UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA Standardization and Improvement of California Butter FRED H. ABBOTT BULLETIN 443 November, 1927 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRINTING OFFICE BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA 1927 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2012 with funding from University of California, Davis Libraries http://www.archive.org/details/standardizationi443abbo STANDARDIZATION AND IMPROVEMENT OF CALIFORNIA BUTTER 1 FRED H. ABBOTT2 INTRODUCTION Standardization of butter is the process of manufacture by which uniform flavor, texture, composition, and color are secured. It has not been generally adopted in the United States, but some foreign countries which depend upon export trade in butter have adopted it. Canada has a very good system of grading butter according to quality. The provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan particularly are follow- ing a system in which butter is scored by official inspectors, the grade being marked on each container and reports made both to the manu- facturer and to the buyer. Under this system, 50 per cent of the butter manufactured has been reported as uniform in quality. New Zealand has one of the most efficient organizations for the standardization of butter. All of the butter exported to England from that country is required by law to be up to a specified standard. Each churning is scored both before it is shipped and again when it reaches Liverpool, by representatives of the New Zealand Government. If the butter has deteriorated' in transit, it is rejected or placed in a lower grade. Reports on such shipments are returned to New Zealand and the creameries which made the butter are notified and given aid in improving conditions. Denmark uses what is known as the "lure mark." (1)3 Creameries are permitted to use this mark or brand only after they have succeeded in manufacturing uniform, high-quality butter. All export butter must bear this ' ' lure mark. ' ' That Danish butter has been standard- ized for many years is known to buyers throughout the world. Danish butter, therefore, generally meets with ready sale at top prices. The time will probably come when a national movement will be started to standardize the butter made in the United States. This i In presenting this outline of the work carried on in butter standardization and improvement, the author wishes to express his sincere appreciation to the creamerymen who cooperated in furnishing some of the data used in this publica- tion; and to Miss M. A. Ashenfelter, in charge of the laboratory in which all the analyses and experimental work was done, for the painstaking care given to this work to provide accurate results, thus greatly adding to the value of the work. 2 Associate in Dairy Industry. s Small figures in parentheses refer to "Literature Cited," p. 27. 4 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION is not a new subject, but one that has been often discussed in leading dairy sections. Iowa, Minnesota, and Michigan have adopted state brands for butter. These states report that the brands have proved very successful in improving the butter and stabilizing dairy produc- tion in the sections supplying the creameries which are using the state brands. Iowa creameries using the state trade mark virtually place their butter makers on probation. Should the use of the trade- mark be revoked because the butter is not up to standard, the butter makers may be asked to resign. The work reported in this bulletin covers an extension program started July, 1922, for the standardization and improvement of butter in California. It began under a cooperative agreement between the Bureau of Dairying, United States Department of Agriculture, and the Dairy Industry Division, University of California. The Bureau of Dairying discontinued cooperation at the close of the second year. NEED FOR STANDARDIZATION AND IMPROVEMENT OF BUTTER The most important reason for standardizing butter is that trade conditions demand it. Butter of uniform texture, color, and flavor is desired. Changes in color, mottles, leakiness, stickiness, and gritti- ness (undissolved salt) as well as changes in flavor are quickly noted. The butter trade recognizes this fact; consequently, a creameryman supplying uniform butter receives a*better price than one whose butter arrives on the market with irregular color, salt, and flavor. In fact, the uniform butter usually brings a higher price, even though the flavor is less desirable than the average of that of the non-uniform butter. In California, the main butter markets are in the Los Angeles and San Francisco Bay regions. Butter is received on these markets from all parts of the state, as well as from other states. It usually arrives in 68-pound cubes, consigned to the commission companies. Some of this butter changes hands in bulk just as on other large markets. However, in California, most of the commission houses cut and wrap the butter they receive, and distribute it to the dealers from whom the consumers purchase it. Consequently, the commission houses having large established trades and with definite brands or trade-marks, are anxious to secure butter that is uniform. They cannot readily fill their orders one day with low-colored butter of a certain flavor and the next with butter of higher color and different flavor. BUL. 443] STANDARDIZATION AND IMPROVEMENT OF CALIFORNIA BUTTER 5 Butter is also exported from California. In order that it may bring top prices, each shipment must be uniform so that the purchaser can fill his orders, with butter of uniform quality. A shipment exported from the state often consists of butter from several creameries. If the color, flavor, and texture are different in the butter received from these creameries, such shipments cannot com- mand top prices. It is essential that the manufacturers in California receive top prices in order that they may pay the producers enough money to make dairying profitable, since the value of California land is relatively higher than that of surrounding states. Before a creameryman can accurately determine the price he can afford to pay the producer, it is necessary that the salt, moisture, curd, and fat in the butter be standardized so that a uniform churn gain or overrun can be obtained. The federal laws require that butter contain at least 80 per cent of butterfat and less than 16 per cent of moisture. California laws (2) permit 16 per cent of moisture in butter. For example, a creamer having a monthly production of 40,000 pounds of butter containing an average of 80.5 per cent of butterfat, could pay more per pound of butterfat in cream than the creamery making the same amount of butter with an average butter- fat content of 82.5 per cent. The second creamery would lose two pounds of fat for every hundred pounds of butter. At forty-five cents a pound for butter, the loss on a monthly production of 40,000 pounds would be $360.00, or $4,320.00 a year. In the work of butter standardization and improvement, these factors are kept in mind, and efforts are made to instruct the cream- erymen in the economical manufacture of butter, so they can pay the producers the highest price possible for their cream, thus stabilizing and encouraging production. The butter markets recognize two classes of consumers: the first class consisting of those demanding high quality, the second class consisting of those to whom quality is of minor importance, and who will purchase butter according to price alone. It is important that the butter manufacturers in California cater to the first class of consumers in order that dairying in California may be made more profitable. This fact has been kept before the creamerymen in the field work which has been carried on. The average difference in price between butter scoring 93 points 'extra' and that scoring 90 points 'first' for the years 1924 and 1925, was three and six-tenths cents. A creamery with a daily output of 1500 pounds or 546,500 pounds a year, having the butter score 'firsts' instead of 'extras' would lose $19,674.00 a year. A creamery manu- 6 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION facturing butter of low grade does not stimulate dairy production. It is as important for creameries to be able to manufacture butter of the highest quality as it is for the producers to supply themselves with only the best cows and good purebred sires. There is little to be gained through the establishment of better sires and cows and economical production of milk, if the creamery in turn cannot manu- facture butter that will command top prices on the market, thereby enabling it to pay the producer a profitable price for cream. METHODS OF PROCEDURE IN THE LABORATORY A laboratory is provided in the Dairy Industry Building