^ASTERN /\RCHIPELAG< Described and Illustrated With Go ILLUSTRATIONS THE LIBRARY OF THE OF LOS UNIVERSITY CALIFORNIA ANGELES NATIVES OF OMBAY THE EASTEBN ABCHIPELAGO. A DESCRIPTION OF THE SCENERY, ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE LIFE, PEOPLE, AND PHYSICAL WONDERS OF THE ISLANDS IN THE EASTERN SEAS. "THE ARCTIC WORLD," "RECENT POLAR VOYAGES," "THE BIRD WORLD," ETC. WITH SIXTY ILLUSTRATIONS AND A MAP J% cm turn: T. NELSON AND SONS, PATERNOSTER ROW. EDINBURGH; AND NEW YORK. I880. DU 3L/ refute. |HE attractions which the Eastern Archipelago presents for the naturalist, the artist, and the geologist are of an exceptional character, and yet few regions of the world have been less minutely examined by English travellers. Our information respecting the great islands which compose it was comparatively scanty until the recent researches of Spenser St. John, Crawfurd, Bickmore, and Wallace. The Germans have treated them with their usual elaborateness, witness Dr. Junghuhn's valuable book upon Java, but English monographs of special value and importance have been, and still are, too few. This may be owing, perhaps, to the fact that the English flag waves but at a few points along that chain of romantic isles which connects Asia with Australia, and testifies to the violence of the convulsion that in the pre-historic age disrupted the Asiatic and Australian continents. Something also may be due to the jealousy of the Dutch Government, which offers no facilities to the enterprise of the traveller, and surrounds its depen- dencies with an atmosphere of seclusion. In the following pages we have endeavoured to 1367183 VI PREFACE. supply the reader with a comprehensive and accurate description of the islands of the Eastern Archipelago. We do not profess that it is exhaustive, but we claim for it that it omits no particular of interest to the general public. That it is largely indebted to the labours of Wallace and Bickmore we are glad to acknowledge ; and the conclusions of the former, on all questions of a physical character, we have generally adopted. But we have carefully gleaned from a variety of sources such facts as seemed necessary to the com- pleteness and usefulness of our unpretending sketch, so that we may be allowed to speak of it as being more comprehensive and compact than any similar descrip- tion which has been put before the public. The glowing tropical scenery, the vast natural resources, the curiosi- ties of the vegetable and animal worlds, the mountains and forests and rivers, the native populations, all these we have sought to glance at, and they afford a succes- sion of striking pictures which even the most inefficient artist could not wholly spoil. If the reader should feel, as we have felt, the charm of the virgin forests of Borneo, of the rich vegetation of the " Land of Fire," of the valleys and woods of Sumatra, of the beautiful landscapes of Celebes and Gilolo, of the island-haunts of the birds of paradise, or of the romantic coast of New Guinea, he will not turn from our pages dis- satisfied. W. H. DAVEXrOllT ADAMS. INTEODUCTION. A GENERAL VIEW OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. Its position Principal divisions Inhabitants Flora Fauna Its volcanic chain- Asia and Australia The islands of which it is composed Brief survey of their characteristics The Indo-Malay division The Timor group Celebes The Moluccas New Guinea ... 13-23 BOOK I.-THE ASIATIC-MALAY ISLANDS. CHAPTER I. Extent and general character Animal and vegetable life Dutch possessions A glance at Palembang The Malay villages Bencoolen Inhabitants of Sumatra ... 24-40 CHAPTER II. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OP JAVA. Boundaries and extent Scenery of Java The "Land of Fire "Mountain vege- tation Animal life in Java Michclet on Java Summary Hot springs in Java . ..41-72 CHAPTER III. LIFE IN JAVA. Ut-'markable antiquities Social life in Java A grand entertainment The Slama- tiui Jiromok An evening entertainment .^.- 73-94 Vlll CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. BORNEO. Kxtont and situation Mountains and rivers Ascent of a Bornean river The durian-tree The bamboo In the Bornean forest Animal life in Borneo In pursuit of a inias Strange animals Insects and reptiles Something about the Dyaks Historical notes 95-132 CHAPTER V. MORE ABOUT BORNEO. Dr. Schwaner's explorations Up the Kahayan About the Ot-Danoms Dress of the Ot-Danoms In the interior The Sultan of Sintang To Pontianak. 133-161) CHAPTER VI. THE STORY OF SARAWAK. Its population Rajah Brooke's adventures A firm policy The Chinese colony 170-182 BOOK II.- THE AUSTRALO-MALAY ISLANDS. CHAPTER I. THE TIMOR ISLANDS. General enumeration Bali Life in Bali Lombok A peep at the interior The botanist in Lombok The gunmakers of Lombok Sumbawa Edible birds'- nests Flores A group of islands Adenara Solor Loniblem Pantar Ombay Timor The flora of Timor A general view of the island Visit to a Dutch-Indian town A raised coral reef Inland: the woods The bee-hunters Vegetation of Timor Trepang-fishing Customs of the Timorese A group of mammals Birds of Timor 183-235 CHAPTER II. THB CELEBES ISLANDS. Celebes The mountains of Celebes Evidences of volcanic action The lake of Tondano Water-system of Celebes Inhabitants of Celebes A series of land- scapes At Macassar Forest-scenery Insect-life in Celebes Calling crabs A Celebian village Trees and fruits Birds of Celebes Some mammals Islands of the Celebes group 236-285 CONTENTS. IX CHAPTER III. TUB MOLUCCAS, OR SPICE ISLANDS. The three groups In the Bandas A brief historical sketch Visit to Great Barula An ascent of a volcano Volcanic eruptions Earthquakes Animal life in Banda Amboyna The clove -tree Scenery in Amboyna Earthquakes Objects of interest in Amboyna A visit to a rajah The Uliassers A native dance In Cerara The sago-palm A trip into the interior The inhabitants A visit to Gilolo Animal life in Gilolo Batchian, and birds of paradise Something about the scenery of Batchian Inhabitants of Batchian Volcanic island of Makian Ternate : its volcano Historical notes on Ternate A glance at Tidore A trip to Bouru Natives of Bouru Opium-smoking The natura- list in Bouru. .. ...286-407 CHAPTER IV. THE MATABELLO AND ARU ISLANDS. The Matabello group The Aru group Something more about birds of paradise Aspects of the Aru Islands The forests of Aru A town in the island of Waruma The pearl-fishery 408-454 CHAPTER V. NEW GUINEA, OB, PAPUA. General description Animal and vegetable life Pictures of Papuan scenery An interview with natives The coast-scenery A Papuan village On the north coast In the interior New route from Australia to China 455-489 CHAPTER VI. THE PAPUANS AND MALAYANS. General characteristics The Outanata tribe The Dorians More about the Dorians About the Aruans Malayan superstition The Orang-Lauts The Ahetas, or Negritos 490-529 BOOK III.-THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. Introductory General view of the group The Sulu Islands: a digression Ocean curiosities Discovery of the Philippines Visits of the old navigators : Magellan, Drake, Dampier Death of Magellan Dampier visits the Philippines . .530-570 ist oi 3 I lustrations. Signifies Full-page Engravings. NATIVES OF OMBAY,* . . . . Frontispiece MALAYAN TAPIB,* .. .. ..27 MANGROVE JUNGLE,* . . . . ... 31 THE RAFFLESIA, AND OTHEK PLANTS, .. 35 GUARDIAN OF THE RICE-FIELDS, . . . . 47 THE VAQUOIS-TREE, JAVA,* . . . . 51 JAVA PEACOCK,* . . . . . . . . . . . 59 BAMBOO THICKET, BORNEO,* .. .. ..Ill HUNTING THE ORANG-UTAN,* . . . . . . . . 121 INTERIOR OF A DYAK HUT,* . . . . . . . . 137 EDIBLE BIRDS'-NESTS, . . . . . . . . . . ' 199 SEARCHING FOR EDIBLE BIRDS'-NESTS, * .. .. .. .. 201 BREADFRUIT, . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 NATIVE OF TIMOR, .. .. .. .. 212 NATIVE OF TIMOR, ARMED, . . . . 213 SNAKE-CHARMERS IN TIMOR,* .. .. .. .. 217 ARMS AND UTENSILS OF THE INHABITANTS OF TIMOR, . . 224 ARMS AND UTENSILS OF THE INHABITANTS OF TIMOR, .. 225 TREI'ANG-FISHING,* .... .. 227 OPOSSUM OF TIMOR,* .... . . 231 A SCENE IN CELEBES,* .... . . 237 TONDANO ROAD, CELEBES,* . . ... 243 HOT SPRINGS NEAR TONDANO, CELEBES,* . . . . 247 WATERFALL NEAR LAKE TONDANO,* .. 253 NATIVE OF MINAHASSA, CELEBES, . ... .. .. 256 A FOREST IN CELEBES,* .. .. .. . 2(i1 VEGETATION OF CELEBES,* .. .. 269 IIOKNJill.I, FEKDINli HER YOUNO, . .. 275 THE BABYROU88A, .. . .. .. 282 Ml LIST OF ILLI'STIIATIONS. M r Ml. i-l-REE AND FRUIT, .. .. .. .. 294 Vol.i'XMi OF BANDA,* .. .. .. .. .. .. 2!)7 BOBKI IN AMBOYNA,* .. .. .. .. 305 KIVKll BATOUR-MERA, AMBOYNA, .. .. .. 31:i GIANT TRIDACNA USED AS A BATH, .. .. ..321 THE PEARL NAUTILUS, . . . . . . . . 324 CACAO-TREE AND FRUIT, . . . . . . . . 32(i RAVINE OF BATON-GANTON, AMBOYNA, .. .. .. .. 32!) WATERING-PLACE, AMBOYNA,* . . . . . . . . . . 333 THE CASSOWARY, . . . . . . . . 340 EMERALD BIRD OF PARADISE, . . . . . . . 357 ROADSTEAD OF TERNATE,* . . . . . . . . 307 MEANDRINA, OR " BRAIN -CORAL," .. .. .. ..401 CORAL, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 CYANEA (MEDUSA), .. .. .. ..404 UOLDEN BIRD OF PARADISE,* . . . . . . 421 MAGNIFICENT BIRD OF PARADISE,*.. .. .. .. .. 425 RED BIRD OF PARADISE,* .. .. .. .. .. 433 PEARL-FISHING, .. .. .. .. .. .. 450 COCKATOOS, . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 CROWNED PIGEONS,* .. .. .. .. . 403 NATIVES OF NEW GUINEA,* .. .. .. .. 477 VILLAGE OF DORY, NEW GUINEA,* . . . . 4S! PRAHUS ON THE RIVER OUTANATA/ 4!K) VOLCANO OF TAAL, LUZON, PHILIPPINE.:;/ 533 PLANTAIN AND COCOA-NUT TREES, . . . . . . . . 568 THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO. INTRODUCTION. A GENERAL VIEW OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. ITS POSITION PRINCIPAL DIVISIONS INHABITANTS FLORA FAUNA. ITS VOL- CANIC CHAIN ASIA AND AUSTRALIA THE ISLANDS OF WHICH IT IS COM- POSED BRIEF SURVEY OF THEIR CHARACTERISTICS THE INDO-MALAT DIVISION THE TIMOR GROUP CELEBES THE MOLUCCAS NEW GUINEA. DIVISIONS OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. [E prudent traveller, before undertaking a journey into a new country with which he s no previous acquaintance, is careful to provide himself with all the information he can procure from trustworthy books and maps in refer- ence to its prominent features, that, when he enters it, he may not feel altogether a stranger, but know enough of its situation and divisions, its relation to other countries, and its distinctive characters, to form some idea of the nature of his journey. His interest in what he sees is necessarily increased by this knowledge. If he ascend a range of hills, he remembers that this range forms the watershed, it may be, of a consider- able area, and contributes to its productiveness ; if he 14 CHOOSING LANDMARKS. descend into a valley, he remembers that it opens, perhaps, on a wide and beautiful plain, to which it affords the only access. At every step of his way he tinds the usefulness and value of the data he has been careful to acquire. In like manner, when the reader comes to the study of a particular region, it is desirable that he should be furnished at the outset with so much information as will facilitate that study, and add to its attractiveness ; that he should be shown the principal characteristics of the "new world" into which he is to be introduced; that he should understand its leading divisions, the peculiarities of its scenery, and its exact position with respect to the districts adjacent to or surrounding it; that, in short, such bold and general outlines of the picture should be presented as will enable him hereafter to appreciate its details at their proper value. Before entering, then, upon a minute description of that part of the world which geographers variously term the Malayan, or Indian, or Eastern Archipelago, we would wish to bring before the reader a few lead- ing facts which may serve as the landmarks of his future progress. Where lies this great world of islands ? What are its salient features ? How is it connected with neighbouring continents ? What is there remarkable about its vegetable and animal life ? What races of men inhabit it? These are questions which the reader may reasonably expect us to answer before we begin a close and careful examination of each several island, or group together a mass of details in which, without some such clue, he would assuredly lose his way. COMPARATIVE AREAS. 15 A glance at a map of the Eastern hemisphere will show that from the south-eastern extremity of Asia to the north-western extremity of Australia stretches a double, in some places a treble, chain of islands many of considerable dimensions occupying a considerable extent of sea, but comprised, roughly speaking, within twenty degrees of latitude (10 S. to 10 N. of the Equator) and forty -five meridians of longitude (95 to 140 E.). In other words, it overspreads an area measuring upwards of 4000 miles from east to west, and about 1300 miles from north to south, and lying entirely within the Tropics. The Eastern Archipelago, therefore, if it could be transferred to Europe, would cover the entire continent, and extend also into Central Asia ; or it would occupy the widest parts of South America, and project beyond the present boundaries of that continent into both the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans. It includes three islands which are larger than Great Britain, namely, Borneo, Sumatra, and New Guinea. In Borneo the whole of the British Isles might be set down, says Mr. Wallace, and they would be surrounded by a sea of forests. Three other islands, Java, Luzon, and Celebes, are each about the size of Ireland. Eighteen more may be com- pared to Jamaica ; upwards of a hundred are as large as the Isle of Wight ; while the number of smaller isles and islets is legion. It is impossible to look at this array of islands without feeling that they represent so many stepping- stones between Asia and Australia a kind of extended Giant's Causeway, or natural bridge, by means of which a mythological Titan might have crossed from one continent to another. Then comes the idea that per- 16 TWO PRINCIPAL SECTIONS. haps such a connection at one time existed, and that these islands may be the remains of a prolongation of the Asiatic mainland on the one hand, and of the Australian mainland on the other. Recent research has proved the partial correctness of such a theory. There can be little doubt that the Asiatic continent once included the three great islands of Java, Sumatra, and Borneo ; probably also, at an earlier period, the Philippine Islands. There can be as little doubt that the Australian continent once included the Timor group, the Celebes, the Moluccas, and the Papuan Islands. The line of division is represented by the Straits of Macassar and Lombok. It will be seen, then, that the Eastern Archipelago may be divided into two principal sections : 1. The Asiatic: including Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and the Philippines ; 2. The Australian : including the Timor group, the Celebes, the Moluccas, the Ke and Aru Islands, and New Guinea. To justify such a division, it is necessary that we should submit a few indisputable facts.* 1. In the first place, it has been found that a shal- low sea connects the three great islands of Sumatra, Java, and Borneo with the Asiatic continent, a sea with an average depth of only fifty fathoms ; while a similarly shallow sea connects New Guinea and some of the adjacent islands with Australia. Between the * This division was first proposed by Mr. G. W. Earl (see "Journal of the Royal Geographical Society," 1846, and "The Physical Geography of South-Eastern Asia and Australia," 1855), but in the text we follow the more definite hypothesis of Mr. Wallace ("The Malay Archipelago," 2 vols., 1869 ; vol. i., b. i., pp. 9-20). (637) ZOOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES. 17 two intervenes a deep sea, of more than one hundred fathoms, the exact boundaries of which, both on the east and the west, can be marked on the map as exactly as the mountain-boundary of the Pyrenees be- tween France and Spain. 2. It has also been found that a wide difference exists between the natural productions of the Asiatic islands 'and those of the Australian. Let us glance at their zoology. The elephant and tapir of Sumatra arid Borneo, the rhinoceros of Sumatra and Java, the wild cattle of Java and Borneo, belong to the same genera which inhabit part of Southern Asia. That these large animals could have swam across the broad ocean- ways which now separate the islands from one another and from the continent, is impossible; and hence their presence is a proof that since the origin of the species a land communication must have been practicable that the great islands we speak of must once have formed a part of the continent, and can have been dis- joined only at a very recent geological epoch. The same lesson is taught by the birds and insects ; for every family, and almost every genus, found in any of the islands, occurs also on the Asiatic mainland, and in a great number of cases, says Wallace, the species are exactly identical. He adds : Birds offer us one of the best means of determining the law of distribution ; for though at first sight it would appear that the water- boundaries which exclude the land quadrupeds could be easily overpassed by birds, yet practically it is not so, for if we omit those aquatic tribes which are pre- eminently wanderers, we find that the others and especially the Passeres, or true perching-birds, which form the vast majority are generally as strictly limited (637) 2 18 "A BELT OF FIRE." by straits and arms of the sea as are quadrupeds them- selves. As an illustration, it may be stated that Java possesses numerous birds which never cross over to Sumatra, though the intervening strait is only fifteen miles wide, with islands in mid-channel. Java, in fact, possesses more birds and insects peculiar to itself than either Sumatra or Borneo ; a fact which shows that it was earliest separated from the continent. Next in organic individuality is Borneo ; while the animal life of Sumatra is so nearly identical with that of the Malayan Peninsula, as to induce the conclusion that it was the "most recently dismembered island." 3. There is a further consideration to be borne in upon the reader's mind ; namely, the volcanic or non- volcanic character of the islands comprised in the Archipelago. Which are volcanic ? Which are non- volcanic ? Are the Asiatic islands included in the former or latter category ? We reply, that what Michelet calls "a belt of fire," a belt composed of numerous active and many more extinct volcanoes ; a belt marked by lava-blackened peaks crowned with yawning craters, and occasionally waving abroad fierce signals of flame and smoke and vapour, may be traced through the whole extent of Sumatra and Java, and by the islands of Bali, Lombok, and Sumbawa to Flores and the Suwatty Islands, and thence by Banda, Amboyna, Tidore, and Ternate, to Morty Island. Here occurs a break, and after an interval of about two hundred miles the volcanic chain is resumed in North Celebes, from whence it proceeds by Siau and Sanguir to the Philippine Islands. Returning to Banda, we traverse a non-volcanic district for one thousand miles, until we come to the north-eastern coast of New Guinea, where VOLCANOES OF JAVA. 19 begins a chain of fire which is carried through New Britain, New Ireland, and the Solomon Islands, to the eastern border of the Archipelago. Java contains a larger number of active and extinct volcanoes than any other district in the world of equal extent. It is traversed by two magnificent mountain- chains, from 10,000 to 12,000 feet in height, which are thickly sown with volcanoes not fewer than forty- .five in number. " It is now well ascertained," says Mr. Wallace, "that almost all volcanoes have been built up by the accumulation of matter mud, ashes, and lava ejected by themselves. The openings, or craters, however, frequently shift their position, so that a country may be covered with a more or less irregular series of hills in chains and masses, only here and there rising into lofty cones, and yet the whole may be produced by true volcanic action. In this manner the greater part of Java has been formed. There has been some elevation, especially on the south coast, where ex- tensive cliffs of coral limestone are found ; and there may be a substratum of older stratified rocks ; but still essentially Java is volcanic, and that noble and fertile island; the very garden of the East, and per- haps, upon the whole, the richest, the best cultivated, and the best governed tropical island in the world owes its very existence to the same intense vol- canic activity which still occasionally devastates its surface." * In Sumatra we find about fifteen volcanoes, four of which Dempo (10,440 feet), Indrapura (12,140 feet), Talang (8480 feet), and Merapi (9700 feet) are of * Wallace, "The Malay Archipelago," L 6. 20 TWO VOLCANIC CHAINS. considerable importance ; the others do not exceed 6000 or 7000 feet in elevation. Proceeding eastward, the whole chain of islands from Java to Banda is volcanic ; and the same is true of Amboyna, a part of Bourn and Ceram, the north part of Gilolo, the northern extremity of Celebes, and the islands of Siau and Sanguir. All along the chain we find frequent evidences of elevation and depression of land. The island-range south of Sumatra, a part of the south coast of Java and the islands east of it, the west and east end of Timor, portions of all the Moluccas, the Ke and Aru Islands, Waigiou, and the whole south and east of Gilolo, are fringed with coral reefs, and belong to the coral formation.* The total length of these two volcanic chains is about ninety degrees, or 6000 miles ; that is, one-fourth of the entire circumference of the globe. Their breadth is about fifty miles ; but for two hundred miles on either side the signs of subterranean action may be seen in coral reefs and masses of recently elevated coral rock. In the centre of one chain rests the great island of Borneo, where no volcanic phenomena have ever been detected ; and in the centre of the other, the great island of New Guinea, which is and has been equally free from disturbance. Celebes, also, is almost entirely non-volcanic. But if we divide the Archipelago into volcanic and non-volcanic divisions, it is found that these divisions do not correspond, or correspond only in a limited degree, to the differences which we have traced in the character of its natiu*al productions and forms of ani- mal life. Hence we are led to the conclusion that * Darwin, "On Coral Reefg," pp. 171-174. THE AUSTRALIAN SECTION. 21 the phenomena of volcanic action just described have been all of comparatively recent occurrence, and have not wholly obliterated the traces of the ancient distri- bution of land and water. The islands of the Asiatic division on the one hand, and of the Australian on the other, have been disrupted from their original con- tinents by the violence of their respective volcanoes. 4. Hitherto we have chiefly directed our attention to the Asiatic island-group. Upon turning to those which we have included in the Australian section, we are immediately impressed by the close resemblance of these islands in their natural products to the mainland with which at one time they were more or less closely connected. Australia, for example, has neither ape nor monkey, cat nor tiger; no wolves, no hyenas, no bears, no elephants, horses, sheep, deer, or oxen. No more have the Australo-Malay Islands. But Australia has the kangaroo, the opossum> and the wombat ; so have the Australo-Malay Islands. The Asiatic division, in the great family of Birds, has woodpeckers, pheasants, barbets, fruit-thrushes; but no honeysuckers, cockatoos, or brush-tongued lories. Australia and the Australo- Malay Islands have none of the former, but are the natural home of the latter. 5. Lastly, in the human inhabitants of the islands a marked distinction of race exists. To the east we find the Malays ; to the west the Papuans ; with some cross-breeds intervening between them. Their respective characters will hereafter occupy our atten- tion ; and we shall now conclude this portion of our subject by subdividing the two great divisions, whose existence we have demonstrated, into certain distinct 22 MODIFICATIONS OF SOIL AND CLIMATE. groups, according to their ethnological, geological, and geographical features : GENERAL VIEW OF THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO. I. THE ASIATIC-MALAY ISLANDS. GBOUP 1. The Indo-Malay Islands .Sumatra (M.*); Java (M.); Borneo (M.). II. THE AUSTRALO-MALAY ISLANDS. GROUP 2. The Timor Islands: Lorabok (M.-P.); Sumbawa(J/.-P.); Flores (M.-P.); Timor (M.-P.); and several smaller islands. GROUP 3. Celebes (M.), with the Sulu Islands and Bouton (M.). GROUP 4. The Moluccas: Bouru (M.-M.); Ceram (M.-M.); Batchian (M.-M.); Gilolo (M.-M.); Morty (M.-M.); with the smaller islands of Ternate, Tidore, Makian, Kai<5a, Amboyna, Banda, Goram, and Matabello (M.-M.). GROUP 5. The Papuan Islands: New Guinea or Papua (P.); Aru Islands (P.); KB" Islands (P.); with Mysol, Salwatty, Waigiou, and others (P.). 6. We have spoken of the Eastern Archipelago as lying within the Tropics, a statement which neces- sarily implies that it enjoys a tropical climate, and is dowered with the luxuriance and fulness of beauty characteristic of tropical vegetation. But both climate and vegetation are subject to modification in the various islands by local conditions. Timor and the adjacent islands, for example, lie exposed to the un- checked influence of the south-east monsoon, and, con- sequently, the soil is dry and barren, and their most important trees are eucalypti, acacias, and sandal-wood. But in Sumatra, Borneo, Java, New Guinea, and the Moluccas, the very summits of the loftiest heights, owing to the abundance of moisture brought by the sea-breezes, are clothed with extensive forests. When the winds have traversed a wide sweep of ocean they * M . signifies that the inhabitants are Malays; M.-M., Moluccan-Malays ; P., Papuans; and M.-P., Malayo-Papuans. GENERAL REMARKS. 23 induce heavy and incessant rains, and these rains cherish exuberant verdure and a magnificent growth of beautiful and succulent plants. In the southern half of Sumatra the mountain-ranges arrest the vapours, and rain is almost continuous. From a similar cause, New Guinea is covered with dense and various forests ; while across the narrow arm of Torres Strait prevails a hot and dreary desert, with only a palm-tree here and there to break its dull monotony. THE ASIATIC-MALAY ISLANDS. CHAPTER I. SUMATRA. EXTENT AND GENERAL CHARACTER. UMATRA is situated immediately under the Equator, extending in either direction to nearly six degrees from it. A glance at the map will show that it runs in an oblique direction, from north-west to south-east, fully fifteen degrees, or about one thousand miles. Its greatest breadth is in the middle, nearly opposite the British settlement of Singapore, where it measures about one hundred and forty miles. Its superficial area, therefore, may be computed at one hundred and forty thousand square miles ; and consequently it is the second in rank of the Asiatic islands, being inferior only to Borneo. Its position is easily remembered. Its northern portion is separated from the Malayan Peninsula on the east by the Strait of Malacca; on the west it is bounded by the Indian Ocean ; on the south it is GENERAL SURVEY. 25 divided from Java by the narrow arm of the sea called the Strait of Sunda. A straight line drawn from the mouth of the river ludagari, on its east coast, if projected in an easterly direction, would strike the west coast of Borneo at the mouth of the river Mejak. The eastern portion of the island is remarkable for its continuous levels, which are freely watered by several large but sluggish rivers, the Rawas, the Jambi, the ludagari, that form extensive deltas at their mouths, and have for ages been contributing to fill up the shallow sea into which they fall. Very different in character the western portion. Here, from north-west to south-east, stretch range upon range of mountains, all running parallel to the coast, and increasing in elevation from two thousand to five thousand feet. These are broken up by short lateral valleys, and again by extensive longitudinal valleys, clothed with the fig and the myrtle, the areca and nibon palms. The littoral belt, or shore-land, varies greatly in breadth. On the south-west side of the island the mountains seem to start up directly from the ocean, and for nearly four hundred miles the distance between the beach and the wooded base of the hills is two miles, though towards the north it widens on the average to six miles, and, at a few points, to twelve miles.* * The principal mountain-summits are these : Indrapura 1 12,140 feet 1 3& S. lat. Loesa 11,150 3 48' N. lat. Dempo 1 10,440 3 52? S. lat. Abong-Abong 10,350 4 17' N. lat. Singallong 10,150 28' S. lat. Merapi 1 9,700 24' S. lat. Ophir (Gunong-Pasaman) .... 9,500. 12' N. lat. Talang 1 8,500 1 0' S. lat. 1 These are volcanoes, with their craters considerably below the summit, except in the case of Talang. 26 THE ISLAND-INTERIOR. ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE LIFE. The reader will easily understand that the scenery in the western division of the island presents many romantic features. The mountain-peaks, rising so abruptly from the shore, and clothed with hanging woods, are necessarily objects of much grandeur ; and the intersecting valleys, enriched with a tropical vege- tation, the forms and colours of which have a rare attraction for the eye of the European traveller, are characterized by numerous landscapes of great splendour. The interior of the island is imperfectly known ; but one of these valleys, stretching up to the foot of Mount Merapi, is fully one hundred miles in length, and is regarded by some authorities as the original home of the Malayan race. Birds of bright-tinted plumage dart in and out of the thick boughs of the wide- spreading woodland, and blend their voices, often harsh and shrill, with the murmur of falling streams. Here, in the virgin forest, the agile monkey leaps from branch to branch ; or the siamang, with his immense long arms, five feet six inches across in an adult about three feet high, swings himself with won- derful rapidity from tree to tree. Here, in the remote recesses, the orang-utan lives its melancholy life, the rhinoceros wades in the shallow rivers, and the elephant crashes through the jungle with colossal bulk. Or the flying lemur (Galeopithecus) may be seen, in the hot noon, clinging to the trunk of a tree for rest after its jerking flights, and scarcely distinguishable, with its mottled brown fur, from the mottled bark. That curious insectivorous animal, the Qymnura Rofflesii, which bears some resemblance to the Australian didel- phys, is also found in Sumatra. It was first made MALAYAN TAPIR. ANIMAL LIFE. 29 known to European zoologists by Sir Stamford Raffles ; has a long muzzle, small bright eyes, small rounded ears, and a long scaly tail. Its head and body are covered with fur, a fur pierced by numerous bristling hairs of great length, which project for a considerable distance from the body, and envelop the neck and shoulders with a kind of ruff. The greater part of the body, the upper part of the legs, and the root of the tail are black ; head, neck, flanks, and re- mainder of the tail, white. Altogether, the bulau, or tikus, as it is called, with its parti-coloured coat, is one of the most curious members of the Sumatran fauna. The kuda-ayer, or Malayan tapir, its body belted with a broad band of white that strangely contrasts with its general funereal hue, frequents the woods in the neighbourhood of the shallow streams. There, too, we find the napu, a species of musk-deer, not less graceful than the antelope; and two species of common deer, the Cervus russa and Cervus hippelaphus, of which the latter is peculiar to the island. The only species of antelope is the kambing-utan, or wild buck. The natives are fond of telling stories of a wild dog of great size, with a tufted tail, which haunts the forest- depths ; and of another carnivorous animal with a mane, of which our zoologists afford us no particulars. The royal tiger is an inhabitant of the jungle, and the crocodile (Crocodilus biporcatus) of the rivers. Among the domesticated animals are the zebu, or hunched cow, the buffalo, the horse, the goat, pigs, and oxen. Turning to the vegetable wealth of this great island, we meet with most of the valuable productions of the tropical world. In the forest the huge trees, colossal in girth and of noble height, are linked together and 80 VEGETABLE LIFE. surrounded by innumerable parasites and creeping plants, often of great beauty, which interlace with one another so as to form an almost impervious labyrinth. On the shore we meet with the spreading mangrove, its pendulous arching roots, closely matted and inter- twined, forming an incomparable breakwater, and stem- ming the aggressive tide. Retaining the particles of earth that sink to the bottom between them, they gradually but surely elevate the level of the soil ; and as the new formation rises and broadens a thousand seeds are sown upon it, a thousand fresh roots descend to strengthen and consolidate it : and in this way the mangrove repels the wave, and asserts the supremacy of the land over the baffled sea. Among the mangrove jungle which lines the coast with a bulwark almost as impregnable as " towers along the steep," rises the stately Avicennia tomentosa, to a height of seventy feet, supported, like the mangrove, on overarching roots. As we advance inland we meet with the hibiscus, calophyllum, crotalaria, and many other species, bloom- ing with gorgeous flowers, which lend to the landscape an indescribable character of brightness. Next we come to the palms, with their straight stems, like pillars, supporting a far-extended roof of verdure ; while in and about them twine a legion of creeping plants, many of them armed with thorns, which catch and clasp the unwary traveller as he presses forward, and tear and pierce his flesh. Look upward, and a green cloud or mist seems to hover above your head, which by-and-by resolves itself into a net- work of branches; and from these branches, that cross one another like the lines of a spider's web, descend innumerable lianes, dangling in the wind at every MANGROVE JUNGLE. TROPICAL TREES. 33 height. The infinite variety of the scene fairly con- fuses you : arborescent ferns, and wonderful blossoming orchids, and strange creepers, with tall trees growing in the shade of taller trees, and these underneath the arms of trees still taller ; palms of numerous species ; large fig-trees, and fragrant myrtles ; air-roots waving wildly to and fro, as if in quest of a resting-place ; intertangled wires and cables, through which you can cut your way only with a strong arm and a keen axe; and then all kinds of stems, round, fluted, rough, smooth, prickly, jointed, gnarled, branched, brown, gray, copper, pink, mottled with silvery-white lichens, furred with mosses and exquisite filmy ferns. Who shall describe the boundless prodigality of life, and the inexhaustible richness of form and colouring, of the forests of Sumatra ? On the mountain-slopes, from an altitude of five hundred to that of six thousand feet, the forest is largely composed of oaks of several species. They are noble trees, and of much value ; but, in a commercial sense, a higher value attaches to the Dryanobalops, which yields the all-important camphor. About one degree below the Equator its place is occupied by the Dipterocarpus, a tree of gigantic proportions, which produces the resin called "dammar." This resin accumulates sometimes in large masses of ten or twenty pounds weight, either attached to the trunk, or found buried in the ground at the foot of the trees. The most remarkable growth of the forest, however, is a kind of fig, the aerial roots of which combine in a pyramid nearly one hundred feet high, terminating at the point where the branches begin to project, so that there is no real trunk. This cone, or pyramid, (637) 3 34 EXPORTS; AND CLIMATE. consists of roots of all dimensions, mostly descending in straight lines, but more or less obliquely ; and so interlacing and intercrossing as to form a dense, com- plicated, and impervious network. On the rough bark of many of the forest-trees grows that extraordinary parasite, the Rafflesia, the largest known flower, measuring fully three feet in diameter, and expanding a calyx which is capable of holding six quarts of water. The principal exports of Sumatra are capsicums, ginger, betel, tobacco, indigo; cotton, camphor; benzoin, cassia or common cinnamon, rottang (ratans), ebony, sandal-wood, teak, and aloes ; ivory, rice, wax, and edible birds' nests. To the list of the island-products must be added rice, maize, sweet potatoes, taro or talus (Caladium esculentum), banana, mango, durian, papaw, and citron. But even this enumeration gives but a faint idea of the variety and extent of its natural treasures. Its climate is well adapted to the growth of so luxuriant a vegetation. Lying directly under the Equator, the island enjoys great equability of temperature; the ther- mometer seldom falling below 76, or rising above 93. The constant rains brought up by the south-east monsoons counteract or mitigate the prevailing heat. In the high- lands and mountain-districts the climate is healthy, and the natives attain a considerable longevity ; but in the low ground along the coast, and in the neighbourhood of the mangrove-swamps, Europeans, at least, drag on a sickly existence, and malaria exercises its deadly ravages. DUTCH POSSESSIONS. The Dutch possessions in Sumatra are chiefly situated on the west coast, where they are divided into four __ _ ~ . . - _- - : "r- '^ THE RAFFLESIA, AND OTHER PLANTS. .--7 '- - ' - ..- - - I.- V. .-i -::i V , - L lu-rr 1.7- -- L:-~ -: i .... - _ . . > . ,._ _ - ( ,.__ - _ ^ ,... . _ ... . _ . . . _ - . . . .^J , * i _ ; j . _". .". . . : . , Af * . ._-- L_ _ 7.--: i. _^__ .^_ ._- ..-- :-_- ..- -- - -:- -'-_ - r. ,:-:: -> - \ - . " r 4- '**'-' * O. "WT * - - . -: - . - . _ - . - . r i~ T ;ULJ -- - . i T - OK JOQDHBOOOB. ]EB D^^ ^WlBCC. ^&& :: - _-i J 11 T;" --"- 7' '-.-. :__ IT . : ;t 7;- -:-i:- : :i- : v- - .-_ :i, I.LI - : :- . . " \ ,','_,. \ _. . . ^_. - --: riagai with gwy, yeflow, around them, aavi V: .y L_ : - __ r-.vlj.: : :j. ____ * ^ T T*J. J^ _ _ x _ __^_ _ " ..::. - :j.: :. : . with their huge hlack eyes before to adtaave iarthe^" Mr. Waflaee maiiilri in which. Malays fitqpauatlj obtain of wild aninmls is a pleasant trait in , and he aaerftes k to Ae great defibera- - " ~ " ~ ,_ r '.".:": I * - . " - 7 exhibit none of that miscnievoaa. propensity in avoBaaM VOT&. JBbv loaig^ IK asa^s, soul- _ ^.-f to inhabit teces in the . i Tillage, even thoogh they :izr-:i" The Malay Tillages in the and peculiar. A apace of g: *"--- -i ----- : r : ; are raised aboot ax feet bexDg built "f planks, The fenaer are always oma- riehly with quaint < an lag,, with of *pfit fcombtx*, aad vfoates UrattL -.:-:.:.- : -.:.: _v_.i-.r^. 2>-r:.-_L_.. -_I.L_V- -.-.,:..- -.i -..--. .---^. -:,.; JScfbus <|uiiliHg .SomaMtn. "we nnt p*y to Bemaxte^ or Bm&ukmkL, wfekfe is the west coast, at the mood* of a aaafl river. Us .___ : r.r^. -_- '-_-- ? i. ; LI _ ;- i :.-L.-L^: _v-:-:^ -z:^^^- i_i^i".^: ~\~i ::-,- " 1685, and hoik Fort Yk. T^ey icwivcd to present site, as more kaftkjr, in 1714. and ended Fort Madbonmgh to fauieci UK Mver-appBoada. lit L ; i-riri ": 'ir __:;:. ~^";z :;_-: *'- --..!.- iz. * 1. ; _H TJ! I JL1_I __ ' - ~ . * II. T _T 7 '.'- --T'- -. ! I_T '. IL ~^L - '.' .'^.~ ~i . ~ Aaia - . : - ---I . 7 ^_. "' : .L .:. " .-. . - ^ _

;: I.:'-,., :.i, l-i-i^-Ji :: -~'-'^~. 1_ ."."..i.1.1. _."". _r . ' ' ' J ' J .'.' _7 H_ _ ''" _U1 - o-l' _ dotted eveiywhere with all the homiaaae of a tropical vegetation. Huge aMaBEtain-zaages aie Ivolcm vp bjr deep shadowj vaflejs, and im these strange hints tafce tlnii ffijil. mi Ifii lii o i li i ii and fantastic fonts of plants and flowers dinocaify the leafy raxaaes of tiae&RBls. fl ii iiilimil nf iaiBiiniiii reaomoes, which as yet have been only paitafly fe- 40 NATIVES OF SUMATRA. veloped, but must eventually feed an extensive commerce. The inhabitants are mostly of the great Malayan family, but in the north they seem to have intercrossed with the Hindus, and are distinguished by their strength, their stature, and their fierce courage. The Chinese are numerous on the east coast. North of Menangkabu, where the pure Malays reside, live the Battahs or Batakhs, whose exact relation to the Malay it seems impossible to determine. They approximate in many respects to the Caucasian type, with fair complexion, brown or auburn hair, well-shaped lips, and an ample forehead. All the natives of Sumatra, with the exception of some inland tribes, profess a modified Mohammedanism. CHAPTER II. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF JAVA. BOUNDARIES AND EXTENT. JHE principal Dutch possession in the East, and the largest island in the Sunda group, next to Sumatra and Borneo, is the island of JAVA, which has been styled, on account of its natural beauty and its fertility, " the Queen of the Eastern Archipelago." It forms a leading link in the great chain of islands extending from the Andamans in the Bay of Bengal to the shores of New Guinea. In this crescent Java occupies the middle place, between Sumatra, to which it is a pendant, and the small island of Bali on the east. In shape it may be likened to a parallelogram, of which the major axis runs east and west, with a slight northerly inclination at the west end. It is bounded north by the Java Sea, and south by the Indian Ocean ; on the west it is separated from Sumatra by the Strait of Sunda ; and on the east from Bali by that of Bali. Both straits are so narrow that it is impossible to avoid the conjecture that Sumatra, Bali, and Java at one time formed a continuous mass. The island is almost equally bisected by the 110th meridian. It measures 630 miles in length, and varies from 35 to 126 miles i-2 JAVA DESCRIBED. in breadth. Its total area is 49,730 square miles, or nearly two-thirds of the area of Great Britain. SCENERY OF JAVA. Bearing these facts in mind, we may proceed to consider its characteristic physical aspect. We have spoken of it as bounded on the south by the Indian Ocean. Here the coast is steep and rocky, and forms a sufficient rampart against the incessant roll of the billows ; but on the opposite side, where only a shallow channel separates it from Borneo, the land terminates in a low, flat, alluvial plain, bordered by extensive mangrove swamps. The coast-line is irregular and broken, especially on the north. The principal capes are those of Java Head, at the southern entrance to the Strait of Sunda ; Cape St. Nicholas, at the "other entrance ; Cape Panka at the west, and Cape Sarlano at the east entrance of the Strait of Madura ; and Capes East and South at the eastern extremity of the island. Bays, creeks, coves, and inlets are numerous : on the north coast, observe the harbours of Batavia and Soerabaya ; on the south, Penanjong, Pachitan, Pangol, Sambreng, Segara-Wedi, Dampar, and Grad- iagan Bays ; and on the west, Wyncoops, Welcome, and Pepper. Throughout its 'entire length Java is traversed by two chains of mountains, which occasionally unite, but more frequently run at some distance from one another, and send spurs and branches of the most various out- line down to the shore. These chains are lofty and imposing ; grand in outline, and surrounded by mighty forests. Occasionally their towering peaks soar to an elevation of twelve thousand feet ; they seldom descend ITS CHAIN OF VOLCANOES. 43 below seven thousand ; and the average height of the volcanoes with which each chain is thickly studded, may be taken at nine thousand feet. Many of the volcanoes are still active ; so that along the axis of the island a series of fire-towers seem to be planted, like burning beacons, to throw their warning light far over the Indian seas. This volcanic character of the moun- tains, while accounting for the fertility of the island, also explains the peculiar aspect of its scenery. They have nothing of that austere, that almost terrible grandeur which distinguishes the heights of Wales or Scotland. They are remarkable for beauty rather than sublimity. Volcanic cones, as Mr. Jukes observes,* are so regular in their shapes, and stand out so definitely as objects of perfect form and symmetrical outline, that they give " an almost architectural tone " to the scenery. Mr. Jukes compares them to " noble columns or pyramids," which are perfectly beautiful, no doubt, but do not possess the mysterious and awe- inspiring influence of a great chain of " many-folded mountains," in the recesses of which the imagination loves to wander, and at times to lose itself. The volcanic peaks of Java, moreover, are clothed even to their topmost ridges with wood and green waving grass, except one or two summit cones of cinders and ashes fresh from the crater ; but these too, from the effect of distance, look as smooth as if built up of sand. Mr. Jukes enables us to realize the general features of a Javanese landscape from one of his descriptions. He sketches the picture which unfolds before the spectator from the north-west corner of the broad, * J. B. Jukes, "Voyage of H.M.S. Fly," hi. 30 ii. 107, 108. 44 A SUBLIME LANDSCAPE. green, undulating valley-plain of Malang. On the right hand, towards the west, rises the picturesque group of the Kawi, from which a verdurous but broken and serrated ridge strikes northward to the grand mountain-mass of the Ardjoonoo, immediately in our rear, with its peaked summit and shaggy sides, occupy- ing all the north-western quarter of the horizon. A low gap in the north has been seized upon by man, and cultivated, while a road running through it opens up access to the northern coast and its towns and harbours. Towards the east, with many a bris- tling peak and ridge, towers the massive Teng'ger range, reaching its greatest elevation in the large crags and buttresses of the Bromo and the Ider-Ider. Thence it curves towards the south-east, to crown itself with the shapely and symmetrical cone of the Semiru. The chord of this magnificent amphitheatre, or the distance between Semiru and the Kawi, is nearly forty miles, and is formed by low undulating ridges which close the prospect on the south. The aspect of this great valley is joyous and ex- ultant with luxuriant beauty ; everywhere it is fresh, and fertile, and radiant ; bright in tint and varied in outline ; while even the wildest and ruggedest of the mountains are profusely clothed with virgin forests, except the two cones of the Semiru and Ardjoonoo, where still reigns the demon of the volcanic fires, though harmless, and with his destructive powers exhausted. THE LAND OF FIKE. Java has been appropriately called the Land of Fire. It possesses thirty-eight (some authorities say ACTIVE CRATERS. 45 forty-five) volcanic mountains,* which, taken together, display all the phenomena of igneous action, except lava-streams, which never occur in Java. The active craters are remarkable for the quantity of sulphur and sulphureous vapours which they discharge. The crater of Taschem contains a lake, about a quarter of a mile in length, from which issues a stream so strongly impregnated with sulphuric acid, that no forms of life can exist in it, and even fish cannot live in the sea near its mouth. Near Butar, an extinct volcano, about half a mile in circuit,, is known as the " Vale of Poison/' or Guevo Upas. No living creature can enter it with safety ; and it is said that the soil is strewn with the carcasses of birds, deer, and other * We append the names of the principal volcanoes : TABLE OP VOLCANOES. Name of Volcano. Height in Feet. In what Province Situated. Poeloe Saive 3 930 Bantam Pangerango 9,868 Buitenzorg. Salak 6,970 Buitenzorg and the Preanger Regenius. Gedeh 9 860 Preanger Regenius Wayang 6,225 Preanger Regenius. Papandayang 7,865 Preanger Regenius. Goentoor or Guntur . . Tjokorei 6,689 8,720 Preanger Regenius. Preanger Regenius. Tankooban Praauw.. Tjermei 6,450 9,180 Preanger Regenius and Krawang. Cheribon. Slaroat 12,300 Tagal. Praauw 9,175 Pekalongan. Merapi 9,170 Kador. Sindoro 10,155 Kador and Bagelen. Soombing 10,565 Kador and Bagelen. Lawoo 10,640 Soerakarta and Madisen. Kawi 6,760 Passoeroean. Semiroo 11,950 Passoeroean. 7,200 Passoeroean. Ardjoonoo 11,800 Passoeroean and Soerabaya. Lemmongen 6,561 Bezocki. Wido-darew .... 7 956 Bezocki. Idjeng 10,170 Bezocki 46 animals killed by the fatal carbonic acid gas which accumulates in the hollow of the deadly valley. Owing to its mountainous character, Java has no great navigable rivers ; but it is watered by many shallow streams, which carry brightness and fertility along with them in their rapid course. These may be ascended to some distance in the light proas and canoes of the natives ; but only the Solo, Kediri, Tjemanoek, and Tjetaroun are open to vessels of any considerable burden. Much of the charm of the Javanese landscape lies in the extraordinary richness of its vegetation, which clothes every valley-side and every mountain-height with masses of diversified foliage. This richness is not to be wondered at, when we remember that the soil consists of decomposed volcanic rock, limestone and sandstone ; that it is abundantly watered, either by nature or by art ; and that the climate exhibits a remarkable range of temperature. At an elevation of 6000 feet the thermometer does not rise above G0; in the plains, during the day, it ascends from 85 to 94, and during the night from 73 to 80. The character of the natural products of the island is necessarily affected by this variation of temperature ; and the traveller, beginning with the flora of the Tropics in the plains and warm moist valleys, ends with that of the Temperate Zone on the breezy mountain-heights. The coast, which in some places is fringed with coral reefs, is generally lined with feathery groves of cocoa-nut trees. Inland spread vast fields of rice, extending up the sides of the hills, and irrigated by a multitude of artificial water-courses. They yield two and three crops a year. Hedges and IN THE INTERIOR. 49 fences of fruit-trees here and there enclose the Javanese villages, in which the huts are built of bamboo, and with their high-pitched roofs and quaint construction seem to have been modelled after the well-known architectural designs of the willow-plate. The white buildings and tall chimney of a sugar-mill occasionally diversify the prospect ; the open fields are skirted by rows of bamboos ; and the straight and well-kept roads run through monotonous avenues of dusty tamarind-trees. At each mile, in a queer little wooden guard-house, a policeman is stationed, who communi- cates with his comrades by means of a gong; and the din of that discordant instrument frequently alarms the echoes of the quiet country. If we penetrate further inland, we come upon the remains of deserted cities, now given over to the wild bull and the tiger ; or in the recesses of the forest we pause before some colossal statue of a god, or one of the ancient temples, such as that of Borobodo. Here a central dome, fifty feet in diameter, and surrounded by a triple circle of seventy-two towers, covers, with its terraced walls, the entire slope of the hill. Such magnificent speci- mens of human industry and of ancient science are seldom found crowded together in so small a compass! The building is 620 feet square, and about 100 feet high. The terrace-walls are adorned with four hun- dred niches, each containing a cross-legged figure larger than life, and with a succession of bas-reliefs, carved in stone, occupying, in all, an extent of nearly three miles. Still continuing our progress, we are attracted by a curious system of terrace-cultivation ; the slopes of the valley, and of its branches, being everywhere cut in (637) 4 50 THE MOUNTAIN-FORESTS. terraces up to a considerable height, which, as they wind round the flanks of the hills, produce all the effect of stately amphitheatres. Hundreds of square miles of country are thus terraced, and, as a recent writer remarks, convey a striking idea of the industry of the people and the antiquity of their civilization. These platforms are annually extended as the population increases, the inhabitants of each village working in concert under the direction of their chiefs ; and it is by this system of village culture alone that such im- mense areas of terraces and irrigating canals have been rendered possible. The bases of the mountains, whither we must now carry our survey, are clothed with vast forests of different species of the fig-tree tribe ; some of which seem allied to the Indian banyan : all are interlaced and bound together by creepers and trailing parasites, and are remarkable for their immense height, so that their overarching foliage glimmers like a green mist, their milky sap, their fruit, and their far-spreading branches. At about the same height above the sea grow noble trees of different families, with names which will sound harshly in the ears of the young botanist : meliacese, aglaias, epicarises, artocarpuses, sapinduses, sterculias, their boughs embellished with fantastic orchids, and their trunks covered with such parasites as pepper, mistletoe, loroanthus, nepenthes, pothos, while in among the low undergrowth rise grand arborescent ferns of surpassing beauty. Here we meet with the vaquois-tree, a species of pandanus, or screw-pine, but in stature and character resembling the palms. Higher up we come to the plane-like liquid- ambars, their tall and shapely stems clasped round by THE VAQUOIS-TREE. HIGHER AND HIGHER. 53 tenacious parasites ; also ratans, and rubiacese, some of the latter offending the air with a noxious fetid odour. From a height of about 5000 feet we pass through what is truly a virgin forest, the trees being tall as some "great ammirars mast," and surrounded by a dense growth of herbaceous plants, tree-ferns, and shrubby vegetation. Of the ferns the variety seems inexhaustible, and as many as three hundred species have been found on one mountain. Continuing our imaginary ascent, we come to chest- nuts and oaks ; rhododendrons, the dammar pine, numerous species of glossy-leaved laurels, sweet-scented myrtles, gorgeous magnolias, melastomas, and eugenias ; while through the verdurous gloom flashes the silver of a leaping and tumbling brook, and brightness is given to the scene by the splendid foliage of the broad-leaved musacese and zingiberacese, with their curious and resplendent flowers. The eye is almost fatigued by the multitude of new forms which every- where greet it ; is scarcely able to distinguish all their attractive peculiarities ; and, at last, is content with a general sense of the infinite diversity and splendour of the vegetation that flourishes so thickly and gener- ously all around. At 6000 feet raspberries abound; and thence to the summit of the lofty mountains three species of edible rubus may be distinguished. At 7000 feet cypresses appear, the forest-trees lose their stateliness of character, and mosses and lichens take the place of ferns and lycopods. From this point upwards, they increase rapidly, so that the blocks of rock and scoria that compose the mountain slope are completely hidden by the mossy vegetation. The pretty heaths, espe- 54 UP TO THE SUMMIT. cially the white-berried vaccinias, are also abundaut. At about 8000 feet we find ourselves transported into an European landscape, and gaze with pleasure on the well-remembered forms of honeysuckle, St. John's- wort, and Guelder-rose. At 9000 feet we meet with the rare and lovely royal cowslip (Primula imperialis), which is peculiar to Java, and to the mountain (Pang- erango) we are now ascending. Yes ; this beautiful flower blooms only on this lonely mountain-top, for the winds and the sunbeams to caress it, and occasion- ally to delight the eye of some adventurous stranger. It has a tall, stout stem, sometimes more than three feet in height; its root leaves are eighteen inches long; and it bears several whorls of cowslip-like flowers, in- stead of a terminal cluster, like our English favourites. The forest-trees, gnarled and dwarfed to the size of mere bushes, creep up to the very rim of the summit- crater ; while thickets of shrubby artemisias and gnaphaliums, like our familiar southernwood and cud- weed, but six or eight feet high, are very numerous. Buttercups are sown as thickly as in an English meadow ; there are violets as sweet as poet ever found " half-hidden 'neath a mossy stone " in our woodland valleys ; and with these mingle whortle- berries, sow-thistles, chickweed, white and yellow cruciferse, plantain, and annual grasses.* MOUNTAIN VEGETATION. Mr. Wallace furnishes the following explanation of * The following list of genera characteristic of distant and more temperate regions is given by Mr. Motley : Violet, two species ; ranunculus, three species ; rnbus, eight or ten species. Also species of primula (primrose); lobelia; hyperi- cum ; oxalis (wood-sorrel) ; swertia ; quercus (oak) ; convallaria Jily of the valley) ; taxus (yew) ; vaccinium cranberry) ; rhododendron ; gnaphalium (cudweed) ; poly- gonum; digitalis (foxglove); lonicera (honeysuckle) ; plantago (rib-grass) ; artemisia (wormwood). CLIMATE AND VEGETATION. 55 the extraordinary fact, as it will appear to many of our readers, that on lonely mountain -peaks, in an island close to the Equator, should bloom a vegetation so closely similar to that of Europe, while in the plains below, and in all the lowlands for thousands of miles around, thrives a flora of a totally different character ! The violet and the wood-sorrel of our English woods adorn the lofty volcanic cone, at the base of which flourishes the Indian fig-tree or the cocoa-nut palm ! Thus, in the course of a few thou- sand feet the traveller seems to pass, as it were, from the latitudes of the rich tropical islands to those of the soberer European vales and pastures. Observe, the Peak of Teneriffe, though it rises to a greater height, and is nearer Europe than any of the Javanese mountains, contains no such Alpine flora ; neither do the mountains of Bourbon and Mauritius. The case of the volcanic peaks of Java is, therefore, to a certain extent, exceptional; but, as Mr. Wallace observes, there are several analogous if not exactly parallel cases, that will assist us in understanding how the pheno- mena may possibly have been brought about. For instance, the higher peaks of the Alps, and even of the Pyrenees, contain a number of plants absolutely identical with those of Lapland, but not to be dis- covered in the intervening plains. On the summit of the White Mountains, in the United States, every plant is identical with species growing in Labrador. Now, not one of these cases can be explained by a reference to the ordinary methods in which seeds are carried from place to place. Most of the plants yield seeds so heavy that the wind could not possibly trans- port them such immense distances ; and the agency 56 THE PROBLEM SOLVED. of birds is out of the question, when we remember the immense elevation at which the plants are found. In the face of so great a difficulty, some naturalists put forward the astounding theory that these species were all separately created twice over on these distant peaks ! But the true solution of the problem is to be sought in the past existence of a Glacial Age an age when the mountains of Wales were clothed with those huge ice-rivers which we call glaciers, and the mountain- ous parts of Central Europe, and much of America north of the great lakes, were dreary regions of ice and snow, with a climate resembling that of Labrador and Green- land at the present day. In that age, all the countries we speak of must necessarily have borne an Arctic flora. As the Glacial Period passed away, and the ice and snow receded up the mountain slopes or retired towards the North Pole, the plants also receded, "always cling- ing as now to the margins of the perpetual snow- line."* It will be said that, in respect to the Javanese flora, many of the genera are identical with those of Europe, but not the species. True: but this is easily explained. During the greatest severity of the Glacial Age, "temperate forms" of plants will have found their way to the confines of the Tropics; but on its departure they would, of course, retreat up the Southern moun- tains in quest of the climatic conditions necessary for their existence. But, in such circumstances, and owing to the lapse of time that must have taken place, many of the plants would undergo such modifications as to become distinct species.^ * The perpetual snow-line is the boundary (varying in elevation in different regions) above which the ice and snow do not melt. t For further information on this subject the reader may consult Darwin's " Origin of Species," chap. ii. JAVA AND THE CONTINENT. 57 Another objection may be urged, that " a wide ex- panse of sea between Java and the continent would effectually prevent the immigration of temperate forms of plants during the Glacial epoch." But to this objection we reply, that the former connection of Java with Asia is proved by abundant evidence. " The most striking proof of such a junction," says Mr. Wallace,* " is, that the great mammalia of Java, the rhinoceros, the tiger, and the banting, or wild ox, occur also in Siain and Burmah, and these would cer- tainly not have been introduced by man. The Java- nese peacock and several other birds are also common to these two countries; but, in the majority of cases, the species are distinct, though closely allied, indicat- ing that a considerable time (required for such modi- fication) has elapsed since the separation; while it has not been so long as to cause an entire change. Now this exactly corresponds with the time we should require since the temperate forms of plants entered Java. These are almost all now distinct species; but the changed conditions under which they are now forced to exist, and the probability of some of them having since died out on the continent of India, sufficiently account for the Javanese species being different. " ANIMAL LIFE IN JAVA. We may now take a rapid glance at the animal life of Java. If domestic and marine animals be included, it boasts of no fewer than one hundred species of mammals. In the west of the island the one-horned rhinoceros stalks among the ruined temples; and in the high wooded districts and dense jungles of the Wallace, " Malay Archipelago," i. 120. 58 ANIMAL LIFE IN JAVA. upper valleys may be found the tiger-cat, the panther, and, more formidable than either, the royal tiger, annually demanding its human victims. Neither the tapir nor the elephant is an inhabitant of Java; though both animals belong to the fauna of Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula. Among the Suidse may be named the wild hog and the babyroussa; the latter a fierce and dangerous animal, with four strong tusks project- ing above the snout. The napu or Java musk is one of the most graceful of the moschine deer. The wild ox (Bos Sondaicus) is numerous in the woods, and remarkable not less for the beauty of his shape than the untamableness of his disposition. Of the Ape family the only representatives are the silvery gibbon (Hylobates leuciscus), two species of semno- pithecus, and the ubiquitous " tailed ape," known as the Cercopithecus cynomologus ; these are found in almost innumerable hosts, and the forests resound with their noisy chatterings. Two kinds of lemurs the Stenops Javanicus, and the kukang, or slow -paced loris, Nycticebus tardi- gradus belong to Java, and are regarded by the natives with all the dread that arises from super- stitious ignorance. Probably their alarm is increased by the animal's nocturnal habits. For it is at night that the loris awakes from its slumbers: night, when the birds on which it preys are resting in unsuspicious tranquillity, with their heads screened by their soft plumage. Then through the forest-gloom its large round eyes burn like two balls of red-hot iron; and by these eyes alone can its presence be detected, for, owing to the colour of its fur, its outline is invisible, and its white breast and abdomen may be mistaken BATS AND BIEDS. 61 for a slanting moonbeam falling athwart a branch. With slow and stealthy movements it glides along the trees, lifting paw after paw, and advancing step by step, until it has gained its victim's resting-place. The destroyer raises its hand, until the long curved fingers overhang and nearly touch the sleeping bird, which in a moment is torn from its perch and slain, almost before it has opened its startled eyes. To Java also belongs the largest member of the Bat tribe, the Pteropus edulis (or P. Javanicus), measur- ing five feet across its membranous wings. It abounds in the neighbourhood of the orchards and gardens; hanging suspended from the branches during the day, and at night banqueting freely upon stolen fruit. Two civets (Viverra inasanga and Viverra rasa) are common enough : the Javanese show a strong partiality for the pungent perfume which they supply. The ornithologist would find in this lovely island an inexhaustible field for his investigations. Almost all the important genera of Raptores abound. The peacock lightens up the woods with its brilliant plum- age. Sometimes it measures fully seven feet in length, and to the spectator it seems impossible that a bird encumbered with such a " long and cumbersome train of feathers " should be able to rise from the ground. The woods echo with the warble of many thrushes; and a kind of blackbird (Turdus fumidus) haunts the vicinity of the principal craters, and keeps always within the area of eruption. There may also be found the green jungle-fowl (Gallus furcatus), its back and neck beautifully equipped with bronze feathers, and its smooth-edged oval comb of a violet- purple colour, merging into emerald at the base. King- 62 BIRDS AND BUTTERFLIES. fishers frequent the banks of the streams, and the hornbill, the lorikeet, and the woodpecker inhabit the leafy woods. Fish are abundant in the rivers and the surrounding seas; and insect life is represented by many rare and curious as well as familiar forms. Through the sunlit air flash the bright-coloured wings of beautiful butterflies, among others, the rare Char- axes Kadenii, remarkable for having on each hind wing two curved tails like a pair of calipers. Nor are the trogon, and the black and crimson oriole, and the resplendent miniver flycatcher, wanting. Or the charming little fruit pigeons (Ptilonopus roseicollis), with their head and neck of the most delicate rosy- pink colour, contrasting finely with their otherwise rich green plumage. In a word, the field of study presented to the naturalist is so wide, so varied, and so full, that the industry of a lifetime could scarcely exhaust it. For our knowledge of the Javanese flora we are greatly indebted to the labours of the botanist Blume,* who contrived to accomplish, though at the cost of his life, the enterprise attempted in vain by not a few energetic predecessors. Its extraordinary wealth has suggested to Michelet a fine and eloquent passage, which may be transferred to these pages because it sums up, in few but accurate words, the salient features of the physical character of the island. f M1CHELET ON JAVA. Java, he says, is dowered with fires. Notwith- standing its limited area, it possesses as many as the * See his great work, the " Flora Javaj." t Michelet, "The Mountain " (Eng. Transl., pp. 151, et sqq.}, bk i., c. 13. THE ISLAND OF FIRE. 63 entire American continent, and all of them more terrible than burning Etna. And to these we must add its liquid volcano, its vein of sombre azure, which the Japanese call the " Black River." This is the great Equatorial Current, which, in its northerly course, warms the Asiatic seas; is remarkable for its muddiness; and tastes salter than human blood. A hot sea a torrid sun volcanic fire volcanic life ! Not a day passes but a tempest breaks out among the Blue Mountains, with lightning so vivid that the eye cannot endure to gaze at it. Torrents of electric rain intoxicate earth and madden vegetation. The very forests, smoking with wreathed vapours in the burning sun, seem so many additional volcanoes situated midway on the mountain slopes. In the loftier regions they are frequently inaccessible, and sometimes so thickly intertangled, so dense, so gloomy, that the traveller who penetrates them must carry torches even at noonday. Nature, without an eye to watch her, celebrates there her " orgies of vege- tation," and creates, as Blume informs us, her river- monsters and colossi. Stemless rhizanthese seize on the roots of a tree, and gorge themselves with its pith and vitality.