EY BER'' UBf R UNIVE .ITY OF CAlirORNIA V aER'' I IDf PRACTICAL GRAMMAR SANSKRIT LANGUAGE, ARRANGED WITH REFERENCE TO THE CLASSICAL LANGUAGES OF EUROPE, FOR THE USE OF ENGLISH STUDENTS. BY MONIER WILLIAMS, M.A. PROFESSOR OF SANSKRIT AT THE EAST-INDIA COLLEGE, HAILEYBUHT ; MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, AND OF THE ORIENTAL SOCIETY OF GERMANY FORMERLY BODEN SCHOLAR IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD. SECOND EDITION. OXFORD: AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS. M.DCCC.LVII. PAv666 I 9 SI PREFACE. In 1 846 I published a Grammar of the Sanskrit language, which I entitled 'An elementary Grammar, arranged accord- ing to a new Theory.' This work is now out of i:»rint, and a new edition is required. The increasing experience which, during the subsequent ten years, I have derived from my duties as Sanskrit Professor at the East-India College, where every student without exception is compelled by statute to acquire this language, has led me to modify some of the views I expressed in my first Grammar respect- ing the Indian grammatical system. I have consequently felt myself called upon to re-write the book; and although I have seen no reason to depart materially from the arrangement originally adopted, yet I am confident that the present enlarged and more complete work will be found even better adapted than its predecessor to the practical wants of the European student. At the best, a grammar is regarded by an European as a necessary evil, only to be tolerated because unavoidable. Especially must it be so in the case of a language con- fessedly more copious, more elaborate and artificial, than any other language of the world, living or dead. The structure of such a language must of necessity be highly complex. To the native of Hindustan this complexity is a positive recommendation. He views in it an evidence and a pledge of the sacred and unapproachable character of the tongue which he venerates as divine. To him the study of its intricate grammar is an end, complete and satisfying in a 2 186 IV PREFACE. itself. He wanders with delight in its perplexing mazes ; and values that grammar most which enters most minutely into an abstract analysis of the construction of the lan- guage, apart from its practical bearing on the literature or even on the formation of his own vernacular dialect. But the matter-of-fact temperament of an European, or at least of an Englishman, his peculiar mental organization, his hereditary and educational bias, are opposed to all such purely philosophical ideas of grammatical investigation. A Sanskrit grammar intended for his use must l^e plain, straightforward, practical ; not founded on the mere abstract theory of native grammarians, not moulded in servile con- formity to Indian authority, but constructed independently from an examination of the literature, and with direct reference to the influence exercised by Sanskrit on the spoken dialects of India and the cognate languages of Europe. To the English student, as a general rule, all grammatical study is a disagreeable necessity — a mere means to an end — a troublesome road that must be passed in order that the goal of a sound knowledge of a language may be attained. To meet his requirements the ground must be cleared of needless obstacles, its rough places made smooth, its crooked places straight, and the passage over it facilitated by simplicity and perspicuity of arrange- ment, by consistency and unity of design,, hy abundance of example and illustration, by synoptical tables, by copious indices, by the various artifices of typography. Before directing attention to the main features of the plan adopted in the present volume, and indicating the principal points in which it either differs from or conforms to the Indian system of grammatical tuition, I Avill endea- vour to explain briefly what that system is ; on what prin- ciples it is based; and in what relation it stands to the literature. It might have been expected that in Sanskrit, as in PREFACE. V other languages, gTammatical works should have l)een composed in direct subservience to the literature. But without going the length of affirming that the rules were anterior to the practice, or that grammarians in their ela- borate precepts aimed at inventing forms of speech which were not established by approved usage, certain it is that in India we have presented to us the curious phenomenon of a vast assemblage of purely grammatical treatises, the professed object of which is not so much to elucidate the existing literature, as to be studied for their own sake, or as ancillary to the study of the more abstruse work of the first great grammarian, Panini. We have, moreover, two distinct phases of literature ; the one, simple and natural — that is to say, composed independently of grammatical rules, though of course amenable to them ; the other, ela- borate, artificial, and professedly written to exemplify the theory of grammar. The literary compositions which pre- ceded the appearance of Panini's aphorisms, probably about the 2d century b. c, belong of course to the first of these phases. Such are the Vedas, the code of Manu, and the two epic poems of the Ramayana and Maha-bharata *. The Vedas, indeed, which are referred back to a period as early as the 1 2th or 1 3th century b. c, abound in obsolete and peculiar formations, mixed up with the more recent forms of grammar with so much irregularity as to lead to the inference, that the language at that time was too unsettled and variable to be brought under subjection to a system of strict grammatical rules ; while the simplicity of the style in the code of Manu and tlie two epic poems is a plain indication that a grammar founded on and intended to be a guide to the literature as it then existed, would have * That Panini was subsequent to the Maha-bharata may be conjectured fi-om the circumstance that in the chapter on patronymics the examples given in the Vaitikas or supplementary rules (probably nearly as ancient as the Sutras) seem to be taken fi-om the names of the chiefs and warriors of that poem. VI PREFACE. differed from the Paniniya Sutras as a straiolit road from a labyrinth. What then was the nature of Panini's extraordinary work, which caused so complete a revolution in the cha- racter of Sanskrit literary composition? It consisted of about four thousand Sutras or aphorisms, composed with the symbolic brevity of the most concise memoria technica. These were to the science of Sanskrit grammar what the seed is to the tree, the bud to the full-blown flower. They were the germ of that series of grammatical treatises w^hich, taking root in them, speedily germinated and rami- fied in all directions. Each aphorism, in itself more dark and mystic than the darkest and most mystical of oracles, was pregnant with an endless progeny of interpretations and commentaries, sometimes as obscure as the original. About one hundred and fifty grammarians and annotators followed in the footsteps of the great Father of Sanskrit grammar, and, ]n-ofessing to explain and illustrate his dicta, made the display of their own philological learning the paramount aim and purpose of their disquisitions. It cannot be wondered, when all the subtlety of the Indian intellect expended itself in this direction, that the science of Sanskrit grammar should have been refined and elaborated ])y the Hindus to a degree wholly unknown in the other languages of the world. The highly artificial writings of later times resulted from such an elaboration, and were closely interwoven with it ; and although much of the literature was still simple and natural, the greater part w^as affected by that passion for the display of philo- logical erudition which was derived from the works of Panini and his disciples. Poetry itself became partially inoculated with the mania. Great poets, like Kalidasa, who in the generality of their writings were remarkable for majestic simplicity and vigour, condescended in some of their works to humour the taste of the day by adopting PREFACE. Vll a pedantic and obscnre style; while others, like Bhatti, wrote lon^- poems, either with the avowed object of exem- plifying grammar, or with the ill-concealed motive of exhi- biting their own familiarity with the niceties and subtleties of speech. Indeed it is to be regretted that the Pandits of India should have overlaid their system, possessing as it does undeniable excellencies, with a network of mysticism. Had they designed to keep the key of the knowledge of their language, and to shut the door against the vulgar, they could hardly have invented a method more perplexing and discouraging to beginners. Having required, as a prelimi- nary step, that the student shall pass a noviciate of ten years in the grammar alone, they have constructed a com- plicated machinery of signs, symbols, and indicatory letters, which may be Avell calculated to aid the memory of the initiated natives, but only serves to bcAvilder the English tyro. He has enough to do, in conquering the difficulties of a strange character, without puzzling himself at the very threshold in a labyrinth of symbols and abbreviations, and perplexing himself in his endeavour to understand a complicated cipher, with an equally complicated key to its interpretation. Even Colebrooke, the profoundest Sanskrit scholar of his day, imbued as he w^as with a predilection for every thing Indian, remarks on the eight lectures or chapters, wdiich, with four sections under each, comprise all the celebrated Paniniya Sutras, and constitute the basis of the Hindu grammatical system; — 'The outline of Pdnini's arrangement is simple, but numerous exceptions and fre- quent digressions have involved it in much seeming con- fusion. The first two lectures (the first section especially, which is in a manner the key of the whole grannnar) con- tain definitions ; in the three next are collected the affixes by which verbs and nouns are inflected. Those which appertain to verbs occupy the third lecture; the fourth viii PREFACE. and fifth contain such as are affixed to nouns. The remain- ing three lectures treat of the changes which roots and affixes undergo in special cases, or by general rules of orthography, and which are all effected by the addition or by the substitution of one or more elements. The apparent simplicity of the design vanishes in the perplexity of the structure. The endless pursuit of exceptions and limita- tions so disjoins the general precepts, that the reader can- not keep in view their intended connexion and mutual relation. He wanders in an intricate maze, and the clue of the labyrinth is continually slipping from his hand.' Again ; ' The studied brevity of the Paniniya Sutras ren- ders them in the highest degree obscure; even with the knowledge of the key to their interpretation, the student finds them ambiguous. In the application of them, when understood, he discovers many seeming contradictions; and, with every exertion of practised memory, he must experience the utmost difficulty in combining rules dis- persed in apparent confusion through different portions of P^nini's eight lectures.' That the reader may judge for himself of the almost incredible brevity and hopeless obscurity of these gram- matical aphorisms, it may be worth while here to furnish him with one or two examples. The closing Siitra at the end of the eighth lecture is as follows : ' ^ ^ « «.' Will it be believed that this is interpreted to mean, ' Let short a l)e held to have its organ of utterance contracted, now that we have reached the end of the work, in which it was necessary to regard it as being otherwise?' Another example, taken from the third section of the eighth lecture, may be useful as showing that grammatical theory is sometimes not strictly carried out in practice. The Siitra (VIII. 3. 3 1 ) is as follows : ' f^ w^ si tuk: This is interpreted to signify, that ' when -tt n comes at the end of a word, and ifi .s follows, the augment ir t may be inserted, PREFACE. IX and TT ^ may then be written in three ways, tlnis; ^^, >?, ^^.' But if we examine the best MSS. and printed works throughout the whole compass of the literature, Ave shall find that in practice tt ^ are constantly left unchanged. The same may be said of r? it, which by another Sutra ought to pass into w- See rr. 5^, $6. a, pp. 30, 31, of this book. My aim has been, in the present work, to avoid the mysticism of Indian grammarians, without ignoring the best parts of their system, and without i-ejecting such of their technical symliols as I have found by experience to be really useful in assisting the memory. With reference to my first chapter, the student will doubtless be impatient of the space devoted to the expla- nation of the alphabet. Let him understand at the outset, that a minute and accurate adjustment of the mutual rela- tionship of letters is the very hinge of the whole subject of Sanskrit grammar. It is the point which distinguishes the grammar of this language from that of every other. In fact, Sanskrit, in its whole structure, is an elaborate pro- cess of combining letters according to prescribed rules. Its entire grammatical system, the regular formation of its nouns and verbs from crude roots, its theory of declension and conjugation, and the arrangement of its sentences, all turn on the reciprocal relationship and interchangeableness of letters, and the laws which regulate their euphonic com- bination. These laws, moreover, are the key to the influ- ence which this language has exercised on the study of comparative philology. Such being the case, it is scarcely possible for a Sanskrit grammar to be too full, luminous, and explicit in treating of the letters, their pi-onunciation, classification, and mutual affinities. With regard to the second chapter, which contains the rules of Sandhi or euphonic combination, I have endea- voured as far as possible to simplify a ])art of the grammar b X PREFACE. which is the great impediment to the progress of beginners. There can be little doubt that the necessity imposed on early students of conquering these rules at the commence- ment of the grammar, is the cause Avhy so many who address themselves energetically to the study of the lan- guage are compelled after the first onset to retire from the field dispirited, if not totally discomfited. The rules for the combination and permutation of letters form, as it were, a mountain of difficulty to be passed at the very begin- ning of the journey; and the learner cannot be convinced that, when once surmounted, the ground beyond may be more smooth than in other languages, the ingress to which is comparatively easy. My aim has ])een to facilitate the comprehension of these rules, not by omission or abbrevia- tion, but by a perspicuous method of arrangement, and by the exhibition of every Sanskrit word with its equivalent English letters. The student must understand that there are two distinct classes of rules of Sandhi, viz. those which affect the final or initial letters of complete words in a sentence, and those which relate to the euphonic junction of roots or crude bases with affixes and terminations. Many of the latter class come first into operation in the conjugation of the more difficult verbs. In order, there- fore, that the student may not be embarrassed with these rules, until they are required, the consideration of them is reserved to the middle of the volume. (See p. 124.) As to the chapter on Sanskrit roots and the formation of nominal bases, the place which it occupies before the chapter on declension, although unusual, scarcely calls for explanation ; depending as it does on the theory that nouns as well as verbs are derived from roots, and that the formation of a nominal base must precede the declension of a noun, just as the formation of a verbal base must be anterior to the conjugation of a verb. Consistency and clearness of arrangement certainly require that an enume- PREFACE. XI ration of the affixes by which the bases of nouns are formed should precede their inflection. Tlie early student, however, may satisfy himself hy a cursory observation of the eight classes under which these affixes are distributed. Some of the most uncommon, which are only applicable to single words, have been omitted. Moreover, in accordance with the practical character of the present Grammar, the servile and indicatory letters of Indian grammarians, under which the true affix is often concealed, if not altogether lost, have been discarded. For example, the adjective dhana-vat, ' rich,' is considered in the following pages to be formed by the affix vat, and not, as in native Grammars, by matup ; and the substantive bhoj-ana, ' food,' is consi- dered to be formed with the affix ana, and not, as in native Grammars, by Ij/uf. In my explanation of the inflection of the base of both nouns and verbs, I have, as before, treated both declension and conjugation as a process of Sandhi ; that is to say, junction of the crude base, as previously formed from the root, with the terminations. But in the present Grammar I have thought it expedient to lay more stress on the general scheme of terminations propounded by native grammarians; and in the application of this scheme to the base, I have referred more systematically to the rules of euphonic combination, as essential to a sound acquaint- ance with the principles of nominal and verbal inflection. On the other hand, I have in the present work deviated from the Indian system by retaining ^ .^ as a final in the declension of nouns and conjugation of verbs, for the prac- tical reason of its being more tangible and easy to appre- hend than the symlDol Visarga or h, which is imperceptible in pronunciation. (See the observations under changes of final s, pp. yi, 2)'^.) Even in native Grammars those termi- nations, the finals of which are afterwards changed to Visarga, are always regarded as originally ending in ^^ .^ ; 1) 2 xil PREFACE. and the subsequent resolution of .v into h, Avhen the termi- nation is connected with the base, is a source of confusion and uncertainty. Thus 6 is said to be the termination of the nominative case ; but the nominative of mfi^ agni, ' tire,' would according to the Indian system be written ^Ti-^w agnlli, which is scarcely distinguishable in pronunciation from the base agni. In the following pages, therefore, the nominative is given agids ; and the liability of agnis to become agnih and agnir is explained under the head of changes of final * (at p. ^'^). This plan (which is that of Professor Bopp) has also the advantage of exhibiting the resemblance between the system of inflection in Sanskrit and Latin and Greek. The difficulty experienced in comprehending the subject of Sanskrit conjugation has led me to give abundant exam- ples of verl)s conjugated at full. I have of course deviated from the Indian plan of placing the third person first. I have, moreover, deemed it advisable to exhibit the English equivalents of Sanskrit words in the principal examples under each declension and conjugation, knowing by expe- rience the thankfulness with which this aid is received by early students, not thoroughly familiar Avith the Deva- nagarl character. The numerous examples of verbs, pri- mitive and derivative, will be found to include all the most useful in the language. In previous Grammars it has been usual to follow the native method of giving only the 3d pers. sing, of each tense, with an occasional indication of any peculiarities in the other persons. The present Grammar, on the other hand, exhibits the more difficult tenses of even/ verb in full, referring at the same time for the explanation of every peculiar formation to the rule, in the preceding pages, on which it depends. This is especially true of the 2d and 3d preterites, as these constitute the chief difficulty of the Sanskrit verb; and I have constantly found that even advanced students, if required to write out these tenses, will be guilty of inaccuracies, notwith- PREFACE. xm standing one or two of the persons may have been given for their gnidance. In the chapter on coniponnd words I liave again endea- voured, without ignoring the Indian arrangement, to dis- embarrass it of many elements of perplexity, and to treat the v/hole subject in a manner more in unison with European ideas. The explanations I have given rest on actual examples selected by myself from the Hitopadesa and other standard works in ordinary use. Indeed this chapter and that on syntax constitute perhaps the most original part of the present volume. In composing the syntax, the literature as it exists has been my only guide. All the examples are taken from classical authors, so as to serve the purpose- of an easy delectus, in w^hich the learner may exercise himself before passing to continuous translation. The deficiency of native Grammars on this important subject is only to be accounted for on the sup- position that their aim was to furnish an elaborate analysis of the philosophical structure of the language, rather than a practical guide to the study of the literature. The exercises in translation and parsing, in the last chapter of this volume, will, it is hoped, facilitate the early student's first effort at translation. Two fables from the Hitopadesa are given, as before, with a translation and grammatical analysis ; but I have thought fit to omit the story of Vedagarbha and the selections from Manu, which I appended to my first Grammar. The Sanskrit of the former is too modern and interspersed with Bengali idioms, while that of the latter is too advanced. I have therefore substituted for the one some easy sentences selected from classical sources; and for the other, a few simple fables from the Paiicha-tantra, the book from Avhich a great part of the Hitopadesa itself is drawn. Every word in these selections is explained either by notes at the foot of the page or by references to the preceding pages of the Grammar. XIV PREFACE. The separation of words by the free use of the Virama, and the employment of a dot underneath to mark the division, whenever the blending of vowels or the associa- tion of crude bases in a compound make junction unavoid- able, may offend the eye of the Oriental scholar, if habituated to the Indian system of writing ; but the beginner can scarcely be expected to know which is the final and which the initial letter of words thus joined together. Why, therefore, refuse him a clue to guide him in his search for the word in the dictionary ? and why, by uniting those parts of a sentence which admit of separa- tion, superadd an unnecessary source of perplexity to the necessary difficulty, unknown in other languages, resulting from the blending of vowels and the composition of words? It may be quite true that, according to native authorities, the Virama ought only to be employed when no Sandhi takes place; and that, according to the strict interpreta- tion of the word Sandhi, actual contact ought to ensue whenever a law of euphony comes into operation. But does euphonic connexion necessarily imply contact? and may not words be mutually affected by euphonic laws, without being actually joined together? The system of uniting words which are really distinct may commend itself to the natives of Hindustan, as tending to reduce the labour of writing ; but in Europe, where abundant punctuation is deemed essential to facilitate reading, the absence of spaces must always be regarded as productive of unnecessary hindrance. The student has already sufficient obstacles to surmount in the Deva-nagari character and the rules for the permutation of letters. The changes required by these rules will cause no embarrass- ment, provided separation be permitted, in accordance with the European method. Thus the Latin scholar, if acquainted with the laws of permutation, would not be embarrassed by the sentence Uhy ad Diance venerir itav at sinistram PREFACE. XV (euphonically clianged from ubi ad Diana' veneris ito ad si?iistram); but he would, to say the least, be unnecessarily hindered if this permuted sentence were linked together into two words, thus — UhyaddiancB vencriritavatsinistram. Nor is it easy to understand why the slight spaces between the words in the first case should be deemed incompatible with the operation of euphonic laws. If such separation, therefore, is only to be effected in Sanskrit by extending the legitimate functions of the Virama, the facilities afforded by modern typography ought to leave us free to do so. The only cases in which it is undesirable to separate distinct words, acted on by SandJii, are when two vowels blend into one, and when final u and i are changed into their corresponding semivowels v and y. In regard to the general scope of the book, it remains to state that my aim has been to minister to the wants of the earliest as well as the more advanced student. I have therefore employed types of two different sizes. The larger attracts the eye to those parts of the subject to which the attention of the beginner may advantageously be confined. The smaller generally contains such matter as offers no claim to immediate consideration. Under the conviction that the study of Sanskrit ought to possess charms for the classical scholar, independently of its wonderful literature, I have taken pains to introduce in sm^all type the most striking comparisons between this language and Latin and Greek. I am bound to acknowledge that I have drawn nearly all the materials for this import- ant addition to the book from the English translation of Bopp's Comparative Grammar, by my friend and colleague Professor Eastwick. One point more remains to be noticed. The want of an Index was felt to be a serious defect in my first Grammar. This omission is now supplied. Two full Indices have been appended to the present work, the one English, and the xvi PREFACE. other Sanskrit. The latter will enable the student to turn at once to any noun, verb, affix, idiom or peculiar forma- tion explained in the foregoing pages. In conclusion, I desire to take this opportunity of ex- pressing to the Delegates of the Oxford University Press my grateful and respectful sense of the advantages the volume derives from their favour and patronage* M. W. EAST-INDIA COLLEGE, HAILEYBURY, January 1857. * Not the least of these advantages has been the use of a press which, in its appointments and general efficiency, stands unrivalled. The judgment and accuracy with which the most intricate parts of my MS. have been printed, have excited a thankfulness in my mind, which those only can understand who know the toil of correcting the press, when much Oriental type is interspersed with the Eoman, and when a multitude of minute diacritical points, dots, and accents have to be employed to represent the Deva-nagari letters. If many errors are discovered in the following pages, they must be laid at my own door ; and I have nothing to urge in palliation, excepting that I have spared no pains to avoid inaccuracies, and that the work of one man, however careful and laborious, cannot be expected to be free from the imperfection incidental to all human performances. CONTENTS, PAGE. Introductory remarks xix Modifications of the Sanskrit alphabet xxv Chap. I. — Letters 1 Pronunciation 7 Classification 11 Accentuation 14 Method of writing 16 Chap. II. — Sandhi or euphonic permutation of letters 19 Sect. I. Changes of vowels 19 Sect. II. Changes of consonants 26 Chap. III. — Sanskrit roots, and the formation of nominal bases. . 39 Formation of the base of nouns by affixes 44 Chap. IV. — Declension of nouns. General observations 53 Sect. I. Declension of nouns, whose bases end in vowels 60 Sect. II. Declension of nouns, whose bases end in consonants 71 Sect. III. Adjectives 86 Sect. IV. Numerals 90 Chap. V. — Pronouns 94 Chap. VI. — Verbs. General observations 101 Terminations 104 Summary of the ten conjugations 110 Formation of the base in the four conjugational tenses : Of verbs of the first, fourth, sixth, and tenth classes 117 Of verbs of the second, third, and seventh classes 126 Of verbs of the fifth, eighth, and ninth classes 1 32 Formation of the base in the six non-conjugational tenses : Second preterite ; formation of the base 1 34 First and second future ; formation of the base 140 Third preterite; formation of the base 14G Benedictive ; formation of the base 1 52 Conditional ; formation of the base 1 53 Infinitive ; formation of the base 1 54 Passive verbs ; formation of the base 154 Causal verbs ; formation of the base 1 5H Desiderative verbs ; formation of the base 1 63 Frequentative or intensive verbs; formation of the base 165 Nominal verbs 1 68 Participles 1 70 Participial nouns of agency I H2 c xviii CONTENTS. PAGE. Examples of verbs conjugated at full : Table of verbs of the ten conjugations conjugated at full 184 Table of passive verbs conjugated at full 192 Auxiliary verbs conjugated 197 Verbs of the first class conjugated 198 Verbs of the fourth class conjugated 212 Verbs of the sixth class conjugated 217 Verbs of the tenth class conjugated 223 Verbs of the second class conjugated 227 Verbs of the third class conjugated 235 Verbs of the seventh class conjugated 239 Verbs of the fifth class conjugated 244 Verbs of the eighth class conjugated 249 Verbs of the ninth class conjugated 252 Passive verbs conjugated 258 Causal verbs conjugated 260 Desiderative verbs conjugated 262 Frequentative or intensive verlis conjugated 264 Chap. VII. — Indeclinable words. Adverbs •. 267 Conjunctions 270 Prepositions 271 Interjections 273 Chap. VIII. — Compound words. Sect. I. Compound nouns 273 Tat-purusha or dependent compounds 276 Dwandwa or aggregative compounds 278 Karma-dharaya or descriptive compounds 281 Dwigu or collective compounds 282 Avyayi-bhava or indeclinable compounds 283 Bahu-vrihi or relative compounds 283 Complex compounds 288 Sect. II. Compound verbs 292 Sect. III. Compound adverbs 297 Chap. IX. — Syntax 298 Chap. X. — Exercises in translation and parsing 328 Scheme of the more common Sanskrit metres 350 English index 355 Sanskrit index 358 List of compound or conjunct consonants 367 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. Sanskrit is the classical and learned language of the Hindus, in which all their literature is written, and which bears the same rela- tion to their vernacular dialects that Greek and Latin bear to the spoken dialects of Europe. It is one of the family called by modern philologists Arian* or Indo-European; that is to say, it is derived, in common with the languages of Europe, from that primeval but extinct type, once spoken by a tribe in Central Asia, partly pastoral, partly agricultural, who afterwards separated into distinct nationalities, migrating first southwards into Aryavarta or Upper India — the vast territory between the Himalaya and Vindhya mountains — and then northwards and westwards into Europe. In all probability Sanskrit approaches more nearly to this primi- tive type than any of its sister-tongues ; but, however this may be, comparative philology has proved beyond a doubt its community with Greek, Latin, Gothic, Lithuanian, Slavonic, Keltic f, and through some of these with Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, German, and our own mother-tongue. The word Sanskrit (^^^ Sanskrit a) is made up of the preposition sa?n {•^ = o■vl', con), 'together,' and the passive participle krita ("gFiT =factus), 'made,' an euphonic s being inserted (see 53. a. and 6. b. of the following Grammar). The compound means ' carefully con- structed,' 'symmetrically formed' [confectus, constructus). In this * More properly written Aryan, from the Sanskrit ^Tm drya, ' noble,' ' venera- ble,' respectable,' the name assumed by the race who immigrated into Northern India, thence called Arydvarta, 'the abode of the Aryans.' t Zand and old Persian might be added to the hst, although the reality of Zand as any thing more than the vehicle of the sacred writings called Zand- Avastd (affii'med by the Parsi priests of Persia and India to be the composition of their prophet Zoroaster) has been disputed. Comparative philologists also add Armenian. XX INTKODUCTORY REMARKS. sense it is opposed to Prakrit {Trmii prdkrita), 'common,' 'natural/ the name given to the vulgar dialects which gradually arose out of it, and from which most of the languages now spoken in Upper India are more or less directly derived. It is probable that Sanskrit, although a real language — once the living tongue of the Xryan or dominant races, and still the learned language of India, preserved in all its purity through the medium of an immense literature — was never spoken in its most perfect and systematized form by the mass of the people. For we may reasonably conjecture, that if the lan- guage of Addison differed from the vulgar and provincial English of his own day, and if the Latin of Cicero differed from the spoken dialect of the Roman plebeian, much more must the most polished and artificial of all languages have suffered corruption when it became the common speech of a vast community, whose separation from the educated classes was far more marked. To make this hypothesis clearer, it may be well to remind the reader, that, before the arrival of the Sanskrit-speaking immigrants, India was inhabited by a rude people, called ' barbarians' or ' outcastes' {Mlechchhas, Nishddas, Dasyus, &c.) by Sanskrit writers, but probably the descend- ants of various Scythian hordes who, at a remote period, entered India by way of Biluchistan* and the Indus. The more powerful and civilised of these aboriginal tribes appear to have retired before the Airyans into Southern India, and there to have retained their inde- pendence, and with their independence the individuality and essential structure of their vernacular dialects. But in Upper India the case was different. There, as the Aryan race increased in numbers and importance, their full and powerful language forced itself on the aborigines. The weak and scanty dialect of the latter could no more withstand a conflict with the vigorous Sanskrit, than a puny dwarf the aggression of a giant. Hence the aboriginal tongue gra- dually wasted away, until its identity became merged in the language of the Aryans ; leaving, however, a faint and skeleton-like impress of itself on the purer Sanskrit of the educated classes, and disintegrat- ing it into Prakrit, to serve the purposes of ordinary speech t' * The Brahiil, a dialect of Biluchistan, still preserves its Scythian character. t The cerebral letters in Sanskrit, and words containing cerebral letters, are probably the result of the contact of Sanskrit with the language of the Scythian mTRODUCTORY REMARKS. xxi Prakrit, then, was merely the natural process of change and cor- ruption which the refined Sanskrit underwent in adapting itself to the exigencies of a spoken dialect*. It was, in fact, the provincial Sanskrit of the mass of the community ; whilst Sanskrit, properly so called, became, as it is to this day, the language of the Brahmans and the accomplishment of the learned f. This provincial Sanskrit assumed of course different modifications, according to the circumstances of the district in which the corrup- tion took place ; and the various modifications of Prakrit are the intermediate links which connect Sanskrit with the dialects at pre- sent spoken by the natives of Hindustan. They have been analyzed and assorted by Vararuchi, the ancient grammarian, who was to Prakrit what Panini was to Sanskrit grammar. The most noticeable varieties were the Mdgadhi, spoken in Magadha or Bihar ; the Mahdrdshtri, spoken in a district stretching from Central to Western India ; and the Sauraseni, spoken on the banks of the Jamna, in the neighbourhood of the ancient Mathura J. These patois modifications of Sanskrit are employed as the language of the inferior characters in all the Hindu dramas which have come tribes : and a non-Sanskrit, or, as it may be called, a Scythian element, may be traced with the greatest clearness in the modern dialects of Hindustan. In all of these dialects there is a substratum of words, foreign to Sanskrit, which can only be referred to the aboriginal stock. See the last note at the bottom of p. xxii. * It would be interesting to trace the gradual transition of Sanskrit into Prakrit. In a book called the Lalita-vistara, the life and adventures of Buddha are nar- rated in pure Sanskrit. It is probably of no great antiquity, as the Buddhists themselves deny the existence of written authorities for 400 years after Buddha's death (about b. c. 543). But subjoined to the Sanskrit version are gdthds or songs, which repeat the story in a kind of mixed dialect, half Sanskrit, half Prakrit. They were probably rude ballads, which, though not written, were current among the people soon after Buddha's death. They contain Vaidik as well as more modern formations, interspersed with Prakrit corruptions (ex. gr. 3T^f^ for 37OT, which is Vaidik; and VT:f^ for VTT^tI^, which is Prakrit), l)roving that the language was then in a transition state. t Tlie best proof of this is, that in the Hindu dramas aU the higher characters speak Sanskrit, whilst the inferior speak various forms of Prakrit. It is idle to suppose that Sanskrit would have been employed at all in dramatic composition, had it not been the spoken language of a section of the community. X Arrian (ch. VIII) describes the Suraseni as inhabiting the city of Methoras. xxii mTRODUCTOKY REMAKKS. down to us, some of which date as far back as the 2d century n. c, and the first of them is identical with Pali, the sacred language of the Ceylon Buddhists *. Out of them arose Hindi (termed Hindustani or Urdu, when mixed with Persian and Arabic words), Mardthi, and Gujardthi, the modern dialects spread widely over the country. To these may be added, BengdJi, the language of Bengal, which bears a closer resemblance to its parent, Sanskrit, than either of the three enumerated above ; Uriya, the dialect of Orissa, in the pro- vince of Cuttack ; Sindhi, that of Sindh ; Panjdbi, of the Panjab ; Kdsmirian, of Kas'mir ; and Nipdlese, of Nipal t- The four languages of Southern India, viz. i. Tamil J, 2. Telugu (the ^ndhra of Sanskrit writers) ^, 3. Kanarese (also called Kannadi or Karnataka), and 4. Malayalara (Malabar) 1|, although di'awing largely from Sanskrit for their literature, their scientific terms, their religion, their laws, and their social institutions, are proved to be distinct in their structure, and are referred, as might have been expected from the previous account of the aborigines, to the Scy- thian, or, as it is sometimes termed, the Tatar or Turanian type %. * Pali, which is identical wdth the Magadhi Prakrit, is the language in which the sacred books of the Buddhists of Ceylon are written. Buddhist missionaries fi'om Magadha carried their religion, and ultimately (after the decay of Buddhism in India) their language, into that island. Pah (meaning in Singhalese 'ancient') is the name which the priests of Ceylon gave to the language of the old country, whence they received their religion. t For an account of some of these dialects, see Prof. H. H. Wilson's very instructive Preface to his ' Glossary of Indian Terms.' X Often incorrectly written Tamul, and by earlier Europeans erroneously termed Malabar. The cerebral / at the end has rather the sound of rl. § Sometimes called Gentoo by the Europeans of the last generation. II A fifth language is enumerated, viz. Tulu or Tulu\'a, which holds a middle position between Kanarese and Malayalam, but more nearly resembles the former. It is spoken by only 150,000 people. Added to this, there are four rude and uncul- tivated dialects spoken in various parts of Southern India, viz. the Tuda, Kota, Gond, and Ku or Khond ; all of which are affiliated with the Southern group. IT This is nevertheless consistent with the theory of a remote original affinity between these languages and Sanskrit and the other members of the Indo-European family. The various branches of the Scythian stock, which spread themselves in all directions westward, northward, and southward, must have radiated from a common centre with the Aryans, although the divergence of the latter took place at a much INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. xxiii Sanskrit is written in various Indian characters, but the character which is peculiarly its own is the Nagari or Deva-nagari, i. e. that of ^ the divine, royal, or capital city.' The earliest form of this character cannot be traced back to a period anterior to the 3d century b. c.*; and the more modern, which is the most perfect, comprehensive, and philosophical of all known alphabets, is not traceable for several centuries after Christ. The first is the corrupt character of the various inscriptions which have been discovered on pillars and rocks throughout India, written in Magadhi Prakrit, spoken at the time of Alexander's invasion over a great part of Hindustan. These inscriptions are ascertained to be addresses from the Buddhist sovereigns of Magadha to the people, enjoining the practice of social virtues and reverence for the priests. They are mostly in the name of Piya-dasit (for Sanskrit Priya-dars'i), supposed to be an epithet of As'oka, who is known to have reigned at some period between the 2d and the 3d century B.C. by his being the grandson of Chandra-gupta, probably identical with Sandrakottus, described by Strabo as the most po\verful Raja, immediately succeeding Alexander's death. He was one of the kings of Magadha (Bihar), whose court was at Pali- bothra or Patali-putra (Patna), and who claimed the title of Samrats or universal monarchs ; not without reason, as their addresses are found in ■ these inscriptions at Delhi, and at Kuttack in the south, and again as far west as Gujarat, and again as far north as the Panjab. The imperfect form of Nagari which the corrupt character exhibits is incompatible with Sanskrit orthography. It may there- fore be conjectured that a more perfect alphabet existed, which bore later period. It is to be observed, that in the South -Indian dialects the Scythian element constitutes the bulk of the language. It may be compared to the warp, and the Sanskrit admixture to the woof. In the Northern dialects the gram- matical strvicture and many of the idioms and expressions are still Scythian, but the whole material and substance of the language is Sanskrit. See, on this subject, the able Introduction of the Rev. R. Caldwell to his ' Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or South-Indian Languages,' lately published. * Mr. James Prinsep, whose table of modifications of the Sanskrit alphabet follows these Remarks, placed the earliest form, apparently on insufficient grounds, as far back as the 5th century b. c. t The regular Prakrit form would be Pia-dassi. Probably the spoken Prakrit of that period approached nearer to Sanskrit than the Prakrit of the plays. xxiv INTIIODUCTOHV HEM AUKS. the same relation to the corrupt form that Sanskrit bore to Prakrit, Nor does it militate against this theory that the perfect character is not found in any ancient inscription, as it is well knoMn that the Brahmans, who alone spoke and understood the pure Sanskrit, and who alone would therefore need that character, never addressed the people, never proselytized, never sought political power, and never cared to emerge from the indolent apathy of a dignified retirement. A table of the various modifications of the Deva-nagari alphabet, both ancient and modern, from the date of the earliest inscriptions to the present time, follows this page. The perfection of the modern character, and the admirable manner in which it adapts itself to the elaborate and symmetrical structure of the Sanskrit language, will be apparent from the first chapter. MODIFICATIONB MODIFICATIONS SANSKEIT ALPHABET. s •^t^^^f^^^^^^t^^'f^^tLt^&L • i z < Q. ? ^ vfc? $3 CtD' (tD^^ '^ .|x) ,|x) 4» ^ • 1 1- ^< d: < o o z lij |^^ylc/yUryi97j^j^^>3yK«fr/*r5?-^ CO 2 . - " ^ C^ I, 1^0 |u. |£. |g. il i\ ^ <^ KISTNA. ^ ^ d I < ^ n^ > ^ TENTH CENTURY A.D. Kutila Inscription. ^ ^ > °o9 h9 i6^ ^ D-ZtV ^ •• SEVENTH CENTURY A.D. Tibetan alphabet. 5 trg S? /5 ^5 . FIFTH CENTURY A.D. Gupta Dynasty. 3^^S^o9;^ ?Do > b^^. •• SECOND CENTURY A.D. Gujardt dated plates. " THIRD CENTURY B.C. As'oka Inscription. 3ojo:. ^ 5c-^ > ttr^^- • • -. UNCER. TAIN. Western Caves. :^ bo /. ^ > f> 1^ • FIFTH CENTURY B.C. Rise of Buddhism. I3C ':^ .-. _J -J ^ ^ 3^ . Q ^ r: sr VJ' sfl* ^ t? tS7 ^ ta w 15 (^ % yli> ^ 19 is 5- 19 Sr is- s? tj- ^ ^ PT 1^ IP- la^ IF \3^ lir h) \o IV> h9 w Ic ^ Kr 5^ ts" c3 k: a u ^ ^ ^ v^ O h3 ^ «v K^ K3 hJ >o J-r op iC S r DD 08 oil f DO DO dG d3 r nt 10] mJ la inr ^ IT ^ lU) f]^ e- € fU o ru) rO §- nr 5cr ^ O' ^ EL R^ ir H? »8 of t5^ ir- ur kt k] kr- C Q g M" ■S) >% w ^ v^ O ►"^ ►9 ^ c O o «" C^ G 3 Lf ■^ >% Ui A SJ O ►^ -0 ^ »c O o ^ CFi C 3 U ►^ ^ LU a s^ O ^ ►9 K k: H [St^\Q7i\7^\£ hr \z U 7^ ^5• •= Z- V "Sc ,2 tnrS to = = ,' ^^ ^ ? 1 "ll'^.f ^ s^^ w site s r i ir ^ ^ gfe* !;.>■, PIS 8-a=l5| ^^ 1^' -'to »^ SIS' IF T K ;f: w 1^ f te-;j«l^|F JcJSc '5 z < p-\^P\n^t5\o\S ^ r? ri^iz^t?^^^'^ ;r ^ ?? >y/ r IS' tv 1? tr tJ- IV. tir IV t ^ ^ Is/ MODERN DEVA. NAGARL p-lftB-ft-t^t^k-ir r ^ p- fr He i NAR- KISTNA. BADDA. fl]'ga??bf3'-=a ^ KF ffl ^ >i S]3airi?3D53n-=«'^ un or S] S ^ TENTH CENTURY A.D. Kntila Inscription. D'i5n5-^priT'^t€' rt ^ RT "F ►.^ SEVENTH CENTURY A.D. Tibetan alphabet. fr R- p- »i 3 U ^ 37 RT (?: ►f- FIFTH CENTURY A.D. (iupta Dynasty. ;bS'=I'=;^i^^-^a < c 13 ;^ r/) SECOND CENTURY A.D. dated plates. P^d'C^d^^?! <3 c 3 ;?; \f THIRD CENTURY B.C. Asoka Inscription. p a ^ )/i ^ ^ Q -GQ OQ OQ H SANSKRIT GRAMMAR. CHAPTER L LETTERS. I. THE Deva-nagari character, in which the Sanskrit language is written, is adapted to the expression of almost every known gradation of sound; and every letter has a fixed and invariable pronunciation. There are fourteen vowels and thirty- three simple consonants. To these may be added the nasal symbol, called Anusivdra, and the symbol for a final aspirate, called Visarga (see No. 6). They are here exhibited in the dictionary order *. All the vowels, excepting a, have two forms ; the first is the initial, the second the medial or non-initial. VOWELS. ^ G, W T a, ^ fi, ^ h ^ ^ u, ^ ^it, '^ ^ n, ^ ^ /•/. Nasal symbol, * n or m. Symbol for the final aspirate, * h. CONSONANTS. yj-tUA- Gutturals, ^ k '^ kh 'H ff '^ gh ^ w- Palatals, "^ ch ^ chh ^ j ^ jh ^ n jJ^*"' Cerebrals, Z t 'Z th ^ d "^ dh TJl n Dentals, H t ^ th ^d ^ dh ^ n "'Labials, X[^ '^sph '^ b ^ bh "H m Semivowels, ^y T^?* c5/^v Sibilants, "ST s '^ sh '^ s Aspirate, ^ h The compound or conjunct consonants (see No. 5) may be mul- tiplied to the extent of four or five hundred. The most common * The character 3o ^^ is not given, as being peculiar to the Vedas. See 16. a. ^ LETTERS. are given here ; a fuller list will be found at the end of the volume ; and some varieties in a different type are exhibited at the end of the Table of Modifications, opposite to page i. THE MOKE COMMON OF THE COMPOUND OR CONJUNCT CONSONANTS. ■^ kk, ■% kt, ^ or -gi kr, ^i kl, ^ kiv, ^ ksh, ^ khy, r^ gn, tj p% ^ ffl, TT ghr, ^ ?ik, ^ n-ff, ^ chch, ^ chchh, ^ chy, i^ jj, sT jii, W jto, ^ nch, ^^ nchh, ^ nj, ^ tt, ^ ty, ^ Ay, -jQ dry, nir w/2/, *^ niby, "f rrfr, t§ ;•?/?/, t rwv, ^ 5A/r, ^ sthn, TW 5^7/, ^ 5//-, 7^ tsny, «ir nZ?'y, ?# rtsy, r^ rtsny. OF THE METHOD OP WRITING THE VOWELS. Observe — In reading the following pages for the first time, it is recommended that the attention be confined to the large type. 2. The short vowel ^ « is never written unless it begin a word, because it is supposed to be inherent in every consonant. Thus, ak is written WoF, but ka is written ^ ; so that in such words as ^!?T^ kanaka, WIX nagara, &c., no vowel has to be written. The mark \ under the k of ^oF, called Virama (see No. 9), indicates a consonantal stop, that is, the absence of any vowel, inherent or otherwise, after the consonant. a. The other vowels, if written after a consonant, take the place of the inherent a. They assume two forms, according as they are initial or not initial. Thus, ik is written ^, but ki is VvTitten fcfi. b. Observe here, that the short vowel i, when not initial, is always written before the letter after which it is pronounced. Hence, in writing the English word sir, the letters in Sanskrit would be arranged thus, isr ftiT. c. The only assignable reason for this peculiarity is, that the top of the non- initial f ?■, if written in its right place, might occasionally interfere with a subsequent T.ETTERS. 3 ■letter, especially with the letter r, as the first member of a conjunct consonant. This will be evident to any one who tries in writing the word kirk in Sanskrit to retain the i in its ju'oper place. 3. The long vowels T d and '\ /, not initial, take their proper place after a consonant. The vowels u, u, ri, ri, Iri, not initial, are written under the consonants after which they are prononnced ; as, "^ ku, -m hi, cfr kri, w krL ofr klri; excepting when u or u follows ?: r, in which case the method of writing is peculiar ; thus, «^ ru, W ru. a. The vowels ri, ri, Iri and Iri are peculiar to Sanskrit. See No. 1 i.e. 15 Iri occurs in only one word, viz. oirxy ' to niake.^ The long "^ Iri is not found in any word in the language, and is useless excepting as contributing to the completeness of the alphabet. b. The vowels e and ai, not initial, are written above the consonants after which they are pronounced ; thus, ^ ke, "ti kai. The vowels € and au (which are formed by placing "" and ^ over T ft), like T ft, take their proper place after their consonants ; thus, ?Pt ko, "^t kau. OF THE METHOD OF W^RITING THE CONSONANTS, 4. The consonants have only one form, whether initial or not initial. And here note this peculiarity in the form of t!ie Deva- nagari letters. In every consonant, excepting those of the cerebral class, and in some of the initial vowels, there is a perpendicular stroke ; and in all the consonants without exception, as well as in all the initial vowels, there is a horizontal line at the top of the letter. In two of the letters, v clh and i? bh, this horizontal line is broken ; and in writing rapidly, the student should form the perpendicular line first, then the other parts of the letter, and lastly the horizontal line. The natives, however, sometimes form the horizontal line first. OP THE COMPOUND CONSONANTS. 5. Every consonant is supposed to have the vowel "^ a inherent in it, so that it is never necessary to write this vowel, excepting at the beginning of a word. Hence when any simple consonants stand alone in any word, the short vowel ^ a must always be pronounced after them ; but when they appear in conjunction with any other vowel, this other vowel of course takes the place of short ^ a. Thus such a word as ohc^MdilT would be pronounced kaldnataycU where long ^ ft being written after / and y takes the place of the inlierent vowel. But supposing that instead of kaldnatayd the word had to B % 4 LETTER??. be pronounced kidntyd, how are we to know that kl and nty have to be uttered without the intervention of any vowel ? This occasions the necessity for compound consonants. Kl and nty must then be combined together; thus, ^, t?i, and the word is written ^TWT. And here we have illustrated the two methods of compounding con- sonants ; viz. 1st, by writing them one above the other; 2dly, by placing them side by side, omitting in all, except the last, the per- pendicular line which lies to the right. Observe, however, that some letters change their form entirely when combined with other conso- nants. Thus T, when it is the first letter of a compound consonant, is written above the compound in the form of a semicircle, as in the word o!R kurma; and when the last, is written below in the form of a small stroke, as in the word '?^m kramena. So again in T^ * ksha and sT f jiia the simple elements ofi -q and tT >t are hardly traceable. In some compounds the simple letters slightly change their form ; as, "^i kl becomes ^ in tjj scha ; ^ d with Tf y becomes ir dya ; 7[ d with \i dh becomes if ddha; ^ d with >? bh becomes ^ dbha; if t -with T r becomes -^ tra or ^ ti^a; oS k with TT t becomes -^ kta. Most of the other compound consonants are readily resolvable into their component parts. The student should direct his first attention to the compound consonants given in the list opposite to page i. He should afterwards study the list at the end of the book. Observe — Two aspirated letters never occur in the same com- pound. When an aspirated letter has to be doubled, the first is expressed by the unaspirated letter of the same species. OP THE SYMBOLS AND MARKS. 6. The Sanskrit alphabet possesses certain symbols and indicatory marks. Of these the most usefid are the nasal symbol Anustvdra and the symbol for a final aspirate called Visarga. Anusivdra, ' after-sound,^ (called so because it is always the final or closing nasal sound of a syllable, and can never be used like a consonant or any nasal letter to begin a syllable,) is denoted by a dot placed over the horizontal line of a letter. It is a weaker and * Sometimes formed thus gJ, and pronounced ky in Bengali. In Greek and Latin it always passes into q and x. Compare ^T^, dexter, ^e^iog. t This compound is sometimes pronounced (/ya or nya, though it will be more convenient to represent it by its proper equivalent ,/««. LETTERS. O thicker nasal than the five consonantal nasals. Although it is pro- perly the nasal of the semivowels, sibilants, and h, and is then expres- sible by the English n, yet it is ordinarily used as a short substitute for any of the five nasals, ^ n-, "^ it, iri n, i^ «, and ^ m, when no vowel intervenes between these letters and a following consonant. Thus the five English words ink, inch, intrust, ant, imp, which illus- trate the five nasal sounds, might either be written ^, ?^, ^?T?W^, ^I»?r, ^^, or with Anuswara ^, ^^, ^7^, "^rfff, ^t^. It is most conveniently used as a substitute for the i{^m which is the original final of accusative cases singular, nominative cases neuter, and some inde- clinable words * ; (thus ^ enam, ' him,' for 1J^; ^T^ ddnam, ' a gift,' for '^'^\•, ^ sam, ' with,' for teh^; 'i^\^ iddnim, ' now ;') pass- ing, however, again into J^ m when followed by a vowel ; (as, ^i »T'^ ^TTTftfrr ddnam dpnoti, ^ he receives a gift ;') and passing optionally into '3?, >T, TTT, "^ or H when followed by consonants of the guttural, palatal, cerebral, dental, and labial classes respectively ; (as, ffR ^ifrfTT or ^Tf-^ q^lftT ^ he gives a gift,' ^^ or "^J^^ ' flight.') Hence it appears, that as the final of a complete word it may generally be represented by the English m. a. It is never admitted as a substitute for a final "T n when originally the final of a word, (as in accusative cases plural, in the locative cases of pronominals, in the 3d pers. plur. and present participles of verbs,) unless the next word begin with t or ch, when by the laws of euphony a sibilant is interposed before the initial / or ch. See 53 and 54. b. It must never be forgotten that it is peculiarly the nasal of the aspirate 'f h, the semivowels "^ y,Xr,'f^ 1,"^ v, and the three sibilants ^ s, "^ sh, ^ s; and it must always take the place of any other nasal that has to precede these letters in the same wordf. Thus the preposition TS^^sam and the participle ^TrT smrita, when united in one word, are written ^T^TT; T^sam and ^TT hdra, ^TT; ^H^sam and TTT rdffa, ^UT ; but in each of these cases the Anuswara takes the sound of the nasal of the class to which the following letter belongs. ITius ^TPJTT is sounded as if written ^«^ ^RrT ; *i^K as if written ^ ^TT ; «rtm as if written TT^ 'WTT . In these cases Anuswara not being the final of a complete word will be most con- veniently transliterated by the English n. 7. Another nasal symbol called Chandra-vindn (lunar mark) or Anundsika, wTitten * Prof. Bopp objects to this practice ; but by Panini (VIII. 3, 23) a final '^ w is convertible to Anuswara before any consonant. See Bopp's Comparative Grammar, Eastwick's translation, p. 7, note. t '?r^T'5T, ' an universal monarch,' is the only word that violates this rule. The word TITWI'^, 'just,' is compounded of Tu^ and 'H""^. 6 LETTERS. over ci letter thus ~, is sometimes employed. It is rather the sign of the nasality of the letter over which it is written, than the representative of any actual nasal sound. Thus in the rules of combination, when final »T n assimilates with 75 /, the mark "^ placed over I, though not pronounced, indicates the nasal origin of the (5. It is a kind of silent Anuswara. 8. The s}Tnbol Visarga^ ' rejection,' (called so because often re- jected,) usually written thus :, but more properly in the form of two small circles ° , is used to represent a weaker aspiration than the letter f h, and that at the end of a word. It expresses an euphonic transition of final ^5 and ^r into a kind of imperceptible breathing. But this symbol, although never the representative of ^ h, but rather of a weak and almost imperceptible final aspirate, which, under cer- tain circumstances, takes the place of final s and r, may nevertheless be conveniently transliterated by the English h at the end of a word, and that without danger of being confounded with ^, which can never occur as a final letter. At the same time it should be borne in mind that Visarga is less than h, and is in fact no consonant, but only a symbol for s and r whenever the usual consonantal sound of these letters is deadened at the end of a sentence or through the influence of a A-, jo or 5 commencing the next word. Observe, how- ever, that all those inflections of nouns and persons of verbs, which as standing separate from other words are by some made to end in Visarga, may most conveniently be allowed to retain their final ^ s; only bearing in mind that this s is liable at the end of a sentence, or when followed by certain consonants, to pass into an imperceptible breathing, as in the French les or the English isle, viscount; in all which cases it might be expressed by Visarga, thus 75: &c. So again, in French infinitives, such as aller, the final r is silent ; and in many English words, such as bar, tar, the sound of r is very indistinct ; and these also might be written in Sanskrit with Visarga, ^^:, wt: &c. a. An Ardha-visarga, ' half-visarga,' or modification of the symbol Visarga, in the form of two semicircles r-, is sometimes employed before k, kh and p, ph. Before the two former letters this symbol is properly called Jihvd-miUiya, and the organ of its enunciation said to be the root of the tongue. Before p and ph its proper name is Upadhmdmya, and its organ of utterance is then the lips. The following are other marks : 9. The Virdnw or ' stop,' placed under a consonant (thus 'SF k). LETTERS. 7 indicates the absence of the inherent ^ a, by help of which the con- sonant is pronounced. 10. The mark s, sometimes called Ardhdkdra, ' half the letter a/ placed between two words, denotes the elision of an initial ^ a after ^ e or ^ final preceding. It corresponds to our apostrophe. Thus, wsfij te 'pi for ^ '^^ te api. a. Tlie half pause I is a stop or mark of punctuation, usually jilaced at the end of the first line of a couplet or stanza. b. The whole pause II is placed at the end of a couplet, and corresponds to a full stop. c. The mark of repetition o indicates that a word or sentence has to be repeated. PRONUNCIATION OP SANSKRIT VOWELS AS COMPARED WITH THOSE OP OTHER LANGUAGES. 11. The vowels in Sanskrit are pronounced for the most part as in Italian or French, though occasional words in English may exem- plify their sound. a. Since ^ a is inherent in every consonant, the student should be careful to acquire the correct pronunciation of this letter. There are many words in English which afford examples of its sound, such as vocal, cedar, zebra, organ. But in English the vowel u in such words as fun, bun, sun, frequently represents this obscure sound of a ; and even the other vowels may occasionally be pronounced with this sound, as in her, sir, son. b. The long vowel ^r « is pronounced as a in the English last,, bard, cart ; ^ i as the i in /^iw, sin ; \i ixs. the { in marine ; "3" u as the u in push ; "3! ?* as the m in rude. c. The vowel ^ ri, peculiar to Sanskrit, is pronounced as the ri in merrily, where the i of ri is less perceptible than in the syllable ri, composed of the consonant r and the vowel z *. "^ ri is pro- nounced as the ri in chagrin, being hardly distinguishable from the syllable Tf ; ^ e as the e in prey ; ^ o as in so ; ^ ai as ai in aisle ; "m au as au in the German baum or as ou in the English our. "^ Iri and "^ Iri do not differ in sound from the letter c9 I with the vowels ri and ri annexed, but the vowel c5 Iri only occurs in one vvord, viz. * There does not, however, seem to be much difference practically between the pronunciation of the vowel ri and the syllable K ri, though grammarians assert that the i of the vowel is less distinctly cnvmciated. « LETTERS. ■^F^ kb'ip, ' to make ;' and its long form is not found in any ^^ ord in the language. As to the Vaidik ^^ Ira, see i6. u. d. Hence it appears that every simple vowel in Sanskrit has a short and a long form, and that each vowel has one invariable sound ; so that the beginner can never be in doubt what pronuncia- tion to give it, as in English, or whether to pronounce, it long or short, as in Latin. e. Note, however, that Sanskrit possesses no short e and o in opposition to the long diphthongal sounds of e and o. /.In comparing Sanskrit words with Greek and Latin, it will be found that the Sanskrit ^ a usually answers to the Greek ; sometimes to e (especially in voca- tive cases) ; and rarely to a. In Latin, the Sanskrit ^ a is represented by u as well as by a, e, and o. Again, the Sanskrit '^T d is generally replaced by the Greek f} or a, rarely by a long alpha. In Latin it is represented by long a or even by long e. See Bopp's Comparative Grammar, Eastwick's translation, p. 4 &c. g. Although for all practical purposes it is sufficient to regard vowels as either short or long, it should be borne in mind that native grammarians give eighteen different modifications of each of the vowels a, i, u, ri, and twelve of Iri, which are thus explained : — Each of the first four vowels is supposed to have three prosodial lengths, a short (hraswa), a long {dirgha), and a prolated (pluta); the long being equal to two, and the prolated to three short vowels. Each of these three modifi- cations may be uttered with a high tone, or a low tone, or a tone between high and low ; or in other words, may have the acute, or the grave, or the circumflex accent. This gives nine modifications to a, i, u, ri; and each of these again may be regarded either as nasal or non-nasal, according as it is pronounced with the nose and mouth, or with the mouth alone. Hence result eighteen varieties of every vowel, excepting Iri, e, ai, o, au, which have only twelve, because the first does not possess the long and the last four have not the short prosodial time. PRONUNCIATION OF SANSKRIT CONSONANTS AS COMPARED WITH THOSE OP OTHER LANGUAGES. In the first arrangement of the alphabet most of the consonants are distributed under the five heads of gutturals, palatals, cerebrals, dentals, and labials, according to the organ principally employed in pronouncing them, whether the throat, the palate, the top of the palate, the teeth, or the lips. This classification of letters is more fully explained at No. 18. 12. «fi ka, T\ (/a, ^ cha^ "^ja, W ta, ^ da, tj pa, ^ ba. These con- sonants are pronounced as in English, but tj has always the sound of g in ffun, give, never of g in gin. Observe ; 'g cha is a simple consonantal sound, and not an aspirate : it is pronounced as ch in LETTERS. 9 church, and is a modification or softening of ka, just as ja is of ga, the organ of utterance being in the palate, a little in advance of the throat. Hence, in Sanskrit and its cognate languages, the palatals eh andy are often exchanged with the gutturals k and g. See note, p. 13. Observe, that "^d often passes into 6 in (ireek, 13. ^ kha, Ti gha, "^ chha, m. jha, -^ tha, vi dha, ifi ^;/i«, vr bha. These are the aspirated forms of the preceding consonants. In pronouncing them the sound of h must be distinctly added to the unaspirated consonantal sound. Thus ^ is pronounced like kh in ink-horn, not like the Greek ;^ ; "^i as th in ant-hill, not as in think; Tfi as ph in uphill, not as in physic. When, however, they are rapidly enunciated they are hardly distinguishable from their respective unaspirated equivalents. a. The Sanskrit "^ th generally becomes t in Greek, and Vf dh becomes B, while "S[ chh generally passes into T bh generally passes into ^ and/, or sometimes in Latin into b. b. With a view to the comparison of Sanskrit words with Greek and Latin, it is important to remember that the aspirates of the different classes are easily inter- changeable in different languages ; thus dh and bh in Sanskrit may become / (or ph ) in Latin ; gh in Sanskrit may become 6 in Greek &c. 14. 7 ta, z tha, ■? da, 2" dha. The sound of these cerebral letters is in practice hardly to be distinguished from the sound of the con*esponding dental consonants. Properly, however, the cerebrals should be uttered with a duller and deeper intonation, produced by turning back the tip of the tongue towards the palate, or top of the head {cerebrum). Thus a Hindu would distinguish the pro- nunciation of the t and d in the English words trust and drip from that of the same letters in the words tun and din. He would write the former with the cerebral t and d, 7W, fr^; and the latter with the dental, ^'JT, f^«^. a. In Bengal the cerebral ■? da and ^ dha have nearly the sound of a dull r. Thus T^?T<7t viddlah, ' a cat,' is pronounced virdlah. In all corruptions of Sanskrit (especially in Prakrit) the cerebral letters often take the place of dentals. In Sanskrit the cerebrals are rarely found at the beginning of words. 15. T na, >? na, w ria, ^ na, H ma. Each of the five classes of consonants in Sanskrit has its own nasal sound, represented by a separate nasal letter. In English and most other languages the same fivefold division of nasal sounds might be made, though we have only one nasal letter to express the guttural, palatal, cerebral, 10 LETTERS. and dental nasal sounds. The truth is, that in all languages the nasal letters take their sound from the organ employed in uttering the consonant that follows them. Thus in English it will be found that guttural, palatal, cerebral, dental, and labial nasals are followed by consonants of the same classes, as in ink, sing, inch, intrust, ant, imp. If such words existed in Sanskrit, the distinction of nasal sounds would be represented by distinct letters ; thus, ^f-, ftT|p, ^^, ^W^, ^TFf^, ^«^. Compare 6. a. The guttural nasal T is rarely found by itself at the end of a word in Sanskrit, never at the beginning. In the nominative cases HT"^, Mr*T is only found in conjunction with palatal consonants, as in ^ iich, ^ hj, ^ chii, and ^ jii. This last may be pronounced like ny, or like yn in the French campagne. In Bengal, however, it always has the sound of gy .• thus TT^ is pronounced rdgyd. The cerebral nasal W n is found at the beginning of words and before vowels, as weU as in conjunction with cerebral consonants. It is then pronounced, as the other cerebrals, by turning the tip of the tongue towards the palate. The dental and labial nasals »T na and ^ ma are pronounced with the same organs as the class of letters to which they belong. [See 21.] 16. ^ ya, X. ra, <5 la, ^ va, are pronounced as in English. Their relationship to the vowels i, ri, Iri, u, respectively, should never be forgotten. See No. 22. a. When ^ ?; is the last member of a con- junct consonant it is pronounced like w, as iTT dwdra ; but not after /-, as ^^ sarva. a. The character ^^ Ira is pecuhar to the Vedas. It is a form of the semivowel <5 /, and represents a liquid sound formed by curving back the tongue against the roof of the mouth. b. The semivowels are so soft and vowel-like in their nature that they readily flow into each other. Hence I and r are sometimes exchangeable. 17. ■jfT sa, ^ sha, ^^ sa, ^ ha. Of these, ^ sa is a palatal sibilant, and is pronounced as an aspirated s. ^ sha is a cerebral, and is a more strongly aspirated sibilant, but its pronunciation is hardly to be distinguished from that of the palatal. The dental ^ sa is pro- nounced as the common English s. The same three sibilants exist in English, though represented by one character, as in the words sure, session, sun. f ha is pronounced as in English, and is guttural. a. The guttural origin of f ha is proved by its passing into k at the end of Sanskrit words, and into %, k, and e, in Greek and Latin; as, ^^, Kap^ia, cor. b. Note that ^ sa, although a palatal, might be called half a guttural. It is certainly guttural in its origin, as all the palatals are. This is well illustrated by LETTERS. 11 its constant transition into K and c in Greek and Latin words. Compare ^T^ baKpv, Wg equus, '^'^ kvcov. It is moreover interchanged with "^ k in Sanskrit words. OF THE CLASSIFICATION OP LETTERS. 1 8. In the first arrangement of the alphabet all the consonants, excepting the semivowels, sibilants, and h, were distributed under the five heads of gutturals, palatals, cerebrals, dentals, and labials. We are now to show that all the forty-seven letters, vowels, semi- vowels, and consonants, may be referred to one or other of these five grand classes, according to the organ principally concerned in their pronunciation, whether the throat, the palate, the top of the palate, the teeth, or the lips. a. We are, moreover, to point out that all the letters may be regarded according to another principle of division, and may be all arranged under the head of either hard or soft, according as the effort of utterance is attended with expansion (vivdra), or contraction {samvdra), of the throat. b. The following tables exhibit this twofold classification, the com- prehension of which is of the utmost importance to the study of Sanskrit grammar. Gutturals VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS. 1 CORKESPOND- NASALS. ASPIRATE AND SEMI- VOWELS. SIBI- LANTS. 1 "^a Wf a ■Sfika -^kha T\ga T( gha T' na ?• ha Palatals •^i %i ^e ^ai ^cha -^ckha^ja W^jha >T iia ^ //« ■^sa Cerebrals ^ri ^ri Z ta ztha ["Sda -^dha m na T ra •^sha Dentals •^Iri T^lri Kta -^tha \-?^da xtdha ■JT na ■?!ila T( sa Labials ^w ■35 M Wto "mau •qpa TRpha \'^ba v{bha H ma ^ va The first two consonants in each of the above five classes and the sibilants are hard ; all the other letters are soft, as in the following table : HARD OR SURD LETTERS. SOFT OR SONANT LETTERS. 1 Gutturals,^ ^fl* ^ kha* I •^a W{d T\ya* T(gha^ ^na\'^ ha Palatals, ^cha* •^chha'^ ■^sa ^i ^f T^t' ^ai Uja^ wjha^ >{ h(i TJiya Cerebrals, 7 ?« * Ztha* ^sha 1 •^ri -^n rsda* sdha* ITT II a T, ra Dentals, w /«* ^ //m* "^ sa -^Iri -^Iri \ ^ da* V dha* rf 7ia r5 la \ Labials, "qjoa* x^pha* ''^u "gsM wto ^«MJ^d«* >TM«*|Hma|^vaj C 2 1 2 LETTERS. c. Observe, that although Tle,^ ai, are more conveniently connected with the palatal class, and ^ o, ^ au, with the labial, these letters are really diphthongal, being made up of a + i, d + i, a + u, a + u, respectively. Their first element is therefore guttural. d. Note also, that it is most important to observe which hard letters have kindred soft letters, and vice versa. The kindred hard and soft are those in the same line marked with a star in the above table ; thus g, gh, are the corresponding soft letters to k, kh; j, jh, to ch., chh, and so with the others. In order that the foregoing classification may be clearly under- stood, it is necessary to remind the student of the proper meaning of the term vowel and consonant, and of the relationship which the nasals, semivowels, and sibilants, bear to the other letters. 19. A vowel is defined to be a vocal emission of breath from the lungs, modified and modulated, but not interrupted by the play of one or other of five organs, viz. the throat, the palate, the tongue, the teeth, or the hps*. a. Hence ^ a, 3^ i, T v, "^ ri, 75 Iri, with their respective long forms, are simple vowels, belonging to the guttural, palatal, labial, cerebral, and dental classes respectively, according to the organ principally concerned in their modulation. But ^ e, ^ ai, ^ 0, Wr an, are diphthongal or compound vowels, as explained above at 18. f.t So that e and ai are half guttural, half palatal ; and au half guttural, half labial. b. The vowels are of course considered to be soft letters. 20. A consonant is not the modulation, but the actual stoppage, of the vocal stream of breath by one or other of the five organs, and cannot be enunciated excepting in conjunction with a vowel. a. All the consonants, therefore, are arranged under the five heads of gutturals, palatals, cerebrals, dentals, and labials, according to the organ concerned in stopping the vocal sound. b. Again, the first two consonants in each of the five classes, and the sibilants, are called hard or surd, because the vocal stream is * See Proposals for a Missionary Alphabet, by Prof. Max Miiller. t If the two vowels a and i are pronounced rapidly they naturally form the sound e pronounced as in prey, or as a and i in sail; and so with the other diphthongs. The sound of ai in aisle may readily be resolved into « and i, and the sound oi' nn in oi'f into a and u. LETTERS. 13 abruptly and completely interrupted, and no murmuring sound {aghosha) allowed to escape : w hile all the other letters are called soft or sonant, because the vocal sound is less suddenly and com- pletely arrested, the effect of stopping it being attended with a low- murmur {ghosha). c. Observe, that the palatal stop is only a modification of the guttural, the point of contact being moved a little more forward from the throat towards the palate*. The cerebral (murdhanya) stop is a modification of the dental, the dif- ference being, that whereas in the dental consonantal sound the tip of the tongue is brought into direct contact with the teeth ; in the cerebral it is first curled back, so as to strike the dome of the palate, thus producing a more obtuse sound. d. The name cerebral is retained in deference to established usage. Perhaps a more significant translation of murdhanya would be supernal. The head or brain is certainly not the organ of enunciation of any letter. Murdhan here denotes the upper part of the palate. But the inaccuracy involved in the word cerebral hardly justifies the substitution of supernal. 21. A nasal or narisonant letter is a soft letter, in the utterance of which the vocal stream of breath incompletely arrested, as in all soft letters, is forced through the nose instead of the lips. As the soft letters are of five kinds, according to the organ which interrupts the vocal breathing, so the nasal letters are five, guttural, palatal, cerebral, dental, and labial. See 15. 22. The semivowels y, r, I, v (called antahstha because in the first arrangement of the alphabet they stand hetv)een the other con- sonants and the sibilants) are formed by a vocal breathing, which is only half interrupted, the several organs being only slightly touched by the tongue. They are, therefore, soft or sonant consonants, approaching nearly to the character of vowels ; in fact, half vowels, half consonants. a. Each class of soft letters (excepting the guttural) has its own corresponding semivowel to which it is related. Thus the palatal soft letters \h% i, ^ e, ^ ai, »T J, have t( y for their kindred semi- vowel. (Compare Sanskrit yuvan with \jASAn juvenis &c.) Similarly * The relationship of the palatal to the guttural letters is proved by their fre- quent interchangeableness in Sanskrit and in other languages. See 176, and com- pare church with kirk, Sanskrit chatwdr with Latin quatuor, Sanskrit cha with Latin que and Greek xat, Sanskrit ^aww. with English knee, Greek yovv, Latin genu. Prof. Miiller proposes to represent the palatals ^ and '3f by )t and g in Italics. 14 LETTERS. T r is the kindred semivowel of the cerebral soft letters ^ ri, ^ r?, and "S d ; 75 / of the dentals "^ Iri, c^ /ri, and ^ d*; and ^ ?; of "g' m, "31 w, "3?^ 0, ^ au, and "^ <5». The guttural soft letters have no semi- vowel in Sanskrit, unless the aspirate ^ A be so regarded. 23. The sibilants or hissing sounds (called winds by the native grammarians) are hard letters, which, nevertheless, strictly speaking, have something the character of vowels. The organs of speech in uttering them, although not closed, are more contracted than in vowels, and the vocal stream of breath in passing through the teeth experiences a friction which causes sibilation. a. Sanskrit does not recognise any guttural sibilation, though the palatal sibilant is really half a guttural. See 17. a. The aspirate 1^ h might perhaps be regarded as a guttural /a/MS or wind without sibilating sound. The labial sibilation denoted by the letter/, and the soft sibilation denoted by z, are unknown in Sanskrit. ACCENTUATION. 