MPARATivE Grammar ■J . PRICE M Ex Libris C. K. OGDEN ELEMENTS OF COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY. ELEMENTS OF COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY. (FOR USE IN SCHOOLS.) A. C. PRICE, M.A., ASSISTANT MASTER AT LEEDS GRAMMAR SCHOOL ; LATE SCHOLAR OF PEMBROKE COLLEGE, OXFORD. LONDON: GEORGE BELL AND SONS, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN. 1886. CHISWICli press: — C. WHITTINGHAM AND CO., TOOKS COURT, CHANCERY LANE. PREFACE. THIS book is designed mainly for the aid of boys who are preparing for scholarship examinations at Oxford or Cambridge. It is the custom at those examinations to set questions bearing on the subject of Comparative Gram- mar and the Science of Language, but the ordinary manuals of Philology are either too elementary or too difficult, too sketchy or too lengthy, to be used as textbooks in schools. It is hoped that this book may to some extent serve to bridge over the gap which exists, for instance, between such works as Mr. Peile's excellent little Primer and Mr. Papil- lon's more ambitious Manual. It puts forward, of course, no pretensions to originality either of matter or method, its sole object being to summarize the views of the recognized authorities as concisely and clearly as possible. With this end in view, special care has been taken to select only such instances and examples as are likely to be familiar to boys, and the list of authorities appended to each chapter, for the benefit of those who desire to pursue the subject further, is designedly limited to those writers whose works are avail- able in an English form ; it is perfectly useless to refer boys to treatises, however able, written in a foreign tongue. It need hardly be said that in a science like Philology, which is still in its infancy, finality and certainty cannot as yet be expected. Every day is adding to our knowledge on the subject, and the accepted theories of one week are the vi Preface. exploded delusions of the next. German scholars in par- ticular have been fertile in such hypotheses and suggestions, but as no English work has yet been published definitely adopting their views, it has been thought best to confine the statements in the text to those for which some recognized English authority could be cited if necessary. A. C. P. Leeds, 1886. AUTHORITIES. [N.B. — Only works available for E>ii;lish readers are included in this list.] E. P>. Tylor. "Anthropology." (Macmillan.) W. D. Whitney. " Life and Growth of Language." (Kegan Paul.) N. Joly. " Man before Metals." (Kegan Paul.) J. Peile. " Introduction to Greek and Latin Etymology. (Macmillan.) Third Edition. "Philology Primer." (Macmillan.) G. H. von Meyer. " Organs of Speech." (Kegan Paul.) Max Miiller. " Lectures on the Science of Language." (Long- mans.) W. H. Ferrar. " Comparative Grammar of Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin." (Longmans.) T. L. Papillon. " Manual of Comparative Philology as applied to the illustration of Greek and Latin Inflections." (Clar. Press.) R. Morris. "Elementary Lessons in Historical English Gram- mar." (Macmillan.)' A. H. Sayce. " Introduction to the Science of Language." (Kegan Paul.) Isaac Taylor. " The Alphabet." (Kegan Paul. ) J. Wordsworth. " Fragments and Specimens of Early Latin." (Clar. Press.) H. J. Roby. " Latin (jrammar." (Macmillan.) J. Earle. " Philology of the English Tongue." (Clar. Press.) F. W. Farrar. " Chapters on Language." (Longmans.) " Families of .Speech." (Longmans.) " Greek Syntax." (Longmans.) Fourth Edition. A.Schleicher. "Compendium," translated by H. Bendall. (Triibner.) G. Curtius. "The Greek Verb," translated by Wilkins and England. (.Murray.) D. B. Monro. " Homeric Grammar." (Clar. Press.) ' This is cited in preference to Mr. Morris's larger work as being more likely to be in the possession of boys. CONTENTS. Chapter I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. Appendix A. B. C. D. Language and Speech .... The Vocal Organs .... The Origin of Writing .... The Origin of Language Genealogical Classification of Languages The Indo-European Family. § I. Its culture .... 2. The order of migrations . 3. The original alphabet 4. Grimm's Law .... Morphological Classification of Languages Inflection ...... Nouns. § I. Gender ..... 2. Numi^er ..... 3. Case ..... 4. Pronouns .... 5. Adjectives .... 6. Numerals .... 7. Particles .... Verbs. § I. Finite Moods. (1) Person, Number, Voice (2) Mood (3) Tense § 2. Infinitive Mood and Participles Analysis of t-i'itttw . ,, audio . ,, t'lyii and sum , , aimer . Questions for Examination PACK I 5 10 24 27 31 33 33 34 38 40 45 48 50 61 66 69 71 73 81 82 93 97 lOI 103 106 loS VJ ^ TO snow THE CASE u.u.n. n~%]- "IfjfJ- l-S- "" " "' '■"-■■ """' O"""- '"" ■"' ELEMENTS OF COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR AND PHILOLOGY. CHAPTER I. LANGUAGE AND SPEECH. LANGUAGE and Speech are not synonymous terms. All Speech indeed is Language, but all Language is not Speech. The two terms stand to one another then in the relation of genus to species, Speech being merely a subdivision of Language. In order then to investigate the nature of Speech we must clearly understand what is meant by Language. Now LANGUAGE may be roughly described as any means whereby we can express thought. We are conscious in our- selves of certain more or less definite ideas and sentiments, and these feelings we naturally desire to impart to others. Any means then whereby this communication is effected may be described as Language. A very Uttle consideration will show that men communi- cate with one another in several different ways, and that Speech is by no means the only method employed. As a vehicle of communication, however, it is so far superior to all others that its chief organ, the tongue, has given its name to the whole system of " Language " (from the Latin lingua) : but it should be carefully borne in mind that we can convey to one another thoughts and sentiments by many other means than those of spoken or written words. B Elements of Philology. Gesture, for instance, is a method of constant application, and one that must be familiar to all, for it is in constant use even in the most civilized communities. We all know the meaning of the contemptuous shrug of the shoulders, the angry contraction of the brow, the scornful curl of the lip, the indignant glance of the eye. Such bodily movements are doubtless to a large degree instinctive, but none the less they afford a more or less trustworthy clue to the nature of the passions and emotions at work beneath the surface. In many cases indeed gesticulation or pantomime is the only means whereby communication can be effected, as, for instance, in the case of deaf mutes, and those can form some idea of the value of the method who have been present at a theatrical performance without being able to distinguish the words uttered. Travellers' tales, too, teem with instances in ■which conversation has had to be held with members of another race solely by the aid of gestures. Of the Redskins in particular it is recorded that even when perfect strangers, and speaking quite different tongues, they can with the greatest ease communicate with one another by the use of pantomime. One tribe indeed — the Arapahoes of North America — are said to be so dependent on gesticulation that they are unable to converse in the dark. But there are other modes of communicating thought be- sides Speech and Gesture. It seems indisputable, for in- stance, that Music is a most powerful vehicle for conveying and exciting emotions. Among the ancients, indeed, this fact was so clearly recognized that Plato treated music as a means of mental education, and expressly excluded from his ideal state all such tones or harmonies as might tend to enervate or corrupt the mind. Painti7ig and Sculpture, too, from early ages, have been regarded as most effective means for the expression of ideas, and, as we shall see later, it is to pictorial art that the written symbolism of speech traces its origin. Language and Speech. In a similar way we might go on to show that each or all of our senses might be, and probably often unconsciously are, utilized as vehicles of communication. All, however, of such methods, compared with Speech, labour under more or less serious disadvantages. The proper interpretation of Music, for instance, requires the most delicate harmony of sympathy and conception between the composer and the person who would fain understand his meaning. Painting, again, even in the case of the most skilfully constructed panorama, can only represent a series of isolated actions, the links between which have to be supplied by the imagi- nation of the spectator, and that it is not an infallible method is shown by the fact that savages often cannot com- prehend pictures at all. The language of Pantomime or Gesticulation is open to similar objections, and though it stands next in importance to Speech, is nevertheless very defective. Professor Tylor, for instance, points out — 1 . That it has little power of expressing abstract ideas : " the deaf mute can show particular ways of making things, such as building a wall, or cutting out a coat, but it is quite beyond him to make one sign include what is common to all these, as we use the abstract term, to 7naker 2. That it has no signs for what he calls " grammatical words." Thus in the sentence the hat which I left on the table is black, there will be signs for what may be called the real words, hat, leave, table, black, but for the grammatical words, the, which, is, the Gesture language has no signs. 3. That it makes no distinction between substantives, adjectives, and verbs, e.g., pretending to warm one's hands may suggest war?n, or to warm one- self, ox fireplace. 4. That it cannot express inflections of words. We might add that it, as well as Painting, and indeed Elements of Philology. Writing, is of no use in the dark. From such defects speech is comparatively free, and is manifestly the most perfect system of communication known. No human community has been found destitute of the capacity of communicating by speech, and it is one of the chief signs that distinguish men from brutes, for brutes, though they can apparently, in noany cases, understand the words of their masters, have never yet been found capable of intelligently reproducing them. Though the power of Speech, however, may be in- nate in man, it appears clear that intercourse is required to call that faculty into operation. The case of the savage of Aveyron is often referred to as an illustration of a person brought up in complete solitude remaining dumb, and a well-known fact tending to the same end is that persons who are born deaf are very often dumb also, never having heard the sound of a human voice, and so being ignorant of their own powers. Various definitions have been given of Speech. Bacon describes words as counters for notions : others talk of them as petrified thoughts. For our purpose it will be sufficient to describe Speech as the expressioji of thought by means of vocal sounds. The word ' vocal ' is of importance, for not all sounds are speech, but only those produced by the ' vocal organs.' Authorities — Tylor, chap. iv. Whitney, chap. i. Peile, Primer, chap. viii. CHAPTER II. THE VOCAL ORGANS. THE Vocal Organs consist of the Lungs, Windpipe {trachea)^ Larynx, Pharynx, Mouth, Nose, etc. The function of the Lungs is to act as bellows emitting a current of air. This current passes through the Windpipe into the Larynx, a kind of box, cylindrical and narrow below, but broad above. The lid of this box, so to speak, is formed of two half-valves of elastic membrane, known as the vocal chords. These valves in ordinary breathing are relaxed, and leave a comparatively wide opening at the top of the Larynx of a triangular shape. This opening is called the Glottis, and if fully open, breath pure and simple issues forth. If, however, the valves are brought together and made tense, so that merely a narrow aperture is left, the current of air passing through makes them vibrate, and the result is Sound or Voice, the notes being high or low in proportion to the rapidity of the vibrations. In any case the air, be it * breath ' or ' voice,' passes into the cavity of the Pharynx and out through the mouth or nose, the position of these upper organs admitting of variation, so as to produce a variety of tones. We see, then, that the current of air is the material of Speech, and that it is modified or checked by the vocal chords and organs of the mouth, the result being the various alphabetic sounds, which are divided into different classes according as the current of air is ' breath ' or ' voice,' and according as it is checked and modified, or left free and un- interrupted. Thus : — - Elements of Philology. (a.) Mere 'breath' perfectly unchecked produces the aspirate — our H — the Greek *' rough breathing." (b.) ' Voice ' unchecked, but more or less modified by the position of the cheeks {buccal tubes), produces vowels. (c.) ' Voice ' or ' breath ' either checked entirely by the lips, teeth, tongue, or palate, coming into con- tact with each other, or partially compressed by the same organs approximating to each other, produces consonants. Consonants themselves are variously classified, viz. : — (a.) According to the material of the sound, into (a.) Surds, also known as tenues, smooth, sharpy and ;//t\a, resulting from the interruption or modification of ' breath,' e.g. K, T, P. (b.) Sonants, also known as medice, soft, flat, and fiiaa, resulting from the interruption or modification of ' voice,' e.g. G, D, B. (b.) According to the nature of the check, into (a.) Mutes {jnonientary or explosive sounds) when the ' voice ' or ' breath ' is inter- rupted, and the sound is produced by the removal of the check, e.g. K, G, B, P. (b.) Semivowels {continuous or fricative sounds) when the 'voice' or 'breath' is not com- pletely interrupted, but merely compressed by the approximation of the mouth organs. Under this head fall (a .) Nasals. — When the stream of air passes through the nose instead of the mouth, e.g. N, M. • (/3.) Liquids (or Trills). — When the stream of air passes over the tip of the tongue {e.g. R) or over the sides of the back of the tongue {e.g. L). The Vocal Organs. (y.) Spiratits (or Sibilants). — The hissing or breathing sound produced when the current of air is compressed between the tip of the tongue and the hard palate {e.g. S, Z, Y), or when it has to find its way out through the teeth, owing to the lower lip touching the upper teeth {e.g. F, V). (c.) According to the parts of the mouth that approach each other, into (a.) Labials. — When the under lip approaches the upper lip or upper teeth, e.g. P, B. (b.) Dentals.