* Travellers speak of a species which measures six feet in circumference. f Their splendour, shining in the deep night of the forest, astonishes, nay, almost terrifies the spectator. These children of the dark- ness owe nothing of their resplendent colouring to the * The Rhizanthece is a class of plants destitute of true leaves, but with short amorphous stems which grow on the roots of trees. They include the three orders, BalanophoracecE, Cytinacece, and Rafflesiacece. t The Rafflesia, first made known in 1818. It is often found on the Cissus; and a single flower will weigh eighteen pounds, and its cup hold twelve pints ! 4 ITS TWO FACES. light. Flourishing low down in the warm vapours, and fattened by the breath of earth, they seem to be its luxurious dreams, its strange, eery phantasies of desire. Java, continues the great French writer, has two faces. The southern wears already the aspect of Oceania, enjoys a pure air, and is surrounded by rocks all alive with polypes and madrepores. To the north, however, it is still India India, with all it inherits of unhealthiness ; a black alluvial soil fer- menting with the deadly travail of Nature reacting on herself with the work of combination and decom- position. Its inhabitants have been compelled to abandon the once opulent town of Bantam, which is now a mass of ruins. Superb Batavia is one trium- phant cemetery. In less than thirty years from 1730 to 1752 it swallowed up a million of human lives; sixty thousand in a single twelvemonth (1750)! And though it is not so terrible now, its atmosphere has not been purified to any considerable extent. The animals of the primeval world which live for- gotten in its bosom are remarkable, it seems, for their funereal aspect. In the evening enormous hairy bats, such as are found nowhere else, flutter to and fro. By day, and even at noon, the strange flying dragon,* that memorial of a remote epoch, when the serpent was endowed with wings, does not hesitate to make its appearance. Numerous black animals exist, which agree in colour with the black basalt of the moun- tains. And black, too, is the tiger, that terrible * The flying dragon, or flying lizard (Draco), Is a genus of Saurian reptiles, allied to the iguanas, but characterized by the lateral membranes extending from the first six false ribs, which support them, like wings, in the air. THE MOUNTAIN-CLIMATES. 65 destroyer, which, as late as 1830, devoured annually three hundred lives. Michelet continues : The double mountain-chain which forms the back- bone of Java is intersected by numerous internal, con- centrated, and sheltered valleys. Hundreds of lateral valleys, running in an opposite direction, vary the spectacle. This diversity of surface insures a corres- ponding diversity of vegetation. The soil in the low- lands is madreporic, and was once alive.' At a higher level it has a foundation of granite, loaded with the fertile ruins and hot d&bris of the volcanoes. The whole is a vast ascending scale which, from sea to mountain, presents six different climates ; rising from the marine flora and the flora of the marshes to the Alpine flora. A superb amphitheatre, rich and abun- dant at each gradation, bearing the dominant plants and those transitional forms which lead up from one to the other ; and lead so ingeniously, that, without any lacuna, or abrupt leap, we are earned onwards, and vainly endeavour to trace between the six climates any rigorous lines of demarcation. In the lowlands, facing India and the boiling cal- dron of the ocean, the mangrove absorbs the vapours. But, towards Oceania and the region of the thousand isles, the cocoa-nut tree rises, with its foot in the emerald wave, and its crest lightly rocking in the full fresh breeze. The palm is here of little value. Above its bam- boos and resinous trees Java wears a magnificent girdle, or zone, of forest ; a forest wholly composed of teak. the oak of oaks, the finest wood in the world, 1637) 5 66 "PLANTS OF TEMPTATION." indestructible teak.* It boasts also of a gigantic plane, the superb liquidambar.^- Here every kind of food, and all the provisions of the five worlds, superabound. The rice, maize, figs, and bananas of Hindostan the pears of China the apples of Japan, flourish in company with the peach, pine-apple, and orange of Europe ; ay, and even with the strawberry, which extends its growth along the banks of the streams. All this is the innocence of Nature. But side by side with it prevails another and more formidable world : that of the higher vegetable energies, the plants of temptation, seductive yet fatal, which double the pleasures, while shortening the duration, of life. At present they reign throughout the earth from pole to pole. They make and they unmake nations. The least of these terrible spirits has wrought a greater change in the globe than any war. They have im- planted in man the volcanic fires ; and a soul, a vio- lent spirit, which is indefinable, which seems less a human thing than a creature of the planet. They have effected a revolution which, above all, has changed our idea of Time. Tobacco kills the hours, and renders them insensible. Coffee shortens them by the stimulus it affords the brain ; it converts them into minutes. Foremost among the sources of intoxication to which care unhappily resorts, we must name alcohol. Eight species of the sugar-cane which thrive in Java, abun- dantly supply this agent of delirium and of forcible feebleness. No less abundantly flourishes tobacco, the * Teak-wood is obtained from a tree which is known to botanists as the Tectona grandis. t The liquidambar belongs to a genus of trees called AUingiacece, with alternate leaves, flowers in catkins, and the fruit forming a kind of fir-cone. JAVA AND ITS BAZAARS. 67 herb of dreams, which has enshrouded the world in its misty vapours. Fortunately Java also produces im- mense supplies of its antidote, coffee. It is this which contends against tobacco, and supplies the place of alcohol. The island of Java alone furnishes a fourth of all the coffee drunk by man ; and a coffee, too, of fine quality, when it has been dried sufficiently with- out any fear of reducing its weight. Formerly Java and its neighbouring lands were known as spice islands only, and as producing freely violent drugs and medicinal poisons. Frightful stories were circulated of its deadly plants, the juice of which was a mortal venom ; of the Gueva-upas, which but to touch was death ! Michelet concludes : He who would see the East in all the fulness of its magical, voluptuous, and sinis- ter forces, should explore the great bazaars of Java. There the curious jewels wrought by the cunning Indian hand are exposed to the desires of woman, temptation, and the cost of pleasure. There, too, may be seen another seductive agency : the vegetable fury of the burning and scorching plains which is so eagerly sought after ; the perfumes of terrible herbs and flowers as yet unnamed. Marvellous and profound the night in its sweet repose, after the violent heats of the day ! But be cautious in your enjoyment of it ; a,s it grows old, you breathe death ! Take note of this : the peculiarity that gives to these brilliant bazaars so curious an effect is, that all the thronging crowds are dusky, with dark com- plexions, and all the animals are black. The contrast is singular in this land of glowing light. The heat seems to have burned up everything, and tinted each 68 NATIVES OF JAVA. object with shadow. The little horses, as they gallop past you, seem but so many flashes of darkness. The buffaloes, slowly arriving, loaded with fruit and flowers, with the most radiant gifts of life, all wear a livery of bluish-black. Beware at this time of night not to wander too far, or to ramble in the higher grounds, lest you should encounter the black panther, whose green eyes illu- mine the obscurity with a terrific glare ! And who knows ? the splendid tyrant of the forest, the black tiger, may have begun his midnight prowl ; that formidable phantom which the Malays of Java believe to be the Spirit of Death. SUMMARY. From these glowing passages of description the reader cannot fail to have gathered up such details as will assist him in realizing to himself this dazzling, fertile, beautiful, and yet terrible Java, its blaz- ing volcanoes, its rich mountain-valleys, its immense forests, and its terraced gardens, with all their exube- rant abundance of fruit and blossom. Of its native inhabitants, and their manners and customs, we shall speak in a future chapter ; our object here being simply to put before the reader a lively picture of the physical aspects of the island, painted, as it were, with a few bold touches. They belong, however, to the great Malayan family, and in religion are Mohammedans, the creed of the Prophet having been introduced by the Arabs in the fourteenth century, and having superseded both Hinduism and Buddhism. They are an industrious, skilful, sober, patient, and obedient people ; addicted to revenge ; ON THE ARCHIPELAGO. 69 superstitious ; and possessed with a great veneration for the laws and usages of antiquity. Most of them are engaged in agriculture ; but many pursue the arts of dyeing, weaving, and metallurgy with considerable success. The principal exports are rice, coffee, sugar, nut- megs, mace, cloves, tin, indigo, cinnamon, cochineal, pepper, pimento, tobacco, and cocoa-nut soap. They exceed 5,500,000 in yearly value. HOT SPRINGS IN JAVA. We cannot complete our description of this interest- ing island, which offers so much that is attractive both in its scenery and its inhabitants, in its physical aspects and social life, without paying a visit to the Dieng, which is not only one of the most elevated situations in Java where Buddhist ruins may still be found, but is remarkable for the numerous volcanic lakes and hot springs comprised in its limited area. Starting from Wonosobo, the first object of interest we meet with is the Lake of Mendjer ; a small sheet of water situated at the foot of the Gunong Sorodjo. It measures about two miles in circumference, and in all probability occupies an extinct crater. Its waters are occasionally impregnated with sulphur. The path now rises rapidly, and the traveller sees before him the lofty mountain-chain of Brambanan, with its summits enveloped in mist. The rocks and crags on either side are incrusted with sulphur, and perforated with holes and crevices, from many of which swift jets of steam or smoke escape, filling the air with odours that are not exactly those of " Araby the blest;" while a strange rumbling sound, like the distant echoes 70 THE SPIRIT OF CARBONIC ACID GAS. of chariot wheels, now rises and now sinks upon the breeze. We reach the summit of the Prau mountain, and thence descend, about one hundred feet, into the dreary valley of the Dieng; a valley measuring about a mile in circumference, and shut in by a semicircle of black, jagged, irregular hills. Here, on its marshy area, among scattered blocks of stone, lie the ruins of five small temples, built with hewn slabs of stone, and sparsely ornamented with rude carvings. A broken causeway, in the rear of these shattered memorials of an ancient creed, leads to a larger temple on the brow of a hill ; and thence we proceed to the shallow milky basin of the Tologo Lin, a small caldron of water, which is eternally seething and bubbling under the influence of volcanic heat, and emitting dense clouds of steam. Just beyond, at the extremity of a deep hollow, called Pekareman, the earth throws off a considerable amount of carbonic acid gas, or some equally noxious vapour. It is customary for the native guide to prove its deleterious qualities at the cost of a poor chicken or two. When thrown into the fatal chasm, the head and neck of the victim are suddenly convulsed, and, flapping iis wings in agony, it rolls over and expires. It is said that the Javanese, under the influence of despair, ati bingoong, resort hither to decide their fate. They lie down near the lake to pass the night ; and if they live until morning, they feel confident of secur- ing an auspicious change of fortune. If the credulous creature expire before the dawn of day, his death is attributed, not to the gas, but to the vengeance of a Pangooroo, or evil spirit. A COLOURED LAKE. 71 Another of these volcanic lakes is called Chondero di Mocko. It covers a space of not more than twenty feet ; is, in fact, a small pool of boiling water, with an efflux into a narrow rill, that winds onwards like a line of vapour. In the centre the water rises in three or four jets to the height of about five feet, and flings around a shower of scalding spray. The banks consist of a soft, hot mud, sulphureous deposits, and small blocks of limestone which have been ejected, in course of time, by the restless waters of the little pool. About a mile in an opposite direction, beyond the Dieng, lies the Talogo Warno, a many-coloured, reed- fringed lake, at the base of the Brambanan mountains, and about three hundred yards in length. Here the waters gleam with all the colours of the rainbow. A bright yellow at one part, and an emerald green at another ; here a beautiful azure, and there a delicate rose ; then orange and milky white, all these hues blending and merging into one another as softly and gradually as the tints of a humming-bird's plumage. The cause of this extraordinary diversity is not stated by travellers, but it must be due either to the presence of different species of algae in the bed of the lake, or, more probably, to some peculiarities of soil. It does not appear to be due to atmospheric influence, as the same condition of things prevails during both the dry and wet monsoons. Between the Brambanan and Modrodo lies a hot muddy valley, called the Kawa Kiwung. Here may be seen another hot -water basin, with a constantly ebullient spring in its centre, which ejects into the air tall columns of boiling water. But we may not tarry longer in this remarkable and 72 VOLCANIC PHENOMENA. interesting district, which presents a scene of volcanic phenomena scarcely equalled in any part of the world. Everywhere the ground seems impregnated with sul- phur: sulphureous odours fill the air; boiling springs seethe and hiss in every hollow ; under the surface may be heard a continuous reverberation, as if the earth were in the throes of some great agony ; the traveller feels as if he were treading on the light crust of a sea of molten minerals and liquid lava ; and every- where he cannot refuse to recognize the " signs and wonders " that justify the significant title which has been bestowed upon this luxuriant, fertile, romantic, and restless Java : it is, in very truth, a " land of fire!" CHAPTER III. LIFE IN JAVA. EEMAKKABLE ANTIQUITIES. IN our general description of Java we have cursorily alluded to the remarkable antiqui- ties which are found in the interior of the island. These are frequently of a character to interest and astonish the traveller, as a visit to the ruins of Singha Sari, on the road to Passarouan, will at once convince the reader. We start from Malang, and proceed in a northerly direction ; traversing a countryside that is well culti- vated and carefully irrigated. The plough and harrow used by the Javanese agriculturists deserve notice for their simplicity. First: the plough. The coulter is simply a long knife, attached to the end of a long bent handle, which forms the tail ; while from the junction of the two a long piece of wood projects forward, and carries the cross-piece or yoke for the oxen to pull it along. Next: the harrow. This is nothing more than a Brobdingnagian rake, drawn by oxen, with the driver sitting in the cross-pieces. The oxen are small and brown, not unlike the Brahman bull in shape ; and better able to endure the heat, it is said, than the great buffalo or musk-ox, with its hairless mouse-coloured skin and huge spread- 74 RUINS OF SINGHA SARI. ing horns. They are handsome cattle, and delicately and elegantly formed. Turning off from the main road, a narrow grassy lane brings us to the famous ruins of Singha Sari, situated on the threshold of a venerable wood. They include six principal structures of hewn stone, besides the base of a circular tower ; while numerous large and small figures, and various fragments of sculpture and statuary, are scattered in all directions. Three of these structures are quadrangular temples, rising by successive stages to a topmost shrine, which contains several large statues, more or less defaced. The ground- plan of the largest temple measures 93 feet by 36 feet. They are all without friezes, but along the sides are carved ornamental markings, and niches and pedestals for statues, and some figures in alto-relievo. Two of the other buildings are vaguely described as tombs. They resemble the temples in style, but are of inferior dimensions ; square at the base, rapidly diminishing towards the summit in successive stories, and then " bulging out " again in overhanging steps or ledges. One of them we observe to be crowned with the base of a ruined dome or cupola. This is called Chunkoop Wyang ; the others are known as Chunkoop Putri. The sixth building, consisting merely of two solid blocks of half-ruined masonry, may have been part of the gateway opening into the sacred enclosure. On each side of it stands a colossal figure one male, the other female of bulky propor- tions and savage aspect, scantily attired, and each wreathed around by a huge serpent. They kneel these weird corruptions of the Hindu fancy, for, un- doubtedly, the ruins are of Hindu origin on one COLOSSAL FIGUEES. 75 knee, with breast and body leaning on the other, while one hand rests on a huge square-headed club, elaborately carved. The right hand of the male colossus is lifted and turned outwards, with two or three fingers erect, as if to forbid an intruder's approach, or command silence. Each wears a kind of crown ; the eyeballs are protruded as if in anger ; deep frowns carve the vast brow with sunken lines ; and from each side of the mouth inclines downwards a large tusk. The dimensions of the male figure are thus given by Mr. Jukes : Height from the ground to the crown of the head.... 12 feet. Circumference round the waist, including the knee, which is pressed against it 25 feet. Length of the face 3 feet. Length of the nose 1 foot. Width across the back of the shoulders 8 J feet. Width of left hand across the knuckles 2 feet 1 inch. Length of the right hand to tip of middle finger 2 feet 9 inches. Each is sculptured out of a solid block of stone, hard but rather brittle a close-grained, gray, porphy- ritic trachyte. The workmanship is admirable, every line being cleanly and smoothly cut ; while all the folds of the skin are carefully represented. Round about lie many fragments of sculpture and statuary, not less skilfully executed : including a beautiful Brahman bull, about four feet long ; human -figures with elephant's heads ; an admirably wrought frag- ment of a chariot drawn by several horses abreast ; and figures of Hindu deities, each three-headed or four-headed, and with several pairs of arms. It is noticeable that not only are all these strange memo- rials of a past which has left no other record executed 76 A LOVELY SCENE. with much carefulness and refinement, but they are wholly free from the extravagances and indelicacies of design which so commonly disfigure the antiquities of India. We are thus led to believe in the truth of Mr. Crawfurd's conjecture, that the Hinduism of Java was a purified religion ; " a reformation of the bloody and indecent worship of Siva, brought about by sages or philosophers, by persons, in short, of more kindly affections than the rest of their countrymen, and perhaps to keep pace with some start in civilization in the country where it had its origin." Certainly, the ruling minds which selected the site of the ruined temples now before us must have been inspired by lofty sympathies, and have possessed as keen a sense of the beauties of Nature as any Hellenic philosopher or priest. The antiquities are remarkable, and so is the scenery by which they are surrounded. They occupy the summit of a knoll which overlooks the broad undulating valley-plain of Malang. On the right hand, towards the south-west, rises the pictur- esque group of the Kawi hills, whence a grassy but broken and jagged ridge extends northwards to the mighty mass of Mount Arjuno, which, with its peaked summit and wooded declivities, occupies all the north- western quarter of the horizon. Through a low gap in the north access is obtained to the surf-beaten line of the northern coast, with its populous towns and ample harbours. Towards the east we see the gigantic ridge of the Teng'ger, with all its spires and pinnacles and pyramids, gradually increasing in elevation until it reaches its loftiest points in the noble colossal forms of the Bromo and the Ider-Ider, from which it curves gracefully towards the south-east, and the beautiful A HINDU KINGDOM. 77 cone of the Semiru. The chord of this magnificent amphitheatre, or the distance from the Semiru to the Kawi, cannot be less than forty miles in length, and is formed by low undulating ridges, which shine in the full glory of the southern sun. Rich and luxuriant is the loveliness of this glorious valley, which as yet no artist has painted and no poet sung ; and even the most savage-featured of its en- circling mountains are clothed with the leafy shadows of forests in almost boundless profusion ; all except the two cones of the Semiru and the Arjuno, where the volcanic forces still linger, latent, but destructive and rebellious. When we turn from these glories of Nature to the hoar memorials of the Past, which are mouldei'ing here in the solitude and the silence, a spell falls upon the imagination. We seem to see them frequented by crowds of worshippers, and their altars tended by Hindu priests; while all the country round is studded with busy cities, adorned with palaces, and echoing with the hum of men. The dream rises upon the mind, of a Hindu kingdom, once powerful and opulent and civilized, which nourished, it may be for centuries, in this beautiful and fertile Java. That such a kingdom once existed, cannot be doubted; we recognize its traces in the ruins scattered over the surface of the Malang valley, in the huge piles of bricks now half-concealed among the forests, in the ancient causeways still used as the principal roads of the country, and in the remains of the massive walls which stretch from the southern side of Mount Kawi to the sea, fortifying the valley of Kediri, and thus protecting the chief access to the plain of Malang 78 GENERAL VIEW OF JAVANESE RUINS. from the west. Any one of these structures, as Mr. Jukes remarks, is far beyond the capabilities of the present inhabitants of Java at least, without European assistance ; and points to the existence of a people among whom the arts and sciences had made no incon- siderable progress. Yet the history of this people is absolutely unknown, and is but slightly recorded even in tradition. It is true that a few dates have been discovered on ruins in other parts of the island, which, from their style and character, seem contemporaneous with those of Singha Sari; and these dates range from A.D. 1195 to A.D. 1296. Some names of kingdoms and princes linger, moreover, in the old Javanese histories or romances ; but neither the research of a Raffles nor the laborious industry of a Crawfurd has brought to light any authentic facts. Mr. Crawfurd describes the ruins of Java as con- sisting of temples, images, and inscriptions ; and the first-named he divides into four classes : 1st, Large groups of small temples, of hewn stone, each occupied by a statue ; 2nd, Single temples of great size, of hewn stone, consisting of a series of enclosures, the whole occupying the summit of a hill, and without any con- cavity or excavation ; 3rd, Single temples, constructed of brick and mortar, with an excavation similar to the individual temples of the first class ; and 4th, Rude temples, of hewn stone, of more recent construction than any of the rest.* To the particulars already given we can add only a brief notice of the ruins of Brambanan, which are situated almost in the centre of the island, between the native capitals of Djokokerta and Surakerta. Crawfurd, " History of the Indian Archipelago," ii. 195, 196. THE THOUSAND TEMPLES. 79 Here are found the temples of Loro-Jongran and Chandi-Sewa. The former comprise six large and fourteen small temples. They are now a mass of broken ruins, but it is supposed that the largest temples were ninety feet in height. All were built of solid stone, profusely decorated with carvings and bas- reliefs, and adorned with numerous statues, many of which remain entire. The group at Chandi-Sewa, or the " Thousand Temples," occupies an oblong square area measuring 600 feet in length and 550 feet in breadth. This area is covered with five rows of temples : in the outer row, 84 ; in the second row, 76 ; in the third, 64 ; in the fourth, 44 ; while the fifth forms an inner parallelogram of 28 temples. Each temple is pyramidal in structure, and consists of large blocks of hewn stone. Each of the smaller ones contained a figure of Buddha, and the chief and central building figures of the principal objects of Hindu worship, all of colossal size and admirable execution. In reference to the sculptures and decorations, we shall content ourselves with quoting Mr. Crawfurd's remarks : " First, the scenery, the figures, the faces, and costume are not native, but those of Western India. Of the human figures, the faces are characterized by the strongest features of the Hindu countenance. Many of these are even seen with bushy beards, an ornament of the face denied by Nature to all the Indian islanders. The loins are seen girt after the manner now practised in India, a custom unknown to the Javanese, or any other people of the Archipelago. The armour worn is not less characteristic. The 80 A NATIVE PRINCE. spear, the kris, and the blow-pipe for discharging the poisoned arrow, in all ages the weapons of the Indian islanders, are nowhere delineated in the temples ; but, instead of them, we have the straight sword and shield, the bow and arrow, and the club. The com- batants, when mounted, are conveyed in cars or on elephants both of these modes of conveyance of foreign custom ; for the elephant is not a native of Java, and the nature of the country pi-ecluded the use of wheeled carriages. Second, there is not a gross, indecent, or licentious representation throughout, and very little, indeed, of what is even grotesque or absurd ; and third, we discover no very pointed nor very distinct allusion in the sculptures to the more characteristic and unequivocal features of Hinduism." SOCIAL LIFE IN JAVA : A GRAND EXTERTAIXMEXT. From these curious memorials of the ancient life of Java, we turn to the consideration of some few aspects of its modern life, of the manners and customs of its present inhabitants ; and if we accompany a recent traveller in a visit to the native Sultan of Bankalang, we shall become witnesses of a scene every feature of which is both novel and interesting to European eyes. To do us honour, and impress us with a sense of the power of our princely host, the road to his "palace" is lined on either side by spearmen, at intervals of about three yards ; each assuming a theatrical and studied but impressive attitude, and holding aloft his long quivering lance. Ushered by the sounds of a native band, or gamelang, we arrive at the gateway of the sultan's residence, and by a wooden bridge THE " PALACE AT BANKALANG. 81 cross the broad ditch or moat in front of it. Here the place of the spearmen is taken by Javanese infantry, clothed in a Dutch uniform of blue and yellow, and armed with musket and bayonet. After passing through two similar gateways, we find our- selves in the presence of the illustrious potentate of Bankalang, and, exchanging the usual courtesies, are conducted by him into the state apartments. These consist of a great, irregularly-shaped hall, divided into several compartments, each with its separate roof, supported on pillars and square masses of brick-work, the spaces between which are left entirely open below. The roofs are constructed after a common Eastern fashion : rising by successive steps to the centre, and looking on each slope like the under surface of a staircase. Looking around, we observe that a large chandelier hangs from the centre of each roof, while at numerous convenient points are suspended large lamps of handsome design. Soft and gaily-coloured mats adorn the floor, while the pillars and walls are gay with French mirrors, and gaudy prints, and orna- ments, and the slabs and tables are covered with opal vases and various specimens of the ingenuities and prettinesses of a luxurious civilization. The guests having taken their places with a strict attention to the formalities of precedence, we refresh ourselves with tea tea after the Oriental fashion and cakes of savoury make. An interval, and we all rise ; carriages drive up ; and we depart in a body to become eye-witnesses of a fight between a buffalo and a tiger. The arena is a large courtyard ; in the middle of which stands a tall cage, made of square posts firmly (637) 82 BUFFALO AND TIGER. driven into the ground, and partly roofed over. At one side a stage is erected for the principal spectators, while the polloi crowd round on the ground. The combat begins, but lacks all interest and excitement ; for the tiger, though once no ignoble tenant of the jungle, has lost courage, and disease, starvation, and old age have quenched its fires. In its time it has numbered seven human victims ; but it was caught twenty days ago, and since its capture has refused all food. The presence of the buffalo does not stimulate its appetite ; it lies crouched in a corner of its cage, and will not move even when lighted torches are applied to it, and scalding water poured upon it. At length it tries to drag its feeble limbs into some quieter corner ; whereupon the buffalo, with a loud snort, butts it with his horns against the bars of the cage ; tosses it right up into the air ; and allows it to fall on its back with a heavy thud, as if every bone were broken. We pronounce the spectacle as brutal as it is dull, and are glad when the sultan gives the signal for re- turning to the palace. Here we sit down to a splendid banquet, which, in its bright appurtenances, makes us forget that we are in Java, and carries us back to Veray's in Piccadilly, or Les Trois Freres in Paris. The table glitters with porcelain, and crystal, and plate ; the dishes consist of soup, fish, flesh, and fowl, followed by cakes, sweet- meats, and fruit ; and each guest may drink ad libitum of the best wines of France, and the finest ales and porters of the great English breweries ! The banquet ended, we retire to our various rooms, AN EVENING WITH A SULTAN. 83 and while away the hot hours of noon in a tranquil siesta. At five we reassemble in the central hall, and have an opportunity of judging of the sultan's performances as a violinist. His fiddle has but two strings, and the sounding-board is nothing better than a cocoa-nut covered with parchment, but the rest of the instru- ment is adorned with ivory, gold, and jewels; and such as it is, he plays it with considerable taste. Presently he summons an old fellow, whom we take to be his buffoon or jester ; and squatting down before us, he begins singing or chanting, in a loud harsh voice, a kind of burlesque song, accompanying it with count- less contortions and gestures, and mimicking the cries of fowls, geese, and other animals. By-and-by, as evening comes in, the attendants set a number of many -branched stands about the court- yard, on which small glasses filled with oil emit a glowworm-like radiance ; and gradually all the chande- liers and lamps in the hall are lighted up, and the scene assumes a really brilliant character. At six o'clock the sultan and his sons retire through a side-door to perform their evening devotions in an adjoining mosque ; for our potentate, notwithstanding French wine and English porter, is a follower of Islam. These last until eight, when everybody appears in the hall in full dress, and preparations are made for the evening's amusement. Various games are introduced, but none of them attract us. Our attention is wholly given to what is indeed a novelty a drama in the Javanese style ! At the entrance of the hall, a large white calico screen, about eight feet high, and sixteen or twenty 84 A JAVANESE THEATRICAL PERFORMANCE. feet long, has been erected ; and behind it, in the centre, hangs a remarkably brilliant lamp. On the floor lies a large recently-cut stem of a cabbage-palm tree, in which several hundred puppets are inserted. These puppets form the dramatis persona}, and are cut or stamped out of very thick leather, and profusely gilded and painted. They represent men and women, deities and demons, most of them with towering head- dresses and flowing robes, many with grotesque or hideous features, and all more or less distorted. Some are well-known characters in native history, romance, or legend ; others are purely imaginative, and of a comic aspect. All the figures are motionless, except the arms, which are jointed, and can be moved by strings at the will of the exhibitor. From the base a long thin spike proceeds, by which the figure is fixed into the cabbage-palm until wanted, or held by the exhibitor's hand when its turn comes in the rapid action of the puppet-show. The screen is raised about two feet from the ground, and in the centre a piece of carved work represents a gateway, flanked by a pillar and wall on either hand. The puppets make their appearance in the opening thus afforded, which is about three feet wide. All the preparations being completed, we take our seats on the other or auditorium side of the screen, so that we see the shadows of the walls and gateway, and those of the fantoccini, strongly projected on the white calico screen by means of the brilliant lamp placed at a short distance in their rear. The garnelang or band "tune up," and the play begins. The exhibitor, seated on the ground to pre- vent his shadow from falling on the screen, strikes a DRAMA AND DINNER. 85 board with a mallet, or wooden hammer, for the pur- pose of regulating the music, accelerating or retarding the time, increasing or diminishing the force of the instruments, in accordance with the various phases of his drama ; and meanwhile he describes them in a kind of recitative, loud and monotonous, something between the tone of a plain narration and an ecclesias- tical chant. As the story proceeds he brings on in succession the necessary characters, which describe the action by a variety of gestures, raising and lowering their arms in a curiously distorted and jerky fashion. The subject, on this occasion as on most occasions, is taken from the old Javanese traditions and romances, and being familiar to the people, is intelligible to them, and probably interesting ; but an English visitor soon grows weary of a show which he cannot understand, while it is unspeakably monotonous. We are not sorry, therefore, to seize an opportunity of retiring, and enjoying a little silence and repose until the dinner-hour arrives. Dinner is a repetition, on a more elaborate scale, of the one o'clock lunch or breakfast. Pumelos, or shad- docks, of excellent quality, now figure on the board ; as well as birds' -nest soup, which is savoury enough, but owes its savouriness to the condiments introduced, and certainly not to the birds' nests. These answer the purpose of isinglass, and are quite as tasteless. Here we may conclude our visit to the sultan, which has made us acquainted with a strange medley of Euro- pean and Oriental customs, and shown us that social life in Java among the higher classes is now very largely influenced by the spirit of the West.* * Jukes, "Voyage of H.M.S. Fly," ii. 145-165. 86 BENEDICTION OF THE VOLCANO. But there are some aspects, as we shall see, in which it retains its original character. The great body of the population are comparatively untouched by the new order of things, and retain their ancient habits, cere- monies, and traditions. It cannot be supposed that this immunity will long continue, now that commerce is pressing in on every side with its currents of new thought and new aspiration. But, at present, the attractiveness and interest of such ceremonies as the Slamat do not appear to have diminished. The Slamat, or Slamatan Bromok, that is, the blessing or worshipping of the volcano, takes place annually, and draws together a considerable concourse. The pilgrims frequenting it are Brahmans, unlike the Javanese in general, but not so rigid in their religious observances as their brethren in India. They inhabit the provinces of Probolingo, Malang, a great part of Bezuki, and part of the islands of Lombok and Bali. THE SLAMATAN BROMOK. The Bromok is a still active volcano, situated at a distance of about three miles from the town of Tosari, and forming one of a chain of green wooded hills and mountains among which it raises a barren cone, crowned by volumes of smoke and vapour. Its ascent has been frequently accomplished. The path leads up extensive slopes covered with a tall yellow grass, called the alang alang, to the Mungal, an enormous extinct crater, reported to be the largest in the world Here, if the traveller pause and survey the prospect before him, he will observe a cluster of mountains, distant fully two miles. The foremost is called the Batok, or Butak, that is, the THE SANDY SEA. 87 Bald ; referring probably to its barren summit, for its declivities are well clothed with herbage. It is conically shaped, and its sides are marked with deep grooves, showing the course taken by the lava-streams in its whilom period of activity. To the right, and a little in its rear, extends the sharp-pointed chain of the Dedari and Widadaren, or "dwelling of fairies;" while on the left, wreathed about with smoke-clouds, which partially conceal its bulk, groans the Bromok, a dark and dreary object in a picture of surpassing brightness. The track now descends into the crater, and crosses its sandy floor, the Dasar, or, as it is appropriately called, the Sandy Sea, where not a tree or shrub is visible, and the only signs of vegetation are a few scattered patches of dried and scrubby grass. The surface, moreover, is curiously corrugated or ridged, like the sea-sand at ebb of tide ; and the whole land- scape is as full of gloom as the wastes of the African Sahara. The form of the Bromok is that of a truncated cone. From one of its sides project numerous irregular masses, or mounds of mud and sand, incrusted in a baked clay like red lava. Some of these mounds have been wasted by the tropical rains, which have channelled the Sandy Sea with deep broad fissures; while others, still supplied with liquid matter from the volcano, are encroaching on the Dasar, and covering that portion of it in the immediate neighbourhood of the crater. Embedded in these mounds are large blocks of lime and ironstone ; also huge black stones veined like marble and glittering like granite.* These, as well as * D'AlmeWa, " Life in Java," i. 159, et sqq. 86 BENEDICTION OF THE VOLCANO. But there are some aspects, as we shall see, in which it retains its original character. The great body of the population are comparatively untouched by the new order of things, and retain their ancient habits, cere- monies, and traditions. It cannot be supposed that this immunity will long continue, now that commerce is pressing in on every side with its currents of new thought and new aspiration. But, at present, the attractiveness and interest of such ceremonies as the Slamat do not appear to have diminished. The Slamat, or Slamatan Bromok, that is, the blessing or worshipping of the volcano, takes place annually, and draws together a considerable concourse. The pilgrims frequenting it are Brahmans, unlike the Javanese in general, but not so rigid in their religious observances as their brethren in India. They inhabit the provinces of Probolingo, Malang, a great part of Bezuki, and part of the islands of Lombok and Bali. THE SLAMATAN BROMOK. The Bromok is a still active volcano, situated at a distance of about three miles from the town of Tosari, and forming one of a chain of green wooded hills and mountains among which it raises a barren cone, crowned by volumes of smoke and vapour. Its ascent has been frequently accomplished. The path leads up extensive slopes covered with a tall yellow grass, called the alang alang, to the Mungal, an enormous extinct crater, reported to be the largest in the world. Here, if the traveller pause and survey the prospect before him, he will observe a cluster of mountains, distant fully two miles. The foremost is called the Batok, or Butak, that is, the THE SANDY SEA. 87 Bald ; referring probably to its barren summit, for its declivities are well clothed with herbage. It is conically shaped, and its sides are marked with deep grooves, showing the course taken by the lava-streams in its whilom period of activity. To the right, and a little in its rear, extends the sharp-pointed chain of the Dedari and Widadaren, or "dwelling of fairies;" while on the left, wreathed about with smoke-clouds, which partially conceal its bulk, groans the Bromok, a dark and dreary object in a picture of surpassing brightness. The track now descends into the crater, and crosses its sandy floor, the Dasar, or, as it is appropriately called, the Sandy Sea, where not a tree or shrub is visible, and the only signs of vegetation are a few scattered patches of dried and scrubby grass. The surface, moreover, is curiously corrugated or ridged, like the sea-sand at ebb of tide ; and the whole land- scape is as full of gloom as the wastes of the African Sahara. The form of the Bromok is that of a truncated cone. From one of its sides project numerous irregular masses, or mounds of mud and sand, incrusted in a baked clay like red lava. Some of these mounds have been wasted by the tropical rains, which have channelled the Sandy Sea with deep broad fissures; while others, still supplied with liquid matter from the volcano, are encroaching on the Dasar, and covering that portion of it in the immediate neighbourhood of the crater. Embedded in these mounds are large blocks of lime and ironstone ; also huge black stones veined like marble and glittering like granite.* These, as well as * D'Almelda, " Life in Java," i. 159, et sqq. 90 ASCENT OF THE VOLCANO. kinds of cakes ; of strips of silk and calico ; and coins of gold, silver, and copper. Some minutes having been spent in prayer, each priest dips his goupillon or cup into the vessel of water before him, mutters a few unintelligible words, and sprinkles the offerings as they are brought to him. Then all the holy men bow their heads and repeat a prayer in a loud and distinct voice. The oldest rises up, followed in succession by his sacerdotal companions, uttering words which sound like "Ayo, ayo, Bromok !" and may be construed to mean, "Forward, forward to the Bromok!" At this signal the whole multitude hastens to the Bromok, he who first gains the ridge believing himself the favour- ite of fortune, and certain of "good luck." Every now and then some of the older priests come to a halt, spread their mats, and prostrate themselves in prayer for five or ten minutes ; thus earning a reputation for special saintliness, and at the same time securing an interval of rest. The summit of the volcano being gained, the various families and individuals again present their offerings to the priests, who mumble over them a few additional words. They are then hurled down the crater, each person repeating some prayer or wish. And so the ceremony of worshipping or blessing the Bromok is con- cluded. The crowd descend from the volcano to indulge in a variety of games and pastimes, and towards even- ing everybody returns home, and the Sea of Sand re- gains its normal aspect of dreariness and solitude.* One more picture of Javanese life we shall venture to * D'Almeida, "Life in Java," i. 165-173. " AT HOME IN JAVA. 91 put before our readers, availing ourselves of the infor- mation collected in M. D' Almeida's lively pages. It describes the ordinary evening entertainment of the upper classes of Java. AN EVENING ENTERTAINMENT. Our authority was invited, one evening, along with some friends, to the house of a dignitary whom he designates the Tumungong Mertonegoro (that is, " the good of the land"), in order to take part in a social entertainment. On reaching the house of the Tumun- gong they were received in due form, and introduced to the ladies of the household, wife, daughters, nieces, and the like, who, radiant with jewels, were seated in a semicircle round the upper part of the pringitan. The gentlemen were in the pendopo, or hall, which contained a large collection of glittering spears and other native weapons. To the right of the pringitan, behold the orchestra : here thirty instrumentalists, forming a gamalan (or gamelang) band, are assembled. Very curious are the instruments from which these musicians educe " sweet sounds" ! One is an enormous gong; enormous indeed, for a person could comfortably bathe in its interior. Another bears some resemblance to a violincello; mea- sures four feet in length ; has an oval back ; a dimi- nutive piece of wood, placed close to the finger-board, serves as a bridge ; the finger-board, tail-piece, and pegs are of ivory. A couple of wires form the strings ; and these, when tightly drawn, produce a music which cannot be described as pleasing. The gamalan is a kind of cymbal, and sounds best, like the Scottish bagpipe, at a distance. 92 MUSIC AND THE DANCE. Javanese music is always extemporary; a circum- stance which does not render it more agreeable to the cultivated ear. The measure is almost invariably common time ; though in some of the allegro and presto passages the time changes to what in the West is known as f . The proceedings began in this wise : Six vocalists arose, conducted by one who appeared to be recognized as leader, and sang, from a manu- script, a very animated and eulogistic description of a recent review of the sultan's army, in which the Tumungong was a colonel. The instruments some- times ran in accord with the singers ; but the accom- paniment being improvised, more frequently they lost sight of the air, and wandered away into indescribable variations. This performance at an end, six young girls, two of whom were daughters and the others relatives of the prince, came forward on the pringitan or dais, march- ing with a stately step. They were richly attired in silken kabayas, fastened round the waist by a jewelled girdle, and gay sarongs, which flowed behind them like a European lady's train. Jewels blazed in their ears, and glittering coronets encircled their heads. Turning towards the ladies as they entered, they took their seats on the ground, and raised their hands to salute the Raden Ayu, or wife of the prince. A moment, and they started up simultaneously, separat- ing into two parties, which, after crossing and recross- ing several times, suddenly stood still in the same attitude, as if they had been stricken by a spell. Thus they remained for a minute or two ; after which they began to twist, and bend, and wave their bodies PERFORMANCE OF A BALLET. 93 in a manner possible only to the supple Asiatics, and with' a gracefulness and ease which were truly extra- ordinary. One of their movements was very curious, and not so elegant as the rest, though executed with the same facility : they protruded the inner joint of the elbow, and turned their hands backwards in a curve until the middle finger touched the wrist. The next dance, of a military character, was per- formed by four boys, dressed as Chinese mandarins. Each was accompanied by a page or esquire carrying the weapons to be used in the mimic fight ; but the juvenile warriors, loaded with padded clothing, and having no other instrument to excite them than a bamboo clarionet, soon grew weary of their task. Then the six girls who had joined in the first dance reappeared. A table covered with white was stationed in the centre of the pringitan, and a vase of flowers placed upon it by an old duenna, who every now and then rearranged the attire of the dancers, or smoothed out their tangled locks. The new performance was a kind of pantomime, or ballet, called the Buksan, de- signed to illustrate the following story : In ages long ago, a king named Praboe Sindolo, of Mendang-Kamolan, determined to retire from the world, though he was still in the flush of youth. Accordingly he shut himself up in a cave or hut on the summit of a mountain, and devoted himself to study and medita- tion, rigidly observing certain days as tapa, or fasts. Like Faust, however, he was frequently interrupted in the midst of his reflections by a Javanese Mephisto- pheles, who, in order to beguile him from his profitable perusal of sacred books, painted in the most glowing colours the enjoyments of the world. Growing dis- 04 A JAPANESE BALLET. trustful of the steadfastness of his resolve, and anxious to exorcise the demon that inspired him with sensual thoughts and images, Praboe sent for a large bird, with whose language he had made himself acquainted, and for four vestal virgins. Previous to their arrival, he transformed himself into a flower, and bloomed brightly in the heart of a vase of blossoms, around which the four maidens danced and sung to avert the presence of the evil spirit. Now it happened that a fair princess passing by, charmed by the appearance of the fragrant vase, plucked one of the flowers, and carried it home with her. What was her surprise, on placing it in water, to see it suddenly change into a handsome young king! As for Praboe himself, he was so enraptured with the beauty of the princess that he forgot all about his hermitage and his tapa, and offered her his " hand and heart;" wisely concluding, we suppose, that a man's duty in this world is to overcome its temptations, like a brave warrior, and not to fly from them like a coward ! The dance intended to develop this agreeable little story was followed by one or two warlike representa- tions, and then the whole party adjourned to the supper-room. As this apartment was across the court- yard, the Javanese gentlemen, adopting the European fashion, offered their arms to the ladies ; but the cour- tesy did not seem generally acceptable, and in some cases was refused. The supper was prefaced with soup, but differed in few respects from the mode of entertainment common among the Dutch residents in Java. After supper the guests retired. CHAPTER IV. BORNEO. EXTENT AND SITUATION. T seems strange, says Mr. Jukes,* that the regions included in the East Indian Archi- O pelago, one of the most favoured portions of the globe, should have remained even to our day comparatively unknown and uncared for, while so many other parts of the world, less acces- sible and less interesting, have been constantly ran- sacked and described by travellers of all kinds. The grandeur and loveliness of the scenery of this great group of islands can hardly be surpassed, while the richness of their productions in the animal and mineral kingdoms is great, and in the vegetable kingdom they are unequalled, whether in beauty, rarity, or value to man. Much has been done of late, however, to remove this reproach of ignorance, particularly by Messrs. Wallace and Bickmore ; while in one of the most important of the Eastern islands the British flag has been successfully planted through the courage and per- severance of the late Sir James Brooke. English science is not slow to follow in the footsteps of Eng- * Jukes, "Voyage of H.M.S. Fly," 11. 226. 96 DIMENSIONS OF BORNEO. lish enterprise ; and thus it has happened that of the great island of Borneo, the largest in the Archipelago, we now possess a very considerable amount of knowledge. Borneo is not only the largest island in the Archi- pelago, but the largest island in the world. Its most northern point is Cape Sampanmangio, its southern- most Cape Salatan ; so that it covers more than twelve degrees of latitude, or about 850 miles in length. Its easternmost point is Cape Oonsang, and its westernmost Cape Pendan ; so that it extends over ten degrees of longitude, or 720 miles in breadth. Its breadth, however, if taken at right angles to its length, is about 600 miles ; and this diminishes to- wards the north. In form it has been not inaptly compared to a shoulder of mutton ; or, mathematically speaking, to an irregular pentagon, with a small rhom- boid attached to its north-east side. Its area may be estimated at about 270,000 square miles, or about three times that of Great Britain. Can we obtain a clear idea of the situation of Borneo ? Yes. In the first place, let us conceive of it as the central mass of the Asiatic division of the Archipelago ; a division of which Sumatra may -be taken as the western boundary, the Moluccas and Philippines as the eastern, while Java, Bali, and Lom- bok define it on the south. On the 1 east, the Macassar Strait separates it from Celebes ; on the south, the Java Sea from Java ; on the north and west it is washed by the Chinese Sea. The Equator almost equally bisects it from east to west. It is in the same latitude, therefore, as Central Africa ; and a line drawn from Cape Salatan, its south-east point, would touch the volcano of Kilimand'jaro, if prolonged to ITS PHYSICAL ASPECTS. 97 the westward. Prolonged to the eastward, it would traverse the island-groups of Polynesia. Its shores on the east and south are fringed with coral reefs, built up since it was disrupted from the Asiatic mainland. Physically speaking, Borneo may be described as one immense forest, generally of moderate elevation, that is, 300 to 700 feet, traversed by great rivers, which descend from a central group of mountains, and surrounded by wide alluvial plains, edged with man- grove swamps, or broken up into low deltas, constantly subject to inundation. It has, therefore, a physical character distinct from that of either Java or Sumatra its plains are of much greater extent, and its mountains, on an average, do not attain the same elevation. MOUNTAINS AND BIVERS. From north-east to south-west extends a chain of mountains, nearly parallel to, but at a great dis- tance from, the west coast, which, in or near lat. 3 N., curves round to terminate at Cape Sipang. From this chain a short spur projects, and links it to a double range of lesser heights, one of which runs south-west to a point near Cape Sambas, while the other pursues an irregular south-eastern direction, and reaches Cape Salatan. The culminating point of the first-named chain is Kinibalu, 13,680 feet in height. This is the loftiest summit in the island ; and on the east side of it lies a great lake, the source of numerous rivers. The other important peaks are Kamingting, in the south-west chain, 6500 feet; Luangi, in the south-east, 6300 feet; Meratoo, also in the south- east, 4000 ; Batang-Loopar, east of Sarawak, 4000 ; Kriiubang and Saramboo, both south of Sarawak, 3250 (637) 7 98 RIVERS OF BORNEO. and 3000 respectively; and Santibong, at the mouth of the river Sarawak, 2050 feet. Thus it is evident that the general elevation of the island is not con- siderable. If it were sunk five hundred feet, at least four-fifths of its area would disappear, leaving several long peninsulas, of tolerable breadth, divided by broad ocean-channels, and relieved by solitary mountain- peaks rising here and there above the waters. If sunk one thousand feet, nothing would remain but a few of these peninsulas : the ocean-ways would be broader, and the mountain-peaks wider apart. We come now to the rivers of Borneo. In most countries the configuration of the surface is determined by the course of one principal river, or it is defined by the basins of two or three main streams.. Thus : Germany is marked out by the basin of the Rhine ; France by the basins of the Rhone and Loire ; Egypt, by the valley of the Nile. So far as our knowledge of Borneo at present extends, it offers us no such assistance in surveying and laying down its superficial area. Its rivers are mostly tidal ; but their basins seem to be very narrow, and they descend languidly and slowly through vast level deltas, which merge into inundated plains. Their branches are numerous, and their facilities for internal communication are very great; but their mouths are blocked up by sand-banks and shallows, which render them inaccessible from the sea to vessels of even moderate burden. Borneo is as emphatically the land of rivers, however, as Java is the land of volcanoes ; and in this respect can be com- pared only to the forest-region of South America, which, from other points of view, it closely resembles. These rivers descend from mountain-ranges of moderate A DYAK BRIDGE. 99 altitude, with a sluggish but steady flow, in the shade of enormous masses of overhanging foliage, with clumps of the creeping palm-like nipa adorning their banks, or barriers of mangroves steadily resisting the encroachments of the waters. Bridges here and there are thrown across them ; not such solid structures as we are accustomed to in our well-cultivated country, where floods are of rare occurrence, but ingenious sub- stitutes, and well adapted for locomotive purposes. A Dyak bridge consists merely of stout bamboos, crossing each other at the roadway like the letter X, and rising a few feet above it. At the point of junction they are firmly bound together, as well as to a large bamboo which rests upon them, and forms the sole pathway, while a slender and often not very firm one serves as a handrail. This simple platform is partly suspended from an overhanging tree, and partly supported by diagonal struts from the banks ; no posts being placed m the stream itself, where they would surely be carried away by floods. Such a bridge as this is -traversed daily by men and women carrying heavy loads, so that any insecurity is quickly detected, and, the materials lying close at hand, is quickly remedied. The littoral or shore-country on the north and north-west, a comparatively level tract, about six hundred miles in length, is watered by a perfect net- work of rivers, though, probably, not one of them exceeds a hundred and fifty miles in its full career. They rise from the range of mountains of which Kini- balu is the culminating summit, and their course being short, are more rapid than those in any other part of the island. Some of them preserve their freshr water character down to the very coast. 100 ALONG THE COAST-LINE. Tracing them from the north, we may notice, first, the river Brunai (or Borneo), a broad sheet of water, navigable for some distance by large ships. Next, the Binbula and the Judal, both of which are consider- able streams. Passing Cape Sirrik, we observe the mouths of the Rejang which at eighty miles from its mouth is one mile wide and the Sarebus. Still larger than these is the noble Butong Lupar, which measures nearly five miles across, and can float a large frigate. The Sarawak, famous in our annals of English enterprise, is not so much remarkable for its length or breadth, as for its numerous branches, which ramify in such a manner as to afford an extensive district all the advantages of water-communication. South of the Equator, we find the Mejak, the Sambas, and the Kapooas. The first-named was ascended by a Dutch steamer as far as Malu in March 1855. The last-named is one of the chief rivers in the island, perhaps the chief, measuring not less than seven hundred miles in its sinuous course. On the south coast we notice the Djelli, the Pem- buan, the Mendawi, the Great Dayak, the Little Dayak, the Kahajan, the Murong, and the Banjer- massin, or Burito. This last is connected by several arms with the Murong, on the west, and thence again with the Kahajan ; so that a water-way penetrates into the very heart of the interior. In the lower part of its course it is continually overflowing the country, as its name indicates : Banjer-massin, "frequent floods." In the upper part it is called the Dooson, or village- river, because its banks are occupied by several agricul- tural communities. It is fed on the east by the Nagara; a river which in itself is of considerable importance. THE VIRGIN FOREST. 101 On the east coast the rivers are not so large nor so numerous ; but we notice the Kooti or Coti, with its wide delta, extending over one hundred miles of coast. It was ascended by Major Mliller, a Dutch officer, in 1825; and he had succeeded in crossing the mountains, and descending into the valley of the Kapooas, when he was murdered by the Dyaks. Further to the north lie the Pantai, or river of Berou ; the Boolongan, with its two mouths or arms, the Sabanom and Umara ; and the Kinabatangan. ASCENT OF A BORNEAN RIVER. We shall obtain a better notion of the features of the Bornean rivers if we attempt the exploration of one of them, and trace its career upwards from its mouth. For this purpose we may select the Sadong, because it falls into the sea at a point near the British settlement of Sarawak, and has been ascended by the naturalist, Mr. Wallace. Up to the village of Jahi it is somewhat monoton- ous, the banks being cultivated as rice-fields ; and the unpicturesque uniformity of a muddy margin crowned with tall grasses being only occasionally relieved by the little thatched huts of the Dyak cultivators. But above Jahi we pass the limits of culture, and enter the domain of the virgin forest, which pushes its suprem- acy down to the very margin of the flood, and seems inclined to dispute with the river even its very bed. The virgin forest ! Yes ; with its stately trees, its beautiful tall palms, so shapely and erect, its strange forms of vegetation, its interlacing creepers, its epi- phytes, and tree-ferns, all blending in an inextricable maze of leaf, stem, and blossom, of gloom and green- 102 DYAKS AND THEIR VILLAGE. ness, occasionally lighted up with a fitful gleam by some intrusive ray. At Tabokau we come upon the first village of the Hill Dyaks, situated on the steep, rocky bank in a narrow space which has been cleared of trees. Here, on a kind of green, about twenty boys are playing at a game which reminds us of " prisoner's base ; " their ornaments of beads and brass wire, and their gay- coloured kerchiefs and waist-cloths, presenting a bright and attractive spectacle. We enlist them in our service, and they remove our baggage to the " head- house," a circular building attached to almost every Dyak village, and serving a variety of purposes, such as an hospitium, or lodging for strangers ; a mart or trading-place ; a sleeping-room for unmarried youths ; and a general council-chamber. It is elevated on lofty posts ; has a large fireplace in the middle, and windows in the roof all round. The only dress of the young men is the long chaivat, or "waist-cloth," hanging down before and behind, and made generally of blue cotton, with the broad tail-bands of red, blue, and white. The well-to-do also display a handkerchief as a head-covering ; either red, with a narrow border of gold lace, or of three colours, like tlje chawat. As ornaments, they wear large, flat, moon-shaped ear-rings of brass, a heavy necklace of black beads or white, and armlets of white shell. A long, slender knife, and a pouch containing the necessary materials for betel-nut chewing, are slung at the side. To beguile the time, they are good enough to favour us with a specimen of their pastimes. And first they have a trial of strength. Two boys DYAK PASTIMES. 103 take their places opposite one another, with foot set against foot, and a stout stick grasped by both hands. Each endeavours to throw himself back, in such a manner as to lift his adversary from the ground, either by sheer force or by a sudden surprise. After this, one of the men enters into competition with three boys ; and then, by way of finale, each clasps his own ankle with a hand, and while he stands as firmly as he is able, the other pirouettes on foot, with the view of striking his opponent's fore-leg so smartly as to topple him to the ground. These displays of athleticism at an end, we are entertained with a novel concert. Some of the per- formers place a leg across their knee, and strike their fingers sharply on the ankle ; others flap their arms against their sides, just as a cock uses his wings when about to crow ; another, with his hand under his arm- pit, produces a deep " trumpet note : " and, strange to say, as all these movements are performed simultane- ously, and in good time, the effect, though novel, is not disagreeable.* Refreshments are served, and we retire to rest. Next morning we resume our river-voyage, but in a boat of a different construction. Though thirty feet long, it is only twenty-eight inches wide, and draws but little water. The river now changes its character. The deep, tranquil stream, flowing through steep banks, becomes a noisy, rippling watercourse, tumbling over a rocky bed in a succession of " miniature cas- cades and rapids," and throwing up on either side masses of beautifully coloured pebbles. Our con- * Wallace, "Malay Archipelago," i. 6<5, 67. In our imaginary river-voyago we are reproducing an actual excursion of this distinguished naturalist. 106 RIVER-CHANNELS. mountain region, has an important bearing on the modern theory, that the form of the ground is mainly due to atmospheric rather than to subterranean action." Our earlier geologists were very prone to adopt what may be called sensational explanations of natural features, and to see in everything the effect of an earth- quake or a deluge. But it is more reasonable to con- clude that the course of nature, in the past as in the present, has been gradual, equable, and continuous. We can see every day with our own eyes the influence of the rains or the streams in modifying the features of a landscape. And when we have a number of "branching valleys and ravines running in many directions within a square mile," instead of attributing their origin to rents and fissures produced by earth- quakes, we may well ask ourselves whether they have not been wrought out by the heavy tropical rains acting on an easily decomposed rock, and swelling into rapid and violent streams. At the village of Menyerey we obtain a fine view of Penressin Mountain, at the head of the Sarawak River, six thousand feet in height. To the south rise the Rowan, and further off the Untowan Mountains, appa- rently of equal elevation. Crossing the small river Kayan, we slowly ascend to the pass, about two thousand feet high, between the Sadong and Sarawak rivers. From this point we descend to Sodos ; a noisy stream rushing through a rocky gorge on either side, across which we occasionally pass upon bamboo bridges of apparently frail consti'uction. From Sodos we pro- ceed to Senna. Here the Sarawak loses its character TROPICAL FRUIT-TREES. 107 of a mountain torrent, and subsides into a bright pebbly, stream, navigable for small canoes. It is not without hard bargaining that we obtain the use of a boat from a Malay trader, and hire three Hill Dyaks to take us down to Sarawak. They are less skilful in the management of boats than the Sea Dyaks, and our crew are constantly employed in strik- ing against rocks or running aground. But we sur- mount every difficulty, and get into smoother water, as the river broadens and deepens, flowing through a picturesque and well-cultivated country, with limestone mountains rearing on either hand their broken and jagged heights out of masses of luxuriant vegetation. The river -banks are abundantly planted with fruit- trees ; rich tropical trees, with such succulent, juicy, nutritious fruit as the European orchard can never produce ; fruit which can ripen only under a tropical sun. Here are the mangosteen, the langsat (or lanseh), the rambutan (or rambootan), the blimbing, the jack, the jambou ; but, above all, the durian, of which an old traveller writes : " It is of such an excellent taste that it surpasses in flavour all the other fruits of the world ! " THE DURIAN-TREE. The reader will excuse us if we anticipate our botanical chapter for the purpose of introducing him at once to this justly celebrated fruit, which is given to fortunate man by a tree known as the durian, or Durio zibethinus. This tree is a child of the forest, and grows, when mature, to a stature of sixty or eighty feet, with some- thing of the general appearance of an elm. Its leaves are entire, oblong, and rounded at the base ; they taper 106 RIVER-CHANNELS. mountain region, has an important bearing on the modern theory, that the form of the ground is mainly due to atmospheric rather than to subterranean action." Our earlier geologists were very prone to adopt what may be called sensational explanations of natural features, and to see in everything the effect of an earth- quake or a deluge. But it is more reasonable to con- clude that the course of nature, in the past as in the present, has been gradual, equable, and continuous. We can see every day with our own eyes the influence of the rains or the streams in modifying the features of a landscape. And when we have a number of "branching valleys and ravines running in many directions within a square mile," instead of attributing their origin to rents and fissures produced by earth- quakes, we may well ask ourselves whether they have not been wrought out by the heavy tropical rains acting on an easily decomposed rock, and swelling into rapid and violent streams. At the village of Menyerey we obtain a fine view of Penressin Mountain, at the head of the Sarawak River, six thousand feet in height. To the south rise the Rowan, and further off the Untowan Mountains, appa- rently of equal elevation. Crossing the small river Kayan, we slowly ascend to the pass, about two thousand feet high, between the Sadong and Sarawak rivers. From this point we descend to Sodos ; a noisy stream rushing through a rocky gorge on either side, across which we occasionally pass upon bamboo bridges of apparently frail construction. From Sodos we pro- ceed to Senna. Here the Sarawak loses its character TROPICAL FRUIT-TREES. 