24. Accentuation in Sanskrit is confined to the Vedas. In common pronuncia- tion the tone or intonation of vowels in all Sanskrit words is equal. This general monotonous intonation is called by Panini eka-sruti, the one level, as it were, of pronunciation. But in the Vaidik hymns a rise and fall of the voice seems to have been recognised f. Hence arose the three tones or accents. First, the low tone, common to all vowels in ordinary speech. This tone is marked by the grave accent, and a syllable thus uttered is said to be anuddtta (unacute, grave). Next, the high tone, produced by the sudden raising of the voice. This tone is marked by the acute accent, and is described by grammarians as the result of employing in the enunciation of the vowel what they call the upper half of the organ of utterance, whether the throat, palate, teeth, or lips. A syllable thus uttered is said to be nddtta (acutely accented). Lastly, the mixed tone, a tone half high, half low, which is thus produced. In pronouncing the syllable immediately fol- lowing the high-toned syllable, the voice, unable to lower itself abruptly to the level of the low intonation, passes into a tone partly high, partly low. A syllable uttered with this mixed intonation is said to be swarita, or marked with a com- bination of the acute and grave accent, commonly called the circumflex accent. Practically, therefore, there are only three tones or accents recognised in Sanskrit, the anuddtta, the ^iddtta, and the swarita. * That H Zis a dental, and kindred to ^ d, is proved by its interchangeableness with d in cognate languages. Thus lacryma, Oa.Kpv/J.a,. Compare also ql"'T with t According to Professor Bopp, accentuation in the Vedas has nothing to do with chanting. l)ut is etvmological, like the (ireek accent. LETTERS. 15 25. Nevertheless, there is yet another tone noticed by Panini, and called by him sannatara or unuduttatara, i. e. more grave than the common grave intonation. It is thus explained : the exertion of the voice required to produce the acute or high tone (uddtta) is so great that in order to attain the proper pitch the voice is obliged to lower the tone of the preceding syllable as much below the ordinary low intonation as the syllable that bears the uddtta is raised above it. Conse- quently the syllable preceding another that bears the acute accent, and which is originally pronounced with the grave tone (anuddtta), becomes more than grave (anuddttatara) *. * The three accents are thus marked in the Rig-veda. A small horizontal stroke under a syllable marks the anuddtta or low tone ; and in the Pada, if it extend under all the syllables of the same word, it indicates that the whole word is amiddtta unaccented or pronounced in the low tone (thus 'WR':). But in the Sanhita, where the distinction of anuddttatara is admitted, the stroke under a syllable is always the mark of the anuddttatara, never of the anuddtta, the mere absence of accent not being marked at all. When a syllable having the horizontal mark underneath is followed by one bearing no mark, the latter is considered to be uddtta, acutely accented ; and when followed by two syllables, bearing no mark, both are considered to be uddtta. The swarita or circumflex accent is denoted by a small perpendicular stroke above the syllable. Thus in the word '^^t the syllable ^ is anuddttatara, "^ is uddtta, and T is swarita. AU the syllables (in a single word or sentence) which follow a syllable bearing the swarita are supposed to be anuddtta unaccented or pronounced in the same tone, until the horizontal stroke, or anuddttatara mark under a syllable, appears again. In fact, the anuddttatara mark is the beginning of a series of three accents, of which the swarita is the end ; and the appearance of this mark pre- pares the reader for the occurrence of an uddtta immediately following, and of a swarita. The latter, however, may sometimes be retarded by a new uddtta sylla- ble, which shows that the accents have nothing to do with chanting. Nevertheless a swarita mark does not necessarily imply an anuddttatara mark preceding, as in the word -^jftT^J at the beginning of a Hne, where the swarita merely shows that the first syllable is uddtta. Again, in the Pada, where each word stands separately, there may be no swarita following an uddtta, as M«jT I 'STTfT. It must also be borne in mind that frequently where a swarita is immediately followed by an uddtta syllable, the swarita becomes changed to anuddttatara .- thus in ff^TT "TiTtni the swarita of 'T becomes so changed, because of the uddtta foUo^nng. With regard to the swarita mark, it may either indicate a dependent swarita, produced by an uddtta immediately preceding, or an indejiendent, i. e. either a swarita as such, or a swarita produced by the suppression of a syllable bearing the uddtta, as in Tn-'^ contracted from W^^, where the middle syllable is properly uddtta. In the latter case, if the syllable bearing the swarita is long, and another 1 6 LETTERS. OP THE INDIAN METHOD OF WRITING. 26. According to Hindu grammarians every syllable ought to end in a vowel *, and every final consonant ought to be attracted to the beginning of the next syllable ; so that where a word ends in a consonant, that consonant ought to be pronounced with the initial letter of the next word. Hence in some Sanskrit MSS. all the syllables are separated by slight spaces, and in others all the words are joined together without any separation. Thus the two words i^nfl )^ Usn dsid rdjd would in some books be written ^TT^'^T'sn and in others '^nfhjTWT. In Sanskrit works printed in Europe, the common practice is to separate only those words the final or initial letter of w^hich are not acted on by the rules of combination. In such books dsid rdjd would be written together, yTT«1^»rr, because the final i^ is the result of an euphonic change from "rr, caused by the following T r. There seems, however, but little reason for con- sidering the mere spaces left between the words of a sentence to be incompatible with the operation of euphonic laws ; especially as the absence of such spaces must always cause more or less impediment even to the fluent reader. Therefore in many books recently printed in Europe, every uncompounded word capable of separation by the use of the Virama is separated. Thus piiur dhanam ddaddti is written fxiwi: VR\ ^TT^^fir, and not ftrw^^TJTT^^fw. The only cases in which separation is undesirable, are where the final vowel of one word blends with the initial vowel of the next into one long similar or dissimilar vowel, and where final u and i are changed into their corresponding semivowels v and y. The following words and passages in the Sanskrit and English character, are given that the Student, before proceeding further in the Grammar, may exercise himself in reading the letters and in word follows beginning with an uddtfa, then that syllable and aU preceding sylla- bles in the same word receive the anuddttatara mark, and the figure ^ is inserted to carry the swarita, having also the anuddttatara mark beneath; thus HV^^W. If the syllable bearing the independent swarita be short, then the figure '^ carries the swarita, with an anuddttatara rmder it ; thus "iiTTTi^. * Unless it end in Anuswara or Visarga k, which in theory are the only conso- nantal sounds allowed to close a syllable. That Anuswara is not a full consonant is proved by the fact that it does not impede the operation of rule 70. T.RTTERS. 17 transliteration ; that is to say, in turning Sanskrit letters into the English equivalents, and nice versa. To he turned into English letters. ^^, w^, ^^, ^^, m^, T^, ^■^, t^, t?:, fT^R, "^H, f^xi, ^^, %, ^if, igH, fe^, mi, Tm, rm, n, ^^g, ^-q, ^^T^FT, '=^^, fw, fe^, ^, ift^T, ^^, f^^T, ^:, ^^, €t^, ftl^, m^:, Vrf:, ^?:, ^Ic^, %^, -qft^T^, "^^^.^ "^^^*' "^^^^ YT*, ^^^,, ^f^^'^, ^frr, ^:, \i5, \^^, T, To be turned into Sanskrit letters. Ada, asa, ali, ddi, dkhu, dgas, it'i, isah, ihd, uddra, upanishad, tiparodha, urn, usha, rishi, eka, kakud, katu, koshah, gaura, ghata, chaitya, chet, chhalam, jetri, jhiri, tagara, damara, dhdla, nama, tatas, tathd, trina, tushdra, deha, daitya, dhavala, nanu, nayanam, niddnam, pitri, bhauma, bheshajam, niariis, mahat, yuga, rush, rudhis, laulia, vivekas, satam, shodasan, sukhin, kridaya, tatra, adya, buddhi, arka, kratu, ansa, an-ka, an-ga, ahchala, afijuna, kantha, anda, anta, manda, sampurna. Tlie following story has the Sanskrit and English letters interlineated. asti hasthidpvre r'lldso ndma rajakah tasya garda- HtsfTTHTT^Tl^^. ^-^Ht H^^ ^H^W I 1\^\ ^^ bho 'tibhdravdhandd dvrbalo mumurshur abhavat tatas tena 18 LETTERS, rajakendsaii vydghracharmand prachhudydranyasamipe sasyakshetre mochitah tato durdd avalokya vydghrabuddhyd kshetrapa- fayaJi sativarain paid y ante atha kendpi sasyarakshakena dhusara- kambalakritatanutrdnena dhanuhkdndam sajjikritydvanatakdyena ekdnte sthitam tatas tarn cha dure drishtwd gardabhah pushtdngo gardabhiyamlti matwd sabdam kurvdnas tadabhhmikham dhdvitah tatas tenn sasyarakshakena gardabho ^yamit'i jhdttvd lilayaiva ^Tmf^H: II vydpdditah. The followrng story is to be turned into Sanskrit letters. Asti sriparvatamadhye brahmapurdkhyam nagaram. Tatra saila- sikhare ghantdkarno ndma rdkshasah prativasatit'i janapravddah sru- yate. Ekadd ghantdm dddya paldyamdnah kaschich chauro vydghrena vydpdditah. Tatpdnipatitd ghantd vdnaraih prdptd. Te vdnards tdm ghantdm anukshanam vddayanti. Tato nagarajanair manushyah khd- dito drishtah pratikshanani ghantdrdvascha sriiyate. Anantaram ghantdkarnah kiqnto manushydn khddati ghantdm cha vddayati ittju- ktwd jandh sarve nagardt paldyitdh. Tat ah kardlayd ndma kuttinyd vimrisya markatd ghantdm vddayanti swayam vijndya rdjd vijndpitah. Deva yadi kiyaddhanopakshayah kriyate taddham enam ghantdkarnam sddhaydmi. Tato rdjhd tnshtena tasyai dhanam dattam. Kuttinyd cha mandalam kritwd tatra ganesddigauravam darsayitwd swayam vdnarapriyaphaldnydddya vanam pravisya phaldnydkirndni. Tato ghantdm parityajya vdnardh phaldsaktd bahhiivuh. Kuttini cha ghnntdm gnriUird vagaram dgatd sakalalokapiijyd 'bhavat. Observe, that ni at the end of a word may most conveniently be transliterated EUPHONIC COMBINATION OF LETTERS.— CHANGES OF VOWELS. 19 by the symbol Anuswara, and vice versa; thus, brahmapurdkhyam nagaram "9'SrM<,i!rr d, when the dissimilar vowels ^ p, ^ 0, ^ ai, or ^ aw, follow, then a or d blends with e into ai ; with «i also into ai; with o into au; with am also into au: thus iR + ^fVfT joara + edhita becomes >ftfv?T paraidhita, ' nourished by another.' f^m + 5?^ rirfya + eva = f^^ vidyaiva, ' knowledge indeed.' ^ + F^^ rfera + aiswarya = ^^vj^ devaimmrya, ' divine majesty.' ^^ + ^»T^^ «/pa + ojas = ^^im^ alpaujas, ' little energy.' Tl^T + ^ftri gangd + ogha = ^T^'^ gangaugha, ' the torrent of the Ganges.' * The blending of a and i into the sound e. is recognised in English in such words as sail, nail, &c. ; and the blending of a and u into the sound is exemplified bv the French fnufr, haiime, &c. CHANGES OF VOWELS. 26 l|T + ^^^V jwara + aushadha = Ijn^V jwaraushadfia, ' fever-medi- cine.' 34. If a word ends in ^ i, '3' u, -^ ri, short or long, when any dissimilar vowel follows, the former letters pass into their kindred semivowels; viz. i or i into y*; 7/ or li into v*; ri or ri into r: thus "^(f^ + '^(^ (igni + astra becomes 'SP";!?^ agnyastra*, ' firearms.' Trfir + 7^T^ prati + uvdcha = Tri'5^r^ pratyuvdcha, ' he spoke in reply.' ■3 + ^TTt' tu + iddnim = fi^TTl" twiddnim*, ' but now.' jTr?j + 'STT'T^ ma7/-i + dnanda = HTc^Hrd mdtrdnanda, ' the mother's joy.' 35. If a word ends in 1? e or 'sfr 0, when the next begins with ^ a, then e and remain unchanged, and the initial ^a is cut off: thus ^ + '^■^ te + apt becomes ^sfq te 'pi, ' they indeed !' [See 10.] 7T^ + ^f^ grihe + asti = JT?sf;5r grihe 'sti, ' he is in the house.' ^> + ^fq so -f api = ^sft( so 'pi, ' he indeed !' flft -h 'srffJT hato + asmi = ?rrtsffR hato 'smi, ' I am undone !' ^6. If a word ends in !»■ e or ^ 0, when the next begins with any other vowel except ^ a, then e is changed to ay, and to av ; and if both the words are complete words, the y of ay, and more rarely the V of av, may be dropped, leaving the a uninfluenced by the following vowel : thus W + ^(min: te + dgatdh becomes tt'TTitwt: taydgatdh, and then TT ^TTJTTTT: ta dgatdh, ' they have come.' Similarly, f^wfj + ^ inshno + iha becomes f^wf^ vishnavilia, and then f%^ ?|^ vishna iha, ' O Vishnu, here !' a. But if ^ e and -sfft o be the finals of roots or nominal bases, and these have to be joined with the initial vowels of terminations, affixes, &c., even though the initial vowel be "^ a or ^ <:- or '^ 0, then final e must still be changed to ay, and final to av, and both y and v must be retained : thus ^j^^f^je +ati becomes i^ii jayati, ' he conquersf.' * So in English we pronounce a word like million as if wTitten millyon ; and we write evangelist for euangelist. t In English we respect this law in writing, though not in pronouncing such words as saying, playing, &e. '24 KUPHONIC COMBINATION OF LETTERS. ^TT^ 4- ^ agne + e = 'HHM agnaye, ' to fire.' H^ + '3Tf(T bho + uti = >T^ffr bhavati ' he is/ ^ + f^^T go + iswara = TT^hsR gaviswara, ' owner of kine/ jft 4- ^oRH ^0 + o/:«5 = TTTfoW gavokas, ' the abode of cattle.' 37. If a word ends in ^ ai or ^ au, when any vowel, similar or dissimilar, follows, ai is changed to ay, and au to dv : thus qr^ + wftj kasmai + c^i becomes ^fjrnrftl kasmoyapi, ' to any one whatever.^ "t + ^t rfli + ah =■ TJ^\ rdyah, ' riches/ ^ + ^ c?Gf/fl!M + annam = ^"RW daddvannam, ' he gave food.' "^ -f ^ nau + au=: »TT'^ ndvau, ' two ships.' a. If both the words be complete words, the y and v are occasionally dropped, but not so usually as in the case of e at 36 : thus ^WT ^l\\<\ kasmd apt for ^WT^^ kasmdyapi, and <^(^l ^I^ e?ac?a annam for qr^iq^i daddvannam. 38. There are some exceptions {pragrihya) to the above rules. The most notice- able is that of nominative and accusative cases dual, ending in i, u, or e. These are never acted on by following vowels : thus, ?^ VUl hari etau, ' these two Haris.' T%XnT^^*Tt vishmi imau, ''these two Vishnus.' ^nr FfT sute ete, ' these two daughters.' The same applies to '^W ami, nom. pi. m. of the pronoun ^1^^ . a. A vocative case in 0, when followed by the particle ifi, may remain unchanged, as T^CnT ■^uT vishno iti, or may follo\\' 36. b. Particles, when simple vowels, and ''^ d and '^ 0, as the finals of interjections, remain unchanged, as ^TT ^ d eram, ' Ah, indeed ! ' "'BT^ ^»5" aho indra, ' Ho, Indra.' c. The ^ o of m go, ' a cow,' may become ^^ ava in certain cases, as m + ^f^ go+indra becomes 'l<^»5 gavendra, ' lord of kine.' The following table exhibits all the combinations of vow els at one view. Supposing a word to end in 11, and the next word to begin with au, the student must carry his eye down the first column (headed " final vowels") till he comes to u, and then along the top horizontal line of " initial vowels," till he comes to au. At the junction of the perpendicular column under au and the horizontal line beginning ??, will be the required combination, viz. v au. CHANGES OF V0WEL3. 25 o 3 O re ^ -. < 3 i^ 22. erg a 3 •z c s o a a> ■2s "2. Ss 8 as i 1 a^ o a. a f^ -4 •-^ «2 . «*. «. «o. ^. Sn a a, a a •^ ^ «2 <2 a a « ct, a> t^ t^ fto «^ P6 a f^ f^ a^ a as a a 'i "^ « « <« «« « T^ vidbhava, ' generated by filth/ CHANGES OP CONSONANTS. 27 a. There is an option allowed before nasals ; that is, when any nasal begins the next word, the final of the last word is usually (though not necessarily) changed to the nasal of its own class : thus ^ToSr + T^ vdk + 7naya becomes TT^"?? van-may a, ' full of words/ f^ + MT^ vif + 7naya = f^m'^ vinmaya, ' full of filth/ "t^ + TT^ tat -\- mdtra = HT^T^ tanmdtra, ' that element/ mr + %^ tat + netram = WRf %^ tan 7ietram, ' that eye/ ^n^+ Wc5 ap + tniUam = '^n*TH ammulam, ' water and roots/ b. Rule 41 applies to terminations of nouns or verbs beginning with consonants, but not to terminations beginning with vowels. In the latter case, the final hard consonant is supposed to attract the initial vowel, and thus, losing its character of a final letter, is not made soft: thus 'M\<^ + f^'^vdk+bhis becomes '^Tn>7H vugbhis, ' by words;' but '^1^+'^ vdch+d becomes '^T^T vdchu, 'by a speech;' not ^T^TT vdjd. f%Wrc5W + '^ chitralikh+su is f^^feoT'T chitraliksu, ' in painters;' but f%^f5'^+ ^T chitralikh+d remains f^^c>55?T chitralikhd, ' by a painter/ c. Of course, rule 41 does not apply to final sibilants, as they have no cor- responding soft letters. The rules for sibilants are given at 61. 42. If a soft letter ends a word, root, or crude base, when any hard initial letter follows, the soft is changed to its own unaspirated hard : thus ofr^ + Tgwfn" kumud + phullafi becomes -^^-^^T^fi^ ku?nut phidlati, ' the lotus blossoms/ ^fpfvr -f Tj^liim" samidh +pradipyate = ^fiTtT H^'It^^ samit pradipyate, ' the fuel is ignited/ Note — Similarly in Latin, a soft guttural or labial often passes into a hard before s and t: thus reg-\-si becomes recsi {rexi), scrib + si becomes scripsi. a. The same may take place at the end of a sentence or before a pause, as ^j^lTn 'SfiWf[^phuHati kumut. b. Soft letters, which have no corresponding hard, such as the nasals, semi- vowels, and "^h, are changed by special rules. c. If the final be an aspirated soft letter, and belongs to a root whose initial is T ^, ^ rf, or W b, then the aspirate, which is suppressed in the final, is transferred back to the initial letter of the root; as '^V -f '^iTtf fT budh + karoti becomes >T7T ofi^fff bhitt karoti, 'he who knows acts;' ^'tI-t-7T"5ff dadh + tas becomes 'TW^^ dhattas, ' they two place ;' and see 306. a, 299. a. Note — Greek recognises a similar principle in Gpi^, r^iyrx;^ T/Sex^, ^/'f'^^S &c. 4.^. The following consonants arc not alln^\-ed to remain uncliangcMl at the end E 2 28 EUPHONIC COMBINATION OF LETTEE8. of words *, under any circumstances : that is to say, they undergo modifications, even at the end of a sentence ; and when they are combined with the initial letters of succeeding words, or with the initial consonants of affixes, these modifications must take place before rules 41 and 42 are applied, ist, A conjunct consonant of any kind; 2d, an aspirated consonant; 3d, the aspirate "^ hj 4th, the palatal letters '^cA, "S^c/tA, ^^j, ^jh (when originally palatal, and not the result of the euphonic changes of final If t and ^ rf at 47) ; 5th, the sibilants '^Ts and 11 sA. a. With regard to i, when a word ends in a single or conjunct consonant, and a termination to be affixed consists of a single consonant, then, to avoid the con- currence of silent consonants at the end of a word, the first only of the conjunct consonants is allowed to remain, and the termination is dropped : thus ''^T^ + ^ charant-\-s leaves ^T*Tc/«araH, going;' 'ii^^ + ^ aved-\-s leaves "^^ avet or W^ aved. So in Latin, mulsi is written for mulg-sij sparsi for sparg-si, &c. b. With regard to 2, the unaspirated form is substituted for the aspirated. c. With regard to 3, a final '^ h (which is of very rare occurrence) is usually changed either to "^ A; or 7 ^ See 17. a. d. With regard to 4, palatals, as being derived from gutturals (see 20. c), generally revert to their originals; i. e. final "^ ch and ^jh are usually changed to ■^ (see 12), but "9( cJih may become "Z t ; l{j becomes "H g, but sometimes Z t or Jd. e. With regard to 5, final ^^s and "^ sh usually pass into either W A: or T ^ (See 17. b.) The above changes must hold good, whatever may be the initial letter of a following word; but rules 41 and 42 must be afterwards applied. They also hold good before all terminations or affixes beginning with strong consonants; but before vowels (except the affix a at 80. I.) and weak consonants (i. e. nasals and semivowels) the finals remain unchanged. See 41. b, and vdch at 176. 44. The special rules for the changes of consonants are very numerous, but since few words in Sanskrit end in any other con- sonants than TT t and ^ d, the nasals «T n and J^ m, the dental sibilant ^ s, and the semivowel T r, it will be sufficient for all practical purposes to notice these special rules under four heads ; ist, the changes of final TT and ^; 2dly, the changes of the nasals ; 3dly, the changes of final ^; 4thly, the changes of final ^. CHANGES OF FINAL T^ t AND ^ d. 45. By the general rule (41), final TT ^ becomes ^ d before soft con- sonants, and before all vowels (as tt^tt + '^rfTT marut + vdti becomes 5T^?f ^f(T marud vdti, ' the wind blows') . * Excepting in roots, standing by themselves, or, if used as nouns, before terminations beginning with A-nwels. CHANGES OF CONSONANTS. 29 a. There is an exception in the case of viclyut -\-vat, m&kmg vidyutwat, 'pos- sessed of lightning.' 46. And final ^d becomes i[^t before hard consonants (as "^;^ + H f r fiT drisad + patati becomes "^^Tii^ trafw drisat patati, ' the stone falls^). See 42. 47. And final K t or "^ d becomes tt n before all nasals, See 41. a. But final i[^t o\' "^d before initial ^ ch, "Sf j, c^ I, -^ s, and ^ h, undergoes special changes : thus — Final 7^ t or ? d before ^ ch, "ST jj, c^ 1- 48. If W ^ or (T c? ends a word, when an initial ^ ch, 1{J, or H I, follows, then Tf t or f[ d assimilates with these letters : thus inrnr+ ryt>TTW + '^ bhmjdt + lobhdt + cha becomes >Tmi^ "FJWr^ ^ bhaydl lobhdch cha, ' from fear and avarice/ KZ 4 Tfl^4 tad +jivanam = IHT »TT^«t taj jivanam, ' that life/ a. A final 7^^ or "^ d also assimilates with a following "2^ chh, ^jh, but as, by 43.6, an aspirate is not allowed at the end of a word, the combination will be ch chh, j jh. They also assimilate with the cerebral letters 7 ?, "J d: thus fr7r^+ "3i»T tat+ dinam becomes TT'^ '^t^ tad dinam. b. Observe — When "5 chh is the original initial letter of a word, and a previous word ends in a short vowel (or even a long vowel), then IT ^, changeable to '^ch by 48. a, may be inserted : thus f^ + "Sf^ vi+chheda may be written fi-oar^ vichchheda. Final 1^ t or ^ d before ^ s'. 49. If TT ^ or ^ c? ends a word, when an initial ^ s follows, then T^^ or ^ c? is changed to "^^ch, and the initial ^ s is usually changed to -3 chh : thus TTW + "^TTT tat + srutwd becomes TT^ "^j^ tach chhrutwd, ' having heard that/ Final i^^ t or ^ d before \ h. 50. If W ^ ends a word, when initial ^ h follows, the final ir Ms changed to ? c? (by 41), and the initial ^ A to V dh : thus 7(7^ 4- '^rfw tat 4 harati becomes 7Trr iRfir (or 7T^T:f7T) tad dharati, ' he seizes that/ 51. By a similar rule, and on the same principle, are written words ending in ■?F k, followed by initial "^h; thus ^T^ 4 ^Tfw vdk + harati becomes ^PT -mfif vdg gharati, ' speech captivates.' Similarly, roots ending in Z t, followed by a termination beginning with IT /; ; thus 1^7 + T? dwif-\-hi becomes f^Tfe dwu^hi. 30 EUPHONIC COMBINATION OF LETTERS. CHANGES OF THE NASALS. Changes of final "J^n. 52. If the letter ^w, preceded by a short vowel, ends a word, when the next begins with any vowel, the n is doubled : thus ^Tifn=(^+ ^3 dsan + atra becomes ^re^ ^^ dsann atra, ' they were there/ ■frftR'5^ + ^?rT^ tasniin + udydne = irftR^ ^^T^ tasminn udydne, ' in that garden/ e^^,' If "^w ends a word, when an initial Ht,'^ ch, or z t, follows, a sibilant is inserted between the final and initial letter, according to the class of the initial letter ; and the »^ n then passes into Anuswara by 6. b : thus ^9?"JT + lT^T't asmin + taddge becomes ^1t9T^¥PT or 'STftiT^ "K^Vt as7nins taddge, ' in this pool/ '^^\'^ + f^TT kasmin + chit = ^ftjTft5rr kasminschit *, ' in a certain person/ 5FrfT«^+ Z^". mahdn + tankah — JTf TF|;; mahdnshtan-kah,'- b, large axe/ a. A similar euphonic s is inserted between the prepositions sam, ava, pari, prati, and certain words which begin with k, as ^'^K sanskdra, V^K^^TK. pari- shkdra, irftT^aFT^ pratishkdra, &c. (see 70) ; just as in Latin, between the preposi- tions ab and ob, and c, q, and p. b. *T K at the end of a root, or incomplete word, is. not amenable to this rule : thus ?'«^+ fk han+ti is "^ftf hanti, ' he kills.' The word TT^'m^ jjramn (nom. of prasdm) is also an exception ; as, IT^Tf^Tf mfiT * the peaceful man spreads.' 54. Rule 53 describes the only cases in which «^w, when originally the final of a word, can pass into Anuswara : thus, combinations like rrT«T 'TT'n'nT or ITT'^^^TnT can never be written ITT 'SrnTlfw, "flT ^TTiT. 55. If "Tre ends a word, when the next begins with '^ s, then both *T ?i and ^ s may remain unchanged or be combined in either of the two following ways : i st, the final '5^n. may be changed to >T ri; thus 'R'5T«^-|- ^« mahdn -\- surah may be written JTfT>T 'STT: ' a great hero :' 2dly, the 'Jfl s may be changed to "S^ chh ; thus 5R^T>T "^:. 56. If "T ra ends a word, when the next begins with c? /, the n assimilates with the I, and the mark '■^ is placed over the preceding vowel : thus ''7''^«^+ c^HlTct pakshdn+lundti becomes "H^T^TfTT or tr^^ ^TfTfrT ' he cUps the wings.' See 7. Similarly, €V with Xafxira becomes (.XXafXTTW ; and con with ligo, colligo. * The same holds good before "?[ chh, and before ^ th, 7 th ; but the two latter arc never likclv to occur.. CHANGES OF CONSONANTS. 31 (I. Final «^/), before ^ j or ^jk, is sometimes (but very rarely) \vTitten in the palatal form >T; and before '^ d, "S dh, in the cerebral form W. 57. "^ n as the final of crude bases is rejected before terminations and affixes beginninjr ^\'ith consonants : thus V'nT5T + f»nT dhanin-\-bhis becomes 'fPtTftT'^ dhanibhis, ' by rich people.' ^"^^4" r^ (///a?^^■« + ^^^•a='V^f^TR dhanitwa, ' the state of being rich.' fl. As the final of a root it is rejected before those terminations beginning with consonants (excepting nasals and semivowels), which have no symbol indicative of Guna. (See 307 and 318.) b. Also, when the word ending in rT m is the first (or any but the last) member of a compound word, even though the next member of the compound begins with a vowel : thus vTsT^ -{- '^^'T rfijan + purusha becomes TT^tM^"^ rdja-purusha, 'the king's servant.' ^TW«T-|- 2^ rdjan -f Indra ^TJ^{!^ rdjendra, ' the chief of kings.' ^TTii7"«T + '^% swdinln + arthara = *s l*-M% swdmyartham, 'on account of the master.' Change of t\ n, not final, to ts n. 58. If -^ n {not final) follows any one of the three cerebral letters, "^ ri, X r, Tif sh, in the same ivord, then rf 71 must be changed to the cerebral in n, even though cfi k, i] g,xs p, sf b, (or their aspirates,) ^ /«, "^ I/, "^ V, or ^ m, intervene. Thus the nora. plur. of ^te^ "^^3lT ^ a withered flower,' is ^E=?rrfe xj-LTjififT sushkdni pushpdni (not ^TEwf^ "^Eqifft). Similarly, the accus. case of "^^r);^ brahnahan, ' a brahman slayer,' is srwtrirr ; the imperative of fj^iJ kship, ' to throw,' is fgjxjTf'CT ; the nom. plur. of ^r(^ varman, ^ armour,' is «RTfTrr ; the instrum. sing, of JT^T mriga, ' a deer,' is tttru. But the intervention of a dental, or cerebral consonant, or of any palatal except y, or of any letter whatever (excepting a nasal, a semivowel, or ^ h) if con- junct with the nasal, prevents the operation of this rule. Thus the instrum. case of ^m?5 srigdla, ' a jackal,' is "STtttH'T; the nom. plur. of "^tT vartman, * a word,' is "^rf^ ; and in further illustra- tion of the same law, may be taken "HW^ sarjana, ' abandoning;' ■^It?? h'idana, ' playing ;' inTftfrr prdpnoti, ' he obtains ;' TTsTT rdjnd, ' by a king.' But ^rgj is sometimes written W^^. Changes of final 37 m. 59. If JT tn ends a word or root, when any consonant follows, then H m may pass into Anuswara, or may optionally, before those con- sonants which have a corresponding nasal, be changed to this nasal : 32 EUPHONIC COMBINATION OF LETTERS. thus Ti^rw -f" 'TTTR griham -\-jugdma is written either tj^ imT'T or ^^ WITH 'he went home :^ so also sam-{-dina becomes either ^ifhr or ^4!/]H ' flight ;' sam -\- chaya, either ^^tj or IT^R ' collection ;' sam -}- nydsa, either A^nm or ^RiTTTr 'abandonment;^ gam-\-td, either ifrTT or TRTT. But although JT m may in these cases pass into Anuswara, the latter must always take the sound of the nasal to which it may optionally be changed. 60. When the next word begins with a vowel, then jt m must always be written : thus ni^iTnnfiT or tt^ji^ ^rrmfw griham dydti, ' he comes home.* CHANGES OF FINAL ^^*. 61. Nearly every nominative case, and many other cases of nouns, in Sanskrit, besides many inflections of verbs, end in ^*, which is changeable to ^ s, and is liable to be represented by : Visarga (i. e, the symbol for a final aspirate), or to pass into t; r, or to be liquefied into T u, or to be dropped altogether, according to the nature of the initial letter following*. At every step these changes will meet the eye : therefore let the student master the following five rules, before he attempts to read a single sentence of the most elementary San- skrit work. Observe — The following rules are designated by Indian grammarians, " rules for the changes of Visarga." This exaltation of a mere symbol to the place of the letter which it represents, tends, however, to embarrass the subject unnecessarily, and imparts to Visarga itself a nature so Protean, that the student is continually foiled in his effort to apprehend a character which is liable to become now s, now r, now M, now y, now to be dropped, and now to return to its original form. It seems a simpler and preferable course (the result being in the end equivalent) to start from the tangible character ^s, which Visarga, under certain circumstances, represents ; or, in other words, to regard Visarga as no letter at all, but a mere symbol for final ^s, and, as we shall afterwards see at 71, for final '^ r, when these letters are pronounced with an imperceptible aspiration (compare rule 8), as they are always pronounced before ^ k, '^ p, "^ s, "^ s, and at the end of a sentence. * The interchangeableness of s with r and h is not unknown in other languages. Thus the Latin Jlos becomes in the genitive Jioris ; genus becomes generis .- and many other Latin words, such as labor, robur, were originally written either labor or labos, robur or robus. Again, the initial aspirate in many Greek words passes in Latin into sj as, ef , sex, &c. CHANGES OF CONSONANTS. 83 First Rule. — JVheti does final ^ s remain unchanged, or become •^ s, 'Br sh ? 62. Before "n" /, ^ ch, and z {, respectively. Before TT t, and its aspirate, it remains unchanged. Before 'g ch, and its aspirate, it passes into the paLital sibilant "^I s. Similarly, before Z t, and its aspirate, it passes into the cerebral sibilant "R sh. But this latter change can rarely occur, as very few words in Sanskrit begin with Z t or z th. a. In some books final F^s is allowed to remain unchanged before '^ s, and to assimilate with initial ^ s. Second Rule. — When does final ^ s pass into Visarga (:) ? 6'^. Before efi A:, "qjo, and their aspirates, and before the sibilants •^ s, ^ s. a. Before a pause, i. e. at the end of a sentence. b. Observe — When a word stands by itself, final s properly passes into Visarga; and this is why, in native grammars, the terminations of nouns and verbs, which appear first in the tabular scheme, as ending in s, are made to end in Visarga, when they appear again in declension and conjugation. In the following pages, however, s will be preserved as a final, in declension and conjugation, for two reasons : ist, because it is more tangible, and easy to apprehend, than a symbol which is imperceptible in pronunciation : 2dly, because it enables the classical student to keep in view the resemblance between Sanskrit and Greek and Latin terminations. Third Rule. — When does final tt s blend tvith a preceding ^ a into the voivel ^ o ? 64. When preceded by short ^ a, before all soft consonants, it is treated as if liquefied into T «*, and blends with the a into Wt 0. a. Similarly, before short ^ a, which a is then cut off. Fourth Rule. — When does final ^^s become ^r? 6^. When preceded by any other vowel but ^ a or ^T a, and before all soft letters, consonants or vowels. * That is, it is first changed to r, as at 65, and r is then liquefied into a vowel ; just as / is often changed to u in French. The plural of animal is animaux, not animals. F 34 EUPHONIC COMBINATION OF LETTERS. a. Unless ^ r itself be the soft letter following, in which case, to avoid the conjunction of two r's, final ^ s is dropped, and the vowel preceding it (if short) is lengthened. Fifth Rule. — When is final ^s dropped? 66. When preceded by short ^ a, before any other vowel except short ^ a *. NB. The ^ a, which then becomes final, opens on the initial vowel without coalition t- a. When preceded by long '5IT a, before any soft letter, consonant or vowel. NB. If the initial letter be a vowel, the ^rr d, w hich then becomes final, opens on it without coahtion. b. When preceded by any other vowel but ^ a or ^ a, before the letter r, as noticed at 65. a. c. Observe — Although it simphfies the subject to speak of final s as dropped in these cases, yet, according to native grammarians, it would be more correct to say that final s first passes into Visarga, which is then dropped : otherwise the term Visarga is without meaning. Indian grammarians, however, hold that Visarga undergoes another change before it is dropped, viz. to yj and that this y is rejected in accordance with 36, 37. The above five rules are illustrated in the following table, in which the nominative cases ^R^ naras, 'a man;' tttttt nards, 'men;' ffc;^ haris, ' the god Vishnu;' fcg^ ripus, ' an enemy;' and '^t^^naus, ' a ship' — are joined with the verbs karoti, ' he does ;' kurvanti, ' they do ;' khanati, ' he digs ;' khananti, '^ they dig ;' pachati, ' he cooks ;' pachanti, ' they cook ;' sarati, ' he goes ;' sochati, ' he grieves;' tarati, 'he crosses;' charafi, 'he moves;' gachchhati, 'he goes;' jayati, 'he conquers;' rakshati, 'he preserves;' atti, 'he eats;' adanti, 'they eat;' eti, 'he goes;' dydti, 'he comes;' edhate, ' he prospers.' * That is, it blends with a into o, as in 64; and becoming av before any vowel but a, the ?' is rejected by 36. Indian grammarians hold that final s or Visarga here becomes y, which would also be rejected by 36. This, however, seems rather to apply to 66. a. t This is one of the three cases in which a hiatus of two vowels is admissible in Sanskrit. The three cases are, i . when final s is rejected from as or as {66); 2. when a complete word, ending in e, is followed by any other vowel but a (see 36) ; 3. when the dual terminations l^ 7', "35 ?/, IJ e, are followed by vowels (see 38). CHANGES OF CONSONANTS. 35 tlllilMlS K^ s- -e s a ^ §- S ^ 5 §- 3 35 iT .Is g ►2 c« ^ to' CfQ a ^ p- 1^ a- S i ^ S ti^ 1 g' 1 £- 3 i^ TO a. 9 •c & 5 I. TO 3 3 M 3^ 3^ F 2 36 EUPHONIC COMBINATION OF LETTERS. 6"]. There is one common exception to 62,63, 64: ^HT sas, * he/ and Tl^K^eshas, 'this,^ the nominative cases of the pronouns TT^ tad and ;jlT^ etad (320, 223), drop the final s before any consonant, hard or soft; as, ^ sfirVfrT sa karoti, ' he does;' ^^ ir^lf sa yachchhati, ' he goes;' TTR TT'^fTT esha pacliati, ' this man cooks.' But rules 64. «, 66 and 63. c, are observed: thus, 'iffsfq so 'pi, ' he also ;' ^ ini: sa eshah, '• he himself.' Sometimes sa may blend with a following vowel, as %q: for ^ ij^: . A remarkable agreement is observable here in the Greek for Of. Compare also the Latin qui for quis, and ille, iste, ipse, for i7/ms, istus, ipsus. Bopp considers that the reason why sa dispenses with the termination s is, that this termination is itself derived from the pronoun sa. a. There is an option allowed when an initial sibilant is compounded with another hard consonant. In that case, the preceding final s may be dropped ; as, ■^K *3i«t^rd hari skandati, ' Hari goes.' b. A rare exception to the first rule occurs, when an initial H t \& compounded with a sibilant. In that case, the preceding final s becomes Visarga ; as, ^r;J "RT^ 37^ I In harih tsarum grihndti, ' Hari grasps the hilt of his sword.' 68. The preceding rules are most frequently applicable to ^s, as the final of the cases of nouns and inflections of verbs ; but they come equally into operation in substantives or adjectives, whose base or crude form ends in "^^as, H^is, and "^^ms; thus, by 64, ^■CT?T^+ ^^"3" chakshus+ikshate becomes ^'^T ^^^^ chakshur ikshate, 'the eye sees;' and '^'^^_^-\-f>!{TX^chukshus-\-bhisz^'^'^'*^^chakshurbhis, 'by eyes.' Similarly, by 65, 'T»T^+ ti H 1 fn manas -\-junuti =:'T»n »^HinT mano jdndti, ' the mind knows;' and ^'^'^ + f*W 77lanas-{-bkis=^Wtf*^ ma7iobhis, ' by minds.' a. Observe — All nouns ending in X'l,** ^"^^ '3'^ws may be regarded as ending in 3^'^ ish and "^W ush, which is the form they necessarily assume in declension before the terminations beginning with vowels (see 70, and compare 41. b) : thus ^■^^ + "^T chakshus + a becomes -"^t^Ml chakshushd, ' by the eye ;' but before consonants they must be treated as ending in the dental sibilant. See 165. 69. '^s at the end of the first member of a compound word, before hard letters of the guttural or labial classes ('^k,^ p, or their aspirates), may follow 63, or is more usually retained, passing sometimes into "^ sh, according to 70 : thus rtltf^ + '^ tejas + kara becomes either WIT^^ or ft»i;«tii, ' causing light ;' TJfH^ + "^TT prddus + krita becomes HTH'Boir'iT prddushkrita, ' made manifest ;' f^^+ tlfk divas + pati = f^^^^rfrT ' the lord of day.' a. Again, in opposition to 64 and 65, a final ^^s is usually retained before affixes beginning with "^ v and f{ m, passing sometimes into ^ sh, according to 70 : thus ■fTrTF + fViT tejas+vin becomes riiiff^JTf frjaswin, ' full of hght ;' WHT + ^ bhds+vara=^Tr^T bhdswara, 'radiant;' and ^f%W^+ m[^archis + ?»a<=^P^^iff archishmaf, ' possessing flame.' 70. ^s, not final, passes into ffsh when preceded by any other vowel but ^fl or W[d; also when preceded by the semivowel Tir, or by cF /:. CHANGES OF CONSONANTS. 37 thus ^afM + ^ agni + su becomes ''HPhv agnishu, ^ in fires ;' oirct 4- ftr karo + si= ofiTtf^ karoshi, ' thou doest ;' f^>T^ + ftr bibhar + si — f^- m§ bibharshi, ' thou bearest ;' ^TcF + ^ t"a^ +su = "^^ vdkshu, ' in words.' See 69. and 69. a. a. An intervening Anuswara or Visarga does not prevent the operation of this rule : thus, "^T^f^, ^^f^, f f%:^, '^^'^' CHANGES OF FINAL T: r. 71. Most of the changes of final T^r are the same as those of final ^ s. a. Thus, by 63, TnTTT^ + «fiTH prdtar + kdla becomes TTTrTt'^iTc^ prdtahkdla, ' the time of morning ; ' and HTflT; + WT^ prdtar -\- sndna = TTTTTt^PT prdtahsndna, ' morning ablution.' But r as the final of a root, or as a radical letter, remains unchanged before a sibilant: thus, '^ + ^ = ^ (No. 70); f^>T^ + "ftr = f^>rf|. h. By 62, TTTcr^ + 1^ prdtar -\~fu becomes VM^^prdtastu; and VJW^ + "^prdtar -\- cha =■ Hlrt^d prdtas'cha. Note, that the transition of r into s before t is exemplified in Latin by gestum from (/ero, ustum from ?iro, &c. On the other hand, r in the middle of words is preserved before t in Sanskrit, as in kartum, &c. c. By 65, fJTT + T^ nir+ukta remains f^fT^^ nirtikta, ' described ;' "RT; + ^'^ nir-\-daya remains f»T^^ nirdaya, 'without pity;' and f«T^ + T^ nir + rasa is »/l<« nirasa, ' without flavour.' d. After the analogy of 65. a, final ar before initial r drops its own r, and lengthens the preceding aj as "^^ -f T^fff putiar + rakshati becomes ^11 T^uT /)Mna rakshati, ' again he preserves.' e. But in opposition to 64 and 66, final 'src cw, unlike W^^ as, remains unchanged before any soft letter (consonant or vowel) : thus imTT + WT^ prdtar + dsa remains irraTT'^T prdtardsa, ' morning meal ;' THTT + ^nfir punar + ydti remains ^^ ^nftr punar ydti, ' again he goes.' 72. T,r at the end of the first member of a compound, before "^ k, '^ p, and their aspirates, may either become Visarga, by 63, or more usually follows 69, and passes into ^^s, which is Uable to become '^sh by 70 : thus f?r^ + TRic5 nir+phala becomes fHUfit^ nishphala, 'without fruit.' In the case of 5^ + ^ dur+kha, Ht^ is more common than 5^^' 73. T r may optionally double any consonant, except ■? h, that immediately follows it : thus f?IT + ^ nir + day a may be written frf^^ nirddaya. The following table exhibits the more common combinations of consonants at one view. Observe, that in the top fine of initial letters the aspirated consonants have been omitted, because it is an universal rule, that whatever change takes place before any conso- nant, the same holds good before its aspirate. 38 EUPHONIC COMBINATION OF LETTERS.— CHANGES OF CONSONANTS. ^- IT » (€- w »> tj ^ ST S (T-o P- a, IT s K -^ Pr ^ il si < o ii s "« «<3 "54 CO S t«5 rS t i "«S ^*5 ^- ^- :« -« e ^4S &5 £3 g » ^ tei ~* ^ o ^!3 ■k 1 «§ ~ s o O ^ 5>^ >4 s Sf4 o 5>» .1: ^ «§ s s s o s "£5 S o a. s a. a, a, a. a. s s s s s s s s s s <5j '^ -« S o ►« ■^ s § ^§ •2 § =§ ■^ 554 •^ s "« ^2 ^1 eg "to &4 «»5 «>4 s 5»j B4 Bi "« s ^1 "« -ii :^ 1 4 "4 s eg ^« 6 ^B ^B o B "B B B B o *^ s -^ s r II B SANSKRIT ROOTS, AND THE FORMATION OF NOMINAL BASES. 39 CHAPTER III. ON SANSKRIT ROOTS. AND THE FORMATION OF NOMINAL BASES. Before treating of Sanskrit nouns, it will be advisable to point out in what respect the peculiar system adopted in their formation requires an arrangement of the subject diiferent from that to which we are accustomed in other languages. 74. In Sanskrit nouns (including substantives, adjectives, pro- nouns, and numerals) there is this great peculiarity, that every one of them has two distinct states prior to the formation of the nomi- native case; viz. ist, a root; 2dly, coming directly from the root, a state which is sometimes called tJie crude form ; that is to say, a state antecedent to inflection, and anterior to any of the cases, even the nominative. This form of the noun is more properly termed the nominal base, or the inflective base of the noun ; that is, the changed form of the root, which serves as the basis on which the system of cases is constructed. In the first place, then, let us inquire what is the root ? There are in Sanskrit about two thousand elementary sounds, out of which, as out of so many blocks, are carved and fashioned, not only all the nouns, but all the verbs which exist in the language. a. Though the root may be compared to a rough block, or to the raw material, out of which nouns and verbs are constructed, yet the student must understand that in the dialect of the Vedas, and even in modern classical Sanskrit, roots are not unfrequently used by themselves as substantives and adjectives, and are very commonly so used at the end of compounds. See 84, 87, and 173. b. Every one of these roots or primary sounds conveys some simple idea, which appears under different modifications in the derivatives from it. Thus — to mention a few of the most common — the root f^■^ kship conveys the idea of ' throwing ;' -^ kri, of ' doing,' ' making ;' wt kri, of ' buying ;' ^ hri, of ' seizing,' '■ taking ;' '^yuj, 'joining;' ^H«5, ^i^?;n7, 'being;' ^bhii, 'becoming;' ift'^ jiv, 'living;' T=ft r*/, 'leading;' f^ ji, 'conquering;' Jji^ffam, m yd, ■^T char, •gi'T kram, ^z. ij sri, T^^xf^ skand, ' going ;' ^ vad, W^ vach, 40 SANSKRIT ROOTS, ■^ bru, ' speaking ;' ^ budh, "^ jncl, ' knowing ;' "H^ dris, ' seeing ;' ^w/i, ^^«w, ' wishing;' ^ 7wri, ' dying ;' ^ c^o, ^ giving ;' ipijjan, ' producing;' >n dhd, ' placing;' "^ ad, w^^ bhuj, V{^ bhaksh, ' eating;' trr pd, ' drinking ;' tj^^ pack, ' cooking ;' ^ han, ' killing ;' Tnr pat, * falling;' -^^vas, 'dwelling;' f^ vis, 'entering;' mj sthd, 'stand- ing;' y^ sru, 'hearing;' t^ spris, 'touching;' fjlVsidh, WIV fidd/i, 'accomphshing;' w^^kup, -^krudh, 'being angry;' f% cAi, ' collect- ing;' in ^^r«, ' smelHng ;' ^in ^%«, * relating ;' 1T5I «gs, ' perishing ;' mm tyaj, x^ rah, ' quitting ;' fV^ divish, ' hating ;' f^T^ nind, ' blam- ing;' -J f/m, ' running ;' ^dyut, -^^dip, vn bhd, 3M swM, 'shining;' \pu, ' purifying ;' ir^ prachchh, ' asking ;' 'stt^ dp, c5>T labh, ' ob- taining ;' ^ stu, ^^ sans, ' praising ;' mr^ yat, ' striving ;' tth yam, ' restraining ;' ^ sak, ' being able ;' irxr tap, ' heating ;' ^f dah, 'burning;' H^mwcA, ' liberating ;' ^ ??iM7/, ' being foolish ;' "^ yudb, ' fighting ;' ;^| ruh, ' growing ;' f ^ has, ' laughing ;' ^tf sivap, ' sleeping ;' ^ hrish, ■Jf^ nand, ^Tr[ hldd, ' being glad ;' W\ snd, ' bathing ;' TH rabh, ' beginning ;' ^t: swar, ' sounding ;' ^T?r sah, -^ vah, ' bearing ;' w smri, ' remembering ;' ^ir^ arch, ' honouring.' c. Observe, that it will be convenient, in the following pages, to express the idea contained in the root by prefixing to it the infinitive sign to. But the student must not suppose that the sound kship denotes any thing more than the mere idea of throwng;' nor must he imagine that in deriving nouns from it, we are deriving them from the infinitive, or from any part of the verb, but rather from a simple original sound, which is the common source of both nouns and verbs. 75, A cursory glance at the above list of common roots will serve to shew that there are two particulars in which they all agree. Every one of them is monosyllabic, and every one of them contains a single vowel, and no more. In other respects they offer consider- able diversity. Some consist of a single vowel only ; some begin with one or two consonants, and end in a vowel, but none end in either ^ a or ^ au ; some begin with a vowel, and end in one or two consonants * ; and some begin and end with one or two * Rule 43, which requires that if a word ends m a conjunct consonant, the last member shall be rejected, is not applicable to roots, unless they are used as complete words in a sentence. Nevertheless, in the case of roots ending in a consonant, preceded by a nasal, the latter is often euphonicaUy dropped, as ^^ becomes ^. AND THE FORMATION OF NOMINAL BASES. 41 consonants *", inclosing a medial vowel ; so that a root may some- times consist of only one letter, as ? i, ' to go f and sometimes ol" five, as ^i^ skand, ' to move ;' 11'^ prachchh, ' to ask.' a. There are a few polysyllabic words recognised as roots, but tliey are generally the result of the accidental conjunction of a preposition with a monosyllabic root ; that is to say, the preposition has been so constantly used in conjunction with the root, that it has at length come to be regarded as part of the root : thus in the roots tifiM*^ san-grdm, ' to fight,' and W^>ft^ avadhtr, ' to despise,' the pre- positions '^ sam and ^"H ava have combined with the root in this manner. A few other polysyllabic roots are the result of a reduplication of the radical syllable ; (as, <;U.ji daridrd, 'to be poor;' "Wf^ jdgri, 'to be awake;' ■«|ohlH chakds, 'to shine;' T^ vevi, 'to go,' ' pervade;') and a few are derived from nouns; as, "*HT^ ' to play,' from <^*iW kumdra, ' a boy.' b. Roots beginning with "^ n and ^ s are liable, according to 58 and 70, to be changed to W m and '^ sh. Hence these roots are invariably exhibited in Native Grammars as beginning with TJT and '^, because the Indian system requires that in exhibiting any general type of a class of words, that form should be taken which may occur even under the rarest circumstances. But in this Grammar, roots of which the initials are «T n and ^ s will be exhibited as beginning with these letters, by reason of their more frequent occurrence. c. Indian grammarians attach certain symbolical letters and syllables (called anuhandhas or ' appendages') to particular roots to indicate peculiarities in their conjugation. Thus the letter ^ i, placed after a root, marks the insertion of a nasal ; as in the root nid, which could be written f^\f^ nidi, to shew that in con- jugation «T re is inserted (pres. ninddmi, &c.). Similarly, ?X ir marks two forms of the 3d preterite ; thus suchir shews that such may make either asochisham or asucham in that tense. So also, ^ au indicates a root which rejects the inserted i (see 391); ^0 marks the substitution of na for ta in the pass, participle; 3 u, the optional insertion of i in the indeclinable participle ; "35 w, the optional insertion of i in the two futures, &c. 76. The learner is recommended to study attentively the com- monest of these roots, or elementary sounds, as given at 74. b. He may rest assured, that by pausing for a time at the root, his progress afterwards will be more rapid, when he ascends to the branches which spring from it. For it must never be forgotten, that every word in Sanskrit, whether substantive, adjective, verb, or adverb, stands in close filial relationship to some radical sound. In fact, every root is a common bond of union for a large family of words, which might otherwise appear unconnected ; and words * One root, '^Sn^^schyut, ' to drop,' begins with three consonants. G 42 SANSKRIT ROOTS, which, when viewed apart from the root, are isolated symbols, demanding a separate eifort of memory for each separate idea which they express, fasten themselves readily on the mind when regarded as so many parts of one original idea, so many branches of a common stock. Thus, to take any one of the foregoing roots — as, for example, budh, 'to know' — we shall find that from it may be drawn out with great regularity, ist, a set of simple substantives ; 2dly, of simple adjectives ; 3dly, of simple verbs : thus, hodha or bodkana, 'knowledge;' buddhi, 'intellect;' bodhaka, 'an informer;' bauddha, 'a Buddhist;' budha, 'wise;' buddhimat, 'intellectual;' and the follow- ing verbs, bodhati, ' he knows ;' budhyate, ' it is known;' bodhayati, ' he informs;' bubhutsafe or bubodhishati, ' he wishes to know ;' bobudhyate, ' he knows well.' And the simple idea contained in the root may be endlessly extended by the pre- fixing of prepositions ; as, prabodha, ' vigilance ;' prabiidkyate, ' he awakes.' 77. In the next place we are to inquire what is the base or crude form of the noun. The student should understand, at the outset, the meaning and use of this form. It is an intermediate state between the root and nominative case, the naked form of the noun, which serves as the basis on which to construct its eight cases, beginning with the nominative. In a Greek or Latin dictionary we look for the noun under the nominative case, but in Sanskrit we look for it under its crude state. Thus, hodha, bodhana, tat, panchan, bhavat, are the crude bases under which the nominative cases bodhas, bodhanam, sas, paiicha, bhavdn, are to be sought. And here it may be observed, that the base of a noun is no mere gram- matical invention. It is, perhaps, more practically useful than the cases derived from it. It is that form of the noun which is always used in the formation of compound words, and in this respect may be regarded as the most general of cases. And since every Sanskrit sentence contains more compound words than simple, it may with truth be said, that the crude base is the form under which the noun most usually appears. We may conceive it quite possible that Greek and Latin grammarians might have proceeded on a similar plan, and that they might have supposed a root Ae-y, from which was drawn out the nouns ^e^i?, Ke^iKog, XeKTOg, KaraXoyrj, eAAo- yog^ and the verbs Aeyo), KuraXeyw, eXXoyeu: so also, a root scrib, from which was derived the nouns script io, scriptum, scriptor, scrijjtura; and the verbs scribo, perscribo, ascribo : or a root nau, fi-om which would come nauta, navis, nauticus, )iavalis, navigo, &c. Again, they might have supposed a crude base to each of AND THE FORMATION OF NOMINAL BASES. 43 these nouns, as well as a root ; as, for instance, Aef/ and KeqiKO of Ae^/f and XeQtKog, and navi of navis ; and they might have required the student to look for Xiqig under Ae^;, Aeyw under Aey, navis under navi, and navigo under nau. Further than this, they might have shewn that the base was the form used in the formation of compound words, as in \eqiKoypa(pog, naviger. But Greek and Latin are too uncertain in their construction to admit of such an analysis being completely carried out. 78. It will be perceived from the foregoing remarks that the consideration of Sanskrit nouns must divide itself into two heads : ist, the formation of the base; 2dly, the inflection or declension of the base ; that is, the adaptation of the base or modified root to a common scheme of case-terminations. a. In fact, it will appear in the sequel, that the same system applies both to nouns and verbs. As in verbs (see 248) the formation of a verbal base from a root precedes the subject of verbal inflection or conjugation, so in nouns it is necessary to the clear elucidation of the subject that the method of forming the nominal base from the root should be explained antecedently to declension. b. Indeed, it must be remembered that nouns, substantive and adjective, in Sanskrit are classified into separate declensions, accord- ing to the finals of their bases, not according to the finals of their cases ; and it becomes essential to determine the form of the final syllable of the nominal base before the various declensions can be arranged. 79. The bases of nouns, substantive and adjective, are formed either by adding certain affi.xes to the root, the vowel of which is liable, at the same time, to be gunated or vriddhied (see 28. a) ; or by adding certain afiixes to the bases of nouns already formed. When, however, the root itself is used as a noun, no affix is required, but the root is then also the base. Hence it follows that the final syllable of nominal bases will end in almost any letter of the alphabet. Those bases, however, that end in vowels may be conveniently separated under four classes, each class containing masc, fem., and neuter nouns ; the ist ending in ^ a, "m a, and ^ e; the 2d in ^i; the 3d in ^ u ; and the 4th in "% ri. Those that end in consonants may also be arranged under four classes; the 1st, 2d, and 3d, ending in fst or ^ vXaKog. V. ^TtT ana (nom. -anam), after Guna of the root, forming, ist, a large class of neuter substantives; as, from m, 'to guide,' nayana, 'the eye,' 'guidance;' from da, ' to give,' ddna, ' a gift ;' from drip, to make proud,' darpana, ' a mirror.' Compare analogous Greek formations in avo ; as, opyavov, opeTravov, &c. W^ ana, forming, 2dly (nom. -anas, -and, -anam), nouns of agency (see 582. c) and adjectives; as, from nrit, 'to dance,' nartana, 'a dancer;' from subh, 'to shine,' sobhana, ' bright.' Compare Greek forms hke iKavog, &c. The feminine of the agents is sometimes in -ant. VI. rfwa. Afewabstract nouns are formed with wa; as, yo/wa,' sacrifice,' from ?/«;; yatna, ' effort,' from yat; swapna, ' sleep,' from swap. Compare VTTVOg, somnus. VII. W tra (nom. -tram), after Guna of the root ; as, from jm, ' to drink,' pdtra, 'a vessel;' from "^ sru, 'to hear,' srotra, 'the organ of hearing.' This affix is used to form neuter nouns denoting some instrument or organ, and corresponds to the Latin trum in aratrum, plectrum, &c.; and the Greek rpov, 6pov in ViTrrpov, /SixKTpov, ^dSpov, &c. VIII. There are other uncommon aifijces to roots to form adjectives and a few substantives in ^a (nom. -as, -d, -am) ; as, T ra, 75 la, vtc) ala, ^IT ara, '^X vara, JTT mara, ^19 ila, ^ ira, TT! ura, T55 ula, T ma, '^ va, W tra, ^TRi dka, TiX. era, Tofi uka, "3ioIi uka, «fi ka. The following are examples of nouns formed with these affixes: dipra, 'shining' (compare Greek formations like ka[J.7r-pog, &c.; and Latin ^M-rws, &c.); chandra,' the moon;' s'ukla, white;' cAo^a/a, ' fickle ;' tarala, 'trembUng' (compare Greek forms like ipoyj-akoq, Tpcui-ikoq; and Latin trem- ulus, &c.) ; vatara, ' unsteady' (compare Greek forms like (pavepog, &c.) ; jitwara, ' victorious ;' ghasmara, ' voracious ;' anila, ' wind ;' pathila, ' a traveller' (compare Latin forms hke agilis, &c.); chhidira, 'an axe;' bhidura, 'brittle;' harshula, 'a lover;' bhima, 'terrible;' gharma, m., heat;' yugma, n., 'a pair;' dhuma, m., ' smoke' (compare forms like Bv-fxog, avefx-og, fumus, animus, &c.) ; aswa, m., ' a horse' (equus); chitra, 'variegated;' jalpdka, 'talkative' (compare forms hke Inr/uacs, loquac. and (f)evaKg for (f)€va,Kog) ; patera, ' moving ;' varshuka, ' rainy ;' 46 SANSKRIT ROOTS, jdgaruka, watchful' (added especially to frequentative or reduplicate forms ; as, from vdvad, 'to speak often;' vdvaduka, 'loquacious'); sushka, 'dry' (from smsA, to dry.' Compare Latin siccus). Formed by adding to the bases of nouns — IX. r«r twa (nom. -hvam), forming neuter abstract substantives from any noun in the language ; as, fi-om purusha, ' a man,' purushatwa, ' manliness.' In adding this affix to bases ending in nasals, the nasal is rejected ; as, from dhanin, ' rich,' dhanitwa, ' the state of being rich.' (See 57.) X. '^ ya, forming, ist (nom. -yam), neuter abstract substantives aud a few col- lectives, the first syllable of the noun taking Vriddhi; as, from ^^? suhrid, ' a friend,' ^T^ST saukridya, 'friendship.' When the base ends in a vowel, this vowel is rejected before ya is affixed ; as, from vichitra, ' various,' vaickifrya, ' variety.' XI. tr ya, forming, 2dly (nom. -yas, -yd, -yam), adjectives expressing some relationship to the noun ; as, from dhana, ' wealth,' dhanya, ' wealthy.' Some- times Vriddhi takes place ; as, from soma, ' the moon,' saumya, ' lunar.' In this case the fem. is -yi. Compare Greek adjectives in log, and Latin in ius. XII. '3T a (nom. -as, -i, -am), after Vriddhi of the first syllable of the noun, form- ing innumerable adjectives expressing some relationship to the noun. When the base ends in a, no further affix is required, and the only change is the Vriddhi of the first syllable; as, from purusha, 'a man,' ''it^^ paurusha, 'manly;' from Vasishtha, Vdsishtha, ' a descendant of Vasishtha.' When in a or i, this a or i must be rejected ; as, from sikatd, ' sand,' saikata, ' sandy.' When in u, this u is gunated, and becomes av before this and the three following affixes ; as, fi-om Vishnu, 'the god Vishnu,' Vaishnava, ' a worshipper of Vishnu;' from ddru, 'wood,' ddrava, wooden;' from manu, mdnava, ' a descendant of Manu.' When the initial letter of a word is compounded with v or y, these latter are resolved into uv and iy, which are vriddhied ; as, vyv] ; and Latin fuga, &c. Occasionally there is Guna ; as in lekhd, a line,' from likh, ' to write ;' jard, ' old age,' from jri, ' to grow old.' This affix is frequently added to the desiderative form of a root; as, from pipds, 'to desire to drink,' jnpdsd, 'thirst;' and rarely 48 SANSKRIT ROOTS, to the frequentative or intensive ; as, from loluy, ' to cut much,' loliiyd, ' cutting much.' A few abstract nouns are formed with rfT nd; as, trishnd, 'thirst,' from Irish: compare Greek nouns in vyj. By adding to the bases of nouns — XXIII. WT td (nom. -td), forming feminine abstract substantives; as, from purusha, ' a man,' purushatd, ' manhness.' This affix may be added to any noun in the language, and corresponds to the Latin tas in celeritas, &c.; and the Greek ri^g in KOiKOTYig, TTkaTvrrjg (^^iTT). Also forming collectives ; as, "^"^^^^WT ' a number of relations,' from "^'^ ' a relation.' XXIV. ^ trd (nom. -trd), forming a few substantives, derived from neuters in tra (see VII), and like them denoting 'the instrument' or 'means;' as, ^'^T ' a tooth,' 'the instrument of biting,' from dans, 'to bite;' Midi 'provisions,' 'the means of going,' from yd, ' to go.' XXV. '^ { (nom. -i), forming a large class of feminine substantives, usually derived from mascuhnes in a, by changing a to i; as, from nada, ' a river,' fem. nadi ; from putra, ' a son,' fem. putri ; from nartaka, ' a dancer,' fem. nartaki. An affix dm is used to denote ' the wife of;' as, from Indra, ^*^[*sji\ (58) ' the wife of Indra.' Compare the Greek aiva in 6eaiva, &c. XXVI. '^ t (nom. -i), forming, 2dly, the feminine of nouns of agency, like ^Tff ddtri, ' a giver' (129. b), and kdrin, ' a doer' (160). XXVII. \{ (nom. -i), forming, 3dly, the feminine of many adjectives; as of tami, 'thin' (118. a), of dhanavat, 'rich,' and dhtmat, 'wise' (140. b); of dhanin, 'rich' (160), and of comparative degrees like haliyas (167). Observe — The femi- nine of some adjectives formed with the affixes a, ya, ika, and cya (XI. XII. XIII. XIV), and of some adjectives like sundara, ' beautiful,' is also formed with i. XXVIII. A few roots standing by themselves as substantives, or with preposi- tions prefixed, or at the end of compounds, may come under this class ; as, bM, fear,' djt'id, 'an order,' from ^TT 'to know;' sendm, 'a general,' from send, 'an army,' and ni, ' to lead,' &c. It will be more convenient, however, to consider the declension of monosyllabic nouns in i' under the 2d class. See 123. 81. Second Class. — Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter bases in \\. Formed by adding to roots — I. \i, forming, ist (nom. -is), a few masculine substantives; as, agni, 'fire,' from an-k, 'to mark;' kavi, 'a poet,' from ku, 'to sound;' ahi, 'a snake' (^X'S", unguis), from anh, 'to move;' dhtvani, 'sound,' from dhwan ; peshi, a thunder- bolt,' from pesh, 'to crush,' &c. "When this affix is added to the root dhd, 'to place,' ' to hold,' d is dropped, and various prepositions are pi-efixed ; as in sandhi, vidhi, nidhi, &c. Also a few feminine nouns ; as, krishi, ' ploughing,' from krish j lipi, ' writing,' from Up, &c. Compare Greek forms like %«/?'?, Ikirti, fxyjvig (»T^^). AND THE FORMATION OF NOMINAL BASES. 49 II. ^t, forming, adly (nom. -i), one or two neuter substantives; as, from vri, 'to surround,' vdri, 'water;' from aksh, 'to perA-ade,' akski, 'an eye' {oculus, V III. ^j, forming, 3dly (nom. -is, -is, -i), a few adjectives ; as, from such, ' to be pure,' snchi, 'pure;' from budh, 'to know,' bodhi, 'wise.' IV. fH mi (nom. -mis), forming a few nouns; as, bhihni, f., ' the earth,' from bhii, ' to be' [humus) ; rasmi, m., ' a ray,' &c. V. fk ti (nom. -tis), forming abstract substantives feminine. This affix bears a great analogy to the passive participle at 531. The same changes of the root are required before it as before this participle ; and, in fact, provided the passive participle does not insert i, this substantive may always be formed from it, by changing ta into ti. But if i is inserted before ta, no such substantive can be formed * : thus, from vach, ' to speak,' ukta, ' spoken,' ukti, ' speech ;' from man, ' to imagine,' mata, ' imagined,' m,ati, ' the mind ;' from da, ' to give,' datta, ' given,' datti, ' a gift.' And when na is substituted for ta of the passive participle, ni is substituted for ti; as, from glai, ' to be weary,' gldna, ' wearied,' gldni, ' weariness;' from lu, ' to cut,' Una, ' cut,' luni, ' cutting :' but not always ; as, from ^l^' to fill,' purna, ' full,' purtti, ' fulness.' This affix corresponds to the tio of the Latin, added in the same way to passive participles ; as, actus, actio ; junctus, junctio (yuktis). Greek exhibits analogous forms in ^evgi$, TrtUTig, ooaig. A few masculine nouns are formed with ti; as, yati, ' a sage,' from yam, ' to restrain;' jiidti, 'a relation,' homjhd; pati, 'a husband' [ior pdti), from pd. Formed by adding to the bases of a few nouns ending in a — VI. ^i (nom. -is), after Vriddhi of the first syUable, and after rejection of the final vowel. This affix forms a few patronymics ; as, fft^lrfnT daushyanti, ' the son of Dushyanta,' from ^«M»ft dushyanta. 82. Third Class. — Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter bases in "g- u. Formed bv adding to roots — I. "3"m, forming, ist (nom. -us), substantives of the mascuUne, and one or two of the feminine gender; as, from bandh, 'to bind,' bandhu, m., 'a kinsman;' from kri, 'to do,' kdru, m., 'an artificer;' from bhid, 'to cleave,' bhidu, m., 'a thunderbolt ;' from tan, ' to stretch,' tanu, f., ' the body.' II. "3" u, forming, 2dly (nom. -u), one or two neuter substantives ; as, ddru, ' wood,' from dn, 'to cleave' {^opv) ; madhu, ' honey' {[J^eOv), &c. III. ■3" «, forming, 3dly (nom. -us, -us or vi, -u), sometimes with change of the root, a few adjectives ; as, from swad, ' to taste,' swddu, ' sweet' {'/jov) ; from ta^i, ' to stretch,' tanu, ' thin' (compare ram) ; from langh, ' to spring,' laghu, ' light' {Ikayy); from prath, 'to extend,' /^rif Am, 'broad' {iiXarv). This affix is often added to desiderative roots to form adjectives ; as, from piims, ' to desire to drink,' pipdsu, ' thirsty;' from fafiftf^W ' to desire to live,' ftTrftf^ ' desirous of living.' * Nevertheless, ^T^tflT from 'j^rf occurs, though not given in the Dictionarj'. H 50 SANSKRIT ROOTS) Latin has added an i to all adjectives formed with n in the cognate languages ; as, tenuis from tanus; gravis (for gariiis) from gurus. It has, however, substan- tives in u; as, currus, acus, &c. IV. '^ nu (nom. -nus, -nus, -nu), forming adjectives and substantives ; as, from tras, 'to fear,' trasnu, 'timid;' from bhd, 'to shine,' bhdnu, m., 'the sun;' from (Ike, to drink,' dkenu, f., ' a cow;' from su, ' to bear,' siimi, m., ' a son.' (Compare Greek forms like Xiyvv^.) V. '^W ishm (nom. -ishnus, -ishnus, -islinu), with Guna of the root, forming adjectives ; as, from kshi, ' to perish,' kshayishnu, ' perishing.' VI. There are many other affixes to roots, forming nouns in « (nom. -us, -us, -«); as, ^ ru, IT nu, ?Jiirt dht, W snu, '^^T^ dm, ^(9" itnu, TT tu, ^"^ athu, ^ yu. The following nouns afford examples of these affixes : bhtru, ' timid ;' asru, n., ' a tear' (for dasru, from dans, 'to bite,' compare OaKpv, lacryma); saydlu, 'sleepy;' sthdsnu, firm;' sardru, ' noxious;' gadayitnu, ' loquacious;' jantu, m., ' an animal;' gantu, m., 'a traveller;' vepathu, m., 'trembling;' manyu, m., 'wrath' (^€VOf) ; and mrityu, m. f., ' death.' There are a few nouns in long li, which may conveniently be placed under this class. They consist chiefly of roots standing by themselves as substantives, or at the end of compounds : thus, >T^ f. ' the earth,' *s*(*^ m. ' the self-existent,' &c. See 125. a, 126. b. 83. Fourth Class. — Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter bases in ^ri. Formed by adding to roots — I. "^ tri, forming, ist (nom. -td, -tri, -tri), nouns of agency of three genders, the same change of the root being required which takes place in the first future, and the same euphonic changes of t (see 386 and 581): thus, from kship, 'to throw,' ksheptri, 'a thrower;' from dd, 'to give,' ddtri, 'a giver;' from "^^I'to know,' Wt'S boddhri, 'a knower;' from ^|r 'to bear,' ^ffe' 'patient.' This cor- responds to the Latin affix tor, and the Greek rvjo : compare dator, OOTrjo. II. 1^ tri, forming, 2dly (nom. -td), nouns of relationship, masculine and femi- nine ; as, pitri, ' a father,' mdtri, ' a mother.' 84. Fifth Class. — Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter bases in tt t and J[ d. Formed by adding to roots — I. T^^ (nom. -t, in all genders), if the root ends in a short vowel: forming nouns of agency, substantives and adjectives, of three genders ; as, from kri, ' to do,' krit, a doer;' from ji, ' to conquer,' jit, ' a conqueror.' This class of nouns are never used, except as the last member of a compound : thus, karmakrif, ' a doer of work.' Roots already ending in / or d, taken to form adjectives or nouns of agency, fall under this class; as, from vid, 'to know,' dharmavid, 'one who knows his duty;' AND THE FORMATION OF NOMINAL BASES. 51 from 1^ ' to eat,' "Si^l^ " an eater of flesh.' There are also a few nouns falling under this class, formed by prefixing prepositions to roots ending in < or rf or a short vowel ; as, from vid, ' to know,' ^Jf^ f. ' an agreement ;' from ^^[^dijut, ' to shine,' vidyut, ' lightning ;' from pad, ' to go,' sampad, ' success.' So also, ^rn7fT^ ' battle,' from ^ ' to go ;' TT, a-izTwr, &c. (See Bopp's Comparative Grammar, Eastwick, 1293.) IL T^^t (nom. -it, in all genders), after Guna of the root, forming a few sub- stantives and adjectives; as, from TS sri, 'to flow,' '^fljf^sarif, f., ' a stream;' from ^ ' to seize,' liTfT ' green,' ' Vishnu.' in. There are a few other nouns in W / and ^ d, of uncertain derivation; as, H^TT ra. ' the wind,' ^R!^ f. ' autumn,' "^^^ f- ' a stone,' W^ n. ' a lotus.' By adding to the base of nouns — L Wt^^vat (nom. -van, -vati, -vat), if the base ends in a or d*, forming innu- merable adjectives ; as, from dhana, ' wealth,' dhanavat, ' possessed of wealth.' This and the next affix are universally apphcable, and are of the utmost utility to form adjectives of possession. Sometimes vat is added to bases in s and t; as in in{Wt[^t€Jaswat (compare 69. a) and vidyutioat (see 45). Compare Greek forms in ezf, evr; as, "/apiei^, yapievT, ^UKpvoeig, ^aKpvoevT, &c. H. m[^mat (nom. -man, -matt, -mat), if the base ends in i, i, or u, to form adjectives like the preceding; as, from dhi, ' wisdom,' dhimat, ' wise ;' from ansa, ' a ray,' ansumat, radiant.' 85. Sixth Class. — Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter bases in ^R an and l^^in. Formed by adding to roots — L '^PT an (nom. -a), forming a few masculine nouns ; as, rdjan, ' a king,' from raj, ' to be glorious ;' takshan, ' a carpenter,' from taksh, ' to cleave ;' ukshan, ' a bull' (compare English oxen), from uksh, ' to impregnate ;' snehan, ' a friend,' from snih, ' to love,' &c. Greek and Latin have similar formations in wv, &v, tjv, av, on and inj as, reKTOV = W^'^T {reKTCOv), eiKOV {-kccv), homin {homo), &c. * Vat is not often found added to feminine bases. It occurs, however, occa- sionally ; as, efiPfTT^lT ' having a wife,' f^^RT^' crested.' H 2 52 SANSKRIT ROOTS, II. W*{^man (nom. -ma), after Guna of the root, forming neuter substantives; as, from kri, ' to do,' karman, ' a deed.' This affix corresponds to the Latin mmi, in regimen, agmen, stamen, &c. ; and to the Greek /xa)V, in {XVi^fxav, TX.rjy.CiiV, &c. : but adjectives in man, like '^IT'^ ' prosperous,' are very rare in Sanskrit. A few nouns in man are masculine; as, dtman, ' soul' (nom. -md); ^TT*^ the hot season ;' yi'+jrj ' fire ;' ■CTPlT'JT ' sin ;' '^t^'^ ' a border ;' '^TJT ' a loom.' III. T?T ?•«« (nom. -vd, -rd, -va), forming a few substantives and adjectives; as, "H^'TT ' seeing,' ' a looker,' from dris, ' to see.' By adding to roots or to the base of nouns — W . ~^^ linan (nom. -imd), forming masculine abstract substantives. If the noun ends in a or w, these vowels are rejected ; as, from kdla, ' black,' kdliman, ' blackness ;' from laghu, ' light,' laghiman, ' lightness ;' from mridu, ' soft,' mradiman, &c. If it ends in a consonant, this consonant, with its preceding vowel, is rejected ; as, from mahat, ' great,' mahiman, ' greatness.' A medial ri before a simple consonant is changed to ra, but not before a double consonant ; as, from onuii ' black,' wfdHT'T ' blackness.' A final ri is gunated ; as, sariman fi'om srij stariman from stri (compare stramen); hariman, 'time,' from hri, &c. Iman is generally added to adjectives, and the same changes take place before it, that take place before the affixes lyas and ishtha (see 192): thus, gariman, preman, drdghiman, bhuman, prathiman, &c. By adding to roots — V. '^'T in (nom. -i, -ini, -i), after Vriddhi of a final vowel and medial a, and Guna of any other medial vowel, forming nouns of agency of three genders (see 582. b); as, from kri, 'to do,' kdrin, ' a doer.' Compare Greek and Latin forma- tions in ov and nn; as, t^ktov {-Kxav), edon (edo), &c. By adding to the base of nouns — VI. '^ in (nom. -/, -ini, -i), forming innumerable adjectives of possession. The final of a base is rejected before this aflRx ; as, from dhana, ' wealth,' dhanin, ' wealthy ;' from mdld, ' a garland,' mdlin, ' garlanded ;' from vrihi, ' rice,' vrihin, ' having rice.' Compare Greek and Latin formations in av and on; as, yvaS-uv, ' having cheeks ;' nasoii {naso), ' having a nose.' VII. f^^^vin (nom. -vi, -vim, -vi), if the base ends in a or as, forming a few adjectives ; as, from medhd, ' intellect,' medhdmn, ' intellectual ;' from tejas, ' splen- dour,' fejaswin, ' splendid.' Compare 69. a. 86. Seventh Class. — Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter bases in W?T as, ^ is, and T^^ us. Formed by adding to roots — I. '^F ris (nom. -as), after Guna, forming a great many neuter substantives; as, from man, ' to think,' manas, ' the mind ;' from sri, ' to go,' saras, ' water.' It also forms one or two masculine and feminine nouns; as, i^edhas, m., Brahma;' AND THE FORMATION OP NOMINAL BASES. 53 chandramas, m., ' the moon;' apsaras, f., ' a nymph ;' nshas, f., ' the dawn,' from ush, ' to glow :' but in these the nominative is long (-«.s-). II. 3(^JS or "^^^us (nom. -is, -us). In place of as, the neuter affixes is or us are occasionally added; as, from hu, 'to offer,' havis, 'ghee;' from chaksh, 'to speak,' chakshus, ' the eye.' See 68. a. With as compare the Latin es in nubes («T*TH ?ja6/i«*'), sedes (W^^sadas), &c. ; but especially the us and ur of words hke genus, scelus, robur. Compare also the Greek formations 7ra5-0f, €0-0$, [Xev-Oi, i/zeD^-os-, &c. 87. Eighth Class. — Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter bases in any Consonant, except IT t and r^ d, v^ n, TT s. Formed by using roots as adjectives, substantives, or nouns of agency — Any root may be used to form an adjective or a noun of agency, provided it be the last member of a compound word : thus, from ^cir ' to be able,' sarvasak, omnipotent.' Those roots which end in t or d, or in a short vowel, having t afiLxed, have been already noticed as faUing under the fifth class. This eighth class is intended to comprise aU other roots, ending in any consonant; as, W^^bhuj (nom. bhuk) ; TT5T raj (nom. TXZ) ; TflW (nom. THZ) ; WV (nom. >Jf^) ; ^ (nom. "^^IT) ; HTT (nom. gts) ; f^^(nom. dyaiis) ; ^^ (nom. sprik) ; V^ (nom. "R?) ; fc5^ (nom. f<^) ; |['? (nom. Y^)' 'f'T^'^^(nom. pipak). There are also one or two other nouns derived from roots falling under this class; as, TTHJI'T ' thirsty ' (nom. ^U!l«h) ; "^ff^iT ' a priest' (nom. ^PrBioh) ; ^Ws^n. ' blood' (nom. '^^^) ; and a few substantives foi-med by prefixing prepositions to roots ; as, ^T*T''J f. 'fuel' (nom. ^^TTT^), from the root ^■'^' to kindle' (see 43 and 75, with note). A few roots standing by themselves as substantives may fall under this class : thus, "JV f. ' battle' (nom. "^TT) ; "^VI f. ' hunger' (nom. ■^) ; ^T"^^ f. ' speech' (nom. Ml«f»), from vach, ' to speak,' the medial a being lengthened. Greek and Latin use a few monosyllabic roots in the same manner; as, 01^ [ott], (f)Xo^ {(f)\oy), &c.; and Latin vox (voc), lex (leg), dux (due). CHAPTER IV. DECLENSION ; OR INFLECTION OF THE BASE OF NOUNS, SUBSTANTIVE AND ADJECTIVE. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 88. Having explained how the base of nouns is generally formed, we have now to shew how it is inflected. As, in the last chapter, nouns, substantive and adjective, were arranged under eight classes, according to the final of their bases 54 DECLENSION. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. (the first four classes comprising- those ending in vowels, the last four those ending in consonants), so it will be the object of the present chapter to exhibit their declension or inflection under the same eight classes. Moreover, as every class comprised adjectives as well as substantives, so it is intended that the declension of a masculine, feminine, and neuter substantive, exhibited under each, shall serve as the model for the declension of masculine, feminine, and neuter adjectives coming under the same class. 89. The learner will have already gathered that the noun has three genders, and that the gender is, in many cases, determinable from the termination of the base. Thus, all bases in a, i, and those formed with the affix ti (No. 81. V), are feminine: nearly all nouns whose crudes end in ana, twa, ya, tra (see under 80), as, is, us (86), and inan (85. II), are neuter; all in iman (85. IV) are masculine; but those in a, i, u, and ri, are not reducible to rule. The nomina- tive case is, however, in the first of these instances a guide to the gender ; as, devas, ' a deity,' is masculine ; but ddnam, ' a gift,' neuter. And in other cases the meaning of the word ; as, pitri, ' a father,' is masculine ; and mdtri, ' a mother,' feminine. 90. In Sanskrit, all the relations between the words in a sentence are expressed by inflections. A great many prepositions exist in the language, but they are rarely used alone in government with any case, their chief use being as prefixes to verbs and nouns. The dearth of such useful syntactical auxiliaries leads to the necessity for eight cases, which are regularly built upon the base. These are called, i. nominative; 2. accusative; 3. instrumental; 4. dative; 5. ablative ; 6. genitive ; 7. locative ; 8. vocative *. Of these, the third and seventh are new to the classical student. The instru- mental denotes generally the instrument by which a thing is done ; as, tena kritam, ' done by him.' The locative generally refers to the place or time in Avhich any thing is done ; as, Ayodhydydm, ' in Ayodhyd;' purvakdle, ' in former time ;' bhumau, ' on the ground f.' Hence it follows that the ablative is restricted to the sense from. * These cases will sometimes be denoted by their initial letters. Thus N. will denote nominative ; L, instrumental. t Both these cases are used to denote various other relations. See the Chapter on Syntax. DECLENSION. — GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 55 and cannot be used, as in Latin and Greek, to express by, with, in, at, on, &c. 91. According to the Indian system of teaching, each of these eight cases has three numbers, singular, dual, and plural ; and to each belongs a termination which is considered to be peculiarly its own, serving alike for masculine, feminine, and neuter nouns. Again, according to the native system, some of the terminations may be combined with memorial letters to aid pronunciation or assist the memory. Thus the proper termination of the nominative singular is ^ s (expressible by Visarga before k, p, and the sibilants, or at the end of a sentence, see 61,) ; but the memorial termination is TT su, the letter u being only memorial. Similarly, the termina- tion of the nominative plural is jas, the j being memorial. The two schemes of termination, with and without the memorial letters, are here exhibited. The first is given in small type, as being of no importance excepting as subservient to the second. TerminatioTis with memorial letters. SING. DUAL. PLURAL. Nom . '^ SU ■^ an l^^jas Ace. ^ am W\Z auf -^^sas Inst. ZTtd wit bhydm f^bhis Dat. T n.e wrr bhydm WW bhyas Abl. tFh n-asi vqf bhydm WRT bhyas Gen. TWra-as ^IcT OS ^1 dm Loc. fr n-i ^^ OS ^^sup Terminations without memorial letters. SING. DUAL. PLURAL. Nom. ^^. ^ au ^^^ as Ace. ^ am — au — as Inst. ^n a WTT bhydm f^T(bhis Dat. ^ € — bhydm ^"^^bhyas Abl. ^TOa* — bhydm — bhyas Gen. — as ^>W0* "m dm Loc. \i OS •^su 92. Observe — The vocative is not given in the above general scheme, as it is held to be only another aspect of the nominative, and always coincides with the nom. in the dual and plural. In the singular it is often identical with the base, and has no termination. 