at the Branch of the College of Agriculture at Davis to carry on extension work in butter standardization and improvement. The laboratory has been a large factor in retaining the interest of the creamerymen in this work. An agreement is entered into with the creameries cooperating which specifies the conditions for conducting the work. A copy of the yearly agreement is given below. COOPEEATIVE AGREEMENT FOR BUTTER STANDARDIZATION AND IMPROVEMENT WITH THE DAIRY INDUSTRY DIVISION, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, AND (Name of creamery.) In consideration of the services offered by the Dairy Industry Division, Univer- sity of California, in helping improve and maintain the uniformity of our butter from July 1, 1923, to June 30, 1924, we hereby agree to help maintain the labora- tory expenses necessary to conduct the work properly. We agree to pay $10.00 per month toward the laboratory expenses mentioned above, which entitles us to submit thirty samples a month for analysis. We will at no time send more than a maximum of samples per month, and will pay thirty cents for each additional sample above thirty. We further agree to send to the laboratory upon request, but not oftener than once a week, a one-pound print of butter for commercial scoring. We will follow the advice given by the Dairy Industry Division, in the manufacture of a high- grade butter. We also agree to submit an accurate copy of the churning report covering the churning from which this butter was made. It is understood that the Dairy Industry Division Avill furnish the laboratory and supervision of the work without charge, and a written report giving results of each analysis and commercial scoring of each sample submitted, as soon as practicable. Manager. BlTL. 443] STANDARDIZATION AND IMPROVEMENT OF CALIFORNIA BUTTER 7 After signing the agreements, the creameries are supplied with sample jars, mailing tubes, and mailing cartons. The sample jars used are fitted with either cork or rubber-lined caps and are thoroughly dried in an electric oven before being mailed to the creameries. This Fig. 1. — Containers used to send butter samples for scoring and analysis. Fig. 2. — Laboratory in which analyses of butter samples are made. precaution is used to add accuracy to the work by eliminating the possi- bility of placing butter in moist jars. The sample jars are placed in mailing tubes (fig. 1) each bearing the return address of the labora- 8 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION tory. Nine mailing tubes are then placed in corrugated fiber boxes, two of which are supplied to each creamery. As soon as they have sent nine samples, another box of empty containers is furnished them. This provides the creameries with a constant supply. The creameries are given instructions for taking the samples and for mailing them to the laboratory. At the laboratory the samples are analyzed for moisture, salt, curd, and fat, and reports of the analyses are sent to the creamery. A record of these analyses is also kept in the laboratory files. At intervals, usually of one week, each creamery sends a one-pound print of butter to the laboratory for scoring. This butter is removed from the original wrapper and placed in plain wrappers before scor- ing, so that the judges may not know the source of butter they are scoring. Yeast and mold counts are also made on these samples, which require approximately five days to complete. The score and the report of yeast and mold are then mailed to the creamery. Yeast and Mold Counts. — The yeast and mold counts are an indi- cation of the sanitary manufacture of the butter. Butter does not have satisfactory keeping quality unless good sanitary conditions prevail. Authorities do not agree as to whether or not yeasts and molds are themselves directly responsible for the deterioration of butter, but they do agree that the amount of yeasts and molds is an indication of its keeping quality. In this work some difficulty was experienced in so plating samples of butter for yeast and mold that bacterial colonies were inhibited. The counting of yeasts and molds on the plates is more difficult if colonies of bacteria are also present. The best medium to use to inhibit the growth of bacteria, according to Lund, 4 is near-beer or wort agar plus acid. Since wort is difficult to secure, near-beer is used in preparing the medium. Satisfactory results have been obtained. In preparing the agar, a one-pint bottle of near-beer is poured into a liter flask, the bottle is rinsed out twice with tap water, and this water is added to the flask to increase the solution to 900 cc. Fourteen grams of agar are then added to the flask and the mixture heated in an autoclave for twenty minutes at fifteen pounds pressure. It is filtered and divided into 100-cc. portions in Erlenmeyer flasks, which are then stoppered with cotton plugs. These flasks of agar are then sterilized in an autoclave for twenty minutes at eighteen pounds pressure. 4 From private correspondence with T. H. Lund, Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph, Ontario, Canada. BUL. 443] STANDARDIZATION AND IMPROVEMENT OF CALIFORNIA BUTTER 9 The samples of butter to be plated for yeast and mold are taken from the one-pound prints of butter sent to the laboratory weekly. A slice of butter one-fourth of an inch thick is cut from the outside of each print of butter with a spatula flamed to avoid surface con- tamination, and then about two grams of butter are taken from the freshly cut surface of each print and placed in a sterile petri dish. The butter is melted near a lighted gas jet. For plating each sample of butter, three sterile 1-cc. pipettes, three sterile petri dishes, and two sterile 9-cc. water blanks are required. The pipettes used for the plating of butter are heated in an electric oven or by passing them through a flame before using. If the pipettes Fig. 3. — Plates showing butter (A) with high yeast and mold counts and (B) with no yeast and mold. Note that the small butterfat globules in the clear plate resemble colonies of bacteria. are cold, the melted butter will adhere to the inside and a discharge of one cubic centimeter will not be obtained. The melted butter is thoroughly mixed in the petri dish with a warm pipette, and one cubic centimeter is then transferred to the first water blank, making a dilution of 1 to 10. With another sterile pipette, the l-to-10 dilution is thoroughly mixed and one cubic centimeter is transferred to the second water blank, making a dilution of 1 to 100. With the same pipette one cubic centimeter is transferred from the l-to-10 dilution to a sterile petri dish marked 1 to 10. With a third sterile pipette one cubic centimeter is transferred from the l-to-100 dilution to a second petri dish marked 1 to 100. The medium is warmed just enough to pour easily and four cubic centimeters of a 5-per-cent solution of lactic acid are added to each 10 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION 100 cubic centimeters immediately before pouring. Sufficient medium is added to each petri dish to cover the bottom while the diluted butter is still warm. The dish is gently rotated until the diluted butter is well mixed with the medium and it is then allowed to stand until the medium becomes hard. The dishes are then inverted to prevent the moisture which gathers on the inside of the cover of the petri dish from dropping on the medium. The plates are then held in the incubator at 30° C. The molds are counted at the end of forty-eight hours, and the yeasts and Pencillium in five days. Plates thus made can be counted quickly, as bacteria do not develop to interfere. The butter is rated according to the number of yeasts and molds present. When there are from zero to ten present, the butter is classed as excellent ; from ten to twenty, as good ; and from twenty to thirty, as fair. METHODS OF PROCEDURE IN FIELD WORK The field work in the standardization and improvement of butter is essential. The laboratory work is a guide for the creameries, aiding them in maintaining uniformity. It also indicates which creameries need instruction. When the creamerymen have difficulty in main- taining uniform quality, they are given instruction through corre- spondence or by a special visit. Dairy manufacturing is based upon the four sciences: chemistry, bacteriology, physics, and engineering. To be efficient in creamery work, it is necessary to have a knowledge of these subjects, and in addition a thorough knowledge of business principles and training in buying and selling. Many creamerymen who operate at a loss, without knowing the methods of preventing it, conclude that the creamery industry is a losing business. In such cases, it has been necessary to show the managers the advantage to their creameries of adopting the butter- improvement