SCHOOL OF LAW LIBRARY THE FOOTPKINTS OF TIME: AND A COMPLETE ANALYSIS OP OUB AMERICAN SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT, WITH A CONCISE HISTORY OP THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION ; THE RELATION OF THE OLD WORLD TO THE FREE INSTITUTIONS OF THE NEW ; THE ESTABLISHMENT AND GROWTH OP THE ENGLISH COLONIES AND OP THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. FACTS AND STATISTICS FROM OFFICIAL SOURCES BY CHARLES BANCROFT. K. T. ROOT PUBLISHER. BURLINGTON. IOWA. 1880 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1874 ) and 1875. BY E. T. ROOT, In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. Oi PREFACE. 1 1 is the object of this book to supply the means of forming an accurate idea of the American government. The author has adopted the proposition that the highest style of govern- ment is one " of the people, by the people, and for the people," and believes that a constant progress, commencing in the earli- est times, has reached its full development in the Great Re- public. He therefore traces THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME through all history; notes the gradual unfolding of institutions, the rise and fall of empires, the causes that produced and des- troyed the ancient republics, and the origin of the forces that give so much more strength and stability to modern civiliza- tion. All this he considers essential to a correct appreciation of the wonderful events of our age and country. He then proceeds to a close and clear analysis of the whole structure of the government. Each general division, with its sub-divisions, is examined in detail, but successively; so that 9 definite picture of it, with all its branches, operations, and re- lations to other parts, stands before the mind as a sharply defined whole. The Executive, Legislative, and Judicial divis- ions the dependent parts of each kept in proper place coine in order, one after the other, before the mind, the struct- ure, powers and working of each being fully explained. The book is indeed a compilation, and the matter in large part from official sources, but collected from an astonishingly large number of books, all of which are not to be found even in the largest public libraries; but the labor required in gath- (3) PREFACE. ering so much from all directions and impressing a library into a form and compass so convenient, and so well arranged, in so few and well chosen words, has been great indeed. All the works heretofore brought before the public proposing to meet this want have been fragmentary, or have treated at too great length but a portion of the subject. A complete summary, or Citizens' Manual, is here furnished, that includes a sufficiently detailed Analysis of the entire structure of the government, developing in a clear and comprehensive manner the organization, powers, relations, and mode of working of each department, small or large, the principles on which they rest and the spirit that permeates them all. It lays our his- tory so far under contribution as to show us the occasion that produced each institution, the gradual growth of the grand edifice and the causes that controlled and shaped the whole. In short, it gives us-an adequate reason for the form of our institutions, even so far back as the earlier history of humanity, when the tendencies that have borne this fruit first began to appear in human history. THE PU-BLISHEK. INTRODUCTION. It is our happiness to live in an age whose master-pieces of accomplishment, in science, industry and commerce, put to shame the extravagant fictions of Orieiital tales and the wond- ers ascribed to the gods and heroes of ancient mythology. The changes produced by recent investigations and discover- ies are so vast and so rapid that it is difficult to follow them or comprehend the power and thoroughness of the transforma- tions that are taking place in the world around us. The ap- plications of steam and electricity astonish us by their wide spread influence on the condition and relations of men; the ease and speed of movement and intercourse, constantly in- creasing, are ever putting us in new and unfamiliar situations. We have hardly accustomed our thoughts and habits to one before we are hurried on into another. The constantly clearer and more abundant light shed by science and the press does not suffice to keep our minds fully up to the progress that goes on in all departments of life. It is plain that we have entered on a New Era, the most extraordinary and momentous the world has ever seen. The old and imperfect is being cleared away and everything thor- oughly reconstructed. The explanation is that we are now setting up the grand Temple of Civilization, the separate stones and pillars of which each nation and age was commis- sioned to hew and carve, and, so to speak, left in the quarry to await the time when, all the material being ready, the Master Builder should collect all the scattered parts and raise the (7) 8 INTRODUCTION. whole edifice at once, to the astonishment and joy of man- kind. All the institutions and civilizations of the past may be considered temporary, erected in haste from the materials near- est at hand, not for permanence, but to serve the present turn while the special task of the nation or age was being performed. The races and ages nearer the birth of mankind worked on rougher parts of the edifice, that entered into the foundations; those grand races, the Greek and the Roman, furnished the noble outline which the nations of modern Europe perfected while they supplied what was still lacking for use and adorn- ment. America was reserved, designedly, for so many ages, to furnish a suitable and unencumbered location for the central halls and mightiest pillars of the completed structure. OUT fathers cleared the ground and laid the foundation deep down on the living rock, that is to say, on Human Rights. That they seldom failed to place stone, pillar and column in just position the work, as we find it, proves, and we have little to do but to clear away the rubbish, beautify the grounds, and put the whole to its proper use. We begin to see that Time, Thought and Experience have not wrought in vain, that Progress is not a pharitonT of the imagination, that the human race is essentially a Unit, that it has been growing through all the centuries and is now ap- proaching the prime of its manhood, just ready to enter on its special career with its grandest work still to do. The energies of all the races are preparing for unheard of achievements. The world was never so completely and so wisely busy as now, and America stands between modern Europe and ancient Asia, receiving from, and giving to, both. Her institutions are founded on principles so just and so humane that, when ad- ministered with due wisdom and skill, they will embarrass and restrain the proper activities of men at no point. America stands a model which other nations will carefully copy, in due time, as they can adapt themselves and change their institu- INTRODUCTION. 9 tions.- There may be no literal copy or close formal imitation; l)iit there is little doubt that the spirit and true sense of cur Declaration of Independence will finally mould the structure and control the workings, of all governments. It is the Course of Human Progress, and the important ele- ments that were successively added as each leading phase of civilization appeared, that is endeavored to be traced in the Historical Review of the First Part of this book. While fol- lowing the general march of events chronologically, we have stopped here and there to take a general survey, in order the better to understand the significance of detached facts, or to examine a new influence that enters among the forces mould- ing the future. Our space did not allow an exhaustive pro- cess; nor was it desirable. We have taken note of only the more important landmarks of Progress. Too much detail would confuse the mind by engaging it in an intricate mass of facts. It is the thread of events, that joins the nations and ages together, or the channel by which they sent down to our day from Asia to Europe, and from Europe to America each their special contribution to the political wisdom and the free institutions of America, that we have endeavored to find. We hope we have not underrated any people or any time, and that we have not overrated the value and glory of America. America is yet young. Its founders, the authors of its Con- stitution, were unaware of the singular excellence and nobility of their work. Like all other people, they built according to their genius and instincts. Time only could show whether they built for immortality. They feared and trembled over their work; but Time has set on it his seal of approval. Our people are busy using their liberties and energies, each for his individual benefit, as is quite right and proper; since the wel- fare of individuals makes the prosperity of the community. But a government left to take care of itself is prone to do that work only too well. We have done well and wisely in import- ant crises; but a more intelligent and constant watchfulness 10 INTRODUCTION. over the ordinary course of public affairs would have been still better. It is plain that the general mind among us has grown clearer and more accurate in its judgments as experience has accumu- lated, for the original direction toward popular freedom has not changed. Yarious incongruities have been laid aside and oversights corrected, the severe strain of civil war and an un- heard of rapidity of growth have not shaken, but more clearly revealed the strength and unity of the nation. Yet, more in- telligence and more care would have saved us many shocks and made our success more pronounced and more brilliant. "Knowledge is power," when wisely applied; and a more accurate acquaintance with their government and its history will enable American Citizens to mould it more wisely still, to correct all defects of administration, and to speedily reach that minimum of governmental interference with the efforts and interests of the citizens which shall give them the fullest liberty consistent with security and surrender the whole round of human life, as completely as possible, tx> the beneficent action of natural law. C. B. CONTENTS. PART FIRST. THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME, OE HISTORICAL PROGRESS. CHAPTEE I. HISTORICAL PROGRESS IN THE OLD WORLD 29 SECTION I. The Dawn of History Uncertainty of Tradition Aid afforded by recent studies Ethnology, Philology, etc. Primitive Home of Mankind The three great races The first Migrations Commencement of Civilization China The Euphrates The Ham- ites in Egypt. SECTION II. Direction of Pre-historic Growth Rudeness of early races -r- Character of the Primitive Man Testimony of language Imper- fection of Turanian Growth Seen in China Superiority of Indo- European races. SECTION III. Gradual Development Condition of the first Men Es- tablishment of the Family Patriarchal Authority The Growth of Monarchy Origin of fl]e Pri^stftood peyelojnneflt yf both in Chal- dca and Kirvpt influence of War and Commerce. Si:niiiN IV. Ancient Monarchies Five Monarchies on the Euphrates and Tigris The Scythian, the two Hamitic, the Assyrian and the Medo-Persian Monarchies Testimony of the ruins Mysterious and Singular character of Egypt Moses and the Jewish State Tyre and its Commerce. SECTION V. The Grecian States Origin, intelligence and vigor of the Greek race Their Mythology and Heroic History Their opposition to the dangerous centralizing tendencies of Monarch}' Greek Repub- lics Colonization Sparta and Athens Commencement of Au- thentic History Foundation of Rome Chronological review during the time of the Roman Kings. SECTION VI. The Roman Republic Character of the Romans Greeks and Romans compared Roman constancy. SECTION VII. Greece and Rome The influence of each on the future of mankind Chronological history from B. C. 500 to B. C. 133 The srrcat career of the Homan Republic. SECTION- VIII. Decay of the Republic Unhappy effects of conquest and wealth on Roman character Death of the Gracchi The Civil (11) 12 CONTENTS. Wars Marius, Sylla, Crassus, Poinpey, Julius Caesar The Senate Suspends the Constitution and ends the Republic Death of Caesar. SECTION IX. The Roman Empire Impossibility of restoring the Re- public Triumvirate and wars of Augustus, Antony and Lepidus Au- gustus Emperor of the World. SECTION X. Influence of Christianity The Jewish State Influence on it of Egypt, Asia and Greece The New Morality of Christianity The persecution it provokes Its growing influence on life and man- ners Unhappy effect of state patronage. SECTION XI. The services of Great Men to Mankind Difficulties of progress among the Ancients Assistance rendered by Great Men Office of early Poets Of Legislators Philosophers, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle Orators, Demosthenes and Cicero Influence of Great con- querors on progress Alexander the Great Hannibal the unfortunate CaBsar, the successful Brutus, the Patriot Augustus the Emperor The elements of greatness in all men Jesus Christ the Perfect Man. SECTION XII. The Christian Era Chronological history of the Emper- rors The triumph of Christianity and its corruption The fall of the Empire. SECTION XIII. Rise of Modern Nations Incursions of Barbarians Their settlement in Gaul Spain, Africa, Italy and Britain Mahomet and the great success of his followers Charlemagne and the Popes-- Failure to found a Western Empire. SECTION XIV. The Feudal System Results from the condition of the Empire and the character of the invaders Rise and character of Chiv- alry The Crusades. SECTION XV. The Liberties of the People Influence of the Crusades Revival of Commerce and Learning. SECTION XVI. The Situation on the Discovery of America. SECTION XVII. Conclusion Summary of Progress The work assigned to America. CHAPTER II. THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 148 Geographical ignorance of the Ancients Columbus and his Ideas Hie difficulty in getting a hearing Queen Isabella of Spain Sets sail foi the New World Why he thought it Asia Origin of the name America. CHAPTER III. HISTORY FROM 14:92 TO 1763 151 Various Discoveries Sir Humphrey Gilbert fails twice to establish a Col- ony Sir Walter Raleigh Settlements in Florida Jamestown Land- ing of the Puritans Other Settlements Liberal character of Colonial Governments Colonies resist oppression Indian Wars French Wars Training they give the Colonies Capture of Louislmrg Braddock's Defeat Colonists as Soldiers. CONTENTS. 13 CHAPTER IV. HISTORY ORIGIN OF THE KEVOLUTION 162 British resolve to tax Colonies Folly of that measure Resistance in the Colonies British repeal the tax, BUT CLAIM THE RIGHT Indig- nation in the Colonies Taxes again tried Soldiers sent to Boston " Boston Massacre " Tax on Tea Colonies Organize against it " Bos- ton Tea Party" Philadelphia Boston Port Bill First Congress "American Association" Battle of Lexington Second Congress Siege of Boston Bunker Hill British driven out Battles in Canada. CHAPTER V. FORMATION OF THE ORIGINAL UNION 173 History of the various stages of Union among the States Adoption of the Articles of Confederation. CHAPTER VI. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 175 Noble character of this Document It speaks for all men and all times The Declaration. CHAPTER VII. ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION 181 Full text of the Articles adopted in 1777, forming the Constitution for 12 years. CHAPTER VIII. REVOLUTIONARY WAR FROM 17 76 TO 1783 191 Battle of Long Island Silent retreat at night Washington driven across the Delaware His success in the Jerseys Battles near Philadelphia Surrender of Burgoyne Treaty with the French French fleet British evacuate Philadelphia Washington's success again in the Jerseys Southern War Defeat of Gates Treason of Arnold Gen. Green and Cornwallis Lafayette and Cornwallis Surrender of Cornwallis at Forktown Review of the War Financial Difficulties Character of the People Peace at Last ! CHAPTER IX. THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 203 Hie Constitutional Convention of 1787 Defects of the Articles of Confed- eration Caution of Statesmen and the People Result of the Conven- tionFull text of the Constitution and Amendments. 14 CONTENTS. CHAPTER X. THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS . 225 Names of Presidents of the Continental Congress The various Seats of Government from 1774 to 1789. PAET SECOND. PAGE. THE GOVERNMENT UNDER THE CONSTITUTION 226 The Three Branches of the Government Arrangement of this "Work Excellence of the Organization Comparison of the United States with Mexico With Ireland Why it has prospered. THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. CHAPTER I. THE PRESIDENT 229 His place in the Government He is its active force Conditions of birth, age, and residence How he is elected His powers and duties List of all the Presidents. CHAPTER II. THE VICE-PRESIDENT 234 His position mainly honorary His only duty When he may become President List of Vice-Presidents. CHAPTER III. THE CABINET 236 Number and offices of members Their duties President's will supreme Their means of aiding him The character and ability required. CHAPTER IV. DEPARTMENT OF STATE 239 Title of chief officer Conducts our Foreign business Range of his duties Qualifications required Lists of Secretaries of State. CHAPTER Y. OUR REPRESENTATIVES IN FOREIGN LANDS 243 The dignity 01 their Official Character The immunities it confers Am- bassadors Ministers Plenipotentiary Ministers -Resident Charge d'Affaires Commissioners The high abilities required in Foreign Ministers. CONTENTS. 15 CHAPTER VI. TREATIES EXTRADITION TREATIES 246 Nature of a Treaty Its binding power Has the force of Law The Rus- sian Treaty in full What Extradition Treaties are What classes of criminals they apply to Countries with which we have Extradition Treaties. CHAPTER VII. BUSINESS REPRESENTATIVES 256 Consuls and their duties Their official character Their number Extra powers in Turkey, etc. CHAPTER VIII. PASSPORTS 258 Their character Their protective power Who give them. CHAPTER IX. DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY 260 Its importance Secretary of the Treasury Groat extent of his depart- ment Its thorough organization The security of public funds The various bureaus List of Secretaries of the Treasury. CHAPTER X. THE FINANCIAL SYSTEM OF THE UNITED STATES 263 How government income is obtained Duties Internal Revenue Differ- ence of views Finance a study for the people. CHAPTER XI. . DUTIES AND TARIFFS 266 Explanation of terms Ease of raising revenue from Tariffs Two kim's of Tariff What is a Protective Tar 5 ft Tonnage. CHAPTER XII. COLLECTION OF DUTIES 272 Custom Houses Their number and location Officers and their duties Their compensation Revenue Cutters Ship's papers. CHAPTER XIII. GOVERNMENT COINAGE 278 The Mint Relations to the United States Treasury Artistic skill Coins Assay offices Their relation to commerce and to individuals. 16 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XIV. NATIONAL BANKING 283 Relations of Currency to the Treasury Government control of Banks and their issues Security of Currency. CHAPTER XV. FINANCIAL CONDITION OF THE UNITED STATES 286 Great resources of the country Aggregate wealth of the people Resources of the general government Public lands Mines National wealth The National Debt Reasons for not paying it at once Table of Statistics Public Debt for every year National Securities. CHAPTER XVI. WAR DEPARTMENT 291 Secretary of War Organization of his department Various Bureaus List of Secretaries of War. CHAPTER XVII. THE U. S. ARMY 294 Its history shows great military ability The peaceful policy of the country. CHAPTER XVIII. THE MILITARY ACADEMY 295 Its object and location The results secured. CHAPTER XIX. DEPOTS OF WAR MATERIAL 298 Armories and Arsenals Their uses Location Officers. CHAPTER XX. ARTICLES OF WAR 299 Peculiar relations of military forces to civil government Object of Arti- cles of War Range and vigor of their provisions. CHAPTER XXI. MILITARY HOSPITALS AND ASYLUMS 300 Their object Their location Their excellent management Their success in the Civil War. CONTENTS. 17 'CHAPTEK XXII. NAVY DEPARTMENT 302 Secretary of the Navy His duties Various Bureaus List of Secretaries of the Navy. CHAPTER XXIII. THE UNITED STATES NAVY 306 The U. 8. a commercial country Gratifying success of the early navy The importance of this arm to the country Its value to us abroad- Number of U. S. vessels of war. CHAPTER XXIV. NAVY YARDS 309 Their location and number Materials and stores Workshops and repairs. CHAPTER XXV. THE NAVAL ACADEMY 309 Its purposes, location aud value. CHAPTER XXVI. THE NAVAL OBSERVATORY 311 Dependence of Navigation on Astronomical Science Value of Obser- vatory. CHAPTER XXVII. COAST SURVEY 312 Necessity of this work Scientific accuracy Value for commerce and defense. CHAPTER XXVIII. LIGHT HOUSES 314 Why and where they are built Official Superintendence Light Money. CHAPTER XXIX. LETTERS OF MARQUE AND REPRISAL 316 Objects of Privateering Immorality and injustice of it, CHAPTER XXX. NAVY AND MARINE HOSPITALS 318 The purpose of those institutions Their means of support Their location. 2 18 CONTENTS. CHAPTEK XXXF. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 319 History of this department Secretary of the Interior Bureaus of the department List of Secretaries. CHAPTEE XXXII. PUBLIC LANDS 322 How the government obtained them What disposition is made of them Land offices Sale of Lands Pre-emption Bounty Lands Home- steads School Lands. CHAPTER XXXIII. HOW TO SECURE PUBLIC LANDS 326 Pre-emption Laws Land Warrants Soldiers' Homestead Laws List of Land Offices. CHAPTEE XXXIV. PATENTS 336 Patent office Commissioner of Patents Mode of obtaining a Patent. CHAPTEE XXXV. PENSIONS 339 The object of Pensions Pension office Amount of Pensions How paid Pension Laws of various dates. CHAPTEE XXXVI. INDIAN AFFAIRS 351 Aboriginal inhabitants Mode of acquiring their lands Indian Policy Reservations Annuities Agents Indian Territory Condition and number of Indians Their probable extinction. CHAPTEE XXXVII. CENSUS BUREAU v 355 How the census is taken Value of census statistics Tables of Population. CHAPTEE XXXVIII. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 357 The objects of this department Commissioner of Agriculture Buildings and grounds Extent of information collected and circulated Value of this department. CONTENTS. 19 CHAPTER XXXIX. POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT 360 Postmaster General Various Bureaus Extent of organization Its remarkable vigor and success List of Postmasters General. CHAPTER XL. RATES OF POSTAGE 365 Letters Papers Packages Foreign Rates. CHAPTER XLI. REGISTERED AND DEAD LETTERS 368 Security of registered letters Certainty of finding the thief Description of the whole process Facts about dead letters. CHAPTER XLII. THE ATTORNEY GENERAL 372 Why he is a cabinet officer Range of his duties. CHAPTER XLIII. PRESIDENTIAL ELECTORS 371 Object of the authors of the Constitution Why Electors failed to meet their expectation How they are elected and discharge their duties. CHAPTER XLIY. HISTORY OF PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS FROM WASHINGTON TO HAYES 377 CHAPTER XLV. CABINETS OF ALL THE PRESIDENTS 390 LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT. CHAPTER XLVI. CONGRESS 400 Careful separation of the different branches of government Powers and duties of Congress Organization and powers of the Senate Of the House of Representatives. CHAPTER XLVII. CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICTS, CONGRESSMEN 405 Mode of electing Members of House of Representatives Advantages of the district plan Number of districts. 20 CONTENTS, CHAPTER XLVIII. CONGRESSIONAL LIBRARY 407 The objects of the Library Who may use it Duties of the Librarian. CHAPTER XLIX. COPYRIGHTS 408 The object ot Copyrights Mode of applying for them fees Full direc- tions from the Librarian of Congress. CHAPTER L. PRESIDING OFFICERS OF CONGRESS . . . , 411 Speaker of the House How he is chosen President of the Senate Their duties and powers List of all the Speakers of the House. CHAPTER LI. SUBORDINATE OFFICERS OF CONGRESS 414 Secretary of the Senate Clerk of the House Their duties The Sergeant. at-Arms The Doorkeeper The Postmaster. CHAPTER LII. CONGRESSIONAL WORK 415 .nioi.e 01 doing business in Congress Organization Bills Committees iceports Connection of two Houses President's signature Veto 1'assing over the veto Resolutions and their character Amount of business done Members of Congress and the People. CHAPTER LIIL PUBLIC PRINTING 418 flow it was formerly done Changes made People should inform them- selves. CHAPTER LIY. SIGNAL SERVICE 420 Origin of Signal Service Scientific and useful character Mode of con- ducting it School of Instruction Grades of officers Their duties Number of Stations Smithsonian Institution Its Origin, Objects and Value. CHAPTER LY. REPORTS 424 Mode of doing Legislative and Executive business Reports useful to fur nish information To facilitate business. CONTENTS. 21 CHAPTER LVI. IMPEACHMENTS 426 WTio may be impeached House of Representatives the Accuser Senate the Court. THE JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT 427 importance of this Department in our System Constitution ol the Depart ment. CHAPTER LVII. THE SUPREME COURT 428 The high range of its duties Its original and appellate Jurisdiction Its Judges Their term of office Officers of the Court List of Supreme and Associate Justices. CHARTER LYIII. CIRCUIT COURTS 431 Their powers ana uses Circuits Judges. CHAPTER LIX. DISTRICT! COURTS 434 Their jurisdiction Appointment ot Judges Number of districts Places of holding. CHAPTER LX. ADMIRALTY AND MARITIME JURISDICTION 436 Confined to naval affairs Belongs to District Courts. CHAPTEK LXL COURT OF CLAIMS 4:37 Where it sits Object to relieve Congress Advantages to claimants against government. CHAPTER LXII. DISTRICT ATTORNEYS 439 Business confided to them Government lawyers CHAPTER LXIII. UNITED STATES MARSHALS . 440 Where they are employed Connection with census. 22 CONTENTS. CHAPTER LXIY. GRAND JURY 441 Admirable features of Grand Jury Do not pronounce judgment Security afforded to reputation. CHAPTEK LXY. LOCAL GOVERNMENTS ; 444 General, State, County, and Municipal governments parts of a whole No conflict The harmonizing authority in the Supreme Court How State governments are formed Their powers Modeled on the General Gov- ernment Various Courts Subdivisions Counties Towns School districts Minor divisions indispensable. CHAPTER LXVI. INDIVIDUAL STATES 447 Circumstances of discovery of each When and where settled Facts in early history The part each of the " Old Thirteen" bore in the Revolu- tionary struggle The Surface Climate Agriculture Products Min- eral Wealth Prosperity Area Population in 1870 Circuit and Dis- trict Courts Number of Representatives in Congress Ports of entry and delivery Capital Time of holding elections Time of meeting of Legislature Form of enacting clause Complete list of United States Senators from each State. THE STATES. PAGE. THE STATES. PAGE. Alabama 497 Mississippi 493 Arkansas 504 Missouri 501 California 515 Nebraska.. 526 Colorado 529 New Hampshire 467 Connecticut 473 New Jersey 469 Delaware; 475 New York 453 Florida 506 North Carolina 450 Georgia 448 Nevada 525 Illinois 495 Ohio 485 Indiana ...490 Oregon 520 Iowa 508 Pennsylvania 456 Kansas 522 Rhode Island 477 Kentucky 481 South Carolina 462 Louisiana 487 Tennessee 483 Maine 499 Texas 511 Maryland , 464 Vermont 479 Massachusetts 471 Virginia 45S Michigan 502 West Virginia 524 Minnesota... i 518 Wisconsin 518 CONTEXTS. 23 CHAPTER LXVII. MOTTOES AND NAMES OF THE STATES 531 Mottoes translated Origin and meaning ot name Familiar name. CHAPTER LXYIII. THE NATIONAL DOMAIN 534- Public domain after the Revolutionary War Various acquisitions of ter- ritory by tne General Government Character ot a Tenitorial govern- ment Organized by Congress Appointment ol officers Territorial Legislature When a State may be formed Constitution to be approved by Congress Admission may be vetoed by the President CHAPTER LXIX. INDIVIDUAL TERRITORD23 537 Discovery and early history of each When organized Surface Climate Agricultural and mineral resources Future prospects and desirableness as a location Area Population in 1870. TERRITORIES. PAGE. TERRITORIES. PAGE. Alaska 547 Montana 546 Arizona 544 New Mexico 537 Dakotah 543 Washington 540 , District of Columbia 549 Wyoming 548 Idaho 545 Utah 539 CHAPTER LXX. THE ANNEXATION POLICY 550 Causes of increase ot national area A traditional policy Importance ot national unity The Mexican War Causes Annexation of Territory- Excuses urged We shall never do it again Superior steadiness of American peoole The probable future of annexation. CHAPTER LXXI. CENSUS STATISTICS 556 PART THIRD. THE PEOPLE AND THE GOVERNMENT. The government for the people alone Early distrust of the masses and its causes Embodied in the Federal party Causes of its fall Absorption of foreigners Favorable results Future of the people. -j4 CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. SUFFRAGE AND CITIZENSHIP 562 Who are citizens Advance in exten* of suffrage Who are voters Citizens of States and of United States. CHAPTER II. CITIZENS OF FOREIGN BIRTH 564 Naturalization Various steps in naturalization Digest of laws. CHAPTER III. ELECTIONS 567 Who are entitled to vote for State officers For United States officers History of general elections People obtain direct control. CHAPTER IY. RATIO OF REPRESENTATION 569 Changes witfi each census Reason for it Data Present ratio and num ber of Members of Congress. CHAPTER Y. OATHS AND BONDS 574 Reasons for them " Iron-clad oaths " Who give bonds Amount of bonds required. CHAPTER VI. GOVERNMENT PRISONS 577 Vigor of the government Mildness in punishment Why it owns no prisons. CHAPTER VII. PROCLAMATIONS 578 Who make them Their significance. CHAPTER VIII. COMMISSIONERS 580 Various classes of officers of this name. CHAPTER IX. OFFICIAL REGISTER 581 Officers and salaries When published Where obtained. CONTENTS. 25 CHAPTER X. THE UNITED STATES FLAG 582 Significance of the Flag History of its origin Tlie " Star-Spangled Ban- ner" and Ft. McHenry. CHAPTER XL THE GREAT SEAL 585 Uses of Seals How applied Who keeps the Great Seal History of the Great Seal Jefferson, Adams, etc. Failure of committees to please Efforts of Secretary of Congress Adams and the English Baronet Description of the Seal. CHAPTER XII. THE ORIGIN OF LAW 588 Origin of law in various kinds of government In the U. 8. all law springs from the People The fundamental law Legislative acts Laws by Treaty Universal law. CHAPTER XIII. LAW OF NATIONS 591 Its origin Standard authorities on International Law How it is enforced General features of Law of Nations United States and England A future Supreme Tribunal. CHAPTER XIV. RELATION OF U. 8. GOVERNMENT TO RELIGION 594 Does not support religion Shows respect to the sentiments of all its peo- ple Consequent policy. CHAPTER XV. CHAPLAINS 596 Why employed No sect preferred Salaries Where employed. CHAPTER XVI. COMPROMISES 598 Necessity of them from the commencement Constitutional Compromise Missouri Compromise of 1820 Mason and Dixon's Line Compro- mises of 1850 Their failure brings on the Civil War. CHAPTER XVII. TREASON 602 Defined by the Constitution The punishment inflicted. 26 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XVIII. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE U. S 603 Sectional divisions Their disappearance Circuit Courts States District Courts Congressional Districts Counties Towns School Districts. CHAPTER XIX. HISTORY OF THE U. 8. FROM 1783 TO 1812 606 Prostration of the country after tne war Congress has no effective control of finances Negligence of the States Shay's rebellion in Mass. Vig- orous action of Gen. Lincoln Virginia urges call of a Constitutional Convention Meeting and result of the Convention Last acts and dis- solution of Continental Congress Washington's first Administration The rise of parties, Federal and Anti-federal Washington's second Administration Difficulties with England With France Country prospers Adams' Administration Naval war with France Jefferson's Administrations Louisiana purchased Increasing trouble with Eng- land Madison's Administrations War declared. CHAPTER XX. THE WAR OF 1812 620 Causes of the war Disasters in Canada Successes on the sea Barbarity of British and Indians Incompetence of U. S. officers Second Cam- paign Brilliant naval successes Mortification of the British Political opposition to the war embarrasses the Government and encourages the enemy Third Campaign an American success Gen. Scott in Canada Defeat of the British at Plattsburg, on Lake Erie; before Baltimore, at New Orleans. CHAPTER XXI. HISTORY FROM 1815 TO 1846 629 Results of the war highly favorable to the U. S. Gains respect abroad Party bitterness subsides Compromise of 1820 Great prosperity Florida Purchase Monroe's two Administrations J. Q. Adams' Admin- istration Sections divide on the Tariff Jackson's two Administrations Nullification of South Carolina Jackson's promptness Seminole war Van Buren's Administration Financial disasters Harrison and Tyler Admission of Texas Election of Polk. CHAPTER XXII. THE MEXICAN WAR FROM 1848 TO 1860 638 Causes of the war Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma Taking of Monterey Battle of Buena Vista Gen. Scott in Mexico His long CX )H TENTS. 27 succession of victories Enters the City of Mexico Treaty of Guada- lupe Hidalgo Increase of territory Discovery of gold in California California applies for admission as a State Raises the violent opposition of Slave States Compromises of 1850 Taylor and Fillmore Pierce's Administration Repeal of the Missouri Compromise Troubles in Kansas Buchanan's Administration Preparation for Secession Growth of the Republican party. CHAPTER XXIII. THE CIVIL WAR 645 Real causes of the Civil War The elections of Nov., I860 Made the pre- text for Secession South Carolina Secedes Forts and property of the government seized in the South Southern States successively Secede Southern Confederacy formed Want of energy in the Administration Inauguration of Lincoln The Union to be defended. CHAPTER XXIV. FIRST PHASE OF THE WAR 651 Firing on Ft. Sumter It electrifies the North Call for troops General mustering for war Capture of Harper's Ferry and Gosport Navy Yard, Fighting in the border States Experience gained in the general skir- mishing Reluctance to join the great issue Battle of Bull Run Washington saved, if the battle is lost Immense preparations by sea and land Confederate government in Richmond. CHAPTER XXV. SECOND PHASE OF THE WAR 658 The large armies have acquired much discipline and experience Move- ment of McClellan on Richmond Movement flanking Confederate positions on the upper Mississippi Severe battles near Richmond McClellan's failure Success in the West The rising fortunes of Grant at Donnelson, Henry, and Pitttsburg Landing Advance of Lee Pope's failure Battles in Maryland Lee's retreat Bragg's advance and retreat Battle of Fredericksburg General results of the Campaign. CHAPTER XXVI. CAMPAIGN OF 1863 664: Emancipation proclamation The year remarkable for the large number of engagements and formidable character of the operations Battle of Chancellorsville and advance of Lee into Penn. His defeat at Gettysburg and return to Va. Capture of New Orleans Taking of Vicksburg Defeat at Chickamauga retrieved by Grant General results of the Campaign. U8 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXVII. CAMPAIGN OF 1864 670 Struggle of Grant and Lee in Virginia Sherman's " March to the Sea" " Beginning of the end." CHAPTER XXVIII. CONCLUDING CAMPAIGN 675 -General discouragement in the South Capture of Seaboard cities Re- inaugeration of the President Fall of Petersburg and retreat of Lee^- Close of the War Assassination of Lincoln. CHAPTER XXIX. HISTORY FROM 1865 TO 1880 680 Opposed reconstruction policy of Congress and President Johnson Fi- nancial condition Patrons of Husbandry Election and re-election of Gen. Grant The centennial year. CHAPTER XXX. PARLIAMENTARY RULES 706 CHATTER XXXI. STATISTICS OF THE WORLD - 729 - SUPPLEMENT. LEGAL FORMS BY JUDGE J. C. POWER, 733 Legal form of Will Statement of Testator Disposition of Propwty Appointment of Executors Statement of Witnesses Circumstances of Signature Necessity of two Witnesses Articles of Copa.rtner.shif> Statement of Agreement Conditions Mutually agreed to Signature Agreement to continue Copartnership Agreement to dissolve Co- partnership Power of Attorney How signed and acknowledged Form of Submission to Arbitration Form of Award of Arbitrators General Form of Agreement Agreement for sale of personal property Agreement for sale of Real Estate How executed and acknowledged Form of Lease Form of Warranty Deed Form of acknowledgement of execution of Deed Witnesses to signature Mortgage Deed Ne- gotiable Note Non negotiable Note Note transferable by delivery Due bill Receipt What statements required in Receipt. PART FIRST, CHAPTER I. SECTION I. THE DAWN OF HISTORY. 1. The early traditions of every nation that has under- taken to relate the story of its origin, have given us a confused account of supernatural persons and events which the judg- ment of more enlightened times has almost uniformly con- sidered fabulous and impossible. It has always been an interesting inquiry how much of fact was veiled under this mythical dress, and a great variety of ingenious and contra- dictory explanations have been produced by the learned in all ages. In most cases, as in Greece, the national religion has been based on these legends which form its authority and explanation, and they passed with the people of all early times as facts which it was impious to question. So the wise and good Socrates was supposed to have denied the existence of the national gods, and was condemned to death. This sacred guard placed over early traditions, increased at once the interest and the difficulty involved in their examination. 2. During the present century the improved methods, larger range and more exact style of inquiry, and the assist- ance and hints which one branch of study has given to others,. (29) 30 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. have produced the most surprising and satisfactory results. These inquiries are not yet complete ; they seem, on the con- trary, to have only commenced, and promise, ultimately, to satisfy all the useful purposes and legitimate curiosity of mankind; still, their conclusions, so far as they go, are unim- peachable. They prove themselves. The study of Ethnology, which gives an account of the races of mankind; a critical comparison of all languages, ancient and modern; the patient study and ingenious deciphering of architecture and inscriptions found in ancient ruins, and vari- ous relics of human activity imbedded in the soil of different countries, have thrown down the barriers which the glowing imaginations of the poets and the want of authentic docu- ments in early times had raised, and have given us a clue to many of the secrets of history, and a safe guide through some of the dark passages of man's primitive life. To show how this is done would require a treatise on Eth- nology, another on Comparative Philology, a third on Anti- quarian Research, and a fourth on. the Geological Antiquities of Man. Each of these brings a large and valuable contribu- tion to early history. We give only a brief summary of their conclusions. 3. The human race appears to have had its birth on the high table lands of central Asfa, south and east of the Caspian Sea. The structure and growth of language, and the remains of early art, indicate an extremely infantile mental condition and successive emigrations from the primitive home of the race. Families and tribes which had remained together long enough to build up a common language and strong general features of character and habit, at length separated and formed a number of families of allied races. 4. The first emigrations were made by the Turanian nations, which scattered very widely. Turanian means " out- side," or " barbarian," and was given by the later and better known races who found them, commonly in a very wild, undeveloped state, wherever they themselves wandered in THE DAWN OF HISTORY. 31 aflei- times. There are reasons for believing that the first Turanian migration was to China; that they were never afterward much interfered with, and that they early reached a high stage of civilization. It has certainly many very crude and primitive features. Having worked out all the progres- sive impulses dwelling in the primitive stock of their family almost before other races were heard of, and being undis- turbed, their institutions stiffened and crystalized and made few improvements for thousands of years. Chinese history presents a curious problem not yet fully investigated. Another stream of Turanian emigration is believed to have settled the more north-easterly portions ot Asia. Some time after the tide set down through Farther India, and to the islands of Malaysia. In still later periods Hindoostan was peopled by Turanian races; the ancestors of the Mongols and Turks were spread over the vast plains of northern and central Asia; and somewhat later still an irruption into Europe furnished its primeval people. The Finns and Lapps in the north, and the Basques of Spain, are the living repre- sentatives of the ancient Turanian stock, while the Magyars, or Hungarians, are a modern branch of the same race, which made an irruption into Europe from Asia in the ninth century of the Christian era. The first appearance of this race in written history was in the establishment of a powerful empire at Babylon, which must have been cotemporary with the earliest Egyptian monarchy, and seems, from the inscriptions on the most ancient ruins, to have been conquered by, and mingled with, an Egyptian or Ilamite family. It came to an end before the Assyrian Empire appeared, but seems to have reached a very considerable degree of development. 5. The other two great families of related languages, and therefore of common stock or race, are the Semitic and the Aryan. But previous to the appearance of either of these on this buried stage of history is a family, apparently related, distantly, to the Semites, but who might have separated from the common stock of both before them, called Hamites. who 32 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. founded the very ancient and mysterious Egyptian monarchy. A section of this race conquered the Turanians of Babylon, and established the largest dominion then known to men. The Chedor-Laomer of Abraham's day was one of its mightiest sovereigns, and ruled over a thickly-settled region a thousand miles in length by five hundred in breadth. Faint traces of it are found in profane history, and the Bible narrative is sustained and largely amplified by inscriptions on ancient ruins. A second Hamite empire in Babylon is believed to have followed this, continuing four hundred years, carrying agriculture and the peaceful arts to a high state of develop- ment. 6. Egypt was peopled by the Hamitic race, who founded two kingdoms, afterwards united. Here, social, political, and industrial institutions developed very early in great strength. Their language, the pictorial representation of their social, political, and religious aifairs, and the grand and gloomy ma- jesty of their works of art, imply a long period of growth before they reached the maturity in which we find them when written history commences. Their institutions, even in the earliest historic times, showed signs of the decrepitude an one of the sons of Noah, is not as large nor aswidely spread ar the Turanian and Aryan, but has exerted an even greater influ- ence on human destiny. It never strayed much from Asia, except to people small portions of Africa. They early appear in Western Asia as the successors of the second Hamitic empire in Babylon and Assyria. Settled in Phenicia, on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean sea, they became the first THE DAWN OF HISTORY. 33 maritime and commercial people, and, with their colony estab- lished in Carthage, in the north of Africa, exerted a powerful influence in promoting the civilization of the ancient world. The Semites early peopled the Arabian peninsula, and estab- lished a state in Ethiopia, as some believe, before Egypt had attained its full development. The Ethiopians established a flourishing commerce on the Red Sea, with the eastern coasts of Africa, and with India, and contributed greatly to the resource* of ancient Egypt. They have always been a religious race, and gave the three great religions, Judaism, Mohammedanism, and Christianity, to- the world, as well as some of the most debasing superstitious and forms of idolatry ever known. The larger part of the popu- lation of Asia is still Turanian, and the Semites now occupy about the same area as in prehistoric times; but the Ilamites have been overpowered and have lost their clearly distinctive character as a family, unless represented by the negro tribes. 7. The third great family, the Aryan, called also the Ja- phetic, from Japhet, one of the song of .Noah, and from the regions they pc >pled and made illustrious by their genius and activity, the Indo-European, was the last to leave the birth- place of mankind. The other races were incapable of carrying the fortunes of humanity beyond a certain point, of them- selves alone, as the history of Turanian China, Hamitic Egypt and the Semitic Mohammedans and Jews clearly proves.. The history of the Aryans shows them to possess inexhausti- ble mental power and physical stamina, with a vigorous ambi- tion, always dissatisfied with the present, and constantly seeking something better in the future and the distant, that have produced the happiest effect on the destinies of the human race. 8. It would seem that while the Turanians, Ilamites, and Semites were taking the lead of the world and building up the empires of prehistoric times, whose mighty ruins have been the wonder of later ages, the Aryans were all united in follow- ing peaceful pursuits, which the common featurei of their 3 34 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. languages indicate were chiefly the care of flocks and herds. They were much farther removed from barbarism than any of the other races when they began their wanderings. "Warlike, agricultural and nautical terms, and the names of wild unimala are not often found in the common vocabulary; while family relations, domestic animals and their uses, the heavenly bodies in connection with worship and the priestly relation of the father of the family, and terms indicating a considerable culti- vation of sensibility and thoughtfulness, imply a purer social and religious condition, and more elevated mental traits, than in the primitive forefathers of the other families. Their language was highly picturesque, and its peculiar terms for natural phenomena are believed by some to have originated the mythological histories of the ancient Greeks and Romans and Teutonic nations. The ancient language used epithets and names, so glowing with personality, that the imaginative descendants of the primitive, stock, when their early history was forgotten, believed them to contain an account of the O ' origin of things, and the early deeds of gods and heroes; and the genius of the poets clothed the supposed marvels in the immortal dress of fiction which we find in Homer and Hesiod, in Yirgil, the Indian Yedas, and the Sagas and Scalds of north- ern Europe. This, at least, is the conclusion reached by some of the most eminent scholars and philologists, whose study of the formation and growth of languages has thrown so much light on the ante-historical periods. These myths, the germs of which were embodied in their language, embellished by the supposed inspired genius of the poets, formed the literature and theology of the early historic nations, and . were received as undisputed truth. 9. The first migration of the Aryan family appears to have occurred through the passes of the Caucasus, northwest to the northern part of Asia Minor and Southern Europe. The Turanian nations, or " barbarians," were everywhere found in advance of them, in a very degraded condition, and the native spirit and ambition of the Aryan people rendered them PKE-HISTORIC GROWTH. 3& the uniform conquerors. Afterward, another migration south. \\-.n\\ peopled India, and, in the earliest historic times, the part of the family still remaining in the ancient home of the race established the brilliant empire of the Medes and Persians, who extended their sway over all the central and western parts of Asia, broke down the ancient monarchy of Egypt, and, in the height of their power and glory, swept like a tempest into Europe with the purpose of subjugating a few self-governing tribes of their own race dwelling on the shores and among the mountains of the small peninsula of Greece. The failure of the mighty empire in this effort, through the indomitable res- olution of a handful of hardy republicans, forms one of the most glorious pages of history. It was a grand era in the -development of civilization, and Grecian culture became the inheritance of the world. SECTION II. THE DIRECTION OF PRE-HI8TORIC GROWTH. 1. The three classes of indications on which we rely for a Imowledge of the advance of mankind previous to the period when authentic history comes to our aid the researches of geologists among the accidental traces of man's early activities, the ruins of ancient cities, and the study of the growth of lan- guage unite in testifying to. an extremely rude, feeble and childish condition of the earliest representatives of the race, and to a progressive improvement in knowledge and capacity, preciselv lik^ " liat occurs in the case of every individual of ,,:_iw. A fourth more general ^:--: :!o also confirms this view. This is the ooscunty tnac covet s ;iic - : '' i '> :\9 r es. Aside from the Bible narrative, a cloud rests on the early nib- tory of every people. A long period passes before they begin to reflect, to look arou^ a ; - "" back toward their origin, and still another of groping thought and study before they are led to record their reflections and experiences. The necessi- ties and habit of social intercourse gi r -e -'se to language and 36 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. gradually mature it; a long period would necessarily pass before the natural aversion to other than desultory labor, the increase of population and the habit of obedience to an author- ity requiring continued painful toil, would render the massjve monuments of some of the earlier peoples possible, and before their attempts at architecture could mature and originate the elaborate ruins which time has not been able to destroy during BO many centuries. 2. One of the most striking traits of pre-historic times is the simplicity and awkwardness that characterize childhood. The Chinese language has been remarked upon as showing the extremely infantile cast of mind among the people who formed and retained it to our times. Each word is a sentence, stand- ing by itself originally; the tone and gesture give it much of its signification. It would seem as if its authors had never grown to the idea of an elaborated sentence. There is an aver- age of eight words, spelled and pronounced exactly alike, for every sound used. There are, it is said, 212 characters pro- nounced che; 138 pronounced/bo/ and 1165 which all read 0, and each letter is a word, a phrase and a sentence, and may bo an adjective, a noun, or a verb, or all three together. The difficulty of expressing shades of meaning, or all that may be in the thought, where so much must be acquired before expres- sion is possible, has kept the Chinese mind, in many respects v in a state of childhood, though they have preserved a stability of character and institutions nowhere else observed. The primitive mind and habits are maintained as if crystalized. The principle of decay, so universal elsewhere, would seem, by some singular process, banished from a vast nation, as it is in the human body in Egyptian mummies. The same feature is observable in a smaller degree among the Hindoos, and seems to have characterized the ancient Egyptians. 3. Such a habit of fixity among the early races, whose position secured them from disturbance by the more restless tribes, was favorable to the construction of the stupendous monuments which have been the wonder of after ages. All PRE-HISTOBIC GROWTH. 37 tfiose races have been remarkably exclusive. It was not until nearly four hundred years after the era of authentic history that Egypt was freely open to all the Greeks. These observa- tions apply only to those portions of the human family which were stranded in some quiet nook outside of the current of movement that carried along the most of mankind. Change of place, intercourse, conflict and conquest were the chief early e Vicators. The isolated nations, after exhausting the power of their first impulses, ceased to improve. Their minds, institutions and habits stiffened and petrified. Nor did the families that wandered far from the general centre of move- ment usually acquire any high degree of development. They were characterized by unsettled habits, not favorable to highly organized institutions. 4. It was around, and westward of, the common centre of the race that a course of steady improvement went on. Here the laws of inheritance and suggestion, the stimulus of con- stant friction, and the infusion of newer and more enterprising blood worked the freest and developed the elements of a true civilization the soonest. If the legendary history of Greece is not to be trusted in its details, it at least establishes the certainty of active movement and incessant conflict out of which was, at length, evolved a noble, if incomplete, civiliza- tion. The Greeks were near enough to the scene of stirring action r in Western Asia to be benefited by its influence with- out having their institutions frequently disturbed and broken up before they had reached any degree of maturity, as was the case with the Assyrians, Persians and Phenicians. They reaped the fruit, without sharing the disasters, of the great surgings back and forward wiiich we find to have been the condition of the Asiatic peoples at the time reliable history begins to observe them. It appears to have been the same in that region (Western Asia) as far back as monument, legend, or science can trace. The fruit of this shock of races and mental activity matured on the spot the greatest and best religious systems the world has ever known, the three greatest 38 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. of which have survived to our own day, viz. : the Judaic, the Christian and the Mohammedan. The gerrns of the other two were contained in the system of Abraham and Moses. Thus the three most important influences needed for the pro- gress of civilization in the true direction were supplied in pre-historic times the seething and surging of the nations in the "West of Asia, a high religious ideal, and the primary- discipline of the Greeks. 5. The lantern of science has guided us on the Track of Time by his advancing Footprints down to the period when the grand luminary, Written History, begins to shine from, the hills of Greece. Looking over what was then known of Asia we find it a vast battlefield, on the western border of which were the Jews, receiving lessons of instruction or chas- tisement from the surrounding nations, and slowly evolving the Master Religion of the world, the massive grandeur of Egypt is dimly visible in the south, and on the eastern hor- izon rise the immense walls and towers of the huge cities of Nineveh and Babylon. On the north and west all is dark- ness, though we subsequently learn that the elements of a high culture among the Etrurians of Italy were waiting their destruction at the hands of valiant Rome, yet to be. The Phenicians were beginning to scour the sea and to build up a flourishing commerce, and the cities of Greece had already learned, from the tyranny of their petty kings, the advan- tages of free government. The period of authentic history is held to have commenced seven hundred and seventy-six years before the Christian era. In that year the Greeks began to record the name of the con- queror in the Olympian games a national and religious fes- tival, which had been commenced long before and it was called the First Olympiad. It formed the first definite starting point of the true and fairly reliable historians who, some four hundred years later, began to write a carefully-studied account of what was known of their own and of other countries. It was the time when dates of passing events first began to be GRADUAL DEVELOPMENT. 39 stated In the records of the cities and kingdoms of Greece, and marks the beginning of a real civilization and culture, and the course of events began to be rescued from the magni- fying and marvel-loving imaginations of the people. 6. The seven hundred and fifty years that follow are in the highest degree interesting and important; for they record the achievements of the early manhood of humanity, as repre- sented by the nations that were most advanced in civilization, or contributed to the general progress of the world. Men developed their inherent capacities far more during that period than in all the previous centuries, however numerous they may have been. It was followed by about five hundred years of gradual decline, and that by :i thousand years of con- fusion caused by the corruption of the old society and the imperfection of its elements, together with the irruption of vast hordes of barbarians, who brought in fresh and vigorous, but untamed blood, with rude and fierce manners. They were gradually tamed by fusion with the cultured races, and out of this union arose a civilization broader and more just, toward the perfection of which we ourselves are now rapidly advancing, and which, by its multiform vigor and unlimited resources, seems above the reach of decay. Its power of infusing new life into worn-out peoples and renewing the youth of nations as well as of civilizing barbarians appears irresistible. From this outlook we return to consider the steps by which Time has led us to such a desirable eminence. SECTION III. THE GRADUAL DEVELOPMENT OF INSTITUTIONS. 1. Man, at first, had no institutions. He existed in the simplest and most spontaneous way, finding shelter in caves and clefts of the rocks and beneath the primeval forests, grop- ing his way by strong instincts which soon began to dawn into intelligence of the lowest and most material kind. How long 40 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. he led a purely animal life we have no means of knowing; but we may suppose that the necessities of self-preservation and his powerful social instincts very soon developed the germs of the family and of language. Childhood is comparatively long, and many generations must have passed before language could have acquired the distinctness and fixity that permitted it to come down through so long a period, and by so many different channels, to us. Yet there is plain evidence of an Eastern origin of all the vari- ous families of the race, and of a considerable mental develop- ment previous to the wanderings that peopled the East, the "West, and the South. It has been remarked by Geologists that the introduction of any class of animal liie was never made by its very lowest orders, but usually by a class inter- mediate in organization between the highest and the lowest; some of the very lowest orders being represented in our own time, 2. A tolerably hardy race, which could endure the expos- ures and overcome the difficulties that must be greater for the first few generations than ever afterward, as we have every reason to believe, was first introduced. It has been common to suppose that man must have been supplied with a fund of knowledge, and a basis of language, to have successfully met the difficulties of his condition; but the uniform law that the faculties, the innate capabilities of his race, are conferred on him, and that he works them out by a process of develop- ment is observable in his entire history, so far as we can trace it All needful capacities being lodged in him, with strong appetites and instincts to impel him to the objects most vitally necessary to his own preservation and the continuance of his species, and the material from which to work out his predes- tined ends being placed within his reach, it is made his indis- pensable duty and his glory to realize those ends, soon or late, by his own endeavors. The evidences of his early activity, unearthed here and there by geologists, show him to have advanced by degrees from the lowest points, and such corrob- GRADUAL DEVELOPMENT. 41 orative proof as the earliest forms of language afford are decid- edly in the same direction. 8. Many of the terms employed for the first and most familiar objects with which the necessities of life brought him in contact, show the very imperfect extent of his early knowl- edge and resources, and they gradually change in a way to indicate, most significantly, a slow and laborious, but constant enlargement of ideas by experience. He advanced then, as now, by degrees. The races latest in development, as well as most vigorous and intelligent, were the Aryan, or Indo-Euro- pean. They have left the most definite traces of their early condition and advancement in the common elements of their various languages, which show very clearly how much time and toil were required to work out the features of their first Institution The Family. The proper family type estab- lished relations of protection and dependence, of care and trust, of purity and tenderness, of provident foresight, and the shelter and comforts of Home. Apparently it was many cen- turies after the other races had begun to migrate that this last and most valuable stock commenced to be " fruitful and vnultiply," to tame animals for their use, to enclose and render their habitations comfortable, and to organize and designate their family relations down to son-in-law and daughter-in-law, as well as to name the most common domestic animals and occupations. 4. The fact doubtless existed long before common exper- ience and common consent had settled on the terms that have remained the same in the language of the Hindoos, the Oreeks, the Romans, and the Germanic families; but by many certain signs we know that it was only gradually that the tenderness and beauty and usefulness of this institution had laid the sure foundation of a future vigorous and virtuous civilization. This race devoted themselves mainly to the care of flocks and herds, though we find among them the knowl- edge of wheat and some other grains; they had very little experience of war until they separated and began their wand- 42 THE FOOTPBINTS OF TIME. erings, as we infer from the fact that their common terms are nearly all peaceful those designating a warlike habit differing in all the various branches of the stock. The Family, with them, was usually founded on marriage > the union of one man and one woman which laid great restraints on vice and preserved the growing society from manifold evils. The other races Turanian, Hamitic and Semitic appear to have been much more careless in thi& respect, and admitted a vicious element into the base of society, which loosened the bonds of relationship and discip- line. They practiced polygamy, which magnified the position of the father, while it deprived him of the closer and more intimate relations to his household on which refinement depends, and degraded the mother who became the simple minister of pleasure to, and the means of increasing the influ- ence of, the Patriarchal head. This point is very vividly shown in the earlier history of the Israelites where the unhap- py effects of polygamy are distinctly portrayed. From the same source we see how the first institution among men grad- ually grew into the Tribe, and the foundations of Organized Government were laid. 5. Population rapidly increased, the original progenitor, or the oldest of his male descendants, became the fountain of authority and influence,- and was, in many cases, the chief or king, exercising an undefined control, sometimes absolute and despotic, and again that of a merely nominal head, the variations- taking every shade between the two. Occasionally, special gifts, as energy, foresight and skill, favored by circunstunces, raised one in the tribe to eminence, and he became the acknowl- edged ruler to the exclusion of the patriarch, or hereditary heir of the patriachal office, as in the case of Joseph in Egypt, and,, in later times, Moses, Joshua and the Judges. 6. Again, a pastoral life being abandoned, the people gath- ered for various reasons in towns, and cities were built up,, where the original style of government became impossible, from the mixed character of the population; the oldest, or GRADUAL DEVELOPMENT. 43 family government, being founded on relationship and tradi- tional respect. The need 01 leadership and the service rendered by some member of the community founded a despotic author- ity. In many cases a city was founded by an adventurer who had gathered supporters around him by some special ability, or by some accidental pre-eminence, as we see in Nimrod and Romulus; or, as often occurred, the head of a family or tribe which forsook the pastoral life and founded a city, from a patriarch or chieftain became a king. Government, in early times, was very imperfectly organized. It gradually advanced with some people to a high point; while with others it continued in a very undeveloped state for long periods some races never having reached any high stage at all, or only temporarily under some talented individual. The first settled governments are found in fertile river val- leys where the cultivation of the soil arrested roving and desul- tory habits, and often formed the nucleus of an empire. There is reason to believe that the first emigration from the early home of the race was toward the east, that a state was soon formed in China which became considerably civilized and fairly well organized the earliest of all. Their national tradi- tions and some of their recorded dates claim a vast antiquity. It is not yet determined by scholars how much credit is to be allowed to these claims. 7. As it appears at present, two other governments were organized at nearly the same time, one in the lower valley of the Euphrates and the other on the Nile. It is also possible that a fourth was built up in India nearly cotemporary with these. Certain similarities between the ancient ruins of Egypt and India, and the traditions in the latter country have given rise to the suspicion; but no certainty has yet been reached. Several systems of chronology, independent of each other, are found in Egypt, all agreeing as to its enormous antiquity, but disagreeing in some important points, and satisfactory tests have not yet been met with, so that the early days of Egypt are very obscure. The evidences of a clearly defined progress 44 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. are presented in its monuments, but the earliest bear so strong a resemblance to the later that there is some reason for sup- posing that the first inhabitants had reached a considerable degree of maturity before settling there. As yet, however, that point is only an inference the most probable escape from a difficulty. The empires established on the Euphrates, and north of that on the Tigris, mark the steps of progress very distinctly, and furnish fairly satisfactory means of com- puting their general chronology. 8. In all these cases it appears from monuments, traditions, and from whatever information the records of the Bible and other histories give us, that when men began to gather in com- munities, cultivate the ground and build cities, their govern- ments were controlled by kings. Despotic sovereignty was the natural and necessary instrument of government. The vigor- ous will of an admired chief concentrated the energies of the community, and a state was formed. The beginnings were very rude and improvement was slow, never reaching beyond the simple application of force as to the structure and modes of government. But another element, founded on the religious nature of mankind, which also had entered as an important influence into family government from the earliest times, became organized in the early days of monarchy, viz. : THE INSTITUTION OF A PRIESTHOOD. 9. It would appear, from such traces of a religious tendency as are found in the primary languages, that the religious instinct was awakened by an observation of the forces of nature, which struck the mind with wonder, admiration, or terror. The mysteries of growth, the power of winds and storms and waters, the calm beauty, beneficence and brilliance of the sun, moon and stars riding undisturbed in the heavens, impressed man with a sense of something superior to himself. The rnoods of nature suggested some unknown being with a vary- ing disposition like his o\vn. His wants, his hopes and fears, and his sense of helplessness soon led him to seek to propitiate GRADUAL DEVKLOI'MKNT. & these unknown powers. The first religion, among all the prim- itive nations, seems to have been a worship of the powers of nature. The head of the family was naturally the first priest of the family. This office increased the respect in which he was held by his multiplying descendants, and contributed to strengthen his authority. 10. But when, in the organization of cities and states, patriarchal influence decayed, and was replaced by the author- ity of the chieftain or the king, a class of men was set apart to fill the office of religious instructors, to discover the art and conduct the acts of general worship. The great mystery and uncertainty surrounding the objects of worship, required exclusive study and a supposed purity and elevation of mind impossible to others which soon raised the priesthood into an institution much revered. It acquired great influence, and afforded an opening to ambition only inferior to that of the chief or king. The two commonly united for mutual support, and thus mankind gained two institutions destined to be of incalculable value, as well as of almost boundless injury. In the earlier ages they must have been an almost unmixed good. They disciplined, the one the labors, the other the minds, of communities. They were the two most powerful instruments for initiating progress. They moulded the mass, gave it form, and directed its energies. To a certain degree they each formed a check on the excess- ive tendencies of the other. But, the power of each fairly established, they often united to set very hurtful limits to spontaneous action. The king used his power to the common injury, and the priests their knowledge to the common debase- ment. The first exhausted the sources of prosperity and growth among his people to gratify his caprices and pleasures, and the priesthood promoted degrading superstitions and a gross idolatry to strengthen their influence. It was for the interest of both to keep the people in pupilage, and check all tendencies to independent action or thought. Had it 46 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. possible for them to be wise and high-minded, the race would have been saved many centuries of debasement and misery. 11. These evils were, in some degree, checked by influences which have ever since been the mainspring of progress War and Commerce. In early times, relationships of blood or of immediate interest were the chief bonds among men. All outside the family, tribe, or nation were usually held as ene- mies; and passion, interest, or ambition in the ruler led to constant conflict. But the shock of peoples awakened their minds, made them acquainted with each other, made their inventions and 'arts in some degree common property, and mingled the thought and blood of different races; and this greatly enlarged the ideas and capacities of both conquerors and conquered. The acquaintance made in this way, with men and countries, led to an interchange of products, during quiet times, and trade and commerce soon sprung up. This, appeal- ing to the best interests and instincts of the most enterprising among the people, has always been a powerful instrument of advancement. It led to distant voyages and travels, to obser- vation and intercourse, with a view to pecuniary advantage, to inventions and improvements in industry, and art, that kept the peoples so related in a state of constant progress. 12. A growing population required increasing attention to agriculture and the mechanic arts, and increasing wealth led to architectural display and the increase of instruments of luxury, the production of which disciplined the skill of the artisan and contributed to the general growth. All these were the elements and foundation of civilization. An organization commenced, and a state founded, the king soon found leisure to look about and envy the wealth arid territories of his neigh- bor. He made war and commenced a career of conquest, r . fell, under defeat, into his neighbor's hand, when time tooK r, step forward, and a new consolidation, wider and higher than the former, was laid on a broader base. Slowly but sur : * an advance was made. 13. We are now to observe this gradual developmcJj. L in ANCIENT MONARCHIES. 47 the successive history of five monarchies in Asia and the king don of Egypt, down to the time when they all fell before the conquering power of Greece, under Alexander the Great, which introduces new and far higher elements of progress among the civilized races, and forms the full opening of a new Era. SECTION IV. ANCIENT MONARCHIES. 1. The Chaldean Monarchy was the first in order of time. ti seems very likely that the first settlement which, in the slow -development of the earliest races, finally produced an organ- ized kingdom on the lower part of the Euphrates, was made somewhere in the neighborhood of 3000 years before the Ohristian Era. It is, however, a matter of dispute between the best authorities whether it can be placed so far back. The monuments of that age are difficult to decipher, but it seems pretty certain that a Scythian or Turanian government prece- ded that which the traditions of ancient history, the statements of the Bible, and the indications of the ruins unite in placing at 2234 B. 0. The founder appears as Nimrod, or Bilu-Nipur. Many indications render it fairly certain that the early forma- tive stages of a kingdom had already passed, ^,nd that Nimrod merely changed the capital. The first people had learned to subdue their soil, had begun to build and to bring language and art to some degree of order, when it appears that a Ham- itic race, more advanced than they, and showing strong like- ness to the early Egyptians. ;: : ci with them. In the first inscriptions the language is 1 Iranian, but the character Ham- itic, or Egyptian. So far as can be judged, the displacement was peaceful and gradual. About the time above named, a man of grea f vren'us, Nimrod, a Hamite, or Cushite, as he is ter ,ed in tui^ Mosaic record, a " mighty hunter," as his name .apliee, fonndecl a kingdom farther up the Euphrates, and on /he plain which lay between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris. 48 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 2. The existence of the first empire is dimly made and that is all. Nimrod had clearly a foundation to build on, and he made a great impression on his own times. After his death he was deified under the name of Bel, and became the favorite among the fifteen or sixteen principal deities of the early Chaldeans. These gods and goddesses seem to represent the heavenly bodies; while the earlier Turanian worship was a veneration of the powers of nature. Nimrod's dynasty appears to have covered a period of about two hundred and fifty years, including the reigns of eleven kings. They made great advancement in draining the marshy valley and reg- ulating the supply of moisture to the growing crops. They became expert in the manufacture of cloths and in building with bricks which are covered with inscriptions. The priest- hood acquired a strong development at this time, as appears in the ruins and inscriptions of their temples. The kings do- not appear to have been very warlike, or to have extended their dominion far. 3. A second Chaldean kingdom was founded about 1976 B. C. It is called Elam in the Bible, and furnishes the first known example of what was afterward so often seen in that region an extensive kingdom formed by a series of rapid conquests, that fell to pieces again as soon as a vigorous hand failed to uphold it. The kingdom continued till about B. C. 1500. Kudur-Lagamer, the Chedor-Laomer of the Mosaic account, overran a territory one thousand miles in length by five hundred in width. In one of his incursions into Pales- tine his forces were defeated by Abraham, which ended a con- trol over that region lasting twelve years. There is no indi- cation that the following sovereigns exerted authority beyond Chaldea and Babylonia. There, however, they grew rich and civilized, extending- their commerce to India and Egypt, becoming famous and envied for their splendor and luxury. A single small dwell- ing house of that period has been preserved in the ruins of Chedor-Laomer's capital "Ur of the Chaldees," south of ANCIENT MONARCHIES. 49 Babylon. It was built on a platform of dried bricks, the walls of great thickness, with two arched doors, and, appa- rently, lighted from the roof. The rooms were long and. nar- row. Iron was at that time unknown. All implements were of stone or bronze. Religion seemed to increase in its gross- ness, apparently under the policy of the priesthood, who laid the foundation of astronomical science and began to acquire the reputation for hidden knowledge for which they became famous in after centuries. Nothing of any importance is related of the kings of this monarchy except the one con- queror. Despotism and priestly craft kept most of the feeble tendencies to political improvement curbed waiting for bet- ter times. That arrived with the advent of the Assyrian Empire, about B. C. 1500. 4. It appears that for a long time before, a family, or tribe, of Shemites had been settled in Chaldea, where they acquired its civilization and arts,"and some time about B. C. 1600 emigrated north, settling on . the river Tigris. They were a strong race, physically and mentally, quite too fierce and resolute to be held in leading-strings by the Chaldean priesthood. The country they occupied was higher and more varied, abundantly supplied with stone, which was wanting in Babylonia and Chaldea. Here, in process of time, the most vigorous and progressive race that had yet been seen among the families of man, built up a succession of cities within a small circuit, each of which was, at different times, the capital, and which were all finally united and made the famous Nineveh of the Greek historians, and the immense " city of three days' journey," visited by the Jewish prophet, Jonah. Within a few years these ruins have been examined by competent men of science with great care, and have been found to confirm the Bible narrative, in all essential points, and most of the glowing descriptions of pro- fane historians; while their higher style of art and greater Yigor and pride of achievement led them to build monuments 4 50 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. and engrave records that promise to make us very intimately acquainted with their social, political and moral life. 5. They seem to have acquired the habit in Chaldea of rais- ing a vast elevated mound for their more important buildings. The largest mound is found to be nearly one hundred feet high, and to cover an area of one hundred acres, and on the summit of this were placed their temples and the palaces of their kings. This immense foundation, it is said, would require the labor of twenty thousand men for six years. After this were to be constructed their vast buildings, cov- ered with sculptures and adorned with statues. Another mound, higher but embracing a smaller area about forty acres served the same purpose. They were extremely religious in their way, but the vigor of the kings appears to have overshadowed the priesthood much more than in Chaldea. It seems to have been about three hundred years after the establishment of this enterpris- ing stock in Assyria that they became famous for foreign conquest. Babylon had been gradually rising in importance, vften in subjection, more or less nominal, to the growing northern power, but retaining its own kings and habits. 6. The reign of Shalmaneser I., about 1290 B. C., was dis- tinguished by his building a new city and improving his kingdom; and his successor, in 1270, signalized his reign by establishing, for a time, a complete sovereignty over Babylon, and the historical Assyrian empire is commonly dated from that event. For a century and a half there are few important records. Tiglath-Pileser L, in B. C. 1130, commenced a series of efforts to extend his dominions by conquest, which his success led him to describe with unusual detail. It embraces five campaigns and a description of the conquest of all the neighboring people. He established a compact and powerful empire, which was surrounded by wild tribes whose conquest was of little honor or value, and whom it was difficult to hold long in subjection. In a return from a campaign against Babylon, which he had conquered, he suffered a great reverse, ANCIENT MONARCHIES. 51 losing the images of his gods which he kept in his camp for protection and assistance in his enterprises; and they were carried to Babylon, remaining there, it is said, 400 years. A long period of apparent quiet was followed, after more than two hundred years, by another warlike king who pushed his conquests to the Mediterranean sea. His public works were larger and more magnificent than those of any of his prede- cessors. He has recorded ten successful campaigns. 7. His son, Shalmaneser II., increased the number, extent and thoroughness of the conquests of his father. Still, most of the countries conquered retained their laws and govern- ment, simply paying an annual tribute, and the conquest set lightly on them. Babylon seems to have retained compara- tive independence. In the following reign, Babylon was cap- tured and remained some time tributary to Assyria and the Ninus, or Iva-lush IV., whose wife was the celebrated Semi- ramis, still further extended Assyrian power. The wonderful tales related by Grecian historians of Semiramis are not con- firmed by the monuments. She appears to have been an energetic Babylonian princess, the principal queen of Ninus, who ruled conjointly with him. The novelty of a female ruler in that rude age, and the splendor of the empire at the time, seem to have originated the fabulous tales related of her. 8. At this time the development of the people of all the western parts of Asia was so great, and the wars as well as peaceful intercourse of different nations had so stimulated them all, that improvement kept a tolerably even step. Mul- titudes of populous cities and kingdoms existed in all direc- tions. The magnificence of Solomon belongs to this period, the Jewish monarchy having reached the height of its glory and power, too high to be long endured by the proud and enterprising Assyrians. Commerce filled the east with acti- vity and manufactures flourished, in some directions reaching . high degree of excellence. A true progress marked the general course of human effort. The psalms of David show to what a lofty point the religious ideas of that age were 52 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. capable of being carried. Industrial pursuits and agriculture reached, in the next hundred and fifty years, the highest development they ever attained in some regions. 9. In the midst of this busy industry Nineveh rose, peer- less in grandeur, enriching herself with the tribute and spoils of all countries, beautified by the master race, which was wise enough not to dry up the sources of their prosperity by the destruction of cities and kingdoms. The common policy, up to nearly the close of her splendid career, was to leave the real resources of all conquered nations untouched. After defeating her opposer in a battle, she received the submission of the king, imposed a heavy tax, or forced contribution, and an engagement to pay a definite annual tribute, and went on her way to subdue another nation to a like formal control. With misfortune, or a change of rulers in the dominant king- dom, the subject-kings would withhold tribute, raise an army, and the whole work of conquest had to be repeated. Thus the empire consisted of a stable nucleus, Assyria, and a vast floating mass of half independent kingdoms, states and cities which were now submissive and now in revolt. We may easily conceive how this comparatively mild mode of warfare would contribute to the general advance of the whole population. This mingling and clash of armies, surging to and fro of vast bodies of men, and the knowledge and culture received from the great and wealthy capital made the school of that period for the education of humanity. 10. The Assyrian annals show a continued growth in splendor and power and extent of dominion until the very eve of its fall. In the course of that time Egypt was invaded and partially subdued for the first time; and, in the impa- tience of frequent revolt, the practice commenced of remov- ing whole nations from their original homes, supplying their place by others. Thus the Ten Tribes were transported from their homes in Samaria, and other nations brought to occupy their places. The last king of Assyria inherited an authority that ANCIENT MONARCHIES. 53 extended farther and over larger numbers than had ever before been known. The vigorous governing race were perhaps cor- rupted and weakened by a thousand years of power and suc- cess; but various extraordinary circumstances united to bring on a sudden catastrophe. A considerable part of the central kingdom was devastated by an irresistible host of Scythians, immediately after which the Medians, who were as fierce and "warlike as the Assyrians in their best days,* attacked Assyria. A large army, sent by the king to meet the invaders, \vent over to the enemy by the treachery of its general, Nabo- polassar, and the combined armies laid siege to Nineveh, which fell, the king burning himself and his family in his palace. Nineveh was destroyed, and Nabopolassar received as his reward the kingdom of Babylonia, and the Assyrian -conquests in the south and west. He founded the 11. Babylonian Empire, which has made a greater impres- sion on posterity than Nineveh. He was a man of great energy and resources. The treasures and captives of that mighty city, that fell to his share, were employed in rebuild- ing and improving Babylon. During his reign of twenty- one years, and the forty-three years of his still more illus- trious son and successor, Nebuchadnezzar, that city was made the wonder of the world. Each side of it was fifteen -miles in length, the river Euphrates passing through its center. They repaired the wall, which was eighty-seven feet thick and more than three hundred feet high. This wall was so immense .as to contain more than twice the cubic contents of the great wall of China, which is 1,400 miles in length, and the vast enclosed space was filled with palaces, temples, hanging gar- dens, and all the impressive evidences of boundless power and resources in which the gross ambition of that period delighted. A second wall was built within the first, the river was, for a time, turned out of its bed and its bottom and sides paved with masonry, and huge walls erected on either bank; canals and aqueducts, for agricultural purposes, of the most stupend- ous character, were constructed all over the broad valley. The 54 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. wealth and energies of the richest and most populous part of Asia, as then known, were employed to build up the great capital and improve the central province. 12. The Jews were kept there, as captives, for seventy years, all the treasures of their city and temple, and thte accumulated wealth of their nation, were poured into the Babylonian treasury, and their people employed, with other countless multitudes, in the construction of its walls and buildings, and the cultivation of its fields. Tyre, the most renowned commercial city of ancient times, was taken, after a siege of thirteen years, and much of Egypt was reduced. It was the culmination of the centralizing system of i*fe Assyrians and Chaldeans which had lasted for two thousand years. 13. A dominion so resting on physical force, and gorged with booty wrested from others, with no moral power or national spirit underlying it, could not last long. A more vigorous and warlike power rose by the union of the Persians and Medes under the Persian warrior, Cyrus, who, after a series of conquests farther north and west, in Asia Minor,, turned his arms against Babylon. The walls were impregna- ble, but the river proved a source of weakness. It had beeik once diverted from its course to pave its bed within the city; the hint was accepted, and, on a night of feasting and care- lessness, it was again turned aside to give free entrance to the beseigers, and the Babylonian Empire fell in the very height of its pomp and glory. We find a regular progress in organ- ization, in most institutions, from the first Chaldean to the last Babylonian Empire. In popular religion alone was there an increasing grossness, which reached its limit about this- time by the fall of the Chaldean priesthood, purer practices and ideas were circulated by the Jews in their captivity, and the Magian religion was reformed by Zoroaster. 14. The Medo-Persian Empire lasted for 200 years. Those nationalities were both of the Aryan or Indo-European race They had long been maturing on the highlands bordering the* ANCIENT MONARCHIES. 55 north and east of Chaldea and Assyria, with which t( ,Ir con- nection was close enough to communicate the general value of the growing organization, but too slight to drag them down to its level. They brought now, to the common stock of pro- gress, the freshness of youth and the healthy habits and pure blood of the mountaineer. They had a higher capacity for organization, by which the experience and progress of the older nations, for more than two thousand years, was prepared to profit. They had already subdued Asia Minor and their vast Empire soon extended from India to the sea that washed the shores of Greece. A complicated civil and military organ- ization consolidated this extensive region more perfectly than before by armies and governors located in each nation and principal city; a system of easy communication was intro- duced; and the preparation for the higher Greek models of thought, and the severe regularity of Roman institutions went on apace. 15. Babylon fell gradually into decay, being only occasion- ally the capital of the Persian Empire; the love of the sov- ereigns of that race for their native highlands leading them to build splendid capitals in the borders of their own Country. A reform of great significance occurred about this time in the Persian national religion, which gradually displaced the debas- ing superstitions and g^oss idolatry of all the nations of the Empire. The government was istill despotic, somewhat relieved by the more humane and independent habits and traditions of a hardier race. A number of changes of dynasty by violence occurred, but they were merely revolutions of the palace. The vast wealth and power inherited from the subject empires gradually corrupted the conquerors. Their armies became vast crowds of comparatively und ; sciplined troops, who were accustomed to bear everything before them by their irresistible weight. Their conquests on the northern and eastern coasts of Asia Minor brought them in conflict with the Greeks, who had many colonies long settled in that region, and the Persians 56 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. soon undertook to subdue that intelligent and independent people. Their signal failure had the effect to greatly stimulate the development of the Greek national spirit, and to awaken its intellectual enthusiasm, and the mighty armies of the Persians were destined to be annihilated by the small but resolute forces of the little republics. 16. Thirteen sovereigns ruled during the continuance of the Persian empire. Except the conquest of Egypt, they did not very greatly extend the boundaries formed by Cyrus; but the national features of the subject peoples were gradually effaced, and the whole brought to the common level of civilization. "When Alexander, the great Grecian soldier, appeared with his army of 35,000 men he scattered the hosts of the Persian king, Darius, as the wind drives the leaves of the forest; and the vast empire, so long accustomed to bow to the fate of bat- tles, became the unresisting heritage of the conquerer. These five great monarchies were continuous in part o^n. the same soil the centre having always been the fertile vaL leys of the Euphrates and the Tigris ; the successor stepping into the place and carrying out the general plans of his imme- diate predecessor, but on a broader scale and in an increasingly enlightened manner. Through all these long centuries a mys- terious, and, apparently, still more ancient race had occupied Egypt, only occasionally interfering with, or being disturbed by, the surging sea of strife that raged and foamed so near them, which at length forced them from their seclusion and bore them on in the general tide of improvement. 17. The Egyptian monarchy presents many very curious and difficult problems. Possessing the most perfect organiza- tion in the earliest times of which we have any knowledge, the traces of its beginnings quite fail us, although, more than any other nation, it loved to build great and impressive monuments and record on them, in the most minute manner, the singular habits and monotonous daily life of its people. The first of those monuments, which, by many signs, must date very nearly as far back in the remote past as the earliest dawn of ANCIENT MONARCHIES. 57 organization among any other people of whom we can gather any certain traces, indicate a long settled state, a high degree of organization, considerable culture and great resources. 18. The first king, who is called Menes by several inde- pendent and very ancient authorities, made his reign memora- ble by a system of vast and useful public works. It is conjec- tured that the previous rulers were the sacerdotal class and that, up to that time, they had no kings. The habits of the people were quiet and peaceful, and they seem to have been first gathered around temples. In all stages of their history, down to the time when foreign intrusion by force disorganized their peculiar institutions, the priesthood was the most influ- ential element in their constitution, and their sway seems to have been, in some respects, singularly mild and beneficent. Except for the extreme inflexibility and minuteness of their regulations, which repressed all spontaneous growth, and the gross and absurd worship of animals which they introduced, they might be considered an unmixed blessing to those early times. It is certain that they were successful in controlling men and moulding them to their own views without produc- ing discontent or revolt. 19. Everything in Egypt was remarkable its river, its country, and the institutions and habits of its people. The Egyptians dwelt in the valley of the Nile for a space of 500 miles above its mouth; but this valley was so narrow that the habitable part of it contained only about 6,000 square miles in all. It was shut in by the Red sea on the east and by track- less deserts on the west, and a fall of rain was so rare as to be considered a prodigy. In June each year their mysterious river, whose sources are yet almost unknown, began to rise till it covered the whole valley like a vast sea. The rise and fall occupied the summer months and to the middle of October. The waters left a rich coating of mud and slime, which ren- dered the valley fertile beyond measure. The productive sea- son occupied the remainder of the year, and their agricultural resources were only limited by their skill in spreading and 58 THE FOOTPBINT6 OF TIME. husbanding the fertilizing waters. Vast canals and reservoirs covered the whole valley. Lake Moeris, a reservoir partly natural and partly artificial, was said by the first Greek his- torian, Herodotus, to have been 400 miles in circuit. When the waters had reached their highest point, the cisterns, canal& and lakes were filled and the waters kept in reserve for late periods of the year, and a succession of crops. 20. The mysterious character of the river seems to have- deeply impressed the nation with awe and reverence for unseen powers, and contributed to the influence of the priestly caste. Their peculiar source. of wealth and the amount of leisure periodically afforded, perhaps led to the construction of the temples and palaces, whose gloomy strength is as mysterious- as their river, or the origin of the people. Far back in the twilight of time, Thebes, the " city of a hundred gates," was a colossal capital. Its vast temples and palaces were built on a scale of grandeur that seems almost superhuman; yet, before history begins its narrative in Greece, Thebes had had its youth, its long period of splendor and glory, its hoary age, and was already a thing of the past, and nearly in ruins ; not by vio- lence or conquest, but by the natural transfer of the center of activities to another region. Considering the small extent of Egypt, its always overflowing population, and the tenacious habits of the Egyptians, nothing could more impressively show its great age. 21. Egyptian sculpture was descriptive of religious cere- monies on the temples, and on the palaces of domestic life and general habits, and furnishes us with details of the whole social structure and all their industrial pursuits, as well as the events in the campaigns of their few warlike monarchs. Add to these the minute delineation of their temple service and religious teachings, and its ruins describe the entire round of its ancient life. The people were divided into classes, or castes, the son being obliged to follow the occupation of the father; and all branches, of business and industry ,Ppublic and private, were arranged in ANCIENT MONARCHIES. 59 the most methodical manner. The priest, the soldier, the hus- bandman, the artisan of whatever branch, was so because his ancestors* had been such for numberless generations. A king could be selected either from the priestly or the soldier caste; but he must previously have been initiated into all the myste- ries of the priesthood, and therefore Moses, the acknowledged heir of the throne, " was learned in all the wisdom of the Egypt- ians." Otherwise, not belonging to the priestly caste, he must have remained in ignorance. With this exception, the priest alone had the key of knowledge, and all the employments, requiring intellectual studies, or scientific culture, as we should now say, were filled from that class. They kept all records, measurements, and apportionments of land; prescribed the times, seasons, and conduct of all public transactions; were the constitutional advisers of the king; they were physicians, astronomers, philosophers, and guides of the people in every respect. They alone did the thinking, and they guarded their prerogative with the most jealous care. 22. A people are debased and gross in proportion to their ignorance, and the ignorant masses of Egypt were amused with the greatest possible multiplication of gods, and their leisure and simple minds fully occupied in religious ceremo- nies and absurd fictions. But the priests were as wise and moderate as they were crafty and persistent. Their discipline was extremely judicious and well administered, and was laid on the king as well and sternly, as to his general life, as on the lowest peasant. The priesthood were as absolute, as im- partial, and as unvarying from age to age as it is possible to conceive. Their services to humanity were very great. They laid the foundation among men, of unvarying law, of diligence in the employment of time, of exactness in the division of labor, and inculcated, in an efiective way, the idea of divine justice and of immortality. 23. Their "wisdom " was the highest and the most fruitful that was, perhaps, possible in their times ; their fame was wide-spread, and their influence on the legislation of other 60 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. lands has laid all ages under great obligations. The political economy of the Jews was the product of one of their most intelligent disciples, and the fact that he was so probably added greatly to his influence and success with his own people ; and all the great legislators, philosophers, and historians of Oreece went to them to complete their education. In after times, when the nation lost its liberty and became the province -of a distant kingdom, they sunk the priest in the scholar, and Egypt had the largest libraries and the most eminent philoso- phers in the world. After Greece was carried, as it were, bodily, to Rome, far down into the Christian Era, Alexandria was the university of the world. The history of Egypt is thus entirely peculiar, being mainly that of its one influential class. They impressed a peaceful, generally virtuous, laborious, as well as monotonous charac- ter on its history, and, besides the vast monuments which the patient industry they inspired reared up, and the names of their interminable list of kings, there was, perhaps, little to record. 24. The entire number of their dynasties of kings, as they have handed them down to us, is thirty-two, the last being the Ptolemies, founded by a Greek general of that name, after the death of Alexander the Great, which lasted more than three hundred years, closing B. C. 44. The first twelve dynas- ties are called the Old Empire, whose period it is impossible to determine accurately. The five following dynasties are ascribed to the reign of foreigners, called " shepherd kings," who are supposed to have established their authority between the times of Joseph and Moses, and are called the Middle Empire; while thirteen dynasties, including the royal families that reigned down to the time of the conquest of Egypt by the Persians, comprise the New Empire. They were generally exclusive, shut up within themselves, too much absorbed in exact observance of the endless routine prescribed by their priests to be inclined to the ambition of foreign conquest; but several of their kings gathered large armies and invaded ANCIENT MONARCHIES. 61 Palestine and Syria, or made a trial of strength with the Assyrians or Babylonians. They never made permanent con- quests in that direction. Some of the later kings became friendly to cne Greeks, and employed them in their armies, to the great disgust of their subjects, the soldier caste retir- ing, almost in a body, to Ethiopia, and refusing to return. The kingdom soon after fell into the hands of foreigners, and the accumulated discipline, knowledge and wealth of that wise- people became the inheritance of humanity. Nebuchadnezzar was the first who made a conquest of Egypt, but the country soon regained its independence. It was not till after the death of Cyrus, and when the details of the new Medo-Persian kingdom had been settled, that Cam- byses, the son of Cyrus, subdued the whole of Egypt, and made it a Persian province, in which condition it remained most of the time to the Grecian invasion. 25. About twenty-five hundred years before the time of Alexander the Great, the cities of Sidon and Tyre were founded, in Phenicia, on the eastern shore of the Mediter- ranean sea. Their territory extended only twenty miles back from the sea. They were of the Semite race, and their enter- prising spirit led them to build ships and become at first pirates and then merchants. They were thrifty and grew rich, improved their vessels and became famous for their com- merce. They at length planted colonies for trading purposes on the northern coasts of Africa, in Sicily and in Spain. One of those colonies, Carthage, became more wealthy and powerful than the parent state. The merchandise they gath- ered from distant countries they distributed through Asia by a land trade, and their caravans reached Nineveh, Babylon and Persia, and, for long periods, were almost the only link that joined Egypt to the rest of the busy and growing world. They learned many useful things among the Egyptians, among' others the invention of letters, or at least hints on which they improved. Many flourishing cities were built up by this internal commerce in places surrounded by desert regions, as 62 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. Baalbek and Palmyra in Syria, and Petra in Arabia, a city excavated in the rocks, which, lying between Syria and Phe- necia in the north arid the rich districts of Arabia in the south, and between Babylon and Persia on the east and Egypt on the west, became a great mercantile depot. The Pheni- cians were the busiest and most enterprising people of ancient times. Their vessels reached the shores of England, where they had valuable mines of tin, as of silver in Spain; they visited the northwest coasts of Africa and the Madeira islands, and brought the rich products of India and gold from eastern Africa to the markets of the world. The amount of their con- tributions to civilization and progress by making known the discoveries and arts of distant nations to each other, by caus- ing roads and inns to be built, and facilitating communica- tion, was immense; as well as by awakening the love of gain and turning the activities of a part of mankind from warlike to more peaceful and useful pursuits. The arts and inventions that have done the most, in the long run, for the improve- ment of men, as shipbuilding and writing, were communicated from one nation to another. Their commercial routes were the highways over which the intelligent and inquiring Greeks traveled in search of the knowledge which they used for the education of their people. Tyre was destroyed by Alexander B.C. 332; but he replaced it the same year by building Alex- andria, at the mouth of the Nile. 26. We have thus seen nations and institutions gradually unfolding, passing through a period of youth, of vigorous organic action, and finally decaying, to give place to another of higher order which inherited all i.s general gain and pro- ceeded to carry still further the banner of civilization. As this process continues the field widens, and with the increas- ing number and variety of the elements engag'ed in acting upon one another, the product becomes more valuable, the organization more complete and the institutions more useful. The institutions purely political, however, the modes of THE GRECIAN STATES. 63 government and the style of administering them, are imper- fect, at best. They are too arbitrary, too restrictive; the masses are too large and too closely crowded to permit free play to the component parts. The mingling ol the whole was, at first, evidently necessary to prevent tne crystalizing of the separate nationalities and the arrest of progress; but when that process was stopped and a plastic condition and pro- gressive tendency assured, the absolute despotism of the king and the priest stood in the way of advance. They had educated society and developed its resources until a power of vast combination had been gained ; then a change must be intro- duced, or the entire resources of the civilized world would be employed to repress its further advancement, the fountains of wealth would be exhausted and the springs of activity dried up. This barrier against a destructive centralization had long been preparing among the Grecian states. SECTION V. THE GRECIAN STATES. 1. They were of the Aryan race, and showed a high capacity to receive the lessons taught by the experience and genius of all the past, and make them the stepping-stone to a higher civilization and freer institutions. They were pre- ceded in the occupation of Greece by the Pelasgi, of the same stock, but too rude and uncultured to leave many traces of their presence except the ruins of immense cyclopean buildings, without inscriptions, indicating only a dawning culture, but a vigorous combination of physical force. The mythic history of Greece is in part a veiled and distorted account of the struggles of Hellens, or true Greeks, against those uncouth aborigines; the actual facts being mingled by the lively creative fancy of their poets with the religious tra- ditions brought from their original home. The highly pic- turesque language of the primitive Aryan people accorded with the imaginative and observant character of that fam- 64: THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. !Y, and its inclination to extemporize some plausible explanation of the natural phenomena which awakened their attention, and, apparently, suggested the general course of in- vention and embellishment adopted by the poets, who were th& historians, the theologians, and the only literary class of their period. Thus the early speculations and crude religious ideaa assumed, in poetic hands, an exceedingly fanciful and marvel- ous garb; and their heroes, who succeeded in overcoming the difficulties of a new settlement, and in laying the foundation- of their communities in a rude country filled with men and beasts almost equally wild and savage, were endowed by their grateful and admiring descendants with superhuman quali- ties, and wonder and reverence ascribed to them a descent from the gods. 2. A characteristic feature of Grecian heroic mythology is the number and mutual contests of these mythical heroes which indicate a leading characteristic of the nation a dis- position toward independence and decentralization. "Every small community had its divine hero, and insisted on main- taining its government in its own hands. In the early times the immediate descendants of these local benefactors com- monly obtained the sovereignty, more or less qualified, over their city and community. They all greatly respected the tie that bound them together in kinship as one race; but they never would permit it to deprive them of local independence. If they had a king he should be of their own tribe and choice: if they were ruled with harshness it should be only because they chose to submit to their own tyrant. They seldom per- mitted another community to manage their internal affairs. Various leagues were early formed among contiguous cities or states closely related by origin; but they dealt only in matters of common interest, and if one city or king wa& acknowledged as the head, it was only in a general sense for the sake of realizing some general plan. 3. This instinctive and resolute refusal to accept a central- ized government was a new and important feature in the his- THE GliKClAN STATIC. (>" tory of men in a civilized, or highly organized utate. it \vus the direct opposite of that which characterized Asiatic and African civilization, and held the Greek race open to a spontaneous growth and a mental development which made them the benefactors of the human family. With less indi- viduality and mental force, or a less favorable time and situa- tion, it would have kept them forever barbarous; but time had matured them and the nations about them, and their restless spirit of inquiry and constant movement among them- selves stood in the place of the foreign action and shock of races that proved so beneficial and necessary to the Asiatics. The Egyptian, Chinese and Hindoo peoples reached a certain point of well regulated order, apparently by an original impulse, and stopped; the Chaldean, Assyrian and Persian races kept in the stream of progress by a sort of mechanical or forcible stir and intermingling of races and civilizations; and the principle accomplished, in each case, all it was capable of. Time and progress then transferred the care of the best interests of mankind to intelligence as embodied in the Greek race. "Without being conscious of such a high destiny, they fulfilled it with fidelity, and remained true to themselves and faithful to the impulses of their own minds until humanity required training of a different kind, and another race, receiv- ing their mental culture, added to it administrative ability and carried the old world as high as it could possibly go on its ancient base. 4. It seems probable that about B. C. 2000, or In the time of Abraham, the progenitors of the Greeks reached that country from the highlands east of the Caspian Sea. Greece e.:tends about 220 miles from north to south, and 160 from east to west, with a very irregular outline, and contains about 34,000 square miles, much of this being mountainous and barren. The separation of the different states by these mountain ranges much favored the disposition of the people tc local independence, and formsd a bold and hardy race. Access from three sides to the sea led to commerce and colonization, while 5 66 THE FOOTPEINTS OF TIME. it brought them into frequent contact with the most civilized people of the east without endangering their independence, and the lofty mountains on the north were an effectual barrier to the irruption of the wild and wandering tribes of northern Asia and Europe. Early in the history of the Greeks colonies came from Egypt and Phenicia and introduced the arts of those countries, then the most civilized in the world. This was about the time that the Jewish nation was founded by Moses, and we can easily understand that the native intelli- gence of the Greeks and their teachable spirit, led them to profit greatly by this early light. 5. The most celebrated traditions of this people relate to an expedition by the collective young chivalry of Greece, called the "Argonautic," which indicates their enterprising spirit and early acquaintance with the sea, and also seems to have introduced the habit of planting colonies. Two wars against Thebes, in the central part of Greece, induced by the ambition and combinations of the kings of the various States, eeem to have made much impression on the whole nation, while a combination of nearly all of its petty sovereigns, gath- ering an immense army, stated at 100,000 men, to punish an injury done to one of their number by the King of Troy, on the opposite coast of Asia, occupied ten years, and filled the whole country with confusion. This was soon followed by an event called the Return of the Heracleidae, or descendants of Hercules a mythic hero of great celebrity to their ancient dominion in the southern peninsula, called thePelopen- esus. It appears to have been attended by the migration of one tr'fee into the domains of another, which they forcibly dis. possessed and produced the emigration of the conquered peo- ple into Asia, where they formed extensive colonies inde- pendent but preserving a love for their race, and forming an important element in Greek progress. 6. The commotions and miseries of this period and of subsequent times, which had their rise mainly in this, most of which were due to the restless ambition and personal quarrels THE GKKCIAN 8TATKS. 07 of their Icings, came at length to disgnst the spirited and pro- gressive people with that form of government, and before the time that authentic history begins they had very generally set aside the kings and established a democracy; and where this was not the case, as in Sparta, the power of the kings became so limited that they were little more than leading magistrates in their respective cities. This was not often done by violent revolution, but generally in a quiet way, showing the steady and intelligent resolution of the people. This rare nation knew how to adapt its governments to its needs. Not that everything went on without struggle or diffi- culty, nor that they did not share in the rude and sanguinary passions of their times. Their governments were often unset- tled; there were frequent conflicts among aspirants for place and power in the state; they had a balance of power among the leading states to maintain; and the want ot a strong central authority led to innumerable collisions and sometimes to deso- lating wars. But amidst all the confusion and imperfection of an early civilization they still maintained such an independ- ence of any superior in each state that they could settle their internal affairs to suit themselves. They were yet uneducated men, in the enthusiastic young manhood of the world, but with spirit enough to be free. 7. That freedom had many defects. The true character of freedom was imperfectly apprehended in that age of tho world. It was often violent; and much Grecian blood was shed by Greeks. It was frequently turbulent; and sometimes the strife of parties and factions did great injury to the wel- fare of the state. It was usually a restricted liberty in which all the inhabitants did not share, for the slave, the freed man, and the foreigner were admitted to no influence in the govern- ment, or in framing the laws; and there was always much oppression and injustice somewhere. It was not a well under- stood and well balanced liberty, as we comprehend it, but il left room for a large amount of free and spontaneous action. It made little account of tho individual; that point was to bo 68 THE FOOTPKISTS OF learned and made duly prominent after the lapse of more than two thousand years. The Greek identified himself with his state. He would not have it large in order that each free cit- izen might have a personal influence in it. His public life was an education to him; and the very defects of his institu- tions fitted them more perfectly to meet the wants of that age than anything more complete could have done. 8. They developed rapidly under a system so free from restraint, coupled with a nature so ardent, and a thirst for knowledge so absorbing. Still it was at least two hundred years after they had re-arranged their primitive modes of gov- ernment before they reached a degree of order and system that influenced them to record events as they passed, and observe the world outside of their state, and even then their most learned men wrote little. Men were absorbed in their private matters, or in the affairs of the state. They thought little of the future; they were devoting themselves diligently to the only means of education that existed in those days, intercourse and action. Their priesthood was quite different from what we found it in Chaldea and Egypt. They did not form a class, nor attempt to exercise an influence on govern- ment. They were appointed from the body of the citizen& to offer sacrifices and conduct religious ceremonies. The high spirited and active minded Greeks were not fit subjects for the dominion of a priestly caste. Although Cecrops, an Egyptian, settled and civilized Athens, and introduced some of the social arrangements of his country, he did not plant the all-controlling priesthood. The Athenians, of all other Greeks, were the thoughtful, progressive intelligence of the nation. The poets compiled the genealogies and histories of the gods, the heroes, and the past records of the people. There was no other literature, there were no other sources of information but those from which the poets drew tradition and inherited customs. Of these the poets explained the origin and reason, and no one thought of qTiestioning their tales. They were supposed to be inspired ; and their marvel- T1IK (JRKCIAN STATES. 69 ous legends rested, to a certain extent, on monuments, habits, and oral tradition. Their lively narratives charmed and satis- fied the public mind and gratified their pride. It was only in later years that the philosophers explained them away. In the early days they had no standard by which to criticise them. All thefy required was that they should offer a pleasing explanation. The wisest of the Greeks came, ultimately, to believe in one God who ruled with wisdom and justice, and they laid the foundation of all useful knowledge by teaching men to think and reason; but true science was not possible in their age of the world. They, however, prepared the way for it. 9. Their religion was cheerful and bright, they had altars and temples in great numbers, and countless ceremonies in honor of particular deities. One class^ of these was festi- vals, or games, established, according to tradition, by their divine heroes. The Olympian Games were the most celebrated, and took place every fiftieth month at Olympia. In 'the year 7^6 B. C. they began to record the name of the victor in these games, and as that was done ever afterward, this became a fixed date and the interval between each was called an Olympiad. It was the beginning of reliable history, although it was one hundred and fifty years later that men of real wisdom, exten- sive observation and careful study began to flourish. But the eagerness with which the people sought information, and the honor in which they held men of thought and wisdom, encour- aged study, reflection and travel for the sake of knowledge, so that this class, in time, became extremely numerous. Their researches, and systems of what they held to be truth, were often imperfect, and, in many parts, false; but they were upright and earnest in the studies that were then possible, and did as much good, one might say, by their failures as by their successes. Inquirers, in after times, noted where and how they failed; so that all their pioneer work was useful their mistakes for a warning, their success for instruction. 10. The course of Grecian development took two contrary directions under the two leading states, Sparta and Athens. 70 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. The last represents the generally received idea of Greece as aland where the people were lively and beautiful, intelligent and richly endowed with taste in the arts, or an exquisitely quick arid thorough Judgment offaness, developed to the very highest point. Sparta, on the other hand, through its whole career, was a military state. Somewhere about one hundred years before the first Olympiad (B. C. 776), a lawgiver, named Lycurgus, had reformed the institutions of the Spartan state with the avowed and only object to render it capable of pro- ducing the most vigorous and hardy warriors. He made an equal distribution of lands, which were cultivated by the ancient inhabitants, reduced to slavery. They were called Helots, and were treated with great cruelty. Lycurgus abol- ished every species o'f luxury, subjected the young, both boys and girls, to the most rigorous training, and discouraged all the amenities of family and social life that he supposed might interfere with the rude hardiness of the soldier. The whofe intelligence, activity and vigor of the Greek mind was, in this state, confined to military life. These institutions continued to exist in Sparta for more than five hundred years. Among any other race they would have secured to them the supreme dominion of the nation; but among this liberty loving people they merely sufficed to render them the general leaders in war,, and one, only, among the most powerful and respectable Greek states. Besides, this experiment shows that there is little real advantage in systematically trampling down the native instincts, of humanity in order to promote superiority in a particular direction. 11. The entirely spontaneous character of the Athenians made them, in general, the equal of the Spartans in military fame, and gloriously eminent in many other directions. But the various members of the Greek nation seem to have been made, by their intelligence and the earnestness, the completeness, of all their lines of development, the pioneers of humanity in their experiments. They exhausted all the capacities of a com- plete military education in an entire state, and presented the THE GRECIAN STATES. 71 most perfect achievements of a genius that had no models to eminence on, in poetry, in painting, in sculpture, in philoso- phy and in such elements of science as were possible to human- ity in their day. It is worthy of remark that most of the Greek colonies, the Phenicians and their colonies, and a great part of the numer- ous nations in Italy became republican about the same time as did the Romans later and that those states which pre- served hereditary monarchy, or tyrants as those kings were called who were elected by the populace had counterbalanced the individual despotism of the kingly office by various insti- tutions that controlled and limited it. 12. At the period wheti history began to be carefully writ ten and dates accurately given, civilization was under full career and rapidly moving westward. The Greeks had been struggling with the difficulties of the early times for more than a thousand years and had already begun to mature the insti- tutions and to show the traits of character that afterwards* made them so eminent and so useful in advancing the progress of mankind. The Tyrians, or commercial people of Phenicia, had formed the net-work of communication with all the part* of the earth then sufficiently civilized to produce anything which could be useful to the rest of the world, and Italy was alive with the energies of the primitive races, mainly Aryan some of them transplanted from the East, and possessing many of the highest elements of the ancient culture who fought the Romans with a vigor and.persistence that contrib- uted much to the discipline and strong development of that remarkable people, to whose instruction the Greek colonies in eastern Italy added not a little. From this point the advance of the center of development toward the western continent, and of mental preparation for more perfect ideals of government was continuous. A more complete view of this progress will be gained by considering the general events of each century apart, or in chronological order. 72 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 13. B. C. 776. This is the first definite and positive date in reliable history and commences the first Olympiad. The Olympic religious and national festival was celebrated by foot and chariot races, boxing, wrestling, etc., and was commenced by religious sacrifices and ceremonies, mainly in honor of the god Apollo. This peaceable assembly of all the representa- tives of the Grecian race was one of the chief means of main- taining the national union, and greatly promoted the main- tenance and importance of a kind of national congress, called the Amphictyonic League. The first object of this League was the protection of their common worship; but it came to have, afterward, considerable importance as a political body; its decrees having the character and force of the Laws of Na- tions in modern times. It was composed of two delegates from each of the twelve leading states of Greece, and held two meetings yearly; one at Delphi, where was a celebrated tem- ple and oracle of Apollo, and one at Thermopylae. The twelve chief cities of the ^Eolian colonies of Greece in Asia Minor, and also the same number of Ionian colonies on the same coast more to the south, had each Amphictyonic, or Internationa) Leagues; but the Greeks from all the various regions the t y settled, as well as from the mother country, took a pride in participating in the Olympic games. 