Magijlrates of the municipal cities. 
 
 WE have already obferved, that the ma- I. 
 giftrates of Rome were diftinguimed m-Oft 
 to two forts, the great and the inferior. 
 great were thofe called Curule, becaufe they 
 an ivory chair by way of diftinftion, 
 
 they could caufe to be carried wherever they , 
 
 ' _,. - , . 1-11- Lurulf 
 
 went. Tnefe cnairs were very high, having magi _ 
 leveral fteps at bottom. Only the Confuls,y?r/. 
 Praetors, Cenfors, and Curule Adiles, enjoyed 
 this mark of honour in Rome, with Lifters, 
 who walked before them in the city, to make 
 way for them. When the magiftrates ofDIo. Hal. 
 different orders met in the ftreets, the Lifters 1 8. c.6. 
 of the inferior magiftrate were obliged to bow 
 their fafces by way of refpeft for the fuperior. 
 A law was even made in the appth year ofLIv. 1. z. 
 Rome, by which every magiftrate was permit- Dk>. Hal. 
 ted to lay a fine upon fuch as mould fail in r e- llIOiC u ' 
 fpeft for their dignity ; a privilege before pe- 
 culiar to the Confuls. To prevent this law 
 from being abufed by carrying the fine too high, 
 it was ordained that it mould not exceed two 
 oxen and thirty fheep, which were paid at that 
 time in kind. Afterwards, to obviate an incon- 
 venience that attended it, becaufe thefe cattle 
 were fometimes of a greater, and fometimes of 
 a lefs price, according to the goodnefs of thofe 
 delivered, the law Afteria was made, by which 
 
 it
 
 202 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 it was regulated, that ten affes mould be paid 
 for each meep, and an hundred for each ox ; 
 which proves that before this law, thefe fines 
 were paid in cattle. 
 
 When thefe magiftrates caufed the * images 
 of their anceftors to be carried in proceflion in 
 certain ceremonies, it was an evidence of their 
 nobility : but if only their own was feen, they 
 were diftinguifhed by the name of novi homines, 
 new men. 
 
 The inferior magiftrates had not thefe marks 
 of honour : however thofe fent into the pro- 
 vinces enjoyed them in their government, but 
 Uj not at Rome. The cities of the Roman colo- 
 Magi- nies, in imitation of Rome, had a particular 
 jirates of Senate, and magiftrates of their own -, with the 
 
 tbecolonies f reedom o f Rome in r j g h t o f or i g i n> They 
 
 were fent from time to time to fettle on the 
 frontiers, and in the provinces newly conquered, 
 Appian.de in effe<5t of the Roman policy, which took that 
 Bell. Civ. method for ridding Rome of an indigent and 
 feditious populace, and to reward the old fol- 
 diers. The Commonwealth caufed part of the 
 lands of thofe conquefts to be diftributed amongft 
 them ; but they were not permitted to fell them, 
 I(} 1 . till after a pofTeffion of twenty years. She alfo 
 ufed this method for repeopling cities ruined by 
 wars, and to keep the new fubjedls in awe. For 
 with their aid, and the armies which fhe al- 
 ways kept upon the frontiers, me had no occa- 
 
 * Funus & imagines 
 
 Ducant triumphales tuum Hor. Epod. 8. 
 
 1 And let triumphal Jiatues grace 
 
 Thy funeral. 
 Hos ante effigies majorum pone tuorum. 
 
 Juv. Sat. VIII. 
 
 Place thefe 
 
 Before thy great forefather} images. 
 
 fion
 
 Chap. XL OF THE ROMANS. 103 
 
 fion to garrifon places. But as to the municipal 
 cities, though they had the fame privileges, they 
 had them only by the concefiion of the Com- 
 monwealth , and it was for that very reafon they 
 were called Municipal^ with the freedom of 
 Rome. They had alfo the liberty of living ac- 
 cording to their own laws and cuftoms, and 
 fhared in the dignities, as well as the colonies, 
 and confequently in the government of the 
 Commonwealth. The cafe was not the fame 
 with fuch people, as had only the quality of al- 
 lies : for though they contributed to the cx- 
 pences of the Commonwealth, in paying the 
 taxes which me impofed upon them, and in 
 fupplying the number of troops, as well horfe as 
 foot, that me prefcribed, they had however no 
 mare in the government, and could only be con- 
 fidered as her fubjects. She had neverthelefs 
 granted them peculiar privileges. 
 
 The firft allies of the Commonwealth were 
 the Latines, to whom, by the treaty of alliance, 
 which me made with them about the year 26i,Liv. 1. 2. 
 fhe granted the right of being admitted to give Dio. Hal. 
 their fuflfrages in the aflemblies at Rome, 1 ' 8 - 
 when the magiftrate who prefided in them, 
 mould fummon them thither, and there was no 
 oppofition on the fide of his Collegues , claufes, 
 which rendered that right almoft infignificant, as 
 if granted rather by way of honour, than with 
 the view of really taking place. Accordingly 
 they were feldom called in to give their fuffra- 
 ges, except in times of divifion. A more real iv. 
 grace was the freedom of Rome, which de- Right of 
 volved to their principal magiftrate on the expi- L ^ m or 
 ration of his office : for the ftates of Latium,^/ 
 before all of them were Roman ckizens, which Appian.de 
 right was granted them in procefs of time, had Bell. Civ. 
 
 retained 2t
 
 204 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 retained the liberty of electing one of their own 
 citizens by plurality of voices, to govern them 
 according to their peculiar laws under the title of 
 Prator. And this was called the right of La- 
 tium, or of the allies of the Commonwealth. 
 She did not ufually grant this privilege except to 
 people, who had either voluntarily fubmitted to 
 her fway, or who, after having only experienced 
 fome firft efforts of her arms, were not the laft 
 to fubmit ; in which cafes me left them at li- 
 berty to live according to their own laws and 
 cuftoms. She did not act in the fame manner 
 with thofe, who had either deferred fubmitdng 
 to her power to the laft extremity, or had been 
 entirely fubjected. She reduced them into pro- 
 vinces, into which a governor, under the title 
 of Proconful, Prsetor or Propraetor, was annu- 
 ally fent from Rome, to govern and adminifter 
 juftice to them according to the Roman laws ; 
 and with him a Quaeftor to levy the tributes. 
 v The municipal cities had municipal Decuri- 
 
 Mei- ones -> W ^ f rme d a little Senate in each city, 
 /rates of which in procefs of time, after the example of 
 the muni- Rome, had two magiftrates, who ferved it in- 
 "^""'"ftead of Confuls, and exercifed the fame func- 
 tions. They were called Duumviri from their 
 number two, and were elected by the Dccurio- 
 nes out of their own body. Thcfe Decurions 
 were called in Latin Honorati Municipiorum Se- 
 natores. To be qualified for this dignity, it 
 was necefiary to be five and twenty years old, 
 and to have an eftate of about an hundred and 
 fifty pounds a year. They paffed ordinances, 
 which were called Decreta t)ecurwnum> and took 
 care of all that concerned the good of their city, 
 and the revenues of the Commonwealth. The 
 Ep. Q". colonies and municipal cites had alfo their Cen- 
 
 fors,
 
 Chap. XI. OF THE ROMANS. 205 
 
 fors, who took the Cenfus as at Rome, receiving 
 from thofe of that city the form to be obferved 
 in taking it, and rendering them an account of 
 their conduct. 
 
 .,;-All thefe petty provincial magiftrates very 
 much affected to copy thofe of Rome, in what 
 related to marks of diftindion. Horace * has 
 fet the ridicule of one of them in a good light 
 in his fifth fatire, in defcribing the pomp of a 
 fimple regifter of the city of \mdi upon the 
 way to Naples, who in walking through the 
 city caufed a veflel full of burning charcoal to 
 be carried before him, an honour peculiar to 
 the great magiftrates. 
 
 * Fimdos Aufidio Lufco prastorelibenter 
 Linquimus, infani ridentes praemia fcribae, 
 Praetextam, & Latum clavum, prunaeque batillum. 
 
 Hor. L. I. Sat- v. 
 
 At little Fundi nut refund to bait, 
 But laugtfd at proud Aufidiu? pomp and ftate ; 
 Afcriiiner lately, nonu with mace and gown 
 tie buff's, and vainly lords il o'er the town. 
 
 Creech. 
 
 CHAP-
 
 2o6 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 I. Maxims ofjlate under the Emperors. II. Change 
 in the offices. III. Prtzfeff of the ^reafury. 
 IV. Praefectus Prastorio. V. Roman magi- 
 jlrates both of the Sword and Robe. VI. Of 
 the name of Emperor. VII. The Empire be- 
 come eleffive. VIII. Marnier of acknowledging 
 the new Emperors. IX. Divi/ion of the Em- 
 pire. X. Diadem ufed by the Emperors. 
 
 I. ' |^ H E change, which was made in the go- 
 Maxims of A vernment when the power of the Empe- 
 
 f r rors took place of the Commonwealth, induced 
 
 ,e- *. -T 1-111 
 
 , a confiderable one in the maxims which had 
 prevailed till then. The Commonwealth had 
 judged war advantagious ; the Emperors on the 
 contrary preferred peace. It alfo very much 
 affected the great offices of the State, moft of 
 which loft their principal authority : fome of 
 them were entirely fupprefled, and the Empe- 
 
 II. rors affumed others to themfelves, to render 
 f themfelves more abfolute ; as thofe of Great 
 
 Tac L" . Pontiff, and Tribune of the People. The Re- 
 Dion.CafT. fcripts of the Emperors took the place of the 
 * 53- Plebifcita or Ordinances of the People, and had 
 
 J. Capit. even tne f rce f l aws tiM tne Emperor Ma- 
 
 in vit. Ma- crinus, who perceiving the abufe there was in 
 
 crin. placing thefe refcripts in the number of laws, 
 
 aboliflied the ufe of them. Other charges only 
 
 changed their names ; as in the inftance of the 
 
 the governors of the provinces of which Au- 
 
 guftus referved the particular adminiftration to 
 
 himfelf, who were called Prafefts, though be- 
 
 fore that name was folely given to the gover- 
 
 nors of Italy : but Auguftus judged that altera- 
 
 2 tion
 
 Chap. XII. OF THE ROMANS. 207 
 
 tion proper, in order to diftinguifh the gover- 
 nors of his nomination, from thofe he had left 
 to that of the Senate. He created a governor suet, in 
 of Rome under the name of Prasfeft, who wasvit. Aug. 
 no longer annual as before j and he allotted him 
 the fame enfigns of honour, with the cogni- 
 zance of many affairs, of which part had for- 
 merly appertained to the Praetors. 
 
 The Emperors affumed to themfelves not 
 only the nomination of Conluls, who before 
 were elected by the People, but alfo that of the 
 Governors of the principal provinces, and of 
 the Generals of the armies ; which in the time 
 of the Commonwealth belonged to the Senate. 
 But Auguftus, to leave a phantom of the Re-Dio Caff, 
 public, and infenfibly accuftom the Roman 1. 54- 
 People to obey him, fuffered them to afiemble 
 for the election of magiftrates , but they could 
 nominate only thofe whom that Prince propo- 
 fed. After his death the Aflemblies were en- 
 tirely abolifhed ; the * People having no longer 
 any fhare either in the government, or the 
 
 Jampridem, ex quo fuffragia nulli 
 
 Vendimus, effhgit curas. Nam qui dabat olim 
 Imperium, fafces, legiones, omnia, nunc fe 
 Continet, atquc duas tantum res anxius optat, 
 Panem & Circenfes. Juv. Sat. X. v. 77- 
 
 But long, long face the times have cheated their face. 
 The people grown degenerate and bafe ; 
 Not fufferd now the freedom of their choice 
 To make their magijirates, and fell their voice. 
 Our 'wife forefathers, great byfea and land, 
 Had once the powJr and abfolute command ; 
 All offices of truji themfelves difpos'd; 
 Pats dwhom they pleas* d t and whom they pleas' d depot d. 
 But ive, txho give our native rights away, 
 And our en/lav 1 d pojlerity betray, 
 Are now reducd to beg an alms, and go 
 On holidays to fee a puppet-flew. Dryden, 
 
 election
 
 208 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 Ill- election of magiftrates. Auguftus gave alfo 
 ^'f^/the name of Prefers to thole who had the 
 j- ury keeping of the public money, and who were 
 called Tribunes before : they were much the 
 fame as the officers called in France, Gardes du 
 trefor Royal. He alfo called thofe whom he 
 inftituted to take care of the provifions and 
 markets Praefefts, as he did the perfon whom 
 he charged with the diftributions made to the 
 People, thofe who ferved in the army as Tri- 
 bunes of the horfe, and him who had the care 
 of the eneampments and fortifications. There 
 was alfo a Praefedt of the legions in the abfcnce 
 of the General. In a word, this name became 
 common to fo many officers, that they could 
 not be diftinguifhed, except by their different 
 functions. But none of thefe offices did fo much 
 IV. honour to this name, as that of the Pr&feftus 
 Praefeftus Prtztorio, created by Auguftus ; for fo the com- 
 Prjetorio. manc j er o f tne Emperor's guards was called. 
 At firft none were chofen to fill this place, ex- 
 cept out of the order of the Knights -, but after 
 the Emperor Macrinus, who had been invefted 
 with it himfdf before he attained the Empire, 
 the Senators and perfons of Confular dignity 
 thought it an honour to poflefs it : and from 
 thenceforth the power of that Prefect augmented 
 in fuch a manner, that he became the fecond 
 perfon of the Empire. This charge was not 
 Dio. Caff, fingle at its beginning. Auguftus created two 
 J - 5- of thefe officers, and there were three of them 
 under feveral Emperors; at which time their 
 authority was not fo extenfive as it was after- 
 wards : for it was confined to the decifion of 
 the differences that arofe amongft the foldiery. 
 Bat when it became a fole command, the per- 
 fon who poffeffed it was called in to try almoft 
 
 all
 
 Chap. XII. OF THE ROMANS. 209 
 
 all affairs, and became the principal magiftrate 
 for adminiftering juftice. Appeals lay from all 
 other tribunals to his, from which there was 
 none except to the Emperor. The title of Se- 
 nator was annexed to this office, in order that 
 he might have the title Clariflimus> moft illi/ftri-Lzmpr. irf 
 sus, as well as them ; and his jurifdiction ex- vit - Alex. 
 tended over all the prefidents, or governors of cr> 
 provinces, and even over the finances : he could 
 alfo make laws. To conclude, at the higheft 
 elevation of his power, he united in his own 
 perfon the authority and functions of the Con- 
 ftable, Chancellor, and Surintendant of the fi- 
 nances, or Lord High Treafurer of France. It 
 was in thefe times, that this officer had vicars 
 under him, whofe jurifdiction extended over a 
 certain extent of country called a Diocefe, which 
 contained feveral principal cities. He was ap- Dio Caff, 
 pointed by the Emperor, who put a fword and 1- 6. 
 belt on him, which were the enfia;ns of his o f- 
 
 1 
 
 fke. Herodian tells us, that Plautinus, Pra- 
 feftus Pretoria to the Emperor Septimus Seve- 
 rus, never was feen without a fword by his fide. 
 After that ceremony, this officer appeared in 
 public, in a gilt chariot, drawn by tour horfes 
 abreaft ; and the herald, who went before^ 
 called him in the midft of acclamations the 
 Father of the Empire. However, this cere- 
 mony was not introduced till this charge was 
 become the firft of the Empire. It fubfifted 
 till the Emperor Conftantine, who aboiifhed it, 
 and broke the Praetorian guards, for having 
 taken part with the tyrant Maxentius. In his 
 place he created four others, who were called 
 alfo PrgfeRus Prcetorw, to whom he afllgned 
 four different parts of the Empire, of which 
 they were governors ; but only ia refpect to thcf 
 P adnu--
 
 210 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 adminiftration of juitice and the finances, with- 
 out any command over the armies. The fun- 
 ctions of general and magiftrate had been hi- 
 
 V. therto united in the fame perfons : for we may 
 Reman j^ve o bf erve ci, that during the whole time of 
 jiratts boto^t Commonwealth, and afterwards under the 
 of the Emperors, thofe who difpenfed juftice were at 
 fixwd Wfhe fame time both of the fword and the robe : 
 
 mod of the magiftrar.es, who exercifed the fun- 
 ction of judges in the city, having a fnare, in 
 virtue of their offices, in the command of the 
 armies ; and in the fame manner, fuch as were 
 fent into the provinces, adminiftered juflice, and 
 commanded troops. 
 
 The change of the government made way for 
 new regulations. Auguftus confined the liberty 
 Dio Caff, which the Nobility had of travelling wherever 
 1- 5 2 - they pleafed at discretion, only to Italy. He 
 prohibited their going farther, and quitting it 
 without a formal permiffion \ which regulation 
 was obferved by his fucceflcrs, left the Nobili- 
 ty mould enter into engagements with ftrangers, 
 for exciting commotions in the Empire. Julius 
 Casfar, in re-inflating monarchical government, 
 did not afiiime the name, though he ufurped all 
 
 VI. the authority, of King ; well knowing how 
 Of the odious that name was to the Roman people. 
 name of j_j g contente( 5 himfelf with that of Imperator* 
 
 Emperor. 1-111 i i 
 
 Emperor, which had nothing new in it, having 
 always been in honour during the Common- 
 wealth : for it was the title with which the fol- 
 diers, in the firft tranfports of their joy, faluted 
 their general, immediately after a confiderable 
 victory : and this cuftom was obferved not on- 
 ly under Auguftus and Tiberius, but long after 
 their time. For at the taking of Jerufalem, 
 the army in their acclamations faluted Titus, in 
 
 the
 
 Chap. XII. OF THE ROMANS. 211 
 
 the life of his father Vefpafian, with the fame 
 title. Trajan was honoured with it near Ctefi- 
 phon for his conquefts over the Parthians. Mar- Di Caff, 
 cus Aurelius received the fame honour eight 1 ' . ' 
 times after his victories over the Dacians. To 
 exprefs the dignity, the cuftom was to place 
 the word Emperor before the name of the 
 Prince, and in expreffing his victories, the name 
 of the perfon was placed before the title Impe* 
 rator. Appian obferves, that in his time, that Appian <?e 
 is to fay in the reign of Trajan,, the army didj Glv * 
 not decree the title of Imperator to the general, 
 unlefs ten thoufand of the enemy had been left 
 on the field of battle. The Princes did not af- 
 fume this name merely out of honour, but be- 
 caufe it exprefied their fovereign power, being 
 derived from the word imperare, to command. Dio Caff. 
 
 The Empire became elective after the death 1 - 4^ r 
 of Caligula ; for the foldiers of the Praetorian e 
 guard proclaimed Claudius Emperor ; though b. 
 the children of the Emperors, or thofe they 
 adopted, generally fucceeded them. It was not 
 precifely by right of lucceffion, but becaufe 
 the Emperors had either aflbciated them in - 
 die Empire during their lives, or created Eutr P- 
 them Caefars, that is to fay their fuccefTors elect, 1 ' 9 * 
 with the confent of the armies, who having 
 force in their hands, had ufurped the right of 
 election from the Senate. It was for this rea- 
 fon, that the Senate always approved the choice 
 of the armies, not finding itfelf flrong enough 
 to oppofe it : for when they undertook to elect 
 an Emperor, the armies never failed to nomi- 
 nate another out of jealoufy, whom they fup- 
 ported by force of arms. It even often hap- 
 pened, that each army having elected one Suet, in 
 amongft themfelves, thofe different Emperors vit.Othon 
 P2 decided * VitdL 
 
 :re 
 
 ecome e-
 
 212 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 decided their competition by arms, and always 
 at the expence of the forces of the Empire, to 
 its very great prejudice. 
 
 The choice made by the armies fell always 
 
 Herod.l.2. u P n fome of their leaders, whofe bravery they 
 had experienced ; warriors being more apt to 
 regard that quality, which ftrikes them moft, 
 than birth and political abilities. The Empire 
 in confequence fell often into the hands of mere 
 
 Eutrop. foldiers of fortune, who having pafled through 
 
 ! 8& 9. all the degrees of military life, were elected by 
 e their companions with no other merit, except 
 that of favage valour. That was not the ca<e 
 when the Senate interfered in the election : it 
 had leis attention to valour than the qualities in 
 general that fuit a Prince ; as appeared after 
 Aurelian had been aflaffinated in the midft of 
 
 Vopifc. m hi s troops. The army highly regretting the 
 
 u t- A"?T fe te of that Emperor, would not take the ele- 
 Herod.l 5. * > 
 
 ction upon themlelves, as they had done till 
 then , apprehending that their choice might fall 
 upon fome one of thofe who had been guilty of 
 that Prince's death ; and therefore they wrote 
 to the Senate to elect an Emperor. But the 
 Senate, having often experienced, that thofe 
 whom it nominated were not agreeable to the 
 foldiers, would not expofe themfelves to mak- 
 ing a choice which fhould be rejected, and re- 
 ferred the nomination back to the army, who 
 again infifted, that the Senate mould charge 
 themfelves with it. The latter perfifting in 
 their refufal, an interregnum of fix months 
 enfued during thefe contefts, all which time 
 the Senate governed without any rebellion ; 
 and at length, acquiefcing in the inftances of 
 the army, they nominated Taciuis, one of 
 . their own body. That wife Emperor had 
 vit?Tacit! however no better fate, but from different mo- 
 tives
 
 
 Chap. XII. OF THE ROMANS. 213 
 
 tives than his predeceflbrs Maximus and Balbi- 
 nus, who were killed by the foldiers, out 
 of hatred for their having been raifed to the Herod.1.8. 
 Empire by the Senate, and not by the armies. 
 
 The Emperors immediately after their ele- VIII. 
 ction, fent their images to Rome, and to the^ nner f 
 
 , i . , . , j /> acknow- 
 
 armies, m order to their being placed amongft ledgin? tt>t 
 the military enfigris. This was the ufual man- new Empe- 
 ner of acknowledging new Princes. After hav- rors - 
 ing denounced their election in this manner, 
 they did not fail to beftow largefles upon the 
 troops, who were made to file off, in order for 
 each foldier to receive his fhare of that diftribu- 
 tion : at which time, to do honour to the new 
 Emperor, and exprefs their joy, they wore 
 wreaths of lawrel on their heads. Claudius was Suet. In 
 the firft who gave money to the troops. In vit. Claud. 
 gratitude to the Prsetorian foldiers who had 
 elected him Emperor, and taken the oath of fi- 
 delity to him, he promifed each of them fifteen 
 fefterces : it was alfo cuftomary to make largefles 
 to the People on their arrival at Rome. The 
 Senate, immediately after the election of the Spartian. 
 Emperor, gave the title of Auguft to his wifejj^u 
 and daughters. Amongft the marks of honour 
 attached to the perfons of the Emperors and 
 Empreflies, one of the principal was to have fire 
 carried before them in a veffel, and the fafcesHerod.lt, 
 furrounded with lawrels, to diftinguifli them 2 & 7- 
 from thofe of the principal magiftrates. Before 
 Marcus Aurelius, who afifociated his fon-in-iaw 
 ./Elius Verus in the Empire, Rome had never feen 
 two Auguftus's. This example became common 
 afterwards, and even feemed neceffary at certain 
 times, on account of the great extent of the 
 Empire : but their power was undivided. Di- 
 oclefian however, in taking a collegue, judge 
 P 3 it
 
 214 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book II. 
 
 it proper alfo to introduce a partition of autho- 
 rity ; and the fame was done even in refpecl to 
 the Caefars, to whom the like jurifdiction was 
 afiigned : but they were always fubordinate to 
 the Auguftus's, who nominated their principal 
 officers, and did not wear the diadem, which 
 referved folely to the Emperors, from Di- 
 oclefian's introducing the ufe of it, who was the 
 firft of them that afiiimed it. Upon certain oc- 
 cafions, public feafts were made at Rome in 
 honour of the Emperors, as after fome great ex- 
 ploit, the Prince's having been fick by way of 
 rejoicing for his recovery, or his return from 
 fome expedition, journey, or voyage : but after- 
 wards, flattery made thefe feafts very common. 
 Tertullian, in his Apologetic, tells us in what 
 manner thefe rejoicings were made. Debauch 
 and excefles were practifed publicly ; fires were 
 lighted in the ftreets, and lamps before the hou- 
 fes where tables were fpread : wine * was fpilt 
 
 in. 
 
 * Condit quifque diem collibu? in ful=, 
 
 Et vitem viduas ducit ad arbores. 
 
 Hinc ad vina redit laetus, alteris 
 Te rnenils adhibet Deum: 
 
 Te multa prece, te prolequitur mero 
 
 Defuib pateris ; & Laribus tuum 
 
 Mi feet nomcn, uti Grazcia Caftovis 
 Et magni menior Herculis. 
 
 Longas 6 utinam, dux bone, ferias 
 
 Pneiies Hefpcrice, dicimus integro 
 
 Sicci mane die: dicimus uvidi 
 
 Cum fol oceano fubeft. Her. C. IV. Od v. 
 On bis wen bills each fees the letting fun ; 
 
 To wido-~vd elms each ixcds his amrous vine : 
 And cbearful when his pleafing ioils are dons, 
 
 He calls on thee, and evry glafs is thine. 
 With endlefs prayers the flowing -ivine ^ve four 
 
 To tbce, great autfor of our joy and peace > 
 In thy lo-Jd name each ear delighting more, 
 Greece in Co/tor's or in Hercules'.
 
 Chap.XII. OF THE ROMANS. 21 
 
 in profufion for libations in honour of the Em- 
 peror's genius, or to the Gods for his profperity. 
 Private perfons adorned their doors with * lau- 
 rel and other boughs, which was a fign of re- 
 joicing amongft the Romans : we have already 
 obferved, that this was the cuftom on the day 
 of marriage. 
 
 Lang may ft tbou live, Hefperias darling care, 
 
 Long give herfeafts> long be her blejl delight ! 
 This is our general feber morning prayr, 
 
 And tbefe our conjiant drunken vows at night. 
 * Nefte coronam 
 
 Poftibus, & denfos per limina tende corymbos. 
 
 Unus Iberinae vir fufficit ? Ocyus illud 
 
 Extorquebis, ut hzec oculo contenta fit uno. 
 
 Jaw. Sat. VI. 
 
 With iiy nonu adorn thy doors, and wed: 
 
 Such is thy bride, and fuch thy genial bed. 
 
 Think* ft tbou one man is for one woman meant ? 
 
 She fooner nvith one eye would be content. Dryden. 
 
 Ornentur poftes & grand! janua lauro. Ibid. 
 
 And ^with abundant laurels deck thy door. 
 
 P 4 BOOK
 
 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 BOOK THE THIRD. 
 
 Of the revenues of the Romans ; 
 the forces of the State ; and of 
 war, with all relating to it. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 I. Of coins, II. Diminution of the 'weight of the 
 Jpecies. III. Public treafitry. IV. Silver mo- 
 ney. V. Mixture and alteration of coins. VI. 
 Great Seftertium. VII. Manner of reckoning 
 fums. VIII. Of the talent. 
 
 H E augmentation of the power of Rome, 
 and the revolutions that happened in the 
 government, made way for changes which it is 
 necefiary to relate. I am now to fpeak of the 
 forces and revenues of the Romans, and in or- 
 der to give a more diftinct idea of them, it is 
 necefiary to go back to the weak beginnings of 
 Rome, when both muft have been very fmall. 
 But firft it is proper to know of what kind her 
 money was. 
 
 The poverty of the firft Romans did not fuf- 
 
 Of fo'ns f er tnem to c i n an y tne Y were almoft two 
 centuries without fpecies, making ufe of copper 
 in lumps, which they paid by weight. Numa, 
 their fecond King, for the better conveniency, 
 
 can fed
 
 Chap. I. OF THE ROMANS. 317 
 
 caufed copper to be cut grofsly into pieces of a 
 pound confiding of twelve ounces, without any 
 mark. They were called from that rude form, 
 as rudis, and ferved inftead of money. Their 
 fixth King Servius Tullius changed this grofs 
 form, and for the firft time caufed round pieces 
 of the fame weight and value to be made, with 
 the impreffion of an ox upon them. Thefe werePlin.l. 33, 
 called as libralis and libella, becaufe they weigh- c 3- 
 ed a pound. Letters were alfo added to them, 
 to exprefs their weight and value, which laft 
 was alfo in proportion to the firft. The heavi- Ibid, 
 eft of all was the Decuj/is., which weighed, and 
 was worth, ten affies ; from whence it was called 
 Denarius : it had an X upon it to fignify its va- 
 lue. The ^uadruffii was worth four ; the Tre- 
 ciijjis three , and the Seftertius one and an half. 
 The laft was always the fourth part of a Dena- 
 *ius, notwithftanding all the changes that were 
 made in their coins j and to exprefs its value, it 
 was marked with two great I's with a crofs 
 ftroke in the midft, and an S after them in this 
 manner HS. The Lupondius was worth 
 two aJJeS) as the two points upon it fignified. 
 The as was alfo fub-divided into fmall parts, of 
 which the names are as follow. 
 
 The Deunx weighed eleven ounces. 
 
 The Dextans, ten. 
 
 The DodranSi nine, 
 
 The Bes, eight. 
 
 The Septunx^ feven. 
 
 The $mijfis t which was the half pound, fix. 
 
 The Quintunx, five. 
 
 The Triens, which was the third part of an 
 as, four. 
 
 The Quadrant, or fourth part, three. 
 
 The Sextans, qr fixth part, two : 
 
 And
 
 2i8 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 And Uneia, the ounce. 
 
 II. In the firft Punic war, the neceflities of the 
 Diminu- Commonwealth were fo great, that fhe was obli- 
 ge* of the ^ tQ rec j uce j-jjg as f rom twelve to the weight 
 
 weight of & r , . 
 
 the fpecies. two ounces, ana all the reft m proportion, 
 Plin. 1.93. though their value was continued the fame. 
 c 3- Soon after, that is to fay, in the fecond Punic 
 war, it was again reduced to one half in value j 
 that is to fay to one ounce, and all other fpe- 
 cies in proportion. Moft of thefe affes of the 
 weight of one ounce had the double head of a 
 Ibid. Janus on one fide, and the prow of a (hip on 
 Pint. the other. In a word, the fpecies, though of 
 Quxft. b ra f S) y/ere fo little common in the beginning 
 T 'of the republic, that, as we have faid elfewhere, 
 the fine for failing in refpecl: to the magiftrates 
 was paid at firfl in cattle. This fcarcity of the 
 fpecies occafioned the cuftom of giving brafs by 
 weight in payment to fubfift a great while, as 
 Liv. 1. 4. Livy relates, that in the 347th year of Rome, 
 the Senate having laid a tax upon the public 
 for fupporting the expences of the war, caufed 
 their own proportion in the grofs to be carried 
 in waggons to the treafury, which v/as called 
 
 III. JErarium from the word &s aris, brafs, becaufe 
 Public there were no coins of gold or fiiver at Rome. 
 
 j t was not t jjj fa 48 5th year of Rome, that 
 Silver mo- fiiver money was firft coined there, which' they 
 KCV. named according to the fpecies of copper, fo 
 Piin.l. 33 ; that the fiiver Denarius was worth ten copper 
 affes, the fiiver Seftertivt two and an half, or 
 the fourth of the Denarius^ and the reft in pro- 
 portion. Thefe firft fiiver denarii weighed an 
 ounce, and the impreffion on them was either a 
 woman's head with an helmet on it, to repre- 
 fent the city of Rome, or a Victory leading a 
 chariot with two or four horfes a-breaft, which 
 
 occafioned
 
 Chap. I. OF THE ROMANS. 219 
 
 occafioned thefe pieces to be called bigati, orPlin. 1. 33. 
 quadrigati, and on the reverfe the figure of Caf- c< 3- 
 tor and Pollux. Sixty-two years after they had 
 firft coined filver fpecies, that is to fay about 
 the 547th year of Rome, they began to coin 
 gold alfo, which was called nummus aunus, or ibid, 
 gold denarius^ becaufe it was worth ten of fil- Suet in 
 ver, which was the moft ufual proportion ob- vite11 - 
 ferved by the Romans between the value of gold 
 and filver. Smaller pieces of gold were coined 
 under the Emperors with their heads on them. 
 The mmmus aureus, or gold denarius^ was at 
 firft the fortieth part of the pound of twelve 
 ounces ; each denarius of gold weighing near 
 two drachmas and an half, and eight drachmas 
 making an ounce. But afterwards, the value of 
 money having changed from time to time, the 
 filver denarius was reduced to the proportion of 
 fifteen to the pound of twelve ounces, It was 
 in that proportion under Julius Casfar ; but af- 
 terwards it came to that of twenty-four, thirty- 
 fix, and forty. The denarius of gold continued 
 at the proportion of forty to the pound, and 
 was always worth ten filver denarii, as the latter 
 were ten affes of brafs. That of filver was at 
 .length reduced to fburfcore and fixteen to the 
 pound, or the weight of one drachma j from 
 whence, in feveral places of the Roman hiftory, 
 the one is ufed for the other. The pieces of 
 gold in time were not fo heavy : they were re- 
 duced to the proportion of forty-five, fifty, and 
 fifty-five, to the pound. It it next to impofiible 
 to follow all the variations of this kind, which 
 were very frequent under the Emperors ; fome 
 of them making their weight more, and fome 
 much lefs. Heliogabalus caufed the weight of 
 all the gold fpecies to be augmented, in order 
 2 to
 
 22Q MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III, 
 
 to increafe certain duties paid in them. Alex- 
 Lampr. in ander Severus, who had more goodnefs for the 
 vit. Alex. p eO pi e? reduced thofe taxations, and caufed 
 thirds, and halves of thofe fpecies to be coined. 
 Heliogabalus had caufed them to be made of fo 
 extraordinary a weight, that fome were full two 
 pounds. It is obferved, that to prevent coiners 
 from counterfeiting the fpecies, the Romans un- 
 der the Emperors coined fome indented, or in 
 a manner carved, all round the edges, which 
 ferved inftead of the ring ufed by the moderns 
 on their money. 
 
 V. Their coins were not always either entirely 
 
 Mixture filver or pure gold : from the time of the Com- 
 and alte- monwealth we find that they fometimes mingled 
 
 r f a in". f brafs with fllver - The Em P er <> r Alexander 
 Plin. 1.33. Severus caufed gold to be coined, of which one 
 c. 3. fifth was filver : this mixture was called defirv.m. 
 Julius Csefar was the firft, who, by decree of 
 the Senate, caufed his head to be ftamped on the 
 coins. About the 225th year of the Chriftian 
 j?Era, pieces of gold were coined of feventy two 
 to the pound. Many of the Emperors caufed 
 gold and filver fpecies to be minted with their 
 names upon them, as the Philippi^ Antonini, and 
 others. Some caufed the heads of their Em- 
 prefies alfo to be ftamped upon them. Conftan- 
 tine following this example, caufed pieces of 
 gold to be coined with his mother's head upon 
 them : and after he had embraced the Chriftian 
 religion, he ordered that a crofs mould be 
 ftamped on all the money that was made. 
 VI. The great Sejleriium in the neuter, was only 
 
 <?>v^Sef-a term of computation, fignifying a thoufand 
 tertiom. f ma u Seflertii, or two hundred and fifty Ro- 
 man Denarii. 
 
 All
 
 Chap. I. OF THE ROMANS. 221 
 
 All the authors, who fpeak of the Roman 
 coins, do not agree about them. For though 
 ten to one be the moft received opinion con- 
 cerning the proportion of gold to filver, we 
 find however that it varied. The manner of VII. 
 computing amongft the Romans was either by Manner of 
 Seftirces or Affes. They ufed alfo the term ta-^* /s 
 lent, in imitation of the Greeks, which was pe- vm. 
 culiar to the latter, and confidered it fometimesO/ the 
 as weight, and fometimes as a fum. As weight <&' 
 it was 125 pounds, as money it was reckoned 
 upon the fame foot as amongft the Greeks, with, 
 whom it was valued at fixty mines ^ or fix thou- 
 fand drachmas. There were four places in Rome 
 where money was coined, of which each had 
 its peculiar mark to diftinguifh its fpecies. 
 
 It is obferved, that money was as plenty in 
 Italy under Tiberius, as it can be at prefent in 
 any part of Europe whatfoever : but that in 
 procefs of time the luxury of the Romans oc- 
 cafioned the gold and filver to be carried back 
 into the foreign countries, from whence their 
 victorious arms had brought them. 
 
 CHAP-
 
 222 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 I. Of the revenues of the State. II. Of the taxes 
 faid by the Commonwealth. III. Of colonies. 
 IV. Public magazines. V.Ofjournies byor- 
 der of tbe court. VJ. Of the rapine and op- 
 -prejjion of governors. VII. Procurators of tbe 
 Emperor. VIII. freafury of tbe Emperors. 
 
 A 
 
 FTER having given an idea of the 
 coins, which fhews the times when the 
 Commonwealth was more or lefs opulent, I 
 j proceed to the revenues of the State. The firft 
 Of the rs- Kings of Rome, befides their private eftate, 
 venues of had only the product of a capitation- tax, which 
 
 the State. wa$ ^ j- ame o ^^ anc j pQQj. anc | a duty ra jf e d 
 DIO. rial. * ' . 
 
