THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES
 
 OINOS: 
 
 A DISCUSSION 
 
 OF 
 
 THE BIBLE WINE QUESTION. 
 
 BY 
 
 LEON C. FIELD, A.M. 
 
 WITH AN INTRODUCTION 
 
 BY 
 
 BISHOP H. W. WARREN, D.D. 
 
 Vetustis novftatem dare, novis auctoritatem, obsoletis nitorem, obscuris lucent, 
 /astiditis graliam, dubiisJidem.Pu.iw, NAT. HIST. PKAEF. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 PHILLIPS & HUNT. 
 
 CINCINNATI : 
 WALDEN & STOWE. 
 
 I88 3 .
 
 COPYRIGHT 1883, BY 
 
 db 
 NEW YORK.
 
 5/22. 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 following work has already appeared, in large part, in 
 the pages of the " Methodist Quarterly Review " for 1882. 
 The last section and the Appendix are entirely new matter. 
 As the earlier portion of the book is printed from the stereo- 
 type plates of the " Quarterly," many changes and additions, 
 which were deemed desirable, were thereby rendered imprac- 
 ticable. In order to supplement such deficiencies, as well as to 
 answer certain criticisms, and bring the work up to the latest 
 date, the Appendix has been prepared. It was not possible to 
 refer to this on the several pages to which its topics relate, 
 but the pages are themselves indicated in the respective ap- 
 pendixes. 
 
 In the preparation of this work I have aimed especially at 
 fullness and accuracy. It has been my endeavor to make it an 
 authority on which students of the Bible wine question might 
 rely. In almost every instance I have gone to original sources 
 of information, and in the few cases where these were inacces- 
 sible I have given the best attainable authority on the subject. 
 I have purposed to write nothing which could not be verified, 
 and I have been careful to place the means of verification in the 
 reader's hand. That I have made no mistakes and fallen into 
 no inaccuracies is more than I dare hope ; but I have conscien- 
 tiously and industriously labored to avoid them. I have striven, 
 in the words of Pliny, vetustia novitatem dare, novis auctori- 
 tatem, obsolete nitorem, obscuris lucem, fastiditis gratiam, 
 dubiis fidem, " to give freshness to what is old, authority to 
 what is new, brightness to what has become tarnished, light to 
 what is obscure, acceptability to what is slighted, and credibil- 
 ity to what is doubtful," which Pliny truthfully describes as 
 res ardua, " no easy task." 
 
 The list of authorities which I have consulted is sufficiently 
 indicated in the foot-notes, although many that I have had at 
 hand find no mention there. This is especially true of works 
 
 809188
 
 iv Preface. 
 
 written to controvert the position which this book is intended 
 to defend. I have not thought it necessary, for instance, to 
 refer to Wilson's " Bible Wines," since I was replying in par- 
 ticular to such later and more current writings as Chancellor 
 Crosby's " A Calm View of the Temperance Question," (in 
 "Christ and Modern Thought," Boston Monday Lectures, 
 1880-81, pp, 141-143 ;) Professor Bumstead's " The Biblical 
 Sanction for Wine," (in " The Bibliotheca Sacra," January, 
 1881, pp. 47-116 ;) Dr. Moore's " The Bible Wine Question," 
 (in " The Presbyterian Eeview," January, 1881, pp. 80-113,) 
 and his " Sacramental Wine," (in " The Presbyterian Review," 
 January, 1882, pp. 78-107.) I am under very great obliga- 
 tions, and these only imperfectly acknowledged in the notes, 
 to " The Temperance Bible Commentary," by Dr. F. R. Lees 
 and Rev. Dawson Burns, which, though not beyond criticism 
 as to some of its details, is on the whole the most important 
 contribution ever made to the scriptural phase of the temper- 
 ance question. 
 
 Though this work is intended for scholars, and all its quota- 
 tions from foreign sources are given in their original tongues, 
 yet it is believed that it will prove equally available for pop- 
 ular use, since the passages in foreign languages are accompa- 
 nied by translations, and, in the case of the Hebrew, by trans- 
 literations as well. 
 
 A single word further may be necessary in explanation of the 
 form of the discussion. The work was written in conformity 
 with the original title given to the first article as published in 
 " The Methodist Quarterly Review " for January, 1882, namely, 
 "Was Jesus a Wine-Bibber?" That question, as a starting- 
 point, determined the course of the argument and the arrange- 
 ment of the material. But yielding to the counsels of those in 
 whose judgment I place confidence, I have exchanged that title 
 for another, which better describes the broader ground covered 
 by the discussion. 
 
 In conclusion I may be permitted to express the hope that 
 this volume will commend itself to the sober judgment and 
 the candid scholarship of its readers, and contribute something 
 toward the spread of scriptural temperance over the land. 
 
 LEON C. FIELD. 
 
 BOSTON, October, 1882.
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 TN its hard fight for perfection the race wins bnt one battle 
 -*- at a time, and that only after long and hard fighting over 
 each skirmish-line, rifle-pit, outpost, redoubt, etc., till finally 
 by grand combinations the citadel is taken. This is true 
 whether the battle be for civil liberty, freedom of conscience, 
 the ballot for women, emancipation of slaves, Christian doc- 
 trine and practice in the relation of capital and labor, santifica- 
 tion of the home, or temperance. 
 
 The positions already won, or partially so, are the scientific 
 demonstration of the non-necessity of alcohol to a man in sick- 
 ness, and its harmfulness to a man in health ; the right of each 
 individual to decline its use without being called a coward ; 
 the right of men and women to organize against saloons as a 
 public nuisance ; the right of States to regulate or prohibit the 
 manufacture and sale of that which creates paupers, idiots, and 
 criminals for honest labor to support. What centuries of hard 
 fighting these various victories signify ! 
 
 One of the battles yet raging is whether the wine-bibber 
 and manufacturer can hide themselves behind the example of 
 Christ, the Saviour of the world. As an aid to victory in this 
 fight, this new piece of ordnance has been brought forward. 
 It is of large caliber, well rifled, carefully loaded, and not 
 liable to recoil. I wish it might be every-where trained on 
 the enemy, and made to open fire. 
 
 HENEY "W. WARKEN. 
 
 ATLANTA, GA., July 4, 1882.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAOI 
 
 INTRODUCTION v 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 THE QUESTION' STATED AND ITS IMPORTANCE NOTED 1 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 THE CHARGE AND ITS AUTHORS 14 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 PRELIMINARY DISCUSSION 17 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 EXAMINATION OP THE CHARGE 53 
 
 SECTION Y. 
 
 THE POSITIVE ARGUMENT 97 
 
 APPENDIX 131 
 
 GENERAL INDEX 153 
 
 TEXTUAL INDEX... . 161
 
 O I N O S: 
 
 A DISCUSSION OF THE BIBLE WINE QUESTION. 
 
 I. THE QUESTION STATED AND ms IMPORTANCE NOTED. 
 
 MORE than eighteen hundred years ago it was said of Jesus 
 Christ, " Behold a man gluttonous, and a wine-bibber, a friend 
 of publicans and sinners." (Matt, xi, 19 ; Luke vii, 34.) One 
 particular of that accusation men have continued to repeat un- 
 til this day. They have said, and they have not ceased to say, 
 Jesus was a drinking man. His enemies have insisted upon it, 
 that they might cast disgrace upon his character and discredit 
 upon his cause. Lovers of strong drink have affirmed it, that 
 they might shelter themselves under the cover of his example. 
 Some of his most candid and conscientious followers have felt 
 themselves compelled to admit the charge, and, without plead- 
 ing his practice as a precedent, have attempted his defense. 
 Others, perhaps no less conscientious or candid, have frankly 
 avowed that no defense is demanded, but that his course as a 
 moderate drinker is to be copied. It would seem as if this 
 latter class had of late entered into a conspiracy to strengthen 
 their own position by a determined attack on the lines of their 
 opponents. For, at the opening of the present year,* and al- 
 most simultaneously, Chancellor Crosby on the platform of the 
 Monday Lectureship, Dr. Moore in the pages of the " Presby- 
 terian Review," and Prof. Bumstead in the pages of the " Bib- 
 liotheca Sacra," made vigorous onslaught on those who hold that 
 the Bible does not lend its sanction to the use of intoxicating 
 beverages, and, in particular, on all who quote the example of 
 Christ in favor of total abstinence. "No unbiased reader," 
 Chancellor Crosby declares,! "can for a moment doubt that 
 wine as referred to in the Bible passim is an intoxicating drink, 
 and that such wine was drunk by our Saviour and the early 
 
 * 1881. f " A Calm View of the Temperance Question."
 
 2 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 Christians." And again, " It is impossible to condemn all 
 drinking of wine as either sinful or improper without bringing 
 reproach upon the Lord Jesus Christ and his apostles. There 
 lias been an immense amount of wriggling by Christian writers 
 on this subject to get away from this alternative, but there it 
 stands impregnable, Jesus did use wine"* Dr. Moore affirms,f 
 u Christ himself drank wine, the wine from which John the 
 Baptist abstained, the wine which is classed with sikera, (Luke 
 i, 15.) . . . Jesus himself drank the common wine of Pales- 
 tine. . . . He did discriminate between an excessive and a 
 temperate use of wine that could intoxicate." Prof. Bumstead 
 asserts,:}: " The Bible sanctions the use of wine by the exam- 
 ple of Christ. The sanction is undeniable and emphatic." 
 And again, " The example of Christ is utterly irreconcilable 
 with the theory of those who plead for total abstinence." 
 
 These are very serious charges. If they can be substantiated 
 they will prove exceedingly damaging, if not utterly fatal, to 
 the claims of total abstinence. The example of Christ must 
 be regarded as determinative in this matter. If abstinence 
 was his practice it is our duty. If moderation was his rule it 
 may be our custom. To this extent we are in perfect accord 
 w r ith the authors just quoted. If their premises are correct 
 their conclusion is inevitable. It is idle to deny this as many 
 do. It will not do to say that Christ's indulgence in intoxicat- 
 ing drink would not concern us any more than his going bare- 
 foot, riding on an ass, or remaining unmarried. || For this com- 
 parison holds good only in case the former like the latter be- 
 longs to the category of things indifferent ; that is, such as may, 
 cceteris paribus, be innocently done or left undone. To that 
 sphere many who discountenance their use relegate alcoholic 
 beverages. They regard the question of their use as purely 
 " prudential," and decide it solely on grounds of expediency. 
 But is their procedure valid, or their classification correct ? 
 Does the question belong to morals ? Is wine-drinking under 
 any circumstances right, or is it a sin per se f We believe 
 
 " A Calm View of the Temperance Question." 
 f "Presbyterian Review," January, 1881, p. 88. 
 
 " Bihliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1881, p. 86. Ibid., p. 109. 
 
 | Wendell Phillips' Reply to Dr. Crosby in " Moderation vs. Total Absti- 
 nence," p. 48.
 
 The B'ible Wine Question. 3 
 
 no better answer can be given than that of Taylor Lewis : * 
 " There is one evil state of soul condemned throughout the 
 Bible. It is tluit t<tte- to which we give the name intoxication, 
 or inebriation. ... It is the act of a person in health, volun- 
 tarily, and without any other motive or reason than the pleas- 
 urable stimulus, using any substance whatever, be it solid or 
 liquid, to produce an unnatural change in his healthy mental 
 and bodily state, either by way of exciting or quieting the 
 nerves and brain, or quickening the pulse. This was wrong, 
 a spiritual wrong a Km per se not a matter of excess merely, 
 Imt wrong and evil in any, even the smallest, measure or degree." 
 And we believe this all the more strongly, because the tendency 
 of modern scientific investigation is to demonstrate the use of 
 alcohol in any form or quantity in health to be a sin against one's 
 own nature. And on this point we would be willing to abide 
 by the decision of Prof. Bumstead, who devotes over thirteen 
 pages of the " Bibliotheca Sacra" (48-61) to a discussion of the 
 physiological action of alcohol. In summing up the results of 
 " the latest and best science " in this regard, he says,f " There 
 is a practically unanimous verdict from all authorities that 
 alcohol is not needed, and is likely to do harm, in a state of 
 perfect health." How accurately this states the situation will 
 appear from such unimpeachable testimony as follows. Sir 
 Henry Thompson, in his recent letter to the Archbishop of 
 Canterbury,:}: says, "The habitual use of fermented liquors to 
 an extent far short of what is necessary to produce that condi- 
 tion, [drunkenness,] and such as is quite common in all ranks 
 of society, injures the body and diminishes the mental power 
 to an extent which, I think,- few people are aware of." 
 Sir William Gull, in his testimony before a select committee 
 of the House of Lords, said : " The constant use of alcohol, 
 even in moderate measure, may injure the nerve tissues and 
 be deleterious to health ; and one of the commonest things in 
 society is, that people are injured by drink without being 
 drunkards. It goes on so quietly that it is difficult to ob- 
 serve, even though it leads to degeneration of the tissues 
 
 * American preface to the "Temperance Bible Commentary," pp. xii, xi". 
 f "Bibliotheca Sacra," January, 1881, p. r.. 
 J Quoted in Judge Pitman's " Alcohol and the State," p. 88. 
 Reprinted and reiterated in " The Alcohol Question," a series of papers which 
 01 initially appeared in the " Contemporary Review."
 
 4 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 and spoils the health and the intellect. Short of drunkenness, 
 I should say from my experience, that alcohol is the most 
 destructive agent we are aware of in this country." Prof. 
 Binz, of Bonn, who, with Dr. Anstie, of England, has been 
 chiefly quoted in support of the food value of alcohol, says,* 
 " While I thus share in the views of the late Dr. Anstie, so 
 ably upheld in England, I do not hesitate, on the other hand, 
 to declare with respect to the healthy organism, that I consider 
 the use of alcohol in health as entirely superfluous." Dr. 
 Parkes, of the British Army Medical School, arrives at these 
 conclusions with reference to the use of spirits in the army, f 
 which are equally applicable to all men under every circum- 
 stance : " Looking back to the evidence, it may be asked : Are 
 there any circumstances of the soldier's life in which the issue 
 of spirits is advisable, and if the question at any time lies be- 
 tween the issue of spirits and total abstinence, which is best ? 
 To me there seems but one answer. If spirits neither give 
 strength to the body nor sustain it against disease, are not pro- 
 tective against cold and wet, and aggravate rather than miti- 
 gate the effects of heat if their use, even in moderation, in- 
 creases crime, injures discipline, and impairs hope and cheer- 
 fulness if the severest trials of war have been not merely borne, 
 but most easily borne, without them if there is no evidence 
 that they are protective against malaria or other diseases then 
 I conceive that the medical officer will not be justified in 
 sanctioning their use under any circumstances." Dr. Henry 
 Maudsley, the leading English authority on mental diseases, 
 declares,:}; " If men took careful thought of the best use which 
 they could make of their bodies, they would probably never 
 take alcohol, except as they would take a dose of medicine, to 
 serve some special purpose." Dr. B. W. Richardson says, 
 " Thus by two tests science tries the comparison between al- 
 cohol and man. She finds in the body no structure made from 
 alcohol ; she finds in the healthy body no alcohol ; she finds 
 in those who have taken alcohol changes of the structure, and 
 these are changes of disease. By all these proofs she declares 
 
 * "American Journal of the Medical Sciences," July, 1876, p. 262. 
 f "Manual of Practical Hygiene," (1873,) p. 284. 
 \ " Responsibility in Mental Disease," p. 285. 
 
 " Moderate Drinking, For and Against, from Scientific Points of View," 
 (1878,) p. 20.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 5 
 
 alcohol to be entirely alien to the structure of man. It does 
 not build up the body ; it undermines and destroys the build- 
 ing." Dr. "VV. II. Dickinson of St. George's Hospital, England, 
 after recounting, with accuracy, the structural changes which 
 alcohol initiates, and the structural changes and consequent 
 derangement and suspension of vital functions which it in- 
 volves, aptly terms it "TUE GENIUS OF DEGENERATION." * Dr. 
 T. M. Coan, who aims to show that the latest science gives its 
 sanction to moderate drinking, yet confesses, f " In robust and 
 perfect health they (fermented liquors) are entirely superflu- 
 ous ; and they are sometimes injurious by promoting too much 
 assimilation, making too much blood." Prof. William James, 
 M.D., in a lecture delivered before the students of Harvard 
 College, (May, 1881,) teaches:}: that the effects of alcohol, even 
 in moderate quantities, arc, " on the whole, likely to be inju- 
 rious," and that its use " is not consistent with a state of perfect 
 health." Dr. Markham, F.R.S1, in reviewing the latest scien- 
 tific utterances in regard to alcohol, well says, " It is scarcely 
 possible to read fairly the works of distinguished physiologists 
 who have discussed the question, without feeling that they have 
 been, in spite of themselves, as it were, driven, by the legiti- 
 mate consequences following from their premises, to the con- 
 clusion that alcohol is unnecessary and injurious to the human 
 body." 
 
 An effort is made to escape the force of this evidence by an 
 attempted discrimination between alcohol and beverages con- 
 taining it, and between distilled and fermented liquors. [| But 
 the only distinction which exists is one of degree. Alcohol is 
 always one and the same thing in kind, in whatever form or 
 under whatever disguise we find it. It is " alcohol that gives 
 type " to fermented as well as to distilled liquors, " and allies 
 them too closely" to call for discrimination. " So far as our 
 chemistry tells us, the form of the alcohol is just the same, only 
 (in wines and beer) the flavoring and addition of actual food is 
 different. We do not recognize this as ' the alembic in which 
 
 E. M. Hunt, M.D., in " Alcohol as a Food and Medicine," p. 43, quoting from 
 "The LaiK-ft," 1872. 
 
 f The " State of the Alcohol Question," " Harper's Monthly," October, 1879. 
 J " Boston Daily Advertiser," M;iy 10. 1881. 
 Quoted in Hunt's "Alcohol as a Food and Medicine," p. R9. 
 | "A Culm View," etc. "Bibliothuca tfacra," January, 1SS1, p. 48.
 
 G Oinos: A Discussion of 
 
 nature has turned a powerful and dangerous element into a be- 
 neficent minister.' " * Careful and repeated experiments made 
 by the most accurate and authoritative experts have fully dem- 
 onstrated the fact that the alcohol in fermented liquors does 
 not, except in the most infinitesimal degree, enter into any chemi- 
 cal combinations whatever, f The authorities whom Chancel- 
 lor Crosby and Prof. Bumstead cite in support of the professed 
 distinction between large and smaller amounts of alcohol do not 
 cover the case. Prof. Parkes, whom the former imperfectly 
 quotes, simply says, that science fails to give at present accu- 
 rate information on the subject, and " the usual arguments for 
 and against the use of alcohol cannot be held to settle the 
 point." His other utterances, such as the one we have quoted 
 above, and especially those in reply to Anstie as to food-value, 
 etc., place him completely in opposition to our authors. Drs. 
 Anstie and Binz are quoted by both in evidence of the con- 
 sumption of alcohol in the body and so of its inferred value as 
 a food. But neither quote Dr. Parkes' reply, to which Anstie 
 gave his assent, (in " The Practitioner," July, 1874, p. 27,) that 
 " even if the complete destruction within certain limits were 
 quite clear, this fact alone would not guide us to the dietetic 
 value of alcohol. We have first to trace the effect of that de- 
 struction, and learn whether it is for good or evil. You seem 
 to think that the destruction must give rise to useful force, 
 but I cannot see that this is necessarily so." Dr. Parkes fur- 
 ther says, that it is important to notice, in determining the 
 weight of Anstie's testimony, that he sought to prove the food 
 value of opium and tobacco as well as of alcohol. With refer- 
 ence to this subject, Dr. Ringer declares that " Even if the 
 greater part of the alcohol is consumed, and thus ministers to 
 the forces of the body, yet alcohol, by depressing functional 
 activity, favoring degenerations, etc., may do more harm than 
 any good it can effect by the force it sets free during its de- 
 struction." Dr. Davis, than whom few are better qualified to 
 
 * E. M. Hunt, M.D., Sanitary Editor of the New York " Independent," in the 
 issue for Feb. 3, 1881, who refers to an expression of Chancellor Crosby in his 
 " Calm View," etc. 
 
 f Vide Thudichum and Dupr6, " On the Origin, Nature, and Varieties of Wine," 
 London, 1872, p. 159. 
 
 $ "The Practitioner," Feb., 1872, p. 86. 
 
 "Therapeutics," London, 1876, p. 276.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 7 
 
 speak, states* that " the only force it (alcohol) develops is the 
 catalytic force of inertia, by which it holds in check those 
 natural molecular changes that would take place were it not 
 present." 
 
 There is one practical argument which shows conclusively 
 that the use of alcohol in any quantity is incompatible with 
 man's perfect health and physical vigor. It is the fact that 
 those who seek this, and who come nearest to its attainment, do 
 so at the cost of total abstinence. We refer especially to ath- 
 letes, whose training, from the time of Samson f and Milo \ to 
 that of llanlan and Dr. Carver, has included abstinence from 
 all alcoholic drinks. These men find that any indulgence in 
 stimulants is fatal to that perfect "precision, decision, pres- 
 ence of mind, and endurance," on which their success so often 
 hinges, jj And the conclusion is unavoidable, that these stim- 
 ulants are equally damaging to the best physical condition of 
 other people.*^ In such a case their use is a sin against the body. 
 And in saying this we need imply nothing as to that "large 
 class of people," so pathetically described as living on " the 
 confines of health." ** If people are sick let them take medi- 
 cine. But let them also be sure that alcohol is what they need, 
 and take care that they do not write their own prescriptions. 
 "Whoever else may claim a place in these ranks of invalidism, 
 there was One who never belonged there. Christ possessed a 
 perfect physical nature, in full health and vigor. If we can 
 conceive of his taking alcohol into his system it must have 
 been as a luxury, and how inconsistent such a conception is 
 with his whole life of self-denial we need not now stop to con- 
 sider. If he indulged in it at all, he must have done so with- 
 out necessity, and at the conscious peril of the perfect delicacy 
 of adjustment and harmony of function in that body, touched 
 
 * " The Medical Uses of Alcoholic Liquors," etc., in Report of Proceedings of 
 tin- .Ninth National Temperance Convention, held at Saratoga Springs, N. Y., 
 June 21, 22, 1881, p. 195. 
 
 f Judges xiii, 7. \ Epictetus, Enrheiridion, sec. 35. 
 
 "National Tempernnce Advocate," March, 1881. Art. "Athletes, Alcohol, 
 and Tobacco." 
 
 | Dr. Richardson, " Effects of Alcohol " in "Ten Lectures on Alcohol," pp. 4-6. 
 
 Tf A similar line of argument is suggested by the statistics of life insurance mm. 
 panics. Total abstainers have a much greater longevity than moderate drinkers. 
 (Parkes* "Manual of Practical II \-i.-ne," p. 270.) 
 
 ** "A Calm View," etc., ' Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1881. p. 69.
 
 8 Oinos: A Discussion of 
 
 to finer issues than any other mortal frame, whose absolute 
 perfection was essential to the accomplishment of his divine 
 mission. If, therefore, these teachings of experience and of 
 science as to the injurious effects of alcohol, when taken in any 
 form or quantity in health, be accepted and they are every 
 day receiving completer demonstration they must settle for 
 us the question whether He " in whom was no sin " ever used 
 alcoholic beverages. Scripture, also, in all its statements must 
 be consistent with this conclusion of science. That it is so it 
 is the purpose of this paper to make plain. Enough, we think, 
 has been said to show that this question is not merely a " pru- 
 dential," but, in the very largest sense, a moral one. 
 
 There is another method, equally fallacious, by which the as- 
 sertion that Christ used intoxicating wine is met. N"o denial is 
 attempted or claim made that the act is an indifferent one, but 
 the example of Christ in this particular is set aside on the 
 same ground that the example of Moses with reference to po- 
 lygamy, divorce, and slavery is ignored, namely, the imperfect 
 moral development of the age, in consequence of which many 
 evils were tolerated at the same time that provision for their 
 eradication was made by the gradual enlightenment of the con- 
 sciences of men. This is the position, among others, of the 
 New York " Independent," from whose issue of March 11, 1874, 
 Prof. Bumstead quotes * as follows : " But the fact that Christ 
 used liquor and that the Bible allows it is no proof that we 
 should. Things were allowable and right in the days of Moses 
 that were not so in the days of Christ, and there has been 
 some progress since in the application of abstract morals. . . . 
 To appeal to the Bible in defense of alcoholic liquors is like 
 appealing to it in defense of slavery. Christianity has educated 
 the public conscience on these two subjects beyond the ex- 
 plicit teachings of Scripture." In a late issue f this same 
 paper has restated its position, announcing the strange doctrine 
 that " Christ's teaching and ordinary conduct were for his 
 own age, not ours. The principles he taught are permanent, 
 and new light may break out of them on the subjects of slavery 
 and temperance." It is difficult to conceive how any sincere 
 mind could put forth such propositions, or any sane mind take 
 
 * "Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1881, p. 111. 
 
 f " The Independent," March 24, 1881. Editorial notes.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 9 
 
 refuge in them. If Christ's principles and practice conflicted, 
 what claim has he upon our confidence ? "What severer im- 
 peachment of his character can be made than such a charge of 
 inconsistency? What becomes of his omniscience or his sin- 
 lessness in the face of such a doctrine ? "What authority at- 
 taches to his teachings if they were purely local in their ap- 
 plications, and not only inadequate to the exigencies, but in 
 conflict with the developed moral sense, of after ages ? Surely, 
 
 " Non tali auxilio, ncc defensoribus istia 
 Tempus eget." 
 
 We can no more believe than can Chancellor Crosby " that 
 Christ and his apostles, on great moral questions and matters of 
 moral conduct, gave example and precept that would not 
 last." * And as to the attempted comparison between Moses 
 and Christ, and between slavery, etc., and wine-drinking, it is 
 important to observe, as Prof. Bumstead suggests,t that Christ 
 " did not marry many wives ; he did not hold slaves ; he ex- 
 pressly superseded the Mosaic divorce by a higher and holier 
 regulation." And if he indulged in alcoholic beverages he has 
 given to that act a sanction such as no other practice, which an 
 " educated public conscience " has called in question, ever re- 
 ceived from him. 
 
 But this argument is put into another shape, and the change 
 in our circumstances from those of ancient times is urged as 
 an excuse for Christ's indulgence, and as a reason for our ab- 
 stinence. " Had Jesus, living in our time, beheld the wide 
 waste and wretchedness arising from inordinate appetites, can 
 any one doubt on which side he would be found ? " asks Mr. 
 Beecher4 " If circumstances make wine-drinking wrong now, 
 but made it right then, why should Christ not have gone out 
 of his way to sanction it? " the. " Independent " inquires, refer- 
 ring to a remark of Chancellor Crosby's in " The Evangelist," 
 that " this was a custom which our Saviour went out of the 
 way to sanction." And Kev. Dr. Plumb, in an essay read 
 before a Ministerial Temperance Convention, held in Tremont 
 Temple, Boston, March 8, 1881, | Bays: "When total absti- 
 nence is urged as our duty, because the biblical principle of 
 
 * "A Calm View," et. f "Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1881, p. 111. 
 
 $ " Th'e Life of Jesus the Christ," vol. i, p. 192. 
 
 March 24, 1881, Editorial Notes. | Boston " Daily Traveller," Mar. 8, 1881.
 
 10 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 self-sacrifice for the good of others requires it, it is no escape 
 from the binding force of this paramount obligation to plead 
 that in a far-off age and land, in conditions thoroughly differ- 
 ent from ours, there were men who were allowed a sparing use 
 of M'ine, which, like all wine history knows any thing about, 
 was capable of being used in excess." This argument involves 
 two fallacies, either one of which is fatal. In the first place, 
 there is no such difference as is represented between the evils 
 connected with wine-drinking in ancient and in modern. times. 
 Professor Bumstead is correct on this point.* Drunkenness 
 has prevailed in all ages of the world. The first historical ref- 
 erence to the use of wine records a case of intoxication, that of 
 Noah's. (Gen. ix, 20-27.) The monuments of Egypt picture 
 the gross drunkenness of that people, of both sexes, in private 
 life, at public feasts, and on the occasion of great religious 
 festivals. f One inscription speaks of a feast held at Denderah, 
 known as the drinking-feast, and the goddess as the Goddess 
 of Drunkenness.^ Drunkenness had taken such a hold upon 
 the people of China, more than a thousand years before 
 Christ, as to threaten the ruin of the empire. This is clearly 
 proven by " The Announcement about Drunkenness," an im- 
 perial edict believed to have been promulgated about 1116 
 B. C. The Rig-Veda, from beginning to end, shows that the 
 ancient Aryan races of India must have been terrible drunk- 
 ards, and must have believed their deities to have been the 
 same. In the banqueting scenes of the Assyrians it is drink- 
 ing and not eating that is represented. | Babylon fell into 
 the hands of Cyrus while its inhabitants were buried in 
 drunken revels. *[ Among the Persians " drunkenness even 
 came to be sort of an institution. Once a year, at the feast of 
 Mithras, the king of Persia, according to Duris, was bound to 
 be drunk. A general practice arose of deliberating on all im- 
 portant affairs under the influence of wine, so that in every 
 household, when a family crisis impended, intoxication was 
 a duty." ** So common was drunkenness among the Greeks 
 
 * "Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1881, pp. 100, 109. 
 
 f Wilkinson's " Ancient Egypt," vol. i, pp. 52, 53. \ Eber's "Egypten," p. 326. 
 
 " Legge's Chinese Classics," vol. iii, pt. 1, p. 274. 
 
 | Rawlinson, " Five Great Monarchies," i, 579. 
 
 T Daniel v, 10; Xenophon. " Cyrop.," vii, 5, 15. 
 
 ** Rawliason, " Five Great Monarchies," iii, 236.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 11 
 
 in the time of Christ that Corinthians were usually intro- 
 duced on the stage in a state of intoxication.* Home, at 
 that age, as her own heathen historians have confessed, 
 was a vortex into which all sin and shame (cuncta atrocia 
 aut pudenda)^ flowed together, so that every place was 
 filled with vice and crime, (omnia sceleribus ac vitiis 
 ]>I<'na sunt.} \ The writings of Juvenal, Persius, Horace, and 
 Petronius, show that the Roman Empire was full of drunken- 
 ness and debauchery. The prevalence of intemperance in 
 Palestine is amply attested by the denunciations of wine in the 
 Old Testament, and the fearful woes pronounced upon the 
 drunkard and the drunkard-maker. Significant of the fact is 
 the law of the rabbins, that on the Feast of Purim a man 
 should "drink wine until he be drunk and fall asleep in his 
 drunkenness." The frequent condemnations of this degrad- 
 ing vice, both by Christ and his apostles, prove its prevalence 
 in their immediate vicinity and age. So far, therefore, as in- 
 temperance is concerned there is no essential difference be- 
 tween our circumstances and Christ's. Nor is that difference 
 found in the application of total abstinence as remedy for in- 
 temperance. That is by no means a modern discovery. Two 
 thousand years before Christ it was enjoined upon the Egyp- 
 tian priesthood. || Centuries later, the Institutes of Menu re- 
 quired it of all officiating Brahmins.^[ In the " Pentalogue of 
 Buddha " (B.C. 560) there ran this precept : " Thou shalt not 
 drink any intoxicating liquor." ** The Lacedaemonians were at 
 one period of their history total abstainers.ff In Palestine, be- 
 fore the time of Christ, the Nazarites (Num. vi, 1-4) and the 
 Rechabites (Jer. xxv, 1-19) adopted total abstinence as the car- 
 dinal principle of their orders, and while he was upon the earth 
 the Essenes in Judea and the Therapeutae in Egypt made it the 
 daily practice of their lives. But if the change of circum- 
 stances quoted in explanation of the use of wine by Christ, 
 and in condemnation of its use in modern times, does not con- 
 sist in the prevalence of drunkenness or in the practice of total 
 
 JSlian, " Variue Historic," iii, 15. f Tacitus, "Ann.," XT, 44. 
 
 $ Seneca, " De Ira," ii, 8. Hilkoth, " Median," ii, 5. 
 
 | Hieratic Papyri, let. xi. ^ Jacolliot, " The Bible in India." 
 
 ** Malcom, " Travels in the Burman Empire." 
 
 ff Athena-us, Banquet, Holm's translation, vol. ii, p. 682.
 
 12 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 abstinence, then it does not exist, and the argument which is 
 based upon it is nugatory. 
 
 But even if it were proved that such a change had taken 
 place, it would not alter the case or improve the argument, for 
 that involves another and more serious fallacy. It estimates 
 the motives, and measures the conduct, of Christ by the narrow 
 limitations and imperfect moral standards of ordinary men. 
 But he was not environed by any such conditions as theirs. 
 There was nothing local or temporary in his character, his in- 
 structions, or his influence. He belonged to no age, since he 
 lived for every age. His mode of governing his life was to 
 furnish principles of conduct to men until the end of time. It 
 was so ordered that all might find in him a safe and helpful 
 example amid every variety of experience or stress of circum- 
 stance. Dr. Plumb asks us * to " picture the compassionate 
 Jesus standing amid sixty thousand drunkards who are said to 
 die in this land every year ; see him moving among those who 
 are to form that lost and ruined army in future years, who are 
 now questioning whether to begin to drink or to leave all in- 
 toxicants forever alone, and then imagine, if you can, that as 
 they are hesitating whether to take the fatal first step which 
 will lead them on to their endless loss, the self-sacrificing Jesus, 
 knowing this, would consent to tempt them to that step, and 
 that he would do it because he was unwilling to give up the 
 personal gratification of drinking wine." And he asks, " Can 
 any thing much more shocking or irreverent, or more utterly 
 opposed to the whole spirit of the suffering Saviour, be im- 
 agined than that?" Nothing any more shocking, etc., can be 
 imagined, we admit. But to the inference which Dr. Plumb 
 proceeds to draw from these premises we must enter a de- 
 murrer. " If the principles which governed the Saviour's life 
 would keep him from doing this were he now here," he con- 
 cludes " those principles should deter every disciple of Jesus 
 from taking this heartless and self-indulgent course." "We will 
 not call this a non-sequitur, but it is not the natural and legiti- 
 mate conclusion from the premises. That conclusion is this : 
 If those principles " would keep him from doing this were he 
 now here," they would equally have deterred him " from taking 
 
 * Essay before Ministerial Temperance Convention, Boston " Traveller," March 
 8, 1881.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 13 
 
 this heartless and self-indulgent course " when on earth he was 
 living and acting in omniscient comprehension of every temp- 
 tation to which each soul of man would be exposed in all 
 coming ages. For it is Dr. Plumb who emphatically asserts, 
 " The Lord Jesus Christ before he came to the earth perfectly 
 knew all coming history; he clearly foresaw every exigency 
 that could ever arise ; he planned his own earthly life in every 
 smallest particular and with reference to all the long future." 
 That settles on his own principles whether or not Christ in the 
 first century abstained for the sake of the tempted of this 
 nineteenth century. Christ does not demand of his disciples 
 any stricter self-denial for the sake of others than he himself 
 practiced on their account. For us to claim that he did not 
 set the example, and then ourselves to abstain from any scruples 
 whatever, is to profess to be in advance of Christ ; it is for the 
 servant to set himself above the Master ; it is to cast reflec- 
 tions on the character and conduct of our blessed Lord. If he 
 drank alcoholic beverages we may do the same. Not that we 
 must, but we may. There can be no obligation to abstain 
 which he would not have recognized and enforced by his own 
 example. If he indulged, indulgence is innocent. If we 
 must abstain because of our influence, his is infinitely greater. 
 If he has sanctioned the habit of wine-drinking by his practice, 
 that fact must outweigh every other in a controversy upon the 
 subject. If the charge which is brought against him of being 
 a wine-bibber be sustained, then we have no invulnerable argu- 
 ment with which to urge the duty of total abstinence. In an- 
 swer to the soundest objection which we may bring against the 
 use of intoxicating liquors, it will be sufficient for every man 
 to cite the example of Christ, and to claim its sanction for his 
 indulgence, provided it be kept within the limits of modera- 
 tion. And intrenched behind such scriptural defenses it will 
 be impossible to dislodge the drinking customs of society. 
 The cause of temperance will receive a blow from which it 
 can never recover. That cause will not prosper unless it 
 is built upon the will and word of God. The doctrine of total 
 abstinence will not command the obedience of men unless it 
 comes to them with a " Thus saith the Lord." Every thing 
 that is vital to this great issue is determined by Christ's posi- 
 tion upon the question. With tremulous interest, therefore,
 
 14 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 we proceed to inquire, Was Jesus Christ a wine-bibber f And 
 let us consider 
 
 II. THE CHAEGE AND ITS AUTHOKS. 
 
 1. "What does the charge imply ? It is all contained in the 
 epithet " wine-bibber," which is so contemptuously applied to 
 Christ. Webster defines the English term, " One who drinks 
 much wine, a great drinker." Worcester defines, " One who 
 drinks wine habitually or to excess, a tippler." The Greek 
 term is oivonorr)^. It is used only in this connection in the New 
 Testament. The LXX used it to render the Hebrew nr&OD, 
 (sovai-yayin^) literally, " soakers of wine." (Prov. xxiii, 20.) 
 It is also found in classic Greek, (Anacreon 72 ; Luc. Asin. 48 ; 
 and Polybius xx, 8, 2.) In the version of Wycliffe (1380) it is 
 rendered "drynker of wyne" in Matthew, and in Luke "drynk- 
 ynge wiyn." Tyndale (1534) renders " drynker of wyne " in 
 both Gospels. Beza translates vini-potor, " drinker of wine," 
 in Matthew, and both Beza and the Yulgate bibens vinum, 
 " drinking wine," in Luke. In the Greek, as in the other tongues, 
 " drinker " has an intensive force indicating the habitual repe- 
 tition of the act. It gives emphasis to the habit rather than to 
 the effect of the habit. The use of the connected term ^ayor, 
 accurately rendered " gluttonous," marks this sense. The 
 charge of being an olvonor^q did not necessarily imply that 
 Jesus used wine for the purpose of stimulation rather than of 
 nutrition, or that he drank stimulating wines to intoxication, 
 although both may have been intended by the cavil. It does 
 mean, however, that he used wine, whether intoxicating or not, 
 customarily, and perhaps immoderately. And yet how much 
 less such an accusation might imply than our nineteenth century 
 conceptions of intemperance would suggest is indicated by a 
 note of Dr. Gill on Dent, xxi, 20 : * " According to the Mish- 
 na, a glutton and a drunkard is one that eats half a pound of 
 flesh and drinks half a log of Italian wine a quarter of a 
 pint which would be at this day reckoned very little by our 
 grandsons of Bacchus, as Snickard observes, but in an age of 
 severer discipline, in the tender candidates of temperance it was 
 reckoned too much." And then he adds, " The Jews seem to 
 refer to this when they charged Christ with being a glutton 
 
 * Quoted in " Temperance Bible Commentary," p. 57.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 15 
 
 and a wine-bibber." In substance the epithet was very nearly 
 equivalent to our modern designation of " moderate drinker." 
 
 2. Who made anciently this charge ? The only clue we 
 have to an answer is given in Christ's own words : " They 
 say, (Aeyoixn,) Behold, a man gluttonous and a wine-bibber," 
 etc. " They say " is always untrustworthy authority. Candid 
 men never accept its evidence. It is usually false, and often- 
 times foully calumnious. The truth iu any given instance 
 is ordinarily to be reached only through an absolute reversal 
 of its testimony. Mr. Patrnore, in writing of the gifted 
 William Ilazlitt says* : " Precisely because he was the most 
 original thinker of his day we heard him held up a mere 
 waiter upon the intellectual wealth of his acquaintances a 
 mere sucker of the brains of Charles Lamb and Coleridge. 
 Precisely because his face was pale and clear like marble, we 
 saw him pointed out as the 'Pimpled Hazlitt.' Precisely 
 because he never tasted any thing but water, we saw him held 
 up as an habitual gin-drinker and sot" Hazlitt liimself said : 
 " If I had been a dram-drinker the world would have called me 
 a milksop." It would, undoubtedly, have done the same with 
 Jesus. But, it is said, it is Christ himself who makes us ac- 
 quainted with this charge. "He tells us that his drinking 
 wine brought on him a railing accusation of the men of his 
 generation," says Dr. Moore, f But this was not a confession 
 of judgment on his part. On the contrary, his language very 
 clearly implied that his .drinking, whatever it was for he did 
 not say " drinking wine" as Dr. Moore affirms furnished no 
 ground for the charge of being a " wine-bibber." It is true he 
 attempted no explicit denial of the allegation; but neither 
 did he deny that John had a devil, (Matt, xi, 18,) or that he 
 was himself also a glutton and a sensualist. For this last ac- 
 cusation was contained in the assertion that he was " a friend 
 of publicans and sinners." But why did he make no denial of 
 these charges ? Simply because he knew none was called for. 
 His enemies perfectly well understood that they were false. 
 They knew that he was not a wine-bibber in any such sense as 
 the word was intended to convey. But they were bent on de- 
 stroying his influence as a moral teacher and religious reformer. 
 
 * "My Friends and Acquaintances," London, 1864, vol. ii, p. 348. 
 f "Presbyterian Review," Jan., 1881, p. 88.
 
 16 Oinos: A Discussion of 
 
 They judged that they could do this most effectively by assail- 
 ing his private character. So they fabricated and tried to fasten 
 upon him the charge of reckless self-indulgence. But to all 
 their calumnies he deigned only the simple answer, "Wisdom 
 is justified by her children." (Matt, xi, 19.) My life and labors 
 are my sufficient vindication. Those who know me need no 
 denial from my lips ; those who hate me would receive none. 
 
 The fact that his enemies put gluttony, and sensuality, and 
 wine-bibbing on a par proves the estimation in which the latter 
 habit was held. It was reckoned a disgrace in that day as it is 
 in our own. And yet on the ground of these unscrupulous 
 slanders we are asked to believe that Christ exposed himself 
 to that disgrace. It would be just as reasonable to regard him 
 as a blasphemer, because he was charged with that offense 
 before the high court of Caiaphas. It is not improbable that 
 he who came " to seek and to save that which was lost " some- 
 times found himself in the company of those who drank immod- 
 erately, and possibly to intoxication. But to argue from such a 
 circumstance that he in like manner indulged would compel the 
 further admission that he yielded to gluttony and sensuality. 
 It is claimed,* however, that " his example as a user of wine is 
 expressly contrasted by himself with the example of his fore- 
 runner, John the Baptist, who, being a Nazarite, was an ab- 
 stainer from wine." But this argument proves too much, if it 
 proves any thing. If Jesus must have partaken of all kinds 
 of wine, fermented and unfermented, because John abstained 
 from all kinds, then, by parity of reasoning, he must have in- 
 dulged in all the viands of Judea, since John ate only " locusts 
 and wild honey." But the contrast in this case is neither uni- 
 versal nor specific, but general. John, as a Nazarite, was vowed 
 to abstinence from all products of the vine, whether solid or 
 liquid, " from the kernels even to the husk." (Num. vi, 1-4.) 
 Jesus was not a Nazarite, and was under no such obligation. 
 lie was perfectly free to satisfy his natural wants with any 
 of " the good creatures " which his Father in heaven had pro- 
 vided. And in fact we know that he did partake of "the 
 fruit of the vine." (Matt, xxvi, 29, etc.) But that in any in- 
 stance this was an intoxicating article is a wholly unwarranted 
 and gratuitous assumption. 
 
 * Prof. Bumstead, "Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1881, p. 86.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 17 
 
 WE must now enlarge the sphere of our inquiry, and examine 
 the grounds on which, at the present day, it is claimed that 
 the example of Christ sanctions the use of alcoholic beverages. 
 What are the alleged facts in support of which testimony is 
 offered? Careful analysis reduce the specifications of the 
 charge to three: (1) Jesus Christ made fermented wine; 
 (2) Jesus Christ commended fermented wine; (3) Jesus 
 Christ used fermented wine. 
 
 Before we enter upon the detailed examination of these sev- 
 eral specifications, some 
 
 III. PRELIMINARY DISCUSSION 
 
 will be necessary concerning an assumption which is common 
 to them all, and which, if it be conceded, settles the whole 
 question at once and affirmatively. It is the assumption that 
 there was and is but one kind of wine, and that fermented, and, 
 when taken in sufficient quantities, intoxicating. Chancellor 
 Crosby says,* " There is not a chemist or a classical scholar in 
 the world who would dare risk his reputation on the assertion 
 that there was ever an unfermented wine in common use, 
 knowing well, that must preserved from fermentation is called 
 wine only by a kind of courtesy (as the lump of unbaked dough 
 might be called ' bread,') and that this could never, in the 
 nature of 'things be a common drink." Prof. Bumstead makes 
 similar assertions ;f declaring that the theory "of an unfer- 
 mented wine has failed to commend itself to the scholarship 
 of the world4" And Dr. Moore remarks, "The history of 
 the doctrine of unfermented Bible wine cannot be carried 
 back beyond a few decades; and this fact furnishes a prejuge 
 legitime against it." As to the argument from scholarship, it 
 is sufficient to say, there are many and eminent authorities, in- 
 ferior to none and superior to most in scholarship, who do un- 
 
 * "A Calm View of the Temperance Question." 
 
 f For instance, he speaks (" Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1881, p. 109) of " the 
 weakness . . . that has driven so many of the less scholarly advocates of the doc- 
 trine [total abstinence] to adopt the theory that Christ employed an unfermeuted 
 wine." And again (ibid., p. 1 13) ha alludes to " the fiction that Cliriat made and 
 used an nnfermented wine." 
 
 \ " Bibliotheca Sncra," Jan., 1881, p. 115. 
 
 "Presbyterian Review," Jan., 1831, p. 81.
 
 18 Oinos: A Discussion of 
 
 hesitatingly affirm the existence and use of unfermented wine 
 in Bible lands and times. They have as complete access to the 
 evidence in the case, and are as competent judges of its val- 
 idity and bearing, as either of the authors we have quoted or 
 as any of the authorities whom they have cited. We need only 
 mention Moses Stuart,* Eliphalet Nott,f Alonzo Potter, George 
 Bush4 Albert Barnes, William M. Jacobus, || Tayler Lewis, ^ 
 George W. Samson,** F. R. Lees, ff Norman Kerr,^ and 
 Canon Farrar. As to the prejuge legitime, this is not the 
 first instance in which it has been appealed to for the sanc- 
 tion of error. There has rarely ever been a bad cause in whose 
 support it was not invoked. The almost universal interpreta- 
 tion of the Bible in defense of the doctrine of passive obedi- 
 ence was pronounced a prejuge legitim-e against the right of 
 resistance to tyrants in Charles the Second's day. That inter- 
 pretation, however, has gone for very little since the Revolu- 
 tion of 1688. The almost universal interpretation of the Bi- 
 ble in support of the system of human slavery was deemed a 
 prejuge legitime against the right and duty of abolition, a 
 quarter of a century ago. That interpretation, also, has been 
 worth very little since the crisis of civil war and the act of 
 emancipation. But the principle upon which the non-jurors ar- 
 gued the divine obligation of passive obedience, and the slave- 
 holders defended the divine authority of human chattelism, 
 
 * " It was a very common thing to preserve wine in an unfermented state, and 
 when thus preserved it was regarded as of a higher and better quality than any 
 other." Letter to Dr. Nott, New York, 1848, p. 44. 
 
 f " That unintoxicating wines existed from remote antiquity, and were held in 
 high esteem by the wise and the good, there can be no reasonable doubt. The 
 evidence is unequivocal and plenary."" Lecture on Temperance," London edi- 
 tion, p. 86. 
 
 \ The language of both of these distinguished men to E. C. Delevan, Esq., on the 
 subject was, " You have the whole ground."" The Enquirer," Aug., 1869. 
 
 " The wine of Judea was the pure juice of the grape without any mixture of 
 alcohol, and commonly weak and harmless." "Commentary on John ii, 10." 
 
 | "All who know of the wines then used, will understand the unfermented 
 juice of the grape." " Commentary on John ii, 10." 
 
 J, Wine " simply meant the liquid that came from pressing the grape. It was not 
 fermenting fluid, but grape juice."" The Advance," Dec. 24, 1874. 
 
 ** " Divine Law as to Wines," passim. 
 
 ft "Wines, Ancient and Modern," passim. ft "Unfermented Wine a Fact." 
 
 " Wine means primarily the juice, and often, as I believe, the unfermented 
 juice, of the grape. " Talks on Temperance," p. 41.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 19 
 
 is precisely the same as that now employed in upholding the 
 theory of a divine sanction for intoxicating wine. The old les- 
 son imist once more be learned, that a traditional interpreta- 
 tion of Scripture is not conclusive proof of any doctrine, but is 
 often an obscuration of the truth of God. It is needful, there- 
 fore, to "pray against that bias which, by importing its own fore- 
 gone conclusions into the word of Scripture, and, by refusing to 
 acknowledge what makes against its own prejudices, has proved 
 the greatest hinderance to all fair interpretation, and has tended, 
 more than anything else in the world, to check the free course 
 of divine truth." * In every age the Lord has some new 
 light to break forth out of his Holy Word,f and in the next 
 generation we may look to see it break as clearly on the duty 
 of total abstinence as we have seen it shine in the generation 
 just passing on the right of human freedom. 
 
 Without attempting any further appeal to authority in this 
 case, we will proceed to examine as carefully and candidly as 
 possible the evidence we have of 
 
 1. The existence and use of unfermented wine in ancient 
 times. 
 
 (1.) And the first is found in the references both of Greek 
 and Roman writers to wine which they declared would not in- 
 toxicate. For example, Aristotle (" Meteorologica," iv, 9,) says 
 of the sweet wine of his day, (olvo$ 6 yXvuvs) that it did not in- 
 toxicate, (&v nedvoKei). And Athenseus ("Banquet," ii, 24,) makes 
 a similar statement. Prof. Bumstead says \ that this wine was 
 fermented and called sweet only " from the presence of con- 
 siderable untransformed sugar." Dr. William Smith says 
 that it signified "wine positively sweet." It may have in- 
 cluded wine which had undergone some degree of fermenta- 
 tion, but in general it was free from intoxicating properties, as 
 the authorities just quoted indicate. This was probably true 
 of the vinum dulce of the Romans, described by Columella, 
 ( u De Re Rustica," xii, 27.) The same author (" De Re Rns- 
 tica," iii, 2,) and Pliny also, ("Natural History," xiv, 2,) men- 
 tion a wine made from the grape, inerticula, (literally, " that 
 
 Bishop Ellicott in " Aids to Faith," p. 421. 
 
 f Robinson's "Address to Pilgrim Fathers." 
 
 \ " Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1881, p. 62. 
 
 " Dictionary of Grck and Roman Antiquities," art. " Vinum."
 
 20 Oinos: A Discussion of 
 
 produces no effect,") which Pliny says did not cause intoxi- 
 cation temulentiam non facit. Dr. Moore attempts to 
 break the force of this testimony by saying * tjiat " it is not 
 of the wine, but the grape, that Pliny says it alone does not 
 cause intoxication. And it is not of the wine, but of the 
 grape, that he tells us that we ought to call it sober (sobri- 
 am)" But any lexicon would tell him that these terms were 
 applied to the grape because they describe the qualities of 
 the wine made from it. So Columella distinctly states, (iii, 2,) 
 unde etiam nomen traxit. Still, Dr. Moore insists f that the 
 wine made from this grape " was certainly fermented," be- 
 cause, forsooth, " Pliny tells us that it could grow old, which 
 must or unffcrmented grape juice could not." This is simply 
 not so, as we shall see. Against both these statements of Aris- 
 totle and Pliny, and all similar ones, the objection is brought 
 that it is only in " the comparative sense, and not absolutely," 
 that their testimony as to the non-intoxicating character of cer- 
 tain wines is to be taken4 Prof. Bumstead compares them 
 " with similar statements in regard to lager beer and other bev- 
 erages, which, it is \vell known, contain alcohol and can intox- 
 icate if a sufficient quantity be taken. Such statements are 
 popular and not scientific." The standard of comparison in 
 this case, however, is the distilled and fortified liquors of mod- 
 ern times. But a very different standard was in the minds of 
 the ancient authors whom we quote. They knew nothing of 
 these stronger drinks. Distillation was not discovered until 
 the eleventh or twelfth century of the Christian era, | and the 
 wines of antiquity were, in general, of small alcoholic power. 
 In fact all wines, until within the last hundred years, were com- 
 paratively weak. The analyses of Neumann in the last century 
 have determined this point.! They show that the very strong- 
 est of mediae val wines contained only about twelve per cent, of 
 spirit, and the average scarcely more than six. The distilled 
 and fortified drinks of to-day average from twenty-five to fifty 
 per cent, of alcohol. A wine which, in comparison with the 
 ordinary standards of antiquity was pronounced weak, must 
 have been devoid of any intoxicating power. 
 
 *" Presbyterian Review," Jan., 1881, p. 105. f Ibid. 
 
 J Ibid., p. 106. " Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1881, p. 61. 
 
 | Richardson, " Cantor Lectures on Alcohol," p. 27. ^ Ibid., p. 24.
 