56 DECLENSION. — GENERA L OBSERVATIONS. a. Observe also — The terminations beginning with vowels will often be called voiv el-terminations ; those beginning with consonants, including the nom. sing., will be called consonantal-terminations. Similarly, those cases which take the vowel-terminations will some- times be called voivel-cases ; and those which take the consonantal, consonantal-cases. 93. Having propounded the above scheme, which for convenience will be called the memorial scheme of terminations, as the general type of the several case-affixes in the three numbers, Indian gram- marians proceed to adapt them to every noun, substantive and adjective, in the language, as well as to pronouns, numerals, and participles, whether masculine, feminine, or neuter. In fact, their theory is, that there is but one declension in Sanskrit, and that the base of a noun being given, and the regular case-terminations being given, the base is to be joined to those terminations according to the usual rules for the combination of final and initial letters, as in the following examples of the two bases, ^T nau, f., ' a ship^ {navi, vav), and ^frTT harit, m. f., ' green.' 94. SINGULAR. Nom. voc. "JTT^ naus nau + s DUAL. ■JTTTr ndvau nau + au. See 37. PLURAL. tTRIT ndvas nau + as. 37. Ace. ■JTR' ndvam nau -^ am. 37. — ndvau — ndvas Inst. iTT^ ndva nau + a. 37. ■^vqr nauhhydm nau + bhydm ^fir^^ naubhis nau + bhis Dat. "^1% nave nau + e. 37. — naubhydm vfr«W^ naubhyas nau + bhyas Abl. -iTT^ ndvas nau + as. 37. — naubhydm — naubhyas Gen. qvcc^ ndvas nau -\- as. 37. iTTTf^ ndvos nau + OS. 37. HI'm ndvdm nau + am. 37. Loc. rrrf^ ndvi nau+i. 37. — ndvos •^^ naushu nau -f su. 70. DECLENSION. (GENERAL OBSERVATIONH. 57 95- SIXGULAR. Nom, voc. •^fr?^ harit harit + s. 86643.0. DUAL. •^ITT haritau harit + au. 41. i. PLURAL. ' ^ft:TTTff haritas harit + as. 41. b. Ace. fftiT harit am harit -\- am. 41. b. — haritau — haritas Inst. ^fiiTT harita harit + a. 41 . b. f ft.^t haridbhydm harit + bhydm.4.i. ^fT;fk^ haridbhis harit + bhis. 41. Dat. ■^frw harit e harit + e. 41. b. — haridbhydm ^ftSHT haridbhyas harit + bhyas. 41. Abl. ^ftlT^^ haritas harit -\-as.41.b. — haridbhydm — haridbhyas Gen. — haritas •^ft^^^ haritos harit + os. 41. b. ffTTit haritdm harit + am. 41. i5i. Loc. ^ft;fw hariti harit + i. 41. b. — haritos ^fTrP haritsu harit + su. 40. 96. Unfortunately, however, it happens, that of nouns whose bases end in vowels, ^ 7iau, ' a ship/ is nearly the only one that admits of this regular junction of the base with the case-endings ; and, although nouns whose bases end in consonants are numerous, and are generally declined as regularly as harit, yet they are nume- rically insignificant, compared with nouns in «, d, i, i, u, and ri, whose declension requires frequent changes in the final of the base, and various modifications, or even substitutions, in the terminations. 97. Thus in the first class of nouns ending in a (which will be found to comprise more nouns than all the other seven classes together; compare 80 with 81 — 87), not only is the final a of the base liable to be lengthened and changed to e, but also the termina- tion ina is substituted for d, the proper termination of the instru- mental sing. masc. ; ya for e of the dative ; t for as of the ablative ; sya for as of the genitive ; n for as of the accus. plural ; ais for bhis of the instrum. plural. And in many other nouns particular changes and substitutions are required, some of which are determined by the gender. 58 DECLENSION. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. The annexed table exhibits synoptically the terminations, with tlie most usual substitutions, throughout all the classes of nouns. Those substitutions marked * are mostly restricted to nouns ending in f/, and are therefore especially noticeable. SINGULAR. DUAL. PLURAL. X. TT (m. f.), JT * (n.) ^7 (m.f.), t (n.) ^ (m. f.), ^ (n.) Ac. ^ (m. f.), JT * (m. f. n.) ^ (m.f.), f (n.) ^TT,'ff (m.f.),7r*(m.),?(n.) I. ^^n (m. f. n.), ^Tf * (m. n.) «it (m. f. n.) fv{W (m.f.n.), ^tt* (m.n.) D. XJ (m. f. n.), -Ji * (m. n.) vqf (m. f. n.) vnv. (m. f. n.) Ab.'sm (m.f.n.), ■?T^(m.f.), ^^* (m.n.) vqr (m. f. n.) «iT? (m. f. n.) G. ^^(m.f.n.),^^(m.f.),^*(m.n.) ^T^r (m. f. n.) ^ (m. f. n.) L. 'S^ (m. f. n.), ^^it * (f.) »J?TIT (m. f. n.) ^ (m. f. n.) a. Comparing the above terminations with those of Latin and Greek, we may- remark that s enters into the nom. sing, masc, and m or n into the neuter, in all three languages. In regard to the Sanskrit dual au, the original termination was a, as found in the Vedas ; and a equals the Greek a, i{v) for (pig {vav-(f)iv = naubhis). The ais which belongs to Sanskrit nouns in a is probably a contraction of dbhis, since in the Vedas aswebkis for aswdbhis is found for aswais, and vrikebhis for vrlkais. The dat. pi. bhyas answers to the Latin bus. In the gen. sing, all three languages have preserved the s (ndvas, navis, vafog for vvjog); and in the gen. pi. dm is equivalent to the Greek av, and the Latin mn {'^^ = iro^av, pedum). In loc. sing, the Sanskrit i is preserved in the dative of Greek and Latin words (fJTf5I = vvKTi — Compare the expression ryj avTY/ vvkti — 'JTTf% = mflri). In loc. pi. su answers to the Greek cri ("^it^ = vavai ). Sanskrit bases in a prefix i to su; so that vrikaishii (29. b) = XvKOicri. The voc. sing, in Greek is generally identical with the base, and the voc. dual and pi. with the nom., as in Sanskrit : thus Xoye is the voc. sing, of Xoyog, Tpirjpeg of Tpivjpvjg, yapiiv of yapidig, ^a(7ikev of pao-tkevg, &c. See Bopji's Comparative Grammar, YjAstwick, passim. 98. In the following pages no attempt will be made to bring back all nouns to the general scheme of terminations by a detailed explanation of changes and substitutions in every case. But under every one of the eight classes a model noun for the masculine, feminine, and neuter, serving for adjectives as well as substantives, DECLENSION. — GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 59 will be declined at full ; and under every case of every noun the method of joining the final letter of the base -with the ])ropcr termi- nations will be indicated in English letters. 99. The student must, however, understand, that the division into eight classes, which here follows, is not meant to imply the existence of eight separate declensions in the sense understood by the classical scholar, but is rather intended to shew, that the final letters of the inflective bases of nouns may be arranged under four general heads for vowels, and four for consonants ; and that all Sanskrit nouns, whatever may be the final of their bases, are capa- ble of adaptation to one common scheme of nearly similar case- terminations. a. In the same manner it will appear in the sequel, that the ten classes into which verbs are divided do not imply ten different conjugations, but rather ten different ways of adapting the bases of verbs to one common scheme of tense- terminations. There is no reason why the same system of generalisation should not have been carried out in Latin and Greek, had the inflection of nouns and verbs in these languages been built \ipon roots and crude bases. 100. The classical scholar may, if he please, satisfy his own ideas of declension, by regarding masculine and neuter nouns in a, like siva of the first class, as his 1st declension; feminine nouns in a and i, like sivd and nadi of the first class, as his 2d declension ; masculine and feminine noims in i and u, like havi, mati, bhdnu, and dhenu, of the second and third classes, as his 3d declension ; and all the remaining nouns, including the neuters of those in i and ?/, and all those contained in the last five classes, as his 4th declension. These four declensions may be traced in regular order in the following pages, and will be denoted by the capital letters A at 103 ; B at 105 ; C at 1 10 ; D at 1 14. 101. Observe, that in declining the model nouns, under every inflection, the crude base with the sign + , and after it the termina- tion, will be exhibited in English letters. Moreover, the number of the rule of Sandhi which must come into operation in joining the final of the base with the initial of the termination will generally be indicated. For it is most important to remember, that the formation of every case in a Sanskrit noun supposes the application of a rule of Sandhi or ' junction ;' and that the very meaning of declension is the junction of the final syllable of the crude base with the terminations. I02. Not unft-equently, however, m some of the cases, the original final of the base is changed to its (juna or Vriddhi efpiivalent (see 27), or to some other 1 a CO DECLENSION OF CRUDE BASES ENDING IN VOWELS. letter (see 4.3. b. c. d. e), before the termination is affixed; and not unfrequently the original termination of the scheme is changed for some other termination, as indicated at 97. In order, therefore, that the student, without forgetting the original final of the crude base, or the original termination of the memorial scheme, may at the same time observe, ist, whether in any particular instances the final of the base under- goes any or what modification — adly, whether the original termination sufPers any change — it will be desirable that, whenever in exceptional cases the final vowel of the base is to be gunated or vriddhied, or otherwise changed, this changed form of the base be exhibited in place of the original form : thus, at 103, under the geni- tive dual sivayos, sive + os denotes, that before the base siva is joined to the termination os, the final letter a is to be changed to e; and the number indicates the rule of Sandhi which must come into operation in joining sive and os together. Similarly, whenever the original termination has to be modified, it will be desira- ble that the termination be exhibited in its altered form : thus, at 103, under the accus. sing., siva + m denotes, that the base is to be joined with m, substituted for the original termination am. See the table, page 58. SECTION I. DECLENSION OF NOUNS, SUBSTANTIVE AND ADJECTIVE, WHOSE BASES END IN VOWELS, OR OF THE FIRST FOUR CLASSES OF NOUNS. FIRST CLASS OF NOUNS DECLINED. Masculine and neuter' bases in ^ a ; feminine bases in W[ a. and ^ i. Note, that this class comprises by far the greater number of nouns, substantive and adjective, in the language. It answers to a common class of Latin and Greek words in us and 0$, urn and ov, a and a; such as lupus, \vKOi ( = Sans, vrlkas, nom. of vrika); domtm, ^wpov; terra, y^^a, ( =>nrr); and to adjectives like hontis, ayaSog, &c. 103. (A) Masculine bases in a, declined like %^ siva, m., ' the god S'iva/ or as an adjective, ' prosperous.' The final of the base is lengthened in D. Ab. sing., I. D. Ab. du., G. pi. ; and changed to e in G. L. du., D. Ab. L. pi. : n is euphonically affixed to the final in G. pi. \ii(^\mias ■ftfl"^ sivau f^^Va^sivds [s/ra + .v siva + an. See 33. siva -\- as. See 31 r fsT^ stram Ac. i ,. [siva+m — Sivati f^xn^sivan sivd+n. 31. { %^»T Sivena f^^T^n kivdbhyam f^^^^sivais [sipa-\-ina. 32. sivd-\- hhyiim siim + ais. 33. DECLENSION OF CRUDE HASES ENDING IN VOWELS. 61 {f^J^m Stvdya [sird+ya f^vqf kvdbhydm sivd+bhydm f^R«nfT kivebhyas sive-\-hhyas j fsr^J^sivdt Ab.'i , siva+t. 31. ^ I iit^m ^ivasya siva+sya — sivdbhydm — sivebhyas f^Ai\\Hjivayos sive+os. 36. r^l'ir^ sivdndm swdn-\-dm, ff^sive [siva+i. 32. — sivayos f^^ siveshu sive+su. 70. ^ ff^siva f\m sivau I s'iva (s dropped). 92. £im+au. 33. siva+as. 31. 104. Neuter bases in a, declined like f^'^ Siva, n., ' prosperous.* The final of the base is lengthened and assumes n in N. Ac.V. pi. [ f^ sivam f^ sive f^r^Tf*T sivdtii N.Ac. <. ,. , ,. , . \_siva^m. 97. siva^i. 32. swan-\-i The vocative is f^ siva, f^ sive, f^nTf*T sivdni ; all the other cases are like the mascuHne. 105, (B) Feminine bases in d, declined like f^RI sivd, f., * the wife of S'iva,' or as an adjective, ' prosperous.' The final of the base is changed to e before I. sing., N. G. L. V. du.; and to dyd before D. Ab. G. L. sing. ; and assumes re in G. pi. J f^ITT sivd \sivd {s rejected) {f^RT sivdm sivd -\- am. 31. {%^TTT sivayd sive-\-d. 36. r %"Tr^ sivdyai ' \sivdyd+e. 33. {ftnrnn^ sivdyds sivaya + s. 31. — sivdyds f^ sive sive [au rejected) — sive sivd-\-as. 31. — sivds f^^vitt sivdbhydm sivd+ bhydm — sivdbhydm f^TTrf>TH^ sivdbhis sivd-\- bhis f^RT«nT sivdbhyas sivd+ bhyas sivdbhydm — sivdl (%^TXlt sivdydm sway a -{-am. 31. [f^sive \sim+i. 32. f^T^TT sivayos sive -\- OS. 36. — Sivayos f^ sive sive {au rejected) f^TiTT sivdndm sivdn-\-dm f^oTT^ sivdsu sivd-\-su f^prnfT siims sivd-\-as. 31. 62 DECLENSION OF CRUDE BASES ENDING IN VOWELS. io6. Feminine bases in ^, declined like ff^ nadi, f., ' a river.' The final of the base becomes y before the vowel-terminations, by 34; is changed to yd in D. Ab. G. sing. ; is shortened in V. sing. ; and assumes n in G. pi. N. Ac. Ab {Tfjft nadi nadi [s rejected) \'t{^nadim Inadt-^m ^i{^ nadyd nadi + d. 34. Tra' nadyai adyd-^e. 33. {"iffn^nadyds nadyd+as. 31. — nadyds I: ■Jral" nadyau nadt + au. 34. — nadyau ■^«lt nadibhydm nadl-{- hhydm — nadibhydm — nadibhydm "^T^m^nadyas nadi -\- as. 34. '*{^ii^nadi8 nadi-\-s ■JT^tfir^ nadibhis nudi-\- bhis »T^twnT nadibhyas nadi-\-bhyas — nadibhyas «1 ;»rat nadydm L nadi '!j^1;^nadyos "^^^j nadindm nadi-\-os. 34. nadin-\-dm. — nadyos "J?^^ nadishu nad{-{-dm. 34. nndi-\-su. 70. nadi iRit nadyau "JTU^ nadyas (final shortened) nadi+au. 34. nud{-\-as. 34. The classical student will recognise in the terminations of siva and wac/i' many resemblances to the terminations of nouns in Latin and Greek, remembering that the Sanskrit a corresponds to the Latin u and the Greek ; the Sanskrit m to the Latin m and the Greek V ; the Sanskrit a or i to the Latin a and the Greek 'Jy or a, or in the gen. plur. cy ; the Sanskrit bh or bhy to the Latin b. See 11./, and 97. a. 107. In accordance with 58, such words as f^mriga, m.,'a deer;' ''^'^^ purusha, m., ' a man ;' >T'niT bhdryd, f., ' a wife ;' «jim4j kumdrt, f., ' a girl ' — must be written, in the inst. sing. m. and the gen. pi. m. f., with the cerebral ^w.- thus, J^'toT mrigena, ^^^Rff, «j*lli(li, "^^Jtlt, ^rnrrot, ■^JnTHnt. when « is final, as in the ace. pi. m., it remains unchanged. a. Observe, monosyllabic nouns in ^ i, like "^ ' fortune.' vft ' fear,' &c., vary from nadt in the manner explained at 123. b. Observe also, that feminine nouns in "^i li are declined analogously to nadi, excepting in the nom. sing., where s is not rejected. See 125. 108. When a feminine noun ending in d is taken to form the last member "of a compound adjective, it is declined like sirni for the masculine and neuter. Thus, taking the feminine noun vidyd, ' learning ;' whence may be formed the compound alpavidyd, ' little learning.' When this is used as a compound adjective, it becomes, in the nom. masc. fern, and neut., alpavidyas, alpavidyd, alpavidyam, ' possessed of little learning.' On the same principle, a masculine noun takes the feminine and DECLENSION OP CRUDE BASES ENDING IN VOWELS. (iS neuter terminations, when forming the last member of a compoiuul adjective ; and a neuter noun, the mascuUne and feminine. a. When roots ending in ci, such as pa, 'to drink' or 'to preserve,' are taken for the last member of compound words, they form their neuter like the neuter of sivaj and for their mascuUne and feminine assume the memorial terminations regularly, rejecting, however, the final of the base in the Ac. pi. and remaining vowel-cases: thus, '^TTTT soma-pd, 'a drinker of Soma juice;' N. -"^T^, -Tft, -tn^; Ac. -tit, -■^, -TT^^; i. --qr, -m^i, &c.; d. -^, &c. b. ^1^1 hclhd, a Gandharlja,' assumes the terminations regularly throughout : thus, D. sing. '?TT. See p^;^. c. The voc. c. of vx(Tffagnibhyas agni+bhyas r ^!r^^ agues ■ \agne^s G. { - ""'"' — agnibhydm — agnibhyas ngni+os. 34. agnin-\-dm [ agn {i dropped) + au ^, \^^T^agne yagne (s rejected) — agnyos ■^rr^ agni agm {au rejected) ^fjHf agnishu agni+su. 70. "^rripr^agnayas agne + as. 36. {wf^-^^bhdnus [ hhdnu-\-s m"^ bhdnu bhdm'i {au rejected) bhdno -\- as. 36. \ HT^ bhdnum Ac. i ,, 7 — bhdnu m^JT bhdniin bhdnu+ n J «T^5^ bhdnund _bhdnun-\-d m^«?t bhdnubhydm bhdiiu-\-bhydm m^H^ bhdnubhis bhdnu -\-bhis J irr^n" bhdnave [bhdno + e. 36. — bhdnubhydm >ff'5T«rPr bhdnubhyas bhdnu + bhyas r Hr4l^ bhdnos Ab. i ,, , ^ — bhdnubhydm — bhdnubhyas J — bhdnos v^r^^m^bhdnwos m'^rFfT bhdnundm bhdnu -\- OS. 34. bhdnun+dm {i^bhdnau I hkdn{u dropped) + au — bhdmvos HT"^ bhdnushu bhdnu+su. 70. J wr^ bhdno [ bhdno (s rejected) vrr^ bhdnu bhdnu (au rejected) bhdno-\-as. 36. DECLENSION OF CRUDE BASES ENDING IN VOWELS, C") 112. Feminine bases in ^l and "W u, declined like fifij /nail, f., * the mind,' and V^ dhenu, f., ' a milch cow/ The final of the base is gunated in D. Ab. G. V. sing., N. pL ; lengthened in N. Ac. du., Ac. G. pi. ; dropped in L. sing, (unless the termination be ^^T) ; and assumes n in the G. pi. J Tfinr matis mati-\-s ^■^ mati m^T(^7natayas mati{au rejected) mate +08. 36. JtTtt matim Ac. \ jnaii + m — mati ^-K^^^matis mati + s I ^7l\ matyd \mati+d. 34. TRfrT«n matibhydm wf-fffvr^^matibhis mati-\-bhydm mati-\-bhis J JT7R mataye * mate-\-e. 36. — matibhydm jTfw«J^ matibhyas mati-\-hhyas " i^w^ mates * m(tte-\-s — matibhydm — matibhyas r — mates*- G.| ^ WiVtf{^matijos JTHf^ matindm mati+os. 34. matin -\- dm 1 ?r^ matau * [ mat [i dropped) + au — matyos f{flC^ niatishu mati + su. 70. J »?^ m^ate [ mate {s dropped) Wfft mati TRj^Tm^matayas matt (au rejected) mate+as. 36. \ dhenu '\-s xi^dhenu ■^Ti-^dhenaras dhemi {au rejected ) dheno-\-as. 36. vr^ dhenum dhenu -\-m — dhenu xr^^dheniis dliemi-\-s 1 \r^T dhenwd \dhenu-\-d. 34. V^«lt dhenuhhydm xr^fvf^dhenubhis dhenu + bhydm dhenu + bhis [f//(e?J0 + e. 36. — dhenubhydm ■^■^r^im^dhenubhyas dhenu + bhy as 'v;^dhenos^: dlieno-\-s. — dhenubhydm — dheriubhyas J — dhenos f xn^^^dhenwos >J^T dhenu nam u + os. 34. (ihemin + dm 1 W dhenau f [ rf^ere (w dropped ) + av — dhenwos V^^ dhenushu dhenu-\-su. 70. [ dheno {s dropped) yf^dhenu V^"^^ dhenavas dhenu {au rejected) dheno + as. 36. * TheD.may alsobe?T?rma/!/ffi; theAb.andG.JTWT^ma/'j/f/s; the L.^HQI ynafydm. t The D. may also be V^ dhe7iwai; the Ab. and G. '^'^\\dhenivdss and the L. V^^ dhenwdm. 66 DECLENSION OF CRUDE BASES ENDING IN VOWELS. 114. (D) Neuter bases in ^i and "g* m, declined like Tffr vdri, n., ' water' (Lat. mare, Greek l^pw? for 'l^pi); and vp^ madhu, n., ' honey* The final of the base assumes n before the vowel-terminations, and is lengthened in N. Ac. pi. N. >TfTvaH ^rrfwf vdrini •^xtifm vdrini vdri (5 rejected) vdrin+{. See 58. vdrm+i. See 58. Ac. " — vdri — vdrini — vdrini I. jm^fMTvdrind Trft«lT vdribhydm ^rftf^nr variMi* [vdrin + d vdri-\-bhydm vdri-\-bhis D. "^jfm vdrine — vdribhydm ■^fji^um^vdribhyas vdrin -\- e — vdribhydm vdri+bhyas — vdribhyas Ab. I'^lfzm'^^vdrinas [ vdrin -(- as G. — vdrin as "mfmi^vdrinos ^rthut vdrindm vdrin -\- os vdrin -\- dm L. TrfrftumWni — vdrinos ■^Tf-L^ vdrishu vdrin -\- i vdri+su. 70. V. J ^ft vdri or ^ vdre Trfr^'^ vdrini ^rr^firi vdrini I vdri or vdre. 92. vdrin -f- i vdrin + i N. ' JTV madhu JTwft madhuni j?^rf«T madhuni madhu {s rejected) madhun-\-i madhun + i f — madhu — madhuni — madhuni Ac. {H'Urn madhund madhun-\-d {f{yi^ madhune madhun-\-e {iTwiTr^ madhunas madhun + as madhunas Ab, "{ iJTVfiT madhuni madhun +i Tfyntn madMibhydm ijnfivR^madhubhis madhu-\-bhydm madhu -\-bhis — madhubhydm n;^>iip^^madhubhyas madhu -\-bhy as — madhubhydm jtvtVh madhunos madhun -\- OS — madhunos JHV madhu or wi^madho fT^^ madhuni I madhu or madho. 92. madhun + i — madhubhyas jqTJrn madhundm madhun -{-dm JTvr^ madhushu madhu-\-su. 70. vc>sf^ madhuni madhiin-\-i ' DECLENSION OF CRUDE BASES ENDING IN VOWELS. 67 ii6. The declension of neuter nouns in i and u follows the analogy of nouns in tre. Hence, vdri serves also as the model for the neuters of adjectives and nouns of agency in in, like dhanin and kdrin (159); and the neuters of nouns of agency in ri, like ddtri, and nouns of relationship like nidtri (130). 117. Although there are not many substantives declined like agni and vdri (81), yet nouns like mati are numerous (81. V). Moreover, adjectives like suchi, and compound adjectives ending in i, are declined like agni in the masc. ; like mati in the fem. ; and like vdri in the neuter. 118. Again, although there are but few substantives declined hke dhenu and madhu, yet it is important to study their declension, as well as that of the masc. noun bhdnu; for all simple adjectives like tatiu, and all hke pipdsu (82), and all other simple adjectives in w, and all compound adjectives ending in u, are dechned like bhdnu in the masc; dhenu in the fem.; and madhu in the neut. a. Many adjectives in u, however, either optionally or necessarily foUow the declension of nadi in the fem. ; as, tanu, ' thin,' makes its nom. fem. either tamis or tanwi; T^, 'tender,' makes nom. f. mridwi: and some optionally lengthen the u in the feminine ; as, bhiru, ' timid,' makes fem. Ht^ or *ft^5 dechnable like nouns in M, 125. 119. When feminine nouns ending in i and u are taken to form the last member of a compound adjective, they must be declined like agni in the masc, and vdri in the neut. Thus the compound adjective alpamati, ' narrow-minded,' in the ace plur. masc. would be alpamatin; fem. alpamatis; neut. alpamatini. The same holds good if a masc. or neut. noun be taken to form the last member of a compound. a. Although adjectives in i and u are declined like vdri and madhu for the neuter, yet in the D. Ab. G. L. sing., and in the G. L. du., they may optionally follow the masculine form : thus the adjectives suchi and tanu \vill be, in the D. sing, neut., 'STf^n or SM^I, TT'^T'T or Tf'T^ ; and so with the other cases. 120. There are some useful irregular novins in \i, dechned as follows : '^'ST m. 'a friend:' N. ^^T, ^^T^, i?^■^^; Ac. ^Wf^, •^W^■^^, ^^\; I. '^WT, ^rftjrWTT, &c; D. •5T^, &c. ; Ab. '?^^^, &c.; G. ^^^, ITWt^^, &c.; L. '5UafT, &c.; V. '^TO, &c. In some cases it assumes the memorial terminations at 91 more regularly than agni. 121. "T'fir m. 'a master,' 'lord' {iroaig), when not used in a compoimd word, follows sakhi in I. D. Ab. G. L. sing, (thus, L 'RTn, D. V^, Ab. G. '^'^'^^ ; in the other cases, agni. But this word is generally found at the end of a compound, and then follows agni throughout (thus, if^flTTfT ' by the lord of the earth'). 122. A few neuter nouns, '^f'OT n. ' a bone' (oVreov), wf^ n. ' an eye' {oculus, OKOi), "^fsfzt n. ' a thigh,' ^f>T n. ' ghee,' drop their final i in some of their cases, and are declined in those cases as if they were derived from obsolete forms in an; such as ^IW?^, &c. (compare 14S) : thus, N. Ac. ^rf^, 'iaeft f. ' understanding.' b. AVhen these words occur at the end of compound adjectives, the first inflec- tion only of the two exhibited above, in the D. Ab. G. and L. cases sing., and G. plur., is admissible both for m. and f. : thus, N. TTT*?^^ m. f., ' fearless,' is ^TfTT*?^' only in D. sing. The compounds shorten the final t for the neut. gender, and follow the declension of vdri (114), but only optionally in the I. D. Ab. G. and L. cases: thus, N. Ac. 'TTTfk ; I. iTfrfwirr or TTTrfH^T *, D, TTlffiT^ or TrTfiT^. c. "^^ f., ' a woman,' is like "^, but follows '^T^ in the nom.; and makes i[^ as well as f^^ in the Ac. sing. ; ^^as well as fip^lfl^in the Ac. plur. V. 1^. 124. There are a few primitively feminine words not monosyllabic, such as ^^T, ■fT^T, Tl'Uj which, like "'Sft, take s in the nom. sing., but in other respects follow ^1" : thus, nom. c5'^fllT^, o5^^1 , l^W^^- When, however, they occur at the end of compovmds (as, WTWH^ft m. f. ' deprived of fortune'), they may optionally be declined as masculines in the D. Ab. G. and L. cases : thus, D. -H^T?f ; Ab. G. -H^^RJ^; L. -c5f^HI, &c. The neviter of such compounds follows the rule for TjTfl^T'j 123. b. 125. Feminine nouns ending in long "35 u are declined analogously to feminine nouns ending in \z, i. e. like »T^'V, excepting in the N. sing., where s is retained. ■^iM is changed to v, wherever \i is changed to y (see 34) : thus, TV ' a wife :' N. "qvF, Ts^, Tssm ; Ac. "qv, Ts^T, "^TY^^^; i. -^seh, tw^' ^TYf^^Ti;; D. '^r^; Ab.G.'^SEnTT^; L.'^Sgf; V.T^. Similarly, '^Hf.' a host;' "sg^f.' a mother-in-law.' a. Again, monosyllabic words in u primitively feminine are declined analogously to W' f. (no); li being changed to uv, wherever / is changed to iy : thus, *|^ f . ' the earth :' N.V. i^lT, >T^, >T^; Ac. H^, »f^, >T^TT; I. >fn, &c. Similarly. H bhrri, f., ' the eyebrow' {0(f)pvg) ; N.V. HjfT, >T^T, >R^, &c. b. And the same rule holds good with regard to such words at the end of compounds; see 123. b .- thus, '^m. f. 'having beautiful eyebrows :' N.V. sing. ^1|F; Ac. ''g^; I. '^^pr; D. W^, &c. Similarly, the neuter will be N. Ac. -p^; T. ^H^ or -^wni, &c. 126. \Mien a root like "jft. ' to lead,' comes at the end of a compound, it assumes the memorial tei-minations at 91 more regularly than ""T^j though like ■♦RT it takes ^" for the termination of loc. sing. : thus, ^r?TT»ft m. ' one who leads an army," " a general :" N. IRT'^ftTT, ^T'^T, TnTRnT; .Ac, TnTT"^- Sec. ; 1. HHMl. DECLENSION OF CRUDE BASES ENDING IN VOWELS. 69 W^flvqt, &c. ; D. HHT-^J, &c. ; Ab. flHMM,, &c. ; G. *>^^^pitribhyas pitri + bhyas — pitribhyas [pitar + — pitribhydm f^i^pitros pitri -\- OS. 34. — pitros V. fmm\pitrindm pit r in -\- dm fmmpitrishu pitri -\-su. 70. fv[K^^pitaras {fm^Tpitar fmmpitarau pitar pitar + au pitar + as Observe — Pitri seems to be corrupted from pdtri,' a, protector' (;>«', 'to protect'). The cognate languages have preserved the root in irajYip, pater, ' father,' &c. The Latin Jupiter, however, is literally Dyu-pitar (^-f^TTlT), 'father of heaven.' Prof. Bopp considers that nouns like pitri &c. are really from a base pitar. a. Observe — »r5| naptri, ' a grandson *,' although a noun of relationship, is declined like ^TiJ ddtri, requiring the final to be vriddhied in the same cases. b. There are a few nouns, which neither express relationship nor agency, falling under this class. «J nri, m., 'a man,' is declined like pitri (N. «TT nd, Ac. "JTT, I. '^, D. ■%, Ab. G. "^IT, &c.), but usually makes *TTrrt nrindm in the gen. plur. c. m^, ' a jackal,' takes some of its inflections fi-om a form WfF : thus, N. Wl"?T, -FTTT, -^RW; Ac.-m,-'?T^,-F^or-F?r; I. -"^ or -ITT, -|«n, &c. ; D.-^or -^, &c.; Ab. -|Tr^or -'?t^^, &c.; G. -f^^or -fl^, -fm^ov -J\\, -F^ff ; L. -^ft: or -?l, &c. ; V. -■g^ or -ft. 129. Feminine bases in "^ri belong only to nouns of relationship, like mdtri, ' a mother^ (from md, ' to create/ ^ the producer') ; and their declension only differs from pitri, * a father/ in the ace. plur.. * Derived from na and pitri, family but the father. not the father;' as if any member of the DECLENSION OP CRUDE BASES ENDING IN CONSONANTS. 71 which takes the termination s instead of n : thus, jtttt^ . Compare the Greek fxrjTrip, /UTirepa, voc. fx^JTep. a. '^^ swasri, ' a sister,' however, follows ^Tff ddtri; but the Ac. pi. is still ^RHT. The lengthening of the penultimate is probably caused by the loss of the t from tri, preserved in the English sister. So soror for sostor. b. The feminine base of nouns of agency is formed by adding ^ i to the final -^ ri : thus, ^TW + f^, ^T^ ddtri, f., ' sl giver ;^ and '5Fi^ + ^, ofilft f. *a doer/ See 80. XIX. Their declension follows nadi at 106. 130. Neuter bases in "^ ri belong only to nouns of relationship or of agency, when used at the end of compound adjectives, such as 'R[^^JTT'g' divya-mdtri, agreeing with "WcS, i. e. ' a family having a divine mother,' or fW^'t^ ' having two mothers' (compare 6i[xr]Tap). They foUow the declension of vdri at 114: thus, N. Ac. »TTff, Hlrfillt, TTTTfilT ; ^TW, ^TWIDt, ^Tfff^. 131. Before passing to the declension of nouns ending in consonants, it will be necessary to notice a few monosyllabic nouns, whose bases end in $, ^, and ^T, not sufficiently numerous to form a separate class. They are thus declined : 132. T rai, m. f., 'substance,' ' wealth' (Lat. res) : N. voc. "^'Pff , Xmi, Ti^^^i Ac. TJ^, &c.; I. XJTU, TTVqt, TTfw (reiMs); D. TT^, &c. ; Ab. TT-q^^, &c.; G. ■n^, TT^>H, XJ■^^; l. i^ftr, &c. 133. m c/o, m. f., ' a cow' or ' ox' {bos, /3oDf ) : N. voc. 'ft^, TT'^, ^'^W^; Ac. Tif , 3TT^, irm ; I. IT^, ^«n, TftfiTff ; D.tr, &c.; Ab.Tfm^, &c.; G. Tft^, '|cu«, ^=rt; L. tN" [bovi), ^TTt^, ^^' Compare ^t with yyjV, go meaning also ' the earth.' 134. in nau, f., a ship' (cf. navis, vavg), is declined at 94, being the most regular of all nouns. With the N. pi. ndvas, compare naves, vaeg \vrje.g). The gen. vrjog for vaog or vafog z= ndvas. a. These nouns may occur at the end of compounds ; as, "^"^^ ' rich,' TTm ' near a cow,' «j^«li ' having many ships.' In that case the neuter is ^?ft) ^^^» and ^J^; of which the inst. cases will be ^jfOTT or «r^TTTTT, Xoq (for (pkoKg). Ac, D. Ab. G. 'T^fn^^sarit _ sarit+s (s rejected. 43.0.) ^Ct:^ saritau "nfijm^saritas sarit+au. 41. b. sarit-\-as. 41. 6. l^?Usar^taiu Isarit + am. 41. 6. — saritau — saritas ■^rfTT saritd sarit-\-d sarit-\-bhydm. 41. ^ffftrfk^ saridbhis sarit + bhis. 41. J ^fcw sarite — saridbhydni ^T15^ saridbhyas _sarit + e snrit + bJryas {'^Tli\**^sarita^ — saridbhydm — saridbhyas [sarit + as — saritas T{^jK\\sa7'itos ^iTrlt saritam sarit-\-os sarit-\-dm 1 wfrfw sarih — saritos ^flrW saritsu [sarit-\-i sarit+su. 40. 137, Neuter bases in 7T t, declined like ffrff harit, n., ' green.' These only differ from the masculine and feminine in the N. du. pL, Ac. sing. mf^ dharma-vidy m. f., ' knowing one^s duty' — a compound composed of the substan- tive dharma, ^ duty/ and the root vid, ' knowing/ See 84. 1 . ^^-vidas nd -f as — -vidau — -vidas {-f^ -vit -f^ -vidau -f=r^^ -vid + s. 42, 43. a. -L'id+au -vid-\ [-vid-\ vidam -\-am -f^ -vidd -vid-\-d vide l-vid-\-e Ab. i ' f^^ -vidas vid -\- as -vidas -f^?5t -vidbhydm -ikfsT^-vidbhis -vid -\- bhyum - vid + bhis — -vidbhydm -f^^^ -vidbhyas -vid+bhyas — -vidbhydm — -vidbhyas -f^H -vidos -f^t -viddm -vid -\- OS -vid + dm ■f^ -vidi — -vidos -f^W -vitsu ■vid-\-i -vid + su. 42. 139. Neuter bases in ff d, declined like >mf^ dharma-vid, n., * knowing one's duty.' These differ from the mascuhne and feminine forms in the same cases, and in the same manner, as neuter bases in TT /; see 137 : thus, N. Ac. >mf^^, v^f^'>, >mf^. a. So also, oF^ n. 'a lotus:' N. Ac. "^hw, WHrf^, "^^f^; I. '^^^, &c. Observe — x\ll the nouns whose formation is explained at 84. I. II. III. follow the declension of ^fnT and 'tmf^. 140. Possessive adjectives formed with the affixes TrT vat and »T1T mat, like V'i^fT dhanavat, ' rich/ and ifNir dhimat, ' wise/ are declined like harit for the masculine ; but in the Nom. Voc. sing, du. pi., Ac. sing, du., n is inserted before the final of the base, and the preceding a is lengthened in N. sing. J V^T^"?!^ dhanavdn VH^iU dhanavantau Ac \dhanavdnt + s. 43. ff. dhanavant -\- au dhanavantam — dhanavantau t -\- urn ydhunavaitf VH^ff^ dhanavantas dhanavant + us V^ITiT^ dhanavatas dliunurat -f as 74 DECLENSION OF CRUDE BASES ENDING IN CONSONANTS. The remaining- cases follow ^fciT; thus, I. ^R^TTT, &c. ; but the vocative singular is VrPHT dhanavmi. a. In the same manner are declined active past participles of the form WiT^TT; thus, N. ■^?r=rT'?r, ^ff^'frT, "^TT^^^, &c. similarly, >fhRW'wise:' N. Vlnii , yftw^, iftjnjTH; Ac. vh^tt, ^fhTTffr, vfhfTTW, &c. b. The feminine bases of adjectives like ^»l=Cri^ and VTT?^, and ]mrticij)les like ^W^TT, are formed by adding %{ to the masculine base; thus, V »1 ^ ell , ViHlTT, ■^TTTrft : declined after "^ at io6 ; thus, Nom. >R'^?ft, VT^H (tTl , ^HT^T^, &c. c. The neuter is declined like the neuter of harit : thus, N. Ac. VH'«JK^, VTTift, 141. Present participles like ■R^fTjoac^ff/, ' cooking' (524), are dechned after dhanavat (140), excepting in the N. sing., where a is not lengthened before n: thus, N. sing. ''7^«T pachan (for pachants or pachans), and not Tr^T«T pachdn .- N. du. pi. ■tp^T, tj^^ia"^^; Ac. "T'^nT, xi^qTjn, TJ^IT^^; I. 'T^tH, Sec. Compare the declension of Latin participles like f evens, ferentis, ferentem, &c. a. Observe, however, that all reduplicated verbs, such as verbs of the 3d con- jugation — all verbs from polysyllabic roots (75. «) — and some few other verbs, such as 'ST'^'to eat,' ^T^'to rule' — which reject the nasal in the 3d pi. of the Parasmai-pada, reject it also in the declension of the pres. participle. Hence the pres. participle of such verbs is declined like harit, the N. case being identical with the base : thus, from da, ' to give,' 3d conj., N. sing. du. pi. dadat, dadatau, dadatas; Ac. dadatam, &c. : from bhri, 'to bear,' 3d conj., N. sing. du. pi. bibkrat, bibhratau, bibhratas. So also, jdgrat {from jdgri), sdsat (from sds). The rejection of the nasal is doubtless owing to the encumbrance of the syllable of reduplication. b. In present participles derived from verbs of the ist, 4th, and loth conjuga- tions, a nasal is inserted for the feminine base : thus, tl-q»fll from "'J^j ist conj. (declined like nadi at 106) ; and this nasal is carried through all the inflections, not merely, as in the masculine, through the first five. So ^T'^Mftl from div, 4th conj. ; and ^T^'m from chur, loth conj. In the 6th conj., and some few verbs of the 8th and 9th, the insertion of the nasal is optional. The same conjugations also insert a nasal in the dual neuter : thus, "T^, 'T^nft, M-«tr»rt. c. The other conjugations, viz. the 2d, 3d, 5th, 7th, 8th, and most verbs of the 9th, follow 140. b. c, and insert no nasal for the feminine and neuter; although all but the 3d assume a nasal in the first five inflections of the masculine : thus, adat (from ad, 2d conj.); N. masc. adan, adantau, adantasj fern, adati: juhwat (from /jM, 3d conj.) ; "S. msisc. juhwat, juhwatau,juhwatas; tem. juhwatz : rundhat {from, rudh, 7th conj.) ; N. masc. rundhan, rundhantau, rundhantas ; fem. rundhati. But kurvat (from kiH, 8th conj.) makes either kurvatt or kurvanti. 142. The adjective T^IT, ' great,' is properly a pres. part, from the root mah, to increase ;' but, unlike present participles, it lengthens the a of at before n in the N. sing. du. pi., Ac. sing. du. : thus, N. TfT^ , TfptTt , T^rfHT^; Ac. T^^, fT^JJ^, T'^TT^^; I- *7frrr, &c. ; Y. ^'W^i &c. : N. fem. ^Tfrft, &c., see 140. a. b: N. neut. T^TT, TfTft, »T^nT. DECLENSION OF CRUDE BASES ENDING IN CONSONANTS. 75 a. '^T'l, m. f. n. ' great,' "^W^ m. f. n. ' moving,' and ''pTrT m. f. ' a deer,' follow the declension of pres. part. : thus, N. ^^"T? <=i ? fll , T^nTR, &c. The feminine is ^^rfl, &c. 143. When the present participle of IJ, ' to be,' is used as an honorific pronoun, it follows %«i«tn (at 140), making the a of at long in the N. sing. : thus, H^^T«^ 'your honour,' and not >TT5T. The vocative is HT?1^. As a present participle it follows the declension of M-McT, at 141. The feminine of the pronoun is *?'«{ ill . 144. *4<*ifV ' the liver' [yjTrap, jecur), and '^T'^H' ordure,' both neuter nouns, are declined in some of their cases as if their bases were M**!^ and 151^*^: thus, N. V. ''T^, T^r^, '^^ftf ; Ac. 'T^, "ST^Tft, ^'^f?jT or "T^f^ ; I. "T^rTT or ^T^fT, *1<*«t or ^qraivqi, ^^fk^or l^ifk^; D. '^^'^ or '^'^, &e. 145. 'TT^j ' a foot,' at the end of compounds is contracted into ''1^ before the Ac. pi. and remaining vowel-terminations : thus, Ac. pi. '^"T^''^? from ^'TT^, ' having beautiful feet.' SIXTH CLASS OF NOUNS DECLINED. Masculine, feminine, and neuter bases in w^ an and ^j^in. Note, that this class answers to Latin and Greek words like sermo (for sermon), homo (for homin), '^aifj.wv (for '^aifxov). 146. Masculine and feminine bases in ^^^an, declined like '•JHW^T dtnian, m. f., ' soul/ ' self ;' ^TW^ yajwan, va., ' a sacriticer / rfST^ rdjan, m., ' a king ;' and xjt^"^ pivan, m. f., ' fat.' If an be preceded by m or « (w), at the end of a conjunct consonant, as in dtman, yajwan, the a of an is retained before all the terminations : but if an be preceded by any other consonant, whether conjunct or not, than m or v, or e^en by m or r if not conjunct, as in rdjan and pivan, the a of an is dropped in the Ac. plur. and before aU the other roweZ-terminations, and the remaining n is compounded with the preceding consonant. All masc. and fem. nouns, without exception, ending in an, lengthen the a in the N. sing. du. pi., Ac. sing, du.; and drop the n before aU the consonantal-terminations (see 57). Observe — Latin follows Sanskrit in suppressing the n in the N. masc. and fem., but not in neut. : thus homo is the N. of the base homin, the stronger vowel being substituted for i, just as i is substituted for i in Sanskrit ; but nomen is the N. of the neuter base nomin. 47- ^ f ^IrWI dimd ^irMlrii dtmdnau wnfrr^'^^dtmdnas a7ma(wandsrejected.43.a,57.) dtmdn-j-au dtmdn + as I "Wlfnif dtmdnam — dtmdnau ^irHHTi dtmanas Ac. i , , , ^ L atman + am utman + as J "^JJfriTf dtmand "mxfl^ dtmabhydm wnfif»'\dtmabliis Idtman + d dtma{ndropped.^'])-\-bhydm f//mff (/i dropped. 57) + ''^/"•^ ^rrw% dtmane — dtmabhydm "^Trf^^^dtmabhyas ntman -\- e dtmain dropped. 57) -(- hliijns L 3 ai ^■[ 76 DECLENSION OP CRUDE BASES ENDING IN CONSONANTS. Ab G. J ?H I rH A\dtma7ias "W^jfVi^h dtmabhydm W[W^>^^^dtmabhyas I dtman -f as litina [n dropped.57) + bhydm dtma {n dropped.57) 4- bhyas — dtmanas ^i\\tH*\\'^dtmanos dtman -\- os — dtmanos 1 f^rrwftr dtmani — dtman + i {■•HlrH^ dtman ^TTWRt dtman {s rejected) dtmdn -j- 1 ^n\rHt\\ dtmanam dtman -\- dm ?NTcWW dtmasu dtma {n dropped. 57) -\-su wrrf^^^^ dtmdnas dtmdn + as 148. Similarly may be declined ttT'T'^ pdpman, m., ' sin ;' T^R^ ushmmi, m., ' the hot season ;' ^W?r sushman, m., ' fire ;' ^Hf^ yajwan, m., * a sacrificer :' N. Tm\> 'HfT^, ^nfFTH ; Ac. injR, tnjFH, i^r^; I. *1"3JH1, &c. So also, ^ssr^ adhwan, * a road ;' "^tET*^ driswan, * a looker' (85. IV). r*a;a TT»n^ rdjdnau and s rejected. 43. a,57 . ) rdjdn -\- au ^ {xji^rdji [rfl)'a(?tani fUsTTT rdjdnam rajan + am r-fl;Vt + a {jy^rajne [ ro/Vt -|- e rdjdnas {reges) rdjdn -\- as Tj^^rdjfias rdjn + as TTsrfH^ rdjabhis rdja {n dropped.57) + bhydm rdja [n dropped. 57) + bhis ^HsT^nT rdjabhyas rdja{n dropped.57) + bhyas [rajnas as rdjnas — rajanau TT^T«rt rdjabhydm iropped.57) + rdjabhydm rdjabhydm {TT% rdjni * rdjk-\-i \ TUf^ rdjan y raj an. 92. TT^):^rdjnos rdjn + OS — rdjnos rdjabhyas H^ rajnam rdjn -\- dm TX^ rdjasu rdja (re dropped. 57) +*m TT5!T^ rdjdnau rdjdn -\-au Compare the Latin rex, regem, reges, &c. TJ^{T^^rajanas rdjdn + as 150. According to rdjan may be declined ' "'Sf^. See 135. a. Fem. "Snfi, &c. (like 7iadt). N. •^, --^T^, -"^T^; Ac. -wni, -"^r^, y?rt; i. '^t, ^^s '"^h^^; D. '55^, &c. ; Ab. ■^TT^^, &c. ; G. fW^, 1^, '?^; L. ^, f^"^^^* ^^- See 135. a. Fem. Tpft or "^Wift (like nadi). Neut. ^, ^Rt, ^TrP?T, &c. N. >niTr, -■^T^, -TT^; Ac. -TR, -'^T^, 'nflR^^; i. Ttft^T, »?Tnvqf , -■srfire; D. Jnft%, »r5R«n, &c. ; Ab. Hrfr^^, &c. ; G. ♦^^ii^, »nftiT^, JTTfjr[7; L. »Ttftf^, HTftrt^, »nn"^ . Fem. ♦l^TllT. The last may also be declined like a noim in vat. See 140. * Greek has a tendency to prefix vowels to words beginning with consonants in the cognate languages. Compare also nakha, ' nail,' ovv^; laghu, ' light,' eAap^y ; >J ' brow,' 0(bpv. 78 DECLENSION OF CRUDE BASES ENDING IN CONSONANTS. 156. '^^■^ n., ' a day,' takes its form, before the consonantal-terminations, from an obsolete base, ^STf^ ahas : thus, N. Ac. W^T^ (43. 0), ^^ or vt^rH, '^TfTf^; I. ^^T, '^T^vqf, W^>T?i;; D. ^5?^, '^I^Wf, ^^T?^^^; Ab. ^5?^^, &c.; G. ^^^, '^^'^j '^^ 5 L. '^rf^ or 'STff^, ^^t^, ^!rf :^. a. 'f^W»^ m., ' a day,' in those cases where the a of an is rejected, lengthens the i: thus, Ac. pi. ^t^^^; I. ^^T, &c. 157. ■«i*M*i*l m. ' the sun,' '^•^ m. ' the sun,' and flS(5«T m. ' the murderer of a Brahman,' are analogous in not lengthening the a of an before the N. du. pi., Ac. sing. du. : thus, N. ^n§HT, ^n^TTTrft, ^fTq^nrRT; Ac. '^'^Hlj, ^H^WT, ^S^q^tEfW; I. ■^TOTTrrr, &c. Similarly, N. "^[RT, &c.; but the ace. pi., and remain- ing vowel-terminations, may be optionally formed from a base "^■^: thus, Ac. pi. ■^W^^ or ^^5^- Similarly, N. "a^T, "S^r^TJ^, &c. ; but in Ac. pi. "^STJI^; I. ssl^HI, W^«lt, &c. 158. ^n"*T m. ' a horse,' or m. f. n. ' low,' * vile,' is declined like nouns in vat at 140, excepting in N. sing. : thus, N. "^Wl, ^T^nTT, W^nHT^; Ac. "^fW^ff, &c. 159. Masculine bases in 2[tT in, declined like vftr"?? dhanin, m., ' rich.' The i of in is lengthened in N. sing., and the n rejected before all the conso- nantal-terminations. Ac. Ab {Vftt dhani vrr»T?fr dhaninau dhani{n and s rejected. 43. a,57.) dhanin + au {vFfR" dhaninam — dhaninau dhanin + am \^ft{m dhanind [ dhanin + a {vf*T% dhanine dhanin + e J vftnr^ dhaninas [ dhanin + as r — dhaninas vPhww^ dhaninas dhanin -(- as — dhaninas vfrfir^ dhanibhis dhani {n dropped. 57 ) -|- bhydm dhani [n dropped. 57) -f bhis \(fr{t^^ dhanibhyas dhani{n dropped. 57) -f- bhyas vf?r«n dhanibhydm idropped.57)-|- — dhanibhydm — dhanibhydm L dhanin -\- i fvf*m[ dhanin dhanin. 92. ■vrftTrft^ dhaninos dhanin + os — dhaninos vrf^RT dhaninam dhanin + dm vfrT"! dhanishu (^Afln2'(ra dropped. 57) + SM.70. vf;T«T^ dhaninas dhanin + as ^^nft dhaninau dhanin -[-au Observe — A great many adjectives of the forms explained at 85. VI. VII. are declined like vf^r*? for the masculine : thus, iT*nfT«7 medhdvin, 'intellectual;' N. WT^, -f^jft, -f^R^, &c. Also a vast number of nouns of agency, like ^^rrfT«T ' a doer,' at 85. V : thus, N. oBTjftj"5^m. 'a name of Indra,' are remarkable as exhibiting both affixes, an and in, in the same word. They form their N. sing, from the bases tj^^^, JT^^ITT, ^>p^; their N. du. pi., Ac. sing, du., from the bases "'T'"?T'?(, T^'^^, "^*J^''^; their Ac. pi., and remaining vowel-terminations, from the bases TJ"^,??^, ^^'ST^: thus, N.T?'-*yi*^(i63),''I«-'qHl, TT^^TT^; Ac. •^r•^, vr^m^, "T^m^; I. "T^, ilf^T, -qftrfW^^; D. T?^, &c. The compound 'WTTf^TT , ' having a good road,' is similarly declined for the masc. ; the nom. fem. is WT'fi', -'SJJT, -Wff, like nadi at 106 ; the nom. neut. ^^fti, -•^yft, --qr^Tf^, &c. N. Ac SEVENTH CLASS OF NOUNS DECLINED. Masculine, feininine, and neuter bases in ^r^as, ^^is, and T^us. Note, that this class answers to Greek and Latin words Hke TraSog, (J-evog, genus, scelus, &c. 163. Masculine and feminine bases in ^nff as, declined like '^''^^ chandramas, m., ' the moon.' The a of us is lengthened in N. sing. '«i«t1HTTT chandramas ^r^-^ chandramasau ^^^iX^^chandramasas chandramas + uu chandramas -\- as — chandramasau — chandramasas cha)idramds(s rejected. 4^.a. f'^:^^'^ chandramasam chandramas 4- am {-^•tIHHT chandramasd chandramas + d r xjT^jq^ chandramase [ chandramas + e {^J^THH^ chandramasas chandramas -\- as , chandramasas G. V. ^'^'ftwrf chandramobhydm '^7^f^-^chandra7nobhis chandramas -\-bhy dm. 65. chandramas -{-hhis. 65. — chandramobhydm "^F^^va^ chandramobhyas chandramas + bhyas. 65. — chandramobhydm — chandramobhyas f^^^wftr chandramasi chandramas -\- i I ^(^^\chandramas \chandramas. 92. ^^T'^'T^H chandramasos chandramas -\- os — chandramasos ^n^^l chandramasau chandramas -\- an •'(•^M^f chandramasdm chandramas + dm •^sp^l-^chandramahsu or -W chandramas -\- su. 62. a, 6^. ^»5»ra^ chandramasas chandramas -\- as 80 DECLENSION OF CRUDE BASES ENDING IN CONSONANTS. a. After the same manner is declined W^TT^ ajjsaras, f./a nymph.' 164. Neuter bases in "WSas, decHned like wr^manaS) n./the mind' {fxevog, mens). These only differ from the masc. and fern, in the N. and Ac. The a of as is lengthened in the N. plur. instead of the N. sing. »T n is inserted before s in the N. plur. _T . ,^ [^7{^manas ^^t^manasi ^^f^ mandnsi N. Ac.V. < ^ , . mflH«s(s rejected. 43.0.) manas-{-i mandns + i I. T^nrr manasd, &c., like the masc. and fem. a. Observe — Nearly all simple substantives in as are neuter like manas; but when these neuters are taken to form a compound adjective, they are dechnable also in the masculine and feminine like chandramas. Thus, when manas is taken to form the compound adjective mahdmanas, ' magnanimous,' it makes in the nom. (masc. and fem.) mahdmands, mahdmanasau, mahdmanasas. In the same way are formed sumanas, ' weU-intentioned,' durmanas, ' e\'il-minded' (nom. sumands, dur- mands, &c.) ; to which a remarkable analogy is presented by the Greek evfxevvji and ^va-jxev^i, m. f., making in neut. ezJ/xeveV, "^va-fxeve^, derived from {J.evog *. 165. Neuter bases in ^^ts and T^^us (see 68. a) are declined analogously to *irm^manas at 164, i and u being substituted for a throughout; and therefore ^ sh for ^ s (70), and Xr for ^ (64) : thus, "^f^^havis, n., ' ghee :' N. Ac.V. ^f^^, ^f^iit, ■rrff^ ; I. ffw, ?rf^i^, ^f^fHii; D. -ff^^, ff^*^, ?f^»^^; Ab. f f^^, ?f^^, Tf^>^^^; G. ?f^TO, f f^tft^^, ^f^m ; L. ^^f^^, f f^^,, ^:tj or -■&! . a. Similarly, ^"^^ chakshus, n., ' the eye :' N. Ac. V. "^"^^j "^"^^j ^^fi? ; I. ^mr, ^x^*^, ^"^f^^; D. '^m, ^^^f, '^mro; Ab. '^■^^, ^^^j ^v^^; G. '^^j '^^^^^j '^^; L. ^f^, wsft^, ^:^ or --El. 166. All nouns formed with the affixes is and its are neuter. There are two, however, in which the final sibilant is part of the root itself, and not of an affix ; viz. '^f^H aVJs, f.,'a blessing' (from the root ^TTT), and ^T^H m. f. ' an associate' (from "^^). These follow the analogy of masc. and fem. nouns in as (163) in the N. Ac. cases ; and, moreover, before the consonantal-terminations, where the final sibilant is changed to r, unlike nouns formed with is and us, they lengthen the i and u (compare nouns ending in r at 180): thus, N. '^T^ft^, -f^'RT, -P^JM^^; Ac. -f^^, -f^W\, -%'^; I. -%TErT, -^ib^f , -^f>T^, &c. Again, N. ^T^, -'^^, -'^^^j Ac. -"^"^^ &c. ; I. -W^, -^*^j &c. Nouns formed from desi- derative bases (497), such as nPTT^^ ' desirous of speaking,' are similarly declined. But desiderative nouns of the form ftT^T'E^, f^f^'ST^, reject the sibilant in the consonantal-cases, and are dechned in those cases as if ending in ^ and "^T , the finals of their roots. Compare 43. a. * Bopp's Comparati\e Grammar, § 146. DECLENSION OF CRUDE BASES ENDING IN CONSONANTS. 81 a. Observe — When neuter nouns in is or us are taken for the last member of compound adjectives, they are dedinable in the masc. and fern, according to the analogy of chandramas at 163 : thus, ^ rn rt^'STW^ m. f. n., ' having lotus eyes,' makes N. masc. and fem. Tr^rt-qta+i, ■g7'Tc5^"2Tf f , "^'r^TpS^'^^^ ; and 3lf^^- f^TT m. f. n., 'having brilliant rays,' N. masc. and fem. SJP^JCt^hT, ^f^Ttf^^T, ^f^frf^w, &c. b. ^H dos, m., ' an arm,' follows the declension of nouns in ?,s and us; but in Ac. pi., and remaining vowel-cases, optionally substitutes doshan for its base: thus, N. ^T or ^Wl, ^t, &c. 167. Adjectives in the comparative degree formed with the affix v^^v^ lyas, m. f. n. ( 192 ), follow chandramas at 163, but the a of as is lengthened, and n inserted in N. sing. du. pi., Ac. sing. du. : thus, baliijas, ' more powerful,' makes N. "Hrtn*4l«ir (for baliydns, s rejected by 43. a), -llt^, -XTT^F^; Ac. -'^T^, -"^T^, -"^nT^; I. -xnrr, -ift^'ri', &c. ; v. -T^. Tlie fem. '^cS'hwl' follows muti at 106. The neut. '^^'^^ is like manas throughout. 168. Participles of the 2d preterite, formed with vas, are similarly decUned in N. sing. du. pi., Ac. sing. du. But in Ac. pi., and remaining vowel-cases, vas becomes ush, and in the consonantal-cases vat ; so that there are three forms of the base, viz. in vans, ush, and vat* .- thus, "R'f^F (part, of 2d pret., from f^ 'to know'): N. f^f^T^, f^^hu, f^f^^^^; Ac. f^fehf, f^f^TTraT, r^r^dMTT; I. -f^^^, i^^^mf, f^f^fg^^; D. f^f^^, &c. When this participle is formed with ivas instead of vas, the vowel i is usually rejected in the cases where vas becomes ush : thus, TTi'^'^^tfrom gam,' to go') : N. 'Srn'JT^T'^, &c. ; Ac. "5T0*i''4*l^5 affJU'^f^T, "P^"^^? &c. ; I . 'f^WT, &c. Similarly, tenivas (ft-om tan, ' to stretch') : N. tenivdn, tenivdnsau, &c. ; Ac. tenivdnsam, tenivdnsau, tenushas, &c. But not when the i is part of the root : thus, f^f^^lfi'om f^), f^'Hw (from ■^), "^"f ^ (from W), make in the Ac. pi. f^-g^lT, fR^Tff, '^f*"^^^- The N. feminine of these participles is formed from ush; and the N. Ac. neutei-, sing., du., and plur., from vat, ush, and vas, respectively : thus, N. fem. f^f^^MT, &c., declined like nadi at 106. Similarly, from the root 'ff''? comes "J^^^ (com- pare reTV(f)Via). The neuter is N. f^i^W, -^^T', -ffftT. lliose formed with ivas do not retain i in the feminine : thus, tenivas; N. masc. fem. neut. tenivdn, tenusMf, tenivas. a. The root f^, ' to know,' has an irregular pres. part. 'R'i"^ vidivas, used commonly as an adjective ('learned'), and dechned exactly like f^fVf^^ above, leaving out the reduplicated vi. With reference to 308. a, it may be observed, that as a contracted 2d pret. of vid is used as a present tense, so a contracted participle of the 2d pret. is used as a present participle. * Vat is evidently connected with the Greek ot. Compare tutupvat (from tup) with TeTV(f)-{f)oT, and tutupvatsu with rerv(f)-o{T)(Ji. t There seems, however, much difference of opinion as to the rejection of i; and some grammarians make the feminine temjushi, and the I. masc. tenynshd. M 82 DECLENSION OF CRUDE BASES ENDING IN CONSONANTS. 169. '^'^f m., ' a male,' forms N. sing. du. plur., Ac. sing, du., from '^'^^j ^'^^ Ac. pi., and remaining vowel-cases, from V^ ; and I. du., and remaining conso- nantal-cases, from ^3T : thus, N. "^TT^, "IJ^ITWr, "^TO^; Ac. ^flT?T, "WTHT, ^^^; I. ^HT, ^*wTf, ■gf'i^^; D. 4%, &c. ; Ab. -5^, &c. ; G. ^im, ^^^^, ^TTT ; L. ^ftr, ^>7T , 1^ ; V. -gJT^I &c. 170. ■g'"^'5T^^m., ' a name of the planet Venus,' forms N. sing. ^^T^ from a base T^H"^ (147)- Similarly, "J^^^x ^- ' ^ name of Indra,' and ^TflTTT m. ' time.' The other cases are regular. pF, ->jin, -*J^; Ac. ->nT, &c. ; i. -ws^, ->p«n, -h^^^, &c. N. V. WTT, irr^, TTT^; Ac. -RT^, &c.; I. UTifT, ITT^«IT, &c. ; L. pl.TTTT^. The last optionally substitutes '5T s for its final "S chh before the vowel-termina- tions : thus, N. du. TTT^ or HT^, &c. ''?lft§'^, ' a cloud,' is declined like ^T\. a. The neuter is N. Ac. TTSF, '^T^t, "^f%, &c. ; >pF, >pft, >jf^, &c. ; VJZ, irrgft, iiif>"€F, &c. b. The root ^I^ akch, ' to go,' preceded by certain prepositions and adverbial prefixes, forms a few irregular nouns ; such as, IIT^' eastern ;' ^ST^^' southern ;' TlTr^ ' western ;' '^^^ ' northern;' ^THf^' going with,' ' fit,' ' proper ;' ftPT^ ' going crookedly, as an animal ;' and a few others less common. These reject the nasal in the ace. pi. and remaining cases masculine. In nom. sing, the final ^ ch being changed to W k, causes the preceding nasal to take the guttural form, and the cF is rejected by 43. a. In the ace. plur., and remaining vowel-cases, there is a further modification of the base in all, excejtting "HT^^ and ^TT^. N.V. masc. IHIF, HT^, TTT^; Ac. TTT^, TIT^^, Tn^; I. in^, W^>^, Hrf^TJr; D. ITT^, &c.; L. pi. W^. Similarly, ^^T^. N.V. inqr, \\A^\, THT^^^; Ac. tth^, TTTarar, inft^^; i. Wrft^, in?F«n, irmfHnT; D. inft^, &c. Similarly, "37^^ and "^IWT^, which make in ace. pi., and remaining vowel-cases, "3"5[t^^, *^*h1-m^^. But fTTM^ makes in ace. pi., &c.. The feminine, and the neut. dual of these nouns follow the analogy of the ace. pi. : thus, N. fem. TIT^ &c., ^5RT^ &c., UflNt &c., ^"Ht &c., ITfiHt &c., ?AV^ &c., declined hke ^t. The neuter is N. Ac.V. incff, IH^, mf^, kc. ; TIWW, TTTTN^, TriTf%, &c. M 2, 84 DECLENSION OF CRUDE BASES ENDING IN CONSONANTS. c. ITT^, when it signifies ' worshipping,' retains the nasal throughout ; but ch is rejected before the consonantal-terminations, and the nasal then becomes guttural : thus, N. TTTT, TTT^, &c. ; Ac. TTR', &c. ; I. "RT^T, FR^, &c. d. "^^^ n., ' blood,' is regular : thus, N. Ac. '^^^, ^<|Tft, ^wf^, &c. ; but it may optionally take the ace. plur., inst. and dat. sing. ; and, according to some authorities, all its other inflexions from an obsolete base, WW^ asan: thus, Ac. pi. ^wPy or ^5reTf5T ; I. sing. ^^»IT or ^^T, &c. e. Nouns formed with the roots ^'5T ' to worship,' TTIT ' to shine,' Jp^' to rub,' >5rT5T'to shine,' '^'T 'to wander,' ^sT 'to create,' change the final 'W to 7 or '^ before the consonantal-terminations (43. d). In some, however, the final option- ally becomes "^ k or ^T^.- thus, ^'^3? m. ' a worshipper of the gods' {'^'r{ becoming ^) ; N. sing. ^7 or ^^^ : TT'T m. ' a ruler;' N. sing. TlZ, I. dual TT"^«lf : ■RffpT ' a cleanser ;' N. sing. '"11t^7 : f^^JT'i^ m. f. ' splendid ;' N. sing. f^}T[Z : 'TK'SfT'T m. ' a religious mendicant ;' N. sing. TTKdl? : TT'^'^'T ' the creator of the world ;' N. sing. f^TQ^? or f^'^^'^ . '^fr^'W m., ' a priest,' is regularly /. 'iH <^ 4t\ m., ' an inferior sacrificer,' lengthens the a of yaj in the N. sing, and in the vowel-cases, and forms the consonantal-cases from an obsolete base, ^Ttf^; N. sing. du. pi. "^^^^^j -XTfiH, -irr»T^; Ac. -"TT'st, &c. ; I. -'TrWr, -iftwn, &c. g. >rF3T or WrSl^, ' one who fries,' makes N.V. »J7, >TWr> ^^^^^5 '^^- *J^» &c. Similarly, "3^' one who cuts.' //. "^nf^ m. f., ' strong,' makes N.V. "55^, &c. ; Ac. "^mT, &c. ; I. *Trtl, "gp^, &c. The neuter is N. Ac. V. '^(^, "gi^in', "35^5^ unrjji. 177. Masculine and feminine bases in "^th, "^^dh, declined like '^i^ m. f. ' one who teUs,' '^ f. ' battle.' The final aspirate is changed to its unaspirated form before the consonantal-terminations (43. b, 41), but not before the vowel (41. b). N.V. "^TT, W, "SfTSITT; Ac. ■^, &c.; I. -^t^T, ^B?lf, &c. N.V. ^TT, ^, -^V^^; Ac. '^V, &c. ; I. '5'^T, "^Sn, &c. In the case of a root hke '^>I m. f., ' one who knows,' the initial "^ b becomes H bh wherever the final V dh becomes t or d, by 42. c- thus, N.V. >JW, W, W^', Ac. "^j &c. ; I. W, W^, &c. a. The neuter is N. Ac.V. "^j W!ft, ^■^, &c. ; "^W, '^'^, "^f^, &c. 178. Mascuhne and feminine bases in "^^p, "^ph, "^6, >T6A, declined like ^^ m. f. ' one who defends,' c5H m. f. 'one who obtains.' N.V. JVC{, ^Tqt, '''T^^j, Ac. rrq, &c. ; I. TTtiT, 77-^xtT, ^faJTW, &c. N.V. TJt^, 75>n, ?5HTff; Ac. rS^T, ^•c. ; I. '?5HT,'p5^^, Hf^^,, &c. a. The neuter is N. Ac.V. ^, ntft, nfwT, &c. ; pS^T, c5>ft, ?5f»?, &c. b. "^m f. 'Avater,' declined only in the plural, is irregular: thus, N.V. ^TTJ^; Ac. ^n:{^^; I.^S^^; D. Ab. ^^I^^^; G. 'SPH; L. ^^ro. 179. Masculine and feminine bases in JI m, declined like '^I'T m. f. ' one who pacifies.' The final m becomes n before the consonantal-terminations : thus, N.V. ^^, ^rm, ^[i^; Ac. '5i»t, &c. ; i. •^mr, ■^r^^rf, ^rftw^, &c. ; l. pi. "?t^. DECLENSION OF CRUDE BASES ENDING IN CONSONANTS. 85 a. Similarly, 11^1^ m. f., ' quiet/ makes N. IT^T*^, -'^ITRt, -'^TWW ; Ac. TI^'R , &c. ; I. TT^rnTT, M^II»*Tr, &c. Compare 53. h. b. The neuter is N. Ac. V. T^T'^T, l^Pft, ^f^T, &c. ; H^rPT, -^Tift, -^TlfJT, &c. 180. Masculine and feminine bases in '^ r, declined like ^T m. f. ' one who goes,' T^T^ f. ' speech.' If the vowel that precedes final r be i or u, it is lengthened before the consonantal-terminations (compare 166); and final r, being a radical letter, does not become Visarga before the s of the loc. pi. (71. a). N.V. '^T, ''^^j ^^^^; Ac. ^, &c. ; I. ^^m, '^^f , ^P^H, &c. ; L. pi. "^. N.V. jftT, fTO, fhr:^^; Ac. fnt, &c. ; I. fJTTT, Tft^, jftfilTT, &c. ; L. pi. Tft|. a. The neuter is N. Ac.V. "^j "^, '^fx, &c. ; Wh:, fjRt, flft, &c. b. There is one irregular noun ending in the semivowel '^ v, viz. f^=r f. ' the sky,' which makes its base ?IT in N. sing., and ST in the other consonantal-cases : thus, N.V. ?ihr^, f^m, f^H ; Ac. f^^ or ?rf, f^^, f^^; I. f^^, ^wrf, ^firfT, &c. 181. Masculine and feminine bases in "^T s and '^ sA, dechned like f%^ m. f. ' one who enters,' f^^ f. ' a quarter of the sky,' ff"^ m. f. ' one who hates,' JT? m. f. ' one who endures.' N.V. f^ (43. e), P^^il , fTST'ff^; Ac. f^^T j &c. ; I. fq^ii , f^«iT, &c. N.V. f^ (43. e, 17. b), f<^^1, f^^^^; Ac. f^^, &c. ; I. f^, f^T«rf, &c. N.V. f^ (43. e), fk^, f^\, Ac. f^^, &c. ; I. fkm, fi"f«n, &c. N.V. ^(43. e), JpT,^TTTT^; Ac. ij^,&c. ; I. ^T, HJvqf, &c. a. The neuter is N. Ac.V. f^,f^^,fTft[r,&c.; f^"^, f^^, f^fi^, &c.; ffT, fw^, fif^, &c. ; v^, ^, ■^^, &c. 182. MascuUne and feminine bases in ■? h, declined like fc5'5 m. f. ' one who licks ;' J"^ m. f. ' one who milks.' In roots beginning ^vith ^ d, the final aspirate becomes "^ A: or '^ ^r (see 17. a), in other roots "Z^t or "S d, before the consonantal- terminations ; but in roots whose initial is d, the h, which disappears as a final, is transferred to the initial d, which becomes dh wherever final h becomes k or (/ (compare 42. c). N.V. fc^7 (43. c), fc5^, f<5^; Ac. f^'f , &c. ; I. fcyfT, fc=5W, &c. N.V. Y^, J^, J[^W^; Ac. ^t, &c. ; I. ^■^, VT«ri, vf^H, &c. But "5^ m. f., ' one who injures,' makes N. 'H^ or ■§? ; and ^"^ m. f., ' foohsh,' N. ^ or ^ . a. The neuter is N. Ac.V. feT, fw^, fc5f^, &c. ; V^, |?t, ff^, &c. b. 4liii\^ f., ' a particular kind of metre,' changes its final to k or g before the consonantal-terminations, hke roots beginning with d. N. "Tfiltl'^, '3'fw^, &c. c. '^T?', ' bearing' (from the root ^ ' to bear'), changes TT to "95 m in the ace. plur. and remaining vowel-cases, and before the ^ i of the fern. ; and if the word that precedes it in the compound ends in a or a, then a or a combines with li into ^ au (instead of ^ 0, by 32) : thus, HK^T'? m. f. ' one who bears a burden :' N.V. masc. >TRTr7, >iK^I^ , >TTT^T^^^; Ac. >TR^^, >Tn^rT?T, >TTO^^; 1. >Tmf T, mT^T«n, &c. N. fern. HTO^, &c. But ^^nfc?^, ' bearing rice,' makes in Ac. pi. &c. 3(i<^?^^- 86 ADJECTIVES. "^ m., Indra' (who is borne by white horses), may optionally retain "^J in Ac. plur. &c. ; and in consonantal-cases is declined as if the base were *yn««ti^: thus, N.V. ^^TT^m^, %rI^T#, i^ri^T?TT; Ac. ^^TTTW, '^W^T^, W^^ or W- ^T|r^; I. "^^T^T or ^H«(l^l, "^TTwiT, ^Tfl^VfW^^, &c. d. ^nr^"^ m., ' an ox' (for ^nftTT^, from ^TTRr^* a cart,' and "^T? ' bearing'), forms the N.V. sing, from ^^ITrT ; and N. du. plur., Ac. sing, du., from ^«13l^ : thus, N. ^^fT^, W^TTT?^, ^SRTr^^ ", Ac. '^HTIT^, 'ilH^I^, ^Rpr^^; I. ^R- 1^, ^^l^f, ^3R|f^H, &c. ; L. pi. -H^ ir^ ; V. "^Rf^- At the end of compounds this word makes fem. N. sing. "^•TTi^T ; neut. N.V. ^*isi^, ?MTid^l, e. »T5j ' binding,' ' tying,' at the end of compounds, changes the final to TT or ^, instead of 7 or ^ : thus, TtTTT?' f., 'a shoe,' makes N. ^MHil, ■3'^'JT?T, Tm»T^^^; Ac. OM|r|^, &c. ; I. ^MM^I, "3'm»T?lt, &c. Compare 306. b. 183. Masculine and feminine bases in more than one final consonant, declined like T^TT m. f, ' one who leaps :' N.V. Tt^ (43. a), T^tTt, T57T^; Ac. '^^TT, &c. ; I. •g^m, ^^«n, &c. a. The neuter is N. Ac.V. '^pi^, ^c^ft, ^f^, &c. h. TVJM^ ' a cow-keeper,' makes N.V. *i\<.T' fortunate' ^>TO ^>7T ^ t^r;^ ' beautiful' 7?»^7Tff ^^T or ^'^^ ^g^t 2d CLASS. jgjf%'pure' ^'^ ^^^^ ^J^ ■qr^'pale' ^''f^^ ^'f^x ^'T?!! ^V'good' ^T^v ;ETT>p^or^SEftio6. ^v ^F, ' tender' HrfH JRflfV ^f >ft^' timid' vft^^ >ft^or>ft^i25. >ft^ 3d CLASS. [88. Examples of adjectives formed from substantives. BASE. NOM. MASC. NOM. FEM. NOM. NEUT. r VT^ ' human' JTRTO m"Jpft »TT«=R 1st CLASS. "^ ^^ . , ;g, ^ ^ );^ . L VT'ftr^ ' religious' VI !*(<*« VTTTW Vim* I ■^?5'^W 'strong' ^c5^T"?r -s|c«i<^rfl 106. "^c^^rt 'iTH CLASS. 1 ^ ^ L ^JTi!" ' prosperous' "'jftTT"?? ^jfNlft 106. '^ftjl'fr 6th CLASS, j ^%»T ' happy' W^ ^^^ 106. '^T^r 189. Examples of compound adjectives. BASE. NOM. MASC. NOM. FEM. NOM. NEUl 1st CLASS. <; ^ , ,, ^ V O 'very learned 2d CLASS. •{ ^';^ 7- , ^if » ^ X ^-^ o *• X o^ ^ ^ foolish 3D CLASS. ^^^^ '^^^^ ^'^^^^ ""^^^ 4th class. s "* ' L'veiy li 5th class. <^ ^ L ' all-co small bodied' veiy liberal' rtftTff all-conquering' ^Jr^TfTT ^rpi:^ 106. «| |<^ | ri * When it is remembered that a is equivalent in pronunciation to u, the three genders of this adjective mi^ht be written priyus, priyd, priyum; thus offering a perfect similarity to Latin adjectives in vs. 88 ADJECTIVER. 6th class. , well-born 7thclass.^ . J -^ 1 r y deprived of sense JT'#?'T^ JT*AfMo!i j^^ro^ 5th class.-' '"^ '^ '^ ^ [ ' piercin piercing the vitals' 190. Examples of some other compound adjectives. ^T^WTT 'a shell-blower' (108. a.) 1!^W^\ ^T^^^TT^ ^T^^ rfWt 'ruined' (123. i.) "itW^^^ »TF^^ ^T^f^ ^c5'T 'a sweeper' (126. 6.) ^H''?^ 5a75"q^ "^[t^ f^^TT^ 'having a divine mother' (130.) f^^HTiTT "R^^wnn f^^JTTW -^ 'rich' (134. o.) ^I^T^^ '^'^T^ ^f^ ^jft 'having many cattle' (134. a.) "^jnm "^^m^^ ^n «J|HI 'having many ships' (134. a.) cjrfHi*! ^f^^ "^f^ 191. The degrees of comparison are formed in two ways; ist, by adding to the base in; tara (nom. -taras, -tard, -taram, cf. Greek Tepo^) for the comparative ; and im tama (norn. -tamas, -tamd, -tamam, cf. Latin timus, Greek Taro?) for the superlative : thus, Tgrpi puny a, ' holy,' MiWri*. pimyatara, ' more holy,' '^^ rf J? pumjatama, * most holy/ declined like nouns of the first class at 103. So also, dhanavat, ' wealthy,' dhanavattara, ' more wealthy,' dhanavattama, ' most wealthy.' A final "^ is rejected ; as, dhanin, ' rich,' dhanitara, ' more rich,' dhanitama, ' most rich' (57). f^^, ' wise,' makes f%¥^T, f^'^T. Compare 168. a. 192. 2dly, by adding ^^ iyas (nom. -iydn, -iyasi, -iyas, Greek loov, see declension at 167) for the comparative; and j^ ishfha (nom. '■ishthas, -ishfhd, -ishtham, declined at 103, cf. Greek la-ro^) for the superlative. a. Note, that while the base of the Sanskrit comparative affix strictly appears to end in n and s (iyans), the Greek has adhered to the n throughout (N. iyd)i=.iav, voc. iyan = tov); and the Latin has taken the s for its neuter {iyas = ius, neuter of ior; r being changed to s, which so frequently happens). Compare Sanskrit gariyas with gravius. 193. In general, before iyas and ishtha, the base disburdens itself of a final vowel, or of the more weighty affixes in, vin, vat, mat .- thus, "^T(5«T ' strong,' «ic4l*l^.^'more strong' (declined at 167), "^fc^ff 'strongest' (dechned at 103); 75^ 'light,' <^rifhnT ' lighter,' ojfvja 'lightest;' ^f^^ ' intelligent,' ^'Nt^ ' more intelligent,' ^fVjl? ' most intelligent.' ADJECTIVES. oy Comjiare ^if^iMl'T (N. of swddiyas) from swddu with vjotiov from yjhv ; and 194. But besides the rejection of the final, the base often undergoes considerable change, as in Greek (compare e'^6iav, e'^Biarog, from ^yBpog) ; and its place is sometimes suppUed by a substitute (compare jSeXricov, (^ekTiarog, from ayaBog). The following is a list of the substitutes : POSITIVE. SUBSTITUTE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. ■«i r»fl Oh antika, near' ■JT^ Hfrfa %rfi^^^ ^f^ W3T alpa, ' little' W!J: kana ofi^rfi'^^ ■3fSm "3^ uru, large' '^T.vara ^T^hlF T5I bhrisa, ' excessive' W^ bhrasa w^\im^ >?%¥ ^ mridu, ' soft' ^ mr«c?« t»qT*(«^ ^f^? ■■M«l|ri ywjjaji, young' XR' yava xj^fl; xrf^ '^TC' vddha, ' firm,' ' thick' ^nV sat/Aa ^^ft^nr^ ^Tftr? ^U vriddha, ' old ' ^"^ varsha ' .•^*jyd ■^"•^ Kofi wnWara^ff, excellent' ■^r^ vrinda fm< sthira, ' firm,' ' stable' •m stha VZ[IT?T^ ^ Wc5 sthula, ' gross, ' bulky' 'WH^ sthavu ^^in=r wf^¥ rt*ti<. sphira, ' turgid ' ^ sp/ifl ^^ ^ ■g^ hraswa, ' short' 1^^ hrasa f^q^^ fftr? * In the case of ^ and "R the final vowel is not rejected, but combines with tyas and ishtha agreeably to Sandhi. In -RTT and >J, yas is afiixed in place oi lyas. N &0 NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 195. Sometimes, but very rarely, degrees of comparison may be formed from feminine bases ending in the vowels ^ i and "3! u, which may either be retained before tara and iuma, or be shortened : thus, from WiTT, ' a faithftil %vife,' «rtlrt<., ^nftTm or ^jTiTT, ^fmnT. 196. Tara and lama may sometimes be added to inseparable prepositions; as, ^W ' up,' 3rK, ' higher,' T^TT ' highest.' Compare in Latin extimus, intimus, &c. a. They are sometimes added to pronominal bases (236), and to numerals (209, 211). 197. They may even be added, in conjunction with the syllable "^ am, to the inflexions of verl)S ; as, "ST^tHinrKl ' he talks more than he ought.' SECTION IV. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. CARDINALS. 198. The cardinals are, ;»ofi i ; % 2; f^ 3; ^W^ 4; ^^^ 5; ^^ 6; ^W^q;;; ^reirS; ^^^9; ^^"J^io; ^^ST^^ii; ^t^^^i2; ^ifr?^i3; ^wf^ 14; t?^^^"?^ 15; ^^7^ 16; ^TR^^^ 17; ^5??^^^ 18; TT^^-TT or -gnrf^fTT 19; f^frT 20 ; TT^Bf^^frT 21; lTf¥^ffT 22; ^tftfwfw 23; ^wf%frT 24; tf^f^^W 25; TTfi^lfw 26; ^?Tf#5TffT 27; ^JTFrf^^flT 28 ; ^^r^^lfw or -giiTf^^TT 29 ; f^^ff 30 ; ^^f^W 3 1 ; Wlf^^lT 32 ; ^^^- ^33; ^^^^t?^,34; i^#^35; ^f^ff36; ^TTTf^5nT37; ^i?Tf^- ^ 38 ; iT^f^^TT or diH-qrcliR^Tr 39 ; ^i^ft^ 40 ; l^oh-MHlft^ 41 ; ff^^rrfTinr or iT'^r^ftw 42 ; f^'^^nf^ft^'R or ^q^F^fi^rrf 43 ; ^^- Hin^IlT 44 ; ■R^3f^r^fT5T7T 45 ; ^^-eJHUfr^Tf 46 ; **H^r=JlfT^ 47 ; ^TFT- ^qj^rfrw or ^^TF^r^fr^W 48 ; Hcj^Hlft^tT or "3RTT^^7r 49 ; 1(^1 91 ri^ 50 ; C'ckM^I^ITT 51 ; fl'^^TSfTTi; or l"Ti7^T^rr 52 ; f^TT^^W or ^^'.IT^^TT 53 ; ^•.tPiniTr 54; TT^T?^^55; ^^T^7r56; ^rfftr^^W57; '^TFxr^TsnT or '^rem^dli^lri^ 58 ; -^^tr^^TT or ^^^^fv 59 ; ^?s 60; W^f;^ 61 ; flTlf? or iT-^ 62; f^irfl or ^^T'.^fF* 6^; -^t^* 64; V[W^fs 6^; VZ^f? 66; "Wfnjfs 67 ; W^'Rfip or ■^TFrmF 68 ; TRtrf^ or ^iTniTjfw 69 ; ^TTtTtt 70 ; ^oTOTrfw 7 1 ; %^TTrrw or n^rfffrT 72 ; fGrfrfffrT or gTTt^Tjrfw 73 ; ^tHufrf 74 ; TI^WSrflT 75 ; ^TTT-afiT 76 ; ^TSnnTfw 77 ; -aBWHTri or -HgmMPd 78 ; ^ ^^MPri or -giTTT^fffir 79; '5 ^fHI^fT 700 ; ^r?-5nr 800 ; A-A^XA 900 ; ^f^ or ^^mw n. or ^^T^jft 1000 ; HliiJIUM or M^SIdlfMsliM^H 1600 ; ■R^^wftj^^^^r^TrT 1 666. a. The ordinals are sometimes joined to the cardinals to express 1 1 1 and upwards : thus, TJcPH^^ ^ iii ; f^^ ^H 1020; f^ W 130, &c. h. Single words are used for the highest numbers : thus, '« t 45678 9 ^0 10 CHAPTER V. PRONOUNS. FOEMATION OF THE BASE. 217. Pronouns have no crude base analogous to that of nouns; that is, no state distinct from all inflexion, serving as the basis on which all the cases are constructed. The reason of this may be, that the pronouns in Sanskrit, as in all languages, are so irregular and capricious in their formation, that no one base would be equally applicable to all the cases. Thus in the ist personal pronoun, the base of the nom. sing, would be ah, while that of the oblique cases sing, would be ma. In the 2d, the base of the sing, is practically twa, while that of the dual and plural is yu. The 3d would have sa for the base of the nom. sing., and la for the other cases. The question then arises. What form of the pronoun is to be used in the forma- tion of compound words ? In the pronouns of the first and second persons, the ablative cases, singular and plural, and in the other pronouns, the nominative and accusative cases singular neuter, are considered as expressive of the most general and comprehensive state of the i)ronoim. These cases, therefore, discharge the office of a crude base in resj)ect of compound words. PRONOUNS. 95 DECLENSION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. Observe — In Sanskrit, as in other languages, to denote the general and indefi- nite character of the first two personal pronouns, no distinction of gender is admitted. For the same reason, the formation of the nom. case of pronouns is made to resemble the neuter, as the most general state. This may also be the reason why the 3d pronoun sa drops the s of the nom. case before all consonants. 2I«. N. wi aham, ' V Ac. JTT mam or jtt md, ' me' I. wmmayd D. ^^^ mahyam or ^ me Ab.»n^mfif G. J7»T mama or ^ me L. T{fTi mayi 219. N. ^ haam, ' thou' Ac. r?rt hvdm or "^ twd I. r^TTT tivayd D. ivi^ tubhyam or w te Kh.m,i{twat G. n^^ tava or w te L. f^ T^ mat or ^TWrT asmat, ' I.' wr^ dvdm, ' we two' T^ vayam, ^ we' — aram or ffTwaw/ us two' ^TOTT^c^^awor »nT%a*/us' ^Tn«lt dvdbhydm ^TWrfWH asmdbhis — dvdbhydm or "^ nau W^U^ asmab hy am or i^nas ^m'lf asmat ^TWra asmdkam or rf^ nas ^mi'JT asmdsu — dvdbhydm 4Jrc(in« dvayos or 1^ wg?^ — dvayos r^ /«;«/ or TTTTir yushmat '^ yuvdm, ' you two' — yuvdm or '^ vam ^■^T«n yuvdbhydm thou.' ^ yuyam, ' you' or ' ye' TT^TPT yushmdn or ^i;a5 <4^ir»T^^ yushmdbhis — yuvdbhydm or ^f ^?am ^tjiw? yushmabhyam or ^^t?a« — yuvdbhydm TnJTfT yushmat "^"^^yuvayos or '^ ra/M Y^n«fi yushmdkam or ^va* — yuvayos ^«*(t^ yushmdsu 220. he' N. w^^sas, Ac. "ff ^am I. ^ ^ew« D. w^ tasmai Ab. HfHIH tasmdt G. WW ^«syffl L. irftRfT tasmin N. 'm 5a, ^ she' Ac. irt Mm I. Tnn My a D. fT^ tasyai TTW M# or TT^ /«TTR bhavdn, >TWr bhavantau, ^^^7f^'^ bhavantas ; N. fem. >TTfft bhavati, H^?n bhavatijau, vnw^^bhavatyas, &c.; Voc. iT^fir (140. b). It is constantly used in place of the 2d personal pronoun : thus, >m*T 3]^ W^jf ' Let your honour go home' for ' Go thou home.' DERIVATIVE PRONOUNS OF QUANTITY AND SIMILITUDE. 234. Modifications of the demonstrative, relative, and interrogative pronouns may take the affix "^tfvat to express ' quantity,' and the affix T^T drisa or "^^^drisf to express ' simihtude :' thus, ti[€pof/.€$a. In the 2d future, ddsyd-mas=. Oa(TO-[xev, dekshyd-mas=iO€iKO-o-fxev. In the 2d pers. sing. active, the characteristic s has been preserved in all three languages : thus, in the present, the Sanskrit asj = e<7ai,es; dadd-si=iOiOa}(, dasj bhara-si = (pepei$,fersj vahasi = vehis. In the Atmane, the Sanskrit se (for sai, by 32) answers exactly to the Greek aai of verbs in fxi (tishtha-se=: iepe-TQV; tishtha-tha= lara-re, statis; bhara-tha = (f>€pe-T€, fer-tis. In the 2d pi. Atmane, bhara-dhwe = (pepeaQe. As to the other tenses, in the 2d sing. •potential, tishthes= lO'TUirji, stes: dadyds = oi0oivj$, desj vahes =z vehas j bhares =i(f)€poif,feras: in 2d du. bhare-tam = (pepoi-TOV: in 2d pi. tishtheta = laraiyjTe, stetisj dadydta = OiQOlVjT€, detis ; bhareta = (f>€potT€, ferafis. In the 2d sing, imperative, hi and dhi answer to Greek 61. DM was originally universal in Sanskrit (see 291), as in Greek verbs in jW-/ ; e-dhi = lnC = ^f Pf > and compare oeiKVV with chinu, &c. In the 2d du. imp. tarn = TOV, and ta = re. In the imperative Atmane, siva := the old form CO ; bhara-swa = (pepe-ao (old form o{epov); dat-swa = Oi^o-ao ; dthdm = eaBov, &c. In the 2d sing, ist pret. atarpas=ieT€p'!r€$, avahas=^vehebas, &c. So also, tam^TOV, adat-tam=(:Oiho-TOV, ta = re, adat-ta = eOioo-Te. In the Atmane, thds is found for sds in the 2d sing. of the 1st pret., as well as of the potential; hence abhara-thds ^= ecpepe-ao, adat-thds = €^i^o-(70, dadt-thds = OiO0i{a-) 0. In the 2d pret. the tha of the 2d sing. =: Latin sti; dad-ifkaz=dedi-sti, tasthi-fhaz= sfeti-sti, tutodi-tha = tutudi-sti. In the 3d pret. adds = eoa)$", avdksMs = vexisti. In the 3d pers. sing, active, Greek has dropped the characteristic t (except in for/ = Sansk. asti, Lat. est) ; bharafi 110 VERBS. CONJUGATIONS. =ze. In the 3d pret. avdksMt:=vexit, adikshata = eoeiKaaro. As to the 3d pi., in the above tenses, bharanti = (pepovai, ferunt : vahanti ^ vehunt : bharante = (pepovrai ; dadati = oidovtri ; tishtanti := stewf ^- bhareyus = (pepoiev ; bharantu =. ferunto ; abharan = ecpcpov ; abhara7ita = €(f)ep0VT0 ; dsan ^ ijaav ; atarpishus = (Tep^av; ddsyante = OwaovTai. See Bopp's Comparative Grammar, 248. The above terminations are supposed to be applicable to all verbs, vv^hether primitive or derivative : and as in nouns, so in verbs, the theory of Indian grammarians is, that before these terminations can be affixed to roots, an inflective base must be formed out of the root. Ten diiferent rules, therefore, are propounded for forming verbal bases out of roots in the first four tenses ; while all verbs are arranged under ten classes, according as they follow one or other of these rules. In the other tenses there is only one general rule for forming the base. These ten classes of verbs are called the ten conjugations; and the four tenses, which alone are affected by the conjugational rules (viz. the present, potential, imperative, and first preterite), are called the conjugational tenses. It is evident, however, that the ten conjuga- tions are hardly conjugations in the classical sense of the term. They are rather ten rules for moulding and fashioning ten classes of roots into the proper form for receiving a common scheme of terminations in four of the tenses only. 249. The following is a brief summary of the ten rules for forming the base of the four conjugational tenses in the ten classes of verbs, according to the Indian arrangement of the conjugations. ist class (ist conjugation). Gunate the vowel of the root (unless it be ^ oi or precede a double consonant, 28. b) before every termina- tion of the four tenses, and affix the vowel ^ a — lengthened to ^ a before initial m or v — to the root thus gunated. 2d class (2d conjugation). Gunate the radical vowel (unless it be ^ a or precede a double consonant) before those terminations only which are marked with P in the scheme at 246. Before all the other terminations the original vowel of the root must be retained. 3d class (3d conjugation). Reduplicate the initial consonant and VERBS. — CONJUGATIONS. Ill vowel of the root, and gunate the radical but not the reduplicated vowel before the P terminations only, as in the 2d conjugation. 4th class (4th conjugation). Affix tj ya — lengthened to TfT yd before initial m or v — to the root, the vowel of which is generally left unchanged. 5th class (5th conjugation). Affix "H nu to the root, and gunate this nu into no before the P terminations only. 6th class (6th conjugation). Affix ^« — lengthened to ^rra before initial m or v — to the root, which in other respects generally remains unchanged. 7th class (7th conjugation). Insert '^ na between the vowel and final consonant of the root before the P terminations, and rf n before the other terminations. Observe the peculiarity of this conjugation — that the conjugational na or n is inserted into the middle of the root, and not affixed. 8th class (8th conjugation). Affix T w to the root, and gunate this u into before the P terminations only. Observe — As all the roots, except one, in this class, end in n, the 8th conjugation will appear to be exactly similar to the 5th. 9th class (9th conjugation). Affix T{\nd to the root before the P terminations ; 7ft ni before all the others, excepting those beginning with vowels, where only ^ w is affixed. loth class (loth conjugation). Gunate the radical vowel through- out all the persons of all the tenses, and affix ^P7 ay a — lengthened to 'snn ayd before initial m or v — to the root thus gunated. 250. It will appear, from a cursory examination of the above rules, that the object of all of them, excepting the 2d, 3d, and 7th, is to insert a vowel, either alone or preceded by y or n, between the modified root and the terminations ; and that the ist, 4th, 6th, and loth, agree in requiring that the vowel, which is immediately to precede the terminations, shall be a. It will appear, moreover, that the 2d, 3d, and 7th, alone agree in not interposing a vowel between the final of the root and the terminations ; and that the 5th, 8th, and 9th, agree in interposing either u, d, or /, after the letter n. a. It must never, however, be forgotten, that the conjugational characteristic, whatever it may be, has reference only to the four conjugational tenses (excepting only in the loth conjugation), and that in the other tenses the base is formed according to one general 112 VERBS. FIVEFOLD MODIFICATION OF ROOTS. rule for all verbs of whatever conjugation ; or, in other words, that in these tenses all verbs, of whatever class, are as if they belonged to one common conjugation. b. It is evident, that a comparison between the difficulty of the Sanskrit and Greek verb would be greatly to the advantage of the former. The Greek verb has three voices, and about ninety tenses and moods : the Sanskrit has only two voices, and not more than twenty tenses and moods. Besides which, a far greater number of verbs are susceptible of the three voices in Greek, than of the two in Sanskrit. Moreover, in Sanskrit there are no contracted verbs, and no difficulties resulting from difference of dialect ; and although there are ten conjugations, yet these have reference to four tenses only ; and, under some of these conjugations, only two or three common verbs are contained. 251. Hence it appears, that the very meaning of Sanskrit conju- gation is the Sandhi or junction of a verbal base (formed out of a root according to ten rules for four of the tenses, and one general rule for the other tenses) with a common scheme of terminations, and that in conjugating a verb, two things have to be done; ist, to form the base from the root, in the manner described above ; adly, to join the base with the terminations, according to the rules of Sandhi. 