 J. 4. upon provmons carried to market, and pnnci- 
 Plin. 1.19. pally upon roots and herbs, which was the moft 
 c - 4- ufual food of thofe early times : but that duty 
 was abolifhed at the birth of the Common- 
 wealth. This revenue was augmented by the 
 fait- works, which the King Ancus Marcius 
 caufed to be made near Oftia. We have feen 
 that after the inftitution of the Cenfus^ the chil- 
 dren, orphans, and poor citizens of the laft 
 clafs payed no tax, and that the laft were ex- 
 empt from ferving in war upon account of their 
 poverty -, and the rather becaufe in thofe times 
 the troops received no pay, and were obliged to 
 ferve at their own expence. Afterwards, in the 
 Cenforlhip of Camillus, even orphans were ob- 
 liged to pay the capitation. The Revenues of 
 the Commonwealth augmented in proportion as 
 fhe made new conquefts ; for which reafon it 
 would be difficult to give a certain (late of them , 
 
 no
 
 Chap. II. CF THE ROMANS. 223 
 
 no author {applying us with fufficient lights up- 
 on that head. It is certain that gold and filver 
 were far from being plenty at Rome, till (he 
 extended her conquefts out of Italy ; on the 
 contrary, they appear to have been exceedingly 
 fcarce, as in the year 359 from its foundation, 
 when Camillus, after the taking of the ciry 6f 
 Veii, where he had vowed the tenth part of the 
 booty to Apollo, was for having that prefent 
 made into a gold cup, in order to its being fent 
 to Delphi. There being no money in the trea- Liy j , 
 fory except copper or brafs, the State was ob- & 5. 
 liged, for difcharging that vow, to have re- 
 courfe to the Roman ladies, who voluntarily 
 contributed their rings and ornaments of gold, 
 and were reimburfed the value in copper money. 
 But after the Commonwealth had extended her 
 conquefts beyond Italy, gold began to grow 
 common, and the public treafure augmented in 
 fuch a manner, that after Paulus ^Emilius had Plat- in 
 
 conquered Macedonia in the <86th year of J: u :, 
 -r t r i 3 r /broil. 
 
 Rome, the Roman people were exempted from 
 
 paying the annual taxes to the State, which 
 found itfelf at that time fufficiently rich to dif- 
 pence with them. 
 
 Plutarch relates that Pompey caufed a table In vit. 
 to be carried in his triumph, on which was pom P eu * 
 painted in large characters, that the revenues of 
 the Commonwealth, before the conquefts he 
 had made, did not amount to more than five 
 thoufand * myriads, or fifty millions of drach- 
 mas, and that by his victories he had augment- 
 ed them to eight thoufand five hundred myriads, 
 or fourfcore and five millions of drachmas, 
 which in Englifh money is about two millions 
 
 * A myriad is ten tboufand, 
 
 one
 
 224 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 one hundred and twenty-five thoufand pounds. 
 But as the Roman drachma actually weighed 
 above one third more than is fuppofed in this 
 computation, (which fuppofes a drachma ten 
 fols, or half a French livre, though really fif- 
 teen pence and f of a penny of their money ) 
 the whole amounted to a much larger fum. Many 
 believe, and with much more probability, that 
 this fum is to be taken only as the revenues paid 
 to the Commonwealth by the principal cities of 
 Afia, and not as her revenues in general. For 
 adding together the tributes each of the diffe- 
 rent provinces paid in money under Auguflus, 
 there being feveral that paid in provifions, and 
 reducing all thofe fums to their general value in 
 Europe at this time, that Emperor will be 
 found to have drawn from them about twenty 
 millions fleriing, which would make much too 
 great an increase in the fpace of the feventy-fix 
 years, that elapfed between the triumph of 
 Pompey celebrated in the 69 zd year of Rome, 
 and the death of Auguftus, which happened in 
 the 768th. Thus the lum fet down in Ponv- 
 pey's triumph, was only part of the revenues 
 of the Commonwealth, that is. to fay, thofe of 
 Afia. 
 
 jj The taxes of the Commonwealth were of a 
 
 Of the different fort; for befides the capitation, each 
 taxes of perfon paid one in proportion to their whole 
 the Com- e fl- rtte o f w hich the eitimation was made by the 
 
 mofvotauo _ , .- T ., r ,, __ . ' \ 
 
 PJut. in Cenfors. It is obknred that Marcus Cato, du- 
 M. Caton ring his Cenforfhip, having found that the citi- 
 zens carried luxury too far, he caufed a very 
 high eflimate to be made of all their moveables, 
 and decreed, that three ajjes Ihould be paid for 
 every thouHind of their value. The tribute, 
 which the Romans mod commonly impofcd 
 
 upoa 
 i
 
 Chap. II. OF THE ROMANS. 225 
 
 upon the provinces they had fubjected, was the 
 capitation j as Tacitus tells us, they did on the Tacit l.t. 
 Gauls. Cicero in his Oration, Pro lege Mani- 
 lia t mentions three kinds of impofls, which he 
 calls Portoria, Decuma, & Scripture. The firft 
 included the duties laid upon merchandife 
 brought into the ports of Italy : the fecond was 
 the tenth of the fruits of the earth, which was 
 levied in kind on certain provinces , and the 
 third was the rents paid by thofe who held the 
 conquered lands, which had been annexed to 
 the domains of the Commonwealth. To con- 
 ceive the nature of the two laft impofls, we muft 
 confider, that Rome from its beginning made it 
 a maxim to annex part of the territories of the 
 conquered people to her own, and to fend co!o- nf. 
 nies compofed of her poorer citizens into them \Ofcohniet. 
 which me did out of policy, to difcharge the 
 State, to enrich the Commonwealth and her 
 citizens, and reduce the power of the' People 
 newly fubjecled to her obedience, and thereby 
 deprive them of the means of revolting. Ap- Appian.de 
 pianus Alexandrinus informs us, that the culti- ** e11 - Civ< 
 vated lands were either divided amongft the in- ' 2 ' 
 habitants of thefe colonies ; fold for the benefit 
 of the Commonwealth ; or farmed out. The 
 uncultivated lands were cried, and given to the 
 firft that would undertake to clear them ; upon 
 condition of paying annually the fifth part of 
 the product of trees, and the tenth of corn, be- 
 fides a tax upon great and fmaJl cattle. And 
 thefe two fpecies of revenue formed what they 
 called Decumce and Scriptures. In this manner 
 Rome at the fame time found means to fubfift 
 her poorer citizens, whom flie fent into the co- 
 lonies, and not to ruin the natives of thofe 
 countries entirely, who paying the above rents 
 Q were
 
 226 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 were permitted to cultivate their lands, and ftill 
 found enough for their fupport. For in thofe 
 times the people of Italy were efteemed to be 
 very laborious j but the abufe made afterwards 
 of thefe regulations, became very pernicious to 
 Appian. the State. The moft powerful citizens under 
 dc Bell, various pretexts appropriated moft of thefe con- 
 Civil. 1. i-quered lands, and either caufed them to be ad- 
 judged to themfelves at little or no price, or 
 took them under borrowed names paying the 
 Cenfus. In this manner they deprived the poor 
 citizens of them, to whom good policy had at 
 firft allotted them for their fupport, which occa- 
 fioned frequent and great divifions in the Com- 
 monwealth. They afterwards fecured the pof- 
 fefiion of them to themfelves by long prefcrip- 
 tion, which ferved them inftead of a title -, and 
 to aggrandize themfelves, they added to them 
 the lands of their neighbours, to whom poverty, 
 and ufury paid for debts contracted for their fub- 
 fiftance, reduced to the neceflity of felling them 
 at fuch prices as they could get. They often, 
 even without waiting thefe extremities, deprived 
 the unfortunate poor of lands contiguous to 
 their own, and thereby augmented their eftate* 
 to a vaft extent. In order to improve them, 
 they employed flaves, that the free citizens 
 might not be obliged to quit the profefTion of 
 arms -, fo that the country was full of flaves, 
 who multiplied the more, as they were not ob- 
 liged to ferve in war, whilft very few of the 
 Italian natives remained in it : and the few that 
 did, being forced to be almoft always with the 
 army, and to pay confiderable taxations, were 
 reduced to great mifcry. This diminimed the 
 forces of the Commonwealth, which relied 
 more upon the troops of the allies, compofed 
 
 j folely
 
 Chap* II. OF THE ROMANS. 227 
 
 folely of Italians, than upon others. To re- Appian.de 
 medy thefe inconveniences, the Tribunes of the^ 11 ClV - 
 People patted a law, by which it was prohibited ' 
 for any one perfon to have more than five hun- 
 dred acres of land, one hundred great, and 
 five hundred fmall cattle : the overplus of what Veil. Pat;, 
 each pofleffed, according to this law, was to be 1 - 2 - e- * 
 equally diftributed amongft the poor citizens. 
 This mews, that the firft riches ot the Romans 
 confifted in lands, cattle, and ilaves. Tiberius 
 Gracchus being Tribune of the People, under- 
 took to caufe this law to be put in execution ; 
 which only excited greater troubles in the Com- 
 monwealth : for as often as the Tribunes of the 
 People demanded the reflitution of thefe lands* 
 and the execution of the Agrarian law, by 
 which the diftribution of them for the fubfifi> 
 ance of the poorer citizens had been ordained, 
 difcord arofe between the People, and the No- 
 bility who were in pofiefiion of the greateft part 
 of thefe lands. The riches of particulars began 
 by thefe ufurpations j which ufury, and oppref- 
 fing the provinces, rendered at length fo prodi- 
 gious as they became before the fall of the Com- 
 monwealth. 
 
 Befides thefe impofls, there was alfo the pro- pii n l. 3. 
 duct of the gold, filver, and lead mines in 33. c. 
 Spain and elfewhere ; and from the 397th year 3 & 4- 
 of Rome, the twentieth part of what flaves 
 made free were worth. Under the Emperor Tac. 1. 13 
 Tiberius this was a twenty- fifth ; one per cent. 
 being then alfo paid for goods fold voluntarily* 
 and two for thofe fold by auction. Auguftus g uet- ; n 
 exacted a twentieth of inheritances in the col- vit. Aug. 
 lateral line, and ordained that in the will of 
 every perfon of fortune, there mould be a le- 
 gacy for the Emperor ; without which it could 
 
 2 not
 
 228 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Hoojk IIL 
 
 not be executed. This ordinance fubfifted till 
 the reign of Antoninus Pius, who aboiiflied 
 it. All thefe together formed a cafual revenue, 
 which amounted to very confiderajale fums, ex- 
 clufively of the tributes of the provinces, and 
 the duties which fome of them paid in kind, 
 as Sicily and Sardinia, upon which the tenth of 
 nil grain was levied. Cicero, as we have al- 
 ready obferved, mentions this lajft tribute under 
 the name of Decumce. The other provinces, 
 inftead of a tenth, paid a twentieth or a for- 
 tieth of wheat and barley, and a twentieth of 
 Tie. 1. 4. wine and bacon. After the Frifii were fubjedted 
 to the empire, they were made to pay a certain 
 quantity of ox- hides by way of tribute, which 
 were applied to the ufe of the armies. There 
 was alfo Fifcal or Revenue corn, fo called, be- 
 caufe it was a part of the demefns of the Com- 
 17. monwealth. This grain was carried to the pub- 
 Pullicma lie magazines, erected at Rome by way of pre- 
 gazines. caution againft fcarcity, and to perpetuate plenty 
 in it. The greateft part of it came from Afri- 
 ca, the coafts of Barbary, and Egypt. The 
 hundredth part of the grain, and the two hun- 
 dredth of the other fruits of the earth, were le- 
 vied in Cappadocia. Thefe tributes in kind 
 ferved in confequence to fill the public maga- 
 zines of Rome, and for the fubfiftance of the 
 armies. Befides this a toll, or cuftom, was paid 
 in fome places by certain merchandizes, as well 
 as in the ports of Italy. The fait, which the 
 people were obliged to buy of thofe who farm- 
 ed it, was alfo part of the revenues of the State. 
 ff Thefe were the ufual imports : but the Empe- 
 1 60 a rors f met i mes exacted others ; as that Vefpafian 
 laid upon Urine, and many more. The journies 
 
 and
 
 Chap. If. e* ?Sfc ROMANS. 229 
 
 and voyages mdertaken by order of the court 
 may be confidered as another kind of taxation ; 
 for when the Eniperor, his ministers, or the go- 
 vernors of provinces, caufed any one to come court. 
 from, or fent perfbns to, remote places, they s p ar j- J 
 gave fuch travellers an order to have their Vlt% "' 
 charges born, and carriages provided for them 
 upon their route , which was done at the 
 expences of the cities and places through whrh 
 they pafled. Bat the Emperor Adrian orda^n- 
 ed, tkat for the future that expence /hould be 
 defrayed out of the public treafury. Almoft all 
 thefe impofts were farmed out -, fo that there 
 were farmers and their fubftitutes, who enriched 
 themfelves by making the moft of, and ex- 
 rending, their power as far as pofnble, not to VI. 
 mention the enormous opprefllons com mitred Rap* 
 by the governors; as appears from Cicero's J* a 3^,- 
 pleadings againft Verres. The latter exacted ve nwrs. 
 from Sicily, of which he was governor, a thou- Appian.de 
 fand times an hundred tboufand fefterces, over? e11 Clv< 
 
 11 
 
 and above the cuftomary tributes. Thefe ex- 
 tortions were frequent enough about an hundred 
 years before the end of the Commonwealth ; 
 from whence arofe the immenfe riches of fome 
 particulars. When the younger Gracchus was v e ll. Pat. 
 Tribune of the People, he deprived the Sena- 1. 2. c. i j, 
 tors of the right to take cognizance of the mal- 
 verfations and oppreflions of the perfons in of- 
 fice, and transferred it to the Equeftrian order. 
 Thofe things were become fo common, that 
 they were fcarce regarded any longer as crimes ; 
 governors being almoft fure of impunity, be- 
 caufe their judges, as well as themfelves, were 
 the principal perfons of the Commonwealth, who 
 acted with great favour and referve in refpecl: to 
 each other. The accufations in confequence, 
 Q^ 3 brought
 
 330 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 brought againft them by the provinces, often 
 either came to nothing, or were attended with 
 Tac. 1. 3. infinite trouble and difficulty. The State 
 c 13. however did not fail fometimes to condemn 
 thofe public robbers to make heavy retribu- 
 tions ; but always for the benefit of the Com- 
 monwealth, and not of the provinces they had 
 plundered. 
 
 VII. Under the Emperors the governors could not 
 Procure-^ enrich themfelves fo eafily at the expence of their 
 ton of toe p rov j nces being prevented by the officers called 
 
 Emptror. r / 
 
 Dio. Caff, the Emperor s procurators, who had an eye 
 157. upon their conduct, and whofe functions were 
 much the fame as thofe of the officers called in 
 France Intendans de -province. It is obferved, 
 'that till the civil war between Marius and Sylla, 
 the tributes laid upon the provinces were mode- 
 rate enough, and that they had not experienced 
 thofe enormous extortions before, which they 
 fuffered immediately after from the governors. 
 Cicero in his oration Pro lege Manilla fhews, that 
 they were alfo expoied to the avarice of the ge- 
 nerals of armies, who carried off whatever was 
 mofl valuable and curious in the provinces, be- 
 fides exacting confiderable fums from them. But 
 thefe were not the only evils they had to fuffer. 
 The civil wars of the Commonwealth expofed 
 them to the infatiable avidity of the ftrongeft, 
 who, under pretence that they had favoured 
 their enemy, laid confiderable fines upon them, 
 to fatisfy which they were often obliged to bor- 
 row money at intereft ; and that compleated 
 their ruin, as happened to the provinces of Afia 
 minor, after the defeat of Brutus and Cafllus by 
 Mark Antony. For the latter, who was na- 
 turally little humane , and very infolent in 
 profperity, pretended, that they had taken part 
 
 with
 
 Chap. II. OF THE ROMANS. 231 
 
 with his enemy, in order to fine them the value 
 of nine years of the ufual tribute paid the Com- 
 monwealth ; and as they were not able to raife it, 
 the tax-farmers, who advanced the money, ex- 
 a6ted fuch ufury for it, as exceeded the capital, 
 and reduced them to extreme mifery. The 
 impofts under the Emperors were either more 
 or lefs, according to their characters : the good 
 moderated, and the bad augmented, them: but 
 the provinces of Italy were always the moft 
 fpared. 
 
 All the fums that arofe from the impofts, Veil. Pat. 
 
 fpoils, and conquefts, gained by Rome from!,, 2 - c -.37- 
 i r . j L i_i- Plat- i 
 
 her enemies, were carried into the public trea- vit p omp< 
 
 fury. In the time of the Commonwealth, a 
 twentieth part of them in gold, as they came in, 
 was fet afide, and referved for times of urgent 
 neceffity. This became the cuftom from the 
 burning of Rome by the Gauls j which pre- 
 caution feemed neceffary at firft for enabling her 
 to defend herfelf againft that warlike nation, 
 that fhe apprehended more than any other. 
 The gold not coined, before it was carried in-Plin 1. 33. 
 to the treafury, was melted into little fquare c> 3' 
 bars, which were piled up one above another. 
 
 Befides the public treafury, the Emperors had VIII. 
 one peculiar to themfelves, which was their ex-^'*^ 
 chequer, and into which the money arifing^ ror * 
 from confifcations, fines, legacies, the prefentsTac. 1. 5, 
 made them when they came to the empire, and s ^ et in 
 at the time of their adoption, new-years gifts, Vlt- p ' 
 and laftly the aurum coronarium^ which Italy, 
 and the other provinces remitted from time to 
 time, fo called, becaufe that voluntary gift 
 confifted at firft in crowns of gold, which in 
 procefs of time was changed into a certain 
 
 quantity
 
 232 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 Spart. in quantity of gold. This gift was renewed at 
 vu. Adr. tne election of every Emperor, on each adop- 
 tion of a fucceffor, on the occafion of his mar- 
 riage, or the birth of his children, and fome- 
 times on his return from fome voyage or enter- 
 prize. Their exchequer was more or lefs con- 
 fiderable, as the Emperors -were more or lefs a- 
 varicious, who did not want means tor augment- 
 ing it, though they were alfo mailers of the 
 public treafury whenever they thought fit. 
 
 This particular detail of the revenues of the 
 Roman People may ferve to give us fome idea of 
 tjieir forces : however as different writers have 
 given us fufficiently circumftantial accounts of 
 them, it will not be improper to repeat them to 
 the reader, 
 
 CHAP-
 
 Chap. III. OF THE ROMANS. 233 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 I. Of the forces of the State. II. Of its naval 
 forces. III. Of the manner of fighting at fea. 
 IV. Manner of making the levies. V. Of the 
 Roman legions. VI. Number of cohorts in a 
 legion. VII. Of the enjigns of the legions. 
 VIII, Honours paid the enfigns. 
 
 H E forces of Romulus confided at firft , 
 of three thoufand foot and three hundred of the 
 horfe. He foon augmented them confiderably,;Wj of 
 having increafed his people from the neigh- the . State - 
 bouring cities, whofe inhabitants he incorpo-j n * 
 rated with the Romans, as he fubjecled them ; pi u t. in 
 fo that fome time before his death, lie took thevit. Rom. 
 field with twenty thoufand foot and eight hun- 
 dred horfe. In the 26oth year from the foun- 
 dation of Rome, the Commonwealth had ten 
 legions, each confifting of four thoufand men, 
 which was the greateft: number of troops fhe had 
 ever fet on foot. For in the beginning of the 
 Commonwealth, they ufually confifted oi four 
 legions, of which each Coniul commanded 
 two, without including the troops of the allies, 
 who fupplied as many. In the fecond Punic 
 war, fhe had to the number of three and twenty 
 legions on foot; and in Sylla's time forty - 
 feven, though the legion at that time con- 
 fifted of fix thoufand men : but the greateft 
 number of all did not appear till the triumvi- 
 rate of M. Antony, Oclavius and Lepidus, 
 when they amounted to fixty-fix. After Au- 
 guftus had eftablilhed the peace of the em- 
 2 pire,
 
 234 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 pire, he kept only three and twenty legions on 
 foot, which he diftributed upon the frontiers. 
 Tiberius had five and twenty, exclufively of the 
 cohorts, which always remained at Rome for 
 the fecurity of the public, the nine Prastorian 
 cohorts or the Emperors guards, and the auxi- 
 liary troops, which were equal in number to 
 Polyb. 1.6. thofe of the State ; for care was taken, that they 
 fhould not exceed that of the legions. It was not 
 till after Conftantine,that this policy was difufed ; 
 the Emperors having armies almoft entirely 
 compofed of Barbarians, who did not a little 
 contribute to the ruin of the empire. This 
 rule was always followed in the time of the 
 Confuls, but only in refpect to the infantry; 
 for it is obfcrved, that at the battle of Cannse, 
 the auxiliary horfe was twice as ftrong as that 
 of the Romans. The Emperor Adrian kept 
 thirty legions on foot, befides the auxiliaries, 
 who were of the fame number. Without 
 reckoning the latter, he had two hundred thou- 
 fand foot, and forty thoufand horfe, all Ro- 
 mans ; three hundred elephants, and two thou- 
 fand armed chariots, the whole kept up as well 
 in peace as war, with magazines of all forts of 
 jj arms for three hundred thoufand men. As to 
 Of the fea-forces, we do not find that the Romans had 
 naval an y naval army, before the firft Punic war, 
 f"' that is to fay, about the 49oth year of Rome. 
 They however diftinguimed their ability and 
 bravery as much by lea as land : for they were 
 victorious in their firft battle by fea with the 
 Carthaginians, who were then the moil expert 
 liy. 1. 1. of a H nations in naval affairs. This firft fleet 
 was competed of an hundred and twenty gal- 
 leys, of which an hundred were of five, and 
 the reft of three, benches or tire of oars. Soon 
 
 after
 
 Chap. III. OF THE ROMANS. 235 
 
 after in the fame war they fitted out three 
 hundred and thirty beaked galleys, each carry- 
 ing three hundred rowers, and an hundred and 
 twenty foldiers. By this account, which we 
 have from Poiybius, the bignefs of thofe vef- 
 fels may be judged. The citing of fome facts Liv. 1. i. 
 will fuffice to ihew, what maritime forces they 
 had. Pompey in the civil war had to the num- 
 ber of fix hundred mips, either galleys or light 
 barks. M. Antony, at the battle of Actium 
 againft Auguftus, had a navy confifting of five 
 hundred mips, amongft which were fome that 
 had eight and ten tire of oars. After the civil Tac. 1. 4. 
 wars, Auguftus kept up three naval armies in 
 Italy , the one at the port of Mifenum in the 
 kingdom of Naples, another at Ravenna in the 
 Adriatic gulph, and the third at Frejus on the 
 coaft of Provence. The Emperor Adrian had 
 to the number of two thoufand light vefiels, 
 and fifteen hundred mips or galleys from three 
 to five benches of oars. All the Ihips of the 
 Romans, fit for war, were a kind of galleys, 
 or galeafles, becaufe they were worked with 
 oars. Their form came nearer to that of a mo- 
 dern French galley, than of a fhip ; having all 
 beaks of brafs, or bronze, as galleys have ; for 
 which reafon the words, galleys and mips, 
 when ufed by antient authors, may be confide- 
 red as fynonimous terms. Thefe fhips of war 
 were long, had but * one maft like French 
 galleys, and confequently much lefs rigging 
 
 >Tunc adverfis urgentibus illuc 
 
 Recidit, ut malum ferro fummitteret.. 
 
 Juv. Sat XII. 
 
 So force the ft arm, necejfity at loft 
 f)oej loudly call to eaje her of her majl. 
 
 Dryd. 
 
 than
 
 236 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 than modern mips. Though they had fails, 
 they were rather to be worked with oars, which 
 accordingly were more commonly ufed. Some 
 of them were open, that is to fay without decks, 
 and had only one row of oars on each fide : 
 thefe were called light-barks, becaufe much 
 fwifter than the reft. Thofe which had feveral 
 decks, had alfo feveral benches, or tire of oars 
 one above another, but chequer- wife, not to in- 
 terfere with each other : however that is only 
 conjecture, there being no certainty upon this 
 head. The moft common mips had two, three, 
 fonr and five benches, for there were fome that 
 had ten, and even forty : but this was not 
 amongft the Romans, who were too wife to 
 build fuch vefiels, which from their extraordi- 
 nary magnitude were of no other ufe, but to 
 gratify a frivolous curiofity. Auguftus ufed 
 none in his naval armies, that had above three 
 rows of oars , and probably, in procefs of 
 time, thofe were difcovered not to be fo good, 
 as fuch as had only one ; becaufe the latter were 
 worked with more expedition, and lefs trouble. 
 For the hiftorian Zofimus tells us, that the ufe 
 of them was entirely difcontinued, long before 
 the reign of the Emperor Theodofms the 
 younger. We have nothing but very uncertain 
 conjectures upon the manner of working a vefiel 
 with three tire of oars, which being dipt in and 
 re 'led out of the water all at the fame time, 
 mult have clafhed, one would think, with each 
 other. And it is dill lefs eafy to conceive 
 the manner of working fuch, as had more 
 benches of oars, as ten, twenty, and even for- 
 ty. In fliort, the moft experienced in naval 
 affairs of thefe days confefs their ignorance 
 upon this fubjecl. 
 
 Each
 
 Chap. III. OF TE ROMANS. 237 
 
 Each ftiip had its- peculiar name, as is (till 
 the cuftora. They had alib their military en- 
 figns and colours, and 1 ufed* trumpets, as land- 
 forces, for inftruments of war. 
 
 When they were to engage, they erected jjj 
 wooden towers on their decks, which were ea- Of the 
 fily railed, and taken down after the action : manner of 
 from thefe they difcharged {tones and darts with^ j*& 
 advantage upon the enemy. They alib made 
 ufe of machines, as of the bali/la, a kind of 
 great crofs-bow, which were planted in feveral 
 parts- of the ihip, and difcharged ftones of con- 
 fiderable fize, and 1 fire-darts. Thefe laft were 
 great arrows, prepared with pitch and other 
 combuftible matter, which being lighted, fet 
 Ihips on fire. Their manner of fighting was 
 either to take the. vefiel, they attacked, in flank, 
 in order that the violent ftroke of the beak pol y b - 
 might pierce and fmk it, or by running along- 
 fide very near it to break the oars, or to grap- ibid. 1. i. 
 pie it with hooks and grappling? in order to 
 board it. The fea-fervice was not in fo much 
 efteem amongft the Romans as the land-fervice : 
 for which reafon the freedmen were admitted 
 into it, long before they were permitted to ferve 
 by land. * The vefiels of burthen, or merchant- 
 Ihips, which were called round , becaufe really 
 not fo long as the others, and had'larger flanks, 
 in order to contain the more goods, were 
 worked alfo both with oars and fails : but the 
 latter were moft ufed, to avoid the charge of 
 rowers, which would have rendered the crews 
 more numerous, and confequently more cxpen- 
 five to traders. 
 
 As they had not the ufe of the compafs, they 
 fteered in the night by the ftars, and in the day 
 by the toafts and iflands which they knew, and 
 
 which
 
 238 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 which guided the pilots : for in the Mediterra- 
 nean, that was the only fea then navigated, they 
 could not be long without difcovering fome 
 land ; and they knew no other navigation upon 
 the Ocean, except along the coafts. They had 
 anchors for (lopping fhips, and the lead for 
 founding : but they were not fufficiently expert 
 in navigation, to expofe themfelves to flormy 
 weather. When they were furprized by a tem- 
 peft, they made to land in order to run afhore -, 
 and did the fame, when too clofely purfued by 
 an enemy of fuperior force. When the danger 
 was over, they fet the fhip afloat again by 
 ftrength of arms and leavers j which fhews,thaj if 
 the antients knew ufeful things in refpecl to the 
 Arts, that are not come down to us, we have 
 difcovered others, which they had not, and 
 which are no Jefs ufeful. The Romans did not 
 begin to be expert in naval affairs, till fome 
 time after they had extended their conquefts out 
 . . , of Italy : for Appian obfcrves, that they had 
 
 Appian.de ,. / . _ ... r . r , . . r ^ . 
 
 Bell. Syr. Vei 7 " tt: ^ e Oulij when they fought their nrit bat- 
 tie by fea with the army of Antiochus, com- 
 manded by Polixenides. 
 
 Either the Confuls or the Dictator generally 
 ^ made the levies of the troops. They appointed 
 he t\& day for lifting, either by a decree fixed up, 
 1 6 or ky nera lds, according to the neceffity of the 
 cafe. At the fame time the ftandard of war 
 was hoifled upon the top of the Capitol, which, 
 during a great length of time, was the place 
 where the levies were made, unlefs fome oppo- 
 fition was apprehended from the Tribunes of the 
 People, and then it was in the field of Mars, 
 which being without the walls of the city, was 
 not in the jurifdiction of thofe magiftrates. In 
 procefs of time the levies were ufually made in 
 
 the
 
 Chap. III. OF THE ROMANS. 239 
 
 the field of Mars : and when the Common- Tac. 1. 4. 
 wealth had extended its conquefts out of Italy, 
 they were made by the Proconfuls, Prastors, 
 and other principal officers in the provinces. 
 All the young perfons capable of bearing arms, 
 were obliged to be prefent in the place, and on 
 the day afligned, upon pain of a fine. To 
 fail in this refpect, was long criminal during the 
 Commonwealth. There were however con- 
 junctures, when it was difpenced with ; as the 
 funeral of a near relation, and certain religious 
 ceremonies, at which the abfent were obliged 
 to affift. For none were exempt from ferving 
 in the armies, except fuch as had particular ex- 
 emptions from the Senate, were lame, fubject 
 to the falling ficknefs, had not attained the age 
 of feventeen, or were turned of forty- fix ; at 
 which years thofe who were actually in the 
 fervice might quit it. The priefthood were alfo 
 difpenced with from ferving : however neither 
 they, nor thofe whofe age exceeded the time 
 prefcribed were exempt, in cafe of a war with 
 the Gauls, fo terrible did that nation appear to 
 the Romans. During a great length of time, Dion.Hal. 
 thofe, who were only entered by name in thel. 4- c. 5. 
 Cenfeis, becaufe they had no fortunes, were not 
 admitted into the Roman foldiery , and for the 
 lame reafbn they had no voice in the elections. 
 Thefe were the citizens of the fixth clafs : but 
 Marius abolifhed this cuftom ; and afterwards 
 thofe whofe whole fortunes were their arms, to 
 ufe the expreffion of Valerius Maximus who Val. Max. 
 relates this circumftance, were received into the 1 - 2 - c - 3- 
 troops. The officers, who made the levies, 
 chole the foldiers -, whence the legions were 
 fo called from the Latin word legere , /0Polyb.l6. 
 cbufe, and the levy was called dekftus, choice. 
 
 No
 
 240 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book HI. 
 
 No foldier was admitted under the height of 
 five Roman feet and ten inches, except in an 
 extreme want of troops, which would not ad- 
 mit of chufing. It is obferved, that the men 
 of the firft cohorts of each legion were not un- 
 der fix feet high, which amounts to about five 
 feet, nine inches and an half, and almoft ^ of 
 an inch of our meafure -, the Roman foot being 
 eleven inches and fix hundred and four decimal 
 parts of an inch Englim, and eleven inches 
 French. 
 
 On the day fixed, the citizens of the age to 
 bear arms affembled, either at the Capitol, or 
 in the field of Mars, and the Confuls nominated 
 the Tribunes of the legions. Thofe who were 
 to command in the foot muft have ferved ten 
 years, and in the cavalry five. About the 39th 
 year of Rome, the Confuls and generals were 
 diverted of the right of appointing the Tribunes 
 of the legions, which the People afTumed to 
 ... . themfelves. If four legions were raifed, the 
 Polyb. 1 L6- Tribunes nominated divided themfelves into 
 four equal bands, according to the order in 
 which they were elected. Thofe who were firft 
 appointed were for the firft legion, and fo on 
 with the reft. The Tribunes, after having drawn 
 the tribe with which they were to begin by lot, 
 fate down, and chofe out of it four young men 
 of much the fame age and height, of whom 
 each of the four legions had one. They went 
 on in the fame manner, till the four legions were 
 compleated ; in order that they might all be of 
 Ibid, equal force. Thofe who refufed to give in their 
 names for the fervice, were fentenced to be 
 whipt -, their eftates were fold , and themfelves 
 confidered as flaves. After having lifted them 
 in this manner, they were not deemed foldiers, 
 
 till
 
 Chap. III. OF THE ROMANS. 241 
 
 till they had taken the military oath ; which 
 they were made to do the fame inftant. In or- Poly b.L 64 
 der to that, the Tribunes of each legion chofe 
 out a foldier, who repeated the oath aloud, of* 
 which the tenor was to promife to hazard his life 
 for the Commonwealth, to obey his general* 
 and not to quit the army without leave. In 
 pronouncing it he held up his right hand and 
 the thumb of the fame hand ; after which all 
 the reft of the foldiers of each legion declared* 
 that they fwore the fame thing, but without re- 
 peating the form : and this was the general oath. 
 The Tribunes made the foldiers, and all that Ibid, 
 followed the camp, take another fomething par- 
 ticular : this was not to take any thing that was 
 not their own, and to bring whatever they found 
 to the Tribunes. Plutarch tells us, that amongfr, QU^. 
 the Romans thofe who were in the army were Rom. 39. 
 not allowed to ftrike or kill the enemy, if they 
 had not taken the military oath, or had been 
 difmified the fervice by their officer. But to re- y. 
 turn to the legions : they were compofed of in- Of the 
 fantry and cavalry, of which the number diffe- Roma u* 
 red much at different times. For the legion at^J^' 
 firft confifted of only three thoufand foot and v h. Rom. 
 three hundred horfe. Under the Confuls it was po] , b j 
 four thoufand foot, and three hundred horfe, at & 5, 
 which number it long continued fixed. It was 
 afterwards compofed of more or lefs troops, ac- 
 cording to the occafionsof the Commonwealth. 
 It varied alfo under the Emperors. In the time 
 of Auguftus it confifted of fix thoufand one 
 hundred foot, and feven hundred and twenty- 
 fix horfe : under Tiberius, it was compofed of 
 fix thoufand foot, and fix hundred horfe : un- 
 der the Emperor Septimus Severus, a phalanx 
 or fquare battalion of thirty thoufand men, 
 R confirming
 
 242 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 confifting of fix legions, was formed in imita- 
 tion of the Macedonians ; which fhews that the 
 legion then was only five thoufand men : but 
 under the fucceeding Emperors, it became 
 ftronger. In confequence, to know the ftrength 
 of the Roman armies, it does net fuffice to 
 reckon the number of the legions : but, upon 
 what foot each legion was at that time, muft 
 alfo be found. Though the legions were called 
 Roman, they were not all compofed of citizens 
 immediately inhabiting the city and territory of 
 Rome, as had been the cuftom from the begin- 
 ning, and even after the deftruction of Carthage : 
 but they alfo confided of foldiers of all the ci- 
 ties of Italy, to which in fucceffion of time the 
 freedom of Rome had been granted. 
 VI. The legion was compofed of ten cohorts or 
 Number ."/regiments, ftrong in proportion to the legion. 
 
 cohorts in . , D . r . r/i J r i c i_ r J 
 
 a legion. * or l \ ]t confifted or only five thoufand men, 
 Polyb.l.6.the cohort was but five hundred. Thefe ten co- 
 horts formed as many battalions, which drew 
 up in three lines. Each cohort was compofed 
 of three manipuli or companies, divided into 
 two Centuries, each of an hundred men, when 
 the legion was fix thoufand ftrong. The Cen- 
 tury was fub-divided into Dectiriee or tenths, 
 becaufe every ten men had a tent. However, 
 ^Elian mews, that we fhould not always under- 
 ftand the word decuria literally and only for 
 ten ; and that the decuria, which he alfo calls 
 little maniple, was compofed of more than ten 
 foldiers. The fame Lilian feems alfo to make 
 the cohort confift only of two maniples, of more 
 in number ; which might be in his time, that is 
 to fay, under the Emperor Adrian. For the 
 regulations of this kind were not always the 
 
 fame,
 
 >. III. OF t H E ROMANS. 243 
 
 fame, though the legion in all times confided of 
 ten cohorts. 
 
 As to the cavalry, it was above the infan- 
 try. It was the cuftom in the beginning of 
 the Commonwealth to chufe the horfe laft : but 
 Polybius informs us, that in his time they were Polyb. 1.6. 
 the firft formed into companies. The Cenfors 
 chofe fuch as were richeft to ferve in the caval- 
 ry i and when they had no horfes, they might 
 ferve in the foot. The cafe was not the fame 
 with refpect to the Knights, whom the Com- 
 monwealth fupplied every year with a fum of 
 money to purchafe and keep an horfe : becaufe 
 in effect of the fum they received, they were 
 not deemed difmounted at any time, and confe- 
 quently could not ferve in the foot. The caval- 
 ry were called #/#, the wings, becaufe they al- 
 ways formed the wings of the legion. They 
 were more or lefs ftrong, in proportion to the 
 itfength of the legions ; of which, as each wasibij. 
 compofed of ten cohorts, fo the cavalry were 
 divided into ten alas. The ala, were fub-divided 
 into companies of two and thirty men, and the 
 companies again into Declines. 
 