14:. B. B. 753. This is one of the most important dates in the history of mankind. In this year, Rome, " The Eternal City," was founded by a band of adventurers and outlaws, under the lead of the twin brothers, Romulus and Remus. A spirit of adventure was the most characteristic feature of that era, in Greece and about the Mediterranean sea, together with a passion for colonizing, or founding new states. Educa- tion, or growth, seems to pursue parallel lines in the same era, so that the same general tendencies move the masses of widely separated nations. Greece began, at this period, to send out a large number of colonists, in rapid succession, to Italy and the islands of the Mediterranean. 'The tendency had com- menced more than three centuries before, but the colonies had THE GRECIAN STATICS. 73 not gone far from the native state, and only one had been es- tablished in Italy, at Cumae. Carthage, a commercial colony of the Tyrir.ns, had been founded 127 years before, and was now beginning to rival the parent city. Rome gathered its population from all the neighboring states. The mingling of races has always been favorable to the progress of mankind. A single race, isolating itself and receiving no new blood or impulses from without becomes stationary and fixed in all its habits and advancement ceases beyond a certain point. The men who founded Rome were, apparently, a crowd of adventurers who had resolved to found a state. After building the walls of their city and providing themselves with habitations, they were destitute of wives :t serious want which would soon leave their new city without inhabitants. They remedied it in true Roman style by vio- lence. They made a festival without the walls to celebrate the founding of their state, and invited their nearest neighbors, the Sabines, to take part in it. The Sabines carne with their wives and daughters. At a concerted moment the young Romans each seized a young Sabine woman, and carried her off into the city; the gates were closed and each proceeded to make his captive his wife. The Sabines were powerless to prevent the deed, but they soon made war on their violent sons-in-law, and the young city would have been destroyed but for the interference of the stolen women who had become satisfied with the bold deed which gave them valiant husbands. The Sabines were induced to unite with the young state so far as to build a new city adjoining and take part in its rising fortunes. Romulus was elected king by his followers, but popular institutions were established to limit his power, under the strong instinct of vigorous organization that, from the first, characterized the new nation. The people maintained their right to make laws in conjunction with the king, and preserved a limited mon- archy for 250 years. At this time the prophet Isaiah flour- 74 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. ished in Judea, and the kingdom of Samaria was approaching extinction. 15. B. C. 747. The Chaldeans established, or revived, thoir dominion in Babylon, under their king, Nabonassur, and seem to have been independent of Assyria for a time, but after- ward to have been brought into a qualified subjection to that enterprising monarchy. It commences authentic history in the East, so far as well ascertained dates are concerned. In that year the Chaldean astronomers or priests, first introduced the Egyptian solar year, which furnished an accurate mode of measuring time. This was about the commencement of the- Sixth Olympiad. Egypt was approaching its most perfect condition der its ancient system. B. C. 743. Messenian war of 23 years Sparta conquers Messene. 16. B. C. 735. A colony from Corinth founded the cele- brated city of Syracuse in Sicily, and a fashion of colonizing seems to have obtained in Greece, which continued for a hun- dred years. The native enterprise of the Greeks, the great increase of inhabitants in their small territory, and the com- motions and contests of parties in their states, which preceded the establishment of more complete popular governments, were probably the ruling causes of these foreign emigrations, and all contributed to the increase of knowledge, improvement in navigation, and the prevalence of a commercial spirit. Mi- letus, the leading Greek city of Ionia, in Asia Minor, became almost as powerful and prosperous by her commerce as Tyre in her best days. There were Grecian colonies on the coast of Africa west of Egypt, on the eastern coast of Italy, several ir Sicily, one in France. They were, generally, very enterprising and prosperous, and diffused Greek intelligence and culture over a large part of the world as krown at that time. They usually established a republican government. Syracuse re- mained republican for 251 years. 17. B. C. 728. The Assyrian Empire was now having it palmiest days, and spreading its dominion over all the central , THE GRECIAN STATES. 75 parts of western Asia, from the Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf. At this time Shalman-assur, or Shalmaneser, the kingf of Assyria, led away the Ten Tribes of Israel into a hopeless captivity, and planted a different race in Samaria. Soon after this time the Ethiopians from the upper Nile established their dominion in Egypt, without apparently changing the general condition of things there. Three Ethiopian kings successively reigned in Egypt, and made conquests in Asia to some extent 18. B. C. 600. About the beginning of this century the foundation of Greek philosophy was laid by Thales of Miletus, a Greek city in Asia. He represents the growth and acuteness of the Greek mind and the approach of its period of greatest activity. He travelled into Egypt in search of wisdom, and was the most able astronomer of his times. He calculated an eclipse of the sun, which, coming on just when two armies, the Median and Lydian, were about to engage in battle, so terrified them that they immediately separated and made peace. He was celebrated as a mathematician, and taught many truths concerning the existence of God which were far in advance of his time, and undertook to account for the origin of all things, in a very bold and independent manner. He was one of the famous " Seven Wise Men " of Greece. Solon was held to be the first among the seven. He was an Athenian law-giver and writer, and established a very wise and enlightened system of government in Athens. He was a pure-hearted and clear- sighted man, enjoying the universal respect of the Greeks. Chilo, another of the seven, was a Spartan magistrate, held in the highest esteem for his wisdom. Pittacus of Mitylene, was a law-giver, held in high honor. Bias of Priene, in Ionia, was a very noble-hearted and public-spirited citizen, of univer- sal reputation for wisdom. Cleobulus, of the island of Rhodes, was remarkable for his skill in answering difficult questions, and Periander of Corinth, the ruler, or tyrant, of that place, was the last of the seven. They were all living at the same time. They were only the most eminent among a people who could fully appreciate mental ability. The spirit of inquiry "70 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. continued to spread rapidly for two hundred years, when the greatest masters, who immortalized themselves and their race by their genius, appeared. 19. In the early part of this century the kingdom of Lydia, in the central part of Asia Minor, rose to great wealth and power. The Lydian kingdom was ancient many of its custom* being similar to those of the Egyptians and the Etrurians of Italy, a much more polished and cultivated people than the Romans who conquered them, are thought, by some eminent historians, to have been a Lydian colony planted in Italy in unknown times. The Lydian kings made war on the Asiatic Greek colonies and reduced many of them to subjection. Croesus, the last king of Lydia, was prover- bial for his vast wealth. He was conquered by Cyrus, the Persian, in the middle of the next century. 679 B. C. Numa, the second king of Rome, is said to have -died. The Romans abstained from war during nearly the whole of his reign, which was occupied in settling the inter- nal affairs of the new state, especially those relating to religion. He was followed by Tullus Hostilius, a very war- like prince, who did much to extend the Roman state. 20. About 650 B. C. a great change was introduced into Egypt, by Psammeticus, its king, who, having several rival claimants to the throne, employed the services of Greek sol- diers to overcome them. For the first time the country was freely opened to foreigners, and the power of the priesthood broken. Thus the Greeks were instrumental in changing the current of Egyptian history. The Median Kings began to make head in the east, and ventured after various successful efforts to extend their dominion in other directions to make direct war on Nin- eveh. At the close of the century, by the aid of the rebel- lious Nabopolassar, they succeeded in taking and destroying that city, and the whole of that immense empire was divided between Media and Nabopolassar, who made Babylon his capital. THE GRECIAN STATES. 77 21. B. C. 590 to 500. Events in this century begin to crowd thick upon each other. The Greeks rapidly advanced; the Romans succeeded, amid constant wars, in securely estab- lishing their state in Italy, marching from conquest to con- quest, not without heavy reverses at times, from which they soon recovered. 598 Nebuchadnezzar took Jerusalem for the first time. 594 Solon was made archon at Athens, with almost unlim- ited power to change the existing institutions, and he introduced many very useful reforms. 588 Jerusalem was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, and the Jews carried into captivity to Babylon, where they remained seventy years. Soon after, Nebuchadnezzar conquered Tyre, after a siege of many years, but he found himself in possession of the walls only, for the inhabitants had built 'another city on an island near oy, but inaccessible to the conqueror, and left him & barren conquest. 560 The most memorable event that followed was the union of Media and Persia under the military prowess of Cyrus. He first employed the forces of the Med'o- Persian kingdom in Asia Minor, conquering Lydia and the rest of that region, 549 and dethroning Croesus. Babylon and Egypt had both entered into an alliance with Croesus against Cyrus, but before they could send Croesus effectual aid Cyrus had trhfmphed. He then turned his arms against Babylon 538 Which he took by stratagem after a long siege. Egypt was afterward obliged to become tributary to the uni- versal conqueror. 534 Cyrus, who had before been the Persian general of the united armies under the Median king, Cyaxares, who was his maternal uncle, succeeded to the kingdom, and soon after sent the Jews home to their native land. During this period the Greeks swarmed on the eastern 78 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. part of the Mediterranean sea and carried on nearly all its commerce, the Tyrians being mainly confined to tho trade with India, Arabia and the various parts of tho Persian empire. 529 Occurred the death of Cyrus, full of years and glory. History has described him as the most amiable of all the great conquerors. He was succeeded by his son, Cambyses, who, to punish the revolt of the Egyptians 525 invaded that country and made it a Persian province 522 Cambyses died and was succeeded by a Persian noble- man, Darius Hystaspes, the line of Cyrus being extinct. He finally broke the power of the priesthood in his dominions, which perished at once in Egypt and Bab- ylon, where they had so long ij^gned supreme over the minds of men. 515 The second temple was dedicated at Jerusalem. 510 In this year occurred a veVy important event in Roman history the establishment of tho republic. Kings had reigned there two hundred and forty-three year*. SECTION Vl. <" ~u THE ROMAN KEPUBLIC. 1. The Romans, more than any other people of ancient times, understood how to establish a well ordered state. Res- pect for order and law among them was very great. The idea of a government with a definite constitution, which the rulers should always respect, and which should be an adequate bul- wark to the people against oppression, had never occurred to any of the Asiatic nations. The nearest approach to it among the Greeks was in Sparta; but as their aim was directed, not BO much to the general welfare of the state as to training a O O race of soldiers, their experiment was a failure. The Greeks had a great impatience of subjection; they had no great ambi- tion to rule, but were impulsive, and each state wanted freedom to pursue its own particular fancy. Their cxhaustlesa energy THE ROMAN EEPUBLIO. 79 and acntc minds were devoted to the pursuit of ideal objects. Even the sober and resolute Spartan put .aside every other con- sideration in order to realize his idea of a well formed, thor- oughly trained, and invincible warrior. Weakly and deformed children were destroyed in their infancy, by order of tho state. The young women were subjected to the most rigorous physical training, that they might become mothers of hardy children. Physical training was one of the passions of all Greece, originating in their delight in beauty and symmetry ipf person. Sports that contributed to this were as pleasing to'the Greeks as r to our modern school-boys. '2. Athens, which most perfectly represented the Grecian mind,' esteemed a fine poet, an able writer, a skillful painter or sculptor, as much a&an enthusiastic scholar of our day can do. They had a passion for beauty, and their love of liberty was in great part produced by their ardent longing for mental freedom and the gratification of their mental tastes. The wor- > of tlielr gods was. ehiefly their admiration for superhu- "HlHti.nrtijest^, sublimity; ajJchbeauty, as they conceived them, . * nd tlteir ^tieotogy was^ compounded of their thirst for knowledge and their lovo of the mysterious, the grand, tho terrible, and the beautiful. Life was of no value to them, if they could not gratify these instincts, and their tenacity {n maintaining their liberties found its inspiration in them. They were a nation of mental enthusiasts. They had no love of conquest for the sake of power. They were invaded by the Persians, and a handful of Greeks conquered its im- mense hosts with case, by their intelligence and ardor. It was only when they saw tho splendor and wealth of the East, and felt that they could repeat the glorious deeds of their mythic heroes, that they became enthusiastic over the romantic idea of conquering a magnificent empire. It was the mental charm of the undertaking that gave to Alexander bis miraculous success. But the Greeks were no; practical. They wanted worldly wisdom. The Lacedemonians or Sparta had no adequate 80 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. object when they sacrificed almost all that common human- ity holds dear, to rear up model soldiers. Their ambition was confined mainly to preserving the headship of their state among the petty republics of Greece; and the resources of all the states were wasted in the effort to preserve a bal- ance of power among the various members of the nation; or in struggles of the more powerful to obtain a leading influ- ence. They had little political wisdom, when the independ- ence of their territories was secured and the governments that restrained them too much from their favorite enthusiasms were abolished. Athens and all Greece admired immensely the wise measures of Solon, when he reformed the govern- ment and gave it excellent laws. But they had not the prudence to maintain them. In ten years all was again confusion. Most of their great men who possessed a special genius for govern- ment, were abandoned when they showed the most ability for benefiting their country by their wise statesmanship. Per- icles alone, who was the most perfect embodiment of Gre- cian character, preserved his influence to the last; but it was by falling in perfectly with the tone of Grecian feeling, and he laid the foundation of innovations that corrupted and finally overthrew their liberty. He was as little practical and prudent as his countrymen. Beautiful in person, cultivated in mind, possessed of exquisite taste in literature and art, to which he devoted himself with boundless enthusiasm, Greece could always appreciate him. His age was the glory and joy of Greece; but when more homely political virtues were required to preserve his creations and protect this literary and artistic state, the people could not follow them. Their best statesmen were ostracised, banished, or slain, when their practical genius was most needed. 3. Rome was the opposite of this. She had a genius for producing and preserving a constitution, adding to it by slow degrees, maintaining checks and balances that preserved the machinery in working order, and rendered it capable of pro- ducing the most valuable results that were possible in those /HE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 81 times. To rule was her passion. She was not wanting in intelligence, but it was the homely prudence of common life, the skill to adapt means to ends. Of all the nations, she was the first to carry organization into every part of her government, and conduct everything by inexorable system and order. If Rome was resolved to rule others, she was no less resolved to rule herself. The mission of Greece was in tho domain of thought, to develop the intellectual capabil- ities of mankind. That of Rome also required intelligence, but of a lower and more material kind. She was to teach mankind to follow an orderly development, to introduce system, to prevent ruinous clashing of interests, to teach respect for law. Greece taught the world to think to purpose; Rome to goverp with effect. Each served an important pur- pose. Without either the world was not prepared for Christi- anity, which added moral order, nor for true science, which was the mature fruit of these three, and prepared the perfect civilization which was to be developed to its conclusion in a New World. 4. Rome commenced, not with the king, bjiit with the Senate a body of experienced men, who made the laws and appointed a king to administer them. The king, except in time of war, was only the executive, the chief magistrate. The later kings were restive under this restraint and sought to place themselves above law, and the Romans at once dis- missed them, appointing various officers to fill their place. The fundamental principles of government were not changed at all, or very little, except by the subsequent course of develop- ment. The Romans knew how to adapt their invincible spirit of order to all changing circumstances, and when external changes arose corresponding changes were developed, in a regular manner, within. Thus the Roman spirit was constant under the regal gov- ernment, throughout the republic, and to the close of the empire, and had then become so thoroughly established in laws and institutions as to govern the development of the 6 82 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. states that rose out of its ruins and produced modern civil- ization. At first the Roman government consisted only of the Senate and the king. The Senate was chosen from the body of citi- zens, and represented them. In the course of time the descendants of the first people became the aristocracy, called patricians, who enjoyed great privileges. A class was gradu- ally formed called the plebs, or common people, who, for some time, had no share in the government. The patricians alone could hold office, and marriage between them and plebians was illegal. But, says an able writer, " the Roman commons were the greatest commons the world ever saw, except the commons of England and America." In the course of time, by wise and prudent management, and taking advantage of favoring circumstances, resulting from the fact that they sup- plied the body of soldiers to the state, without revolution, breaking the laws, or violating the ancient constitution, they obtained changes or additions to it, one after another, until they had acquired a due influence in the conduct of affairs and became fully a match for the patricians. It was a new lesson to mankfnd, and one that has had great influence on the good order of society in all later times. 5. The religious system of that great people was conducted with as much worldly prudence as all their other affairs. Their religious ceremonies were, in great part, derived from the Etruscans. They were conducted with much pomp by state officers, appointed for the purpose, embodying all the superstitions of the time, and embracing comparatively little of the lofty sentiment that was so prominent in Greece. Their religion was an affair of state, and intimately connected with the political working of the government. The gravest public business was made to depend on the flight of birds, on omens and accidents, and on the appearance of the entrails of the animals offered in the sacrifices. An artful use of these circumstances enabled the officers in power to compass many political ends. Their original gods were those of Greece, GREECK AND KOMK 83 adapted to their purposes and national character; but they readily adopted the divinities of all the nations they con- quered. Their religion was in a high degree cool and calcu- lating. The preceding observations apply especially to the periods of Greece and Rome when their peculiarities were most fully developed in the days of their greatest glory. Though always more or less characteristic, in later times they melted more or less into one another, or were toned down and transformed by decay and a rising spirit of innovation. Especially were they displaced by Christianity. SECTION VII. GREECE AND SOME. 1. We are now prepared to return to the year 500 B. C. and follow events in chronological order, with a fair appreciation of their import. Just before the close of the last century, Darius Hystaspes, the king of Persia, sent an army into Europe, to the north of Greece, to chastise the Scythians, and it conquered Thrace. The Greek colonies in Asia Minor, which had been recently added to the Persian empire, became restive under foreign control, and when the Persian army returned home, -500 organized a rebellion and took and burned the city of Sardis, the ancient capital of Lydia. They were assisted by the European Greeks; but the vast resources of Persia soon enabled Darius to take vengeance on them, and Miletus was besieged and destroyed. Darius sum- moned the Grecian states to offer their submission, but Athens and Sparta sent back a defiance. Darius there- upon gathered a large armament and prepared to invade 495 Greece, which he commenced by the conquest of Mace- don. But a tempest destroyed his ships and 20,000 men, and the expedition returned to Persia. In the 84 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. game year the Roman plebeians obtained their first suc- cess against the patricians, by which the debts of the poor plebeians to the wealthy patricians were cancelled and Tribunes of the People appointed. 490 This year the glory of Greece broke forth. Darius having sent another and larger army into Greece, it advanced on Athens and encamped at Marathon, within twenty-two miles of the city. The Persian host was said to number from 100,000 to 200,000 men. The Athenians had but 10,000 citizens, but armed 20,000 slaves, and the city of Platea sent them 1,000 troops. Miltiades, the very able Athenian general, marched out and, taking a good position, offered battle. It was the 20th of September. The little army of the Greeks obtained a complete victory and the Persians returned home in confusion. The great services of Miltiades were rewarded with imprisonment, on a frivolous charge, and he died there of his wounds. 485 Darius Hystaspes, the Persian king, died while prepar- ing a still larger armament for the invasion of Greece. 484 An insurrection in Egypt completely subdued by the Persians. 480 Xerxes, king of Persia, invaded Greece with a million soldiers. The battle at the pass of Thermopylae was fought by a thousand Spartans under Leonidas, their king, and all but one slain. The Persian fleet was beaten the same day by Themistocles, the Athenian admiral. Xerxes soon advanced on Athens, which was abandoned by its inhabitants and burned by the Persians. Soon after, Themistocles fought the Persian navy again at Salamis and totally destroyed it. Xerxes, leaving a large army in Greece, returned to Asia. 479 The battle of Platsea ended the Persian invasion. The allied Greek army numbered 70,000, under Pausanias, the Spartan king; the Persians 300,000. The Persians are said to have had 200,000 slain, and their army was GREKOK AND KOMK. 85 totally routed. Another victory was gained on the coast of Asia Minor the same day, and the last rem- nants of the Persian fleet destroyed. 478 Athens was rebuilt and surrounded with walls from the treasures of the conquered Persians. This was the age of great men in Greece. Phidias, her greatest sculptor, flourished at this time. The Persians, at the time of their first invasion, brought a piece of marble to com- memorate the victory of which they were confident. The Greeks caused Phidias to produce out of it a statue of Nemesis, the goddess of vengeance, and set it up on the field of Marathon. 478 Themistocles died in banishment about this time, and Aristides of old age. Both were leading statesmen and generals of Athens during the Persian war. 470 Socrates, the most eminent philosopher of all ancient times, was born this year. " - The death of Xerxes by assassination occurred this year. 46rf Cimon, son of Miltiades, was now the great man of Athens. He was soon superseded by Pericles. From 480 B. C. to 430 was the golden period of Athens. She was pre-eminent politically, conducting the war of the Grecian allies against Persian supremacy on the western shores of Asia and in the Mediterranean sea. Repub- lican liberty was everywhere predominant. The great- est writers, painters and sculptors lived in this period or immediately after it. Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, philosophers; JEschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, tragic poets; Zeuxis and Apelles, painters; and Phidias in sculpture, were a few among the many great names which are found in or immediately following this period. 457 Cincinnatus was made dictator at Rome. During this period the Romans laid the foundation of their domin- ion over all Italy by waging successful war with the Etruscans and Samnites, the most vigorous and power- ful of their opponents. 86 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 450 The Decemvirate was appointed at Rome. They were ten magistrates empowered to produce a more perfect code. It was called the " Laws of the Twelve Tables." The plebeians about this time succeeded in wresting important privileges from the patricians, which more equally balanced the different powers of the state. 2. Athens was the centre of civilization, and Greek culture and ideas were penetrating all the nations in her vicinity. Rome was rapidly developing and Carthage was at the summit of her glory. She had control of much of the Spanish or Iberian peninsula. . Persia, after absorbing all the old mon- archies of the east, was declining. The " march of empire n was distinctly defining its " westward course." It was about the middle of this century that Herodotus, the " Father of History," was rising to fame, and a few years later Xenophon, the Greek general and historian, was born. Tlm- cydides, another historian, dates from this period. The great career of history now fairly commenced. 443 Herodotus emigrated from Halicarnassus, in Asia, to Greece. 431 The Peloponnesian war, a bitter contest between Athens and Sparta, commenced. It lasted twenty-three years, and was again revived, ending in the conquest of Athens by Sparta. This war was followed, after some time, by the rise of the power of Thebes, under their famous general, Epaminondas, who broke the power of Sparta. Thebes sunk into insignificance after his death, and Philip of Macedon commenced the subjugation of all Greece. He was followed by Alexander the Great, who,, in return for the loss of republican liberty, rendered Greece illustrious by conquering the Persian empire, and imbuing all the Eastern "World with its philosophy and arts. For all these great events one hundred years were required. 429 The death of the illustrious Pericles occurred in this year. GREECE AND ROME. 87 " Plato, the disciple of Socrates, and, in some points, superior to him in mental discipline, was born. 420 About this time Alcfbiades, the nephew of Pericles, became prominent in Athenian affairs. He had bril- liant powers, but little principle. 406 The battle of ^Egospotamos, gained by Lysander the Spartan, broke the power of Athens. 404 Athens was taken by Lysander, its walls demolished, and the government of the " Thirty Tyrants " estab- lished by the Spartans. Alcibiades, banished from Athens, was assassinated by the Persians, at the insti- gation of the Spartans. 401 Occurred the battle of Cunaxa, in Babylonia, between Cyrus, the brother of Artaxerxes, king of Persia, and that king. Cyrus, who had been governor, or satrap, in Asia Minor, gathered a large army including more than 10,000 Greeks. Cyrus was killed and his own army defeated, but the Greeks repelled all assaults. Their generals having been decoyed into the power of the Persians, on the plea of making terms with them, were treacherously slain. The army appointed other commanders, chief among whom was Xenophon, after- w^ rd the celebrated historian, and they made good their return to Greece. It was finely described by Xeno- phon, and known as the "Retreat of the Ten Thou- sand." 400 Socrates taught doctrines too pure and high-toned for his countrymen to understand, and was condemned, to drink poison, as a dangerous man and despiser of the gods, in the 70th year of his age. The Athenians soon repented it. 396 The capital of Veii, taken by the Romans, ended the contest with the Etruscans. 889 Rome was conquered and, except the capitol, destroyed, by the Gauls under Brennus. The barbarians soon retired and the city was rebuilt. 88 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 384 Aristotle, the most learned of the Grecian philosophers, was born at Stagira, in Macedon. He laid the founda- tion of scientific study, and was the tutor of Alexander the Great. 371 Epaminondas defeated the Spartans at Leuctra, and 362 Again at Man tinea, where he was killed. 360 Philip became king of Macedon, and soon began to undermine the liberties of Greece in a very artful way. 357 The " Sacred War " against the Phocians, who had plundered the temple of Apollo, at Delphi, com- menced. 356 Birth of Alexander the Great. Rutilius, the first ple- beian dictator at Rome. 349 Death of Plato, the brightest light of Grecian philos- ophy. He systematized and enlarged the doctrines of Socrates. 338 Occurred the battle of Chaeronea between Philip and the allied Athenians and Thebans. The Greeks were totally defeated and their liberty lost. Demosthenes, the most celebrated orator of the Greeks, spent his whole life and his magnificent eloquence in the effort to rouse the Greeks against Philip; but Philip was too crafty and the Greeks too little accustomed to act in concert. For nearly a hundred years the states of Greece had been exhausted by wars among themselves, and they were too weary of lighting to make the necessary effort against so powerful and skillful an adversary. 336 Philip was assassinated on the eve of an expedition against Persia, as chief of the Grecian states. This popular idea consoled them for the loss of liberty. Alexander succeeded his father. 335 Thebes rebelled against Alexander, and he took and destroyed that ancient city. 334 Alexander carried out the project of his father and invaded the Persian empire. The battle of the Granicus, his first great victory, took place this year. GREECE AM) ROME. 89 333 Darius, the Persian king, was again thoroughly defeat- ed in the battle of Issus. Damascus, in Syria, was taken and Tyre besieged by Alexander. 332 Tyre was taken and finally destroyed, and Alexandria, at the mouth of the Nile, founded. 331 A final battle at Arbela, in Assyria, overthrew the Persian Empire. Darius escaped, but was murdered by Bessus, one of his officers. Four years were spent by the Greeks in subduing the wild tribes on the east- ern border of the Empire, and settling the government of these vast conquests. 327 Alexander invaded India and was constantly triumph- ant till his soldiers refused to go farther from home. They had grown tired of conquering, and Alexander reluctantly returned to Babylon to consolidate his gov- ernment. 323 Alexander died of a fever, the result of excessive drink- ing. He left no heir, and his generals divided his empire. 322 The Samnites obtained a temporary success by surpris- ing a Roman army in a narrow defile of the mountains called the Caudine Forks, and subjected it to a humili- ating capitulation. The Romans never bowed before misfortune or defeat. They prosecuted the war with invincible resolution until the Samnite power was wholly broken, a contest, in all, of about 50 years, which was soon followed by the complete subjugati >n of the whole peninsula. 3. In this year died the two greatest Grecians, Demos- thenes, the orator, by suicide; and Aristotle, by old age. On the death of Alexander, Demosthenes aroused the Athenians to make a stand for their liberties. Few of the Grecian states joined them and they were totally defeated by Antipater, the governor appointed by Alexander. Demosthenes avoided punishment by taking poison. The Achaian League, about forty years after, maintained the liberties of Greece for fifty 90 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. years or more, which then fell before the invincible Romans For many years all the eastern world was in confusion from the struggles of competitors for the Empire of Alexander. Ptolemy established himself soon and firmly in Egypt, and Seleucus, after various 312 Reverses, obtained full possession of the eastern parts of the empire, Babylonia, Assyria and Persia. This year is called the era of the Seleucidae. Asia Minor and Greece were a scene of the greatest confusion for seventy years, so far as rulers were concerned. But nearly all these were Greeks, and Greek culture and philosophy exerted a wide spread influence. In the end it became fully evident that the want of genius in the Greek mind to organize, and steadiness in Greek char- acter to sustain, settled institutions was absolute. They had, at different times, men of the greatest ability, but when they passed away their plans and institutions perished with them. The acute and accomplished Greeks were ever children in the science of govern- ment, and the advent of Rome alone, whose special skill was in government, saved the world from irre- trievable anarchy or fatal despotism. 800 The Roman plebeians completed their struggle for con- stitutional liberty by acquiring a share in the priestly office, which was essential to the full value of their other victories over the patricians, and the Roman con- stitution was complete. It was maintained very fairly for more that one hundred and fifty years, when the spoils of their conquests corrupted the virtue of the citizens and produced the internal disorder that, about a century later still brought about the establishment of the Roman Empire. Yet the forms of government,, municipal and other regulations, and the administra- tion of justice, though often interfered with in particu- lar cases, were so well settled on sound principles, and secured so uniformly the welfare of society, that they GREECE AND ROME. 91 were preserved longest from general ruin, and revived first in more modern times. Greek thought and cul- ture, and Roman law remained indestructible. 290 The Samnites, Sabines and Gauls, being all defeated, Rome was virtually mistress of Italy, although the Grecian cities on the eastern coast remained to be sub- dued. They had little strength in themselves against a power so warlike, and invited Pyrrhus, the king of 281 Epirus, to their assistance. He twice defeated the Roman consuls, but they inflicted on him so much loss that they vainly offered him battle immediately after, and rejected all his overtures to treat for peace. He was at length vanquished and obliged to abandon Italy to the Republic. 4. The Romans soon subdued all opposition and began to look about for other lands to conquer. 264 The Carthaginians, on the opposite coast of Africa, had become a colossal power, and sought to establish their control over Sicily not an easy task, since it had many colonies of Greeks whose national spirit and bravery did not desert them. In this year a call for assistance from a plundering band who had captured a Greek city, a part of whom had also invited Carthaginian aid, brought Rome and Carthage in conflict. The Cartha- ginians were enraged at this interference with an island which they had long intended to make their own, and raised an immense army to drive out the intruders. The Romans defeated the army and took Agrigentum, one of the best strongholds of the Carthaginians on the island. 260 The Carthaginians were masters of the sea, and the Romans had little knowledge of naval affairs. Taking a Carthaginian vessel which had been driven ashore for a model, they, in a short time, created a fleet and worsted their enemies on their own special element 92 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 256 The Romans again defeated the Carthaginians in a sea fight near the island of Lipara. 255 The Romans determined to carry the war into Africa, and fitting out a large fleet, inflicted a still heavier loss on the Carthaginian armaments, landed in Africa and defeated an immense army. The Carthaginians sued for peace, but the terms proposed by Regulus, the Roman general, were so severe that they resolved to continue the war. A Grecian general, Xanthippus, took command of their army and totally defeated the Romans, taking Regulus prisoner, and destroying or 24 capturing all his army but 2000. The Romans lost three fleets by storms, but conquered once in a sea fight, and defeated an army in Sicily. The Carthagini- ans again sought peace, but the Romans would not abate their first terms, and continued the war until the 240 Carthaginians, completely humbled, accepted the severe alternative of submission or destruction. The temple of Janus, the god of war, never shut but in time of absolute peace, was now closed for the second time since the building of the city. The people, whose special occupation was war, soon grew tired of peace, and carried on various conflicts with the Gauls settled at the foot of the Alps in the 227 north of Italy. They invaded Illyria, on the east coast of the Adriatic Sea, whose people were very trouble- some pirates. This war was again renewed with a more complete defeat of the Illyrians. They had before this subdued Sardinia and Corsica. 219 The Carthaginians pursued their conquests in' Spain, and the celebrated Hannibal took Saguntum, which 218 brought on the second Punic war, as the war with Car- thage was termed. 217 Hannibal, with great celerity, crossed the Pyrenees and the Alps having first completed the conquest of GREECE AND ROME. 93 Spain and defeated the Romans in the battle of Tici- nus, and again at Trebia. 217 The Achaian confederacy, now in the height of its glory in maintaining the liberties of Greece, united all the Greeks in a confederacy under the influence of Philip, king of Macedon, with the hope of arresting the power and ambition of Home. 216 Hannibal inflicted a dreadful defeat on the Romans near the Thrasymenean Lake. The Romans were greatly alarmed, and made Fabius Maximus dictator, whose habit of refusing a pitched battle, wearing out his adversary by skirmishes and cutting off his sup- plies, is called ' ; The Fabian Policy." This plan is, by maneuvering and delay, to wear out and destroy an invader in detail without peril of defeat in battle. The Romans kept armies in Spain to prevent the Car- thaginians from sending reinforcements to Hannibal. 215 At the close of this year Fabius resigned his dictator- ship and the consuls appointed to succeed him aban- doned his policy. They offered battle to Hannibal at Cannae and the army was annihilated. 40,000 Romans were slain on the field. These defeats had destroyed the flower of their fighting population, but Roman , courage and resolution always rose with defeat. They did not despair, but raised a fresh army and put Fabius again at its head, against whom the talents of Hannibal were vain. They fomented disturbances in Greece to keep Philip, King of Macedon at home, and beseiged Syracuse in Sicily, which had joined the Carthaginians, 212 for three years, and then took it by stratagem. Ar- chimedes, a celebrated mathematician of Syracuse, who had protracted the siege by his ingenious and power- ful engines was killed in the sack of the city. Soon 210 after the whole island was subdued and remained a Ro- man province. 206 Asdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, general of the Car- "94: THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. thaginian forces in Spain, crossed the Pyrenees and the Alps to reinforce Hannibal, but was defeated by the Romans and slain before Hannibal knew of his march. 202 Scipio, who had conquered in Spain, led an army into Africa, Hannibal being considered too formidable to attack, though his forces were very small. Scipio put 40,000 Numidians, allies of Carthage, to the swprd, besieged the neighboring cities and defeated a large Carthaginian army. Hannibal was now called home to defend the metropolis. He fought a battle with raw 501 troops, at Zama, and was defeated 20,000 Carthagi- nians being slain. The Carthaginians begged for peace, Hannibal declaring that the war could not be protracted. The Roman terms left them little but their city. Such was the fruit of inflexible resolution. 5. The Romans are an example of a people, who, from first to last, had one clearly defined end, to which everything else was subservient. They formed their state for conquest, and that idea controlled the Kingdom, the Republic and the Em- pire. They were much wiser than the Spartans, for, devoting themselves to war, they meant to secure and enjoy all the fruits of conquest, and they did all that was possible to promote the prosperity of their people that they might produce warriors in abundance; but they relied mainly on actual war for disci- pline. They were constantly exercised in the art in the field and the orderly and sensible instinct of the race made disci- pline a matter of course. They were sometimes defeated when they encountered unfamiliar difficulties, or by the mistakes of their leaders, but never abandoned a purpose once adopted and never sued for peace. Morally, the object they set before them was entirely unjus- tifiable, according to the standard of national rights accepted in our day. But such a conception never entered the minds of men in the ancient times. It is the fruit of modern civil- ization alone. The Romans, and many a nation after them, must work out the destructive consequences of that doctrine OREKCK AM) ROME. 95 that "Might m#kes Right" before the universal sense of mankind would recoil from it. It was the accepted doctrine of the ancients, and has not yet disappeared from the world. 197 Sicily, Spain and Carthage were conquered, and Roman valor looked around for opportunities of winning fresh laurels. Philip of Macedon, an ambitious prince, threat- ened the Athenians, who implored help from Rome. An army immediately proceeded to Greece, penetrated into Macedonia, and completely defeated Philip at Cy- nocephalae. 6. The Romans were now the mightiest people in the civ- "ilized world. Their obstinate contests with the vigorous na- tions of the West had often perilled the existence of their state, and a people of ordinary stamina and persistance would not, at the best, have risen above the rank of the Etruscans and Samnites, nor have made Rome greater than Syracuse or Car- thage. They, however, matured and grew into an invincible power, whose solid and stately grandeur struck the intelligent but unpractical Greeks with admiration, and all the old peoples of the East with awe. The Romans were not without admiration for the ancient valor and the graceful culture of the Greeks. When, two hun- dred and fifty years before, the Romans revised their laws, un- der the Decemvirate, they sent to Athens to obtain models from that republic. Athens was now treated by them with much consideration, and finally became the University City of the Empire. When Roman influence became paramount after the battle of Cynocephalse they did not at once proceed with brutal force against the land of Beauty and Art, but took it under their protection, and proclaimed the full liberty of the Grecian States. It filled the Greeks with transport, and for some time Rome played the noble and dignified part of a disinterested protector; but when the Achaians, under their excellent and talented leader PhilopO3men, sought to realize the fact of liberty, the Romans abandoned that pretence and made Greece a Roman province. Thus the whole of Europe 96 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. that was sufficiently civilized to maintain a settled government was ruled by the Roman Republic. The period of rude and restless valor among the Greeks was past. The stage of culti- vation they had reached inclined them to the quiet and elegant refinements of the scholar, and they readily received the Ro- man rule which suppressed the turbulance of ambitious adven- turers and suffered no oppression but their own. The Romans represented the strength of the male element in human nature, the Greeks the grace of the female. They now coalesced, were married, so to speak, and the product of their union was, in the course of ages, modern civilization, which, when mature, was to share the eminent qualities of both. 7. The broken fragments of Alexander's immense empire in Western Asia and Egypt were all that now stood between Rome and the mastery of the world. The Roman people were too well convinced . that it was their grand destiny to achieve universal dominion to hasten prematurely the con- quest of the primitive home of civilization. They watchfully waited until the course of events should throw the dominions of the Seleucidae and the Ptolemys into their hands, without offending the majesty of the republic by an undignified vio- lence and haste. 190 Antiochus the Great, who now reigned over the empire of the Seleucidse, with true Grecian imprudence, became ambitious of conquests in Europe. He invaded Greece 191 and was defeated at Thermopylae by the Romans and driven into Asia. The younger Scipio, brother of the conqueror of Hannibal, followed and totally defeated 189 him at Magnesia, in Asia Minor. He purchased peace by the loss of all the fruits of his ambition, but was left in possession of the Syrian kingdom. The failure to destroy so powerful an enemy appears to have brought on the two Scipios the rebuke of the repub- lic, the conqueror of Carthage having aided his brother in the war. They were condemned to a heavy fine, which Scipio Africanus refused to pay and went into GKEECE AND ROME. 97 188 exile, where lie died. ILs death occurred in the same year that Hannibal, pursued by the vengeance of the Romans for having aided Antiochns, committed suicide by taking poison to avoid falling into their hands; and in this year also Philopoemen, the last patriotic hero 170 of Greece, was slain by his enemies. Perses, king of Macedon. revolted, and, after some successes, was tinally overthrown under the walls of Pydna and dethroned. 168 The Carthaginians could not altogether forget their ancient greatness, and having displeased the Romans by some independence of action, it was resolved to 148 destroy their city. With the courage of despair they set the Romans at defiance, and defended themselves with a resolute bravery that engaged the lively sympa- thies of all after times for their painful fate. For two years they maintained the combat against their pitiless foes, who could pardon everything but rivalry in their 146 sweeping ambition, and then perished in the ruins of their once glorious metropolis. A revolt of the Acha- ians was punished, in the same year, by the destruction of the splendid city of Corinth, in Greece. 140 The embers of independence in Spain broke forth in war, which was checked by the assassination of Viriathes, a patriotic chieftain of great ability, and 133 quenched in blood by the self-destruction of the citi- zens of Nurnantium. About the same time the republic acquired the kingdom of Pergamus, cover- ing the richest parts of Asia Minor, by the will of Attains, its king, who, on his dearth, bequeathed it to Rome. This led, in a few years, to contests with the neighboring Asiatic sovereigns, and resulted, in about half a century, in the conquest and reduction into the state of Roman provinces of all Western Asia. 7 98 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. SECTION VIII. DECAY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC 1. But while Rome was thus steadily advancing to uni- versal dominion, great and unfortunate changes were taking place in its internal constitution. The spoils of Carthage and the east, rich in accumulations of the industry, commerce nd art of two thousand years, flowed into Rome and was gathered into the hands of those in power; the equilibrium between the plebeians and the patricians was lost; the selling of captives taken in war filled Italy with slaves; and the inequality of conditions produced the most disastrous conse- quences. 133 The eldest son of a noble house, the Gracchi, under- took to stem the torrent that was sweeping away the ancient barriers of the constitution, and to raise the people from the misery into which the increase of patrician wealth and power and the innumerable mul- titudes of slaves had plunged them. In the year in which Numantia fell and Spain was thoroughly sub- dued, Tiberius Gracchus was slain in a tumult, pro* duced by the patricians, who determined that hia project should not succeed. He had attempted to revive the old agrarian law, by which the landed pos- sessions of the republic were shared among the people as well as the patricians, which would have rescued the plebeians from poverty and oppression; but the patri- cians were too powerful and too violent. He was removed by Assassination. 2. 121 Twelve years later his brother, Caius Gracchus, attempted the same thing and was likewise slain. This point was vital to the internal liberties of Rome, The failure of the Gracchi announced the overthrow of the constitution; and, after seventy years of civi] anarchy and the murderous conflict of rival factions, the empire was found the only refuge against the rui:; DECAY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 99 of the state. Vigorous Rome, who could govern all the world but herself, must have a master, and became the prey of the strongest. It is a melancholy history, a sad conclusion for a people whose strength and gran- deur of character had made them masters of the world, but a perfectly legitimate result of the immoral prin- ciple that lay at the foundation of the state. That principle legalized the doctrine of force, or robbery on the grandest scale. They carried it out with great con- sistency and skill, with all the ability of a race emi- nently sagacious and steady in the pursuit of an end. The conservative force that dwelt in their organiza- tion, so instinctively and exceptionally wise, and the power of religious faith, strong in a hardy and simple people, however weakened by pagan ignorance and superstition, long maintained the integrity of their institutions but Greek culture, too imperfect not to culminate in skepticism, came in to confuse their moral sense at the same time that boundless wealth flowed into their hands to corrupt their manners, that slavery assumed gigantic proportions to demoralize labor, and the conquest of the world relieved them from the severe discipline that might not, otherwise, have left them the leisure to become deeply vicious. The sternness of even Roman character was unequal to the heavy strain and virtue gave way. The native vigor of the race made them as excessive in unrestrained passion as wise in council and invincible in war. The cruelty and rapacity that were common in the civil wars of the Republic, and under many of the early emperors, educated giants in crime, and only the Roman spirit in the army, and the vigorous organization everywhere maintained through the institutions established in the subject world by Roman law, could have held its vast dominions together. Rome had vitality and sense to govern others, even in the midst of civil war. 100 THE FOOTPEINT8 OF TIME. 3. From the death of the Gracchi to the consulship 107 Of Marius, Rome was in a tumult of corrupt intrigue, which rendered easy the usurpation and inhuman cruelty of Jugurtha, king of Numidia. Marius, a ple- bian of the lowest rank, became consul. He was unequaled at once as a general and a tyrant. He con- quered 106 Jugurtha, who was brought to Rome and starved in prison. In the same year Cicero, the great Roman orator, was born. A vast horde of Cimbri and Teutons from northern 105 Europe, invaded Gaul and defeated several Roman con- suls. 100 Marius led an army against these barbarians and defeated them, more than 100,000 being slain or made prisoners. He was equally successful in a second engagement. During the war 200,000 barbarians were slain and 90,000 taken prisoners. A revolt of the slaves was put down about the same time with circum- stances of extreme cruelty. More than a million of these* unfortunates were slain or thrown to wild beasts for the amusement of the Roman populace. 4. 100 In this year Julius Caesar, one of the greatest men of any time, and virtual founder of the Roman Empire, was born. His supreme ability put an end to civil dis- sention and saved society from total ruin. 90 The Italian allies revolted against Rome. They claimed the privileges of Roman citizenship, which the Senate refused. A war of three years followed and half a million of men perished, when, having conquered them, the Senate granted their first request. 88 Mithridates, king of Pontus, talented and ambitions, sought to drive the Romans out of Asia and Greece, and warred with them for twenty -five years. Sylla procured the banishment of his rival, Marius, and con- ducted the war against Mithridates. DECAY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 101 gg Marius regained power in the absence of Sylla and slaughtered his enemies, the patricians, without mercy, but soon after died. 83 Sylla, after obliging Mithridates to sue for peace, hastened to Rome, conquered his enemies, and slew more than 6,000 Roman citizens in revenge. 81 Sylla caused himself to be made perpetual dictator 77 But after three years resigned and soon after died from the effects of his vices. Civil war was continued for a time in Spain and Italy, but finally put down by Pora- ?0 pey, the greatest general of the patrician party. The war of the gladiators men trained to fight in the theatres for the amusement of the populace broke out under an able leader, Spartacus, who, collecting an army of 120,000 gladiators, endangered Rome itself, but 70 - he was conquered by Crassus. Spartacus was defeated and killed. It was the inhuman oppression of the patricians that produced all these dreadful conflicts. 65 Pompey and Crassus, by paying court to the people, were made consuls. Pompey proceeded to Asia and made war on Mithridates, who was again formidable, 63 whom he defeated and slew in battle. He subdued nearly all western Asia, visiting Jerusalem, and treat- ing the Jews with kindness. He also cleared the Med- iterranean of pirates, who had always infested it. 62 A dangerous conspiracy of Cataline, a patrician of the most corrupt morals, at the head of the depraved young nobility of the time, would have been successful but for the ability and eloquence of Cicero, who was consul. Cataline and his fellow conspirators were taken and slain. 59 Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus formed the first "Trium- virate," and divided the rule of the world between them. Caesar was the head of the popular party. He 57 took Gaul as his government. Here he spent eight years in his "Gallic wr.r?," showing unparalleled talent* 102 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. as a general, training his army to become invincible in battle, and completely subduing the fierce Gauls. He 55 entered Britain and laid the foundation of civiliza- tion there, thus carrying the march of empire to its farthest bounds in Europe. 5. 49 He was ordered to return and lay down his authori- ty by the Roman Senate, headed by Pompey, who was now his enemy. They were the rival champions of the two parties in the state, the people and the patricians, whose quarrels had so long filled Rome with tumult and slaughter. The tribunes in Caesar's interest inter- posed a veto, which the Roman Constitution authorized them to do. The Senate voted to suspend the Consti- tution, which really terminated the Roman Republic, Jan. 7, B. C. 49. Caesar at once crossed the river Ru- bicon, the boundary of his government, and marched his army on Rome. Pompey and the aristocratic party fled in haste, leaving the public treasure behind. In sixty days Caesar had possession of all Italy. Sicily, Sardinia, and Spain were next conquered from the offi- cers of Pompey, when he returned to Rome, and was created dictator by his party. He treated all his ene- mies with clemency. Pompey had gone into Greece, 48 where he gathered a large army. Caesar followed with his veteran legions, and defeated him in the battle of Pharsalia in Thessaly. Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was treacherously slain, to the great indignation of Caesar, who would shed no blood but in necessary battle* Thus he became sole master of the world. In a conflict with the Egyptians in Alexandria Caesar set on fire their fleet, he being attended by but few troops, and the conflagration extended to the Alexan- drian Library, filled with inestimable treasures of ancient literature, which were destroyed, to the great loss of future generations. Caesar soon subdued Egypt, DECAY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 103 47 defeated Pharnaces, son of Mithridates, and returned to Rome. 46 He soon passed into Africa, where he defeated his ene- mies. The celebrated Cato, an inflexible enemy of Caesar, committed suicide rather than submit to him. In Spain he soon after defeated the sons of Pompey, the last of his foes in arms. He rebuilt Carthage and 45 Corinth. He projected many great public works and useful reforms. The whole power of Roman sovereign- 44 ty was formally conferred on him by the people, when he was suddenly assassinated by a band of senators and certain conspirators, who imagined it possible to restore the ancient Republic. His nephew, Augustus, succeed- ed him soon after. 43 The eminent Cicero, never a friend to Caesar, was assas- sinated by the connivance of Augustus. 42 The republican and aristocratic conspirators were de- feated by Augustus and Antony at Philippi, in Greece. Brutus and Cassius, the republican leaders, and assas- sins of Caesar, were slain. The second " Triumvirate," composed of Augustus, Antony and Lepidus, having acquired possession of all the powers of the state, ruth- lessly murdered thousands of their political enemies. They soon grew jealous of each other, and fought and intrigued for eleven years, Augustus, with great pru- dence, firmly settling himself in Rome, and Antony becoming the slave of the beautiful and infamous Cleo- patra, queen of Egypt. 81 At length, at the battle of Actium, Antony was de- feated, and soon after both Antony and Cleopatra com- mitted suicide. Egypt became formally a Roman province, and Augustus absolute emperor of the world 104 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. SECTION IX. THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 1. B. C. 28 In this year Augustus, having fully consolidated his power, was formally recognized emperor. During all the contests of factions, and when Rome was itself in the throes of revolution, the subjection of all the provinces to the imperial city, and whoever was in power there, was rigorously main- tained. The inhabitants were protected from invasion, and if they were often oppressed by Roman governors, it was far less than under their native rulers, and, in general, they were not desirous of a change. Roman law and order, and the power of appeal from great injustice to the Roman senate or emperor, maintained a state of generally tranquil prosperity, only dis- turbed by the contests of rivals for the control of the imperial city and its power. A long period of almost absolute quiet followed the estab- lishment of the empire, which gave Rome and Italy great satisfaction, after nearly a hundred years of civil war. It is called the " Augustan Age," when industry and commerce, literature and the arts, reached their highest development. The Roman Empire and the Christian era commenced nearly together. During the thirty years that followed the battle of Actium, which secured to Augustus the sole control of the civilized world, by the defeat of his last rival, Antony, he was occupied in organizing the vast machinery of his government, and centralizing all the parts of the administration in his own person. For near three hundred years Western Asia and Greece had been a scene of violent commotion. Rival adven- turers were constantly seeking to reconstruct the empire of Alexander. Some of these had the genius and the good for- tune to succeed, in part at least, and swayed a powerful scepter over a large region during their own lives, and, in some instances, their dominions were held together for several gen- erations. But there was no sufficient base for a strong and permanent government. There was no stable element on THK KOMA.N KMIMKF. 105 which to rest it. The Greeks were brave, intelligent and enterprising, and no Asiatic people could withstand a Greek army under Greek leaders; but the Greeks were too restless, too easily carried away by enthusiasm for a new leader or a new idea to be capabb of upholding an empire. 2. Thus, Asia and Greece had been a vast battle field, and the battles served no general interest and founded no permanent state. The Greeks grcv tired of supporting the claims of each new aspirant, who returned their favor by depriving them of liberty, and the whole eastern world readily submitted to the Romans, under whom there was, at least, a prospect of civil order. Augustus, then, had little trouble in settling the affairs of the whole empire, and, about thirty years after the battle of Actium, finding the entire world quietly content and the administration everywhere in fair working order, directed the gates of the temple of Janus to be closed, and a census to be made of all his subjects. At this time Jesus Christ was horn and the Christian era commenced. The Roman Empire under Augustus was the culmination of the ancient and pagan civilization. It had great vitality, and strength enough to rule the world four hundred years longer; but it had also fatal weaknesses. We have seen that the exist- ence of the empire originated in the inability of the old society to free itself from the vices which long and great prosperity had developed. It had no pufitying element strong enough to drive out the disease which its moral weakness had allowed to fasten on it. It was, in fact, based on wrong and could not but perish. Its fall was only a question of time. Its ferocious valor and contempt of the rights of nations broke down the very virtue that was essential to the stability of society. The Romans were robbers on a grand scale, and it was verj r natural that, when there were no more foreign nations to slay and plunder, the citizens should fall to cutting each others throats and robbing their neighbors. As this would lead to the imme- diate ruin of society and the state, the empire, which gave them an absolute master, was a necessity. 106 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME 3. But a full comprehension of the moral laws on which society, institutions and states are founded, was the last to be gained. Most modern nations have not yet attained it, not- withstanding that Christianity has so long stated the principles with clearness and force. The common mind of humanity could master them only by growth through thousands of years and innumerable experi- ences. The . >ject of all earthly experience is to develop the value of the individual man; and the object of society, of institutions and of government, is to protect the rights and to favor the development of each man of the race. When this end is fully secured, history will have solved its problem. As the commencement of the Christian era was the turning point of history in some most important respects, it is proper to- glance back and forward over the state of this problem, and the relation of Christianity to it, before proceeding with the gen- eral course of events. At first men were like children, with everything to learn; and, like children, they learned one thing at a time; and they also made an addition to their common stock of knowledge at every remove of the centre of growth. In Asia and Egypt the general lesson was industry and obedience, while the Jews, on the western shore, more or less assisted by the Assyrians, the Egyptians and the Greeks, labored at the development of a pure religion which culminated in Christianity. The removal of the centre to Greece added mental and artistic culture, and the further westward journey to Rome gave them a new class of most important ideas concerning public organization, law and order. 4. If each of these lessons had been perfect in themselves the addition made by Christianity, which defined the relations between men, the law of human rights and the doctrines essen- tial to the stability and purity of society, would have enabled mankind to build up satisfactory institutions and a complete civilization from the Homan period. But the elementary les- sons were very incomplete. The Asiatics became very super- THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 107 Btitious; the Greeks could teach men the art of thinking, or exercising their minds, but they could not find the true start- ing point; they did not discover what subjects it was useful, and what it was useless, to reason upon; and wasted a good part of the thought of their times on profitless questions. Their failure to obtain a clear and valuable result from philoso- phy made men skeptical and contributed much to the decline of civilization in the time of the Roman empire. The Romans built their whole structure of law and order on force and a wholesale violation of the rights of mankind, and the minds of men became greatly confused. The doctrine of the Epicu- rean philosophers "Let us eat and drink for to-morrow we die " -a despair of working out the problem of life to a satis- factory answer, became the most popular in the empire. The splendor and glory of Oriental, Grecian and Roman civiliza- tion seemed to end in degrading servility and superstition, in the endless and absurd speculations of so-called philosophers, and in the vast brutal tyranny of the emperors. The east failed of a pure religion that was generally accepted. Greek philosophy did not have science to guide her thought, and Rome could not be just as well as strong. 5. It was only in modern times that these lessons were made complete. The discoveries in Geography, in Astronomy, in Natural Philosophy, in Chemistry, in Geology, made men acquainted with the structure of the universe, the properties and the laws of matter, and corrected the extravagances of the ancient speculative philosophy. For want of science, Greek thought wandered about in an unreal world and lost a good part of its labor. A long experience under the control of thi& corrected thought was required to construct a science of Gov- ernment that should supply what was wanting to Roman jurisprudence, and Christianity itself could not be rightly understood while so many false theories and wrong practices prevailed. But the ancient times were as essential to the building up of the modern as the modern to the completion of the ancient. 108 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. It was the renewed study of the Greek classics, of Roman law, and of the original teachings of Christianity, under more favorable circumstances, and after many new experiences for a thousand years, that gave birth to all our later improvements in religion, in government and in science. The Asiatic Jews gave us in Christianity, a pure and simple worship, and a system of public morality so perfect that no society has yet been able to embody it completely in practice, although it is now recognized, very generally, as the highest conceivable standard, to be constantly aimed at and conformed to as far as possible ; the Greek Philosopher, Aristotle, gave us the first notions of science, and Roman law formed the base of modern legal practice. 6. The difficulties of progress are very great. It is not easier for nations to unlearn what they have learned amisS in their youth, than for individuals. No nation that has matured institutions has ever yet thoroughly reformed them. The best and most clear sighted minds discover their defects and show what is to be remedied ; but the force of habit and the vene- ration men feel for what is old, offer so much resistance to com- plete reforms that it has been necessary to establish and build up institutions on new principles on fresh ground. So all the light and power of science, of the reformed religion, of a more complete system of law, the greater intelligence of the masses of men and the activity of commerce and trade did not suffice to do for modern Europe what has been done with ease in America. But Europe furnished the ideas which America worked out; and the sight of those principles embodied in institutions that greatly improved the condition of mankind has reacted on Europe, and bids fair, in time, to produce a novelty in human experience a complete regeneration of old nations and governments. When Greece rose to power it subjected but lightly, and only superficially transformed, the nations of Asia ; Rome absorbed them both, and Christianity gave its simple and noble lessons to them all. But the slight influence of Greece, Rome and Christianity on the old nations THE INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY. 109 of western Asia is shown in the rise and permanence of Mohammedanism, so inferior, in all respects, to Christianity. After a career of more than twelve hundred years, it still rules many more millions than wero contained in all the Roman Empire in its most prosperous Jays. 7. But the power of a progressive civilization constantly increases, and will, by and by, be equal to the thorough reform of even crystalized China. Without America, Europe would be still struggling with the incipient stages of reform. With it, she has gone far toward correcting the imperfections which existed one hundred years ago, and will presently complete the process. With these general observations, we proceed to examine the influence of Christianity on the old civilization. SECTION X. THE INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY. 1. It was developed on the western borders of Asia, and was the completion or perfect development of the system of religion existing among the Jews from a very early period. Soon after Abraham, the father and grand patriarch of the Jews, had given his descendants the outlines of the system, they were led, by circumstances, to Egypt, and remained there for many generations. When they left Egypt, it was under the leadership of one of the greatest of the world's great men, who had been heir apparent of the Egyptian throne, and was consequently versed in all the mysterious wisdom of the priest- hood of that country. That he became wiser than they is evident from the history of his contest with them before the king when endeavoring to gain his consent to the migration of his people from the country. Instructed in all the cele- brated " wisdom of the Egyptians," together with the reflec- tions and additions of forty solitary years as a shepherd in Arabia, he produced a remarkable system of mingled theology and legislation which has come down as a sacred record to our day. 110 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 2. The Jews were, nine hundred years afterwards, trans- ported as a nation to Babylon, remained there for more than two generations, and received such light as the Babylonian priests and Persian magi were able to give them. The con- quest of Asia by the Greeks and the vicinity of Jndea to com- mercial Tyre, furnished them all the aid these nations could give in the line of religious suggestion. A Jew produced, in the early days of the Roman Empire, the simple, yet sublime teachings of Christianity. It had the comprehensiveness and directness requisite to give it authority as a universal religion. In few, but plain and convincing words, it laid down the prin- ciples of human rights and of divine law. It defined the nature and stated the sanctions of virtue in the clearest terms; tore away every covering from vice and denounced without fear the favorite ambitions and follies of men. It seems almost incredible that such a system should have had its origin even among a people like the Jews, and at the time when the Roman Empire represented the highest civilization of the world. 3. The Jews, as a nation, however, rejected and bitterly persecuted it, and the Romans, who were, on principle, ex- tremely tolerant of all foreign religions, soon became extremely hostile. It was humble, unostentatious, very simple in all its forms, carefully refrained from all interference with established government r and presented many new and consoling truths, with great force. It would have seemed that it had only to speak to gain a hearing and take a leading place at once in the work of the future. The few unprejudiced among the great, and thousands of the poor and oppressed whom the cruel power of the Romans had deprived of nationality, property and personal liberty, and many whose minds recoiled from the vices, crimes and skepticism of the age, heard and em- braced it with joy. But it rebuked with most severity the ambitions, the injustice and the love of luxury that were most prevalent in that age and that were most distinctly Roman. It was peculiarly severe against all other systems of religion, THE INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY. Ill and that formed the strongest barrier against its immediate spread over the pagan world at large. It was, therefore, per- secuted with the greatest rigor for three hundred years. 4. But persecution called public attention to it and won it sympathy, and it continually spread beneath the surface of so- ciety. The brutal features of Roman character were gradually softened ; very gradually, indeed, for Roman manners and morals were an Augean stable which it was a more than her- culean task to cleanse ; but after a time, the gigantic crimes of a Marius, a Sylla, a Nero, or Domitian became impossible, and the horrors of the theatre, where gladiators killed each other and men were thrown to wild beasts for the amusement of the populace, became rare. Atrocious crimes awakened a disgust that showed a different view and a new standard of judgment in the community. Christianity created a purer moral atmosphere even in Rome, and while it was persecuted with the utmost barbarity. 5. It is then no matter of surprise that Christianity did not at once meet with general acceptance, and did not fully reconstruct Roman society and manners. The marvel is that it could be produced at all by an age to whose whole spirit it was so absolutely contrary . It was the doctrine of peace pro- claimed among nations who knew no occupation so glorious as war; whose institutions all rested on conquest; whose domi- nant race admired as much as feared was the very genius and embodiment of martial force arrayed against the inde- pendence of all nationalities by an organization the most com- plete. It proclaimed the rights of man and the equality of all classes and persons before the Divine Law, to a people who had plunged in a common ruin Carthage and Corinth, the Republics of Greece, and the absolute rulers of monarchical Asia. It scorned equally gorgeous ceremonies of worship, the subtleties of an imperfect philosophy and pride of place and power. It is not possible to imagine a greater contrast to all the -imodes of habit and thought prevalent in those times. The 112 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. most sensual of all races it exhorted to spirituality, to the most cruel and insolent it preached meekness and forbearance. It placed the slave to whom the recognized laws of war left no rights, beside the master who gloried in setting his toot on the neck of the prostrate; and recognized as equals the great and the small, the ignorant and the wise, the bond and the free. We cannot be surprised that it did not obtain immediate currency, that it was everywhere scorned and cast out, that it aroused unheard of persecutions, and that it could only obtain a triumph when the old Roman inflexibility and fierceness had died out of its degenerate children, and the spirit of the an- cient world was burned out in the hot fires of its own passions. Character does not change in a day, and the ruling impulses of a race can be modified only by slow degrees. Such is the supreme law which has ruled all history. 6. From all these causes Christianity was slow in pene- trating society and moulding institutions; but it spread so extensively that a clear sighted emperor at length found it politic to profess Christianity in order to gain the support of so large and vigorous an element against his rivals in power. Constantine was victorious and proceeded to make Christianity the state religion. It had maintained its growth by its real superiority and ever after remained the most powerful and productive among the influences that aided the progress of mankind. It was actively aggressive and had made the bar- barians who overthrew Eome converts to the faith before the in- vasion, and thus broke the force and diminished the disastrous effects of that event. In after times, no sooner did a barbarian tribe appear and establish itself in any part of the old empire than Christianity commenced the work of teaching and prose- lyting, which aided much in restoring order and repairing ruin. Had Christianity preserved its purity its usefulness and power would have been much greater. 7. But as it gained in numbers and in position it lost inter, nal strength. Both Oriental and Greek philosophy tainted its simple doctrines and introduced in various forms the hurtful THE SERVICES OF GREAT MEN. 113 speculations so dear to the ancients; and when it became the court religion the simplicity of its ceremonies was gradually replaced by the pomp and splendor of pagan worship. Con- stantino and his successors in the empire assumed the virtual headship of the church, called councils and packed them for political purposes, and pronounced for or against supposed heresies. The oilices of the church became the rewards of ambition and gradually a hierarchy, or regular gradation, was established in the priesthood, and both faith and manners came to be strangely in contrast with their original simplicity. Yet, Christianity, aping the forms and infected with the supersti- tions of paganism, and become the tool of the aspiring, was still alive with a youthful vigor by which she eased the fall of the old civilization, and was abundant in valuable service for the civilization yet to be. SECTION XI. THE SERVICES OF GREAT MEN TO MANKIND. 1. It is difficult for us to comprehend the embarrassments which a want of diffused information presented to the progress of the ancient days. With no books, or, at best, but very few, with little or no record of the past, or the distant present, but what confused, distorted and uncertain tradition and rumor could give, with almost no instruments of thought and education, it would seem natural that they should fall into a hopeless bar- barism. That they raised themselves so far out of a condition so low and so helpless, that they created so many instruments for its, is a proof of the wonderful capacity for advancement that lies in humanity, and a prophecy of stupendous things yet in fitore for mankind. 2. One of the most important elements of their progress lay in their great men. It is indispensable that a man, to become great, or famous, by exercising a wide influence, should represent in a large, well defined and successful way, the gen- eral tendency and aspiration of his times. He must unite a 8 114 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. clear perception of these tendencies in his mind, with the power to give them adequate expression in his words or deeds. He must be so far ahead of his times as to be able to clearly work out what is lying unexpressed in the general mind, but not so far ahead that it cannot come into sympathy and co-operation with him; else he will not be recognized as great. Great men are a summary of their times, or of the people they dwell among; they gather its tendencies to a point and express the undefined desire of that period. Their value for later times is that they represent the spirit of their race at that time in a form to make a striking impression, and those who have the good fortune to represent the qualities of the best races, or of nations at the most important stage of their history, become the general exemplars of mankind; teaching in a forcible and striking way the lessons which have been wrought out in the experience of a whole people for ages. 3. The poets are the first of these great men of whom his- tory gives us any account, except, perhaps, the heroes whose deeds they sung, which are more or less uncertain, because they clothed the common tradition of their times in an imag- inative and fictitious dress. The poets Homer and Hesiod had great influence on early Greece. They summed up its theology and the history of its admired heroes, and gave expression to the early thought and literary turn of that people. Their legislators came next. They gave expression to the genius of their people in institutions and laws. Lycurgus arranged the Spartan state into a military school. His laws remained in force more than five hundred years. Solon was the legislator of Athens and his laws were much admired for their wisdom and justice. The Greeks could think more wisely than they could act. Lycurgus organized the warlike spirit in Greece as well as Sparta. The small Grecian states, determined to keep Sparta and each one of the other states from destroying their individual liberties, were trained by the necessity of combating the vigorous military organization of Sparta to great ability in war. . THE SERVICES OF GREAT MEN. 115 Under Pericles, a republican statesman of Athens, nearly a century later than Solon, the full glory of the Grecian genius shone forth. He encouraged his countrymen to give the sup- port to art and literature that produced the famous master pieces which have made Greece illustrious and influential to this day. 4. Socrates appeared soon after. lie was the apostle of thought. His influence in leading men to use direct and O effective modes of examination and reasoning was incalcula- ble, and has perhaps had more effect on the world than the victorious career of Alexander or of the Romans. He was followed by Plato, a disciple of his, who pushed out to further result^ the same principles. He is called the prince of philo- sophers, and has exerted a world-wide influence. He had not the simplicity and plain directness of Socrates, though his mind was more polished, and he was more learned. Some scholars, however, consider his masterpieces to indicate as powerful a mind as the world has produced. He spent twelve years in travel, and used all the means of education and study then to be found. His works are still the delight of the most accomplished scholars. 5. Aristotle began his career in the last years of Plato. He was the tutor of Alexander the Great. He followed a dif- ferent line of study, wrote on logic, or the art of reasoning, on the natural sciences, and introduced method in the exercise of the mind and in study. Herodotus, Xenophon, Thucydides, and many other great writers, artists and sculptors, lived about the same period; and thus Grecians did for the mind what the Romans did for law and government laid down the fundamental principles which formed the basis of real progress. The free government of Athens encouraged oratory and the art of persuasion. Demosthenes was the most celebrated orator among the Greeks, and if his state had only been more powerful he would have conquered Philip of Macedon. He was indeed one of the greatest orators of all times. Cicero, 116 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. * among the Romans, was a writer and orator of almost equal merit. They both lived just at the downfall of the liberties of their states, and they spoke with more effect to the times after them than to their contemporaries. If they did not succeed in preserving the liberties of Greece and Rome, they made a great impression, the name of Liberty was consecrated by their noble words, and those who destroyed it made infa- mous by their burning invectives. When a more favorable time came for restoring it, they lived again in influence, and triumphed by the memory and record of their great patriot- ism and powerful eloquence. 6. Great conquerors and warriors, in all times, have also been representative men, giving expression and gratification to the warlike spirit of their people, and producing *great changes that have been favorable to the real advancement of mankind. The energies they stirred up, and the mingling of nations they produced generally promoted civilization. Alex- ander the Great displayed the wonderful genius and fertility in resources that was peculiarly Greek. His nation was almost consoled for the loss of their liberties by the conquests to which he led them. He opened to their study unknown regions, and gave their mental genius a broader play and a fuller occupation. They, to such an extent as change was possible with old civil- izations, Hellenised the East and prepared the way for the reception of Christianity. Alexander, in three great battles, conquered the great Persian Empire with a small army. He never suffered defeat, and died at thirty-three years of age. Had he lived, he might have done what Hannibal could not do have crushed the rising power of the Roman republic. It would have been a misfortune, for the Romans did incalcu- lable service to humanity. Greek learning exerted its influ- ence on the East for two hundred and fifty years before its final conquest by the Romans. Alexander did great service to mankind by his military success. Hannibal is an instance of a great man not as fully representative of his own people, perhaps, and whose misfortune it was to have to struggle THE SERVICES OF GREAT MEN. 117 against a people whose united genius was greater, more inventive, and more patient than his own. The Roman Pompey represented the aristocratic element of his people, and though a great general, hardly deserved to succeed. Julius Caesar possessed the merciful character and intelligence of the Greek and the prodigious energy and resolution of the Roman. His conquest of Gaul and Britain introduced civil- ization into the lands that were, five hundred years later, to begin a new career for mankind. His thorough subjection of the Gauls preserved the ancient civilization from the inroads of the vigorous Germans until all was ready for the new order of things. More than any other great man, he may be said to have been representative of the best spirit of his time. Perceiving that the Roman republic was dead, and could not possibly be restored, from the strength of the vices ruling in the state, he repressed its anarchy and set aside its forms, wisely and prudently, with as little bloodshed or cruelty as possible. He thoroughly represented the practical sense and immense vigor of the true Roman. He has been severely reproached for destroying the republic, but the republic vir- tually fell with the Gracchi, seventy -five years before, and he established the only government that could possibly preserve the Roman state from disorganization. 7. The office of all these, and multitudes of other great men, less representative of the greater qualities of their fel- lows, or representative of less striking features of their times, has been to sum up the character of their people, and present their special features, condensed, for the observation of man- kind, and by their position as leaders, to give their times an opportunity for powerful development, H-S well as to show what mankind are capable of. In this last view they stimu- late individuals to aspiration and effort. Millions of men, probably, have had the qualities of Alexander and Caesar, millions more those of Demosthenes and Cicero, of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, and so of all the different classes of great men, but have wanted the opportunities and peculiar stimu- 118 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. lants to develop them. Whoever can appreciate them, can y with a favorable balance of faculties to give equally sound judgment, together with equally favorable circumstances, imitate them. Modern times have shown multitudes of men who, their character and talents taken as a whole, have shown themselves far greater than any of the ancients. Culture and the mingling of races will, perhaps, finally make all men greater than the greatest of the ancients. 8. Brutus, one of the murderers of Caesar, wished to restore the glories of the ancient Roman republic, and thought Caesar stood in the way. He removed him by violence, and found the difficulties greater than ever. A hundred years of conquest had sapped the virtues of the Roman people, and Brutus killed himself in despair, saying: " O Virtue! thou art but a name!" To Caesar succeeded Augustus, by a necessity of things. Without Caasar's clemency, he deluged Rome with the blood of its citizens. Afterward, however, his rule was- less sanguinary, and for thirty years he ruled with mildness, though with despotism. The limited amount of virtue in pagan civilizations wore out; and notwithstanding the intelli- gence of Greece and the good sense of Rome, the ancient world was obliged to close its career as it began, by absolute monarchy. It remained for the modern world to find, among its more abundant resources, the means of forever preserving itself from decline. Education and purity, science and reli- gion, freedom and fraternity among all races and nations; a knowledge and wisdom not conceived by the ancients, a repla- cing of war and violence, which are essentially demoralizing, by peaceful means, which shall benefit all and injure none; perfectly free intercourse under -the guidance of absolute jus- tice and benevolence; such is the way by which the modern world will work out the problem impossible for the old world to solve. America has gone far toward the goal. In time, all nations will be persuaded to join her in attaining it. 9. Before we proceed with the chronology of the Christian Era we must briefly notice the one perfect man, J ^sus Christ. THE SERVICES OF GREAT MEN. 119 To pronounce on the miraculous and divine claims made for his character and deeds would carry us outside of our theme. We can only deal with him as with other historical men, in his historical character and relations. These are extremely re- markable. That individual sprang, like Socrates, from the poorer classes, and, like him without the advantages of education, produced a system which proved a marvel of perfection, adapt- ed to all times, but most perfectly to the most perfect state of mankind, and consequently growing up with the progress of nations to an ever-increasing influence. Its moral precepts, even in our day, are as far ahead of our civilization as that is behind a perfect condition. This man made an extraordinary impression. In three hundred years, by merely publishing his ideas in a quiet way, which was the only mode the hostility of the Roman rulers would permit, his followers overthrew the prevailing religious systems which had been established as many thousand years, and spread his influence world-wide. His birth became the commencement of the Era of Human- ity. Like Socrates, he went about among the people with a few chosen friends, setting forth his ideas, chiefly in conversa- tion. He did not write; the simple record of his life and a few of his discourses being recorded by his disciples. Again, like Socrates, his life was ended by violence. All the records of that life show that he was as perfect as we can conceive. In no respect does he seem to have wanted any feature of a noble manhood, in any degree, nor to have shared the prejudices or defects of his age. He lived as we may conceive man to live when his mental and moral habits are accurately adjusted and harmonized with his relations and his duties, which he has learned perfectly to appreciate. His public career lasted but three years and a half, and shines in history a beam of light. He inspired his appreciative followers with rapturous admira- tion, a passionate attachment to his person, and pleasure in obedience to his teachings, stronger than death; and in those whose plans and prejudices he crossed, and whose ambitions 120 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. he rebuked, a deadly hatred which could only oe satisfied with his blood. 10. Immediately after his death his followers commenced to publish and enforce his teachings with great success, and on the outbreak of persecution, without making opposition, they scattered in all directions, proclaiming them with undimin- ished zeal. Yery soon their converts numbered tens of thou- sands, in all parts of the Roman Empire. Persecution increased their fervor and their numbers, without leading them to revolt or resistance, until, in the course of time, an emperor found it politic to profess Christianity. This high patronage, and the active part the emperors took in the affairs of the church from that time, had the effect to corrupt its simplicity of manners, as the adhesion of Greek philosophers, who imported into its doctrines their crude theories, adultera- ted its teachings, and much that was quite foreign to its essen- tial character continued associated with its promulgation and institutions for fifteen hundred years, and, indeed, remnants of the same foreign element yet linger in it. Notwithstanding the embarrassing load which the fantastic distortion of its original simplicity and directness laid upon it, it continued to exert great influence, and seems destined to return, in time, to its original form and purity, and to employ its primitive power to crown the work of civilization. 11. Such is the historical report of the man who intro- duced into the process of human progress an element of unex ampled power. An impartial estimate of the influence of Jesus Christ on history must allow that he is the most impor- tant character that has ever appeared among men. The unhappy association of his ideas with the vagaries of an imperfect philosophy and the unwholesome ambitions of power, greatly curtailed their usefulness; but the simple majesty of his character and his discourses could not always be obscured, and the luster of both has never shone more clearly nor exert- ed more influence than they do in this age. The course of the history of Christianity will be seen to be THE CHRISTIAN ERA. 121 intimately connected with every stage of advancement from the time the Roman Empire began to wear out; it was the nucleus which survived its fall, around which the surging waves of invasion raged in vain, and which immediately began ihe work of reconstruction. SECTION XIL THE CHRISTIAN ERA. 4 By some chronological confusion the new era has been made to begin four years before the appearance of the founder of Christianity. When Augustus had settled the whole empire he ordered the temple of Janus to be closed and a census taken of all its inhabitants, which numbered one hundred and twenty millions. On this occasion Jesus Christ was born. 10 A Roman army under Yarns was defeated and cut to pieces in Germany. It was the severest defeat the Romans had suifered since the overthrow and death of Crassus, by the Parthians, sixty-three years before. 14 The Emperor Augustus died and was succeeded by his step-son, Tiberius. 29 Jesus Christ was crucified by Pontius Pilate, Roman governor of Judea, at the solicitation, and on the accu- sation, of the leading Jews. ,3T Tiberius died and was succeeded by Caligula. The commencement of the reign of Tiberius was wise and moderate, but he soon became violent and cruel. Cali- gula was a still greater monster of wickedness* 40 Growing weary of his cruelty he was assassinated by one of his officers, and his uncle, Claudius, was raised to the throne. He was of feeble intellect and became the tool of infamous favorites. He was poisoned by order of his wife, Agrippina. 54 Nero, the son of Agrippina by a former husband, was made emperor at seventeen years of age. He exceeded 122 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. all description in folly, extravagance and crime. His violence and barbarity fell generally on the patricians and members of his court, but he was esteemed by the common people, as were most of the emperors, who spent vast sums on theatres and spectacles for their amusement. The two bases of the empire were the populace and the army. The emperor was terrible and tyrannical chiefly to the patricians, while the army made him formidable to the provinces and the barbarians. A conflagration which some attributed to the orders 64 of Nero lasted nine days and destroyed the greater part of Rome. Nero cast the blame on the Christians, who had become numerous, and raised a horrible per- secution against them. 66 The Jews rebelled and defied the Roman Empire. 68 Nero was dethroned by the Roman senate and army r and committed suicide to avoid punishment for his crimes. 69 Three emperors, Galba, Otho and Vitellius, were placed on the throne in succession, but rebellions were raised against them and all were put to death. Vespasian, then besieging Jerusalem, was proclaimed emperor by his army at the desire of the rulers of the eastern prov- inces, and, in the same year, overcame all opposition and commenced the first reign since Augustus that was free from disgraceful profligacy and public crime. 70 Titus, the son of Vespasian, captured and destroyed Jerusalem. Vespasian, during a reign of ten years,, restored order and prosperity to Rome and the empire,, but not without great labor and danger. 79 Titus succeeded as emperor, and was remarkable for his clemency and care for his subjects. During his reign occurred the most fearful eruption of the volcano Vesuvius on record. Herculaneum and Pompeii, two wealthy and flourishing cities, were destroyed, being THE CHRISTIAN ERA. 123 buried by the ashes. Pliny, an eminent writer, was suffocated while observing the eruption. 81 Titus died, to the great grief and loss of mankind, and was succeeded by his brother, Domitian, who was one of the most infamous rulers that ever desolated the earth. He raised a violent persecution against the Christians for refusing to adore his statues and wor- ship him as a god. Among the victims was his own cousin, Clemens, who had embraced Christianity. He 96 was assassinated by his wife and officers in self-defense, and the senate proclaimed Nerva, a native of Crete, emperor. He was remarkable for his lenity and all the gentle virtues. He was followed, after a reign of two 98 years, by Trajan, whom he had adopted as his colleague and successor, who is said to have been the greatest and most deserving person of his time. He was, by birth, a Spaniard, was wise and successful as a warrior and statesman, and extremely noble as a man. He bridged the Danube and the Euphrates rivers and conquered both the Germans and Parthians on the north and east of the empire. A stain on his memory was the perse- cution of the Christians. 117 He was succeeded by Adrian, in whose reign all the Roman laws, or annual edicts of the praetors, were compiled into one body, and law assumed the dignity of a science. He promoted literature, but continued the persecution of the Christians. A rebellion of the 139 Jews was punished with merciless severity. He was followed by Antoninus Pius, who suspended all perse- cution of Christians, promoted the best interests of all parts of the empire, and introduced, during a prosper- ous reign of twenty-two years, the most important reforms into every part of the government. 161 Marcus Aurelius, called the Philosopher, succeeded. He carried on a successful war with the Germans, and made the welfare of his subjects his special care, but 124 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. was seduced, by the pagan philosophers, into a perse- cution of the Christians. Having discovered his error he stopped it, toward the close of his reign. Com- 180 modus, his son, inherited the purple. He also inher- ited a vicious and cruel disposition, and received a demoralizing education from his mother. He was a monster of vice and cruelty. He was assassinated in 192 his bed by his own family and guards to save their lives. Pertinax reigned three months, but, attempting to restrain the license of the soldiery, he was murdered by them. The soldiers in Rome then proclaimed that the empire was for sale, and a rich merchant, Didius, bought it from them and reigned in Rome two months, 193 when he was also slain by the army. Septimus Sev- erus, an able general, seized the purple which he secured against many rivals, and retained for eighteen years. His vigor alone prevented general anarchy, but he was systematically cruel. 211 Caracalla, his son, succeeded. He was a bloody and atrocious tyrant, supported on the throne only by his soldiers, whose aid he secured by large pay. He was 217 murdered by the commander of his guards, Macrinus, who succeeded in acquiring his place, but was soon 218 murdered by the soldiers. They raised Heliogabalus, a young Syrian priest of fourteen years of age, through the assurance of his female relatives that he was the son of Caracalla, to the purple. He is described as the most cruel and infamous of all the Roman emperors. 222 After four years of horrible crime, he was slain in a mutiny of his guard and his body thrown into the Tiber. Alexander Severns, succeeded. He was appa- rently a secret admirer of Christianity and a model 235 prince. He was murdered by Maximin, a Thracian peasant, who had. by his valor, risen to high command in the arrny, who seized the reins of power. He was successful in war, but h?.s severity provoked mutiny in THE CHRISTIAN ERA. 125 238 various parts of the empire, and lie was slain by his own soldiers. Gordian succeeded, a heroic youth of a noble family. He was successful in war, but was mur- 244 dered by his own prime minister, Philip, an Arabian, who became emperor. lit- tiivored the Christians, and reigned five years. In his reign, the thousandth year of the foundation of Rome was celebrated by public 249 games. He was slain in a revolt by Decins, the general of his army, who occupied the throne. He raised a most violent storm of persecution against the Chris- tians, who were despoiled of their goods and driven to caves and deserts. From this time is dated the sect of 250 anchorites, or hermits, who imagined they could acquire superior holiness by abandoning society and devoting themselves to meditation and prayer. The idea appears to have been derived from the Persian Magians, who, in this century restored the ancient dynasty and religion of the Persians, or Parsees, in Persia. During the political and social disorganization that soon commenced the anchorites became numerous, and the system was extensively prevalent for a thousand years to the great injury of active and true Christianity. 251 Decius was slain in a battle with the Goths, who had invaded the empire, and Gallus became emperor. 253 He was put to death by Emilianus, who attempted to seize the reins of government, but the army elected Valerian, governor of Gaul. The empire was invaded by the Goths on the north and the Persians under their king, Sapor, on the east. From this time, it had to 259 fight for its life. Valerian was defeated by Sapor and remained nine years in captivity, Gallienus, his son, becoming emperor. He was extremely incompetent and a multitude of rival claimants for the supreme authority arose in all directions. They were called the "Thirty Tyrants." One of them, Odenatus, king of Palmyra, in the Syrian desert, defeated Sapor, and 126 THE FOOTPIilNTS OF TIME. Gallieims proclaimed him his colleague. On the death of Odenatus, his wife, Zenobia, assumed the title of " Queen of the East," conquered Egypt and ruled a wide region with success and splendor. Both Goths 262 and Persians invaded Asia Minor. Gallienus was mnr- 268 dered and Claudius succeeded. He defeated the Goths 270 but died in a pestilence. Atirelian succeeded. He was an able general. He subdued the Germans and 272 Goths, and conquered Zenobia, one of the most rernark- 275 able women of history. Aurelian was assassinated by some victims of his severity, and Tacitus, a Roman senator succeeded, but died in seven months, and was followed by Probus. He was a vigorous general, and drove back the barbarians on all sides, but attempting to employ his soldiers in labor on public works, they 282 revolted and murdered him. Carus, the captain of the 283 imperial guard, was raised to the throne. Dying the next year, his sons, Carinus and Kumerianus, inherited his authority, but Numerianus was assassinated in a 284 few months by his father-in-law, and Diocletian, said to have been formerly a slave, was proclaimed emperor by the army. This was called " The Era of the Martyrs," from the long and bloody persecutions against the Chris- tians. This was the tenth general attack on them, and proved to be the last. The barbarians pressing in great force on all sides, Diocletian appointed several colleagues, and their united ability drove the invaders back. 305 Diocletian resigned his power to Galerius, who appointed three associates, making a division of the empire. One of these, Constantius, died in Britain, and was BUC- 306 ceeded by his son, Constantine. For a time, there were six emperors, but one was killed, Galerius died, and Constantine conquered the others. 312 Constantine changed the whole character of the empire by embracing Christianity and relying largely on that T1IK CHRISTIAN KRA. 127 element for the support of his power, while he disbanded the Pretorian, or royal Guard, which had for two hun- dred years assumed to make and unmake emperors, and whose example, imitated by the other armies, kept the world periodically disturbed by the disputes and battles of rival claimants to the imperial purple. By the 313 edict of Milan, Constantino abolished all laws unfriendly to Christianity; he restored the authority of the senate and magistrates, and removed his capital from Rome to Constantinople. 324 The pagan element was now so worn and decrepid that no general disorders resulted. Whatever was left ral- lied under Licinus, who was conquered by Constantino. It appears to have been the strength of the Christian element and its essential hostility to the Roman prin- ciple of violent subjugation that produced so many and fierce persecutions. Had it not been for the pressure of barbarians on the empire the prevalence of that sys- tem would have preserved society and the state for a thousand years more, as it actually did in the Eastern empire; but every thing that man has the management of must be affected by his limitations, his mistakes and his follies. Christianity needed a better ally, a fresher and purer society, built up by the young blood and bet- ter instincts of another and newer people. Constantino paid great respect to the clergy of the church and took a leading part in its general counsels a great mistake and a great misfortune. 325 His spiritual supremacy was virtually acknowledged at the council of Nice which he convoked. 330 Constantino died leaving his vast dominions to his three sons, who, in the course of ten years, were reduced to one, Constantius. After a troubled reign of twenty 361 years more, he died, and was succeeded by his cousin Julian, called the "Apostate," from his renouncing Christianity and laboring to restore the pagan religion. 128 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. In this he signally failed. He undertook to rebuild the Jewish temple at Jerusalem, without success. 363 He was mortally wounded in an invasion of Persia, and was succeeded by Jovian, who restored imperial favor 364 to the Christian religion. He died after one years reign. and Yalentinian was elected emperor by the council of ministers and generals. He divided the empire with his brother ; Yalens, and afterward Rome and Constanti- nople usually had each an emperor. Valentinian died 375 and was succeeded by his son, Gratiau. 378 The Huns appeared in Europe, having wandered from the borders of China, and defeated Valens with dread- ful slaughter. Yalens himself was among the slain. This was the commencement of the great migrations that finally overwhelmed the Roman Empire of the west. 379 Gratian, left sole emperor, appointed Theodosius, called The Great, his colleague, who subdued the Goths, repelled the Huns, and restored order. 383 Gratian was murdered by the usurper Maximus. 388 Theodosius conquered and put Maximus to death and 1 restored Yalentinian II., brother of Gratian, to the throne of the western empire. In a few years the whole 394 empire was reunited by the death of Yalentinian. Theodosius soon died, universally lamented, leaving the two empires to his sons, Honorius and Arcadius. 402 Alaric, the Goth, invaded Italy and, though defeated, endangered the safety of Rome. 408 Theodosius II. succeeded to the empire of the east. 410 Alaric again invaded Italy and sacked Rome. Alaric soon after died and his forces were pursuaded, by nego- tiations, to leave Italy, but they permanently established themselves in Spain and Southern Gaul (France). Thus the empire began to fall to pieces. 425 Honorius died and Yalentinian III. became emperor. 429 The Yandals soon conquered the Roman provinces in THE RISE OF MODERN NATIONS. 129 Africa, under their king, Genseric. They extended 440 their conquests to Sicily. 447 Attila, called the "Scourge of God," appeared at the head of the Huns, and Theodosius made a humiliating treaty with him to save his dominions from desolation. 448 In the next year the Saxons and Angles were invited into Britain by the civilized Romans, to protect them from the Picts and Scots, and laid the foundation of the modern Anglo-Saxon race, and the Franks invaded Gaul laying the foundations of the modern kingdom of France. England received its name from the Angles France from the Franks. 451 Attila, the Hun, invaded Gaul, and was defeated at 452 Chalons, by the united Romans and Visigoths. Attila then invaded Italy and laid it waste, but died before ho 454 had completed the ruin of the empire. Valentinian III. was murdered, and the Vandals from Sicily invaded Italy and sacked Rome. SECTION XIIL , THE RISE OF MODERN NATIONS. 476 After a succession of puppet emperors in Rome, Odoacer abolished the name and took the title of king of Italy. He was a German in command of the auxiliaries in Roman pay. Thus ended, in disaster and disgrace, the once mighty Roman Empire. Its ruin was gradual and the barbarians who overthrew it had already embraced Christianity, so that the institutions of the church did not share its fall. 486 Clovis, king of the Franks, defeated the Romans and Gauls at the battle of Soissons. The Ostrogoths invaded 492 Italy under Theodoric the Great, deposed Odoacer, and founded a new kingdom. 496 Clovis defeated the invading Germans and embraced 500 Christianity. Clovis next defeated the Burgundians. 9 130 THE FOOTFKINT8 OF TIME, 507 He subdued the Yisigoths and all France was united under one rule. He was of the Merovingian line, or dynasty, of kings, which lasted over two hundred years, during which the remains of Roman civilization and the influence of the church were gradually modifying and penetrating the character of a view and energetic race. 527 Justinian became the ruler of the Eastern or Grecian Empire. 534 His generals waged war with the Vandals in Africa and the Ostrogoths in Italy, and after eighteen years of conflict, succeeded in reconquering part of Italy, which the Greek emperors continued to hold nominally for about three hundred years; the seat of their repre- sentative being at Ravenna. He was called an Exarch. Rome itself was left, substantially, to the control of the Christian bishop. When the Lombards founded a king- 568 dom in the north of Italy they were prevented, by the exarch and bishop, from spreading over the southern part; and when the exarch threatened to become too powerful to suit the views of the bishop, he supported the Lombards. Thus the temporal or political power of the popes arose, and they were the politic authors of the "Balance of Power" theory, or system, that has played so large a part in European history. The result has been exceedingly favorable to progress in all direc- tions, since it has secured the independence of states, and a more various and perfect civilization by the develop- ment of the special genius of each people. Many cir- cumstances conspired to support this idea, in later times, and render it very prominent and influential. This gradual advance of the bishop of Rome in political influence associated him with the mighty memories of the "Eternal City," and suggested the idea of a spiritual empire over all Christendom, which gradually became realized and quite changed the char- THB RISK OF MODERN NATIONS. 131 acter of Christianity for near 800 years. Hurtful as it ultimately became, by reviving a universal despotism over conscience and freedom of thought, it was long powerful for good by giving a common centre to Europe, broken into fragments as it was by the rise of feudalism. That was disorganizing; this was centraliz- ing, and kept the channels of communication open and the missionary spirit and the elements of a restored learning in activity. Its influence in commencing and carry ing forward the crusades, which substantially broke the strength of feudalism, was of immense import- ance. 622 Mahomet arose in the Arabian peninsula, and his new religion spread with astonishing rapidity. In one hun- 732 dred years from the death of Mahomet the Saracens had established a vast empire, covering two thirds of the Roman empire, viz.: all of the old Persian empire, Egypt, and all of nothern Africa and Spain, and threat- ened to inundate Europe. They poured a vast army over the Pyrenees into Fiance. This was defeated in a great battle at Tours, by Charles Martel, who founded a new dynasty, replacing the Merovingian, called the Carlovingian, and made France the most powerful, as it became the leading, nation in Europe, for promoting civilization during many centuries. By this means the center of political influence, " The Star of Empire," took another step westward. His son, Pepin le Bref, or the Short, caused himself to be 752 crowned king of France by the Roman Pontiff, Stephen II, which added to his own prestige, as it also did to that of the pope. It was a sort of league between the rising temporal and spiritual powers in Europe, and set an example long followed. Charlemagne, or Charles the Great, the son of Pepin, ascended the throne in 771, 771 and by his intelligence, energy, and wise statesmanship, by his encouragement of learning, his organizing talents THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. and his success in conquering and civilizing the seeth- ing mass of nationalities in Germany, he may be said to have really founded modern civilization during his long reign of forty-three years. He conquered the Lombard kingdom in Italy, and was crowned by the pope, Adrian I, " Emperor of the Romans," kneeling at the altar in Rome; but he virtually confirmed the temporal author- ity of the popes, and associated their influence in all his conquests. He thoroughly broke the spirit of the pagan Saxons, in northwestern Germany, by a war of thirty-three years, carried his conquests east over most of the present Austrian empire, civilizing and bringing the barbarians into the pale of Christendom by the aid of Christian missionaries, and conquered some portions of Spain from the Saracens. It seemed as if the history of the western Roman Empire, which had fallen three hundred years before, was to be repeated. That was the hope and dream of both Charlemagne and the Roman Pontiff, who joined hands to realize it. This new western emperor had great abilities and the church was very strong. The centre of Europe had so long been within the reach of civilizing influences, and had attained such a point of development in its various nationalities, that they read- ily accepted permanent institutions r when presented by a power so strong as that of the mighty Frank ruler. But when he died, it was found that there was no other hand strong enough to wield his sceptre. All the memories of the old empire, all the influence of the Christian church, the remains of the Roman organiza- tion, and the ripening vigor of new races, which had begun to lay aside their barbarous impulses, were united to aid the vast designs of this great statesman. But the tendencies of the new society, in general, were in a different direction. The Germanic civilization was totally different from the Roman, and had there been THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 133 a succession of rulers as large minded and strong willed as Charlemagne, they could not have repeated the his- tory of the ancient world. The tendency of the races that overthrew the empire was invincibly against cen- tralization, and instead of a new Roman Empire in western Europe, appeared the Feudal System. SECTION XIV. THE FEUDAL 8YSTKM. 1. Tliis system was the direct opposite of centralization. Under it all Christendom broke up into fragments; the king exerted but a loose general control, that continued to decrease for several centuries; and most of the real authority was exerted by the feudal lords from their fortified castles, which, for three hundred years, had been springing up over all the territory conquered from the Romans. It had its true origin in the marked personal assertion, the strong individuality of the Teutonic Race, which was, and is, one of its most promi- nent traits. While in their native barbarous state their armies were formed for their expeditions of foreign conquest, that proved so fatal to the Romans, on the voluntary principle. The prowess and fame of a leader, or chief, drew to him a multitude of warriors, longing for activity and booty. So long as he could lead them to success, to gain their individual ends, they obeyed him. When he failed to reward their am- bition they held themselves free to leave him. 2. It was not immense disciplined armies, but innumera- ble bands, organized in this way, that, through a long course of years, gradually overran Britain, Gaul, Spain and Italy. For four hundred years the civilized world had been accus- tomed to the control and protection of a distant ruler whose powerful armies rendered resistance Y a i n > a d all thought of organization for self-protection against the terrible barbarians was wanting when they were attacked. Each city or region defended itself as well as possible, or submitted at once. The 134 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. conquerors took what they wanted and passed on to other lands, or spread themselves out over the province. They usually settled in the country parts, fortifying the countiy seats of the richer inhabitants, or building themselves castles near the larger towns, to hold them in awe. The leader con- sidered himself the owner of the conquered territory, and divided it among his followers, who settled themselves, each in his new domain, as its owner and ruler. The conquered inhabitants were his subjects from whom he took tribute. The conquerors were few in number in proportion to the con- quered; but there was little resistance throughout the old Roman provinces. Organization and spirit were wanting ta them, and resistance would provoke complete ruin, since the conqueror could easily call to his aid any nunxber of his fel- lows in return for a share of the spoils. Thus they gave what was demanded and made themselves content with what was left. The cities paid tribute, the cultivators gave a portion of their harvests to the new rulers. The territory not given to- his followers was considered the property of the original leader. In return for the gift each of the recipients of ter- ritory was held bound to aid him in his wars, and each larger chief stood in similar relations to the king of his tribe or nation. Out of this grew, at length, what was called the Feudal System, feudal being derived, by some, from the old German words "fee," salary, and "od," landed possessions a payment, or salary, in land, for services rendered, with a certain obligation to the giver. 3. The kings of the Franks the German nation that conquered Gaul up to the time of Charlemagne, labored to- consolidate their power and rule like the Roman emperors. But the genius of their race and the peculiarities of the sit- uation were both opposed to that purpose. Charles MarteJ, Pepin, his son, and Charlemagne, his grandson, were all rulers of great vigor, and the last, apparently, succeeded for a time. But the military strength lay only in the scattered feudal THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 135 chieftains, each of whom sought to build up his own power on his own estates. It was not possible to maintain a strong central government for any length of time, or under an ordi- nary man. For two hundred years these petty lords grew in strength at the expense of the king. They were still held to him by the necessity of supporting him in war, by a system of checks, which, in time, were increased, and still more enlarged, when the people began to make themselves felt in the twelfth century; but from the fifth to the fifteenth cen- tury feudalism was the prevailing system in all the civilized European nations. 4. It was a very rude and violent period, but some of the most happy traits of modern life grew out of it. The isola- tion of the feudal lord in his fortified chateau or castle, where his wife and children were his only equals, combined with the constant influence of the church, gradually elevated the con- dition of the woman, the rudeness and violence of the time were modified by the rise of chivalry, which was, in great part, founded on this new respect for the gentler sex, and sym- pathy for her helpless condition when exposed, without a pow- ful protector, to unrestrained insolence and passion; and the feudal system held all the elements of society in suspense until the mighty forces revived learning, the printing press, and a new commerce and industry were ready to take a prominent part in making it what we now find it far supe- rior to the old society. 5. Feudalism held men apart, and individually subject to the refining influence of Christian precepts, from the fifth to the ninth century, when the romantic practice of chivalry became popular as a relief from the tedium of isolation, and a channel for the flow of the softer sentiments of respect for woman, of compassion for weakness, and, at the same time, a vent for the martial spirit which the constant conflicts of the time cultivated. The age of chivalry indicates that Chris- tianity was powerfully moulding the character of the new- nations. Working on qualities as stern and rude as those of 136 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. the old Roman of the Republic, its partial control, the begin- nings of its power, were manifested in a romantic way. The isolation of feudal life, and a sense of wrong in employing all their energies in unceasing contests of ambition produced the chivalric outbreak and the crusades. The knights of chivalry were feudal lords and gentlemen, trained in all the warlike arts of the period and in all the courtesies which the new influence of female society produced. When starting forth as knight-errants, they were exhorted by the stern feudal war- rior to valor, and by the Christian priest to gentleness toward the weak and defenseless, and they made it the business of life to wander about on horseback incased in armor, dis- playing their warlike accomplishments and combatting petty tyranny. There was little power in the king to right the wrongs of his subjects, and brutal violence in the feudal lords had no other effectual punishment. Chivalry flourished for more than five hundred years; but its most useful days were from 1000 to 1200. It was the first, and seems to later times a somewhat amusing indication of a more humane social state than the world had ever known. 6. The crusades commenced about 1100, the object being to rescue the sepulcher of the founder of Christianity from unbelievers. It first engaged the sympathy of the people at large, then of the feudal nobility and finally interested the ambition of kings. For two hundred years a large part of the best blood of Europe was poured out in Palestine in a vain eifort to expel the Saracens from it. The transportation of armaments and supplies to that country from various parts of Europe gradually led to commerce and skill in navigation; eo much of ancient civilization and knowledge as still existed in the Eastern, or Greek Empire at Constantinople, was intro- duced into modern Europe, which at the same time was re- lieved of its more turbulent and adventurous elements; and a heavy blow was given to the smaller feudal proprietors by the expense incurred in a distant expedition where they died without issue, reduced their families to poverty, or whence THE LIBERTIES OF THE PEOPLE. 137 they returned penniless to mortgaged estates. It rapidly hastened the movement, begun by other influences, to reduce the number of feudal proprietors, and render government more vigorous over increasingly large territories. SECTION XV. \ THE LIBERTIES OF THE PEOPLE. 1. Between 1000 and 1200 the independent and enterpris- ing spirit the individualism that we have seen at the base of European character, and which first produced the Feudal System, began to move among the masses in various ways and laid the foundation for that influence of the People that was afterward to become the most powerful element in political life. It first presented itself in the development of industrial arts and commerce in cities which obtained, as corporations, the rights, or a part of the rights, of the feudal proprietor, which they proceeded to exercise under the form of Free Cities in Germany, privileged Communes in France and commercial Republics in Italy. 