252. Before proceeding to a detailed explanation of the formation of the verbal base of the simple or primitive verb, under the several classes, it will be worth while to specify the four other verbs deduci- ble from roots, and to explain how they are derived. a. It has been already shown, at 74, that there are a large number of monosyllabic sounds in Sanskrit, called roots, which are the source of verbs as well as nouns. These roots are in number about two thousand ; and the theory of grammarians is, that each of them may serve as the rough block out of which the inflective bases of five kinds of verbs may be fashioned : i . of a primitive, transitive or intransitive ; 2. of a passive ; 3. of a causal, having often a causal and often merely a transitive signification ; 4. of a desiderative, giving a sense of wishing to the root ; and 5. of a frequentative (or intensive), implying repetition, or heightening the idea contained in the root. b. It will be found, however, in practice, that the greater number of these two thousand roots never occur at all in the form of verbs, nor, indeed, in any other form but that of the nouns to which they give origin ; and that the roots in real use, as the source of verbs, are comparatively few. Of these few, moreover, certain particular roots (such, for exam])le, as "^ kri, 'to do'), as if to compensate VERBS. — FIVEFOLD MODIFICATION OF ROOTS. 113 for the inactivity of the others, are kept in constant employment ; and, by com- pounding them with prepositions and other prefixes, apphed to the expression of the most various and opposite ideas. Nevertheless, theoretically, from every root in the language may be ehcited five kinds of verbal The first, or primitive verb, is formed from the root, according to the ten different rules (or conjugations) appUcable to the formation of the base in the first four tenses. The second, or passive, is formed according to the rule for the change of the root, required by the 4th conjugation ; viz. the addition of ya in the first four tenses. The third, or causal, is formed according to the rule for the change of the root, required by the loth conjugation ; viz. the addition of aya to the root in all the tenses excepting the 3d preterite. The fourth, or desiderative, is formed by the addition of sa or isha, the root also undergoing reduplication. The fifth, or frequentative, is formed like the passive, according to the rule required by the 4th conjugation, and is, in fact, a reduplicated passive verb. It may also be formed analogously to the rule for the 3d conjugation. Thus, take the root 3I>T subh, conveying the idea of ' shining' — from this are elicited, ist, the primitive verbal base, sobha, Ho shine;' 2dly, the passive, subhya, * to be bright ;' 3dly, the causal, sobhaya, ' to cause to shine' or * illuminate ;' 4thly, the desiderative, susobhisha, ' to desire to shine ;' 5thly, the frequentative or intensive, sosubhya or Sosobh, ' to shine very brightly.' a. Note, that as every root may be the source of five different kinds of verbs, so every noun may be the source of a class of verbs (not much used) caUed nominal verbs. A brief explanation of these will be found after frequentatives at 518. 253. It has already been remarked, that the passive can hardly be considered a voice, according to the classical acceptation of the term. In Greek and Latin, a verb in the passive voice corresponds in form with the same verb in the active : thus audior corresponds with audio, aKovofxai with aKOvco, the terminations or system of inflection only being changed. And in Greek, a verb in the passive corresponds with the same verb in the middle voice, both in the form and in the terminations of most of its tenses. But, in Sanskrit, the form of the passive varies entirely in the conjugational tenses from that of the active verb (unless that verb belong to the 4th conjugation), whilst the terminations may sometimes be the same, viz. those of the Atmane-pada. It is rather a distinct derivative from the root, formed on one invariable principle, without any necessary community with the conjugational structure of the active verb. Thus the root bhid, to divide,' is of the 7th conjugation, and makes bhinatii or bhivic, 'he divides;' dirish,' to hate,' is of the 2d conjugation, and makes du-fshti or ilvislifp, he hates;' Q 114 VERBS. FIVEFOLD MODIFICATION OF ROOTS. but the passive of both is formed according to one invariable rule, by the simpje insertion of ya, without reference to the conjugational form of the active : thus, bhidyate, ' he is divided;' dwishyate, ' he is hated.' See 243. a. a. In fact, though it be a distinct derivative from the root, a passive verl) is nothing but a verb of the 4th conjugation restricted to the Atmane-pada : and to say that every root may take a passive form, is to say that roots of the ist, 2d, 3d, 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, and loth conjugations may all be conjugated in the 4th conjugation, with a passive sense : so that if a root be already of the 4th conjuga- tion, its passi\-e form is generally, though not always, identical wth its own Atmane-pada. b. It might even with reason be suspected, that the occasional assumption of a neuter signification and a Parasmai-pada inflection by a passive verb, was the cause which gave rise to the 4th conjugation. Instances are certainly found of passive verbs taking Parasmai-pada terminations, and many passive verbs (for example, jdyate, ' he is born,' from the root jan ; puryate, ' he is filled,' from the root prij and tapyate, ' he is heated,' from the root tap) are confounded with verbs of this conjugation*. So that it seems not unhkely, that, by making the 4th conjugation, grammarians only meant to say that the passive form of verbs, or the addition of ya to the root, is also the form that may be used to express a neuter or intransitive signification ; the only difference requisite to be made between the two forms being exactly that which might be expected to exist between them; viz. that the one should take the Atmane-pada; the other, the Parasmai- pada inflection. This fact, at least, is clear that the Parasmai-pada of the 4th conjugation is the form vised in numerous roots to yield a neuter signification; and that the Atmane-pada is identical with the form used to yield a passive sense ; so that the 4th conjugation can hardly be said to possess an Atmane-pada f- Hence it arises, that many roots appear in the 4th conjugation as neuter verbs, which also appear in some one of the other nine as transitive. For example, ytij, ' to join,' when used in an active sense, is conjugated either in the 7th conjugation, or in the causal; when in a neuter, in the 4th. So also, push/ to nourish;' kshubh, ' to agitate ;' klis, ' to vex ;' sidh, ' to accomphsh.' 254. Similarly, although causal verbs are said to be distinct derivatiA'cs from the root, they are in point of fact verbs of the loth conjugation, inflected either in Parasmai or Atmane. To say, therefore, that every root may take a causal form, is to say that roots of the fii-st nine conjugations may aU be conjugated in the * Tliat the passive does occasionally take the terminations of the Parasmai-pada is shown by Professor Bopp, who gives several instances; as, chhidyet for chhidyeta, ' it may be cut.' Nal. xiv. 6 ; mokshyasi for mokshyase, ' thou shalt be liberated.' Other instances may be found in Westergaard ; as, vidyati for vidyate. t At any rate, Ih.e forms given for the 3d preterites of such verbs as pad, ' to go,' budh, 'to know' (which are said to be Atmane verbs of the 4th conjugation), could only belong to passiA'e ^'erbs. The forms given by Westergaard are, apddi, abodhi. See 475. FORMATION OF THE BASE OF PRIMITIVE VERBS. 115 loth conjugation, with a causal sense ; and that if a root be already of the loth conjugation, it can then have no distinct form for its causal, the primitive verb and the causal being in that case identical (see 289). Indeed, it might reasonably be conjectiu-ed, that the occasional employment of a causal verb in a transitive, rather than a causal sense, was the only reason for creating a loth conjugation. It would certainly simplify the subject, if this conjugation were not sei)arated from the causal ; or, in other words, if the addition of aya to the root were considered in all cases as the mark of a causal verb. One thing, at least, is plain, that this aifix is not the sign of a separate conjugation, in the way that nu is the sign of the 5th conjugation, or in the way of any other conjugational syllable; for it is retained in most of the other tenses of the verb, not only in the &st four, just as the desiderative ish is retained. 255. The subject of verbs, therefore, will divide itself into two heads. In the first place, the formation of the base ; ist of primi- tive, 2dly of passive, 3dly of causal, 4thly of desiderative, 5thly of frequentative verbs ; with their respective participles. In the second place, the exhibition, at full, of the base, united to its terminations, under each of the five forms of verbs consecutively. Under the first head will be shown, how the root has to be changed before the terminations can be affixed ; while the mode of affixing the terminations to the root, thus changed, will at the same time be indi- cated. Under the second head, the five forms of verbs beginning with primitives will appear conjugated in detail; the base, or changed root, being combined with its terminations in regular sequence. PRIMITIVE VERBS. FORMATION OF THE BASE OF THE FIRST FOUR TENSES, IN THE TEN CONJUGATIONS. 256. A brief summary of the formation of the base, in the ten classes of verbs, has already been given at 249 ; and a great pecu- liarity has been noted — that the rules of conjugation have reference only to the first four tenses, called conjugational, viz. the present, potential, imperative, and first preterite. Remember, that after passing these four tenses the conjugational structure of the base is forgotten; and in the formation of the bases of the six remaining tenses all roots conform to one general rule, and are as if they belonged to one general conjugation. Hence the six last tenses are called non- conjugational. The tenth class alone retains the conjugational structure of the base throughout most of the non-conjugational tenses ; but as this class consists chiefly of causal verbs, no confusion can arise from this apparent inconsistency. Of the 2000 roots, more than half follow the ist conjugation, about 130 follow the 4th, about 140 the 6th, Q Z 116 FORMATION OF THE BASE OF PRIMITIVE VERBS. and all may follow the loth (see 289). Of the remaining roots, about 70 follow the 2d, but not more than 20 are in common use; about 20 follow the 3d, of which not half are in common use ; about 24, of which hardly 6 are common, follow the 7th; about 30, of which 10 are common, the 5th; about 10, of which only 2 are common, the 8th; about 52, of which 15 are common, the 9th. 257. Primitive verbs, therefore, will separate themselves into ten classes, according as they fall under one or other of the ten conju- gations ; and these ten conjugations may be segregated into three groups. a. The ist group is the most important and comprehensive, as comprising verbs of the ist, 4th, 6th, and loth classes, which agree in making their inflective bases end in a, and in taking substitutions for some of the terminations, as indicated at 247. b. The 2d group comprises verbs of the 2d, 3d, and 7th classes, which agree in affixing the regular terminations (at 246) to the final letter of the root, without the intervention of a vowel. c. The 3d group, comprising verbs of the 5th, 8th, and 9th classes, also affixes the regular terminations to the root ; but after the inter- vention of either u, a, or {, preceded by the consonant n. It will be convenient, in giving a detailed explanation of the formation of the base under each conjugation, to adhere to the grouping of the above divisions. 258. Although, to prevent confusion, it is advisable to preserve the Indian classification of verbs into ten classes, and therefore into ten conjugations ; yet it would be more in unison with the classical idea of a conjugation, to arrange all verbs under three classes and three conjugations, according to the above grouping. The classical student may, if he please, consider that verbs of the ist, 4th, 6th, and loth classes constitute his first conjugation; verbs of the 2d, 3d, and 7th classes, his second conjugation ; and verbs of the 5th, 8th, and 9th, his third conjugation. a. In comparing Sanskrit verbs ^vith Greek and Latin, observe that the first group of conjugations in Sanskrit, viz. the ist, 4th, 6th, and loth, answers to the Greek first conjugation in O), the conjugational ^ a becoming or e in Greek {tarpdmas = Tep-^Cfxev, tarpatha = Te^Trere) ; and although the Greek first con- jugation contains more subdivisions than the first group in Sanskrit, yet the inflection of these subdivisions is similar. As to the Sanskrit loth conjugation, however, it appears to correspond to Greek verbs in a^w and i^a, which, hke the loth, are generally found in company %vith other verbs from the same root : thus, KaGapi^w, ' I make pure' {KaSaipa), crTevd^a, ' to groan' (CTevw), where ^ is substi- tuted for '^ y, as in ^ea for '^'^ ' barley.' To this class also may be referred verbs in FORMATION OF THE BASE OF PRIMITIVE VERBS. 117 aa and €W : thus pdraydmi = irepaa^ where the y has been dropi)ed, and the two a's combined. Latin verbs in io, like audio &c., seem to be related to the Sanskrit 4th class, as well as to the loth: thus cupio answers to kupydmi; and the e of audieham answers to the ay a of the loth, just as in Prakrit ay a is contracted into ^ e. The second and third groups of conjugations in Sanskrit (viz. the 2d, 3d, 7th, 5th, 8th, and 9th) answer to Greek verbs in fJ^i : thus emi 2d conj. = €ija/, daddmi 3d con]. = ^i^(0[J.l. The 7th conjugation, however, has no exact parallel in Greek, but many Greek and Latin verbs resemble it in inserting a nasal into the middle of the root ; see 342. a. The 5th and 8th conjugations answer to Greek verbs in vv and v ; and vv and v are lengthened before certain terminations, just as nu is gimated in Sanskrit : thus strinomi ■=. (XTOpvvjXl, strinoshi = 0"TO^VUf, strinoti = (JTOpvvri, strinumas = (rTopy/x€$", &c. The 9th conjugation answers to Greek verbs in vd (vyj) -. thus knndmi = '7repvdixi {iripvYifxi), knmmas='7repva[J.e^. Compare also Latin forms in ni : thus sternimus = Sans, strinimas, from stri, 9th conj. See Bopp's Comparative Grammar. FORMATION OF THE BASE IN THE 1ST, 4TH, 6tH, AND lOTH CLASSES OF VERBS. 259. Before entering upon the formation of the base, observe par- ticularly that the ist, 4th, 6th, and loth classes take substitutions for some of the terminations, especially in the potential Parasmai, and in the 2d and 3d dual of the present, imperative, and ist preterite, Atmane-pada. In the 2d sing, imperative they reject the termina- tion *. See the scheme at 247. 260. Observe also, that it is an universal rule in all ten conjugations that the augment ^ « be prefixed to the base of the ist preterite ; and when the base begins with ^ a or ^t a, the augment blends with these vowels into a, by 31 (just as in Greek e and e become v in rjyeipov, &c.). a. But when the augment a is prefixed to bases beginning with the vowels \i, ^u, and ^ ri, short or long, it blends with them into ^ ai, "m au, ^nr dr (instead of e, 0, ar, by 32). Thus the base ^^ ichchha becomes in the 3d sing, i st preterite F^sar!^ aichchhat, the base ^ uha becomes ^^TT auhata, and the base '^ift ridhno becomes ^snfftw drdhnot. b. This rule apphes to two of the non-conjugational tenses also, viz. the 3d preterite and the conditional. Note, that the ist and 3d preterites and the con- ditional are the only three tenses that take the augment a. * Probably in consequence of the haste with which ' command ' is generally 118 FORMATION OF THE BASE OF PRIMITIVE VERBS FIRST CONJ. First class [ist conjugation), containing about looo primitive verbs. 261. Rule for the formation of the base in the four conjugational tenses. Gunate the vowel (except when debarred by 28. b) before every termination of all the four tenses, and affix the vowel ^ a to the root so gunated. Note, that this vowel ^ a is lengthened into ^n d before the initial m or ?; of a termination, but not when m is final, as in the ist sing, ist preterite. 262. Thus, from the root "q"*! budh, ' to know/ is formed the base ^^ boclha, lengthened into "^Htt hodhd before m and v (Pres. i.* bodhd + mi = ^^t^f^ bodhdmi, bodha + si = "^hrftT bodhasi, bodha + ti = ^HrfrT bodhati ; Du. i. bodhd + vas = '^vt^ bodhdvas, &c. ; j^tm. Pres. bodha + i = '^(i^ bodhe by 32, 6oc?/m + ^e = "^hiW bodhase, &c.). See table at 583. 263. Similarly, from f^ji, ' to conquer' (see 590), comes the base "3IXI jaya, liable to be lengthened into IT^ j^ytt, as before {;^6. a) ; from "^ ni, ' to lead,' the base nay a or 7iayd ; from >^ bhu, 'to be' ((^u'o), Lat, yw), the bases bhava and bhavd (Pres. J. >f^jff{ bhavdmi, ^6. a ; 2. vr^ftr bhavasi, T% &c. ; Pres. i. 'SfiTrfiT &c.). * I. stands for ist singular; Du. i. for ist dual; PI. i. for ist plural, &c. FORMATION" OF THE BASE OF PRIMITIVE VERBS.— FOURTH CONJ. 119 268. There are some roots ending in the Viiddhi TT ui which cannot be gunated, but suffer the usual change of Sandhi before 'ST a and ^ d by 37 ; as, from ^ ' to sing,' y ' to be weary,' ^ ' to preserve,' 'HI ' to meditate,' ^ ' to fade,' are formed the bases gdya, gldya, trdya, dhydya, mldya. See 595. a. 269. Some roots of the ist conj. form their bases in the first four tenses by a change pecviliar to themselves, which change is of course discarded in the other tenses : thus, from WT ' to stand' (see 587), Ifl ghrd, ' to smell' (588), "Tf ' to drink' (589), 'HTT ' to blow,' ^ ' to repeat over,' come the bases fH"? tishfha, f^Hjighra, f^'^piva, VH dhama, W^ mana, the final a being, as before, liable to be lengthened. a. Note, that the roots WT sthd and TTT ghrd are properly reduphcated verbs of the 3d class at 330. The reduphcated base, by 331, would be tasthd, jaghrd : but as the reduplication is irregular, and the radical d is shortened, grammarians place these roots under the ist class. The Greek UTTVjfXi, on the other hand, has not shortened its radical vowel in the singular. 270. Again, from "W^ ' to see,' ^T ' to go,' ^'T ' to restrain,' "^^ ' to sink,' are formed the bases "m^ jmsya, T^ gachchha, '^^ yachchha, Wt^ sida (Pres. i. 1| ^ M 1 1*1 jjusydmi, &c.). 271. ^ 'to conceal' forms 'T^(/iJJ{J)hram, ' to wander,' >?T^ bhrdmya; from Tff mad, ' to be mad,' 'RUT mddya. 120 FORMATION OP THE BASE OF PRIMITIVE VERBS SIXTH CONJ. 276. If a root contain a nasal it is generally rejected ; as, from >j^ ' to fall,' >?^ bhrasya; tPT ' to be born' makes '^'^jdya (Pres. i. Atm. ^Tf^), lengthening the vowel, to compensate for the loss of n. a. Roots ending in ^ drop this before the conjugational ya .- thus "5^ so, ' to destroy,' makes its base sya. 277. The followng are anomalous. From if 'to grow old,' "^t^jirya: from ■^ni ' to pierce,' f^O^ vidhya; from fH^ ' to be viscid,' TST medya. Obser\'e — Although this class includes only 130 primitive verbs (generally neuter in signification), yet every one of the 2000 roots in the language may have a passive form which follows the A'tmane-pada of this class. Sixth class {6th conjugation), containing about 140 primitive verbs. 278. Rule for the formation of the base in the four conjugational tenses. Affix the vowel ^ a to the root, which is not gunated, and in other respects generally remains unchanged*. Note, that the inserted ^ a becomes ^ a before an initial m and v of the termina- tions of the four tenses (but not before the m of the ist sing, ist pre- terite), as in the ist and 4th conjugations at 261 and 272. 279. Thus, from f^ kship, *to throw/ comes the base fe^tr kshipa (Pres. I. kshipa + mi = ftfCfTfj? kshipdmi, 2. kshipa +si = fi3^tifti kshi- pasi ; Pot. I. kshipa + iy am ^f^Tf^ kshipeyam, &c. ; Atm. Pres. i. kshipa + i = f^ kshipe; see 6t^^) ; from "^ tud, ' to strike,' "K^ tuda; from f^ dis, ' to point out,' f^ disa. 280. Roots in \i, ^ u or "^ u, "^ ri and '^ ri, generally change those vowels into ^»y, "3^ uv, fc ri, and ^ ir respectively ; as, from ft, ' to go,' comes the base fr^ riya; from tT ' to praise,' '^^ nuva; from ^' to agitate,' >r^ dhuvaj from H ' to die,' f%TT mriya (626) ; from cIT kn, ' to scatter,' f^R kira (627). 281. A considerable class of roots, ending in consonants, in this conjugation, insert a nasal before the final consonant in the four tenses ; as, from 5^, ' to let go,' comes the base t^ muiicha ; from fc5^ 'to anoint,' Prt**! limpaj from "^r^ 'to cut,' oF^iT krintaj from ftr^^'to sprinkle,' ^^^ sihchaj from '^^"'^'to break,' l^'RT lumpa. Similarly, the roots f^'^T, f%^, 'fe^* 282. The following are anomalous. From ^^, ' to wish,' comes the base ^^ ichchha; from TTbBl * to ask,' "W^ prichchha ; from >?W ' to roast,' W^bhrijja; from '31^ ' to deceive,' f^^ vicha; from "3^' to cut,' ^^ vrischa. * Prof. Bopp observes, that the sixth class is only an ofFshoot of the first, con- taining the diseased members of that class. Comp. Gram. 1055. FORMATION OF THE BASE OF PEIMITIVE VERBS.— TENTH CONJ. 121 Tenth class of verbs {\oth conjugation), containing a few primitive verbs and all causals. 283. Rule for the formation of the base in the four conjugational tenses. Gunate the vowel of the root throughout every person of all the four tenses (except when debarred by 38. b), and affix "^nJf aya to the root so gunated. Note, that wi ay a becomes "Win ay a before an initial m or v of the terminations of the four tenses, but not before the m of the ist sing, ist preterite. 284. Thus, from ^T chur, ' to steal,' is formed the base ^q^^l choraya (Pres. i. chorayd + mi = ''^1T^^f^ choraydmi, 2. choraya + si = ^tTTrftl chorayasi, &c. ; Pot. i . choraya + iyam = ^Vt^ chorayeyam ; Imp. I. choraya + mn = ■'^■jnftof choraydni, &c., see 58 ; ist Pret. i. achoraya + m = W-^(t^ achorayam, &c., see 638). 285. Roots ending in vowels take Vriddhi instead of Guna; as, from ift ' to please,' T(m^ prnyaya; from V ' to hold.' VRII dhdraya. But tj, 'to fill,' makes "'JTTT jmraya. 286. Roots which enclose the vowel ^ a between two single consonants generally lengthen this vowel; as, from U^' to swallow,' ?n^^ grdsaya : but not always ; as, from ^i^ ' to say,' <*'q*l kathaya. 287. oITT^, ' to celebrate,' ' to praise,' makes "^^^ kirtaya (Pres. o|ild*JlfiT). 288. A few roots with a medial "^ri retain that vowel ; as, fi'om ^T^ ' to desire,' *M^*4 sprihaya. 289. Observe — Every Sanskrit root may have a causal form, and all causal verbs foUow the loth conjugation ; but there are a considerable number of active primitive verbs, not causal in their signification, which belong to this conjugation. In these verbs, therefore, the causal form will be identical with the primitive verb. Hence there wiU often be a difficulty in determining whether a verb be a primitive verb of the loth conjugation, or a causal verb ; and the consideration of the loth conjugation must to a great extent be mixed up with that of the causal form of the root (see 479). a. Observe also, that all verbs, whether primitive or causal, which belong to the loth conjugation, have this great peculiarity, viz. that the conjugational ay is carried throughout all the tenses of the verb, non-conjugational as well as con- jugational, excepting only the 3d preterite and the benedictive, Parasmai-pada (compare 254). For this reason the formation of the base of the non-conjugational tenses of verbs of the loth conjugation will not be explained under the general head of the non-conjugational tenses (at 363), l)ut will fall under causal verbs. 122 FORMATION OF THE BASE OF PRIMITIVE VERBS.— LAST 2 GROUPS. FORMATION OF THE BASE IN THE 2D, 3D, 7TH, 5TH, 8tH, AND 9TH CLASSES OF VERBS. 290. Before entering upon the formation of the base in the last two groups of conjugations, observe that they take the regular ter- minations of the memorial scheme at 246, without any substitutions, excepting in the 3d plur. present and imperative, Atmane-pada, where the nasal is rejected in all six classes (see scheme at 247). a. The 3d class, however, owing to the burden occasioned by reduphcation, rejects the nasal from the 3d plur. of the Parasmai-pada, as well as from the A'tmane-pada, in these two tenses, and takes us for an in the 3d pi. ist preterite. h. Two roots, moreover, in the 2d class [jaksh, ' to eat,' and sds, ' to rule'), and roots of more than one syllable (very few in number), resemble the 3d class in reject- ing the nasal from the 3d pi. Parasmai, and taking us for an in the ist preterite*. 291. Observe also, that roots ending in consonants, of the 2d, 3d, and 7th classes, and the root ^ ku of the 3d, take dhi (the Greek Bl) for hi in the 2d sing, imperative f (see 247) ; and that roots ending in vowels, of the 5th and 8th classes, resemble the first group of classes at 259, in rejecting this termination altogether. 292. Again, roots ending in consonants will reject the terminations s and / of the 2d and 3d sing, ist preterite by 43. a, changing the fiinal of the root, if a soft consonant, to an unaspirated hard, by 42. a; and in other respects changing a final consonant, as indicated at 43. But in the 2d sing, the termination s is some- times optionally retained, and the final letter of the root rejected. a. If a root end in ^ h, this final h becomes k, in the 2d and 3d sing, ist pret., by 43. e ; but if the root begin with d or g, the aspirate is thrown back on these letters, which become dh, gh. b. If a root end in H s, it may change this s to Mn the 2d sing. 293. Although comparatively few verbs fall under the last two groups of conjugations, yet some of these are among the most useful in the language. Their formation presents more difficulties than that of the ist, 4th, 6th, and loth conjugations. In these latter the verbal base, although varying slightly in each conjugation, preserves the same form before all the terminations of every tense ; but in the last two groups of conjugations the base is liable to variation before * A few other roots of the 2d class (as, f^r^, fi"^, 'm , VJ) optionally take us for un in the ist preterite. Sds probably follows the analogy of reduplicated verbs, on account of its double sibilant. t Dhi was originally the only form. Hence in the Vedas "^^ {kXvQi) ; and in the Mahabharata ^n7T"^fv . Dhi then passed into hi, as dhita passed into hita, and bhimi into the Latin humus. FORMATION OF THE BASE OF PRIMITIVE VERBS.— LAST 2 GROUPS. 123 the different terminations of each tense, such variation being denoted by the letter P and other indicatory letters of the memorial scheme at 246, which, be it remembered, are significant only in reference to the second and third groups, and not to the first. a. In the 2d preterite, however, being a non-conjugational tense, the P is equally significant for verbs of all conjugations. Observe — This P, which usually indi- cates that in those persons of the tense where it occurs, the root must be gunated or vriddhied, is generally to be found after light terminations. The ist, 2d, and 3d sing. Parasmai of the present, ist preterite, and 2d preterite are manifestly light terminations. The 3d sing. Parasmai of the imperative is also clearly light ; and the ist sing. du. and pi. Parasmai and Atmane of this tense must have been originally light, as these also have a P affixed. The object, therefore, of the P is to show, that fulness of form or weight is to be imparted to the root or base before these light terminations, and these only : thus \i, 2d conj., ' to go,' is in the pres. sing, emi, eshi, eti; in du. ivas, ithas, itas; in pi. imas, &c. : just as in Greek tifxi, eV'^h (parov, (paTOv, (pafjiev, (jyan, (paai. So again, stri, ' to strew,' is in pres. sing. strinomi, strinoshi, strinoti; in du. strinuvas, strinuthas, strinufas; in pi. strinumas, &c. : just as in Greek aropvufxi, aropvvg, aTopvvTi, aropvvTOV, aropwrov, CTTOpvvfxeg, &c. Similarly, kn, 'to buy,' is in pres. sing, krindmi, krindsi, krindti; in du. &c. krmivas, krinithas, krimtas, krinimas, &c., the a being heavier than i. Compare Greek Trepvdtxi [irepvYJixi), Ttepvdg, Trepvari, Trepvarov, Trepvarov, &c. When a root is long by nature or position, no additional weight is necessary, and no Guna is then possible (see 28. b) ; but in place of Guna, the root or base some- times remains unmutilated before the Mght terminations, while mutilation takes place before the heavy. Thus da and dhd suppress their final vowels before the heavy terminations, and preserve them before the light ; see 335, 336. Similarly, as, ' to be,' which by 28. b. cannot be gunated, drops its initial vowel before the hea\^ terminations, retaining it before the light; see 322, and compare 320. Observe, that since Guna takes place before all the terminations of the 2d future indiscriminately, the P affixed to the singular terminations of this tense can have no significance, unless it be to show that the terminations of this tense are taken from the present, with sya prefixed. 294. Another source of difficulty is, that in the second group (viz. the 2d, 3d, and 7th) the verbal base will generally end in a consonant, there being no provision for the interposition of a vowel between the root and the terminations. Hence the combination of the final consonant of a base with the initial /, th, or s, of a termina- tion in the conjugational tenses of these three classes requires a knowledge of the laws of Sandhi already propounded, as well as of the following additional rules. R 2 124 FORMATION OF THE BASE OF PRIMITIVE VERBS.— LAST 2 GROUPS. a. Observe, however, that as regards the initial m or v of a termina- tion, a hard consonant at the end of a root is not made soft before these letters, as might be expected by 41, but remains unchanged: thus, vach + mi = vachmi, and chekshep + mi = chekshepmi. 295. The following rules wiU also apply in forming the base of the non- conjugational tenses of all the conjugations excepting the loth, and in some of the participles ; for although in most roots ending in consonants provision is made for the insertion of the vowel l^i (see terminations of ist future &c. at p. 107) before the terminations of these tenses, yet there are a large class of common roots which reject this inserted vowel, leaving the final of the base to coalesce with the initial consonant of the termination. It wiU be convenient, therefore, in the following pages to introduce by anticipation a few examples from the non- conjugational tenses and participles. Combination affinal ^ ch and "ST j with IT t, "q th, and ^ s. 296. Final ^ ch and l[^j, before K t, "^ th, and ^ s, are changed to oF A: (compare 43. d), the k blending with s into "BT ksh by 70 : thus, vach -{-ti = vakti ; vach + thas = vakthas ; vach + siz= vakshi ; moch + sydmi = mokshydmi ; much + ta = mukta ; tyaj + ta = tyakta ; tyaj + sydmi = tyakshydmi. 297. But a final palatal is sometimes changed to ^ sh before IT t, y\ th; and W ^, ^ th, then become 7, 7: thus, JIT"^ + /i = Tiff ; 'p^ -\- thas = f^'^^, ^5^+^a = ^; ira' + /« = ireT . Combination of final V dh and >T bh with w t, ^ th, and ^ s. 298. Final >l dh and >T bh, befoi*e w t and ^i th, are changed, the one to ^ d, the other to ^ b, and both t and th then become V dh : thus, rundh with tas or thas becomes equally ^"^^runddhas ; labh + tdhe = WJHi^ labdhdhe. But if the root begin "with d it follows 42. c. See 664. a. Observe — When final \l t bh, before ^ s, are changed by 42, the one to IT t, the other to "^ p : thus, ^W*I runadh + si becomes ^rrrfw runatsi ; sedh + sydmi = setsydmi ; labh + sye = lapsye. a. And if the initial of the root be b or d, the aspirate, which has been rejected in the final, is thrown back on the initial ; as, bodh + FORMATION OF THE BASE OF PRIMITIVE VERBS.— LAST 2 GROUPS. 125 sye = >ftT?^ bhotsye; dadh + swa = v?^ dhatswa. See 42. c, 664; and compare Ope^co from rpecpM. Observe — The aspirate is also thrown back on the initial, when final dh is changed to d, before the termina- tions dhwe and dhwam. See 664. Combination of final ^ s, '^ sh, ^s, ivith W t, "'^ th, ^ s, V dh. 300. Final ^ s, before tt t and '^ th, is changed to '%^sh; and the /, thy take the cerebral form 7, ^: thus, f^5H-/e = f¥; and ^T^ + ^M* 301. Similarly, final 1^5^, before W ^ and ^ th, requires the change of t, th, to 7, 7 : thus, i"^ + ti = Irfe ; and fl^ + ^Aas = f|r?^. 302. Final '^r ^ or ^^sh, before ^ s, is changed to cF A: by 43. e, the * then becoming ^ sh by 70: thus, ^^+m = tP^; irtl + ^i = ^fiKf ; "5^ + sydmi = ■5;^TfiT . 303. Final ^ s or 'q sh, before V dh, is changed to "f d, the V c?A becoming ^ c?^ by 51 : thus, fgt^+ dhi = f^'S^. Similarly, fl^H- dhwam = ff^ . A final W7 may also follow this rule ; see 632, 651. 304. Final ^^ s, before M dh, is either dropped or changed to ^ c? ; thus, chakds + dhi = either ^ofirftr chakddhi or ^ofiTi% chakdddhi ; ^frPET^ + dhi = :5iTfv ; f^^+ dhi =. f^f^ . a. Before iR * it is changed to l[^t ; as, vas + sydmi = vatsydmi. So in the 2d sing. 1st pret. of sds, asds + s=:asdts = asdt by 43. a. Combination of final ^ h with W t, "^ th, '^ s, V dh. 305. In roots beginning with ^ d, like Jf c^mA, '■ to milk,^ final ^ h is changed to tt ^ before IT t and "^ th, and both ^ and th then become V (//* ; thus, ^ duh + tas or ^/«a5 becomes equally J'VH dugdhas ; ^ dah + M^mi = dagdhdsmi. In the root rf^ the final h becomes dh, and blends with t and /A into if c?c?^. See 624. a. But if the root begin with any other letter than ^ l dh, and iig becomes xr gh : thus, ^t^ doh + si = ^f^ ; ^'5 ^/a/t + sydmi = V^rrfiT ; ^TT? o^mA + sam = ^r^ . Compare 42. c. 6. In the root "^ /^aA final /< becomes V dh, and then TT t, before s. Compare 182. e, and see 624. c. In roots beginning with ^ d, like «r^ rfwA and f^?r, final ?r A becomes Tf ^ before f/A; i. e. before the dhi of the 2d sing, imperative, and before the terminations dhwe and dhwam : thus, ?^ duh + c?Ai = ^ni dugdhi. And in a root beginning with n, like ?iaA, final h becomes dh, and then d, before these terminations. But if the root begin with any other letter than d or n, then final h is dropped, and the V dh of the termination becomes ^ dh, the radical vowel being lengthened : thus, fc?? lih + ^/«i = c5^f^ ; lih + dhwam = T^i . d. Again, in roots beginning with ^ d or n ^ these letters become respectively xf dh and t? ^A, when final ir h becomes g or is dropped before dhwe and dhwam ; but not before the dhi of the imperative : thus, duh + (/At«;e = trrs^ dhugdhwe ; and «^wA + dhwam = '^W o^Am- FORMATION OF THE BASE IN THE 2D, 3D, AND 7TH CLASSES OF VERBS. Second class {2d conjugation), containing 70 primitive verbs. 307. Rule for the formation of the base in the four conjugational tenses. Gunate the vowel of the root (except when debarred by 28. 6) before those terminations only which are marked with P in the memorial scheme at 246. Before all the other terminations the original vowel of the root must be retained by 293. a. Remember, that no vowel is interposed between the root and the terminations, as in Greek verbs like ei/ixi, (pijiui, &c. See 258. «, 294. 308. Thus, from f^ uid, ' to know' (Greek e'lSw, 'iSov, Lat. video), is formed the base of the singular present ved {i.ved + mi = ^f^vedmi, &.C.), and the base of the dual and plural vid (Du. i. vid + vas = fws^ vidwas, &c. ; PI. i. vid + mas =: f^"^ vidmas, &c.). So also the base of the potential vid (i. vid + ydm = f^fil vidydm, &c.) ; the base of the imperative t^ed and ind (i. ved + dni = veddni, 2. vid + FORMATION OF THE BASE OF PRIMITIVE VERBS SECOND CONJ. 127 dhi =. viddhi 29 1 , ved + tu = vettu ; Du. i . ved + dva = veddva, &c. * ) ; and the base of the ist pret. aved and avid (i. aved -\- am = avedam, 2. aved + s = avet or aves by 43. a. and 292). See the table at 583. a. A contracted form of the 2d preterite of vid (365) is sometimes used for the present : thus, Sing, veda, vettha, veda ; Du. vidwa, vidathus, vidatus ; PI. vidma, vida, vidus ; see 168. a. Compare the Greek oiOa or FoiOa from the root FiO [eioa), also used with a present signification ; and the Latin vidi, vidisti, &c. Cf. also the present vidmas with 'I'^fi.ev {'lafxev), vittha with tare, and viddhi with 309. Similarly, from f^, ' to hate,' come the bases dwesh and dwish (Pres. i. Irf^; Du. i. 'fe^^, &c. ; see 657). 310. So also, from \i,^ io go/ will come the bases e and i (Pres. I. ^ftr emi, cf. eijixi, 2. ^lf^ by 70, 3. ^fir; PI. i. ^^j cf. 'i^xev, see 645) ; from ITFT * to awake,' the bases "JTrT^ j^^g^^' and ITPT y«^ri (Pres. I. ^TFTf^, &c. ; Du. i. TTTn^^; PI. 3. imifiT by 290. h). 311. The preposition ^ftl «f//«', 'over,' prefixed to the root \i, 'to go,' gives the sense of 'to read' (Atmane-pada only): ^then becomes iy (compare 123), and blends with adhi into W*fh^ adlny before the vowel-terminations of the pres. pot. and 1st pret. Before the consonantal-terminations it becomes ^IVt adhi. (Hence the Pres. I. -^C^, 2. ^^, 3. ^^TVtW; Du. i. W^^%, &c. ; Pot. i. '3r\M■^, &c.; Imp. I . adhi -\-e-\-ai=. ^«R by 36 . a, 2 . W^t^, &c. ; i st Pret. i . adhi -\- a -\- iy -\- i = ^rwftT by 260. a, 2. ^^5IT^, 3. W^ ; Du. i. '^nl^f^, 2. '^T^TITW, &c.) a. The preposition WT a is prefixed to the root ^ i, according to the usual rules of Sandhi, and gives the sense of ' to come :' thus, Pres. ^f'T, VT^, 'ffff ; ^'^j &c. ; Pot. IJ^f , TTOJ^^, &c. ; Imp. '^mnf^, Tjf^, ^^, &c. ; ist Pret. •m^, ^\, &c. Again, the prep. ^'T apa prefixed gives the sense of ' to go away :' thus, Pres. ^%ff{, &c. 312. Other roots in '^ i and '3' u or "35 li change these vowels to iy and uv (com- pare 123 and 125. «) before the vowel-terminations ; as, from '^ vi, ' to go,' come the bases ve, vi, and viy (Pres. i. ^, &c. ; Du. i. '^W ; PI. 3. fW^). Simi- larly, ^, ' to bring forth' (Atmane only), makes in Pres. S. Du. PI. 3. '^TT, ^TTW, ^^ ; and in Imp. S. Du. PI. i. ^, ^=IN^, ^^wf » Guna being suppressed f. 313. ^s^M and "5 WW, 'to praise;' 'g2/M,'to join,' 'to mix;' and ^rw, 'to sound' — follow 312, and take Vriddhi instead of Guna before the consonantal P termina- tions %. Hence the bases ^ stau, ^ stu, and ^"^ stuv ; see 648. Before the * The imperative oivid is optionally formed with the syllable dm and the auxiliary verb kri (compare 384) : thus, s. 3. f^I^tiCln or f^TlJT^ • Panini HI. i. 41. t See Panini VII. 3. 88. X That is, the terminations marked with P, which begin with consonants. 1 28 FORMATION OF THE BASE OF PRIMITIVE VERBS SECOND CONJ. vowel P terminations both Vriddhi and Guna are generally (but not always) sup- pressed, and uv substituted, as in ^at 312. Note, that these roots may optionally insert an ^ i before the consonantal P terminations ; and before this vowel Guna, not Vriddhi, is required. According to some authorities, however, t is inserted before all the consonantal-terminations ; and, according to others, before aU the consonants, excepting y, t\ or m, not followed by an indicatory P. 314. "^j 'to speak,' can never take Vriddhi, like the roots at 313; but inserts an '^ / after Guna in the places where those roots optionally insert it, viz. before the consonantal P terminations. Hence the bases bravi, bni, bruv. See 649. a. Before the vowel P terminations Guna is not suppressed, excepting in the ist pret. 1st sing. 315. ^, ' to Ue do\vn,' 'to sleep' (Atmane only), gunates the radical vowel before all the terminations, and inserts r in the 3d pi. pres., ist pret., and imperative, after the analogy of the 3d pi. potential. See 646. 316. 15^, 'to cover,' takes either Vriddhi or Guna of the final u before the con- sonantal P terminations, excepting before the 2d and 3d sing, of the ist pret,, where Guna only is admissible. Before the vowel-terminations it follows 312, but Guna is retained before the vowel P terminations, excepting in the ist pret. ist sing. Hence the bases urnau, urno, urnu, and urnuv (Pres. i. "^illTm or *^(i \*i ; Du. I. "35^^; PI. 3. "gnS^iT, see 290. bj Pot. i. "gn|^ ; Imp. s. i. ■35in^f«T, 3. "^j^TJ or *4ri H ; 1st Pret. i. WHJ^ by 260. a, 2. '^T^H, &c.). 317. Roots like ^T ' to go,' "m ' to protect,' ^ ' to eat' {edo), Wr*T^' to sit,' Atm., having a or a for their vowels, cannot be gunated, but are themselves bases (Pres. I. yd + mi =i ydmi, see 644, ad -\- mi z= admi, 2. ad-\-si = atsi, 3. ad-\-ti-=.atti : Du. 3. ad-\-tasz=.attas, &c., see 652. Similarly, ds-\-e-=.dse, ds+se = dsse, ds+te =.dste, &c.). With atti compare Lat. edit. a. Before the terminations of the 2d and 3d sing, ist preterite of ^!^, ' to eat,' the vowel ^ a is inserted by special rule ; and some others of these roots require peculiar changes, as follows : — 318. ^*T Aan, 'to kill,' makes its base "^ ha before t or th (by 57.0); Ti^ghn before anti, an, antu ; and "^ ja before f^- The last change is to avoid the proximity of two aspirates. See 654, and compare 331. b. 319. "^^ vach, 'to speak,' changes its final palatal to a guttural before aU the hard consonantal-terminations, in conformity with 176 ; but not before the soft, by 294. a. It is defective in the 3d pi. present and imperative, where its place must be supplied by "3;^ at 314, 649. Hence the bases vach and vak. See 650. 320. ^^y vas, 'to desire,' 'to choose,' suppresses the a, and changes v io u before the terminations which have no P (see 293. a); and T^vs becomes T^7isA before / and th by 300. See 656. 321. "^[^chaksh, 'to speak' (Atmane-pada only), drops the penultimate k before all consonantal-terminations, excepting those beginning with m. or v (Pres. r. '^^, 2. '^+ ^ = ^^ by 292, 3. '^?, &c.). 322. ^^ ffs, ' to be' (Parasmai-pada only), a very useful auxiliary verb, follows FORMATION OF THE BASE OF PRIMITIVE VERBS.— THIRD CONJ. 129 293. a, and rejects its initial a, excepting before the P terminations. The 2d pers. sing, of the pres. is ^rftr for ^fw. The ist pret. has the character of a 3d pret., and retains the initial a throughout, and inserts ^ i before the s and t of the 2d and 3d sing. ; see 584. This root is never found in the A'tmane-pada, excepting with the prepositions vi and ati, when the Present is Sing, 'ajfi!?', -IT, -? ; Du. -■^, -'RT^, -IIT^, -^^, -f , -"^ ; Pot. S. I. ^iT^xr, &c. 323. "^U^^sds, 'to rule,' changes its vowel to ^i before t, th, and y; and, after i, ^becomes "^ by 70. Hence the bases ^HT and f^'^' . See 658. 324. *J»1^?Mn/, ' to cleanse,' is vriddhied before the P terminations, and optionally before the vowel-terminations having no P. Hence the bases mdrj and mrij. See 651 . 325. The roots f^ is, 'to rule' (Atm.), and '|^ trj, 'to praise' (A'tm.), not gunated by 28. b, insert the vowel ^ i between the rcjot and the terminations of the 2d person ^, ^, 5^, and t^ (^? — Pres. i. '|'?, 2. '|^f%^, 3. '|j ; Du. i. '^^'^, &c.; Pot. I. t^, &c. ; Imp. i. ^t, 2. ^^"^, 3. fF; ist Pret. 3. ^, &c. f^ — Pres. I. ^'^r, 2. ^f^^, 3. ^ by 300; Imp. 3. ^T, &c.; ist Pret. 3.^, &c.). 326. '^^ rud, ' to weep,' besides the usual Guna change before the P termina- tions, inserts the vowel ^ i before all the consonantal-terminations except y, and optionally a or z in the 2d and 3d sing, ist pret. Hence the three bases rodi, rudi, rud; see 653. Similarly, but without Guna, the roots ^"'T ' to sleep,' "^ST^ and ^»T ' to breathe,' and tT"^' to eat.' The last obeys 290. b. 327. 1^ duh, ' to milk,' and fe'^ lih, ' to lick,' form their bases as explained at 305, 306. They are conjugated at 660, 661. 328. ^'ftr^T daridrd, 'to be poor' (Parasmai-pada), follows 293. a, making its base daridri before the consonantal-terminations not marked with P, and daridr before ati, us, atu (Pres. S. Du. PL 3. ^'ftl'^'TfTT, ^ftf^^, ^fr^'fir ; see 290. b). 329. '^Hn didM, ' to shine' (Atm.), changes its final to y, and not to iy, before the vowel-terminations (compare 312); but in the potential the final i coalesces with the z'of the terminations (Pres. PI. 3. ^HlTfT ; Pot. i. ?(hihT, &c.). Third class {'T^d conjugation), containing about 20 primitive verbs. 330. Rule for the formation of the base in the four conjugational tenses. Reduphcate the initial consonant and vowel of the root, and gunate the vowel of the radical syllable before the P terminations only, as in the 2d conjugation, by 293. a. Note, that this conjuga- tion resembles the 2d in interposing no vowel between the root and the terminations. It is the only conjugation that rejects the nasal in the 3d plur. Parasmai-pada, by 290. a, and takes us for an in the 3d plur. ist pret., before which us Guna is generally required. 331. In reduplication the following rules are observed, ist, As to consonants. a. A corresponding unaspirated letter is substituted for an aspirate : thus, d for dh. So in Greek T is repeated for G; as, Qvw, T(6vKa, &c. 130 rOEM ATION OF THE BASE OF PRIMITIVE VERBS — THIRD CON J. b. The palatal ^ ch is substituted for the gutturals ^ A- or ^ kh ; and the palatal '^j for the gutturals "^ g,"^ gh, or'^h. c. If a root begin with a double consonant, the first consonant only is redupli- cated ; but if with a double consonant, whose first is a sibilant and whose second is hard, the second is reduplicated : thus, ^ ch for "^ ksh; W ^ for ^ sth; "^j for ■g hrj oR A; for ^ sic. d. adly. As to vowels. '^ « is the reduplicated vowel for "^ d; \ i for ^ i or ■^ rij "^ u for "35 ii. In certain cases ^ z is also repeated for a and «, as being a lighter vowel. e. Observe — As a general rule, the reduplicated syllable has a tendency to lighten the weight of the radical syllable. 332. Thus, from H blin, 'to bear' {(pepw, fero), is formed the base of the present singular f^fvm bibhar (i. bibhar + m^ = f^^^), and the base of the dual and plural f^H bibhri (Du. i. bibhri + vas = f^H^F ; PI. I . bibhri + mas = f^^F^; PI. 3. bibhri + ati = f^^fif by 34 and 390). See the table at 583. a. Note, that bibharti bears the same relation to bibhrimas that fert does to ferhmis, and vult to volumus. ■^'^^. Similarly, from nt bhi, ' to fear/ come the two bases bibhe and bibhi ; from "? hu, ' to sacrifice/ the two bases juho and juhu. The former of these roots may optionally shorten the radical vowel before a consonant, when not gunated. See 667. The latter may option- ally reject its final before vas and mas, and is the only root ending in a vowel which takes dhi for hi in the 2d sing, imperative. See 662. a. "^j ' to be ashamed,' is hke >ft, but changes its final ^ to ^"^ iy before the vowel-terminations, in conformity with 123. a. See 668. 334. "^ ri, ' to go,' is the only verb in this conjugation that begins with a vowel. It substitutes iy for ri in the redupUcation, and makes its bases ^IIT: iyar and ^^ iyri (Pres. S. Du. PI. 3. ^^t, ^^^, J^; ist Pret. S. i. ^•^t, 2. ^^TT:, 3. ^^, &c.). 335. t^T du, " to give' (^l^ufxi, do), drops its final a before all excepting the P terminations. Hence the bases dadd and dad. It becomes ^ de before the hi of the imperative. See 663. 336. Similarly, the root MT dhd, 'to place' {Ti6Yjft.i). Hence the bases dadhd and dadhj but dadh becomes V7^ before t, th, and s, by 42. c; and dhe before the hi of the imperative. See 664. 337. "5T hd, ' to abandon,' changes its final a to ^ / before the consonantal- terminations not marked with P, and drops the final altogether before the vowel- terminations, and before y of the potential. Hence the bases jahd, jahi, jah. Before hi of the imperative the base is oi^tionaWy jahi, jahi, or jahd; and, according FORMATION OF THE BASE OF PIUMITIVE VERBS.— SEVENTH CONJ. 131 to some authorities, »r^ may be shortened itito ITfV in the present, imi)erative, and 1st preterite. See 666. 338. JTT md, ' to measure' (Atm.), and '^T hd, ' to go' (Atm.), make their bases t*TJO mimi and f^^ jihi before the consonantal-terminations not marked with P. Before the vowel-terminations their bases are mim and jih. According to some authorities, wmto' and ^iVi/ may be optionally shortened into mimi andjiAi. See 66^-^. ZS9- "^^jan, 'to produce' (Parasmai-pada), rejects the final nasal (see 57. a), and lengthens the radical a before t and th and hi, and, according to some, option^ ally before y. Before the vowel-terminations not marked with P it rejects the radical a (compare the declension of raj an at 149). Hence the three bases jajun, jajd, and jajri. The 2d sing. pres. is either iTWftT or TTTrfJrfTT . See 667. b. 340. W^^bhas, ' to shine,' like jan, rejects the radical a before the vowel-termina- tions not marked with P ; and bh coalescing with s becomes /; by 42 (Pres. S. Du. PL 3. ^vr%, '^^T^F, "^^^). 341. The roots f^'5^' to purify,' f^^T ' to separate,' and f^''? ' to divide,' gunate the reduplicated syllable before all the terminations, and forbid the usual Guna of the radical syllable in the ist pers. sing. du. pi. , imperative (Pres. t. '^^T'Ti^} 2. •^^^, 3. ^^f^; Du. I. -^ftripT, &c. ; PI. I. -^fTTv^Tr, 3. -^f^nrfW ; Imi). I. ^f^inftr; Du. i.-^f^lTR; pi. i.'^f?I*TTH; i.st Pret. i.^^^, 2. ^^W, &c.; PI. 3. W^flT^TT, &c.). Seventh class {yth conjugation), containing about 24. primitive verbs. 342. Rule for the formation of the base in the four conjugational tenses. Insert "?[ na (changeable to irr na after ri &c. by 58) between the vowel and final consonant* of the root before the P terminations, and "J^ n (changeable to T, >r, or Anuswara, according to the conso- nant immediately succeeding) before all the other terminations by 293. a. Note, that this conjugation resembles the 2d and 3d in interposing no vowel between the final consonant of the root and the terminations. a. Similarly, n is inserted in certain Greek and Latin roots ; as, (J-aO, fxavSavw ; Aa/3, Xafx/Sdvct) ; 6iy, Siyydvco ; scid, scindo; fid,findo; tag, tango; liq, linquo, &c. See 25S. a. 343. Thus, from f^F, bhid, ' to divide,' ' to break,' is formed the base of the present tense singular fvR^ bhinad, and the base of the dual and plural fwf^ bland, changeable to bhinat and bliint by 46 (i. bhinad + mi = fn^ftl, 3. bhinad + ti = fiT^rfw ; Du. i . bhind + vas = fW^^, 3. bhind + tas — U-^^^ or f>?;?r^j PI. 3. bhind + anli = fHV^ftff). See the table at 583. * All the roots in this conjugation end in consonants. S 2 132 FORMATION OF THE BASE OF PRIMITIVE VERBS — FIFTH CONJ. 344. Similarly, from T^ rudh, ' to hinder/ the two bases ^rrni runadh and ^^ rundh, changeable to runat, runad, and rund (i. runadh + mi = ^^ft*T, 2. runadh + si = ^jiyfrH, 3. runadh + ti = "^fs ; Du. 3. rundh + tas = ^if^) . See 67 1 . 345. Observe — Roots ending in If t and '^ d may reject these letters before th, t, and dhi, when /.' immediately precedes : hence fiT^^ may be written for fiT?^^; ftrf^ for fnf^^. Similarly, ^W5T may be written for ^^1^, see 298. a; and on the same principle (iTi^' to eat,' '^'t^'to join,' f^^ ' to distinguish,' conform to 296. Hence, from bhvj come bhunaj and bhuvj, changeable to bhunak and bhun.k. 347. The roots H^* to break,' ^^ ' to anoint,' '^'•^ ' to moisten,' and ^''^' to kindle,' are placed under this class ; but the nasal belonging to the root takes the place of the conjugational nasal. Hence, from bhanj come the two bases bhanaj and bhanj, changeable to bhanak and bhan-k. 348. The root 1^"^, ' to strike,' ' to kill,' inserts Iff instead of TU before all the P terminations, excepting the ist sing. du. pi. imperative and ist pret. See 674. FORMATION OF THE BASE IN THE 5TH, 8tH, AND 9TH CLASSES OF VERBS. Fifth class {^th conjugation,) containing about 30 primitive verbs. 349. Rule for the formation of the base in the four conjugational tenses. Add '^ nu to the root, which must be gunated into ^ no before the P terminations by 293. a. Note, that roots ending in consonants add 7mv, instead of nu, to the root before the vowel- terminations. Roots ending in vowels may drop the u of nu before initial v and m (not marked with P), and always reject the termina- tion hi of the imperative. See 291 and 259 with note. a. This change of nu to no is supplied in the corresponding Greek afiix vv, by lengthening the v, as in ^evyvv[Xi, ^evyvv[X€V ; ^eiKVV[J.i, ^eiKVVfxev. See 258. a. 350. Thus, from fg chi, ' to gather,^ are formed the bases chino and chinu (Pres. i. chino -\- mi zzzf'sr^f^^ chino + si = f^^rjif^ by 70; Du. I . chinu + vas = f%7T^?r^ or f^rcf^; PI. i . chinu 4- mas = f^'^T^ or fqianr, 3. chinu + anti = f^F^f^ by 34 ; Imp. i . chino + dni = f^'JTTrf^ by 36. b, 2. chinu by 291). See the table at 583. 351. Similarly, from WnT dj), ' to obtain,' come dpno and dpnu. See 681. 352. "^srn, 'to hear' (sometimes placed under the ist class), substitutes STiVi for the root, and makes its bases smio and srinu. See 677. Eighth class {Sth conjugation), containing 10 primitive verbs. 353. Rule for the formation of the base in the four conjugational FORMATION OF THE BASE OP PRIMITIVE VERB8. — EIOHTII CONJ. 133 tenses. Add '^ u to the root, which must be gunated into ^ o before the P terminations by 293. a. a. Observe — There are only ten roots in this conjugation, and nine of these end either in iT /i or ttt n : hence the addition of u and o will have the same apparent effect as the addition of nu and no in the 5th conjugation. 354. Thus, from iTrr tan, ' to stretch/ * to extend/ are formed the bases tano and tanu (Pres. 1. tano + mi = i[7^fJ^, 2. tano + si= A^^^^ by 70 ; Du. i . tanu + ms = W^^H or TTV^; PI. i . tanu + mas = IT^'W^ or -rP^nr ; Imp. i. ta?io + dni = TR^T^T by 36. b). Compare the Greek Taw Hi. I, Tuvvjuei. a. The root ^tt san, ' to give/ optionally rejects its 71, and lengthens the radical a before the y of the potential : thus, ^nirf sanydm or ^rrat sdydm, &c. '^^^. The tenth root in this class is "^ kri, ' to do/ by far the most common and useful root in the language. This root gunates the radical vowel ri, as well as the conjugational u, before the P terminations. Before the other terminations it changes the radical ri to ur. Before initial m (not marked with P), v, and y, it rejects the conjugational u. Hence the three bases karo, kuru, and kur. See 682. Ninth class {i)th conjugation), containing about 52 primitive verbs. 356. Rule for the formation of the base in the four conjugational tenses. Add "^T nd to the root before the P terminations ; rft ni before all the others, excepting those beginning with vowels, where only *|^ w is added, by 293. a. Observe — ^T, ^t, and tj^, are change- able to irrr, Trft, and W, by 58. 357. Thus, from ^^ yu, 'to join/ are formed the three bases yund, yum, and yu7i (Pres. i. yund + Tni = '^iJTf^ ; Du. i. yum + vas = '^^- qm' ; PI. I . yuni + mas = TrrfhRTT , 3. 7jmi -f anti = Urifii - Pres. Xtm. i. yun + e = ^ ; Imp. i . yund + dm = "5J?rrfJT , 2. yum + hi = ^^1%, &c.). a. Observe — Roots ending in consonants substitute dna for nihi in the 2d sing, imperative : so, W^J7[ ' eat thou,* from ^^ ' to eat / umm ' nourish thou/ from '^, &c. See 696, 698. 358. The roots Tt, (7^, >jt, "^j -?5t, "U^, \, rj, %, "^j JJ, W, |, "JT, ^T, >T, ■^j 'SfT, ^, shorten the radical vowel in forming their bases: thus, from '5,5 ' to purify,' come the bases puna, pum, and pun. See the table at 5S3. 359- ?T5> to take,' becomes 'J^, 'and makes its bases 'J'^nT? '^%»i , and 1^. See 699. 134 FORMATION OF THE BASE NINTH CONJ. 360. sn, ' to know,' becomes aTT, and makes its hasesjand,jant, and jdn. See 688^ 361. mi, ' to grow old,' ])ecomes flT, and makes its h&ses jind, jim, and jin. 362. The roots ^^, ?P^, T'^, '^'^, and '^'^, reject the radical nasal in faA'our of the conjngational : thus, from bandh are formed the three bases badhnu, badhni, and bandh. See 693. PRIMITIVE VERBS OF THE FIRST NINE CLASSES IN THE SIX NON-CONJUGATIONAL TENSES. 363. Observe — The general rules for the formation of the base in the 2d preterite, ist and 2d futures, 3d preterite, benedictive, and conditional, apply to all verbs of the first nine classes indiscrimi- nately ; see 250. a. The lotli class alone carries its conjugational characteristic into most of the non-conjugational tenses ; and for this reason the consideration of its five last tenses falls most conveniently under causal verbs. Compare 289. a. Second preterite (Greek perfect). 364, Rule for the formation of the base in verbs of the first nine classes. In the first place, if a root begin with a consonant, redu- plicate the initial consonant, according to the rules given at 331, with its vowel [a being reduplicated for a, a, ri, ri ; i for i, i, e ; u for u, It, 0) : thus, from T»I biidh, ist c.*, ' to know,^ comes the base "^V bubudh ; from "JTiT 7irU, 4th c, ' to dance,^ ■?r"JTW nanrit ; from TTT^ ijdch, I st c, * to ask,' irm^ ymjdch ; from cjr kri, 8th c, ' to do,' ^cir chakri ; from TT tn, ist c, ' to cross,' Wiltatri; from f^sidh, ftrpRV sishidh by 70 ; from sev, sishev ; from pu, pvpu. a. And if it begin with a vowel, double the initial vowel : thus, from ^H as, ' to be,' ^T^ as. b. In the second place, if the root end in a consonant, gunate t the vowel of the radical syllable, except when debarred by 28. b, in the ist, 2d, and 3d singular, Parasmai-pada (as bubodh for bubudh) ; but leave the vowel unchanged before all the other terminations, Parasmai and i^tmane-pada. See 293. a. c. And if the root end in a vowel, vriddhi the vowel of the radical syllable in the ist and 3d singular, Parasmai | (as chakdr for chakri), * ist c. means ist class or conjugation. t The gunation of the vowel is indicated by the P of HI^^, ^\, W\, in the singidar terminations. See scheme at 246. X Grammarians assert, that there is optionally Guna in the ist singular. Vriddhi is indicated by the Tff of ^"^ n«P. See scheme at 246. SECOND PRETERITE. — FORMATION OF THE BASE. 135 and gunate it in the 2d singular (as chakar for chakri, see 293. a) ; but before all the other terminations, Parasrnai and j^tmane-pada, it must revert to its original form, and then suffer the usual change required by the rules of Sandhi. '^6^. Thus, from T^I budh, ist c, comes the base of the singular Parasm. T^^ bubodh, and the base of the rest of the tense T^ bubudh (i. bubodh + a = "W^V^ bubodha, 2. bubodh + itha = T^^rfV^ bubodhitha, 'X. bubodh + a=z bubodha ; Du. i. bubudh + iva = Ts^xr^. 2. bubudh + athus = bubudhathus, &c. ^tm. i. bubudh + e = '^^, &c.). Similarly, from f^ vid, 2d c, ' to know/ come the two bases vived and vivid (i. 3. viveda ; Du. i. vividiva ; PI. i. vividima, &c.) *. a. Greek affords many examples of verbs which sufFer a kind of Guna or Vriddhi change in the perfect; but this change is not confined to the singular, as in Sanskrit. Compare AeAo/Tra (from Ae<7rw, eXnrov), 7r€7roi6a (from ireiBta, tiriQov), rhpofpa (from Tpecpcc), reSeiKa (from TiBrjfXi), &c. There is one Greek root, however, which agrees very remarkably with the Sanskrit in restricting Guna to the singular, viz. FiO (eiOu), 'to know,' answering to the Sanskrit vid above: thus, ot^a, oia6a, oi'te ; 'larov, larov ; 'lajxev, iTf^. Atm. I. ^. T^s 2. «fuf^TR). But "^ rxth c. makes i. 3. ^TJTT^, 2. W^^; Du. I. 3T^^, 2. "SI^JR-^K. Atm. i. 3. "Sm^. See 676. c. And roots ending in the vowel ri, preceded by a double consonant, and most roots in long ri, instead of retaining this vowel, and changing it to r by 364. c. before the terminations of the du. and pi. Parasmai, sing. du. and pi. Atmane, gunate it into ar, as in the 2d sing., before all these terminations : thus, from W^ smri, 'to remember,' i. 3. sasmdra, 2. sasmaritha; Du. i. sasmariva. Atm. i. 3. sasmare. But ""I ' to fill,' 31 ' to dissolve,' and ^ ' to rend,' may optionally retain ri, changeable to r : thus, Du. 'T^lT^ or mTH^. 368. By referring back to the scheme at p. 107, it will be seen that all the terminations of this tense begin with vowels. Those which begin with i are distinguished by the mark -sf, because eight roots, and only eight roots in the language (viz. oF ' to do/ H" ' to bear/ ^ ' to go,' ^ ' to surround,' "^ * to hear,' ^ ' to praise,' "^ ' to run,' W ' to drop'), reject the i from these terminations. a. Most roots, however, ending in vowels, and most of those in consonants which absolutely reject the initial i from the terminations of the futures (see 394), are allowed the option of rejecting it in the 2d sing. Parasmai of the 2d preterite ; but in these itha as w ell as tha is generally admissible f. b. Since, therefore, only eight roots reject the initial i from the ist dual &C.J, and these all end in vowels, it follows that the final consonants of roots can never in this tense coalesce with the initial consonants of terminations, excepting sometimes optionally in the 2d t Nevertheless, sixof the eight roots at 368 and p. 107, and a few others ending in vowels, take tha only. '^, "^, and many roots assuming i, take itha only. X It is said, however, that some roots ending in consonants optionally reject the i in the ist du. and plur. : thus, the ist du. of the 2d pret. of sidh is said to be either ftrfi^S^ or ftrftrftR. SECOND PRETERITE. — FORMATION OF THE BASE. 137 singular ; in which case the rules of Sandlii propounded at 296 &c. are observed * : see also 388. c. Its formation, therefore, is not attended with many difficulties of consonantal combination. Never- theless, there are numerous anomalies, as follows. ANOMALOUS REDUPLICATION OF AN INITLiL VOWEL. 369. We have already seen at 364. a, that if a root ending in a single consonant begin with ^ «, ^ i, or 7 n, these vowels are repeated, and the two similar vowels blend into one long one by 31 : thus, from ^HT as, ' to be,' comes a as, or as (i. 3. as + fl = ^rra dsa). So from 'STHI dp, ' to obtain,' comes a dp, or dp. See 681 . 370. But when an initial i or m is gunated (as in the sing. Parasm.), then the reduplicated i becomes iy before e, and the reduplicated u becomes uv before .• thus, from ^'^ ish, 6th c, ' to wish,* come the two bases iyesh and ish, see 637 (i, 3. ^TT^, &c.; Du. I. ffrq-, &c.) ; and from "^W^ukh, ist c, 'to move,' the two bases uvokh and ukh (1.3. TTt^, &c. ; Du. i. ^f<9«f). 371. And if a root begin mth ^ a and end in a double consonant, or begin with ■^ ri and end in a single consonant, the reduplicated syllable is dn .• thus, from ^■^ arch, 1st c, ' to worship,' comes the base -efM-q dnarch (1.3. "»:< 1 1 "^ ) ; from ^^jidh, 5th c'to flourish,' comes ^!\^'^Jnardh (i.3.'^rFr§; Du.i.'^'TfVl^, &c.). a. W5T 5th c. Atm., ' to pervade,' although ending in '5T , follows 37 1 ( i . s.^TR'^T). 372. \i, 2d c, 'to go,' is vriddhied in ist and 3d sing., and the reduplicated syllable is ^ iy, in accordance %vith 370. In the du. and pi. the base is ^'^ (y (i. 3. ^■^T"^, 2. ^TrftrJI or ^^; Du. i. ^fq^, &c.). See 645. a. Observe — When the preposition adhi is prefixed to the root i, it is then Atmane only, and the 2d preterite is formed as if from gd : thus, i. 3. adhijage, &c. ANOMALOUS MODES OF FORMING THE BASE OF THE SECOND PRETERITE. 373. Roots ending in ^TT « (as, ^ da, 3d c, ' to give ;' VT dkd, 3d c, ' to place ;' ■^T yd, 2d c, 'to go;' ^T sthd, ist c, 'to stand,' &c.) drop the d before all the terminations, excepting the tka of the 2d sing., and substitute ^ au for the ter- minations of the 1st and 3d sing. Parasmai. Hence, from da comes the base dad, see 663 (i. 3. ^, 2. ^f^ or ^^T^I ; Du. i. ^f^^. Atm. i. 3. ^^, 2. ^f^^, &c.). 374. Roots ending in the diphthongs ^ e (except ^ &c. at 379), ^ ai, Wl au, follow 373, and form their 2d preterite as if they ended in d .- thus, V ist c, 'to drink,' makes in ist and 3d sing. ^, 2d ^fv^ or ^VT^T, Du. i. ^fv^ ; ^ ist c, ' to sing,' makes Wft ; ^ ist c, ' to fade,' »TpT ; ^ 4th c, ' to sharpen,' ^■^. 375. Roots beginning with any consonant, and ending with a single consonant, and enclosing a short '^ a, lengthen the a in the istf and 3d sing.; as, from * Thus, from pack, 'to cook,' 2d sing, papakthaj from dris, ' to see,' 2d sing. dadrashtha. See 388. c. t The lengthening of a is said to be ojjtional in ist sing. : thus, pack makes in sing. I. either ;jfl/?a'cAa or papac ha. T 138 SECOND PRETERITE. — FORMATION OF THE BASE. "m^^pack, ist c, 'to cook,' Vim^^papdch j from tyaj, ist c, 'to quit,' tatydj (i. 3. tatydja, 2. tatyajithaj Du. i. tatyajiva, &c.). a. Moreover, before itha and in the dual and plur. Parasmai, and all the persons of the Atmane, if the initial as weU as the final consonant of the root be single, the ^ a is changed to TJ e, and, to compensate for this, the reduplication suppressed * : thus, from pack come the two bases mmi"*! papdch and "T^ peck (i. ^. papdcha, 2.pechitha or jiap a kt ha 296; Du. i.pechiva. Atm. i. ^. peche, &c.). Similarly, from T^^^labh, ist c. Atm., 'to obtain' (cf. Xafx^dvo), eXa^ov), the base c5*T lebh throughout {lebhe, lebhishe, lebhe, lebhivahe, &c.). So nah, 4th c, ' to bind,' makes i. 3. nandha, 2. nehitha or nanaddha by 305; Du. i. nehiva, &c. Atm. nehe, &c. Similarly, nas, 4th c, 'to perish,' i. 3. nandsa, 2. nesitha or nananshtha (»T*f?), &c. : compare 388. d. b. Roots of this last kind, that require a substituted consonant in the reduphca- tion, are excepted from the rule (but not HIT bhaj and "^^t^ phal). c. So also the roots ^^, ^, ^, ^1?T , ^, ^, beginning with v, are excepted. These require that the reduplicated syllable be '3' u, or the corresponding vowel of the semivowel, and also change va of the root to "3" m before every termination, except those of the sing. Parasmai, the two m's blending into one long "^i u: thus, fi-om ^^ vach, 2d c, ' to speak,' come the two bases T^'^ uvdch and "3r^ lich (i. 3. uvdcha, 2. uvachitha or uvakthaj Du. 3. uchatus ; PI. 3. uchus). The root ■^ vah, ist c, ' to carry,' changes the radical vowel to ^ before tha (see 305. a), optionally substituted for itha (i. 3. '5'^T^, 2. T^f^T^ or iR 4th c, TT»T ist c, HT3T 1st c. Atm., >1T5T ist and 4th c, may optionally foUow 375. a, although not answering its conditions, and ^^ ist c. Atm. necessarily: thus, granth makes sing. du. pi. 3. either jagrantha, jagranthatus, jagranthus or jagrantha, grethatus, grethus ; bhram makes babhrdma, babhramatus, babhramus, by 375, or babhrdma, bhrematus, bhremus; and trap makes trepe, trepdte, trepire. Similarly, TT>I 4th and 5th c, but not when d is prefijxed. g. W 1st c, ' to pass,' also follows 375. a (as if it were tar) : thus, i. 3. tatdra, 2. teritha; Du. i. teriva, &c. W 4th c, 'to grow old,' may optionally follow 367. c or 375- « {3- jf'jo'fc ■>' Du. ^.jajaratus or jeratus, &c.). 376. ^nj^gam, ist c, ' to go,' W^jan, 4th c, ' to be born,' ^♦^ khan, ist c, ' to dig,' and '?ff^ han, 2d c, ' to kiU' (which last forms its 2d pret. as if from T[7^ghan), drop the medial a before aU the terminations, except those of the sing. Parasm. * Bopp deduces forms hke pechiva, from papachiva, by supposing that the second/? is suppressed, the two rt's combined into d, and d weakened into e. SECOND PRETERITE.— FORMATION OP THE BASE. 139 (compare the declension of rdjan at 146, 149). Hence, (jam makes in sing. du. pi. 3. jagdina, jagmatus, jagmus ; jan makes jajdna, jajhatus, jajhus ; khan makes chakhdna, chakhnatus, chakhnus ; and han makes jaghdna, jaghnatus, jaghnus. 377- '^(\ghas, 1st c, 'to eat,' is analogous, making jaghdsa, jakshatus, jakshus. See 42 and 70. 378. faT/J, ist c, 'to conquer,' forms its 2d pret. as if from fl gi, see 590 (i. and 3. fsTTTT ; Du. i. fSTfr^n", &c.) ; f^ hi, 5th c, ' to send,' as if from fg (i. 3. f 1 M I M ) ; "^ ri, ist c, ' to go,' makes its base "^TR dr throughout *. 379. ^ hive, 1st c, ' to call,' forms its 2d pret. as if from ^ or ■?, see 595 (i. 3. ^^T^; Du. I. '^^f^'^) ; ^ de, ist c, ' to pity,' ' to protect,' makes its base digi (i. 3. Atm. f^^, 2. f^frTTW, &c.); '^ vge, ist c, 'to cover,' makes its bases vivydy, vivyay, and vivy (i. f%^T^, 2. f^^XT^ ; Du. i. %f^'^ or f^^ftr^) ; ^ V€, 1st c, to weave,' forms its 2d pret. as if fi-om rd or vav or vay (1.3. '=<'=ll or 4'«ll^, 2. '^rnr or Tfr^T or "3"Tftr?T ; Du. I. '^fV^ or "^rf^^ or "^rPnW, &c.). 380. K^grah, 9th c, 'to take,',makes its base »RJT'^ and ITT^ (S. Du. PI. 3. 1«i?, 'PT^W^, 'T'TpT). See 699. 381. TT^. prachchh, 6th c, 'to ask,' makes its base ^H'^t throughout; see 631. 'iJ^bhrajj, 6th c, ' to fry,' makes either "^^T^or ^>J1j^ throughout. See 632. 382. ^r^ swap, 2d c, ' to sleep,' makes its bases «»««i^ and ^^- See 655 and 70. 383. "^PJ 4th c. ' to pierce,' ^^ 6th c. ' to deceive,' '^^ ist c. ' to be pained,' and ^EHT 1st c. 'to spend,' make their reduplicated syllable vi; and the first two roots change vya to vi before all the terminations, excepting the sing. Parasmai : thus, from vyadh comes sing. du. pi. 3. f^^TTV, Rf^rVW^, f^fV^^; Atm. f%f^, &c. See 615 and 629. 384. ^^ ah, ' to say,' is only used in the 2d pret., and is defective in sing. du. pi. I. and pi. 2, forming 2d sing, from '^'iT (2. '^TTr^, 3. WTf ; Du. 2. ^iii^^^^, S.'Sn^^^; PI. 3. ^Tjr^^). 385. Roots which begin with a vowel, long by nature or position (except dp, 5th c, 'to obtain;' diichh, ist c, 'to stretch;' and except roots having an initial a before two consonants), and all roots of more than one syllable (excepting urnu, 2d c, 'to cover'), form their 2d preterites by adding '^^^dm to the base, and affixing the 2d preterite of some one of the auxihary verbs, W^^as, ' to be ;' *T 6Am, 'to be;' oir kri, 'to do.' (Observe — WR^ with ^^TTT becomes ^^ii'dcftK by 59.) Thus, from '|^ 2d c, ' to rule,' comes ist and 3d sing. 2d pret. 'I^^TRT'^ or f^^- >J^ or ^T^RHT 59; from -^cjii^f 2d c, 'to shine,' comes ^<*l«l^<*lT. When the Atmane-pada inflection has to be employed, "^ only is used : thus, ^^ 2d c. Atm., 'to praise,' makes ist and 3d sing. 2d pret. f^'ra'35. The root '35^ 2d c. * PaniniVII. 4. II. VII. 2.66. t This rests on Siddhanta Kaum. 134. Some grammarians make the base in du. and pi. &c. ^'J-sd. T 2 140 FIRST AND SECOND FUTUEE.— FOEMATION OF THE BASE. ' to cover,' is anomalous, and makes sing. du. pi. i. «TT^ or fWiJW'+IT); ^ hri, 3d c.,'to be ashamed' (fWfT'^ or ftr^^^TSFTT); H bhri, 3d c, ' to bear' (f^HTT or f%HTT=^<*K) ; ^ hu, 3d c, ' to sacrifice' (^^^R or a|^'iif^in or vhn, Mf^fw or vVhtTtt). 398. All roots in "^ ri reject i in the ist future, but not in the 2d, as f 8th c. (cfitr, ct,rT»T Ist C, H^, H^rfiT. Tr«T ist c, '^w[ 297, tr^rfw. >jT5^6th c, >jFr, >Tirr, >?^Tfw, vr^rflf. jHj^ 6th c, jNjt, w^^ 388. c. H^ 7th c, >iw, i^^rfff. T^ ist and 4th c, t^, t^fiT. 7S^ ist c, ^N«T, wrfiT. ^^ ist c, ^^, ^^gr^. f^ 3d c, ^^, ^^rffT. f^ 3d ct, ^^, &c., like ftr^. >p^ 7th C, >TtW, >Tt^Tfw. ^pT 7th c, TTt^, ^ft^rffT. ^»T 6th c, ^tliT, Tt^rfir. ^ 6th c, HFT 297, H^^rflT. *^r^ 7th c, wm or -afgriT, ^^rfw or 'iingmfTT. *^>T 2d c, HtIt or JTTf^T, JTT^fw or *Hi r:^ mr ri 388. b. 404. Fourteen in ^ wr, ^"twffT. ^ 6th c, ift^, iflMfir. ^^ 6th c, tftwr, ^ftwfTT- t When f^»T belongs to the 7th c, it takes i .• thus, f%f»IiTT, f^^T^lffT. 144 FIRST AND SECOND FUTURE.— FORMATION OF THE BASE. 405. Eleven in xt^dh. •^^ 9th c, ^FiTT, >T^wfw 299. a. ^v 4th c, ^irr, ^TwffT. ^mi 4th and 5th c, ^^irr, ^TSTffT . ftr^ 4th c.fj ^^j ^f^. ■aw 4th C.J ■^irr, wtwfiT. •^ 4th c, T^^ 298, "c^tMf^ 299. ^4th c.f, -Wt^ 298, HtST^ 299. a. ^ 4th c, T(\^, ^^mrk. ^ 7th c, trsi, t(mfif. 3IV 4th c, ^ftirr, ^^wfTT. 406. Two in «T n. ^'^ 4th c, JT'irf, ^m^ 6. b. ^^ 2d c, ^^T, but ff^fiT. 407. Eleven in tj j9, and three optionally. in^ ist c., irm, ir^rfw. ^ ist C, TffT, «^4*fnT. ^T3r 1st c, ^nrr, ^r^ifir. ^T^ 2d c., ^rrr, ^t^TT. wni 5th c, 'HiHi, ^srrtwfw. ftjT^ 6th c., ^T, -^^TuflT. finr ist c, ■nrrr, Tn^^fir. ■fe""^ 6th C, ^TffT, ciH^fTT. '^6th C, "sfTTTT, 'STN^ffT. :^ti^6th c, cylTTT, cft^^^rfw. * ojrm St C., ^K^Sn or cFf^TfTT, ^B^^lfcT or cBf^[TOW. *^4th C., TTRT or Trf^lTT, ITOfrT or TTf^Tqfwt. *"^T^4th c, ^ or ^Pmhi, ^t^TT or ^fl^lfTTt. ^ I St c, wr, ^^fwj. 408. Three in >T bh, and one optionally. TW^ ist c, iT3n, ^rcRTflT. T>T ist c., T?n, IT^W. c5>T 1st C., t^^TT 298, WWf( 299. *^>T 4th c., ?yt3n or FJ^fiTin, but 409. Four in >^ m, and one optionally. TTH ist c, iPiTT 59, but TrfjTHrfiT. ^TT 1st C, ^PfTT, «t^Tfff. xnr ist c., ^rar, ^r^fw. IT^ ist C, TTfTT 59, t^W 6. 6. *'gii^ 1st c. Kim.y -gi^fTT or "gifiTTrr, ■g^w or -gifrr^frr. 410. Ten in 31 s, and two op- tionally. ^3T ist c, ^ 300, ^^rfiff 302. f^^^6th c, \t[, ^^TT ((5e/feO. 1^31 6th c, ^FT 300, ^wflT 302. •fr^T 6th C., TFT, T^rflT. fc5^ 4th C., "Sf^T, ^y^w . ■^:3T ist c., wtFT, wt^rfir. ^3T^ 6th C, T^^T, ^^flT. •^ 1st c., ■^FT, '5;^RrrfT. IJ^i; 6th C., JtIt, JT^fTTj. ?:>pT 6th C., ?^, ^q^TTj. * rT^ 4th c, TTFT or frf^nrr, »f^fiiT or Hr^imPri. t When "ftr^ and ^belong to the ist c, they take z; thus, ^ftlrTT, "^^fwi, &c. J These may optionally change the radical vowel ri to ra instead of ar .- thus, sarptd or sraptd, &c. See 388. c. FIRST AND SECOND FUTURE. — FORMATION OF THE BASE. 145 *f^7I^9tll C, |i^T or li%lTT, ii^fk or Iff^pirfTT. 411. Eleven in \sh, and sLx optionally. fi^T? 1st c, ^FT, R^rffT. %T^ 3d c, |-?T 301, ^^flT 302. ftnr 7th c, wr, ^^fw. f%Ti 3d c, ^, ^^ifff. •fifPT 7th C.J :^, ^T^rffT. f^^4th c, "^T 301, ^^f?T 303. g:^ 4th C, ^T, ^^frT". tr^4th c.f, "^t^, tft^fir. ^^4th c, ^Vr, ^^rfk. oir^ ist and 6th c, cfi#T, oB^fffJ. *TT^ ist and 5th c, TOT or TTf^in, TT^rfir or Trfi^Tiiftr. *jg^ 1st c, iSTFT or HfajWt, &c. *^ 6th c, TJFT or ^jfrnTT, but *ft:^ ist and 4th c, TFT or tf^iTT, buttfqTJTfw. *1^ (with fVr^J 9th c, -ofit^T or -■sRtfmrr, -oRt^rfw or -optfti- Tqfff. *^ ist and 4th c, ^^T or TtfTiTT, but Ttf^^ilfff. 412. Two in ^6'. ^ ist c, Tren, ^mft^ 304. «. ^m^ 1st c, ^WT, ^TWfff 304. a. 413. Eight in ? h, and seven optionally. ^^ ist c, ^niT 305, M^iT 306. a. rff 4th c, "^nrr 305, rf^fw 306. 6. ^ 1st c, -^tSl 305. a, ^^ffT 306. f^ 3d c, ^nn 305, wrffT 306. a. fjT? ist c, ^ 305. a, H^rT 306. f?5^ 2d c, OS'S! 305. c, ^>T^ff 306. 1^ 2d c, ^nn 305, V>^fT 306. «. ^ ist c, t^^ 305. «, TtT^rfff 306. *^? ist c, ^Vr 305. a. or Trf^TTT, *TTT?r ist c, TTT^ or mffTn, tnw 306. a. or Jiif^^TT. *f^ 4th c, WMT or ^T or ^f^T, ^^f^ or ^^"oiffl. *iT5 ist c, jft^ or 'Tf^WT, tft^rfir 306. a. or nf^'CTfTT. *-^ 4th c, -^(r^ or -^^T or -^f^frr, ift^fw 306. ft. or ■^f^'oifiT. *W^ 4th c, jftnjT or ifteT or JT^f^WT, sfr^fw or yfrfi^rfiiT. *-g^ 7th C, ItIt or TTffrTT, l^ff^fii or TT^flT. 414. All roots, without exception, ending in ^ M, n g, "^^ffh, WJ^h Zt,-^ th, "S d, "S dh, m^ 71, TT ^5 "^ th, xb j^h, -^r b, "^ 7j, T. r, 7^ I, ^ v, take the inserted \i in the last five tenses. a. The root ?j^ 9th c, ' to take/ lengthens the inserted i in every tense except the 3d preterite : thus, U^ttTT, If^laifif, &c. See 699. t When push belongs to the 9th c, it takes i. X Krish may optionally change ri to ra; as, krashfd, &c. u 14G THIRD PRETERITE.— FORMATION OF THE BASE. Third preterite (Greek aorist, Latin perfect). 415. This complex and multiform tense, the most troublesome and intricate in the whole Sanskrit verb, is not so much one tense, as an aggregation of several tenses, all more or less allied to each other, all bearing a manifest resemblance to the first preterite, but none of them exactly assignable to that tense, and none of them so distinct in its character or so universal in its application as to admit of segregation from the general group, under any separate title of its own. Fortiuiately, however, the third preterite occurs but rarely In the better specimens of Hindu composition ; so that the student may satisfy himself with a cursory survey of its character and functions. 416. Although grammarians assert that there are seven different varieties of this tense, four of which correspond more or less to the Greek ist aorist, and three to the 2d aorist, yet we shall endeavour to show that all these varieties may be included under the two distinct forms of terminations given in the table at 247, p. 107. The first form of terminations corresponds to those of the memorial scheme at 246, and belongs both to roots which reject i and to roots which assume it (see 394) : but in the latter case the initial s of the 2d and 3d sing, is rejected, and the i blends with the i, which then becomes the initial of those terminations. Moreover, in the case of roots which assume i the base is formed according to rules different to those which apply in the case of roots which reject i. The 2d form of terminations resembles those of the first preterite, and belongs, in the first place, to certain roots, whose bases in the first preterite present some important variation from the root; in the second, to certain roots ending in ^ s, iT sli, or "^ h, which have i, 11, or ?7, for their radical vowel ; and, in the third, to verbs of the 10th class and causals. 417. Observe also — In all the modifications of the third preterite, the first step ip the formation of the base is the prefixing of the augment ^ a, a further indication of the community of character which this tense presents to the first preterite. a. It will appear, however, in the Syntax, that when the third preterite is used as a prohibitive imperati\T, the particle *TT md being prefixed, the augment « is then rejected. THIRD PRETERITE FORMATION OF THE BASE. 147 b. Wlien a root begins wath the vowels ^ ?, "? u, or ^ ri, short or loriff, the augment is prefixed in accordance with 260. a. Form I. 418. The terminations arc here repeated from 247, p. 107. i.sam Siva sma 2. sis stam or tam sta or ta 3. sit stdm or tarn sus si sivahi smahi sthds or thds sdthdm dhwam or dhwani, sta or ta sdtdm sata 419. Observe, that when i is not inserted before the above terminations, the initial s may be discarded from those terminations in which it is compounded with t and th, if the base ends in auy consonant excepting n, or in any short vowel. Observe also, that ^ dhwam takes the place of ST dhwam, when the base ends in any other vowel than a. 420. Rule for the formation of the base for those verbs of the first nine classes, at 395, 396, 398, 400, &c., which reject ^ i. In the Parasmai, if a root end in either a vowel or a consonant, vriddhi the radical vowel before all the terminations. In the Atmane, if a root end in i^ /, ^ /, T m, or ■gj li, gunate the radical vowel ; and if in "^ ri or any consonant, leave the vowel unchanged before all the ter- minations. Observe — The augment ^ a must always be prefixed, as in the ist preterite. See 260. 