 The legion was commanded by one of the 
 Conful's Lieutenants, or a Lieutenant-general, 
 that had an officer under him called Prcefettus^ 
 who acted as judge of that body of troops. 
 Next to him were the great Tribunes, each of 
 whom commanded two cohorts ; and each co- 
 hort was under the command of an inferior Tri- 
 bune, to whom it belonged, with the Prefect's 
 authority, to caufe fuch of the foldiers of his 
 cohort as had committed any fault to be pu- 
 nifhed. The Prsefect had alfo the care of the 
 arms, horfes, cloaths, provifions, and difcipline, 
 both of the cavalry and foot. Each maniple, 
 R 2 or
 
 244 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 or company, had at the head of it an officer cal- 
 led Ducenarius^ becaufe he generally command- 
 ed two hundred men ; as he who commanded a 
 century, or an hundred men, was called a Cen- 
 turion. The Tribunes elected their Centurions, 
 and the latter their Lieutenants called Succentu- 
 Momfauc. riones or Optiones. We find, that there were al- 
 Antiq. fo Sub-optiones, or Sub-lieutenants. Polybius 
 does not mention thefe Succenturioms or Opti- 
 ones ; but he fays, that in each century there 
 were two officers under the Centurions, who 
 were called Terguluttores, becaufe their poft was 
 in the rear of the company, which is the fame 
 given to thefe Optionee ; and that the officers 
 were double, there being two Centurions to a 
 century, of which one was as fecond. But the 
 latter was only a kind of Lieutenant, becaufe 
 he had no (hare in deliberations. Thefe fecond 
 officers were perhaps called Succenturiones and 
 Optiones in procefs of time. We ought not to 
 be fur prized, if authors do not always agree 
 concerning thefe things, and if they fometimes 
 ieem contrary to antient monuments. Cuiloms 
 were not always the fame ; and authors wrote 
 either before or after thofe monuments were 
 creeled ; fo that the filence of writers, or their 
 contradictions to thofe monuments, are not to be 
 judged decifive reafons : the difference of times 
 ought to be confidered in fuch cafes. Every 
 Polyb. 1.6. Centurion chofe two Standard-bearers, called 
 Vexillariii for his century ; in order that the one 
 might be ready to fupply the place of the other. 
 The ftrongeft and moft couragious foldiers were 
 chofen for this office. The Centurions formed 
 the firft rank of the firft cohort of a legion, of 
 whom two were called Primi Haftati, as another 
 ^ Centurion was Primus Prince ps, from being the 
 
 firft
 
 Chap. III. OF THE ROMANS. 245 
 
 firft of the fecond line of the troops called Prin- 
 cipes ; and the firft of the foldiers of the third 
 line, called Pilani, was alfo a Centurion, who 
 was termed Primipilus, and was alfo the princi- 
 pal Centurion of the whole legion. He was 
 admitted into the councils of war, to which the 
 Tribunes were fummoned : he received orders 
 from the General or the Tribunes, carried them 
 after to others, and made the troops march or 
 halt according to the orders he received. He 
 conducted the eagle, had it in his keeping, and 
 defended it in battle. When the army was to 
 march, it was he who pulled that enfign up, and 
 gave it to the Standard-bearer. All the Centu- 
 rions carried long ftaves of vine-branches in 
 their hands, which they ufed for chaflifmg the 
 foldiers ; and that was the mark of their office. 
 Though Polybius tells us, that only the firft Polyb. 1.6. 
 Centurion of the firft cohort carried a ftaff of 
 that kind, we find in other authors, that all the 
 Centurions had the fame diftinction -, which 
 cuftom was probably introduced after Polybius 
 wrote. The Centurions rofe by degrees, fo that 
 the laft Centurion of a legion might attain to 
 be the firft by right of leniority. As to the 
 legions fupplied by the allies, thofe who com- 
 manded them were called Prefects, and were 
 nominated by the Confuls or Generals of the ar- 
 mies. Each legion had for its general enfign, Vj. r . 
 an eagle with its wings extended, holding a %% w f 
 thunderbolt in its talons. It was placed upon a'* le & toas ' 
 fmall pedefta! of the fame metal on the top of a 
 pike. This figure was either of gold or iilver, 
 of the bignefs of a pigeon. The officer that 
 carried it was called the Eagle-bearer. This en- 
 fign, as we have juft faid, was in the keeping 
 of the firft Centurion of the legion,, and in time 
 R 3 of
 
 246 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 Liv. 1 3- of peace the legions, who were not encamped 
 upon the frontiers, depofited them in the public 
 treafury, which was in the temple of Saturn. 
 
 When the armies were encamped, the eagles 
 were planted in the front of the tribunal, which 
 was always at the general's, tent. In the tirne of 
 the Emperors, there were other officers called 
 Image-bearers, from carrying the portrait of the 
 Emperor in the form of a great medal on the 
 top of a pike, in the fame manner as the eagle. 
 The flaff of this enfign was generally fo laden 
 with ornaments of the fame metal, that a very 
 VIII. ftrong man could fcarce carry it. The army 
 paiTtht kad fo great a veneration for thefe enfigns, that 
 <npgns. they never pafied by them without fainting them. 
 iicrod.1.4. The foldiers fwore by them, when they would 
 certify any thing. The fpoils and prifoners 
 of war were placed with them, as in an allured 
 Veget.l.z.afylum. The officers and foldiers of the legions 
 c - 10 - depofited their money where the eagles were 
 planted, and the Eagle-bearer had the care of it. 
 S^et. in The Emperor Domitian prohibited the depofi- 
 vit.Domit. t j n g above a thoufand crowns there, hecaufe he 
 afcribed the revolt of Lucius Antonius to the 
 eafe he found in difpofing of considerable fums 
 that were in the keeping of Eagle-bearers of the 
 legions under his command. When the army 
 had gained a victory, and on public feftivals, 
 the Roman eagles, and the enfigns with the Em- 
 peror's head upon them, were adorned with 
 flowers and laurels, and the moft exquifite per- 
 fumes were burnt before them. 
 
 Conftantine, after having renounced Paga- 
 nifm, knowing that thefe extraordinary honours 
 fuited only the Divinity, cauied the crofs to be 
 planted upon the top of the ftandards, and to 
 be embroidered upon his own, which was that 
 
 of
 
 Chap. III. OF TH E R O M A N S. 247 
 
 of the general, called in Latin Lai arum. It 
 was of purple with a gold fringe round it, and 
 refembled a fmall banner : it was affixed to the 
 top of a pike, and never planted but when the 
 Emperor was with the army. 
 
 In die firft times of Rome, the enfigns of 
 her armiea were only a bundle of grafs or hay 
 fattened to the end of a pole, which was called 
 in Latin Manipulus fani^ and occafioned theVarr. 1. 5. 
 name of Maniple to be given the companies thatP ' 
 followed thefe enfigns. When they were laid ' 
 afide, the companies ftill retained the lame 
 name, and thofe they afterwards took, were 
 the wolf, the minotaur, the horfe, the boar,Plin.l. 10. 
 and the eagle. According to Pliny, it was the 
 Conful Marius who chofe the eagle alone for 
 the principal enfign of each legion : for befides 
 the eagle, each cohort had its own in the form 
 of little banners of purple, in which dragons 
 were painted. Every maniple and century had 
 alfo theirs of the fame colour, upon which were 
 letters denoting the century, cohort, and legion. 
 
 R 4 CHAP-
 
 248 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 I. Of the cavalry. II. Of the military inftru- 
 merits of mufic. III. Of the cmraffes cf the 
 Romans. IV. Arms of the borfe. V. Of the 
 Fencing-makers to the armies. VI. Of the 
 Preztorian foldiers. VII. Of the pay of the 
 Pmtorian foldiers. VIII. Of the time that 
 the foldiers were obliged to ferve. IX. Of lift' 
 ing the foldiers. 
 
 I. A S to the cavalry of each legion, it was di- 
 tt>6ea?\ vided, as we have already faid, into ten 
 
 al&, the fame number as the cohorts. Each 
 ala had three captains, who chofe three horfe- 
 men, who were called, as in the foot, Yergidu- 
 ftores, and ferved them as lieutenants. The 
 pol>'b.l.6.firft of thefe three captains commanded the ala, 
 and was called PreftBui. He ranked above 
 the minor Tribunes or colonels of foot. The 
 other two were called Decuriones^ and in the ab- 
 fence of the Praefect, the firft of them com- 
 manded the ala. Each Decurio had two and 
 thirty men under him. The cavalry had alfo 
 colours and ftandards, which were made like 
 the enfigns of the foot, with this difference, that 
 they were blue, and in the form of ftreamers. 
 
 II. As to their military inftruments, the Ro- 
 Oftbe mi- mans had three forts-, trumpets, which were 
 
 ftrajt, and with which the charge and retreat 
 were f un ^ e d * the buccin<z, which were turned 
 Polvb. L 6. round like the French horn, and ufed in the ge- 
 neral's prefence for giving the fignal of battle, 
 or for the punifhment of fome foldier ; and the 
 cornet, which was only the horn of the wild ox 
 tipt with filver, which was founded to fignify 
 
 the
 
 Chap. IV. OF THE ROMANS. 249 
 
 the command to the enfigns, becaufe its found 
 was heard a great way ; kettle-drums and the 
 common drum not being ufed at that time in 
 their armies. The legions were diftinguifhed 
 according to the order in which they were raifed ; 
 as the firft, fecond, third, and fo on. They 
 had alfo epithets, which were given them on 
 account of fome fignal action , as Fttlminans, 
 Macedonica, Parthica. A legion was compofed 
 of four forts of foldiers exclufively of the horfe ; 
 the Velltes^ Haflati, Principe s^ and 1'riaru, which 
 were diftributed according to their years. The 
 youngeft and pooreft formed the Ptlites ; their p ]yb. 1. 6. 
 pay was alfo lefs than that of the other foldiers. 
 Thefe were the light-armed troops, who were 
 called alfo Antejignani) becaufe they were polled 
 before the enfigns in the front ranks, and began 
 the battle. Their defenfive arms were a little 
 round buckler of a foot and an half in diameter. 
 They had a kind of little helmet made of ftrong 
 leather, covered with the fkin of fome wild 
 bead, as the wolf, &c. but no other armour, in 
 order to their being more active and inftant in 
 their motions. Their offenfive arms were the 
 fword, a javelin, of which the wood was about Ibid, 
 the thicknefs of an inch, and three feet in lerrgth, 
 with a point nine inches long, but fo fmall, that 
 it could not be returned with effect againft the 
 fide from whence it was difcharged. Some of 
 the Velitcs were armed with flings, which they 
 ufed only in fkirmifhing ; and they were per- y v> j g t 
 mitted to fly, not having any defenfive arms for 
 coming to blows with the enemy. They were 
 pofted at firft in the rear of the army, and from 
 thence advanced to the front ranks. Sometimes 
 they were placed in the intervals of the firft line, 
 from whence they fkirmifhed between the two 
 
 armies,
 
 2co MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 armies, and when the charge began, they reti- 
 Dion Caff red" behind the line, and there discharged their 
 1. 60. d&rts or ftones with a fling, over the heads of 
 the troops in front, which they could do with 
 the greater facility, as thofe front ranks were of 
 r.o great depth. Before the inftitution of the 
 Velitcs^ the firft line of the legion ac~led as light- 
 armed foot, and for that purpofe fought by 
 platoons. The Velltes were generally uied for 
 accompanying the horfe upon hafty expeditions. 
 This kind of foldiers were not inftituted till the 
 fecond Punic war : they were equally diftribu- 
 ted amongft the troops, and had no particular 
 commander. According to Livy, there were 
 twenty in each maniple, which made fixty to a 
 cohort, and fix hundred to a legion, when it 
 confifted of fix thoufand men. Before the Veli- 
 teSy the troops which formed the light-armed 
 Lit. 1. 8. infantry were called Rorarii and Accenfi. The 
 Velites were laid afide, when the freedom of 
 Rome was granted to all Italy, and a different 
 kind of intantry fubftituted to them, which 
 were employed however in the fame operations, 
 and confided of flingers and fuch as difcharged 
 the javelin with their hands. Thofe who were 
 older than the Veiites, were called Haftati, or 
 heavy-armed foot : for they wotre helmets of 
 brafs, upon the creft of which was a plume of 
 three red or black feathers, a foot and an half 
 high. Their bodies were alfo covered either 
 with a coat of mail, or with a euirafs of brafs 
 or fteel, made with leaks like thofe of a fifh, 
 and ib artificially put together, that it gave 
 way with ail the motions of the body. Their 
 thighs and arms to the elbow were covered in 
 the lame manner, and the fore-part of the leg 
 was armed with a kind of bufkins of ftrong 
 
 leather.
 
 Chap. IV. OF THE ROMANS. 251 
 
 leather. Polybius tells us, that thofe who were Polyb. 1. 6. 
 not worth above feventy-five pounds, wore on- 
 ly a brafs bread- plate of twelve inches fquare 
 which ferved them inftead of a cuirafs. But in 
 procefs of time they were armed like the reft. 
 Befides this armour, they had a buckler of four 
 feet long and two and an half broad ; which 
 the fame author defcribes very particularly. He 
 fuys it was compofed of two pieces of very light 
 wood, poplar or willow, glued together with 
 ox-glue, covered with a coarfe cloth glued alfo, 
 and over all a calf-fkin. The fides, of it were 
 plated with iron, as well as the middle, which 
 was raifed in a round form, for turning afide 
 and fuftaining the mofl violent blows of (lones 
 and darts. Their offenfive arms were the Spa- 
 nifh two edged fword, to ufe the terms of P 
 lybius, equally proper for cutting or thrufling. 
 The blade of it was (brong quite from the point. 
 They wore this fword in a, belt on the right 
 fide, and a dagger on the left with two. mifiive 
 weapons, of which the one was a javelin, and 
 the other a dart ftronger than the javelin, called 
 Hafta, from which thefe troops took the name 
 of Haftati. , for this word Hafta cannot be ex- 
 plained by any other than the general name of 
 this kind of weapon,, which was a dart that was 
 difcharged, and not a pike or fpear. The 
 wood of this kind of dart was fquare, as well 
 as the iron, which was of the fame length as 
 the wood, and fharp only at the point. Appi- 
 an makes this difference between the dart and 
 the javelin ;, which latter was, as we have feen, 
 lighter and much weaker, though both were 
 difcharged with the hand. After the Haftati 
 came the line of the troops called the Princip.^ 
 heavy-armed as well as the former, and having 
 
 for
 
 252 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 for offenfive arms, the fword, the dagger, and 
 great darts. We may obferve in all the accounts 
 Tac, 1. 1 4. of battles given us by the Roman hiftorians, 
 that the Haftati and Principes, after having dif- 
 charged their darts, made ufe of their fwords : 
 which proves that they did not ufe the pike, 
 and that what is called Hafta, was a miffive 
 weapon. Accordingly, we do not find, that 
 the Haftati or Principes were oppofed in action to 
 horfe, as the Triarii were, who were armed with 
 a kind of fhort pike or fpear, of which the iron 
 was long and ftrong, called Pilum, from whence 
 they were called Pilani. Thefe laft were in the 
 beginning the only heavy-arined troops, the 
 other not wearing compleat armour, as they did 
 afterwards. They were called Vriarii, becaufe 
 they formed the third line in the order of battle. 
 But according to the new difpoficion introduced 
 by Marius, they were pofted in the front. They 
 were alfo the oldeft and richeft citizens, and 
 had the eagle carried before them. At the bat- 
 Pi ut. in tie of Pharfalia, Csefar oppofed the Iriarii to 
 
 vit.J.Csf.p om p e y s cavalry, wno endeavoured to fur- 
 round the tenth legion, and commanded them 
 to point their mort pikes, or pila, at the faces 
 of thofe horfe. The ufe of pikes in the Roman 
 infantry was not introduced till long after the 
 
 Flor. 1. 2. Emperors reigned. Florus obferves, that after 
 the defeat of Philip King of Macedonia by the 
 Romans, the Macedonians were aftonifhed at 
 the terrible wounds on the bodies of their dead, 
 which could only be made by heavy fwords and 
 great darts, and by arms much ftronger than 
 HI thofe ufed by the Greeks. 
 
 Ofthecul- The cuirafles of the Romans were of difte- 
 
 raffaoftberent kinds, but all fo made as to fit the fhape. 
 
 Montfauc 
 
 '
 
 Chap. IV. OF THE ROMANS. 253 
 
 rings of iron ftrongly inferred into each other j 
 and others of fcales of brafs. The mod com- 
 mon were of thick leather ftrengthened on the 
 outfide with circular pieces of the fame, or plates 
 of iron, as they are reprefented upon the pil- 
 lars of Trajan and Antonine, and with long 
 ftraps of leather one above another, hanging at 
 the bottom of the corflet. There were other 
 lighter cuiraffes made only of many folds of 
 linnen cloth one over another, or of flax made 
 llrong enough to refift weapons. As to their 
 fhields, they were ufually of an oval form : 
 mod of the Roman legionary troops however 
 had fquare ones about two feet and a half long, 
 convex without and concave within, by one 
 foot and a half broad. The form of them 
 was changed after Polybius wrote, but their 
 matter was always the fame. Furius Camillus 
 caufed them to be plated with iron, in order 
 to their keeping off blows the better. This 
 hollow form feemed mod commodious to the 
 Romans for making what they called the Tor- LIT. 1. 10. 
 toife, in covering themfelves with their bucklers, 
 difpofed like tiles, when they gave the affault 
 to a place. They found its effect fo good, that 
 they retained the ufe of it long. As to the 
 fize of their bucklers, it varied, as we find by 
 the difference between what Polybius tells us of 
 them, and later writers fay. Their fhields dif- 
 fered according to the different bodies of troops 
 that compofcd the legion. We have faid al- 
 ready, that the light-armed foldiers had fmall 
 round ones. The Haftati had great ones, four 
 feet long by two and a half broad. The latter D j 
 compofed the firil line when the Tortoife was]. 49, 
 formed in the open field. The manner of ufing 
 
 the
 
 254 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book HI, 
 
 the buckler was an exercife taught the foldiers, 
 as well as that of throwing the javelin. 
 VI - As to the horfe, in the beginning they had 
 no ^efenfive arms except an indifferent buckler 
 Polyb. of ox-hide, and for offenfive arms only a weak 
 1. 6. javelin. But as it was perceived in the fequel, 
 that they were too much expo fed in confe- 
 quence, they were armed after the manner of 
 the Greeks, that is to fay, at all points : even 
 their horfes had armour on the breaft and flanks. 
 The horfeman wore an open helmet, upon 
 which was a great plume of feathers, or fome 
 other ornament inftead of it. His armour was 
 either of mail or fcales, and covered him to 
 his elbow and knees, with gauntlets, and a 
 ftrong fhield His offenfrve arms were a ftrong 
 javelin tipt with iron at both ends, and a fword 
 much longer than that of the foot. Polybius 
 gives us this defcription of the armour of the 
 Dion Hal. Roman cavalry. Dionyfius Halicarnafienfis 
 1. 8. c. lo-obferves upon the advantage of thefe great 
 ftrong fwords in the battle of Titus Siccius a- 
 gainft the Volfci in the 26yth year of Rome. 
 I have already faid, that the horfe did not ufe 
 ftirrops, and that their faddles were flat with- 
 out holders ; fo that they had nothing to keep 
 them firm, but their manner of fitting. To 
 mount, they were obliged to leap on horfeback 
 compleatly armed ; whieh was always diffi- 
 cult, though they were ufed to it. They were 
 taught to mount both on the right and left fide. 
 Montfauc.lt was not the cuflom to fhoe their horfes, tho* 
 t h ev ^d t j ie j r mu i es> The Romans had alfo 
 archers in their cavalry ; but without armour, 
 that they might be tl^e more aftive. They had 
 only a quiver full of arrows, a bow and a 
 fword : thefe were a kind of light horfe. There 
 
 were
 
 Chap. IV. OP THE ROMANS. 255 
 
 were no archers amongft the Roman infantry, 
 but many amongft the auxiliary troops. 
 
 The Romans were long ignorant of all the 
 advantages to be made of cavalry, which for 
 that reafon was little numerous. They re- 
 lied folely upon their foot, in which they made 
 their principal force confift, till the arrival of 
 Pyrrhus in Italy with well-difciplined troops 
 firft made them perceive by his manner of 
 fighting the advantage of horfe. Hannibal 
 fully convinced them of it to their coft : for it 
 was by the fuperiority of his cavalry, and his 
 manner of ufmg it, that he gained fo many 
 victories over them. They were indebted to 
 thefe two great captains for their knowledge of 
 the art military, of which they had but a very 
 imperfect: idea before. We find in Polybius, p lyb.l.i 
 that Xanthippus the general of the Carthagini- 
 ans owed the famous victory, which he gained 
 over Regulus, folely to the fuperiority of his 
 cavalry to that of the Romans, and the ufe he 
 knew how to make of it *, and that Regulus had 
 defeated the Carthaginians, only becaufe their 
 generals had not improved that advantage. 
 
 When the foldiers appeared difarmed in fome 
 pomp or public ceremony, they wore only neat 
 fmall fwords, gilt with filver or gold, and Herod, 
 hanging in a flight belt. We have already feen 1 - z ' 
 that none were admitted into the Roman troops 
 till feventeen years of age ; that to be a legionary 
 foldier it was neceffary to be a Roman citizen ; 
 and that during a very confiderable length of 
 time, freed men and artificers were not received 
 into the armies, except upon great exigencies. 
 But they made no difficulty to admit hiifband- 
 men, provided they were citizens ; confidering 
 them as men enured to labour, and fit for fuf- 
 
 taining
 
 2 -6 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III, 
 
 Appian.de taining the fatigues of war. The great want of 
 Bell. Civ. foldiers which the Romans were under in the 
 war with the allies, obliged them to admit freed- 
 men into the fervice, who from thenceforth re- 
 tained that privilege. Befides the foldiers lifted 
 into the legions, there were alfo others called in 
 Latin Ttrones^ that is to fay, apprentices. Thefe 
 were fupernumeraries, who were not deemed to 
 be lifted, bccaufe they did not take the military 
 oath, till they were received into the legions in 
 the room of the dead, or of thofe who had com- 
 pleated the term of their fervice. They were 
 however maintained and taught the military ex- 
 ercifes at the expence of the Commonwealth, till 
 they became legionary foldiers, and ferved in 
 V. the mean time in the light-armed troops. The 
 Fencing- Conful Rutilius Rufus, in the 647^ year of 
 tuaftersto Rome, during the war with the Cimbri and 
 '"' armies ' Teutones, inftituted fencing- mafters to the ar- 
 mies, for inftructing young foldiers in the ufe 
 of arms. The old foldiers had that office 
 before: but the Conful conceived, that men 
 who mould have no other employment, would 
 form better difciples. 
 
 Under the Emperors, not only the children 
 of the Roman citizens, but thofe alfo of all free 
 ^erfons, were obliged to prefent themfelves, 
 when there were orders for levying troops. The 
 belt made and mod robuft were chofen. The 
 names of fuch as were chofen were fet down ; 
 and either a mark was made on their fkin by 
 pricking it, or a bit of lead was hung on their 
 breads. It is not known when this cuftom be- 
 gan , but it was obferved in the time of Dio- 
 Yj cleflan. The Emperors occafioned the inftitu- 
 of a new body of troops, called the Prce- 
 torian Cohorts, the number of which was not 
 
 lets
 
 Chap. IV. OF THE ROMANS. 257 
 
 lefs than nine. They confided of about ten 
 thoufand men, but were fometimes more nume- 
 rous. They were fblely defigned for the guard 
 of the Emperors, who however could employ 
 them for the guard of their wives and children ; 
 but it was not cuftomary for the Praetorian fol- 
 diers to guard any befides the Prince. This 
 body of troops was commanded by the Prce- 
 feftus PrcstoriO) as I have already faid in fpeak- 
 ing of that officer : he had Tribunes and Centu- 
 rions under him. Thefe troops' were almoft 
 all infantry, with very few horfe. Some co- 
 horts of ftrangers were alfo admitted amongft 
 them, as the Alemanni, Batavi, and 'Thracians. 
 Tacitus tells us, that they had alfo fome archers 
 amongft them, whom he fays Otho took with 
 him, befides thofe of his guard. The Prsetori- yjj 
 an foldiers had double pay : inftead of the De- p a . f O f t j }t 
 tiarius of ten ajjes^ which was the ufual pay ofPratorian 
 other foldiers, they had two, and privileges'"'- 
 which the others had not. At length, abufing j 
 the power they were fuffered to afllime, they 
 carried it fo far as to elecl: and dethrone feveral 
 Emperors, without regard to the Senate, whom Suet - n 
 they obliged to approve and confirm thofe they vit. Oihon 
 proclaimed, unlels the armies on the frontiers Claud. & 
 had elected others, and fupported them. Tiberius r^ , 
 caufed a camp to be erected for them clofe to j. ^ 
 the city, fortified with good works like a for- 
 trefs, where they ufualiy encamped. The Em- 
 peror Conftantine demolifhed this camp after 
 having entirely broke thefe troops. Auguftns 
 gave thefe troops the name of Prsetorian co- 
 horts, politically to amuie the People, who 
 were accuftomed to that name, and to ftrength- 
 en his power by that means without noife. 
 For antiently during- the Commonwealth the 
 S generals
 
 258 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 generals of the armies had a cohort of chofen 
 foldiers for their guards, which was called the 
 Prastorian cohort, becaufe they did not quit 
 the general's perfon, who was generally either a 
 Contul or a Praetor j and in the beginning the 
 name of Prsetcr was given alfo to the Confuls, 
 as has already been faid. 
 
 The Emperor Septimus Severus very much 
 augmented the Prastorian troops, and formed 
 them out of the braved foldiers of the provin- 
 cial legions, contrary to the cu&om obferved 
 till then, of taking them only out of thofe of 
 Italy. He decreed alfo, that the recruits for 
 that body of troops mould be drawn out of the 
 legions. Auguftus alfo eftablifhed a kind of 
 troops in Rome to remain always there. They 
 were compofed of feven cohorts, who were quar- 
 tered in the city, and paid at the public expence. 
 Suet, in Thefe foldiers were named Vigiles^ becaufe they 
 vit. Aug. were to W atch anchremedy diforders and fires 
 which might happen. Their commanckr had 
 the title of PrasfecT: of the city, and was elected 
 out of the order of the Knights. 
 VIII. The foot were obliged to ierve fixteen years, 
 '** and the hotfe ten. After the age of forty-fix 
 foUiers tne Y were no longer admitted to ferve as fol- 
 ivtreob- diers, and if they were in the fervice at that age, 
 ligtd to or na d completed the term prelcribed by the 
 T^'i iJ aws > tne Y were at liberty to retire. But when 
 Ibid, they de firecl to continue longer in the. fervice, 
 they were ranked in the number of veterans or 
 voluntiers ; for fo they were then called. They 
 had peculiar privileges, and were exempt from 
 works and duty, except only when the queftion 
 was to oppofe the enemy. As to furlows, they 
 made no difficulty to grant the foldiers leave to 
 be abfent for ten months. The great extent of 
 2 the
 
 Chap. V. of THE ROMANS. 
 
 the empire, of which the frontiers, where the 
 armies ufually incamped, were very remote, 
 made it neceffary indeed to grant a considerable 
 time. A foldier had no other * judge but his 
 officer ', the laws prohibited bringing him to 
 any other tribunal. Auguftus decreed, that the 
 Praetorian foldiers fhould not be difmiffed till 
 after twelve, and the others till after fixteen, 
 years fervice. As long as the Commonwealth 
 had no regular troops, fhe had no occafion for 
 fuch regulations. She did not begin to have a 
 certain number of legions on foot, till the war 
 with Pyrrhus. Till then the Senate decreed the 
 levies, fome fhort time before it was neceflary 
 to take the field. The Confuls or officers ap~ IX, 
 pointed to make them, immediately proceeded Of l**y'* 
 to lift the foldiers, and all the citizens capable p^^Ti 
 of bearing arms were obliged to be prefent. 
 Thofe who feemed mod fit for the war were 
 chofen, and the number of legions that were ne- 
 ceflary, formed out of them ; and when the 
 campaign was over, the troops were difmifTed. 
 The fame was done the next campaign ; fo that 
 on every new occafion a new army took the 
 field: and the campaign often lafted no longer Dion. Hal 
 than the time that was requifite for making an^ j & J' 
 incurfion into the enemy's country, to ravage it, 
 and carry off all that they could, cattle, grain, 
 and the inhabitants, whom they made flaves. 
 
 * Bardiacus judex datur haec punire volenti, 
 Calceus, & grandes magna ad fubfellia furze, 
 Legibusantiquis caftrorum, & more Camilli 
 Servato, miles ne vallum litiget extra, 
 Et procul a fignis. Juv. Sat. XVI. 
 
 A booted judge Jhall Jit to try bit caufe, 
 
 Not by the ftatute, but by martial laws ; 
 
 Which old Camillui ordered, to confine 
 
 he brawlt of foldiers to the trench and line. Dry den. 
 
 S 2 After
 
 260 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 After that, the troops marched back with their 
 booty to Rome, and were difbanded. But if 
 the enemy had alib an army on foot, affoon as 
 they came in view of each other, a battle en- 
 fued, the event of which alfo put an end to the 
 campaign, that confequently was not very long, 
 unlefs it was neceffary to befiege feme place, 
 which generally took up a confiderable length of 
 time ; efpecially when the place was naturally 
 ftrong, and provided with troops and provi- 
 fions. For the Romans in thofe days did not 
 TV Hal know rr.oft of the machines of war. Thefe in- 
 1. 6. c. 2. curfions induced the Romans in the early times 
 Liv. 1. 5. to build little forts in the mod advantagious 
 parts of the Roman territory, where they left 
 fome troops in garrifon, to ferve as an afylum 
 for the hufbandmen and inhabitants of the coun- 
 try, who took refuge in them with their bag- 
 gage and cattle, affoon as the enemy appeared, 
 and abandoned their houfes, which were then 
 only a kind of cottages. During the whole 
 time that the Commonwealth gave her troops no 
 pay, it is no wonder that the citizens who com- 
 pofed them, were defirous to return home affoon 
 as poffible, in order to cultivate their lands, and 
 follow their profeffions. And this was a fuf- 
 ficiently powerful motive to determine them to 
 ihorten the campaign in this manner, and to 
 prevent them from having legions always on 
 foot. However, when the Commonwealth had 
 extended her conquefts in Italy, me perceived 
 the neceffity me was under of having troops al- 
 ways on foot, to awe the people newly fubjected 
 to her power, and always feeking occafions to 
 revolt from it. 
 
 CHAP-
 
 Chap. V. OF THE ROMANS. 261 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 I. Of the ignorance of the fir ft Romans in the 
 art of war. II, Of the military difcipline. 
 III. Caufes of the infolence of the Roman fol- 
 diery. IV. ExaEinefs in paying the troops. V. 
 Of the troops of which the armies were com- 
 tofed. 
 
 IT was not only in the attack of places, that 
 the Romans had little experience at 
 time ; they were even ignorant of the danger i , a 
 
 r i > i i - of the firft 
 
 there was in expohng themlelves on the plain, R om ans in 
 againft an enemy fuperior in cavalry. They the art of 
 were alfo ignorant of the manner of avoiding a ~ Mar - 
 battle, either by advantagious incampments, or 
 by marches or counter- marches. They confide- 
 red the leaft delay as a want of courage, and 
 made the whole art military confift folely in 
 an obftinate and favage courage, having had to 
 deal till then only with neighbours as little ex- 
 perienced as themfelves. But they difcovered 
 their errors in their wars with Pyrrhus and Han- 
 nibal. Of the firft they learnt the order of in- 
 campments, and the manner of employing ca- 
 valry ; and of the other, the ftratagems, and 
 true fcience of war. They knew fo well how 
 to improve from their leflbns, and rendered 
 themfelves fo expert, that in the fequel they 
 excelled all other nations in them. Military . 
 difcipline was during a long time fo exact and 
 fo fevere amongft them, that victory itfelf was 
 a crime, when obtained without the general's 
 order : their hiftory has many examples of this 
 kind, Scipio Africanus was the firft, that foftened 
 S 3 this
 
 262 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 this miftaken feverity , and afterwards it was 
 II. confined within due bounds. It is certain that the 
 Of the ml- military difcipline of no nation ever excelled 
 Jifchline tnat f tne Romans, and that it has fi nee ferved 
 as the model for the beft governed States. Au- 
 guftus, perceiving that the fecurity of a State 
 depends in a great meafure upon military difci- 
 pline, was extremely intent upon maintaining 
 it, after he became quiet pofleflbr of the em- 
 Suet, in pire. He caufed the cohorts that had quitted 
 vit. Ag- their pofts to be decimated ; and ordered that 
 nothing but barley mould be given them for a 
 certain time, inftead of the corn which was 
 ufually diftributed amongft them for their fub- 
 fiftance. Officers were forbade to quit their 
 pofts upon pain of death : but if the faults were 
 Jefs confiderable, he contented himfelf with 
 fome (light punimment ; as to make them ftand 
 an whole day in the Preetorium, and fometimes 
 in only a fingle tunic, that is almoft to fay 
 Val. Max. fhirt, carrying poles or turf. In the time of 
 J - 2 - c - 7- the Commonwealth the foldiers were alfo deci- 
 mated for great faults ; and for thofe of a fmaller 
 nature, they were condemned either to barley 
 bread, or reduced to an inferior rank in the 
 Liv 1 2 tro P s - ^ tne y were Haftati they were made 
 to ferve amongft the Velites. It muft be owned 
 indeed, that military difcipline was not always 
 obferved with the fame ftridnefs, and that the 
 foldiers were fometimes treated with too much 
 indulgence and impunity ; but that remifihefs 
 proceeded either from the avarice of the gene- 
 rals, who were too attentive to their private 
 jntereft, or the heads of the contending parties 
 Plut. in during the civil war. Sylla enriched his fol- 
 vit. Syll. diers ^h t h e e fi- ates O f t h f e he profcribed : 
 BeTov.^cl the ufurpers of the empire endeavoured to 
 
 , conciliate
 
 Chap.V. OF THE ROMANS. 263 
 
 conciliate their favour, for their own fupport. 
 Thofe ambitious citizens rendered the Roman 
 foldiery little docile, and even infolent, by 
 careffes and prefents which they made 
 doubling even 'their pay, as the ufurper Macri- Roman 
 
 nus did. ^S\ 
 
 Under the Emperors, the avarice of the Cen-jJ c -*' 
 turions introduced the abufe of felling furlows'm vit. 
 fometimes, and even exemptions from workMacrin. 
 and fatigues, like thofe enjoyed by the Vete- 
 rans. Tacitus informs us, that this abufe began Tac. Ann. 
 to take place about the beginning of the reign 1 i. 
 of Tiberius. It augmented continually in the 
 fequel, fo that all the foldiers who had money, 
 could exempt themfelves from military labours, 
 which did not a little contribute to deftroy that 
 excellent difcipline, which had rendered the 
 Romans fo formidable. 
 
 The effect of thefe exemptions was, to give 
 birth to idlenefs amongft the foldiers, and ren- 
 dered them in confequence more difpofed to ca- 
 bal amongft themfelves. And accordingly we 
 find, that mutinies were more frequent in the 
 army under the Emperors, than during the 
 Commonwealth. What alfo favoured them, 
 was the cuftom of the different armies of the 
 empire, to contract a kind of alliance or con- 
 federacy with each other, which ferved only to 
 augment their boldnefs, in making infolent 
 demands , or forming parties. When one 
 army defired to enter into fuch a league with 
 another, they fent a deputation to it, compofed 
 of one or more centurions, attended by fome 
 old foldiers, with the figure of two hands join- 
 ed together, a fymbol of the union to be 
 formed between them. 
 
 S 4 However,
 
 264 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 However, notwithftanding all thefe diforders, 
 the military difcipline did not fail to fupport 
 itfelf during a great length of time : for altbon 
 as the Empire fell into better hands, it refumed 
 VulcGall.all its vigour. Avidius Caffius, general in the 
 J " YJ r - reign of Marcus Aurelius, caufed it to be ob- 
 fl 'ferved fo ftrictly, that he forbade his foldiers to 
 carry any other provifions for their fubfiftance 
 except bacon, bifcuit, and vinegar ; and the laft 
 day of every week he infpected their arms and 
 habits, to fee whether they were in good condi- 
 Herod.l.3.tion, or wanted repair, and made them perform 
 the exercife. Septimus Severus, though a fuffi- 
 ciently exact obferver of difcipline, permitted 
 the legionary foldiers to marry, and their wives 
 to follow the army, which was an additional in- 
 Lamprid. cumbrance. However, under Alexander Seve- 
 in vit. ruS) wno fucceeded next, difcipline was again 
 ev 'fo exactly obferved, that if any foldier ftrag- 
 gled in order to plunder, he caufed him to be 
 icourged with rods in his prefence, or even 
 condemned him to die. A foldier who was a 
 carpenter, having injured an old woman, was 
 broke at the head of his company by the Prince, 
 who condemned him to ferve that woman, and 
 and to maintain her by his work. The fame 
 Emperor faid, that a foldier feared nothing 
 when he was well cloathed, well armed, well 
 fed, and had his belt well furnifhed, that is to 
 fay, had money, for they generally carried their 
 IV. purfes in their belt. The Romans always took 
 J.xaSnefi care to p a y t i ie j r troops regularly. The Com- 
 A&///W** rnonwealth began about the 347th year of Rome 
 .uv. i. 4 to give the infantry pay, upon account of the 
 length of the fiege of Veil ; for the foldiers fer- 
 ved before at their own expence. The foot at 
 firft had three affes a day, and fix for each Cen- 
 turion,
 
 Chap. V. OF THE ROMANS. 265 
 
 turion. Five or fix years after, they began toPolyb. 1.6. 
 give the cavalry pay alfo, and each horfeman 
 had three times the pay of a foot foldier ; which 
 was afterwards augmented to two oboli, or two 
 thirds of a denarius for the infantry, and an 
 whole denarius for the cavalry : but under the 
 Emperors, the pay of each foot foldier was one 
 denarius , and the horfe had two. The denarius 
 was a filver coin, that weighed a dram, as we 
 have faid before. The Commonwealth in fome 
 times fupplied the troops with wheat gratis, al- 
 lowing each of the foot about four bufhels per 
 month, and each of the horfe twelve, on ac- 
 count of his fervants, and almoft two and forty, 
 bufhels of barley for his horfes. At other 
 times, all this was deducted out of their pay : 
 but under moft of the Emperors, they had their 
 pay without any deductions. It was not the 
 fame in refpect to their habiliments, with which Tac - 1- 
 they were indeed fupplied, but the price of them 
 was deducted out of their pay, as well as of 
 their arms and tents. 
 