-~^\i&x\. the fore part of the tongue approaches the upper teeth, e.g. T, D. (c.) Palatals. — When the middle part of the tongue approaches the middle of the palate, e.g Y. (d.) Gutturals. — When the root of the tongue approaches the back of the palate, e.g. K, G. Of the actual number of these vocal sounds there is some doubt, and the question is one not easy to answer, for diffe- rent races through different causes, such as climate, tempera- ment, mode of life, &c,, show an affinity for certain sounds and a distaste for others. We all know from our own ex- perience what difficulty many persons find in pronouncing the aspirate, and how common an infirmity is the tendency to sound R as W, and S as TH. The inability, moreover, to pronounce the nasals, or what people popularly, though incorrectly, describe as " speaking through the nose," is a phenomenon that regularly accompanies the affliction of a severe cold. Such familiar instances in every-day life will prevent us feeling much surprised at hearing that the Chinese cannot pronounce R, that the Sandwich Islanders cannot distinguish K from T, that Arabic has no P, the Mo- Ele7ne7its of Philology hawks no labials, the Society Islanders no gutturals.* The list might be almost indefinitely extended, but enough has been said to show what innumerable varieties there are in the sounds of different nations, and how difficult and almost hopeless a task it is, therefore, to attempt to enumerate them. Authorities — Meyer, passini. Max Miiller, series ii. lect. iii. Sayce, vol. i. chap, iii, and iv. Ferrar, chap. i. Whitney, chap. iv. Peile, hitrod. chap. iv. ; Prit/ier, chap. viii. Papillon, chap. iii. Morris, chap. iv. N.B. — Sayce, vol. i. chap, iv., gives Prince Lucien Buonaparte's list of 385 possible alphabetic sounds. Max Miiller's ' ' Physiological Alphabet " is given on the opposite page : it is to be found explained in his Lectures in the passage cited above. Another table is given by Peile {Introd. chap. iv. ), and on p. 92 he quotes the vowel table of Mr. Bell, and on p. 97 that of Professor Lepsius. Whitney (/. c. ) gives a novel arrangement of the English Alphabet. ' Professor Sayce says that Polynesians turn David into Havifi, Samuel into Henia^-a, London into Kenana, that the Chinese pronounce Christ as Ki-li-sse-t(ii), and that the Japanese say idoratry for idolatry. He points out also that the use of nose-rings causes the confusion of labials and the great nasalization of the Pacific Americans, and that the characteristic South African lisp is due to the filing and extraction of teeth. The Vocal Organs. ?d « O ^ H Z W) . < c-o 2 "5 — o |H ;z; o U <^ pi:^ < u o o o -73 t/3 O .S: cy 2 -a •n ■ A A o iJ o £i o 2 "^ 2 rt — o ci, o ex ^ 3 ?; ^ ii 1) 1) 5 S a- a. g H J :^ ::^ vO I^ CO On CHAPTER III. THE ORIGIN OF WRITING. WE have seen now the material of which Speech con- sists and the manner in which it is produced, and the table just quoted has shown us the possible varieties of consonantal sounds. Before going further, however, it will be expedient to point out how these sounds have been expressed by written symbols, that is to say, the manner in which our Alphabet ^ has developed. Now it is obvious that, strictly speaking, Writing has nothing to do with Speech : they appeal to quite different senses — the former to the eye, the latter to the ear — and " it is a mere accident that language should ever have been reduced to writing." Accident though it be, however, it is one that has been fraught with the happiest consequences to the human race. " If we set aside," says Dr. Isaac Taylor, " the still more wonderful invention of Speech, the discovery of the Alphabet may fairly be accounted the most difficult, as well as the most fruitful of all the past achievements of the human intellect. It has been at once the triumph, the instrument, and the register of the progress of our race .... (Without writing) law would be mainly custom, science little more than vague tradition, history would be uncertain legend, while religion must have consisted mainly of rhythmic ado- rations and of formulas of magical incantation .... Science ' The word alphabetiim is not used by any writer older than Tertul- lian, but its existence may be inferred from the use of the compound avaK<^a^r\roq, which dates from the time of Philyllius, a writer of the middle comedy. For the idea, cf. Juv. xiv. 209 (Taylor). The Origin of Writing. 1 1 and religion would tend to remain the exclusive property of a sacerdotal caste, and the chasm which separates the rulers and the ruled grow greater and more impassable." Bacon compares Writing to a ship crossing the vast ocean of time, and making all ages share in the lights, the wisdom, and the inventions of the past. Inestimable, however, though the invention of Writing has been, we must remember that it is really only third in order of three stages. First in rank and time comes THOUGHT, without which Speech is mere jabbering and Writing mere scribbling. Secondly comes speech, the more or less adequate expression of thought by means of sound. Thirdly, we place writing, whose relation to speech has been compared to that of the shadow to the substance, or^ as Augustine says, signa sunt verba visibilia, verba stmt signa audibilia. Writing, which has been described as the "Art of record- ing events and sending messages," is nothing but the development of the art of Painting — a connection which the Greek language perpetuated by using the verb ypdcpetv in the double signification of to write and to paint. Slow and painful, however, were the stages that it had to go through before arriving at its present perfection. "What can seem simpler than A, B, C, and yet what is more difficult when we come to examine it?" This difficulty is illustrated by the fact that there are many races even now which have no conception of Writing, while others have arrived at a certain stage in the development of the art, but have never yet succeeded in advancing beyond, and yet "Without an Alphabet any complete system for the graphic representation of speech is an acquirement so arduous as to demand the labour of a lifetime." The first stage in Writing seems to be the drawing of a picture to represent an actual object, whether living or inanimate. This is, or at any rate was till quite recently, in 1 2 Elements of Philology. common use among the Indian tribes in North America, as is proved by abundant evidence. We also ourselves have traces of it left in the astronomical symbols often seen in almanacks. Thus represents the sun, ]) the Moon, T Aries — the horns of the Ram standing for the whole animal. It is obvious, however, that this writing by means of portraying can only apply to concrete things — -to objects which we can touch or see — but it is impossible to draw a picture of abstract qualities, such as vice or virtue, swiftness or cunning. The only mode then of denoting abstract ideas is to draw figures of such actual objects as suggest the required notions to the mind — " a bird signifying rapidity, a fox cunning, a serpent holding its tail in its mouth eternity, a sceptre power," &c. Thus we find the Roman numerals, i. ii. iii. signifying not three lines ox fingers, but the ideas of unity, duality, and trinity. Printers' signs too such as j^ — meaning not a hand, but Jioiice — and trade symbols, like the three balls denoting a pawnbroker's shop, come under the same head. These pictures representing actual objects, or abstract ideas, are called, technically, ideograms, i.e. delineations of forms. A further stage in the Art of Writing is marked by these ideograms becoming phonograms, that is to say, by the pictures no longer representing actual objects, or ideas, but merely sounds. Thus, for instance, the picture of a pear might originally be an ideogram denoting merely the fruit of the pear tree, or possibly the abstract quality, '' ripeness,' or ' fruitfulness ' : at a subsequent period, however, it might become a phonogram and denote merely the sound of the word ' pear ' : thus it might represent ' pair ' and ' pare ' just as well as ' pear.' Now these Phonograms themselves pass through three stages, viz. : — i. The Verba/ stage, i.e. when the symbol stands for the The Origin of Writing. 13 sound of the whole word ; as when the picture of a 'pear' stands for the sounds 'pear,' 'pare,' ' pair,' etc. ii. The Syllabic stage, when the picture stands no longer for the sound of the whole word, but only for that of one of the articulations of which the word is composed, i.e. one of its ' syllables ; ' e.g. when the picture of a pear represents merely the sound /^. iii. The Alphabetic stage, when the picture stands neither for the sound of the whole word nor for that of one of its syllables, but merely for one of the elementary sounds into which that syllable may be resolved, i.e. one of what we call its ' letters,' e.g. when the picture ' pear ' stands merely for the sound of the letter/. To take another instance,' D might conceivably represent first the ' moon in the heavens, or the idea ' brightness : ' then the sound of the word moon, as in the vulgar pronun- ciation of ' immunity ' ; next the sound of the syllable moo {e.g. in mo-ve) : and lastly the letter M." Such then are the stages through which the art of Writing has gone, but, as was said above, it is by no means every race that has reached the Alphabetic stage of development. The Aztecs, for instance, of Mexico at the time of the Spanish conquest had got as far as the transition from ideograms to phonograms, though their neighbours— the Mayas of Yucatan — exhibit in their relics twenty-seven clear alphabetic characters. The Chinese again have got as far ^ The instances quoted in the text are merely imaginary. The letter M is really derived from niulag, the Egyptian term for 'owl, 'and the two ears of the bird still remain in the points of the letter. - A good illustration of Phonographic writing is the common puzzle, known as a ' rebus,' in which the picture of an object is used to denote any word or part of a word which has the same sound as the name of the thing portrayed — e.g. the words To be or iioi to be might be repre- sented by the following symbols : the numeral 2, a picture of a bee^ the word or, a picture of a knot, the numeral 2, and the picture of a bee. 14 Elements of Philology. as verbal phonograms, while the Japanese have reached the syllabic stage. For our purposes, however, the Egyptian inscriptions are of most importance, for in them we find traces of every stage of Writing, and it is from Egypt that (according to the most plausible theory) all the alphabets of Palestine, and of Phoenicia, of Greece, and of Rome, and in fact of almost every State in modern Europe, derive their origin. The earliest relic we have of Egyptian, or in fact of any, Writing is, according to Dr. Taylor, the tablet of king Sent, preserved in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, the date of which is assigned to about 4700 b.c.^ Even in it, however, we find semi-alphabetic forms, a fact which throws back the origin of Writing to a very remote antiquity. It was for the purpose of preserving the " solemn records of Church and State," that these inscriptions were used by the Egyptians, and hence they got the name of hieroglyphs or sacred sculp- tures. In these hieroglyphs we apparently find every stage in the development of Writing, even to that of alphabetic symbols, though the latter only exist in a very rudimentary form. The elaboration, however, of the hieroglyphic pictures was too cumbersome for ordinary use, and was especially unfitted for writing on papyrus. Hence a custom sprung up of abbreviating the pictures, by merely sketching a hasty outline in as few strokes as possible, and this "running hand " was known as hieratic writing. Our knowledge of its characters depends mainly on the " Papyrus Prisse " at Paris, which is thought to date from a time anterior to Abraham. Some time between 2300 and 1700 b.c, these hieratic characters seem to have become known to the PHOENICIANS, who founded on them an alphabet of their own, retaining the Egyptian symbols but altering the names ' It should be mentioned that there is great doubt as to the Egyptian chronology. Mariette Bey and Lenormant, for instance, put the reign of Menes, the earliest king, as far back as 5004 B.C., while Sir G. Wilkin- son and Mr. R. S. Poole assign it to about 2700 B.C. The Origin of Writhig. 15 according to their own fancy.' As to the fact of this appro- priation the ancients had a very shrewd suspicion — witness the following passage of Tacitus (Annals, xi. 14) — primi per figuras animalium Aegyptii sensi/s mentis effingelmtit ; {ea antiquissima monimenta vicmorice humame ttipressa saxis cermmtur) et litterarian semei viventores perhibeut: inde Phoenices, quia viari pj-cepoUebant, intulisse Grcecice, gloriamque adeptos tanquam repererint qucz accepera?it. As to the date an important piece of evidence is the Biblical record with reference to the Israelites. Previous to their sojourning in Egypt they seem to have had no knowledge whatever of writing, but after the exodus we get many distinct traces of their acquaintance with the art. The earliest passage in the Bible in which contemporary writing appears to be alluded to, is said to be Exodus xvii. 14, where Moses is enjoined to write in a book the account of the overthrow of the Amalekites at Rephidim. No monumental evidence, how- ever, of the old Phoenician or Hebrew characters of anything like so early a date is extant. The main relics on which we depend for our knowledge of them are : — 1. The Baal-Lebanon Bowl, attributed to the tenth century B.C., discovered in 1876 by M. Clermont Ganneau, and now preserved at Paris. 2. The Moabite Stone, probably of the ninth century B.C., discovered in 1868 by Mr. Klein, of the Church Missionary Society : now in the Louvre. 3. The Siloam Inscription at Jerusalem, discovered in 1880, and deciphered by Professor Sayce : as- signed to the seventh century b.c. ^ The change of names is not at all extraordinary. The Phoenicians thought that the hieratic symbol for A resembled an ox's head, and so they called it aleph (an ox), though the Egyptians, intending it to repre- sent an 'eagle,' had called it aharn. In an exactly similar way the Russians, though they have borrowed the Greek Alphabet, have yet changed its names : B, for instance, they call, not Oeta, but bul-i { =: beech) ; D, not delta, but dob7v ( = oak). 1 6 Elements of Philology. Gradually the Phoenician Alphabet spread over the west of Asia, until at last it reached Greece. Its arrival there is symbolized by more than one old legend. Faina est (says Tacitus in the passage quoted before) Cadvuim classe Phce- iiiaun vectiim rudibiis adJmc G?'(scoru7n populis artis ejus {i.e. writing) mutorem fuisse : quidmn Cecropem Atheniensem vel Linum Thebanum et teniporibus Troja)iis Palamedem Argivum mefiiora/it sedeci7n litterarum formas, viox alios ac prcBcipumn Sinwnidem ceteras repperisse. In the myths, however, truth seems to be so much mingled with falsity, that no stress can be laid on their authority. We seem, however, quite justified in considering that the Alphabet reached Greece through at least two channels, viz. : — 1. Through the Babylonians and Lydians to the Chal- kidians of Euboea, owing to whom it became the prevalent system throughout Western Hellas. 