program. Creameries operated by experienced men have been noticeably more anxious to undertake this work than those operated by men of less experience. However, in most cases, after the latter have cooperated in this work a sufficient length of time to learn some of the fundamentals of creamery operation and the manu- facture of butter, they have also become ardent supporters of the program and have obtained very satisfactory results. It has been necessary in some instances to work with a creamery for from six to twelve months before improvements were noticeable. A few creameries have made very little progress during the past two BUL. 443] STANDARDIZATION AND IMPROVEMENT OF CALIFORNIA BUTTER 11 years. Because of the cooperative nature of the work, the Division of Dairy Industry has followed the policy of offering suggestions and giving help only when requested, a policy which accounts for irregular results with a few creameries. The need for instruction at the creameries is indicated when the laboratory analyses of the butter show results higher or lower than the standards adopted for composition, when the scores of the butter show defects in workmanship, and when the yeast and mold counts are abnormally high. A survey of the butter arriving on the San Francisco and Los Angeles markets is made at least once each year to observe the condition in which the butter arrives. This survey provides another source of information, indicating the creameries in need of instruction. Flavor of butter depends largely upon the quality of the cream received at the creamery. When the cream is found to be the cause of bad flavor in this butter, instruction is given in grading the cream. Insufficient time has made it impossible to do much work with the producers in cream improvement. Special attention has, therefore, been given to instructing some one in each creamery in the proper methods to use in producing good cream so he can work with the producers. The creamerymen meeting with the greatest success in this respect are those who are equipped with knowledge of the proper procedure to follow, and with diplomacy in dealing with the dairymen. The method employed by the creameries in securing the raw material has a direct bearing on the quality of the cream. Four methods are used in California : 1. Gathering cream by auto truck. 2. Direct shipping. 3. Collecting at cream stations. 4. Direct delivery to the creamery by the producers. Some of the larger creameries employ all four methods of securing cream. However, most of the cream in California is gathered by auto trucks. This system is aided by the large amount of paved highway. By this method the best quality of cream is obtained, as it is picked up at regular intervals before it is too old. Some creameries operate stations where the cream is gathered by auto trucks and then shipped to the central creamery. Usually these stations are not equipped to cool the cream before shipment, and the delay in having it reach the creamery generally results in a poorer grade. Sanitation. — The sanitary conditions of the entire creamery have a direct bearing on the keeping quality of the butter. Each day's manufacture should have uniform keeping quality. 12 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION The yeast and mold counts of the butter have provided a good check on its sanitary manufacture and on its keeping quality. Cream- erymen have found that complaints usually follow the sale of butter having high yeast and mold counts. Investigators do not agree that ordinary pasteurizing tempera- tures, 145° F for thirty minutes, or from 176° to 180° F for about twenty seconds, destroy all the yeasts and molds. Some claim one- hundred-per-cent-efficiency, while others show as low as ninety-eight. In the work done at this station, however, no yeasts or molds were found in pasteurized cream when these temperatures were used. Where the continuous flash method of pasteurization is practised, the first cream which goes through the pasteurizer while the steam is being regulated to obtain the desired temperature, is not subjected to proper pasteurizing temperature and some yeasts and molds, there- fore, survive. This cream is turned back into the vat or bi-passed so that it will go through the pasteurizer a second time. There are a number of sources for contamination by yeast and mold after the cream has been pasteurized. Where the vat method of pasteurization is used, the cream in the gate valve at the end of the pasteurizer is not subjected to pasteurizing temperatures. It should be drawn off and placed in another vat of cream to be pasteurized. Cream pumps and pipe lines used to convey the cream from the vat to the churn were also found to be sources of contamination. When taken apart, cleaned, and properly sterilized every day after being used, this source of trouble was eliminated. The water used to wash the butter is another possible source of contamination by yeast and mold. In the work of butter improve- ment, only a few cases were found where the city water contained yeasts and molds, but private water supplies were frequently so contaminated. Butter ladles, tampers, molds, and equipment used in cutting and wrapping butter were found to be additional sources of this trouble unless they were properly washed and scalded. Scrap butter which is accumulated during the process of cutting and wrap- ping, and which is reworked with a fresh churning is another common source. Methods of handling scrap butter are included in this paper under the sub-heading ''Churning." Treatment of Churns. — The churn was found to be the greatest source of contamination with yeast and mold. In experiments con- ducted to determine the best method of treating churns to prevent this contamination, it was found that most churns in commercial use were not washed properly. The procedure recommended for washing the churn is as follows : BUL. 443] STANDARDIZATION AND IMPROVEMENT OF CALIFORNIA BUTTER 13 1. Immediately after the butter is removed rinse the churn with about fifty gallons of water at a temperature of at least 130° F, to remove any butter clinging to the inside. Revolve the churn at high speed for one minute and empty the water quickly through the doors when possible. 2. Fill the churn at least one-third full of water at 180° F. Add about two pounds of washing powder. (Do not use a soapy powder.) Revolve the churn for approximately two minutes at high speed, leaving the vent valve open. Empty quickly through the doors when possible. 3. Permit the churn to drain thoroughly. In the long-barrel churn permit the water to drain through the doors for about one minute. Then turn the churn so that the doors are on top, leaving them open. The heat in the churn will dry the inner surface quickly in that position. The churns should be limed once each week. This is done by placing approximately fifty gallons of warm water (120° F) in the churn and adding to this about ten pounds of slaked lime, and then revolving for ten minutes at intervals of one hour. If the churn is in use all day, the lime solution should remain in the churn over night. In the morning it should be revolved again for about five minutes and the solution rinsed out with cold water. Unslaked lime may be used, but it is not recommended, since the lime would go through the process of slaking in the churn, and unless extreme care were used to relieve the pressure formed there, some damage might result. When unslaked lime is used, the doors are often sprung, and remain leaky thereafter. Some creamerymen are of the opinion that any alkali may be used satisfactorily in treating the churn, but this is not correct, since other alkalies common in creamery use do not have the deodorizing properties of lime. When the washing was done as described, the wash water being at 180° F and the churn limed once a week, the yeast and mold count were low. Yeast and mold counts made in connection with butter improve- ment work have been carried on for about three years. Several creameries have succeeded occasionally in making butter in which no yeast or mold was present. The average number found in the butter manufactured by the creameries cooperating are from twenty to one hundred per cubic centimeter. The creameries have not been able to control this factor satisfactorily. This may be because they do not follow closely the prescribed method of treating the churns. 14 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION Creameries usually experience difficulty with the keeping quality of the butter if the counts of yeasts and molds are over five hundred. Where this trouble existed, the source of contamination was most easily found by examining samples of cream or butter taken at each step in the process of manufacture, as follows : 1. From raw cream. 2. From cream after pasteurizing. 