2, A second development, highly favorable some centuries later to the reaction of popular freedom against centralizing despotism in the government, was the religious protest against the claims of the church over freedom of thought. This spirit grew up in Germany, and its first remote beginnings are to be found in the imperial title conferred by the pope on Charle- magne. In the course of time (A. D. 963) that title was inher- ited by the German rulers who, for a long time, struggled for the control of Italy and a feudal superiority over the popes. This was carried on for two centuries with much acrimony, in which the terms Guelph, the general name of those who supported the side of the popes, and Ghibellines, of those who rallied to the emperor, came to be the watchwords of Germany and Italy. The popes triumphed in this contest, which pre- vented the establishment of a vast and powerful political des- 138 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. potism, and gave the chnrch a temporal kingdom in a part of Italy, with an immense spiritual empire highly embar- rassing to free mental growth. The reaction against this spiritual control produced the Protestant Reformation of the sixteenth century, in which was wrapped up the germ of mod era Republicanism. 3. The Crusades loosened the bonds of Feudalism, taught nations and rulers to act together to gain a common object, enlarged the experiences of men immensely, and cultivated and organized the spirit of personal adventure which afterwarda expended itself on commerce. It was at about the crisis of this period (1215, A. D.) that the Magna Charta the foundation of English constitutional liberty was produced; that the Hanseatic League and Free Cities began to flourish in Germany; the commercial republics of Venice, Genoa and Florence rose in Italy ; and the communal corporations in France sprang up. They were all more or lesa stimulated by influences growing out of the Crusades, and brought forward the people and their distinct and separate interests and activities into political importance. This waa the beginning of an entirely new order of things, which re- quired a new continent for its full development. 4. A first circumstance, above all favorable to the libertie? of the people, was the Invention of Printing, producing rapid diffusion of information, the coincident revival of learning and the foundation of modern science. All these, working together with various other agencies, gradually swept awaj feudalism, checked the towering spiritual tyranny of the churc] and corrected a crowd of minor evils that embarrassed society , enterprise, and progress in the science of government. The intermediate stage in this progress appeared like a return to old principles. The dissolution of feudalism left the govern- ments of Europe centralized. The lords inheriting feudal rights had become intolerable despots. For a certain period the authority of the king was the bulwark behind which the. people sheltered themselves from the oppressions of their THE LIBERTIES OF THE PEOPLE, 139 fendal superiors, and they united with him to reduce the feudal nobility to the comparatively harmless condition of the modern aristocracy, whose greatest distinction is social pre-eminence. It left them, indeed, a high, but not overwhelming, position in the body politic, which the growing education and wealth of the middle and lower classes constantly tended to reduce. This change was commencing when America was discovered. The feudal chiefs labored to extend and strengthen their power at the expense of each other, of the king and the people. The increasing activity and importance of commerce, trade and in- dustry required the support of a broad legislation that could not be obtained while nations were broken up into petty lord- ships, principalities and kingdoms almost independent of each other, and whose rulers were often hostile to or at war with each other; while the support of so many rulers became a heavy burden on the resources of the people. The king rep- resented the nation and was the rallying point of reform. To strengthen him was to promote the larger interests of the country. 5. For these reasons, and from the resistance offered by the feudal institutions, which had existed a thousand years, authority became centralized in the monarch to an extru\;i- gant degree, and this at a time when freer institutions were most required by the larger and wiser views of the people. The great usefulness of the Roman Catholic Church in civil- izing and educating the modern nations and founding a center or common bond between them, which produced a degree of unity in their progress, had continually added to her po\v r, while the disposition to free thought was ever becoming more pronounced. Thus two despotic forces, each claiming absolute obedience in their respective spheres, were rising in strength to a degree extremely embarrassing to the growing intelli- gence and increased activities of the commonalty. The tradi- tional authority of the church and the king came, in the course of a hundred years after the discovery of America, to 140 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. Directly oppose the most important interests and instincts of mankind. 6. The progress of the people, as distinct from that of their governments, may then be described as starting in the last great service done for Europe by the church the organ- ization of the Crusades. The feudal system separated men too much for healthy progress, and this singular display of religious zeal united the various nationalities in a common effort, and stirred up powers that had long slumbered. It was in this period that the adventurous and comprehensive activities of modern life commenced. Wealth had been largely confined to the feudal nobility. It now began to flow out through the general community. The nobles expended vast sums in fitting out princely retinues to lead to the Holy Land, for which their estates were security. They died, or returned penniless, and their lands passed into the hands of the commercial classes, whose successful diligence had made them wealthy. It was the first heavy blow to feudal institu- tions, and laid the foundation of the power of the people. Corporations and cities which had obtained the rights of feudal proprietors, employed them for the purposes of self- government, and so used an instrument of despotism to shield and sustain a virtual democracy. With this freedom of action, popular liberty, controlled in a general way by feudal obligations to the prince, king, or emperor, grew fast and strong protected by the growing despotisms of the church and the state. The Ilanseatic League, in the north of Germany, was, in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, perhaps as wealthy and powerful as any king or emperor in Christendom; and in the sixteenth, the small commercial province of the Netherlands could defy the whole power of Spain, with the wealth of the Indies at her back. 7. The revival of learning, and the invention of the art of printing, gave an immense impulse to this uprising of the people, commenced near three hundred years before; about the same time the Portuguese discovered the way to India by THE SITUATION ON THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 141 tbe Cape of Good Hope, Columbus threw open the "Gates of the "West," and the wealth of both Indies flowed in a full stream through the channels of commerce and trade; that ia to say, into the hands of the busy and industrious people. All events seemed to conspire to build up a base for the power and development of the commonalty. This growing intelligence and strength among the masses, with the habit of ruling themselves under feudal forms, made a conflict with the two arrogant despotisms inevitable in the near future. Feudal institutions were still a serious and vex- atious embarrassment to freedom of movement, and a very heavy tax on industry, and the only legal way to remove it was by strengthening the central or kingly power, which con- tinued to increase for more than a hundred years; but the conflict with priestly despotism was entered on at once. A vast rebellion against the church commenced, called "The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century," which embraced nearly all the most enterprising and commercial nations. SECTION XVI. THE SITUATION ON THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 1. We have said that great men were a kind of summary of the tendencies of their period ; an expression of a wide- spread thought or state of mind, which their fortunate combi- nation of faculties and more favorable circumstances enabled them first to state, or embody, with distinctness; that the great following they obtained, and the extensive influence which enabled them to make great changes, were due to a coincident development in their generation of the same thoughts and tendencies. This explains the existence of eras in all depart- ments of life. Men grow, or progress, silently, from one to the other ; when the general progress has reached the suitable point it breaks out in a leader more bold and positive than the rest. The discovery of America was such an era; and the sudden 142 THE FOOTPRINTS Of TIME. advance in many ways at about the same time was the result of gradual growth during many centuries. It was shown by the sudden appearance of great men in different spheres. Columbus lived in the midst of a great era. Printing, the use of the compass, the science of astronomy and the successful protest against spiritual despotism all commenced their great career just before, or just after him. The great painters, whose works are now so much esteemed, were all living in 1500. Copernicus discovered the true planetary system in the year Columbus died. Gunpowder, which enabled Cortez to conquer the Mexican Empire, came into general use about the same period. Luther commenced the Reformation, while the first adventurers were creeping, with amazed curiosity, around the shores of the American continent. The foundation of all the sciences was then laid. Correct principles were enunciated for religion, government and thought; and the laws of nature, of human relations and of religious liberty were promulgated almost simultaneously.^ 2. But not all the European nations, and not all of anyone nation, were prepared for this vast advance. The southern part of Germany, and the people in general in southern Europe, resisted what they regarded as a dangerous innovation, and the reform spread only north and west. The close connection instituted by Constantine between church and state, which was renewed under Charlemagne, raised at this time, a long series of religious wars, which contributed to embarrass Protestant- ism in the same way by the necessity under which it lay, (or supposed it lay,) of seeking the protection of princes. Luther's reorganized church became the state religion of northern Europe, and fell under government control in Switzerland and Holland. Henry VIII. of England, while yielding, like a true Englishman, to the general tendency of his people, in taking the reformed faith under his protection constituted himself its head. In the long contest between Catholic and Protestant, it became apparent that full religious liberty was not then pos- THE SITUATION ON THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 143 sible in Europe; and the more, that a political element was involved in the contest Free thought naturally led to free institutions, and the leading European governments were, by the breaking up of feudalism, centralized and made more despotic than ever. Thus its tendency to political revolution organized strong governments against it, or pre- vented its development by the check of governmental supremacy. 3. While this contest was working itself out in the firm establishment of Protestantism under state patronage in north- ern Europe, and its entire extinction in the stronger and more conservative southern monarchies, the discovery and subjuga- tion of Mexico and Pern, with their wealth of precious metals and tropical productions, together with the trade with the East Indies by the Cape of Good Hope, passage to which was discov- ered before the daring venture of Columbus, had greatly enriched Europe. A large part of this wealth passed immediately, or in process of time, into the hands of the people as the result of per- sonal adventure or of the activity of commerce, trade and indus- try. The maritime regions of northern Germany, Holland and England gathered much of this golden fruit; the maritime republics of Italy fell into decay; and Spain spent its vast treas- ures in war. It was led to this suicidal policy by various royal marriages which united the German Empire, Spain and the Netherlands under one scepter. This vast ascendancy, united with great wealth, excited the alarm of other nations, and con- tributed to strengthen the Reformation. The Protestant princes of Germany and the king of France united to reduce this dangerous pre-eminence in order to uphold the existing nationalities of Europe, or the Balance of Power, as it was called. Thus the emperor, Charles V., was led to ponr out the treasures of Mexico and Peru to sustain his political aspirations, and his wars turned the wealth of the Indies into the channels of commerce and industry. His successor, Philip II., still uniting Spain and the Nether- lands, undertook to crush the reformed faith in the latter states. 144: THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. and failed in a war of nearly half a century. This vast expense- made Spain, the richest country of Europe, the poorest, still to the profit of commerce and the greater strength of Protest- ant lands. The United Netherlands hecame free Protestant states and remarkably prosperous. 4. The English people advanced in laying the foundations of a free constitution from the time of the Magna Charta in 1215. They became strongly Protestant, and finally their commons engaged in a contest with the king, Charles I., for the maintenance of popular rights. He resisted to the last extremity, and the commons precipitated a revolution that dethroned and beheaded him, and established a republic. This was premature and expired with the great leader, Cromwell, who had successfully headed it. Eoyal power was restored, but a few years later was rearranged and so modified as to be suited to the independent but moderate tendencies of the peo- ple. A certain part of the English people, however, aspired to more complete liberty than a monarchy could afford them, and passed over the sea to secure freedom of conscience and political enfranchisement in the New World. "With the moderate and steady maintenance of their rights, character? stic of Englishmen, they were governed under chart- ers from the English sovereigns who, for the sake of extending their dominions, allowed them much freedom. European governments could not conform to the demands of progress by loosening the bands of arbitrary rule, and the new colonies became the refuge of such as aspired to more liberal institu- tions, as well as of adventurers in search of gain. Thus the English colonies became the escape valve of European politics and society, the Appendix of the Reformation, and the Hope of Liberty. SECTION XVH. CONCLUSION. 1. We see here again the oporation of the constant law that impelled men, or moved the " Star of Empire," west- CONCLUSION. 145 ward. The form of the continents, the character of the sur- face and the climate, provided a natural and desirable opening only in that direction. The overplus of population, the dis. content of some part of the people with existing government, the restlessness of adventurers, or the requirements of trade and commerce produced a migration. The colony, instructed by the experience of the parent state, was free to improve on its institutions. Colonies have almost always prospered more than the mother country. Transplanting seemed to improve both the stock and the institutions. Greece was colonized from Asia, as was Rome; Miletus, Syracuse, and other Greek colonies excelled the mother cities in wealth, and though the free structure of Grecian government allowed a natural devel- opment at home and made Athens the metropolis, yet its marvelous genius was nourished and stimulated by the colo- nies. Carthage was greater and stronger than Tyre, and contended with Rome for the control of the world; the most western nations of Europe were colonized from Rome and Germany, and have taken the lead in later progress, while America has always displaced the lusty, fertile vigor of a young life. Thus the conformation of the surface of the earth, and the peculiarly fruitful character of a transplanted civilization, have always furnished an escape from the embarrassing fixity of an old state, in the same western direction, and the old and the new unite to establish frequent stages of progress. In this way a continuous growth has been secured that impresses on advancing culture the same unity, from first to last, that we see in the growth and mental development of the individual man. 2. We have seen the aggregation and primary discipline of mankind in the simple but extensive despotisms of western Asia, raried in Palestine by a theocratic system which has produced the world's great religion, and in Egypt by the pre- dominance of a learned priestly caste. We saw an improve- ment made in Greece to meet the demands of intellectual 10 146 THE FOOTPRINTS OK TIME. development. Their intelligence, however, was a spontaneous outburst, of necessity immature. Two thousand years of training, and the addition of many new elements were required before rnind could rule the world; but Greece, by the attractiveness of her art and culture, set men at work on the great problem of politics and life. Rome followed to organize government and consolidate the civilizations, to ripen their fruit and transmit the seed to a more favorable time, and to new and better races. A com- plete civilization was impossible without well digested science, which had its remote roots in Greece; and law, which was gradually produced by the grand Roman republic; and a clear understanding of the profound yet simple precepts of Jesus Christ. 3. Western Europe received all the wisdom and experience of the ancient world, and labored well at the grand problem though she did not completely solve it. She, however, made an immense advance toward it, and her children, rich in her experience, instructed at once by her success and her mis- takes, and aided always by her witdom, found (let us hope) in America the goal of their noblest aspirations. Thus we find the spirit of progress traversing the whole course of human history, constantly advancing through all the confu- sion of rising and falling states, of battle, siege and slaughter, of victory and defeat; through the varying fortunes and ulti- mate extinction of monarchy, republic and empire; through barbaric irruption and desolation, feudal isolation, spiritual supremacy, the heroic rush and conflict of the Cross and the Crescent; amid the busy hum of industry, through the marts of trade and behind the gliding keels of commerce; through the bloody conflicts of commons, nobles, kings and kaisers to New and Free America. There the Englishman, the German, the Frenchman, the Italian, the Scandinavian, the Asiatic and the African all meet as equals. There they are free to speak, to think, and to act. They bring their common contributions of character, energy and activity to the support and enlarge- r< INCLUSION. 147 ment of a common country, and the spread of its influence and enlightenment through all the lands of their origin. As America is the common ground on which all the currents and ideas of all the civilizations meet, so also it is the point from which return currents, hastened by lightning and by steam, seek again every quarter of the earth with kindly greetings, to renew the relations broken in the original separation of the races, and to cement, by exchanges mutually profitable, a new and better unity of mankind. As the heart in the human body receives the current of blood from #11 parts of the system, and, having revitalized it, returns it with fresh elements of strength, so America adopts the children of ;ill lands only to return a manhood ennobled by a sense of its own dignity through the practice of a system of self-govern- ment which improves the condition and promotes the inter- est of each while it produces harm to none. 4. America, then, will colonize Ideas, extensively, when her institutions are thoroughly matured. The process, indeed, commenced with her birth, and her Spirit sails with her ships in every sea and visits all lands. All the past has contributed to the excellence of her foundation, and modern Europe has supplied her with the most desirable building material both of ideas and of men. Without Asia, Greece and Rome, there would have been a very imperfect modern Europe; and without modern Europe, America must have begun at the beginning, with all the lessons, discoveries and discipline of thousands of years to learn. Happily, we seem authorized to believe that, as she concludes the possible great migrations of humanity, she has so well learned the lessons of experience as to have given due flexibility and capacity of improvement to all her institutions, and, when necessary can reconstruct herself within herself. If this be true, she will reach the goal of all progress by furnishing to each individual among her citizens such aid as a state can give to make the most of himself, to reach the fullest expression of his value. CHAPTEE II. THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. r 1. Civilization, or the history of it, at least, commenced in the Eastern continent. The Western was, until a compara- tively recent period, quite unknown to those who recorded the progress of mankind, and the events by which it was marked. The science of the most learned men and nations of ancient times did not extend to a comprehension of geography beyond the limits of their own countries, and of the countries conquered by their rulers, or those which, bordering on these, held some relations with them. 2. The world appeared to be a flat surface, and no one thought of questioning that it was so only in appearance. It was reserved for a daring Genoese sea captain, about four hundred years ago, to conceive the happy idea that this appearance was deceptive ; that it was really round ; and that, by sailing west- ward, the distant East, or India, might be readily reached. Columbus, having become fully satisfied that this theory was correct, and not being rich enough to fit out an expedition himself, endeavored to convince others, who had the means, of the truth of his views, and to induce them to aid him to put them to the test. 3. The Genoese, living by commerce, and, at that time wealthy and powerful, gave him no encouragement. They even regarded him as a madman. He applied to the Govern- ments of Portugal, England, and Spain, but gained little attention for many years. At length Queen Isabella, of Spain, became interested in his theories, and, with much effort, as- (148) DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 149 sisted him to put them to proof. He set sail August 3, 1492, with three small vessels, on an unknown sea. His crew were filled with fear to find themselves so far from land, and sailing toward unknown dangers. He had great difficulty in calming their terrors, and was in great danger of perishing in the mutiny they contemplated. He was saved by the opportune appearance of land on the llth of October. He had reached the group of islands lying between North and South America. The one first discovered was called, by the natives whom he found inhabiting it, Guanahani. He named it, in remem- brance of his peril, San Salvador St. Savior. Supposing he had reached the Indies lying to the eastward of Asia, and not dreaming of a new continent, he called the inhabitants Indians. Cuba and Hayti, larger islands lying further south, were soon after discovered, and he hastened to carry back the wonderful tidings of his discovery to Spain. He reached home seven months and eleven days after his departure. 4. He and his discoveries immediately became famous. The world had never been struck with a surprise so great, and all Europe was in a ferment at the news. He soon returned as Viceroy of the newly discovered lands, to establish a colony and extend his researches. Five years later, in 1498, he dis- covered the main land near the river Orinoco, in the northern part of South America. He died in 1506, unaware of the magnitude of his discoveries, still believing he had only reached India from the west, and treated with much ingratitude by the government he had so much benefited by his bold genius. The first published account of the new continent was by a Florentine, Amerigo Vespucci, who visited the main land in 1499, claimed the merit of the discovery, and gave it his name, America. His claim has long been disallowed, and Columbus duly honored as. the real discoverer, though the name was never changed. 5. It is believed that North America was known to the mar- iners of the North of Europe as early as the tenth century; and that settlements, that afterwards perished, were made from 150 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. Iceland and Greenland as far south as the shores of New England. This, however, is only a dim tradition, there being no detailed and authentic history of these events left on record so far as is yet known. 6. An English mariner, by descent a Yenitiau, disputes with Columbus the first sight of the main continent in 1498. He first touched the coast of Labrador, and sailed as far south as Florida in the next year. It was near a hundred years later before a permanent settlement was made within the ter- ritory that is now the United States, by the English, though the city of St. Augustine was founded in Florida by the Span- iards in 1565. In 1607 a settlement was made at Jamestown, on the James river, in Virginia, and in 1620 the Puritans of England persecuted there for their religious views, sought liberty of worship in the new world, establishing a colony at Plymouth, in the eastern part of New England. Others followed in succession until many distinct colonies had been planted on the eastern coast of the United States ; all of which except Florida, belonging to the Spaniards, on the south, and Canada, settled by the French, on the north were under the control of, and received their laws from, England. CHAPTER III. CHRONOLOGICAL HISTORY OF ANGLO AMERICAN COLONIZATION FROM 1492 TO 1763. 1492 October 12, Christopher Columbus discovered land belonging the Western Hemisphere one of the Bahama Islands. He touche* at Cuba and Hayti before his return. 1497 John Cabot, master of an English vessel, and his son Sebastian, touched at Newfoundland in June, and soon after explored the coast of Labrador. 1498 Columbus, on his third voyage, discovers the American Continent, near the mouth of the Orinoco river, in South America. Sebastian Cabot, in a second voyage, first of Europeans, explores our Atlantic coast as far south as Maryland. 1499 Amerigo Yespucci, or Americus Vespucius, a Floren* tine merchant, conducts a vessel to the coast of South America. Returning to Europe he publishes a book. claiming to have tirst discovered the continent, and it receives his name, America. 1500 Columbus is sent to Spain in chains by a Spanish officel whom the jealousy of Ferdinand, the Spanish King, placed over him. Treated with injustice and neglect, he died at Valladolid, Spain, in 1506. 1512 Ponce de Leon, a Spaniard in search of the " Fountain of Youth," discovers Florida, near St. Augustine. 1524 John Verrazani, a Florentine, commanding a French vessel, touches the coast near Wilmington, North Caro- (151) 152 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. Una, and explores it north to Nova Scotia. He wrote a narrative describing the country and the Indians. 1535 James Cartier, a French navigator, discovers the St. Lawrence. 1541 He builds a Fort at Quebec, but soon abandons it. De Soto, a Spaniard, discovers the Mississippi. He traveled, with six hundred men, through Georgia and Alabama, and fought a bloody battle with the Indians near Mobile. These Indians had a walled town o| several thousand inhabitants. Thence he traveled west to the Mississippi and Red Rivers. He died at the mouth of the Red river, May 21, 1542. 1553 Persecution of the English Puritans commences. 1562 French Huguenots attempt a settlement in Florida. They gave the name Carolina to the coast on the north. The first colony is discouraged, and returns. In the year 1564 another Huguenot colony is founded on the River May. 1565 Melendez, a Spaniard, founds St. Augustine, September 8th, with five hundred colonists. It was the first per- manent settlement in the United States. Melendez destroys the French colony. 1568 The Chevalier Gourgues (French) puts to deatli four hundred Spaniards on the river May, in retaliation. 1578 The first English settlement contemplated. Queen Elizabeth grants a patent to Sir Humphrey Gilbert " to such remote, heathen, and barbarotfs lands as he should find in North America." He makes two attempts to plant a colony in 1579 and in 1583 fails in each, and perishes with his vessel, September 23, 1583. 1584 Sir Walter Raleigh receives a similar patent, and sends two vessels to the shores of Pamlico Sound. Queen Elizabeth names the country Virginia. 1585 Raleigh sends a colony to Roanoke Island, but it is unfortunate, and returns home. 1587 He sends another colony, but the Spanish Armada ANGLO- AMERICAN COLONIZATION 153 threatening England, ho could not send it supplies for some time, and when visited, later, no trace of it could be found. Discouraged, he gives up his patent to a London compe.ny of merchants, who content themselves to trade with the Indians. 1602 Bartholomew Gosnold visits New England. 1603 Henry IV., King of France, grants Acadia (Nova Scotia) to Sieur de Monts, who founds a colony on the Bay of Fundy, at Port Eoyal in 1605. 1606 James L, King of England, establishes the London and Plymouth companies for settling North America. 1607 The Plymouth company land a colony at the mouth of the Kennebec river. It is unfortunate, and returns to England. The London company send out an expedition, which, accidentally discovering Chesapeake Bay, enter, and found a colony on James River, at Jamestown. The romantic Captain John Smith was oneoi the colonists. This was the first permanent English settlement in North America. 1608 Smith seeking, by orders from the London company, a passage to the Pacific ocean, up the Chickahominy, is taken prisoner by the Indians, condemned to death, and saved by Pocahontas. Quebec founded by the French under Champlain. The English Puritans, persecuted in England, take refuge in Holland. 1609 Lord Delaware is appointed Governor of Virginia, which receives a new charter, and a considerable acces- sion of numbers. Part of the expedition, however, was shipwrecked, and the colony, embracing a large unruly and indolent ele ment, is near perishing. Pocahontas repeatedly saves them from the Indians. Hudson river and Lake Cham- plain discovered. 1610 Lord Delaware, having been delayed, arrives (after the 154 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. discouraged colonists had embarked to return tt Eng- land) with supplies, and saves the settlement. 1613 Pocahontas marries John Rolfe, an Englishman. The Dutch erect a fort at New York. 1615 They build Fort Orange, near Albany. 1619 The first General Assembly elected by the people i& called in Virginia, by Governor Yeardley. Eleven bor- oughs, or towns, were each represented by two Burgesses,. or citizens. It was the dawn of civil liberty in Virginia,, and a germ of the future republic. 1620 Convicts are sent to Virginia, and negro slaves intro- duced. September 6th, the Puritans, discontented in Holland, set sail in the Mayflower, from Plymouth, England, tor America, undei the auspices of the " Plymouth Com- pany." December 21st they land on Plymouth Rock, and, amid great hardships, found a religious colony. James I. grants a charter to the Grand Council of Plymouth for governing New England. 1621 A district called Mariana granted to John Mason. Plymouth colony makes a treaty with Massasoit. Cotton first planted in Virginia. 1622 Sir Ferdinand Gorges and John Mason obtain a charter of Maine and New Hampshire. They plant a colony on the Piscataqua river. An Indian conspiracy nearly proves fatal to the Vir- ginia colony. March 22d, at noon, an attack is made on all the settlements, and in an hour nearly a fourth part of the colony is massacred. The colonists, in a bloody war, thoroughly chastise the Indians. 1624 Virginia becomes a royal province, but stoutly main- tains its legislative authority. 1625 Death of Robinson, the distinguished Puritan divine, in Holland. ANGLO- AMERICAN COLONIZATION. 155 1629 Massachusetts colony patented, and settlement made at Salem, by John Endicott. Charlestown, Mass., founded. The Dutch colonize the west side of Delaware river. 1630- Patent of Carolina made to Sir Robert Heath. Ig31 Massachusetts General Court confines the privilege of voting to church members. Clayborne plants a colony on Kent Island. The Dutch erect a trading fort at Hartford. 1632 Maryland granted to Lord Baltimore. 1633 Connecticut colony founded. 1636 Roger Williams founds Providence. 1637 Pequod war in Connecticut. 1638 Rhcjde Island settled by followers of Anne Hutchinson. Harvard college founded. Swedes and Finns settle Delaware. Colony of New Haven founded. Persecution in Mas- sachusetts. 1640 Montreal, Canada, founded. 1641 New Hampshire united to Massachusetts. 1643 The germ oi the American Union is planted by a con- federation of Plymouth, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Haven. It was for mutual protection and support, and was kept alive about forty years. 1645 Clayborne causes an insurrection in Maryland. The Mohawks mediate between the Dutch and Algon- quins. Witchcraft superstition commences. 1646 John Elliott becomes a missionary to the Indians. 1649 The Mohawk war on the French settlements and Jesuits. 1650 Common School laws passed in Connecticut. 1651 English " Navigatiou Act " forbids colonists to trade with any country but England, and restricts trade among the colonies. Thus the English make all the 156 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. profits. English merchants set the price of purchases and sales. 1651 Persecution of the Quakers in Massachusetts. Proprietary government subverted in Maryland. 1657 Elliott translates the Bible into the Indian language. 1662 Winthrop obtains a liberal charter for Hartford and New Haven. 1663 Carolina granted to a company of Noblemen. 1664 The Dutch conquer the Swedes on the Delaware. New York granted to the Duke of York, who sends a force to dispossess the Dutch. It is done without fighting. New Jersey granted to Berkely and Carteret. 1665 Lake Superior discovered by Father Allouez. 1668 St. Mary's, between Lake Superior and Lake Huron, the first French settlement within the boundaries of the United States, founded. 1670 Mr. Locke's philosophical constitution introduced in Carolina. It soon proved an absurd failure. 1673 The Upper Mississippi discovered by Marquette. 1675 King Philip's war in New England. He was a warrior of great ability and activity. Fourteen town were destroyed by the Indians, and six hundred inhabitants killed. Philip is killed August 12, 1676, and the Indian tribes very nearly destroyed. 1676 Three of the Kegicides (Judges of Charles I., King t England) came to New England. New Jersey divided into East and West Jersey, at the suggestion of Win. Penn. Bacon's rebellion in favor of popular rights, in Yir- ginia. 1677 Virginia obtains a new charter. Massachusetts purchases Maine. 1678 Sir Edmund Andross, royal governor of Kew York, usurps the government of the Jerseys. 1679 New Hampshire becomes a royal 'province, but the ANGLO-AMERICAN COLONIZATION. 157 people make a successful stand for their legislative privileges. Massachusetts having disregarded the Navigation Act, Edward Randolph was sent as Inspector of Customs. He failed to enforce tne act, and in 1682 the charter of Massachusetts was annulled. 1680 Charleston, South Carolina, founded. 1681 Wm. Penn receives a grant of Pennsylvania from Charles II. Penn restores the proprietary government in the Jerseys. He founds Philadelphia; makes a treaty with the Indi- ans ; and governs East Jersey. 1682 La Salle visits and names Louisiana. 1686 Sir Edmund Andross being made Governor-General over New England, proceeds in a very tyrannical man- ner. He endeavored to get possession of the charter of Connecticut, but failed, though he took possession of the government. 1688 Nw York and New Jersey came under the jurisdiction of Andross; but James II., the tyrannical King of England, being deposed, Massachusetts imprisoned Andross. Rhode Island and Connecticut resumed their charter governments; but Massachusetts, having given offense by resistance to the Navigation Act, never recovered her original charter. France having espoused the cause of the dethroned king, a war broke out between France and England, known as " King William's " war. 1689 The government of New York is seized by Jacob Leis- ler for King William. 1690 May 1st, a Congress of colonial delegates meets at New York to concert measures for the common defense. February 18th, destruction of Schenectady, N. Y., and massacre or the mnaoitants by the Indians, sent by the French, irom Canada. March 18th, Salmon Falls, New Hampshire, on the 158 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. Piscataqua river, is destroyed by the French and Indi- ans. Casco, Maine, is also destroyed. Sir William Phipps, Governor of Massachusetts, invades Canada, unsuccessfully. French Protestants settle in Virginia and Carolina. 1691 Slaughter becomes Governor of New York. He exe- cutes Leisler. 1692 Massachusetts receives a new charter. Her limits are enlarged, but her privileges restricted. Texas settled by the Spaniards, at Bexar. 1695 Rice brought to Carolina, from Africa. 1697 The Peace of Ryswick terminates King William's war. 1698 Piracies of Captain Kidd. He was tried and executed in England, in 1701. 1699 Pensacola is settled by the Spaniards. 1701 William Penn grants a new charter to Pennsylvania. 1702 The Jerseys united and joined to New York. " Queen Anne's war "-breaks out. New England suf- fered much from the ravages of the Indians'. Governor Moore, of South Carolina, attacks St. Augus- tine, but without success. Mobile founded by d'Iberville, with a colony of Cana- dian French. The Massachusetts Assembly contend with the royal governor for their former liberties. Their charter is still further restricted. 1703 Delaware (called The Territories) is separated from Pennsylvania. 1706 The French and Spaniards invade Carolina. They are repulsed with loss. 1707 Detroit, Michigan, settled by the French. 1710 Many thousand Germans, from the Palatinate, settle in the colonies, from New York to the Carolinas. 1712 A war with the Tuscaroras, in North Carolina, results in their complete defeat. They unite with the Iroquois. ANGLO -AMERICAN COLONIZATION. 159 1713 Crown Point, on Lake Champlain, and Niagara, are fortified by the French. The Peace of Utrecht closes Queen Anne's war. 1715 In a war with the Yamassees, South Carolina loses fom hundred inhabitants, but expels the Indians. 1716 Natchez founded by the French. 1717 Father Basics, a Jesuit Missionary at Norridgwock, Maine, excites the Indians to drive out the English from Maine. He is the last oi the Jesuit missionaries, and is slain in the capture of Norridgwock, in August, 1724, by New England troops. 1718 New Orleans founded by the French. 1720 A royal government supercedes the proprietary, in Car- olina. 1723 First settlement made in Vermont. 1729 North and South Carolina erected into separate gov- ernments. 1732 A company in England prepare to settle Georgia. 1733 General Ogle thorpe, with a colony, arrives in Georgia. 1736 M&ny Scotch Highlanders and Germans settle in Georgia. 1738 Insurrection of the slaves in South Carolina. 1740 General Oglcthorpe invades Florida. He is repulsed. The Moravians settle in Pennsylvania. 1742 The Spanish invade Georgia, but retire with loss. 1744" The Old French War " begins. 1745 The New England colonies raise a force and capture Louisburg, the " Gibralter of America, 5 ' from the French. 1748 The treaty of peace of Aix la Chapelle, restores Louis- berg to France, to the great disgust of the colonies. 1750 The French and English both claim the Mississippi and Ohio valleys. Lawrence Washington, and others form the Ohio Company. Parliament grants it six hun- dred thousand acres ot lanu on, or near, the Ohio river. 160 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. The French dispute the possession, and threaten sum- mary ejectment. 1753 George Washington is sent by Governor Dinwiddie, of Virginia, as an envoy to the French and Indians in Ohio. 1754 The French build Fort Du Quesne (now Pittsburgh). Washington defeats a French party headed by De Jumonville. The French are reinforced by fifteen hundred men, and Washington with four hundred men, after defending himself one day, capitulates. The British government, in expectation of a speedy war with France, recommend the colonies to form a Union for defense. Delegates from seven colonies meet at Albany, June 14, 1754. A plan of Union was drawn up by Benjamin Franklin. Connecticut rejected it as giving too much power to the English government. Parliament rejected it as giving too much to the colo- nies. 1755 Braddock's defeat in Pennsylvania. War with the Cherokees, in Tennessee. The French, under Dieskau, are defeated at Lake George. 1756 War was formally declared, two years after it actually begun. 1757 Fort William Henry, being attacked by an overwhelm- ing force of French and Indians, surrenders, and the garrison are massacred by the Indians. 1758 July 6, Louisburg captured by the English under Gen- eral Amherst. General Abercrombie is repulsed in an attack on Fort Ticonderoga, and Lord Howe, much liked in the colo- nies, is killed. August 27, Fort Frontenac, now Kingston, Canada, taken by Col. Bradstreet. November 25, Fort Du Quesne taken by the English, under General Forbes. ANGLO- AMEKICAN COLONIZATION. 161 1759 General Wolfe, commander of the English, and General Montcalm, of the French army, meet in battle on the Heights of Abraham, near Quebec. Wolfe's army conquered, but both commanders lost their lives. Que- bec capitulated. 1760 George III. ascends the throne of England. September 8th, Canada surrendered to the English. Massachusetts vigorously opposes " Writs of Assist- ance " (search warrants for goods that had not paid the duty). 1761 The Cherokees reduced to peace by Colonel Grant. In October, Mr. Pitt, the English Prime Minister, always a friend of the colonies, resigns. 11 CHAPTER IV. CHRONOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE ANGLO- AMERICAN COLONIES, FROM 1763 ro JULY 4, 1776. In February, 1763, The Peace of Paris, concluded between the governments of England and France, closed the war in America that had been so painful to the colonies from the part which the French persuaded the Indians to take in it. But, while the colonies bore a large part of the burden, (they had raised $16,000,000 of its expenses, and had lost, in battle or in hospital, 30,000 men,) of a war that drove the French out of all their possessions in Canada and east of the Missis- sippi river; they were, at the same time, trained to act in con< cert, which paved the way for a future confederation, and hardened them to war. Being called into battle under celebrated English commanders, and to fight side by side with European veterans, they had opportunity to learn the art of war, as well as to compare themselves with the soldiers of the mother coun- try and of France. This comparison was favorable to them, and inspired them with confidence in their own ability. The fatal blunders of Gen. Braddock, and the skill and bra- very of Washington and his provincial troops which, alone, saved the British army from entire annihilation in the Penn- sylvania wilderness, was never forgotten. They felt them- selves, even as raw militia, equal to the best European soldiers, when on their own ground. It was a great mistake of the Home Government to put on an arrogant tone with them just when they had learned their strength. In the year 1764 that government, plunged in debt by its long wars with the continental powers, (it amounted to (162) THE ANGLO-AMERICAN COLONIES. 163 $700,000.000,) and on the plea that the colonies who had been protected, should bear a fair share of the pecuniary burden, determined to impose taxes on them. Previously they had restricted their commerce to English ports, had laid duties on various imports, and assumed authority to change the govern- ments of the colonies without their consent. This had pro- duced much dissatisfaction, but had no further immediate effect than to lead them to remonstrance, evasion, or legal resistance. The proposal to lay internal taxes was quite another affair. Submission to this they thought would be fatal to their liber- ties. They resisted with general moderation, respectfully, but with determined resolution. The British ministry were provoked by this resistance, hold- ing it to be rebellion; and determined to put it down, by force, if need be. The struggle continued for ten years with grow- ing obstinacy on either side. The home government was exceedingly obtuse or it would have either proceeded to ex- tremes at once or yielded the whole case, as it finally deter- mined to do in 1776, when it was too late. In this period of lively discussion, and of organization to secure the strength of union in resistance, the separate colonies were gradually moulded into a nation, imbued with common sympathies and ideas, and moved by common interests. They had not thought of independence during all this preliminary struggle. The war had lasted a year before that idea became prominent. That was not, even then, regarded as an end, so much as an indispensable means to secure their liberties. Thus we see that no taint of conspiracy attached to the revolutionary struggle. The colonies were thoroughly loyal, until loyalty came to mean loss of liberty, and the rights enjoyed by Eng- lishmen in England. The exercise of arbitrary power they felt it right to resist; but they exhausted all other modes and means of resistance before they resorted to arms. They did not even make a first attack. They waited till armies were sent to subjugate them, and until those armies 164 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. commenced the attack; then the whole country rose in the stern resolve to right their wrongs. 1763. The Peace of Paris was signed in February of this year. July 7th began "Pontiac's War," with the simultaneous attack on all the forts in the peninsula of Michigan, and the whole frontier of Pennsylvania and Virginia. Pontiac was an Ottawa chief, of great ability, and had drawn many Indian tribes into the war. It was virtually ended in September of the same year. 1764. April 5. " The Sugar Act " was passed in the English Parlia- ment. This levied duties on coffee, pimento, French and East India goods, and forbade iron and lumber to be exported except to England. It was for the avowed purpose of raising a revenue, and raised instead a storm of indignation. The Massachusetts House of Eepresentatives said: "If we are taxed and not represented, we are slaves." 1765. Feb. 27 Was passed the obnoxious Stamp Act. Also the military law was made to authorize the ministry to send any number of troops to the colonies, for whom the colonists were to find " quarters, fire- wood, bed- ding, drink, soap, and candles." May 29 Patrick Henry introduced five " Resolutions " into the Virginia House of Burgesses, claiming for Virgin- ians the rights of British subjects; that only their own representatives could lawfully tax them ; declar- ing the attempt to vest that power in any other hands subversive of both British and American liberty. Sept. 1 The Pennsylvania Assembly passed similar resolu- tions. Oct. 7 A congress of delegates, or committees, from nine colonies, met in New York. It was the first Con- THE ANGLO-AMERICAN COLONIES. 165 tinental Congress. Its spirit harmonized with that of Massachusetts, Virginia, and Pennsylvania, and its u Declaration of Rights and Grievances" was cor- dially approved by all the colonial assemblies. 1766. Mar. 29 The Stamp Act could not be enforced in America, and it was repealed by Parliament; but the repeal vac followed by another act asserting the power and right of Parliament "to bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever." Thus yielding the thing and as- serting the principle, they both strengthened the colonies by a sense of their power, and exasperated them by a total denial of their Declaration of Rights, May Yet their triumph filled the colonies with joy, and gratitude toward the King and their English friends. Virginia voted the King a statue. 1767. June But their exultation was short-lived. In this year taxes were levied on tea, paints, paper, glass, and lead. This led to the determination, on the part of the colonies, to pay no more taxes or duties at all. Oct. 28 The Governor of Massachusetts having refused to call the General Court (or legislative body of the col- ony) together, a public meeting was held and reso- lutions passed to encourage " economy, industry, and manufactures," and a committee appointed to get subscribers to an agreement to discontinue the im- portation of British goods not absolute necessaries. This was imitated in other colonies. 1768. Feb. 11 Massachusetts General Court issues a general circu- lar to other colonial assemblies, inviting cooperation for the defense of colonial rights. Those bodies mostly gave cordial replies. This General Court hav- July ing been dissolved, the new one being called on to rescind this circular, refused by a vote of ninety-two 166 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. to seventeen. These seventeen became the butt of public scorn. Sept. 12 Four regiments of British troops ordered to Boston. " 22 The governor had been desired, by a Boston " town meeting," to call a General Court. He refused, and the "meeting" issued a call for delegates from the towns to a colonial convention. More than a hun- dred towns were represented in the convention meet- ing this day. Their main effort was to vindicate the ** 28 colony from the charge of a rebellious spirit. The day after this meeting adjourned two regiments of British troops arrived in Boston. 1769. Jan'y Parliament severely censures all the colonial acts, and directs that persons arrested in the colonies for treason be sent to England, to be tried. May The Virginia Assembly take strong ground against this, and agree with the Massachusetts Convention. M 31 The Massachusetts General Court assembles, but refuses to transact business in the midst of an armed force. After long contest with them the Governor adjourned them to Cambridge. Junel3 Required to support the troops, they respectfully and temperately, but firmly, refuse, and decline to vote any supplies for government till their grievances are redressed. July 15 All the colonies manifest the same spirit. 1770. Mar. 5 -The indignation of Boston at the presence of troops breaks out into an affray. The troops fire on the citi- zens. Three are killed and five wounded. It was called the "Boston Massacre." A.pril British Parliament repeals the last tax on all articles but tea. The non-importation agreements had exerted a great influence in promoting economy, encouraging manufactures, and bringing " home-made " into fash- THE ANGLO-AMERICAN COLONIES. 167 ion. The graduating class in Harvard College took their degrees in "home-spun" this year. 1771. Throughout this year the same disputes were main- tained between the governors and colonial legislatures as formerly; but as the home government did not push the struggle to an issue, there was comparative quiet, but no yielding. 1772. June 10 The Gaspe, a British revenue schooner, burned by a party from Providence, Rhode Island. Parliament offers six hundred pounds sterling and a pardon to any accomplice who will confess and give up the offenders. They were well known by colonists, but no legal evidence could ever be obtained. Oct. 28 A committee appointed in Boston to state the rights of the colonists and correspond with other sections on this subject. They publish an address, which i& extensively circulated. Franklin, agent for the colo- nies in England, republishes it there. 1773. March This address led to the first measures for a political union of the colonies. July The British ministry attempt to import tea into the colonies. Oct. 2 The people of Philadelphia declare that any one who shall " aid or abet in unloading, receiving, or vending the tea is an enemy to his country." Nov. 3 The Boston consignees required by the people to resign. They refuse. " 5- 19 A legal town meeting takes them in hand, and at length they resign. Dec'r Three ships loaded with tea having arrived, the people labor for near a month to have them eent back. Not succeeding, the cargoes are all emptied into the sea. 168 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 1774. Mar. 25 Parliament retaliated by the "Boston Port Bill," closing it to commerce. May 13-20 Meetings held in the principal cities to consider the state of affairs, recommended the assembly of a Continental Congress. This body was appointed in all the provinces but Georgia. There were fifty-three delegates. Sept. 4 These assemble at Philadelphia, and Peyton Randolph, of Virginia, is chosen President. They publish a " Declaration of Colonial Rights." They agree on fourteen articles as the basis of an " American Asso- ciation" to support these rights. This body was henceforth the real government, all their directions being obeyed by the people. They completed the organization of the Union and took preliminary measures for defense in case of attack. 1775. Feb. 1 Lord Chatham introduced a bill in Parliament which might have accommodated all differences, but it was treated with great discourtesy. Parliament deter- mines to humble and subdue the colonies. April 19 Battle of Lexington. General Gage sends eight hundred British troops to destroy some colonial mili- tary stores at Concord, twenty miles from Boston. The " minute men " assembled at Lexington, are fired on and dispersed. The troops march to Concord, destroy the stores, and hastily retreat before the gath ering minute men, who assail them on all sides. They would have been completely destroyed but for a timely reinforcement at Lexington of nine hundred men and two cannon. The loss of British killed and wounded was nearly three hundred; of the provincials eighty- five. Boston is immediately beleagured by some twenty thousand minute men. 22 Massachusetts Legislature assembles. It sends depo- THE ANGLO-AMERICAN COLONIES. 169 sitions, proving that the soldiers fired first, to Eng- land, with an address to the English people, declaring that they will " die or be free." This body voted a levy of thirteen thousand men for the protection of the colony. .May 10 The second Continental Congress assembled at Phil- adelphia. Colonels Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold surprise the fortress of Ticonderoga, on Lake George, New York. Its small force of three officers and forty-four privates cannot defend it, and they surrender without fighting. Crown Point, on Lake Champlain, is occu- pied without resistance. Peyton Randolph again chosen President of Congress. ** 24 Peyton Randoph being called home, John Hancock, of Massachusetts, is chosen President of Congress. " 25 Generals Howe, Clinton, and Burgoyne, with large British reinforcements, arrived at Boston. June 15 George "Washington unanimously chosen commander- in-chief of the Continental forces. " 17 The battle of Bunker Hill (or Breed's Hill), near Bos- ton. The British were twice repulsed, with great loss, when the ammunition of the Americans failing, they retreated in safety. British loss over one thou- sand ; American, four hundred and fifty. British forces engaged, three thousand ; American, less than fifteen hundred. The British commander burned Charlestown during the battle. General "Warren, American, was killed. " 23 Congress issue bills of credit for $2,000,000. " 30 Articles of War aro agreed to in Congress. July 8 A last petition to the King is sent by Richard Penn, grandson of William Penn. " 17 Another million dollars in bills of credit is issued. The liability for these was distributed among the Colonies. 170 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. July 26 Benjamin Franklin appointed first Postmaster Gen- eral. Aug. 30 General Schuyler embarks on Lake Champlain, for an expedition against Canada. He leaves the com- mand with General Montgomery. Early in Septem- ber General Arnold starts with eleven hundred men to Canada by Maine. Sept. 24 Ethan Allen is taken prisoner, near Montreal. Oct. 18 Falraouth (now Portland, Maine) burned by the British. " 22 Peyton Randolph, of Virginia, died. He was the first President of Congress. Nov. 3 Montgomery captures St. Johns, Canada. " 13 Montreal surrendered to the Americans under Mont- gomery. " 20 $3,000,000 more in bills of credit issued by Congress,, payable in eight years. Dec. 7 Lord Dunmore, British Governor of Virginia, defeated near Norfolk, Virginia. " 13 A navy of thirteen vessels created by Congress. Let- ters of marque and reprisal granted. " 21 The British Parliament pass a bill declaring all Amer- ican vessels and goods, and those of all persons trad- ing with them, a lawful prize, and authorizing the impressment of American sailors into the royal navy, where they might be required to fight against their own cause and friends. " 31 General Montgomery and Colonel Arnold make an unsuccessful attack on Quebec. Montgomery is killed,. Arnold wounded, and four hundred men killed, wounded, or taken prisoners. Arnold withdrew, but kept Quebec blockaded through tho winter." 177G. Jan. 1 Lord Dunmore, Royal Governor of Virginia, ravages- the coast and burns Norfolk, but is obliged to fly to Bermuda. THE ANGLO- AMERICAN COLONIES. 17 J Jan. 20 Georgia prepares to join the other twelve colonies. Feb. 4 Mclntosh, with an American force, destroys several vessels loading for England, near Savannah, Georgia. " 17 Four millions more of paper money iss&ued by Con- gress. March 4 Washington fortifies Dorchester Heights, overlook- ing Boston, which renders it untenable by the British. " 10 The inhabitants and merchants of Boston plundered of their lighter property by the British army. " 17 The British embark for Halifax, and Washington occupies the town. " 18 Sir Archibald Campbell sails into Boston, and his whole force of seventeen hundred men are taken pris- oners. " 23 Congress declares all British vessels a lawful prize. April 26 Washington removes his army to New York. May 3 Sir Peter Parker, with ten ships of war and seven regiments, joins the force from Boston under General Clinton, at Cape Fear. " 16 Congress declared that all authority under the British crown ought to be totally suppressed and government conducted by colonial representatives alone. This was only an expression of their sense of the danger to their interests and liberties of allowing British agents to act. June 7 Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, moved the Declara- tion of Independence. * 8 American army in Canada, under General Sullivan, make an unsuccessful attack on the enemy. They are pressed by superior numbers, and retreat in good order, though with a loss of ono thousand men pris- oners, out of Canada, losing all their conquests. * 11 Congress appointed Thomas Jefferson, John Adams," Benjamin Franklin, and Robert R. Livingston a com- mittee to prepare the Declaration of Independence. THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. Jun. 28 British fleet attack Fort Moultrie, on Sullivan's Island, near Charleston, South Carolina, but were defeated with loss of two hundred men, one vessel, and death of Lord Campbell, the ex-royal Governor. July ^-'^Declaration of Independence by the Congress at Philadelphia. CHAPTEK Y. FOBMATION OF THE ORIGINAL UNION. " The Boston Tea Party " provoked the English Parliament into passing " The Boston Port Bill," closing that city to com- merce. This act led to immediate measures for assembling delegates, representing twelve colonies in North America (Georgia, only, was not represented), for the purpose of con- sultation on the measures required for the protection of colonial rights. This body, called " The Continental Congress," assem- bled in Philadelphia, September 5, 1774. It drew up a "Declaration of Colonial Rights;" and, for the purpose of enforcing them, agreed to accept as a basis of common action fourteen articles, known as "The American Association." This was the origin of the American Union. Though it did not assume organic political power, and its ordinances were only advisory in form, it was better obeyed than most govern- ments. Arrangements were made for another Congress in May following. Its day of meeting was hastened by the battle of Lexington, and it immediately proceeded to assume the pow- ers of a General Government, at the request of some of the provincial Legislatures, and with the tacit consent of all. It received its authority from its representative character; from the imperious necessity of a head to organize and direct; and from the voluntary obedience rendered to its mandates. It performed all the functions of a government until all prospect of reconciliation with Great Britain was lost, when, June 11, 1776, a committee was appointed to prepare "A Declaration of Independence." This was adopted and signed July 4*. 1776. (173) 174 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. On the 12th of July, a committee of one from each State reported on the terms of confederation, and the powers of Con- gress; but differences of opinion, and the pressure of military affairs prevented action on it. On the 9th of September, 1776, The name " United Colonies of America" was discarded for that of " United States of America." Georgia had appointed delegates on the 4th of July, so that there were " Thirteen United States." On Saturday, November 15, 1777, " Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union of the United States of America " were agreed to in Congress, and sent to the States for approval. Eight of the State Legislatures had ratified these articles on the 9th of July, 1778; one ratified July 21st; one July 24th; one November 26th, of this year; one February 22d, 1779; and the last, March 1, 1781. This document was little more than a digest of the powers before assumed by Congress, and tacitly acknowledged by the States from the commencement of the war. This, now legal, bond had existed before as a free, though unspoken, submis- sion to the dictates of prudence and patriotism. CHAPTEE VI. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. x This immortal state paper u the general effusion of the soul f the country " at the imperiled state of liberty, and of the rights of Englishmen was given to the world on the 4th of July, 1776. The war of the .Revolution had been raging more than a year, and many of the leading minds of the country had been actuated by the hope that their wrongs would be redressed, and the mother country and her colonies reconciled. The course of events had convinced them, however, that there would be no redress, and that no reconciliation was possible other than that based on a slavish surrender of rights and priv- ileges dear to free men. And hence a more decided course was approved by the people, and finally adopted by their delegates in Congress, on the 2d day of July, 1776. This resolution changed the old thirteen British colonies into free and independent States. And now it remained to set forth the reason for this act, together with the principles that should govern this new peo- ple. By this declaration the new Republic, as it took its place among the powers of the world, proclaimed its faith in the truth, reality, and nnchangableness of freedom and virtue. And the astonished nations, as they read that all men are cre- ated equal, started out of their lethargy, like those who have been exiled from childhood when they suddenly hear the dimly remembered accents of their mother tongue. (175) 176 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. THE DECLAKATION OF INDEPENDENCE. WHEN, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have con- nected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident^, that all men are cre- ated equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights ; that among th'ese are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That to secure these rights, govern- ments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed ; that, whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right, of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem mosf likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and, accordingly, all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right them by abolish- ing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute des- potism, it is their right, it is their duty to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these colo- nies, and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these States. To prove thU, let facts be submitted to a candid world: DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 177 He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. lie has forbidden his Governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. He has refused to pass other aws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the legislature; a right inestima- ble to them, and formidable to tyrants only. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly for oppos- ing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights or the people. He has refused, for a long time after such dissolution, to cause others to be elected; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise;, the State remaining, in the meantime, exposed to all the danger of invasion from without, and con- vulsions within. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose, obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migra- tion hither, and raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands. He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. He has made judges dependent on his will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers to harass our people, and eat out their sub- stance. 12 178 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, without the consent of our legislature. He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the civil power. He has combined with others, to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our kws; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation. For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us: For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for- any murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these States: For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world: For imposing taxes on us without our consent: For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury: I or transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offenses : For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neigh- boring province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies: For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering fundamentally, the powers of our government: For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring them- selves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases what- soever. He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protection, and waging war against us. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. He is, at this time, transporting large armies of foreign mer- cenaries to complete the work of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun, with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barberous age&> and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. UIUJLAKATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 179 He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their .friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction ot all ages, sexes, and conditions. In every stage of these oppressions, we have petitioned for redress, in the most humble terms; our repeated petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time, of attempts made by their Legislature to extend an unwarranta- ble jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circu instances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them, by the tics of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections arid correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our sep- aration, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace, friends. We, therefore, the representatives of the UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, in GENERAL CONGRESS assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the World for the recti- tude of our intentions, do, in the name, and by the authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare: That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, FREE AND INDEPENDENT STATES; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is, and ought to be, totally dissolved; and that, as 180 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. FEEE AND INDEPENDENT STATES, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which INDE- PENDENT STATES may of right do. And, for the support of this declaration, and in a firm reliance on the protection of DIVINE PEOVIDENCE, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes,, and our sacred honor. The foregoing declaration was, by order of Congress, engrossed, and signed by the following members: JOHN HANCOCK. New Hampshire. JOSIAH BARTLETT, WILLIAM WHIFFLE, MATTHEW THORNTON. Rhode Island. STEPHEN HOPKINS, WILLIAM ELLERY. Connecticut. ROGER SHERMAN, SAMUEL HUNTINGTON, WILLIAM WILLIAMS, OLIVER WOLCOTT. New York. WILLIAM FLOYD, PHILIP .LIVINGSTON, FRANCIS LEWIS, LEWIS MORRIS. New Jersey. RICHARD STOCKTON, JOHN WITHERSPOON, FRANCIS HOPKINSON, JOHN HART, ABRAHAM CLARK. Pennsylvania. ROBERT MORRIS, BENJAMIN RUSH, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, JOHN MORTON, GEORGE CLYMER, JAMES SMITH, GEORGE TAYLOR, JAMES WILSON. GEORGE Ross. Massachusetts Bay. SAMUEL ADAMS, JOHN ADAMS, ROBERT TREAT PAINE, ELBRIDGE GERRY. Delaware. C^SAR RODNEY, GEORGE REED, THOMAS M'KEAN. Maryland. SAMUEL CHASE. WILLIAM PACA, THOMAS STONE, CHARLES CARROLL, of Carrolltou Virginia. GEORGE WYTHE, RICHARD HENRY LEE, THOMAS JEFFERSON, BENJAMIN HARRISON, THOMAS NELSON, JUN., FRANCIS LIGHTFCOT LEE, CARTER BRAXTON. North Carolina. WILLIAM HOOPER JOSEPH HE WES, JOHN PENN. South Carolina. EDWARD RUTLEDUE, THOMAS HEYWOOD, J'*nu THOMAS LYNCH, Juu., ARTHUR MIDDLETON. Georgia. BUTTON GWINNETT V LYMAN HALL, GEORGE WALTOK. CHAPTEK VII. ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION AND PERPETUAL UNION BETWEEN THE STATES. To all whom these Presents shall come, We, the undersigned Delegates of the States affixed to OUT names, send greeting Whereas, the Delegates of the United States of America, in Congress assembled, did, on the 15th day of November, in the year of our Lord 1777, and in the Second Year of the Inde- pendence of America, agree to certain Articles of Confedera- tion and Perpetual Union between the States of New Hamp- shire, Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey; Pennsylva- nia, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia,, in the words following, viz.: Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union between the States of New Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecti- cut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. ARTICLE 1. The style of this Confederacy shall be " The United States of America." ART. 2. Each State retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right, which is not by this confederation expressly delegated to the United States in Congress assembled. ART. 3. The said States hereby severally enter into a firm league of friendship with each other, for their common defense, 182 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on accouLt of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretense whatever. AKT. 4. The better to secure and perpetuate mutual friend- ship ar-d intercourse among the people of the different States in this Union, the free inhabitants of each of these States paupers, vagabonds, and fugitives from justice excepted shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of free citizens irr the several States ; and the people of each State shall have free ingress and egress to and from any other State, and shall enjoy therein all the privileges of trade and commerce, subject to the same duties, impositions, and restrictions, as the inhabitants thereof respectively, provided that such restriction shall not extend so far as to prevent the removal of property, imported into any State, to any other State of which the owner is an inhabitant; provided, also, that no imposition, duties, or restric- tion shall be laid by any State on the property of the United States, or either of them. If any person guilty of or charged with treason, felony, or other high misdemeanor in any State, shall flee from justice, and be found in any of the United States, he shall, upon demand of the Governor, or executive power of the State from which he fled, be delivered up and removed to the State having juris- diction of his offense. Full faith and credit shall be given in each of these States, to the records, acts, and judicial proceedings of the courts and magistrates of every other State. ART. 5. For the more convenient management of the gene- ral interest of the United States, Delegates shall be annually appointed, in such manner as the legislature of each State shall direct, to meet in Congress on the first Monday in November, in every year, with a power reserved to each State, to recall its Delegates, or any of them, at any time within the year, and to send others in their stead, for the remainder of the year. ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION. 183 No State shall be represented in Congress by less than ;wo, nor more than seven members; and no person shall be capable of being a Delegate for more than three years in any erm of six years; nor shall any person, being a Delegate, be capable of holding any office under the United States, for which he, or another for his benefit, receives any salary, fees or emolument of any kind. Each State shall maintain its own Delegates in any meeting of the States, and while they act as members of the Commit- tee of the States. In determining questions in the United States in Congress assembled, each State shall have one vote. Freedom of speech and debate in Congress shall not be impeached or questioned in any court or place, out of Congress, and the .nembe r 8 of Congress shall be protected in their per- sons from arrests and imprisonments, during the time of their going to and from, and attendance on Congress, except for treason, felony, or breach of the peace. ART. 6. No State, without the consent of the United States in Congress assembled, shall send an embassy to, or receive an embassy from, or enter into any conference, agreement, alliance, or treaty with any King, Prince, or State; nor shall any per- son holding any office of profit or trust under the United States, or any of them, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title of any kind whatever from any King, Prince, or Foreign State; nor shall the United States in Congress assembled, or any of them, grant any title of nobility. No two or more States shall enter into any treaty, confeder- ation, or alliance whatever between them, without the consent of the United States in Congress assembled, specifying accu- rately the purposes for which the same is to be entered into, and how long it shall continue. No State shall lay any imposts or duties which may interfere with any stipulation in treaties, entered into by the Lnited States in Congress assembled, with any King, Prince, or State, 184. THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. in pursuance of any treaties already proposed by Congress, to the Courts of France and Spain. No vessels of war shall be kept up in time of peace by any State except such number only, as shall be deemed necessary by the United States in Congress assembled, for the defense of such State, or its trade; nor shall any body of forces be kept up by any State in time of peace, except such number only, as in the judgment of the United States in Congress assembled, shall be deemed requisite to garrison the forts necessary for the defense of such State; but every State shall always keep up a well regulated and disciplined militia, sufficiently armed and accou- tred, and shall provide and have constantly ready for use, in public stores, a due number of field-pieces and tents, and a proper quantity of arms, ammunition, and camp equipage. No State shall engage in any war without the consent of the United States in Congress assembled, unless such State be actu- ally invaded by enemies, or shall have received certain advice of a resolution being formed by some nation of Indians to invade such a State, and the danger is so imminent as not to admit of a delay, till the United States in Congress assembled The United States in Congress assembled shall never engage in a war, nor grant letters of marque and reprisal in time of ponce, nor enter into any treaties or alliances, nor coin money, nor regulate the value thereof, nor ascertain the sums and expenses necessary for the defense and welfare of the United States, or any of them, nor emit bills, nor borrow money on the credit of the United States, nor appropriate money, nor agree upon the number of vessels of war to be built or pur- chased, or the number of land or sea forces to be raised, nor appoint a eominamler-in-chief of the army or navy, unless nine States assent to the same ; nor shall a question on any other point, except for adjourning from day to day, be deter- mined unless by the votes of a majority of the United States in Congress assembled. The Congress of the United States shall have power to ad- journ to any time within the year, and to any place within the llnited States, so that no period of adjournment be for a longer duration than the space of six months; and shall publish the journal of their proceedings monthly, except such parts thereof relating to treaties, alliances, or military operations, as in their judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the dele- gates of each State on any question shall be entered on the journal when it is desired by any delegate; and the delegates of a State, or any of them, at his or their request, shall be fur- nished with a transcript of the said journal, except such parts as are above excepted, to lay before the legislatures of the several States. ART. 10. The committee of the States, or any nine of them> shall be authorized to execute, in the recess of Congress, such of the powers of Congress as the United States in Congress assembled, by the consent of nine States, shall, from time to time, think expedient to vest them with ; provided that no power, be delegated to the said committee, for the exercise o^" which, by the Articles of Confederation, the voice of nine States >n the Congress of the United States assembled is requisite. ART. 11. Canada, acceding to this confederation and join- ing in the measures of the United States, shall be admitted 190 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. into, and entitled to all the advantages of, this union ; but no other colony shall be admitted into the same unless such admis- sion be agreed to by nine States. ART. 12. All bills of credit emitted, moneys borrowed, and debts contracted by or under the authority of Congress, befort the assembling of the United States, in pursuance of the pres- ent confederation, shall be deemed and considered as a charge against the United States, for payment and satisfaction whereof, the said United States and the public faith are solemnly pledged. ART. 13. Every State shall abide by the determinations of the United States in Congress assembled on all questions which, by this confederation, are submitted to them. And the articles of this confederation shall be inviolably observed by every State, and the union shall be perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter be made in any of them, unless such alteration be agreed to in a Congress of the United States, and be afterwards confirmed by the legislatures of every State. And whereas, It hath pleased the Great Governor of the World to incline the hearts of the legislatures we respectively represent in Congress to approve of and to authorize us to ratify the said Articles of Confederation and perpetual union: Know ye that we, the undersigned delegates, by virtue of the power and authority to us given for that purpose, do by these pres- ents, in the name and in behalf of our respective constituents, fully and entirely ratify and confirm each and every of the said Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, and all and singular the matters and things therein contained. And we do further solemnly plight and engage the faith of our respec- tive constituents, that they shall abide by the determinations of the United States in Congress assembled on all questions which, by the said confederation, are submitted to them ; and that the articles thereof shall be inviolably observed by the States we respectively represent, and that the union shall be perpetual. In witness whereof we have hereunto set our hands in Congress. Done at Philadelphia, in the State of Pennsyl- vania, the ninth day of July, in the year of our Lord 1778, and In the third year of the Independence of America. CHAPTER VIII. THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR FROM 1776 TO 1783. 4 The British troops had been driven from Boston about the middle of March. From that time to the last of June no British soldiers had a foothold anywhere in the thirteen colonies. England had been preparing, however. The aid of German troops had been secured, and an expedition made ready. It was a for- tunate respite, after a great success, and finding the mother country inexorable in her determination, in which to carefully consider the situation. That con- sideration had produced that noble protest of freemen against tyranny The Declaration of Independence. It now remained to make it good by force of arms against a rich and powerful European empire, which was summoning its energies to the work of subjuga- tion. On the 28th of June General Howe landed the late garrison of Boston, and other troops, on Staten Island. July 12 Lord Howe arrived from England; Gen. Clinton returned from his repulse at Fort Moultrie, several Hessian regiments soon after arrived, and the British force amounted to 24,000; Gen. Carleton was near Lake Champlain with 13,000 men. The forces under Washington did not amount to half as many, but the British had a salutary respect for American prowess, and were laboring to win the American leaders back by promises of pardon. 192 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. Aug. 27 The battle of Long Island. The Americans, 9,000 strong, are attacked by the British, 15,000 strong. The Americans are worsted, but hold their intrenched camp. Washington silently and safely retreats during the night. The Americans lost 1,600 in killed, wounded and prisoners. British killed and wounded,. 400. Sept. 1 General Howe sends General Sullivan (American,, taken prisoner in the late battle), to Congress to dis- cuss a compromise of the dispute between England and the Colonies. Benjamin Franklin, John Adams y and Edward Rutledge, are appointed to meet English commissioners. They meet on Staten Island, but can make no arrangements. Sept 15 British army takes possessicm of New York. Gen- eral Washington's army being largely made up of militia, which come and go, he adopts "The Fabian policy " of avoiding general engagements, keeping the enemy harrassed and in constant movement 'This saved the American cause. Sept. 26 Benjamin Franklin, Silas Deane, and Arthur Lee appointed commissioners to France. Nov. 1 Henry Laurens, of South Carolina, chosen President of Congress. Nov. 16 Fort Washington, at the north end of Manhattan Island, assaulted by the British, in force. The for, was taken with 2,000 prisoners. The British loss was 1,200 in killed and wounded. Nov. 18 Americans evacuate Fort Lee, on the Hudson, above New York. Nov. 28 Washington retreats across the Delaware into Penn- sylvania. Dec. 7 Gen. Lee disobeys the instructions of Washington and is taken prisoner by the British. Dec. 8 A British naval force takes possession of Newport, Ehode Island. THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 193 Dec. 12 The British army being stationed along the Dela- ware, in New Jersey, Congress adjourns from Phila- delphia to Baltimore. Dec. 26-27 Washington suddenly crosses the Delaware and surprises Trenton. He captures 1,000 Hessians and six cannon, with a loss of four killed. In this year about 350 British merchant vessels had been taken by Americans. 1777. Jan. 2 Washington having re-occupied Trenton, Lord Corn- wallis marches a strong force to attack him. Jan, 3 The American army silently retreat in the night and capture Princeton, with 300 prisoners. British loss in killed and wounded, 100. American loss about the same. General Mercer killed. Feb. 6 Letters of Marque and Reprisal granted by the Eng- lish against American commerce. March 4 Congress returns to Philadelphia. 23 American stores destroyed at Peekskill, New York. April 26 Danbury, Connecticut, burned by the British. May 24 This outrage is retaliated by Colonel Meigs, of Con- necticut, who lands on Long Island with 200 men, destroys twelve vessels, large quantities of provision and forage, takes ninety prisoners, and retreats with- out the loss of a man. May 27 Button Gwinnett, of Georgia, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, is killed in a duel. June 22 Gen. Howe evacuates New Brunswick, New Jer- sey, and retires in order to draw Washington into a battle. Washington advances till he penetrates the design of the enemy, when he retreats to a strong position and foils the British. June 30 General Howe embarks 16,000 troops at Staten Island for Philadelphia. About this time the French Marquis De Lafayette, a youth of nineteen, arrived 13 194 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. in America, with twelve other foreign officers, to aid the American cause. July 1 British Gen. Burgoyne appears before Fort Ticon- deroga. - " 5 Americans evacuate Ticonderoga. * 7 Americans retreating from Ticonderoga, are defeated at Hubbardton. ** 7 United States frigate Hancock captured by three English vessels. ** 29 Burgoyne's army, constantly victorious, reaches the Hudson. Aug. 3 British Gen. St. Leger invests Fort Stanwix (Utica New York). " 6 American Gen. Herkimer defeated near Fort Stan- wix. American loss 400. Gen. Herkimer killed. ** 16 Battle of Beimington, Vermont. A victory for the "Green Mountain Boys." British lost 200 killed, 600 prisoners, 1,000 stand of arms, 1,000 swords, and iOur cannon. American loss fourteen killed and forty-two wounded. This turned the tide against Burgoyne. a 22 Gen. Arnold raises the siege of Fort Stanwix. St. Leger loses his artillery, tents, and stores. u 11 Washington's army defeated by the British at the battle of the Brandy wine, near Wilmington, Dela- ware. Washington retreats in good order. * 18 Congress adjourns from Philadelphia to Lancaster, Pennsylvania " 19 Battle of Stillwater between Gates, American, and Gen. Burgoyne. Burgoyne held the field, but lost 500 men; Gates 300. Sept. 16 Washington advances across the Schuylkill to attack the British, when a violent storm stops the conflict, The arms of the Americans are rendered unservicea- ble by the rain. TIIK REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 195 Sept.20 -Gen. Wayne, surprised at Paoli, retreats with loss of 300 men. 26 The British enter Philadelphia. Oct. 4 Battle of Germantown. "Washington, with an infe- rior army, is again defeated. British loss 600. American loss over 1,000. 7 Battle of Saratoga. Burgoyne is defeated, and part of his camp with stores and ammunition, much needed by the Americans, captured. British loss 400. They retreated in the night. 15 Kingston, New York, burned by the British. They had taken forts Clinton and Montgomery, defending the river below, October 6th. This was an effort to aid Burgoyne, but it failed, being too late, and they retreated down the river. 17 Gen. Burgoyne surrenders his whole army to Gen. Gates. The prisoners amounted to 5,647. Burgoyne had lost about 4,000 since his capture of Ticonderoga. Thirty-five brass field-pieces and 5,000 stand of arms fell into the hands of the Americans. Washington, as commander-in-chief, had diminished Ms own army till it was much inferior to the British he was facing, to secure the success of the northern army against Burgoyne. This was the turning point of the war. Its immediate result was a treaty of alliance with France. 22 Count Donop, with 1,200 Hessians, attacks the Amer- ican fort at Red Bank, below Philadelphia, and is repulsed by Colonel Green with 400 men. Donop is killed, and the British retire with a loss of 500 men and two vessels of war. Nov. 15 "The Articles of Confederation" adopted by Con- gress. 16-18 Americans abandon Mud Island, and Fort Mercer, below Philadelphia Dec. 11 Washington establishes his army in winter quarters 196 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. at Valley Forge. During this year American prison- ers were treated with great cruelty at New York. General Gates, who had really succeeded in capturing Burgoyne only by the aid of Generals Schuyler and Arnold, intrigues against Washington. When this became known the general indignation killed the scheme. 1778. The American cause was really gained by the war of the pre. vious year. The Americans were so far unanimous, and s& spirited, that the British had not been able to get a perma- nent hold on any part of the country, save what was occupied by their armies in force. Jan. 30 A treaty of alliance is made with France. Mar. 4 The American frigate Alfred, of twenty guns, cap- tured by two English vessels of war. 20 The American Minister presented at the French Court. Apr.18 Count d' Estaing leaves Toulon, France, with a fleet to aid the Americans in the war. Jun. 12 Philip Livingston, of New York, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, died. 17 The British Parliament having appointed three Com- missioners, the Earl of Carlisle, Lord Auckland, and Governor Johnstone, to treat for peace with the colonies, on the basis of granting everything they had asked, except independence, Congress replies, refusing all intercourse unless the independence of the States were first recognized, and the English army withdrawn. Two years before, this would have been eagerly accepted. England had lost, at the beginning of this year, twenty thousand men, and 550 vessels, taken by American cruisers, worth twelve million dollars, and had spent one hundred million dollars on military armaments in America. 18 The English, afraid of being blockaded in the Dela- ware river, by the French fleet, evacuate Philadelphia. THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 197 Jun. 28 Battle of Morristown ; Washington wins. The Brit- ish retreat in the night. Lord Cornwallis commanded. July 4-5 " The massacre of Wyoming " by the Indians, under Tory influence. About 400 troops, and most of the inhabitants killed. Aug. 15 General Sullivan besieges the English in Newport. 28-29 Count d' Estaing, who was to have supported Gen- eral Sullivan by a naval attack on Newport, Rhode Island, having suffered severe loss in an engagement with the English fleet, and withdrawn to Boston to refit, Sullivan retires, but is attacked by the British. He repulses them, and retreats from Rhode Island. Dec. 29 Savannah, Geo., taken by the British. 1779. The British direct their main efforts, this year, to the South- ern States, and overrun Georgia and part of South Carolina. Mar. 3 American force under Ashe surprised by Brigadier- General Prevost; loss 1,600. May 2 Verplank's Point, on the Hudson river, surrenders to British forces. 10 Norfolk and Portsmouth taken and partially burned by the British. Stony Point, on the Hudson, evacuated by the Amer- icans and occupied by the British. 12 Prevost makes an attempt on Charleston, South Car- olina, but fails. June 6 In this mouth Spain declared war against England. 20 Gen. Lincoln, American, attacks Prevost, at Stone River. He is repulsed, and Prevost retires to Georgia. July 4 Governor Tryon makes a descent, in Connecticut, destroys the shipping at New Haven, and burns Fair- field, Norwalk, and Greenwich. He is called off July 16 from this barbarous work by the alarm of Gen. Clinton at the attack of Gen. Wayne on Stonj 198 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. Point. It was a complete surprise. Sixty of the British were killed and 550 made prisoners. Amer- ican loss, 100. 19 Major Lee (" Light Horse Harry ") captured the gar- rison at Paul us' Hook (Jersey City). The British lost 30 killed, and 159 prisoners. Aug. 29 Gen. Sullivan is sent with an army to punish the Indians for the massacre of Wyoming and Cherry Valley. He defeats them in a fight near Elmira, New York, and lays waste their country. He burned more than forty of their towns, and destroyed their provisions and crops. Sept. 24 Paul Jones, in a desperate naval engagement with seven English vessels, on the coast of Scotland, cap- tures two of the enemy's vessels. Oct. 9 The combined French and American forces make an attack on Savannah, Geo. They are repulsed with a loss of 1,000 men. Count Pulaski was killed. Joseph Hewes, of ~N. C., Thomas Lynch, of S. C., and George Ross, of Pa., signers of the Declaration of Independence, died during this year. 1780. Jan. The British send a large force to capture Charleston, S. C., and overrun that State. Feb 11 British troops are landed on St. Johns Island, and the fleet blockades Charleston. , ~s Ma) 6 Fort Moultrie, being invested by sea and land, sur- renders to the British. 12 Charleston surrendered by Gen. Lincoln. 29 Col. Tarleton surprises Buford, American, at Wax- haws. Buford is totally defeated. South Carolina is now treated as a royal province, all opposition being overcome, for the present. June 23 A sharp action between the British Generals Knip- hausen and Clinton, with 6,000 troops, and Gen. THE BEVOLUTIONABY WAB. 199 Greene, with 1,500. The town of Springfield was burned, but Greene, taking a strong position, stopped the advance of the enemy, and he retired to Staten Island. July 10 The Count de Kochambeau, with a fleet and 6,000 French troops, arrives at Newport, R. I. They are blockaded by the British. Aug. 6 Col. Sumter gains a brilliant victory at Hanging Rock, S. C. 16 Battle of Camden, between Lord Cornwallis and Gen, Gates. The American army was superior in num. bers (5,600 ; Cornwallis not much more than 2,000). Gates' army was largely composed of militia, which caught a panic at the first attack. The Americana lost 1,800 killed, wounded, and prisoners. British loss, 325. 18 Tarleton surprises and totally defeats Sumter. Sept. 21 Major Andre, of the British army, arranges with Arnold for the surrender of the fortress of West Point, on the Hudson, to the British. The plot mis- carries, Arnold escapes, and Andr6 is captured. Oct. 2 Majoj* Andre is hung as a spy. 7 The British commander, Ferguson, is defeated and killed by a body of American back- woodsmen, at Kings Mountain, South Carolina. 300 British Mlled and wounded, and 800 made prisoners John Hart, of New Jersey, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, died this year. 1781. Jan. An insurrection broke out among the Pennsylvania and other troops of the American army in this month, on account of the failure of Congress to pay them. It threatened serious consequences, but was subdued by the moderation and influence of Washington. 4 Arnold, the traitor, landed in Virginia, and laid waste the country. 200 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 1.7 Battle of the " Cowpens," South Carolina. Colonel Morgan, American, totally defeated Colonel Tarleton, who lost six hundred men, with his bae;e:ag;e and 7 oo o artillery. Morgan lost eighty men. .f ' eb. 23 George Taylor, of Pennsylvania, signer of the Dec- laration of independence, died. 28 Richard Stockton, of JSew Jersey signer of the Declaration of Independence, died. 15 Battle of Guildford Conrt House North Carolina. Gen. Greene, American commander, and Lord Cornwallis, after long skirmishing, came to a battle. Greene's army was mostly raw militia, which broke and fled. Greene was worsted, but retreated in quiet. His loss was 400 ; Cornwallis', 500. So heavy a loss was as bad as a defeat to Cornwallis. Apr. 25 Battle of Hobkirks Hill. General Greene attacked by Lord Rawdon. The Americans driven from the field. Loss on each side, 250. May 10 Lord Rawdon evacuates Camden, South Carolina. 21 Several British forts in South Carolina captured by Marion and Sumter, the British losing in them 800 troops. 28 The American frigate Alliance captures two British sloops of war. June 5- General Pickens, with militia, captures Augusta, Georgia. Lafayette had been maneuvering with the British forces in Virginia since April, with great ability. Though much inferior, he constantly held them in check, and avoided a battle. July 6 Cornwallis, after a sharp skirmish with Lafayette, at Jamestown, retires to Portsmouth, Virginia. The British troops had, in three months, destroyed $10,- 000,000 worth of property in Yirginia. Aug. 1 Cornwallis takes post at Yorktown, Yirginia, and fortifies it. His force consists of 8.000 men. THK REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 201 17 It is arranged that the combined French and Amer- ican forces shall attack Cornwallis, in Virginia. 25 Supplies and money for the American armies landed at Boston, from France. 5 Forts Trumbull and Griswold, in Connecticut, taken by the British, under Arnold, with circumstances of great atrocity, and New London burned. 8 Battle of Eutaw Springs. Both sides claim the vic- tory. The loss was about equal seven hundred on each side. The advantage, in the end, was in favor of the Americans, though they were repulsed. The British soon retired. 10 The French fleet enter the Chesapeake Bay with heavy artilery for the siege of Yorktown, while De Grasse, the French Admiral, with a large squadron, guards the entrance against the British. Oct. 6 The allied army, 16,000 strong, commence the siege of Yorktown. 19 Cornwallis surrenders Yorktown, and 7,000 troops, prisoners of war. 25 Colonel Willett repulses 600 tones, at Johnstown, New York, with loss. Dec 31 Henry Laurens, United States Minister to France, sometime a prisoner in London, England, was exchanged for Gen. Burgoyne. 1782. The war was now practically concluded. The finances of the United States, the sad condition of which had so much interfered with the collection and support of strong and wefl- disciplined armies, had been lately supported by loans from France and Holland.. The Americans were stronger than ever, the British could not hold possession even of the Southern States, where there were more royalist inhabitants than fur- ther north ; and the aid of France on the sea really made the Americans invincible. England could no longer raise the money or the troops to continue the struggle. 202 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. The year 1782 was mostly spent in negotiations. The di culties of arranging the terms were great ; and the boundaries of the new Government were a subject of much dispute. Mar. 4 Resolutions were passed in the English Parliament, in favor of peace. Apr. 19 Holland acknowledges American independence. July 11 Savannah, Georgia, evacuated by the British, and occupied by General Wayne. The British carried off 5,000 negroes. Great discontent arose in the army in regard to pay, and only the great influence of Washington, and the wise moderation of American- statesmen in Congress, prevented serious outbreaks. Franklin, Adams, Jay, and Lauren s, were the Ameri- can Commissioners who arranged terms of peace. Various Indian wars raged on the frontiers during this year. 1783. Jan. 20 The preliminary treaty, providing for the cessation of hostilities between England and the United States was signed. Feb. 5 The Independence of the United States acknowledged by Sweden. Mar. 24 The Independence of the United States acknowledged by Denmark. The Independence of the United States acknowledged by Spain. Apr. 19 Cessation of hostilities officially proclaimed in the United States just eight years from the beginning of the war. Estimated loss of men during the war, seventy thousand. CHAPTER IX. THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION OF 1787. THE successful termination of the Revolutionary War of seven years made the United Colonies which had commenced it, in fact, as well as in their Declaration, Free and Independ- ent States. Toward the close of the war they had adopted Articles of Confederation. These were soon found to be inad- equate to secure the general welfare, and without sufficient authority to carry their measures into effect. No sufficient means were supplied by them to maintain the public credit,, and all the interests of the country languished. They formed the Bond of Union for six years or more, and served an excellent purpose in calling the attention of states- men and the people to the points most important in the con- stitution of a vigorous government. It was the trial essay, and the intelligence of the leading men of that period turned it to great profit. In 1786 the legislature of Virginia proposed a convention ol commissioners to improve the condition of trade and commerce. These commissioners met and recommended Congress to call a (Tt-neral Convention to revise the Articles of Confederation. This convention assembled in May, 1787, in Philadelphia; all the States except Rhode Island being represented. George Washington was chosen president. The members ot this con- vention were the representatives of a people who had proved their firmness and attachment to liberty during a long war and against great difficulties. The delegates were men of tried patriotism, and the event has proved their wise and discrimi- (208) 204 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. nating foresight. The system of government they planned is their most eloquent eulogy. The severe tests to which the expansion of the nation and the conflicts of sections and inter- ests have subjected it, have served only the more fully to reveal how perfectly they comprehended the principles of a republi- can government, and their singular skill in arrangement. They combined the utmost vigor with the greatest security of rights. It is a glorious monument to their political insight. They, themselves, were not aware how profound was the wisdom, how complete the adaptation of its provisions. They signed it with many misgivings, on the 17th of September, 1787, after four months of diligent labor. It was then presented to the people for their ratification. They were cautious and prudent in those times, and could not appreciate as we do now, the extreme value of the work that had been accomplished. Time was required to bring out its excellences, and show how few and comparatively unimportant were its defects. It was examined with careful attention, and finally adopted as follows: By Convention of Delaware , ,7th December, 1787 " " Pennsylvania 12th December, 1787 " " New Jersey 18th December, 1787 " Georgia 2d January, 1788 " " Connecticut 9th January, 1788 " " Massachusetts 6th February, 1788 " Maryland 28th April, 1788 " South Carolina 3rd May, 1788 " " New Hampshire 21st June, 1788 " " Virginia 26th June, 1788 " " New York 26th July, 1788 " " North Carolina 21st November, 1789 " " Ehode Island 29th May, 1790 As shown above, two years passed before it was finally rati- fied by all the States. Both the delay and the final unanimity in its acceptance, giving testimony to the prudence and thought- fulness of the people. CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION. 205 Electors of President and Vice-President were chosen in the winter of 1788-1789. March 4th had been appointed as the time for the government to go into operation, but a delay in asst-mliling the members of Congress deferred the inaugura- tion of Washington, as first President, until April 30th. Con- gress immediately organized the new government, and, in con- junction with the President, appointed the necessary officers. Some minor provisions were added or changed by the first Con- gress in the manner provided by the Constitution itself, that is, by a two-thirds vote in both Houses, and ratification by three-fourths of the States. Ten amendments were made at this time. The eleventh amendment was added in 1794. The twelfth in 1803. The thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth amendments have been added since 1863. A resolution to amend is passed by the requisite majorities in both Houses, sent to the legislatures of the States, and, when three-fourths of them have approved it, the Secretary of State causes the resolution and amendment to be published in all the States and Territories, and it becomes valid as part of the Constitution. Containing the wisest provisions of English law, it reject* all that is not in harmony with our circumstances, and our fun ilamental doctrine that all men have equal rights to life, lib- erty, and the pursuit of happiness. This it keeps continually in view, and, by the sense of dignity and worth which it tends to promote in the humblest man, gradually educates him up to the standard necessary for a free citizen, and, by its respect for the rights of all, tends to induce in each the same disposition. The wisest men of the Republic, by infusing into this docu- ment their own self-respect, and respect for others, gave tone and direction to all the future. Their own characters were so far imparted to their work as to exert a salutary influence on the destiny of the people whose fundamental law they com- piled. This document is the law of the land, obliging the highest 206 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. to obedience, to justice, and right, and raising the lowest to an equal share in its political privileges, and to its vigorous pro- tection. Consequently a steady improvement in these respects has marked the growth of the country, and the benign influ- ence of this respect for man and his rights has gone forth from the American Republic as a Regenerator among the nations of the earth. CONSTITUTION OP THE UNITED STATES OP AMERICA, AND ITS AMENDMENTS. WE, the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquil- lity, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this CONSTITU- TION for the United States of America. ARTICLE I. SECTION 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. SEC. 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several States, and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature. No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty -five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be deter- mined by adding to the whole number of free persons, includ- ing those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual CONSTITUTION OF THE U. 8. 207 enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one Representative; and until such enumeration shall be made the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, Penn- sylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, and Georgia three. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the Executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other officers, and shall have the sole power of impeachment. SEC. 3. The Seriate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen by resignation or otherwise, during the recess of the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make temporary ap- pointments until the next meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabit- ant of that State for which he shall be chosen. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote unless they be equally divided. 208 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a Presi- dent pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice - President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose they shall be on oath or affirm- ation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside. And no person shall be con- victed without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. Judgment, in cases of impeachment, shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States ; but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment accord- ing to law. SEC. 4. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing Senators. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. SEC. 5. Each house shall be the judge of the election, returns, and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business ; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members in such manner and under such penalties as each house may provide. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, pun- ish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concur- rence of two-thirds, expel a member. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the CONSTITUTION AND AMENDMENTS. 209 members of either Louse on any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, with- out the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. SEC. 6. The Senators and .Representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, DC privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either House they shall not be questioned in any other place. No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time; and no person holding any office under the United States, shall be a member of either house during his continuance in office. SEC. 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or con- cur with amendments as on other bills. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Represent- atives and the Senate, shall, before it becomes a law, be pre- sented to the President of the United States; if he approve he shall sign it; but if not, he shall return it, with his objections, to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to recon- sider it. If, after such reconsideration, two-thirds of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, togclner with the objection, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of that House, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names 14 210 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each House respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted), after it shall have been presented to him, Hie same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress, by their adjournment, prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment), shall be presented to the President of the United States, and before the same shall take effect shall be approved by him, or, being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations pre- scribed in the case of a bill. SEC. 8. The Congress shall have power To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States; To borrow money on the credit of the United States; To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes; To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States; To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard o weights and measures; To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securi- ties and current coin of the United States; To establish post offices and post roads; The promote the progress of sciences and useful arts, by securing, for limited times, to authors and inventors, theexeln- si ve right t} their respective writings and discoveries; To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; CONSTITUTION AND AMENDMENTS. 211 To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the higli seas, and offenses against the law of nations; To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water; To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years; To provide and maintain a navy; To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces; To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions; To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the mili- tia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress. To exercise legislation in all cases whatsoever over such dis- trict (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular States and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the Legislature of the State ir: which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock yards, and other needful buildings; and To make all laws which shall be necessary' and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. SEC. 9. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the,Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceed ing ten dollars for each person. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be BUS- 212 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. pended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in pro- portion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another; nor shall vessels bound to, or from one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. No money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in conse- quence of appropriations made by law; and a regular state- ment and account of the receipts and expenditures of all pub- lic money shall be published from time to time. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States; and no person holding any office of profit or trust unde^ them, shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any pres- ent, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign State. SP:C. 10. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make anything but gold and sil- ver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attain- der, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws, and the net produce of all duties and imposts laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the Treasury of the Dnrted States; and all such laws shall be subject to the revis^ ion and control of the Congress. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty on tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace. CONSTITUTION AND AMENDMENTS. 213. enter into any agreement or compact with another State, or \vith a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually inva- ded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. ARTICLE II. SECTION 1. . The Executive power shall be vested in a Presi- dent of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and, together with the Vice-President chosen for the same term, be elected as fol- lows: Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of Senator* and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress; but no Senator or Represen- tative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. [* The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each; which list they shall sign and certify, and trans- mit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Rep- resentatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately choose by ballot one of them for President; and if no person have a majority, then from the five highest on the list the said House shall in like manner choose the President. But in choosing the President, the vote shall be taken by States, the * This clause within brackets has been super-ceded and annulled by the 12th amendment 214 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIMK. representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two- thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be accessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the President, the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the Vice-President. But if* there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by ballot the Yice-President] The Congress may determine the time of choosing the elect- ors, and the day on which they shall give their votes; which day shall be the same throughout the United States. No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained the age of thirty -five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his Jeath, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice- President, and the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of the Presi- dent and Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then act ' O as President, and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a compensation which shall neither be increased nor dimin- ished during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolu- ment from the United States, or any of them. Before he enters on the execution of his. office, he shall tako the following oath or affirmation: "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully exe- cute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Con- stitution of the United States." CONSTITUTION AND AMENDMENTS. 215 SEC. 2. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States, when called into the actual service of the United States; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the princi- pal officer in each of the Executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices, And he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardon for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the Sena- tors present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other pub- lic ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law; but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting com missions which shall expire at the end of their next session. SEC. 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States. SEC. 4. The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeach- ment for, and conviction of treason, bribery, or other higb crimes and misdemeanors. 216 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. ARTICLE III. SECTION 1. The -Judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices Curing good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation, which shall not be dimin- ished during their continuance in office. ' SEC. 2. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority; to all cases affecting ambassadors, other pub- lic ministers, and consuls; to all cases of admiralty and mar- itime jurisdiction ; to controversies to which the United States shall be a party ; to controversies between two or more States; between a State and citizens of another State; between citizens of different States; between citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of different States, and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign States, citizens, or subjects. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls, and those in which a State shall be a party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations as the Congress shall make. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have been committed; but when not com- mitted within any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. SEC. 3. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort No person shall be convicted CONSTITUTION AND AMENDMENTS. 217 of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted. ARTICLE IV. SECTION 1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may, by general laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceed- ings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. SEC. 2. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall, on demand of the Executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on the claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. SEC. 3. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned, as well as of the Congress. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make al needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular State. SEC. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State 218 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. in this Union a Republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion, and on application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature can- not be convened), against domestic violence. ARTICLE "V. The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitu- tion, or, on the application of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for proposing- amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents- and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode ofjatification may be proposed by the Congress. Pro- vided tlnitiK) amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article; and that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. ARTICLE VI. All debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confed- eration. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United Spates,, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no religious test shall ever be required a* CONSTITUTION AND AMENDMENTS. 219 ft qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. ARTICLE VII. The ratification of the Conventions of nine States shall be Biitficicnt for the establishment of this Constitution between the. States BO ratifying the same. DONE in Convention by the unanimous consent of the States present, the seventeenth d:iy of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the Independence of the United States of America, the twelfth. IN WITNESS WHEREOF, We have hereunto subscribed our names. GEO. WASHINGTON, President, and Devuty from Virginia. New Hampshire. JOHN LANG DON, NICHOLAS OILMAN. Massachusetts. NATHANIEL GOUHAM, RUFUS KINO. Connecticut. WM. SAM'L JOHNSON, ROQEK SHERMAN. New York. ALEXANDER HAMILTON. New Jersey. WIL. LIVINGSTON, WM. PATERSON, DAVID BREARLET, JONA. DAYTON. % Pennsylvania. B. FRANKLIN, ROUT. MORRIS, THOS. FIT/SIMONS, JAMES WILSON, THOMAS MIFFLJN, GEO. CLYMKR, J AH K.I) INGEKSOLI* Qouv. MORRIS. Delaware. GEO. READ, JOHN DICKINSON, JACO. BROOM, GUNNING BEDFORD, JUN*B, RICHARD BASSETT. Maryland. JAMES M'HENRY, DANL. CARROLL, DAN. OF ST. THOS. JENIFKB. Virginia. JOHN BLAIR, JAMES MADISON, JR. North Carolina. WM. BLOUNT, Hu. WILLIAMSON, RICU'D DOBBS SPAIGHT. South Carolina. 3. RUTLEDGE, CHARLES PINCKNEY, CHAS. COTESWORTH PINCKNKT, PIERCE BUTLER. Georgia. WILLIAM FEW, ABR. BALDWIN. WILLIAM JACKSON, Secretary ARTICLES IN ADDITION TO, AND AMENDATORY OF, THE CON- STITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Proposed by Congress, and ratified oy the Legislatures of the several States, pursuant to the fifth article of thre original Constitution. ARTICLE I. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the peo- ple peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government lor a redress of grievances. ARTICLE II. A well regulated militia being necessary to the security ot a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. ARTICLE III. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. ARTICLE IV. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches*and seizures, shall not be violated ; and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particu- larly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. ARTICLE V. No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia when in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be com' CONSTITUTION AND AMENDMENT?. 221 pelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. ABTICLE VI. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been commit- ted, which district shall have been previously ascertain3d by law, and to be informed of the nature ard cause of the accusa- tion; to be confronted with the witness?,.- against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor; and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. ^k ARTICLE VII. In suits at common Jaw, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by fury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. ARTICLE VIII. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. ARTICLE IX. The enumeration, in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall iiot be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. ARTICLE X. The powers not delegated to the United States by the Con- ^ritution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the Stares respectively, or to the people. ' ARTJCLK XI. The judicial power of the United States shall not be con- 222 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. strued to extend to any suit in law or equity commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign State. ARTICLE XII. The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for President and Yice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State witli them- selves; they shall name in their ballots the person to be voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice- President, and of the number of votes for each, which list they shall sign and certifv, and transmit sealed to the seat of the O / ' government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in presence of the Senate and House of .Representatives, open all the certifi- cates, and the votes shall then be counted. The. person having f ~wr Cf O the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the Presi- dent, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest number not exceed- ing three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall bo taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist ot a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as O ' President, as in the case ot the death or other Constitutional disability of the President. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-Presi- dent, if such number be a majority of the whole number of CONSTITUTION AND AMENDMENTS. 223 electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the [Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall con- sist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person Constitutionally ineligible to the office of Presi- dent shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. ARTICLE XIII. SECTION 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or anj* place subject to their jurisdiction. SKC. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. AimcLE XIV. ITON 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United ^States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States, and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor ehall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. SEC. 2. Representatives shall be appointed among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed ; but when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice- President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the executive and judicial ofliccrs of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, l>eing twenty -one years of age and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged except for participation in rebellion or 224 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. other crimes, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citi- zens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. ' SEC. 