2. Through the lonians, whose system was adopted in Eastern Hellas. The main differences between these two systems were that the Chalkidians used X to represent ^i (Ionian H) and \1/ to denote Chi (Ionian X) : they also wrote Delta, Lambda, and Sigma thus >, V, <,, while the lonians wrote them A, A, S : moreover, they retained Van (F), Koppa (O), and Sa7i (M), which the lonians allowed to drop into disuse. The date when the Phoenician alphabet reached Greece is very doubtful. Dr. Taylor puts it as early as the twelfth century B.C., but our oldest extant inscriptions can hardly be referred to an earlier date than the ninth. In connection with this question considerable importance is attached to an inscription at Abu Simbel in Egypt(apparently of the seventh century B.C.), as it shows clear traces of a great develop- ment as compared with the Phoenician system — a fact which leads irresistibly to the inference that the Greeks must have adopted the Alphabet long previous to this period, other- wise it is hard to see how the changes could have been The Origin of Writing. 1 7 brought about. The most important of these changes are : — 1. The writing runs from left to right, whereas in the Phoenician inscriptions it runs from right to left.^ 2. The Phojnician Alphabet contained no vowels but several "guttural breaths" {Aleph, He, Cheth^ Ayin), and semi-consonants (Van, Yod) : in Greek these have become vowels (a, e, r), o, v, i). 3. The shapes of the letters are considerably changed. 4. New letters (e.g., <]>, x> ^di ^^e added. It is obvious that changes like these must have required a considerable time to produce, and hence it does not seem to be assuming too much to place the introduction of the Phoenician Alphabet into Greece as early as iioo or 1200 B.C. The Ionian Alphabet, then — that is to say, the one which is commonly known to us as the " Greek Alphabet " — bor- rowed from the Phoenician the name, order, and shape of the following letters— A, B, r, A, E, Z, H, 0, I, K, A, M, N, H, O, n, P, 2, T. To these it added T, 0, X, Y, ft. It lost, however, the Digamma (or Van), San, and Koppa, but we have clear proof of the use at one period of these last three letters by the Greeks, viz. : — ' We know of at least four modes of writing, viz. : — 1. From left to right, as in modern English. 2. From right to left, as in the old Greek inscription on the Burgon Vase — iMa . MOAOA . vieaviaBA . hot— i.e. 3. Kiovr]S6r, i.e. columnwise, the letters running from the top to the bottom of the page. 4. jSovffrpoipriSor, i.e. "as the ox turns in the furrow," the letters running in one line from right to left, and in the next from left to right, e.g. — [SOI]AITSI [ANEBJHKETQ [l7I]QAA0n i.e, 'lerrialoc civtOijKt T(p (A)' ttoXXoi)". C 1 8 Elements of Philology. 1. The fact that Koppa remained as a numeral in Greek, while Vau's place was taken by the manufactured compound stigma (t), and San's by Safipi (/\). 2. The survival oi San and KoppadA horse-brands. Cf. Aristoph. Eq. 603, Nub. 122. 24. 3. The scansion of many lines in Homer showing by the apparent existence of a hiatus that a consonant (Vat/) has been lost. Cf. Odyss. ix. 209, tv heirag ijuTrXiicrac vSaroc ava J'tiKom fxerpa. It Will be seen later that a similar hypothesis is required to account for the peculiarities in the augment or reduplica- tion of certain verbs. 4. Comparison with cognate words in other languages points to a similar fact, e.g. oIkoq by the side of Vi'cus, laria by the side of Vesta. Even without this evidence a strong argument for the existence of these consonants in Greek might be drawn from the fact that they are known to have existed in the Phoenician Alphabet, and that two of them — Vau and Koppa — survive in Latin as F and Q. The 24 existing letters in the Greek Alphabet were known as ra 'Iw^tm ypafxixara. They were not, how- ever, formally recognized at Athens till the archonship of Eukleides, 403 b.c. The LATIN Alphabet was derived not from the Ionian system but from the Chalkidian, through the Chalkidian colony of Cumse which was founded not later than the ninth century B.C. Hence the Romans retained Vau and Koppa, in their original places, as F and Q. They dropped, how- ever, San and all the aspirated consonants (0, ^, \1/),' and double letters (T), except Xi which, in its Chalkidian form X, was introduced about the sixth century B.C., and ' Hence we get the rule that, in writing Latin, "we must use the letters Y, Z, and the compounds CH, TH, PH in words borrowed from the Greek, and in no others" (Peile, /ntrod., chap. i.). The Origin of Writing. 19 put at the end of the Alphabet. At a later period it was followed by Y and Z, which were introduced in Cicero's time to transcribe Y and Z in words borrowed from the Greek ; the latter, indeed, had previously been used in Latin, but had early been allowed to fall into disuse. The long vowels H and ft were also omitted^ and the symbol of the former was now confined to its consonantal use as the aspi- rate.' The semi-consonants moreover had their conso- nantal and vowel uses distinguished by the adoption of distinct symbols, I and U to denote the vowel sounds, J and V the consonantal. Finally the letter G was differentiated from C. The history of this last change is a curious one. Originally C, as the representative of the Greek F, was pro- nounced by the Romans just as our hard G, e.g. Cuius was pronounced Gains: the sharper sound of our C was repre- sented by K. At an early period, however, K fell into dis- use, except in a few words such as Kceso and kahndcz, and for a period the sound seems to have been practically lost. Between 300 and 200 B.C., however, the K sound revived and so C was differentiated into C (= K), and G {= F). The change is attributed to Spurius Carvilius, who opened the first school of grammar and writing at Rome. The new letter G was placed in the room of Z, which, as was said above, had early fallen out of use. We are also told that the Emperor Claudius tried to intro- duce three other symbols, but without success, viz : — d, to denote the consonantal sound of V. = ps : this was called antisigma. I—, to denote the vowel between E and U in sound. The ENGLISH Alphabet is merely the Latin one with the addition of W ; the common symbol, however, for which ' The ' rough breathing ' (') in Greek is really a trace of the con- sonantal use of the letter H. This symbol had, in fact, a consonantal as well as a vowel use. In the former capacity it came to be written \-, then L) and lastly '. The symbol for the 'smooth breathing' (') was probably formed by analogy. 20 Elements of Philology. sound was not introduced till after the Norman Conquest. Prior to that date its place had been filled by the Runic wen (P ). Another Runic letter, thorn (^ ), to denote the sound of //i!, remained in use till the end of the fifteenth century A.D., and even now a trace of it survives in f andy, to re- present the and that. ' Note. — The Runic (or Mystic) Alphabet seems to come from the same Semitic source as the English one, probably through a Greek channel to the Scandinavian races. It consisted mainly of straight lines without curves, probably owing to the requirements of carving. The Latin letters do not seem to have ousted the Runic in England till about the sixth cen- tury A.D., when the latter, being identified with Paganism, fell into disuse. Such is the history of our alphabet, but wonderful though it be, we should never forget that compared with an ideal standard most, if not all, of such systems are seriously de- fective. If, for instance, the English Alphabet were perfect, we should find every simple sound denoted by a distinct symbol, and no sound represented by more than one sym- bol. When these canons, however, are put into application it has to be pronounced i. defective, inasmuch as it has now no symbol to de- note the sound th, and can only distinguish long from short vowels by artificial devices, such as doubling a consonant to shew that the preceding vowel is short, or adding a final e to denote that it is long. Compare, for instance, the words, bit., bite, and bitter. ii. redundant, since C, Q, and X are unnecessary. iii. inconsistent, for (a) the same combination of letters is not al- ways pronounced in the same way, e.g. ough, in such words as — plough, cough, rough, etc. ' The sound th is also denoted in early English by the symbol t5 or D, both modified forms of the Roman d, D. The Origin of Writing, 2 1 (b) different combinations of letters are pro- nounced similarly, e.g., O, oh, beau, cnce, boat, etc. It must not be supposed, however, that the English alpha- bet is singular in this respect. The Romans, for instance, were so conscious of the deficiencies of their own system that we find among them at least three different methods employed to denote a long vowel, viz. : — 1. Doubling the vowel — a method that prevails in the inscriptions from 130 to 75 B.C. 2. Placing an accent over it — a custom in vogue subse- quent to the consulship of Cicero. 3. Writing the vowel ' I ' taller than the other letters. Sometimes, indeed, before the time of Sulla, I was represented by the diphthong ei. In fact, it is exceedingly improbable that any existing system can put forward a valid claim to be considered ab- solutely perfect, and hence it should always be borne in mind that the written characters are no sure criterion of the wealth or poverty of sounds in a language. In dead tongues too, such as Greek (or at any rate Ancient Greek) and Latin, the problem is complicated by the great doubt which exists as to the manner in which the written characters were pro- nounced. We cannot enter upon the question of pronun- ciation here, but it will be found fully discussed in the autho- rities quoted at the end of this chapter. Note. — It maybe interesting to point out that some fairly reliable evidence as to the pronunciation of the Classical Languages may be derived from a few passages in which the cries of animals are attempted to be represented in writing. Thus we find that iroi (like our pewit) denotes a bird s twitter (Aristoph. Aves, 227), and ko'i, a pig's squeak (Arist. Ach. 780) ; that av dv stands for a dog's bark (Aristoph. Vesp. 903) ; and that /3)7 represents the bleating of a sheep (Aristoph. Anecd. Bekk. 86). Cicero (de Div. ii. 40), also tells us a tale about a man crying Caunean figs, and the word Cauneas being mistaken by superstitious soldiers for cave tie eas. Interjections, too, like iov (our Ugh) may give some clue. 22 Elements of PJiilology. Authorities — Taylor, passim. Sayce, article in Contemp, RevicM (Dec. 1885). Joly, part ii. chap. vi. Tylor, chap. vii. Papillon, chap. iii. Wordsworth, chap. ii. Roby, bk. i. chap. v. Ferrar, chap. vi. Encyclop. Brittan. s.v. Alphabet. Earle, chap. i. Peile, Frimer, chap, viii. Morris, chap. iv. N.B. — As to Pronunciation, see Peile, Introd., chap. viii. Wordsworth, chap. iii. ; Roby, Introd. APPENDIX TO CHAPTER III. In illustration of the defective character of the English Alphabet it may be of service to reproduce here Mr. Morris' list of Elementary Sounds in the English Spoken Alphabet, I. Consonants. I. b. 9. m, 17. y- 2. d. 10. n. 18. z. 3- f- II. p. 19. ch. 4- g- 12. r. 20. dh (bathe) 5- h. 13. s. 21. th (bath). 6. j. 14. t. 22. zh (azure) 7. k. 15. V. 23- sh (sure). 8. 1. 16. w. 24. hw (what). II. Voivcls. 25, am. gnat. 32. e in meet. 26. a in pair, ware. 33- / in knit. 27. a fame. 34- in not. 28. « father. 35- in note. 29. ^, all. 36. 00 in fool, rule. 30. «, want. 37- 00 in wood, put. 31. ^ in met. 38- ti in nut. The Origin of Writing. 23 III. Diphthongs. 39. i'va. high. 40. / in aye. 41. oim boil. 42. ow in how, bound. 43. ew in mew. CHAPTER IV. THE ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE. THE question now arises as to how the primitive ele- mentary sounds, described in Chapter H., came, when combined into words, to have the meanings we now attri- bute to them. Why should the combination of the sounds D, O, G, come to denote a dog, or C, A, T, a cat ? The question is one that has never yet received a satisfactory answer, and seems likely to remain insoluble. The great difficulty arises from the fact that we can obtain no adequate historical evidence on the subject. If we could once recover the primeval language spoken by our forefathers, it might be possible to approach within a measurable distance of the solution of the problem. If for instance we could trace back our name for ' dog ' to the primitive form of the same, we might form some plausible hypothesis to account for the connection of the term with the animal, and the hypothesis would be strengthened or weakened according to the num- ber of cases it was found to explain. In the present state of the Science of Language, however, such a method is quite impracticable. Even the primitive Indo-European tongue has not yet been definitely ascertained : much less does there seem any i)rospect of the recovery of the primeval language of the whole human race. All then that we can do is to state in outline the main theories on the subject, premising that they are mere hypotheses which as yet are quite insusceptible of any historical proof These theories may be reduced to three, viz. : — (i.) The Onomatopoeic theory, i.e. that all languages The Origin of Language, 25 arose from the attempts of man to imitate the cries of other animals, barking when he wanted to re- present a dog, miauing when he wished to denote a cat ; hence this has been described as the *' Bow- wow " theory. Against it, however, it has been urged with considerable force, 1. that it is utterly inadequate to explain all the facts. 2. that it is derogatory to man's dignity to sup- pose him to have merely copied brutes. 