3. From the first five gallons of cream entering the churn after passing through pumps or pipe lines. 4. From wash water. 5. From buttermilk. 6. From butter just before drawn from churn. 7. From butter in the final package. A narration of some trouble experienced by one of the creameries cooperating in butter improvement may explain some of the uses to which yeast and mold counts may be put. The creamery had experi- enced trouble with the keeping quality of the butter. Special atten- tion had been given to washing all the equipment, without overcom- ing the trouble. Samples of cream, buttermilk, wash water, and butter taken at various stages of manufacture indicated that the churn was the source of trouble. Careful examination of the churn showed, in one of the rollers, a crack about an eighth of an inch wide. When the roller was removed from the churn and taken apart, a large cavity was disclosed where curd and fat had become decomposed. While the butter was being worked, some of this decomposed matter was apparently forced out into the churn. When the old roller was replaced with a new one, the trouble ceased. During visits to creameries, the following subjects are taken up : 1. Cream grading and methods of improving the quality of the cream. 2. Neutralization of cream, when necessary. 3. Pasteurization of the cream. 4. Churning of cream, with special emphasis on the speed of the churn; obtaining uniform color and desirable texture or body of butter. 5. The control of moisture, salt, fat, and curd. 6. Laboratory tests necessary in the manufacture of butter. Cream Grading. — Instruction in cream grading is given, using the following grades: First-grade cream : Sweet cream and cream free from undesirable flavors or odors, with an acidity below 0.5 per cent. BUL. 443] STANDARDIZATION AND IMPROVEMENT OF CALIFORNIA BUTTER 15 Second-grade cream: Cream which has an acidity above 0.50 per cent and which may contain a small amount of undesirable flavors or odors. Third-grade cream: Cream that is unfit for consumption or that will not make marketable butter. The best quality of butter is made from cream with low acidity, or sweet cream. The creameries located where dairying is carried on extensively are able to obtain more sweet cream than those receiv- ing cream by the direct shipping method or through cream stations. It is practically impossible to obtain sweet cream from some of the outlying mountain valleys because the production is so small that much time is required for the rancher to obtain a full can of cream. Transportation from these sections is slow, resulting in development of acidity in the cream while en route. Fig. 4. — Butter ready to be scored. In order to encourage the creameries to grade cream, it was neces- sary to set the standard rather low in the beginning. For example, if the maximum amount of acid for first grade had been set at approx- imately 0.35 per cent instead of 0.50 per cent, the grading would have been so severe in many of the creameries that they would not have had sufficient first-grade butter to supply their trade, and grading would not have been adopted. Some creameries that were already receiving a fairly good grade of cream could have set the standard at 0.35 per cent. However, in order that the grading might be uniform in all the creameries, a standard was adopted that would be applicable to all. These standards of grading combined with improved technique in the manufacture of the butter have improved the quality two points. The average score of butter from all the creameries for the first two months was 90, while the average score for the last two months was 92. The score desired in this work is 93 or above. 16 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION Further work in butter standardization and improvement will include instruction in closer grading, as one means of attaining the manufacture of butter that will score 93 or above. Instruction is given to creamerymen that will aid them when undertaking the improvement of cream among their patrons. If the creamerymen are to retain their patrons, diplomacy must be used when informing the producers that their cream supply is inferior in quality. Most creamerymen endeavor to evade this issue. Improving the quality of the cream is a creamery task as important as operating the churn. The improvement in quality provides a steady market at better prices, which results in greater returns both to the manufac- turer and the producer. Where the creameries receive cream by railroad or from patrons located where a visit would be too costly, correspondence is used in an effort to improve the cream. Creameries have been furnished sample letters to guide them in the wording of such correspondence. The following is a copy of such a letter : Dear Sir: We have been receiving your cream and have appreciated your patronage very much. We are interested in the dairy development in this community, and are endeavoring to furnish the producers an excellent market for their cream. We want to assure you that we have your interests and the interests of the com- munity as much at heart as our own. For this reason, we are writing you con- cerning some of the cream which we have received from you. In order to place dairying on a sound and stable basis, it is necessary that the butter we manufacture be of high quality. In order to accomplish this, all the cream received at our creamery is graded. If a can of cream with off flavor or odor is placed in a churn with cream free from bad flavors and odors, it will transmit sufficient undesirable qualities to the butter to lower the quality of the entire churning. Your cream received on was not up to its usual high standard, and we could not use it in our regular make of butter. We are bringing this to your attention, not to be critical, but to ask your cooperation in helping us to manufacture a product that will make a good name for dairy products manufactured in this community. Your co-operation will be greatly appreciated, and with no additional labor to you, we believe you can overcome this difficulty. Just a little more care in sterilizing the milk utensils and in immediately cooling the cream will greatly improve your product. It is desirable also to avoid mixing the warm, fresh cream with the older cream. We believe that you are interested in helping us to produce butter that will be a credit to our community. If we can be of any assistance to you, feel perfectly free to call upon us. Again let us assure you of our appreciation of your patronage, and with kind regards, we are Very truly yours, BUL. 443] STANDARDIZATION AND IMPROVEMENT OF CALIFORNIA BUTTER 17 Office Records. — To obtain uniformity in the butter in some of the large creameries, it is necessary to prepare forms to be filled out for office records, since the manager does not come in close contact with factory details. It is important in such cases that he receive daily reports from the factory covering exact procedure. Neutralization. — Instruction in the partial neutralization of cream is given where the acidity of the cream is above 0.25 per cent. Neutralizing to 0.25 per cent acidity is recommended. Instruction is given for the use of bicarbonate of soda, hydrated lime, and magnesium lime, known to some creamerymen as milk of magnesium. When the acidity of the cream is between 0.25 and 0.35 per cent, only one kind of neutralizer is used. In this case bicarbonate of soda is recom- mended, because it goes into solution more quickly than either hydrated lime or magnesium lime, and is therefore more easily prepared. When the acidity is above 0.35 per cent, best results have been obtained by using a combination of bicarbonate of soda and hydrated lime, or of bicarbonate of soda and milk of magnesium. The bicar- bonate of soda should not be mixed with the other neutralizers ; each should be added separately. Hydrated lime and magnesium lime have similar properties. They have similar flavors, and they both contain calcium hydrate. Bicar- bonate of soda has a different flavor from the other two neutralizers. Advantages are claimed for both the bicarbonate of soda and the lime neutralizers ; therefore, using first either hydrated lime or magnesium lime and finishing with bicarbonate of soda is often recommended to creamerymen to obtain the advantages of each. The use of a com- bination, it was found, reduces the likelihood of giving a neutralized flavor in the butter. The neutralizing chart shown in figure 5 was prepared for use in creameries. (3) This chart has the percentage of acidity across the top and the pounds of cream along each side. The intersection of the columns of the percentages of acid and the pounds of cream indicate the amount of neutralizer in pints required to reduce the acidity to 0.25 per cent. The neutralizers are prepared as follows: Bicarbonate of soda : Place 46 lbs. of bicarbonate of soda in a ten- gallon can and fill with warm water. Stir thoroughly. Hydrated lime : Place 24 lbs. in a ten-gallon can and fill with warm water. Stir thoroughly. Magnesium lime : Place 20 lbs. in a ten-gallon can and fill about two-thirds full of water at a temperature of approximately 100° F. Let this stand until slaking has taken place. Stir and add more water until the solution reaches a thick, creamy condition. Let it stand from two to three hours. Before using, fill the can with water. 