 The Roman armies were more or lefs nume- v. 
 rous, according to occafions -, but they were z\-Oftbe 
 ways compofed of three bodies. The firft were tro P s f 
 
 IT, * i . i i , 'which the 
 
 the Roman legions, into which none were %&- arm i es 
 mitted but citizens: the fecond were the troops, were re- 
 called allies, which the States of Italy furnifhed,/^- 
 and which ferved during the Commonwealth y '* 
 without pay, except only corn, that was given 
 them. For when Rome received any city or 
 province into her alliance, it was always upon 
 condition of fupplying troops when demanded, 
 and of maintaining them at their own expence ; 
 as me did with the JEqui in the 289th year of 
 Rome. And laftly, the third body was com- Dion Hal. 
 pofed of auxiliary troops, fent by ftrangers r 1 9- c - '5- 
 
 thefe
 
 266 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 thefe were paid daily during the Commonwealth. 
 Till the time of the Emperors, the armies were 
 commanded either by the Confuls, Praetors, or 
 Proconfuls, with one or more lieutenants under 
 them. The horfe had a peculiar commander, 
 but always fubordinate to the Dictator, who ap- 
 pointed him : he was called Magifter cquitum^ 
 that is to fay what we call General of the caval- 
 ry. Julius Caefar entirely fupprefled this office. 
 Polyb. 1.6. There was alfo an officer called Prcsfeffus, who 
 , had the care of encampments, and fortifications 
 of the camp, and of the fick and the carriages. 
 We have already feen that the Quasftors dif- 
 charged the functions of our treafurers and com- 
 miflaries of war. 
 
 CHAP-
 
 Chap. VI. OF THE ROMANS. 267 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 I. Of encampments. II. Of the difpofition of the 
 camp. III. Of the foldiers manner of living. 
 IV. Of decamping. V. March of Vefpafian's 
 army. VI. Condition of a foldicr, highly con- 
 fidered. 
 
 FR OM the time that the Romans had learn- i. 
 ed the form, difpofition, and fortifications Of m- 
 of a camp from Pyrrhus, their manner of ^.^.campments- 
 camping was almoft always the fame. They oy 
 gave their camp a fquare form, and at each 
 front there was a gate, fo that there were four 
 in all. Aflbon as the army arrived at the place 
 where the camp had been marked out, the firfl 
 thing that was done was to make the foldiers 
 throw up the intrenchments : for they never en- 
 camped without intrenching to prevent furprize. 
 Thefe intrenchments confifted only of a ditch 
 five feet wide, and three deep, of which the 
 earth was flung up on the fide next the camp, in 
 order to form a kind of rampart, which they 
 ftrengthened with turf and palifades, when they 
 were to ftay in it only one or two nights. But 
 if they were to make a longer ftay in it, they 
 dug a trench from eleven to twelve feet in 
 breadth, and proportionable depth, behind which 
 they erected a rampart of earth, ftrengthened 
 with fafcines, covered with turf, and flanked 
 with towers at the diftance of fourfcore feet from 
 each other, with parapets and battlements, in 
 the fame manner as the walls of a town. The 
 foldiers were accuftomed to thefe works, and 
 threw them up without quitting their arms ; 
 which was fo feverely enjoined them, that the 
 
 general
 
 268 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 Tac. l.i i. general Corbulo, who commanded upon the 
 Rhine in the time of the Emperor Claudius, 
 caufed two foldiers to be put to death, who had 
 worked upon the intrenchments of the camp, 
 the one without a fword, and the other armed 
 II. only with a dagger. The tent of the Conful, 
 Praetor, or general, was pitched in the proper- 
 
 Pol'bT' 6 ^ P^ ace f r f eem g tne whole camp, and in the 
 Jofeph. de midft of a fquare, of which each fide was an 
 bell. Rom. hundred feet diftant from it, and the tents of the 
 general's guard were pitched at each corner of 
 this fquare. The Prgtorium, or general's tri- 
 bunal, was inclofed in the fame place as his 
 tent. The hiftorian Jofephus fays, that it 
 had the form of a little temple : it was here 
 he difpenfed juftice. There were alfo other 
 places in the camp, where the principal officers 
 adjudged the differences that arofe between the 
 foldiers. We find in Polybius that three centi- 
 nels were potted before the Qureftor's quarters, 
 Polyb. 1.6. which was called ^ueeftorium^ where the milita- 
 ry cheft was kept. Two were alfo pofted be- 
 fore the quarters of thofe fent by the Senate to 
 ferve as the general's council, who were common- 
 ly Senators, upon whofe experience they could 
 rely. Another tribunal made of earth and turf 
 was erected in the principal efplanade or fquare 
 of the camp, from whence the general harangued 
 in public : for amongft the Romans, the general 
 prepared and encouraged his troops by a dif- 
 courfe, which he made to them previoufly to 
 p . Iat '?i an Y confiderable action. The quarters of the 
 
 vit. Syll. * ,. ., j . n * , 
 
 Pomp. & camp were divided into ftreets, that ran in a 
 
 Cxi. line, with fquares in different parts of them, 
 
 Jofeph. de w here provifions and other neceffaries were fold, 
 
 ell. Rom - t h ere being fhops in them kept by all forts of 
 
 Veget. l.i. artificers, who always followed the armies in 
 c. z & 18. greac
 
 Chap. VI. OF THE ROMANS. 269 
 
 great numbers *, fo that the camp formed a kind 
 of city, where the fpace of two hundred feet 
 was left between the camp and the intrench- 
 ments, in order that the troops might draw up 
 behind them for their defence in cafe of an at- 
 tack. In this void fpace the cattle for the fub- 
 fiftance of the camp were kept. 
 
 The Romans always had armies upon thesuet. in 
 frontiers of the Empire, in peace as well as war,vit.Aug.& 
 with this only difference, that they were not fo lb> . 
 numerous in time of peace : they encamped the & ' 
 whole year, winter as well as fummer. Care 
 was taken, that the camps mould be well forti- 
 fied, and fupplied with all kinds of munitions 
 of war during the winter. For they found, that 
 the fortified cities did not fuffice for the fecurity 
 of the frontier provinces againft the incurfions 
 of the Barbarians -, and that thefe bodies of 
 troops, which were always in readinefs to 
 march, and in condition to act, were the beft 
 method for keeping them in awe, and prevent- 
 ing their irruptions. Befides which, exercifing 
 the foldiery continually in military labours, fer- 
 ved to maintain difcipline, and rendered them 
 more capable of fupporting the extraordinary 
 fatigues, which happened during war : for when 
 it is neceflary to act, troops kept in exercife are 
 lefs fubject to difeafes, than thofe who take the 
 field after long reft and inactivity. Befides T ac \ ,4. 
 thefe cantoned armies, the Romans ufed to Veil. Pat. 
 form colonies of citizens and old foldiers upon 1 - l - c - 5- 
 the frontiers, and in the provinces newly con- 
 quered, in order to awe the People. Affoon asp lyb. 1.6. 
 it was day, the foldiers of the camp went tojofeph. 
 falute their Centurions, who afterwards waited 1 - 3- c - - 
 upon the Tribunes, and accompanied them to 
 the general, when he gave them the word, and 
 j the
 
 270 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 the necefiary orders, which they carried to their 
 Appian.de inferiors. When the Tribunes went to receive 
 Bell. Civ. ^ g enera } s orders, they prefented him the 
 ill. r M of thofe who ferved under them. In a 
 Of the word, every thing was fo well regulated in the 
 fa/tiers camp, that the hour for going to fleep was 
 living. fi xe d, as well as thofe for meals, which they 
 Polyb. 1.6. made all together by tents, not being allowed 
 Jofeph. to eat feparately. Their food ufually was ba- 
 1-3 c.6. con ^ cnee f eanc l bifcuit ; and their drink water 
 Spart. in mixed with a little vinegar. Many authors tell 
 vit. Add. us, that generals and even fome Emperors lived 
 HeKxl. no better^ whilft with the army ; but none 
 mention either the abundance or elegance of their 
 tables. The Emperors however often invited their 
 Trebell. officers to eat with them ; and Trebellius Pollio 
 Poll.in vit. informs us, that they took off their belts with 
 en ' their fwords in them, before they fate down 
 with the Emperor. But the fon of Gallienus 
 whilft a child, feeing the belts adorned witli 
 gold, which fome of the officers had left in the 
 hall of the palace, whilft they ate, carried them 
 away. Thofe officers not finding them, dared 
 not complain ; but being invited again to the 
 Emperor's table, they took off neither their 
 belts nor their fwords, left they mould be taken 
 away again , and from thenceforth the officers, 
 to whom the Emperors did that honour, ate 
 with their fwords on. 
 
 * c 15 obferved that the Emperor Adrian 
 marched at the head of the legions on foot in 
 his arms, and that he lived in the fame manner 
 Herod.l.2.as his foldiers. The Roman hiftory mentions 
 many others who did the fame. 
 
 The foldiers in the camp, when not on duty, 
 exercifed themfelves in the management of their 
 arms. They fixed ftakes up for this purpofe, 
 
 againft
 
 Chap. VI. OP THE ROMANS. 271 
 
 againft which they practifed with a fhield and a 
 ftaff, inftead of a fword, both heavier than their 
 ufual arms, in order that the latter might ap- 
 pear lighter in their hands when ufed. In like 
 manner, to render their arm the ftronger, they 
 threw a bar, which was heavier than the dart. 
 They alfo mot with the bow, difcharged flones 
 with the fling, and exercifed themfelves in run- 
 ning compleatly armed. The horfe in like 
 manner exercifed their horfes, and endeavoured 
 in their career to hit a buckler fattened to a poft 
 with their javelins. Polybius informs us in whatPoIyb. 
 manner Scipio Africanus exercifed his troops in I0 * 
 Spain : the firft day he made the legions run 
 about four thoufand paces, armed at all points ; 
 the fecond he employed them in cleaning their 
 arms before their tents ; the third he let them 
 reft; the fourth he made them fight, one fide 
 againft the other, with a kind of fihjs ; and the 
 fifth thefe exerciles began again in the fame or- 
 der : by this method he kept tbiem always 
 breathing, and fit for fervice. On irelieving the 
 pofts at every watch in the night, t he trumpets 
 were founded : the centinels cried 01 it from time 
 to time in order to be heard, ancl to let each 
 other know that they were awake -, and every 
 morning the trumpets founded beibre the ge- 
 neral's tent, which was a mark of h onour pecu- 
 liar to him. The fignal for decamping was IV. 
 alfo given by this inftrument ; aiid immedi-/^f" 
 ately after the general's tent was ftruck, t\\t cam ** K ' 
 foldiers ftruck theirs. Thefe tents v/ere made of 
 leather, one to every ten foldiers. They then 
 made up their baggage. At the fecond found 
 of the trumpets they loaded it ; and on the 
 third the army began to march, afte r having fet 
 fire to their camp, that the enemy might not ufe 
 
 it.
 
 272 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 it. No author has clefcribed in fo dear and 
 
 circumftantial a manner the march of a Roman 
 
 army, as the hiftorian Jofephus. At the time 
 
 of which he fpeaks, their difcipline was in its 
 
 Tofeph. de greateft perfection. It therefore cannot be bet- 
 
 Bell. Rom. ter related than in the terms of his defcription, 
 
 which is as follows. 
 
 When the army prepares to march, none are 
 fuffered to (lay behind, in order that every one 
 may march in his poft. An herald then who is 
 near the general, afks them three times, whe- 
 ther they are in readinefs to fight, to which they 
 anfwer as often by cries to exprefs their joy, or 
 elfe by lifting up their hands : after which they 
 move in good order, without ever breaking 
 their ranks. 
 
 The fame author tells us, in what manner 
 they were armed. The foot, fays he, have hel- 
 mets and cuirafles, and each carries two fwords, 
 of which that on the left fide is much longer 
 than that on the right, which is only a dagger, 
 being no more than a palm in length, or nine 
 inches. We have feen above, that Polybius 
 places the long fword on the right fide, and the 
 dagger on the left. The chofen troops, who 
 attend the general's perfon, have fpears with 
 great fhields, and all the reft of the foot have 
 darts with long bucklers ; and in a kind of wicker 
 cafes, a faw, an hedge-bill, an hatchet, a pick- 
 ax, a fickle, a chain or leather thongs, and 
 bread for three days ; fo tbtat they are fcarce 
 Polyb. lefs laden than horfes. Polybius fays, that the 
 1- 1 7- Roman foldiers carried their bucklers hanging 
 at their backs, their darts in their hands, betides 
 a (lake to ferve as a palifade in their intrench- 
 ments, and on fome occafions three or four, 
 bound together like a faggot. Thefe flakes 
 
 were
 
 Chap. VI. OF THE ROMANS. 27$ 
 
 Were not fmooth ; they chofe them full of 
 branches, of which they left three or four on* 
 but only on one fide, which fervedj as they 
 were planted near one another, to interweave fo 
 as to form an hedge, and to bind them fo firmly 
 together, that one could not be pulled up fepa- 
 rately , fo that a paflage could not be made 
 through them without cutting them down, 
 flowever the relievo on Trajan*s column repre- 
 fents thefe Hakes like thofe now ufed for pali- 
 fades, and planted very near to each other. We 
 may judge how much the Roman foldiers were 
 enured to fatigue j for they were obliged to 
 carry all this, befides their arms and cuiraf- 
 fes. Marius to avoid the trouble, which tooF>n'ti$ 
 much baggage occafions in the march of an J< 4* 
 army, and to eafe the troops, caufed every fol- 
 dier to make up his equipage and provifions in- 
 to a bundle, which he carried upon his moulders 
 with a fork, that lightened the load, and af- 
 forded him means of reft ing himfelf with 
 greater eafe. It was on this account, that the 
 foldiers of that general were called Marius's 
 mules. To avoid incumbrance, horfes and 
 mules were ufed in the armies for carrying the 
 baggage and ammunition rather than waggons* 
 Several Emperors however, and amongft others 
 Alexander Severus, made the fervice of the 
 troops more eafy, in permitting them to caufef 
 their provifions and baggage to be carried in 
 waggons. Urider the Emperor Gordian, forj u j. Capita 
 the greater conveniency, magazines of wheat, in vit. 
 barley, ftraw, bacon and vinegar, were erected ^ord. 
 in all the frontier cities of the empire : the 
 whole munitions of the Roman armies con- 
 fifted in thofe things. Thefe magazines were 
 more or lefs confiderable, in proportion to the 
 T cities
 
 274 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 cities where they were eftabli fried , in order thnt 
 the armies might not be diftrefied for their fub- 
 fiftance. Vopifcus repeats a fragment of a let- 
 ter of the Emperor Aurelian's, from which it 
 appears that each century had a mule to carry 
 their common baggage. 
 
 As to the Horfe, on the right fide they wore a 
 fword, long in refpecl: to thofe of the foot, 
 which were fhort. They carried a fpear in 
 their hands, a fhield flung on the fide of their 
 horfes, and a quiver with three, and fometimes 
 more, darts in it, of which the points were very 
 broad ; thefe darts were not fhorter than jave- 
 lins j which ieems to argue that the darts were 
 ufually not fo long as the javelins. Their cui- 
 rafs and helmet were like thofe of the foot. 
 Thofe who attended the general, were armed 
 like the reft ; and lots determined which troops 
 fhould be pofted in the front of the army. 
 
 After the hiftorian Jofephus has given us all 
 thefe particulars in refpect to the Roman army 
 under Vefpafian, he defcribes their march as 
 follows. 
 
 Y The auxiliary troops, as the moft lightly 
 I/larch of armed, marched firft to fuftain the fkirmifhes 
 Vtfpafiaris of the enemy, and reconnoitre the woods and 
 army. other places, where they might have planted 
 ambufcades. Part of the Roman foot and 
 horfe followed, and ten foldiers of each compa- 
 ny with their arms and the things neceflary for 
 forming a camp. The pioneers came next, to 
 level the roads, and cut down the trees that 
 'might retard the march. The baggage of the 
 officers, with a body of cavalry to guard it, 
 followed. Then came Vefpafian, with chofen 
 troops both of horfe and foot armed with jave- 
 lins. Sixfcore men were drawn out of each 
 
 great
 
 Chap. VI. o P T H E R O M A N 
 
 great body of horfe for that purpofe. The 
 machines for taking places were the next ; and 
 then the tribunes and captains accompanied by 
 chofen foldiers. After them was feen the Impe- 
 rial eagle , furrounded by the other enfigns, on 
 which were the images called facred. The 
 trumpets and clarions followed ; and then the 
 main body in columns of fix in front, with the 
 officers appointed to make them keep their 
 ranks, and obferve difcipline. The fervants of* 
 each legion attended the foldiers, driving the 
 mules and horfes laden with their baggage, for 
 which permiffion had evidently been granted be- 
 fore this time. In the rear of all were the futlers, 
 artifans, and other mercenaries, efcorted by a 
 confiderable body of horfe and foot. The Ro- 
 rrian foldiers had fervants ; but that great num- 
 ber of fervants, far from incommoding the army* 
 ferved it on occafion, as a fupply of forces, 
 being all prepared to fecond their mafters on 
 occafion. 
 
 As none could attain offices, during the Com-p iyb.l.6. 
 monwealth, till they had ferved ten years, That 
 induced the young Nobility, and the fons of the 
 rich to enter themfelves in the troops, indepen- 
 dantly of the general obligation of all the Ro- 
 man citizens to ferve in the army, when occa- 
 fion required. Hence the Roman foldiery con* vi. 
 lifted of a great number ofperfons of diftinction , Condition 
 which placed the condition of a foldier in m 
 
 t i /- j i i * 
 
 higher consideration, than it is at this time. It 
 feems alfo to have been the will of the Com- 
 monwealth, that the generals mould take great 
 care to fpare the lives of the Roman foldiers, 
 provided that ftrictnefs of difcipline did not 
 fuffer by it, as me did not grant the honour of 
 a triumph to a general, except when victory had 
 not cqjft him much blood. 
 
 T 2 The
 
 276 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 The honours annexed to the Civic crown, 
 which was the reward of him who faved the 
 life of a citizen in battle, diffidently exprefifed 
 how grateful that fervice was to the Common- 
 wealth. The Emperors had not the fame atten- 
 tion ; though the condition of a foldier was in 
 no lefs confideratlon under them, in effecl: of 
 the power which the armies arrogated to them- 
 felves of electing Emperors, and the hope 
 which a private perfon might have, not only of 
 attaining the firft offices of the army, which 
 could be done only by degrees, but even the em- 
 pire itfelf, as happened to many. However, 
 Eutr. I. - unc j er f u ch princes as caufed military difciplineto 
 Herod, be obferved, we find the centurions treated the fol - 
 1. 6. diers with abundance of feverity and even cruel- 
 ty, as appears from the reproaches made by the 
 _ foldiers of Germanicus on that head in a fedi- 
 
 tion, which arofe in his camp in the beginning 
 of Tiberius's reign. 
 
 The hiftorian Jofephus differs with Polybius, 
 in refpect to the fwords, which the latter fays 
 they wore on the right fide, and the former on 
 the left : however, we ought not to be furprized 
 at thefe differences, no more than at thofe 
 which we find in feveral things upon the monu- 
 ments of antiquity and in other authors. Thefe 
 differences arife, as has been already obferved, 
 only from thofe of time : for cuftoms have ad- 
 mitted various alterations, as we have feen in 
 refpecl: to the horfe, who at firft had no cuirafs, 
 which they afterwards had. But it is certain, 
 that in all thefe different times, the fwords of 
 the horfemen were always longer than thofe of 
 the foot ; on which fact Dionyfius Halicarnaf- 
 fenfis and Jofephus agree, as well as concerning 
 the fwords of the foot, that were not long, in 
 i effecl
 
 Chap. VI. OF THE ROMANS. 277 
 
 effect of their cuftom of fighting clofe covered 
 with their bucklers : but it is impoflible to treat 
 this matter with the utmoft exactnefs. For the 
 reft, it is certain that the fwords were very 
 broad, and that they cut both with edge and 
 point. Tacitus, in the hiftory of the Emperor Tac. Hift. 
 Otho, relating the battle of Bebriacum, fays, * 2 - 
 that the foldiers, who were upon the caufey of 
 the great road, pumed each other with their 
 bodies and bucklers, cutting their helmets and 
 cuirafies with axes and fwords. Dionyfius Ha- 
 licarnaflenfis gives us the fame idea in his de- 
 fcription of the combat of the Horatii and Cu- 
 riatii, and in many other parts of his hiftory. 
 But all this does not prove, that the blades of 
 the fword were only thirteen or fourteen inches 
 long, as thofe pretend, who adhere too fcrupu- 
 Joufly to antient ftatues and relievos. There 
 feems more reafon to believe, that the fculptors 
 rather conformed to the magnitude of the blocks 
 of marble which they cut, or their own conve- 
 niency, than to the juft proportion of the arms 
 of thofe times, which might have been incon- 
 venient to them in their works, if they had 
 ric~tly confined themfelves to the truth. 
 
 T 3 G H A P-
 
 178 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 J. Of the machines ufed inftead of artillery, II. 
 Of fortifications. III. Of the tortoife for 
 feeding watts. IV. Manner of attacking places. 
 
 V. Of mines made for throwing down ramparts. 
 
 VI. Of the tortoife in the open field. VII. Of 
 the order of battle. VIII. Military will. 
 
 I. '""'' H E machines which they ufed inftead of 
 Machines A artillery followed the armies, as we have 
 a?'* luft feen in the march of Vefpafian. They were 
 
 Jteaa of J . J 
 
 artillery, drawn upon carnages, lome put together and fit 
 for fervice, and others in pieces, becaufe too 
 grofs to be reared any where except on fome 
 folid place, as upon towers, ramparts or plat- 
 forms. They confided in the effect of the pow- 
 ers of motion, -and were ufed either for dif- 
 charging ftones and darts, or for battering walls 
 and ramparts in order to (hake and throw them 
 down. Thofe, of which moft knowledge is 
 come down to us, are the ram, the wolf, the 
 tortoife, the balifta, the catapulta, and the 
 fcorpion; the two laft were almoft the fame 
 thing. The ram was compofed of a large long 
 beam, armed at one end with iron in the form 
 of a ram's head, and of the fame bignefs with 
 the beam. This piece of wood was fufpended 
 by chains in (equilibria, in order to be fet in mo- 
 tion with the greater eafe. An hundred men, 
 more or lefs, worked it by main ftrength, to 
 make it ftrike againft a wall or rampart, in 
 order to beat them down after having lhaken 
 them by repeated blows. Care was taken to 
 cloath this beam with wet leather to prevent its 
 
 being
 
 Chap. VII. OF THE ROMANS. 279 
 
 being fet on fire. It was flung under a kind of 
 moving tortoife or gallery, which covered more 
 than half of it, in order to fhelter thofe who 
 worked the ram from the darts and ftones of 
 the befieged. The latter generally oppofed it 
 with wool-packs, or facks full of ftraw, at the 
 place where it (truck in order to deaden the blow, 
 and prevent its effect. A machine was alfo Ve g et -M- 
 made ufe of for this purpofe called the wolf, c ' I4 " 
 by way of oppofition to the ram, with which 
 they endeavoured to grapple it in order to draw 
 it to themfelves, or break it. The tortoife was 
 alfo another fort of machine, which we muft 
 not confound with that the foldiers made with 
 their bucklers. It was ufed as the ram, and 
 made in the fame manner, except that at the 
 place where the ram's head flood, its beam was 
 armed with a piece of iron, bent in the man- 
 ner of a claw, with which ftones were pulled 
 out. Both the ram and tortoife were generally 
 covered with a moving gallery of carpenter's 
 work, mounted upon broad and low wheels, 
 for pufhing it forwards or drawing it back at 
 difcretion, and covered with clay or turf, to 
 prevent its being fet on fire. 
 
 The Balifta was a very large engine in the 
 nature of a crofs-bow, with which they difcharged 
 ftones that weighed fix-fcore pounds. Jofephus 
 relates, that at the fiege of Jerufalem there 
 were baliftas of fufficient force to throw ftones 
 two ftadia. Appian fays, that Sylla, in theApp'an.de 
 war with Mithridates, had engines of this kind,Bell.Mith. 
 that difcharged twenty large leaden balls at 
 once. The fame engine was alfo ufed for dif- 
 charging large darts called Falarica, or fire- 
 darts, of which the end was armed with a large 
 (quare point of iron, three feet long, and very 
 T 4 iharp,
 
 280 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III, 
 
 fharp, wrapt round with tow fteeped in oil, 
 fulphur and other combuftibles, which were dif- 
 charged blazing. They had alfo another kind 
 of fire-darts, called Trtfax, from having three 
 points : it was difcharged by another kind of 
 machine called Catapulta. That called a Scor- 
 pion, was alfo a fmall crofs-bow carried in the 
 hand, and fo called, becaufe the iron points of 
 the darts it difcharged were extremely fmall and 
 fharp like the fting of the fcorpion. However 
 we find in Ammianus Marcellinus, that a ma- 
 chine for throwing flints and other ftones was 
 called alfo Scorpion. 
 
 Com.Csef. The Romans as well as the moderns knew the 
 1. 7. ufe of crow-feet for incommoding the cavalry, 
 and of pontons for palling rivers. The pon- 
 tons, which were little boats, were placed upon 
 wheels, and ufed as waggons to carry the bag- 
 gage. They were taken off the wheels, when 
 it was neceffary to make bridges of them, 
 II. As to the manner of fortifying places, it 
 Cfforti- confided in furrounding them with walls, of 
 g reater or j e f s height and thicknefs, with battle- 
 ments at top, and flanked with towers at the di- 
 ftance of fourfcore or an hundred feet from each 
 other, and fometimes without fofses round them. 
 But the beft- fortified had broad and deep ones, 
 with draw-bridges at the gates, which were 
 alfo defended by towers. They had no occafion 
 for any other defence for advanced works, there 
 being no machines that produced fuch terrible 
 effects as thole of powder. 
 
 The attack of places depends on the man- 
 ner in which they are fortified : thus when there 
 were no fofses, and the walls were not very high, 
 {hey immediately endeavoured, to fcale them by 
 
 the
 
 Chap. VII. OF THE ROMANS. 281 
 
 the means of the tortoife. It was formed in Iir. 
 different manners, and on different occafions : 
 that for fcaling confifted in making the fol- 
 diers advance by platoons to the walls, clofingTac. 1 3. 
 their ranks and covering their heads with their & .4- 
 bucklers ; fo that the firft ranks {landing up- 1Vl 44 * 
 right, and the laft on their knees, their buck- 
 lers difpofed one above the other like tiles, form- 
 ed all together a kind of floping roof, upon 
 which all that was thrown from the top of the 
 walls flid off without hurting the troops under- 
 neath. In thefe operations the hollow bucklers 
 ufed by the infantry, were more ufeful and com- 
 modious than any other. Upon this roof of 
 bucklers other foldiers were made to mount, 
 who covering themfelves in the lame manner, 
 endeavoured to drive away thofe who appeared 
 on the walls with their fpears, and to get upon 
 them by raifing up one another. When the 
 walls were too high to be fcaled by the tortoife, 
 they had recourfe to ladders, which they placed 
 againft the walls and ramparts, and climbed up, 
 under favour of the arrows, darts, and (tones 
 difcharged againft thofe who defended them. 
 For this purpofe they had ladders of different 
 forms, always higher or lower by two feet than 
 the walls they intended to fcale. Befides the 
 ufual ladders, there were others which took in 
 pieces, and fome made of cords, with iron 
 hooks at the end of them, to lay hold of the 
 walls. There were others that folded together 
 by opening and fhutting j and fome that had a 
 little fentry-box at top, into which fome one 
 was put to difcover in fafety what the enemy 
 were doing upon the rampart. As the moft jy. 
 ufual manner of attacking places was by efcalade, Manner of 
 pains had been taken tQ invent whatever could ^tacking 
 
 facilitate^"'
 
 282 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 facilitate the fuccefs of it : for there was ftili 
 another kind of ladder, that ran upon wheels, 
 to be moved forwards or drawn back occafio- 
 nally, on the top of which was a little bridge 
 for pafiing to the ramparts, when there was a 
 ditch at bottom. If there was water in the fof- 
 fes, they had others planted in barks ; thefe they 
 called Sambuca. When the place was too well 
 fortified to be taken by efcalade, they furround- 
 ed it with lines of circumvallation, and even 
 contravallation, if they apprehended being at- 
 Comm tac ked from without. They afterwards erected 
 Cf. 1. 7. platforms or cavaliers as high as the walls, and 
 as near as pofiible to the befieged, upon which 
 machines for difcharging darts and ftones were 
 planted. They alfo ufed moving towers of 
 wood, which were made to approach the ram- 
 parts, and on which foldicrs were placed who 
 Tac. 1.12. difcharged ftones and darts, under favour of 
 which the fofse was filled up, and the rams 
 brought forwards to make a breach. Thefe tow- 
 ers were covered with plates of iron at the parts 
 moft expofed, in order to make them lefs liable 
 Liv. 1. 23. to fire. The foldiers carried on their works un- 
 der the cover of certain mantelets, called Vima 
 Veget.l.4.sf Pluteus. The firft was fixteen feet long, 
 eight broad, and feven high, and was compofed 
 of planks of a light wood covered with hurdles, 
 and over them with raw hides or a little earth to 
 defend them from fire. The other was made 
 only of hurdles of ofiers, covered with nothing 
 but raw fkins, and fixed on three wheels, the 
 one in the midft, and the two others at the two 
 ends, for the facility of turning it any way. 
 The troops carried on their approaches, and the 
 workmen broke ground under thefe mantelets : 
 befides which to flicker them from the darts and 
 
 ftones,
 
 Chap. VII. OF THE ROMANS. 283 
 
 ftones, curtains made of large cords or cables Ca?f. de 
 were placed before the workmen, which laft in-j* 11 - C1V - 
 vention had a wonderful good effect againft the ' 2< 
 difcharges of ftones. The foldiers ufed alfo 
 another precaution to break and deaden their 
 force : this was to cover their helmets with 
 wicker. 
 
 Though the Romans did not know gun-pow- v 
 der, they however made ufe of mines for demo- Mines for 
 liming walls. In order to that, they dug 
 kind of cares under the works they defigned 
 throw down ; and in proportion as they advanced 
 under the foundations, they prop'd them with 
 pieces of wood, covered with combuftible mat- 
 ter to which they fet fire ; and as thofe props 
 confumed, the walls, that had nothing to fup- 
 port them, fell in, and in that manner formed 
 a new breach for an afTault, befides thofe made 
 by the rams and tortoifes. The befieged in that 
 cafe, when it was in their power, and they were not 
 prefied too hard, threw up other intrenchments 
 and new walls behind thofe thrown down, which 
 were attacked in the fame manner. 
 
 Befides the ram and tortoife, all the other 
 machines of which we have now fpoke were 
 equally ufed in attacking and defending places. 
 For the defence of places againft aflaults and 
 efcalades, the befieged employed great ftones, 
 wheels, and even waggons with four wheels full 
 of heavy things, which they rolled down from 
 the top of the works upon the befiegers, as they 
 did tuns full of earth, and cylinders of ftones. 
 They made ufe alfo of all kinds of artificial 
 fires, compofed of the moft combuftible mat- 
 ters, in order to fet on fire the machines of the 
 enemy. When they approached the ramparts, 
 
 they
 
 284 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 they alfo threw boiling oil and burning fand, 
 prepared exprefsly at great fires, upon them. 
 The engineers, in defending places, ufed not 
 only the machine called the wolf, that was made 
 like fheers and nippers, with which they endea- 
 voured to feize or break the ram -, but invented 
 new ones, according to occafion, for oppofing 
 thofe of the befiegers, as the famous Archime- 
 des did in the defence of the city of Syracufe 
 againft the Romans. 
 
 Befides the tortoife mentioned above, there 
 was another of a different kind, which the troops 
 formed with bucklers in the open field, to de- 
 fend themfelves againft darts and arrows. Ac- 
 Plutinvit. cording to Plutarch, M. Antony ufed it againft 
 Anton, the Parthians, to cover himfelf againft the pro- 
 Dio Caff. cljgi ous quantity of arrows, which they dif- 
 ' 4 yj charged upon his troops. That tortoife w;is 
 Of the tor-ma.de in this manner: the legionary troops took 
 tolfe in ^the light-armed troops into the midft of them : 
 open fold, tno f e j n tne front ran k. had one knee upon the 
 ground, holding their bucklers upright before 
 them , thofe of the fecond rank put their fhields 
 over the heads of the firft , and thofe of the 
 third covered the fecond in the fame manner. 
 The reft did the fame, taking care to place 
 their (hields one above another, as tiles are ran- 
 ged, fo that they formed a kind of roof with 
 their bucklers, which being a little hollow, join- 
 ed eafily into each other, and thereby meltered 
 them from the arrows, and principally from 
 thofe difcharged in the air, as the Parthians 
 (hot them. 
 
 When a battle was refolved on, the fignal 
 Vegtf.1.3, , - a . r 
 
 c r - was made by homing a red coat or arms over 
 
 the general's tent. 
 
 Though
 
 Chap. VII. OF THE ROMANS. 285 
 
 Though the order of an army in battle, and VII. 
 the difpofition of the troops, depend on the fi- rder f 
 tuation of places, circumftances, occafions, and att e ' 
 even the manner in which the enemy are drawn 
 up , however each nation had its peculiar man- 
 ner. Scipio Africanus, as Polybius informs us, 
 drew up his troops in his battle with Afdrubal in 
 Africa in the following manner. According to p ty bl 
 the cuftom of the Roman difcipline, he placed l ^' 
 the Haftati in front, the Principes next, and the 
 Triarzi in the rear. He ported the Italian ca- 
 valry on the right wing, and the Numidians on 
 the left : which mews, that it was the cuftom 
 of the Romans to draw up their armies in three 
 lines, of which the third was the rear-guard or 
 body of referve. The Roman legions always Polyb. 1.2. 
 formed the main body, or centre of the army, p 2 ^ 01 "- 
 the oldefb legion having the right. The allies " 
 and auxiliary troops compofed the two wings : 
 the Roman horfe, divided by brigades, was 
 pofted fo as to cover the right wing, and that of 
 the allies the left : each wing was commanded 
 by a lieutenant-general. The army of PompeyPlminvit. 
 was thus drawn up in three lines at the battle of p m P- 
 Pharfalia. Every foot-foldier occupied five foot 
 of ground, that he might have room to move 
 his arms and to act : and care was taken to leave 
 a certain fpace between the Haftati^ and Princi- 
 pes who formed the iecond line, did not keep 
 fuch clofe order, and occupied more ground ; 
 in order that if the Haftati were broke, and 
 obliged to give way, they might retire amongfl 
 'the Principes^ without putting them into confu- 
 fion, or difordering their ranks. The Triarii, 
 who compofed the third line, obferved the fame 
 method. The Velites were placed in the fpaces 
 
 between
 
 286 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III 
 
 between the battalions of each line : they advan- 
 ced and began the battle by fkirmifhing, as has 
 been faid already. 
 
 The manner of fighting of the firft Romans 
 was by platoons, each compofed of a maniple. 
 Marius changed this order of battle, and formed 
 battalions confifting either of three maniples, or 
 an whole cohort. 
 
 The general ported himfelf in the centre be- 
 tween the Principe s and Iriarii, accompanied by 
 his guards and the veterans, who, at his requeft, 
 continued to ferve under him : for which reafon 
 they were called Evocati. They were diftribu- 
 ted fometimes amongft the ranks to animate and 
 Polyb.l.3.f u ftain the new foldiers. It was cuftomary be- 
 fore they armed for a battle, to rub themfelves 
 with oil, in order to render their members more 
 fupple and active, and lefs fenfible to cold in 
 Winter. 
 
 Plut.invit. The army did not fail before they began the 
 g rut - . action, to facrifice to the Gods, in order to render 
 vie. Ccef. them propitious ; and the arufpices confulted the 
 entrails of the victims, to know the event of the 
 battle. It was at this inftant, that the officers 
 VIII. and foldiers, who defired it, made their wills by 
 Military w ord of mouth in prefence of their comrades. 
 There was no occafion for any other ceremony 
 in military teftaments, which were received in 
 law, and declared as valid as others. But on- 
 ly thofe whofe names were upon the roll of the 
 troops, had this privilege : thofe who only fol- 
 lowed the armies did not enjoy it. Before be- 
 ginning the action, the Conful or general ha- 
 rangued the troops to encourage them to behave 
 Tac. 1. 2. well ; but not as hiftorians repeat thofe difcour- 
 fes. For moft authors, writing in the times 
 2 when
 
 Chap. VII. OF THE ROMANS. 287 
 
 when the art of eloquence was highly in efteem, 
 have endeavoured, in adorning and enlarging 
 them, to leave pofterity proofs, that they were 
 not kfs excellent orators than hiftorians. When 
 the difcourfe was at an end, the trumpets found- Dio Caff. 
 ed the charge, and the troops immediately raifedl. 47. 
 a great cry in token of alacrity, which was cal- 
 led the cry of war. 
 