 The Bible Wme Question. 21 
 
 (2.) But, however that may be, the objection has no perti- 
 nency when the pure juice of the grape freshly expressed is 
 drank. This is the first and simplest product of the grape, 
 and would naturally be the earliest artificial beverage.* It is 
 drank to this day by the peasants in wine-bearing districts.! Its 
 use is clearly traceable as far back as the times of the Pharaohs. 
 This custom is certainly indicated in the record of the chief but- 
 ler's dream, (Gen. xl, 11 :) "And Pharaoh's cup was in my hand ; 
 and I took the grapes and pressed it into Pharaoh's cup, and I 
 took the cup and gave it into Pharaoh's hand." The objection 
 that dreams are " not very good historical evidence,:}: is not well 
 taken. The falsity of a dream to real life lies not in its sepa- 
 rate images, but in their incongruous relations. The argument 
 for " the unreliability of this particular dream," from the rap- 
 idity with which the several events transpire, is answered by 
 the fact that they are events such as actually do occur, and 
 that, too, in precisely the order set forth in the dream. The 
 marvelous fidelity of both the dreams of the chief baker and 
 the chief butler is proved by " so trifling a detail as the bake- 
 meats being said to have been carried on the head," which " is 
 true to Egyptian life, for, while the monuments show that men 
 carried their burdens less often on their head than otherwise, 
 bakers are a marked exception." The literal accuracy of the 
 dream of the chief butler is maintained by Tuch,| Michaelis,^[ 
 Rosenmiiller,** Henry,ff Clarke,ff Lowth,ft and Stuart.^ 
 But without relying upon the authority of these scholars, or 
 making any " prosaic " appeal to the picture exhumed at 
 Pompeii representing Bacchus squeezing grape clusters into a 
 wine-cup, or resting our case on the probability that Herodotus 
 refers to the freshly expressed juice of the grape by d^iXtvo^ 
 otvo?-,|J we are able to cite irrefragable proof that the chief 
 butler's dream pictured a literally correct trait of Egyptian 
 
 * Vide Barry, "Wines of the Ancients," London, 1775, p. 27. 
 
 f Vide " Life of Dr. Duff," i, 392 ; Kerr, " Unfermented Wine a Fact," p. 39. 
 
 $ " Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1881, p. 76. 
 
 Geikie, " Hours With the Bible," p. 467. 
 
 | " Com. zur Gen.," sec. 513. f " Mosaic Laws," iii, 120. 
 
 ** "Biblische Alterthumskunde," iv, 219. ff Com. in loco. 
 
 ft "Essay on Prize Question Respecting the Use of Spirituous Liquors," p. -M. 
 
 S3 "Bibliotheca 8acra," Jan., 1881, p. 77. 
 
 j| '-Presbyterian Review," Jan., 1881, p. 112.
 
 22 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 life. Dr. Ebers has recently discovered, on the walls of the 
 temple of Edfu, a picture of the king, standing cup in hand, 
 while underneath is the inscription : " They press grapes into 
 the water and the king drinks." * 
 
 (3.) Again, it is without doubt or question that both the 
 Greeks and the Romans had a beverage which consisted of the 
 pure, unfermented juice of the grape, whether freshly ex- 
 pressed or carefully preserved does not just yet concern us. 
 This is referred to frequently by the classic authors of both 
 tongues, and is conceded on every hand by classical scholars of 
 every shade of opinion. For confirmation of this statement 
 we need only refer the reader to Dr. Smith's " Dictionary of 
 Greek and Roman Antiquities," article " Vinum ; " or to his 
 " Dictionary of the Bible," article " Wine." The Greek bev- 
 erage was known by the name of ytevKog. It is not affirmed 
 or admitted that it was not known under other names. That 
 point is postponed. It was known by this title. Aristotle 
 frequently mentions it, (" Meteorologica," passim.) Suidas, in 
 his lexicon, defines it TO dnoord/iay^a rrjs ara^vXrjg -rrplv -narrflri, 
 " the droppings from the cluster before it is trodden." Jo- 
 sephus, ("Jud. Antiq.," ii, 52,) applies the term to the wine 
 represented as being pressed out of the bunch of grapes by the 
 chief butler into Pharaoh's cup. Prof. Bumstead admits f that 
 " it was sweet from lack of vinous fermentation," and again 
 he calls it $ " the newly expressed juice of the grape." From 
 the supposed necessities of exegesis in the New Testament 
 (Acts ii, 13) Alford, followed by Dr. Moore, | attempts to 
 widen its meaning to include a certain amount of intoxicating 
 property. But this is contrary to classic usage. The corre- 
 sponding Latin term, with a precisely similar signification, is 
 nvustum. It designates a pure and unfermented beverage 
 made of the grape. It is so explained by all the authorities.!" 
 It is so used by all the Roman rustic writers, Cato, Columella, 
 Varro, and by Pliny. Indeed, so strongly do these authors 
 insist upon its special characteristic of freedom from fermen- 
 tationPliny, 0. ^., saying, (" Natural History," xiv, 9,) " Sic 
 
 * Eber, " Durch Gosen zum Sinai," p. 480. Geikie, " Hours With the Bible," p. 465. 
 f "Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1881, p. 62. \ Ibid., p. 81. 
 
 Com. in loco. || " Presbyterian Review," Jan., 1881, p. 110. 
 
 Tf Vide " Harper's Latin Dictionary," 1880, in loco.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 23 
 
 scil.fervere appellant musti in vina transitum " that Dr. 
 Moore and others declare, " this distinguishes must from wine, 
 the differentia consisting in its having undergone fermenta- 
 tion." * This much, therefore, is settled without controversy. 
 The people of antiquity did have a form of unf ermented grape 
 juice which they used as a beverage. 
 
 We advance now another step, and consider the fact that 
 (4.) The ancients were familiar with the methods by which 
 fermentation f is prevented. Grape juice contains two leading 
 ingredients, sugar and albumen or gluten. The former is com- 
 posed of the three chemical elements, carbon, hydrogen, and 
 oxygen ; the latter is composed of four elements, carbon, hy- 
 drogen-, oxygen, and nitrogen. Nitrogen in all of its com- 
 pounds is an unstable element, disposed to disengage itself 
 from one union and to seek another. Thus it hastens the de- 
 cay of vital organisms and tends to the formation of new sub- 
 stances. The decay of the gluten in the grape juice affords 
 the necessary conditions for the reception and growth of the 
 yeast germs which are floating every-where in the air, and in 
 the presence of which the sugar is gradually converted into 
 alcohol, while carbonic acid escapes from the liquid.:}: Now 
 there are four or more different methods by which this pro- 
 cess may be prevented and the grape juice preserved fresh and 
 unfermented. 
 
 a. The gluten may be separated from the other elements. 
 This substance, enclosed in minute cells, is located in the lining 
 of the skin and in the envelope of the seed of the grape. By 
 careful manipulation the flowing juice in which the sugar is 
 concentrated may be released without disturbing the ferment- 
 able pulp. This principle was understood by the ancients and 
 applied in practice. They had a drink which they called Trp6xvpa, 
 (" Geoponica," vi, 16,) or protropum, ("Natural History," 
 xiv, 9.) Of this article Pliny says: Ita appellatur a qui- 
 buftdam mustum, tpvnte defluens, antequam caJcentur wag, 
 " So the must which flows out of its own accord, before the 
 grapes are trodden, is called by some." Such a liquid, oozing 
 
 " Presbyterian Review," Jan., 1881, p. 101. 
 
 f We use the term throughout this work for what is strictly " vinous " fermen- 
 tation, unless the contrary fact is indicated. 
 
 | Nichols, - Manual of Chemistry," pp. 143, 181. Schutzenberger, " Fermenta- 
 tion," p. 18.
 
 24 Oinos: A Discussion of 
 
 spontaneously from the skin of the grape, and composed almost 
 entirely of the saccharine portion of the juice, could not have 
 been quick to ferment. But Dr. Moore says,* " Pliny expressly 
 tells us that it was allowed to ferment," (Hoc protinus diffu- 
 sum lagenis suis defervescere passi. N. II., xiv, 9.) This 
 does not mean, however, that fermentation was essential to 
 protropum it is called that before any thing is said about its 
 undergoing that process but that protropum was allowed to 
 ferment, after which it was known under another name. The 
 value of careful handling of the grapes to prevent the escape 
 of the gluten is indicated by several items in the directions and 
 descriptions of Homan writers on wines. They frequently in- 
 sist that the grapes shall be trodden by foot, (calco,) rather 
 than crushed by the heavy beam, (prelo.) Thus Colurnella, 
 (xii, 37,) in a recipe for making vinum dulce, directs that the 
 grapes shall be trodden, (calcatoj) and the juice kept free of 
 every thing which has come through the press, quod habeat ex 
 tortivo. And Pliny, in describing the process of making pas- 
 mm, says, (xiv, 9,) Tunsasque [uvas] leniter exprimunt, "They 
 gently crush and press the clusters." The juice which was ob- 
 tained from this careful pressure, before the grapes had been 
 fully trodden, was known as the mustum lixivium, and was 
 preserved for drinking in its unfermented state. (" Greopon.," 
 vi, 16 ; Columella, xii, 41.) f 
 
 "When the gluten has been expressed with the saccharine 
 juice it is still possible to effect a separation. By means of fil- 
 ters the fermentable pulp may be strained out. This is accom- 
 plished with complete success by modern apparatus.:}: It is not 
 certain that the ancients possessed equally effective methods. 
 It is probable, however, that during the whole history of wine- 
 making attempts in this direction have been made. It was, 
 doubtless, with this end, in part at least, in view that the early 
 Egyptians employed the presses which are represented on the 
 tomb- walls of Beni-Hassan. " The most simple consisted merely 
 of a bag in which the grapes were put, and squeezed by means 
 of two poles turning in contrary directions ; a vase being placed 
 
 * " Presbyterian Review," Jan., 1881, p. 104. 
 
 Vide Smith's " Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities," art. " Vinum." 
 \ Vide "Encyclopaedia Britannica," Ninth Ed., art. "Fermentation," Also, 
 Ure's " Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures and Mines," i, 697.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 25 
 
 below to receive the falling juice." * There was another 
 press, nearly on the same principle, but more elaborately con- 
 structed. Both strained as well, as expressed the juice of the 
 grapes. The Latin writers refer to the use of strainers or 
 filters in the preparation of wines. The cola or cloth sacks, ac- 
 cording to Virgil, ("Georg.," ii, 240-245,) were a regular accom- 
 paniment of t\\Qprelum or wine-press. Pliny says, (xxiii, 24,) 
 niUixximum (vinum) omnibus sacco viribus. Meminerimus 
 succum esse qui fervendo vires musto sibifecerit. " Tire most 
 useful wine for everybody is that whose strength is destroyed 
 by the filter. We must remember that there is a juice which, 
 by the fermenting of the must, has made to itself strength." 
 That in this instance Pliny refers to the use of the filter to 
 destroy for such is the force of f tango the strength of wine 
 in which fermentation had already begun, is admitted. But it 
 does not follow that because it was used for this purpose it was 
 applied to no other. The passage we have quoted indicates its 
 employment to separate the succum, which may refer to the 
 gluten or fermentable substance, as well as to strain out the 
 faces. It is of some significance in this connection that the 
 Delphin notes on Horace i, xi, where the expression vina 
 liques, "filter your wines," occurs, say, Veteres nempe mustum 
 priusquain ferbuisset per saccuin toties colabunt, etc. "For 
 of a truth the ancients were in the habit of straining the must 
 repeatedly through a filter before it had fermented" It is 
 certain that wines were filtered to deprive them of their intox- 
 icating power. Pliny says, (xiv, 22,) Ut plus capiamus (vini) 
 sacco frangimur vires. "That we may drink the more wine 
 we destroy its strength by the filter." So Plutarch, ("Syra- 
 pos.," viii, 7,) after speaking of the process of filtration in very 
 much the same words as Pliny, and telling us that it was fre- 
 quently repeated, says, " The strength being thus withdrawn, 
 the wine neither inflames the head nor infests the mind and 
 the passions." 
 
 But this is not the only method by which fermentation may 
 be prevented. 
 
 b. The expulsion of the moisture is equally efficacious. Says 
 Prof. Ditmar, f " Xo fermentable subject will ferment except 
 
 * Wilkinson, "Ancient Egyptians," i, 46. 
 
 f " Encyclopedia Briuunica," Ninth Ed., art. " Fermentation."
 
 26 Ovnos: A Discussion of 
 
 in the presence of water, and unless it be kept by means of 
 that water in contact with some specific ferment." There 
 are two ways in which the removal of the water is effected. 
 The grape may be dried before the skin is broken, and, pre- 
 served in that condition, after any lapse of time it will afford 
 material for an unfermented beverage. By the simple soaking 
 of dried grapes or raisins in water many churches provide the 
 wine used in celebrating the Lord's Supper. Rev. Henry 
 Homes, American missionary at Constantinople, informs us,* 
 that in Asia Minor and Syria the grapes are carefully dried, 
 and then the " raisins are boiled for two or three hours to make 
 a refreshing drink, called. 'sweet water,' (Mwsab, literally, boiled 
 water.) It has no intoxicating qualities, for the proportion of 
 the water is large, and it is drunk only when freshly made." 
 Mr. Edward W. Lane, the distinguished Arabic scholar and 
 traveler, says : f "Nebeedli, prepared from raisins, is commonly 
 sold in Arab towns under the name of zebeeb. I have often 
 drunk it in Cairo, but never could perceive that it was in the 
 slightest degree fermented." This raisin wine was the Roman 
 passum^ (from pando, so called because the grapes were spread 
 out to dry.) Columella, (xii, 39,) Varro, (Ap. Non. 551, 27,) and 
 Pliny (xiv, 9) describe this kind of wine. Dr. Moore quotes 
 Coluinella, (xii, 39,) ^ " Deinde postxx. vel xxx. dies cum defer- 
 luerit in alia deliquare" etc., to prove that it was fermented. 
 But in this case, as in that of protropum, already mentioned, 
 the statement merely indicates the fact that passum was some- 
 times allowed to ferment, not that fermentation was essential 
 to its being passum. On the contrary, Columella says, (xii, 39,) 
 Prelo [uvas] premere passumque tollere, " Squeeze the grapes 
 in a press and take away the passum" It was passum imme- 
 diately, before any fermentation could have taken place. 
 
 The most common and successful method, however, of 
 expelling the moisture is by inspissating the fresh juice. By 
 boiling, the water is evaporated and fermentation prevented. 
 The people of Syria to this day boil down the simple grape 
 juice " until it is reduced to one fourth of the quantity put in." 
 
 * "Bibliotheca Sacra." May, 1848. 
 
 f Notes to the " Arabian Nights," vol. i, p. 215. 
 
 J "Presbyterian Review," Jan., 1881, p. 105. 
 
 Rev. Mr. Homes in "Bibliotheca Sacra," May, 1848.
 
 The Bible Wwe Question. 27 
 
 Tho product known as "nardenk is used as a syrup for a bev- 
 erage, one part of the syrup to from six to fifteen parts of wa- 
 ter. It ordinarily lias not a particle of intoxicating quality." 
 " In the manner of making and preserving it, it seems to 
 correspond with the recipes and descriptions of certain drinks 
 included by some of the ancients under the appellation wine." 
 The modern Italian wine known as vino cotto is boiled, and 
 has been found by chemical analysis not to contain a particle 
 of alcohol. "When drank it requires weakening with water.* 
 The Arabic dibs is the product of boiling grape juice, f Arch- 
 bishop Potter (A. D. 1674) says: "The Lacedaemonians used 
 to boil their wines upon the tire till the fifth part was con- 
 sumed ; then after four years were expired began to drink 
 them." He cites as authority for this statement Democritus, a 
 Greek philosopher, and Palladius, a Greek physician. Virgil 
 (" Georg." i, 295) pictures the housewife as 
 
 " dulcis musti vulcano decoquit humorem, 
 
 Et foliis undam tepidi despumat ahcni." 
 
 " She boils down by the fire the moisture of the sweet must, and 
 skims off with leaves the wavy froth of the simmering caldron." 
 A';UTO, Columella, and Pliny describe the boiled wines of the 
 Romans, and give them different names according to the extent 
 to which evaporation was carried; as, carenum, one third; de- 
 frutum, one half, (so Pliny; but Columella and Yarro say one 
 third ;) sapa, two thirds. These were distinguished by the 
 Greeks under the general names of tywa, yMfa, and oipatov. 
 Prof. Bumstead and Dr. Moore both dismiss them with the 
 general denial that they were "ever used or designated" as 
 " wines." As regards the latter point we shall see further on. 
 As regards the former, it is true Pliny says, (xiv, 9,) Omnia in 
 dihilterium mellis excogitata, " They were all contrived for the 
 adulteration of honey." But he does not say they were lim- 
 ited to that use. We know they were not. They were em- 
 ployed to give body to lighter and fermented wines, (Col. 
 xii, 39,) and they also "entered as ingredients into many 
 drinks." | It is probable that they were themselves simply 
 
 * Van Buren, "Gospel Temperance," p. 1"5, note, 
 f Van Lennep, " Bible Lands," p. 120. 
 j" Grecian Antiquities." Edinburgh, 1818, ii, 880. 
 Smith, " Greek and Roman Antiquities," art. " Vinum." | /bid. 
 
 3
 
 28 Omos : A Discussion of 
 
 diluted and drank like the Syrian nardenk, the Persian duschab* 
 the Italian vino cotto, and the French vin cuit. We know that 
 the practice of diluting wines was universal in ancient times. 
 Eome had a public establishment for this purpose, known as the 
 Thermopolium. It furnished its patrons hot water and cold ; 
 the hot, according to Sir Edward Barry,f to dissolve their more 
 inspissated and old wines. This process was made necessary, 
 not only by the strength, but quite as much by the sweetness 
 and consistency of the wines. This is the key, we think, to 
 the interpretation of the oft-quoted passage from the " Odys- 
 sey," (ix, 196 f.,) concerning the wine which the priest, Maron, 
 gave to Ulysses. Prof. Bumstead says,^: "It was so strong that, 
 a single cup was mingled with twenty of water." Homer says 
 nothing of the sort. He calls the wine (1. 205) tfdvv, drcpdaiov, 
 deiov TTOTOV, " a sweet, unadulterated, divine drink ; " (1. 346,) 
 pi/laf olvo$, "black wine; " (1. 360,) aldo-xa olvov, "dark wine." 
 And he says of Polyphemus, to whom Ulysses offered it, 
 (1. 208 :) 
 
 Tov (5' ore -rdvoiev fieTcritdia olvov Ipvdpov, 
 "Ev cJeTraf /i?r/lj7<Taf, vJarof uvd dicoai pirpa 
 Xcti'. 
 
 " But when he drank this honey- sweet, red wine, filling tip one 
 cup, he poured in it up to twenty measures of water." There 
 is not a word here or elsewhere about its strength, but every 
 one of the adjectives employed indicates just such excessive 
 sweetness, thick consistency, and dark color as would be pro- 
 duced by heat. The celebrated Opimian wine, which Pliny 
 tells us (xiv, 4) had in his day, two centuries after it was made, 
 the consistency of honey, may have been an inspissated article. 
 Such, very likely, was the Tseniotic wine of Egypt, which Ath- 
 enaeus, in his " Banquet," (i, 25,) tells us had such a degree of 
 richness (Anrapov) that " it is dissolved little by little when it 
 is mixed with water, just as the Attic honey is dissolved by 
 the same process." A further fact in this connection calls for 
 
 " The Persians sometimes boil the duschab (a syrup of sweet wine or must) so 
 long that they reduce it to a paste for the convenience of travelers, who lay in a 
 stock of it for the journey, cutting it with a knife, and diluting it with water to 
 serve as a drink." " Travels in Muscovy, Tartary, and Persia," by Adam Olearius, 
 Embassador for Holstein, by Wicquefort, lib. v, 802. 
 
 f "Observations on the Wines of the Ancients," London, 1775, p. 165. 
 
 J " Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1881, p. 62.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 29 
 
 notice. As grape juice boils at 212 deg. Fahr., and alcohol 
 evaporates at 172 deg. Fahr., it is evident that, if there were 
 any in the liquid, boiling would expel it. 
 
 c. Fermentation may also be prevented by the exclusion of 
 the air from the grape juice. The researches of Pasteur and 
 Ilallier * have established the fact that the spores or germs of 
 the yeast plant are introduced by the action of ordinary air 
 into the fermentable fluid. So that if the grape juice be in- 
 closed in some air-tight receptacle fermentation will not occur. 
 The ancients were acquainted with this fact, if they did not 
 understand its theory. It was their custom to take the earth- 
 en amphora, Greek Kepo//of, carefully line it with pitch, and 
 having filled it with the fresh juice, seal it and then sink it iu 
 water or bury it in the earth. In this way it was preserved 
 from the access and action of the atmosphere. We find directions 
 for this process in Cato, (" De Re Rustica," 120,) Columella, 
 (xii, 39,) Pliny, (xiv, 9,) Plutarch, (Q. K, 2G) and the " Gcopo- 
 nica," (vi, 16.) Columella introduces his directions as follows : 
 Mustum ut semper dulce tanquam recens permaneat sic facito, 
 " That your must may be always sweet as when it is new, thus 
 proceed." He closes by saying, Sic usque in annum dulce 
 permanent, " It will thus remain sweet for a whole year." 
 Dr. Moore is at some pains to point out f that this remark in- 
 dicates the sense in which semper is to be understood, both in 
 this passage and the one soon to be quoted from Pliny, and in- 
 timates that must could be preserved in this way only for a 
 year. If it were so, that would be all that was required. 
 Each vintage would yield a fresh supply. But it is not so. 
 The method that would preserve it one year would keep it ten, 
 twenty, or any number of years. 
 
 This process is so closely connected with another, as indicated 
 by the passages to which we have referred, that we will turn to 
 it without further illustration of the one under consideration. 
 
 d. Fermentation may be prevented by keeping the jrrapc 
 juice at a temperature below 40 deg. Fahr. Fermentation is 
 possible only at a temperature between this and 86 deg. Fahr. 
 Above the latter point the acetous surplants the vinous process ; 
 below the former point the ferment is inoperative. Any thing, 
 
 Applcton's "American Cyclopaedia," art. "Fermentation." 
 f " Presbyterian Review," Jan., 1881, p. 104.
 
 30 Omos : A Discussion of 
 
 therefore, that reduces the temperature to 40 deg. or below 
 will keep the liquid fresh and sweet. Pliny, in speaking of 
 the Greek, del ytevKog, Latin, semper mustum, says, (xiv, 9,) 
 Mergunt e lacu protinus in aqua cados, donee bruma transeat, 
 et consuetndo fiat algendi, " Immediately after the casks have 
 been filled from the vat they sink them in water, until the 
 winter solstice is past, and the habit of being cold is created." 
 Thus, by a combination of the two last-mentioned methods, the 
 exclusion of the air and the reduction of the temperature, fer- 
 mentation is prevented and the grape juice kept fresh. 
 
 e. It remains to speak of one other method of preventing 
 fermentation, namely, by sulphur fumigation. This absorbs 
 the oxygen of the air and arrests the action of the nitrogenous 
 element in the gluten. The process is employed by wine 
 growers in Europe at the present day in preserving unfer- 
 mented wine.* It is well-known that the ancients used sul 
 phur, pumice-stone, the yelk of 'eggs, and other substances con- 
 taining sulphur, in the preparation of their vines. Pliny in a 
 chapter (xiv, 20) devoted to recipes for preserving wine in 
 primo fervore, "in the first stages of ferment," says : Catofa- 
 cit et sulpuris mentionem, " Cato also makes mention of sul- 
 phur." Horace doubtless alludes to this practice, (Car. iii, 8 :) 
 
 " Hie dies, anno redeunte, festus, 
 Corticem adstrictum pice dimovebit, 
 Amphorae fumum bibere institute. 
 Consule Tullo." 
 
 " This day, sacred in the revolving year, shall remove the cork 
 fastened with pitch from the amphora which was set to fu- 
 migate in the consulship of Tullius." The next stanza informs 
 us that this fumigated wine might be drank to the extent of a 
 hundred cups without exciting passion or clamor. " When the 
 Mishna forbids smoked wines from being used in offerings, 
 (Manachoth, viii, 6, et comment,} it has chiefly reference to the 
 Koman practice of fumigating them with sulphur, the vapor 
 of which absorbed the oxygen of the air and thus arrested the 
 fermentation." f 
 
 (5.) We have thus far been considering the thing itself with- 
 out much regard' to the name by which it was called. We 
 
 * Kerr, " Unfermented Wine a Fact," p. 21. 
 
 f Kitto, " Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature," art. " Wine."
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 31 
 
 have seen that there was and is such a beverage as the unfer- 
 mented juice of the grape, that it was used as freshly ex- 
 pressed and when carefully preserved. That it was a com- 
 mon drink is amply attested by the frequent references to it 
 in the writings of almost every ancient author, among both 
 the Greeks and the Romans, in all ages of their histoiy, from 
 the earliest to the latest. It is mentioned not only by special- 
 ists, but by writers on general topics, historians, dramatists, 
 moralists, and poets. The inference is natural that it was 
 every-where recognized and used as a beverage. But the 
 claim is get up that the unfermented juice of the grape 
 was never known as wine. How that may be in the case of 
 the Hebrews is reserved for separate consideration. What- 
 ever was the classical usage we propose now to ascertain. The 
 position taken is, that wine meant always the fermented juioe 
 of the grape. But the fallacy of such a proposition appeal's 
 from these facts : 
 
 a. The fermented juice of the grape was not always called 
 wine. Pliny, in referring to the Roman custom of forbidding 
 the use of intoxicating wine to women, says (xiv, 13) in Cato's 
 day kinsmen kissed the women when they met them to see if 
 their breath smelled of temetum and adds, Hoc turn nomen 
 vino erat, "At that time this was the name for wine." Like 
 this is the change in modern Greek by which wine is called 
 Kpaai, literally, the mixed, instead of the more classical olvog. 
 
 b. The term " wine" is used without any reference whatever 
 to the grape. Herodotus calls beer made from barley (ii, 77) 
 olvos icpideuv, and palm toddy (ii, 86) oh>o? </>omK7?iof. Xeno- 
 phon also speaks of oZvoc (/XHV/KWV, (Anab., ii, 3, 14,) and Dios- 
 corides (Mat. Med., v, 40,) mentions (fxtiviKiTT)? otvof. Herod- 
 otus (iv, 177) calls a drink made from the lotus plant ou-oc. 
 Pliny says, (xiii, 5 :) E myxis in JEgyptoet vinajiunt, " Wines 
 also were made from figs in Egypt." 
 
 c. "Wine did not always mean the juice of the grape. The 
 Greek otrof, (ancient, Fotrof ,) Latin, vin-um, (ancient, vain-am,) 
 Gothic, vein, Armenian, gin-i, (for ywin-i,) German, wein, and 
 English, wine, according to the best etymologists,* are either 
 derived from or have a common origin with the Hebrew \""_ 
 
 'Relations of the Aryan and Semitic Languages, "Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 
 1881, p. 142 ; Furst, " Lexicon," tub |~ ; Kenan, " Lang. Sem.," i, 207.
 
 32 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 uayin. This terra, as we shall soon see, is used in at least two 
 instances for the grape itself. The cognate Arabic term for 
 wine means literally, " dark-colored grapes," and the Ethiopian 
 term, " a vineyard." Similarly we find that the most ancient 
 name for the vine among the Greeks was olvr), (Hesiod, Op. 572,*) 
 and even after the introduction of a^nreXoq it retained its place, 
 for example, in Euripides. Josephus enumerates (Bel. Jud. vii, 
 8, 4) among the stores in the fortress of Massada, corn, (O~ITO<; ,) 
 wine, (ofvo^,) oil, (eAatov,) pulse and dates. He calls them roOf 
 wp-rrovg, and by the terms wine and oil undoubtedly designates 
 grapes and olives. We find the Latin vinum used for grapes, 
 (vinum pendens, Cato, 147,) and for the vine, (locus optimua 
 vino, Yarro, i, 25.) 
 
 d. Wine did not always mean the fermented juice of the 
 grape. The Greek writers frequently apply olvog to the juice 
 of the grape before fermentation was possible. JEschylus 
 (Agam. 939, 940) describes Zeus as creating olvov within the 
 green grape, an' o^aKo^. Anacreon (Ode 48) speaks of rov olvov 
 TTB7rr]dr^tKvov dnupaig ini aA^juarwv, " the wine imprisoned in the 
 fruit on the stems." Nicander of Colophon says,f derrdeaoiv 
 Oivevs d' KV Koikoimv aTrod^ttpa^ olvov KK^rjae, "And ^Eneas having 
 squeezed (the juice) into hollow cups called it wine." Proclus, 
 (A. D. 412,) who annotated the "Works and Days" of Hesiod, 
 in his comment on line 611, explains the process of treading 
 the grapes and "treading out the wine," t/efl/U/Sovref rov olvov. 
 
 e. The unintoxicating and unfermented juice of the grape 
 was called wine. The beverages which Aristotle and Pliny said 
 do not intoxicate were respectively designated as olvog (" Mete- 
 orologica," iv, 9) and vinum (" Natural History," xiv, 2.) TAev- 
 Kof and mustum were wine and were so named. Aristotle, speak- 
 ing in the terms of the most exact science of his age, says, (" Me- 
 teorologica," iv, 7 :) olvog yap ru; KCU trijyvvTcu nai tyerai, olov TO 
 yAeC/cof, " For some wine, such as gleukos, is both congealed and 
 evaporated." This is decisive of the fact that gleukos was 
 wine, and was recognized scientifically as such. Cato, in giv- 
 ing instructions for making hellebore wine, says, (" De Re Rus- 
 tica," 115 :) In vinum mustum veratri atri manipulum con- 
 jicito in amphoram, " Throw a handful of black hellebore into 
 muat wine in an amphora." This settles the significance of 
 
 * Vide Athenseus, " Banquet," i, 1. f Ibid, ii, 1.
 
 The Bitte Wine Question. 33 
 
 mustum. It first appears in the age of Cato (200 B. C.) as an 
 adjective signify ing "fresh," "new," "sweet," or "young," and 
 is applied to agna, ewe lamb, (Cato, ap. Prise., 711,) and to ma- 
 la, apples, (Cato, " De Re liustica," 73,) as well as to vinum. 
 But in the latter case it became so identified with its noun that 
 the latter was gradually dropped or absorbed, and the adjective 
 became substantive in use and force. Mustum, therefore, al- 
 ways implies vinum, and means unfennented wine.* This is 
 the explanation of other forms, such as defrutum, equivalent 
 to defrutum vinum, boiled wine ; possum, equivalent to pos- 
 sum vinum, raisin wine ; and so mulsum vinum, honey wine ; 
 protropum vinum, untrodden wine, etc., etc. This is so 
 plain a truth that any one acquainted with the usages of 
 the language will immediately recognize it. The lexicons 
 (for example, Harper's "Latin Dictionary," 1880,) corrobo- 
 rate the statement by supplying vinum after each of these 
 forms. To say that they were not wines, simply because in 
 common usage vinum was omitted, is illogical and ab- 
 surd. On exactly the same grounds one might deny that 
 claret (French, clairet, dim.' of clair, clear) is wine, or that 
 hock and sherry are. The usage in both cases is precisely 
 similar. In Greek, likewise, yAevKoc. yAv&f, np66po[Mo<;, e^pa, 
 aipatov K. r. A., were originally adjectives used with otvof, but 
 having incorporated into themselves the signification of the 
 noun, they were generally used substantively. Yet occasion- 
 ally we find the noun expressed, as in Hippocrates, olvo$ 
 oipawv. We think this a sufficient answer to Professor Bum- 
 stead, who " has yet to learn that the name olvo$ or vinum was 
 ever applied to any of these products, (eijnjfia, yAv|>f, carenum, 
 defrutum, and sapa,) unless, perhaps, by some figure of 
 speech." f By the side of Professor Ramsey's assertion that 
 these were " grape jellies and nothing else," we place the tes- 
 timony of Parkinson, who calls them vino, and that of Dr. 
 Richardson, \ who classes them among " wines." 
 
 * Varro (i, 18) expressly ranks miurfitm as vinm*, Serpf, /6 ennditum riorum 
 vinum. orcte in Hispania a fervore muxii r*ptte, " Often when new trine is put up, 
 the casks in Spain are burst by the fermenting of the m***." 
 
 f " Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1881, p. 63. 
 
 j Smith's "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities," art. "Vinum." 
 
 " Theatrum Botanicum," 1640, p. 1S57. 
 
 | " Cantor Lectures," p. 22.
 
 34: Oi/nos: A Discussion of 
 
 From the fact that Pliny (xiv, 9) speaks of certain dulcia, 
 among which defrutum, carenum, etc., are enumerated, it has 
 been claimed that they were something distinct from vina. 
 This classification includes mustum, passum, protropum, mul- 
 sum, etc., and would indicate that all, if any, were not wines. 
 But it is by no means an exclusive category. It does not fol- 
 low, because an article is ranked among the dulcia, that it does 
 not also belong among the vina. Dulcia is an adjective with 
 substantive force, and the word, in this instance, to be under- 
 stood is vina. The chapter (9) which treats of these dulcia 
 opens with a statement concerning vinum omne dulce, and the 
 whole book (xiv) is devoted to the consideration of vina as the 
 next book (xv) is of olea, duo liquor es humanis corporibus 
 gratissimi, (xiv, 22 :) " The two liquors most grateful to the 
 human body." Pliny confirms this interpretation when, after 
 quoting several authorities concerning a certain wine called 
 Myrrhina, he says, (xiv, 14,) Quibus apparet non inter vina 
 modo murrinam, sed inter dulcia quoque nominatum, " From 
 which it is evident that Myrrhina was classed, not only among 
 wines, but also among sweets," or sweet wines. 
 
 Further evidence of the fact that the unfermented juice of 
 the grape was called wine will appear in our examination of 
 the Scripture terms for wine to which we now turn. 
 
 2. The Recognition of Unfermented Wine in the Scriptures. 
 
 Our inquiry in this direction will embrace the Scriptures of 
 both the Old and the New Testaments. It is necessary to in- 
 clude the former as well as the latter, since the Old Testa- 
 ment was the only written law of the Church of God until 
 after Pentecost ; it was constantly quoted and referred to by 
 Christ, who declared that he came not to destroy but to fulfill 
 it, and it is, therefore, our principal key to the interpretation of 
 the New Testament. Both Testaments discriminate between 
 fermented wine, which is stimulant and intoxicating, and un- 
 fermented wine, which is nutritious and unintoxicating. They 
 do this in two ways. 
 
 (1.) By the terms in which they speak of wine. In one class 
 of passages it is commended and in another class it is con- 
 demned ; in each case in the strongest and most unmistakable 
 language. It is described as a blessing (Psa. civ, 15, etc.) and 
 as a curse, (Prov. xx, 1, etc.) It is allowed (Deut. xiv, 26, etc.)
 
 The BUle Wine Question. 35 
 
 and it is interdicted, (Prov. xxiii, 31, etc.) It is made a sym- 
 bol of spiritual blessings, (Isa. Iv, 1, etc.) and an emblem of 
 divine wrath, (Psa. Ixxv, 8.) The natural inference is, that two 
 different substances are designated by these totally diverse char- 
 acterizations. Says Professor Stuart,* "I cannot refuse to 
 take this position without virtually impeaching the Scriptures 
 of contradiction or inconsistency." But an attempt is made to 
 meet this argument by the citation of other things which, it is 
 claimed, are spoken of in the Scriptures in like contradictory 
 terms. Prof. Bumstead instances rain,f "as a blessing given 
 alike to the just and the unjust," and "as a curse sent to de- 
 stroy the inhabitants of the earth in a flood." Dr. Moore, with 
 iconoclastic fury, piles example upon example in order " to 
 demolish utterly a specious fallacy by which multitudes have 
 been deceived." \ He cites the tongue which St. James calls 
 " a fire, a world of iniquity," etc., but which is, nevertheless, 
 " an organ of unspeakable benefit to man ; " wealth, which 
 may be either " a blessing or a snare ; " knowledge, which St. 
 Paul says " puffeth up," but which is " elsewhere described in 
 the Scriptures as an excellent thing ; " marriage, which the 
 same apostle both approves (1 Tim. iv, 3) and disapproves, 
 (1 Cor. vii, 1 ;) God, who is " love " and " a consuming fire ; " 
 Christ, who is both a Saviour and a " stone of stumbling ; " the 
 lion, who is an emblem of Christ and of the devil ; leaven, unto 
 which the kingdom of heaven is likened, and of which, as the 
 symbol of Pharisaic doctrine, men are bidden to beware ; and 
 the four cups of Passover, which the Talmud expressly de- 
 clares symbolize both blessings and curses. And then both 
 authors ask if we are to infer in these cases that there are two 
 kinds of rain, tongues, knowledge, etc., or that the distinction 
 lies in the uses of the several objects. As regards the rain, 
 the tongue, the lion, the leaven, and the Passover cups, it is 
 apparent on the surface that they are used in a purely figura- 
 tive sense, and that in no instance is the object itself intended 
 to be described as intrinsically good or bad. It is not the 
 tongue, for example, that is meant, but the evil disposition 
 which it symbolizes and which would remain were the phys 
 
 " Letter to Dr. Nott," p. 49. 
 
 f " Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1881, p. 65. 
 
 \ "Presbyterian Review," Jan., 1881, p. 83.
 
 36 Omos: A Discussion of 
 
 ical member literally cut out. As regards the other examples, 
 it is not denied that the best gifts may be abused, and that 
 even so excellent a thing as knowledge may become " an occa- 
 sion of pride." But an isolated instance of warning against 
 the misuse of a good thing furnishes no proper parallel to the 
 scores of warnings against the use of wine,* which is distinctly 
 declared a bad thing.f This remark applies to marriage, 
 which is every-where commended in the Scriptures, save in 
 this special instance, where, under exceptional circumstances, 
 it is suggested as inexpedient. The Bible nowhere condemns 
 wealth or warns against it, but against the inordinate desire for 
 it. When Dr. Moore refers to 1 Tim. vi, 9, 10, in support of 
 his statement ^ that " some people, to be consistent, should put 
 away wealth as an accursed thing," he forgets that those pas- 
 sages say nothing concerning wealth or money, but the love of 
 it. The references to God and Christ, and their twofold atti- 
 tudes toward sin and the persistent sinner, on the one hand, 
 and toward the repentant believer on the other, are in no sense 
 pertinent to the case in hand. 
 
 But the ample vindication of our interpretation of these two 
 classes of passages concerning wine lies in two considerations. 
 
 a. First. There are two kinds of wine. We believe this has 
 
 *Such, in particular, as Prov. xxiii, 31. Prof. Bumstead (" Bibliotheca Sacra," 
 Jan., 1881, p. 87) calls it " an intense literalism " to make this " mean an entire pro- 
 hibition of wine." He says it is "the gloating look of the wine-bibber against 
 which the warning is directed." But this is a strained interpretation which noth- 
 ing in the simple verb n&O, to see, warrants. That the sense may be " look not 
 with desire " is possible. But the prohibition is one that ranks in comprehensive- 
 ness with the New Testament precept forbidding so much as the lustful look, 
 (Matt, v, 28.) Dr. Moore, who admits that it is a warning " against looking " at 
 "this dangerous wine," (" Presbyterian Review," Jan., 1881, p. 96,) limits its ap- 
 plication to the persons specially addressed, who, he says, are those addicted to 
 its intemperate use; but that is contrary to the terms and spirit of the passage. 
 The prohibition is based, not upon the habits of the person addressed, but upon 
 the dangerous properties of the wine described. Dr. Moore, stating that the pas- 
 sage has a construction similar to Gen. i, 4, " See not wine that it is red," absurdly 
 suggests that it means "Don't put your eyes on these tempting qualities," as though 
 every thing would be all right, drunkenness and all, provided the victim did not 
 fix his gloating eyes on its intoxicating properties. The construction of the par- 
 ticle '3, however, is not simply conjunctive, as in Gen. i, 4, but temporal, as in 
 A. V. here, and with an implied causal force, as in Gen. ii, 8, " Look not because:' 1 
 
 tFor example, Prov. xx, 1, "Wine is a mocker." Heb., vfj, LXX, uKo 
 Eph. v, 18, "Wine wherein is excess." 
 
 $ "Presbyterian Review," Jan., 1881, p. 82.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 37 
 
 been sufficiently proved, but the argument will he re-enforced 
 by evidence soon to be submitted. Just at this point, how- 
 ever, it is important to emphasize the fact that these two kinds 
 are totally distinct in their constituents and characteristics. 
 This is clearly set forth in the following comparative tables : * 
 
 Unfermented wine is composed of Fermented wine is composed of 
 
 1. Gluten. 1. Alcohol. 
 
 2. Sugar. 2. (Enanthic Add. 
 
 3. Gum. 8. (Enanthic Ether. 
 
 4. Various odorous matters. 4. Essential or Volatile OiU. 
 8. Malic Acid. 5. Acetic Acid. 
 
 6. Citric Acid. 6. Sulphate of Potash. 
 
 1. Phosphorus and 7. Bouquet or Aroma. 
 
 8. Sulphur in combination. 8. Chlorides of Potassium and Sodium. 
 
 9. Bitartrate of Potash. 9. Tannin and Coloring Matter. 
 
 10. Tartrate of Lime. 10. Undecomposed Sugar, gum, etc., in 
 
 11. Water, etc. small quantities. 
 
 The first six elements in the second table are entirely- new 
 compounds, and there is no more chemical identity between 
 the two substances than between barley and beer. 
 
 i. Second. The two classes of passages, the one commenda- 
 tory, the other condemnatory, could not be indiscriminately 
 applied to the two substances. Unfermented wine would not 
 be interdicted, since it is a perfectly natural, nutritious, and 
 healthful beverage. It could not legitimately be made the 
 symbol of wrath and destruction, any more than the bread and 
 oil with which it is often joined. It would be the proper 
 emblem of mercy and salvation, as bread and oil are, (for exam- 
 ple, Psa. civ, 15,) and as it is itself, especially in the sacrament 
 of the Lord's Supper. On the other hand, the fermented wine 
 could not properly be commended for use or employed as the 
 symbol of blessing and life. We have already seen, by the 
 testimony of the latest and best science, that alcohol in any 
 form or quantity is alien and harmful to the healthy system. 
 It is the product of corruption, and is pronounced a poison 
 both by Scripture and science. Orfilla, Taylor, Christison, the 
 American, United States, French, and English dispensatonV-. 
 and all the best authorities on toxicology, class it with arseniV, 
 corrosive sublimate, and prussic acid. The Scriptures descril>c 
 it as a poison. Such is the signification of the Hebrew term 
 
 Dr. Leea' " Text-Book of Temperance," p. 44.
 
 38 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 n en, chemah. This is the word the psalmist uses when he says, 
 (Psa. cxl, 3,) " Adder's poison is under their lips." This ex- 
 plains the figure in Prov. xxiii, 32 : "At the last ... it sting- 
 eth like an adder." So we read, " Their wine is the poison 
 (chew ah] of dragons," Deut. xxxii, 33. " Take the wine cup of 
 this fury ; " literally, take the cup of the wine which is poison, 
 (chemahj) Jer. xxv, 15. " The princes have made him sick with 
 bottles " (literally, poison, chemah} " of wine," llosea vii, 5. 
 " Woe unto him that giveth his neighbor drink, that puttest 
 thy bottle" (literally, poison, chemah) "to him," Hab. ii, 15. 
 It is incredible that such a substance, which Scripture and 
 science unite in describing as poison, a fermented and alcoholic 
 wine, should in any instance have been the wine which the sa- 
 cred writers mention in terms of commendation and sanction. 
 But the Scriptures distinguish between these two wines, 
 (2.) By the words which they employ to designate them. 
 They discriminate and describe them with an accuracy and 
 affluence of terms which is remarkable when we remember 
 that the Hebrew is comparatively a meager language. In this 
 case our own ordinarily copious tongue suffers in the compar- 
 ison. For in our English version of the Old Testament the 
 word wine, either alone or in combination with some other 
 word, is used to express no less than eleven different things, 
 which are designated in the Hebrew by as many different 
 terms. How successfully this is done will appear upon an 
 examination of the original words, on which we now enter. 
 
 i. f", Yayin. 
 
 This is the first and most frequently used word for wine in 
 the Old Testament. It appears in the earliest and in the latest 
 history, from the time otf Noah (Gen. ix, 21) to that of Nehe- 
 miah, (Neh. xiii, 15.) Gesenius derives it from an obsolete 
 root, p'-, yon, " which," he says, " probably signified to boil up, 
 to be in a ferment ; " and defines it, " wine, so called from its 
 fermenting, effervescing." But this imports into a primitive 
 term a later and scientific idea, while " new terms, when first 
 imposed, are always expressive of some simple and obvious 
 appearance, never of latent properties or scientific relations." * 
 Fermentation is not the first, the simplest, or the most obvious 
 * Dr. Lees, in " Temperance Bible Commentary," p. xxv.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 39 
 
 characteristic of grape juice. " Vegetable juices, in general/' 
 says Liebig,* "become turbid when in contact with the air 
 before fermentation commences." This characteristic must 
 have been the first to attract attention, and would most natu- 
 rally have suggested the name. The primitive signification of 
 yayin was, doubtless, simply "foaming," "spuming," "bub- 
 bling," as Dindorf suggests and illustrates by reference to the 
 kindred Arabic. It would be very naturally and appropriately 
 applied to the grape juice as it rushed foaming into the wine- 
 vat. Moses Stuart says : f " The simple idea of grape juice, or 
 vine liquor, is the basis and essence of the word in whatever 
 connection it may stand." And Tayler Lewis says : % " Yayin 
 and oinos simply meant the liquid that comes from pressing 
 the grape. There is no evidence of any further idea associated 
 with it. It was not fermenting fluid, but grape juice" By 
 a natural extension of meaning it would gradually come to 
 designate wine in all its subsequent stages, and would even be 
 applied retrospectively to the wine still confined in the cluster. 
 That yayin was a generic term, including every kind of wine, 
 new or old, fermented or unfermented, intoxicating or unintox- 
 icating, is established by such facts as the following : 
 
 a. It is constantly used, occurring oftener than all the other 
 terms for wine combined, in all one hundred and forty-one 
 times. 
 
 J. It is employed by Nehemiah (v, 18) in the phrase r-So, 
 
 Jcal-yayin, LXX iv ndoiv olvo$, Yulg. vina diversa, A. Y. " all 
 sorts of wine." 
 
 c. It was applied to every species of fermented grape juice, 
 (e.g., Prov. xxiii, 31, where the characteristics of fermentation 
 are distinctly specified.) Concerning this point there is no 
 controversy. But in less than one half of the one hundred 
 and forty-one texts in which yayin occurs can it be shown that 
 the term is applied to a fermented article. In many of the 
 other passages the contrary fact is plainly indicate 1. 
 
 d. It is used for the grape in Num. vi, 4, and in Judges xiii, 
 14, (lit. the wine-vine.) 
 
 e. It is spoken of as "gathered," Deut. xxviii, 39; Jer. xl, 
 10, 11. 
 
 * " Chemistry of Agriculture," fourth edition, p. 327. 
 
 f " Letter to Dr. Nott," p. 11. $ "The Advance," Dec. 24, 1874.
 
 40 Omos : A Discussion of 
 
 f. It is coupled with chalab, which signifies fresh milk in 
 distinction from chemah, curdled milk, Isa. Iv, 1 ; Cant, v, 1. 
 
 g. It is connected with dagan, corn, Lam. ii, 12. 
 
 h. It is associated directly with the wine press, Isa. xvi, 10 ; 
 Jer. xlviii, 33. 
 
 i. It is used synonymously with da-m-anabim, " blood of the 
 grapes," Gen. xlix, 11. 
 
 j. It is mentioned with approbation, Psa. civ, 15, etc. 
 
 L It is commanded to be offered in sacrifice, (Exod. xxix, 
 40 ; Num. xv, 5, 7, 10, etc.,) while all fermented things were 
 excluded from the offerings.* 
 
 These considerations must lead the candid mind to the con- 
 clusion that yayin is a generic term, and includes the fresh 
 and unfermented as well as the fermented and intoxicating 
 juice of the grape. 
 
 ii. pirn, Tirosh. 
 
 This word occurs thirty-eight times, first in Gen. xxvii, 28. It 
 is translated (A. Y.) "wine" twenty-six times, "new wine" eleven 
 times, and "sweet wine" once. More controversy has been 
 waged over this term than over all the other words for wine 
 combined. It is asserted that it always designates a fermented 
 wine.f It is claimed that it always signifies an unfermented 
 wine4 It is affirmed that it " denotes wine in the process of 
 growth and manufacture," including " the solid fruit, the un- 
 fermented juice, or the fermented product of that fruit and 
 juice." It is denied that it means " wine at all, but the fruit of 
 the vineyard in its natural condition."! Equally diverse have 
 been the explanations of its etymology. There is a very general 
 agreement as to its derivation from the verb uh-, yarash^ to 
 seize, or dispossess, hence to possess. Gesenius says it is ap- 
 plied to wine " because it gets possession of the brain," than 
 which nothing could be more arbitrary or absurd. Fiirst says 
 it signifies " what is got from the grapes." Bythner says^f it is 
 
 * Vide Discussion of Lord's Supper, infra. 
 
 f Dr. Robinson, " Lex. of the N. T ; " Dr, William Smith, " Bible Dictionary ;" 
 Dr. Moore, " Presbyterian Review," Jan., 1881, p. 110. 
 t G. W. Samson, " The Divine Law as to Wines," p. 70, f. 
 gProf. Bumstead, "Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1881, p. 67-69. 
 1 Dr. Lees, " Temperance Bible Commentary," p. 28. 
 T " Lyra Prophetica."
 
 The BiJOe Wine Question. 41 
 
 used of " the vine as a possession in the eyes of the Hebrews." 
 Dr. Samson, deriving it from the Iliphil conjugation of the 
 verb, as something causing possession or dispossession, makes 
 it refer to the laxative effect of the fresh grape juice. The 
 theory is an ingenious one, but can hardly stand the test of ap- 
 plication. A careful and critical examination of this term in 
 all the passages where it is used has compelled the conclusion 
 that the view of Dr. Lees is the more nearly correct, and the 
 etymology of Bythner the most probable. Tirosh seems to 
 have been the word used for the vine-fruit in its natural, solid 
 state, and with special reference to its being the source and 
 material of wine. But in no instance does it appear to have 
 denoted the liquid product of the grape. Our interpretation 
 of tirosh is sustained by the manner in which the Hebrew 
 writers use the term. 
 
 a. It is never found associated with orh,lechem, bread, or with 
 
 V Y 
 
 JDP, shemen, oil. In thirty instances it is mentioned in con- 
 nection with pi, dagan, " corn," namely, grain, which in no case 
 signifies an artificial preparation as bread.* In twenty-one in- 
 stances it occurs in connection with nnr, yitzhar, which is ren- 
 
 T I 
 
 dered "oil," (Gesenius and A.V.,) but which "is derived, as 
 Dindorf, Gesenius, and others admit, from a root signifying to 
 ' shine,' * glisten,' like the Spanish term azahar, l orange flower,' 
 and the Latin aurantium for the shining orange class of fruits," 
 and probably denotes the olive, which " also shines and glis- 
 tens in the sun," and other orchard fruit. Dr. Lees, from 
 whom we have just quoted, well says : f " These three terms 
 constitute a beautiful triad of natural blessings, (1) oorw-fruit, 
 (2) vine-fruit, (3) orchard-fruit, or, in other words, the produce 
 of field, vineyard, and orchard." These three terms are men- 
 tioned together nineteen times. Once tirosh is joined with P'T, 
 zayith, olives, (Micah vi, 14, 15,) and, as this passage is a strik- 
 ing proof of the correctness of our view of the term, we quote 
 it, arranging it in such a way as to bring into view the Hebrew 
 parallelism. 
 
 We do not consider Lam. ii, 12 an exception, (cf. Gesenius.) It makes the pict- 
 ure of the famine more vivid to regard even the raw materials for food as lacking. 
 Tins passage also illustrates the generic use of yayin, 
 
 f ' Temperance Bible Commentary," p. 29.
 
 42 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 Thou shalt eat, but not be satisfied, 
 
 And thou shalt take hold, but shalt not deliver ; 
 
 Thou shalt sow, but shalt not reap; 
 
 Thou shalt tread the zayith, but thou shalt not anoint thee with shemen ; 
 
 And tirosh, but shalt not drink yayin. 
 
 This makes it plain that tirosh was regarded as the natural 
 source of yayin, as olives were of oil. It also disproves Prof. 
 Bumstead's view that tirosh included wine in all stages from 
 " its germinant state in the vineyard " to the finished product 
 after fermentation. It is true he adduces it as " an unanswer- 
 able argument " in its favor, but it is no more such than it is a 
 proof that zayith meant shemen in any state, fresh or old, sweet 
 or rancid. There is no more evidence that tirosh ever denoted 
 wine than there is that dag an, with which it is so constantly 
 associated, ever denoted bread in any state, whether dough or 
 baked. There is nothing in the etymology or usage of tirosh 
 in any passage to sustain Prof. Bumstead's position. 
 
 Further facts indicative of the signification which we have 
 given to tirosh are these : 
 
 5. It is constantly connected with the mention of conditions 
 affecting natural growth, such as drought, (Isa. xxiv, 7 ; Joel i, 
 10,) and dew, Gen. xxvii, 28 ; Deut. xxxiii, 28. 
 
 c. It is every-where treated as a natural product. It is found 
 " in the cluster," (Isa. Ixv, 8 ;) " gathered," (Deut. xi, 14 ;) put 
 into " storehouses," (2 Chron. xxxii, 28 ;) " trodden," (Micah 
 vi, 15 ;) " bursts out from the press," (Prov. iii, 10 ;) and makes 
 the vats " overflow," Joel ii, 24. 
 
 d. It is tithed as a natural product of the soil, just as dagan 
 and yitzhar are. Deut. xii, 17, etc. 
 
 e. It is never spoken of as being poured out, put into cups, 
 or drunk, save in a single instance. Isa. Ixii, 8. But the in- 
 terpretation which is so fully supported by a careful induction 
 of every other text in which tirosh occurs is not to be set aside 
 on the strength of a single exceptional usage, which is easily 
 and naturally explained as a case of metonomy. There seems to 
 be no warrant for the assertion* that in Deut. xii, 17, and 
 xiv, 23, "the drinking of tirosh is intimated by the figure 
 called zeugma?' In both passages we find the triad, daqan, 
 
 * *-* 7 / t 
 
 *Prof. Bumstead, " Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1881, p. 67.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 43 
 
 yitzhar, and tirosh, all solids and all the proper objects of the 
 verb "73N, akal, to eat. 
 