3. that if the hypothesis were true, particular terms would be prior to general ones, whereas as a matter of fact the simplest roots are found to express the most general conceptions, (ii.) The Itiierjectional (or "Pooh-pooh") theory, i.e. that language arose from the spontaneous excla- mations of joy, pain, surprise, &c., common to all men and in a greater or less degree to brutes also. This theory, however, is open to much the same ob- tions as the former, and Professor Whitney points out that natural expressions, such as cries and groans, indicate feeling and feeling only : no evi- dence has ever been adduced to show that there is such a thing as the natural expression of a con- ception, or judgment, or cognition, " it is where expression quits its emotional natural basis and turns to intellectual uses that the history of lan- guage begins." This is what is meant by Home Tooke's celebrated dictum — " the dominion of speech is erected on the downfall of interjections." (iii.) The theory of Divine Creation, i.e. that not only a faculty of speech, but also the actual words and 26 Elements of Philology. details of language were divinely implanted in man. Professor Max Miiller's view seems a modi- fication of this. He holds that roots, being the expression of general ideas, are " phonetic types " due to a divinely implanted faculty of giving more articulate expression to the rational conceptions of the mind : these types he considers to have been almost infinite originally, but to have been reduced by " natural selection." The view most generally accepted at present' is apparently a combination of all of these theories, viz., that man is natu- rally endowed with a faculty of speech, but that language itself is purely conventional, existing, as Aristotle would say, v6\iw ov (pvaei, and springing up merely for the purpose of commu- nication, that which offered the most feasible means of arriving at a mutual understanding being soonest turned to account. Thus the positively earliest speech would be the reproduction, with intent to signify something, of the natural tones and cries ; this being almost immediately combined with imitative or onomatopoeic utterance, the range of imi- tation being gradually extended, especially figuratively or by analogy : when, however, it became easier to effect commu- nication by another method, viz., the differentiation and new application of already existent signs, the primitive method (onomatopoea) went into comparative disuse. Authorities — Max MUlIer, series i. lect. xi. Whitney, chap. xiv. Peile, Primer, chap. viii. Sayce, vol. ii. chap. viii. Papillon, chap. i. Farrar, Chapters, passim. ' Whitney, " Life and Growth of Language,'' chap. xiv. CHAPTER V. GENEALOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAGES. SINCE it has as yet been found impracticable to recover the primitive tongue of mankind, all that can be done is to classify languages according to their apparent affinities, and then examine the different classes separately. By comparing, then, languages according to their vocabu- laries and grammatical structure it has been found possible to divide them genealogically, so to speak, into what are called Families of Speech, viz : — i. The Semitic family, embracing, roughly speaking, the descendants of Shem, whence its name. All Semitic tongues are remarkable for the fact that their roots are triliteral, i.e. they consist of three consonants which remain unchanged in all rela- tions, the only mode of inflection being by the internal change of the vowels.^ The main sub- divisions of the family are : — 1. Canaanite, including Hebrew, Samaritan, Phoenician, and Aramaic, a dialect (consist- ing mainly of Syriac and Chaldee) which is used in several of the Apocryphal Books, and also that which was employed by Christ, e.g. Talitha cumi. 2. Arabic, including also Abyssinian and Ethio- pian. 3. Assyrian and Babylonian. ' e.g. q-t-l is a root meaning " killing ; " qatala means " he killed ; " qutila, " he was killed," &c. 2 8 Elements of Philology. ii. The Indo-European family, also known by the names Arya?i, Indo-Germanic^ Sanskritic, Japhetic, Mediterranean, and Caucasian. It is subdivided into — 1. Indie, viz. : — (a.) Dead dialects, such as Sanskrit (the lan- guage of the Vedas, the sacred books of the Hindus), Prakrit (a provincial corruption of pure Sanskrit), and Pali (the Sacred Prakrit dialect of Bud- dhism). (b.) Living Hindu dialects. (c.) The Gipsy dialect. 2. Iranic (or ' Eranian '), viz : — (a.) Zend, i.e. the old Persian of the cuneiform inscriptions and of the Zetid Avesta (the Zoroastrian Bible preserved by the Parsis of Western India). (b.) Modern Persian. (c.) Armenian. 3. Keltic, viz. : — (a.) Kymric, i.e. old Cornish, Welsh, and Ar- morican (of Brittany), (b.) Gadhelic, i.e. Gaelic, Manx, and Erse (old Irish). 4. Grseco-Latin, viz. : — (a.) Greek, i.e. : — (a.) The old Hellenic dialects such as Doric, Ionic, and Aeolic. (/3.) Modern Greek, or " Romaic." (b.) Italic, i.e. : — (a.) Old Italian, such as Latin, Oscan, and Umbrian. (/3.) Romance dialects, such as Italian, Genealogical Classification of Languages. 29 French,' Spanish, Portuguese, Walla- chian, and Romansch (of the Grisons and Engadine). 5. Teutonic, viz : — (a.) High German, i.e. that spoken in the highlands of the interior, and practically equivalent to modern German. (b.) Low German, i.e. that spoken on the lowlands of the coast, and so including Dutch, Flemish, and English, and also Gothic. (c.) Scandinavian, i.e. Norse, Swedish, Danish, and Icelandic. 6. Slavonic, viz., Russian, Polish, Bohemian, Servian, and Bulgarian. 7. Lettic," viz., Old Prussian (extinct for 200 years) and Lithuanian, spoken in some of the Baltic provinces of Russia and Prussia, iii. The Turanian (or Allophylian or Sporadic) family. This, however, has not been sufficiently investi- gated to be properly classed as a ' family ' at all, the mutual connection of the languages comprised under it being very dubious. It serves, how- ever, as a convenient class to which to refer all such dialects as do not fall within the Semitic or Indo-European families. The chief of these are: — I. Scythian (or 'Ural Altaic'), including the ' French was divided into — 1. lattgue d'oil, spoken in the North ; 2. langiie d'oc, or Provencal. These derived their names from the pronunciation of oui, which, accord- ing to Farrar, was derived in the North from hoc illud, in the South from hoc alone. * Many authorities now class Slavonic and Lettic together. 30 Elements of Philology. dialects of the Mongols, Huns, Turks, Finns, Lapps, &c. 2. Chinese, with which possibly are connected the dialects of Farther India, e.g. Annamese, Siamese, Burmese, Tibetan. 3. Japanese. 4. Malay-Polynesian, subdivided into — (a.) Malayan, i.e. "dialects of great islands nearest Asia, and Philippine and Ladrone groups." (b.) Polynesian, i.e. dialects of " most of the smaller groups, with New Zealand and Madagascar." (c.) Melanesian, i.e.., dialects of "Fijian and other archipelagos off the north-eastern corner of Australia." 5. Australian. 6. Dravidian, or S. Hindustan, especially Tamil, Telugu, Canarese, and Malabar. 7. Caucasian, i.e. Georgian, Circassian, &c. 8. South African. 9. Basque, spoken in north-east Spain, and ap- parently akin to the American dialects. Authorities — Whitney, chaps, ix. , x. , xii, Farrar, Families, passim. Tylor, chap. vi. Morris, chap. i. Papillon, chap. ii. Max Miiller, series i. lects. v. viii. Peile, Fritne}-, chap. iii. CHAPTER VI. THE INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY. OF the three families of speech mentioned in the last chapter, the second — the Indo-European — has had most attention paid to it as being the most familiar and the most accessible, and for our present purposes it is the only- one that requires examination, Indo-European was apparently the language spoken by a tribe living on the northern slopes of the Himalayas, though there is a theory, which recently has found considerable favour among scholars, that their original abode was in Den- mark. In any case, from causes unknown to us, possibly merely owing to the natural increase of population, they cast off swarm after swarm of emigrants who successively populated the greater part of Europe and a considerable por- tion of Asia. We can gather something from Comparative Mythology as to the religion and imagination of this primi- tive race, and Comparative Philology also gives us some in- formation as to their culture, the order of their migrations, and the original language which they employed, and some law, or rather fragments of law, as to the modifications of the original sounds in the different parties of emigrants. § I. First, then, as to their culture. Our evidence for this mainly depends on examination of those words which are found to be common to all the Indo-European tongues : that is to say, if we find that the same root bears the same meaning in all or most of these languages we infer that it was used in a similar sense by the parent race before the separation, and consequently that the custom or habit it de- Elements of Philology. notes was in existence prior to that period. By following out such a Hne of argument we learn that the state of civili- zation among the Indo-Europeans was considerably ad- vanced. They were no longer a wandering tribe, but had reached the agricultural stage with a system of land tenure resembling that of the " Mark"; that is to say, the clans in which they dwelt — for the ties of kindred seem to have been strong — held each their pasturage and other lands as com- mon property, dividing at any rate the arable portion among their members from time to time : each individual, however, possessed as his private property his house and courtyard, his goods and cattle. The government seems to have been in the hands of a King and a Council of Elders ; the King having a special residence and domain : there were, more- over, regular laws, penalties and judges, and even a system of bail. Family relations were clearly defined and mono- gamy seems to have been the practice : slavery did not exist, but there were free labourers who worked for hire. Religion consisted in the worship of the powers of nature, with Dics- piter at their head ; but superstition seems to have been rife, for we hear of ghosts, and witchcraft, and evil spirits (typified by a snake), and of auguries drawn from birds, and of the use of charms to cure diseases (among which tetter and consumption are recorded) : we hear, too, of a sense of sin which only penance could appease. For dwellings they had houses of wood, with a door and a thatched roof. Their dress was a tunic, a coat, and sandals, the materials being mainly leather and wool ; the leather was tanned, the wool woven : linen also was not unknown. Their wealth lay in cattle : they had oxen and horses, sheep and goats, and moreover pigs and dogs, and geese and bees. They drank mead made from honey, and milk, and cooked their food : apples also they ate and a kind of black broth : salt too they used. They cultivated barley and spelt, making use of a rude plough : hay they cut with a sickle : grain was ground in The hidd- European Family. 33 mills and baked for bread : the straw was stored up and a few garden herbs were grown. Hunting formed their main recreation : of wild animals we hear of bears and wolves, and otters, and hares, and beavers, and also of ducks and quails, and mice, and shell-fish such as crabs and mussels. Their chief weapons were the axe, the sword, and the bow ; but most of their implements were made of stone, though gold and silver and bronze were known. Smiths also are men- tioned. Of arts we learn little, though germs of painting and music seem to have existed, and baked pottery was known. Decimal numerals appear to have been used, at any rate up to 100. With boats too they were acquainted. Time was measured by the moon, and divided into the seasons of spring, summer, and winter. Thus much, at any rate, it seems possible to gather as to the culture of the Indo-Europeans, and our in- formation is likely to be progressively increased according as the cognate dialects are more closely investigated. § 2. The second point on which, as we mentioned above, Philology supplies us with evidence — the order of the DIFFERENT MIGRATIONS from the parent stock — depends on a similar line of argument, namely, a comparison of the dif- ferent tongues, those showing the greatest mutual affinity being regarded as clinging together longest. Schleicher, whose table is copied by most authorities on this subject, thinks that the North European branch was the first to leave the original home, subsequently itself splitting into the Teu- tonic and Slavonic branches. The next swarm to be cast off would be that which spread over the south of Europe, and whose dialects were afterwards known as Keltic, Italian, and Greek. The Asiatic branch would thus be the last to leave the primitive Indo-European abode. Professor Whit- ney, indeed, thinks that its departure should not be placed much earlier than 2,000 B.C., and that it did not split into the Indie and Iranic dialects till just before the historic period. § 3. We now come to the third point, with respect to o 34 Elements of Philology. which Comparative Philology gives us information, viz.. the original indo-european language spoken by the race be- fore the separation. By comparing the different dialects it has been discovered that the parent tongue possessed the following sounds : — Consonants : K, T, P, G, D, B, GH, UH, BH, Y, S, V, N, M, R, and possibly L. Vowels : A, I, U ; to each of which A had been prefixed, giving thus also A, AI, AU. Schleicher believes that this process had been again repeated, and so would add A, AI, AU. These sounds may be tabulated thus : — Consonants. Vowels. Momentary. Continuous. Tenues. Mediae. Aspirates. Nasals. Spirants. Trills. Gutturals K G GH . — — — A a a Palatals . — — — — Y — I ai ai Dentals . T D DH N S R (L) — Labials . P B BH M V — U au au It is from a combination of these sounds that the roots are formed from which springs the whole vocabulary of the Indo-European tongues. It is true that, as yet, the parent speech of the race cannot be said to have been accurately ascertained, but, as will be seen later when we come to deal with the subject of inflections, attempts have been made to reproduce it with a considerable degree of plausibility, if not of absolute success. § 4. It may be objected, however, that words appear in widely different forms in different dialects, and this brings us to our fourth point, the laws of dialectic change that have been discovered regulating the modifications of sounds in different languages. The most important of these is the Law of Consonantal Transition, discovered by Jacob Grimm, and so usually named Grinwi's Laiv. This law, for our purposes, may be stated thus : — An aspirate in the classical languages {i.e. Greek and The Indo-European Family. 