 As long as the Romans made war at the 
 gates of their city, it was the cuftom to carry 
 the wounded thither, who were diftributed Tac. 1- 4. 
 amongft the richer citizens, none endeavouring Llv - * * 
 to exempt themfelves from that care and ex- 
 pence. There were no phyficians in thofe times - 
 at Rome, who, as every body knows, were 
 afterwards furgeons alfo. During the Common- 
 wealth, there were none in the Roman armies : 
 the foldiers drefled each other's wounds with 
 known remedies ufed in the city. The antient 
 citizens, who had almoft all ferved in the ar- 
 mies, did the office of phyficians. It does not 
 appear that under the Emperors, there were any 
 phyficians in the armies, as there are furgeons in 
 ours , but the Emperors carried their phyficians 
 to the army with them. The Romans, in the 
 time of the Commonwealth, did not ranfom the 
 prifoners of war, conceiving a facility in that re- 
 fpec~b might be of dangerous example ; and that 
 it was better to leave them under the neceffity 
 of conquering or dying, As to the booty, the 
 oath thofe in the camp were made to take, not 
 to fecrete any thing, and to deliver every thing 
 they found into the hands of the Tribune, was 
 fo religioufly obferved, that none failed to car- 
 ry the plunder they took to the Tribune of each 
 legion. This was publicly fold, and the money 
 
 diftributed,
 
 288 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 diftributed, not only to the troops who had 
 been prefent in the adtion, but to the foldiers of 
 the fame army, who were either fick, or had 
 been detached on fome other expedition. If 
 the army happened to be divided into two bo- 
 dies, as was ufual when fome city was to be 
 plundered, that which continued under arms, 
 had an equal fhare in the fpoils with the other 
 that took them : fo well was difcipline ob* 
 ferved. 
 
 CHAP-
 
 Chap. VIII. OF THE ROMANS. 289 
 
 CHAPTER VIIL 
 
 I. Of military rewards. II. Of military puni/b- 
 ments. III. Degradation from bearing arms. 
 
 IV. What was obferved on quitting the fervice. 
 
 V. Severity of the military difcipline. VI. Of 
 the triumph. VII. Of the conditions necejfary 
 to obtaining a triumph. VIII. Defcription of 
 triumphs. IX. Of the ovation, cr lejfer tri- 
 umph. X. Of the Feciales. 
 
 GREAT actions were foon followed with 
 rewards, in order to infpire the troops 
 with emulation, and at the fame time with va.+ rewar *' 
 lour. But the habitude of poverty, which the 
 firft Romans had contracted, and the fimplicity 
 of their manners, occafioned only valour, and 
 not beneficial rewards, to be annexed to parti- 
 cular actions of valour, that were recompenfed 
 with crowns of different kinds. When a gene- 
 ral had deferved a triumph, one only of laurel 
 was given him, which he wore on the day of 
 his triumph. But in proportion as that antient 
 fimplicity decreafed, and the riches of the Com- 
 monwealth augmented, magnificence began to 
 appear. For in procefs of time, the crowns of 
 the generals who triumphed were flill of laurel 
 indeed, but enriched with gold wire, and inter- 
 mixed with leaves of the fame metal. Thofe 
 which the provinces and cities fent them, to ferve 
 as ornaments in their triumph, were at firft on- 
 ly of laurel -, but afterwards they were of pure 
 gold. And this was called Aurum Coronarium, 
 which, from being a mere liberality made on 
 the occafion of fome victory gained by the Com- 
 monwealth, became under the Emperors a kind 
 U of
 
 290 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 of tribute or free-gift, as I have faid before in 
 fpeaking of the revenues of the Emperors. The 
 crown given for the lefler triumph called Ova- 
 Liv. 1. 7. tio, was of myrtle : that called Obfidionalis 9 
 which was given to thofe who had delivered 
 Roman citizens from fome fiege, was compofed 
 only of grafs, called in Latin gramen ; which 
 common herb, that is to be found almoft every 
 where, was chofen, in order to exprefs gratitude 
 for fo fignal a fervice upon the fpot and without 
 delay ; the fingular honour annexed to it, ma- 
 king amends for the fimplicity of the reward. 
 Polyb. 1.6. The crown called Mural, was given him who 
 had firft mounted the walls of a befieged city : 
 it was adorned all round with little towers, and 
 was of gold, as well as that called Caftr'fnfo, 
 which in like manner was given only to thofe 
 who had been the firft in forcing the enemy's 
 camp , the ornaments of it reprefented palifades, 
 in order to exprefs by what it had been deferved. 
 The Dictator Aulus Pofthumius was the firft 
 that gave a crown of gold as a military reward 
 to a Roman foldier, who had occafioned the 
 forcing of the enemy's camp near the lake of 
 Regillas. There were alfo crowns for exploits 
 done by fea ; and thefe were called Navales. 
 They were adorned with little beaks of galleys 
 inftead of rays ; and were given to thofe who 
 firft boarded the enemy's mips in a fea-fight. 
 Ibid. The Civic crown was given to him who had 
 
 Tac.l. 12. faved the life of a citizen in battle : it was made 
 of oaken leaves ; and it was neceflary that the 
 perfon whofe life had been faved, fhould atteft 
 the fact. The citizen who received it might 
 always wear it ; and it was in fo much honour 
 at Rome, that when he went to the public 
 games, the Roman Senate and People were 
 
 obliged
 
 Chap. VIII. OF THE ROMANS. 291 
 
 obliged to rife up on his entrance, and he had a 
 place at the Shews amongft the Senators. He 
 was alfo exempt from all public offices, as was 
 his father, and uncle by his father's fide. 
 
 Thefe crowns were not the only marks of 
 honour, with which valour was rewarded : they 
 were only annexed to certain particular actions. 
 There were others for fuch as had alfo given 
 marks of courage, as belts enriched with gold 
 and filver, bracelets of the fame metals, and fine 
 armour. There was alfo another reward, which, Liv. 1. 10. 
 notwithflanding its fimplicity and fmall value, was 
 not the lefs honourable on that account : this was 
 the wood of a fpear, which was called Hafta pura. 
 It retained the fame luftre which it had in thepjutinvie, 
 firft times of Rome for many ages. EnfignsCoriol. 
 were alfo given fometimes : Auguftus made a Suet, in 
 prefent of a blue one to Agrippa, after the vi- viti Au ^ 
 ctory which he gained at fea over Sextus Pom- 
 peius. The horfe had either rich horfe-armour 
 given them, or a fmall horn of filver, which 
 they wore hanging at their breafts. Statues were 
 fometimes erected at the public expence, either 
 in the Capitol, the field of Mars, or feme other 
 place, to perpetuate the memory of thofe who 
 had done fome great exploit. Conquered lands Liv. 1. 13. 
 and territories were alfo fometimes diftributedPlut.invit. 
 amongft the troops, who were difmiffed after ^j- & 
 having compleated the term of their fervice. ^ ac ' j z . 
 During the wars of Pyrrhus and Hannibal, the 
 higheft * reward given a Roman foldier, after 
 
 the 
 
 * Mox etiam fraftis astate ac Ptmica paffis 
 
 Prcelia, vel Pyrrhum immanem, gladiofquc Moloffbs, 
 Tandem pro mtiltis vix jugera bina dabantur 
 Vulneribus. Merces ea fanguinis atque iaboris 
 Nullis vifa unquam mentis minor, aut ingiatae 
 
 Curta fides patriae. . Juv. Sat. XIV. 
 
 U 2 *'2at/
 
 292 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 the expiration of the time of his fervice, was two 
 acres of land, but that was very much augment- 
 Suet. in ed afterwards. Auguftus perceiving the preju- 
 vn. Aug. d^ wn j c h thefe diftributions of lands did the 
 public, and the farther pernicious confequences 
 they might have, decreed, that for the future 
 the foldiers, who had compleated their term, 
 Ihould be rewarded with money, and fixed that 
 of the Praetorian foldiers at five thoufand drach- 
 mas ; and that of the other troops at three 
 thoufand. 
 
 II. If the Romans were fo fenfible of the advan- 
 ^ggg 1^ m ight refult from the care they took 
 . ' to rewar ^ valour, they difcerned no lefs the per- 
 nicious effects with which too much indulgence, 
 in not punifhing cowardice and breach of difci- 
 pline with the fame exactneis, might be attend- 
 ed. When the foldiers fled in battle, or had 
 Tac. 1. 3. mutinied againft their general, they were deci- 
 Liv. 1. i. mated, as we have faid before, and every tenth 
 man upon whom the lot fell, was put to death. 
 Front. 1.4. Frontinus relates, that in Cato's time fuch Ro- 
 man foldiers as were catched in a theft, had 
 their right hands cut off, and as to principal 
 perfons, blood was only drawn from them, in 
 order to punifh them with lefs rigour. In the 
 Confulfhip of Scipio Nafica and Decimus Ju- 
 nius, the deferters of the army were publicly 
 whipped, and fold for (laves. The feditions of 
 the foldiery were punifhed by breaking a legion or 
 
 then old foldiers cover 1 d o'er ixitb fears, 
 (The marks ofPyrrbus, or the Punic 'wars) 
 Thought all paft fer vices rewarded <uW/, 
 If to tbeir jhare at lajl tivo acres fell* 
 (Their country s frugal bounty.) fo of old 
 Was blood and fife, at a low market fold". 
 
 Mr. J. Dry den, junr. 
 
 body
 
 Chap. VIII. OF THE ROMANS. 293 
 
 body of troops with infamy. The fame was 
 done in refpect to a fingle officer or foldier, who 
 had committed any bafe action, that did not 
 deferve capital punifhment. He was degraded m. 
 from bearing arms, as unworthy, and for that Degrada- 
 purpofe had the military belt in which his fword'' */^ 
 hung, taken from him. If he was a Centurion, arms^ 
 he was deprived at the fame time of the vine- 
 branch, which all the Centurions carried in their IV. 
 hands in the time of the Emperors, and ufed Wkat was 
 for chaftifing the foldiers. In the fame manner, {^^ g ^ e 
 when a perfon would ferve no longer, he took fa vice. 
 off his military belt ; and if a Centurion, re- 
 figned his ftaff of vine-branch. If any foldiers 
 quitted their ranks, they were immediately pu- 
 nifhed by the Centurions with their vine-bran- 
 ches , and if they were ftrangers, and not free 
 of Rome, they were made to undergo the 
 fcourge. When an whole body of troops had 
 behaved with cowardice on fome occafion, their 
 wheat was taken from them ; they were redu- 
 ced to live upon barley for a certain time, and 
 were made to encamp without the works of the^jy 1 10 
 camp, expofed to the enemy, and fometimes 
 even without fwords. If a foldier happened to 
 return from battle without his buckler, or arms, 
 it was deemed a difgrace for him, and did not 
 pafs with impunity. If a Tribune was convict- 
 ed of having ilolen fome part of the foldiers al- 
 lowance of corn, he was condemed to die. 
 Even the Confuls and generals of armies wereyai. Max 
 not exempt from punifhment, if they had notl. 2. c. 7. 
 acted with valour, or done any thing repugnant Vel1 - Pat - 
 to the honour of the Commonwealth. This was ' 2 " c ' ** 
 the cafe of the Conful Pofthumius, who, to fave^ ^ - 
 the army, fhut up in effect of his ill conduct military 
 in the pafs called the Furc<s Caudin<z y made an fycipK 
 U 3
 
 294 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 ignominious accommodation with the Samnites; 
 and alfo of the Conful Mancinus, who for the 
 difadvantagious treaty which he had made with 
 the Numantines, was fent to them bound hand 
 and foot. This manner of puniming and re- 
 warding with fo much exaclnefs, was a certain 
 means to form good troops. 
 
 YJ And laftly, the moft exalted of military ho- 
 
 Of t^e nours was the triumph. It was of two kinds, 
 triumph, the great and the lefs : the latter was called O- 
 nation, from the word O-vis, becaufe only a fheep 
 was facrificed in it. The ufe of the triumph 
 began with Rome, as, according to Livy, Ro- 
 mulus her founder was the firft that triumphed, 
 after having defeated the Cecinians and Antem- 
 nates. Plutarch however afcribes the inftitution 
 of it to Tarquinius Prifcus. One of the firft 
 Confuls, Valerius Publicola, had alfo that ho- 
 nour : and Probus was the lafl of the Emperors 
 that triumphed. This pomp fo full of barba- 
 rous and inhuman pride and oftentation was very 
 repugnant to the fpirit of Chriftianity, and in 
 confequence it was abolifhed by the Chriftian 
 Val. Max. Emperors. In the time of the Commonwealth, 
 J. 3. c. 8. it was granted only to Dictators, Confuls and 
 Pra^rors. Thofe who had the command of the 
 armies only by commiffion, without being in- 
 vefted with any ofthefe dignities, were excluded 
 from it. Under the Emperors, only themfelves 
 and their children enjoyed this honour ; leaving 
 nothing more to the generals of their armies, 
 except the ornaments of triumph ; that is to 
 fay, the triumphal robe. This latter diftinc- 
 tion itfclf began to grow very cheap in procefs 
 of time, from their facility in granting it to per- 
 fons who had not deferved it in the leafl. This 
 was a kind of rcbbery committed by them up- 
 i on
 
 Chap. VIII. OF THE ROMANS. 295 
 
 on merit, and did more prejudice to the empire, 
 than they imagined : for in removing the mo- 
 tive of that emulation for glory, which had 
 made fo many great captains in the time of the 
 Commonwealth, they occafioned their becom- 
 ing more fcarce ; and that want, in the time of 
 the irruptions of the Barbarians into the empire, 
 precipitated, if not determined, its ruin. 
 
 The honour of a triumph was not obtained VH. 
 for having terminated a civil war, reduced re-5v *~ 
 
 , , IT i aitions ne- 
 
 bels to obedience, or retaken cities or provm- ceffary to 
 ces, which they had conquered, from them. A obtaining a 
 new conqueft was neceffary to the attainment of /r / 7 f^' 
 it, and that in the victory which the troops of j_ a ,,' c g r ' 
 the Commonwealth had gained, five thoufand 
 of the enemy at leaft, and few of the Romans, 
 had been left upon the fpot. It did not fuffice 
 for the Tribunes, Centurions, and Quseftors to 
 certify this upon oath -, the particular oath of 
 him alfo who demanded the triumph was re- 
 quired. He marched to Rome with his army 
 to make that demand -, but he was obliged to 
 remain without the city, and to divert himfelf 
 of the command of his army , it being the cuf- 
 tom that he mould not enter the city, till he had 
 obtained his demand. The firft thing he did 
 was to fend letters wrapt up in laurel to the Se- 
 nate, which contained an account of his victory. 
 When the Senate judged that it defer ved a tri- 
 umph, they decreed him that honour; but itp o] ^ j 6 
 was neceflary that decree mould be approved by 
 the People, though it was the Senate who de- 
 creed the money neceffary to defray the charges 
 of the folemnity, which was celebrated at the 
 expence of the State. Till the 3O4th year of 
 Rome indeed, the Senate had been the fole dif- 
 penfers of this honour : but at that time, having 
 U 4 refufed
 
 3o.6 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 refufed the two Confuls Valerius and Horatius 
 the honour of triumphs, in revenge for their 
 having favoured the demands of the People, 
 the Tribune Icilius took advantage of that oc- 
 cafion for extending the power of his office, in 
 laying the demand of thofe Confuls before the 
 lay. 1- i. People, who decreed it, notwithstanding the 
 oppofition of the Senate , in gratitude for 
 their fervices. They often granted the fame 
 favour afterwards without the participation of 
 the Senate. At length, when the People were 
 once become the difpenfers of that honour, their 
 Tribunes knew how to render their confent to it 
 neceflary. For if the perfon, who had de- 
 manded a triumph of the Senate, to whom how- 
 ever it was always neceflary to apply firft, was 
 not agreeable to the People, their Tribunes did 
 not fail of a pretext for preventing the executi- 
 on of the decree of the Senate, either by oppo- 
 fition, refufing to propofe it to the People, or 
 even citing him who was to triumph before the 
 People, in order to make him give an account 
 of his conduct *, which at leaft retarded the exe- 
 cution of the Senate's decree, till he had cleared 
 himfelf of the accufation formed againft him. 
 In this manner did thefe magiftrates take ad- 
 vantage of all occafions that arofe for augment- 
 ing their own power at the expence of the Se- 
 nate's : but what rendered the People's confent 
 abfolutely neceflary, was, that in order to do 
 the perfon who triumphed more honour, it was 
 judged proper to confer the command of Rome 
 upon him for the day of that folemnity, which 
 the Senate could not grant alone and without the 
 People. However the power given him upon 
 the day of his triumph, was not fo abfolute, 
 but that the Tribunes of the People had ftill 
 
 fome
 
 Chap. VIII. OF THE ROMANS. 297 
 
 fome authority over him, as appears from what 
 Valerius Maximus relates of the veftal Claudia, Val. Max. 
 who being informed that the Tribunes of thel-s-c. 4. 
 People intended to interrupt the triumph of her 
 father Claudius, whilft he was in proceffion 
 with all the pomp of that ceremony, and to 
 make him mamefully defcend from his chariot, 
 broke through the prefs to approach her father, 
 immediately afcended his chariot, accompanied 
 him to the Capitol, and by that means fecured 
 him from the infult the Tribunes defigned him ; 
 for none were permitted to lay hands upon a 
 veftal, except the great Pontiff. After the 
 day for the ceremony was fixed, the general, 
 who was to triumph, made preparations for 
 rendering his entry as fplendid and magnificent 
 as poffible. It is eafy to believe, that the firft viir. 
 triumphs had in them much of the fimplicity ofDef cr ip- 
 the early times, and of the little riches of the'"!*^, 
 conquered people j but that it was not the fame, Triumph, 
 when the Romans had carried their arms intoScip. Afr. 
 Afia and Africa, from whence they brought off ' m Appian. 
 the riches of the conquerors even of the Eaft csll- 
 and South , which ferved to exalt the pomp, of 
 triumphs, of which the fplendor depended prin- Pomp, 
 cipally upon the rich fpoils of the conquered ^ ld - 
 people. It may be faid, that of all the antient vit ut p m 
 fhews none were fo pompous, fo affecting, fo^mil. 
 foothing, or could better infpire the love ofjofeph. 
 glory, than that of the Roman triumphs. The De T "~ 
 
 TL f 'P ic- 1 um P Vef 
 
 victor, at lun-rile, put on the robe or triumph, na&w. & 
 called Palmata^ becaufe antiently it was en- Tit. 
 riched with certain ornaments of the breadth of 
 the Roman meafure Palmus ; but in the flou- 
 rifhing times of the Commonwealth it was of 
 cloth of gold with a purple ground. It was 
 called alfo Prgtexta, becaufe it had the fame 
 
 form,
 
 298 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 form, and over it was a mantle or robe, called 
 'Toga -pitta, which was of purple, embroidered 
 Plin. 1.15. with figures of gold. The triumpher dreft in this 
 c- 15. robe, and crowned with laurel, of which he 
 held a branch in his right hand, but more 
 ufually of palm, made a fhort harangue to the 
 People, and to his foldiers, affembled without 
 the city. He then diftributed his prefents and 
 part of the enemy's fpoils to thofe who had be- 
 haved valiantly, which his officers and foldiers, 
 after having difplayed in this ceremony, kept 
 with great care, as conflituting the principal or- 
 Suet. in nament of their houies. In the mean time 
 vit. Nero. f ome Senators, preceded by Lictors with their 
 fafces, furrounded with laurel, began the march, 
 followed by trumpets and other inftruments of 
 mufic. Next came carriages full of helmets 
 cuirafles, bucklers, fwords, pikes, darts, jave- 
 lins, bows and quivers full of arrows , in a 
 word, all the richeft and fined arms taken from 
 the enemy, which feemed mingled confufediy, 
 though difpofed with art, and in fuch a manner, 
 that the motion of the carriages, making them 
 ftrike againft each other, formed by their clafh- 
 ing together, a found of war highly fuitable to 
 this martial folemnity. Other carriages follow- 
 ed, in which were the plans of the cities and 
 forts that had been taken, reprefented in gilt 
 wood, wax, or even filver, with infcriptions in 
 large letters -, and great pictures, in which the 
 battle and attacks of places were painted. If 
 there were any ftatues, vafes, or paintings, of 
 value, whether as to the materials or workman- 
 fhip, they were certainly exhibited on this oc- 
 cafion , as were representations of the rivers, 
 'mountains, extraordinary plants, and even Gods 
 of the conquered people. Thefe reprefentations 
 
 either
 
 Chap. VIII. OF THE ROMANS. 299 
 
 either in painting or wax, were borne on a 
 kind of frames by young foldiers crowned with 
 laurel ; and there were perfons who carried ta- 
 blets or fcrolls at the end of long flaves, which 
 gave the explanation of them. If there were 
 animals in a conquered country, that were not 
 known in Italy, they did not fail to make them 
 appear in this pomp, without forgetting the 
 other fpoils of the conquered Kings, as gold and 
 filver plate, fingular curiofities, money coined, 
 and ingots, which were carried either on frames, 
 or in vafes, by young foldiers. Next appeared 
 the white bulls, which were to be facrificed, co- 
 vered with trappings of purple fringed with 
 gold, crowned with flowers with their horns 
 gilt, and attended by the facrificers naked to 
 the wafte, and crowned with laurel, carrying 
 axes in their hands to facrifice them, and fol- 
 lowed by the priefts who were to affift in that 
 ceremony. Then came either on carriages orLj v . 1. 49. 
 frames the crowns of gold fent to the general 
 who triumphed by cities, to do him honour, 
 and to exprefs their joy for his victory. In the 
 early times thcfe crowns were only laurel, as we 
 have faid before. After thefe crowns appeared 
 the Kings or Generals who had been taken, 
 with their heads fhaved as a mark of their fla- 
 very, and laden with chains of iron, filver or 
 gold, according to the times and the riches of 
 the fpoils. We find in the triumph of Scipio 
 Africanus, defcribed by Appianus Alexandri- 
 nus, that with thefe unfortunate captives there 
 was a buffoon, dreft in a long robe, bordered 
 with gold fringes, and laden with chains, brace- 
 lets and firings of jewels, who in his words and 
 actions mimicked thofe miferable prifoners, to 
 divert the fpectators. But it is probable fo en- 
 tirely
 
 300 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 tirely barbarous a cuftom was abolifhed ; for in 
 the triumph of Paulus JEmilius, defcribed by 
 Plutarch, no mention is made of it, no more 
 than in that of Vefpafian defcribed at large by 
 the hiftorian Jofephus. When the prifoners of 
 war arrived before the Capitol, they were car- 
 ried to prilon, where their chiefs and captains 
 were immediately put to death. Next to the 
 prifoners came feveral of the principal officers 
 of the army, and then the viclior in his Car, 
 preceded by trumpets, and attended by his 
 Liftors crowned with laurel, carrying the fafces 
 adorned alfo with laurel. Before and behind 
 him came perfons carrying cenfers, in which 
 the moil exquifite perfumes were burning. His 
 relations and friends crowned in the fame man- 
 ner with branches of laurel in their hands, walked 
 before and on each fide of his chariot, in which 
 he placed his children with him, as Paulus JE- 
 milius did. His chariot was of ivory adorned 
 with relievos, and enriched with gilding, or 
 even with gold. There were fome of folid fil- 
 ver chafed and embofled, of which the excel- 
 lency of the work much exalted the value of the 
 matter; During a certain time, there was a 
 flave * behind the perfon who triumphed (land- 
 ing 
 
 * Quid li vidiflet Pratorem in curribus altis 
 Extantem, & medio fublimem in pulvere circi 
 Jn tunica Jovis, & piftae Sarrana ferentem 
 Ex humeris auls?a togae, magnasque coronae 
 Tantum orbem, quanto cervix non fufficit ulla ? 
 Quippe tenet fudans hanc publicus, & fibi Conful 
 Ne placeatj curru fervus portatur eodem. 
 
 Juv. Sat. X. 
 
 irbat had he don?, had he beheld on High 
 Our Pr<rtor feated in mock majefty ; 
 His chariot rolling oer the dufiy place, 
 While v.-itb dumb pride, a:>id a fet formal face, 
 
 He
 
 Chap. VIII. OP THE ROMANS. 301 
 
 ing upright ; who held over his head the Del-Plln. 1.33. 
 phic crown of laurel, adorned with gold wire, c - * 
 and intermingled with leaves of gold. But this 
 was afterwards changed, and inftead of the 
 flave, a gilt figure was placed upon the back of 
 the chariot, holding a crown of laurel over the 
 victor's head with one hand, and a palm in the 
 other. The Emperors inftead of this crown of 
 laurel, had one of gold, which fome of them 
 adorned with precious flones. During the Com- 
 monwealth it was long a cuftorn, as Pliny tells id. 1. 33. 
 us, that every thing of the vidtor's body thatc. 7. 
 appeared, mould be painted red, in imitation of 
 the ceremony pra6lifed in refpeci to the ftatue of 
 Jupiter Capitolinus, which care was taken to 
 rub with vermilion every feftival day : but this 
 was fupprefTed. Before the time of the Empe- 
 rors, the chariot of the perfon who triumphed 
 was ufually drawn by four white horfes abreaft, 
 which he drove himfelf, or at leaft held the 
 reins. Some medals reprefent them with fix 
 horfes abreaft : and forne, as Pompey, caufed 
 them by way of diftinclion to be drawn by ele- 
 phants ; others by lions, tigers, or other wild 
 beafts, which had been prepared exprefsly for 
 this purpofe. Aurelian, in the triumph wherein pi a . Vop. 
 Zenobia was a captive, had his chariot drawn in vit. 
 
 Aurel. 
 
 He moves, in the dull ceremonial track, 
 
 With Jove's embroider d coat upon his back ? 
 
 A fute of hangings had not more oppreft 
 
 His Jboulders, than that long laborious vejl. 
 
 An heavy ge-iuga--w ( called a crown ) that Jpread 
 
 About his temples, drownd his narrow head: 
 
 And ivoulit have cru/tid him <with the maffi freight, 
 
 But that a fiveatingjlawefuftairid the weight : 
 
 AJlave in the fame chariot feen to ride, 
 
 To mortify the mighty madmatis pride. Diyden. 
 
 by
 
 302 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 by rain-deer, which are animals of the North, 
 much refembling flags. They had before been 
 ufed to draw the chariot of the King of the 
 Goths, whom Aurelian had conquered. It is 
 obferved alfo, that in the time of the Common- 
 wealth, the viclor wore an iron ring on his 
 finger in the fame manner as flaves did, to ani- 
 madvert to him not to be proud, and that for- 
 tune which raifed him above others might re- 
 PHn.l. 33. duce him to the condition of a flave. Caius Ma- 
 c. i rius, in his triumph over Jugurtha, had in like 
 manner a ring of iron on his ringer ; but he af- 
 terwards changed that cuftom, and wore only 
 Juv. Sat. gold ones in his other triumphs. It is faid 
 io. loc. a jf Oj tnat there was a (lave behind the per- 
 fon who triumphed, that admonifhed him from 
 time to time to remember he was a man. If by 
 his conquefls he had delivered any Roman citi- 
 zens from flavery, they followed his chariot im- 
 mediately, with their heads fhaved and caps on, 
 to fignify their new freedom. The Confuls 
 with the other magiftrates, and the whole Se- 
 nate, followed on foot ; and the march clofed 
 with the officers of the army, and the fbldiers 
 armed and crowned with laurel. Thole who 
 ... . had received marks of honour in evidence of 
 Vcli. Pat. tne ^ r bravery, did not fail to adorn themfelves 
 1. 6. c. 67. with them. They marched with an air of joy 
 Suet, m an d gaiety, fome crying Io Triumph^ and o- 
 w. Lae fhers f in gj n g military fongs in praife of the ge- 
 neral, or fatirical verfes, full of raillery againft 
 him j for this day was privileged, and they 
 were allowed to fay all they pleafed without be- 
 ing called to an account for it. This entry was 
 made through the gate called Capena, along the 
 ftreet called via 1'riumpbalis, from being that 
 
 through
 
 Chap. VIII. OF THE ROMANS. 303 
 
 through which the perfons who triumphed went 
 to the Capitol, where the pomp ended. Care 
 was taken to erect feveral triumphal arches in 
 this ftreet. When the victor arrived at the foot 
 of the Capitol, he quitted his chariot and tri- 
 umphal robe, facrificed the white bulls to Jupi- 
 ter, and laid the palm or laurel, which he held 
 in" his hand, and thofe of his Lictors, at his feet. 
 It is obferved, that from the time of Auguftus, 
 the perfon who triumphed carried the ornaments 
 of triumph, and the fpoils, to the temple of 
 Mars the avenger. He alfo gave largeffes to Tac. 1. ^. 
 the People : after which began the feaft made at Appian .de 
 the expence of the public, to which all the prin- j 3 ^ 1 ' Clv - 
 cipal perfons of the Commonwealth were in-pj u i. 
 vited, except the Confuls, who were even defi-Quseft. 
 red not to be there, in order that the perfon who R r 1 m ;, / 0< 
 triumphed might have precedency at this feaft, j * ' c g X * 
 which could not be, if they had been prefent. 
 
 There were feveral triumphs, of which the 
 pomp continued during three days. The naval 
 triumph was attended with the fame preparations 
 and ceremonies. One of the privileges of thofe 
 who had triumphed, was to have a right to wear 
 the crown of laurel at the public fhews. The D - c ff 
 Senate pafled a decree in favour of Julius C&- ^ ^ ' 
 far, when he was Dictator, by which he was 
 permitted to wear a crown of laurel always, 
 even in the Senate. It is obferved, that of all 
 the decrees which flattery caufed to be made in 
 his favour, none gave him more fatisfaction 
 than this ; becaufe he was bald, and this crown 
 covered that deformity. The laft triumph of 
 the Roman Emperors was that of Probus, which 
 Crinitus defcribes after Vopifcus. It was not, 
 properly fpeaking, a triumph, but only the di- 
 
 verfion
 
 304 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 vcrfion of hunting feveral forts of beads, which 
 the Emperor gave the people for feveral days in 
 the Circus, and which ended with a combat of 
 gladiators, compofed of part of the prifoners of 
 war whom he had taken. 
 
 IX. As to the lefler triumph, called Ovation, it re- 
 Ovation, quired much lefs preparation: for the perfon 
 
 who triumphed made his entrance on foot and 
 not on horfeback, and only to the found of 
 flutes, not of trumpets. He was preceded by 
 the foldiery with olive branches in their hands, 
 and was dreft in a white robe bordered with 
 purple, with a crown on his head, to imply 
 Aul. Cell. that the action had not been bloody. The Se- 
 1. 5. c. 6. nate, Knights, and principal Plebeians afiifted 
 at it, and the march ended at the Capitol, where 
 Dion.Hal. rams were facrificed. The firft who had the 
 1.5. c. 8. honour of this triumph, was the Conful Poftu- 
 mius Tubertus, after having defeated the Sa- 
 bines about the 253d year of Rome. This ho- 
 nour was granted to thofe who had gained fome 
 advantage either over the enemies of the State, 
 which had coft little, and had not terminated the 
 war, or over enemies of little confideration, 
 and unworthy of the Roman arms, as pirates, 
 or elfe when a war had not been declared in all 
 the forms. 
 
 X. It was the cuftom of the Romans under the 
 Feciales. Kings, and during a great length of time under 
 Dion.Hal. ^ Commonwealth, not to undertake a war, 
 
 "'without having firft fent heralds, called Fedales, 
 to demand fatisfac~Hon for the wrong which they 
 fuppofed to have been done them : without that 
 precaution, the war would not have been deem- 
 ed juft, and they would have deduced very bad 
 omens from it. When they were refufed the 
 2 fatif-
 
 Chap. VIII. OF THE ROMANS. 
 
 fatisfaction they demanded, the fame Feciales de- 
 clared war in the name of the Roman People ; 
 and as a mark of that declaration they threw a 
 bloody javelin, tipt with iron or burnt at the 
 end, into the frontier of the enemy's country. 
 King Numa inftituted thefe heralds or priefts ; 
 for they acted in the capacity of both. Their ' 
 collegue confifted of twenty, at the head of 
 which was a chief called Pater patratus. Thepi u t. 
 Jaws of war, which was never made without Quxft. 
 confulting them, were depofited in their hands. Rom> 
 They ratified truces and treaties of peace, by 
 facrificing an hog, which they loaded with 
 curfes, defiring that thofe who infringed the 
 treaties might be ftruck in the fame manner ; 
 and it was upon this occafion that they dif- 
 charged the function of priefts. This religious 
 ceremony made them confider the war which 
 they undertook as facred and very juft ; at leaft 
 it prejudiced the People to think fo, and ani- 
 mated them with vengeance, in the hope that the 
 Gods would favour their caufe, and that confe- 
 quently they could not fail of fuccefs. This 
 idea ftrongly implanted in the minds of the 
 foldiers, might contribute confiderably to victo- 
 ry. To know how to employ religion for the 
 fuccefs of their enterprizes, was an effect of 
 their ufual policy, efpecially in the beginning of 
 their greatnefs > for they were exact obfervers of 
 the appearances of juftice no longer than till they 
 perceived themfelves fuperior in force to all theif 
 neighbours, as has been already obferved. Nu- 
 ma, in inftituting the college of Feciales , and 
 all the other ceremonies of religion, fhewed 
 himfelf no lefs a politician than his predeceflbr 
 Romulus, in the form of government which he 
 X gave
 
 306 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book III. 
 
 gave his little ftate ; the religion of the Romans 
 having been inftituted only to foften and correct 
 Polyb. 1 6. tne difpofition of the People. Polybius con- 
 firms this clearly enough, in faying, that if a 
 Commonwealth could be formed, that confifted 
 folely of wife and reafonable people, the many 
 fuperftitions which had been introduced amongft 
 the Romans, would not be neceffary, and that 
 they had been placed in fuch confideration only 
 upon account of the People. And indeed, all 
 the perfons of fenfe amongft them, acknow- 
 ledged the vanity of a religion, which degraded 
 the Divinity fo much, in attributing all the 
 vices of man to him, and formed a different 
 idea of it from the common people, as we find 
 in Cicero's treatife De Natura Deorum, and 
 elfewhere. The actions of Ibme perfons are 
 new proofs of what I advance. We may 
 judge of this from what the Conful Claudius 
 Pulcher did, who to comply with the vulgar 
 fuperftition, confulted augury before he gave 
 battle at fea. Having ordered the coop, in 
 which the facred chickens were kept, to be 
 brought to him, he caufed grain to be thrown 
 to them, as was the cuflom in taking the au- 
 gury, and feeing that they did not move to 
 Val. Max. eat-, he threw coop and chickens into the fea, 
 1. 1. c. 4. faying, If they wont eat, let them drink. He 
 does not feem by this action to have given 
 much faith to the fcience of the augurs, of 
 which the Romans in general were however 
 fuch fcrupulous obfervers. But thofe who 
 were at the head of the government, knew 
 how to ufe it with dexterity for giving the 
 neceflary turn to the difpofition of the People. 
 Policy was fo much the foundation and end 
 
 of
 
 Chap. VIII. o F T H E R O M A NS. 307 
 
 of their religion, that they adopted the Gods 
 of the different nations which they fubjefted 
 to their empire, in order to render their yoke 
 the lighter, and to accuftom them to it by gen- 
 tle methods. It is true that they all agreed in 
 one general principle, which was idolatry ; 
 and that there was no difference between them, 
 except in the objefts of worfhip, and fuperfti- 
 tious ufes. 
 
 X 2 BOOK
 
 308 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book IV. 
 
 BOOK THE FOURTH. 
 
 Of the religion of the Romans ; of 
 the different Shews, and of the 
 cuftoms obferved in them. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 I. Of the religion of the Romans. II. Of the Pon- 
 tiffs. III. Of the Augurs. IV. Of the Arufpices. 
 V. Of the Veftah. VI. Functions of the Vef- 
 tals. VII. Punt/hment of the Veftals^for break- 
 ing their vow of virginity. VIII. Privileges 
 of the Veflals. IX. Liberty of the Vejtals. 
 X. Superb train of the Veflals. 
 
 I. r T~ > H E Romans, as well as the Greeks, ac- 
 Of the re- J. knowledged different clafles of Divinities. 
 
 The G ds f thc firft dafs Wh > aS Wdl as 
 the reft, depended on Fate or Deftiny ; thofe of 
 
 an inferior order, and all the other minor Divi- 
 nities ; thofe who prefided over places ; thofe 
 which they afcribed to every Being, and even 
 to moft actions, that were fo many Genii, 
 to whom they afcribed either the mafculine 
 St.Aug.de or feminine fex, and rendered a particular 
 eivit, Dei. worfhip, according to the nature of the thing, 
 the need they believed they had of it, or the ca- 
 price of their devotion. In a word, the num- 
 
 ber
 
 Chap. I. OF THE ROMANS. 309 
 
 her of Gods was fo great at Rome, that, allu- 
 ding to the ftatues erected in honour of Divini- 
 ties, and of perfons who had rendered fervices 
 to the Commonwealth, it was faid, the ina- 
 nimate inhabitants of that city were more nu- 
 merous than the animate, though the latter 
 amounted to feveral millions. 
 