 If our view of tirosh be the right one, then there is no need 
 of pausing to examine the single passage which has been ad- 
 duced in evidence of its intoxicating character : " Whoredom 
 and wine (yayin) and new wine (tirosh) take away the heart." 
 Hos. iv, 11. Prof. Bumstead is fortunately " quite ready to 
 abandon it." * But Dr. Moore still clings to the old interpreta- 
 tion.f " To take away the heart" in this text does not refer to 
 intoxication, but signifies, as Bishop Lowth says,:}: to " deprive 
 men of their judgment arid darken their understanding. So a 
 gift is said to ' destroy the heart.' Eccles. vii, 7. " The fact 
 that three distinct things are enumerated, indicates a difference. 
 There is no parallelism in the passage. Whoredom is not yayin, 
 and yayin is not tirosh. The first is undoubtedly used for illicit 
 worship or idolatry ; the second for sensual gratification ; and 
 tirosh i 'or worldly possessions. The three had drawn their 
 la-arts away from " God as the infinite Goodness and Fountain 
 of spiritual joy." The whole forms a striking fulfillment of 
 the dying prophecy of Moses, Deut. xxxii, 1416. We con- 
 clude, therefore, with reference to tirosh, that it does not sig- 
 nify wine in any sense or case, but the natural fruit of the 
 vineyard in its solid state and regarded as the basis of wine. 
 
 ni. "OP, Shechar. 
 
 This word occurs twenty-three times, first, in Lev. x, 9. It 
 is rendered " strong drink " (A.V.) in all instances save in 
 Num. xxviii, 7, where it is translated "strong wine," and in 
 Psa. Ixix, 12, where, instead of drinkers of shechar," the A.V. 
 reads simply " drunkards." As yayin is the generic term for 
 the liquid of tirosh, so shechar is the generic term for the liquor 
 of yitzhar or of any other fmit than the grape, such as dates, 
 pomegranates, etc. It is claimed that the intoxicating nature 
 of the beverage is established by " the unquestionable signifi- 
 cance of the word, as indicated by its derivation and use." | 
 
 * Prof. Bumstead, " Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1881, p. 69. 
 f "Presbyterian Review," Jan., 1881, p. 110, note. \ Com. in loco. 
 
 In Dcut. xiv, 26, ihtchar answers to the yiuhar of Terse 28, as yaym answers 
 to tiroxh in the same verse. 
 
 | Prof. Bumstead, " Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1881, p. 74. 
 4
 
 44 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 Gesenius' derivation from "OB, shachar, " to drink deeply, to 
 be drunken" is cited. But, as Gesenius admits, the verb is 
 used " not always of drunkenness ; but sometimes to drink to 
 the full." Gen. xliii, 34 ; Cant, v, 1. This is confirmed by 
 the LXX, which often renders shachar by f^vo^ai, the radical 
 signification of which is to drink to repletion. The LXX also, 
 and the Greek versions generally, render shechar by fj,e&vofj.a, 
 whose root, JUK$V, is cognate with the Sanskrit madhu, honey.* 
 So shechar is doubtless etymologically akin to the word for 
 sugar in all the Aryan and Semitic tongues. It probably de- 
 noted sweet juices of all kinds originally, but came at length, 
 in distinction from yayin, to be applied to the juices of other 
 fruits than grapes, and, like yayin, was used generically of both 
 fermented and unfermented drinks. The contrast between 
 "sweet" and "bitter" in Isa. xxiv, 9, (literally, " bitter shall be 
 the sweet drink shechar to them that drink it,") shows that 
 shechar was valued on account of its sweetness, a quality which 
 decreases in proportion to the amount of alcohol present. f 
 The facts that it was commanded to be consumed "before 
 the Lord," (Deut. xiv, 26,) and to be offered in sacrifice, 
 (Num. xxviii, 7,) indicate that it included unfermented forms 
 of fruit juice. The " asis of pomegranates," (Cant, viii, 2,) 
 which was an unfermented beverage, was a species of shechar. 
 It is further confirmatory of this view that to this day the 
 juice of the palm tree in an -unfermented state, when just fresh 
 from the tree, is a common and favorite beverage of the na- 
 tives of Arabia, and is called by a name whose root is the same 
 as that of shechar. ^ 
 
 iv. ijn, Chemer; iton, Chamar; man, Chamrd. 
 The first form occurs twice, (Deut. xxxii, 14, and Isaiah 
 xxvii, 2,) and once as a verb, Psa. Ixxv, 8. The other two forms 
 are Chaldaic, and occur six times, Ezra vi, 9 ; vii, 22 ; Dan. 
 v, 1, 2, 4, 23. It is from the verb -ton, chamar, to foam or be 
 agitated, as, for example, the sea, Psa. xlvi, 3. Like yayin, 
 it is descriptive of the foaming appearance of the newly-ex- 
 pressed grape juice, or of the same liquor in the process of 
 
 * Peile, " Introduction to Greek and Latin Etymology," p. 127. 
 f Kerr, "Unfermented Wine a Fact," p. 19. 
 | Macleod, " Peeps at the Far East," p. 27.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 45 
 
 fermentation. Mr. Be van, in Smith's "Bible Dictionary," 
 says : " It may equally well apply to the process of fermenta- 
 tion, or to the frothing of liquid freshly poured out, in which 
 latter case it might be used of an unfermented liquid." It 
 does not affect this testimony that the author elsewhere ex- 
 presses his dissent from the doctrine of an unfermented wine. 
 Like yayin, also, chemer was undoubtedly used as a generic 
 term, and was probably a poetical substitute for the former, 
 with which it was almost identical in meaning. It signifies a 
 fresh and unfermented beverage in Deut. xxxii, 14, " Thou 
 didst drink chewier, the blood of grapes," as the appositive 
 phrase proves. Prof. Bumstead thinks it would "require a 
 painfully prosaic turn of mind to understand ' the blood of the 
 grapes ' as meaning simple grape juice, especially when asso- 
 ciated with such a word as chemer has already been shown to 
 be." * But what has it been shown to be ? Certainly not the 
 designation exclusively of a fermented article. The etymology 
 supports no such view. The usage in this case, moreover, 
 which is the earliest on record, gives it no favor. " Blood of 
 grapes" cannot be fairly construed in any other sense than 
 that of "simple grape juice," as will hereafter appear. To 
 argue from a much later usage of this term, where the circum- 
 stances of the case were entirely different, that in this earlier 
 instance and primitive age it meant an intoxicating drink, is 
 illogical and absurd. Instead of chemer proving " the blood 
 of grapes " a fermented drink in this passage, " the blood of 
 grapes" proves that chemer was unfermented. And also, in 
 Isa. xxvii, 2, if the Hebrew text be genuine, it describes the 
 juice of the grape, not as " red," (A.V.,) but " as if already 
 foaming under the treader's feet." In Psa. Ixxv, 8, where it 
 is again rendered "red," (A.V.,) it doubtless signifies " foam- 
 ing." It also, in all probability, denoted a light effervescing 
 wine, like our modern bottled wines. It is doubtless used in 
 this sense in Daniel. 
 
 v. nurEnx, Ashishah. 
 
 This word occurs four times, first in 2 Sam. vi, 19, and in 
 in each case it is associated with some kind of drink. In C ant. 
 ii, 5, it is rendered simply "flagons;" in the other three in- 
 
 "Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1881, p. 65
 
 46 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 stances it is rendered " flagons of wine." It is conceded on all 
 hands to mean, not wine at all, but a cake of pressed raisins. 
 It denotes,, therefore, a solid arid not a liquid. 
 
 vi. iptt, Mesek ; }Dfa?a, Mimsak ; jrfc, Mezeg. 
 
 The first of these cognate forms occurs but once, (Psa. 
 Ixxv, 8,) and the third but once, (Cant, vii, 2,) and they are 
 each rendered (A.Y.) " mixture." The second form occurs 
 twice, (Prov. xxiii, 30, and Isa. Ixv, 11,) and in the first passage 
 is rendered " mixed wine," in the second " drink-offering." 
 These words occur in a verbal shape five times, Prov. ix, 2, 5 ; 
 Psa. cii, 9 ; Isa. v, 22 ; xix, 14. They signify wine compounded 
 with some other ingredient, but whether drugged or diluted is 
 not necessarily indicated. That the latter is sometimes the 
 case is evident from the use of the term in Prov. ix, 2, 5, 
 where the wine which Wisdom prepared was, doubtless, diluted 
 with water, and also in Isa. v, 22.* This is also indicated by the 
 fact that the LXX in these and other passages render the term 
 by Kpdvvv[u, which always denotes a weakening of wines by 
 dilution.! 
 
 vn. D'lfcB?, Shemarim. 
 
 This word, which is the plural of of Tatf, shemer, occurs five 
 times, first in Psa. Ixxv, 8. It is derived from the verb "ijajy, 
 
 - T 
 
 shamar, to preserve, and has the general signification of 
 " things preserved." Gesenius admits as much, but applies the 
 term in all cases to the dregs of wine, "so called, because 
 when wine is kept on the lees its strength and color are pre- 
 served" The explanation is far-fetched, and is not needed, at 
 least in the case of Isa. xxv, 6, where the term occurs twice, 
 and is rendered (A.Y.) " wines on the lees." It is difficult to 
 understand why wine (yayiri) should not have been expressed 
 if it is in any way intended or alluded to here. The literal 
 reading of the passage is " a feast of fat things, a feast of pre- 
 served things," and the natural inference is that the term an- 
 swers to our English "preserves." So the earlier translators 
 understood it. Coverdale (1535) rendered "sweet things," 
 and the Bishop's Bible (1568) and Cranmer, (1585,) " deli- 
 
 * Vide Gesenius, " Lexicon," sub Jfft. 
 
 f Vide Liddell and Scott, " Lexicon," in loco.
 
 The BiUe Wine Question. 47 
 
 cate things." In Psa. Ixxv, 8, where it is rendered (A. V.) 
 " dregs," it seems to denote not so much the faces of the wine 
 before being drawn off from the vat as the undissolved drugs 
 of the mixture. In the two other instances of its use, where 
 it is rendered (A.V.) "lees," the LXX suggests other readings 
 altogether : <?<#/, glory, in Jer. xlviii, 11, (LXX, xxxi, 11,) and 
 QvXdyiMTa, defenses, in Zeph. i, 12. In Isa. li, 17, 22, an en- 
 tirely different Hebrew word is used for " dregs." So shema- 
 rim may have no reference whatever to the lees of wine. If it 
 does in the two last mentioned passages, as it most surely does 
 not in the first mentioned, its use is so purely figurative as to 
 have no bearing on our present inquiry. 
 
 vin. D'D^, Asia. 
 
 This word occurs five times, first in Cant, viii, 2, where it is 
 used of the juice of the pomegranate. In Isa. xlix, 26, and 
 Amos ix, 13, it is rendered (A.V.) " sweet wine ; " in Joel i, 5, 
 and iii, 18, " new wine." It is derived from the verb DDjr, osos, 
 to tread, as all authorities agree. It denotes the newly ex- 
 pressed juice of the grape or other fruit. So the LXX, which 
 renders vd^a " juice " and y^vKaa^ov " sweetness," and the Vul- 
 gate, which renders mustum and dulcendo " sweetness," indi- 
 cate. The attempt is made* to prove that asis included an in- 
 toxicating liquor from its use in the passages Isa. xlix, 26, and 
 Joel i, 5. But in the former case, as Prof. Bumstead well 
 observes : f " The point of the comparison lies not in any in- 
 toxicating power of the asis, but in the manner in which the 
 asis is produced by the process of treading."^; In the second 
 passage the new wine is regarded as the source of the fer- 
 mented wine. The latter fails because the new wine is cut off, 
 and the new wine is cut off because the vineyards are destroyed 
 by the invasion of insects described in the preceding verse. 
 Prof. Bumstead's view of asis as " a poetical substitute for 
 tirosh " is negatived by the established character of tirosh as 
 always a solid and never a liquid, such as he claims it some- 
 times was. Cant, viii, 2, proves asis a liquid, and Joel iii, 18, 
 and Amos ix, 13, do not disprove it. " It would seem to re- 
 quire a painfully prosaic turn of mind to see" only a solid 
 
 * Gesenius, "Lexicon," in loco. \ "Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1881, p. 77. 
 
 $ Comp. Isa. Ixiii, 6, and Rev. xix, 15. " Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1881, p. 77.
 
 48 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 "product of the soil" in the asis which the mountains drop 
 down. The dull imagination may be assisted by a quotation 
 from Pallas, who says of the grapes of the Hungarian vintage : * 
 " In August they ripen, burst, and begin to evacuate their juice. 
 The shimoi contains a rich juice and bursts when ripe." Prof. 
 Bumstead attempts to make out an intoxicating character for 
 asis by reason of " its association with spiced, or mixed, wine" 
 in Cant, viii, 2, and " the pervading voluptuousness of Solo- 
 mon's imagery." He calls it, however, "an exceptional use 
 of the word." But the fact that two beverages are mentioned 
 in this passage implies a difference if not a contrast between 
 them ; and we should expect to find it in the unspiced and un- 
 intoxicating character of the second named. The LXX, which 
 renders it by vd^a, and the "Vulgate, which renders by mustum, 
 both support this view. "The pervading voluptuousness of 
 Solomon's imagery" is better satisfied by making asis the new 
 juice than by any other interpretation. Luxury always com- 
 mands the greatest variety, and in that age considered the 
 freshly expressed beverages among the choicest. We con- 
 clude, therefore, from the etymology and usage of asis, that it 
 always denotes a sweet and unfermented liquor. 
 
 ix. K3D, Sole. 
 
 This word occurs but three times. It is derived from the 
 verb X3D, sala, to drink to satiation, and probably denoted a rich 
 boiled wine, such as would speedily surfeit. It corresponded 
 to the Greek &/^ a , Latin sapa, to which it is doubtless ety- 
 mologically akin, and to the Italian and French sabe. In Isa. i, 
 22, the allusion to mixing with water favors the view of a boiled 
 wine. Hosea iv, 18, literally " sour is their sole," suggests 
 Columella's remark, (xii, 20,) "Defrutum is accustomed to grow 
 sour (solet acescere) however carefully prepared." In Kahum 
 i, 10, the sense may be, " soaking as with sole," though the LXX 
 has an entirely different reading here. There is no proof that 
 sole ever designated an intoxicating beverage. 
 
 x. &3)y, Analim. 
 
 This^word means, literally, '" grapes," but in one instance 
 (Hos. iii, 1) it is rendered (A. V.) " wine," under a mistaken 
 
 * Travels, (1793,) i, 314, quoted in "Temperance Bible Commentary," p. 27.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 49 
 
 notion of the meaning of ashishah, with which it is imme- 
 diately connected in the same passage. 
 
 xi. 2p', Yeqeb. 
 
 This word means, literally, wine-press or vat, but it is ren- 
 dered (A. V.) "wine" once, Dent, xvi, 13. The phrase should 
 read, " In thy gathering from thy floor and from thy press." 
 
 This completes the list of Hebrew words translated in our 
 English Version by " wine " or by any phrase containing the 
 word. There remain, however, five other terms signifying 
 the liquid product of the grape, and better deserving the ren- 
 dering "wine" than many we have considered. 
 
 xn. D'njyTn. Dam-andbim. 
 
 T-. 
 
 This expression occurs in Gen. xlix, 11, rendered (A. V.) 
 " blood of grapes," and in the singular, dam-enab, (A. V.,) 
 " blood of the grape," in Deut. xxxii, 14. " Blood " is a poet- 
 ical name for juice. It was used not so much with reference to 
 the color of the liquid, for grape juice is generally, though 
 not always, colorless, as to the fact that the life of the vine is 
 in it. Cf. Lev. xvii, 11. The term is employed in the same 
 sense now. Dr. Macleod, for example, calls the fresh and 
 limpid juice of the palm " a genuine product of nature, and 
 the very Hood of the tree" * We shall see in our discussion of 
 the Lord's Supper that no other form of grape juice than the 
 unfermented can with any propriety be called " the blood of 
 
 the grape." 
 
 xm. D*3Jjrrrte, Mishrath-anabim. 
 
 T-: -: 
 
 This phrase occurs but once, (Num. vi, 3,) and is rendered 
 (A. Y.) "liquor of grapes." Miahrath is derived from the 
 verb mty, sharah, " to loosen, to macerate," according to Gese- 
 nius, wYio defines the phrase, "the steeping of grapes." Dr. 
 Thomas Laurie says f it refers to " a drink made in that way, 
 [steeping,] and drank before it ferments." 
 
 xiv. eton, Debask. 
 
 This word is derived from a verb ebp, dabash, to knead, " as 
 being glutinous like a kneaded mass4 It is always rendered 
 (A. V.) " honey," but in not more than three cases out of 
 
 "Peeps at the Far East," p. 27. f " Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1869. 
 $ Gesenius, " Lexicon," in loco.
 
 50 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 nearly fifty where it occurs does it mean honey from bees, but 
 honey of grapes, that is, the fresh juice boiled down to a syrup. 
 "At the present day," says Gesenius, " this syrup is still in 
 common use in Palestine under the Arabic name dibs." 
 
 xv. yan, Chometz. 
 
 This word occurs six times, first in Num. vi, 3, and is in 
 each case rendered (A. Y.) vinegar. It is derived from the 
 verb ffcn, chamatz, " to be sharp, pungent," and denotes the 
 juice of the grape or of other fruits which had undergone both 
 the alcoholic and the acetous fermentations. It was a thin, sour 
 wine something like the French vin-ordinaire. 
 xvi. D'pnfctt, Mamtaqqim. 
 
 This word occurs twice, and is derived from the verb pn, 
 mathaqh, " (1) to suck, (2) to be sweet, sweet things being wont 
 to be sucked,* " and signifies " sweetnesses, or sweet things." 
 It is applied to the mouth (Cant, v, 16) as full of sweet things, 
 and in Neh. viii, 10, " drink the sweet," it denotes the thick, 
 sweet wines, devoid of intoxicating properties, which needed 
 to be largely diluted before they were drunk. 
 
 Coming now to the New Testament we find five Greek 
 terms used for beverages made from the grape and other fruits, 
 but of these only two are in any instance rendered " wine " in 
 our English Version. "We shall briefly consider them. 
 
 i. Olvog. 
 
 This word occurs thirty-two times, outnumbering all the 
 other terms in use four to one. It has the same generic sense 
 in the New Testament that it has in classic usage, and that 
 yayin has in the Hebrew. Moses Stuart says :f " In the New 
 Testament we have oinos, which corresponds exactly with the 
 Hebrew yayin" As has been already suggested, the two 
 terms probably have a common etymological origin. Every 
 argument for including unfermented wine under the Hebrew 
 term applies with equal or augmented force to the Greek, for 
 olvoc has really a wider range of meaning than yayin, since the 
 Hebrew has several distinct roots to express differences de- 
 noted in the Greek by adjectives qualifying this single generic 
 term. In the New Testament usage it comprehends " new 
 * Gesenius, " Lexicon," in loco. f " Letter to Dr. Nott."
 
 The BiUe Wine Question. 51 
 
 wine," ow>- veof, (Matt, ix, 17 and Mark ii, 22,) " sweet wine," 
 ykevicog, (Luke x, 34,) and " sour wine," <5|of, (Mark xv, 23.) 
 These several passages will be considered under their appro- 
 priate heads in the further discussion of this subject. 
 
 ii. 
 
 This word occurs but once, (Acts ii, 15,) where it is rendered 
 (A. V.) " new wine." We have established its reference to an 
 unfermented beverage in the classical writings, and the single 
 instance of its occurrence in the New Testament confirms this 
 view. Professor Bumstead says * that it " clearly refers to an 
 unfermented liquid," and successfully joins issue with Robin- 
 son, Be van, Alford, Moore, and others who attempt to deny it. 
 
 in. 
 
 This word, which occurs but once, (Luke i, 15,) is a literal 
 rendering of the Hebrew shechar, and like that is doubtless 
 used generically for all kinds of beverages made from other 
 fruits than the grape. 
 
 IV. OtVOf VEOf. 
 
 This word is used nine times, (Matt, ix, 17, twice ; Mark ii, 
 23, three times ; Luke v, 37, twice, 38 once, 39, vio<; expressed 
 and olvoq understood,) and is rendered (A. Y.) in each instance 
 " new wine." It was perhaps a general term for grape juice 
 recently expressed, and may have included that which had 
 begun to ferment. But in its New Testament usage, in the 
 single connection in which it appears, it denotes a freshly ex- 
 pressed and unfermented liquor, as we shall see. 
 
 v. 'Ofr. 
 
 This word occurs six times (Matt, xxvii, 34, 48; Mark 
 xv, 36 ; Luke xxiii, 36 ; John xix, 29, 30) in connection with 
 the accounts of the crucifixion, and is in each case rendered 
 (A. V.) "vinegar." It is equivalent to the Hebrew chometz, 
 and designated, like that, a thin, sour wine. It will be more 
 fully considered hereafter. 
 
 VI. Tew7)fia rffc dftnelov. 
 
 Tliis expression is employed three times (Matt, xxvi, 29 ; 
 Mark xiv, 25; Luke xxii, 18) in connection with the record 
 of the institution of the Lord's Supper, and is rendered (A.V.) 
 
 * Bibliuiheca Sacra," Jan., 1881, p. 81.
 
 52 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 " fruit of the vine." It signifies the first and simplest product 
 of the grape, the fresh juice. It will be discussed at length in 
 our consideration of the Lord's Supper. 
 
 Summing up the results of our inquiry concerning the terms 
 for wine in the Scriptures, we find that 
 
 1. There are eleven words in the Old Testament and two in 
 the New, thirteen in all, which are rendered (A. Y.) by " wine" 
 either singly or in connection with some other word. 
 
 2. There are five other terms in the Old Testament and four 
 others in the New, nine in all, which refer to the juice of the 
 grape or of other fruits in some form. So that 
 
 3. There are in all, in both the Old and New Testaments, 
 twenty-two terms which are applied to the products of the grape 
 or of other fruits. 
 
 4. But of these twenty-two terms, there are five which have 
 no reference whatever to the juice of the grape or to the juice 
 of any fruit : one (tirosJi) denotes the vine fruit in its natur- 
 al, solid state ; another (ashishah] denotes a cake of pressed 
 raisins ; another (shemarim) denotes the insoluble dregs of the 
 wine, or, more probably, " preserves " or confections ; another 
 (enab) denotes simply the grape ; and the fifth (yeqeb} denotes 
 the wine-press. 
 
 5. Of the remaining seventeen words and phrases which do 
 refer to the juices of fruits, three Hebrew terms (yayin, shechar, 
 and chemer) and two Greek terms, (olvo<; and aiicepa,} five in all, 
 are generic. One Hebrew term (cJiometz) and one Greek (3|o?), 
 two in all, denote a wine that has entered the acetic stage of fer- 
 mentation. One Hebrew term (mesek, etc.) denotes a wine, 
 either fermented or unfermented, which has been drugged or 
 diluted. And six Hebrew terms (asis, sobe, dam-anabim, mish- 
 rath-anabim, debask, and mamtaqqim) and three Greek terms, 
 (yAev/cof, olvog veof, yevvrjfia rrj$ a^rreAov,) nine in all, denote some 
 form of unfermented grape or other juice. So that 
 
 6. With the exception of one Hebrew and of one Greek word, 
 which designate a beverage that has entered the acetic stage 
 of fermentation, there is no term in the Old Testament or in 
 the New which invariably indicates a fermented liquor, while 
 there are nine which signify an unfermented article, and six 
 others, the most important and by far the most frequently 
 used, which leave us absolutely free to decide, by reference to
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 53 
 
 the context or circumstances of the case, whether or not a fer- 
 mented wine is intended. 
 
 Having examined at length the assumption which underlies 
 this whole claim, that the example of Jesus Christ gives its 
 sanction to the moderate indulgence in alcoholic drinks, 
 namely, that neither in his own time nor in any other age 
 was the unfermented juice of the grape in common use as a 
 beverage, and that such an article was not, and in the nature 
 of things could not properly be, recognized or denominated as 
 wine, and having shown this assumption to be false, both 
 from the evidence of the ancient classics and from the testi- 
 mony of the sacred Scriptures, we come now directly to the 
 
 IY. EXAMINATION OF THE CHARGE 
 
 that the example of Jesus sanctions the use of alcoholic bever- 
 ages. This is composed, as we have previously stated, of three 
 specifications, which we shall consider in the order already 
 named.* 
 
 First Specification : Jesus MADE intoxicating wine. 
 
 The instance cited, and it is the only one of the kind, is the 
 replenishing of the wine at the marriage feast in Cana of 
 Galilee. (John ii, 1-11.) Some cause, perhaps the unexpected 
 number of the guests attracted by the presence of Jesus,f had 
 exhausted the stock of the host. At this juncture Jesus 
 miraculously provided a fresh supply of the beverage, in 
 quantity somewhere between one hundred and one hundred 
 and sixty gallons,^: and in quality so superior that the ruler 
 of the feast remarked to the bridegroom, (A. V.,) "Every man 
 at the beginning doth set forth good wine; and when men 
 have well drunk, then that which is worse : but thou hast kept 
 the good wine until now." (John ii, 10.) So far there is no 
 controversy. Jesus did make wine. But did he make a fcr- 
 
 * Vide p. 17, supra. 
 
 f So Beugel suggests, (Gnomon of the N. T. in toe.) 
 
 j Vide Lange, " Comm." n toe. It is immaterial lo our inquiry, however, whether 
 we regard the whole amount of water in the jars as transformed iuto wine at once, 
 (so Trench, and commentators generally,) or gradually, as the liquid was poured- 
 into each cup, (so Ellicott, " Comm." in loc. ;)or whether we understand with West- 
 cott (" Characteristics of the Gospel Miracles," p. 15) that the wine was drawn 
 directly from the fountain from which the servants had taken the water to fill 
 the water-pots.
 
 54 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 merited and intoxicating wine? Only in case we are compelled 
 to return an affirmative answer to this question has the fact 
 any force as an argument against his total abstinence princi- 
 ples and practice. The word used in the Gospel narrative to 
 describe the article made by Jesus is the generic olvog, and this 
 gives us no intimation as to its nature, but leaves us free to 
 decide, by internal evidence and moral likelihood, whether the 
 wine was alcoholic or the contrary. The simple record of the 
 evangelist affords ample material for determining the question. 
 1. The fact is stated (v. 9) that "the water was made (yeyevrj- 
 ffei>ov, lit., 'had become') wine." This form of expression seems 
 to indicate the transformation of the water into the pure blood 
 of the grape in the same manner in which it takes place every 
 year within the growing clusters of the vine, but differentiated 
 from that by the supernatural rapidity of the process. St. Au- 
 gustine was perhaps the first among the commentators to suggest 
 this interpretation.* It has been adopted by such authorities as 
 Chrysostom.f Bishop Hall,:}: Trench, Meyer, Olshausen, Whe- 
 don,| Geikie,^[ and others. If this interpretation be correct, it 
 settles the whole controversy. Christ never made a drop of 
 alcoholic wine in the grape. In the whole realm of living 
 nature he has never once created an atom of alcohol. That de- 
 structive spirit is nowhere a product of nature. " Alcohol is a 
 purely artificial product, obtained only by carefully carried 
 out chemical methods. It exists nowhere in nature," says Dr. 
 Niel Carmichael.** Dr. Eichardson describes alcoholff as " an 
 artificial product devised by man for his purposes." Similar is 
 the testimony of Sir Humphrey Davy,^ Liebig, ChapitalJJ 
 and Turner, ^[^f If Jesus did make an alcoholic substance on 
 this occasion, as Chancellor Crosby, Dr. Moore, and Professor 
 Bumstead would have us believe that he did,*** then the act 
 
 * In Evang. Joan., tr. viii. \ Horn, xxii, in Joan. 
 
 \ " Contemplations." Lond., 1759, p. 117. 
 
 " Notes on the Miracles," p. 115. Comm. in loc. 
 
 I "Life and Words of Christ," i, 479. 
 
 **" Medical Temperance Journal," April, 1880, p. 125. 
 
 ft "Cantor Lectures," p. 178. \\ "Agricultural Chemistry," 6th ed., p. 129. 
 
 "Letters on Chemistry," 2d series, 1845. 
 
 II " L' Art de Faire le Vin," Paris, 1819, p. 2. 
 ^[T[ " Elements of Chemistry," p. 664. 
 
 *** "Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1881, p. 80. "Presbyterian Review," Jan., 1881, 
 p. 88. " A Calm View of the Temperance Question."
 
 Tfte Bible Wine Question. 55 
 
 was without a parallel in creation. It was, moreover, a palpa- 
 ble contradiction of the doctrine he announced a few months 
 later, namely, " The Son can do nothing of himself, but what 
 he seeth the Father do : for what things soever he doeth, 
 these also doeth the Son likewise," ( John v. 19 ;) for the Son 
 had never seen the Father make an intoxicating wine. That, 
 as we have seen, is purely a human invention, and probably the 
 most fatal one man has ever sought out. 
 
 2. The wine Jesus provided was pronounced " the good " 
 (TOV ttaXov) by the ruler of the feast, (v. 10.) The term is 
 used comparatively, " the " (TOV) being emphatic, and is equiva- 
 lent to the best wine. It is interpreted by our authors * to 
 mean the most intoxicating wine. But this is to beg the whole 
 question. It is to set up a false criterion, and bring everything 
 to the test of that. It is to make the vitiated taste of a nine- 
 teenth century sot the standard of the taste of a Jewish archi- 
 triklinos of the first century. It will not do to answer that 
 this interpretation is sustained by the custom, referred to in the 
 remarks of the ruler of the feast, of setting forth the best wine 
 at the beginning of a feast. For this is only to bolster up one 
 fallacy by another. It is not true, as these interpreters would 
 have us believe, that the strongest wines formed the first 
 course of an entertainment, and then, when these had blunted 
 the taste, beverages of an inferior quality were palmed off upon 
 the guests. Evidence in support of such a theory has been 
 diligently sought for, but without success. Meyer admits f 
 that " the general custom, however, to which the table-master 
 refers, is not elsewhere with any certainty confirmed." It is 
 in evidence, on the other hand, that the general custom of a 
 banquet was to use at the beginning of a feast the lighter and 
 largely diluted wines, while the heaviest and specially intoxi- 
 cating sorts were reserved to the last. That this was true of 
 Christ's day is plainly indicated by a passage from Philo, one of 
 his contemporaries, who describes the votaries of wine proceed- 
 ing from one kind to another, and finishing up " with bo\yls 
 and goblets of all the largest sizes that they can get, and drink- 
 ing the wine unmixed in huge draughts.":}: Athenaeus and 
 
 *"Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1881, p. 80. "Presbyterian Review," Jan., 1881, 
 p. 88. " A Calm View of the Temperance Question." f Comin. in toe. 
 
 \ " On Drunkenness," sec. 53. "Banquet," X, p. 431, b.
 
 56 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 Diogenes Laertius * bear similar testimony. The fact that in 
 this instance the verdict of the ruler of the feast was pro-* 
 nounced merely upon tasting (iyevoaro, v. 9) the wine, shows 
 that its superior qualities must Irnve been such as commended 
 themselves immediately to the palate. He did not wait to 
 observe its supposed alcoholic or intoxicating effects. 
 
 Have we any evidence as to what actually was the judgment 
 of antiquity concerning the best wine ? Dr. Moore attempts to 
 ehow,f though not in immediate connection with this text, that 
 "the wine which the Bible pronounces the best" was fer- 
 mented and intoxicating. In proof of this position, he cites 
 Prov. xxiii, 31, where the wine against which a warning is 
 directed is described (A. V.) as moving itself aright, (Heb. 
 D'lBTM !|bn;v, (lit., " goes according to evenness,") and then com- 
 
 T i ~ : 
 
 pares this with Cant, vii, 9, (in Heb. verse 10,) " where," as he 
 remarks, "regarding 'the best wine' it is said, Dnarnb nSn, 
 which is rendered in our English Bible 'that goeth down 
 sweetly ; ' in the margin, ' straightly.' ' The roof of thy mouth 
 like the best wine for my beloved that goeth down sweetly,' 
 etc. This is the meaning of the phrase in Prov. xxiii, 31, as 
 the best interpreters allow. It is an attractive property, a 
 characteristic of the best wine, that it goeth (down) straightly, or 
 smoothly, or sweetly." But an examination of the Hebrew 
 text shows that the comparison is unfounded, and the inference 
 illegitimate. Yicar Kingsbury well says of this passage : ^ " The 
 A. Y. here is one of the numerous instances of needless depart- 
 ure from the order of words in the Hebrew." The original 
 reads, word for word, " And thy palate, like the wine of the 
 good, going to my beloved straightly, flowing over the lips of the 
 Bleeping." The thought is not, as the A. Y. might seem to 
 suggest, that the best wine slips down smoothly. " Down " is 
 not in the text, and neither the smoothness nor any other 
 quality of the liquor is suggested. The palate (that is, the 
 words which come from thence, though some understand 
 kisses,) is compared to the best wine, which was so choice that 
 it deserved to be sent directly to the beloved one. So the 
 LXX renders, 7ropev6{j.evo$ TO> ddeA^tdoi fiov el$ evtfvrT/ra, going to 
 my kinsman in a straight way. Cranmer and the Geneva Bible 
 
 *0p. i, 104. f " Presbyterian Review," Jan., 1881, p. 87. 
 
 $ "Speaker's Commentary" in foe.
 
 The B'Me Wine Question. 57 
 
 both translate, "wine which goeth straightly unto my beloved."* 
 Going straightly to the beloved, and not going smoothly down 
 the throat, is the idea of the passage, and so lends no support 
 to the theory of Dr. Moore. 
 
 Opposed to that theory is such testimony as follows. Vol- 
 ney, after describing the unfermented and boiled sweet wines of 
 Syria, adds : " Such are the wines of Lebanon, so boasted by 
 Greek and Roman epicures." f Rev. "W. H. Rule, who, in gen- 
 eral, sympathizes with the views of Dr. Moore, confesses that the 
 pure grape juice was " the choice beverage of epicures." J The 
 practice of the Egyptian kings, already adverted to, is confirm- 
 atory of this view. Dr. Jacobus says of the wine made by 
 Christ : " All who know of the wines then used will under- 
 stand the unfermented juice of the grape. The present wines 
 of Jerusalem and Lebanon, as we tasted them, were commonly 
 boiled and sweet, without intoxicating qualities, such as we 
 here get in liquors called wines. TJiose were esteemed the lest 
 wines which were least strong." Moses Stuart in his letter to 
 Dr. Nott writes : " I regard it as established beyond fair con- 
 tradiction, that it was a very common thing to preserve wine 
 in an unfermented state, and that when thus preserved it was 
 regarded as of a higher and better quality than any other "\ 
 It must also be observed that the adjective used to describe 
 the wine made by Christ is not dyatfoc, good, simply, but KaMc, 
 that which is morally excellent or befitting. The term is sug- 
 gestive of Theophrastus' characterization of unintoxicating 
 wine as moral (rjdnt6^) wine.^ 
 
 3. Christ provided " the good wine " when the guests had 
 "well drunk," v. 10. Does this expression of the ruler of 
 the feast imply the intoxication of the guests ? Prof. Bum- 
 Ptcad, following Bengel and others, says that it does not,** " for 
 the remark of the master of the feast was a general one con- 
 cerning the custom of the times." This is hardly consistent, 
 however, with what he has just said, namely : " The character 
 of it (the wine) in that instance is clearly indicated by the 
 
 * Vide Dr. Patrick, Cowles, et a/., Comm. m Inc. 
 
 f " Travels in Egypt nnd Syria," c. xxix, p. 382. 
 
 $ " Brief Inquiry," quoted Nott's "Lectures on Temperance," p. 222. 
 
 Comm. in lac. \ Lettvr to Dr. Nott, New York, 1848, p. 44. 
 
 *f De Causis Plantarum, v, 16, 16. 
 
 * "Bibliotheca Sacra," January, 1881, p. 80.
 
 58 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 remark of the master of the feast." For, if the ruler's remark 
 holds good on one point, it does on the other. It cannot 
 logically be divided. The definiteness of the last clause car- 
 ries along with it the special applicability of the whole. It 
 necessitates the inference that on this occasion also the general 
 custom had been followed. And if these authors are correct 
 who insist that the wine used at this festival was alcoholic, 
 then we are driven to the conclusion that, after free potations 
 of this beverage, which had exhausted the supply and occa- 
 sioned more or less drunkenness, Jesus miraculously created 
 a large additional quantity of the fiery fluid, so that the com- 
 pany could continue their reckless indulgence and deepen their 
 maudlin into mad intoxication. But such a conclusion stops 
 scarcely short of blasphemy. 
 
 It becomes important, therefore, to examine this term which 
 is rendered "well drunk." The Greek is jMetfixr&Txw. The form 
 is an aorist passive from juetfvw, whose tenses, excepting the 
 present and imperfect, are supplied by the passive of its de- 
 rivative [iedvoicw.* Both of these verbs occur in the New Tes- 
 tament, as well as the noun fie&y and the adjective juetfvao?, used 
 substantively. Lexicographers are agreed that the root |we#?/, 
 or juei9v, signifies excessive drinking without reference to the 
 kind of liquor used. All etymologists connect it directly with 
 the Sanscrit madhu^ whose primary meaning, according to 
 Benfey, was honey, but, according to Curtius, was sweet 
 drink. The same root appears in the Latin te-me-tum, Sclavic 
 medu, Lith. midus, Gaelic mil, O. H. G. metu, Ang.-Saxon 
 medo, Eng. mead, all of which signify either honey or a drink 
 made from honey. || The idea of cloying sweetness, and so of 
 satiation, is clearly traceable in this root and in all of its deriva- 
 tives. The verbs jtie^vw and pedvaicu retain this primary signi- 
 fication of fullness. Hesychius defines fj,e&vei by "ne-nXfipwrai, 
 he has filled himself. ^[ Liddell and Scott give as the first 
 meaning of this verb, " to be drunken, given to drink," and 
 add, as a secondary signification, " to be drenched or soaked with, 
 steeped in, any liquid."** This arrangement, while it may fairly 
 
 * Liddell and Scott, " Lexicon," s. v. 
 
 f E. (7., Pott, Benfey, Curtius, Yanicek, Peile, et al. 
 
 % " Sanscrit Dictionary," s. v. " Griechische Etymologie," s. v. 
 
 | Peile, " Greek and Latin Etymology," p. 127. Tf " Lex.," a. v. ** " Lex.,' '5. v.
 
 The Bille 'Wine Question. 59 
 
 indicate the relative frequency with which the verb is used in 
 these different senses, really reverses the natural order, and 
 puts primitive for derivative usage. Bloomfield correctly 
 defines fi9uv, " to moisten, or to be moistened with liquor, 
 and in a figurative sense, (like the Lat. madere vino,) to be 
 saturated with drink."* In the classical writings these verbs 
 often have the sense of being soaked in or filled with any 
 liquid.f Homer, e. g., ("II.," xvii, 39,) speaks of ftoeir] tu-dvo- 
 vaa dAof<#/, "an ox-hide steeped in "fat." Similar instances 
 occur in Anacreon, (Ode 47 ;) Hippocrates, (" De Rat. Vic.," 
 iii;) Xenophon, ("Cyr.," i, 3;) Aristotle, ("ap. Stob. Phys.," 
 T. 2, 312;) Theophrastus, (" Ch. Eth.," 13 ;) Plutarch, ("Alex.," 
 69 ;) Philo, (" De Agric.," p. 209, E.) The last-named author 
 furnishes one very important piece of testimony as to the 
 meaning and use of this verb. He says, (" De Plant. Noae.," 
 p. 234,) "There is a twofold peQvuv: one is to use wine 
 olvovodat the other is to play the fool with wine Xrjpelv iv 
 otvw." But, what is more to our purpose, in the LXX. /ietfvw 
 is repeatedly used in its primary sense of repletion. In Gen. 
 xliii, 34, it is said of Joseph's -brethren, IfjuEdvodqaav /ifr' ou- 
 Toi), they drank freely with him ; undoubtedly of that freshly 
 expressed grape-juice which was the favorite beverage of Egyp- 
 tian royalty. In Psa. xxiii, (LXX., cp. xxii,) 5, we read TO 
 Tto-ripiov oov pedvoKov, " thy cup runneth over ; " in Cant, v, 1, 
 mere Kai iie&vo$7)Te y " drink, yea, drink abundantly ; " in Jer. 
 xxxi, 14, (LXX. cp. xxxviii,) juetfwrw rty tyvxflv rwv Itpewv, " I will 
 satiate the soul of the priests," etc. But where examples are so 
 numerous, quotation is unnecessary. Dr. Lees has made a large 
 collection of such texts, showing the application of this verb 
 to food, milk, water, blood, and oil, as well as to wine. \ Cora- 
 ing now to the New Testament, we find that pe&vu occurs 
 seven times, (Matt, xxiv, 49 ; John ii, 10 ; Acts ii, 15 ; 1 Cor. 
 xi, 21 ; 1 Thess. v, 7 ; Rev. xvii, 2, 6,) and the derivative 
 three times, (Luke xii, 45 ; Eph. v, 18 ; 1 Thess. v, 7.) 
 
 * Notes on 1 Cor. xi, 21. 
 
 f Similar to the use of ftedvu in classic Greek is the use of inebrio in Latin for 
 saturate and satiate. Of. Pliny (N. II. i, 9) inebriate radices ; and (xiv, 1,) umz vino tvo 
 inebriantur. Likewise ebrius, e, y., in Terence, (Hecyra, v, 23,) cum tu salura alque 
 ebria eris. Comp. also French so&ler, " 1. to surfeit, to glut ; 2. to satiate ; 3. to intox- 
 icate." (Surenne, Diet.) Also the Scotch fou, full, with accoudary sense of drunken, 
 in which sense the English word is sometimes used. J Works, voL ii. 
 
 5
 
 60 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 In both forms of the verb the primary idea of surfeit is 
 prominent. A decisive instance of the use of the former in 
 this sense is presented in 1 Cor. xi, 21. In mentioning the 
 abuses of the agapse in the early Corinthian Church, St. 
 Paul says (A. Y.) : " For in eating every one taketh before 
 other his own supper: and one is hungry, and another is 
 drunken," KOI 8f per TTEIVO,, '6$ HE-&VEI. But fjiedvet, in this case, is 
 plainly contrasted with neiva which is correctly rendered as 
 "hungry." The antithesis, therefore, requires the former to 
 be understood in the generic sense of " surfeited," not in the 
 narrow sense of " drunken." The overfilled man is compared 
 with the underfilled man. This is the interpretation adopted 
 by the great body of expositors, ancient and modern.* 
 
 MeiWw, therefore, does not always and necessarily signify in- 
 toxication. It does not in John ii, 10. It has in this passage 
 its natural and primitive sense of satiation. It refers simply to 
 the large quantities of wine which had been consumed on this 
 occasion, and has no reference whatever to any inebriating 
 effects. Dean Stanley, one of the most conservative of schol- 
 ars, in discussing juetfuw, has said, f " Its use in John ii, 10, 
 shows that it need not be always taken of intoxication." He 
 might have spoken with less caution. The whole drift of the 
 narrative, and the imperative requirements of the case, show that 
 in this instance it must not be taken of intoxication. ^ Five 
 centuries ago Wycliffe recognized this, and rendered the ex- 
 pression, " whanne men ben fulfilled." The A. V. gives the 
 weight of its authority to this interpretation by translating 
 "when men have well drunk," as does the K. V., also, w T hich 
 renders more accurately, " when men have drunk freely." 
 
 4. The declared end and object of this miracle was to mani- 
 fest forth his glory, (v. 11.) It was not to put the sanction of 
 his divine approval upon the marriage relation, although this 
 was incidentally accomplished ; much less was it " for the sake 
 of contributing to the enjoyment of a festive company, and 
 thus sanctioning the use of (intoxicating) wine as a luxury." 
 
 * E. g., St. Chrysostom, Bengel, Grotius, Kuinoel, Bilroth, Macknight, New- 
 come, Bloomfleld, Clarke, Liglitfoot, Whedon, et cd. 
 
 \ " Comm. on Corinthians," in loc. 
 
 JSo Beza, Cornelius & Lapide, De Wette, Rosenmiiller, Tholuck, Jamiesou, 
 Brown, Conant, Norton, et al. 
 
 Prof. Bumstead in " Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., '81, p. 86.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 61 
 
 Not that he did not wish to add to the innocent enjoyments 
 of men, and to hallow the hospitalities and amenities of 
 social life. But these were not the objects of his first miracle. 
 That object was as infinitely superior to these as the real pur- 
 pose of his last ordinance was superior to the motive attributed 
 to him by Professor Bumstead,* for the selection of one of its 
 elements, namely, " to secure the permanency of his example 
 in regard to (intoxicating) wine, even 'to the remotest parts of 
 the earth and to the latest periods of history." The sublime 
 and incomparable object of "this beginning of miracles" was 
 the Epiphany of his glory. " Glory is God's own attribute." f 
 IIo who has seen his glory has seen God himself. (Exodus 
 xxxiii, 18-23.) When he would reveal himself to man he 
 made a revelation of his glory. The opening act of that reve- 
 lation was an act of creation. We know him because we have 
 seen his glory in Genesis. " For the invisible things of him 
 from the creation of the world are clearly seen, being under- 
 stood by the things that are made, even his eternal power and 
 godhead." (Kom. i, 20.) So Christ must demonstrate his 
 identity with the Father. Men will recognize "his eternal 
 power and godhead " only when they see his glory manifested 
 in an act of creation. That is the meaning of the miracle at 
 Oana. It is the new Genesis. It is the revelation of Christ 
 as Creator. " He made the water wine." (John iv, 46.) 
 This points unmistakably to the nature of the thing that is 
 made. The wine of the miracle must have been the same 
 as the wine of nature; the wine of the water-pots must 
 have been one with the wine of the grape-clusters. No 
 other is made, all else is manufactured. Nothing less than 
 omnipotence could make one drop of the pure juice of the 
 grape. The art of man can manufacture any amount of alco- 
 holic wine. 
 
 One thought further in this connection : Christ's miracles, 
 as has been carefully observed, were never miracles of mere 
 power.J With the single exception of his withering the barren 
 fig-tree, which had no relation to mankind save in the moral 
 lesson which it conveyed, they were always miracles of mercy. 
 He came not " to destroy men's lives, but to save them." (Luke 
 
 * Prof. Bumstead in "Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1881, p. 87. 
 
 f Whedon, " Commentary on John," ii, 11. % Vide " Ecce Deus," p. 70.
 
 62 Oinos: A Discussion of 
 
 ix, 56.) And all his power was put forth to that benevolent 
 end. But if this theory of his manufacturing an intoxicating 
 wine be the true one, then that must stand as the single excep- 
 tion to all his other miracles. It was a malevolent and mis- 
 chievous manifestation of power. There was no glory in it, 
 but shame. It was the production of a substance which God 
 his Father had cursed as the fruitful source of "woe" and 
 " sorrows," " contentions " and " babbling ; " of " redness of 
 eyes " and " wounds without cause," (Prov. xxiii, 29 ;) which, 
 partaken of in the smallest quantities, " is likely to do harm,"* 
 and in larger quantities is certain to work destruction ; which 
 " injures the body, and diminishes the mental powers,"f per- 
 verts the conscience, depraves the heart, and destroys the soul. 
 (1 Cor. vi, 9.) And this miracle of malevolence was wrought 
 at a moment when it offered the strongest temptation to men 
 already overcome with indulgence. It was wrought, more- 
 over, as Professor Bumstead, with amazing candor, confesses,:}: 
 " with a full knowledge of all the intemperance then existing 
 and destined to exist in after time. He was aware of the 
 gross intemperance both in food and drink which characterized 
 the Roman world during the luxurious period of its history in 
 which he was on the earth. He knew to how many in Pales- 
 tine, who had misused it, wine had proved to be a ' mocker.' 
 He could see how many in future time, this nineteenth century 
 included, it would ' bite like a serpent and sting like an adder.' 
 He was aware that his example would have a powerful influ- 
 ence on coming generations. Yet with all this knowledge 
 distinctly in mind, he created it (intoxicating wine) for festive 
 use." Is this, we would fain ask, the work of one " who went 
 about doing good," (Acts x, 38,) who was " holy, harmless, and 
 undefiled," (Heb. vii, 26 ;) who came " to succor them that are 
 tempted," (Heb. ii, 18,) and to ."have compassion on them that 
 are out of the way " ( Heb. v, 2,) ? "Would such a manifesta- 
 tion of power have been diabolic or divine ? Would such a 
 miracle have produced the result recorded of this ? 
 
 5. That result is set forth in the statement, " And his disci- 
 ples believed on him," (v. 11.) The miracle had the effect of 
 confirming the faith of the few followers he had already 
 
 * Professor Bumstead. f Sir Henry Thompson, 
 
 \ " Bibliotheca Sacra, " January, 1881, p. 109.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 63 
 
 gathered about him, and of gaining still other converts. Their 
 faith was the natural consequence of the manifestation of his 
 glory. That was his ground and its justification. They had 
 seen in his instantaneous creation of the pure and nutritious 
 juice of the grape convincing evidence of his benevolence and 
 power, and they naturally believed in him. But such belief 
 could not, by any laws of thought, supernatural or human, 
 have followed, had they beheld him encouraging and minister- 
 ing to drunkenness. Nor can we conceive of his adopting 
 any such method for the establishment of his claims or the 
 extension of his cause. He was not a Mohammed, holding out 
 to men the allurements of a sensual paradise, but a " man of 
 sorrows," whose stern requirement of all who came after him 
 was, that they should deny themselves and take up their cross 
 and follow him. (Matt, xvi, 24.) And it was by the personal 
 embodiment and the practical encouragement of self-denial 
 and abstinence, and not by the example or sanction of luxury 
 and self-indulgence, that he won his followers and achieved 
 his victories. 
 
 Second Specification : Jesus COMMENDED intoxicating wine. 
 
 This charge is based on his allusions to wine in two recorded 
 instances. The first occurs in the three parallel passages, 
 Matt, ix, 17 ; Mark ii, 22 ; Luke v, 37-39. We shall confine 
 ourselves to the passage as found in Luke, since it is in sub- 
 stantial agreement with the other two, and contains an impor- 
 tant addition not found in the narratives either of Matthew or 
 of Mark. The whole passage reads (A. V.) : " And no man 
 putteth new wine (olvos veo?) into old bottles, (danov^ lit., 
 skins ;) else the new wine will burst the bottles, and be spilled, 
 and the bottles shall perish. But new wine must be put into 
 new bottles; and both are preserved. No man also having 
 drunk old wine straightway desireth new ; for he saith, The 
 old is better." It is only in this passage, and those parallel 
 with it, that the otvo? viw; occurs in the New Testament. It is 
 important for us to determine its application here. The com- 
 mon opinion, perhaps, has been that it denotes wine recently 
 expressed, but already in a state of active fermentation. Such 
 a liquid, it is said, could not safely be put into a leathern 
 bottle which had become " old, rent, and bound up," since the 
 pent-up forces would speedily tear their way through the tender
 
 64 Omos: A Discussion of 
 
 fabric. But when the skin was new and strong, it is claimed, 
 it could withstand the strain of fermentation, or, being elastic, 
 could stretch and still retain its integrity. But this is an in- 
 terpretation of the imagination. No bottle, whether of skin or 
 glass, or, for that matter, not the strongest iron-bound cask, 
 could hold together if once fermentation should get under full 
 headway.* The carbonic acid gas generated by the process 
 would shatter a new askos almost as quickly as an old one. 
 Job knew this, when he said (chap, xxxii, 19) : " Behold my 
 belly like wine hath no vent ; like new bottles it is rent." 
 
 But if olvoq veog be not wine in the act of fermentation, it 
 can no more be wine which has completed that process, " be- 
 cause," as Prof. Bumstead acknowledges, "if the fermenta- 
 tion were complete, old bottles would be as serviceable as 
 new ones." The conclusion, therefore, would seem to be in- 
 evitable, that, if it were neither a wine in active fermentation, 
 or one fully fermented, it must have been unferrnented. Not 
 BO, however, if we are to believe Prof. Bumstead. He says,f 
 it was " a new wine which had not fully fermented, but which 
 had come so near the completion of that process that it could 
 with safety be put into the new skins, whose elasticity would 
 be sufficient to resist the 'after-fermentation' which would 
 ensue." Similarly Yicar Sevang says: "We should be in- 
 clined to understand the passage above quoted (Matt, ix, 17) 
 as referring to wine drawn off before the fermentation was 
 complete, either for immediate use or for forming it into sweet 
 wine." Prof. Bumstead, in explanation of the phrase, " after- 
 fermentation," refers to Dr. Edward Smith's " Foods," p. 389. 
 This author does not employ the expression "after-fermenta- 
 tion," but he says, on the page indicated, with reference to the 
 manufacture of Aulese wine : " The fermented juice is allowed 
 to remain until the middle of winter, namely, until February, 
 when it is racked off from the lees, and renewed fermentation 
 with the return of warmer weather is thus prevented or greatly 
 lessened." On the very same page, in speaking of ordinary 
 
 " A must one fifth sugar develops forty-seven times its volume of carbonic 
 dioxide, equivalent to a pressure of 34.3 atmospheres. This would be about ten 
 times the pressure the boiler of an ordinary high-pressure steam-engine has to 
 undergo." Thudicum and Dupre, p. 478. 
 
 f "Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1881, p. 82. 
 
 j Smith's "Dictionary of the Bible," art. " Wine."
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 65 
 
 wines, he says : " When the violence of fermentation has sub- 
 sided, and the liquor is becoming clear and no longer sweet, it 
 is racked off and run into tuns for perfect fermentation and 
 ripening." This authority, for reference to which we are 
 indebted to Prof. Bumstead, makes three points plain, namely : 
 
 1. That the "after-fermentation" is "prevented or greatly 
 lessened " by simply racking off the wine from the lees after 
 allowing a sufficient time for subsidence. But in such a 
 case old bottles would do as well as new, and there would be 
 no necessity, such as is stated, for the use of the latter. 
 
 2. That after " the violence of fermentation has subsided," 
 that is, after the wine would be ready to bottle on this theory, 
 it is " no longer sweet," and so could not be made to subserve 
 the purpose suggested by Mr. Bevan. 
 