35 Latin) is represented by a sonant in the Low Ger- man dialects, and a surd in Old High German : a sonant in the classical tongues is represented by a surd in Low German, and an aspirate in Old High German ; and a surd in the classical tongues by an aspirate in Low German and a sonant in Old High German. The following Table exhibits the Law in a form possibly easier to remember : — Sanskrit, Greek, Low German, Old High and Latin. e.g. English. German. A. S. H. S. H. A. H. A. S. [A = aspirates such as x> ^> 0- S = soft letters or sonants, e.g. y, S, /3. H = hard letters or surds, e.g. k, t, it.] Thus dTf-Ti, etc. Authorities— (a.) As to Culture : Sayce, vol. ii. chap. vii. Mommsen, Hist. Rom., vol. i. chap. ii. Peile, Primer, chap. ill. Max Miiller, series i. lect. vi. (b.) As to Migrations : Schleicher, vol. i. Introd, Papillon, chap. ii. Peile, Introd., chap. ii. (c.) As to Language : Schleicher, § i, 2, Ferrar, chap. ii. Peile, Introd., chap. iv. (d.) As to Grimm's Law : Ferrar, chap. iii. Papillon, chap. iv. Peile, Primer, Appendi.x, Introd., chap. v. note I, and passim. Morris, chap. v. Max Miiller, series ii. lect. v. Roby, bk. i. chap. iv. CHAPTER VII. MORPHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAGES. IN addition to the Genealogical Classification of Lan- guages given in Chapter V., we find also what is called a Morphological Classification, that is to say, one based on the form assumed by the sentence, according as it is ex- pressed in one word or in many. The reason why such stress is laid on the sentence is that, historically considered, language seems to have begun with sentences, not with single words ; the first utterance of mankind, according to Professor Sayce, being polysyllabic, " a complex of sound and gesture, in which the sound had no meaning apart from the gesture." Languages then are classified morphologically as i. Monosyllabic, otherwise known as Isolating or Radical. These dialects, of which Chinese is a good ex- ample, use roots for words without any modifica- tion ; grammatical relations being expressed simply by the position of the words. " Thus in Chinese the prayer ' Our Father which art in heaven ' assumes the form ' Being heaven me-another ( = our) Father who ' " (Farrar). ii. Agglutinative (or Terminational) in which two or more roots are joined together to form a word, and grammatical relations are denoted by suffixes (or prefixes). In these words the root forming the stem is unchanged and can be separated and used alone, but the suffixes are so modified as to be in- capable of being used separately. Finn and Tatar are instances of this class, iii. Inflectional (such as Greek), i.e. languages in which Mo7'phological Classification of Languages. 39 grammatical relations are expressed by suffixes, but in which both the stem and the suffix are modified. Note. — A fourth class of Languages is sometimes recognized, called Polysynthetic (or Holophrastic). In these whole sentences are expressed by a single word, composed of roots so inter- laced that none can be used singly. Such a tongue is Mexican. ' Polysynthesis ' literally means the combination of many words into one ; " holophrasis " is the reduction of whole sentences to words. Dr. P'arrar gives as an instance the American word nicalchihua { = I build my house), in which neither ni ' I,' cal ' house,' or chihiia 'make ' can be employed as separate words. Take for instance the two roots I ( = going) and ma ( = /). The monosyllabic stage would be expressed thus i ma or MA 1 : the agglutinative stage would be imi : the inflectional stage AiMi. It should not be supposed, however, that this classification can be regarded as a historical one. There is no proof whatever that every language passes successively through these stages, and it is by no means certain which class is really the best adapted to express thought. Inflections, for instance, which are so much lauded in this respect, are con- stantly tending to disappear, their places being taken by prepositions and auxiliary verbs; and this tendency from " synthesis " to " analysis " has been described as a sacrifice of beauty of form to precision of meaning. There seems little ground then for asserting that as a vehicle for the ex- pression of thought the Inflectional Class is necessarily superior to its rivals. Whatever be its merits or defects, however, it is with this class alone that we are here concerned, for the Greek and Latin languages are eminently inflectional. Authorities — Sayce, vol. i. chap. v. Max Midler, series i. lect. vi. Farrar, Fa mil. p. 119; Syntax, pp. I, 2. Schleicher, Introd. Papillon, chap. ii. Wordsworth, chap. v. Peile, Primer, chap. ii. CHAPTER Vni. INFLECTION. AN Inflection may be described as a change in the form of a word, whether by internal alteration or by some external addition, to enable it to express grammatical relations. These changes, however, are not arbitrary or meaningless. Each inflection, so far as we know, is a fragment or relic of a once separable word with a distinct sense of its own. This is clearly seen when we resolve a word into its component parts. Take, for instance, the word eTv\pay. This when analysed is found to be equivalent to e — the augment, a fragment of a root denoting re- moteness. Tvir — the stem. aa — a fragment, according to one theory, of ' esa,' an old aorist of the root ES ( = being). V — a relic of the third personal pronoun, or rather of a demonstrative filUng its place. So too aniabam may be analysed into ania — stem. b =fu, a relic of the root fu seen in such words as fui, xm), etc., and so denoting existence. a — characteristic vowel of the past tense ; its origin is still disputed. ?n — relic of the first personal pronoun. In a similar way almost every word in Greek or Latin or any other inflectional language might be broken up and on examination would be found to consist of one or more mutilated words affixed or prefixed, as the case might be, to Inflection. 41 a stem. What then is a stem ? To answer this question we must first define what we mean by a Root. A ROOT is, roughly speaking, a word reduced to its lowest terms, or more precisely, " that combination of sounds which remains when a word is stripped of everything formative," or as Professor Sayce would prefer, " a phonetic type to which we can trace a group of words allied in sound and in sense." Whether Roots ever existed by themselves or not is still a moot question among philologists ; one of the main objec- tions to such a language of roots being that it seems hard to attribute to them any other meaning than abstract concep- tions, while savages are usually found deficient in general rather than particular terms. There is also a further question as to whether all Indo-European roots were originally mono- syllabic. Many authorities confidently assert that they were ; others do not consider the case proved. Roots are divided into two classes. Predicative and De- monstrative. i. Predicative Roots (known also as Verbal or Qualita- tive) express ideas of action or state, i.e., such acts and qualities as are apprehended by the senses. They form the basis of verbs and nouns, ii. Demonstrative (or Pronominal) Roots, signify position or direction with reference to the speaker, such as here, there, etc. Of these, which form but a com- paratively small body, the chief are kva {qui, riq, TTwe = KwQ, TTOTSpog = Korepor), GX (yi, ovyi), YA (og, Jam), I {is, ovToai, itenim, ipse), tA {to, ovTog, alrog, iste), DA (TToSaTToc, oht, inde, quando), dha i^ivQa, avHig, ubi), SA (o, aira^), NA, AN, ANA (I'W, vif, tWS, vvv), PA {atro, ab), BHA {nobis, a/i0w), VA {vos, neve), MA {me, fxi). Roots are also divided according to the number of letters of which they are composed into. 42 Elements of Philology. i. Primary or Primitive, i.e. those consisting of 1. One vowel, e.g. I. 2. One vowel + one consonant, e.g. ad. 3. One consonant + one vowel, e.g. da. ii. Secondary — Consisting of consonant -|- vowel -j- consonant, e.g. tud. iii. Tertiary — Consisting of 1. Consonant + consonant -f" vowel, e.g. plu. 2. Vowel -j- consonant + consonant, e.g. ard. 3. Consonant + consonant + vowel + con- sonant, e.g. SPAS. 4. Consonant -}- consonant + vowel 4" con- sonant + consonant, e.g. spand. All these roots are monosyllabic, but there has been con- siderable controversy raised as to whether the Primary class alone ought not to be considered primitive, and the other classes as mere developments or modifications of it; the extra consonants in that case arising from (a.) The combination of two roots into one ; or, (b.) Phonetic variation, due to want of clear articula- tion. One theory indeed reduces all roots to vowels, which seems almost a " reductio ad absurdum " of the controversy. Roots when fitted for the addition of an inflectional suffix are called stems. Stems thus are formed in various ways, viz : — i. By the mere root unchanged, e.g. o\// = ott -{- c. ii. By the root with its vowel modified, e.g. ^Xo^ = ^Xoy + c from the root ^Xey. iii. By the root reduplicated, e.g. iLlus^i from the root DA. iv. By the root with a suffix appended. These suffixes fall into two classes, viz. : — I. Nominal Suffixes, i.e. such as are used to form the stems of substantives and other parts hiflcction. 43 of speech formed from substantives, e.g. MENO {lilo-^ivo-c., ahi-mnu-s, ama-mini), TAR (ira-ri'ip, ia-rpv-c), ANT (t'orac = «ot- avT-e), etc. 2. Verbal Suffixes, i.e. those employed to form the stems of verbs, e.g. va (n/iaw = rt/ia- VA-^t : (If no = ama-ya-mt), etc. JVi?/^. — It seems almost certain that each of these suffixes had originally some definite meaning, but it is almost impossible to lay down any absolute rules to regulate their use. We get some glimmer of the original truth in the common Greek use of -jia to denote an act {e.g. irpdyfia), -aig action {■n-pa^ig), and -Trip an actor or agent {irpaKriip). So, too, in verbs : -(tkw is said to be inceptive, -auu) desiderative, -ow causative, etc' Sometimes, indeed, two or more stems are combined to form a fresh one, e.g. Xoyo-ypa^o-e jj-r^TpQ-KTovo-Q, etc. We have seen now the distinction between a Root and a Stem : it remains to consider the Inflectional terminations. Now grammarians in discussing a language usually classify its words under certain heads — nouns, verbs, adverbs, pre- positions, etc. — which they call Farts of Speech. These Parts of Speech, however, can really be reduced to two, nouns and verbs, or as the Greeks denominated them, ovofxara and pfifxara : all the rest spring from these. In fact, the distinction into nine Parts of Speech is (]uite a recent one. In Plato we find merely a distinction recog- nized between Svofiara and pt'i/nara. Aristotle distinguished also particles (avphanoi). The Stoics and the Alexandrian grammarians recognized eight Parts of Speech. The Romans adopted this division, but omitted the article, and separated interjections from adverbs. English writers on grammar follow the Roman system, but restore the article. In any case, however, all the other Parts of Speech are mere de- ^ Madvig, 'Latin Grammar,' § 174 siy., endeavours to trace the meaning and use of such suffixes. 44 Elements of Philology. velopments of Nouns and Verbs, and attempts have been made to reduce all nouns to verbs, or verbs to nouns, but as yet without much success, for it has never yet been definitely settled which of the two classes is really the older. Some authorities maintain that " the faculty of language in man leads him first to give names (oro/jiara) as signs expressive of conceptions, and then to form verbs {prjfxaTa.) to explain what is predicated of the conceptions," and that thus verbs are merely " nouns with a pronominal affix " : ^ while others urge that verbs must have been prior to nouns, since (a) their terminations are much more worn out than those of nouns ; (b) there are no attempts to denote gender in verbs. It will probably, however, be found most convenient if we follow the practice of the majority of grammars and treat of Nouns first. Authorities — (a.) On Roots and Stems : Whitney, chap. x. Schleicher, § 80 seq. Ferrar, chap. vii. Max Miiller, series i. lect. vii., and series ii. lect. ii. Peile, Primer, chap. iv. Introd. chap. iii. Papillon, chap. v. Sayce, voh ii. chap. vi. (b. ) On Parts of Speech : Sayce, vol. i. p. 12. Max Miiller, series i. lect. iii. Peile, P7-imer, chap. vi. Papillon, chap. v. ' Professor Sayce even considers that the supposed pronominal person-endings of verbs are merely case-endings. Thus the -m (or -^i) of the first person singular would be simply an accusative termination. The third person singular {e.g. tv-ktiC) would be the stem of an abstract noun in -is. The third person plural (e.g. tv-ktovoC) would be a parti- ciple. The first person plural {e.g. rvirrofiev) would be explained like infinitives in -tv, etc. CHAPTER IX. NOUNS. THE inflections of Nouns fall into three classes, accord- ing as they denote Gender, Number, or Case. ^Ve will consider each separately. GENDER. § I. Gender, unhappily, as most students must have found out to their cost, is not the same as sex. The latter applies to living objects, the former only to words. It seems probable, however, that originally distinctions of Gender sprung from distinctions of Sex. So far as living creatures were concerned, it would be the natural course to treat males as mascuUne, females as feminine. The diffi- culty only arises when a similar distinction has to be applied to inanimate things and abstract ideas. Why should mensa be feminine, and mensis masculine, vavg feminine, and arparoQ mascuHne ? The most plausible solution of the problem is that there has been a combination of two pro- cesses at work — Poetical Analogy and Grammatical Analogy. Poetical Analogy is the product of a vivid imagination. People regard certain qualities and actions as specially ap- propriate to men, and certain others as specially appropriate to women : the former they treat as masculine, the latter as feminine. Natural objects too, especially in an early stage of Society, have a tendency to become personified, the Sun is regarded as a male deity, the Moon as a female. In this way a considerable number of words get a kind of poetical 46 Elements of Philology. gender assigned to them. Then Grammatical Analogy comes into play, and words resembling in form those to which Genders have already been given, are assimilated to them in Gender likewise. There is considerable doubt, however, as to whether the earliest distinction was between persons and things — thus throwing back the ' Neuter ' gender to a remote period — or whether the Neuter Gender was not developed or invented subsequent to the distinction between Masculine and Femi- nine. In any case, from the general agreement of the whole Indo-European Family of languages, the distinction into three genders must have been prior to its earliest separation. It could not, however, have been original in it, for (a.) Verbs do not exhibit any signs of Gender, (b.) The words father and ?nother are found with the same sufifix tar in all Indo-European tongues. The tendency now is to substitute the natural for the grammatical distinction — to drop Gender and revert to Sex. The methods employed for distinguishing Gender in Greek and Latin were : — i. A Change of Stem. — Such stems as originally ended in A, had this vowel lengthened into a to denote the feminine gender. Those stems which in Indo- European end in a form the first two declensions of the classical languages. Thus, those words in these two declensions whose stems end in a short vowel should be rnascuhne, while those whose stems end in a long vowel should be feminine : e.g. dvQpwvd-^, and dominn-s are masculine, Tiiir\ and x<^P" feminine. The exceptions, however, to this rule are numerous. We find, for instance, vTiao-q feminine, TroXirfj-Q masculine, oSS-c feminine, poeta (originally / {plur.). Dat. Sing. -AI is either a strengthened form of the Locative -/, or a relic of the preposition abhi, meaning towards. Plur. -BHYAMS = BHI {i.e. abhi) -f AM {dem. root) -\- S {plur.). Dual. -BHYAMS is plural with vowel length- ened. Abl. Sing. -D (or -T) seems connected with the demonstrative root TA. Plur. — merged in Dative. Instr. Sing. -A probably connects with the demonstra- tive root A. -BHI seems connected with the root BHU, denoting existence (seen in ^u-w, Jio, futiirus, etc.), and so comes to denote 'co-existence,' and then 'in company with.' Plur. -BHIS = Singular + S {plur). Nouns. 