 Rome in its beginning had no idols, accord- 
 ing to Plutarch ; for Numa Pompilius had given pj ut j nvi - t 
 them fo fublime an idea of the Divinity, that Num. 
 they confidered every reprefentation of him un- 
 der an human form as facrilege, faying that 
 men could attain to the knowledge of the Divi- 
 nity only by the underflanding. Accordingly, 
 during almoft two hundred years, no figure or 
 painting of any Divinities was feen at Rome, 
 though temples in which they were worfhipped 
 were erected to them. They had the ufe of 
 idols, or ftatues of the Gods, either from the 
 Tufcans or Greeks, from whom they imbibed 
 all their fuperftitions : but that multitude of Di- 
 vinities ftill augmented, when of all the Empe- 
 rors that died they made fo many Gods. This 
 was the effect of a mameful flattery, which they 
 carried fo far as to admit, during their lives, in- 
 to the number of Divinities, not only virtuous 
 Princes, but even thofe who were notorious for 
 their vices. 
 
 All thefe Divinities had their peculiar Priefts, u 
 who depended on the college of Pontiffs. The Of 'the Pan- 
 number of the latter was fifteen, of whom the'i^- 
 eight firft had the title of Great Pontiffs, and 
 the feven other Minor Pontiffs, though they 
 made together but one Body, of which the Chief 
 was called Supreme Pontiff, or Pontifex Maxi- 
 mus. In the firft inftitution made by Numa,piutmvit, 
 they were but four, elected out of the Patrici- Num. 
 X 3 ans i
 
 3io MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book IV. 
 
 ans ; four others were afterwards adopted, and 
 were all Plebeians. Their number was aug- 
 Liv. 1. 10. mented to fifteen by Sylla the Didator-, which 
 fubfifted till the Emperor Theodofius, who en- 
 tirely abolifhed them. This college fuperin- 
 tended every thing that related to religion, and 
 took cognizance of all the differences which it 
 occafioned. It alfo regulated the worfhip and 
 ceremonies, and explained the myfteries of reli- 
 gion. It was alfo a part of their duty to write 
 Dio Caff, the Roman hiftory in a fimple ftyle, year by 
 * S3- year. The Pontiffs were confidered as facred 
 perfbns , and by way of diftinction took place 
 of all the magiftrates. They prefided in all the 
 games of the Circus, Amphitheatre, and The- 
 atre, exhibited in honour of fome Divinity. 
 When there was any vacancy in their college, it 
 was filled up by the perfon elected by plurality 
 of voices ; which continued the cuftom under 
 the Commonwealth for the fpace of fix hundred 
 and fifty years. The office of Pontifex Maxi- 
 mus was conferred in the fame manner, till Do- 
 Veil. Pat.mitius ^nobarbus, Tribune of the People, 
 1 2. c. 12 transferred that right to the People afiembled by 
 Tribes : but the Emperor Auguftus reftored to 
 this college the right of electing their collegues. 
 Thefe dignities were conferred only upon per- 
 fons of the firft diftinftion, as well as that of 
 Supreme Pontiff, which office during the whole 
 time of the Commonwealth was filled only by 
 perfons of the firft rank. It was of fo much 
 importance from the extent of its authority, that 
 the Emperors affumed it to themfelves, from 
 Suet, in whenceforth it always remained attached to their 
 vit. Aug. perfons. 
 
 HI, The firft facerdotal dignity next to the Pon- 
 OftbtAu- tiffs, was that of the Augurs, which alfo formed 
 gun. a col- 
 
 2
 
 Chap. I. OF THE ROMANS. 311 
 
 a college confifting of fifteen. It owed its in- 
 ftitution to Romulus, who at firft created only 
 four of them, of the order of the Patricians. 
 It was afterwards compofed of five, who were 
 Plebeians. This college had alfo the fame fateLiv. 1. 10. 
 as that of the Pontiffs, as well in refpect to num- 
 ber as the right of election, which the Tribune 
 j^Enobarbus transferred from them to the Peo- 
 ple, and which was reftored to them by Au- 
 guftus, upon condition that the perfons elect- 
 ed fhould have the approbation of the Prince. 
 This dignity was in the higher confederation, 
 becaufe the Romans, who were extremely fuper- 
 ftitious, fcarce undertook any thing, without 
 having firft confulted the Augurs, in order to 
 know the will of the Gods, not fo much through 
 the defire of conforming to it, as to be inform- 
 ed whether they mould fucceed in their enter- 
 prizes : for the Augurs were looked upon as the 
 interpreters of the Gods. They judged of it 
 from the flight and finging of birds, and the 
 manner in which the facred chickens eat their 
 corn, which, if greedily, was a fign of fuccefs 
 and good fortune, but if they would not eat, it 
 denoted the contrary : they alfo ufed all the ob- 
 jects that occurred for the fame purpofe. It was 
 a mere cheat to amufe the People, as well as the 
 ArufpiceS) who were alfo minifters of their fu- IV. 
 perftitions, that judged of the good or bad fuc- 
 cefs of enterprizes, by infpecting the entrails of 
 victims that were facrificed. It was for this rea- 
 fon that the Pontiffs offered no facrifice, with- 
 out having an Arufpex with them to examine 
 the entrails of the victim, and give his judgment 
 upon them. The impofture of both the one 
 and the other was fo well known by people of 
 fenfe, that Cato faid, he could not conceive 
 X 4 how
 
 3 12 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book IV. 
 
 how the Augurs or Arufpices could look at each 
 V. other without laughing. Befides thefe minifters 
 Of the rf-of religion, of which we have juft fpoke, there 
 ft- s ' was alfo an order of Prieftefies, called Veflals^ 
 from the name of the Goddefs Vefta^ to whofe 
 fervice they were confecrated. This order was 
 in great confideration, and the more refpected, 
 becaufe it was the guardian with whom the fa- 
 cred pledge was depofited, to which the Ro- 
 man fuperftition had annexed the fafety and du- 
 Plut in vit. ration of the State. It was Numa Pompilius, 
 D' Um H 1 wno nav ' n ca ufed a temple to be erected at 
 1 2 . c. 1 7 '. Rome to the Goddefs Veda, inftituted that or- 
 der, which was maintained at the public ex- 
 pence. Their origin was ftill more antient than 
 Plut.in vit. that city, as the mother of Romulus and Re- 
 m - mus was a Veftal. There were at fir ft but four ; 
 Tarquinius Prifcus added two more, at which 
 number they were fixed ever after. As it was 
 neceflary that they mould be virgins, they were 
 taken at an age not fufpected, which was be- 
 tween fix and ten, after which they were not 
 Aul. Cell, admitted. It was the Pontifex Maximus who 
 ). i. c. 2. received them -, and when they did not offer 
 themfelves voluntarily to fill up a vacant place, 
 he made choice of twenty children of the age 
 required. But it was neceffary, that they mould 
 not only be exempt from all corporeal defecls, 
 but even have fome beauty, and be of an inge- 
 nuons Roman family ; for thofe of all other ci- 
 ties were excluded. They were made to draw 
 lots, and fhe upon whom it fell was admitted. 
 Suet, in As few 'parents of diftinguifhed birth were 
 vit. Aug. much inclined to offer their daughters to be 
 Veftals, becaufe they apprehended the danger- 
 pus confequences of fo long a continence, Au- 
 
 guftus
 
 Chap.I. OF THE ROMANS. 313 
 
 guftus made a regulation, by which the daugh- 
 ters of freed- men were admitted into this order. 
 
 They were made to take a vow of virginity 
 for thirty years, after which they were at liber- 
 ty to marry if they pleafed. The ten firft years Pht in vit. 
 were employed in learning the duties and cere- Num. 
 monies of their office ; the ten following in ex- 
 ercifing them ; and the ten laft in teaching them 
 to novices. The eldeft of the Veftals, who was 
 called the Great Veftal by way of eminence, 
 had an abfolute fuperiority over the reft. Aflbon 
 as a child was admitted a Veftal, her head was 
 fhaved as a fign of her being made free, as was 
 the cuftom in refpect to flaves whom their ma- 
 iler fet at liberty : for from thenceforth fhe was 
 no longer under the jurifdiction of her father, 
 and young as fhe was had power to make her 
 will, and difpofe of her fortune as fhe thought 
 fit : but if fhe died a Veftal without having 
 made her will, the Order inherited it. 
 
 Their habit had nothing gloomy and auftere 
 in it: it was a kind of white veftment, over 
 which they wore a long and full purple robe or 
 mantle, that hung ufually moft over one fhouj- 
 der, in order to have the other arm at liberty. 
 Their head-drefs was as particular : it came no 
 lower than the ears, and difcovered the whole 
 face. They faftened ribbands to it, which fome 
 tied under the chin. In procefs of time, they 
 made their hair ferve for the ornament of their 
 heads, curling and adjufting it in fuch a man- 
 ner as they judged moft proper for exalting 
 their beauty. 
 
 Their function was to make vows, pray, and vi. 
 facrifice, for the profperity and prefervation of Fu 
 the State, and to keep the Palladium, which oftbe 
 was confidered as the facred pledge of the dur 
 
 tion
 
 314 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book IV. 
 
 tion of the Empire, as alfo the facred fire, 
 which they were obliged to keep perpetually 
 burning in the temple of Vefta, and preferred 
 in earthen veffels. Thofe who fuffered this fire, 
 which fhould have been eternal, to go out 
 through negligence or otherwife, were punifh- 
 ed with a whip by the Pontifex Maximus^ who 
 'alone had a right to chaftife them, and who 
 with the college of Pontiffs was their natural 
 judge. This accident was deemed very omi- 
 nous. When it happened, Rome was in fo 
 great a confternation, that all affairs ceafed for 
 that day. The cuftom was to re-kindle this fire 
 only with the rays of the fun through a burn- 
 VII. ing-glafs. But when any one was convicted of 
 Punijh- not having kept her vow of virginity, me was 
 meat of the n jfljed with a peculiar kind of de,ath, as well 
 
 Vefiah ft** , r ru TT t.- 
 
 breaking as the accomplice or her crime. He was whip- 
 tbeir <z*wped till he expired under the lames ; and as for 
 ofvirgim- neFj a kj nc } o f cave wa$ dug j n a p art o f the ci- 
 
 piutinvit.ty near tne S ate Collina^ into which, after a 
 Num. fmall bed with a lighted lamp, a little bread, 
 water, milk, and oil, were placed in it, me was 
 made to defcend by a ladder that was immedi- 
 ately taken away. The entrance of the cave 
 was afterwards clofed, which ferved her for a 
 grave, and where fhe foon after died of hunger. 
 Plut. Qu. The confternation of the city augmented exceed- 
 Rom. 96. ingly at this time, the fuperftition of the Ro- 
 mans making them believe, that the State was 
 threatened with fome great calamity. The 
 whole city was in mourning that day: the mops 
 were fliut ; a mournful filence reigned univer- 
 ftlly, which argued their profound fadnefs. It 
 is obferved, that during the fpace of about a 
 thoufand years, which this Order fubfifted, from 
 Numa down to Theodofius the Great, who abo- 
 
 lilhed
 
 Chap. I. OF THE ROMANS. 315 
 
 lifhed it with the Pagan priefthood in general, 
 only eighteen fuffered this punifhment. If the 
 faults of this Order were puniftied with fo much 
 rigor and feverity, the prerogatives and honours 
 it enjoyed were alfo very great and extraordina- 
 ry : for if any one had dared to offer a Veftal 
 the lead infult, he would have been punifhed 
 with death. The refpect paid them was fo great, 
 that when the principal magiftrates, and even 
 the Confuls, met them, they gave them place, 
 and made their Lictors bow the fafces to them. 
 They alfo had Lifters to clear the way for them, 
 after violence had been offered to a Veftal re- 
 turning at night from fupper in the city. When 
 this Order, by the augmentation of their revev 
 nues, was in a condition to appear with fplendor, 
 they never went abroad without being carried 
 in litters. 
 
 Amongft the privileges which had been grant- vill. 
 ed them, they had one peculiar to themfelves , Privileges 
 
 for if they happened to meet fome criminal car-^f'/^ Vt ~ 
 
 J i i fialt, 
 
 rymg to execution in their way, he was imrne-p] ut:i ; nv j t 
 
 diately pardoned, provided the Veftal affirmed, Num. 
 that mere chance had occafioned it. Their evi- 
 dence was received in like manner in the courts 
 of juftice, and the opinion conceived of their 
 probity caufed it to be refpected. When any 
 difference arofe between perfons of the firft rank, 
 recourfe was had to them for accommodating it. 
 Wills were depofited in their hands, as in a fa- 
 cred and inviolable afylum. The right of inter- 
 ment in the city was conferred upon them by 
 way of honour, which was very feldom grant- 
 ed, even to thofe who had done great fervices 
 to the State. 
 
 Continence being confidered in the Pagan . 
 world as a virtue very difficult to pradife, to Lt ^ ert ' y ^ 
 
 foften the Veftals.
 
 316 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book IV. 
 
 foftcn the rigor of it, the Veftals were allowed 
 abundance of liberty. For they could receive 
 men at home in the day-time, and women at 
 all times ; they could go to fupper abroad with 
 Suet, in their friends and relations ; and had liberty to 
 vit. Aug. be prefent at the Shews, where they had diftin- 
 X. guilhed places. And if they were obliged to 
 Superb wear a peculiar kind of habit, they made them- 
 trainoftbefe\ v ^ amen( j s by a ftudied neatnefs, and the 
 magnificence of their equipage. St. Ambrofe 
 tells us, that when they appeared in public, they 
 were attended by a numerous train of domeflics 
 of both fexes : but this was not till after that 
 Order had enriched itfelf by the pious donations 
 of the Romans, who often left legacies to the 
 Veftals in particular, and enabled them to fup- 
 port that exceffive pomp and luxury, which rofe 
 and augmented in proportion with the Roman 
 power. For though from the firft they were 
 confidered as (acred perfons, that diftinclion was 
 not fuftained by the fplendor, which it had in 
 procefs of time, through the indigence of the 
 Order and of the State itfelf in thofe early 
 days. 
 
 CHAP-
 
 Chap. II. OF THE ROMANS. 317 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 I. Of the Duumviri who kept the books of the 
 Sybils. II. Of the Quindecimviri. III. Of 
 the wor/hip paid to the Gods. IV. Origin of 
 the public games. V. Public thankfgivings for 
 goodfuccejfes. VI. Of the facred games. VII. 
 Funeral games. VIII. Games of the Circus. 
 IX. Defcription of the Circus's. X. Chariot- 
 races. XL Horfe-races. XII. Foot-races. 
 XIII. Of dancing. XIV. Of the Pyrrhic 
 dance. 
 
 NEXT to the dignities of religion, the j. 
 moft diflinguifhed of thofe which related Duumviri 
 to them, was that of the Duumviri, whom^^ 
 Tarquin, the laft King of the Romans, created J-'^S)- 
 exprefsly for keeping the Sybil's books, which bih. 
 he had bought. Thus this dignity was more 
 antient than the Commonwealth itfelf. It fub- 
 fifted as long as Paganifm, not having been a- 
 bolifhed, till the reign of the Emperor Theo- 
 dofius, when an end was put to it with the reft 
 of the Pagan fuperftidons. Thefe officers be- 
 came fo much the more important amongft the 
 Romans, as they imagined the prefervation of 
 the State depended in fome meafure upon the 
 oracles confided to their care. For, according y a ]. Max. 
 to Dionyfius Halicarnaffenfis, they had nothing!. 4.0. 14. 
 fo facred, nor nothing which they kept fo reli- 
 gioufly, as the oracles of the Sybils, contained 
 in thefe books. They were confulted by order 
 of the Senate when the city was afflicted with 
 plague, famine, or agitated with feditions ; 
 when the State had experienced fbme great mif- 
 fortune ; when prodigies appeared, or the au- 
 i guries
 
 318 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book IV, 
 
 guries were difficult to explain. This was the 
 function of thefe officers , but they were not 
 permitted to confult thefe myfterious books, ex- 
 cept by an order of the Senate, who befidcs ad- 
 ded fome public minifters to affift them in it. 
 It was the bufinefs of the Duumviri to report to 
 the Senate what had been found in them, and 
 to propofe the means for appeafing the wrath of 
 the Gods, in order to avert the threatened cala- 
 mities from the Roman People, by offering the 
 facrifices and prayers directed in thefe books. 
 This dignity was for life : it exempted thofe 
 who pofieffed it from carrying arms, and all 
 other civil offices. Tarquin created only two at 
 firft, who were of the Patrician order, which 
 was continued under the Commonwealth, till the 
 Liv. 1. 6. 386th year of Rome, when the Tribunes of 
 & I0 - the People prevailed that thofe officers mould 
 be ten in number, of whom half mould be elec- 
 ted out of the Plebeians, and then they were 
 called Decemviri, upon account of their number. 
 II. Sylla the Dictator afterwards added five, which 
 Of the occafioned their being called Quindecimviri. Ju- 
 QH' n . d f lius Csefar added one more ; and Auguftus after- 
 wards, being impowered by the Senate to add 
 as many as he thought fit to the fifteen, the 
 Dio Caff, number amounted to forty or fixty ; though ac- 
 1.51. cording to Dionyfius HalicarnafTenfis, only the 
 Duumviri were permitted to felect and confult 
 the books of the Sybils. We find however in 
 the life of Aurelian by Vopifcus, that the Pon- 
 tiffs foinetimes confulted them ; perhaps they 
 were alfo invefted with this dignity of Quin- 
 decimviri, or that power had been granted 
 them. 
 
 The
 
 Chap. II. OF THE ROMANS. 319 
 
 The worfhip of all the Divinities of Paga- HI. 
 nifm was not confined to facrificing animals 
 honour of them, wherein thofe offered to th 
 celeftial Gods where white, and thofe to the in- Godt. 
 fernal black ; but it confifted alfo in public ho- 
 lidays, on which feafts were fometimes made in 
 honour of the divinities, that ferved at the fame 
 time for diverfions. Policy knew how to adapt 
 itfelf in this manner to the genius and character 
 of the nation, and to amufe the People, when 
 it had no longer any enemies to fear. 
 
 Almoft all the public games celebrated at i 
 Rome were folemnized in effect: of vows, which " g! 
 the Romans had made to fome Divinity in fome ^ 
 imminent danger or confiderable misfortune. Suet, in 
 Thus after the defeat ofVarus in Germany, Au- vit - Au S- 
 guftus promifed Jupiter to caufe games worthy of 
 his greatnefs to be celebrated, if he repaired that 
 lofs. It was at thefe times the devotion of 
 the Romans diftinguifhed itfelf moft. "We fee that 
 through the darknefsof Paganifm they acknow- 
 ledged the impotence of mankind againft the 
 wrath of heaven, as they endeavoured to ap- 
 peafe it by ceremonies, prayers and fupplicati- 
 ons. Polybius relates, that after the lofs of the p i y b. 1.9. 
 battle of Cannae, the confirmation was fo great Liv. !. 2. 
 at Rome, that all the matrons ran to the tem- 
 ples of the Gods to implore them to pre- 
 ferve it from the misfortunes, with which it was 
 threatened ; and that proftrate at the feet of 
 thofe divinities they fwept the pavements of the 
 temples with their hair. He obferves further, 
 that it was a common cuftom with them to do 
 fo in times of calamity. 
 
 The Romans feemed to acknowledge the Di- y. 
 v'mity no lefs in their good fucceffes, by the Public 
 thankfgivings they rendered on thofe occafions. tban 
 
 g' vi ' 
 
 goodfuccefe.
 
 320 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book IV. 
 
 For in all the confiderable advantages which the 
 Commonwealth gained over the enemy, the Se- 
 nate never fails to decree prayers and proceffions 
 Liv. 1. io.* n a ^ tne tem pl es f their Gods, even for feve- 
 ral days together, according as thofe advanta- 
 Tac.I. i4-g es were more or lefs great. The Senate, under 
 &. 15. the Emperors, often decreed them out of bafe 
 flattery, to applaud their crimes, and return 
 the Gods thanks for them : their pictures and 
 ftatues were carried in, thefe proceffions. Ideas 
 that fuited the Divinity fo little, agreed per- 
 fectly with the extravagance of the worfhip 
 they ufually paid him, wherein nothing entered 
 but what was adapted to flattering all the paf- 
 lions, even the grofleft ; to which they believed 
 their Gods were fenfible as well as men. It was 
 for this reafon, that they imagined nothing could 
 be more agreeable to them than thefe games : 
 and they were the more apt to be confirmed in 
 this opinion, as it fuited their own natural in- 
 clination for all Shews. Thofe which they cal- 
 led the great, or the Roman, games, had been 
 inftituted on occafion of a vow made by the 
 Dictator Aulus Poftumius, when he was upon 
 the point of giving the Latines battle, who had 
 revolted in order to reinftate Tarquin upon the 
 throne. The pomp of thefe games is amply 
 defcribed in the feventh book of Dionyfius Ha- 
 Liv. 1. 4. licarnaflenfis, chapter the third. The Scenic 
 & 7- games were alfo an effect of a vow made to 
 Jupiter Capitolinus, in the 3 8 7th year of Rome, 
 in the time of a plague. Such was the origin of 
 the games of the Circus, theatre and amphithe- 
 yj atre, which were all included under the general 
 Sacred name, of the facred games, becaufe relative to 
 games. fome Divinity; and funeral games, becaufe ce- 
 r VII \ lebrated in honour of fome perfon of diftinction 
 
 funeral r 
 
 gam(i . after
 
 Chap. II. OF THE ROMANS. 32! 
 
 after their death, to the manes of whom they 
 iuppofed that thofe games were agreeable, as 
 well as ufeful for ^appeafing the wrath of the in- 
 fernal Gods. 
 
 Thofe of the Circus were foot, horfe, or cha- vill. 
 riot-races. There were feveral Circus's at Rome. Games of 
 Thefe were vaft edifices in the form of an 
 long Iquare, of which one of the ends 
 made round, and the other, from whence tbstionof 
 racers ftarted, much lefs fo. Along the midft 
 of it ran a kind of continued pedeftalthe great- 
 eft part of its length, which rofe fome feet 
 above the ground, and divided it alrnoft in 
 two equal parts, upon which ftood in a row 
 the figures of fome divinities, with altars very 
 near them. At the end of this ftone-work the 
 bounds or goals were placed at a fufficient di- 
 ftance for turning eafily round them. But in 
 the great Circus, which was between the Pala- 
 tine and Aventine hills, the middle was adorned 
 with an obelifk of great height. This Circus 
 was dedicated to the fun, and is faid to have 
 been two thoufand one hundred and eighty- 
 feven feet in length, and nine hundred and fixty 
 broad. The circumference of this ftructure 
 within fide was covered with a wall in form of 
 a key, at the foot of which ran a canal full of 
 water, of the breadth of ten feet ; and above 
 this wall, in form of an amphitheatre, r&fe feats 
 that were continued quite round the pile, on 
 which the fpectators fate, but expofed to the 
 weather , for thefe Circus's had no roofs. That 
 of which we are fpeaking could contain an hun- 
 dred and fifty thoufand people, and, according 
 to fome authors, above two hundred thoufand, 
 As it was confecrated to the fun, it was the 
 
 Y cuftom,
 
 322 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book IV. 
 
 cuftom, when races were ran in honour of him, 
 that the chariots ihould be drawn by four horfes 
 abreaft; and when of the moon, only with 
 X. two. All the chariots made ufe of in racing had 
 Chariot- more common'y two wheels than four. The 
 rac "' fwiftnefs of tne horfes alone was not fufficient 
 for carrying the prize, if it was not feconded by 
 the addrefs of the driver : for it was neceflfary to 
 run feven times round thofe boundaries, and to 
 take great care in turning not to come too near 
 them, left the chariot mould be darned in 
 pieces againft them : At the fame time in keep- 
 ing too far from them, they ran the rifque of 
 being cut out by a competitor, who knew how 
 to take the advantage of that interval. The 
 drivers of thcfe chariots were generally (laves, 
 though there were times when perfons of the 
 higheft quality drove them to pleafe fome Em- 
 Suet, in perors, who were fond of thefe races, as Empe- 
 vit Neron.rors themfelves often did alfo. The charioteers, 
 Tac.l. is-for fo thefe drivers were called, were divided in- 
 to four bands, diftinguifhed by the colours of 
 their habits, as white, red, blue, and green. 
 Suet, in The Emperor Domitian, who delighted much 
 Tertuirde* 11 t ^ ie ^ e g ames added two more to them, the 
 Speftac. gold and the purple. The people often efpou- 
 c. 6. 
 
 i 1. 14. * Sunt quos curriculo pulverem Olympicum 
 Collegiflejuvat ; naetaque fervidis 
 Evitata rotis, palmaquc nobilis 
 Terrarum dominos evehit ad Deos. 
 
 Hor. L.I. Od.i, 
 
 Some view with a delighted eye 
 Thick clouds of duft around * em fly ; 
 While their contending chariots roll, 
 And nicely Jhun th* Olympic goal. 
 Where races wen, and palms b eft 01*? 4 
 S,xdt a Ttwnarch to a God. 
 
 fed
 
 Chap. II. o* THE ROMANS* 
 
 fed * one of thefe bands with fo much heat, aS 
 fometimes occafioned great tumults. 
 
 Amongft the horfe- races ran in the Circus, XI > 
 there were fome of a fingular kind : thefe were Hor J e ~ rtt ~ 
 horfemen who rode horfes without faddles, lead- Suet, in 
 ing one in their hand, upon which they leaped vit. Csef" 
 as they ran, changing horle often in the race, 
 after the manner of the Numidians. In the 
 foot-races, there were perfons who ran 
 compleatly armed, as if going to battle, in 
 order to mew their ftrength and agility the 
 better. 
 
 The foot-race was one of the five forts of x "- 
 games called Gymnic^ which were alfo pradlifed ootrftct ^ 
 in the Circus. The four others were Boxing, 
 \Vreftling, throwing the Difcus or quoit, and 
 Dancing. The Boxers, as well as the Wreftlers 
 or Athletes^ for that name was common to both, 
 fought ftark-naked, except the former, who 
 wore only a kind of little drawers, and becaufe 
 they dripped themfelves in this manner to be 
 the fitter for battle, and the more active, thefe 
 games were called Gymmc^ from a Greek word 
 which fignifies naked. The Boxers, fo called 
 
 * Totam hodie Romam Circus capit : & fragor aurem 
 Percutit; eventum viridis quo colligo panni. 
 Nam fi deficeret, mceftam attonitamque videres 
 Hanc urbem, veluti Cannarum in pulvere viftis 
 
 Confulibus. Juv. Sat. Xl. 
 
 This day all Rome (if I may le allowed, 
 
 Without offence to fucb a numrous croud, 
 
 To fay all Rome) 'will in the Circus fweai j 
 
 Eccboet already do their jkouts repeat : 
 
 Methinks I hear the cry Away, away^ 
 
 The Green have won the honour of the day. 
 
 Ob, Jhould tbcfe fports le but one year forlorn, 
 
 Rome 'would in tears her Io*ud d'werjion mourn > 
 
 For that would nonu a caufe of forronu yield, 
 
 Great as tht lofs of Cannes fatal fold. Congrevtf. 
 
 Y 2 becaufe
 
 324 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book IV. 
 
 becaufe they fought with their fills, were of 
 two kinds, thofe who fought with their bare 
 fifts, or thofe whofe hands were armed with a 
 
 Suet, in k' m & o f gauntlets made of thongs of ftrong lea- 
 
 vit. Cahg. h Thefe wre Ce jii pbori becaufe this kind 
 
 Montiauc. ' 
 
 Antiq. of armour or gauntlet was called Ceftus. This 
 laft kind of combat was rude, fcarce ever ter- 
 minating without the death of one of the two 
 Suet, in combatants. As to the Wreftlers, they cornba- 
 vit. Aug. ec j na k ec j j an d rubbed themfelves with oil be- 
 fore they entered the lifts, that they might not 
 eafily be laid hold on. This kind of combat 
 confifted at lead as much in addrefs as force, 
 and was not fo cruel as the other. The victory 
 was adjudged to him who had thrown his anta- 
 gonift, and continued his maftery over him. 
 There were people whofe profeffion it was to 
 teach thefe exercifes : this laft was fo much in 
 vogue, that it was not only practifed in the pub- 
 lic games, but in houfes ; for people exercifed 
 themfelves at Wreftling in the galleries of the 
 baths. As to the Difcus, it was a kind of quoit, 
 proper to exercife the arm, and render it ftron- 
 ger. It was round and flat, very heavy, made 
 of ftone, lead, or brafs ; he that threw it high- 
 eft or fartheft, according to agreement, won. 
 The Athleta did not confine themfelves only to 
 Wreftling , they exercifed themfelves alfo in 
 leaping -, and he who leaped fartheft was the vi- 
 XIII. ftor. But as for the Dancing of the Romans, 
 $ttMMg' W t have no very diftinct idea of it: all that we 
 *Tbe Pyr- know of it is, that they did dance, and that one 
 rbic dance, of their dances was called the Pyrrhic Dance ^ 
 Spartian. which was a military one. It was danced in 
 Dion Hal arms > an d the actions of fighting were expref- 
 1. 7. c. 1 3. fed in it. The Emperor Adrian often gave this 
 kind of dance to the People in the great Cir- 
 cus,
 
 Chap. II, OF THE ROMANS. 325 
 
 cus, as well by men as women-performers, who 
 were armed with fwords of box inftead of iron. 
 Befides all thefe games, which were peculiar tosuet. in 
 the Circus, thofe called the Trojan Games were vit. Tib. 
 exhibited there, which were a kind of tourna- ^'Sj & 
 ments or caroufals. The firft Caefars, affecting Suet j n 
 to derive themfelves from ./Eneas Prince of vit. Caf. 
 Troy, often gave them to the People, in order Tac J- 11 - 
 to renew the remembrance of their origin. Thefe 
 games were celebrated by the children of the 
 principal nobility, at the age of fourteen or fif- 
 teen. They had at their head him whom the 
 Emperor had nominated Prince of the Touth y who 
 was alfo of the fame age. This title was ufu-Suet. in 
 ally given only to him who was considered as the vit - Claud. 
 Emperor's fucceffbr, or to one of his near rela- 
 tions. The Circus's were alfo ufed for hunting 
 wild beads, and even for reprefenting fea-fights ; 
 though for the laft there were particular ftruc- 
 tures, called Naumacbia. Curious creatures, 
 brought to Rome out of curiofity from all parts 
 of the world, were fhewn there : but the races,, 
 and efpecially thofe of chariots, were the prin- 
 cipal and moil ufual games of the Circus. 
 
 CHAP-
 
 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book IV. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 f . Of the Scenic games, or games of the theatre. 
 II. Defcription of the theatres. III. Of dan* 
 ting. IV. Of the majks of the aftors. V. Of 
 the mimes. VI. Of the pantomimes. VII. Of 
 mufic. VIII. Of rope-dancers, IX. Of the 
 games of the amphitheatre. X. Of the cbace. 
 XI. Of fijhing. XII. ExceJJive pajjion of the 
 Romans, for the Shews. 
 
 j. ^1^ H E games called Scenic, becaufe confift- 
 ic JL ing principally of tragedy and comedy, 
 games, or were re p re fented upon the theatre. This was a 
 vX'J^re. S reat edifice, not lefs magnificent and folid 
 Val. Max. than the Circus, and Hill more adorned. It 
 1. 2. c. 4. was compofed of two parts, of which tha 
 3 'one formed a femicircle and the other a 
 fcontfauc. f^uare. The femicircular part of it was filled 
 Antiq. with benches, which rofe one above another, 
 upon which the Spectators placed themfelves ; 
 tne fquare part which fronted it was called 
 the fcene or flage, on which the actors performr 
 ed. It was raifed five feet higher than the low- 
 er end of the femicircular part, which was cal- 
 led the Orcbeftra, in which were the moft ho- 
 nourable feats. The fpectators were expofed in 
 bio Caff fr to ^ e i n j ul "i es f tne weather ; but to prevent 
 1. 43. that, it fometimes happened during the Com- 
 Val. Max. monwealth, and often enough under the Em- 
 J- ? P- 4- perors, that the theatre was covered with 
 cloths, fuftained by poles and drained cords, 
 Though the Romans had learnt from the Greeks 
 the manner of building their theatres, the dif- 
 tribution of them was however different. Thofe 
 magnificent theatres were not erected fo foon as 
 he Scenic games were introduced at Rome : 
 
 they
 
 Chap. III. OF THE ROMANS. 327 
 
 they were not built till long after, as well as 
 the ftruftures for the other Shews. For when 
 the public games were firft exhibited, it was inTac. 1. 14. 
 the Forum, where the fpe&ators flood. After- Val - Max - 
 wards edifices of wood were erected ; and when ' 2 ' c ' * 
 the games were over, they were taken down, 
 and the work fcrved for other reprefentations. 
 C. Flaminius was the firft that built a theatre of 
 ftone, in the 599th year of Rome, for the re- 
 prefentation of comedies and tragedies. They 
 multiplied there afterwards as well as the Cir- 
 cus's, Amphitheatres, and Naumacbie. As to 
 thele laft ftructures, their number was not fo 
 great as that of the reft. The Emperors fome- 
 times took the occasion of thefe Shews, at which 
 they were prefent, to difpence extraordinary li- 
 beralities amongft the People, by caufing bil- 
 lets to be thrown amongft them, each marked 
 with a lot, which was punctually delivered to 
 the bearers of them. Marcus Aurelius, in effect Vopifc. i* 
 of his regard for the Roman people, caufed vit>AureJ - 
 handkerchiefs to be diftributed to them in the 
 theatre, to wipe the fweat off their faces, and to 
 exprefs their applaufes. The Scenic games were ill. 
 intermixed with dances, as making a part tf 
 the worfhip of their Divinities : * dancing itfelf X? 1- 
 
 1. 7. c. 1 3. 
 
 * (Licinise) 
 
 Quam nee ferre pedem dedecuit choris, 
 Nee certare joco, nee dare brachia, 
 Ludentem nitidis virginibus facrt 
 
 Diana Celebris die. Hor. L. II. Od. xii. 
 
 Licinia fair, the pride of Rome, 
 How well her charms and arts become ! 
 
 Ho-iv movingly her beauty pleads, 
 When toying Jke and richly drejl, 
 At great Diana's folemn feaft, 
 
 Begins the dance, and leads the btauteout maidt. 
 
 Creech. 
 
 being
 
 328 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book IV. 
 
 being peculiarly annexed to the worfhip of feme 
 of them. It was mod practifed at thefe fefti- 
 vals and public Shews ; for the Romans gave no 
 balls, and only fent for dancers by profefiion of 
 both fexes, to divert them during their enter- 
 tainments ; but the guefts had no fhare in thofe 
 dances. The Shews and ceremonies of religion 
 ferved them inftead of our ordinary pleafures. 
 
 Liv. 1. -. The games of the theatre began amongft the 
 Romans by a kind of dramatic poem, more 
 filled with grofs buffooneries, than good plea- 
 fantries, which they called Fefcennine verfes, and 
 in which there was fo little art, that the people 
 were difgufted with it afToon as a very imperfect 
 
 Val Max. theatrical piece appeared. Livius Andronicus, 
 
 J. 2. c. 4. born in Greece, compofed and caufed it to be 
 reprefented at Rome the 51 4th year from its 
 foundation, a time when the Romans began to 
 conceive a tafte for the fciences, and to foften 
 the roughnefs of their manners. Though the 
 comedies and tragedies of the antients have con- 
 tributed much to the improvement of thofe of 
 our age, we muft not however imagine, that 
 there is not a great difference between them, as 
 well in refpect to manners and cuftoms, as the 
 manner in which they were reprefented. Seve- 
 ral treatifes have been publifhed fome time fince 
 upon the theatres of the antients, to which the 
 curious may have recourfe : it furfices to obferve 
 here, that the actors both of comedy and tra- 
 gedy ufed mafks upon the ftage, which were 
 not made like thofe ufed in thefe days. They 
 were entire heads larger than the life, with 
 which they covered their own as with an 
 helmet, and under which they could fpeak 
 without difficulty. We muft alfo obferve that 
 
 they
 
 Chap. III. OF THE ROMANS. 329 
 
 % they alfo had actors unknown amongft us, whom 
 they called mimes and pantomimes. The for- v 
 mer represented every kind of actions without Mimes. 
 fpeaking, only by gefture, and played inter- Suet, in 
 ludes to divert the fpectators, whilft the iftorsIL fc X^P" 
 either refted themfelves, or were otherwife em- 
 ployed. The pantomimes alfo played mute in- VI. 
 terludes -, but with this difference, that they pant - 
 counterfeited all things by the motion of the mtm "' 
 body in dancing. Thus the Scenic games were 
 of different kinds, tragedy, comedy, fatire, 
 mimes and pantomimes. 
 