107 of a mountain torrent, and subsides into a bright pebbly, stream, navigable for small canoes. It is not without hard bargaining that we obtain the use of a boat from a Malay trader, and hire three Hill Dyaks to take us down to Sarawak. They are less skilful in the management of boats than the Sea Dyaks, and our crew are constantly employed in strik- ing against rocks or running aground. But we sur- mount every difficulty, and get into smoother water, as the river broadens and deepens, flowing through a picturesque and well-cultivated country, with limestone mountains rearing on either hand their broken and jagged heights out of masses of luxuriant vegetation. The river -banks are abundantly planted with fruit- trees ; rich tropical trees, with such succulent, juicy, nutritious fruit as the European orchard can never produce ; fruit which can ripen only under a tropical sun. Here are the mangosteen, the langsat (or lanseh), the rambutan (or rambootan), the blimbing, the jack, the jambou ; but, above all, the durian, of which an old traveller writes : " It is of such an excellent taste that it surpasses in flavour all the other fruits of the world ! " THE DURIAN -TREE. The reader will excuse us if we anticipate our botanical chapter for the pui'pose of introducing him at once to this justly celebrated fruit, which is given to fortunate man by a tree known as the durian, or Durio zibethinus. This tree is a child of the forest, and grows, when mature, to a stature of sixty or eighty feet, with some- thing of the general appearance of an elm. Its leaves are entire, oblong, and rounded at the base ; they taper 108 OLYMPIAN FOOD. upwards into a long point, and are densely covered on the under surface with minute scales, producing a silvery red appearance. The flowers are yellowish green, and gather in little clusters on the smooth scaly trunk or main branches ; each has a tubular calyx and a five-petalled crown. Then, as for the fruit, it is either globular or oval, measures about ten inches in length, has a thick hard rind, and is armed all over with very strong sharp prickles, the bases of which touch each other, something like the cells in a honey- comb. It is the Nemo me impune lacessit of fruit ; and if the stalk be broken off, delicate fingers will scarcely care to lift it from the ground ; while so thick and so tough is the outer rind, that it is as difficult to break as a cocoa-nut. From the base to the apex five lines are faintly traced, and by applying your knife to one of these you may get at the inside, which is divided into five cells, each containing from four to five seeds rather larger than pigeons' eggs, and completely enveloped in a mass of firm, luscious-looking, cream-coloured pulp. This is the eatable part of the fruit, and had the Greeks known of it they would certainly have represented it as the favourite food of their Olympian divinities. Its flavour is perfectly unique, and has been compared to that of a rich buttery custard rendered piquant by an infusion of almonds ; but intermingled with it, says one enthusiast, " come wafts of flavour that call to mind cream-cheese, onion-sauce, brown sherry, and other incongruities." It is neither acid, saccharine, nor juicy, but something better than either of these ; and then it glides down the throat with a jelly-like smoothness that is all its own. In fact, " to eat ABOUT THE BAMBOO. 109 durians," we are told, "is a new sensation worth a voyage to the East to experience." The only draw- back is the abominably offensive odour ; but this one learns to overcome after tasting the fruit. Besides, you can hold your nose while eating it, and then your enjoyment is simply perfect ! When unripe, the durian may be used as a vege- table, and cooked. The ripe fruit may be preserved salted, in jars and bamboos, and served up with rice ; but in such a case it acquires so offensive an odour that no European can conquer his repugnance to it. The durian is sometimes dangerous, and in a very curious way. As the fruit ripens it falls daily, nay, almost hourly, and accidents often occur to persons walking or working under the trees. For if it strikes a man in its fall it produces a terrible wound ; the strong spines tearing open the flesh, and the heavy blow not unfrequently smiting the unfortunate individual to the earth. THE BAMBOO. We turn from the durian to the bamboo, which is infinitely more useful, though it does not possess the attraction of a savoury fruit. What the palm is to the Polynesian, that, with some qualifications, the bamboo is to the Dyak. It furnishes bridges, posts, rods, drinking-vessels, mats, screens, chairs, tables, bed- steads, bedding. With the help of this single grass for it belongs to the great family of Grasses, though it grows to the height of forty and fifty feet the Dyak not only builds his house, but furnishes it. He also builds his boats with it, erects a bamboo mast, and hoists bamboo sails. The admirable qualities of a bamboo are seven in 110 A DYAK HOUSE. number : Strength, lightness, roundness, straightness, smoothness, hollo wness, and divisibleness.* In how many plants will you find all these combined ? And when they are combined, must there not necessarily be something very good and desirable in the com- bination ? Look at that Dyak house yonder. It measures two hundred feet in length, and forty feet in width, and is raised upon stout posts. Well, its walls are made of bamboo, and its roof is thatched with bamboo ; and inside, the partitions are formed of bamboo, and with bamboo the floor is laid. Strips split from large bam- boos, so that each may be nearly flat, and about three inches wide, are used for this last purpose ; being securely tied down with ratan to the joists beneath. We are told, and can believe, that when well made, this is a delightful floor on which to walk barefooted " the rounded surfaces of the bamboo being very smooth and agreeable to the feet, while at the same time affording a firm hold." Lay down a mat upon it, and the elastic floor is at once converted into a capital bed ! " Here," says Mr. Wallace, " we at once find a use for bamboo which cannot be supplied so well by another material without a vast amount of labour palms and other substitutes requiring much cutting and smoothing, and not being equally good when finished. When, however, a flat, close floor is required, excellent boards are made by splitting open large bamboos on one side only, and flattening them out so as to form slabs eighteen inches wide and six feet long, with which some Dyaks floor their houses. These, with constant * That is, it can be split with great facility and neatness, or cut, or bored, or disjointed. BAMBOO THICKET. THE BORNEAN FOREST. 113 rubbing of the feet and the smoke of years, become dark and polished, like walnut or old oak, so that their real material can hardly be recognized. What labour is here saved to a savage whose only tools are an axe and a knife, and who, if he wants boards, must hew them out of the solid trunk of a tree, and must give days and weeks of labour to obtain a surface as smooth and beautiful as the bamboo thus treated affords him. Again: if a temporary house is wanted, either by the native in his plantation or by the traveller in the forest, nothing is so convenient as the bamboo, with which a house can be constructed with a quarter of the labour and time than if other materials are used." * IN THE BORNEAN FOREST. Our dissertation on the durian naturally leads us from the rivers to the trees and plants of Borneo from its hydrography to its botany. Its forests contain most of the varieties which we have noticed as flourish- ing in Java and Sumatra. Palms are abundant, espe- cially the cocoa-nut, betel, sago, and gomati. By the river-side blooms the Nipa frutescens, with its creep- ing trunk, feathery leaves, and large round bunches of fruit. The leaves are often twenty feet in length, and are frequently used as thatch. The scented flowers, which are enclosed in a spathe, attract immense hosts of bees; and these winged plunderers supply an excel- lent wax, of which large quantities are exported. Cinnamon and sugar-cane, as well as a kind of nutmeg, grow wild ; and the gutta-percha tree, which here attains a diameter of six feet, is plentiful. Pine-woods clothe the mountain-sides in magnificent profusion ; and to- * Wallace, "The Malay Archipelago," i. 77, 78. (637) 114 PITCHER-PLANTS. wards the summit is found the iron-wood tree, Dio- spyros, which grows slowly, but attains a noble stature. Among the columned aisles of the forest thrive numerous varieties of ferns ; though tree-ferns are neither so plentiful nor so fane as in Java. Borneo is famous for its pitcher-plants, Nepenthes, which nowhere else attain so extraordinary a develop- ment. Their graceful vases depend from every shrub and plant : some long and slender, others broad and short ; some green, tinted with red ; others green, shaded or glossed, as it were, with purple. The Nepenthes Rajah, named after Sir James Brooke, Rajah of Sarawak, has a pitcher twelve inches long by six in diameter, closely resembling our ancient ampulla ; the blade of its leaf measures eighteen inches in length by seven in breadth. It will contend on almost equal terms with the Nepenthes Edwardsiania, the pitcher of which is narrow, but twenty inches long, while the plant itself is twenty feet. Then there is the Nepenthes Rafflesiana, which, like some other species, has two kinds of pitchers : those on the lower leaves, of an ampulla form, with two fringed wings in front, about four inches long by two wide ; those on the upper leaves, less elegantly coloured, but longer, funnel- shaped, and narrowing gradually to the base, where they curve upwards gracefully. The general character of the Bornean forests is neces- sarily tropical. In the higher regions the traveller gazes delightedly on the infinite number of fantastically flowering orchids, and arborescent ferns with colossal leaves of filmy lace-work, perennial urticeoe (or nettles) three feet high, glorious bignonias, and splendidly beautiful passion-flowers, filling the air with fragrance, OUTBREAK OF A STORM. 115 and intertwining, in an embrace that death only can put aside, with creepers, bushropes, and interminable lianes. Further downwards, the creepers are still exuberant, but the scene is greatly changed ; for now the eye rests on every variety of palm, on resinous terebinths and anacards ; on leguminosae, whose sap exudes in many a precious balsam ; on aromatic laurels ; on large-blossomed petunias and solandras, and broad- leaved heliconias ; and on countless other flowers which attract by the beauty of their form or the in- tensity of their colouring. In the deep lowlands, as a writer has well remarked, the forest assumes a severer and gloomier aspect. The dense, over-canopying foliage accumulates in shadowy vaults which exclude almost the light of day ; and trunk after trunk, in irregular rows, cluster all around, like the pillars of some huge temple whose roof is lost to sight in an atmosphere of gloom. A hurricane striding through the Bornean forest seems like the crash and downfall of Nature. In the upper regions its roar reverberates like the artillery of an army engaged in deadly battle ; then it descends into the lower air, and as the darkness is illuminated by the incessant blaze of the lightning, and the echoes are awakened by peals of continuous thunder, the branches of the trees strike against one another like contending weapons ; and the huge trunks, uprooted by some sudden blast, are flung to the ground in fear- ful ruin. Whoever enters the forest after one of these storms, finds himself surrounded by melancholy memo- rials of its violence and awful power. Among the curiosities of the forest must be ranked 116 A REMARKABLE FIG-TREE. some small anonaceous trees of the genus Polyalthea which attain the height of thirty feet, their slende trunks ornamented with large star-like crimson flowers twining about them like so many garlands, and resem bling an artificial decoration rather than a natura product. To this order of trees belongs the sweet-sop, Anoni squamosa, which is found in the West Indies as wel as the East, on the mainland as well as in Bornec Its orange-shaped fruit is covered with projecting scales ; the rind is thick, but encloses a luscious pulp much esteemed by the natives, but not very agreeabl to Europeans. Its leaves have a heavy, disagreeabl odour ; and the seeds contain an acrid principle, fata to insects. For which reason the Indians use them powdered and mixed with the flour of gram (chick pea), for washing and cleansing the hair. Occasionally the traveller meets with a marvellou fig-tree, whose trunk forms a small forest of stern and air-roots ; or trees of still stranger character which look as though they had begun to grow in mid air, and from the same point throw off a world o wide-spreading branches above, and a complex pyrami< of roots descending for seventy or eighty feet to th ground below, and so reaching round and creeping 01 every side, that it is possible to stand in the centre with the tree overhead, and an enclosure of inter crossing roots all around. It has been suggested, a an explanation of this remarkable phenomenon, tha the trees we speak of originate as parasites, from seed which have been dropped by birds in the fork of som lofty forest stem. Hence descend aerial roots, whicl clasp the supporting tree in an embrace that stifle THE ORANG-UTAN. 117 and gradually destroys it, until it is replaced by the usurper which had found in it a resting-place and an asylum. If this be true, it shows us an actual "struggle for life" in the Vegetable Kingdom, not less fatal to the defeated than the contentions among animals which we have more opportunities of observ- ing and comprehending. ANIMAL LIFE IN BORNEO. Animal life in Borneo is found on an abundant scale. Tropical Nature is rich in an almost endless diversity of forms ; and the far-spreading shades of the mighty forests offer a secure asylum to those beasts of prey which elsewhere civilization is rapidly reducing in number. The panther haunts the leafy recesses ; sleek, handsome, agile, ferocious. In the mountainous districts the striped tiger, Felis macrocelis, finds a seldom disturbed lair. But the chosen lord of these retreats is the orang-utan (Simia satyrus), which the Malays, from his ghastly resemblance to humanity, call the "wild man of the woods." He approaches mankind, however, less closely than the chimpanzee, for his hind-legs are shorter, while his arms are so long as to touch his ankles. He excels the chimpanzee in intelligence. A brutal expression is given to his hideous physiognomy by his thick pro- tuberant lips and projecting jaws. In a properly pro- portioned human face the distance from nose to chin is a third of the total length : in that of the utan, it is one-half; so that his countenance is rather a cari- cature than a likeness. He differs in habits and character from the monkey race, being indolent even to phlegmatic supineness, 118 HIS HABITS DESCRIBED. suspicious, morose, and melancholy. One might almost say that he recognized how near he was to the lofty standard of humanity, and yet, on the other hand, how far from reaching it ! Even in his native wilds he exhibits no activity, and nothing but hunger or terror rouses him from his lethargic repose. He loves to sit for hours together upon a branch of the forest trees, in a kind of crouching attitude, with his back bent, and his eyes fixed upon the ground ; while from time to time the melancholy nature of his reflections would seem to be indicated by the low, sad wail he utters. During the night he retires to the topmost boughs of a nibong-palm or a screw-pine ; or, if the weather be inclement, he ensconces himself among the orchids and ferns that surround the colossal trees. He makes for his use a couch of leaves and small twigs ; and with a layer of leaves protects his body ; while he sleeps as man does, on the side or back, and not as the apes do, in a sitting position. He feeds upon fruit to a large extent, especially on the durian, but appears to be fastidious in his tastes, and rejects and throws away much more than he eats. Sometimes he varies his fare with leaves, buds, and young shoots. He prefers unripe fruit to ripe ; at least, he seems to be partial to fruit with a slight flavour of acidity. With his long, powerful arms he can climb the loftiest trees, and swing himself from bough to bough easily, but deliberately ; never leaping or jumping, and never showing any signs of haste. When he walks, the pressure is on the knuckles of his hands, and not on the palm. When an adversary approaches, though he has none but man, for the animals of the forest, it is said, never PURSUING A MIAS. 119 attack him, he plucks off the nearest branches and fruits, and rains at him a shower of missiles which generally compels his retreat. The Pyaks are partial to his flesh, and kill him with poisoned arrows ; but he has grown so suspicious that it is difficult to catch him unawares. They hunt him for another reason- - his destructiveness to the fruit-trees ; and there is reason to believe that his numbers are rapidly decreas- ing. His pursuit is not unattended with danger : woe to the unfortunate Dyak whom he seizes with his long muscular arms, and rends with his cruel teeth ! That he is a formidable opponent, may be inferred from the fact, confirmed by several Dyak witnesses, that in a contest with the crocodile and when he is seeking food along the bank of a river, such sometimes takes place he is always victorious. IN PURSUIT OF A MIAS. A recent traveller describes his adventures in pur- suit of an orang-utan, or a mias, as the Dyaks call him. Having heard that one had been seen on a path leading to some mines, he set off, accompanied by a young English lad, and a couple of natives. Very cautiously they made their way, avoiding the least sound, for the mias is singularly quick of hearing, and watching attentively for any indication of his where- abouts. "After a short time," says our hunter, "I heard a very slight rustling sound overhead, but on gazing up could see nothing. I moved about in every direction to get a full view into every part of the tree under which I had been standing, when I again heard the same noise, but louder, and saw the leaves shaking as if caused by the motion of some heavy animal 120 PURSUING A MIAS. which moved off to an adjoining tree. I immediately shouted for all of them to come up and try and get a view, so as to allow me to have a shot. This was not an easy matter, as the mias had a knack of selecting places with dense foliage beneath. Very soon, how- ever, one of the Dyaks called me and pointed upwards; and on looking I saw a great red hair} r body, and a huge black face gazing down from a great height, as if wanting to know what was making such a disturbance below. I instantly fired, and he made off at once, so that I could not then tell whether I had hit him. " He now moved veiy rapidly and very noiselessly for so large an animal, so I told the Dyaks to follow and keep him in sight while I loaded. The jungle was here full of large angular fragments of rock from the mountain above, and thick with hanging and twisted creepers. Running, climbing, and creeping among them, we came up with the creature on the top of a high tree near the road, where some China- men had discovered him, and were shouting their astonishment with open mouth : ' Ya, ya, tuau ; orang-utan, tuan ! ' Seeing that he could not pass here without descending, he turned up again towards the hill, and I got two shots, and, following quickly, had two more by the time he had again reached the path ; but he was always more or less concealed by foliage, and protected by the large branch on which he was walking. Once, while loading, I had a splendid view of him, moving along a large limb of a tree in a semi-erect posture, and showing him to be an animal of the largest size. At the path he got on to one of the loftiest trees in the forest, and we could see one leg hanging down useless, having been broken by a HUNTING THE ORANG-UTAN. A DEATH-HUNT. 123 ball. He now fixed himself in a fork, where he was hidden by thick foliage, and seemed disinclined to move. I was afraid he would remain and die in this position ; and as it was nearly evening, I could not have got the tree cut down that day. I therefore fired again, and he then moved off; and going up the hill, was obliged to get on to some lower trees, on the branches of one of which he fixed himself in such a position that he could not fall, and lay all in a heap as if dead, or dying." We will not pursue the narrative further, for though, no doubt, the writer would plead that he was actuated by a disinterested love of scientific inquiry, we confess that to us there seems something remorseless in this deliberate death-hunt. At last the traveller secured his victim, or, as he would say, his specimen ; and he proved to be a giant of his kind with a head and body as large as a man's ; with arms which, when out- stretched, measured seven feet three inches across ; while his height, from the heel to the top of the head, was four feet two inches. He was what the Dyaks call a "Mias Chappan" or "Mias Pappan," the skin of the face being broadened out to a ridge or fold at each side. The mias is not so ferocious as common accounts represent him. He does not attack man, woman, or child, except in self-defence, and is always anxious to escape from the neighbourhood of man. The stories told of his colossal proportions are equally exaggerated. His height does not exceed four feet or four feet two inches ; and his arms, when extended, seven feet three to seven feet nine inches. The average girth of the body may be estimated at three feet and a half. He is found only in Sumatra and Borneo ; chiefly 124 STRANGE ANIMALS. in Borneo, for in the former island he is rapidly dying out, and very few individuals remain. In Borneo he ranges through the low swampy forests which skirt the north-west, south-west, north-east, and south-east coasts. A continuous extent of leafy shade seems absolutely necessary to his existence. As he lives among the trees, seldom touching the ground, but passing from branch to branch and bough to bough, feeding upon fruits and leaves, making his " nest " among the embowering foliage, and there, in the un- frequented and solitary recesses, bringing up his young, it is evident that open and cleared ground would be distasteful to him. Where the soil is dry, or elevated, or cut up by patches of cultivated ground, or clumps of forest, the rnias is never seen. STRANGE ANIMALS. An animal peculiar to Borneo is the Potamophilus barbatus, of which we shall here say only that its scientific name refers to its aquatic habits and its singular whiskered face ; that it is carnivorous, and forms a link, apparently, between the otter and the omithorhynchus. The fig-tree woods are haunted by a species of gibbon (lar), or long-armed ape ; a melan- choly, peaceful, solitary creature, which feeds upon fruit in the lonely depths of the greenery, and ever and anon disturbs their echoes with his long loud wail, like that of an animal in pain. In the lower forests are found the long-nosed and crested apes, inhabiting the banks of the lakes and rivers. The long-nosed or proboscis monkey is sometimes called the kahau, from a supposed resemblance of his cry to that many-vowelled word. His enormously ABOUT THE KAHAU. 125 long nose gives a peculiar, and certainly an unat- tractive, character to his countenance. It does not interfere with his activity, however, and he will leap from branch to branch for a distance of fifteen feet or more. The Dyaks assert that, when accomplish- ing these gymnastics, he takes his nose in his hands, to guard it against possible injury ; but the state- ment seems to require confirmation. He is a gre- garious animal, assembling in large companies, which regulate their movements by the sun, and salute it at its rise and setting with a deafening chorus of howls. His fur is thick, but not woolly or long : the princi- pal colour is a bright chestnut-red ; the sides of the face, however, as well as the under parts of the body, and, to some extent, the shoulders, glow with a golden yellow. Over the head and between the shoulders spreads a rich brown tint, which grows paler on the arms and legs. The kahau's nostrils do not resemble those of man, though a resemblance exists between the human nose and its exaggerated proboscis. Placed quite at the extremity of the nose, they are separated from each other by an exceedingly thin cartilage; and, therefore, are wholly devoid of that expression which character- izes the human nostril. Borneo has also its bear, the Malayan or sun-bear, which climbs the cocoa-nut trees, and banquets on their precious fruit, or devours the succulent .topmost shoot, in which its vitality centres. He is also a per- severing robber of the hive, evincing an unconquerable partiality to honey. His fur is nearly black, and on his breast he wears an orange-coloured patch. He 12G FORMS OF ANIMAL LIFE. stands or sits on his hind limbs with much facility, and has a curious habit of placing his superabundant food on his hinder paws, as if to protect it from defile- ment. He eats with a slow and dainty deliberation that is quite amusing. The Bornean " Bruang," as the Dyaks call him, is sometimes characterized as a species distinct from the Malayan ; but the sole difference is in the colour of the breast escutcheon, which in the latter is of a grayish white. We need say no more of the Sus barbatus, than that this member of the great Swine family is hide- ous of aspect, and distinguished by its enormous whiskers. The banteng, or Javan ox, has been naturalized in Borneo. He is a robust and swift-footed animal, liv- ing in small herds, whose movements are directed by careful sentinels, and frequenting the low wooded valleys. He stands about five feet and a half at the shoulder, and is of a blackish brown colour, with a large patch of white on the hind-quarters. In the higher grounds lives the graceful and nimble napu, or Java musk, an animal of gentle disposition, easily domesticated. The kanchil, or pigmy musk, prefers the sylvan recesses of the dense tropical forests. There are three species of deer. The natives have a peculiar dread of the flesh of one of these, the munchae, asserting that whoever eats of it incurs a fatal cutaneous affection. Of the porcupine, Hystrix fasciata, a peculiar species not met with in Africa or Europe, they assert that it is the only animal which can feed without injury on the fruit of the celebrated upas-tree. INSECTS AND EEPTILES. 127 Fish are abundant in the lakes and rivers, and on the shores ; and the reefs and islets clustering in the neighbouring seas yield an abundance of pearl-oysters, and of shells both " rich and rare." The larger rivers are haunted by the crocodile, and especially by a species which resembles the Gangetic gavial. INSECTS AND REPTILES. Insect life is present in numerous and beautiful forms, many of which command the admiration of the naturalist by their splendour of colouring. Butter- flies there are which flash through the air with wings that seem made of jewels. Then the coleoptera are clad in coats of mail which would delight the heart of a beetle collector. Among these are interesting speci- mens of the wood-feeding beetles, the longicornis and rhynchophora ; of the former three hundred species have been distinguished, and all are remarkable either for size or colouring. In all, about two thousand dis- tinct kinds of beetles will reward the investigation of the naturalist in Borneo. Among the reptiles we can allude only to the so- called flying frog, described by Mr. Wallace. Its toes are of great length, and fully webbed to their very extremity, so that when displayed they present a sur- face much larger than the body. The fore legs are also bordered by a membrane, and the body is capable, it appears, of considerable inflation. Back and limbs are of a deep shining green colour ; under parts and inner toes, yellow ; webs black, striped with , yellow. The body, judging from Mr. Wallace's specimen, measures about four inches in length ; while the webs of each hind-foot, when fully expanded, cover a surface 128 ABOUT THE DYAKS. of four square inches, and the webs of all the feet, in an aggregate, about twelve. As the extremities of the toes are furnished with disks, or suckers, by which the animal can cling to the trunks of trees, it seems im- probable that all this extent of membrane should be for swimming purposes only, and we may suppose that it is designed to assist it in passing through the air. SOMETHING ABOUT THE DYAKS. We may find occasion to speak hereafter of the mines of Borneo, which yield gold, antimony, tin, platina, iron, and copper, but, as yet, are not worked on any extensive scale. The island-antiquities, including remains of Hindu temples, erected in the " dim past " by, it is presumed, a Hindu colony, might also claim a few words of notice. But we must proceed to notice the inhabitants of Borneo, who are divided into three distinct races, the Dyaks, or aborigines ; the Malays, who live principally on the coast, and occupy their territories as conquerors ; and the Chinese, who are immigrants or commercial speculators, attracted by the greed of gain. Of the last it is unnecessary, in the present volume, to say anything ; of the Malays we shall speak at length in a separate chapter ; and our remarks will now be confined to the Dyaks. These are divided into various nations, as well as into Sea Dyaks and Hill Dyaks ; but there can be no doubt that they have had a common origin, and they re- semble each other in manners and customs. So, too, their language is the same, allowance being made for dialectical differences. Each tribe, we may add, is generally known by the name of the river in whose valley it is settled. THE SEA DYAKS. 129 The Dyaks are well-made, but not of very vigorous frame ; about the middle height, with small hands and feet. Their complexion varies from reddish brown to yellowish brown, and is always lighter than that of a Malay; jet black the hair, and straight ; beard scanty or altogether wanting ; nose small and broad ; cheek- bones prominent as those of a Highlander. Altogether, far from a handsome race, but personable, vigorous, and athletic. One who knows them well speaks of them as livelier and more talkative and less suspicious than the Malays ; as partial to out-of-door amusements and to all sports and pastimes. He gives them credit also for plain- ness and honesty, and has a word of praise for their moral character at least, for that of the Hill Dyaks. The Sea Dyaks are pirates, and their standard of morality cannot be very high. They are truthful, however ; temperate in food and drink ; and free from the sin of covetousness at least, among themselves. They are not naturally cruel, though the frequent inter-tribal wars have led to the custom of "head- hunting ; " so that no young Dyak can marry until, like a North American Indian, he can present his in- tended wife with a proof of his prowess in the shape of an enemy's head. This memorial of his victory is preserved, and with tufts of grass in the ears, and cowry- shells in the eye-sockets, hangs suspended to the wall of the "head-house," like a knight's escutcheon. On great occasions it is taken down by the proud Dyak to whom it belongs, and he joins in the dance with one or more of these ghastly ornaments, slung over his shoulder, or dangling from his waist. The dress of the Dyak differs according to his tribe, (637) 9 180 DRESS AND WEAPONS. but the staple article is a wrapper of cotton cloth around the loins. The Saghai Dyaks are attired in tiger-skins, with head-dresses of monkeys' skins and the plumes of the Argus pheasant, very striking and handsome. Others make the head-dress of the bark of trees, or of cloth, always embellishing it with feathers, or tufts of fibre to resemble feathers. Some of the tribes are tattooed with as complex designs as a Polynesian islander. All are fond of ornaments, and go about decked with immense metal rings round their limbs and shoulders, and with collars of human teeth or the teeth of apes and wild boars. They also wear huge ear-rings, which distend the lobes of the ear unnaturally and hideously. Their weapons are simple, a sword or knife, a shield of hard wood, and a long spear. They also resort to the sumpitan (or sarbucan) ; a slender tube, about five feet in length, through which is blown a small javelin, nine inches long, dipped in the poison- ous juice of the upas. This they employ with singular dexterity. Like all uncivilized tribes, they shrink from hard labour ; but, under European superintendence, are capable of working effectively, and show considerable skill in the cultivation of the ground. They have no manufactures ; and their principal industries are the building of their ingenious and spacious houses, and the construction of their prahus, or canoes, which are frequently fifty feet in length. The greatest blot on their character is the degraded condition of servitude in which they keep their women, on whom devolves every kind of toil, so that they grow old and decrepit before their time, to the serious injury of the physical HISTORICAL NOTES. 131 character of the race. On the other hand, they marry but one wife, and are faithful to her. Towards their children both parents display a strong affection. Their language, in the main, is Malayan. Of religion they have no traces ; they have neither priests nor form of worship ; but they are amenable to many superstitious influences. We allude, of course, to the tribes which have adhered to the " old ways" of their forefathers; but some have adopted the creed of the Malay. Their government, so far as it has any recognized system, is republican ; for the chief of the tribe seems to possess very little real power. HISTORICAL NOTES. Borneo was first brought within the sphere of European knowledge by Lorenzo de Gomez, in 1518; and afterwards by Pigafetta, in 1521, who brought hither the ships of Magalhaens' expedition after cross- ing the Pacific. They named' it Brunai or Bruni, from the port and principal city on its north-west shores where they first touched. This name, which the Malays write as Btirni or Boorni, may be referred to the Sanskrit Bhurni, or "land," and came to be applied by Europeans to the whole island. In 1598, the island was visited by a Dutchman, Oliver van Noort, whose report of its diamonds and bezoar-stone, then held in high repute as a universal medicine, a remedy for all the ills to which human flesh is heir, induced the Dutch to take steps for establishing there a factory, which gradually developed into a fortified post and a considerable colony. With a brief interval, they have ever since maintained their foot- ing, and gradually extended their supremacy, until 132 RAJAH BROOKE. about two-thirds of the island more or less directly acknowledge their rule. The northern districts, how- ever, have maintained their independence ; and, until recently, were divided between two Malayan sovereigns the Sultan of Borneo Proper, whose authority spread from Cape Datoo to the river of Kimanis ; and the Sultan of Sooloo, who reigned from the river of Kimanis to the river Atuo : the two thus exercising their authority along a line of coast 1200 miles in extent. In 1842, an English gentleman, Mr. (afterwards Sir James) Brooke, purchased from the native chiefs the district of Sarawak, in Borneo Proper ; and in the following year it was formally ceded to Great Britain by the sultan. In 1846, Mr. Brooke captured the city of Brunai ; after which he obtained possession of the valuable island of Labuan, and thus laid the foundation of a colony which is probably destined to attain great importance. CHAPTER V. MORE ABOUT BORNEO. DR. SCHWANER'S EXPLORATIONS. |N the preceding chapter we have attempted to furnish the reader with a general view of the great island of Borneo, its towns and villages, plains and forests, lakes and rivers, and mountains. From the narratives of recent travellers we now propose to select such additional details as may serve to complete the picture we have been desirous of drawing ; so that the reader's mind may receive and retain a clear, comprehensive, and accurate idea of Borneo as it is. Between 1843 and 1847, Dr. Schwaner, under the directions of the Dutch Government, ascended several of the Bornean rivers, and explored a considerable portion of the interior of the island previously un- known to Europeans. It may be useful and interest- ing if we accompany him on one of these expedi- tions.* The Troussan forms a kind of natural canal uniting the rivers Mouroung and Kahayan, and traversing a vast * Borneo : Beschrijving van het stromgebied van den Barito, en reizen langs eenige voorname rivleren van het zuidoostellljk gediette van dot eiland. Von Dr. C. A. L. M. Schwaner. Amsterdam, 1854. Dr. Schwaner was bom at Mannheim in 1817 ; died at Batavia, March 30, 1850. 134 A BORNEAN RIVER. breadth of swamp, through which a myriad streamlets take their way, interlinked by trenches and water- courses, and all pouring their tribute into the Troussan. At a short distance to the west of the kampong, or village, of Papallao, it divides into two branches, of which the northern is the more ancient the southern having been excavated by human industiy, after the former had been rendered impracticable for boats by fallen trunks of trees and accumulated deposits of mud. At its eastern mouth the river is seventy feet in width, but as we advance in a westerly direc- tion it narrows considerably, is shallower, and more difficult of navigation, owing to the thick, intertangled growth of aquatic plants. The smallest boats run aground when the tide ebbs, and particularly during the eastern monsoon, when the voyager must wait for the flow to resume the ascent towards the Kahayan. Let us suppose that we have reached the latter river. Near its point of confluence with the Troussan, and on the north bank of the latter, stand in the shelter of a clump of palms two small huts, where voyagers deposit, in passing, their offerings of rice, tobacco, and sherds of pottery, to appease the evil spirits. The banks of the river are lofty, and the neighbouring country enjoys an immunity from inun- dations ; but the interior is of a lower level, and almost entirely covered by marshes. Another illustration of the superstitious nature of the Dyaks is afforded us at Tjouknij-Pamali, which is haunted, they assert, by evil spirits. In its neigh- bourhood, therefore, the natives will neither fell wood nor gather fruit, lest their sacrilege should be punished ASCENT OF KAHAYAN. 135 by loss of reason. Similar instances of districts over- shadowed by this meaningless terror are found along other rivers, and also in the interior, and may always be recognized by the presence of the nibong palms, which usually grow only on the sea-shore. The native legends affirm that one of these evil spirits, being desirous, in a moment of recreation, to form a cascade in the river, flung into it a heap of stones ; but he failed in his design, and all the stones resulted in nothing more than a diversion of the shallow waters, without obstructing navigation. In making the ascent of the Kahayan, we find the shores gradually decreasing in elevation, and in many places they entirely disappear under the flood of water which overspreads the country ; their direction is indicated only by the floating trunks of trees. The Kahayan becomes more tortuous than in its lower course, and its curves and angles and bends form a complete labyrinth. One of the reaches which we traverse is called Rantau-Oadjah-Moundor (or the curve or "reach" of the returned or sent-back-elephant) ; a designation curious in itself, and all the more curious from the fact that not a single elephant is to be found in the island, and that the vast majority of the natives have never seen one. It may be a memorial, how- ever, of some historic event ; as, for example, of the defeat of one of the Hindu chiefs who anciently lorded it over a part of Borneo, and made use of elephants in their wars. At all events, there is the name; and a local legend thus explains it : Once upon a time an elephant, which had come over the sea, ascended the Kahayan for the purpose of 186 A BORNEAN LEGEND. encountering the animals of the island in fight. To give them an idea of his size and strength, and strike terror into them beforehand, he sent one of his tusks by the messenger which carried his cartel of defiance. And, as he expected, the animals, filled with terror at the sight of so formidable a tooth, were about to acknow- ledge his superiority, when the address of the porcu- pine extricated them from their embarrassment. He persuaded them to accept the challenge, and to send one of his spines to the common enemy, that he might estimate aright the potency of the animal which was clothed in hair like that ! Deceived by the arti- fice, the aggressor durst not await his formidable adversary, and returned in shame and discomfiture. After voyaging for some days in the depths of desert forests, we observe that the river begins to run in a more confined channel, and between banks of increasing elevation. We are once more in a culti- vated country, and approach the kampong of Moura- Rawi, the residence of the principal chief of the Middle Kahayan ; a feeble old man, whose authority is acknowledged only in the upper portion of his territory. The kampong is in decay, and most of its inhabitants, discouraged by the successive failures of the rice -harvest, have settled on the banks of the neighbouring river, the Roungan. The population now does not exceed two hundred and ten souls. The palisade-enclosure has fallen to the ground ; num- erous houses have been abandoned, and others are in ruins ; and the former prosperity of the kampong is shown only by the many idols clustered about the houses, and the quantity of cocoa-palms which A KAMPONG, OR BORNEAN VILLAGE. 139 spread all around their grateful shadow. The posts on which the huts are raised are much higher than in the lower districts. The side-walls are made of the bark of trees, or bamboo trellis -work ; and the roofs thatched with a grass so durable that it does not require reparation oftener than once in ten or fifteen years. In the interior these huts are black and squalid, the smoke having no other issue than the door, or the horizontal openings in the walls which serve instead of windows. The apartments are very irregular in size. The general rule is, however, a large hall in the centre, surrounded by various chambers, which are separated from one another by decorated partitions, bamboo trellis-work, or by planks gaily ornamented with pretty arabesques and carved garlands. To the walls are suspended the household implements, weapons, fishing appliances, clothes, amulets, and other articles. Near the river are situated the balais, or common halls, in which the inhabitants of the kampong assemble to celebrate their festivals. Most of these edifices, which are much larger than the private houses, are exceedingly simple in appearance and arrange- ment ; consisting only of a long open hall, supported upon poles four feet high, and covered with a high- pitched roof. Close at hand may usually be found a small forge, free to all the inhabitants of the locality, and even to strangers. The place of disembarkation is a small raft moored to the shore, from which a ladder, made of the trunk of a tree, or of several joists, leads to a pavilion erected on the margin of the river-bank, and serving as a "Travellers' Rest." Thence the way to the 140 A FORTIFIED KAMPONG. kampong is along a causeway of planks raised two feet above the ground, and divided into as many branches as there are houses. Thus the inhabitants are able to visit one another dry-footed during the rains and the consequent inundations. They breed various species of domestic animals: buffaloes, swine, goats, poultry, dogs, and cats. Their principal occu- pations are the cultivation of rice, collecting ratans in the rainy season, and various kinds of resins during the dry monsoon. Some employ themselves in wash- ing out the gold dust brought down by the river ; but this industry is more profitable in the uplands than here. The kotta of Hanoa, at which we next arrive, deserves notice as a fortified kampong ; that is, it is surrounded by posts of iron-wood, thirty feet high, on the summit of which are fastened long poles sur- mounted by carved wooden images of the rhinoceros- bird, some holding in their grim talons human skulls. Within the enclosure a crowd of idols are collected. The four groups of buildings which compose the kam- pong are raised fifteen feet above the ground, which is marshy, muddy, and malodorous, and communicate with one another by rude wooden bridges. The ascent of the Bornean rivers, we may here remark, is not unattended by disagreeable experi- ences.* The voyager must be careful, in some locali- ties, not to shake snakes into his boat. These dangerous reptiles are constantly found hidden among the thick foliage of the fruit-trees, or lying supine upon the branches, and catch unwary birds in quest * SpeMer St John, " Forests of the Far East," ii. 73, et sqq. LIFE IN THE FOREST. 141 of food. And so closely do their colours resemble those of the trees, that it is frequently difficult to dis- tinguish them. A native attendant of Mr. Spenser St. John one day pointed to a tree, exclaiming, " Yonder is a large snake! " The English traveller at first could not see it, but on closer scrutiny " became aware " of a brown creature thicker than his arm, coiled round a bough, with its head resting near a bunch of fruit, waiting the advent of some incautious "pargam," the brilliant green pigeon of the Bornean forests. Its tint was precisely that of the bough on which it was resting. And the emerald snakes are not less difficult to detect. One species there is, with large regular scales and a triangular head, which is the terror of the native; and if its poisonous qualities correspond to its offensive aspect, that terror is not without excuse. This unpleasant neighbour, however, is not very frequently seen ; though pretty green flower snakes may sometimes be observed among the lower growth of the woods, or gliding over the blossoms in pursuit of insects. One of a bright green, with yellow stripes down its sides, may almost claim to be regarded as an object of beauty. Again : land tortoises frequently drop from the overhanging trunks of trees, alarmed by the noise of the paddles. Or among the visitors who thus uncere- moniously make your acquaintance may be a huge biawak, or iguana. Everybody knows, of course, that the iguana is a kind of lizard, but everybody may not know that in " Brunei " it attains the length of six or seven feet. It is a sore plague to the poultry-yard, and its appetite for fowls and chickens seems to grow by what it feeds on ; but, in revenge, it is freely 142 NATIVE HUNTERS. eaten by the Chinese, who are partial to novel dainties and variations of the ordinary bill of fare. Rock snakes are not pleasant to meet with, but still more disagreeable is the cobra, which sometimes takes to the water. It is said that it cannot be frightened back from a boat merely by beating the water with the paddles, but must be killed, or it will force its way into the proa ; and if it succeed in this burglarious entrance, every Malay, in a panic of fear, will instantly spring into the water, and leave the boat to drift away with its lonely but fatal passenger. At times the voyager falls in with a party of native hunters, who present a picturesque but some- what forbidding appearance. Generally they are armed with sumpitans, or blow-pipes, made of a dark red wood, and having a spear-head, lashed on very neatly with ratans, on one side of the muzzle, and an iron " sight " on the other. The arrows are carried in very neatly carved bamboo cases, and are neither more nor less than slips of wood, tipped with spear-shaped heads cut out of bamboo. The poison looks like a translucent gum, of a rich brown colour; in water of a temperature of 150 it begins to melt rapidly, but as rapidly hardens on being exposed to the flame of a lighted candle. The butt of the arrow is fixed in a disc of the pith of a palm, cut so as to fit the blow-pipe's orifice. The equipment of the hunter includes a war-jacket and a helmet : the former of some native stuff, well padded, and thickly covered with cowry-shells ; the latter of the same material, with hanging flaps, intended to protect the wearer's neck from poisoned arrows. The hair is fastened up in a knot behind, and kept in A CURIOUS ADVENTURE. 143 its place by a great pin, fashioned something like a spear-head, and nearly as large, and made either of brass or bamboo, according to the means of the wearer. These hunters occasionally meet with curious adven- tures. For example, they run the risk of being at- tacked and carried off by the orang-utans ; and an English traveller tells a strange story of a young Murut hunter who, in violation of a well-established custom, was run away with by a female ! Some years ago the hunter was wandering in the jungle, armed with sword and sumpitan. Coming to the bank of a pebbly stream, and being oppressed by the heat, he resolved on the enjoyment of a bath. Accordingly, he placed his clothes and weapons at the foot of a tree, and leaped into the cool, sparkling water. Here he disported to his heart's con- tent ; until, growing weary, he prepared to land and dress, when, to his alarm, he discovered an enormous female orang-utan standing between him and the tree. Before he could recover from his .surprise, she sprang forward, and seizing him by the arm, compelled him to follow her to a branching tree, and climb up into the leafy pavilion it afforded. On reaching her resting- place a kind of nest, constructed with woven boughs and branches she made him enter. He remained there for some months, closely watched by his jealous and far from agreeable companion, fed by her upon fruits and the palm-cabbage, and seldom allowed to descend to the ground, his movements being generally limited from tree to tree. He grew very weary of this life, and eagerly seized the first opportunity of effecting his escape ; sliding down the trunk of the tree when she was temporarily " off guard," and running to the place where he had formerly left his weapons. She 144 DR. SCHWANER'S EXPLORATIONS. hastened in pursuit, but was pierced as she approached by a poisoned arrow. Among the trees met with in these forests is the jintawan, or india-rubber plant ; the fruit of which is pleasantly acid, about the size of a very large pear, and of a deep orange colour. It consists of " a thick rind full of india-rubber, surrounding some pulp-covered seeds." A bold and vigorous creeper, it climbs up the loftiest trees, and spreads itself luxuriantly over their outspreading boughs. The nepenthes, or pitcher-plants, in some localities are very abundant, but do not often occur in the well- drained lowlands. Several species will be found de- scribed in an earlier chapter. UP THE KAHAYAN. After this digression, we may continue our ascent of the river Kahayan, in company with Dr. Schwaner. The upper basin of the river is thickly peopled ; that is, for the interior of Borneo. It comprehends fourteen kampongs and thirty-three kottas; and has a population of 7300 inhabitants of whom 2628 are settled on the river-banks, and the remainder on the banks of its affluents. They are known as the Ot-Danoms ; and are so named from the situation of the country which they inhabit ot signifying "upper," and danom "water." They belong to the same race as the Kaponas-Mouroung, and differ but slightly from the other tribes of the Eastern Dyaks. Their principal industries are gold-washing and the cultivation of rice. When the gold dust is discovered BORNEAN "PRIESTESSES. 145 at the bottom of the river, a small raft, fitted up with an apparatus of cross-beams, which closely resembles a grate or railing provided with a hinge, is warped to the spot. Down drops the apparatus, which serves both for ladder and anchor ; and the lower end of it is kept down at the bottom of the water by means of heavy stones. The divers, both men and women, de- scend the ladder to sift the auriferous sand in wooden platters, and remain some time under water. This industry is sufficiently laborious, but so profit- able that with its products the Ot-Danoms can purchase all the commodities they need. They never cross the borders of their own territory, however, the commerce being entirely in the hands of the merchants of Poulou- Petak. Availing ourselves of our sojourn on the banks of the Kahayan to familiarize ourselves with the customs of the Ot-Danoms, we find that there are no professional dancing-priestesses or bayaderes among them, as there are among the Dyaks of the South. Their places are filled by the wives and daughters of the well-to-do, whose duties are limited to healing the sick, exorcising evil spirits, conducting the souls of the departed to the abode of their ancestors, and demanding the favour and protection of the gods. Before a woman can assume the sacerdotal rank, the soul of a sangsang or angel must have passed into her body; and more, so long as her incantations last she must abstain from all inter- course with her family. The souls of the dead do not wait here, as among the Niadjou Dyaks, for the funereal rites, before taking leave of earth. As soon as the corpse is stretched in its coffin, its spirit departs for the other world under (637) 10 146 FUNERAL CEREMONY. the guidance of a sangsang, and to the sound of hymns chanted by the priestesses, or bilians. They pass over an invisible bridge, which begins at the mortuary -house, and abuts on the land of the departed. The dead body, reposing on its bier, is first carried out into the open air ; afterwards the bones are cleaned and burned, and the ashes collected in urns, which are deposited in the sandong, or house of the dead. The funeral ceremony is an occasion of great pomp, when not only buffaloes and wild hogs, but also men, are sacrificed. The heads of the victims are hung up in the sandong. Dr. Schwaner speaks of a chief named Toundan, who deposited in the coffin of his deceased wife eight suits of clothing and all her ornaments. Immediately after she expired he immolated a slave ; three others when her corpse was removed from his house ; and after the incremation of the body, eight slaves, sixty hogs, and two buffaloes were put to death around the pile. A singular custom obtains among the wealthy : the survivor, whether husband or wife, cannot under any pretext quit the house for a certain period, which is longer or shorter in different families. Not infrequently the disconsolate widow or widower remains seated and impassive, doing absolutely nothing, three, four, and even seven months. Human sacrifices are also offered up on the conclusion of treaties of peace and alliance. The public and private charms and talismans are then dipped in human blood, and the persons present at the horrid rite sprinkle their forehead, their shoulders, their chest, their stomach, their knees, their feet, while uttering their vows and prayers in behalf of one another. A BARBAROUS CUSTOM. 147 Among the Ot-Danoms, their occasions of festivity, always prolonged, coarse, and noisy, terminate very often in contention. Men and women become intoxi- cated : the quarrelsome seize their weapons and threaten hostilities, but those who have preserved some degree of calmness separate them, and bind them until they recover their senses ; so that after one of these orgies the ground is covered with the prostrate bodies of the captives. In common with all the Dyaks, the Ot-Danoms are very superstitious, and cowardly slaves to their gro- tesque fancies, of the effects of which even strangers are disagreeably reminded. When they arrive for the first time in certain localities, custom requires that they should pay the inhabitants the balas ; that is, a sum of money for the purchase of buffaloes or hogs, which they immediately sacrifice to the gods to appease their wrath. A balas costs a traveller, according to his means and the object of his voyage, from forty to one hundred gulden (3, 3s. 6d. to 7, 18s. 4d.). It is probably from the Chinese that the Ot-Danoms have borrowed their custom a truly barbarous one of shutting up their daughters, at the age of eight to ten years, in a narrow and dimly-lighted cell. The poor captive is never permitted to emerge from it, on any plea whatsoever ; nor even to receive the visits of her father, her mother, her brothers, her sisters. For six or seven dreary years she sees only the slave at- tached to her service ; and her sole occupation is to weave mats. Her limbs, deprived of all exercise, do not acquire their natural development ; and her feet, more particularly, remain small and stunted a defor- mity according to all natural canons of taste, but a H8 AN OLD TRADITION. beauty in the eyes of Ot-Danom or Chinese connois- seurs. She gains her freedom when she reaches a marriageable age, and returns to the world without like a spectre from the dead, pale as a waxen effigy, her trembling limbs scarcely able to support her at- tenuated body, and ignorant as a new-born child. On this occasion a slave is immolated, that the body of the young girl may be sprinkled with the victim's blood. The object of this seclusion, according to Dr. Schwaner, is to render famous the unhappy prisoner, and, by pre- serving her daintiness of figure, to enhance her attractions in the eyes of wealthy suitors. It is called bakouwo. ABOUT THE OT-DANOMS. Among the Ot-Danoms dogs are held in high honour, both during their lives and after their death. It is believed that they have souls ; and an old tradition describes them as descended from Patti-Palangkiang, the king of animals. One day, when this monarch, poorly clad, was presiding gravely over the assembled beasts, the scantiness of his costume provoked all who were present into an immense outburst of laughter. Offended by this want of respect, he leaped into the midst of his subjects, assailed them roughly, and put them to flight. This escapade was followed by his deposition ; and thereafter he nourished so great a hatred towards the rebels that his sole happiness con- sisted in hunting them savagely. His descendants, it would seem, have inherited his rancour ; and this cir- cumstance it is which constitutes their chief merit in the eyes of the Ot-Danoms. When a dog goes the way of all flesh, his master inters the carcass, wrapped in fine cloths, near his house ; deposits rice and salt in HOW NOT TO DRESS. 149 the grave, and spreads rice and salt over its surface, with the view of influencing the gods to conduct the departed spirit into the paradise of dogs. Finally he erects a rude monument in memory of his faithful ser- vant, adorning it with the jaws and heads of the deer and wild boars which have fallen before the prowess of the faithful animal. DRESS OF THE OT-DANOMS. The Ot-Danoms are tattooed, like the Niadjous and other Dyak tribes ; but among the former the designs are more graceful, as well as more complicated, and cover the whole body with the exception of the face. Formerly, tattooing was a much simpler affair ; it has attained its present perfection under the directions of the bilians, who profess to know how and in what manner the sangsangs or angels ornament themselves. The legs of the women are tattooed from the knee to the root of the foot. They wear a short and narrow apron (pagne), generally of a blue colour, fastened round the loins by a girdle of ratan or a leather belt. To the left side of the belt or girdle numerous strings of large pearls are attached, frequently replaced by wreaths and tufts of fragrant herbs, interwoven with pearls and tinsel. Their other ornaments for, like all the daughters of Eve, they show a great fondness for personal decoration are copper bracelets and earrings as large as a five-shilling piece, wrought with much elegance, and incrusted with tiny plates of gold. Their appear- ance is often heavy and ungraceful, owing to a super- abundance of health and strength. Yet their activity is marvellous, and here, as everywhere in Borneo, the rudest labours are undertaken by the women. 150 WEAPONS OF THE OT-DANOMS. They manufacture various kinds of tissues with fila- ments of bamboo and leaves of trees dyeing them of different colours, particularly blue, for which they evince a strange partiality. The men, like their spouses and sisters, wear brace- lets of copper or of shells, and cover the chest with cornelians suspended to one, two, three, or even four crescent-shaped ornaments of gold. Besides the tala- wang, or wooden buckler, about three and a half feet long, by fourteen inches wide, and the rnandau, or two-handed sword, recently introduced among them, they make use of the following weapons and military engines : the sarbacan, provided with an iron- wood point, and employed as a pike ; the quiver, filled with poisoned arrows, which they discharge through the sar- bacan as a blow-pipe ; the ordinary lance ; and finally the trident, with which they transfix their fish. To sum up : as to their character, the Ot-Danoms are less honest and truthful than the Niadjous, and coarser and more dissolute. Greedy in the extreme, they hesitate not at the most unblushing extortion. In short, their morality, like their civilization, is at the lowest ebb. Here we may conclude our sketch of the Kahayan, which has guided us through the dense shades of the virgin forest, and introduced us to a tribe of the Dyaks little known to the European traveller. At the mouth of the Hulelet we turn our back on the Kahayan, and direct our steps towards the Roungau. In the rainy season the Hulelet is navigable to a certain distance for prahus of moderate burden ; but it is now dry, and we must be content to fare a-foot. HILLS AND VALLEYS. 151 So we breast steep braes, and descend into deep valleys, and cross a multitude of little streams which feed the larger river in the days of plenty, until we reach its well- heads. Then the acclivities grow steeper, though never high enough to deserve the name of mountains. We see numerous huts and houses, isolated, or grouped in little villages ; these have all been temporarily erected for the cultivation of the rice-fields or working of the gold-mines. We have travelled now beyond the bor- ders of the forest. Following the banks of the Tahoyan, one affluent of the Roungan, we penetrate into a broad, rich, and beautiful valley, which charms us with its verdant slopes and leafy bowers. Once more we take to the water, and our light canoe, threading its way through rocks and shallows, and descending cataracts, carries us down to Kotta-Menihau, where our exploration may be regarded as at an end. It is an easy journey from thence to the Dutch settlements. IN THE INTERIOR. To complete our picture of Borneo, we shall borrow a few touches from the graphic pencil of Madame Ida Pfeifier,* who visited the island in 1852, and from the west coast gallantly penetrated to the mountain-masses which form the watershed of the interior. It was the 22nd of January when she embarked on the Lupur, resolving to ascend it as far as the Sekamil chain. Almost at the outset she crossed the borders of civilization, and entered the territory of the indepen- dent Dyaks, among their fiercest and most savage tribes. * Pfeiffer, "Mon Second Voyage autour du Monde," traduit de 1'Allomand. Paris, 1867. Hachette & Co. 152 MADAME PFEIFFER'S EXPERIENCES. Her narrative runs as follows : We arrived at an early hour in the afternoon at one of the Dyak houses, with the intention of passing there the night. All my efforts were addressed to the task of securing the confidence and cordiality of the people. I shook hands with both men and women ; I took my seat in their midst ; and while looking on at their work, placed their children on my knee. Afterwards I betook myself to the forest in quest of insects. Thither I was immediately followed by a whole troop of the natives, and particularly by companies of chil- dren. They were all anxious to see where I was going, and of what use was the net for catching butterflies, and the case which I always carried with me to receive my insect treasures. They were as curious to observe my gestures and movements as I was to study theirs. They began to laugh at me when they saw how eagerly I hunted the smallest gnat or butterfly ; but when I made them understand that they were useful in the preparation of medicines, they ceased to laugh, and most of them assisted in the chase. It was necessary to tell them something within the reach of their intelli- gence. On my return at nightfall, I found that a small corner, covered with very clean mats, had been pre- pared for me. The good people arranged themselves near me, but touched nothing ; the respect in which they held everything belonging to me was so great, that whenever I quitted my seat they also quitted theirs. I could leave everything open without fear ; even when I was eating they removed to a distance, so as not to incommode me. My usual meal was rice and kuri, or curry. Unfortunately, this soup was THE PLACE OF HONOUR. 153 always prepared with rancid cocoa-nut oil. But hunger always prevailed over my disgust; and when the smell was very strong I held my nostrils, while I swallowed the unsavoury food as quickly as possible. At noon the next day we halted among another tribe. But here the aspect of things was not very lively, for the men had returned from a campaign only two days before, bringing with them a human head, which hung with others, already completely dried, above the hearth where they prepared my couch. This, I must tell you, is the place of honour always offered to a guest ; I found it a very unwelcome dis- tinction, which it was not possible to refuse. The dry skulls which the current of air jostled against one another, the horrible stench arising from the recently decapitated head, the appearance of the men, still excited, and restlessly revolving around my bed though the fire was extinct, deprived me of all desire and all possibility of sleeping. I was glad when the morning came, that I might resume my voyage. At every stroke of the paddles our route became more interesting ; rich plantations of rice succeeded to marshes, and afar, against the horizon, the bright, fresh hills became visible. Among the trees which lined the lofty banks were some mag- nificent giants, one hundred and ten to one hundred and thirty feet in height ; others were adorned with spreading branches, which stooped and stretched across the water in arches of verdant foliage. Upon the tall erect trees with few branches we often discovered large bee-hives. To seize the honey, the natives construct a kind of bamboo ladder, which 154 ATHLETIC EXERCISES. they fasten at intervals of two feet to the trunk of the tree ; often it is eighty feet long. This day, as yesterday, I rested in a Dyak hut. At night, I had scarcely flung myself on my couch before I was aroused by a lively, cadenced clapping. Up I got, and hastened to the spot whence came the sounds ; there I perceived a man lying motionless on the ground, while half a dozen young people were drumming on his body, in due succession, with their hollow palms. I supposed he was dead, and was astonished at the ceremony performed upon his corpse ; but after a while the pretended dead man sprang to his feet amid loud shouts of laughter from his young companions : the game was ended. So far as I could understand, such exercises are regarded as very useful for the body, giving it both suppleness and strength. Dating on the 25th of January, Madame Ida Pfeiffer writes : The loveliest scenes are constantly presenting them- selves to my gaze. The mountains multiply, and rise higher and yet higher. Some of the peaks appear to be fully 3200 feet in altitude. Travelling in Borneo reminds me in some degree of the interior of Brazil. Here, as there, virgin forests with a luxuriant vegeta- tion ; here, as there, occasional clearings and some scattered huts ; the only difference is, that Borneo is intersected by an abundance of rivers and rivulets, while a part of Brazil has only a few very rapid torrents. What might not be done with both countries, if they were inhabited by a peaceful and industrious popula- tion ! Unfortunately, such is not the case. The natives are few in number, and are more partial to war and CONVERSING WITH DYAKS. 