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath as a Member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State Legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each house, remove such disability. SEC. 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrec- tion or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in the aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any loss or emancipation of any slave, but such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. SEC. 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this act. ARTICLE XV. SECTION 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote, shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or or by any State, on account of race, color, or previous condi- tion of servitude. SEC. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. CHAPTER X. PRESIDENTS OF THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS, AND THE VARIOUS SEATS OF GOVERNMENT FROM 1774 TO 1789. Peyton Randolph, Virginia 5th Sept., 1774 Henry Middleton, South Carolina 22d Oct., 1774 Peyton Randolph, Virginia 10th May, 1775 John Hancock, Massachusetts 24th May, 1775 Henry Laurens, South Carolina 1st Nov., 1777 John Jay, New York 10th Dec., 1778 Samuel Huntingdon, Connecticut 28th Sept., 1779 Thomas McKean, Delaware .' . 10th July, 1781 John Hanson, Maryland : 5th Nov., 1781 Elias Boudinot, New Jersey 4th " 1782 Thomas Mifflin, Pennsylvania 3d " 178& Richard Henry Lee, Virginia 30th " 1784 Nathaniel Gorham, Massachusetts 6th Jan., 1786 Arthur St. Clair, Pennsylvania 2d Feb., 1787 Cyrus Griffin, Virginia 22d Jan., 1788 The seat of government was established as follows : At Philadelphia, Pa., commencing September 5th, 1774, and May 10th, 1775; at Baltimore, Md. December 20th, 1776; at Phil- adelphia, Pa., March 4th, 1777; at Lancaster, Pa., September 27th, 1777; at York, Pa., September 30th, 1777; at Philadel- phia, Pa., July 2d, 1778; at Princeton, N. J., June 30th, 1783; at Annapolis, Md., November 26th, 1783; at Trenton, N. J.. November 1st, 1784; and at New York City, N. Y., Jan- uary llth, 1785. On the 4th of March, 1789, the present Constitution, which bad been adopted by a convention and ratified by the requisite number of States, went into operation. 15 (225) PART SECOND, THE GOVERNMENT UNDEK THE CONSTITUTION. THE plan of this part of our work requires us to give a com- plete view of the government of the United States, and in such detail as to be adequate to all the purposes of the citizen and the student who wish to understand its structure and modes of working. It will be -found, we think, a clear, concise, and complete account of what it is indispensable to the American to know. There are three branches, each independent, having its sphere of general action entirely distinct, and clearly defined by the Constitution; yet working in harmony with the others, and locking in, so to speak, with them at special points, like the cogs of a system of wheels. The adjustment was more perfect than the authors of the Constitution themselves believed; probably because the spirit of the whole was in harmony with the people whose interests it was designed to guard. These three branches are the Legislative, the Executive, and the Judicial. All the institutions or general subdivisions of each are given in connection, with such explanations and data as they seem to require. "VVe commence with the Executive, as being most immediately in contact with the people at large, having a wider field, and a larger number of distinct organiza- (226) THE GOVERNMENT UNDER THE CONSTITUTION. 227 tionn and agents. This branch exhausted, we present the Leg- islative, and finally the Judicial, closing with such matters ae belong to the government as a whole. No human government is perfect, neither can exact and equal justice be done in every case by human laws. But the scope and design of our legislation and jurisprudence is to dis- pense justice to all, to place all on an equality before the laws, and to give the same rights to the rich and to the poor. No privileged class is known to our laws, and the lowest maj aspire to the highest places of distinction and honor; many have done so, and have reached the most exalted positions. The fullest religious liberty is granted to all; every man may worship as he pleases, when and where he pleases, without molestation or fear. He is not, as in many other countries, taxed to support a church established by law. He may pay for religions purposes as much or as little as he pleases, and to uny church he prefers, or he may pay nothing, and no one can call him to account or use any compulsion whatever in this matter. Every citizen has a vote for the choice of his rulers, and through his representatives a voice in making the laws by which he is governed. As to his business or calling, he may do that which best suits his interests or his tastes. He may go when or where he desires, he may stay in the country or leave it without restraint or hindrance; in short, he may do whatsoever seemeth good to him, provided he does not infringe on the rights of others. To this liberty, to these equal rights, privileges, and advan- tages do we attribute our rapid growth and power. The advan- tages and benefits of so wise, so liberal, and go beneficent a gov- ernment are not unknown to the people of other countries where they do not enjoy so much freedom; and this accounts for the wonderful immigration to the United States from nearly every country in Europe. This flow has continued for more than three-quarters of a century, and is still unabated. It has added many millions to the natural increase of our population, 228 THE GOVERNMENT UNDER THE CONSTITUTION. while very few of our own people ever leave their own country with the hope of bettering their condition, or of finding a gov- ernment under which they can enjoy more liberty or better protection. To gain a clearer conception of the intimate con- nection between a good government and the prosperity of the country, let us, for example, place Mexico in contrast with the United States. Mexico was settled long before the United States, and in climate and mineral wealth has the advantage of ns; yet the ever unsettled condition of its government, together with intolerance of any but the Catholic religion, has prevented any increase of population or any advancement in anything which gives a nation respectability, greatness, or power. Let us draw another contrast by considering Ireland. An oppressive government has diminished the population, pre- vented any advancement, and impoverished the country. We might draw many such contrasts between the United States and other countries in Europe, Asia, Africa, and South America, which would convince any one who has the power to trace causes to effects, and effects to causes, that a just and liberal government is an essential condition upon which the prosper- ity of any country depends. THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. CHAPTER I. . THE PRESIDENT. 1. Congress legislates, or enacts laws; the officers of the Supreme Court decide whether those laws are in conformity with the Constitution ; but the real ruler, the actual possessor of power, is the President. In the language of the first sec- tion of the second article of the Constitution, "The executive powers of the government shall be vested in a President of the United States of America." The other branches of the gov- ernment decide what is to be done, and what is constitution- ally legal, and the President is the agent. lie executes, or put/ in actual operation, the measures determined on by them Should he attempt to do anything not so prescribed, or to dr anything in an improper manner, contrary to or different froir* the manner prescribed by the law, he may be impeached an< removed, and all the subordinate officers and agents of the gov ernment released from the obligation to obey him. 2. The other branches are composed of many persons. He has no associate. The execution of the law requires vigor and decision, such as can be found only in a single mind and will. All history shows that there is constant danger of power being misused, whether one, two, or any number of men are the depositaries of it; but one man is much better than two or 3i Kre, when vigor and promptness are required. All the secu- rities and checks that could be applied without embarrassing his necessary freedom of action have been provided. They can t, indeed, supply the want of judgment and uprightness, and 230 THE PRESIDENT. so no absolute security against mismanagement can exist ; but the danger may be in large part avoided by carefulness in the selection of the man who is to wield the whole power of a great nation. It is an office of great dignity, responsibility, and power, and requires a man of great ability and probity to properly fill it 3. The President is elected for four years, and may be re- elected if the people see fit. Several times in our history tho President has been once reflected, and so held the office for eight years; but none have been twice reflected, though there is no law against it. The term commences and terminates on the fourth day of March. He is elected by the people, every voter having an equal influence in the choice ; but it is not done by voting for him directly, but by voting first for men called electors, who cast their votes according to the wish of the people. This system we shall hereafter examine. 4. A Yice-President is elected at the same time and in the same way, who, in case of the President's death, removal, resig- nation, or inability to discharge the duties of his office, becomes, acting President during the remainder of his term, or while the disability continues. The first Congress passed a law giving the President a salary of $25,000 per annum, with the use of a furnished house, and it remained the same until 1873, when it was raised to $50,000 per year. He is forbidden by the Con- stitution to receive any other public income during his term of office, nor ie he at liberty to accept presents from any foreign power. Before entering on the duties of his office he is required to take an oath " to preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States," to the best of his ability. 5. It is required that he shall be a native-born citizen of the United States, that he shall have been fourteen years a resident in the United States, and that he shall not be less than thirty-five years of age; which are designed to insure his attach- ment to American interests, his thorough acquaintance with American affairs, and the full maturity of his mind and char- acter. THE PRESIDENT. 231 6. It is hie duty to appoint such officers in every department of the public service as are not otherwise provided for. He usually sends the nomination to the Senate for their approval or consent, and when that is given appoints them by commis- sion, signed with his name, to the office. In this manner he nominates the Justices of the Supreme Court, ambassadors, resident ministers, charg -d'affaires, consuls, and other repre- sentatives of the government abroad, all the Heads of Executive Departments, and the more important subordinate officers of each department. When the Senate is not in session he may appoint all these directly, to serve until it meets again. The clerks and minor officers are usually appointed by Heads of Departments. In all other cases the advice and consent of the Senate are required before the appointment and commission can be legal. 7. It is his duty to make treaties with Foreign Powers, but these require confirmation by two-thirds of the Senate to be valid. He receives the Representatives of Foreign Powers, and superintends all diplomatic intercourse with them and with our own Representatives abroad. He is commander-in-chief of the army And navy, and must sign the commissions of all the officers in each. He may grant reprieves and pardons at his discretion, except in cases of im- peachment, and he is required to approve and sign the laws passed by Congress before they can take effect. If he does not approve a law he " vetoes " it by returning it to Congress, with his reasons for not signing it. If that body reconsiders it and reenacts it by a two-thirds vote of each house, it may become a law without his signature. 8. He may call extra sessions of Congress for special rea- sons, and may adjourn it in case of disagreement between the two houses as to the time of adjournment It is his duty to give information to Congress, at the commencement of each session, of the state of the country, and to recommend to it such legislative enactments as he may judge are required. This is called " The President's Message," and is looked for with 232 THE PRESIDENT. much interest in this and in foreign countries, since his posi- tion makes him intimately acquainted with everj subject relating to the public welfare. When he considers that the occasion demands it, or when he is requested by Congress to give information on a special point, he communicates with them by similar documents, called messages. He may be impeached for treason, bribery, or other high crimes, by the House of Representatives, and tried by the Senate, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court presiding over that body during the trial, and in case of conviction is removed from office. 9. It will be seen that he possesses great power, and that he is almost overwhelmed by responsibilities. The members of his cabinet are his constitutional advisers, and share more or less of this responsibility, although his will may override them all if he so chooses. There are many pro visions for preventing an abuse of power in the Constitution and in the laws of Congress, but all history proves that nothing but watchfulness and wisdom on the part of the people can preserve to them their rights and liberties. Power, wherever lodged, is naturally aggressive. Fortunately the people themselves in tljis country are the source of power, and may legally restrain its exercise in their representatives and executive officers, when it threatens to become excessive. The following are the names of all the Presidents, from Washington, the first, down to the present incumbent : George Washington, Ya., 30th April, 1789, to 4th March, 1797 seven years ten months and four days. John Adams, Mass., 4th March, 1797, to 4th March, 1801 four years. Thomas Jefferson, Va., 4th March, 1801, to B 4th March, 1809 eight years. James Madison, Va., 4th March, 1809, to 4th March, 1817 eight years. James Monroe, Ya., 4th March, 1817, to 4th March, 1825 eight years. THE PRESIDENTS 233 John Quincy Adams, Mass., 4th March, 1825, to 4th March, 1829 four years. Andrew Jackson, Tenn., 4th March, 1829, to 4th March, 1837 eight years. Martin Yan Buren, N. Y., 4th March, 1837, to 4th March, 1841 four years. William H. Harrison, (X, 4th March, 1841, to 4th April, 1841 one month. John Tyler, Va., 4th April, 1841, to 4th March, 1845 three years and eleven months. James K. Polk, Tenn, 4th March, 1845, to 4th March, 1849 four years. Zachary Taylor, La., 4th March, 1849, to 9th July, 1850 one year four months and five days. Millard Fillmore, N. Y., 9th July, 1850, to 4th March, 1853 - two years seven months and twenty-six days. Franklin Pierce, N. H., 4th March, 1853, to 4th March, 1857 four years. James Buchanan, Pa., 4th March, 1857, to 4th March, 1861 four years. Abraham Lincoln, 111., 4th March, 1861, to 15th April, 1865 four years one month and ten days. Andrew Johnson, Tenn., 15th April, 1865, to 4th March, 1869 three years ten months and twenty days. Ulysses S. Grant, 111., 4th March, 1869, to 4th March, 1877 eight years. Eutherford B. Hayes, O., 4th March, 1877, to 4th March, 1881. Of these William H. Harrison died 4th April, 1841, just one month after his inauguration. On the death of Harrison, Tyler, the Vice- President, became acting President. Taylor died 9th July, 1850, and Fillmore, Vice-President, became acting Presi- dent. Lincoln was assassinated on the 14th April, 1865, one month and ten days after he was inaugurated upon his second term, and Andrew Johnson, the Vice-President, became acting President this being the third time that such an event has occurred since the government went into operation. CHAPTER II. THE VICE-PRESIDENT. This officer is elected by the people at the same time, and IB the same manner, as the President, and for the same term. He must be a native citizen of the United States, and thirty- five years of age. His high-sounding title would lead one who is but little- acquainted with our government to think that he stands next to the President himself in dignity and power; that on his shoulders rests a large amount of the duties and responsibili- ties of the administration. Such, however, is not the case. He is, in fact, nearer a cipher than any of the high officers of State. He is merely the presiding officer of the Senate, with not even the power to vote, except in case of a tie vote in that body, when he may give the qasting vote. It is only in casa of the death, resignation, impeachment, or disability of the President to discharge his duties, that the Vice-President becomes an officer of much power or dignity. The following is a list of all the Vice-Presidents: John Adams, Mass., April 30th, 1789, to March 4th, 179T r seven years, ten months and four days. Thomas Jefferson, Va., March 4th, 1797, to March 4th. 1801 four years. Aaron Burr, N. Y., March 4th, 1801, to March 4th, 1805 four years. George Clinton, N. Y., March 4th, 1805, to April 20th 1812 seven years, one month, and sixteen days. Elbridge Gerry, Mass., March 4th, 1813, to November 23dv 1814 one year, seven months, and nineteen days. Daniel D. Tompkins, N. Y., March 4th, 1817, to March 4th, 1825 ight years. John C. Calhoun, S. C., March 4th, 1825 to March 4tb 1833 eight years. (234) THE VICE-PRE8IDENT8. 235 Martin Van Buren, N. Y., March 4th, 1833, to March 4th, 1837 four years. Richard M. Johnson, Ky., March 4th, 1837, to March 4th, 1841 four years. John Tyler, Va., March 4th, 1841. to April 4th, 1841 one month. George M. Dallas, Pa., March 4th, 1845, to March 4th t 1849 four years. Milord Fillmore, N. Y., March 4th, 1849, to July 9th, 1850 one year and four months. William R. King, Ala. Died before he took his seat. John C. Breckenridge, Ky., March 4th, 1857, to March 4th, 1861 four years. Hannibal Hamlin, Me., March 4th, 1861, to March 4th, 1865 four years. Andrew Johnson, Tenn., March 4th, 1865, to April 15th, 18G5 one month and eleven days. Schuyler Colfax, Ind., March 4th, 1869, to March 4th, 1873 four years. Henry Wilson, Mass., March 4th, 1873, to March 4th, 1877 four years. Died Nov. 226?. 1875. William A. Wheeler, K Y., March 4th, 1877, to March 4th, 1881 four years. Gerry died November 23d, 1814; from which time till March 4th, 1817, the Vice-Presidency was vacant Tyler became acting President upon the death of President Harrison; and until March 4th, 1845, the Vice-Presidency was vacant. Fillmore became acting President upon the death of Presi. dent Taylor, July 9th, 1850; and until March 4th, 1853, the Vice-Presidency was vacan t. King was elected with President Pierce, in 1852, but died April 18th. 1853. He never took his seat, and the Vice-Presi- dency was vacant till March 4th, 1857. Johnson became acting President upon the death of President Lincoln, April 15th, 1865, and the Vice-Presidency again became vacant, and remained so until March 4th, 1869. CHAPTEE III. THE CABINET. 1. The members of the President's Cabinet arts seven in number, viz. : Five Secretaries, at the head of their respective departments, of State, Treasury, "War, Navy, and Interior, and the Postmaster General, and Attorney General. It is through these departments and their various bureaus, officers, agents, and clerks, that the President performs most of the duties of his position, viz.: that of executing, or putting in force, the laws of Congress. He must, therefore, necessarily take them into his counsels, and arrange, by their assistance, the conduct of public affairs. Each one has the affairs of his department so thoroughly systematized that he can tell, with a little examination, the means at his disposal for carrying into effect any special measure; and precise records of the whole state of the public service may, at all times, be found in their offices. 2. They are also selected for their several positions from among those regarded as the most eminent statesmen of the country, and each is supposed to be specially adapted, by his experience, acquirements, and capacity, for his special position, as well as in harmony with the general policy adopted by the President. They are, therefore, properly, and ex officio (by virtue of their office), his advisers. No one else can tell as well as they the condition of public affairs at any particular time, nor, in consequence, give as good advice on any special measure requiring such knowledge. Without their aid the President would have few means of judging what was best, or (236) THE CABINET. 23T posslbm, to be done at any particular crisis. They furnish the material for his decisions, and the instruments to execute them. They are heads of the Executive Departments, and, together with tlie President, who is the head of them all, bringing them all into harmony, and under the control of a single purpose and will, they are called the administration. They administer, or carry on, the government. 3. In other countries these administrative heads are usually called Ministers, probably because they serve the ruler servant being the original meaning of the term minister and are com- monly chosen among the members of the legislative bodies perhaps because that brings the government into closer sympathy with the legislators, and promotes harmony of action; but with us, no member of the Cabinet can have a seat in, or take any part in the proceed ings of, Congress. Great care was taken to keep the different branches of the govern- ment distinct and independent of each other. Each branch, and each subdivision, is kept separate, and confined to its own range of duties, being united to the others only by its head,. BO that contusion and conflict might be impossible. 4. Each sub-department reports at stated intervals to its head, and he to the President, and through him to Congress; and at the same time they present such suggestions and argu- ments for legislation in regard to their several departments as their knowledge, experience, and reflections may have convinced them to be desirable. They are supposed to give their whole time and thought to the care and improvement of their several branches of the public service, and to be in condition to know what further improvement should be provided for by law. better than any one else. . 5. Under Washington's administration the departments and members of Cabinet were but three of State, of the Treasury, and of War. In 1798, during the administration of John Adams, the Department of the Navy was added, and its Secre tary took his seat in the Cabinet. It then had only four mem- bers down to Jackson's administration (1829 to 1837), when the 238 THE CABINET. Postmaster General was made a Cabinet officer, which increased the number to five. During Mr. Tyler's administration (1841- 1845) the Attorney General was made a member, and the number was then six. At the close of Mr. Folk's term as President, in 1849, the Department of the Interior was created, and its chief given the seven tli seat in the Cabinet; since which time there has been no increase. Congress may, at their discretion, as the country grows, and the public service with it, create other great or independent departments reauir- ing its representative to have a seat in the Cabinet, that the state of the entire service may be readily known froa> the officer most familiar with each branch. CHAPTER IV. DEPARTMENT OF STATE. 1. As the Chief Executive of a government cannot, fop want of time, attend to all the details of the business belong- ing to his office, he, according to the usage of all times, appoints various officers to attend to the different branches of public business. In most countries these officers, who are next in importance to the chief of the government, are called Minis- ters. In accordance with the practice of using plain and simple terms which was adopted in this country at the begin- ning, they are called Secretaries. They are subordinates of the President and supposed to act in his name and under his direc- tion. 2. They are not specially named in the Constitution, but are several times referred to as Heads of Departments, and thus it was assumed that there would be such offices and officers, and their appointment was provided for. The first Congress under the Constitution organized these Executive Departments, the President nominating and the Senate confirming the appoint- ment of the more responsible officers. 3. The first of these in rank is called the Department of State, and its head is named the Secretary of State. He is, by a law passed in 1853, aided by an Assistant Secretary, appointed in the same manner as himself. The numerous under officers required by the extensive business falling to this department are 'appointed by the Secretary at its head. 4. This Department has charge of such business as may arise between this government and the governments of other 240 DEPARTMENT OF STATE. countries. In most countries it is called the Department, or Ministry, of Foreign Affairs, but the term Department of State was preferred here. The great Seal of the United States is in his keeping, and it is his duty to affix it to all civil commissions- given to officers of the United States who are appointed by the President and Senate, or by the President alone. It is his duty, under the supervision and control of the President, to conduct, the correspondence with, and give instructions to, the Foreign Ministers, Consuls, and Agents of the government abroad,, to take charge of the official business and intercourse of the government with the representatives of foreign governments sent to us, and to attend to such other business arising from our Foreign Relations as shall be committed to him by the President. 5. It is his duty to keep in his office the original copies of all acts, resolutions, and orders of Congress. He must deliver to each Senator and Representative in Congress, and to the Governor of each State, a printed copy of the same; and during the session of each Congress he must publish the acts and reso- lutions passed by it in one newspaper in the District of Colum- bia, and in not more than two in each State and Territory of the United States. He must also publish in like manner all amendments of the Constitution, and all public treaties made and ratified between the United States and any foreign State, Prince, or Power, or with any of the Indian tribes. 6. And at the close of each session of Congress he must cause to be-published 11,000 copies in book form of all the laws, etc., as before stated ; and to distribute the same as directed by law to the President and Yice-President, and to every ex-Presi- dent; to all the members of the Senate and House of Repre- sentatives; to all the heads of the various departments and bureaus; to all the Judges of the United States Courts, their Clerks and Marshals; to all our Foreign Ministers, Consuls, and Public Agents; in short, to all the important officers of the government at home and abroad ; in order that all who are in government employ may know what the laws are, and what DEPARTMENT OF STATIC. 241 changes have been made in acts formerly existing. The reniiiining copies are distributed to the States and Territories according to the number of Representatives in Congress from each of them. 7. It is also made the duty of the Secretary of State to give passports to our own citizens who wish to travel in foreign countries; to cause passports to be issued by such Diplomatic or Consular officers of the United States as the President shall direct; to give such information to our people through the newspapers as he may from time to time receive from our Dip- lomatic and Consular agents abroad, as he may deem import- ant to the nation, respecting our commercial interests in for- eign countries, and to prepare a form of passport for the ships and vessels of the United States. 8. In the execution of extradition treaties between us and foreign governments, it is lawful for the Secretary of State, under his hand and seal of office, to issue an order for the ren- dition of any person who has been found guilty of crime in a foreign country, to any properly authorized person; that such criminal may be taken out of the United States to the country where the crime was committed. 9. It will be seen that, in addition to the duties connected with our Foreign Relations, he is a kind of General Secretary of the Legislative branch of the government, which probably led to his being called Secretary of State rather than Secretary of Foreign Affairs. The highest officer, in most other govern- ments, under the Executive, is commonly called Prime Minister; but he usually has care of the general interests of the govern- ment, internal as well as external, and the term would not be fitting to the Secretary of State. Our Foreign Relations require to be managed with great wisdom and skill, since they often involve peace and war, and the general prosperity of the country. It therefore requires a mini of great ability, and of extensive knowledge. He is a member of the Cabinet, and one of the advisers or counselors of the President. His appointment is for four years, or during 242 DEPARTMENT OF STATE. a Presidential term; but he may be removed by the President at any time, if lie deems it advisable. 10. As a matter of historical reference, we append the names of all the statesmen who have filled this high office, commencing with the first, placing them in the order of the dates of their appointments, together with the States from which they came: SECRETARIES OF STATE. Thomas Jefferson, Va., Sept. 26th, 1789. Edmund Randolph, Va., Jan. 2d, 1794. Timothy Pickering, Mass., Dec. 10th, 1795. John Marshall, Ya., May 13th, 1800. James Madison, Va., March 5th, 1801. Robert Smith, Md., March 6th, 1809. James Monroe, Va., April 2d, 1811. John Quincy Adams, Mass., March 4th, 1817. Henry Clay, Ky., March 7th, 1825. Martin Van Buren, K Y., March 6th, 1829. Edward Livingston, La., May 24th, 1831. Louis McLane, Del , May 29th, 1833. John Forsyth, Ga., June 27th, 1834. Daniel Webster, Mass., March 5th, 1841. H. S. Legare, S. C., May 9th, 1843. < A. P. Upshur, Va., June 24th, 1843. John Nelson, Md., Feb. 29th, 1844. John C. Calhoun, S. C., March 6th, 1844. James Buchanan, Pa., March 5th, 1845. John M. Clayton, Del., March 7th, 1849. Daniel Webster, Mass., July 20th, 1850. Edward Everett, Mass., Dec. 9th, 1851. William L. Marcy, K Y., March 5th, 1853. Lewis Cass, Mich., March 6th, 1857. Jeremiah S. Black, Pa., Dec. 14th, 1860. William H. Seward, N. Y., March 5th, 1861. Elihu B. Washburne, 111., March 5th, 1869. Hamilton Fish, K Y., March llth, 1869. Hamilton Fish, N. Y., reappointed March 4th, 1873. William M. Kvarts, N. Y., March 10th, 2 77. CHAPTER V. OUR REPRESENTATIVES IN FOREIGN LANDS. 1. Nations have business with each other, as individuals re; and their governments employ agents to represent them and transact business in their name. By these means their political and commercial relations and intercourse are regulated, treaties are made, and any disputes that may arise between them settled. Officers of this character tyave been employed from very early times, and by all nations. They are^onsidered to be clothed with the authority and dignity of the govern- ment they represent, and therefore the office has ever been held in great honor, and men most familiar with the affairs of their own nation, of most extensive knowledge, prudence, and wis- dom, are supposed to be selected for so eminent a service. 2. By the law (or general consent) of nations ambassadors are exempt from arrest, imprisonment, or prosecution. Any interference with them in this way might hinder the execution of the duties assigned them, and be a great damage to the public welfare, and an offense of that kind committed against them is considered as a dishonor to the government whose agents they are. On the other hand they require much judg- ment and tact that their conduct may not bring discredit on their government. Their inviolable character is carried so far as to exempt their servants from arrest, and their property from seizure for debt. The law of Congress protecting the Representatives of foreign governments to this country is but a re-enactment, or acceptance, of what has been known as the Law of Nations for many centuries all over the civilized world. (343) 244 REPRESENTATIVES IN FOREIGN LAUDS. A violation of this established usage among nations, without due atonement and satisfaction, would be recognized as a suf- ficient cause for war against the nation so offending. 3. Our own foreign ministers of all grades are appointed by 2he President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. They are not, however, the representatives of the President, but of the government of the United States. We said of all grades, for there are grades of these officials, different in dig- nity and power. They are distinguished also by different names which indicate their rank, viz.: Ambassadors, Envoys Extraordinary and Ministers Plenipotentiary, Ministers .Resi- dent, and Charge d' Affaires. AMBASSADORS. 4. This title in. our country has no very specific meaning. It designates, however, a minister of the highest grade; but does not distinguish between one who goes to reside in the country whither he is sent, and one who is sent for some special purpose; such as that of negotiating a treaty of peace, or some other particular matter with which he is charged, and when that is accomplished returns home. In the latter case he is frequently styled a commissioner, because he was duly authorized, and commissioned by his government to act for it; but in both cases the officer is an ambassador, for that word means a person authorized and sent to transact business for his government. ENVOYS EXTRAORDINARY AND MINISTERS PLENIPOTENTIARY. 5. These titles designate ministers of the highest class; but generally refer to such as go to reside in the country where sent, and with full power to act for their government, in all matters and things of a diplomatic character. Where negotiations become necessary between the two nations, permanent ministers of this grade are only sent to great powers governments of the higher class. REPRESENTATIVES IN FOREIGN LANDS. 245 MINISTERS RESIDENT. 6. These are not considered so high in rank as those termed nvoys extraordinary and ministers plenipotentiary. Yet they sre clothed with nearly the same powers, but are sent to coun- tries of less importance, and receive less salaries. COMMISSIONERS. 7. There are a still lower grade of ministers (if we may call them so), or government agents, who reside abroad. They are sent to look after the interests of our government and its citizens in places of not much importance, and where there is but little to do. They also receive but small pay. CHARGE D'AFFAIRES. 8. These officials rank as the lowest grade of ministers or diplomatic officers, and are not clothed with much authority or power, excepting when authorized to act in the room of a minister of higher rank, whose place is for the time being vacant. In this case consuls have been authorized to act in place of ministers; but not unless authorized to do so by the President of the United States. SECRETARIES OF LEGATION. 9. Secretaries of Legation may with propriety be noticed under the general head of ministers, although they are not ministers of any grade, but are appointed by the same powers that appoint ministers, and accompany them merely as their secretaries. In the absence of a charge d'affaires, they are sometimes authorized to act in his place. The position is not one of great dignity, nor is the compensation large. CHAPTER VI. TREATIES EXTRADITION TREATIES. 1. A treaty is a written contract, entered into by two nations, on some question of interest or intercourse between them. It is precisely of the nature of a contract between two persons when they bind themselves to do, or not to do, certain things specified in the contract. That would be a treaty between individuals. Treaties between nations are only dif- ferent in the solemn and formal manner of arranging and confirming these agreements. 2. Treaties have often been of great service to the world> both in ancient and modern times. By these negotiations,, wars have been prevented, friendly relations maintained, and commercial intercourse kept up, advantageously to both parties. Treaties may be negotiated by any persons properly authorized by their governments to do so; and any government may authorize such persons as they see fit, to perform these import- ant acts. In many cases the ordinary ministers who represent their governments to other governments, negotiate ordinary treaties. But in cases where something of an extraordinary character is to be arranged, special ministers or commissioners- are sent for this express purpose. This was the case at the treaty of Ghent (so called from the name of the place where the commissioners met to arrange it), in 1814; by which a peace was brought about between England and the United States, after the last war between those powers. Special min- isters, or commissioners, as they were denominated, were appointed and sent for this very purpose. A treaty of peace (246) TREATIES. 247 was agreed upon by the commissioners of the respective coun- tries, and hostilities ceased as soon as the news reached the United States. 3. In some cases our government has authorized its com- manding generals to make a treaty with the hostile natkm. It has also given the same power to the commanders of our national vessels; and also, in a few cases, to our consuls, in countries at a great distance from home, such as China, Japan, Siani, and Turkey. The persons authorized to negotiate a treaty, rarely act with- out instructions from their government, as to the times and conditions of the proposed treaty. Much, however, must be left to the sound judgment and discretion of the negotiators as to the details. 4. It must be borne in mind that a treaty, although mutu- ally agreed upon by the agents of the nations concerned, is not binding upon either party until properly ratified according to the forms of the respective governments interested. The modes of ratification differ in different governments. In ours the Constitution confers this power upon the President, by and with the advice and consent of two-thirds of the Senate. In absolute monarchies this power rests in the hands of the King or Emperor alone. As before stated, every government may confer the power to negotiate a treaty upon such agents as it pleases. \ also has the power to prescribe such modes of ratifying or confirming it, as it pleases. 5. But when once made and approved, it becomes binding not only upon the respective governments that made it, but upon all the citizens and subjects of that government. It has been held in this country by our greatest lawyers and states- men, that the provisions of a treaty bind Congress, the President, and every citizen as much as any Constitutional provision or act of Congress. And for this reason our treaties are published in the papers in every State and Territory in the Union, in the same manner, and to the same extent, as thelawg of Congress. 248 TREATIES. 6. The violation of a treaty by either of the parties thereto, is reprehensible and criminal. It is derogatory to the charac- ter of any nation or individual that does it. It destroys the confidence of one nation in the other, leads to unfriendly feel- ings and acts between the parties, and may bring on a war, if satisfaction is not given. Yet such things have been done, and evil consequences have always followed. " If you make a bargain, stick to it," is a common, trite, and wise saying. Just here it seems proper to call attention to the fact that the Constitution prohibits any State from making any treaty with any foreign government. The reason for this provision is very obvious, for, if allowed, a State might confer privileges upon foreign powers which would be incompatible with the interests of other States. Therefore the treaty-making power is kept wholly in the hands of the general government, for in it every State has its representatives, and a voice in every treaty which it makes. 7. So numerous are the treaties which the United States has made with nearly every civilized nation upon earth, that it would require a very large volume to contain them. They are published with the laws, and generally in English and in the language of the nation with whom the treaty is made. They may be found in the United States Statutes at Large. It would require too much space in a work of this kind, to give even their titles. 8. Wars have been stopped; boundary .lines between nations have been established; commercial intercourse ar- ranged; the purchase and sale of lands, and a variety of other things have been the subjects, and formed the matter of treaties. Several of our most important ones relate to the purchase of territory. We acquired the States of Louisiana, Arkansas, and Missouri, by a treaty with France in 1803. It was called the Louisiana purchase; for it was nothing more than a purchase and sale of lands. We also acquired Florida of Spain, in 1819, in the same way, and California and New Mexico of "Mexico, in 1847. TREATIES. 249 9. The immense quantities of land purchased of the Indi- ans, were obtained by treaties with them. We are sorry to say that in some cases they have treacherously violated their treaty obligations; but at the same time it should be said by way of extenuating their offense, that our own government .agents appointed for the purpose of taking care of the interests of the poor Indians, have, in connection with the white traders among them, shamefully cheated and wronged them, and pro- voked them not only to disregard their obligations, but to perpetrate murders, robberies, and thefts upon the whites who live near them. At different times during the years past, the Indians have been very hostile to us, and have waged war against the whites in their vicinity for the reasons above stated. " Honesty is the best policy." 10. In the early part of the year 1867, a treaty was nego- tiated by William II. Seward, our Secretary of State, on the part of the United States, and Edward de Stoekl, the Russian Minister to the United States, on the part of Russia, for the cession of the Russian possessions in North America to the United States. This treaty may be regarded as one of the most important of all our treaties with foreign powers; for by it the United States acquire more than 570,000 square miles of territory, in addi- tion to our already immense possessions; and it places by far the greater part of the Northwestern coast of North America under the control of the United States government. For the purpose of giving a specimen of a treaty, and show- ing some of the details of this negotiation, we here insert it in full, as agreed upon by the contracting parties. $7,000,000 in gold is the consideration which the United States paid Russia for this territory. This treaty has been ratified by the United States and Russian governments, and the money, ($7,000,000 in gold) has been appropriated for the purpose, and paid to the Russian Minister. THE RUSSIAN TREATY. The following is the text of the Russian-American treaty: 250 TREATIES. The United States of America, and his Majesty, the jm peror of all the Russias, being desirous of strengthening, if possible, the good understanding which exists between them, have for that purpose appointed as their plenipotentiaries, the President of the United States, William H. Seward, Secretary of State, and his Majesty the Emperor of all the Russias, Mr. Edward de Stoekl, his Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to the United States, and the said plenipoten- tiaries, having exchanged their full powers, which were found to be in due form, have agreed upon and signed the following- articles: ARTICLE I. His Majesty, the Emperor of all the Russias, agrees to cede to the United States, by this convention, imme- diately upon the exchange of the ratifications thereof, all the territory and dominion now possessed by his said Majesty on the continent of America and in the adjacent islands, the same* being contained within the geographical limits herein set forth, to wit: The eastern limit is the line of demarkation between. the Russian and British possessions in North America, as estab- lished by the convention between Russia and Great Britain,, of February 28 (16), 1825, and described in articles third and fourth of said convention in the following terms: Commenc- ing from the southernmost point of the island called Prince of Wales' Island which point lies in the parallel of 50 deg. 40- min. north latitude, and between the 131st and 133d deg. of west longitude, meridian of Greenwich the said line shall ascend to the north along the channel called Portland Channel,, as far as the point of the continent where it strikes the 56th degree of north latitude. From this last mentioned point the line of demarcation shall follow the summit of the moun- tains situated parallel to the coast as far as the point of intersection of the 141st degree of west longitude of the same- meridian, and finally from the said point of intersection the said meridian line of the 141st degree in its prolongation as- far as the Frozen Ocean. With reference to the line of demarc- ation laid down in the preceding article, it is understood- TREATIES. 251 first, that the island called Prince of Wales' Island shall belong wholly to Russia, and now, by this cession, wholly to the United States; second, that whenever the summit of the moun- tains which extend in a direction parallel to the coast from the 56th degree of north latitude to the point of intersection of the 141st degree west longitude shall prove to be at the dis- tance of more than ten marine leagues from the ocean, the limit between the British possessions and the line of coast which is to belong to Russia as above mentioned that is to say, the limit of the possessions ceded by this convention shall be formed by a line parallel to the winding of the coast, and which shall never exceed the distance of ten marine leagues therefrom. The western limit, within which the territories and dominion conveyed are contained, passes through a point in Behring's Strait on the parallel of 65 deg. 30 min. north latitude, at its intersection by the meridian which passes mid- way between the island of Krusenstern, or Ignaalook, and the island of Ratmanog, or Noonerbook, and proceeds due north without limitation into the same Frozen Ocean. The same western limit beginning at the same initial point, proceeds thence in a course nearly northwest through Behring's Strait and Behring's Sea, so as to pass midway between the north- west part of the island of St. Lawrence and the south-east point of Cape Choukottki to the meridian of 172 deg. west longitude. Thence, from the intersection of that meridian, in a south-westerly direction, so as to pass midway between the island of Attou and the copper island of the Koranddorski couplet or group in the North Pacific Ocean, to the meridian of 193 deg. west longitude, so as to include in the territory conveyed the whole of the Aleutian Islands east of that meridian. ART. II. In the cession of territory and dominion made by the preceding article, are included the right of property in all public lots and squares, vacant lands, and all public buildings, barracks, and other edifices which are not private, individual property. It is, however, understood and agreed 252 TREATIES. that the churches which have been built in the ceded territory by the Russian government shall remain the property of such members of the Greek Oriental Church resident in the terri- tory as may choose to worship therein. Any government archives, papers, and documents relative to the territory and domain aforesaid, which may be now existing there, will be left in possession of the agent of the United States; but an authenticated copy of such of them as may be required will be at all times given by the United States to the Russian gov- ernment, or to such Russian officers or subjects as may apply for them. ART. III. The inhabitants of the ceded territory, according to their choice, reserving their natural allegiance, may return to Russia within three years ; but if they should prefer 10 remain in the ceded territory, they, with the exception of unciv- ilized tribes, shall be admitted to the enjoyment of all the rights, advantages, and immunities of citizens of the United States, and shall be maintained and protected in the free enjoy- ment of their liberty, property, and religion. The uncivilized tribes will be subject to such laws and regulations as the United States may from time to time adopt in regard to aboriginal tribes of that country. ART. IV. His Majesty, the Emperor of all the Russias, shall appoint, with convenient dispatch, an agent or agents, for the purpose of formally delivering to a similar agent or agents, appointed on behalf of the United States, the territory, domi- nion, property, dependencies, and appurtenances which are ceded as above, and for doing any other act which may be neces- sary in regard thereto; but the cession, with the right of imme- diate possession, is nevertheless to be deemed complete and absolute on the exchange of ratifications, without waiting for such formal delivery. ART. V. Immediately after the exchange ot the ratifications of this convention, any fortifications or military posts which may be in the ceded territory shall be delivered to the agent of the United States, and any Russian troops which may be in EXTRADITION TREATIES. 253 the territory shall be withdrawn as soon as may be reasonably and conveniently practicable. ART. VI. In consideration of the cession aforesaid, the United States agree to pay, at the Treasury in Washington, within months after the exchange of the ratifications of this convention, to the diplomatic representative, or other agent of His Majesty, the Emperor of all the Russias, duly authorized to receive the same, - million dollars in gold. The cession of territory and dominion herein made is hereby demanded to- be free and unincumbered by any reservations, privileges, fran- chises, grants, or possessions, by any associated companies,, whether corporate or incorporate, Russian or any other, or by any parties except merely private individual property holders; and the cession hereby made conveys all the rights, franchises, and privileges now belonging to Russia in the said territory or dominion and appurtenances thereto. ART. VII. When this convention shall have been duly rati- fied by the President of the United States, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, on the one part, and on the other by His Majesty, the Emperor of all the Russias, the rati- fications shall be exchanged at Washington within from the date hereof, or sooner, if possible. In faith whereof the- respective plenipotentiaries have signed this convention, and thereto affixed the seals of their arms. EXTRADITION TREATIES. 1. Treaties have been made from time immemorial between rulers and nations for the purpose of promoting the interests of one or both parties in their commercial relations, or to secure allies in war ; but the kind of treaties mentioned at the head of this section are of modern origin ; and shows strongly the progress of nations toward a substantial unity of interests and of discipline. 2. The security of society demands that when men commit a crime in one place they shall not be able to find a safe asylum to which they may fly whenever the retributions of the law, 254 EXTRADITION TKEATTES. which watches over the welfare of the citizen, threaten to over- take them. The readiness with which criminals can pass from one country to another since steam has made travel so speedy and pursuit for any long distance so difficult, increases the evil. When criminals fly to another country they cannot be pun- ished there, since their courts have no jurisdiction over a criminal from another nation, unless the act was committed in the country where they were established ; nor are governments usually willing to deliver an individual on accusation only, unless there is an express stipulation, or treaty to this effect, between them. To overcome the difficulty a treaty was made in 184-2 between this country and England, in which it was mutually agreed that each country, on the demand of the gov- ernment of the other, should give up criminals of certain kinds named in the treaty, when these after the crime had fled into their jurisdiction. It worked well, since it multiplied the chances of punishment, and tended to check crime. 3. Subsequently, treaties of the same kind were made between the United States and the following countries : France . . in 1843 Prussia, and 17 other German States. . " 1852 Switzerland " 1855 Baden " 1857 Sweden " 1860 Venezuela, South America " 1861 Spain " 1877 The time is probably not distant when treaties of this sort will be made between us and all the civilized nations of the world; for the intercourse between us and foreign nations is greater than ever before. The effect of these international arrangements is to render the perpetration of crime more dangerous than it would be if they did not exist. Flight from the country where the crime was committed was formerly one of the most effectual methods of escaping the penalty. But extradition treaties, Atlantic cables, and land telegraph'?, have nearly spoiled this game. EXTRADITION TREATIES. 255 3. An extradition treaty, then, is a mutual agreement be- tween two nations to deliver up, each to the other, upon demand and proper proof of criminality, such persons as have com- mitted crimes in one country and then fled to the other, that they may be taken back, tried, and punished where the offense was committed. But these demands for escaped criminals can not be sustained if made for every crime whatever. They will only be complied with when the crime is one which is named in the treaty itself. These crimes, upon examination of a number of such treaties, we find to be : 1. Murder, or an assault with an intent to commit murder. 2. Piracy. 3. Ar- son. 4:. Robbery. 5. Forgery, or the uttering of forged papers, or the making or circulating counterfeit money, either paper or coin. (>. Rape. 7. Embezzlement, and 8. Burglary. 4. It should be observed that a mere demand for an alleged offender is not sufficient. Proof enough to convince the judge before whom the case is brought must accompany the demand. He must be satisfied that the party demanded has committed the alleged offense; when this is done the judge reports his finding to the Secretary of State, whose duty then is, under his hand and seal of office, to issue the final writ of extradition; after which the criminal may be taken out of the United States (by force, if necessary), and back to the country where he com- mitted the crime, there to be dealt with according to the laws which he violated. 5. In some of our extradition treaties it is expressly stipu- lated that neither party (government) shall be bound to surren- der its own citizens, or any person for merely a political offense. In others it is agreed that the provisions in the treaty shall not apply to cases where the crime was perpetrated before the treaty was made. This plea, we think, would be held to be a good defense in all cases, whether so stipulated in the treaty or not. 6. The treaties between different nations for the surrender of criminals are so analagous to one of the provisions contained in our Constitution, that to insert it here will give the reader a 256 BUSINESS REPRESENTATIVES. clear comprehension of its meaning. It is found in the secern* section of article 4, and reads thus : " A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or othei crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime." CHAPTEK VII. BUSINESS EEPEESENTATIVES. 1. These officers, called Consuls, are employed by most civil- ized nations, all those at least who have an extensive intercourse with foreign countries, and they are recognized by the Law of Nations as being clothed, when acting in their official capacity, with the authority and inviolability of their respective govern- ments. Their place of official business is protected by the flag of their country, an insult to which renders reparation or war necessary to maintain its honor. Consuls are agents of their governments, but most of their duties have reference to the interests of private citizens who may be within their Consulate. There may be a great number of them in one country, and they are usually located in the seaports. 2. The Constitution provides that the President and Senate shall appoint all our Consuls. The President signs their com- missions, which bear the great seal of the United States, and which prove to the government where they are sent that they are duly appointed and authorized to discharge the duties of BUSINESS REPRESENTATIVES. 257 Consuls at the ports or places to which they have been ap- pointed. 3. In order to show the nature of a Consul's duties, such as the la\vs impose upon him, we will state the substance of several acts relating to this subject. 1. Whenever a vessel belonging to a citizen of the United States arrives at the port where he is stationed, it is his duty to receive the ship's papers, and to see if they are all correct. 2. It is his duty to provide for sick, disabled,- and destitute American seamen, and to send them home by some vessel going fc> the United States. 3. He must hear the complaints of seamen, and settle dis- putes between the captain and men; and for good cause he may discharge the whole ship's crew. 4. It is made his duty to receive and take care of the per* sonal property of any citizen of the United States who has died within his Consulate, and to send any balance which may be left after paying his debts and necessary expenses, to the treas- ury of the United States, to be held in trust for the legal claim- ants. He must also give notice to the Secretary of State of the death of such person. 4. For the purpose of carrying out and executing certain treaties made between the United States and China, Japan, Siam, and Turkey, Consuls to those countries have been empow- ered with judicial functions. They were allowed to act as judges, and to try and punish citizens of the United States who had committed crimes there. These, however, were extra- ordinary powers in special cases, and by no means common to the consular office. 5. In the absence of a minister or diplomatic agent of the United States, the President may authorize a Consul to perform the duties of such foreign minister; but these powers are rarely conferred on them, fheir ordinary duties relate to commercial affairs, and to such as are before stated. 6. A Vice-Consul, or deputy Consul, is one appointed to act temporarily in case of sickness or absence of the ConcuL 17 258 PASSPORTS. His powers, while acting, are the same as those of the Consul in whose place he acts. Every Consul is required to give bonds for the faithful performance of his duties. 7. Our commerce has been extended to almost every part of the globe, and for this reason we need a great number of these officials. Their services are required at all great seaports, and at many smaller ones. The compensation varies according to the amount of business to be transacted by them, from $7,500 down to $500. Some do not receive any salary, but are allowed the fees they are authorized to charge for their services. 8. It is his duty to give his government and countrymen all such information as he possesses in relation to the laws and practices of the country to which he is sent, which it would be important for them to know; and especially is it his duty to look after the interests and welfare of his countrymen when they are within his Consulate, and to see that no wrong or injustice is done to them by the people or government where he resides. CHAPTER VIII. PASSPORTS. 1. The, are written documents, in due official form, signed and sealed r the proper authority, to convey official informa- tion, or sen . as a means of protection, and to readily distin- guish the A- arican Citizen abroad, or to give a permission or authority to gc where those not having passports are forbidden to go. The passport conveys authentic information to whom it PASSPORTS. 259 may concern, to what nation the bearer of the passport belongs; and second, to protect him, and secure to him all the rights and privileges which the government has a right to claim for its citizens by virtue of any treaty of amity and friendship existing between it and the country whither its citizens may go. The passport informs the world that the bearer of it is a citi- zen of the United States, and that he travels under its protec- tion, and that it M r ould demand and exact satisfaction of any one who wronged or injured him who bears such credentials. 2. In the United States, the Secretary of State is the officer authorized by law to issue passports. He has the authority also to cause them to be issued in foreign countries by our for- eign ministers and consuls, under such restrictions and rules as may be designated by the President. This is allowed as a matter of convenience to our citizens who happen to be in for- eign countries without them; who need their protection, and who would be subjected to much delay and expense by going or sending home to procure them. Passportd are not granted to any other than citizens of the United States, whether issued by the Secretary or by any dip- lomatic or consular agent of our government. 3. Besides these passports, which are given only to our own citizens when in foreign countries, or who inten4 to go there, there is another kind issued to foreigners who wish to go among the Indians in the Indian territory, or on the Indian reservation*.. Indeed, our own citizens are not allowed to go among them without permission. But foreigners cannot go without a passport from the Secretary of War, which specifies the route over which the bearer must pass, and the length of time he is allowed to remain among them. This is done to prevent unfriendly foreigners from fomenting mischief, or from exciting unkind feelings towards our government or people. Such unfriendly feelings have been created by foreigners, and we have often experienced the bitter fruits of it, especially in times of war. 4. Still another kind of passports is used in this country, 2t)0 DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY. and should be noticed under this head. They are passports for American ships or vessels. When they are about to sail for a foreign port, the laws of the United States require each to pro- cure one, under a penalty or fine of two hundred dollars upon the master if he departs from the United States for a foreign country (other than some port in America), without it. The passport is prepared by the Secretary of State and is approved by the President. This is given to the master by the collector of the port from which the vessel sails, and is one of the ship's papers, by which her nationality is known, and her protection shown to be that of the United States. CHAPTEE IX. DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY. 1. If the Executive Department that has charge of the public moneys is not highest in nominal rank, it certainly does not hold a less important and interesting place in the estima- tion of the country and of the world than the Department of State. Every part of the' government is dependent on this for its efficiency. It is the heart of the country. The in-and-out- flowing of the tide of money from the central point marks the pulses of the nation's prosperity. Especially has this been the case since the Civil War, and the immense developments and changes that followed it. The banking system, making the Treasury responsible for the issue of all the hundreds of mil- lions of bank notes used in the business of the country, adds immensely to the importance of the United States Treasury. 2. The management of this Department is committed to DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY. 261 the Secretary of the Treasury. He is selected for that office by the President, and when his nomination is approved by tlie Semite In- appointment takes place. He holds office during a presidential term, unless sooner removed. He is a member of the Cabinet and one of the President's advisers. 3. The financial policy adopted by the country depends very much on his views on that difficult question, and the interests ami wealth of millions on the ability and integrity he pos- sesses. He is therefore chosen on account of his real or sup- posed qualifications on questions of finance. He is aided in his duties by an Assistant Secretary, a Comp- troller and Second Comptroller, five Auditors, a Treasurer and his assistant, a Register and his assistant, a Commissioner of Customs, a Comptroller of the Currency and his deputy, and a Solicitor of the Treasury. All these have their offices in connection with the Treasury Department at Washington. In several of the large cities are sub- treasuries, each presided over by an assistant Treasurer, where public funds are received and disbursed. The Treasurers of the Mints are also, many of them, Assistant Treasurers of this Department. All these are appointed by the President and Senate in the same manner as the Chief Secretary. 4. The sums of money actually handled, and the accounts of all moneys received and disbursed without passing into the vaults of the Treasury, amount to many hundreds of millions annually, and require the constant service of some hundreds of clerks. These all need to have clean hands and pure hearts, which is, unfortunately, more rare among men of all classes than could be wished. Yet the whole is reduced to so accurate a system that a loss at any point immediately produces a dis turbance in the whole machinery, and a short examination suf tices to reveal the point of difficulty and the person responsible for it. Accordingly, losses and defalcations are seldom expe- rienced in or near the central point of the Department. If they occur, which is sometimes the case, it is usually some officer at a distance who is found to be at fault, whose sphere 262 DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY. of operations lies far from the centre and only occasionally passes under scrutiny. Each has his separate sphere of duties which no one else interferes with, and assumes his own respon- sibility, and probably no other institution in the world loses less in proportion to the amount of money involved and the number of persons handling it. 5. Every account must be carefully examined and approved by the proper officer before it can be presented for settlement and the money paid out, and whatever moneys may flow in, none can flow out but according to some law of Congress defi- nitely appropriating it. All officers having the handling of public funds are required to give security for the faithful discharge of their duties. This must, by the requirement of the law, be done before they can enter their respective places. SECRETARIES OF THE TREASURY. Alexander Hamilton, K Y., Sept. 12, 1789. Oliver Wolcott, Ct., Feb. 4, 1795. Samuel Dexter, Mass., Dec. 31, 1800. Albert Gallatin, Pa., May 14, 1801. George W. Campbell, Tenn., Feb. 9, 1814. Alexander J. Dallas, Pa., Oct. 6, 1814. William H. Crawford, Ga., Oct. 22, 1816. Richard Rush, Pa., Mar. 7, 1825. Samuel D. Ingham, Pa., Mar. 6, 1829. Louis McLane, Del., Aug. 8, 1831. William J. Duane, Pa., May 29, 1833. Roger B. Taney, Md., Sept. 23, 1833. Levi Woodbury, K II., June 27, 1834. Thomas Ewing, O., Mar. 5, 1841. Walter Forward, Pa., Sept. 13, 1841. John C. Spencer, N. Y., Mar 3, 1843. George M. Bibb. Ky., June 15, 1844. Robert J. Walker, Miss., Mar. 5, 1845. W. M. Meredith, Pa., Mar. 7, 1849. FINANCIAL SYSTEM OF THE U. 8, Thomas Corwin, O., June 20, 1850. James Gutlirie, Ky., Mar. 5, 1853. Howell Cobb, Ga., Mar. 6, 1857. Philip F. Thomas, Md., Dec. 10, 1860. John A. Dix, N. Y., 1861. Salmon P. Chase, O., Mar. 5, 1861. William P. Fessenden, Me., July, 1864. Hugh McCulloch, Ind., 1864. George S. Boutwell, March 11, 1869. W. A. Richardson, March 17, 187a B. H. Bristow, Ky., June 3, 1874. L. M. M-r.^., Me., 1870. John Sherman, O., March 8, 1877. CHAPTER X. THE FINANCIAL SYSTEM OF THE U. S. 1. Revenue, or the income of the government, ift derived from various sources. A tax or duty, as it is often called laid on goods imported into the country, is one of the most important. It is easy for a government to manage without producing a very sensible effect on the people, and has been a favorite mode of raising a revenue with nearly all governments since commerce became general. 2. The sale of public lands has, in this country, been a source of large revenue; though the desire to encourage emi- gration and develop the unsettled parts has led the government to sell them for a nominal sum. Still, these lands were so attractive and extensive as to sell rapidly and produce a con- siderable income. The Post Office Department has been a source of income, in great part supporting itself. Duties paid on the tonnage of vessels, the forfeiture of goods smuggled, or 264 FINANCIAL SYSTEM OF THE IT. 8. introduced into the country without paying the lawful tax or duty, and the forfeiture of vessels used in that unlawful trade, prizes taken in war, and fees required to be paid to various officials when their services are employed, are minor sources of revenue. 3. When all these are not sufficient, as in time of war, or when an immense war debt is to be paid, direct taxes are laid on the property and business of the country. This is called THE INTEKNAL EEVENUE, and is borne with more or less patience, according as the people regard the end to be gained important. The revenues of the States are mostly derived from this source. They are not allowed to raise th'eir revenue from foreign commerce, since that would be a tax on goods liable to be paid by the people of another State. 4. The necessity of laying large direct taxes does not, in this country, often arise in case of the General Government; but during and after the gigantic Civil War between the North and South, when enormous expenses had to be met, and the credit of the government sustained, the direct taxes became very large indeed. In 1861 Congress passed the " Internal Revenue Law," by which twenty millions of dollars were to be annually raised from direct taxes on houses and lands in each of the States and Territories. By subsequent acts not only houses and lands were taxed, but almost every sort of property and business. Licenses were required for persons to carry on their profession, trade, or busi- ness ; incomes were taxed ; deeds, mortgages, notes, bonds, bank checks, and papers of almost every kind were invalid unless they had a revenue stamp upon them. Manufacturers had to pay a certain per-centage on whatever they made. Scarcely any calling, trade, profession, or business escaped it, directly or indirectly. 5. To carry out these provisions, the whole country was FINANCIAL SYSTEM OF THE U. 8. 265 divided into Revenue Districts, corresponding, so far as con- venient, with Congressional Districts. An officer of the Treas- ury Department, called the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, was appointed, charged with the duty of preparing instruction*, forms, blanks, stamps, and licenses, to be used in the collection by the multitude of minor officers employed, and of oversee- ing the whole work. Each district had its chief officer, and his deputies, assessors, and collectors, by whom the money at length reached the Treasury at Washington. It created an army of officers to be paid. It was laid aside as soon as possi- ble, and taxation made less onerous and expensive. The remark- able prosperity of the country at that particular period made it easier to bear. Direct taxes laid by the General Government are more economically collected by the State or local officials, in all ordinary cases. This was a very extraordinary and press- ing one, and the people were so eager to put their debt in the way of extinction that it was endured with much patience for several years, vyhen most of this cumbrous and costly machinery was laid aside. 6. The vast war debt, the large number of government officers employed in attending to the interests of so large and prosperous a country, the support of the army and navy, the great number of foreign representatives and agents of the government, and the public works necessary for the develojv ment or protection of the country, make a large revenue indis- pensable. 7. It is best when the people are free and intelligent that they be governed as little as possible or rather that they gov- ern themselves as much as possible, and that as few officials as may be live on the fruits of other people's labor. There must necessarily be an army of them, at the least; but such arrange- ments should be made that public expenses may be reduced to the lowest point, and republican simplicity everywhere reign. The principle and habit of public economy should be earn- estly insisted on, since the handling of immense sums of pub- lic money is much more demoralizing than the acquisition of 266 DUTIES AND TARIFFS. private wealth in legitimate ways. It is a strong temptation. to v inen of weak moral character; and private property is more likely to be carefully used and economically expended than public funds. The smaller the revenue, consistent with the general development of the country, the better. CHAPTER XI. DUTIES AND TARIFFS. 1. Duty is a term used to designate a sum paid by foreign merchandise corning to our country for sale, for the privilege of entering and being offered to purchasers. Tariff is a rate, or scale, of duties. 2. Ever since intercourse has become frequent between dif- ferent nations commerce has been occupied in effecting inter- changes of the products and industries of each country with others. Each country has peculiarities that specially fit it for the production or manufacture of some article, or list of arti- cles, which others would be unable to produce, or would pro- duce at greater inconvenience and expense, and which is of high value to all, or many of the others. The social princi- ple has proved to be of extreme value to the improvement of men, and to their happiness; and we might say that, in this unequal distribution of capacities in the lands, and the races- who inhabit them, the exercise of the social principle, on a broad scale, was made, by nature, indispensable. 3. Each nation, then, devotes itself to its special features of production, and exchanges its surplus with others for what it wants of their different surplus, to mutual profit. Just as A is a farmer, and raises grain, while B is a mechanic. Each haa a natural adaptation to the business he pursues, and each needs 'vhat the other produces. So they exchange, and each has the full benefit of the success and different genius and resources of the other. Commerce is the same in principle, and interchange becomes constantly- more extensive. DUTIES AND TAKIM->. 26T 4. Government naturally regulates commerce because it is of the general interests of the country. It finds an indefi- nite amount of foreign merchandise waiting to enter to be put on sale. It was long ago discovered that here was a conve- nient mode of producing a government income without dis- turbing the people with a constant demand for money to pay its expenses. Whatever foreign goods had to pay for permis- sion to enter, was quietly added to the price afterward, and so the people paid their taxes to the government in an indirect way in the form of a Duty. They pay the price asked, if it be within their means, without knowledge, or thought, of what part goes to the government, unless they study the subject care* fully. It has always been the case, then, that a government could get all the money it wanted, from this source, in ordinary times, with very little trouble. That mode is naturally a favor- ite with them. Whether it is the best way for the people is another question, which has been, at different times, very warmly debated in our government. It is not our place here to take up the argument, but it is worthy of a careful study by the people. 5, A Tariff of duties is established to carry on the govern- ment. There is another object that has had many advocates, and has quite commonly exerted an influence to raise the tariff on some things. It is stated in the preamble, or introduction, to the first act passed by the first Congress, on this subject, July 4th, 1789, " Whereas, it is necessary for the support of the government, for the discharge of the debts of the United States, and the encouragement and protection of manufac- tures, that duties be laid on goods, wares, and merchandise imported." It was considered important to protect and encour- age our manufactures, by putting so high a price on the same kind of foreign goods that ours would have the advantage and sell at a less price or greater profit. Tliis might have been a wise measure, in the early days of the country, when there were few manufactures. Whether it has been eo since, or is so now, is not so clear. 268 DUTIES AND TARIFFS. 6. Every man should make up his mind what is right and best and act as he sees to be most for the general good. It has two disadvantages. It embarrasses the interchange that we have described as so profitable, and under a high tariff some- times practically forbids it. It is unsocial, and we declare by it, that we will, so far as possible, live within ourselves, and have as little to do with our neighbors as we can. Besides, it is our own people who have to pay the duty, mainly, if they use the foreign goods; or the higher price on domestic goods if they buy them; so that one class of the people, that is, the the mass of them, pay another small class large sums to manu- facture what might be bought from foreigners with less money. It is a fine thing for the manufacturers, but not quite so fine for those who buy them, unless they feel like making their countrymen a present for every piece of goods he will manu- facture for them, beside the proper cost as made by others. It has the advantage of encouraging industries of different kinds ; and has been believed to contribute greatly to the gen- eral prosperity in that way. Some think it best to let all those things arrange themselves, and leave each nation to bring us what they can produce cheapest and sell them more of what we can produce cheapest. They believe this is the secret of pros- perity, besides being more social. It is a question to be care- fully examined. It seems probable, that, in the end, all nations will agree on this policy, and raise their revenue in some other way. It is perhaps too soon to expect that, as yet. We have never been without a tariff, though there has been much discussion in Congress, and between parties, whether it should be protective or not. So it has often changed from low to high and back again. The necessities of our war, and the heavy debt, made it important, in the highest degree, to raise all the revenue we could, and the subject has not been much discussed for many years. 7. The Duties are mostly collected in the cities, and, as foreign goods come mainly by water, in the seaports of the countrv. Duties are often called Customs, and the places where DUTIES AND TARIFFS. they are collected Custom Houses; and the officers Custom House Officers. These places are located in ports along our sea coast, ami there are some thousands of custom house o'fficers of all grades. ' The buildings erected by the government have cost many millions of dollars. The larger part of the duties are collected in the great seaport cities, as Boston, New York, Balti- more, New Orleans, and San Francisco. Places, designated for foreign vessels to present their goods for examination and collection of the duty, are called Ports of Entry. If they are delivered at some other place, where there is no custom house they are called Ports of Delivery. 8. Congress alone has power to lay these duties. There are two modes of imposing them ; sometimes one and sometimes the other being adopted, according to the views of the Con- gress legislating. They are called specific and ad valorem duties. Ad valorem means, according to the cost, and is counted on the cost in the countr^ the article comes from. Specific duties are so much on the article, without regard to the cost. On many things imported there is no duty, and they are called " free goods." Changes are continually made in the tariff to conform to the requirements of the Treasury, the desires of the people, and the changing views of the legislators. DRAWBACKS. 9. When the duties on foreign goods- have been paid, and they are afterwards exported, the duties which have been paid are refunded to the owner. The money thus paid back is called a drawback. All imported goods are entitled to draw- back whenever they are taken out of the United States. BOUNTIES ON EXPORTED GOODS, take money out of, instead of putting it in the treasury, yet the irovcrnment in a few cases has allowed bounties upon exported rticles. Fish taken by American vessels, refined sugar and distilled spirits made from imported sugar and molasses, are examples. This was done to encourage domestic industry and enterprise. 270 DUTIES AND TARIFFS. CUSTOMS REVENUE FOE FIFTY-ONE YEARS. A Comparative Statement showing the Customs Revenue, Amount of Dutiable and Free Goods Imported, and the Average Rate of Duty on Imports, every year from 1821 to 1871, inclusive. YEAR Receipts from IMPORTS. a o -4J a"2 a a> P Customs. Free. Dutiable. Total. "t - 3 r & s| 1821... $18,475,703 57 $10,082,313 $52,503,411 $62,585,724 35.6 29-5 1822 . . 24,066,066 43 7,298,708 75 942 833 83,241 541 31 7 28 9 1823 22,402,024 29 9.048,288 68,530 979 77,579,267 32.7 28-8 1824 25,486,817 86 12,563,773 67 985 234 80549 007 37 5 31-6 1825 31,653,871 50 10,947,510 85 392 565 96,340,075 37.1 32-8 1826 26,083,861 97 12,567,769 72,406 708 84,974,477 34.6 30-7 1827 27,948,956 57 11,855 104 67 628 964 79,484,068 41 3 35-1 1828 29,951,251 90 12,379,176 76 130 648 88,509,824 39.3 33-8 1829 27,888,701 11 11,805,501 62,687 026 74,492,527 44.3 37-1 1830 28,389,505 05 12,746,245 58 130 675 70 876 920 48.8 40-0 1831 36,596,118 19 13,456,625 89,734 499 103,191,124 40.8 35-4 1832 29,341,175 65 14,249,453 86,779 813 101,029,266 33.8 29-0 1833 24,177,578 52 32,447,950 75 670 361 108,118,311 31.9 22-4 1834.. 18,960,705 96 68,393,180 58,128 152 126,521,332 32.6 15-0 1835 25,890,726 66 77,940 493 71 955 249 149 895 742 36.0 17-2 1836 30,818,327 67 92,056 481 97 923 554 189,980,035 31.6 16-2 1837... 18,134,131 01 69*250,031 71,739,186 140,989,217 25.3 12-4 1838 19,702,825 45 60860005 52 857 399 113,717,404 37.8 17-3 1839 25,554,533 96 76,401,792 85 690 340 162,092,132 29.9 15-8 1840 . 15,104,790 63 57 106 204 49 945 815 107,141,519 30.4 14.1 1841 19,919,492 17 66,019 731 61 926 446 127,946,177 32.2 15.6 1842 16,662,746 84 30 627 486 69 534 601 100,162 087 23.1 16-6 1843 10,208,000 43 35 574 584 29 179 215 64,753,799 35.7 15.7 1S44... 29,236,357 38 24,766 881 83 668 154 108,435,035 35.1 26-9 1845 30,952,416 21 22 147840 95 106 724 117254 564 32.5 26-4 1846 26,712,668 00 24,767 739 96 924 058 121,691,797 26.5 21.9 1847 23,747,865 00 41,772,636 104,773 002 146,545,638 22.5 16.2 1848 31,757,071 00 22716 603 132 282 325 154,998,928 24.0 20.4 1849 28,346,739 00 22,377,665 125,479 774 147,857,439 23.0 19-2 1850 ... 39,668,686 00 22710382 155427 936 178,138,318 25.2 22.3 1851 49,017,568 00 25,106,587 191 118345 216,224,932 26.0 22.6 1852 47,339 326 00 29 692 934 183 252 508 212 945,442 26.0 22.2 1853 58,931,865 00 31,383 534 236 595 113 267,978,647 25.0 22.0 1854... 64,224,190 00 33,285,821 271,276,560 304,562,381 23.5 21.1 1855 . . 53,025,794 00 40090 336 221 378 184 261,468,520 23.0 20.3 1856 64 022 863 00 56 955 706 257 684 236 314,639 942 25 20.3 1857 63,875 905 00 66 729 306 294 160 835 360,890,141 21.5 17.7 1858 41,789.621 00 80,319,275 202 293 875 282,613,150 20.0 14.8 1859 49,565 824 00 79 721 116 259 047 014 338,768,130 19.0 14.6 1860 53,187,511 00 90,841 749 279 872 327 362,166 254 19.0 14.7 1861 39 582 126 00 tl!7 469 962 218 180 191 335,650,153 18.14 11.79 1862 1863 49.056,398 00 69 059 642 00 19,136,705 44 826 029 136,635,024 208 093 891 205,771,729 252,919,920 35.90 33.19 23.84 27 30 1864 1865 102,316,153 00 84,928,260 00 t54,241,944 54,329,588 275,320,951 194,226,064 329,562,895 248,555,652 37.16 43.75 31.04 34.17 1866 179,046 630 00 69 728 618 375 783 540 445.512,158 47.65 40.1? 1867 176,417,811 00 45,203,970 372,627,601 417,831,571 47.34 42.22 1868 1869 164,464,596 00 180,048,427 00 29,379,149 41,454 568 342,245,659 395,859,687 371,624,808 437,314,255 48.05 45.48 44.25 41 17 1870 192,878,265 00 46,560,050 415,817,537 462,377,587 46.37 41.71 1871 57,851,808 4a3,641,966 541,493,774 * The percentages in these columns are approximately, not absolutely correct, owing o the fact that the rates are computed upon the value of merchandise, etc., imported^ DUTIES AWD TARIFFS. 271 TONNAGE. > 11. Tonnage designates the capacity of a vessel for carrying .goods, which depends on the tons of weight it can receive, and is computed by assigning so much space, in height, length, and breadth, to each ton. A revenue, additional to that raised from the goods brought in vessels, is produced by a tax on the tonnage, or carrying capacity of vessels. It is laid, not only on foreign vessels, trading with our sea- ports, but on our own vessels; a distinction being made so as to produce protection in favor of our own commerce and ship-builders. This also is paid by those who buy the goods brought in these vessels; since whatever duty is laid on the carrying trade must be made up by the higher price of the arti- cle brought. It is a way of levying taxes without directly calling the attention of the people to the fact. 12. It is worthy of careful consideration whether the coun- try would not gain as much, by removing all these embarrass- ments to commerce with other countries, and different points on our coasts, as has been gained by free trade between the dif- ferent States. The Constitution forbids taxes to be levied on inter-State commerce, or trade, and the country is undoubtedly the gainer by such a provision. In 1790 a tonnage duty of 50 cents per ton was laid on for- eign vessels, and six cents on American vessels. During the Civil War the tonnage duty was raised ten cents per ton on both foreign and American shipping. Tonnage is collected only once a year by the collector of the port where the vessel happens to be. CHAPTEK XII. COLLECTION OF DUTIES. 1. The Tariff, or Scale of Duties, laid by the Laws of Con- gress, on goods brought from foreign countries, requires to be paid when they are first introduced ; or we might say, before they are introduced. All these goods are stopped as they approach the boundary line, or on the boundary line, and carefully examined ; and they can go no farther until the duties imposed by Congress are received. When they have " passed the Custom House " they may be as freely sold as goods pro- duced at home. No government officer has any right to inter- fere with them. They have paid the duty and have the freedom of the land. If they, by any chance or effort, get in by any other way, they are treated as stolen goods, and may be seized and confiscated. However much they may have cost their owners, however highly they may prize them, however unques- tioned was their ownership before they passed the limits of the country, if they are introduced by. any other than the Custom House Door, all right and title to them by the former owners ceases, and they become the property of the government. 2. So carefully is this point guarded that not only are government officers provided for the sole purpose of watching against this illegal introduction of goods, but a premium is offered to unofficial persons to secure their aid. Any one who can point out (and prove the fact) goods of any kind, liable to duty, that have not passed the custom house, and paid that duty, is entitled to half the value of the goods; the other half belonging to the government. Smuggling, as bringing goods (272) COLLECTION OF DUTIES. 273 Into the country without paying the duty is called, is held to be robbery of the government, and rauks as a serious offense ; and it really is so, as long as .the government produces its income, or part of it, in this way. The law makes it part pro* prietor in the property until its claim is settled. Besides, to take from the government is to take from the people; since they must make up, in some other way. for what is subtracted in this. 3. To secure this payment of Duty, then, a large number of officers of different grades are appointed, not only to examine the goods, determine the amount required to be paid, receive the money and keep all the accounts connected with it, bat to take care that all the goods, of whatever kind, that are not permitted an entrance free of duty, shall duly pass examination, and be " entered," as it is called, at the custom house. 4. The Head of these officers is the COMMISSIONER OF CUSTOMS. He superintends the Customs Bureau in the Treasury Depart- ment. He is nominated, and, with the consent of the Senate, appointed by the President. All the accounts of officers em- ployed in the collection of duties on imports pass through his bureau for examination and adjustment; he prepares the forms of all papers used in this department of the revenue ; directs the form of keeping the accounts; brings suits when necessary for the recovery of money due from officers of the department; and makes a report of any neglect of duty to Congress. A complete summary, therefore, of the past and present condition of the customs department may be found, at any time, in his office. With so perfect a system of supervision it does not matter how extensive the organization may be. No confusion is possible. There are more than 30,000 persons employed nnder this officer; and they are scattered through the whole country where there are Ports of Entry or Delivery, as well as keeping guard along the whole coast line and frontier of the United States ; yet they are under as complete discipline and 18 274 COLLECTION OF DUTIES. surveillance as the army or navy. This bureau was organized in 1849; its business having previously been under the over- sight of the First Comptroller of the Treasury. It has general supervision of the conduct and accounts of all customs offi- cials. The highest in rank below this are THE COLLECTOES. 5. Wherever there is a Port of Entry a Collector is ap- pointed to superintend the collection of duties, receive the money, and transmit it to the United States Treasury. He is the principal officer of the Collection District connected with this Port, which often embraces several Ports of Delivery, and is required to see that all is properly conducted in his district- He receives his appointment directly from tne President and Senate, and is removable at the pleasure of the President. 6. As, in ordinary times, the most of the revenue required for the support of the government is derived from Customs, this is a responsible office. Great care is required to secure the services of competent and faithful men, and the bonds they are required to give are large. He nominates the subordinate officers connected with his custom-house, and the Secretary of the Treasury appoints them, if he sees no objection. 7. The Collectors take care that all the goods, on which Congress has imposed a duty, pay the amount due. To this end he often requires one or more deputies. The entire com- merce of the part of the country falling in his district, with other countries, passes under his examination. He receives all reports, manifests, and documents required to be exhibited by all vessels, domestic and foreign, on their entry into his port, and all accounts of all the goods they have on board. On these he must estimate the duties, receive the moneys, or bonds securing their payment, and grant all permits for landing the goods. He transmits, quarterly, all the moneys collected in his department, with an accurate account of all the transactions of his office during the quarter, to the Secretary of the Treas- ury. These accounts pass to the Customs bureau, and the money to the Treasurer of the United States. OOLLKOTION OF DUTIES. 275 8. His duties, as described in the previous section, make him acquainted with all the imports of the country, in his District or Port. He is also required to examine the manifests of all the vessels, and the accounts of their cargoes, that leave his port for a foreign country. This secures a knowledge of all the exports of the country. It is his duty to give clearances, or permits, to all vessels leaving for foreign ports. It is unlaw- ful for any vessel to depart without this document. A ship's clearance can be properly given only when her manifest, or detailed account of the quantity, kind, and value of her cargo is ascertained to be correct. 9. We give the form of a ship's Manifest, and also of a Clearance. A SHIP'S MANIFEST. " Report and manifest of the cargo laden on board of the , whereof is master, which cargo was taken on board at the port or ports of , burthen tons, built at , in the State of , and owned by , merchants at , and bound for ." This, together with a particular description of the marks and numbers of every bale, box, case, barrel, bundle or parcel on board of the vessel, is the manifest. It must be given to the collector of whatever port the vessel arrives at; and the master of her must swear that it is in all respects a true and accurate account of all the cargo on board, to the best of his knowledge and belief. 10. The collector of the port can then compute the duties to be paid upon each article, and when these are paid, or secured to be paid, he gives permits to land the cargo, and deliver the goods to their respective owners. Then come in the duties of weighers, gangers, measurers and inspectors of the customs, after permits are obtained to land the goods. If they are such as require to be weighed, gauged, or measured, these officers are sent to do it; and the inspector must allow nothing to leave the ship until he has examined the marks and numbers, to see if they correspond with the permit and the manifest If he 276 COLLECTION OF DUTIES. suspects that there is an attempt to defraud the government oy false names and marks, he is authorized to open the package, box, case, cask, or whatever contains the goods, and to examine them. In this way smuggling is prevented, and the revenues arising from duties on imported goods secured. A SHIP'S CLEARANCE. This document is couched in the following terms : " District of , Port of , ss. "These are to certify, to all whom it may concern, thai A. B., master or commander of the ship (brig, barque, schooner] burthen tons or thereabouts, mounted with guns, navigated with men, built, and bound foi , having on board , hath here entered and cleared his said vessel according to law. " Given under our hands and seals, at the custom-house of , this day of , one thousand , and in the year of the Independence of the United States of America." This is signed by the collector and by the naval officer of the port, when the commander is prepared to depart with his vessel to his destination. 11. The compensation of collectors is not all given in the form of a salary, but in part the fees for services rendered, and part of the forfeitures of smuggled goods. In the larger ports it is enormous, but in the smaller ones is often insignificant. It is a common mode of doing business of this kind, and is supposed to stimulate the activity and secure the faithfulness of the officer in preventing frauds on the government. The working of this plan is sometimes complained of as inspiring an over-officiousness embarrassing to trade and unnecessarily annoying to importers; and as producing too great an inequal- ity in incomes. It is difficult to make a system quite perfect. Whether this admits of improvement remains to be seen. - SURVEYORS 12. Are next in rank and authority to the Collectors. They rol.I.Kc TION OF DUTIES. 277 are appch>tod in the same manner and receive their compensa- tion in the name way. The Surveyor's duty is to superintend the inspectors, weighers, measurers, and gangers in his port; to visit all vessels arriving in it; make a detailed report of them to the Collector; and examine all goods entered for the benefit at' drawback. THE NAVAL OFFICER 13. Of a port, is another of the superintendents, appointed to oversee the collection of the revenue. His appointment depends on the President and Senate, and his compensation on the amount of business done in his port, in the same manner as the Collector and Surveyor. His duties are, to some extent, parallel to those of the Collector ; or he may be called a local examiner and auditor of the Collector's work and accounts, for the sake of accuracy and correctness. He receives copies of all manifests and entries, and computes the duties on all goods, keeping a separate record of them. He must countersign per- mits, clearances, certificates, debentures, and other documents issued by the Collector. He examines the Collector's accounts, bonds, and expenditures, and certifies to them, if correct. A great number of deputies and employees are required to carry out the details of the collection of duties, since the entire amount of imports into the country are required to be carefully examined. REVENUE CUTTERS 14. Are employed to guard against smuggling. They are vessels of small size, some steamers, and others sailing vessels, properly manned and armed, of high powers of speed; and are stationed as a coast guard near the ports, and lines of ocean travel, to prevent the landing of imported goods before they have paid the duty. Their officers are appointed by the Presi- dent and Senate. They look after all the ships going into any port, or any that may approach the coast; board them when within four leagues (or 12 miles) of the coast; examine the manifest of the cargo and every part of the vessel; put proper fastenings on the 278 GOVERNMENT COINAGE. hatches, to prevent unlawful communication with the hold until the Custom's officers have discharged their duty; and place a watch on board to remain until the vessel is delivered into the charge of the proper revenue officer. 15. They are revenue officers, and under the control of the Secretary of the Treasury, and the Collectors at the ports near which they are stationed. In case the President judges it best, they may be called on, at his direction, to cooperate with the Navy, and, in case they are disabled in the discharge of their duty at such times, are entitled to be treated in the same man- ner as officers and sailors in the Navy. 16. These vessels carry a pennant and ensign with such marks on them as the President may designate. If any vessel liable to seizure refuses to bring to at the direction of the com- mander of the Cutter, lie is authorized to fire into it after having shown his pennant and ensign, and compel it to submit to be boarded and examined. Much depends on the vigilance of these revenue cutters, as the sums paid on goods imported amount to a great many millions of dollars, and want of due precaution would cause the income of the government to be defrauded of large sums. The commanders of revenue cutters report all matters relat. ing to their duties weekly to the Collector of the port. CHAPTER XIII. GOVERNMENT COINAGE. 1. The United States mint, located at Philadelphia, is one of the most important establishments of the government. An act of Congress, passed in 1792, was the first step towards its creation. Its design was, and its principal busmess has been, GOVERNMENT COINAGE. 279 to coin the precious metals into money. It has been for more than eighteen hundred years the usage of civilized governments to coin their own money. Ours, at a very early period of its existence, began to do the same thing, and will probably con- tinue to do it as long as it shall exist. Before the art of coin- ing was known, the precious metals were used as a standard of value, but they passed from one to another by weight. The plan of cutting them into small pieces, and then stamping their value upon them, by which their worth could be known as soon as seen, was an improvement upon the former mode. This process is denominated coining. It has of late been brought so near perfection that our pieces of money are fine specimens of art. 2. The officers, who manage and conduct the operations of, this establishment, are a Director, a Treasurer, an Assayer, a Melter and Refiner, a Chief Coiner, and an Engraver. They are all appointed by the President and Senate in the usual manner. The director appoints the assistants and clerks. All must give bonds for the faithful performance of their respective duties upon which they enter under oath. The unties of these different officers may almost be known by the names they bear. The director is the head of the institution, and the others act under his general direction, each having his appropriate duties to perform. In the month of January of each year the director must make a report to the President of the operations of the mint and its branches for the preceding year. 3. Any person may take gold or silver bullion or ores to the mint and receive it back in coin, for a very trifling expense. Before it is coined, after its value has been determined by the assayer, the director will give a certificate for it, which is of the same value as the bullion deposited. 4. We have stated that the principal business at the mint is the conversion of the precious metals into coin or money. But this is not its exclusive business. Another part is to melt and assay these metals, and to run them into ingots or bare 28C GOVERNMENT COINAGE. either of pure or standard gold and silver, according to the wish of its owner. Until 1835 the mint at Philadelphia was the only establish- ment in the United States for coining money. But in that year a law was passed establishing branch mints at New Orleans, in Louisiana; at Charlotte, in North Carolina; and at Dahlonega, in Georgia. In 1852, another branch was estab- lished in California; in 1862, another at Denver, in Colorado Territory; and in 1863, another at Carson City, in Nevada Territory, since made a State; in 1864, another at San Fran- cisco, in California, and another at Dallas City, in Oregon. Except the one in California, but little has ever been done at these branches. They are all similar to the principal one at Philadelphia; and the laws relating to that are made to apply to these branches. The following is a table of coins and their weight and alloy as now made at the mint: Weight of Single Pieces FINENESS. PROPORTIONATE ALLOT. Deviation in Wgt. allowed oy Law. GOLD Double Eagles.. Eagles Grains. 516 258 129 77.4 64.5 25.8 420 192 96.45 77.16 38.58 77.16 32 48 900 900 900 !WO 900 900 900 900 900 900 900 900 parts 900 900 900 900 900 900 parts 900 900 900 900 25 parts 25 95 parts gold, 100 parts 100 100 100 100 100 ilver, 100 parts 100 100 100 100 nickel, 75 parts 75 copper, 5 tin an :oppei opper sopper d zinc Grains. 1 A I 1 !'/ M VA m m 2 4 4 Half Eagles Three Dollars... Quarter Eagles. Dollars SILVER Trade Dollars... Half Dollars Quarter Dollars. Twenty Cents... Dimes .... NICKEL Five Cent. Three Cent BRONZE One Cent No eagles were coined from 1805 to 1837 inclusive; no half eagles in 1816 or 1817; no quarter eagles before 1796, nor in 1800 or 1801, nor from 1809 to 1820, or in 1822, 1823, 182S or 1841; no dollars from 1806 to 1838, except 1,000 in 1836: no half dollars from 1797 to 1800, nor in 1815; no quarters before 1796, none from 1798 to 1803, none from 1808 to 1814, and none in 1817, 1824, 1826, 1829 and 1830; no dimes before 1796, none in 1799, 1806, 1808, 1812, 1813, 1815 to 1819, none in 1824, 1828 and 1830; no half dimes in 1798, 1799, 1804, 18X)6 to 1823; no C3nts in 1815; a few specimens in 1823; no half-cents in 179 S, 1801, 1812 to 1824, 1827 to 1830, 1834, 1836 and 1840. A few half-cents were struck every year from 1840 to 1857. First three-dollar pieces in 1854. i.OVEU.NMEMT COKNAOJ-. 281 The coinage of the silver dollar of 412 grains, the five and three cent silver pieces, and bronze two cent piece, was discon- tinued under the coinage act of 1873, which went into effect on the 1st of April of that year. Pure silver is worth $1.30 an ounce, troy. Pure gold is worth $20.67 an ounce, or a fraction over fifteen times as much as silver. The pure gold is always a bright straw color; the different- grades of color seen in jewelry, etc., are caused by different alloyage. Half cents have not been coined since 1857. All of the base coins for the country are coined in Philadelphia. It is capable of making enough coin to supply the wants of all the nations of the world. The coinage of the mint up to June 30th. 1876, amounted to $1,132,226,390. This includes gold, silver, nickel and copper. The mints at Carson and San Francisco coin gold and silver only. The mint at Denver does not make coin: its operations are confined to assaying and refining. THE UNITED STATES MINT. Statement of Domestic Gold and Silver deposited at the United States Mint and Branches, for Coinage, to June 30th, 1872. FROM. GOLD. SILVER. GOLD AND SILVER. California $642,965,026.00 $156,423.03 $643,121,449.12 Mon tana 30,M8,'J65.*1 176,838.57 30,8*6, 103.81 Colorado .............. .. 30,338.420.96 1,114,543.48 21,452.964.89 Idaho 17,141,52184 291,681.59 17,483,205.48 Oregon . 11, 594.979.33 1,863.74 11,596,843.07 North Carolina 9,865, 25--2.SC 44,110.95 9,909,363.9-.' Nevada 1,010,280.17 8,589,868.04 9,550,148.21 Georgia 7,232, 346.SW -ui.K:j 7,232, 750. 79 Virginia 1,629,188.79 1,629,188.79 South Carolina 1.379,121,92 1,379,121.92 Lake Superior 1,062,540.81 1,062,540.81 Arizona ... .... 975,401.39 39,873.08 1,015274.47 New Mexico 823,021.29 823,021.29 Utah 146,147.18 261,204.71 407,851 . Nebraska 24,381.57 200,976.53 226.358.10 Alabama 213,750.66 213,750.66 138,878,12 86.48 138,964.60 Tennessee ... 81,529.69 81,529.69 Washington Territory 67,745.38 67,745.38 New Mexico and Sonora 51,653.31 51,653.31 Dakota 5,760,00 5,760.00 Vermont 5,611.97 5,611.97 Kansas . 1,00962 468.00 1.477.63 Sitka 397.64 :t: ! Maryland 1(18.00 108.00 Other Sources 85,226.912.42 2,751.15 v,.-..w :,- Parted from Silver . iy,vV.V..T" !tt.-7 282 GOVERNMENT COINAGE. ASSAY OFFICE. 1. In 1853 the Secretary of the Treasury was authorized to* establish an office in the city of New York for the receipt, melting, refining and assaying of gold and silver bullion and foreign coins, and for casting the same into bars, ingots, or disks. The assistant treasurer of the United States in New York, is treasurer of this assay office, and the Secretary of the Treasury appoints such other clerks, assistants, and workmen as- shall be necessary for the management of its business. 2. Persons having gold or silver bullion, ores or foreign coin, may deposit them in his office, and it will be refined and assayed (at no more cost than the actual expense of doing the work), its value ascertained, and the owner will be paid for it in coins of the same value and metal as that deposited. It is not coined in this office, but cast into bars, ingots or disks either of pure metal or of standard fineness, as the owner may prefer the true weight and value of which are stamped thereon; and the owner may either take them in payment for his bullion or foreign coin, or it will be coined for him at the United States Mint, if he wishes. The bars spoken of are often kept in that form, and are used as coin among banks, brokers., and merchants, who receive and pay large amounts of the pre- cious metals. With them it passes as coin, for its exact weight and value are stamped upon it. 3. This establishment was located at New York more for the convenience of those who do business there, than for the necessity of such an institution ; for at the mint at Philadel- phia there is a department for doing the same work as is done here. But at New York there is a larger amount of foreign coin than in any other place, and it is often advantageous to its owners to have it converted into American coin, that it may be used with greater facility. Although many foreign coins do circulate in this country, but few know their value. Conse- quently they do not pass so readily; and for this reason they are melted and run into bars of known value, or re-coined into American money. CHAPTER XIY. NATIONAL BANKING. 1. The present banking system was established by an act of Congress hi 1863. The plan is quite different from any before in use, and commends itself to the whole country by the stabil- ity it gives to the currency in use in the transaction of its business, and the security it furnishes against loss of values common under the old systems. They are managed by private parties and corporations, apart from the government, but under a certain degree of supervision, and by its authority. By the act referred to any number of persons not less than five may associate themselves together for the purpose of banking, by compliance with the following conditions : 2. First : They must, under their hands and seals, make a certificate which shall specify 1. The name assumed by such association. 2. The place where its business is to be conducted. 3. The amount of its capital stock (which cannot be less than $50,000), and the number of its shares. 4. The names of its shareholders, and the number of shares held by each. 5. The time when such association shall commence business. 6. A declaration that said certificate is made to enable such persons to avail themselves of the advantages of this act. 3. This certificate must be properly acknowledged before some competent person, and must be sent to the comptroller of the currency in the Treasury Department, to be recorded and kept by him. When this, and all other acts which the law (283) 284 NATIONAL BANKING. requires, has been done by the association, the comptroller of the currency gives them a certificate under his hand and official seal, to that effect, and that they are authorized to commence business. This constitutes the association a corporation. They have the right to make and use a common seal, and have all the rights, and are liable to all the responsibilities of ordinary legalized corporations ; and may exist not to exceed twenty years from the passage of this act. Every shareholder is made personally liable for the debts of the association or bank, to the amount of the par value of his stock. 4. In order to secure the holders of bills issued by these banks, they must deposit with the Treasurer of the United States, United States bonds bearing interest io an amount not less than one-third of the capital stock paid in. These bonds are safely kept by the Treasurer. The comptroller of the currency then issues to the bank an amount of bank notes equal to the amount of bonds thus deposited, less ten per cent. In case the bank should fail to redeem its circulating bills, its bonds are sold, and with the proceeds the comptroller of the currency redeems them, or orders them to be paid at the United States Treasury. The bonds held by the Treasurer as security for the redemption of the bills issued by the association, must be transferred to him in trust; thus giving him entire control of them in case it becomes necessary to sell them in order to redeem the bills of any association which may have failed to pay them on demand. 5. This act has brought a great number of banks into exist- ence, besides organizing most of the banks formerly existing under State laws under this system ; so that we have a nearly uniform system of banking all over the United States. The bills of these banks pass in any part of the country, which was not often the case formerly. In case the bank should be mis- managed, or fail to pay for any cause, there is ample security for their redemption deposited in the United States treasury, where they will be paid on presentation. 6. The bill-holder is also better protected against NATIONAL BANKING. 285 feits than he was under the old system ; for all the bills issued by these associations are engraved by the government, and the plates and dies on which they are printed are kept by the comp- troller of the currency in the Treasury Department. The en- graving is done in the best possible manner, and it is exceed- ingly difficult to counterfeit them. Besides this, they all have the imprint of the seal of the Treasury on their face, and are numbered and countersigned by the treasurer and register. With all these guards and precautions, we have the best paper currency ever used since the establishment of the government. 7. This act necessarily threw upon the Treasury Department a great increase of labor, and in order to provide for it a sepa- rate bureau was created, which is denominated the bureau of currency, the chief officer of which is called the comptroller of currency. He acts under the general direction of the Secre- tary of the Treasury. This bureau is charged with the execution of this and all other laws that may be passed by Congress respecting the national currency. The comptroller of the cur- rency is appointed by the President and Senate, has a deputy, receives a salary of $5,000 per year, holds his office five years, has an official seal, gives bonds to the amount of $100,000, and takes and subscribes the oath of office prescribed by the Con- stitution and the laws. His duties are numerous and very responsible, he having hundreds of millions under his care. The term national banks, given to these institutions, and national currency to the bills they issue, were given from the fact that they were organized by an act of Congress, and that the security for the redemption of their bills consists exclu- sively of national bonds; no other securities will be taken. CHAPTER XV. 1. The United States government belongs to its people. Those people own property estimated at upwards of thirty billions of dollars. The public lands belonging to the govern- ment are between one and one and a half billions of acres. Besides, the public domains contain gold, silver, iron, coal, and a, large number of other mineral deposits, chiefly in regions worthless ior agricultural purposes, of unknown, but ascer- tained to be, at least, a very great quantity enough to make 3,11 its present inhabitants millionaires if (besides paying the debt) their value could be divided among them. The capacity of the country for production is very far beyond what is drawn from it now. The future will probably increase it a thousand fold, for we are yet a new people, and in the act of settling ourselves to the work of development. We are very rich, if all our resources are taken into account, yet we are in debt. In five years from the commencement of the civil war the public debt had run up from less than one hun- dred million dollars to over two billion seven hundred millions. This we began to reduce at once, for as a nation we do not like to be in debt; and it was, December 1st, 1873, a little over two billion one hundred and fifty millions. The debt is, indeed, a trifle compared with our vast national property; but we do not wish to sell our property at a loss, nor disturb the regular course of business ; so it stands to be gradually paid in the regular course of things, as we find it to be convenient. It is a vast sum, but gives more trouble by reason of the (28(5) FINANCIAL CONDITION OF THE UNITKD STATES. 287 desire and determination of the people to pay it soon, and sacrifice no property, than from any inability to meet it. The statement of the Public Debt are for each fiscal year ending June 30th: and from 1869 they are given with the accrued interest less the cash in the Treasury and the Railroad Bonds. THE PUBLIC DEBT OF THE UNITED STATES. IN EACH YEAR, FROM 1791 TO 1879. i791 75,46:5,476.52 1792 77,227,924.66 1793 80,352.634,01 179* 78,427,404.77 1795...' 80,747,587.38 1796 83,762,172.07 1797 82,064.41 !>.33 1796 79,838,52!!. 12 1799 78,408,669.77 1800 82,976,294.35 1801 83,038,050.80 1802 80,712.632.25 1803 77,054.i;%.#) 1804 86,427. 1'.U^ 1805 82,312.i:i0.5<) 1806 75,723.2-,0.iis 1807 69.218.:108.H,.-JI 1815 99.KH.WiO.iri 1816 1 27.33 4.B.74 1817 123.4!l.%5.1t, 1818 103.466.K33.H3 1819 95.529,648.28 1878 .... 2,035.7R.831 .82 1820 91.015,566.15 1849. 1821 89,987,427.66 1850. 1822 93,546,676.98 1851. 182:$ 90,875,877.28 Wi2. 1824 90,269,777.77 1853. 1825 83,788,432.71 1854. 1826 81.054,059.99 1&55. 1827 73,987,357.20 1856. 1828 67,475,04387 1829 58,421.413.67 1&58. 1830 48.565. 40H.50 ISV.i. 1831 39.12J.191.68 i860. 1832 24.322,235.18 1861. 1833 7,001.032.88 1862. 1834 4,760,081.08 1863. 1835 351.289.05 1864. lS3(i 291.089.05 1865. 1837 1,878.223.55 1866. 1838 l.s.-,:. 1,1,0.1.; 1867. 1839 11.983.737.53 1868. 1840 5.125.077.63 I8tfl. 1841 6.V17.398.00 1870. .... 15,028. 4H6.37 1871. 1M3 27.203.450.W 1872. . M,748,188JH 1815 17,093-.794.KO 1874. ....16.750.926.33 1875. '.23.38 187. i-l- 48.526,379.37 1077 1879 2,()>7.2 64,704,693.71 64,228.238.37 62,560.395.26 65.131 ,W 13 .... 1)7.:! 10.628.78 ... I". 242,206.05 39,969,731.05 30.968.909.64 2!l.060,3S6.90 44.910,777.68 . . 58.754.6H9.33 64,769,703.08 90,867,828.68 ....514,211,371.92 . 1,098.793.181.37 1,740,690.489.49 2,680,0.17.8ti<).74 2.773,236,173.09 2,678,126.103.87 2,611,687.851.19 2.489.002. 180.58 . 2,3H6.:;.v . 2.2!W.030.8:J4.!)0 . 2.1Sll.4i.343.i;2 ;x.7i::." . 2. : 43.1^- . 2.123.688,T26.32 . 2,099,439,344.99 2.060.1 5R.223.W UNITED STATES BONDS. SIXKS OF 1861. Dated 1861. and redeemable in twenty years from January 1st and July 1st of that year. Interest six per cent, in gold, payable semi-annually January 1st and July 1st. These Bonds were icsncd in three series : Under Act February 8th, 1861, $18,415,000; dated variously in 1861. Under Acts July 17th and August 5th, 1861, $50,000,000; dated November 16th, 1861. Under Acts July 17th and August 5th, 1861, in ezchanc- for 7-30's, $139,317,150; dated November 16th, 1861. Under Act March 3d. 1863, and principal made especially payable in srold coin, $75,000,000 ; dated June 15th, 1864. Total issue, FIVE-TWENTIES or 1862. Commonly termed Old Five-Twenties, dated May 1st, 186S, Redeemable after five years, and payable in twenty years from date. Interest six per lent, in gold, payable the first of May and November. Issued under Act February 25th, 1882. $514,771,600. Firs-TwiTi*9 or 1864. Dated November 1st, 1864. Redeemable after five, and pay- tblo In twenty years. Interest, six per cent, in gold, payable 1st of May and November. timi.T Act June Wrh, 1864, $185,561 ,300 288 FINANCIAL CONDITION OF THE UNITED STATES. FIVE-TWENTIES OF 1865. Dated July 1st, 1865. Interest six per cent, in gold, payable January and July. They are redeemable in five years, and payable in twenty years. Is- sued under Act March 3d, 1865, in exchange for 7-30 notes converted, and amount, August 1st, 1868, to $332,998,950. FIVE-TWENTIES OP 1865. Dated November 1st, 1865. Redeemable after five, and pay- able in twenty years. Interest, six per cent, in gold, payable 1st of May and November. Issued under Act March 3d, 1865, $203,327,250. FIVE-TWENTIES OF 1867. Dated July 1st, 1867. Redeemable in five, and payable in twenty years. Interest, six per cent, in gold, payable 1st of January and July. Issued under Act March 3, 1865, in exchange for 7-30 notes, and amount, August 1st, 1868, to $379,618,000. FIVE-TWENTIES OF 1868. Dated July 1st, 1868. Redeemable in five, and payable in twenty years. Interest, six per cent, in gold, payable 1st of January and July. Issued under Act March 3d, 1865, in exchange for 7-30 notes, and amount, August 1st, 1868, to $42,539,350. TEN-FORTIES.- Dated March 1st, 1864. Redeemable in ten, and payable in forty years. Interest, five per cent, in gold, payable on the 1st of March and September on all Regis- tered Bonds, and on all Coupon Bonds of the denomination of $500 and $1,000. On the $50 and $100 Bonds, interest is paid annually, March 1st. Issued under Act March 3d, 1864; principal, payable in gold, $196,117,300. FIVES OF 1870. Redeemable at the pleasure of the United States, after May 1, 1881, in gold. Interest, five per cent, in gold, payable quarterly February, May, August, and November 1st. Exempt from all taxation. Issued under Acts of July 14th, 1870, January 20th, 1871, December 14th, 1873, January 14th and March 3d, 1875. Amount, $517,994,750. U. S. PACIFIC RAILROAD CUBBENCT SIXES. Dated January 16th, 1865, and variously thereafter. These Bonds are issued by the Government, under Acts July 1st, 1862, and July 2d, 1864, to companies receiving their charter from Congress, which gives them the right to construct railroads to and from the Pacific Coast, and on the completion of each twenty miles of track, to receive at the rate of $16,000, $22,000, or $48,000 per mile, accord- ing to the difficulty of constructing the same. They are payable thirty years from date of issue, and are registered in Bonds of $1,000, $5,000, and $10,000, Amount issued to September 1st, 1870, $64,623,512. All of the Bonds are issued " Coupon " or "Registered." Coupon Bonds can be changed into Registered Bonds, but Registered Bonds cannot be changed into Coupons. Coupon Bonds are in denominations of $50, $100, $500, and $1,000; the Registered Bonds the same, with addition of $5,000 and $10,000. FOUB AND ONE-HALF PER CENTS OF 1870. Redeemable after September 1st. 1870, in gold. Interest, four and one- half per cent. Exempt from all taxation. Issued under Acts of July 14, 1870, and January 14, 1875. Amount, $240,000,000. FOUR PER CENTS OF 1870. Redeemable after September 1st, 1870, in gold. Interest, four per cent. Exempt from all taxation. Issued under Acts July 14, 1870, and January 14, 1875. Amount authorized, $1,000,000,000. Issued to August 1st, 1879, $711,022,000. These various Bonds were issued for various purposes. Most of them were made to take the place of Treasury Notes and other floating debts of the Government, to replace those Bonds or certificates of indebtedness of various kinds when they fell due, or to re-invest that part of the Public Debt which might be paid at the pleasure of the Govern- ment at a lower rate of Interest. This last operation is called " refunding." The total amount so refunded August 1st, 1879, which completes all the refunding practicable, according to law, until 1881, was $1,396,022,000; and the total interest bearing debt at that date was $1,797,643,700. The reduction of the interest bearing debt from its highest point, August 81, 1865, amounted to $583,886,594.96; and the annual interest saved by payment and by refunding at a lower rate per cent, amounted, August 1st, 1879, to $67,203,919.37. The entire amount of the Public Debt paid between August 31, 1885, and July 1st, 1879, was $729,224,315.06. WEALTH OF THE CNJ'IED STA1K.-. 289 flTATKS AND TEKKITOHIE8. Real and Per sonal Estate. Real and Per- sopal Estate. Real and Per- sonal K-t uli-. 1870. I860. 150. Unllod States $30,068,518,507 jl.i.l.V'.ii ]>,..- 87.135.780,228 States 29,822,535.140 16,086,519,771 7. 11. -1.600,800 Alubamt 3)1,835.841 150 '-VH 691 495,237,078 UftJBMTB 207,87 . on 444.274,114 46,242,181 73,101,500 871$JO;282 8,885,871 247,838,265 31.327,895 666,04:1,112 602,118,668 190,211,600 876,919.944 815,237,433 i-.T. 163,988 52,294.413 BOMMJtll :,<>1.214.398 9.131,066 228.2W.332 .19.Hll.trr. 22.101.872 155,7t>:.!Ni 21.062.5.V; J,170 .'1:15.425,714 156,265,000 202.650.264 21,714,888 Arkannas California im.Vti7.017 n 1. 'Ml .524 Connecticut Delaware ... Florida I1.HM.055 aBB.169,907 J.I 21. 080,579 !.-ii8.180,543 . I V.t>44,750 188,892,014 604,318,502 341,126,666 348,155,671 643,746.976 2,132,148,741 719,208.118 228,909.590 209,197.345 1,284,922,897 69,277,483 31.134,012 BN,1U 940,976,064 6.500,841.264 260.757.244 -V.5J5. 430.300 51,968,932 8,808,340.111 NUMMMfl 208,146,969 MBOff.TM 159,062.542 il.-i.349.568 409,588.133 190.051.491 Cieoriria . . Illinois . ... Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky :1. 628,456 2:.!*,764 122.7;;. :,71 219.217.364 573.342,286 59,787,255 Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan. Minnesota Mississippi... 228,951,180 187,247,707 H^innrf Nmraska Nevada N.-U Hampshire 15ti.3io.860 467,918,824 1,848,838.517 358,789.899 1,193,898,422 29,980,687 1,416,501.818 135.337,588 648.138,764 I'..:;. .'.-;.-:. 365,200.614 122.477.170 798,249.681 103,652,836 200,000.000 l,080.:!i.-Jiii - .:;. -.ft 201.246.686 62.740,473 92,205,049 430.701,082 New Jersey . . . New York". North Carolina... Ohio Oregon IVnn.xvlvania Kliode. Island South Carolina Tennessee Texas Vermont .. Virginia \Ve--t Virginia Wisconsin 27=1.671 ,668 42.066.596 Territories 245.983,367 78,096.297 -J0.179.4B Arizona 13,440,791 20,243,308 5,599.752 126,873.616 6,552,681 15,184.522 31.349.793 16.169,995 13,562,164 7,016.748 Dakota District of Columbia 41,084.945 14,018.8H Idaho Montana New Mexico Utah 90,813,768 UMJlfl 5.601.100 1.471 986,083 Washington Wyoming THE AVERAGE WEALTH TO K\( II 1. New York $1,488.27 2. Massachusetts.. l.i.i :i. r.innectlcut 1,441.80 4. Kliode Island... 1.S66.28 5. California 1,140.15 6. Pennsylvania .. 1,081.81 7. New Jersey 1,088.49 8. Ohio 888.78 9. Illinois 836.84 10. Maryland 894.87 11. N.-w Hampshire, 798.06 12. Delaware 777.W IS. Indiana 754.58 14. Missouri $746.48 1.V NVvada 732.72 Iti. Vermont 711.99 17. WiM-oiiHin 665.90 18. Michigan 807.41 19. Iowa 601.08 20. Oregon 567.06 21. Nebraska 568.2fl 22. Maine 566.85 23- Minnesota 590.60 94. Kansas 518.86 96. Kentucky 457.46 19 INDIVIDUAL. 96. Louisiana 27. WI-M Virginia.. .X Tennessee 29. Virginia 80. Arkansas 31. South Carolina. :. Mi-M-.i|)pi .... 83. North Carolina. 84. Florida 86. Georgia 86. Alabama 37. Texas .. 431. *l .. 395.89 . .. 294.98 . M M Ml . M . --v. fi . 202.4* 290 FINANCIAL CONDITION OF T1JK UNITED STATES. o HH H i i Q : vt co G* o* ?? as 7? p ?> i w p* i J* w c? cc ^> ?* ?* ?! ?i (1 & ? ^ ?i t^ ?2 fZ 3000030 S5waDSSa5,SDSo5SoKS5SaoSSwfcBSflDSSoo 23 A}* 33 SaiO'^'oO'oDiDS'sjS'^OOaJ^tjS'sr^cr^ S-"^ iJ *H 3> cT cT * ":a^Or.x^xX<^g^^xaOQC _ _wOOO5"^^t*Wi (T-HOiCOCC^ to m 50 i-cc ^ t- w m c o o "5 o si i- ^^ n^ ^ ^^ 25 ^" T *J ^- ^ ~- 2? Z iS ? ^' -" x " 17 ~^ ^ -" i- ^ ~~ ?A - 17 ^ -S r* -^ zj ^ *2 ^P i~ , - c: it I't CC ? ~~ ^ Ci -* ?* ^ *^ Ct :i 5 O CO 'T 5 i 1 ^ c^ O ' *' ^*- "^ ~JsOO^^^^S-OCOCCXOdl-^i^ < nif7*i? < ^l ^CC J -I *^-SC~Tc~ ^foD * t^ r-'r-'^.' * r - '* ^ ^/ ^TjTo?* * i^ft- cc^t^-^in gc oc o Q^T^cf ^jr^i-it^c > fP Z** IT'S 3 * * * '-''* IT?