 The firft actors who appeared at Home were 
 only players of farces or ftrollers, and dancers 
 or tumblers, from Hetruria. They were in- 
 debted to their knowledge of the Greek theatre 
 for their tafte of good comedy, and comedi- 
 ans to reprefent it. Thefe Shews, which till then 
 were very grofs and void of art, were fcarce in- 
 ferior to thofe of the Greeks, amongft whom 
 the authors of dramatic pieces were often the 
 principal actors in them ; the profefllon of an 
 actor having nothing difhonourable in it in their 
 fenfe, and not excluding them from the great 
 offices of the State. It was not the fame a-s. Aug. dc 
 mongft the Romans ; every citizen was prohibi- Civ. Dei. 
 ted to mount the ftage. It was not only a mat- 1 ' 2- c- 1 *' 
 ter of exclufion from the offices of the Com- 
 monwealth, but an action that merited correc- 
 tion, and for which the Cenfor would not have 
 failed to remove the culpable from his tribe. Un- 
 der the Emperors indeed this law was not always 
 obferved with fo much ftrictnefs as under the 
 Commonwealth : for Suetonius tells us, thats uet in 
 Auguftus fometimes employed Knights in thevit. Aug. 
 reprefentation of comedies. However, as the T^- 1 - 43- 
 
 extreme
 
 330 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book IV. 
 
 extreme tafte, which the young Nobility had 
 taken for the Scenic games, was obferved after- 
 wards to have made them fuch great admirers of 
 good actors, that they took pleafure in imita- 
 ting them, and induced them to aflbciate them- 
 felves with them in a manner little fuitable to 
 Tac. Ann. their rank ; a regulation was made under the 
 1. 1. Emperor Tiberius, to prohibit all Senators from 
 going to the houfes of comedians, and all 
 Knights from appearing in the ftreets of Rome 
 with them. 
 
 The manner of repeating dramatic poems ac- 
 companied with flutes and other inftruments, 
 and the meafure, or notes, obferved in pro- 
 nouncing them, occafioned mufic's becoming an 
 eflential part of them. Their inftruments of 
 mufic, though almoft all of them either firing 
 or wind-inftruments, were however different 
 from ours. We do not find that the mufic of 
 the Romans, which they had borrowed from 
 the Greeks, confifted of different parts ; and it 
 feems probable that it was only unifon, or full 
 chorus. Neither had they the ufe of notes ; 
 which were not invented till the eleventh centu- 
 ry by Guido d'sfrezzo, to fupply which they 
 made ufe of a feries of tones and femi-tones, to 
 Note c. i which they gave different names. F. Sanadon 
 0/9 /. 5. maintains, that all that relates to the harmony of 
 the antients is fufficiently explained , and refers 
 to Mr. Wallis's Trad at the end of his edition 
 of Ptolomy in 1682, intitled, Appendix de Ve- 
 terum Harmonia ad hodiernam comparata. That 
 learned commentator maintains againft Mr. Da- 
 cier, that the mufic of the antients is not en- 
 tirely loft, and that the theory of their different 
 fpecies of mufic is perfectly known. Mr. Burette 
 has feveral memoirs, which clear up this mat- 
 ter^
 
 Chap. III. OF THE ROMANS. 331 
 
 ter, in the Memoirs of the Academy of In- 
 fcriptions and Belles Lettres. 
 
 The Romans alfo brought buffoons on their 
 ftage who performed Angular tricks : they cal- 
 led them Praftigiatores, becaufe they in reality 
 did fuch furprizing things, as feemed of the na- 
 ture of magic and conjuration. If we may 
 believe not only Pliny, but fome of the fathers 
 of the Church, thofe who follow the fame bufi- 
 nefs in thefe days are mere bunglers and novices 
 compared with them. There were fome of 
 thefe jugglers, who by the help of certain ma~ 
 chines flew in the air, and others, who taught 
 wild beafts to mew tricks. In the time of thcrjio CafT. 
 Emperor Nero, elephants were feen at Romel. 60. 
 that walked and danced upon the rope ; others s " et r 11 ?, 
 that had been taught to dance the Pyrrhic dance, vlt ' 
 which as we have faid before was a military 
 dance -, and fome, which holding fwords in 
 their trunks, fought with each other after the 
 manner of gladiators. They had alfo rope- yjjj 
 dancers. It is quoted as an inftance of the Em- Rope- 
 peror Marcus Aurelius*s humanity, that being dancers. 
 one day at the theatre when a rope-dancer unfor- J" . apl i,' T 
 
 it J r 11 i_ rr ln vlt 
 
 tunately happened to fall, he ordered mattreiiesAur. 
 to be placed underneath. From thenceforth 
 care was taken to fpread a net under the cord to 
 prevent thofe who fell from receiving any 
 damage. 
 
 The tumblers and mountebanks became fo 
 common at Rome, that they fold their mithri- 
 date in the market-places, and played tricks to 
 draw people together : but it was not till after 
 Rome was become the miftrefs of the world, 
 t,hat thefe kind of people abounded there. Moft 
 pf them were ftrangers, and almoft all of the 
 
 Eaft \
 
 332 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book IV. 
 
 Eaft ; that country having always produced 
 more than any other. 
 
 IX. As to the games of the amphitheatre, they 
 Of the were either chaces, combats of gladiators, of 
 gamet of w jj^ b ea ft S) or of men that fought with them. 
 Mtbeatre. Thefe laft combats were different ; for there 
 were gladiators, who attacked them at once 
 with their arms, without any other precaution ; 
 and in confequence it often happened that thefe 
 either came off very much hurt, or perifhed. 
 Cafjjod Others lefs ram employed art, and had recourfe 
 1 5-Ep. to various flratagems for avoiding the firft fury 
 42- of thofc beafls, and finding a favourable occa- 
 fion to wound them with lefs danger. For this 
 purpofe fome made ufe of great globes of ofier, 
 which they rowled before them ; others had 
 great bucklers of ofier, (luck with the points of 
 reeds, which pricked thofe beads when they 
 came furioufly to bite and tear the combatants to 
 pieces with their teeth, who lying dexteroufly 
 upon the ground under this buckler, wounded 
 them with fecurity. They had alfo other ftra- 
 tagems, which mewed their addrefs, and gave 
 the fpectators more diverfion. The places 
 where thefe mews were exhibited, were not the 
 fame as thofe where the Scenic games were re- 
 prefented. They were called amphitheatres, 
 becaule the form of thefe vaft edifices was like 
 that of two theatres joined together ; for they 
 were generally oval within and without. How- 
 ever that called Cclliffsum^ which was the largeft 
 at Rome, and was capable of containing four- 
 fcore and feven thoufand fpectators, was round 
 without and oval within. The mi-dft of this 
 edifice, which was called Arena, from the fand 
 which care was taken to ftrew there for the con- 
 venience of the combatants, was furrounded 
 
 with
 
 Chap. III. OF THE ROMANS. 
 
 with a wall or kind of key from the height of 
 twelve to fifteen feet, in which vaulted places 
 were contrived, wherein the wild beads, in- 
 tended for the fhews, were kept. Above this 
 wall rofe the benches, one above another, on 
 which the fpectators fate, and which run quite 
 round the whole circumference to the top, but 
 there were feparations to mark the different fto- 
 ries and diftinguifh the places. The firft row 
 or bench was the place of the Emperor, the Se- 
 nators, and the Vedals; and left the wild 
 beads, as tigers, leopards, and bears, might 
 climb up to it, or be thrown into it in fighting, 
 the whole circumference of this fird row was 
 covered with crofs bars to fecure the fpectators 
 from the beads ; and for their greater fecurity, 
 at the bottom of the wall quite round the arena 
 there was a canal full of water, in order that the 
 beads might not approach it. The facility 
 which this canal afforded of laying the whole 
 bottom of the amphitheatre under water, oc- 
 cafioned its being fometimes ufed for the repre- 
 fentations of fea-fights, as in the Naumachice. 
 Combats of the fame kind were fometimes ex- 
 hibited in the great Circus, in effect of the 
 canal that furrounded it ; which was the reafon 
 that there were not fo many Naumachia erected 
 at Rome, as Amphitheatres and Circus's. 
 
 Wild beads of different fpecies were made to 
 fight there with one another, or with men who 
 were commonly either gladiators, or criminals 
 condemned to be executed in that manner. If 
 they came off victorious, they were acquitted 
 of their crimes. There were alfo perfons, who 
 hired themfelves for thefe combats, and others 
 who out of mere odentation of their drength 
 and addrefs, offered themfelves voluntarily. 
 
 The
 
 334 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book IV, 
 
 The chaces, or hunting, in the amphithea- 
 tre, were a diverfion given the people, and one 
 with which the Emperors often gratified them : 
 for every one that thought fit was fuffered to en- 
 ter the Arena, and to kill the game turned into 
 it for that purpofe, as wild-boars, flags, and 
 x deer, and to carry them off. This hunting 
 Hunting, pleafed the Roman citizens more than that in 
 the forefts, to which they were indifferent 
 enough during a confiderable length of time. 
 Suet, in p or [f appears that they did not conceive a tafte 
 T^CsfYt for it, till their intercourfe with the Greeks, who 
 in vit. took great delight in it , nor do the Romans 
 Gordion. feem much given to it however, except under 
 Vopifc. inf ome E m p erorSj w ho loved that fport. It is 
 gp art r in ' fomething extraordinary, that being fo fond as 
 vit. Adr. they were of the exercifes of the body, they 
 fhould not have more tafte for hunting. The 
 manner of it amongft the Romans was the fame 
 as amongft the Greeks, from whom they had 
 learned it. They hunted the great game, that 
 is to fay, ftags, wild-boars, roe-bucks, and fal- 
 low deer, with dogs, and the huntfmen had the 
 pleafure of chafing them on horfeback, and of 
 killing them with darts and javelins, or fhoot- 
 ing them with bows and arrows. They alfo 
 followed this chace * with nets, with which they 
 formed an inclofure, and drove the prey into it 
 
 * Aut trudit acres hinc & hinc multa cane 
 
 Apros in obftantes plagas. Her. Ep. t. 
 
 But when the blajt of winter blows, 
 
 And hoary Jr oft inverts the year, 
 Into the naked woods be gee t 
 
 Andfeeki the tujky boar to rear. 
 With well-mouth d hounds and pointed fpear ; 
 
 Then drives the foaming favage to the toils, 
 
 And glories in his fpoils. Drydtn. 
 
 with
 
 Chap. III. OF THE ROMANS. 335 
 
 with dogs, whom the huntfmen fuftained on 
 foot, armed with javelins, darts, and fwords, 
 which they ufed for killing it, when, by the 
 help of the dogs, they could come near enough. 
 It is obferved that the fwords ufed for hunting, 
 were much longer than thofe for war. They 
 ufed alfo dogs for courfing, and had others alfo 
 for driving the hare into the nets. Their ufual 
 manner of taking the game, confided in diffe- 
 rent kinds of fnares with nets and gins. Birds 
 were principally taken with the latter ; and 
 fometimes they mot the largeft flying with the 
 bow and arrow. No author mentions, that 
 hawking was in ufe amongft them. 
 
 Filhing was alfo a diverfion, for which they xi. 
 feem to have had more tafte than for the chace ; Offjhing. 
 which might proceed from their not believing, 
 that they ate well if they had no fifh. It was 
 for this reafon that their country houfes were 
 not efteemed, except well fupplied with refer- 
 voirs * of water for fifh ; befides which orna- 
 ments of water are highly efteemed in hot 
 countries. In their country-houfes fituate near Val. Ma *- 
 the fea, the fait- water was brought into refer- 1- 9< c ! ' 
 voirs, where they alfo preferved fea- fifh. Their 
 manner of riming was with nets, and the line. 
 
 But to return to the Shews of the Romans : Dio. Hal. 
 they borrowed moft of them from the Greeks, 1. 7- 
 and only augmented and retrenched fome things 
 from them, to adapt them to the tafte and ge- 
 nius of their nation. Their natural inclination for 
 them growing ftronger by habit, made them at 
 
 Undique latius 
 
 Extenta vifentur Lucrino 
 Stagna lacu. Hor. L. II. Od. xv. 
 
 New moats are dug, large ponds <we make 
 
 That rival fen the Lncrine lake. Creech. 
 
 length
 
 336 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book IV. 
 
 length fo paffionate for thefe dlverfions,that under 
 the Emperors the People of Rome required no- 
 Juv. Sat. thing but bread and mews, principally thofe of 
 o. the Circus and Amphitheatre. Though we 
 might believe this inclination was natural to 
 them, if we go back to the firft games cele* 
 brated by their founder Romulus, by the help 
 of which the rape of the Sabines fucceeded : 
 however the moderation, which authors re- 
 mark they retained for thefe amufements during 
 upwards of four ages, in which they were in- 
 deed employed in continual wars, might give 
 Xir. room to believe, that the excefiive paffion which 
 Excefive they exprefied in the fequel lor Shews, proceed- 
 paffion of ec j on iy f rom t h e idi ene f s O f t he inhabitants of 
 
 * mam for t ^ iat g reat city* a ^er it was become the miftrefs 
 tbejhewi. of the world, and at the fame time from the 
 Tac. 1.14. bad example of fome of her Emperors, who 
 were fond of them to madnefs. All thefe a- 
 mufements, which propagated the idlenefs of 
 the People, only enervated their bodies, cor- 
 rupted their minds, and made them degenerate 
 from the valour of their anceftors. It is ob- 
 ferved in confequence, that from the time thefe 
 Shews became fo common, the inhabitants of 
 Rome were no longer fo fit to make foldiers as 
 before -, and that when they came to ferve, they 
 were found to be the word troops of the empire. 
 This was firft perceived at the battle of Pharfa- 
 lia, in which the army of Pompey, compofed 
 chiefly of Roman citizens, could not (land their 
 ground againft Csefar's foldiers. And that de- 
 generacy only increafed afterwards. 
 
 CHAP-
 
 Chap. IV. OF THE ROMANS. 337 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 I. Of the Apotheofis. II. Of funerals. III. In- 
 combujlible cloth. IV. Of fepukbres. V. O/ 
 /&<f tombs called Hypogea. VI. Of mourn- 
 ing. VII. Of Gladiators. VIII. Dijcbarge or 
 exemption of Gladiators. IX. Gladiators made 
 free. X. Gladiators that ferved in the army. 
 
 FROM the time that the Romans, through j. 
 an excefs of flattery, placed their Empe- Of tke 
 rors in the number of the Gods, their Apotheofis Apotkeo 
 became one of the moft pompous ceremonies of 
 their religion. 
 
 The firft of the Romans, who was ranked 
 in the number of the Gods after his death, was 
 Romulus : but he was obliged for that in a 
 great meafure to the oath of the Senator Julius 
 Proculus, who affirmed that he faw him afcend 
 to heaven. He invented this circumftance to 
 cover the afiaflination committed by the Sena- 
 tors, who could not fupport the rigid manner, 
 with which that Prince governed them, and to 
 prevent the People, who loved him, from a- 
 venging his death. 
 
 From the time of Romulus till that of Au 
 guftus Cadur, the Romans had no thoughts of 
 the Apotheofis ; when the latter took it into 
 his head to revive it in the perfon of Julius Cae- 
 far his father by adoption, with all the ceremo- 
 nies obferved afterwards, which Herod ian re- 
 lates at large, on the occafion of the A potheofis 
 of the Emperor Severus. I fhall join the ac- 
 count of that hiflorian, with what other au- 
 thors tell us upon the fame head. Auguftus then 
 %* was
 
 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book IV. 
 
 was the firft who inftituted it ; and Tiberius 
 eftablifhed it in favour of the Emperors only : 
 the Emprefles alfo had the fame privilege af- 
 terwards. 
 
 The firft thing that was done, was to caufe 
 this confecration to be authorized by a decree of 
 the Senate, which placed the Emperor in the 
 number of the Gods, and ordained that temples 
 fhould be built, facrifices offered, and divine 
 honours paid to him. The Prince who fuc- 
 ceeded to the empire generally took care to 
 caufe thefe laft honours to be rendered to his 
 predeceflbr. Herodian defcribes the Apotheofis 
 
 Herod. r n i v j 
 
 j as a reftival, wherein mourning, joy, and wor- 
 
 Dio Caff, fhip had place. For affoon as the Emperor was 
 * 56- dead, the whole city went into mourning , the 
 body was interred in the ufual manner, but 
 with abundance of pomp, and a figure of wax, 
 which perfectly reprefented the decealed, with a 
 pale vifage, as if he was ft ill fick, was laid upon 
 a bed of ivory, covered with cloth of gold, in 
 the porch of the palace. The Senate in mourn- 
 ing robes continued on the left fide of the bed 
 during great part of the day ; and on the right 
 were the ladies of quality, married and unmar- 
 ried, in large white robes quite plain, without 
 jewels on their necks or arms. The fame order 
 was obferved feven days together, during which 
 the phyficians approached the bed from time to 
 time, as if to confider the fick prince, and 
 found him perpetually declining, till at laft they 
 declared him dead. Upon that the mcft il- 
 luftrious of the Roman Knights and the junior 
 Senators carried him upon their moulders thro* 
 the ftreet, called the Via Sacra, to the old 
 Forum, where a painted alcove of wood had 
 been erected. The Emperor and magiftrates 
 
 fate
 
 Chap. IV. OF THE ROMANS. 339 
 
 fare down in the open place, and the ladies un- 
 der the porticos, whilft choirs of muficians fung 
 the praifes of the deceafed. After the Empe- 
 ror had pronounced the elogium of his predecef-v 
 for, the bed with the figure upon it was carried 
 out of the city into the field of Mars in the fol- 
 lowing order. The march began by thofe, who 
 carried the flames of all the illuflrious Roman 
 captains from Romulus ; after which came the 
 figures of the provinces fubjec~t to the Roman 
 empire, reprefented in bronze. The images of 
 thofe who had rendered their names famous by 
 their virtue or learning followed. Then the 
 Knights and Roman foldiery marched under 
 arms ; followed by a great number of race- 
 horfes, and the prefents made by the provinces, 
 cities, and perfons of diftinclion to adorn this 
 folemnity, moft of which confifted in fpices, 
 odours, and perfumes. The foldiers carried an 
 altar covered with ivory, and adorned with 
 gold and jewels. The Emperor who fucceeded, 
 followed the bed of (late to the field of Mars, 
 where the funeral pile had been prepared. It was 
 of timber, in the form of a pavilion of four or 
 five ftories gradually diminrniing like a pyramid 
 to the top. The infide was full of combufti- 
 bles, and the outfide covered with cloth of gold, 
 compartments of ivory , and fine paintings. 
 Every (lory was in the form of a portico, fup- 
 ported with pillars ; and on the top was repre- 
 fented the gilt chariot ufed by the defundl Em- 
 peror. This is ftill to be feen on the medals 
 ftruck on the occafion of this kind of ceremo- 
 nies. Thole who bore the bed of (late wherein 
 lay the wax-figure of the deceafed Emperor, 
 delivered it into the hands of the Pontiffs, who 
 placed it on thefecond flory of this pile , and 
 Z 2 round
 
 34 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book IV. 
 
 round the bed all forts of perfumes, odours, 
 fruits, flowers and fragrant herbs were laid in 
 heaps. After this all the horfe, who had been 
 prepared for this folemnity, rode in a certain 
 order in rings, obferving a kind of time re- 
 fembling that of the Pyrrhic dances. Thefe 
 are Herodian's words, that is to fay, that they 
 formed a kind of tournament or caroufal. Cha- 
 riots were made to run alfo in the fame order, 
 whofe drivers wore purple robes, and in which 
 were the images of the Emperors, whofe reigns 
 had been happy, and of the generals of great 
 fame. 
 
 When all this pomp was pafled, the new 
 Emperor with a torch in his hand went and fet 
 fire to the pile, as the principal magiftrates did 
 alfo on all fides. The flames foon feized fo 
 many combuftibles ; at which time an eagle was 
 let fly from the top of the ftrufture, if an Em- 
 peror was confecrated , or a peacock, if an Em- 
 prefs ; which flying up in the air in the midft of 
 the flames and fmoke, went, as the people be- 
 lieved, to carry the foul of the late Emperor, 
 or Emprefs, to heaven. From thenceforth they 
 had their altars and worfhip like the other 
 Gods. 
 
 It mufl be obferved, that though Herodian 
 
 fpeaks only of the figure of the Emperor, Dio 
 
 Caflius tells us, that his body was upon the fame 
 
 bed, bat without being feen. The firft hiftori- 
 
 r an fays, that the corpfe was burnt before ; but 
 
 j '5 the fecond defcribing the Apotheofis of Auguf- 
 tus, affirms, that there was a bed of gold and 
 ivory with a purple covering enriched with 
 gold, in which was the body of Auguftus, that 
 was not feen, and that his ftatue was placed up- 
 on this bed. 
 
 The
 
 Chap. IV. OF THE ROMANS. 3.1.1 
 
 The Apotheofis being only a fequel of the fu- 
 neral, we ought to have fpoke of the latter firfl : 
 bat fuch details would have interrupted the plan 
 we propofed to ourielves in this work, which 
 was, not to feparate matters relating to the fame 
 fubjecT:, in order to the reader's forming more 
 clear and lefs confufed ideas of it. 
 
 Few nations ever were more religious and ex- j/ 
 act in paying the laft duties to their relations and Fwierab. 
 friends, than the Romans. They omitted no- 
 thing, that might exprefs how dear the memo- 
 ries were to them, and contribute at the fame 
 time to render them honourable. This was an 
 acknowledgment of the fervices rendered their 
 country, or an homage paid to virtue, in or- 
 der to excite their fellow-citizens to deferve the 
 fame honours by their great actions. Pliny fays, 
 that funerals were facred ceremonies amongft the 
 Romans. They began from the moment the 
 perfon had breathed his laft. At that inflant, 
 it was neceflary that the nearefl relation, or if 
 married, that the furvivor, hufband or wife, 
 fhould give the dying perfon the laft kifs -, as if 
 to receive their foul, and that he or fhe mould 
 clofe their eyes. The fame hand opened thenipj| n j ] 
 alfo upon the funeral pile, in order that theyc. 37 . 
 might feem to look up to heaven. They took 
 care alfo, in clofing their eyes to fhut alfo rheir 
 mouths, to render them lefs ghaftly, and to 
 make them feem like one fleeping. The de- 
 ceafed's ring was alfo taken off, which they put 
 on again, when the body was laid upon the 
 pile. They called him often by his name with 
 a loud voice, to know whether he was really 
 dead, had fainted, or was feized with a lethar- 
 gy. They afterwards applied to the undertakers 
 Z 3 ( Libiti* 
 
 ii.
 
 342. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book IV. 
 
 ( Libitinarii ) to perform the funerals, accord- 
 ing to the will of the deceafed if he had di- 
 rected any thing upon that head, or that of the 
 heirs and relations, at more or lefs expence as 
 they thought fit. Thefe Libitinarii fold and 
 fupplied all that was necefiary in folemnizing 
 Plut. Qu. funerals. They were fo called from having their 
 Rom- 23- magazine at the temple of Venus Libitina. In 
 that temple were kept the regiflers of thofe who 
 died in Rome; and it was from them that the 
 number of perfons, who were fwept off by the 
 plague one autumn in Nero's reign, was taken. 
 Thefe undertakers had people under them called 
 Pollinftores : the corpfe was fint put into their 
 hands, which they wafhed with hot water, and 
 embalmed with perfumes. They muft have 
 known the manner of embalming to a much 
 higher degree of perfection even than the Egyp- 
 tians, if we may believe accounts of fome 
 tombs difcovered at Rome about two hundred 
 years ago, in which bodies were found fo well 
 preferved, that they might have been taken ra- 
 ther for perfons afleep, than dead , but that the 
 fmell which came from thofe tombs was fo 
 ftrong, that it ftruck people down. It is con- 
 jectured that thefe bodies were embalmed with a 
 mixture of myrrh or aloes and turpentine. Af- 
 ter the body had been embalmed in this man- 
 Id 26 ner * * c was ^ re ^" * n f ^ e cornrnon w hi te ha- 
 bit, that is to lay, the foga. However, if the 
 deceafed were a perfon who had pafTed through 
 the great offices of the Commonwealth, the 
 robe of the higheft dignity he had poffefled 
 was put on him, and he was kept in that man- 
 ner feven days, during which all that was ne- 
 cefiary for the pomp of the funeral was pre- 
 pared.
 
 Chap. IV. OF THE ROMANS. 343 
 
 pared. The body was expofed in * the porch Plin. 1. 16. 
 or at the entrance of his houfe, in a bed of c - 33- 
 ftate with the feet towards the door, where a 
 cyprefs was placed for the rich, and for others 
 only branches of pine, which alfo denoted that 
 a corpfe was there. A man alfo continued with 
 the body, to prevent any thing about it from 
 being ftole : but when the deceafed was a per- 
 fon of the firft rank, there were boys round it 
 to drive away the flies. After the feven days 
 were expired, a public herald proclaimed the 
 funeral as follows : This is to give notice to <z//Feflus. 
 who defire to be prefent at the obfequies of fuch an 
 one^ the fan of fuch an one, that they go to them 
 direftly ; for the corpfe is now bringing out of the 
 houfe. Only the relations or friends of the de- 
 ceafed were prefent, unlefs the deceafed had 
 rendered confiderable fervices to the Common- 
 wealth, in which cafe the People attended the 
 funeral : and if he had commanded the armies, Dk> Caff, 
 the foldiers repaired thither, reverfing their arms 1. 56. 
 with the points downwards , the Lictors alfo 
 reverfed their fafces. The corpfe was carried 
 on a little bed called Exaphora, when only fix 
 carried it, and Oflopbora 9 when eight. They y e j]_ p at 
 were ufually the relations of the deceafed, whoi. z.c. 12. 
 did this office in honour of him, or his fons, if 
 he had any. For an Emperor, the bed was D5 
 carried by the Senators ; and for a general, by i 56. 
 
 * Hinc tuba, candelas : tandemque beatulus alto 
 Compofitusle&o, craflbque lutatus amomo 
 In portam rigidos calces extendit. 
 
 Per/. Sat. V. 
 
 'Then trumpets, torches, and a tedious cre-iu 
 Of hireling mourners, for his, funeral due. 
 Our dear departed brother lies in ftate, 
 His clay-cold heels jlretiti d out before the gate. 
 
 Dryden. 
 
 Z 4 officers
 
 344 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book IV. 
 
 officers or foldiers. As to the people of mean 
 condition, they were carried in a kind of open 
 bier by four men who got their living by that 
 
 Feflus. bufmefs. They were called fafpillones ; becaufe 
 it was cuftomary during a great length of time 
 not to celebrate funerals till the evening : but in 
 proceis of time they were celebrated by day as 
 well as night. The vifage of the deceafed was 
 uncovered, with a crown of flowers on his 
 head , unlefs his ficknefs had entirely disfigured 
 him, in which cafe care was taken to cover it. 
 After the mafters of the ceremony of the pro- 
 ceffion had placed each according to his rank, it 
 began by the performers on the flute, who played 
 a mournful air : they were followed by people 
 
 Suet in carrying lighted * torches. Near the bed was 
 
 vit. Vcfp an Archimime, who counterfeited the behavi- 
 our of the deceafed , and all the enfigns of the 
 dignities he had enjoyed, were carried before the 
 bid. If he had fignalized himfelf in war, the 
 rewards and crowns which he had received for 
 his great aftions were difplayed, as well as the 
 ftandards and fpoils he had taken from the ene- 
 
 Polyb.16. my. His bufto was alfo -f carried in wax, 
 with thofe of his anceftors and kindred upon the. 
 end of fpears or in chariots -, unlefs he was one 
 of thofe called Novi Homines* that is the firft 
 Nobles of their family, w'nofe anceftors could 
 do hiTi no honour, which prevented their being 
 
 Tac.I. z. fh-wn. It was allb cuftomary not to caufe the 
 builos of thofe, who had been condemned for 
 
 * Perf Sat III. loco pofterius citat. 
 
 f- Funus atque imagines 
 
 Ducant triumphaies mum. 
 
 Hor. Epod. 8. 
 
 dnd let tnvmfftal Jtatuu grace 
 y&y funr'al, born <a:itb JaltTun pace. 
 
 crimes
 
 Chap. IV. OF THE ROMANS. 345 
 
 crimes to be born on thefe occafions, though 
 they had poffeffed dignities : that was not per- 
 mitted. All thefe figures were afterwards fet 
 up again in the place, where they were kept, as 
 we have related above. At the funerals of Em- j)j Q ff 
 perors, the images and fymbols of the con- 1.56. 
 quered provinces and cities were carried in cha- 
 riots. The freedmen of the deceafed followed 
 this pomp, wearing the cap, which was the badge 
 of their liberty. After them came his children, PIut Q U 
 relations and friends dreft in black ; the fons had Rom. 14! 
 veils on their heads, and the hair of the daugh- 
 ters hung loofe : the latter had nothing on theirs, 
 and walked barefoot dreft in white. After 
 them came the PrceficcB : thefe were women Fefius. 
 whofe bufmefs it was to make lamentations for 
 the death of the deceafed, to fing his praifes to 
 mournful air weeping, and fpeak the forrow of all 
 the reft. When the defunftwas an illuftrious per-s ue t ; n 
 fon, his body was carried to the Forum Roma- vit. Tiber. 
 num, where the proceffion flopped, whilft one 
 of his children or neareft relations made his fu- 
 neral oration. This was not only praclifed in 
 refpect to men, who had diftinguifhed them- 
 felves in their employments, but ladies of con- 
 dition alfo ; the Commonwealth having patted 
 a decree to permit their being praifed in pub- 
 lic, from the time that, not being a fuffi- 
 cient quantity of gold in the public treafury to 
 difcharge the vow made by Camillus, to give a 
 gold cup to Apollo of Delphi after the taking 
 of the city Veii, the Roman ladies had volun- 
 tarily contributed their rings and jewels, as we 
 have faid above in fpeaking of coins. From 
 the Forum Romanum, the corpfe was carried to 
 the place where it was either to be burnt or in- 
 terred > for that depended on what the deceafed 
 
 had
 
 346 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book IV. 
 
 had directed by his will. If it were neceflary 
 they went to the field of Mars, where this cere- 
 mony was ufually performed : for bodies were 
 not burnt in the city. Care had been taken to 
 eredl: a pile there of yew, pine, and other 
 woods eafy to fet on fire, difpofed upon each 
 other in the form of an altar, upon which the 
 corpfe was placed dreft in his robes. They 
 then fprinkled it with fcented liquors proper to 
 diffufe a good fmell. The face was turned to- 
 wards the fky, and a piece of money, which 
 was commonly an obelus, put into the mouth, to 
 pay Charon for pafling the river Styx. The 
 whole pile was next covered on all fides with 
 cyprefs, when the deceafed's neareft relations, 
 turning their backs upon the pile, fet it on fire 
 with torches which they held behind them , and 
 whilft the fire fpread, they threw into it the 
 habits, arms, and other things, in which the 
 defunct had moft delighted, and fometimes even 
 gold and filver ; but this was prohibited by 
 
 Plut in c ^ e ^ aws ^ t ^ ie twe ^ ve tobies. However at the 
 vit. C*f. funeral of Julius Csefar, the veteran foldiers 
 Dio Caff, threw their arms into his funeral pile to do him 
 * 56- honour. Oxen, bulls, and fheep were alfo 
 killed and thrown into the pile - 9 and foon after 
 combats of gladiators were exhibited to appeafe 
 the manes of the dead. The ufe of thefe com- 
 bats was introduced to fupply the place of a 
 barbarous cuftom antiently practifed in war, 
 which was to facrifice the prifoners round the 
 funeral pile of thofe, who had died in battle, by 
 way of avenging them. 
 
 The combats of the gladiators were not the 
 only mews given on thefe occafions , chariot- 
 races were fometimes ran round the funeral-pile ; 
 different theatrical pieces were reprefented there 
 
 and
 
 Chap. IV. OF THE ROMANS. 347 
 
 and through an excefs of magnificence feafts 
 were given to the afiiftants and people : but the 
 combats of gladiators were more common than 
 thofe other mews. After the corpfe was burnt, 
 the afhes and bones not entirely confumed by 
 the fire were gathered. The deceafed's neareft])j Q^- 
 relations or heirs took this care upon themfelres, 1. 56 
 in order that his afhes might not be confounded 
 with thofe of the pile. They ufed the precau-pjj n j 20 
 tion, in putting the body of the deceafed uponc. i. 
 the pile, to wrap it up in a fpecies of cloth not 
 combuftible, which the Greeks called Ajleftos. 
 It came from the Indias, and it is faid from \\\, 
 Cathay. This cloth was made of thread fpun Cloth not 
 from a kind of ftone, which has the property Q^ 
 becoming white in the fire. The bones and 
 afhes were warned with milk and wine, and 
 were put into an urn of more or lefs value, ac- 
 cording to the wealth or quality of the defunct, 
 in order to be depofited in the tomb of the fa- 
 mily : the moft common ones were ufually 
 made of earth. The facrificer, who had affift- 
 ed at the ceremony, afterwards fprinkled the af- 
 fiftants three times with a fprinkler made of 
 olive branches, in order to purify them. And 
 laftly, the principal Prtsfica dilmified the com- 
 pany with faying, I licet, that is to fay you may 
 now depart , upon which the relations and friends 
 of the defunct cried out three times, Vale, vale, 
 vale, Farewell, calling him by his name, and 
 adding thefe words, 1e or dine, quo natura per- 
 mijerit, cunffi fequemur : We Jhall all follow you, 
 in the courfe of nature, as it comes to our turns. 
 The urn in which the aihes were, was carried to 
 the fepulchre, before which there was a little 
 altar, whereon incenfe and other perfumes were 
 burnt, a ceremony renewed from time to time, 
 
 as
 
 348 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book IV. 
 
 Hcrod.l-4.as well as that of ftrewing * flowers upon the 
 tomb , which was conlidered as an act of piety. 
 Suet, in As to thofe whofe bodies were not burnt, they 
 vit. Aug. were cornmon iy p ut i n to earthen biers or open 
 coffins j or, if they were perfons of diftinction, 
 into a tomb of ftone or marble, in which a per- 
 petual lamp was placed, and fometimes little 
 figures of the Gods, with fmall phials, called 
 McmtfzMc.Lachrymatoriai becaufe they contained the tears 
 Antiq. fried at their funeral : which was to {hew, that 
 they had been much lamented. In fome tombs 
 jewels which had been buried with the body 
 have been found, becaufe probably the deceafed 
 had been very fond of them in their life-time. 
 Ail the lamps which have been found, imme- 
 diately went out on the opening of the tombs 
 they were in. The ceremony ot a funeral con- 
 cluded with a feaft, which was ufually a fupper 
 given to the deceafed's friends and relations : 
 jj v i g and fometimes provifions were diftributed to the 
 people. Nine days after there was another 
 feaft called the great fupper, or Novendialis. 
 At this entertainment it was the cuftom to quit 
 black, and to put on white robes. 
 
 In the early times the Romans had bur/ing 
 places in their houfes : but the laws of the twelve 
 
 * Dii majorum umbris tenuem & fine pondere terrain 
 Spirantefque crocos, & in urna perpetuum ver, 
 
 i praeceptorem fandi volaere parent! s 
 -.1 loco Jut). Sat. VII. 
 
 In peace, yejhades of our great grand/ires reft, 
 No heanty earth your facred bones molejl; 
 Eternal fpritig and rijing fii--u? r s adorn 
 The relicks of each venerable urn, 
 Who pious re-J rente to their tutors paid y 
 At parents honour 'a, and as Gcds obejil. 
 
 Mr. Cha. Dryden. 
 tables
 
 Chap. IV. OF THE ROMANS. 349 
 
 tables prohibited the interring or burning bo- 
 dies in the city. There were places without the 
 walls allotted for burning the bodies of the 
 common people, where it was done at little ex- 
 pence, and without fo many ceremonies : For 
 as to the rich, and perfons who had pafled 
 through the great offices, they were always burnt 
 in the field of Mars. The Veftals were the 
 only perfons, to whom the Commonwealth con- 
 tinued the privilege of being buried in the city ; 
 and if it was fometimes granted to others, it 
 was very rarely , and then only to perfons 
 who had diftinguifhed themfelves by the great 
 fervices they had rendered the State. The Em- 
 perors alfo aflumed this privilege. 
 
 Though the cuftom of burning the dead was 
 very antient amongft the Romans, as Plutarch, 
 in the life of Numa Pompilius, tells us, that he 
 forbade the burning of his body, we do not 
 find however, that it was fo common as it be- 
 came afterwards : for the fame Plutarch tells us, 
 that Sylla was the firft of the family of the 
 Cornelii^ whofe body was burnt. And it was 
 not till after his time, that is to fay after the ci- 
 vil wars, that this cuftom began to grow gene- 
 ral. But it loft ground very much from the be- 
 ginning of the Chriftian Emperors, and was en- 
 tirely abolifhed under the Emperor Gratian. 
 After the laws of the twelve tables had prohi- 
 bited interment in the city, the Romans placed 
 their tombs upon their eftates, or on the fide of 
 the great roads. The illuftrious families, and 
 thofe of diftinction had particular ones, which 
 ferved not only for them, but even their freed- 
 men and the principal Haves of their houfe. It 
 was facrilege amongft the Romans to ufurp or 
 
 ufc
 
 350 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book IV. 
 
 ufe the tomb of another family ; and a very 
 confiderable penalty was inflicted upon fuch as 
 committed it. 
 
 Iv - Thefe fepulchres were ufually fmall ftructures 
 built with brick or ftone, wherein niches were 
 cut all round, as in a dove-houfe, except that 
 the niches were larger ; from which refemblance 
 they were called Colombaria. In each of thefe 
 niches two or three urns might be placed, over 
 or under which the epitaph was engraved. 
 V. The great riches of the Commonweakh,in pro- 
 Of the cefs of time, induced her to imitate the mag- 
 fepuUhres nificence of the Greeks in this refpecl, and af- 
 y "ter their manner to build fubterraneous tombs, 
 which were ftructures compofed of feveral cham- 
 bers or apartments, called Hypogea, IH which 
 were alfo niches for the reception of fepulchral 
 urns. Thefe fubterraneous apartments were a- 
 dorned with paintings in frefco, Mofaic work, 
 and figures in relief of marble, of infinitely 
 greater value and expence than thofe of the fe- 
 pulchres, commonly erected above ground ; as 
 appears from thofe difcovered near Rome fome 
 time fince. 
 