 3. That for " perfect fermentation and ripening " the wine 
 is not bottled, but left to stand in the tun. And this is in 
 exact accordance with what we know of the practice of the 
 ancients, for fermentation, when permitted, was carried on in 
 the locus or the dolium* 
 
 These facts show the baselessness of the hypothesis that 
 otvof veof , in this case, was a wine which awaited the after stage 
 of fermentation. If, therefore, it was a wine in neither of 
 these three conditions, active fermentation, after-fermentation, 
 or completed fermentation, it must have been wine in an un- 
 fermented state. But to this Prof. Bumstead again objects, f 
 "If the liquid were entirely unfermented, not even the new 
 bottles, or skins, would be able to resist the power of the fer- 
 mentation." That is to say, pure grape-juice could not be put 
 into an askos without undergoing fermentation. But is this 
 true ? It could certainly have been inclosed before fermenta- 
 tion had begun. " Spontaneous fermentation," that is, fermen- 
 tation which is not hastened by the artificial introduction of 
 yeast germs, "is always slow in beginning.":}: Sometimes it 
 does not take place until after three or four days' exposure to 
 the atmosphere. Would fermentation necessarily take place 
 within the skin? We have already seen that the ancients 
 
 * " Smith's " Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities," art. " Vinum." 
 f " Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1881, p. 82. 
 
 $ Prof. Dittmar, in " Encyclopaedia Britannica," Ninth Ed., art "Fermentation." 
 Vide Kerr, "Uufermeuted Wiue a Fact," p. 8.
 
 66 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 were familiar with the methods by which fermentation is pre- 
 vented, and were in the habit of employing them in the prep- 
 aration of their wines. In this case any one of them might 
 have been adopted with success. The grape-juice could have 
 been carefully expressed and filtered, or, if that were not 
 deemed security enough, it might, in addition, have been in- 
 spissated by boiling, and any incipient trace of alcohol ex- 
 pelled. Then it could with perfect safety have been put into 
 a bottle, which might have been so prepared as to entirely ex- 
 clude the air; and, this done, no other precaution would 
 have been necessary. It was with this end in view that a 
 new skin was always selected, one that was neither cracked 
 nor ripped. Then it was prepared like the amphora, by 
 smearing with honey,* grease, f or pitch, $ and when the liquid 
 had been poured in, was tightly closed and sealed. That the 
 leathern bottle would serve the purpose as well as the earthen 
 flask cannot be doubted. Whatever would exclude the water 
 would prevent the access of the air. The skin of the grape 
 which permits the evaporation of the moisture does not allow 
 the entrance of the yeast germs. The "must of grapes or 
 juice of fruit, if boiled and suspended in a bladder in the midst 
 of fermenting must or wort, will not ferment." And this 
 suggests another and most important reason why a new skin 
 was required for new wine. It would not only be perfectly 
 sound, but perfectly sweet. An old skin would almost in- 
 evitably have some of the sour remains of a former vintage 
 adhering to it. So that when the fresh grape- juice was poured 
 in, no matter how carefully the air was thereafter excluded, fer- 
 mentation would necessarily ensue. It is on this same account 
 that Columella, an almost contemporary author, in describing 
 the common process of preserving unfermented wine, (xii, 41,) 
 lays equal stress on its being put into a new amphora. 
 
 *Burckhard, (" Travels in Syria,") speaking of the Beyrouk honey of the Syrians, 
 says: " They use it in rubbing their water-skins in order to exclude the air." 
 
 f Bruce, ("Travels in Egypt," etc.,) describing the gerbas, or ox-skins squared 
 nnd the edges sewed together by a double seam which does not let out the water 
 says : " They are then all smeared on the outside with grease, as well to hinder the 
 water oozing through, as to prevent it being evaporated by the heat of the sun." 
 
 \ Chardin, (" Travels in Persia,") says that " wine in Persia is preserved in. 
 skins saturated with pitch, which when good imparts no flavor to the wine." 
 
 " Amer. Cyclop.," art. "Fermentation; " Watts' "Diet, of Chemistry," ii, 625.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 67 
 
 But if all these precautions should be deemed insufficient, 
 others were still possible. We have seen that it was custom- 
 ary, after the amphora or cadus was filled and sealed, to plunge 
 and keep it in water whose temperature would not permit of 
 fermentation. This method was adopted with the askos as well 
 as with the cadus, except that, while the latter was usually 
 immersed in water, the former was more generally buried in the 
 earth.* Any one of these processes of removing the gluten, 
 evaporating the moisture, preventing the access of the air, or 
 reducing the temperature of the liquid below 40 degrees Fah., 
 would have resulted in the preservation of an unfermented wine ; 
 or, if it had been deemed best, any two or all of these methods 
 might have been combined, and to make assurance doubly 
 sure the liquid might have been subjected to a thorough 
 sulphur fumigation. And so Prof. Bumstead's objection that 
 the new wine, had it been a perfectly fresh grape-juice, must 
 necessarily have undergone fermentation in the new bottles, is 
 shown to be unfounded, and our former conclusion that it must 
 have been precisely such a liquor, an unfermented wine, the 
 pure juice of the grape, remains unshaken, and must be ac- 
 cepted as the only legitimate explanation of the passage in 
 question, f 
 
 This brings us to the consideration of the thirty-ninth verse : 
 " No man having drunk old wine straightway desireth new ; for 
 he saith, The old is better." Though not found in the other 
 Gospels this passage is plainly an integral part of the parable, 
 and belongs naturally to the narrative. It is really the impor- 
 tant portion for us, since it contains, if any thing does, Christ's 
 outspoken commendation of intoxicating wine. The first ques- 
 tion which arises in our inquiry concerning it is, Whether the 
 term " new wine" has the same signification in this verse as in 
 the two preceding. Prof. Bumstead appears to think not. 
 The " new wine " of verse 38, he says,^ " must have been new 
 wine which had not fully fermented," but in verse 39 it may 
 " have denoted wine that was fully fermented, but which had 
 
 * Jahn's " Biblical Archaeology," see. 69. 
 
 f This furnishes another proof, therefore, of the generic character of olvoc, 
 since, in this instance, our Lord must have used it to designate the unfermented 
 juice of the grape. Cf. Canon Farrar, in "Cambridge Bible for Schools." Luke, 
 Excursus, ii, p. 375. 
 
 $ " Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1881, p. 82.
 
 68 
 
 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 not acquired that mellowness which only age can give." So 
 the authors of the " Temperance Bible Commentary " seem to 
 favor the view that " the ' new wine ' of verse 38 is identical 
 in nature and representative of the same Christian blessings 
 with the ' old wine ' of verse 39 being the new preserved and 
 improved by age." (P. 295.) It cannot, indeed, be maintained 
 that olvo<; veog always denotes a wine which is free from fer- 
 mentation. It does not manifestly in the LXX, (Job xxxii, 19.) 
 But there can be no doubt that it does in the present instance. 
 Neither can there be any question that it is used in this sense in 
 the LXX, (Isa. xlix, 26.) There the Hebrew asis, which 
 designates an unf ermented wine, is rendered : LXX, olvog veog ; 
 Vulgate, mustum ; A. Y., "sweet wine." And in the pas- 
 sage under consideration the legitimate, if not necessary, in- 
 ference is, that it has the same signification as in the passage 
 preceding. Used thus consecutively, and without any intima- 
 tion of a change of meaning, we naturally conclude that it has 
 undergone none. There is no confusion or contradiction of 
 metaphors in the parable. The " new wine " of verse 39 is the 
 " new wine " of verse 38, and the " old wine " of verse 39 is the 
 " new wine " fermented and strengthened by age.* With this 
 explanation of the passage it remains to be said that the ex- 
 pression "The old (wine) is better, (than the new,)" 
 
 1. Is not Christ's judgment as to the better wine. He does 
 ot utter it as his own opinion. He repeats it as the verdict 
 
 of a certain class of persons whom he distinctly specifies. 
 They think the old wine is preferable. He does not in any 
 degree join in their commendation. 
 
 2. It is not "the universal judgment of men" concerning 
 the better wine, as Dr. Moore calls it. f Neither does it make 
 plain, as Prof. Bumstead claims, $ " that wine in either of these 
 imperfect states," that is, unfermented or partially fermented, 
 " was not a favorite beverage with the Jews." It simply says 
 that one who has acquired a taste for the old wine does not 
 care for the new. "We know this to be the case. The effect of 
 drinking alcoholic liquors is to beget an appetite for stimulants 
 
 * Dr. Abbott renders, ("Comm. on John," p. 33,) "No man having drunk old 
 (fermented) wino, straightway desireth new, (that of the last vintage ami unfer- 
 mented,) for ho saith, The old is better." 
 
 f " Presbyterian Review," Jan., 1881, p. 91. 
 
 J " Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1881, p. 82. 
 
 FOUBTH SERIES, VOL. XXXIV. 32
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 69 
 
 which grows with indulgence.* And the longer it is gratified, 
 thu stronger must be the beverage that will satisfy its craving. 
 A simple, unintoxicating wine, therefore, would have no charm 
 for one accustomed to strong drink. But Dr. Moore criti- 
 cises f this interpretation in the shape propounded by Rev. 
 Dr. Rich, who says : ^ " This was not the judgment of Christ 
 respecting the superiority of old, fermented wines, but of 
 drunkards whose habit it had been to drink them." Dr. Rich 
 is able to defend his own position, and others perhaps would 
 not deem it necessary to say, " No drunkard" etc. But Dr. 
 Moore's criticism calls for consideration in the interests of the 
 general question. He directs attention to the fact that " Christ 
 does not say, ' No drunkard having drank old wine,' etc., but 
 4 no one,' owS?." This word ovdtis, however, is not always or 
 necessarily universal in its application, any more than our 
 " no one," which is often used in a limited or partial sense. 
 That the Greek word is sometimes so employed in the New 
 Testament is evident from John iii, 32 : " No man (nvdety re- 
 ceiveth his testimony," John says, speaking of Christ. But 
 he immediately adds, (verse 33,) "He that hath received his 
 testimony," etc., showing that the negative was not used in an 
 absolute sense. If it had been intended to make an unquali- 
 fied statement in the passage we are considering, the separate 
 forms ovde d<; would have been used, as we find them in Rom. 
 iii, 10, and 1 Cor. vi, 5. Dr. Moore further objects that Christ 
 " does not speak of those ' whose habit it had been to drink old 
 fermented wines,' for he uses the aorist participle, mwv, which 
 does not mark a habit." True, but neither does it deny one. 
 The aorist, outside of the indicative mode, does not necessarily 
 imply a single or transient action. In the other modes it rep- 
 resents an action simply as brought to pass.! The briefest 
 act of drinking, for example, may be viewed as going on, and 
 thus be expressed by the present; so the most protracted 
 drinking may be viewed simply as brought to pass, and thus 
 be expressed by the aorist. In the participle form the aorist 
 
 * Vide Richardson, " Dialogues on Drink," p. 92. 
 f " Presbyterian Review," Jan., 1881, p. 91. 
 % " Bibliotheca Sacra," July, 1880, p. 404. 
 
 Liddell and Scott, " Lexicon," *. v. ; Robinson, "Lexicon of the New Testa- 
 ment," s. v. ; Winer's " New Testament Grammar," Thayer, p. 173. 
 | Hadley, "Greek Grammar," sec. 716.
 
 70 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 represents an action as introduced before that of the principal 
 verb, while in its continuance it may coincide with the latter. * 
 These usages of the aorist are illustrated in Luke v, 39. It 
 may with literal exactness be rendered : " No one, after he 
 has begun to drink old wine, straightway desireth new." 
 
 The text does not say such an one will never desire the new. 
 He will not all at once. Tischendorf , Tregelles, Alf ord, West- 
 cott, and Hort, and the R. V., omit ewteuf, straightway, but 
 nevertheless the sentence requires it. Godet well says : f "It 
 is altogether an error in the Alexandrine that has erased here 
 the word evtfe'w?, immediately. The very idea of the parable 
 is concentrated in this adverb." All the known facts in the 
 case warrant its retention. Habits and tastes change gradually. 
 But here there is a strong implication that a slight experi- 
 ence will work a transformation of prejudices, and the old 
 wine give place to the new. The received text of this pas- 
 sage has xwaTo-epo?, rendered (A. Y.) " better." But codices 
 K, B, L, etc., read xprjarog, " good." This reading is adopted by 
 Tischendorf, Tregelles, Alford, "Westcott, and Hort, and the 
 K. Y. Alford, although far from being a supporter of our 
 views', admits:}: that the expression contains "no objective 
 comparison whatever between the old and new wine." It is 
 merely the opinion of the individual who is quite satisfied with 
 what he has. It is good enough for him. 
 
 3. The judgment contained in this passage, even though it 
 were the universal one, is false. It is contradicted by the 
 very connection in which it occurs, and by the whole purpose 
 of the illustration which it serves. The two dispensations, the 
 Jewish and the Christian, are set forth under the figures, re- 
 spectively, of the old wine and the new. But the Jewish dis- 
 pensation was not superior to the Christian ; fermented wine 
 is not preferable to unf ermented ; the old is not better than 
 the new. Only those familiar with the old and unacquainted 
 with the new are naturally reluctant to change. As Lange 
 remarks : " The old remains good only so long as one is not 
 accustomed to the new, which in and of itself is better." 
 
 The only other passage which can be quoted to sustain the 
 
 *Hadley, " Greek Grammar," sec. lit. Winer, " Grammar of the New Testa- 
 ment;" Thayer, p. 342. 
 
 f Comm. in loc. $ Comm. in lac. Comm. in loc.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 71 
 
 charge of Christ's commendation of wine is found in the par- 
 able of the Good Samaritan, (Luke x, 34:) "And he went to 
 him and bound up his wounds, pouring in oil and wine, (eAtuov 
 itai olvov.y It requires but a brief consideration. The com- 
 mendation implied in this narrative is of the medicinal use of 
 wine solely. It is a commendation, too, of its outward and not 
 of its inward application. There is no intimation whatever of 
 any internal administration of the wine. Nor is there any 
 evidence that the wine which the Good Samaritan carried and 
 used was of a fermented and intoxicating sort. The contrary 
 fact is indicated. The record was made by Luke, who, as a 
 physician, must have understood the medicinal character and 
 uses of wine. He knew undoubtedly that in their outward 
 application they follow the law of their internal use. Alco- 
 holic wine is an " irritant poison," * whether taken into the 
 stomach or applied to the surface of the body. It would not 
 allay, but seriously increase, the inflammation of a wound. 
 Christ could not have commended the use of so unsuitable and 
 injurious a medicament, nor could Luke have recorded its use 
 in such a case with his own tacit approval. But an unfer- 
 mented wine, a pure and limpid grape-juice, would have made 
 a grateful lotion. Combined with the oil, it would have 
 served as an excellent emollient. It is probable that the arti- 
 cle used was a compound of oil and wine, called by Galen, 
 (xiii. 859, B,) bvikaiov ; noticed by Af ricanus, (" Geop.," x, 49 ;) 
 described by Dioscorides, (" Matt. Med.," i, 67 ;) and numbered 
 by Pliny (xv, 7) among the medicated oils. The latter gives to 
 it the name of oleum gleucinum, and tells us that it was made 
 by incorporating mustum o/eo, unfermented wine, (yAcwrof,) 
 with olive-oil, (A<uov.) Dioscorides specifies the same consti- 
 tuents, and calls the compound yAev/ttvov.f If, therefore, there 
 be any commendation of wine in this parable, it is that in 
 which all abstainers can join. 
 
 3. Third Specification : Jesus USED intoxicating wine, and 
 COMMANDED IT TO BE USED until the end of time. 
 
 It is assumed, that he used such a beverage at the marriage 
 feast in Cana of Galilee, and as he eat at the table with publi- 
 cans and sinners ; although no mention is made of his person- 
 ally partaking of wine of any sort in these or in any other 
 
 * Vide " Story on Alcohol," pp. 76-80. 
 
 f This furnishes still another proof of the generic character of oirof, since it is 
 used by Luke to describe the yfovnof of the compound.
 
 72 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 instances, save in the two about to be considered.* And as 
 we have already examined these other cases, we may omit any 
 further reference to them. The two occasions on which it is 
 recorded that Jesus did make use of wine, and on which it is as- 
 serted that the wine used was fermented, are (1) the Last Supper 
 and (2) the Crucifixion. We shall separately consider them. 
 
 I. Chancellor Crosby,f Dr. Moore,:}: and Professor Bum- 
 stead^ all claim that Christ employed fermented wine at the 
 Last Supper. Dr. Moore frankly says, "He instituted the 
 Holy Supper in wine on which unworthy communicants could 
 get drunk, (1 Cor. xi, 21.) " We have to examine this charge, 
 and see whether it can be substantiated. All the evidence 
 bearing upon the case may be gathered from three sources, 
 namely, (i) The circumstances under which the Supper was in- 
 stituted, (ii) The language in which the event is recorded, 
 (iii) The practice of those by whom the rite was perpetuated. 
 
 i. The circumstances under which the Supper was insti- 
 tuted, The celebration of the Jewish Passover was the occa- 
 sion of the institution of the Christian sacrament. (Matt, xxvi, 
 19; Markxiv, 16; Luke xxii, 13.) The elements of the former 
 furnished the emblems of the latter. The drink of the one 
 constituted the drink of the other. | But what was the drink 
 of the Passover ? There is no mention of any beverage in the 
 many statutes concerning the festival, or in the frequent ref- 
 erences to its observance found in the Old Testament. It had 
 become an established custom, however, to use wine at the 
 Passover, " at all events in the post-Babylonian period." ^[ In 
 none of the allusions which the Old Testament makes to the 
 use of wine for religious purposes, is a fermented article indi- 
 cated ;** and in the only reference which it contains to the use 
 
 * It is taken for granted that Christ himself participated in the meal of the 
 Passover and the Last Supper. This is settled, we think, by Matt, xxvi, 29, etc. 
 Vide Meyer, " Comm.," in loc. \ " A Calm View," etc. 
 
 J " Presbyterian Review," January, 1881, p. 88. 
 
 "Bibliotheca Sacra," January, 1881, p. 87. 
 
 | The same, of course, is true of the bread, and for ourselves we should not 
 hesitate to follow out the argument to its legitimate consequences. 
 
 T[ Smith's " Dictionary of the Bible," art. " Wine." 
 
 ** Two terms are employed in the requirements and references concerning 
 drink-offerings. They are the generic yayin (Exod. xxix, 40 ; Lev. xxiii, 13 ; 
 Num. xv, 7 ; xxviii, 14 ; Deut. xiv, 26 ; Hos. ix, 4) and the generic shechar, 
 (Num. xxviii, 7 ; Deut. xiv, 26.) The first drops that reached the lower vat
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 73 
 
 of \vine at any of the great religious festivals an unfermented 
 sort is distinctly specified.* The practice of the Jewish 
 Church in this particular, during the transitional period be- 
 tween the close of the Old Testament canon and the opening 
 of the New Testament dispensation, is illustrated by a passage 
 in the apocryphal book of Ecclesiasticus. Speaking of the 
 high-priest Simon, probably that Simon who bore the surname 
 Just, (B. 0. 310-290,) f this book says, (1, 14, 15,) "And fin- 
 i.-hing the service at the altar that he might adorn the offering 
 of the most high Almighty, lie stretched out his hand to the 
 cup, and poured of the blood of the grape, (e alfiarog orcuftvMtf ;) 
 he poured out at the foot of the altar a sweet-smelling savor 
 unto the most high King of all." All the analogies of the case, 
 therefore, would lead to the conclusion that the wine of the 
 Passover was an unfermented drink. But we are not confined 
 to analogies for our argument. It was the law of this feast, 
 enacted at the beginning and never annulled or amended, that 
 nothing fermented should enter into its observance. It was 
 called the feast of " sweetnesses," or of " unfermented things." 
 (Exod. xxiii, 15.) \ Its law ran thus, (A. V. :) " Seven days 
 thou shalt eat unleavened bread, and in the seventh day shall 
 be a feast to the Lord. Unleavened bread shall be eaten seven 
 days ; and there shall no leavened bread be seen with thee, 
 neither shall there be leaven seen with thee in all thy quar- 
 ters," (Exod. xiii, 6, 7.) Nothing could be more emphatic 
 or explicit. Not only were unfermented things alone to be 
 eaten during the festival, but every thing that had been fer- 
 mented, or that was capable of producing fermentation, was to 
 be rigidly excluded from sight. That this was the import of 
 
 were called the demo, or tear (A. V.) " liquors," and formed the first-fruits of 
 the vintage, which were to be presented to Jeliovali, (Erodus xxii, 29.) This 
 was unquestionably a perfectly fresh and unfermented article, like the Latin 
 protropum. 
 
 * Neh. viii, 10. The Feast of the Tabernacles is referred to, and the fact 
 that this occurred duriug the grape harvest confirms the unfermented character 
 of " the sweet," mamtaqqim, already noted. 
 
 f Vide Lnnpp, " Commentary on the Apocrypha," Introduction, p. 279. 
 
 j nii*^n jrrnX, eth-chag ham-matzoth, does not signify " the feast of unleavened 
 bread." That requires Dr6i lechem, " bread," to be expressed, as in Exod. xxix, 2. 
 Cf. challath matzoth, " an unleavened cake," Num. vi, 19. Vide " M'Clintock A 
 Strong's Cyclopedia," art. " Leaven."
 
 74: Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 the command, and that it covered liquids as well as solids, wine 
 as well as bread, appears from the following considerations : 
 
 a. The word twice rendered (A. Y.) " unleavened bread " 
 in the passage just quoted is riianp, matzoth. It is the plural of 
 nsftp, matzah, (r. pro, matzatz^) which signifies " sweetness, 
 concr. sweet, i. e., not fermented." * It is used indefinitely 
 and substantively there is nothing in the text corresponding to 
 "bread" and means "sweetnesses," or "unfermented things." 
 
 5. The word twice rendered (A. Y.) " eat " is the verb few, 
 dkalj which is frequently used in the same general sense as the 
 English eat, including the taking of all kinds of refreshments, 
 both meat and drink, : (<?. <?., Genesis xliii, 16 ; Deut. xxvii, 7 ; 
 1 Sam. ix, 13,) and may be rendered in this instance, " to par- 
 take of." 
 
 c. The word rendered (A. Y.) " leaven " is "ifctf, sear, (from 
 the obsolete root ">xfc>, saar, cognate with the verbs ">KK>, shaar, 
 "vp } sir, to become hot, to ferment, and akin to the Anglo- 
 Saxon sur ; Germ, sauer and Eng. sour.}^ It means liter- 
 ally " the sourer," and is applicable to any matter capable of 
 producing fermentation to all yeasty or decaying albuminous 
 substances and so may be translated " ferment." 
 
 d. The word rendered (A. Y.) "leavened bread" is ft?n, 
 chametz, from a root of the same form, and signifying to be 
 sour, acid, leavened. $ It denotes, generically, any substance 
 which has been subjected to the action of seor. Like matzoih, 
 it is used substantively and indefinitely, with nothing in the 
 context corresponding to (A. Y.) " bread." It may be trans- 
 lated " fermented thing." That it is as applicable to liquids as 
 to solids is proven by the use of the kindred form chometz, 
 vinegar, or sour wine. 
 
 * So Gesenius, "Lexicon," s. v. But Fiirst assigns to it the idea of thinness; 
 Kurtz, of dryness; Knobel and Keil, of purity. Gesenius' explanation, however, 
 is most generally accepted. Sweetness, in this connection, has the sense of un- 
 corrupted or incorruptible, and so is easily associated with the idea of dryness 
 and purity. The Arabic word having the sense of pure, to which Knobel and 
 Keil refer matzoth, is a secondary form. The root has the same meaning as- 
 signed by Gesenius to matzoth. (Vide "Speaker's Commentary" on Exodus 
 xii, 17.) 
 
 f Gesenius, " Lexicon," s. v. \ Ibid. 
 
 " In Num. vi, 3, chametz is applied to wine as an adjective, and should there 
 be translated fermented wine, not vinegar of wine." M' Clintock & Strong's Cy- 
 clopedia, art. "Leaven."
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 75 
 
 The entire passage, (Exodus xiii, 6, 7,) therefore, may with 
 literal accuracy be rendered : " Seven days thou shalt partake 
 of unfermented things, and in the seventh day shall be a feast 
 to the Lord. Unfermented things shall be partaken of seven 
 days ; and there shall no fermented thing be seen with thee, 
 neither shall there be any ferment seen with thee in all thy 
 quarters." That this prohibition must have included fer- 
 mented wine as well as leavened bread, will still further appear 
 from a brief consideration of the raison d'etre of the enact- 
 ment. It was not intended, as Professor Bumstead declares,* 
 to remind the people of Israel " of the haste with which they 
 left Egypt, (Deut. xvi, 3,) having no time to put leaven in 
 their dough," a reason which, he says, " would not apply to 
 the wine." But it does not apply to the bread. Neither the 
 passage to which he refers, nor any other in the sacred narra- 
 tive, gives any intimation that this was the primary purpose of 
 the statute. On the contrary, it is evident from Exodus xii, 8, 
 compared with xii, tS9, that the command to eat unleavened 
 bread was given before the departure of the Israelites, and 
 when there was plenty of time for the dough to leaven. f 
 Neither was there any moral significance in the circumstance 
 of haste deserving the perpetuation of ages. But this law was 
 grounded in the very nature of things, and was designed to set 
 an object-lessdn for succeeding generations. Fermentation is 
 a process of putrefaction, and ferment or leaven is a substance 
 in a state of putrefaction.^ By the very closest association of 
 ideas, therefore, it becomes the natural symbol of moral cor- 
 ruption. Christ illustrated and confirmed this symbolism when 
 he bade his disciples " beware of the leaven of the Pharisees," 
 (Matt, xvi, 6, 12 ;) as did St. Paul when he admonished the 
 Corinthians to " purge out the old leaven," (1 Cor. v, 7.) The 
 Jews employed it in their representations of the depravity of 
 human nature, and the ancient pagan world recognized its 
 significance in the law which forbade the high-priest of Jupiter 
 to touch leaven " because it was made by corruption, and cor- 
 
 * " Bibliotheca Sacra," January, 1881, p. 72. 
 
 f Vide Alexander's Kitto's " Biblical Cyclopedia," art " Passover." 
 
 \ " Turner's Chemistry," by Liebig, 1842, p. 991. It is worthy of notice that the 
 Latin writers use corruptus as signifying fermented : and Tacitus (" Germ." 23) 
 and Macrobius ("Sat." vii, 12, 11) apply the word to the fermentation of wine, 
 
 Vide " BabyL Berachoth," 17, 1. Cf., also Persius, " Sat" i, 24. 
 6
 
 76 Oinos: A Discussion of 
 
 rupted the mass which was mingled with it."* Its exclusion 
 from the sacrifices of the Jews was based upon precisely the 
 same principle, f as was also the requirement that salt, as the 
 preventive of corruption, should form a part of every offering, 
 (Lev. ii, 13.) ^ The prohibition of leaven was not peculiar to 
 the Passover, but antedated the institution of that festival, 
 and applied to the greater part of the Jewish ritual. The use 
 of leaven was strictly forbidden in the meat-offering, (Lev. 
 ii, 11,) the trespass-offering, (Lev. vi, 17,) the consecration- 
 offering, (Exod. xxix, 2 ; Lev. viii, 2,) and the JSTazarite offer- 
 ing, (Num. vi, 15.) The show-bread also was unleavened, 
 (Lev. xxiv, 5-9.) Nor was this prohibition confined exclu- 
 sively to bread or even to solids. It was extended to debash, 
 grape-honey, (Lev. ii, 11,) as peculiarly liable to fermentation. 
 It likewise, in all probability, applied to milk, (Exod. xxxiv, 
 26 ; Deut. xiv, 21.) || 
 
 But in no form is this element of corruption more actively 
 present than in alcoholic wine, and any interdiction of it so 
 searching and sweeping as the law of the Passover must have 
 embraced its existence and energy in that shape. The Jews 
 have so understood the law. The rabbis have always inter- 
 preted it as including liquids. The Mishna expressly specifies 
 certain fermented drinks whose use would be a violation of 
 the feast, and in general forbids all liquors made from grain. ^[ 
 It is claimed, however, that " in the things which, according to 
 the Mishna, transgress the Passover, wine is not spoken of, nor 
 any drink prepared purely from fruit" ** This is readily 
 
 * Plutarch, "Rom. Quaes.," 109 ; Aulus Gelling, x. 15, 19. 
 
 f Vide Keil and Delitzsch, " Comm.," on Exod. xii, 8, 9. 
 
 \ Vide Ewald, "Antiquities of Israel," Edinburgh, p. 34. 
 
 Vide Josephus, " Antiq. Jud.," iii, 6, 6 ; Talra., Minchoth, v, 2, 3. 
 
 H "As early sacrifices were boiled, the ordinance [forbidding the seething of a 
 kid in its mother's milk] means that the sacrifice must not be boiled in milk, 
 which, from the fermenting quality of the latter, may be a variety of the law 
 against leaven in ritual. Milk, no doubt, was generally eaten in a sour form, 
 (Arabic aquit.) Bokhary, vi, 193." W. R. Smith, " The Old Testament in the 
 Jewish Church," p. 438, note. 
 
 ^[ Haec sunt in causa transgressionis Paschatis ; Cutach Babylonicum, cerevisia 
 Mediae et acetum Edomceum, et Zytus ^gypticus, et Zoman tinctorum et Amilan 
 coquorum et pulmentum librariorum. Regula generalis haec est quicquid est e spe- 
 ciebus trumenti, ecce propter hoc transgreditur Pascha. Pesachoth, Part II, p. 142. 
 
 ** Dr. Moore, in " Presbyterian Review," January, 1882, p. 87.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 77 
 
 granted. It is even true that Maimonides and Bartenora, 
 Spanish rabbins of the twelfth century, in their comments on 
 the Mishna, distinctly state that the juices of fruits, including 
 wine, were allowed at the Passover by the ancient Jews. But 
 on what ground were such beverages permitted ? On the re- 
 markable hypothesis, according to Maimonides, that "the 
 liquor of fruit does not engender fermentation, but acidity 1 " * 
 This concedes the whole case, and shows that alcoholic wine 
 could be used only by a denial of its real nature. Of signifi- 
 cance in this connection, is the rabbinical ordinance that no 
 Jew shall enter a place where wine or other fennented liquors 
 are sold during Passover week, and that, if one of that race 
 and religion is a vintner, he must close out his whole stock 
 previous to this festival.f It is also important to observe that 
 distilled spirits, under whatever name, have always been inter-, 
 dieted at the paschal supper. $ Facts such as these make it 
 plain that in the judgment of the Jews, ancient and modern, 
 the law of the Passover extended to the prohibition of every 
 kind of fermented liquor. And yet we have the statement 
 specifically and repeatedly made, and supported, as it is claimed, 
 by " superabundant evidence," in the shape of testimony from 
 Jewish sources, that the fermented juice of the grape is re- 
 garded as the only legitimate wine for Passover use. Now, if 
 this were true without any qualification, and if it expressed the 
 universal usage of modern Judaism, it would even then not 
 necessarily be determinative of primitive thought and practice 
 in this particular. For there is no certainty that the memorial 
 Passover, which now alone the Jews are able to observe, is 
 identical in custom and ceremonial with the original and sac- 
 rificial Passover, f But such a statement is not unqualifiedly 
 true. Testimony on this subject is not unanimous, and uni- 
 
 * Chametz Vematzah, v, 1, 2. 
 
 f Vide " Sunday Magazine," 1870, p. 730, art. " Passover Observances." 
 
 j Freshman, " Jews and Israelites," p. 66. 
 
 Dr. Moore, in " Presbyterian Review " for January, 1882, p. 89, who gives a 
 number of specimens of this evidence. Some of it, however, contains noteworthy 
 concessions. One witness (Rev. J. II. Bruehl, p. 90) says, in regard to the raisin 
 wine used by the Jews at the Passover, " They are perfectly indifferent about 
 fermentation." Another witness (Dr. Gottheil, p. 91) testifies that while the use 
 of fermented wine is proper at the Passover, unfcrmonted is permitted in cer- 
 tain cases. 
 
 | Vide Canon Farrar on Luke xxii, 18, in the " Cambridge Bible for Schools."
 
 78 Omos: A Discussion of 
 
 formity of practice does not prevail. There is mucn evidence, 
 of an unimpeachable sort, on the other side. Mr. Allen, 
 an authority on all matters pertaining to modern Judaism, 
 writes, with reference to the wine of the Passover : " They 
 [the Jfiws] are forbidden to drink any liquor made from grain, 
 or that has passed through the process of fermentation. Their 
 drink is either pure water or raisin-wine prepared by them- 
 selves." * Dr. S. M. Isaacs, an eminent Jewish rabbi, and for- 
 merly chief editor of " The Jewish Messenger," says : " The 
 Jews do not, in their feasts for sacred purposes, including the 
 marriage feast, ever use any kind of fermented drinks. In 
 their oblations and libations, both private and public, they em- 
 ploy the fruit of the vine that is, fresh grapes unfermented 
 grape-juice and raisins, as the symbol of benediction. Fer- 
 mentation is to them always a symbol of corruption, as in na- 
 ture and science it is itself decay, rottenness." f Another 
 leading rabbi of New York city has recently testified, that 
 " Fermented wine, as every thing fermented, is rigidly ex- 
 cluded from our Passover fare, in accordance with the spirit 
 of the divine command, Exodus xii, 19." ^ In accounting for 
 and estimating this conflicting, not to say contradictory, evi- 
 dence, it is necessary to bear in mind that there are two dis- 
 tinctly marked parties among the Jews the one orthodox, the 
 other liberal. The former, who are strict in their interpreta- 
 tion of the Law and in their obedience to its requirements, 
 rigorously exclude all fermented drinks from the feast of the 
 Passover. The latter, who are latitudinarian in doctrine and 
 lax in practice, deny that the law of the Passover extends to 
 the wine. Not a few of this school place the wines of com- 
 merce on the paschal board ; some neglect altogether the ordi- 
 nance of their fathers ; others rob the rite of all significance 
 by denying the supernatural character of the events which it 
 commemorates. There is good reason for believing, however, 
 that the stricter or orthodox view prevailed in our Lord's day. 
 So impartial an authority as Dr. A. P. Peabody says that he 
 " has satisfied himself, by careful research, that at our Saviour's 
 
 * "Modern Judaism," London, 1830, p. 394. 
 
 f Quoted in Patton, " Bible Wines," p. 83. 
 
 \ Quoted by Dr. Charles Beecher in " The New Englander," July, 1882, p. 520. 
 
 " The Monthly Review," vol. iliii, p. 41.
 
 The Bible Wme Question. 79 
 
 time the Jews at least the high ritualists among them ex- 
 tended the prohibition of leaven at the Passover season to the 
 principle of fermentation in every form ; and that it was cus- 
 tomary at the Passover festival for the master of the house- 
 hold to press the contents of ' the cup' from clusters of grapes 
 preserved for this very purpose." And Dr. Charles Beecher 
 declares* that "after a somewhat careful search" he has come 
 to the same conclusion. But whatever may be the facts in the 
 case, however much the Jews may have misunderstood the 
 law, perverted its meaning, overlaid it with their traditions, or 
 made it of none effect by their practices, it does not affect the 
 matter at issue. It is not their custom which we are endeav- 
 oring to determine, but the conduct of Christ. And about 
 this there ought to be, and there can be, no controversy. 
 He who came " not to destroy, but to fulfill," (Matt, v, 17,) 
 and whom it became " to fulfill all righteousness," (Matt, 
 iii, 15,) could not ignorantly, and would not intentionally, have 
 broken or infringed the Law, either in its letter or in its spirit. 
 He could not have celebrated the Passover in a wine which 
 had undergone fermentation, and so had become a symbol of 
 corruption. 
 
 We advance another step now, and proceed to consider 
 ii. The language in which the institution of tJie Lord 's Sup- 
 per is recorded. This is preserved to us with singular uni- 
 formity in the first three Gospels, and in almost the same form 
 in St. Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians. The words of 
 these records are largely the personal utterances of Christ him- 
 self, so that they come to us with especial significance, and 
 each adds its own weight to the argument. After mentioning 
 the blessing and breaking of the bread, the narratives continue : 
 a. " And he took (received, Luke) the cup TO norrjptov and 
 gave thanks" evxaptoTrjoas (Matt, xxvi, 27; Mark xiv, 23; 
 Luke xxii, 17.) St. Paul simply says : " After the same man- 
 ner also the cup," (1 Cor. xi, 25.) Some good manuscripts 
 omit the article before " cup " in Matthew and Mark, but its 
 use by Luke and Paul is undoubted. The reference, as most 
 authorities agree, is to the third of the four cups at the pass- 
 over meal, called the " cup of benediction," (Cos ha-Bt rd>- 
 chah.) It was this cup with which the Christian ordinance was 
 
 * " The New Englander," July, 1882, p. 520.
 
 80 Oinos: A Discussion of 
 
 inaugurated. For it the great Founder of trie feast gave thanks 
 as he consecrated it to its new and holier uses. And, when it 
 had been transferred to the sacramental table, it was still called 
 " the cup of blessing," (1 Cor. x, 16.) It is not necessary to 
 suggest that " the cup " is put by metonomy for its contents. 
 They were the subject of thanksgiving, the medium of bless- 
 ing. Such, indeed, would be the pure and nutritious juice of 
 the grape. Such never could be the wine upon which God 
 had poured his maledictions, and upon which he had warned 
 his children not to look. "We cannot conceive of Christ bend- 
 ing over such a beverage in grateful prayer. The supposition 
 is sacrilegious. The imputation is blasphemous. No cup that 
 can intoxicate is a cup of blessing, but a cup of cursing. It is 
 not " the cup of the Lord," but " the cup of devils." (1 Cor. 
 x, 21.) It does not belong to a eucharistic feast, but is the fit 
 accompaniment of scenes of revelry and riot. 
 
 J. "And gave it to them, saying, Drink ye all of it," Tliers 
 t avrov Trdvref, literally, Drink all ye of this, (Matt, xxvi, 27.) 
 " And they all drank of it," (Mark xiv, 23.) " Take this and 
 divide it among yourselves," (Luke xxii, 17.) Why Christ 
 should have singled out the wine, and insisted that all should 
 partake of that, may not be plain, but the fact is patent. 
 Rome, in attempted justification of her course in denying the 
 cup to the laity, may limit the injunction to the apostles and 
 their ecclesiastical successors, but Protestantism easily exposes 
 the falsity of such an interpretation. All of Christ's true 
 disciples every-where are commanded to drink of the sacra- 
 mental cup. There is no exception, absolutely none. If the 
 contents of that cup be the uncorrupted and nutritious juice 
 of the grape, there need be none. But if they be the fer- 
 mented wine so many allege, then there are many of our 
 Saviour's faithful followers who cannot and who ought not to 
 partake. There are constitutions to which alcohol in any form 
 or quantity is an active poison,* and there are none to which it 
 is not more or less harmful. It ought never to pass the pure 
 
 * " There are some persons on whom the smallest quantity of alcohol seems 
 to act like the taste of blood on a tiger, producing in them a wild desire for more, 
 and destroying all self-control. For them alcohol is a poison, and total abstinence 
 their only safeguard." Dr. Brunton, editor of "The London Practitioner," in 
 "The Alcohol Question," p. 26.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 81 
 
 lips of children, than whom none are more welcome at the 
 Lord's table. It should never be put into the hands of those 
 " who are practically unable to avoid excess if they use wine 
 at all," * much less should it be put to the lips of one in whom 
 the simple taste, and sometimes even the mere smell of alcohol 
 awakens a dormant or conquered appetite, and becomes the 
 initial step to a course of headlong dissipation and irremediable 
 ruin.f Yet such has been the sad history of not a few souls.J 
 Can it be that He who taught his disciples to pray " Lead us 
 not into temptation," has made his memorial table a place 
 of overmastering temptation to any, and of possible danger 
 to all? 
 
 c. " For this is my blood of the New Testament, which is 
 shed for many for the remission of sins." (Matt, xxvi, 28; 
 Mark xiv, 24, omits " for the remission of sins ;" Luke xxii, 20, 
 also omits this clause, and reads, "which is shed for you;" 
 1 Cor. xi, 25, omits both these clauses.) Up to this moment 
 the blood of bulls and of goats had represented the blood of 
 Christ ; henceforth the wine of the Supper was to stand as its 
 symbol. (Heb. ix, 13, 14.) But we undertake to say that fer- 
 mented wine could not suitably serve this purpose. It is not 
 a proper symbol of blood in general. Its only possible resem- 
 blance to blood is its color. But that characteristic does not 
 pertain to it exclusively, and the point of the symbolism, as 
 Meyer has shown, does not lie in the color. In every other 
 particular, the argument is altogether with the unfermented 
 
 * Prof. Bumstead, "Bibliotheca Sacra," January, 1881, p. 92. 
 
 f " Alcohol is a veritable physical demon, which, ouce introduced into the blood 
 of many a reformed inebriate, even after the lapse of a long term of strict sobri- 
 ety, may rage through his veins like consuming fire, and hurry him into the 
 lowest depths of his long-abandoned and sincerely-repented-of sin. . It is 
 difficult for any one inexperienced in the treatment of dipsomania to realize the 
 truth. But so real is the danger, that, Churchman as I am, even when a drinker 
 myself, I never allowed any reformed drunkard to go near a communion-table 
 where an intoxicating liquor was presented. In this practice I am supported by 
 Dr. Richardson, Dr. Fergus, Surgeon-General Francis, and other experts in the 
 higher ranks of the medical profession. I would as soon have thought of put- 
 ting a loaded pistol in the hands of a maniac iu a lucid interval, bidding him take 
 care not to shoot himself." Dr. Norman Kerr, in " Wines, Scriptural and Eccle- 
 siastical," pp. 98, 99, who cites the very positive testimony of the above-men- 
 tioned physicians on the subject 
 
 $ Vide testimony of Dr. Duffield in " Bible Rule of Temperance," p. 134. 
 
 "Comm." on Matt xxvi, 28.
 
 82 Oinos: A Discussion of 
 
 wine, as so eminent an authority as Dr. B. "W. Richardson has 
 pointed out. He says : 
 
 The constituent parts actually of blood and of the expressed 
 wine are strikingly analogous. One of the most important ele- 
 ments of the blood, that which keeps it together, that which 
 Plato speaks of as the " plastic parts of the blood," is the fibrine, 
 and that is represented in the gluten of the unfermented wine. 
 If we come to the nourishing part of the blood, that which we 
 call the mother of the tissues, we find it in the unfermented 
 grape, in the albumen, and that is also present in the blood; and 
 if we come to all the salts, there they are in the blood, and the 
 proportion is nearly the same in the unfermented wine as in the 
 blood ; and if we come to the unfermented parts of the wine 
 which go to support the respiration of the body, we find them in 
 the sugar. Really and truly, on a question of symbolism, if 
 there be any thing at all in that, the argument is all in favor of 
 the use of unfermented wine.* 
 
 Again, fermented wine cannot be a proper symbol of 
 Christ's blood. The warm current which pulsates in human 
 veins is not pure. It has been tainted by sin. This taint is the 
 accumulated heritage of generations of transgressors. And a 
 wine in which some trace of fermentation had begun the work 
 of corruption might not unfitly represent such blood. But 
 the blood of Christ was absolutely pure. There was no touch 
 or taint of sin in his veins. " He whom God raised again saw 
 no corruption," (Acts xiii, 37,) either in life or in death. And 
 of the contents of the eucharistic cup he declared " this is my 
 blood." Then it was pure, as fresh and uncontaminated as the 
 clustered drops within the unburst grape, f Again, fermented 
 wine cannot be an appropriate symbol of Christ's blood as the 
 means of man's redemption and sanctification. Such " a de- 
 funct and deleterious liquor " could be a proper emblem only of 
 depravity and death. "While " the fresh juice of the cluster, 
 
 * From an address delivered at a select conference in London after a paper by 
 Dr. Norman Kerr, on " Wines, Scriptural and Ecclesiastical." " National Temper- 
 ance Advocate," March, 1882, p. 37. 
 
 f It may be regarded as a strong confirmation of this view of the case, that in 
 every instance where Christ alone was typified in the sacrifices, offerings, and 
 feasts of the Old* Testament, the use of leaven, the element and emblem of cor- 
 ruption, was prohibited, as in the trespass offering (Lev. vi, 17,) and the meat 
 offering, (Lev. ii, 11 ;) while in those instances where God's people were typified, 
 as in the two loaves which constituted the meat offering of the feast of Pentecost, 
 (Lev. xxiii, 17,) the use of leaven was enjoined.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 83 
 
 full of inimitable life," fitly signifies the blessings of salvation 
 and immortal joy which the blood of Christ bestows. That 
 blood is said to purge the conscience, (Ileb. ix, 14;) but fer- 
 mented wine stimulates to unnatural activity all the physical 
 powers and awakens all the baser passions of the soul. The 
 unfermented wine, however, is a gentle purgative and a genu- 
 ine nutrient, and is every way adapted to promote the health 
 and happiness of man. 
 
 The expression, " which was shed for many," is especially 
 suggestive in this connection. The word is ticxwofievov, from 
 IKXVVU, (r. t/c^ew,) to pour out or shed, and is radically the same 
 as the term Jp^totvo^oo?-, by which the LXX translate the Ileb. 
 D'ptrpn "\v } sar ham-mashqim, in Gen. xl, 9, rendered (A. V.) 
 " chief butler." The participle, moreover, is in the present 
 tense, as is didofievov, (Luke xxii, 19,) and /cAto/nevov, (1 Cor. xi, 24,) 
 used in speaking of " the bread," and which we may suppose 
 were uttered in immediate connection with the act of " break- 
 ing" and "giving" it to the disciples: "This is my body 
 which is being broken and is being given to you." So we 
 may conceive that on this solemn occasion our Lord, acting as 
 the archioinochoos, took the purple clusters and pressed their 
 rich juice into the cup, suiting, as he did so, the action to the 
 word, and saying : " This is my blood in the New Testament 
 which is being poured out for you." * 
 
 It may be urged that this interpretation is inconsistent with 
 the fact that the passover occurred six montlis after the vin- 
 tage. But in grape-growing countries the art of preserving 
 the fruit for lengthened periods in a fresh state and with flavor 
 unimpaired, is thoroughly understood and generally practiced. 
 Josephus' testimony (Bel. Jud., vii, 8, 4) has already been 
 given, f Niebuhr says that " th,e Arabs preserve grapes by 
 hanging them up in their cellars, and eat them almost through 
 the whole year." \ Swinburne quotes from an Arabic manu- 
 script of the fourteenth century, preserved in the Library of 
 the Escurial, which says that the people of Granada " have the 
 secret of preserving grapes sound and juicy from one season to 
 
 * Meyer says (Comm. in toe.,) the whole point of the symbolism lay in the being 
 poured out 
 
 f ''Methodist Quarterly Review," April, 1882, p. 299. 
 
 | "Travels through Arabia," Heron's translation, 1792, i, 406.
 
 84 Omos : A Discussion of 
 
 another." * Bernier says grapes were sent from Persia to India, 
 wrapped in cotton, two hundred years ago, and sold there 
 throughout the year.f Dr. Robinson states that "grapes at 
 Damascus ripen early in July, and are said to be found in the 
 market during eight months." \ Secretary Mounsey, of the 
 British Embassy in Vienna, writes that in a village near Sul- 
 tania, in Persia, he " had a great treat to-day in the shape of 
 some grapes. In this dry atmosphere they can be kept, it 
 seems, for almost any length of time." Signor Peppini, one 
 of the largest wine manufacturers of Italy, informed Mr. E. C. 
 Delevan, in 1839, that " he had then in his lofts, for the use of 
 his table until the next vintage, a quantity of grapes sufficient 
 to make one hundred gallons of wine." | Dr. Kerr says : " A' 
 friend of mine now in Britain not long since unpacked grapes 
 he had received eleven months previously from the continent, 
 finding them fresh and good." T We can buy such foreign 
 grapes, packed in cork-dust, at almost any fruit stand or first- 
 class grocery store in this country. All travelers, moreover, bear 
 witness to the ease with which meats and fruits are preserved 
 for almost any length of time in the clear and dry atmosphere 
 of Palestine. The suggested inconsistency, therefore, does not 
 exist. Freshly kept grapes might readily have been procured 
 for the purpose of the Last Supper.** 
 
 d. " But I say unto you, I will not drink henceforth of this 
 fruit of the vine " (Matt, xxvi, 29 ; Mark xiv, 25 ; Luke 
 xxii, 18.) It is a noteworthy fact that nowhere in the New 
 Testament is the word olvw; used with reference to the Lord's 
 Supper. After noticing the use of this term in John ii, 10; 
 Eph. v, 18, etc., Prof. Bumstead says : " The fact is not with- 
 out significance that in these passages the sacred writers did 
 not use the only Greek word which clearly refers to an unfer- 
 mented liquid, namely, yAewoc." ff And so we say, the fact is 
 not without significance that in speaking of the wine of the 
 
 * "Travels Through Spain," London, 1781, i, 260. 
 
 f " Travels in Mogul," London, 1826, i, 284. 
 
 j " Biblical Researches," 1856, iii, 453. 
 
 " The Caucasus and Persia," London, 1872, p. 117. 
 
 | "Temperance Bible Commentary," p. 278. 
 
 T " Unfermented Wine a Fact," p. 30. 
 
 ** Vide quotation from Dr. Peabody, supra, p. 79, latter part. 
 
 ff "Bibliotheca Sacra," January, 1881, p. 80.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 85 
 
 Supper the sacred writers did not use the Greek word which 
 these authors assert always refers to a fermented liquid, namely, 
 olvo$. Instead of so doing, we find them employing an ex- 
 pression which cannot by any legitimate method of interpreta- 
 tion be made to mean a fermented article. * Two terms are 
 used and two only. One, which we have already considered, is 
 used figuratively ; the cup is put for its contents, but indicates 
 nothing as to their character. The other we regard as de- 
 cisive of the point in question. Christ calls the contents of 
 that cup " the fruit of the vine," yevvTyia r^ dpn&.ov. Tew^a, 
 from yfvvdw, to beget, or produce, signifies in classic and in 
 Hellenistic Greek a natural product in its natural state, ju>t 
 as it is gathered and garnered. This is its signification in 
 Polybius, i, 71, 1 ; iii, 87, 1, and in Diodorus Siculus, v, 17 ; in 
 the LXX, Gen. xli, 34 ; xlvii, 24 ; and Exod. xxiii, 10 ; also 
 in the New Testament, Luke xii, 18. In each of these in- 
 stances it is equivalent to Aca'p-ro?, "the natural fruit, usually of 
 trees, but sometimes of the earth." In the case before us it 
 could have no proper or possible application but to the juice 
 of the grape in its natural state just as it came from the clus- 
 ter. It must mean, if it mean wine at all, a purely unfer- 
 mented wine. Fermented wine is not " the fruit of the vine." 
 It is the fruit of disintegration and decay. " Alcoholic wine, 
 then, is no more entitled to be called ' the fruit of the vine ' 
 than any of the other contemporaneous or subsequent products 
 of its decay, such as carbonic acid, vinegar, yeast, volatile oils, 
 oenanthic acid, or ammonia. To apply the phrase, * fruit of the 
 vine ' to any of the substances resulting from its decay, is just 
 the same absurdity as to call death the fruit of life." f We 
 cannot doubt that Jesus, with divine wisdom, selected this 
 term to designate the contents of the memorial cup, that in 
 
 * " Considering: how often the New Testament writers mention the Supper, 
 their entire avoidance of all the current names for wine, in that connection, af- 
 fords some reason for holding that they designed to avoid them. It is not an 
 unnatural suggestion that they may have designated what was in ' the cup ' a* 
 ' the fruit of the vine,' expressly to distinguish it from that fermented preparation 
 of grape-juice commonly known as wine. If we take the evidence of the BiMe. 
 separate from Jewish and patristic tradition, this certainly seems to be the one 
 salient point in the case." Prof. Willis J. Beecher, D.D., in " The Presbyterian 
 Review," April, 1882, p. 322. 
 
 f Dr. Lees, in "Text-Book of Temperance," p. 50.
 
 83 Oifiws : A D'iscussion of 
 
 after times no sanction might be found in his words for the 
 use of a beverage manifestly unfit for the purposes of the holy 
 sacrament. 
 