421. Thus, from rft ist c, ^ to lead,' come the two bases anai for Parasmai and ane for Atmane [anai + sam = ^s^A by 70; Atm. ane -\-si — ^^^f^y ane + sthds = -'^^VW, &c.) ; and from ^ 8th c, '^ to make,' come the two bases akdr for Parasmai and akri for i\^tmane [akdr + sam = ^T^tf by 70, &c. ; Kim., akri +si = W^f^ by 70, akri + thds = ^HT 3d c, * to bear.' See the table at 583. 422. So from ^ 7th c, ' to join,' come the two bases ayauj for Parasmai and ayuj for Atmane (Parasmai ayauj + sam =^^r^t^ by 296, ayauj + swa =:^^fSjr, ayavj 4- tam = w^t"^ by 419 ; Atm. ayi/j +si~ ^mf^ by 296, ayuj + thds = '^^^m^, ayi/j + ta = "^"g^) ; and from ^ 7th c, ' to hinder,' the bases araudh and arudh (Parasmai araudh + sam = ^yOrtJ by 299, Du. araudh + siva — ^Fr^, araudh + tam = -siCi3; i^tm. arudh -{-si — ^l^fw, arudh + thds = ^T^irnr, &c.). 423. Similarly, from "T^ ist c, ' to cook,' come the bases apdch and apach {apdch+sa7n='^VJ^ by 296 ; A'tm. apach + si ='^^f''^, apach + thds='^^W^^[^^, Sec.) ; and from ^ ist c, 'to burn' (601), the bases addh and adah [nddh + sam = U a 148 THIRD PllETERITE FORMATION OF THE BASE. ^niT^ by 306. u, adult -\-fam='^SI!^V^ by 305; Atm. adah+si=Wjf^ by 306. a, adah-\-thds='^'r^W^, Ike). 424. The root ^? ist c, 'to carry' (611), changes the radical vowel to ^ o before those terminations which reject an initial s (see 419, 305.0) : thus, avdksham, avdksMs, avdkshit, avdkshwa, avodham, &c. ; Atm. avakshi, avodhds, avodha, &c. : compare 375. c. '^ ist c. Atm., 'to bear,' generally follows 427 [asahishi, &c.), though the form asodha is given for the 3d sing. With avdkshit compare the Latin vexit, and \vith avakshi compare vexi. 425. "*r? 4th c, ' to tie,' ' to fasten,' makes anutsam, andtsis, andtsit, andtswa, andddham, &c. ; and Atm. anatsi, anaddhds, &c., by 306. b (compare 182. e). Similarly, '^ ist c, ' to dwell' (607), makes avdtsam, &c., by 304. a. 426. T55(^6th c, ' to be immersed,' and ^3 ist c, ' to adhere,' make amun-ksham &c., asdn-ksham &c. See 633, 597. a. a. The root ^ 2d c, ' to go,' with adhi prefixed, signifying * to go over,' ' to read,' Atmane-pada only, substitutes jft gi in the 3d pret. : thus, ^Hipftfti, ^nfl- jf^ffnT, ^ruTTftg, &c. b. Roots ending in "f^ or ^rarely reject the sibilant from some of the terminations in the Atmane, as indicated at 418, dropping the final nasal where s is rejected : thus, W'T 8th c. makes in Atmane 2d and 3d sing, vj n "q 1 *f , ^TTW (compare 57). Simi- larly, "Cpr^Sth c. makes ^T^'^TFIT, "^T^TT. And the roots ^"^T 8th c, »T»^ 4th c, ^«^ 1st c, may lengthen the a when n is dropped : thus, '^WT'^rr^, -fl^lrt, &c. ; compare 354. a, 339. But the above roots generally follow 427, and prefix i to all the terminations ; so that WiTl^TffTH, WirfiT?? is more usual than 'ij n m I ti^, "^TfTtT. The root 5T«^ 4th and 8th c. makes 3d sing. '^RW or ^wfT? or ^HTrT. The same form with \ i prefixed. 427. Those verbs which assume \i (see 388. «, 397, 399, 414) reject the initial sibilant from the terminations of the 2d and 3d sing., and the i then blends with the initial i of those terminations. In the other terminations the i causes the change of s to sh by 70 : thus, I. isham ishiva ishma ishi ishwahi ishmahi 2. is ishtam ishta ishthds ishctthdm idhivam or idhwam 3- it ishfdm ishus ishta ishdtdm ishata Verbs which assume i, and take the above terminations, require a different rule for the formation of their base, as follows : — 428. Rule for the formation of the base for those verbs of the first nine classes which assume ^i before the terminations, as above. a. If a root end in the vowels ^ i, \ i, "g" m, "35 ii, ^ ri, "^ ri, vriddhi those vowels in the Parasmai before all the terminations, and gunatc them in the iitmane. THIRD TRETERITE.— FORMATION OF THE BASE. 149 Observe — Roots ending in any other vowel than li and ri rarely follow 427, as they generally reject i, and follow 418* (see 394, &c.). b. If a root end in a single consonant, gunate the radical vowel in both Parasmai and Atmane (except when debarred by 28. b, and except in the roots enumerated at 388. b). Of course the augment ^ a must in every case be prefixed. See 260. 429. Thus, from "q 9th c, ' to purify,' come the two bases apau for Parasmai and ajjo for Atmane [apau + i -\-sam = ^^x|Jf^;^ by 37, apau +1 + is = •'sni'NhT, apau + i + it = wm:^h{, &c. ; Atm. apo + i + si = ^nrf%fTEl, &c., by 36), see 583; and from Tt ist c, ' to cross/ comes the base atctr for Parasmai {atdr + i + sam = atdrisham, &c.). a. Observe — Roots in '^ ri, and the root '^ vri, may optionally lengthen the inserted i in the Atmane : thus, ^Tofifrf^ or ^Tofi^ft. 430. Similarly, "W^ budh, ist c, ' to know,' makes abodhisham, &c., see 583; and ^ir vrit, ist c, ' to be,' makes avartishi, &c.; and ij^ edh, 1st c, 'to increase,' makes aidhishi, &c. (260. b), see 600. 431. A medial ^ a is sometimes lengthened: thus, "^ vad, ist c, makes •-H'^ I n^ M , &c. See 598. 432. The roots "e^, ^, V, 'H, '^, all of the 6th c, may either follow 429 or make W^f^ adhiwisham, &c, a. '^^ 2d c, 'to kiU,' forms its 3d preterite from "^V: thus, ^T^ftm, &c. See 654. 433. Many roots in W[ a, ^ e, W 0, and IT ai, with three in ^^m, viz. '^^^yam, ■^ ram, "T*^ nam, assume i, but insert s before it ; the final e, 0, and ai, being changed to 'W[ d: thus, from TH 2d c, ' to go,' comes ■sJMlP^M, &c. (see 644) ; from ^ 4th c, 'to sharpen,' vj^iiUi'^, &c. ; from ^J^ ist c, 'to restrain,' -si *< Um , &c. <^Rji 2d c, ' to be poor,' makes adaridrisham or adaridrdsisham, &c. a. In the Atmane these roots reject the i and the s which precedes it, and follow 418: thus, from JTT 3d c, 'to measure,' comes 'SWlf^, &c. (see 665); from T*^ ist c, ' to sport,' ^TtftT, ^tWT^, ^nihJ, &c. 434. Some Atmane-pada verbs of the 4th class form the 3d person sing, of the 3d preterite by rejecting the termination sta, and leaving i, as in the passive (475. a) : thus, V!^ 4th c, ' to go,' makes 3d pret. 3d sing. ^SHTrf^ ; "W^ 4th c, ' to be born,' makes WSff^ ; and ^^ 4th c, ' to know,' makes ^"^tftJ. Compare 253. a. * Except ITFr, "35^, and f^, which follow 427, and are gunated, instead of taking Vriddhi : thus, ^HTFTft^, 'inurf^M, ^^afuM. 150 THIRD rRETERITE.— FORMATION OF THE BASE. Form IL 435. Resembling the first preterite. 1 . am dva or va cima or ma eori dvahi dmahi 2. as or s atam or tarn ata or ia athds ethdm or dt I idm adhivam ^. at or t atdm or t dm an or its ata et dm or dt dm anta Note, that this form corresponds to the Greek 2d aorist (compare asthdm, asthds, asthdt, with taTfjV, earfig, euTYj), and that the first form is more or less analogous to the I st aorist. The substitution of i for e, and dthdm, dtdm, for ethdm, etdm, in the A'tmane of form II, is confined to a class of roots mentioned at 439. 436. Rule for the formation of the base in verbs of the first nine classes. In general the terminations are attached directly to the root: thus, rm ist c, Ho go/ makes ^t\A agamam, he, see 602; fir^ 7th c, ' to break/ 'srfW^ ; ^^ 4th c, ' to perish,' W^ (or W^, see 441). But "h;^ ist c, * to see,' is gunated, and makes adarsam, see 604. Observe — Sometimes roots which follow this form in the Parasmai, follow form I. (418) in the Xtmane. 437. No confusion can arise from this apparent identity with the ist preterite, as in all cases where these terminations are used for the 3d preterite, the i st preterite presents some difference in the form of its base; as in agachchham (270), abhinadam (343). So again, the sixth conjugation, which alone can ever show a perfect identity of root and base, never makes use of this form for its 3d preterite, unless by some special rule the base of its ist preterite is made to differ from the root : thus, lip, ^ to smear' (cf. aXeiipco), which is alijmm in the 3d preterite, is alimpam. in the first (281). So in Greek, compare the imperfect eXetTrou with the 2d aor. eXnrov ; and similarly, eXajj-^avov with eXa^ov ; eSdfxvtju with (oafMov, &c. a. One or two roots in '^T d and ^ i reject their finals ; and one or two in "^ ri and '^ ri change these vowels to ar before the above terminations : thus, n' 3d c, ' to place,' makes adhdm, &c., 664; and ^T ist c, 'to stand,' makes asthdm, &c., 587. Similarly, *J^ist c.,'to be,' excepting in ist sing, and 3d pi. (^I*|5^> ^*cR' ^»J7T, 'SW^r, &c. ; 3d pi. ^W^^r ), see 585. a. Observe, however, that some roots in d, like ijd, 2d c, ' to go," follow 434. THIRD PRETERITE.— FOKMATION OF THE BASE. 151 h. Some roots in IJ e and '^ft o, which follow 434, optionally follow 438 ; in which case e and are changed as before to d: thus, ^ dhe, ist c, 'to drink,' makes either adhdsisham &c., or adhdm &c. ; ^ so, 4th c., ' to come to an end,' makes either asdsisham or asdm, see 613 : V also makes ^V, see 440. a. c. But ril" 1st c, ' to call,' drops the final e, and retains the initial vowel of the terminations : thus, ahwam, ahwas, ahwat, &c. See 595. d. In the Atmane-pada, roots like ^T, >IT, WT, &c., at 438, follow form I. at 418; but drop the final «', and assume i in its place : thus, adishi, adithds, adita, adishwahi, &c. ; 2d pi. ^f^. See 663. e. ^ 2d c, 'to go,' makes its 3d preterite from a root TT : thus, agdm, agds, &c. /. The classical scholar will observe, that aduddm, the ist preterite of the root da, 'to give,' bears the same relation to its 3d preterite addm that ebioav does to eOwv. So also the relation of adhdm (3d pret. of dhd, ' to place') to adadhdm (ist pret.) corresponds to that of eSvji' to eTiSyjv. Compare also abhavas and abhus with e^yef and e(f)vg, 439. Certain roots ending in ^ s, \sh, f h, enclosing a medial i, u, or ri, form their 3d preterites according to form II. at 435; but whenever confusion is likely to arise between the ist and 3d preterites, s is prefixed to the terminations, before which sibilant the final of the root becomes k by 302 and 306. a. Thus, f^^ 6th c, ' to point out,' the ist pret. of which is adisam, makes adiksham &c. in 3d pret. (compare the Greek ist aorist iOeiqa). Similarly, T^"^ 2d c, 'to hate,' makes adwiksham &c. 657 ; ^ 2d c, 'to milk,' makes adhuksham &c. by 306. a. See 660. b. This class of roots substitutes i for e, and dthdm, dtdm, for ethdm, etdrn, in the Atmane terminations : thus, adikshi, adikshathds, adikshata, adikshdvahi, adikshd- thdm, &c. c. A few roots of this kind optionally follow 418 in the Atmane: thus, ft9^ 2d c. may make ^rfc^f^, 'iic^ldlM^, ^Tc9^^, &c., 661 ; and |f5 2d c, ' to milk,' may make '^vfEJ, 'HH^itfrff, &c. See 660. 440. Causal verbs make use of form II, but the base assumes a peculiar redu- plication (analogous to the Greek pluperfect), to be explained at 492 : thus, from WV ist c, ' to know,' comes ^f^> &c. a. A few primitive verbs take a reduplicated 3d preterite, analo- gous to causals : thus, "PsT ist c, ' to have recourse/ makes ^^rf^"'?, &c. ; f^ ist c, ' to swell,^ makes either ^!r^ or ^r^fxitf or ^f^fTQ^; ■5; ist c, '■ to run,' ^^"5^ ; H ist c, ' to flow,' ^^H^; v ist c, ' to drink,' ^>i; cfiJT ist c, ' to love,' w^'cfi^, &c. This last is defective when it belongs to the ist c, having no conjugational tenses; but when it belongs to the 10th c. (Pres. "^SCifk, Sec) its 3d preterite is 441. The following primitive verbs take a contracted form of reduplicated 3d preterite : T^^ 2d c, ' to speak,' makes ^^"^'^ avocham 152 BENEDICTIVE.— FORMATION OF THE BASE. (from ^snra^ for ^nr^ 650) ; tiw ist c, ' to fall,' ^:^^ (from 'iHlMii; compare Greek eTmrTov) ; ^T^R 2d c, ' to rule/ ^rf^i? (from '3T%^. The i^tmane follows 427; see 658) ; w 4th c, ' to throw,' ^TTW (from ^TH^, contracted into ^mH for '^TW 304. «, whence by transposition ^nm); ^T^4th c, ' to perish/ ^^ (from w^^ for ^Rfpf^ 620, 436). Benedictive or precative. 442. Observe, that the terminations of this tense resemble those of the potential in the memorial scheme at p. 105. In the 2d and 3d singular they are identical. In the other persons of the Parasmai a sibilant is inserted, and in some of the Atmane both prefixed and inserted. The only difPerence between the potential and benedictive of verbs of the 2d and 3d groups, at 290, mil often be that the potential will have the conjugational characteristic : thus, bUd, 7th c, ' to break,' wiU be bhindydt in the potential, and bhidydt in the benedictive. Compare the optative of the Greek aorist '^oivjv with the optative of the present OiOoirjV. 443. Rule for the formation of the base in verbs of the first nine classes. In the Parasmai, as a general rule, leave the root unchanged before the terminations, and never insert i; but in the Atmane prefix i to the terminations in those roots ending in consonants or vowels which take the inserted i in the futures (388. a, 414)? and before this i gunate the radical vowel. It is also gunated in the Atmane in some roots ending in vowels which reject i : but if a root end in a consonant, and reject i, the radical vowel is left unchanged in the j^tmane, as well as Parasmai. 444. Thus, from »T ist c, 'to be,' come the base of the Parasmai bhu, and the base of the Atmane bhavi, by 36. 6 {bhu + ydsam = >J31TO &c., bhavi + siya = >TfTR^ by 70). 445. Frequently, however, before the y of the Parasmai terminations, the root is liable to changes analogous to those which take place before the y of the 4th conjugation at 272, and the y of passive verbs at 465 ; and not unfrequently it undergoes changes similar to those of the 2d preterite at 373, &c., as follows : — 446. A final '^ d is changed to TJ e in the Parasmai, but remains unchanged in the A'tmane : thus, ^ 3d c, ' to give,' makes \'^['^ &c. for Parasmai ; ^T^ &c. for A'tmane-pada. 447. Final ^ i and '3' u are lengthened in Parasmai, and gunated in A'tmane : thus, 'N 5th c, ' to gather,' makes 'I^6th c, ' to fry,' and "3^ 6th c, ' to cut.' In the Atmane they are regular. 454. '^^ 2d c. ' to speak,' '^ ist c. ' to say,* "^ ist c. ' to sow,' '^^ 2d c. ' to wish,' "^ ist c. ' to carry,' and ^''7 2d c. ' to sleep,' substitute "S" u for '^ ?; in the Parasmai: thus, 4^«m« &c., '^WRT &c. In the Atmane they are regular; as, ^^t^Ifrom ^. Conditional. 455. Note, that this tense bears the same relation to the 2d future that the ist preterite does to the present. In its formation it lies half-way between a first preterite and a second future. It resembles the first preterite in prefixing the augment ^ a to the base (see 260), and in the latter part of its terminations : it resembles the second future in gunating the radical vowel, in inserting 3^ i in exactly those roots in which the future inserts i, and in the sy of its terminations. See the scheme at 246, p. 105. 456. Rule for the formation of the base in verbs of the first nine classes. Prefix the augment "^ a, gunate the radical vowel, except when debarred by 28. b, and insert i before the terminations if the futures insert i. When i is rejected, as in all the roots at 400 &c., the rules of Sandhi must be observed. 457. Thus, IV ist c, 'to know,' makes ^r^ftrat &c. ; |f 2d c, X 154 INFINITIVE PASSIVE VERBS. ' to milk/ makes Wh??f &c., by 306. a ; fl"W 2d c, ' to hate/ makes ■iik^ &c., by 302. Infinitive. 458. The termination of the infinitive is K turn, like the urn of the Latin supine. 459. Rule for the formation of the base in verbs of the ten classes. The base of the infinitive is identical with the base of the first future, and where one inserts j^ i, the other does also : thus, budh, ist c, 'to know/ makes ^ftr^ bodhitum ; kship, 6th c, 'to throw/ makes %tt ksheptum. Moreover, all the rules for the change of the final consonant of a root before the t of the future termina- tions apply equally before the t of the infinitive. Hence, by substi- tuting um for the final a of the 3d pers. sing, of the ist future, the infinitive is at once obtained: thus, saktd, saktum; tyaktd, tyaktum; ITFT, ixi'i Vt^, Wt^, &c. See 400, &c. a. The following examples wiU show how remarkably the Sanskrit infinitive answers to the Latin supine. S. WTfT 'to stand/ L. statum ; S. ^rT 'to give/ L. datum; S. tiTg 'to drink,' L. potum ; S. ^'j 'to go/ L. itum; S. WiT 'to strew/ L. stratum J S. "^i^ 'to anoint/ L. unctumj S. WftTfT 'to beget/ L. genitum; S. '*s r«i g ' to sound/ L. sonitum; S. '^ ' to go/ L. serptumj S. 'ff'T'^ ' to vomit/ L. vomitum. Prof. Bopp considers that the infinitive affix turn is the accusative of an affix tu, of which the affix two. of the indeclinable participle (see 555. a) is the instrumental case. DERIVATIVE VERBS. 460. Having explained the formation of the verbal base in the ten classes of primitive verbs, we come next to the four kinds of derivative verbs, viz. passives, causals, desideratives, and frequenta- tives. PASSIVE VERBS. 461. Every root in every one of the ten classes may take a passive form*, which is conjugated as an i^tmane-pada verb of the 4th class. a. It is a form, however, not very commonly used, except in the 3d singular and plural of the present and imperative ; for although a passive construction is exceed- ingly common in Sanskrit syntax, yet almost all the tenses of the passive verb are expressed by participles. 462. Observe — Passive verbs take the regular Xtmane-pada ter- minations* at 247, making use of the substitutions required in the * See 253, and 253. a. b. There are occasional instances in the Mahabharata of passive verbs conjugated in the Parasmai. PASSIVE VERBS. — FORMATION OF THE BASE. 155 4th class. In the 3d preterite they take either of the forms at 418 and 427, according as the root may admit the inserted ^ i or not ; but they require that in the 3d singular of both forms the termina- tion be ^i in place of sta and ishta. Conjugational tenses. 463. Rule for the formation of the base in the four conjugational tenses, Atraane-pada, of roots of the first nine classes. The rule is the same as in the 4th class at 272, viz. affix ti ya* — lengthened to ^ yd before initial m or v — to the root, the vowel of which is not gunated, and generally remains unchanged. 464. Thus, from >|^ist c, 'to be/ comes the base >r:T bhuya (Pres. bhilya -\-i — v^, bhuya +se = ^f^^, &c. ; Pot. bhuya + lya = >|^, &c. ; Imp. bhuya + ai = ^, &c. ; ist Pret. abhuya + i = '^v^, &c.) ; from TT<^ 6th c, 'to strike,' comes tudya (Pres. tudya + i = if^, &c.). 465. A final vowel, however, often undergoes changes, some of which are differ- ent from, and some analogous to, those of the 4th class, as follows : — Six roots in ^TT a, and one or two in ^ e, ^J ai, and Wt 0, change their final vowels to ^ i ; thus, ^T 3d c, ' to give,' makes Pres. ^'^, ^^^> ^Tff ? &c. So also, VT, Wr, TT, 'TT, 1st c* to drink;' ^ 3d c. 'to quit;' V ist c. ' to drink' (3d sing. vt^W, &c.); ^ ist c. 'to sing' (jftT^w) ; ^ 4th c. ' to be destroyed' (^^). a. But other roots in a remain unchanged ; and most others in oi and o are changed to a.- thus, WH 2d c, ' to tell,' makes 3d sing. WT^TT ; and ^ 9th c, ' to know,' ^mTT; 'TT 2d c, 'to protect,' 'minr; W ist c, 'to meditate,' WRIT; ■^ft 4th c, ' to sharpen,' ■^IT^TiT. But ^f^^T 2d c. makes ^ ^<:& " • b. 2|" 1st c. ' to call,' ^ 1st c. * to cover,' ^ ist c. ' to weave,' make their bases hiiya, viya, and uya (3d sing. ^^HT). 466. Final ^ i or T m are lengthened, as also i or u before v or r .- thus, from f»T ist c, ■? 3d c, T^'^ 4th c, come the three bases W^^ ^'^, <{i«M . rt. But f^ ist c, ' to swell,' makes ^f^^j and '^ft 2d c, ' to sleep,' ^^7f . 467. Final "^ ri becomes fr ri, but if preceded by a double consonant is gunated : thus, "^ 8th c, ' to do,' makes Psfi^lK; but ^ ist c, W^ . The roots ^ and T^n are also gunated. 468. Final "^ri becomes ^zr .- thus, cF 6th c, ' to scatter,' makes "oh^^^rT; but T^,'tofill,'TJ5ff. 469. Roots ending in two consonants, of which the first is a nasal, usually reject the nasal ; as, from '^^, H'*?, ^T^, come the bases badhya, &c. (^T^fff , &c.). * Bopp considers that this ya is derived from yd, ' to go,' just as the causal oya is derived from i, ' to go.' It is certain that in Bengali and Hindi the passive is formed with the root yd. Compare the Latin amafum iri, &c. See 481. X 2 156 PASSIVE VERBS.— FORMATION OF THE BASE. 470. flH 4th c, ^*T 1st c, IT'JT 8th c, may optionally reject the final nasal, and lengthen the preceding a .■ thus, "rrmW or Tl'<4rt, &c. 471. «T^2d c, ^ ist c, '^ist c, ^ist c, ^ 2d e. 'to wish,' ^ ist c, ^TT 2d c, insist c, make their bases "3^, "^^j T^, TOT, T^, "^^T, ^W, l^i^ ( 3*Jjr1, &c.). 472. ?I^, UW, >J^, ^T^, ^r*I, "a^, ^T^, make their bases ^T?!, ""^33, *p5T> fV^Zf, f^\^, Y^, f^r^, respectively CpTrfj &c.). Non-conjugational tenses. — Second preterite of passives. 473. The base of this tense in the passive verb is identical with that of all primitive verbs, in all ten conjugations. The bases, therefore, as formed at 364, will serve equally well for the 2d preterite of the passive, provided only that they be restricted to the Atmane-pada inflection. a. According to some grammarians, however, the root *J^may make ^*|5 bubhiive, as well as "^^J^ babhuve, in the passive 2d preterite. First and second future of passives. 474. In these and the remaining tenses no variation can occur from the bases of the same tenses in the primitive, unless the root end in a vowel. In that case the insertion of ^ i may take place in the passive, although prohibited in the primitive, provided the final vowel of the root be first vriddhied : thus, from f^ chi, 5th c, 'to gather,' may come the base of the ist and 2d fut. pass, chdyi {chdyitdhe &c., chdyishye &c.), although the base of the same tenses in the primitive is che {chetdhe &c., cheshye &c.). Similarly, from 7 hu and "^ kri may come hdvi and kdri (hdvitdhe, kdritdhe), although the bases in the primitive are ho and kar. a. In like manner 2^ i may be inserted when the root ends in long ^T d, or in 1? e changeable to d, provided that, instead of Vriddhi (which is impossible), y be interposed between the final d and inserted i : thus, from dd, ' to give,' may come the base of the fut. pass, ddyi {ddyitdhe &c.), although the base of the same tenses in the primitive is dd {ddtdhe &c.); from hwe, ' to call,' may come hwdyi (d^lNril^ &c.), although the base in the primitive is hwd. But in all these cases it is per- mitted to take the base of the primitive for that of the passive, and chetdhe or chdyitdhe may eqviaUy stand for the ist fut. pass.* b. In the case of roots ending in consonants, the base of the two futures in the passive will be identical with that of the same tenses in the primitive verb t, the inflection being that of the Atmane. c. In verbs of the loth conjvigation deviation from the Atmane form of the primitive may take place in these and the succeeding tenses. See 496. * This explanation of the passive rests on the authority of Panini (VI. 4. 62), and the Siddhiinta Kaumudi. t The root '^^ ist c, ' to see,' however, in the passive, may be ^^TTT^, ^T^"^» as well as "^^T^, '^^ ; and ^»T may be 'mf'TWT?, ^JiPH'^I, as well as ^nTT^, ?fT^ ; and 3J^ may be iJlf^WT^, ?TTf^, as well as IT^^T'?^ Zf^^- PASSIVE VERBS.— FORMATION OF THE BASE. 157 Third preterite of passives. 475. In this tense, also, variation from the primitive may occur when the root ends in a vowel. For in that case the insertion of ^ i may take place, although forbidden in the primitive verb, provided the final of the root be vriddhied : thus, from f% chi may come the base of the 3d pret. pass, achdyi {achdyishi &c., 427), although the base in the Atmane of the primitive is ache {acheshi Sic, 418). So also, from ^ hu and '^ kri may come ahdvi and akdri {ahdvishi, akdrishi, 427), although the bases in the Atmane of the primitive are aho and akri {ahoshi, akrishi, 418). Again, i may be inserted when the root ends in long ^T a, pro- vided that y be interposed between final a and inserted i : thus, from da, to give,' may come addyi [addyishi &c.), although the base in the Atmane of the primitive is adi {adishi &c.). But in all these cases it is permitted to take the base of the primitive for that of the passive (so that the passive of chi may be either achdyishi or acheshi), except in the 3d pers. sing., where the terminations ishta and sta being rejected, the base, as formed by Vriddhi and the inserted i, must stand alone : thus, achdyi, ' it was gathered ;' ahdvi, ' it was sacrificed ;' akdri, ' it was done ;' addyi, ' it was given.' Sometimes, however, the regular form of the 3d sing. Atmane is admissible, as well as the mutilated form. a. If the root end in a consonant, the base of the 3d pret. pass, will always be identical with that of the 3d pret. Atmane of the primitive, except in the 3d pers. sing., where ^ i being substituted for the terminations ishta and sta of the ist form, requires before it the lengthening of a medial a, and the Guna of any other shoit medial vowel *. Hence, in tan, 8th c, ' to stretch,' the form of the ist, 2d, and 3d sing. 3d pret. will be atanishi, atanishthds, atdni ; from kship, 6th c, to throw,' akshipsi, akshiptkds, akshepi ; from vid, 2d c, ' to know,' avedishi, ave- dishthds, avedi. Observe — This 3d sing, of the 3d pret. passive is not unfrequently found, even in the simplest writings. Benedictive and conditional of passives. 476. In these tenses the same variation is permitted in the case of roots ending in vowels as in the last ; that is, the insertion of 1^ i is allowed, provided that, before it, Vriddhi take place in a final vowel capable of such a change, and y be interposed after final d: thus, from chi may come the bases chdyi and achdyi {chdyishiya, achdyishye) ; from hu, hdin and ahdvi; from kri, kdri and akdri j from dd, ddyi and addyi. But cheshiya, acheshye, hoshiya, ahoshye, &c., the forms belonging to the Atmane of the primitive verb, are equally admissible in the * A medial vowel, long by nature or position, remains unchanged (by 28. b), and in one or two cases a short ; as, asami for asdmi. The above explanation of the 3d preterite rests on the authority of Panini, the Siddhanta Kaumudi, and the Bhatti Kavya (15. 64, 65). 168 CAUSAL VERBS FORMATION OF THE BASE. Passive infinitive mood. 477. There is no passive infinitive mood in Sanskrit distinct in form from the active. But although the affix turn has generally an active, it is capable of a passive sense, when joined with certain verbs, especially with ^"^ sak, 4th c, ' to be able.' It is also used passively, in connection with the participles drabdha, nirupita, yukta, &c. See Syntax. Passive verbs from roots of the loth class. 478. In forming a passive verb from roots of the loth class, although the con- jugational ^^ is rejected in the first four tenses, yet the other conjugational changes of the root are retained before the affix ya : thus, from '^IC loth c, ' to steal,' comes the base chorya (•^i*4n). In the 2d pret. '^'^ is retained (see 473), and in the other non-conjugational tenses the base may deviate from the Atmane form of the primitive by the optional rejection or assumption of ^HI, especially in the 3d preterite. See Causal Passives at 496. CAUSAL VERBS. 479. Every root in every one of the ten classes may take a causal form, which is conjugated as a verb of the loth class; and which is not only employed to give a causal sense to a primitive verb, but also an active sense to a neuter verb ; see 289, 254 : thus the primitive verb hodhati, ^ he knows' (from the root budh, ist c), becomes in the causal ^y^lfrr bodhayati, 'he causes to know/ 'he informs;' and the neuter verb kshubhyati, ' he is shaken' (from kshubh, 4th c), becomes "^H^rfir ' he shakes.' a. This form may rarely imply ' allowing,' ' permitting :' thus, hdrayati, * he allows to take ;' ndsayati, ' he suffers to perish.' 480. As to the terminations of causal verbs, they are the same as those of the scheme at 247, p. 106 ; and the same substitutions are required in the first four tenses as in the ist, 4th, 6th, and loth classes. Conjugational tenses. 481. Rule for the formation of the base in the four conjugational tenses of roots of the ten classes. If a root end in a vowel, vriddhi that vowel ; if in a consonant, gunate the radical vowel before all the terminations, and affix w^ ay a * (changeable to ayd before initial m or v) to the root so vriddhied or gunated. * Derived from the root ^ «, ' to go,' just as the passive ya is derived from yd. See 463. CAUSAL VERBS FORMATION OF THE BASE. 159 482. Thus, from »ft ist c, * to lead/ comes the base «rnnT by 37 (Pres. nay ay a + mi = "HVPllf^, nay ay a -\- si = rrnHTftr &c.; Pot. ndyaya + iyam = tTR^^ &c. ; Imp. ndyaya + dni = TTFRlftr &c. ; ist Pret. andyaya + m = ?min4 &c. Kim. Pres. ndyaya 4- « = "JH^ &c.). Similarly, from t^bhu, ist c, ^ to be/ comes the base WTCT bhdvaya; and from gr 8th c, ' to do/ the base MIA kdraya. But from "^V 1st and 4th c, ^ to know/ comes the gunated ^t>ni bodhaya ; and from ^ 1st c, ' to creep/ the gunated ^^ sarpaya. 483. Roots ending in ^TT a, or in ^ e, ^ ai, ^ 0, changeable to ^ «, cannot be vriddhied, but generally insert "^^p between the root and the affix aya : thus, ^ 1st c, 'to give,' makes ^"niirrftT dupaydmi, &c. ; >I ist c, 'to drink,' Vm^Tf*T dhdpaydmi, &c. ; m ist c, 'to sing,' Tm^Im gdpaydmi, &c. a. All other roots in a insert p, excepting 'TT ist c, ' to drink,' which inserts \y, making Mi*<*4ifiT &c. ; and "TT 2d c, ' to preserve,' which inserts 75 /, making TTraiTTfiT &c. b. All other roots in ai insert p, but most other roots in e and o insert y : thus, ^ 1st c, * to call,' makes S^TTnTrfH &c. ; and ^ 4th c, ' to sharpen,' makes ^^- WH &c. 484. '^ 9th c. ' to know,' '^ 2d c. ' to cook,' ^T 2d c. ' to bathe,' and ^ ist c. ' to languish,' may optionally shorten the d, the last two only when not joined \vith prepositions : thus, ^TTTrf*? &c., or ^^HTrf'T &c. ; yiMMiP*! &c., or JprxfrfiT &c. 485. Some roots in i, t, ri, also insert p, after changing the final vowel to «.- thus, ftr 1st c, 'to conquer,' makes ^ri 1 14 *( I Ui &c. ; TW ist c, 'to smile,' makes Wrinn'ftT &c., and Wni^ &c. ; f^ 5th c, ' to collect,' has four forms; i. ^^^TT(- mfj? &c., 2. •'^xnfjT &c., 3. ^-qTTrfiT &c., 4. ^^^nnftT &c. ; >ft 3d c, ' to fear,' has three forms ; i. MlilillPH &c., 2. >TR^ &c., Atm. only, 3. >fl"R^ «&c. ; ^ 2d c, 'to go,' makes ^TTT^Trf'T &c., especially with the preposition wftl ' over,' '^TWF'^- <4ir*i ' I cause to go over,' ' I teach.' a. Three roots insert nj c^ 4th c, ' to embrace,' ' to adhere,' making (with prep, f^) -T^irrftT &c., as well as -HPT^Trftr, -rfN^lPH, and -•?5To5^fiT &c. ; ift 9th c, ' to please,' making Tfhjnn'f'T ; and V 5th and 9th c, ' to shake,' >J^xrrf'T. 486. '^ 3d c. 'to be ashamed' and "^ ist c. 'to go' insert p after gunation : thus, t^mCn &c., -iiQ^iPH &c. 487. Roots ending in consonants, enclosing a medial ^ a, generally, but not always, lengthen the a : thus, 'T^ ist c, ' to cook,' makes Ml ■'I *i I Ph &c. a. Note, that few roots in m lengthen the a: thus, TT ist c, 'to go,' makes TTmfir &c. Some, however, optionally do so. 488. Anomalies. — '^^ ist c, ' to grow,' changes h to p, making TjMMlm &c. ; Jf"^ 4th c, ' to be corrupt,' makes ^M«4lP*i &c., ' I corrupt ;' ^»T 2d c, ' to kill,' miamiPm &c. ; ^ ist and 6th c, 'to perish,' ^lIK^lPiT &c. ; ?^ 6th c, 'to quiver,' tmiCMlftr &c. ; W^iHT ist c, ' to increase,' ^^RT^irrftT &c. 160 CAUSAL VERBS. — FORMATION OF THE BASE. Non-conjugational tenses. 489. The changes of the root required to form the base of the conjugational tenses are continued in the non-conjugational. More- over, aya is retained in all these tenses, excepting in the 3d preterite and benedictive, Parasmai ; but the last a of aya is dropped before the inserted ^ i, which is invariably assumed. Second preterite of causals. 490. This tense is formed by adding m dm to the base of the conjugational tenses, and affixing the 2d preterite of one of the three auxiliary verbs, ^nr ' to be,' >T ' to be,' or cF ' to do :' thus, ^v ist c, ' to know,' makes "^ttttiit or ^tvT^m=^>J^ * or ^hnrra'SfiTT. See 385, First and second future of causals. 491 . In these tenses the inserted ^ i is invariably assumed between the base, as formed in the conjugational tenses, and the usual termina- tions : thus, budh makes bodhayitdsmi Sec, bodhayishydmi Sac. Third preterite of causals (Greek pluperfect). 492. The terminations are those of form IIP; see 4:^. In the formation of the base of this tense, the affix ay is rejected ; but any other change that may take place in the conjugational tenses, such as the insertion of ^ or y, is preserved. The base is a reduplicated form of this change, and to this reduplication the augment ^ c is prefixed : thus, taking the bases bodhay and jdpay (causal bases of budh, ' to know,' and ji, ' to conquer'), and rejecting ay, we have bodh and jap ; and from these are formed the bases of the 3d pret. abubudh and ajijap (^R"^ abubudham Sec, ^n^MV( abiibudhe Sec, Wifhni ajijapam &c., ^HrftiR fij'tjape Sec, cf. the Greek pluperfect). 493. The rule for this reduplication is as follows : — The initial consonant of the root, with its vowel, is reduplicated, and the reduplicated consonant follows the rules given at 331 ; but the reduplication of the vowel is peculiar. Rules for the reduplication of the vowel of the initial consonant. a. Causal bases, after rejecting ay, will end either in dy, dv, dr, or a consonant preceded by a, d, e, 0, or ar. The usual reduplicated vowel for all these vowels, except 0, is i. But u is reduplicated for 0, and sometimes also for dv. The rule is, that either the reduphcated syllable or the base syllable must be long either by * It may, however, be questioned whether >T is often found added to causals. CAUSAL VERBS FORMATION OF THE BASE. 161 nature or position ; and in general the redui)licated vowel is made long, and, to compensate for this, the long vowel of the causal base shortened, or, if it be Guna, changed to its cognate short vowel : thus, the causal base nay (fi-om ni, rejecting ay) makes the base of the 3d pret. anmay (^T^mT amnayam &c.) ; the causal base hhdv (from bhu) makes abibhav (^Rft>T^ &c.) ; the causal base kdr (form kri), achtkar J gam (from gam), ajigam: pack (from pack), apipach ; pal (from pa), apipal; ved (from vid), avwidj vart (from vrit), avwrit. But bodh (from budh), abubudh; and sdv (from su), asushav. Sometimes the reduphcated vowel is only long by position before two consonants, the radical vowel being stiU made short ; as, srdv (fi'om sru) makes asusrav ; drdv from {dru), adudrav ; bhrdj, abibhraj. Sometimes the reduplicated vowel remains short, whilst the vowel of the causal base, which must be long either by nature or position, remains unchanged : thus, the causal base jiv (from jtv) may make ajijiv ; chint, achichint ; kalp, achikalp. In such cases a may be reduplicated for a or a; as, laksh makes alulaksh ; ydch, ayaydchj vart (from vrit), avavart, &c. b. The following are anomalous : from pay {pd, ' to drink'), 'Sn^roi &c.* ; from sthdp {sfhd, ' to stand'), ^7rf?T7 &c. ; from ghrdp {ghrd, ' to smell'), ^f»Tfir"T &c., and ■»:i n»t « M &c. ; from adhydp {i, ' to go,' with adhi), '^W^'H'^ &c. Reduplication of an initial vowel in causal third preterites. 494. Roots beginning with vowels, and ending with single consonants, form their causal third preterites by a peculiar reduplication of the root (after rejecting 'W^). The rule is that not only the initial vowel, as in the 2d pret. at 364. a, but the final consonant also be reduplicated. In fact, the whole root is doubled, as it would be if it began ^vith a consonant, and ended \vith a vowel ; but the consonant is reduphcated according to the rules at 331, and the reduphcated vowel is always i. This i, however, takes the place of the radical vowel, instead of beginning the redu- plicated syllable; and the vowel of the root then becomes the initial of the redupli- cated syllable, combining with the augment ^ a, according to 260. a .• thus, '^'^ 5th c, ' to prosper,' which ought to be reduplicated into '3^^ by 331. a, becomes, by transposition of the vowels, ^f^V ; and with ^ prefixed, ^Tf^>I by 260. a (^iff^T ' I caused to prosper,' &c.). Similarly, "35'?" 1st c, ' to infer,' which ought to be ^ais ijiih, becomes "^sfrr? tijih; and ^vith ^ prefixed, '^flT^ (^THT^ ' I caused to infer'). So also, ^TPJ 5th c, ' to obtain,' makes WrfT?''? ' I caused to obtain;' ^■5 2d c, ' to praise,' makes ^TT? ' I caused to praise.' Compare the Greek 2d aorist Vjyayov from aya, and copopov from cpw. a. If a root end in a compound consonant, the first member of the compound is rejected from the final, but not from the reduplicated letter : thus, ^? ist c, * to be worthy,' makes ^ifW^ ' I caused to be worthy,' ' I honoured ;' T?^ 7th c, ' to moisten,' makes wf^^ ' I caused to moisten.' b. Note, that "SET ksh is treated as a single consonant, and ^cA is reduplicated for it by 331. c; thus, '^^ ist c, 'to see,' makes ^Pmsj aichiksham, ' I caused to see.' Panini VII, 4. 4. Y 1G2 CAUSAL VEKBS — FORMATION OF THE BASE. c. Roots consisting of a single vowel, form their causal 3d preterite from the causal base (after rejecting ay a) : thus, the root '^, ' to go,' makes its causal base arp, ' to deliver over;' and its causal 3d pret. '^rrftT'T ' I caused to deliver.' d. "91^ 2d c, ' to cover,' makes ^^'^. Benedictive and conditional of causals. 495. The base of the benedictive, Xtmane, and of the conditional in both voices, does not differ fronn that of the non-conjugational tenses ; but the last a of aya is dropped before the inserted ^ i, which is always assumed. In the Parasmai of the benedictive both ay and i are rejected, but any other change of the root is retained : thus, ^>l ist c, ' to know,^ makes in benedictive bodliydsam &c., bodha- yishiya &c. ; in conditional, abodhayishyam &c., abodhaijishye &c. Passive form of causals. 496. In forming a passive verb from a causal base, the causal affix ?FR is rejected, but the other causal changes of the root are retained before the passive affix ya : thus, from the causal base tmni jjcitaya (from xttt ist c, 'to fall') comes the passive pdtya, making 3d sing. Tjmw ' he is made to fall.' Similarly, ^T 1st c, ' to stand,' makes WR^fw ' he causes to stand,' WTOI^ ' he is made to stand ;' and frr 9th c, ' to know,' makes ^Tjfw ' he causes to know,' and grq^ ' he is caused to know,' * he is informed.' a. In the non-conjugational tenses, the base of all the tenses, excepting the 2d preterite, may vary from the Xtmane form by the optional rejection of the conjugation ^snr. But in the 2d preterite, the Atmane of the usual form with dm and the auxiliaries (490, 385) is admitted for the passive. In the 3d preterite, the usual redupli- cated form (492) gives place to the Atmane form which belongs to those verbs of the first nine classes which assume i : thus, from >TT^^, the causal base of >T ' to be,' come the passive 2d pret. HT^- TfT^^; ist fut. HT^^nn% or mf^^; 2d fut. HT^xw or >TTfV^; 3d pret. ^SMT'^fJTfTT or '^wrf^ftr, 3d sing, ^^rmf^; bened. ifRfJT^'^^ or >7Tf«nfNr; cond. '^mr^ftr^ or wnrfT^. So also, from ^PHT, the causal base of ^JT ' to cease,' come the passive 2d pret. '^TTirr^iR or ^IH^'IIT^ ; 1st fut. •^TTTftnrrir or ^miTt ; 2d fut. •^irrfq^ or ^fir^; 3d pret. ^qm- ftrft? or W^ri^^, 3d sing. tHjiPh ; bened. ^rnfM^l^ &c.; and the radical a may in every case be optionally lengthened : thus, ist fut. •^prftnTT^ or ^T^rfqint &c. DESIDEIIATIVE VERBS.— FORMATION OF THE BASE. 1 G:3 Desiderative form of causals. 497. Causals may take a desiderative form (498) : thus, from pdtaydmi, '• I cause to fall/ pipdtmjishdmi, ' I desire to cause to fall ;' from swdpaydmi, ' I cause to sleep/ svshwdpayishdmi, ' I desire to cause to sleep/ DESIDERATIVE VERBS. 498. Every root in the ten classes may take a desiderative form. a. Although this form of the root rarely appears in its character of a verb, yet nouns and participles derived from the desiderative base are not uncommon (see 80. XXII, and 82. III). Moreover, there are certain roots which take a desiderative form, without yielding a volitive signification ; and these, as being equivalent to primi- tive verbs (amongst which they are sometimes classed"), may occur in the best writers. For example, jugups, ' to blame,' from the root J^ gup ; chikits, ' to cure,' from "RJiT kit; titiksh, 'to bear,' from frl"5T tij j niimdns, 'to reason,' from T»T man; bibhats, ' to abhor,' from "^X^ hddh. 499. Note, that desideratives take the terminations of the scheme at 247, with the substitutions required in the ist, 4th, 6th, and loth classes ; and their inflection, either in the Parasmai or i^tmane, is determined by the practice of the primitive verb : thus, the root ^ budh, ist c, ' to know,^ taking both inflections in the primitive, may take both in the desiderative {bubodhishdmi &c., or bubodhishe &c., ' I desire to know') ; and e5>^ labh, ^ to take,' taking only the i^tmane in the primitive, may take only the Atmane in the desidera- tive {lipse Sec, ' I desire to take'). 500. Rule for the formation of the base in the four conjugational tenses. Reduplicate the initial consonant and vowel of the root, and if the primitive verb inserts ^i (see 388. a), affix ^ ish; if it rejects i, then simply ^ s, changeable to "^ sh, to the root so reduplicated : the vowel a is then added to form the base, as in the ist, 4th, 6th, and loth classes ; and, according to the rule in those classes, this a is lengthened before m and v. a. Thus, from f^ kship, 6th c, ' to throw,' comes the base chikshipsa {chiksipsd + mi = f'^^''^fJT cldkshlpsdmi &c., ' I desire to throw') ; but from f^ vid, 2d c, ' to know,' taking inserted i, comes vividisha {vividishd + mi = f^f^f^'mfr{ vividishdmi &c.). b. The reduphcation of the consonant is strictly in conformity with the rules laid down at 331, and that of the vowel of the initial consonant follows the Y 2 164 DESIDERATIVE VERBS.— FORMATION OF THE BASE. analogy of causal third preterites at 493; that is, the vowel "^i (generally, however, short) is reduplicated for a, a, i, i, ri, ri, e, or ai; but the vowel "^u for u, li, and 0. Obser\'e — The final consonant of a root rejecting i will unite with the s oi sa, in accordance with the rules at 296 : thus, from ^^ ist c. comes the base pipaksha by 296; from TJT^ ist c. comes yiydchisha ; from "ifr^ ist c, jijwisha ; from "H^ 1st c, didriksha ; from ^T^ ist c, sisevisha (in this and in some other roots beginning with s, the i of the reduplicated syllable does not influence the follow- ing s, as might be expected from rule 70) ; from ^ ist c, jigds j from sTT, jijnds {yiyvcoaKCt}) -. but fi'om '^l^ 7th c. comes yuyukshuj from \c)t\i c, pupusha; from ^W 4th c, f^W buhhutsa, see 299. a if^^\^ I Ph &c., ftlillP^cmfiT &c.). c. And if the root begin with a vowel the reduplication still follows the analogy of the same tense : thus, from W^T comes ^f^'^T ; and with isha added, ^f^T'^T'^. Similarly, fi'om '3?'f comes arjikisha ; from liir, vjihisha ; from ^W, tchikshisha ; from '3"«^, undidiska: see 494. The vowel i is reduplicated for a, as being Ughter ; see 331. e. 501. When a root takes the inserted i, and consequently forms its desiderative with isha, the radical vowel may in general be optionally gunated : thus, H^ ist c, ' to rejoice,' makes either miimodisha or mumudisha. 502. When '^ sa is affixed to roots ending in vowels, it has the efPect of lengthen- ing a final ^ i or "^ ii j of changing ^ e, ^ ai, ^ o, to ^ dj "^ ri or '^ n to ^ tr, or after a labial to "31^ itr .- thus, from V^ 5th c. comes chicMsha; from "^ 5th c, susrushaj from "^ 8th c, chiktrsha; fi'om ^T ist c.,jigdsa; from TT, tifirsha; from ^,pupursha; from >T, bublmrsha; from T, mumursha. a. When it is affixed to roots ending in consonants, the radical vowel remains unchanged, but the final consonant combines with the initial sibilant, in accordance with the rules laid down at 296; as, from ^g^ 4th c. comes yuyutsa (299) ; from ^^ ist c. comes didhaksha (306. a) ; from H^ 2d c, dudhuksha j from >1^ 7th c, bubhuksha. 503. The followng roots form their desiderative bases anomalously : from ^ 3d c, ' to give,' comes ditsa {ditsdmi, ' I \vish to give') ; from TTj ' to measure,' mitsa ; from ^''J 5th c, ' to obtain,' comes ipsa ; from VT, ' to place,' dhitsa : so also, from V, ' to drink,' dhitsa j ft'om faT, ' to conquev,' jiyishaj from pef, to gather,' chlMsha, as well as chicMsha ; from f '5T, ' to kill,' HriMIti ; from ?I^, nHUHj ; from V^ , fiT^lfgiTT ; from ^^T, 'W^'^ ; from ^IcF, ' to be able,' f^T^ from c5>T, ' to obtain,' fr5^ ; from TTV, frW ; fi'om T>?, fx"^ ; fi-om trff, fcrW from ^V, tn&, or regularly "^tfv^ ; from f^^T, J!^> or regularly f^f^ from ^, ^^; from T, ' to be beautiful,' comes sosubhya and sosubhyamdna : from ^^, ' to weep,' rorudya and rorudyamdna. 508. There are two kinds of frequentative verb, the one a redu- plicated j^tmane-pada verb, conforming, like neuter and passive verbs, to the conjugation of the 4th class, and usually, though not always, yielding a neuter signification ; the other a redupHcated Parasmai- pada verb, following the conjugation of the 3d class of verbs. This last is rarely used *. a. Observe — There is no frequentative form for roots of the loth class, or for polysyllabic roots f, or for most roots beginning with * Intensive or frequentative forms are found in Greek, such as Traiirakkd), Ba/^aAAo), fj.ai[xd^cc or [xatjxdu}, 'Trafxtpaivco, dXaXd^w. t li^ ' to cover' excepted, which has for its first form "^i^V^, and for its second ^^iT. IGG FREQUENTATIVE VERBS FORMATION OF THE BASE. vowels. Some roots beginning with vowels take the iV^tmane form of frequentative ; see 511, 681, h. The terminations for the first form of frequentative will be those of the i^tmane at 247, with the usual substitutions required for the 4th class of verbs. For the second form they will be the regular Parasmai-pada terminations of the memorial scheme at 246. ATMANE-PADA FREQUENTATIVES. 509. Rule for the formation of the base in the four conjugational tenses. Reduphcate the initial consonant and vowel of the passive base according to the rules for reduplicating consonants at 331, and gunate the reduplicated vowel (if capable of Guna), whether it be long or short : thus, from the passive base c(hl (of da, ' to give') comes the frequentative base dediya (Pres. i. dediya + i = '^^^, 2. dediya + se =^^tl^ &c.) ; from ^hl (passive of hd, ' to quit') comes jehiya (Jehiye &c.) ; from stirya comes testirya ; from puya, popiiya ; from vidya, vevidya ; from budhya, bobudhya (Pres. '^Vti^, "^^uifi, -flj^^uirt^ &c.). The conjugation of all four tenses will correspond exactly with that of the passive. 510. If the passive base contain a medial "^ a, long a is substituted in the reduplication ; as, pdpachya from pachya : sdsmarya from smarya : if a medial a, e, or 0, the same are reduplicated; as, y ay achy a from y achy a; seshevya from sevyaj lolochya from lochya : if a medial "^ ri, then ^T^ art* is substituted in the redu- pHcation ; as, <^0^^*4 from dris'yaj MT5?Tj and some others, may insert nasals, instead of lengthening the vowel in the reduplication : thus, '5T5"^ &c. b. Padya (from jjad) inserts tft ni: thus, pampadyaf j from charya is formed ^■^m; from hunyu, passive of han, 'to kill,' arfft^ ; from ghrdya, 'W^lt^', from dhmdya, ^wftxT (^T*fNl &c.). * This supports the idea that the original Guna of ri is ari. See 29. b. t Similarly, the roots 4^, 'B\, cj^, ^'^, "^^ ("^Rt*?^^ &c.). FREQUENTATIVE VERBS FORMATION OF THE BASE. 167 Non-conjugational tenses of Atmane-pada frequentatives, 513. In these tenses frequentatives follow the analogy of passives, and reject the affix ya. Since, however, the base of the second preterite is formed by affixing dm (as usual in all polysyllabic forms, see 385. b), and since, in aU the other tenses, inserted i is assumed, a coalition of vowels might arise were it not allowed to retain y in all cases in which a vowel immediately precedes that letter * : thus, from dedipya is formed the 2d preterite (ist sing.) dedipdhchakre &c., rejecting ya: but from dediya, dediydhchakre &c., retaining y. Similarly in the other tenses : ist fut. dedipitdhe &c., dediyitdhe &c. ; 2d fut. dedipishye Sec, dediyishye &c. ; 3d pret. adedipisU &c., adediyishi &c. ; bened. dedipisMya &c., dediyisMya &c.; cond. adedipishye &c., adediyishye &c. In the 3d sing. 3d preterite i is not allowed to take the place of the regular terminations, as in the passive form. PARASMAI-PADA FREQUENTATIVES. 514. Rule for the formation of the base in the four conjugational tenses. The base is here also formed by a reduplication similar to that of Atmane-pada fre- quentatives; not, however, from the passive, but from the root: thus, from the root pack comes pdpachj from vid, vevid ; fi'om "^^j daridris s from "^j charikrif. Moreover, in accordance with the rules for the 2d and 3d conjugation (307, 330), the radical vowel is gunated before the P terminations of the scheme at 246. Hence come the two bases veved and vevid (Pres. vevedmi, vevetsi, vevetti; Du. vevidwas, &c. ; ist Pret. avevedam, avevet, avevet, avevidwa, &c. ; Pot. vevidydm, &c. ; Imp. veveddni, veviddhi, vevettu, veveddva, vevittam, &c.). Again, the base will vary in accordance with the rules of combination at 296 &c., as in budh (Pres. bobodhmi, bobhotsi, boboddhi, bobudhwas, &c.). And in further analogy to the 2d conjugation (313, 314) long » is often optionally inserted before the consonantal P terminations (Pres. vevedimi, vevedishi, vevediti; Du. vevidwas, &c. ; ist Pret. ave- vedam, avevedis, avevedit, avevidwa, &c. ; Imp. veveddni, veviddhi, veveditu). 515. Lastly, when the root ends in a vowel, the usual changes take place of i and i to y or iy ; of u and u to uv; and of ri to r (see 312) : as in the roots bhi, bhu, kri (Pres. ist sing, bebhemi, bobhomi, charkarmi ; 3d plur. bebhyati, bobhuvati, charkrati). a. Observe — Roots in "^n substitute d in the redupUcated syllable : thus, from ep, ^TofT ; from ^, rTrer ; from IT, "TPT, &c. Non-conjugational tenses of Parasmai-pada frequentatives. 516. The second preterite follows the usual rule for polysyllabic bases (385. b), * In passives this coalition of vowels is avoided by the change of a final vowel to Vriddhi, as of chi to chdy, of hu to hdv, and of kri to kdr; and by the change of final d to dy, as of da to day; see 473. t In the Parasmai form of frequentative, ari and ar as well as art may be redu- plicated for the vowel "^ ri; so that "^ may make t^O^^^ or ^ftr^^ or ^f^J and "^j -mO* or ""iRoji or ^^. 168 NOMINAL VERBS — FORMATION OF THE BASE. and affixes dm with the auxiliaries : thus, from vid, ' to know,' comes ist sing. veviddmdsa J from bin, bebhydmdsa. In the other tenses, excepting the benedictive, inserted i is invariably assumed; and before this inserted i roots ending in vowels forbid the usual Guna change in the futures, but admit Vriddhi in the 3d preterite : thus, ist fut. 1st sing, veveditdsmi &c., bebhyitdsmi &c. (367) ; 2d fut. vevedishydmi &c., bebhyishydmi &c.; 3d pret. avevedisham &c., abebhdyisham &c.; bened. vevidyd- sam &c., bebhiydsamj cond. avevedishyam, abebhyishyam. This rejection of Guna, however, admits of question, especially in the case of roots in u or li. Causal, desiderative, and desiderative causal form of frequentatives. 517. Frequentatives are said to be capable of these forms : thus, fi'om the fre- quentative base totud, 'to strike often,' come totudaydmi, ' I cause to strike often ;' totudishdmi, ' I desire to strike often ;' totudayishami, ' I desire to cause to strike often.' NOMINAL VERBS, OR VERBS DERIVED FROM NOUNS. 518. These are formed by adding certain affixes to the crude base of nouns. They are not in very common use, but, theoretically, there is no limit to their formation. They might be classed under three heads, according to their meaning; viz. ist, transitive nomi- nals, yielding the sense of performing, practising, making or using the thing or quality expressed by the noun ; 2d, intransitive nomi- nals, giving a sense of behaving like, becoming like, acting like the person or thing expressed by the noun ; 3d, desiderative nominals, yielding the sense of wishing for the thing expressed by the noun. It will be more convenient, however, to arrange them according to the affixes by which they are formed, as follows : — Observe — The terminations of nominals will be those of the scheme at 247, making use of the substitutions required by the ist, 4th, 6th, and loth classes. 519. 1st, Those formed by affixing ^ a (changeable to a before m and v) to a nominal base, the final of the base being gunated (if capable of Guna). When the base ends in a, this vowel takes the place of the affix a. A final a absorbs the affix. a. Thus, from ^^ ' Krishna,' Pres. i. ^^TflT ' I act hke Krishna,' 2. ■^HITftT, 3. "^nirfW, &c. So from oRf% ' a poet,' Pres. i . '^.'^ITTfiT ' I act the poet,' 2. <*«(povT€^, ferentes; bharatas with (pepovra^ ; gen. sing, bharatas with (pepoVTOg, ferentis. So also, Sanskrit vahan, vahantam, with vehens, vehentem ; and san, santam (from as, ' to be'), with the se7is of ab-sens, pra-sens. Compare also the base strinwant with (J-TOpVVVT. PRESENT PARTICIPLES ; ATMANE-PADA.— FORMATION OF THE BASE. 526. The base is formed by substituting JTT«T mdna for nte, the termination of the 3d plur. pres. of verbs of the ist, 4th, and 6th conjugations, and passives ; and by substituting ^IT?T ana for ate, the termination of the 3d plur. pres. of verbs of the other conjugations ; see 247, p. 106: thus, from Jrw^ pachante (ist conj.) comes "q^irnT pachamdna, 'cooking;' from fiff?^ {sthd, ist conj.), fiTffH'R 'stand- ing;' from "Jpr^ (4th conj.), "^iijHrH ; from fc5«r% [Up, 6th conj.), frtWJHM. a. But from "3^^ bruvate ("g^ 2d conj.), W^TO bruvdna (see 58) ; from friuw (^"^ with frf 2d conj.), fTrfTT'^; from f^\iw [dhd, 3d conj.), ^VT«T; from fgr^ (5th conj.), fqr^r^; from ■^^w (7th conj.), ■^'^T^; from oF^ (8th conj.), oF^ttt; from V^ (9th conj.), ^^^. The root ^rnr 2d c, ' to sit,' makes ^^rnftrf for ^niTJT ; and ^t 2d c. is ^w in 3d pi. (see 315), but ^^pJJ^ in the pres. participle. b. Observe — The real affix for the Atmane-pada pres. participle is mdna, of Z 2 172 PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLES. which una is probably an abbreviation. Compare the Greek /Aevo : VJI^HUll (58) 527. Verbs of the loth conjugation and causals may substitute either mdna or ana, but more frequently the latter: thus, from bodhayante comes bodhuyamdna and bodhaydna ; from darsayante, darsaydna ; from vedayante, vedaydna. The affix ana is probably prefeiTed on account of the greater fulness of form of verbs of the loth class. 528. Passives and other derivative verbs always substitute mdna : thus, from f^ir^, 'they are made/ comes f^ ^iH I HI , 'being made' (58); from ffhRT, ' they are given/ ^i|HH, ' being given / from the desi- derative fT, f»TrT ' conquered ;' from rft, "^W nita ; * ^, however, makes T^ftflT ; and "T may be tjfVir as well as "Tff . PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLES. 173 from ^, ^ ; from H, >TTT ; from oir, oFTT ; from in, TTnn {58) ; from c^, 'pJbT ; from ^, ^tisr ; from <^, cg^ ; from fi^, s^. 533. But in certain cases the final vowel of the root is changed : thus, some roots in ^^TT a change a to i before ta ; as, from "^1 sfhrl, iWT^ sthita j from 'PfT, ffflf; from ft before ta (vtrf) ; d^" hwe, ' to call,' hii (Tif) ; "^ ve/ to weave,' u i'^) ; '^ vye, ' to cover,' "^ vi ('^tw). 536. Roots in ^ ai generally change ai to a before na or taj as, from ^ mlai, ' to fade,' «-c<>l«1 mldna ; from UT, ' to meditate,' ■HTTiT ; from ^, ' to purify,' ^TrT ; from S'j 'to rescue,' "^JJHi or ^TW. But from iT, 'to sing,' jftlT; from '^,'to waste,' "^m. 537. Roots in ^ change to i; as, from ^, ftnT ; from ^T, f^ITT. 538. Those roots ending in consonants which take the inserted i in the last five tenses (388. a), generally take this vowel also in the past passive participle, but not invariably (see 542). Whenever i is assumed, ta is affixed, and not na ; as, from xnr pat, * to fall/ "qfinT patita, ' fallen ;' and if "5 w or ^ n precede the final consonant of the root, these vowels may take Guna ; as, from ?nr dyut, ^rrfwTT dyotita ; from JT^, Jrflw. ?r^, ' to take,' lengthens the inserted i (iT^ltf ' taken'). 539. Roots ending in consonants which reject the inserted i in the last five tenses (400), generally reject it in the past passive participle. They must be combined with ta, agreeably to the rules at 296, &c. Whatever form, therefore, the final consonant assumes before the termination td of the ist future (see the lists at 400), the same form will generally, though not invariably, be preserved before the ta of the past participle ; so that, in many cases, this participle may be derived from the 3d sing, of the ist future by shortening the final a, and, if necessary, restoring the radical vowel to its original state : thus, taking some of the examples at 400 ; ^raiT * When prepositions are prefixed to datta, the initial da may be rejected : thus, dtta for ddatta, ' taken ;' pratta for pradatta, ' bestowed ;' vydtta for vyddatta, ex- panded;' paritta ior paridattaj siitta for sudatta, the i and u being lengthened. 174 PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLES. iaktd, * he will be able/ gives ^^ sakta, ' able ;' ^^ sektd, ' he will sprinkle/ ftr^ sikta, * sprinkled / iftW moktd, ^ mukta ; TJFT, "^; w^, 7r?f>', "tftw, "5^; H¥T, ^; mFT, ^; ^ITT, ftri; ^^, ^; xft^T, "5^; "^TTT, f^TT; 79^7, ^TT ; ^T, ^; ohrHl, "^IT; ?53rr, c53r; <^tan,^; wr, f^; "^ft, 1?; "^tFT, 1»F; t^T, ff?; ^"\¥T, ^; "as^T, ^; irrr, tt?; c^ft, i^¥; tjft, ^; ^^VT, ^^v; ^ft^, ^ftg"; ''Tirr, 'T5; TTTT, ^TT; HTT, «^ (SOJ- «) J ^^^j "f'?'^; ^^VT, fwV; ft^T, ''^ (305. a) ; jftrr, ^; or hVvt, wnj; ^trm, Jt\i; jf^, 'T^ : but ^j-^i^^ ' to fry/ which is >JFr in the i st future, is ^ in the participle. 540. Most roots ending in ^ d, forbidding the inserted ^ i (404), take na instead of ta, and are combined with na, agreeably to 47; as, from "R^, 'T^; from f>T»f, firW; from Wf^, mth the preposition f^, ?^H*u (70 and 58); from ^T^ ' to eat/ ^TW (unless '3FV is substituted, from jaksh at 542). 541. Those roots ending in "^j, which take na, change j to g before na; as, from f^r»^ vij, ?H**\ vujna ; from ^^ rnj, '^TT{ rugna. So from Tt5T , rejecting one _;, W^ ; from rt-n^ ' to be ashamed,' rt'»i (as well as c^fWrT). '^'T, ' to adhere,' also makes A* A ; and "3'^, ' to cut,' makes «jomi or ^^ (see 58). 542. Some roots which admit i in the futures, reject it in this participle ; as, Y^, 1st fut. VjfMril, but pass. part. "^ ; so '^, 'Hp '^-^ ' to dance,' 'T'finiT, but ■^ as well as »TfinT. 543. If in forming the passive base (471), or in the 2d preterite (375. c. d), the V ox y contained in a root is changed to its semivowel u or i, the same change takes place in the past passive participle : thus, from "^^^vach, ' to say,' "3"^ ukta; from "^^^vap, '3'P' upta; from '^, "35^ ; from ^''^, ^ ; from 'JT^, ^. Simi- larly, from f(^, ?r«T or ^TrT ; from r^, 7T^. 544. Some (jther changes which take place in forming the passive base (472) are preserved before ta .- thus, from '^IT^, f^ ', from '3IV, f^^. And when the root ends in two conjunct consonants, of which the first is a nasal, this nasal is rejected ; as, from W^, "T^ ; from W^ , >?F ; from ^^, ^% ; from ^T^, ^T^ ; from H^, >1T7T ; but not if ^ i is inserted ; as, from ^^, ^5i!5TT ; from "9!^, JuPn^n (except T^'^, making itF^IT). 545. Roots ending in ^^m or "IT jj reject these nasals before taj as, from TVf^gam, ' to go,' "mt gata ; from "^JT yam, IHT yafa j from T'T , TTT ; from TTT , TTTT ; from ^*T, ^iTI but retain them if ^i is inserted; as, from ^^, ^f«TH'. From aT'^T, ' to be born,' is formed 'SrnT ; from ^"JT, IfTW ; the a being lengthened. 546. Those roots ending in T m, of the 4th conjugation, which lengthen a PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLES. 175 medial a before the conjugational affix y, also lengthen it before ta, and change m to n as in the futures : thus, from W\-, "aTFiT ; from HH , ilT^iT ; from '5IJT , ^"RT ; from ^JT, ^'RT ; from '^J^, *ljl»rt ; from liJ^, '^'ff. Similarly, from '^, "^TfT ; from efiJT, ^TnT. 547. From FSnr, ' to swell,' is formed Hlilri or 'RSTW ; from '^^, ' to be pvitrid,' ■'JIT ; from "an^ or "^5 ' to be fat,' ' to increase,' tfl^T or WR ; from WT, ' to grow old,' »fhT ; from ^, ' to bind,' ^. 548. The following are quite anomalous : from "^^ imch, 'to cook,' '^'^'pakxDa; from Ig^, ' to dry,' li^^ ; from "^^^j ' to be drunk,' T^f^^. 2. Derived from causal bases. 549. In forming the past passive participles from these, the causal affix W^ aya is rejected, but the inserted ^ « is always assumed : thus, from 3BTTTI, causal of "gr * to make,' comes cHfUT kdrita, '^ caused to be made •' from wm^, causal of ^T ^ to stand/ comes wif^TT sthdpita, * placed.' 3. Derived from desiderative bases. 550. In adding tt /« to a desiderative base, the inserted ^ i is invariably assumed ; as, from ftixrr^, ' to desire to drink,' comes fiT^ftr^; from f^^, fxioflf^w; from ^^, ffsfrff, &c. 4. Derived from nominal 551. There are in Sanskrit certain participles, which are said to be formed by adding ^"fr ita to nouns : thus, from ftfTftr?5, ' loose,' %f?rf?5fT, ' loosened ;' from f»T^, ' crooked,' ftrftnT, ' curved.' These may be regarded as the passive participles of the transitive nominal verbs %f?lf?nrfiT, fjl^iifri (521); and whenever this kind of participial adjective is found, it may indicate that a nominal verb is in use, whence the participle is derived. a. Moreover, as na sometimes takes the place of ta, so ina is added to some nouns instead of ita : thus, malina, ^ soiled,' from mala ; sringina, ' horned,' from sringa. b. Corresponding forms in Latin are barbatus, alatus, cordatus, turritus, &c. ; and in Greek, OfX(/)aXwTO^, KpoKoiTog, ai/XaTog, &c. See Bopp's Comp. Gr. 552. The inflection of past passive participles follows that of the first class of nouns at 103 ; thus exhibiting a perfect similarity to the declension of Latin participles in tus : thus, wff krita, nom. sing, masc. fem. neut. '^n'^' 1^^' '^' 170 PAST ACTIVE PARTICIPLES. a. 'We. perfect identity between Sanskrit passive participles in ta, Latin partici- ples in tu-s, and Greek verbals in ro-g, will be evident from the following examples: '&&rvskv\t jiidt as ={g)not us {ignotus), JvwTOg ; dattas = datus, ^OTOg ; 4rutas ^ clutus, Kkvrog ', bhiiias =^ (pvrog ', yuktas=:junctus, ^evKTOg; labdhas =: XvjTTTog ; pitas = TiOTog ', bhritas^fertus, (peprog; dishtas = dictiis, OeiKTOg. And, like Sanskrit, Latin often inserts an i, as in domitus (= Sanskrit damitas), monitus, &c. In Greek, € is inserted in forms like [J.eveTog, epirerog. There are also examples of Latin and Greek formations in nu-s and vo-g, corresponding to the Sanskrit participle in na .- thus, plenus {= purna), magnus (from Sanskrit root mah), digitus (from Sanskrit dis, dik, Greek 0€ik); and arvyvo-g, areyvo-g, aejxvo-g, &c. See Eastwick's Bopp's Comp. Gr. 1117. PAST x\CTIVE PARTICIPLES. These are of two kinds : 1st, those derived from the past passive participle ; 2dly, those derived from the second preterite. These latter rarely occur. The former are much used to supply the place of a perfect tense active. PAST ACTIVE PARTICIPLES DERIVED FROM PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLES.— FORMATION OF THE BASE. 553. The base of these participles is easily formed by adding ^ vat to that of the past passive participle : thus, from "^w ' made/ oFTT^rT ' who made ;' from i^ ' burnt/ ^>RtT ' who burnt / from T^ ' said/ "g^Ti^ ' who addressed / from fvi^ ' broken/ f>T^7T * who broke / from wrftlTT ' placed/ wrfxTTI^ ' who placed/ &c. a. These participles are declined at 140. a. b. Participles of the second preterite. 554. In the case of participles derived from the 2d preterite, either ^IT ras or l^^"?! ivas is added to the base of that tense, as formed in the dual and plural. Vas, when the base in the dual and plural consists of more than one syllable ; as, from vivid (365), vividwasj from chichi (367), chichivas ; from nanrit (364, com- pare 45. fl), nanritwas; from sasmar (367. c), sasmarvas. But ivas, when the base in the dual and plural consists of one syllable only; as, from ten (375. fl), tenivas; from jagm (376), jagmivas s from jaksh (377), jakshivas. Roots which take dm in the 2d preterite (385. a. b. c. d) form the participles of this tense by adding the 2d preterite participles of kri, bhu, and as, to dtn.- thus, from chur, loth c, choraydmbabhiivas, choraydnchakrivas, choraydmdsivas. Those roots which insert a y or t; in the base of the 2d preterite (see 367. a. b), reject it in the participle : thus, sri, ' to have recourse,' makes its participle sisrivas; and bhi, ' to be,' makes babhuvas, not babhivvas, &c. PAST INDECLINABLE PARTICIPLES. 177 a. There is an Atmane-pada participle of the 2(1 preterite formed by adding dna to the base of the dual and plural ; thus, vividdna, chichydna, jagmdna. See 526. a; and compare the Greek perfect participle in /x.evo : gg m«i = TeTVfXfj.€VO^. b. The participles of the 2d preterite are inflected at 168. Those of the Atmane- pada follow the inflection of the first class of nouns at 103. p. Observe — Sanskrit has no past participles derived from the ist or 3d preterite, corresponding to the participles of the Greek aorists. PAST INDECLINABLE PARTICIPLES. ^^^. These may be classed under two heads: ist, as formed by affixing RT twd to uncompounded roots ; as, from >| bhu, ' to be,' >TFn bhutwd, ' having been :' 2dly, as formed by affixing ^ ya to roots compounded with prepositions or other adverbial prefixes ; as, from ^T^ anubhuy * to perceive,' ^^>^ anubhuya, * having perceived ;* from W5ift>| sajjibhu, ' to become ready,' ^njft>|xr sajjibhuya, ' having become ready.' The sense involved in them is generally expressed by the Enghsh * when,' ' after,' * having,' or ^ by :' thus, iTi^ ojn^ tat kritwd, * when he had done that,' * after he had done that,' ' having done that,' ' by doing that.' See the chapter on Syntax. a. Prof. Bopp considers the affix twd of this participle to be the instrumental case of an affix tu, of which the infinitive affix fitm is the accusative. There can be little doubt that the indeclinable participle has about it much of the character of an instrumental case (see Syntax) ; but the form of its base varies considerably from that of the infinitive : thus, vaktum, uktwd, from vach; yashtum, ishtwd, from yaj, &c. Indeclinable participles formed from uncompounded roots. 556. When the root stands alone and uncompounded, the inde- clinable participle is formed with J^ tiod *. This affix is closely alhed to the it ta of the past passive parti- ciple at 531, insomuch that the rules for the annexation of W ta to the root apply equally to the indeclinable affix rTT twd. The forma- tion, therefore, of one participle generally involves that of the other : thus, from %5T kshipta, ' thrown,' f%WT kshiptwd, ' having thrown ;' from eFTf, ' done,' ^r^, ' having done ;' so from f^nf , f^zTRT ; from ■??, "Syr; from ^^, n), fwj^; from irv, ^s^n. And where i is inserted, there is often an optional change of the radical * There are one or two instances in which an uncompounded root takes ^ ; as, W^ 'having reverenced.' Manu VII. 145. I. 4. Mahabh. 3. 8017. A a 178 PAST INDECLINABLE PARTICIPLES. vowel to Guna, as in the passive participle at 538 : thus, ^fwif^T dyutihvd or ?ftfWRT dyotitivd from ^"ff ; ^fRi=^ or ;?flr^ from W'^T. a. When there are two forms of the passive participle, there is often only one of the indechnable : thus, "^nT makes "WS and 'TTwIT, but only '?ffffi^T ; 75^ makes 75'^ and ^Prrfri, but only c^fWr^T ; and, vice versa, '^^, ' to dwell,' makes only tPtjT, but ^n^rtll and ^^yr; and ¥?", 'to bear,' makes only ^TS", but wnfrtl and ^frai. I). The penultimate nasal, which is rejected before ta (544), is often only optionally rejected before twd : thus, from T^, T^, but TW or TliT- 557. The only important variation from the passive participle occurs in those roots, at 531. a, which take na for ta. In such roots no corresponding change takes place of ^wa to nwd .- thus, fi'om '5T, ifhn', but »ir^^; and from the causal oFTTftriTT, ^FRftnr^, &c. Future passive participles formed with ^ftfttf aniya. 570. This affix is added directly to the root, without any other change than the Guna of the radical vowel : thus, from f% chi, ' to gather,' ^xfTftTT chayaniya, ^ to be gathered;' from >T, H^TftiT; from Y> ^^'^'n'hr (58) ; from iwf^, hw^^ti; from ^, ^HywI'M; from ^"pr, Wi^^ftTT; from ■^'tT, ■gr^tif (58). A final diphthong is changed to ^T d; as, from ^, «rr?ftTT; from ^, m^. FUTURE PASSIVE PARTICIPLES. 181 Future passive participles formed with tt ya. 571. Before this affix, as before all others beginning with y, cer- tain changes of final vowels become necessary. a. If a root end in 'sn d, or in T? e, ^ ai, wt 0, changeable to "m a, this vowel becomes ^ e (compare 446) ; as, from JTT md, ' to measure/ ^TI meya, ' to be measured/ * measurable / from f T hd, %^ hey a ; from ^ dhyai, ix[Z( dhyeya ; from ^, ^, &c. b. If in ^ i, \i, "^ u^ or '^i u, these vowels are gunated ; as, from f^ ch'i, ^T\ cheya. But the Guna ^ is changed to av, and some- times the Guna ^ e to ay, before ya (as if before a vowel) : thus, from jq[, H^ ; from f^T, ' to conquer/ »n^ jayyci' The Guna ^ 0, however, oftener passes into dv before y ; as, from ^y ^^ ; from ST, 3n^; from »?, »tT3I. c. If in ^ n or "^ r«, these vowels are vriddhied ; as, from «F, 572. Sometimes if a root end in a short vowel no change takes place, but t is interposed, after the analogy of the indeclinable participle formed with ya at 560 ; so that the crude base of the future participle is often not distinguishable from the indeclinable: thus, from f»T/J, 'to conquer,' laTtq jitya, 'conquerable;' from ^ stu, ' to praise,' ^m stutya, ' laudable ;' from "SF kri, ' to do,' '^TI kritya, ' prac- ticable / from ^ ' to go,' ^W ' to be gone ;' from ■«jic ' to honour,' vii em ' to be honoured.' 573. If a root end in a single consonant with a medial a, the latter may be vriddhied ; as, from ?J? grah, ?n^ grdhya .- but not always ; as, from '^T"^, ^|T, 'FF^I. a. If with a medial \i or "^u, these are generally gunated ; as, from HIT, >?^tIT; from f75?t9 "t^' b. If with a medial '^ ri, no change takes place ; as, from tiM^l, ^TT^ 5 from 574. A final '^ ch may sometimes optionally be changed to cF k, and *I j to ^ 5* ; and other changes may take place, some of which are similar to those before the ya of passives ; as, from V^^ pack, Hlr5|^, >Tt^ and HtW; from ?J^, 'pT as well as VJ^grdhyaj from ^, "3^ (471) ; from ^, ^^Hf ; from ^THT, f^TO? (472) ; from ^^, ^. 575. Many of these participles are used as substantives : thus, qi'W n. ' speech/ >Tt5JT n. ' food / >^P^\ f. ' a harlot / ^a^TT f. ' sacrifice / ^^ n. ' a ditch ;' >TF^ f. * a wife,' from >T ' to support,' &c. 576. The affix ya may occasionally be added to nouns or nominal bases : thus, from «i«c* ' a pestle,' ♦iti*^ ' to be pounded with a pestle.' 182 PARTICIPIAL T^OUNS OF AGENCY. 577. The inflection of future passive participles follows that of the first class of nouns at 1 03 : thus, "afiw^ ' to be done ;' N. sing. m. f. n. kartavyas, kartavyd, kartavyam. Similarly, karaniyas, kara- niyd, karaniyam ; and kdryas, kdryd, kdryam. PARTICIPLES OF THE SECOND FUTURE FORMATION OF THE BASE. 578. These are not common. They are of two kinds, either Parasmai-pada or A'tmane-pada ; the former being formed by changing ^rf^f anti, the termination of the 3d plur. of the 2d future, into ^HT at ; the latter, by changing ^T^ ante into ■«1*T bhri, ' to bear,' 3d c. ; f^F^ bhid, ' to break,' 7th c. ; f^ chi, ' to gather,' 5th c. ; "cT'T tan, ' to stretch,' 8th c. ; \pu, ' to purify,' 9th c. : grouping together, first, the ist, 4th, 6th, and loth classes; then the 2d, 3d, and 7th ; and lastly, the 5th, 7th, and 9th, for the reasons stated at 257. In the next place, the passive forms of these ten roots will be synoptically exhibited, followed by the present tense of the causal desiderative and frequentative forms, and the participles. Examples will then be given of primitive verbs of all the ten classes (according to the grouping at 257), inflected at full; and under every verb the derivative forms and participles will be indicated. Lastly, a full example will be given of each of the four kinds of derivative verbs, passives, causals, desideratives, and frequentatives. 184 < Q < Z CD 185 i < < 5 11 i g 1 1_ i 1 1 B 1 1 11 i g 1 53 6 1 1 il 1 1 1 O 1 5>» il 1 1 g g B s B B B 1. ^ 1 1 1 11 s 1 I « B '^^ B B B 5^ 1 II g s 1 s * < a < < < Pi B I^B 1^ B 1 il "1 1 1 B B B 1 1 B B b' 1-1 i 1 1 B 1 B ^,B B 1 11 s 1 S S B 1 1 1 B •S^ B a' ^ 1 5m 1 11 i 1 1 •2 1 i s B t B ^B 1 B B 1 « 1 1 1 B •£•1 B ■1 iS B e s a, 1 3 1 B S" ~B 1. B 1 il s 1 1 1 a. •^ B B 1 5» 1 S S B a. B B B 1 1 1 S S B 1, 1 — * — 1 < — * — > i 1 lg J -B s 1 ;S o 00 in •^ ■* vo o M cc *^ o 00 CN ■ III .a B 1 ^B a 1, e ;« 1 •| 1 il s .a 1 a 1 ^B 1 fl 1 5^ ■ill s .a o 1 a 1, ■s fi 2 „" CO .l^.« .| 111 a 1 i a. 1 4 B o a O a a a. 1 * o 1 s 00 XO rh pj III i -i ^ - .^ e ^ ^ S 'B 1 1 :h :§ ^ * s a o * s a B a 1, 1 fl 1 Si "O -Q a ft B a B a a. == § 1 III « =1 4 vo o a 00 6\ 187 < Q < 1^ Z < abodha anritya adisa ayojaya avid abibhr abhind achinw atanw apun 3 a B B abodha anritya adisa ayojaya avid abibhri abhind achinu atanu apunt B S B abodha anritya adisa ayojaya avid abibhri abhind achinu atanu apunt abodha anritya adisa ayojaya avid abibhr abhind achinw atanw apun I 1 abodha anritya adisa ayojaya avid abibhr abhind achinw atanw apun abodha anritya adisa ayojaya avid abibhri abhind achinu atanu apuni 3 abodha anritya adisa ayojaya avit abibhri abhint achinu atanu apunt B abodha anritya adisa ayojaya avit abibhri abhint achinu atanu apunt abodha anritya adisa ayojaya avid abibhr abhind achinw atanw apun < < < s cc ■«: Pi •< Ph abodha anritya adisa ayojaya avid* abibhar* abhind achinw atanw apun a i| B S abodha anritya adisa ayojaya avit abibhri abhint achinu atanu apuni abodha anritya adisa ayojaya avid abibhri abhind achinu atanu apuni abodha anritya adisa ayojaya avit abibhri abhint achinu atanu apuni ■S s B abodha anritya adisa ayojaya avit abibhri abhint tundv nuvfv nutyov abodha anritya adisa ayojaya avid abibhri abhind achinu atanu apuni C5 abodha anritya adisa ayojaya avet abibhar abhinat achino atano apund £ 1 abodha anritya adisa ayojaya avet abibhar abhinat achino atano apund abodha anritya adisa ayojaya aved abibhar abhinad achinav atanav apund i Budh Nrit Dis Yuj Vid Bhri Bhid ■^ a s ^ ;s o 6\ CC \ ^ -t \o o M CQ (^ to 00 o\ g.s m ■-I3 "ri 3 1 ^, rC! Oh '$ CO 3 188 -< a < < 1 ^ M a i il vivid habhr bibhid g 1 1 1 1 B s 1 1' ^ -1- 5^ i|3 's .§ ;s 1 1 1 a, !l ill § 1 hi a 1 !l sg3 ■ili 4^ § s> 1 B * ■i- •ill f g I 1 13 -i— 1 3 Is •g '« rS 1 g t 1 6 1 |. rg -1- III 1 1 s I 1 1 1 !i 4- ill •g ^ :5 .1 a 1 1 11 4- 111 1 a i < < < PS 1 1 11 lis t § 1 e B •i B * 1 1? a ^ 4- >1 •1 f 1 1 1 s 1 1 1-^ i 3 4- 1 ^ Is •S "§ rS ft -O "O >» 1 t 1 a, i =1 1 4- Si 113 ■E -1 S f g 1 1 V5 1 8 B 1 B * 1 s ^ 4— 1 si3 1 g 1 a, s il 4- 5f> t ^ i »5 1 6 1 4- t ^a ■2 1 a. B B 3 B * 1 § 1 4- ill 1 =1 1 s ^ 4- &5 111 ^1^ 1 1 1 ^ Is 4 vo d gi-3 U cq cq g xh a 00 6. - be « .s :g -a ■£. O ^ 6 ■-§ o B S -2 fe! :« B :§ + -S 189 i 1 i «• shydmi shye shyasi shyase shyati shyate shydvas shydvahe shyathas shyethe shyatas shyete shydmas shydmahe shyatha shyadhwe shyanti shyante * Note, that budh also forms bhotsye &c. in Atm. (see 405) ; and that after bhet the terminations will be sydmi &c. bodhi* ' narti dek yojayi vedi bhari bhet* Che tani pavi I. Budh 4. Nrit 6. Dis 10. Yuj 2. Vid 3. Bhri 7. BMd ^ J ^s E-i a, 10 :« £ H s O s 1 1 O i « g « ^ j« :g oT 3 « ci -< '-S 5" 1 -•§ 2 -« 1 - ;^ 1 ^ 11 05 CO t<5 CO CO "e CO 1 1 ^§ i 1 g V) ^ -* ^-^ :S ^1 1 -^^ 1 ^ « § •I- H- ^. S "^ J § HH* v2 § i 5. 1 2. s Note is for hitsi, 9. T weU S -« iJS -es -S ^' -« -CS -C ^ -^ i 2 =0 50 C<5 CO CO CO CO CO "Js e ■* c3 fe * ^^ 'I- •§ -^ •i- J_ -« -o . o is n 1 s * i: 1 •S3 1 1, « ^ 1 , > -^ •s. -« f^ Q ^ ^ o ^ ^ >-i 1- VO o N CO ^^ lO on o\ ^ a S S ^ 1 1 1 ll 5S j ^4 5» i. §. t t f a -2 S o H 1 e « 1 1 ^^ 1 5 s ^ ^t 5^ Sri &i ?^ # ^ 1? Is ts -^ -^ -? -§ -^ ^ r 05 1 '^ -J* t * 4j •« 'E n "S s ^ &» ^ ;§ S 1^ .« i. » <3 « Q e B c" 1 1- 8 J s 1- 1 g 1 ^f^ •^ ■^ VO o « CO *- lO 00 o\ vS^ vS v2 ? ? -*f ^ "1= g « > 4 vo OQ BQ E^ Os 192 p4 H 01 .. 1 . * ithdm itdm *mahi dhwam nta H tlllll - B V5 •*- ^B •«. •~ Ph p4 i B 1 B * B B B B •r t 1 ►8 1 1 Ph g H r«5 a a>^ •0 "O ■^ a< 1 cq 1- 3 ? ^ •« -^ oq nq 8 1 ^C^ M ■* vo N CO r- 10 00 o\ g Sh Eh n K .1 1 1 ivahi iydthdm lydtdm imahi idhwam iran budhya ^ nritya disya yojya vidya bhriya bhidya chiya tanya puya aq ^ q ;^ U pq ^ « 4 vd d ! c< CO r^ lit \h CO 6\ P-l •. 2^ ^ *vahe ithe ite * mahe dhwe nte B ^B * * t t 1^ 1 1. 1. ^ 1 -s. •£. rr ^r "O "O a a "Ts ts v^ vg> r r 1. !» ■§ -§ 1 1 X t 1. Budh 4. Nrit 6. Dis lo. Yuj 2. Vid 3. Bhri 7. Bhid 5. Chi 8. Tan g.Pu 193 i S^ ^ ts 1> i> 1 ■i 5S -« ^ "' =c -J O 1 -1 O '-« •« '>. *- v^ ^ •~i e -o s 5m !J -o o *, ^ ■£. ^S ■s> '^ 3 >3 ^S § eq '< q e; Cq 05 O i^ f^ " ^ VO O M ro t^ \n 00 ON 9j § 1) ^« 8 J S s ^ "« - ^•2 - = •2 ' • ^ j^ "S^ w ? 5>. S '§ a. ro ■o m ^ ■■S ^ V*- :§. "c^ aj !S g rO s s^ SJ -o rO O a. 1 f^ Q ^S' 1 1- flq 3 s ^ „• 'l- \o 6 M CO rC lO 00 ON § 9J ^ ■« J y «) «j •g 5S ^e '•2 _s~ ' .