155 destruction than to cultivation and work ; while the climate is unfavourable for European colonists. A curious characteristic of Borneo is the deep brown colour of its waters. Some travellers would explain this peculiarity as due to the quantity of leaves falling from the dense woods which overhang the rivers, and these leaves rot in the water. I should be inclined to contradict this opinion ; for in the island of Ceram, which is as rich in woods and rivers as Borneo, the water is transparent as crystal. Moreover, Humboldt observed this peculiarity of colouring in the American rivers ; which, he adds, are peopled neither by fish nor crocodiles. This is not the case at Borneo, where there is no want of crocodiles or fish ; or, at least, of caimans, which are closely akin to crocodiles. In the evening I found myself seated anew in the midst of a troop of Dyaks, with whom I conversed as well as I could, through the medium of a Malay inter- preter. I inquired if they believed in a Great Spirit, and if they had any idols and priests. So far as I could comprehend, they believed in nothing, and had neither idols nor priests. On the first point, it is possible I may have misunderstood them ; as to the second, I never saw priests or idols among them. On the other hand, rajahs are plentiful enough ; this pomp- ous title is given to every chief, even if his tribe should be composed only of a few dozen families. This reminds me of Hungary and Poland, where everybody who is not a serf is styled a gentleman. In the midst of this conversation, a boy brought in a wild pigeon which he had caught in the woods. Immediately one of the men seized it, twisted its neck, plucked a few of the longest feathers from its wings, 156 A STORM IN BORNEO. and threw it into the fire ; before the other feathers were half burned he removed it, took off its head and the tips of its wings, and gave them to a child standing beside him, who had been awaiting them impatiently. Then he replaced the pigeon in the fire, but only for a few moments ; again withdrew it, and tore it into six portions, which he distributed among as many children. As for himself, he did not taste a morsel. I had already had occasion to remark with what affection the Dyaks treated their children. Madame Pfeiffer, in the course of the same evening, was the eye-witness of a terrible storm, accompanied by a deluge of rain such as is seen only in tropical climates. In the midst of the din and fury of the tempest, a gust of wind extinguished all the fires. Her entertainers and herself sprang from their seats to take refuge in the interior of the hut, expecting every moment that a second paroxysm would strip the leaf-thatched roof that protected their heads. But violent things are generally of brief duration, and so it was with this Bornean hurricane ; in half an hour it subsided. The Dyaks had set to work with their gongs, and to sing their loudest ; probably in the hope of appeas- ing and dispelling the tempest. They continued the hurly-burly until daybreak, their songs reminding Madame Pfeiffer of the howling of wolves. She was able to distinguish two melodies as chanted by a single voice ; after which all the others took up the refrain as a chorus. Four young persons, meanwhile, joined in a dance, moving with a slow and measured step around the fireplace, to which were suspended the in- MADAME PFEIFFER IN DANGER. 157 evitable skulls. Each of the choregraphists carried a large stick in her hand, with which she beat the ground violently at every step. At intervals they spat upon the skulls ! Strange to say, neither song nor dance had any reference to the storm, but were part of a festival held in celebration of an approaching expedition. Our intrepid traveller was generally unmolested, but on one occasion she was reminded that the experiment of travelling in savage countries is not without its dangers. She was sitting in her prahu, wnen a canoe ap- proached, manned by four Dyaks, who were lustily rowing down the stream. Without pausing near her, they warned her, in passing, to retrace her steps with all speed, because the neighbouring tribe, living up the river, were then starting on what the American Indians would call the " war-path." They themselves had escaped, they said, only because they had not been seen. Madame PfeifFer was much alarmed by this in- telligence. To approach so near the huge inland mountains,' so near that she would reach their foot that very evening, and to be compelled to retrace her steps ! After- deliberating with one of her crew, a trusty sailor, who could speak a little English, she resolved to risk everything, and continue her voyage. He was a man of rare courage ; and it was his opinion, moreover, that the Dyaks, though accustomed in their expeditions to massacre everybody who fell into their hands, would nevertheless respect the flag of Rajah Brooke, which Madame Pfeiffer carried by permission. She acted on his advice, hoisted the flag, and, dis- 158 SURROUNDED BY DYAKS. regarding the remonstrances of the rest of the crew, gallantly continued her course. She had not long re- sumed her voyage when she suddenly heard the shrill discord of the war-song, accompanied by gong and drum. Her crew rowed into the midst of the thick reedy growth which lined the river-bank, and for a while lay still ; but on ascending a little higher up the river, and turning an abrupt angle, they saw before them a spectacle which might have intimidated the bravest. On a small promontory were assembled a hundred savages, carrying high narrow bucklers, and brandishing lances in their hands. On catching sight of Madame Pfeiffer's canoe, they uttered the most furious shouts and indulged in the most terrible gestures. " I trembled, and was seized with fright," says our heroic voyager ; " but it was too late to think of re- treat. Firmness alone could save us. Opposite the promontory, in the middle of the river, was a sand- bank. My valiant cook sprang on this bank, and carried on with the rajah a negotiation, of which, un- fortunately, I did not understand a single word, for it was couched in the Dyak language. And I was still further alarmed when I saw the savages suddenly leap from the height on which they had assembled, throw themselves into their canoes, plunge into the river, and by dint of rowing and swimming reach my prahu, which they surrounded on all sides, and eventually escaladed. I thought my last moment had come. But, happily, at this crisis I heard the voice of my cook, who, forcing his way through the crowd, shouted from afar that they gave us welcome. And, at the same time, a small white flag, as a sign of peace, was raised upon the height. DYAK HOSPITALITIES. 159 " They who have never seen death so near can form no idea of the anguish I had endured, or of the joy I experienced on finding myself saved." It was necessary, however, that the heroic woman should subdue her emotions and exhibit the utmost calmness; this is the only means- of imposing upon the savage. However, her cook was right ; and Rajah Brooke's flag was the talisman which had secured her safety. Not only did the Dyaks abstain from doing her any harm, but, on the contrary, they showed the warmest friendship, and persuaded her to disembark and visit their encampment. She found their tents pitched behind the hill. On the ground were spread out their provisions ; especially a great quantity of flat cakes of all sorts of colours, white, yellow, brown, black, so appetizing in appearance that our traveller accepted them eagerly. But when she tasted them great was her disappointment ! The white cakes were made of rice flour and the yellow of maize ; but the flour was coarsely ground, and kneaded up with a quantity of rancid fat which is extracted from the kawan fruit. The brown and black cakes were coloured by a mixture, more or less considerable, of a black syrup extracted from the sugar-cane, or the juice of different palm-trees. Fearful of offending her hosts, Madame Pfeiffer was compelled to swallow a few mouthfuls of the unsavoury compound, though it was an act of heroism equal to any she had previously achieved ! Among the male Dyaks who surrounded her, several wore suspended at their side the small basket destined to receive the head of a conquered enemy. The basket was elegantly woven and decorated with shells, as well 160 CROSSING THE MOUNTAINS. as festooned with tresses of human hair. This last ornament is allowed only when the owner of the basket has already distinguished himself by carrying off a ghastly trophy of his prowess. Resuming her voyage, Madame Pfeiffer reached the central mountains, when she abandoned her prahu, and placed herself under the guidance of a rajah to whom she had been commended by Rajah Brooke. Preparations were immediately made for crossing the mountain range. A strong escort was organized and armed ; a large supply of provisions collected ; and on the 28th of January the expedition started. Madame Pfeiffer soon found, however, that she had no laborious ascent to make of tremendous acclivities. The mountain-mass is broken up by numerous winding valleys which never attain any very considerable ele- vation, and through these the travellers took their way. The road was difficult, traversing an uninterrupted series of brooks and marshes and stagnant waters, in which they frequently waded knee-deep. From the crest of the hills, the views they obtained amply recompensed them, however, for all they underwent. In the dis- tance accumulated a threefold chain of mountains in- tersected by deep valleys and noble rivers, and buried in the sombre shadows of impenetrable forests. Occa- sionally they came upon a small clearing, where a little colony of industrious Dyaks had planted rice, and maize, and sugar-cane, and ubi, a kind of sweet potato. Whenever the expedition approached such an oasis it halted, and a party of scouts was despatched to examine the ground, "interview" the Dyaks, and request permission to pass. Twice the travellers were "THE INKY LUPUR. 161 actually compelled to traverse the very houses of the settlers climbing up one side by means of a ladder, and in the same way descending on the other side. It should be understood that the Dyaks purposedly leave the forest-growth untouched in the neighbour- hood of their dwellings, to render more difficult the approach of an enemy. They leave open only a few narrow paths, which can be barricaded without diffi- culty. And a Dyak village has, therefore, very much the appearance of a block-house. On reaching a place called Beng-Kellang-Bocnot, our adventurous and heroic explorer embarked on the river Batang-Lupur, in a small boat manned by a single rower! The river trails its dark brown thread through the green shadows of untrodden woods ; its channel is very narrow, and frequently so contracted by the trees which line its banks as almost to render the passage of a boat impossible. Sunlight never penetrates through the dense canopy of leafage ; around you prevails an aw- ful silence, only now and then interrupted by the crack- ling of a branch as an ape leaps from tree to tree, or the flutter of the wings of a bird as it rises in the air. Acheron itself could not be more sombre or more still. The rustle of a falling leaf breaks painfully on the ear; and the traveller almost dreads to breathe, so great is the influence upon him of the intense tranquillity. The inky Lupur loses itself, after a course of about thirty miles, in Lake Bocnot, a basin of water about four miles across. Do not suppose that this lake re- sembles the lovely tarns of Cumberland or the lochs of the Scottish Highlands. It lacks their picturesque brightness and variety of aspect ; and is filled with the trunks of trees, close set one against another, (637) 11 162 THE MOUNTAIN DYAKS. not uprooted, and scattered here and there, but, on the contrary, clinging to their old foundations, though dead, leafless, branchless, like palisades planted by the hand of man. A broad natural canal, about half a mile in length, leads into another lake, named Tao- rnan, which is twice the size of that of Bocnot, and shines with limpid and translucent waters. All around these two singular basins open up the depths of great wooded valleys, bounded on the east by lofty mountains, with picturesque soaring peaks, upwards of 4000 feet in height. From Lake Taoman the explorer entered upon the river Kapuas, the largest of the rivers of Borneo. Its width may be at this point about half a mile, but varies greatly, because, like most of the Bornean rivers, it has no clearly defined banks. Its waters frequently overflow into the neighbouring forests. The dangers of the voyage ceased when Madame Ida Pfeiffer arrived at Sintang, a small town with a population of about fifteen hundred, the residence of a sultan. The Dyaks occupying the territories which she had yet to traverse were under the rule of Malay chiefs, to whom letters of recommendation were pro- vided by the Sultan of Sintang. Of the independent Dyaks she gives, on the whole, a favourable character. She found them generally honest, kindly, and reserved ; and in these respects she places them far above most savage races. She could leave her boxes open, and be absent for hours; on her return not the most trivial article was missing. They would sometimes ask for anything which spe- cially won their fancy, but never pressed their request after a single refusal They were never importunate THEIR HABITS AND MANNERS. 163 or troublesome. It may be objected that to cut off heads and preserve skulls is not exactly a mark of natural goodness ; but the reader must remember that this deplorable custom is rather the result of a pro- found ignorance and a dreary superstition. Let us place as a counterbalance, their truly patriarchal domestic life, their morality, their reverence for their parents, and their affection for their children. The free Dyaks live a much easier, a much more joyous life, than those who are under the Malay yoke. They live on the products of their own industry : rice and maize, tobacco, and sometimes sugar-cane and the ubi. They use largely the oil of the kawan fruit, collect in the woods the resin of the dammar, which they turn to account for torches and lamps, and are rich in stores of sago, ratans, and cocoa-nuts. With some of these articles they carry on a considerable trade in exchange for brass, glass beads, salt, red cloth, and other objects, which they value highly, set- ting them far above gold. They have also numerous herds of swine and large flocks of poultry, but eat them only on festival occasions and at their marriage- feasts. Many travellers have put before us the free Dyaks as handsome men, as savage Adonises, in fact, well-featured and strong-limbed. Madame Ida Pfeiffer, looking at them with a woman's eye, can speak of them only as a little less ugly than the Malays. Gene- rally of medium height, their arms and legs are spare and shrunken ; and they have little or no beard, for they carefully remove the hair from the face. They are distinguished from the Malays by two agreeable 164 THE DYAK RELIGION. characteristics : the nose is not so depressed, and tho cheek-bones are not quite so prominent. The conjugal arrangements of the Dyaks are all made in favour of the man, who may have as many wives as he likes, though he has the good sense in most cases to content himself with one. Divorces are very rare, and quarrels are still rarer ; and their morals are incomparably purer and loftier than those of the Malays. The youth of the two sexes are kept strictly separate. The young girls sleep in the inner apart- ments ; the young men in the verandah, or else in the chief's hut. The Dyaks do not intermarry with other peoples ; if any of their women espouse Chinese hus- bands, they are regarded as no longer belonging to the tribe. The Dyaks have no written language, and, appar- ently, not even a religion. On the latter point, how- ever, opinions are divided. Temminck asserts that they have a religion, and describes it as closely resem- bling "fetichism." The god Djath, he says, governs the sublunar world, and the god Sangjang reigns over hell : these gods they represent as wearing the human form, but as invisible ; and they invoke them by sprinkling rice on the ground, and offering various sacrifices. In their houses, he adds, wooden idols are often met with. Other travellers attribute to them the profession of a kind of Pantheism ; and if their accounts may be credited, the Dyaks, like the ancient Greeks, believe in gods above the earth and gods under the earth, as well as in innumerable good and evil spirits, of whom Budjang-Brani is unquestionably the most wicked. All DYAK CEREMONIES. 165 diseases are caused by the intervention of demons, and all misfortunes ; no wonder that the Dyaks should endeavour to drive them away by shouts, and shrieks, and the discordant gong. There are not a few writers who affirm that the Dyaks cherish certain vague ideas of a Divine Unity and of the immortality of the soul. Turning to the graphic and evidently honest pages of Madame Pfeiffer, we find that she neither endorses nor confutes these various opinions ; but, as the result of her own explorations, positively declares that she saw neither temples nor idols, priests nor sacrifices, in any of the tribes she herself visited. On the occasions of their births, marriages, and funerals they perform certain ceremonies, but these are without any religious character. Usually, on such occasions they kill fowls as well as hogs. When concluding treaties of peace, they slaughter some swine, but do not eat them. A few tribes burn their dead, and preserve the ashes in hollow trees ; others inter them in almost inaccessible localities, such as the summits of lofty mountains ; others bind the corpse to the trunk of a tree in the position in which St. Peter was crucified that is, with the feet upwards and the head downwards. THE SULTAN OF SINTANG. But we must resume our brief narrative of Madame Pfeiffer' s experiences. She was admitted to an interview with the Sultan of Sintang, being unquestionably the first European lady to whom such an honour had been accorded. The sultan sent for her in a " large and beautiful bark" manned by twenty rowers ; and on her arrival 166 THE SULTAN OF SINTANG. at the palace, a house built of timber, she was received with the sound of music and the firing of cannon. The pathway was lined with mats for some hundreds of paces. The sultan himself met his guest half-way, and nothing could exceed his politeness except his embarrassment. Never before face to face with an European lady, he was at a loss how to behave ; and, moreover, his Mohammedan prejudices were a sad stumbling-block. He summoned up courage, however, to give her the tips of his fingers, and host and guest, balancing themselves almost as if they were dancing, repaired to the divan or presence-chamber, separated from the vestibule only by a wooden balustrade about two feet high. It contained a massive table half- covered with a coloured cloth, a chair, and, in default of a second chair, a chest. The sultan and the lady took their places at the table ; his ministers, and the great personages of his little kingdom, were seated on the ground, along the walls. Outside gathered a curi- ous multitude, pressing forward to obtain a glance at the stranger. The letter of recommendation which Madame Pfeiffer had received from the Rajah of Beng-Kellang-Bocnot was brought in on a silver dish ; the bearer glided on his knees, and with his eyes closed, to the sultan's feet, took his hand, kissed it, and presented the dish. The sultan ordered his chief minister to take the letter, open it, and read it. This ceremony over, refreshments were served up : they consisted of tea without milk or sugar, various delicacies, and fruits displayed upon more than twenty tiny but elegantly-shaped plates of crystal. All who were present took part in the repast. A RETUKN VISIT. 167 Afterwards the sultan conducted his guest into the women's chamber. Here too a place of honour was accorded to her. The sultan then presented to her his wife and daughters, all of the true Malay type. Clothed in simple sarongs, which reached half-way up the bosom, their appearance was neither royal nor attractive. No conversation could take place between persons who understood not a word of each other's language, and Madame PfeifFer soon afterwards took her leave. the sultan promising to place at her dis- posal a sampun, or large boat, for the voyage to Pon- tianak. The next day this obliging potentate, accompanied by his father, paid the European lady a return visit, which she thus describes : " The sultan's father wore a small cap and vest embroidered with gold brocade ; these were the first precious objects, in the way of garments, of which I had seen a Bornean prince possessed. Independently of the ordinary beauties peculiar to his race, this man was also gifted with a remarkable goitre, the second which I had seen in the island ; the first, considerably inferior in size, adorned the neck of the wife of the Rajah of Beng-Kellang-Bocnot. " This distinguished society showed not one-half of the reserve which the head-hunters, the Dyaks, had so admirably displayed. They opened and rummaged everything ; threw themselves like wild beasts on my little travelling-bag, which unfortunately I had left open. I had but a pair of eyes, and could not guard all my riches, especially the insects and reptiles, or preserve them from mishap. The sultan's father at last seized on my bag and its contents ; and pointing 168 AT PONTIANAK. with his finger to my comb, tooth-brush, and soap, asked me their various purposes. At the end of my explanation, their utility appeared to him so obvious that he calmly announced his intention of keeping them for himself. However, before he left, I re- covered them with little ceremony, and gave him in exchange some small images and other trifles." TO PONTIANAK. The voyage from Sintang to Pontianak, occupying three days and a half, was successfully accomplished, without adventure or misadventure. At Pontianak, the capital of one of the Dutch resi- dencies, Madame Pfeiffer ascertained the existence of an evil far more fatal in its results than any of the cruel or abject customs she had observed among the savage Dyaks ; an evil which, unfortunately, the Dutch Government, far from attempting to root up, employs all its influence to promote : we refer to the use of opium. One evening Madame Pfeiffer visited, in the Chinese quarter, six small public saloons for opium-smoking. The smokers were seated or lying on mats, with little lamps by their side for kindling the fatal pipe. It is curious to see how dexterously the smoker, although sodden and confused and half-intoxicated, contrives to remove from the leaf to which the opium is attached the most imperceptible fragment ! The visitor to these places of public poisoning sees before him a hideous spectacle. Here a poor wretch, dizzy and tottering, rises, and endeavours to drag himself homeward, but lacks the strength to get THE OPIUM-POISONl 169 further than the threshold ; there lies another, appar- ently lifeless, and utterly incapable of thinking even of his home ; yonder sits an unhappy creature with pale and hollow cheeks, and lustreless eyes, and trem- bling body, too poor to smoke until all consciousness is lost. A few persons are stimulated by the opium into a condition of extraordinary gaiety ; they laugh and chatter until exhausted, when they fall back upon their couches, to enjoy, if they may be believed, celes- tial dreams. The most painful part of it all is, that he who has once tasted the poison can seldom conquer its fascination. He becomes an inveterate opium-eater or opium-smoker. Nothing can save him ; with rapid steps he passes down the steep slopes of destruction. His body shattered and enervated, he can neither work nor think ; he is incapable of every effort, except so far as he can gain from the deadly drug a new stimu- lant and a temporary life. Madame Pfeiffer, to her great surprise, in the opium- houses of Pontianak met with women as passionately addicted to the body and soul destroying drug as men. Sad to say, the greater portion of the revenue of the Dutch Government in Borneo is derived from the sale of opium. CHAPTER VI. THE STORY OF SARAWAK. ITS POPULATION. E cannot quit Borneo without a glance at the settlement which will be inseparably con- nected with the name and fame of Sir James Brooke. Sarawak, including its dependencies, stretches from Cape Datte to Kidorong Point a coast-line of about three hundred miles and, according to Mr. Spenser St. John, presents every variety of surface, from the low fertile soil along the banks of the river Sarawak to the lofty mountains which rise in every direction throughout the various districts. No country could possess more abundantly the gift of fertilizing waters. At least three of its rivers are of the first class the Rejang, the Sarawak, and the Batang-Lupur ; among those of the second class we may name the Samarahan, the Sadong, the Kalaka, and the Bintulu ; and among those of the third class three are very important the Mato, the Oya, and the Muka because they traverse the great sago-producing districts, where for miles and miles the land is covered with forests of that precious palm. What shall we say of the inhabitants of Sarawak, numbering in all perhaps about 300,000 ? That they INHABITANTS OF SARAWAK. 171 form a motley aggregate, speaking many languages and more dialects, and distinguished by a wondrous variety of customs and costume, morals and manners. First there are the Malays, who may be found in little clusters along the banks of almost every river and creek, but assembled in the largest numbers at the capital, Kuching. Next come the Chinese, always industrious and pacific always displaying a remarkable faculty of accommodating themselves to new conditions. They concentrate chiefly in Sarawak, but some are now working gold on the Batang-Lupur river ; and they abound in every place where commerce 'is possible and profit can be obtained. The Indian races are but scantily represented. The Land Dyaks occupy a portion of Lundu, with the interior of Sarawak, Samarahan, and Sadong. The Sea Dyaks include the Sibuyans, who are scat- tered through the various districts ; and the inhabitants of the Batang-Lupur, the Serebas, Kalaka, and the branch streams on the left-hand bank of the Rejang. The Milanaus are settled on the lands that border on the mouths of the Rejang, the Oya, the Muka, the Bintulu, and other and smaller streams. Towards the interior of the districts which lie be- tween the Rejang and the Bintulu live the tattooed races of the Kanowits, Pakatans, and Punons ; while the Kayans occupy the Balui country, as the interior of the Bintulu and the Rejang is called. It was over all these races that Sir James Brooke, by his moral force, resolution, courage, and prudence, obtained a truly imperial ascendency, welding them together into one peaceable and prosperous community. 172 SIR JAMES BROOKE'S ADVENTURES. This extraordinary man was born in Bengal, of English parents, in 1803. After receiving a careful education in England, he entered the East Indian army, served with distinction in the Burmese war, but, being severely wounded, returned to England " on furlough," and spent some time in travel on the Continent. On the voyage out to rejoin his regiment he was shipwrecked, and consequently was prevented from arriving in India before the expiration of his furlough. According to the rule then in vogue, all his appoint- ments lapsed, and Brooke abandoned the service. KAJAH BROOKE'S ADVENTURES. Possessed with a burning spirit of adventure, and capable of forming and carrying out great plans, he was led by various circumstances to conceive the idea of exterminating the terrible piracy that was then the scourge of the Eastern Archipelago, and of making known the civilizing influence of England in the rich islands that stud the Indian seas. Purchasing a small yacht, he manned it with a crew of twenty picked seamen ; and after a three years' cruise in the Mediterranean which developed the good qualities of his followers, secured their confidence in their commander, and proved the seaworthiness of his little vessel he sailed for Sarawak in October 1838. On arriving there, he found the rajah, Muda Hassim, the uncle of the Sultan of Borneo, engaged in war with some of the independent Dyaks. Brooke lent him the assistance of his genius, his men, and his artillery ; and, in return, was appointed Rajah and Governor of Sarawak. Thus he unexpectedly found himself in a position to put into practice the theories he had formed HIS RULE AT SARAWAK. 173 of the most effectual modes of governing and civilizing the inferior races. His rule was severe, but it was just. In his personal intercourse with the natives he was always courteous, but dignified. He has ex- pressed, in simple language, the objects he steadily kept in view :* " My intention, my wish, is to develop the [resources of the] island of Borneo. My intention, my wish, is to extirpate piracy by attacking and breaking up the pirate towns ; not only pirates direct, but pirates in- direct. I wish to correct the native character, to gain and hold an influence in Borneo proper ; to introduce gradually a better system of government ; to open the interior ; to encourage the poorer natives ; to remove the clogs on trade ; to develop new sources of com- merce. I wish to make Borneo a second Java. I in- tend to influence and amend the entire Archipelago, if the British Government will afford me means and power." In some of these objects he succeeded : probably, if the British Government had supplied him with " means and power," he would have succeeded in all. He estab- lished a settled government ; provided the machinery for a strict administration of laws which he set about enacting ; instituted free trade ; and developed com- merce. The barbarous custom of " head-hunting," to which we have had frequent occasion to allude in the foregoing pages, he declared to be a crime punishable with death; and he put it down in the territories sub- ject to his influence. Then he began his campaign against the pirates of the Archipelago, in which he was energetically supported by Commodore (afterwards Templar, "Private Letters of Sir James Brooke," ii. 42. 174 HIS WAR AGAINST PIRACY. Admiral) Keppel. The stern policy which he unfalter- ingly pursued raised against him, however, in England, the enmity of the pseudo-philanthropists, who think that revolutions can be effected with rose-water, and bestow a cheap benevolence on the savage and bar- barian. Brooke, therefore, returned to England, to vindicate his character and conduct. The inquiries of a Royal Commission declared him guiltless of the charges brought against him by maudlin agitators ; and the heroic adventurer who, almost unaided, had founded a new state, and rendered the navigation of the Archipelago comparatively free from danger re- ceived at the hands of his countrymen the welcome he deserved. The University of Oxford honoured him with the degree of D.C.L. ; and in 1848 he was created a Knight Commander of the Bath. He was also ap- pointed Governor of Labuan an island near Sarawak which the British Government had purchased and Commissioner and Consul-General to the Native States in Borneo. In this twofold capacity he resumed his crusade against the Eastern pirates ; not, be it said, without ex- posing himself to the attacks of his enemies in England. That he behaved with unrelenting severity must, in- deed, be admitted ; but then the savages whom he hunted down were steeped in the blood of the innocent and weak, and had been guilty of the most atrocious crimes. We shall gain some idea of the nature of the work he undertook from the following narrative, which describes his expedition against the piratical Serebas. " This," he says, "is the real story : "The action was a night action. The pirates were entirely surrounded, and after their first panic dashed BATTLE AND VICTORY. 175 at Point Marrow, and engaged our native prahus guard- ing it ; but failing to force a passage at once, they ran their prahus ashore to the number of ninety, and fled into the jungle. In this encounter several of our people were wounded, and one or two killed ; and had the pirates succeeded in their object, they would have escaped. The remains of this large fleet, trying to escape by sea, were cut up by the steamer Nemesis. The total loss during the night engagement, on the part of the pirates, was three hundred men killed : two hundred and fifty of these were killed by the steamer, and fifty by the natives. They could not resist the steamer ; but they did engage the natives, and would not have abandoned their prahus so easily excepting from the dread of being attacked from the Kaluka side. " I held firm in the Kaluka river with my division, to prevent any of the pirates ascending it, or returning along the coast to the Rejang. I was ill of the ague when the fight commenced, and during the whole night. Information was brought me that a desperate struggle had taken place between the pirates and our people at Point Marrow, and rumours were rife that we had been defeated. During this time there was no water for our heavy boats between the Kaluka and Serebas without going a very long way round, and leaving the Kaluka open. The morning assured us of victory. Now, will any one state at what time the action should have been discontinued ? Should all the pirates have been allowed to escape, or half of them, or a quarter ; and by what patent means is an action to be stopped at any given moment ? " In the morning, when the result was known, our 176 THE SLAUGHTER-ROLL. fleet gathered together, and with the pirate prahus captured we moved up the river, passed the Rambas, and ascended the Paku, thus drawing off our force as much as possible from the pursuit. Had I taken pos- session of the neck of land between Serebas and Palo, the three thousand men must have fought and been killed, or have died of starvation. Had we gone up the Rambas, we might have killed the fugitives by hundreds. As it was, some thirty to fifty of these fugitives were killed by our stragglers : but how was this to be avoided ? Stragglers and loose fish are to be found with every body of men, whether European or native. And the number thus killed appears to me exceedingly small, considering the circumstances ; and our natives behaved with great humanity. " We had one prahu from Sadung manned by Malays, every one of whom had lost a near relative, killed by the Serebas during the year. " The total number of the pirates destroyed was eight hundred ; namely Killed during the action by the steamer and English boats... 250 Killed by the natives during the action 50 Killed -after the action, when on their way home 50 Died in the jungle, or after reaching their homes. 450 ~800 " I know very well," adds Sir James Brooke, " that these people are to be reclaimed by punishment and by kindness, and there is no chance of their being ' exter- minated ; ' though there is a certainty of all the poorer and peaceful Dyak tribes being exterminated if the Serebas and Sakarran are countenanced by the English philanthropists, and encouraged to slaughter their neigh- bours." ATTACKED BY THE CHINESE. 177 At all events, Rajah Brooke's policy was crowned with success ; and though success does not in all cases justify the means employed, it does not seem possible that by any milder course could the destruction of the murder- ous and treacherous piratical communities, which had so long been the scourge of the Archipelago, have been accomplished. A FIRM RULE. In 1857, the rajah's constancy and courage were exposed to a very severe trial. He had been super- seded by the British Government in the governorship of Labuan, but by arrangement with the Sultan of Borneo retained his position as Rajah of Sarawak. Here, at night, he was attacked in his house by a large body of Chinese, who had been stimulated into rebellion by his persevering efforts to prevent the smuggling of opium. It was with the greatest difficulty, and only through his imperturbable calmness, that he effected his escape, swimming across a creek, and obtaining shelter in a friendly quarter. The Chinese burned his house and committed great depredations ; but when day dawned the indomitable rajah collected some faith- ful natives, attacked his enemies, drove them from point to point, and finally forced them back into the jungle, where those who had escaped the sword per- ished miserably of starvation. Soon after this event Brooke returned to England and endeavoured to awaken the public mind to a per- ception of the great advantages, moral and material, which England would secure by the annexation of Sarawak. He made numerous converts to his views, and an influential deputation waited upon the late Earl of Derby, then (November 1858) head of the (037) 12 178 PEOSPERITY OF LABUAN. ministry, to secure their adoption lay the British Government. Failing in this, they raised a public subscription to compensate Sir James Brooke, who was broken in health, for his invaluable public ser- vices. Sir James continued to reside in England until his death, in 1868. His nephew succeeded him in the rajahship of Sarawak, and Labuan has continued to be governed as a Crown colony. There can be no doubt that Sarawak flourished greatly under the rajah's vigorous and enlightened rule. Its population rose from 1,500 to 15,000, and its trade from a paltry sum too small to be recorded to 250,000 per annum. The natives gained in peace, prosperity, and personal security. Before the advent of this able Englishman, the country was in a completely anarchical condition, Malays were fighting against Malays, and Dyaks against Dyaks. The latter drank deeply of the cup of wretchedness : they were exposed to continuous exactions, their children were carried off, their vil- lages attacked and plundered by piratical hordes, and their troubles were frequently increased by want, approaching almost to famine. An independent observer says, that as far as material comfort adds to the happiness of man, the Dyaks had every reason to be thankful. They enjoyed whatever they earned. Their sole pajunent to the Government was a tax of four shillings on every family, and other exaction they had none. Nor were the Malays less benefited by the change of system. Formerly the chiefs employed a crowd of relations and followers to collect their taxes and oppress the aborigines ; and, as is the case at Brunei now, if the master demanded a bushel of rice, the man insisted upon two more for DEVELOPMENT OF TRADE. 179 himself. Such a system was as demoralizing as it was unjust; injustice, indeed, must always be demoralizing; and it was better, and in the long run more profitable, for these men, as well as more honest, to adopt a legiti- mate course of trading. The impetus given by the rajah's colossal energy was so great, that in this desert place a thriving com- mercial community rapidly sprang up. Trading prahus were built, and voyages undertaken which developed a race of bold and skilful seamen. Singapore, Java, the Malay Peninsula, and even a portion of Sumatra, were brought within the range of their enterprise. Hence came wealth, and the comforts that flow from wealth, as were evidenced in the improved dwellings, the larger prahus, the gayer and costlier dresses, and the amount of gold ornaments worn by the women. In all their intercourse with Europeans, the Sarawak traders showed their entire confidence in the truth of the maxim that "Honesty is the best policy." An Englishman, who greatly facilitated their commercial transactions by loans of money at a rate unusually moderate for the East, where usury has always flourished, told Mr. Spenser St. John that, in all his wide experi- ence, he had met with only one Malay desirous of de- frauding him. He never demanded receipts, but con- tented himself with an entry in his book; yet, except in that one instance, all his loans were repaid. The following anecdote of a Malay trader affords an interesting illustration of this remarkable integrity. The man borrowed a small sum and went on a voyage ; in a month he returned, stating he had lost both prahu and cargo, and asking to be entrusted with double the amount of his first debt. His request was complied 180 SECRET OF BROOKE'S SUCCESS. with. Again he returned in misfortune, having been wrecked close to the river-mouth. He came to the Englishman, explained his loss, but added, "You know I am an honest man. Disasters cannot always happen to me; lend me sufficient to undertake another voyage, and I will repay all I owe you." The merchant hesi- tated a moment, and then lent him the whole amount demanded. The Malay was absent for three months ; but his smiling face, when he once more presented him- self before his creditor, showed that his perseverance had been appropriately rewarded. He paid off the principal portion of the debt at once, and soon after- wards discharged the remainder. The secret of Sir James Brooke's success was his undeviating firmness. He never wavered ; never in- clined to one extreme or the other; was always inflex- ibly just, and always treated the natives as intelligent and reasoning men, capable of appreciating an honest and steadfast rule. Moreover, he associated with him in the government the principal local chiefs ; and wisely availed himself of their knowledge of the feelings and sympathies of their countrymen, before attempting the reform of their institutions, imposing new taxes, or introducing any changes in the system of levying the old. Nothing appears more striking, we are told, to those who have resided long in Sarawak, than the extra- ordinary change which appears to have been effected in the character of the people. It may be admitted that Sir James Brooke had to work upon a soil which was naturally good, or these results could not have taken place ; but when we obtain an insight into the previous savagery and lawlessness of the men whom he AN ANECDOTAL ILLUSTRATION. 181 converted into faithful followers and peaceable citizens, we cannot refuse our admiration to a work so glorious, carried out by a genius at once so prudent and so bold. The following anecdote is told of one of the chiefs whom the rajah associated with him in the govern- ment, a man whom he found to be brave, loyal, and unshaken by the greatest temptations. Once when he was cruising near Datte Point he observed a small trading-boat passing out at sea. He immediately gave chase, and on nearing her noticed that the crew were all armed, and making ready to defend themselves. His followers thereupon advised him to sheer ofF, but he insisted on pushing alongside; and leaping on board the trading prahu with his kris gleaming in his hand, he struck such terror into its crew that they ran below. They were six in num- ber ; but he killed them all ; and was wont to say, when narrating the circumstances, that one only did he pity, and him because, while the others in their agony called on their mothers, he alone asked mercy of his God. It may well be said that few men would have under- taken the responsibility of governing a country with such materials ; but, to render the task easier, some excellent men were found among the multitude, and a retired pirate makes generally a good servant, if the energies that led him to adopt a roving life can be directed into a legitimate channel. THE CHINESE COLONY. Mr. Spenser St. John gives an interesting account of the Chinese colony in Sarawak, but our limits pre- 182 A CHINESE COLONY. elude us from doing more than borrow his description of one of their gold-workings. Here the industrious immigrants had embanked the end of the valley so as to form a large reservoir of water about a quarter of a mile in length. The works were very neatly constructed, being completely faced with wood towards the water, and partially timbered on the outside, to enable it to resist the heavy rains which fall in Borneo. A ditch, about four feet broad, was cut from the reservoir to- wards the ground which had been selected as likely to afford a good yield of gold ; and a well-made sluice- gate was constructed in the dam, to supply the ditch with sufficient water ; minor sluice-gates to the main ditch answered the same purpose for the smaller ones. When all was prepared, the sluice-gates were opened, and the earth thrown into the ditch ; whereupon the rush of water carried away the sand and mud, while the gold particles sank to the bottom. At intervals of three or four months the ditch is cleaned out, the residuum carefully washed, and it is generally found that the yield of precious metal affords a tolerable profit to the workmen. Such a system of working gold is, however, very wasteful ; and we may reasonably expect that by this time some of the economic processes adopted in the Australian gold-fields will have been introduced into Sarawak.* * An English company has recently obtained cessions of territory in Borneo (1878), which may lead to important results. tarttb. THE AUSTEALO-MALAY ISLANDS. CHAPTER I. THE TIMOR ISLANDS. GENERAL ENUMERATION. jjUR survey of the Eastern Archipelago now brings us to the second or eastern division of its many islands ; a division differing from the former in the character of its fauna and flora, in the general aspect of its scenery, in the racial distinctions of its inhabitants. We seem to enter upon a new world ; and so we do, to a certain extent, for the Asiatic influences will no longer be visible, and those of the vast Australian " island-conti- nent " will be found to predominate. The change, how- ever, is not abrupt and sudden ; it forces itself upon our attention more and more strongly as we pursue our eastward course : but, at first, in Lombok, the westernmost island of the Timor group, it is very slight and gradual ; so that the breezes of Asia seem to mingle, as it were, with those of Australia. The Timor Islands include Lombok, Sumbawa, 184 DESCRIPTION OF BALI. Flores, and Timor, with several smaller islands. We shall visit them in their geographical order, beginning from the west; but, first, it will be convenient to notice Bali, which lies between Java and Lombok, and in which we see the earliest signs of the transition already spoken of. BALL The island of Bali lies between Java and Lombok ; separated from the former by the Strait of Bali, from the latter by the Strait of Lombok, neither being above a mile and a half or two miles in width. On the north it is bounded by the Sea of Java ; on the south, by the Indian Ocean. Its length nowhere exceeds eighty-five miles ; its breadth, fifty-five. Its superficial area may be computed at seventeen hundred square miles ; so that it is about ten times larger than the Isle of Wight. In shape, it may be compared to a wedge or triangle, of which the apex points towards Java. It is a very charming and attractive island, with a warm climate, a rich vegetation, and beautiful scenery. Of these advantages the inhabitants have made such excellent use, that it may well be entitled "The Garden of the Eastern Seas." A gently undulating plain extends inland from the sea-shore for ten or twelve miles, where it is bounded by a range of well- wooded hills. Above these runs a lofty volcanic ridge, bold, impressive, majestic, culminating in the peak of Agoeng, 11,326 feet a volcano which, after a long interval of repose, burst into activity in 1843. This ridge continues the " belt of fire " which starts from the Bay of Bengal, and through Java and Sumbawa extends, in an irregular curve, to the LIFE IN BALI. 185 Aleutian Islands. The mass of mountains which thus forms the centre of Bali is broken up by numerous beautiful and well-watered valleys, which, as well as the littoral plain, show every sign of careful cultiva- tion. Houses and villages, embowered in feather} 7 clumps of cocoa-nut palms, tamarinds, and other fruit- trees, diversify the landscape, which gains a character of its own from the extensive rice-grounds that spread in every direction, and are watered by a labyrinth of tiny artificial canals. In and out wind lanes as green as those of England, though with a different green- ness ; the principal hedges being formed of prickly cacti, interspersed with the cocoa-nut tree, which is the tree of the island. Bali, as we have seen, has a strong volcanic character, and is subject to violent earthquakes. In 1815 the shock was so disastrous, that a mountain near Bleling was shivered into fragments ; and in the inundation which followed upwards of twelve hundred persons, it is said, lost their lives. On the south, however, the island assumes a calcareous formation, and the well-known and extensive headland of Taffel- hock (or Table-point) is a mass of chalk. LIFE IN BALI. The principal products are rice, cotton, and coffee ; the principal animals, cattle and buffaloes, besides a hardy but small and meagre-looking breed of horses. Tigers haunt the forest-growth in the northern and western districts ; and the woodlands are inhabited by large numbers of monkeys, swine, and goats. Birds are many ; and here is found a weaver-bird, the Ploceus hypoxanthus, which builds of leaves and 186 INHABITANTS OF BALI. twigs a curious bottle-shaped nest, very compact and ingenious. This bird is found no further east. Orioles are also met with, and starlings and thrushes ; most of them being Javanese species, but some indigenous to the island. Of the former we may name, the black grasshopper - thrush ;* Malay oriole ;f Java ground - starling ;J Java three-toed woodpecker ; rosy barbet.|| None of these, it is to be observed, are found in Lombok, though the two islands are separated only by a narrow arm of the sea. The animal life and vege- tation of Bali are exclusively Asiatic. Indeed, Zollinger asserts that it does not contain a single animal which is not to be found in Java. The Strait of Lombok, there- fore, as we have stated in our introductory remarks, defines the boundary between Asia and Australia. The inhabitants of Bali are partly Chinese arid partly Malays ; but the former, having adopted the native costume, are distinguishable only by their flatter features. The aborigines are a handsome race, taller and manlier than the Javanese, but their love of opium is rapidly bringing about their degradation and decay. Unlike the Dyaks of Borneo, they yield an unqualified submission to their chiefs. Their prevailing religion is Hinduism. Their chief manu- facture is cotton goods, which the women make and sell for the benefit of their husbands. Other in- dustries are the working of iron, and of gold trinkets, and the manufacture of pottery. Tobacco, rice, and cocoa-nut oil are the .principal exports; and the commerce in these is not only considerable, but 'is annually increasing. * Copsychus amoenus. t Oriolus Horsfleldi. J Sturnopastor jalla. Chrysonotus tiga. II Megalasma rosea. LOMBOK DESCRIBED. 187 The costume of the natives would have delighted Horace, being simplex munditiis. It consists of a piece of cotton cloth wrapt about the loins ; to which is added a sabak, or cloak, on state occasions. The richer natives, however, adopt a modification of the Malayan dress ; and all wear suspended their huge krisses, or curved knives, with handsome handles of polished wood, ivory, or gold. The houses of the poor are built of mud, sun-baked, and covered with reeds ; those of the princes, of bricks, which are well- cemented, as if laid by a British bricklayer. The villages are arranged in squares, or parallelograms, and enclosed by high mud walls. We now cross the Strait of Lombok, and enter the Australian world. LOMBOK* Though differing so widely in its animal and vegetable life, Lombok resembles Bali in its physical character consisting of a low shore and sloping plains, from which rise single detached conical mountains, and clusters or ranges of such mountains, of greater or less extent. Here, as at Bali, the island seems to rise on all sides towards one great culminating peak, Goenong Rindjanie, 12,000 feet; but a closer in- spection reveals that its heights form two distinct ranges, and that Goenong is included in the more extensive, which occupies the north, east, and west of the island, while a smaller range skirts the southern coast. Lombok, in the chain of Indian islands, is the next link to Bali, from which it is separated by the * Or Lombock : native name, Tanak Sassak. 188 AT AMP AN AM. Strait of Lombok ; the Strait of Alass, or Alias, divides it from Sumbawa ; on the north it is washed by the Sea of Java ; on the south, by the Indian Ocean ; the surrounding waters attaining a depth of more than one hundred fathoms. It is forty-eight miles in length, and thirty-seven in breadth ; its total area, 1C 68 square miles. In shape it is a rhomboid, with a long and narrow peninsula which projects boldly from its south-west angle. The chief town of the island is Ampanam, on the shore of the Lombok Strait, of which Mr. Jukes fur- nishes some particulars.* The houses are all built on posts about six feet high, which are sometimes left open, and sometimes fenced round as an enclosure for poultry or as a rice-store. Steps, or a ladder, give access to the front door. The houses are generally constructed of bamboo ; the apartments being parti- tioned off by curtains or screens of split bamboo, and the floor covered with clean mats. Along the ceiling racks are suspended, and these are filled with muskets, spears, agricultural and fishing implements. The same writer describes a view which he obtained of Lombok Peak. The level beams of the sun tinged with gold all the crags and ridges of the lower mass, kindling into bright relief the furrows which broke up its sides, and lighting up the summit-cone with a deep and intense glow, as if it shone by its own light. All the valleys and ravines were hung with dark woods, which mantled also round the base of the cone, and seemed to struggle up it in irregular wavy lines, de- fining the slight hollows in its declivities. The upper part of the cone, as well as the sharp ridges and peaks * J. B. Jakes, "Voyage of H.M.S. Fly," ii 209-212. IN THE INTERIOR. 189 and mounds of the lower mass, were brown and barren, except where relieved by a clump of pine-like trees. No lava-streams were anywhere visible, having pro- bably been long covered up by dust and ashes, as in the volcanoes of Java. Though somewhat lower than the Peak of Teneriffe, it has a much more majestic appearance when viewed from the north side, as it seems to start more abruptly from the sea; while on the south, where it rises from a comparatively low and level country, it is richly wooded, and thus excels Teneriffe in beauty still more than in grandeur of aspect. A PEEP AT THE INTERIOR. The bay or roadstead of Arnpanarn is of consider- able extent, and well sheltered from the south-east monsoon. Its beach is of black volcanic sand, and very steep ; at all times a heavy surf thunders upon it, and this, occasionally, is so formidable that no boats can attempt to pass it. Often it will increase during perfect calms to as great a force as if a gale were blowing, and so suddenly that it dashes to pieces any boat which an imprudent native may have left upon the shore. No doubt this surf and swell are caused by the rolling billows of the great southern ocean, as they endeavour to whirl and rush through the strait into the Javanese Sea. The country in the neighbourhood of the capital is interesting, particularly to the naturalist. For insect life is superabundant, and the entomologist may cease- lessly impale magnificent specimens of coleoptera or libellulae, beetles or dragon-flies ; and the ornithologist will meet with birds of great variety and beauty. The great horned lamellicorn beetles are roasted on 190 TALK ABOUT BIRDS. the embers and eaten by the natives; while the dragon-flies, fried in oil, and served up with onions and preserved shrimps, are regarded as a "dainty dish." The orioles here are of a rich orange colour, and perched among the glossy foliage present an at- tractive spectacle. The woods re-echo with the shrill scream of the white cockatoo, and with the peculiar " quaich-quaich " of a bird resembling the Australian friar-bird, Tropidorhynchus Timoriensis. Then there are large green pigeons by scores in the clustering palm-groves, where they feed upon the young fruit ; and the thickets are haunted by beautiful kingfishers, which dart to and fro like coloured flames of fire. On the bending branches, in more open and sunny places, the Australian bee-eater takes its stand, ready to dart upon any unfortunate insect that comes near it, and looking very gay in its bravery of emerald plumage, with collar of rich brown and sapphire blue. In the dry plains covered with thickets, more par- ticularly at the fall of the leaf, the naturalist meets the beautiful ground-thrush, Pitta concinna, hopping about in quest of insects, and on the least alarm flut- tering into the dense covert, or taking a flight close along the ground. At intervals it utters a peculiar chirp of two notes, which is easily learned, and by repeating which the curious fowler will often decoy the imprudent bird into his snare. The upper part of the ground-thrush's fragile little body is clothed in a rich soft green plumage ; the head is jet black, with a stripe of blue and brown over each eye ; bands of bright argentine blue mark the base of the tail and ornament the shoulders; while the under parts exhibit THE MOUND-BUILDERS. 191 a delicate buff, with a stripe of rich crimson and a black border on the belly. Lombok must be one large aviary, judging from the narratives of voyagers and the enthusiastic records of naturalists. We read of grass-green doves, crimson and black flower-peckers, large black cuckoos, golden orioles, metallic king-crows, green fruit-pigeons, the fine jungle-cock, the dainty yellow zosterops, until we are filled with a desire to see them in their habit as they live, and basking in the sunshine of a tropical sky. Here, too, is to be found the mound-maker, Megapodius Gouldii; and this is the first place where he presents himself to the traveller whose course is eastward. He belongs to a small family of birds, the- ..', Megapodidee, which are found only in Australia and " the surrounding islands, extending no further, how- ever, than the Philippines and North- West Borneo. The Megapodidse are allied to the gallinaceous birds (such as our barn-door fowl), but differ from them and from all the feathered tribes in never sitting upon their eggs, which they bury beneath large mounds of rubbish, sticks, stones, earth, rotten wood, dead leaves, fre- quently six feet high and twelve feet in diameter, and leave to be hatched by the sun's heat or the internal fermentation. The manner in which the materials are accumulated is very curious. According to Mr. Gould, the bird does not use its bill, but always grasps a quantity in its foot, throwing it backwards to one common centre, and in this way clearing the ground for a considerable distance so completely that scarcely a leaf or a blade of grass is left. The eggs, each measuring fully four inches in length, are deposited, not side by side, as with other birds, but at a distance 192 THEIR NESTS AND FOOD. of nine inches or a foot from one another, and are buried with the large end upwards, at a depth of two to three feet. After an interval of six weeks the chicks, strong and full-fledged, suddenly make their appearance, one after another, and begin to seek for food ; at night they scrape holes for their places of retirement, and lying down in them are covered over by the old birds. Similar mound-like nests are constructed by the tallegalla, or brush-turkey of Australia ; by the leipoa, or native pheasant ; by the megapodius of New Guinea ; and by the Megapodius tumulus, or jungle- fowl. The Megapodidse feed upon fallen fruit, centipedes, snails, earth-worms, and the like. To the inexperi- enced traveller the pyramids of rubbish which they construct in the woods and thickets are a puzzle and a wonder ; and he usually refuses to be enlightened when informed that they are the work of a bird. It seems to him impossible. THE BOTANIST IN LOMBOK. The botanist will find much to interest him in Lombok. If he comes fresh from Europe, its jungle- growth will furnish him abundant occupation, though his researches may be somewhat obstructed by its thorniness. For the shrubs are thorny ; and the creepers are thorny ; and Mr. Wallace asserts that even the bamboos are thorny. It is not easy, there- fore, to make your way through so formidable a tangle ; though it contains many remarkable forms of vegetation. To the monkeys it offers no obstacles, for they spring nimbly from bough to bough of the THE GTJBBONG PALM. 193 tall trees that rise above the prickly growth, throwing fruit at one another, or at the human intruder, and chattering incessantly upon subjects known only to themselves. Here is to be seen the lofty cylindrical trunk, about a hundred feet high and seven to ten feet in circum- ference, of the gubbong or gebang palm, a species of corypha, which forms a prominent object in the plains of Lombok. This is one of the fan-palrns, and when in full foliage presents a noble spectacle. The leaves drop off when the flowers appear ; and these appear but once in the entire lifetime of the tree, forming a magnificent terminal spike, on which are produced masses of a smooth round fruit of a green colour, about an inch in diameter. As soon as the fruit has fallen the tree dies, but remains standing a .year or two before it comes to the ground. The fruit is much relished by the green fruit-pigeons and by the monkeys. The natives use the leaves for thatching or plaiting into mats and baskets ; and a kind of sago is obtained from the trunk. We must avail ourselves of Mr. Wallace's fascinating pages, to give our readers an idea of the careful culti- vation which prevails in the island of Lombok. He says that he rode through this "strange garden" utterly amazed, and hardly able to realize the fact that in this remote and little known island, from which all Europeans except a few traders at the port are jealously excluded, many hundreds of square miles of irregularly undulating country have been so skilfully terraced and levelled, and so permeated by artificial channels, that every portion of it can be irrigated and dried at pleasure. According to the more or less (637) 13 194 CULTIVATED GROUND. rapid slope of the ground, each terraced plot consists in some places of many acres, in others of a few square yards. " We saw them/' writes Mr. Wallace, " in every stage of cultivation : some in stubble, some being ploughed, some with rice-crops in various stages of growth. Here were luxuriant patches of tobacco; there, cucumbers, sweet potatoes, yams, beans or Indian com, varied the scene. In some places the ditches were dry ; in others little streams crossed our road, and were distributed over lands about to be sown or planted. The banks which bordered every terrace rose regularly in horizontal lines above each other ; sometimes rounding an abrupt knoll and look- ing like a fortification, or sweeping round some deep hollow, and forming on a gigantic scale the seats of an amphitheatre. Every brook and rivulet had been diverted from its bed, and instead of flowing along the lowest ground, were to be found crossing our road half- way up an ascent, yet bordered by ancient trees and moss-grown stones so as to have all the appearance of a natural channel, and bearing testimony to the remote period at which the work had been done. As we advanced further into the country, the scene was diversified by abrupt rocky hills, by steep ravines, and by clumps of bamboos and palm-trees near houses or villages ; while in the distance the fine range of mountains of which Lombok Peak, 8000 feet high, is the culminating point, formed a fit background to a view scarcely to be surpassed, either in human interest or picturesque beauty." Except the mountain-ranges, a patch of forest here and there, and some few square miles of jungle, Lom- bok appears to be one large garden, for the cultiva- THE GUN MANUFACTURE. 195 tion of which human industry has exhausted all its resources. The island is covered with vegetation in extraordinary profusion; it creeps even to the rugged rim of the crater of Goenong, while every river-bank is clothed with trees and shrubs. Rivers and streams are numerous : on the west coast, the Bakong, Babak, Barnjok, Djankok, and Antjar; on the east, the Poetiu, Melanting, Sagara, Labuan, Pejoct. The staple produce of the island is rice ; but it also exports cattle, raw cotton, tallow, tobacco, timber, dried beef, cocoa-nut oil ; maize and coffee ; oranges, mangostems, bananas, and other tropical fruits. THE GUNMAKERS OF LOMBOK. The inhabitants are Malays ; and famous for their skill in the manufacture of krisses and firearms. They are governed by a number of chiefs, who acknowledge the authority of a sovereign head the Rajah of Lom- bok known to his subjects as the Anak Agong, or " Son of Heaven." The gun manufacture carried on in Lombok is truly remarkable. A visitor to a gunmaker's works sees nothing more than an open shed, with a couple of mud-forges ; where the fire is kept up to the re- quisite intensity by means of a rude bellows, consisting of two bamboo cylinders, with pistons worked by hand. These move very easily, having a loose stuff- ing of feathers thickly set round the piston so as to act like a valve, and produce a continuous blast. Both cylinders communicate with the same nozzle, and one piston rises while the other falls. For anvil, the gunmaker uses an oblong piece of iron embedded in the ground ; his vice is attached to the stump or 196 AT LOMBOK. root of a neighbouring tree. These, with a few files and hammers, constitute his stock in trade; and yet he contrives to turn out weapons of really exquisite finish. The barrel is twisted, and often six to seven feet in length, with a proportionably large bore. But how is this bore made ? Ask a native gunmaker, and he will reply, " With a basket of stones." The answer seems an enigma, until you see the 'modus operandi. The basket is made of bamboo, with a pole about three feet long thrust through the bottom, and kept in its place by a few sticks tied across the top with ratans. The bottom of the pole has a ring of iron, and a hole in which four-cornered borers of hard iron can be inserted. The barrel to be bored is buried upright in the ground ; the borer is worked into it ; the top of the stick or vertical shaft being held by a cross-piece of bamboo with a hole in it, and the basket filled with stones until the requisite weight is obtained.* Two boys are employed to turn the bamboo round. The barrels are made in pieces of about eighteen inches long, which are first bored small, and then welded together upon a straight rod of iron. Borers of in- creasing diameter are used in succession until the proper calibre is arrived at ; a task which occupies about three days. Of course, the process here described entails a great waste of time and labour, but it results in the production of a very efficient and even handsome weapon. SUMBAWA. Continuing our course to the westward, we arrive at the island of Sumbawa, which measures about one * Wallace, " The Malay Archipelago," i. 168, 10P VOLCANO OF TOxBORO. 