 It is worthy of notice that the word a^TreAof, vine, is used in 
 only two connections in the narratives of the life of Christ. 
 We find it in the instance just cited, and also in the report of 
 our Lord's farewell address to his disciples, preserved in John 
 xv, 1, 4, 5. That address, as we know, was given on this very 
 occasion of the Last Supper, (John xiii, 1, f.) What suggested 
 the strikingly appropriate figure which it contains, of the vine 
 and its branches ? Several theories have been proposed. Among 
 others, Dr. Geikie * says : " Perhaps the thought rose from the 
 sight of the wine-cup on the table, and its recent use at the 
 evening feast; or perhaps the house stood amid vines, and 
 the branches may have been trained around the windows ; or 
 the vineyard itself may have lain below in the bright moon- 
 light." But it is far more probable, as it seems to us, that 
 the idea of this happy comparison was suggested by the 
 crushed clusters that lay upon the table about which they 
 still lingered. 
 
 e. " Until that day when I drink it new (liaivov) with you 
 in my Father's kingdom," (Matt, xxvi, 29 ; Mark xiv, 25. 
 Luke says merely, " Until the kingdom of God shall come," 
 xxii, 18.) Those who oppose our position understand Christ 
 in this passage to be contrasting the old wine which he was 
 then drinking with the new wine which he was to drink with 
 his disciples in the coming kingdom. But such an interpreta- 
 tion, implying, as it unquestionably does, the superiority of 
 the new wine, is in direct contradiction to the construction 
 which these same scholars insist upon putting on Luke v, 39, 
 already considered. So that they may safely be left to answer 
 themselves. Far more reasonable is the interpretation which 
 takes itaivov as an adverbial accusative, and renders, not drink 
 new wine, but drink it anew.^ But much better than either 
 is the construction which regards, as the others do not, the dis- 
 tinction between iiaivog and veof. The latter term would sig- 
 nify simply wine new in time, as of a recent vintage ; the 
 
 * " Life and Words of Christ," ii, 484. Dr. Macdonald makes a similar sugges- 
 tion in " The Life and Writings of St. John," p. 353, note. 
 
 f So Theophylact, Kuinoel, Rosenmuller, Bloomfield, Abbott, et aL
 
 The Bille Wine Question. 87 
 
 latter means wine new in quality or character. * In this sense 
 the word is nearly equivalent to trepof, different. This appears 
 from Mark xvi, 17, where naival ykuooai " does not express the 
 recent commencement of this miraculous speaking with tongues, 
 but the unlikeness of these tongues to any that went before, 
 therefore called also ([repot ytiJoaai, (Acts ii, 4,) ' tongues dif- 
 ferent from any hitherto known.' " f This use of the word is 
 illustrated in Xenophon, (Mem. I., 1, 3.) 6 6e ovdiv naivorepov 
 eioefape r&v akkwrv, " he introduced nothing of a different nature 
 from the rest." The term is frequently employed with this 
 signification in the New Testament, as in the passage imme- 
 diately preceding the one under consideration. The " new 
 covenant" of Matt, xxvi, 28, is a covenant of a widely dif- 
 ferent nature from the former. So the " new creature," Kaivr\ 
 , of 2 Cor. v, 17, and Gal. vi, 15, and the "new man," 
 vtfpwTrof, of Eph. iv, 24, and Col. iii, 10, denote a crea- 
 ture and a character of another type altogether. The term is 
 employed in this sense especially, as in the present instance, 
 with reference to " the future renovation of all things " ^ pre- 
 dicted by Christ, (Rev. xxi, 5,) "Behold I make all- things 
 new, (/can'd.) " Thus we read of the " new song," oxty naivy, 
 (Rev. v, 9 ; xiv, 3 ;) the " new name," ovofia naivov, (Rev. 
 ii, 17 ; iii, 12 ;) " the new heaven and the new earth," ovpavbv 
 KOIVOV Kai yr\v Katvrjv, (2 Pet. iii, 13 ; Rev. xxi, 1 ;) and " the 
 new Jerusalem," i] Kaivfj 'lepovoaMjn, (Rev. iii, 12 ; xxi, 2) all 
 of them signifying something of an entirely different nature 
 from any thing which has preceded. 
 
 "We understand, therefore, by this " new wine " of the com- 
 ing kingdom a wine which, like that kingdom itself, will be of 
 a kind and character utterly unknown to earth, a spiritual wine 
 as it is to be a spiritual kingdom. It is, perhaps, not unrea- 
 sonable to suppose that it will be identical with what is else- 
 where called " the water of life," (Rev. xxi, 6 ; xxii, 1, 17.) 
 The allusion of Christ, in this instance, was undoubtedly sug- 
 gested, not by the presence of an old and fermented liquor at 
 the feast, but by the contents of the cup from which he had 
 
 * So Bengel, Meyer, Clarke, Mansel, Nast, et aL 
 
 f Trench, " Synonyms of the New Testament," Part II, 10, q. v 
 
 j Vide Robinson, " Lexicon of the New Testament," . v. 
 
 Kllicott, " Comm. on Matthew," tn toe.
 
 88 Oinos: A Discussion of 
 
 just drank, and in which was the freshly expressed juice of the 
 cluster, so beautifully typical of " the newness of life," KOIVO- 
 TTJS %, (Rom. vi, 4:,) which men have in him. 
 
 iii. The practice of those by whom, this rite was perpetu- 
 ated is corroborative of our position that the wine used at its 
 institution was unfermented. But issue is straightway joined 
 with this statement, and the conduct of the Corinthians, as de- 
 scribed in 1 Cor. xi, 20, 21, is cited in refutation. This pas- 
 sage, indeed, is the main reliance of those who insist that the 
 wine of the Last Supper was alcoholic. Dr. Moore returns to 
 it again and again, in the course of his two articles, to prove 
 " that the sacramental cup containing * the fruit of the vine ' 
 could certainly intoxicate those who were guilty of the sin 
 of drinking it immoderately." * Dr. Poor also asks, " Is not 
 this a valid argument in proof of the fact that the wine used 
 at the Lord's Supper, in the primitive Church, was such as 
 could intoxicate ? " f By no means, we answer. The record 
 in question does not refer to the Lord's Supper at all, but to 
 the agapse, or love-feasts, which were often associated with it. \ 
 But " this is not to eat the Lord's Supper," (1 Cor. xi, 20,) the 
 apostle distinctly declares. " Paul rebuked the Corinthians for 
 getting drunk when they did not eat the Lord's Supper," Prof. 
 Beecher remarks ; and then, with justifiable sarcasm, inquires, 
 " Does it not follow, by irresistible inference, that when they 
 did, eat it, they used a wine capable of making them drunk ? " 
 And he is correct in saying, " This is not a caricature of the 
 argument from this passage. It is the argument itself, and 
 the whole of it." But, supposing this reference was to the 
 Lord's Supper, we have already shown || that the natural and 
 necessary rendering of its language is, " One is hungry and 
 another is surfeited." And even if we were compelled to con- 
 cede such a reference, and to translate, as in the A. V., 
 " drunken," it would then merely indicate that at that early 
 date this Church had departed from the original custom of the 
 feast, had surreptitiously introduced intoxicating liquor, and 
 
 *" Presbyterian Review," January, 1882, p. 95. 
 f Lange, " Commentary," in lac. 
 
 \ Vide p. 60, supra; also, Commentaries of Jamieson, Fausset, and Brown, Dr. 
 Cowles, and other authorities. 
 
 "Presbyterian Review," April, 1882, p. 322. 
 
 \ "Methodist Quarterly Review," July, 1882, p. 477.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 89 
 
 had turned the holy sacrament into a drunken revel. It is cer- 
 tain that their sin, whatever it was, whether selfish surfeiting 
 or riotous drinking, and wherever committed, whether at the 
 agapae or the Eucharist, drew down upon them the unsparing 
 condemnation of the apostle. It still further appears that some 
 of the Corinthian church members had even dared attend the 
 festivals of the heathen gods, (1 Cor. x, 19, f.,) and drink of the 
 intoxicating wines which flowed so freely on those occasions. 
 That drink St. Paul denounced as " the cup of devils," (1 Cor. 
 x, 21,) and put it in startling contrast with " the cup of the 
 Lord," (1 Cor. x, 21,) which he had just called " the cup of 
 blessing," (v, 16,) and which, with all the force of the compar- 
 ison, is shown to be a totally different thing, an innocent and 
 unintoxicating drink. 
 
 In pursuing an inquiry as to the practice of the early Church 
 in this matter, it is necessary to bear in mind and give due 
 weight to one fact, namely : deviations from the primitive sim- 
 plicity and purity of Christianity and its institutions began 
 almost immediately, and perpetuated themselves inveterately. 
 Abuses and corruptions crept into the Church, gradually at 
 first, but rapidly afterward, always obscuring, and often wholly 
 obliterating the original intentions of its Founder. In no in- 
 stance was this tendency to perversion earlier or more exten- 
 sively manifested than in that of the Lord's Supper.* Before 
 the close of the third century we find this ordinance corrupted 
 from a spiritual service into a sacerdotal act ; the plain table 
 converted into a priestly altar ; the simple elements changed 
 into sacrificial offerings and made the objects of adoration ; 
 and the eucharistic feast transformed into an expiatory rite.f 
 Another century had not passed before the keynote of the 
 doctrine of transubstantiation had been struck by Ambrose and 
 Chrysostom,^: a doctrine which was dogmatically decreed by 
 the fourth Lateran Council in the thirteenth century. Two 
 centuries later the practice of withholding the cup from the 
 laity, which for three hundred years had been extending, was 
 authoritatively established by the Council of Constance, (A. D. 
 1415.) Now it would not be strange if, amid all these mani- 
 
 * Vide Stanley's " Christian Institutions," Harper's ed., chap, iii, passim. 
 f Vide Pressense\ " Christian Life In the Early Church," book II, passim. 
 % Pope, " Compendium of Theology," iii, 329.
 
 90 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 fold and monstrous corruptions of the primitive Supper, we 
 should find that the simple juice of the grape, consecrated by 
 Christ to this service, had been displaced by an altogether dif- 
 ferent and utterly inappropriate material. We know that the 
 other element, the bread of common life such as Christ used, 
 has been, by the greater part of Christendom and for ages, 
 without rebuke or dissent, degraded into the smallest particle 
 of paste, known as " the wafer." * The Roman Church, by 
 whom all these abuses have been introduced and perpetuated, 
 place the intoxicating cup upon their ecclesiastically restricted 
 altar. And Protestantism, it must with shame be confessed, 
 has not as yet very generally freed itself from this " relic of 
 Popery." But how was it in the early ages of the Church ? 
 Some traces of adherence to the original custom certainly re- 
 main. One of the most important is found in the apocryphal 
 ' : Acts and Martyrdom of Matthew," which was current in 
 the second and third centuries of the Christian era.f A pas- 
 sage in this work reads, (Sec. 25 :) ^ Kal irpoceviynare -npoofynpav 
 aprov ayiov KOI dnb rr\<; a^irsXov rpel^ (36rpva<; dfrod^ii^av-e^ EV 
 .TTOTT/pta) ovyKOivuvrjoare fiot, &>$ 6 itvpiog 'Irjaovg vTT86eit-ev rrjv 
 dvw TTpoa(j)opav Tjji Tpirq fipspa Kyepdei^ KK, re/cpwv, " Bring ye also 
 as an offering holy bread, and, having pressed three clusters 
 from the vine into a cup, communicate with me, as the Lord 
 Jesus showed us how to offer up when he rose from the dead 
 on the third day." This is clear and positive testimony as to 
 the use of the freshly expressed juice of the grape in the cele- 
 bration of the Lord's Supper at that primitive period. The 
 view which the early Church took of the bread and wine of 
 the holy communion, as offerings of the first-fruits of the earth, 
 and the canon of the African Church requiring the offerings 
 from which the bread and wine for the great communion at 
 Easter were prepared to be of unground wheat and unpressed 
 grapes, (drro arafyvX&v not oirov^) | both point to the use of a 
 fresh and unfermented wine. That the practice of pressing 
 the grapes directly into the cup at the Supper was preserved, 
 
 * Stanley, " Christian Institutions?' Harper's ed., p. 43. 
 
 f Vide Prolegomena to " The Apocryphal Acts and Epistles " in Clarke's "Ante- 
 Nicene Christian Library." 
 
 J "Acta Apostolorum Apocrypha," edidit C. Tischendorf. Leipsiae, 1851, p. 184. 
 Irenaeus, (Adv. ffaeres., iv, 17, 18,) offcre primitias Deo ex suis creaturis. 
 | Binghara, " Antiquities of the Christian Church," xv, 2, 3.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 91 
 
 is still further apparent from the action of the third Council 
 of Braga, (A. D. 675,) which relates Cyprian's words, correct- 
 ing several other abuses that were crept into the administration 
 of this sacrament, among which it mentions quosdam etiain 
 <,t'j>ressum mnum in sacramento Dominici 'calicis offere, 
 " Some even who presented no other wine at the sacrament of 
 the Lord's cup but what they pressed out of the clusters of 
 grapes. "* Let it be noticed that this fresh juice is called 
 vinum, wine ; that the charge is brought by a Church which 
 had itself completely corrupted the ordinance ; and that the 
 gravamen of the charge is not that the wine is unfermented, 
 but that it is unmixed with water, f That objection, however, 
 had been met three centuries before by Pope Julius L, (A. D. 
 337,) in a decree which read :: Sed si necesse sit, botrus in 
 calice comprimatur et aqua misceatur, " But if necessary let 
 the cluster be pressed into the cup and water mingled with it." 
 This decree is quoted as authoritative by Durandus in the 
 thirteenth century, who says : Botrus ante uvae in necessi- 
 tate comprimi et inde confici potest ; sed de ipso botro non com- 
 presso non potest communicari, "In case of necessity the 
 cluster may be pressed beforehand and the sacrament made 
 therefrom ; but with the unpressed cluster communion cannot 
 be had." Thomas Aquinas, in the same century, also cited and 
 confirmed this seventh decree of Julius, and added his testi- 
 mony to the lawfulness and propriety of using unfermented 
 wine at the sacrament : | Mustum autem jam habet speciem 
 vini . . . idea de musto potest confici hoc sacramtntum, 
 " Must has the specific nature of wine, therefore this sacrament 
 can be kept with must." In the " Manipulus Cnratorum " T 
 (1333) we are likewise informed that the sacrament may be 
 celebrated in mustum. Similarly, Jacobus a Vitriaco, a cen- 
 
 * Bingham, "Antiquities of the Christian Church," xv, 2, 3. 
 
 f The practice of mint;liii the wine with water, noticed by Justyn Martyr, 
 Cyprian, Clement of Alexandria, Basil, Gregory of Nyassa, Ambrose, Chrysostom, 
 Augustine, Theodoret, and many other Greek and Roman writers, would have its 
 origin, not necessarily in the weakening of alcoholic wine, but in the thinning of 
 boiled wines and the thick juices of the crushed clusters. 
 
 \ Gratian, Pars. Ill, " De Consecr," Dist. ii, c. vii. 
 
 "Ration. Div. Off." Lugd., 1505, L. iv, c. xli, n. 10. 
 
 | Pars, in, Qusest. Ixxiv, Art 5. 
 
 Tf Pars. I, tr. iv, c. iii, foL xxii, 2. London, 1509.
 
 92 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 tury before, had said : * " The sacrament may be made of 
 mustum, though it be sweet, for it is wine." Dionysius Bar- 
 salibi testified to the same effect : f In necessitate sumatur 
 uvarum succus, aut ex urns passis liquor expressus . . . cum 
 isto Liturgia celebrari potest, " In necessity let the juice of 
 grapes be taken, or the liquor expressed from dried grapes ; . . . 
 with this the sacrament may be celebrated." In the twelfth 
 century Johannes Belethus called attention to the practice of 
 observing the sacrament of the Lord's Supper in the freshly 
 expressed juice of the grape on the Day of Transfiguration. 
 He says : ^ : Notemus quidem Christi sanguinem eadem hac 
 die confici ex novo vino, si inveniri potest, aut aliquantu- 
 lum ex matura uva in calicem expressa, " Let us notice that 
 on this same day the blood of Christ is set forth from new 
 wine, if it can be found, or from ripe grapes expressed into 
 the cup." Durandus mentions the sacramental use of such 
 wine on the 6th of August, under like circumstances, as a 
 custom nota in quibusdam locis, " well known in certain 
 places." The evidence of ecclesiastical history on this sub- 
 ject, so far as the Latin Church is concerned, is well summed 
 up by Scudamore, who says : | " In the case of necessity, the 
 expressed juice has always been held to be wine for the pur- 
 pose of the sacrament." 
 
 Within the pale of the Oriental Churches, where Christianity 
 was earliest established, and has, in many respects, been pre- 
 served in greatest purity, f we find proofs of the 'long-estab- 
 lished use of unferrnented wine at the Lord's Supper. This is 
 true of the Abyssinian Church, which is, in all probability, the 
 lineal descendant of that founded by the first Ethiopian con- 
 vert, (Acts viii, 27.) According to the traveler Bruce,** " The 
 Abyssinians receive the holy sacrament in both kinds, in un- 
 leavened bread and in grapes bruised with the husk together 
 as it grows." Bishop Gobat, of Jerusalem, bears similar tea- 
 
 * "Hist, Occid.," c. xxxviii, p. 423. 
 
 f Renaudot, "Lit. Orient." Paris, 1716, Coll. i, p. 194 
 
 $ Migne, " Patrol C. 0.," v. 202. 
 
 "Ration. Div. Off." Ludg., 1565, L. vii, c. xxii. 
 
 'Notitia Encharistica." London, 1876, p. 771. 
 
 t "The Greek Churches are more tenacious of ancient usage than the Latin." 
 Stanley. ;1 Christian Institutions," Harper's ed., p. 43. 
 ** "Travels in Abyssinia," Halifax, 1840, p.' 245.
 
 The BMe Wme Question. 93 
 
 timony as to the practice of this Church.* It is, in fact, con- 
 ceded on all sides, and has undoubtedly been the common cus- 
 tom of that body of Christians from the earliest times, f The 
 same may be said of the Coptic Church, which Dean Stanley 
 calls " the most primitive and conservative of all Christian 
 Churches." \ Tischendorf, in his narrative of a visit to the 
 Coptic monasteries of Egypt in 1846, writes : "Instead of 
 wine they used a thick juice of the grape, which I at first mis- 
 took for oil." The Christians of St. John who dwell along the 
 Jordan valley, and claim to have received the Gospel from the 
 Apostle John, according to the testimony of Baron Tavernier 
 in the seventeenth century, used wine from dried grapes 
 steeped in water, " in the consecration of the cup." \ Simi- 
 larly Thevenot says of this people,^ "As for the wine of their 
 consecration, they make use of wine drawn from dried grapes 
 steeped in water, which they express ; and they use the same 
 wine for moistening the flour whereof they make the host." 
 The Christians of St. Thomas on the Malabar coast in the 
 south of India, who are an offshoot from the ancient Christian 
 Church of Persia, follow a like custom. Duarte Barbosa, in 
 the beginning of the sixteenth century, writes that they cele- 
 brate the Lord's Supper in the juice expressed from raisins 
 " softened one night in water." ** Bishop Osorius also testifies 
 concerning these Christians : ff Vino ex passis itvis confecto 
 in sacrificiis utuntur, " They use wine prepared from dried 
 grapes in their sacrifices." Brerewood,^ Ross, Nelson, Jjj 
 and other authorities furnish additional evidence to the same 
 effect. The Nestorians of Western Asia, who date back as a 
 sect to the fifth century, likewise employ the expressed juice of 
 dried grapes in their celebration of the Eucharist. Ainsworth, 
 
 * "Journal of a Sojourn in Abyssinia in 1834." London, 1834, pp. 223, 345. 
 f Vide Alvarez, " Itin. ^thiop.," in Renaudot, " Lit. Orient." coll. i, p. 193. 
 j " Christian Institutions," Harper's ed., p. 52. 
 "Travels in the East." Ed. by Shuckard. London, 1847, p. 50. 
 | "Travels in Persia," London, 1677. L. iii, c. 8, p. 90. 
 Tf "Travels in the Levant" London, 1687, Pars, ii, p. 164. 
 ** Stanley in Hakluyt, "Description of East Africa and Malabar." London, 
 1866, p. 1G3. 
 
 ff "De Rebus," Olysipp, 1571, p. 143. 
 
 \\ "Division of Languages." London, 1614, p. 147. 
 
 " Pansebeia." London, 1653, xiv, p. 508. 
 
 || " Fasts and Festivals," c. iv, p. 48.
 
 94: Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 in the account of his travels among that people in 1840,* re- 
 cords that " raisin water supplied the place of wine," the bishop 
 administering the sacrament. Such is some of the evidence 
 which we have of the use of unfermented wine in the ob- 
 servance of the Lord's Supper in the Churches both of the 
 East and of the West, from the earliest periods of Christian 
 history down to the present time. 
 
 "We conclude, therefore, from our inquiry into the primitive 
 character, connections, and customs of this ordinance, that our 
 Lord did not use a fermented wine at its institution, nor did 
 he command such an article to be employed in its enjoined 
 observance throughout the centuries which were to come. 
 On the contrary, every thing points to the use and sanction of 
 the simple, unfermented, nutritious juice of the grape. 
 
 It remains for us to consider 
 
 II. Christ's use of wine on the cross. The slight variations 
 in the record of this event as given by the four evangelists 
 are only such as prove the independence of the authors and 
 the originality of their accounts. They do not in any wise 
 render uncertain the fact that two very different draughts were 
 offered our Saviour amid his last sufferings. 
 
 i. A drugged drink was proffered him, and promptly re- 
 jected. Both Matthew and Mark agree as to this. The other 
 evangelists make no reference to it. Matthew calls the potion 
 (xxvii, 34) " vinegar mixed with gall," ofrv ^ra %<>;% pefuyfig- 
 vov.\ Mark terms it (xv, 23.) " wine mingled with myrrh," 
 eofivpviopevov olvov. The latter uses the generic word for wine ; 
 the former calls it by its specific name in this instance. Mat- 
 thew copies his phraseology from the LXX, (Psa. Ixix, 21.) 
 The term %oX^ gall, does not describe the animal secretion, 
 but some bitter and narcotic herb, such as wormwood, poppy, 
 myrrh, or even hemlock or mandragora4 It is used with this 
 general sense in Deut. xxix, 18 ; Psa. Ixix, 21 ; and Prov. v, 4. 
 The mixture may have been one commonly administered to 
 criminals at their execution to alleviate their sufferings. Some 
 of the rabbis understood Prov. xxxi, 6, 7, as an injunction to 
 
 *" Travels in Asia Minor." London, 1842, ii, p. 210. 
 
 f The R. V., following Codices Aleph, B, and D, has wine (olvov) instead of 
 vinegar (b$ov). With this reading the Vulgate agrees, haviug vinum. 
 $ Ellicott, " Comm.," in loc.
 
 The BiUe Wine Question. 95 
 
 such works of mercy.* There are said to be traces of the ex- 
 istence of a society at Jerusalem which made this its especial 
 duty.f Possibly in the present instance the draught was prof- 
 fered the Saviour by the women alluded to in Luke xxiii, 27. 
 But, however compounded, or by whomsoever presented, 
 "when he had tasted thereof he would not drink." (Matt. 
 xxvii, 34 ; Mark xv, 23.) The fact that he did not reject this 
 potion until he had tasted it, indicated his willingness to re- 
 ceive any simple liquid to allay his thirst. He refused to 
 drink this, because it was stupefying, and would have dimmed 
 his consciousness and diminished the fullness of his sufferings. 
 He deliberately chose to finish his mission in the full posses- 
 sion of his powers. Whatever may have been the nature of 
 the oZvof with which the ^oA^ was mixed, the draught was re- 
 jected, not on account of the former, but of the latter ingredi- 
 ent. The act, therefore, does not bear directly upon the ques- 
 tion under consideration. If it has any lesson for us, it is that 
 we are not to seek a cowardly escape from the pains and trials 
 of life in the stupefying drug or in the intoxicating cup. But 
 afterward 
 
 ii. A drink of simple 8t;og was offered Christ and was ac- 
 cepted by him. Whether this was done twice, once in mock- 
 ery, (Luke xxiii, 36,) and then later, in kindness, (Matt, 
 xxvii, 48 ; Mark xv, 36 ; John xix, 29,) \ or whether the four 
 evangelists all narrate the same incident, is not important to 
 our inquiry. Only John (xix, 30,) tells us directly that Jesus 
 received the potion ; but the language of the others, Unless it 
 be Luke's, is consistent with such an interpretation. If it 
 should appear on investigation that this drink was a fermented 
 and intoxicating article, as Dr. Moore would have us under- 
 stand that it was, in order that he may thus convict Christ 
 
 *So Lightfoot and Schoettgen, ("Hor. Heb.," Leips., 1733, p. 236.) An at- 
 tempt is made to explain the above passage as a command of this sort by some 
 scholars of to-day. But Christ's refusal of this potion is sufficient proof "that 
 the spirit that was in him " could never have sanctioned such a practice. That 
 spirit points to prayer and not to drink as a refuge from the ills of life. (James 
 v, 13.) Prov. xxxi, 6, 7, is, doubtless, to be understood as a satirical and ironical 
 command, similar to Amos iv, 5, "Offer a sacrifice of thanksgiving with feat en." 
 
 f Ellicott, " Comm.," in loc., who refers to Deutsch's " Essays," p. 38. 
 
 $ So Lightfoot, Alford, Ellicott, Whedon, etc. 
 
 "Presbyterian Review," January, 1882, p. 86.
 
 96 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 of actually using fermented liquor during passover week, (!) it 
 would argue nothing as to his total abstinence principles, or as 
 to our duty in this direction. It was taken under circum- 
 stances so utterly exceptional, the only possible analogy to 
 which in our own case would be the medicinal use of stimu- 
 lants, which we are not discussing, and that, too, administered 
 when the work of life was done, and nothing remained but to 
 soothe the dying agonies, that no inference could be drawn 
 from it touching the subject in question. 
 
 But even this was not the case. The drink Christ received 
 in his expiring moments was not alcoholic or intoxicating. 
 Each of the four evangelists call it 0^05-, and in each case it is 
 rendered (A. V. and K. Y.) " vinegar." The term describes a 
 drink which corresponded to the chometz of the Hebrews and 
 the acetum of the Romans. It was a wine which had com- 
 pleted the acetous stage of fermentation, and was sour to a 
 proverb, (Prov. x, 26.) The degree of its acidity may be in- 
 ferred from Prov. xxv, 20, where its effect upon niter (car- 
 bonate of soda) is observed. By itself it formed a nauseous 
 draught, (Psa. Ixix, 21.) It was serviceable for the purpose 
 of sopping bread as used by laborers, (Ruth ii, 14.) To this 
 day the harvesters in Italy and the Peninsula use a similar 
 article called sera and pesca* In hot climates it formed, 
 when diluted, a very refreshing draught,f like the butter- 
 milk which is so favorite a beverage in our own South. 
 By the Romans this wine was usually mixed with water, and 
 was then termed posca.\ It was not intoxicating. It was 
 the regular beverage of the Roman soldiery when on duty, f 
 A jar of this drink, which the soldiers had brought to sustain 
 them in their long day's service, stood near the cross. When 
 the suffering Saviour cried " I thirst" some one of their number, 
 touched by rude pity, took the sponge, which had probably 
 served instead of a cork to the jar, and lifted it to his parched 
 lips. "When he had received it, " he said, It is finished, and 
 he bowed his head and gave up the ghost." (John xix, 30.) lu 
 
 *Kitto, "Biblical Cyclopedia," art. "Wine." 
 
 f Pliny, "N. H.," xxiii, 26, cf. ii, 49. \ Ibid., xix, 29. 
 
 Vide Plautus, ("Mil. Glor.," iii, 2, 23:) 
 
 Alii ebrii sunt, alii poscam potitant, 
 
 " Some are drunk, while others are drinking vinegar-water." 
 | Vegetius, De Re Mil., iv, 7 ; Spartianus, Hadr. 1 0.
 
 The BiUe Wme Question. 97 
 
 this transaction, well nigh too awful for our most reverent 
 contemplation, we find no warrant for the imputation that 
 Jesus ever tasted of the intoxicating cup. 
 
 "We have now completed our detailed examination of all the 
 specifications of the charge which men, for nearly two thou- 
 sand years, have brought against Christ, of using and sanction- 
 ing the use of fermented liquors as a beverage, and have found 
 absolutely nothing to sustain them. On the other hand, all the 
 evidence in the case, when carefully investigated and candidly 
 interpreted, points to and sustains the entirely different con- 
 clusion, that Jesus was a total abstainer from all that could in- 
 toxicate, and gave no sanction to the use of alcoholic drinks by 
 others under any circumstances. 
 
 We might rest our argument right here ; but the discussion 
 would not be complete without some consideration of what we 
 may call 
 
 Y. THE POSITIVE ARGTJMENT. 
 
 There is very much in the teachings of our Lord which bears 
 immediately and authoritatively on the duty of total abstinence. 
 "VVe find this both in 
 
 1. The General Principles, and 
 
 2. The Particular Precepts 
 
 which he laid down for the guidance of human conduct. We 
 shall examine these separately. 
 
 1. General Principles. The greater part of Christ's instruc- 
 tions were of this character. He dealt but seldom with the 
 minor details of duty. He made no attempt to cover every 
 possible exigency by particular precepts. There were many 
 wicked customs of his own day which he did not in express 
 terms forbid. So far as the record shows, he did not speak a 
 single word directly against slave-holding, polygamy, or gam- 
 bling. And yet no one doubts that the whole tendency of his 
 spirit, example, and teaching was to condemn and eradicate 
 these practices. Neither did he attempt to provide specifically 
 against evils which might arise for the first time in subsequent 
 ages. To have done so with any exactness would have been to 
 suggest the very wrongs he sought to correct. To have done 
 BO obscurely or ambiguously would have been to render the 
 whole unintelligible and inoperative. For instance, had Christ 
 forbidden by name the use of fermented liquors, which \
 
 98 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 the only kind of intoxicants known to his day, it would prob- 
 ably have been construed as a virtual permission to use dis- 
 tilled liquors, which were not discovered until twelve centuries 
 later. At least, men would have been very likely to claim ex- 
 emption for these, or have reached them only indirectly and 
 by inference. If he had explicitly anticipated the discovery of 
 alcohol, and included the stronger beverages of modern times 
 in his prohibitions, it would have confused the whole command, 
 or precipitated the very evils against which it was intended to 
 guard. In such a case one general principle would be worth 
 any number of specific enactments. So in a multitude of other 
 instances. Christ did not forbid the habitual use of opium, 
 hasheesh, or arsenic. But he enunciated laws of personal duty 
 which cover these and every other form of sinful indulgence. 
 And so for the whole conduct of life he has established grand, 
 comprehensive principles which are capable of an ever-varying 
 adjustment to its changing circumstances and needs. As 
 another has well said, "They are catholic in their character 
 and adaptations, and are at all times in advance of the highest 
 attainable morality." * No exigency of the present and no con- 
 tingency of the future can exhaust their significance or exceed 
 their application. These great principles, when impartially 
 applied, enforce the duty of total abstinence. It is difficult to 
 understand how any unprejudiced mind can come into contact 
 with the teachings of Christ without recognition of this truth. 
 When the parliament of Tahiti consulted the queen concerning 
 the admission of intoxicating liquors into the realm, she re- 
 plied : " Let the principles contained in the New Testament 
 be the foundation of all your proceedings." They straightway 
 enacted a law forbidding all trade with vessels bringing ardent 
 spirits into their ports. The general principles of this Book, 
 and not any one of its special texts, we are told, determined 
 their decision. At a few of these controlling principles of 
 human conduct, as laid down by Christ, it is now our purpose 
 to look. 
 
 (1) The first is the Law of Self-Denial, which is announced 
 in these terms : " If any man will (R. Y. " would,") come after 
 me, let him deny himself, and take up his cross and follow 
 
 * Rev. James Smith, " The Temperance Reformation and the Christian Church," 
 p. 256.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 99 
 
 me." (Matt, xvi, 24 ; Mark viii, 34; Luke ix, 23.) The self to 
 be denied is the lower and carnal nature, whose clumorings 
 come often into conflict with the claims of the higher and 
 spiritual nature. Its proper regulation requires the rigid denial 
 not only of those appetencies, which are in themselves posi- 
 tively vicious, but of those whose indulgence would expose to 
 moral danger, or disqualify for Christian duty. The appetite 
 for alcoholic beverages is justly liable to all these indictments. 
 It is unnatural and pernicious. It craves something which the 
 system does not need, and which it cannot receive without det- 
 riment. And in the general damage the mind suffers even 
 more severely than the body.* The moral danger in which 
 even its moderate use involves one will be considered under 
 the next topic, and need only be adverted to here. It is fur- 
 ther demonstrable that indulgence in these beverages, even to 
 an extent far short of excess, dims the religious perceptions, 
 deadens devotional feelings, and diminishes spiritual power. 
 Indeed, this must inevitably follow from what has already been 
 said of its influence on the body and on the mind.f The law 
 of self-denial, therefore, calls for a strict abstinence from every 
 tiling of the kind. Nothing short of this can meet the de- 
 mands of that law. The denial which it enjoins is of the most 
 absolute sort. The verb rendered " to deny" is the compound 
 d-rrapvrjadodu, whose simple form, dpveojuot, signifies " to deny, to 
 refuse, to say No." This is greatly strengthened by the ad- 
 dition of the preposition, and then "indicates a putting away 
 on the part of the speaker, a recoil on his part." f Instances 
 of its use with this force in the classics occur in Thucydides 
 (vi, 56) and Plato (Rep., v, 468 c.) The LXX employ it to 
 render the Hebrew DNO, maas, to reject or refuse, with the 
 
 * " As I have moved among those who are physically stricken with alcohol, 
 and have detected under the various disguises of name the fatal diseases, the pains 
 and penalties, it imposes on the body, the picture hns been sufficiently cruel. Bui 
 even that picture pales as I conjure up, without nny stretch of imagipation, the 
 devastation which the same agent inflicts on the mind." Dr. B. W. Richardson, 
 hi "The Action of Alcohol on the Body and on the Mind," p. 57. 
 
 tThis subject is very fully and ably discussed in Smith's "The Temperance 
 Reformation and the Christian Church," c. iiL 
 
 J Liddell and Scott. " Lexicon," s. v. 
 
 Suidas, " Lexicon," s. v. 
 
 \ Cremer, " Biblico-Tlieological Lexicon of N. T. Greek," . v.
 
 100 Oinos: A Discussion of 
 
 idea of loathing,* as, for example, in Isa. xxxi, 7. Origen and 
 Jerome apply the term to abandoning vice.f It carries with 
 it, therefore, the strongest possible sense of renunciation, and 
 involves in this instance the absolute abandonment of all that 
 is evil, and of every thing that is opposed to the Christian life 
 and service. 
 
 This law of self-denial and its interpretation are re-enforced by 
 another declaration of Christ's : " If thy right eye offend thee, 
 (R. V., " causeth thee to stumble,") pluck it out and cast it 
 from thee ; for it is profitable for thee that one of thy mem- 
 bers should perish, and not that thy whole body should be cast 
 into hell. And if thy right hand offend thee, (R. Y., " causeth 
 thee to stumble,") cut it off and cast it from thee, for it is prof- 
 itable for thee," etc. (Matt, v, 29, 30.) These aorists, " pluck it 
 out," eeAe, "cut it off," Ktcumpov, and "cast it from thee," 
 /3aAe dnb aov, indicate an instantaneous, energetic, and utter 
 abandonment of evil. The term " offends," (onavdaki&i, from 
 oKavda^oVj a trap-spring, so, literally, to entrap,) signifies in this 
 connection to tempt to sin. It cannot be doubted that intoxi- 
 cating drinks come within the scope of its definition. Dr. 
 Richardson rightly denominates them " an agent which of all 
 others leads men into temptation." None other is so seduc- 
 tive in its nature, or so fatal in its consequences. More wretch- 
 edness, shame, and sin have been consequent on the use of 
 alcoholic beverages than on all other forms of self-indulgence. 
 This is a proposition so abundantly proved and so universally 
 conceded that it needs only to be stated to be accepted. But 
 were this an "offense" of far less magnitude it would still 
 come within the range of this precept. Were it, what so many 
 claim that it is, not necessarily and of itself an evil, but such 
 only in its possible abuse and unintentional results, the prohi- 
 bition would still apply. " These verses," says Dr. Abbott, 
 " make short work of all defenses of habits and recreations con- 
 fessed to be injurious in their effects, but defended on the 
 ground that they are not wrong per se. The hand and eye are 
 not only in themselves innocent, they are in their right use 
 highly important. To deprive one's self of them is both to 
 
 * Gesenius, "Lexicon," s. v. 
 
 f Vide Suicer, "Thesaurus Ecclesiasticus," i, 422. 
 
 j " Total Abstinence," p. 27 Comm. in loc.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 101 
 
 maim the person and to lessen one's means of usefulness." 
 And so much might, perhaps, be said of alcohol in its proper 
 place as a mechanical and chemical agent, and possibly, in rare 
 cases, as a medicinal remedy.* " Whatever then tempts the 
 individual or his neighbor or the community into sinful courses, 
 even though it be not only in itself innocent, but in its right 
 employment important, is to be put away until it ceases to be 
 a source of temptation." But this law of self-denial aims at 
 something more than the arrest of an evil after it has assumed 
 the proportions of a habit. It strikes at it in its very incipi- 
 ency. Dean Alf ord rightly regards verse 29 as " an admonition 
 arising out of the truth announced in the last verse : to with- 
 stand the first springs and occasions of evil desire, even by the 
 sacrifice of what is most useful and dear to us." f And he 
 adds : "Our Lord grounds this precept of the most rigid and 
 decisive self-denial on considerations of the truest self-interest 
 ovfjrfepei ffoi," it is profitable to thee. No stronger enforce- 
 ment of the duty of total abstinence could be employed. Nor 
 does this mean asceticism, as Professor Bumstead \ and many 
 others charge. There is a radical difference between the princi- 
 ples on which the two practices are founded. Asceticism pre- 
 tends to promote the development and dignity of the spiritual 
 nature by the degradation and privation of the body. Total 
 abstinence, on the other hand, seeks to secure the most perfect 
 
 * "The Tacts as to food, dismiss it (alcohol) as such. The facts as to medicine, 
 confine it within boundaries so narrow that we must, in fealty to real science and 
 right practice, hold it closely within its limits." " Alcohol as a Food and as a 
 Medicine," in the Transactions of the International Medical Congress, at Philadel- 
 phia, Sept., 1876, by Kzra M. Hunt, M.D., p. 136. 
 
 " Speaking for myself alone, and specially guarding what I say by making 
 the opinion purely individual, I conscientiously declare that, although I might in 
 rare instances be obliged to substitute some other similar agent for alcohol, if it 
 did not exist at all, there is scarcely any drug I could more easily spare. If it 
 had never been discovered I do not believe that medical science would have suf- 
 fered one iota from the absence of its direct use ; and if it were never directly 
 prescribed again I doubt whether any loss to the sick would be sustained. At 
 the same time, on the principle of giving the 'devil his due,' even in solution al- 
 cohol must not be deposed from its right place. It is an admirable solvent of 
 many medicinal agents ; and as the starting-point for the manufacture of chloro- 
 form, ether, and other chemical medicinal substances, it is of the utmost value. 
 But these are its legitimate, as distinguished from its injurious, applications." Dr. 
 B. W. Richardson, in "Total Abstinence." p. 42. 
 
 f Comm. in loc. $ "Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1881, p. 104.
 
 102 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 physical health and vigor in order to the soul's largest growth 
 in holiness and power. The ascetic rejects alcoholic beverages 
 because they are a luxury and a comfort. The abstainer refuses 
 them because they are a poison and a curse. 
 
 (2) The Law of the Avoidance of Temptation. This is an- 
 nounced in the words of Christ : (A. Y. and E. Y.) " Watch 
 and pray that ye enter not into temptation," (Matt, xxvi, 41 ; 
 Mark xiv, 38 ; Luke xxii, 40, 46,) taken in connection with the 
 prayer he taught his disciples, (A. Y.,) " Lead us not into temp- 
 tation, but deliver us from evil," (R. Y., " the evil one" a very 
 inferior rendering.) (Matt, vi, 13 ; Luke xi, 4.) The Greek 
 word neipaaiiov, rendered (A. Y. and R. Y.) " temptation," in- 
 cludes "the two thoughts represented in English by trials, 
 that is, sufferings which test or try, and temptations, allure- 
 ments on the side of pleasure which tend to lead us into evil." * 
 It is in the latter sense that the term is employed in the law 
 we are considering. And in this sense it is strictly applicable 
 to alcoholic beverages. It is their peculiarity that they act as 
 a temptation to their own use and to all the vice and crime 
 originating therein. There is a dangerous enticement in the 
 first draught of such a liquor, and the danger deepens with 
 every subsequent indulgence. It gradually becomes essential 
 to enjoyment, and an unnatural and insatiable craving is cre- 
 ated. The longer this craving is gratified the more imperious 
 become its demands, until at length it will smother every noble 
 sentiment, sunder every tender tie, and sweep away every 
 strong restraint to procure its unholy gratification. Such is 
 the natural history of the alcoholic appetite. It does not in 
 every instance, it is true, pass through all these phases it pre- 
 sents many cases of arrested development but its constant 
 tendency and general course is to complete the last and worst 
 stage. Chancellor Crosby may characterize the statement that 
 moderate drinking leads to drunkenness as " an atrocious dog- 
 ma," f but it remains true, nevertheless.:}: The connection 
 
 * Ellicott, Comm. in lor.. f " A Calm View," etc. 
 
 \ " 'Moderate drinking" is an utterly indeterminate phrase; for we must bear 
 in mind the proof already given from the most unprejudiced authorities, not only 
 that for a large class of persons any drinking means certain drunkenness, but 
 that the vast proportion of so-called moderate drinking, though it may never pro- 
 duce open drunkenness, is yet genuine excess, accompanied with the substantial 
 results of intoxication. But since all drunkards certainly began with what they
 
 The Bille Wine Question. 103 
 
 between " use " and " abuse," which he and his class are so 
 careful to distinguish from one another, is close and genetic. 
 " Use is the seed, and abuse is the harvest to which it tends 
 and grows." Such is the testimony of the severest science on 
 this point. Says Dr. Hunt :* " Strange that, because multi- 
 tudes who drink moderately do not fall into drunkenness, it 
 should be taken as axiomatic that moderate drinking has no 
 tendency to cause excessive drinking. In this respect alcohol 
 has the law of all its class of medicines, and of many more decided 
 narcotics." Dr. Hichardson writes :f " It is, I repeat, one of the 
 singular physiological actions of alcohol that its very presence 
 in the human body maintains the desire for it, and overrides 
 the will. In this manner is instilled the desire to take more 
 of it in those who take a little, and in this manner drunkards 
 are produced out of moderate drinkers." The same authority 
 also declares 4 " Whenever a person begins to take any portion 
 of alcohol, he starts on that journey" from "gentle stimula- 
 tion" to "dead drunkenness" "starts just as distinctly with 
 the first drop swallowed as he would start with the first step he 
 would put forward in a walk from the pure region of Ilamp- 
 stead Heath into the outfall of that Babylonish sewage, which 
 greets the smiling Thames at Barking Creek." 
 
 At the very entrance to the path of alcoholic indulgence, 
 therefore, Christ writes Jiis law. He places the prohibition at 
 the outset, for there the danger begins. He forbids us to cross 
 the threshold of temptation. His word of warning is, " Enter 
 not." The only safety for any, the single duty for all, is absti- 
 nence. That is the one possible application of the Law of the 
 Avoidance of Temptation so far as alcoholic drinks are con- 
 cerned. 
 
 The two principles thus far considered concern our personal 
 duties, those which we owe to ourselves. There is another 
 
 at least considered a moderate use, (and it would seem hard in such an open ques- 
 tion not to concede them the right to their own opinion,) it is difficult to see 
 whence the great army of drunkards and the vast evils of drunkenness come, ex- 
 cept from those who begin with such use. That all who drink moderately do not 
 become drunkards does not alter the fact that all drunkards were first moderate 
 drinkers, and therefore that moderate drinking tends to drunkenness." Rev. 
 Daniel Merriman, in "The Bibliotheca Sacra," Oct, 1881, p. 739. 
 
 "The New York Independent," Feb. 3, 1881. 
 
 f "Total Abstinence," p. 65. J " Moderate Drinking," p. 29.
 
 104 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 covering our relative duties, those which we owe to others. 
 It is 
 
 (3) The Law of Love. It reads : " Thou shalt love thy 
 neighbor as thyself." (Matt, xix, 19 ; xxii, 39 ; Mark xii, 31 ; 
 Luke x, 27; Rom. xiii, 9; Gal. v, 14; James ii, 8.) The 
 frequent enunciation of this law, both by Christ and by his 
 apostles, indicates its importance. St. Paul explicitly asserted 
 that importance when he declared : " Love worketh no ill to 
 his neighbor ; therefore, love is the fulfilling of the law." 
 (Rom. xiii, 10.) The objects of this love are to be restricted 
 by no boundaries narrower than those of the race. It must 
 embrace all the children of our common Father, whether they 
 are brethren in Christ or not. Its appointed measure is our 
 own highest and truest self-love. It requires us to be as re- 
 gardful of our neighbor's interests as of what belongs to our- 
 selves. If we are to deny our own sinful appetences, we are 
 to be equally careful not to excite or minister to his. If we 
 are to watch and pray lest we enter into temptation, we are to 
 be at the same pains not to lead him into it. In no way is 
 this law oftener or more flagrantly violated than by setting our 
 neighbor a bad example. And no example is more pernicious 
 than that of the man who uses, however moderately, alcoholic 
 beverages. On every hand we have the weak and the tempted 
 as our neighbors, and, if it were supposable that we did not 
 need to abstain on our own account, the obligation of absti- 
 nence for their sakes would still be imperative. The law of 
 love covers this ground, as is plain from such passages as Rom. 
 xv, 1 : " "We, then, that are strong (ol dvvarot) ought to bear 
 the infirmities (rd aaQevr^ara^ the weaknesses) of the weak, (rc5v 
 dtiwdruv, the strengthless.)" Upon this divine law the whole 
 doctrine of Christian expediency, so called, is grounded. St. 
 Paul has expounded and enforced that doctrine with especial 
 reference to meats offered to idols, (Rom. xiv ; 1 Cor. vi, 12, 
 13 ; viii, 4-13 ; x, 19-33.) He has formulated it in these terms : 
 " It is good (tcakov, morally excellent or befitting) neither to 
 cat flesh, nor to drink wine (oh>ov), nor (to do) any thing 
 whereby thy brother stumbleth (TTPOOKOTTTEI), or is offended 
 i, is entrapped or tempted), or is made weak 
 is weak.)" (Rom. xiv, 21.) It would seem hardly 
 possible to make a stronger or more comprehensive announce-
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 105 
 
 ment of this principle. But Professor Bumstead protests 
 against its indiscriminate application to the duty of total absti- 
 nence.* Two only of his statements call for consideration. 
 (a) " The abstinence so repeatedly and forcibly inculcated is 
 always for the sake of those who are ethically weak weak in 
 the possession of an overscrupulous conscience." That such is 
 the immediate application of the principle may be true. But 
 it cannot be confined to so narrow a range. It is ample 
 enough to include within its scope every case and circumstance 
 where the main point is involved the temptation and sin of 
 another. " The duty of abstinence," continues the Professor,! 
 " for the sake of those who are physically weak, does not ap- 
 pear to have been in the apostle's mind." Possibly not, but 
 the question is not what was in the apostle's mind, but what is 
 in his principle. Does that apply to those physically weak ? 
 Professor Bumstead admits:}: that such "may be fairly dra\vn 
 from his words by analogy." But if so much, why not more ? 
 How about those who are volitionally weak, whose consciences 
 are not " overscrupulous," but properly sensitive on this sub- 
 ject, and yet whose general moral power is enfeebled by in- 
 dulgence ? Shall we be under no obligations to abstain for 
 their sakes ? Does the principle not hold good when tempta- 
 tion is strongest and stumbling most fatal. Is the command- 
 ment not broad enough to cover all cases where the soul's 
 highest interests are at stake? (5) But Professor Bumstead 
 complains | that in our " constant and exclusive appeal to that 
 portion of Paul's precepts, which inculcate benevolent absti- 
 nence," we ignore " the precepts declarative of Christian 
 liberty." But we claim that in the use of alcoholic beverages 
 Christian liberty is not involved. That finds play only within 
 the sphere of things innocent or indifferent in themselves. 
 Outside that limit it has no range, and if it pass beyond, it is 
 straightway transformed into license. We think we have 
 shown that the use of alcoholic beverages does not belong to 
 the category of things innocent or indifferent.^ To attempt the 
 
 * "Bibliotheca Sncra," Jan., 1881, p. 97. f Ibid. $ Ibid. 
 
 Meyer accurately says (Comm. in toe.) tliat aaflevtl, is weak, in this passage 
 (Rom. xiv, 21) "denotes one morally powerless to withstand temptation and to 
 follow liis moral conviction." 
 
 | " Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1881, p. 115. T Supra, p. 2
 
 106 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 application of the doctrine of Christian liberty to them, is to 
 make the very mistake which St. Paul corrects in the Corin- 
 thians. Because he had maintained the right of individual 
 liberty regarding the eating of things offered to idols, he had 
 been quoted as an authority for liberty regarding fornication.* 
 So in his first Epistle to the Corinthians, he proceeds to show 
 that this principle of Christian liberty " does not refer to mat- 
 ters which are absolutely wrong, and that even in its application 
 to indifferent matters it must be limited and guarded by other 
 Christian principles." f So that, even if we were to agree 
 with Professor Bumstead and admit the use of alcoholic bev- 
 erages to be an intrinsically innocent procedure, still the diffi- 
 culty would remain. Christian liberty is conditioned by the 
 proviso that it is not to be used " for an occasion to the flesh," 
 and, by the general law, "by love serve one another." (Gal. v, 
 13.) Its sphere is bounded not simply by the limits of things 
 lawful (ee<m, it is permitted) for one's self, but by the nar- 
 rower lines of things expedient (<rvjt*0epe, it is profitable) for 
 others. (1 Cor. vi, 12.) Within this inner circle the law of 
 love bids every man take up his position. Nor does it permit 
 him to go outside of this boundary. He may not lawfully do 
 what is inexpedient to be done. For an act, however innocent 
 in itself, if it be injurious in its influence upon others, is 
 thereby rendered not simply inexpedient, but, by very reason 
 of its inexpediency, unlawful. Personal liberty ceases to be 
 liberty when it becomes an occasion of temptation to others. 
 To attempt its exercise under such circumstances is to turn it 
 into license. It is to sin against one's brother, and so to sin 
 against Christ. Upon one thus guilty Christ pronounces his 
 heaviest condemnation. "Woe unto the world because of 
 offenses, (TOJV a/cavddAwv, literally snares, i.e., temptations, R. V. 
 " occasions of stumbling,") for it must be that offenses (R. Y. 
 " the occasions ") come," he says ; " But woe to that man by 
 whom the offense (R. V. " the occasion ") cometh." (Matt, xviii, 
 7 ; Luke xvii, 1.) The two woes are to be distinguished. There 
 is " woe to the world," because of the sources of temptation 
 which are in it, and no woes greater than those which come 
 from temptations to indulgence in alcoholic beverages. But 
 
 * Vide Meyer, " Commentary on 1 Corinthians" vi, 12. f Ellicott, Comm. in loc.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 107 
 
 there is -n^fjv ovai, woe besides, more woe, or woe beyond woe,* 
 to him by whom the temptation comes. It is bad for men to 
 yield to temptation ; it is, if possible, infinitely worse for those 
 who cause the temptaticn. Well does Dr. Abbott say : f "So 
 great is the evil of becoming a cause of temptation to others 
 or to yourself, that it is better to cut off the most innocent 
 enjoyment, or even useful exercise of a God-given power, 
 than so to use it as to lead yourself or others into sin." And 
 if that be true, how unspeakably more important is it to cut 
 off an enjoyment that is not innocent, to deny an appetite 
 that is not God-given, and to abstain from a practice that is 
 not useful, but which, beyond every other, is likely to lead one 
 into sin, and to prove a source of incalculable evil to others. 
 
 If there be any other principle, applicable to this case, which 
 we have not considered, it is summed up in 
 
 (4) The Law of Perfection, which Christ announced in his 
 Sermon on the Mount. Its brief but pregnant form is, " Be 
 ye perfect." (Matt, v, 48.) The command includes every duty 
 which we owe to ourselves, to our neighbor, or to the cause of 
 Christ in general. It covers every possible moral excellence ; 
 calls for a complete obedience to all the laws of right-doing 
 and well-being ; and aims at the development of a character 
 which is at once comprehensive and symmetrical. If, there- 
 fore, the positions which we have taken throughout this in- 
 quiry be sustained, and the use of alcoholic beverages be not 
 only needless but harmful in health, if they have a fatal 
 facility for begetting an unnatural appetite that grows by 
 gratification ; if they tend to lead men into all vicious and sin- 
 ful excesses, and if the evil of indulgence does not stop with 
 the individual, but becomes a pervasive and pernicious influ- 
 ence in the community, causing the weak to stumble, and the 
 brother for whom Christ died to perish, then this habit is in- 
 consistent with the command of Christ, and, if we would be 
 perfect, we must wholly abstain from all that can intoxicate. 
 
 But in this case we are not left solely to the guidance of 
 general principles. The use of alcoholic beverages, with all 
 their injurious consequences, was an evil so prevalent in his 
 
 * Such is the force of irX^v fr. irteov, more, vide laddell and Scott " Lexicon," 
 s. v. 
 
 t Oomm. in loc. 
 9
 
 108 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 own day, and destined to work such ravages in days to come, 
 that Christ did not leave his condemnation of it without specific 
 expression, nor its extirpation solely to the influence of his 
 general spirit and instructions. Upon this subject he has left 
 us several 
 
 (2) Particular Precepts. They are found not only in the 
 Gospels which record his direct utterances, but in the Epistles 
 which contain his revealed will. These were composed by 
 men who had enjoyed unequaled advantages of personal inter- 
 course with him, and who had had every opportunity of learning 
 his sentiments and purposes. They were ordained to teach 
 men all things whatsoever he had commanded them. (Matt, 
 xxviii, 20.) That they might do this with fidelity and authority 
 the Holy Spirit was given in his name to teach them all 
 things and to .bring all things to their remembrance, whatso- 
 ever he said unto them. (John xiv, 26.) Their writings, con- 
 sequently, were " not in the words which man's wisdom 
 teacheth, but which the Holy Ghost teacheth." (1 Cor. ii, 13.) 
 We are justified in searching them, therefore, to discover the 
 mind of Christ on any subject. His precepts upon the topic 
 under consideration, when gathered from Gospels and Epistles, 
 group themselves naturally under three heads. 
 