18 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION en q o d o CO O m in "1 m in CO in d ^2 >vi en in 1 o r-' Q s 22 o q q q rri <5- d IT, d 0J d IT, d CU m 6 co d 53 "3 eg CO d d 1 d lT, CO o CO o cd n in cO Ifj oo oo in e\i cu ir, CO t\) in ■d CD in d rvj in n CU in d eu d cu d or. ifl in CO *l d CD CO m CD CD •d Ci fij q o3 O CQ O CO o eo' q ■•o o 10 CU in d "*. m d CO s in d oo Co CO q *D CD q iri CD U) CD d R q o >\1 in in en in t o q o CO O CT) o o o "? in in O in o q s' in m CD m cu q cvi CO O o CU o O d CM OU eu in in m q CO q co ^) 0U' CO d ^D in •d 00 d CO q in d in in O in o O o in CO in 2 q o o eo in 22 3j in ^2 in IO q e~' o cri O CD m eD >D d Olj in CQ q IM o d cu o cu O d CU in CVJ in d cu q o d CD d cu CD d CD q CO CD in eu CD CO o d CO o m. in d in o -d q in o. uO m in O CO q en o o m "7 q q CO o 2: O in in in d q O 90 o d CD in d CD "ri cu o d cu o id O "0 in d CU o d CU CU cU eu m ou CO CD q d co q CC) CO P? o u-> in cu o eO o ■d in in in" q CO in CO in in 5 O. q evi in eo o q in q d in in o CO o d O O eu in o m o CU o d cu d CU Ju m OS CO o CD cu d oo q 00 in CD P. q in in c\i O o O 06 in 00 in CD o o q in O £2 in rO in q in O U3' "O d in O 2 o ?2 o o cO in o cu q 00 d cm in oo d Ci si m m d O d oo S5 m CO CU q q m. in O cu o in CO O o in in m q -J5 o m ad q CD CD m q in r\i q fO o in 5 O O d in d in o d q d in d o q CU in q cu in O o O cd O CD m CD o o in q in o rO' IT) o cO in. uo ■d O in in in o d q in o CD m CD in d O' cu iO in oi eu s o CO 00 m o d ^ LO Q o c\l d! cu q CD in CO O <*- in. in Q O in in CO q CD in CD o q in o in O m exi O CO in eo o O d iTi d o d m d o r~" in m CD q cd in 5} o s d eu CO o si in d D CO 00 lTi d eu £ in O in O CU q co cO o in ^1- O in in in q in q CO 06 Q en in> OD o o m d q in in q m 11 o d in q d in iri o d o d in d O 59 in co o D. •n o m d d CD o in d cu In if) Q in q 00 in cu O CO in <0 O in in m q is q m o c6 in en q CO in en O q in q q in Q eu in q eri 'D CO o m O iri o d in d o d in O CO m CO o d in d q m o CO o CO m 2 O CD m 'd S3 in Q ID O <\2 in cU Q CO o cO m cO O in o m in in O iD o r in O CO CO iTi CO q CD in cd O o in o O in q in d O d CD' O d in 5; m d' O lD in d O d in d o in O CD lTi cd s in. Q m. ""> O d q q in O d m cu Q CO q en in iri q O in O q Cxi in q eo in fO in tn o q <*- in in Q in m in in Q iD q ifl in i£> Q q r 1 m Q CO ifl CO in CO q CO o CD in en o o o in o IT. o" O in m q d 5; n "3 Q O d> in o O m m Q q co iTj rn in CD O o in in Q in in iri in U") o ii> o in io in ifl O O in in Q co o CO in CO in oo" Q 0D Q CT) CD Q o o 6 m O in o " »n *o q q in in o Cli O c\i in in e^j o en o CO q en en n eO o o cf in in o iri o ri io in m iri o ifl Q u0 o ifl m ifl m id o Q in in O CO o CO If) n cO in CO q CD o CT) e'- er) "1 "7 o q q irj 'O O q Q ey in c\J in Q eo Q CO Q CO CD >0 en q q o in n q m q in in IT) in iri in iri o Ifl Q iC in ifl in ifl in •fl o o s in in "1 Q CO £; in "1 in o Q Q »0 in in O CM O eu Q e^ in in cu Q en o eO o 00 in eO in eri in (?) Q o in ifl in ifl lO Ifl 3 m in in lO O Q Q O «n in Ifl If) O evi o O nj in evi in cO in m exi O CO O rri O en o 00 m CO in ifl m eri O O O O ^d m ct uD in m ^d o iri o iri O ri in •*? iH u"> in in m q q o Q O in 10 in in If? o eU O C cvi O CM O eu ID m oi in in cu' in cu O CO O m o d O d O CD Ln CO in CO lO d in oo in eri O O in ir> m O o q q O q q q q q q q O q q if) if) in 5^ O o O o cU o o CO o o O o m O O ifl O O s o o cO o o O O o O O O O O O CO O O O O m O o iD O O O o CO o o O o o cvi O o ClJ O O cvj nj o o ovi O O O O m O O vfl O o O O cO ovl O o CD CU O O o co O o on O O CO O O CO CO o O o UD OO O O v0 eO o o d- cO o o CO oo O o CD O O BUL. 443] STANDARDIZATION AND IMPROVEMENT OF CALIFORNIA BUTTER 19 These neutralizing solutions, mixed as described, give satisfactory results Avhen used in the amounts shown in the chart. The solutions mixed in this way, however, are too strong to be added directly to the cream. After the amount needed to neutralize a vat of cream has been measured out, an equal volume of water is added to it. The solution is prepared in concentrated form to save labor of preparation. It is added to the cream by use of a sprinkling can while the cream is being agitated in the vat. Any foam on the cream should be stirred as the neutralizer sometimes collects there. When neutralizing cream containing from 0.35 to 0.50 per cent acid, the ratio used is two parts of hydrated lime or magnesium lime to one part of bicarbonate of soda. For example, 2000 pounds of cream with an acidity of 0.49 per cent requires a total of eight pints of neutralizer to reduce the acidity to 0.25 per cent, according to the chart. Therefore, using a ratio of two to one, it requires 5.2 pints of hydrated lime and 2.8 pints of bicarbonate of soda, or for practical application 5 pints of the first and 3 pints of the latter. Hydrated lime or magnesium lime is used for the larger portion, because these neutralizers have a greater affinity for the acid incorporated in the curd, whereas bicarbonate of soda acts more readily upon the free acid. (3) It is desirable from the standpoint of the keeping qualities of butter to reduce the acidity in the curd, because curd of high acidity deteriorates more rapidly than that of lower acidity. The hydrated lime or magnesium lime is added to the cream first. If it were added last, the remaining acid (the acidity is reduced to 0.25 per cent instead of 0.0 per cent) would be mostly in the curd, a condition which is objectionable. When cream containing an acidity over 0.50 per cent is being neutralized, a ratio of one to one has given most satisfactory results. It is not possible always to eliminate neutralized flavor in butter made from high-acid cream even when equal parts of the two neutralizers are used. Pasteurization. — Instruction is given in two general methods of pasteurization in this work — the vat and the flash methods. The creamerymen using the vat method are advised to install steam lines of sufficient size to heat the cream to 145° F in thirty minutes. After the cream is held at this temperature for thirty minutes, it is desirable to cool it as quickly as possible. This process requires that the pipes leading to the pasteurizer be of sufficient size to carry a large supply of water and brine. Most creameries are now able to cool the cream in an hour and thirty minutes, where vat pasteurization is used. 20 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION The flash method consists of heating the cream to a temperature of from 176° to 180° F, where it is held for approximately twenty seconds. Creameries having a supply of cream large enough to justify a flash pasteurizer are encouraged to use this method, since the butter made from cream pasteurized by the flash method has a firmer body and retains it longer under warm atmospheric conditions. Another reason for encouraging the use of flash pasteurization is that the enzymes, which are a factor in the deterioration of butter, are destroyed at a temperature of 176° F, and at a temperature between 176° F and 180° F, some bacteria are destroyed that would survive at lower temperatures of pasteurization. Consequently, butter made from cream that has been pasteurized at a temperature of from 176° F to 180° F has better keeping qualities than that which is made from cream pasteurized at a lower temperature. Churning. — Because of varied feed and climatic conditions, the procedure of churning cream in California varies in different locali- ties. In any one locality it is easier to make butter of uniform composition if the procedure in manufacturing is uniform from day to day. However, it has been found necessary in some creameries to change the churning temperatures, the temperature of the wash water, and the revolutions of the churn, according to the source of the cream supply. One day the cream may come from a section where alfalfa is the principal feed used, while the next day it may come from a section where cattle are on range feed. The physical condition of the cream varies with the kind of feed consumed by the cows. Cream- eries in the mountain valleys of various elevations and climatic con- ditions must use different procedures in the manufacture of butter. From December to March of each year, creamerymen of California have found it difficult