197 hundred and sixty miles in length, from east to west, and about thirty-one miles in extreme breadth. It is curiously irregular in shape, the sea having apparently moulded it according to its fancy, and cut out innumerable inlets, coves, bays, and creeks. The coast-line is consequently broken up by bold headlands and rugged promontories, and bordered with a fringe of little isles, which at one time must have formed a portion of the mainland. On the north it is washed by the Sea of Java ; on the south, by the billows of the Indian Ocean ; the Strait of Alass separates it, on the east, from Lombok ; and that of Sappi, on tHe west, from the islands of Comodo and Flores. Its appearance from the sea is picturesque in the extreme : it rises in a mass of mountains, topped by the grand volcanic summit of Tomboro, 8940 feet; the upper portions being naked and rugged, the lower hidden in luxuriant vegetation, just as if the island of Arran had been half-buried in the depths of an immense tropical forest. Tomboro or Tumboro has neither cone nor peak, but a summit-crater of great dimensions. It is famous in connection with the terrible eruption which occurred in April 1815. The roar travelled as far as Sumatra in one direction, Celebes in another, and the Moluccas in yet another, or over an area of eight hundred and forty miles ; while in Java it was so distinctly heard that many of the inhabitants supposed it was an explosion of one of their own volcanoes. Ashes were ejected in such quantities as literally to darken the air; and they fell so heavily in Lombok that many people were buried under them, while a famine was caused by the injury they did to vegetation. In the 198 VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS. eastern part of Java, at a distance of three hundred and forty miles, they accumulated to a depth of several inches ; and it is asserted that they fell even in Sumatra, eight hundred and forty miles away, being carried thither by the violent winds. In Sumbawa itself the ravages effected by this awful outburst were most disastrous. In the district of Tomboro alone twelve thousand persons perished ; and the sea, as is usual on the occurrence of these eruptions, rising several feet, and overflowing the shore, many houses were de- stroyed by the inundation, and numerous lives lost.* Another outbreak occurred, but not on so terrible a scale, in November and December 1836. The soil of Sumbawa is wholly volcanic ; it is generally fertile, and produces rich crops of rice, as well as an abundance of the usual tropical fruits. The valleys are well-watered, and their slopes clothed with palms. Here grows the Csesalpinia sappan, a tree about forty feet high, with prickly branches, which yields the sappan -wood of commerce, useful for com- municating a red dye to cotton goods. * Gunong Api, or the " Burning Mountain," attains an elevation of 5800 feet It is not a single but a double peak ; the north-western, from the deep valleys and ravines in its sides, being apparently the older. On the eastern flanks of this peak, near the shore, is an ancient crater, the outer wall of which has been washed away by the sea. For one third of the distance from the shore to the summit some shrubbery is found in the bottoms of the deep ravines ; but the remaining two-thirds are completely barren. At its top it terminates in a small truncated cone. The south-west peak seems of recent formation ; for, from crest to base, a continuous sheet of fine volcanic materials extends, scored only by narrow grooves with perpendicular sides. When viewed in profile, the unbroken sweep of its flanks from the sea to the summit is singularly majestic, and it is difficult to believe that it has not been modelled by art. Not far distant lies Gillibunta, the highest point of which is not more than twelve hundred feet above the sea. Its Javanese name means, "The one that stops, or disputes, the way." It is nothing more than the ruin of an old crater, whose north-western wall has disappeared beneath the sea. The voyager, as he passes through the strait which divides Sumbawa from Comodo, obtains a full view of the lonely volcanic rock, mute memorial of mighty con- vulsions in the far distant ages ! and is able to discern the southerly direction of successive overflows of lava. Bickmore, " Travels in the Eastern Archipelago." ANIMAL LIFE IN SUMBAWA. 199 EDIBLE BIRDS -NESTS. Deer and swine thrive vigorously ; and the natives also breed cattle, goats, and fowls. The Sumbawese horses are much esteemed throughout the Archipelago : EDIBLE BIRDS'-NESTS. there are two breeds, that of Tomboro and that of Bima ; the latter is chiefly reserved for exportation. On the coast edible birds'-nests are procured in large quantities, and a considerable commerce is done with 200 EDIBLE BIRDS -NESTS. them. They are the nests of a species of swallow peculiar to the Indian Islands, Hirundo \Colocalia] esculenta, and by the Chinese are regarded as a luxury for the table. In shape they resemble the nest of the common swallow ; in external appearance and consist- ency, a fibrous, ill-concocted isinglass.* The nests of all the swallow tribe in these countries, says Crawfurd, are more or less formed of this singular substance. The common house-martin uses it partly, and partly the ordinary materials, such as hair, straw, and feathers. There can be no doubt that it is elaborated from the food of the bird, and hardened by exposure to the air. The nests are collected from the rocky caverns that abound on the coast, and, very frequently, cannot be obtained without danger. Sometimes the caves can be approached only by a perpendicular descent of hundreds of feet, by ladders of bamboo and ratan, over a sea dashing furiously against the rocks. When the cavern-mouth is gained, the perilous task of securing the nests must frequently be performed by torchlight ; and the adventurer penetrates into recesses where the slightest slip of the foot would hurl him into the boiling surf below. There are birds' nests and birds' nests. The finest are the whitest that is, those taken before the young birds are hatched ; dark-coloured nests are of inferior quality. Again: the best are obtained in the deepest caves ; which, according to the natives, are inhabited by the cock-bird only. The Chinese dis- tinguish tliree sorts or classes : and those of the first, pas-kat, fetch upwards of 5, 18s. per pound weight; those of the second, chi-kat, about 4, 1 5s. ; and those * Crawfnrd, " Indian Archipelago," iii. 431. ABOUT SUMBAWA. 203 of the third, tung-tung, about 3, 5s. They are supposed to be a stimulant and a tonic ; but it is probable, as Crawfurd says, that their most valuable quality is their harmlessness. Sumbawa can boast of considerable mineral wealth, though little has been done to develop it. Gold has been found in the districts of Sumbawa and Dompe ; sulphur and saltpetre are plentiful in Bima. On the coast of Papekat, the pearl-oyster is the object of a small fishery. Sumbawa is under Dutch rule, but is divided into six native states, each governed by its own rajah : Tomboro and Sumbawa on the north ; Bima on the east ; and Dompe, Sangar, and Papekat on the south and west. Though an island of deep interest to the geologist and the botanist, it is but imperfectly known ; and the foregoing particulars indicate the extent of our information respecting it. The inhabitants are Malays, and their religion is a modified Mohammedanism. A small island lying off the north-east coast of Sumbawa, named Gunong Api, must here be men- tioned, because it contains a volcano,* and forms a * It is recorded that the inhabitants of Java, when the eruption began, mistook the explosion for discharges of artillery ; and at Jokyokarta, a distance of four hundred and eighty miles, a force of soldiers was hastily despatched to the relief of a neighbouring port that was supposed to have been attacked by an enemy. At Surabaya gun-boats were ordered off to the relief of ships which were defending themselves, it was thought, against pirates in the Madura Strait ; while at two places on the coast boats put off to the assistance of "ships in distress." For five days these reports continued, and on the fifth the sky over the eastern part of Java grew dark with ashy showers, so that the sea was invisible. According to Mr. Crawf urd, the sky at Surabaya did not become as clear for several months as it usually is in the south-east monsoon. Eastward, the din of the explosion reached the island of Ternate, near Gilolo, a distance of seven hundred and twenty geographical miles, and so distinctly was it heard that " the resident sent out a boat to look for the ship which was supposed to have been firing signals." Westward, it was heard at Moko-moko, near Bencoolen, or nine hundred and seventy geographical miles. 204 ABOUT FLORES. part of that " belt of fire " to which we have adverted as one of the most remarkable physical features of the Indian Archipelago. We now pass on to FLORES, the native Ende or Mdndjirai, which measures up- wards of two hundred miles in length, and between Dr. Junghuhn thinks that, within a circle described by a radius of two hundred and ten miles, the average depth of the ashes was at least two feet ; a circumstance which will enable the reader to form some idea of the tremendous character of the eruption. The mountain, in fact, must have ejected several times its own mass : and yet no subsidence has been observed in the adjoining area, and apparently the only change is, that during the outbreak Tomboro lost two-thirds of its previous height. The rajah of Sangir, a village about fourteen miles south-east of the volcano, was an eye-witness of the eruption, and thus describes it : "About seven p. M., on the 10th of April, three distinct columns of flame burst forth, near the summit of the mountain, all of them apparently within the verge of the crater ; and, after ascending separately to a very great height, united their tops in the air in a troubled, confused manner. In a short time the whole mountain next Sangir appeared like a mass of liquid fire, extending itself in every direction. The fire and columns of flame continued to rage with unabated fury until the darkness, caused by the quantity of falling matter, obscured it about eight p. M. Stones at this time fell very thick at Sangir, some of them as large as a man's two fists, but generally not exceeding the size of walnuts. " Between nine and ten P.M., showers of ashes began to fall ; and, soon afterwards, a violent whirlwind ensued, which overthrew nearly every house in the village of Sangir, carrying along with it their lighter portions and thatched roofs. In that part of the district of Sangir adjoining the volcano, its effects were much more severe ; it tore up by the roots the largest trees, and whirling them into the air, dashed them around in wild confusion, along with men, houses, cattle, and whatever else came within the range of its fury. The sea rose nearly twelve feet higher than it had ever been known to do before, and completely destroyed the only small spots of rice-lands in Sangir, sweeping away houses and everything within its reach. " The captain of a ship despatched from Macassar to the scene of this awful phenomenon, stated that, as he approached the coast, he passed through great quantities of pumice-stone floating on the sea, which had at first the appearance of shoals, so that he was deceived into sending a boat to examine one, which, at the distance of less than a mile, he supposed to be a dry sand-bank, upwards of three miles in length, with black rocks projecting above it here and there. Mr. Kickmore speaks of seeing the same kind of stones floating over the sea, when approaching (in April 1865) the Strait of Sunda. He adds : Besides the quantities of this porous, foam-like lava that are thrown directly into the sea by such eruptions, great quantities remain on the declivities of the volcano, and on the surrounding mountains, much of which is conveyed by the rivers, during the rainy season, to the ocean. Bickmore, "Travels in the Eastern Archipelago," pp. 108-110. SANDAL-WOOD. 205 forty and fifty in breadth, or about one-third smaller than Scotland. It carries on the great island-chain which connects the Malay Peninsula with the north- east coast of Australia ; and is separated from Timor, east, by several small islands and channels of sea ; from Sumbawa, west, by the island of Comodo, lying between the Straits of Sappi and Mangderai. On the north flows the Flores Sea ; on the south, the Indian Ocean, somewhat broken in its majestic roll by the island of Chandana (or Sandal-wood Island). The narrow passage of Flores Strait divides the island, on the east, from the small isles of Solor and Adenara. Flores is a mass of rugged mountain and deep- wooded valley, sinking into level and open country towards the coast. Little is known of its interior ; and of its products we can say no more than that, like those of Lombok and Sumbawa, they approach the Australian type. It figures but little in the present records of commerce, for the sandal-wood which it once supplied in abundance has now become very rare, through want of economy and absence of cultivation. Of this same sandal-wood (Santalum) there are three varieties, white, yellow, and red, which we have named in their order of value. The tree grows in the mountains. From Java and Madura eastward it is scattered in small quantities throughout the Indian Islands, improving in quality as we proceed eastward, and in Timor being at once most abundant and most valuable. Its Sanskrit name is Cftanduna ; whence Chandana or Sandal-wood Island. It is a beautiful tree, with leaves like those of the willow, regular and tapering branches, and clusters of small red or white flowers. 206 A GROUP OF ISLANDS. There is reason to believe that the forms of animal and vegetable life which inhabit Flores are the same as those which inhabit Timor ; and, therefore, our description of them will be reserved until we arrive at the latter island. Flores is eminently a volcanic island, with a volcanic soil; it contains several volcanic mountains, one of which Lobetobie, 7200 feet is situated near the east coast, and thus it carries on the chain from Java and Sumbawa to Ombay and Wetter; after which it turns northward, by way of Gunong Api, not the Gunong Api previously mentioned, but a volcanic isle in lat. 6 S., to Banda A GROUP OF ISLANDS. The islands or islets lying between Flores and Timor are beginning from the west Solor and Adenara ; Loniblem, Pantar ; and Ombay. Though we can say but little about them, yet a reference seems necessary to the completeness of our survey. ADENARA, which belongs to the Dutch, is separated from Flores by a strait of the same name. It is about as large as the Isle of Wight, or thirty-five miles in length, and fifteen at its greatest breadth ; a romantic island, finely wooded, with beautiful verdant glades, groves haunted by birds of dazzling plumage, hills of considerable elevation, and pleasant valleys. It is well cultivated, and contains several large and thriving villages Adenara, Carma, Labetan Lam an, Lamabulor, and Trony. The Portuguese have a settlement named Woeri. A little to the sguth of Adenara, and still to the east of Flores, lies SOLOR, so situated that it seems to LONIBLEM AND PANTAR. 207 guard the southern entrance to the Flores Strait. It is somewhat smaller than Adenara, and very dissimilar in physical character ; the soil being arid, and imper- fectly cultivated. The inhabitants are of two classes : the inland aborigines, who frequent the mountains ; and the Malays of the coast, who are expert and adven- turous fishermen. To the east of Adenara lies the bold rugged island of LONIBLEM, or Lomblem, with its steep coast washed by the waves of the Flores Sea. To the navigator it is well known as a welcome landmark, or should we say, sea-mark ? its hilly ranges all leading up to a lofty conical peak at its north-west extremity, which is visible in clear weather for upwards of fifty miles. The island measures about fifty miles in length and sixteen in breadth ; and on the north and south is difficult of access. Nothing seems to be known of its interior. To the east of Lomblem, and separated from it by the deep channel of the Alloo Gut, lies PANTAR, which, in its turn, is separated from Ombay by a strait of the same name. The waves of the Flores Sea beat on its northern, and those of the Indian Ocean on its southern coast. The Strait of Pantar extends N.N.E. and S.S.W. for about twenty -four miles, and being a difficult passage, blocked up by several islets, is not much frequented by navigators. It divides the island of Pantar from that of OMBAY, which, on the east, is bounded by the Ombay Passage, separating it from 208 ISLAND OF OMBAY. Timor. The so-called Passage is a channel about eighteen to thirty-five miles wide, which affords the safest and best route for vessels from Europe to China. Ombay is about fifty miles in length, E. by N., and W. by S. ; with bold, steep, inhospitable coasts, and a mountainous interior. It carries on the volcanic chain to Wetter, which lies to the east of it, and to the north of Timor. Its inhabitants are described as a fierce and treacherous race, wearing clothing of buffalo hide, adorned with rings and bracelets of cowry shells, pigs' teeth, and goats' tails. They are reputed to be addicted to cannibalism. The principal products of the island are pepper, cocoa-nuts, rice, fowls, goats, and honey ; and edible birds' -nests are found in great quantities along its cavernous coasts. All the islands we have been describing, from Java eastwards, have extended in a line nearly east by west. On reaching Timor, we find the direction changed ; that great and opulent island, the chief of the Timor group, lies S.W. and N.E., or across the line we have hitherto been tracing. And, consequently, we find that the " circle of fire," or volcanic chain, is not taken up in Timor, but through the island of Wetter, which is situated due north of it, is carried on to Banda and the north. TIMOR. Timor is separated from the island of Ombay on the west by the Ombay Passage, or Timor Strait ; on the north it is washed by the Banda Sea ; on the east and south by the Indian Ocean. Its length is about three ISLAND OF TIMOR. 209 hundred miles, and its breadth about forty miles. High mountain-chains traverse its entire extent; and it has one volcano, Timor Peak, nearly in its centre, which was blown up during an eruption in 1638, and has since been extinct. No recent igneous rocks are anywhere to be found, and whatever may formerly have been the case, it seems now to lie outside the great volcanic chain of the Eastern Sea. Its mountains are chiefly composed of limestone, with red chalk near the base ; clay-slate, porphyry, sienite, and greenstone also occur, but the characteristics of the scenery of the island are those which we generally associate with the limestone formation. The landscapes lack that abun- dance and prodigal beauty which we have noticed in the westward islands, and approximate to the Australian type ; the vegetation is coarser and less varied ; the hills are bare and rugged ; the streams are small, and dry up in summer ; there is no fresh- ness in the valleys, and no magic in the plains. Here and there forests of considerable extent are found, but they are not numerous, and they do not exhibit the richness and exuberant life of those of Borneo. Not that the island is deficient in vegetable products, it has its fertile oases, and yields good harvests of rice, maize, cotton, coffee, wheat, tobacco, sweet potatoes, indigo, pine-apples, mangoes, lemons, papaws, and the like, but the spirit of the scene, as it were, has changed, and Nature seems to have grown more niggardly and reserved. THE FLORA OF TIMOR. In Timor the Polynesian flora seems to meet the Indian, for along with the sago-palm grow the cocoa- (637) 14 210 THE BREADFRUIT TREE. nut and the breadfruit tree. The latter does not extend further to the west. True it is that a variety, with seeds, is a native of every part of the Archi- pelago ; but that is not the true breadfruit, which constitutes the staple food of the inhabitants of the South Sea Islands. The true breadfruit tree, says Crawfurd,* is found wild only in the eastern part of the Archi- pelago, and has been propagated but in recent times in the western. It may be strongly suspected, he adds, that the Malays and Java- nese, in their trading voyages to Banda, to which they chiefly re- BREADFRUIT. sorted f or spices before the inter- course with Europeans, brought it to the western islands. This supposition seems to be supported by the evidence of language. Throughout the Archipelago, the seeded variety is known by a distinct name in each language, as is usual in such cases. In Malay it is called k&lcwui) in Bali timbul, in Macassar gomasi, in one dialect of Amboyna amakir, in another amare, in Banda sukun-utan, or the wild sukun. Now, with the true breadfruit a very different rule prevails. Where it is indigenous and abundant, it is denomin- ated in each language by a distinct name ; but where exotic, by one general name and that name, as will be seen, is borrowed from the language of Banda (and Timor), whence the western tribes, it is probable, brought it in the course of their commercial enterprise. In the languages of the western islands, such as the Javanese, the Malay, the Bali, the Madura, the Sunda, * Oawfurd, " Indian Archipelago," i. 414 VEGETATION OF TIMOR. 211 it is invariably the sukun; but in those of the countries of which it is a native, we find such variations as the following, in the Bugis it is called kakare, in Ternati goma, in one dialect of Amboyna soun, in another suni, and in Banda sukun. We have dwelt upon this fact because it confirms the theory adopted in these pages of the division of the Archipelago into an Asiatic and an Australian section. While insisting on the general approximation of the Timor flora and fauna to those of Australia and the Australian islands, we are well aware, however, that the former are richer and more various than the latter. This is particularly the case with the vegetation of Timor, which preserves a generally tropical character owing, perhaps, to its insular formation, and conse- quently more abundant moisture. In Australia we do not meet with the delicious fruits and precious palms which lend so much beauty to the fertile districts of Timor. From the southern shores of Van Diemen's Land, in lat. 43, to Cape York and the north-east coast of Australia, within 11 of the Equator, the gum-tree (Eucalyptus) communicates to the Australian woods everywhere the same dull olive-brown and monotonous tint. "In some of the valleys near Hobarton, indeed, and in Port Arthur," says Mr. Jukes,* "among groves of tree-ferns, which abound there under groves of immense size, there is a greater resemblance to rich tropical vegetation than can be found at Port Essington, in their stunted woods of eucalyptus, sprinkled only with a few small fan-palms, cabbage-palms, or pandanus trees. Here in * Jukes, "Voyage of H.M.S. Fly" i. 380. 212 VEGETATION OF TIMOR. NATIVE OF TIMOR Timor, on the con- trary, not a gum- i tree is to be seen,* but even in the ; driest and most : barren parts, on the summits of the rocky high land ; near the coast, ; some tokens of the : Tropics might be observed. It would be difficult to get O altogether out of sight of some noble palm, or group of cocoa-nuts or ba- nanas." Timor is distant from the Austra- lian coast about two hundred and fifty miles, and may be regarded as a kind of " half- way house " be- tween Australia and the Asiatic- Malay Islands ; a * Mr. Wallace, however, says that the lower ranges of the hills are everywhere covered with scrubby euca- lypti (The Malay Archi- pelago, vol. i., p. 198). GENERAL VIEW. 213 sort of neutral g ground, where the | vegetation of both j regions inter- j mingles, and some- | thing of the tropi- 1 O -t- =^= cal profusion and Z variety still hap- | pily lingers for the j comfort and delec- | tation of its in- habitants. A GENERAL VIEW OF THE ISLAND. Resuming our general sketch,pre- paratory to a closer examination of the best-known parts, we may note that the woods are fre- quented by legions of apes, and that deer abound ; and among birds, the cockatoos, the lories, and the so- called rhinoceros- birds. A remark- able division of the fauna seems to be made by the NATIVE OP TIMOR, ARMED. 214 NATIVES OF TIMOR. great mountain-chain which traverses the centre of the island. The animals found on the north-west side resemble, generally speaking, those of the western islands ; the animals found on the south-east side, those of Australia. The domestic animals are buffaloes, oxen, horses, sheep, swine, and fowls. Bees thrive in the lowlands, and yield an excellent honey. Pearl-oysters are found on the coast ; and on the coral reefs trepang-fishing is vigorously conducted in the proper season. The shallow river-mouths are haunted by crocodiles ; but, as a compensation, various kinds of turtles frequent the sandy shores. Serpents and scorpions infest the thickets and uncultivated plains. Insect life is abun- dant and various ; and at noon the air seems to flash with the rich colours of myriads of wings. Timor is surrounded by rocks, sand-banks, and coral reefs ; but it has two excellent harbours : Coopang or Coupang, on the south, belonging to the Dutch ; and Delli, on the north, belonging to the Portuguese. The natives are divided into the Timorese, inhabiting the western districts, who came originally from Ceram ; the Belonese in the east, originally from Gilolo ; and the independent aboriginal tribes in the interior. These last are allied to the Papuan type. The Timor- ese are subject to the Dutch ; the Belonese to the Portuguese. The natives are described as warlike, cruel, and treacherous a character generally given by civilized nations to the uncivilized ; they are excellent marksmen, and with sword and spear successfully chase the wild buffaloes, horses, deer, and swine. Agriculture is everywhere neglected, and though the island contains small quantities of VISIT TO COUPANG. 215 gold, iron, and copper, very little is done to develop its resources. The principal work of the men is the building of proas, or the manufacture of bells and rings to ornament their horses. The women weave all the cloth that is required. A VISIT TO A DUTCH-INDIAN TOWN. Let us pay a visit to Coupang. It is situated on the sloping shores of a bay which strikes about fifteen miles into the island in a northerly direction. A noble background is formed by the lofty mountains of the interior, many of them with sharp peaks and jagged, serrated outlines ; while between them and the sea intervene some lower ranges, of smoother and more level form, but preserving a height of several hundred feet. Immediately in the rear of the town rise successive ridges of land to the height of about five hundred feet. These are partially covered with wood chiefly plants of the families Apocynacese (Dogbanes) and Euphorbiacese (Spurge- worts), with clusters of fine fan-leaved palms (Boras- sus flabelliformis), and, in the lowlands, groves of stately cocoa-nut trees. The sandy beach is broken by small rocky head- lands, on one of which stands a somewhat dilapidated fort. Immediately beneath this inefficient citadel, to the east, a small stream or creek, navigable at high water by the prahus and native craft, opens into the sea ; and beyond this inlet lies the town, with its low white red-tiled houses arranged in two principal parallel streets, crossed by two small irregular "thor- oughfares." Behind the town spreads an open space of grass, bordered by fine tamarind- trees ; on one side 216 ITS INHABITANTS DESCRIBED. stands the house of the Dutch resident, on the other runs a small brook, much esteemed by the inhabit- ants. One or two roads run up the pleasant valley, which is watered not only by the brook, but by many small rills conducted from it in stone ducts or wooden troughs to supply the houses of the inhabitants and irrigate their gardens. The white walls and red roofs of the houses, the wooden or bamboo huts of the natives, the broad bay in front merging into the ocean wilderness, the lofty heights rearing their rugged brows against the deep blue sky, and the surrounding groves of cocoa-nuts, bananas, tamarinds, and palms, combine to form a scene which is as attractive as it is characteristic. The inhabitants of Coupang about 5000 in number are partly Malays, partly Chinese, and partly Dutch, besides the native Timorese. The last- named predominate ; and their tall stature, marked features, large aquiline noses, frizzly hair, and dusky brown skin, show that they belong to the Papuan type. The Chinese all wear their national dress, and are generally a plump, laughing, good-humoured people, carrying with them wherever they go their national peculiarities, and yet adapting themselves marvel- lously to new conditions. The Malays, at least in the outskirts, are scantily dressed either in a tight wrapper round the loins, or at most with the usual sarong or petticoat from the waist to the knees, and a fcms stuck into the back of the dress. The women are all decently clothed from the neck to the ankles in a loose gown and petticoat. They cannot be praised for their good looks, their faces being much disfigured by the use of the seri or betel, and SNAKE-CHARMERS IN TIMOR. RAISED CORAL REEF. 219 their mouths are smeared all round with a dirty red colour. The huts of the Malays are constructed chiefly of bamboo, thatched with palm-leaves ; and consist of one or two apartments, the floors of which are level with the ground. Each stands in a small enclosure, gay with the verdure of plantain and cocoa-nut trees. A RAISED COEAL REEF. A remarkable physical feature not to be overlooked by the visitor to Coupang, is its raised coral reef, which rises like a vertical rampart between the beach and the town, and again behind the town, to a height of fully six hundred feet above the sea, spreading over all the adjacent high land, and giving it a compara- tively smooth and level outline. The coralline limestone of which this strange ele- vated tract consists is dark externally, frequently very hard, but white and comparatively soft when broken open. Its surface both that of the beds and the face of its cliffs is rugged and porous, having a honey- combed appearance, and with its embedded corals and shells reminding the observer of those portions of a coral reef which are generally or permanently above the reach of the water. The commonest corals are the beautiful mzeandrina, astrsea, and porites. Of the shells those most abundant are the strombus and area. The great fact taught by the existence of this " coral reef" is, that the central mountain-chain was formerly the only part of Timor raised above the waves, and that it was surrounded by a fringing coral reef. As the chain gradually rose, and the neighbouring sea consequently became shallower, this fringing reef was 220 IN THE WOODS. extended on all sides, while portions were successively brought above the sea until the island attained its present condition. INLAND : THE WOODS. The interior of the country, when visited from Coupang, presents some features of interest. Through extensive rice-fields and carefully irrigated plantations, dotted with Malay huts, we ascend to the higher ground, where not only the intersecting valleys but the rocky heights bloom with magnificent woods of lofty umbrageous trees, of all tints and shades of green, out of which, here and there, springs a stately areca palm, lifting its plumed crest high into the soft clear sunlight. Nor is the borassus palm uncommon; the broad leaves of which are made into strong and durable water-buckets, or used for thatch, while the stem and fruit yield a species of sugar and palm-wine. Here the woods are enlivened with the constant cries of the pigeons and the chattering of the parrots. Finches, flycatchers, and warblers arouse the echoes with their strains ; and the air is often startled by the peculiar music of a thrush, which Dampier calls the "ringing-bird," because it had six notes, and always repeated all its notes twice, one after the other, beginning high and shrill and ending low. The Tropidorhynchus Timorensis is constantly met with, and is constantly noisy. The birds of Timor, we may add, are distinguished rather by their melodious songs than by their brilliant plumage. THE BEE-HUNTERS. A distinct species of wild bee, the Apis dorsata, is one of the curiosities of Timor. BEE-HUNTING. 221 These bees construct the most remarkable and colos- sal honeycombs, suspending them from the under side of the lofty branches of the highest trees. In shape they are semicircular, and their diameter is frequently three or four feet. Their wax is one of the principal exports of the island, and the natives gain possession of the honeycombs in the following manner : The tree, to a branch of which the prize is attached, may be straight, smooth-barked, and full seventy feet high up to the point of bifurcation. Nothing daunted, one of the honeycomb-hunters takes the tough fibrous stem of a small plant or creeper, splits it through in several directions, and wraps it in palm-leaves, twist- ing a slender creeper round the whole. Next he girds himself about the loins, and with another cloth covers his head, neck, and body, leaving only his face, arms, and legs bare. Slung to his girdle is a long thin coil of cord. Meantime, his companions have cut a stout bush- rope or creeper, twenty-five to thirty feet in length, to one end of which the wood-torch is fastened ; it is then lighted at the bottom, and emits "a steady stream of smoke." Just above the torch a short cord secures a chopping-knife. The bee-hunter grasps the bush-rope, and twists it round the trunk of the tree. Next he takes one end in each hand ; jerks the rope up a little higher than his head ; firmly plants his foot against the trunk, and, leaning back, begins to ascend it. Up ho goes, ten feet, twenty feet, sixty feet, as nimbly and as easily as if he were ascending a gentle incline, until he attains a point within about fifteen feet of the bees. Here he pauses, swinging the torch a little towards 222 BEE-HUNTING. those well-armed insects, that the smoke-cloud may go up between him and them. Resuming his progress, in a minute more he has reached the branch, and swung himself up on it. The bees are now in a state of alarm, and gather about the intruder in a dense mass, buzzing loudly and angrily. He simply brings the torch close up to him, and brushes away the insects that settle on his arms or legs. Then, lying prostrate on the branch, he creeps towards the comb, and waves the torch just underneath it. Immediately it changes in colour from black to white, the bees that were settled upon it hastily taking to flight, and gathering in a dense cloud above and around. Any that may be clinging to the coveted spoil the bee-hunter sweeps aside with his hand ; and drawing his knife, he cuts off the comb at a slice, coils his thin cord around it, and lowers it to his companions below. All this he does as calmly and composedly as if no angry bees were buzzing around him, and wounding him with their poisonous stings. And should there be other combs on the tree, he does not rest until they are captured ; though, as the smoke from his torch is not sufficient to stupify the plundered swarms, he must suffer severely. VEGETATION OF TIMOR. Travellers describe the indigenous vegetation of Timor as poor and monotonous. The lower ranges of the hills,' according to Mr. Wallace,* are every- where covered with scrubby eucalypti, which only occasionally develop into lofty forest trees. Mingled with these, in smaller quantities, acacias hang out * Wallace, " Malay Archipelago," i. 198. VEGETATION OF TIMOR. 223 their delicate bloom, and the sandal-wood exhales its precious fragrance. The higher mountains, howevor, which attain an elevation of six thousand or seven thousand feet, are covered only with coarse grass, or are barren naked rock. But in the valleys, and at a level of about two thousand feet, wheat will grow, and the coffee-plant thrives admirably. In the lower grounds a variety of weedy bushes abounds, and wild mint spreads its cheerful greenness over the open wastes, contrasting with the splendid blossoms of the beautiful crown lily, Methonica (or Gloriosa superba), which extends its climbing stems in every direction. A wild vine also occurs, bearing large irregular bunches of hairy grapes, coarse and yet luscious in flavour. In glens and combes where the vegetation is richer, the profusion of thorny shrubs and climbing plants renders the thickets impenetrable. The soil, on the average, is poor, consisting chiefly of decomposed cla^ y shales ; while almost every- where the bare earth and rock reveal a monotonous nakedness. In the hot season the drought is so extreme, that most of the streams in the plains dry up before they reach the sea, and their channels can be traced only by the irregular stones and fragments of rock that mark their customary bed. What is wanted in Timor, to develop its capabilities, is a well-devised system of irrigation, and careful and scientific culture ; for notwithstanding what we have said of the barrenness of the land, there are hundreds of square miles which would grow abundant crops of wheat, and, in fact, of all the varied products of temperate regions. At present, the chief exports of Timor, besides its fruits, are ponies, sandal-wood, and 224 HINDRANCES TO ITS PROSPERITY. \]:MS AND CTKXSILS OP THE INHABITANTS OF TIMOR. bee's-wax. How should it be otherwise, when agri- culture is unknown ; when the interior of the island Is absolutely undeveloped ; when Dutch exclusiveness HINDRANCES TO ITS PROSPERITY. 225 ARMS AND UTENSILS OF THE INHABITANTS OP TIMOR. and Portuguese incapacity prevent the growth of a spirit of commercial enterprise ; and when the only mode of communication between districts is a narrow (637) 15 226 TKEPANG-FISHING. hill-track, or bridle-path, impracticable for wheeled con- veyances ? TREPANG-FISHING. One of the " industries " of the island is trepang- fishing, which is carried- on partly by the natives, and partly by Bugis from Macassar. The trepang, or sea-cucumber (holothuria) abounds in the bays and coves of the coast, and on the reefs and banks; and the boatmen collect it at low water, or dive for it at various depths, seldom exceeding eighteen to twenty feet. The species most common in the Timor waters is about six or eight inches long, in its contracted state, of a gray colour, dark above and whitish beneath. At sunset the fishermen come in-shore with their cargoes, and having landed them, another company proceeds to cure them. A shed of bamboo is erected near the beach about sixteen feet long and eight feet wide. The gable -shaped roof is covered with mats, or loose thatch, the eaves of which are about five feet from the ground, at which height a platform of split bamboo extends from one end of the shed to the other. Inside, the ground is excavated to the depth of two or three feet, in order that the fire, when kindled, may not catch the platform or the sides of the shed. Out- side, a row of shallow iron pans is so arranged on supports of loose stones that a brisk fire may be maintained underneath from end to end. All these preparations being completed, each holothuria is cut open lengthwise, duly cleaned, and then, for a short time, plunged into boiling water. Afterwards, the whole is boiled in salt water in the iron pans, together with pieces of red mangrove bark. Eight to ten pans "POMALI: A STRANGE CUSTOM. 229 will occupy the attention of a couple of men, stirring up the trepang with wooden ladles, adding water when requisite, and feeding the fires. The boiling process lasts from eight to ten hours, after which the trepang is removed to the shed. Here it is spread out in a thin layer on the platform of split bamboo, and the fires being lighted below, is dried and smoked until it has acquired a dirty reddish hue. During this operation the shed is kept carefully covered in, the sole entrance being a small door at one corner, while each end of the gable is protected by a hanging mat. When thoroughly dried and smoked, the trepang is packed in barrels for exportation. CUSTOMS OP THE TIMORESE. The native Timorese have a custom called "pomali," which exactly resembles the " taboo " of the Polynesian islanders, and is very strictly maintained. It preserves intact any place or article to which it is applied. A few palm-leaves stuck outside a garden, to indicate that it is guarded by the " pomali," are more effectual in preserving its produce than, among us, are spring- guns, man-traps, or warnings to "trespassers." Rather as an ornament than for utility the mountaineers carry a curiously-wrought umbrella, made of an entire leaf of a fan-palm, carefully stitched at the fold of each leaflet to prevent splitting. They also use a wallet or knapsack, consisting of a square of stoutly- woven cloth, the four corners of which are connected by cords, and often gaily embellished with beads and tassels. They do not bury their dead immediately on their decease ; but place them on a platform, raised 230 A GKOUP OF MAMMALS. six or eight feet above the ground, where the body remains until the relatives find themselves in a condi- tion to make a feast, when it is buried. The Timorese, in the opinion of Mr. Wallace, are great thieves, but not bloodthirsty. Among themselves hostilities are inces- sant, and they will seize upon the unprotected people of other tribes for slaves whenever they get the oppor- tunity ; but Europeans can traverse the country in safety. They retain their independence virtually, and appear to despise as well as dislike their would-be rulers, whether Portuguese or Dutch. Nor can it be said that the government of either Dutch or Portuguese is such as to command respect or secure esteem ; and the best thing that could happen for Timor would be its conversion into a British colony. A GROUP OF MAMMALS. Turning to the animal life of Timor, we are surprised at the small number of forms by which it is repre- sented. Bats, indeed, are abundant. Fifteen species have been recognized ; nine of which are also found in Java, or the islands west of it ; three in the Moluccas, which also inhabit Australia; while the rest are in- digenous to the island. The terrestrial mammals are seven in number : An eastern opossum, found also in the Moluccas; a shrew mouse, peculiar to Timor ; a wild pig, probably peculiar to the island ; a deer, Cervus Timorensis ; a tiger cat ; a civet cat ; and the common monkey, Macacus cynomolgus, which is found in all the Asiatic-Malay islands. Of the civet cat we may note that the general tint of its fur is a yellowish black, but the hue varies OPOSSUM OF TIMOR. ABOUT THE PARADOXURE. 23o according as the light falls upon it. On each side of the spine run three rows of elongated spots, and other spots are scattered about the thighs and abdomen. But these, when the animal is seen from certain points of view, all merge into lines, while the spots on the breast altogether disappear. This is due to the manner in which the hairs are coloured, each being tipped with a darker hue, and some being totally black. The paradoxure is a plantigrade animal. Its feet are armed with sharp claws, which it can draw in when walking on the ground, and keep sharp enough to assist it in tree-climbing. Its tail is not prehensile, though capable of being coiled into a tight spiral. It feeds upon rats and mice, and also on ripe fruit ; while one species, the musang of Java, displays an extraordinary affection for the coffee-berries, and is a terrible nuisance in a coffee-plantation. On the other hand, if it destroys, it re-plants ; for the berries are uninjured in their passage through its body, and being in ripe condition, quickly take root where they lie, germinate, and in due time spring up into new coffee- plantations. BIRDS OF TIMOR. From what we have said, the reader will have gathered that Timor does not contain a single Australian mammal. But if we come to its birds, we find that out of its ninety-five species, forty-eight are derived from Australia, and forty-seven from Java. This latter fact justifies an expression we have formerly employed, that Timor is a half-way house between Australia and Asia. At the same time, the absence of Australian mammals conclusively proves 234 TIMOR AND AUSTRALIA. that it can never have been united to Australia ; that a breadth of sea must always have intervened not sufficient to prevent the migration of the winged species, but a constant obstacle to the passage of the land mammals. In reference to this subject, we cannot do better than quote the explanations of Mr. Wallace, who has devoted considerable attention to it : * " Nearly three hundred miles of open sea," he says, " now separate Australia from Timor; which island is connected with Java by a chain of broken land, divided by straits which are nowhere more than about twenty miles wide. Evidently there are now great facilities for the natural productions of Java to spread over and occupy the whole of these islands; while those of Australia would find very great difficulty in getting across. To account for the present state of things, we should naturally suppose that Australia was once much more closely connected with Timor than it is at present ; and that this was the case is rendered highly probable by the fact of a submarine bank extending along all the north and west coast of Australia, and at one place approaching within twenty miles of the coast of Timor. This indicates a recent subsidence of North Australia, which probably once extended as far as the edge of this bank, between which and Timor there is an unfathomed depth of ocean. " I do not think that Timor was ever actually con- nected with Australia, because such a large number of very abundant and characteristic groups of Australian birds are quite absent, and not a single Australian * Wallace, " Malay Archipelago," i. 206, 207. TIMOR AND AUSTRALIA. 235 mammal has entered Timor ; which would certainly not have been the case had the lands been actually united. Such groups as the bower-birds, the black and red cockatoos, the blue wrens, the crow-shrikes, the Australian shrikes, and many others, which abound all over Australia, would certainly have spread into Timor, if it had been united to that country, or even if for any long time it had approached nearer to it than twenty miles. Neither do any of the most character- istic groups of Australian insects occur in Timor ; so that everything combines to indicate that a strait of the sea has always separated it from Australia, but that at one period this strait was reduced to a width of about twenty miles." The view which such facts confirm of the great changes that have occurred in the distribution of land and water over the Eastern Archipelago of alter- nate elevation and subsidence, of the disruption of continents and the formation of islands, and of the broadening and deepening of arms of the sea, as well as of the remarkable influence exercised by these changes upon the diffusion of animal life is so inter- esting, that we think the reader will not begrudge the space we have devoted to its exposition. CHAPTEK II. THE CELEBES ISLANDS. CELEBES. |ETWEEN the parallels of latitude 1 45' N. and 5 52' S., and the meridians of longi- tude 118 45' and 125 17' K, lies an island of the most extraordinary configura- tion, which some writers compare to a tarantula spider, others to a couple of horse-shoes joined at the fore parts. Neither comparison is very accurate. It con- sists of four long peninsulas the longest being the northernmost of which two are directed eastward, with a deep gulf between them (the Tomini Gulf), and two others southward, with the Boni Gulf separating them from each other, while the first of the two is separated from the second of the other two by the Tolo Gulf. These four peninsulas project from a narrow neck of land which runs due north and south. The peninsula of Menado, the first of the four pen- insulas, sweeps north, then east, and lastly north-east, with a length of 400 miles, and a breadth of from 12 to 60 miles. That of Bulante, east, is 160 miles long, and from 30 to 95 miles broad. The south-east pen- insula is about 150 miles by 30 to 90 miles. And the south-west that of Macassar forms a tolerably regu- A SCENE IN CELEBES. AN ISLE OF BEAUTY. 239 lar parallelogram, 200 miles long, and 65 miles broad. They are all formed of mountain-masses, and describe a kind of backbone, 150 miles long, and 105 miles broad. The Gulf of Tomini or Gorontalo, on the north-east, is 240 miles long, and from 55 miles at its mouth broadens, as it strikes inland, to fully 100 miles ; that of Tomaiki or Tolo, on the east, is of ample dimensions at its mouth, but narrows towards its upper extremity ; and that of Macassar or Boni, on the south, is probably upwards of 200 miles in length, with a width varying from 35 to 80 miles. Apart from these conspicuous indentations, the coast- line is broken up by numerous bays such as those of Menado, Amoorang, Kwandang, and Tontoli, on the north ; Palos and Paneparre, on the west ; and Bu- lante, Tolowa, Nipa-nipa, and Staring, on the east. To sum up: we have an island of Celebes, 150 miles long and 105 miles broad, throwing off four peninsulas of varying magnitude; the superficial area of the whole being estimated at 71,791 square miles. We might conjecture that an island so exposed to uae sea breezes would be visited by abundant mois- ture; and being included in the Tropic zone, and im- mediately under the Equator, would necessarily present a vegetation of remarkable richness and variety. Such, indeed, is the case ; and Celebes has fair claims to be regarded as the loveliest and most bounteous of all the islands of the Eastern Archipelago. Its scenery combines every charm that can gratify an artist or inspire a poet : it has the immense forests of Borneo, and the meadows and vales of England ; the exuberant wealth of the Tropics, and the gentleness and grace that distinguish the regions of the Temperate zone. 240 CELEBES AND ITS MOUNTAINS. Broad rivers, lofty heights, far-spreading woods, deep bowery hollows, immense breadths of fragrant green- sward, it has all these ; mingled with rare and beau- tiful forms of vegetation, and enlivened by glorious displays of colour, which give to each bright strange landscape an individuality of its own. To all this add a fresh and healthy climate, which neither enfeebles the mind nor undermines the physical health, and it may be conceded that Celebes is an " enchanted land." THE MOUNTAINS OP CELEBES. Before we attempt any description of the scenery of the island, we must gain some knowledge of its prin- cipal physical features. And, first, as to its mountains.* Mount Sudara, or " The Sisters," is a twin or double cone in the great range that dominates the northern peninsula. To the north of it rises Batu-Angus, or " The Hot Rock ; " a large volcano, whose summit has been blown off, and in this way a great crater formed. From the crest of all these peaks, down to high-water mark on the shore, extends one dense continuous forest, the haunt of the wild ox, babyroussa, and antelope. An eruption of Batu-Angus took place in 1806, when great quantities of sand, ashes, and pumice-stone were ejected. The ground in the plain beneath was covered with a layer one inch thick. For two days the sky was darkened by the clouds of these light materials which floated in the air ; and so many stones were cast out as to form, at a distance of nearly three miles, a new cone, from which a long tongue of land jutted out into * The loftiest peak in Celebes is Lampoo-Batang, estimated at upwards of 7000 feet. Mount Klabat is 6560 feet ; Mount Sudara, 4390 feet ; Mount Batu- Angus, 2290; Mount Lokon, 5140; Mount Massarang, 4150 ; Mount Tompasso, 3850 ; Mount Saputan, 5960; Mount Mahawat, 4170 ; Mount Sempo, 4900 ; Mount Katawak, 3970 ; Mount Kawin, 3480 ; and Lake of Tondano, 2272 feet. ASCENT OF KLABAT. 241 the sea. Its crater is now six hundred feet in depth, and constantly emits thick white clouds of gas and vapour. Mount Klabat is a great volcanic cone, rising above the village of Ayar-madidi, or " Hot Water ; " which is so named from a neighbouring spring now devoid of any unusual warmth. Its ascent was partially accom- plished by Mr. Bickmore in 1865, and his record of the journey is interesting, from the glimpses it affords of the character of the country. When about twelve hundred feet above the sea, he says, he obtained a magnificent view of the Bay of Menado and the adjacent shore. Out in the bay rise several high islands ; and among them the vol- canic peak of Menado Tua, with its crest veiled by silvery wreaths of mist, and its feet bathed in the sapphire-shining sea. Near the shore the land is very low, and adorned with the feathery foliage of several species of palms. Further back it begins to rise, and soon swells up toward the lofty peak of Klabat. Continuing the ascent, in company with Mr. Bick- more, we pass many places on the mountain-side where the natives are cultivating maize, and from far above and beneath us we catch the echoes of their merry songs ; for, unlike the Javanese and Malays, the Cele- bians cheer their work with music. Upward still we climb, and upward, until, at three thousand feet above the sea, we come upon two small hamlets. Beyond, our road for a while is tolerably level, and in due time we reach the picturesque village of Saron- song. Here, in the centre, stands the chiefs house ; opposite to it, the ruma negri, or public hostelry ; between the two, a charming garden blooming with roses. A glorious prospect now opens before us, on (637) 16 24-J LAKE LINU. the left, of the irregular high range which skirts the west shore of Lake Tondano; toward the north-west, of the sharp volcanic cone of Lohon ; while in the north- east may be seen the three peaks of Gunong Api. Further on we enter a little valley, and continue along the side of a small lake of dirty white muddy water, which fills the air with pungent fumes of sulphur reminding us of Bunyan's Valley of the Shadow of Death, where the way was narrow, and on either hand ever and anon came up flame and smoke in great abundance, with sparks and hideous noises. Near the next village we diverge to visit the re- markable Lake Linu. It fills the bottom of an old crater on the rugged side of Mount Klabat ; is about half a mile in diameter ; and has an outlet on the south-west, through a former gap in the crater-wall. In most parts the water has a blue colour, but here and there it is tinged with white, from gases that rise up through the bottom of its basin. On the north- east end is situated a large solfatara, which evolves sulphurous gas. Here the Italian traveller, Carlo de Vidua, who had seen many lands and many peoples, met with the accident that resulted in his untimely death. In spite of the warnings of the natives, he ventured too far upon the soft hot clay, and, sinking in, was so severely burned before he could be extri- cated that he died a few days afterwards. Returning to the direct route, we push on to Son- der, and obtain quarters for the night in its ruma nigri, which stands at the end of a long and beau- tifully-shaded avenue, showing clear signs of careful cultivation. A narrow belt of trimly-cut grass lines each side of the road, and the paths are laid down TON DA NO ROAD, CELEBES. ASCENT OF KLABAT. 245 with a glittering white earth. Here we may observe that the roads are generally well-kept, and are carried with much ingenuity up steep ascents, and, by means of covered wooden bridges, across streams and ravines. All around the house stretches a grove of noble trees, including many casuarines or cassowary-trees, the long, needle-like leaves of which closely resemble the downy plumage of that strange bird. When the moon rises in the cloudless heavens, and pours its soft light on the dark and fanciful foliage, and lights up the swelling crests of the distant mountains, the traveller may be forgiven if he thinks himself suddenly transported to some realm of magical enchantment. Next day we continue our journey, along the brink of a deep ravine, whose sides in several places form high precipices. A short distance beyond the native village of Tinchep is the beautiful waterfall Munte, to which we proceed to descend. It is about sixty feet high, and the stream of water nearly twenty feet wide. It leaps over a perpendicular wall of trachytic lava in the shadow of luxuriant foliage, throwing off millions of sparkling diamond drops, which glow with rainbows when the sunshine falls upon their prismatic shower. Once more we ascend, and slowly make our way to the lovely village of Tompasso, where a somewhat rugged character is lent to the scenery by the numerous landslips, and their strange chaotic ruins. The village is laid out with a large square pond in the centre, while the highway crosses it on a broad embankment. A well-made street circles the pond, and the houses all face towards it. Each house stands in its own little plot of careful-ordered garden, which is fenced in with fragrant rose-bushes ; while the pond itself 24ti THE WHITE LOTUS. gl earns with the large leaves and richly-coloured blossoms of the Nymphcea lotus, a water-lily which, both in India and Egypt, is held sacred as the symbol of Creation. Its white flowers are delicately tinged and shaded with pink ; the leaves are strongly toothed or indented, and on the under surface the veins are very prominent. This is the white lotus of the Nile, and possesses the peculiar property of collapsing its petals and subsiding upon the surface of the wave, or even sinking below it during the night, to rise again and expand in the sunlight. As Moore sings : " These virgin lilies, all the night Bathing their beauties in the lake, That they may rise more fresh and bright When their beloved sun's awake." It is upon this glorious flower that Buddha sits enthroned in each of the great images which repre- sent him as the Past, the Present, and the Future the three colossal personifications to be seen in any of the thousand temples in the East dedicated to his worship. Do not confound it with the " lotus " or " lotos " of Northern Africa, the fruit of which was supposed to possess the marvellous power of rendering all who tasted of it forgetful of their "homes and friends and native shores." Had the poet known only of this lovely mountain-side in fragrant Celebes, and of this sparkliug little lake lying in the shadow of the rose-bushes, surely he would here have placed his lotus-eaters, to enjoy the rest their wave-worn souls desired ! EVIDENCES OF VOLCANIC ACTION. Evidences of past volcanic action, or of latent igneous force, we have met with frequently in our HOT SPRINGS NEAR TONDANO, CELEBES. MUD-WELLS OF TONDANO. 249 survey of Mount Klabat; and now, at a mile and a half from Tombasso, we hasten to inspect some cele- brated hot springs, or " mud-wells," as they are called. They are situated on a gentle declivity, in an area about half a mile square; and their whereabouts may be told at a distance by the quantities of steam and gas which they evolve. The principal well measures about thirty feet in diameter. The bubbling, seething mud is of a leaden colour, nearly as thin as muddy water in the middle, but as thick as cream in some places near the brink, and as putty in others. It boils up like pitch ; that is, rises up in small masses, which assume a spherical form, and then burst. " The distance between the centres of these ebullitions varies from six inches to two feet or more, so that the whole surface is covered with as many sets of concen- tric rings as there are separate boiling-points. Near each of the centres the rings have a circular form ; but as they are pressed outward by the successive bubbling up of the material within them, they are pressed against each other, and become more or less irregular, the corners always remaining round until they are pressed out against those which originated from another point. By that time the rings have expanded from small circles into irregular polygons. They therefore exactly represent the lines of con- cretionary structure frequently seen in schists, and represented in nearly every treatise on geology. If this bubbling action should cease, and in the course of time the clay become changed by heat and pressure into slates, the similarity of the two would perhaps be very close. Have, therefore, the particles now forming the old schists which show this structure 250 GEYSERS AND HOT SPRINGS. been subjected to such mechanical changing in their relative position to each other, before they were hardened into the schists they now form, as the particles of clay in this pool are undergoing at the present time ? " * Supposing this conjecture to be well-founded, these springs acquire a peculiar interest as representing, in a certain degree, the actual work of creation. Near this large well was a boiling spring, about three feet in diameter and two feet deep, with a temperature of 208. 4 F. It resembles an Icelandic geyser in some respects, but has no eruption. Others, however, are true geysers, and actively eruptive. The natives turn it to " base uses," and wash their clothing in its ebullient waters. All around it the ground is bare, and not a trace of vegetation can be discerned wherever its splashes reach. At the foot of the hill lies a lake strongly impregnated with sulphur, and near it a pond of thick muddy water boils up at intervals. About twenty of these ponds are scattered up and down the hill-side, and in the low marshy land at its base, while from numerous fissures clouds of sulphurous vapour escape. If the crust of the hill cquld be removed to a certain depth, it seems as if we should come upon an immense lake of boiling, hissing, seething water, teem- ing with gases, and strongly charged with sulphur. ( * Bickmore, " Travels in the Eastern Archipelago," p. 360. t Mr. Wallace also visited these hot springs, and his account of them may be advantageously compared with the description given in the text. A picturesque path, he says, among plantations and ravines, leads to a beautiful circular basin, about forty feet in diameter, bordered by a calcareous ledge, so uniform and truly curved that it looked like a work of art. It was filled with clear water very near the boiling point, and emitted clouds of steam with a strong sulphurous odour. At one point it overflows and forms a little stream of hot water, which at a hundred yards' distance is still too hot for the hand to endure it. A little further on, two other springs, in a continual state of active ebullition, appeared to be much hotter; and at intervals of a few minutes a great escape of gas or steam occurred, throwing up a column of water three or four feet high. LAKE OF TONDANO. 251 THE LAKE OF TONDANO. We pass from Mount Klabat to the Lake of Ton- dano, which occupies the lower portion of a lofty plateau, at an elevation of 2272 feet above the sea- level. It measures about seventeen miles in length, from north to south, and in width varies from two miles to seven. Bold headlands projecting from either shore, and almost meeting one another, divide it nearly into two equal sections. On the south, south-west, and north the shore is low, and the land slowly rises from one to five miles, and then swells upward to the grand mountain-ridge that bounds the horizon on all sides. On the east and north-west the hills descend to the very marge of the basin, with steep and abrupt declivities. All the lowlands and the lower flanks of the mountains are richly cultivated. The air is delightfully cool and pure, while on the ocean-shore below it comes like the hot breath of a furnace. It is a curious fact that the only fish caught in this lake are three species found also in the sulphurous waters of Lake Linu, the Ophiocephalus striatus, the Arra- b us scandens, and an eel, A nguilla Elphinstonei. These The mud-springs, continues Mr. Wallace, are still more curious. On a sloping tract of ground, in a slight hollow, lies a small lake of liquid mud, in patches of blue, red, or white, and in many places boiling and bubbling most furiously. All around on the indurated clay are small wells and craters full of boiling mud. These seem to be continually forming. First, a small hole appears, which emits jets of steam and boiling mud ; next, the mud hardens, and forms a little cone with a crater in the middle. The ground for some distance is very unsafe, aa it is evidently liquid at a small depth, and bends with pressure, like thin.ice. " A short distance off was a flat bare surface of rock, as smooth and hot as an oven-floor, which was evidently an old mud-pool dried up and hardened. For hundreds of yards round where there were banks of reddish and white clay, used for whitewash, it was still so hot close to the surface that the hand could hardly bear to be held in cracks a few inches deep, from which arose a strong sulphurous vapour. I was informed that some years back a French gentleman who visited these springs ventured too near the liquid mud, when the crust gave way, and he was engulfed in the horrible caldron." A. W. Wallace, "The Malay Archipelago," i. 269. 252 LAKES AND RIVERS. belong to the fresh-water basins of Java, Sumatra, and India. The overflow of the latter is carried off by a swift full river, which, near the village of Tondano, forms a noble fall the water suddenly swooping over a ledge of rock, and descending into a valley clothed with exuberant vegetation. WATER-SYSTEM OF CELEBES. We have spoken of the Lakes of Tondano and Linu. The Celebians tell of another, supposed to be the largest in the island, which is situated far away in the interior, and, as yet, is unknown to Europeans. Another important lake is that of Tapara-Karuja, or Labaye, in the south-west, the basin of which appears to have been the cradle of an early native civilization, that extended its influence throughout the Archipelago. This lake communicates, through navigable streams, with the sea on the west, and the Gulf of Boni on the east. Of these, the largest is the Chinrana, accessible to ships of burden for some distance from its mouth. The rivers of Celebes are little known, though they are numerous, and some of them navigable. The watershed would seem to be near the centre ' of the island. The Boli enters the sea at Boli, on the north. INHABITANTS OP CELEBES. Strictly speaking, it is only the eastern part of the island that should be called Celebes ; the western is the Minahassa or Tanah-Mangkessa, contracted by Europeans into Macassar. The interior is inhabited by aboriginal tribes, called the Alfoories, who are of medium stature, fairer in complexion than the Malays, mild, intelligent, hospitable, and superstitious. WATERFALL NEAR LAKE TONDANO THE BUGIS AND THE MACASSARS. 255 A far finer race, however, is the Bugis, who are supposed to have migrated from Borneo. They are a handsome and athletic people, remarkable for their capacity, truthfulness, and honesty. Their energy seems inexhaustible ; they enter with amazing spirit into commercial enterprise ; and do not hesitate to undertake even long and difficult voyages in their feeble prahus. They venture as far as the north coast of Australia to collect trepang. They have, moreover, a literature of their own, consisting of legends and national chronicles, of translations of Malay and Java- nese romances, and of works on law and religion from the Arabic. Their religion is Mohammedanism, though at one time they seem to have professed Hinduism. The first of their kings is said to have been Batara Guru, which is but a local name for Siwa. The Macassars are scarcely inferior as a nation to the Bugis. Their principal seat is at Goa, as that of the Bugis is at Boni. Their records are not without interest, though dating no further back than the begin- ning of the sixteenth century, when the island was first seen and visited by the Portuguese. Soon after- wards, we are told, cannon were introduced, and the art of manufacturing gunpowder was acquired. Nearly a century later, Mohammedanism was successfully pro- pagated by Malay missionaries from Sumatra and the peninsula, of whom the most celebrated was Khatib Tungal, commonly known by the name of Datu Ban- dang. In 1605 the new faith was generally adopted by all the tribes speaking the Macassar language; and their victorious swords imposed it upon the Bugis. The missionary spirit of Islam inspired the Macassars to extend their conquests further, until at length they 256 ABOUT THE MACASSARS. NATIVE OF MINAHASSA, CKLEBSS. came into contact with the Dutch,and =| experienced some % severe defeats. An y_ armada of seven hundred boats and vessels, carrying an I armed force of twenty thousand men, which had attempted the sub- jugation of the Mol- uccas, was encoun- tered at Batang by a Dutch fleet, under Admiral Speelman, and totally over- thrown.