§ n i 'S 3 S s o Sfj s> a, (I 1 :s^ 2 s ^ ^^ K . " NO M CO *^ lO 00 On 194 g B i ^i 'B a ■2 1 Sj^ »i Sii 5>i s^ =^ '^ r«; -<: >« >* CO CO "" :~ •£ ' B !^ M « § o K ;:§ ■-c r ^ ■s. s ^^ <; > "O r« s s 'TS "^ » » a, a. " ^ ■' " ■* =i 5- -co •J- ^ 't. :« s § (I '< q p>( t^ cq cq O En Qh ^ «■ •* ^" o N CO »^ lO 00 On ."^ CO ., ., •■. u ij-'ciTS'«!>.a: ^-^ ^ ^... § ^ chi, chikisha tan, tatansa o tatdnsa; pii, pu piisha — in bot A'tmane an Parasmai : an budh and vi may respectivel make their base 6s-^ 1 1 g 6 O S i I- 1 1 o 03 .s 11 -^ J 1 '" ^ «j B 4, s ^1 •i * "s; ;2 * vas thas tas * mas tha s * * B ^B * •s-s 11 1 1 B ^e "S "S * B ^B * 4f, * i t •2 .'5 11 •5-2 c ^e -^ -« * s^ s^ -«j -« .2 -S « 'B BB cotcllS^co II li II 11 B ^B -1 :§ •i-i B B •"ts -ts 3 1 .1.1 Sj^SM SS>"0-Ci-£5-0 a, a, I ■» V f§ 1 3 :s* "e •£. ^ U oq cq 3 s ^^ -' •* vo o M CO r- \o 00 0\ 11 * mi i si se ti te *vas *vahe thas ithe tas ite * mas * mahe tha dhwe nti nte * * * * B ^B ts ^« * * * B ^B B ^B lliilt.|:illllff B ^B * * >. ». B -B « '« B B 5^ »-, g> g^ v^ ^§^ S 1 § 1 1 -^ ^J ^1 X x 1 1 8 ? « t}- vd o 2. Vid 3. Bhri 7. Bhid S 1 ^;^ VO 06 C\ 196 li tishyamdna shyamdna i «5 1 1 1 B f B »^ f "5^ "a f^i -o u ■** d 1 ^ 1 5^ B B B I ^ 1 f r 1 ^ f 1 '1 -C5 S^ s <5 r* •*- W r.:; « >. 2. « ». .^ ^ € t .*^ -g^ ^« § .^ S^ ^ t> -j! ^ Hi ►O an c e « B a t 1^ to .1 1 a B B ,a^ e B s~ ^S ■5^ B e 4J -a -a B ^o s ^ Si s -o •»- a, 1 1 1 .1 53 r B r 1 B r P4 Ph 1 1 .e 1 J 1 tj s § -§ a "e Si a. 2g 1 1' 1 1 1- 1 ■3 ■l 1 ^Cl a ^ ». -0 a, !j 1 a « 1. 1 i 1 1 ■g i. 5S a 1 B B 1 a -o >i -^l •*- 1 1 1 a ^ I i ;« 1 1 ►o S>i » -0 to •*- a, EH » Ph O i <5 ■-0 « a, i « .1 1 1- a B 3 B B B "O >> "O ►« a. Ph IS i •i 1 1 ^a B 1 B ^a 5>v B ^a B -o a ^s &> ^ "O a, e « W vg v| e e Cj B B a §5 2| 1 * 1 Si i « a- 1 a 1 .a B i s <5 »^ s -0 ■»^ aS PS P3 C 1 1 1 a 1 B a s Ph i<5 s^ s a, =1 .*. •£. :s .~ a O tt5 ^ Q ^1 ^^ 05 pq b-< a, P3 " Tf vo M CO r- m 00 0\ AUXILIARY VERB. 107 584. Root ^ro «5, *to be^ (see 322). Parasmai-pada. Note, that although this root belongs to the 2d class, its inflection is exhibited here, both because it is sometimes used as an auxihary, and because it is desirable that the student should study its inflection at the same time with that of the other substantive verb bhii, ' to be,' which will follow at 585, and which supplies many of the defective tenses of as. It may be remarked, that all the cognate languages have two roots similar to the Sanskrit for the substantive verb ' to be.' Compare cpv and ota (eo") in Greek, es {sum) and /« {fui) in Latin; and observe how the different parts of the Sanskrit verbs correspond to the Greek and Latin : thus, asmi, asi, asti; (f^fJ'i, ecratf ean ; sum, es, est. Compare also santi with suntj dstam, dstdm, with Yjarov, vjaTTjV ; dsma, dsta, with yj(T[X€v, vjo-re, &c. Two other roots in Sanskrit are sometimes employed as substantive verbs, with the sense ' to be,' viz. sthd, ist c, ' to stand' (see 269, 587), and ds, 2d c, ' to sit' (see 31^. Indeed, the root as, here inflected, is probably only an abbreviation of as. Present, ' I am. PERS. SING. DUAL. I stj'^rftR asmi '^'W swas 2d, ^rftr asi ^TT sthas 3d, ■'Hfw asti W^ stas Potential, ' I may be/ &c. Imperative, ' Let me be.' ^nrrf«Tasa«i ^TOT^ asdva vitil+l asdma ?jf^ edhi ^ stam iR" sta '^'^astu W\ stdm '^^ sunt a First preterite, ' I was.' PLURAL. SING. DUAL. PLURAL. W^^smas '^J^ dsam -SiHS dswa mm dsma ^ stha ^TRTi^ dsis ^T^ dstam ■silW dsta ^rf?ir santi "m^dsit m^ dstdm •^THH'ffsa/i Wr sydm ^rn" sydva ^TT sydma *M\\syds 5RrnT sydtam ^TiT sydta *M\ti^sydt ^tnTrf sydtdm "^"^^syus Second preterite *, ' I was/ &c. Parasmai. ■s(i« dsa ■« I Th "4 dsiva WuWRdsima ^rn^dsitka WlW^^dsathus "^mdsa WrS dsa Wm'WV dsatus '^TPfnT dsus Atmane. ^1% dse ^H I {im^jisirake -ii \ PflH^ dsimahe "^nf^^dsisheWr^T^ dsdthe ^a 1 ?*\^{'^)dsidhwe Wr^ dse ^'Rrr?r dsdte ^rrftrT dsire Observe — The root as, ' to be,' has no derivative forms, and only two partici- ples, viz. those of the present, Parasmai and Atmane, ^"iT sat, W«T sdna (see 524, 526). The conjugational tenses have an Atmane-pada, which is not used unless the root is compounded with prepositions. In this Pada ^ A is substituted for the root in the ist sing, pres., and ^s is changed to d before dh in the 2d plur. : thus, Pres. he, se, ste; swahe, sdthe, sate; smahe, ddhwe, sate: see 322. * The 2d preterite of as is never used by itself, but is employed in forming the 2d preterite of causals and some other verbs, see 385, 490; in which case the A'tmane may be used. The other tenses of as are wanting, and are supplied from hhii at 585. 198 EXAMPLES OF VERBS OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION. EXAMPLES OF PRIMITIVE VERBS OF THE FIRST CONJUGA- TION, EXPLAINED AT 261. 585. Root JT bhu. Infin. nfTJ bhavitum, ^ to be' or ' become.' Parasmai-pada. Present teiise, ' I am' or ' I become.' PERS. SING. 1st, Vi'mm bhavdmi 2d, >T^ftT bhavasi 3d, M4?l\ bhavati JITT bhaveyam ^T^ bhaves >TTi^ bhavet >T^ThT bhavdni H^ bhava >T^ bhavatu ^J)H<^ abhavam '^W^^ abhavas ^M^T^ abhavat ^nr^ babhtwa W*|f^^ babhuvltha "^^T^ hubhiica DUAL. iiqiqti bhavdvas »T^^^ bhavathas HTrHT bhavatas Potential, ' I may be. >TT^ bhaveva >TTiT bhavetam HTfTT bhavetam Imperative, * Let me be.' >TTR' bhavuca JTTfT bhavatam H=lril bhavatam First preterite, ' I was.' ^M^T^ abhavdva ^>TTiT abhavatam ^THqni abhavatam PLURAL. >TTR^ bhavdmas >TW^ bhavatha Hqffl bhavanti JTWT bhavema HTFT bhaveta Mm<*^ bhaveyus W^W bhavdma >?TfT bhavata >T«RT bhavantu ■^Wrnr abhavam^ ^W^TT abhavata ^>TW»T abhavan Second preterite, ' I was.' W^rfw^ babhuviva '^M\'=i*\ babhuvima ^*c?"^\ babhuvathus "^^ babhuva ^*c?\>^ babhuvatus '^^'^^babhumts First future, ' I will be.' >< pNri I PwAAflmVaWi ^ P^ ri I *^ ■H bhavitdswas >J f'l ri I W H bhavitdsmas HpMHifti bhavitdsi ^^4 A\m^^ bhavitdsthas Hf^HI*^ bhavitdstha Vlfwm hhavitd ^^IfTU bhavitdrau ^"WWrT^^bhavitdras Second future, ' I shall be.' ^ r«l *m Ph bhavishydmi ^tPtbTR^ bhavishydvas >iP<4«fri« bhavishyatas >TfqWf% bhavishyanti EXAMPLES OF VERBS OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 199 Third preterite, * I was' or ' had been/ &c. '^Wcf abhupam ^IHTff ahht/s "^Pfi^ abMt iJUnT bhuydsam >nrr^ bMyds ^rrnr bMydt ^TW^ abhuva '3T>T?T abhitam ^njiTT abhiitdm ^^ abhmna ^>T!T abhuta ■^M^^ abhuvan Benedictive, ' May I be/ >jxrr^ bhiydswa ^J^TTW bhuydsma H^n^ bhuydstam ^^^^M bhuydsta >f*(IWi bhuydstdm *i^ I « +<^ bhiydsus Conditional, (If) ^ I should be/ ^SWH^hJ abhavishyam ^wf^^TR abhavishydva ^^wH^miH abhainshydma 'SniPqwiH abhavishyas ^MfT^nf abhavishyaiam ^T^TfTHTff abhavishyata ^wfqtMf^ abhavishyat ^^fcJUfril abhacishyatdm 'W^'^ «M »^ abhavishyan 586. >T^ bhavase »?^Tr bhavate i^TMANE-PADA. Present tense, ' I am/ &c. >TTr=rf bhavdvahe H«rW^ bhavdmak.e *T^^ bhavethe VTm^ bhavadkwe H^TT bhavete ^T^nT bhavante iTTT bhaveya WT^lTTf^bhavethds >T^ bhaveta >TW bhavai >T^^ bhavaswa ^TWirr bhavafdm W^ abhc Potential, ' I may be/ &c. HT^f^ bhavevahi H"=fTrf^ bhavemahi H^^rrot bhaveydthdm H^S^ bhavedhwam ^T^tTrfTT bhaveydtdm >T^Tr*T bhaveran Imperative, ' Let me be/ >i<^Nf bhavdvahai >Tqi«i? bhavdmahai >TT^ bhavetJidm >T^£EI bhavadhwam M^ni bhavetdm >T=Rn bhavantdm First preterite, ' I was/ ^WcjiqH^ abhavdvahi "^^fWVf^ abhavdmahi ^W^lV^m abhavathds ^W^TT abhavata Wrr^ abhavethdm ■^M^J^ abhavadhwam ^MTRT abhavanta Second preterite, ' I was/ &c. ^^^ babhuve ^>|fV^ babhiivivahe "^^Tf^^ babhuvimahe ^*lf^ babhuvishe "^^JTR babhuvdthe ^>Tf%5^ (^) babhuvidhwe ^>f^ babhuve "«T*f^ir babhuvdte ^^tNt babhuvire 200 EXAMPLES OP VERBS OF THE FIRST CONJUGATIOX. First future, ' I will be/ &c. irf^T?" hhavitdhe iTfVrn^f hhavitdswalie uH^rilW^ b/tavitdsmahe Hf«nrn7 bkavitdse ^fWtiT^Vli hlwvitdsdthe vrf^cTT?^ bhavitddhwe Hf^iTT bhavitd ^TfTfTTTT bhavitdruu i^fTtTn:^ bhnritdras Second future, '■ I shall be/ &c. HfT^T bhavishye H fsj «M i q ^ bhavishydvahe MVA^Wi^ bharishydmahe Hp^um bhavishyase '^fw^'^ bhavishyethe HfTCIS^ bhnvishyadhwe H^m^ bhavishyate HPmqri bhavishyete HfV*lInT bhmrishyante TJiird preterite, ' I was^ or ' had been/ &c. ^SMf^fJI abhavishi ^>Tf^'^fV obhavishwahi ^Vff%''3Tf^ abfiavishmahi ^Wf^FRT abhiwishthds "^^T^m^ abhavishdthdm ^WR'SST (^) abhavidhwam ^Mf^ abhavishta '^wf^qT'tTt uhhavishdtdm ^WfcftnT abhurishata Benedictive, ' I wish I may be.' >Tf%^^ bhavishiya tTp^'^Hf?' bhavishivahl '^^^^f^ bharishimahi Vff^rftWl^^ bhamsMshlhds i^ftr'Elt'Jrr^if bkavisMydsthdm >Tf^'Rls4 (^) bhavisMdhwam irf^Wt? bharislnshta >?^^T"irreTr bhavishiydstdm H'f^'flT'^ bhnrisMran Conditional, (If) ^ I should be/ &c. ^Wf^^ uhhavishye ^J^f^nTRf^ abhaviskydimhi Wjiw^CfX^f^ abhavishydmahi ^^fTlvlfyjT^abhavishyathds ^^f^"^"^ abhavishyethdm ^Hf^rOTj4 abhavishyadhwam ■^wfV'T'JT abhaviskyafa 'W^f^WiU abhaviskyetdm ^^f^W^ abhavishyanta Passive {461), Pres. >^, >|'iR, &c.; 3d Pret. 3d sing. (475) ^MtT^. Causal (479), Pres. iTTT^rrl^, m^xrftr, &c. ; 3d Pret. (492) ^5Rt>T^, &c. Desiderative (498), Pres. "^^ftf, "^^J^f^, &c. Desiderative form of Causal (497) f^vrr^ftsmfJT, &c. Frequentative (507), Pres. Tf>^, W^H>fiT or -sftH^fifT *. Participles, Pres. >t^ (524) ; Past pass. >|W (531) ; Past indecl. i??^ (556), ->|5 (559) ; Fut. pass. >Tf^^ (569), >T^^ (570), HTSE? or >T^ (571)- EXAMPLES OF OTHER VERBS OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION IN THE ORDER OF THEIR FINAL LETTERS. 587. Root ^T. Inf. WTrf ' to stand' (269, 269. a). Parasmai and Atmane. Pres. fiT^frT, ■fifffftr, frofw; f7T¥T^, frlF^W^, fw?7T^^; fir^TTTT, * These derivative verbs will be inflected at full at the end of the examples of primitive verbs. See 706, 707. EXAMPLES OF VERBS OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 201 fireii, flre^. Pot. ftf-s^, ffT^H, firii^; firi^, &.c. Atm. fff^TT, f^^- '^, fimr; firi^, fir^m'^rt, &c. Imp. frTffrf^, firg, fw^w; fiT¥T^, &C. A'tm. firt, f?T¥^, IWfTf; flTFT^, &c. zd Pret. -fTFIT (373), •rfiw^ or 7T^T"?r, TT^; iff^'^, H^-^H, ■jTRTWTr; "iTf^lT, rTW, "fT^W. Atm. TT^, "irf^^, TTW ; irfw^j tttsito, ir^Tff ; irfwr^, irf^?^, irPw'C. ist Fut. wnnftR, Frnrrftr, &c. Atm. wrirr?, ^Tin^, &c. 2d Fut. ^TTmfH, WT^f^, ^sTTFrfff, &c. A'tm. :pin^, tsth^th, ^tt?i^, &c. 3d Pret. (438) w^, "^si^en^, "^T^TTT; ^r^T^, ^??nrf, ^KWIdi ; ^^m, WWTTT, ^T^^. ^tm. (438. c, 419) '^rfwf'EI, -.Mffmm i ^ , ^ftsriT; ^f^^fV, ^W^IPTf, ^rf^RTflT; »iTSf^^, &c. 2d Pret. irm {373), iTnm or miT^, "*rm; *rftn", '^'^' 'f^^; »TftnT, »t¥, 'T^'t- 1st Fut. umrfer, Ulrilf*!, &c. 2d Fut. TTPESTTftr, Tn^ftr, &c. 3d Pret. (438) ^rat, ^nrnr, ^^mnT; ^itr, ^nmr, ^^nrnrf ; 'Hum , ^niTW, ^^it. Or by 433, ^nrrftr^, ^snrRft^, '^nrnftw; ^^mrftn:^, ^srsnftr^, ^inftr?!; ^mrftr^, ^irr- fti?, ^mr«M«. Bened. irrirw, urirr^, &c. Or ^tiht, &c. Cond. ^UlW, ^rrrrw^, &c. Passive, Pres. liT^ (465. a) ; 3d Pret. 3d sing. '^nnfiT. Causal, Pres. Tnirnf^; 3d Pret. ^ftnr^ or ^irfiJ^. Des. ftnmrrfiT. Freq. ^ift^, "STniTftT or ^rrfffiT. Participles, Pres. fwiHT; Past pass. TITW or UTO ; Past indecl. "STr^, -TTT^; Fut. pass. Trrw^, 589. Root TTT. Inf. TTTJ* to drink' (269). Parasmai. Pres. fq^Tf^T, fW^fT, &c. Pot. ftl^, ftl^H, &c. Imp. fq^fTf, fq^, &c. I St Pret. ■srfT^^, 'STftT^^, &c. 2d Pret. (373) t|t^, trf^^ or titfrzi, w; ^ft?^, xnr^^, irqwH; qftm, ^q, ^i^^^. ist Fut. tn^nftR, minftr, &c. 2d Fut. TTTWrfiT, m^iiET, &c. 3d Pret. (438) ^m, 'SjiTT^, 'snTTfT; ^PTT^, ^mTT, ^mirf; 'srmiT, ^mir, ^^^. Bened. W^*, W"??, &c. Cond. ^Ttn^, ^tn^^^, &c. Passive, Pres. tft^ (465) ; 3d Pret. 3d sing. ^Txnfi7. Causal, Pres. xiT^Tinf^, -^; 3d Pret. '^^^^ (475). Des. ftn:rT^f»T. D d 202 EXAMPLES OF VERBS OP THE PIEST CONJUGATION. Freq. ^qxft^, xn^fiT or TiTTTTftT. Participles, Pres. fWiT; Past pass. ^ C533) 5 P^st indecl. tfh^, -trR ; Fut. pass, tmr'^i, xrRhr, ^. 590. Root ftr. Inf. %rf ' to conquer.* Parasmai *. Pres. afillPH, ■snrftr, inrfw ; ^fHHW, »T^rjm, ^infw ; >nrR^, ^nr^r, »nrf^. Pot. irtt, »R^, »Rrr; »r^^, "iT^, ^^rii; "SniT, »R1T, 'H^^- Imp. H^lPiT, "5^1, "snrff; ^nrR, ^rw, »rcnrf ; trft, sRir, 'snrg. ist Pret. winf, ^nrq^, ^nfTTrT; ^^TtTxtR, ^nPTW, WSnnTf; -^iT^TTIT, -a^iild, 'shpt-jt. 2d Pret. fTFTR (378), r^HMPil'iJ or f^FTST, fiTTR ; ftlf^iT^ (367), f'P'T^, f^f^TW^^; ftlfTTTJT, fim, ftr^^- I St Fut. -^rilfw, Wf^, ^; ^Hiy+i, ^fTTW^, aifiKi ; »irti**i^, ^ffl*^, %iTTC¥ . 2d Fut. ^ttJiTHj ^Tqftr, ^BrffT ; won- ^, WanPfT, WOITT^^; WBTR^^, wsr^l, ^^rf^. 3d Pret. '51%^ (420), "»H^ M^W , ^iw^lT; ^^M, ^r^, ^T^¥f; '^T^^j '^%^i ^^M«. Bened. »fhTTO, Tfhrm, ^fhrrw; Tft^rr^, ■sfhrro, ifhrreri; 4)iiiw, ^flTrrer, ^m- W^^. Cond. ^31^, W%^^^, '^^Tqir; ^^^, WHTif, ^^TTT; »H^miH, 'H^miT, ^HH«T*T. Passive, Pres. ift^, &c. ; 3d Pret. 3d sing. ^snfu. Causal, Pres. t^ITIXuPh ; 3d Pret. ^»fi>nf. Des. iAi \ \^ \ [ ^. Freq. ^ift^, W^ftr or ^■»nTtfjT. Participles, Pres. "STXTff; Past pass. frTrT; Past indecl. ftn^, -ftrw; Fut. pass, '^w^, ^nnft^, ^ or f^m or ifzii (571. 572). «. In the same manner may be conjugated ^. Inf. "^^ 'to lead.' 591. Root ftsT. Inf. ^^ '^ to smile.' Atmane. Pres. ^T^, WI^, &c. Pot. W^^, w^^JT^, Sec. Imp. ^%, FT^TS^, &c. ist Pret. ^W^, ^iT^^riniT, &c. 2d Pret. (367. a) ftrf^, ftrf^tr^, ftrfui^; ftrf^irfti^l, faP tti ^m , ft!f^x(Tw ; ftrf^JTftmt, fwM"^^, ftrfTCRfTJt. ist Fut. W7f, ^irr^, &c. 2d Fut. ^"^j ^^TJi"^, &c. 3d Pret. '^wPm, ■»awtnH, "^m^; 'HWHH^, '^wmm, wmTrf; ^ilW^P^ , wm^, W^W. Bened. ^^TT, &c. Cond. ^rw"^, &c. Passive, wf^, &c.; 3d Pret. 3d sing. ^*JW l P^ . Causal, Pres. ^N^ i Pq or i^ i m^iPh ; 3d Pret. ^fw^ or ^^qftr^jnj. Des. ftr^rftf^. Freq. w^^, ^"J^^t or ^^Jnftf«T. Partici- ples, Pres. w^PTR ; Past pass, fw ; Past indecl. iwi^, -ftRW ; Fut. pass. Wrr^, WT^TJ, WTJ. 592. Root "5;. Inf. "^w ' to run.' Parasmai. Pres. "jTrf'T, "5^ftT> ■5^; "^rr^, '5;T5nT, ■^'^'fliT; "^Tm^, "5;^^, "^^f'f • Pot. '^w^, "^i^^j &c. Imp. ^^ I Pii I (58), -5^, &c. 1st Pret. "^T^, "^T^^, &c. 2d Pret. j^, ^, j^; ^ (368), ||^^^^ (367. b), 5^^,; 5|H, * fsT is not generally used in the A'tmane, excepting with the prepositions vi or para. EXAMPLES OF VEllBS OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 203 f^' ^I^- ^^^ ^^^^' "5^^' "jVfnftTj &C. 2d Fut. -^tniTfT, -^"VaiftT, &c. 3d Pret. "^^i (440. a), ^|J^, ^^TT^^; ^J"^"^, ^JT^? 'ilH.jJcjrii; ^l^m, ^J^TfT, "^^^4^. Bened. -^T^, ■^xrr^, &c. Cond. ^r^^, ^r^Vanr, &c. Passive, Pres. "5^; 3d Pret. 3d sing. ^J^rf^. Causal, Pres. "^T^nnfiT; 3d Pret. ^nr^^ or '^frf^^. Des. j^mfH. Freq. ^^, ^t^tf^ or ^^ftfi?. Participles, Pres. "5^; Past pass. ^; Past indecl. "^fi^, -"571; Fut. pass, ^rfctj, ■5'^RifN, "^T^ or ■5^. 593. Root ^. Inf. ^^ "^to seize/ 'to take.' Parasmai and i^tmane. Pres. -^ifiT, frf^, ^fw ; "^TR^, &c. i^tm. "^j ^T^, fTW ^ ^TfTW; ^f^H^, ^rfff, ^f^T 1st Fut. ftif'??, ^Tftr, &c. Xtm. ■^T^, ^tii, &c. 2d Fut. ■flr- 'onfiT, ^"Hifti, &c. ^tm. ■^fr^, f fcm^ , &c. 3d Pret. 'ST^m, wfi^'hr, w^ltiT; 'st^teI, ^t?, '^Tfitf; ^p^, w^-[%, ^r|^^. ^tm. ^f«r, ^f^^, ^fW^; '^f^^, ^I^rqf, 'ST^rniTT; '^TfT^Tff, ^ff, 'STf^. Bened. f^irm, ff^mr, &c. i^tm. f^^, ^^FT^, &c. Cond. ''sr^fT'^, ^ST^ir^, &c. Xtm. '^^^j ^J<^rimvj|JH^ , &Ci Passive, Pres. ff^; 3d Pret. 3d sing, ^si^fr. Causal, Pres. "^rrmfH, -^; 3d Pret. '^nft^. Des. fn^l Q iP^, -^". Freg-. ^f^^, ^rf^T or iTT^fn or iffTfTtftT or afjO^fW or TTft;- or aTfft. Participles, Pres. ^H" ; Pass. f^HMi^ir ; Past pass. ^IT; Past indecl. f?^, -^W; Fut. pass, '^^j fT^t-q, fTi§. 594. Root ^. Inf. ^^ ' to remember.' Parasmai and iitmane. Pres. FTTTf»T, W^f^, &c. Kim. fTt. Pot. w:^, ^T^, &-c. i^tm. ^ir, &c. Imp. FTTTftrr (58), ^RT, &c. i^tm. ^T, &c. ist Pret. ^Wt, ^WT^, &c. i^tm. ^^IWC. 2d Pret. (367. c) TTWR, tetwTt^, ^Twrr; ?t^i:^, ^fiwt'^^^, ^twtw^^; TTwfTT, ^twt, ^tft^^. Kim. w^t, ^wfcw, TOT; ^wPi^t? ^FT^TTm, ^woTT; ^TFTftff^, ^rwlri", ^TwfrT. 1st Fut. wtrfw, &c. Kim. w^\%, &c. 2d Fut. Fdr^TTfiT, he. Kim. FTft"^, &c. 3d Pret. ^9TT^, &c. (see ^ at 593). Kim. ^T^f«T, »iiy|\fl^, &c. (see ^ at 593). Bened. ^'^TO, &c. i^tm. ^mfNl &c., or ^ft;^ &c. Cond. '^T^ft^, kc. Kim. ^rwf^^, &c. Passive, Pres. w^^; 3d Pret. 3d sing. ^iJWrTfT. Causal, Pres. ^RTt^nffl, -^; 3d Pret. ^.H^w t. Des. ^(^. Freq. wm^, ^Twf^ or ^TO7r^f?T. D d 2 204 EXAMPLES OF VERBS OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION. Participles, Pros. WTIT; Past pass. w?T; Past indecl. W^, -^"JW; Flit. pass. T??t^, ^m^ifhi, WW(. 595. Root ^. Inf. 2^ ' to call.^ Parasmai and Atmane. Pres. df^ftr, &c. i^tm. 2^, &c. Pot. ^TiT, &c. A'tm. ^^, &c. Imp. o^^iTh, &c. A'tm. 2^, &c. I St Pret. ^i^, &c. Atm. '^^. ^d Pret. (379) ^^T^, ^^f^ or ^^, ^T^^, ^|f^, fPFl' ^P^x' ¥f^^' IP' ^11^.- A'tm. ^1^, ^|f^, ^p; f|f^, fpr^, ff^W; fff^?, ^1^^' II^"^- I St F"t. d^TWrftn, &c. A'tm. 3^- int, &c. 3d Fut. ^Trmfir, &c. A'tm. 3fr^, &c. 3d Pret. (438. c) ^^> ^T^^, ^TdflT; '3T^R, 'Ho^ri*, ?Hd^ rit ; ^So^ \H , 'il«^ri, ^T^^. Atm. ^, '^T^^H, '^Ti^ ; 'SI^T^, ^^^f , '^T^f ; '^Id^f^, ^^S^, 'Sld^. Or ^TS^ftl (433. a), '5J^7WT?r, ^^TCT; 'Jld^iyf^, ■5Id|TOT5lf, 'it, &c. ist Pret. wr^, &c. 2d Pret. f^*, fi^^fTR, f^^; f^^^, n^ari l ^i , f«^^WT^ ; f^^iml, f^^W^ or -i", ff^lR. I St Fut. ?r>fifrfTT%, &c. 2d Fut. s>ffr^, &c. 3d Pret. ^rgftfirf^, wrfrTFr^, wtfir?; wrffH^^, -f?nn"5iT, -finrrfrt; -fTT^rff , -fiTi4, -frnTfT. Par. wtt, -H^^ -in[) -"fTR, -rnf, -inrt; -TTTT, -WW, -ir^. Bened. ^fjNhl. Cond. TsreftfTT^, &c. Passive, Pres. UW; 3d Pret. 3d sing. ^^reftfrT. Causal, Pres. ubnrrfiT; 3d Pret. wf^lf. Des. f^^f^ or f^iftfiT^. Freq. ^^, ^^frfw or ^tTlrilPj? . Participles, Pres. iTlirfrR ; Past pass, ^frirf or fftfhw; Past indecl. ^rrirdll or ^frfwi^T, -?niT; Fut. pass. ^ftrwiT^, 598. Root ^. Inf. -^fki or ^^ (73) * to be/ 'to exist.' i^tmane, and optionally Parasmai in the 2d future, 3d preterite, and conditional, when it rejects i. Pres. Tff, &c. Pot. "^^tf, &c. Imp. ■#, &c. ist Pret. W^, &c. 2d Pret. ■sTTff, '^^im, ^TTff; ^^frr^, MM rim, ^^fff; ^frmt, '^'^^ or -i", ^WT. ist Fut. •^- int J &c. 2d Fut. -^ifxq or ^ifir, &c. 3d Pret. 'SiMfrif^, 'Si^fw^m^, ^SMPria ; -UMfriMP^, -fff^rqf, -fw^TTTT ; -fff^^, -fffS^, -fwWfT. Par. w^, -im, -nif', -in^, -•fTtf, -TTTn; -irm, -wtt, -w"^. Bened. •^ft^fN, &c. Cond. ^Mfriui or ^"^j^f , &c. Passive, Pres. T^ . Causal, Pres. TffirrfiT; 3d Pret. yi'iflMri* or ?!TMMff. Des. f^mfwk or f^MWlf^T. Freq. '^i'^^, MPCMrrfi or ^^TftfjT or '^'VTfftpiT. Participles, Pres. '#Jn^; Past pass. •^; Past indecl. ■^W.^ or ^^^ -'^; Fut. pass. ^fflT^, ^- 599. Root ^. Inf. ^^-j ' to speak.' Parasmai. Pres. '^(?Tf?;. Inf. <5^ ' to take.' ^tmane. Pres. <9^, p5>T^, Wrk', cWT^I, c5>^, HHW; oJHTH^, cWS^, nrnit, f5>NT7Tt; c5HlTf^, c5*^j4, f5>TT^^. Imp. c?^, tW^, cWiTT; hlt, c5>TfTt; 75>TTOt, c5>Ts4, cPTnTT. Ist Pret. 'STcTK^iT. 2d Pret. ■^H (375. a), ^fH^, ^; ^f>T^t» ^^i ^>TT^; ^fiml, Hf>T^, HfWt. ist Fut. c^j^ (408), f53rw, 753^1; ojarr^t, cj^ETmm, pjarm; oi^jiwt, t^ansi, "FjarR^^. 2d Fut. c7^ (299), c5"«^^, c5t?lTW; TJT^JTT^, cT^^^, cT^^W ; cS^fETwt, 75^^^, c5^^^. 3d Pret. ■^f5f^ (420, 299), ^T<53rr^^ (298), Wc^^T; ^STET'^f?, '){c<4Him], ;3Tc5i?rnri; '3T?5'twf^, ^T?53^, 'ilci^ri. Bened. c5Whl, 75^=iRt¥T^^, oiHlly ; 75^^, t^'^JhTT^, f^^^rrert; c^^^ftjrf?, ^j^Isct, oj^'k"??. Cond. 'STcSt.-^, ^pS^^'SinT, ^TrST^TT ; ^Ic^TfqT^, ^STpStFT^rt, '^IH^^t; 'SIcST:^- 208 EXAMPLES OF VERBS OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION. »?f^, ^BHT'^ar, 'iir^»4M*ri . Passive, Pres. 7^; 3d Pret. '^Tpjf^, 'srsarnT, ^snyrfW (475) or ^iirif**?, &c. Causal, Pres. (^M^iPh, &c. ; 3d Pret. ^rfpjM. Des. "fe"^ (5^3)* Freq. c5Tt5^. Participles, Pres. <7inrR; Past pass. <53I; Past indecl. t?^^, -<5«I; Put. pass. «. In the same manner may be conjugated t>^ (with prep, yxi d), WT:«g ^ to begin.' 602. Root JPT (270). Inf. iT^ ^ to go.' Parasmai. Pres. TrsrrftT, J i ^fa , Ji^aafiT; T^rr^, ^r^a:^^, t^tt^^; ii^sarm^, i^anzi, T^jf^. Pot. ilTrii^, T^i^, &c. Imp. JT^gcrf^, T^, &c. ist Pret. ^il'-aa, '^TiTSa^^, &.C. 2d Pret. (375) sTTm, 'S{T[fp;^ or IPT^, >TJTT»T; irfrtm {3^6), »rT^, 'FJTw^; ^rf^TJT, jT^t, ifF^^. ist Fut. TTTfTrftR, Tfrrftr, &c. 2d Fut. JiPHmirH, JifHuir^, Jrfiroifw; Tjf'rm^^, nf^w^^, ifk- "OTTnT; TTJTTBrmiT, irfHW^, nfHUlf'iT. 3d Pret. (436) ^JT'f, >HJlHf1, "^'Rfr; ^ITTR, ^TTTlf, '^TTTTT ; ^JPTR, ^TTlT, ^im^. Bened. JTwrw, TTTRH^, &c. Cond. ^Jif^'BT, ^PT'fiT'nT^, &c. Passive, Pres. ty^; 3d Pret. 3d sing. ^inf'T. Causal, Pres. TpTxiTf'T; 3d Pret. ^TrftTR. Des. fjprfwfiT. Freq, >i^>wj, iTl=f^ or H ^-hI Th ; see 709. Participles, Pres. TT^ajiT; Past pass, im"; Past indecl. ttt^, -T[Tt[, -ttw (563. a, 560) ; Fut. pass. n*A'M, Tprfhr, jmi. 60Q. Root ift^. Inf. iftf^?f'to Hve.' Parasmai. Pres. iftTrfH, ifMff, &c. Pot. >ftTJT, ift^^, &c. Imp. iffVrrfJT, ^t^, &c. 1st Pret. 'snfhf, ^snft^, &c. 2d Pret. finfl^, finftfTcr, ftnft^; nK^ i r^ ci (28. b), fiTiftT^, finflTj^; fjTrftf^, f^nf^, infhf^. ist Fut. ■sftfrsTTft'?, &c. 2d Fut. iftfVaiTfJT, &c. 3d Pret. isnftf^, ^iniNt^^, 'snftwh^; ^^nftftr^, -Hiflfci^, Wiftf^; 'snO^m, ^^nf^f^, Wi^^^^. Bened. ift- ^mf, &c. Cond. -yj/ir^uf, &c. Passive, Pres. ^ft^; 3d Pret. 3d sing. ^!nftf%. Causal, Pres. *ftwtnfH ; 3d Pret. ^»nfH or ^snftf^. Des. fififtf^irrf'T. Freq. %>ft^. Participles, Pres. aflTfl" ; Past pass. iftf^rT; Past indecl. iT^f^r^, -itT^; Fut. pass. sfH^rraT, sft^jfhr, ift^. 604. Root -^^ (270). Inf. "5^ '^ to see.' Parasmai. Pres. ■q^rrrfiT, '^V^, ^V^; TT^^qr^, tr^-q^^, -q^ini^^; q-^^iTR^^, -^t^, M ^qP^ri . Pot. ■q^', "q^q^, q^qw; tr^^^, &c. Imp. -q^Trrf^, tj^, q^xfw ; tnprR, &c. ist Pret. ^q^^, ^srq^TT^, ^srq^-qfr; ^-q^^q, &c. 2d Pret. ^, ^f^^ or ^^ (368. G. b, 388. c), ^^ ; ^^^, ^"pr^^^, ^f^- ^^^; ^^%T, '^^j ^1^^^\- ^^*^ ^"^* ^^ifa) "^^rftr, &c. 2d Fut. "5^TfH, ^^ftr, &c. 3d Pret. (436) ^31^, ^^^^, ^^^; ^^, ^r^i^, 'st^^ttt; ^^^t»t, ^^, '^^^. Or ^tt| (420^ 388. c), EXAMPLES OF VERBS OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 209 ^^ i «j1*4 , ^!<^n{j1ri ; vs^ i a^ , '^r^, ^i\^m ; w^t^, "^w, -n^mM^. Bened. "pTTm, "pTrnr, &c. Cond. "^w, w^^^^, &c. Passive, Pres. "p^ ; 3d Pret. 3d sing. ^Tc^. Causal, Pres. ^^l^lPH ; 3d Pret. 'Ji«{1'^5f or ^T^fi; see 703. Des. 1^^. Freq. ^T^^ or ^-, ^ft^- ^^ftfi? or ^ff^. Participles, Fres. V[^iTin', Past pass. •^; Past indecl. ^f?T, -f^; Fut. pass. fW^, i^H\Hf "p^. 605. Root ^'^. Inf. ^13^ ' to see.' Atmane. Pres. |;%, &c. Pot. ^T^, &c. Imp. ^, &c. ist Pret. F^T, &c. (260. a). 2d Pret. ^ «jN^ , &c. (385, and compare ^>I at 600). ist Fut. f^fsij d I? , &c. 2d Fut. tf^, &c. 3d Pret. ^f^^^ (260. b), ^ft^TlT, ^sr^ ; ^fiEF^» ^r«jmviin>fir (3d sing. -rlVf^fe 305. a) or sfpT^ftr. Participles, Pres. ^"fr ; Past pass, ij^ (305. a) ; Past indecl. nf^?^T or jj^t or nffi^T, -T^; Fut. pass. irffrrT^ or TTTg^, ^fjTiT, 7J^ or ifti^. EXAMPLES OF VERBS OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 211 6io. Root f^^. Inf. ^r^ ' to burn.^ Parasmai. Pres. rf^iffl, ^'fftT, &c. Pot. ^^, ^f^^, &c. Imp. ^T^T, ^^, cScc. 1st Pret. Wr[i, W?H, &c. 2d Pret. ^T?, ^f^ {^J^. a) or ^r^x[ (305), r^r^T?; ^f%^, ^^, ^?WTT; ^ffH, ^, ^|r^. I St Fut. ej'^nn??, r^T^nffr, ike. (305). 2d Fut. \is?lTfJT, vr^^, &c. (306. a). 3d Pret. ^>jrTW (423), WVIT^l^, isivrw^fT; ^5?VTT^, ^F^, '3T^FVt; '^T^rr^, '^T^FV, W^TT^H. Bened. ^^TTR, ^"arm, &c. Cond. ^nr^Ef, ^5nr^^^(3o6. a). Passive, Pres. ^^, &c. ; 3d Pret. 3d sing. ^ifV- Causal, Pres. r[T?^TTf»T, -^; 3d Pret. ^BTf^^'^. Des. f^V^ifM (306. a). Freq. ^"H^^, ?rjf^ or ^ftfJT; 3d sing. ^T^fni. Participles, Pres. ^'^■ff; Past pass, ^t^; Past indecl. ^SSTT, -^; Fut. pass, ^rtj^, ^f^tzf, ^t^. 611. Root ^. Inf. ^t^ 'to carry.' Parasmai and Xtmane. Pres. -^Tf??, '^H, &c. A'tm. ^, &c. Pot. ■^^f, ^^, &c. Imp. "^TtT^j "^j &c. i^tm. '^f , &c. ist Pret. ^^?', 'ii^^fl, &c. Kim. ^5Rt, &c. 2d Pret. (375. c) ^^T?, •J^fV'I or -g^T^ (375. c), "^^T^; ■gif^^, "35^^, iJi^ri*!; ^fH, "35?, "^ilT^. xVtm. "gs^, ^f?^, "35?; "SSf^T^, •35^, -gs^TW; -giffJTt, ^f?r|, ^f^. ist Fut. TT^rfer, fferftr, &c. Kim. •^Tf, &c. 2d Fut. '^^nf^T, ^^ftr, &c. A'tm. '^, tr^^, &c. 3d Pret. (424) 'JiNiaj, '^nrT^ffhr, ^^isflrr; ^r^re?, w^^ti, wT^; ^t^ot, Wfe", ^ST^T"^. Atm. ?!TTf^, 'iJ<^lf^; 3d sing. *fr»frfe or HltTlO ^T (305). Participles, Pres. g^; Past pass. ^ (305) or ^rjj; Past indecl. hIH^HI or hH^HI or ^PXZIT or ^T, -H^ ; Fut. pass. »fir^H«*l or jftm^, H^fvfhl, »rt?T. EXAMPLES OF OTHER VERBS OF THE FOURTH CONJUGATION IN THE ORDER OF THEIR FINAL LETTERS. 613. Root TTt (276. a). Inf. ^rr^ * to destroy' (with prepositions vi and ava, ' to determine,' ' to strive'). Parasmai. Pres. T?lTftr, &c. Pot. ^, &c. Imp. ^mf^, &c. I St Pret. '51^, &c. 2d Pret. (374) ^#, «r««j or *««m, ;fi^; ^TfR, ^nr|^, ^^^^; ^^fm, h^, ^^. ist Fut. ^M i Pw , &c. 2d Fut. ^k^j i Ph , &c. 3d Pret. (438. b) ^mt, ^smr^, ^nrn^; ^htr, ^nmf, ^sranrT; ^nrnr, w^mr, vi««. Or ^«iP«^ (433), 'swnfrff, ^ii f ii ^ lff ; ^iitP^n, wmfwi, "^srmfwsj; ^nrrftr^Tj 'stot- ftnr, ^m PHM f ( . Bened. w^m, &c. Cond. 'ii«iH(, &c. Passive, Pres. ?ft^; 3d Pret. 3d sing. ^mfiT. Causal, ^^nrrftr; 3d Pret. SHfflmi . Des. P^m^iPM. Freq. ^ift^, HT^, ^THTTfiT. Participles, Pres. ^iTTT ; Past pass, ftnr ; Past indecl. ftWT, -wr^ ; Fut. pass. ^ETTrr^, 614. Root ^. Inf. "^^ * to know' *. Atmane. Pres. "^j &c. Pot. f^, &c. Imp. ^, &c. ist Pret. 'sr^, &c. 2d Pret. "f^; * This verb is also of the ist conjugation. See the tables at 583. 214 EXAMPLES OF VERBS OF THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. see the tables at 583. 1st Fut. wt^, &c. 2d Fut. vfVi^, &c. (299. a). 3d Pret. (420, 299. a) ^wfw, ^^H, W^ or WTtftr (434) ; "^THr^fV, '^T^rWI'iji, ^r>TWTfTt ; ^WrF?fV, "^fji, ^WWTT, Bened. »TRftn, &c. Cond. ■^Mt(3^, &c. For the other forms, see wv at 583. 615. Root "aiv (277). Inf. ^^ ' to pierce.^ Parasmai. Pres. i^arrfiT, &c. Pot. f^TflTT, &c. Imp. f^miffT, &c. ist Pret. ^^, &c. 2d Pret. (383) f^TV, f^^riV^ or f^^^, f^^TTV; fqrf^fv^, f^iT^, fVfw^; f^^f\m, f^f^vT, f^fVuw^. ist Fut. ■3i:^f)ER, &c. (298). 2d Fut. ■ajMlftr, &c. (299). 3d Pret. (420) '^T^TTT'ff, ■'.H-^lrt ft ^, ^l^TT?fhT; ^■^TTf^, ^r^TT^ (419)? ^^n^; ^T^TTrW, ^T^m^, ^^I^TTT^^. Bened. f^urr^, &c. Cond. ^^?M- Passive, Pres. f^, &c. ; 3d Pret. 3d sing. ^3?^rrfvT. Causal, ^rnrTrfH; 3d Pret. wf^^. Des. f^^^WTfifT. Freq. ^^f^i^, ^\tttr ; >Tf%^, H^H 4 vji or >T| * to fry.' Parasmai and A'tmane. Pres. >Twrf^, &c. Atm. >T^, &c. Pot. >JW^, &c. Atm. >TW^, &c. Imp. jpiTTiTT, &c. i^tm. )f#, &c. ist Pret. '^T>p5r, &c. i^tm. '5t>j^, &c. 2d Pret. (381) "^^JW, ^^jfeni or ^>JF, '^^J'^jT; ^>lfSR, ^iJTTT^H, ^iJWff^^; -SMfsTR, -W^nsr, -^ilTltl. Or W^T^t, W»Tf5t^ or ^vrt, ^iTit; "Wf^, &c. Atm. "^^m, ^^'^, &c. Or W#', ^>^t|^, &c. 1st Fut. H?Tfw or VT#Tf)^, &c. A'tm. )j^ or nfrt, &c. 2d Fut. ^■^■\fs{ or HT^m &c., >jTs^ or i?^" he. 3d Pret. ^3WT^, 'SMT^^, '^WT^; ^5Wn^, '^WT?, 'SWm; ^5WT^, 'SWT?, 'SJiJT^. Or 'SliTT^, &c. EXAMPLES OF VERBS OF THE SIXTH CONJUGATION. 221 Atm. 'swf^, ^^nrnr, ^^m^it; ^^w^f^, 'sw^rgr, 'sm^tht; ^m^^, '3W^, ^!WC^. Or '^wf^, ^M¥T^, '^M?; 'SW^f^, ^swv^ivii, ^3M^TKt ; ^Tvn^f^, 'SM^, 'SiH^lT. Bened. >pSTT^, &c. Atm. >?^ &c. or »r|fN &c. Cond. 'SM^ &c. or 'SM^ &c. Kim. ^5M^ &c. or ^snr^" &c. Passive, Pres. >Jt5^. Causal, Pres. >niRTffI ; 3d Pret. ^sr^^ or ^^«IH-n(. Des. fwc^fir, -"%, or f^ir^rffT, -"%; or f^^jfsrmftr, -^, or f^ n r^ M t fH , -^, &c. Freg. «(0*jf¥). Participles, Pres. >n3nT; Past pass. >p; Past indecl. Wf\, ->p5^; Fut. pass. >j?^ or vr#^, ^f^rftti, >ij^. 6^^. Root H^ or JT^ . Inf. jHj * to be immersed,' * to sink.' Parasmai. Pres. JTWrfH, &c. Pot. »tw4, &c. Imp. H-nHpH, &c. ist Pret. 'sm^, &c. 2d Pret. Tm^a, JmfW'I or r\^■^, m{TT(; imfw^, ITRtHT^, HH-nlri ^^; ^mfSTH, ^W^, *T»Tt5T^^. Ist Fut. ^'^ifw, &C. 2d Fut. h^iPm , &c. 3d Pret. (426) ^srolrf, ^mt^TT, ^swrcftrT; 'smT^, 'ilHirti, ^r*ri#; ^mt^, ^HT^, "^mt"^. Bened. iTriirnT, &c. Cond. •HH ' iii , &c. Passive, Pres. jTt5^. Causal, Pres. H-ni^lPiH; 3d Pret. ^fTRiraf. Des. fM^rftr. Freg. HW-riii , ^T^frS^ (3d sing. HlHp*). Participles, Pres. JTWrT; Past pass. »r«T; Past indecl. ^T, TW, -iTriq'; Fut. pass, ^lf!^, H-tjr*fty, Wrrq. 634. Root ^. Inf. ift^ ' to strike/ * to hurt.' Parasmai and j^tmane. Pres. w^tHj, &c. Atm. ir^, &c. Pot. w^, &c. Xtm. -^^j &c. Imp. ■g^Tf^, &c. i^tm. •5I, &c. ist Pret. "^w^, &c. Atm. ^, &c. 2d Pret. -gift^, -jwtf^, "ffTft*? ; W^^, "SI^Tl' II^x' ririH^H^ , Wfffc^J^ (|"), ^f^T. ist Fut. iftwrP??, &c. Atm. itV^, &c. 2d Fut. fT li^ jj i PH , &c. Atm. wtm, &c. 3d Pret. WTW, -ijriiwft^^, 'HrilrtflT^; 'STTflr^, ^WTW, ^h1?j] ; ^TTTrW, ^T^^, ^FTrg^. Atm. ^wfw, Wr^^, WW; W(^i%, WWT5IT, ^iJrHlril; 'HgrWP^, W^s4, ^^r^TiT. Bened. 'ff^TRT &c., Hrtflil &c. (452). Cond. w^tm &c., ^iftw &c. Passive, Pres. 71%; 3d Pret. 3d sing. wtf^. Causal, Pres. 'ff^^nf'T; 3d Pret. '^iFff^. Des. •JWWTfiT, -W. Freg. W^^, TfTifrftl (3d sing. iftfftPw) . Participles, Pres. TT^TT; Past pass, g^; Past indecl. W^, -■pr; Fut. pass, rft^^j, Ft^^^hr, Tffsr. 635. Root ft^. Inf. ^"ji Ho throw.' Parasmai and Atmane. Pres. fgpTTfjT, &c. Atm. ft^, &c. Pot. f^^^, &c. iV^tm. f^^il, &c. Imp. %tjTftir, &c. Atm. ffej^, &c. ist Pret. ^fisfq, Ike. Kim. 'ilPvjjqf, &c. 2d Pret. Pxi^q, P^^Pmq, fr^tj; f^T^fxi^, f^ie^tr^^. 222 EXAMPLES OF VERBS OF THE SIXTH CONJUGATION. f^T^fxr^, fgf^TTT^, fMr>{jmri ; r-MpHjr M H^ , r^r^^rq ^ or -i-, r^rB^nu. ]st Fut. ^iHifw, &c. A'tm. -^Tnt. 2d Fut. ujl^iPh. i^tm. ^'O^. 3d Pret. ^ra'«^, 'j{Bi hA'+i , 'HaiHflff ; ^'^t^, ^r^TT, thShI ; ■•Hw'W, -fl^H, wnrt; ^rfV'wf^j '^rft^, ^te^''¥(T. Bened. f^'orw, &c. Atm. rBjtfl*!, &c. Cond. ^^ifM, &c. Atm. ^iJ^M^, &c. Passive, "ft^ ; 3d Pret. 3d sing. ^mfq. Causal, Pres. ■^iTXlTf'T ; 3d Pret. '5rf%1%q. Des. f^f^'mf^, -"%. Freq. ■^i^, ^%r^ (7io» 294. a). Participles, Pres. fpjxnr ; Past pass. f%TT ; Past indecl. f^m, -f^'^I ; Fut. pass, ^u^, 6^6. Root wpi. Inf. ^q^ or ws * to touch.' Parasmai. Pres. ^q^TTftr, &c. Pot. 5EipnT, &c. Imp. ^^uPh , &c. ist Pret. ^TPJ^, &c. 2d Pret. ti?xr^, TjTqf^, Tjwr^ ; M^jf^R, iJHJ^I'gH, ^T^'pi^^; qi^^r^lH , "q?^, ^T^'nm. ist Fut. ?^^TftR or <-H«|fa . 2d Fut. ^q^rfn or ^qaj^iPH . 3d Pret. 'iifmai*, -iiwuafhr, ^^iwr^fhr; ^i^ia^, ^^rwr?, ^KHJ i li ; 'HHjiB^ , ^Twn#, -y+:Mn|«. Or -yfHia}, ■^rarr^^, &c. Or -HH^^i , ^^m\, ^srnjWTf; ^n^^p^, ^r^q^, 'iifqvsjrti; ^sT^^rprr, '^re'p^, ^ fM«j ^. Bened. ?^Tmi. Cond. 'SRq^ or ^fllVi*!. Passive, Pres. Tt^^; 3d Pret. 3d sing. ^Hif^l. Causal, Pres. w^^rrfir; 3d Pret. ^qwilf or ^JifqfM^i . Des. ftf ^^j Vij I fa . Freq. T^ft^Fq^, q^^qf^ or q^n^qP^H . Participles, Pres. ^^"ff; Past pass. ?q?; Past indecl. ?qfT, -^q^T; Fut. pass, m^ or fH«-=q, wr^rfhl, ^'^■ 637. Root ^q (282). Inf. T^fq^ or ij^ ' to wish.' Parasmai. Pres. 3[^Tfq, &c. Pot. l^'^. Imp. ^^3^. ist Pret. ^. 2d Pret. (370) ^qq, ^qfq^, ^q; ^q, i^^, t,^^^; ^^^> t?5 tl'l,- ^^^ ^^*- ^~ iniw or U 8 l Pw , &c. 2d Fut. uPqiqiPH, &c. 3d Pret. ^fqq, ^"^, ^lEfhr; ^fqx-q, ^q^, ^fq?T; ^tnir, ^q¥, ^f^^^- Bened. ^wnr, &c. Cond. ^fqiq, &c. Passive, Pres. ^; 3d Pret. 3d sing. ^fq. Causal, Pres. T^qqifq; 3d Pret. ^fqq. Des. ijfqfqqrfq. Participles, Pres. ^TsAri ; Past pass. ^; Past indecl. J^ or j^Pq^JI, -"^'y Fut. pass. ;j¥^ or ijfqTr^i, ^^qTjjIVq, V^. EXAMPLES OF VERBS OF THE TENTH CONJUGATION. 223 EXAMPLES OF PRIMITIVE VERBS OF THE TENTH CONJU- GATION, EXPLAINED AT 283. 638. Root 'if^ chur. Infin. '^kfTTJ chorayitum, * to steaL' Parasmai-pada. Present tense, * I steal.' ■«n*.^irH choraydmi ''^lT:mW^^choraydvas ^fiijM (527) ; * This root makes its base "mTU ^jaVflya as well as "^^^i inirayu, but its meaning is then rather ' to fulfil,' ' to accomplish,' ' to get through.' G g 226 EXAMPLES OF VERBS OF THE TENTH CONJUGATION. Past pass, fq frri A ; Past indecl. "Nnfftn^, -f^w^; Fut. pass. f^nT- 642. Root ^^, Inf. wFtlW (with prep. U, m^, ITT^fxr^) ' to ask/ ' to seek.' Atmane. Pres. '^rl^, &c. Pot. ^^^i|, &c. Imp. ■^- "JTrftr, &c. ist Pret. ■^TT^^, &c. 2d Pret. ^"^ ^Wrfi , &c. ist Fut. ^r^ftrwT^, &c. 2d Fut. ^r^ftr"^, &c. 3d Pret. ■^ifW^, ^nfw^'^iT^, &c. Bened. ^^qxrhr. Cond. ^IT^^. Passive, Pres. W^ . Causal, like the Primitive. Des. '^^^f^^Tf^, -^. Participles, Pres. ^iw^ (527) ; Past pass. 'iiO^ri ; Past indecl. ^r^ftjigT, -■^m; Fut. pass. ^^T^ftriT^, 643. Root oF^l . Inf. <*iqni»l ' to say/ ' to tell.' Parasmai. Pres. ^vi^iPh, &c. Pot. ■sfiWT, &c. Imp. •sirzi^vT, &c. ist Pret. ^npzR, &c. 2d Pret. cB^nnHTO, &c. 1st Fut. oji'sifwrftR, &c. 2d Fut. cirzi- fyiMirH, &c. 3d Pret. ^-elejivj &c. or 'Hxflckvl &c. Bened. «RS3T"W, &c. Cond. ^ijohv^fxiiii, &c. Passive, ofi^, &c. Causal, like the Primitive. Des. fgoB^xftrrfH, &c. Participles, Pres. chvj^ri ; Past pass. chfqTT ; Past indecl. oinzTfiiRT, -'^i^nzi (566. a) ; Fut. pass. ctiVjf^ri^ , 'SB^nf^, a. Root -^w . Inf. "ift^fTi^ ' to proclaim.' Parasmai. Pres. Tft^- TTrftr, &c. Pot. tTlMiiti, &c. Imp. Tft^^nftT, &c. (58). ist Pret. ^^TR, &c. 2d Pret. lilM^MehK , &c. ist Fut. tf^inrrftR, &c. 2d Fut. tfhrftroiTf'T, &c. 3d Pret. ^rarf^, &c. Bened. TfVamr, &c. Cond. 'inTlMfyuf, &c. Passive, Pres. ^ft^; 3d Pret. 3d sing. THylPM. Causal, like the Primitive. Des. ^"txrfwfi?. Participles, Pres. isft- ^TtrT; Past pass. TrtfRir; Past indecl. "^ftT^rfxTRT, -"^Var; Fut. pass, tft^- b. Root H"^. Inf. vtJ^f^■^ ' to eat/ ' to devour.' Parasmai. Pres. H8i«4ir*i, &c. Pot. >T^^, &c. Imp. >?BpTrftrr, &c. ist Pret. ^5M^, &c. 2d Pret. >T^iTT»mT, &c. ist Fut. >TB^^nnftR, &c. 2d Fut. ^t^- fqiinfjT, &c. 3d Pret. ^IW>T^, &c. Bened. >T^nf. Cond. ^wajP^^M- Passive, ^^, &c. Des. ■f^^fii^Tf'T. Participles, Pres. h^tTcT; Past pass. >Tf^iT; Past indecl. H^^ftn^T, -W^; Fut. pass. H^^ftnr^, EXAMPLES OF VERBS OP THE SECOND CONJUGATION. 227 EXAMPLES OF PRIMITIVE VERBS OF THE SECOND CONJU- GATION, EXPLAINED AT 307. 644. Root in ?/«• Infin.TiT^ ydhcm, 645. Root ^i (310). Infin.T^etum, ' to go.' Parasmai-pada only. Present, ' I go.' '^]'f^ ydmi "Wf^l^^ydvas '^TH^^ydmas ■^Tftr ydsi ^rr?!^ ydthas "m^ ydtha ^rrfir ydtl M\t\*i^ydtas Hlfil ydnti Potential, ' I may go.' ' to go.' For 1^ with adhi, a, &c., see 311. Present, ' I go.' WVR emi f ^'^^ ivas ^'H imas Tjf^ eshi ^"'W ithas ^ if ha ^If eti '^TT^ itas '^f^yanti{24) 1 Potential, ' I may go.' Ml Mi ydy dm "mTPi^ ydydva '^T^J^ ydydma '^Tmydm "^TTC^ iydva ^HW iydma '^T^T^ydyd^'^T^\'^ydydtam ^^'^Tt[ydydta : i^*Hfl iyas "^TfTif iydtam "^Tif iydta '^T^^l^J/dydt 'm'minydydtdm 'm'^^ydyus Imperative, ' Let me go.' ^f% ydni "m^ ydva ^TTT ydma ■mf^ ydhi xrnf ydtam XfTrT ydta 'm'ff ydtu imrr ydtdm TTT^ ya^^M Fir*/ preterite, ' I was going.' ^rm aydm W^[^ aydva ^TTPR aydma 'W^[^ ayds ^SPTTiT aydtam •«Mlil aj/a7a Wm iT ayaf viMlrtl aydtdm WlfT^aydn * 2d Pret. 'W (373), ilPuvi, ^TTT ; ^rftr^T, MM-g**^, y^rt*!^; HPilH, ^ni, ^Tf^' ist Fut. ^tutPw, mmiPh, xmn, &c. 2d Fut. •m^inftr, ^n^rftr, tn^fir; ^m^in^, &c. 3d Pret. 'JJ^ l faM (433), 'Sninft^, 'tSiii+flri^; ^nnftTR, ^nrrftr^, ^^nnfwf ; ^nnftrT, 'sr^rrf^, ^nnfti^^. Bened. *4i*4i«, ^rnrnr, ^imi^; Trnn^, &c. Cond. ^iJi|l*4, ^tTT^^, ^^tJT^l^, &c. Passive, Pres. "TTm, &c. ; 3d Pret. 3d sing. '^T(Ti[^iydt '^^HtH iydtdm ^^Ji/us Imperative, ' Let me go.' ^<4lH aydni vjMiq aydva ^'^\^ aydma ^f^ ihi ^ itam ^ ita ^F etu 2^ itdm II^ yantu First preterite, ' I was going.' WRayam(37) ^^aiva{26o.a)^^aima fl^^ais (33) ^ aitain THJ aita vlf ait Win aitdm 2d Pret. iiim (372), S^uCmvi or ^^, ^^TR; tfu^, t^^\' t'W? t^'TT, ^TiT, f^. istFut.l?Hirw,&c. 2dFut. UmiPH, &c. 3d Pret. (438. e) '^nTT, "^nm, ^mTif ; '^nTR, ^TJTTif, WTTITT ; ^ITR, ^TTiT, ^^. Bened. t^TT^, &c. (the initial '^ may be shortened when a prep, is prefixed ; as, frftTTRT 'may I go forth?'). Cond. W^, &c. (260. «). Passive, Pres. ^TT; ist Fut. ifril^ or ^rrftnn^ (474) ; 2d Fut. F^ * Or ^^ ayus by 290. b, note. t This root is also of the ist conjugation, making ^HTTf'T, ^^^, &c., in Pres. tense. X Foster gives ^HT*! , which might here be expected; but in the 3d pi. ay is substituted for the root, making ^T^. See Panini (VI. 4. 81), and compare Lagh. Kaum. 608. G g 2 228 EXAMPLES OF VEKBS OF THE SECOND CONJUGATION. ^nnftl. Causal, Pres. ^m ^ jlfa, &c. ; 3d Pret. ^nfhni, &c. Des. ftnrmTfiT. Freq. WU^, XTRTfiT or xrRf»T (3d sing. -m^nffT or ^n^w). Participles, Pres. XTTTT (Nom. case xrr»^) ; Past pass, imr; Past indecl. M[r^[, -irnT ; Fut. pass. i|lri°l4, ^- »i< I Hm «M ; 3d Pret. 3d sing, vi'iiftr or -iJlH^MH. Causal, i[Hi\\?H {suh- stituted from TT at 602) or ^i N M I Ph or ^TTtRTf»T ; 3d Pret. '^nfbm or ^TTftnT or WrfxnT(vvith adhi prefixed,-»ifiJm' 493.6). Des. fifMrHMTftr (substituted from TpT at 602) or ff^WTfir, -^. Participles, Pres. xnr (Nom. case iltT ) ; Past pass. '^ ; Past indecl. ^1^, -^; Fut. pass. irfTT, ^HT- 'fh[, ^W or ^ff. EXAMPLES OF OTHER VERBS OF THE SECOND CONJUGATION IN THE ORDER OF THEIR FINAL LETTERS. 646. Root ^ (315). Inf. ^tiff 'to lie down/ 'to sleep.* Atraane. Pres. ^^, fr^, ■^tff (/ceiVat) ; :^^, ^^n^, -^nm; %*T^ {Kei/iieOa), ^^, ^hfff . Pot. ^Tfhr, ^nftTzmT, ^nftir ; ^nft^, -^Tirhn^, ^^fhnTrt ; ^nftirf^, ^iftj^, ^^^. Imp. ^^, %^, -^TTTt; ^TTRt, ^^ITm, ^Nlril j ^^TTRf, ^, %TfTf. I St Pret, ^ST^fii, ^sqnrnT, 'ST^; ^H^nP^ , 'st^xTT^, ^5T^- Tmn-, ^^mf^, '^^l^, ^r^mr. 2d Pret. f^^^, f^f^, %5^; f^^m^, %^^, ■ftfT^'Jlfff; f^TTR^, f^f^xfj^ or -f^TfS, %f^^. ist Fut. ^f^- ITTf, &c. 2d Fut. ^fgw, &c. 3d Pret. 'ST^frftrfw, ^^T^fwT^, sn^iHjH ; w^rftrE^, ^^njmvfi, ^n^irnmrii ; ^^rii ^f^^> ^f^WT; ^TH, ^f^, ^^. 1st Pret. ^^, 'yO<« or 'Sirt^^^, ^5R>^it or 'STTt^tw (Panini VII. 3. 98, 99) ; ^T^^, "^^^W, ^^f^fri ; ^T^f«^, '^^f^TT, ^l^^^. 2d Pret. ^d^, -^Y^^, FC^; ^^f^^5 ^^^^^ "^^^^^; ^^f^JT, "^^^j ■^^J^. 1st Fut. Tt r^ ril fa , &c. 2d Fut. •df^-orrfiT, &c. 3d Pret. '^!T^, ^^^, 'ii^t^ri^; ^^T^, '^r^T'^j ^r^^; ^^"W, ^r^w, ^j^TT. Or ^^rdfi^xi, '^TTt^TfT, '^R^^; ^r^T^, '5iftf^?, ^^rrtf^^t; ^rrrf^^, ^f^, ^rftf^^^. Bened. ^?rnf, &c. Cond. ^5T^^, &c. Passive, Pres. ^; 3d Pret. 3d sing. ^r^l^. Causal, Pres. 'Ct^'mf'T; 3d Pret. W^^. Des. ^^f^^nfiT. Freq. Tt^^, OClPjl (3d sing, 'dftf^) or ;ct^^ft?. Participles, Pres. ^TT; Past pass, ^f^; Past indecl. <%'n^r41, -^^; Fut. pass. ^rf^lT^, Tt^^fN, Tt?r. 654. Root ^»T (318). Inf. f^ 'to kill/ 'to strike.' Parasmai. Pres. ■^, ifs, ffnT; f^"^^, f'^IiiT, ^im; ^^^^, •^, vf^- Pot. f^, &c. Imp. ?"jrrfiT, irf^, ^^5; f«TT^, w^, ^; ^•tt't, ^tt, irg. ist Pret. w^, "^^ '^Tf ^^ (292) ; "^r?^, '^TfW, w^in ; ^l^^, '^Tf W, ^nPT. 2d Pret. lrm^ (376), inif^'«T or ^np^, inn^; ^flR (376), 'IH'iifl, i^r^-, ^TR, ^nr, ^r^^. ist Fut. ^^HI^h , &c. 2d Fut. ^fTfoiTfiT, 232 EXAMPLES OF VERBS OF THE SECOND CONJUGATION. &c. 3d Pret. (432. a) 'Si^ftR, '5T^>fhT, ^Tifhr; W^fV^, 'SRfw, ^RfvFT; ^sr^ftniT, ^Rfw, ^^fv^w . Bened. "^xm'^t, &c. Cond. ^^^- firJT, &c. Passive, Pres. f^; 2d Pret. ifW (473); 3d Pret. 'sr^ftr, ^^TfTTTO (426. b), 'snrrffT (or w^fv, borrowed from ^) ; ^f^f^, W^- ^TRT, '3T^TTrf; ^?Rf^, &c.; 1st Fut. 'f ^11% or HifHril^ , &c.; 2d Fut. ffff^ or MlPHtt l, &c. Causal, Pres. mm^ iItt; 3d Pret. ^ST^hnf. Des. ftnThnftr. Freq. Wfft^, »rff^ or ^^[fH or ^T^tfti; see 708. Parti- ciples, Pres. TTfT; Past pass. fW; Past indecl. f?^, -■^; Fut. pass. 655. Root T^TT (326), Inf. ^ ' to sleep.^ Parasmai. Pres. ^ftrfir, •^f^f^, ^v;^; ^t?^, ^nr^, ^f^TTHT; ^frr^^, ^fq"?T, ^Tjfifr. Pot. ^Tqt, &c. Imp. ^TTTf^, ^fqff , ^frj^; ^^T^, ■^ftnr, ^W; ^TIW, ^^W, ^W. ist Pret. ^^, ^st^tht or ^st^t^tt, ^T^triT or 'ST^rqtw; ^r^rftt^, &c. ; see ^^ at 653. 2d Pret. (382) ^B^TTJ, ■^^rfrsT or ^E^T^, ^x^TTT; f^^^, ^T'T'x' IT^'l^ ^l^'T* 'T'' ^l^x* ^^^ ^"^* ^rrrrftR, &c. 2d Fut. ^x^mfH, &c. 3d Pret. SH4f^j '3>^> "^^^^ IS* Fut. MP^Mlfa , &c. 2d Fut. e^r^rm r fiT, &c. 3d Pret. ^m%^, ^ITT- ^ftrr, '^nrr^fti^, &c. ; or ^-H^P^R , -^^, -^ftw, &c. ; see 427. Bened. ■g^^mfT, &c. Cond. W^f^"oi. Passive, T^ (471) ; 3d Pret. 3d sing. ^H cl l P^l or ^!T^%. Causal, Pres. ^T^TTrftr ; 3d Pret. ^3i^H^. Des. Pm n P^ I MiPh . Fre^'. m^, '^T^ftpT or TR^ftfJT. Participles, Pres. "7^; Past pass. 7%Tr; Past indecl. ^P^lH I, -"^TT; Fut. pass. '^IT^, 657. Root fi-TT (309). Inf. ^ ' to hate.' Parasmai and Atmane. Pres. if^, ^fi^ (302), i-f? (301) ; flrt-^i^^, f^H, f¥^'?T; %^^^, fk?, %^jfT. A'tm. fl"^, %■%, fl-F; f^iE^, fir^, flW; fl"^, %^j EXAMPLES OF VERBS OF THE SECOND CONJUGATION. 288 fg^k. Pot. it^, &c. i^tm. %^^, &c. Imp. t^ftrr, %ff^, i^; tm^, f^, %^; t^m, f^F, %^^. Atm. iq, f^T^, f^^; itn^, ^TTTzri, %ilTrTT; t^^lt, f^^, f^^t. ist Pret. ^tii, 'Sit? (292), ^T; ^flr^, w%^, '^rfk^t; ^5r%^, "^fws, '3i%T?7r or ^t%^. Xtm. '^rf^ftr, ^!T%¥nT, 'sif^F; 'sifirx^, ^%tTT^f, 'STf^^wf ; '^^'T^, ^fg^, ^ff-inr. 2d Pret. f^itr, f^lf^^, f^t^; f^^f^^, f^^^r-^, f^f^r^wir; ^fTm, f^xi, f^f¥^,. i^tm. f^fw^, f^fFfw, f f^nm; f^^nr, fi^V, f^?f^. A'tm. f^^, fv^, f^T^; f^i, f^?!"^, II h 234 EXAMPLES OF VERBS OF THE SECOND CONJUGATION. f^^; f^?, fyjrik (306. d), %^. Pot. f^, &c. Xtm. f^Tj, &c. Imp. ^^Tf^, ff^fhj, ^TV; ^fR, fi^, -fi^TVT; ^^TH, f^, f^^. ^tm. ^t, fw, f^^; ^T^, f^rzn, ffW, V=r% (306. a), f^^fhi (305) ; ^5^^, ^nm, ^^^^; pT^^, |tv, j^f^. iVtm. p, VW, |TV; |3^, ^T^, ^m ; |it|, y^i^ (306. rf), 1^^. Pot. ^, &c. Xtm. l^iT, &c. Imp. ^ jl^ iPH, ^f"J (306. c), 'd^T^t. ffT^f, J^TfTT ; ^>^Flt, W^ (306. ^/), j^irf. 1st Pret. Wtf, ^>ftcir or wtiT (292. a), w^taa or wt^T; ^^T^, ^^l^^, "^"n; ^rpi, ^^, ^rp«T. Xtm. w^f^, ^T^TTjnr, ^sn^; ^j^i^, ^r^fit, ^r^Tirf; W^, ^STVTS^, ^3?!^. ad Pret. ^>?, ^>f^TJr, ^>f ; ff^^» J5^^» H^^^x; I5^» m> Iff 'I- A'tm. Ill, Ijff^, lit ; Hf^, IpT^, ipr^; Iff^l, ||ff^ or -|, ||f^. ist Fut. ^vrftn. Atm. ^V^f , &c. 2d Fut. vV^iftr. i^tm. v^w, &c. 3d Pret. (439. a) ^w^, wu^Tff, w^^; '^r^STTW, '5T^^, '^ro^t; ^^th, ^^w, wsj"?r. i^tm. (439. c) w^fm, ^^^^^^ or ^sr^nn^, ^^ or ^J^J^; ^^mjRf^, '5TH^T^, '^sfnri; ^vpp?Tff, '^w or ^sr^^, ^^^. Bened. 5^n^. i^tm. ^^hj, &c. Cond. wM. i^tm. '5i^ft^, &c. Passive, Pres. |^; 3d Pret. 3d sing, ^"^ff . Causal, Pres. ^"V^'qiftr; 3d Pret. ^H|p. Des. ^v^Tftr, -•%. Frey. ■^^, ^^t^ (3d sing. ^>fftfni). Participles, Pres. ■^^,^-^T^; Past pass. ?ni ; Past indecL ^im, -pr; Fut. pass. ^^, ^>^^, ^>3I. EXAMPLES OF VERBS OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION. 235 66 1. Root foJir. Inf. ^ ' to lick.' Parasmai and Atmane. Pres. ^ftr, Hf^ (306), ^fs (305. a) ; f?73fTT, o5^^^ (305. a), <^^; ff5^, cjfe, rrJ^Pfl. Ktm. ft5^, f?5^, H^ ; Prtd^^, ff^^ni, fr5fT'^; fc5^, c^f , Prt^fi . Pot. fcT^. Xtm. f?5?ttr, &c. Imp. ^^iP^, "FJtf^ (306. c), ^^; ^^"R, <^^, <9^; c^TH, <9t2", ft^^^. Atm. '^, fr9T^, pjtet; rt^r^l, r<=5'?T^f, fpj^nrf; ^toI, f^ (306. c), fc^rn. 1st Pret. ^^?, ^T^7 or ^?T^^ (292. a), "^Z or W^^; '5Tfe^, '^1?^^, %4o»ld] ; ^!Tip5^, Wc!^-^, '^ifT^^. Atm. ^?5f^, ^^Tc^l^m, Wc^t^; ^fe- 3^, '3Tf?jfT5lf, ^^rfefTfri; ^fc5^f^, Wf5^, ^fe?W. 2d Pret. fc5^f , fc^^ff^, ff5^; fc5fc5ff^, fcTfe^^^, Pc^rci^ri^^; frjicjf?^, fefc5?, fT^fefTT. i^tm. -fefcjl, PpiPriP^ ^, &c. 1st Fut. ^J^W. Atm. rt rfl^ , &c. 2d Fut. -^^rrftl. Atm. ■^^j &c. 3d Pret. (439. a) ?hPc9JJj, -"^^5 -W[^'i -W^y -■^> -WTT; -^JFT, -'^, -W{- Atm. (439. c) ^rft^f^, ^fe^^T^^ or ^e^^TW, ^ftysiW or ^STc^'fe; ^fe^T^ff , -Hjivji, -Hflrii ; wfesFFff^, ^fe^s^f or ^TrS^, ^Prtttj'"- Bened. fe- ^m. Atm, fe^^, &c. Cond. 'ST^^. iV!tm. WST^, &c. Passive, Pres. -fe^; 3d Pret. 3d sing. ^fV. Causal, Pres. ^^^iPh; 3d Pret. ^Hf«j1P<«J^. Des. PrtPrtiJJlPH, -■^. i^reg'. '^ft?^, H^fsr (3d sing. ^^fe). Participles, Pres. fcJflT; Atm. fn^R; Past pass. 7^-, Past indecl. T^tft, -fc5^ ; Fut. pass. ^^, ^^t^, H^. EXAMPLES OF PRIMITIVE VERBS OF THE THIRD CONJU- GATION, EXPLAINED AT 330. 662. Root "W hu. Infin. ^tt hotum, '■ to sacrifice.' Parasmai-pada. Present tense, ' I sacrifice.' 'n'i\VR juhomi "W^u^ juhoshi sf^qiH juhuydm »ic*)l*i juhuyds ■ST^xmr juhuydt ^5<4lP«T juhavdni ^r^V juhudhi (291) '3T"5'^^ juhuvas * M^A*\ juhutas Potential, ' I may sacrifice.' aT J<4 1 rt juhuyutam Tf^Mlfll juhuydtdm Imj)erative, ' Let me sacrifice.' 3t^*<^ juhumas f ■^d^ Pri juhwati »T?*II*1 julmydma ■^^■mTT juhuydt a l{^*ih juhuyus W^TTR juhavdma '^'^ juhuta WS^IT juhwatu * Or ^df^ 7«/m H h 2 t Or 'SRl^ juhmas. 236 EXAMPLES OF VERBS OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION. First preterite, ' I was sacrificing/ ■«<^?<^ ajuhavam ^^^ ajuhuva -^^^H ajuhuma "W*i^l«^ ajuhos ^^%^ ujuhatam ^'§?rT ajuhuta ^nT^tiT o/mAo/ ^nr^TTT ujuhutdm ■»Hai^^"'H ajuhavus (330) 2cl Pret. {367. ^») ^^, ^ffV^ or ^?hT, ^?T^; fff^j ^f^^v» iP^x' fl^^' IP' ffl^x- ^^ ^^T^^HTT, &c.; see 385. c. ist Fut. -ftFrfer, &c. 2d Fut. -^rVanffr, &c. 3d Pret. ^srft^, '^T^ift^, W^N^; ^^Hi|h^, 'sr^, WflFT; ^^, 'S?^, W^^^- Bened. f^nf, &c. Cond. 'S'^luT, &c. Passive, Pres. fr^ ; 3d Pret. 3d sing. ?n^lf^, Causal, Pres. irRxrrftT; 3d Pret. %Mi^^4 . Des. ^mf*T. Freq. ^t^, i^titVR or sfl^cOfrr. Participles, Pres. ^3^; Past pass. ^; Past indecl. ^Wf, -Jjq; Fut. pass. i\A^, ^ml^, ^^ or ^Fq. EXAMPLES OF OTHER VERBS OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION IN THE ORDER OF THEIR FINAL LETTERS. 663. Root ^T isSS)- Inf. ^T^ ' to give.' Parasmai and Atmane. Pres. ^Tfir, ^^'^, ^ ^^; ^TT, ^, ^«fff. Atm. (^t, r^ (42. c) ; ^TJRT, * The root being practically ^ is amenable to 42. c. EXAMPLES OF VERBS OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION. 237 •UW, ^Vfk. i^tm. ^V, Vr^, vi; ^££lt, V^, V^ y V^.i ^*? «T^- Pot. ^w, f^rmw, &c. i^tm. ^vhi, ^^fhmr, &c. Imp. ^vrfJT, vf^, ;^VT!iT, ^vnrf; ^>imt, v^, ^>nrf. ist Pret. 'si^vf, ^t^vt^, ^^^rnr; ^r^, '^nr^, ^rvwf; '3t»^, '^tvt^, "STf^vrr. Xtm. ^nfiV, ^rvrmn, ^3>iw; ^^s^, ^i»^Tzn, '^i^VTiTt; 'sr^tjrf^, ^^nrt, 'sj^^iw. 2d Pret. (373) ^, ^^ or ^>mr, ^^; ^fVi^, ^^, ^^^; ^ftnr, ^, ^^. Atm. ^, ^f\m, &c. ; see ^T at 66^. ist Fut. v i rilPw . -^tm. VTintj> &c. 2d Fut. VT??nfJT. Atm. \Tr^, &c. 3d Pret. (438) ^Tvf, W*n^, ^Tvnr; ^sniR, ^tvtw, 'STvnn; ^^nnT, ^srvnw, ^t«f. A'tm. (438. d) ^fvftr, ^fvqnr, ^rftrw; ^ftix^jf^, ^ftiRT^n, ^^Tfytmrt ; 'srfv^JTf^, ^rfvj4 or -^, iSfM^TT. Bened. vrnw. i^tm. VTTP&"JI, &c. Cond. 'SiVT^. i^tm. ^rvp^, &c. Passive, Pres. \ft^; ist Fut. >JTfinn% or vnn^; 3d Pret. 3d sing, ^rvrftl. Causal, vt m ^i Ph ; 3d Pret. ^^"hpf. De*. fvrfSFnfJT (503). Freg. ^>ft^, ^TVrf'T or ^f»T. Participles, Pres. ^>ri^ (141- «) ; Atm. ^>rR; Past pass, f^; Past indecl. f^rH, -VFI; Fut. pass. a. Root JTT (338). Inf. ^r^ 'to measure.^ j^tmane. Pres. f^^, fifft^ or firfTr^ t? rH»flri or ftrfiTW ; PhhI^^ or firfiT^ f? Phhi^, fimiw ; fMt*r% or rMPHM^tj fM^s^ or frrfiTsgft? f*WW. Pot. fjT»friT, rH»fl^m, fifTlftlT, &C. Imp. fj?t, fk^f^ or firflT^ f, fimVrTT or f^rflTlTf t ; fMHIcjl, pMHrni , fTTTTTfTT; fimFitj f^ift^ or firfrrs^t, fMrwf. ist Pret. ^^iftrftT, ^^{pH Hi'^m^ or ^ fHpHviR ^t, '^rfiTjft'ff or ^irfiTTT t ; 'iJpHHT^P^ or '^PhPh-nP^, ^rf^iTRif, '^rfjTHTiTf; ^^rfTTHbrff or 'srfWiiTf^ t, ^Jrfifra^s^ or wfirfiTs^t, ■^hPhhtt. 2d Pret. ^^, ^f^^, rj^; hPhcj^, jt?tt^, jrhtw; hPhji^, tPr^^ or -|-, Hfiit- 1st Fut. qnnt, &c. 2d Fut. jtt^, &c. 3d Pret. (433. a) ^mrftr, ^hhi^i ^, ^mrcr; ^mi^rf^, ^tjttot^, ^mraTin ; ^trt- wff , ^R75^, 'smTTnT. Bened. RnfttT, &c. Cond. ^WT^, &c. Pas- sive, Pres. Jft^ ; 3d Pret. 3d sing, ^hh I Pn . Causal, WTWm^ ; 3d Pret. ^Tfftjni. De^. pHWlftl , -W (503). Freq. ^^^f(\^^, HTrrrftr or iT'mfJT. Participles, Pres. f5fTTTT«T; Past pass. "firiT; Past indecl. Phhi, -HT^, -iftiT; Fut. pass. JTrW^I, JTT^IT, ^. 665. Root fT (337). Inf. fT^g ' to quit.^ Parasmai. Pres. sTflf'T, iTfrftr, =H^lPri; =H^1'=<« or ^P^^mf, ^T^hnr^ or irfT'I^t, ^T^^THT or * The aspirate is thrown back on the initial of the root, both before terminations beginning with s and t, and before dhwe and dhwam, as in roots ending in ■? h. Compare 306. d. t According to some authorities. See Foster. 238 EXAMPLES OF VERBS OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION. TiP^Hfl* ; "SfT^hm or "Sff^rm^, W^ or "Sfff^*, aT^frT. Pot. iT?n, »r?niT, &c. Imp. H^tCh, sTfttf or irfVf^ or sTTrf^, »TfT^; 'T^^, i^n or irir^ri *, =H^1rii or iff^lTf*; WfTT, '^^li or afP^d *, »I^. ist Pret. WiTff, iSRfniT, ^^T^rnr; ^n?i^1Tf , WpT. 1st Fut. ^WTf^T, &C. 2d Fut. fT^TTfTT, &C. 3d Pret. (433) -n^ir«4, '^T^TTft^, ^n^T^; ^sr^^t^, ^n^ifa^ , 'STfTftTFT; WflftniT, '5<^inH{f, ^^T^^^^. Bened. ^^TW, &c. Cond. '^^1*4. Passive, Pres. ^^; 3d Pret. 3d sing, ^r^rftl. Causal, Pres. ^4*4 iPh ; 3d Pret. 'snft^Ti. Des. fw^rWffR. Freq. ^% ^TT?rrfiT or intfji. Participles, Pres. ir^ (i4i' «) ; Past pass, '^trf; Past indecl. l^i^T, -fT^; Fut. pass. T\l^, ^pft^, f^. 666. Root H^ (333). Inf. H^ ' to fear.' Parasmai. Pres. f^^fir, f^P^T^, f%>TfiT ; f^i^fi^^ or f^fir^, f^vft^ or f^firq^^, f^>ft?T^^ or fsrfH- 7T^^; f^'ift^^^or f^f^H^, f^irhr or f^-g, f^vqfiT (34). Pot. f^^lt or f^fMHi, &c. Imp. f^MXTrPrf, f^^ftf^ or fMWf^, fw^TW; f^>T"m^, f%>Thf or f^fiTrf, f^llTT or f^ftrTTT; f^H^TR, ■Mtw or f^iT, ftr«m (34). ist Pret. wf^^ni, ^f^ihr, wNhit; ^rI^^tN^ or ^rf^fir^, wf^vftif or ^fMHTT, ^f^Hhrt or ^f^fWlTT; ^rf^lrT or ^r^fiw, ^Tf%>fhT or ^fM^, ^f%H^^ (330)- Or f^tT ^MchK (385. c). 2d Pret. (367) -f^m^, ftwftm or f^^, f^m; f^f«r^, fw«T^^, f%«rff^^; f%f«m, f^^r, f^^^^- ist Fut. irmf^, &c. 2d Fut. H^mftr, &c. 3d Pret. ^H^i, ^h^, ^§- xftlT; ^H^^, 'SW^, '5W^ ; ^§^, '3?^, '^TH^^. Bened. vfhrPET. Cond. ^^. Passive, Pres. h^; 3d Pret. 3d sing, '^vrrfxr. Causal, Pres. >TTinnfiT or -q^, or >TR^ or >ftira ; 3d Pret. 'ST^fhTTT or w^^ or wsftf^^. Des. f^i![^[^\fiR. Freq. ^p^ or ^^fir or %>TT(tfiT. Participles, Pres. f^«nr (141. a) ; Past pass. >frfT; Past indecl. >Tt^, -iTt^T; Fut. pass. a. Root ^t. Inf. fW ' to be ashamed.' Parasmai. Pres. ftr^ftr, ftrlft, fiTifw; f^-^^, M^H, ftr^hf^j fwiws, f%fhl, M^TJ^ {123. «). Pot. r»i ^l4j t, &c. Imp. ftr^mftir, fiTfiff , ftlFj; fwfin^, HH^Iri , nH^Iri) ; ftrfxriH, r=H ^ri , ■Nrfl^. ist Pret. ^il^, ^'Tf^, 'STftrJlT; ^flTl^^, 'srflTFhf, 'STfjTI^Fr; ^SlftrfN, 'STftritlT, '^rflTf^^^ {i?,o)' 2d Pret. f^rrnr, ftrff^m or f^^, f'TfT'T ; fiffff^ (367- «)? P'Tff^r^^, ftrfFTg^; ftrf^ftR, ftrfi^, "f^rfi^^^. ist Fut. lirrftR, &c. 2d Fut. * According to some authorities. See Foster. EXAMPLES OF VERBS OF THE SEVENTH CONJUGATION. 239 ^Tanfir, &c. 3d Pret. ^f^, w^^^^j '^^'^; "^^^ -^^ -^; w^' -■?> -"1^. Bened. fhn^. Cond. W^^. Passive, Pres. -^xf; 3d Pret. 3d sing, ^f i fi r. Causal, Prcs. frnnfi?; 3d Pret. '^wf^*. Des. ftrFtmfiT. Freq. W^, ^fftf or ^^iOPH. Participles, Pres. ftrfT^TT^ (141. a) ; Past pass. "^ or ■^; Past indecl. "^t?^ ; Fut. pass. fTT^, 6. Root ir^. Inf. ^rftT'5 ' to produce.' Parasmai. Pres. 'snif^, ^ntftr or ^nrfTTtT, inrf^iT; ^nr^w, ^nn^^^, "jnTTiT^^; iht^, "snTR, iT^iT. Pot. snn^t or "3T»TT^, &c. Imp. TTTTVTTfVr, iT*rrf^, "3nr|; w^TTT^, »nnff, TiJTirii; ^nrTFT, mfnir, jt^w. ist Pret. ^rrjinf, 'snnT^ (292. a), wsfw^; ^ ^^'4 , ^inmf, ^^nnTTwf; ^Ti^i-M, ^sTinTTfr, ^nr^. 2d Pret. jtwr or »nnT, inrf^, ^nn^; "sff^^, 'T^^'^'^v' "T^^^x^ ^t^t, W^r, w?!;. ist Fut. Ti fwrilfai , &c. 2d Fut. sirnmiPH, &c. 3d Pret. ^Hrnf^^, ^^^m^, WiTT^; ^^nTTf^"^, &c. Or ^nrffnr, &c. ; see 427. Bened. Tpgm or ^n^m, &c. Cond. ^^if^^, &c. Passive, Pres. 'in^ (compare 617. a) or »T^ ; 3d Pret. 3d sing. ''BflTf^. Causal, Pres. iR^TfjT; 3d Pret. ^nfhnf. Des. f^nrf^. Freq. >iMH or W^, »f^^. Participles, Pres. "Sf^nr (141. a); Past pass. aTTiT, ^TftTTT; Past indecl. iff^T, -"W^, -»TPT; Fut. pass, llf^nr^, 'n=Rt^, ^PT. EXAMPLES OF PRIMITIVE VERBS OF THE SEVENTH CON- JUGATION, EXPLAINED AT 342. 667. Root f^ chhid. Infin. 'if^ chhettum, ' to cut.' Parasmai-pada. Present tense, ' I cut.' f^pfRT chhinadmi 'reT'TmT chkinatsi T%*Tt% chhinatti Mg^'fill chhindydm na»€ll^ chhindyds V3(R3ilK chhindydt n^Hr^lPH chhinaddn f^f^ chhinddhi f MSt«iri chhinattu rSFl^ chhindwas fgr^'^^ chhinthas (345) fg^fi^ chhintas (345) Potential, ' I may cut.' f^FSTR' chhindydva hj^'^in chhindydtam rBr^rnrr chhindydtdm Imperative, ' Let me cut.' ■repT^T^ chhinaddva f^pif chhintam (345) ■pBptrf chhintam (345) fc^r^^ ckhindmas f^Spi chhintha (345) fstt^ffi chhindanti hs^'SII*! chhindydma rst'tl I rt chhindydta VS^SIS chhindyus f^[*T^TR chhinaddma rri^»d chhinta (345) n4*4»H chhindantu So Foster. Westergaard gives ^Oh^M. f Or f3[f^ chhindhi, see 345. 240 EXAMPLES OP VERBS OP THE SEVENTH CONJUGATIOK. First preterite, ' I was cutting.' vlhji^ achhinadam ■^Petrg achhindwa ^TRTRT achhindma ^re^Hn achhinat (292) ^rr5»tT achhintam ^f^^ achhinta "Sihs^rirt achhinat (292) ^T^piTT achhintam ^TreT^'?!' achhindan 2d Pret. fNr^ (48. Z»), fg-^f^, f^^ ; f^f^i^, f^fs^^iT, f^fe- ^HW^; f^Pxriin^H , -Nf®^, f^^J^^. I St Fut. %WTfFT, &c. 2cl Fut. in^rrftr, &c. 3d Pret. ^rf^, ^f%^?T, -yPsi^f^ft^; '^rfg^T^, ^srf^^cf, 'srf^- ^; 'ilP^^m, ^^5^, ^rf^-R;. Or ^wm, ^W^'\-^, ^%rRhT; ^ifr^, ^%W, ^%wf; ^rFT, ^1%^, '^l^TT. Bened. fs^T^, &c. Cond. ^M^(*<|, &c. Xtmane-pada. Present tense, ' I cut.' 'rS[»^ chhinde VS^"^ chhindwahe T%T?I^ chhivdmahe r«t«T« chhintse Pg^t^^l'M chhinddthe VS}'^ chhinddhwe "TgJnT chhinte (345) f%»^TW chhinddte T^^fT chhindate Ma»t{i*4 chhindtya f^Ft?^^^ chhindifhds iistn^lrt chhindtta Pstl^ chhinadai ■^Pr^ chhintswa ns^»fii chhintdm W^l^ achhindi ^ri^^^rra' achhinthds ■««r«t»n achhinta Potential, ' I may cut.' rts^t{lqi% chhindwahi T^'«^rRT^ chhindtmahi VSy^'m^l chhindiydthdm f^«^T5^ chhindidhwam ni'^liTTflT chhindiydtdm T^S^^X^ chliindiran Imperative, ' Let me cut.' f%«T^r^^ chhinaddvahai haW^I*<% chhlnaddmahai Piat^l^ chhinddthdm V3[^Tin chhinddtdm First preterite. ^T^Fl'Ti^ achhindwahi '3?PQ«^l'qi achhinddthdm ^P«^«T^ldl achhinddtdm f^^ chhinddhwam TiS^«t^rtl chhindatdm ^fSF^TT^ nchhindmalii ^ay^r^ achhinddhwam ^r^S^T^rt achhindata 2d Pret. PxjPad,^, fsrf^^, f^f^a;^; fgf^P^^I, f^f^^T^, f^f^^TH; f^fsf^»=rt, -Nf^f^s^, ■Nfgrf^T. ist Fut. %wt|, &c. 2d Fut. -gi^, &c. 3d Pret. 'uPsiPrW, ^!Ti%r^nT, ^f%^ ; '^rfg-f^f^, '^rf^wrgf, '^rfsTr^mrf ; '^rf^f^Rl^, 'uPci^, ^srf^rww. Bened. %wt^, &c. Cond. '5ii(^. Pas- sive, Pres. fs[€f, &c. ; 3d Pret. 3d sing. '^T^f^. Causal, Pres. %^Tf*T ; 3d Pret. ^srfeifscf. -De^. f^ftai^ft?, -i^. i^rey. -^fsa^, ^-^ftr. P«r- ticiples, Pres. f^R[TT; i^tm. fdr<^ | Vi ; Past pass. f^{^; Past indecl. f%^, -f^; Fut. pass, -g^^, %^rfN, ^. EXAMPLES OF VERBS OP THE SEVENTH CONJUGATION. 541 EXAMPLES OF OTHER VERBS OF THE SEVENTH CONJUGATION IN THE ORDER OF THEIR FINAL LETFERS. 668. Root ^W- Inf. ^^ ' to anoint,' ' to make clear.' Parasmai. Pres. 'ST^rftn, ^"^f^ (296), 'SRf^ ; '^igiT, '^^RW, ^^^; WSp;^, W^^^, '■H^r>ri . Pot. W3?TT, &c. Imp. -^TTinffT, ^fnr, ^^^ ; '^l^nTT'^, #^, '^liT; -ssnnTm, ■^j ^T^. ist Pret. -SST^, '!fR<* (292), -HHcf ; ^5Ttw, ^^, ^STTlit; ^^rirH, '^ft^, 'STT^. 2d Pret. -HM^, '^n'^W?! or ^H'cty, ^"R^; WRf^^, WR^Y^l' "^N^iTF; ^-Rf^TT, ^T?r^, ^T^^. ist Fut. ^^f^T or ^f^Trrfm, &c. 2d Fut. ^^^ifsr or ^rfw^rfH, &c. 3d Pret. ^nf^^, ^517^^, ^m^lri^ ; ^nf^^, &c., see 427. Bened. 4<3^nl (452. b). Cond. wrm or ^^rriVof. Passive, Pres. ^n^ (469) ; 3d Pret. 3d sing. ^!rrfw. CcM^a/, Pres. ^^xrrfk; 3d Pret. ^rrf^if- Des. '^Tf^ftr^rm. Participles, Pres. W^ ; Past pass, ^sns ; Past indecl. ^f^r^ or wm or ^w, -^i^T; Fut. pass. ^^^^ or ^%W^, ^^^^, Wrfi or ■^ny. fl. Root >T3T (346). Inf. >tV^ 'to eat,' 'to enjoy.' Parasmai and i^tmane. Pres. ^prfTR, H^^, >j^f^ ; ^ipr, )j^=^^, ij^iT ; HtFTTT, »j^^, ^T^f^. A'tm. H^, H^, >T%; >p?^, vj^%, >|WTW; ihrrt, htj^, >f^. Pot. ^s?n, &c. i^tm. >^t^, &c. Imp. iTTT^fVr, Hfnr, >T?r^ ; ^'Tt^, )j^, ij^; >pTiTm, >T^, >T^. Atm. >pr%, WT^, H#; jpnTT^t, iJ^Flt, HWnn; ^^»Tmt, ^^^ *J^wt. ist Pret. ^ipTW, ^>J^T5Jr (292), ^»pT^; ^'J, ^^5 ^^; ^*|'ff, '^w^, ^^"57. Kiva. ^>Tf^, ^TipRinT, ^^; '^THWfV, ^H^TJlf, '^TiJ^Tiri; ^5T>rfrd^, •^^, ^iTWtT- 2d Pret. WHT, ^HtfiTT, "^vrtjT; ^>TftT^, '^HiT^^T, -^^nTFTT; ^tTfTnT, ^>pT, ^^J^'T- i^tm. •^iT%, fifftR, '^»5^; -ftr^, -'5Tr^, -wi^; -ftnif, -f»TJ^, -fiTT. ist Fut. vrf^ifw. i^tm. >ft^T?, &c. 2d Fut. Ht^iffT. Atm. ift^, &c. 3d Pret. ^mT^, -Tfhff, ^tTT; ^m?^, ^3W^, -^t ; ^m^, WN, ^m^^. Atm. '5T>Tf%, IJWoF^nT, ^^; ^W^ff, ^»T- ■?^T^, ^iT^Tirf ; ^^f?, ^>Ttj4, ^^K. Bened. ^i^TO, &c. Atm. >T^hr, &c. Cond. ■WTT!^, &c. Xtm. ^w^, &c. Passive, Pres. iliq'; 3d Pret. 3d sing. '^Tifrftr. Causal, Pres. vrnrmftr, -^^•, 3d Pret. W|;)?iT. Des. WiJ^fiT, -"%. Fye*/. '^>T'^, "^WtfriT. Participles, Pres. >|g7r; A'tm. ij^TT; Past pass. >T^; Past indecl. >Twr, ->J5q"; Fut. pass. >frai^, H^irfhr, HtxJT or >T>nT- 669. Root VT^ (347)- Inf. 4^ 'to break.' Parasmai. Pres. >T^TfViT, H^f^, >?^f^; HW^, ifcRI^, H^^; HtJTTT, Hcf-^T, >l^f^. Pot. >n?Tt, &c. Imp. ^RWrf^, Hfnj, mr^; H^^nqf, H^, H#; H^iTR, H^, >T^. 1st Pret. ^!TiR*r, ^WVT'Sff (292), ^VT^Tejr ; ^w^, '^TH^, ^4^T; I i 242 EXAMPLES OF VEllBS OF THE SEVENTH CONJUGATION. 'CTvhR, ^5M^, 'SW^. 2d Pret. ^ir^, ■^iif^R or "^oRl, ^H^ ; ^Hf^^, ^^T^'^^, "^H^^^; "WHf^^, ^>i^, ^>T^TtT. 1st Fut. 4^1 fw, &C. 2d Fut. >T^Tf»T, &c. 3d Pret. ^m^, -'^H, -"^'^; "^W, "^f^rm, -^; ^swfsp, ^Tvrr^, ^^MT^^. Bened. MTi^lTTf, &c. (452. b). Cond. ^nt^, &c. Passive, Pres. H5^ (469) ; 3d Pret. 3d sing. '^MTftT. Causal, Pres. >7gTITfiT; 3d Pret. 'sr^H^. De^. f%>T^TfiT. Freg. -snr^, -^ijfm. Participles, Pres. vr^; Past pass. hjtT; Past indecl. vriiT or ^nrr, -HST; Flit. pass. 4ii^, >T^T}hT, >n?T. 670. Root ^rsT . Inf. "^^ ' to join/ * to unite.^ Parasmai and Atmane. Pres. ^ri Pt H , ^■i H if, &c. ; see >pT at 668. a. Kim. -g^, ^, &c. ; see 668. a. Pot. "^i^t, &c. Xtm. ^^1i|, &c. Imp. MHWir^, ■nfrvT, ^^ ; ^^?nTT^, &c. ; see 668. a. i^tm. '^^, "5^, '^W, &c. ist Pret. w^r^t, ^^^hf (292), 4|^H<* ; W^, &c. ; see 668. a, Kim., ^^f^, W^TJinr, &c. 2d Pret. -^^, ^*\\^^n, "5^^; "g^'T^? &c.; see >Ti^^ at 668. a. Kim. "g^^, &c. ist Fut. 41^ 1 fa , &c. Kim. TTf^iT^, &c. 2d Fut. ift^TfH, &c. i^tm. ift^, &c. 3d Pret. ^^r^, -aTH, -"STrT ; -*rR, -"snr, -itttt; -sTtt, -»nT> -^T'T. Or ^nn^, -"sjIf, -#?r; -iiiuKjl, &c.; see 668. a. Kim. W^, '5Pg«F^mT, '^J'p;; 'H^iyH^, &c. Bened. "f^^TTO, &c. Kim. ■^^|hr. Cond. ^iff^. Kim. w^^. Passive, Pres. ^^^ ; 3d Pret. 3d sing. '^TftftT, see 702. Causal, Pres. TftjTmfiT; 3d Pret. '^T^^. Des. ^X^^f^, -■%. Freq. "^TW^, xft''fri%iT. Participles, Pres. "g"^; i^tm. ^^n ; Past pass. ■^ ; Past indecl. -giiT, -"gW; Fut. pass, ift^^, ^»nfhi, '^^ or ^iti^r. 671. Root ^. Inf. ^:i 'to hinder.' Parasmai and i^tmane. Pres. ^Trrfar, ^T!ifw, ^wf^ ; ^'SEJ^, ^IT^*, ^¥^^* ; ^^»m , ^^ *? ^^fffT. A'tm. ^, ^Tf^, ^*; ^^«r^, ^s'Mi'ii, ^^grw; ^^«t|, ^, ^^W. Pot. ^^, &c. Kim. ^^ifhi, &c. Imp. •^?ir^^, ^ft¥, '^w^; ^3pn^, ^^*, ^it*; ^VT*T, '^'ir*, ^^^«l^. A'tra. ■^TJit, -^r^, ^ST; ^iTjin^t, ^T^T^if, ^ ^ irii; ^vthI, ^f, ^^^nrt. ist Pret. ^r^wv, ^5T^iTTrr or ^5T^i!T^ or ^^T5W (292), ^sr^iin^ or ^?^5!I^; ^T^Hsr, ^r^¥, ^T^^lT ; '^T^^wT, "si^'ir, ^r^^»^. i^tm. ^^f^, '^r^^^^, '^r^^ ; ^^^orff , W^-s^n^, ^*>"-yirii; ^(jvu«5rriTT or ^>^fiT. Participles, Pres. ^TRIT ; Past pass, '^nr ; Past indecl. "^sn^, -"'^TFet ; Fut. pass. '-ylri-sH, 677. Root V t- Inf. vf^ or vt^ ' to shake,' ' to agitate.' Parasmai and i^tmane. Pres. VTrfiT, wrftf^, Vrftfir ; ^"^^^ or "»^^, ^"^j Y^^,; 1^^, or TTiim, v-g^, -JTr^frjr. A'tm. v^, v^^, y:^; v^^ or -q^^, ^?TR, >JV^W; tj^itI or V^jtI, V^sg, v^. Pot. v^-qf, &c. Xtm. Vf^^, &c. Imp. VtrtTtt, ^3, "^W ; vtrt^, -q^if, Y;^t; vir^TiT, Yl^' '?^^- ^*"^- ''^' V^^' "^^5 'i^T^T^j >T»:^T5lf, Vf'^TTTT; Y^T^TTt, 'w^s^' ^"^T. ist Pret. '^rww^, ^Y^'^x' "^^^7^5 wvr^^ or 'STV^, 'sryn^TT, ^v^; ^^^ ®^' wutjt, '^■^, '^rvv^^. Atm. ^srufV"^, ^'^YT'^^x' ^^ 5 ^^^ °^ ^r«rj^5 ^sru^TT^f , ^stv^'^tttt ; ^^jrf^, ^^^4, ^r«r?^ff . 2d Pret. (367. b) J^T^, J^^^ or jvhr, ^^TR ; lY^' J^^^x' lY^^v 5 I^^' J^' 5¥Fl- ^^"^- J^^' ^^' ^ 5 rrvif^^, fTVRT^, rfWff; fTvf^t, ^^s^ or -^, ^f^. 1st Fut. vfTfrrftR or Vtrrrftff, &c. Atm. Mf^TTlt or vtlTTf , &c. 2d Fut. vf^- "^mf^ or VtTtrrfT. Atm. vf^W or \ft^. 3d Pret. t "^nnf^, W^TRhf, ^3ivT^ ; ^r uiPc^M , ^^Tvrfw, ^srvif^ ; '^nnfw, ^nrri^, ^rMiG^M^^. Or ^5T^, -•Efhr, -Tfhr; ^^imw, "^rmw, -¥f; wn??, ^nn^, ^sr^'grr. A'tm. ^^rvif^ft, ^snrftrsrr^^, ^3wf%¥; ^nrf^^Mr^, ^srvf^^m, -t^tttt; ^r^fcj'+tns, * This root, although manifestly following the 5th conjugation, is placed by- Indian grammarians under the ist class. t This root may also be conjugated in the 9th conjugation ; thus, Pres. Y^TTIT, Y^nftr, Y^fW; Y''^' ^^-'^ ^^^ ^^^= '^^^ ^" *'^^ ^*^^ (Y^^ 280). in the latter case the 3d Pret. is 'JHYf^W, &c. ; see 432. EXAMPLES OP VERBS OF THE FIFTH CONJUGATION. 247 ^wf^i^ (-f)j ^nifTRH". Or 'snrrf^, w«Tt¥T^, wt¥; wt^^lV, "^^ftm^, -tmrf; ^4ir^ , w^ia[ (-^), wNTT. Bened. v^rnr. A'tm. vrf^tftrr or Vt^Tf, &c. Cond. ^snrf^'oi or wtW, &c. i^tm. ^HtTt^ &c. or ^rvft"^ &c. Passive, Pres. -w^, &c.; 3d Pret. 3d sing. ^^TOlf^. Causal, Pres. v^TfT^T or VTTmftr; 3d Pret. "^r^^ or 'Sl^M^. Des. JV^nf^, -^. Freq. ^^, ^\^tf^ or ^>M^Mtt. Participles, Pres. "U»^; i^tm. '^;;:^T^ ; Past pass, vw or >nT ; Past indecl. Yj^^ -^5 5 Fut. pass. vfrfT^ or vtfT^, VTJfi"ir, VT^ or v^. a. After v may be conjugated the root ^ ' to press out the juice of the Asclepias plant,' which in native grammars is the model of the 5th conjugation ; thus, Pres. W^tf^, ^"tf^^, &c. The two futures reject i; thus, ist Fut. ^inftR, &c. 678. Root ^ or ^ *. Inf. ^crfr^ or wdl^ or ^* ' to spread/ ' to cover.' Parasmai and i^tmane. Pres. ^TifrfiT, &c. ; see "^ at 675. Atm. ^^, ^in^, &c. Pot. Frrrnrt, ^rnrnrT^, &c. Kim. WT^^^, &c. Imp. ^THTrftr, &c. j^tm. ^^%, &c. ist Pret. ^irfTIR, &c. Atm. wftF, &c. ; see 675. 2d Pret. (331. c) TreTR, TI^"^, Tt^TT; H^ft^, ■nW'l^*^, W^^W^^; TT^IT?, rl'CTT, TfET^. i^tm. rf^T, rf^ft;^, l!Wt ; rrerii:^, w^Tm, it^cRtw; TT^frfr^rf, ri^fi:s^ or -|, TrerfrT. ist Put. ^frffTftFT or ^T^TTTWT or ^TfttT, &c. i^tm. ^fTTfTT^ or H^m? or WWTf, &c. 2d Fut. ?TrftTtTTfiT or ^fT^T'T^Tf'T . Xtm. ^t^^ or ^TT, -^iti. 681. Root ^Ti. Inf. ^TT ' to obtain.' Parasmai. Pres. ^TM^fH, ^nTTtfti, '^Tufrfir; 'iiiM^^, '^n^Tz^T, 'sn^jrnr; ^snrm^, ^t^, ^i«^ffi. Pot. ^^, &c. Imp. -hiUchPh, Wf?, '^niftW; ^TTRT^, WW, --31; ^TTRTT, '^n^, '^n^w. ist Pret. ^^nrrf, 'smfti^, ^rra^; ^rg^, ^t^w, -Wf ; WT^, ^T^, ^TT^T?^. 2d Pret. ^nr, ^^fxT^, ^tT ; ^jfcm, ^STTTT- ■5^, ^rmwH; ^fcR, 'STR, "^T^^. 1st Fut. ^iTrmftR, &c. 2d Fut. ^nrwrftr, &c. 3d Pret. ^sTTtf, -simH^, '^imw; ^trt^, wnnf, -fit; '^ntrm, ^TRTT, ^mT»T. Bened. ■grrornf, &c. Cond. ■^srn^, &c. P«**/ye, Pres. ^TO; 3d Pret. 3d sing. ^xfii. Causal, Pres. ''SiTTrcnftT ; 3d Pret. * This form of the Des. generally means ' to learn,' and is said by some to come from a root 'DI'SJ . EXAMPLES OF VERBS OP THE EIGHTH CONJUGATION. 249 ^nftltf. Des. (503) S^miPH . Participles, Pres. ^^n^^; Past pass, ^mr; Past indecl. ^!Tr^, -^STTOT; Fut. pass. 'STm^, -amvfhr, ^rna. a. Root ^r^T. Inf. ^r%^ or ^' ' to obtain/ ' to enjoy,' ' to per- vade.' Xtmane. Pres. ^sm^, ^■^, w^; "^PS^^, "^TR, ^t^^; SH^H^ , ^T^, '5P|^. Pot. 'sra^xr, w^^fhrm;, &c. Imp. ^3ng%, ^H>aM, '^r^f; ^srw^r^t, OT^rsri, wrnri; 'stotrI, w^s^, wpirf. I St Pret. 'STT^f^, ^mi^vjiH, ^T^^; 'STT^^, ^OT^^rqr, ^srra^Trft; ^OT^- »d^, ^TT^Jg, %4l>^c|7T. 2d Pret. (371. a) 'm^^, "^J^f^ or 'HM^I *, ««H^i; xmnP^im^, ^^tr^t^, ^sm^it^; ^^f^t» '^n^f^s^ or flui^ *, vmnP^K . 1st Fut. ^^wtI or ^ft|. 2d Fut. ^%^ or '^r^. 3d Pret. 'snf^, 'H i »m , 'sn?; ^n^, 'Hiujml, 'STr^TiTt; ^Ta?ir^ , ^stfs^, vH i Hjri . Or '5TT%fTET, 'Jii P^ i a i^, ^Hi P^ ia; 'ii I P^i M Pi^ , '^TiP^rMml, ^f^T^nn; ^iP^r^P^, '^snf^J^, ^snf^TTfT. Bened. ^fi^^ or ^^^T. Cond. ^ST%^ or ^rr^. Passive, Pres. ^^^ ; 3d Pret. 3d sing. ix\T\\ . Causal, Pres. ^T^nrrfir ; 3d Pret. ^T%5T. Des. ^^1%%^. Freq. w^tT^^ (5°^' «)• Pafiiciples, Pres. ^r^^T«T ; Past pass. ^rf^iT or ^t? ; Past indecl. ^f^lM I or ^^, -^^; Fut. pass. 'srf^W^ or ^re^, ^^til, ^15"^. EXAMPLES OF PRIMITIVE VERBS OF THE EIGHTH CON- JUGATION, EXPLAINED AT 353. 682. Root oF kri. Infin. 'sfw karttum or ^ kartum, ^ to do' (355). Parasmai-pada. Present tense, ' I do.' <*0P*1 karomi "^OPm karoshi fiftOPn itflro^i efi*^! t kurydm «5*5lf4 kuryds ■^xtTJT kurydt rt kurute ^'1^^ kurvtya ^Sjl'm^ kurvtthds ■^gfTTT kurvita First preterite, ' I was doing,' &c. ^r^lT akurva (73) -sich*** akurma (73) v»oft<\n akurutam ■«i<*<\n akuruta ■^n<*i\ni akurutdm lueti^ri akurvan Second preterite, ' I did/ &c. ■q<*«l chakriva -q***! chakrima ^*'y*\ ^^'^^''fl^^MS '^ra chakra ■qjhrt*^ chakratus '*f*« chakrus First future, ' I will do/ &c. <*r)l*S+< karttdswas <*fJI**<^ karttdsmas ofiWT^TT karttdsthas «fiWTW karttdstha <*rJlCi karttdrau '^iWITW karttdras Second future, ' I shall do/ &c. ! c^rLttiN*^ karishydvas '^>^^^J^'S karishydmas «Ffrni^^ karishyathas efiflTlI^ karishyatha '*r^ai*«r aktirudhwam ^oh§lnl akurvdtdm W^'^IJ akurvata Second preterite, ' I did,' &c. ^Tofi"^ chakrivahe ■^"351^ chakrdthe ■^"SiTW chakrdte ^ofTR^ chakrimahe ^TcFS% chakridhwe or -n-dhi ^f^T chakrire First future, ' I will do/ &c. sti^ltS^ karttdswahe "^^"[W^ karttdsmahe =lf§T?rr^ karttdsdthe '^TSEI karttddhwe «ti-am karttdrau "^iWR^ karttdras Second future, ' I shall do,' &c. «ttr<*m"=«^ karishydvahe a|iK«qi*i? karishydmahe <*K,tq'4J karishyethe ««iK«j4^ karishyadhwe <*KM4rt karishyete stifc^ff karishyante TJiird preterite, ' I did/ &c. ■»a on twi h^ akrishwahi ■»:i otn*i G? akrishmahi VI eo m xj I akrishdthdm W^^akridhwam or -"S-dhivam 'STWRTITT akrishdtdm ^ctiMrt akrishala Benedictive, ' May I do/ &c. <* m) q n^ krishwahi W^J{f^ krisMmahi ■^MT^rrWT krishiydsthdm "^TRTSei' krishidhwam oii^MIWl krisMydstdm oF'iflT''^ krishiran Conditional, ^ I should do/ &c. ^T^TTT^irr^f^ akarishydvahi ■*i<*U,"aj(*ir^ akarishydmahi ■>ij ohPcM "^ I "^akarishyathds W^iftW^ akarishyethdm ^'^ilTnTS^ akarishyadhwam ■«i <*rk«M n akarishyata ^raiT"'^Tn akarishyetdm ^ohK^'iT akarishyanta <*r<«i karishye <«r<«q*i karishyase «*K«4n karishyate vioftH akrishi ■Si Oft "q |?T akrithds ^T^TT akrita ofpEftTI krishiya oJiMlam^ krisMskthds efilfly krishishta •«<*«<«* akarishye Passive, Pres. f^xf; 3d Pret. 3d sing. ^oBift, see 701. Pres. cMi^mfa ; 3d Pret. ^r^hiit. -De*. f^tlfJT, -^ (302). Freg-. ^sfilii, '^fifil or ^rftofil^ or ^^^Hlif^ or ^^ftr or '^^ft^f'T or 'q^cpT^. K k 2 252 EXAMPLES OF VERBS OF THE NINTH CONJUGATION. Particvples, Pres. '^T\', A'tm. ■^tTO; Past pass. WW; Past indecl. ^f^, -fW; Fut. pass. ^^, ^iiftTi, ofip§. 684. There are only nine other roots in this class. Of these the commonest is tPT to stretch,' conjugated in the table at 583. The others are, "^S ' to go,' "8^ ' to kill' or ' to hurt,' 'ftpT^ ' to kill' or ' to hurt,' "^^ ' to shine,' 1^ ' to eat grass,' ?T"JT ' to imagine,' A'tm.; ^^' to ask,' ^TfT ' to give.' As these aU end in nasals, their conjugation will resemble that of verbs of the 5th class at 675; thus — 685. Root "5^. Inf. y^fw^ 'to kill/ 'to hurt.' Parasmai and iitmane. Pres. -g^"^, ^liftf^, ^rriVfrT ; ^^, &c. Ktm. T^, W^, &c. Pot. "^Tlf, &c. Ktm. Hj^tflij, &c. Imp. "Fpr^TftT, &c. Kim. "8pr%, &c. I St Pret. 'yajuicj, ^T^prPtTT, &c. Ktm. ^srefftjq, &c. 2d Pret. ^^m, ^^^TR, ^^TO; ^^ftR, -cJHjiU^*)^, '^^WW^; ^ajPn i H , ■««8j*ii> -"itsj^Ji^. Kim. ^T^w, -^ afOir^, ^Jifiir ; ^^rui'«<^ , ^ajiui^J, ^rj- w; -tajHim^, ^'gjfti^, ^^Jtrrt. ist Fut. -EjftrnrrftR, &c. Kim ■^ftrriTTt, &c. 2d Fut. HjO iimi PH , &c. j^tm. -5^^, &c. 3d Pret Kim. ^l\^^il\f^, ^B^fwr^^ or ^^TJn^ff (426. b), ^M HjPi U^ or ^^ (426. b) ^rgfftnwff , -■firrqTqr, -ftrRTfrf ; ^'grftr^f^, -ftns^, -%^W. Bened ■^TPinT. Kim. ^w^. Cond. >n ^ tjr*i | <4 . Kim. ^T^"^. Passive. Pres. ^^T^ ; 3d Pret. 3d sing. w^lfilT. Causal, Pres. HjHi r ^j ifir 3d Pret. v)P«usj*u. Des. fgr^trrfrr, -^. Freq. A'^m, ^^ftw Participles, Pres. "^TRTT; Kim. m\<\ \ ^ ; Past pass. ■^; Past indecl T^T^ or ^3[rn^, --8^ ; Fut. pass. •^aUTT^, ajillWl^, W^- EXAMPLES OF PRIMITIVE VERBS OF THE NINTH CONJU- GATION. EXPLAINED AT .356. 686. Root ^ yu. Infin. '^f^rf yavitum, ' to join/ ' to mix.' Parasmai-pada. Present tense, ' I join.' ^^TTfir yundmi •^r(\r^^ yunivas '^'^i^'^ yunimas ^"Trftr xjundsi ^Vflv/^^ yunithas ^»fl«J yunitha ^llPn yMwafi MlTrt^^ yumtas ^Irlftf yunanti Potential, ' I may join.' Xprfhn yuniydm *^'^\*\\'i yuniydva J*tl*ll*l yuniydma g«il*im^ yuniyds ^"hnW yumydtam ^»flMlH yuniydta ^ffhrnr yumydt ■^t^mrf yumydtdm EXAMPLES OF VERBS OF THE NINTH CONJUGATION. 253 Imperative, ' Let me join.' Tf^Tt^ yundva ^11*l yunnma ir*ft"?f ymiitam •Jj'lirf yunita ^HIhI yunitdm ^^ yunantu First preterite, ' I was joining.' ^nrrfH' ayiinwa 'ilfln , ■^T^i or XRI. 688. Root fTT (360). Inf. ^7[ ' to know.' Parasmai and j^tmane. Pres. ^rnnfiT, in^Tftr, >Trnfw; m^t^^, ^^ft^, »n^^^; ^n^ftim, ^TTTH, ^^rf^. Kim. ITT^, »n^, >TT^W; ^TPft^, in^T^, ^^T^; Til'dul, ifT^ts^, iTTTff. Pot. iFn^fhn, &c. i^tm. >nvftTT, &c. Imp. ^■JTrfJT, TTT^f^, wr"?rrff; ^tt^^, >rr*ft(f, irr^itrTt; wrtt, sn^tTr, ^rr^nff. Kim. >n%, irnfrR, jn^friTT; afi^^, ^n^rrJit, in^rrrrt; ^^tthI, itt^s^, 'THrtf. ist Pret. ^sniT^t, ^jTRRT, ^RT^Tff; ^^T^^^, ^UTiMlri , ^HH- ■jftffT; wrTr'jftJT, ^ain^tTT, ^htr"??. Kim. ^»nfJT, ^nrnfhrr^, ^^nn^flTT; ^in^ftTf?, 'i1?,) 'T^» 'HV'i, 'T?!; ^rfV^, 'Tfr^, ^nrw^; irf^riT, inr, 'T^^^. A'tm. iT^, iff^^, »I%; ^5R%, Wfn'^, iTsfT^ ; irf^mtj »r%s^ or -|, ^rfVt. I St Fut. ?rnnf^, &c. 2d Fut. fTT^mftr, &c. 3d Pret. (433) 'ST^ftT'q, ■^^nrhr, wsTT^ftiT; Wfrrftr^, ^^r^rrftr?, -^; w^Iittti, ^r^ftr?, 'H^nPuM^^. Kim. w^Rfti, -ii5ii^m, ^^rrer; w^r^f^, -i)sti^i«il, ^tstt- ^mn; '^TsTTwl^, WfTTsg, ^STfrPFHT. Bened. ^ttht or '^T^m. Kim. ^rrehl, &c. Cond. ■^^TTTif, &c. i^tm. W^T^, &c. Passive, Pres. (465. a) ^TTO; 2d Pret. ir^ (473) ; ist Fut. imnt or ^rrfwrt (474) ; 2d Fut. sTT^ or ^rrftr^ ; 3d Pret. 3d sing. ■^sr^rrftT. Causal, Pres. 5rrtTTITf»T or ^TtTinfiT; 3d Pret. ^rftf^nr. Des. ftr^TT^. Freq. tTT^TT^, sTTsnfir or jfT^fiT. Participles, Pres. 'srrTiT; Kim. ITRTJT ; Past pass. ^mT; Past indecl. ^Ti^T, -^TR; Fut. pass. ^TTTT^, 50^^11, t^T. 689. Root ■^. Inf. "31^ ' to buy.' Parasmai and i^tmane. Pres. ■sfl^nfH, ■gJhrnftT, iS^wfti ; ^(Nft^^^, thl^ilvj TT, -gRhrlhTO ; ^h#fm, ^h#si, "aRt^nf^tr. ^tm. -gftw, "^Nft^, "giWtw; "^NO^, "^trrr^, "^hrrrw; "sTirftH^, ■3rt5[!ft5^, ■a'tirw. Pot. ^^^irft^, &c. Kim. -^Tit^, &c. Imp. ^"tlirTftT, ■a'^^'tff, sR^^TW; -^i^w^, -^^T^, wiwinj; '^v^^, '^w\ii, -wtw^. Kim. -^m, -^T^ri^, wf^'^iTt; -gftTTiT^t, ■gs'^^TrrJif, ■si'^TrrTTri; ^wmf, wNfis^, "af^ifnTt. 1st Pret. ^^TffiW, '^T^'tifrnT, ^^r^^irrTTT ; ^^ns^^^^, 'ST^^^if, ^^rgs^irtiTt ; ^'a'^iii^JT, ^st^^^tt^tt, '^t^^w^. A'tm. ^srss^fw, '^'^- Tjift^mT, 'srai'iTn^iT; ^sT^'^xn^^, 'srai'txrrT^t, -y*1*iiirii; '^ra'tin'tiTf^, '^^- W\m, '^rsf^WW. 2d Pret. (367. g) fwwtr, f^"3iftR or fq^^, f^^FT; r^r*r4cj, ferf^xr'^, f^f^Tj^^; f^f^ftm, fM^"^, f^^^^. Xtm. f^f^, -Nf^ftr^, f%f^^; f^f^fti^, f^f^TTT^, M^inw; f'^ftrot, f^f^ftrs^ or -^, f^f^ftn:. ist Fut. ^iriftR, &c. Atm. win'lj &c. 2d Fut. iRTqifk, &c. Atm. ^, &c. 3d Pret. '^^, --Elt^, -■^ft?^; EXAMPLES OF VERBS OF THE NINTH CONJUGATION. 255 ^T^TEZr, -F, -?t; ^^, -?, -"^TT. Atm. W^, -FW, -•? ; ^^^^, -■^Tsit, -mm; "^W^, ^54 or -^, ^TTff. Bened. ■gi'^Trro, &c. Atm. wfUf, &c. Cond. ^ii^if, &c. i^tm. 'srim, &c. Passive, Pres. ■aft^, &c.; 3d Pret. 3d sing. W3iTf^. Causal, Pres. -giTtrtnftT; 3d Pret. 'srf^^. Des. f^gfi^ftT, -^. Freq. ^^^, ^W^T or ^^xftfir. Parti- ciples, Pres. -gi^irnT^; i^tm. ^"^illT^ ; Past pass, ■gi'tw ; Past indecl. ■gs^f^T, -■gi^'^; Fut. pass, inr^, "g^■qT!ft■^, "as'T- 690. After -art may be conjugated jft ' to please ;' thus, Pres. TftTiITftT, &c. ; Atm. lf\m, &c. The Cawsa/ is ift^infiT or TmnrrfH ; 3d Pret. 'srfwj* or 'srfinitnT*. Des. ftufNTftr, &c. Freq. ^qift^, &c. 691. The root H, ' to cut/ follows the conjugation of t?, ' to purify,' in the table at 583 ; thus, Pres. ■^^Tfi?, &c. ; Atra. "^^j &c. ; Pot. H^^, &c.; i^tm. '^^, &c.; 2d Pret. '^R, &c.; i^tm. "^^^ &c. ; Tst Fut. Hfwfer, &c. ; 2d Fut. rtf^ m iPH , &c. ; 3d Pret. ^n^if^^, &c. 692. Root w^. Inf. ^r3 ' to bind.' Parasmai. Pres. ^UTfir, -^inftr, -^TnfiT; w?fk^^, wshj-^, wstim^; ^^^, t^, -^uf^. Pot. ^Tlt, &c. Imp. -^wf^, ^VT^T {357. a), "^m^ ; ^UT^, Wlihf, -TTT; TSm> ■^^, ^ir^- 1st Pret. ^^nf, 'SRUT^, ^R^mr; ^^ift^, w^lfrrf, -wf; ^-^li^T, ^WShf, ^^r^fl^. 2d Pret. ^R^, '^^f?^ or ^^^ (298) or ■sfcf^ (298. c), ^^^ ; ^^f;^R, "g^^?rc[^, ■g'w^rjTT ; -^^^^m, ww^, "W^^. ist Fut. '^:irTf^ (298), &c. 2d Fut. Hn^rrf^T (299. a), &c. 3d Pret. ^MTrW (299. a), '^THTn^'hl, '^WTTW'hr; '^MTr-f^, ^^T^^, ^s||r^]; ^WPWT, '5?TF:ir5 ^WTJ-HT^T. Bened. "^^qnt. Cond. ^il^. Passive, Pres. (469) ■^. Causal, Pres. ^"J^nnfiT ; 3d Pret. '^r^^. Des. fwwrfir (299. a). Freq. -^TWm, wr^f^W, ■^T^T^ftffT. Participles, Pres. ^niT; Past pass. -^U; Past indecl. "^^, -'^xg; Fut. pass. 693. Root ?rr^. Inf. ^jf^'JI^ ' to connect,' ' to tie,' ' to fasten together.' Parasmai. Pres. ^T^rfiT, U'^lftr, ^I'^Tfw; ^J'^t^, H'^^^HT, ?j^hnT; ir^N^^, H"^, ?T^f5tT. Pot. ?I^hTf, &c. Imp. JT'^^j ?T^rRt, Tfm^; ?J^, ?r^, --fft; rj^T^, IT'^, ^T"^. ist Pret. ^u^, ^3T?I^T^, '^TTj^w; %Sij>i[l^, ^?T'^lf, -in; ^H'^'^, 'Mil'^nri, ^IT^- 2d Pret. (375./) ^nr-^t, ^iiiPrVj i g or ^f^, liip^f; ^Rlf^^I^ or ^f^^, * Foster gives ^TfTnTOT ; Westergaard, ^f^Tftni • t Some authorities give IP'^TR' in 2d sing. Imp. ; and the option of »l?ri^ in the 1st and 3d of the 2d Pret. Compare 339. 256 EXAMPLES OP VERBS OP THE NINTH CONJUGATION. "TIP^^ or d^^, ifJjrVj^ or d^WIT; jf^fr^m or ^f^m, "WCF^ or ^, iHTr^^ or d'fT. ist F'ut. yyfV^nnftff, &c. 2d Fut. 7Tl^^Tmf»T, &c. 3d Pret. ■^r^jft^^, -^^^ft^, -'J:^, &c. ; see 427. Bened. ?pqnT, &c. Cond. 'ST^ftizn'T, &c. Passive, Pres. (469) Zf^, &c. Causal, Pres. ?pTziTTTfiT ; 3d Pret. ^nriT^. J^es. fsRyfV^TnfiT. Freq. ifT?!^, ^r'^rftr, ^JT^^'iWT- Participles, Pres. ?I'gTT; Past pass. JjftriT; Past indecl. yf^ii^I or Tffr^n^, -37^; Fut. pass. ?Tf^-?nT^, ?P'^Rhl, IRzi. a. After ?J^^ may be conjugated ^^ ' to loosen,' w^ ' to churn/ &c. 694. Root '^*. Inf. "^VfiT^ 'to agitate/ 'to shake.' Parasmai. Pres. "^tfrfi?, ^vrftr, "^^ir; t|^^^, ■CT^ihnff, "CT^fhnr; w^hr^, "^^ft^, w^rf^. Pot. "^^fhTf, &c. Imp. T3^rrf^, mrm (357. a, 58), '^vTff ; ■^vr^, "^^jtit, -"irf ; "^VTT, "^^jtir, "^^Vff. ist Pret. ^^w, "^ravw, ^T^^fTfT; ^^^^, ^^^ff, -in; ^rw\jtH, ^t^M^, ^"av^r^- 2d Pret. ■^^jtvr, ^nftfir?!, ^^^; ■^■^rftr^, ^"ssw^m, '^"iswrinT; '^"^fim, 'sttth, '^■^^. ist Fut. 'S^tfiTrnfw, &c. 2d Fut. ^^ fam i PH , &c. 3d Pret. 'ST^'tfW^, -■qhl^, --^W, &c. ; see 427. Or '^^, -v(^, .^•, -m^, -*T7f, ->nTf; -HTR, -vrn, ->nT. Bened. "^vin^, &c. Cond. 'sr^'tfWTJT, &c. Passive, Pres. Tsn^ ; 3d Pret. 3d sing, yjaflf*?. Causal, Pres. t^- ^rrftr; 3d Pret. 'sr^^. Des. '^^frfir^lfiT or ^^Hmfi?. Freq. ^'^^, ''^^f*»T (3d sing. ^^^tfai). Participles, Pres. "^^fiT; Past pass. "^31 or "^rfiTfT ; Past indecl. W^ or "^HJ^, -'^«T ; Fut. pass, i^tfirina, #>n!)H (58), •^^. 695. Root ^?(T»T t. Inf. ^af^TTf ' to stop/ ' to stay/ ' to support/ Parasmai. Pres. WVTfJT, &c. ; see ^>? at 694. Pot. W\JHrr, &c. Imp. ^avrfVr, w^n^ {357. a), ww^; w^jt^, ^ip^, -in; wsm, w^, M}p^. ist Pret. 'sreref, &c. 2d Pret. WW»T, irerf»T?l, HW^ ; riRf*H^, ITFT^f^nT, ■H^FnWT^; IT^f^iTJT, W^tT»T, IT^WT^. Ist Fut. ^cT^*?- fTrftR, &c. 2d Fut. 4Hr*Hmi fTT, &c. 3d Pret. ^rorf^T^, -^^H, -^\, &c. ; see 427. Or "^m^, ->nT, ->T7r; -HT^, ->Tlf, ->Twi; ->rn?, ->TW, ->T^. Bened. ^fTwmr. Cond. ^rerfwi'Bi. Passive, Pres. w^. Causal, Pres. wwrrnftr ; 3d Pret. ^iT^»|. Des. firerf^T^fH. Freq. irrew, irrerTiTfiT or iTreT^rtftr. Participles, Pres. ^flVTT; Past pass, w^; Past indecl. W3^ or ^frftiTRT; Fut. pass, ^frfbrw^, H^T^fhl, ^cFWI. * This root is also conjugated in the 4th conjugation, when it is neuter, and signifies ' to be agitated;' thus, Pres. "^^tSt, &c. See 612. t This root also follows the 5th conjugation ; thus, Pres. W^fT, &c. See 675. EXAMPLES OP VERBS OP THE NINTH CONJUGATION. 257 696. Root ^5T*. Inf. '^if^TF 'to eat.' Parasmai. Prcs. ^TOTftr, ^■^Tftr, ^srmfrT; ^^t^h, ^r^^, ^^r^^j ^-^tt, ^r^ihi, ^^r^f^. Pot. w^rhrt, &c. Imp. ^sr^ifTT, ^^t^t^ (357. a), ^3r3T"ff; "^t^r, ^njihf, -TTT; ^^T^TT, ^nihr, ^■^. ist Pret. ^TT^TT, ^TTSm, ^^TT^TrT; ^IT^^, 'Siratw, -TTf; '3Tr5ftH, ^T^W, ^ra"^^. 2d Pret. ^5TT^, 'STTf^-g, ^T^; ^TT%^, ^i^r'^^, ^^T^^^^; ^T%H, ^T^T, ^T^^. ist Fut. ^rfwrfm, &c. 2d Fut. ^ftfi-anfJT, &c. 3d Pret. ^^rrf^tf, ^T^tir^, WTsftlT ; '^if^^'^, ^Tf^, '5IT%Ff ; ^%^, ^T%¥, ^T%^^^. Bened. ^KTO, &c. Cond. 'Hlf^fBT, &c. Passive, Pres. ^T^. Causal, Prcs. ^rr^'mftr ; 3d Pret. '^df^r^. Z>e5. ^%%^Tf^. Freg-. ■^jfin^ (508. «). Participles, 'Pres. W^; Past pass. ^rf^lrT ; Past indecl. ^^rftiTi^T, -^^ ; Fut. pass. 697. Root f^. Inf. ir%F or iri ' to harass,' ' to vex/ ' to dis- tress.' Parasmai. Pres. f^s^ifH, &c. ; see "mf at 696. Pot. ffi'^W, &c. Imp. n^wif^, f^T^ (357. a), &c. ist Pret. ^f^T^, '^rfw^TIT, ^^-^w; ^r^ii/1^, 'Hf^Jiftw, -irf ; ^srfii^iT, ^f^ratw, ^rfpr^. 2d Pret. f^li^, f'^iif;?i'5r or f^^, f^^W; f=^lif^^, f^f^^rw, f'^f^^HTr ; f^f^rf^IH, P^r^^l, f^^5T^. ist Fut. iRftfTlTTftR or |i¥Tf^, &C. 2d Fut. ^f^Tqifq or |ra?TTfiT, &c. 3d Pret. '^rlif^, -"5fN;» -"5^^^; '^^" ftrr^"^, -fw, -fw; ^Ii%^, -■%?, -%^^- Or -nr^^, --^\, -W^'-: -■^T^, --spf, -TS^; --^TT, -■^W, --^T^ (see 439). Bened. 1^^, &c. Cond. ^%^ or '^rlre??. Passive, Pres. fw^^; 3d Pret. 3d sing. ^ii%. CaM5«/, Pres. |i-^^TfiT; 3d Pret. ^^li^. De^. f^ftl^Tftr or f^lif^TnfJT or f^flf^TfiT. Freq. ^fw^x(, ^|if^H. Participles, Pres. f^pgiT; Past pass, f^ or •%%"!?; Past indecl. ffi^T or %f5Irnj -fli^iT; Fut. pass, ii^rr^ or liB^, iR^rihr, li'^tl. 698. Root "^ {357- a). Inf. "'frfR^ ' to nourish.' Parasmai. Pres. TnnnffT, ^TznTftr, ^wifrT ; "gTiift^, Tqiuvhrw, ^"iiiftw^; igtiiftRTT, ^Tufhr, ^wT^. Pot. -qiiift^t, &c. Imp. -qwrf^, wirr, "g^Tw ; ^^^m^^, "^^trf, -TTt ; "gwrT, ^whr, 'jw^- ist Pret. ^Tmf, '^^wttt, ^^wtw; ^Tirft^, ^mxiTfrif , -rTT ; ^x(T3jftiT, ^^wtw, ^^"^T . For the other tenses and forms, see "^il 4th c. at 621. 699. Root ?pr (359). Inf. U^'^ 'to take' (414. a). Parasmai and i^tmane. Pres. 'T^lfiT, Y^TfifT, n-^rrffT; ^J"^^^,, ']'^t^^, 'J'^'^n^,; 3T^;fNw^, JT-^fhi, Jj^ffff. A'tm. n%;, n^^, ^w; ^r^^, I^T^, T^; T^fN?%, 37^^, 'T^. Pot. ir^t. Atm. J7-^;hT, &c. * This is a different root from ^'^I 5th conjugation. See 682. L 1 258 EXAMPLES OF PASSIVE VERBS. Imp. JT^ftr, Tv^m, 'T^^Tw; n^r^, ij^fhr, w^^; J^^, JJ^w, T^TS- A'tm. 37%, TT^^, ^•^^; iT^ST^I, ^i^i"^!, T^iHi ; T^n^t, Y^^' 1'^nn. I St Pret. -yji^i, 'yj|^i*i, ^nr-^jTiT; ^T^S^' ^T^' ^^T^^^' ^T^^' ^^T^*^' ^^T^^x- ^^'^• '^T'l^j ^JJ^flliiJi*!, ^nr^TT ; w^^, ^n^i^T, ^iT^STflf ; 'st'T^- »T^. '^llSfts^, ^rJT^JTT. 2d Pret. (380) inn?, ^TJlf^, WlTT?^ ; ^rrf^, 'T'l^l^x' '''Hl*^\5 'T'jffJT, »rpr, 'T'T|TT. Atm. ipi?, W^jf^, »nT^ ; wrf?^, TPTfT^, ifiTfTH; ^rnf^Ht, 'Prf^s^ or -|, inrf^T. ist Fut. ITf^iTlfw, &c. (414. a), j^tm. ii^lrii^, &c. 2d Fut. ^nf^imfiRf. Atm. JJ^-^, &c. 3d Pret. ^MJj^I tt, 'STJJ?^^^, 'STtt^tt; ^IT^^, ^?I- ^F, '^TJTf^i?! ; ^?J^TJT, '3T?j^^F, ^JJ ^1m *<. Xtm. ^?7f^f^, '^IJT^'^TTW^, THy^l?; ^ITf^^srf?, ^i|^1m>y'l, ^nr^tiTfTf ; ^T?r^TJTf?r, ^n^5^, ^H- ■^^t^. Bened. n^m, &c. ^tm. ?j^Tr^xr. Cond. ^!(?jf^'aT. A'tm. ^Tf^-^. Passive, Pres. tt^ ; 2d Pret. W^ ; ist Fut. ?7^"in^ or ?7in^riQ; 2d Fut. Tj^^x^ or ?lTff^; 3d Pret. 3d sing, ^^jjiP^ , 3d pi. ^?If^WiT or ^imjTf^) or »TTII?^; see 711. Participles, Pres. JT^tt; Xtm. J[^IH ; Past pass, n^l^', Past indecl. ^T^r^, -'T^; Fut. pass. ?T?