55 As to the Greek and Latin case inflections the diagram shows how intimate is the connection between the two languages and how manifestly they are derived from a common origin, and the more closely we investigate the subject the more clearly do we see that even the apparent exceptions are really instances of the application of the rule. The most convenient way will be to examine each case separately. Nom. Sing. — The original type ^S is clearly to be seen in the Second ' Declension in Greek {e.g. aydpuiro-c) and the Second, Fourth, and Fifth Declensions in Latin (e.g. domhiu-s, gi-adi/s, dies). We also find many instances of it in the Third Declension of each language {e.g. aX-c, yiya{vT)-e, sege{t)-s, mensi-s). In the First Declension in Greek it is retained in such words as 7roX(Vr/-e and vtavla-c, and it seems a fair assumption to consider that even those words whose nominatives now end in vowels, in this declension {e.g. \wpci, r«yj»/), as also in the First Declension in Latin {e.g. mensa), originally terminated in -s ; the main evidence for this consists in — 1. The comparison of cognate words in the two languages ; thus we find poeta by the side of Troo}Tri-g. 2. The survival of such archaic forms as parricidas. 3. The existence of double masculine forms, e.g. 'imrorrj-c and 'nnru~a. Apparent exceptions to the use of -s as the nomi- native termination, such as cu^up, (pipujy, \du>y, ho7no,puer, etc., are accounted for by the falling off of the -s through euphonic or other causes ; thus ' The common names of the Declensions are here used, as being more likely to be familiar to the student. 56 Elements of Philology. these words would originally be ia^apr-Q^ oeporr-e, Xdov-Q, /lofm'n-s, pueru-s, etc. The lengthening of the preceding vowel, e.g. in (pip-io-r and y^d-u-v is to compensate for the omission of the final consonant. Voc. Si fig. — This requires little notice, as the original type — the mere stem — is generally employed, though often weakened in the case of vowel stems ; thus we get avOpwire, TrdXira, do^ni'ne, from ai'0pw7r-o-c, 7roX(V-»/-c, domin-u-s ( = domin-o-s). Else- where it is usually identical in form with the nomi- native, as in the plural. Ace. Sing. — The original type AI (mainly vowel stems) or AM (mainly consonantal) is retained through- out both languages. The weakness, however, of the final consonant is shown by the regular rule of Latin scansion, that syllables ending in -m are elided before words beginning with a vowel. Thus, too, in Greek we find that in consonantal stems the -/x usually vanishes entirely, and when retained, owing to the idiosyncrasy of the language, changes to -V. Gen. Sing. — Greek uses the original type SYA for the Second Declension {e.g. avOpdj-n-ov = ai'dpuno-ayo), and for masculine nouns of the First Declension {e.g. ttoXLtov = TzokiTa-pyo) ; for feminine nouns of the First Declension {e.g. xwp«-c)} and for the Third Declension {e.g. awjjiaT-og), it employs the other original type AS. Latin uses ^4 6* for its Third and Fourth Declensions ^ {e.g. consul-is, gradu-s = gradu-os), and we find a trace of it in the First ' In the Fourth Declension we often find setiati with apparently a genitive meaning, e.g. Sail. Cat. 36, diiolnts senati decrctis ; Cic. Phil, iii. 33, senati potestate. This form is usually explained as a Locative ; or the declension may be assimilated to that of past participles in -tus. Nouns. 57 Declension in the word paterfamilias. Genitives of the First Declension in -ae are explained in different ways, viz. : — (i) ae = ai, i.e. locative. (2) ae = ai = ais = a-as. (3) ae = ai = a-y-as. (4) ae = ai = a-sya. Genitives in -ai are not infrequent, e.g. in Vergil we find aquai, aulai, pictai, aiirai. There is a similar controversy as to genitives of the Second Declension in -/ {e.g. domini), viz. : — (1) i = oi, i.e. locative. (2) i = oi == ois = o-as. (3) i = oi - o-y-as. (4) i = oi = o-sya. Genitives of the Fifth Declension ' in -ei are ex- plained in the same way, viz. : — (i) e-i, i.e. locative. (2) ei = eis = e-as. (3) ei = e-y-as. (4) ei = e-sya. Loc. Sing.— The original type / was said above to be a relic oiAM ; this old form with the final consonant is thought to appear in such words as ol-im, ill-iin, de-ifi-de, ill-in-c, etc., and perhaps in the preposition iv (in). In nouns we find the locative case-ending in such forms as o'lKO-t, Mtyapo-i, MapaOuir-i, dom-i, militi(2 (= militia-i^, huw.-i, rur-i, ya^a-i, vesper-i, postr-i-die, quot-i-die, die ( = die-i) crastin-i, ' Four forms of the Gen. Sing, of the Fifth Declension are found in classical Latin, viz.: — 1. es, e.g. dies (Verg. G. i. 208) and rabies (Lucr. iv. 1083). 2. ei. 3. e, e.g. Jide (Hot. C. 3, 7, 4). 4. »', e.g. dii (Verg. Aen. i. 636). For other instances, see Roby, L. G., bk. ii. cap. vi. § 357. 58 Elements of Philology. her-i ( = hes-i, cf. xflt'c), etc. ; possibly also the genitive in such constructions as fideus atiim-i (Verg. Aen. ii. 61) may originally have been a locative. We have just seen also that one expla- nation of the genitives in -ae, -i (= oi~), and -ei, is to regard them as having once been locatives. Note. — The rule in Latin syntax that ^^ Rest at a place ^^ is ex- pressed in the case of names of places by using the genitive of nouns in the First or Second Declension and Singular Number, and the ablative of all others, really means that the old Locative termination in the cases mentioned coincides with the existing Genitive and Ablative terminations, e.g. RoiHiE is not the genitive, but the locative (= Roma-i) ; Athenis and CartJiagine are not ablatives, but locatives ( = Athena-is and Carthagin-i). Dat. Sing. — The original AI is retained throughoiit the Greek First and Second Declensions, e.g. o'lKto = oUo-ai, xwpa = \io()a-ai; in the Third Declension the locative is used instead (e.g. aw/iiar-i). In Latin AI is regularly retained ; thus : — I St Decl. ae = ai = a-ai. 2nd Decl. o = 6i = o-oi. 3rd Decl. i = i = i-ai.^ 4th Decl. ui = ij-i = u-ai. 5th Decl. ei = e-i = e-ai." Al?/. Sing. — Greek does not possess an ablative, and in Latin the original D has been uniformly lost ; but traces of it are thought to survive in Greek adverbs in -wc (e.g. o/.iu)-c), the final consonant ' A dative in -e in the Third Declension appears in legal formulae such as Jure dicundo, lex opere faciundo, solveiido are alieno, and perhaps in Verg. G. i. 430 ; ^n. x. 361, 681, 845 (Wordsworth). ^ Of the Dat. Sing, of the P^ifth Declension three forms are found, viz. : — 1 . ei. 2. e, e.g. pernicie (Liv. 5, 13, § 5),yzW^ (Hor. Sat. i. 3, 95). . 3. /, e.g. pernicii (Nep. 8, 2). Cf. Roby, L. G., bk. ii. cap. vi. § 360. Noiuis. 59 being changed, since no Greek word can end in T or ^. Probably, too, a final d has disappeared at the end of many Latin adverbs, such as sitpra, faciliime, bene, cito. Instr. Sing. — Original A may appear in words like cift-a, li-x-a^ uXXaX-ij, etc. Original I)/// is found in Homeric forms such as /3/v?><, and possibly too in Latin forms like ii'-ln', si-bi, mi-hi, etc. As to the Dual., the Norn. AS weakens to t, which appears in the Greek Third Declension (i?.^^ (Twfiar-f), but in the other declensions coalesces with the stem vowel ; thus ^wpa and ardpwTru) pro- bably = y^wpa-t, ai'dpu)no-i. The Daf. BHYAMS appears as -iv in the Greek First and Second Declensions, this -iv standing for -cpiv ; thus ■)(u)paiv = ^uipa-(f>ir, av6pw7roiv = avQpuiro-ipiv. The Third Declension follows the analogy of the Second ; hence we get, not cno^anv (i.e. auyLUT-ipiv), but (TufxaT-o-iv {i.e. (Toi^a--o-(piv). A^ojH. Pltir. — Original AS (weakened to ES) is retained in the Third Declension in Greek, and the Third, Fourth, and Fifth Declensions in Latin, e.g. "EXXr)v-£g, menses ( = mensi-es), gradus ( = gradu-es), dies ( = die-es). The First and Second Greek Declensions make their Nom. Plur. in at and oi, which are thought to be equivalent to a-ic ( = a-ac) and o-ic ( = o-ac). The Latin First Declension in ■ae is similarly explained ; thus vicnsce = viensai = viensa-is = mensa-as.^ The Latin Second Declen- sion in -/ ( = o-i) appears from inscriptions to = o-es = o-as. Ace. Plur. — The original AIS (or AMS) has dropped its first consonant in both Greek and Latin, but has ' A form of Nom. Plur. of First. Decl. in -as is read by Ritschl in Plaut. Trin. ii. iv. 138, Nam fulgiiritij: stint alternas arhores. 6o Elements of Philology. left traces of it by uniformly lengthening the pre- ceding vowel. Gen. Plur. — Greek retains traces of the original AM in wf. Latin genitives in -//;;/ are formed from original AM ; those in -ruin from original SAM, the s and r interchanging as in eram which = esam, and heri which = hesi. Thus deum is not con- tracted from deoruni, but a form parallel with it. Loc. Plur. — The original SVASA is used to form the dative case in Greek; thus \wpaiq = ■^wpa-fr/'i, dvdpu)Troi<; = urdpwKO-a/i, awfxacn = awfiar-a/^i. It also forms the regular dative and ablative plural of Latin nouns of the First and Second Declensions, e.g. inensis = niensa-is = mensa-sji, donmiis = domino-is = domiiio-sfi. Note. — Some authorities explain yitpaic as = xaipai-c, i.e. the locative singular with the plural sign {s) appended. Possibly the Latin datives niight be explained in the same way. Dat. Plur. — The original BHYAMS seems to be alto- gether lost in Greek. In Latin it forms the regular termination in the Third, Fourth, and Fifth De- clensions {e.g. consul-i-bus, gradu-bus, die-bus), and is found occasionally in the First and Second {e.g. dea-bus, duo-bus). It has been suggested too that {e.g^ eqtiis = equo-is = eqiio-hios = equo-jios = equo-bhios, but this appears improbable. The preceding / in Latm consonantal stems may be euphonic or due to the analogy of -I-stems ; at any rate bobus (= bov-bus) seems to show an older form.' Instr. Plur. — The original BHIS is equivalent to BHI + S : thus Greek would form its instrumental plural ' -biis is often found in old Latin authors, and Vergil imitates them in Aen. iv. 64. Probably -bus ^ bhyds = bhyanis. Noiuis. 6 1 regularly by adding -c to its singular (^i-v ; this -c, however, vanished for euphonic reasons, and hence we find the instrumental plural virtually identical in form with the singular, ^.^. deu-fiv, fuv-tpiv. In Latin no traces are found. Authorities — Papillon, chap. v. Wordsworth, chaps, vii. viii. ix. x. Peile, Primer, chap. v. Introd. chap. iii. (note). Sayce, vol. ii. p. 139, seq. Morris, chap. vii. § lOl. § 4. Pronouns require somewhat separate consideration, for, though on most points their declension coincides with that of Nouns, yet they have certain peculiarities of inflection of their own. It will be most convenient to divide them into those with Gender and those without, and to take the latter class first. (i.) Pronouns without Gender. — These include the Reflexive and the Personal Pronouns, and their lack of gender is probably due to their antiquity. Personal Pronouns seem originally to have expressed merely relations of position, / being " the man here," You " the man there," He "the man yonder;" the third person is expressed by a demonstrative in many if not most lan- guages, e.g. Latin hie or ilk (whence French il), Greek ovto^ or ectlvoc Reflexive Pronouns not being strictly used as the subject of a principal sentence have no nominative case, though the Greek reflexive ol apparently once, when it had a de- monstrative meaning, possessed a nominative such as t'c (connected with />, ^xiv, yiv, it, etc.). The following table will best exhibit the peculiarities in the inflection of Pronouns without Gender : — II '' S. ^ . a i I I I 1 1 I > ^ ~ > en >" > w < C/] > Pi '^ w ^3 '^ -ii C? ^ c u ^ w P 'S (ij b H T3 D « ci 0) i-i-i a ^ H p <; 1— 1 W 6 > < > CO ■a !z; '-' ^ ^ c PL, i-l S S w < < < c/o c^ < ^ H > ^ ^ < H < > :^7;^ ib ? 1^ .11.33 — ° — ^ ° II 5 3..S h .£ c 1' :^ 1 s < < s ^ < ■ i: E*^ :• S . . . .< ^• o -= tS 0-3 c o o c otiT5 If Nouns. 63 From this table we see that the Pronomhial Declension differs from that of Nouns in that — 1. The Vocative is entirely wanting. 2. The Dative Singular ends in -BHYAM instead of -AI. 3. The Nominative Plural is formed by the suffix -SMA, instead of -SASA, and then becomes the stem for the rest of the Plural. JVoU. — The origin of the Greek van and of the Latin nos and vos is very uncertain. (ii.) Pronouns with Gender. — Under this head fall the semi-adjectival pronouns — relative, demonstrative, indefinite, distributive, etc. In Greek these need not detain us long, for their declen- sion follows that of nouns, except that the Nominative and Accusative Singular take for their neuter termination 0. This seems to be a relic of an original od, and so would correspond with the Latin t/m'-d, illu-d, aiiu-d, etc. Thus 0, TO, tKi'ivo, ciXXo, Ti, etc., were once 6B, roS, eKelyoS, aXXoc, 7t3, but Greek not admitting a final d dropped the con- sonant.* In Latin these pronouns seem to have had the following terminations originally : — S. Nom. OS-, or 0-/. A, or A-/, O-D. Ace. O-M. A-M. O-D. Gen. 0-/-US. Loc. O-I. Dat. o-Ei, or 0-/-EI. Abl. O-D. A-D. O-D. PI. Nom. 0-/-S. A-/. A-/, or A, Ace. o-s. A-S. A-/, or A. Gen. O-ROM. A-ROM. O-ROM. Loc. O-IS. Dat. and 0-BUS, or Abl. 0-/-BUS. ' This dental seems to appear in the English wha-t as the neuter of who, as also in tha-t. 64 Elements of Philology. Here we see the two characteristic peculiarities of this de- clension — the neuter termination in -D, and the intensitive / thrust in irregularly, apparently to add emphasis. The declension of some typical pronouns may make this clearer. Thus olios, the older form of ilk (cf. Verg. Aen. i. 254, olli subridens), was declined as follows : — S. Nom. Ace. Gen. Loc. Dat. Abl. PI. Nom. Ace. Gen. Loc. Dat. ollo-s. olla. ollo-d. oUo-m. oUa-m, ollo-d. 0II0-/-US. ollo-i (cf. ilH-c). ollo-ei. ollo-d. olla-d. ollo-d. olio-/. olla-/. olla. ollo-s. olla-s. olla. olio-rum. oUa-rum. oUo-rum ollo-is. Abl. J ™"""^- In a similar way would be declined iste ( = isto-s), alms, and ipse ( = ipso-s, possibly equivalent to ipto-s) ; the latter, however, making its neuter ipsom. The following also form their genitive and dative singular on the analogy of these pronouns, mms, tilbis (= unulus), solus, toti/s, alter, titer ( = cuter, cf TTortpoc = Koripoq), etc. Is is somewhat irregularly decHned, its stem sometimes being intensified by /, and before vowels usually changing to e, and sometimes to eo. S. Nom. i-s. e-a. i-d. Ace. eo-m. ea-m. i-d. Gen. e-/-us. Loc. e-i. Dat. e-/-ei and i-ei. Abl. eo-d. ea-d. eo-d PI. Nom. i-/. ea-/. e-a. Ace. eo-s. ea-s. e-a. Nouns. 