* The Dutch, arrested by 1 the Bugis, then established them- selves in Celebes, and the Bugis, as their tributaries, assumed the place of the conquered Macassars, and vir- tually ruled the island. From 181 3 to 1816 Celebes was occupied by * Crawf urd, ' ' History of the East Indian Archipelago," li. 88a LANDSCAPES OF CELEBES. 257 the British, but was surrendered to the Dutch on the conclusion of the great European war. The three principal languages spoken in the island are those of the Bugis, the Macassars, and Mandhar. The first-named is the most ancient, the most copious in vocabulary, and the most scientific in construction. The inhabitants of Minahassa differ in many respects from the other peoples of the island. Their clear brown complexion frequently approaches the European tint; their body is somewhat too thick for their stature, but their limbs are well-made. When armed with javelin and buckler, their appearance is truly martial. A SERIES OP LANDSCAPES. We shall now endeavour to gather up from various travellers such particulars of the general scenery of Celebes as may assist the reader in realizing its aspects as in a series of pictures. He will bear in mind that the island lies under the Equator, and that it belongs partly to the Australian, and partly to the Asiatic divisions of the Archipelago, in the character of its vegetation. He must allow also for the modifications produced by local conditions. Few parts of Celebes are not exposed to the genial moisture induced by the sea-breezes, and the effect they have in- moderating the Tropical temperature. And in reading or speaking of Tropical islands, we must remember that in the more elevated districts, and near the mountain-summits, the climate which prevails is really that of the Temperate zone, and that, consequently, the vegetation and fauna may be expected to depart from purely Tropical types. It is a common mistake to suppose that all Tropical countries are exposed to excessive heat and drought, (637) 17 258 VISIT TO MACASSAR. to seasons of great dryness followed by seasons of violent storms and tremendous rain ; that everywhere the scenery exhibits the usual Tropical characteristics ; and that a burning sun renders life almost insupport- able. But there are " nooks and corners," valleys and dales, in Tropical countries, which enjoy an air as fresh and cool, and revel in a shade as delightful, as those of England, though, unlike our English land, they never suffer from the inclemencies of a Northern winter. AT MACASSAR. We may begin our journeys with an inspection of the city of Macassar, a Dutch settlement of some importance, where the European and Asiatic elements come into immediate juxtaposition. It consists chiefly of one long narrow street, running parallel to the shore, and occupied by the offices and warehouses of the Dutch and Chinese, and the shops or bazaars of the natives, all as clean and radiant as fresh white- wash can make them. This extends northwards for about a mile, gradually merging into a row of native houses, of mean appearance, but redeemed from ugli- ness by the bloom and foliage of the fruit-trees in their gardens. The thoroughfare is generally alive with a busy throng of Bugis and Macassars, dressed in cotton trousers of scanty dimensions extending from the hip to half-way down the thigh and the universal Malay sarong, a bright-coloured check, folded round the waist or worn across the shoulders. Parallel to this principal street run two short ones, forming the old Dutch town. These are enclosed within a wall, and entered by gates. At the southern end stand the fort and the Dutch church ; and, in a PALM-TREES. 259 road at right angles to the beach, the houses of the governor and the principal officials. From the town we pass into the country, which, for some miles around, is occupied by rice-fields, with here and there a clump of fruit-trees surrounding a native village. Further inland, we come on patches of woody ground, the remains of the once luxuriant virgin forest; but the trees, for the most part, have been replaced by fruit-trees or by bamboos, and the large arenga palm (Sagubrus saccharifer), the gomuti of the Malays. The horsehair-like fibre surrounding the leaf-stalks of this valuable palm makes an excellent cordage (coir), or is useful for thatching. By cutting off the flower- spikes, a large supply of toddy or palm-wine (twafy is obtained ; which, when inspissated, affords an abund- ance of sugar, or, when fermented, of vinegar. The coarser fibres serve as pens or arrows, and the mass of small downy fibres interwoven with them makes a capital tinder. The gomuti, or anau, is readily distinguished from all the other Celebian palms by its large leaves and its rough-looking trunk. The soft envelopes of the seeds, which are so numerous that in their ripe state a single bunch is frequently a load for two men, contain a poisonous juice, called by the Dutch "hell-water," in which the natives were accustomed to steep their arrows. The Bird World, in such a locality as we have de- scribed, is well represented. Here are the beautiful cream-coloured pigeons (Carpophaga luctuosa], and the blue-headed roller (Coracias Temmincki} : the latter has a curiously discordant voice, generally goes in pairs, and restlessly flies from tree to tree, as if always in quest of something it could not find. The crows must 260 IN THE FOREST. not be forgotten, nor the twittering wood-swallow, nor the lyre-tailed drongo shrike, which sings ceaselessly, sings unmelodiously, and sings with an infinite variety of notes. FOREST-SCENERY. A continuance of our ramble brings us at last into the heart of some beautiful forest-scenery, which almost reminds us of that of Borneo. Here, as elsewhere in the Tropics, the gray trunks and spreading branches of the trees are covered with gigantic climbing bauhinise, starred all over with flowers, and rich in broad oval leaves; and with other immense parasitical creepers, which cling to the trees like monstrous serpents, and sometimes clasp them in so deadly an embrace as to stifle them. Huge Lycopodiacece, or club-mosses, rear their shapely crests from among the damp beds of de- caying foliage ; while the prostrate trunks are encrusted with strange lichens, that spread like quaint Eastern in- scriptions over the loose bark ; and on the shaded side, and often concealed by the tree, minute and delicately- formed fungi of the most fantastic forms live their brief life, to give place to successors not less ephemeral. In some of the delightful silent glades bamboo thickets are not uncommon, and their slender branches and quivering leaves variegate the sward with the peculiar shifting shadows, swift in their changes as a child's dream, which we often see in dense forests, where, as Shakespeare sings, " The green leaves quiver with the cooling wind, And make a chequered shadow on the ground." Mr. Arthur Adams, a well-known naturalist,* has fre- A. Adams, in Belcher's "Voyage of H.M.S. Sa.ma.rang," 11. 268-370. A FOREST IN CELEBES. IN THE FOREST. 263 quently seen the bamboo waving aloft its feathery sprays in groves upwards of forty feet high ; and he adds that the appearance of the epiphytic or parasitic vegetation in the Celebian forests reminds him of the vineyards so picturesquely described by Dickens : * " The wild festoons ; the elegant wreaths, and crowns, and garlands of all shapes ; the fairy nets flung over great trees, and making them prisoners in sport ; the tumbled heaps and mounds of exquisite shape upon the ground, how rich and beautiful they are ! And every now and then a long, long line of trees will be all bound and garlanded together, as if they had taken hold of one another, and were coming dancing down the field ! " The same naturalist remarks that the European observer, in Tropical forests like those of Celebes, cannot fail to be struck by the entire absence of any of the signs of vernal development or autumnal decay characteristic of climes more temperate. The eye is neither refreshed by the mellow tints of the later, nor by the young fresh greenness of the earlier season ; no red withered leaves rustle from the quivering boughs as the sighs and moans of autumn creep through the pillared avenues ; the work of dissolution and renova- tion, of life and death, is always going on ; and at all times of the year you see the same masses of dark green foliage and the same mounds of rottenness and decay. In many parts, vast numbers of fungoid plants those scavengers of the vegetable kingdom, which, despite their apparent insignificance, seize upon every fallen tree, and slowly but surely consume it may be seen at their silent task. Yet in the midst of death is * C. Dickens, "Pictures from Italy," p. 90. 264 THE CELEBIAN BEE. life, and out of decay come beauty and vigour. Though these tall trees, once the glory of the forest, are now dis- mantled of their pride, and, as Shelley says, " lie level with the earth, to moulder there;" yet in due time shall " They fertilize the land they long deformed ; Till from the breathing lawn a forest springs Of youth, integrity, and loveliness," to bloom awhile, and develop, and ripen, and then to share the common lot like their predecessors " Like that which gave it life, to spring and die." The forests of Celebes offer a remarkable instance of natural adaptation and ingenuity on the part of a lai'ge species of bee, which frequents, in great numbers, a tree loaded with single-petalled corollas, attached to a long tube. The bee's slender proboscis is all too short to reach the honied sweets treasured up in the nectary at the bottom ; and, therefore, what Paley calls its " long, narrow pump," is of no avail. But, by persevering, it saws through the base of the corolla at the point of junction with the calyx, using its fore legs as tools ; and then, thrusting it to the ground with its head, leisurely sucks up the honey. Paley says of the bee, " The harmless plunderer rifles the sweets, but leaves the flower uninjured ; " the Celebian bee, however, not only plunders the blossom, but destroys it. INSECT LIFE IN CELEBES. We are prone to devote our attention too exclusively to what we consider the higher forms of Animal Life, such as the mammals and the birds, neglecting the members of the busy, toiling Insect World. Yet, in the forests of Celebes, the latter presents the naturalist BEETLES AND BUTTERFLIES. 265 with numerous objects of interest. The family of the Coleoptera, or Beetles, is well represented. We notice the reader must excuse the uncouth names which we are compelled to adopt from the language of the naturalists a Brentus, with a body shining in coat of mail of a chestnut brown, and highly polished as steel ; an Anthruxia, of a beautiful burnished emerald green, and remarkable for the activity of its motions ; a curi- ous genus of Anthribidce, entirely covered, when alive, with a white mealy powder, which, if rubbed off, re- veals elytra, or wing-cases, of a dark gray, traversed by lengthwise rows of alveoli, or pits ; a Languria, with a reddish brown head, and dark, shining, metallic green elytra, which frequents the blades of the maize, in open sunny spots, and is very lively and rapid on the wing ; a Cicindela, of a dull sap green, with yellow marks on the elytra ; and a Lucanus, or stag-beetle, tawny yellow, with a reddish brown head, and three black marks on the thorax, and elytra bordered with a rim of black. The Papilionidce, or Butterflies, are not less numer- ous or beautiful. Among these may be noticed a remarkable species of Ornithoptera, whose ground colour is a rich shining bronzy black, the lower wings deli- cately grained with white, and margined by a row of large spots of the most brilliant satiny yellow. As if this combination of colours were not enough to attract and delight the eye, the insect's body is marked with shaded spots of white, yellow, and fiery orange, while the head and thorax are black as jet. On the under side, the lower wings are of a satiny white, with the marginal spots half black and half yellow. Then there are beautiful species of Pieridce, such as r :.- r ?.z.-: never haunt oar English air ; one of a beautiful pale blue and black, and another with, a belt of rich orange round its blackish body. In truth, in these rocky forests dwell some of the most beautiful butterflies in the world. The magnificent golden green papilio macedon ; ornithopta% measuring seven or eight DH&ei acrm the wings ; the tachyris g^mt^ with .jauzv pinions of a vivid orange and cinnabar red ; TtiPtaJKo blue am.bljpod% hovering among the Iowa- fa&mge ; butterflies red, and green, and orange, and yellow, or of a wonderful variety of hues and M* invest with a brilliant charm the sombre of the Celebian woods. For do not thinlr, O reader, that these dense and qg&ty forests are as rich in bright blossoms and buds as the groves and copses of your own dear land _ " vit.'..--"j..i'i_r._: ~.^~. exuberant _-'-: the trailing, flowering poraaxtes, their general t of gloom. When we think of a Tropi- cal forest, we picture to ourselves masses of brilliant everywhere in boundless profu- the scene with an indescribable radi- But what is the reality ? "In vain," says Mr. Wallace, who has carefully explored their reeewes, "in ism. did I gaze over vast walls of verdure, aiMBg pendent creepers *nfl bushy shrubs, all around the OHade, on the river's bank, or in the deep eav and gloomy fissures ; not one jiag^b eofoor could be seen, not one single tree or bodl or cneptr WBK a flower auniciently conspicuous to form, an object in the landscape. In every direction the cy6 and mottled rock. There was colour and avpeet f tbe _ . T L - '" - ~ 1 : - 268 RATAN PALMS. lower parts of the forest, near the river-banks, these are very plentiful, and of the most brilliant colours ; and their appearance, as they stalk about, holding up their single huge claw with an air of ludicrous menace, never fails to excite the observer's amusement. They seem overweighted with their unwieldy member, yet they are by no means easy to capture ; on the slightest alarm they scuttle away to the mouth of their burrows for protection. There they boldly wait to see if the enemy make anj r further movement in advance; should he do so, they quickly retreat, still holding aloft their pincer as a defensive weapon. In many of the forests a characteristic feature is the abundance of ratan palms,* suspended from the trees, and winding, creeping, and twisting upon the ground in the most wonderful confusion. The variety of the fantastic shapes they assume is astonishing; but may be explained by the decay and fall of the trees up which they have first clambered, when they are left to crawl and grow along the ground until they find another trunk to ascend. A tangled heap of twisted living ratari is, therefore, a kind of memorial or monument, marking the site of some trunk which has disappeared. Its powers of growth seem almost inexhaustible, and as a single plant will climb several trees in succession, it is easy to conceive the enormous length to which it will attain. There can be no doubt that these climbers add to the picturesqueness of the forest-scenery; for they vary the otherwise monotonous tree-tops with "feathery crow as of leaves" springing clear above them, and each termin- ated by "an erect leafy spike like a lightning-conductor." * " R&t&D " is the commercial name for the long trailing stems of Calamtut C. rttdentum., C. rotang, C. Viminatit, PJiajfio Jialtllifvrmit, and others VECTAT1O OF CCLE8EC. VEGETATION IN CELEBES. 271 A very beautiful fan-leaved palm is found here the Livistona rotundifolia. It rises to a height of one hundred or one hundred and twenty feet, with a stem perfectly smooth and cylindrical, but not more than eight or ten inches thick. This stem bears aloft a crown of fan-shaped leaves, which form almost complete circles of six or eight feet in diameter, supported on long and slender petioles, and finely toothed round the edge by the extremities of the leaflets, which are separated from the circumference for only a few inches. At the base the foot-stalks are sheathed in a mass of netted fibres. This is, indeed, one of the gracefulest of the graceful Palmaceae. We are reminded of Temperate climes by the rasp- berries, and blue and yellow composite, which grow freely in the thickets ; of the sub-alpine vegetation by the smaller ferns and orchids, and the dwarf begonias which clothe each rocky acclivity. But then, again, we are carried back to the Tropics by the colossal tree-ferns, the noble pandani, and stately palms which everywhere surround us ; by the festoons of orchids, bromelias, lycopods, and arads which twist about the trunks and stems of the forest-trees. The ordinary stemless ferns are very plentiful, some with gigantic fronds, ten or twelve feet long, others scarcely an inch high ; some with massive and en- tire leaves, others with elegant waving foliage, finely cut, and all commanding attention by 'their peculiar beauty. Oranges of unparalleled lusciousness invite the traveller, by no means reluctant, to quench his thirst : and so he goes on his way, at every step discovering some new object of interest, beauty, or wonder. 272 A VILLAGE IN THE INTERIOR. A CELEBIAN VILLAGE. We quit the silent glades of the forest, and turn aside to visit another Celebian village. " The main road, along which all the coffee is brought down from the interior in carts drawn by buffaloes, is always turned aside at the entrance of a village, so as to pass behind it, and thus allow the village street itself to be kept neat and clean. This is lined by neat hedges, often formed entirely of rose-trees, which are perpetually in blossom. There is a broad central path, with a border of fine turf, which is kept well swept and neatly cut. The houses are all of wood, raised about six feet on substantial posts neatly painted blue, while the walls are whitewashed. They all have a verandah enclosed with a neat balustrade, and are generally surrounded by orange-trees and flowering shrubs. The surrounding scenery is verdant and picturesque. Coffee plantations of extreme luxuriance, noble palms and tree-ferns, wooded hills and volcanic peaks, everywhere meet the eye." TREES AND FRUITS. To complete our survey of the vegetation of Celebes, we must add the oak, the teak, the cedar, and the upas. The clove and nutmeg trees ; the sago-palm ; sandal-wood ; the pepper-vine; the silk cotton tree (Bombyx ceiba); the badcan, which yields a vegetable butter, known as "Thine incomparable oil, Macassar;" the ginger-plant, sumach or fustic-wood, ebony, and the betel-nut, are also among the island's vegetable riches. Nor must we forget the numerous fruits, bananas, mangosteens, oranges, shaddocks, and the like ; or the BIRDS OF CELEBES. 273 invaluable coffee-plant, cacao, sugar-eane, tobacco, ben- zoin, and manioc root, all of which repay the labour of the husbandman with ample crops. Rice and maize are among the staple exports of Celebes, and European vegetables are successfully cultivated. BIRDS OF CELEBES. Let us now see what the island offers to the zoologist, beyond the birds and insects to which we have already directed the reader's attention. Of land-birds one hundred and forty-four species have been distinguished, one hundred and eight of which may be regarded as more especially characteristic of the island, while no fewer than eighty are entirely confined to the Celebesian fauna ; "a degree of individuality," it has been justly remarked, "which, considering the situation of the island, is hardly to be equalled in any other part of the world." Six species of the Hawk tribe are peculiar to Celebes ; one of which, Accipiter trinotatus, is distin- guished by elegant rows of large white spots on the tail. Three owls are also exclusively Celebesian; and of ten species of parrots, the same may be said of all but two. Here are found the curious raquet-tailed parrots, characterized by the two long spoon-shaped feathers in the tail. Two allied species are found in the adjacent island of Mindanao, one of the Philippines ; and this singular caudal appendage is possessed by no other parrots in the whole world. There are three Celebesian woodpeckers, and the same number of indigenous cuckoos. Two of the latter are thus described : Phcenicophaus caUirhynchiw is the largest and (637) 18 274 BIRDS OF CELEBES. handsomest of its genus, and distinguished by the three colours of its beak, bright yellow, red, and black. Eudynamis melanorhynchus differs from all its allies in possessing a jet-black bill ; whereas the other species of the genus have it always green, or yellow, or reddish. Mr. Wallace speaks of the Celebes roller (Coracias Temmincki) as an interesting example of one species of a genus being cut off from the rest ; for though there are species in Europe, Africa, and parts of Asia, there are none in the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, or Borneo. And the nearest kith and kin to the Celebes roller are the African species, between which and it " a dreary sea now flows between ! " A similar circumstance renders one of the bee-eaters (Meropogon Forsteni) remarkable, for its only near ally was discovered by M. Du Chaillu where ? can the reader imagine ? in West Africa. Celebes has also its hornbills, with their curious nests. The female selects the hollow of a tree for her breeding-place, and at the proper time retires to it, where she makes a kind of couch of her own feathers, lays her eggs, hatches them, and abides with her young until they are fully fledged. The male, mean- time, plasters up the entrance to the nest, all except a narrow slit, adapted to the form of his beak, through which he feeds his mate. As a consequence, it is said, the voluntary prisoner grows quite fat, while the poor husband gets so lean and weak that any sudden change of temperature overcomes him. Celebes has but a single species of thrush. It has several fly-catchers, however, and a couple of species BIRDS OF CELEBES. 275 HORNBILL FKKIJI.M; HKK YOUNO. or genera Streptositta and Charitornis which are allied to the magpies, and yet seem to come more property among the starlings. They are fine birds, 276 BIRDS OF CELEBES. with long tails, black and white plumage, and with the feathers of the head " somewhat rigid and scale-like." Our naturalist speaks of two very isolated and handsome birds, whose relationship to the starlings is very dubious, the Enodes erythrophrys, with ashy and yellow plumage, ornamented above the eyes with broad stripes of orange-red ; and the Sasilornis Celebensis, a blue-black bird with a white patch on each side of the breast, and the head ornamented with a beautiful compressed scaly crest of feathers, resembling in form that of the cock-of-the-rock of South America.* The only ally to this bird is found in Ceram. Reference must also be made to the Scissirostrum pagei, a member of the Starling family, but differing from all his kin in the form of the bill and nostrils. In general structure he seems closely allied to the African ox-pecker, that faithful friend of the rhinoceros. His plumage is almost entirely of a slaty colour, but the feathers of the rump and upper tail-coverts each terminate in a tuft or pencil of a gleaming glossy crimson. He is a sociable bird, and is always found in numerous flocks, feeding upon grain and fruit, and building their nests in the cavities of dead trees, to the trunks of which they cling as easily as wood- peckers. We need say nothing of the eighteen species of pigeons, eleven of which are peculiar to Celebes, because their organization and habits are everywhere the same. But we must dwell for a moment on the curious helmeted maleo (Megacephalon i^ubripes), whose nearest but still distant relatives are the brush-turkeys of Australia and New Guinea. Wallace, " Malay Archipelago," i 274. ABOUT THE MALEO. 277 The maleo is a handsome bird : the glossy black and rosy white of his plumage, his feathery crest and elevated tail, give him a striking character, which is certainly not impaired by the stateliness and gravity of his walk. He marches along like a feathered Lord Burleigh ! The difference between him and his mate is very slight ; only the larger size of his crest or casaque and of the tubercles at the nostrils, and the deeper rosiness of colour in his plumage. He runs quickly, but when alarmed flies noisily and labouringly to the nearest tree, where he perches on a low branch. The maleos deposit their eggs in the loose hot sand of the shore, to which they resort in the mouths of August and September. Here, just above high-water mark, they scratch holes three or four feet deep, and the female deposits a single large egg, which she covers over with about a foot of sand. At the end of ten or twelve days she comes again to the same spot, and lays another egg ; a process which she repeats from six to eight times. The male escorts the female to and from the beach, and assists her in making the hole. Several birds will lay in the same receptacle. When quite fresh, the eggs of the maleo are very delicious ; richer than hens' eggs, and of a finer flavour ; and the natives are quite justified in their partiality for them. A single egg fills an ordinary tea-cup, and with bread or rice makes a capital meal. The colour of the shell is sometimes pure white ; more frequently a pale brick red. Size : from four to four and a half inches long by two and a quarter or two and a half wide. Shape : elongate, and very slightly smaller at one end than at the other. " In the structure of the feet of this bird," says 278 CELEBES AND ITS MAMMALS. Wallace, " we may detect a cause for its departing from the habits of its nearest allies, the Megapodii and Talegalli, which heap up earth, stones, leaves, and sticks into a huge mound, in which they bury their eggs.* The feet of the maleo are not nearly so large or strong in proportion as in these birds; while its claws are short and straight, instead of being long and much curved. The toes are, however, strongly webbed at the base, forming a broad powerful foot, which, with the rather long leg, is well adapted to scratch away the loose sand (which flies away in a perfect shower when the birds are at work), but which could not without much labour accumulate the heaps of miscellaneous rubbish, which the large grasping feet of the megapodius bring together with ease."f SOME MAMMALS. The mammalia of Celebes are few in number, including only fourteen terrestrial species, and some bats. In this happy island the larger carnivores and the pachyderms are " conspicuous by their absence." It is not a Sportsman's Paradise; for it has neither elephant, rhinoceros, nor tapir ; and not one of the Felidse, from the tiger downwards. Of the eleven terrestrial species which are peculiar to the island, we shall name the most characteristic. The other three, which are found in most of the islands of the Archipelago, are : 1. The remarkable Tarsius spectrum, a lemur which ranges as far westward as Malacca ; 2. The common Malay civet, Viverra tangalunga, which has a still wider range ; and, * See ante, p. 110. t \S"allace, " The Malay Archipelago," ii. 2C6. AN ARBOREAL MAMMAL. 279 3. A deer, identified with the Rusa hippelaphus of Java, which was probably introduced by man at an early period. The Tarsier, or Tarsius spectrum, is so named in reference to the extraordinary length of its hands which is caused by a considerable elongation of the bones composing the "tarsus," or back of the hands and feet. This characteristic is more noticeable in the hind than in the front paws. Its fur is of a grayish brown colour, shaded, as it were, with a slight uniform tint of olive. The face and forehead are of a warmer, almost of a ruddy brown ; and a dark ring or circle surrounds the back of the head. It is arboreal in its habits, and hops among the branches with a succession of short, quick movements like those of a frog. To enable it more firmly to cling to the boughs, the palms of its hands are fur- nished with several pads. The back of the hands is covered, like the tail, with a soft, downy kind of hair, which, on the body and limbs, gives place to a close, woolly fur. It sleeps during the greater part of the day, but goes forth at nightfall in quest of food pulpy fruits and flying insects. Its nest is made in the fork of a tree, of green leaves, dried moss, and similar substances. The tangalung, or civet, bears a general resemblance to the zibeth of Asia, and the so-called civet-cat of Northern Africa. Its fur, however, is more distinctly marked with black spots, which so accumulate about the spine that the fur seems in that part entirely 280 CIVET AND CYNOPITHECUS. black. Three black bands, like crescents, very broad in the middle and narrow at the extremities, are found on the lower part of the throat and neck the central band being much wider than the others. This handsome little creature measures about two feet and a half in length, and the tail takes eleven inches. The rounded fox-like head tapers suddenly towards the nose, so that the muzzle is rather short. The tail is nearly cylindrical, and, like the body, fur- nished with a warm close coat of soft hair next the skin. Like the civet, it has a musk-secreting pouch. It feeds upon fruits, birds, and the smaller mammals ; is nocturnal in its habits, and apparently of a lethargic disposition. Of the Rwsine deer no particular description is necessary. It resembles the Cervidse in organization and habits, except that it is less active and restless, seldom goes abroad by day, and prefers the wooded lowlands, in the neighbourhood of a stream or pool. Water and shade seem to be indispensable to its exist- ence. Of the eleven species of mammals peculiar to Celebes, the following are of peculiar interest : The Cynopithecus nigrescens, which is found only in Celebes and the small island of Batchian, is described as "a curious baboon-like monkey, if not a true baboon." It is about the size of a spaniel, of a jet- black colour, with the prominent dog-like muzzle and overhanging brows of the baboons. It has large red callosities ; but the fleshy tail is scarcely an inch long, and barely visible. The cynopithecus roams abroad in ABOUT THE BABYEOUSSA. 281 numerous companies, living chiefly in the trees, but descending at will, and depredating largely upon the orchards and gardens. Does the sapi-utan, or "wild cow" (Anoa depressi- cornis) belong to the antelopes or the buffaloes ? This was a question at one time much debated, but now answered in favour of its classification in the genus Bubalus. It is smaller, however, than most wild cattle, and bears some points of resemblance to the ox-like antelopes of South Africa. It has long straight horns, which are ringed at the back, and slope backwards over the neck. It loves the rocks and mountain-crags, and can be captured only with great difficulty. A very fierce animal, notwithstanding its small size. Some of these creatures, which were kept in confine- ment, killed in one night fourteen stags imprudently shut up with them. We say imprudently, because it appears to possess a natural antipathy to the deer, and will never inhabit any locality where the latter are found. In Celebes we meet with the babyroussa, or pig-deer so called because in general appearance it resembles a pig, but has curved tusks like horns, and long and slender legs. Its tusks are disposed in a very remark- able manner, so that four of them project above the snout. Their sockets, instead of pointing downwards, are curved upwards ; and the tooth, in filling the curvature of the socket, rises through a hole in the upper lip, and curves boldly over the face. The female is devoid of these appendages. The upper tusks are not intended for offensive weapons, and could not be so employed in most cases, being so strongly curved that the points nearly touch the forehead. But 282 THE BABYROUSSA DESCRIBED. the lower tusks are dangerous implements, and as the babyroussa is a strong and ferocious animal, it is by no means advisable to come to close quarters with it. The babyroussa swims well, and apparently with much enjoyment. It is sometimes as large as an or- dinary donkey ; its smooth skin is scantily covered with short stiff hairs. It lives in numerous herds, frequent- THE BABYROUSSA. ing marshy localities and lightly-wooded ground, where it feeds on fallen fruit, roots, and young shrubs. In its tusks it somewhat resembles the African bush hog or bosch vark; but otherwise it stands "completely isolated," with no affinity to the pigs of any other part of the world. It is found all over Celebes and in the Sulu Islands, and also in Bouru, the only spot beyond the Celebes group to which it ranges. ABOUT THE CAMELEON. 283 Of the five indigenous species of squirrels we need say nothing more than that Celebes marks their furthest eastward limit in the Tropics. There are two species of Eastern opossums Cuscus; and Celebes marks the furthest westward extension of the Marsupial order. Of the cuscus, we may note that it is about the size of a large cat, or three feet in total length, with a prehensile tail, which it is constantly making use of ; that to deceive its pursuer it counterfeits death with admirable skill ; that it lives on vegetable food, insects, and the eggs of birds; and that it possesses a remarkably soft and silky fur. The cameleon is also an inhabitant of Celebes ; and the flying dragon, one of the Saurian tribe, may be seen at dusk winging its slow laborious way through the obscure shadows of the woods. Its sides are fur- nished with an expansible membrane, by means of which it springs with tolerable facility from tree to tree ; and can even support itself for some time in the air. It loves to cling to the smooth trunk of the forest-trees, and bask there in the sun, motionless, though on the watch. Mr. Arthur Adams speaks of one he captured, which on any alarm would feign death, and lie perfectly immovable, with limbs doubled up, and drooping head, until it supposed the danger past ; when it would cautiously resume its usual attitude, look warily around, and suddenly take to flight. Snakes are numerous in the island, and range through all the grisly tribe, from the tiger-python, or Boa castanea, which measures thirty feet in length, but is not venomous, to the smaller but infinitely more 284 THE CELEBES ARCHIPELAGO. dangerous cobra da capella, of which so many terrible tales are told. The mouths of the rivers, and the seas around Cele- bes, literally teem with fish ; and it is said that in the markets of Macassar as many as three hundred different kinds are frequently offered for sale. The dugong is a frequent visitor, and the rocky coasts abound in turtle and the biche-de-mer, or holothuria, affording a valuable resource to the Malay fishermen. ISLANDS OF THE CELEBES GROUP. Of the numerous small islands which lie off the shores of Celebes little need be said. Their general features are identical with those of the larger island, though necessarily on a limited scale. To the south- east is Boutong, a high woody island, separated from Moena by the Boutong Strait; while Moena is divided by a very narrow arm of the sea from the south- eastern peninsula of Celebes. Off the south coast we find quite a cluster of small islands, forming part of the Dutch province of Macassar. These are Salayer, or Great Salayer, separated from Celebes by a strait of the same name, thirteen miles wide mountainous, richly-wooded, populous, and well-cultivated; Kalaura, Boueratta, Hog Island, and the Boegerones. To the east of the eastern peninsula, and almost forming an extension of it, are Peling, a considerable island, about fifty miles in length by fifteen miles in breadth ; Balaling and the Xulla islands, of which Xulla (or Sulu) Mangera is the most important. It lies between Celebes and Ceram; measures sixty miles long and ten miles broad; and is divided, on the west, from Xulla-Talaybo by a narrow channel, THE SPICE ISLANDS. 285 in which a dangerous whirlpool obstructs naviga- tion. To the north, across the Strait of Banka, are Siao (or Siauw), an island of great fertility, with an active volcano at its northern extremity; and Sangir, which continues the chain of fire towards the Philippines. It measures about thirty miles in length by ten miles in breadth ; and gradually rises from a moderate eleva- tion in its southern districts to a mountainous mass in its northern, which culminates in the smoking volcano of Aboe. As in most volcanic islands, the soil is fertile. The vegetation corresponds with that of Celebes, and exhibits a tropical luxuriance. The inhabitants speak a dialect of the Malayan; and attire themselves in a loose cotton gown hanging from the neck nearly to the feet. The Sangir group includes forty-six small islands. CHAPTER III. THE MOLUCCAS, OR SPICE ISLANDS. THE THREE GROUPS. | HE name Moluccas is employed in a restricted and also in a comprehensive or general sense. It is applied, in the first place, to a group of small islands, otherwise called the Royal Islands, lying off the western coast of Gilolo, and washed by the Moluccas Passage, which separates Gilolo from Celebes. In a wider sense, the name Moluccas is applied to all the islands, or groups of islands, lying between Celebes and New Guinea. They are commonly divided, according to the three Resi- dencies, into the Ternate, Amboyna, and Banda groups, which contain, respectively, the following principal islands : 1. The Ternate Islands, including the Moluccas proper, comprehending Ternate, Gilolo, Batchian, Obi, Mortui, and the Kaivd Islands ; 2. The Amboyna Islands, including Amboyna, Ceram, Bouru, Goram, Amblau, and some smaller isles ; and, 3. The Banda Islands, including Great Banda or Lonthoir, Banda Neira, Pulo Run, Pulo Ai, Goenong Api, Rosengyn, Kapal, Pisang Sjethan, and Vrouwen. GREAT BANDA. 287 These numerous islands are all mountainous, and mostly volcanic ; and their forms of animal and vegetable life exhibit but few and unimportant dif- ferences. They may, therefore, be properly compre- hended under the one general title of the Moluccas. We shall visit them in the following order : Banda, and adjacent islands ; Amboyna, Ceram, Bouru, Goram ; and Ternate, Gilolo, Batchian, and adjacent islands. The inhabitants are Moluccan-Malays, and their religion is principally Mohammedanism. IN THE BANDAS. The Banda Islands are ten in number. The largest, GREAT BANDA (or Lonthoir, or Lontar), is situated to the south of Ceram. It is a crescent- shaped island ; or rather, its shape is that of a Turkish scimitar, with the handle to the east, the point to the west, and the outward curve of the blade to the south. Its length may be taken at about six miles, and its greatest width at about a mile and a half. By extending its eastern horn, we reach, in suc- cession, Pulo Pisang (or Banana Island), two-thirds of a mile in length and somewhat more than six hundred yards in width; and Pulo Kapal (or Ship Island), so called because its rock, three hundred feet high, bears a questionable resemblance to the poop of a vessel. Within the circle of which these three islands form an arc lie three other islands, of which the loftiest and most romantic is the Gunong Api, or " Burning Moun- tain," a conical active volcano towering to an elevation of 5800 feet. Between this eternal "isle of fire" and the northern end of Lonthoir nestles the pictur- esque verdant gem of Banda Neira, two miles long 288 HISTORICAL SKETCH. and less than a mile broad. North-east of the latter lies the small wave-worn rock of Pulo Krakka, or "Women's Island." The centre of the circle of which Lonthoir forms an arc falls in a narrow passage called Sun Strait, which separates Gunong Api from Banda Neira. The dia- meter of this circle is about six miles. Beyond it may be drawn a second and wider circle, passing through Pulo Ai, or " Water Island," on the west, and Rosengyn in the south-west ; and outside of this a third concentric circle, defined by Pulo Swangi, " Sor- cery" or "Spirit Island," on the north-west, Pulo Run, " Chamber Island," on the west, and the reef of Rosengyn on the south-west. The total area thus comprised that is, of the Banda group is 17^ geo- graphical square miles. A BRIEF HISTORICAL SKETCH. So much for the position of these charming islands, which, escaping the dry winds that blow over the Australian deserts, are remarkable for their fresh greenery and the plentifulness of their vegetation. They were first made known to Europeans by the Portuguese navigator D'Abreu, but the Chinese and Arabs, and probably the Hindus, had long previously included them in the range of their commercial enter- prise. D'Abreu, according to the chronicler De Barros, had the assistance of " Javanese and Malay pilots who had made the voyage ; " and De Barros adds, that every year Javanese and Malays repaired to Lulatain (that is, Great Banda) to load cloves, nutmegs, and mace ; for it lay in the latitudes most easily navigated, and where ships were most secure, and as the cloves LONG AGO. 289 of the Moluccas are brought thither by vessels belong- ing to those islands, it was unnecessary to go to the latter for the much-prized spices. "In the five islands," says De Barros namely, Lonthoir, Kosengyn, Pulo Ai, Pulo Run, and Banda Neira "grow all the nut- megs consumed in every part of the world." He gives the then population as 15,000 a very much larger number than at present; and he says of them : " The people of these islands are robust, with lank hair and a tawny complexion, and are of the worst repute in these regions. They follow the sect of Mohammed, and are much addicted to trade, their women perform- ing the labours of the field. They have neither king nor lord, and all their government depends on the advice of their elders ; and as these are often at variance, they quarrel among themselves. The land has no other export than the nutmeg. This tree is in such abundance that the land is full of it, without its being planted by any one, for the earth yields without culture. The forests which produce it belong to no one by inheritance, but to the people in common."* For about a century the Portuguese monopolized the commerce of these islands, and throughout this period maintained a friendly intercourse with the natives. In 1609, the Dutch, however, resolved to annex them to their Eastern possessions, and invaded Great Banda with a force of seven hundred soldiers } but falling into an ambuscade, were compelled to re- treat with considerable loss. They then began a war of extermination, which was prolonged for eighteen years, and brought to a successful issue only through the efforts of a large expedition from Java, commanded * Crauford, "Dictionary of the East Indian Islands," in loco "Bauda." ltT) 19 290 SLAVES AND CONVICTS. by the governor-general in person. In this prolonged struggle, the natives, who fought with great courage and resolution, lost 3000 killed and 1000 prisoners. The survivors fled to the neighbouring islands, where they were merged in the general mass ; so that scarcely a vestige of their language or customs is now known to exist. Deprived of the. assistance of a native population in cultivating the nutmeg-trees, the Dutch were compelled to resort to slave-labour; after the abolition of slavery, they had recourse to convicts, of whom about three thousand are now maintained on these islands. "They are a most villanous-looking set," says Mr. Bickmore,* "and have nearly all been guilty of the bloodiest crimes. They are obliged to wear around the neck a large iron ring, weighing a pound or a pound and a half. It is bent round, and then welded, so that it can only be taken off by means of a file. It is not so heavy that it is difficult for them to carry, but it is designed to show that they are common felons." VISIT TO GREAT BANDA. But we must now proceed to Great Banda. As we approach the island, which lies in the blue sea like a glorious emerald, we pass Pulo Ai on our right ; an island of coral formation, rising from three hundred to five hundred feet in height. Further on, we sail in the shadow of the lofty and precipitous Gunong Api, or the "Burning Mountain." On its north-north- west side, about one-fourth of the distance from its summit to the encircling waves yawns a deep wide gulf; and out of this gulf thick white clouds evolve, * Bickmore, "Travels in the Eastern Archipelago," p. 217. A SEA-COAST PICTURE. 291 which, in the calm clear air, roll upward and upward in one vast and constantly expanding column, like the pillar of smoke that went before the Israelite host. Its crest is wreathed around with fleecy clouds, which rapidly dissolve and pass away, to be succeeded by other clouds, even whiter and more vaporous. They are composed of steam and sulphurous acid gas, and indicate the incessant chemical action which is for ever taking place within the bowels of this island-peak of lire. And we see before us the western curve of the moon-shaped Lonthoir. Here, against a coast varying from two to three hundred feet in height, and almost precipitous, the waters beat with a continuous roll and roar. Not bare or desolate these rocks, however, though exposed to wind and wave, but clothed with luxuriant vegetation which fills up every ravine, and stretches down to the very margin of the sea. Soon we are off the northern shore; a long line of steep and lofty wall, almost hidden beneath a dense, intertangled mass of vegetation, out of which spring erect the columnar stems of tall and shapely palms crowned with a capital of long, feathery leaves, gracefully wav- ing like a maiden's tresses. Now Ban da Neira lies full in view, composed of green hills descending gradually to the shore of this little bay. On the summit is situated a strong fortress, forming a regular pentagon. Its white walls shine dazzlingly in the sunlight, and contrast agreeably with the glacis, which is a broad, green, and gradually slop- ing lawn. Below this defence, which would avail but little against our "Woolwich infants," stands Fort Nassau, built by the Dutch on their arrival here in 292 AN ACTIVE VOLCANO. 1609. On either hand extends along the shore the prin- cipal town or village, Neira, shaded by rows of pleasant trees, and looking out upon a bright blue sea. In the offing are numerous praus from Ceram; quaintly -built vessels, high at the stern and low at the bow, with a tall tripod instead of a mast, which can be raised or lowered at pleasure. The wonder is that such frail craft can venture on any considerable voyage. At anchor in the roads lie some Bugis traders ; " herma- phrodite schooners," which, with their foresail, fore-top- sail, and fore-royal, can run only before the wind. These visit the eastern end of Ceram, the south-western and western shores of New Guinea, the Arus, and most of the thousand isles between Banda, Timur, and Australia.* Just opposite the town rises, in an almost perfect cone, the great volcano, with a slight chasm on the north side, whence issue two continuous columns of smoke, while nearer the summit vaporous clouds are thrown off in slowly-circling wreaths. A white efflor- escence, probably of sulphur, encrusts the upper part of the mountain, which is furrowed by water gullies in narrow black vertical lines. "It is only," remarks Mr. Wallace.f "when actually gazing on an active volcano that one can fully realize its awfulness and grandeur. Whence comes that in- exhaustible fire whose dense and sulphurous smoke for ever issues from this bare and desolate peak ? Whence the mighty forces that produced that peak, and still from time to time exhibit themselves in the earth- quakes that always occur in the vicinity of volcanic * Bickmore, "Travels in the Eastern Archipelago," pp. 219-222. t Wallace, "The Malay Archipelago,"!. 2S& ISLANDS OF FERTILITY. 293 vents ? The knowledge from childhood of the fact that volcanoes and earthquakes exist, has taken away somewhat of the strange and exceptional character that really belongs to them. The inhabitant of most parts of northern Europe sees in the earth the emblem of stability and repose. His whole life-experience, and that of all his age and generation, teaches him that the earth is solid and firm ; that its massive rocks may con- tain water in abundance, but never fire ; and these essen- tial characteristics of the earth are manifest in every mountain his country contains. A volcano is a fact opposed to all this mass of experience ; a fact of so awful a character, that, if it were the rule instead of the excep- tion, it would make the earth uninhabitable ; a fact so strange and unaccountable, that we may be sure it would not be believed on any human testimony, if presented to us now for the first time, as a natural phenomenon happening in a distant country." But from the contemplation of volcanic phenomena we are diverted by the extraordinary richness of the vegetation which clothes in one uniform and almost unbroken garb of verdure Lonthoir and its sister-islets. This little group, with a total superficial area of only seventeen miles, is the great nutmeg-garden of the world. It is a case of nutmegs here, nutmegs there, nutmegs everywhere. Beneath the shade of the lofty kanary-trees, deriving their nourishment from the thin but warm volcanic soil, and fed by the constant moisture, the handsome, glossy-leaved nutmegs, twenty to thirty feet high, line the roads, and bloom in the gardens, and spread over all the open places. They are very fair to look upon, with their thick spreading branches, the tallest sprays of which are fifty feet 294 NUTMEG-TREES. high. The flowers are small and yellowish. The fruit, before it is fully ripe, resembles a peach that NUTMEG-TREE AND FRUIT. has not yet been tinted with red ; but this is only the epicarp, or outer rind, which is of a tough fleshy consistence, and on maturing splits open into two THE KANARY-TREE. 295 equal parts, revealing a spherical, polished, dark brown nut, enveloped in crimson "mace." In this stage it may fairly be described as the most beautiful fruit in the cornucopia of Pomona ! It is now picked by means of a small basket fastened to the end of a long bamboo. The epicarp being removed, the mace is carefully taken off and dried in the sun, which changes its bright crimson to an obscure yellow. It is then ready to be packed in casks and shipped to market. Next the nuts are spread on a shallow tray of open basket-work, and exposed, for a period of three months, to the action of a slow fire. By the end of that time the actual, genuine nutmeg has so shrunken that it rattles in its dark brown shell. The shell is broken, and the nut- megs, after being sorted, are packed in large casks of teak- wood, which are duly branded with the year in which the fruit was gathered, and the name of. the plantation where it was grown. The kanary-tree (Canarium commune), which is also cultivated here, is the Java almond, and spreads over all the Moluccas. Its fruits are much esteemed by the Javanese, and yield an oil which, when fresh, is eaten at table, and is also employed for burning in lamps. The gum which exudes from its trunk is described as resembling balsam of copaiba. The kanary-tree is planted as a protection for the nutmeg, which it shelters from the wind with its huge gnarled arms. Its roots are very remarkable. They spring off from the trunk above ground in "great vertical sheets," which, at their point of departure, are frequently four feet broad, and wind in and out, and twist to and fro, before they disappear under the 296 ASCENT OF GUNONG API. soil ; so that the lower part of one of these old trees might well suggest the idea of "a huge bundle of enormous snakes struggling to free themselves from a Titanic hand that held them firmly for ever." AN ASCENT OF A VOLCANO. An ascent of the volcano to which we have alluded was accomplished by Mr. Bickmore in 1865, and a sketch of what he saw and experienced may not be without interest to the reader. The party who undertook the ascent consisted of Mr. Bickmore and three companions, a native "guide," and ten coolies, who carried a supply of fresh water in long bamboos. The path at first was difficult and fatiguing, but not dangerous. The explorers reached the naked sides of the mountain, which is not mantled with vegetation for more than two-thirds of the distance from base to summit. This nakedness is due to the frequent occurrence of landslips, which plough the declivities as with iron shares, and to the abundance of sulphur washed down by heavy rains. Here they found themselves compelled to crawl on all-fours among small blocks of lava, and the ascent proved wearisome and discouraging, the mountain-top seeming to rise higher and higher as they advanced. When within about five hundred yards of it, they stood aghast to see before them an almost perpendicular stretch of loose, rough lava-stones, and it was not without peril they succeeded in crossing it. After this the way was smoother ; but a new source of danger called for their utmost vigilance, showers of lava-flakes rattling down the sides, and bounding over the heads of the THE SUMMIT-CRATEK. 299 party one of whom, unknown to the others, had gained the summit, and was amusing himself with testing the velocity of projectiles ! At last the adventurers stood on the " difficult mountain -crest," and saw beneath them the summit- crater ; an elliptical cavity about eighty feet deep, three hundred yards long, and two hundred wide. It is surrounded by hot rocks which scorch the spectator's feet, and lined with sulphur-crusted blocks of lava, through whose fissures jets of steam and sulphurous acid gas are continually arising. This, however, is not the active crater, which lies on the north-west side, and sends up from its darkling depths immense volumes of steam and other gases. Everywhere around, both above and below, on the summit and on the sides, layers of yellow sulphur may be noticed. The descent of a mountain is generally more ardu- ous than its ascent, and so it proved in this case ; and Mr. Bickmore met with an awkward adventure. Happily, no accident occurred, and the whole party safely reached the bottom before close of day. VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS. The height of this volcano does not exceed 2321 feet, and its base is less than two miles square. But the de- structiveness of a volcano is by no means in proportion to its dimensions; and Gunong Api, though small, has been the theatre of many terrible eruptions. Outbreaks have taken place in 1586, 1598, 1609, 1615, 1632, 1690, 1696, 1712, 1765, 1775,1778, 1820,and 1824. One of the most violent of these occurred in June 1820. Just before noon, on the llth, without the slightest warning or premonitory symptom, the phe- 300 A TERRIBLE ERUPTION. nomenon began, and proved of so awful a character, that the people residing among the nutmeg-groves on the lower flanks of the mountain immediately took to their boats, and fled to Banda Neira. Masses of incan- descent sand, and stones, and ashes were hurled from the crater, lighting up the air as with the reflection of a colossal furnace. It is said that the red-hot stones, falling in a rain of fire, ignited the woods, and converted the whole mountain into one immense cone of flame. As the catastrophe took place during the prevalence of the western monsoon, such quantities of sand and ashes were driven over to Banda Neira that the branches of the nutmeg-trees broke beneath the unusual burden, and all the plantations in the island were totally de- stroyed. Even the fountains and springs were tempo- rarily spoiled, from the showers of light ashes that penetrated into every fissure. For thirteen days the eruption was incessant, nor did it entirely cease for a period of six weeks. In the course of it the mountain seemed to be cloven right through in a north-north-west and south-south- cast direction. It was at this time that the great crater on the north-west flank was formed ; while a lava-stream rushed down the western side into a small bay, building up a kind of promontory one hundred and eighty feet in length. This was a very singular circumstance ; as it is a characteristic of the volcanoes of the Indian Archipelago that they do not emit molten rock, but only hot stones, ashes, and sand. EARTHQUAKES. That Banda is one of the centres of volcanic or igneous activity is shown by the numerous and violent EARTHQUAKES IN BANDA. 301 earthquakes which have shaken it to its very founda- tions. Terrible shocks were experienced in 1 629, 1683, 1710, 1767, 1816, and 1852 ; and the last of these has left its memorials in wide-spread ruin. Only those houses escaped destruction which had been built with special precautions; that is, with walls two or three feet thick, strongly supported by solid buttresses. The first indication of evil was the sudden outpouring of the waters of the bay, leaving a brig dry ashore, which, but a few minutes before, had been lying at anchor in eight or nine fathoms. Then came in a tremendous wave from ocean, refilling the bay, and overflowing the low shore to a depth of twenty-five or thirty feet. Some praus moored close in to the land were taken up by it like playthings, and dashed against Fort Nassau, which was so completely engulfed that one of the boats remained within its walls after the tide had subsided to its usual level. Nearly every house in the lower part of the village was swept clean away. The rapid outflow of the waters of the bay, which is simply an ancient crater, may have been produced by an elevation of its bottom, or else by such a subsidence of the ocean-bed beyond as to create a hollow or depression into which they were drained off. The land rising again in the latter case, or sinking in the former, accompanied probably by a sinking of the shore, would cause the following inrush, or deluge, which, it is needless to say, was attended with great loss of life. ANIMAL LIFE IN BANDA. The population of Banda is exceedingly mixed, and at least three-fourths are a curious "cross" between Malays, Papuans, Arabs, Portuguese, and Dutch. The 302 FLORA AND FAUNA. two first-named elements predominate, as is shown by the dark skins, prominent features, and frizzled hair we meet with in every direction. A volcano rising out of a mass of kanary-trees and nutmeg-groves, and surrounded by gleaming seas, such is the Greater Banda. Hence it has little variety to offer us either in its animal or vegetable life. At dusk, several species of bats wheel around the houses and hunt for food in the neighbouring plantations. Pigs are numerous; but, like the deer, are probably importations. The groves are haunted by swarms of fruit-pigeons, the Carpophaga concinna, which feed upon the mace of the nutmeg, and are remarkable for their loud "booming" song. These birds are found also in the Kd and Matabello Islands ; but, strange to say, not in Ceram or Amboyna, or any of the larger of the Molucca group. The limitation of the species is not easy to explain ; but species alike in habits, and not very different in appearance, take their place. We may refer, in conclusion, to the cuscus, or Eastern opossum, a marsupial, or pouched animal, which ranges from Amboyna to New Guinea, but has not crossed the sea into Australia. Its Latin name is a modification of the native couscous or coescoes; and the principal species is further designated maculatus, or "spotted," in allusion to the patches of colour scattered over its whity-gray coat of fur. These patches are of a deep brown, shaded, as it were, with a tint of reddish chestnut. Sometimes, however, the ground colour is white, while the spots are black ; or black spots speckle a dark gray coat ; or the spots run into one another, and form a kind of fanciful pattern. The average cuscus measures three feet in length. ABOUT THE CUSCUS. 303 of which the tail occupies fifteen or sixteen inches ; in other words, it is about the size of a large cat. So much we have told the reader in a preceding chapter, and we have spoken of its arboreal habits; but here we shall venture to give a few additional particulars of its habits. It has a long tail, as we have seen, and it makes constant use of it; twisting it round stem or branch of tree to obtain support, and, when alarmed, hanging by it to some lofty bough, and waving to and fro in the wind like a bunch of dead fruit a stratagem which often deceives the pursuer. On the other hand, it is not infrequently the means of its being captured, if the hunter is acquainted with the animal's peculiari- ties. For the story runs, that, so long as the human eye rests on the tricksy creature, it will continue to maintain its suspended position, until at last, the overwrought muscles being unable to endure the strain put upon them, it falls at the feet of its captor. There is nothing of the squirrel's grace and agility about the cuscus. It moves slowly, it moves timidly, and it seldom ventures far without having recourse to the prehensile powers of its tail. Among the trees it finds its food, leaves, and juicy young sprays, and buds, and fruit ; also birds' eggs, and sometimes the birds themselves ; insects, and perhaps mice. This diet renders its flesh not disagreeable eating, and it is described as succulent, well-flavoured, and not inferior in any respect to that of the kangaroo. We should think, however, that he who ventures upon it needs the sauce of a good appetite, and must have been cured of fastidiousness by a prolonged experience of "mixed diet;" for to most persons its strong odour 304 ISLAND OF AMBOYNA. would be sufficiently repulsive. This odour proceeds from some small glands situated in the hinder part of the body. The cuscus is hunted, however, for its fur, rather than as an addition to the hunter's bill of fare. Its coat is of a peculiarly soft and silky texture, and is much used "for conversion into articles of human attire or luxury, such as cloaks and mantles." The genus is akin to those of the Petaurists and the Phalangistines, in the group of the Macropidse, but differs from them in some important respects. The Petaurists and Phalangistines are very swift and nimble in their movements, and by means of a membranous appendage to their sides can take considerable flying leaps; while the cuscus is slow and timid, and has no power of flight. Altogether, it is an interesting and remarkable animal. AMBOYNA. To the north-west of Banda lies the most important, though not the largest, of the Moluccas the island of Amboyna. On the north it is sheltered by a curious peninsula-like prolongation of Ceram ; to the west is Bouru, or Booroo. It gives name to the Dutch resi- dency, or government, of Amboyna, which also includes Ceram, Bouro, Amblau, Manipa, Kilung, Harookoo, and some smaller isles. Any of our readers who have visited the western district of the Isle of Wight, be- tween Yarmouth and Freshwater, will readily under- stand its formation ; for Amboyna consists, as that does, of two peninsulas united by a low and narrow isthmus. The isthmus, indeed, is not above a mile in length, and constitutes a mere strip of sand. To the south-east lies the peninsula of Leitimir ; to the north- SCENE IN AMBOYNA. ABOUT THE CLOVE-TREE. 307 west, that of Hitu; and between them flows a deep boldly-curving bay, affording admirable anchorage for the largest ships. The island, as a whole, measures about thirty miles in length, and ten in breadth at its widest part ; its average width does not exceed five or six miles. Mountains, hills, rocks, forests, noisy burns, and rippling brooks, with well-wooded valleys running in among the highlands, and low fertile country stretching along the shore, such is the general character of Amboyna. It is not one of the fairest or richest islands of the Archipelago ; much of its surface is bare and barren ; and it presents but little of that exuber- ant vegetation which we are accustomed to associate with the Tropics. In fact, it owes its celebrity and its wealth to one special vegetable product the clove- tree (Caryophyllus aromaticus). Such being the case, and groves of clove-trees, with their bright green verdure, being the pleasantest objects in the island, before we go further it will be well for us to devote some attention to so remarkable a source of wealth. THE CLOVE-TREE. We first hear of cloves in Europe about A.D. 175 180, in the reign of the Emperor Aurelian, when they are mentioned as imported into Alexandria from India the Isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea forming then, as now, the great highway along which flowed the traffic of the East. They were carried by the Javanese and Malays from the Moluccas to the peninsula of Malacca ; thence the Telingas, or Klings, transported them to Calicut, the once famous capital of Malabar. From Calicut they passed to the western shores of 308 THE DUTCH AND THE CLOVE-TRADE. India, and, crossing the Arabian Sea, found their way up the Red Sea to the Egyptian port. When we consider how many hands were concerned in this suc- cession of transfers, and how they were exposed to perils by sea and perils by hand, we shall not be sur- prised that they formed a costly luxury, and appeared only on the tables of the great In England, as late as the fifteenth century, they realized thirty shillings a much larger sum of money then than now per pound, or 168 per cwt. ; being about three hundred and sixty times their original price. A pound of cloves at one time cost more than a good fat sheep. That they might share in this enormous profit, was one of the reasons which induced the European maritime nations to search so anxiously for a sea-way to the East ; and Western commerce owes as much to spices as it does to gold and silver. And when the Spice Islands were discovered, the same cause operated to perpetuate a monopoly of their products in the hands of a single nation, thus leading to a protracted struggle between the Dutch, the Spaniards, the Portuguese, and the English. Amboyna finally fell into the hands of the Dutch, who for a considerable period kept to them- selves the lucrative trade ; but, after a while, cloves were raised elsewhere, and the supply increasing more rapidly than the demand, their price was quickly re- duced. And as the clove is an article of luxury and not of use, the demand is always likely to be inferior to the supply, and therefore we may be sure that the immense profits which it formerly yielded will never again be realized. The native name for this fruit is chenki, which may be a coiTuption of the Chinese iheng-ki, or " sweet- WHAT'S IN A NAME? 309 smelling nails." The resemblance to a nail has also suggested the Dutch name, krind-nagel, or "hub-nail" (the trees are nagelen-boomen, or "nail-trees"), and the Spanish davos (Latin clavus, a nail), whence comes our English " clove." De Canto, who visited the Moluccas in 1540, says:* "The Persians call the clove calafur ; and speaking on this matter, with permission of the physi- cians, it appears to us that the carofilum of the Latin is corrupted from the calafur of the Moors (that is, Arabs), for they have some resemblance. And as this drug passed into Europe through the hands of the Moors with the name calafur, it appears the Europeans did not change it. The Castilians (Spaniards) called cloves gilope, because they came from the island of Gilolo (probably one of the chief sources of this article at that time). The people of the Moluccas call them chanque'. The Brahmin physicians first called them lavanga, but afterwards gave them the Moorish name. Generally all nations give them a name of their own, as we have done ; for the first of us (the Portuguese) that reached these islands (the Moluccas), taking them in their hands, and observing their resemblance to iron nails, called them clavo, by which they are now so well known in the world." The reader may inquire, " What's in a name ?" In this case, something ; for the numerous designations bestowed on a fruit of such apparent insignificance must be regarded as a proof of the high estimation in which it was held by many nations. Undoubtedly, our ancestors valued it more highly and used it more extensively than we do. An orange stuck full of * Biekmore, "Travels in the Eastern Archipelago," p. 166. 