* * w * * i. ^ - 1 , * * * - H =3 ss -2-- c S gt> I sIS a^2 c. rls il-ag51.a|||||a^ IKi.Ptl 3 II i IJIIIPIIII i 5 S 811 ISlf 1 1 Sill * CHAPTER XVL WAR DEPARTMENT. Men, unfortunately, have never been able to so arrange tlieir mutual relations as to dispense with violent and deadly contests. Although tli^y are less frequent and shorter now than formerly, they are more costly and more destructive, and every nation is still, as formerly, obliged to anticipate the pos- sibility of war and to ihake provision for its sudden occurrence, that it may not be borne down and overwhelmed by the first shock. It is an event so probable, even, and especially if the country should be in a defenseless state, that it has become a maxim of prudence with statesmen to avoid war by being pre- pared for it. The nation that can best repel an attack is least likely to be attacked. Most goverments, like our own, had their birth arid early history in the confusion and devastation of that great destroyer of life and property; and it is natural that the first leisure of peace should be occupied in preparing themselves, in. the most effective manner possible, for both defensive and offensive ope- rations in case of its return. The Constitution contemplates the existence of an army and navy for warlike purposes, and makes the President Command- er-in-chief of both. The first Congress assembled under the Constitution hastened, in its first session, to provide him an army and navy to command by organizing the Department of War. At its head was placed the Secretary of War, and so necessary was it deemed to the dignity and security of the nation that he was made one of the principal officers of the government, having a seat in the cabinet and being regarded as one of the advisers of the Chief Magistrate. He is appointed by the President with the consent of the Sen- ate. A Chief Clerk, to be appointed by the Secretary, was (291) WAR DEPARTMENT. provided for by the act of 1789 creating the Department, who- was the second authority in it, and acted as Secretary, in case of a vacancy; but when the Civil War raised this Department to great prominence, in 1861, a law was passed authorizing the' appointment of an Assistant Secretary, and. in 1863, two addi- tional Assistant Secretaries were pro\ 7 ided lor by law; all to be appointed by the President. This last measure was temporary only, designed to expire when returning peace should reduce the Department to its ordinary condition. ' At first the affairs of the national navy were managed by the Secretary of War. This was changed, as we shall see, when our commerce and foreign relations became more important. The Secretary of War ranks next to the President in military authority and dignity, and has the whole oversight, under him,, of the army and its affairs. He makes out military commis- sions to be signed by the President, has the care of providing for the support, clothing, pay, and equipment of -the army, and of all military stores required to keep the army in efficient drill^ and in readiness against a possible war. He has the care of all books, records, and papers relating to the army and to military affairs. The names, grades, time of enlistment, term of service, and time of mustering out of all officers and pri- vates in the army, whether in the regular or volunteer service, are to be found in his office. All military accounts are kept and adjusted under his supervision. These cares and duties have become so numerous and important as to require a careful organization of the Department into sub-departments, or bureaus, as the Commissary's, the Quartermaster's, and the Ordnance bureaus. The general management of the whole depending on the Secretary of War, he evidently requires to be a man of judgment, thoroughly versed in military affairs, and of eminent organizing ability. A Solicitor, to have charge of the legal business of this Department, was provided for by law in 1863, to be appointed by the President and the Senate. WAR DKl'AKTMKNT. 293 SECRETAKIKS OK WAR. Henry Knox, Mass., Sept. 12, 1789. Timothy Pickering, Pa., Jan. 2, 1795. James McHenry, Md., Jan. 27, 1796. James Marshall, Va., May 7, 1800. Samuel Dexter, Mass., May 13, 1800. Roger Griswold, Ct, Feb. 3, 1801. Henry Dearborn, Mass., March 5, 1801. William Eustis, Mass., March 7, 1809. John Armstrong, N. Y., Jan. 13, 1813. James Monroe, Va., Sept. 27, 1814. William H. Crawford, Ga., March 2, 1815. Isaac Shelby, Ky., March 5, 1817. G. Graham, Va., April 7, 1817. John C. Oalhoun, S. C., Oct. 8, 1817. James Harbour, Va., March 7, 1825. Peter B. Porter, N". Y., May 26, 1828. J. H. Eaton, Tenn-., March 9, 182!. Lewis Cass, Mich., Aug. 1, 1831. Benjamin F. Butler, N. Y., March 3, 1837 Joel K. Poinsett, S. C., March 7, 1837. John Bell, Tenn., March 5, 184J. John McLean, O., Sept. 13, 1841. John C. Spencer, N. Y., Oct. 12, 1841. James M. Porter, Pa., March 8, 1843. William Wilkins, Pa., Feb. 15, 1844. William L. Marcy, N. Y., MSrch 5, 1845. George W. Crawford, Ga., March 6, 184ft Charles M. Conrad, La., Aug. 8, 1850. Jefferson Davis, Miss., March 5, 1853. John B. Floyd, Va., March 6, 1857. Joseph Holt, Ky., Dec. 30, 1860. Simon Cameron, Pa., March 5, 1861. Edwin M. Stanton, Pa., Jan. 13, 1862. Ulysses S. Grant. 111., 1868. 294- THE UNITED STATES ARMY. J. M. Schofield, 1868. John A. Kawliiis, 111., Mch. 5, '69. Died Sept, 6, ' Win. T. Sherman, Sept. 9, 1869. Win. W. Belkuap, Oct. 25, 1869. Alonzo Taft, O., 1876. J. D. Cameron, Pa., 1876. Geo. "W. McCrary, March 10, 1877. Alexander Ramsey, Minn., Dec. 10, 1879. . CHAPTER XVII. THE UNITED STATES ARMY. 1. The military successes of the United States would seem to prove undeniably, that, if the nation had adopted a career of conquest as did Ancient Rome, it might have played an important part in the history of warlike peoples. The undis- ciplined militia shut up a strong army in Boston in 1774, and> had not their powder failed, would very likely have forced the British to evacuate that place immediately after the battle of. Bunker Hill. 2. Washington's army, made up in large part of militia, seemed always on the point of dissolution, and yet the British, after spending more than a hundred millions in fitting out armies against them, and possessing the important superiority of free movement on the sea, for the transportation of forces easily and rapidly to any desired point, never could gain a per- manent foothold, though opposed only by a ragged, famished,, and half disorganized army. 3. The war of 1812 the Mexican War and the Civil War, all bear testimony to the excellence of the material for military operations to be ibmid among us. Yet we are a peace loving people. The government has never had more than the skeleton of an army in times of peace. While the Great Powers of Europe keep up armies of half a million of men, our army, very soon after the late gigantic war, was reduced THK MII.ITAKY ACADKMY. 295 to less than 30,0)<> men; barely enough to keep the Indians in order, garri>on the frontiers slightly, and furnish a nucleus of Mildiers and trained officers in case of a war. I3y a law of of Congress, it was enacted that every sound and healthy man, with a few exceptions in special cases, between the ages of 18 and 45, should be enrolled and equipped for military duty. Then, by the laws of the States, they are required on certain days in each year to meet in companies, regiments or brigades, for drill and practice in military exercises. 4. By these means military organizations are kept up in every part of the country, together with some knowledge of the mil- itary art. These, in time of war or domestic insurrection, may be called out with but a few days' notice ; and a large army of citizen soldiers can be raised in a very short time. With such facilities for raising men, it is unnecessary to keep a standing army of much magnitude. A few thousand men to guard our fortifications and military posts are sufficient. The late civil war between the South and the North gave ample evidence of this; for when it became necessary to raise a million of men, it was done in a short time, and after a little practice they became good soldiers. CHAPTER XV11I. THE MILITARY ACADEMY. 1. The success of military affairs in time of war depends, in great measure, on a thorough knowledge of the science of war, and especially of engineering, so often requiring to be applied with haste and accuracy to the cwistruction or deBtruc- tion of military defenses. It requires a complete knowledge of certain branches of mathematics, and an understanding of their Application to warlike purposes. Various other special 296 THE MILITARY ACADEMY. studies are required to prepare men for prompt and able action in military operations. For the purpose of keeping a corps of officers, well fitted to meet these requirements, ready for possi- ble occasions A MILITARY ACADEMY was established. It is located on the west bank of the Hud- son river, at West Point, in the State of New York, and about 50 miles from the city of New York, and is one of the government institutions. It had its origin in an act of Congress passed as early as 1802. Under this act this far-famed military school was commenced, but on a scale, in every respect, very much inferior to what it has since become. 2. Its name explains its character and objects. It was established and has been continued at a great expense, for the purpose of teaching and training up young men in the science and art of war, that in any emergency the country might have a sufficient number of men, educated and skilled in all such arts and sciences as appertain to war. Hence, mathematics, engineering, gunnery, drawing, natural and experimental phi- losophy and military tactics, are among the principal branches taught. In all of these, able professors give instruction to the cadets, as the pupils are called. Chemistry, geology, and the French language are also taught at this institution. The instruction is thorough, the discipline excellent, and some of the graduates of this celebrated school rank high among the> scientific men of the country. 3. Congress controls and regulates this establishment, as it does all other departments, institutions, and works belonging to the government. It enacts all laws relating to its officers, professors, and cadets, and to the management of the insti- tution. 4. By a law passed in 1843, the number of cadets to be admitted was made to correspond with the number of Sena- tors and Representatives from each State. Every State and Territory is entitled to send as many cadets as it has Senators TIIK MILITARY ACADEMY I 297 and Representatives in Congress. This gives each Territory, however, but one; as a Territory has no Senators, and but one Representative. By the same law the District of Columbia is allowed one. To give every part of the country an equal chance, it was enacted that each Congressional district in each State and Territory should be allowed to send one cadet, to be educated at West Point. These are generally nominated for appointment by the Congressmen from their respective dis- tricts, and the President appoints. The cadet must be an actual resident of the district for which he is appointed. 5. In addition to these, it is provided by the same act, that ten more cadets may be appointed at large; /. t j ., without regard to Congressional districts. In order to be admitted as a cadet, the candidate must be well versed in reading, writing, and arithmetic; must not be under 14 nor over 21 years of age; and must sign articles, agreeing to serve the United States eight years. After he has finished his studies and has gradua- ted, he is considered as a candidate for a commission in the army, according to the duties he may be competent to perform. 6. The Military Academy may be considered a branch of the War Department. Men who have been educated there have rendered the country signal service in times of war, have made able commanders, and have proved themselves thoroughly skilled in military science. Not only in the military service has it been a benefit to the country, but in the civil walks of life. Many of its graduates have distinguished themselves as engineers, astronomers, and in other scientific professions and useful employments. 7. There is an annual examination of the cadets, and of the general affairs of the institution, by a committee appointed by the President, for that purpose. It is composed of Congressmen and military officers. It is the duty of these examiners to attend the examination, inspect its discipline, and course of instruction, look after its fiscal aftulrs, and all other matters relating to the Academy, and report the same to the Secretary of War, for the use of Congress. CHAPTEE XIX. DEPOTS OF WAR MATERIAL . We have seen that the government can be sure of the sup- port of the citizens in time of war and that they furnish the best kind of material of that description for military purposes. An army of great effectiveness can be organized in a compara- tively short time, when important interests of the country are at stake. Not so, however, witli the arms they require to use for offensive purposes. These require time and skilled work- men to construct them. They are therefore kept in readiness for use in Depots constructed for the purpose. As early as 1794, Congress enacted that three or four arse- nals and magazines, with an armory attached to each, should be established for the safe keeping of military stores. An arse- nal is a place where arms and military stores are kept. An armory is a place where arms are made or repaired. The armories where arms are manufactured are at Springfield, in Massachusetts, and^ at Harpers' Ferry, in Virginia. But there are many others where they are repaired. In 1808, the President was authorized to purchase sites and to erect as many more arsenals and manufactories of arms as he might deem expedient. Each of these establishments was formerly under the direction of a superintendent; but they are now placed under the direction of the Ordnance Department. The office of superintendent of the armories at Springfield and Harpers' Ferry, was also abolished in 1842; and its duties have since been performed by such officers of the ordnance corps as were designated by the President. In each armory there is employed a master armorer, who superintends the work- men. In addition to those already named there are arsenals and armories at Pittsburgh and Bridesbnrg, in Pennsylvania; at Washington City; at Watervliet, in New York; Watertown, (398.^ ARTICLES OK WAR. _".! Mass.; at Columbus, Ohio; at Indianapolis, in Indiana; and at Rock Island, in Illinois. They are parts of the military estab- lishment of the country, and belong to the War Department. CHAPTER XX. ARTICLES OF WAR 1. An army is designed, in idea, to supply a powerful instrument of offense and defense, that shall so thoroughly organize and fuse together a large number of individuals that the whole shall act as one, and be perfectly under the control of the directing mind. An army fully realizing this idea, would suppress, in its military acts, all thoughts and sentiments of its individuals, and be used by its commanding general as he would use his own hand, arm and foot. It should move at his will, strike where, as long and as heavily as he saw best, and be to him a perfect machine as to obedience. 2. This idea is seldom more than partially realized; but it is the aim of all military drill, discipline, and law. The Arti- cles of War are the body of laws enacted by Congress defining the relations of soldiers to their officers, so as to secure as fully as possible among a free people this tin >r< mgh subordination, defin- ing the conduct of the soldier toward his superior, prescribing the duty of the officer, and securing as far as possible in con- nection with such subordination the sights of the soldier. 3. They contain general directions concerning the organi- zation, enlistment, and discharge of men, rules for leaves of absence, punishment for absence without leave, or for desertion, and other penalties for conduct improper or criminal in a sol- dier. Many of these rules are very strict and the penalties severe, since a neglect to obey might endanger the safety of an army or the country, or interfere with the most important operations. War is a very exacting pnreuit. 300 MILITARY HOSPITALS AND ASYLUMS. 4. It is relaxing also in some directions and rules are made requiring, and often without effect, obedience to some of the most common principles and practices of morality. It often becomes quite impossible to enforce these amid the fierce excite- ment and wild disorder of active warfare. 5. Offenses committed in the army are not tried before a civil tribunal, but by a military court called a " Court Martial," for the guidance of which a special code of rules is prepared. These are characterized by the brevity, decisiveness, and sum- mary action that is so important to the effectiveness of all mil- itary affairs. The decisions of a court martial may impose all punishments even to condemning a man to death; but they are subject to modification, or commutation, or even may be wholly set aside by the President of the United States, who is Commander-in-Chief of the Army. The Articles of War relate to all things important to the welfare, effectiveness, and safety of an army, and aim to pro- vide for the comfort and protect the rights of the individual as well as circumstances permit. They consist of one hundred and one articles. The first one requires every officer in the army to subscribe to them before he enters on his duties. CHAPTEE XXI. MILITAKY HOSPITALS AND ASYLUMS. 1. It is plainly a dictate of humanity that a government should provide for the comfort and skillful treatment of those persons who are wounded in its service, or who become diseased under the hardships of a military life and are disabled from active duty. Our century is specially distinguished by the benevolent care bestowed on the indigent and the suffering, in &11 civilized countries, and we have reason to expe^ that the INSANE ASYLUM. 301 United States would take a leading place in this care for her own citizens. 2. This has been done, and all the thoughtful attention that the case called for has been given to hospitals and asylums for the disabled and suffering, both of the Army and Navy, equally in peace and war. 3. In 1851, Congress passed an act for the establishment of military asylums, for the purpose of making the same pro- vision for wounded and disabled soldiers as had already been made for that class of seamen. These institutions are located in different sections of the country where deemed most eligible and convenient for those who need such a place of refuge. They are placed under the government of a board of commis- sioners, consisting of the general in chief, and eight other military officers of high rank, who submit their acts to the Secretary of War for his approval. 4. The officers of these asylums must be taken from the army, and consist of a governor, a deputy governor, and secre- tary, who is also treasurer. The funds for their support are raised by a tax of twenty-five cents per month on the soldiers, to which are added the fines and penalties adjudged against soldiers by courts martial, with forfeitures for desertion, &c. Persons receiving pensions from the government may be admitted into these asylums upon condition that they surren- der their pensions to the use of the institution while they remain in it. The commissioners are authorized to buy sites and buildings for these institutions, and to receive donations of them. They also furnish them with whatever is necessary for the comfort of the inmates, and make such laws and regulations for their government as they deem proper. Deserters, mutineers, and habitual drunkards, are excluded from the benefits of these asylums. INSANE ASYLUM. 5. Among these benevolent institutions provided by a gen- erous government for the support of those who have faithfully 302 NAVY DEPARTMENT. served their country, the insane asylum ought to be noticed- The title of this establishment is " the government hospital for the insane." Its objects are the cure and kind treatment of the insane of the army and navy, and of the District of Colum- bia. It is under the control of a boird of nine visitors, all of whom must be citizens of the said District. They are appointed by the President, and annually report to the Secretary of the Interior the condition of the asylum and its inmates. They serve without compensation. 6. The superintendent must be a physician. There is a farm attached to the asylum, which is under the direction of the superintendent, who receives patients upon the order of the Secretary of the War, or the Navy, and upon the order of the Secretary of the Interior. He may receive indigent insane persons residing in the District of Columbia. If other than indigent persons are admitted, they must pay for the privilege a sum not less than the cost of their support. 7. The military hospitals in time of war are for temporary purposes, and are established wherever the army happens to be, and especially near where the great battles have been fought, that immediate relief may be given to the sick and wounded. These are established by the commanders of the army, and are under their control. And here let it be recorded to their praise, that since military hospitals were known, never have any been seen which for order, cleanliness and efficiency in administering to the comfort and care of the sick and wounded soldiers, sur- passed those of the United States during the late civil war. CHAPTER XXII. ^ NAVY DEPARTMENT. The position of the United States naturally gives it great prominence as a naval power. Situated between the two great N \VV KKI'AKTMKNT. "t)3 oceans, with thousands of miles of coast on each, and a pro- fusion of good harbors, bays, and great rivers, accessible to large ocean vessels for long distances into the interior; with a soil of great fertility, and numerous and inexhaustible sources of mineral wealth, besides all the conditions favorable to the establishment and success of manufactures it requires large foreign markets for its various products, and an extensive com- merce is essential to its development. It should be, and per- haps it tS, the strongest naval power in the world. The War of Independence was much increased in length and difficulty by the want of a navy, the maritime resources of England giving her a great superiority in striking suddenly, and in force, at distant points. It was natural, then, that so important an arm, for both attack and defense, should be prepared to act with energy, and this was one of the first cares of the new government; and so efficient did this branch of national strength become in the thirty years of peace, to the war of 1812 with England, that the easiest and some of the most important successes of the Americans, in that conflict, were on the sea. The care of Naval affairs was, at first, committed to* the Sec- retary of War. In 1798 it was erected into a separate Depart- ment, and a Secretary placed at its head. He was entitled to a seat in the Cabinet, as one of the advisers of the President, and received his appointment by nomination of the President and concurrence of the Senate, in the same manner as the Heads of other Departments. A> the President is the highest officer, in command, in the Navy, he ranks as second, and acts under his direction. It is his duty to procure naval stores and materials, and to oversee the places where they are deposited; to attend to the construc- tion, equipment, armament, and employment of vessels of war, to make out the commissions of naval officers; to see that -efficiency and discipline, are maintained in the service; and to assume the control of the movements of the vessels of war that are kept cruising in every sea for the protection of our 304 NAVY DEPARTMENT. commerce and citizens in foreign parts, and the preservation of the international rights and dignity of the United States. 3. A chief clerk was formerly the second officer in rank in the Department, but, in 1861, provision was made, by Con- gress, for an Assistant Secretary, who should act as Secretary in the absence of that officer. Formerly there were five bureaus in this department, but in 1862, three more were added, making eight, as follows: 1. A Bureau of Yards and Docks. 2. A Bureau of Equipment and Recruiting. 3. A Bureau of Navigation. 4. A Bureau of Ordnance. 5. A Bureau of Construction and Repairs 6. A Bureau of Steam Engineering. 7. A Bureau of Provisions and Clothing. 8. A Bureau of Medicine and Surgery. The President and Senate appoint all the heads of these bureaus, and select them principally from officers of high rank in the navy. They are all appointed for four years. The Secretary appoints all the numerous clerks employed in the various bureaus and assigns their duties. He must annually report to Congress the condition of his department, the manner and amount of all expenditures, fur- nish estimates for the expenses of the following year, and give such advice in regard to the naval interests of the country as his intimate knowledge of that branch of the service may sug- gest. He requires an intimate knowledge of maritime affairs, and of International law, and a high and enlightened apprecia- tion of the policy to be pursued in our official and commercial intercourse with all foreign nations. The following list embraces the names of all the Secretaries of the Navy George Cabot, Mass., May 3, 1798. . Benjamin Stoddert, Mass., May 31, 1798. Robert Smith, Md., July 15, 1801. NAVY DEPARTMENT. 80S J. Orowninshield, Mass., May 3, 1805. Paul Hamilton, S. C., March 7, 1809. William Jones, Pa., Jan. 12, 1813. B. W. Crowninshield, Mass., Dec. 17, 1814. Smith Thompson, N. Y., Nov. 9, 1818. John Rogers, Mass., Sept. 1, 1823. S. L. Southard, N. J., Sept. 16, 1823. John Branch, N. C., March 9, 1829. Levi Woodbury, N. H., May 23, 1831. Mahlon Dickerson, K J., June 30, 1834. J. K. Paulding, N. Y., June 20, 1830. G. E. Badger, N. C., March 5, 1841. Abel P. Upshur, Va., Sept. 13, 1841. David Henshaw, Mass., July 24, 1843. T. W. Gilmer, Va., Feb. 12, 1844. John Y. Mason, Va., March 14, 1844. George Bancroft, Mass., March 10, 1845. John Y, Mason, Va., Sept. 9, 1846. William B. Preston, Va., March 7, 1849. William A. Graham, N. C., July 20, 1850. J. P. Kennedy, Md., July 22, 1850. J. 0. Dobbin^K C., March 5, 1853. Isaac Toucey, Ct., March 6, 1857. Gideon Welles, Ct., March 5, 1861. Adolph E. Borie, Pa., March 5, 1869. George M. Robeson, N. J., June 25, 1869. Richard M. Thompson, Ind., March 10, 18T7. 20 CHAPTEK XXIII. THE UNITED STATES NAYY. 1. THE original thirteen States were all on the Atlantic coast, and had each one or more sea ports. They were natur- ally given to commerce, and the second Continental Congress, in December, 1775, resolved to form a navy of thirteen vessels of war. Eight were soon fitted out; but the superiority of England on the sea, and the great financial difficulties with which Congress had to struggle during, and for some years after, the Revolutionary War, made it impossible to give any great degree of development to naval affairs. The sea swarmed with American privateers during the war, and many hundreds of English merchant vessels were captured; but Congress never was able to collect a formidable fleet. The daring exploits of Paul Jones, in European waters, and the bold and suc- cessful raids of Privateersmen under Letters of Marque and Reprisal gave indication of what might be looked for in the future, but they could not cope with British fleets. 2. The Navy Department was for some time under the con- trol of the Secretary of War; but, as the finances began to improve, care was taken to develop this important branch of national power, and a special Secretary appointed. In the war of 1812 with England 25 years of peace had unfitted the people for great immediate success in the army; but the navy was the pride and glory of the nation. The disasters attending mili- tary operations for the first year or two were more than com- pensated by the brilliant and solid advantages gained by our men of war. (306) THK UNITED 8T ATI'S .NAVY. 307 3. This gave a great impulse to the naval tendencies of the nation, and it soon became the settled determination of the people to supersede England as the strongest naval power. She had been Mwtress of the Seas ; there were strong reasons for our ambition to become Masters, at least in American waters. We had an extensive line of coast, and our "Monroe Doctrine," that Americans ought to rule America, and that European governments should never be permitted to acquire a preponde- rating influence in North America, rendered a strong navy important. Our people, however, are so largely commercial that skillful mariners are always at command; and the govern- ment has never maintained, in time of peace, a very large naval force. 4. What they can do in time of need was demonstrated during the Civil War, when the navy was increased in two years by more than 400 vessels many of them very expensive and powerful ; proving in actual conflict the inability of the strongest land fortresses to resist them. The thousands of miles of the Atlantic and Gulf coast blockade, that was ren- dered so effective as to smother the Confederate government, so to speak, destroying its finances by rendering its cotton unavailable, is the best comment on the naval resources of the United States. The extreme boldness and vigor with which the Confederate cruisers that managed to escape the blockade fell on our merchant vessels, and laid waste our commerce, is another point in the argument ; for they were Americans, and demonstrated the natural prowess of Americans on the sea, of which we could well be proud but that it did fatal harm to our mercantile marine. 5. Not half of the vessels belonging to the navy are, how- ever, now (in time of peace) in commission that is, in active service. The rest are either laid up, or in process of repair. Most of those in commission are employed in what is called squadron service. The Secretary of the Naw in a late report enumerates seven of these squadronr , ,*z.: the European, the Asiastic, the North Atlantic, the south Atlantic, the North 3U8 THE UNITED STATES NAVY. Pacific, the South Pacific, and the Gulf squadrons. The names given to these squadrons indicate their whereabouts, and their cruising grounds. These squadrons consist of six, eight, ten, twelve or fifteen vessels, as the work to be done may require. It is their duty to visit the seaports of the various countrie& along the coasts of which they cruise, in order to protect our merchantmen against pirates or enemies of any description, which may molest them or interfere with their rights and priv- ileges; and also to look after the interests and dignity of the United States. 6. The squadrons are under command of a high naval offi- cer of tke rank of commodore or rear admiral, whose ship i& called the flag ship of the squadron. Many of our naval offi- cers have distinguished themselves for bravery, skill, and patri- otic devotion to their country, ancf have occupied the highest positions of honor, and the most exalted places in the esteem and affection of their countrymen. In 1862, Congress enacted that there should be nine grades of officers in the navy, and that their corresponding rank with military officers should be as follows : 1. Rear- Admiral with Major-General. 2. Commodores " Brigadier-Generals. 3. Captains " Colonels. 4. Commanders " Lieutenant-Colonels. 5. Lieut.-Commanders. . . " Majors. 6. Lieutenants " Captains. 7. Masters " First-Lieutenants. 8. Ensigns " Second Lieutenants. Midshipmen have no corresponding rank in the army. CHAPTER XXIV NAVY YAEDS. 1. We have seen that the Secretary of the Navy has several different Bureaus, having each its separate part of naval inter- ests and stores to care for. The material for the equipment of the army is, in large part, stored in arsenals and armories; in the navy in or near Navy Yards. Here are gathered such stores and materials as are required for the constriction or repairs of vessels, and hundreds of skilled workmen, constantly employed in rendering the navy effective ; replacing vessels that have become unseaworthy, repairing damages, or building such vessels of special construction as the varying demands of the service may require. 2. These are established at different places along the coast, most convenient for the purpose. There is one at Philadelphia, Pa., at Brooklyn, N. Y., at Portsmouth, Va., at Pensacola, Fla. Here vessels are laid up when not in " commission " or active service, or are sent for repairs, or to obtain their stores before departing to their distant stations. All the officers necessary for keeping all these matters in order are stationed at these yards; and the Navy Department, by these means, preserves the same perfect system of organization and efficiency as we have seen to characterize other branches of the executive administration. CHAPTER XXV. THE NAVAL ACADEMY. 1. Naval affairs, quite as much as military, perhaps even .More, require the aids of science, and a careful and thorough (309) 310 THE NAVAL ACADEMY. training. Much of this, indeed, is gained in active service, but for this a basis of scientific study must be laid, and this school of preliminary instruction is called the Naval Academy. As a preliminary even to this, the government has established schools on board of ships, for the instruction of boys in navi- gation and naval warfare. These are called apprentices ; and for good conduct and proficiency in their studies, they are advanced to the Naval Academy, and placed in the line of pro- motion. 2. This school is now established at Annapolis, in the State of Maryland, near Washington. Like the Military Academy, it has its superintendent and professors. The pupils are called midshipmen. They are taught navigation and such other branches of science as are necessary to make them good sea- men and naval officers. They are selected upon nearly the same plan as cadets. Each Congressional District in every State and Territory is entitled to send two students to be educated at the Academy. The District of Columbia is also entitled to send two. Besides which, the President is allowed to appoint ten additional ones at large, and three more from the boys enlisted in the navy. 3. After their graduating examination, if they pass, they are commissioned as ensigns in the navy, and rank according to merit. Before admission, they are examined according to the regulations made by the Secretary of the Navy, and must be between the ages of fourteen and seventeen years, sound, robust, and of good constitution. 4. The course of study in this, as well as in the Military Academy, is adapted to the profession which the students are expected, to follow the one in the navy, the other in the army. More are educated at these great national schools than the government needs in time of peace. Many of the graduates are engaged in civil employment. Thus these institutions have been of great service to the country, outside of the army and navy, for they have added to the number of well-educated and scientific men, who may be useful in any of the walks of life. THE NAVAL OB8ERVATORT. 311 Their graduates elevate the standard of intelligence in the com in unity, especially when they engage in the work of in- struction. Both of these institutions are supported at the expense of tlie government. The tuition and board of cadets in one, and of the midshipmen in the other, costs them nothing. CHAPTER THE NAVAL OBSERVATORY. 1. An observatory is a building erected for astronomical purposes, and supplied with the necessary apparatus for study- ing the heavens. A thorough knowledge of certain portions of astronomy is indispensable to the commander of a vessel, since it is by means of this alone that he can ascertain his exact position on the open ocean out of sight of land. Nauti- cal Science and Astronomy have advanced hand in hand; and to perfect the former as much as possible the United States Government established the Naval Observatory. This institu- tion is located in Washington, and was originated by act of Congress in 1842, and put in operatio'n in 1844. 2. This institution owes more to that enlightened and truly patriotic President, John Q. Adams, than to any other man. He recommended it as far back as 1823, and again in his first message to Congress. But political opposition to the man j/rt^nted his recommendations from being acted upon till nearly 20 years after they were made. This opposition wu^ finally jvercome, and we, and posterity after us, will reap the fruits tf Mr. Adams' suggestions and labors. 3. The observatory was built and furnished with various astronomical and philosophical instruments, and a corps of professors were appointed to watch the movements of the heavenly bodies, and to make such observations and experi- 3 1-' THE COAST SURVEY. ments as would enable them to determine many unsettled questions which relate to the science of navigation; and inci- dentally to another great government work, having especial reference to the same subject; that is, the coast survey. The coast survey has already been of great service to the interests of navigation whether national or commercial ves- sels are regarded and, when finished, much greater benefits are to be expected. When a sufficient number of observations and experiments shall have been made at the naval observa- tory, and published to the world, much valuable information will be added to what is already known. And indeed it would be disreptutable to a nation having so large a navy and such a vast number of merchant ships upon the ocean, to do nothing for or add nothing to the science of navigation. It would be an unwise policy if economy only were studied, and we would justly deserve the reproach of being penurious, short-sighted, and miserably wanting in disposition to promote the general good of the world. 4. The professors are assiduous in their labors, and publish the results of their observations and the facts they have deter- mined. These are not only of use to our own seamen, but to those of all nations who are doing business on the great deep. Here the charts made by the coast survey are deposited, and from hence all our national vessels are furnished with them, and with all the nautical instruments they require. The charts, instruments and books relating to astronomy and navigation, found here, make it the headquarters and depot of nautical science in the United States. CHAPTER XXVII. THE COAST SURVEY. 1. While the Naval Observatory is a government institution for studying the heavens in the interest of the Navy; the THE COAST SURVKY. 313 Coast Survey is an organization employed in a thorough and scientific study of the shores of our country for a sufficient distance out I'rom the land to ascertain all the features con- cealed hy the water that may have a bearing on the safety of our navy and commerce. One examines the heavens, the other the depths of the waters. They are both of great importance. -1. This government undertaking has not been as vigorously prosecuted as sonje other enterprises conducted by it. As early as 1807, Congress passed an act authorizing the President to have this work done. Miich of it has been done, yet it is not finished at this day. Our acquisition of Florida, Texas, and California has greatly extended our sea coast since the work was commenced, and its accomplishment has cost more time and labor than was anticipated at the beginning, yet we think it ought to have been completed in much less than 60 years. 3. This work, like that relating to light houses, is under the management of a board, consisting of a superintendent, two principal assistants, two naval officers, and four officers of the army. These nine constitute the board. Then there are as many officers of the army and navy employed in the execution of the work as are deemed necessary. And the public vessels, by direction of the President, may be used in order to facilitate the work, for much of it must be done at sea. The survey extends 20 leagues from the shore. The surveyors must make accurate charts of the whole coast, in which are laid down all the islands, shoals, roads or anchorage grounds within twenty leagues of any part of the shore of the United States. The courses or distances between the principal capes or headlands must be laid down, together with the soundings (depths of water) and everything else necessary to make a complete and accurate chart of every part of our coasts. 4. An annual report of this work must be made to Con- gress in December of each year, accompanied with charts, showing the progress of the work, the number of persons employed, the expenses incurred, the amount of work finished, 314 i LIGHT HOUSES. and what is unfinished. These reports and charts are carefully preserved, and copies of them may be had at Washington for the use of our naval and merchant ships, to which they are of great service, as guides, whenever they are on or near the coast. This work, in its utility, is not confined to ourselves; but the important information obtained by it is of great use to the navigators of all nations who come into our ports or cruise on our coasts. Tfiey derive the same benefits from this work that we derive from theirs of the same kind. It is creditable to any nation to do such things as are beneficial to the world r such acts as contribute to the welfare of humanity. Shipwrecks belong to the list of terrible calamities which often befall those " who go down to the sea in ships, that do business in great waters." Whoever diminishes these is a public benefactor. CHAPTER XXVIII. LIGHT HOUSES. 1. These, with Buoys, and Beacons, are a necessary practi- cal supplement to the labors of the Coast Survey. Buoys and Beacons indicate the shoals, or dangerous rocks and reefs beneath the surface of the water, in the daytime; while light houses indicate the same, and show the mariner the bearings of the land, in the night; and, by studying, in connection with these, the charts of the coast supplied by the Coast Survey, he may make his way as securely in the night or day through the concealed dangers of the treacherous waters as a landsman along a beaten highway. They are way -marks along the sea coast, at the entrance of harbors, and on lakes and rivers. They speak a language very well understood by the seaman; and are invaluable for the protection of his vessel from the dangers of the Deep. I.K.HT HOUSES. 315- 2. Keepers are appointed by the government to keep them in repair, and to see that they are properly lighted every night. We have no means of knowing the number of these useful establishments, but there must be several hundred of them ; for we have more sea coast than any other nation upon the globe, with a still greater length of lake and river shore. They are located at prominent points, and at dangerous places, all along the extensive lines of coast and shores. 3. To the end that light houses should be constructed and kept in repair, and that competent men might have the whole matter in charge, a law of 1852 authorized the President to appoint two officers of the navy of high rank, one officer of the corps of engineers of the army, one officer of the topo- graphical engineers, and two civilians of high scientific attain- ments, to form a LIGHT HOUSE BOARD for the United States. This board is attached to the Treasury Department, and the Secretary of the Treasury superintends its operations. The board has in charge the building, illumination, and inspection of light houses, light vessels, buoys, beacons, sea marks, and their appendages. 4. The Secretary of the Treasury is president of the board, and may convene them whenever he deems it necessary. The law makes it the duty of the board to divide the whole of the sea, gulf, and lake coasts, into light house districts; not exceeding 12 in number. An officer of the army or navy ia assigned to each district, as a light house inspector. They have the control of everything relating to light houses, light ships, buoys, beacons, or other means of directing vessels in and out of poet, or of guiding them while sailing along the coast in the night. 5. As foreign vessels receive the same benefits from our light houses as our own, there is nothing unfair or illiberal in requiring them to contribute something towards the expense of maintaining them. For this purpose Congress has imposed a tax, or laid a duty of 50 cents per ton on all foreign vessels entering any ports of the United States. This is called ' LIGHT > I fi LETTERS OF MARQUE AND REPRISAL. MONEY." It is collected in the same way as tonnage duties are, i. e., by the collector of the port where the ship arrives. Light money is not required of vessels owned by citizens of the United States, provided that they are regularly registered as the law directs, or have a sea letter. 7. A sea letter is a document or certificate, given by the collector of a port, to the captain of an American vessel, certi- fying that she belongs to a citizen or citizens of the United States. Armed with this, the captain can prove to all whom it may concern, anywhere in the world, the ownership and nationality of his vessel. This is a protection to her and her cargo, especially in times of war. It is one of a ship's papers. CHAPTER XXIX. LETTERS OF MARQUE AND REPRISAL. 1. The somewhat barbarous custom has prevailed among nations, from early times, of making war in every possible way upon the citizens of a hostile country, and of taking or destroy- ing their property, on the principle that injury to the citizens of the power warred against would diminish its power of defense and attack. This has been carried into effect'on the sea by authorizing private vessels to be fitted out for warlike purposes and preying on the commerce of the enemy. Such authority is given by Letters of Marque and Reprisal. The Constitution confers on Congress the power to do this ; and Congress authorizes the President to do it. A law was passed in 1863 expressly con- veying it to him. 2. It is a formal commission given to the commander of a private armed vessel, called a privateer, authorizing him to capture the ships and goods of the subjects of a nation with which we are at war. When such letters are issued by the LETTERS OF MARQUE AND REPRISAL. 317 United States they are signed by the President and sealed with the great seal. Without such commission, thus signed and sealed, any capture made by the commander of a private vessel would be piracy. If a capture is made, it must be made accord- ing to the laws ot war, as recognized by civilized nations, and according to the instructions given by the President. Any conduct on the part of a privateer, contrary to these rules, would vitiate his proceedings, and he would not be entitled to the property he had captured. 3. The captured vessel is called a prize, and must be taken into some port of the United States, or into some port of a country in amity with the United States, where legal proceed- ings are taken before some court of competent jurisdiction ; and the capture and all the circumstances of it inquired into; and if all is found to have been done according to the laws of civilized nations, the captured vessel and cargo is condemned as a prize. But if not condemned, the captors lose her. When adjudged to be a lawful prize, the ship and cargo are sold, and the money is divided between the officers and men, according to rank, and according to the laws of Congress on this subject These laws give the whole to the captors, when the ship taken is of equal or superior force to the ship making the capture ; but if of inferior force, then the United States takes one-half. 4. Privateering, as this business is called, was once consid- ered a lawful and honorable mode of warfare. It was generally practiced between belligerent nations ; but in later days its propriety and morality have been questioned. It is beginning to be looked upon as a kind of robbery not very distantly related to piracy. That it is robbery no one can deny, and, query, " Can it be justified on the ground that the robber and the robbed are the subjects of nations at war with each other?" 5. In Europe an effort has been made to do away with this species of warfare. We hope it will yet succeed, and that all nations will agree to abolish this system of plunder. Innocent parties are generally the sufferers, while but small injury is done to the power of the hostile nation. CHAPTEE XXX. NAVY AND MAKINE HOSPITALS. 1. These institutions are still more important for sailors than for soldiers; as the sailor is more likely to have lost his adaptation to any kind of business on land, and to lose sight of family relations by reason of his long absences to foreign regions. The government very early took this subject in hand and made ample, and extremely comfortable, provision for dis- abled seamen belonging to its navy. 2. In 1811 an act was passed to establish navy hospitals, for the exclusive use of such seamen as belonged to the navy. This new institution was at first placed under the management of a board of commissioners known as the commissioners of navy hospitals. This commission consisted of the Secretaries of the Navy, Treasury, and War. But in 1832 this was changed, and the Secretary of the Navy was made sole trustee of the navy hospital fund, which was made up of $50,000 appropriated by Congress for that purpose, together with twenty cents per month collected from seamen belonging to the navy, and the fines imposed on navy officers, seamen, and marines. The commissioners were authorized to purchase or erect suitable buildings for navy hospitals. THE MARINE HOSPITALS. 3. These are located near important seaports. At these places seamen depart for, and arrive from their voyages, and are found in the greatest numbers; and here the funds for the support of the marine hospitals are collected, as is the tonnage on ships, viz. : by the collectors of the ports. For this purpose the law authorizes the collectors of customs to demand and receive the sum of twenty cents per month from the wages of every sailor; and every master of a vessel is obliged to render to the collector an accurate account of the number of seamen (818) DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 319 *m board his vessel, and of the time they have been employed by him, since his last entry into any port of the United States. These twenty cents the captain must pay the collector, but he is allowed to deduct it from eacn seaman's wages. In this manner the funds for the building, furnishing, and support of the marine hospitals are raised. The collectors of the ports pay them into the United States Treasury, and the Treasurer disburses them to the directors of the hospitals as they are needed. The directors are appointed by the President. They appropriate the funds, and have the general direction and man- agement of the institutions. 4. These provisions are contained in an act entitled, " An act for the relief of sick and disabled seamen," passed in 1798. Seamen, whether in the merchant service or in the naval service of the United States, were indiscriminately taxed for the sup- port of these hospitals; and both have the same rights, privi- leges and benefits in them. The money thus collected from seamen is called "hospital money," and the fund is denomi- nated " the marine hospital fund." In 1864 there were 24 marine hospitals in the United States. CHAPTEK XXXI. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 1. At the first general census, in 1790, there were but lit- tle over three millions and a half of inhabitants in the United States, and these mostly settled along the Atlantic seaboard; the country was oppressed with debt, and not recovered from the effects of a desolating war. Its public business, therefore, was comparatively small in amount, and was readily managed by the three Departments, of State, of the Treasury, and of War. The energy of the people, and the great resources at their command, enabled them to surmount all their difficulties 320 DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR. in a short time, and the country entered on a career of remark- able prosperity. Its public business kept pace with the gen- eral expansion, and new departments were from time to time created, to improve the efficiency of the public service. 2. In 1849 Congress passed a law creating the Department of the Interior, and a Secretary of the Interior, having a seat in the Cabinet, appointed in the same manner, and possessing the same rank, as the other members of the Cabinet, was installed in office. 3. The bureau of the Commissioner of Patents was transferred from the Department of State, and the General Land Office from that of the Treasury. The supervisory power beofore exercised by the Secretary of the Treasury over the accounts of the marshals, clerks, and other officers of all the courts of the United States, was placed in the hands of the new Secretary. The office of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, heretofore attached to the War Department, was also transferred to this ; and the powers and duties of the Secretary of War, in relation to In- dian affairs, were devolved on the Secretary of the Interior. 4. The Secretaries of War and of the Navy were by the same act relieved of their duties in regard to the Commissioner of Pensions, and those duties were thereafter to be performed by the Secretary of the new department. The Census Bureau, heretofore attached to the State Depart- ment, and the duties of the Secretary of State in relation thereto, were also transferred to this department. To the Secretary was also given the supervisory power over the lead and other mines belonging to the United States, here- tofore executed by the Secretary of the Treasury. The powers of the President over the Commissioners of Public Buildings were also transferred to him. 5. He was also charged with the control over the Board of Inspectors and Warden of the Penitentiary of the District of Columbia. The Secretary of the Interior has the same power in appoint- DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR. 321 and removing clerks and other subordinates in his depart- ment, that the Secretaries of the other departments had over these several bureaus before they were transferred to this department. This office has a seal, which must be affixed to the commis- sions of all its subordinate officers. The President and Senate appoint the Assistant Secretaries. From the foregoing it is easy to understand what branches of the public service are conducted in this office, and what are the duties of its Secretary. 6. The following is a list of all who have filled the office of Secretary of the Interior since the establishment of the department : Thomas Ewing, Ohio, March 7, 1849. T. M. T. McKennan, Pa., 1850. Alexander H. H. Stuart, Va., Sept. 12, 1850. Robert McClelland, Mich., March 5, 1853. Jacob Thompson, Miss., March G, 1857. Caleb B. Smith, Ind., March 5, 1861. John P. Usher, Ind., Jan. 7, 1863. James Harlan, Iowa, 1865. Orville H. Browning, 111., 1866. Jacob I). Cox. Ohio, March 5, 1869. Columbus Delano, Ohio, Nov. 1, 1870. " reappointed March 17, 1873. Z. Chandler, Mich., Sept. 30, 1875. Crl Sch ura, Mo., Maivii lo, IbTT. CHAPTER XXXII. PUBLIC LANDS. 1. ALL the land in the United States, to which individuals or corporations have not acquired a legal title, is held by the general government. This includes the land, or the purt of it not under special reservation, belonging to the Indians. As the settlements push on into the territory roamed over by the thinly scattered Indian tribes, an equitable arrangement is made with them, by which certain Reservations, large enough for their purposes are set aside for their occupation; and an indemnity, commonly in the form of an annuity, is made tiiem for the lands to which they renounce their right. As they are gradually melting away, their lands will soon become all, or nearly all, the property of the government. 2. The lands free for settlement are sold under certain reg- ulations; and given to certain classes to soldiers, to actuaV settlers for Homesteads, to corporations to aid in promoting the public welfare as Railroads and Colleges and to support edu- cation in various ways; and the remainder held until required for use in the expansion of the country. Nearly 200,000,000 acres have been given to assist in build- ing railroads through unsettled parts of the country. A large part of this, however, has been only conditionally given, and not yet appropriated by the corporations. Many millions more have been given to the States as a fund in aid of public schools and collegiate institutions and one thirty-sixth part is reserved, in every new township surveyed, for the benefit of public schools in that township. The rest is sold, at very low rates, to any who will buy. (322) PUBLIC LANDS. 323 3. To manage this property a bureau was established by act of Congress, in 1812, called The General Land Office. It was under the oversight of the Secretary of the Treasury until 1849, when the Department of the Interior was established, to which it was then transferred. Its head is called M.MI--|'>M:I: OF THE GENERAL LAND OFFICE. 4. He is appointed by the President and Senate, must take the usual official oath before entering on his duties, and must give the usual official bond. He keeps the seal of his office, and fixes an impression of it upon all papers emanating from the Land Office. He, with his clerks and assistants, forms the bureau, keeps all the records and papers pertaining to the public lands, and performs all duties relating thereto. He receives reports from surveyors and from the district land officers, gives them their instructions, and reports to the Presi- dent and to Congress when required to do so. He issues all patents for lands granted by the United States, and sends and receives by mail all papers and documents relat- ing to his official business, at public expense. Every patent for land is issued in the name of the United States, is signed by the President and by the Commissioner of the Land Office, and is then recorded in books kept for that purpose. SURVEYORS GENERAL AND DEPUTY SURVEYORS. 5. When it is deemed necessary and expedient to bring the lands in any particular State or section of the country into market, a surveyor general is appointed for that State or sec- tion, and also a sufficient number of deputy or assistant sur- veyors to perform the work; which is done under the direction of the surveyor general, who is himself directed by law as to the manner of procedure. He is appointed for four years, taking the usual oath, and gives bonds for the faithful perform- ance of his duties. MODE OF SURVEYING THE PUBLIC LANDS. 6. The law directs how the lands shall be surveyed and mapped. Where it is practicable, they are laid out into 324 PUBLIC LANDS. square miles, each of which contains 640 acres, and is called a section. These sections are then sub-divided into halves, quarters, and eighths of sections; that is, into lots of 320, 160, and 80 a^res. The boundary lines are all run north and south, and east and west. Thirty-six of these sections, which make a plat of six miles square, are put into a township. These townships are designated by numbers, but when inhabited are named by the inhabitants as their fancy dictates. SALE OF THE PUBLIC LANDS. 7. After the lands have been surveyed and properly mapped into townships and sections, they are brought into market and offered for sale in jsuch quantities as are wanted by the pur- chaser; from 40 acres, one-sixteenth of a section, up to a whole section; or as many sections as the buyer pleases to take. DISTRICT LAND OFFICES. 8. District land offices for the sale of lands are established for this purpose at as many places in the State or Territory where the lands are situated, as is deemed necessary for the convenience of purchasers. Here are kept maps of all the lands lying in the district, and buyers may make their selec- tions both of quantity and location as suits them. Here they find A REGISTER OF THE LAND OFFICE AND A RECEIVER OF PUBLIC MONEY FOR LANDS. 9. The first named officer will register the application made for land in a book kept for that purpose, and the second will receive the money paid for it. These officers are appointed by the President and Senate, and report their proceedings to the General Land Office at Washington. The receiver trans- mits all moneys received by him to the United States Treasury once in a month or once in three months, as directed. SCHOOL LANDS. 10. As before stated, the public lands are surveyed into PUBIJC LANDS. - sections of one mile square, and thirty-six of these sections make a township. For the purpose of encouraging education, Congress has enacted that section number 16, in every town- ship, shall not be sold, but reserved for the township, to be applied to the support of common schools in that town. llv this measure the government appropriate i out- thirty-sixth part of its lands to aid the work of educating the children in the new States. And in addition to this it has made other munificent donations of land for the establishment and support of colleges and other institutions of learning. 11. In addition to all this the United States have donated large tracts of land to the several States in which it lay, to aid them in building their State houses, &c. Large quantities of land have also been given to aid the construction of railroads. HOMESTEADS. 12. The government has always sold its lands at a very low price, preferring to give the people cheap farms, rather than to raise more revenue from this source. But in 1862, Congress passed an act called " the Homestead Law," the object of which was to cheapen the public lands to a mere nominal price to heads of families, male or female, or to persons 21 years of age or over, or to persons who had served in the army or navy of the United States, whether 21 years old or not. By the provisions of this act such persons are allowed, for the trifling sum of ten dollars, to enter upon and claim 160 acres of land, provided the claimant swears that the land is applied for his or her own use, and for settlement and cultivation. But no patent (deed) is to be given until the applicant has actually settled upon and cultivated the land for the space of five years. Such applicant must also make affida- vit that he has never borne arms against the United States. By this liberal policy, persons of very limited means may provide themselves with comfortable homes for life; and the unoccupied lands will be settled and occupied faster than if the old price of one dollar and twenty -five cents per acre had 326 PUBLIC LANDS. been demanded. The revenue from the sale of lands will of course be less, but the wealth of the country will undoubted!/ be increased by the measure. 13. Exceedingly rich and valuable mines of gold, silver, copper, lead and other minerals have been found upon the pub- lic lands. That the benefits of mining them might be extended to the many, instead of being monopolized by a few, a different rule for selling them has been made. After they have been surveyed, mapped and described, they, like other lands, are offered for sale, but in quantities of not more than 40 acres. These are generally sold at auction, but no bid less than five dollars per acre will be received. If not sold at public sale, they are then subject to private sale at that price. CHAPTER XXXIII. HOW TO SECURE PUBLIC LANDS. THERE are two classes of public lands subject to entry; one at $1.25 per acre, known as minimum, and one at $2.50, known as double minimum, the latter being the alternate sections along the lines of railroads. Title may be acquired by pur- chase at public sale, or by "private entry," and in virtue of the Pre-emption and Homestead Laws. At Public Sale. Lands are offered at auction to the high- est bidder, pursuant to proclamation or public notice. Private Entry. Lands subject to private entry, are those which have been once offered at public sale without finding purchasers. In order to acquire title to these lands, a written application must be made to the Land Register of the District /in which the land is located, describing the tract desired. The Register certifies the fact to the Receiver, stating price, and the applicant then pays the money and takes a receipt, and at the HOW TO SECURE PUBLIC LANDS. 327 close of the month the Register and Receiver make return of the sale to the General Land Office, when a patent or full title issues on due surrender of the receipt, and will be delivered at the option of the purchaser, at the General Land Office in Washington, or by the Register at the District Land Office. Land Warrants. When lands are to be located with land warrants, application must be made as in cash cases, accompa- nied by an assigned warrant. When the tract is $2.50 per acre, $1.25 per acre must be paid in addition to the warrant. Receipts are given and patents delivered, as in the preceding case. At the time of location, a fee of 50 cents for a 40 acre warrant, and a corresponding amount for larger ones, must be paid to the Register, and a like sum to the Receiver. Agricultwal College Scrip. This may be used in the loca- tion of lands at private entry, but is only applicable to lands subject.to entry at $1.25 per acre, and is restricted to a techni- cal " quarter section," and to three sections in each township of land. The proceeding to acquire title is the same as in cash and warrant cases, the fees being the same as on warrants. This scrip may be used in payment of pre-emption claims. Pre-emption. Any person being the head of a family, or widow, or single man over 21 years of age, and a citizen of the United States, or a person who has filed his declaration to become such, by settling upon and improving any of the " offered," " unoffered," or unsnrveyed lands of the United States, may obtain a pre-emption right to purchase 160 acres so occupied, at the regular government price, whether it be $1.25 or $2.50 per acre. Where the tract is "offered" land, the settler must file with the District Land Office his state- ment as to the fact of settlement, within thirty days thereafter, and within one year must make proof to the Land Office, of his actual residence and cultivation, and secure the land by payment in cash or Land Warrant. Where the land has been surveyed and not offered at public sale, the statement must l>e filed within three months after settlement, and payment made within 21 months. Where settlement is made upon unsur- 328 HOW TO SECUEE PUBLIC LANDS. veyed lands, the settler is required to file a statement within three months after the survey, and pay within eighteen months thereafter. No person is entitled to more than one pre-emption right. Tlie Homestead Privilege. -.The Homestead laws give to every citizen the right to a Homestead of 160 acres minimum, or eighty acres double minimum. To obtain Homestead, applicant must swear that he is the head of a family, or over the age of twenty-one, a citizen, or has declared his intention to become such ; and that the entry is for his exclusive use and benefit, and for actual settlement and cultivation. When an applicant has made actual settlement upon the land he desires, he must make affidavit of the fact before the Land Register, and pay fees amounting, on 160 acres of minimum land, to $18, or an equal sum for eighty acres of double minimum, for \vhich he gets a receipt; and after five years' occupation and cultiva- tion of the land, he is entitled upon proof of such cultivation to a patent or full title to the Homestead. Any loyal person in the naval or military service of the United States, may acquire a Homestead by reason of his family occupying land and making the application in his stead. All officers, soldiers, and sailors who have served in the army or navy for ninety days and remained loyal, may enter 160 instead of 80 acres of double minimum lands. The fees above for entering Home- stead apply to surveyed lands in Michigan, "Wisconsin, Iowa, Missouri, Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska, Dakota, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Florida, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. In California, Nevada, Oregon, Colorado, New Mex- ico, Washington Territory, Arizona, Idaho, Utah, Wyoming, and Montana, the fees are $22 instead of $18. A settler hav- ing filed a pre-emption declaration, may change his filing into Homestead, and receive the benefit of the Homestead laws. If a Homestead settler does not wish to remain five years on his land before obtaining title, he may pay for it in cash or Land Warrants. Lands obtained under the Homestead laws are HOW TO SECURE PUBLIC LANDS. 329 exempt from liability for debts contracted prior to the issuing of the patent. Land offices are located at Des Moines and Sioux City, Iowa; Menasha, Falls St. Croix, Wausau, La Crosse, Bayfield and Eau Claire, Wisconsin; Taylor's Falls, St. Cloud, Dulnth, Fergus Falls, Worthington, New Ulm, Benson, Detroit and Redwood Falls, Minnesota; Sioux Falls, Springfield, Fargo, Yankton, Bismark and Deadwood, Dakota; Helena and Boze- man, Montana; Boise City and Lewiston, Idaho; Olympia, Vancouver and Walla Walla, Washington Territory; Oregon City, Roseburg, Le Grand, Lakeview and Dalles, Oregon; San Francisco, Marysville, Humboldt, Stockton, Visalia, Sacra- mento, Los Angeles, Shasta, Susan ville and Independence, California; Carson and Enreka, Nevada; Prescott and Flor- ence, Arizona; Salt Lake City, Utah; Cheyenne and Evanston, Wyoming; Norfolk, Beatrice, Lincoln, Niobrara, Grand Island, North Platte and Bloominnc-h settlement \VM> made since June 1, 1840, and previously to the time of application for the land, which land must, at the date of the 330 HOW TO SECURE PUBLIC LAND?. settlement, have had the Indian title extinguished, and been surveyed by the United States. A person bringing himself within the above requirements by proof satisfactory to the Register and Receiver of the land district in which the land may lie, taken pursuant to the rule? hereafter prescribed, will, after having taken the affidavit required by the Act, be entitled to enter, by legal subdivisions' any number of acres, not exceeding one hundred and sixty, 01 a quarter-section, to include his residence; and he may avail himself of the same at any time prior to the day of the com- mencement of the public sale, including said tract, where the land has not yet been proclaimed. Where the land was subject to private entry, June 1, 1840, mid a settlement shall thereafter be made upon such land, or \vhere the land shall become hereafter subject to private entry, and after that period a settlement shall be made, which the settler is desirous of securing, notice of such intention must- be given within thirty days after such settlement; and, in all such cases, the proof, affidavit and payment must be made within twelve months after such settlement. The tracts liable to entry are embraced under the following designations: First, a regular quarter-section, notwithstanding the quantity may vary a few acres from one hnndred and sixty; or a quarter-section, which, though fractional in quantity by the passage of a navigable stream through the same, is still bounded by regular sectional and quarter-sectional lines ; second, a fractional section containing not over one hundred and sixty acres, or any tract being a detached or anomalous survey made pursuant to law, and not exceeding such quantity ; third, two adjoining half-quarter-sections (in all cases to be separated by a north and south line, except on the north side of township, where the surveys are so made as to throw the excess or defi- ciency on the north and west sides of the township), of the regular quarters mentioned in the first designation ; fourth, two half-quarter or eighty-acre subdivisions of a fractional o> broken section, adjoining each other, the aggregate quantity HOW TO /BCURE PUBLIC LANDS. 331 not exceeding one hundred and sixty acres ; fifth, a regular half-quarter and an adjoining fractional section, or an adjoin- ing half-quarter subdivision of a fractional section, the aggre- gate quantity not exceeding one hundred and sixty acres; sixth, if the pre-emptor do not wish to enter one hundred and sixty acres, he may enter a single half-quarter section (made by a north and south line), or an eighty-acre subdivision of a frac- tional section ; seventh, one or more adjoining forty-acre lots may be entered, the aggregate not exceeding one hundred and sixty acres ; and, eighth, a regular half-quarter, a half-quarter subdivision, or a fractional section, may each be taken, with one or more forty-acre subdivisions lying adjoining, the aggre- gate not exceeding one hundred and sixty acres. Forty-acre tracts, or quarter quarter-sections, may be entered in the same manner that eighty-acre, or half-quarter sections, have been. Only one person upon a quarter-section is protected, and he the one who made the first settlement, provided he conform to the other provisions of the law. A person who lias once availed himself of the provisions of the Pre-emption Act, cannot, at any future period, or at any other land office, acquire any other right under it. No person, who is the proprietor of three hundred and twenty acres of land in any State or Territory of the United States, or who quits or abandons his residence on his own land to reside on the public laud in the same State or Territory, is entitled to the benefit of the Pre-emption Acts. The approval of the tracts by the local land office is the evi- dence of the survey; but the land is to be construed as surveyed when the requisite lines are run on the field, and the corners established by the deputy surveyor. No assignment or trans- fers of pre-emption rights are recognized at the land office; the patents issuing to the claimants, in whose names alone the entries are made. The following description of lands are not liable to entry : first^ lands included in any reservation by any treaty, law. or proclamation of the President of tlu- Tinted States, and lands reserved for salines and for other purposes ; second, lands :;:;_> HOW TO SKOCRK PUBLIC LANDS. reserved for the support of schools ; thwd, lands acquired by either of the last two treaties with the Miami Indians in Indi- ana, or which may be acquired of the Wyandot Indians in Ohio. -or any other Indian reservation, to which the title has been, or m;iv be extinguished at any time during the operation of the Pre-emption Acts, by the United States ; fourth, sections of lands reserved to the United States, alternate to other sections granted to any State for the construction of any canal, railroad, or other public improvement ; fifth, sections, or fractions of sections, included within the limits of any incorporated town; xii'fh, every portion of the public lands which has been selected as a site for a city or town ; seventh, every parcel or lot of land actually settled and occupied for the purposes of trade and agriculture; and, eighth, all lands in which are situated any known salines or mines. Persons claiming the benefit of the Pre-emption Acts are required to file duplicate affidavits, such as are specified by law, and to furnish proof, by one or more disinterested witnesses, of the facts necessary to establish the requisites mentioned in the first paragraph of this article ; such witnesses having first been duly sworn or affirmed by some competent authority. If adverse claims are made to the same tract, each claimant is to be notified of the time and place of taking testimony, and allowed to cross-examine the opposite witnesses, and to furnish counter-proof, itself subject to cross-examination. If, by reason of distance, sickness, or infirmity, the witnesses cannot person- ally appear before the register of the land office, their deposi- tions, taken in conformity with the following regulations, may be received: The notice to adverse claimants must be in writing, and served in time to allow at least one day for every twenty miles which the party may have to travel in going to the place of taking evidence. The proof, in all cases, should consist of a simple detail of facts merely, and not of broad and general statements. If the pre-emptor be "the head of a family," the witnesses must state the facts constituting him such ; whether HOW TO SKCTIIK Pl'BUC LANDS. i'.DiJ he be a husband having a wife and children, or a widower, or an unmarried person under twenty-one years of age, having a family, either of relatives or others, dependent upon him, or hired persons. All the facts relative to the settlement in per- MII, inhabitancy, or personal residence, the time of its com- mencement, the manner and extent of its continuance, as ai>" those sharing the apparent objects, must be stated. It must ]>e stated that the claimant made the settlement on the land in person ; that he has erected a dwelling upon the land ; that he lived in the same, and made it his home, etc. In the event of a decision by the land officer against the claimant, he may appeal to the Commissioner of the Land Office at Washington. No entry will be permitted until the affidavit required of the claimant is taken. Duplicates thereof must be signed by the claimant, and the fact of the oath being taken must Decertified by the register or receiver administering the same; one copy to be filed in the Register's office, and the other to be sent to the- Land Office at Washington. A purchaser of public land is only required to make written application to the Register of the local land office for the tract desired to be entered, and to pay to the Receiver the purchase money therefor. Blank forms of such application are furnished gratuitously at the Land Office where the tract is desired to be entered. SOLDIERS' HOMESTEAD LAW OF 1872. The following is the full .text of the Amendatory Soldiers' Homestead Bill, approved by the President on the 3d of April, 1872. Be it enacted &y the Seriate and Houne of Representatives of the United States of America vn, Congress assembled : That every private soldier and officer who has served in the army of the United States during the recent rebellion for ninety days or more, and who was honorably discharged, and has remained loyal to the government, including the troops mus- tered into the service of the United States bv virtue of th* 334 HOW TO SECURE PUBLIC LANDS. third section of an act entitled " An act making appropriations for completing the defenses of "Washington, and for other pur- poses," approved February 13th, 1862, and every seaman, marine, and officer who has served in the navy of the United States, or in the marine corps, during the rebellion, for ninety days, and who was honorably discharged, and has remained loyal to the government, shall, on compliance with the pro- visions of an act entitled " An act to secure homesteads to actual settlers on the public domain, and the acts amendatory thereof, as hereinafter modified, be entitled to enter upon and receive patents for a quantity of public lands (not mineral) not exceeding one hundred and sixty acres, or one quarter-section, to be taken in compact form according to legal subdivision, including the alternate reserved section of public lands along the line of any railroad or other public work not otherwise reserved or appropriated, and other lands subject to entry under the homestead laws of the United States : Provided, the said homestead settler shall be allowed six months after locating his homestead within which to commence his settlement and improvements: And provided alpo, the time which the home- stead settler shall have served in the army, navy, or marine corps aforesaid shall be deducted from the time heretofore required to perfect title, or if discharged on account of wounds received, or disability incurred in the line of duty, then the term of enlistment shall be deducted from the time heretofore required to perfect title, without reference to the length of time he may have served : Provided, however, that no patent shall issue to any homestead settler who has not resided upon, improved and cultivated his said homestead for a period of at least one year after he shall commence his improvements as aforesaid. SECTION 2. That any person entitled under the provisions of the foregoing section to enter a homestead, who may have heretofore entered under the Homestead law a quantity of land less than one hundred and sixty acres, shall be permitted to enter under the provisions of this act so much land as, when HOW TO SECURE PUBLIC LANDS. 335 rfded to the quantity previously entered, shail not exceed one hundred and sixty acres. SECTION 3. That in the case of the death of any person who would be entitled to a homestead under the provisions of the first section of this act, his widow, if unmarried, or in case of her death or marriage, then his minor orphan children, by a guardian duly approved and officially accredited at the Depart- ment of the Interior, shall be entitled to all the benefits enu- merated in this act, subject to all the provisions as to settle- ment and improvements therein contained : Provided, that if such person died during his term of enlistment, the whole term of his enlistment shall be deducted from the time heretofore required to perfect the title. SECTION 4. That where a party, at the date of his entry of a tract of land under the Homestead laws, or subsequently thereto, was actually enlisted and employed in the army or navy of the United States, his services therein shall, in the administration of said Homestead laws, be construed to be equivalent, to all intents and purposes, to a residence for the same length of time upon the tract so entered : Provided, that if his entry has been canceled by reason of his absence from said tract while in the military or naval service of the United States, and such tract has not been disposed of, his entry shall be restored and con- firmed : And provided further, that if such tract has been disposed of, said party may enter another tract subject to the entry under said laws, and his right to a patent therefor shall be determined by the proofs touching his residence and culti- vation of the first tract and his absence therefrom in such service. SECTION 5. That any soldier, sailor, marine, oflicer, or other person coming within the provisions of this act may, as well BY AN AGENT as in person, enter upon said homestead : Pro- vided, that the said claimant in person shall, within the time prescribed [six MONTHS FROM DATE OF ENTRY] commence settle- ment and improvement on the same, and thereafter fulfill all th requirements of this act. PATENTS. SECTION 6. That the commissioner of the General Land Office shall have authority to make all needful rules and regu- lations to carry into effect the provisions of this act." CHAPTEE XXXIV. PATENTS. 1. These originated in the desire of the founders of the government to encourage invention, in the belief that the gen- eral welfare of the country would be promoted by such a stim- ulus to genius, and the power to grant patents was expressly bestowed on Congress. That this was a very wise fore- thought there is no doubt. The hope of reward has given birth to innumerable inventions, among which some have been of incalculable value to the country, increasing its wealth almost beyond our power to estimate. It is, however, worth considering if there may not be a limit to the usefulness of the system, in its present form, in the changed conditions of the country. It is often the case that what accomplished the greatest good in its proper day, is at length outgrown, and becomes an embarrassment, requiring to be either essentially modified or laid aside. 2. A patent right is an exclusive right, granted by an officei denominated the Commissioner of Patents, in conformity try law, to the inventor or discoverer of any new and useful article. The exclusive right is conferred by acts of Congress, on com- pliance of the inventor with certain conditions which are clearly specified in the law. The evidence that such exclusive right has been conferred on any individual, is contained in a document, called " letters patent," issued at the patent office in Washington; signed by the Secretary of the Interior, (for- merly by the Secretary of State), countersigned by the Com- PATENTS. 337 missioner of Patents, and sealed with the seal of his office. Thus protected, he alone can make, use and sell the article he has invented, for the term of fourteen years; and upon show- ing a good reason therefor, the commissioner will extend the term seven years longer, or Congress will pass a special act for that purpose. 3. This was the law up to 1861; and is still in force as to patents granted anterior to that date. But a new act was then ] ;i-sed, extending the term of an original patent to seventeen, instead of fourteen years, and prohibiting any extension of such patents. An inventor, before he can obtain a patent, must swear that lie believes he is the inventor or discoverer of the art, machine, or improvement, for which he solicits a patent. He must also give in writing a clear, minute description of it; and, when necessary, must make and deliver a model of his invention; which in all cases must be something new, unused and unknown before, or his application will be rejected, ^..ere is considera- ble expense attending the procurement of a patent right. 4. But when obtained, no person except the patentee, has any right to make, sell, or use the article patented, until the time has expired for which this exclusive right was granted, without the permission of the patentee. Any person doing so is liable to a heavy penalty, and may be prosecuted in the Cir- cuit Court of the United States; this court having original jurisdiction in all cases arising under the patent laws. But a writ of error or an appeal lies to the Supreme Court of the United States. 5. The Patent Office, when first established, was a bureau of the State Department, and the Commissioner of Patents acted under the direction of the Secretary of State. But after the creation of the Department of the Interior, in 1849, it was transferred to it, became a bureau of the new department, and the commissioner now acts under the general direction of its secretary. 338 PATENTS. THE COMMISSIONEK OF PATENTS 6. Is appointed by the President and Senate. His duties are best explained in the language of the law itself, which, in speaking of the creation and appointment of this official, says that his duties shall be " to superintend, execute and perform all such acts and things touching and respecting the granting and issuing of patents for new and useful discoveries, inven- tions and improvements, as are herein provided for, or shall hereafter be by law directed to be done and performed." He has the charge and custody of all books, records, papers, models, machines, and all other things belonging to the patent office; and has the privilege of sending and receiving letters and packages by mail, relating to the business of the office, free of postage. He has the power to appoint his clerks, examin- ers and subordinates; among whom are patent office agents, who may be appointed in not more than twenty of the princi- pal cities and towns in the United States. It is their duty to forward to the patent office all such models, specimens and manufactures, as shall be intended to be patented. 7. In cases of appeal from the decision of the commis- sioner, the appeal may be made to the board of examiners, or eo the Chief Justice of the District Court of the United States for the District of Columbia. There is a seal for the patent office, which the commissioner keeps, and which he must affix to patents when granted, and to other papers and records issued from his office, which are wanted as evidence in other places. He is also authorized to publish a classified and alphabetical list of all patents issued at the patent office. This he fre- quently does, for the information of the public. CHAPTEK XXXV. PENSIONS. Pensions are a provision, made by the general government, for the officers and privates of the army and navy disabled in the service of the country. They peril their lives for the pro- tection of the public, and it has always been regarded as just that a support, proportioned to the extent of injury received, should be given to them, or to those dependent on them in case of their death. It is properly a continuance of pay in consideration of the services rendered. It does not often amount to a full support, and is graduated by the amount each received, according to rank. A COMMISSIONER OF PENSIONS "Was appointed and placed at the head of a bureau, at first in the War Department, but afterward transferred to the care of the Secretary of the Interior. It is a Pension Office, in fact. Tliis commissioner is appointed by the President and Senate in the same manner as other important officers. It is his duty to carry into effect the pension laws. He is authorized to appoint pension agents in all the States auf* Territories, who receive and distribute the money due to pensioners in their several districts, the agents receiving from the government a percentage for their services. There has always been a large number on the list. At first they were the disabled soldiers and sailors of the Revolutionary "War; then of the War of 1812 with England, followed in 1846 by the Mexican War. But all these were few compared with the number disabled in the Civil War. The amount (339) 340 PENSIONS. appropriated by Congress for the year 1873-4, for pensions wa& $30,480,000. The law carefully protects the pensions against frauds and forbids its attachment by any legal process what- ever. The nation is grateful to its brave defenders. The proper officials to whom all applications should be made, by letter or petition, in Washington, are, by a soldier having his discharge, to the Paymaster General; when the discharge paper is lost, to the Second Auditor of the Treasury; when by those who represent a deceased person, to the second Auditor of the Treasury; when for commutation of rations, to the same officer; when for pensions, or any matter connected with pen- sions, to the Commissioner of Pensions. Instructions have been prepared for all applicants, by the Commissioner of Pensions for the purpose of preventing fraud or misunderstanding. They are, in substance: INSTRUCTIONS. By the act of Congress approved July 14th, 1862, and amen- datory acts, pensions are granted as follows: 1. Invalids, disabled in the military or naval service of the United States, in the line of duty. 2. Widows of persons who have been killed or have died in the military or naval service of the United States. 3. Children under sixteen, of the classes of persons on account of whose death widows are entitled; provided said widows have died, or have remarried. 4. Mothers of all classes of persons on account of whose death widows are entitled, provided said mothers were depend- ent on the deceased for support and no minor child survived. 5. Fathers, the same as mothers, in case of the death of the latter. 6. Brothers and sisters, under sixteen, provided they were dependent for support upon the person on account of whose decease they claim. The First Section of the Act of July 14th, 1862, showing the rates of pension to the several classes and grades, is as follows: PENSION >. #41 Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Repi^esentatices of the United States of America, in Congress assembled, That if any officer, non-commissioned officer, musician, or private of the army, including regulars, volunteers, militia, or any officer, warrant, or petty officer, musician, seaman, ordinary seaman, flotillaman, marine, clerk, landsman, pilot, or other person in the navy or marine corps, has been, since the fourth day of March, eighteen hundred and sixty-one, or shall here- after be, disabled by reason of any wound received or disease contracted while in the service of the United States, and in the line of duty, he shall, upon making due proof of the fact according to such forms and regulations as are or may be pro- vided by, or in pursuance of law, be placed upon the list of invalid pensions of the United States, and be entitled to receive, for the highest rate of disability, such pension as is hereinafter provided in such cases, and for an interior disability an amount proportionate to the highest disability, to commence as here- inafter provided, and continue during the existence of such disability. The pension for a total disability for officers, non- commissioned officers, musicians and privates employed in the military service of the United States, whether regulars, volun- teers, or militia, and in the marine corps, shall be as follows, viz.: lieutenant-colonel and all officers of a higher rank, thirty dollars per month; major, twenty-five dollars per month; cap- tain, twenty dollars per month; first lieutenant, seventeen dol- /ars per month; second lieutenant, fifteen dollars per month; and non-commissioned officers, musicians and privates, eight dollars per month. The pension for total disability for officers, warrant or petty officers, and others employed in the naval ser- vice of the United States, shall be as follows, viz.: captain, commander, surgeon, paymaster, and chief engineer, respect- ively, ranking with commander by law, lieutenant command- ing, and master commanding, thirty dollars per month; lieutenant, surgeon, paymaster, and chief engineer, respect- ively, ranking with lieutenant by law, and passed assistant surgeon, twenty -five dollars per month; professor of mathe- 342 PENSIONS. matics, master, assistant surgeon, assistant paymaster, and chaplain, twenty dollars per month; first assistant engineer and pilots, fifteen dollars per month ; passed midshipman, midship- man, captain's, and paymaster's clerk, second and third assistant engineers, master's mate, and all warrant officers, ten dollars per month; all petty officers, and all other persons before named employed in the naval service, eight dollars per month; and all commissioned officers, of either service, shall receive such and only such pension as is herein provided for the raijk in which they hold commissions. ACT OF JULY 4, 1864. Various supplementary Acts have been passed by the Act of July 14, 1862, modifying in some particulars the provisions of previous legislation. By the Act of July 4, 1864, it is provided that biennial examinations will hereafter be made by one surgeon only, if he is regularly appointed, or holds a surgeon's commission in the army. Examinations by unappointed civil surgeons will not be accepted, unless it can be shown that an examination by a commissioned or duly appointed surgeon is impracticable. Increased Pensions in Certain Cases, A pension of twenty -five dollars per month is granted to those having lost both hands or both eyes in the military service of the United States, in the line of duty, and twenty dollars per month to those who, under the same conditions, shall have lost both feet, if such parties were entitled to a lower rate of pension under the act of 1862. This higher pension will date only from the 4th day of July, 1864, in case of pensioners already enrolled, or of applicants discharged prior to that date. Evidence of Muster-in. In accordance with the llth Sec- tion of the Act of July 4, 1864, evidence of the muster-in of the soldier will not be required in any case, but there must be positive record evidence of service. Evidence of muster-in in the case of commissioned officers is still required. ACT OF JUNE 6, 1866. The Supplementary Pension Act, approved June six, eigh- PENSIONS. 343 teen hundred and sixty -six, provides increased rates of pensions over those granted by the Act of July fourteen, eighteen hun- dred and sixty-two, in the following cases, viz.: 1. Twenty-five dollars per month to all those invalids enti- tled, under the Act of July fourteen, eighteen hundred and sixty-two, to a lower rate of pension, on account of service rendered since March four, eighteen hundred and sixty-one, " who shall have lost the sight of both eyes, or who shall have lost both hands, or been permanently and totally disabled in the same, or otherwise so permanently and totally disabled as to render them utterly helpless, or so nearly so as to require the constant personal aid and attendance of another person." 2. Twenty dollars per month to those invalids who, being entitled under like conditions to a lower rate of pension, " shall have lost both feet, or one hand and one foot, or been totally and permanently disabled in the same, or otherwise so disabled as to be incapacitated for performing any manual labor, but not so much so as to require constant personal aid and attention." 3. Fifteen dollars per month to those invalids who, under like conditions, " shall have lost one hand or one foot, or been totally and permanently disabled in the same, or otherwise so disabled as to render their inability to perform manual labor equivalent to the loss of a hand or a foot." In order to obtain the benefits of the foregoing provisions, pensioners already enrolled will file an application in accord- ance with form F, appended hereto. Proof in addition to that on file with the previous application need not be forwarded, except as shall be specially required in each case, after the application is received. The applicant need only be examined by a pension surgeon when expressly required, on due notice from this office. Applicants not already pensioned, who believe themselves entitled to the benefit of the foregoing provisions, will specifically set forth such claim in their declarations, care- fully stating the nature of the disability on account of which such higher rate of pension is claimed. The declaration must be made before some officer of a court of record, or before a 344 PENSIONS. pension notary designated by this office, as provided by the third section of the act of July four, eighteen hundred and sixty-four. The above specified increased rates of pension will be allowed only to those disabled since the fourth day of March, eighteen hundred and sixty-one, and will date only from the sixth day of June, eighteen hundred and sixty-six. Teamsters, Artificers, and other Enlisted Men, not em- braced in the terms of the Act of July fourteen, eighteen hundred and sixty-two, or of Acts supplementary thereto, are, by the tenth section of the Act of June six, eighteen hundred and sixty-six^ included in the administration of the pension laws, in the class of non-commissioned officers and privates. Minor Children to be Pensioned, in Certain Cases, instead of the Widow. The eleventh section provides that when any widow, entitled to a pension under previous Acts, has aban- doned the care of a child or children of her deceased husband, under sixteen years of age, " or is an unsuitable person, by reason of immoral conduct, to have the custody of the same," the pension shall be paid to the duly authorized guardian of such child or children, while under the age of sixteen years, and not to the widow. The proper proof in such case, as pro- vided by this section, is the certificate of the judge of any court having probate jurisdiction, " that satisfactory evidence has been produced before such court " to the effect above indi- cated. In presenting an application under this section, the guardians of the minor child or children will make a declara- tion in accordance with the appended form G. Pensions Granted to Dependent Fathers and to Dependent Orphan Brothers. By the twelfth section the provisions of the Act of July fourteen, eighteen hundred and sixty-two, are extended so as to include the dependent brother or brothers of a deceased officer, soldier or seaman, and the dependent father of such deceased persons, under like limitations as apply in the case of dependent sisters and mothers; but not more than one pension is granted on account of the same person, or to PENSIONS. 345 more than one of said classes. The forms prescribed for the latter cases may be used, with obvious variations, in applica- tions made by dependent fathers or on behalf of dependent brothers. Limitations as to Al umber and Date of Pensions. The thirteenth section declares that but one pension shall be granted to any person at the same time; and that when application is not made within three years after the death or discharge of the party on whose account a pension is claimed, such pension, it' allowed, " shall commence from the date of filing the last paper in said case by the party prosecuting the same." This limitation applies to all classes of pensions. Evidence of Marriage of Colored Applicants. The four- teenth section provides that habitual recognition of the marriage relation between colored parties that is, in the absence of the usually required proof when shown by " proof satisfactory to tht- Commissioner of Pensions," shall be accepted as evidence of marriage, and the children of such parties shall be regarded as if bora in lawful wedlock. When the usual proof of mar- riage can be furnished, it will be required as heretofore. When only evidence of cohabitation and mutual recognition can be adduced, as provided in this section, the testimony of two cred- ible and disinterested witnesses will be required, who must state how long they have been personally acquainted with the parties, and for how long a period the latter are known to have recognized each other as man and wife. If such acquaintance is deemed to be of too recent date to warrant the acceptance of this testimony, or if there is reason to doubt, in any instance, that the marriage relation existed in good faith, more specific instructions will be issued, adapted to the circumstances of the particular case. ACT OF JULY 25, 1866. Provottt Marshals, Enrolling Officers, and others Entitled to the Benefits of the Pension Laws. The first section of the Act of July twenty -five, eighteen hundred and sixty-six, extends 346 PENSIONS. the benefits conferred by the pension laws to provost marshals, deputy provost marshals, and enrolling officers disabled in the line of their official duty as such, and to the widows or depend- ents of such officers in like manner. Declarations will be made in accordance with the instructions issued under the Pension Act of July fourteen, eighteen hun- dred and sixty-two, and supplementary Acts. The grade of such officers, for the purpose of determining the rates of pen- sions under this section, is fixed as follows: Provost marshals will rank as captains; their deputies as first lieutenants; and enrolling officers as second lieutenants. Increased Pensions to Widows, and Orphan Children Under Sixteen Years of Age. The second section of this act allows to those who are or shall be pensioned as widows of sol- diers or sailors, two dollars per month additional pension for each child (under sixteen years of age) of the deceased soldier or sailor by the widow thus pensioned. On the death or remarriage of such widow, or on the denial of a pension to her, in accordance with the provisions of sec- tion eleven of the Act of June six, eighteen hundred and sixty- six, the same amount to which she would otherwise be entitled, under this and previous provisions, is allowed to the minor children. The number and names of the children, with their ages, must be proved by the affidavits of two credible and dis- interested witnesses. The provisions of this section only include the children of the widow, and not those of her deceased husband by a previous marriage. The widows of minor children of officers are not entitled to this increase. Declarations for an increase under this section, if for the widow, will be made in accordance with form H, appended hereto; and if for minor children, according to form I. The pension certificate must be sent with all applications filed subsequently to September four, eighteen hundred and sixty- six. Increase of Pensions under Acts prior to July 4, 1862. All pensioners under Acts approved prior to July fourteen. PENSIONS. 34T eighteen hundred and sixty-two, are, by the third section of the present act, granted the same rights as those pensioned under acts approved at or since that date, so far as said Acts may be applicable, with the exception of soldiers of the Revolution or their widows. This section applies only to pensioners who were such at the date of the approval of this Act. Declaration of claimants under this section will be made in accordance with the forms previously issued under Act of July fourteen, eighteen hundred and sixty-two, and subsequent pen- sion acts, with the necessary modifications, and the pension certificates will be returned. Invalid Pensions of Claimants Dying while their Appli- cations are Pending, the Evidence being Completed. The fourth section of this act is construed in connection with the tenth section of the Act of July four, eighteen hundred and sixty-four, and the sixth section of the Act of June six, eigh- teen hundred and sixty-six, to which it is supplementary. If an applicant for invalid pension dies while his claim is pend- ing, the evidence having been completed, the pension, under the provisions of this section and of those sections of previous acts above referred to, is disposed of as follows: 1. If he left a widow, or minor child, or children under sixteen years of age, or other dependent relatives, and died of wounds received or of disease contracted in the service or in the line of duty, no invalid pension certificate will issue, but such widow or dependent relatives will receive a pension, ID their own right, taking precedence in the order prescribed by law in other cases. 2. If the claimant left a widow or dependent relatives, but did not die of wounds received, or disease contracted in the service and in the line of duty, so that neither widow nor dependent relatives would be entitled to a pension on his account, then the certificate will be issued in his name, and the pension paid to the widow or to the dependent relatives, as the case may be, in the same order in which they would have teen pensioned, if entitled, as set forth in the preceding paragraph. 348 PENSIONS. 3. If the claimant left no widow or dependent relatives, the certificate will issue in his name, and the pension will be drawn by his executor or administrator. Certain Accrued Rights Reserved wider Repealed Enact- ments. The fifth section reserves all rights that may have accrued under the fifth section of the pension Act of July four, eighteen hundred and sixty-four, and the third section of the pension Act of March three, eighteen hundred and sixty-five, though repealed by the first section of the Act of June six, eighteen hundred sixty-six. Widows Remarrying while their Claims are Pending, Are entitled, under the sixth section, if their claims are other- wise valid, to receive pensions to the date of remarriage, if the deceased officer, soldier or sailor, on whose account they claim, left no legitimate child under sixteen years of age. JOSEPH H. BARRETT, Commissioner of Pensions. PENSION OFFICE, August 4, 1866. ACT OF JULY 27, 1868. SECTION 1. Dependent. Relatives. In this section prece- dence is given to the dependent relatives hereinafter mentioned, in the following order, to wit: First, mothers; secondly, fath- ers; thirdly, orphan brothers and sisters under sixteen, who .shall be pensioned jointly ; and the persons enumerated shall each be entitled in their order, after the death of the one pre- ceding. SECT. 2. Invalids Disabled Subsequent to Passage of this Act. This section specifies as to pensions by reason of disabil- ities incurred subsequent to the passage of this Act, and enume- rates the circumstances under which said disabilities must have been contracted. SECT. 3. Unclaimed Pensions. This section provides that pensions remaining unclaimed for fourteen months after the same have become due, shall be adjusted at the Pen- sion Agency instead of at the office of the Third Auditor; and PENSIONS. 349- thv jailure of any pensioner to claim his or her pension for thr.se years, shall be deemed presumptive evidence that the same has legally terminated. On a new application, with evi- dence satisfactorily accounting for such failure, the pensioner may be restored to the rolls. SECT. 4 Increase of Pensions of Widows and of Chi^- dren by a former Wife, This section gives an increase of two dollars per month for each minor child of a deceased sol- dier, to commence from the death of their father, and continue until they severally attain the age of sixteen years; and pro- vides that the children of a former marriage shall be " entitled to receive two dollars per month, to commence from the death of their father, and continue until they severally attain the age of sixteen years, to be paid to the guardian of such child or children for their use and benefit; Provided, however ', That in all such cases such widow is charged with the care, custody, and maintenance of such child or children, the said sum of two- dollars per month for each of said children shall be paid to her for and during the time she is or may have been so charged with the care, custody, and maintenance of such child or chil- dren, subject to the same conditions, provisions and limitations as if they were her own children by her said deceased husband. SECT. 5. Widows and Minors not Debarred, etc. By this section no widow or guardian to whom an increase of pension has been or may hereafter be granted on account of minor chil- dren, shall be deprived thereof by reason of their being main- tained or educated at the expense of the State or of the public. SECT. 6. Extension of Limitation. This section provides that all pensions applied for wichin five years after the right thereto shall have accrued, and which have been or may be granted under the Act of July 14, 1862, or Acts supplemen- tary thereto, shall commence from the discharge or death of the person on whose account the pension has been or shall be granted; and in cases of insane persons and minors, who were without guardians or other proper legal representatives pre- vious to said limitation, applications may be tiled in their 350 PENSIONS behalf after its expiration. This section applies solely to cases in which the title to pension has accrued subsequent to March 4, 1861. SECT. 7. Arrears. In which notification of title to arrears of pension, under the foregoing section is provided for; and also that no claim agent or other person shall be entitled to compensation for services in making application for such arrears. SECT. 8. Widow's Pension to Children, etc. In which the requirement of the certificate of the court that satisfactory evidence has been adduced of the abandonment of the care of the minor child or children of a deceased soldier by his widow, -or of her unsuitableness to have custody of them is dispensed with. The furnishing of satisfactory evidence thereof to the commissioner shall be sufficient to cause the suspension of said widow's pension. SECT. 9. Pending Claim may be Completed by Heirs. In which if any person entitled to a pension has died since March 4, 1861, his heirs or legal representatives shall be enti- tled to receive the accrued pension; provided no widow or minor child survives the applicant. SECT. 10. Remarriage. This section provides for pension to the widow or dependent mother, from the death of soldier to the date of claimant's remarriage, (provided no children under sixteen survive.) SECT. 11. Extension of Time. This section provides for the continuance in force of the Act of July 4, 1864, from the 4th July, 1867, for five years. SECT. 12. Loss of an Eye. This section allows twenty- five dollars as a pension for total loss of sight from wounds received or disease contracted in the service, though the pen- sioner may have had only one eye when entering the service. SECT. 13. Pension by reason of Right Accrued since Rev- olution. By this section all persons pensioned by reason of services rendered since the war of the Revolution, and prior to March 4, 1861, are placed on the same footing with those pen- INDIAN AFFAIRS. 351 eioned under Acts passed since that time; and grants eight dollars per month to the widows of revolutionary soldiers and sailors now pensioned at less than that amount. SECT. 14. Limbs to Officers. By this section captains in the army and lieutenants in the navy, and those of less rank, who have lost a leg or an arm in such service, shall be entitled to receive an artificial Jimb upon the same terms as privates in the army. SECT. 15. Special Acts. By this section all pensions granted by special Acts shall be subject to be varied in amount, according to the provisions and limitations of the pension laws. SECT. 16. Repealing Clause. By this section all Acts and parts of Acts inconsistent with the foregoing provisions of this Act be and the same are hereby repealed. CHAPTER XXXVI. INDIAN AFFAIRS. When America was discovered, in 1492, the whole continent was thinly populated (except in some few regions where a considerable degree of civilization and skill in agriculture had been attained, as in Mexico and Peru) by roving tribes of natives, of unknown origin. These were called, by Europeans, Indians, from the erroneous idea of Columbus, and the men of that age at first, that there was only one continent; and that they had reached the eastern shore of Asia, when America was discovered. The whole of the region comprising our country was in the possession of a great number of these tribes. Their number, when permanent settlements began to be made, is not known, but probably amounted, in all the vast territory, to only a 352 INDIAN AFFAIRS. few million perhaps two or three. They divided the country between them, in an indefinite way, war and hunting being their chief occupations. They attempted very little cultivation of the soil. The settlements of the Indians were as indefinite and moveable as their boundaries, and they attached little value to land. Territory was acquired from them partly by force and partly by purchase. These last were usually made for a nominal sum, and Math little comprehension, on their part, of the importance and future effects of its alienation. As the settlements of Europeans extended, frequent and bar- barous wars, greatly exasperating the whites, arose as a revenge for private injuries, or in retaliation of encroachments on their hunting grounds. As these always ended, ultimately, in favor of the settlers, and the Indians were driven farther back, the country was taken possession of as the spoils of conquest. These desolating contests , and the easily-acquired vices of the whites constantly diminished their numbers. They were so inherently wild men that the conquered remnants usually withered and faded away under the process of civilization. When, after the War of the Revolution, the settlements came to be consolidated and extensive, under the rapid growth of the population, lands were reserved for these remnants ; treaties were made with them, as with independent nations; and, from their improvidence and carelessness as to the economical pres- ervation of their resources, the indemnities allowed them for the lands to which they renounced all claim were paid to them in installments, or as annuities, by the government. This sys- tem has been continued to the present day, and has occasioned the establishment of the INDIAN BUREAU OF THE INTERIOR DEPARTMENT. It is presided over by the Commissioner of Indian Affairs,, appointed in the usual way by the President and Senate. Numerous Superintendents and agents are appointed to reside near the different locations assigned to the Indians, to conduct INDIAN AFFAIRS. .'J53 the business under his supervision, and receive and distribute the goods and moneys given by treaty to each tribe. They give bunds for faithfulness in the employment of funds destined tor the Indians. They are appointed for four years, and report and account to the Department of the Interior. Except a few who are taxed, the Indians are not counted among our population as citizens. They have, therefore, no representative in Congress, nor, except the criminal law to some extent, are they amenable to other of our laws than such as the treaties have established. Their internal government is conducted by themselves alone, neither governor, judge, nor courts being established, as in other Territorial jurisdictions. They are difficult to control, however, not recognizing, as civilized people do (except a small nnmber who are far on the way to civilization), the obligations of treaties and pledges. Dishonest and self-seeking men often take advantage of their ignorance and their love of ardent spirits and trinkets, to cheat and injure them. To remedy this as far as possible, white men are not permitted to reside on their reservations unless by special license of the government. Nor can they alienate their lands to white men not officials acting under government supervision. All pains are required to be taken by the government officers to promote their interests, and schools and missions are encour- aged among them, and agricultural implements are furnished so far as they can be persuaded to use them. In short, it is the benevolent and enlightened aim of the government to act as the guardians of their true interests, to encourage mental and moral culture among them, and assist them toward the acquisition of the arts and comforts of civilized life. It will easily be comprehended that many difficulties oppose themselves to this effort with a race whose instincts are so wild and fierce, and who adopt our vices so much more readily than our virtues, and are so easily influenced by bad and designing men. Still, progress is made, as will be seen in the case of 23 354 INDIAN AFFAIRS. THE INDIAN TERRITORY. It is situated south of the 37th degree of north latitude, and west of the States of Arkansas and Missouri. Texas bounds it on the south. It has 71,127 square miles, and is about a third larger than the State of Illinois. It is very fertile, for the most part, and a beautiful region. It is inhabited, in great part, by Indians who have been transferred from the regions east of the Mississippi, mostly Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, and Seminoles. Some of these were removed by persuasion, and some by force, from their former homes, where they were disturbed by proximity to the rapidly increasing white population. Each tribe has its own section of the Territory. Here they practice their own customs unmolested, and conduct their own government. Many of them, especially the Cherokees, are intelligent and industrious. They have churches and schools and factories, highly-cultivated farms and good buildings. Improvement is so marked among them that it is not improb- able that they may at some future time become a State in our Union. At present they are amenable to the Circuit and District Courts of the adjoining States when certain crimes are committed by them against the whites in those States, but our courts have no authority over their relations to one another. The population of the Territory is 70,000. The entire Indian population of the country is over 300,000. They are scattered over the States and Territories between the Missouri river and the Pacific coast, and those outside the Indian Terri- tory are often at war with each other and with our citizens, requiring many troops and a large expense to keep them in subjection. It is probable that, as a race, they will soon become extinct, except, perhaps, those in the Indian Territory. They are uneasy, and dangerous neighbors to the whites in those sparsely-settled regions. The amount appropriated to the Indians by Congress for the year 1873-4, was $5,513,937, which was exclusive of their annuities, or funds invested for them, of which they receive the annual interest. CHAPTER XXXVII. CENSUS BUREAU. 1. A census is an enumeration, or counting, of the inhat itaiits of any country. History informs us that this was done in very ancient times. One of the books in the Old Testa- ment (Numbers) was named from the circumstance that it contains an account of the numbering of the Israelites, by the order of Moses. That numbering was a census of the peo- ple composing the Jewish nation. It not only gives us the total number of the people, but that of each tribe; much after our own mode of doing the same thing. We take ours by States, and we find the total of the whole nation. In ancient times a census seems to have been taken more for military than for any other purpose. This is one of the objects in the present day; but in modern times many uses are made of a census. It not only shows the military power of a nation, but when taken with the distinction of sex, and age, with an account of the births, marriages, and deaths during each year, it throws much light upon a variety of interesting topics; such as the longevity, the rate of mortality, the ratio of increase, and the average duration of human life. These, and many other important facts are obtained by a census. 2. In the United States the census is the only means by which Congress determines the number of Representatives each State is entitled to have in that body. Hence the Con- stitution itself makes provision for the enumeration of the people once in ten years called a decade. The first was made in 1790, the next in 1800, and so on every tenth year. If the number of any year ends with a cipher, we know that the United States census was taken, or will be taken, in that year, whether we look backward or forward. 3. Up to the present time, according to the provisions made 350 CENSUS BUEEAU. in the Constitution, a census has been taken nine times, and under the head of recapitulation (see index) we find what it was each time. "We also find that from the first (1790), to the last (1870), the population had increased from 3,929,827, to 38,558,371. Therefore it approximates very nearly to 40,000,- 000; indicating a growth unparalleled by any nation in ancient or modern times. We will next state how this great national work is performed. The Constitution simply declares that it shall be done, but the laws specify how it shall be done, and who shall do it. The United States Marshals are the officers designated by the law as the persons who shall make the enumeration of the peo- ple in each State and Territory ; in addition to which they are also required to procure other statistical matter, as directed by Congress. 4. In order to accomplish this work, it is necessary to employ a number of assistant marshals, one of whom must visit every house in his district, and ascertain the number ot persons belonging to it, together with such statistical informa- tion as is required. This is all returned to the Marshal, and by him sent to the Department of the Interior at "Washington, where, under the direction of the Secretary of the Interior, it is made into a report, and then laid before Congress, to be used by it in apportioning to the States their quota of Representa- tives. This apportionment is actually made in the Department of the Interior, and then laid before Congress for its examina- tion and approval. The Marshal appoints and commissions his deputies, who must be sworn to perform the duties assigned to them, to the best of their ability. 5. In the department of the Interior there is a board whose duty it is to superintend the work of taking the census. It prepares, prints, and sends to every Marshal the blanks to be used by him and his assistants; and when they have made returns of their work, the board arranges them preparatory to laying them before Congress. After this they are published, and make a valuable work of reference; for they contain a CENSUS BUREAU. 