65 PI. Gen. eo-rum. ea-rum. eo-rum. Loc. e-is and i-is. Dat. ( Abl. i wanting. I-de?n ( = is-dem) follows the same type. Qui is declined as follow: 5 : — S. Nom. quo-/. qua-/ quo-d. Ace. quo-m. qua m. quo-d. Gen. quo-/-us. Loc. quo-/. Dat. quo-/-ei. Abl. quo-d. qua-d. quo-d. PI. Nom. quo-/. qua-/. qua-/ Ace. quo-s. qua-s. qua-/. Gen. quo-rum. qua-rum. quo-rum. Loc. quo-is. quo-bus. Dat. \ Abl. / Like Qui are declined Quis (except that the Nom. Sing. is quo-s, qud-i, quo-d, or quid), and Aliquis (which follows Quis, except that Nom, Sing. Fem. is not increased by /, hence aliqua, as also in Neuter Plur. Nomin.).^ Sometimes we find the stems emphasized by the addition of intensitive suffixes, e.g. the enclitics — -met, appended to all cases of Ego and Tu, except to Tu itself, which takes -te {e.g. Tute,^ and also Tu- tejnei) ; also to certain cases of Se and Suus. -pte, appended to the ablative singular of possessive pronouns {e.g. suapte). •ce, often appended to demonstratives. The declension of Hic'^ will serve as a good illustration of * AliqucB for the Feminine Nom. Sing, is found in Lucr. iv. 263 ; quis is often used for the feminine in Plautus {e.g. Aul. 168). * Hie is usually long in scansion (cf. Juv. i. 161 ; Hor. Sat. i. 9, 50), but we find it short in Lucr. iv. 921 ; Verg. Aen. iv. 22, vi. 792. A F 66 Elemejtts of Philology. the last, and, moreover, has certain special peculiarities of inflection ; its stem is Ho- : — S. Nom. Ho-i-ce. ha-i-ce. ho-d-ce. Ace. ho-n-ce. ha-n-ce. ho-d-ce. Gen. ho-z-us, and ho-/-us-ce. Loc. ho-i-ce. Dat. ho-ei-ce. Abl. ho-d-ce. ha-d-ce. ho-d-ce. PL Nom. ho-/-s. ha-/, or ha-/-ce. ha-ce, or ha-/-ce. Ace. ho-s. ha-s. ha-ce, or ha-/-ce. Gen. ho-rum. ha-rum. ho-rum. Loc. ho-is. Dat. ] , . , Abl.j ^°-"'^"^- In a similar way would be declined the defective ////V and isfi'c ( = isto-i-ce). Authorities — Wordsworth, chaps, xii. xiii. Ferrar, chap. xi. Papillon, chap. vii. § 5. Adjectives follow the declensions of Nouns, and so re- quire no special consideration at our hands, the same termi- nations applying to both ; thus in ao<^6q and borms the mascu- line and neuter follow the Second Declension in Greek and Latin, while the feminine is declined according to the First ; dXtjdije and ingens follow the system of the Third. Even apparent eccentricities such as j/oue, ^]lua, i]dv, and -e-vb)s, T£TV(pvia, TETV(j)6g, are easily explained when analysed into ij^eJ^c, ijcs/ja, i]CcJ^, and TtTv^oTQ, TtTV(po-ya (or T£-v, also assimilated to the first letter of mille. It is often written ciD. D or 13 was half of M ((D). Note. — Dr. Taylor thinks that i ii iii were pictures of three fingers ; v of the whole hand, one stroke representing the thumb, the other the fingers massed together ; x was a pic- ture of both hands together ; iv and vi of the hand minus or plus a finger ; so, too, ix and xi, etc. As to the other symbols, he agrees with the explanation given above. Dr. Taylor also shows ('Alphabet,' vol. ii. p. 263) that the Arabic yo Elements of Philology. C Z. -S O 9 > :^ rC -:;: o ^ >° ^ o =• < C '5 '53 11 <^ o N rt G 3 ' ' •g c o 'S & six. sept. uiit. leiif. dix. 6 O < 6 •X. -ij p o o O < h-I £^- s :: rt O 6 o 5 > 5- 6 c >< s. U5 d o 'O > o O
  • 3 -a -S »5 12 *2 4 i is Si i. t> '*' a,^ "^ hJ ►J o < t- "(5 c j_; H H '3) ^ hJ ■§ pi < S < "5 c ^-^ l> cr' < ^ . < ►4 i4 § $ 1 < > <<< ^ < < < 5 H>« O ■< IZ (d c >ii > > c/:-?* '> •<< (_1< > > < o CH ^ 1^ */■ x <^ r^ <; p Q ;^ ►^ Nouns. 7 1 numerical symbols may for the most part be traced back to the initial letters of the Sanskrit words denoting 'four,' 'five,' 'six,' etc. Authorities — Ferrar, chap. x. Schleicher, § 109. Taylor, vol. ii. p. 263. Roby, vol. i. p. 441. Papillon, p. 20. § 7, Particles, under which head are included Preposi- tions, Adverbs, and Conjunctions, are merely mutilated case- forms. This is obvious in the case of such words as \api.v, lit:r]v, qiiare, quomodo, etc., but very often the connection is not easy to trace, especially when there is a lack of evidence as to the older forms of a word. The instances, however, in which the particles are evidently relics of more or less obsolete nouns, are so numerous that we are fairly justified in assuming that those words whose original form has not yet been ascertained are probably to be explained in a similar manner. The cases which are most commonly employed for this purpose seem to be the Accusative, the Ablative, the Loca- tive, and the Instrumental, ^.^i,'". — Accusative — cum (= qiio-ni), quaiii, donee {do7iie-um in Plautus), ayTTiy, u.Kr]v, iivTiov, cireum, satis (= satins), magis (= magii/s), fxuKpav, on, clam (and its diminutive claneuluvi), nimiiim, iraXiv, 7ion (= ne-u7uiui), p7-optcrca (plur.), ita (plur.), quia (plur.), qiiod, proeul, siimil, Sripov, seei/s, alias, aWd (plur.), corajti, ni^tlov, diidiun. Ablative— ^V/;c/a, citra, cojiti-a, infra, etc., hand, omnino, magnopere, extemplo ( = ex tempore), et (?), brevi, sed, apud, ovtwq, o/j.u>r, gratis, de^n/o (= de novo), quo-ad, friistra, ku.tu, civo), subito, heneiii), facil- lime{ii), etc., immo (= imo, or superlative of in), illico (= in loco), de(d),pro (j^po). Tocative — pfce, Kai, yafxai, vicissim, vt6 ( = virai), arrl, 72 Elements of Philology. tv { = ivi), Trapd ( = Trapai), cia. ( = Eiat), Tspl, irpog ( = 7rpo-i), /leri, TTol, tibi, illic, o'itcoi, enim. Instrumental — alya, voa^i, K-pvfa, KOfuci), [xclXa, iij-ia, 'Ira, cix", -"X"- Other cases, however, are also found, e.g. Genitive — ov, TTov, ojxov, etc. ; Dative — i], I'lirtp, etc. Authorities— Papillon, Append, ii. Roby, bk. ii. chap. xv. CHAPTER X. VERBS. LTNLESS we accept the view that the so-called personal / endings are merely case terminations, it is necessary, philologically as well as grammatical!}^, to draw a sharp dis- tinction between the Finite and Infinite Moods in verbs — the former alone being the pure verb, the latter consisting merely of verbal nouns and adjeetivcs. THE FINITE MOODS. § I. The verbal inflections may be classified under different heads, according as they denote Person, Number, Voice, Mood, or Tense. We will consider them in order — (i.) Person, Number, and Voice. The Indo-European personal endings in the Active Voice seem to have been — Sing. I. MA (= /). 2. TVA (= thoii^, weakening into ta, tha, thi, SI, s. 3. TA (= i/iat jf>erson). Dual I. ? 2. TAM (= TA -\- ma) or TVAS (= TVA + Sl). 3. do. Plur. I . MAS = either ma + i'VA. or MA + s (sign of plural), or MA + SA (= ta). 2. TAS = either tva -f- si (= tva). 74 Eleine7its of Philology. or TVA 4- s (plur.). or TVA + SA ( = ta). 3. ANTI = AN {that) + ta. A'ote. — Professor Curtius gives the following diagram to show the transformations of TVA ; those forms enclosed in square brackets [ ] do not occur : — TVA. [ta] [thva] 1 [dhva] LsvaJ [svi] Sk. tha [dha] dhi 1 si 1 (00 s In Greek these became — Sing. I. -^t, weakening into -v in the augmented ^ tenses, and often vanishing altogether {e.g. -virrw = TVITT-O-flt).' ' The AUGMENT seems to have been originally a separable prefix. It is found in Sanskrit, Iranian, and Greek, and perhaps Armenian ; but Sanskrit and Homeric Greek omit it at pleasure, and Greek only retains it in the Indicative. It was probably a demonstrative denoting past time, and its original form was a. This in Greek before a consonant became £ {syllabic augment) ; before a vowel it took the form of that vowel, and coalesced with it to form one long syllable {tcmpoj-al atig- vient). In Attic it is only omitted in the case of — i, XP')'' '■> 2, a. few words in Tragedy, e.g. Kadi]\ii]v, cn>(x)ya ; 3, a few words at the beginning of lines in pijotiQ dyysXwi' ; 4, sometimes, especially in Hellenistic Greek, in the pluperfect tense. Many cases of apparently irregular augment are due to the vanishing of a consonant, e.g. tlxoi' = taixov, elpyai^ofiTiv = i/^epya^6ftT)v, tlp-Kov zzz iaepTror, 'ipptTvox' = IFpiirov, taSoi' =. tfaSov, Hopuji' = t/'opiov (this last, like cwiqjyoi' and hoKur, seems an instance of a double augment). Three verbs in Attic take t] for augment, viz., //eXXw, /3oij\o^ai, and ci'Ta/^iai. ^'e^bs beginning with ti and ov are not augmented ; tv is disputed. Synthetic compounds {e.g. uiKo-cofxkw) take the augment at the beginning ; parathetic ones (e.g. Trapa-jidXXu)) between the two members. The weight of the augment at the beginning of a word causes the accent in pronunciation to be thrown back, and hence the final syllable is less distinctly pronounced. To this cause is attributed the weakened (or "secondary") personal endings of the augmented tenses in Greek. - Greek verbs are usually classified according to the ending of the Verbs. 75 2. -fft, usually weakened to -c, especially in aug- mented tenses {e.g. IrviTT-t-c). Often, how- ever, the preceding vowel is lengthened in compensation, or perhaps rather intensi- fied, as though in anticipation of compen- sation being necessary; thus, (ficpe-ai became )-ri (the laws of Greek euphony for- bidding two asi:)irates in the same syllable) ; it is weakened to -c in E6c, c^x^c, etc., and is often dropped entirely, as in rvKre and Tvxl^oy (which seems to be a modification of Tv\pa-di). Sometimes, however, the pre- ceding vowel is lengthened in compensation, e.g. 'i(Trt} (= larudi). Note. — The termination -aQa, which appears in a good many words (f.,^''. nada, olcrOa, i(p}itpe-ri = (ptpei-n = cpcpai- = fipsi, so too (j)ept]-Ti = ;»', Plur. I. -^£)', Doric showing a probably older form 2. -Tc. 3. -VT(, preserved in Doric, but weakened in Attic to -at, the preceding vowel being lengthened, thus TVTTTovTi became TvirTovcri. The aug- mented tenses take merely -y. In the Im- . perative we find two forms, viz., -j'ra»(i'), which stands to -yn as the singular --w does to -rt, and -Tuaay. This latter seems to be a kind of periphrastic form made by adding to the singular --w the syllable -nay, a fragment of esanti, the 3rd person Plural of an Aorist Indie, from the root es (= to be); this -aay seems also to appear in certain Optative forms, eg. 'i(J-air]oav. Note. — Mr. Peile thinks that the " )>, ttpsXtcvariKoy,'' so often ap- pended to the third person, arose from the first person plural (e.g.) Xtyof-ieg becoming Xtyo/ff, and then Xtyo^u-v through the common tendency to nasalization, and that this parasitic -V became extended by analogy to the third person ; thus Xtyovm became Xiyovai-y. In Latin we get — Sing. I. -;// (e.g. ainem), but often dropped ; thus in the Present Indicative we only find it in sum and inquam. 2. -s, except in the Perfect Indicative, which Verbs. 7 7 uses -// or -sti, and whose terminations will be discussed later. The Imperative has either lost its ending altogether (e.g. ama = ama-dhi), or uses the stronger form -to (e.g. ania-td), 3. -/ ; in Imperative -to. Plur. I. -7nus (thus in Verg. Aen. ix. 610; Ovid, Met, xiv. 250). 2. -tis. The Perfect will be discussed later. The Imperative either weakens to -ie (e.g. aina-te) or emphasizes to -tote (e.g. ama-tote). 3. -nt ; lost in Perfect in -ere (e.g. amavere = amavese = amavisofif) ; lengthened in Im- perative to -nto (e.g. ama-ntd).^ The Indo-European Passive endings seem to have been mainly reflexive. " The Passive voice did not exist in the parent Aryan speech. No need for it had arisen, since such a sentence as ' I am pleased ' could be as well represented by * This pleases me,' or ' I please myself.' It was long before the speaker was able to imagine an action without an object, and when he did so it was a neuter or substantival rather than a Passive verb that he formed. The Passive in fact grew out of the Middle or reflexive, and, except in the two Aorists, continued to be represented by the middle in Greek. So, too, in Latin, the second person plural is really the middle participle with estis understood, and the whole class of deponent or reflexive verbs proves that the charac- ' These Personal endings have not entirely vanished even in modern languages, as we may see by the following comparison of the best known of them : — German. English. lieb-e. love. lieb-st. love-st. lieb-t. love-s or love-th. lieb-e-n. love {older loven). lieb-e-t. love (do.). lieb-e-n. love (do.). French. Italian. aim-e. am-o. ami-e-s. am-i. aim-e. am-a. aim-o-ns. am-i-a-mo, aim-e-z. ama-te. aim-e-nt. ama-no. 78 Elements of Philology. teristic -r which Latin shares with Cehic could have had at the outset no passive force." ^ The Indo-European endings were — Sing. I. MAMi = MA -!- MA {i.e. I do a thvig to myself). 2. TVA-Tvi, weakened to sa-si. 3. TA-TI. Dual I. ? 2. ? 3. ? Plur. I. MADHAI = MA + TVA + TVI {i.e. /+ tJioic do a thitig to thyself.') 2. SDHVAI = TVA + TVA + TVI. 3. ANTATI = AN + TA + TI. In Greek these appear as — Sing. I. -^a<, i.e. fia^i ; augmented tenses take -/i»7»'. 2. -aai {e.g.'iffTaaai); -ao in augmented tenses, the consonant usually vanishing and causing the vowels, if possible, to unite and form a diphthong {e.g. krvTrrov = tTvirTi-ao, krvxpu = eTV\pa-(TO, TVTTTOIO = TVTTTOl-ffo). Thc -Ottl itself is sometimes contracted (e.g. rvirrei = TVKTt-aai). The Imperative keeps -aat in the ist Aor. Middle {e.g. Tv\pai) ; the ist Aor. Passive, as we have seen above, takes the Active termination -6>t {e.g. Tv(pdt]-Ti) ; elsewhere -o-o is used, either contracted {e.g. TvTTTOv = TVTiTiao), Or uucoutractcd {e.g. TtTV\po). 3. -Tcu, weakened to -to in augmented tenses and becoming -(rdw in the Imperative. This -adio probably ^ -orw = t-tu), the vowel being intensified as in the Active -rio. Dual I. -fjudov, probably a by-form of the Plural -fieda, ^ Professor Sayce in Encycl. Britt., s.v. Cra7nmar. Verbs. 79 with the ending assimilated to that of the other persons of the Dual {-tov, -adop, etc.). 2. -ffdoi', apparently a by-form of the plural -ade. 3. -a-doy ; in augmented tenses -(rdrjv. The Im- perative -(70WV probably = -amov = -T-ru-y. Plur. I. -fiiQa, perhaps representing an older form -juecrda, in which case the -crda seems to = rra = r/tt = TV A. 2. -ad£ = -ad/'i. 3. -rrai, weakened to -vto in augmented tenses. In the Imperative wc find aQu{v) = T-TU)(y), and -aQuxrav = r-rio-aav, the last syllable being explained as in the Active. The Latin Passive is mainly formed by combining with the Active forms the reflexive pronoun -se. Thus — amor = amove = amo-se. amaris (weakened to ainare) = amarise — amasi'se = amas-i-se. amatur = amature = amatusc = amat-ii-se. amamur = amamuricre = amavms-ic-se. amantur = amaniure = amant-u-se. The 2nd person plural, however, is differently formed, and is really periphrastic ; thus amamini ~ amamiin estis. Amamini itself is an obsolete participle in -mimes, corre- sponding to the Greek -^xtvoq. In the other tenses and moods the 2nd person is formed on the analogy of the Pre- sent Indicative. In the Imperative amarc = amare-se. amator — amato-se. amantor = amanto-sc. amami7wr (if genuine) = amamiin sc, a. hybrid formed on false analogy. JVo^e. — Irish, Slavonic, and Lithuanian also are said to form their medio-passive voice by suffixing the reflexive Pronoun of the i/iird person to all persons of the Active. o.