^TT^, ?I^^^, EXAMPLES OF PASSIVE VERBS, EXPLAINED AT 461. 700. Root ^ dd (465). Infin. ^ datum, ' to be given.' Present, ' I am given.' ?[hl dtye ^MI<=I5 diydvahe ^tzfRf dtydmahe ^I^W fZtyase ?(hrM diyethe ^"hlS^ diyadhwe Potential, '^ I may be given.' ^^T^ diyeya f{l*iqn5 diyevahi ^t^^^ dtyemahi ^TT^"^ diyeihds ^hUU^ diyeydthdm, ^h?s4 diyedhwam ^T^ dtyeta ^Umdl diyeydtdm cfN^ diyeran Imjjerative, ' Let me be given.' ^^, tfr^, &c. 3d Pret. 'ST^fsf, w^^w, ^nftftT; yiqg^r^, '.H^«j|fii], &c. Bened. '^'^'^, &.c. Cond. '^nft^, &c. EXAMPLES OF CAUSAL VERBS, EXPLAINED AT 479. 703. Root ^bhu. Infin. >Tr^f^ bhdvayitwn, '^ to cause to be.' Parasmai-pada. Atmane-pada. Present. ' I cause to be,' &c. >?T^^m mr^n^^^ m^wT^^ HN^IH^ ^m^ffi *^l'-^^^'ii*^ m'^i\^ *^l^i -s /» ^ ♦ ♦^T^qT MHHij ♦{icjijcir^ wmijw ♦Jlcclivjl'W ♦JNijljisill *lHi»i«4 ijrvi^ij- ~\ • -N *fcTi"^i|H VTRlTTH H\'\k HHUT^^ *\ MNillH^ *TI^q m^inT Hmmr *^Ni^^<^ ^t^tk^S >TT^^S^ m^^ Ml^^di Hl^^rii HN^'dl First preterite, '■ I w{ is causing to be,' &c. ^*{Hi4r^i|Vji ^5wr^^j4 '^WRTTW ■'^)?r<^qrH 'iIHTc}q«1 ')TRfHril*f|1T HIclDlrilW^ wRftrrrrfti HRftnTT^nr irNfiiriiw I caused to be,' &c. 1 cause to be/ &c. HTsrftriTTT^ Second future, '• I shall or will cause to be,' &c. *TRftraiTf'T HFrftrorR^ ^TTTftroTR^ HTTftf"^ ^TRftT'm^ ^TRftrsnT? ^TTffraiftT HT^TTOT'SITT >TT^irar^ I HT^fTTom m^flT^ >TT^ftraiJ^ ^n^f^TBrfiT >TRftrannT >?T^ftntif^ HiMrumn HT«rftraw >TT^M«H»rt Third preterite, w^fhr^T w^fhr^T? ^r^t>T^TT ^r^l^T^IT W^ftHTff ^T^fM^TfT ^^fhr^fT ^r^^ ^[^N^^ I caused to be,' &c. w^HT^inr 'ST^^iTTsit ^3r^>T^£^ 'sr^'iH^fr ^^"^H^wf WT^H^^ Benedictive or optative, ' May I cause to be/ &c. iTRftr^tl >TTTftr^^f^ JTRfMtHff Conditional, ' I should cause to be,' &c. ^ MNHmMH ^T ^j i MPum i ^ ^ Hmrnmm ^THNrym^ ^^wnfxnmf w>fRftraiiT ^^rrftrsn^ ^MT^rftnmrt w^ri'^fq^i^ 704. Root -^ dris. Infin. ^^ftrj Parasmai-pada. Present, ' I cause ^H icjnTRftTO'?n ^m^rftrirs^ <^^Mll*l darsaydmi ^^nrftr darsayasl f\^*\\t\ darsayati <^^IM*< darsayeyam i\ii<\*\^ darsayes '^^^^![^^ darsayet ^^'^TW^^ darsaydvas ^t'TT^darsayathas ^■^t(rt« darsayatas Potential, ' I may cause to see, <^ ^1 *i =1 darsayeva ^^■qir darsayetam ^^Mril darsayetam ^ to cause to see. to see.' i^^nTTT'W darsaydma ^^nr^ darsayatha '^^iOX*r{ darsayanti ^■^I'P' darsayema ^aiMrt darsayeta ^■^^ darsayeyus 262 EXAMPLES or DESIDERATIVE VERBS. Imperative, ' Let me cause to see.' ^^Tnf«T darsaydni r^^H\A darsaydva ^^*IIH ^^M darsaya <;^Mrt darsayatam <;^*irt darsayata «f;^Mn darsayatu <;^(Mrtt darsayatam ^^'T^ darsayantu First preterite, ' I was causing to see.' VI <^ ^1*4 adarsayam. ^I^^'TT^ adarsaydva '^T^'^T^n'T adarsaydma •>iir^^m\ adarsayas •»:<»; SMMrt adarsayatam ^T^^'TiT adarsayata 'Jiqi^l<4ri adarsayat •^»r'^^^t^\ adarsayatam 'iirj^MI adarsayan Second preterite, ' I caused to see.' fJ^lAJlHI^ darsaydmdsa * ^^tM\H\^«M darsaydmdsiva "^^[mmfwc^ darsaydmdsima ^^^llJTfnfw^ darsaydmdsitha f\^^\H\*^ '<^«darsaydmdsathus (;^I<4I*1I« darsaydmdsa ^^THTra darsaydmdsa <;3l*4l«ll*irt1T darsaydmdsatus ^^nTTTTOTT darsaydmdsus First future, ' I will cause to see.' ^^IM n I U+t darsayitdsmi ^^ffvinW^ darsayitdswas <^^|Uini*+(« darsayitdsmas ^■^ftnrrftl darmyitdsi ^^rftTiTT^W darsayitdsthas V^'^lfilrtlffiJ darsayitdstha r^^UMtW darsayitd ^^rftnTltt darsayitdrau ^^iftnTR^ darsayitdras Second future, ^ I will cause to see.' ^^■ftnTTftr darsayishydmi '^^\^*\^\H*\ darsayishydvas ^^iPm^mIh^ darsayishydmas <; ^1 Pq ttf ftr darsayishyasi ^^ftrOT^^ darsayishyathas r^^M^'H darsayishyatha 'rfTflftrornT dursayishyati ^^ftnmTO darsayishyatas r^ ^1 fq «M Pfir darsayishyanti 3d Pret. ^n>fl^^ or ^^ft, &c.; see 63S. Bened. ^"^ra, &c. Cond. 'il^^'lftltij. ^tm. Pres. ^^^, ^"IW, <5TMH, &c. Pot. ^"^^. Imp. ^%, ^q^, &c. I St Pret. '^^. 2d Pret. ^trra^. ist Fut. Tf^ftTTTTt. 2dFut. ^^ftm. 3d Pret. '^^t-pi, ^l^^im^^, &c. Bened. r^f^xT, Cond. ^^"ftm. After these models, and after the model of primitive verbs of the loth class at 638, may be conjugated all causal verbs. EXAMPLES OF DESIDERATIVE VERBS, EXPLAINED AT 498. 705. Root ^bhu. Infin. f^ff^ bubhiisJiitum, ^ to wish to be.' Parasmai-pada. Atmane-pada. Present, ' I wish to be,' &c. 11?^ ^mnftr wjjunm H'^'l Tl^ Tf?^ Tf^ I*l^^x Ti^ Ti^ I^^ 11?^ Il^'s TT^ 1^ TJ?^ Or q^qi^^R darsaydnchakdra J see 490. EXAMPLES OF DESIDERATIVE VERBS. 263 Potential, ' I maj f wish to be, '&c. ^c?^ 1>^ Ti^ Tl^ w>{M^r? Ti^^ I1?^x fH^ Tl?^ 1>JMV|ra ^l)HTV(i Tf5^ I1?^x I»?^ Ti'*^*! I^ ^MMHIrit 1*1^^. Imperative, ' Let me wish to be,' &c. ^iJTTTfw Ti^ fU^ !>!? I^MIci^ I^thI Tf? Tl?^ 1^^ H?^ 1*^ 1*1?^ I*f?I 1*S?^ I^J?^ 1*1?^ I*^ TI?^T First preterite, ' I was wishing to be/ &c. ^Him ^wrnc w^^mn ^115 ^li^n^fV ^I1?t»t1V ^H*f^. ^r^H^ ^R>|^ ^^HW^, ^HMVIl V9 Cs ^^f^. ■^^i'^^ ^r|»|5^^ ^3R>TTnr -^i*?^ ^>TW Second preterite, ' ^ wished to be/ &c. ^^m^chiO ii^\^^^ n'^'^l'*^ I1?^f^ ^^\^fH^ ^m^<*^ ^»^^l=^*^H ^♦[Mi'djfi ^WT^^'R ^iJ^I^OT 1"^^^ ^>iMl^chK ^H^^^^^ l^^n^li^. l*i^l^* ^iTMK*TW "mwraf^ First future, * I w ill wish to be,' &c. fiffqiTl?;!*!^ -^M/MrilW^^ "I^TETiTTW^^ ^^jTmHIW ^/MHI ^>|ft[lT"Rt Wf^IWTT:^ ^jMril ^iff^niro W>TfMriKW ^ ^ Second future, ' I will 3r shall wish to be,' &c. ^rMUiiciw ^»^J'^mlHM^ Tlf^^^^^N 1^'^'*"<'^ ^ijfl^TIlfW ^irfqnnT^^ ^j^rMmPfi ^>TfMmri f>jfMU4ri I»ff^^ Third preterite, ' I wished to be,' &c. ^>|fi^ 'sri^rMM 'H^HfMifl ^n^*^^ ^I*ff^^^ •^■^ijfqwf^ ^TfiJ^ftH ^*|f^ '^Tff^ ^>|fTOm ^>TfTTTTT5n -s-^ijiftTr ^Hfmji ^f»fftT^^, ^r|>|fTi¥ ^"l»jftn?Tiit '^^♦jrMMiT Benedictive, ' May I wish to be,' &c. Tf?n^1 TI^T^ Tl'^IW _>- n ^>jftnft^ f*J?^x f^j^rer f>^mi« ^^jTMMlill^ 1*1^. W^^mn f>TTqT^^ ^muMii? ■^J'miOhiw r ^♦ifR^^ Conditional, ' I sho uld wish to be,' &c. ^Hf^^ ^■^HfHTm^ 'SJW^tjfqTqm ^T^jMm ^f>jf^T^ ^I^TfxnUHTf^ 'Sl^Hf^TinT 'H^^jTm^d -n'^MTMmri '3T^>4fi(TiTvrm^ -n^^jTm^tsit 'sri^trM'^J^ 'SI^^^ ^ijftiTinrT '5Tf>|fEnii^ '5I^MfM«Trf '^r^Hfq^flf ^w^rmMfi * Or^ TtTT^^iT;. 2G4 EXAMPLES OF FREQUENTATIVE OR INTENSIVE VERBS, EXAMPLES OF FREQUENTATIVE OR INTENSIVE VERBS, EXPLAINED AT 507. 706. Root ^bhu. Infin. ■^>Tfsr^ bobhavitum or ^^t^jftrg bobhuyitum, ' to be repeatedly' ' or frequently.' Atmane-pada form (509). Present, ^ I am repeatedly/ &c. cft>T^ ^>T5^ ^V-^Tjir wt>Txrw ^H^w Tr>jw Cx Cs t~v Potential, ' I may be frequently/ &c. Imperative, ' Let me be frequently/ &c. ■^•q^ TfifW ^>|3T54 ■^>>jwr ^>>^ ^>>rcF?n First preterite, ^ I was frequently/ &c. ^T^t>TWnT ^3I^>rqT!n ^-^iJTlJ^ '3T^>nnT ^^ft>|57Tt w^mpir Second pi'eterite, * I was frequently/ &c. ^Virnf^^ ^>>TqT^^m ^Wi^Tfl ^»nrra^ tT^j^t^^tw Tt^nn^if^ First future, ' I Avill be frequently/ &c. ^fTfnl -^ifftrrrr^ ^finn^l ^»|ftnTT ■^^Ttnn'o -w^^rfqimt^^ Second future, ' I Avill or shall be frequently/ &Co ^VijpJT-^ ^iTfrrarR^ cr>>Tftran5Tt cft>|ftrai^ ^ijfzr'^^ ^>Tftnii5^ ^>jfqTq^ ^ijfiT^ ^Tijfxi'aT^ Third preterite, ' I was frequently/ &c. '^l^Hfqftl 'Si^tiTftrc^ ^^R^Hfir '^HftT^TTT^ wtijftnrRT wTtHftrs^ or -^* EXAMPLES OF FREQUENTATIVE OR INTENSIVE VERBS. 265 Benedictive, ' May I be frequently/ &c. ^t^jftrRt^ ^Tt^rftprNrf^ ^Wftr^WV Conditional, * I should be frequently.' ^r^^jTumvjj-H ^sr^ijfiiqvi] ^r^>|fTraTJ^ or -^ 4i«ri*jrquirt ^r^ijfTTOwf ^Rt^rftroTfr 707. Parasmai-pada form (514). Present, ' I am frequently/ &c. ^Tt^^tfir or ^Wtf^ "^H?^ ^^^?^x TtH^tfi? or TNVf^ "^^>J5^^ ^hr?! ^^H^IT or -^W^flT ^*J?^^ ■^^>f^W Potential, ' I may be frequently/ &c. ^^>|imT ^^JfW "^^tlTiT ^^^ ^^^niTT ^*JS^x Imperative, * May I be frequently/ &c. iq^^nrf^ ^^^J^ "^M^J^ ^^ ^^ ^ Tt>T^ or ^Wt^ ^t>|lTT ^*J^ First preterite, * I was frequently/ &c. W^T^ or wM^ ^R^t>JTTt ^R'tH^^ Second preterite, ' I was frequently/ &c. ^t>T^Tg>J^, &c. ^H^T^>|f^, &c. -^H^TWiff^, &c. or or or "^W^ or ThJ5 "Tt>jf^ or TtJjfqT^ ^Hf^ or -^^jf^ ^^»|f^ -^^^^^ or -^ij^^^ ^^ or ^>>|5 ^t>TT^ or ^>»T5 ^^^^^ or -^^iJ^WW^ ^"^*n^^ ^"^ ^"^Wl First future, ' I will be frequently/ &c. ^N ^ jri iPm ^t^rfrfrr^^^ ^t^rf^inFTW^ ^tirf^HTftr ^^irf^TTTW^^ ^>Hf^nmsr Tt>Tf^ ^Hp^rilCt ^f<4rtlUff^ 266 EXAMPLES OP FREQUENTATIVE OR INTENSIVE VERBS. Second future, ' ' I will or shal 1 be fr equently/ &c. M\»Uvi\rH ^HfcimN+i ■«ftHr^«^ ^r^t>TTT Wt^^Tf ^rVtT ^>JT?r ^iTr>|7n wt>|5^ or or or ^r^UlP<^qH 'SR^nftr^ W^Wlf^'fl ^rsrWT^'H ^TTt^lfqi; 'H4\Hif'S(y ^^♦thIh -il«r)MirM«i wtmfrg^ Benedictive, ' May I be frequently,' &c. ^>rqnT ^>nrr^ ^^nrrw ^>l3rnT ^if^T^ ^rtHTirer ^HiTm ^Vxrreri ^*i^^^ Conditional, ' I should be frequently,' &c. ^ST^^f^JT ^R^r^imN ^HTtHfrOTUT ^R^r^ui^ ^irt^rfTHnf ^^N^iTfrsnT ^si^irf^Tiiw ^H^ Pcimrii ^sNt^rfVai^^ 708. Root ^iT ' to kill' (3 1 8, 654) . Parasmai form of Frequentative. Pres. iTff^ or iTf^fff, »T^ftr or -jT^^Tftftr, W^fftJ or »Tf^'^fw ; »Tip^, 5l^vi^^, ^TfTTTT ; ^Tf^^^, ^T^, ^^^^T^T or imfw. Pot. ITf^, &C. Imp. "STf^lf^, 'T^f, W^^ or '5T^'5fh5; ^Tf^"^, W^, -in ; i^im, ^W^, ^^^ or strrw. ist Pret. W5T^, "^HT^^ or 'snTf^'hT, ^»T1^ or ^T>T|^ii;; ^»f^H, ^^nr^w, -m; ^^Tf^, ^^T^, ^»i^-^h or -Hjii|«. 2d Pret. ir^^TTgH^ or iff^T^^IiTT, &c. &c. 709. Root 7T^' to go' (602, 270). Parasmai form of Frequentative. Pres. WWffi^ or jT^^JT^ftr, ^^ftr or jI^-hITm, iT^f^ or ^STl^ftfir ; >T^'^«, 'T^^, 'T^TT^J ^^"*4H , WW^, iTl^flT or wrjfif. Pot. >i^-«ji, &c. Imp. lTl=mf^, WW^, »TW^ or ^^tflij; ^TW^R, WW^, ^rgTrf; ib*h*1j 'TITT, 'TW^ or ipw^, ist Pret. ^nn=^, ^T»T1^ ^^ ^^nf^jfl^, W3T1^ or ^HTW^J ^nri^^, ^nr^TTj -wf; "^mw^, ^htitt, -y»i^'H« or ^nr^^. 2d Pret. ^TlTTgiT^ or »T^-HI=5l<*K, &c. &c. 710. Root fiBfTj ' to throw' {6^^). Parasmai form of Frequentative. Pres. ^f^ or ^f^rrtfiT, '^'^f^ or ^ft^f^, ^^fvJ or ^pHji/irrt; INDECLINABLE WORDS. — ADVERBS. 267 ^ftr«^, ^%c^, ^ft^rm; ^ftj^, ^f^tvi, ^ PajMrri . Pot. ^fg^, &c. Imp. ■^^mftr, ^ft^fatl, ^^H or ^f^rfrj; ^^mq, '^ft^, -in; %%mH, ^f%H, ^ft^w. 1st Pret. ^T%%TT, ^"^TI or ^^f«j ifl^r, ^3i^^^ or ^^f%qhf; '^r^f^, 'si^ft^, --rt; wPe^^, 'ii^r«jn, 'H^fvsj^. 2d Pret. ^r«i|Mlt) >|5 or ^ f^j M l^ahK , &c. &c. 711. Root ?lf Ho take' (699, 359). Parasmai form of Frequenta- tive. Pres. ^ [ H^H or WHJ^fiT, »Tnif^ (306. a) or aiUJ^IPM, iTRjTfe iS^S' «) or ^ l ij^lPri ; TTTTdlTET, ITTT^, IfPp^^; ^TPp^^, WPJS, ^TPrffw. Pot. iTPpn. Imp. ^nnfrftrr, imrf^, Wfvu^ or in?!^^ ; ^hij^^n, wni, -TT ; IT UJ^ I H , ITITVS, "nn^. ist Pret. ^.4^< | JJ^\ ^n^niZ (292. a, 43. c) or 'snTTJTf^^ (330), &c. CHAPTER VII. INDECLINABLE WORDS. ADVERBS. 712. Adverbs, like nouns and verbs, may be divided into simple and compound. The latter are treated of in the next Chapter on Compound Words. Simple adverbs may be classed under four heads ; ist, as formed from the cases of nouns ; 2dly, adverbs of less obvious derivation ; 3dly, adverbial affixes ; 4thly, adverbial prefixes. Adverbs formed from the Cases 0/ Nouns. The following cases of nouns are used adverbially : 713. The nominative or accusative neuter of any adjective. As, ^rW ' truly;' ^'^ ' much ;' '^fHi, fl^TT, ' quickly ;' W^ ' fitly;' '^^'^ ' near ;' H^' lightly;' f^T'&t, ■'iJrfJil, TT^^ H^, ' exceedingly ;' ^T^^ ' certainly ;' f«TTT * constantly ;' r^ ' for a long while ;' «ifOT^nT ' again,' ' repeat- edly' (194) ; <*"=«<«> ' only,' ' merely.' a. The nom. or ace. neuter of certain pronouns ; as, TTiT ' therefore,' * then ;' ^TiT * wherefore,' ' when ;' niqrt ' so long,' ' so soon ;' *4\«in^ ' as long as,' as soon as ;' f^ff{^ ' why ? ' b. The nom. or ace. neuter of certain substantives and obsolete words; as, T?^ ' secretly ;' «(rR ' willingly ;' ^BR ' of one's own accord,' ' of one's self,' ' spon- M m 2 268 INDECLINABLE WORDS.- — ADVERBS. taneously ;' •TR ' by name,' ' that is to say ;' "^ "^xt ' repeatedly ;' f%^ ' long ^go '' ?5^ ' pleasantly ;' ^»9»f ' now ;' «T^ ' by night' (noctu). 714. The instrumental case of nouns and pronouns. As, VWrTTT ' virtuously;' ^fT^^«T ' southwards' or ' to the right;' "^^T'Tr ' north- wards;' «qrrtTT, 'in vain ;' Wc5 ' enough ;' VBfTfif, ^TTTT (cf. ^Kvg), ' quickly ;' ^H!lT ' silently ;' m^lT 'reciprocally,' 'together.' /. Of^ime. '5ra' to-day,' 'now;' ^*T^', «**irK,'now;' jT^T«T% TTf^,' then;' Tjn' formerly;' "JT^^, ^^TfT, ITTcF,' before;' "^TXTrT 'at once;' ^TERT 'instantly;' IIW 'after death;' "qt 'afterwards;' '^\Jt^ 'ever;' "JT aTTff 'never;' ^T^^ff^, ■qrS^, ' another day,' ' next day.' g. Of place. — ^'here;' H' where?' '^ff^^' without.' h. Of douht. Oir^sTT, ^tnTnT, ' perhaps.' INDECLINABLE WOKDS. ADVERBS. ZW Adverbial Affixes. 718. fwH chit, "^ api, and ^R chana, may form indefinite adverbs of time and place, when affixed to interrogative adverbs. As, from cfi^ ' when ?' <*^lfq, and "tir^l-'iH, ' sometimes ;' from W^ and B 'where?' '^^f^, ^^Tftl, Hf'^, Ifrf^, 'somewhere;' from WiT^ 'whence?' «* rf pq rf and WTTgR 'from somewhere;' from "SBfir 'how many?' ctiPri r-^ rf ' a few ;' from afifit ' when ?' «lifi|f^ ' at some time ;' from ^5^ ' how ?' odVlHTM, ehVJ^H, ' somehow or other,' ' with some difficulty.' Compare 228, 230. 719. im tas (changeable to m or ift by 6^, 64) may be added to any noun, and to some pronouns, to form adverbs. As, from T^, 14(^(1^ ' with effort ;' from ^Tlf^, ^nf^im ' from the beginning ;' from IT (the proper base of the pronoun TT^), innT 'thence,' ' then,' ' thereupon,' * therefore :' similarly, ^Ti!^ ' whence,' ' since,' ' because ;' 'iin^^, ^rt« ' hence,' * hereupon.' a. This affix usually gives the sense of the prepositions with and from, and is often equivalent to the ablative case ; as in T^IT ' from me ;' r^^?r ' from thee * ;' ■ftr^Trfl ' from the father ;' ^(^nH ' from an enemy.' b. But it is sometimes vaguely employed to express other relations ; as, 'J8nW^ ' behind the back ;' 'i|.i|ri^^ ' to another place,' ' elsewhere ;' H'M*irt« ' in the first place;' ^riWri'^^'here and there,' 'hither and thither;' «Hfin^'on all sides;' ^l_ri'*f, ^T?IW^, ' in front ;' ^rfiTrT'^ ' near to ;' r<4Hqn^' in pomp or state.' 720. c( tra, forming adverbs of place. As, ^T^" ' here ;' 7^" there;' "^^' where?' ^TW' where;' wfw ' every where ;' ^TT^'in another place;' TT^^ ' in one place;' «l^c4 'in many places;' '^W ' there,' * in the next world.' 721. "TT thd and "^ tham, forming adverbs of manner. As, IT^ ' so,' ' in hke manner;' 'T^ ' as;' ^'gcql ' in every way,' ' by all means;' ^r^rar * otherwise ;' "^FTST ' how ?' ^r^ ' thus.' 722. ^ dd, forming adverbs of time from pronouns, &c. As, IT^ ' then ;' Xl^'when;' ofi^'when?' ^«fi^'once;' flWf^l 'constantly;' ?rg^, ^f^, ' always.' 723. VT dhd, forming adverbs of distribution from numerals. As, ^afiVT ' in one way ;' fl'VT ' in two ways ;' "^VUT ' in six ways ;' ^TirVT ' in a hundred ways ;' f>^*l*n ' in a thousand ways ;' ^^VT or W?RWT ' in many ways.' * In fact, these are the forms generally used for the ablative case of the personal pronouns, the proper ablative cases Wif^, i^, being rarely used, except as substi- tutes for the crude base, in compound words. 270 INDECLINABLE WORDS. — CONJUNCTIONS. 724. ■^ vat may be added to any noun to form adverbs of com- parison or similitude. As, from ^ff^, ^^cq^rT ' like the sun ;' from ^, '^^^' as before.' It may be used in connexion with a word in the accusative case. See 918. a. This affix sometimes expresses * according to ;' as, TTlV'^l^ according to rule ;' M tTl »i 1 "=« fi * according to need.' 725. "^^sas, forming adverbs o{ quantity. As, "^TF^Pff ' abundantly ;' ^T^IT^iFT ' in small quantities ;' f?r "^not easily broken.' It is opposed to '^, and corresponds to the Greek ^vcr. e. f^TT nir and f^ vi are prefixed to nouns like ^ a with a priva- tive or negative sense ; as, f^-tf5 ' powerless ;' f^uhc4 ' without fruit' (see 72) ; f^^ ' unarmed:' but not to participles. /. '^ su, prefixed to imply ' well,' ' easily ;' as, ^TT ' well done ;' TT^ ' easily broken.' In this sense it is opposed to ^, and cor- responds to the Greek eu. It is also used for ^rT, to imply ' very,' * excessively ;' as, MH^it ' very great.' CONJUNCTIONS. Copulative. 727. ^ cha, * and,' ' also,' corresponding to the Latin que and not to et. It can never, therefore, stand as the first word in a sentence, but follows the word of which it is the copulative. INDECLINABLE WORDS. — PREPOSITIONS. 271 a. irm ' so,' ' in like manner' (see 721), is not unfrequently used for ^, as a kind of copulative conjunction; and like ^ is generally placed after the word which it connects with another. b. f^ * for/ like ^, is always placed after its word, and never admitted to the first place in a sentence, irf^, ^, 'if/ Tnm 'upon that/ Uhen' (see 719). 'srar^, ftfi^, 'snn^, iTT^, '^rftT^, 'again/ * moreover/ used very commonly before quotations. ^^ ' also/ c. ''^^ ' then,' ' now,' is used as an inceptive particle at the commencement of sentences or narratives. It is opposed to ^fw, which marks the close of a story or chapter. Disjunctive. 728. ^ vd, 'or/ corresponds to the Latin ve, and is always placed after its word, being never admitted to the first place in a sentence. a. -J, fsB?^, ' but / the former is placed after its word. b. mir*i 'although;' riVJlftj 'nevertheless,' 'yet,' sometimes used as a cor- relative to the last; W!fW(, ftRT^T, 'or else;' 'JT^ ' or not;' "^f^ ' whether,' ' whether or no.' c. '^'VrWT may also be used to correct or qualify a previous thought, when it is equivalent to ' but,' ' yet,' ' however.' d. Wi '5, rT, %, are expletives, often used in poetry to fill up the verse. PREPOSITIONS. 729. There are a great many prepositions in Sanskrit, but they are generally found as inseparable prefixes, qualifying the sense of roots, and the nouns and verbs derived from roots ; see 783. Only three, out of the list of prepositions at 783, are commonly used in government with nouns ; viz. ''STT a, irffl' prati, and W^ arm ; and of these the two last are rarely so used, except as postpositions. 730. ■^ a, generally signifying ' as far as/ ' up to/ ' until/ with an ablative case ; as, ^Ml ^*^^lri^ ' as far as the ocean / ^rmf^fl^^ ' up to Manu :' and rarely with an accusative ; as, ^»T ^mmft^^ ' for a hundred births.' a. "^ a may sometimes express ' from / as, ^T'Jcrn^ ' from the beginning / ^i »vnf are sometimes doubled; thus, ^M^sft, b. Some of the adverbs enumerated at 714, 715, may be used in government with the cases of nouns; thus, ^ftpiHTj 'to the south' or 'to the right,' may govern a genitive case; ^mTikoikii, ' without,' is placed after the crude base. * '^T^ is almost always found in composition with a crude base, and may even be compounded adjectively to agree with another noun ; as, %»rnrJ 4iM*i^' broth for the Brahman ;' ffSTT?! tr^TIT ' milk for the Brahman.' See 760. INTERJECTIONS. COMPOUND WORDS. COMPOUND NOUNS. 273 INTERJECTIONS. 732. ifllT, »tV, ^, are vocative; T, '^ft, less respectfully vocative, or sometimes expressive of ' contempt.' ftfojr expresses ' contempt/ ' abhorrence ;' ^m^, Wf\, 'Sif F, ' surprise/ '■ alarm / '^T, ?T?T, Wf, W?^^TT, ' ffrief / m^, fff, ' approbation ;' ^fta", ' salutation.' CHAPTER VIII. COMPOUND WORDS. 733. CoMPOuxDS abound in Sanskrit to a degree wholly unequalled in any other language, and it becomes necessary to study the prin- ciples on which they are constructed, before the learner can hope to understand the simplest sentence in the most elementary book. In the foregoing chapters we have treated of simple nouns, simple verbs, and simple adverbs. We have now to treat of compound nouns, compound verbs, and compound adverbs. a. ObsenT, that in this chapter the nom. case, and not the base, of a substantive terminating a compound will be given ; and in the instance of an adjective form- ing the last member of a compound, the nom. case masc, fem., and neut. The examples are chiefly taken from the Hitopadesa, and sometimes the oblique cases in which they are there found have been retained. A dot placed imderneath marks the division of the words in a compound. SECTION I. COMPOUND NOUNS. 734. The student has now arrived at that portion of the subject in which the use of the base of the noun becomes most strikingly apparent. This use has been already noticed at 77, p. 42 ; and its formation explained at pp. 44 — ^^. In all compound nouns (with some few exceptions) the last word alone admits of declension, and the preceding word or words require to be placed in the crude form or base, to which a plural as well as singular signification may be attributed. a. It may here be noted, that while Sanskrit generally exhibits the first member or members of a compound in the crude base with the final letter unchanged, excepting l)y the lav^s of eiiphony, Latin frequently and Greek less frequently change the final vovv'el of the base into tb.c light vowel / ; and both N n -74 COMPOUND NOUNS. Greek and Latin often make use of a vowel of conjunction, which in Greek is generally o, but occasionally *: thus, cali-cola for ccelu-cola or coelo-cola; lani-ger for lanu'ffer; ')(^aXKi-va?T, -H, ' brilliant as the moon ;' ^TJHrj^fvT^t^f!^ , -«fiT, -'^, ' liable to death, sickness, and sorrow;' wrv^^H^, -T^T, -<^, 'well-disposed.' The 6th, AVYAYI-BHAVA, or those resulting from the combination of a preposition or adverbial prefix M'ith a noun ; the latter, whatever may be its gender, always taking the form of an accusative neuter. 736. Such then, in brief, is the native division of compound words, a division leading to some confusion, from the incompleteness and want of sufficient comprehensiveness in the definitions, and the absence of sufficient distinctness and opposition between the several parts or members of the division. For it is plain, from the exam- ples given, that the 5th class of compounds may often be regarded as another name for the first three, when they take the form of adjectives declinable in three genders ; and that the second species of the 4th class is for this reason referrible to the 5th. The student, moreover, finds it difficult to understand why, if the definition of the 5th class of compounds be, that they are epithets of other nouns, such compounds as ^i^ 49Ic^ and JT^rHf^rT should not be comprehended under it. And further, he is often at a loss to refer a compound to its proper head *, from the inadequacy of the definitions to express all the cases included under each class. In the following pages the subject is discussed according to a different method, although it has been thought desirable to keep the native arrangement in view. 737. Compound nouns may be regarded either as simply or complexly compounded. The latter have reference to a class of compounds within compounds, very prevalent in poetry, involving two or three species of simple compounds under one head. SIMPLY COMPOUNDED NOUNS. 738. These will be divided into, ist. Dependent compounds or compounds dependent in case (corresponding to Tat-purusha) ; 2d, Aggregative {Divandwa) ; 3d, Descriptive f [Karma-dhdraya) ; 4th, Collective {Dwiyu) ; 5th, Indeclinable or Adverbial [Avyayi-bhdva) ; * Ex. gr. such a compound as W«!i3i£n^» ~^T, -'^, ' any thing black and white.' t As being composed of an adjective or participle preceding a substantive, and always descriptive of the substantive. Prof. Bopp calls them ' Determinativa,' a word of similar import. N n 2 276 DEPENDENT COMPOUNDS (tAT-PURUSHA). 6th, Relative (Bahu-vrihi) . This last consists of, a. Relative form of absolute Dependent compounds, terminated by substantives ; b. Relative form of Aggregative compounds ; c. Relative form of Descriptive compounds ; d. Relative form of Collective compounds ; e. Relative form of Adverbial compoinids. DEPENDENT COMPOUNDS (TAT-PUKUSHA). Accusatively Dependent. 739. These comprehend all those compounds in which the relation of the first word (being in the crude base) to the last is equivalent to that of an accusative case. They are generally com- posed of a noun in the first member, and a participle or noun of agency in the last ; as, ^^TTTTI^, -TTT, -IT, ' one who has obtained heaven' (equivalent to ^^f tttpt^) ; ftl^TRl ' one who speaks kind words ;' '^7?'^ ' one who gives much ;' ^^-JTTT ' one who bears arms ;' tig^TTTT^, -TTT, -IT, ' committed to a leaf,' ' committed to paper' (as ^ writing') ; f^^;JTff^^, -KT, -if, ' committed to painting.' a. Observe — TIT ' gone' (past pass. part, of t'T ' to go') is used loosely at the end of compounds of this description to express relationship and connexion, with- out any necessary implication of motion. In the above compound, and in many others (such as "f^T'c^iTf^Trfff J?f as, ^Tiirr^^ ^HTTT^^. Ablatively Dependent, 742. Or those in which the relation of the first word to the last is equivalent to that of an ablative; as, fxnr^Trrff^, -Trr, -TT, ' received from a father ;' TTW>T?^ , -FT, -?, ' fallen from the kingdom' (for UriTTfr >JF^) ; fR:"^^^<^rn:^ , -TT, -t, ' more changeable than a wave ;' H^^"^' other than you' (for >TTiftsTiT^) ; >?^^' ' fear of you' (814. d) ; ^I^.MU^r^^^^' bow-string;' ^fV^rT'^ ' brick-house ;' T'lR H»{1 ' mountain-toiTcnt ;' Tirt^rtlT ' water's edge ;' ^T^JTIT^ or '^rtfhn'^^ ' acquisition of wealth ;' fV'J^T ' state of misfortune ;' ^^^^ 'separation of friends;' '^?|% 'on whose brow' (loc. c.) ; ■fTIT^^'his words;' »Rrwnf or Tf'^STirf'nT 'birth-place;' ^^^^ 'with hundreds of fools' (in- strum. c. plur.) ; "tilsfi g<( ' a couple of S'lokas ;' ^J^^ ' the surface of the earth ;' ■^ftl^^^^ ' lord of the earth;' "ff^^rfT^ 'for his support' (dat. c); "ST^T- ir^^^'the sons of a Brahman;' ■^WTr^pTT^ 'our sons;' r^.'^ ' thy deed;' flTW;'^=5f^ ' a father's speech;' 'JW;irTT: ' tlie gate of deatli;" 2;^T7?WT7T^' fulfilment 278 AGGREGATIVE COMPOUNDS (DWANDWA). of wishes;' TT^'T'^^ 'a mother's joy;' »vka^, XiQo-dTpwTog, yvvaiKO-KYjpvKTOs, avSpcoTTO-'^i'^aKTog, Bio-torog, Geo-rpeTTTog, yiipo-iroiyjTog, auri-fodina, manu-pretium, parri-cida for patri-cida, parri-cidium, matri-cidium, marti-cultor, mus-cerda. English furnishes innumerable examples of dependent compounds, ex. gr. ' ink-stand,' ' snow-drift,' ' moth-eaten,' ' priest-ridden,' ' door- mat,' ' writing-master,' &c. AGGREGATIVE COMPOUNDS (DWANDWA). 746. This class of compounds has no exact parallel in other languages. When two or more persons or things are enumerated together, it AGGREGATIVE COMPOUNDS (DVVANDWA). 279 is usual in Sanskrit, instead of connecting them by a copulative, to aggregate them into one compound word. No syntactical depend- ence of one case upon another subsists between the members of Dwandwa compounds, since they must always consist of words which, if uncompounded, would be in the same case ; and no other grammatical connexion exists than that which would ordinarily be expressed by the use of the copulative conjunction and in English, or ^ in Sanskrit. In fact, the difference between this class and the last turns upon this dependence in case of the words compounded on each other ; insomuch that the existence or absence of such dependence, as deducible from the context, is, in some cases, the only guide by which the student is enabled to refer the compound to the one head or to the other : thus, JT^^"aj|^ofiT'?T may either be a Dependent compound, and mean ' the servants of the pupils of the Guru,' or an Aggregative, ' the Guru, and the pupil, and the servant.' And Jrra^^itfirnf may either be Dependent, ' the blood of the flesh,' or Aggregative, * flesh and blood.' This ambiguity, how- ever, can never occur in aggregatives inflected in the dual, and rarely occasions any practical difficulty. 747. There are three kinds of Aggregative compounds: ist, in- flected in the plural ; 2d, inflected in the dual ; 3d, inflected in the singular. In the first two cases the final letter of the base of the word terminating the compound determines the declension, and its gender the particular form of declension ; in the third case it seems to be a law that this kind of compound cannot be formed unless the last word ends in ^ a, or in a vowel changeable to ^ a, or in a consonant to which ^ a may be subjoined ; and the gender is inva- riably neuter, whatever may be the gender of the final word. Inflected in the Plural. 748. When more than two animate objects are enumerated, the last is inflected in the plural ; as, ^rtJir^f-j.ilHT^ra ' Indra, Anila, Yama, and Arka' (for ^^, ^f^^, tPR^, ■^■^'^) ; TT*lT5^tr;«TWT^, ' Rama, Lakshmana, and Bharata ;' HTT'^TniTrqj^nfiTTW ' the deer, the hunter, the serpent, and the hog.' The learner will observe, that although the last member of the compound is inflected in the plural, each of the members has here a singular acceptation. But a plm-al signification may often be inherent in some or all of the words 280 AGGREGATIVE COMPOUNDS (DWANDWA). constituting the compound ; thus, "^T^JTr^^^Tr^^ir-Sr^TTf ' Brahmans, KshatriyaSjVais'yas, and S'ddras;' ftr^T^Ti^'^^'^W^^/ friends, neutrals, and foes' (for ffl^lftr, -grj^TTft^W^, -51^^^) ; ^fxr^TtefiTf^".»fTnf^ ' sages, gods, ancestors, guests, and spirits' (for ■^^^, ^^T^f, ftmTH, ^FSTi?^, >T7nf^ ^) ; ftT?;^TW^J^?k3TTTff ' lions, tigers, and serpents ;' '^I^'^7^1f?^T^t?5;HnriftsTT^^zrTmT^ ' f^ogs, vultures, herons, ravens, kites, jackals, and crows.' 749. So also when more than two inanimate objects are enume- rated, the last may be inflected in the plural ; as, VKRT^cFiTH^iTV^rpr ' virtue, wealth, enjoyment, and beatitude' (for ^TW^^, ^^^^, "SfiFr^, hVsj"^) ; ^^T«nnT;Tn§T and *vM^rtl*TT^T are not found; although there can be no question that O O 282 COLLECTIVE COMPOUNDS (DWIGU). (for i^^fft >tt^t) ; ^^rpS"^: * a troubled ocean ;^ qiiq o|iJ# ' a holy act ;' ^snpfTTWT ' the infinite soul ;' ^^rTlf^H '^ polished speech ;' Mil^ cji^A i fa ' holy acts' (for ^inTlf^ ^'^1%) ; ^W^TTOf ' of the best men' (for ■g^TTT'rri ■JTTTOt) ; H?rmTT«B ' a great crime' (see 778) ; 'TfTTTST^^ ' a great king' (see 778) ; finr^W^^ ' a dear friend' (see 778) ; ^Vtrr^ ' a long night' (see 778). a. An indeclinable word or prefix may sometimes take the place of an adjective in this kind of compound; thvis, fl^MVj: 'a good road;' H^«f 'a fine day;' ^ff^Tffnr ' good speech ;' ^'gfl.lt ' bad conduct ;' ^M^T ' not fear,' &c. ; 'TfVt'^Tt^ ' external cleanliness' (from vahis, ' externally,' and saucha, ' purity') ; ^IWI'^ft^ ' internal purity.' 756. Numerals in their crude state are sometimes found occupying the place of adjectives in the first member of a compound of this class ; as, '^^^HT ' the four castes ;' M^^«Jlr^"V^^, -cFT, -oR , ' that which is liable to sorrovs^, sickness, and death:' especially in the case of adjectives or participles; as, YUJI.SJ^^j -W-, -"^^ 'black and white;' ^TrTT^feTm, -TTT, -"ff, 'bathed and anointed ;' ^TTTT'1 1 H M^^, -^T, -^, ' city and country ;' ojrrrTRoinnT, -HT, -if, ' done and done badly ;' ^^TTTSmH, -m, -H, ' good and evil' (754); ^TT^iwnr^, -nrr, -t^, 'thick and unctuous;' Jl^lH^HPri^rhl:^ ' of him taken and let loose.' Compare Greek compounds like XevKo-fxeXaq, ' white and black.' Examples are still more common under the head of Complex Compounds. Relative form of Descriptive Compounds. 766. A greater number of compound words may be referred to this head than to any other. Every style of writing abounds with them; thus, ^TW^rf^^^, -f^W, -f^, 'whose strength is small' (119). a. Other examples are, T^*'^^^, -t^, -"c^, 'whose strength is great' (108, see also 778) ; TfTWirnT, -"STHT, -"STff, ' whose glory is great' (164. a) ; ^ST^flWlW, -*rr, -•?, 'whose wealth is small;' H^lrHT, -W\ , -"rW, 'high-minded' (151); T^TTTsrHr-rTTr , -irr, -Tf , ' of noble demeanour ;' ^JT^T^, -WJ, -^, ' having many fish;' W^ntfi^T^^, -7^, -7^, 'having very httle water;' "TftlSfT^'f^^j -'^'T, -fs, ' of wise intellect' (119); ftniHF^'^T, -Wf, -^, ' having a dear wife * ;' ^T^I^nnVR^, -»TT, -if, 'not to be reconciled;' ^T^TTWR^, agreeing with TTiTT, a king who conceals what ought to be concealed.' 767. Although a passive participle is not often prefixed to a noun in an absolute sense, this kind of combination prevails most extensively in the formation of relative compounds; as^ inTToirra^, -(5T, -<^, ' whose time has arrived.' a. Other examples are, fsTfrf^T^^TW, -'m, -'T, 'whose passions are subdued;' ^1111 ■'iftl^, -TTT^, -HIT, ' whose mind is composed ;' ^^F^^^^' "'^» -*nT » 'whose mind is rejoiced' (see 164); VTTTfj^^, -^, -'^,' whose hopes are broken;' ^iTTlTq**^, -a^n, -'5'T', 'whose kingdom is taken away;' ^rftTTTrfSTT^, -'TUT, -ITff , ' whose glory is boundless ;' ^1*1^ HT^^, "W^, -W, ' whose death is near ;' "^TTWrT^, -^^, -T, 'whose desire is accomplished,' i. e. 'successful;' WrnTT- »T«T^j -«TT, -*Tj ' one who has finished eating ;' ^TlfftTTfr^T^pr^, -l^, -^j ' one * Occasionally the feminine of the adjective appears in the compound; as, ■^IffTHTO^ ' having a sixth wife.' Compare 755, note. RELATIVE COMPOUNDS (BAHU-VRIhi). 287 by whom the S'astras have not been read ;' fH^;^"H^, -"'Crr, -'4, ' whose heart is pierced.' b. Examples of Greek and Latin compounds of this kind are, [J.€yaXo-K((f)aXo^, fxeyaXo-fxrjTi^, kivKO-Ttrepog, "nokv-y^vaoq^ ')(j}V(7eo~(XTe(pavoi, rj^v-ykwaao^, €pY]fji.o-7roXi$, )nagn'animus, loixji-manus, multi-comus, albi-comus, jmiltl-vius, atri- color. c. In Enghsh compounds of this kind abound ; ex. gr. ' blue-eyed,' ' narrow- minded,' ' good-tempered,' ' pale-faced,' &c. Relative form of Collective Compounds. 768. Collective or Dwigu compounds may be used relatively ; as, f^TI^^^, -tft, -^, ' two-leaved;' fd^rSi^W ^^, -"Jft, -"jf, ' tri-ocular/ a. Other examples are, f^TJ^^, -|j^, -^, 'three-headed' (JT# being substituted for ^"JT, see 778); •^H Ai?l«, -'^, -^, 'four-faced;' ^^WWt^IIH, -WT, -^jf, ' quadrangular ;' ^ri §!<«, -TT, -t , ' hundred-gated ;' ^wftlHT, -JH, -?f , ' pos- sessed of the four sciences;' ¥^HT^^^, -"^^ -T^, 'thousand-eyed' (see 778); ■R^TTT^TT^, -TT, -'«Tj ' having the wealth of five bullocks.' Relative form of Adverbial or Avyayi-bhdva Compounds. 769. The adverbial compounds most frequently employed rela- tively as adjectives are those formed with the adverbial preposition ;h^ 'with/ contracted into iff; thus, ^T^^, ->n, -V, ^ angry' (lit. * with-anger/ * having anger') ; ^HIk?^, -c^T, -f5, ' fruitful' (108) ; fi v^rtm, -■'^^, -"w, ' possessed of kindred' (119) ; ^nj^lT, -^, -^, 'energetic;' ^ift^«, -^^\, -^, 'possessed of life,' 'living;' ^TpT'?^^, -'^, -v^, 'joyful;' ^;^fg^, -'^, -•#, 'accompanied by ministers;' ?nTT§^ * accompanied by a wife,' ' having a wife ;' ^sT^, -"rirrj -Tq", ' strung' (as a bow, lit. ' with-bowstring'). a. Sometimes the affix '^ ka is pleonastically added; as, '^TW^W, -'^, -'^, ' possessed of fortune ;' Al 4t:(t=S^, -'^T, -'^, ' accompanied by women.' Compare 80. XVII. b. The foUomng are examples of other nouns combined with adverbial prefixes, so as to form relative compounds: "^^^^^j -VT, -V, 'with uplifted weapon;' *TRTTT«liTt?T, -T\, -t, 'of various shapes;' ^if^^H^^, -W, -1i, 'half-eaten;' fiTlTTr^H, -TTT, -^, 'where dweUing?' ^^T^STT, -"'TT, -•*?, 'where born?' f^TTTTOVH, -VT, -■^, '^vithout fault;' f^TfRTff, -TT, -t, 'having no food;' ^rnrNr, -)^, -f^, ' fearless' (123. b) ; ^TfTTinT, -ITT, -Tf, ' unknown ;' ITSTrf^- V^, -VT, -V, ' of that kind,' ' in such a state ;' jffl^> -f%?5 -'fe? ' weak- minded;' |!^f"fiT^j -'firW» -fir, 'ill-natured' (see 72); ^5^3^> -^» -^» ' handsome-faced ;' ^T^f^T^, -f^^> -fli > ' of good understanding.' Some of the 288 COMPLEX COMPOUND NOUNS. above may be regarded as the relative form of Descriptive compounds, formed with indeclinable prefixes ; see 755. a. Similar compounds in Greek and Latin are, aryvaTog, av-vifxepog, tv-OYiXog, iwimicus, in-felix, dis-similis, semi-pleiius. c. Observe — The adverbial prefixes lifr and H (726. d.f) impart a passive sense to participial nouns of agency, just as ova and €v in Greek ; thus, ^'^^ ' difficult to be done,' 'g^ ' easy to be done ;' T ' difficult to be obtained,' ^o5H ' easy to be attained;' JW^ 'difficult to be crossed.' Compare the Greek ev(f)Opoiy ' easy to be borne ;' IvaTTOpog, ' difficult to be passed,' &c. d. *< «iix<«, -"^T, -■^, ' possessed of a master,' is sometimes used at the end of compounds to denote simply ' possessed of,' ' furnished with ;' thus, f^TTTT'^RT^ n^lrtlrtrt ' a stone-seat furnished with a canopy ;' f^«5T''?ig^*i 1 1 Wt TT!?'?: ' an arbour having a marble-slab as its master,' i. e. ' furnished with,' ' provided with,' &c. Similarly, ^,«l<**HIV|t '=(7 TlTJ"5I>TTf^ ' good and evil (occurring) in the revolutions of the interval of time,' the whole being a depend- ent, involving a dependent and an aggregative ; ^^T'lfrT^f^pfl^T ' the general COMPLEX COMPOUND NOUNS. 289 of the army and the overseer of the forces,' the whole beitifr an aggreorative, involving two dependents ; ■^I^oFTTTTlTH'T^'nif ' the protection from sorrow, enemies, and perils,' the whole being a dependent, involving an aggregative; 'ST^VtiTri 'W^f I4M ' the disregarded words of a friend,' the whole being a descrip- tive, involving a dependent; ^HTg^.T^CT^TW 'a white robe and a string of garlands,' the whole being an aggregative, involving a descriptive and dependent; ^TT^TT^mT^T^^ ' one who has gone to the opposite bank {para) of all the Sastras,' i. e. ' one who has read them through ;' ^■^iTT^rT^'Vr^ ' the bones of a dead Hon.' 771. The greater number of complex compounds are used as adjectives, or relatively, as epithets of some other word in the sen- tence ; thus, 3Tff55Tr^m;"JTir?RT, -ift, -"JT, ' whose teeth and eyes were decayed,^ the whole being the relative form of descriptive, involving an aggregative ; TTrgflM emjH * having a throat emaciated with hunger,* the whole being the relative form of descriptive, involving a de- pendent. a. Other examples are, ^liTTTW"^^^"^^, -'^, -'^■> ' having a white garland and unguents,' the whole being the relative form of aggregative, involving a descriptive ; ql'sT'T'eFTT^, -TIT, -if, ' done in a former birth,' the whole being a dependent, involving a descriptive; T%^rnT^r^^^j "^5 -^? advanced in learning and age,' the whole being a dependent, involving an aggregative ; ^mI- Tr¥?J»frfV5T^5 -«TT, -■?[} ' having fresh garlands, and being free fi-om dust,' the whole being the relative form of aggregative, involving a descriptive and depend- ent ; ^rfW^otrrf^f^TF, -THT, "^1' 'whose head was moist with unction;' WfWtrJT^^, -WT, -'^, 'having the face turned in any direction one hkes ;' STFTH^r^T^, -^T, -#, ' spear and club in hand ;' ??:^TT^f?!tT?^f'^lT^^, -TH, -if, 'sufficient for support during one night' (see 778); ^^TTT^t^T^TIjir^^"- ?r»-WI'5jr*T5rT^ ' acquainted with the meaning of the three Vedas, called Rig, Yajur, and Sama' (agreeing with f^^^) ; W?^^^'5[<57rW5WT^^ ' biting their lips and having red eyes' (agreeing with TTtjiiIT) ; 1TT*'^T?^^WVT^ injuring another by action or by intention.' 772. The substantive ^rrft^, ' a beginning,' often occurs in complex relative compounds, with the force of et cetera, as in simple relatives at 764; thus, ■^"^TTT- ir^iT^XRT ' parrots, starlings, &c.' (agreeing with llfl^I!;^ ' birds beginning with parrots and starlings'), the whole being the relative form of dependent, involving an aggregative ; wf^f^?!?!!^ ' peace, war, &c.' (agreeing with "'J^T'^ under- stood) ; 'T^'^Trn"RTf^",''T^i^ , -'^T, -'^, 'possessed of houses, temples, &c. ;' ohfc.ri ij I ,<*^'^T Tf^ ,M riT:d,r("^T^^, -^, -'^, ' possessed of elei)hants, horses, trea- suries, and other property.' a. Similarly, '^T?I in the example '^'^'T'lTS^IfTTr^ (agreeing with ??'3T^^' garlands possessing the best odour and other qualities'). Pp 290 ANOMALOUS COMPOUNDS. 773. Long complex compounds may be generally translated by beginning at the last word and proceeding regularly backwards, as in the following ; »T^^T^«h<,r»i- <*<,^*,H»,4MTftT TfriT ^TflT. 776. Complex compound adverbs, or indeclinable compounds, involving other compounds, are sometimes found ; as, ^nT|rf^fT?R7rr * not differently from one's own house ;' ^n^twTTTnT^T^t ' after utter- ing a sound ;' ^crT>n;^'^HH •*iWW ^j H M^ ' regardlessly of the curving of her waist bending under the weight of her bosom ;' ij^rdy^^ri ^ as seen and heard.' ANOMALOUS COMPOUNDS. 777. There are certain compounds which are too anomalous in their formation to admit of ready classification under any one of the preceding heads. Amongst these may be placed those compounds expressive of ' comparison' or ' resemblance,' usually included under the Karma-dharaya or Descriptive class. In these the adjective is placed last; as, "Sfnrn^^rJ^, -'^, -(^j 'fickle as a shadow;' qsa^m- inT"^^, -■^ft, -'^, 'like a clap of thunder;' "Rj^qfl^, -jtt, -4, 'like foam;' ^Tf^^TTTH^, -HT, -jf , ' dark as a cloud;' HVrf^TSft'S^, -#r, -?lf, ' spread out Uke a mountain;' 'i^j/'^^.c^c^.'^Mc*^, -cJT, -c5, 'unsteady as a trembling drop of water;' ^rf^'fl^^rt^nlq nIT for VT; f.'a load.' '5TM for "STrfiT f. ' the navel.' — "^jm for "t^ f . ' a ship.' V^ for xrftT*T m. ' a road.' VJ^ for ^T^ m. ' a foot;' the feminine may be ''I^T. "'pT for MfllT f. ' an army.' ^^f^^ at the end of Bahu-vrihis (preceded by ^, ^, or HT) for THTT f. — "3^ at the end of Karma-dharayas for "aiH^ m. ' a Brahman.' *T»T for HPT f. ' the earth.' >I^ in a few Dwandwas for ^f. ' the eye-brow.' TfRT in Dwandwas * So WTrfiriftTi: in Nala, translated by Bopp umbra geminatus. p p a 292 COMPOUND VERBS. for JR^ n. ' the mind*.' — H^ at the end of Bahu-vrihis (preceded by % and f^) for JJ^t^m. ' the head.' — JT^ and Tft at the end of anomalous compounds (preceded by ftTrTT, Jmn, &c., see 754. a) for ^^ m. f. n. ' great.' *r^ at the beginning of Karma-dharaya and Bahu-vrihi compounds for JTfWm.f.i).* great f.' ^>nT at the end of Bahu-vrihis (preceded by ^, ^, ^, 'ST^, *n^) for HVT f. ' intellect.' TT»T at the end of Karma-dharayas for TXW*^ m. ' a king;' see 151.0. TTW in Dwigus, Karma-dharayas, and Dwandwas, for Ttf^ f. ' night.' T^ in Karma-dharayas for ^^ n.' splendour.' "^T^ in Karma-dharayas and Bahu- vrihis for ^R^ n. ' fehcity.' ^ for "'gt^m.'a dog.' '^ in A^yayi-bhavas and Bahu-vrihis for TT^ ' %vith.' — Wopq' in Karma-dharayas and Bahu-vrihis for TrfoTO n. the thigh.' ^^ in Karma-dharayas and Dwigus for "^^ m. ' a friend.' ^FTT^ in Karma-dharayas for ^R:TT n. ' a lake.' ^ for '^'^ n. ' the heart.' 779. '^^ is found in the beginning of certain anomalous compounds (such as ^STf^T:, -SI^WTrt^, &c.) for TfT or '5I^T^ ' I.' 780. Numerals, when preceded by particles, prepositions, or other numerals, may change their finals to ^ a ,• or if their final letter be a consonant, may either drop that consonant or add ^ a to it ; thus, fWdf (nom. -Wf\, -W^, -^"fe) 'two or three;' '^^[^ (nom. -"ETT^^, -m^, -"mfm) 'five or six;' Tq^'gi: (nom. -TT^) ' nearly four.' Compound Nouns formed from roots combined with Prepositions. 781. In the next section it will be shown that the combination of roots with prepositions prevails most extensively in Sanskrit. From roots thus combined nouns of the most various significations may be formed ; thus, from ^ ' to seize/ with f^ and W^, is formed ^'^^T ' practice ;' from -^ ' to do/ with ^^, ^ofipc ' imitation.' Hardly a line can occur in any book that does not afford an example of this kind of compound. SECTION II. COMPOUND VERBS. 782. The learner might look over the list of 2000 simple roots, and well imagine that in some of these would be contained every possible variety of idea, and that the aid of prepositions and adverbial prefixes to expand and modify the sense of each root would be unnecessary. But in real fact there are comparatively very few * ^^H^ ' speech and heart,' which is the example given by Panini (V. 4. 77). occurs in Manu II. 160. t As Ji^r^TrJ ' a great family ;' see also 755. In Tat-purusha or dependent compounds W^rT is retainer! ; thus. ^^'^^T?: ' recourse to the great.' COMPOUND VERBS. 298 Sanskrit roots in common use ; and whilst those that are so appear in a multitude of different forms by the prefixing of one or two or even three prepositions, the remainder are almost useless for any practical purposes, except the formation of nouns. Hence it is that compound verbs are of more frequent occurrence than simple ones. They are formed in two ways : ist, by combining roots with pre- positions ; 2dly, by combining the auxiliaries W ' to do' and ^ ' to be' with adverbs, or nouns converted into adverbs. Compound Verbs formed by combining Prepositions with roots. 783. The following list exhibits the prepositions chiefly used in combination with roots : a. '^rfir ati, ' across,' ' beyond;' as, ^rffHTT, Wift (pres. '^nTfir, &c.), '^TfrTai'T, ' to pass by,' ' to pass along,' ' to transgress.' b. '^rfVl adhi, ' above,' ' upon,' ' over;' as, ^fv^T 'to stand over,' 'to preside' (pres. ^^rftlfriairH) ; ^rftr^ ' to climb upon ;' ^1V^ ' to lie upon ;' ^lf>rTT^' to go over towards ;' '^STVfl' ' to go over,' in the sense of ' reading.' c. '3T"3 anu, ' after ;' as, "ST^^T ' to follow ;' ^Jf»jaT ' to follow,' in the sense of 'performing;' WToF ' to imitate;' ^^"^T ' to assent.' With >|^it signifies ' to experience,' ' to enjoy.' d. '^RTT aw ^ar, 'within' (Latin inter); as, '^niTVT 'to place within,' 'to conceal,' in pass. ' to vanish ;' ^ra^' to be within ;' W^iT^ ' to walk in the midst.' e. ^ni apa, ' ofp,' ' away' {airo) ; as, '^rq'T'T, ^^^, "^^ (from ^TT and ^), ' to go away;' ^HTrft'to lead away;' '^RoF^'to abstract;' ^HT^'to bear away.' It also implies ' detraction ;' as, ^1«l*? ' to defame.' /. ^rfxi api, ' on,' ' over,' 'up,' only used with >n and «Tf ; as, ^fiWr ' to shut up ;' wftR^ ' to bind on.' The initial a is generally rejected, leaving ■ftl>JT, T^R^. (J. ■^H abhi/ to,' 'towards' (ctt/); as, ^f«^, ^T^ft, 'to go towards;' ^miT^ ' to run towards ;' Wl>?"^ ' to behold ;' ^f*?"^ or ^rfHVT (see VT at 664) ' to address,' ' to accost,' ' to speak to,' ' to salute.' k. ^S^ ava, 'down,' 'off;' as, ^R^, '^TTff, 'to descend;' ^IT^ ' to look down ;' 'H'^lch ' to throw down,' ' to scatter ;' TJi-^ejirt ' to cut off.' It also implies 'disparagement;' as, ^ST^^'to despise;' ^nfi^^ ' to insult.' With VT (3d c. ■siqf^tufn), ' to attend.' i. ^n a, ' to,' ' towards,' ' up' (Latin ad) ; as, Wlf^^ ' to enter ;' ^rraW ' to go towards ;' 'illij^ ' to mount up.' When j)refixed to TH, "m, and ^, ' to go,' and ^ ' to give,' it reverses the action ; thus, ^TPT'T, ^STHTT, T^, ' to come ;' ^T^T ' to take.' With ^^, 'to practise.' ./. TW M^ 'up,' ' upwards' (opjwsed to f^) ; as, T5T (48), ^fT to roots of motion ; as, "^'XHTT ' to approach ;' TT^T ' to wait upon ;' 3M*?m ' to stay near,' ' to be present,' ' to arrive.' With f^ (6th c. ^TpsJ^lfff), ' to sit down ;' with ^■RT, 'to sit near.' I. mT ni, ' down,' ' downwards,' ' under' (opposed to Tff) ; as, "nTTTT ' to fall down ;' f«nT»T^ ' to suppress ;' fsTf^T"^ and P*1*flc<4 ' to close the eyes ;' f^f^iT, f»TVT, "JT^, 'to lay down,' 'to deposit;' frTftr^T 'to go within,' 'to encamp.' With Yft it signifies ' to return,' ' to desist ;' with "^JJ^f ' to hear.' In some cases it does not alter the sense ; as. Pi ^ ri ' to kill.' ?«. ff{Z nir, ' out;' as, f«T^T (see 72), 'ftf^, f«Tt^ (71. a. c), ' to go out,' 'to come out;' P«i*^TT 'to cut up;' fcT^fT 'to come to an end,' 'to cease;' P«lPsJ (71.6) 'to determine.' n. VJ^ para,' h&ck' 'backwards' {irapd), combined with f»T and >J in the sense of ' defeat;' as, ^TUf'T 'to overcome' (cf. TiapaviKao), ^Esch. Choe.); 'TTT^J^'to be defeated.' ^Yhen joined with ^, 2d conj., it signifies 'to retire towards' (pres. irnr) ; when with ^, ist conj. Atm., ' to run away,' ' to retreat,' r being changed to I (pres. xr?rni). o. "Tfr pari, ' around' (Trepi, per) ; as, ''Tfc^i ^^^J ' ^^ surround ;' mP<"n^ ' to run forward ;' TTWI ' to set out,' ' to advance ;' Tt^^' to be superior,' ' to prevail;' vctf^l ' to foresee.' With c5*T, ' to deceive.' Observe — In combination with verbs beginning with e or this preposition generally drops its final a; as, HMMlfii ' I send,' from TI and ^^HT, causal base of ^^ ' to go.' Similarly, H'aTrt ' he trembles' (3d sing, of ej with pra). The r of pra influences a following nasal by 58 ; as, TTOT'^ ' to bend before,' to salute.' Sometimes U does not alter the sense of a root, as in ITPJ ' to obtain' (5th c. ; see 681). COMPOUND VERBS. 295 q. TTfil * prati, ' against/ ' towards,' ' back again;' as, TTftT^V ' to fight against ;' ITfft ' to go towards' (pres. UrMpM) ; llfiPT'T ' to go towards,' ' to return ;' ITnT^ * to counteract ;' BPrf^^ ' to beat back,' ' to repel ;' irfiTT^ ' to answer ;' nfiTH^T *to recover;' nfd »fl ' to lead back;' ufdH'^ 'to re-salute.' With '^, 'to pro- mise;' with ^, 'to arrive at,' 'to obtain;' with ^'^, 'to wait for,' 'to expect.' Sometimes it does not alter the sense of the root ; as, h Td «l ^^ ' to dwell.' r. f% ?7J, 'apart,' implying * separation,' ' distinction,' ' distribution,' ' dispersion' (Latin dis, se) ; as, f^TC ' to wander about ;' f^'^c^ ' to vacillate ;' T%^ ' to roam for pleasure;' f^^ 'to dissipate;' f^ 'to tear asunder;' T^H»^ ' to divide;' rqPq-q^ ' to distinguish.' Sometimes it gives a privative signification ;' as, T^TJi^ 'to disunite;' f%W 'to forget;' f^^ 'to sell.' With "^j'to change for the worse.' Sometimes it has no apparent influence on the root ; as, Iq *i ^l^ ' to perish ;' f^f^n^ ' to think.' s. '^M sam, ' with,' 'together with' (a-vv, con); as, ^ST^, «§'^, 'to collect;* W|J3^ ' to join together ;' ^I^»^ ' to meet together ;' «<*M^ 'to happen;' ^rf^^'to contract.' With "Sfi" it signifies 'to perfect,' and ^^is inserted, ^ff^. It is often prefixed without altering the sense ; as, ?I^«^ ' to be produced.' 784. Two prepositions are often combined with a root ; as, ^qj^ * to open' (f^, ^n) ; ^rq^ (10th c.) ^ to kill ;' ^tjttTH ^ to go under/ ' to undergo/ '^ to arrive at' (■giT, W[) ; ^ Ho assemble' (^, ^rr, with root ^) ; llftrqw ' to prostrate one's self (u, fsT, 58) ; if^ ^ to raise up' (n, T7T, with root ^) : and occasionally three; as, "R^T^ ' to predict' (tt, f^, ^t) ; ITW^T^ ' to answer' (TTfrT, TTT, '3TT). Other combinations of three prepositions, occasionally prefixed to roots, are ^ + -jq + ^ ; ^rfir + f^ + ^ ; ^ + ^sifW + 11; ^tt + ^ + Tl ; ^ + ^ + f^. a. Observe — Excepting in the case of IT above, prepositions ending in vowels combine with roots beginning with vowels according to the rules of Sandhi ; thus, ^ with ^ ' to go' becomes ?? (32), and in pres. ^fir (^ + Vf^ 33), &c. ; in pot. ^^ (^TT + J^t), &c. ; in imp. ^TTm^T (^ + "TTf'T), &c. ; in ist pret. ^TR, ^^ (645, 33), &c. Similarly, ^^ with ^fH becomes W^lfk by 33. 785. In conjugating compound verbs formed with prepositions, the augment and reduplication do not change their position, but are inserted between the preposition and the rootf; as, m5*ii4, ist pret. * The final i of the prepositions IlfiiT, "qft, f^", is optionally lengthened in forming certain nouns from compound verbs; as, HrtlohK, MT bhd. 787. These are of two kinds; ist, those formed by combining adverbs with "^ ' to make' and >T ' to become ;' 2dly, those formed by combining nouns used adverbially with these roots. a. Examples of the first kind are, ^Tc^"^ ' to adorn ;' ^Tf^t^ ' to make manifest' (see 72); ^f^n:^ ' to eject;' ^-^ "^to place in front,' ' to follow ;' fV?TTW ' to deprive ;' ^i^ ' to entertain as a guest ;' ^T?T'^ ' to revere ;' ^T^T^, UT;^, ' to become manifest,' &c. 788. In forming the second kind, the final of a crude word, being a or a, is changed to i ; as, from ^HiT, W^fNr 'to make ready,' ^nrfbr * to become ready ;' from "sirail, ofrmftofr ' to blacken ;' from Tlfr^OT ' a ditch,' Tifc^cF ' to convert into a ditch :' and sometimes a becomes a ; as, ftnrrar from f^n. A final i or m is lengthened ; as, from ^f'^, ^^>T^'to become pure ;' from f5^, pJfW 'to lighten.' A final ri is changed to Tfl" ri ; as, from jttw, TT^Ih ' to become a mother.' A final as becomes either ^ (as, from TT?R^, ^iffftH ' to be of good mind') or asi (as, from %T^^, f^T^rHn ' to place on the head'). a. But the greater number of compounds of this kind are formed from crude nouns in a. The following are other examples: '?nfftoir 'to esteem as a straw;' «-*iT<* * to stiffen ;' li<*rMrlb|^' to fix the mind on one object ;' ^ftoF ' to make one's own,' ' to claim as one's own ;' ^^>T ' to become friendly.' Substantives are sometimes formed from these; as, ^^^TR'the state of being friendly,' 'friendship.' * Thus, ir?^ ' to strive' and TTT^ ' to beg for,' which are properly A'tmane-pada verbs, are found in the Parasmai. Instances of passive verbs taking Parasmai terminations have been given at 253. b. On the other hand, '57'? ' to rejoice,' which is properly a Parasmai-pada verb, is found in the A'tmane. COMPOUND ADVERBS. 297 b. Observe — This mode of compounding nouns and adverbs with kri and bhu is by Indian grammarians technically termed chwi. These compounds, however, rarely occur, excepting in the form of passive participles * ; and it may be ques- tioned whether the genius of Sanskrit favours the combination of any other part of speech but a preposition with the tenses of verbs. In Greek and Latin, on the other hand, the composition of nouns with verbs is not unusual. 789. Sometimes ^TTiT, placed after a crude noun, is used to form a compound verb of this kind ; as, from "ST^y ' water,' »1c6MlrJ ' to reduce to hquid ;' from >?W*T ' ashes,' >T9TOTi^ (57) ' to reduce to ashes.' These compounds, like the last, are rarely found, excepting in the form of past passive participles. SECTION III. COMPOUND ADVERBS. 790. Compound adverbs are formed, ist, by combining adverbs, prepositions, and adverbial prefixes, with nouns in the nom. or accus. singular neuter ; 2dly, by placing adverbs, or adjectives used as adverbs, after the crude base of nouns. a. The first kind are identical with indechnable compounds at 760, and the greater number are formed with the adverbial preposi- tion ^ saha, contracted into ^ sa ; as, from ^ ' anger,' ^^ * angrily ;' from ^SfT^ ' respect,' ^ETT^t ' respectfully ;' from 'ST^T^TIT * prostration of the Umbs,' ^T^^mif ' reverentially.' b. The following may be taken as examples of compound adverbs formed with other prefixes : ^"T^¥ ' according to seniority ;' WW^ * over every limb ;' MPriH I ti* ' every month ;' i|VJ| r^fvi ' according to rule ;' ir«irTS[Tf^ or *4iqfla«w* 'according to one's power;' ^tTW^ffT^ 'happily;' "^W^ 'before the eyes' (^T^ being substituted for ^f^, see 778) ; ^TO^ ' undoubtedly ;' fv^f^^ ' without distinction.' 791. Most of the adverbs at 731 may be placed after the crude base of nouns ; thus, ■«!rM'*;^*Ov * near the child ;' CT^pi ' for the sake of protection ;' f^^ ' on what account?' ^f'^^K^ipf'^t ' after uttering a sound.' 792. tr§ or ^;§'^ or tn::^t {meaning literally ' preceded by') is placed after crude bases to denote ' the manner' in which any thing is done ; as, "^tUTI^ ' with anger.' See 777. c. 793. A kind of compound adverb, implying * reciprocity,' is formed * Generally as past passive participles ; thus, 'SfO^'rt ' adorned ;' TnjHTT ' become manifest ;' U-nO^ ' made ready ;' '?5"^"'T " lightened.' The future passive parti- ciple is sometimes found so compounded ; as, «1 ^KMi\ *i ' to be agreed to.' 298 SYNTAX. by doubling u noun, lengthening the final of the first word, and changing the final of the last to i ; as, from 7^^ ' a stick,^ (?mi^ftj5 ' mutual striking ;' ^^^f^T ' share by share ;' ^iRf^T^^fe ' club to club ;' WSl^fs ' fist to fist.' a. Something in the same manner, W^ and XTT, ' another,' are doubled; thus, '^nifN, xi^?qt, '^mutually,' '^together.' h. The indeclinable participle ^TRW?, ' having begun,' is joined with ^ra,' to-day' (^?r'R*'?)j in the sense of ' fi'om this time forward;' and with the crude bases of other words to express 'beginning from;' see 925. IT*jflT is placed adverbially after words, in the same sense ; as, jpTUHfrT ' from birth upwards.' CHAPTER IX. SYNTAX. 794. Sanskrit syntax, unlike that of Greek and Latin, offers fewer difficulties to the student than any other portion of the Grammar. Indeed, compounds prevail so abundantly in this lan- guage, that the writer who has properly expounded the subject of compound words has already more than half completed his investi- gation into the laws which regulate syntactical combinations. We shall endeavour, in the present chapter, to collect together all the most useful rules for the connexion and collocation of uncom- pounded words. Much vagueness and uncertainty, however, may be expected to attach to the rules propounded, when it is remembered that Sanskrit literature consists almost entirely of poetry, and that the laws of syntax are ever prone to yield to the necessities of metrical composition. a. Observe — In the present chapter on Syntax, that the subject may be made as clear as possible, each word will be separated from the next, and vowels will not be allowed to coalesce, although such coalition be required by the laws of combination. When compounds are introduced into the examples, a dot, placed underneath, generally marks the division of the words. THE ARTICLE. 795. There is no indefinite article in classical Sanskrit ; but «fi%TT (228) and in modern Sanskrit ??^ (238) are sometimes used to supply the place of such an article ; thus, TfofiftR"^ n^^ ' in a certain SYNTAX. 299 country ;^ opftjir srnTH: ' a certain jackal.' The definite article may not unfrequently be expressed by the pronoun ^ (220) ; thus, ^ "^^t may mean simply ' the man,' not necessarily ' that man.' CONCOED OF THE YERB WITH THE NOMINATIYE CASE. 796. The verb must agree with the nominative case in number and person ; as, w^^ "^WTfilT '^ I must perform.' a. Other examples are, r^^ W=rvf^ ' do thou attend ;' ^ ^^TfrT ' he gives ;' 'STRT ^«r: ' we tw'o say ;' ^.^rTT "ST^t ' the pigeons said ;' TTtTT 'R^'t ^ 1'»lrt: 'the king and minister went;' ^T«T"=r xfr^i^T TtT^'frt 'as long as the moon and sun remain;' ^"^ fsRTXrff 'do you two reflect;" '^ITH ^n^TfT 'do ye come;' ^W»TTI ""Tt^^ ' good men are honoured ;' TtTiT '^'^i^'. ' the wind blows ;' "^^^'^fTT 91 ^1 1 |,*t ' the moon rises ;' "STTTT ''^'^T ' the flower blossoms.' b. Observe — The verb is usually, though not always, placed last in the sentence. 797. When a participle takes the place of the verb, it must agree with the nominative in number and gender ; as, ^ nw: ^ he went ;' ^ ^?rr ^ she went ;' tTT^T^ T5^1^ ' the two women spoke ;' TT^TT ^TT: ^ the king was killed ;' '^■^^y^fR' f^^rfrf ' the bonds w ere cut.' a. Sometimes, when it is placed between two or more nominative cases, it agrees with one only ; as, ^"^>it TT^TftnTT "'T^ST^ ' his wife and son were awakened.' b. Very often the copula, or verb which connects the siibject with the predicate, is omitted ; when, if an adjective stand in the place of the verb, it wiU follow the rules of concord in gender and number ; as, Vm ^'^*? ' wealth is difficult of attainment ;' ■».5il«il «ini 1 ? Ki ' we two have finished eating.' But if a substantive stand in the place of the verb, no concord of gender or number need take place ; as, «**|I»T«T f^ "lu "T ^^TTff ' What is the use of wealth (to him) who does not give ? ' n. Sometimes, though rarely, the antecedent noun precedes the relative in the natural order ; as, *T ^ ^Tnm "^Tm HWT «T ITOImT ' she is not a wife in whom the husband does not take pleasm-e.' 801. ri I «l rt^ and T3JTx{ stand to each other in the relation of demonstrative and relative ; as, 'Tl'^f^ rT^ ift^^ ^^f^ TTTerf^iT ^^"RiJ? T'TTtT^TrffT ' as many products as belong to that island, so many are to be brought to us.' See also 876. a. Similarly, ■fT'R;^ and '^rr?'5T ; as, ^IT?'^! "T^ ri I rt ^i ITW oBf^rT^^t ' as the event occurred, so they related it to him.' SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES. 802. Under this head it is proposed to explain the construction of substantives, without reference to their connexion with particular adjectives, verbs, or participles ; and for this purpose it will be desirable to exhibit examples under each case. Nominative case. 803. A substantive simply and absolutely expressed must be placed in the nominative case; as, f^TrVq^^t 'the Hitopadesa;' Hf^^T^ ' tJi6 poem of Bhatti.' a. Two nominative cases in different numbers may be placed in apposition to each other ; as, 11 tt^: ' con- versation with a friend ;' iT^fH: wnn'4 ' equality with beasts ;' fq^ jf^^TOT ' with the knowledge of (his) father:' especially when 'accom- paniment' is intended ; as, f^"^Trr n^ ' the master with his pupil.' 807. The other senses yielded by this case are, 'through,' 'by reason of,' 'on account of;' as, "^'T'ln' 'through compassion;' TTT ■flM.HIHJ|^^|HI^ ^"BTTfWsT ^^^- 1^e»it ' he caused her to revive by her attendants by sandal -water.' 302 SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES. Dative case. 8 1 1 . This case is of very limited applicability, and its functions^ irrespectively of the influence of verbs, are restricted to the expression of ^the object/ ' motive/ or ' cause' for which any thing is done, or * the result' to which any act tends ; as, ^TTTrf^^rg^ "^ for self-aggran- dizement ;' ^TtT^irRioBTn^ ' for the counteraction of calamity ;' ^^ ^ ^T^ ^ TlflTxr^'q ' arms and books (lead) to renown.' a. When, as in the last example, ' the result' or ' end' to which any thing leads is denoted by this case, the verb is seldom expressed, but appears to be involved in the case itself. The following are other examples : ^^ ^t^ f^T^Hjff siTff TRni ^m^ ' where there is admixture of poison, then even nectar (leads) to death ;' ■3'xi^:^ ^#TOt Tr«Ftm"T ^ ^FJT^ ' advice to fools (leads) to irritation, not to conciliation ;' TT ^T^^^ TTT^t: ^^T^ii ^ '^m^W ' that old husband was not to her liking,' b. It will be seen hereafter that certain verbs of giving and relating govern the dative. Substantives derived from such verbs exercise a similar influence ; as, ^•*(*+i ^T»T ' the giving to another ;' W^^^{ ofi^'TT ' the telling to another.' c. Words exi)ressive of ' salutation' or ' reverence' are joined with the dative ; as, T[I53[ITTT r[JT; ' reverence to Ganesa ; WSTc? IT ' health to thee.' Ablative case. 812. The proper force of the ablative case is expressed by *from;' as, (^^TTT ("^tu: "RiT^fw) ' from avarice anger arises ;' frR: "TIT^ ^ falling from a mountain ;' ^■RRrt ^^ITIT ' from the mouth of the spies.' 813. Hence this case passes to the expression of various correlative ideas; as, ^TT^TTTTT "Ril^fr ' a portion of (from) their food :' and hke the instrumental it very commonly signifies 'by reason of,' 'in consequence of;' as, ^"^T^'^TTRft ^^TTT ' on account of the slaughter of cows and men;' 'ii "l q « < TT^TTT {'W^ TH'^ffr) ' he blames his son for entering inopportunely;' ^^l^^'^ITfT ' through fear of punishment ;' '^Flr^^IRT^'mif ' by reason of my good fortune.' a. ' According to ;' as, T'f^^'^^'TTl^ ' according to the advice of the minister.' Abstract nouns in r^ are often found in this case to express some of these ideas ; as, ^H =J u^iTT^r^'WrSrnT ' by reason of the unsteadiness of his mind :' especially in the writings of commentators ; as, '^ybMHl-lllHIlT ' according to what wiU be said hereafter.' 814. It also expresses ' through the means' or ' instrumentality of;' as, 'STJT'n^Trr '^^I'.'^^t ' caught in the toils through the instrumentality of the jackal ;' "?! ^Vf^- VTrfTITFTT^ (^T^: :5TTfJiT^ VT^W) 'the alleviation of disease is not effected by the mere knowledge of the medicine.' SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES. 302 a. 'The manner' in which any thinor is done is occasionally expressed by the ablative ; as, i|(?|M^ ' with diUgence ;' ^^TT^ * forcibly ;' 3'^^rtTr^ ' with wonder ;' Hc5T^ ■3'ST^ 'tearing up by the roots:' or by the ablative affix THT^; as, i^-sATTT^ ' at one's own pleasure' (see 719. a. h). b. This case also denotes 'after;' as, ^^T^fV'Nlrt^ 'after separation from the body;' 5^!nrftT^''^r?rT?T ' after the imprisonment of the Chief;' rWT '^TTTTTrT ' since his arrival.' c. In reference to time, ' within ;' as, fcT^T^TTT ' within three fortnights.' d. Nouns expressive of 'fear' are joined with the ablative of the thing feared; as, ♦irql^ >7^ ' fear of death ;' "'^TTt mi ' fear of robbers.' Genitive case. 815. This and the locative case are of the most extensive applica- tion, and are often employed, in a vague and indeterminate manner, to express relations properly belonging to the other cases. a. The true force of the genitive is equivalent to ^ of/ and this case appears most frequently when two substantives are to be con- nected, so as to present one idea ; as, f*T^^ T^ ' the speech of a friend ;' >T#T TT^T: "TTlJf >TTO ' the best ornament of a woman is her husband ;' t^ rR^ rrrt ^TTTt ^T?l^ W ^'^ifil '^ man is not the slave of man, but the slave of Avealth.' 816. Possession' is frequently exi)ressed by the genitive case alone, without a verb ; as, ^t: ^"TW^^^ 1T^ "^^ ^'^ TT'^nf ' all riches belong to him who has a contented mind;' V'sffS'^ ZfTT ^T'^fl' HF^T 'happy am I in possessing such a wife.' a. It often, however, has the force of ' to,' and is very generally used to supply the place of the dative ; as, TtJWi ^TfTlft S>TV?Tt ' one's own life is dear to one's self;' VT "jft^^Tinf ^t ^T^JTT^TW "iTWTT ' a hundred Yojanas is not far to one borne away by thirst (of gain) ;' f^ WT^TfTT'T ^f^f^ ' What is unknown to the wise r' f^T^ "^T'^^I^ lI^T^^ffT V^^^\ ' What does a lamp show to a bhnd man ?' f^ »=RT '^^■^■(f TTsT: ' What offence have I committed towards the king ;' f«fiJT ^rqJT ^WRi ^W W{^'. ' What can this man do to us ?' \ o b. And not unfrequently of 'in' or 'on;' as, ^JtlTc3"'Tt^ f^RT^ ^<^§-«l«i f-lc^M* 'your speech was the cause of the war between the two princes;' UT^^pTT^t ♦irtlrti <*K<1( fip^^: ' the absence of a suitor is the cause of a woman's chastity ;' *ll=»ilMi f^ ■JT^inT ' What need of a boat ?' Also words signifying ' employment' or ' occupation ;' as, ^T^TpnT 11^1%: ' engaging in the acquisition of wealth.' Words derived from the root yuj usually require the locative ; as, ^TT TlTq^<«ji- Trnr TT^tirt ' I am of service in preserving the kingdom.' a. This case may yield other senses equivalent to ' by reason of,' ' for,' &c. ; as, ^ f^^ ' through my faults ;' ''sm:: tTTTTFT'ITTR ^r^<=5^^ ' a spy is for the sake of examining the territory of one's enemies;' T^ "^(^Slf 'this is the time for battle;' "ff^nT^ ^^TTT: 'affection for her;' JM^^f WTl^t 'disregard for advice ;' ^T P'l'fll TTW T^ ' What anxiety about dying in battle ! ' 6. It is also used in giving the meaning of a root ; as, ?J^ ^'TT^T^ ' the root grah is in taking,'' i. e. conveys the idea of 'taking.' c. The locative case is often used absolutely ; see 840. SYNTAX OF NOUNS OF TIME. 820. When reference is made to any particular division of time, the instrumental case is usually required ; as, f^fHT '^: ' in three years ;' fT^fW^ ?n%: ' in twelve months ;' "SJ^hT ' in an instant ;' retiMfii ^Hclffr 'In how long time?' "fT^w: 'in hundreds of years;' ■gRTHTT^TW ' in process of time.' 821. When to duration of time, the accusative case is generally used ; as, ^w ' for a moment ;' ^HoToFTc? ' for a long time ;' ftfiw ^in^ ' for some time ;' w^ Mm ' for one month ;' ^ irraT ' for two months ;' ^§^^ ' for a hundred years ;' ^T^ift: W{\\ ' to all eternity ;' ^ff ^^Tnn ' for a hundred years ;' ^^f^f ^irif^ ' for many days.' NOUNS OF PLACE AND DISTANCE. SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES, SOi*) The instrumental, however, is sometimes used in this sense also ; as, I'T^^fHT! "^WT: ^Ti%'5q" cJTT^ ' having: traded for twelve years ;' cfifiTtnTi'^T^ ' for a few days.' 822. When any particular period or epoch is referred to, the locative may be employed ; as, of.f^fijg^ f^^^ ' on a certain day ;' Wrfft fq^H ' on the third day :' or sometimes the accusative ; as, t?t TTf^ W Ot: irf^f^ ?R m^ ITT TTf^ ^TT^'^ ^^ f?: ' on the night when the ambassadors entered the city, on that night a dream was seen by Bharata.' NOUNS OF PLACE AND DISTANCE. 823. Nouns expressive of ' distance between two places' (according to Carey) may be in the nominative ; as, ojmiT: ^ "^l^Tt ^VrTT^TtT * Krishna is a hundred Kos from Somanath.' ' Space' may also be expressed by the accusative ; as, "sst'^t fhfr: ' a hill for a Kos :' or by the instrumental ; as, sRt^ tt^T ' having gone for a Kos.' ' The place' in which any thing is done may be in the locative ; as, "N^ifor ' in Vidarbha.' SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. Accusative after the Adjective. 824. The only adjectives governing an accusative are those formed from desiderative bases; as, ^tt^ finf*?^: 'desirous of going home;' ■'T^ ^>ftT^; ' desirous of obtaining a son ;' TTlTFT f<^"H;"sr: ' desirous of seeing the king.' Instrumental after the Adjective. 825. Adjectives, or participles used adjectively, expressive of * want* or ' possession,' require this case ; as, "^^^f ftvr: ' destitute of wealth ;' ^^: ^rorj^t ' possessed of riches ;' Tlftl^T "^^rt "5f7: ' a jar full of water.' 826. So also of 'likeness* or 'equality;' as, ^^^^^^ "^T^ T^Xk "JT *Jifr "!T ^TfTorfrT ' there has never lioen, nor will there ever be, any one like him in this world ;' HR^^: ^'^ Ti^'^T: ' his success was equal to his undertakings ;' TTTO: Tn7T ^^t ' a wife as dear as life ;' ^Tf(^^'?r TT^: ' equal to the sun.' These are also joined with a genitive. Genitive after the Adjective. 827. Adjectives signifying ' dear to,' or the reverse, arc joined with the genitive ; as, VK^\ ivw, ' dear to kings \ hwtt: ^Urif fT?qT: ' husbands arc dear to women ;' «T =fifw ^llJITH ^fnif: ' women dislike nobody ;' i^> H^fw i?f^t ' he is detestable to his ministers.' B r 'Mh') SYNTAX OP THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE DEGREE. a. Adjectives exjjressive of 'equality' often require this case as well as the instrumental; thus, *i^*|f^ ' there is nobody upon earth more unfortunate than I.' a. When it is intended to express 'the better of two things' the genitive may be used ; as, ^TrTlflT; ^^^ft: ^ ^^ K^TTT: ' Of these two countries which is the better ? ' 83 1 . The comparative in Sanskrit is often resolved into the expres- sion ' better and not ;' as, ^ m^",Mrii*lWI> ^ ^RT; ^"pt ^Pf^fin TI^: ' better abandon life than (literally, and not) engage in such an action ;' ^ ifr^ oRt^ tt ^ A^^H -^ tj^ ^^ ' it is better that silence should be kept than a speech uttered which is untrue ;' f^ST'TT ^ i^T«n^^ ^ HW^ •JT ^ '5TXqTTT^7ft«f;f5iTr[mT^ '^rqi^nr IJITT TlfiniT^^ ' a teacher of the Veda should rather die with his learning than commit it to an unworthy object, in the absence of a pupil worthy to be instructed in it.' SYNTAX OF NUMERALS. 307 832. The superlative degree is usually joined with the genitive ; as, cji^iiH fgv[r^ wt JTTT ^rfr^T w^^ I ^T^ nrhrot w; ^^; ?T[^^t ^: ' a Brahman is the best of all bipeds, a cow of quadrupeds, a Guru of venerable things, a son of things possessed of touch :' but sometimes with the locative ; as, Tj^rq ^c5^^^^: ' the most powerful of men :' and even with an ablative ; as, \rRir?rt ^"^ "^^m 'ffW,** Jk'^'^ * a store of grain is the best of all stores.' a. A superlative degree may even take a comparative affix, and govern the genitive; as, "Wm 3*(8rti,'^ ' the eldest of them.' See 194. 833. 'Comparison' is often expressed by an adjective in the positive degree, joined with a nonn in the ablative case ; as, Hlfw rTWriT 'J^PT^T'!^ ' there is not a happier than he ;' ^ H^ (719. a) ♦i^ii ' he is greater than me.' a. In more modern Sanskrit ' comparison ' is sometimes expressed by the use of ^nr^ 'regarding,' 'with reference to' (indecl. part, of the root ^"^ with W^), which may take the place of ' than' in English; thus, (^^PlmUn^^ "^^^ ^Hl^ ^rr^'n^'^fTJT ^^^ ftnrr ^rR^in ^ffHr^ HTTiT ' an A'charya ought to l)e higher in estimation than ten Upadhyayas, a father than a hundred Acharyas.' 834. Many words have a kind of comparative influence, and require an ablative case, especially TT, W^, "^T^, '^^T, ^!m^ , ^TTC, "?^rT ' Of what use is scriptural knowledge (to one) who does not practice virtue ? Of what use is a soul (to one) whose passions are not kept in svil)jection ?' f^ ff W^'?T TT"^^ ' What business have you to make this inquiry ?' f^ «l|:«l( ' What need of more !' 'in short.' b. As already shown at 761, a relative pronoun is sometimes rendered unne- cessary by the use of the relative compound ; thus, "JTrr^ ^f^l^rvj^i 11^5*^1 is equivalent to ^PR^ ^T^T^ '^f'^ohl vrTWTf«T ^T^ftrr ' a city whose palaces were silvered by the moon-beams.' c. The relative, when followed by a pluperfect tense, may sometimes be expressed by the indechnable participle; thus, ftrft ^m^ ^roTT ' a Hon having killed a hunter,' or ' a lion who had killed a hunter.' 838. The following examples will illusti'ate the use of pronouns of quantity and pronominals : ^^TtT: (or tn^^cRT^) TfTHT^^ H^ IHWff: (or TTO^cSTfT) ^iflT ' as many mouthfuls as he eats, so many he gives away ;' '^f^ ^HT^"?!' fl'SJ cft'Tff IT^T T^rTT^T^ ^5Zn"'5^f*7 ' if so much is given to me, then I will gi\'e so much instruction ;' im\ wf^^ J71Z?!? W^l^^l ' one out of all those.' See also 801. SYNTAX OF VERBS. 839. Nothing is more common in Sanskrit syntax than for the verb to be omitted altogether, or supplied from the context. a. This is tuore especially the case with the co]Hila, or substantive verb ; thus. SYNTAX OF VERBS. 309 ■^ ' as long as the gods have existed in Meru, as long as the Ganges upon earth, as long as the sun and moon in the sky, so long have we (existed) in the family of Brahmans;' TTft'^: ^'nftlST'i ' discrimination (is) wsdoiii.' Locative, Genitive, and Nominative absolute. 840. The locative case is very commonly used absolutely with participles ; as, irftR-JT ^fHrfrr ^mfiT ^ wf^^ f^ ^t ' he living I live, he dying I die ;' ^snTO^Fff 7^^ ' the night being ended ;' #? >rrfliT ^^'^ ' the elder brother being unmarried ;' W^frT ^qiilMT ' there being no other expedient ;' inn ^rfw ' it being so/ Sometimes the verb is omitted ; as, ^ H^ ' the danger (being) distant.' When the passive participle is thus used absolutely with a noun in the locative case, the present participle of ^, ' to be,' is often redun- dantly added ; as, inrT ^W ^flT or TT^IT ^^W ' it being so done *.' a. The genitive is less commonly used absolutely ; as, ^^TTPR^T'T ■« 1 m n fii »i I 'calamities impending;' "R^^TiTf ■^TTTOt ' the men looking on.' b. The nominative is very rarely thus used; as, ^"J^ ^ ^mTXITW: JjiW-m'J^^^T *my friend having arrived, I am happy.' c. It is evident from the above examples that the locative and genitive absolute often take the place of the particles 'when,' ' while,' ' since,' ' although.' Nominative case after the Verb. 841. Verbs signifying '^ to be,' 'to become/ 'to appear,' 'to be called,' or ' to be esteemed,' and other passive verbs used denomina- tively, may take a nominative after them ; as, TTITT "RiTrmFS^: ^TTT ^ let a king be the protector of his subjects ;' "m f^^W^"^ nftTmfw * she appears sorrowful;' mifrsT^ irflTHTflT ' the village appears like a desert ;' irRT W ^H>fhlW ' a king is called Justice.' Accusative case after the Verb. 842. Transitive verbs generally govern this case; as, f^^g ^^# ^: ' Brahma created the universe ;' "^TirrfifT f^TtfrT iTPd ' the woman gathers flowers ;' TTnrrT^ »TFT 5^^*. '^ the dying man gave up the ghost ;' *nT ^^ ' one should avoid wine ;' IT^ "a^f^ ' speal the truth.' 843. So also verbs of motion; as, WtTw ffHf ^fH 'the holy man (joes to the place of pilgrimage ;' "VTir: ^"5 IT^'^ ' rivers run into the ocean ;' >JflfiiT T^T he wanders over the earth.' * Possibly the object of adding the word sati may be to show that the passive l)articiple is here used as a participle, and not as a past tense. So also in com- mentaries ^(T is placed after a word like ^Hi'i-oaPfi, to indicate the loc. c. sing, of the pres. part., as distinguished from the 3d sing, of the pres. tense. 310 SYNTAX OF VERBS. 844. Verbs of motion are not unfrequently used with substantives, to supply the place of other verbs; as, WrfTT ^fff ' he goes to fame,' for ' he becomes famous;' ^HrilH ^fir ' he goes to equality,' for ' he becomes equal;' Tfft^ fJTWJn'R ^»IiTnT ' he came to the friendship of those two,' for ' he became a friend of those two ;' tr^p^ TW: ' he went to death,' for ' he died ;' «J^1T ^f? ^TTflT ' he brings the king to satisfaction,' for ' he satisfies,' &c. a. The following are other examples : ^!T^^ tfV3T "Tfr^TTfT ' he avoids paining others ;' WTrWT ^^STTtT ' he desires what is unattainable ;' f^^ f-Mfi^"!!;^ ' he should thinh on wisdom;' 'HiyH ^TTt^fT ' he mounts his horse;' <+*Air*lT '^TRfHT 'they began the business;' TTTTtT TT ^T^I 'grieve not for the departed;' ^"§1^- ■^T'ftm'WH ^'t'ffl' ' he deserves the sovereignty of the universe ;' "RafT^*^ ^ ' he lies down in a cave of the mountain ;' 7|f '^It f^TW^^' "^ f^'^TTTTi^ ' one ought not io prevent a cow from drinking milk.' 845. There are certain verbs which take a redundant accusative case after them of a substantive derived from the same root ; as, ^'T^ ^m ' he swore an oath ;' T^fT ■^riTT 'he dwells;' qrJrt "^W 'he conducts himself;' '^T^ '^^fcT 'he speaks a speech;' »T^nrr »TT^ 'he raises a cry' (cf. the Greek expressions X^yw Xoyov, -Xaipa xa/?av, &c.). Double Accusative after the Verb. 846. Verbs of asking govern a double accusative ; as, ^ "^X ^^IT ' he seeks a boon of the god;' V^ TTsTT^ TTi^qn 'he begs money from the king.' Of speaking; as, TT111 '^^ •T'T^ WW^TTT ' he addressed a speech to the king.' Of lead- ing; as, "ff JT^ "^UJifli ' he leads him home.' 847. Causal verbs ; as, HJ^frff^ >ff»T^rfiT ^TW ' he causes the guest to eat food ;' r?f "^^^fif? 1JW W f^ ' I cause you to know what is for your interest ;' f^'QT ^^T^ ^TWr^T■^fcT ^^: 'the Guru teaches his pupil the Vedas;' irf ^T^ "R^^TT ' he causes her to enter the house;' tfif5^^^<^^ ^TTfTTTT^ 1JXITW»T ' he presented the king's son with fruits, flowers, and water ;' ^ST^ ^1?