357 vast amount of statistical information such as the number of acres of land under cultivation, the number of bushels of grain of every kind produced in the year; the number of horses, cattle, sheep, swine, &c., raised; the number of manu- facturing establishments, and the amount of their productions; the number of churches, schools, colleges, &c.; the number of deaf, blind, idiotic, and insane persons; together with much other matter, quite too voluminous for insertion here. 6. All this is done by order of Congress, and of course paid for from the United States Treasury. Elsewhere in this book (see index) we give a tabular state- ment of the population of each State and Territory, at each time the census has been taken by the United States. It shows the increase at each decade from 1790, the first time it was taken, to 1870 the last at this date. This table also shows the increase in the number of States, from the original 13 to the present 38, besides the Territories, which alone are larger than the original 13 States, and nearly as numerous. CHAPTER XXXVIII. THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Was established by an act of Congress, May, 1862. It is not, like the other Departments of the Executive Branch of the government, superintended by a Secretary with a seat in the President's Cabinet. Its Head is called The Commiseoner of Agriculture, and he is appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, like other civil offi- cers. The creation of this office is a recognition of the extreme importance of this industry to the prosperity and welfare of the nation. Our country is eminently an agricultural one; and the interests confided to this department are those of a class of the people more numerous than any other, and on the 358 THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. success of whose labors depends the well being of all. In proportion as this industry attains a high state of development, and is generally prosperous, do the professional, mercantile, and manufacturing classes increase in wealth. It is the found- ation on which they build. The great fertility of our country, and the breadth of area adapted to all the most useful products of the world, and the need of instruction, suggestion, and aid in properly adapting agricultural products to the soil and climate, by the large number of settlers in regions with whose peculiarities they are but partially familiar, give a special interest and value to this new Department. Its duty is to watch over this large field and make such suggestions to Congress in regard to legislation as shall seem called for; to disseminate such practical information among the people as it may be able to acquire by intelligent observa- tion in this and other countries; and the testing and dissemina- tion of rare and untried plants of other countries that promise to increase our agricultural resources. For experiments in the latter case, a propagating garden and grounds are provided, and the most skillful and intelligent officers, bringing all the lights of science to their assistance r devote themselves to the study of these plants, as to the soil and climate best adapted to them, the proper modes of culti- vation, and to acclimating them to our country. This branch of the department sends, to suitable sections of the country, such plants and seeds as it has reason to believe it will be profitable to introduce and cultivate. This usage, continued for many years, will, ho doubt, contribute very greatly to the variety of useful products which add to our comfort and wealth. The department keeps skillful chemists and naturalists con- stantly employed to gather information of various kinds, that may be useful to agriculturists. The character of soils, the influences of climate, the best system of farming, the diseases of domestic animals, and plants and their cure, the best THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 359 mode of preserving crops from the ravages of insects, and many others are the subjects of careful investigation, and the information thus gained is freely communicated to the country at large. There is a statistical division, in which facts are gathered from the whole country and published monthly. Phis serves many useful purposes. It also collects data, for purposes of comparison and instruction, from foreign countries. Whatever facts it may be most useful for farmers to know, whatever crops it may be most profitable for them to produce, and whatever improvements in the modes of agriculture and in agricultural implements are discovered to be possible are communicated to all without cost. Agricultural education receives much attention from the department, and all the facts and influences that can aid in making farmers thoroughly intelligent in their own pursuit, are gathered and employed with effect. Agriculture cannot but improve immeasureably under this fostering care, and this Department is likely to become one of the most important and useful in the government. It is yet in its infancy, but has already accomplished much good. The commissioner reports annually to Congress. He has power to appoint such officers as Congress considers necessary. In 1868 a line building for this department was completed at a cost of $140,000. In contains a chemical laboratory with all the necessary apparatus and materials, and a museum, or col- lection of specimens, of value in the study of agriculture, store-rooms for seeds to be sent throughout the country, &c. The beauty of the building and grounds adds a very attractive feature to the National Capital, and the Institution itself is a favorable comment on the wise and provident care bestowed by the government on the leading interest of the people. Any person may obtain the Annual Report of the Depart- ment, free by mail, by writing for it to the Commissioner of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Any one desiring any kind of seed raised in the United States may obtain a small quan- tity in the same way without cost. CHAPTER XXXIX. POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT AND POST MASTER GENERAL. This department of the government, whose head, the Post Master General, is a member of the Cabinet, exists by virtue of Section 8, Article 1st of the Constitution, where are these words: "Congress shall have the power to establish post offices and post roads." From small beginnings, in early colonial times, and contin- ued through the Revolutionary War, it has grown to be one of the largest and most important departments of the govern- ment. The security, speed, and cheapness of intercourse between all parts of the country and with foreign lands, is of the utmost importance to business and commerce; it encourges social intercourse and intimate relations among the people, and is of no small consequence in developing their intelligence and promoting their improvement. By successive laws of Congress it has been perfected to its present state of excellence. The duties connected with it are performed by many thousands of persons in every part of the country. They are of average intelligence and education, and must be trained to their work almost without personal instruc- tion or supervision, yet so complete is the organization, and so pervading the influence of the central power, the regulations so simple, clear, and precise, that mistakes are extremely rare, considering the great number of transactions, and instances of misconduct in office are probably less frequent than in any other branch of the public service, though employing persons well trained and under close surveillance. The Post Master General is appointed by the President and the Senate for four years. His office is in the General Post Office at Washington. He has three assistants, appointed in POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT. 361 the same manner as himself. He has a seal of his office, an impression from which must be affixed to the commission of every postmaster in the United States ; and also to all copies of papers and documents that may be wanted from his office. Tliis only can give them official value of the same importance as the original papers. He must give bonds as security for faithfulness in office, and take the usual official oath. He has the entire direction and management of the Depart- ment, and the appointment of all local postmasters (in law considered as his deputies), whose salary is less than $1,000 per annum. All others are appointed by the President and Senate. That its business may be more conveniently arranged and prepared for his final action, it is distributed among several bureaus, or minor departments as follows: THE APPOINTMENT OFFICE Includes the divisions of appointments; bonds given by postmasters, agents, and clerks; salaries and allowances, where they are not provided for by law; free delivery in cities; and the agency of blanks used in the extensive business and reports of the department. This office is in charge of the First Assistant Post Master General. THE CONTRACT OFFICE. This includes the divisions of contracts for carrying the mails, by persons or companies; the inspection of the entire process of carrying the mails, to secure their safe, regular, and prompt delivery; mail equipment, or the supply of all the material and conveniences for transportation of the mail, fur- nished by the department; special agents, and mail depreda- tions, which has the care of all violations of law and the con- duct and accounts of all agents employed for the suppression and prevention of abuses; and the Topographical, which has charge of maps and diagrams of mail routes, and geographical information, required for the various branches of the service. Jt is in charge of the Second Assistant Post Master General. 362 POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT. THE FINANCE OFFICE. This is separated into the divisions of Finance, which charge of the entire cash receipts, transfers, and disbursements of the department; of postage stamps and stamped envelopes, newspaper wrappers, and postal cards ; registered letters and seals; and the examination of Dead Letters and their return to the writers. Dead letters are those not taken out of the office to which they were sent. After being advertised three weeks in some newspaper near the office where they were sent, they are returned to the General Post Office, where they are examined; and if they contain money or valuable papers they are returned to the writers and an account of them kept at the General Post Office. The sums, so lost and taken care of, amount annually to tens of thousands of dollars. The Third Assistant Post Master General has charge of it. THE MONEY ORDER OFFICE. The Money Orders System furnishes very convenient and safe banking facilities for the transfer of money in small sums. It diminishes as much as possible the exposure of money to loss by theft or otherwise, through the plan of depositing in one office, and sending a certificate of such deposit which is good for the money at another office. Immense sums are so exchanged and business facilitated without any actual passage of the money from one point to the other. When it is neces- sary to preserve the balances it is done by, and at the risk of,, the department. No more than fifty dollars can be sent in one order, nor more than three orders to the same person in one day. The number of these offices is more than 1,400. The rates of commission on money orders are, On orders not exceeding $15 10 cents. $15, " " " $30 15 cents. " $30, " " $40 20 cents. " $40, " " " $50 25 cents. No fractions of cents allowed in orders. POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT. When a money order has been lost or destroyed, a duplicate can be got, by the person who bought the order or by the per- son it was bought for, by applying either at the office where the order was bought or at the office where it should be paid. The Money Order Department is in charge of the Superintendent of the Money Order System. An international money order system, between the United States and Switzerland, went into operation September 1st, 1869, whereby the exchange of Postal orders between the two countries is effected through the agency of two Post Offices termed International Exchange Offices. The Office of New York City being set apart for the United States, and that of Basle, in Switzerland, for that country. The amount drawn for cannot exceed liftv dollars in one order, three orders only can be obtained by the same person in one day. The system workfc*aatisfactorily, and will no doubt be extended to Great Britain, and perhaps other European Nations at an early day. It has the care of all foreign postal arrangements and the supervision of the ocean mail service. It is presided over by a Superintendent. THE AUDITOR OF THE TREASURY FOR THE POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT. This is a bureau of the Treasury Department, which, for convenience, is located in the General Post Office. To this officer is assigned the duty of auditing the accounts of the Post Office Department, all communications relating to the accounts of postmasters, mail contractors, and other agents of the Department, are addressed to this officer. The head of so large and important a department of the public service is properly a chief officer of the government and has a seat in the cabinet. 364 rosT OFFICE DEPARTMENT. NUMBER OF POST OFFICES AND MILES OF POST ROADS IN THE U. S In 1790 there were but 75 post offices, and 1,875 in. of post-roads, 1800 " 903 " 20,817 " 1810 " 2,300 " 36,400 " 1820 " 4,500 " 72,492 " 1830 " 8,450 " 115,176 1840 " 13,463 " 155,739 " 1850 " 18,417 " 178,672 " 1860 " 28,498 " 240,594 1870 " 28,492 " 231,232 " POSTMASTERS GENERAL. Samuel Osgood, Mass., Sept. 26, 1789. Timothy Pickering, Mass., Aug. 12, 179L Joseph Habersham, Ga., Feb. 25, 1795. Gideon Granger, Ct., Nov. 28, 1801. Eeturn J. Meigs, O., March 17, 1814. John McLean, O., June 25, 1823. William T. Barry, Ky., March 9, 1829. Amos Kendall, Ky., March 1, 1835. John M. Niles, Ct, May 18, 1840. Francis Granger, K Y., March 6, 1841. Charles A. Wickliff, Ky., Sept. 13, 1841. Cave Johnson, Tenn., March 5, 1845. Jacob Collamer, Yt., March 7, 1849. Nathan K. Hall, N. Y., July 20, 1850. S. D. Hubbard, Ct., Aug. 31, 1852. James Campbell, Pa., March 5, 1853. Aaron Y. Brown, Tenn., March 6, 1857. Joseph Holt, Ky., March 14*, 1859. Horatio King, Jan. 1, 1861. Montgomery Blair, Md., March 7, 1861, William Dennison, O.. Oct. 1, 1864. Alexander W. Randall. Wis., July 15, 1866. J. A. J. Creswell, Md., March 5, 1869. Marshall Jewell, July, 1874. Jas. X. Tyner. Tml, 1S76. D. M. Key, Tenn., 1877. CHAPTER XL. RATES OF POSTAGE IN THE UNITED STATES ON each letter weighing not more than one-half ounce three cents, and for each additional half-ounce or fraction thereof, three cents. All packages containing matter not in itself chargeable with letter postage, but in which is enclosed or concealed any letter, memorandum, or other thing chargeable with letter postage, or upon which is any writing or memorandum ; and manuscripts for publication in newspapers, magazines, or periodicals three cents for each half-ounce or fraction thereof. Weight of packages limited to four pounds. On local or drop letters, at offices where free delivery by car- riers is established, two cents for each half ounce or fraction thereof; and where free delivery has not been established, one cent for each half ounce or fraction thereof. On seeds, cuttings, bulbs, roots and scions, one cent for each ounce or fraction thereof. Weight of packages limited to four pounds. On pamphlets and occasional publications, all transient printed matter, unsealed circulars, book manuscripts, proof sheets, corrected proof sheets, maps, prints, engravings, etc.,, one cent for each two ounces or fraction thereof. Weight of packages limited to four pounds. On samples of ores, metals, minerals, and merchandise. >ne cent for each ounce or fraction thereof. Weight of packages limited to four pounds. On books, one cent for each two ounces or fraction thereof,. Weight of packages limited to four pounds. 366 KATES OF POSTAGE IN THE UNITED STATES. All domestic matter, including newspapers, magazines and periodicals sent to actual subscribers from a known office of publication, must be prepaid by postage stamps affixed thereto. Newspapers issued weekly, or oftener, and sent from pub- lishers or news agents, to subscribers or dealers, two cents per pound; and if not issued as often as weekly, three cents per pound. Papers sent miscellaneously, and not regularly, postage the same as on books. The franking privilege has been restored to the following extent, viz.: MAIL MATTERS THAT MAT BE SENT FREE. 1. All public documents printed by order of Congress. 2. Seeds transmitted by the Commissioner of Agriculture, or by any member of Congress, procured from that depart- ment. 3. Letters and packages relating exclusively to tne Govern- ment of the United States, mailed only from an Executive Department, or a bureau or office of the same, in specially printed envelopes. 4. The President and Vice-President of the United States and members of Congress may frank written and printed communications, not exceeding two ounces in weight. 5. All newspapers sent to subscribers within the county where printed. RATKS OK FOKKK.N POOTAOE. 3o7 " Prepayment optional In cue of country marked with a star, em >race>< in the Poital Union Treaty of 1874. When 11 it prepaid, double rates are collected. DESTINATION. Let- ters N.-\\- papers DESTINATION. Let ten N.-VV-. papers Africa, British Possessions on \V. t oast, by British Mail .. Ifrica, Spanish Possessions on Northern Coast CU. 15 *5 27 5 *5 *5 *5 3 5 17 10 3 27 17 10 3 5 15 13 no 17 10 5 5 13 *5 27 20 5 *5 5 5 5 *5 10 *10 *5 *5 15 5 *5 5 *5 .13 *10 10 13 5 1 5 10 13 10 5 5 CU. 4 2 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 1 4 3 4 1 2 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 4 2 4 2 2 > 2 2 2 4 4 2 2 4 2 2 1 2 4 4 2 4 i 1 2 4 4 4 2 2 Jamaica CU *5 *10 *10 15 5 5 *5 *10 10 3 *10 *5 3 *10 3 6 5 12 12 5 *5 3 5 27 17 5 10 5 8 12 5 5 10 6 5 5 5 10 15 5 5 15 8 5 5 7 7 5 13 28 1 13 5 13 5 10 15 Cta. 8 4 4 4 2 2 2 4 2 1 4 2 2 4 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 4 4 2 4 2 1 2 2 9 2 1 9 S 2 2 4 2 2 4 2 4 2 3 3 1 4 4 2 4 1 4 2 4 4 Japan, dir., via San Francisco Java, British Mail, via South ampton Argentine Confederation Australia, except New South Wales and liueensland, U. S Mail Liberia, British Mail, ria South ampton Luxembourg Madeira .... . Au.-tria Malta Azores. ...... Martinique, British Mail, via St. Thomas ...... Balearic Islet! ......... Belgium ... Bermuda.. . . ' overland Bolivia, British Mail, r'ii Aspinwall Morocco, British Mail " Western Coast Spanish Postal Stations Nassau. N. P. Brazil, British Mail British Columbia Buenos Avres.... Burinah, German Mail Netherlands ....... New Brunswick British Mail, ria Brin disi ;New Foundland ... New Grenada, direct Mall New South Wales, direct Mai New Zealand, direct Mail .... Nicaragua, direct Canada ... Canary Islands Cape of Good Hope Oarthagenf., New Grenada Ceylon. British Mail, via South Norway Nova Scotia anipton Panama, direct Mail Chili, British Mail (Paraguay, U. 8. Packet .... China, ria San Francisco Costa Kica, direct Mail, via Aspinwall Peru, British Mail Poland Porto Rico, British Mail, rit St. Thomas . .... Caba. direct Mall Curacoa. British Mail, via St. Thomas Portugal .. . ....... Prince Edward Island Denmark Queensland .... E Indies, tia Southampton... Kciiador ].'< "ini.'inia . ..... Russia ...... . . .. Egypt... England Sandwich Islands, direct Mail via San Francisco. ... .. Faroe Islands Fiji Islands, direct, via San Francisco ... Scotland ... . ... .... Servia . .... .. Finland Shaiii'hai France ...... .... Slam, dir. Iroin San Francisco Sierra Leone, British Mall, ria Southampton ..... . French Colonies Gambia, British Mail Germany Spain Gibraltar, British Mail ... St. Domingo, direct Steamer.. St. Helena, British Mail Gold roast, British Mail . . Grand Duchy of Finland Sweden ........... ...... Great Britain Greece Tangier*, ria Spain ...... Greenland Tripoli Italian Mail .. .. Gn-\ town, British Mail .. Tunis Italian Mail Guud.ilonpr. " " Turkey - Guatemala, direct Mail ... Turk's Island, British Mail.... Guiana, British, French and Dutch Havana Venezuela, British Mail, via St Thomas .... Hawaiian Kingdom, direct Mail Havti, by direct steamer Victoria Hong Kong, Canton, Swatow, Amoy and Foo Chow, via San Francisco West Indies. British Mall, ria 81 Thomas .. West Indies, direct Mail Iceland " French Colonies, ria France India, British Mail Ir. J i;, LETTERS. 369 transmission and delivery of money and valuables is almost certain. Only letters or other mail matter on which letter rates of postage are fully prepaid can be registered. Each postmaster is furnished with all the proper blanks, including the package envelopes and seals. The latter is a large whitish urown envelope, longer and broader than an ordinary official size envelope, and *' Registered Letter " printed in large red IrTtrrs across the face. The seal is similar to a postage stamp, only larger, and is placed over the lap after the envelope is >ealed, and then cancelled. When a letter is presented for registration at any post office, the postmaster must require that the name and post office address of the writer thereof be endorsed on its face; he must also see that the postage, as well as the fee for registering, is fully prepaid by stamps affixed to such letter; he will then fill out a receipt, entering thereon the number of the letter, the date and name of his office, the name and address of the writer, and the address of the letter, sign and deliver it to the person presenting the letter. The postmaster then makes out his "' registered letter bill " and " return registered letter bill " each of which con- tains a full description of the letter consisting of address and number. The registered letter bill is then placed in the package envelope with the letter. The package is then sealed up and the name of the post office for which it is des- tined, and the number and stamp of the mailing office are plainly marked upon the package. It is then ready for deliv- ery to the route agent or postal clerk upon whose route it properly belongs, who is required to give a receipt for it, and also to keep a complete record of it, as are all officers of thf Department who handle registered matter in transit. He must also take a receipt from the officer to whom he next delivers the package. The return registered letter bill is sent in an ordinary envelope in the regular mail to the office of final destination, which will, by reason of the fact that no registered letters are sent in through mails, and only in charge of postal clerks upon day trains, nearly always reach the office in ad vaiioe 370 REGISTERED AND ^EAD LETTERS. of the registered letter; and the postmaster, then knowing that such letter is on the way, is on the lookout for it, and if it comes in due time signs the receipt and returns it to the mailing office. All this is done for a fee of only ten cents in addition to the regular postage. If a registered letter should not reach its destination in a reasonable length of time after the receipt of the return bill, the post master will notify the post master at the mailing office of the non-receipj; of the letter. It then becomes the duty of the last mentioned officer to inform , special agent of the fact, who rill make out what is called a " tracer," which is a com- plete description of the letter, with blank space for each per- son who handled the original letter to state, from his records and receipts, exactly what disposition he made of it and whose receipt he holds; he then passes it along to the next. Thus by this complete chain of records and receipts, though it may reach from the Atlantic to the Pacific, a registered letter may be readily traced to its final destination, or until the records cease. If a break should occur in the chain and the loss be fastened upon any post office or mail agent, the case is rigidly " investigated " by the proper officer, and if it appears that the lo3S occurs through carelessness, the loser is made to pay the value of the lost letter, and receive a severe reprimand, and if it should occur again is very apt to be dismissed the service. If the special detective is convinced that the missing letter is stolen, he then takes a different course and commences his system of " decoys," etc., to catch the thief, and is almost always successful, as the man who robs the mails always becomes careless, and grows bolder with each repetition of the offense. . The amount and extent of the registered letter business may be judged when it is stated that during the month of January. 1874, at the post office in New York over sixty thousand reg istered letters were received, nearly thirty thousand of which were for delivery in the city, and the rest for other places, New York being a distributing office. BEOISTKKKI) AND DKAD LETTKR8. 371 1>KAD l.KITKKS. About all that people know or understand of the workings of the Dead Letter bureau of the Post Office Department is that if a letter is not delivered in due time it is sent to the Dead Letter Office, and there opened and returned to the writer. When, each year, they see the report of the Postmaster General, the amount of money and number of letters that are returned to the senders seems enormous, but when it is con- sidered that millions of letters and thousands of dollars are carried and safely delivered correctly each year in the United States, the number that fails of delivery, by contrast, does not seem so great. During the month of November, 1873, nearly ten millions of letters were received and dispatched in New York City. Every effort is always made to return money or any arti- cles of value which may be found in dead letters. It is required that everything valuable shall be registered free when returned to the owners; but if for any reason it cannot be delivered to the rightful owner, it is held in the Department subject to the owners control for four years, and after that time it is conveyed to the Treasury, and goes towards decreasing the annual deficit in the Post Office Department. All letters which are properly stamped and addressed, and go to their des- tination, but are not delivered at the end of one week, by reason of the person addressed not being found, are advertised, either by publishing once in a daily or weekly paper, or by posting the list in a conspicuous place in the office. At the end of four weeks all then undelivered are sent to the dead letter office. The matter of advertising in newspapers is left to the discre- tion of the Postmaster General, and it is but few of the larger offices that are allowed to do so. The compensation is fixed by law at one cent for each letter, which is to be paid by the per son receiving the letter; but by reason of the fact that by far the larger portion of those advertised are not delivered, the expense is so great that but few offices can be allowed to adver- tise. All letters which are dropped into an office without 372 ATTORNEY GENERAL. stamps or only part paid, or the address is not readable, are sent at once to the Dead Letter office, except in some few offices where a bulletin board is provided for the purpose of displaying to the public letters of this character. When a letter which is wholly or in part unpaid, and upon which the address is legible, is found to contain a valuable enclosure a printed circular is sent to the party addressed requesting that the requisite amount of postage be forwarded in stamps and the letter will be forwarded to its proper address. A great many articles which are of value only to the send- ers or the persons for whom they are intended, such as little baby shoes, stockings, photographs, etc., etc., find their way to the Dead Letter office. Special effort is always made to deliver things of this character. Perhaps the little shoe or stocking may have belonged to some little one whose feet are still for- ever, and is being sent to a grandmother or some other near relation as a memento of the little one that is gone. Such articles as this may be of no possible value to any one but the owners, but the post office authorities make as great an effort, even greater to deliver this class of articles, than they do money or jewels. At the present time in the Dead Letter office are great stores of small articles of very little or DO value to any but the owners, waiting to be called for. CHAPTEK XLII. ATTOKNEY GENEKAL. It will be readily perceived that, in a country developing so rapidly as ours, producing, thereby, an almost unbroken series of new situations, requiring a cautious application of old laws and the constant enactment of new ones, and so, a danger of confusion of legislative rules, that the President and his ATTORNEY GKNKRAL. 373 Cabinet would need a legal adviser of eminent ability, and of extensive acquirements in legal affairs, to give instruction and counsel on various lines of action contemplated by the execu- tive branch of the government, and of the lawful course to be taken in the numerous particular cases constantly coming up for determination. Besides, various suits require to be insti- tuted or defended in the courts, by the government, and some officer is needed to prosecute or defend them in its name and interest. To answer these requirements, the office of Attorney Gen- eral was ?~?ted oy the first Congress in 1 789. He is a member of the Cabinet, is nominated by the President, and confirmed by the Senate, and is removable at the pleasure of the Presi- dent. He has an assistant and various clerks to aid him in the discharge of his responsible duties. By an act passed in 1861 he is made Superintendent of all the Attorneys and Marshals in all 'the Judicial Districts of the United States. His office is at the seat of Government. The following is a complete list of the Attorneys General: ATTORNEYS GENERAL. i" Edmund Kandolph, Va., Sept. 26, 1789. William Bradford, Pa., June 27, 1794. Charles Lee, Va., Dec. 10, 1795. T. Parsons, Mass., Feb. 20, 1800. Levi Lincoln, Mass., March 5, 1801. Eobert Smith, Md., March 2, 1805. John Breckinridge, Ky., Dec. 1806. Ctesar A. Rodney, Del., Jan. 20, 1807. William Pinckney, Md., Dec. 11, 1811. Richard Rush, Pa., Feb. 10, 1814. William Wirt, Md., Dec. 16, 1817. John McPherson Berrien, Ga., Mar. 9, 1829. Roger B. Taney, Md., July 20, 1831. Benjamin F. Butler, N. Y., Nov. 15, 1833. Felix Grundy, Tenn., July 7, 1838. 374 PRESIDENTIAL ELECTORS. Henry D. Gilpin, Pa., Jan. 11, 1840. John J. Crittenden, Ky., Mar. 5, 1841. Hugh S. Legare, S. 0., Sept. 13, 1841. John Nelson, Md., July 1,1843. John Y. Mason, Va., Mar. 5, 1845. Nathan Clifford, Me., Oct. 16, 1846. Isaac Toucey, Ct., Jan. 21, 1848. Reverdy Johnson, Md., Mar. 7, 1849. John J. Crittenden, Ky., July 20, 1850. Caleb Gushing, Mass., Mar. 5, 1853. Jeremiah S. Black, Pa., Mar. 6, 1857. Edwin M. Stanton, Pa., Dec. 14, 1860. Edward Bates, Mo., Mar. 5, 1861. James Speed, Ky., Dec. 1864. Henry Stanberry, O., July, 1866. William M. Evarts, N. Y., 1868. Eben R. Hoar, March 5, 1869. Amos T. Akerman, Ga., July 8, 1870. George H. Williams, Oregon, 1871. Edward Pierrepont, New York, 1876. Alonzo Taft, O., 1876. C. Devens, Mass., 1877. CHAPTER XL-Ill. PRESIDENTIAL ELECTORS. An Elector, in the sense of the Constitution, is one who has been appointed to choose or elect the President of the United States. Electors have been chosen in various ways. At first they were ..often appointed by the State Legislatures, or these passed a law directing their election by the people. This has gradually disappeared, and now the people, by law of Con- gress assemble on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November preceding the close of a presidential term, and vote for the electors. The electors in each State are called its Electoral PRESIDENTIAL ELECTORS. 375 College. They meet on the first Wednesday in December fol- lowing their election, in their respective States, and vote by ballot for a President and Vice-President. These cannot both, According to the Constitution, be citizens of the same State. They count, certify, and seal these votes and send the, sealed package by a messenger, appointed for that express purpose, to the President of the United States Senate. On the second Wednesday in February following, the members of the Senate and House of Representatives assemble together, the pack- ages are opened and the votes counted in their presence, and the result is officially proclaimed. It is evident that this is now a mere form, and the President and Vice-President arc virtually determined by the people in November. It is not in harmony with the other parts of our system of government, tfhich aims at simplicity and practical usefulness, and it will probably soon be dispensed with. It was originally designed, by those who framed the Constitution, to act as a check to party spirit, and was expected to serve a very useful pur- pose. They felt the great importance attaching to the office of Chief Magistrate, on whom they had conferred so much power, and thought, by this means, to raise his election above disturbing influences. It was not expected that the candidates for those offices would come in question, in the popular elec- tions. The c&ice was designed to be left with the electors, with whom, being chosen by the people for that purpose, it was supposed they would feel safe in leaving it. It was believed that a select body of eminent men would act with more pru- dence and wisdom than the people at large. But the people felt themselves competent to judge for themselves, and have, like imperious sovereigns, imposed their choice on the Electors, so that that part of our constitutional machinery has become a dead letter. The people know their own minds better, and are more resolute in imposing their will on their representa- tives than was expected; and they have favorably disappointed the best hopes of those who believed most in their discretion. So we see that the failure of the Electoral System, planned 376 PRESIDENTIAL ELECTORS. by the Fathers of the Republic, is an honorable commentary on the ability of the people for self-government. Their success in making their own choice authoritative has led them to overlook the incongruity of the system, so that they have never resolutely required it to be abolished. Per- haps the idea that it might be useful in some important crisis of national affairs has had an influence to prevent interference with it. As its retention is attended with considerable expense, when questions of Economy come to take a leading place in public policy it is likely to be laid aside, in form, as well as in fact. The elections for President, Congressmen, Governors of the States and their Legislatures, determining the general policy of the government, and the class of men who shall be appointed to the various minor offices under its control ; those who feel a strong interest in that policy from their judgment of its effect on the welfare of the country, or their desire to promote special measures; and those who are anxious to obtain or hold office, are very warmly interested in them. They divide into parties according to their views and exert themselves to the utmost to influence the result. Most human affairs have their good and bad side, and this is not an exception. This party warmth is useful in causing discussion, examination, and thought, and sirring up the people to a careful study of their institutions and the princi- ples of government, and the effect which particular measures may have on the public welfare. Its tendency, in this direc- tion is, to make all the people statesmen a point of the high- est importance in a free government, where the People are sovereign. The disadvantage is, that it often awakens an undue degree of passion and prejudice, the parties and men who are candidates ib'* office abuse and misrepresent each other in order to destroy each others influence, when, perhaps, they are equally in earnest in seeking the good of the country. For this there is no apparent remedy, but in the intelligence and good sense of the people themselves. They must learn to be HISTORY OF PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS. 377 careful and candid in their judgment of men and measures, and to examine all sides of a question before rendering a decision. All should strive toward this intelligent moderation during important ejections. CHAPTER XLIV. THE HISTORY OF PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS. The Presidents of the Continental Congress as the Legisla- tive body of the United States was called up to 1789, when the new Constituion went in effect were chosen by its members, which then consisted of only one House, in the same manner as the Speaker of the House of Representatives is chosen now; nor was his authority more extensive. He was simply the presiding officer of a legislative body; and one that had by no means the effective authority of our present Congress, although no body in the world ever more deserved the gratitude and reverence of all time; for it founded and gave direction and character to a great nation it may be, the greatest the world will ever know. These Presidents had little, except the name, in common with the Presidents of the United States, as the Constitution made them. The Presidents were now to be appointed by the people, and become the depositaries of the Power of the Nation in Action. It was fit that, in a government deriving all its authority frc^n the People, as the source of power, its Special Agent, its acting Representative, should be chosen by them. In the summer of 1788 three-fourths of the States had ratified the Constitution, and it became authoritative as the Fundamental Law of the country. The Continental Congress, therefore, closed its own career by ordering elections for the 378 HISTORY OF PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS. new Congress, and for the electors who were to appoint the first President. It directed that these elections should take place on the first Wednesday in January, 1789 ; that the electors should meet on the first Wednesday in February following, to discharge the duty to which they were appointed; and that, on the first Wednesday in March, (which, in that year, was the fourth,} Congress should meet, the President be inaugurated, and the new government be put in operation. This brought all these important events close upon the heels of one another; and on the 4th of March there was not a quorum of the Members of Congress assembled. The States lay far apart, and the roads were bad in those times, and at tha: season of the year. Though a bare quorum had gathered by the last of March, and many measures of pressing necessity were attended to, a full representation was waited for before the President elect was notified that they were ready for his inauguration ; and that event took place only on the 30th of April. The presidential term, however, was considered to have legally commenced at the time previously ordered, and closed on that day of the year and month; so that it became the first day of our political year. It commences and closes the Presi- dent's term of office and ends the regular session of Congress FIRST ELECTION, 1789. There were but 69 electors, and the choice of George Wash- ington for President, and John Adams for Vice- President, was unanimous. He had declared, when resigning his commission as commander-in-chiefj that he took leave " of all the employ- ments of public life," and only the earnest solicitations of the leading public men of the time, and theM* opinion that he alone could successfully inaugurate the new government, decided him to leave his cherished retirement. Washington's ambition was known to be free from spot or stain of self seek- ing, and his moderation and judgment were trusted in as the sheet anchor of a new government which many feared^ would become too strong for the liberties of the people. They HISTORY OF PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS. 379 drea'led an abuse of power; but they had no fear of such abuse while wielded by Washington. There was a solid foun- dation to Washington's fame, in his character. The presidential electors were mainly chosen by the State legislatures during the times immediately following the adop- tion of the Constitution. That instrument did not decide how * they should be chosen, but left it to the discretion of the State governments. In some States conventions chose them, and the practice was various; but after a time it proved to be more satisfactory to refer the choice directly to the people, and very soon the people themselves practically selected the President, the electors being pledged to the choice of the candidate favored by their constituents, so that their significance was lost. It is a proof of the popular character of our government. The system of electors indicated a fear of the people; a want of confidence in their judgment and self control. The elect- ors, it was supposed, would be wiser, less' accessible to passion and caprice than those who elected them. The people set them quietly aside, and proceeded to do their own work them- selves, using the electors only to register their decision. Public men have seldom ventured to oppose the clearly formed and definite purposes of the people. TIIK SECOND ELECTION, 1792. Washington was again unanimously elected. He desired to lay down the burdens of office; but so many perplexing questions and disturbing influences threatened the stability of the government that he could not be spared. His name and character were a rock of strength. John Adams was re-elected Vice-President. Only 11 States had voted at the first election; North Carolina and Rhode Island not having then ratified the ( 'institution. They had now done so, and Vermont and Ken- tucky had been admitted, so that there were 15 States voting at this election. There were 132 electors. Washington declined another election absolutely, and the government had proved so suitable as to be fairly settled in the confidence of the people. 380 HISTORY OF PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS. THE THIRD ELECTION, 1796. Four persons were voted for at this election. John Adams received 71 electoral votes. Thomas Jefferson " 69 " " Thomas Pinckney " 59 " " Aaron Burr " 38 " " As, by the Constitutional provision regarding electors, the person having the largest number of votes became President, and the one who had the next in number became Vice-Presi- dent, Adams was now President, and Jefferson Vice-Presi- dent. Tennessee had now been admitted into the Union, and there were 16 States voting. Conflicting views on foreign policy, and vexing questions of internal administration began to exert a strong influence, and party spirit, for the next twenty years, was very bitter. Mr. Adams was a Federalist; Mr. Jefferson was an anti-Federalist. THE FOURTH ELECTION, 1800. The same candidates were again in the field. The political parties had become clearly defined. Adams and Pinckney were the Federal candidates, receiving Adams, 64, Pinckney 63, electoral votes, while Jefferson and Burr had each 73. They were of the anti-Federal, or Republican party. The election did not decide which of the two, Jefferson or Burr, should be President and Yice-President, and, by the provisions of the Constitution, the House of Representatives decided it in favor of Jefferson. Party heats were so great that it took 7 days and 36 ballots to reach this result. It was felt that there was a defect in the Constitutional provision that left it undecided, in such a case, which of the candidates was the choice of the electors for President, and it resulted in the ratification of the 12th amendment before the next election. The Federal party never regained the power of adminis- tration lost at this election, though they continued to be a strong opposition until the close of the war of 1812. But HISTORY OF PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS. 381 an opposition, to criticize and point out faults, is often more useful out of office than in; and the Republican party was obliged to adopt substantially the general features of the policy pursued by their predecessors, while they added some very important ones of their own, in their disposition to favor popular rights. THE FIFTH ELECTION, 1804. Thomas Jefferson and George Clinton were the candidates of the Republicans. Charles C. Pinckney and Rufus King of the Federalists. Jefferson was popular, and received 162 votes Clinton receiving the same. Pinckney and King received only 14 votes. The admission of Ohio, in 1802, made 17 States to vote at this election. The Federal party was much weaker than in the following election. THE SIXTH ELECTION, 1808. James Madison was the Republican candidate for Presi- dent, and Geo. Clinton for Vice-President. Pinckney and King were again candidates on the part of the Federalists. Madison received 123 electoral votes. Clinton 113 " " Pinckney and King each, 47 " " Geo. Clinton died before the end of his term. There was the same number of States voting as in the previous election, viz.: 17. THE SEVENTH ELECTION, 1812. Madison was re-elected, with Elbridge Gerry as Vice-Presi- dent. They each received 128 electoral votes. De Witt Clinton and Jared Ingersoll, the candidates of the Federal party, received, Clinton 89, Ingersoll 57, v6tes. Louis- iana having been recently admitted into the Union, there were now 18 States. War with England was formally declared this year. It had 382 F1ISTORY OF PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS. actually begun on the ocean sometime before. It was a very trying and painful presidential term, owing to the violent and injudicious opposition made to the measures of the govern- ment, and the unfortunate choice of generals for the lirst two years; yet the ultimate res'ult was highly creditable to the standing and reputation of the United States, and put an nd to the annoying and insulting interferences with our vessels arid commerce that had brought it on. It was a war waged for the honor and inviolability of our Flag, which was ever after duly respected. THE EIGHTH ELECTION, 1816. James Monroe and Daniel D. Tompkins were the candidates of the Republicans, who now began to be called Democrats. The Federalist party was now near its end. It nominated Rufus King who received 34 electoral votes, Monroe obtain- ing 183. Indiana was admitted this year in time to vote, making 19 States. This period marked an important era in the internal history, as well as foreign relations, of the country. The period of trial for the Constitution was passed, and full confi- dence began to be felt in the system it had founded. THE NINTH ELECTION, 1820. Monroe and Tompkins were re-elected, the vote being sub- stantially unanimous, for the first and last time since Wash- ington. The close of this term made the Republican rule in the administration 24 years in succession, under three Presi- dents, each once re-elected, and all citizens of Virginia. Four new States had been admitted during the previous term, viz.: Mississippi, Illinois, Alabama, and Maine, so that 23 States took part in this election. THE TENTH ELECTION, 1824. Four candidates were in the field for the presidency at this election. Missouri having been admitted since the ninth elec- HIS"i.tY <>H PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS. 383 tion there were 24 States to vote. The whole number of electors was 261; necessary to a choice, 131. The candidates and votes were as follows: Andrew Jackson 99 John Quincy Adams 84 Wm. H. Crawford 41 Henry Clay 31 By the Constitution the House of Representatives was required to select the President from the 3 candidates having the higher number of votes. They were to vote by States, and a majority of States would elect. J. Q. Adams received the vote of 13 States, and was declared elected. John C. 'Cal- houn having received 182 electoral votes for the Vice-Presi- dency, was thereby elected to that office. 18 of the States appointed the electors by popular vote and 6 appointed them by their legislatures. , THE ELEVENTH ELECTION, 1828. Andrew Jackson was elected President, and John C. Cal- houn re-elected Viee-President. John Quincy Adams and Richard Rush were also candidates for President and Vice-President, respectively. The contest was very hot and bitter. Jackson received 178, and Adams 171 electoral votes. The Popular vote was 650,028 for Jack- son to 512,158 for Adams. The number of electors was the same as in the 10th election. The most violent excitement divided the north and the south on the tariff question, which culminated during this term in the '* nullification ordinance," which Jackson met with tin' decision and vigor for which he was distinguished, ending in the submission of the nullifiers. Calhoun resigned his office as Vice-President, Dec. 28th, 1832. He was the leader of the nullifiers. THE TWELFTH ELECTION, 1832. Jackson's vigorous dealing with nullification was highly approved by the people, and he was re-elected, with Martin Van Buren as Vice-President 384 HISTORY OF PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS. Henry Clay was the candidate of the Whig party for Presi- dent, and John Sergeant for Yice-President. Jackson received 682,502 popular, and 219 electoral votes. Clay " 550,189 " " 49 " " Jackson's majority 132,313 170 Van Buren received 189 electoral votes for Yice-President. Twenty-four States voted at this election. THE THIRTEENTH ELECTION, 1836. Van Buren was run, by the Democrats, for the Presidency,, and Richard M. Johnson for the Vice-Presidency, against Wm. H. Harrison, Hugh L. White, Daniel Webster, and W. P. Mangum. Van Buren's vote was 762,149 popular, and 170 electoral. Harrison and the others united was 736,736 popu- lar, and 124 electoral. The whole number of electors being 294, the number necessary to a choice was 148. Johnson failed by one electoral vote to be elected to the Vice-Presidency, and the case went to the Senate for decision, as directed by the Constitution. The remaining electoral votes for Vice-Presi- dent being divided between 3 candidates, Johnson was appointed by the Senate. Michigan and Arkansas having been admitted this year took part in the election, making 26 States. THE FOURTEENTH ELECTION, 1840. The Whig party this year concentrated on Wm, H. Harri- son for President, and John Tyler for Vice-President. The Democrats opposed them with Van Buren and Johnson again. The country had been passing through a financial crisis of extreme severity during the thirteenth presidential term, and this election, involving the decision of a financial policy, was very exciting. Harrison was an Ohio farmer, and, the Democrats said, " lived in a log cabin and drank hard cider." The Whigs took the hint, built log cabins to hold their campaign gatherings in, drank much hard cider, and sung stirring political songs. HISTORY OF PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS. 385 Harrison's popular vote was 1,274,783 his electoral vote 234 VanBuren's " " " 1,128,702 " " 60 Majority, 46,081 174 Tyler's vote as Vice-President was the same as Harrison's. Harrison died on the 4th of April, one month after his inauguration, and John Tyler succeeded to the Presidency. His term was made remarkable by his disagreement with the meas- ures of Congress, on financial questions. This was the first time a Vice-President had been called on to serve as a substitute for the President. There were 26 States taking part in this election. THE FIFTEENTH ELECTION, 1844. The slavery question entered into this election as a leading point. The Republic of Texas asked admission into the Union. As it would be certain to be a slave State, and many of the people objected to extending that institution while others favored it, the parties took it up; the Democrats favoring the admission, the Whigs opposing. James K. Polk was the candidate for President, and Geo. M. Dallas for Vice-President, run by the Democrats. The Whigs opposed against them Henry Clay and Theodore Frelinghuysen. The vote for Polk and Dallas was 1,335,834, electoral vote 170 " Clay and Frelinghuysen 1,297,033, " " 105 Polk and Dallas' majority, 38,801 65 This was the third time Mr. Clay had been defeated as a candidate for the Presidency, to the great regret of many, even of those who voted against him. The war with Mexico followed as a consequence of the pol* icy of the United States government, decided upon in this election. Texas had formerly been a part of Mexico, and that country considered its admission into the Union as an act of hostility to herself. 25 386 HISTORY OF PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS. SIXTEENTH ELECTION, 1848. The Whigs were successful in this election, owing to a divis- ion in the ranks of the Democratic party. The Whigs nomi- nated Gen. Zachary Taylor for President, and Millard Fill- more for Vice-President; the Democrats Lewis Cass for Presi- dent, and Wm. O. Butler for Vice-President; the Free Soil Democrats who opposed the extension of slavery Martin Van Buren for President, and Charles F. Adams for Vice^ President. The vote resulted thus : Taylor and Fillmore's popular vote 1,362,024, electoral vote 163 Cass and Butler's , " " 1,222,419, " " 127 Van Buren and Adams' " " 291,678. The third ticket secured no electoral votes. Four new States had been admitted into the Union since the 15th election, viz.: Texas, Florida. Iowa, and Wisconsin; and 30 States voted this year. Gen. Taylor died July 9th, 1850, one year, four months, and four days after his inauguration, and Mr. Fillmore filled out his term of office. THE SEVENTEENTH ELECTION, 1852. During the previous Presidential term the subject of slavery, and the strategy of politicians in favor of and against it, absorbed public attention. The repeal of the Missouri Com- promise of 1820 opened the whole question, and a trial of strength as to which side should occupy the new territory, was prepared for. The crisis of preparation had not been reached when this election occurred, and comparatively little interest was taken in it. The Democrats nominated Franklin Pierce for President, and Wm. R. King for Vice-President; the Whigs chose as their candidates Gen. Winfield Scott for President, and Wm. A. Graham for Vice-President. Pierce and King received, of popular votes 1,590,490, of electoral, 254. Scott and Graham received, of popular votes, HISTORY OF PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS. 387 1,378,589, of electoral, 42. Pierce's majority, on popular vote, 211,901, on electoral, 212. California had been admitted since the 16th election, and there were 31 States to vote in this. This was the last election in which the Whig party nomi- nated a candidate. The contest in regard to slave and free ter- ritory absorbing all the interest of the country, the parties were rearranged, those in favor of slavery, or wishing to leave that institution undisturbed, gathered to the Democratic party; while those wishing to actively oppose the extension of slavery to territory not yet occupied by it, united, under the name of the Republican party, the Whigs becoming extinct, as a party. THE EIGHTEENTH ELECTION, 1856. The Democrats nominated James -Buchanan, and John C. Breckenridge for President and Vice-President; the Republi- cans, John C. Fremont and William L. Dayton. A third party, in favor of putting only native Americans in office, voted tor Millard Fillmore and Andrew J. Donnelson. The result was the following: Popular vote for Buchanan and Breckenridge 1,803,029, electoral, 174. Popular vote for Fremont and Dayton 1,342,164, electoral, 114. Popular vote for Fillmore and Donnelson. 874,625, electoral, 8. Buchanan had only what is called a plurality popular vote; the two others united had a majority over him of 413,760 votes. A majority of electoral votes, however, was 149, and he received 174, and a majority of 52 electoral votes over the others united. Only 31 States voted at this election. Mr. Buchanan was much blamed for not taking more vigorous measures to quench cne secession movement that commenced in the last months of his administration. The contrast between his course and Jackson's in 1832 was very marked. THE NINETEENTH ELECTION, 1860. The Republican party nominated Abraham Lincoln for President, and Hannibal Hamlin for Vice-President The 388 HISTORY OF PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS. south, finding it impossible to uphold the slavery extension system against the growing Republican party, and the com- promise that had protected that system having been laid aside in 1850, must submit to the gradual extinction of slavery, or withdraw from the Union. They chose the latter, and favored the division of the Democratic party, which was still much the largest, into several parts. Three tickets of that party were run, against one in the Republican, which assured the election of Lincoln. The Northern Democrats voted mainly for Stephen A. Doug- las and H. V. Johnson; the Southern Democrats for John C. Breckenridge and Joseph Lane; and those who wished to stop the contest on the slavery question altogether, on both sides, voted for John Bell and Edward Everett. The result was as follows : The vote for Lincoln and Hamlin was 1,866,452, electoral 180 " Douglas and Johnson 1,375,157, " 12 " " Breckenridge and Lane 847,953, " 72 " u Bell and Everett 590,631, " 39 The three divisions of the Democrats together had a popu- lar majority of 947,289 over the Republicans, but the latter had a majority of 57 electoral votes over all the others united. Two new States had been admitted since the eighteenth elec- tion, Minnesota and Oregon, and there were 33 States voting. The census of.1860 gave the population as 31,148,048. All the votes cast at this election amounted to 4,680,193, the largest number by more than 500,000 that had ever been known. The Southern States seceded within a few months, and the CiviJ War began. It was remarkable as the most gigantic war of its kind, perhaps of any kind, known in history; and for the obstinate bravery and resolution displayed on both sides. It continued during this entire presidential term. THE TWENTIETH ELECTION, 1864. The election this year was confined to the States that had remained loyal to the Constitution and the Union. Eleven States had seceded. HISTORY OF PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS. 339 The Kepublicans re-nominated Lincoln for President, with Andrew Johnson for Vice-President. The Democratic party nominated Gen. Geo. B. McClellan for President, and Geo. H. Pendleton for Vice-President. The result was as follows: The popular vote for Lincoln and Johnson was 2,216,127 " " " McClellan and Pendleton 1,808,725 Lincoln's popular majority 407,402 Electoral votes for Lincoln 212 " " " McClellan 21 Lincoln's electoral majority 191 The total number of popular votes was 4,024,852. Lincoln's vote at this election was the largest that had ever been cast for one candidate, though there were less votes cast by all parties by 600,000 than in the nineteenth election. Two new States, Kansas and West Virginia, had been admitted since the pre- vious election, which with the 11 in rebellion omitted, left 24 States voting. The civil war closed with the submission of the seceded States to the general government soon after Lincoln's re-inaug- uration ; but he was assassinated about the same time, on the evening of April 13th, 1865, and died on the following day, leaving a nation in mourning, and the civilized world struck with horror. Andrew Johnson acted as President during the remainder of this term. Mr. Johnson's administration was marked by the great difference in the policy of reconstructing the seceded States adopted by him and by the Congress, by the limitations which the latter threw around him, and the attempt to impeach him, which failed by a few votes. THE TWENTY-FIRST ELECTION, 1868. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant was nominated by the Republicans for President, and Schuyler Colfax for Vice-President. The nominees of the Democratic party were Horatio Say- mour and Francis P. Blair. 390 CABINETS O3T ALL THE PRESIDENTS. Grant's popular majority was 309,588. Questions of recon- struction and finance were determined by this election, the people upholding the policy pursued by Congress since the close of the war. THE TWENTY-SECOND ELECTION, 1872. Grant was nominated by the Republican party for Presi- dent, and Henry Wilson for Yice-President. The Democrats nominated Horace Greeley for President, and B. Gratz Brown for Yice-President. A second Democratic party had a ticket, nominating Chas. O'Connor and J. Q. Adams. Grant's popular majority was 730,812; and he received 286 electoral votes. 30 States gave him majorities, Pennsylvania reaching 137,000 majority in his favor. The whole popular vote at this election was 6,457,106. TWENTY-THIRD ELECTION, 1876. The Republican candidates for President and Vice President were R. B. Hayes and "Win. A. Wheeler the Democratic can- didates were S. J. Tilden and T. A. Hendricks. Haves' popu- . lar vote was 4,033.950 ; Tilden 's, 4,284,885. The whole num- ber of electoral votes was 369. Of these Hayes received 185 ; Tilden, 184. Hayes carried 21 States; Tilden, 17 States. A Greenback ticket was in the field and received 81,740 votes, but no Electoral votes. CHAPTER XLY. - CABINETS OF ALL THE PRESIDENTS. For convenience of reference we insert a list of the members of the Cabinet in each administration from 1789 down to 1877, to which is added the name of the Yice-President of each presidential term, though he is not a member of the Cabinet. FIRST ADMINISTRATION, FROM 1789 TO 1797 7YEARS, 10 MONTHS. AND 4 DAYS. George Washington, Ya., President. John Adams, Mass., Yice-President CABINETS OF ALL THE PRESIDENTS. . 391 CABINET. Jefferson, Va., Secretary of State. Edmund Eandolph, Va., " " Timothy Pickering, Mass., " " Alexander Hamilton, N. Y., Secretary of the Treasury. Oliver Wolcott, Conn., " " " Timothy Pickering, Mass., Secretary of War. James McHenry, Md., " " " Houry Knox, Mass., " " " SECOND ADMINISTRATION, 1797 TO 1801 i TEARS. John Adams, Mass., President. Thomas Jefferson, Va., Vice-President. CABINET. Timotby Pickering, Mass., Secretary of State. John Marshall, Va., " " " Oliver Wolcott, Ct., Secretary of the Treasury. Samuel Dexter, Mass., " " " James McHenry, Md., Secretary of War. Samuel Dexter, Mass., " " " Roger Griswold, " " George Cabot, Mass., Secretary of the Navy. Benjamin Stoddert, Md., " " " THIRD ADMINISTRATION, 1801 TO 1809 8 TEABS. Thomas Jefferson, Va., President. Aaron Burr, N. Y., Vice-President. George Clinton, N. Y., " CABINET. James Madison, Va., Secretary of State. Samuel Dexter, Mass., Secretary of the Treasury. Albert Gallatin, Pa., " " Henry Dearborn, Mass , Secretary of War. Benjamin Stoddert. Me 7 . Secretary of the Navy. Ro'oert Smith, Md. " FOURTH ADMINISTRATION, 1809 TO 1817 8 TEARS. James Madison, Va., President. CABINETS OF ALL THE PRESIDENTS, George Clinton, N. T., Vice-President. Elbridge Gerry, Mass., " CABINET. Robert Smith, Md., Secretary of State. James Monroe, Va., " " " Albert Gallatin, Pa., Secretary of the Treasury. George W. Campbell, Tenn. ," " " Alexander J. Dallas, Pa., " " William Eustis, Mass.. Secretary of War. John Armstrong, N. Y., " " " James Monroe, Va., " " " William H. Crawford, Ga., " ' Paul Hamilton, S. C., Secretary of the Navy. William Jones, Pa., " " " B. W. Crowninshield, Mass. " " " FIFTH ADMINISTRATION, 1817 TO 1825 8 YEARS. James Monroe, Va., President. Daniel D. Tompkins, N. Y., Vice-President. CABINET. John Q. Adams, Mass., Secretary of State. William H. Crawford, Ga., Secretary of the Treasury. Isaac Shelby, Ky., Secretary of War. John C. Calhoun, S. C., " " B. W. Crowninshield, Mass., Secretary of the Navy. Smith Thompson, N. Y., " " Samuel L. Southard, N. J., " " SIXTH ADMINISTRATION, 1825 TO 1829 4 TEAKS. John Q. Adams, Mass., President. John C. Calhoun, S. C., Vice-President. CABINET. Henry Clay, Ky., Secretary of State. Richard Rush, Pa., Secretary of the Treasury. James Barbour, Va., Secretary of War. Peter B. Porter, N. Y., " " Samuel L. Southard, N. J., Secretary of the Navy- CABINETS OF ALL THE PRESIDENTS. 393 SEVENTH ADMINISTRATION, 1829 TO 1837 8 YEARS. Andrew Jackson, Tenn., President. John C. Calhonn, S. C., Vice-President. Martin Van Buren, N. Y., " CABINET. Martin Van Buren, N. Y., Secretary of State. Edward Livingston, La., " " " Louis McLane, Del., " " " John Forsyth, Geo., " " " Samuel D. Ingham, Pa., Secretary of the Treasury. Louis McLane, Del., u " " William J. Duane, Pa., " " " Roger B. Taney, Md., " " " Levi Woodbury, N. H., " " " John H. Eaton, Tenn., Secretary of War. Lewis Cass, Mich., " " " Benjamin F. Butler, N. Y., " " " John Branch, N. C., Secretary of the Navy. Levi Woodbury, K II., " " " Mahlon Dickerson, N. J., " " " POSTMASTERS GENERAL, And for the first time considered members of the Cabinet, John McLean, O. William F. Barry, Ky. Amos Kendall, Ky. EIGHTH ADMINISTRATION, 1837 TO 1841 4 TEARS. Martin Van Buren, N. Y., President. Richard M. Johnson, Ky., Vice-President. CABINET. John Forsyth, Geo., Secretary of State. Levi Woodbury, N. H., Secretary of the Treasury. Joel R. Poinsett, S. C., Secretary of War. Mahlon Dickerson, N. J., Secretary of the Navy. James K. Paulding, N. Y., " " " .mos Kendall, Ky., Postmaster General. John M. Niles, Ct, " " 394: CABINETS OF ALL THE PRESIDENTS. If INTH ADMINISTRATION, MARCH 4, 1841, TO APRIL 4, 1841. "William Henry Harrison, O., President. John Tyler, Va., Vice-President* CABINET. Daniel Webster, Mass., Secretary of State. Thomas Ewing, O., Secretary of the Treasury. John Bell, Tenn., Secretary of War. George E. Badger, N. C., Secretary of the Navy. Gideon Granger, N. Y., Postmaster General. TENTH ADMINISTRATION, APRIL 6, 1841, TO MARCH 4, 1845. John Tyler, Ya., (acting) President, by death of Harrison CABINET. Daniel Webster, Mass., Secretary of State. Abel P. Upshur, Ya., " " John C. Calhoun, S. C., " " Thomas Ewing, O., Secretary of the Treasury. Walter Forward, Pa., " John C. Spencer, E". Y., " " " George M. Bibb, Ky., " " John Bell, Tenn., Secretary of War. John C. Spencer, N. Y., " " " James M. Porter, Pa., " " William Wilkins, Pa., " " " George E. Badger, N. C., Secretary of the Navy. Abel P. Upshur, Ya., " " David Henshaw, Mass., " " " G. W. Gilmer, Ya., " " " John Y. Mason, Ya., " " " Hugh S. Legare, S. 0., Attorney-General. John Nelson, Md., " " Francis G. Granger, N. Y., Postmaster General. Charles A. Wickliffe, Ky., " " ELEVENTH ADMINISTRATION, MARCH 4, 1845, TO MARCH 4, 1849, 4 YEARS. James K. Polk, Tenn., President. George M. Dallas, Pa., Yice-President. CABINETS OF ALT, THE PRESIDENTS. 395 CABIN KT. James Buchanan, Pa., Secretary of State. Eobert J. Walker, Miss., Secretary of the Treasury. "William L. Marcy, N. Y., Secretary of War. George Bancroft, Mass., Secretary of the Navy. John Y. Mason, Va., " " Cave Johnson, Tenn., Postmaster General. John Y. Mason, Va., Attorney General. Nathan Clifford, Me., " " Isaac Toucey, Ct., " " TWELFTH ADMINISTRATION, MARCH 4, 1849, TO JULY 10, 1850^- 1 YEAR AND 4 MONTHS. Zachary Taylor, La., President. Millard Fillmore, N. Y., Vice-President. CABINET. John M. Clayton, Del., Secretary of State. George W. Crawford, Geo., Secretary of War. William M. Meredith, Pa., Secretary of the Treasury- William B. Preston, Va., Secretary of the Navy. Thomas Ewing, Ohio, Secretary of the Interior. Jacob Collamer, Vt, Postmaster General. Reverdy Johnson, Md., Attorney General. THIRTEENTH ADMINISTRATION, JULY 10, 1850, TO MARCH 4, 1853. 2 YEARS AND 8 MONTHS. Millard Fillmore, (acting) President by death of Taylor. No Vice-President. CABINET. Daniel Webster, Mass., Secretary of State. Thomas Corwin, Ohio, Secretary of the Treasury. Charles M. Conrad, La., Secretary of War. William A. Graham, N. C., Secretary of the Navy. Alexander H. H. Stuart, Va., Secretary of the Interior. Nathan K. Hall, N. Y., Postmaster General. John J. Crittenden, Ky., Attorney General. FOURTEENTH ADMINISTRATION, MARCH 4, 1853, TO MARCH 4, 1857. Franklin Pierce, N. H., President. 396 CABINETS OF ALL THE PRESIDENTS. William E. King, of Ala., who was elected Yice-PresL dent with Mr. Pierce, but died before he took his seat, and there was no Yice-President during Pierce's administration. CABINET. William L. Marcy, N. Y., Secretary of State. James Guthrie, Ky., Secretary of the Treasury. Jefferson Davis, Miss., Secretary of War. J. C. Dobbin, N. C., Secretary of the Navy. Robert McClelland, Mich., Secretary of the Interior. James Campbell, Pa., Postmaster General. Caleb Gushing, Mass., Attorney General. FIFTEENTH ADMINISTRATION, MARCH 4, 1857, TO MARCH 4, 1861. James Buchanan, Pa., President. John C. Breckenridge, Yice-President. CABINET. Lewis Cass, Mich., and Jeremiah S. Black, Pa., Secretaries of State. Ho well Cobb, Ga., Philip F. Thomas, and John A. Dix, N. Y., Secretaries of the Treasury. John B. Floyd, Ya., and Joseph Holt, Ky., Secretaries of War. Isaac Toucey, Ct., Secretary of the Navy. Jacob Thompson, Miss., Secretary of the Interior. Aaron Y. Brown, Tenn., Joseph Holt, Ky., and Horatio King, Postmasters General. Jeremiah S. Black, Pa., and Edwin M. Stanton, Pa., Attor- neys General. SIXTEENTH ADMINISTRATION, MARCH 4, 1861, TO APRIL 14, 1865, 4 YEARS, 1 MONTH, AND 10 DAYS. Abraham Lincoln, 111., President. Hannibal Hamlin, Me., Yice-President, first term, and An- drew Johnson, Tenn., Yice-President, second term. CABINET. William H. Seward, N. Y., Secretary of State. Salmon P. Chase, Ohio, William P. Fessenden, Me., Hugh CABIN KTS OF ALL THE PRESIDENTS. 397 McCulloch, Ind., Secretaries of the Treasury. Simon Cameron, Fa., Edwin M. Stanton, Pa., Secretaries ot War. Gideon Welles, Conn., Secretary of the Navy. Caleb 13. Smith, Ind., John P. Usher, Ind., Sect, of the Int. Montgomery Blair, Md., William Dennison, O., Postmas- ters General. Edward Bates, Mo., James Speed, Ky., Attorneys General. SEVENTEENTH ADMINISTRATION, APRIL 15, 1865, TO MARCH 4,1869. Andrew Johnson, acting President. No Vice-President. CABINET. William II. Seward, N. Y., Secretary of State. Hugh McCulloch, Ind., Secretary of the Treasury. Edwin M. Stanton, Pa., Ulysses S. Grant, 111., and J. M. Scho. field, Secretaries of War. Gideon Welles, Conn., Secretary of the Navy. James Harlan, Iowa, Orville H. Browning, 111., Secretaries of the Interior. James Speed, Ky., Henry Stanbery, Ohio, William M. Evarts, N. Y., Attorneys General. William Dennison, Ohio, Alexander W. Randall, Wis., Post- masters General. EIGHTEENTH ADMINISTRATION, MARCH 4r, 1869, TO MARCH 4, 1873. Ulysses S. Grant, 111., President. Schuyler Colfax, Ind., Vice-President. CABINET. Elihu B. Washburne, 111., Secretary of State. Hamilton Fish, N. Y., " " " George S. Boutwell, Mass., Secretary of the Treasury. John A. Rawlins, Secretary of War. William T. Sherman, " " " William W. Belknap, " " Adolph E. Borie, Pa., Secretary of the Navy. George M. Robeson, N. J., "' " " 398 CABINETS OF ALL THE PRESIDENTS. Jacob D. Cox, Ohio, Secretary of the Interior. Columbus Delano, O., " u J. A. J. Creswell, Md., Postmaster General. Eben Rockwood Hoar, Mass., Attorney General. Amos T. Akerman, Ga., " " NINETEENTH ADMINISTRATION, MARCH 4, 1873, TO MARCH *, 1871, Ulysses S. Grant, 111., President. *Henry Wilson, Mass., Vice-President. CABINET. Hamilton Fish, N. Y., Secretary of State. W. A. Richardson, 111., Secretary of the Treasury. B. H. Bristow, Ky., " " " Lot M. Morrill, Me., " " W. W. Belknap, Iowa, Secretary of "War. Alonzo Taft, Ohio, " " J. Donald Cameron, Pa., " " George M. Robeson, N. J., Secretary of the Navy. Columbus Delano, Ohio, Secretary of the Interior. Z. Chandler, Mich., " " " J. A. J. Creswell, Md., Postmaster General. Marshall Jewell, Conn., " " John W. Tyner, Ind., George H. Williams, Oregon, Attorney General. Edward Pierrepont, N. Y., Alonzo Taft, Ohio, * Deceased. TWENTIETH ADMINISTRATION, MARCH 4, 1877, TO MARCH 4, 1881 Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, President. William A. Wheeler, of New York, Vice-President. CABINET. William M. Evarts, of New York, Secretary of State. John Sherman, of Ohio, Secretary of the Treasury. Alexander Ramsey, of Minnesota, Secretary of War. Richard W. Thompson, of Indiana, Secretary of the Navy. Carl Sc.hurz, of Missouri, Secretary of the Interior. Charles Devens, of Massachusetts, Attorney General. David M. Key, of Tennessee, Postmaster General. UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT. 399 UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT. 18T9. THE EXECUTIVE. RUTHERFORD B. HAYES, of Ohio, Pretident of the United State* Salary $50 000 WILLIAM A. WHEELER, of New York, rice-President of t he UnUedStates, > ^000 THE CABINET. WILLIAM M. EVAKTS, of New York, Secretary of State... ...Salary $8,000 JOHN S11ERMAN, of Ohio, Secretary qf the Treasury "800* ALEXANDER RAMSKY, of Minnesota, Secretary of War " 8,000 RICHARD W. THOMPSON, of Indiana, Secretary of the Navy ' 8.000 CARL SCHURZ, of Missouri, Secretary of the Interior 8,000 CHARLES DEVENS, of Massachusetts, Attorney- General " 8,000 DAVID M. KEY, of Tennessee, Postmaster-General " 8,000 THE JUDICIARY. SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES. Court meets first Monday in December, at Washington. Chief Justice.... MORRISON R. WAITE, of Ohio... Fourth Circuit ....... Salary $10.500 10,000 10.000 10,000 10.000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 Associate Justice NATHAN CLITPORD, of Me ........... First ' NOAH II. SWAYNE, of Ohio ......... Sixth ' SAMUEL F. MILLER, of Iowa ........ Eighth " ' STEPHEN J. FIELD, of Cal .......... Ninth " l WILLIAM STRONG, of Pa ............. Third " JOSEPU P. BKADLET, of N. J ....... Fifth " ' WARD HUNT, of New York .......... Second " ' JOHN M. HARLAN, of Ky ............. Seventh CIRCUIT JUDGES. First Circuit ....... Me., N. H., Mass., R. I ........ John Lowell, Mass ....... Salary $6.000 Second Circuit ..... Vt., N. Y., Conn ...... ........ Samnel Blatchford, N. Y. " 6.000 ThirdCircuit ...... Pa., N. J.. Del ................ William McKennan, Pa.. " 6,000 Fourth Circuit ..... Md., W. Va., Va.. N. C., 8. C .Hugh L. Bond, Md ....... " 8,000 Fifth Circuit ....... Qa., Pla., Ala., Miss., La., Tex. William B. Woods, Ga.... " 6,00t> Sixth Circuit ....... Mich., Ohio, Ky., Tenn ........ John Baxter, Tenn ....... ' 6,000 Seventh Circuit ---- Wis., 111., Ind .................. Thomas Drnmmond, III.. " 6,000 Eighth Circuit ..... Minn.,-Jowa, Mo., Ark., Kan., Neb., Col ................... George W. McCrary, Iowa " 6,000 Ninth Circuit ...... Ore., Cal., Nev ................. Lorenzo Sawyer, Cal ..... " 6,000 MINISTERS TO FOREIGN COUNTRIES. ENVOYS EXTRAORDINARY AND MINISTERS PLENIPOTENTIARY. COUNTRY. CAPITAL. MINISTER*. SALART. APP'T'n. Austria-Hungary Vienna John A. Kasson, Iowa $12,000 1877 Brazil Rio Janeiro Henry W. Billiard. Ga 12,000 1877 Chili Santiago Thomas A. Osborn, Kansas 10,000 1877 China :Pukin George F. Seward, N. Y 1^,000 187 France Paris Kdw. F. Noyee. Ohio 17,500 .1877 Great Britain London James R. Lowell. Masn 17.500 1880 Italy Rome George P. Marsh, Vt 12,000 1861 Japan Yeddo John A. Bingbam, Ohio 12,000 187S Mexico Mexico Philip H. Morgan. Ln 12.000 1880 Peru Lima I. P. Christlancy, Mich 10,000 187 Germany Berlin Andrew D. White, N. Y- 17,500 187 Russia St. Petersburg ...John W. Foster, imi 17,500 1880 Spain Madrid Lucius Fairchild, Wis HW0 1880 MINISTERS RESIDENT. Argentine Republic... Bnenoe Ayres Thomas O. Osborn, 111 7.800 1K4 Belgium Brussels William C. Goodloc. Ky 7,500 1878 Bolivia La Paz 8. Newton. Pettis, Pa 5,000-.... 1878 Central Amer. States.. Guatemala Cornelius A. Logan. Ill 10,000 1879 Hawaiian Island* Honolulu Jnmes M. Comly. Ohio 5,000 1877 Netherlands ...Hague James Blrney. Mich 7,500 lg Sweden and Norway ..Stockholm John L. Steven*. Me 7,800 IK Turkey Constantinople Horace Maynard, Tenn 7.500 1875 U. 8. of Colombia Bogota Earnest Dichman, Wla 7.500 1878 Venezuela Caracas Jehu Baker. Ill 7,300 181 Haytl Port-au-Prince John M. Langston, D. C.* 7,800 187 Liberia Monrovia John H. Smyth, N. C.* 4,000 1878 CHARGE D'AFFAIRES. Denmark Copenhagen M. J. Cramer, Ky 5JWP 1870 Greece Athens Portugal Lisbon Benjamin Moran, Pa 5,000 187 Switzerland Berne Nicholas Fish. N. Y 5.000 1877 Uruguay & Paraguay.. Montevideo John C. Caldwell, Me 5,000 1874 Minister Resident and Consul General. LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT. CHAPTEE XLVI. CONGRESS. 1. All government consists of three steps, series, or departments. It has a Rule by which its action is gov. erned; and this embraces the general principles guiding all action, as well as the special rules of conduct in regard to limited classes of actions the next step in the series is the action demanded to put its rules in actual force to apply them the third is, to determine the application of the rule when supposed to be violated, and the agreement of the special rule with the general principle. That is to say, government is divided into the Legislative, or law making power; the Executive, or law enforcing power; and the Judi- cial, or law discriminating, or judging, power. 2. In some governments all these are in the same hands, and this produces a Despotism. In others they are variously divided or mixed. In our country the separation between them is made as distinct as possible. The People are regarded as the source or fountain of Power. The Constitution represents, in its general Principles or Rules, the Will and purposes of the People; and outside of the principles or regulations of this instrument no legislation is valid. The Constitution, ema- nating from the people, defines the boundary of all the Departments. Congress is the law-making power, enacting within the prescribed limits. The Judiciary takes care that these limits are not overstepped by legislative enactments, or (400) CONGRESS. 401 executive action. The executive power, or the President, is the concentrated force, the vigorous Ann, of the government. It is Congress, the Legislative Authority, that we have now to consider. 3. The National Congress is a body of men representing, and acting in the place of, the people. They are elected by the people to enact laws for the public good to do all and no more nor less than the people would do, if it were possible for them to assemble in one great body and make the laws by which they wish to be governed. It was constituted as wisely, to guard against the errors to which humanity is liable, as the experience of the past per- mitted to the thoughtful and patriotic statesmen who had charge of the organization of the government, when the suc- cessful termination of the War of Independence left the inter- ests of a new Nation in their hands. England, from which they had mostly sprung, and which governed them until that period, was in possession of the freest and most enlightened government of those times, in the Old World; and they copied from her institutions and general structure what they judged adapted to our circumstances; prudently avoiding untried experiments, as far as possible. 4. Congress, like the English Parliament, consists of two Houses, one, the House of Representatives, (answering to the English House of Commons) being directly elected, for a short term, by the people, so as to express their views and interests as clearly as possible; the other, the Senate, (answering par- tially to the English House of Lords) appointed by the State Legislatures for a longer term, and from among statesmen of acknowledged ability and mature character and experience. This was expected to supply the necessary check to hasty and ill considered action, as they were required to mutually agree on all laws enacted. 5. Both are required to assemble, at the same time, in the Capitol at Washington, on the tirst Monday in December of each year. This is the regular session extra sessions being- 26 402 CONGRESS. occasionally called by the President when unusual circumstan- ces demand it. The members of the House of Representatives are elected for two years, the members of the Senate for six. As the first contains by far the largest number, a Congress is said to exist for two years, and the 20th Congress would be the one existing during the 40th ^nd 41st years of the Republic, dating from the first Congress in 1789. THE SENATE 6. Is composed of two persons, chosen by the legistature of each State, to represent it as a whole. It makes no differ- ence whether the State be large or small, whether population counts by the million or the thousand. The States are sov- ereign in their sphere, and this constitution of the Senate keeps that fact in view, operates against undue centralization of power, and oppression of the smaller States by the larger. 7. A Senator must be thirty years of age, must have been nine years a citizen, (he may have been born in a foreign State, and a citizen of it previously,) and must be a citizen of the State (a voter in it) at the time of appointment. He is appointed for six years. The Senate is arranged in three classes so that the terms of one-third of the whole number shall expire every two years. They may be re-elected as often as the State legislatures choose. In one case, a Senator was continued thirty years in the Senate, without intermission. It has equal legislative power with the House of Representatives, except that it cannot originate laws for raising money, but it must approve and adopt all laws made by the House to render them valid. It has some powers that do not belong to the House. It confirms or rejects the nominations of the Presi- dent, to office, and the treaties he makes with foreign powers, and is the only High Court of Impeachment. . 8. When the Senate meets to consider the nominations of the President to office, it is called an Executive Session, and only a majority of votes is required to approve or confirm ttiem; but when a treaty is to be ratified, or judgment given CONGRESS. 403 in a case of impeachment, a vote of two-thirds of the members present is required. The Vice-President of the United States is the presiding officer of the Senate; but in case of a vacancy in that office, when lie is acting as President, or if he be absent, it chooses A president from its own members. THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES 9. Is composed of persons elected by the people in the various States, in proportion to the number of inhabitants. A Representative is elected for a term of two years. He must be twenty-five years of age, must have been a citizen of the United States seven years, and must be a citizen of the State he represents. This is often called the " Lower House," or popular branch of the National Legislature, as the Senate is sometimes called the " Upper House," because it is more select, and greater in dignity. 10. The House of Representatives has the sole power of presenting articles of Impeachment, and it alone can originate laws for raising revenue. A larger part of the laws are actually originated in it, because it is more numerous, its members bet- ter known to the people whom they immediately represent, and the people are better acquainted with them; and more peti- tions for particular laws are sent to them. Each represent- ative is voted for by the people of his Congressional District alone, and not by all the people of each State; and he specially represents the views and wants of his District. In each branch of Congress, when a Bill, or plan of a law, has been passed, it is sent to the other House, where it is referred to a Committee who examine it, and report on it to the House; by which it is discussed and adopted, amended, or rejected according to its judgment, and returned to the House in which it originated. By this method every law is meant to be subjected to a careful and cool investigation, its defects dis- covered and corrected, and its appropriateness clearly made manifest. Whoever will examine, with care and thoroughness the whole structure of our government will everywhere di- 404 CONGRESS. cover traces of the same wisdom and watchful foresight. He will see reason for more admiration of the prudent statesman- ship of those who organized our institutions, and feel less sur- prised at the wonderful prosperity of the country, and at the strength- of the government when subjected to the severest trial. Everything human is more or less imperfect, and we shall never be without subjects of complaint, and opportuni- ties for improvement; but every American, well informed con- cerning his own and foreign governments, will discover many weighty reasons for self-congratulation and pride that our first statesmen and people were so wise and prudent in laying the foundation, and that their successors have built on it with so much skill. . 11. The presiding officer in the House of Representatives is called " The Speaker," and is chosen by the House, at the the beginning of each Congress. He serves during its two years of existence. The Clerk of the House and its minor officers are chosen by its members and each House makes its own rules, or Parliamentary Laws. The term Congress properly covers both branches of the National Legislature; but, by custom, the members of the upper house are called Senators, and those of the lower Members of Congress, (com- monly abbreviated to M. C.) 12. The Compensation of Members of Congress was origi- nally fixed at eight dollars a day, but has, of late years, been several times changed. In 1856 it was made $3,000 per ses- sion, or $6,000 for a Congress of two years. In 1866 it was increased to $5,000 per session, and, in 1873 to $7,500 per session, the Speaker of the House, and the President of the Senate, by this last law, receiving $10,000 per year; but it produced so much dissatisfaction among the people that the law was changed at the following session, and they now receive $5,000 per annum. 13. The members of each house receive the same compen- sation. Mileage is allowed them in addition to the salary. This has been forty cents per mile, by the usual routes between CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICTS. 405 the members residence and Washington. In 1865 It was reduced to twenty cents per mile, which still seems more adapted to the days of stages and slow traveling than to the modern improvements in rapidity and cheapness. They for- merly enjoyed the franking privilege, so called, i. e.: they could send letters and documents through the mails free. This was abolished in 1873, but revived in 1878 as to written and printed matter not exceeding two ounces weight. 14. The first Congress under the Constitution met in New York City, where two sessions were held, when it was removed to Philadelphia. It remained there until 1800, when Wash- ington became the capital. The Capitol there, in which Con- gress meets, is one of the largest buildings in the world; and the offices for the different executive Departments are immense structures. In 1877 there were 38 States and there- fore 76 Senators. The number of Representatives was fixed by a law of March, 1873, at 292, which was increased by one on the admission of Colorado. CHAPTER XLVII. CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICTS CONGRESSMEN. 1. Each State is entitled to a number of Representatives in Congress proportioned to its inhabitants; but, instead of count- ing the whole number together, and leaving all the people in the State to vote for all the representatives of their State, it is divided into districts, each containing the prescribed number entitled to representation. The voters, then, in each district, select or nominate the men they wish to vote for and thus they find it :i>y to send men they know and on whom they can rely to secure their interests. Besides, it is more convenient for them to meet and ascertain by consultation who would be most acceptable to the majority of those interested. Each Member of Congress, therefore, is chosen by a single district. The dis- tricting of States is done by their State Legislatures. 406 CONGRESSMEN. 2. Sometimes a State is admitted into the Union before it has as many inhabitants as the law requires to one Congress- man, in which case the law is relaxed, and they are permitted at least one Representative. Contiguous counties or towns are set apart in this way and numbered as 1st, 2nd, 3rd, &c., Congressional District. In large cities as many wards, lying together, as include the requsite number, are erected into Dis- tricts. In case the number of Congressmen allotted to a State is larger than the number of districts, those in excess are voted for by the State at large. They are arranged as soon as possi- ble after every census, so that this does not often occur. In the Western States the number continually increases and changes must be made after each census. By this means the balance of power gradually follows the emigration from East to West. CONGRESSMEN. 3. We have already remarked, in the chapter on Congress that, though the term Congressman properly applies to the members of both Houses, it is by common usage, confined to members of the lower House, those of the upper House being distinguished as Senators, so that the abbreviation M. C. (Mem- ber of Congress) is understood to specify a Representative. 4. These are the only members of any branch of the govern- ment who are chosen and elected directly by the people, and we may see herein the propriety of their having the control of all enactments for raising money, this being a point of vital inter- est to the people. The short term assigned them, (two years,) and their election by Districts, enables the people to interfere very soon if their purse strings are drawn too widely open a very satisfactory reflection to the economical. Any citizen, whether native or foreign born, may become a Member of Con- gress, if he can obtain the consent of the voters in his district; but he must have been a citizen during the previous seven years. It is an office of dignity and responsibility, and the welfare of the country depends on the wisdom of the people in their choice. CHAPTER XLVIII. CONGRESSIONAL LIBRARY. 1. In the capitol there is a large library, consisting of two parts; one part called the Congressional library, the other, the law library. The latter is made a part of the former by an act of Congress. Both are subject to the same laws and rules, and both are supported by appropriations made by Congress. This institution, called as a whole, "The Congressional Library," contains the works supposed to be useful to legisla- tors, but is not confined to their use alone. Its use has been extended to the judges of the Supreme Court; to all the heads of departments; to the Attorney General; to all the members of the diplomatic corps, (foreign ministers); to the secretary of the Senate; to the clerk of the House of Representatives, to the chaplains of Congress, to all ex-Presidents, and to the solicitor of the Treasury. 2. It has a librarian, appointed by the President and Sen- ate, who is allowed to appoint two assistants. No book or map is allowed to be taken out of the library by any person, except the President, Vice-President, members of the Senate and of the House of Representatives. People in general, who are interested to do so, may obtain information from the books and records when properly author- ized, under such restrictions as the circumstances' require. 3. Here are kept all the laws which have ever been enacted by Congress, together with a record of all its proceedings, the laws of all the different States, with many of those of foreign, countries; also a large collection of books on promiscuous sub- jects, useful to Members of Congress and to those who have , to administer the government. No where else can so com- plete a history of the acts and proceedings of the government be found, as in the Congressional library at Washington. (407) 108 COPYRIGHTS. This institution dates back to the year 1800, when an act was passed making the first appropriation of $5,000 for its establishment. The books purchased with this $5,000, with those belonging to both Houses, were placed together, and thus this library was commenced. CHAPTEK XLIX. COPYRIGHTS. A Copyright is an exclusive privilege given to any citizen, or resident in the United States to print, publish, or sell any book, map, chart, engraving, or musical composition of which he or she is the author or proprietor. This right is given by the laws of Congress. No State can give it. The object is to encourage authors, and to compensate them for their labors, which they could not be sure of obtaining if any one might publish and sell their productions. A copyright conveys all the rights of ownership, and may be bought and sold like other property. DIRECTIONS FOR SECURING COPYRIGHTS UNDER THE REVISED ACT OF CONGRESS, WHICH TOOK EFFECT JULY 8, 1870. 1. A printed copy of the title of the book, map, chart, dramatic or musical composition, engraving, cut, print, pho- tograph, or a description of the painting, drawing, chromo, statue, statuary, or model or design for a work of the fine arts, for which copyright is desired, must be sent by mail, prepaid, addressed, " Librarian of Congress, Washington, D. C." This must be done before publication of the book or other article. 2. A fee of 50 cents, for recording the title of each book or other article, must be inclosed with the title as above, and 50 cents in addition (or $1 in all) for each certificate of copyright COPYRIGHTS. 409 tinder the seal of the Librarian of Congress, which will be transmitted by return mail. 3. Within ten days after publication of each book or other 'article, two complete copies of the best edition issued must be sent, to perfect the copyright, with the address LIBRARIAN OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D. C. It is optional with those sending books and other articles to perfect copyright, to send them by mail or express ; but, in either case, the charges are to be prepaid by the senders. Without the deposit of copies above required, the copyright is void, and a penalty of $25 is incurred. No copy is required tc be deposited elsewhere. 4. No copyright hereafter issued is valid unless notice is gi r en by inserting in every copy published, on the title page or the page following, if it be a book; or, if a map, chart, musical composition, print, cut, engraving, photograph, paint- ing, drawing, chromo, statue, statuary, or model or design intended to be perfected as a work of the fine arts, by inscrib- ing upon some portion of the face or front thereof, or on the fac* of the substance on which the same is mounted, the fol- io wng words, viz. : Entered according to act of Congress, in the year , by - , in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. The law imposes a penalty of $100 upon any person who has not obtained copyright who shall insert the notice " Entered according to act of Congress" etc., or words of the same import, in or upon any book or other article. 5. Any author may reserve the right to translate or dram- atize his own work. In this case notice should be given by printing the words, Right of translation reserved* or, All rights reserved, below the notice of copyright entry, and noti- fying the Librarian of Congress of such reservation, to be entered upon the record, 6. Each copyright secures the exclusive right of publishing the book or article copyrighted for a tenn of twenty-eight jears. At the end of that time, the author or designer, or his 410 COPYRIGHTS. widow or children, may secure a renewal for the further term of fourteen years, making forty-two years in alL Applications for renewal must be accompanied by explicit statement of own- ership in the case of the author, or of relationship in the case of his heirs, and must state definitely the date and place of entry of the original copyright. 7. The time within which any work copyrighted may be issued from the press is not limited by any law or regulation, but depends upon the discretion of the proprietor. A copy- right may be secured for a projected work as well as for a com- pleted one. 8. Any copyright is assignable in law by any instrument of writing, but such assignment must be recorded in the office of the Librarian of Congress within sixty days from its date. The fee for this record is fifteen cents for every 100 words, and ten cents for every 100 words for a copy of the record of assign- ment. 9. A copy of the record (or duplicate certificate) of any copyright entry will be furnished under seal, at the rate of fifty cent each. 10. In the case of books published in more than one volume, if issued or sold separately, or of periodicals publibhed in numbers, or of engravings, photographs, or other articles pub- lished with variations, a copyright is to be taken out for each volume of a book, or number of a periodical, or variety, as to size or inscription, of any other article. 11. To secure a copyright for a painting, statue, or model or design intended to be perfected as a work of the fine arts, so as to prevent infringement by copying, engraving, or vend- ing such design, a definite description must accompany the application for copyright, and a photograph of the same, at least as large as " cabinet size," must be maile'd to the Libra- rian of Congress within ten days from the completion of the work. 12. Every applicant for a copyright must state distinctly the name and residence of the claimant, and whether the right PRESIDING OFFICERS OF CONGRESS. 411 is claimed as author, designer, or proprietor. No affidavit or formal application is required. Up to 1849 the Secretary of State had the care of issuing copyrights. It was then assigned to the newly created Depart- ment of the Interior, and so remained until 1870, when it was transferred to the Librarian of Congress. CHAPTER L PRESIDING OFFICERS OF CONGRESS. 1. These are the President of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives. The latter is chosen by ballot of the Members of the House. As this position gives him considerable influence over the course of legislation the party having a majority in the House are careful to select one on whose sympathy with their views and aims they can rely. When there is nearly or quite a balance of parties, it becomes an important and difficult matter to adjust; and has, in some instances, required a long struggle to elect the Speaker. The result, in such a case, usually determines which shall control the general legislation of that Congress. 2. The President of the Senate, under ordinary circumstan- ces, is determined by the Constitution, that instrument devolv- ing the office on the Vice-President It is the only active duty assigned him while the President is in condition to perform the duties belonging to that office. It seems to befit his rela- tions, being the highest honorary place in the government below that of President, subjects him to no superior, and, from the part the Senate takes in the responsibilities of the Presi- dent, makes him acquainted with the general conduct of affairs; which may be an important advantage to him should he be called to act as President. In the latter case, and in case of the decease, resignation, or disability of the Vice-Presidett, 412 PRESIDING OFFICERS OF CONGRESS. the Senate proceeds to elect its President in the same way as in the House of Representatives, i. e.: by ballot, for a candi- date among its own members. 3. Their duties are to open every sitting of their respective Houses by calling the members to order at the appointed time, on the appearance of a quorum to cause the journal of the preceding day to be read, to preserve order and decorum during the deliberations, to decide questions of order that may arise, (from which an appeal may be taken to the House, at the instance of any two members,) to formally state, and call for the votes on, a question to be decided, and to declare the result of the same after the vote has been taken. This is the regular routine duty of a presiding officer. They, as the recognized Heads of their respective Houses, have the general oversight of its interests, and a general control of the conduct of its business. They examine the Journal to see that it is correct, may order the galleries and lobby to be cleared in case ot any disturbance by spectators, and have general control over the unoccupied rooms in the capitol belonging to their respective Houses. They are required to sign all acts, addresses, and joint resolutions, and appoint the members of all committees whose appointment is not specially directed by the House to be otherwise made. In all cases of ballot the Speaker of the House must vote; but he is not required to vote in other cases unless there is a tie, (an equal number for and against,) when he must give the casting vote. The Presi- dent of the Senate may vote only in case of a tie. When the House of Representatives goes into Committee of the Whole, the Speaker leaves the chair, but appoints a chair- man to preside for the time being; and when the President of the United States is impeached before the Senate the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court presides. 4. Their duties are very distinctly defined in the rulo,s adopted by each House for their guidance, but many opportu- nities for exerting great influence often arise, and many cases requiring great tact and judgment and an intimate knowledge PRESIDING OFFICERS OF CONGRESS. 413 of Parliamentary Law. They receive a much larger salary than ordinary Members of Congress. The following are the names of all the Speakers of the House of Representatives. A list of Vice- Presidents is giveo in the chapter devoted to that officer. Frederick A. Muhlenburgh, Penn., 1789 to 1791 Jonathan Trumbull, Conn., 1791 " 1793 Frederick A. Muhlenburgh, Penn., 1793 " 1797 Jonathan Dayton, N. J., 1797 " 1798 Theodore Sedgwick, Mass., 1798 " 1801 Nathaniel Macon, N. C., 1801 " 1807 Joseph B. Varnum, Mass. 1807 " 1811 Henry Clay, Ky., 1811 " 1814 Langdon Cheeves, S. C., 1814 " 1815 Henry Clay, Ky., 1815 " 1820 John W. Taylor, N. Y., 1820 " 1821 Philip P. Barbour, Va., 1821 " 1823 Henry Clay, Ky., 1823 " 1825 John W. Taylor, N. Y., 1825 " 1827 Andrew Stevenson, Va., 1827 " 1835 John Bell, Tenn., 1835 " 1837 James K. Polk, Tenn., 1837 " 1839 Robert M. T. Hunter, Va., 1839 " 1841 John White, Ky., 1841 " 1843 John W. Jones, Va., 1843 " 1845 John W. Davis, Ind., 1845 " 184T Robert C. Winthrop, Mass., 1847 " 1849 Howell Cobb, Ga., 1849 " 1851 Lynn Boyd, Ky., 1851 " 1856 Nathaniel P. Banks, Mass., 1856 " 1858 James L. Orr, S. C., 1858 " 1859 William Pennington, N. J., 1860 " 1861 Galusha A. Grow, Penn., 1861 " 1863 Schuyler Colfax, Ind., 1864 " 1869- James G. Blaine, Me., 1869 " 1875 Michael C. Kerr, Ind., 1^7,; S. J. Randall, Penn., 1876 CHAPTEE LI. SUBORDINATE OFFICERS OF CONGRESS. 1. The Secretary of the Senate and Clerk of the House oi Representatives, are the officers next in rank in the two bodies forming Congress. They are appointed by vote of their respective Houses. They are not necessarily selected from among the members of the Senate or House, as is the custom in case of the presiding officers, but may be chosen by the members at will. 2. Their chief duties are in connection with a record or journal of the proceedings of their respective Houses. This is an official and correct account of all the transactions of each body, is examined by the presiding officer, and read before the members for criticism and approval. They cause this journal to be printed and a copy be delivered to each member at the commencement of every session of Congress, as also to the Executive and to each branch of the Legislature of every State. So also they arrange, cause to be printed, and distribute to the members all the current documents of each House that may be useful to them in the discharge of their duties, as often as the case requires. All contracts for furnishing anything required by Congress, or for any labor done for it, are made with, or approved by, the Clerk of the House and Secretary of the Senate 3. They act also as treasurers of the special, or contingent funds of Congress, from which payments are made on their order, after the accounts, on which the order is based, are approved by the Committee of Accounts; and give bonds in a large sum for the faithful use of these funds, making a detailed report of all expenditures. THE SERGEANT-AT-ARM8 4. Is a kind of police and executive officer, who aids or acts under the direction of the presiding officer in keeping order, and executes the commands of Congress. All arrests ordered (414) CONGRESS AT WORK. 415 by Congress are made by him or his deputies, and all legal processes served by him. He bears a mace as the symbol of his office when on duty. He keeps the accounts of the pay and mileage of the members of Congress, prepares checks, and draws and pays the money to them. 5. The other officers are a Doorkeeper whose business it is to see that only the proper persons gain admission to the sessions of Congress, and watches over, and is responsible for, the furniture contained in the rooms of the capitol placed in his charge and a postmaster, whose business it is to superin- tend a postoffice kept in the capitol for the accommodation of members of Congress. Various clerks, deputies, and messen- gers are employed under most of these officers, to aid them in the discharge of their duties. CHAPTER LII. CONGRESS AT WORK. 1. Congress is required by the Constitution to assemble on the first Monday in December of each year. It may, by a law duly made to that effect, change that time, but no permanent change has ever been made. As soon after that time as a quo- rum of its members, which the Constitution declares shall be > majority of each House, has assembled each House proceeds *o the election of officers (which, however, is done only every other year,) and the arrangement of its committees, and it is ready for work. 2. As soon as the organization is ascertained to be complete the other House of Congress and the President are informed of the fact, after which propositions, or bills as they are called, of new laws, or repeals or revisals of old ones are entertained. Of these there is never any lack. They are taken up in regu- lar order, referred to an appropriate committee for examination, A report is in due time made by the committee, discussed At such length as the members see cause for, in a regular man- 416 CONGRESS AT WORK. ner, and finally are voted on. Sometimes, if the members are- not satisfied with the information presented on some point or points, they return them to the committee with instructions to investigate further, and make another report; sometimes they " lay them on the table," that is, put them aside for future- action; or they accept, amend, or change them to meet their views, and then accept or reject them altogether. 3. When a bill has reached a vote and been accepted by the- House in which it originated, it is sent to the other House, by which it is taken up, referred to a committee, usually passing through substantially the same course and form of considera- tion as in the first case, laid aside, amended, accepted or rejected according to circumstances, and returned to the former House. If it is accepted by both they then send it to the President, who carefully considers it. If it meets his appro- bation, he signs and returns it to Congress, and it becomes the Law of the Land, and all to whom it refers are bound to obey it, it being the duty of the President to see that it is enforced. It is called an " Act of Congress," because it is the proper exercise of its law making authority, and because all such laws are preceded by the clause, " Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America, in Congress assembled." 4. If the President does not think it a suitable law, and is unwilling to assume the responsibility of signing it, he returns it to Congress, with his reasons for not doing so. If Congress is not satisfied with these reasons it may take another vote on it, and if the members in its favor amount to two-tl irds of each House, it becomes a law without the signature of the President. This power of the President to decline to sign a law of Congress is called his " Veto." Sometimes it is carried over the veto, and sometimes it fails for lack of the requisite number in its favor. 5. The larger part of Congressional laws are passed in this way, which is the regular Parliamentary form ; but sometimes its authority is expressed by a Resolution instead of a bilL CONGRESS AT WORK. 17 This is a kind of informal way of passing a law, though it usually takes that form because of the peculiar character of the subject of the Kesolution; as an amendment to the Con- stitution would be.conniH need by a resolution passed by both Houses; but, as Congress has not the sole power over that question, it requiring the concurrence of three fourths of the States, it is put in that form. When some demand is to be made by Congress on the President, or on various officers of the government, and in a variety of other cases, a resolution has the force of law, disobedience to which would involve a penalty. Many resolutions merely express the views of Con- gress, and are of force and value only on account of the respecta- bility and dignity of the body expressing them. Some resolu- tions require to be passed in both Houses to acquire legal force, and are then called Concurrent Resolutions. A. bill must pass through the regular forms of printing, reference to a committee, report, placing in order on the records, and calling up at a proper time for consideration and decision. This is very proper to avoid hasty action before all the bearings of the case have been examined; but would consume too much time if required in every case. A resolution may be debated and decided at once, and it facilitates the progress of business, in the class of cases to which it is applicable. 6. The amount of business to be done by Congress is immense. Each branch of the executive department makes a yearly report to it, which must be considered and suitable laws passed; many hundreds of laws are commonly asked to be passed, repealed, or revised, by the President or the people; and all the interests of a great and growing country looked after. Those who are at a distance cannot always judge accu- rately of the difficulties it meets with in endeavoring to give satisfaction to all, nor of the different appearance which ques- tions may present when closely examined and looked at on all sides, and Congress has a great deal of short-sighted criticism to bear. Congressmen cannot always tell what is best more than othei 2T 418 ptiBiJc PRINTING. people, nor always find themselves able to do what they prefer, or judge to be best, and the account to which they are held is sometimes unjust; yet, on the whole they have always respected, and sought to serve, the views and interests of the people as a whole$ and deserve much praise. The country has become prosperous and free under their legislation, and what the major- ity of the people clearly call for is always done for them. 7. The more carefully the people whom they represent watch them at work, and study the subjects they are required to legislate on, the less reason will they find for denunciation of them, and the more intelligently will they be able to lay out their work for them. They are the servants of the people, notwithstanding they seem to command and order, and are liable to be dismissed and turned out of place if they do not give satisfaction. They are men like ourselves, with interests, temptations, and weaknesses. We should aid them in their work, and assist them to walk uprightly by our intelligence and careful regard for reason and right. Our representatives will always, in character and conduct, present a fair statement of what we are ourselves. If we are just, honest, and high- minded they will not dare to be otherwise than faithful and true, and if we are intelligent we shall never put ignorant and vile men in office. So the Congress of the United States of America will always be a truly Kepresentative Body. CHAPTER LIII. PUBLIC PRINTING. 1. Among the Institutions of the government is that head- ing this chapter. The amount of printing required to be done for Congress, the various branches of the government, and for the benefit of the people, is very great indeed. All the pro- ceedings of both Houses of Congress as recorded by the secre- taries are required to be printed under authority; since many copies are required by the members and for general purposes. PUBLIC PRINTING. 419 All the laws are printed in great numbers for circulation among the many millions interested ; and when a bill is proposed it requires to be printed for the use of the several hundred mem- bers who need it for examination and study, although it often never becomes a law. 2. The President's Messages, and all the reports of heads of departments and bureaus ; the reports and commissions of army and navy officers, of investigating committees, of various superintendents, agents, and government employees, and many othe*- things are printed, sometimes only for use of Congress ; sometimes for extensive circulation. Thus it is easily seen that the government printing is a heavy expense, and a very large part is indispensable ; though many believe that a judicious selection of documents and a careful study as to the number of some of them printed might largely reduce the expense, without injury to the public welfare. We do not wish to pay for the printing of documents that are never read. It is a waste of the people's money; yet, we must not forget that it is of the utmost importance that the people should become inti- mately acquainted with all the affairs of the government. Per- haps Congress is sometimes wiser than the people, and that many documents are wisely printed, and unwisely left unread by those most interested. Economy and intelligence are to be equally regarded. 3. Until 1860, the government hired men to do this work, and a printer was employed by each house of Congress. But great complaints were made of the enormous expense to which the country was subjected in this item of its expenditures; and at the date named, Congress passed an act establishing a gov- ernment printing office, to be under the direction of a super- intendent of public printing. The sum of $150,000 was appro- priated for the purchase of necessary buildings, machinery, and materials for the purpose. By the provisions of the act it was made the superintendent's duty to overlook all the public printing and binding, not only of Congress, but of all the departments, and of the United States courts ; to purchase all 420 SIGNAL SERVICE. necessary materials and to employ all the workmen required And that Congress may know how the establishment is con- ducted and at what expense, the superintendent is required to report to Congress at the commencement of every session, the work done, the number of hands employed, and the exact state and condition of the establishment. He is prohibited from paying more for work done in this office than is given for the same services in private printing offices in Washington. 4. The superintendent is also charged with the duty of pro- curing all blank books, maps, drawings, diagrams, views, and charts, which may be ordered by Congress, or by the heads of departments and bureaus. But the superintendent himself is not left to act always as he may think proper, for in many cases he must have the approval of the joint committee on printing of both Houses of Congress. 5. This is a very proper effort to curtail expenses. It remains to be seen how successful it may be. The constant watchful oversight of the Sovereign People can alone succeed in keeping all things in due order. When the representatives of the people become careless and wasteful the admonition of the people is never without its effect. CHAPTER LIV. THE SIGNAL SERVICE. 1. The present organization of this institution dates froa the beginning of the civil war, and was originally purely mili- tary in its aims and purposes. It is still conducted by the War Department, and partly for its own purposes ; but its value to agricultural and commercial interests is constantly becoming more apparent and more extensive, and will probably, in the end, so overshadow its military relations as to reduce them to a very subordinate place in importance. The civil uses of this service are based on the science of meteorology, which is largely occupied with weather changes, the/ SIGNAL SERVICE. 421 progress, and laws of Storms. Its value to the people consists in its accurate prediction of changes in the weather, and the warning it is able to give, sometimes many hours or even days in advance, of dangerous storms. Its estimate of weather probabilities, based on observations reported daily from promi- nent points covering the whole country, are published in all the daily papers, usually found accurate, and are of great value to certain classes of the people. When a storm threatens to endanger the safety of shipping a signal is displayed in the port to give warning, and much property and many lives are often saved. It makes an accurate and scientific study of the weather and all the laws controlling its changes, by a large corps of enlightened and trained observers, all whose facts, constantly reported, systematized, and studied by competent persons, are likely to produce, in time, a most important and useful body of knowledge on that subject. 2. The objects of the Signal Service require its officials to be connected with the United States army, to have the use of the Electric Telegraph, to be familiar with Meteorology, and skillful in the use of the scientific instruments employed in the study of atmospheric changes. By means of the telegraph, the army, though scattered over the whole country, and especially the frontiers and more inaccessible parts, may be almost instan- taneously, and all at the same time, communicated with. It would be possible, by telegraphs, signals, and railroads, to con- centrate the whole army from the numerous points where its fragments are located, from Maine to Texas, and the Atlantic to the Pacific, at one point in as short a time as it formerly took a body of soldiers to march a hundred miles. 3. It is a singularly striking instance of the vigor and effectiveness of control supplied by science, invention, and modern progress, by which our vast increase in numbers and in extent of territory are neutralized, the interests, sentiments, and habits of the people unified so that sectional jealousies and contests are made rare and slight, and the people of remote parts of the country made practically better acquainted with 422 SIGNAL SERVICE. each other than formerly were the inhabitants of adjoining States. 4. Subordination and thoroughness of system are secured by its connection with the army, which probably also secures its advantages to the country at much less cost than would be the case were it an independent institution. The army is am- bitious to be as useful as possible to the country. There is a Signal School of Instruction and Practice at Fort Whipple, in Ya., which is to this Service what the Military and Naval Academies are to the Army and Navy. The most suitable per- sons are selected from the army or especially enlisted, and care- fully schooled and tested through a sufficiently long period to render them fully competent for the delicate duties imposed on them. 5. There are about 90 Signal Stations, a few being located in Canada and the West Indies. The whole is under the direc- tion of the Chief Signal Officer, who reports to the Secretary of War. There is a large and carefully arranged organization, under constant supervision by competent persons. Several Boards of Examination are employed in selecting suitable persons for the different duties required in the Service, and in testing their advancement toward a thorough fitness for each position to be occupied. The first or lowest grade is for the "field" signal service, requiring a knowledge of army signals and telegraphy this being the original military value of the institution the second grade includes those who are competent to act as assistants to observers in the scientific or meteorological part of the work ; and the third (called Observer Sergeants) includes those who have so complete a knowledge of the scientific principles involved and of the use of the instruments employed as to be fitted to take charge of Stations of Observation, and make the constant and minute reports on which the conclusions of the Central Office are based. The Stations are from time to time inspected, and the whole system kept in the most accurate order. Very much depends on the intelligence and unremitting attention of the Observers- SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 423 This is, probably, the beginning of a work of the greatest practical value to commerce and agriculture. It will continu- ally expand and grow more exact and useful, and from its rela- tions to the diffusion of important and useful knowledge we have placed it with the THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 1. Though there are no doubt many minor failures to meet the wishes, and secure the interests of the people and some, perhaps, that are really serious though in these the people bear a good share of the blame the government has pursued an enlightened policy in respect to the encouragement of Science, and the diffusion of useful knowledge. What it can properly do in the interest of the whole people has been done. The Smithsonian Institution is not wholly a government establish- ment; but the official machinery by which it was at first set in motion, and is continued in operation, belongs to the gov- ernment. The funds with which it was founded, were fur- nished by an individual, and he a foreigner. The history runs thus: A noble-hearted Englishman, whose name was John Smithson, residing in the city of London, bequeathed all his property to the United States of America, for the purpose of founding in Washington an establishment to be known as the " Smithsonian Institution," for the purpose of increasing and diffusing knowledge among men. The United States accepted the bequest, and in 1846 passed an act for the purpose of car- rying out the beneficent design of Mr. Smithson. This act created " an establishment," as it is denominated in the act, by the name before stated. It might have been called a corpora- tion, for it has perpetual succession, and many of the powers incident to a corporation. 2. By this act the President and Vice-President of the United States, the Secretary of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, the Secretary of War, the Secretary of the Navy, the Postmaster General, the Attorney General, and Chief Justice, the Commissioner of the Patent Office, and the Mayor of Washington during the time they shall hold their respective 424 REPORTS. offices, together with such other persons as they may elect honorary members were constituted the establishment under the name of the Smithsonian Institution. 3. It is located at Washington, and is managed by a board of regents, composed of the Vice-President of the United States, the Chief Justice of the United States, the Mayor of Washington, three members of the Senate, and three members of the House of Representatives; together with six other per- sons. The board choose their own officers, and report their proceedings to Congress at each session thereof. 4. In order to carry out Mr. Smithson's noble design of founding this institution, rooms have been prepared for the reception of all objects of art, natural history, plants, and geological and mineralogical specimens which now or here- after may belong to the United States, and such as may here- after be obtained. These are classified and arranged so as to facilitate their examination and study. A vast collection has already been obtained and deposited in the institution, and it is constantly increasing by donations, by the researches and industry of its professors, and by exchanges made with kin- dred institutions at home and abroad. These are open to the examination of the public, and oifer an opportunity to students and others to extend their scientific knowledge. This, together with the reports of its professors, of experiments and new discoveries, make it indeed an institution "for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men." CHAPTER LY. REPORTS. 1. Congress being the law-making power of the govern- ment, it is evident that, to know precisely what laws it is important to enact, to change, or to repeal, they should be kept well informed of all that is done by government officials, and the precise condition of every branch of the public service. REPORTS 425 The President's Messages are of the nature of reports made by the Chief Executive to the legislative body for its informa- tion and guidance. So it is enacted that the Secretaries of State, Treasury, War, Navy, Interior, and Postmaster General, together with the commissioners of the different bureaus, and boards attached to these departments, si mil annually report to ( Ongress. Heads of departments report directly to Congress. So do many of the commissioners who are at the head ot bureaus. Boards report to the heads of departments to which they are attached. 2. In this way Congress is kept advised of whatever is done in every department, bureau, or board, to which any of the public business is entrusted. These reports not only furnish the law-making power with such information as it needs, but serve as a check to any official misconduct. The annual reports of the Secretaries of the Treasury, War, and Navy, together with that of the .Postmaster General, are State papers which rank in importance next to the annual message of the President. To them the people look for a detailed account of the state and condition of those great departments over which these Secretaries preside, and which so materially affect the pecuniary and other great interests of the nation. 3. The foregoing remarks upon reports, throw light upon the movements of the machinery by which the government is operated, and show how officials are held responeible to the superior power. In this connection we may notice another kind of reports, which come from another source After each Congress has convened and organized, the President of the Senate and the Speaker of the House appoint what are denominated the stand- ing committees of each of these bodies. When bills are presented to be passed into laws, or petitions are sent in, they are always referred to the appropriate com- mittee, win cli examines them and reports to the body (of the Senate or House) their conclusions upon the merits or demer- its, propriety or impropriety, of granting the petition, or of passing the bill under consideration. 426 IMPEACHMENT. These reports generally govern the action of Congress when they come to vote upon the passage of the law. But that is not always the case; the body of either House may think differ- ently from its committee, and act contrary to its recommen- dations. CHAPTER LVI. IMPEACHMENT. 1. In the second article, section four, of the Constitution, these words are found : " The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors." 2. Impeachment is a procedure against office holders only,, for the purpose of removing them from office. It inflicts no- other punishment; but the guilty party may afterwards be- prosecuted for his crime in a court of law, and punished in such manner as the law directs. 3. The House of Representatives alone can present charges looking to the trial of an officer of the government by impeach- ment. Its action, in such a case, is similar to that of a Grand! Jury. It charges that the official has violated the law and should be tried, in order, if guilty, to be removed from office. It appoints a committee to conduct the prosecution before the- Senate, to which these charges are presented. 4. The Senate alone has the power to try the accused party. When trying a case of impeachment it acts as a court, and from its decision there is no appeal. The President cannot pardon a criminal who has been impeached. When the Presi- dent of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court presides, but in no other case. No person can be convicted in a trial of impeachment, unless two-thirds of the Senate concur m finding the accused guilty of the alleged offense. THE JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT. This is the third Branch of the government, as determined by the Constitution, and is of supreme importance and dignity ^ Its sphere is to interpret the Constitution, to decide contro- versies, to try offenders and to pronounce sentence on them, to enforce rights, and to keep the whole organism of the government in proper place and proportion. It is attached to the governmental machinery as a Regulator. Without it the other Departments must be the judges of the extent of their own powers; the Constitution would be practically inoperative to prevent inharmonious or mischievious legislation; and the executive would possess the authority to try as well as punish offenses. The officers of this Department of the government are 1 expected to be men of much weight and dignity of character^ of wide legal culture, and are selected for, and continued in$ office under such circumstances as to guarantee, to a fair extent, the requisite distinction and impartiality. All this we shall see as we proceed to analyze its different branches. These consist of the United States Supreme Court, the Circuit Courts, the District Courts, and the Court of Claims. The local courts in the District of Columbia, and the Territorial Courts, though similar to the State Judiciaries, are connected, by their relations to the General Government, with this Department. The importance of this branch of the government has become more evident as time has passed, and the conflict of parties has put the whole to test. The acrimonious party spirit of our early post revolutionary history, which continued into Monroe's administration, was, in great part, the result of a want of due confidence in, and respect for, the judiciary. Experience showed that our people were law abiding, and that the Legislative and Executive powers, equally with the people^ (427) 428 THE SUPREME COURT. were willing to submit to the official interpretation of the Constitution, and all ready to join hands to maintain iU authority. CHAPTEK LVII. THE SUPKEME COUKT. 1. This is the highest tribunal in the United States. If the whole government be figuratively regarded as an arch this is the " Key Stone of the Arch" without which the whole struc- ture would crumble and fall. In all cases of dispute as to the meaning of the Constitution and the range of powers it con- fers or implies, it has sovereign power to decide; and from that decision there is no appeal. Its declaration, as to the mean- ing and application of the Constitution and the body of stat- utes enacted under it, becomes the law of the land. It is the great bulwark against tyranical use of power, and conflicting enactments, whether by National or State Legislatures. 2. This court has one Chief Justice and eight Associate Justices, all appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. They are appointed for life, or during good behavior; they may be impeached for bribery or other high crimes, and then removed from office. They may also resign; but if they conduct themselves properly and choose to retain their offices, there is no power by which they can be removed, except the power of death. The Constitution itself makes this provision, in order that the judges may be removed as far as possible from the influence of party politics. It is therefore expected that their decisions will not be biased by party or political considerations; and it may not be amiss to say that the provisions for keeping the judges of the United States Courts in office for life, meets with almost universal approbation; and has caused many to hope that the States would alter their Constitutions and adopt the same plan; believing it to be the surest way of preserving a pure and THE SUPREME COURT. 429 Independent Judiciary, on which depend the rights and liber- ties of every citizen of the commonwealth. 