> J' •" . = *^-fl O -^ •;: • •< li bc J! •at/3 1^ •£ •S E - > ^ sive pt. iry. [d -Pas reek d O ond K H .20 §S o ^ 1— t p r/i iz; W w o O < ^ :^ W < PU H-l w hJ w < H u t— 1 l5 f/7 n c/; < C/3 J o L) H S < (^ o < p = 2 2; I. ro n - - -3^ E J -a a > j; '^1s •a •g§ rt " ■ CO 3- V3 >> ^1 b b I I i;2 s . o - < << Verbs. 8i (ii.) MOOD, The Moods are usually enumerated in Grammars as Indicative, Imperative, Subjunctive, Optative, and Infinitive. As a matter of fact, however, the Indicative is, strictly speaking, not a * mood ' at all, since it is composed of the Tense-stems with the personal endings affixed ; the Impera- tive in point of form is only the Indicative with more emphatic personal endings ; and the Infinitive is merely a verb-noun. We have, therefore, only the Subjunctive and the Optative left ; these we will consider separately. I. The Subjunctive Mood. The characteristic of this Mood seems to have been originally A. This a in Greek verbs in -t» coalesced with the " thematic " vowel ' at the end of the stem, and so produced the long vowels w and »/ 5 thus ruTr-w/uti' = ri-Trro- a-fxiv, TvwTriTe = TvirTe-a-T£. Verbs in -/nt possess no thematic vowel, and so the long vowel in their Subjunctive is due probably to the analogy of verbs in -w. In Latin the characteristic a is seen in the Present Sub- junctive of most verbs (e.g. vwne-a-m, audi-a-m)^ though the vowel became shortened in process of time. An instance of the older scansion is found in Hor. Sat. i. v. go : — Callidus ut soleat humeris portare viator. Verbs of the First Conjugation," however, preferred an Optative form, in order to avoid apparently the clashing of ^ The THEMATIC VOWEL is a vowel which intervenes between the tense stem and the inflections denoting mood or person. Thus in Tvirr-i-n. it is e, in reg-i-iitiis it is i. It is not found in verbs in -/<(. In verbs in -oj it is £ or o, viz., o before /x and v, elsewhere f. In Latin it is o, i, or II. Its origin is doubtful, but it is often regarded as merely euphonic. * The division of tlie Latin verb into four conjugations is as old as the fourth century a.d. Logically the division would be rather into — (a) Stems ending in a consonant or semi-consonant (^e.g. reg-o, tap-i-o). (b) Stems ending in a vowel {e.g. ama-o, monc-o). G Elements of Philology. two similar vowels; thus the Subjunctive of amo should be ama-a-m, but for euphonic reasons the Optative form ama-i-m { = a?>icm) was substituted. Note. — Mr. Roby thinks that nione-a-7n and audi-a-m are merely euphonic variations of mone-i-m, aiidi-i-iu, and so are really Optatives. If this is true, reg-a-nt (as Mr. Papillon remarks) must be regarded as formed by analogy. 2. The optative Mood. The original characteristic of this was ya, which appears in Greek as — tf, e.g. TV-KTO-lt-V. IT}, eg. TV7r£-ir]-p, lara-itj-y. t, e.g. TVTTTO-L-jll. Note. — Of these forms -i prefers the ' primary ' endings -}ii, -ai, ■Ti ; -iri the ' secondary ' endings -i', -q, (-r). In Latin ya appears as — ie, e.g. s-ie-m (later s-i-in). i, in the Perfect Subj. [e.g. amaver-i-ni) and in such forms as sim., edim, velim. ^ ( = a-i), in the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subj. of all verbs, and the Present Subj. of verbs of the First Conjugation; thus amem = ama-i-m, amai'em — afna-sa-t-m, amavissem ^ amavi-sa-i-m. Note. — The Future Simple Indie, in the Third and Fourth Con- jugations seems to have the subjunctive characteristic in the first person {e.g. reg-a-»i) and the optative characteristic in the other persons {e.g. reg-e-s). The Future Perfect Indie, likewise seems to be optative in form in all except the first person {e.g. rexer-i-s). (iii.) TENSE. Tenses are inflections to express time. They are formed not directly from the ^Verb-stem, but from modifications of it known as Tense-stems. The main Tense-stems are those of the Strong Aorist, Perfect, Present, Future, Weak Aorist, and Passive Aorist. Verbs. ^T, I. T/ic Strong A oris f Stem. This — the miscalled ' Second ' Aorist — is one of the oldest tenses in the verb, since it is usually formed directly from the verb-stem ; the verb-stem, for instance, of tvtttw is tvit, hence we get for the Strong Aorist e-rvn-o-v ; in like manner we get t-yvco-vixovci yyio, 'i-(pv-y from (pv, e-erj^-o-j' from ('T)eX' £-o'7i'0-/^'?>' from (o-)£7r, etc. In fact, the Strong Aorist is virtually the Im- perfect of the verb-stem, being formed from it in precisely the same way as the Imperfect tense is formed from the Present stem. Hence it is that when the verb-stem and the Present stem are identical (e.g. in Xv-w), we rarely find a Strong Aorist, otherwise there would be considerable danger of it clashing with the Imperfect. Sometimes, however, the Strong Aorist stem does not consist of the verb-stem pure and simple, but of the verb- stem reduplicated ; ^ thus from the verb-stem ay we get ijyayoi', i.e. e-ayay-o-v. The object of this is, probably, to give an intensified or causative meaning. It should be noticed that, as a rule, vowel-stems in the case of this tense dispense with the thematic vowel, e.g. e-fii]-v, t-yyo)-v, t-dv-i', E-fv-y. Consonantal stems, however, do not drop it, except in Homer, where we find 'tK /jtroc, wp-To, ciK-To, etc. JVoic. — In the classical languages this stem seems to be almost entirely confined to Greek. Latin, however, has been thought to show a trace of it in />an->t^i-s, as compared with parientcs, sentcntia compared with seutio, potciis from the stem poti-, etc. * REDUrLlCATiON is found in both the great divisions of speech. We find it in Nouns like mar-mor and (Sap-jSap-o-c, and in Verbs to form the stem of the present {e.g. Si-Soj-ni), the perfect (eg: H-TVTr-a), and the Aorist (^.j^. V/y-ay-o-j/). "It was probably the earliest, and certainly the most natural way of expressing greater intensity of feeling," espe- cially among savages and children (c:g. puff-puff, tick-tick, etc.). It has been attributed to the love of alliteration, and a lingering of the idea is seen in such phrases as rpilication, i.e. they double either the whole stem (e.g. oc-uc-a from oc) or the first syllable of the stem (e.g. iX-i]Xa-i;a from tXa), lengthening in any case the original vowel of the stem, though keeping it short in the reduplicated syllable; thus, in the instances just cited, we get ^ We have one verb in modern English whose perfect is formed by Reduplication, viz., did from do. In English 'weak' verbs the per- fect is formed by appending this word to the stem, e.g. /ove-d=/ove did. Verbs. 85 o^-w^-a not 6h-o^-a^ i\-ri\a-Ka not tX-eXa-ca. Other instances would be aKrjKou, uf.uojioKa, ictjcoi^a, etc. J\^o^c. — Many instances of apparently eccentric reduplication are clue to the loss of a consonant ; thus fV)uap/tat = (rafffiupfiai, tciXwKa = J-EFaXoiKa, Besides reduplication we occasionally find the vowel of the verb-stem intensified {e.g. rl-revy^^-a from rvy), or more frequently modified (e.g. yi-yov-a from yev). In any case, to the reduplicated stem, whether intensified or not, it seems probable that the personal endings were originally directly appended, e.g. fiefDa-atn, cth-f^tv (Thuk. iii. 56), 'id-fisi'. At a later period the stem was lengthened by the addition of the vowel a, the origin of which is very doubtful ; it seems, however, not unlikely that this a was probably at first appended to the first person singular and the third person plural, and then was extended by analogy to the other persons ; in that case it might have some con- nection with the personal endings ma and anti. AVhatever be the explanation, however, the result would be to form from the verb-stem tvtt the perfect stem rervrra-. Sometimes this a was aspirated for some unknown reason, and became a ; thus we get the form TtTv/»'> -co? -7"o> ^•^• i-TETvir-^tfy. The Paulopost Future is formed from the Perfect stem (without the characteristic a or k) by adding c (which will be discussed under the head of the Future stem), and appending the primary passive endings -ixai, -aai, -rat, e.g. TETVI^OfJLCU = TETVTr-'eg-i. Note. — Reppidi and repperi are explained as equivalent to either red-puli, red-peri, or re-pepuli, re-pepa-i. (b) By lengthening the stem-vowel, e.g. fdv-t, eg-i. This is explained in different ways, viz. : — . (a) As a compressed reduplication ; thus cepi would = ce-cip-t ; this might conceivably contract into either c-cip-i or ce-cp-i, and from one of these contracted forms would come cep-i. {(j) As a relic of a kind of Greek formation of the perfect stem, viz., by both reduplicat- ing and lengthening the verb-stem ; thus, just as we find rl-rtvx^-a from rvy, SO we might find ce-cep-i from cap ; in course of time the Latin word might lose the redu- plication, and so we might get cep-i. Some authorities, however, regard the mere length- ening of the vowel as a separate mode of form- ing the perfect stem in Latin. (c) By the addition of -s to consonantal stems. This s is apparently a fragment of the root es ( = fo be). Thus scrip si = scrib-es-t, rexi = rcg-es-i. (d) By the addition of ti to consonantal, v to vowel- stems, probably a fragment of the root fu ( = /^ be\ which is also seen in fiii, o-7i-o {i.e. pos-7i-o, of. pos-ii-i, pos-ituni). (y) By adding a nasal syllable, re, ra, vti\, w, ap, e.g. iK-vt-o-nai (cf iK-6f^iT]i'), a^apT-av-u) (cf. ij-fiapr-oi') . Note. — In verbs like Xn-ju-/3-aj'-ii> (cf. t-XajS-ov) and 0i-y-y-av-w (cf. t-^iy-oi') we find a double nasalization. (e) By the addition of t (often with a frequentative meaning), e.g. plec-t-o (cf. TrXeK-to), /jAaV-r-w (cf. /3Xa'/3/?), TiK-T-u (cf. e-rtc-oj'), ri/V-r-w (cf. k'-ri/Tr-ov). (f) By the addition of sk (often with an inceptive mean- ing), e.g. sene-sc-o (perfect seii-id), na-sc-or (cf. na-tus), yTjpd-iTK-oj (cf. y>7|oae). This SK is also used to form iteratives such as e\^£-cn:-oy. (g) By the addition of ya, which appears in different forms, e.g. — (a) As a vowel, e.g. cap-i-o (cf. cap-tus), ya/z-e'-w (cf. ya'/ioc). (/3) As a diphthong, e.g. Kaiio ( = Kaf-yu, cf f-jcay-o-a), (j)aii'io { = ^aj'-j)'w, cf. £-. This .y is usually explained as being a relic of esio (Latin ero), the future of the root es. This esio itself is thought to be composed of the two roots es ( = to be) and VA {= to go), and so means literally "I go to be." Thus -u^/zw = TVTT-ta-y-b), i.e. " I go to be striking." The 92 Elements of Philology. contracted futures /3aXw (= jSaXfo-w), jutvw (= juevtaw), etc., would be explained in the same way. A^o^e. — This future characteristic s is thought to appear in Latin in archaic forms Yike/axo, which, according to some autliori- ties, is a future simple indie, formed from /ac, just as rvxpoj from TVTT ; its optative then would he/axi/n. Others, how- ever, explain /axo as a future perfect {fe-faci-so), und faxim as a perfect subj. {fe-faci-sim). So, too, a?n-f^£yai), often abbreviated apparently to -fity (e.g. t\di-fiey). This is explained as either a dative of the suffix man (seen in such words as no-men, 7roc-f.ii)y, etc.), or a locative of the sufiix MANA (seen in participles like ^ipo-ixeyo-q). 2. -tyai (e.g. l-eyai) or -rat {e.g. yyw-yat, (3r]-yai). This seems to be either a shortened form of -/nEra* or a dative of the suffix van. 94 Elanents of Philology. Note. — The terminations of the Perfect tense [e.g. TtrvK-'tvai) and of verbs in -^i (e.g. £ic6-vai) is apparently either a dative of AN or a locative of ana. 3. -siv (e.g. TviTT-Eiy), probably = evi, which is either a locative of an or is equivalent to -efai. 4. -adai (e.g. (ii^o-adai), or -dai (e.g. rirvcp-dai), are probably datives of dhi passing through different channels, viz. : — DHI = dhyai = 8vai = dcu = ddai = rdat = aQai. 5. -ciL of the First Aorist Active, e.g. Tv\p-at. This seems to be formed with a termination assimilated to that of the Perfect. In Latin the Infinitive terminations are — • 1. -se (e.g. amavi'sse), appearing also as -re (e.g. amarc) and -/e (e.g. vcUe). This seems to = sei, a dative of an old noun ; thus ainare = ama-sei. The long final e is constantly found in Plautus, and a trace of it is left in Jie-rl ( = fie-sei^. 2. -ri (e.g. attiari), appearing in consonantal stems as -/ (e.g. regi). Different explanations have been given of this, viz. : — (a) That just as aj/ior = amo-se, so amari = amarier = amare-er = a mare- re = amare se. Forms in -ier (like amarier') are com- mon in writings prior to about 120 B.C., and so would support this view, but con- sonantal stems cause a difficulty ; dicier, for instance, cannot easily be resolved into dicere-se unless the existence of a shortened form, dice for dice7'e, may be assumed. (b) That amari — amarier = amasies = amasia- se, i.e. literally 'loving as to oneself.' Dicier similarly would = dicia se. (c) That amari is only a by-form of amare, from Verbs. 95 an original dative amasei, and that amarier was only an attempt to afifix the passive termination r on the analogy of the finite moods. The general result is that most Infinitive terminations in Greek and Latin may be resolved into datives. It has been suggested that this dative origin may explain the use of the Infinitive in consecutive and final sentences, and may pos- sibly have something to do with the rather mysterious par- ticle to in the English phrase to love. (ii.) The Participial terminations. The chief suffixes used to form Participles are — VAT or VANT, seen in the Perfect Participle in Greek thus riTV(l)wg = TiTVTt-FoT-q. Note. — The feminine Ttrv^xna is said to = TtrvK-fv^s-ya, and to be formed from another suffix, vas. ANT or -NT, found in the Present Participle both in Greek and Latin ; thus tvwtwv = rvirr-ovr-g, ai/iajis = ama-nt'S. It also appears in the Greek Strong {e.g. TvTTojy = TVTT-ovr-Q, Tvirelg = rvw-evr-g), and Weak {e.g. Tv\pag = TVip-ayT-c, rvfdelg = rvcpd-Eir-g) Aorists. A^ofe. — The Latin e-uns, e-unt-cni, etc., shows an approximation to the Greek -oit. MANA, seen in the Passive Participles in Greek {e.g. TvirT-o-jxEvo-g), and in such Latin words as ama- mini, alu-mn-u-s (= alometws), fe-min-a, vertu- m?i-u-s, ceru-vma (cf. alpojuipyi), aii{c)tu-mn-u-s, etc. TA, appearing in the Latin perfect participle passive {e.g. cap-tu-s), and in the supines, which seem to be the accusative and ablative (or dative) of a verbal noun of the Fourth Declension. g6 Elements of Philology. TARA, found in the Latin future participle active {e.g. cap-turu-s). Note. — The Latin Gerund and Gerundive stem -ndic- seems to be a variation of the stem of the present participle, viz. , -;//-, but its origin is much disputed (see Roby, Lat. Gr., Preface, bk. iv. § ii.). Authorities — Curtius, passim. Papillon, chap. viii. Wordsworth, chaps, xiv-xix. Roby, bk. ii. chaps, xvii-xxv. Peile, P7-imer, chap. v. Morris, chap. x. S ^ k s<^ ? i, II II II II £ 3 5. 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