310 THE CLOVE-TREE DESCRIBED. cloves, and carried in the hand, was considered a pre- ventive against infection. Fowls were stuffed with cloves, which were also introduced into sauces and "made dishes." The clove-tree belongs to the order of Myrtles, which includes the guava, the pomegranate, and the rose-apple. Its topmost branches are usually forty or fifty feet from the ground, and the full-grown trunk measures eight to twelve inches in diameter. It was originally confined, says Bickmore, to the five islands off the west coast of Gilolo, which then comprised the whole group known as " the Moluccas " a name that has since been extended to Bouru, Amboyna, and the other islands off the south coast of Ceram, where the clove has been introduced and cultivated within a comparatively late period. On these five islands, he adds, it begins to bear in its seventh or eighth year, and sometimes continues to yield until it has reached an age of nearly one hundred and fifty years ; the trees, therefore, are of very different sizes. Here at Amboyna it is not expected to bear fruit before its twelfth or fifteenth year, and to cease yielding when it is seventy-five years old. Naturally, much attention has been directed to its limited range ; and Rumphius, an old writer, the author of the " Hortus Amboiensis," who describes it as " the most beautiful, the most elegant, and the most pre- cious of all known trees," remarks : " Hence it appears that the Great Disposer of things, allotting in his wisdom his gifts to the several regions of the world, placed cloves in the kingdom of the Moluccas, beyond which, by no human industry, can they be propagated or perfectly cultivated." Here, however, Rumphius was PIGAFETTAS DESCRIPTION. 311 greatly mistaken. The clove-tree is capable of trans- plantation, and now thrives in the West Indies and on the Guiana coast, in Bourbon and Zanzibar, in Sumatra, Penang, and on the shores of the Strait of Malacca. A quaint description of this celebrated tree is given by Pigafetta, who accompanied Magellan in his voyage round the world. It attains, he says, a pretty con- siderable height; and its trunk is about as large as a man's body, varying more or less according to its age. Its branches extend very wide about the middle of the trunk, but at the summit terminate in a pyramid. Its leaf resembles that of the laurel, and the bark of it is of an olive colour. The cloves grow at the end of small branches, in clusters of from ten to twenty ; and the tree, according to the season, sends forth more on one side than on the other. The cloves at first are white ; as they ripen they become reddish, and they blacken as they dry. There are annually two crops gathered, the one at Christmas, the other about St. John the Baptist's Day; that is to say, about the time of the two solstices seasons in which the air is more temperate in this country than at the other periods of the year, though the hottest of the two is that of the winter solstice, when the sun is here at its zenith. When the year is hot, and the quantity of rain that falls is little, the amount of the crop of each island is from three to four hundred bahars. [That is, from fifty-five to seventy-three tons.] The clove-tree grows only on the mountains, and dies if transplanted to the plain. [This is an error ; the Dutch cultivate it in the low grounds.] The leaf, the bark, and the woody part of the tree have as strong a flavour and as potent a smell as the fruit itself. If this last be not 312 MORE ABOUT THE CLOVE. gathered just at the proper season, it becomes so large and so hard that no part of it remains good but the rind. There are no clove-trees of prime quality but in the mountains of the five islands of Malucho ; for though some grow in the island G-iailolo, and on the islet Maro, between Tadore and Mutir, the fruit of them is inferior. It is said that fogs give them their superior degree of perfection in these islands ; however this may be, we certainly did remark every day that a fog, resembling thin clouds, enveloped first one and then another of the mountains of these islands. Each inhabitant possesses some clove-trees, which he attends to himself, and the fruit of which he gathers ; but he uses no species of culture.* To this we may add that the buds when young are nearly white ; afterwards they change to a light green, and finally to a bright red, when they must at once be gathered which is done by picking them by hand, or beating them off with bamboos so that they drop in showers on cloths spread beneath the trees. When they have been dried in the sun a process which changes them from red to black they are ready for market. The gathering seasons are June and Decem- ber. The soil best adapted to the tree seems a warm, loose, sandy loam. SCENERY IN AMBOYNA. The town of Amboyna has little in itself to attract the attention of the traveller, but its " surroundings " are by no means disagreeable. The roads are lined with hedges of flowering shrubs, and among groves of palms and enclosures of fruit-trees nestle the country - * Plgafetta, in Pinkerton'g " Voyages and Travels," xl. 365, 3C6. A SCENE IN AMBOYNA. 315 houses of the Dutch merchants and the huts of the natives. In the farther country, hills and mountains offer an almost infinite variety of outline, and shady lanes strike through masses of verdure to blooming bowers haunted by the bright crimson-coloured lories. An interesting ramble is afforded by a broad road which runs across the island, through swamp, clear- ing, and forest, over hill and dale. In the hollows the forest vegetation assumes something like a tropi- cal luxuriance ; innumerable ratans coiling about the trees, twining round their trunks, and binding bough to bough. Here the Insect World is seen to great advantage; beautiful butterflies abound, and the beetles are large and radiant. So are snakes, unfortunately, and the explorer needs to be on his guard against them. They enter the huts, and Mr. Wallace relates a stirring incident in which one of the tribe figured conspicuously and alarmingly. Mr. Wallace was sitting in his verandah, reading, about nine o'clock one evening, when he heard a curious stir and rustle overhead, as if some heavy animal were dragging its slow length over the thatch. As the noise soon ceased, however, he forgot the in- cident, and in due time retired to bed. Next day, just before dinner, he was lying on his couch with a book in his hand, when, accidentally looking upwards, he noticed a something above him which was certainly novel. Looking again, he discerned some blue and yellow marks, and concluded that a tortoise-shell had been stowed out of the way between the ridge-pole and the roof. But a more careful survey assured him that it was, in reality, a large snake, compactly coiled up in a kind of knot, with its bright eyes and head 316 BEWARE OF SERPENTS! discernible in the very centre of the coil. He now understood the cause of the noise on the previous evening : a python had climbed up one of the posts of the house, and, making its way under the thatch, had taken up a comfortable position in the roof, immedi- ately above the head of the unsuspecting naturalist. Mr. Wallace called to a couple of boys engaged below, and pointed out the locality of the big snake. Instantly they started out of the house, begging him to follow. Some of the men at work in an adjoining plantation were then summoned, and one, a native of snake -infested Bouru, undertook to dislodge the in- truder. Accordingly, he made a strong noose of ratan, and with a long pole in the other hand thrust at the snake, which then began to uncoil itself slowly. Next he slipped the noose over its head, and getting it over the body, dragged the animal down. Great was the disturbance as the snake twisted its pliant body round chairs and posts in a spirited attempt at resistance ; but at length its adversary seized its tail, rushed out of the house so quickly as to confuse its brains, and sought to dash its head against a tree. Missing his aim, however, he lost his hold, and the serpent slid under a dead trunk near at hand. It was again brought out ; again its tail was grasped, and used as a lever ; and at the second essay the Bouru native swung it against a tree with a blow that stunned it, after which it was easily killed. It proved to be twelve feet in length. BIRDS. Among the few species of birds found in Amboyna must be named the beautiful black lory, Chalcopsitta ABOUT KINGFISHERS. 317 atra, whose glossy plumage of jet gleams with lumi- nous touches of yellow and purple ; and the racquet- tailed kingfisher. Whoever has seen an English king- fisher alas, that he should be so rare ! must know that the tail of this species of wader is short, or, at least, by no means of unusual dimensions. But the racquet-tailed boasts of two immensely long middle tail-feathers, narrowly webbed, and terminating in a spoon-shaped expansion, not at all unlike a battle- dore. These appendages, being blue and white, pre- sent a very handsome appearance. The Amboynese kingfisher (or kinghunter) does not live on fish, like all others of his tribe, but on insects, snails, and slugs, which he darts upon and picks from the ground, just as his European congener darts upon fish in the water. He is confined to a very limited range Northern Australia, New Guinea, and the Moluccas ; and there are about ten species in all. The Amboynese is a handsome bird ; fully seventeen inches long to the tips of the tail-feathers ; with a coral-red bill, back and wings of a deep purple, shoulders, head, and nape a glorious azure blue like that of the sky on a summer noon ; and all the under part of the body as white as snow on an untrodden mountain-top. EARTHQUAKES. Amboyna is not a volcanic island that is, it has neither active nor extinct volcanoes but it feels the reflex of the great wave of volcanic disturbance which falls so heavily on Banda, and hence it is subject to violent earthquakes. A shock occurred in 18C5, 318 AN EARTHQUAKE SHOCK. during Mr. Bickmore's visit, and he describes it with much minuteness. He was roused from sleep, about half-past four in the morning, by a low, heavy rum- bling deep down in the earth. It was not a roar, but rather a succession of quick, rattling reports, as if a long train of carts had been driven over a stony cause- way. The next moment his bed was violently shaken to and fro, and almost simultaneously his host shouted to him, " Run out of the house ! run for your life ! There is a dreadful earthquake ! " Host and family and guest took refuge in a room built behind the house, surrounded by a low wall, and covered with a light roof. The host then explained that the shock which had frighted them from their propriety was the second, and a very severe onej and that it was the first, a comparatively light one, which had disturbed him in his sleep. Of course, none knew but that a heavier one might immediately follow, and lay all the buildings near and around them in a mass of ruins, if, indeed, the earth did not open and swallow them alive ! The time between the pre- monitory sounds and the shock itself was about five seconds. Though, in the middle of a monsoon, the wind blows constantly day and night, such was the effect of the earthquake that, for a while, the air was free from the slightest movement. The insect life ceased its rapid hum, the tree-toad hushed its constant piping. "Dread silence reigned around;" an "awful pause," as if Nature were conscious of some coming catastrophe. But so terrible and sinister a stillness was more painful than the roar of the most violent tempest. Meantime, lights became visible in the windows of PREVIOUS CALAMITIES. 319 the neighbouring houses, the doors of which were flung open, that at the slightest warning everybody might rush into the street. Sounds were heard, in strange confusion, of the voices of Malay, Arab, and Chinese, all speaking together, and all labouring under the same pressure of anxiety and apprehension. In this way half an hour passed by, and then the wind began to blow as before. Nature seemed to shake off its panic ; one after another the nocturnal animals resumed their various cries; the darkness disappeared; the welcome dawn lighted the tops of the eastern hills, and with the return of day, man, as is usual, recovered his energy and customary confidence. An earthquake usually occurs at Amboyna every year ; and when eight or ten months have passed with- out any such disturbance, a very violent shock is always looked for. Mr. Bickmore records some particulars of calamities from which the island has suffered. Thus : on Feb- ruary 17, 1674, a severe earthquake shook it from east to west, and Mount Wawanu, in the peninsula of Hitu, poured out a torrent of boiling mud, which flowed into the sea. In 1815, when an eruption of Mount Tomboro took place, an earthquake was felt in several parts of Amboyna. In 1835, a series of shocks began on the 1st of November, and continued three weeks. The inhabi- tants of the capital were forced to abandon their houses, and shelter themselves in tents and bamboo huts on the common in the rear of the town. Up to that date, Amboyna had enjoyed a reputation for great healthiness, but immediately afterwards a gastric- 820 SEA-WONDERS. bilious fever broke out, and continued until March 1845. On the 20th of July, in the latter year, another severe earthquake occurred ; and again on the 18th and 20th of March 1850. At present, remarks Mr. Bickmore, Amboyna is "one of the healthiest islands in these seas." He connects the outbreak of disease with the occurrence of the shocks, believing that it is connected with the quantities of poisonous gases which are then evolved. OBJECTS OF INTEREST IN AMBOYNA. Amboyna has long been celebrated for its shells, and the amateur conchologist would find on its shores and in its surrounding waters an inexhaustible variety of those treasures of the deep. It is needless to dwell upon their beauty ; their exquisite delicacy of hue and wonderful blending of tints, and their rare graceful- ness of outline, justify the admiration they never fail to excite. But here, beneath the Tropics, we meet with such marvels of form and colour as are never found in our colder main: the tubular turritellidae, the piral littorinidae, enamelled cypraeidse, the magnificent cassis, the curious ampullaria or apple-shell, gigantic tridacnas, and the elegant cytherea. These, and other sea-wonders, abound in the waters of Amboyna. " Passing up the harbour," writes Mr. Wallace, " the clearness of the water afforded me one of the most astonishing and beautiful sights I have ever beheld. The bottom was absolutely hidden by a continuous series of corals, sponges, actiniae, and other marine pro- ductions, of magnificent dimensions, varied forms, and brilliant colours. The depth varied from about twenty to fifty feet, and the bottom was very uneven, rocks SEA-WONDERS. 321 and chasms, and little hills and valleys, offering a variety of stations for the growth of these animal forests. In and out among them moved numbers of blue and red and yellow fishes, spotted and banded O1ANT TiUOACNA USKD AS A BATH. and striped in the most striking manner, while great orange or rosy transparent medusae floated along near the surface. It was a sight to gaze at for hours, and no description can do justice to its surpassing beauty and interest. For once," exclaims Mr. Wallace, " the (637) 21 300 THE PEARL NAUTILUS. reality exceeded the most glowing accounts I had ever read of the wonders of a coral sea. There is perhaps no spot in the world richer in marine productions, corals, shells, and fishes, than the harbour of Am- boyna." Mr. Bickniore tells us that he went to Amboyna as a shell-collector, and that he bought these curiosities of the sea and the shore " by the basketful." Among them were numerous specimens of the pearl nautilus, which seem to have rendered him peculiarly anxious to obtain the living animal. In this he fortunately succeeded ; and who will not rejoice that his innocent ambition was gratified ? It had been captured in this way. The natives of the Eastern Archipelago rarely fish with a line, as we do ; but, where the water is too deep to build a weir, they employ a bubu, or barrel of open basket-work of bamboo. Each end of this barrel is an inverted cone, with a small opening at its apex. Pieces of fish and other bait are sus- pended inside, and the bubu is then sunk on the clear, sandy patches of a coral reef, or more commonly in a depth of twenty to fifty fathoms. No line is attached to the bubus sunk on a reef; they are taken up with a gaff. Those in deep water are buoyed by a cord and a long bamboo, to one end of which is fastened a stick in a vertical position, with a piece of palm-leaf for a flag, to render it more conspicuous. In the pre- sent instance it happened that one of these bubus was washed off into deeper water than usual, and the nautilus made its way through the opening in one of the cones to get at the bait within. Runiphius, who is generally accurate in his descrip- tions of the tropical molluscs, affirms that the nan- POETRY VERSUS FACT. 323 tilus * swiins occasionally on the sea ; but he was probably led astray by the natives, who themselves were deceived by the number of empty shells fre- quently found floating on the surface of the waves. When the animal dies, and is separated from its shell, the air or gas contained in its many-chambered shell lloats it to the surface. Everybody knows the beautiful but fanciful picture which Montgomery draws of the nautilus : " Light as a flake of foam upon the wind, Keel upward, from the deep emerged a sliull, Shaped like the moon ere half her horn is filled ; Fraught with young life, it righted as it rose, And moved at will along the yielding water. The native pilot of this little bark Put out a tier of oars on either side, Spread to the wafting breeze a twofold sail, And mounted up and glided down the billow In happy freedom, pleased to feel the air, And wander in the luxury of light. " The Pelican Island. This is poetical, but inaccurate, whether applied to the paper nautilus } or to the pearl nautilus both of which, by the way, are found in the Indian Seas. The latter, with which we are here concerned, creeps like a snail along the ocean-bed, at a depth of thirty to forty fathoms. Rumphius, to whom we have previously alluded, says : " When he floats on the water, he puts out his head and all his barbs (tentacles), and spreads them upon the water, with the poop (of the shell) above water ; but at the bottom he creeps in the reverse posi- tion, with his boat above him, and with his head and barbs upon the ground, making a tolerably quick * Nautilus pompilius, a cephalopod of the order Tetrfilirfivrlnnta. * ArKonanta-Aiyo ,'nr Ocyth:i tnbpreiilatarV 324 COMING TO THE SURFACE. progress. He keeps himself chiefly upon the ground, creeping sometimes also into the nets of the fishermen; but after a storm, as the weather becomes calm they are seen in troops floating on the water, being driven up by the agitation of the waves; whence one may infer that they con- gregate in troops at the bottom." The latter portion of the statement of the Dutch naturalist is without foun- dation, yet it may be conceded that the animal does occasionally emerge from the ocean-depths. In what man- ner it accomplishes its ascending or descending movements seems, how- ever, difficult to determine. Professor Owen thinks that it can rise by simply unfolding all its organs, and by their THE PEARL NAUTILUS. THE NAUTILUS SHELL. 325 protrusion from the shell. " I incline to the con- clusion," he says, " that the sole function of the air- chambers is that of the balloon, and that the power which the animal enjoys of altering at will its specific gravity must be analogous to that possessed by the fresh-water testaceous gasteropods, and that it depends chiefly upon changes in the extent of the surface which the soft parts expose to the water, according as they may be expanded to the utmost, and spread abroad beyond the aperture of the shell, or be contracted into a dense mass within its cavity." On the coast of Nicobar, one of the Andaman islands, the pearl nautilus is so common that the natives salt, dry, and eat its flesh. Its shell, which attains a maxi- mum of eight inches in height, is used by the Hindu priests as a conch; and it yields a beautiful nacre, or mother-of-pearl, which is much valued for ornamental cabinet-work. The Easterns also manufacture drink- ing cups out of these elegant shells, engraving on their surface the most fanciful arabesques and figures. From the sea we pass to the land, and from the brightly- tinted gardens of ocean to a cacao-garden or plantation. In Amboyna a hill-side is chosen for the cultivation of the cacao-tree; and to reach the garden the visitor climbs through groves of palms into the thick forest, and then out of the forest into the shade of the cacao-trees, which lift their slender, shapely trunks, like rows of spears, and spread abroad their green branches loaded with their long, red, cucumber- like fruit. No skill is required in growing the Theo- broma cacao. Take care that the soil is suitable, and keep it free from grass and underwood. Yet it is not a 326 A CACAO-PLANTATION. native of the East, but one of the few things which the Orient has borrowed from the West. The Spaniards discovered it in Mexico, and transplanted it to their settlements in South America and the West Indies. Thence it travelled to the Moluccas. It is also culti- vated in Guiana and Brazil. CACAO-TREE AND FRUIT. It seldom exceeds twenty feet in height. Its leaves are large, oblong, and pointed; its flowers hang in pale red clusters, not only from its branches, but also from its trunk and roots. Hence a cacao-plantation has a singular and striking appearance, as Humboldt did not ABOUT THE THEOBROMA. 327 fail to notice. " Never," he says, " shall I forget the profound impression made upon my mind by the luxuri- ance of tropical vegetation when I first saw a cacao- garden. After a damp night, large blossoms of the Theobroma ('drink for gods!') issue from the root at a considerable distance from the trunk, emerging from the deep black mould. A more striking example of the expansive powers of life could hardly be met with in organic nature/' The fruits are large, oval, pointed pods, about five or six inches long, and divided into five lobes or compart- ments, containing from twenty to forty seeds, the " cacao " of commerce, enveloped in a white pithy substance. In localities weU-sheltered from the wind the grower sows his seeds. In two years the plant attains a height of three feet, and throws off numerous branches ; all of which are removed, with the exception of four or five. In the third year the fruits appear; but the tree does not yield fully until six or seven years old, after which it produces abundant crops for upwards of two decades. When the pods are first picked they are remarkable for a peculiar pungency, which can be converted into the highly-valued aromatic principle only by a process of fermentation. Wherefore they are thrown into pits, covered with a thin layer of sand, stirred at intervals, and allowed to remain for three or four days. After which they are taken out, cleaned, dried in the sun, packed in cases or sacks, and despatched to the market. They are best known in Europe in the form of chocolate ; being roasted, ground into a smooth paste, and flavoured with vanilla or other spices. Here is a glimpse of a cacao-garden in Amboyna : " Large flocks of small birds, much like our blackbird, 328 VISIT TO A RAJAH. hover about, alighting only on the tops of the tallest trees. As evening comes on, small green parrots utter their shrill, deafening screams as they dart to and fro through the thick foliage. In these tropical lands, when the sun sets it is high time for the hunter to forsake his fascinating sport and hurry home. There is no long, fading twilight, but darkness presses closely on the footsteps of retreating day, and at once it is night. In the evening a full moon sheds broad, oscil- lating bands of silver light through the large, polished leaves of the bananas around our dwelling, as they slowly wave to and fro in the cool, refreshing breeze. Then the low cooing of doves comes up out of the dark forest, and the tree-toads pipe out their long, shrill notes." A VISIT TO A RAJAH. The naturalist to whom we have already been in- debted for many pleasant facts, has put on record a graphic account of a visit he paid to the rajah, or native prince, of Hitu (or Hitoo). We propose to avail ourselves of it, because it cannot fail to convey to the reader's mind a real and living picture of the insular scenery and native manners and customs. The way to the rajah's residence passed through vegetation which would be strange enough to the eyes of a European. The crests of the hills were occupied with cocoa (or cacao) gardens. Afterwards the road on either side was lined with rows of pine-apples,* a third exotic from Tropical America, which flourishes so vigorously in every part of the Archipelago that one can hardly believe it is not an indigenous plant. But the native names all indicate its origin. The Malaya * Ananassa sativa FLYING DRAGONS. 331 and Javanese call it nanas, which is merely a corrup- tion of the Portuguese ananassa. In Celebes it is sometimes called pandang, a corruption of pandanus (the screw-pine), from the marked similarity of the two fruits. In the Philippines it is known by the name of pina, the Spanish for pine - cone, which has the same derivation as our English pine-apple. Pina is also the name of a very strong, durable cloth, which the natives of the Philippine Islands manufac- ture from the fibres of its leaves.* It is strange that the Malays have never turned them to similarly use- ful account. The fruit of the Amboynese pine-apple is not equal to that grown in the West Indies or Brazil. Our traveller was hospitably received by the rajah, and a private chamber was assigned to him. Large numbers of children quickly gathered, and were sent out to search for lizards. They quickly returned with a number of real " flying dragons;" not, indeed, the monsters which figure in heraldry and fiction, but the small lizards called Draco volans, each provided with a broad fold in the skin along either side of the body, similar to the membranous expansion of the " flying squirrel," and designed for a similar purpose, that is, not for flight, but to act as a parachute to sustain the animal in the air while taking long leaps from branch to branch. If man be ever to achieve the mystery of aerial locomotion for short distances, must he not take a hint from the structure of these so-called winged dragons ? " As the tide receded," says Mr. Bickmore, " shells * Excellent twine for rope is obtained from the leaves of several species of Bromelia (to which genus the pine-apple belongs). The inhabitants of the San Francisco valley in Brazil make their fishing-nets with the fibres of the Caroa, or Bromelia variegata. 332 A SIMPLE MODE OF BARTER. began to come in "- for it was soon discovered that the stranger had a mania for collecting natural curiosities " at first the more common species, and rarer ones as the ebbing ceased. My mode of trading with these people was exceedingly simple, my stock of Malay being very limited. A small table was placed on the verandah in front of the rajah's house, and I took a seat behind it. The natives then severally came up and placed their shells in a row on the table, and I placed opposite each shell, or each lot of shells, whatever I was willing to give for them; and then, pointing first to the money and next to the shells, remarked, Ini atau itu, ' This or that,' leaving them to make their own choice. In this way all disputing was avoided, and the purchasing went on rapidly. Whenever one man had a rare shell, and the sum I offered did not meet his expectations, another would be sure to accept it if no more was given; then the first would change his mind, and thus I never failed to obtain both speci- mens. It was a pleasure that no one but a naturalist can appreciate, to see such rare and beautiful shells coming in alive, spotted cyprseas, marble cones, long Fusi, and Murices, some spiny, and some richly orna- mented with varices resembling compound leaves." At sunset the rajah and his guest rambled along the curving shore of the great bay. Before them stretched the green hills of Ceram ; or, as the rajah called it, Ceram tuna biza, " the great land of Ceram," for to him, indeed, it seemed a mighty continent, and not merely a pulo, or island. Magnitude, after all, is simply a question of comparison; a blade of grass to an ant bulks as largely as a conifer to a man. Behind the high, jagged peaks of the " great land" slowly sank the WATERING-PLACE, AMBOYNA. THE HERMIT-CRAB. 335 setting sun, and his last golden and purple shafts quivered like luminous arrows as they fell upon the wavy surface of the crystal bay ; and the broad, deeply- fringed leaves of the cocoa-nut palms on the beach, seemed to change into ruby and emerald and amethyst in the glow of the wondrous light. It was a scene never to be forgotten; a scene every detail of which was engraved deeply on the spectator's memory. Its silence rendered it all the more impressive; and that silence was felt the more powerfully because sometimes broken by a dull, heavy boom from a small Moham- medan mosque, picturesquely situated on a narrow headland, and reflected on every side in the purpling sea. This was the roll of a large drum summoning the faithful to assemble in thank-offering to the Prophet at the close of so glorious a day. While wandering through the island in company with the rajah, our traveller met with two specimens of an enormous hermit-crab the Birgus latro which forms a link, or transitional form, between the long- tailed and short-tailed crabs. It feeds upon cocoa-nuts, and is said to climb the palm-trees in order to procure them ; but Mr. Darwin, who examined its habits attentively, asserts that it lives upon those that spon- taneously fall from the tree. To extract its food from the hard case in which it is enclosed, it shows an ingenuity which rises above the standard of ordinary animal instinct. First of all, it must be remarked that its front pair of legs are terminated by very strong, heavy pincers ; the last pair by pincers which are weak and narrow. After having selected a nut fit for its dinner, the crab begins operations by tearing off the dry husk until the end of the shell is laid bare on 336 THE ULIASSERS. which the three eye-holes are situated. Then upon one of these it hammers and hammers, until an open- ing is made ; whereupon it turns round, and by means of a dexterous use of its hind-pincers extracts the oily, fattening food within. The Birgus latro inhabits deep burrows, in which it accumulates immense quantities of picked fibres of cocoa-nut husks, to serve as a bed. Its habits are diurnal ; but every night it pays (so it is said) a visit to the sea for the purpose, probably, of moistening its branchiae. Living on such choice and succulent food, it is necessarily excellent food in its turn in fact, an Oriental luxury; and the mass of fat under the tail of a large crab will yield when melted as much as a quart of limpid oil.* THE ULIASSERS. Three islands, called the " Uliassers," lie to the east of Amboyna. That which lies nearest is Haruku (Dutch, Haroekoe) ; also known to the natives as Oma, or Buwang-bessi that is, " Ejecting iron." Next in order comes Saparua, or Sapurba ("the Source") a name given to it by the Malay and Javanese merchants who resorted thither, centuries agone, to purchase cloves; and away to the eastward lies Nusalaut, or "Sea Island" the island nearest the open sea. The islanders are distinguished from the Amboynese by their strange custom of clipping the hair short all over the head, except a narrow band across the forehead, which hangs down like a fringe, and gives them a "remarkably clownish appearance." Mr. Bickmore crossed from Amboyna to Saparua in a large prau, rowed by eighteen natives ; one of whom, Hartwig, "The Sea and its Living Wonders," p. 211. THE ARECA PALM. 337 as coxswain or captain, steered with a large paddle, while two others accompanied the movements of the rowers with melancholy music. The instrument em- ployed was a huge tifa, or drum, that emitted a dull, heavy sound, such as would be produced by beating a hollow log ; and two Chinese gongs, quite perfect in their exceeding discord. The tifa is beaten with a piece of wood held lightly in the right hand, while the left hand raises the note by pressing against the edge of the vibrating skin. Of course, the sounds thus created must be unpleasantly monotonous ; nor was their monotony much relieved by the harsh notes of the two gongs, which were struck alternately.* The Uliassers, or Uliasserians (which name is cor- rect?), are very partial to the betel-nut, which, as some of our readers may know, is the fruit of a tall and shapely palm the Areca catechu. While the trunk of this palm is seldom more than six or eight inches thick, it rises fully thirty to forty feet from the ground, exclusive of the capital of green foliage that gracefully crowns its slender column. All the palms are graceful, but the areca is of all the gracefullest, and might almost be taken as the standard of beauty in the Vegetable World. Its range is extensive, including all Hindustan, the Archipelago, and the Philippines. Its Malay name is Penang ; and Pulo Penang means simply Betel-nut Island. Its flowers are distinguished by their delight- ful fragrance ; and the inhabitants of Borneo make great use of them on festive occasions. They are also regarded as a necessary ingredient in magical charms and compounds, and in all medicines. The fruit, of the size of a hen's egg, is of a warm. * Bickmore, " Travels In the Eastern Archipelago," pp. 179, 180. (637) W 338 CHEWING BETEL-NUT. reddish yellow colour, with a thick fibrous rind en- closing the seed. The seed, known as areca or betel nut, may be about as large as a nutmeg, but conical in shape, flattened at the base, brownish externally, and mottled internally like a nutmeg. When intended for use, it is cut up into narrow pieces, which, with the addition of a little lime, are rolled up in leaves of the betel-pepper. The pellet is chewed, and it is hot and pungent; it tinges the saliva red, stains the teeth, and, notwithstanding its undoubted aromatic and astringent properties, produces intoxication, it is said, when the practice of chewing it is begun. But its effects are probably quite as much due to the ingredients taken with it the leaf of the siri, or betel-pepper, and a piece of tobacco. " The leaf of the tobacco," we are told, " is cut so fine that it exactly resembles the ' fine cut' of civilized lands ; and long threads of the fibrous, oakum-like substance are always seen hanging out of the mouths of the natives, and completing their dis- gusting appearance. This revolting habit prevails not only among the men, but also among the women ; and whenever a number come together to gossip, as in other countries, a box containing the necessary articles is always seen near by, and a tall, urn-shaped spittoon of brass is either in the midst of the circle or passing from one to another, that each may free her mouth from surplus saliva. Whenever one native calls on another, or a stranger is received from abroad, invariably the first article that is offered him is the siri-box." A NATIVE DANCE. The three Uliassers closely resemble one another : each is surrounded by a coral reef, and overgrown with A NATIVE DANCE. 339 groves of feathery palms. An equally close resemblance may be discerned between the inhabitants of each island ; their habits and manners are identical. Their war-costume is remarkable for its simplicity: the war- rior presents himself in almost absolute nakedness, brandishing in his right hand a large cleaver or sword (frequently made of wood), and carrying on his left arm a kind of shield, four feet long and about as many inches wide in the middle. A crown composed of sticks covered with hen-feathers adorns his head; and from his shoulders and elbows hang strips of bright red calico, producing a very comical effect. Dancing appears to be their favourite pastime. The dance of the males has a military character about it ; the performers arranging themselves in two lines, and advancing and retiring, with much springing and leap- ing, and many rotatory movements and considerable brandishing of swords. The dance of the females has a certain likeness to that of their lords ; but their dress is happily more elaborate. They attire themselves in a bright red sarong and a low kabaya or bodice, over which is one of lace, glittering with silver spangles. Their long black hair is combed backwards, and fast- ened in a knot behind with numerous long, flexible pins of silver, which vibrate in harmonj^ with the dancer's motions. Thus attired, they form in two rows, and begin their minuri, or dance ; slowly twisting their body to the right and left, and simultaneously moving the out- stretched arms and open hands in circles in opposite directions, just as one does in swimming. At times they change the weight of the body from the heel to the toe, and the toe to the heel ; but otherwise the 340 VISIT TO CERAM. feet are not called into requisition. During the dance they chant a low, monotonous strain, accompanied by a tifa and several small gongs, which are suspended by a cord to a framework of gabu-gabu; that is, the dried midribs of palm-leaves. The gongs increase regularly in size, from one of five or six inches in diameter to one of twelve or fifteen inches. Each has a round central boss, or knob, which the performer strikes with a small stick, bringing forth a sound not unlike the tinkling of a small bell. And here we may take our leave of the Uliasser Islands, which form a romantic and interesting group, but do not differ from the Moluccas generally in their physical or zoological characteristics. IN CERAM. The largest of the Moluccas is the island of Ceram, which lies in a direct line to the east of Bouru, and in point of size is second only to Celebes in this part of the Archipelago. It stretches from lat. 2 47' to 3 50' S., and long. 127 51' to 123 56' E. ; or 162 geographical miles in length and 40 in breadth. Its entire area is estimated at 10,500 square miles, or nearly twice the size of Yorkshire. The interior of the island, which the natives call Sirang, is not well known, the Dutch residents having devoted more attention to commercial profit than geo- graphical research; but it may be regarded as forming a series of mountain-chains from 6000 to 8000, and even 9000 feet in height, which traverse a table-land of considerable elevation, and pour down into the sea, especially from the south, a number of large rivers and rapid streams. Exposed to sea-breezes, which cool the THE SAGO-PALM. 841 air and supply abundant moisture, well-watered, broken up into sheltered valleys, and lying within the Tropics, it is necessarily clothed with a rich and various vege- tation, and its forests are full of magnificent timber. Its landscapes, so far as they are known, seem to offer inexhaustible sources of inspiration to the artist, and might well be celebrated in the enthusiastic strains of some descriptive poet. It has been said that the two great features of all beautiful scenery are wood and water ; and these are met with everywhere in Ceram : and not only the shadows of mighty forests and the gleam of many rivers, but the rugged and romantic outlines of rock and crag enter into the glowing pic- ture, as well as the verdant glade, the dark and savage glen, and the deep " bowery hollows" of sequestered recesses. One of the chief natural productions of Ceram is THE SAGO-PALM, which is not only more plentiful here than in any of the adjoining islands, but attains to greater perfec- tion. It grows to the height of one hundred feet ; and a single tree will sometimes yield 1200 pounds of starch, instead of 400 pounds, as at Amboyna. This tree in its early stage is very slow of growth ; but when it has once formed its stem, it shoots upwards rapidly, and assumes its crown of far-spreading foliage and colossal efflorescence. Before the flowers ripen into fruit the tree must be felled ; as otherwise the farina which man uses for his food would be ex- hausted. The sago, which forms so important an article of commerce, is prepared from the soft inner portion of 842 SAGO-MEAL. the trunk ; the latter being cut into pieces about two feet long, which are then split in half, and the soi't substance is scooped out and pounded in water till the starchy matter separates, when it is drained off with the water, allowed to settle, and afterwards purified by washing. The substance thus obtained is sago-meal ; but before being exported to the European markets, it is made into pearl-sago by a Chinese process chiefly carried on at Singapore. The rough meal is subjected to repeated washings and strainings ; then spread out to dry, and broken into small pieces; which, when sufficiently hard, are pounded and sifted until they are tolerably uniform in size. Small quantities, finally, are placed in a large bag, which is suspended from the ceiling, and shaken backwards and forwards for about toil minutes, until the sago becomes pearled or granu- lated ; after which it is thoroughly dried, and packed for exportation. The word sagus comes from the Papuan sagu, or sago, signifying "bread;" which is applied to two similar species of palms, called by our botanists Sagus Icevis and Sagus Rumphii. The former of these, known also as the Spineless Sago-Palm, generally grows from twenty-five to fifty feet high ; the latter, the Prickly Sago-Palm, is a smaller tree, and differs somewhat in its foliage. The sago-palm is a sociable tree, growing in large forests, and particularly affecting moist and even swampy localities. The mouldering trunks are clothed with mushrooms of fine flavour ; and in the pith fatten the whitish grubs of a large beetle the Cossus saguarius which the natives regard as a great deli- cacy when roasted. IN THE FOREST. 343 A TRIP INTO THE INTERIOR. We shall gain the clearest idea of the character of the scenery in Ceram by accompanying Mr. Wallace on a trip into the interior, which he was enabled to accomplish through the courtesy of the Dutch officials. From the village of Makariki, at the head of the Bay of Arnabay, a native path strikes across the island to the north coast. At first it runs through a dense tangled under- growth, and traverses several streams ; then it comes to the bank of the Ruatan one of the largest rivers in Ceram which, as it is both deep and rapid, offers a somewhat formidable obstruction. No canoes are at hand, and the traveller must ford it, carrying his clothes upon his head, or keeping them out of the water as best he can. This difficulty overcome, we again enter the forest, the path being choked with dead trees and rotten leaves, or overgrown in the more open parts with thickly matted vegetation. Following up the bank of a stream, which flows with crystal clearness over a wide gravelly bed, we strike into a mountain-glen reminding us of the gorges in the Scottish Highlands green with the foliage of hanging woods, and musical with the murmur of falling waters. Through the glen winds the obstinate stream, with so many meanders that we are compelled to cross and recross it fully thirty times in the course of a few miles ; and we are glad when at last we leave it behind us, and begin the ascent of the mountain-country of the interior. All the way the paucity of animal life has been remarkable. The only birds that have cheered us by their occasional presence 344 CUSCUS AND OPOSSUM. are the Amboyna lory and the Molucca hornbill : even the Insect World has been scantily represented except by butterflies. The virgin forest is, after all, a melancholy wilder- ness, and deficient in the charms which render so graceful and impressive our English woodlands. Where is the song of birds? Where the gleam of wild flowers? Where the soft, elastic sward, with its pleasant fresh- ness and delicious odours ? We cross from shore to shore in Ceram, and seem to pass through a monotonous desert, broken only by the shadows of the mountain- ravines and the sparkle of the mazy streams. The forest-growth, however, is luxuriant; and the moun- tain-sides are covered with large patches of sago-palms, where the soil is constantly supplied with moisture by the rains, and by the abundant rills trickling from the higher grounds. 'A curious species of cuscus is found in the forest; Mr. Wallace names it Cuscus ornatus. We have already described this genus of opossum-like animals, with their small heads, large eyes, dense woolly fur, and long prehensile tail They live in trees, feeding on leaves and fruits, and moving about with much caution and apparent lethargy. The particular species to which we here refer is distinguished only by the character and arrangement of the spots which diversify its thick warm coat. The small flying opossum, JBelideus arid, is also a native of Ceram. It is about the size of a rat, and of a light brown colour on the upper part of the body, blending into white on the under surface. The tail is nearly of the same hue as the body, except the tip, which is of a dark brown. Though exactly resem- THE HELMETED CASSOWARY. 345 bling a flying squirrel in appearance, it belongs to the marsupials. Its name Ariel, referring to the " tricksy spirit" in Shakespeare's " Tempest/' was doubtlessly suggested by the extreme grace and lightness of its movements. Then there is the little shrew, Sorex myosurus, which may have been accidentally introduced from Sumatra or Java. It feeds upon worms, insects, and larvae, which its long flexible nose enables it to root out among the densest herbage. Its habitation is a kind of underground tunnel, where it finds not only a home but a "hunting-ground." It is impatient of hunger, and wholly unable to endure a long fast. A pugnacious animal, it is constantly engaged in hostili- ties with its own kith and kin ; and in these hostilities it makes effective use of the two rows of bristling teeth which arm its jaws. Among the birds, a foremost place must be given to the cassowary, which inhabits the island of Cerani only. A stout and strong bird, it stands five to six feet in height, and its body is clothed with long, coarse, black, hair-like feathers. Its head is sur- mounted by a large horny helmet. The skin of the head and upper part of the neck is naked, of a deep blue and fiery red tint, with drooping wattles or caruncles like those of the turkey-cock. It is much inferior in size to the ostrich ; and its wings consist simply of five long bristles, or horny spines, without any plumes, so that they are equally useless for running as for flying. It frequents the vast forest- depths of Ceram, feeding on fruit, eggs of birds, insects or Crustacea, and is said to be as voracious as the ostrich. It runs with exceeding swiftness ; strik- 34U MIMICRY AMONG BIRDS. ing out first one and then another of its stalwart legs, and throwing its body violently forward with a bound- ing motion exceeding the speed of the horse. THE CASSOWARY. The female lays from three to five large and beauti- fully shagreened green eggs upon a couch of leaves, the male and female sitting upon them alternately for about a month. It was in the Moluccas that Mr. Wallace discovered some curious and highly interesting cases of " mimicry " among birds. The reader will wonder what we mean by " mimicry." Well, there are insects and butterflies which, when at rest, so closely resemble a dead leaf that HONEYSUCKER AND ORIOLE. 347 they thereby escape the attack of their enemies. This is aptly termed a " protective resemblance." But if the insect, being itself a dish which birds would certainly consider dainty, should closely resemble another insect which birds do not like, and therefore never eat, it would be as well protected as if it re- sembled a leaf; and this apparent identity has been named " mimicry " by Mr. Bates, who was the dis- coverer of these curious external imitations of one insect by another belonging to a distinct genus or family, and sometimes even to a distinct order. In our own country such an instance of " mimicry " is afforded by those clear-winged moths which resemble wasps and hornets. Among the birds Mr. Wallace has discovered some interesting examples of this wonderful provision of Nature. There are two which closely resemble each other, and yet belong to two distinct and even dis- tant families. One of these is a honeysucker, named, in the language of zoologists, Tropidorhynchus Bour- nensis; the other, an oriole, named Mimeta Bournensis. The oriole resembles the honeysucker in the following particulars : the upper and under surfaces of the two birds are exactly of the same tints of dark and light brown ; the tropidorhynchus has a large bare black patch round the eyes ; this, in the mimeta, is copied by a patch of black feathers. The top of the head of the former has a scaly appearance from the narrow scale-formed feathers, which are imitated in the latter by a dusky line running down each of its broader feathers. The honeysucker wears a pale ruff formed of curious recurved feathers on the nape (whence the genus to which it belongs has been called friar birds) ; 848 MODEL AND COPY. the oriole has a pale band in the same position. Lastly, the bill of the tropidorhynchus is raised into a protuberant keel at the base; and the same character- istic is found in the mimeta, though it is not a com- mon one in the genus. Now distinct species of both these genera are found in Cerain as well as in Bouru, and in Ceram as in Bouru the resemblance to one another is most re- markable. The Tropidorhynchus subcornutus is of an earthy brown colour, washed with ochreish yellow, with bare orbits, dusky cheek, and the usual recurved nape-ruff. The Mimeta forsteni which accompanies it is absolutely identical in the tints of every part of the body, and the details are copied just as closely as in the former species. We have two kinds of evidence to tell us, says Mr. Wallace,* which bird in this case is the model, and which the copy. The honeysuckers are coloured after a pattern which is very general in the whole family to which they belong ; while the orioles seem to have departed from the bright yellow tints so common among their allies. Hence the natural conclusion is, that the latter mimic the former. But why should they do so unless some advantage results from the imitation ? And what is the advantage ? Well : observe that the mimetas are weak birds, with small feet and claws ; while the honeysuckers are strong active birds, with strong claws, and strong, sharp, and long beaks. They congregate together in groups and flocks, and when any danger impends summon their comrades by their loud clamorous cry. They are Wallace, "Malay Archipelago," ii. 87, 88. The foregoing paragraphs are founded on Mr. Wallace's statements. BIRDS OF CERAM. 349 pugnacious birds, and do not fear to attack crows, and even hawks, if they should chance to perch on their roosting tree. It is probable, therefore, that the smaller birds of prey have learned to respect the prowess of the tropidorhynchi, and not to molest them ; and it would, consequently, be a signal advantage for the feebler and less daring mimetas to be mistaken for them. To explain how this curious resemblance has been brought about, would lead us into a discussion of re- mote natural laws alien to our object in the present volume ; and we have said enough, we trust, to open up to some of our readers a source of study with which they have hitherto been unacquainted, but which will well repay any labour they may devote to it. The birds of Ceram, like its insects, show a decided affinity to the types common in New Guinea, and recede from those which prevail in the great western islands of the Archipelago. To quote Mr. Wallace once more : " Owing to the great preponderance among the birds, of parrots, pigeons, kingfishers, and sun- birds, almost all of gay or delicate colours, and many adorned with the most gorgeous plumage, and to the numbers of very large or showy butterflies which are almost everywhere to be met with, the forests of the Moluccas offer to the naturalist a very striking example of the luxuriance and beauty of animal life in the Tropics. Yet the almost entire absence of mammalia, and of such widespread groups of birds as woodpeckers, thrushes, jays, tits, and pheasants, must convince him that he is in a part of the world which has in reality but little in common with the great 350 INHABITANTS OF CERAM. Asiatic continent, although an unbroken chain of islands seems to link them to it." THE INHABITANTS. The inland districts of Ceram are inhabited by an aboriginal people, the Alfoories or Halafoorahs, who may be regarded as identical with the mountain-tribes of Celebes and the Philippines. Civilization has of late made some impression upon them, and they have abandoned the hideous custom of " head-hunting," though the inside of their huts is still decorated with human skulls. They are mostly idolaters ; and their principal occupation is hunting the wild boar and deer, large serpents, and the like. Agricultural labour is earned on almost entirely by the women, and large quantities of maize are reared. They are described as simple in their manners, honest, and peaceable ; and being brave and obedient, make good soldiers. They live in small tribes, each acknowledging the rule of a native prince, or rajah. A Malay race of fishermen, bold, active, and enter- prising, dwells on the coast ; and these fearless sailors, in their large prahus, manned by thirty to forty rowers, dare the storms of the Eastern seas, and carry the spoils of their fishery as far as Singapore and the Sunda Islands, or the coast of north-west Australia. VISIT TO GILOLO. A cursory glance at the map will convince the reader of the strange resemblance in form between Celebes and Gilolo. In the latter case, as in the former, the island is composed of a backbone or central ridge, throwing off four peninsulas, which are DESCRIPTION OF GILOLO. 351 divided by large bays or gulfs ; and it can be likened in appearance only to some monstrous star-fish, extending its tentacles in quest of prey. Its four peninsulas radiate successively to the north, the north-east, the east-south- east, and the south. The three bays which nestle be- tween them are those of Chiawo, Bitjoli, and Weda: Chiawo, 68 miles long, from north to south, and 41 miles wide, narrowing to 1 5 miles ; Bitjoli, 40 miles long, from east to west, and 25 miles wide, narrowing to 1 4 miles ; and, Weda, 62. miles long, from south-east to north-east, and 52 miles wide, narrowing to 17 miles. The extreme length of the island, as it lies north and south, has been computed at 197 miles. Its breadth nowhere exceeds, and seldom approaches, 90 miles. Its superficial area may be estimated at 6500 square miles ; so that it is larger than Dorset, Devon, and Cornwall taken together. Gilolo is a volcanic island, and its extraordinary shape is undoubtedly the result of violent volcanic action. It contains one lofty and partially active volcano, Mount Gammacanore, or Gamokonora, 6500 feet in height, of which an erup- tion took place in 1673 ; and its bold romantic coasts, with their strangely-broken outline, rise, sheer and abrupt, out of a sea of almost fathomless depth. They are skirted, moreover, by fringing coral reefs which render some parts virtually inaccessible, and are every- where dangerous to navigation. Gilolo (or Halmahera) is the largest of the Moluccas. It is separated from Celebes on the west by the Molucca Passage ; from Papua and Waygiou on the east by the Gilolo Passage ; and from Ceram and Bouru on the south by Pitt's Passage. 352 IN THE INTERIOR. The principal productions of the island are cocoa- nuts, sago, spices, fruits, edible birds' -nests, which find a ready sale among the Chinese; pearls and gold-dust; horses, horned cattle, sheep, deer, and wild boars. Its interior is but little known : the character of the scenery, however, varies greatly ; in some places the virgin forest displays all its exuberance of vegetation; in others, the hills are bare, and the valleys narrowed by projecting masses of limestone rock. The streams are numerous and deep, and those which descend from the high ground are remarkable for their rapidity. A traveller thus describes the country in the neigh- bom-hood of one of the principal villages, Saloa : Interminable tracts of reedy grass, eight or ten feet high, extend in every direction, and the narrow paths which strike across them are often rendered almost impassable by the tangled growth. Here and there some relief is afforded by clumps of fruit-trees, patches of low wood, young and thriving plantations, and swampy rice-grounds. The virgin forest survives only on the summits of the hills, and on the steep rocky sides of the distant mountains. It is only in the northern peninsula that the abori- gines of the island formerly, in allusion to their love of warfare, called the " bloodhounds of Gilolo " are now to be met with. They are described as differing wholly from all the Malay races. Their stature and features, as well as their habits and disposition, are almost the same as those of the Papuans ; their hair, says Wallace, is "semi-Papuan," neither straight, smooth, and glossy, like that of the true Malays, nor so frizzly and woolly as that of the true Papuans, but al- ways crisp, waved, and rough, such as frequently occurs MALAY AND PAPUAN. 353 .among the true Papuans, but never among the Malays. Their colour alone is often exactly that of the Malay, or even lighter. " Of course," says Wallace, " there has been intermixture, and there occur occasionally in- dividuals which it is difficult to classify; but in most cases the large, somewhat aquiline nose, with elongated apex, the tall stature, the waved hair, the bearded face, and hairy body, as well as the less reserved manner and louder voice, unmistakably proclaim the Papuan type. Here, then, I had discovered the exact boundary-line between the Malay and Papuan races." The rest of the island is inhabited by Malay tribes, who are distinguished by their affection for a seafaring life. The southern, northern, and north-eastern penin- sulas are included in the territory of the Sultan of Ternate ; the northern nominally belongs to the Sultan of Tidore. ANIMAL LIFE IN GILOLO. We find little to say about the animal life of Gilolo, other than we have said of that of Celebes and Cerain. It is poorer in mammals, however, even than Celebes ; the baboon-monkey (Gynopiihecus nigrescens) and the babyroussa of the latter not being natives of Gilolo. Birds are numerous, belonging chiefly to the three groups of the parrots, pigeons, and kingfishers. Among the parrots we may name the large red-crested cocka- too, so well known in Europe as a drawing-room guest; the red parrot of the genus Eclectus ; and the beauti- ful crimson-coloured lory. There are fully twenty dif- ferent species of pigeons, including twelve of the hand- some fruit-pigeons, with their glossy emerald plumage. What pen shall do justice to the splendid colours of the kingfishers, which flash among the low foliage (687) 23 8S4 MOUND-MAKING BIRDS. of the well-watered valleys like winged rainbows ! Our English species cannot compare with them ; they are " beautiful exceedingly," in their shining garb 01 many colours. To Gilolo belongs a remarkable species of ground- thrush Pitta gigas remarkable for its size and its plumage. The upper part of the body is a fine velvety black; the breast is white as mountain-snow; a blue like that of the summer sky shines on its shoulders ; and its belly is of a peculiarly vivid crimson. It has legs both long and strong; and as it frequents the thickets and the rocky recesses of the forest, it needs them. In Gilolo also dwells a characteristic species of the mound-making birds, or Megapodii; a handsome bird, its back and wings being richly banded with reddish brown. From the other megapodii it differs strangely in its habits ; for while they frequent the scrubby jungle, and scratch holes in the sand of the sea-shore for the reception of their eggs, over which they erect rnouuds of rubbish six to eight feet in height, the Gilolese bird inhabits the inland forests; and when it comes down to the beach to lay its eggs, it forms a burrow about three feet deep, and in an oblique direc- tion, depositing its eggs at the bottom, and loosely covering the entrance with sand and stones so as to conceal it. Further, that the hole may not be dis- covered, it obliterates, or at least confuses, its foot- marks, by making all around a number of scratches and irregular tracks. It lays its eggs only at night; they are of a rusty colour, and fully three inches long by two or more inches wide. They are good eating, and much relished by the natives of Gilolo. BIRDS OF PARADISE. 355 This megapodius is a nocturnal bird, and from night- fall till dawn arouses the forest-echoes with its harsh, loud, melancholy cries. Off the north-east peninsula of Gilolo lies the low, sandy, coralline island of Morty ; to which we refer simply for the purpose of noting that, small as it is, and separated from the nearest land by an arm of the sea twenty-five miles wide, it boasts of three species of birds peculiar to itself a kingfisher, a honeysucker, and a large crow-like starling. Does not this fact convey a remarkable idea of the inexhaustible wealth of Nature ? BATCHIAN, AND BIRDS OF PARADISE. None of the inhabitants of the Bird World approach the Paradiseidae in elegance of shape and beauty of plumage; and there is something so superb, and at the same time so unearthly, in their appearance, that it is hardly to be wondered at if the fancy of the early voyagers supposed them to be fit denizens of the Gar- den of Eden. The most extraordinary legends at one time prevailed about them. It was said that they lived wholly upon dew, and passed their lives in long aerial voyages ; that they so spurned the earth as never to touch it until the moment of death approached ; that they never rested except when suspending themselves from the branches of trees by the shafts of their two tail-feathers; and it is still a belief of the Malays that for breeding purposes they retire to the untroubled groves of Paradise. These fables partly arose in their peculiar habits, and partly in the Papuan custom of tearing off their legs before sending them to market, which led the European navigators to suppose that 356 BIRDS OF PARADISE. they were all wings and body.* Then, again, owing to the singular looseness of their plumage, they always fly against the wind. Add to this, that they dwell in the recesses of the vast virgin forests, afar from the haunts of men, and that their song or cry is very characteristic; and it is not difficult to understand how they came to be invested with so many fabulous attributes. The Paradiseidse are confined exclusively to the Australo-Malay Islands, having probably their true habitat in Papua or New Guinea, whence they have found their way as far as Batchian. In the tropical forests of these islands they live in large troops ; and as they fly on undulating wing, or perch on the summit of the tallest trees, they lend an additional beauty to the landscape by the rare splendour of their many- coloured plumage. They shun the noontide heat, and seek their food, which consists principally of fruit, in the morning and evening. They show a great par- tiality for the fruit of the fig and teak trees, but do not disdain an occasional meal of insects, of which however, they reject the horny or scaly case, legs, and wings. They are polygamous ; that is, the male has several mates, from whom he is easily distinguished by the superior bravery of his appearance. Moreover, they recognize a form of government ; a flock of forty or fifty birds flying always under the direction of a single bird, which the Papuans call their chief. Their cries are very peculiar, and seem to differ according to the meaning they are intended to convey : their con- gratulatory note, on meeting one another, resembles the cawing of a raven, but is more diversified in its grada- tion, and may be expressed as he, he, ho, haiv, frequently * Hence the generic name, Apoda, or "without feet" EMERALD BIRD OF PARADISE. 357 repeated and rapidly. Sometimes they appear to issue a call or sum- mons, the notes resembling the syllables ivkock, ivhoch, whock, uttered in a kind of barking tone, and so loudly as to be audible at a considerable distance. The best-known species is the emerald bird of paradise, of which it has been said that it possesses " plumage which in one part glit- ters with all the dazzling gem- like hues of the humming-bird, in another is soft, warm, and deli- cately tinted, and in another is 358 WALLACE'S STANDARD-WING. dyed with a rich intensity of colouring that needs a strong light to bring out its depth of tone ; and yet the torrent of graceful and softly-tinted plumes that How with such luxuriant redundance of changeful curves over the body, are in themselves sufficient to place the emerald bird of paradise in the first rank of beauty." It has been asserted of this glorious creature, that it surpasses in beauty the whole of the feathered creation. This is a bold eulogium, but we are not disposed to quarrel with it ; nor will the reader, if he succeeds in realizing to himself what manner of bird it applies to : a throat of the brightest emerald ; a canary-tinted neck shading its colour gradually into the fine choco- late of the other parts of the body ; wings of a warm reddish brown, like the leaf of the chestnut in autumn, from which droops, as it were, a cloud of loose golden plumes, in graceful feathery tufts. The chocolate- coloured tail is short, but projecting from it are two very long shafts of the same hue, longer even than the silken plumes of the sides. As we shall have occasion to dwell further upon the natural history of the Paradiseidse, when our survey of the Archipelago brings us to New Guinea, we shall content ourselves here with reference to a fine species found only in the island of Batchian. It has been named Semioptera Wallacei, or " Wallace's Standard- wing," and differs most remarkably from any other known bird. We cannot do better than borrow the discoverer's description of it, which the reader, if he has the opportunity, may compare with the stuffed specimens in the British Museum : The general plum- age is very sober, being a pure ashy olive, with a A FAIRY CREATURE. 359 purplish tinge on the back ; the crown of the head is beautifully glossed with pale metallic violet, and the feathers of the front extend as much over the beak as in most of the family. The neck and breast are scaled with fine metallic green, and the feathers on the lower part are elongated on each side, so as to form a two- pointed gorget, which can be folded beneath the wings, or partially erected and spread out in the same way as the side plumes of most of the birds of paradise. The four long white plumes, which give the bird its almost unique character, spring from little tubercles close to the upper edge of the shoulder or bend of the wing ; they are narrow, gently curved, and equally webbed on both sides, of a pure creamy white colour. They are about six inches long, equalling the wing, and can be raised at right angles to it, or laid along the body at the pleasure of the bird. The bill is horn colour, the legs are yellow, and the iris is of a pale olive.* Metallic blue, violet, olive green, creamy white : what a delicious blending of colours ! Surely, the fairy creature which is clothed in plumage of this bright and varied character must be "a thing of beauty " and " a joy for ever !" It would be worth a voyage to Batchian to see it fluttering through its leafy forest-haunts, and streaming its brilliant plumes against the wind! But Batchian would seem to be a "paradise of birds;" or, at all events, those of the feathered race which inhabit its glades are remarkable for their attractiveness. As, for instance, a rare goat- sucker, the Nicobar pigeon, a deep blue roller, a lovely sunbird, and a racquet-tailed kingfisher. Of these we need pause to notice only the Nicobar pigeon, as the Wallace, " Malay Archipelago," 11. 17, 1& 360 NICOBAR PIGEON. others exhibit the usual characters of the genera to which they belong, and are distinguished simply by some slight specific differences. The Nicobar pigeon is one of the Gourinae, or ground pigeons : so called because they live in the forests, and feed upon berries, seeds, and grain, which they seek on the ground. It forms its nest in the forked branch of a tree, and the female at each sitting lays two eggs. It is distributed throughout the Archipelago, from west to east ; frequenting chiefly the smaller islands, where it is safe from the attacks of carnivorous quadrupeds. Its wings are remarkable for strength, and it is able to fly for very long distances. With its glossy green plumage, tinged with coppery hues, its snow-white tail, and the fine pendent feathers of the neck, it is one of the handsomest of its tribe. SOMETHING ABOUT THE SCENERY OP BATCHIAN. Having said thus much about the birds of Batchian, we must say something about the island itself. As to its position : it lies to the west of the south peninsula of Gilolo, in lat. 37' N., and long. 117 36' E. As to its dimensions : it is about fifty-seven miles in length, and from five to twenty in breadth. It is a volcanic island, and consists in the main of a mountainous ridge about one thousand feet in elevation, sloping north and south down to the sea-level, with a boldly undulating surface. It has its shadowy valleys, its rocky eminences, its clear swift streams, and its patches of virgin forest, like the other Moluccas, from which it diners in details, rather than in the general character of its scenery. In some parts its coast-line presents a remarkable SCREW-PINES IN BATCHIAN. 