to avoid a sticky body in the butter produced. It clings to the knife when cut and has a tendency to break the bread instead of spreading smoothly. This, of course, is an objectionable feature and causes the butter to receive a lower grade on the market. It has been impossible to overcome this defect where cows are given a restricted diet. No investigational work has been carried out to determine definitely the cause of this condition. The theory is presented that in certain sections at this period in the year, there is a difference in the relation of the fats composing butter fat. The trouble is greatest when cattle are fed dry alfalfa hay. Every procedure known in the manufacture of butter to eliminate stickiness has been tried without success. Apparently, the solution lies in the method of feeding the cattle. As the difficulty arises when cattle are on a ration of dry BUL. 443] STANDARDIZATION AND IMPROVEMENT OF CALIFORNIA BUTTER 21 alfalfa hay, it is reasonable to assumme that some succulent feed, such as silage, would improve the condition. In California, the double standard of 16 per cent moisture and 80 per cent butter fat is strictly enforced. Consequently, the control of moisture, salt, and fat in butter has been an important factor in butter-improvement work. A simple, time-saving method of con- trolling these factors has been taught the creamerymen. First, it is necessary for the buttermaker to determine the amount of butterfat in the churn. A measuring stick is very desirable in determining the amount of cream removed from the pasteurizer or holding vats to the churn. The preparation and use of such a stick are as follows : 1. Weigh into the vat sufficient cream not only to cover the sloping sides of the bottom but to come well up on the perpendicular sides of the vat. 2. Secure a smooth, clean stick with a cross-section about one-half inch square. Make a mark on the upper edge of the vat and extend the stick down from this mark until it reaches the surface of the cream. Make a notch in the stick even with the upper edge of the vat. Assuming that four hundred pounds of cream had been placed in the vat up to this point, the stick would indicate that there was four hundred pounds cf cream below the bottom of the stick each time this mark on the stick was even with the upper edge of the vat, if measured from the same place each time. 3. Add one hundred pounds of cream to the vat. Again extend the stick down to the surface of the cream from the same mark on the upper edge of the vat. Make a second notch on the stick even with the upper edge of the vat; thereafter, when this notch is even with the upper edge of the vat, there would be five hundred pounds of cream beneath the bottom of the stick. 4. Continue as in 3 until the vat is full. Long-barrel churns are operated at a speed of from 28 to 30 revolutions per minute, and short-barrel churns, such as the Simplex, are operated at from 18 to 20 revolutions per minute. The churning temperature recommended is the temperature that will finish churn- ing the cream in from 40 to 50 minutes, when the churn is not quite half full of cream that tests between 30 and 35-per-cent butterfat. After the churning is completed, the buttermilk is drained off and the butter washed in the usual way. One washing is recommended for first-grade butter and two washings for second-grade butter. The temperature of the wash water is an important factor in con- trolling the moisture content of butter. Wash water used at a tern- 22 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION perature three degrees below that of the buttermilk has given the best results, except during the months when feed conditions are changing. It is important in controlling moisture to drain the wash water thoroughly from the churn and to follow the same procedure at each churning. The long-barrel churns can be drained quite thoroughly by leaving the doors slightly ajar and by turning them so that the water will run out. The moisture in the butter at the time of salting is quite uniform from day to day, provided that the procedure in churning up to this point is uniform. Except during a few months in the spring, the butter contains from 13 to 14 per cent of moisture at the time of salting. The amount of water to add to the churn to obtain a desirable churn gain and still not to exceed the moisture content of 16 per cent set by law is determined as follows: 1. Determine the pounds of butterfat in the churn by multiplying the number of pounds of cream by the percentage of butterfat. 2. Estimate the pounds of finished butter by multiplying the number of pounds of butterfat by 25 per cent and adding the result to the pounds of butterfat. 3. Subtract the percentage of moisture in the butter at the time of salting from 15.8 per cent. 4. Multiply the estimated number of pounds of butter by the difference obtained in (3). This result will give the amount of water to be added. Example : Consider that 2,200 pounds of cream testing 30 per cent butterfat is churned, and that the butter at the time of salting con- tains 13.5 per cent moisture. How much moisture should be added to the churn to obtain 15.8 per cent moisture in the finished product? 2200 X 30 per cent = 660 lbs. butterfat. 660 X 25 per cent = 165 lbs. churn gain. 660 + 165 = 825 lbs. estimated butter. 15.8 — 13.5 = 2.3 per cent water to add. 825 X 2.3 per cent = 18.9 lbs. of water. For practical commercial purposes, this procedure gives very satisfactory results. By this method, the moisture can usually be controlled within 0.3 per cent. Approximately 75 per cent of the creameries are using this method. During the spring months when feed conditions cause a varied physical condition in the butterfat, the procedure above is not advised, inasmuch as the moisture varies from day to day. During this period, the wash water is drained as usual, the salt is added, and the butter is worked about two-thirds of the time necessary to complete BUL. 443] STANDARDIZATION AND IMPROVEMENT OF CALIFORNIA BUTTER 23 the working. It is tested for moisture at this stage. The butter- maker then must use his own judgment as to whether to add moisture. If it contains 15.5 per cent moisture and both the butter and the interior of the churn are dry, a little more water may be added before continuing to work the butter. However, if it is in a leaky, wet con- dition and there appears to be considerable water in the churn, it may be necessary to drain the free moisture from the churn before continuing. The incorporation of the moisture and salt are accomplished while the butter is being worked. Working the butter is also an important item in developing a desirable texture or body in the butter. During the spring months when cattle feed on young succulent grasses, the physical condition of the butterfat makes the control of moisture difficult. Some butter makers become so engrossed in controlling moisture that they often neglect the control of salt and texture. Consequently, there is more sticky, weak-bodied butter, more gritty butter from undissolved salt, and more mottled butter, during this period of the year. Controlling the salt in the butter is a comparatively easy matter. There is a slight difference in the amount of salt desired for butter in the various California markets. The markets in the southern part of the state prefer butter containing from 2.0 to 2.5 per cent salt, while those in the northern part prefer a salt content of from 3.0 to 3.3 per cent. To obtain approximately 3 per cent, the salt is added at a rate of 4 pounds to each 100 pounds of butterfat. For example, for 800 pounds of butterfat, 32 pounds of salt should be used. Assuming a 25 per cent churn gain, the 800 pounds of butterfat would give 1000 pounds of butter (approximately). Three per cent of 1000 pounds equals 30 pounds, the amount of salt in the finished butter. Approxi- mately 2 pounds of salt are lost or unaccounted for in a thousand- pound churning. Some of the loss is found in brine clinging to the interior of the churn ; the other is due to moisture and impurities in the salt, which are not considered when determining the amount of salt to use. The commercial grades of salt used are constant in composition, a fact which makes the above calculation of salt very satisfactory. From the standpoint of marketing, the texture or body of the butter is more important than the composition. The consumers do not detect high or low moisture or fat in butter. They do, however, detect irregularities in texture. ' The method previously mentioned for controlling moisture was adopted largely because it aided in devel- 24 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION oping good texture in the butter. If the butter is worked with excess moisture in the churn, it cannot be given additional working after the