 (1) Prohibitions of drunkenness and of the use of wine. 
 The only one directly from Christ's own lips is recorded by 
 
 M~,uke (xxi, 34) : " And take heed to yourselves, lest at any time 
 our hearts be overcharged (Papwd&mv, literally, weighed 
 own) with surfeiting (KpaindXij) and drunkenness (^#17) and 
 ^ the cares of life." Referring to this passage, Dr. Moore asks,* 
 " If our Lord had intended that abstinence from common wine 
 should be the law of his kingdom, could he have deemed it 
 sufficient to admonish his disciples to guard against being over- 
 come by debauch and drunkenness?" Before attempting 
 to answer his question, let us notice that this is the construc- 
 tion put by Dr. Moore and his school on this whole class of 
 passages, namely, Rom. xiii, 13; Eph. v, 18; 1 Tim. iii, 
 3, 8 ; Titus i, 7 ; ii, 3 ; 1 Peter iv, 3 ; also 1 Cor. v, 11 ; vi, 10, 
 and Gal. v, 21. Professor Bumstead calls them f condemna- 
 tions of the intemperate use of wine, and interprets them as 
 
 * "Presbyterian Review," Jan., 1881, p. 88. 
 f " Bibliotlieca Sacra," Jan., 1881, p. 87.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 109 
 
 sanctions of its moderate use. He says, * " The Bible surely 
 would not contain so many condemnations of the excessive use 
 of wine if it did not mean, at the same time, to sanction its 
 moderate use;" and so, in substance, says Dr. Moore.f But can 
 such a position be sustained ? Does Christ in his word simply 
 prohibit such an intemperate indulgence in alcoholic beverages 
 as amounts to open drunkenness, and does he thereby put his 
 sanction upon its use to any extent short of actual intoxica- 
 tion ? The claim that he does seems to us to be made in 
 
 a. Utter bondage to the letter of the law. It is a species of 
 legalistic interpretation savoring of Judaism, and altogether 
 foreign to the spirit of Christianity. It is precisely after the 
 pattern of them of old time who imagined that the command- 
 ment " Thou shalt love thy neighbor " gave permission to 
 " hate thine enemy." But when Christ came he overturned 
 this whole system of exegesis. He taught men that " love thy 
 neighbor " means " love your enemies, bless them that curse 
 you, do good to them that hate you, and pray for them which 
 despitefully use you and persecute you." (Matt, v, 44.) He 
 taught them that the command, " Thou shall not kill," instead 
 of sanctioning any violence short of down-right murder, for- 
 bids even hatred in the heart toward another; and that the 
 command, u Thou shalt not commit adultery," instead of per- 
 mitting indulgence to passion provided it stop short of the 
 overt act, does not allow so much as the lustful look. By the 
 prohibition of any practice Christ places his interdict on every 
 thing that leads to it or partakes of its spirit. By condemning 
 a class of sins in their most aggravated form he condemns 
 them in all their degrees and disguises. And so, in denouncing 
 drunkenness, he forbids all wine-bibbing and moderate drink- 
 ing, which are approaches to it and stages of it. 
 
 b. The physical basis upon which these authors attempt to 
 rest their inference in favor of moderate drinking is a false 
 one. It does not exist. This is the way in which Dr. Moore 
 puts it : " The effect produced by a little genuine wine is not 
 intoxication, but exhilaration. Psa. civ, 15. These two condi- 
 tions are essentially different and not varied in degree ; though 
 
 * " Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1881, p. 88. 
 f " Presbyterian Review," Jan., 1881, p. 91 
 J Ibid, p. 93.
 
 110 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 which of them shall be produced depends on the quantity of 
 wine drunk." The quotation from the Psalms, when correctly 
 interpreted, lends no countenance to such a theory. The at- 
 tempted distinction between intoxication and exhilaration has 
 no foundation in fact. The two conditions are not essentially 
 different. They do vary simply in degree. Intoxication is 
 both etymologically and scientifically poisoning.* Says Dr. 
 Carpenter : f " The condition of drunkenness in all its stages is 
 one of poisoning." Exhilaration is an incipient stage of poi- 
 soning. " Poison is the name of an intrinsic quality, and has 
 no reference whatever to quantity, quantity being only consid- 
 ered in regard to the extent of its poisonous effects. One par- 
 ticle of opium, or one drop of alcohol, therefore, is as much and 
 truly a poison as a pound or a gallon." ^ No one doubts that 
 alcohol, when taken in any considerable quantity, is " a true 
 narcotic poison." It produces paralysis a suspension of the 
 functional activity of the nervous system. Its symptoms are 
 plain and unmistakable, such as the flushed face, perspiring skin, 
 accelerated pulse, etc. It is equally unquestionable that alcohol 
 in any dose, however small, is always 'an active poison to some 
 persons. But it is also a matter of evidence that alcohol, even 
 in the most moderate quantities, produces genuine narcotism in 
 all cases. Though the ordinary signs may not appear, and the 
 common and coarser tests fail to detect it, yet it reveals itself 
 to a sharper and more subtle scrutiny. The maximum amount 
 of alcohol which can be taken "without any perceptible injuri- 
 ous effect" is, according to Dr. Anstie, one and one half 
 ounce ; | according to Dr. Parkes, one ounce ;^[ according to 
 Dr. Ganod, nine tenths of an ounce.** But by the use of the 
 delicate instruments with which modern science is equipped, 
 the narcotic effect of doses of alcohol much smaller than these 
 maximum amounts is distinctly observed. The thermometer, 
 for instance, in the hands of such experts as Bouvier, Daub, 
 
 * Youmans on Alcohol, pp. 71 and 92. Richardson, "The Effects of Alcohol," 
 pp. 1, 2. 
 
 f " Alcoholic Liquors," American edition, p. 30. 
 
 t J. M. M'Culloch, M.D., in " The Alliance Weekly News," March 14, 1857. 
 
 Vide Anstie in Reynolds' " System of Medicine," Americau edition, i, 671. 
 
 | " The Practitioner," xiii, 28. 
 
 T " Manual of Practical Hygiene," p. 277. 
 
 ** "Popular Science Monthly (New Issue) Supplement," Feb., 1879, p. 64.
 
 Tlie Bible Wine Question. Ill 
 
 and Riegel,* discloses diminished temperatures as the result of 
 taking very small doses of alcohol. Dr. Mulvauey, staff surgeon 
 of the British navy, applying the galvanometer to this problem, 
 found that an ounce of brandy, equal to about half an ounce of 
 alcohol, violently excited the thermo-electric currents of the 
 system, the instrument being raised, in one instance, twenty-five, 
 and in another forty-five degrees, f Drs. Nicol and Mossop, 
 of Edinburgh, in a course of experiments made upon each 
 other, ascertained by means of the ophthalmoscope that less 
 than a quarter of an ounce of alcohol paralyzed the nerves con- 
 trolling the delicate blood vessels of the retina, and congested 
 the vessels themselves.:}: Similar evidence of the disturbing 
 effect of very small quantities of alcohol on the circulatory 
 system is afforded by the sphygmograph. The tendency of all 
 such investigations, which are being carried to further and 
 finer limits as science multiplies and perfects her instruments, 
 is to make it certain that the intoxicating effects of moderate or 
 minute doses of alcohol, though less extended and unaccompa- 
 nied by the ordinary and more palpable symptoms of narcosis, 
 are yet just as real as when large quantities of strong alcohol 
 are consumed, and deep coma and unconsciousness supervene. 
 
 c. The absurdity of the interpretation which wrests from 
 these passages a sanction for moderate drinking is exposed by 
 the application of a similar method to other portions of Script- 
 ure. It would be just as reasonable to construe the injunction, 
 " Be not overmuch wicked," literally, " Do not multiply wick- 
 ednesses," (Eccles. vii, 17,) as a warrant for modified wicked- 
 ness ; or the command, " Lay apart ... all superfluity of naught- 
 iness," (James i, 21,) for the parallel is not affected by calling 
 it a Hebraism for evil excesses as a sanction of all evil not 
 excessive; or the statement that unbelievers thought it strange 
 that Christians " run not with them to the same excess of riot," 
 (1 Pet. iv, 4,) literally, " outpouring of profligacy,'' as pel-mis- 
 sion to indulge in minor irregularities. It would be quite in 
 keeping with this style of interpretation to understand Luke 
 xxi, 34 as allowing any degree of drunkenness which did not 
 
 *Ziemssen, "Cyclopedia of the Practice of Medicine," xvii, 387. 
 f London "Lancet," 1875, vol. ii, 166. 
 
 J " Britisli and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review," i, 200 L 
 Lyman, "Artificial Anaesthesia and Anaesthetics," p. 216.
 
 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 incapacitate or weigh down a man ;* or Eph. v, 18 as tolerating in- 
 toxication provided it were not excessive, or was caused by some 
 other beverage than wine, (otvof,) as, for instance, by beer, (UT%.) 
 In immediate connection with one of these expressions most 
 commonly quoted in defense of moderate drinking, namely, 
 "not given to much wine," (1 Tim. iii, 8,) we find this added 
 qualification of deacons " not greedy of filthy lucre," w alax- 
 poKepdeis, literally, " not sordidly greedy of gain," f and equiv- 
 alent to the Latin turpilucricupidus, (Plautus,) " covetous of 
 base or dishonest gains." Now, shall we regard the apostle 
 as justifying, by the use of this term, cupidity or trade crafti- 
 ness in any degree ? And yet it would be just as legitimate as 
 the inference to which we object. 
 
 d. And just here we wish to emphasize the fact that this 
 whole claim that the Bible sanctions the moderate use of alco- 
 holic beverages is only an inference. It is unsupported by a 
 single positive statement or direct inculcation. There is not 
 one instance in either the Old or the New Testaments where 
 the condemnation of excess is joined with any approval of mod- 
 eration. This is particularly significant in view of the number 
 of such passages, and in contrast with prevalent usages in the 
 ethical and religious writings of ancient and, we may add, 
 of modern times. For they take constant occasion to set off and 
 recommend moderation as the proper opposite to excess in the 
 use of strong drink. The Scriptures, however, do nothing of 
 the sort. The only alternative which they expressly mention 
 and enjoin is abstinence. Nowhere is moderation in the use of 
 wine alluded to or allowed. The only exception which could 
 possibly be noted is Paul's advice to Timothy, (1 Tim. v, 23 :) 
 " Be no longer a water-drinker, (vdpcmoTei, the term popularly 
 applied to one who abstained from intoxicating drinks,) but use 
 a little wine for thy stomach's sake and thine often infirmities." 
 But this is, after all, not an exception, since the advice is purely 
 personal and exclusively medicinal. There is no intimation of 
 
 * The objection of Prof. Bumstead (" Bibliotheca Sacra," p. 89) to this reductio ad 
 absurdum is not well taken. The literal sense of the verb, which is a very strong 
 one, does not preclude this distinction between excessive and moderate drunken- 
 ness. And we think him in error in saying the verb has an unemphatic position. 
 
 f Liddell and Scott, " Lexicon," who cite the Latin synonym. 
 
 j Harper's "Latin Dictionary," 1880, s. v.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 113 
 
 the kind of wine prescribed, and permission is given, not to 
 drink it, but to use (xp) it as one would any drug.* The nat- 
 ural and legitimate inference, therefore, from this class of texts 
 is not that the Bible sanctions the moderate use of alcoholic 
 liquors, but that it condemns all indulgence in such beverages. 
 
 There are some further considerations attaching to these 
 passages which help us to a clear and correct understanding of 
 them, and which deserve to be carefully noted : 
 
 i. The terms rendered " drunkenness," " drunk," and " drunk- 
 ard," do not always and necessarily denote the state of intoxi- 
 cation. Mfc'07;, (Luke xxi, 34; Rom. xiii, 12; Gal. v, 21,) trans- 
 lated (A. V.) " drunkenness," has primarily the signification of 
 copious indulgence in drinks, whether intoxicating or otherwise. 
 It is distinguished from KpanrdXrj, (Luke xxi, 34,) literally, 
 "seizure of the head," and vividly descriptive of intoxication ;f 
 and from KW/IZW, (Rom. xiii, 13 ; Gal. v, 21,) revelings, the dis- 
 orderly conduct characteristic of intoxication. :{: " Intoxication 
 is not the essence, but only the extreme of the vice " indicated 
 by the term. " The essential of the vice is that men drink for 
 pleasure regardless of the laws of God or the claims of man." 
 UedvoKEode, (Eph. v, 18,) rendered (A. V.) " be drunk," has 
 already been examined, and shown to signify drinking to 
 repletion without regard to the nature of the liquor used. 
 Metfwo?, (1 Cor. v, 11 ; vi, 10,) rendered (A. V.) " drunkard," 
 shares the general signification of the root, and means literally 
 " one who fills himself with drink," not excluding drinks of an 
 unintoxicating sort. It is a fair inference, therefore, that these 
 passages do not prohibit the intemperate use of alcoholic bev- 
 erages simply. This is further sustained by the fact that 
 
 ii. The tenn rendered " wine " (A. V.) in Eph. v, 18 ; 1 Tim. 
 iii, 3, 8 ; Titus i, 7 ; ii, 3 ; 1 Pet. iv, 3, is the generic olvos. It 
 
 * Dr. Kerr says (" Unfermented Wine a Fact," p. 22) that he prescribes non- 
 alcoholic wine " in tlie treatment of ... that most depressing malady, dyspepsia, 
 from one of the Protean forms of which Timothy may have suffered when he 
 received the prescription of probably a like wine from the Apostle Paul." 
 
 f The etymology of KpatiruXri is obscure, but its most probable derivation is 
 from /capo, head, and the root of opTrdJw, to seize ; cf . Latin, carpo, rapio. (Liddell 
 and Scott, " Lexicon," s. v.) Clement (Paed., ii) derives it from ndpa, head, and 
 TrdP.Aw, to shake. Similar is Suidas" definition of the word as 6 in woAAvf olvuatuf 
 jru/^o<, shaking from over-indulgence in wine. 
 
 $ Vide Liddell and Scott, "Lexicon," s. v. ' Temperance Bible Coman.," p. 3.
 
 114 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 is probable that its excessive use is forbidden on the same 
 grounds as gluttony, without reference to the character of the 
 liquor. We know that the Scriptures bring immoderate eating 
 and drinking under the same condemnation, (e. g., Deut. xxi, 20 ; 
 Frov. xxiii, 21 ; Matt, xi, 19, etc.,) without thereby implying 
 any judgment as to the fitness or otherwise of the food or 
 drink. Neither these passages nor those under immediate con- 
 sideration have any necessary bearing on the question of using 
 intoxicating beverages, which is wrong irrespective of any con- 
 siderations of quantity. Chancellor Crosby, referring to 1 Tim. 
 iii, 8, asks :* " Did Paul mean the fermented wine ? Then he 
 allowed the deacons to use it as a beverage. Did he mean un- 
 fermented wine ? Then why did he limit the amount ? " We 
 have shown that the assumption in this quotation is unfounded. 
 We hope soon to make that still more apparent. Its last inter- 
 rogation is answered by the fact that fermented wine was not 
 the only drink in temperately consumed in ancient times. In- 
 nocent beverages were abused. Cratinus, in his " Ulysses," as 
 quoted by Athenseus, (Banq., iii, 56,) says : 
 
 " You were all day glutting yourselves with white milk." 
 
 Solomon specifically condemns intemperate indulgence in one 
 form of unfermented grape-juice : " It is not good to eat (akol) 
 much debash" (Prov. xxv, 27.) Unfermented wine, the sim- 
 ple yAevKof, was often drank to excess. W. H. Eule, in his 
 " Brief Inquiry," admits that " The Roman ladies were so fond 
 of it that they would first fill their stomachs with it, then throw 
 it off by emetics, and repeat the draught. Wetstein in Acts 
 ii, 13."f Lucian refers to the same practice when he uses the 
 following illustration, (Philops., 39 :) ^w J/T? rbv Am, uo-nep ol 
 rov yhevKovc m6vre$, KfJurE^vorjfj.evo^ ri]v yaortpa, i^iirov deo^evof, 
 " I am come, by Jove, as those having drank gleukos, swelling 
 out their belly, require an emetic." 
 
 iii. Further light is thrown upon the proper interpretation 
 of these passages by some of their contexts. 
 
 a. In 1 Tim. iii, 3, and Titus i, 7, Paul says a bishop (A. V.) 
 "must be ... not given to wine," pr) ndpotvov. Professor 
 Bumstead comments on this,:}: " it is also indisputable that it is 
 
 * " A Calm ~"iew," etc. f Quoted in " Temperance Bible Comm.," p. 378. 
 t " Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1831, p. 88.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 115 
 
 excess " in using intoxicating wine, of course " which is for- 
 bidden," and proceeds to quote the renderings of Robinson, 
 Ellicott, and others to that effect. Dr. Moore says:* "Mr) 
 Trdpoivw; must mean either ' not drunken,' or, according to the 
 marginal rendering of the English Bible, ' not ready to quarrel 
 and offer wrong as one in wine/ " and cites Passow, " the high- 
 est authority in Greek lexicography," in evidence. But here, 
 as elsewhere in the Scriptures, the lexicon is not the safest 
 guide. It " can only furnish the general signification, whereas 
 the interpreter wants the precise sense with its exact shade, as 
 determined by the particular position in which it stands." f In 
 this instance we find ndpotvov in 1 Tim. iii, 3 placed in an- 
 tithesis to vT7</>oAeov, ver. 2, and in Titus i, 7 to ey/spar?/, ver. 8 ; 
 and it must be explained by these terms in this connection. 
 But v?/0a^ov and eyKpa-n/, as will soon appear, signify absti- 
 nence from intoxicating beverages, and p) -ndpocvov cannot, 
 therefore, mean merely freedom from their excessive use. It 
 probably carries its literal signification, " not near wine," and 
 forbids the presence of a bishop at drinking parties. In this 
 sense it escapes all appearance of tautology, and forms a natural 
 climax to the other terms. 
 
 b. Again, Paul says (Titus ii, 3) that the aged women should 
 be " not eriven to much wine," un olw -rroAAo) (JedovAoytevoc. 
 
 D ' 
 
 " We can explain why aged women are singled out, as if pecu- 
 liarly liable to be addicted to excess of wine," says Dr. Moore,J I . 
 " by the fact that physicians, both ancient and modern, have 
 recommended to those advanced in years the use of wine, 
 which they would withhold from the young." The latter state- 
 ment we are not disposed to question, nor the fact that aged 
 women (as Paul would seem to indicate by his strong expres- 
 sion " enslaved ") were especially addicted to excess of wine. 
 But this is really a reason why abstinence rather than modera- 
 tion should have been recommended. The doctor is scarcely 
 correct in saying "aged women are singled out." In 1 Tim. 
 
 * " Presbyterian Review," Jan., 1881, p. 92. 
 
 f Davidson, "Text of the Old Testament," p. 211. 
 
 \ " Presbyterian Review," Jan., 1881, p. 92. 
 
 The ancient scholiast on Homer, " Iliad," vi, according to Dr. Adam Clarke, 
 (Comm. in loc.,) speaking of old women, says Xa/pft TV olvy TJ ij'Mnia. avrff. 
 " This age delights in wine." Ovid seems to have translated these words liter- 
 ally, (Fasti iii, 765,) vinosior ottos haec eraL
 
 116 Oinos: A Discussion of 
 
 iii, 11, Paul says the ywaiKag, " women in general," must be 
 vT/^a'Aeovf, abstinent. Nor does he single out aged women. In 
 the verse just preceding he directs "that the aged men be 
 sober," v^aAeovc, literally, abstinent. It is a matter of record 
 that a much stricter abstinence was enjoined upon the women 
 than upon the men in ancient times.* The apostle says that 
 this injunction to " be not given to much wine " was laid upon 
 the aged women in order that (tvd) they might (A. V .) " teach the 
 young women to be sober, (obxfrpovifaoi,) . . . discreet, (oucfipovag^ 
 chaste, (ayvaf,)" etc. Titus ii, 4, 5. But the most successful 
 teaching is by the force of example, and any thing less than 
 abstinence would have disqualified one for the work of in- 
 structing young women, of whom abstinence and chastity were 
 strictly required.f "Well does St. Jerome ask, " Quomodo 
 potest docere anus adolescentulas caslitatem, cum si ebrietatem 
 vetulae mulieris adolescentula fuerit imitata, pudica esse non 
 potest f " ^ " How can an elderly woman teach young women 
 chastity when, if the young woman shall imitate inebriety in 
 the matron, she can not be virtuous?" 
 
 c. Finally, let it be observed that Paul, after writing to 
 \ff*Cr Titus that bishops must be pr) -ndpnivog, (i, 7,) and that the aged 
 women must be prj olvu ?roA/lw dedovhcjpevas, (ii, 3,) gives the 
 reason for this and other requirements, (ii, 11, 12 :) (E. Y.) 
 " For the grace of God hath appeared, bringing salvation to all 
 men, instructing us, to the intent that, (?va,) denying (dpvrjodnevoi, 
 literally, saying No ! to, utterly refusing, abstaining from) un- 
 godliness and worldly lusts, (rdf noG^ina^ emi9vjutaf, and certainly 
 including tmdvuia otvov, the lust for wine,) we should live sober- 
 ly, (aw^pdvwf,) and righteously, and godly in this present world." 
 This explanation, we think, clinches the apostle's argument 
 here, and inferentially elsewhere, for universal total abstinence. 
 
 iv. One of the passages we have been considering calls for 
 a separate examination, namely, Eph. v, 18. It is most 
 
 * Vide Polybius, "Hist. Kath.," i and vi, and Athenaeus, "Banquet," x. 56. 
 
 f Wiesinger (in " Olshausen's Commentary," in loc.) says that this instruction 
 was "not by public addresses, (1 Tim. ii, 12; 1 Cor. xiv, 34,) but by private admo- 
 nition and the example of their conduct, in order that through them the young 
 women might be directed to what is good." 
 
 \ Quoted by A. Clarke, Comm. in loc. 
 
 Cf. Heb. xi, 24, and Matt, xvi, 24, and Matt, xxvi, 34, and the discussion of 
 this verb supra, p. 99.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 117 
 
 strenuously urged as a sanction of moderate drinking,* and it 
 is especially represented as expressing the mind of Christ. 
 k% \Y hero fore be ye not unwise, (o^po^e?, senseless, the contrast 
 of owfaovKs, sober,) but understanding what the will of the Lord 
 is" (Eph. v, 17,) says the apostle. "And be not drunk with 
 wine wherein is excess; but be filled with the Spirit," (v, 18.) 
 This is a direct and positive prohibition of something. But of 
 what ? Not of drunkenness specifically and exclusively, though 
 the precept is broad enough to cover that. The verb iledvoKev&e 
 is clearly used in its primitive signification of " drink copi- 
 ously," or " to repletion." This is indicated by the annomin- 
 atiof between nedvantade olvw, "drunk with wine," and nXrjpovode 
 iv rrvevpan, "filled with the Spirit." The contrast is not be- 
 tween moderation and excess, but between fullness of wine and 
 fullness of the Spirit. Commentators ^ have illustrated the 
 passage by Luke i, 15, where the promise that John should be 
 u filled with the Holy Spirit," is joined with the divine prohibi- 
 tion, " wine and strong drink he shall not drink." The two pas- 
 sages plainly indicate the inherent incompatibility between 
 indulgence in ardent spirits and the indwelling of the Holy 
 Spirit. 
 
 But of what is the " excess " in this passage predicated ? Of 
 the drinking, Professor Bumstead and many others answer. 
 " To connect it with wine," says the Professor, " is inconsistent 
 with the employment of so strong a term as fieOvoKeaOe" We 
 should say, rather, to connect it with " Be not drunk " is in- 
 consistent with the employment of such a term as dourta, in 
 the sense which Professor Bumstead, following the A. V., 
 assigns to it, for that is to reduce the whole proposition to the 
 empty platitude, excess = excess. But this is not an adequate 
 rendering of the Greek term. It occurs in two other places 
 
 * Bumstead, (" Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1881, p. 89,) Alford, Meyer, Lange, etal 
 
 f Winer, " Grammar of the New Testament," Thayer, p. 638. 
 
 j Grotius!, Harless, Olshatisen, et al. Olshausen, e.g., Bays, (Coram. in toe.,) " Man 
 feels the want of a strengthening through spiritual influences from without; in- 
 stead of seeking for these in the Holy Spirit he in his blindness has recourse to 
 the ' natural ' spirit, that is, to wine and strong drinks. Therefore, according to 
 the point of view of the law, the Old Testament recommends abstinence from wine 
 and strong: drinks, in order to preserve the soul free from al 1 merely natural in- 
 fluences, and by that means to make it more susceptible of the operations of the 
 Holy Spirit." 
 
 " Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1881, p. 88.
 
 118 Oinos: A Discussion of 
 
 in the New Testament, namely, in Titus i, 6, and 1 Peter iv, 4, 
 and in both instances it is rendered (A. Y. and R. V.) " riot," as 
 it now is, in the passage under discussion, by the E-. Y. In 
 Luke xv, 13, the adverbial form 0,06$ occurs, and is rendered 
 in connection with the participle wv (A. Y. and R.Y.) " riotous 
 living." The word is compounded of a privative, and au&tv, to 
 save, and has a twofold signification, active and passive, in classic 
 Greek. It denotes both inability to save, i.e., prodigality, (cf. 
 Aristotle, Eth. Nic., iv, 1, 3,) and the condition of insalvable- 
 ness, that which cannot be saved.* In this latter or passive 
 sense it seems to be used in Eph. v, 18. Clement says that 
 by this term the apostle intimates " the inconsistency of drunk- 
 enness with salvation." f Theophylact, in his comments on the 
 passage, defines its victim as one " who does not save but des- 
 troys both soul and body." Grotius says in this instance it 
 applies to those who are " so immersed in vices that their sal- 
 vation is despaired of." Bloomfield says that " it represents 
 the state of a person whom (to use the classical saying) ' even 
 the goddess of salvation herself could not save.' " $ When 
 correctly interpreted there is no objection to connecting daoma 
 with iiediiaiceade. It is both grammatically and logically possible. 
 Drunkenness in all its stages is a state of insalvableness. It is 
 a condition in which one not only is not, but can not be saved. 
 We believe, however, that this passage predicates dowria of 
 olvo$. We understand very well that this is not the interpre- 
 tation of the majority of modern expositors. They refer the 
 relative w to the whole of the preceding phrase, ^77 pedvoKeoOe 
 ofvo), as its antecedent. But their construction of the passage 
 is expressly founded on the assumption that the use of wine is 
 elsewhere allowed in the New Testament, and not on any 
 exegetical necessities in the text itself. On the contrary, the 
 position of otvo> following the verb and in immediate juxtapo- 
 sition with the relative, though not absolutely determinative, 
 is strongly corroborative of our interpretation.! That was 
 
 * Vide Liddell and Scott, " Lexicon," a- v., and Trench, " Synonyms of the New 
 Testament," i, xvi. 
 
 f Paed., ii, 2. 
 
 $ " Notes on the New Testament," in loc. 
 
 Vide, e. g., Meyer, Comm. in loc. 
 
 | Vide Short, " On the Order of Words in the Attic Greek Prose," xxv, in 
 Yonge's " English Greek Lexicon," Harper & Bros.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 119 
 
 certainly the understanding of our English translators, and it 
 is not negatived by any thing that appears in the R. V. It 
 is the explanation likewise of such eminent authorities as 
 Scho3ttgen,* Bengel,f and Doddridge, $ the former of whom 
 justifies his exegesis by references to rabbinical literature. 
 It would be difficult to indicate any other arrangement of 
 the words of this passage which would so clearly and forcibly 
 express the idea that insalvableness inheres in wine as its essen- 
 tial characteristic. And, for our part, we cannot doubt that 
 by this phraseology the Omniscient Spirit, speaking through 
 the apostle, designed to describe that principle in wine which 
 we call " alcohol," and which, when used as a beverage, 
 
 " "With alow perdition murders the whole man, 
 Body and soul." 
 
 In the light, therefore, which modern science has thrown upon 
 the exegesis of this verse, we think ourselves fairly warranted 
 in regarding it as a prohibition of " any wine wherein is alco- 
 hol." And as all Scripture, rightly interpreted, is consistent 
 with itself, the other passages we have considered must be in 
 harmony in this, and all be accepted as total abstinence precepts. 
 (2) Injunctions to sobriety occur frequently in the Epistles 
 of Peter and of Paul. Each employs two different terms to 
 express this quality, both of which are rendered (A.V. and R.V.) 
 " sober." They are not synonymous, but in strict usage denote, 
 the one mental sobriety, and the other physical sobriety or ab- 
 stinence. The two, however, are very closely correlated in 
 their meanings, which are very often merged or interchanged. 
 This is explained by the fact that each term regards the same 
 virtue, but from two different standpoints. Physical absti- 
 nence is the condition of the clearest mental sobriety, and 
 mental sobriety is the characteristic of the strictest physical 
 abstinence. So it happens that the term signifying mental 
 sobriety is used metaphorically for physical abstinence, and 
 vice versa. This explanation will serve to clear away the con- 
 fusion which sometimes clings to their interpretation. We 
 shall consider them separately. 
 
 * " Horse Hebrniae," p. 780. 
 
 f " Gnomon of the New Testament," fnloe. | " Family Expositor," tn loc. 
 % E. g., Ubicunque est vinum ibi <.' immunditia, Wherever there is wine there is 
 impurity. (Bammidb- r abba, sec. 10, fol, 206, 3.)
 
 120 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 i. Mental sobriety is denoted by <7w0pw?>, rendered (A. Y.) 
 "sober," (1 Tim. iii, 2; Titus i, 8;) "temperate" (Titus ii, 2) 
 and " discreet," (Titus ii, 5 ;) in each instance rendered " sober- 
 minded " by the R.V.; oufaoovvi), (A.V. and R.Y.,) " soberness," 
 (Acts xxvi, 25 ; 1 Tim. ii, 9, 15 ;) oaxfrpoveu, (A. Y. and K. Y.,) 
 " in his right mind," (Mark v, 15 ; Luke viii, 35 ;) " to think 
 soberly," (Rom. xii, 3;) "be sober," (2 Cor. v, 13, R. Y., "are 
 of sober mind ; " 1 Peter iv, 7, R. Y., " of sound mind,") and 
 " be sober-minded," (Titus ii, 6 ;) a^povifa, to " teach one to 
 be sober," (Titus ii, 4, R.Y., " to train " simply ;) and erw^povw?, 
 (A. Y. and R. Y.,) " soberly," (Titus ii, 12.) The word 
 is compounded of <ra6f, aoif, Lat. salvus et integer, " safe 
 and sound," and fyrjv, Lat. mens, mind. It signifies literally 
 "sound-minded," Lat. sanae mentis. Liddell and Scott ren- 
 der * " discreet, prudent, etc., especially, free from sensual de- 
 sires, temperate, chaste, sober." Donnegan,f " sound in intel- 
 lect, not deranged." Green,;}: " of a sound mind, sane, staid, 
 temperate, chaste." Ellicott defines owj>poavvy as " the well- 
 balanced state of mind arising from habitual self-restraint." 
 Trench explains it | as " an habitual inner self-government, 
 with its constant rein on all the passions and desires." While 
 every-where retaining the primary idea of mental soundness, 
 this term never loses sight of the bodily abstinence or conti- 
 nence in which the mental quality has its physical basis. This 
 appears in the use and interpretation of the word by the ancient 
 philosophers. Plato (Symp. 196 c.,) says, elvai yap OjUoAoyetrat 
 atdfypoavvri TO Kparelv rj6ov&v KOI imdviii&v, " For sobriety is the 
 acknowledged ruler of the pleasures and desires." He uses al- 
 most the same language in " Gorgias " (491 D.) and " De Repub- 
 lica," (iv, 449,) and in the Charmides he has dedicated a whole 
 dialogue to the investigation of this word, with very similar 
 results. Aristotle defines autypoovvr) (Rhet. i, 9) as dper?) 8? r\v 
 rpof rdq rjdovdg rov aw/mro^ OUTCJ^ K%OVGIV d)O 6 vof-iog tceXevei, 
 " The virtue by which men act with reference to the pleasures 
 of the body as the law commands." In his Ethics he speaks 
 more specifically. He says, (Eth. Nic. ii, 9,) KK re yap rov 
 d7rl%eoOat r&v jjdovwv, yivopeda ou^poves, " By abstaining from 
 
 * " Lexicon," s. v. \ " Lexicon," s. v. \ " Lexicon," s. v. 
 
 Comm. on 1 Tim. ii, 9. 
 
 | " Synonyms of the New Testament," i, xx.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 121 
 
 pleasures we become sober." And again, (Eth. Nic. ii, 3, 1,) 6 
 \iiv yap aTTexofievo^ T&V aw/wmicaiv ry<$oi>a>i>, Kai avru rovry ^atpwv, 
 acj^pwv, " lie who abstains from physical pleasures, and in this 
 very thing takes delight, is sober." In the patristic writings, 
 as in the classic authors, this term is employed with reference to 
 physical abstinence. That is the thought in Clement's mind 
 when he writes, (Paed. ii,) " I therefore admire those who have 
 adopted an austere life and who are fond of water, the medi- 
 cine of temperance, (r^ aw^poavv^,) and flee as far as possible 
 from wine, shunning it as they would the danger of fire" 
 We find Origen, too, using the word in this same sense, (A. in 
 Matt. Ed. Iluet., torn. 1, p. 363,) yvpvaZofievos e/f dyveiav icdc 
 cdxfrpoavvrjv, " exercising one's self to chastity and abstinence." 
 And so in the Apostolic Epistles, especially in such cases as 
 1 Tim. iii, 2 ; Titus i, 8 ; ii, 2, and 1 Peter iv, 7, there can be 
 no doubt that sober-mindedness is enjoined with explicit refer- 
 ence to the physical abstinence on which its existence and ex- 
 ercise are conditioned. This is evidenced, if in no other way, 
 by the close connection in which it stands with such terms as 
 fifj ndpoivos, Kyuparri and vr/f/wiAfiof, already considered. 
 
 ii. Physical abstinence is denoted by vT/^aAeov, which is a 
 late form for vrtfdhtos. It is rendered (A. Y.) " sober," (1 Tim. 
 iii, 11 ; Titus ii, 2, K. Y., " temperate,") and u vigilant," (1 
 Tim. iii, 2, R. Y., " temperate.") The verbal form, vrfau, occurs 
 several times, and is rendered (A. V. and R. V.) " be sober," 
 (1 Thess. v, 6, 8 ; 1 Peter i, 13 ; v, 8 ; 2 Tim. iv, 5, A. V., 
 " watch ;" 1 Peter iv, 7, A. V., " watch.) The compound 
 form ttcvrjfa occurs (1 Cor. xv, 34,) rendered (A.V.) " awake," 
 (R. Y.) " awake up," and dvavrfa*, (2 Tim. ii, 26,) rendered (A. 
 Y. and R. Y.) " recover themselves." NT/^W is probably com- 
 pounded of the inseparable privative prefix VTJ and irivu (stems 
 TO and TTO) to drink, and so signifies, literally, not to drink, or 
 to abstain from drink.* There is a noteworthy unanimity 
 among all the authorities as to its signification. Thomas 
 Magister defines Nijfai TI$ 5-rav iicrb^ pe&rft t<mv, " One is 
 
 * So Schlensner (Lexicon, s. v.) followed by other lexicographers, as Pickering. 
 Chassang (Lexicon, a. v.\ derives it from vi) and Totvof for oZvof. Other etymolo- 
 gies have been suggested, but none so probable as these. Many among the 
 ancients, as Suidas, and, among modern authorities, as Liddell and Scott, give DO 
 derivation.
 
 122 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 when he is free from drink." Schleusner,* " Sobrius 
 sum, abstineo db omni aut immoderate vini et omnis potus 
 inebriantis usu," I am sober ; I abstain from all, or from the 
 immoderate use of wine and all intoxicating drink. Bret- 
 schneider,f " Sobrius sum, vino dbstineo" I am sober; I ab- 
 stain from wine. Chassang, % " N^a/ooir pas l)u de vin, etre 
 sdbre" Not to have drank of wine, to be sober. Yanicek, 
 " Nicht trunken, d. Ji. nuchtern sein" Not drnnk, that is, to 
 be sober. Liddell and Scott, | " To be sober, live soberly, 
 especially to drink no wine." Donnegan,^" " To live abstemi- 
 ously, to abstain from wine." Greene,** " To be sober, not 
 intoxicated." Robinson,tf "To be sober, temperate, absti- 
 nent, especially in respect to wine." The adjective vT^dAeo? 
 or vT/^dAio? is explained by these authorities in harmony with 
 their rendering of the verb. Among others, and in addition 
 to the above, it is defined by Hesychius, \\ \ir\ TrenotKug, not 
 having drank. Stephanus, 6 aniyuv otvov, he who abstains 
 from wine. Byzantius, 1 1 6 p) mveov olvov, one who does not 
 drink wine. Both by the classical and the Hellenistic writers, 
 these words are used in their literal sense. ^Eschylus (Eumen. 
 10T) mentions %oas T' doivovg vifyakia, fiet^iyfiaTa, " Wineless 
 oblations, abstemious propitiations." So Sophocles (CEdip. Col.' 
 101) describes CEdipus as saying to the Eumenides that he had 
 come to them v?/0wv doivov$, " I untasting wine to you who 
 loathe the wine cup." ^[^[ And since their sacrifices must be 
 vrjQdktoi, the chorus tells him (1. 481) the oblations should be 
 
 "TJarof fiE^iaarjf /?<5e Trpoer^epetv fj.e6v, 
 
 " Of water, of honey, and by no means offer intoxicating drink." 
 According to Plutarch,*** the sacrifices offered to the Muses 
 and the Nymphs were composed of water, milk, and honey, and 
 called v??(/>dAia, in distinction from others which were accom- 
 panied with wine. And Athenseus informs us that " those who 
 sacrifice to the sun make their libations of honey, as they never 
 bring wine to the altars of the gods." fff The altars on 
 
 * " Lexicon," a. v. f " Lexicon," a. v. \ " Lexicon," a. v. 
 
 "Etymologischea Worterbuch," 5. v. | " Lexicon," s. v. 
 
 Tf " Lexicon," a. v. ** " Lexicon," a. v. 
 
 ft "Lexicon of the New Testament," s. v. ft "Lexicon," a. v. 
 
 "Thesaurus," a. v. |||| " Greek Dictionary," Athens, 1839, s. v. 
 
 . H. Plumptre's translation. *** Cf. Wyttenbach, Plut. 2, 132 E. 
 
 "Banquet," xv, 48.
 
 The Bible Wine Questiofi. 123 
 
 which such offerings were made were called vrtfafaot /fojuo/, and 
 the wood employed in the service was known as fvAa v7$>dAta. * 
 Herodotus (Hist., i, 133) says, " The Persians review when they 
 are not drinking (vrjfovoi) what they have decided when in 
 liquor ; and so what they have decided when not drinking 
 (v^ovrfif) they review when in liquor." Theognis in his 
 " Maxims " (478) writes, OVTS rt vrj<f>uv elp' ovre Xirp> /u0t>wv, 
 "I will go out neither sober, nor very drunk." Plato 
 (" Phileb.," 61, c.) describes " a sober draught in which no 
 wine mingles," (V-TI^OVTIK^V not aot'vov.) Porphyry, in like 
 manner, (" De Abst.," i, 27,) speaks of vrfydfaw Kal doivov rb 
 Trordv,"adrink abstemious and wineless." Numerous other in- 
 stances of the use of vrfaw and its derivatives in the sense of 
 abstaining from wine occur in the classics.f But of especial 
 importance 1 to our inquiry is the usage of the Hellenistic 
 writers. In the LXX only the compound verb j'r/0o> and 
 the verbal noun KKV^I^ are found. In Gen. ix, 24, and 1 Sam. 
 xxv, 37, the verb is followed by d-rrb rov olvov, and in Joel 
 i, 5, by t o?vov, and signifies to become sober, literally, absti- 
 nent from wine. In Hab. ii, 7, 19, it is used alone and in a 
 metaphorical sense, signifying to awake. Josephus and Philo 
 were the contemporaries of Peter and Paul. The former says, 
 ("Antiq.," iii, 12, 2,) "The priests are in all respects pure 
 and abstinent, (v7/0dAtof,) not being allowed to drink wine as 
 they wear the priestly garment." And again, (" Bel. Jud.," v, 
 5, 7,) " They (the priests) especially abstained from unmixed 
 wine, (d-rrd dicpdrov v^ovref.)" He also (" Bel. Jud.," ii, 8) ap- 
 plies the term vTji/Jtf to the abstinence of the Essenes. And 
 Philo writes, (" On Drunkenness," 32,) " The truly wise man 
 aims to offer abstemious sacrifices, (vrfydXia Oveiv,) steadfastly 
 setting himself, in the strength of his purpose, against wine 
 and every cause of folly." In Section 37 of the same treatise 
 he employs vrjfatv in the sense of to abstain, and v^tf with the 
 signification of sobriety. The natural and necessary inference 
 from this mass of evidence is that in the writings of the apos- 
 tles these terms are employed with specific reference to their 
 primary sense. They must be held to constitute, wherever 
 
 * Vide Liddell and Scott, " Lexicon," sub 
 f E. g., in Apollo Hymn xi, 525, 14; Archilochus, (5, Bergk.;) Aristophanes, 
 ("Lysist.," 1228;) Plato, ("Laws," vi, 733; " Epist.," vii, 330.) 
 9
 
 124 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 found in the New Testament, total abstinence precepts and 
 maxims. And if in any instance they should be used some- 
 what metaphorically, to call attention to that self-possession 
 and energy of mind which characterize the abstainer, it is only 
 to give the more emphatic sanction to his course. In no case 
 is the underlying idea of total abstinence lost sight of. When 
 Paul says, (1 Thess. v, 6,) " Let us watch and be sober," (yprj- 
 yopc5juev KOI vrj^ufiev,') and Peter (1 Pet. v, 8) says, "Be sober, be 
 vigilant," (v^are, ypT/yop^are,) there can be no question that 
 the primitive signification is the one intended. In each case 
 yprfyopeu denotes the mental state, and VT-^W its physical condi- 
 tion. Both represent total abstinence as the price of vigilance. 
 The second passage presents a remarkable confirmation of our 
 interpretation. Dr. Adam Clarke was perhaps the first to call at- 
 tention to " the striking apposition between the first and the last 
 words."* "Drink not, (vrjipare,) be -vigilant, because your ad- 
 versary, the devil, as a roaring lion walketh about seeking whom 
 he may drink down, (tfaraTrq?.)" Upon which Dr. Clarke 
 aptly comments, " If you swallow strong drink down, the devil 
 will swallow you down." There can be no question, we think, 
 that in 1 Tim. iii, 2, 11, and in Titus ii, 2, w/^a/Uof is used in 
 its literal sense of abstinent. This is the judgment of Wies- 
 inger f and of other eminent expositors. A careful collation 
 of the passages in which autypoveu and V7?0w with their deriva- 
 tives occur, and a comparison of their usage in classic and 
 Hellenistic Greek, convince us that they directly inculcate and 
 insist upon the universal duty of total abstinence from all in- 
 toxicating beverages. 
 
 (3.) Inculcations of Temperance. Before entering on their 
 special examination it is necessary to notice a charge of Chan- 
 cellor Crosby $ that " the word (temperance) has been violently 
 wrested from its legitimate meaning" and made to signify 
 " total abstinence from all that can intoxicate." He calls this 
 a " fearful prostitution of a noble word," and attempts to show 
 " that the Latin tem/perantia signifies the moral quality of 
 moderation or discreetness, and that the English word ' tem- 
 perance,' as used in all good standard English works, means 
 precisely the same thing." Waiving, for a moment, the 
 
 * " Comm.." in loc. f Olshauseri's " Comm." in Tim. iii, 2. 
 
 J "A Calm View," etc.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 125 
 
 consideration that it is not what the Latin temperantia, or the 
 English " temperance " means, but what the underlying Greek 
 word signifies, that must determine our conception of the New 
 Testament virtue, we will glance at the chancellor's assertions. 
 And, in the first place, we deny his sweeping statements as to 
 the signification and use of the English word. We maintain 
 that from the earliest period in the history of our literature, and 
 by our standard writers, temperance has been employed in the 
 sense of abstinence. One of the very earliest English authors 
 was Sir Thomas Elyot,* whose " Governor," first published in 
 1531, contains the following striking passage, (bk. iii, chap. 
 19 :) " He that is temperate, fleeth pleasures voluptuous, and 
 with the absence of them is not discontented, and from the pres- 
 ence of them he willingly absteyneih" Milton also, in his 
 " Samson Agonistes," (1671,) applies the term " temperance " to 
 the abstinent life of his Nazarite hero, (lines 548-554 :) 
 
 Chor. madness, to think use of strongest wines 
 
 And strongest drinks our chief support of health, 
 When God, with these forbidden, made choice to rear 
 His mighty champion, strong above compare, 
 Whose drink was only from the liquid brook. 
 
 Sams. But what avail'd this temperance, not complete, 
 Against another object, more enticing ? 
 
 So the philosopher Hobbes, (1640.) who is an authority unbi- 
 ased by any total-abstinence agitation, defines (" De Corpore 
 Politico ") f " Temperance the habit by which we abstain from 
 all things that tend to our destruction ; intemperance the con- 
 trary vice." Philosophically and practically, both in English 
 and in Latin, temperance means moderation in the use of all 
 good things, and entire abstinence from every thing injurious. 
 And none are guilty of so great a prostitution of this noble 
 word as those who restrict its meaning to the idea of modera- 
 tion, and then take it as a warrant for their indulgence in alco- 
 holic poison ; so that 
 
 The selfsame word which bids our lusts obey 
 Is misapplied to sanctify their sway. 
 
 Chancellor Crosby's citation from Cicero \ establishes the 
 twofold signification of the Latin term. The Koman writer 
 
 * Vide Hallam, " Literature of Europe," i, 443. 
 
 f Hobbes' English Works," London, 1840, iv, 110. $ " A Calm View," etc.
 
 126 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 savs, (" De Fin.," i, 14, 47 :) Temperantia, est qu-ae, in rebus 
 aut expetendis aut fugiendis, rationem ut sequamur monet. 
 " Temperance is that which warns us to follow reason either in 
 seeking or in shunning things." The verb tempera and the 
 participial adjective temper ans are constantly used in Latin 
 with the signification of abstaining. For example, Caesar writes, 
 (" Bel. Gal.," i, 7,) temperare ab injuria et maleficio, " to abstain 
 from outrage and mischief ; " Yirgil, (" ^En.," ii, 8,) Quis . . . 
 temperet a lacrimis f " Who could refrain from tears ? " Cel- 
 sus, (" De Med.," iv, 24,) a, vino, mulso, venere sibi temperare^ 
 " to abstain from wine, mead, and venery." * Etymology as 
 well as usage vindicates the application of this word to the 
 practice of totally abstaining from all intoxicating beverages. 
 Its root, like that of the Latin templum and tempus, as the 
 great mass of authorities agree, f is found in the Greek rejiivw, 
 (stems rejLi and rajw,) which signifies to cut off. So true tem- 
 perance is the cutting off of every evil thing4 
 
 But it is the Greek term by which the question as to the 
 nature of the temperance which the New Testament inculcates 
 must be decided. That term is eyupdrsLa. Professor Bumstead 
 defines it as " ' being in strength ' to resist all temptation to 
 excess in any thing," and calls that " the New Testament idea 
 of temperance." To be sure he adds, " In a broad sense it 
 might include abstinence as one of its occasional manifestations, 
 but abstinence was not the strict sense of the word." We 
 claim that it was " the strict sense of the word " when used 
 with reference to any thing injurious or unlawful. When ap- 
 plied to things innocent and permissible it then carried the 
 sense of moderate indulgence. The Greek term, like the En- 
 glish and the Latin, has a twofold signification, varying accord- 
 ing to its application. It is being " in strength " to refuse the 
 evil and to discreetly use the good. And the former requires 
 no less moral power than the latter. This definition is abun- 
 dantly sustained by the usage of the best ethical writers among 
 
 * Of. also Plautus, (" Poen.," prol. 33 ;) Tacitus, (H. i, 63 ;) Livy, (H. xxvi, 
 22, 14,) etc. 
 
 f Vanicok, " Etymologisches Handworterbuch." Leipsic, 1877, p. 273 f. ; Cur- 
 tius, "Griechische Etymologie," s. v.; Harpers' "Latin Dictionary," s. v. 
 
 J Cf. Matt, v, 30, tKKoibov, cut it off, etc. 
 
 " Bibliotheca Sacra," January, 1881, p. 89.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 127 
 
 the Greeks. Xenophon (" Mem.," iv, 5, 11) quotes Socrates as 
 defining the law of temperance (t-yKpartai fwvoig tfron, literally, 
 " what is lawful to the temperate aloue ") as rd (iev dyada rrpooi- 
 peZcrflot, T&V SK KOK&V dm%eo$ai, " to choose the good and to ab- 
 stain from the bad." Aristotle (" Eth. Nic.," vii, 1, 6) says : 
 *O [lev d/tpaTTfc, eWwf on </>avAa, npa-rrei did Trdtfof 6 6' t-y/rparvfc, eWwf 
 on </>ai5A<M al inidvpiai, OVK duoXovdel 6td rbv Aoyov, " The intem- 
 perate, knowing that things are bad, does them at the instiga- 
 tion of passion ; the temperate, knowing that the desires are 
 bad, refuses to follow them in obedience to reason." Sextus 
 Empiricus ("Ad. Phys.," i, 153) defines tynpdreia as apery 
 VTTEpdvb) iTOiovoa T^iaf Twv 6onovvT(i)v elvai dvoannoxerojv, " The 
 virtue which renders us superior to those things which seem 
 hard to be abstained from." Diogenes Laertius, according to 
 Suidas,* makes this distinction : r) odxjtpoovvr) tf pe/iaias %ei rdg 
 imOvfjiias, -?i 6e iyKpdreta a^odpdf, " Sobriety exercises mastery 
 over the less vehement, temperance over the stronger, passions." 
 Suidas himself defines ty/tpa'raa f as ^ r&v /ca/cuv d-no^], " absti- 
 nence from evil." ^ 
 
 The Hellenistic writers likewise employ this term in the 
 sense of abstinence. In the LXX the verb tyKparevofjai is used 
 to render the Hebrew pQK, aphaq, (Gen. xliii, 31,) " he re- 
 strained himself." In the apocryphal book of Ecclesiasticus 
 the section beginning with chap, xviii, ver. 30, has for its head- 
 ing 'Ey/cpaVtta ^v^f, " Temperance of Soul." It opens thus : 
 TCJV imOvfu&v aov [if} Tropevou, Kai OTTO TWV (Jpt^eoiv oov 
 , " Go not after thy lusts, but refrain thyself from thy 
 appetites." This is abstinence. Josephus calls the total absti- 
 nence of the Essenes (" Bel. Jud.," ii, 8) TTJV iyicpdreiav. That 
 
 * " Lexicon," s. v. f Ibid. 
 
 J Among the numerous definitions of this term by modem aut'.iorities we quote 
 the following : Schrevelius, (" Lex.," s. v.,) " Cmtinentia, temperantia, moderate." 
 Byzantiiis, (" Greek-French Lex.,") " Continence, temperance, alxtinence." The 
 same author, in his " Greek Die.," Athens, 1839, definen vij<pds.io( as 6 ujj nlvuv 
 olvov, i-yKparftf. Pickering, ("Lex.," s. ..) "Continence, temperance." Chassang 
 defines iyKpar^f as " Qui sait resistor a la volupte," one who knows how to resist 
 pleasure. Liddell and Scott, (" Lex.," s. v.,) " Moderation in sensual pleasures, 
 self-control, abstinence from or in a thing." Rosenmiiller, (" Comm.," in 1 Cor, 
 vii, 9,) " Ab aliqua re sibi temperare, dbstintre," " To refrain from any tiling, to 
 abstain." Bloomfield, (" Eesc, Syn.", fn 2 Pet i, 6,) % " Temperance in the use of 
 pleasure, and, if need be, abstinence from it." Alford, (" Greek TesL," n GaL v, 
 23,) " The folding in of the lusts and desires.''
 
 128 Oinos : A Discussion of 
 
 large sect in the ancient Church distinguished for their absti- 
 nence and celibacy were called 'Ey/cpa-reTf , or 'EyKparmw, a fact 
 which must be regarded as demonstrative of the significance 
 and use of this term. It was also regularly employed by the 
 patristic writers to denote a state of continence and to describe 
 those who refused marriage. Instances of this usage are found 
 in Justin Martyr, (" Apol.," i, 29,) Chrysostom, (" Epist.," ii, 
 ad " Olympiad,") Clement, (" Strom.," iii.) * 
 
 The New Testament writers do not depart from this idea of 
 abstinence in their employment of KyKpareia. The word first 
 occurs in Acts xxiv, 25, as one of the topics of Paul's sermon 
 before Felix and Brasilia. The character and crimes of that 
 guilty pair suggest the sense in which the apostle must have 
 used the term. He was speaking to a man whose cruelty and 
 lust had made him notorious.f Moderation was not his theme, 
 but continence the duty of total abstinence from all unlaw- 
 ful, sinful, sexual indulgence. Wycliffe correctly renders 
 KjKpdreia in this passage by "chastitie," in which he is fol- 
 lowed by the Bheims version.:}; Four or five years previous 
 to the delivery of this discourse, when writing to the Corinthian 
 Church, Paul had employed the verb iyKparsvofiat to describe 
 this same virtue of chastity, (1 Cor. vii, 9.) It is quite accu- 
 rately rendered in the R. Y. : " But if they have not conti- 
 nency," etc. Bloomfield's remarks on its signification in this 
 connection are important. He says : " This is rendered by 
 many * non-continent ; ' by others, ' non continere possunt? 
 which seems preferable. Parseus says it is used potentialiter. 
 The truth is, the potentiality is inherent in the very nature of 
 the word. For t-ypar^ signifies one who is iv tcpdrei, ' in pos- 
 session of power.' Thus el OVK iyKparevovrai, ' if they are not 
 in possession of power,' namely, to abstain. So the term comes- 
 to be synonymous with dvexeoOai" (d-ne^adai. ?) In this same 
 Epistle to the Corinthians Paul uses the verb a second time, 
 and in a way which shows that the New Testament idea of 
 
 * Vide Suicer, " Thesaurus Ecclesiasticus," i, 998, for numerous quotations from 
 the fathers of passages in which lyKpaTevvpai is used in this sense. 
 
 f Tacitus says of him, (H., v, 9,) " Peromnem saevitiam et liMdinem." 
 
 t Kuinoel (" Comm.," in toe.) cites Xenophon, "Ages," v, 4, ne/>l ruv uQpotiiaiuv 
 eyKpureiaf avrov, as an instance of the use of iyKpureta in the sense of chastity, 
 rare in the classical writings. 
 
 " Rescensio Synoptica," vi, 386.
 