361 feature, the beach being continuously covered with clumps of Pandanacese or screw-pines. These are of various shapes, each more fantastic than the other. Some, forty or fifty feet in height, may be compared to gigantic branching candelabra, carrying at the end of each branch, instead of tapers, a tuft of immense sword-shaped leaves, six or eight feet long, and as many inches wide. Others are more like huge tangled bushes, about ten or fifteen feet in height. Their leaves, which are very long and narrow, leathery, tenacious, and equipped along the midrib and edges with sharp recurved prickles, are disposed in a three- fold spiral series towards the end of the branches, so as to form tufts or crowns, as in the larger species ; and it is from the resemblance of these to the tufts of the pine-apple that the Pandanacete have obtained the name of Screw-pines. Other species there are with a single branchless stem, six or seven feet high, the upper part clothed with the spirally arranged leaves, and terminating in a single fruit as large as a swan's egg. Others of intermediate size are adorned with irregular clusters of rough red fruits, and all have ringed stems and leaves more or less spiny. In the young plants of the larger species, however, the leaves are smooth and glossy, and, being sometimes ten feet long and eight inches wide, are much used in the Moluccas and New Guinea for " cocoyas " or sleeping-mats. Inland the background of dark dense forest exhibits some interesting objects : as, for example, the kanary, already described, the nut of which is pleasantly- flavoured, and enclosed in a succulent rind which furnishes the favourite food of the great green fruit- pigeon ; the Moluccan fig, with vast aerial roots form- 862 PALMS AND PLANTAINS. ing a pyramid nearly one hundred feet in height, and throwing off from their point of junction a host of spreading branches ; and the Dammara orientcdis, or Amboyna pine, a noble conifer, with scattered leathery leaves, which rises one hundred feet in height, and yields the valuable Dammar resin. This is found attached to the trunk of the tree, or buried in the ground at its foot, in lumps of ten, fifteen, or twenty pounds weight. The Batchian natives pound it, and pack the powder into palm-leaf tubes, about a yard long, which, when ignited, burn with a bright and steady flame. Palms and plantains also abound in the forests of Batchian ; the lofty areca, with its clusters of red fruit, and the fan-leaved palm, whose leaves are used for water-buckets ; true wild plantains, bearing an edible fruit an inch or two in length, and consisting of a mass of seeds just covered with pulp and skin; climbing ferns, with beautiful waving fronds ; and screw-pines, tall of stature and fantastic in shape. Besides its vegetable resources, Batchian is rich in gold, and copper, and coal, in hot springs and geysers; so that for the geologist as well as the botanist it offers a wide and interesting field of inquiry, while the artist would find abundant material in its varied scenery, in its lofty mountains lifting their peaks out of a belt of luxuriant forest, its bold abrupt hills, its well-watered valleys, and its open alluvial plains. It is deficient, however, in animal life. Birds and insects are rare, and mammals are rarer. Bats abound, but they are chiefly small species ; the flying opossum, the cuscus ornatus, and the civet cat frequent the wooded shades ; and it is the easternmost point at which the naturalist discovers any of the quadrumana. THE FLYING FOX. 363 The particular species found here is the large black baboon-monkey (Cynopithecus nigrescens), which has bare red callosities, and a rudimentary tail about an inch in length. It may probably have been introduced by the wandering Malays, " who often carry about with them tame monkeys and other animals." The fruit-eating bat, known as the " flying fox " to Europeans, the " kalong " of Java, is generally eaten by the natives of Batchian. Feeding as it does on figs, bananas, and other pulpy fruit, we may well believe that its flesh is white and delicate. At all events, the people of Batchian regard it as a dainty, and hunt it eagerly. Early in the year these bats assemble in large flocks to eat fruit, and during the day suspend themselves to the trees, and especially the dead ones, in thousands. They can then be easily caught or knocked down by sticks, and it is common enough to see the natives carrying them home by basketfuls. Their preparation for the table is necessarily a work of some art, on account of the rank and foxy odour of the skin and fur ; they are therefore cooked with a plentiful allowance of spices and condiments, and when served up make a capital dish, not unlike hare. INHABITANTS OF BATCHIAN. The inland districts of Batchian are wholly unin- habited, and it cannot be said that the island possesses an indigenous population. Yet four distinct races of people may here be met with. First, the Batchian Malays, tall, well-made, and dark-complexioned, pro- bably the earliest colonists. They seem, from the peculiarities of their language, to have mixed with Papuans. Second, the so-called Orang-Sirani, who 364 INHABITANTS OF BATCHIAN. may be described as Malays, with an admixture of Portuguese blood. Third, " Galela " men, who come from the north of Gilolo ; and, fourth, Tomore settlers, from the eastern peninsula of Celebes. These are dis- tinguished by their light complexion, open Tartar physiognomy, and low stature. Their language is akin to that of the Bugi Malays. They are industrious in their habits, fond of agricultural pursuits, honest, patient, and peaceable. They make large quantities of bark cloth, similar to the tapa of the Polynesians, by cutting down certain trees, and stripping off cylindrical pieces of bark, which is beaten with mallets till it easily parts from the wood. It is then soaked, and beaten out again and again, with much care and labour, until for thinness and toughness it may be compared to parchment. By staining it with the dye obtained from another kind of bark, it assumes a dark red colour, and becomes almost impervious to water. Then, sewn neatly together, it is used for jackets, or as wrappers for clothes, or for other domestic purposes. VOLCANIC ISLAND OF MAKIAN. We have referred to the volcanic character of Batchian. The surrounding region is one great theatre of volcanic phenomena ; and to the immediate north of it lies the isle of Makian, forming an ancient volcano of formidable character. An ancient volcano, but not extinct. In 1646 it broke out with terrible violence, and with showers of red-hot stones and ashes destroyed all the villages that had been planted on its abrupt but well-wooded sides. It is said that they contained at the time of this catastrophe a population of some seven thousand. ERUPTION OF MARIAN. 365 The whole mountainous mass was so completely cloven in twain in a north-east and south-west direc- tion, that, when viewed from either of these points, it presented two distinct peaks. After so awful an outburst, the subterranean forces remained quiescent for upwards of two centuries ; and human industry once more set to work to repair the ravages of Nature. New villages sprang up ; fresh fields were cultivated, vegetation reclothed the furrowed declivities ; and a population of six thousand found sub- sistence on the island. But in 1862 another eruption took place, and the unfortunate island was buried in universal ruin. Very few of its inhabitants escaped. The villages, and their gardens and fruitful fields, were buried deep beneath the enormous quantity of material ejected from the bowels of the mountain. Some idea of the fearful character of the calamity may be gathered from the fact that at Ternate, about forty miles distant, the volcanic showers covered the ground to a depth of nearly four inches, and withered and destroyed all the vegetation except the tall forest-trees. A similar devastation was the cause of exceeding misery and prolonged scarcity within all that radius of forty miles. We may therefore regard Makian as one of the principal foci of plutonic phenomena in this part of the Archipelago. TERNATE : ITS VOLCANO. Another, and certainly a not less important, volcano is that of Ternate ; a nearly circular island, or island- peak, about ten miles in circumference, which rises 366 TOWN OF TERNATE. out of the blue sea on the west coast of Gilolo in one massive and richly- wooded cone, to a height of 5480 feet. At its base lies the town of Ternate, the capital of the " Sultan," and a place of old historic memories, which figures largely in the pages of the early voyagers. No wonder that it produced a strong im- pression on their imagination ! There is something romantically beautiful in its situation, which may well have charmed the fancy and delighted the wistful eyes of the wave-worn mariners, weary of the almost bound- less, and to them unknown, waste of waters lying between the Old World and the New. Opposite to it is the rugged promontory and graceful volcanic cone of Tidore ; to the east stretches the long mountainous coast of Gilolo, boldly terminated towards the north by three lofty volcanic peaks. In front of it shines a dark blue sea, studded with fairy islands of verdure ; while in its rear looms the huge bulk of the mountain, its lower slopes brightened with thick groves of fruit- trees, its higher declivities more abrupt, but also en- riched with vegetation, ay, even to the very summit, where crowning wreaths of faint blue smoke are the only visible indications of the terrible fires that burn within the depths. Numerous small ridges extend from its crest part way down its wopded sides, and then develop into open plateaus or table-lands, which the natives have seized upon, and cleared of their shrubbery, and con- verted into radiant gardens. The contrast is strange between what we know of this great volcano and what it seems, as it lifts up its tremendous mass in the transparent air, now shining VOLCANO OF TERNATE. 369 in the glory of the sunlight, now softened in every outline by the tender lustre of the moon. Calm and tranquil as it looks, its annals are annals of desolation and disaster. We are told by Valentyn, Reinwardt, and Junghabor, that severe and destructive eruptions occurred in 1608, 1635, 1653, and 1673, or at intervals of twenty to twenty-five years. On the last occasion showers of ashes were carried as far as Amboyna. For one hundred and sixty-five years the mountain was at rest, and gave no sign of its internal powers other than the usual clouds of vapour stream- ing from its summit. But on the 26th of February 1838 this prolonged period of tranquillity was broken ; and broken so sud- denly, so completely without premonitory symptoms, that of a party of six natives engaged in collecting sulphur on the summit, four who had descended into the crater were unable to save themselves, and the two who had remained on its edge escaped only by a swift descent of the mountain, pursued as they went by showers of hot stones, and suffering greatly. On the 25th of March 1839 a still more violent outbreak occurred. Beneath the surface the pent-up gases roared like thunder ; the whole island was en- veloped by " thick clouds of ashes ; " and rivers of incandescent lava rolled down the mountain-sides, fill- ing the sky with their reflected glare. Again, in the following year, on the 2nd of Febru- ary, and at nine o'clock in the morning, an eruption began which must be regarded as the climax of the previous perturbations of the volcano. The forces which had been so long restrained broke forth with incredible fury ; the internal fires found at length the (637) 24 870 ERUPTION OF 1840. outlet for which they had been contending. The air resounded with terrific peals, like the reports of hostile artillery ; columns of smoke rose high above the moun- tain-crest ; and hot stones and ashes fell in incessant showers, which ignited the surrounding forests, so that at night the island seemed wrapped, like a martyr, in " a sheet of flame." Simultaneously, a mass of molten lava boiled over the northern rim of the crater, and rushed down to the very margin of the sea. For twenty-four hours continued this elemental war, and then all was still. For ten days clouds of black reeking smoke con- tinued to ascend, it is true, but no other phenomena were visible ; and the terrified natives began to cherish the hope that the dread convulsion was at an end, that Nature had exhausted her destructive energies. But at midnight on the 14th the "unearthly thun- derings" were renewed, and shocks of earthquake succeeded one another with such destructive violence, that before daybreak every house on the island was laid in ruins. The earth split open, it is said, with a clang that was distinctly audible even above the roar- ing voices of the volcano ! From innumerable fissures jets of boiling water momently escaped, and then the earth closed, to open again at another point. An educated gentleman, known, from his wealth and splendid liberality, as the " Prince of the Moluccas," assured a recent traveller that, when two men stood about a thousand yards apart, one would see the other lifted up until his feet rose as high as the head of the observer; and then immediately he would sink, and the observer in his turn be lifted up until he seemed as much above his fellow as previously he had been A TERRIBLE CATASTROPHE. 371 below him. The solid ground rolled and undulated like the liquid ocean, though the earthquake-wave did not reach its full intensity until ten o'clock on the loth of February. The Dutch citadel, which had withstood the assaults of two centuries and a half, was shaken to its foundations, and completely buried beneath the ruins of the uprooted forests and the con- stantly descending masses of pumice-stone and scorise. Remember that, meanwhile, the air was filled with noisome odours, and the sky darkened by thick showers of ashes and reeking clouds of smoke, except when lightened up by the lurid reflections of the liquid lava ; that strange sounds echoed in every direction hisses, and groans, and detonations, and peals like the reverberation of thunder among rocky hills ; and then you will understand the fear that seized upon the hearts of all who saw and heard, the great panic and over- whelming dread, as if " the day of the Lord " were at hand. On what proved to be the last day of destruction, the loth, the people betook themselves to their boats; for all the usual conditions of nature seemed to have been reversed, and while the earth heaved and rolled like a tempest-tossed sea, the sea was as placid and as smooth as an inland plain. It is a fact to be noted, that on this occasion the usual inroad of the waves a well-known accompaniment of great earthquakes, as at Lisbon in 1755, and at Quito in 1859 did not take place ; and the inhabitants were spared a fatal and most terrible addition to their calamities. As it was, when the convulsion finally ceased the survivors found themselves among the ruins of their houses and gardens ; their fields desolated ; their orchards laid 372 ORCHARD-GROWTH. waste ; while they were called upon to mourn the loss of friends and relatives scarcely a family having escaped the general doom, so far as the capital was concerned. It has been estimated that this disaster entailed a destruction of property equal to "four hundred thousand Mexican dollars." Yet, strange to say, like the Nea- politans at Mount Vesuvius, the attachment of both foreigners and natives to this particular spot was so strong, that they would not select a less dangerous locality on the neighbouring shores, but returned to the " old home," and rebuilt their houses for another earthquake to level to the ground ; a striking illustra- tion of the truth of the common remark, that " they are less afraid of fire than the Hollanders are of water." The present city of Ternate, however, is much smaller than the one it has replaced ; and all around it you may see signs both of the greater opulence of the ancient town, and of the destructive character of the earthquake of 1840, in the ruins of massive stone and brick buildings, gateways, and arches. Further, in reference to the mountain we need only say, that its lower declivities are clothed with a forest of fruit-trees ; one vast continuous orchard, into which you may see, in the season, hundreds of men and women, boys and girls, ascending, to gather the ripe fruit. Specially abundant, and specially fine-flavoured, are the durians and mangoes, two of those delicious tropical fruits which almost compensate for the burden of tropical heat. Larsats and mangilstans (or "man- gosteens ") are also plentiful, and of excellent quality. Above this orchard-belt we come to an area of cleavings SPICY ISLANDS. 373 and cultivated grounds, stretching up the mountain to an elevation of nearly three thousand feet, where the virgin forest begins; and thenceforward, nearly to the summit, a dense deep shade and luxuriant leafy growth prevail. On the northern side of the peak, a tract of black rugged lava, sprinkled with bushes, descends from the crater to the sea, and marks the course of the lava-flow in 1840. The natives call it " Batu- angas," or the Black Rock. HISTORICAL NOTES ON TERNATE. The reader of " Paradise Lost " will doubtlessly re- call to mind the beautiful passage in which Milton refers to " The isles Of Ternate and Tidore, whence merchants bring Their spicy drugs." * These " spicy drugs " originally reached the nations of the West by an overland route, the Malay seamen carrying them to the mainland, whence they were con- veyed by the Indian merchants from market to market. A considerable trade was also conducted by the Arabs, who acquired great influence in the Archipelago, and converted the people of Ternate to Mohammedanism. In 1512, however, Francisco Serrano, whose vessel struck on the Tuiile Islands when he was returning from Amboyna with the expedition of D'Abreu, in- duced the natives to assist him in getting her afloat, and to pilot him to Ternate. Thus he was the first European who reached the great centre of the clove- trade ; the centre, too, of so many legends of barbaric wealth and Oriental power. Seven years later, the * "Paradise Lost." book ii.. lines 63S-G40. 374 THE SULTAN AND THE SPANIARDS. fleet of Magellan sailed from Spain for the purpose of reaching the Spice Islands by a ivestern passage, which, it was supposed, would be a more direct route than that discovered by Vasco di Gama round the " Cape of Storms," our more appropriately named " Cape of Good Hope." He himself reached only the Philip- pines, where he was murdered by the natives ; but his lieutenant accomplished the circumnavigation of the globe, and returned to Spain in 1523. After leaving the Philippines, the Spanish ships touched at Tidore, an island separated from Ternate only by a narrow arm of the sea ; and some interesting sketches of the manners and customs of the inhabitants of both islands are furnished by the chronicler of the expe- dition. The king, says Pigafetta, may have as many wives as he pleases, but only one of them is regarded as his queen, the others being looked upon as slaves. With- out the town was a large house in which lived two hundred of his handsomest women, with two hundred more to wait upon them. The king always ate by himself, or with his queen, on a kind of elevated plat- form, commanding a view of all his wives, who were seated round him. After he had dined, his wives, if he gave permission, all ate together; otherwise, each dined by herself. Pigafetta also describes* the mode in which the visitors and the people conducted an exchange of com- modities. A shed having been raised to receive the merchan- dise, the Spaniards carried thither all they designed to barter, and set some of their men to act as guards. The Pigafetta, in Pinkerton, xi. 361-363. A BRISK TRADE. 375 value of the goods to be exchanged for cloves was then estimated; for two yards of red cloth of fine quality a bahar of cloves was to be demanded a bahar being equal to about four hundred and twelve pounds. They like- wise were to have in barter the same quantity of cloves for fifteen yards of inferior cloth, for fifteen axes, or thirty-five glass goblets. At this rate they disposed of all their glass to the king. Moreover, a bahar of cloves was the price given for seventeen cathils of cinnabar, for a similar weight of quicksilver, for twenty-six yards of linen, or twenty-five of a finer quality, for a hundred and fifty pairs of scizzors, or as many knives, for ten yards of Guzerat cloth, for three gongs, or a hundred- weight of copper. " We should have made great profit of our looking- glasses," says Pigafetta, " but most of them were broke by the way, and the residue were almost wholly appropriated to himself by the king. We thus carried on a highly advantageous traffic." No doubt they did ; yet the chronicler adds, with a sigh, that it might have been infinitely more lucrative if they had not been so eager to return to Spain! "Besides cloves," he continues, " we every day laid in a considerable stock of provisions ; the Indians constantly repairing to us in their barks, bringing goats, poultry, cocoa- nuts, bananas, and other edibles, which they gave us for things of little value. We at the same time laid in a large quantity of an extremely hot water, which after an hour's exposure to the air becomes very cold." This would be obtained from a thermal or hot spring, a natural curiosity of which the Moluccas contain several examples. Throughout the East the Sultans or Kings of Ternate 376 DRAKE AT TERNATE. and Tidore were famous for their magnificence ; and stories of their barbaric pomp abound in the narratives of the old voyagers. Sir Francis Drake visited Ternate in 1579, and seems to have been more than usually impressed by the splendid ostentation of its sovereign. " He had a very rich canopy, with embossings of gold, borne over him, and was guarded with twelve lances. From the waist to the ground was all cloth of gold, and that very rich; in the attire of his head were finely wreathed diverse rings of plaited gold, of an inch or more in breadth, which made a fair and princely show, somewhat resembling a crown in form ; about his neck he had a chain of perfect gold, the links very great, and one fold double; on his left hand were a diamond, an emerald, a ruby, and a turquoise; on his right hand, in one ring, a big and perfect turquoise, and in another ring many diamonds of a smaller size." His court consisted of at least a thousand persons, forty of whom were courtiers or councillors ; and, besides, there were four grave persons, apparelled all in red down to the ground, and attired on their heads like the Turks; and these, the English were led to under- stand, were "Romans," and "ligiers" (ambassadors, we suppose) to keep " continual traffic." There were also two Turkish ligiers, and one Italian; but Drake does not say whether they, too, were apparelled all in red. The king, a handsome man, tall of stature, and of grace- ful manners, looking every inch a king, was guarded by twelve lances, as we have already said; while on the right hand of his chair of state stood a page cool- ing him with a fan two feet in length and one in breadth, embroidered and adorned with sapphires, and fastened to a staff three feet long, by which it was moved. BARBARIC POMP. 377 In this splendid court, which surely presented the very climax of barbaric pomp, a minute and punctilious ceremonial prevailed; and no one was allowed to ad- dress the monarch save with bated breath, and in a kneeling posture. When he visited Drake's ship, the famous Golden Hind, which afterwards inspired the muse of Cowley, the same splendid ostentation was observed. The royal equipment consisted of four gorgeous galleys, or "barges," filled with the most illustrious personages of the kingdom. They wore dresses of white muslin, " lawn of cloth of Calicut," loose and long. Over their heads extended a canopy or awning of perfumed mats, supported on a framework of reeds. Divers lords came first, who being of good age and gravity, did make "an ancient and fatherly show." Next to them stood a number of young men similarly attired; and beyond them ranks of warriors, armed with sword, target, and dagger; while the com- plement of the royal flotilla was made up by the rowers, seated in galleries, "which, being three on a side all along the canvas, did lie off from the side thereof three or four yards, one being orderly builded lower than another, in every of which galleries were the number of fourscore rowers." They paddled in cadence to the clash of cymbals, and moved forward in stately order, the king in the last barge; a very imposing and brilliant spectacle, to which Drake lent the accompaniments of frequent salvoes of artillery and a loud flourish of trumpets. All this state and bravery, of which no relics now remain, were the result of the immense wealth which the Sultans, both of Ternate and Tidore, accumulated from their monopoly of the spice trade. Ternate, and 378 XAVIER, THE JESUIT MISSIONARY. the cluster of small islands to the south of it, as far as Batchian, constitute the ancient Moluccas, the Maluk- hos of the early voyagers, and here alone was the clove- tree cultivated. Nutmegs and mace were imported from New Guinea and the Papuan group, where they grew wild; and the profits realized on spice cargoes were so enormous, that the European traders willingly gave in exchange gold and jewels, and the " finest manufactures of Europe or India." Christianity was introduced by the Portuguese soon after their settlement at Ternate; and in 1535 the native king embraced the new creed, and repaired to Goa to be christened. Other native rulers followed his example, and Catholicism made rapid progress, until all the Christian converts were massacred by Moslem fanatics, led by one Cantalino a terrible event, commemorated in Church History as the "Moluccan Vespers." In 1546, Ternate was visited by the great Jesuit missionary, Francis Xavier, who laboured for some months among the various islands ; and in his Letters has left on record some interesting particulars both of what he saw and what he did. At Ternate he would appear to have been very successful. He went to work, we are told, with penance and prayer, constant preaching, catechizing, setting the children to sing the Christian creeds, waking up the streets at night with calls to prayer, and fearlessly denouncing sins and sinners. So far as the so-called Christian population was concerned, he wrought a mighty refor- mation; scandals were removed, old enmities given up, divine service was more regularly attended; and this example had so great an effect on the mind of the natives, that hundreds of them gladly embraced a re- INHABITANTS OF TERNATE. 379 ligion, the true and earnest preaching of which could effect so great a change. " I have very good reason," he writes, " to thank God for the fruits which came of niy work. The con- verts took up the practice of singing hymns in praise of God with so much ardour, that the native boys in the street, the young girls and the women in the houses, the labourers in the fields, the fishermen on the sea, instead of singing licentious and blasphemous songs, were always singing the elements of the Chris- tian doctrine. And as all the songs had been put in the language of the country, they were understood equally well by the newly-made Christians and the heathens." Of Ternate and its sister-isles he says : " All these isles are full of dangers, on account of the feuds which rage among the inhabitants, and their civil wars. The race is barbarous, totally ignorant of letters, devoid of any written monuments of the past, and without any notions of reading or writing. It is their practice to take away the lives of any whom they hate by poison, and in this way a great many are killed. The soil is rugged, and destitute of pro- ductions which support life. There is no corn nor wine ; the natives scarcely know what fresh meat is; they have no herds nor flocks, nothing but a few swine, which are objects rather of curiosity than of food. Wild boars abound; good water is very rare; rice is plentiful; there are also trees in great numbers from which the natives procure a kind of bread and of wine ; and others out of the woven bark of which the clothing which they all use is made." Xavier, in continuing his description, alludes to the volcanic character of Ternate. Almost constantly, he 380 INVASION OF THE DUTCH. says, throughout its length and breadth, it is shaken by earthquakes, and it sends up flames and ashes. The natives informed him that so great was the violence of the subterranean fire, that the strata of rocks on which a certain town is built were all incandescent. " What they say," he remarks, " seems credible ; for it often happens that large red-hot stones, as big as the largest trees, are hurled into the air; and when a very strong wind blows, such a quantity of ashes is sent up from the cavities, that the men and women who have been at work in the country return so covered with reek that you can hardly see their eyes or nose or face. You would think they were rather demons than human beings. This is what the natives tell me," adds Xavier, honestly, " for I have not seen it myself." But we must not linger on these picturesque asso- ciations of the Past. In 1578, the Dutch, under Admiral Houtman, first came into these seas; and in 1605, under valiant Stephen van der Hagen, they stormed Ternate and captured it, drove the beaten Portuguese out of the Moluccas, and speedily got into their own hands the monopoly of the spice trade. To increase its profit, they adopted the barbarous policy for such we must call it, though it has found a de- fender in Mr. Wallace of reducing the growth; and for this purpose they bribed the king of Ternate, by the offer of a yearly pension, to allow them to destroy all the clove-trees growing within his territory. For a long time, as Mr. Bickmore tells us, expeditions were annually despatched by the Dutch to search each island anew, and destroy all the trees which had A VISIT TO TIDORK 381 sprung up from seed planted by birds. All history records no similar example of intense selfishness. Nor has it proved successful. The clove is now cultivated in the West Indies and elsewhere; while, for a con- siderable number of years, the revenue of the Dutch government in the Moluccas has not equalled its ex- penditure, and Ternate and Tidore are no longer the centres of a flourishing and lucrative commerce.* A GLANCE AT TIDORE. We cannot leave Ternate without at least a passing glance at Tidore, which in the early voyages enjoys almost an equal reputation. Its sultan was then a powerful prince, whose sway extended over Gilolo and other of the Moluccas, and was more or less completely acknowledged by all the islands lying between Tidore and Papua. His capital, on the east coast, was a town * The following brief but comprehensive sketch of green Ternate which is truly what the poet would call a " Summer-isle of Eden lying in dark purple spheres of sea " was contributed by Mr. Arthur Adams, the naturalist, to Captain Sir E. Belcher's "Narrative of the Voyage of H.M.S. Samarang (1843-1846)." "It resembles," he says, " a huge green mountain, covered with dense forest, with here and there large patches of tall grass. In some parts, where man has been at work, you will see the durian and limes mixed up with the fantastically-formed stems of the screw-pine ; the cocoa-nut tree will be seen towering above the mild nibon (or areca-palm) ; and the plantains mingling their broad green leaves with the dark feathery foliage of the bamboo. To these the jack and bread-fruit trees form a striking contrast, giving to the stranger a good idea of the splendour of tropical vegetation. Under the united foliage of these valuable trees I noticed more than one member of the parrot family, twisting themselves about the branches in every grotesque and awkward manner they could possibly devise. The black satin grackle was also common among the bamboo thickets. As I wandered along the shore I noticed several woolly-headed papoos busily engaged in collecting coral, and heaping it up in stacks for the pur- pose of burning it into lime or chunam, to be used along with the betel-nut and siri-leaf, the favourite masticatory of the Malays ; while numbers of indolent natives sat fishing in small canoes under the shade of gigantic cone-shaped hats, made from the fan-shaped leaves of the palmyra-palm. Down the sides of the mountain ran numerous fresh-water rivulets, abounding in an endless variety of shells ; while numbers of aquatic saurians play and skip along the surface, or rest with their bellies on the trunks of prostrate trees that liu across the streamlets." Narrative of H.M.S. Samarang, i. 133. 382 MAGELLAN S EXPEDITION. of some importance, and surrounded by a wall. His court displayed much of that barbaric magnificence which so astonished Drake and his followers at Ternate. The chronicler of Magellan's expedition describes a visit which he paid to the Spanish vessels. He came in a " pirogue," or galley, and was met by the Spanish officers in their boats. After an exchange of courtesies on both sides, the latter entered the royal barge, and found the king seated under a parasol of silk, which completely shaded him. Before him stood one of his sons, bearing the royal sceptre ; two men, each holding a vase of gold with water to wash his hands ; and two others with small gilt boxes containing the in- dispensable betel-nut. He complimented the Spaniards on their arrival ; informing them that long before he had dreamed some ships would arrive at " Malucho" from a distant country, and that to ascertain whether his dream was true he had consulted the moon, by which he knew the vessels would arrive; and, as he had expected, the fulfilment of his dream had come about. Afterwards he visited the Spanish caravels, and the officers kissed his hand ; a proceeding which, we think, must greatly have astonished the island -potentate. They conducted him towards the "hind-castle," or quarter-deck cabin ; into which, that he might not be degraded by stooping, he refused to enter except through the opening on the deck. When this difficulty had been conquered, the Spaniards ceremoniously enthroned him in a chair of red velvet, and flung over him a Turkish robe of yellow velvet ; while, the more strongly to show their respect, they seated themselves opposite to him on the ground. Here we may observe that the A NATIVE PRINCE. 383 deference, almost obsequious, with which they treated this ignorant heathen prince, contrasts strongly with the cruelty they displayed in all their dealings with the hapless Indian chiefs of the New World, and with the arrogant contempt of a Pizarro for the descendant of the Peruvian Incas. The chronicler, continuing his narrative, informs us that the king, when he understood who they were, and the object of their voyage, informed them that he him- self and all his people would feel happy in the friend- ship of the King of Spain, and delight to be considered his vassals; a statement which induces us to fear that the chronicler was not unwilling to indulge in an occasional flight of the imagination, or that he accepted too literally the Oriental hyperbolism of the ruler of Tidore. Further, that he, the king, would receive them in his own island as his own children ; that they might come on shore and remain in as much security as on board their ships ; and that, as a token of his affection for the king their sovereign, his island should no longer bear the name of Tidore, but be called Castile. In return for such gracious professions, the Spaniards could not do less than present him with the chair in which he bore himself so royally, and the yellow velvet robe which adorned his person. They gave him also a piece of fine cloth, four yards of scarlet, a vest of rich brocade, a yellow damask cloth, Indian cloths of silk and gold, a " very fine piece of Cambayan chintz," two caps, six strings of beads, twelve knives, three large mirrors, six pair of scissors, a half a dozen of combs, some glass goblets gilt, and other things both "rich and rare." Nor was his son forgotten: he re- 384 A SATISFACTORY INTERVIEW. ceived a piece of Indian cloth of silk and gold, a large mirror, two knives, and a cap. Gifts were likewise bestowed with a liberal hand on each of the nine grave personages who attended the king a piece of silk, a cap, and two knives being presented to each. It is no wonder that the ''sovereign majesty" of Tidore was overpowered by the generosity of the Spaniards, and desired them to cease such a shower of offerings, pro- testing that he had nothing to submit to the King of Spain that was worthy of his acceptance except him- self ; a charming stroke of mingled humility and arro- gant conceit. He recommended the Spaniards to moor their vessels near the houses ; and authorized them, if any of his people attempted to rob them during the night, to fire at them : after which he departed in a state of intense gratification, but careful always not to bend his august head, in spite of the frequent obeisances of the Spaniards. As he went, the ships honoured him with a volley from all their ordnance. Pigafetta describes his Eastern majesty as a Mo- hammedan, about forty-five years of age, tolerably well made, and of comely countenance. His dress con- sisted of a very fine shirt, the sleeves of which were embroidered with gold ; loose drapery surrounded his figure from his waist to his feet ; his head was covered by a silken veil, over which he wore a garland of flowers. His name was Rajah Sooltaun Manzon, and he was famous for his skill in reading the mysteries of the stars : " Wandering 'twixt the poles And heavenly hinges, 'mongst eccentricals, Centres, concentrics, circles, and epicycles." We pass on to the account given by Pigafetta of the PIGAFETTA UPON TIDORE. 385 products of the island and the manners of its inhabit- ants. Of the clove-tree, he says that it grew in five islands only, Ternate, Tidore, Mutir, Muchian, and Batchian ; and he describes it as attaining " a pretty considerable height," with a trunk about as large as a man's body, and branches terminating at the summit in a pyramid. Of Tidore he further states that it pro- duced nutmeg-trees, which resemble our walnuts as well in the .appearance of the fruit as in the leaves. Ginger also grew there ; and the inhabitants ate it in its green state in the same manner as bread. It is not, properly speaking, the produce of a tree, but " of a sort of shrub, which shoots up suckers about a span in length, similar to the shoots of canes ; the leaves, too, resembling those of the cane, except in their being more narrow." The houses of the islanders were built in the same manner as those of the neighbouring islands, but were not raised so high above the ground, and were sur- rounded with canes so as to form a hedge. Pigafetta speaks of the women of Tidore in a very uncomplimentary manner : they were ugly, and they wore as little clothing as was consistent with the vaguest notions of modesty. The men wore less ; and far from owning the ugliness of their wives and daugh- ters, showed an extreme jealousy regarding them. They made their cloths from the bark of trees by soaking the bark in water until thoroughly softened ; then beating it with sticks until it stretched to the length and breadth required ; after which it resembled a piece of raw silk, with the membrane interlaced be- neath as if it had been woven. Their bread they obtained from "the wood" (that is, the pith) of a tree (637) 25 386 TRIP TO BOURU. like the palm (namely, the sago-palm) ; clearing it from certain black and long thorns, and pounding it. All the Malucho islands, adds Pigafetta, produce cloves, ginger, sago, rice, cocoa-nuts, figs, bananas, almonds, pomegranates, sugar-canes, melons, cucumbers, pumpkins, a fruit called comilicai (a species of pine- apple), guava ; besides goats, fowls, and a kind of bee which builds its hive in the trunks of trees : reading which comprehensive summary, the reader may well feel his appetite gently stirred, and come to be of opinion that the Moluccas were the true " Happy Islands" of ancient song and fable ! A TRIP TO BOURTT. It is but right that the East, like the West, should have its Fountain of Youth, though in the East no Ponce de Leon has spent years of pain and suffering in seeking after it. What an enchanting vision it is ! A crystal spring, in the bright waters of which let but the aged bathe, and, like JEson in Medea's caldron, they leave behind them all their physical infirmities, and all the furrows and wrinkles of mind and heart as well as of body ! To such a source of new life and motion an old Mohammedan tradition refers, which Moore has immortalized in " Lalla Rookh," delighting men's minds with the dream of "Youth's radiant fountain, Springing in some desolate mountain." And Bouru would seem to be the birthplace of the legend ; for its natives tell of a pool or lake lying among the lonely hills far away in the middle of the isle on the green shores of which thrives a wondrous THE ISLAND DESCRIBED. 387 plant, gifted with the property of restoring the youth of any person who holds it in his hand, even though his locks should be white with the snows of many winters, and his hand palsied with the weakness of old age. We shall now visit Bouru ; not, indeed, for the sake of its marvellous fountain or lake, which no European has ever seen, but for objects not less curious or inter- esting. It is a bright green island, rich in vegetation, rich in romantic landscapes, rich in beautiful birds ; and it offers a wide and varied field of investigation to the lover of Nature. It lies to the west of Ceram and the south of Gilolo : an oval island, with its major axis east and west ; a large island in fact, the third largest of the Moluccas measuring ninety-two miles in length by fifty-eight miles in breadth. Unlike its sister-islands, its shores are not broken up by gulfs or inlets, but run with a regular and almost perfect line, except at the north- west, where a bold and ample curve encloses the beautiful bay of Kayeli (or Cajeli). Two lofty headlands, three or four miles apart, guard the entrance to this bay, which lies open to the north- east. Within these headlands the shore rapidly de- creases in elevation, until on the south-west it forms an extensive morass. The total length of the bay is about seven miles. On the low southern strand is situated the Dutch port of Kayeli. Through the morass of which we have spoken flows a considerable stream, deep enough for a large canoe to navigate it some sixty or seventy miles from its mouth. Its banks are fringed with a dense forest, the branches of which meet together so as to form a series 388 RIVER AND FOREST. of leafy arcades, traversed by sluggish streams. Here gather kingfishers of gorgeous plumage ; and ever and anon from the lower boughs they dart downwards with arrowy speed to secure their prey in the still waters beneath. It is pleasant in the glare of a tropical noon to' seek these delightful haunts, where wood and water combine to afford a luxurious coolness ; and to glide along each shady canal as it tracks its winding course for miles through a maze of profuse and brilliant vege- tation. At the mouth of the river, to which the various streams converge, lie long shallow banks of sand : these are exposed at low tide, and accumulate the uprooted trees and broken boughs carried down by the force of the water. Here, too, when the tide begins to flow, assemble winged battalions of gulls, plovers, sandpipers, and curlews, making the echoes hideous with their discordant cries, and rising when alarmed with such a mass of wings as to form a thick, dark cloud. The naturalist will find abundant material for study in the neighbouring forest. In the early morning flocks of bright red lories and other parrakeets, with blue heads, red and green breasts, and the under surface of the wings coloured a warm and brilliant yellow, arrive to feed on the nectared sweets of the blossoms or on the insect life that swarms in every direction. Then what a din arises! How the leafy glades resound with the loud, incessant screeching and chattering, as if some Babel of the Bird World had sud- denly been overthrown, and a " dispersion of tongues" had thereupon taken place ! It is a charming sight to see the great trees, in all their fulness of bloom and foliage, shining with the brightly-coloured plumage of THE BED OF THE TORRENT. 389 these handsome birds ; and it is a source of constant interest to watch their movements as they flutter from bough to bough, or hover above the honied flowers, or dart across the chequered sward : " Gay, sparkling lories, such as gleam between The crimson flowers of the coral-tree, In the warm isles of India's sunny sea. " When the dusk Twilight drops her shadowy veil over the wooded scene, the huge bats come forth in pairs, and sail to and fro on lazy flapping wings in quest of the fruit which constitutes their daily food. These are the " flying foxes" of the Dutch, with wings which measure four feet and a half from tip to tip eery creatures, which, as they hang by the claws of their hind limbs to the branches, might well be mistaken for monsters of the antediluvian world. Sometimes the only cleared way through the forest- depths is the stony bed of a torrent, and the traveller makes his way up the summer-dry channel towards the mountains, or down it towards the sea. One such is described by Mr. Bickmore. It is not paved, in- deed, with blocks all carefully cut down to one precise model, and so exactly uniform as to be absolutely painful to the eye, like the granite highway of a great city ; but Nature herself has paved it in her own inimitable fashion. Observe how every stone has been rounded by the boiling torrent which pours down from the heights in the rainy season. Some are almost perfect ellipsoids or spheres ; but most are disc- shaped, because made from their slaty fragments that had sharp corners when first loosened from their parent mountains. And, always averse to a dull 890 RED PEPPER AND TOBACCO. monotony of colour, Nature has scattered here and there "rounded boulders of opaque milk-white quartz," broken off or torn away from beds of that rock which are frequently interstratified with the slate. Here and there occur deeper places, where we can see that the troubled stream was wont to rest, and, as it were, recover its strength, before it again burst forth in a flood of waters to pursue its course to the " multi- tudinous sea." * One of the commonest plants of the forest is the red pepper, which furnishes the Malays with an indis- pensable condiment. There is scarcely a dish in use among them to which they do not apply this pungent seasoning. The red pepper thrives everywhere, and requires no cultivation. The Malays gather its fruit when it assumes a bright pink colour, which is an unmistakable sign of its ripeness. The Malay name is lombok, but the Javanese chube is more frequently on the lips of the people. ' Tobacco is largely grown in Bouru. Its cultivators clear a patch of forest about an acre in extent, and here, between the blackened stumps of the trees, which have been destroyed by fire, they sow the seed. As soon as the leaves are fully grown they are plucked off, and the petiole, or foot-stalk, and a part of the midrib are cut away. Each leaf is then cut trans- versely into slips about a sixteenth of an inch in width, and these are dried in the sun until they come to look like "a bunch of oakum." The tobacco-plant, according to Mr. Crawfurd, was introduced into Java in the year 1601/f- probably by * Bickmore, " Travels in the Eastern Archipelago," p. 262. t That is, fifteen years after its introduction into England. BIRDS AND TREES. 391 the Portuguese, and has now spread into almost eveiy island in the Archipelago. In the forest we also meet with the jati, or teak- tree, but it does not here attain to the colossal stature which it reaches in Java. It is seldom found to exceed twelve or fifteen inches in diameter, and forty feet in height ; dimensions which, in Java, it acquires in twenty-five or thirty years, though it does not mature in less than a century. The teak is much frequented by flocks of large green parrots, which love to feed on its ripened fruit. These birds are so wary that it is not easy to approach them, especially as the large dry leaves of the teak- tree cover the ground, and continually crack and rustle beneath the hunter's tread with that sharp, crisp sound so familiar to the dweller in woods. " To see these magnificent birds," says Bickmore, " flying back and forth in the highest glee, while they remain unconscious of danger, is a grand sight ; and it seems little less than absolute wickedness to shoot one, even when it is to be made the subject, not of idle gazing, but of careful study ; and it requires still greater resolution to put an end to one's admiration and pull the fatal trigger. When one of these birds has been wounded, its mate, and sometimes the whole flock, hearing its cries, at once comes back, as if hoping to relieve its misery." Among the kanary-trees flutter flocks of cream- coloured doves, beautiful enough to draw the car of Juno, or to receive the caresses of some island-Lesbia. The long-tailed doves frequent the boughs of the lower trees ; and in the bamboo clumps may be seen the robin-like tropidorynchus, a bird of merry note ; 39^ ABORIGINES OF BOURU. the nimble flycatcher; and the splendid Monarcha loricata, a slender bird about as large as a martin, of a blue above and a pure silvery white beneath, except on the throat, which gleams with scale-like feathers of a rich metallic blue-black. This handsome member of the feathered tribe is peculiar to Bouru. NATIVES OF BOUKU. We turn now to the human population of this " summer-isle of Eden." The aborigines, or Alfoories, resemble the Malays in stature and general appear- ance, but their skin is darker, and their hair is " frizzly ; " neither lank, like that of the Malays, nor woolly, like that of the Papuans. In the interior they exhibit an extraordinary ignorance of the com- forts and luxuries of civilization. Mr. Wallace informs us that many of those he met with in his excursions across the island had never seen a pin ; and the better- informed, few in number, took a pride in teaching their less fortunate companions the peculiarities and uses of that strange European production, a needle with a head and without an eye! Even paper was a curiosity ; and they might be seen picking up the scraps which Mr. Wallace had scattered, and carefully treasuring them up in their betel-pouch. Such articles as tea-pots, tea-cups, and tea-spoons were a source of constant inquiry and admiration ; and to most of them the properties of tea, sugar, biscuit, and butter were unknown, at least in the European form. Thus : one would ask if that " whitish powder " were f/ula, passir (sand-sugar), so called to distinguish it from the coarse lump palm-sugar or molasses produced by the native sugar-makers; and another would speak THEIR MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 393 of the biscuit as a kind of imitation sago-cake, which the benighted inhabitants of Europe were compelled to use for want of the genuine article ! In fact, the Bournese were as completely unacquainted with civi- lized life as the Indians of the Rocky Mountains, or the savages of Central Africa, though a steamship, " that highest triumph of human ingenuity, with its little floating epitome of European civilization," touches monthly at Kayeli ; while at Amboyna, which is not above sixty miles distant, a European population and government have been established for upwards of three centuries ! * The houses of the Alfoories, as might be expected from this almost pathetic account of their ignorance of the comforts of civilized life, are wretched hovels ; consisting of little more than a roof of palm-leaves supported upon four poles, with a kind of platform raised a foot or two above the ground, on which its inmates sit, and take their meals, and sleep. Except for the abundant provision made by a bounteous Nature, arid but for the fact that they are free men, the life of the Bournese would appear to be sufficiently miserable. Yet their condition has of late years im- proved. They are divided into fennas, or tribes, each with its proper chief; but instead of recognizing the advantages of association, and living together in villages, they are scattered over the interior like the shepherds of the Scottish Highlands. Some of the chiefs are independent, others acknowledge the superiority of the Mohammedan " regents " (as the Dutch call them), or rajahs of Kaye'li. Formerly each tribe was compelled to send one young maiden annu- * Wallace, " Malay Archipelago," 11. 77. 394 CREED OF THE ALFOORIES. ally to its " regent " for a bride ; but from this degrading exaction the natives have been relieved by the Dutch. At one time, too, they were compelled to pay their regent a certain amount of rice and sago, and provide men to row his prahu, or carry his chair if he proceeded by land; but from this onerous service they have also been released, and it has devolved upon the Malay villagers. In regard to marriage, each man buys his wife for a price which is regulated by the rank of her father ; but he is not required, as is the cruel custom among the Alfoories of Ceram, to cut oft' a human head before he can marry. Instead, there- fore, of being bloodthirsty and ferocious " head- hunters," they arc a mild, peaceable, pastoral people. According to Mr. Miller, they believe in one Supreme Being, who created all things, and is the fountain both of good and evil. They believe also in malignant spirits. Prayer, they think, results in prosperity; adversity is the natural consequence of the neglect of so solemn a duty. Through the Supreme Being's infinite love of man, He was induced to send him a teacher, Nabiata, who dwelt among the mountains, and delivered the will of his Divine Master in seven commandments : "1. Thou shalt not kill nor wound. " 2. Thou shalt not steal. " 3. Thou shalt not commit adultery. " 4. Thou shalt not set thyself up against thy fennci. " 5. A man shall not set himself up against the chief of his tribe. " 6. A chief shall not set himself up against him that is over his or other tribes. " 7. The chief over more than one tribe shall not NABIATA'S TEACHING. 395 set himself up against him who is placed over all the tribes." Nabiata also taught that though the body perishes, the soul will live for ever ; that those who keep the foregoing commandments (and all the acts of men are registered by the Supreme Being) shall dwell in His presence far above the firmament ; while those who act wickedly shall never rise to the abode of the happy, nor shall they remain on earth, but for ever and ever, lonely and in sorrow, wander among the clouds, yearn- ing with a yearning never to be gratified to join their brethren in the heaven above or on the earth beneath. Nabiata also instituted circumcision, which was per- formed on children of both sexes when they attained the age of eight or ten years. The introduction of this rite, and the general tenor of the Bournese faith, would seem to show that Nabiata was a Mohammedan teacher ; but when or how he arrived in Bouru it is impossible to ascertain, and use- less to conjecture. The rajahs and inhabitants of Kayeli are Moham- medans, after the Arab pattern. We glean from Mr. Bickmore's pages a few details of some of their peculiar customs. A ceremony of no little importance is the shaving of a child's head, which takes place on the first birthday, or thereabouts, and has a religious significance. The rite begins by the priest's repetition of a prayer in a slow, monotonous, nasal chant, which at times swells into a chorus through the accession of other voices. This being ended, a servant brings in the child, followed by another servant carrying a large plate partly filled with water, in which may be 396 MOHAMMEDAN CUSTOMS. observed two parts of the blossom of a cocoa-nut palm, a razor, and a pair of shears. The chief priest dips his ringers in the water, places them on the head of the wondering infant, and clips off a lock of hair with tho large shears. The lock of hair is then thrown into the water, along with a piece of money ; the example, so far as the money is concerned, being followed by every person present. Tea and small rice-cakes are after- wards handed round, and the ceremony is concluded. When the child reaches the age of eight or nine, it is subjected to the painful and disfiguring operation of filing the teeth. Neither sex is exempt from the cus- tom, nor any class of the population. It is done with a flat stone, a fragment of slate, or even a piece of bamboo; the object being to make the teeth short, and the front ones concave on the outer side, so as to con- tain the abominable black dye that renders a native's mouth nauseous as a charnel ! But the old adage, De gustibus non disputandum, holds good in Bouru as elsewhere. The Mohammedans are proud of their filed and blackened teeth, and make it a favourite reproach against the Christian natives, who do not adopt the custom, that their teeth are as the teeth of dogs, be- cause they are so white and so long. A Mohammedan marriage is attended with no in- considerable display; and the reader may be willing to accompany us to a spectacle marked by features so strange to the eye of a European. We set out on foot to the house of the happy bridegroom ; for in the islands of the East, as in those of the West, all bride- grooms are reputed "happy." It is dusk, and the verandah and the adjoining lane are brilliantly illumi- nated by large Chinese lanterns. A MARRIAGE CEREMONY. 397 After paying our respects to the bridegroom, we visit the house where the bride awaits his coming. The piazza, which is embellished with trailing bud and blossom, opens into a large room, while on one side of it a red curtain partly conceals the entrance to another but smaller apartment, in which the veiled beauty is tranquilly seated. Into this, however, none but lady guests may enter; and we content ourselves with pass- ing into the larger room, where the tables are burdened with confections and delicacies, mostly the product of the art of Chinese cooks. Taking a seat, we accept the cup of boiling tea presented to us, and as we sip it take note of the assembled guests. A table in the opposite corner is surrounded with Malay ladies. At first it is covered, like the rest, with sweetmeats, but room is soon found for the indispensable siri-box ; a liberal portion of lime, pepper-leaf, and betel-nut is handed to each ; and, further to assist in the discomfiture of the European visitors, an urn-shaped spittoon makes its appearance, and is passed from one to another when wanted. And now our attention is arrested by a shrill piping down the street. Everybody abandons the sweetmeats and the siri-box, and hastens into the verandah to watch the coming procession. First, the soft light of wax tapers borne by gaily-dressed boys attracts our eager gaze ; then a similar corte'ge brings up the pre- sents which bride and bridegroom have received. The bridegroom follows, supported by his friends, and sur- rounded by tiers of candles arranged on a rude triangular framework. Very brilliant he looks in his Malay garb of bright red, with a gilded chain suspended from his neck. On some occasions the old theory of marriage, 398 BRIDEGROOM AND BRIDE. that the bride must be won by the strong hand, is carried out ; but to-day the women make way for the conquer- ing hero, and allow him to enter the bridal-chamber as quickly as possible. You and we, reader, as the only white persons present, may enter with him. On one side of the room stands a small table covered with a red cloth, and upon it are two gigantic red wax- candles. The bride sits behind it, attired in a scarlet dress, red of some shade or other being the predomi- nant colour in all the arrangements, and with a cloud of delicate lace falling over her face and shoulders. The bridegroom approaches; she rises slowly. Placing the palms of his hands together, he bows thrice with great gravity and deference. She salutes him in the same manner, except that she does not raise her hands. And now the critical moment has arrived. She re- mains standing, tremulous yet seemingly tranquil, while he steps forward and pulls at the pins that hold fast the veil which screens her charms from his ardent gaze. Naturally, he shows some awkwardness in the opera- tion, but a couple of the attendant maidens assist him, and by degrees the countenance of the bride is revealed. He then passes round the table, and both sit down to- gether, while the guests look on with a feeling of lethargic contentment, until the time conies for the " happy pair " to be left alone. OPIUM-SMOKING. Another but less pleasing sight in Bouru, at once more novel and more disgusting to the European, is that of an opium-smoker in the enjoyment of his deadly luxury. Of opium itself it is needless to say much. We con- OPIUM MANUFACTURE. 399 elude that everybody knows what it is the thickened juice obtained from the capsule of the white poppy; and what are its effects, when it is consumed regularly and in considerable quantities emaciation, mental decay, death. Its Malay name is copyun, which is derived evidently from the Arabic afyun, and thus indicates the channel through which it was introduced into the Archipelago. But, as Crawfurd remarks,* though the islanders may have been taught the use, or abuse, of it by the Arabs, their present extensive and pernicious consumption of it must be ascribed to the commerce of the Europeans, and to the debauching influence of Chinese manners and example. It is now imported from Hindustan, and the poppy is cultivated nowhere in the Archipelago. It comes in balls or cakes, usually about five or six inches in diameter ; soft, and of a reddish-brown colour, but growing harder and blacker the longer it is kept. Its odour is pungent and disagreeable ; its taste acrid, nauseous, and persistent. The method of preparing it for use is as follows: } First, the raw opium is boiled or seethed in a copper vessel, until it assumes the viscidity of tar. Then it is strained through a cloth to free it from impurities, and a second time boiled. The leaf of the tambaka, or siri, shred fine, is mixed with it, in a quantity suffi- cient to absorb the whole; and afterwards it is made up into small pills about the size of a pea for smoking. One of these being placed in a small tube that projects from the bowl of the opium pipe, the tube is applied to a lamp ; and the pill being lighted, the smoke which it throws off is inhaled with one or two long breaths, * Crawfurd, " History of the Indian Archipelago," 1. 105. t Marsden, "Sumatra," pp. 277, 278. 400 THE NATURALIST IN BOURU. - attended with a whistling noise. This preparation of the opium is sometimes called mandat, and not infre- quently it is adulterated in the process jaggari, or pine sugar, being mixed with it, just as the fruit of the pisang, or plantain, is often mixed with the raw drug. The immediate effect of opium-smoking is to produce a state of dreamy passiveness, a kind of lethargy, which absorbs and possesses the individual both in mind and body. Its after-effects are much more serious ; and the worst of it is, that when once the habit has been contracted, reform is almost impossible. Therefore it is no uncommon occurrence to meet with men in the prime of life whom this fatal vice has reduced to living skeletons ; men with lack-lustre eyes, palsied limbs, and shattered nerves, incapable of action, of continuous thought, hope, energy, or aspiration. THE NATURALIST IN BOURU. Before we take our leave of Bouru, we must direct the attention of the student of natural history to some objects of interest connected with his special pursuits. He will probably remember Southey's picturesque description of a garden beneath the sea, of the sub- aqueous region which Nature has planted with living forms of grace and beauty that rival those of the flowers and foliage of earth :* " It was a garden still beyond all price, Even yet it was a place of Paradise And here were coral bowers, And grots of madrepores, And banks of sponge, as soft and fair to eye As e'er was mossy bed Whereon the wood-nymphs lie With languid limbs in summer's sultry hours. * Southey, "Curse of Kehama," xvi 5. AN OCEAN-GAEDEN. 401 Here, too, were living flowers Which, like a bud compacted, Their purple cups contracted, And now in open blossom spread, Stretched like green anthers many a seeking head. And arborets of jointed stone were there, And plants of fibre fine, as silkworm's thread ; Yea, beautiful as mermaid's golden hair Upon the waves dispread. Others that, like the broad banana growing, Raised their long wrinkled leaves of purple hue, Like streamers wide outflowing." Off the coral reef that fringes the eastern coast of Kayeli Bay, the bright clear waters reveal even fairer scenes than the poet has so accurately painted in this MKANDRINA, OR "BRAIN CORAL." glowing passage; and similar scenes are common in the seas of the Eastern Archipelago. Obser.ve the wonder- ful ramifications of the Meandrinas, or "brain corals," (37) 20 402 CORAL WONDERS. whose surface, when the soft polyps are removed, is found to be traced all over with fissures and slight ridges presenting a marvellous resemblance to the con- volutions of the human brain. Other corals there are which mimic the appearance of a tangled forest, extend- ing their branches in a hundred different directions ; others which seem to expand into rosy blossoms on the summit of strangely twisted stems. Others again, which do not attach themselves to their neighbours; are circular, as seen from above, but have horizontal under surfaces, while their upper sides are slightly convex. Remove the "BENEATH THE SURFACE. 403 soft living pulp, and numerous radiating partitions are seen, so that the whole may be likened to a gigantic mushroom reversed ; and hence the family of Actinozoa to which these strange forms belong has been aptly designated Fungidce. Scattered among the stony corals are many Gorgonias. Some may be compared to broad sheets of foliage, and resemble the beautiful " sea fans " which inhabit the tropical waters of the West Indies. Others, says Mr. Bickmore, whose de- scription we are closely following,* may be likened to hurdles of ratans ; and when the soft polyps are taken off', discover a black horn-like axis-stem or rod. Others, when collected and dried, look like limbs cut from a small spruce-tree after it has faded and thrown oft' hundreds of its small acicular leaves. Numbers of sponges are also seen, mostly of a spheri- cal form, and provided with complex ramifying ducts or tubes that display a wonderful ingenuity 'of contriv- ance. But our space would not suffice us to particu- larize all these " Trees of the deep, and shrubs, and fruits, and flowers; " or the beautiful Medusadie that float and hover above and among them ; or the radiant fishes which dart through the coral bowers like flashes of rainbow-light ; or all the marvels of form and colour that glitter in the ocean-world, and testify to the infinite resources and exuberant wealth of Nature. " The most accurate description possible/' says Bickmore, " must fail to convey any proper idea of the beauty and richness of these gardens beneath the sea, because, in reading or hearing a description, the various forms that are dis- * Bickmore, "Travels in the Eastern Archipelago," pp. 285-287. 404 REEFS OF CORAL. tinctly seen at a single glance have to be mentioned one after another, and thus they pass along in a series or line before our mental vision, instead of being grouped into circular areas, where the charm consists not so much in the wonderful perfection of a few sepa- rate parts, as in the harmonious relations, or, as CYANEA (MEDUSA). architects say, the effect of the whole. The pleasure of viewing coral reefs never becomes wearisome, because the grouping is always new. No two places are just alike beneath all the wide sea; and no one can fail to be thrilled with pleasure, when, after a few strong strokes of the oars, his canoe is left to glide on by its