3. This court holds but one term in a year, which com- mences on the first Monday of December, and sits until it has disposed of the business before it. Its sessions are always held at Washington, the capital of the nation ; there it has access to the Congressional and Law Libraries, and to all the depart- ments and records of the government when necessary. There is a class of causes which may be commenced in this court. In these cases it has original jurisdiction. They are such asaifect ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls, and those in which a State shall be a party. In other cases it has only appellate jurisdiction. The greater part of its busi- ness is to hear and determine appeals from inferior courts, mainly from the United States Circuit Courts; and in some instances from the highest State courts. 4. It has not only original, but exclusive jurisdiction in causes where a State is a party, and when proceedings or suits against ambassadors, or other public ministers or their servants, are instituted. Its power to try appeals from lower courts, called appellate jurisdiction, gives it the position of the high- est court in the nation. It has power also to restrain or to prohibit proceedings in the United States District Courts, when acting as courts of Admiralty; or in cases of maritime jurisdiction. The judges of this court hold the Circuit Courts, and allot themselves among the judicial circuits. The practice and rules of procedure in this court are very similar to those of the Courts of Chancery and- King'b Bench, in England. Issues of fact are tried by jury, the same as in other courts. OFFICERS OF THE COURT 5. The officers of this tribunal are the Judges, the Attcn ney General, a clerk, a crier, and a reporter. The three last named are apiointed by the court. It is the duty of the Mar* 430 THE SUPREME COURT. slial of the District of Columbia to attend this court, and to serve process issuing from it. An Attorney or Counsellor-at-Law, to be admitted to prac- tice in this court, must have been a practitioner in the Supreme Court of the State where he lives. 6. The following are the names of all the Chief Justices >f the Supreme Court of the United States, from its establish- ment to the present time; with the dates of their appoint- ments, and the States from which they were appointed: John Jay, K Y., Sept. 26, 1789. John Eutledge, S. C., July 1, 1795. William dishing, Mass., Jan. 27, 1796. Oliver Ellsworth, Ct., March 4, 1796. /ohn Jay, N. Y., Dec. 19, 1800. '/ohn Marshall, Va., Jan. 27 V 1801. 'Roger B. Taney, Md., Dec. 28, 1835. , Salmon P. Chase, O, Dec. 1864. ! Morrison R. Waite, O., Jan. 21, 1874. ^7. The folio wing are the names of the Associate Justices with the dates of their appointment and the States from which they were appointed: John Rutledge, S. C., 1789. William Cushing, Mass., 1789. Robert H. Harrison, Md., 1789. James Wilson, Pa., 1789. John Blair, Va., 1789. James Iredell, K C., 1790. Thomas Johnson, Md., 1791. William Paterson, K J., 1793. Samuel Chase, Md., 1796. Bushrod Washington, Va., 1798. Alfred Moore, K C., 1799. William JoTinson, S. C., 1804. Brockholst Livingston, K Y., 1807. Thomas Todd, Va., 1807. ^Gabriel Duvall, Md., 1811. 431 ! , . 'V. Joseph Story, Mass., 1811. Smith Thompson, N. Y., 1823. Robert Trimble, Ky., 1823. l'" John McLean, O., 1829. Henry Baldwin. Pa., 1830. James M. Wayne, Ga., 1835. Philip P. Barbour, Va., 1836. John McKiuley, Ala., 1837. John Catron, Tenn., 1837. Peter V. Daniel, Va., 1841. Samuel Nelson, N. Y., 1845. Levi Woodbury, N. H., 1845. Robert C. Grier, Pa., 1846. Benjamin R. Curtis, Mass., 1851. James A. Campbell, Ala., 1853. rt Nathan Clifford, Me., 1858. Noah H. Swayne, O., 1862. Samuel F. Miller, Iowa, 1862. Stephen J. Field, Cal. David Davis, 111., 1862. William Strong, Pa., 1870. Joseph P. Bradley, N. J., 1870. Ward Hunt, N. Y., 1873. John M. Harlan, Ky. CHAPTER LVIII. CIRCUIT COURTS. The next in dignity, power, and jurisdiction are the United States Circuit Courts. While the Supreme Court is always held in Washington, these are held in every State at such times and places as special law of Congress directs. These are often changed so as to accommodate both the people in the States and the judges of the Court. As now arranged, the whole Union is divided into nine circuits, each circuit comprising several States, according to the size and population of the 432 CIRCUIT COURTS. States. The places are arranged with reference to convenience of access by all the people in the circuit. This Court is similar in design and authority to the Supreme Court; indeed it is but a branch of it; the same officers pre- siding, and the same class of questions being adjudicated by it, viz.: those involving Constitutional Law; and this authority, so important to uniformity of interpretation of constitutional provisions, and to the enjoyment of rights guaranteed by that instrument to citizens of all the States, is made pervading is carried within the reach of all. 2. The Circuit Courts are held by the Judges of the Supreme Court, who allot the. circuits among themselves, and then travel each through his own circuit, until he has visited and held a session in every State which lies within it. A Judge of the Supreme Court is the presiding and supreme magistrate in every Circuit Court, but the Judge of the District Court of the district in which the Circuit is held, sits with the Judge of the Supreme Court, as Associate Justice. JURISDICTION. 3. These Courts have both original and appellate jurisdic- tion. Causes may be appealed from the District Courts to the Circuit. They also have concurrent jurisdiction with the State courts, where the matter in dispute exceeds the sum of $500, and the United States are plaintiffs; or where an alien is a party, or where the suit is between citizens of different States. They have exclusive jurisdiction in all cases of crimes against the United States, except where the law especially confers the power on other courts. It extends to all cases under the reve- nue laws of the United States. . 4. There is also a certain class of cases (too tedious to be described here in detail,) which may be removed from State and from District Courts, into these courts, and be tried and determined in the same manner as if they had been commenced here. The officers of Circuit Courts are, first, the Judges; second, die District Attorney of the district in which the court it CIRCUIT COURTS. 433 held; third, the Marshal of the district; and fourth, a Clerk, who is appointed by the court. 5. It may be interesting, and perhaps useful to know how the different circuits are formed, and what States lie in each. They have been from time to time increased in number, as the number of the States increased. In some cases States have Uvn at first placed in one circuit, and afterwards detached and placed in another. 6. By the Acts of 1862 and 1863, the circuits were arranged as follows: First Circuit Khode Island, Massachusetts, Maine and New Hampshire (by Act of 1820.) Second Circuit Vermont, Connecticut, New York (Act of 1837). Third Circuit New Jersey and Pennsylvania. Fourth Circuit Maryland, Virginia, Delaware and North Carolina. Fifth Circuit South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi and Florida. Sixth Circuit Louisiana, Texas, Arlfansas, Kentucky and Tennessee. Seventh Circuit Ohio and Indiana. Eighth Circuit Michigan and Illinois. Ninth Circuit Wisconsin, Missouri, Kansas. Iowa and Min- nesota. Tenth Circuit California and Oregon. But in 1866 this arrangement of the circuits was. again changed; and this was done, we suppose, to make the circuits approximate nearer to the number of Associate Justices, as reduced from nine to six by the same act; for, it was then enacted that hereafter there should be no more Associate Jus- tices of the Supreme Court appointed, until they were reduced (by death or resignation), to six. 7. The circuits by this last act were reduced to nine, and were arranged as follows: First and Second Circuits to remain as before. 28 434 DISTRICT COURTS- The Third was made up of the States of Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Delaware. The Fourth, of Maryland, Virginia, "West Virginia, North Carolina and South Carolina. The Fifth, of Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Loui- siana and Texas. The Sixth, of Ohio, Michigan, Kentucky and Tennessee. The Seventh, of Indiana, Illinois and Wisconsin. The Eighth, of Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas and Arkansas. The Ninth, of California, Oregon and Nevada. Two new States have been admitted since 1866, and others may soon be added; so that the old number of Circuits and Judges may be restored and perhaps increased. CHAPTER LIX. DISTRICT COURTS. 1. We come now to the lowest grade of United States courts, excepting the local courts in the Distrct of Columbia, and the Territorial Courts. A United States District Court is held by a District Judge in every district. Every State con stitutes at least one district, several of the larger States are divided into two, and some into three. There are at the pres- ent time fifty-eight Judicial Districts, and consequently the same number of District Judges, District Attorneys, District Clerks and Marshals. The Judges, Attorneys and Marshals are all appointed by the President and Senate; the Clerks by the respective courts. TERMS. 2. By the law of 1789 every District Judge was required to hold four sessions a year, at such times and in such places as Congress directed. This is done to this day in a great major- ity of the States ; but by later laws, in some of the districts only two or three sessions a year are required. DISTRICT COURTS. 435 JURISDICTION. 3. These courts have exclusive jurisdiction in all admiralty and maritime causes. These relate to maritime contracts, and to crimes against the laws of the United States, committed on the sea and on navigable lakes and rivers. It embraces in this country all contracts respecting vessels and navigation; such as chartering, repairing, and fitting them out, seamen's wages, T\ the Atlantic coast, or on the bays and rivers running into the Atlantic Ocean ; there are also ten ports of delivery. Richmond is the capital. The State election is held on tha VIRGINIA. 461 Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The Legislature meets on the first Monday in December. The enacting clause of the laws of Virginia is: "Beit enacted by the General Assembly." UNITED STATES SENATORS. William Grayson, from 1789 to 1790. Kichard H. Lee, " 1789 " 1792. John Walker, " 1790 1790. James Monroe, " 1790 " 1794. ( 1792 " 1794. John Taylor, -! 1803 1805. ( 1822 " 1824. Stephen T. Mason, " 1794 " 1803. John Tazewell, " 1794 " 1799. Wilson C. Nichols, 1799 u 1804. Abraham B. Venable, " 1803 " 1804. William B. Giles, " 1804 " 1815. Andrew Moore, " 1804 " 1809. Richard Brent, " 1809 1815. James Barbour, " 1815 " 1825. Armistead T. Mason, " 1816 " 1817. JohnW. Eppes, " 1817 " 1819. James Pleasant, " 1819 " 1822. John Randolph, " 1825 1827. Littleton W. Tazewell, " 1824 " 1832. John Tyler, " 1827 " 1836. ( 1832 " 1834. William C. Rives, { Ig36 1846> Benjamin W. Leigh, " 1834 " 1836. Ricl'iard E. Parker, " 1836 " 1837. William H. Roane, " 1837 " 1841. William S. Archer, " 1841 " 1847. Isaac S. Pennybacker, " 1845 " 1847. James M. Mason, " 1847 -" 1861. R. M. T. Hunter, " 1847 18G1. John W. Johnston, " 1870 1883. John F. Lewis, " 1870 1875. Robert E. Withers, " 1875 " 1881. 462 SOUTH CAROLINA. SOUTH CAROLINA. The first permanent settlement in this State was made in 1670, at Port Royal, where the French Huguenots had failed three-quarters of a century before. The noble company who had received a charter for the settlement and government of the Carolinas employed the celebrated philosopher, John Locke, to draw up a philosophical plan of goverment, which they attempted to carry into effect to the great annoyance of the colonists. It proved impracticable, and was finally aban- doned. The French introduced the culture of the vine with success, and rice was brought at an early day from Madagascar, the cultivation of which became extensive. Many vexations were endured by the colonists by the inju- dicious management of the proprietary government, and at length they, by petition, obtained a revocation of the charter, receiving, in 1720, a governor appointed by the crown. They endured for many years all the horrors of warfare with the Tuscarora Indians, whom they finally defeated and expelled Eutledge, Sumpter, and Marion were distinguished leaders of the patriots during the occupation of the State by the British forces ; employing with success a partisan warfare, and defy- ing the efforts of a superior British force to hold the State in subjection. The climate has been likened to that of Italy, and the pro- ducts of the north and of the tropics are equally cultivated. The State abounds in agricultural and manufacturing resources, and has a fine commercial position. South Carolina is one of the original thirteen States> and SOUTH CABOLINA. 463 has an area of 29,385 square miles, making 18,806,400 acres, with a population, in 1870, of 705,606, (over half colored,) which gives her five Members of Congress. By an act of 1866, South Carolina was located in the fourth judicial circuit; it is divided into two judicial districts, called the Eastern and Western. There are three collection districts in this State, and four ports of entry, to-wit: Georgetown, Charleston, Beaufort and Port Royal; but no ports of delivery. The capital is Columbia. The State election is held bien- nially, on the first Tuesday following the first Monday in November. The Legislature meets annually, on the fourth Tuesday in November. The enacting clause of the laws is as follows: "Be it enacted by the Honorable the Senate and House of Representatives, now met and sitting in General Assembly, and by authority f*f the same." UNITED STATES SENATORS. Pierce Butler, from \ 1789 to 1796 ' ( 1S02 " 1804. Ralph Izard, " 1789 u 1795. Jacob Read, " 1795 " 1801. John Hunter, " 1796 " 1798. Charles Pinckney, " 1798 " 1801. Thomas Sumpter, " 1801 " 1810. John E. Calhoun. 1801 " 1802. John Gaillard, " 1804 1826. John Taylor, " 1810 " 1816. wir c -a, $ 1816 " 1823. Wdham Smith, | 1826 M ^ William Harper, " 1826 " 1826. Robert J. Hane, " 1823 " 1832. Stephen D. Miller, " 1831 " 1833. ( 1832 " 1842. John C. Calhoun, | ^ u ^ William C. Preston, " 1833 to .1842. Daniel E. Huger, 1842 1845. 464 MARYLAND. George McDuffie, Andrew P. Butler, Franklin H. Elmore, Robert W. Barnwell, R Barnwell Rhett, William Desaussnre, Josiah Evans, James H. Hammond, James Chestnut, Arthur P. Hayne, Thomas J. Eobertson, Frederick A. Sawyer, John J. Patterson, Manning 0. Butler, Wade Hampton, from 1842 to 1846. 1846 u 1857. 1850 u 1850. 1850 u 1850. 1850 it 1852. 1852 u 1853. 1853 u 1858. 1857 u 1860. 1859. u 1860. 1858. 1859. 1868 u 1877. 1868 a 1873. 1873 u 1879. 1877 K 1883. 1879 H 1885. MARYLAND. This territory at first was included in the patent to the Vir- ginia colony; but was, in 1632, re-patented to Lord Baltimore- an English nobleman, who had embraced the catholic faith, and sought, in the American wilderness, an asylum where he and his co-religionists might enjoy the freedom from persecu- tion denied them in England. It was called Maryland from the queen of Charles I., King of England. A part of this patent was covered by that subsequently made to William Penn, and produced much trouble between the descendants of these men, and their respective colonies. A settlement was commenced, mainly by catholic gentlemen, in 1634, and called St. Mary's, on a branch of the Potomac. The wise liberality that distinguished the settlement of Penn- sylvania marked all the earlier history of Maryland. They cultivated friendly relations with the natives and with their neighbors. Lord Baltimore was liberal in his expenditures for MARYLAND. 4(15 the growing colony, and gave them a liberal government. When the civil war commenced in England, resulting in the death >t' Charles I. and the rise of Cromwell to power, the first troubles of the colonists <>t' Maryland began, and continued until 1716, when the heirs of the original proprietor resumed their rights and maintained them until the Revolution. This State was oneot'the original thirteen, and gave a hearty support, to the patriot side during the war for freedom. The surface of the country is, in great part, low and sandy; the climate agreeable and the soil favorable to agricultural pursuits. Her commercial position is excellent, being situated on either >ide of Chesapeake bay and bounded by the Potomac river on the west. The District of Columbia, containing the National Capital, was located on the last named river within her limits. Maryland has an area of 11,124 square miles equal to 7,119,360 acres. The population in 1870 was 780,894 which gives her six Representatives in Congress. By an act of Con- gress, passed in I860, this State was put in the fourth judicial circuit, which is composed of Maryland, Virginia, "West Vir- ginia, North and South Carolina. Maryland constitutes one judicial district; has ten ports of entry, viz.: Baltimore^ Ches- ter, Oxford. Vienna, Snow-Hill. Annapolis, Nottingham, St. Mary's, Georgetown, and Havre de Grace ; and twelve ports of delivery. Annapolis is the capital. The State election is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The Legislature meets on the first Wednesday in January. The enacting clause of the laws is as follows: " Be it enacted by the General Assembly of Maryland." IMIKI) STATES SENATORS. Chark-* Carroll, ) .. / f /-. m. \ C lrom IlSl) to 1<93 - (of Carrollton) ) John Henry, " 1789 " 1797. Richard Potts, " 1793 f 1796. John E. Howard, " 179<: 1803. 30 466 MARYLAND. James Lloyd, from 1797 to 1800. William Hindman, (( 1800 " 1801. Robert Wright, u 1801 " 1806. Samuel Smith, tt ( 1803 " 1815. Philip Reed, u 1806 1813. R. H. Goldsborough, tt 1 1835 -Lo J_t/ "1 Q O^? Robert G. Harper, u 1816 " 1816. Alexander 0. Hanson, u 1816 " 1819. William Pinckney, (I 1819 " 1822. Edward Lloyd, u 1819 " 1826. Ezekiel F. Chambers, u 1826 " 1835. Joseph Kent, u 1833 " 1838. John S. Spence, 11 1836 " 1841. William D. Merrick, u 1838 1845. John Leeds Ker, u 1841 " 1843. James A. Pearce, tt 1843 " 1862. Reverdy Johnson, ft ( 1845 " 1 1863 1849. 1868. David Stuart, 11 1849 1850. Thomas G. Pratt, H 1850 " 1857. Anthony Kennedy, It 1857 " 1863. Thomas H. Hicks, tt 1862 " 1865. John A. J. Cressweil, tt 1865 " 1867. George Yickers, U 1868 " 1873. William T. Hamilton, tt 1869 " 1875. George R. Dennis, u 1873 1879. Wm. Pinckney Whyte, 11 1 mi " -L Oo -1 1 Q f\ O James B. Groom", tt " 1879 " 1885 NEW HAMl'MllKK. 467 NEW HAMPSHIRE. This State is often called " The Old Granite State," as well from its mountainous character as the resolute spirit of its inhabitants. It is small, having an area of only 9,280 square miles, which make 5,939,200 acres. Its population in 1870 was 318,300, entitling it to three Representatives in Congress. The first settlement was founded at Dover, in 1624, by the English. It suffered much from Indian wars, and its growth was slow. It was made a separate province in 1680, having previously been under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts. It was one of the original thirteen States, and took an active and vigorous part in the Revolutionary War. Its soil is light and unfavorable to agriculture, but furnishes good pasturage and produces fine cattle. It contains the White Mountains, the highest in New England. Its streams are utilized for manufacturing purposes. Quarries of marble and granite abound. Minerals, and precious stones of several vari- eties are found in various parts of the State. The hardy and enterprising sons to whom it has given birth are to be found in every State in the Union. It lies in the first judicial circuit ; constitutes one judicial district ; and is embraced in one collection district, and there- fore has but one port of entry. There are three ports of delivery. The capital is Concord. The Legislature assembles on the first Wednesday in June, the State election being held the second Tuesday in March. The enacting clause of the laws runs thus : " Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives in General Assem- bly convened." 468 NEW HAMPSHIRE. UNITED STATES SENATORS. Paine Wingate, from 1789 to 1793. John Langdon, " 1789 " 1801. Samuel Livermore, " 1793 " 1801. Simeon Olcott, 1801 " 1805. James Sheafe, " 1801 " 1802. William Hummer, 1802 1807. Nicholas Oilman, 1805 " 1814. Nahum Parker, " 1807 1810 Charles Cutts, " 1810 " 1813* Jeremiah Mason, 1813 " 1817. Thomas W. Thompson, " 1814 " 1817, David L. Morrill, 1817 " 1823, Clement Storer, " 1817 " 1819,. John F. Parrott, " 1819 1825, Samuel Bell, " 1823 " 1835. T -*w ^u I 1825 " 1831. Lev! Woodburv, Isaac Hill, " 1831 " 1836. Henry Hubbard, " 1835 " 1841. John Page, " 1836 " 1837. Franklin Pierce, " 1837 " 1842. Leonard Wilcox, 1842 1843. rik Y n. 4*1 !84:3 " 1849. Charles G. Atherson, Benning W. Jenness, " 1845 " 1846. Joseph Cilley, " 1846 " 1847. ( 1847 1853. J hnRHale ' I 1855 i 1865. Moses Norris, 1849 " 1855. Jared W. Williams, 1853 " 1855. John S. Wells, 1855 " 1855. James Bell, 1855 " 1857. Daniel Clark, ' 1857 " 1866. George C. Fogg, " 1866 " 1867. James W. Pate^rson, 1867 " 1873. Aaron H. Cragin, * 1865 " 1877. Bainbridge Wadleigh, 1873 " 1879. E. H. Rollins. " 1877 " 1883 NEW JERSEY. 469 NEW JERSEY. This State was first settled at Bergen by the Swedes sent over by the Christian hero-king, Gustavus Adolphus, in the year 1638. They, however, soon fell under the control of the Dutch, who claimed the territory. The next settlement was made at Elizabethtown, from Long Island,* in 1664. New Jersey came into the hands of the English along with New Netherlands, but soon became an independent province; Philip Carteret becoming its first governor, in 1665. It was for some time under the control of the celebrated Quaker, William Penn, received a liberal form of government, and, not suffering from the Indians enjoyed prosperity for many years. Afterwards it passed through various vicissitudes in its government, was for a time joined to New York, but recovered its independent existence in 1738; and was one of the original thirteen States, taking a, very prominent part in the Revolution. Its territory, lying between New York and Philadelphia, was the field on which the hostile armies fought and manouvered, for some years. It ratified the Constitution unanimously, December 18th, 1787. It has been rewarded for its patriotism and devo- tion to liberty by unbroken prosperity. Its manufactures are in a flourishing state. Its vicinity to the great commercial centres of the Atlantic coast; the mildness of its climate, and the adaptation of its soil to the growth of fruit and vegetables have made it the Garden State of the Union. Its agricultural wealth is much increased by its abundant- beds of marl and peat. The extreme north is hilly and the extreme south low and sandy. Education receives much attention. It has an area of 8,320 square miles, or 5,324,800 acres. 470 NEW JERSEY. The population, bj the census of 1870, was 906,096, which gives her seven Kepresentatives in Congress. This State lies in the third judicial circuit, and forms one judicial district. There are six ports of entry, and as many collection districts; and also eight ports of delivery. Its capital is Trenton. The State election is held on the Tuesday aftei the first Monday in November, and the Legisla- ture assembles the second Tuesday in January. The form of the enacting clause is as follows: "Be it enacted by the Senate and General Assembly of the Ste*e of New Jersey." UNITED STATES SENATORS. Jonathan Elmer, from 1789 to 1791. William Patterson, 1789 " 1790. Philemon Dickerson, " 1790 " 1793. John Rutherford, " 1791 " 1798. Fred'k Frelinghuysen, " 1793 " 1796. Richard Stockton, " 1796 " 1799. Franklin Davenport, " 1798 " 1799. James Schureman, " 1799 " 1801. Jonathan Dayton, " 1799 " 1805. Aaron Ogden, " 1801 1803. JohnCondit, " 1803 " 1811. Aaron Kitchell, 1805 " 1809. John Lambert, " 1809 " 1815. Mahlon Dickerson, " 1817 " 1833. James J. Wilson, " 1815 1821. a i T c ^ A i 1821 " 1823. Samuel L. Southard, I 1833 1841. Joseph Mcllvaine, " 1823 " 1826. Thos. Frelinghuysen, " 1829 " 1835. Ephraim Bateman, " 1826 " 1829. Garret D. Wall, 1835 " 1841. Jacob Miller, " 1841 " 1853. William L. Dayton, " 1842 " 1851. John B. Thompson, " 1853 " 1863. MASSACHUSETTS. William Pennington, from William Wright, " Robert F. Stockton, " John C. TenEyck, " Richard S. Field, James W. Wall, John P. Stockton, " F. T. Frelinghuysen, " Alexander G. Cattell, " John P. Stockton, " F. T. Frelinghuysen, " Theo. F. Randolph, J. R. McPherson, " 471 1858 to 1858. 1853 u 1859. 1863 u 1866. 1851 u 1853. 1859 u 1865. 1862 u 1863. 1863 11 1863. 1865 u 1866. 1867 u 1869. 1866 M 1871. 1869 u 1875. 1871 (1 1877. 1875 ft 1881. 1877 u 1883. MASSACHUSETTS. The " Bay State," so named from the deep encroachments of the sea on her eastern border, was settled in 1620, at Ply- mouth, by English Puritans; a class of sternly pious men, who abandoned England to find freedom of worship in the savage wilds of America. They were men of great resolution and intelligence, and succeeded in imbuing the new colony with a fair degree of their own virtue. They suffered much, at first, from deprivation of the comforts they had left in England, and from the hostility of the Indians. They were too much in earnest to be tolerant, and persecutions of pretended witches, of Quakers and Baptists, have given them an unenviable notoriety. This State was a leading one among the original thirteen, and the first to take up arms and to be invaded by the British forces at the commencement of the War of the Revolution, Her influence on the national character has been great. 472 MASSACHUSETTS. This State is the first in the Union for cotton and woolen man- ufactures, its cotton mills alone employing about twenty-five thousand hands. In extent of all its manufactures it is third in the Union. The soil is sterile in great part, but the energy of the people finds abundant other sources of wealth. Com- merce and fisheries receive much attention, and produce much wealth. Education is carefully attended to, and its public school sys- tem a model for other States. She has an area of 7,800 square miles. Her population in 1870 was 1,457,351, and entitles her to eleven Members of Congress. It is in the first judicial circuit, and forms one judicial district. There are fourteen ports of entry, and twenty-five ports of delivery in this State. Boston is the Capital, the metropolis of New England, and an important center of intellectual and business energy. The Legislature meets on the first Wednesday in January, and the State elections are held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The enacting clause is: "Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives, in General Court assembled, and by ftie authority of the same, as follows: " UNITED STATES SENATORS. Tristram Dalton, from 1789 to 1791. Caleb Strong, " 1789 u 1796. George Cabot, " 1791 " 1796. Theo. Sedgewick, 1796 " 1799. Benj. Goodhue, 1796 " 1800. Samuel Dexter, " 1799 " 1800. Dwight Foster, " 1800 " 1803 Jonathan Mason, " 1800 " 1803. John Q. Adams, " 1803 " 1808. Timothy Pickering, 1803 " 1811. ( 1808 " 1813. JamesL1 ' yd ' I 1822 1826. Joseph B. Yarnum, " 1811 " 1817. Christopher Gore, " 1813 " 1816. CONNECTICUT. 473 Eli P. Ashman, Harrison Gray Otis, Prentiss Mellen, Elijah H. Mills, Nathaniel Silsbee, Daniel Webster, Rufus Choate, John Davis, Isaac C. Bates, Robert C. Winthrop, Robert Rantoul, Edward Everett, Julius Rockwell, Henry Wilson, Charles Snmner, George S. Boutwell, William Washburn, Henry L. Dawes, George F. Hoar, from 1816 to 1818. u 1817 " 1822. u 1818 1820. u 1820 " 1827. 11 1826 " 1835. It ( 1827 " t 1845 1841. 1850. 11 1841 " 1845. it ( 1835 " 1841. ( 1845 1853. It 1841 " 1845. tt 1850 " 1851. tl 1851 " 1851. It 1853 < k 1854. It 1854 1855. tt 1855 " 1873. tt 1851 " 1874. It 1873 " 1877. tl 18T4 " 1875. tt 1875 1881. 1877 1888. CONNECTICUT. This State takes its name from its principal river, which, entering from the north, runs through the State nearly in the center. It was settled in 1633 from Massachusetts, the fer- tility of the valley of the Connecticut attracting them to brave the perils of conflict with the Indians, and with the Dutch, settled where New York now stands, who laid claim to it. The Dutch withdrew, the Indians were subdued in many bloody 474 CONNECTICUT. battles, and a Puritan State exceeding, if possible, the relig- ions strictness of the Massachusetts colony, and not behind her in energy, in virtue, in attention to education, and love of lib- erty soon grew up to wealth and prosperity. A decisive battle in 1636, on the Mystic river, annihilated the Pequod Indians. Connecticut, in 1700, followed the example set by Massachu setts in 1638, by founding Yale college, which, to this day y very fairly rivals Harvard in the former State. Both have contributed largely to the intelligence and culture of the Ameri- can people. It took a leading part in the Revolution ; ratified the constitution June 9th, 1788; and has displayed the zeal in promoting the public good that has been so prominent in, the cultivation of her educational and material interests. The surface of the State is uneven and rocky. Manufactures and commerce are the leading interests, although agriculture is not neglected. It is rich in minerals. Gold, silver, lead, iron,, copper and bismuth are found, while marble, of fine quality, and granite abound. Its area is small, embracing only 4,674 square miles, or 2,991,360 acres. It has four representatives in Congress. The population in 1870 was 537,454. It is part of the second judi- cial circuit, and constitutes one judicial district. She has five ports of entry, and five collection districts, with twenty-two ports of delivery. The beautiful city of Hartford is the capital, and the State election is held biennially on the Tuesday after the first Mon- day in November. The Legislature meets annually on the Wednesday following the first Monday in January. The enacting clause runs thus: "Be it enacted by the Sen- ate and House of Representatives in General Assembly con- vened." UNITED STATES SENATORS. Oliver Ellsworth, from 1789 to 1796. William S. Johnson, " 1789 " 1791. Roger Sherman, " 1791 " 1793. DELAWARE. 475 S. M. Mitchell, from 1793 to 1795. Jonathan Trumbull, " 1795 " 1796. Uriah Tracey, " 1796 " 1807. J. Hillhouse, " 1796 " 1810. C. Goodrich, " 1807 " 1813. S. W. Dana, " 1810 " 1821. David Doggett, " 1813 " 1819. James Lanman, " 1819 " 1825. E. Boardman, " 1821 " 1823. H. W. Edwards, 1823 " 1827. Calvin Willey, " 1825 " 1831. Samuel A. Foot, " 1827 " 1833. G. Tomlinson, 1831 " 1837. Nathan Smith, " 1833 " 1835. 1835 1839 ' John M. Niles, ( 1843 " 1849. Perry Smith, " 1837 " 1843. Thaddeus Betts, " 1839 " 1840. J. W. Huntington, " 1840 " 1847. R. S. Baldwin, " 1847 " 1851. Truman Smith, " 1849 " 1854. Isaac Toucey, " 1852 " 1857. Francis Gillette, " 1854 " 1855. L. S. Foster, " ^855 " 1867. James Dixon, " 1857 " 1869. Orris S. Ferry, " 1867 1876. W. A. Buckingham, " 1869 " 1875. Wm. W. Eaton, " 1875 " 1881. W. H. Barnuin, lS7rt " 1879. Orville II. Platt, " 1879 - 1877. James E. Bailey, " 1876 " 1881. Isham G. Harris, " 1877 " 1883. OHIO. The first permanent settlement in this important State was made on the 7th day of April, 1788. Though this fine territory lay nearest to the most populous and enterprising of the origi- nal States, the intrigues of the French before the Revolution, the hostility to which they excited the Indians, and the diffi- culties arising from the various claims of different States to 486 OHIO. the lands, which rendered titles insecure, prevented any per- manent settlement until about the time when the present Constitution of the United States was originated. All these difficulties were now removed, and emigration, long restrained, rushed like a flood down the Ohio. 20,000 persons, during this year (1788), passed down the river in pursuit of new homes. Cincinnati and many other places were settled about this time. From 1790 to 1795 there was much suffering from the hostility of the Indians ; but this period having passed, the settlements multiplied and grew apace. The settlers were, in large part, from New England ; accus- tomed to wring a thrifty living from a rocky soil ; 1817 tt 1818. j 1818 ( 1843 u 1824. 1849. ly, " 1824 tt 1829. tt > 1824 a 1833. it J 1829 u 1831. 1, " 1831 it 1835 u 1833 tt 1837. u ^ 1835 < 1841. 1837 " 1842. a 1841 it 1847. a i 1842 tt 1843. it ( 1847 ( 1849 tt tt 1847. 1853 s, " 1847 a 1853. u 1853 tt 1861. ^ " 1853 tt 1861. a 1868 a 1871. a j 1868 u 1873. \ 1877 u 1883. " 1871 " 1877. u 1877 u 1879. tt 1879 tt 1885 INDIANA. 1. Indiana was first explored by the enterprising Frer jh Jesuits, who highly appreciated the beauty, resources, and grand future of the vast Mississippi valley. Wiser than their sovereign, Louis XI V., they would have taken firm and effectual possession of all this region, from the Great Lakes to the Gulf, INDIANA. g] but Lonis was too much occupied with his palaces, the splen- dor of hre court, the banishment of Protestants, and war with his neighbors to lend a due support to their plans. They explored the region in 1682, formed a settlement at Vincent H- in 1730, and made friends of the Indians. The career of the French, in Europe and America, was checked by the extrava- gance of the Court, and disastrous wars; and this little colony remained for nearly three generations solitary and stationary in the wilderness; fraternizing with the Indians and enjoying life as only the French can under such dreary circumstances. 2. After the Revolution all this region was included in the Northwest Territory. The grim earnestness of the Americans in pushing their fortunes alarmed, without conciliating, the Indians, and for a long time a deadly struggle alone could pre- serve the growing settlements from total extinction. The brave and talented Tecumseh and his twin brother, the Prophet, made a desperate effort to drive back or exterminate tlie set- tlers; but they were conquered, and the Indians retreated, step by step, before the advancing flood of emigration. In 1809 Indiana was erected into a separate Territory, and admitted into the Union as a separate State on the llth of Dec., 1816. It is 275 miles long by 135 in width. The surface is mainly level or gently undulating; the irregularities in the southern part, seldom rising more than two hundred feet, but with a rocky foundation to the soil, presenting many advantages to manu- factures along the streams; these facilities are increased by the extent and value of bituminous coal deposits which underlie nearly one-fourth of the area of the State. 3. Indiana has a happier mixture of prairie and woodland than any other western State. Its commercial facilities are great. Reaching Lake Michigan on the northwest, Chicago forms a fine metropolis for the northern parts; while the Ohio on the south furnishes cheap transportation to Cincinnati and Pittsburg toward the east, or New Orleans to the southwest. Lying between the fertile and busy regions west and the great eastern markets, it is crossed in all directions by railroads. It .92 INDIANA. is in the centre of the most highly favored part of the Union, and its advantages and resources seem boundless. Its staple in agriculture is corn, but all the grains, vegetables, and fruits of the temperate zone are raised with success. The climate is mild, but it lies in the region of variableness in weather char- acterizing all the western States in its latitude. The resources of the State have been in a course of rapid and uninterrupted development for 60 years, but they are so great, and there are so many other inviting fields luring emi- grants further west, that a comparatively small part of its wealth has yet been reached. There is a magnificent provision for education, and its intelligent and enterprising citizens are worthy of the Great Republic. 4. Indiana was the nineteenth State in the Union. She has an area of 33,809 square miles, equal to 21,637,760 acres. Hei population in 1870 was 1,680,637, which entitles her to thirteen Representatives in Congress. Indiana is the seventh judicial circuit, and forms one judicial district. There is no port of entry in this State; but there are three ports of delivery, to-wit: Evansville, New Albany, and Madison- which are attached to the New Orleans collection district. The capital is Indianapolis. The State election is held on the second Tuesday of October. The Legislature meets only once in two years, on the first Wednesday of January. The enacting clause of her laws is in these words : " Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Indiana." UNITED STATES SENATORS. James Noble, from 1816 to 1831. W.Taylor, 1816 " 1825. W. Hendricks, " 1825 " 1837. R. Hanna, " 1831 " 1831. John Tipton, 1831 " 1839. O. H. Smith, 1837 " 1843. A. S. White, " 1839 " 1845. E. A. Hannegan, " 1843 " 1849. J. D. Bright, " 1845 " 1862. J. "Whitcomb, from 1849 to 1852. C. W. Cathcart, M 1852 " 1853. John Petti t, " 1853 " 1855. G. N. Fitch, 1857 " 1861. H. A. Lane, " 1861 " 1867. D. Turpee, " 1863 " 1863. J. A. Wright, " 1862 1863. T. A. Plendricks, " 1863 " 1869. O. P. Morton, 1867 " 1877, Daniel D. Pratt, " 1869 " 1875. Joseph E. McDonald, " 1875 1881. Daniel W. Voorhees, <: 1*77 " 1885 MISSISSIPPI. This State was explored by De Soto, a companion of Pizarro, in his cruel conquest of Peru, in 1541, and later by the enter- prising French governor of Canada, La Salle, in 1684. The first settlement was made by the French, at Natchez, in 1716. It was one of a chain of settlements by which they proposed to connect the basins of the St. Lawrence and the great lakes with the Mississippi valley and the Gulf of Mexico. The Natchez Indians gave the early colonists great trouble, but were finally so completely conquered that the national name became extinct, the few remnants surviving, becoming incorporated with other tribes. They were supposed to have anciently emigrated from Mexico or South America, some of their customs being similar to those of the Peruvians. In 1763 the French ceded all this territory to England, except that of Louisiana, which became the possession of Spain. The Choctaw Indians held possession of the northern part of the State for a long time, and became considerably civilized. The northern part of the State is prairie, the soil being 4!)4 MISSISSIPPI. extremely rich, while the south is sandy. The surface is gen- erally level or undulating. Commerce and agriculture form its principal resources; though neither have been highly devel- oped. Cotton is the principal staple. It is remarkably well adapted to the growth of fruit, though it has been very little cultivated. The State is well supplied with railroads, which, with the Mississippi flowing the whole length of her western boundary, furnish ample transportation for all the produce o- her fertile soil. The Territory of Mississippi became a State in 1817; mak- ing the twentieth State. The area is 47,156 square miles, equal to 30,179,840 acres. The population in 1870 numbered 827,922 ; which entitles her to six Representatives in Congress. The State lies in the fifth judicial circuit, and is divided into two judicial districts, viz. : the Northern and Southern districts of Mississippi. She has three ports of entry, viz.: Natchez, Vicksburg, and one near the mouth of Pearl river, to be estab- lished whenever the President may direct; also three ports of delivery, viz.: Grand Gulf, Ship Island and Columbus. Jackson is the capital. The State election is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November, and her Legisla- ture meets biennially on the Tuesday after the first Monday in January. The enacting clause of the laws is in these words: "Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the State of Mississippi in General Assembly convened." UNITED STATES SENATORS. Walter Leake, from 1817 to 1820. Thomas H. Williams, " \ 1817 " 1829 ' I 1838 " 1839. David Holmes, " 1820 " 1825. Powhattan Ellis, 1825 " 1833. Thomas B. Reed, " 1826 " 1829. Robert Adams, " 1830 " 1830. George Poindexter, 1830 1835. John Black, 1832 " 1838. ILLINOIS. 95 R. J. Walker, from 1835 to 1845. James F. Trotter, " 1838 " 1838. John Henderson, " 1839 " 1845. Jesse Speight, 1845 " 1847. Joseph W. Chambers, 1845 " 1847. Jefferson Davis, j 18 ^ " 1851 ' \ 1857 " 1861. Henry S. Foote, " 1847 " 1853. John W. Rea, " 1851 " 1851. Walter Brooks, " 1852 " 1852. Albert G. Brown, 1854 " 1861. Stephen Adams, " 1852 " 1857. Henry R. Revels, " 1869 " 1871. James L. Alcorn, " 1871 " 1877. Adelbeit Ames, " " 1875. Henry R. Pease, " 1877. Branch K. Bruce, " 1875 " 1881. L. Q. C. Lamar, " 1877 " 1883. ILLINOIS. Illinois was first visited by Europeans in the persons of French Jesuit missionaries in the year 1672, who explored eastern Wisconsin and northern Illinois in that year. The oldest permanent settlement in the valley of the Mississippi was made at Kaskaskia, in this State, in the year 1720, by the French. The name of the State is derived from the aboriginal inhabitants. In the Indian dialect it was " Illini,' 1 and signi- fied a perfectly formed man. The French settlers changed the name to Illinois. This State was formed from what was known as the Northwestern territory, and was the twenty-first of tne American Union. It was admitted and became an independ- ent State on the 3d dav of December, 1818. It has an area of ILLINOIS. 55,405 square miles, equal to 35,459,200 acres. Its popula- tion in 1870 was 2,539,891. Extending through more than five degrees of latitude, Illinois lias quite a variety of climate. The surface is level. The soil is fertile and the agricultural capabilities of this State are not surpassed by any sister State, if indeed by any portion of earth's surface, of equal extent. Her staple products are corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, hay, and products of the dairy, besides large quantities of fruit. The State is rich in minerals. A large portion of the lead pro- ducing region of the country is in this State. Bituminous coal is found in almost every county in the State. Copper is found in large quantities in the north, and iron in both south and north. Lime, zinc, marble of excellent quality, freestone, gypsum, and other minerals, are found in various parts. The State is entitled to nineteen representatives in Congress, and forms a part of the seventh judicial circuit. It forms two judicial districts, viz.: northern and southern. It has one port of entry, Chicago, and four ports of delivery, viz.: Alton, Quincy, Cairo, and Peoria. The capital is Springfield. The State election is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The legislature meets biennially on the first Mon- day in January. The enacting clause of the laws is as follows: " Be it enacted by the people of the State of Illinois represented in the General Assembly." UNITED STATES SENATORS. J.B.Thomas, from 1818 to 1829. N. Edwards, 1818 " 1824. John McLean, \ 1824 " 1825 ' ( 1829 " 1830. D. J. Baker, " 1830 1 month. E. K. Kane, " 1825 to 1835. J. M. Kobinson, " 1830 " 1841. W. L. D. Ewing, " 1835 " 1837. K. M. Young, " 1837 " 1843. S. McEoberts, " 1841 " 1843. J. Semple, " 1843 " 184T. ALABAMA. Sidney Breese, from 1843 to 1849. S. A. Douglas, 1847 " 1861. James Shields, " 1849 " 1855. L Truinbnll, 1855 " 1873. O. II. Browning, u 1861 " 1863. W. A. Richardson, " 1863 " 1865. Richard Yates, " 1865 " 1871. John A. Logan, 1871 " 1877. Richard J. Oglesby, " 1873 " 1879. David Davis, 1877 " 1883. John A. Logan, 1879 " 1885 4H7 ALABAMA. Thib State was. at first, held by Georgia under her colonial charter, but was given up to the general government, in 1802, for the sum of $1,250,000. It then became a part of the Mississippi territory, but was separated when Mississippi became a State, in 1817. It was settled in 1711, at Mobile, by the French, it being a part of the territory explored and claimed for France by La Salle in 1684. The Indian name of Alabama means " Here we rest." Its soil can scarcely be excelled for fertility in the world. It has every variety of climate, from the high and stern severity of a mountain region in the north, through all gradations, to the heat and luxuriant vegetation of the tropics along the southern coast. The center abounds in coal and iron, and various other minerals are found in abundance. Until the Revolution it was a hunting ground for the Indians. Being then stirred up by British emissaries, and threatening the security of the frontiers, they were severely chastised. After the return of peace, when the growing wealth and jx>pu- 32 408 ALABAMA. lation of the original States excited them to enterprise, the territory invited population by its surpassing fertility, and it graduated to the importance of a sovereign State by admission into the Union, Dee. 14th, 1819, forming the twenty-second State. It has an area of 50,722 square miles, equal to 32,462,080 acres, and had a population in 1870 of 996,992, by which she is entitled to eight Representatives. It forms a part of the fifth judicial circuit, and is divided into three judicial districts, the Northern, Middle and Southern. It has one port of entry, (Mobile,) and two ports of delivery, viz.: Tuscumbia and Selma. . The capital of the State is Montgomery. The State election is held on the Tuesday after the first Mon- day in November. The Legislature meets on the third Monday in November. The enacting clause of its laws is as follows : " Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the State of Alabama, in General Assembly convened." UNITED STATES SENATORS. William R. King, from ] " * 1848 " 1852 1S19 " 1822 1822 " 1825 1825 " 1826 1826 " 1826 1826 " 1831 Gabriel Moore^ " 1831 " 1837 Clement C. Clay, " 1837 " 1841 Arthur P. Bagby. 1841 " 1848 Dixon H. Lewis, 1844 " 1848 Benjamin Fitzpatrick, " Joli n W. Walker, Win. Kelly, Henry Chambers, Israel Pickens, John McKinley, Jeremiah Clemens, 1849 " 1853 Clement C. Clay, Jr., " 1853 " 1861 Willanl Warner, " 1868 " 1871 Geoi-ije Goldthwaite, < 1872 " 1S77 George E. Spencer, " 1868 " ls7i) John T. Morgan, 1877 " 1883 George S. Houston, 1879 " 1885 MAINK. MAINE. This State forms the northeastern boundary of the Republic; Canada and New Brunswick lying north and east. It was at first a province, granted by charter to Sir Ferdinand Gorges, by the King of England, in 1638; but was united with Mas- sachusetts by purchase in 1652. It was settled by the English, at Bristol, in 1625. It was admitted as a State into the Union March loth, 1820, being the twenty-third in order of admis- sion. It contains 31,766 square miles, or 20,330,240 acres in area. In 1870 the population was 626,915. It has no\v five Representatives in Congress. The northern part of this State is almost a wilderness, and furnishes large quantities of lumber, which are floated down her large rivers, and supplied, in great abundance, to the Atlantic seaports, and the West Indies. Ship-building is an extensive branch of industry, the great length and irregular line of coast forming numerous harbors. It has extensive fisheries, and a large sea-faring population. Its numerous streams are highly favorable to manufactures, though compara- tively little has as yet been done in this direction. The climate is severe and the soil somewhat sterile, so that it ranks low as an agricultural State. It has received comparatively few additions to its population by. foreign immigration ; and its inhabitants are mainly from the old English stock, and the State ranks high in morality. It depletes itself by furnishing, like many other of the older States, annually, a large number of vigorous, enterprising young men to settle the new and fertile regions of the west. It forms part of the first judicial circuit, and constitutes 500 MAINE. one judicial district. It has thirteen ports of entry, and thirty- two ports }f delivery. The capital is Augusta, on the Kennebec river. The State elections are held on the second Monday of Sep- tember ; and the Legislature meets on the first Wednesday of January in each year. The enacting clause of its laws is : '' Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives, in Legislature assem- bled." UNITED STATES SENATORS. John Holmes, from 1820 to 1833. John Chandler, 1820 " 1829. Albion P. Harris, 1827 " 1829. Pcleg Spragne, " 1829 k < 1835. Ether Shepley, 1833 " 1836. John Buggies, " 1835 " 1841. Judah Dana, " 1836 " 1837. Reuel Williams, " 1837 " 1843. George Evans, " 1841 " 1847. John Fairfield, " 1843 " 1847. Wynan B. S. Moore, " 1848 " 1848. James W. Bradbury, " 1847 " 1853. ( 1848 " 1857. Hannibal Hamlin, j 1857 " 1861. ( 1869 " 1881. Amos Nourse, 1857 " 1857. wir T> T? j 1853 " 1864. William P. Fessenden, { ^ u ^ Lot M. Morrill, 1861 " 1877. Nathan A. Farwell, " 1864 1865. J. G. Blaine, " 1876 " 1883. MISSOURI. 501 M ISSO U RI. Tliis State was first settled by the French, at or near the pres- ent capital, in the year 1719. Here a fort was established, called Fort Orleans, and the neighboring lead mines were worked the next year. St. Genevieve, the oldest town in the State, was settled in 1755, and St. Louis in 1764. In 1763 it, with all the territory west of the Mississippi, was assigned by treaty to Spain. This territory was ceded back to France in 1801, and with Louisiana, was purchased by the United States in 1803. It remained a part of Louisiana until the admission of the State of that name, when the remaining portion of that purchase was called Missouri. In 1821 it was admitted into the Union, forming the twenty-fourth State. This State has an area of 67,380 square miles, equal to 43,123,200 acres. Her population in 1870 was 1,721,295, entitling her to thir- teen Representatives in Congress. The climate of Missouri is variable; in winter the thermom- eter sinks below zero ; the summers are excessively hot ; the air is dry and pure. The State is quite as healthful as any in the west. The soil is good and of great agricultural capabili- ties. The great staple is Indian corn. The other products cultivated largely are hemp, wheat, oats, tobacco. Sheep and cattle are considerably raised, and fruit culture is successful. This State is in the eight judicial circuit ; and forms two judicial districts, the Eastern and Western. It has no port of entry, and but one port of delivery, St. Louis. The capital is Jefferson City. The State election is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November, and the Legislature meets biennially Wed. after 1st Mon. in Jan. The 502 MICHIGAN. enacting clause of the laws is: " Be it enacted by the G neraJ Assembly of the State of Missouri as follows." UNITED STATES SENATORS. Thomas H. Benton, from 1821 to 1851. David Barton, " 1821 " 1831. Alexander Buckner, " 1831 " 1833. Lewis F. Linn, 1833 " 1843. it -A T? A* v,- ( 1843 " 1849. David R Atchison, J ^ 15. (rratz Brown, " 1863 " 1867. Henry S. Geyer, " 1851 1857. Trusten Polk, " 1857 " 1861. James S. Green, " 1856 " 1861. Waldo P. Johnson, " 1861 <> 1862. John B. Henderson, " 1862 " 1869. Charles D. Drake, " 1867 " 1871. CarlSchurz, " 1869 " 1875. Francis P. Blair, " 1871 " 1873. Lewis V. Bogy, " 1873 " 1877. Frank M. Cockrell, 1875 1881. David H. Armstrong, " 1S77 " 1879. James Shields, " 1879 1879 George G. Vest, " 1879 " 1885 MICHIGAN. The name of this State is a contraction of two words in the Chippewa language, meaning " Great Lake," and was applied, by the Indians, to the two surrounding the lower peninsula. It was explored by Jesuit missionaries, who established nume- rous missions among various Indian tribes, and pushed their way, through perils and fatigues, west to the Mississippi, which they followed far north and south ; to be soon outstripped by the adventurous La Salle. Detroit was founded about 1701. MICHIGAN. :,OS Phe settlements made little progress under French rule ; and when, in 17(53, it passed under English control, the conspiracy of Pontiac nearly destroyed them. It was not till 1796 that the United States government took possession of the territory. Its growth was much retarded by the war of 1812, when it endured, for two years, all the barbarities of Indian war. A territorial government was organized in 1805. In 1818- the lands were brought into the market, since which its pros- perity has been uninterrupted. It is remarkable in its position r and eminently so by its resources. The southern peninsula is very productive. The northern peninsula contains the rich- est copper mines in the world, and unlimited supplies of iron,, while the quantity of the finest lumber, and the facilities for transporting it are superior. The fish taken in its lakes are excellent and abundant; its people are enterprising and intel- ligent ; and its State authorities have 'established one of the- best Universities in the Union. Its future promises to become: equal at least to that of the most favored State. The Territory of Michigan was changed into a State pre- liminarily June 15, 1836, and was fully admitted to an equality* with all the States January 26, 1837, making the twenty- fifth State (Arkansas was admitted on the same da}-). Her area is 56,243 square miles, equal to 35,995,520 acres. The population in 1870 was 1,184,059, which entitles her to nine Representatives in Congress. By an act of 1866, Michigan was located in the sixth judicial circuit; and forms two judicial districts, and has four collection districts and four ports of entry, viz.: Detroit, Port Huron, Grand Haven, and Michilimackinac; also five ports of delivery (if the President deem them neces- sary). The capital is Lansing. The State election is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The Legislature meets biennially on the first Wednesday in January. The enacting clause of the laws is as follows : " The people of the State of Michigan eiw* *' 504 ARKANSAS. UNITED STATES SENATOKS. Lucius Lvon, John Nor vail, Augustus S. Porter, William Woodbridge, Lewis Cass, Alpheus Felch, Thomas Fitzgerald, Charles E. Stewart, Zachariah Chandler, Kinsley S. Bingham, Jacob M. Howard, Thomas "W. Ferry, Isaac P. Christianey, Henry P. Baldwin, from 1836 to 1839. 1836 " 1841. 1839 " 1845. 1841 - 1847. i 1845 " 1848. \ 1849 " 1857. 1847 " 1853. 1848 " 1849. 1853 " 1859. \ 1857 " 1875. ( 1879 " 1879. 1859 " 1861. 1862 . 1871. 1871 1883. 1875 " 1879. 1879 " 1881. ARKANSAS. Arkansas was originally a portion of the Territory of Louis- iana. It remained a part of that territory until 1812, when the present State of Louisiana was admitted into the Union. The remainder of the territory was then formed into the Mis- souri Territory, and so remained until 1821 when Missouri was admitted into the Union, and Arkansas was erected into a separate territory, bearing the present name. In 1836, a State constitution was formed at Little Rock, and Arkansas became a State in the Union. It constituted the twenty-sixth State. It has an area of 52,193 square miles, equal to 33,406,- 720 acres. The population in 1870 was 484,471, which entitles her to four Representatives in Congress. The eastern portion of the State, extending bfiek one hundred miles from the Mis- sissippi, is generally a vast plain covered with marshes, swamps, ARKANSAS. 505 and lagoons. The Ozark mountains which enter the north- west part of the State divide it into two unequal parts, of which the northern has the climate and productions of the Northern States, while the southern portion, in climate and productions, resembles Mississippi and Louisiana. The low- lands of Arkansas are unhealthy, while the more elevated por- tions of the State will compare favorably with the most health- ful and invigorating portions of the Northwest. There is a gmit variety of soil in this State. While some portions, like the river bottoms, are exceedingly fertile, other parts are sterile and barren. The staple products are Indian corn, cotton and live stock. Arkansas gives indications of rich mineral resources. This State lies in the eighth judicial circuit, and forms two judicial districts, the eastern and western. It has no ports of entry or delivery. The capital of the State is Little Rock. She holds her State election the first Monday in November. The Legislature meets but once in two years, on the first Monday in January. The enacting clause of the laws is: "Be it enacted by the Gen- eral Assembly of the State of Arkansas." UNITED STATES SENATORS. William S. Fulton, from 1836 to 1844. Ambrose H. Sevier, " 1836 " 1848. Chester Ashley, 1844 " 1847. William K. Sebastian, " 1848 " 1861. Solon Borland, " 1848 " 1853. Eobert W. Johnson, 1853 " 1861. Charles B. Mitchell, " 1861 " 1861. Alexander McDonald, " 1868 " 1871. Benjamin F. Rice, " 1868 " 1873. Powell Clayton, " 1871 1877. Stephen W. Dorsey, " 1873 " 1879. A. H. Garland, 1877 1883. J.D.Walker, " 187'. L88fi 506 FLORIDA. FLORIDA. This peninsula was discovered by Ponce de Leon, a com. panion of Columbus, in 1512, on Easter Sunday, called by the Spaniards Pascua Florida, which, with the profusion of flowers found at this early season in that tropical region, caused him to name it Florida "the flowery land." It was first colonized by French Huguenots, for whom Admiral Coligni desired to find an asylum in the new world, from the fierce bigotry of the times. The first settlers (1564) became discouraged and returned; the second colony, established in 1566, was destroyed by the Spaniards. These founded a settlement in 1565 at St. Augustine, which was the oldest town in the United States settled by Europeans. It remained in their hands until 1763, when, by the terms of the "Peace of Paris," it fell into the hands of the English. It was returned to Spain in 1783. It was acquired from Spain by treaty made with the United States in 1819, but the American authorities did not take posses- sion until July, 1821. The consideration given by our govern- ment was about five million dollars. It is a point running out from the Southeast border of our territory, of but little eleva- tion above the sea level, and swampy, but covered with an exuberant growth of vegetation with a chain of lakes from south to north through the center. The warmth of the climate, where no winter is ever known, promotes the growth of the rarest and most beautiful flowers; the clustering vines and dense foliage render its forests almost impenetrable, and its delicate mosses are the wonder and delight of the naturalist; while the splendid plumage of its tropical birds, flitting among the lernon and orange groves, laden at once witli bud, flower and fruit, combine to add the scenery of the equatorial regions FLOBTOA. ;,07 to the homely but mure useful vegetable growth and beauty of our temperate zone. It is a resort of invalids during the rigors of the northern winter, its otherwise excessive heat beim; tempered by the sea bree/es from either side. With it:- marshes drained and its vegetable growth subdued and guided by the industrious agriculturist, its supply of the fruits and other production of warm climates would be inexhausti- ble. It is but partially settled, and its agricultural, commercial, and manufacturing facilities but slightly developed. Its wealth of resources rmain to reward the enterprise and industry of the future. The railroad connections between its cities and other States furnish a sufficient basis for improvement. Florida was admitted into the Union, March 3, 1845; mak- ing the twenty-seventh State. This State has an area of 59,268 square miles, equal to 37,931,520 acres. The population in 1870 amounted to 187,748. She has two Representative in Congress Florida lies in the fifth judicial circuit, and forms two judi- cial districts; and has seven ports of entry St. Augustine, Key West, Apalachicola, Pensacola, Magnolia, St. John's River, and Fernandina; and two ports of delivery Palatka and Bay Port. The capital is Tallahasse. The State election is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The Legislature meets on the Tuesday after the first Monday in January. The enacting clause of the laws ii>: ''Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the State of Florida, in Assembly convened." UNITED STATES SENATORS. v , ., j 1845 to 1851. David Levy ^ ulee, trom j ^ u J. D. Wescott, " 1845 " Jackson Morton, 1849 " 1855. S. R. Mallory, 1851 " 1861. A. S. Welch, " 1868 " 1869. Thomas W. Osborn, u 1868 u 1873. Abijah Gilbert, " 1869 u 1875. Simon B. Conover, " 1873 " 1879. Chas. W. Jones, " 1875 " 1881. Wilkinson Call, 187J> >k 508 IOWA - IOWA. 1. The name of this State in the Indian tongue is said to mean " This is the Land" Few States have a surface, soil, and position so uniformly excellent for all their different sec- tions. A high rolling prairie, well drained by streams, of great fertility, and almost no sterile or waste land; beautiful to look upon in its alternations of rise and fall, of prairie, stream, and timber; bounded on its extremes by the two mighty branches of the " Father of Waters," with numerous smaller rivers hundreds of miles in length within its limits ; its south- ern region underlaid by a vast bed of coal, its northern rich in deposits of lead; a climate free from the severity of Minnesota and Wisconsin winters, and from the intemperate heats of Missouri and Kentucky summers, it is a land to be satisfied with; and justifies the picturesque name given it by its ancient appreciative owners. 2. It was first visited by Europeans in 1673. Marquette and Joliet, two French Jesuit missionaries, whom the vast magnitudes of the North American continent seemed to stim- ulate like new wine, roamed alone over these immense dis- tances, preserved by their characteristic French cordiality from the suspicion and hostility of the numerous warlike Indian tribes who everywhere received them with hospitality, treated them with respect, and dismissed them with assistance passed, in that year, down the Mississippi, and, landing a little above the mouth of the Moingona which, from the similarity of sound, they corrupted into Des Moines, (Monk's River) they fearlessly followed an Indian trail fourteen miles into the interior to an Indian village. Some tradition or prophecy had IOWA. 509 forewarned the Indians of venerable white visitors, and they were received at once as expected and honored guests. The new religion they announced, and the authority of the king of France which they proclaimed, raised no remonstrance or hos- tile feeling, and they were sent on their way down the river with the k ' Pipe of Peace." The grand visions of the future entertained by these and other French explorers were never realized by that nation. It was more than a hundred years later that the first settlement was made by Julian Du Buque on the site of the present city of that name. He obtained a grant of 180,000 acres from the Indians, established a trading post, and worked the lead mines, with great profit; but the time had not come for dispossessing the Indians, and almost fifty years more passed before any other settlement was attempted. 3. In 1832 the Winnebagoes, Sacs, and Foxes united under the Winnebago chief, Black Hawk, to invade and repossess the lands in Illinois which they had ceded to the government. Gen. Atkinson met and defeated thorn on the Upper Iowa, tak- ing Black Hawk and his son prisoners. They were taken east, kindly treated, and set at liberty; and in the following year a treaty was made which ultimately extinguished the Indian title to the whole of Iowa, the Indians removing west of the Missouri. In the same year a settlement was made at Bur- lington. The time for Iowa had come. In 1834 it was joined to the Territory of Michigan, in 1837 was reorganized as part of the Wisconsin territory, and, in 1838, became a separate territory with the capital at Burlington. March 3d, 1845, it was conditionally, and I)c. -j>>tli. 1846, fully admitted into *hft Union as a Sovereign State. In 1840 it had a population of over 40,000, in 18.50 of nearly 200,000. A steady growth followed, and she has now, probably, a million and a half nf inhabitants. Four parallel lines of railroad ]>a>.~ entirely across the State from east to west, three from north to south, and various others are in process of building or form intersecting lines. She is scarcely yet fully launched into her career of greatness. When her virgin soil shall all be broken up and its 51 A IOWA. hidden wealth evoked by her intelligent and skillful agricul turists, when the full tide of commerce on her two great river-, shall have set in to supplement her railroads, and mature organization shall have made all her resources available, she will take her proper place in the first rank of States in the Union, and her citizens will repeat with satisfaction and pride the Indian declaration, " This is the Land." Iowa was the twenty-eighth State, on its admission, in 1845. It has an area of 55,045 square miles, equal to 35,228,800 acres. The population in 1870 was 1,194,020, which entitles her to nine Representatives in Congress. This State lies in the eighth judicial circuit, and makes one judicial district. She has no port of entry, but has three ports of delivery, to-wit: Burling- ton, Keokuk, and Dubuqtie; all of which are attached to the collection district of New Orleans, in the State of Louisiana. Des Moines is the capital. The State election is held on the second Tuesday of October. The Legislature meets biennially on the second Monday in January. The enacting clause of her laws is in these words: "Beit enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Iowa." UNITED STATES SENATORS. George W. Jones, from 1848 to 1859. Augustus C. Dodge, " 1848 " 1855. James Harlan, \ 1856 " 1865 ' ( 186T " 1873. James W. Grimes, " 1859 " 1869. Samuel J. Kirkwood, " 1866 " 1867. James B. Ho well, 1870 " 1871. George G. Wright, " 1871 " 1877. William B. Allison, 1873 " 1885" 8. J. Kirkwood, " 1877 " 1883. TEXAS. 51 1 TEXAS. This .State forms the southwestern portion of the United States. The first settlement in Texas was made on Matagorda bay, under the French led by La Salle, in 1685. It passed into the possession of the Spanish in the year 1690. Aftei the independence of Mexico, in 1822, Texas remained a Mexican province until the revolution of 1836, when it gained its independence. It continued an independent republic, mod- eled on the United States, until 1845, when, the Texan Con- gress having accepted the conditions imposed by the Congress of the United States, it became the 29th State in the Union. It has an area of 274,356 square miles, equal to 175,587,840 acres. The population in 1870 was 818,579, which entitles her to six members of Congress. This State embraces every variety of surface; mountain, plain, hill, and desert waste lie within its limits. The climate is free from the extremes of both the temperate and torrid zones, producing, in the north, many of the products of the temper- ate, and in the south many of those of the torrid zone. The variation in the temperature from the season of winter to that of summer is quite small, giving the State as equable a climate as any in the world. While it shares the genial climate of the " sunny South " it is free from all the deadly swamp exhala- tions of the lower Mississippi States. The soil, on the whole, is as fertile as any in the world. It furnishes the very best natural pasture all the year round. Cotton in large quantities Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats and other small grains tobacco, indigo and rice, are the staple products. The grape, mulberry and the vanilla, are indigenous and abundant. Cayenne pepper 512 TEXAS. is grown in vast quantities. Fruit is no less various and abun- dant than its other products. The peach, nectarine, fig, plum, quince and a great variety of berries flourish here. Oranges, lemons, limes and melons, grow well. Live stock of all varie- ties and in vast numbers fatten on the plains, and are shipped in all directions to supply every demand. Texas abounds in minerals. Rich silver mines are already worked successfully at San Saba. Gold in small quantities has been found west of the Colorado river. Coal is abundant. Iron is found in many parts of the State. There are also salt lakes and salt springs, copper, alum, lime, agates, chalcedony, jasper and a white and red sandstone. Texas lies in the fifth judicial circuit, and makes two judi- cial districts, the eastern and the western. There are three collection districts in the State. The respective ports of entry for these districts are Galveston, La Salle, and Brazos Santiago. To these are attached nine ports of delivery. The capital is Austin. The Legislature is composed of a Senate, elected for four years, and a House of Representatives, elected for two years. The sessions of the Legislature are biennial and are held in January. The Governor is elected for four years. UNITED STATES SENATORS. Thomas F. Rusk, from 1846 to 1856. Samuel Houston, 1846 " 1859. Pinckney J. Henderson, 1857 " 1858. Matthias Ward, " 1858 " 1861. John Hemphill, 1869 " 1861. Lewis T. Wigfall, " 1859 " 1861. J. W. Flannagan, " 1869 1875. Morgan C. Hamilton, " 1869 " 1877. Samuel B. Maxey, " 1875 " 1881. Richard Coke, " 1877 " 1883. WISCONSIN. 513 WISCONSIN. 1. Tliis State was visited and crossed by the early French explorers about 1665, and a settlement was made at Green Bay in J669 and soon after on the Mississippi, at Prairie du Chien. It was the policy of these enterprising men to connect the French settlements on the lower St. Lawrence by a chain of stations on the lakes and rivers with the month of the Missis- sippi. This would have passed through the heart of the country and have laid open its chief resources at once. It was a bold conception. We see it nowhere among the English explorers and settlers, who seemed not to like to lose sight of their ships; but it is quite in keeping with the grand and rapid genius of the French; and, as in so many other cases, by attempting too much they lost the whole. The English, if slower, were sure, and consolidated their possessions on the coast, gradually pushing westward as they were able to hold their ground. 2. The French explorers have left traces of their untiring activity in the names of rivers and places, and even Indian tribes, but the attention of their home government was soon withdrawn from^them. No further extention was given to settlement for near 150 years, notwithstanding it was so easy of access from the south by the Mississippi river, and from the east by the chain of great lakes. Very fortunately, as it now seems, all this vast and valuable territory in the heart of the continent, equal, perhaps in its natural wealth, to the original resources of the whole of Europe, was reserved to reward the labors and consolidate the beneficent power of a Nation of Freemen, carefully trained and adapted to their high destiny. 33 i> 1 .4 WISCONSIN. 3. The> tide of emigration Howed westward by way of the Ohio river, and the States south were settled and admitted into the Union long before Wisconsin received even a Territorial government. This occurred in 1836, and in 1840 the census gave it but little over 30,000 inhabitants. Population now flowed steadily to it and we find, in 1850, over 300,000 inhabitants. It was admitted into the Union in 1848, making the thirtieth State. Its high latitude probably had something to do with this deferred settlement, the milder winters of the more south- ern range of States attracting the emigrants first. The climate, however, has important advantages over the States in question, being drier, less changeable, and not so subject to extremes. It is very healthy, and probably the oldest man in the country was living, hale and hearty, in this State, a few years ago, at the patriarchal age of 139. The climate is milder than in the same latitude farther east. 4. The surface is a high rolling prairie, open and mostly treeless, except near streams and bodies of water in the south, but in the north covered with timber. Vast forests of pine grow on the northern slope, which is some 1,200 feet above the level of the sea. Some parts of the State fall 600 feet below that elevation; and a succession of ridges having a general direction east and west, separate the rivers flowing into Lake Superior, Green Bay, and Lake Michigan, while many streams flow southwest into the Mississippi. The State is 285 miles long by 255 wide. Its beautiful prairies, gratefully returning a bountiful harvest to the intelligent farmer; its numerous charming lakes and ponds; its remarkable commer- cial advantages by lakes and rivers, supplemented by canals and railroads; its great manufacturing facilities, and valuable min- eral deposits, give great promise to its future. Wheat is the leading agricultural staple, but all the grains, vegetables, and fruits of the Northern States well reward cultivation. It has an area of 52,924 square miles, equal to 34,511,360 acres. In 1870 the population amounted to 1,054,670, which gave her eight Members of Congress. Wisconsin lies in the seventh CALIFORNIA. 515 judicial circuit (which is composed of Wisconsin, Indiana and Illinois,) and forms one judicial district. It has one collection district, one port of entry (Milwaukee,) and five ports of deliv- ery, viz.: Southport, Racine, Sheboygan, Green Bay and Depere. The capital of the State is Madison. The Legislature meets on the second Wednesday in January. The State election is on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The enacting clause of her laws is as follows: "The people of Wisconsin, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact as follows." UNITED STATES SENATORS. Henry Dodge, Isaac P. Walker, Charles Dtirkee, James R. Doolittle, Timothy O. Howe, M. II. Carpenter, An It is varied in surface, from high mountain ranges, hilly and undulating midlands, to level and rich river bottoms; and is nearly all available either for cultivation or grazing ; while its valuable deposits of coal lie very near the surface in nearly all parts of the State. Iron abounds, and timber of the best quality. Its manufacturing facilities are great ; and its canals and railroads, with the Ohio river on its northwestern border, furnish the means of making it one of the richest States in the Union. The climate is healthy, and the scenery picturesque, and in places it rises to wild grandeur. It has an area of 23,000 square miles, or 14,720,000 acres. The population, in 1870 was 442,014. This State has now three Members of Congress. West Virginia was subsequently put into the fourth judicial circuit, and constitutes one judicial district. Parkersburg, also, was made a port of delivery. Wheeling is the capital. The State election is held on the second Tuesday in October. The Legislature meets on the second Tuesday in January. UXITKI) STATKS SENATORS. Peter G. Van Winkle, from 1863 to 1861). Waitman T. Willey, " 1863 " 1871. Arthur J. foreman, " 1S6!> " 1875. H. G.Davis, 1-71 " 1883. Allen T. Caperou, " 1875 1876. Frank Hereford, " 1876 " 1881. NEVADA. " The Snowy Land " derives its name from the Sierra Ne- vada, or Snowy Range of mountains forming the eastern boun- dary of California. It lies in the western part of the basin of the Great Salt Lake and among those mountains, in whose rookv bo^om was found the stimulus that has changed 526 NEVADA. of the Pacific slope, and the Rocky Mountain region, from a wild and dismal waste to populous and thriving States. Gold was found in moderate quantities among the mountains, and population began to scatter slowly over them about 1850, and eoon settlers began to improve the valleys at the foot of the mountains on the east for agricultural purposes. Carson county was organized by the territorial government of Utah in 1854; but in June, 1859, rich deposits of silver were found ; and emigration began to pour in rapidly. In March, 1861, the Territory of Nevada was organized, and the same month, three years later, it was admitted into the Union, making the thirty -sixth State. The history of these States, so rich in precious metals, puts to the blush the fantastic fables of the Arabian Nights. The silver mines of Nevada are believed to be the richest in the world. The celebrated silver mines of Potosi, in South America, never produced over $10,000,000 a year, while in 1867, one mine in Nevada produced $17,500,000, and is thought to be almost, or quite, inexhaustible. The climate, like that of Cali- fornia, is healthy; the seasons are divided into wet and dry, and agriculture is dependent on irrigation. With time and pains its products will be considerable. It has much wild and sublime scenery, and some natural curiosities; as Lake Mono, with its waters so sharply acid as to destroy cloth and leather immersed in it. Its gloomy surroundings, and the great dis- tance from the tops of the precipitous rocks surrounding its shores to the surface of the water lend an impressive and fear- ful character to its severe desolation. It lies below the reach of the winds, and no living thing can exist in its waters. It has an area of 63,473 square miles, or 40,622,720 acres. The population in 1860, while yet a Territory, was 6,857. In 1870 it had increased to 42,491. In conformity with the Con- stitutional provision that every State shall have one Represent- ative in Congress, Nevada has one. This State lies in the ninth judicial circuit, and forms one judicial district, called the dis- trict of Nevada. NEBRASKA. 527 Carson City is the capital. The State election is held on the first Tuesday in November ; and the Legislature m^ets on the first Monday in January. The enacting clause of the laws is in the following words : 41 The people of the State of Nevada, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact as follows." UNITED STATES SENATORS. James W. Nye, from 1865 to 1873. William M. Stewart, " 1865 " 1875. John P. Jones, " 1873 " 1885 Wm. Sharon, " 1875 1881. NEBRASKA 1. Formed a part of the Louisiana Purchase from the French government in 1803. It received a Territorial govern- ment in 1854, and was, by the provisions of the Kansas-Ne- braska Bill, equally with Kansas, exposed to the introduction of slavery; but the Southern people limited their efforts in that direction to Kansas, and Nebraska did not share in its disorder and bloodshed. 2. The greater portion of the country consists of a high, rolling prairie. The soil in the eastern part of the State is nearly the same as that of the adjoining portions of Iowa and Kansas. It is a rich loam, finely pulverized, and admirably adapted to cultivation. The second district, near the center of the State, is strictly pastoral. The third, or western section, has a fair soil, but is destitute of timber, and insufficiently supplied with water. Throughout the fertile portion of the State, wheat, corn, oats, and other cereals, and vegetables and fruits yield largely. Vast herds of buffaloes formerly roamed over its prairies ; but they 528 NEBRASKA. are now mostly exterminated. The altitude of Nebraska secures to it a dry, pure, and salubrious atmosphere. Rain is not abun' dant, but, in the eastern part, is sufficient for the purposes of the agriculturist. Salt, limestone, and coal are found in various localities, and not improbably other minerals will be found in paying quantities. The State is too new to fully estimate all its resources and capabilities. 3. The educational advantages are good. The Common School System, modeled on that of Ohio, is well supplied with funds, embracing one-sixteenth of the public land, or 2,500,000 acres. 90,000 acres were given to endow a State Agricultural College, and 46,081 acres to the State University. Its commercial facilities are supplied by the Missouri River, the Pacific and other railroads, and are amply sufficient to develop its resources. The future of the State has many ele- ments of promise. No public debt impedes its growth, and within the last few years it has increased in wealth and popu. lation more rapidly than any of the adjoining States or Terri- tories. An unknown, but certainly not limited, amount of wealth still lies locked up in its soil, and its relation to ocean commerce by the mighty Missouri, and to inter-State trade by lying in the great traveled route between the Atlantic and Pacific States, with a remarkably fine, healthy climate, and the ease with which its soil is worked, contribute to form a power* ful attraction to labor and capital, and we have no reason to suspect any decrease in its rapid progress. 4. On its admission, in 1867, it was the thirty-seventh State. It has an area of 122,007 square miles, or 78,084,480 acres. Population in 1870, 122,993. It forms the ninth judicial district, and has no ports of entry or delivery. The capital is Lincoln. The State election is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The Legislature meets on the first Tuesday in January. UNITED STATES SENATORS. John M. Thayer, from 1867 to 1871. Thomas W. Tipton, " 1867 " 1875. Phineas W. Hitchcock, " 1871 " 1877. Algernon S. Paddock, " 1875 " 1881. Alvin Suunders, " 1877 " 1883. COLORADO. 52 $ COLORADO Was formed from parts of Kansas, Nebraska and Utah. Its Territorial government was organized by act of Congress, March 2nd, 1861. It is situated west of Kansas, on the great route from the Pacific to the Atlantic States, and on the divid. ing ridge, or backbone, of the continent. The rivers that find their head waters within the territory run southeast and south to the Gulf of Mexico, and southwest to the Gulf of California. The surface is nearly equally divided between a plain, gently decending from the abrupt mountain wall of rock constituting the eastern flank of the Rocky Mountains, and the mighty mass of that chain, with its peaks, rising nearly three miles above the surface of the sea, now forming an elevated plateau, and again sending off spurs and lateral ranges containing beau- tiful valleys, or, in a more lavish and genial mood, taking a wide circuit inclosing an immense sunken plain containing hundreds of square miles of charming, well watered farming land called parks. Of these there are seven. It is a magnifi- cent region, and contains all the elements of extreme mineral and agricultural wealth. It has mines of gold, silver, copper, lead, and iron. Coal abounds in all parts, oil flows from the -veils with a little encouragement, and salt is easily obtained in some parts. An immense soda-fountain is found near Col- orado City, called Fontaine qui Bouille (boiling fountain) and there are indications of cinnabar, platina, and precious stones. The climate is fine, the general temperature like Southern Pennsylvania or Maryland; and, from the elevation, the air is very dry and pure. The plain rises by imperceptible degrees to 5,000 feet, (about one mile,) above the level of the sea, at 34 530 COLORADO. the foot of the mountains. The numerous valleys, the parks, and much of the sloping plain, form as fine an agricultural region, with proper irrigation, as any State possesses, and much of the remainder furnishes excellent pasturage through the entire year. Occasionally heavy snow falls and for a few days extreme cold prevails, but these are exceptional years; and it does not lie long. Its effects can be guarded against with prudent care. Corn, wheat, and other small grains and vegetables reach their greatest perfection here. It furnishes excellent manufacturing facilities along the unfailing mountain streams in the valleys, and will no doubt ultimately unite with Montana and Southwestern Dacotah to supply the immense central part of our domain with all the products of manufacturing genius and skill. Denver the capital and principal city, is situated near the eastern base of the mountains, where these put on their severest and sublimest aspect. Clear lakes are set like stars, here and there, and the beautiful and grand in scenery are nowhere more striking, or more agreeably combined. Colorado, the thirty-eighth State, was admitted into the Union August 1st, 1876, by proclamation of the President, according to law. It is estimated to contain 104,000 square miles, or (56,560,000 acres. Its population in 1870 was 39,864. which increased to 130,000 in 1876. It has one Representative in Congress, and constitutes one judicial district. The elec- tions are held on the first Tuesday in October, and the Legis- lature meets biennially the first Wednesday in January. UNITED STATES SENATORS. Jerome B. Chaffee, from 1877 to 1879. Henry M. Teller, " 1877 " 1883. N. P. Hill, 1879 " 1885. CHAPTER LXVII. MOTTOES AND NAMES OF THE STATES. UNITED STATES E Pluribua Unum, " Out of Many, One." ALABAMA Has no motto. Name, from its principal river, i^cans "Here we rest," and denotes the satisfaction of the Indians with its agreeable landscape and climate. ARKANSAS Regnant populi "The people rule." Has the Indian name of its river. Is called the " Bear State." CALIFORNIA Eureka, her Greek motto, means "I have found it." Derives her name from the bay forming the penin- sula of lower California. COLORADO Latin motto, Nil sine numine, means " Noth- ing can be done without divine aid." Named from the river. CONNECTICUT Qui transtulit Sitstinet, " He who brought us over sustains us." Name from her river, which means, in the Indian tongue, "The long river." Is called the "Nutmeg State." DELAWARE Motto, Liberty and Independence. "Was named from Lord Delaware, an English statesman. Is called "The Blue Hen." FLORIDA Motto, " In God is our trust." Name from the abundance of flowers when discovered, on Easter Sunday. In Spanish Florida means flowery. GEORGIA Motto, "Wisdom, justice and moderation." Named from George II, King of England when it was settled. ILLINOIS Motto, "State Sovereignty, National Union." Name derived from an Indian tribe, also applied by them to Lake Michigan and her largest inland river. Means " We are the men." Is called the " Sucker State." INDIANA Has no motto. Name suggested by its numerous Indian population. It is called the " Hoosier State." IOWA Motto, "Our liberties we prize, our rights we will maintain." Its Indian name means "This is the Land." la called the " Hawk Eye State." KANSAS L Motto, Ad astro, per aspera, " To the stars through difficulties." Name means "Smoky water," and is derived from one of her rivers. 1681) 532 MOTTOES AND NAMES OF THE STATES. KENTUCKY Motto, "United we stand, divided we fall.'* Bears the Indian name of one of her rivers. The Indians termed it the " dark and bloody ground." It was the battle field of Northern and Southern Indians. Is called the " Blue Grass State." LOUISIANA Motto, "Justice, union and confidence." Named from Louis XIV., King of France. It is called " The Pelican State." MAINE Latin motto, Dirigo, "I direct;" indicative of sovereignty. Was named for a province of France. Is called "The Pine Tree State." MARYLAND Latin motto, Cresoite et multiplicamini^ " Increase and multiply." Name from the Queen of England, the wife of Charles I. MASSACHUSETTS Latin motto, Ense petit placidam sub lib* ertate quietetn, " By the sword she seeks placid rest in liberty,'' or "Conquers a peace." The name was acquired from a Indian tribe and the bay on her coast. Is called the " Bay State " from her numerous bays. MICHIGAN Latin motto, Tuebor, and, Si quceris peninsu- latn, amcenam circumspice. " I will defend." " If you seek a pleasant peninsula, look around you." The name i& derived from two Indian words meaning " Great Lake," by them applied to Huron and Michigan lakes. Is called " The "Wolverine State." MINNESOTA French motto, DEtoile du IVord, " The Star of the North.'.' The name, meaning whitish water, (foam of the falls,) is derived from the Indians. MISSOURI Latin motto, Salus populi supremo, lex esto, "Let the welfare of the people be the supreme law." Named from her great river. It means " Muddy water." MISSISSIPPI Has no motto. It is named from the river, whose name signifies "The Father of "Waters." NEBRASKA Motto, " Equality before the law." Its name is derived from one of its rivers, meaning "broad atid shallow, or low." NEW HAMPSHIRE Has no motto. It is named from a MOTTOES AND NAMES OF THE STATES. 53S county in England. Familiar name is "The Old Granite State." NEW JERSEY Motto, " Liberty and Independence." Named for the Island of Jersey on the coast of England. NEW YOKK Latin motto, Excelsior, " Higher." Named from the Duke of York. Is called " The Empire State." NORTH CAROLINA Has no motto. It was named for Charles IX, King of France. It is called The old North," or " The Turpentine State." NEVADA Latin motto, Volens et potens, "Willing and Able." It was named from its mountains. Spanish name means " Snowy." OHIO Latin motto, Imperwm in imperio, " An empire in an empire." It took its name from the river on its south boundary. It is familiarly called " The Buckeye State." OREGON Latin motto, Alis volat propriis, " She flies with her own wings." Name is derived from her principal river. PENNSYLVANIA Motto, " Virtue, liberty and independence." Named from Wm. Penn, "Penn's woods." Is called the u Keystone State." RHODE ISLAND Her motto is " Hope." Named from the Island of Rhodes, in the Mediterranean Sea. Is familiarly called " Little Rhody." SOOTH CAROLINA Latin motto, Animis opibusque paratri, " Ready in will and deed." Has the Latin name of Charles IX, of France (Carolus). Is known as the "Palmetto State." TENNESSEE Motto, "Agriculture, Commerce." Has the Indian name of one of her rivers. She is called "The Big Bend State." TEXAS Has no motto. Has preserved its Mexican name. Is called "The Lone Star State." VERMONT Motto, " Freedom and Unity." Has the French name of her mountains ( Verd Mont, " Green Mountains "). VIRGINIA Latin motto, Sic semper tyrannis, "So always f with tyrants." Was named from Elizabeth of England, the " Virgin " Queen. It is called " The Old Dominion." 534 THE NATIONAL DOMAIN. WEST VIKGINIA Latin motto, Montani semper lib&ri, " Mountaineers are always free." Retained the former name, when divided from Virginia." WISCONSIN Latin motto, Civilitas successit barbarum, "The civilized man succeeds the barbarous." Has the Indian name of one of her rivers. It is called " The Badger State." CHAPTER LXVIII. THE NATIONAL DOMAIN. 1. When the War of Independence closed, and the people and government had leisure to look about them and estimate their situation, they found the organized States covering the coast from Nova Scotia to Florida, (then in possession of Spain.) There was no vacant territory near the ocean; but west of the States which run back only a few hundred miles was a vast region, peopled by a few tribes of Indians and, in Kentucky and Tennessee, by a few hundred whites These with singular hardihood and self reliance, had not hesi- tated to brave a thousand perils to get possession of the charming valleys and fertile savannahs of the eastern part of the great Mississippi Valley. The settlements were made near the mountains that skirted the western boundaries of the original States. Beyond, to the Mississippi river, extended as beautiful and fertile a territory as any land could boast; many times larger than the original territory, whose people, poor and few as they were, had fought for and won it by persistent bravery. It lay in virgin beauty and wealth, the prize of their strong hands and courageous hearts. The future of the new government once determined, and the fundamental Law of the Land adopted, they prepared to take possession by organizing a government over those already there, surveying and laying off the unsettled lands, and bringing them into market for sale and settlement. 2. The States had owned all the property, and held all the THE NATIONAL DOMAIN. 535 real power, up to the adoption of the present Constitution. It was now agreed that the unsettled lands should be considered as the common property of the whole country, and be admin- istered by the General Government. It was not without much difficulty, and many severe contests, that this point was so settled. There were two parties; one headed by Alexander Hamilton who wished a strong, consolidated central govern- ment; the other, afraid to confer on it too much power lest it should prove a tyrannical master, wished to preserve most of the substance of power in the State governments. They were led by Thomas Jefferson. The adoption of the Constitution \\as difficult, and the struggle over it perilous to the confeder- ation. It embraced the main views of tlie first party. But for the personal influence of Washington, who had presided over the Convention that framed it, and had, as it were, been its father, it could not have received the approval of the majority of the people. The people allowed their fears to be overruled by their trust in his wisdom and prudence. He alone it has been believed could have put its machinery in successful operation; and the admirable manner in which the statesmen, in Congress and the executive offices, infused the spirit of freedom and moderation into the administration, following in the lead of the revered " Father of his Country," settled it in the confidence and affections of the people. 3. We have dwelt on this point because it is intimately related to the organization and government o the Territories, and to the provision made for the increase of States. It was important that they should be in harmony with the original ones, and there were no means of securing this and providing against the future growth of governments, differing from those of the original States, but by giving the central power a gen- eral control over them. The Constitution conferred it on Congress. Ohio, and all the territory north of the Ohio river, was obliged to wait till this point was settled, before it could be opened to the entrance of emigrants. This region was ear\y erected into a separate government, by Congress, called 536 TH E NATIONAL DOMAIN. the Northwest Territory. The region south of the river was treated in the same manner a little later. In 1800 the Missis- sippi Territory was organized; thus covering all the ground originally belonging to the New Republic. These were, as population increased, divided into sections, of convenient size for the purpose of local self government, and states created as fast as the requisite number of citizens had collected within such limits; and the remainder continued under the prelim- inary territorial rule. 4. In 1802, the vast region west of the Mississippi was bought of the French government. This extended the National Domain from the mouth to the head waters of this river, and westward, north of the Spanish possessions, to the Pacific ocean. Many new States and Territories have been formed from it. The process of multiplication has hot yet ceased in this region. In 1819 Florida was purchased; a part of Mex- ico was obtained in 1848, and again in 1853; and the increase of* territory continued by the acquisition of Alaska in 1867. This policy has become, in a manner, traditional, and it is not unlikely that it may be continued to some extent in the future. 5. The government of the territories is established by act of Congress; the President nominates and the Senate con- firms the Governor, Secretary, and Judges of the courts; and Congress passes all the general laws for the government of the inhabitants. A Territorial Legislature is elected by the inhabitants, which takes charge of all the local interests of the Territory. All these laws and organizations are temporary, and pass away when a State government is founded. Com- monly, an act of Congress authorizes the election of Delegates to a Convention for framing a State Constitution; though the Territorial Government sometimes takes the initiative. This constitution is then submitted to the popular vote of the citi- zens in the Territory; and. if they favor it, presented to Con- gress for its approval. If it is in harmony with our usages, and republican principles, Congress accepts it, and, if the President does not see cause to veto it, a new State has come THK INDIVIDUAL TKRRITOUIE8. 537 foto existence. In this manner the number of the States has Become nearly three times as numerous as at the beginning. CHAPTER LXIX. THE INDIVIDUAL TERRITORIES. The territories are here arranged in the order of seniority, the one which first received a territorial government taking the lead. The District of Columbia is older than any of them :is acknowledged National property, the Louisiana Purchase having been made since it was ceded to the general Govern- ment; but it was the last to receive a territorial organization, Oongress governing it directly without giving it representation until 1871. It is placed last for that reason. NEW MEXICO Was visited at an early period by Spaniards, who, excited by the success of the followers of Cortez and Pizarro in dis- severing rich mines of gold and silver, sought the wealth in the dangers and hardships of travel which is more often, if more slowly, found as the reward of patient toil. An expe- dition from Florida made the formidable overland journey to New Mexico, in 1537; and another from Mexico, after visiting the Gila River, passed eastward beyond the Rio Grande in 1540. In 1581 its mineral wealth became known and a mission was attempted; but no settlement was made until 1600, when formal possession was taken by an adequate army. The mis- sions now became very successful and the mines were worked. Many of the natives were considerably advanced in some of the arts of civilization. In 1680 the natives revolted, from the severe servitude to which they were subjected, and drove the Spaniards out of the country. They only recovered it in 1698. It was never very numerously peopled by whites. In 1846 it was conquered by General Kearney, and in 1848 ceded to the United States by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. The 538 NEW MEX1C< difficulties of transportation and the >r\ld and Jawless char- acter of the inhabitants has prevented any extensive emigra- tion to it by Americans. It is an elevated table-land, nearly 7,000 feet above the surface of. the sen, crossed by several ranges of mountains sometimes rising 10,000 feet above the general surface of the country. The atmosphere is dry; little rain falls; and agriculture is usually successful only with irri gation. In the valle} r s, where this is employed, the fertility of the soil is marvelous. Often two crops are raised, on the same land, in the year. Wheat and other grains are raised in great perfection. Cotton is successful in some parts, fruit can be raised in abundance, and the soil is said to be specially favorable to the grape, the wine rivaling that of France. Gold and silver abound, but the mines have never been eifectively worked for want of transportation and the requisite capital. Stock raising is a profitable occupation in this Terri- tory. Much of the land unfit for cultivation produces grass which cures in drying during the hot months, and preseryes all its nutricious qualities. Sheep and mules are extensively raised. When the Pacific railroad shall open the country to immigration, and order, industry, and capital make the most of its resources, it will be ranked among the favored parts of the Union. It has many natural curiosities, and much wild and beauti- ful scenery. The length of the Rio Grande, in its windings* in the Territory, is about 1200 miles; and its valley from one to twelve miles wide. Its Territorial government was organ- ized in 1850. The population, in 1870, was 91,874. Many tribes of Indians roam over the territory and through Texas, Arizona, and northern Mexico. Most of the people are Roman Catholics. It includes an area of about 100,000 square miles. Every free white male inhabitant living in the territory at the time of its organization had the right of suffrage, that right being regulated in other respects by it* legislative Assembly UTAH. UTAH Was formerly a part of the Mexican territory of Upper Cal- ifornia, and was acquired by the United States in 1848, by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. It was too distant, desolate, and dangerous a region for mucli settlement by Mexicans, and has little known history anterior to the explorations of Fre- mont between 1843 and 1846. The first American settlement was made by the Mormons, in July, 1847, and was supposed by them to be out of the ter- ritory of the United States, and beyond the reach of possible interference. Here, in the depths of the desert, they deter- mined to build up a peculiar religious society embracing customs opposed to the views and institutions of the United States. Their success was a surprise to the world, ami probably to themselves; the capacity of the depths of the Great American Desert, as it was called, for cultivation, exceeding all previous expectation. But the war with Mexico, then in progress, threw this, before inaccessible, desert into tho limits of the American Union; and the discovery of gold in the neighboring territory of California, throwing them almost midway between the old western settlements and the new Eldo- rado, subjected them to contact with, and interference by, the tide of modern civilization, as it flowed toward the setting sun; and in ten years from their first appearance in the Great Central Basin of the continent, they came again into l\ostile conflict with the established authorities they thought to have finally escaped. Their conflict with the United States govern ment, whose customs and prejudices were at variance with their own, was deferred by the troubles which precipitated the civil war; and their institutions remain substantially unaltered to the present time. The Pacific Railroad is now built through their territory. What changes will be brought about in con- sequence of the immigration which is taking place by means of the facilities thus afforded, time alone can tell. 540 WASHINGTON TERRITORY. Utah was organized as a territory by act of Congress Sept. Sth, 1850. Brigham Young, the head of the Mormon church, became the first governor. In 1854 it was vainly attempted to remove him; and in 1857 an army was sent to enforce Federal authority. A final conflict was avoided by compromise. In 1862 the Mormons attempted to get admission into the Union -as a State, with their " peculiar institutions," but failed. A Territorial Government exists, and will probably remain such while the Mormons are large in numbers. According to the habits of our people, conflict is avoided so far as possible, to await the more peaceable and natural solution of the difficulty. Utah is unique in one respect; though lying nearly a mile above the surface of the sea, and having a complete system of lakes and rivers, there is no visible connection of these with the ocean. It is a continent embosomed within the depths of a continent. The Great Salt Lake is 100 miles long by 50 broad, and its waters are very salt three parts of the water producing one of pure salt. No fish can live in it. It receives the contents of many considerable streams. Whether they are kept in subjection by evaporation alone, or have a concealed outlet to the ocean is unknown. The soil, though in its natu- ral state an apparent desert, is extremely fertile when irri- gated, and produces wheat and other cereals in great profu- sion. Its mountains are believed to be rich in silver and gold ; but the mines are as yet undeveloped, very little having been done in that direction. Cotton is highly successful in the southern settlements, and experiments with flax and silk culture have been very favora- ble. The climate is mild and healthy. Utah is a highly promising section of our national domain. Its population in 1870 was 86,786 ; its area about 87,500 square miles. WASHINGTON TERRITORY Was organized in 1853, and then contained a much larger area. It was at first a part of Oregon, and its meagre early WASHINGTON TEKK1 I . >i: V. 54. J history was the same. The Straits of San Juan de Fuca were visited and named by a Spanish navigator in 1775. The Eng- lish government claimed the territory north of the Columbia and for some years there was a joint occupation by both nations by special agreement. The difficulties concerning this bounf- dary came near involving the two nations in war, but it was settled in 1846, giving the United States the territory to the 49th parallel of latitude. Vancouver Island was assigned to Great Britain. Washington is estimated to contain, west of the Columbia river, where it flows down from British America, 22,000 square miles of arable land. There is much that is adapted only to grazing, and vast quantities covered with forests in the wild mountain regions of the eastern part of the territory. It has an almost inexhaustible supply of coal, and more or less of the precious metals. The great distinction of Wash- ington territory is its forests. The warm ocean currents from the Indian ocean, after traversing the eastern coasts of Asia, are thrown across the North Pacific against the western shores of North America, and effect an important modification in the severity and humidity of the temperature of our Pacific slope. The climate is much milder and more equable than in the same latitude east of the mountains, and the moisture is highly favorable to forest growth. It is the best ship building timber in the world. The trees are immense, often reaching a height of 300 feet with a diameter of 8 to 12 feet. The portion of Washington territory lying west of the Cas- cade mountains is rich farming land, heavily timbered; while east of the Cascades the country is open prairie, well watered, with small and thinly wooded valleys. The land immediately about Puget Sound is sandy; not valuable for farming though producing timber, but a little way back is unrivaled in richness. Corn does not thrive well, but wheat, oats, potatoes, &c., are very prolific. Large quantities of butter, cheese, and wool are produced. There is little snow in the winter and that soon melts away, except far up in the mountains. Washington 54:2 WASHINGTON TERRITORY. ehares With Oregon the possession and use of the Columbia river. There are fine fisheries on the coast and excellent oys- ters, and these produce a considerable trade. Immense quanti- ties of lumber are exported to all partsof the Pacific coast of both North and South America, and even to Buenos Ayres on the South Atlantic. The French come here for their best and cheapest masts and spars. Thus we see that this corner of the Republic brings to the common stock of national treasures some of its best and most valuable material of wealth, and is prepared to whiten the Pacific with the sails of the unlimited ommerce which is already beginning to grow up between us and the Asiatics. Puget Sound can float with ease the navies of the world on its peaceful bosom. The Northern Pacific railroad will originate here, probably, another great commer- cial emporium. Washington will, in due time, become a great and wealthy State. Its area is about 70,000 square miles; and the population in 1870 was 23,955. DAOOTAH, 543 DACOTAH. This territory received an organization and government in 1861. It contains 240,000 square miles; and is greater in extent than all New England together with the great and wealthy States of New York and Pennsylvania; and possesses some peculiar advantages. The Missouri River passes from southeast to northwest diagonally through it, navigable for its whole length, a distance of more than a thousand miles; the Red River of the North skirts its eastern line, its valley being unrivalled for its rich- ness, and adaptation to the growth of wheat. Except the extreme northern part it is said to have the dry, pure, and healthy climate of Southern Minnesota, witli the soil of Cen- tral Illinois. It is free from the damp, raw, and chilly weather prevailing in Iowa and Illinois, and from the embarrassments to agricul- ture often experienced in these States from excessive spring rains ; while, in late spring and early summer, copious showers supply sufficient moisture to promote a rapid vegetable growth. The surface east and north of the Missouri is an undulating prairie, free from marsh, swamp, and slough, traversed by many streams and dotted with innumerable lakes, of various sizes, whose woody and rocky shores and gravel bottoms supply the purest water, and lend the enchantment of extreme beauty to the landscape. It has all the conditions of climate, soil, and transportation, for the most profitable production of the two great staples of American agriculture, wheat and corn. West of the Missouri ,-,4.4. . ARIZONA. tJ^Xtt the country becomes more rolling, then broken id hilly, until the lofty chain of the Rocky Mountains is reached. These mountains cross the southwestern section. A most desirable stock raising region is furnished here, and mining will flourish in the mountains. In 1870 it had a population of 14,181. Yankton is the capital. ARIZONA. The Spaniards visited the valley of the Colorado at an early day; but the distance from Mexico, and the warlike character of the Indians, did not favor settlement beyond what was gathered about the few missions that were constructed so as to answer for fortresses. The part of this territory lying between Sonora, (of which it formed part,) and California was acquired to the United States by the Gadsden treaty, made with Mexico Dec. 30th, 1853. The American government paid $10,000,000 for it. A Terri- torial government was organized Feb. 24th, 1863, and embraced part of New Mexico, containing, altogether, an area of 121,000 square miles, or 77,440,000 acres. Efforts had been made previously to settle the country and develop its mines; and an overland mail stage route was established. This proved a success; but the fierce hostility of the Apache Indians, and the desperate character of such whites as had gathered there, fleeing from justice in California and Sonora, discouraged the immigration of law-abiding citizens; and the breaking out of the Civil War withdrew the soldiers in garrison there for the protection of the country. After the war the main stream of emigration followed the line of the newly opened Pacific railroad. The development of the mines required capital and machinery and, though they are thought to be the richest in the world, nothing could be extracted from them by individuals without means. So the population has increased slowly, the census of 1870 giving 9,658. It is a strange and somewhat fearful land; in great part a region of desolate mountains and deep canons. There are IDAHO. 545 many sections susceptible of cultivation that would produce immense returns under irrigation, but most of the efforts in this direction have miscarried from the desolating ravages of the Indians. The rainless season reduces the whole country to the semblance of a desert. It is, however, declared to have more arable land in proportion to its surface than New Mexico, or California; and will probably, in time, have a large and prosperous farming community. Cotton is easily cultivated, and sugar cane, in the lower parts, produces abundantly. Grains, vegetables, and melons are produced in the greatest possible perfection, and mature in an incredibly short space of time. When the Apaches are subdued, and society is reduced to order, it will become a favorite resort of the thrifty farmers of the older States, and the diligent German and other foreign immigrants. It contains many traces of a race that has disappeared ; some of their dwellings yet remaining in a partially ruinous state. They were probably Aztecs, the race that ruled Mexico before the conquest by Cortez, or are more ancient still. Hideous idols are found, and various indications of a barbarous worship. The completion of the Southern Pacific railway will intro- duce the hum of industry among its desolate mountains and along its numerous fertile valleys, and the acquisition of the mouth of the Colorado, a large river opening into the head of the Gulf of California, will give it a profitable commerce. Arizona lies south of Utah, to which it is superior in the num- ber and size of its streams, its larger quantity of timber, and the amount of rain-fall in some parts, which is deemed, in some sections, sufficient to dispense with the necessity of irri- gation. IDAHO. This territory was organized March 3rd, 1863. It originally embraced a vast territory lying on both sides of the main chain of the Uocky Mountains; but the eastern portion has since 35 546 MONTANA TERRITORY. been erected into the territory of Montana. It has about 90,000 square miles of territory, and had, in 1870, 14,999 inhabitants. Idaho has very little history prior to the organization of its Territorial government. Its chief attraction to settlers lies in its mines, as yet, and the population is floating, and, in large part, rough and sometimes disorderly. The difficulty of reach- ing it has prevented its rapid growth. It is exceedingly rich in the precious metals and this will, in time, attract a large population. The eastern and northern parts are very mountain- ous, abounding in wild and striking scenery and in natural curiosities. The soil in the southern, central, and western parts, is fertile, producing wheat and other small gram, and vegetables very successfully, but is unfavorable for corn from the late frosts of spring and the early cold of autumn. Snow falls to a great depth in the mountains; but the streams are numerous, and there is much choice farming land, which may, ultimately, serve tc support its mining population. It runs from the northern boundary of Utah to the south line of British America; Washington Territory and Oregon, lying west. When railroads shall render it accessible, and open the way for its treasure? to a market, it will be filled with an industrious and hardy population who will find all the ele- ments of a prosperity as great as any section of the Union enjoys. It has three beautiful lakes the Coeur d'Aline, the Pen d'Oreille, and the Boatman of some size, and navigable for steamers. Boise City is the capital. MONTANA TERRITORY Was organized May 26th, 1864. It lies among the Rocky Mountains, in part on the western slope, but extending into the eastern valleys; and contains the sources of the streams form- ing the Missouri river; while Idaho lies west among the Blue mountains where the tributaries of the Columbia rise. Montana abounds in mines of gold and silver; and these are said to be much richer than those of California. The average ALASKA TERRITORY. 547 yield of ores in the latter State is $20 per ton, but the average in Montana is stated to be four times that amount. Great as is the yield of gold mines here it is declared that the ease with which silver is separated from its combinations in the ore will make that branch of mining more profitable. Copper also abounds. This territory has several eminent advantages over other mining districts. It is reached by steamboats on the Missouri river, from St. Louis, without transhipment: naviga- tion being free to Ft. Bentcn, in the heart of Montana. The river voyage from St. Louis to Ft. Benton, is made in 28 days. There is a large and constant supply of water, a point of great difficulty in most of the 'other mining regions; and the country everywhere furnishes easy natural roads, the principal range of the Rocky Mountains not presenting the broken and rugged character of most other ranges. Associated with this point is the important fact of great agricultural capability. It is one of the best grazing regions vest of the Mississippi. Small grain and fruit are grown with the greatest ease, as also the more important vegetables. There is abundance of timber for all purposes of home consumption. The area is stated at 153,800 square miles. The population in 1870 was 20,505. ALASKA TERRITORY Was acquired to the United States by treaty with Russia in the year 1867, for $7,200,000. It is a vast region containing 577,390 square miles, with 29,097 inhabitants. It was first explored by command of Peter the Great of Russia in 1728. A government was first established on Kodiak island in 1790. In 1799 the Russian American fur company was chartered by the Emperor Paul. The northern portion is a tolerably compact body of mainly level country about 600 miles square, and a line of coast rune south for a long distance, including many islands. The Aleu- tian group of islands is included. The principal value of tha regioa to Russia was the fur trade. The annual export of these 548 WYOMING TERRITORY. amounted to only a few hundred thousand dollars. American thrift will probably make much more of it. The country is much warmer than its high latitude would seem to imply Sitka in the southern part having about the same mean temperature, by the thermometer, as Washington! It is, however, extreme!} 1 damp. In one year there were counted only 66 entire days without rain or snow. The coast is broken with mountains. The peninsula of Alaska has some very high mountains Mt. St. Elias and Mt. Fairweather being esti- mated at 15,000 to 18,000 feet above the sea. The islands of the Aleutian group are volcanic in origin. There are sevltal rivers, the largest, the Yukon, or Kwickpak being 2,000 miles long, and navigable for 1,500 miles. There are vast supplies of timber, much being pine, found nowhere else on the Pacific coast. Vegetables, and some grains, may be raised without difficulty, and the soil, in parts, is rich. Abundant supplies of coal are believed to exist. The precious metals and iron, it is thought, are to be found there, but the country has been very imperfectly explored. In the lively and extensive trade that is likely to grow up with Japan, China, and the East Indies, it will no doubt be found of great value, and its resources contribute to the wealth O * of our country. WYOMING TERRITORY Was organized by act of Congress July 25th, 1868, and is the youngest of the territories. Its area is stated at 100,500^ square miles, and it had a population, in 1870, of 9,118. The Pacific railroad passes through it, to which its settle- ment is probably mainly due. Montana lies on the north; Dacotah and Nebraska on the east; Colorado and Utah on the south, with the northern part of Utah and Idaho on the west. The main chain of the Rocky Mountains crosses it from northwest to southeast which maintain here the same general characteristic as in Montana, viz.: that of a rolling upland. Its outlying ranges are more broken. Most of the country i& DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 549 good arable, or grazing land, sufficiently fertile to give excel- lent returns for labor, though, in large part, requiring irriga- tion. A few regions are remarkably sterile, but they are limited in comparison with the fertile lands. Gold mining has been successful, to a considerable extent; coal is extremely abundant and accessible; the supplies for the Pacific railroad being obtained in this territory. Iron has been found in considerable quantities, together with lead and copper ores. Oil and salt springs promise to be productive. Thus without, as yet, developing any eminent specialty, the resources of this Territory seem to promise all the requisites of prosperity to a large population; while the climate is mild and extremely healthy, and the great thoroughfare between the east and the west furnishes all necessary facilities for transport- ing its supplies to the best markets. More intimate knowledge of its mineral deposits may perhaps give it a higher rank as a mining State. TRE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. The first Congress convened under the new Constitution in 1789, held its session in New York. The seat of government was then removed to Philadelphia. There was much dissen- sion as to where it should be permanently located. The North and the South, were each equally obstinate in their desire to locate it in their own section, and the quarrel threatened a rupture of the confederacy. The great political question of the time was the debts of the States contracted in carrying on the War of Independence. The South, disliking a strong cen- tral government, opposed giving the charge of the finances of the country into its hands; while the North, strongly approved the plan of clothing it with authority to concentrate the strength of the nation to a reasonable extent, so that it might be able to act with vigor, and make the country for- midable to its enemies. The reservation of as much power as possible to the individual States was a vital question with the South, since it wished to maintain Slavery, and it was always 550 ANNEXATION POLICY. foreseen that the north must preponderate, ultimately, in the general government; and the north was unfriendly to slavery. The Constitution could make its way in the South only by compromise as to slavery. The question was a very difficult and .delicate one to adjust, but with much tact Jefferson and Hamilton, usually antago- nists in politics, united to urge a compromise; the North conceding the location of the national capital, and the South the assumption, by the general government, of the State debts. This was accomplished in 1790, and Washington selected the site on his own Potomac, Virginia and Maryland uniting to give a tract ten miles square, extending to both sides of the river. A new city was laid out, and buildings erected which were occupied for the first time in 1800. This small territory, the government and control of which was lodged wholly in Congress, was called " Columbia." This possession of its own capital was considered important in order to avoid a possible conflict of Federal and State authority. The capital city was located on the Maryland side, and called Washington. The territory on the Virginia side waa in 1846, re-ceded to Virginia. On Feb. 21st, 1871, the District was made a territory, with a legislature for its internal gov- ernment, and the right to be represented by one member in the House of Representatives. The population in 1870 was 131,700. Washington i& adorned with many immense buildings erected for the various departments of the government, and the eapito? itself is one of the largest in the world, and cost $5,000,000. It is worthy of the great nation represented in its halls. CHAPTER LXX. THE ANNEXATION POLICY. 1. The original States of the American Union were ell on the Atlantic seaboard. The central States were separated fror> ANNEXATION POLICY. 551 the fertile valleys and plains of the Mississippi and its tribu- taries by mountains, while those lying at the northern and southern extreme found, in the vast forests filled with fierce and hostile savages, a still greater barrier against settlement westward. The " Old Thirteen " found their hands and thoughts sufficiently occupied with the establishment of their liberties, and the ultimate western boundaries of the country were left to be settled in future years. Fortunately for us England was too much occupied with the immense debt the useless Amer- ican war had cost her to make difficulties over the cession of the western regions to us ; and, at the peace, we were in possession of the whole region from the Atlantic ocean to the Mississippi river. That was enough and more for the present; but the people were enterprising. We offered a home, freedom, and great opportunities to the oppressed and poor of other lands, and that region was soon sufficiently peopled to show what other regions were required to secure the prosperity of all. 2. It soon became clear that the development of the West- ern States east of the Mississippi required the possession of the lower part of the river and the territory on its western bank. Circumstances were favorable to its acquisition, and Louisiana, extending from the mouth of the river far up toward its head waters, including several hundred thousand square miles of as valuable land as was to be found on the continent, was pur- chased. It entered into the vindictive policy of Napoleon Bonaparte to injure England by strengthening America, and it was obtained for the comparatively insignificant sum of fifteen million dollars. This annexation was altogether essential to the security and development of the larger part of the original territory. 3. Florida was discovered and settled by the Spaniards, who claimed the coast along the Gulf of Mexico to the Mississippi river. Though it was not commercially or agriculturally important to us, it became in the hands of a power not very friendly, the support and refuge of the barbarous and resolutely ANNEXATION POLICY. hostile Indians of our southern border. It was necessary to nearly exterminate them to obtain peace, but no absolute secu- rity could be assured while the Spanish territory protected them in their retreat before our armies. Peace, security against the Indians, and freedom from the intermeddling of a European Power required the acquisition of that peninsula and the Gulf Coast. After twenty years of occasional negotiation it was purchased for five millions of dollars. This was the most con- venient way, also, of settling an account for spoliations on our commerce which we held against Spain, and the only means she then possessed of making payment. Thus another annexa- tion was made under the pressure of circumstances. 4. By this time a sufficient degree of expansion and strength had been acquired by the New Nation to inspire in it great confidence in itself and grand views of its future, and the "Monroe Doctrine," that the United States would refrain from all meddling with the politics of Europe, but would resolutely oppose the meddling of any European power with the politics of this continent, was adopted. This doctrine did not propose any interference with other governments already established here, but America was to be left to its present possessors, and European ambition was to look elsewhere for kingdoms to conquer or found. A tacit protectorate over all America was assumed, in order to prevent the entrance of any other element that might build up a system hostile to our interests and pro- gress. It was a legitimate conclusion from the principles and necessities that had led to the inauguration of the annexation policy. The nation claimed that it had a right to keep the ground clear from obstacles to its natural development. It was a system of growth and protection involving no ideas of conquest by force, and no menace to governments already established. 5. The third addition to our territorial area took place under circumstances which all true Americans will ever regret. If stated by our enemies it would be said that, after encourag- ing the settlement of the territory of a neighbor by our own ANNEXATION POLICY. 553 Citizens, and giving them covert support in withdrawing that territory from its proper owners, we took possession of it, and when they naturally undertook to protect, or recover it, we made a war of invasion on them, employed our superior skill and vigor to disarm their State, and took as much more of their territory as suited our purposes ; in short, that we picked a quarrel, and being the strongest bound and robbed them. (}. It cannot be agreeable to lovers of justice and defenders of equal rights, that there should be so much of truth in this statement as to render it impossible to clearly and distinctly prove the contrary. There was, however, an element of the necessary and unavoidable, even in this, that was more in har- mony with the previous system of acquisition than appeared on the surface. Texas presented, perhaps, the finest climate and the greatest facilities for money-making on the continent. The Mexicans inherited the religion and hatred of protestants with the haughty, repelling spirit of the Spaniards, and wished to preserve the old Spanish policy of separating themselves from us by a broad barrier of desert and wilderness. They did not wish to settle Texas themselves, nor feel willing that any one else should. It is inevitable that enterprise and strength, impelled by self-interest, will disregard such wishes. Ameri- cans are neither perfect nor magnanimous enough to stand on ceremony when their interests are concerned. The best that can be said of them is that they are more moderate and self- contained than any other people. The necessities of the insti- tution of slavery required more territory to balance the rapid increase of free States, and this precipitated the movement that was inevitable sooner or later from other causes. Indeed the first patent of territory obtained in Texas, from the Mexi- can government, was by a native of Connecticut. The rapid growth of commerce in the Pacific ocean, the agreeable climate and fertile soil of California, and the unsettled, wilderness state of that region, caused the commercial nations of Europe to look at it with longing eyes. The Monroe doctrine was in danger of being violated. England had fully prepared to plant 554 ANNEXATION POLICY. a colony there when it was taken possession of by the Ameri- can forces. 