 The Bible Wine Question. 129 
 
 temperance must include abstinence.* He says, (1 Cor. ix, 25,) 
 " Every man that striveth for the mastery is temperate in all 
 things," Trdvra iyKparsvercu. It is true that this passage is often 
 quoted in favor of the moderate use of alcoholic beverages, but 
 never was there a greater perversion of Scripture. It gives 
 the whole weight of its sanction to the practice of the strictest 
 abstinence from every thing that can intoxicate or in any wise 
 injure. The text alludes to the training of the competitors in 
 the ancient games. The severity of the discipline to which they 
 subjected themselves is described by Epictetus, (" Encheiridion," 
 35 :) " Do you wish to win the Olympic prize 3 It is neces- 
 sary to observe a strict discipline, to eat what is prescribed, 
 abstain (dTre^eatfai) from all confections, exercise at the ap- 
 pointed hour in heat and in cold, drink nothing cold, nor wine, 
 (jj.fi ulvov,) as you are wont," etc. So Horace ("Ars Poetica," 
 414) says that the athlete aostinuit venere et vino, " abstained 
 from venery and wine." f The earlier versions recognized the 
 true significance of the verb in this passage. The Vulgate 
 renders dbstinet; and Wycliife, followed by Tyndale, Cranmer, 
 and the Geneva version, renders " absteyneth." Conybeare 
 and HowsonJ render, "He trains himself by all manner of 
 self-restraint." In the very next verse (26) Paul illustrates 
 and makes personal application of the doctrine of Chris- 
 tian temperance. Continuing the figure of the preceding 
 passage, he says : "So run I, straight for the goal. I aim 
 straight blows, and not in feint, at the enemy. I even 
 blacken my own body with blows, and lead it about as a slave, 
 lest, in any way, after acting as herald to others I myself 
 
 * Professor Bumstead objects (" Bib. Sac.," January, 1881, p. 89) to the doc- 
 trine that the New Testament teaches total abstinence on the ground that the 
 verb unixopai, which " the New Testament writers " used " to express the idea 
 of wholly abstaining is never used in connection with wine." If he menus that 
 it is the only verb which expresses that idea, we dissent, and point to iyKparci-oftat. 
 If he means to claim that the use of wine as a beverage is not included in the 
 text which he quotes (1 Pet. ii, 11) we agaiu dissent We would also call his at- 
 tention to the fact that the verb airixopai is used, (1 Thess. v, 22, "Abstain from 
 every species [or R. V., "form," <5ov(] of evil ") in immediate connection (ver. 6) 
 with the injunction " Be sober," vjjpw/iev, covering the evil of drinking and every 
 other evil, whether named or omitted. 
 
 f Vide also ^Elian, " Varies Historian," xi, 3. 
 
 $ " Life and Epistles of St Paul." 
 
 Adapted from Farrar's rendering, " The Life and Work of St. Paul, 1 ' p. 392.
 
 130 Oinos. 
 
 should be rejected from the lists." Surely this is no indulgent 
 or luxurious notion of temperance as a prudent pampering 
 of the body. It is stern, self-denying discipline. So far apart 
 are the apostle's and the chancellor's conception of this Chris- 
 tian virtue ! The other passages in which iyupdreia occurs are 
 Gal. v, 22, where it stands as the completion and crown of " the 
 fruits of the Spirit," which are in opposition to " the works of 
 the flesh," enumerated in the preceding verse, and among 
 which " drunkenness " is prominent ; and 2 Pet. i, 6, where it 
 is classed among the chorus of graces, and is rendered in the 
 Vulgate dbstinentia, and by "Wycliffe " absteynence." The 
 adjective form, ey/cpa-ri), occurs once, in Titus i, 8, where it 
 answers to v^^aAeo^ in 1 Tim. iii, 2. 
 
 From this inquiry, therefore, the conclusion is irresistible 
 that the temperance of the New Testament is a power in and 
 over one's self moderately to use all innocent things and abso- 
 lutely to abstain from all that is injurious. Applied to intox- 
 icating beverages it can have but one signification. Here the 
 New Testament insists upon total abstinence. This is Christ's 
 teaching by the Holy Spirit, and there can be no doubt that his 
 practice conformed to his precepts, and that, so far from being a 
 moderate drinker, he was, what he commands each one of his 
 followers to be, 
 
 A TOTAL ABSTAINEE.
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 A. 
 
 ALCOHOL IN HEALTH AND AS A FOOD. 
 
 (Pp. 4-7.) 
 
 WE submit some further and recent evidence from the 
 scientific and medical stand-point as to the hannfulness of al- 
 cohol in any shape or quantity in health, and as to its utter 
 uselessness as a food. An editorial in " The London Lancet," 
 the leading medical journal of Great Britain, of Jan. 1, 1881, 
 p. 28, says : 
 
 The most rigid teetotaler may well be satisfied with the grow- 
 ing tendency in physicians to use it (alcohol) strictly, and to be 
 satisfied only with distinct proofs of its utility; and the most 
 generous believer in the medicinal virtues of alcohol must know 
 that the public and individual patients are taking a keener inter- 
 est in this question than they ever did before, and are making 
 very shrewd personal experiments on the subject. Our own 
 opinion concerning it has been freely expressed, and we have not 
 concealed our conviction that good health is most consistent with 
 very little alcohol or with none ; that he who uses alcohol freely 
 or frequently, or by itself and apart from food, is surely laying 
 up disease and degeneration for himself and probably for his de- 
 scendants. 
 
 Frank Woodbury, M.D., Physician to the German Hospital, 
 Philadelphia, in a paper on " Clinical Phases of Poisoning by 
 Alcohol," published in " The Philadelphia Medical Times " of 
 April 9, 1881, says, " Alcoholic liquors are poisonous because 
 they contain alcohol." And, after stating that he has person- 
 ally repeated the experiments of Anstie, Parkes, and Wollo- 
 wicz, he declares : " I am, therefore, forced to the conclusion 
 that alcohol is not a true food in the sense that it favors nutri- 
 tion in a state of health." 
 
 R. Greene, M.D., of Boston, in a paper on " Alcoholic Stim- 
 ulants as Medicines," read before one of the medical societies 
 at the annual meeting, Boston, June 8, 1881, and published by 
 the author, asserts :
 
 132 Appendix. 
 
 Alcohol is neither food nor medicine. It cannot add one mole- 
 cule to the plasm out of which our bodies are daily built up. 
 On the contrary, it exerts upon the whole animal economy a most 
 deleterious influence. It does not supply, but diminishes, vital 
 force. It weakens the nerves, deadens the sensibilities, and les- 
 sens the power of the system to resist disease or to recover from 
 its effects. 
 
 At the thirty-first annual meeting of the Illinois State Med- 
 ical Society, held May, 1881, and reported in " The New York 
 Medical Kecord," July 23, 1881, "Dr. E. Ingalls, who had 
 corresponded with all the leading members of the society re- 
 garding the use of alcohol, said alcohol should not be used in 
 health, and physicians should discountenance its use by their 
 example and by their precept." 
 
 Dr. B. W. Kichardson, of England, thus sums up the " Ke- 
 sults of Kesearches on Alcohol," in an address published by 
 the National Temperance Society, 1882, pp. 19-21 : 
 
 What I may call the preliminary and physiological part of my 
 research was now concluded. I had learned, purely by experiment- 
 al observation, that in its action on the living body this chemical 
 substance, alcohol, deranges the constitution of the blood, un- 
 duly excites the heart and respiration, paralyzes the minute blood- 
 vessels, increases and decreases, according to the degree of its 
 application, the functions of the digestive organs, of the liver, 
 and of the kidneys, disturbs the regularity of nervous action, 
 lowers the animal temperature, and lessens the muscular power. 
 
 Such, independently of any prejudice of party or influence of 
 sentiment, are the unanswerable teachings of the sternest of all 
 evidences, the evidences of experiment, of natural fact revealed 
 to man by experimental testing of natural phenomena. If alco- 
 hol had never been heard of, as nitrite of amyl and many other 
 chemical substances I have tested had never been heard of by 
 the masses of mankind, this is the evidence respecting alcohol 
 which I should have collected, and these are the facts I should 
 have recorded from the evidence. 
 
 This record of simple experimental investigation and result 
 respecting the action of alcohol on the body were incomplete 
 without two other observations, which come in as a natural sup- 
 plement. It will be asked : Was there no evidence of any useful 
 service rendered by the agent in the midst of so much obvious 
 evidence of bad service ? I answer to that question that there 
 was no such evidence whatever, and there is none. It has been 
 urged, as a last kind of resource and excuse, that alcohol aids 
 digestion, and so far is useful. I support, in reply, the statement 
 of the late Dr. Cheyne, that nothing more effectively hinders
 
 Appendix. 133 
 
 digestion than alcohol. That " many hours, and even a whole 
 night, after a debauch in wine, it is common enough to reject a 
 part or the whole of a dinner undigested." I hold that those 
 who abstain from alcohol have the best digestion; and that more 
 instances of indigestion, of flatulency, of acidity, and of depres- 
 sion of mind and body, are produced by alcohol than by any 
 other single cause. 
 
 This excuse removed, there remains none other for alcohol that 
 is reasonably assignable except that temporary excitement of 
 mind whirli, in spite of the assumption of its jollity and happi- 
 ness, is one of the surest ultimate introductions to pain and sor- 
 row. But if there be no excuse favored by scientific research 
 on behalf of alcohol, there is sufficient of appalling reasons against 
 it superadded when the pathological results of its use are sur- 
 veyed upon the physiological. The mere question of the de- 
 structive effect of alcohol on the membranes of the body alone 
 would be a sufficient study for an address on the mischiefs of it. 
 I cannot define it better, indeed, than to say that it is an agent 
 as potent for evil as it is helpless for good. It begins by destroy- 
 ing, it ends by destruction, and it implants organic changes which 
 progress independently of its presence even in those who are not 
 born. 
 
 Dr. James Muir Howie, of Liverpool, in a recent paper on 
 " Stimulants and Narcotics," published by the National Tem- 
 perance Society, New York, 1882, in discussing the theory of 
 Anstie and others that alcohol is oxidized within the body, and 
 by the generation of force thus supplies the place of a food, 
 says in conclusion, (p. 10 :) 
 
 In the face of such well-attested facts and experiences as I have 
 just narrated, it is quite impossible to believe that alcohol "//* 
 the smallest amount of energy to any man, either healthy or dis- 
 eased. Moreover, the evidence just adduced strongly supports 
 the conclusion that it is not merely useless for such a purpose, 
 but that it is positively injurious. 
 
 The reason of its baneful effect lies in the fact that it liberates 
 nervous energy more rapidly than it can be made use of, and 
 thus, when the energy is desiderated for further exertion it is not 
 forthcoming. In fact, it spends nerve-power as quickly as it is 
 spent when a man is undergoing hard bodily or mental labor. 
 If, therefore, any man works hard and drinks hard at the same 
 time he will feel doubly exhausted when his day comes to an end. 
 
 In regard to the same question concerning the value of alco- 
 hol as a food, Dr. James Edmunds, of London, in his " Diet for 
 Mothers : Including the Question of Alcliolic Drinks," writes, 
 (pp. 12-U :)
 
 134: Appendix. 
 
 Speaking honestly, I cannot, by the argument yet presented 
 to me, admit the alcohols through any gate that might distinguish 
 them as apart from other chemical bodies. I can no more ac- 
 cept them as foods than I can chloroform, or ether, or methylal. 
 That they produce a temporary excitement is true, but as their 
 general action is quickly to reduce animal heat, I cannot see how 
 they can supply animal force. I see clearly how they reduce 
 animal power, and can show a reason for using them in order 
 to stop physical pain, or to stupefy mental pain; but that they 
 give strength, i. e., that they supply material for construction of 
 fine tissue, or throw force into tissues supplied by other material 
 must be an error as solemn as it is widespread. . . . 
 
 If this view be adopted, it follows that alcohol never yields up 
 force in the body as a food on the one hand; and that it never 
 acts as a stimulant by supplying force on the other. All the ob- 
 servations which I have been able to make impress me with the 
 conviction that, at any rate, the drug-action of alcohol is that of 
 a narcotic, and not that of a stimulant; but in case it should 
 hereafter be proved that alcohol does undergo oxidation in the 
 body so as to yield up force, and thereby serves to some extent 
 as food, the total abstainer's platform would still remain un- 
 shaken. We should then inquire, firstly, Is alcohol a good food ? 
 Every medical man would reply that alcohol is certainly the 
 cause of most of those degenerations of blood and tissue which 
 constitute the diseases of the present day a charge which can- 
 not be brought against any other substance that ranks as a food; 
 and there is no doubt that the physical injury resulting from the 
 use of alcohol as a food would far outweigh the benefits which 
 its possible yielding up of force might give. We should ask, 
 secondly, Is alcohol a cheap food ? The reply would be that you 
 could get as much food in a pennyworth of oatmeal, beef suet, 
 or sugar, as you could in a shilling's-worth of alcohol. We 
 should ask, thirdly, Is alcohol a safe food ? The reply would be 
 that, while gluttony and other abuses of true foods are practi- 
 cally very trifling evils, and evils, moreover, which seem to have 
 a natural tendency to cure themselves, the drunkenness and other 
 evils which arise out of the drinking usages of society are admit- 
 ted on all hands to be the greatest curse with which society is at 
 present afflicted, and to be evils, moreover, which have a tend- 
 ency to perpetuate and aggravate themselves, instead of curing 
 themselves. Therefore, if alcohol were a food, it would be an 
 injurious food, a dear food, and a dangerous food. 
 
 That is to say, it is not a food at all, for " an injurious food " 
 is a contradiction in terms. 
 
 Dr. W. B. Carpenter, of England, in a lecture delivered in 
 Tremont Temple, Boston, December 3, 1882, and reported in 
 the " Daily Advertiser," (December 4,) said :
 
 Appendix. 
 
 Any one who is familiar with the action of poison upon the 
 living animal body and has made that a subject of special study, 
 has not the 1 smallest hesitation in saying that alcohol is a poison. 
 There are any number of well-attested results of its administra- 
 tion experimentally upon animals, in which it is shown that it is 
 a poison. Yet it may be thought by many of you that if it is a 
 poison its action is very, very slow when taken in small, contin- 
 ued, repeated doses. I admit that freely. It is a very, very slow 
 poison in the great majority of instances ; but I do not regard 
 its action as any less sure because it is slow. After very large 
 experience, experience of our life-insurance companies, of our 
 benefit societies and I think you have similar institutions in this 
 country, a sort of mutual insurance for workingmen, for payrm-nt 
 during sickness the experience of all these is entirely in this 
 direction, that life is shortened and disease induced, and the 
 body, even, very materially injured, by indulgence in alcoholic 
 liquors. 
 
 B. 
 
 ALCOHOL AND LIFE INSURANCE. 
 (P. 7.) 
 
 The following is the passage from Parke's " Manual of 
 Practical Hygiene," p. 270, (fifth edition, 1878, p. 291,) re- 
 ferred to in the foot-note on p. 7 of this work : 
 
 Very striking evidence in favor of total abstinence, as contr 
 with moderation, is given by the statistics of the United King- 
 dom Temperance and General Provident Institution. One sec- 
 tion consists of abstainers, another of persons selected as not 
 known to be intemperate. The claims for five years (1865-1870) 
 anticipated in the temperance section were 100,446, but there 
 .vore actually only claims for 72,676. In the general section 
 
 the anticipated claims were 196,352, and the actual claims were 
 230,297. The much greater longevity of the abstainer is bet- 
 ter seen by the amount of bonuses paid to each 1,000 whole- 
 life policy in the two sections for the same five years: 
 
 Agt 
 Enlntnc*. 
 
 Pntnlonu 
 p.id. 
 
 Bnnnt *dd*d In 
 Tempermnc* Section. 
 
 B nm da! tm 
 Grnrml ScUo. 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 , a. d. 
 
 S. d. 
 
 15 
 
 83 2 6 
 
 61 1 
 
 35 10 
 
 20 
 
 93 6 8 
 
 64 
 
 37 
 
 25 
 
 106 9 2 
 
 68 10 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 122 1 8 
 
 74 
 
 43 
 
 35 
 
 138 19 2 
 
 78 19 
 
 46 
 
 40 
 
 162 5 10 
 
 86 
 
 60 4 
 
 45 
 
 188 10 10 
 
 92 18 
 
 54 
 
 60 
 
 226 5 
 
 104 2 
 
 60 13 
 
 65 
 
 284 3 4 
 
 122 14 
 
 71 11
 
 136 Appendix. 
 
 At every age, therefore, the abstainer has a very great ad- 
 vantage. 
 
 Professor William James, in his Harvard College lectures, 
 states * that insurance statistics for a given period show that 
 where calculations from the tables of mortality anticipated the 
 death of 1,110 abstainers, only 801 did die ; but where the 
 death of 2,010 ordinary people was anticipated, 1,997 actually 
 died. The contrast in this case, it must be remembered, is not 
 between abstainers and drunkards, who are never insured, but 
 between abstainers and moderate drinkers. 
 
 At the Dublin meeting of the National Association for the 
 Promotion of Social Science in. 1881 Dr. Cosgrove, of the 
 University of Dublin, in a paper on " The Use of Alcoholic 
 Stimulants in Irish Workhouses," said : f " Insurance statistics 
 and army and benefit club experiences show that a total ab- 
 stainer is, coeteris paribus, not only very much healthier than a 
 drunkard, but also appreciably a better life than a moderate 
 drinker." 
 
 0. 
 
 THE USE or FRESH GRAPE- JUICE AS A BEVERAGE. 
 
 (P. 21.) 
 
 We have referred to Dr. Duff as one of the authorities for 
 our statement that the pure juice of the grape, freshly ex- 
 pressed, is used as a beverage in wine-bearing districts to this 
 day. The passage is found in his " Life," by Smith, vol. i, p. 
 392. It was written in the south of France, where he was so- 
 journing in 1839. It is as follows : 
 
 Look at the peasant at his meals in vine-bearing districts ! 
 Instead of milk he has before him a basin of the pure, unadul- 
 terated " blood of the grape." In this, its native and original 
 state, it is a plain, simple, and wholesome liquid, which at every 
 repast becomes to the husbandman what milk is to the shepherd 
 not a luxury but a necessary, not an intoxicating but a nutri- 
 tive beverage. 
 
 * Boston "Daily Advertiser," May 19, 1881. 
 f "Transactions," etc. London, 1882, p. 650.
 
 Appendix. 137 
 
 This would certainly seem to be a very plain and unmistak- 
 able piece of testimony to the custom as we have alleged. But, 
 under the exigencies of their position, those who deny the use 
 of unfermented wine appealed to Dr. Duff to state " if he 
 meant that the wine so described by him was really unfer- 
 mented ; and he replied," says Dr. Moore, whom we are quot- 
 ing,* " in unambiguous terms that he intended to convey no 
 such idea." This is his language :f 
 
 On inquiry I found it was the pure juice of the grape, which* 
 as you know, ferments spontaneously when expressed from the 
 husk fermented, therefore, but still pure, that is, wholly un- 
 drugged or unadulterated with any extraneous matter of any kind. 
 It was also very weak, that is, contained very little spirit, but 
 still enough to preserve it. Being so weak, and so free from all 
 adulterating mixtures, and taken in the manner in which I saw 
 it taken, it was utterly incapable of intoxicating a child, and 
 constituted a wholesome, refreshing beverage, instead of milk, 
 which was not to be had in that quarter. That is the sum and 
 substance of what I wrote, or meant to write. Such a thing as 
 unfermented wine I never heard of in any country. 
 
 Notwithstanding the purpose for which this second state- 
 ment was made, we regard it as strongly corroborative of the 
 first, and of the fact in evidence of which we have cited that. 
 There is nothing contradictory of it in this supplementary tes- 
 timony. It contains no new information save that concerning 
 the fermented condition of the grape-juice partaken of by the 
 peasant, and this is stated not as ^fact^ but simply as an infer- 
 ence. " On inquiry " he " found it was the pure juice of the 
 grape." That was all, and had already been certified to. But 
 this juice, " as you know, ferments spontaneously when ex- 
 pressed from the husk [and was] fermented therefore" This 
 is not merely an inference, but an illegitimate one, since the 
 premise from which it is drawn, is false. By " spontaneously " 
 Dr. Duff evidently meant immediately, and this, we have al- 
 ready shown, is not the fact, (p. 65.) As Professor Dittmnr 
 says, " Spontaneous fermentation is always slow in beginning." \ 
 That Dr. Duff had never heard of " such a thing as unfer- 
 mented wine " does not bear upon the case in hand. It is the 
 thing itself and not its name about which we are now con- 
 
 * " Presbyterian Review," January, 1881, p. 99 f Ibid. 
 
 % " Encyclopedia Britanuica," ninth ed, article " Fermentation."
 
 138 Appendix. 
 
 cernea. The unfermented character of this beverage of the 
 husbandman is still further confirmed and made certain by the 
 additional statement that " it was utterly incapable of intoxi- 
 cating a child," which could not be true of any liquor that 
 had begun the active process of fermentation. 
 
 But we are not dependent upon Dr. Duff exclusively for our 
 proof of the use in modern times of the fresh grape-juice as a 
 beverage. Dr. Kerr tells us, 
 
 In many parts of France vin boueux, (muddy wine,) commonly 
 called vin bmirru, is drank by the peasantry like milk: muddy, 
 not from fermentation, but simply from the piilp and seeds be- 
 ing mixed with the juice, the skins being strained off. This wine 
 remains, in ordinary weather, unfermented and non-alcoholic for 
 from twenty to fifty hours, and is evidently the wine described 
 by Philip Miller, F.R.S., in 1768, in these words: " Vin-bourra, 
 as they call it, (that is, a new and sweet wine that has not 
 worked,) which they sell while it is quite hot." (" Gard. Diet.," 
 8th ed., article "Vitis.")* 
 
 So the celebrated canoeist and traveler, Macgregor, 
 writes : 
 
 At one of the great inns on the road some new wine was pro- 
 duced on the table. It had been made only the day before, and 
 its color was exactly that of cold tea with milk and sugar in it, 
 while its taste was very luscious and sweet. The new wine is 
 sometimes in request, but especially among women.f 
 
 Dr. Moore, after denying that " unfermented wine is a com- 
 mon and favorite beverage in various European countries, and 
 particularly in France and Italy, at the present day,"J and offering 
 a reward of one hundred dollars " to any one who will bring re- 
 liable testimony from Syria that the natives of that country are in 
 the habit of drinking it [unchanged grape-juice] as their form 
 of wine " a very carefully guarded proposition, by the way 
 asserts that " if this were the case, it would not establish the 
 existence of such a drink in Palestine at and before the time of 
 our Saviour's appearance on the earth." | We insist, on the other 
 hand, that if this were proved not to be the case it would fail to 
 
 * " Unfermented Wine a Fact," p. 39. 
 
 f "A Thousand Miles in the Rob Roy Canoe." London, 1866, p. 215. 
 
 \ " Presbyterian Review," January, 1881, p. 98. 
 
 " Daily Record," Philadelphia, May 27, 1882. 
 
 | "Presbyterian Review," January, 1881, p. 98.
 
 Appendix. l.,9 
 
 disprove the existence and use of such a drink in Palestine at 
 and before the time of our Saviour's appearance on the earth. 
 It would be well if both sides would bear in mind that it is 
 ancient customs and not modern habits which are in contro- 
 versy. We know that in many instances the latter have di- 
 verged widely from the former. It would not be strange if 
 they had done so in this case. And yet the evidence, as we 
 understand it, does not favor such a view. The testimony we 
 have just adduced of Dr. Duff and others establishes the exist- 
 ence of the custom of drinking unfermented grape-juice in 
 wine countries at the present day. To this should be added the 
 testimony of Dr. Jacobus, cited on page 57 of this work, and 
 founded on the witness' personal observation and experience, 
 and also that of Dr. Kerr, who says,* " I have myself imported 
 unfermented grape-juice from the East for the use of my 
 family." 
 
 Now, equally ample and authoritative evidence of the prev- 
 alence of the same practice in ancient times is at hand. The 
 use of the freshly expressed grape-juice as a beverage in the 
 Egypt of Pharaoh's time is proven, as we have seen, (p. 21,) 
 by Scriptural record confirmed by monumental inscriptions. 
 Sir Edward Barry says : f " The grapes became at first a useful 
 part of their (the ancients') aliment, and the recent expressed 
 juice a cooling drink." E. Lankester, M.D., F.R.S., writes : : 
 " The ancients, also, there can be little doubt, were in the habit 
 of drinking the expressed juice of the grape before fermenta- 
 tion." Dr. Forbiger, an eminent German authority oil the 
 manners and customs of antiquity, testifies : " Je alter der 
 Wein war, fur desto vorziiglicher gait er ; doch wurde auch 
 schon der Most, besonders der noch von dem Keltern von eelbst 
 abfliessende, sehr gern getrunken ;" " The older the wine was the 
 more highly was it esteemed ; but on the other hand, also, 
 must, especially that which flowed spontaneously from the 
 press, was very eagerly drank." Dr. William Smith tells us,| 
 on the authority of Columella (xii, 41) and the " Geoponica," 
 
 * " Wines Scriptural and Ecclesiastical," p. 33. 
 
 f " Observations on the Wines of the Ancients." London, 1775, p. 27. 
 \ " Food." London, 1861, p. 229. 
 " Hellas und Rom." Leipsic, 1876, iv, 118. 
 \ " Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities," article " Vinum," 
 10
 
 140 Appendix. 
 
 (vi, 16,) that "A portion of the must was used at once, being 
 drunk fresh after it had been clarified with vinegar." We will 
 close this line of evidence with the testimony of Dr. Lyman 
 Abbot, who is far from agreeing with us in our general posi- 
 tions. He thus describes the wines of Palestine :* 
 
 First there was fermented wine. It contained, what is the only 
 objectionable element in modern wines, a percentage of alcohol. 
 It was the least common, and the percentage of alcohol was small. 
 Second were the new wines. These, like our new cider, were 
 wholly ^c^thout alcohol, and were not intoxicating. They were 
 easily preserved in this condition for several months. Third 
 were wines in which, by boiling or by drugs, the process of fer- 
 mentation was prevented and alcohol excluded. These answer- 
 ing somewhat in composition and character to our raspberry 
 shrub, were mixed with water, and constituted the most common 
 drink of the land. 
 
 The italics are ours. "We regard the passage as a very can- 
 did and correct statement of the real facts in the case. 
 
 D. 
 
 THE POSITION OF OUR OPPONENTS. 
 
 (P. 31.) 
 
 That we have not misstated the position of our opponents in 
 this controversy on " The Bible "Wine Question," a position 
 which they must hold in its full integrity or surrender uncon- 
 ditionally, is made certain by what Dr. A. A. Hodge writes in 
 the editorial pages of the " Presbyterian Review," April, 1882, 
 p. 395. He declares : " The single point essential to the posi- 
 tion of Dr. Moore and those who sympathize with him is the 
 fact that the word 'wine' means only and always juice of the 
 grape fermented, and that the same was made and drunk by 
 Christ, and used by him as one of +he elements of the Last 
 Supper." 
 
 "A Life of Christ," p. 109. Second edition. Harper & Brothers. 1882.
 
 Appendix. 141 
 
 UNFERMENTED JUICE or THE GBAPB DEFINED AS WINE. 
 
 (Pp. 32-34.) 
 
 We have shown in the foregoing pages that the fresh and 
 unfermented juice of the grape, known as yAevof among the 
 Greeks, and mustum among the Romans, was in that age sci- 
 entifically recognized and described as wine. We propose now 
 to show that the modern authorities on the subject take pre- 
 cisely the same position with reference to the ancient bever- 
 age and its modern equivalents. 
 
 We quote authoritative definitions of 
 
 I. THE GREEK rAev/cof. 
 
 1. Donnegan, (1826,) "New, unfermented wine, must." 
 
 2. Passow, (Leipzig, 1841,) " Most, ungegohrener od. eingekochter 
 
 stissur Wein," Unfermented or boiled sweet wine. 
 
 3. Pickering, (1846,) "New wine, must, a sweet juice or liquor." 
 
 4. Liddell and Scott, (New York, 1870,) " Lat., Mustum, must, 
 
 i. e., sweet new wine." 
 
 5. Sophocles, in his " Greek Lexicon of the Roman and Byzantine 
 
 Periods," (Boston, 1870,) does not give yA*wcof, but defines 
 " yfov/uvof, (yAeikof,) of new wine or must." 
 
 6. Chassang, (Paris, 1877,) "Vin doux" Sweet wine. 
 
 7. Alexandre, (Paris, 1880,) "Vtn doux" 
 
 8. Young, ("Analyt. Concordance," 1880,) "Sweet or new wine." 
 
 II. THE LATIN Mustum. 
 
 1. Littleton, (London, 1678,) "s. c. Vinum, new wine close shut 
 
 up and not suffered to work." 
 
 2. Lflneman, (Leipzig, 1780,) " Der most, junge wein," Must, 
 
 new wine. 
 
 3. Forcellini, (Patavii, 1827,) "Vinum novum, nondum purga- 
 
 tum, Mosto, vino nuovo, yA5of. 
 
 4. Ainsworth, (1835,) "Wine coming from the grape before 
 
 pressing.'* 
 
 5. Valpy, (Cambridge, 1838,) " Mustus, new, fresh, young. 
 
 Hence, mustum, L e., vinum, fresh wine, as merum for 
 merum vinum."
 
 142 Appendix. 
 
 6. Freund, (Leipzig, 1845,) "Junger, unabgegohrener Wein, 
 
 most," New unfermented wine, must. 
 
 7. Andrews, (I860,) " s. c. Vinum, new or unfermented wine, 
 
 must." 
 
 8. Rich, ("Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities," Lon- 
 
 don, I860,) "New wine not yet fermented and racked off 
 from the lees." 
 
 9. White and Riddle, (London, 1870,) (s. c. vinum,) "New, fresh, 
 
 or unfermented wine, must." 
 
 10. Smith, (London, 1870,) " New or unfermented wine, must." 
 
 11. Vanicek, (Leipzig, 1877,) " Der junge unabgegohrener Wein," 
 New, unfermented wine. 
 
 12. Harper's "Latin Dictionary," (1880,) "New or unfermented 
 wine, must." 
 
 III. THE FRENCH Mout. 
 
 1. " Die. de P Academic Francaise," " Vin qui vient d'etre fait, et 
 
 qui n'a point encore fermente," Wine which has just been 
 made and which has not yet fermented. 
 
 2. Littre, (Paris, 1863,) " Du Lat. mustum: vinum mustum, vin 
 
 nouveau, non fermente," From the Latin mustum: must 
 wine, new wine, not fermented. 
 
 3. Spier and Surenne, (1865,) "Must, unfermented wine." 
 
 IY. THE ITALIAN Mosto. 
 
 1. Fanfani, (Firenze, 1865,) "Sugo tratto dall' uva pigiata e che 
 non ha ancor bollito. Vale anche vino," Juice pressed from 
 the crushed grape and which has not yet fermented. It is 
 also wine. 
 
 Y. THE GERMAN Most. 
 
 1. Heyse, (Magdeburg, 1833,) "Von dem Lat. mustum, soil. 
 
 vinum, d. i. neuer Wein," From the Latin mustum, vinum 
 understood, that is, new wine. 
 
 2. Jttrgens, (Braunschweig, 1877,) " Lat., mustum, niimlich vinum, 
 
 Wein ein junger, susser Wein," Latin, mustum, namely vi- 
 num, wine, a new r sweet wine. 
 
 3. Adler, (New York, 1845,) " Must, new wine not fermented."
 
 Appendix. 143 
 
 Yl THE ENGLISH MUST. 
 
 1. Johnson, (1785,) "New wine." 
 
 2. Walker, (1818,) " New wine." 
 
 3. Ogilvie, ("Imperial Dictionary," 1853,) "New wine, wine 
 
 pressed from the grape, but not fermented." 
 
 4. Webster, (1870,) " Wine pressed from the grape, but not fer- 
 
 mented." 
 
 6. Worcester, (1870,) "The sweet or unfermented juice of the 
 grape, new wine." 
 
 6. Longmuir, (1877,) " New wine, unfermented." 
 
 7. Nuttall, (1878,) " Wine from the grape, not fermented." 
 
 8. Skeats, ("Etymological Dictionary," 1882,) " New wine." 
 
 But it is unnecessary to further multiply examples. Every- 
 where the freshly expressed, unfermented juice of the grape is 
 recognized and defined as wine by scholars, scientists, lexicog- 
 raphers, encyclopedists, and the people generally. 
 
 F. 
 
 IN THE NEW TESTAMENT. 
 (P. 51.) 
 
 Our brief allusion to the use of ytevito$ in the New Testa- 
 ment has been misapprehended, and the inquiry made whether 
 " confirms " should not be " refutes " in our statement of its 
 significance. To make the whole subject plain, and to vindi- 
 cate our interpretation of the term in the single instance of its 
 occurrence in the Gospel writings, we can do no better than 
 to quote in full the very clear and conclusive explanation of 
 Professor Bumstead, (Bibliotheca Sacra, Jan., 1881, p. 81,) to 
 which we merely adverted in the text : 
 
 This, as in classic Greek, corresponds to the Latin 
 mustum, meaning the newly expressed juice of the grape, and so 
 has a less wide range of meaning than tirosh or asis. It occurs 
 only once, and I see no necessity for trying to prove it intoxi- 
 cating, as some have done, including Robinson. Others mock- 
 ing said, "These men are full of yAriixof," (Acts ii, 13.) The 
 
 irony of this charge seems to be clearly indicated by the word 
 " mocking," and the meaning to be: " These men, too abstemious, 
 forsooth, to touch any thing stronger, have made themselves
 
 144: Appendix. 
 
 drunk on grape-juice." If this was not the point of their " mock- 
 ing," how can the use of y^dkof instead of the common word 
 o/vof, be accounted for ? Vicar Bevan says, " St. Peter would 
 hardly have offered a serious defense to an accusation that was 
 not seriously made." * But Peter replies, not to the absurdity 
 of getting drunk on grape-juice, but to the real charge which 
 that absurdity so satirically covers up, namely, that they were 
 drunk on something. " These men are not drunken, as ye sup- 
 pose, seeing it is but the third hour of the day." It seems to 
 me that Alford and others, in arguing for the intoxicating char- 
 acter of yfevKog as a sweet wine, have lost sight of the classical 
 distinction already pointed out (p. 62) between -yfatKOf mustum, 
 sweet, because unfermented, grape-juice, and olvof ytonvf sweet 
 wine, so called because, though fermented, it was rich in sugar. 
 
 We cannot fail to see in such a charge as this of getting 
 drunk on grape-juice, as though that were their usual beverage, 
 and this the unusual result of indulging in it, an indirect but 
 a very important piece of testimony to the total abstinence 
 habits of the apostles, and so inferentially to the like practice of 
 their great Teacher and Exemplar. This is confirmed by what 
 Eusebius tells us, on the authority of Hegesippus, concerning 
 the Apostle James, the brother of the Lord and author of the 
 General Epistle. He says, (" Hist. Eccl.," ii, 23,) Olvov KOI oiicepa 
 OVK KTTiev ovde K^V^OV 0ayev, " Wine and sikera he did not 
 drink, neither did he eat animal food." Traces of this same 
 spirit and practice of abstinence are very perceptible in the 
 Epistles of Peter. (1 Pet. i, 13 ; iv, 3, 7 ; v, 8 ; 2 Pet. i, 6.) 
 
 THE COLOR OF GRAPE-JUICE. 
 (Pp. 49 aud 81.) 
 
 Dr. Moore says, (" Presbyterian Review," January, 1882, p. 
 88 :) " Red wine is the blood of the grape. Now we have not 
 been able to find an unfermented wine that is red. The juice 
 of the purple grape is not red, but the coloring matter is in 
 the husks, 'and can be extracted only by acid and alcohol or 
 wine. It is not soluble in the unfermented juice." 
 
 The first statement is preposterous in the face of what fol- 
 lows. If grape-juice can have no color until after fermenta- 
 
 * Smith's " Dictionary of the Bible," article "Wine."
 
 Appendix. 145 
 
 tion, and if color be essential to the symbolism of blood, then 
 such a thing as " the blood of the grape " is literally impossible 
 and figuratively unmeaning. " Red wine," which, on the doc- 
 tor's hypothesis, can be the result only of carefully-conducted 
 chemical processes, has no more claim to be regarded as " the 
 blood of the grape" than the vinegar or any other subsequent 
 and artificial product of the vine. It does not exist within 
 the grape, nor can it come from it. If, therefore, it be true 
 that fresh grape-juice is colorless, then the point of the sym- 
 bolism must lie in something else than the color. And such 
 we believe to be the case. As we have already stated, (p. 49,) 
 it is doubtless to be found in the fact that in the juice of the 
 grape, as in the blood of the animal, is the life, (cf. Lev. xvii, 
 11.) In the instance of the Lord's Supper, as we have also in- 
 dicated, (p. 83,) the point of the symbolism lies in the being 
 poured out. But while this is true, it is not necessary to reject 
 wholly the thought of color, which, as a most obvious phe- 
 nomenon, would appeal directly to the senses and the imagina- 
 tion. And this brings us to say that grape-juice is not always 
 colorless. Dr. Moore is not correct in his statements on this 
 point. There are more things in heaven and earth than he 
 has dreamed of in his philosophy. There are not a few vari- 
 eties of grapes whose pulp contains coloring matter soluble in 
 the acid, sugary juice, which is consequently red just as it 
 pours from the cluster.* We may mention the Pineau, grown 
 in Burgundy, which, " when fully ripe, always yields a slightly 
 reddish, rosy, or partridge-eye colored juice, however carefully 
 and quickly it may be pressed." f The Teinturier, extensively 
 grown in France and Spain, yields a " juice of a dark-red color 
 on pressing. It is used for giving a dark color to wines, from 
 which fact comes its name, literally ' the dyer.' " \ There is 
 also the Spanish grape Tinta Francisco,, possessing the same 
 characteristics and perhaps the same variety as the Teinturier. 
 The Mustang grape of Kew Mexico, Texas, and Arkansas, 
 contains a blood-red pulp, and yields a very red and acid juice.jj 
 The juice of the Riparia or River grape, of Texas, is also 
 blood-red.^" " The Samarcandi, called from the town of that 
 
 * Fide Thudicum and Dupr " On the Origin, Nature, and Varieties of Wine," 
 p. 256. f Ibid., p. 101. $ Ibid., pp. 256, 487, 488. Ibid., p. 074. 
 
 | Ibid., p. 728. t I bid -. P- 729 -
 
 146 Appendix. 
 
 name, [is] a kind of grape with a black skin with red juice, 
 furnishing the claret wine." * 
 
 It is quite probable that grapes of this sort have grown in 
 Judea. Isaiah Ixiii, 2, 3, may be regarded as an indication of 
 this fact. In the Apocrypha, also, (1 Mace, vi, 34,) we find 
 described a device which was resorted to for exciting the war 
 elephants: "And to the end that they might provoke the ele- 
 phants to fight, they showed them the blood of grapes and 
 mulberries." The juice of the grapes and berries must very 
 plainly have been red, or the artifice would have proved a 
 failure. 
 
 H. 
 
 THE METHOD OF THE MIRACLE AT CANA. 
 
 (P. 54.) 
 
 We have been accused of misrepresenting St. Augustine and 
 Chrysostom, (" S. C. B." in " The Record," Philadelphia, July 
 22, 1882, and " The Independent," August 3, 1882.) That we 
 have not done so in our statement of their interpretation of 
 the miraculous transformation of water into wine at the mar- 
 riage-feast in Cana of Galilee, is amply evidenced by these au- 
 thors' own words, which we quote. St. Augustine says, (in 
 " Evang. Joan.," tr. viii :) 
 
 Ipse enim fecit vinum illo die in nuptiis in sex illis hydriis 
 quas impleri aqua praecepit, qui omni anno fecit hoc in vitibus. 
 Sicut enim quod miserunt ministri in hydrias, in vinum conver- 
 sum est opere Domini, sic et quod nubes fundunt, in vinum con- 
 vertitur ejusdem opere Domini. Illud autem non miramur, quia 
 omni anni fit : assiduitate amisit admirationem. " For the self- 
 same one made wine on that day at the marriage-feast in those 
 six water-pots, which he commanded to be filled with water, who 
 does this every year in vines. For even as that which the serv- 
 ants put into the water-pots was turned into wine by the doing 
 of the Lord, so in like manner also is what the clouds pour forth 
 changed into wine by the doing of the same Lord. But we do 
 not wonder at the latter, because it happens every year ; it has 
 lost its marvelousness by its constant occurrence." 
 
 * Henderson, " History of Ancient and Modern Wine." Lond., 1824. P. 264.
 
 Appendix. 147 
 
 Chrysostom says, (" Ilom." xxii, in Joan :) 
 
 &TI avrof lanv 6 tv ratf afirrehoif TO Mup jurra/3aA/luv, xal rbv 
 farov Aiii r^f pi&e f olvov rpeiruv, hnep tv T <f>vr$ dia iroMov xpovov yiverai, 
 TOVTO udpoov tv Tw yuftu eipyuaaro. " Showing that it is he who trans- 
 mutes water in the vines, and who converts the rain by its pas- 
 sage through the roots into wine, who effected that in an instant 
 at the wedding which in the plant is long in doing." 
 
 Bishop Hall says, (" Contemplations," p. 117 :) 
 
 What doth he, in the ordinary way of nature, but turn the 
 watery juice that arises up from the root into wine ? He will 
 only do this now, suddenly and at once, which he doth usually by 
 sensible degrees. 
 
 Archbishop Trench says, (" On the Miracles," p. 115 :) 
 
 He who each year prepares the wine in the grape, causing it to 
 absorb and swell with the moisture of earth and heaven, to trans- 
 mute this into nobler juices of its own, did now concentrate all 
 these slower processes into a single moment, and accomplish in 
 an instant what usually takes many months to accomplish. 
 
 Olshausen says, (" Commentary," in loc.:) 
 
 The only correct conception of this occurrence is that which 
 supposes a real effective influence which only wrought with ac- 
 celerated rapidity. Hence the fathers justly observe that here 
 nothing else occurred than what is annually displayed in a more 
 gradual development in the vine. In the same way Meyer cor- 
 rectly understands the miracle ; and Strauss himself, who at one 
 time could not ridicule it sufficiently, is now compelled, in his 
 third number of the " Streitschrif ten " (p. 113) against Bauer, to 
 acknowledge the suitableness of supposing an accelerated process 
 of nature. It is self-evident that this supposition neither removes 
 the miracle nor explains it naturally; the essence of the miracle 
 consists in divinely effecting the acceleration of the natural 
 process; the form in which the miracle is exhibited is a more 
 effective medium for its contemplation. 
 
 We were in error, misled by Olshausen ut supra, in enu- 
 merating Meyer among those who adopt Augustine's explana- 
 tion of the miracle. He does not regard it as a supernatural 
 acceleration of the process of nature. 
 
 Dr. Whedon says, (" Comm.," in loc. :) 
 
 And no doubt Jesus, like the God of nature, created, not the 
 alcohol, which is the poison produced by the putrefying corpse 
 of the dead yrape, but the fresh, living, innocent fluid.
 
 148 Appendix. 
 
 Dr. Geikie says, (" Life and Words of Christ," i, 479 :) 
 
 The wine which the guests had drunk from the bridegroom's 
 bounty, and possibly from the added gifts of friends, had been 
 slowly matured from the vine by mysterious elaboration from 
 light and heat and moisture and the salts of the earth, none of 
 which had more apparent affinity to it than the water which Je- 
 sus transformed. The miracle in nature was not less real or won- 
 derful than that of the wedding-feast, and strikes us less only by 
 its being familiar. At the threshold of Christ's miraculous works 
 it is well to realize a fact so easily overlooked. A miracle is 
 only an exercise in a new way of the Almighty power we see 
 daily producing the same results in nature. 
 
 I. 
 
 CHBYSOSTOM AND BENGEL ON 1 COK. xi, 21. 
 
 (P. 60.) 
 
 It has been frequently and positively denied that the above- 
 named expositors give their support to the interpretation of 
 ju0ua) in 1 Cor. xi, 21, in the generic sense of " surfeited " 
 rather than in the narrow and exclusive sense of " drunken." 
 Dr. Moore can scarcely refrain from charging those who quote 
 them on this side with intentional misrepresentation, (" Pres- 
 byterian Keview," January, 1881, p. 95.) He himself, how- 
 ever, gives only garbled extracts from these authorities, and 
 deals none too ingenuously with them or with his readers. We 
 quote them in full on this passage, and ask the candid and 
 judicious to decide as to the merits of the case. Chrysostom 
 writes, (" Horn." xxvii, in Epist. ad Cor. :) 
 
 EtTruv yap rovro, eTnyyaye TruTitv KOI of ftev ireivp, of 6e fieBvei. cnrep end- 
 Ttpa afieTpiaf TJV, /cat ff evdeta KOI i) vireppo'Xrj. 'Idov Kal dei/Tspov eyn'krip.a 
 irdhiv avTovf EKfivovg KaTapAdirrov. irp&Tov [lev, dri TO delirt'OV UVTUV uTifid- 
 fotw devrepov <5e, on ynarpi^ovrai KOI fufffavot' /eat TO 6rj ^a/leTrwrepov, on /cat 
 TUV nevfjTuv ireivuvTuv. *A yap ^ufA^e nowy truai irpoKeiaOai, Tavra OVTOI 
 ftovoi aiTovpevoi, KOI elf cnr^rjaTiav Kal elf fie6r)v e^e(3aivov. A(6 ovde 7rcv } df 
 ftev ireiva, df 6e kopevvvTai, u/lAa p.e6vet. ToiiTuv 6e exaoTov /cat /cafl' eavTo fiev 
 KaTtj-yopiaf uiov KOI -yap TO (tedveiv ^uptf TOV napoppv irevTjTaf ^y/c/l^a, /cat TO 
 irapopav TrevrjTOf ^wpif TOV (j.eQveiv /car^yopta' b~av 6e /cat bftov avvr)u.fj.eva ;/, 
 evvojjoov 6(777 7) tm-jp/Jo/l// Tijf Ttapavofiiaf. 
 
 "We append without change, the translation of this passage 
 made " by members of the English Church," (Oxford, 1845.)
 
 Appendix. 149 
 
 "We use this not because it is altogether satisfactory, for it 
 is not ; but it is at least impartial so far as this controversy is 
 concerned, and, unsatisfactory as it is, we believe it amply vin- 
 dicates our representation of Chrysostom's exegesis. 
 
 For having said this, he added again, and one is hungry and 
 another is drunken, each of which showed a want of moderation, 
 both the craving and the excess. See also a second fault again, 
 whereby those same persons are injured: the first, that they dis- 
 honor their supper; the second, that they are greedy and drunken; 
 and, what is yet worse, even when the poor are hungry. For what 
 was intended to be set before all in common, that these men 
 fed on alone, and proceeded both to surfeiting and to drunken- 
 ness. Wherefore neither did he say, one is hungry, and another 
 is fitted, but is drunken. Now each of these, even by itself, ia 
 worthy of censure: for it is a fault to be drunken, even without 
 despising the poor, and to despise the poor without being drunken 
 is an accusation. When botn these are joined together at the 
 same time, consider how exceeding great is the transgression. 
 
 Whatever else may be true of this extract from Chrysostom, 
 it is very plain that it discovers something more in the verb 
 ^0yw, as used in the passage in question, than the single and 
 simple idea of drunkenness. As neivij, contains the general 
 idea of need, (Zvdeia,} so pedvei embraces the idea of excess in gen- 
 eral, (vTrep/SoA?/.) And in his exegesis of the verb, Chrysostom 
 is compelled in each instance to employ two terms, one looking 
 to over-eating and the other to over-drinking, to bring out its 
 full force. For example, he says, yaarpl^ovrcu nai 
 " they eat and drink to the full ; " and again, not d$ d 
 KCU elg \izQr\v e&fiaivav, " they proceeded both to surfeiting (or 
 gluttony) and to drunkenness." We regard this as sufficient 
 evidence of the truth of our position. We add, however, the 
 corroborative testimony of Dr. Bloomfield, who takes precisely 
 the same view of Chrysostom's comment on this passage. He 
 says, (" Resc. Syn.," vi, 539 :) 
 
 "Of <tt (tedvEi. The ancient commentators rightly notice that 
 the ratio oppositi requires this word to be taken of repletion, if not 
 excess, both in eating and <///////'//;/. Schleusner confines it to Cit- 
 ing. But this would necessarily increase the catachresis. Chrys- 
 ostom rightly includes both, explaining, faimov dn/idyown, bn yaa- 
 Tptfrvrai KOI pcdvovat. It is not, however, necessary to supp"-*- any 
 excess of drinking, but merely drinking to satiety. Tin- criiin 1 im- 
 puted to them is not drunkenness or gluttony, but gross ami ra- 
 pacious selfishness at a feast united with the Lord's, and formed
 
 150 Appendix. 
 
 on such principles of love and Christian communion as should be 
 a proper introduction to it. 
 
 Bengel says, (" Gnomon," in loo. :) 
 
 M alius quidem (non habeus) esurit, (et sitit:) alius vero (ha- 
 bens, saturatur et) ebrius est. Alter plus justo habet sibi, alter 
 minus. "And one indeed (inasmuch as he has not) is hungry, 
 (and thirsty;) but another (inasmuch as he has, is surfeited) and 
 drunken. The one has more than is good for him, the other less." 
 
 J. 
 
 ALCOHOL AN ARTIFICIAL PRODUCT. 
 (P. 51.) 
 
 We add a few of the more recent testimonies of science to 
 the fact that alcohol is always a purely artificial product. 
 
 Alcohol does not occur in nature. Spon's " Encyclopedia of 
 the Industrial Arts," etc. London, 1879. Div. I, p. 192. 
 
 Alcohol does not exist in nature, but is produced by a number 
 of reactions. Witthaus' "General Medical Chemistry," New 
 York, 1881, p. 169. 
 
 Alcohol is an artificial product, obtained by fermentation, and 
 is never found in a simple state. Nathan Allen, M.D., in " The 
 Effects of Alcohol on Offspring." New York, 1882, p. 14. 
 
 K. 
 
 THE USB or ALCOHOL AS A MEDICINE. 
 (P. 101.) 
 
 At the annual meeting of " The American Medical Associa- 
 tion" held in St. Paul, Minn., June, 1882, the following reso- 
 lution was adopted, (" The Medical Record," New York, June 
 24, 1882.) 
 
 We, the undersigned, members of the medical profession of the 
 United States, unite in the declaration that we believe alcohol 
 should be classed with other powerful drugs; that when pre- 
 scribed it should be done with conscientious caution and a sense 
 of great responsibility.
 
 Appendix. 151 
 
 L 
 
 THE EFFECT OF ALCOHOL ALWAYS NARCOTIC. 
 
 (Pp. 109-111.) 
 
 After the above-mentioned pages were in type we came 
 across several very strong and impartial corroborations of the 
 argument which we had there urged. We quote them here : 
 
 We speak of all alcoholics universally as " stimulants," and 
 people are not quick to see that occasional or habitual " stimula- 
 tion " to a mild degree is fraught with danger. The fact, too 
 little insisted on, is that these agents are narcotics as well, and, 
 nine times out of ten, the man who flatters himself that he is 
 " stimulated " is presenting the symptoms of incipient narcosis. 
 The instruments of precision with which the physiologist is armed 
 enable him to read better than in former times the phenomena 
 which are the subject of his observations. With a thermometer 
 to tell him of a lowered temperature; with a Bphygmogxapfa by 
 which the heart shall trace the unmistakable evidence of its own 
 growing impotence, there is no need to wait for so gross a mani- 
 festation as " drunkenness " to indicate the pernicious influence 
 of alcohol. Long before the cerebro-spinal system shows signs of 
 succumbing by the staggering gait and the faltering tongue, the 
 sympathetic nervous system evinces unmistakable symptoms of 
 paralysis; and the flushed face, the quickened pulse, the lowered 
 temperature, the diminished blood-pressure, give painful evidence 
 of a profound disorder in the machinery of nutrition. W. G. 
 Harrison, Jun., M.D., in a paper on " Certain Effects of Alcohol 
 in Relation to Life Insurance," presented at the annual meeting 
 of the American Public Health Association in Baltimore, Md., 
 November 11, 1875, and published in the " Reports," etc., vol. ii, 
 p. 281. 
 
 Dr. B. W. Richardson, in his latest utterance on the alcohol 
 question, already cited in Appendix A, says, (p. 16 :) 
 
 In this manner by the course of experiment I learned, step by 
 step, that the true action of alcohol, in a physiological point of 
 view, is to create paralysis of nervous power. It acts precisely as 
 I had seen nitrite of amyl and some other chemical bodies act. 
 
 Dr. James Muir Howie, already quoted in Appendix A, says, 
 on p. 18 of the same work : 
 
 In fact, all the latest scientific experiments tend to confirm the 
 truth of the proposition which I now lay before you. namely, 
 that all stimulants are narcotics and all narcotics stimulants; or
 
 152 ' Appendix. 
 
 in other words, that stimulant and narcotic effects are not inde- 
 pendent phenomena produced by two different classes of agents, 
 but that these phenomena are inseparably connected, both being 
 the necessary effects of the same class of agents, and both being 
 manifested in an invariable sequence, so that stimulus always 
 precedes narcotism, and, more or less, narcotism invariably follows 
 stimulus. And such being the case, it must be evident to all that 
 the occasions must be exceedingly rare on which a stimulant will 
 be really useful to any man, whether in health or disease. Since 
 I became convinced of the truth of this principle, I have had abun- 
 dant opportunity of testing its correctness in the conducting of a 
 large and varied private practice in Liverpool during the last six 
 years. And my predecessor and former partner, Dr. Burrows, 
 who conducted the same practice for nearly forty years pre- 
 viously, gives similar evidence, at least in so far as alcoholic 
 stimulants are concerned. 
 
 M. 
 
 THE METHODIST DISCIPLINE ON TEMPERANCE. 
 
 (P. 126.) 
 