desired amount of moisture has been obtained without incorporating more moisture. If, however, only enough moisture is added to the churn to give the desired amount, then when this stage is reached, the interior of the churn will be almost dry and the butter can be given additional working without additional moisture being incorpo- rated. It is desirable to work the butter dry in order to obtain a minimum shrinkage between the churn and the final package. Well-worked butter stands up better at warm temperatures than underworked butter. It will not develop a yellow oily appearance on the consumer's table during warm weather as readily as underworked, weak-bodied butter. Handling Scrap Butter. — During the process of cutting and wrapping butter, small scraps accumulate, known to creamerymen as 'scrap butter.' If these scraps are replaced in the churn and reworked with fresh butter, it is more difficult to control the moisture and salt, as the amount of moisture and salt remaining in the scraps is not known. There is also a possibility of getting a mottled color in the butter when scrap butter is reworked with fresh butter, because of the difference in the color of the two. Scrap butter is likely to become contaminated by contact with the equipment used in cutting. In commercial plants it is often handled with the hands instead of paddles, a procedure which is another source of contamination. Three methods of handling scrap butter are recommended. In creameries where a large amount of butter is cut and wrapped each day, the best method of handling the scrap butter is to place it all in a churn and rework it, adding sufficient water and salt to make up that which was lost while cutting. When only a small amount of butter is cut and wrapped daily, it is recommended that the scrap butter be tamped firmly in a butter mold and then cut and wrapped immediately. The butter mold need not be full before cutting. Four or more inches of butter in the bottom can be cut as well as a full mold. Another method of handling scrap is to place it in the pasteur- izer with the cream to be pasteurized. When this method is used, the butter should be added to the cream before the cream is heated in order that the butter may break up gradually and mix with it. If the butter is placed in hot cream, it will melt and may result in ' mealy' butter. Results of Field Work. — Tables 1 to 3 indicate to some extent the progress made by the creameries cooperating in butter standardization BUL. 443] STANDARDIZATION AND IMPROVEMENT OF CALIFORNIA BUTTER 25 and improvement. Table 1 gives analyses of butter from creameries that had cooperated in this work for two years and shows the im- provement in uniformity of composition of the butter the last two months of the second year compared with the first two months of the first year. TABLE 1 Comparison of Analyses After, First Two Months with those of the Last Two Months at the Close of the Second Year Range in composition first two months Butter below standard first two months Range in composition at close of second year Butter below standard at close of second year Standard desired Moisture per cent 12. 5 to 18.0 1.45 to 6.0 .6 to 2.95 77.6 to 83.5 per cent 59 20 18 72 per cent 15.6 to 16.1 2.5to3.4 0.4 to 1.2 79.7 to 81.5 per cent 4.0 1.0 1.3 1.4 per cent 14.5 to 16.0* Salt 2.5 to 3.5 Curd Less than 1.0 Fat 80.5 *Although the standard for moisture is from 14.5 per cent to 16.0 per cent, it is desirable to obtain close to 16 per cent for economy. TABLE 2 Comparison of Analyses of Samples from Creameries Cooperating One Year or Less Range in composition first two months Butter below standard first two months Range in composition at close of year Butter below standard at close of year Standard desired Moisture per cent 13.0 to 17.8 1.87 to 5.0 0.5to2.3 77.9 to 83.4 per cent 56 21 16 42 per cent 14.2 to 17.0 2.0to3.9 0.4 to 1.3 78.9 to 82.5 per cent 10.8 8.4 4.0 11.0 per cent 14.5 to 16.0 Salt 2.5 to 3.5 Curd. .. Less than 1 . Fat 80.5 TABLE 3 Comparison of Analyses of Samples from Creameries that Cooperated in the Work of the First Year Range in composition first two months Butter below standard first two months Range in composition at close of year Butter below standard at close of year Standard desired Moisture .. per cent 12. 5 to 18.0 1.45 to 6.0 0.6 to 2.95 77.6 to 83.5 per cent 59 20 18 72 per cent 14. 5 to 16.2 2.4to3.5 0.47 to 1.1 79.9 to 81.0 per cent 3.0 1.0 0.8 2.0 per cent 14.5 to 16 Salt 2.5 to3.5 Curd Less than 1. Fat 80.5 26 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION Table 2 gives analyses of butter from creameries that have co- operated in this work for a year or less, and shows the improvement in the uniformity of composition of the butter. A comparison of tables 1 and 2 shows that creamerymen cooperat- ing for one year do not obtain as satisfactory results as those who have cooperated two years. The creameries starting butter-improvement work the second year did not make as much progress as those during the first year as may be seen by comparing tables 2 and 3. This may be accounted for very easily. During the first year fewer creameries cooperated, thus making it possible to spend more time in the field with each creamery. CONCLUSIONS Although the butter represented in butter-improvement work is approximately 75 per cent of the butter manufactured in California or approximately 56,000,000 pounds a year, there are still several important dairy sections that have not been included in this project. This is due to the isolated location of these sections. It would be incorrect to say that the butter from the creameries cooperating at the present time is uniform in workmanship and high quality. Some creameries make more rapid progress than others, some have been cooperating but a short time, and others change help often, the new employees requiring additional training. The rate of progress depends largely on the ability and initiative of the creamerymen. Large creameries in the United States find it necessary to keep a manufacturing specialist in the field constantly in order to secure a uniform brand of butter from all their plants. If conclusions can be drawn from this fact, it seems that a continued check on the cream- eries is necessary in order to maintain uniformity. On the whole, the improvement of the butter is very gradual; sudden changes were never noticeable. It is difficult to make suggestions for carrying this work to a con- clusion. If the creameries retained the sarnie management and the same factory employees, it might then be possible to carry this work to a satisfactory conclusion in a definite length of time. Changes in management, in buttermakers, and in other factory employees create a continual demand for instruction. After the employees in a cream- ery attain a certain degree of perfection, less instruction is needed. In all creameries there is some carelessness on the part of the employees. The managers, recognizing this fact, appreciate butter- BUL. 443] STANDARDIZATION AND IMPROVEMENT OF CALIFORNIA BUTTER 27 improvement work, as it gives them a check on their employees. If an employee does his work mechanically, not knowing why certain things are done, he is more apt to be careless. It has not been possible to take creameries into butter-improvement work as rapidly as they have desired to enter, because there has been but one man available for field work. It has been necessary, therefore, to limit the number of creameries so that those cooperating could be given proper attention. Thus progress has been slower than it would have been if more assistance in the field had been available. After all the creamerymen in the state who desire to cooperate in this work have been accepted, it will be some time before all the butter arriving on the markets shows a marked degree of uniformity in workmanship and quality. When this can be accomplished, the amount of field work may be decreased. In order to encourage creameries to raise their standards and in order that they may secure better markets as a result of their efforts along these lines, it has been suggested that a California brand be adopted which creameries Avould be permitted to use after they had attained a certain degree of perfection. This brand would give the butter a distinction on the market. To use it would be an asset in continuing and increasing dairy production in California where land values are relatively higher than in the surrounding states, inasmuch as these creameries should then be able to pay the farmers more for their cream. The farmers would thus receive the highest market value for their butter, and with the adoption of such a brand they would be given an added incentive to reach the standard set and to supply a product of high quality. LITERATURE CITED i Morten sen, M. 1918. State and national brands for butter and cheese. Jour. Dairy Sci., 5: 383-400. 