*^ ^T^^trfw ' she causes her son to sit on her lap' (literally, ' her hip') ; f^STT ^ "JJ^ ^fT^^Ttrfk ' learning causes a man to have access to a king.' a. Other examples are, TT ^rfT^frW ^fnfJlf^^: they inaugurated him general,' more usually joined with an ace. and loc. ; ^^ 'Tfff "^^rf ' she chooses a god for her husband ;' ^nrf^^fcT ofTWRlf^ =J lij M ' she gathers blossoms from the trees ;' TTT'T irrf^'lfti^ TW^^I<«i ' he sent them to the abode of Yama' (Hades) ; ^*^f^- TTTf^' ■Jit ^J^f^ r^m^HTTf TT Hilftl ' his own acts lead a man to eminence or the reverse.' Instrumetital case after the Verb. 848. Any verb may be joined with the instrumental, to express ' the instrument or cause or manner' of the action ; as, ^'cq ^7T«T S'Tqfff ' the flower fades by reason of the wind ;' ^^: "Si^^fTT * he SYNTAX OF VERBS. 311 plays with dice ;' ^Tftsfr^ #^ fH^ i miPri ' the cloud puts out the fire with its rain ;' TT^^ TfNfir ' he lives happily/ a. In this sense many causals take an instrumental ; as, rTT [♦iuitjT >flT|t(l«ii« ' he caused her to eat sweetmeats;' TTft^fiT: Pmisi^i^ <<^ir; Mfn ' he causes the pieces to be eaten by the birds.' 849. After verbs of motion this case is used in reference either to the vehicle by which, or the place on ivhich, the motion takes place ; as, ^M*! innfw ' he goes in a chariot;' -wsyti ^T^TJ^IT ' he goes on horseback;' TT^RT Tj^flf ' he goes on the road;' ^HMJU^iH T^tTtT 'he goes through afield of corn;' "^^^ 'W\JK «fl<*MI ' he navigated the ocean in a boat.' Similarly, ^FR »1*4'lt ^Tc-ioi ' tears flowed through the eyes.' a. After verbs of carrying, placing, &c., it is used in reference to 'the place' on which any thing is carried or placed ; as, '^^frr TaT ^W»T ' he bears fagots on his head;' ch^O *5h'*i«i "3^'^' 'the dog is borne on the shoulders.' W is found with this case in the sense of placing; as, f^^T M^h^ -siodOTT ' he placed his son on his head.' The following are other examjjles : f^T^TO ^'^rfir ^J^t ' the master goes in company with the pupil ; ' *l««Ml*l(*i *i !»« PhJ ' he consulted with his ministers ;' but in this sense ^'^ is usually placed after it. >T^T >TT§^ ^'^^TfiT ' the husband meets the wife ;' ti *u si ■q Ht ^^ ^^Tt ' he harnesses the horses to the chariot ;' ^^ f^^r^ITT ' he is separated from the body,' more usually with the ablative. '^^W ^^fi?: ' he fights his enemies,' or ^T^fHI ^, &c. ; tr •? cF,"?rf^7r ^ "^^^rnr^ ' one ought not to be at enmity with any one.' 850. Verbs of boasting ; as, f^^RT fT^r^TTT 'you boast of your learning;' R<;Ml M^Jtfl "^nrW 'you glory in the fame of others.' Of swearing; as, VHMl ^t| 'he swore by his bow.' Of thinking, reflecting; as, *l«i«l r«|PqTM ' thinking in his mind.' 851. Verbs denoting liberation, freedom from, sometimes take an instrumental after them ; as, ^i'^^MlMi UH^TfT ' he is released from all sins.' 852. Verbs of buying and selling take the instrumental of the price; as, TT^^ ^rfll H<5l*!.lT'^ F^ "SRhrfh^ M r^js rt ' buy one wise man even for thousands of fools ;' TX^ i\iHM 17^ fsj^iiiHrt ' he sells his house for a thousand cows.' Dative after the Verb. 853. All verbs in which a sense of imparting or communicating any thing to any object is inherent, may take an accusative of the thing imparted, and a dative of the object to which it is imparted. (Frequently, however, they take a genitive or even a locative of the object ; see 857.) "T^TiT fTt^oFT^ ^ifrT ' he gives sweetmeats to his son;^ "fwnr TT HrriSmrirri ^ he promises a cow to the Brahman;' ^^^^n ^ vnTrffT ' he owes money to Devadatta ;' "35^ im 'Jlfinn^''T ' consign the maiden to him,' more usually with the locative ; see 861. 312 SYNTAX OF VERBS. a. Other examples of the dative are, ^^f I^^TT^IR IW'^'iT 'T'?!: ' he sets his mind on their destruction ;' TTT^TR ^fw ^VT ' he set his mind on departure,' or with the locative. fT"?? ^'^ Tt^'ff ' that is pleasing to me ;' f^^^t IR^tPr ITTT ' I will declare this to my pupils ;' W^ ^T^ f^r^"T7Tfrr ' he makes known all to the king,' these are also joined with the genitive of the jierson. '^Hfn^T^ ■^i^TT ' he is rendered Jit for immortality ;' ■SWTTrT fJJT ^nTPT ' he has the power to kill me ;' rTT^ ^TWT: «niPT W^ITW ' he incited them to the murder of their mother;' ^^^ "^WnT ' he is angry with his son.' Ablative after the Verb. 854. All verbs may take an ablative of ' the object' from which any- thing proceeds, or arises, or is produced ; as, ij^TtrfifT ^gJTF "q^ '^ the leaf falls from the tree ;' ^fvt ^^flT TTTeTTW ' blood fioivs from the body;' ^[^■?rT^ "g'fw^fTT ^ he raises from his seat;' JTfrxr^JTfT: (719) ^T cii^rt ^TITT i^^frf ' from the lump of clay the artist makes whatever he w ishes ;' fT^TW ^ifiT xiT^f ' from education a person attains capacity ;' frj^iT'R ^JTTTTT ' he went out from the city.' 855. Verhs of fearing are joined with the ahlati^•e, and sometimes with the genitive ; as, ^TT^ "?[ IVm ^f^^ f^T^rfff XRT ^^TiT ' a good man does not /ear death so much as falsehood;' TT ^|««!^|r^ f^vfi'TT 'be not afraid of a noise;'' l«f ^^ifk * he gives money to the poor.' 858. It may be used for the locative after verbs of consigning, as 'ftT^''? ^^ ^Wq'^fff ' he deposits a pledge with me ;' or of trusting, as «T '^iT^TT ^t^TillT ■^r^vrfff ' nobody puts trust in women :' and for the accusative in examples such as ^f^f^fTfrrfJT ^IWrftr ^T^nfnT ^%^ ' unexpected ills come upon corporeal beings.' 859. It is sometimes used after verbs oi fearing ; as, 7f?^ f^ '«T ^T^^HT 'Why art thou not afraid of him ?' see 855. Also after verbs of longing for, desiring, envying; as, ^R»TT^T^ ^^W^'he should desire contempt;' ^^T^^fH "^^T?TOT ^p^"^^ ' I envy men who possess eyes.' a. Other examples of verbs followed by genitive cases are, ^ST^^TrfTH ^9TT^ ;^in"qTT '^n^ ^rf^ HT^T ' tell us, who are ignorant of it, whose wife you are ;' ^R5p:r (for "^^TnT) l^i^ffT ^tM^: 'Of whom are the righteous afraid?' ^q^ V5,lj44{ TrffTiTR^ 'Tf TT? ^^^ r^^TTf ' one should not give to one what one promises to another ;' TIT ^ ^RltfiT ' he does not hear me' (cf. the Greek usage) ; *W ^RTJ ' remember me,' or with the accusative. '^J^T fHt^Ullff^ 'one should place (bury) a dead man in the ground;' ^IW Tm ^ifir ' he applies his mind to Adrtue.' a. In this sense "^ is used ; as, '^'2 iJ^r^*y^ ^'^i^tiT ' he placed the wood on his back ;' Hfw tnTT «B^fTT ' he applies his mind to sin.' 862. When ^T, ' to give,' is used for ' to put,' it follows the same analogy ; as. 314 INSTRUMENTAL CASE AFTER PASSIVE VERBS. WPJ ^^T?T ?^ ^fV 'put your hand on the end of its tail;' >TfH'^^ "q^ ^^ ' he placed his foot on a heap of ashes.' Similarly, ■^^fj^t^ Vlffsf^ ' he was held by the skirt of his garment.' So also verbs of seizing, striking ; as, "^'^T? *i%tifrT or ^TofT^rT ' he seizes or drags him by the hair;' ^TTT TT^TfrT ' he strikes a sleeping man.' 863. The locative is often put for the dative in sentences where the latter case stands for the infinitive ; thus, >TW^ ■*<'■=« M*lf r^^^ ' hasten to seek thy spouse ;' Hrt**f ^^"IT^ ^'AVl "strive to bring Nala hither;' "?[ ^"^^ TTFT "^^^ JX^ ' they could not hold that bow.' a. Other examples are, T^ TmftT "^^'fl" ' he is engaged in a very severe penance ;' "TT^'^WT^^ HT ^TT''?frT >T; 'do not busy yourself about other people's affairs;' f^nr^^ ^^^ ' he is addicted to objects of sense ;' 'Jff'iT^'rarf^W T^^W ' he delights in the good of all the world;' J^jf^I'^lT f^^i^TT ' he is appointed to the com- mand of the fort;' '^T '^W V^^ f?R^»r^lT 'he yokes two bulls to the pole;' ^TT??? ^irftrt ^rf ' anoint me to the generalship;' iTrT^ TTFT^f^JJ^ ' he strives to suppress evil-doers.' b. ^T HT^V ^Tq"ff TRJT?T ^^"^ ' such language is not suited to a person like me;' H^j?^ r^^f TT^i^JlT 'sovereignty is suited to you;' WWrf TTlfTSTTT 'he reclined on a seat;' T^T?^ ^TW^ 'sit thou on a cushion;' ^^^ fT'^^lT ' he confides in his enemies ;' ^T^'^^t tlwfiT ' it falls at his feet ;' TSZfl^ 'TT^'^ ' it rolls at the feet.' Change of case after the same Verb. 864. This sometimes occurs ; as, f^^^ VTTTT^'R W^ "^ TTPirR^T: 5^§ "^R^- MiW Vidhura and Kunti announced every thing, the one to Dhritarashtra, the other to Gandhari' (Astrasiksha 34), where the same verb governs a dative and genitive. Similarly, in the Hitopadesa, "^ifl^^t fr^gT^"^ "T ^^t ^^ '^ ' con- fidence is not to be placed in horned animals or women.' INSTRUMENTAL CASE AFTER PASSIVE VERBS. 865. The prevalence of a passive construction is the most remark- able feature in the syntax of this language. Passive verbs are joined Avith ' the agent, instrument, or cause,' in the instrumental case *, and agree with ' the object' in number and person ; as, Wtt T^f T^5[Um, ' for the eating,' for >?f^^ ; ^fhllTT-Er, * for the fighting,' for ^ft^ ; and in Latin the infinitive could not be used at all, but either the supine, devoratum, pugnaturn, or, still more {iroperly, the conjunction with the subjunctive mood, * ut devoret,' ut pugnarent.'' The following are other examples in which the infinitive has a dative force in expressing ' the purpose ' of the action : 'mffH ''7TJ 'T'ftJ^ ^'PT'ff 'he went to the river to drink water;' W\ ^T^R %WT TT^^^ffT 'he comes to cut asunder my bonds ;' ^TT ^TTT T^Wi'. (^f% being understood) ' he is able to rescue me ;' XIT^T'5T ^^fT'rf ^^I^ ^*|5 ' he busied himself about collect- ing together the snares.' 869. The Sanskrit infinitive, therefore, has more of the character of a supine than an infinitive ; and in its character of supine is susceptible of either an active or passive signification. In its pas- sive character, however, like the Latin supine in u, it is joined with certain words only, the most usual being the passive verbs ^r«5r ' to be able' and '^■jt '' to be fitting,' and their derivatives ; thus, w^ "«T ^^^ ' it cannot be abandoned ;' xn^ "JT "^"^ '^I^W ' the snare cannot be cut ;' rf ^n»Tn ^ITWT^ W ^WTt ' those evils cannot be remedied ;' ■^ilW ^ ^35fw ' it is not fitting to be heard ;' %wiT ^nff3^: ' unfit to be cut ;' -^-m rf -^ST ^^HT^ff^ ^^r^ "^^ ' contempt is not proper to be shown by thee for him.' a. The following are other instances : frUTT: ^TfsTg'T WR^ti: ' the shed was begun to be built;' T^T^ "^SffW^^ >T^'?r "ftfCiViT: 'your honour has been selected to be inaugurated to the kingdom;' ^'^frr ofiW ' it deserves to be done' (Naisadiya V. 112); ^v^ ^'?fr^TT 'improper to be done' [ci. factu indignum and TTQieTv alay^ov) ; ^T jft^fiTW '!^W{^\ 'she ought to be released.' 870. The root ^% ' to deserve,' when used in combination with an infinitive, is usually equivalent to ' an entreaty' or ' respectful imperative;' as, V#T^ "jft ^"^ ^"tftT ' deign (or simply 'be pleased') to tell us our duties.' It sometimes has the force of the Latin debet; as, ^ J^T"^^ i^TR ^VTiTT|'T ^ffT ' such a person as I ought not to address you;' "?f ^^ ^f%^ ^f^ ' you ought not to bewail him.' 871. The infinitive is sometimes joined with the noun ^TTfT, ' desire,' to form a kind of compound adjective, expressive of 'the wish' to do any thing, but the USE AND CONNEXION OP THE TENSES. 317 final m is then rejected; thus, '^^'^'W:, -'RT, -JT, ' desirous of seeing;' ai^ohlHt, -HT, -f{, 'wishing to conquer.' a. In the 2d Act of Vikramorvasi the infinitive is joined in the same way with ♦l«1*i^; thus, ^ "rjyHlT: ' he has a mind to see.' 872. When kim follows the infinitiA'e a peculiar transposition sometimes takes place, of which the ist Act of S'akuntala furnishes an example; thus, «j^ ' Be it so !' ' Well !' ittf ' Let it go !' ' Come along !' ' Come !' 883. It is sometimes employed in conditional phrases to express ' contingency ;' as, W^irr'll'f? TT 'I'oaif'T ' permit me, (and) I will go,' i. e. ' if you ^vilI permit me, I will go ;' WT^rT'iT"^ ^^ 1^^"'^^ ' if JO" command me, I will kill the villain;' 'WH^'^'r^ ^ ^T^ T^TfiT ' if you give me a promise of security, I will go.' 884. FIRST PRETERITE. — Although this tense properly has refer- ence to ' past incomplete action' (see 242), and has been so rendered in the examples given at pp. 198 — 267, yet it is most commonly used to denote 'indefinite past time,' without any necessary connexion with another action ; as, ^ tj^w xj^ WoRT^ ' I made an effort to collect wealth,' not necessarily ' I was making.' 885. SECOND PRETERITE. — As observed at 242, this tense is pro- perly used to express ' an action done at some definite period of past time;' as, •^r^r^T^> iT^flT ^m^ "^rgi^' 'Kausalya and the others bewailed king Das'aratha.' It is frequently, however, employed indeterminately. 886. FIRST FUTURE.— This tense expresses 'definite futurity;' as, wm f^"^ "^jn^m TfiH T^stTTftl ' in those regions thou shalt obtain the fruit of thy desire ;' but is not so frequently found as the second future. 887. SECOND FUTURE. — This tense, although properly indefinite, is employed to express ' all degrees and kinds of futurity,' immediate or remote, definite or indefinite ; as, ^t^ t?^: iTTFlftT ' thou shalt SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 310 drink sweet water ;' fr^ 'ST^^tt r;^'i J^fii ' there certainly he will see his wife.' a. It is sometimes used for the imperative ; as, ^ ^ rT^ <^l?TfH * whatever is to be given, that you will give,' (do thou give.) 888. THIRD PRETEEITE. — This tense properly expresses '^ time indefinitely past;' as, ^srifrj^ vjti: '^ there lived (in fomier times) a king;' see 242. 889. It is also employed to supply the place of the imperative, after the prohi- bitive particle TT or ffT9T, the augment being omitted ; as, TT ^^Tt ' do not make ;' W[ TH^l W^ ' do not lose the opportunity ;' TTOT ^"pT WT^I ' do not tell an untruth ;' Wl "aiV: ' do not be angry ;' TT W^'. ' do not grieve ;' ^^[ f^^*^: ' do not injui-e ;' W[ HRtl ' be not afraid.' 890. BEXEDICTIVE. — Only one example of this tense occurs in the Hitopadesa: fj^ iTTrrrT W<*c4,'Hi^ '^^Pri; ' May he constantly be the abode of all happiness !' It is chiefly used in pronouncing benedictions. Also in imprecations. a. In the latter case a noun formed with an affix ani is frequently used ; thus, Wrfi^tnT W *J5T7r ' May there be loss of hfe to thee !' ' Mayst thou perish !' 891. CONDITIONAL. — This tense is even less frequent than the last. It is used in conditional propositions, as illustrated by the following example fi-om Manu : ■^f^ TJin ^ ^ TTOR7T TT^T ^ Ti^TR ^^ ^TCf^^ J'^f^ =<(^^rlT^tJ^ "^^^ ' ^^e proceeded to eat;' ^ ^TgHt 'he fell asleep;' TT fw?TT: 'they stood.' a. Occasionally this participle is susceptible of a present signification; thus, T^'fT stood' may sometimes be translated ' standing,' and HTW 'fearing.' b. The neuter of the passive participle is sometimes used as a substantive ; thus, ^W ' a gift ;' ^TT ' an excavation ;' ^T# ' food ;' f^ ' milk.' * This instrumental or passive construction, which is so prevalent in Sanskrit, has been transferred from it to Hindi, Marathi, Guzerati, and other dialects of India, The particle ne in Hindi and Hindustani corresponds most clearly to the Sanskrit *T na, the final letter of the commonest termination for the instrumental case; and this particle can never occasion any difficulty if so regarded. SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 321 Active Past Participle. 897. This participle is much used (especially in modern Sanskrit and the writings of commentators) to supply the place of a perfect tense active. It may govern the case of the verb ; as, ^^'^ ^^"JT ' he heard every thing ;' TT(=ft tifwiT ^Tfe%fT^7ft ' the wife embraced her husband ;' TT^rV ^;ct tJk^ ^^^^ ' he gave the fruit into the hand of the king ;' WW etidMril ' she did that.' This participle may also be used with the auxiliaries as and bhu, ' to be/ to form a compound perfect tense ; thus, WW oFW^^ ^ftw ' he has done that ;' TTW ^''T^T^ ^rfroifiT ' he will have done that.' Indeclinable Past Participles. 898. The sparing use made in Sanskrit composition of relative pronouns, conjunctions, and connective particles, is mainly to be attributed to these participles, by means of which the sense of a clause may be suspended, and sentence after sentence strung toge- ther without the aid of a single copulative. They occur in narration more commonly than any other kind of participle ; and some of the chief peculiarities of Sanskrit syntax are to be traced to the frequency of their occurrence. 899. They are generally used for the past tense, as united with a copulative conjunction, and are usually translatable by the English ' having,' ' when,' ' after,' ' by,' see ^^c^ ; thus, W^ ^T<*IW IVftarWT ^^ ^ f "f; ^fT m^ 'SFT'f ITliT ^Ti^ ^n^ W ' having heard this, having thought to himself " this is certainly a dog," having abandoned the goat, having bathed, he went to his own house.' In all these cases we should use in English the past tense with a conjunction ; thus, ' When he had heard this, he thought to himself that it must cer- tainly be a dog. He then abandoned the goat, and, when he had bathed, went to his own house.' a. It is evident from the above example that the indeclinable participles often stand in the place of a pluperfect tense, a tense which does not really exist in Sanskrit. b. But although they always refer to something past, it should be observed that they are frequently rendered in English by the present participle, as in the fifth sentence of the story at 930. 9CX5. Another, though less frequent, use of them is as gerunds in do ; thus, «1T#^T ' a wife is to be supported even by doing a hundred wi-ong things;' f^ "qt^ ^r^ ^ 'What bravery is there in killing a sleeping man ?' 901. The termination RT twci of this participle is probably the instrumental case of the same affix of which the infinitive termination {urn) is the accusative ; see 459. a. There can be little doubt that the indeclinable participle bears about it much of the character of an instrumental case. It is constantly found in gram- matical connexion with the agent in this case ; thus, "W^l TTST^R ^H Trtr^l I ftrf 1 T^'^TTt ' by all the beasts having met together the lion was informed;' ^%T 'TT75H WT^^T Tf^^tTiTT ' by all having taken up the net let it be flown away.' a. Another and perhaps stronger proof of its instrumental character is, that the particle ^r?J, which always governs the instrumental case, is not unfrequently joined with the indeclinable participle ; thus, ^T^ ^TtsTTfT, ' enough of eating,' is with equal correctness of idiom expressed by ^Tc? *TliT ; see 918. 0, Future Passive Participles. 902. The usual sense yielded by this participle is that of ' fitness/ ' obligation/ ' necessity' (see 568) ; and the usual construction re- quired is, that the agent on whom the duty or necessity rests be in the instrumental case, and the participle agree with the object ; as, rWm If^fw^ "JT f^wr ' by you the attempt is not to be made.' a. Sometimes, however, the agent is in the genitive case; thus, Pg »t 1 fl T»TT >T^JT^ ^T^ ' boiled rice is to be eaten by Brahmans.' Compare 865, note, 903. Occasionally the future passive participle may yield a sense equivalent to ' worthy of,' ' deserving of;' thus, «Ii^ ' deserving a whipping ;' (llsWlq ' worthy of being beaten ;' ♦j««h4 ' deserving death by pounding ;' "W^ ' worthy of death.' 904. If the verb govern two accusatives, one may be retained after the future passive participle ; as, i^ri tffrtc") r^^ ^if^fT *nT ' the tear of the eye is to be brought to assuagement by thee.' 905. Occasionally the neuter of this participle is used impersonally; in which case it does not agree wth the object, but may govern it in the manner of the verb; thus, ^"m Tjm TT^K^, ' it is to be gone by me to the village,' for ^m JX^ TrRIt. So also, r^TTT ^HT "H^F^ ' by you it is to be entered into the assembly.' a. The neuter ^P^rt^M (from ^T) is thus used, and, in accordance wth 841, requires the instrumental after it, as well as before ; thus, ^Hlfl <*K^^ ^TfTrT^ by something it must become the cause,' i. e. ' there must be some cause ;' *Sir*i*iT «r<4^m*y HfTrT^ 'a ruler ought to be possessed of discrimination;' ^^^\ TH" ^«j-M<.Tr«Jrt«M ' I must liecome your companion.' 906. Similarly, the neuter of '^H*? may be adverbially used, and impart at the same time a passive sense to the infinitive ; thus, 1«l*It '51^1'^ ^^Tfef^'^'T ^I%I for "R"^: ^^I &c. 'the breeze is able to be embraced by the limbs' (S'ak. Act III). Again, ^^W W^fr5f»T: "RTF '^\Wl\ 'the breezes are able to be drunk SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS, PREPOSITIONS, ADVERBS, &C. 323 by the hollowed palms ;' f%»Tini: ^|"*MH ^T^'^ ' great successes are able to be obtained.' 907. It is not uncommon to find this participle standing merely in the place of a future tense, no propriety or obligation being imphed, just as the past passive participle stands in the place of a past tense ; thus, «jH*i^ '^HT'T rt«M<*«l HTTTT- ^llO^HT T^rT^i ' in all probability this hunter will go in quest of the deer's flesh,' where 'Ifl'=M is used impersonally; l^T "^yr <^^: f^if%^ "^^"^ ' when the people see you, they will utter some exclamation ;' ^ "^^ "mrfff IT^ JnTT ^if^TT^: ' if the bird falls, then it shall be eaten by me.' See also the eleventh sentence of the story at 930. 908. The neuter of this participle is sometimes used infinitively or substantively, as expressive merely of ' the indeterminate action ' of the verb, \vithout implying ' necessity' or ' fitness.' In such cases ^f^ may be added ; thus, q^Uin«M*i^ ^fif ' the being about to deceive ;' ♦iri"*i*i ^UT ' the being about to die :' but not always ; as, Wliemoq ' life.' Participial Noun^ of Agency. 909. The first of these nouns of agency (580) is constantly used in poetry as a substitute for the present participle ; implying, however, ' habitual action,' and therefore something more than present time. They are sometimes found govern- ing the same case as the present participle, but they are always united with the word which they govern in one compound; thus, M*.^*i ' city- conquering ;' ftnr^ 'speaking kind words;' sfcT'^ going in the water;' «l'*M ^ 'walking round and look- ing.' Unlike que, however, which must always follow the word of which it is the copulative, it may be admitted to any other part of the sentence, being only excluded from the first place ; thus, riHH"!^ ^'^TTff TTT^ ^ ^^* H^ ^ ^T^JT ' and having after a short time given birth to a pure son, as the eastern quarter (gives birth to) the sun.' a. Sometimes two oka's are used, when one may be redundant or equivalent to the English ' both;' or the two cAa's may be employed antithetically or disjunc- tively, or to express the contemporaneousness of two events ; thus, 'it^'a TTT^^ ' Both day and night ;' B T^W^T^ »fH^ ^ ^fffrS^?? M ^ ^^^ ^ ' Where on the one hand is the frail existence of fawns ? Where on the other are thy arrows ?' "aif^^ ^ '^^^ ^^^^Wpf "^ 3?ftflT^ ^fr'E^ ^Tff i^*{\H ' no sooner had she began to weep, than a shining apparition in female shape, having snatched her up, departed' (S'ak. Act V). Observe — When '^, ' where ?' is used as in the above example, it implies ' excessive incompatibility.' b. Sometimes '^ is used as an emphatic particle, and not as a copulative ; thus, f^ ^ 'T'm 'Tft?tftlT;^T ' Was she indeed married by me formerly ?' 913. inrr so,' 'likewise' (727. a), frequently supplies the place of ^; thus, ^RFTTTi^riTT ^ TT^r^^T^^ ^^ ' ^^°t^ Anagata-vidhata and Pratyutpanna- matis' (names of the two fish in Hitop. book IV). 914. f^ 'for,' '5 'but,' '^ 'or' (727. a, 728. a. b), like ^, are excluded from the first place in a sentence ; thus, ''jf T^^fHTrf "^T^ 'r^'M f^ "Tft^^TT ' for happiness formerly scorned turns to misery;' T^'7'II^ ^ 'but on the contrary;' ^^T l^'T ^T '^^1*11 ^TT 'either abandon her or take her.' 915. JjH^ 'if and ^TT 'if (727. b) may govern the potential or conditional (see 891), but are also used with the indicative; thus, TJ^ if^M^ M^lPill tJ'^TTfll' ' if he live, he will behold prosperity ;' '^f^ W^J n*ili|i*i^ ^iftcT ' if there is need of me ;' '^WT ^?T "tIt'W^ "^ ^'^^ ' If avarice were abandoned, who would be poor?' Prepositions and Adverbs. 916. Of all the internal evidences of the antiquity of Sanskrit, there is none more decisive than the sparing use which this language makes of prepositions, in expressing the dependence of one word upon another. Indeed, the employment of these aids to syntactical combination may be regarded as a result of modern refinement, incompatible with the simplicity of the most ancient languages. Thus, even the Greek, which is copiously provided with prepositions, made comparatively little use of them in the days of Homer, and was satisfied to express most of the relations of the words in a sentence by the cases of its nouns. But let it not be imagined that few prepositions exist in Sanskrit. On the contrary, they exist in great abundance, as we have shown at 729. Of these, however, only three are generally used in government with nouns, viz. ^TT, irfw, and W^ ; the latter two being usually placed after the word wliich tliey govern. Examples will be found at 730. SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS, PREPOSITIONS, ADVERBS, &c. 325 a. Other examjtles of 'STT are, tui ♦ifilloj'^mT^ ' as far as the wrist ;' ^TTHTfl^ 'till death;' ^T^mT^^'to the completion;' W[ ^7T^ ^JT'R'JnF ' till the comple- tion of his vow ;' W^ttrftnTt^PITff ' tiU his release from the body ;' 'iil»f»*4H'H ' from birth.' 917. Adverbs are often used as prepositions, or rather postpositions, in government with nouns. The following examples illustrate their construction as described at 731. a. 'JT ^^!3T7 "^TfT '^I^I ^W 'TTTf^f^^T^t ' the restraint of crime cannot be made without punishment;' ^TfT M "H if^ ^'^'for a hundred births;' ^m^f^^ 'mTiT * up to the serpent's hole;' M(?|*u ^ 'along with his son;' '^'j f^*TT ' \vithout cause-,' ^nTTJtr^ iTTT 'without fault;' fmi.l< ^f^C f^t^W 'creeping out of the hole ;' ■W'^rt'^ojii^tiKirirf TT^jftr ' from the moment of seeing (him) ;' ^»^M*TfiT * from birth;' WW: U^jfrT ' from that time forward;' Tl»m«T'TrT 'after eating;' TT^t ^S^tfj 'near the king;' f^Wt JH^I^fT^ V'T'T ^TT^fTT 'he receives money from his father ;' 'tW ^pfts?! f^f^ ' flesh thrown before the dog ;' TT M*iY^ ' in my presence.' tmsjilT may take an instrumental ; as, ^"^1 ^rr^TTT ' before others ;' ■»ilWl4i TTOTTT ' after us ;' TTIT f«TW^«n7T ' before teUing ;' TIFT TTnPTITTiT 'before investiture;' WtiTHTW TTTojr 'before eating;' *^HI«|^"'J^ 'before bathing;' r«t q 1 5 1 n "^ 'before marriage,' Hl«ti may take an accusative; as, "RT^ fRT^T'^rTr: 'before twelve years are over;' ^Tfim^"»rn^ Xft ' after salut- ing ;' IT^T^IT "^Tg" ' after that period ;' W^WTH^ "Si^ ' after a year,' i. e. ' above a year having expired;' f«R"rfpr wtrSF 'after marriage;' vi^lofi «=^t|*1ic ^T^T ' after collecting the bones ;' TSc^'^^PiTT^ ' %vithout fruit ;' >T#^ W^^fin^ vift^n 'wthout the consent of her husband;' TrfT^FniT ^ftpTT 'to the right of the garden ;' M 1 r+u^h^** I <=M PiKetKii ' without injury to living beings.' 918. '^TJ^,' enough,' is used with the instrumental, with the force of a prohibitive particle ; as, Wc^ ^l^My ' away with fear,' ' do not fear.' a. It is also used with the indechnable participle ; as, W?! ^^•^y^ ' enough of consideration;' see also 901. a. h. It is sometimes followed by an infinitive ; as, ^ ^THH ^rf^ ^^'^ fJT"^fTI^ ' I am not able to turn back my heai-t.' 919. m^ ' even,' ' merely,' when compounded with another word is declinable ; 32G ON THE USB OF THE PAKTICLE ^. as, 3rr<*fl^ *T ^ifir * he does not even give an answer;' •? ^r^^HTWT^ >TiT^* 'one ought not to be afraid of mere noise;' 5I<^HT^X[T 'by mere sound;' q-^il /ilGlTfr ' by mere words.' 920. ntjl and t(^, when used as correlatives, are equivalent to the English so that,' and the Latin ita utj thus, "W^l W^ 'STPTf^ TTSTT WH «FW^ ' I must so act that my master awake,' i. e. ' I must do something to make my master awake.' So also, r^ ^ sTT^TTftT ^T^T ^TfT^ *C\^H ' Do not you know that I keep watch in the house ?' * a. \^Ah Hi^^l, and '^'^^, may be used in the same way; thus, in'^^'T ^RT^ ^ f%f^ f^^ ^"pr TTr^TTTTTft ' nothing is so opposed to length of life as attention to the wife of another.' b. "mf^, as well as TT^, is used for 'that;' thus, ^ »J^rt«i*l "^IT^ H^ ^TTfif ■^RT 4^»rimi Hamf ' this is a new doctrine, that having killed an enemy remorse should be felt.' 921. f^, ' why ?' may often be regarded as a mark of interrogation which is not to be translated, but affects only the tone of voice in which a sentence is uttered ; as, lTTrn/ii(Sft: VJPfl 'O traveller!' ON THE USE OF THE PARTICLE ^. 927. All the languages of the East are averse to the use of the obliqua oratio. In Sanskrit it is rarely admitted; and when any one relates the words or describes the sentiments or thoughts of ON THE USE OF THE PARTICLE ^. 327 another, the relator generally represents him as speaking the actual words in his own person. a. In such cases the particle '^fif (properly meaning ' so,' 'thus') is often placed after the words quoted, and may be regarded as serving the purpose of inverted commas ; thus, f^iuil "ai^: ^IT^WT ^^TH ^fcT ' the pupils said, " We have accomphshed our object;"' not, according to the Enghsh or Latin idiom, 'the pupils said that they had accomphshed their object.' So also, «*f<>5^<*i*J ^TT "^ H^ 'your husband calls you "quarrelsome," ' where <*c05.«m0 is in the nomina- tive case, as being the actual word supposed to be spoken by the husband himself in his own person. So again, ^^TT"?? f^nrWHI ^ ^ tlfTg^JTrr JHT 'STIT U^'^^ ' all the birds praise you in my presence, saying, " He is an object of confidence,"' where the particle l^fif is equivalent to 'saying,' and the word fr^^n^fnTt is not in the accusative, to agree with ^^TT?^, as might be expected, but in the nominative, as being the actual word supposed to be uttered by the birds in their own persons. In some cases, however, the accusative is retained before ^TT, as in the following example from Manu : ^ ^lcl{c(H*H<4^ ^^^ ^f'T *|f'1"'TJ ' a king, even though a child, is not to be despised, saying to one's self, " He is a mortal;"' *H^I^I^ TT TT^ ^uT "m T^ '>li^fcJyirH^:xn^: ^«^T^ ^X|mi5I ^T^^rrj^ "=^1:^^ fjoft? I rfi?tS5^ ^ 83 <^ ^ 8i 84 ♦ «? 86 87 ^rf^^T^q ^STiTTTT^H^T^ I ^H^^ ^T^ ^^BT^ '^'^^J^ "^^ Accus. case of nakula, ' a weasel,' ' ichneumon,' or * mungoose,' noun of ist class, masc, at 103. ''^ Bdlaka, m. ' a child,' crude base ; rakshd, f. ' protection,' crude base; artham, 'for the sake of,' adv. ; 731, with note. ^^ Indecl. part, of the causal of sthd, ' to stand,' with prepositions vi and ava, 566. ^^ See 602. 52 ^21. ^^ 556. ^-^ 719; final s remains by 62. ^•'' 720. ^^ lustrum, case, 103. 5'" See above. ^^ 73i- ^^717.6. ^o pj-es. part, of the root ^'am, 'to go,' 524, with preposition a,' to come,' 783. ^^ Krishna,' hla-ck,' crude base; sarpo, 'a snake,' nom. case of sarpa, noun of ist class, masc, at 103; as becomes o by 64 : see 755. ^- Past pass. part, of the causal of the root pad, with vi and a, ' to kill,' 549. ^ Past pass. part, of khand, ' to tear in pieces,' 538 ; final s becomes s by 62. ''^727,912. ''•^ 225; initial a cut off by 64. a. ^'^ Nom. case; as becomes by 64. ^^ Accus. case, 103. ^^ Pres. part, of yd, to go,' 524, with preposition d, ' to come,' 783. ^^ Indecl. part, of the root lok, with preposition ava, ' to see,' ' to observe,' 559. ^^ Rakta, ' blood,' crude base ; vilipta, ' smeared,' crude base of past pass. part, of the root lip, ' to smear,' with preposition vi ; mukha, ' mouth,' crude base ; pddah, nom. case of pdda, foot,' noun of 1st class at 103. Complex relative compound, the whole being the relative form of descriptive, involving a dependent and an aggregative, 771. "^ Indecl. part, of the root gam, 'to go,' with prepositions upa and d, 'to approach,' 564. a. '"^ Loc. case, dual, of charana, ' a foot,' noun of ist class, masc. or neut., at 103, 104 ; see 862. b. '^ 3d sing. 2d pret. Parasmai of the root luth, ' to roU,' 364. '''* Final s remains by 62. "•'' Tathd, ' so,' adv., 721 ; vidha, ' kind,' ' manner,' relative form of adverbial compound, 796. b. '*> Indecl. part, of dris, ' to see,' 556. '''^ 218. ^^ Nom. case of putra, ' a son,' noun of ist class at 103; as becomes by 64. a. "^ 224 and 64. a. ^ Past pass. part, of the root bhaksh, ' to eat,' 538. ^1 719. e, 928, and 929 ; final i becomes y by 34. ^- Indecl. part, of the causal of the root char, with preposition vi and negative prefix a (726), ' without deliberating,' 566. ^'-^ Past active part., formed from the past pass, part. ryapadiVff,' killed,' 553. '^^ 73i- ®^ 713- ^"^ 225 and 37. •'^"Indecl. part, of the root sri, 'to go,' with preposition upa, 'to approach,' 560. EXERCISES IN TRANSLATION AND PARSING. 335 ^ See 604. ^^ 713. ^ Nom. case of su-stha/ in a good state,' safe,' from s«/well,' 726./, and stha, participial noun from sthd, 'to stand,' 580. ^^ See 655. 9-728.0, 914. ''^784. 9-«See587. ^^ UpaMra/ benefit,' crude base; karam, ' causing,' accus. case of kara, participial noun from kri, to make,' 580 ; see 739. b. ^^ Indecl. part, of the root rup, with preposition ni, to look at,' 564, 9' Saniflp/fl,' scorched,' 'tormented,' 'distressed,' crude base; chetdh,' mind,' nom. case, masc. of chetas, noun of the 7th class, neut., at 164. a; see 767. ^ 6'j. ^^ Accus. case of para, adj. m. f. n.' excessive,' 187. ^*^o Accus. case of vishdda, 'grief,' ' despondency,' noun of ist class, masc, at 103. ^^^ Past pass. part, of gam,' to go,' with preposition upa, 545, 896, and see 844. 932. Translation. * There lives in Ujjayini a Brahman named Madhava. His wife bore him (a son). She, having stationed the Brahman (her husband) to take charge of the young child, went to perform ablution. Mean- while a message came from the king for the Brahman to perform the Parvana S'raddha. On hearing which, the Brahman, from his natural neediness, thought to himself, " If I do not go quickly, some other Brahman will take the S'raddlia. But there is none here (that I may leave) as a guardian to the child. What then can I do ? Come, having stationed this long-cherished weasel, dear to me as a son, in charge of the infant, I will go.'^ Having so done, he went. Presently a black serpent, silently approaching the child, was killed by the weasel and torn in pieces. By and by the weasel, seeing the Brahman returning, quickly running to meet him, his mouth and feet smeared with blood, rolled himself at the Brahman's feet. Then that Brahman, seeing him in such a condition, hastily con- cluding that he had eaten the child, killed him. Afterwards, no sooner did he come up than he beheld the infant slumbering safely, and the black serpent lying dead. Then looking at his benefactor the weasel, and bitterly repenting (of his precipitation), he experienced exceeding grief.' 330 EXERCISES IN TRANSLATION AND PARSING. EASY SENTENCES TO BE TRANSLATED AND PARSED. 933. Note — The numbers over the words in the following sentences and fables refer to the rules of the foregoing grammar. Those words which cannot be translated by a reference to the rules are explained in regular order at the foot of the page. Observe, that cr. stands for crude base ; c. for class or for case ; s. for substantive ; m. for masculine ; f. for feminine ; n. for neuter. # I H^^T ^ I f ^ ^^t^ ^%f?T I -^ f^ ^t^ I ^cTT^ ^t I W WTT I ^: #ftH I W ^%' ^^: I ^ 'Jf ^ftfrT I ^tfn: f¥^ ^y \ "SR ^T^H 311 J^, 2i8 f\ ■ill. 560 ^ _^ 8o6.b * ♦ 668. a 518, 896. b ♦ 66S. a ♦ lip 8q6. b « #K =So ♦ 2ig ♦ ♦ 8S9 ^ 714 6!S ** 106 ^» 880 601 88j S55 ^ 6M ^ 885 ♦ ^ yhit.h * 6gj 7S3.J UfV^ f^lT^ ^^^T^ ^%TT II ^Twrfq^^^ wmi €w h^^: -qic^ xrtw 11 «R s. m. (ist c. 103) 'aman.' JT^ s. n. (ist c. 104) 'a house.' ^T^ s. n. (ist c. 104) 'a book,' 'a sacred treatise.' Wc^ s. n. (ist c. 104) 'water.' TTT^- ■^T^ genitively dependent (743); rdtri, cr. ' night ;' seshe, loc. c. of sesJia, s. m. (ist c. 103) 'end.' '5I^T«T s. n. 'a bed;' -?2ac?, abl. c, / becomes rf by 45. 'gf? s.f. (2d 0. 112) 'gratification;' -shtyd, instr. c. TTTH s. n. (7th c. 164) 'penance;' -sah, gen. c. Hie? s. n. (ist 0. 104) ' frnit ;' -lam, nom. c. EXERCISES IN TRANSLATION AND PARSING. 337 Xji^ iJrTT^ ^iq^ ^%f7f f^^ ^ ^^^^^^ II ^ff:;5n^ ^tft*^PR ^nrr:;3|t^ TT^l^f^T^T'l^ f^^w II ^^TT^ ^ ^r^t^ ^^^ ^^H ^^%H II W^J^\: ^-feu^ ^^^ iw II ^f^ nX^ftj ^^Prf ^^^'f f^ft^i^^lf^^T ^f^ ^rqif^VT^H II ^df s. n. (ist c. 104) ' a barren soil;' -ne, loc. c. '^'5T s. n. (ist c. 104) ' seed;' -jam, ace. c. "3^1 indecl. part. (556), ' having sown,' from root vap. '^'BRi s. ni. (ist 0. 103) 'a husbandman.' '3h*C s. m. (ist c. 103) ' a hog.' 'ii-^^ni^ii^Tl'^- ^^rn^ complex compound (770. «); arma, cr.' food;' ghrdna, cr.' smelling;' ynr/ya, or. 'suitable,' 'fit;' desdn, abl. c. of desa (ist c. 103), ' spot,' 'place,' t becomes n by 47. Ml <.*« »li M fut. pass. part. (570), 'to be driven away,' 'to be expelled,' from root as, with prep. nir. JTW s. n. (ist c. 104) 'a Uving being;' -tdndm, gen. pi. '^rJT cr. ' sleep;' artham, see 760. d. f^ s. n. (ist c. 104) ' day.' ofW cr.' business;' anushthdna, cr. ' performance ;' artham, see 760. d. TTTl"- mn^r«4l'l«1 complex compound (772); rdga, cr. ' passion ;' dwesha, cr. ' hatred ;' ddi, cr. ' et cetera;' tydgena, instr. c. of tydga, s. m. (ist c. 103), ' abandonment.' ■^TR s.m. (ist c. 103) 'desire,' object of desire;' -ma^, nom.c; -ma'/iam, gen. c. pi. "^rWTT s. m. (ist c. 103) ' enjoyment ;' -genu, instr. c. '^H«T s. n. (ist c. 104) 'vice;' -nasya, gen. c. HTT s. m. (3d c. m) ' death;' -tyos, gen. c, s becomes ^ by 62. '^i^ adj. (ist c. 187) 'painful,' used here as superlative, 'the most painful.' "^ cr. ' prosperity,' ' fortune ;' siddhi, cr. ' attainment,' ' accomplish- ment,' see 34 ; artham, see 760. d. IS^m s. m. (ist c. 103) ' efPort,' ' exertion.' Jllcf s. n. (ist c. 104) ' a limb;' -trdni, n. pi. i}liAjr»n 3d pi. pres. Parasmai, ' are purified,' from root sudh (4th c. 612). f?r'rtI'l!r^'!TnT^«n complex compound (764); nishiddha, cr. 'forbidden;' chintd, cr. 'thought;' ddind, see 764. fTnTiT past jiass. jiart. (549), ]iolluted,' defiled,' from causal of root dtish (4th c). *< iM I iHVr^^ Tat-purusha or genitively dependent (743) ; salya, cr. ' truth ;' abhi- dhdnena, instr. c. of ahhulhdiw, s. n. ( ist c. 104), ' speaking.' X X 338 EXERCISES IN TRANSLATION AND PARSING. 663, 571- a f5=T^sfq ?fW Ht^T^ ^ II HT^TTrft ^W% ^r^%rrf II 7n% ^^ HT^^ m frT infioH ^ ^itfw ^"R^ f^^ s. n. (ist c. 104) 'poison.' ^WW s.r. (ist c. 104) 'nectar.' WTf5 s. m, (ist c. 103) ' a child;' -lad, abl. c, t becomes d by 45. '^TlfVT'T s. m. (ist c. 103), ' a believer,' from srat, an indecl. prefix implying ' belief,' and dadhdna, ' having/ pres. part. Atm. of dhd, see 664. «^irt jHttrTT Bahu-vrihi or relative form of descriptive (767. a); sahjdta, or. 'excited,' roused;' krodhdya, dat. c. of krodha, s. m. (ist c. 103), ' anger;' see 853. a, TTflTWtV s. m. (ist c. 103) ' anger in return.' ^ s. m, (ist c. 103) 'the sun;' -ye, loc. c, see 840. ^S^rf^ past pass. part. (531), ' having gone to its setting,' ' having set,' from astam, ace. c. of asta, ' the western mountain,' and ita, past pass. part, of i, ' to go,' see 645. *l^*^ s. m. (ist c. 103) 'a householder;' -sthena, instr. c. vj Prt Hq s. m. (2d c. no) 'a guest,' s becomes r by 65. HmTWI fut. pass. part. (571. a), 'to be refused,* from root khyd (2d c), with prep, jwati and a. ^"RT^I^ii s. n. (ist c. 104), ' evening meal,' ' supper,' from sdyam, indecl. ' evening,' and bhojana, s. n. ' meal,' see 755. a; -ne, loc. c, see 840. f«T^W past pass. part. (531), 'being ended,' from root vrit (598), \vith prep. ni. 9 1 id s. m. (2d c. iio)'a kinsman,' 'relative;' -tisliu, loc. pi., see 840. '^^ s. m. (ist c. 103) ' a man.' >?T^Tr 3d sing. pres. Atmane,' speaks,' from root hhdsh (ist c). HI fill rf infin. (458), 'to breathe,' from root an (2d c. 326), v/ith prep. pro. H 1 Uy Prt 3d sing. pres. Parasmai, ' breathes;' see 326. |r^ s. m. (ist c. 104) 'a hand;' -stau, nom. c. du. ^»IW Tat-purusha or instrumentally dependent (740); rakta, cr. 'blood;' aktati, nom. du. of akta, past pass. part. (539), ' soiled,' from root aiij (7th c. 668). fq*irt»lrtH Karma-dharaya or descriptive (755); vimala, cr. ' clean,' 'pure;' jalena, instr. c. of jala, s. n. (ist c. 104), ' water.' R^^-g past pass. part. (539), ' cleansed,' ' purified,' from root sudh, with prep, i-i ; -ddhau, nom. du. EXEKCISES IN TRANSLATION AND PARSING. 331) Mm II Hn^TfT ^:^^ ^^t^fw ^ ^ ^ftr f^1k% ii vTHfrt ^^Tt^rTT^^ ^m^TO ^ftr^ trn^TiT- ^T^t ^H^^Tftn ^11% II ^Tfir^ ^^^Pti II ♦j« ai r*i It Tat-purusha or instrumentally dependent (740) ; murkha, cr. ' a fool ;' janitam, ace. c. oijanita, past pass. part. (549), 'occasioned by.' rfln s. m. (ist c. 103) 'mistake,' 'fault.' ^TT^FiT 3d sing. pres. Parasmai,' removes,' 'takes away,' from root hun (2d c. 654), with prep. apa. aT»T s. m. ( ist c. 103) ' a man.' ^^- faB»T adj. m. f. n. (6th c. 188) ' alone ;' -ki, nom. c. masc. rft^ s. n. (ist c. 104) ' grief,' ' pain.' >IT1T s. m. (3d c. 1 1 1 ) ' a metal ;' -tundm, gen. pi. ^^^T'T- ni<{l*li complex relative compound (772) ; suvarna, cr.' gold ;' rajata, cr. ' silver ;' n'dinam, see ']'j2. J|^ s. f. (ist c. 105) 'a crucible;' -shdydm, \oc.c. ^m*il»1 pres. part. pass. (528), 'being melted,' from root dhmd, 'to blow' (ist c. 269). ^^ s. n. (ist c. 104) ' a family ;' -Idni, nom. pi. '^^TMnrrf^wf^ Tat-purusha or dependent (745); veda, cr.' the Veda,' 'holy scripture;' ndhyayana, cr.' study;' yuktdni, nom. pi. neut. of yiikta, past pass. part. ' intent on,' ' attached to.' WrfiT s. f. (2d c. 112) ' celebrity,' ' honour.' ^iTWT'f'iT 3d pi. pres. Parasmai, ' they obtain,' from causal of root arj. ^ s. m. (ist c. 103) ' the body;' final s becomes o by ^4. f%f^V^T*ftiTt Karma-dharaya or descriptive (755) ; vividha, cr. ' various ;' vyddhmdm, gen. pi. of vyddhi, s. m. (ist c. 103), ' disease,' sick- ness.' Wnni s. m. (ist c. 103) 'abode,' ' seat.' "^fr^ '*[?! I ^f) m«!i m1 Ts n i complex compound, the whole being a dependent, containing an aggregative (771); kshudh, cr. ' hunger,' dk becomes t by 42; pipdsd, cr. 'thirst;' stta, cr. 'cold;' ushna, cr.'heat;' jndilo, nom. c. o( pidita, past pass. part. (538),' afflicted,' 'suJBfering from.' fV^p^R^viT^ Bahu-vrihi or relative form of descriptive (766) ; vinaswara, cr. ' perishable,' ' frail ;' swahhdvo, nom. c. of swahhdva, s. m. (ist c. 103), 'nature.' X X 2 340 EXERCISES IN TRANSLATION AND PARSING. 934. FABLES* TO BE TRANSLATED AND PARSED. II "S^m ^ II Story i. rTf^^^^ f^^%^T^ I €it f^^Sfw I rT| ^^J^^^ ir^T s. m. (ist c. 103) ' trouble,' ' pains.' '^^'^ s. m. (ist c. 103) ' rearing,' ' bringing up ;' -ve, loc. c. f»fEoFfw s. f. (2d c. 112) ' acquittance,' ' discharge of a debt or obligation.' ^TtTT^ s. m. (3d c. 1 1 1 ) ' a jackal,' a proper name ; -yur, nom. c, final s becomes r by 6r^. ^TTrJ s. m. (ist c. 103) ' a jackal ;' -lah, nom. c. (63). "^V s. f. (8th c. 177) ' hunger;' kslmt, cr., for kshudk by 42. <*M'«<*ii^'jfVi«sn complex compound (770); parusha, cr. 'harsh,' 'hard;' charnia, cr., for cAflrmaw, ' skin,' 'hide,' 'leather,' see 57; avagunthitam, ace. c. of avagurithita,' covered,' past pass, part. (538) of root gunth, %vith prep. ava. 1^^^ indecl. part. (566), ' having torn,' from causal of root dri, with prep. vi. «;c»i^^| Karma-dharaya or descriptive (755) 'in one spot;' eka, cr. 'one;' dese, loc. c. of desa (ist c. 103), ' spot,' ' place.' f%^ s. n. (ist c. 104) ' a hole ;' -dram, ace. c. Mpsia past pass. part. (531), ' entered,' ' penetrated,' ' pierced,' from root vis, with prep, pra; see 896. XR adv. ' afterwards,' ' then,' ' but,' ' nevertheless.' ^fl»T s. n. (6th c. 152) 'skin,' 'hide,' 'leather;' -rma, ace. c. i^tr^K'TiT pres. part. Parasmai (524), tearing,' 'rending asunder,' from causal of root dri, with prep, vi; -yato, gen. c., final as becomes o by 64. ^^T>T^ Tat-piirusha or dependent (743) ; danshtrd, cr. 'tooth;' bhan-gah, nom. e. of bhan-ga (ist c. 103), 'breaking,' 'frac- ture.' «^irt past pass. part. (545) ' produced,' ' happened ;' -tah, nom. c. ^T^^flrf^^W complex relative compound (771); ddru, cr. 'wood;' charma, cr., for charman, skin,' see 57; visesham, ace. c. of visesha, s. m. (ist c. 103), pro- perty,' ' attribute.' ^(Tt^ indecl. part. (564), ' perceiving,' ' seeing,' from root lok, \vith prep. a. fl^l^fl^JlT past pass. part. (532), ' disappointed,' from nir 'not,' dsd 'hope,' hhiita 'become;' see 788. WrV?T»T s. n. (ist c. 104) ' a place,' ' a town ;' -ne, loc. c. "TT adj. m. f. n. (ist c. 187) 'great,' 'excessive;' -r«w, ace. c. EXERCISES IN TRANSLATION AND PARSING. 843 ?fH I w^^w f^f^H; ^in ^r^T wtf ^t#t: m? I ^ ^ f^^ fN% Tjgf iif?R?: %^c5r:f2JT <5y«im I f^HT Wj^i T%^ I '^^ fflftwfHffrf I ^ft tT^TT adj. m. f. n. (5th c. 188) ' possessed of intelligence,' ' intelligent,' see 140; -man, nom. c. 'ifVoTW past pass. part. (530), ' planned,' 'deliberated,* from root mantr (loth c). ^ s. m. (ist c. 103) ' merit,' 'advantage;' -no, nom. c, as becomes by 64. f^Vl s. f. (ist c. 105) ' learning,' ' knowledge,' ' science;' -dyciyd, gen. c, final s dropped by 66. a; -dydm, ace. c. "'mTm'QI indecl. part. (566), * having propitiated,' ' having pleased,' from causal of root tush, with prep. pari. TT^ s. m. (ist c. 103) ' a road,' ' a way;' -rgam, ace. c, Hl^ 3d sing. 2d pret. Parasmai,'he said,' 'he addressed,' from root ah, with prep. ;)ray see 384 and 783. p. JJ^ past pass, part., used as adj. (ist c. 187), ignorant,' 'foolish,' from root muh; see 539, 305. a. TlffT?!^ s. m. (ist c. 103) ' donation,' ' countenance,' ' favour ;' -hah, nom. c. "^<=l rt '^ a 1 Karma-dharaya or descrip- tive (755); kevala, cr.'mere;' huddhyd, instr. c. of buddhi, s. f. (2d c. 112),' intel- ligence.' ^^T^'TrfWR complex compound (770) ; swa, cr. ' own,' see 232 ; updrjand, cr. ' earning,' 'acquisition;' vibhdgam, ace. c. of vibhdga, s. m. (ist c. 103), ' share.' ^T^ s. n. (ist c. 104) ' house,' ' home ;' -ham, ace. c. ^Trvrf^TT past pass. part. (533), ' said,' ' spoken,' ' accosted,' from root dhd, with prep. abhi. ?T- "PT"*T agt. (582. a), ' a participator,' ' a sharer,' from root bhaj, with prep, sam and vi; -gi, nom. c, see 159. W3=ft s. f. (ist c. 106) ' a forest,' 'a wood;' -vydm, loc. c. «4^i* ^ o ♦(trt««i s. m. (ist c. 103) ' the head ;' -ke, loc. c. V(T past pass. part. (532), ' placed/ ' held,' from root dhri. ^«*^ww — — II— v^ — — v^ — — There is a caesura at the 8th syllable. 952. Ashti (16 syllables to the half-line). Of this there are 12 varieties; none of which are common. 953. Aty ashti (17 syllables to the half-line). Of this there are 17 varieties. The commonest are — I 2 3 4 5 6 II 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 IS 16 17 954. Sikharim, v-i — — — — — ||<^v^wwi^ — — v^wv^-:- Caesura at the 6th syllable. J ^ 3 4 || 5 6 7 8 9 10 II II 12 13 14 15 16 17 955. Manddkrdntd, — — — — llv^-i^w'^i^— II— v^ — — w — — Caesura at the 4th and loth syllables. I 2 3 4 s 6 Ij 7 8 9 10 || II 12 13 14 IS 16 17 Caesura at the 6th and loth syllables. 957. Dhriti (18 syllables to the half-line). Of this there are 17 varieties; one of which is found in the Raghu-vansa — I 2 3 4 s 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 IS 16 17 18 958. Mahd-mdlikd, v^w^-l<^wv^ — v^ — — v^ — — v^ — — v^-:- 959. Atidhriti (19 syllables to the half-line). Of this there are 13 A^arieties. The commonest is — ^ ^ ^ ^ I 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 II 13 14 IS 16 17 18 i9| 960. Sdrdula-vikridita, su\j— \^ — ^^^ — \\— — \j — — ^—\ Caesura at the 12th syllable. 961. Kriti (20 syllables to the half-line). Of this there are 4 varieties ; none of which are common. 962. Prakriti (21 syllables to the half-line). I 2 3 4 s 6 7 II 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 II IS 16 17 iS 19 20 21 I 963. Sragdhard, w ||^v^«^«^v.^i^— 11— ^ — — ^ — — I Caesura at the 7th and 14th syllables. SCHEME OF THE MORE COMMON SANSKRIT METRES. 353 964. Of the remaininfr metres determined by the number of syllables in the half-line, Akriti has 23 syllables, and includes 3 varieties; Vikriti 23 syllables, 6 varieties ; San-kriti 24 syllables, 5 varieties ; Atikriti 25 syllables, 2 varieties ; Utkriti 26 syllables, 3 varieties; and Dandaka is the name f^iven to all metres which exceed Utkriti in the number of syllables. 965. There are two metres, however, peculiar to the Vedas, called Gdyatri and Ushnih. The first of these has only 6 syllables to the quarter-verse, and includes 1 1 varieties ; the second has 7 syllables to the half-line, and includes 8 varieties. a. Observe, that when the half-line is so short, the whole verse is sometimes written in one line. b. Observe also, that great hcense is allowed in Vaidik metres : thus in the 966. Gdyatri, which may be regarded as consisting of a triplet of 3 divisions of 8 syllables each, or of 6 feet of 4 syllables each, generally printed in one hne, the quantity of each syllable is very irregular. The following verse exhibits the most usual quantities : I 2 ?, aha b a h I ^ - w . 11 .... I w - ^ . 11 .... I V. - V. . 11 but even in the b verse of each division the quantity may vary. %d class of Metres, consisting of two lines, determined by the number of SYLLABLES* in the WHOLE LINE {each whole line being alike). ()6'j. This class contains 7 genera, but no varieties under each genus. Of these the commonest are — 968. Vaitdliya (21 syllables to the whole hne). I 1 34 56 7 8 9 10 II II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 I v_>v^ — \_/>^ — vj — o-— llv-/w — — VJW — >-' — w.l There is a caesura at the loth syllable. 969. Aupachchhandasika (23 syllables to the whole line). The scheme of this metre is the same as the last, with a long syllable added after the loth and last syllable in the line ; the caesura being at the i ith syllable. 970. Pushpitdfjrd (25 syllables to the whole line). I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 1: 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 I ^ \J ^ \J \^ ^ — ^ — V^ — — II ^-'1.^*-/*^ — \J ^ — v^ — v-* — .I There is a caesura at the 1 2th syllable. * This class of metres is said to be regulated by the number of feet or instants in the line, in the same way as the 3d class. But as each line is generally distri- buted into fixed long or short syllables, and no option is allowed for each foot between a spondee, anapaest, dactyl, proceleusmaticus, and amphibrach, it will obviate confusion to regard this class as determined by syllables, hke the ist. z z 354 SCHEJVIE OF THE MORE COMMON SANSKRIT METRES. yl class of Metres, consisting of two lines, determined by the of FEET in the whole verse {each foot containing generally four instants or mdtrds). 971. Note — Each foot is supposed to consist of four instants, and a short syllable is equivalent to one instant, a long syllable to two. Hence only such feet can be used as are equivalent to four instants ; and of this kind are the dactyl (— \j ^), the spondee ( ), the anapaest {y ^ —), the amphibrach {y — v^), and the proceleusmaticus (^ v^ w v^) ; any one of which may be employed. Of this class of metres the commonest is the 972. Aryd or Gdthd. Each line consists of seven and a half feet; and each foot contains four instants, excepting the 6th of the second line, which contains only one, and is therefore a single short syllable. Hence there are 30 instants in the first Une, and 27 in the second. The half-foot at the end of each hne is generally, but not always, a long syllable; the 6th foot of the first line must be either an amphibrach or proce- leusmaticus; and the ist, 3d, 5th, and 7th feet must not be amphibrachs. The caesura commonly takes place at the end of the 3d foot in each line, and the measure is then sometimes called Pathyd. The foUo\ving are a few examples : \^ ^ ^ I {-A \J <^ — 3 4 ^ — \J KJ — lU. ^ v^ v^ O 973. The Udgtti metre only difPers from the Aryd in inverting the fines, and placing the short line, with 27 instants, first in order. 974. There are three other varieties: — In the Upagtti, both fines consist of 27 instants ; in the Gtti, both consist of 30 instants ; and in the Arydgiti, of 32. INDEX I. Obs. — The numbers refer to the number of the rule. Abstract nouns,8o.IX.X.XII. XXIII. 8i.V. 85. IV. Accentuation, 24. Adjectives, 184; syntax of, 824. Adverbial compounds, 760. Adverbs, 712; syntax of, 917. Affixes ; forming nouns, substantive and adjective, 80; forming adverbs, 718. Agency, nouns of, 579. Aggregative compounds, 746. Akriti, a kind of metre, 964. Alphabet, i — 26. Anomalous compounds, 777. Anubandhas, 75. c. Anunasika, 7. Anushtubh, a kind of metre, 935. Anuswara, 6. Aorist, see Third preterite. Ardha-visarga, 8. a. Ardhakara, 10. Arya, a kind of metre, 972. A'ryagiti, a kind of metre, 974. Ashti, a kind of metre, 952. Atidhjiti, a kind of metre, 959. Atijagati, a kind of metre, 944. Atikriti, a kind of metre, 964. Atisakwari, a kind of metre, 950. Atmane-pada, 243. Atyashti, a kind of metre, 953. Augment ^ a, 260, 260. a. b. Avyayi-bhava compounds, 760. Bahu-vrihi compounds, 761. Base, of nouns, 74, 77 ; formation of base of nouns, 79, 80 — 87 ; inflection of, 88 — 183; of verbs, 244; formation of the base of verbs, 256 — 517. Benedictive, 242 ; terminations of, 246 ; formation of the base of, 442 ; syntax of, 890. Cardinals, 198; declension of, 200. Cases of nouns, 90. Causal verbs, 479 ; terminations of, 480 ; formation of the base of, 48 1 ; passive form of, 496 ; syntax of, 847. Chandra -vindu, 7. Classes, of nouns, 79 ; of verbs, see Con- jugation. Classification of letters, 18. Collective or Dwigu compounds, 759 ; nouns, 80. XII. XXIII. Combination (euphonic) of vowels, 27 ; of consonants, 39; of the finals of verbal bases with terminations, 296. Comparative degree, 191, 194; syntax of, 829. Comparison, degrees of, 191, 192; syntax of, 829. Complex compounds, 770. Compound consonants, 5. Compound verbs, 782, 787. Compound words, 733 — 737; Tat-puru- sha or Dependent, 739; Dvvandwa or Aggregative, 746; Karma-dharaya or Descriptive, 755 ; Dwigu or Collective, 759; Avyayi-bhava or Indeclinable, 760; Bahu-vrihi or Relative, 761 ; Complex, 770 ; Anomalous, 777 ; changes undergone by words at the end of, 778. Conditional, 242 ; terminations of, 246, 247 ; formation of the base of, 456 ; syntax of, 891. Z Z 3 356 INDEX I. Conjugational tenses, 241, 248. Conjugations of verbs, summary of, 249; three groups of, 257 ; first group of, 259; second and third groups of, 290. xst conj., 261 ; examples, 587 : 2d conj., 307 ; examples, 644 : 3d conj., 330; examples, 662 : 4th conj., 272 ; examples, 612: 5th conj., 349; exam- ples, 675: 6th conj., 278; examples, 625 : 7th conj., 342 ; examples, 667 : 8th conj., 353 ; examples, 682 : 9th conj., 356 ; examples, 686 : loth conj., 283 ; examples, 638. Conjunction (euphonic), seeCombination. Conjunctions, 727; syntax of, 912. Consonants, i ; method of writing, 4 ; compound, g ; pronunciation of, 12; combination of, 39. Crude form or base, 77. Dandaka, a kind of metre, 964. Declension; general observations, 88; of nau, ' a ship,' 94; of ist class of nouns in a, a, i, 103 — 109; of 2d class in i, no, 112, 114; of 3d class in M, III, 113, 115; of 4th class in ri, 127 — 130 ; of 5th class in t and d, 136 — 145 ; of 6th class in an and in, 146 — 162 ; of 7th class in as, is, and us, 163 — 17 1; of 8th class in any other consonant, 172 — 183. Degrees of comparison, 191,192 ; syntax of, 829. Demonstrative pronouns, 223. Dependent compounds or Tat-purusha, 739—745- Derivative verbs, 460. Descriptive compounds or Karma-dha- raya, 755. Desiderative verbs, 498; terminations of, 499 ; formation of the base, 500 ; causal form of, 506 ; nouns, 80. XXI I ; adjectives, 82, in. Deva-nagari alphabet, i . Dhriti, a kind of metre, 957. DwandwaorAggregativecompounds,746. Dwigu or Collective compounds, 759. Euphonic combination of vowels, 27 ; of consonants, 39. Examples of verbs, see Conjugations. First preterite, 241, p. 102; terminations of, 246, 247 ; formation of base of, 260, 261, 272, 278, 283, 307, 330, 342, 349' 353' 356 ; syntax of, 884. Frequentative verbs, 507; Atmane-pada frequentatives, 509 ; Parasmai-pada frequentatives, 514; nouns, 80. XXII. Future, first and second, 386 ; termina- tions of, 246, 247 ; formation of the base of, 388; syntax of, 886, 887. Gayatri, a kind of metre, 965, 966. Genders of nouns, 89. Giti, a kind of metre, 974. Guna change of vowels, 27, 28, 29. Hard consonants, 18. a. b, 20. b, 39. 1[ i, inserted, 388. a, 391, 392; list of roots ending in vowels inserting or rejecting i, 394 ; list of roots ending in consonants rejecting i, 400. Imperative, 241, p. 102 ; terminations of, 246, 247; formation of the base of, 261, 272, 278, 283, 307, 330, 342, 349, 353» 356; syntax of, 882. Imperfect tense, see First preterite. Indeclinable compounds, 760. Indeclinable words, 712; syntax of, 9 1 2 . Indefinite pronouns, 228. Indicative mood, 241, p. 102. Infinitive, 458; formation of the base of, 459 ; syntax of, 867. Intensive verb, see Frequentative. Interjections, 732 ; syntax of, 926. Interrogative pronouns, 227. Jagati, a kind of metre, 941. Karma- dharaya or Descriptive com- pounds, 755. Kriti, a kind of metre, 961. Letters, i; classification of, 18; euphonic combination of, 27. Metre, scheme of the more common kinds of, p. 350. INDEX I. 357 Moods, 241, p. 102. Multitude, nouns of, 80. XII. XXIII. Nagari alphabet, i. Nominal verbs, 518 — 523. Nouns, formation of base of, 74 ; declen- sion of, see Declension ; syntax of, 802 . Numbers, of nouns, 91 ; of verbs, 243. Numerals, 1 98 — 215; syntax of, 206, 835. Numerical symbols, 216. Optative, see Potential or Benedictive. Ordinals, 208. Pada or voice, 243. Parasmai-pada, 243. Parsing, exercises in, 930. Participial nouns of agency, 579. Participles, present, 524, 526 ; past passive, 530 ; past active, 553 ; of the 2d preterite, 554 ; past indeclina- ble, 555 ; adverbial indeclinable, 567 ; future passive, 568; of the 2d future, 578; syntax of, 892. Particle, 878. Passive voice, 243. a, 253; passive verbs, 461 ; terminations of, 462 ; formation of the base of, 463, Patronymics, 80. XII. 81. VI. Perfect, see Second preterite. Third pre- terite. Persons of the tenses, 244. Possessive adjectives, 84. I. II. p. 51, 85. VI. VII; pronouns, 231. Potential, 241, p. 102 ; terminations of, 246, 247 ; formation of the base of, 261, 272, 278, 283, 307, 330, 342, 349, 353. 356 ; syntax of, 879. Prakriti, a kind of metre, 962. Prepositions, 729, 783 ; syntax of, 916. Present, 241, p. 102 ; terminations of, 246, 247 ; formation of the base of, 261, 272, 278, 283, 307, 330, 342, 349' 353' 356; syntax of, 873. Preterite, see First preterite, Second preterite, Third preterite. Pronominals, 236, 240. Pronouns, 217 ; syntax of, 836. Pronunciation, of vowels, 1 1 ; of conso- nants, 12. Prosody, 935. Reduplication, rules for, 331, 369. Relative pronouns, 226 ; compounds (Bahu-vrihi), 761. Root, 74, 75. S'akvvari, a kind of metre, 948. Sandhi, rules of, see Combination. San-kriti, a kind of metre, 964. Second preterite, 364 ; syntax of, 885. Soft letters, 18. a, 20. b, 39. Sonant letters, 18. a. b, 20. b, 39. Superlative degree, 191, 192. Surd consonants, 18. «. b, 20. b, 39. Symbols, 6. Syntax, 794. Tables of verbs, 583. Tat-purusha or Dependent compounds, 739—74.5- Tenses, 241, p. 102. Terminations, of nouns, 91 ; of verbs, 246, 247. Third preterite, 415; syntax of, 888. Translation, exercises in, 930. Trishtubh, a kind of metre, 937. Udgiti, a kind of metre, 973. Upagiti, a kind of metre, 974. Ushnih, a kind of metre, 965. Utkriti, a kind of metre, 964. Vaitaliya, a kind of metre, 968. Verb, 241 ; syntax of, 839. Vikriti, a kind of metre, 964. Virama, 9. Visarga, 8, 61. Voices, 243. Vowels, I, 2; method of writing, 4 ; pro- nunciation of, 1 1 ; combination of, 27. Vriddhi change of vowels, 27, 28, 29. a. Writing, method of, 26. INDEX II. Obs. — The numbers refer to the number of the rule. ^ affix, 80. I. II. III. XII. W^ affix, 80. IV. ^fv^ 'an eye,' 122. ^f'»f 'fire,' no. -«i>«. ' to stretch,' 385. ^^ ' to anoint,' 347, 668. W^ affix, 82. VI. ^ 'to eat,' 317, 652. ^!T^ 'eating,' 141. c. ^I^ 'this' or 'that,' 225. ^nft 'to read,' 311, 372. a. ^RcTfT ' a road,' 148. ^rf ' to breathe,' 326. 'SR affix, 80. V. 85. I. ^HTTf ' an ox,' 182. d. ^P?R ' another,' 777. b. W!^ ' other,' 236. ^■R^ ' with reference to,' ' than,' 833. a. ^"''ER^^'a nymph,' 163. a. ^T^T ' a mother,' 108. c. ^^'togo,'385. c. ^Tlaffix, 80. VIII. ^T^'to worship,' 371. ^nr 'to ask,' 642. ■»ii*q*l»l^ 'the sun,' 157. ^^*^ 'a horse,' 158. ^rt 'to deserve,' 608. 'SIH affix, 80. VIII. Wc5 'enough,' 901. a, 918. ^r55 'a few,' 240. ^^wfjT ' narrow-minded,' 1 19. ^r^Tf^^T ' possessed of little learning,' 108. ■sjivlc ' to despise,' 75. a. ^m^ 'southern,' 176. b. '51^ 'to eat,' 357. a, 6g6. W^ 'to obtain,' 'to pervade,' 371. a, 681. a. '3?'5'I"JT ' a stone,' 153. ^5W 'to be,' 322, 364. ff, 369, 584. ^fW 'to throw,' 622. ^^ affix, 86. I. ^^3^ 'blood,' 176. d. ^tPot 'a bone,' 122. ^fWt^ 'I,' 218. 'Sr^T ' to say,' 384. W^ ' a day,' 156. W[ affix, 80. XXII. ^TT^ affix, 80. VIII. ■wir«<* ' composed of,' ' consisting of,' 769-/' 774- ■^TWIT ' soul,' ' self,' 147, 222. ^rrf^ ' beginning with,' ' et cetera,' 764, 772. ^n''! 'to obtain,' 351, 369, 681. ^nr*'! 'beginning from,' 925, 793. b. ^m^ affix, 82. VI. ^TTH affix, 82. VI. ^rrf^T^^ ' a blessing,' 166. ^TPff 'to sit,' 317. Wm 'to remain,' with pres. part., 877. ^'togo,' 310, 372, 645. INDEX II. 359 ^ affix, 81. I. II. III. VI. ^ affix, 80. XIII. ^ affix, 84. II. ^ affix, 80. XXI. c. ^TTC ' other,' 236. ^fff 'so,' 927. 3^ affix, 82. VI. ^ ' this,' 224. ^^^ affix, 85. V. VI. ^ affix, 80. XVI. ^^' to kindle,' 347. ^•^ affix, 85. IV. ^ affix, 80. VIII. ^ affix, 80. VIII. ^■^^ ' to Avish,' 282, 370, 637. ^ affix, 192, 80. XIX. ^^ affix, 82. V. ^^ affix, 86. II. t affix, 80. XXV. XXVI. XXVII. ^^ 'to see,' 605. s"? 'to praise,' 325. f;pi 'so like,' 234. tTT affix, 80. XVI. ^•q affix, 80. XV. ^'HT affix, 192. t;5I 'to rule,' 325, 385, "g- affix, 82. I. II. III. ^^ affix, 80. VIII. '3'T^'to move,' 370. ■^'f^pj''^^^ ' having lotus eyes,' 166. a. '3^'^ ' northern,' 176. b. 01^^ M ' with reference to,' 924. "T?^ 'to moisten,' 347. ^M'ir 'near a cow,' 134. a. fl' 'fearless,' 123. b. ^l^^ ' to go,' 270, 602. ^JT ' to go,' freq., 709. ^^'to protect,' 271. 1^' to evacuate,' 432. 1 ' to sound,' 358. ^ ' to sing,' 268, 374, 595, a. TTT 'a cow,' 133. 'n<"EJ 'cow-keeper,' 183. b. ?pir 'to tie,' 362, 375./, 693. IT^^'to swallow,' 286. jr^ 'to conceal,' 271, 609. ?rf ' to take,' 359, 699. ZfW 'to take,' freq., 711. iJT'ntft ' chief of a village,' 126. a. ^ ' to be weary,' 268, 595. b. INDEX II. Tf^ ' to eat,' 377. TT^'to proclaim,' 643. a, "^^JT ' to shine,' 684. ITT ' to smell,' 269, 588. ^ 'and,' 912. ■q<*i^ ' to shine,' 75. a. ■^■^r ' to speak,' 321. ^■W^^'the eye,' 165. a. '^WH ' four,' 203. ■q'5*i^' the moon,' 163. ■^JT^'a host,' 125. ^T ' one who goes,' 180. ^^^ ' leather,' 153. f^ ' to gather,' 350, 367, 583. r^^fe^ 'a painter,' 175. f^^ 'to think,' 641. '^^' if,' 915. ^^T. ' to steal,' 284, 638, 639. €^^»t 'a pretext,' 153. f^ 'to cut,' 667. IT ' to cut,' 388. b. »r^ ' to eat,' 290. b, 326. anrW 'moving,' 142. a. "STT ' to be born,' 276, 376, 434, 617. a. W*T ' to produce,' 339, 666. b. 3T"M«^ ' birth,' 153. IR^ ' decay,' 171. sITT ' decay,' 108. d. "Wc^^ 'water-drinker,' 126. a. WPT ' to be awake,' 75. «, 316, 385. d. 31li(ri 'watching,' 141. a. faf ' to conquer,' 263, 590. faprf^TT ' desirous of speaking,' 166. ifr^'to live,' 267, 603. tTS^ 'sacrificing,' 141. c. tT ' to grow old,' 277, 358, 375. ff, 437- «• fTT ' to know,' 360, 688. 3?n ' to grow old,' 361. N D E X II. 361 ^' to fly.' 274,395.0. T^ affix, 84. I. W^*J *a carpenter,' 150. ITfl^^'he,' 220. IfT ' to stretch,' 354, 583, 684. W^T affix, 80. XVI. W^ 'thin,' 118, 119. a. THm ' a string,' ' a wire,' 124. im affix, 191, 80. XIX. ITT affix, 191, 80. XIX. IT^ 'a boat,' 124. HT affix, 80. XXIII. Wr^ 'such like,' 234. me^l * so,' 801 . a, 920. a. ITTTt^'so many,' 801, 838, 876, fir affix, 81. V. "fira^' going crookedly,' 176. b. 5 affix, 82. VI. ■J 'but,' 914. TTT ' to strike,' 279, 634. ^ affix, 83. I. II. ipn ' to eat grass,' 684. W^ ' to be satisfied,' 618. TT^ 'to kill,' 'to strike,' 'to hurt,' 345, 348, 674. IT ' to cross,' 364, 375. g. imi ' to abandon,' 596. Tm^ ' he' or ' that,' 22 1 . ^ affix, 80. VII. VIII. 1^ affix, 80. XXIV. T^ 'three,' 202. ^Z ' to break,' 388. b. ^ ' to preserve,' 268. m affix, 80. IX. FHT 'thou,' 219. R^'hl 'thine,' 231. ^^ 'to bite,' 271. ^ affix, 80. XX. ^iSSlf^PiSS ' mutual striking,' 793. ^f^TT 'giving,' 141. a. ^fv 'ghee,' 122. ^'to pity,' 385. c. t^Hcji ' to be poor,' 75. a, 328, 385. d. ^■5 *to burn,' 610. ^ ' to give,' 335, 663, 700. '?T^ 'a giver,' 127, 129. b. ^T*T^ ' a string,' 153. fr^^'to play,' 275. f^Wir 'a day,' 156. a, f^[^ 'to point out,' 'to exhibit,' 279, 439- a, 583- f^ 'a quarter of the sky,' 181. T^? ' to anoint,' 659. ?fhft ' to shine,' 329. cAiti 'evil-minded,' 164. «. ^^ ' to milk,' 327, 660. F? ' one who milks,' 182. "?'5r ' to see,' 270, 604. TS^ * to see,' causal, 704. "HT^rT ' a looker,' 148. f^ ' to tear,' ' to rend,' 358, 367. c. \ ' to pity,' 379. ^^a^^ ' a worshipper of the gods,' 1 76. e. ^11 affix, 80. XXI. ^TH ' an arm,' 166. b. ^H^ ' to shine,' 597. b. ■5 ' to run,' 368, 592. "5? * to injure,' 623. ■5? ' one who injures,' 182. SVm affix, 80. XX. fW 'two,' 201. r^*ilij ' having two mothers,' 130. fW\ ' to hate,' 309, 657. fV'^ ' one who hates,' 181. >nTTr^ ' rich,' 140. vf^T'T ' rich,' 159, 160, 161. 3 A 362 INDEX II. Wf^ ' knowing one's duty,' 138. VT ' to place,' 336, 664. >rnT«T ' a house,' 153. Vt ' understanding,' 123. ■^ftlTf^ ' wise,' 140. a. ■«; ' to agitate,' 280, 358, 367. b, 677. Y ' to hold,' 285. W ' to drink,' 438. b, 440. a. V^ a cow,' 113. WTT ' to blow,' 269. UI ' to meditate,' 268, 595, b. "^'to be firm,' 432. Tf affix, 80. VI. •IcJT 'a river,' 106. «1H 'a grandson,' 128. a. *T'T 'to bend,' 433. 'T^r ' to perish,' 620. •Til to bind,' 624. •TTR^ 'a name,' 152. ■R^ ' to pm-ify,' 341 . «ft ' to lead,' 590. a. ■^ 'to praise,' 280, 313, 396. «. •5 affix, 82. IV. VI. ■^ 'a man,' 128. ■^Tf 'to dance,' 274, 364, 583, IT ' to lead,' 358. ■JTT ' a ship,' 94. TT'^ ' to cook,' 267. ■IJ^TT ' cooking,' 141. 'T^'T ' five,' 204. ■Tfir 'a lord,' 121. ^rf^'aroad,' 162. xr^ ' to go,' 434. TTTTTIT ' a cleanser,' 176. e. TTfTflTsT ' a rehgious mendicant,' 176. e. "TT ' to drink,' 269, 589. "m 'to protect,' 317. ^T?R 'pale,' 187. tn^ 'a foot,' 145. m^Tr^' sin,' 148. ftnr 'a father,' 128. ftf'q'a" ' desirous of cooking,' 166, f^^^ 'thirsty,' 118. V^ 'to organize,' 'to form,' 281. ^^ ' fat,' 150. ■5^^ 'a male,' 169. '^^ ' to contract,' 388. b. "5TPI 'holy,' 191. ''DTTh 'twice-born,' 126. b. IJTJ'^TT ' preceded by,' 777. c, 792. ■^^^ 'a man,' 107. "T^'to nourish,' 357. a, 698. "^^ ' to be nourished,' 621. ^' to purify,' 358, 364. ''T^ or'qr^ 'preceded by,' 'with,' 777. c, 792. ■^TT ' the sun,' 157. "tmTT ' a deer,' 142. a. i|'tofiU,'285, 358,367.6-, 640. "ct ' to grow fat,' 399. b. U'^ 'to ask,' 282, 381, 631. ■jn^T^ ' western,' 176. b. U^ll*i 'quiet,' 179. a. TTT^ 'an asker,' 176. in^ ' eastern,' 176. b. c. finr 'dear,' 187. Tft 'to please,' 285, 690. ■JTT^ ' love,' 153. "^^ ' to bind,' 362, 692. Wff5? ' strongest,' 193. ■^WN^' stronger,' 167, 193. ■^^TflT ' having many ships,' 134. a, 190. W?X ' rich,' 134. a, 190. ■^V ' to know,' 262, 364, 583, 614. ^V 'one who knows,' 177. ^STT ' under the idea,' 809. b. INDEX 11. «w^«T ' the murderer of a Brahman, 157- ■3^' to speak,' 314, 649, >T^ ' to eat,' 643. b. >T^ ' to break,' 347, 669. >?^Tf 'your honour,' 143, 233. Vi^ ' to shine,' 340. HT^ 'the sun,' iii. ^rnr^T^ ' bearing a burden,' 182. c. HT§T 'a wife,' 107. ■^TTJ ' to beg,' 267. fW^ ' to break,' 343, 583. *Tr 'fear,' 123, 333, 666. >ft^ 'timid,' 118. a, 187. ^TtT ' to eat,' 346, 668. a. »|^'to be,' 263, 367. b, 585, 586. >|^'to be,' causal, 703. ij^'to be,' desiderative, 705. >|^'to be,' frequentative, 706, 707- ij^'the earth,' 125. a. HXifrT 'a king,' 121. »J 'to bear,' 332, 368, 583. H ' to blame,' ' to nourish,' 358. >?^'tofaU,' 276. >R5r ' one who fries,' 176. g. H^ ' to fry,' ' to roast,' 282, 381, 632. >?IT ' to wander,' 275, 375./. >nir 'to shine,' 375./. iJT^r ' to shine,' 375./- >jt ' to fear,' 358. JT affix, 80. VIII. »niT»T a name of Indra, 155. T35r ' to be immersed,' 633. ITTT affix, 84. V. »T?T'I,' 218. Jrfir 'the mind,' 112- *Tftl«T 'a churning-stick,' 162. T? *to be mad,' 275. JT^jt^ ' mine,' 231. JTW ' honey,' 115. ^'^ ' to imagine,' 684. »T^ affix, 85. II. *lHX ' the mind,' 164. »T^^' to churn,' 'to agitate,' 362, 693. a, ^•^ affix, 80. XVIII. JTT: affix, 80. VIII. JT^ ' great,' 142. H^TWJT ' magnanimous,' 151. 'T5T1T'5T^ ' magnanimous,' 164. a. JT^TTTiT ' a great king,' 151. a. ITT 'to measure,' 274, 338, 664. a. TT ' not,' in prohibition, 882, 889. TT^vnT 'flesh-eater,' 176. JTT^ affix, 80. XX. TT^ 'merely,' 'even,' 919. ftr affix, 81. IV. ■ftf^ ' to be viscid,' 277. T^ 'to let go,' 'to loose,' 281, 628. T? ' to be troubled,' 612. On; ^ 'foohsh,' 182. 'T^'^ ' the head,' 150. IT 'to die,' 280, 626. ITT 'a deer,' 107. ^W ' to cleanse,' 'to wipe,' 324, 651. H^ 'tender,' 118. a, 187. IT'^ ' one who endures,' 181. TVTf'T'fT ' intellectual,' 159. ^T ' to repeat over,' 269. t 'to fade,' 268, 374, 595. b. TX affix, 80. X. XI. *l<*(l^'the hver,' 144. ■^j^ ' to sacrifice,' 375. e, 597. M'J^'I 'a sacrificer,' 148. ^nr 'who,' 226. irf^'if,' 880. fl, 891,915. ^ ' to restrain,' 270, 433. 3 A 2 364 INDEX ir. ^ 'to go,' 317, 644. ^n^ to ask,' 364, 392. ^rr^ ' as many,' 801, 838, 876. V 'to join,' 'to mix,' 313, 357, 396, «, 583, 686, 687. ^^ affix, 82. VI. 51^ * to join,' 346, 670. ^»T ' to be fitting,' 702. ^[^' a youth,' 155. 5^H^'you,' 219. ^ affix, 80. VII. T>T (with ^) ' to begin,' 601 , a,. 1?T 'to sport,' 433. TTHT 'to shine,' 375./- TT3T a ruler,' 176. e. TT3T«T 'a king,' 149. Kis^l ' a queen,' 150. a. fr ' to go,' 280. ^ 'to go,' 358. ^ to sound,' 313, 396. fl. ^ affi.x, 82. VI. ^ 'to weep,' 326, 653. ^^ 'to hinder,' 344, 671. ^■^^nr ' hindering,' 141. c. CT ' composed of.' ' consisting of,' 769./, 774. T 'wealth,' 132. TtT»^ ' hair,' 153. H affix, 80. VIII. (6'^ 'fortune,' 124. rtftjH'J^ ' hghtness,' 150 c5ftrff 'lightest,' 193. cJtft^^^' lighter,' 193. <^'to take,' 601. fW 'one who obtains,' 178. fe'T 'to anoint,' 281, 437. fc5^ 'to lick,' 327, 661. ff5^ 'one who licks/ 182. ■^t ' to adhere,' 358. cj^'to break,' 281. c^'to cut,' 358, 691. ^ affix, 80. VIII. W^ ' to speak,' 319, 650^ ^ affix, 84. IV. ^T^'Uke,' 922. ^ 'to speak,' 599- ^[V^'a wife,' 125. '^^ ' to ask,' 684. ^affix, 85. III. ^^ ' to sow,' 375. c. ^*T ' to vomit,' 375. d. ^ affix, 80. VIII. ■^TTt^'a road,' 153. WT«^ 'armour,' 153. •^75 affix, 80. XVI. «I^T 'one who leaps,' 183. ■^^ 'to choose,' 'to desire,' 320^ 6^6. W^^^to dwell,' 607. ^^ to carry,' 611. W[ 'or,' 914. TT^ ' speech,' 176. Trf^ 'water,' 114. Wr^ ' bearing,' 182. c. tV^ ' to distinguish,' 346- fr*^ ' to separate,' 341. f%^ ' to know,' 308, 583, f^ 'to find,' 281. f^^'wise,' 168. a. f^ affix, 85. VII. f^T5^ 'splendid,' 176. e. T^WKT ' djssirous of entering,' 166 • f%^ 'one who enters,' 181. frtSrWi^ 'the creator of the world,' 176.6. f^'^ 'to divide,' 341. ^ 'to go,' 312. ^ ' to surround,' 368. INDEX II. 365 ^ ' to choose,' 675. ^i^^'to be,' 598. ^^fl^' great,' 142. a. ■^ ' to choose,' 358. See ^ . ^ * to weave,' 379. ^»T ' a loom,' 150. ^«ft 'to go,' 'to pervade,' 75. a. ^[5^*? ' a house,' 153. ^^ to deceive,' 282, 383, 629. ^TT to be pained,' 383. ^IV to pierce,' 277, 615. ^nr ' to spend,' 383. ^ ' to cover,' 379. ^>T7r'sky,' 153. "a^'to cut,' 282, 630. W^'one who cuts,' 176. g. ai ' to choose,' 358. ■5^ ' to choose,' 358. ^SfniT to be able,' 679. ^■^TT ' ordure,' 144. ^nr 'to be appeased,' 619. ^iPrtm'^ 'bearing rice,' 182. c. ■^inr ' to rule,' 290. b, 323, 658. Wff^' ruling,' 141. a. f^r^r 'the god S'iva,' 'prosperous,' 103, 104, 105. f^'^ 'to distinguish,' 672. ^t 'to lie down,' 315, 646. 3Tr^ 'pure,' 117, 119. a, 187. 3jpq0 Pq^^'having brilliant rays,'i66.». ^*T 'to shine,' 252. Spr 'fortunate,' 187. ^''T^'jare,' 148. TR 'to dissolve,' 367. c, ^'to hurt,' 358. Sn ' to sharpen,' 374. ^^ 'to loose,' 'to string,' 362, 375./, 693. a. ft? 'to have recourse,' 367. a, 395. a, 440. a. ■'jft ' prosperity,' 123. ^ 'to hear,' 352, 367. b, 368, 676. Tg^'adog,' 155. "ig^'a mother-in-law,' 125. ■'Sr^^ ' to breathe,' 326. f^ 'to swell,' 395. a, 437. a. ^ri^l^ ' Indra,' 182. c. ^for ^ 'with,' 790. ff. ■Hn+VJ 'a thigh,' 122. ^Mf 'a friend,' 120. ^T^W ' an associate,' 166. ^^ to adhere,' 426, 597. a. ^^TH 'to fight,' 75. «. ^ to sink,' 270, 599. a. ^ ' to give,' 354, 426. b, 684. ^^TT^r 'possessed of,' 'furnished with,' 769. d. ^TT^I^'fit,' 176,6. W particle, 878. ^rrTTT 'a river,' 136, Hf' ' all,' 237. 'Tq^ioh 'omnipotent,' 175. ^ 'to bear,' 611. a. ^TTrT affix, 789. ^TV 'good,' 187. WR'T ' concihation,' 153. ftr^ ' to sprinkle,' 281. ■PfrVT ' to accomplish,' 364. ■ftrv 'to succeed,' 273, 616. ^ftT^T ' a border,' 150. ^ 'to bring forth,' 647. ^ 'to press out juice,' 677. a. ^•^K * beautiful,' 187. WTftl*T ' having a good road,' 162. ^Ml^ ' having beautiful feet,' 145. IJH^' having beautiful eyebrows,' 125. b. 366 INDEX 11. ♦fHH*! 'well-intentioned,' 164. a. '^^ to bring forth,' 312, 647. ^'togo,'368, 437. ff. ^nr ' to create,' 625. ^nr 'to creep,' 263. «*tl*fl ' a general,' 126, ^ * to serve,' 364. Tfft ' to destroy,' 276. a, 613. ^nT'TT ' a drinker of Soma juice,' 108. a. HW ' to stop,' 695. ^ ' to praise,' 313, 368, 648. ^ ' to spread,' 678. ^ 'to cover,' 'to spread,' 358, 678. 1^ 'a woman,' 123. c. TPIT ' to stand,' 269, 587. ^ ' to drop,' 'to trickle,' 368, 396. a. •m affix, 82. VI. ^Sf ' to e.xpand,' 388. b. ^B^ ' to glitter,' 388. b. ^^ ' to touch,' 636. W? ' to desire,' 288. McR ' to smile,' 591. OT ' to remember,' 367. c, 594. ^ ' own,' 232. ^«^'to sound,' 375./. ^■'J ' to sleep,' 326, 665. ^^»T 'self-existent,' 126. c. ^W ' a sister,' 129. a. ^■q^ ' to kill,' 318, 654. f 7^ ' to kill,' freq., 708. ^ftjfl^' green,' 95, 136, 137. ff^H 'ghee,' 165. f T ' to quit,' ' to abandon,' 337, 655. ^T^T ' a Gandharba,' 108. b. f^ 'to send,' 378. fir 'for,' 914. fi^ 'to injure,' 673. ^ 'to sacrifice,' 333, 662. f 'to seize,' 593. ■^t ' to be ashamed,' 333. a, 666. a. ■gt 'shame,' 123. ^ ' to call,' 595. LIST OF COMPOUND CONSONANTS. CONJUNCTIONS OF TWO CONSONANTS. ^ kka, ""^^ kkha, ^^ kna, "^ kta, "^^ ktha, Ifi kna, '^^ kma, ^*\ kya, "^ or ^ kra, ^ kla, "^ kiva, "^ ksha. <$H khya, ^ Mmja. '"^ ^^/««, ^^ gdha, 'K[ gria, ^H gbha, ^^ ^ma, '^ ^?/«, ^ ^grm, ''T ^/a, '^ giva. Ti ghna, ^^ ghya, ItT ghra, "^ ^Awa. "^ n-ka, ^ n-kha, ^ w-//«, W n-glia, ^ n-bha, ^A nma. ^ chcha, tJ^ chdilia, ^ c/t/ic, x4-| chma, ^Ef c%a. ^^ chhya, ^ chhra. -3^ j}'a, 3^^ i;Vifl!, sf //?«, ^♦H jma, ^T jya, ^ /ra, "^if /*«;«. ^ 7?c^«, ^i^nchha, "^ /(/a. 7 //«, 7 /f/ia. (Slf /^2/«. |j A«, "^ dya, ^ f//'a. 5^ #y«, ^ rZ/ira. T|5 ?i/«, TS5 Z'tha, J^ nda, <5?, "^ Z»^«, ^ 6^Aa, W 66«j, ®^ bbha, «2T ^)?/a, ^ ^ra. ^ 6%fl!, ^ Z^Ara, ^ bhioa. Y^Tf mwa, ^ wiwa, ^ mpa, ^"^ mpha, '■"^ 7?i6«, '^ mbha, ^f\ mma, ''^ rka, 1^ rA;/«G, T r^ff, "^ ?*//^<«j "^ >'cAa, ^ rchha, 3f 770, TJT nm, iT rta, ^ rtha, "^ rda, V ^'^/Ae, "R /7^«, ^ rba, H ri/ta, H rma, "^ rya^ "^ /T«j ^ Tsa, ^ rsha, ^ 7'ha. 368 LIST OF COMPOUND CONSONANTS. ^■^ Ika, v^ Iga, ^ Ida, '^ Ipa, "^ Iba, '^H Ibha, ^ Ima, ^ lya, "^ lla, ^ Iwa, ^ Isha, '^ Iha. ^ vna, '31 t;y«, "^ rra, ^ v/a, W vwa. ^ scha, '^ ma, "^ hja, "^ sra, "^ s/a, ""^ siva. '^ sA^a, "?■ sA/«, "^ 5A?/m, ^ */infl!, "ST shpa, "^T sAma, "^ sAya, "^ shwa. "^ sA:a, ^(^ skha, W «;«, ^QT sMa, "^ sna, ^ spa, ^R spha, "Ml 5ma, ^Zf 5y«, ^ 5ra, ^' sw«, "W ssa. ^^ hna, ^ /twa, ^ hma, ^ Ay«, ^ hra, S A/a, ^ Aw«. CONJUNCTIONS OF THREE CONSONANTS. IPn or cF«ra Mwa*, "^ ksJma, "^ kthna\, "SP ^^Amc, ^^ kkija, cp^^ ^A;%fl, ^ ^/ya, ^^ A:^%a, "^ A:s%a, "^ ktra, XTf ^r?/«, 3^ gdhwa. "^ ?iA;/«, ^f w%«, ^ n-khya, ^J 7i-^ya, ^ n-ghya, ^ nksha. ^*r chchya, -tfitM chchhya, "^J chchhra, "t®^ chchhwa. '^^jjna, ^^ jjwa. >"«*«| iichya, >^^ iichhya, ^ iickwa, ^ ??;■^^a. ijS>| r? : from ^. LIST OF COMPOUND CONSONANTS. 369 «^ bdhn-a. ^ bhrya. 1-"^ mpija, 'f^ mbtjo, "^T^ mb/a, ^^T mbhya, ^*A mpra, ^^ mbhra. ■^ rksha, If rshta, ^ rnna, ^ r^/a, ^ rddha, If r^J/c,, XSJ rghya, "^ rchya, J^ rmja, rf\ rtya, '^ r/)//r7, "^ r^^-^iw, TE( ryya, '^ rsJma, i^T rhmu. ^^ %r/, '^^ %«, '^"S Ipta, ^"^ /joyfl'. ^^ schya, ^5IJ sry«. ^ ■'^Mya, ^^iKJ shnya, ^ sliira, ^ shtwa. CONJUNCTIONS OF FOUR CONSONANTS. ^^ ktrya, ^yW4 kshmya. ^ nkshna, §f^ nkshma *, ^^ n-ktyo, ^^ nkshya, ^ nktra, ^ nkshwa. i|§^ ndrya. F^J ^/ryc, r^IT /s»?/G, rtH| tsmya. ^ ddhrya. •"sq wirycf, n^ w./^ryc, •Ti^ ntswa, "^^J^ ndhrya. X-^ ptrya. "5^ rkshya, ^J ?'//f/c, "^ rfrya, W r^st/fl, ^ rddhra. '^9? /p^c, ^^^W //?.?w^, ^^^ /j95ya. "^T shtrya. CONJUNCTIONS OF FIVE CONSONANTS. ^ nkshnwa-f, ^^ n-ktryat- W rn-kshma §, ^ rn-kshwa§, rt5M rtsnya ||, ^ rddhrya. * '^T^rsffl Intens. of ^!T^. t ^^^* fi-om «?jTJ. t H^*^*): from *»#. ^ As in 'smilfH, ^SHl||'^, from root 'ff?. 11 As in <*IH^*. 3 B CORRECTIONS. vTage i6o, line 17, for form III; see 441. read form II.; see 435. . v/P. 166, 1. 2, for 681 reac? 682 ^P. 178, 1. 22, for 459 read 559 ^T. 197, 1. 13, for 316 7-earf 317 V P. 215, 1. 19, for TT^^ read wS^ -" P. 216, 1. 15, for MIMilfl*! rearf M^H^Il** H*ase 77, line 16, /or ojr^t^ re«f/ ^M ', line 17. A;/- '^T^'^ read ^*l ^- ^' 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. This book i$ due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewals only: RETURN CIRCULATION DEPARTMENT TO^i^ 202 Main Library LOAN PERIOD 1 HOME USE 2 3 4 5 6 1-yeaf ioans may be recharged by brinsing the books to the Ciicuialion Desk Renewals and recharges may be made 4 days prior to due date DUE AS STAMPED BELOW SEP 2 5 1983 M« JAN 21 1988 BECCIR. SEP23 "83 J AN 04 1990 • AH' »«JAN25'90 LIBRARY USE ONLY - AUG 1 41985 ^ rjc^r'F'JVF'D B^ n . . r 1 * * n Q s Aub 1 4 iJcj CIRCULATION DhV T. JAN 2 8 1988 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY FORM NO. DD6, 60m, 1/83 BERKELEY, CA 94720 U.C. BERKELEY UBBUBItS I CDD4a3mS7 ^ ^^*^j'