 The " Discipline of the Methodist Episcopal Church " adds 
 the weight of its ecclesiastical sanction to our definition of the 
 New Testament virtue of temperance. It says, (^[ 36, edition 
 of 1880 :) 
 
 Temperance in its broader meaning is distinctively a Christian 
 virtue, scripturally enjoined. It implies a subordination of all 
 the emotions, passions, and appetites to the control of reason and 
 conscience. Dietetically, it means a wise use of useful articles 
 of food and drink, with entire abstinence from such as are known 
 to be hurtful. Both science and human experience unite with the 
 Holy Scriptures in condemning all alcoholic beverages as being 
 neither useful nor safe. The business of manufacturing and 
 vending such liquors is also against the principles of morality, 
 political economy, and the public welfare. We therefore regard 
 voluntary abstinence from all intoxicants as the true ground of 
 personal temperance, and complete legal prohibition of the traffic 
 in alcoholic drinks as the duty of civil government.
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Abbott, Lyman, quoted, 68, 86, 100, 107, 
 140. 
 
 Abyssinian Church, the, uses unfer- 
 mented wine at the Lord's Supper, 92. 
 
 Abstinence, practiced in antiquity, 1 1 ; 
 enjoined by the law of self-denial, 99 ; 
 by the law of the avoidance of temp- 
 tation, 103; by the law of love, 104; 
 by the law of perfection, 107; and 
 the doctrine of Christian expediency, 
 105; especially enjoined upon women, 
 116; New Testament terms for, 119; 
 included in the idea of temperance, 
 125, 126, 152; tho practice and teach- 
 ing of Christ, 130; of the Apostles, 
 144. 
 
 Acetum, 96. 
 
 Adler, G. J., quoted, 142. 
 
 'An yAei'KOf, 30. 
 
 jElian, quoted, 11, 129. 
 
 ^Eschylus, quoted, 32, 122. 
 
 Asrapae, the abuses of, 60, 88. 
 
 Ainsworth, W. F., quoted, 94. 
 
 Ainsworth, R., quoted, 141. 
 
 $>3X, akcd, 43, 74. 
 
 Alcohol, physiological action of, 3-7 ; 
 food value of, 6, 131, 134; and life 
 insurance, 7, 135; as a medicine, 7, 
 71, 101, 131, 150 ; temperature at 
 which it evaporates, 29 ; a purely ar- 
 tificial product, 54, 150; always a 
 poison, 71, 80, 131, 135; maximum 
 amount of, that may be taken without 
 perceptibly injurious effect, 110; ef- 
 fect of, always narcotic, 110, 134, 151; 
 does not add energy, 133. 
 
 Alexandre, quoted, 141. 
 
 Alford, Dean, quoted, 22, 70, 95, 101, 
 117, 127. 
 
 Allen, J., quoted, 78. 
 
 Allen, Dr. N., quoted, 150. 
 
 Alvarez, quoted, 93. 
 
 Ambrose, quoted, 89, 91. 
 
 American Medical Association, the reso- 
 lutions of, as to the use of alcohol as a 
 medicine, 150. 
 
 A^tweAof, 32, 86. 
 
 Amphora, 29, 66. 
 , anabim, 48. 
 
 Anacreon, quoted, 14, 32, 59. 
 
 , 121. 
 
 Andrews, E. A., quoted, 142. 
 Anstie, Dr., quoted, 4, 6, 110. 
 Aorist, the use of, 69. 
 'An-opveo/Mu, 99. 
 Appetite, alcoholic, natural history of 
 
 the, 102. 
 Appleton's " American Cyclopaedia," 
 
 quoted, 29, 66. 
 
 Aquinas, Thomas, quoted, 91. 
 Archilochus, quoted, 123. 
 'Ap^totvo^6of, 83. 
 Aristophanes, quoted, 123. 
 Aristotle, quoted, 19, 22, 32, 59, 118, 
 
 120, 127. 
 
 JS, ashishah, 45. 
 
 -; 
 
 . asis, 47, 68. 
 
 63-67. 
 'ATur/o, 117. 
 
 Assyria, drunkenness in, 10. 
 Athenseus, quoted, 11, 19, 28, 32, 55, 
 
 114, 122. 
 
 Athletes and total abstinence, 7. 
 Augustine, quoted, 54, 146. 
 Aulus Gellius, quoted, 76. 
 
 Babylon, drunkenness in, 10. 
 
 Barnes, Albert, quoted, 18. 
 
 Barry, Sir Edward, quoted, 28, 142. 
 
 Bartenora, rabbi, quoted, 77. 
 
 Bapvv6uaiv, 108, 112. 
 
 Basil, quoted, 91. 
 
 Beecher, Charles, quoted, 78, 79. 
 
 Beecher, H. W., quoted, 9. 
 
 Boucher, W. J., quoted, 85, 88. 
 
 Benediction, the cup of, 79. 
 
 Benfey, T., quoted, 58. 
 
 Bengel, J. A., quoted, 53,60,87,119,150. 
 
 Bernier, P., quoted. 84. 
 
 Be van, Vicar, quoted, 46, 64. 
 
 Beza, version of, quoted, 14, 60. 
 
 Bilroth, quoted, 60. 
 
 Bingham, "Antiquities of the Christian 
 
 Church," quoted, 90, 91. 
 Binz, Professor, quoted, 4, 6. 
 Bishop*, abstinence required of, 115. 
 Bishop's Bible, the, quoted, 46. 
 Blood, fermented wine not a proper 
 
 symbol of, 81. 
 Blood of the grape, the, 45, 49, 73, 144.
 
 154 
 
 General Index. 
 
 Blood, the, of Christ, unfermented wine 
 its proper symbol, 83. 
 
 Bloomfield, S. T., quoted, 59, 60, 86, 
 118, 127, 128, 149. 
 
 Bouvier, quoted, 111. 
 
 Braga, the Council of, 91. 
 
 Brerewood. quoted, 93. 
 
 Brown, D., quoted, 60. 
 
 Bruce, J., quoted, 66, 92. 
 
 Bruehl, J. H., quoted, 77. 
 
 Brunton, Dr., quoted, 80. 
 
 Burastead, Professor H., quoted, 1, 2, 3, 
 8, 17, 20, 35, 40, 42, 43, 45, 47, 48, 
 51, 57, 61, 62, 64, 65, 67, 72,' 75, 84, 
 101, 105, 106. 108, 109, 114, 117, 126, 
 129, 146. 
 
 Burckliardt, J., quoted, 66. 
 
 Bush, George, quoted, 18. 
 
 Bythner, quoted, 40. 
 
 Byzantius, quoted, 122, 127. 
 
 Caesar, quoted, 126. . 
 Carver, Dr., an abstainer, 7. 
 Cana, the miracle at, 53 ; its method, 
 54, 146 ; its object, 60 ; its result, 62. 
 Carenum, 27, 33. 
 Carmichael, Dr. K, quoted, 54. 
 Carpenter, Dr. W. B., quoted, 110, 134. 
 Cato, quoted, 22, 29, 32, 33. 
 Celsus, quoted, 126. 
 
 , chamar, KTOn, chamrd, and "ion, 
 
 chemer, 44. 
 , chametz, 74. 
 
 Corinthians, the, mistake of as to the 
 
 law of Christian liberty, 106 ; their 
 
 abuse of the agapee, 88. 
 Cornelius a Lapide, quoted, 60. 
 Corruptions of primitive Christianity, 89. 
 Cosgrove, Dr., quoted, 136. 
 Corruptus, used in the sense of fer- 
 
 mented, 75. 
 
 Coverdale's version, quoted, 46. 
 Cowles, H. A., quoted, 57, 88. 
 Cranmer's Bible, quoted, 46, 56, 129. 
 Cratinus, quoted, 114. 
 Cremer " Biblico- Theological Lexicon," 
 
 quoted, 99. 
 Criminals, mixture given to, at their ex- 
 
 ecution, 94. 
 Crosby, Chancellor H., quoted, 1, 2, 9, 
 
 17, 72, 102, 114, 124, 125, 130. 
 Cross, Christ's use of wine on the, 94. 
 Cup, the, of the Lord, contrasted with 
 
 the cup of devils, 89. 
 Cup, the, all disciples commanded to 
 
 drink of, 80 ; withholding of, from the 
 
 laity, 80, 89. 
 
 Curtius, a., quoted, 58, 126. 
 Cyprian, quoted, 91. 
 
 'nj Dam-andbim, 49. 
 
 Chapital, quoted, 54. 
 Chardin, J., quoted, 66. 
 Chassang, quoted, 121, 122, 127, 141. 
 China, drunkenness in, 10. 
 , chometz, 50, 96. 
 
 Christison, R, quoted, 37. 
 Chrysostom, quoted, 54, 60, 89. 91, 128, 
 
 147, 148. 
 
 Cicero, quoted, 126. 
 Circumstances, change in, as a ground 
 
 for setting aside Christ's example in 
 
 the use of wine, 9. 
 Clarke, Adam, quoted, 21, 60, 87, 115, 
 
 116, 124. 
 Clement, A., quoted, 91, 113, 118, 121, 
 
 128. 
 
 Coan, Dr. T. M., quoted, 5. 
 Cola, a regular accompaniment of the 
 
 wine-press, 25. 
 
 Color, the, of grape-juice, 81, 144. 
 Columella, quoted, 19, 20, 24, 25, 48, 
 
 66, 139. 
 
 Conant, T. J., quoted, 60. 
 Constance, the Council of, 89. 
 Conybeare and Howson, quoted, 129. 
 Coptic Church, the, uses unfermented 
 
 wine at the Lord's Supper, 93. 
 
 Daub, quoted, 111. 
 Davidson, quoted, 115. 
 Davis, Dr. N. S., quoted, 7. 
 Davy, Sir H., quoted, 54. 
 , debash, 49, 76, 114. 
 
 Defrutum, 27, 33, 48. 
 
 Dema, the, 73. 
 
 Democritus, quoted, 27. 
 
 De Wette, quoted, 60. 
 
 Dibs, '27, 50. 
 
 Dickinson, Dr. W. H., quoted, 5. 
 
 "Dictionaire de 1'Acadamie Francaise," 
 quoted, 142. 
 
 Digestion, alcohol not an aid to, 132. 
 
 Dindorf, W., quoted, 39, 41. 
 
 Diodorus Siculus, quoted, 85. 
 
 Diogenes Laertius, quoted, 56, 127. 
 
 Dionysius Barsalibi, quoted, 92. 
 
 Dioscorides, quoted, 31, 71. 
 
 Discipline, the Methodist Episcopal, on 
 temperance, 152. 
 
 Distillation, discovery of, 20. 
 
 Distilled and fermented liquors, at- 
 
 tempted distinction between, 5. 
 , Dittmar, Prof., quoted, 24, 25, 65, 137. 
 JDonnegan. quoted, 120, 122, 144. 
 | Dream of Pharoah's chief butler, 21. 
 
 Drink-offerings, nature of, 72. 
 
 Drunkenness, in ancient times, 10; a 
 condition of insalvableness. 118; pro- 
 hibitions of, in the N. T., 108. 
 
 Duarte Barbosa, quoted, 93.
 
 General Index. 
 
 155 
 
 Duff, A., quoted, 20, 136, 137. 
 Duffield, G., quoted, 81. 
 Dulcia vina, 34. 
 Puraixlus, quotod, 91, 92. 
 Duschab, 28. 
 
 Easter, canon of the African Church 
 concerning the offerings for, 90. 
 
 Ebers, G. M., quoted, 10, 22. 
 
 Ebriw, used in the sense of saturate, 59. 
 
 " Ecce Deus," quoted, 61. 
 
 Kdimmdd, Dr. J., 133. 
 
 'Eyicpareto, 126, 128, 130; 
 115, 121 ; ey/ipoi^r, 128 ; 
 128. 
 
 Egypt, dnmkenness in, 10. 
 
 Egyptians, their use of fresh grape- 
 juice as a beverage, 21 ; wine-presses 
 of, 24. 
 
 'EKfjfoo, 121. 
 
 Ellicott, Bishop, quoted, 53, 87, 94, 95, 
 102, 106, 120. 
 
 Elyot, Sir Thomas, quoted, 125. 
 
 Eueratites, the, 128. 
 
 Epictetus, quoted, 7, 129. 
 
 Epistles, the, contain Christ's revealed 
 will, 108. 
 
 'Etyripa, 27, 33. 
 
 Essencs, the, total abstinence of, 11, 
 123. 
 
 Eucharist, the, incompatibility of the in- 
 toxicating cup with, 80. 
 
 Eusebius, quoted, 144. 
 
 Ewald, "Antiquities of Israel," quoted,76. 
 
 Example of Christ, the, importance of, 2. 
 
 Excoss not simply prohibited by the 
 Scriptures, 109. 
 
 Exhilaration, a stage of intoxication, 110. 
 
 Expediency, Christian, the doctrine of, 
 104. 
 
 Fanfani, P., quoted, 142. 
 
 Farrar, Canon, quoted, 18, 77, 129. 
 
 Fermentation, definition of, 23 ; methods 
 of preventing, known to the ancients, 
 23 ; prevention of, by separation of 
 the gluten, 23 ; by expulsion of the 
 moisture, 25 ; by exclusion of the nir, 
 29; by lowering the temperature, 
 29 ; by sulphur fumigation, 30 ; power 
 of, 64 ; after-fermentation, 64 ; spon- 
 taneous, slow in beginning, 65, 137. 
 
 Filters, used in wine-making, 24. 
 
 First-fruits, the bread and wine of the 
 holy communion regarded as, 90. 
 
 Forbiger, Dr., quoted, 139. 
 
 Forcelliui, E., quoted, 141. 
 
 Fou, the Scotch, use of, 59. 
 
 Freshman, J., quoted, 77. 
 
 Freuud, W., quoted, 142. 
 
 Fruit of the vine, the, 51, 85. 
 11 
 
 Fruits, the liquor of, not liable to fer- 
 mentation, 77. 
 Fiirst, J., 31, 40, 74. 
 
 Galvanometer, the use of, in detecting 
 the etfect of small doses of alcohol, 
 111. 
 
 Games, ancient, training of competitors 
 in, 129. 
 
 Gauod, Dr., quoted, 110. 
 
 Geikie, C., quoted, 22, 54, 86, 148. 
 
 Geneva Bible, the, quoted, 56, 129. 
 
 Ttwrifjia rift u.piri'A.ov, 51, 85. 
 
 Geoponica, the, quoted, 23, 24, 29, 71, 
 139. 
 
 Gosenius, F. H. W., quoted, 38, 40, 41, 
 44, 46, 47, 49, 50, 74, 100. 
 
 TTiCvuivov, 71; yXevulvof, 141. 
 
 TXevicof, Suidas' definition of, 22; orig- 
 inal use as adjective witli olvof, 33 ; 
 designated as olvof by Aristotle : uso 
 of, in the N. T., 51, 143 ; used to ex- 
 cess by the ancients, 114; denned as 
 wine by modern authorities, 141. 
 
 rXt#c, 27, 33. 
 
 Gill, J., quoted, 14. 
 
 Glory, the miracle at Cana a revelation 
 of Christ's, 61. 
 
 Gobat, Bishop, quoted, 92. 
 
 Godet, quoted, 70. 
 
 Gottlieil, G.. quoted, 77. 
 
 Grain, prohibition at Passover of all 
 liquors made from, 76. 
 
 Grape, juice of the, ingredients of, 23; 
 temperature at which it boils, 29 ; use 
 of, as a beverage, 20, 136 ; called wine, 
 32 ; color of, 144. 
 
 Grapes, the preservation of, in grape- 
 growing countries, 83 ; easily procur- 
 able for the Last Supper, 84 ; the prac- 
 tice of pressing directly into the cup, 
 90. 
 
 Greece, drunkenness in, 10. 
 
 Greene, Dr. R., quoted, 131. 
 
 Green, quoted, 120, 11! 2. 
 
 Gregory of Nyassa, quoted, 91. 
 
 Grotius, H.. quoted, 60, 118. 
 
 Gull, Sir William, quoted, 3. 
 
 Hadley, J., "Greek Grammar," quoted, 
 
 69, 70. 
 
 Hall, Bishop, quoted, 54. 150. 
 Uallam, " Literature of Europe," quoted, 
 
 125. 
 
 Hanlan, abstinence of, 7. 
 Harper's "Latin Dictionary," quoted, 
 
 :, 126, 142. 
 
 Harrison, Dr. W. G.. .Tun., quoted, 151. 
 Hazlitt, William, held up as H sot, JS. 
 
 i. use of alcohol in, 7, 131. 
 Heury, Matthew, quoted. 21.
 
 156 
 
 General Index. 
 
 Herodotus, quoted, 21, 31, 123. 
 
 Hesiod, quoted, 32. 
 
 Hesychius, quoted, 58, 122. 
 
 Heyse, K., quoted, 142. 
 
 Hieratic Papyri, quoted, 11. 
 
 Hippocrates, quoted, 34, 59. 
 
 Hobbes, T., quoted, 125. 
 
 Hodge, Dr. A. A., quoted, 140. 
 
 Homer, quoted, 28, 59, 115. 
 
 Homes. Henry, quoted, 26. 
 
 Honey of grapes, 50. 
 
 Horace, quoted, 11, 30, 129; Delphin, 
 
 notes on, quoted, 25. 
 Howie, Dr. J. M., quoted, 133, 151. 
 Hunt, Dr. E. M., quoted, 6, 101, 103. 
 
 Imperfect moral development of his 
 age, as a ground for setting aside 
 Christ's example as to wine, 8. 
 
 " Independent," the, quoted, 8, 146. 
 
 India, drunkenness in, 10. 
 
 Inebrio, in the sense of saturate, 59. 
 
 Inerticula, the grape called, 19. 
 
 Ingalls, Dr. E., quoted, 132. 
 
 Inspissation of fresh grape juice, 26. 
 
 Irenasus, quoted, 90. 
 
 Isaacs, S. M., quoted, 78. 
 
 Jacobus, M. "W., quoted, 18, 57, 139. 
 
 Jacolliot, " The Bible in India," quoted, 
 11. 
 
 Jahn, ''Biblical Archeology," quoted, 67. 
 
 James, Prof. William, quoted, 5, 136. 
 
 Jamieson, quoted, 60. 
 
 James, Saint, a total abstainer, 144. 
 
 Jerome, quoted, 100, 116. 
 
 Jesus charged with being a moderate 
 drinker, 1 ; example of, determinative 
 in the matter of total abstinence, 2, 
 13 ; self-denial of, 7 ; example of, in 
 the use of wine set aside on the 
 ground of the imperfect moral devel- 
 opment of his age, 8 ; example of, not 
 limited by locality or age, 12 ; exam- 
 ple of, in the use of wine contrasted 
 with the abstinence of John the Bap- 
 tist, 16 ; charged with making iutox- 
 icating wine, 17, 53 ; with commend- 
 ing it, 17, 63 ; with using it, 17, 71 ; 
 miracles of, always miracles of mercy, 
 61 ; blood of, cannot be symbolized by 
 fermented wine, 82 ; his use of wine 
 on the cross, 94 ; dealt mainly in gen- 
 eral principles, 98 ; his prohibitions 
 of drunkenness, 108 ; a total abstain- 
 er, 97, 130. 
 
 Jews, two schools of, 78. 
 
 Johnson, S., quoted, 143. 
 
 John the Baptist, the abstinence of, 
 contrasted with Christ's use of wine, 
 16; promise concerning, 117. 
 
 John, Saint, the Christians of, use un- 
 fermented wine at the Lord's Supper, 
 93. 
 
 Josephus, quoted, 32, 76, 83, 123, 127. 
 
 Julius L, Pope, decree of, 91. 
 
 Jiirgens, quoted, 142. 
 
 Justin Martyr, quoted, 91, 128. 
 
 Juvenal, quoted, 11. 
 
 , construction of,, in the record of 
 
 the Lord's Supper, 86 ; distinguished 
 
 from vcof, 86. 
 
 Keil and Delitzsch, quoted, 74, 76. 
 Krpa^of, 29. 
 Kepdvvvfii, 46. 
 Kerr, Dr. N., quoted, 18, 30, 44, 65, 81, 
 
 82, 84, 113, 138, 139. 
 Khosab, 26. 
 
 Kingsbury, Vicar, quoted, 56. 
 Kitto, "Cyclopaedia of Biblical Litera- 
 
 ture," quoted, 30, 75, 96. 
 Knobel, quoted, 74. 
 Ktifioi, 113. 
 KpatndTiJi, 108, 113. 
 Kpaai, 31. 
 
 Kuinoel, quoted, 60, 86. 
 Kurtz, quoted, 74. 
 
 Lacedaemonians, the, the boiled wines 
 
 of, 27. 
 
 " Lancet," the London, quoted, 1 31. 
 Lane, E. W., quoted. 26. 
 Lange, J. P., quoted, 53, 70, 88, 117. 
 Lankester, Dr. E., quoted, 139. 
 Lateran Council, the, 89, 
 Latin Church, the, its use of the ex- 
 
 pressed juice of the grape in celebrat- 
 
 ing the Lord's Supper, 92. 
 Laurie, Thomas, quoted, 49. 
 Leaven, prohibited at the Passover, 73 ; 
 
 the symbol of corruption, 75 ; prohibi- 
 
 tion of, applied to the greater part of 
 
 the Jewish ritual, 76; reason for its 
 
 exclusion from the sacrifices, 76 ; pro- 
 
 hibited in all offerings where Christ 
 
 was typified, 82. 
 Lees, Dr. F. R., quoted, 18, 37, 38, 40, 
 
 41, 59, 85. 
 
 Lees, wines on the, 46. 
 Legalistic interpretation of the Script- 
 
 ures in support of moderate drinking, 
 
 109. 
 
 Legge, " Chinese Classics," quoted, 10. 
 Lewis, Tayler, quoted. 3. 18, 39. 
 Liberty, Christian, its sphere, 105. 
 Liddell and Scott, quoted, 46, 58, 69, 
 
 99, 107, 113, 118, 120, 121, 122, 141. 
 Liebig, Baron, quoted, 39, 54. 
 Life insurance and alcohol, 7, 136. 
 Lightfoot J., quoted, 95. 
 Liquor, the, of grapes, 49.
 
 General Index. 
 
 157 
 
 Littleton, quoted, 141. 
 
 Littre, M. quoted, 142. 
 
 Livy, quoted, 126. 
 
 Lord's Supper, the, emblems of, 39 ; 
 circumstances under which it was in- 
 stituted, 72 ; language in which its in- 
 stitution is recorded, 79; corruptions 
 of, 89 ; celebration in the early Church, 
 90. 
 
 Longmuir, quoted, 143. 
 
 Love, the law of, 1 04 
 
 Lowth, Bishop, quoted, 21, 43. 
 
 Lucian, quoted, 1 14. 
 
 Liineman, quoted, 141. 
 
 M'Culloch, Dr. J. M., quoted, 110. 
 M'Clintock and Strong's Cyclopedia, 
 
 quoted, 73, 74 
 M'Curdy, J. F., " Relations of the Aryan 
 
 and Semitic Languages," quoted, 31. 
 Macdonald, Dr., quoted, 86. 
 Macgregor, J., quoted, 138. 
 Macknight, J., quoted, 60. 
 Macleod, Norman, quoted, 44, 49. 
 Macrobius, quoted, 75. 
 Maimonides, rabbi, quoted, 77. 
 Malcom, " Travels," etc., quoted, 11. 
 mamtaqqim, 60, 73. 
 
 Manipulus Curatorum, the, quoted, 91. 
 Mansel, Dean, quoted, 87. 
 Markham, Dr., quoted, 5. 
 Maron, the wine of, given to Ulysses, 28. 
 Matthew, "The Acts and Martyrdom 
 
 of," quoted, 90. 
 JVSD, matzoth, 74. 
 
 Maudsley, Dr. H., quoted, 4. 
 Medicine, the use of alcohol as a, 7, 7 1, 
 
 101, 131, 132. 
 men, 108, 113; (Ltdvu, 44, 68, 113, 117, 
 
 148; {leOvoof, 113. 
 Merriman, Daniel, quoted, 102. 
 71DO, mesek, 7JDDO, mimsak, and ifO. 
 
 I... ... IT j . T ... 
 
 mezeg, 46. 
 Meyer, quoted, 54, 55, 72, 83, 87, 105, 
 
 106, 117, 118, 147. 
 Michaelis, quoted, 21. 
 Milton, J., quoted, 125. 
 Milk, included in the prohibition of 
 
 leaven, 76; excessive use of, in an- 
 
 cient times, 114. 
 Miller, Philip, quoted, 138. 
 Milo, abstinence of, 7. 
 Mind, the effect of alcohol on, 99. 
 i O, mishrath-anabim, 49. 
 
 u^Jjjrn iC 7 ?.?! mmnram-anaoim, y. 
 
 Moderate drinking, leads to drunk- 
 enness, 102; absurdity of the exe- 
 gesis which favors, 111; the script- 
 ural argument for, purely inferential, 
 112. 
 
 Moore, Dr. Dunlop, quoted. 1, 2, 15, 17, 
 19, 22, 23, 24. 26, 29, 35, 36, 40, 43, 
 
 50, 69, 72, 77,95, 108, 109, 115, 137, 
 138, 144, 148. 
 
 Mossop, Dr., quoted, 111. 
 
 Most, 142; Mosto, 142; Jlo&t, 142. 
 
 Mounsey, Sec'y, quoted, 84. 
 
 Mulsum, 36. 
 
 Mulvaney, Dr., quoted, 111. 
 
 Must, 91, 143. 
 
 Mustang grape, the, 145. 
 
 Mustum, definitions of, 22, 141; lixivium, 
 
 24; how kept sweet, 29; designated 
 
 as rinum, 32 ; use as an adjective, 33 ; 
 
 mustum oleo, 7 1 ; used in celebrating 
 
 the Lord's Supper, 91. 
 Myrrhina wine, 34. 
 
 Narcosis, produced by alcohol, 110, 151. 
 
 Nardenk, 27. 
 
 Nast, William, quoted, 87. 
 
 Nazarites, abstinence of, 11. 
 
 Nebeedh, 26. 
 
 Nelson, quoted, 93. 
 
 NriJMiteov, 115, 116, 121; wfao, 121; 
 
 vii\l>is, 123. 
 Nestorians, the, use unfermented wine 
 
 at the Lord's Supper, 93. 
 Neumann, analysis of, 20. 
 Newcome, quoted, 60. 
 Nicander, quoted. 32. 
 Nichol, " Manual of Chemistry," quoted, 
 
 23. 
 
 Nicol, Dr., quoted, 111. 
 Niebuhr, quoted, 83. 
 Noah, intoxication of, 10. 
 Norton, A., quoted, 60. 
 Nott, Eliphalet, quoted, 18. 
 Nuttall, quoted, 143. 
 
 Ogilvie, quoted, 143. 
 
 Olvrj, the ancient name for the vine, 32. 
 
 Oivoirorrjf, 14. 
 
 vof, yAv/cvf, 19; ufinefavoc, 21 ; atpainv, 
 27, 33; New Testament use of, 50, 
 
 51, 64; a generic term, 50, 113; no- 
 where used with reference to the 
 Lord's Supper, 84; nature of that 
 offered to Christ on the cross, 94. 
 
 Old Testament, the, the key to the New, 
 
 34. 
 
 Olearus, Adam, quoted, 28. 
 Oleum gleucinum, 70. 
 Olshausen, H., quoted, 54, 117, 124, 
 
 147. 
 
 OWAatov, 71. 
 Ophthalmoscope, used in detecting 
 
 the effect of minute doses of alcohol, 
 
 111. 
 
 Opimian wine, 28. 
 Orfilla, quoted, 37.
 
 158 
 
 General Index. 
 
 Oriental Churches, the, use unfermented 
 wine in celebrating the Lord's Sup- 
 per, 92. 
 
 Origen, quoted, 100, 121. 
 
 Osorius, Bishop, quoted, 93. 
 
 Oix5Y and oixJe elf, use of, 69. 
 
 Ovid, quoted, 115. 
 
 "Oof, use of, in N. T., 51 ; drank by 
 Christ on the cross, 94; its nature, 
 96. 
 
 Palestine, drunkenness in, 11 ; the wines 
 of, 140. 
 
 Palladius, quoted, 27. 
 
 Pallas, quoted, 48. 
 
 Palm-tree, the fresh juice of, a common 
 drink, 44. 
 
 Parseus, quoted, 128. 
 
 Parkes, Dr., quoted, 4, 6, 7, 110, 135. 
 
 Parkinson, J., quoted, 33. 
 
 IMpotrof, 115, 116, 121. 
 
 Passover, the, the occasion of the in- 
 stitution of the Lord's Supper, 72 ; the 
 law of, 73, 75 ; the wine of, 73. 
 
 Passow, quoted, 115, 141. 
 
 Possum, 24, 26, 33. 
 
 Pasteur and Hallier, researches of, 29. 
 
 Patrick, Bishop, quoted, 57. 
 
 Paul, St., his conception of temperance 
 129. 
 
 Peabody, A. P., quoted. 78, 84. 
 
 Peile's " Etymology," quoted, 44, 57. 
 
 Heipaaftov, 102. 
 
 Peppini, Signer, quoted, 84. 
 
 Perfection, the law of, 107. 
 
 Persia, drunkenness in, 10. 
 
 Persius, quoted, 11, 75. 
 
 Pesca, 96. 
 
 Petronius, quoted, 11. 
 
 4>ayof, 14. 
 
 Phillips, Wendell, quoted, 2. 
 
 Philo, quoted, 55, 59, 123. 
 
 Pickering, J., quoted, 121, 127, 141. 
 
 Pineau grape, the, 145. 
 
 Plato, quoted, 99, 120, 123. 
 
 Plautus, quoted, 126. 
 
 Pliny, quoted, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 29, 
 30, 31, 32, 34, 59, 71. 
 
 Plumb, A. H., quoted, 9, 12. 
 
 Plumptre, E. H., quoted, 122. 
 
 Plutarch, quoted, 29, 59, 76, 122. 
 
 Poison, fermented wine described as a, 
 in the Scriptures, 38. 
 
 Polybius, quoted, 14, 85, 116. 
 
 Poor, Dr., quoted, 88. 
 
 Pope, William B., quoted, 89. 
 
 Porphyry, quoted, 123. 
 
 Posca, 96. . 
 
 Pott, A. F., quoted, 58. 
 
 Potter, Alonzo, quoted, 18. 
 
 Potter, Archbishop, quoted, 27. 
 
 Precepts, particular of Christ, as to ab- 
 
 stinence, 108. 
 Pressense, E., quoted, 89. 
 Prejudice, and the interpretation of 
 
 God's word, 19. 
 Principles, general, of Christ enforcing 
 
 abstinence, 97. 
 Prelum, 24, 25. 
 Proclus, quoted, 32. 
 ripodpojtfof, 33. 
 Dpo^iy/a, 23. 
 Protropum, 23, 33, 73. 
 Purim, the feast of, drunkenness at, 11. 
 
 Raisins, wine made from, 26. 
 Ramsey, Prof., quoted, 33. 
 Rawlinson, "Five Great Monarchies," 
 
 quoted, 10. 
 
 Rechabites, abstinence of, 11. 
 Reformed drunkards and fermented 
 
 wine at the Lord's table, 81. 
 Renan, E., "Lang. Sem.," quoted, 31. 
 Rheims version, the, quoted, 128. 
 Rich, A. B., quoted, 69. 
 Rich, " Dictionary of Antiquities," 
 
 quoted, 142. 
 Richardson, Dr. B. W., quoted, 4, 5, 1, 
 
 33, 54, 69, 82, 99, 100, 102, 132, 151. 
 Riegel, quoted, 111. 
 Ringer, Dr., quoted, 6. 
 Riparia grape, the, 149. 
 Robinson, E., quoted, 40, 69, 84, 115, 
 
 122. 
 
 Rome, drunkenness hi, 11. 
 Rosenmiiller, quoted, 21, 60, 86, 127. 
 Ross, quoted, 93. 
 Rule, W. H., quoted, 57, 114. 
 
 Salt, the reason of its requirement in 
 
 Jewish offerings, 76. 
 Samarcandi grape, the, 146. 
 Samaritan, the "good, his use of wine, 
 
 71. 
 
 Samson, abstinence of, 7. 
 Samson, G. W., quoted, 18, 40. 41. 
 Sapa, 27, 33. 
 
 ~\\y, sar ham-mashqim, 83. 
 
 Schl'eusner, quoted, 121, 122, 127. 
 Sch oettgen, quoted, 95, 118. 
 Schutzenberger, " Fermentation," quot- 
 
 ed, 23. 
 
 Scudamore, quoted, 92. 
 Self-denial, the law of, 98. 
 Samper mustum, 30. 
 Seneca, quoted, 11. 
 >, seor, 74. 
 
 Septuagint, the, quoted, 14, 39, 44, 46, 
 47, 48, 56, 59, 68, 83, 85, 94, 123, 
 127.
 
 General Index. 
 
 Sera, 96. 
 
 Sextus, Empiricus, quoted, 127. 
 shechar, 43. 
 
 , shemarim, 46. 
 
 Short, " On the Order of Words in the 
 Attic Greek Prose," quoted, 118. 
 
 Zfcepo, 51. 
 
 Sin, the use of alcoholic drinks a, 27. 
 
 ZKaviaXifa, 100. 
 
 Skeats W. W., quoted, 143. 
 
 Skin-bottles, used to hold wine, 60-67. 
 
 Slavery defended from the Bible on the 
 same ground as wine-drinking, 8, 18. 
 
 Smith, Dr. Edward, quoted, 64. 
 
 Smith, J., quoted, 98, 99. 
 
 Smith, W., "Dictionary of Greek and 
 Roman Antiquities," quoted, 19, 22, 
 24, 27, 33, 65, 139; "Bible Diction- 
 ary," quoted, 40, 64, 72 ; " Latin Dic- 
 tionary," quoted, 142. 
 
 Smith, W. R., quoted, 76. 
 i sobe, 48. 
 
 Sobriety, injunctions to, in the N. T., 
 
 119. 
 
 Sophocles, quoted, 122. 
 Sophocles, Prof., quoted, 141. 
 2<j0pcjv, 116, 117, 120; au<f>pnveu, au- 
 
 0pov/u, ou<t>povu(, and oufypooiivrj, 120. 
 So&ter, use of, 59. 
 
 , sovai-yayin, 14. 
 
 Spartianus, quoted, 96. 
 Sphygmograph, the, use of, in detecting 
 
 effect of small doses of alcohol, 111, 
 
 151. 
 
 Spier and Surenne, quoted, 59, 142. 
 Spirit, the, fullness of, contrasted with 
 
 fullness of wine, 117. 
 Spon's "Encyclopaedia," quoted, 150. 
 Stanley, Dean, quoted, 60, 89, 90, 92, 93. 
 Stephanus, quoted, 122. 
 Story, " On Alcohol," quoted, 89. 
 Stuart, Moses, 13, 21, 35, 39, 50, 57. 
 Suicer, " Thesaurus Ecclesiasticus," 
 
 quoted, 100, 128. 
 
 Suidas, quoted, 22, 99, 113, 122, 127. 
 Sulphur fumigation of wine, 30. 
 Sweetnesses, the feast of, 73. 
 Swinburne, "Travels," quoted, 83. 
 Symbolism of the wine of the Supper, 81. 
 
 Tacitus, quoted, 11, 75, 126, 128. 
 
 Tacniotic wine, 28. 
 
 Tahiti, law of, prohibiting the importa- 
 
 tion of ardent spirits, 98. 
 Talmud, the, quoted, 11, 30, 73, 75, 
 
 76, 77. 
 
 Tavernier, Baron, quoted, 93. 
 Taylor, quoted, 37. 
 Teinturier grape, the, 145. 
 Temetum, the ancient name for wine, 31. 
 
 "Temperance Bible Commentary," the 
 
 quoted, 113. 
 Temperance, inculcations of, in the N. 
 
 T., 124; signification and use of the 
 
 term, 125; etymology of, 126; St. 
 
 Paul's conception of, 129 ; the Meth- 
 
 odist Discipline on, 152. 
 Temperajitia, 124, 126; tempera and 
 
 temper ans, 126. 
 Temperature at which fermentation is 
 
 possible, 29 ; grape juice boils, 29 ; 
 
 alcohol evaporates, 29. 
 Temptation, the law of, the avoidance 
 
 of, 102. 
 
 Terrence, quoted, 59. 
 Theodoret, quoted. 91. 
 Theognis, quoted, 123. 
 Theophrastus, quoted, 57, 59. 
 Theophylact, quoted, 86, 118. 
 Therapeutic, the abstinence of, 11. 
 Thermometer, the, use of, in detecting 
 
 the effect of small doses of alcohol, 
 
 111, 161. 
 
 Thermopolium, the, 28. 
 Tholuck, F. A., quoted, 60. 
 Thomas Magister, quoted, 121. 
 Thomas, St, the Christians of, use un- 
 
 fermented wine at the Lord's Supper, 
 
 93. 
 
 Thomson, Sir Henry, quoted, 3, G2. 
 Thudicum and Dupre, quoted, 6, 64, 
 
 145, 146. 
 Thucydides, quoted, 99. 
 Tischendorf, C., quoted, 70, 92, 93. 
 Timothy, his use of wine. 112. 
 Tinta Francisca grape, the, 145. 
 , tirosh, 40. 
 
 Tranaubstantiation, the doctrine of, 89. 
 
 Tregelles, S. P., quoted, 70. 
 
 Trench, R. C., quoted, 53, 54, 87, 118, 
 
 120, 147. 
 Tuch, quoted, 21. 
 Turner, E., quoted. 54, 75. 
 Tyndal's version, quoted, 114, 129. 
 
 Ure's " Dictionary of Arts, Manufact- 
 uries, and Mines," quoted, 24. 
 
 Valpy. quoted, 141. 
 
 Van Buren, J. M.. quoted, 27. 
 
 7anicek, quoted, 58, 122, 126, 142. 
 
 VanLennep, " Bible Lands," quoted, 27. 
 
 Varro, quoted, 22, 26, 27, 32, 33. 
 
 Vegetius, quoted, 96. 
 
 Vine, the, and its branches? suggestion 
 
 of the figure of, 86. 
 
 Fin, boueux, 140; cotto, 27, 28; curt, 28; 
 ordinaire, 50. 
 Vinegar. 50, 51, 60. 
 Vinum duke, 19, 24.
 
 160 
 
 General Index. 
 
 Virgil, quoted, 25, 27, 126. 
 Vitriaco, Jacobus, a, quoted, 91. 
 Volney, quoted, 57. 
 Vulgate, the, quoted, 14, 41, 129, 130. 
 
 Wafer, the, 90. 
 
 Water, the, of life, 87. 
 
 Water, the practice of mingling, with 
 wine at the Lord's Supper, 91. 
 
 Walker, J., quoted, 143. 
 
 Watt's "Dictionary of Chemistry," 
 quoted, 66. 
 
 Webster, K, quoted, 143. 
 
 Westcott, Canon, quoted, 53. 
 
 Westcott and Hort, quoted, 70. 
 
 Whedon, Daniel D., quoted, 54. 60, 61, 
 95, 147. 
 
 Whitby, quoted, 60. 
 
 White and Riddle, quoted, 142. 
 
 Wilkinson's " Ancient Egyptians," 
 quoted, 10, 25. 
 
 Witthaus, Dr., quoted, 150. 
 
 Wiesinger, quoted, 116, 124. 
 
 Wine, ancient, strength of, 20 ; dilution 
 of, 28, 46 ; boiled, 27 ; the fermented 
 juice of the grape not always called, 
 31 ; did not always mean \\\e juice of 
 the grape, 31 ; the term used with- 
 out any reference to the grape, 31 ; 
 did not always mean the fermented 
 juice of the grape, 32 ; commended 
 and condemned in both Testaments, 
 34; two kinds of, distinguished in 
 the Scriptures, 34-38 ; Hebrew words 
 rendered, 38-49 ; Greek words ren- 
 dered, 50, 51 ; summary of the terms 
 for, in the Scriptures, 52; made by 
 Jesus at the marriage feast in Cana, 
 53 ; the best, not intoxicating, 55 ; 
 Aulese, method of making, 64; 
 old, not better than new, 68-70 ; 
 use of , by the good Samaritan, 71; 
 the, of the Supper, 72-94; the, used 
 on the cross, 94-97 ; the new, of the 
 coming kingdom, 87 ; prohibitions of, 
 in the N. T., 108; excessive use of, 
 
 forbidden without regard to its kind, 
 114; our opponents' position with re- 
 gard to the meaning of, 140. 
 
 Wine, fermented, composition of, 37 ; 
 prohibited by the law of the Pass- 
 over, 7 7 ; not a proper symbol of 
 blood in general, 81 ; or of Christ's 
 blood, 82. 
 
 Wine, unfermented, prejuge legitime 
 against the doctrine of, 17 ; scholar- 
 ship and the doctrine of, 18 ; exist- 
 ence and use of, in ancient times, 19 ; 
 a common beverage, 31, 140; recogni- 
 tion of, in the Scriptures, 34; com- 
 position of, 37 ; regarded as the best, 
 57 ; the proper symbol of Christ's 
 blood, 83; used in celebrating the 
 Lord's Supper, 72-94; excessive use 
 of, forbidden, 114. 
 
 Wine-bibber, a, Ciirist charged with be- 
 ing, 1, 15; definition of, 14. 
 
 Wine-bibbing put on a par with sensu- 
 ality and gluttony, 1 6. 
 
 Wine-drinking a sin, per se, 2. 
 
 Winer. " Grammar of the New Testa- 
 ment," quoted, 69, 70, 117. 
 
 Woes pronounced by Christ on those 
 who cause temptation, 105. 
 
 Women, aged, especially addicted to 
 wine, 115. 
 
 Women, strict abstinence enjoined upon, 
 116. 
 
 Woodbury, Dr. F., quoted, 131. 
 
 Worcester, J. E.. quoted, 143. 
 
 Wyckliffe's version, quoted, 14, 60. 
 128, 129, 130. 
 
 Xenophon, quoted, 10, 31, 59, 87, 127, 
 
 128. 
 
 P, yayin, 38. 
 2j?i yeqeb, 49. 
 
 Youmans, E. L., quoted, 110. 
 Young, "Analytical Concordance," 
 quoted, 141.
 
 TEXTUAL INDEX. 
 
 Ch. Vert*. 
 
 GENESIS. 
 1 4 
 
 Pge. 
 . 36 
 
 Ch. Verw. Pjft. 
 
 82 83 88 
 
 Ch. Vr. 
 7 9 
 
 Pi*.. 
 
 5i 
 
 33 28 42 
 
 8 2 
 
 44,47,48 
 
 2 8 
 
 .... 36 
 
 JUDGES. 
 18 7 7 
 
 ISAIAH. 
 i 90 
 
 g 20-27 
 
 .... 10 
 
 9 21 
 
 .... 38 
 
 9 24 
 
 .... 123 
 
 13 14 39 
 
 5 22 
 
 
 27 28 
 
 .. 40, 42 
 
 RUTH. 
 2 14 96 
 
 16 10 
 
 40 
 
 40 9 
 
 .... 83 
 
 19 14 
 
 46 
 
 40 11 
 
 .... 21 
 
 24 7 
 
 42 
 
 41 84 
 
 .... 85 
 
 1 SAMUEL. 
 9 13 74 
 
 .24 9 
 
 44 
 
 43 10 
 43 81 
 
 74 
 ... 127 
 
 25 6 
 ^! 2 
 
 . .. 46 
 ... 44, 40 
 
 43 34 
 47 24 
 49 11 
 
 85 
 .. 40,49 
 
 25 87 123 
 
 2 SAMUEL. 
 6 19 45 
 
 31 7 
 49 26 
 51 17-22 
 
 MO 
 
 ... 47,68 
 4T 
 
 EXODUS. 
 12 8 
 
 . 75 
 
 55 1 
 
 85 40 
 
 2 CHRONICLES. 
 32 28" !' 
 
 62 8 
 
 
 63 2 3 
 
 149 
 
 12 8, 9 
 
 76 
 
 63 6 
 
 
 12 17 
 
 74 
 
 EZRA. 
 69 44 
 
 65 8 
 
 48 
 
 12 19 
 
 .... 78 
 
 65 11 
 
 46 
 
 12 89 
 
 75 
 
 JEREMIAH. 
 25 1-19 . . . 
 
 . n 
 
 13 6, 7 
 
 .. 73, 75 
 
 7 22 44 
 
 22 29 
 
 73 
 
 NEHEMIAH. 
 5 18 89 
 8 10 50, 73 
 
 2g 10 
 
 85 
 
 28 15 
 29 2 
 
 ... 73 
 .. 73,76 
 
 25 15 
 31 14 
 
 . , 86 
 5 
 
 2 40 
 88 18-23 
 34 26 
 
 40,72 
 61 
 
 . 76 
 
 18 15 38 
 
 JOB. 
 82 19 64, 68 
 
 40 10, 11 
 48 11 
 48 33 
 
 89 
 47 
 40 
 
 LEVITICUS. 
 2 11 
 2 13 
 6 17 
 8 2 
 10 9 
 
 76,82 
 76 
 76,82 
 ... 76 
 43 
 
 LAMENTATIONS. 
 2 12 40,41 
 
 DANIEL. 
 
 5 1, 2, 4, 23 44 
 ft '" 
 
 PSALMS. 
 
 28 5 59 
 46 8 44 
 69 12 43 
 69 21 94, 90 
 
 17 11 
 28 13 
 28 17 
 24 5-9 
 
 NUMBERS. 
 8 1-4 
 6 3 
 
 72 
 82 
 
 76 
 
 11, 16 
 49, 50, 74 
 
 75 8 35,44,45,46,4? 
 102 9 46 
 104 15 84,37,40,109 
 140 8 88 
 
 PROVERBS. 
 8 10 42 
 
 HOSEA. 
 
 8 1 
 4 11 
 4 18 
 
 48 
 48 
 48 
 
 7 5 
 9 4 
 
 ... 86 
 78 
 
 6 4 
 6 15 
 8 19 
 15 5,7,10 
 15 7 
 
 ... 89 
 76 
 78 
 .... 40 
 . 72 
 
 9 2-5 46 
 10 26 98 
 20 1 34, 86 
 28 20 14 
 
 JOEL. 
 1 5 
 1 10 
 
 47, 1*8 
 
 42 
 
 28 7 43,44,72 
 28 14 72 
 
 DEUTERONOMY. 
 11 14 42 
 12 17 42 
 
 23 21 114 
 23 29 62 
 28 80 46 
 23 81 85, 86, 39, 56 
 
 2 24 
 3 18 
 
 AMOS. 
 9 5 
 9 13 
 
 42 
 47 
 
 . 95 
 47 
 
 23 32 38 
 25 20 96 
 
 14 21 
 14 28 
 14 20 84, 
 
 . ,. 7C 
 43 
 A 44, 72 
 75 
 
 25 27 114 
 81 6 94 
 86 6,7 95 
 
 MlCAH. 
 
 
 1C 8 
 
 ECCLESIASTES. 
 
 7 7 48 
 7 17 HI 
 
 6 15 
 
 48 
 
 16 13 
 21 20 
 
 ,. 49 
 .. 14, 114 
 
 KABUL 
 
 
 28 14-16 
 28 14 
 27 7 
 
 4( 
 
 .... 74 
 
 CAVTICLKS. 
 2 5... 46 
 
 1 10 
 
 HABAKKUK 
 
 9 7 
 
 46 
 .. 188 
 
 88 39 
 
 89 
 
 1Q 
 
 94 
 
 51* 40, 44, 59 
 
 88 14-16 
 
 48 
 
 5 16 60 
 
 8 15 
 
 SB 
 
 88 14 
 
 44,45,49 7 8 " 

 
 162 
 
 Textual Index. 
 
 Ch. Verse. Page. 
 
 ZEPHANIAH. 
 1 12 47 
 
 Ch. Verse. 
 
 JOHN. 
 2 1-11 
 
 Page. 
 
 53, 146 
 54, 56 
 ,60,84 
 60,62 
 69 
 
 Ch. Verse. Page. 
 COLOSSIANS. 
 
 3 10 87 
 
 ECCLESIASTICUS. 
 18 30 127 
 50 14 15 73 
 
 2 9 
 
 l THESSALONIANS. 
 5 6 124,129 
 
 2 10 53, 55, 57, K 
 2 11 
 3 32 33 
 
 1 MACCABEES. 
 
 4 46 
 5 19 
 
 61 
 ... 55 
 
 5 6-8 121 
 5 7 59 
 5 22 129 
 
 6 34 149 
 
 MATTHEW. 
 3 15 79 
 
 3 1, f 
 14 26 
 
 ... 86 
 108 
 
 1 TIMOTHY. 
 29 120 
 
 15 1,4,5 
 
 ... 86 
 
 19 29,30 
 
 ... 51 
 
 5 17 79 
 
 19 29 
 
 ... 95 
 
 2 12 116 
 
 f, 28 36 
 
 19 30 
 
 95, 96 
 
 87 
 
 2 15 120 
 
 5 29, 30 100, 101 
 
 ACTS. 
 2 4 
 
 3 2 115, 120, 121,124,130 
 3 3 108 113, 114, 115 
 
 5 30 126 
 
 5 44 109 
 
 3 8 108, 112, 113, 114 
 
 5 48 107 
 
 2 13 22 51 
 
 114, 143 
 59 
 
 3 11 116, 121, 124 
 
 6 13 102 
 
 2 15 
 
 43 .35 
 
 9 17 51, 63, 64 
 
 8 27 
 
 92 
 
 5 23 112 
 
 11 18 15 
 
 10 38 
 
 62 
 
 6 9, 10 36 
 
 11 19 1, 16, 114 
 
 13 37 
 
 82 
 
 2 TIMOTHY. 
 
 14 38 102 
 
 24 25 
 
 128 
 
 16 6-12 75 
 
 26 25 
 
 ...120 
 
 16 24 63, 99, 116 
 18 7 106 
 
 ROMANS. 
 1 20 
 3 10 
 6 4 
 12 3 
 13 9 
 13 10 
 
 61 
 ,, 69 
 
 88 
 120 
 104 
 ...104 
 
 4 5 121 
 
 19 19 104 
 22 3 104 
 24 49 59 
 26 19 72 
 26 27 79, 80 
 26 28 81,8? 
 26 29 16 51 72 84 86 
 
 TITUS. 
 1 6 118 
 1 7 ... 108, 113, 114, 116, 118 
 1 7,8 115 
 1 8 120, 121 
 
 26 34 116 
 26 41 102 
 27 34 51,94,95 
 27 48 51,95 
 28 20 108 
 
 MARK. 
 2 22 51, 63 
 
 13 12 
 13 13 
 14 1-23 
 14 21 
 15 1 
 
 1 CORINTHIANS 
 2 13 
 
 na 
 
 108, 113 
 104 
 104, 105 
 104 
 
 ...108 
 
 3 3 108, 113, 115, 116 
 24 120 
 2 4,5 116 
 2 5 120 
 2 6 120 
 2 11, 12 116 
 
 2 12 120 
 
 HEBREWS. 
 2 18 62 
 5 2 62 
 7 26 62 
 
 2 23 51 
 
 5 7 
 
 
 5 15 120 
 8 34 99 
 9 17 51 
 12 31 104 
 
 5 11 
 6 5 
 6 9 
 6 10 
 
 108, 113 
 ... 69 
 .. 62 
 108, 113 
 
 14 16 72 
 14 23 79,80 
 14 24 81 
 14 25 51,84,86 
 
 6 12 
 6 12,13 
 7 1 
 79 
 
 106 
 104 
 35 
 
 128 
 
 9 13,14 81 
 9 14 83 
 11 24 116 
 
 JAMES. 
 
 1 21 111 
 
 14 38 102 
 
 8 4 13 
 
 104 
 
 15 23 51, 94, 95 
 
 9 25,26 r 
 
 129 
 
 15 36 51,95 
 
 10 16 
 
 . 80, 89 
 
 2 8 104 
 
 16 17.... 87 
 
 LUKE. 
 1 15 2,51,117 
 5 37-39.. .. 51, 63,67-70,80 
 
 r 84 i 
 
 8 35 120 
 
 10 19,21 
 10 19-33 . 
 
 . 80,89 
 . 104 
 
 5 13 95 
 
 1 PETER. 
 
 1 13 ... 121, 144 
 2 11 129 
 4 3 108, 113 
 437 144 
 
 11 20,21 
 
 ... 88 
 
 11 21 59, 60 
 11 24 
 11 25 
 14 34 
 
 , 72, 148 
 83 
 79,81 
 
 . .. nr 
 
 9 23 99 
 9 56 61 
 10 27 104 
 10 34 51, 71 
 11 4 102 
 
 15 34 
 
 2 CORINTHIANS 
 5 13 
 5 17 
 
 12] 
 
 120 
 
 ... 87 
 
 4 4'. Ill, 118 
 4 7 120, 121 
 5 8 121, 124, 144 
 
 2 PETER. 
 1 6 130 144 
 
 12 18 8f 
 12 45 59 
 
 GALATIANS. 
 
 106 
 
 15 13 118 
 
 3 13 87 
 
 17 1 10! 
 
 5 14 
 
 .. 104 
 
 REVELATION. 
 2 17 87 
 
 22 13 72 
 
 5 21 
 
 108, 113 
 .... 130 
 
 
 5 22 
 
 22. 18 51 77 84 86 
 
 6 15 
 
 . . . . 87 
 
 3 12 .87 
 
 22 19 ' 83 
 
 EPHESIANS. 
 4 24 
 5 17,18 
 5 18.. 36, 59, 84, 108, 
 
 . 87 
 .... 117 
 112, 113 
 116, life 
 
 5 9 87 
 
 22 20 81 
 
 14 3 87 
 
 22 40 102 
 22 46 102 
 23 27 95 
 
 17 2,6 59 
 
 19 15 47 
 21 1, 2, 5, 6 87 
 
 3 30... ..51.95 
 
 
 22 1,17 87
 
 LOSANGELE*.
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY 
 
 Los Angeles 
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