 Vi. We might have obferved above, that black 
 Of mourn- or very brown were the colours of the mourning 
 
 **%- habits worn by the men -, they were alfo com- 
 Plut. m i ,,,, ' - r i t 
 
 vit Num rnon to tne women - The mourning or the Em- 
 perors at firft was black -, and in the time of 
 Auguftus, the ladies wore white veils, and the 
 reft of their drefs black on the fame occafion : 
 Plut Qu. but from the time of the Emperor Domitian, 
 Rom. 26. they wore nothing but white habits, without 
 
 j j J O 
 
 any ornament of gold, pearls, or other jewels. 
 
 Feftus. The figns of mourning amongft the men were 
 
 alfo to let their hair and beards grow, and to 
 
 2 wear
 
 Chap. IV. OF THE ROMANS. 351 
 
 wear no wreaths of flowers upon their heads, as 
 long as it continued. The longeft was only for 
 ten months, during which a widow could not 
 marry again, without incurring a note of infa- 
 my. As to children, they did not wear it for 
 them when they died under the age of three ; 
 and for thofe between that age and ten, they 
 mourned as many months as they were years 
 old. The time of mourning was fhortened on 
 feveral occafions amongft the Romans. After 
 the battle of Cannas, the Commonwealth de- 
 creed that it mould be worn only for thirty 
 days, in order to forget their lofs aflbon as pof- 
 fible. There were alfo occafions that interfered p e ft us . 
 with it in private families, as the birth of a 
 child ; when the family attained fome peculiar 
 diftinftion ; on account of certain feafts in ho- 
 nour of the Gods ; or the confecration of a 
 temple. 
 
 The combats of the gladiators given in ho- 
 nour of the deceafed to appeafe their manes, 
 fucceeded, as we have feen, to the antient bar- 
 barous cuftom mentioned in Homer, which 
 was to facrifice prifoners upon the tombs of 
 thofe, who had been killed during the war. 
 But as the people grew more civilized, they dif- 
 covered the exceeding barbarity of this con- 
 du6t, and to remove the appearance of cruelty 
 in thefe facrifices, obliged the prifoners of war 
 to fight with each other round the tomb of him. 
 they intended to honour ; and thus they formed 
 a kind of games or mews, of which the cruelty 
 was however no lefs real. The firft kind of 
 gladiators that appeared, had this origin : but 
 in proportion as it was perceived that people 
 took pleafure in thefe fights, different fpecies of 
 them were invented ; for there were twelve forts 
 
 of
 
 352 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book IV. 
 
 of gladiators, who took their names either from 
 the arms with which they fought, or the diffe- 
 rent kinds of combat to which they were defti- 
 ned. There were fome who fought without 
 defenfive arms ; fome armed at all points ; 
 others only with the buckler , fome fought on 
 horfeback and in chariots ; and there were even 
 fome whom they obliged to fight blindfold. In- 
 duftry afterwards found means to make thefe 
 fhews lucrative to itfelf in the perfons of thofe 
 Suet. In who were called Lanifta, into whofe hands the 
 vit. Caef. prifoners intended for thefe fights were put, to 
 be taught how to ufe their arms well, and to ex- 
 ercife them in thefe combats, in order to make 
 them the more entertaining to the fpectator. 
 Thefe Lanifta bought ftrong and robuft (laves, 
 whom they prepared for thefe exercifes, and ob 
 liged them to fight. It was to thefe matters fuch 
 applied as defired to exhibit gladiatorial fhews, 
 who after having agreed upon the price, fur- 
 nilhed a proportionate number of pairs of gladi- 
 ators, becaufe they always fought by pairs. In 
 procefs of time, the principal perfons of the 
 Commonwealth had gladiators of their own, 
 whom they ufed when they gave games to the 
 people, and fometimes on occafions wherein 
 they thought proper to employ force.' Julius 
 CM" Casfar had a number fufficiently confiderable 
 of his own, before he was Emperor. The 
 Roman people were fo fond of thefe combats, 
 that the Commonwealth, by the law TuHici, 
 prohibited the citizens that ftood for offices to 
 exhibit thefe fhews to the People ; apprehend- 
 ing, that by the means of them they might gain 
 their favour and fufFrages, to the prejudice of 
 the other candidates. They pleafed fo much, 
 that they were alfo admitted on occafions of re- 
 joicing,
 
 Chap.IV. OF THE ROMANS. 353 
 
 joicing, as after fome victory, or when the 
 Emperor was defirous to conciliate the favour 1 
 of the People. In a word, this phrenzy role 
 Ib high, that in folemn feafts, pairs of them 
 were brought into the eating- rooms : but at fuch 
 times they ufed blunt weapons; becaufe what 
 they did, was only to divert the guefts during 
 the entertainment by the addrefs and agility 
 which they (hewed in fighting. Thefe gladia- 
 tors were called Samnites, from being armed af- 
 ter the manner of that People. The inclination 
 moft of the Emperors had for thefe fanguinary 
 games, did not a little contribute to render the 
 ufe of them more frequent. 
 
 The firft Shew of gladiators exhibited at Val. MAX. 
 Rome, was in the 49oth year from its founda- 2t c ' 4* 
 tion, in the Confulfhip of Ap. Claudius and 
 M. Fulvius. At firft it was the cuftom to ex- 
 hibit them only at the funerals of the principal 
 rnagiftrates and Senators. Afterwards, in imi- 
 tation of them, they were given at thofe of pri- 
 vate perfons, who fometimes directed by their 
 wills, that there mould be combats of gladia- 
 tors in their funeral folemnity : they were even 
 ufed at the funerals of women. 
 
 The profefiion of gladiator was always repu- 
 ted infamous, though fome of the Emperors 
 were fo depraved as to exercife it themfelves, as 
 Commodus did. Nero alfo compelled theg uet ; n 
 principal perfons of the Empire to praclife it,vuNeron. 
 having made fix hundred Knights, and four 
 hundred Senators, appear in the amphitheatre of 
 Rome, whom he obliged to fight either with 
 each other, or with wild beafts. There were Dio Caff! 
 fome indeed of thefe two principal Orders of 1- 55- 
 the Empire, who were mean enough to offer 
 voluntarily to fight as gladiators upon the arena y 
 A a through
 
 354 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book IV. 
 
 through a fhameful complacency for the Prince. 
 It was in thefe times that this madnefs became 
 fo much in fafhion, that the Roman * ladies 
 were feen to exercife the fame function volun- 
 tarily, and to fight in the amphitheatre with 
 one another, or with wild beafts, valuing them- 
 felves on mewing their intrepidity and addrefs 
 there. Juvenal, in his fixth Satire, blames this 
 phrenzy of the Roman ladies of his time, and 
 tells us that the gladiators were permitted to 
 make their wills : it is probable that he means 
 thofe, who after having obtained their liberty, 
 voluntarily fought again : for no flave was al- 
 lowed to make his will. 
 
 It is neceflary therefore to diftingnim two 
 kinds of gladiators ; thofe who were fo againft 
 their will, as flaves and prifoners of war defti- 
 ned to this profefllon ; fuch as were condemned 
 to it by way of punifhment ; and thofe who 
 though free, followed it voluntarily, either 
 through the degeneracy of the times, or the ex- 
 treme indigence to which they were reduced, 
 that determined them to take up the trade, like 
 the flaves who were gladiators, and having 
 
 * Endromidas Tyrias, & foemineum ceroma 
 Quis nefcit ? vel quis non vidit vulnera pali ? 
 Quern cavat affiduis fudibus, fcutoque laceffit, 
 Atque omnes implet numeros; digniffima prorfus 
 Florali matrona tuba : nifi fi quid in illo 
 Peftore plus agitat, veraeque paratur arenae. 
 
 JHV. Sat. VI. 
 
 They turn virago's too ', the wrefller's toil 
 tfhey try, and fmear their naked limbs with oil : 
 jfgainji the pojl their wicker Jbields they crujh y 
 Flour ijh the fvcord, and at the plajlron pujh. 
 Of c<vry exercife the mannijh crew 
 Fulfils the farts, and oft excels us too ; 
 Prepared not only in feigrfd fights f engage, 
 But rout the gladiators on the ft age* Dryden. 
 
 obtained
 
 Chap.lV. OF THE ROMANS. 355 
 
 obtained exemption and even their liberty, ft ill 
 followed this profeffion voluntarily. 
 
 The gladiators generally appeared upon the Suet, it* 
 arena by pairs, that formed fo many fmgle vlt - ( - a ^ 
 combats. Afloon as one of them was wounded, 
 the People did not fail to cry out immediately, 
 he has it : and if the wounded combatant laid 
 down his arms that moment, it was a fign that 
 he declared himfelf conquered : but his life de 
 pended on the fpectators, or on the perfon who 
 prefided at thofe games. However, if the Em- 
 peror arrived at that inftant, it was ufual enough 
 for him to fave his life : but if he recovered of 
 his wound, That did not exempt him from 
 fighting again in another Shew. The Roman 
 people took too much pleafure in thefe games, 
 to be fpectators of them with indifference : and 
 in confequence, when a gladiator fought brave- 
 ly and was wounded, the people interpofed for 
 the prefervation of his life ; but on the contra- 
 ry, if he behaved like a coward in the battle, 
 they did not fail fo demand his death. To fig-T UT g af ^ 
 nify that his life fhould be fpared, the people 
 only held up one hand with the thumb bent* 
 and to exprefs that it was their will he fhould 
 die, it fufficed to fhew the hand with the thumb 
 raifed. The wounded gladiators knew fo v.-ell 
 That to be the fignal of their deftrudtion, that 
 aflbon as they perceived it, it was their cuftom 
 to prefcnt their throats in order to receive the 
 mortal flroke. Their bodies were removed 
 from the arena with an hook. The rewards ^rf. dg 
 given the victorious gladiators at firft, weie ei-^ pcc 
 ther a palm or money : but as it was ufual for 
 thofe who trafficked in gladiators, in order to 
 augment their gains, to make thofe fight again 
 in other Shews, who had already been victori- 
 A a 2 us,
 
 356 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book IV. 
 
 VIII. ous, unlefs the people granted them an exemp- 
 Difeharge t j on ca i} ec \ \ n Latin mtffio 9 Auguftus decreed, 
 "tionlftfa-^X- no g^diators mould be made to fight for 
 diators. the future, except fuch of them as came off vi- 
 Suet. in ctorious, were granted this exemption ; which 
 vu, Aug. was a ii cence not to fig nt an y more? U nlefs they 
 
 thought fit. But he did not give them their li- 
 berty , to obtain which it was necefiary to have 
 IX. been feveral times victorious. However, in 
 Making t j me } t became ufual enough to give them their 
 dlaton a lib ert y and this exemption together. This af- 
 franchifement was executed by the Praetor, by 
 laying a knotty ftaff like that of crab-tree upon 
 their heads, which ftaff was called rudis : but it 
 only removed them out of the ftate of flavery, 
 without giving them the quality of citizens. 
 To this freedom a reward purely honorary, as 
 an evidence of their bravery, was fometimes 
 annexed : this was a garland or kind of crown 
 of flowers mingled with ribbands, called Lemnifci^ 
 which was put on their heads : the ends of thefe 
 ribbands hung down upon their moulders, from 
 whence thofe who wore this mark of diftinction 
 Plin.l. 21. were called Lemnifd. When they had obtained 
 Feftus exemption, or liberty, and quitted the profeflion 
 of gladiator, they went to offer their arms * to 
 Hercules, as to their tutelary God, and affixed 
 them to the gates of his temple. The Empe- 
 
 * ' ' Vejanius armis 
 
 Herculis ad poflem fixis, latet abditus agro ; 
 Ne populum extrema toties exoret arena. 
 
 Hor. Ep. I. 
 
 The fencer Vejan, ntnv grown weak with age, 
 Lives quietly at home, and leaves the ftage, 
 His arms in Great Alcides temple placd, * 
 
 Left after all his former glories paft, C 
 
 He, worfted, meanly begs his life at /ajl. Creech, i 
 
 ror
 
 Chap. IV. OF THE ROMANS. 357 
 
 ror Antoninus Pius inftituted a prize for the ex- Spare, in 
 ercifes of the gladiators. Pliny fays, that imme-YA c . A " to J?- 
 diately after fighting, Water mingled with com- c **' ' 3 ' 
 mon wood-afhes was given them, to calm the too 
 violent agitation of the blood. Gladiators were X. 
 often ufed alfo in war, where they ferved ^Gladiators 
 other troops. When Otho marched againft Vi-y^^L' 8 
 tellius, he carried two thoufand gladiators withTac. 1. 2. 
 him to ferve in his army. The Emperor Mar-J lli Capit. 
 cus Aurelius took with him thofe of Rome to 1 ^ *" M - 
 ferve in the army againft the Marcomanni. The 
 inhabitants of the city complained of it exceed- 
 ingly, faying, that it was plain he did not in- 
 tend to give them any more games, as he had 
 carried away the gladiators of the city to the 
 army. The fame had been done long before ; 
 for they had alfo been ufed in the civil wars of 
 the Commonwealth and Triumvirates. 
 
 Criminals were fometimes condemned to ferve 
 as gladiators, and to fight either with each other 
 or with wild beafts. They were alfo condem- 
 ned to be expofed to wild beafts, in order to 
 their being devoured by them. This kind of 
 punifhment was ufual enough under the Heathen 
 Emperors, who often inflicted it upon the pri- 
 mitive Chriftians. Thefe executions pafled ei- 
 ther in the Circus or Amphitheatre ; and ferved 
 by way of prelude to amufe and divert the fpec- 
 tators till the games began. Such a fpectacle is 
 too repugnant to humanity, not to give reafon 
 to think a people who made it their favourite 
 diverfion, to be of a cruel difpofition ; and, not 
 to take the trouble to enquire whether much of 
 this temper did not enter alfo into the extraor- 
 dinary actions of the heroes of the Common- 
 wealth, it cannot be denied, but that the Ro- 
 man genius in general was inclined to cruelty. 
 A a 3 Though
 
 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Book IV. 
 
 Though the inhumanity of the games of the 
 Amphitheatre may be palliated, by afcribing 
 them to a fpirk of policy, with a view of fuf- 
 taining the martial difpofition of the nation j 
 we muft however confefs, that, if they had not 
 had fuch a propenfity to cruelty, they could not 
 have taken pleafure in feeing unfortunate perfons 
 torn in pieces by lions, tigers, and other wild 
 beads. Their hiftory, when we attend to it, 
 fupplies abundance of circum (lances, that fuffi- 
 ciently manifeft this character. For though the 
 introduction of the luxury and effeminacy of the 
 Afiatics, and the commerce with the Greeks, 
 had fofcened their manners, thefe innovations 
 did not change their natural difpofition, which 
 was always perceptible, even amidfl their diver- 
 fions and voluptuoufnefs. Though frequenting 
 Athens had given birth to a paffion for the arts 
 and fciences amongft the Romans, and had ren- 
 dered them civil and polite ; it is however ob- 
 ferved, that they never came up to the affability 
 and humanity, which formed the peculiar chara- 
 cter of the Athenians. The fight of thefe inhuman 
 Shews, which were fo frequent that no day paf- 
 fed without them j and the mixture of Barbarians, 
 \vho incorporated themfelves by degrees with 
 the Roman people, and brought in their vices 
 with them, did not a little conduce to fupport 
 this fanguinary temper ; which Rome fhewed 
 early, and had habituated by the continual wars 
 jn which fhe was engaged during almoft five 
 hundred years. In confequence we ought not 
 to be furprized, if the foftnefs of the Afiatics, 
 and the politenefs -of the Greeks, did not pro- 
 duce all the effect which might have been ex- 
 pected from them. Only the eflablimment of 
 the Chriftian Religion could give them a fenfe 
 2 of
 
 Chap. IV. OF THE ROMANS. 
 
 of the neceffity there was for that mildnefs and 
 fpirit of chanty, which are the foul of it, as it 
 was not till the reign of Conftantine, the firft 
 Chriftian Emperor, that the firft flop was put 
 to thefe bloody fights, of which the ufe was 
 utterly abolifhed by the Emperors Honorius 
 and Arcadius. 
 
 The eftablifhment of the Chriftian Religion, 
 and the removal of the feat of the Empire from 
 Rome to the city of Conftantinople, cccafioned 
 many changes of cuftorns and manners, which 
 I fhall not purfue, having propofed to myfdf 
 to extend this collection no farther than that 
 period. 
 
 FINIS. 
 
 A a 4 INDEX.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 A. 
 
 \ Doption, how, and by whofe authority ', 
 
 /\ perfons were adopted Page 1 6, &c. 
 
 Advocates, origin of that profej/ion, 24 
 
 Apotheofis, its origin, 337. forgotten, and af- 
 terwards revived^ ibid, defcription of it, 338 
 
 Architecture of the Romans, wherein it con- 
 fijied, 92 
 
 Armies, (Roman] different troops of which they 
 were formed, 265. the Romans always had 
 armies, 269, &c. their manner of decamping, 
 271, march of Vefpafiatfs army, 274. order 
 of an army in battle, 285 
 
 Arufpices, a kind of Augurs, 311 
 
 Augurs, their inftitution and functions, 310, &c. 
 
 Aurum Coronarium, what it was, 289 
 
 Aufpices, directed by the Kings, and afterwards 
 by the Patricians^ 187, ?V. 
 
 B. 
 
 BAkers, wbenjirft known at Rome, 91. hew 
 they ground their corn, ibid. 
 
 Barbers, introduced at Rome, 91 
 
 Bafilicae, their ufe, 102 
 
 Baths, (public] their number, and what was paid 
 for the ufe of them, 62, at frft there were 
 
 diftinft
 
 INDEX. 
 
 dijlinff ones for men and women, 63. baths 
 
 common to both fexes fupprejfed, ibid, inftitu- 
 
 tion of hot baths, 90 
 
 Beds of the Romans, their form , 66 
 
 Beds ufed at table, their form, 47 
 
 Buffets, their magnificence, 74 
 
 C. 
 
 CAlends, time for payments, 98 
 
 Camp of the Romans, 267. difpofition of it, 
 
 268 
 
 Candidates, why fo called, 196. what they did 
 
 to obtain offices, ibid. &c. means they ufed to 
 
 corrupt the people, 197. particular account cf 
 
 them, ibid. &c. 
 
 Cavalry, (Roman} how formed, 243. defcrip- 
 
 tion of it, 248. their arms, 254, 274. when 
 
 the Romans firft knew the advantage of ca- 
 
 1 wiry* 255 
 
 Celibacy, Penalties ordained againft it, 120 
 
 Cenfors, when created, 174. how clewed, ibid. 
 
 their functions, ibid. &c. abolifbed, 177 
 
 Chace. See Hunting. 
 
 Chariots, different kinds of them ufed amcngft the 
 
 Romans, 52. &c. their form, 54 
 
 Children, regifter of their births, 15. manner of 
 
 bringing them up , 17. education of youth, 18, 
 
 20, 26 
 
 Cifterns, bow they were contrived, 60 
 
 Clients, their duty to their patrons, 7 1 
 
 Cloth, ufed to wrap up the bodies of the dead, 347 
 Cohorts, (Pratoriari) their number and fun- 
 ctions, 256, 257. their pay, '257 
 Coin. See Money. 
 
 Colo-
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Colonies, (Roman) their ufe, 225 
 
 Column, Military ', 100 
 
 Comitia, what they were, 188. different forts of 
 them, ibid. &c. 
 
 Commonwealth, (Roman} of what nature it 
 was, 150. inconvemencies of this kind of go- 
 vernment, ibid, caufes of its declenfion and 
 ruin, 152. &c. manner of Its reducing con- 
 quered countries into provinces, 182 
 Confuls, (Roman] when firft created, 132. 
 the time of their election, ibid. Confuls eleff, 
 133, enfigm of their dignity, ibid. refpecJ paid 
 them, 134. extent of their power, 135, &c. 
 
 138, &c. 
 
 Co-optation, what it was, 147, &c. 
 
 Corn, diftributed to the poor citizens, 117 
 
 Courtezans, detail concerning them, 126, 127 
 
 Crowns, given as the recompenfe of valour, 289. 
 
 different forts of them, 290, &c. 
 
 CuirafTes of the Romans, a defcription of their 
 
 different kinds, 252, &c. 
 
 D. 
 
 DAncing of the Romans, what we know cj 
 it, 3 2 4> 3 2 7> 33 1 
 
 Date, manner of dating with the Conful/hip, 96 
 Daughters of the Romans, their education, 19, 
 20. retained their maiden-name after mar 
 riage, 126. married to thofe who had de- 
 bauched them, ibid. 
 Day, divifeon of it among the Romans, 68 
 Decemviri, when created, 141, extent of their 
 authority, ibid, fuppreffed, 14?- 
 
 Dena-
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Denarius of filver, its value, 218. of gold, its 
 
 value, 219. detail on this fubjecJ, 219, &c. 
 
 Dictator, when created, 142. bis authority, ib. 
 
 Dinner of the Romans, what it was, 73, 81 
 
 Difcipline, military ', well underftood, 262, 287. 
 
 objerved with fever ity, 293 
 
 Divorce, / what cafes allowed, 126 
 
 Drefs <?/ /<? /^j, different forts of it, 48, &c. 
 
 Duumviri, a kind of magiftrates, 172 
 
 Duumviri, keepers of the oracles of the Sybils ^ 
 
 317, &c. called Decemviri, and afterwards 
 
 Quindecimviri, on account of their number , 
 
 E. 
 
 EDiles, Great or Curule Ediles, when created, 
 177. their functions, ibid. Inferior or 
 Plebeian Ediles, their functions, 178. tbofe 
 called Cereales, ibid, the Edilejhip jupprejjed, 
 
 179 
 
 Emperors, their maxims of State, 206. they 
 make changes in the offices, ibid, why they ajju- 
 med that name, 210. they were eleR'vve, 211, 
 &c. manner of acknowledging them, 213. 
 marks of their authority, ibid, they ajfociate col- 
 legues, ibid, they wear the diadem, 214. their 
 treafury, 231 
 
 Enfigns of the legions, of different forts, 245, &c. 
 honours -paid them, 246 
 
 Executioners of juftice, what perfons were em- 
 ployed for that furpofe, 173 
 
 F. Feafts,
 
 F. 
 
 FEafts, account of what was fir ft done in them, 
 77. diversions with which they were 
 
 at t ended i 80 
 
 Feciales, Heralds for the affairs of peace and 
 
 war, 304. their funtlions, ibid, by whom in- 
 
 Jtituted, 305 
 
 Fencing-mafters to the armies, 256 
 
 Field of Mars, an account of if, 104. exerciles 
 
 in it, 105 
 
 Falling, diver/ton frequent among the Romans* 
 
 335 
 
 Foot, Roman, 101 
 
 Forces of the State tinder Romulus, 233. under 
 
 the Commonwealth, ibid, under the Emperors, 
 
 234 
 
 Fortifications of the Romans, 280 
 
 Funerals, when they began, 341. defcription of 
 
 them, ibid. &c. 
 
 G. 
 
 GAmes, of chance, an account of them, 81, 
 82, 83 
 
 Games, public, their origin, 319. on what occa- 
 fion they were celebrated, ibid, different kinds 
 of them, 320. games of the Circus, and de- 
 fcription of thofe edifices, 321. chariots made 
 ufe of in racing, 322. different kinds of races, 
 ib. & 323. Gymnic games, 323. 'Trojan, 325. 
 Scenic, 326. of the amphitheatre, 332. ex- 
 ceffive pajjion of the Romans for Shews, 336 
 Girdles, mark of modejly among the Romans, 37 
 
 Gladi-
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Gladiators, their origin ', 351. different kinds of 
 them, ibid. &c. trade made of them, 352. 
 gladiators belonging to private perfons, ibid,; 
 combats of the gladiators forbidden on certain 
 occafions, ibid, fondnefs of the Romans for thofe 
 combats, ibid, firft combat of this kind, 353. 
 profejjion of gladiator infamous at firft, but af- 
 terwards exercifed by the Roman Emperors^ 
 Senators, and Ladies, 354. different forts of 
 them, ibid, their life and death depended on 
 the People., 355. rewards and exemption 
 granted to gladiators, 356. how they were 
 made free, ibid, gladiators feruing in the ar- 
 my, 357. perfons condemned to be gladiators, 
 
 ibid. 
 
 Ghfs-windows unknown to the Romans, 59. what 
 they ufed injlead of them, ibid. 
 
 Guard, Prcetorian, what they were, 136 
 
 H. 
 
 HAbits, of the Romans, 32. Pullata veftis, 
 35. Paludamentum, ibid, military ha- 
 bit, ibid, colour of habits, 37 
 
 Hofpitality, exercifed among the Romans, 60. 
 tally or certificate of it, ibid. 
 
 Houles, manner of building them among the Ro~ 
 
 . mans, 57, &c. 61. method of cooling and 
 warming apartments, 59. no chimneys, ib. 
 their furniture, 66, &c. 
 
 Hunting, not much affetted by the Romans, 334* 
 their manner of hunting, ibid. 
 
 I. In-
 
 INDEX. 
 
 I. 
 
 INftruments, military injlruments of mufic, 
 their number -, 248 
 
 K. 
 
 KI N G S of Rome, manner of their eletlion, 
 128. their power, ibid, enfigns of the fo- 
 vereignty, 129. nature of their government, ib. 
 who governed during an interregnum, 1 30. how 
 long the monarchical government fub/ifted, ibid. 
 Knights, (Roman) why created, 164. fubjeff to 
 the Cenfors, ibid, the Prince of the Toutb cho- 
 fen out of their Order, 165. annual review of 
 the Knights, ibid, marks of their dignity, ibid. 
 gold ring, 45, 1 66. they farmed the revenues 
 of the Commonwealth, 1 66. rife and decline 
 of their authority, ibid. &c. 
 
 L. 
 
 LAcerna, fort of role, 34 
 
 Ladies, (Roman] their habit, 37, &c. their 
 head-drefs, 40, 42. the ufe they made of pearls 
 and jewels, 43. their attention to improve their 
 beauty, 47. defcription of their toilet, 48. em- 
 ployed themfelves in fanning, 9 1 
 Lands, (conquer' d) ccveted by the great and pow- 
 erful, and the occafeon of dlffenjions, 226 
 Lamps, uled by the Romans, 68 
 Latus-clavus, what it was, 33 
 Laws, for retrenching the luxury of the table, 87 
 
 Legions,
 
 INDEX, 
 
 Legions, ( Roman ) how compofed at different 
 times, 241. the number of cohorts in a legion, 
 242. by whom they were commanded, 243, &c. 
 how they were diftinguifhed, 249. how many 
 forts of Joldiers were in each legion, their arms, 
 and feveral duties, 249, &c. 
 
 Letters, (epiflolary] their form among the Ro- 
 mans, 29. titles given i# them to the Emperors 
 and Senators, 30 
 
 Linnen, when firft ufed by the Romans, 36 
 
 Litters, different kinds of them defcribed, 51 
 Lotteries, known in the times of the Emperors, 
 
 83 
 Lucullus, the luxury of his table, 88. contraft 
 
 between him and M* Curius Dentatus, 89 
 Luxury, when firft introduced at Rome, 
 
 M. 
 
 MAchines of war, of different forts, 278 
 Magazines, (public} how filled, 228 
 Magiftrates, Curule, 201. of the colonies, 202. 
 of the municipal cities, 204. Roman magijlrates 
 both of the Robe and the Sword, 210 
 
 Marriage, prvnilftes of married per Jons, 120. de- 
 tail concerning it, ""~ibid. &c. 
 Meals, how many the Romans made in a day, 8 1 
 Meafures, different forts of, 101, &c. 
 Meats ufed by the Romans, 84 
 Mcflengr:rs of the galleys, 54 
 Mines, for throwing down ramparts, 283 
 Money, inter efts of it, 98. diftributed to the peo- 
 ple on the acceflion of the Emperors, 1 18. mo- 
 ney of Rome in itf infancy, 216. when they 
 
 began
 
 INDEX. 
 
 began to coin if, 216. different pieces of mo- 
 ney, 217. diminution of the weight of the 
 fpecies, 218. Jilver money when firft coined, 
 ibid, when they began to coin gold, 219. mix- 
 ture and alteration of coins, 220 
 Months, divifton of them, 96 
 Mourning, the manner of it among the Ro- 
 mans, 350 
 Mufic of the Romans, what we know of it* 
 
 330 
 
 N. 
 
 N 
 
 I A I L of brafs, why driven into the wall of 
 the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, 28 
 
 Names, different ones ufed by the Romans, i $ 
 Night, how divided by the Romans, 68 
 
 Nobility, how acquired amongft the Romans, 
 
 1 68 
 
 0. 
 
 Officers, inferior officers of the Common- 
 wealth, 185, &c. 
 Officers, military, their different kinds, 243 4 
 &c. admitted to the Emperor's table with their 
 fwords on, 270 
 Ovation, defcription of that triumph , 304 
 
 Painting*
 
 INDEX. 
 
 P. 
 
 TJ Ainting, its progrefs among ft the Romans, 
 
 93 
 Paper of we Romans, 28, 29 
 
 Patrons, their duties to their clients, 70 
 
 Pendants at the ears, ufed by men as well as wo- 
 men, 43 
 Phyficians, whenfirft known at Rome, 90. they 
 praclifed furgery, ibid, freedom of Rome grant- 
 ed them, 117. there were none in the Roman 
 armies, 287 
 Place, or Forum Romanum, 99 
 Places, manner of attacking them, 281 
 Plaifter, unknown to the Romans, 56 
 Plebeians, their alliance with the Patricians, 
 136. the occafwn of their admittance to the 
 Conful/hip, 137. caufes of their frequent /edi- 
 tions, 143, &c. diffenfions between the No- 
 bility and People advantagious to the Common- 
 wealth, 149 
 Politenefs of the Romans, 30. detail on that 
 fubjecJ, ibid. &c. 
 Pontiffs, different forts of them, 309. their func- 
 tions, 310 
 Poft, a kind of one injlituted by Augujlus, 53 
 Prefect or governor of Rome, 207 
 Praefectus Prsetorio, his authority, 208, &c. 
 Praefect of the Treajury , by whom created, 
 
 208 
 
 Prastor, when elected, 168. his functions, ibid. 
 extent of his power, 169. Great Prator, ibid. 
 Provincial Proton, 170. the Prcetor's tribu- 
 nal, 171. manner of citing before him, ibid. 
 
 bis
 
 INDEX. 
 
 bis power diminijked, but afterwards augment- 
 ed, 171, 172 
 Privileges of the Roman citizens annihilated, 119 
 Proconfuls, their functions and power, 182, &c. 
 Puberty, that age occafioned various ceremonies 
 
 41 
 
 Punifh ments, military >, of different forts ^ 292, 
 
 &c. 
 
 Uasftors, <2 w^/ dg? that office might be at- 
 tained^ 179. thsirnumber, ibid, their -pow- 
 er and funftionSt ibid, fubordinate to Comp- 
 trollers^ 1 80. other kind of <ju(eft or s y 18 1 
 
 R. 
 
 REligion c/" //?<? Romans, general idea of it y 
 308, &c. worjbip paid the gods ^ 319 
 Republic. See Commonwealth. 
 Revenues of the Romans, their different fources, 
 
 222, &c. 227, &c. 
 Roads, defcriplion of the great ways or roads y 
 
 53> 54 
 Romans, why the beginning of their hiftory is full 
 
 of the Marvellous, i. fottrce of their fyjl em for 
 aggrandizing themfelves, 2. they were always 
 in armt, 5. necejfity of knowing their policy 
 and difcipline, 6. bow to attain the knowledge 
 of their manners and cuftoms, ibid, their 
 virtues and vices, 7, &c. different diftribttti- 
 B b 2 on*
 
 INDEX. 
 
 ens of the Roman People, 9, 10, n, 12. 
 manner of life of the firft Romans, 1 8 . they 
 had few laws at firft, 19. their t aft e for mili- 
 tary exercifes, 2 1 . when they ceafed to culti- 
 vate their lands themfelves, 25. ignorance of 
 the early times, 27. how long their purity of 
 manners continued, 31. the firft Romans went 
 "barefoot, 50. their firft houfes, 55. their ufual 
 occupations, 69, 73. their baugbtinefs under 
 (be Commonwealth, 153. refpeff of foreign 
 powers for the Romans, 155. their fat ires 
 againft the Emperors, 156. ignorance of the 
 firft Romans in the art of war, 261. natural- 
 ly cruel and barbarous, 357 
 
 Rome, grandeur of that city, 56. date of its 
 foundation, 96 
 
 Romulus lays the foundation of the Roman po- 
 licy, 2. in violence and deceit, 3, &c. di- 
 vides Rome into Tribes or Quarters, 10 
 
 S. 
 
 Sciences, their origin and decline among ft the 
 Romans, 25, 26, 27, 92 
 
 Sculpture, idea of the Roman fculpture, 92 
 
 Senate, Roman, its origin, 157. number of which 
 it was compofed, ibid, by whom they were 
 chofen, ibid, this dignity was not hereditary, 
 158. in what order their children were ranked, 
 ibid, why the Senators were called Patres Con- 
 fcripti, ibid, policy of the Senate, 159. in- 
 come neceffary to qualify a perfon for Senator, 
 ibid = under the Emperors that qualification de- 
 pended on their will, 1 60, title given the Sena- 
 tor^
 
 INDEX. 
 
 tors, 16 1. time when the Senate's authority 'was 
 greateft, ibid, manner of giving opinions and 
 voting in the Senate ', 162. Senatores Pedarii, 
 163. Prince of the Senate, 176. power of the 
 Senate under the Kings and Emperor -s, j 84,80:. 
 Sepulchres of the Romans, 348, 350. fepulchrei 
 called Hypogea, 350 
 
 Servius Tullius diftrilutes the Roman People into 
 fix claffes, 1 1. that diftribution explained, ibid. 
 inftitutes the Cenfus, 174, 175 
 
 Seftertium, the great feftertium, 220 
 
 Silk, whenfirft known at Rome, 39 
 
 Slaves, what names they had, 15. obliged to cul- 
 tivate the lands, 25. how many forts of them, 
 1 06. when they were expofed to fate, ibid, how 
 they were treated, 108, &c. manner of their 
 enfranchifement, no, &c. duties of freedmen 
 to their majlers, 113. punijhment inflifted on 
 jlaves, 173. were not allowed to make a will, 
 
 354 
 Soldiers, manner of levying them, 238, Sec. 259. 
 
 time they were obliged to ferve, 258. caufes of 
 their infolence, 263. when they firft received 
 pay, 264. their way of living in the camp, 270, 
 
 271. their food, 270. arms of the foot-foldiers, 
 
 272. condition of a foldier much considered, 275. 
 their [words, 276, 277. they drejjed each 
 other's wounds, 287 
 
 Stuffs, ufed among ft the Romans, 40 
 
 Sun-dial, when fir ft known at Rome, 68 
 
 Syndics in the villages, their functions ^ 10 
 
 Synfhefis, a kind of robe or cloak, 35, 76 
 
 Table-
 
 INDEX. 
 
 T. 
 
 T Able- cloths, when the Romans 'began to ufe 
 them, 80 
 
 Talent, considered fometimes as weight, and fame- 
 times as a fum, 221 
 
 Taxes of the Commonwealth, wherein they con- 
 fijied, 224 
 
 Teeth, falfe, ufed by the Roman ladies, 47 
 
 Theatres, defcription of them, 326, &c. majks of 
 the aft or s, 328. different forts of aftors, 329. 
 the Roman theatre brought to perfection? ibid. 
 profeflion of a8or dijhonourable among the Ro- 
 mans* ibid. 
 
 Thermse, defcription ofthofe edifices, 63, &c. 
 
 Toga, defcription of that robe, 3 2 
 
 Tortoife, for fcaling walls, 281. what they bad 
 reeourfe to when the walls were too high to be 
 fcaled by the tortcife, ibid, another kind of tor- 
 toife, 284 
 
 Tribunal for harangues, 99 
 
 Tribunes, military, their number, 142. bow long 
 they fab/ified, ibid. 
 
 Tribunes of the People, their functions, 144. 
 their jurijdiflion, 145. their number, ibid, their 
 fowtr> ibid, bow oppofed by the Senate, ibid. 
 &c. refpeft paid them, 146. their power di- 
 minijbed, and at laft abolijhed, 148 
 
 Triumph, it ben it wasfirft ufed> 294. to li'hom 
 it was granted, ibid, on what conditions it was 
 cbtawed, 295. defci -iptien of triumphs? 297 
 
 Veftals,
 
 INDEX. 
 
 V. 
 
 VEftals, Roman Priefteffes, their inftitution 
 and number, 312. their noviciate, 31 3. their 
 habit, ibid, their functions, ibid. punijhmentof 
 thofe who broke their vow, 314. their privi- 
 leges, 315. their liberty, ibid, their fuperb 
 train, 316 
 
 W. 
 
 WAter-clock, ( Clepfydra ) when firft ufed 
 among the Romans, 69 
 
 Wills, military, 286 
 
 Wine prohibited to women, 31, 86. mulled 
 wines, 79. the vintage, 86. old wine efteemed, 
 
 Writing, /^^ manner of it amongfl the Romans, 
 28. writing by notes, or Jhort-hand^ 29. #;#<?$ 
 cf thofe who wrote in that manner, ibid. 
 
 Y. 
 
 YEAR, manner of dividing it among the 
 Romans, 95. Julian year', ibid. 
 
 FINIS.
 
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