2 Frey, J. J. 1923. Dairy laws of California. California State Dept. Agr., Special Publ. 40: 1-56. 3 HUNZIKER, O. F. 1920. The butter industry. Q66 pp. Published by the author, LaGrange. Illinois. STATION PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION No. 253. Irrigation and Soil Conditions in the Sierra Nevada Foothills, California. 262. Citrus Diseases of Florida and Cuba Compared with those of California. 263. Size Grades for Ripe Olives. 268. Growing and Grafting Olive Seedlings. 273. Preliminary Report on Kearney Vine- yard Experimental Drain, Fresno County, California. 276. The Pomegranate. 277. Sudan Grass. 278. Grain Sorghums. 279. Irrigation of Rice in California. 283. The Olive Insects of California. 294. Bean Culture in California. 304. A Study of the Effects of Freezes on Citrus in California. 310. Plum Pollination. 312. Mariout Barley. 313. Pruning Young Deciduous Fruit Trees. 319. Caprifigs and Caprification. 824. Storage of Perishable Fruit at Freez- ing Temperatures. 325. Rice Irrigation Measurements and Experiments in Sacramento Valley, 1914-1919. 328. Prune Growing in California. 331. Phylloxera-Resistant Stocks. 835. Cocoanut Meal as a Feed for Dairy Cows and Other Livestock. 339. The Relative Cost of Making Logs from Small and Large Timber. 840. Control of the Pocket Gopher in California. 343. Cheese Pests and Their Control. 344. Cold Storage as an Aid to the Mar- keting of Plums. 346. Almond Pollination. 347. The Control of Red Spiders in Decid- uous Orchards. 348. Pruning Young Olive Trees. 349. A Study of Sidedraft and Tractor Hitches. 350. Agriculture in Cut-over Redwood Lands. 353. Bovine Infectious Abortion. 354. Results of Rice Experiments in 1922. 357. A Self-mixing Dusting Machine for Applying Dry Insecticides and Fungicides. 358. Black Measles, Water Berries, and Related Vine Troubles. 361. Preliminary Yield Tables for Second Growth Redwood. 362. Dust and the Tractor Engine. 363. The Pruning of Citrus Trees in Cali- fornia. 364. Fungicidal Dusts for the Control of Bunt. 365. Avocado Culture in California. 366. Turkish Tobacco Culture, Curing and Marketing. 367. Methods of Harvesting and Irrigation in Relation of Mouldy Walnuts. 368. Bacterial Decomposition of Olives dur- ing Pickling. 369. Comparison of Woods for Butter Boxes. 370. Browning of Yellow Newtown Apples. 371. The Relative Cost of Yarding Small and Large Timber. 373. Pear Pollination. 374. A Survey of Orchard Practices in the Citrus Industry of Southern Cali- fornia. 375. Results of Rice Experiments at Cor- tena, 1923. 376. Sun-Drying and Dehydration of Wal nuts. 377. The Cold Storage of Pears. 379. Walnut Culture in California. BULLETINS No. 380. 382. 385. 387. 388. 389. 390. 391. 392. 393. 394. 395. 396. 397. 398. 399. 400. 401. 402. 404. 405. 406. 407. 408. 409. 410. 411. 414. 415. 416. 417. 418. 419. 420. 421. 422. 423. 424. 425. 426. 427. 428. 429. Growth of Eucalyptus in California Plantations. Pumping for Drainage in the San Joaquin Valley, California. Pollination of the Sweet Cherry. Pruning Bearing Deciduous Fruit Trees. Fig Smut. The Principles and Practice of Sun- drying Fruit. Berseem or Egyptian Clover. Harvesting and Packing Grapes in California. Machines for Coating Seed Wheat with Copper Carbonate Dust. Fruit Juice Concentrates. Crop Sequences at Davis. Cereal Hay Production in California. Feeding Trials with Cereal Hay. Bark Diseases of Citrus Trees. The Mat Bean (Phaseolus aconitifo- lius). Manufacture of Roquefort Type Cheese from Goat's Milk. Orchard Heating in California. The Blackberry Mite, the Cause of Redberry Disease of the Himalaya Blackberry, and its Control. The Utilization of Surplus Plums. Cost of Work Horses on California Farms. The Codling Moth in Walnuts. The Dehydration of Prunes. Citrus Culture in Central California. Stationary Spray Plants in California. Yield, Stand and Volume Tables for White Fir in the California Pine Region. Alternaria Rot of Lemons. The Digestibility of Certain Fruit By- products as Determined for Rumi- nants. Factors Affecting the Quality of Fresh Asparagus after it is Harvested. Paradichlorobenzene as a Soil Fumi- gant. A Study of the Relative Values of Cer- tain Root Crops and Salmon Oil as Sources of Vitamin A for Poultry. Planting and Thinning Distances for Deciduous Fruit Trees. The Tractor on California Farms. Culture of the Oriental Persimmon in California. Poultry Feeding: Principles and Practice. A Study of Various Rations for Finishing Range Calves as Baby Beeves. Economic Aspects of the Cantaloupe Industry. Rice and Rice By-products as Feeds for Fattening Swine. Beef Cattle Feeding Trials, 1921-24. Cost of Producing Almonds in Cali- fornia ; a Progress Report. Apricots (Series on California Crops and Prices). The Relation of Rate of Maturity to Egg Production. Apple Growing in California. Apple Pollination Studies in Cali- fornia. The Value of Orange Pulp for Milk Production. The Relation of Maturity of Cali- fornia Plums to Shipping and Dessert Quality. Economic Status of the Grape Industry. CIRCULARS No. No. 87. Alfalfa. 259. 117. The Selection and Cost of a Small 261. Pumping Plant. 262. 127. House Fumigation. 263. 129. The Control of Citrus Insects. 264. 136. Melilotus indica as a Green-Manure Crop for California. 265. 144. Oidium or Powdery Mildew of the 266. Vine. 157. Control of the Pear Scab. 267. 164. Small Fruit Culture in California. 166. The County Farm Bureau. 269. 170. Fertilizing California Soils for the 270. 1918 Crop. 272. 173. The Construction of the Wood-Hoop Silo. 273. 178. The Packing of Apples in California. 276. 179. Factors of Importance in Producing 277. Milk of Low Bacterial Count. 202. County Organizations for Rural Fire 278. Control. 203. Peat as a Manure Substitute. 279. 209. The Function of the Farm Bureau. 212. Salvaging Rain-Damaged Prunes. 281. 215. Feeding Dairy Cows in California. 217. Methods for Marketing Vegetables in California. 282. 230. Testing Milk, Cream, and Skim Milk for Butterfat. 283. 231. The Home Vineyard. 284. 232. Harvesting and Handling California 285. Cherries for Eastern Shipment. 286. 234. Winter Injury to Young Walnut Trees 287. during 1921-22. 288. 238. The Apricot in California. 289. 239. Harvesting and Handling Apricots 290. and Plums for Eastern Shipment. 291. 240. Harvesting and Handling Pears for Eastern Shipment. 292. 241. Harvesting and Handling Peaches for 293. Eastern Shipment. 294. 243. Marmalade Juice and Jelly Juice from 295. Citrus Fruits. 244. Central Wire Bracing for Fruit Trees. 296. 245. Vine Pruning Systems. 248. Some Common Errors in Vine Prun- 298. kig and Their Remedies. 249. Replacing Missing Vines. 300. 250. Measurement of Irrigation Water on 301. the Farm. 302. 252. Supports for Vines. 303. 253. Vineyard Plans. 254. The Use of Artificial Light to Increase 304. Winter Egg Production. 305. 255. Leguminous Plants as Organic Fertil- 306. izer in California Agriculture. 256. The Control of Wild Morning Glory. 307. 257. The Small-Seeded Horse Bean. 308. 258. Thinning Deciduous Fruits. 309. Pear By-products. Sewing Grain Sacks. Cabbage Growing in California. Tomato Production in California. Preliminary Essentials to Bovine Tuberculosis Control. Plant Disease and Pest Control. Analyzing the Citrus Orchard by Means of Simple Tree Records. The Tendency of Tractors to Rise in Front; Causes and Remedies. An Orchard Brush Burner. A Farm Septic Tank. California Farm Tenancy and Methods of Leasing. Saving the Gophered Citrus Tree. Home Canning. Head, Cane, and Cordon Pruning of Vines. Olive Pickling in Mediterranean Coun- tries. The Preparation and Refining of Olive Oil in Southern Europe. The Results of a Survey to Determine the Cost of Producing Beef in Cali- fornia. Prevention of Insect Attack on Stored Grain. Fertilizing Citrus Trees in California. The Almond in California. Sweet Potato Production in California. Milk Houses for California Dairies. Potato Production in California. Phylloxera Resistant Vineyards. Oak Fungus in Orchard Trees. The Tangier Pea. Blackhead and Other Causes of Loss of Turkeys in California. Alkali Soils. The Basis of Grape Standardization. Propagation of Deciduous Fruits. The Growing and Handling of Head Lettuce in California. Control of the California Ground Squirrel. The Possibilities and Limitations of Cooperative Marketing. Coccidiosis of Chickens. Buckeye Poisoning of the Honey Bee. The Sugar Beet in California. A Promising Remedy for Black Measles of the Vine. Drainage on the Farm. Liming the Soil. A General Purpose Soil Auger and its Use on the Farm. American Foulbrood and its Control. Cantaloupe Production in California. Fruit Tree and Orchard Judging. The publications listed above may be had by addressing College of Agriculture, University of California, Berkeley, California. 8m-ll,'27