7. Thus the enterprise and energy of the nation, which had still further developed its instinct, or anticipations and plans, of future greatness, required to use the vast resources of the Gulf region, and to extend settlements to the Pacific Slope in order to develop the mineral resources of that region and pre- pare to build up its commerce with Eastern Asia. The north- ern parts of Mexico were useless to her, since she had neither population to occupy them, nor strength to subdue the Indians who roamed over them in scattered bands. There is a justice and propriety which has the force of Natural Law in allowing the active and vigorous to take possession of the natural resources that others can not or will not develop. The earth was made for mankind as a whole, and what cannot benefit one race, another, that io able to employ it for its own and the general good, has some show of right in entering upon. That, at least, must be the justification of our ancestors in intruding themselves upon the lands and hunting grounds of the aborigi- nal inhabitants of America, and our only excuse for making war with the Indians, forcing them to part with their lands, confining them to reservations, and denying to King Philip, Powhattan, and Tecumseh the admiration and esteem we give to the patriotic defenders of our native land and natural rights. 8. It is to be regretted that the vast and valuable territory acquired from Mexico should be the spoil of conquest rather than the fruit of peaceful negotiation; but the eagerness of the speculator, the unreasonable pride and selfishness of the Mexi- can, and the peculiar requirements of our internal conflict over slavery put to silence, for a time, the voice of moderation and equity, and we annexed near 1,000,000 square miles of territory by force. The payment of $18,500,000, when we might have taken it without, was an indication that our ordinary sense of justice was not altogether quenched. 9. "We may reasonably consider that this was exceptional, and that the confusion of judgment and the disorder consequent on the life and death struggle of the institution of slavery, ANNEXATION POLICY. 555 which were in a few years to produce the most terrible civil war known to history, led us into the comparatively moderate aggression arid violence that marked this annexation to our territorial area. Our traditional policy is to acquire peaceably, and with a satisfactory remuneration, such territory as the national progress and development demand. It is contrary to the spirit of our institutions to oblige the majority of the inhabitants of any region not within our boundaries to form a part of the Republic. 10. Two annexations have been made since the Mexican war. Arizona was obtained by treaty and purchase from Mex- ico, in 1854, and Alaska by treaty and purchase from Russia, in 1867. The first is valuable for its mineral treasures. It was useless to Mexico, though we gave $10,000,000 for it. It will ultimately be worth to us hundreds of millions, and its ruins of an ancient people will be replaced by a thriving popu- lation of intelligent freemen. Alaska is specially valuable in relation to our future commerce with Asia, and for its fisheries and fur trade. Its internal resources are, as yet, scarcely known. 11. The superior stability of American institutions and the love of law and order of the American people may make annexation desirable and profitable to the more volatile and unsteady Southern States of America, but it is probable that no labored efforts to induce annexation will be tolerated by the mass of the people. We may fairly judge that we have reached our natural boundaries; that the advancement of neighboring governments in order and intelligence will suffice to give pro- tection to the comparatively small numbers who may find a better field for their energies without than within the Union; and that if any future annexations are made it will be by the purchase of uninhabited regions that may be more valuable to us than to their owners; or that, if any inhabited regions are incorporated into the Union, it will be at the instance and desire of its own inhabitants rather than of our people. We are the special champions of popular and all other rights, and shall never be likely to forget ourselves again so far as to repeat the Mexican war, however pressing our desires. CHAPTER LXXI. CENSUS STATISTICS. o 00 TH w o mi 8 ci'co S'K i Ur? S'o 2 cc :c c .c o 1~ ic cc oo o i-; c> - Q 00 <- 3-. C! . O i^ ^- 0? O> T <.- in ^- !- i--'q-c^-t- i- t cr t? ^' 5*- ^ ^f O ^- o; 55 o e-. m o 5 i> S .S i- S ^- 5 s> '0:1- 2 "-"5 - 1 S8 r: cc G CO !0 *-< . . t* O >G O QD tt . *- ^ i_ -* c? cf TT T? ' ' t co if? TT C CO 'Win cot-t-co^o, ; jfltf-^Ci^f^. |^o^ S? 4 ~"i32S ; iSolco^S 00 JT^TI c?o i22?oo . ^coc^ooi^ 00 1* O 1 ^ 1 OPO* 'COy_**p;ir;^3 fl ^t r-t t- ' CS * ' ' ' f^ Ol OJ C 1 ? * I ' ^ O oo ^,c?e . s'g iSas i ! % i _ g IS !S ! '$ 8*1 ; S loo 'S: , n te &<* IU O ; 0.3 '5'-" sl|t a. * s ^ la -*a*3*^flS3O. j t* -_i ^"1 s 2 J! <5 'S.'S e X !Ts B ^8 = *S'a-SBS9, I * 6 5 I S> al 1 ^^ 8 Sd <-> s: co-'O 41 ^oO 3c^*^ c & n^ <- *^g mm "* J t 1M .^ - '7t O aO ^^"tfl^oo^^wgc^a o ! PART THIRD. THE PEOPLE AND THE GOVERNMENT. 1. All government is professedly for the good of the people; but in point of fact, nearly every government that has ever been instituted has been in the interest of an individual, a family, or a class. American statesmen, in forming our gov- ernment, admitted the superior rights of no man or class of men. It was carefully organized to exclude all claims or pre- tenses of that kind, with a single exception, at first, which afterward disappeared in the tempest of a civil war. The exe- cutive, the various members of the government, and the law makers depend on the people for their elevation. At first they possessed only the dignity, privileges, and rights of the people at large, and, their term of office expired, they return to the same level, honored, indeed, if they have been faithful servants; if not, carrying to their dishonored graves the reproaches and contempt of their fellow-citizens, but retaining, in neither case, a vestige of the power and exaltation over others that clothed them when in office, the contrary of which so often makes an unworthy man respectable in a different form of government. 2. That the masses of the people would be able to exercise a true sovereignty without abusing it was always doubted until the trial was made in this country. A very respectable class of statesmen in the early days of the Republic, sympathized in (559) 56G THE PEOPLE AND THE GOVERNMENT. this doubt, and it even crept into the Constitution in the form of electors who were to choose the President; intimating a dif*- trust of the wisdom and sound discretion of the voters in the choice of the Chief Magistrate. The liberty allowed to the Legislatures of the States to determine the manner in which electors should be chosen, while it recognized State authority on one side, on the other implied a hesitation to trust so important a matter directly to the people; and for a long time they were only indirectly consulted as to the choice of a President. 3. It was not, however, caused by a desire to keep power from them, but rather to avoid the unhappy effect of popular heat and rashness, so often observed in popular government? before attempted. This distrustful party first took control of the government, retained it during three presidential terms, and for many years afterwards formed an influential minority whose criticisms were of importance in establishing a traditional policy for the government. This party the Federalists, headed by Washington and Hamilton sought to found a strong and stable government that should be able to fully protect th< country from foreign interference and domestic discord. Theii control over the administration was somewhat abruptly closed by acts considered arbitrary, interfering with full freedom of speech and of the press the " Sedition Laws " as they were called. Jefferson and the Republican party demanded thr largest popular freedom, and had the conduct of the govern ment for twenty-four years, impressing on its habits and policy the respect for the opinions of the people at large that has ever since characterized it. The people gradually gained control of presidential elections and practically set the electors aside, making and enforcing their own choice in general elections. 4. The exercise of popular sovereignty has gradually been enlarged, no qualification but that of age and nativity being now generally required, and the government may fairly be con- sidered to represent the views of a majority of tiie people, and not only of the native, but also of the foreign born ; since the THE PEOPLE AND THE GOVERNMENT. 56 J great mass of the latter are, by naturalization, absorbed into the mass of citizens. They come to make a permanent home with us, from a preference, as it is fair to assume, for republi- can institutions; and it is considered right that they should have a voice in the conduct of them. Nor have the American people seen cause to regret their liberality in this respect. Citizens of foreign birth have usually proved as thoughtful and wise as the rest of the population, and as worthy of citi- zenship. They bring to us wealth in their labor if not in their purses, and soon become thoroughly American in their habits and sympathies. The government and the people cordially welcome them, and find themselves the stronger and richer by so doing. 5. It must not be forgotten that the strongest fears of pop- ular influence on the government, the stability of our institu- tions, and the maintenance of the good order necessary to the security of property and the general prosperity, were enter' tained at the first; that the prophecies of the foreseers of evil have been almost uniformly false during its whole course; and that the relation between the people and the general govern- ment has constantly grown closer, to the great advantage of both. The first war into which the country was plunged after the Revolution that of 1812 was comparatively a failure, in its earlier part, for want of this mutual confidence. Later the people and the government have been more closely allied, and the government has been strong while the people have seen their cherished ends gained. There has been continual advance in liberality of administra- tion, in efficiency of organization, and in the completeness of social order. We have no reason to suppose that a tendency, continued through a hundred years and favored by so many circumstances that are common to all nations in our generation to a degree never before known, will be changed. Rather we inn v confidently expect that with increased intelligence, expe- rience, and prosperity that tendency will be strengthened. 36 CHAPTER I. SUFFRAGE AND CITIZENSHIP. 1. fhe right pertaining to citizenship, to vote for sich officers as are elected by the people, is called suffrage. When that right is acquired with respect to one class of officers it always extends to the whole, from petty town or city officials, to high officers of the State and United States government all, in short, who obtain office directly from the people. 2. The Constitution defines who shall be regarded as citi- zens of the United States, and all such are declared by it to be also citizens of the State in which they reside. It declares " all persons, born, or naturalized in the United States, and subject to its jurisdiction " to be citizens. Indian tribes are mostly regarded as foreign nitons, and have such rights as treaties give them, but are no taxed and do not vote; there- fore they are not regarded as citizens. 3. Yet suffrage does not belong to all citizens. The special regulation of the voting prerogative was not assumed by the Constitution, nor delegated to Congress, and it is generally conceded that it belongs to the State governments. The regu- lations in the States are not uniform, but in no State do women or minors vote. This cuts off a large part of the citizens, nearly three-fourths belonging to these classes. Minors are supposed, however, to be represented, as to their interests, by their guardians, and females by husbands or brothers. Some of the States make minor restrictions as to length of residence in the State, and require a certain amount of property to con- stitute a voter, and in some naturalization is not required so chat the range of the right of suffrage varies within small limits, in different States. "Whatever rule is adopted by the States has been accepted as the basis of suffrage for that State by the general government, when members of Congress and President and Yice-President are voted for. 4. It seems to be a loose point in the regulations, otherwise so admirable, since it may work a considerable inequality (562) 8UFFKAGE AND CITIZENSHIP. 563 tinder given circumstances; and, in some cases, might change the policy of the government. It is a question worthy of con- sideration whether there should not be an amendment to the Constitution establishing uniformity of suffrage in all the States. This point has caused much discussion in the State governments and various changes have been, from time to time, made in many of them. These have been, usually, in the direction of liberality tending to enlarge the scope of suffrage. The property qualification, quite common in earlier times, is now rare. The fifteenth amendment, recently adopted, has largely increased the number of voters. 5. The experience of the Republic, thns far, has been in favor of the doctrine that it is safe to trust the people with their own interests, and that the responsibilities of self-gov- ernment, when they are laid on them under the favorable circumstances that exist among us, tend to improvement instead of disorganization. Whether this will always be the case it may not be safe to assume, and a prudent regard to pos- sibilities should not be neglected; but we should not forget that those who founded American liberty ran great risks of anarchy in the eyes of their contemporaries. We ought to be able safely to continue a policy of suffrage which they intro- duced with results so fortunate. 6. Education needs to be encouraged, and this has always received much attention. It is probable that but for the very liberal provision made in this respect, the fate of our govern- ment would have been very different. Many foreigners who had no early education, have been naturalized, and the colored people born in the country have been made citizens. If the remainder of the people had not been intelligent, it would no doubt have been extremely dangerous. It has led to some serious local interruptions of order and prosperity, but they have been, so far, temporary; and the general effect has been to awaken ambition for education; the children of new-made citizens have enjoyed the same facilities as others to acquire intelligence necessary to a citizen ; and the right of suffrage, 564 OUR CITIZENS OF FOREluN BIKTH. when extended to the ignorant and degraded has seemed to pr04 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES. OIHCCIT COUKTS. 2. These often comprise several States and are changed, by act of Congress, when the convenience of the Associate Judges of the Supreme Court, who preside over them requires it. The next largest political divisions are THE STATES. 3. These exercise sovereign powers in all matters where control lias not been expressly delegated by the Constitution to the National Congress. The other political boundaries are ever liable to change, to meet the requirements of changing circumstances. These are definitely fixed, any change being very rare and unlikely after they are duly organized and admitted into the Union as States. Each of the original thirteen colonies became States, with the boundaries they had as colonies at the time of the Revolutionary War. The others received such boundaries as suited the convenience and wishes of the people when they were admitted. Their object is to prevent the centralization of too much power in the general government, and to render legislation on local affairs and inter- ests more convenient, and more satisfactory to the people of each State. The State having the least number of inhabitants numbers between 40,000 and 50,000; the one having the largest number contains between 4,000,000 and 5,000,000. The number of the States determines the number of Senators in Congress, two being allotted to each; so that a State may be considered as a Senatorial District. DISTRICT COURTS 4. Produce another class of political divisions. These attend to legal differences involving the laws of the general government, but of a secondary class. They are more numer- ous than the Circuit Courts. In some States there is but one, and some have several, according to size and population. COLLECTION DISTRICTS. 5. Another class of districts has been formed, for the pur- pose of collecting the duties on imported goods. These are POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES. 605 called " collection districts." They extend along, and embrace the whole sea coast and the shores of navigable lakes and rivers. In a few instances the} 7 are located inland, a* points where goods may be brought into the United States by land. Each collection district has a port of entry, and very often several ports of delivery; also a collector of customs, and generally a custom house. 6. Another class of collection districts was formed during- the late civil war. They grew out of the war, and were estab- lished for the collection of the tax termed the " internal revenue," which had to be levied to pay the war expenses. These districts differ entirely, both in their objects and in the territory embraced within them, from those established for the purpose of collecting duties on imports, and correspond as far as practicable with the Congressional districts in each State. LAND DISTRICTS. 7. Land districts may also be noticed among these divisions. In every State and Territory where there are public lands for sale, after they are surveyed and mapped, they are divided into districts two, three or four, in each State an4 Territory as convenience and economy may dictate. In each district a laud office is established for the sale of the lands in said district. LIGHT HOUSE DISTRICTS. 8. Again, the whole of our sea coasts, both on the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, together with the shores of the navigable lakes and rivers, are divided into twelve light house districts (or their number must not exceed that,) for the purpose of building, repairing, illuminating and superintending the light houses on all the coasts and shores wherever located. These are the principal divisions we have to notice. It is important to have a knowledge of them, for with such knowledge we can better understand how government affairs are conducted. CHAPTER XIX. | CHRONOLOGY OF THE U. S. FROM. 1783 TO 1812. 1783. Washington's army had lain in camp at Newburg, N. Y., since the surrender of Cornwallis. The Preliminary treaty of peace was signed Jan. 20th, at Paris ; but it was not officially announced in the camp at New- burg, until April 19th ; just eight years from the Battle of Lexington that commenced it ! July, Congress prepared to disband the army, and Washington to resign his commission as Commander-in-Chief. " 21 The great difficulty Congress had to contend with was raising money to pay the troops. Congress had no authority, under the Confederation, to lay taxes or impose duties. It exhausted its own credit in the issue of paper money which soon became of little value. It made some foreign loans, and persuaded the States, which alone could lay taxes, to raise a small sum. But this did not suffice to pay the army at last. There was much suffering and discontent. On this day a body of soldiers, in large part new recruits, who had comparatively little to complain of, without muskets, but wearing side arms, beset the doors of Congress in Philadelphia, for three^ hours. No violence was offered. Congress adjourned to Princeton, N. J. Sept. 3 The final and definite Treaty of Peace between England, France, and the United States, in which the independence of the latter was acknowledged, its boundaries defined, and various matters of interest arranged to the profit of the United States, was signed at Paris. Nov. 2 A proclamation is issued by Congress for disbanding the army. " 25 The British troops evacuate New Fork, and it is occupied by American troops under Gen. Knox. Dec. 4 Long Island and Staten Island abandoned by the British. Wash- ington takes leave of his officers, at New York. " 25 He resigns his commission to Congress, in a public audience, given him at Annapolis, Md., where Congress was then sitting, and goes home to Mt. Vernon. Caesar Rodney, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, died this year. 1784. The want of public credit was very much felt. There was no authority sufficient to raise money to meet the interest, even, on the debt ; and this produced great distress. (606) raSTOEY OF THE UNITED STATES. f',117 ( The Continental Congress meets at Trenton, N. J. Richard Henry Lee, of Va., is chosen President. Oct. 4 A treaty with the Six Nations, who had sided with the British during the war, was made at Ft. Schuyler (formerly Ft. Stanwix now Utica, N. Y.). Commerce begins to revive. Reciprocity treaties were made, and trade with eastern Asia commenced this year by a voyage to China, from New York. 1785. Jan. Congress adjourns to New York, where it continued to hold its sessions for some years. Mar. 10 Thomas Jefferson appointed to fill the place of Franklin, as Min- ister to France ; Franklin wishes to return home. He had been there nine years. July Commercial treaties negotiated with Prussia, Denmark, Portugal, and Tuscany. The treaty with Prussia stipulated that, in case of war between that country and the United States, there should be no privateering. ** 13 Stephen Hopkins, of R. I., a signer of the Declaration of Inde- pendence, died. " 28 Win. Whipple, of N. H., a signer of the Declaration of Independ ence, died. " Treaties made with the Cherokees, Choctaws,' and Chickasaws. 1786. Financial troubles were now approaching a crisis. In 1784-5 the impor. tations from England had amounted to $30,000,000. The exportation to only $8,000,000. Paper money was depreciated so much as to be of little value. Debt oppressed government and people ; want of vigorous author- ity was everywhere felt ; and many disorders in Tennessee, Kentucky and elsewhere, begin to threaten the internal peace of the country. June 19 Gen. Nathaniel Greene, an able commander in the Revolutionary armies, died. He manouvered against Cornwallis in North and South Carolina with great ability. Dec. 6 Shay's Rebellion broke out in Mass. That State wished to raise money to aid Congress in paying the interest on the federal debt The people felt unable to pay it. They mobbed the courts buf were dispersed by troops under Gen. Lincoln. Three were killed and one wounded, in an attack the insurgents made on an arsenal. There was little other fighting. Fourteen persons were tried and condemned to death but afterwards pardoned. 1787. These and other events convinced the people that an importan \ chan$ in the government was necessary. It became clear that a vigorous central authority, alone, could answer the purpose. The States were nearly inde- 608 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. pendent of each other; but this produced conflicts and want of harmony, which nearly ruined them all. A congress of deputies to consider commercial questions, called by Ya. had, in Sept., 1786, recommended a convention to revise the Articles of Confederation. Feb. 2 The Continental Congress assembled, electing Gen. St. Glair, Pres- ident. " 12 Congress approves the call for a Constitutional Convention. May 25 The convention assembled in Philadelphia, aad elected Gen. Geo. Washington, President. July 11 The Continental Congress organize the Northwest Territory north of the Ohio river. Preparations were immediately made for settling it. Sept. 28 The Constitution, as signed by the members of the convention, laid before Congress, which sends it to the State Legislatures foi approval. Arthur Middleton of S. C., and Thomas Stone of Md. signers of the Declaration of Independence, died, Jan. 1st and Oct. 5th, respectively. Dec. 7 Delaware ratines the Constitution. " 12 Pennsylvania accepts the Constitution. 1788. July 4 The anniversary of Independence is kept with great display, in Philadelphia, in special honor of the adoption of th.3 new Con- stitution. By the close of July nine more States had ratified the Constitu. tion, and it went into operation. Sept. 13 Congress selects the first Wednesday of Jan. (1789) for the appointment of Presidential electors; the first Wednesday in February for their appointment of President and Vice-President ; and March 4th (the first Wednesday that month) for the new gov- ernment to go into operation. 1789. Jan. 4 Thomas Nelson, of Va., signer of the Declaration of Independence, died. Feb. 13 Ethan Allen, of Revolutionary fame, died. April 30 Washington inaugurated as first President. May 12 A Tariff Bill for raising a revenue reported in Congress. This became a law, and went into effect Aug. 1st, 1789. 4 20 The Department of Foreign Affairs (afterwards called State Department,) organized. The Treasury Department is next established, followed by the War Department, to which the Navy was joined for the present. . The Judiciary was then constituted. Salaries, and the rules for parliamentary procedure were determined. The Postmaster gen- HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 009 eral had long been an officer of the government, and required le* change than most of the others. This made a very busy session. Congress also passed a resolution to add ten amendments to the Constitution which were submitted to the States and afterward ratified. Congress adjourned the last of September. The democratic tone of the government, and the spirit applied to the interpretation of the Constitution by the first Congress, haf generally prevailed ever since. That tone and spirit were truly republican. Nov. 8 The President made a tour through New England. M 18 North Carolina ratified the Constitution. Many Indian treaties were made this year. 1790. Jan. 8 Congress reassembled. Th is session was scarcely Inferior in inter- est and importance to the first from the variety of new questions required to be settled, and the more perfect development given to former ones. Feb. 8 Provision was mac'e for payment of the foreign debt Mar. 1 An act ordering a census to be taken was passed. " 24 A naturalization law was originated. Apr. 15 A patent law was constructed. " 80 Treason was defined and the penalty determined on. May 29 The Constitution ratified by Rhode Island; making up the whole number of thirteen States. " 81 "An act to encourage learning" secured copyrights to authors. July 16 Three very exciting debates that had occupied much of the time of Congress, had a bearing on the location of the National Capital, which was this day permanently settled. The President was authorized to determine the site on the Potomac, and have the buildings erected so as to be ready for occupation in 1800. Agreea- bly to this act Maryland and Virginia ceded the District of Colum- bia to the United States. Gen. Putnam, a brave Revolutionary soldier, Benjamin Franklin,, of Pa., Wm. Hooper, of N. C., and Francis Hopkinson, of N. J^ all except Putnam signers of the Declaration of Independence,, died this year. The Territory South of the Ohio was organized this year. The financial system of the country was established, the slavery ques- tion debated and settled in accordance with the compromise of the Constitution, and the State debts transferred to the United Stntos. Aug. 12 Congress adjourned to meet next in Philadelphia and thereafter until 1800. - lit A treaty with the Creek Indians solemnly ratified by Washington. 3D 610 HISTORY OF THE UOTTED STATES. Dec. 6 The Third Session of Congress commenced. The President con- gratulates Congress on the improvement of the finances, and the prosperity of the country. 1791. Pf>b. The United States Bank established. It was to have a capital of $10,000,000 its charter to run twenty years. " 4 Kentucky voted admission into the Union in the next year (Jan. 1st, 1792). * 18 Vermont having (Jan. 20th) ratified the Constitution and asked admission into the Union, it is granted this day. The immediate prosperity that followed the adoption of the Con- stitution of 1787, the strength, vigor, and moderation seen to be combined in its arrangement of the government, led most of the States to remodel their State Constitutions on it, in a short time. July, The subscription to the stock of the National Bank is all taken in a few hours after the books are opened. Aug. Great Britain first sends a minister to the United States Govern- ment. Sep.17 An expedition of 2,000 troops, under Gen. St. Clair, starts from Ft. Washington against the Indians in the Northwest Territory. Nov. 4 Gen. St. Clair is surprised and defeated by the Indians. There were 600 killed the whole loss amounted to upward of 900. Several other smaller expeditions had been sent against the Indiana in the course of the year. One, Gen. Harmer's, had been defeated. Internal taxes on spirits were first commenced this year. Benj. Harrison, of Va., a signer of the Declaration of Independ- ence, died this year. A voyage around the world, by way of Ore- gon, China, and the Cape of Good Hope, had opened wide fields to commerce. The first census was now completed. The Second Congress, assembled at Philadelphia, Oct. 24, was occupied in arranging the new ratio of Representatives. It was a very diffi- cult matter to settle from the sectional struggles that entered into the question. 1792. Feb.16 A bounty for fishing vessels provided. " 20 Tne Post Office Department reorganized. Apr. 2 The establishment and regulations of (Tie U. S. Mint are embodied in a law. " 14 Act apportioning Representatives passed. This gave the next House of Representatives in Congress 105 members. May 8 Laws organizing the Militia are passed. Dec. 8 Henry Laurens, first President of tlu> Continental Congress, died. The second presidential election tLis year resulted in the re-elec- tion of Washington and Adams. Washington received >i)l Iho electoral votes the anti-federalists opposing only Mr. Adams HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Gil whose electoral vote was 77, the candidate of the oppositioa receiving 50. Much seditious opposition was made in North Carolina and Pennsylvania to the excise law, the tax on spirits. The President issued a proclamation against them, Sept. 29th. 1793. fa 94, The proclamation of the French Republic Is greeted In Boston with a celebration in its honor. The close and friendly relations of the United States with France, arising from their aid to us in the Revolutionary War, led the French minister, Genet, to a course of conduct inconsistent with the existence of our friendly rela- tions with England. The U. 8. Government decided to proclaim neutrality the people sympathized strongly with France. Wash- ington and his cabinet pursued a strict neutral course, in which the 'people finally acquiesced, and Genet's recall was solicited and obtained. Feb. 12 A Fugitive Slave law passed. July 23 Roger Sherman, signer of the Declaration of Independence, died. Oct. 3 John Hancock, of Mass., the first signer of the Declaration of Independence, died. This year laid the foundation of the policy of neutrality or non-interference with the European wars, that became the settled policy of the United States. The year was also distinguished by the violence of party feeling. Dec. 2 Congress assembles at Philadelphia, u 81 Jefferson resigns his seat in the Cabinet. He was Secretary of State. 1794. Mar. 11 An act is passed for building four ships of war, which laid the foundation of our present navy. Some hostile English " Orders in Council " led to arrangements for fortifying the harbors of the country. * 22 The Slave trade is regulated by law, no American vessel being allowed to supply slaves to another nation. The importation of slaves into this country had been allowed until the year 1808, by Art 1st, Sec. 9th, of the Constitution. " 20 As a retaliation on the British "Orders in Council" for seizing all goods going to France in American vessels, nn cmbarg* was laid on all shipping which was continued 00 days. Tula stopped nil commerce for the present fane 5 A law relating to neutrality passed in Congress. " 19 Richard Henry Lee, of V:i., died; Abraham Clark, of N. J., and John Witlicrspoon, of N. J., later, all signers of the Declaration of Indcpcndance, died. July 10 An insurrection breaks out against the excise law in western Pennsylvania, by an armed attack on the officers of tho law. A0 614 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Feb. 7 The French frigate 1'Insurgente captured iu the West Indies by the U. S. frigate Constellation. April The Legislature of New York abolishes Slavery in that State. Dec. 14 Gen. Washington's death, in the 68 th year of his aire. Wm. Paca, of Md., a signer of the Declaration of Independence, died this year. A change in the government of France, and the vigorous action of the U. S. government in arming for war, induced the French tc retreat from their unfriendly position and offer to arrange tht difference. The refusal of our government to entangle themselves with European politics became a settled principle, of great value to us ; though it was strongly opposed by the Anti-Federalists, 1800. Jan. 23 Edward Rutledge, of S. C., signer of Dec. of Ind. died. Feb. 1 The U. S. frigate Constellation beats without capturing the French frigate La Vengeance. April 4 General bankruptcy law passed by Congress. May 7 The Territory of Indiana organized by act of Congress. " 10 An act authorizing the election of a Territorial Assembly in thf Territory of Mississippi, organized some years before, was passed. July The government is moved to the new capital at Washington. Oct. 1 The envoys to France arrange a convention, or temporary treaty, which prevents the formal outbreak of war, though it had long continued to be waged on the sea. More than 50 vessels had been captured from the French this year. The gratitude of Americans to France for her aid, formerly, made a large part of the people very unwilling to declare war; but her arrogant demands and war on our commerce had the good effect to separate the country from all close alliances in Europe. Nov. The fourth presidential election resulted in the defeat of the Feder- alist party, by the election of Thomas Jefferson as President. Its opponent, the anti-federalist, or Republican party, feared a strong central government; yet when they came into power they adopted the same policy. Any other policy would have ruined the country. 1801. Feb. 16 The Convention with France, to remain in force eight years, ratified. Mar. 8 The Sixth Congress terminates, and with it the administration ot President Adams. " 4 Jefferson inaugurated President. The trial of the Constitution was now past. It was permanently settled in the respect of the- people, and had made the country respected by other nations. The "Sedition Laws" passed in July, 1798, became inoperative at this time, by the provision accompanying them. They had been HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 615 framed fur the suppression of dangerous political intrigues in time of war. Party spirit was exceedingly bitter at this time, and these laws produced much excitement, but contributed to the safety of the government. Jane 10 The Basha of Tripoli declares war on the United States. " 14 Benedict Arnold died in London. Aug. 6 The U. S. vessel of war Experiment, captures a Tripolilan vessel in the Mediterranean sea. Dec. 7 The Seventh Congress assembles. The reaction, at this time, in public sentiment, produced by the French Revolution, the excesses of which resulted in a military despotism under Napoleon Bona- parte, infused a spirit of moderation and caution into tho politics of the United States under the new party now :n power, that was highly beneficial. Extreme views were checked, and no serious change was made in the general policy of the country. 1802. Jan. 4 The reapportionment of Representatives in Congress by the census of 1800, was made. No change in the number of inhabitants to one Representative (one to every 33,000) was introduced. The foundation of a Military Academy at West Point, N. V., was laid at this time. April 14 The Naturalization Laws, made very stringent in the lastadinin- istration to correspond with a state of war, were liberalized. April 30 An act authorizing the formation of a State Constitution in Ohio, preparatory to iu admission into the Union, is passed. May 8 Washington, D. C., incorporated as u city. Oct. 16 Commerce on the Mississippi by American citizens, suspended by the Spanish authorities at New Orleans. It became evident that the possession of the Mississippi River and territory near it was of the highest importance to the welfare of the West, and measures looking toward the acquisition of it began to be taken. A large reduction was made this year in the public debt, and the policy of economy in public expenditure became a leading feature of the administration. 1803. March 3 The anxiety of the people in regard to the navigation of Uio Mississippi leads Congress to invest the President with extraordi- nary authority to negotiate, or use force, in his discretion. He was authorized to call on the States to furnish 80,000 men, if need be. April 30 A treaty is concluded with Napoleon Bonaparte for the purchase of the whole of the Louisiana Territory for $15,000,000. Aug. 13 By a treaty with the Kaskaskia Indians a large part of Illinois is opened to settlement 614 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Feb. 7 The French frigate 1'Insurgente captured iu the West Indies bf the U. 8. frigate Constellation. April The Legislature of New York abolishes Slavery in that State. Dec. 14 Gen. Washington's death, in the GSth year of his a lands at Hampton and commits many out- rages. July 31 American Com. Chauncy lands at York, U. C., captures and destroys stores, and the British do the same at Plattsburg, on lake Champlain. Aug. 2 Gen. Proctor with 1.000 British and Indians attacks Col. Croghan with 160 men, at Ft. Stcphenson, Lower Sandusky, O., and is repulsed with a loss of 150. About this time the American frigate Essex, C;vpt. Porter, cruising in the Pacific ocean, captured 12 armed British whalers. THE WAB or 1812. 023 * 13 The American sloop-of-war Argus, cruising In the English Chan- nel, captured 21 British merchantmen, but was herself captured by the Pc.ican after a severe engagement. 80 Tccumseh had stirred up the Creek Indiana to war, and they attacked Ft. Minis, which they set on fire and captured, massa- crcing all but 20 out of 400 men, women and children. 8epL 3 The American brig Enterprise captures the Boxer on tho coast of Maine. a 10 Perry's victory on Lake Erie. He captures the whole fleet (0 vessels) of the enemy. His laconic dispatch to Gen. Harrison was, " We have met the enemy, and they are ours." Oct. 5 Battle of the Thames (Upper Canada). Gen. Harrison, command- ing the Americans, defeated the British and Indians, under Gen. Proctor and Tecumseh. The latter was slain. The British lost about 600 in killed, wounded and prisoners; the Americans 17 killed and 30 wounded. " " Commodore Chauncy captures 5 British vessels on Lake Ontario. .Nov. 2 Gen. Coffee attacks the Creek Indians at Tallushatchcs, Ala. 200 warriors arc killed. Gen. Jackson defeats the Indians at Talladega, Ala., killing 290 of them. Two other battles with the Indians occurred this month, and one in Dec. in which they were defeated with great slaughter, and little loss to the Americans. Yet so spirited and resolute were they as to require to be almost exterminated before they would make peace. 11 1,200 Americans, under Gen. Boyd, engage 2,000 British, under Lt Col. Morrison, and are repulsed with a loss of 330. British loss 180. Oec, 10 Ft. George, at Niagara, evacuated and the town of Newark burned by the Americans. 19 Ft, Niagara is taken by the British and Indians who massacre the garrison. Youngstown, Lcwistown,the Tuscarora Indian village, and Manchester, all in N. Y., arc burned, in retaliation of the destruction of Newark. 80 The British burn Black Rock, Buffalo, three vessels of Perry's fleet, and large quantities of provisions. Gen. Proctor justifies it as u proper retaliation. Tho burning of Newark was barbarous, but was avenged tenfold. Naturalized Irishmen, taken by tho British in our armies this year, were sent to England to be tried for treason. An equal number of English officers were impris- oned by the American government and notice given to the gover- nor of Canada that they should receive the same treatment and fate as our Irish soldiers. This had its effect, and the latter remained simply prisoners of wur. This claim, and correspond ing action on tho part of the English government, which was one of 624 THE WAS OF 1812. the principal causes of the war, was, from this time, practically relinquished. In December an embargo was laid by Congress on American goods and provisions, to prevent their being employed to supply the British blockading force and armies. It produced great discontent in New England, where a large part of the people were dependent on commerce, and were thrown into great distress. There was much factious, and even seditious, opposition to the government 1814. The army operations had been unsuccessful in Canada during the last of the campaign, owing, it was thought, to the inefficiency of the com- manders, and perhaps partly to the want of experience of their subalterns. Changes, that were proved much roi Jie better, were made, and the cam- paign of this year, in this quarter, showed a more honorable record. Since the commencement of the war till this year, the English government had been carrying on an immense European war, which was closed by the abdication of Bonaparte and his banishment to the island of Elba. They prepared for a more vigorous effort in America, by sending consider- able armies of the veterans of Wellington, who had conquered in Eurooe. They had received the impression that the opposition to the war and the republican party, would cooperate with them, and that they might re-estab- lish their dominion over their former c.oi 'es. But they did not comprehend American character. Party politics have always been conducted in a bitter and hostile spirit, but that hostility has not been directed against their institutions. Extreme attachment to these, and jealous care to preserve all rights guaranteed by the Constitution, has always led the opposition to a close and sharp criticism of all measures of the party in power differing from their own interpretation of Constitutional rights. When these institutions are really in danger all parties unite in a defense, the obstinacy and vigor of winch carries everything before it. It stops at no obstacles, hesitates before no sacrifices, and counts no odds. This became apparent to the British during the summer, dispelled forever their dream of conquest, and led to a peace at the close of the campaign. The British sent 14,000 troops to Canada this spring, which was supported, in July and August, by a large reinforcement. A strong naval force, with a large body of troops, was sent to invade the heart of the country and cap- ture Washington. After failing in maintaining their ground here, tney were directed against the gulf coast and the Mississippi river, ending ID their decisive defeat by Gen. Jackson, at New Orleans, Jan. 8th, 1815, nine days before the treaty of peace, signed at Ghent, in Belgium, Dec. 24, wat known in America. Mar. 24 A loan of $25,000,000 authorized by Congress. " 27 Gen. Jackson's defeat of the Indians at Great Horseshoe Bend Ala. This battle accomplished the subjection of the Creel* Indians. Jackson had fought them on the 21st, 24th and 27th of THE WAR OF 1812. Jan., when they came near defeating him, but notwithstanding their fierce and obstinate bravery, he conquered each time, and finally, nearly exterminated them. * 88 The brill hint career of the U. S. frigate Essex, in the Pacific ocean, is terminated by its capture, at Valparaiso, Chili, by the British frigate Phebe and another sloop of war. * 80 Gen. Wilkinson is repulsed in an advance into Canada, at La Colle, and is afterwards tried by court martial. Gen. Brown is given the command of the Niagara frontier, anxl Gen. Izard of northern N. Y. April 21 The U. S. sloop of war Frolic captured by the British frigate Orpheus. " 27 The U. 8. sloop of war Peacock captures the British brig-of-war Epervier with $118,000 -pccic on board. Vy 7 A British force captures :-nd destroys the American fort at Oswcgo, N. Y., and carries off several guns. * 29 The Americans capture a British force at Sam.y Creek, N. Y. June 9 The U. 8. sloop of war Rattlesnake captured by a British 50 gun ship. 14 12 The U. S. sloop Syren captured by a British 74. " 28 The U. S. sloop of war Wasp captures the British sloop of war Reindeer, in the British Channel. July 8 Gen. Brown captures Ft. Erie, near Niagara, U. C. " 5 Battle of Chippewa, Canada. Gens. Brown, Scott, and Riplcy, with about o,000 men, were opposed by the British Gen. Riall with an equal number of the veterans of Waterloo. Gen. Scott attacked them witli such prudence and valor as to conquer a largely superior force before Gen. Ripley could come up to his aid. It was a splendid test of American mettle. Loss of the British 514, of Scott 828. The British fall back to Ft George. * 11 The British make a descent on the coast of Maine. * 25 Gen. Scott engages a British force of seven times his number, and holds his ground for some hours when Gen. Ripley comes to his aid, and they drive the British from the field; but having only 1,600 men left, while the British have 5,000, they retire next day. The British lost 878, the Americans 860. Aug. 4 Americans besieged in Ft. Erie. * 8 First meeting of the U. 8. and English commissioners to treat for peace, who arranged the terms at the close of this year. The- English were very high in their demands till the failure of their much vaunted veteran troops. 9 The British make an unsuccessful attack on Stonington, Conn. A treiity is made with the Creek Indians. 16 The British repulsed from Ft. Eric with the loss of 863 men. The Americans lost 84. 40 626 THE WAR OF 1812. " 20 A British force landed from the fleet in the Chesapeake on Washington. * 24 The battle of Bladensburg, near Washington. The Americans, much inferior in numbers, were defeated. The British, under Gen. Ross, entered Washington the same day. They destroyed much private property, as well as public stores, building"* and documents. Not deeming it prudent to remain, the British retreated from Washington to their vessels, leaving the people greatly ex&sper- ated at conduct unworthy of the army of a civilized nation. * 27 Alexandria, Va., delivers up the public stores and shipping there and much merchandise as a ransom from plunder and burning. Sept 1 The U. S. sloop of war Wasp captures the British sloop Avon. After taking three other prizes in European waters, she disappeared and vas never again heard of supposed to have foundered at sea. The British Gen. Prevost advances toward Plattsburg, N. Y., with 12,000 veteran troops. * 11 -The battle of Plattsburg. Com. McDonough, American, witk 4 essels, 10 gun boats and 850 men, captures the British Com, L-ownie's fleet of 4 vessels, 12 gun boats and 1,000 men. A simul- taneous attack by Prevost on Plattsburg miscarried by the failure of the fleet and panic of the soldiers. They return, in disorder, to Canada. * 12 The British who had captured Washington, appear near Balti- more and land a force which repulses the Baltimore militia, and, next day advances toward the city; but the attack seems so formidable to them that they retreat in the night to their vessels and depart. The British admiral could not reduce Ft. M'Henry so as to co-operate in an attack on the city by water. The patri- otic song, "The Star Spangled Banner," was written during thin bombardment of Fort M'Henry. Gen. Ross, the British com- mander, was killed soon after the landing of the troops. About this time various attacks are made at different places on the coast of New England, and the British pretend, by proclama- tion, to take possession of all of Maine east of the Penobscot river and annex it to New Brunswick. * 17 A sortie is made from Ft. Eric and the works of the enemy sur- prised and taken with a loss to him of 1,000 men in killed, wounded and prisoners. Thus, in the' midst of ravages and alarms on the coast, the destruction of our commerce, the stagnation of business, the financial difficulties of the government that almost amounted to bankruptcy, and the complaints of the peace party, (-which pro- duced much alarm by the calling of a convention of the New England States, in December of this year, at Hartford, Conn.,) the THK WAR OF 1812. 027 tionor of the United States was preserved. The formidable armies In Canada had been baffled and defeated, the capture of Washing- ton followed immediately by the withdrawal of the invaders, and u strong point made which had its effect in substantially gaining the cause that had brought on the war, for the Americans, iu the treaty negotiations in progress. The British now turned their attention to the Mississippi river and the coast of the gulf of Mexico. Nov. 1v_xGen. Jackson takes Pensacola from the British, who were labor- ing to raise the Indians to war again. l>cc. 15 A British fleet captures the flotilla on Lake Borgne, La. " t!2 12,000 British troops land below New Orleans, and repulse the Americans. " 24 The treaty of peace is signed at Ghent, but is not known in America until Feb. following. 1815. /an. 8 Qen. Jackson, with only 6,000 men, had intrenched himself in front of the British, who now made an assault on his p< -on. They were repulsed with great slaughter, losing their gei. I, Fackingham, and near 2,000 men. Jackson lost but 7 killed and Bounded. The British retreated to their vessels. " 15 The U. 8. frigate President captured by four English vessels. Feb. 18 Ft. Ifowyer, near Pensacola, Fla^ invested by the British fleet It surrenders on the 21st. 14 17 The treaty of peace which arrived at New York on the llth by the B/itish sloop of war Favorite, ratified by the American gov- ernment and Peace proclaimed. " 24 Cong.-ess authorizes the loan of $18,400,000, and the issue of treasuk-y notes to the amount of $25,000,000. ** 28 The ivitv.-il war was continued some time longer. The U. 8. frigate Constitution captures two British vessels of war, the frigate Cyanc and the sloop Levant, off the island of Madeira. In March the U. 8. frigate Hornet captured the British brig Penguin, on the coast of .brazil. The British government, elated by their triumph over Bonaparte, their large army accustomed to conquer in Europe, and the fleets set free from the blockade of the Continent, thought to make an easy conquest of America. But all their attempts were defeated. Had peace been made a little later the Americans might have obtained mucti better terms. This war had been waged under many difficulties by the Ameri- can administration. The country and its institutions, were new, and there was ho such reserved fund of wealth and credit, as is always found in an old and well organized state. They depended largely on commerce, wnich was almost, destroyed bj the great 628 THE WAB OF 1812. naval force of Great Britain, and the embargo policy. Our navy \vas gallant and successful ; but the government lacked the means, and the unanimous support of the people, requisite to increase it to the necessary strength. The administration did not act with the vigor and efficiency calculated to bring all sections and classes to its support, and the people had not yet the experience and knowledge of the value and strength of their own institutions needful to inspire confidence, so that they were critical and diffi- cult to please, and this spirit impaired the efficiency of nearly all government measures. What they undertook could be only imper- fectly done. The old soldiers of the Revolution were dead or unfit by age for good service, and time was necessary to train others and ascertain who had the necessary military capacity for conducting operations with success. Yet, under all these great difficulties, the United States came out of the war with the respect of the world, such as it had never before enjoyed. It became formidable to Europe as a great and vigorous power with which it was not safe to trifle. This was still more clear when the government declared war on the Dey of Algiers, one of the pirate princes of the North of Africa, which, for hundreds of years, had made war on the com- merce of all nations almost with impunity. Having violated their treaty with us, the President sent out an adequate naval force June 17-19 which captured two Algerine vessels of war, and threat- ened Algiers. The Dey, intimidated, immediately made peace, giving liberty to all prisoners without ransom, and full satisfaction for the injuries done to our commerce. No Euro- pean nation had before so humbled these pirates, and it at once raised the credit of our government, and gained us respect and esteem. June 30 The last hostile act at sea took place in the Straits of Sunda, in the East Indies, where the U. S. brig of war Peacock captured the Nautilus, a British sloop of war. Thus the three American vessels at sea when the war closed, each came home crowned with laurels. The British vessels captured during the war num- bered 1,750 the American 1,683. The spirit and energy of the Americans, under all their embarrassments, gave an unmistakable indication of the future greatness and power of the United States. 1816. The last two years' experience had taught the government ftnd the people many important lessons by which they hastened to profit. The coast was -fortified, the navy increased, manufactures and commerce "Jicouraged, and the best measures that the wisdom of the limes could suggest, employed to restore the finances. The violently factious opposition of parties was much moderated by the confidence gained to our goyjrnment and institu- HI8TOKY OF THE UNITED STATES. 629 tions, and the evident folly of excessive fears. The Second U. 8. Bank was chartered for 20 years, with a capital of $35.000,000. Nov. 5 Qovcrneur Morris, an eminent and excellent American statesman died. Dec. 11 Indiana admitted into the Union as a State. James Monroe was, this autumn, elected President CHAPTER XXI. HISTORY OF THE U. S. FROM 1817 TO 1846. MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION. A new era for America commenced with this administration, or rather, reached its period of uninterrupted development; for the whole past his- tory of the country had been a preparation for it, but especially so the late war and its results. The failure of the French revolution, and, finally, the failure of Napoleon Bonaparte and the re-establishment of the old mon- archy in France, as a result of the excesses, first of the French republic, and then of the military interference of Bonaparte with the existing state of things in Europe, had an important influence in modifying the politics of the republican party in the United States; so that they came partially in Jefferson's administration, and completely by the close of Madison's, to follow the wise and vigorous policy pursued by Washington and the federal party; while the general government and the institutions of the country became deeply imbued with the regard to popular rights, and attention to the interests and will of the people that formed the leading idea of Jefferson and the original democrat, or, as it was then called, the repub- lican party. Thus the two points of supreme importance, vigor in the general government, and security to the people, were happily mingled and wrought into the spirit and form of our institutions. The leading events of Monroe's two administrations were the attention given to internal improvements among which may be mentioned the Erie canal in New York, and the encouragements to manufactures the acqui- sition of Florida from Spain, and a definite settlement of the slavery ques- tion (for the next thirty years only, as it proved,) by the Missouri com. promise. The people now began to feel and act together, as a single nation, And material progress was rapid. 1817. Mar. 3 The observance of the neutrality laws strictly enjoined on citizens of the United States by Congress. " 4 James Monroe, the fifth President, inaugurated. With his admin- istration commences " the era of good feeling," as it was called. The bitterness of party controversy ceased 630 HISTORY OF THE UNITED CTATES. June 24 Thos. McKean, of Del., signer of the Declaration of Independ- ence, died. Dec. Mississippi admitted into the Union, and Alabama erected into a territory. " A war broke out with the Seminole Indians, on the borders of Florida. It came near involving us in a war with Spain. Inter- nal taxes are abolished by Congress. 1818. Mar. 18 A law enacted giving pensions to indigent officers and soldiers. April 4 The Flag of the U. S. rearranged ; the stripes to represent the thir- teen original States, the stars the present number of States. " 18 Illinois is authorized to form a state constitution. May 24 Gen. Jackson took Pensacola, Fla., from the Spaniards on account of the support given by them to the Indians. Oct 20 A treaty of commerce and for settling .boundaries is made with. England. 1819. Feb. 23 A treaty for the session of Florida ratified by Congress, but not by the king of Spain until Oct. 20th, 1820. Mar. 2 Arkansas organized into a territory. Dec. 14 Alabama admitted into the Union. In this year commenced the discussion on the balance between the north and the south in relation to slavery. Missouri and Maine both desire admission as States. The discussion resulted in a settlement of the whole question Feb. 27th, 1821, by the appli- cation of the " Missouri Compromise " to the admission of that State. 1820. Feb. 15 Wm. Ellery, of R. I., signer of the Declaration of Independence, died. Mar. 15 Maine admitted into the Union. Aug. 23 Com. Perry, the hero of Lake Erie, died in the West Indies. The 4th census was taken in this year. 1821. Mar. 4 James Monroe inaugurated on his second term. " 22 Com. Decatur died at Washington. Aug. 23 Gen. Jackson takes possession of Florida as its Governor. The XL. 8. government paid $5,000,000 for Florida. The Spanish officers- were reluctant and dilatory in giving up their places, and Gen. Jackson had occasion for his remarkably decisive action in deal- ing with them. The governor, Don Cavalla, refusing V) give up- certain papers according to the treaty, he sent him to prison until all the papers were produced, and banished BIX \ther Spanish, officers who interfered with him. II1STOKY OF THE UNITED STATR8. . 631 1822. Jane A commercial treaty is negotiated with France. Capt. Allen, of the U. 8. schooner Alligator, engages a band of pirates in the West Indies, captures one of their schooners, and recaptures five American vessels. Capt. Allen is killed. The ports of the West India islands are opened to American com- merce hy the English government. Com. Truxton, a meritorious naval officer Gen. Stark, the hero of Bennington, Vt., and Win. Lowndes, a statesman of 8. C M died this year. A new arrangement of the ratio of Representation gives one mem- ber of Congress to 40,000 inhabitants. 1823. Com. Porter makes a successful expedition against the West Indian pirates. This year our government acknowledged tiie independence of the South American Republics, and ministers were appointed to Mexico, Columbia, Buenos Ayres, and Chili. A treaty for the mutual suppression of the slave trade was made by Great Britain and the United States. 1824. April American and Russian commissioners settle the boundaries between the two countries. Aug. 15 Lafayette arrives from France. He was everywhere received as the guest of the people with the utmost affection and reverence. He spent a year visiting all parts of the Union. A presidential election this autumn docs not result in a choice, and the House of Representatives made selection of John Quincy Adams, from the candidates, according to a provision of the Con- stitution, anticipating such a case. A protective tariff was made this year to encourage cotton manufactures ADMINISTRATION OF JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 1825. Mar. 4 J. Q. Adams inaugurated sixth President. " " An act of Congress establishes a navy yard at Pensacola, Fla. June 11 Dan. D. Tompkins, Vicc-President with Monroe, died. Nov. 10 Com. McDonough, the hero of Lake Champlain, died. 1820. July 4 John Adams and Thos. Jefferson, whose lives were identified with the foundation and development of our institutions, simultan- eously died on this day. Sept ll Win. Morgan, an anti-mason, mysteriously disappears, and is never again heard of. 632 msTOBY OF THE UNITED STATES. 1827. An Anti-Mason party is formed, opposmg secret societies. Much " polit- cal capital " is made of it. Jan. The first considerable railroad was begun, and completed in May. It was nine miles long, a beginning of the wonderful transforma- tion that was to be produced by this agent. 1828. Feb. 11 De Witt Clinton, governor of N. Y. and originator of the Erie canal, died. The tariff was amended and enlarged this year. This tariff was violently opposed in the South and produced the " Nullification Ordinances" of S. C., some time later. In the fall of this year Gen. Andrew Jackson was elected President 1829. Feb. 29 The Virginia Legislature passes a resolution denying the right of Congress to pass a protective tariff law. Mar. 4 Andrew Jackson inaugurated as President. Dan. Webster makes his great speech against nullification. JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 1829. May 19 A treaty of friendship and commerce concluded with Brazil. 44 " John Jay, ex-President of the Continental Congress, Chief Justice of the U. 8., Governor of N. Y., etc., died. In purity of patriot, ism, moderation, and soundness of judgment, he came nearer to Washington than any of his contemporaries. He was above the reach of the violent party spirit that prevailed after Washington's retirement from public life. 1830. May 7 A treaty made with Turkey gives II. S. commerce the freedom of the Black sea. The vigorous dealing of our government with the Barbary States secured the respect and friendship of Turkey. The important movement and interests of this year were connected with the progress of railroads (the first American built locomotive was made this year,) and the rapid rise of that great interest, and with the agitation produced by the nullification proceedings of South Carolina. That State claimed the right to pronounce upon, and disregard the enactments of Congress. This was subversive of the Constitution. It drew the " Key Stone " from the arch, and the whole structure of the Union would have fallen. No decisive action was reached till the year 1832. 1830. May 29 The office of Solicitor of the Treasury created. 1881. Jan. 10 The King of the Netherlands, being accepted as arbitrator of the HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 633 northern boundary between the United States and the British Pos- sessions, by the two governments, decides the question in our favor. July 4 James Monroe, ex-President of the U. 8., died, aged 73. Oct. 1 A free trade convention meets at Philadelphia. " 20 A tariff convention meets at New York. There were over 500 delegates. It was the absorbing political topic of the time. 1832. April 1 The Black Hawk war breaks out by the attack of the Winneba- goes, Sacs, and Foxes from the west bank of the Mississippi on the settlers in Illinois, under the Indian chief, Black Hawk. " 2 The Creek Indians sell all their lands east of the Mississippi river to the U.S. May 5 A commercial and boundary treaty concluded with Mexico. " 27 A new ratio of representation based on the 5th census gives one member of Congress to 47,700 inhabitants. June 1 Gen. Sumter, a South Carolina hero of the Revolution, died. " 9 The cholera breaks out at Quebec, Lower Canada. It swept over the country, following the lakes and rivers and routes of travel, with fearful violence. July The cholera breaks up Gen. Scott's army, on the way to meet Black Hawk while in vessels on the lakes. " Congress creates the office of Commissioner of Indian affairs. " 10 Naval hospitals established at Charlestown, Mass., Brooklyn, N. Y., and Pensacola, Fla. i u rp ue p rcg i ( ] en t vetoes the bill rcchartering the U. 8. Bank. Aug. 27 Gen. Atkinson defeats the Indians and takes Black Hawk prisoner. Nov. 14 Chas. Carroll, of Carrollton, Md., last surviving signer of Dec. of Ind., dies. M 19 An anti-tariff convention in 8. C. issues the famous "Nullifica- tion Ordinance." " 24 The Unionists of 8. C. meet and protest against this ordinance. Dec. 10 President Jackson issues a proclamation against the nullificra. Ho followed word with deed, garrisoning the forts, and sending vessels of war into the harbor of Charleston. His well known vigor left the nullifiers no hope of success, and they finally sub- mitted. * 18 A commercial treaty concluded with Russia. * 20 Gov. Haync, of 8. C., defies the President in a counter procla mation. * 28 J. C. Calhoun, of 6. C., the Vice-Presidcnt, resigns his office. President Jackson is reelectccl this fall. His anti-nullification measures made him very popular. 634 iilSTOKY OF THE UNITED STATES. tass. Feb. 12 Henry Clay introduces a bill on the tariff comprc ising the points at issue between the manufacturing States an^ the Soitb. Mar. 3 It becomes a law, and gives general satisfaction. " 4 President Jackson reinaugurated on his second term. May 20 The death of La Fayette, in France. June 1 Oliver Wolcott, Sec. of the Treasury under Washington, dies. July 27 Com. Bainbridge, a famous naval commander, dies. Sept. 30 President Jackson removes his Sec. of Treas. W. J. Duan^ br refusing to carry out his policy in regard to the U. S. Bank. The presence of the Indians in Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, and Florida, produces so much conflict and so frequent a necessity for chastising them that they are in danger of to\al extermination. Gen. Jackson persuades Congress and the Indiana to arrange for their removal to lands west of the Mississippi. Some of the Indi- ans quietly remove this year. Many resist, but all are finally persuaded to this course by Gen. Scott and others, except the Seminoles of Fla. 1834. Mar. 28 Congress formally censures the President for his course in regard, to the U. S. Bank. Oct. 28 A conditional treaty made with the Seminoles at Payne's Landing,. May 9, 1832, for their removal to the Indian Territory west of the Mississippi, was afterwards confirmed by the chiefs but rejected by the people. Gen. Thompson was sent, at this time, by Presi- dent Jackson to insist on their carrying out the treaty. Dec. 28 A council of the Indians, called by Gen. Thompson, seemingly accept the terms of the President 1835. Mar. 3 Congress establishes branch mints in La., N. C., and Ga. May 14 A treaty with the Cherokees purchases all their lands east of the Mississippi for $5,262,251, and ample lands in exchange In the Indian Territory. June 3 -Osceola, a Seminole chief, imprisoned by Gen. Thompson. July G Chief Justice Marshall dies, aged 80. Dec. 1C A destructive fire in New York. $17,000,000 worth of property consumed. " 28 The Seminoles killed their chief, Math la, who had been promin- ent in making the obnoxious treaty, and suddenly attack a U. 8. force under Maj. Dade. But one man out of 110 escaped. He was wounded and afterwards died. The same day Gen. Thompson, and others were surprised and massacred. " 81 Gen. Clinch is attacked by the Indians at Withlacoochee. He repulses them and retires. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 635 1830. Early In this year the Indians laid waste the whole country, burning the buildings and killing all who had not tiiken refuge in the forts. Jan. 20 A treaty of friendship and commerce concluded with the republic of Venezuela, South America. Feb. The U. 8. Bank was chartered by the Legislature of Pa. " 11 Qen. Gaines lands an army at Tampa Bay. He is surrounded by the Indians on his march toward Fort King. He repulsed them, but his army is nearly starved. While the army is held here the tribe remove their families and effects into the impenetrable swamps of the interior. Mar. 2 The Texans proclaim their independence. Apr. 26 Wisconsin receives a territorial government. u 21 Battle of San Jacinto. Santa Anna taken prisoner. June 15 Michigan erected into a State, conditionally. " " Arkansas admitted into the Union. u 23 A surplus revenue having accumulated it is loaned to the States. " 28 James Madison, the ex-President, dies, aged 86. July 4 Office of Commissioner of Patents created. Sept. 15 Aaron Burr, an able but dishonest and disloyal statesman, for- merly Vice-President, dies, aged 81. The Creek Indians commenced hostilities in May of this year, in their usual fierce and barbarous manner. Gen. Scott and the State authorities of Geo. subdue them early in the summer. In the presidential election this fall Martin Van Buren was elected. Dec. 15 The General Post Office and Patent Office, with many records* and articles of value, are destroyed by fire. mi. Jan. 16 The U. 8. Senate repealed and expunged its resolution of March 24th, 1834, censuring President Jackson, as having exceeded his- Constitutional powers when he ordered the public funds to be withdrawn from the U. 8. Bank. Mar. 4 Van Buren inaugurated President. Speculation having been carried to an extreme length for some time, and somewhat arrested by the " specie circular " requiring payments for public lands to be made in coin, a revulsion, produc- ing great distress, and suspension of payments by the banks, occurred this spring. May 8 The merchants of New York present a memorial to the President urging him to remit the regulations of the "specie circular. " The President declines, but calls an extra session of Congress. Aug. 4 Texas proposes annexation to the U. 8. The President declines to entertain the proposition. " 13 The banks resume specie payments. Sept 4 Congress assembled in extra session. A portion of the surplus on defeats Confederate Gen. Price. " 20 At Cole Camp, Mo., Union men defeated; at Liberty, Mo., South- erners overcome. " 23 Forty-eight locomotives of Baltimore and Ohio R. R. destroyed by Southern forces ; value, $400,000. " 26 President Lincoln recognizes the Wheeling government as that of Virginia. " 29 Southern privateer, Sumter, escapes through blockade at New Orleans. July 2 Battle near Martinsburg, Va., Geu. Patterson, Union, and Gen. Jackson, Confederate. M 4 Southern forces seize Louisville and Nashville railroad. " 5 Congress assemble at Washington. President calls for 400,000 vol- unteers, and $400,000,000 to put down the rebellion. Battle of Carthage, between Sigel, Union, and Gen. Jackson, Southern. Gen. Sigel retreated. * 11 Nine Southern Senators expelled from U. S. Congress. " 12 Battle of Rich Mountain, Va. Col. Roseci'ans, Union, defeated Col. Pegram, taking 800 prisoners and his camp stores. * 18 Confederates under Gen. Garnett, defeated at Carrick's Ford, by Gen. Morris. Gen. Garnett killed. I I :>T I'MASK (>! TIIK WAR. 655 Col. Stuart, commanding Confederate cavalry, attacks Union forces ;it Hunker Hill, Va., and is defeated. " 10 Skirmishes at Millville, Mo., and Barboursville, Va. * 18 Outposts of the two armies fight at Blackburn's Ford, on Bull Run, some 20 miles from Washington. Southern troops withdraw. BATTLK OF BULL RUN. * 81 This was the first great battle. The Confederate government aims at the capture of Washington. Their forces, under Gen. Beaure- gard, about 22,000, afterwards strengthened by 6,000, are attacked by Union army under Gen. McDowell, with 28,000 men. It turns in favor of McDowell until arrival of Confederate reinforcement of 0,000, when Union army was totally defeated, the fugitives fly- ing in great disorder to the defenses of Washington. Yet Con- federates lost more in wounded, and failed to take the National Capital, the preservation of which was the supreme point to the Union forces. The South gained the battle, and the Union gained the cause. " 25 Gen. McClellan takes command of the Army of the Potomac. 4.ug. 1 Confederate forces at Harper's Ferry retreat to Leesburg. H 2 Congress authorized the raising of 500,000 men and $500,000,000 to suppress the insurrection, providing for the last by tax and tariff. Gen. Lyon repulses the Confederates at Dug Spring, Mo. " 5 Commodore Allen bombarded Galveston, Texas. " 7 Hampton, Va.. burned by Southern forces. BATTLE OF WILSON'S CREEK, Mo. " 10- -Gen. Lyon, (Union,) with about 5,000 men, attacked Gen. McCul- lough, (Confederate.) with over 10.000. Gen. Lyon killed. Fed- eral losses in killed, wounded, and missing, 1,211; Southern losses over l,l!00. Union forces retreated to Springfield. McCullough too much shattered to follow. " 12 President Lincoln proclaimed Sept. :JO a Fast Day. " 14- (.Jen. Fremont declared martial law in St. Louis. " 15 President Davis ordered all northern men to leave the South in 40 Mays. " 1C President Lincoln forbids commercial intercourse with the South. " 23 Cherokee Indians take part with the South. " 28 Capture of Forts Hatteras and Clark, N. C., by Gen. Butler and Com. Stringham. " 31 Gen. Fremont proclaims freedom of slaves and confiscates prop- erty of disunionists in Missouri. President Lincoln counter- mands it. jept 1 Southerners defeated at Boon vi lie, Va , and town destroyed 656 FIRST PHASE OF THE WAR. " 4 Confederate Gen. Polk occupies Columbus, Ky. Southern forces, attempting to cross Potomac at Great Falls, repulsed. " 10 Gen. Banks attacks Confederate Gen. Floyd, in intrenched camp, at Carnifex Ferry. Gen. Floyd retreats in the night. " 18 Battle of Cheat Mountain, a Union victory. Col. J. A. Washing- ton killed. * 18 Secession members' of Maryland Legislature imprisoned. " 19 Arrest of Gov. Morehead and others for treason, in Louisville, Ky. " 20 Col. Mulligan, Union, besieged, at Lexington, Mo., and compelled to surrender with over 2,000 men, after a fight of four days. Oct. 2 Battle of Chapnianville, Va. Confederates defeated. " 3 Battle of Greenbriar, Va. Federal success. " 4 Confederate success at Chicamacomico, Va. Federals retreated. " 5 Steamer Monticello drives Southern forces from Chicamacomico. " 7 Confederate Iron Clad Merrimac appears at Fortress Monroe. " 11 Confederate Commissioners Slidell and Mason escape fro Charleston, S. C. " 16 U. S. troops recapture Lexington, Mo. Battle of Pilot Knob, Mo Unionists successful. " 21 Battle of Balls Bluff. U. S. forces under Col. Baker, member of Congress, 1,900 strong, defeated with loss of 918 men. Col. Baker killed. Gen. Zollicoffer defeated by U. S. troops at Camp Wild Cat, Ky. " 25 Gen. Kelly gains a battle against Confederates at Romney, Va. " 29 U. S. naval and military force of 27,000 men and 75 vessels leaye Fortress Monroe for the South. Nov. 1 Gen. Scott retires from command of the Union army. Gen. McClellan appointed Gen. in Chief. Gen. Floyd fails in his attack on Gen. Rosencranz, at Gauley, Va. " 2 Gen. Fremont superceded by Gen. Hunter in Mo. " 4 Houston, Mo., taken by Union troops. " 7 Com. Dupont and Gen. Sherman capture Forts Walker and Beau. regard, S. C., and occupy Beaufort and Hilton Island. Gen. Grant captured Confederate camp at Belmont, Mo., opposite Columbus. Reinforcements arriving he retired. " 8 Mason and Slidell, Confederate Commissioners to Europe, were taken from British steamer Trent, by U. S. ship San JacSnto. On subsequent demand of the English government they were given up. " 10 Union soldiers having been killed by inhabitants of Guyandotte, Va., the town was burnt in retaliation. " 15 The San Jacinto arrived at Fortress Monroe with Slidell and Mason. . " 23 Bombardment of Pensacola, Fla., by Ft. Pickens and U. S. war vessels. " 27 Gen. McClellan orders observance of the Sabbath in the army. KIKST PUASK OF THE WAB. 657 " 29 Skirmish at Warsaw, Mo. Town partly destroyed. " 80 Fight at Salem, Mo. Southern forces defeated Dec. 8 Congress met at Washington. u 4 Two Congressmen and Senator Breckcnridge of Ky., expelled for treason. " 6 Naval engagement at Cape Hatteras. Forces of U. S. army and navy reported very near 700,000 men. " 9 Confederate Congress declares Kentucky a State in the Southern Confederacy. " 18 Gen. Milroy defeats Confederate Col. Johnson, at Camp Alleghany. " 16 Platte City, Mo., burnt by Southern forces. " 17 More than 20 vessels, filled with stone, sunk at the entrance of Charleston and Savannah harbors. " 18 Gen. Pope captured 1,300 Southerners and 1,000 stand of anna at Millford, Mo. " 31 U. S. navy increased from 42 vessels at beginning of the war to 246, of all kinds, up to this date. 1862. Jan. 1 Mason and Slidell leave Ft. Wairen, Boston Harbor, for England. " 2 Success of Unionists on Port Royal Island, near Charleston, S. C. " 4 Gen. Milroy defeats Confederates at Huntersville, Va. " 7 Confederate defeat at Romney. U. 8. troops capture stores in Tucker Co., Va. " 8 Union victory by Gen. Palmer at Silver Creek, Mo. " 10 Humphrey Marshall defeated by Union troops in Kentucky. Senators Johnson and Polk of Mo., expelled from the U. 8. Senate. " 11 Simon Cameron, U. S. Sec. of War, resigned; E. M. Stanton appointed. Naval engagement on the Mississippi near the mouth of the Ohio; Union, vessels superior. " 12125 vessels abd 15,000 troops, under Gen. Burnside, sail for the South. " 18 Ex-President Tyler dies. " 19 Union victory at Mill Spring, Ky., by Gen. Shoepf over Gen. Zolli- cofferand Gen. Crittenden. Much spoil taken; Gen. Zollicofler killed. * 87 Bishop Ames and Gov. Fish of New York appointed to visit pris- ons in the South, to look after the interests of Union prisoners. Confederate authorities refuse to receive them. 42 CHAPTER XXY. THE SECOND PHASE OF THE WAR. The previous period, though abounding in battles, so-called, were really skirmishes of detached bodies without any well denned plan. It covered much of the surface of all the Border States, but especially Virginia and Missouri, and was a trial of bravery and strategy in which both parties learned how to fight, and of what metal their opponents were made. The Second Period covered about eleven months from the advance of the Federal armies on the South in West and East, in Feb.. to the close of the year. This period is defined in its commencement, by the surrounding of the southern territory on nearly all sides by the Union forces, both naval and military; and the inauguration of aggressive movements both by sea and land ; and in its close by the failure of the two southern Generals, Bragg in the West, and Lee in the East, in the endeavor to break through this beleagering line. It was an immense and desperate conflict. In the West it began by the 'ttack of Grant on Fts. Henry and Donel- son, followed up by the battle of Pittsburg Landing, and various other operations in Tennessee and Mississippi; the advance of McClellan on Richmond, and his campaign in the Peninsula, his failure and .return to Washington ; the strengthening of the Southern Army, and the advance of Lee northward into Maryland and his defeat there. The disasters to the Union army in Virginia served to check the successes of the Western Army under Grant, Sherman, Buell, Rosecranz and others; the Confed- erate forces in the West were increased under Bragg, who checked the advance of U. S. troops eastward at Chattanooga, and he himself assumed the offensive, by invading Kentucky. He was compelled to retreat again to Chattanooga. Thus there was an alternation of great successes and great reverses on both sides. The Union Army commenced with about 600,000 men, and the Southern with about 400,000. They both largely added to these during the cam- paign. Meanwhile the navy was not idle. A foothold was gained in South Carolina, and in North Carolina, as well as at Norfolk, Virginia, the mouth of the Missisippi was opened by Admiral Farragut, and New Or- leans captured. The compression of a vast naval And land force was applied in all directions, even west of the Mississippi. Missouri had been quieted by driving the organized forces into the border of Arkansas, and inflicting on them .a heavy blow at Pea Ridge. This, however, was not followed up ; the disasters to the Union cause in Virginia, and the rebound of the Confederates in East Tennessee, requiring concentration. The South had shown the most determined bravery, and great steadiness in disaster; and activity, and ability in making the most of circumstances. 8EOOND PHASE OF THE WAR. The speed with which she collected other levies and armies and used them within the campaign greatly impressed the authorities and people of the Federal government. They were convinced that the blacks left at home to till the ground, or employed in the fortifications and other labor of the war, contributed much to the strength of the South; enabling them to concentrate all their resources on a given point with extreme rapidity, and to use all their best fighting material. After so vast an outlay, to see their immense armies defied and the Northern States threatened with inva- sion was discouraging. Hitherto slavery had not been interfered with much, in deference to the sentiment in the Border States, and the views of the democratic party. The Union administration determined to weaken the South by abstracting as much as possible of the slave element from it and to use it themselves. The issue of the Proclamation of Emancipa- tion marks a Third Phase of the War. 1862. Feb. 3 The Federal government decides to treat crews of privateers taken in arms, not as pirates, but as prisoners of war. 41 5 Jesse D. Bright, of Indiana, expelled from the U. 8. Senate. 44 6 Com. Foote, acting in concert with Gen. Grant, advances up the Tennessee river in Ky., and captures Fort Henry. ** 8 Gen. Burns icle and Com. Goldsborough capture forts, forces and war material on Roanoke Island, in Albemarle Sound, N. C. 44 10 Gunboats of Confederate government taken or destroyed. " 12 Gen. Grant invests Ft. Donelson, on Cumberland river, Ky. 44 13 Gen. Curtis advances to Springfield, Mo. U. 3. Congress determine to construct 20 iron clad gunboats. 44 16 Bowling Green, Ky., evacuated by Southern forces. " 16 Gen. Grant captures Ft. Donelson, with 13,300 prisoners. 44 18 Gen. Curtis drives Confederates out of Missouri into Arkansas. Confederate Congress assemble at Richmond Va. 44 19 Jefferson Davis and A. H. Stevens elected permanent President and Vice-President of Confederate States for six years. 44 21 Defeat of Union forces at Clarksville, New Mexico. " 23 Nashville, Tenn., occupied by Union forces. " 27 Columbus, on the Mississippi, in Ky., evacuated by Confederate*. Mar. 2 Severe encounter between Union gunboats and Confederate bat- tery at Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee. Union success. " 8 Gen. Beauregard assumes command of Southern army in Missis- sippi. 44 6-8 Gen. Curtis defeats Gen. McCullough at Pea Ridge, Ark. Curtis' army 22,000, McCullough's 35,000. McCullough killed. 44 9 First trial of Monitors. The formidable Merrimac, a Confederate iron clad vessel, conquered by the Monitor. " 11 Gen. McClellan's command confined to the army of the Potomac. 44 12 Com. Dupont takes possession of Jacksonville, Florida. SECOND PHASE OF THE WAR. Mar.18 Confederates evacuate New Madrid, Mo., in haste, leaving $1,000,000 of military stores. " 14 Newborn, N. C., captured by Gen. Burnside. Immense stores taken. " 18 Confederate fortifications at Acquia Creek, Va., evacuated. " 23 Battle of Winchester, Va. Southern forces defeated. " 88 Fight at Union Ranch, New Mexico. Union troops 3,000, Texans 1,100. Result undecided. Apr. 6-7 Battle of Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh. First day's battle fought by Beauregard and Johnston, Confederate Generals, with 40,000 available troops, by Gen. Grant with 33,000. He was sup* ported by gunboats in the Tennessee river. Attack and defense desperate, and the slaughter fearful. The second day Beauregard had no more than 20,000 effective men. Grant was reinforced by Buell, and his effective force was 45,000. It was great honor U> Union troops not to recognize defeat on the 6th, and highly credit, able to Confederates to make a desperate stand and inflict an immense loss on Federals on the 7th. They were almost annihi- lated but retreated without immediate pursuit. " 8 Island No. 10, Mississippi river, captured. " 11 Ft. Pulaski captured by Gen. Hunter, commands entrance to Savannah, Geo. Gen. Mitchell occupies Huntsville, Ala. " 12 Gen. Mitchell captures 2,000 prisoners at Chattanooga, East Ten- nessee. lft_Slavery abolished in the District of Columbia, by U. 8. Congress. " 18 Gen. McClellan's advance attacked on the Peninsula, Va. " 19 Successes of Union Gens. Burnside and Reno, in North Carolina. 25 Com. Farragut, passing the forts, captures New Orleans. 28 Forts Jackson and St. Philip, at mouth of Mississippi below New Orleans, surrender. 29 Gen. Mitchell defeats Confederates at Bridgport, Ala. May 1 Union cavalry captured at Pulaski, Tenn. 3 Yorktown evacuated by Southern troops. Occupied by McClellan. " 5 Battle of Williamsburg Va. Lasts all day. Unionists successful. 7 Southern Gen. Lee attacks McClellan's army but is repulsed. 8 Union Gen. Milroy repulsed at McDowell's, Va., after a five hour's fight. " 9 Pensacola Fla. evacuated by Southern forces. : 10 Norfolk, Va., occupied by Union forces. The Merrimac, Gosport Navy Yard, and vast quantities of stores destroyed by retreating Confederates. : 16 The Agricultural Department created by Congress. 12 Natchez, on the Mississippi river, surrendered to Farragut. - 17 Union forces drive Confederates over the Chickahominy, Va. *' 84 Southern success at Front Royal, Va., over Col. Kenley. SECOND PHASE OF THE WAR. f,i ] if ay 25 Gen. Banks, defeated at Winchester, Va., retreat* across the Po- tomac. " 27 Confederates defeated at Hanover, Va. " 80 Union troops occupy Corinth, Mississippi. " 81 Battle of Fair Oaks. Union troops repulsed. Junel Battle of Fair Oaks renewed. Southern forces repulsed with heavy loss. " 6 Gunboats capture Memphis, Tenn., and Confederate vessels. " 8 Battle of Cross Keys, Va. Gen. Freemont defeats Stonewall Jackson. 44 14 Union forces defeated on James Island, near Charleston, 8. C. *' 18 Union troops occupy Cumberland Gap, Tenn. 44 19 Congress prohibits slavery in the Territories. ,'** 26 Six days fight before Richmond commenced at Mechanicsrllle. I M ion forces repulsed. 44 27 Bombardment of Vicksburg. Gen. Fremont relieved of com- mand. Battle before Richmond renewed. 44 28 Severe battles before Richmond ; enemy repulsed at night. Union- ists fall back. 41 29 Battles of Peach Orchard and Savage's Station, Va. Federal re- pulse. " 80 Battle of White Oak Swamp. McClellan continues to retreat toward James river. Confederates repulsed with loss. July 1 Battle of Malvern Hill. Southern forces repulsed. End of 6 days fight. President Lincoln calls for 600,000 volunteers. Internal Revenue Bill passed Congress. Polygamy forbidden in the United States. Union Pacific Railroad chartered by Congress. 44 7 Fight at Bayou Cache, Ark. Gen. Curtis, Union, defeats Gen. Pike, Southern. 44 9 Hamilton, N. C., captured by Federal troops. 44 11 Southern Gen. Morgan enters Glasgow, Ky. Gen. Halleck ap- pointed Commander-in-Chief of the U. S. armies. 44 13 Southern forces capture Murfreesborough, Tenn. Stores and prisoners taken. 44 17 Cynthiana, Kentucky, captured. 4 18 Southern raid into Indiana. Gen. Twiggs died. 44 22 Siege of Vicksburg abandoned by U. 8. forces. This month is generally disastrous to eastern and western Union armies. Confederate armies become strongly aggressive, and advance north into Ky., and toward Maryland. Aug. 8 Gen. Jeff. Thompson, Confederate, defeated near Memphis, Tenn. 4_U. 8. Sec. of War ordered a draft of 800,000 men to serve for nine months. 662 SECOND PHASE OF THE WAK. Aug. 5 Battle of Baton Rouge, La. Gen. Breckinridge defeated. " 10 Battle of Cedar Mountain. Gen. Jackson fails to drive Gen. Banks. " 16 Gen. McClellan evacuates the Peninsula. " 21 Gen. Sigel obtains an important and bloody advantage on the Rappahannock. " 26 Confederate Gen. Ewell drives Unionists from Manassas, Va. Union expedition up the Yazoo river, Mississippi, is successful. " 27 Gen, Pope defeats Gen. Ewell at Haymarket, Va. " 28 Battle of Centreville. Gen. Jackson repulsed. " 29 Battle of Groveton, near Bull Run, Va. Confederates repulsed, but renewed the fight next day and Gen. Pope withdrew. " 30 Battle near Richmond, Ky. Union Gen. Nelson defeated with heavy loss. u 31 Battle of Weldon, Va., a Union victory. The general operations of this month by the main armies east and west largely in favor of the South, notwithstanding heavy losses inflicted and successes gained in detached engagements by the U. S. troops. The armies under Lee and Bragg pressed on northward with incredible vigor. No repulses or defeats could stop their headlong rush. Sept. 1 The last of Gen. Pope's battles in Va., near Washington. Two of his generals were killed, Kearney and Stevens. The enemy retired, leaving their dead and wounded. In 6 days Pop* had lost near 10,000 in killed and wounded. Battle at Britton's Lane, Tenn. Confederates fled. Union Army evacuate Lexington, Ky. Fight at Jackson, Tenn. " 2 McClellan put in command of army for the defense of "Wash- ington. " 5 Confederate army cross the Potomac to Frederick, Maryland. Attack on Union troops at Washington, N. C. It is repulsed. " 6 Col. Lowe recaptured Clarksville, Tenn. " 8 Gen. Lee issues a proclamation to the Marylanders. " 9 Col. Grierson overcomes Southern forces at Coldwater, Miss. Union forces repel the enemy at Williamsburgh, Va. Fredericksburg, Va., evacuated by Southern forces. " 10 Great fears of invasion in Pennsylvania and Ohio. Philadelphia and Cincinnati begin to prepare for an attack. " 11 Ganby, Va., Maysville, Ky., and Bloomfield, Mo., taken by South- ern forces. " 12 Charleston, S. C., bombarded and partially burnt. Fight on Elk river, Va., and at Middletown, Maryland. " 13 Harper's Ferry, Va., beseiged. It surrendered on the 15th with 11,500 men. " 14 McClellan engages Lee's army at South Mountain, Md. Lee SECOND PHASE OF THE WAR. 663 retired toward the Potomac. The invasion of the North was stopped, for this time, ID the East Sep. 16 Munfordsville, Ky., captured by Confederates and 4,000 prisoners taken. " 17 Lee unwilling to give up his plan of invasion, makes another stand at Antietam creek, and a great battle was fought. Near 100,000 men on each side. The result was indecisive, the losses nearly equal, both in the neighborhood of 13,000. Lee retreated across the Potomac in the night, and Harper's Ferry was evacuated. " 20 Gen. Rosecrans defeats the Southerners with great loss at luka, Miss. " 23 President Lincoln issues an Emancipation Proclamation, declar- ing all the slaves free, unless the Southern States discontinued the war within 100 days. " 27 U. 8. garrison at Augusta, Ky., surrender after a very gallant fight Oct. 3 Battle of Corinth, Miss. Confederates defeated with great loss. " 8-0 Battle of Perryville, Ky. Southern army having been arrested in its advance and obliged to retreat before Gen. Buell, turned on his advance and inflicted a severe blow, but are forced to resume their retreat. " 10 Confederate cavalry, under Stuart, make a raid on Chambersburg, Penn. They capture 500 horses and many stores and hastily return to Virginia. u 14 One hundred thousand dollars sent to Sanitary Commission from San Francisco. " 16 Battle near Richmond, Ky. " 19 Gen. Forrest defeated by Union forces, near Gallatin, Texas. " 22 Southern defeat at Maysville, Ark., by Gen. Blunt. " 24 An English steamer bringing military stores to the South, cap. tnred. " 28 Confederates defeated by Gen. Herron, at Fayetteville, Ark. " 80 Gen. Rosecrans supersedes Buell in Kentucky. Gen. Mitchell, the astronomer, died in S. C. Nov. 6 Gen. McClellan relieved of command in Va. by Gen. Burnside. Attack on Nashville by Confederates. They are repulsed. " 11 Southern defeat at Garrettsburg, Ky., by Gen. Ransom. Exchange of prisoners effected. " 16 President Lincoln enjoins on soldiers in camp and garrison observ- ance of the Sabbath. " 17 Cavalry fight near Kingston, N. C. Southerners beaten. ' 22 All political State prisoners released by U. 8. government. " 25 Newbern, N. C. attacked by Southern troops. They soon retire. " 28 Battle of Cane Hill, Ark. A Union victory. Dec. 1 The Pittsburg Battery, captured on the Peninsula, retaken by a Union force sent from Suffolk, Va, 664 CAMPAIGN OF 1863. Dec. 5 Battle of Coffeeville, Miss. Southern loss was heavy. " 6 Gen. Banks' expedition for the South sailed for New Orleans. " 7 At Prairie Grove, Ark., Gens. Blunt and Herron defeated Con- federates. Confederate Gen. Morgan captured several regiments of Western troops. " 8 Steamer Lake City destroyed by Southerners. " 9 U. S. troops burn Concordia, on the Mississippi. " 13 Battle of Fredricksburg. A severe repulse to the Union army. Gen. Poster makes a cavalry raid into the interior of N. C., a success. Commodore Parker destroys Confederate salt works, five schooners and two sloops. " 17 Gen. Banks captures Baton Rouge, the capital of Louisiana. " 19 Confederates retake Holly Springs, Miss., and large stores with 4,000 bales of cotton. " 26 Indians, engaged in the Minnesota massacre, hung 38 in number. " 27 Vicksburg attacked by Gen. Sherman and gunboats, unsuccessfully. " 31 Battle of Murfreesboro, or Stone River, commenced with a Federal repulse. The Monitor that conquered the Merrimac, foundered at sea. Act of Congress admitting West Virginia into the Union as a sovereign State. This was to take effect 60 days after the Presi- dent's proclamation making this announcement. CHAPTEE XXVI. CAMPAIGN OF 1863. The preliminary Proclamation of Emancipation, issued Sept. 22d, 1862, was not to take effect for 100 days, or until Jan. 1st, 1863. Meanwhile the final details of the great operations, undertaken on both sides during 1862, were wound up. The bold efforts of the South, in the East and West, to transfer the war into the North, and indemnify themselves for the strict blockade of the coast by drawing supplies from the enemy, had resulted in defeat and withdrawal ; not unaccompanied with booty, especially in the west, where Bragg's train of supplies was said to have been 40 miles long. The southern people had failed in the main point, yet they had gained much. Federal reverses in the east had stopped the victories in the west in mid career, both by withdrawing from those armies to the east, and adding to the Confederates from the same region. Grant and Sher- man failed at Vicksburg, and Buell at Chattanooga. Yet these reverses to the Union arms served to stimulate the north, and to demonstrate the energy, resources, and indomitable resolution of the CAMPAIGN OF 1863. 665 Rational government, and to undeceive the South as to the real sentiments of the great body of the Democratic party from which they had hoped aid on an invasion in force. Several of the European Powers, who would have liked to support the South, seeing the formidable character of the General Government, drew back in fear. The South might have foreseen that her cause was really hopeless ; but she was too American not to feel an unconquerable resolution to carry her point or perish. She strength- ened her armies and prepared for another invasion. The Federal armies were now (Jan. 1863,) about 800,000 strong; her navy consisted of near 450 vessels, a large number being iron-clads. The great events of the campaign were Lee's invasion of Pennsylvania and his retreat after the battle of Gettysburg, and Grant's success at Vicks- burg and Chattanooga. The resolution of the South, enveloped in the embrace of so mighty an antagonist, was wonderful; the unfaltering spirit, and readiness of the northern people to furnish whatever was required for success was still more so. The whole South, at least every State, was the theater of many contests of more or less importance ; but the main interest centered on the Mississippi river, at Chattanooga and its vicinity, and on Gen. Lee's army in Virginia or Pennsylvania. It was a contest of giants ; yet, struggle as she might, the South was doomed. At the end of this year she was still strong, her armies were veterans, her spirit unbroken. The Federal Government had gained much, but it was tep by step, inch by inch ; and, in some parts, as in Virginia, what had been gained many times over, in territory, had been as often lost Her general gain over the Confederate States lay most largely in the fatal process of exhaustion to which the vast operations of the Federal government forced the South. Increase of numbers made the battles more bloody and wasteful of life. The three leading events in this campaign the capture <' Vicksburg, (the battle of Chickamauga was a Confederate victory, but balanced by that of Chattanooga,) the battle of Gettysburg, and the battle of Chattanooga were all decisive against the Confederates, yet leaving her strength for a long and vigorous contest of more than a year and a half. 1863. Jan. 1 The year opened with a Confederate success at Galveston, Texas. An attack by sea and land resulted in the capture of 300 troops, the destruction of one vessel with its crew, and the capture of another, the Harriet Lane. Com. Renshaw was blown up with his vessel. Confederate defeat at Lexington, Trim , after an obstinate fight. Proclamation of Emancipation issued by President Lincoln. Long, but indecisive battle of Stone River. Federal killed and wounded, 8,000. " 8 Union army withdraws from before Vicksburg. Southern army retreats at Murfreesborough, Tenn. 666 CAMPAIGN OF 1863. " 7 Springfield, Mo., successfully defended by Unionists. " 9 20.000 prisoners exchanged. ' 11 A combined attack on Fts. Hindman and Arkansas Post by gun- boats and land forces, resulted in Union success over 7,000' prisoners. " 12 Three Federal transports and a gunboat captured on Cumberland river. " 13 The Southern steamer, Florida, escapes from Mobile. " 17 $100,000,000 issued by the U. S. government in notes to pay the army. " 20 Blockading vessels captured by Confederates, at Sabine City, Texas. " 22 Attack on Vicksburg resumed. Gen. Porter dismissed from U. 8- army. " 25 A regiment of colored soldiers organized at Port Royal, S. C. " 26 Gen. Hooker succeeds Gen. Burnside, in command of the Union Army of the Potomac, and Gens. Sumner and Franklin are relieved from duty. The Confederate war steamer, Alabama, destroys one vessel and captures another. Feb. 1 A second unsuccessful gunboat attack on Ft. McAllister. " 5 Destruction of transports on Red River, La. Ft. Donelson repels Southern troops. " 12 The Florida captures the Union merchant vessel, Jacob Bell. " 18 The iron-clad, Indianola, runs the blockade at Vicksburg, and is captured. " 18 Vicksburg bombarded by gunboats ineffectually. " 21 The Alabama, a Confederate cruiser, destroys two vessels on the African coast. " 25 The Bureau of Currency and National Banks established by U. S. Congress. " 26 The Cherokees return to the Union, and abolish slavery. Twenty-eight cars, with stores, destroyed by Confederates, in Ken- tucky. " 28 Confederate iron-clad, Nashville, destroyed in Ogeechee river, Geo. Mar. 1 Third fruitless Union attack on Ft McAllister, Geo. " 2 U. S. Generals increased to 358. " 3 Congress authorizes loan of $900,000,000. These are called ten- forty's. The President authorized to suspend the writ of Habeas Corpus U. S. Assistant Treasurer provided by act of Congress. Territorial government organized in Idaho. Twc U. S. gunboats destroyed. a 5 Van Dorn (Confederate) captures Springfield, Tenn., and man? prisoners. CAMPAIGN OF 1863. 667 Mar. 6 Van Dorn captures H considerable Union force at Franklin, Tenn. " 7 Gen. Minty captures a Confederate cavalry force at Unionville, Tenn. " 10 Colored troops captured Jacksonville, Florida. " 14 Port Hudson, Mississippi river, attacked by the Union gunboat fleet under Com. Farragut. The flag ship disabled and burnt " 17 Gallant and successful exploit of Union cavalry at Kelly 's Ford, Va~ " 19 An English steamer with arms for the South destroyed off Charleston. " 20 Defeat of Morgan (Confederate) at Milton, Tenn. " 25 Two Union vessels lost before Vicksburg. " 28 Confederate steamer Iris captured near Charleston, 8. C. Apr. 1 Admiral Farragut passes the batteries of Grand Gulf. Great scarcity of many things in the Confederacy from the strict- ness of the blockade, and extreme depreciation of Confederate money. No cotton could be sold. M 7 An attack on Fort Sumter by nine Union iron clads. They are worsted. The Alabama Confederate cruiser captures the U. 8. ship Morning Star. * 10 Two Union gunboats destroyed on Cumberland river. Van Dorn repulsed by Union General Granger, at Franklin, Tenn. " 16 Com. Porter runs the batteries at Vicksburg successfully. " 17 Gen. Banks vanquished Southern troops at La Teche and Grand Lake, La. " 22 The Queen of the West captured on Grand Lake. Grigsby, Con- federate, surprised at McMinnville, Tenn. Banks occupied Opelousas and Washington, Miss. " 28 Gen. Hunter informs Confederate authorities that colored soldiers must be treated as other prisoners of war, on pain of retaliation. " 24 Union defeat at Beverly, Va., and victories at Weber Falls, Ark. and on Iron Mountain Railroad, Mo. May 1 Gen. Grant defeated the Southern troops at Port Gibson. Gen. Pegram, Confederate, defeated at Monticello, Ky. A third defeat of Southern troops, at South Quay, Va. Unionists defeated at La Grange, Ark. Battle of Chancelloreville, Va., begins. " 2- Col. Grierson, of U. 8. army, finished a daring and successful raid through the interior of Miss. Traveled 800 miles in 16 days. Battle of Chancellorsville continued. It was a Federal repulse. Loss each side 15,000. " 8 Capture of Grand Gulf, Miss., by Admiral Porter. ** 2 Vallimdipham arrested in Ohio for treason. He was sent South. 668 CAMPAIGN OF 1863. May 10 Stonewall Jackson, an able and brilliant Southern general, died of wounds received in battle. " 11 Gen. Logan, Union, defeats Gen. Grigg at Farnden's Creek, Miss. Each had about 5,000 men. " 12 Gen. McPherson captured Raymond, Miss., from Confederates. " 13 Yazoo City, and $2,000,000 property, captured by Union gunboats. Gen. Grant defeats Confederate army and captures Jackson, Miss. " 16 Gen. Grant defeats Pemberton at Baker's Creek, Miss., with heavy loss. Each had about 25,000 men. Pemberton lost 4,000 men and next day 2,000 more. " 18--Grant commences seige of Vicksburg, Miss. " 26 Gen. Breckenridge, Confederate, suffered defeat in Tennessee. " 29 An immense train arrives in Gen. Banks' lines near Port Hudson : 600 wagons, 3,000 horses and mules, 1,500 cattle, 6,000 negroes. Gen. Banks fails in several attacks on Port Hudson. June 3 A brilliant raid by a colored regiment in South Carolina. " 11 Forrest, of Confederate cavalry, defeated at Triune, Tenn. " 15 President Lincoln calls for 120,000 militia, to repel Lee's invasion of Penn. " 18 About 100,000 Southern forces enter Penn., near Chambersburg. " 20 West Virginia admitted as a State into the Union. Missouri Leg. islature abolishes slavery. In this month the great events of the campaign, the taking of Vicksburg and opening the Mississippi river, and the failure of Gen. Lee's invasion by his loss of the battle of Gettysburg, are rapidly approaching the grand crisis. July The first days of this month formed the crisis of the war. " 8 Gen. Lee, with 100,000 men, was defeated by Gen. Meade at Gettys- burg, Pa., with about equal numbers. Lee retreated into Virginia. The Union losses at Gettysburg were 23,000. Lee had lost in hig 17 days in the Free States 60,000 men altogether. ** 4 Vicksburg surrendered to Gen. Grant, after a seige of 41 days. In the battles immediately preceding, under Grant, and in this seige and capitulation, the South lost near 50,000 men. Grant's losses were about 9,000. Gen. Prentice defeated a greatly superior force at Helena, Ark. " 8 Port Hudson surrenders to Gen. Banks, with 7,000 men. Morgan, of Confederate cavalry, invades Indiana and Ohio with 5,000 men. He is captured before he can return. " 13 Great riot in New York city. " 17 Gen. Sherman defeats Johnson, and occupies Jackson, Miss. " 20 Two successful Union cavalry expeditions, in N. C. and Va. " 23 Battle of Manassas Gap. Unionists defeat a superior force. A Confederate victory at Richmond, Ky. * 81 Confederates beaten in Kentucky. CAMPAIGN OF 1863. 669 Aug. 1 Two cavalry battles in Va. " 4 Disastrous loss of U. 8. steamer Ruth, on the Mississippi, by fire. " 12 Gen. Qilmore bombarded Ft. Sumter and Charleston most of the month. " 17 Successful cavalry raid into Mississippi to destroy stores. " 20 Lawrence, Kansas, attacked and destroyed by guerillas. A guerilla war was carried on very largely this month, both east and west of the Mississippi. Sept 1 Knoxville, Tenn., captured by Gen. Burnside. Gen. Blunt defeated the Confederates, and captured Ft. Smith, Ark. " 6 Fts. Wagner and Gregg captured by Gen. Gilmore, Charleston, 8. C. " 8 Cumberland Gap taken by Gen. Burnside. 2,000 prisoners. " 10 Little Rock occupied by Union forces. " 19-20 A terrible battle is fought at Chickamauga (in Indian the " River of Death,") in which Gen. Rosecrans with some 50,000 to 60,000 troops is severely defeated by Bragg, with about 45,000. Federal losses about 15,000. Yet Bragg did not capture Chattanooga. " 22 Severe battle at Madison Court House, Va. Union victory. " 28 Gen. Burnside repulses Confederates at Knoxville, Tenn. Oct 8 Union troops throw Greek fire into Charleston, 8. C. " 5 Chatanooga bombarded by Bragg. " 9 Defeat of Wheeler's Confederate cavalry, in Tenn. " 14^-Battle at Bristoe Station, Va. Favorable to U. 8. troops. " 16 Gen. Grant takes command of the Western armies. " 17 The President calls for 300,000 more troops. " 21 A battle in Alabama, in Mississippi, and in Tennessee. " 27 Battle of Brown's Ferry, near Chattanooga. Confederates beaten. " 28 Gen. Hooker takes Lookout Mountain. " 81 Gen. Hooker gains the battle of Shell Mound. Nov. The main interest of the month gathers about the great and deci- sive battle of Chattanooga, between Gens. Grant and Bragg. All the forces to be spared oil either side were concentrated here. Chattanooga has been called, " The back door of the Confederacy." NOT. 5 Chattanooga bombarded by the Southern forces. Gen. Avery gains a Union victory at Lewisburg, Va. " 6 The North is thrilled with indignation at barbarities ascertained to have been perpetrated in Southern prisons. " 7 Gen. Meade drives Southern array across the Rappahannock. * 11 The British government makes known an intended invasion of the North from Canada, by Confederates. 44 15 Gen. Banks takes Corpus Christi, Texas. " 17 Charleston continues to be shelled. Gen. Longstreet detached from Confederate army at Chattanooga, with 15,000 men, to attack Burnside. * Ik National Cemetery consecrated, at Gettysburg. 670 CAMPAIGN OF 1864. " 23-26 Battles of Chattanooga and Lookout Mountain. Southern forces about 60,000, Grant's about 80,000. Confederate losses 10,000, Union, 5,616. It was a blow never recovered by the Confederacy. " 28 Gen. Longstreet attacks Knoxville and is repulsed with loss. CHAPTEK XXVII. CAMPAIGN OF 1864. There was a lull, for a time, in the tempest of war. The Confederate forces had lost ground that they could hardly hope to regain. The Missis- sippi river and Eastern Tennessee, both of supreme importance to the Confederacy, were in possession of the Union armies, which grew ever stronger. They were now about 1,000,000 men, and the navy had increased to over 600 vessels. This force was soon put in vigorous hands, that gripped fast what they once held. The misfortune of many commanders and continual changes, from political rather than military considerations, began to be well understood. Grant had gained so uniformly when others had failed, he was recognized as so tenacious and unwearied, that he received and held the confidence of the people and the government This was a point of great importance for shortening the war; for the Southern people were still resolute, had still a vast country, were on the defensive in a smaller region than before, and could resist more effectively with a smaller army. It still made a most gallant and determined resistance which the vast resources of the national government did not enable them to overcome for a year and a half. The country was still covered with detached bodies of troops. A desultory war was maintained where strong armies failed to hold the ground, or were concentrated at a few points. The great move- ments were in Virginia and Georgia. The secondary in Tennessee, in Mis- sissippi, and Texas. It took a year to break the will of the Southern people after they were really conquered. This period covers the year 1864; 1865 furnishes only the dying struggles of the Confederacy, already mortally wounded. 1864. The bombardment of Charleston continued during the preceding month. Some cavalry movements were made, the President of the U. S. offered amnesty to all who would take an oath of allegiance, and Gen. Butler announced that the Confederate government refused to receive any more supplies for Union prisoners from the North. Jan. 7 Three blockade runners captured. " 11 Two more were destroyed, making 22 in a few months. " 25 Mr. Vanderbilt, having presented a steamer worth $800.000 to the U. S. government, received the thanks of Congress. Feb. 1 The President of the U. S. ordered a draft of 500,000 men. CAMPAIGN OF 1864. 671 Feb. 5 Two English steamers, with supplies for the South, captured. 9_ Cotton worth $700,000 burned at Wilmington, N. C. " 30 Negro troops cover the retreat of a defeated white Union force at Olustee, Fla. " 28 The large armies being broken up or concentrated, and the lines of communication very much interrupted, many Union cavalry raids, aiming to break the lines of communication by railroad completely, to lay waste the country, and to free the negroes, who were raising supplies for the Southern armies, in the far interior, were undertaken. That of Sherman to Meridian, in Miss., and of Orierson and Smith, and many smaller ones, were executed during this month. The damage to railroads and the supplies destroyed were incalculable. 18 blockade runners and other vessels bringing supplies to the South were destroyed during the month. Mar. 2 Gen. Grant made Lt. General ; the only one who had reached that dignity since Gen. Washington Gen. Scott being Lt Gen. only by brevet. " 12 Gen. Grant made Commander-in-chief of the U. 8. armies. " 16 The President of the U. S. calls for 200,000 more men. " 25 Confederate Gen. Forrest makes three assaults on Paducah, Ky., with loss of 1,500 men, in vain. " 28 A severe defeat inflicted on Southern forces at Cane River, La. Apr. 4 Gen. Marmaduke defeated by Gen. Steele, Unionist, at Little Mis- souri, Ark. " 8 Gen. Banks suffers reverses on the Red River, and retreats with loss. " 12 Gen. Forrest takes Ft. Pillow. The garrison consisted largely of negroes. " 21 Salt works in North Carolina destroyed value $100,000. As salt was indispensable to army operations, the utmost effort was made to ruin as many as possible. " 23 Governors of Western States offer the U .8. government 85,000 men for 100 days. President accepts thwn. May 2 400 Union prisoners are brought to Annapolis 44 4 Gen. Grant crosses the Rapidan in Va. and commences operations in the Wilderness. He, witk 140,000 men, confronts Lee, who has 60,000. " 5 Fighting in the Wilderness for two days without decided result Costs Grant 30,000 (5,000 were prisoners) and Lee 10,000. Lee was intrenched and familiar with the ground, which was highly unfa vorable to the Union army. 44 6 Gen. Sherman confronts Gen. Joe Johnson near Chattanooga. Sher- man has near 100,000; Johnson 60,000. M 7 Lee retreats toward Spottsylvania Court-House. Union army fol- lows, fighting. 672 CAMPAIGN OF 1864. To this date 150,000 Southern soldiers had been made prisoner* during the course of the war. May 8 Battle of Spottsylvania ; result indecisive. " 10 Battle of Spottsylvania continued. Still indecisive. Losse* to each side 10,000 men. * 12 Lee and Grant fight again, without victory by either. ' 13 Sheridan destroyed Lee's depot of supplies in his rear, at Beave* Dam. " 15 Sherman drives Johnson from liesaca after two days' fighting. " 21 Lee is flanked at Spottsylvania, and retires to the North Anna. " 23 Morgan (Confederate cavalry) enters Ky. with 4,000 men. " 25 Sheridan rejoins Grant, after a brilliant series of daring deeds in the rear of Lee. Gen. Stuart, a very able Confederate cavalry leader, is killed in this raid. " 27 Grant again flanked Lee, crossing the Pamunky to Hanovertown. June 1 Battle of Cold Harbor, north of, and near, Richmond. It was fought with the utmost bravery and obstinacy, but gained no more decisive end than the destruction of men and material involved. This was very severe on Lee, from the smaller number he had to fall back on. " 7 Abraham Lincoln renominated for the presidency of the U. 8. " 14 Gen. Polk (a Southern bishop) killed. " 15 An unsuccessful assault for three days on Petersburg. Union losses 10,000 men. " 18 To this time Grant had lost 64,000 men Lee 38,000 during thir ' campaign. " 19 Steamer Kearsarge sinks the famous Alabama, off the coast of France. " 20 Petersburg strongly reinforced by Lee. " 27 Sherman, pushing Johnson at Keneshaw, meets a severe repulse. In one month he had driven Johnson 100 miles, fought six battles, and killed, wounded or taken prisoner 17,000 men. He followed Grant's principle, and " flanked " him. A retreat was the result. July 1 Public debt over $1,740,000,000. " 9 Gen. Early, with 20,000 Confederate troops, passes into Grant's rear, and makes a hasty march north into Maryland. This day he gained a victory over Gen. Wallace, but his losses were so great that he was hindered in his design of capturing Washington, though within six miles of it at one time. He retreats, but soon turns back. " 18 President Lincoln calls for 500,000 more troops. " 19 Gen. Averill (Union) gives Early a check, but finally falls back. " 20-22 Severe battles in the neighborhood of Atlanta, Geo. Gen. Sher- man victorious. Confederate losses in all over 15,000 ; Union about 5,500. Unioa Gen. McPherson killed. CAMFAloif OF 1864. C73 Jul. 22 A mine, maJe under the fortifications of Petersburg, completed. It was charged with 8,000 Ibs. of powder. " 28 Early sent * detachment into Penn., which burnt Chambereburg. ' 80 Gen. Stoneinan defeated and taken prisoner at Macon, Qeo., by Confederates. The mine exploded at Petersburg, blowing up a fort and its gar- rison; but, from unskillful management, proved a Union disaster; 4,000 me r i were lost in killed, wounded and prisoners. A constant artillery attack was kept up on Petersburg through this month. Aug. 2 Gen. Baaks puts all the negroes in his region in the army (Grand Gulf, La.). M 3 Constant fighting at Atlanta. Hood (Confederate) repulsed. " 6 Admi 1 al Farragut enters Mobile bay with 18 vessels, and captures or destroys the vessels and forts. It was the last seaport of the Confederacy. " 7 Union Gen. Averill gains a complete victory at Moorfield, West Va. M 9 Atlanta, Geo., bombarded by Sherman's army. 44 11 Th'j Confederate vessel Tallahassee burns 5 vessels, and 5 more in the course of Aug. " 13 M< sby, Confederate, captures an immense supply train at Berry- vilie, Va. " 19 Success of Southern forces before Petersburg. Took 2,000 prisoners. " 21 Le fails to dislodge Warner, who is destroying the Weldon R R. In three days Grant lost 4,500 men in this undertaking. " 81 Gen. Howard, of Sherman's army, gains a decided victory at Jones- borough, Geo. Sept 2 Gen. Hood evacuates Atlanta, Geo., a very important place, which Sherman at once occupies. Sherman had lost 30,000 men in this campaign, the Confederates 42,000. " Gen. Morgan, an active Southern cavalry officer, is killed at Green- ville, Tenn. * 12 Sherman sends away all the families and burns a good part of Atlanta, M 18 General Sheridan in the Shenandoah Valley, Va. " 16 A strong force of Confederate cavalry drive off 2,500 beeves belonging to the Union army on James river. " 19 Sheridan defeats Early, (at Oquequan, Shenandoah valley,) inflict ing a loss of 8,000 men. " 22 Sheridan again inflicts a loss of near 4,000 on Early, at Fisher's Hill, Va. " 29 Gen. Grant advances to within ten miles of Richmond, on the north. Gen. Price again invades Missouri. " 30 The blockading force captured and destroyed 50 vessels this month. Oct 5 A repulse of the Southern forces at Allatooua, Geo. 43 674 CAMPAIGN OF 1864. Oct 7 The Confederate steamer Florida captured by the Wachusett, on the coast of Brazil. Sheridan, haying laid waste the Shenandoah valley, returns South. '* 8 Sheridan defeats the Confederates again in the Shenaudoah valley. 44 11 Maryland votes for a constitution abolishing slavery. " 19 Gen. Early is still again disastrously defeated by Sheridan, at Cedar Creek, at the moment of apparent triumph. Confederate refugees from Canada rob a bank in St. Albans, Vt. 23 Gen. Price defeated at Blue river, Missouri. ' 27 Gen. Grant closes the active campaign by an extensive reconnoi- sance. 44 28 Gen. Blunt defeats Price and drives him out of Missouri. He returns no more. Kov. Gen. Hood, in command of the forces in Georgia, withdrew from the neighborhood of Atlanta, for the purpose of destroying Sher- man's base of supplies, and invading Tennessee and Kentucky He had now about 40,000 men. Gen. Thomas was sent into Ten- nessee, by Sherman, with a strong force, to contend with him ; and Sherman, breaking away from his northern connections, com- mences his celebrated " march to the sea," in which he is lost to his friends for 40 days, but reaches Savannah in safety. 44 4 Johnsonville, Tenn., bombarded. 3 gunboats and 8 transports, with $1,500,000 of stores destroyed. 44 8 President Lincoln re-elected. Gen. McClellan resigns his com- mission. * 11 A gunboat, the Tulip, blows up on Potomac river. Her boiler burst. 44 13 Gen. Breckenridge attacks Gillem, near Morristown, Tenn., captur- ing his artillery, and several hundred prisoners. 44 14 Atlanta complete"' destroyed by Sherman, before his march South. 44 16 Gen. Stoneman a tacks Breckenridge, at Marion, Tenn., and cap- tures his artillery and 200 prisoners. Gen. Sherman starts for Savannah through the heart of the Con- federacy, with over 65,000 troops. He destroys railroads and lays the country waste wherever he is treated in a hostile manner. 44 22 Sherman's army reach Milledgeville, the capital of Georgia. The Gov. and Legislature hastily retire. The soldiers amuse them- selves by holding a mock legislature, passing loyal resolutions, &c. 44 24 The Union army in Va., receive nearly 100,000 pounds of turkeys, sent from the North to supply them a Thanksgiving dinner. 44 25 An attempt to fire New York city miscarries. 44 30 Gen. Hood, Confederate, with 40,000 men, attacks Schofield, 18 miles from Nashville. Gen. Schofield had only 17,000 men Hood made four attacks, and was each time repulsed. He lost CONCLUDING CAMPAIGN. 675 6,000 men. At midnight Schofield retreated to Nashville, and joined Thomas, followed by Hood's army. Dec. 1 The U. S. navy has 671 vessels, carrying over 4,000 guns, and 51,000 men. It has captured ^24 vessels during the year during the war, 1,379 2G7 being steamers. " 5 65 blockade runners, ships and cargoes worth $12,000,000, have been captured or destroyed by the U. 8. navy, at "W ilmington, N. C. 44 6 Mr. Chase, ex-Sec, of the U. S. Treasury, appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court 4< 13 Gen. Sherman's army reaches the rear of Savannah, Geo., which is occupied by the Confederate Gen. Hardee, with 15,000 men. ** 13 Gen. Hazen, of Sherman's command, captures Ft. McAllister, near Savannah. It had been frequently attacked by gunboats, in vain. " 15 Gen. Rousseau defeats the Southern forces under Forrest at Mur- freesborough, Tenn., with great loss. ** 15-16 Battle of Nashville, Tenn., in which Gen. Hood is completely defeated by Gen. Thomas, Federal commander. Hood's flying troops pursued 200 miles. It was one of the most fatal blows of the war for the South. " J9 President Lincoln calls for 300,000 volunteers to finish the war. 44 20 Gen. Stoneman, Unionist, captures forts and destroys .salt works, lead mines, and railway bridges at Saltville, East Tennessee. Gen. Sherman summons Savannah to surrender. Gen. Hardee retreated in the night. Gen. Sherman takes possession next day. CHAPTER XXVIII. CONCLUDING CAMPAIGN. The year 1864 closed in general disaster to the Confederacy. Sherman had broken the Confederate power in Georgia, destroyed its communica. tions with the Mississippi States, and taken Savannah. Gen. Thomas had broken up Hood's army, in Tennessee, and Grant had closely beleagured the Southern army in Virginia within Richmond and its defenses; while Sheridan had dealt blow after blow on Early, in the Shcnandoah Valley, Mnl quite ruined his army. The future operations required the subjugation of the interiors of North tnd South Carolina, the taking of a few forts on the coast, and the capture of Lee's army in Richmond. The only other army of strength, Jlie remnant of Hood's forces, was in the Southern interior. The Federal government was stronger than ever, both by sea and land. The Southern people were much discouraged; their finances ruined; their fighting men mostly dis- abled, scattered, forced into submission, or, hopeless of ultimate su'xess, 676 CONCLUDING CAMPAIGN. had voluntarily withdrawn from the contest in so large numbers that the Confederate forces were everywhere inferior, and only upheld by the indom- itable pride and bravery inherent in the Anglo-American. They would submit only when necessity absolutely compelled them ; and thus saved their honor, in their own eyes. They had made a fatal mistake, and they reaped the full harvest of ruin. Yet, their prolonged resistance served to utterly annihilate slavery ; raised the negroes to the honorable position of Defenders of the Union ; and, the last of Jan., 1865, an amendment to the U. S. Constitution was prepared .forever abolishing slavery in the country. In the end the blacks became citizens. We have now but a short record to complete our View of the Civil War. The South had still over 100,000 men in arms, but they were surrounded, cut off from supplies, outnum- bered, and pressed with relentless vigor. 1865. Jan. 14 Vessels are sent from Boston and New York with large supplies from the charitable, for Southern sufferers, in Savannah, Geo. " 15 Ft. Fisher, on the coast of N. C., captured by Gen. Terry, in con- junction with the U. S. fleet. It is the last stronghold of the South on the sea. Edward Everett died, at Boston, Mass. " 16 The magazine at Ft. Fisher exploded, killing and wounding 300 Union men. " 17 A Federal monitor blown up by torpedoes, in Charleston Harbor, S. C. " 20 Corinth, Miss., evacuated by Southern troops. 44 23 Gen. Hood surrenders his command in the Southern army to Gen. Taylor. " 28 Geii. Breckenridge becomes Confederate Sec. of War. " 29 Southern Commissioners seek an interview with President Lincoln at Fortress Monroe, in the interest of Peace. They failed to make any satisfactory terms. " 31 Joint resolution of Congress to amend the U. S. Constitution abol- ishing slavery (14th Amendment). Feb. Nine States ratify the Constitutional Amendment in this month. " 5 Grant suffers a repulse at Hatcher's Run. Loss 2,000 men. " 17 Columbia, S. C., burned. " 18 Union troops take possession of Charleston, S. C., as a result of Sherman's march from Savannah north-eastward toward Rich- mond. Many buildings in Charleston burned in the destruction of Confederate stores by the retiring army. Gen. Lee in favor of arming the negroes for the defense of the South. It is declined by the Confederate government, uptil too late. CONCLUDING CAMPAIGN.' 677 Feb.25 800 Southern soldiers desert, and come into Union lines. Mar. 2 Sheridan completely routs Gen. Early again, taking 1,700 troops prisoners. " 4 President Lincoln inaugurated for his second term. 10 Gen. Bragg defeated, at Kingston, N. C. " 15 Gen. Hardee (Confederate) defeated by Sherman's army. * 18 The Confederate Congress adjourned. It never met again. Battle of part of Sherman's army with Johnston, Confederate, 24,000 strong. Southern forces made six assaults which were with- stood. After fighting and manouvering 3 days, Johnston retreated having lost 3,000 men. Sherman lost 1 ,640. ** 25 Ft. Steadman, near Petersburg, Va., captured by Confederates, but was immediately retaken, with 2,000 prisoners. This attack was made by Lee, preparatory to evacuating Richmond. Grant had about 120,000 troops, Lee 70,000. 44 29 Sheridan commences an expedition to the rear of Richmond to cut off Lee's ro*. resit South. 44 31 Sheridan attacked and hard pushed by Lee's forces, but at night they fall back. A.pr. 1 Sheridan, in turn, follows the Confederates, and drives them toward Richmond. He takes more than 5,000 prisoners. This was the battle of Five Forks. It was fatal to Lee's retreat. 44 2 Grant's forces make a grand assault. It is successful, and Lee prepares to evacuate Richmond. President Davis leaves his capi- tal in haste, for Danville, N. C. Gen. Lee commences his retreat in the night. * 8 Richmond occupied by colored Federal troops. They find the city in flames. 44 4 President Davis endeavors to make a stand against disaster. He issues a proclamation from Danville. * 9 Terms of surrender arranged by Gens. Grant and Lee. M 10 Gen. Lee issues his farewell address to his army. 44 12 Confederate army yielded prisoners of war at Appomattox Court House, Virginia. 27,805 Confederate soldiers paroled. Gen. Stoneman defeats a Confederate force, at Salisbury, N. C. Gen. Canby, Union, occupies Mobile, Ala. ** 14 President Lincoln assassinated in Washington, by J. Wilkes Booth. Mr. Seward stabbed in bed, but not killed. .** 15 Abraham Lincoln died at 7 A. M. The whole country is in mourning. Andrew Johnson assumes the office of President of the U. 8. M 18 Paine, or Powell, who endeavored to assassinate Sec. Seward, arrested at Mrs. Surratt's house in Washington. Mrs. Surratt arrested. Gen. Sherman arranges preliminaries for the surrender of all the 678 CONCLUDING CAMPAIGN. remaining Confederate forces, with Gen. Johnston, commanding Southern army in N. C., with consent of Confederate Sec. of War and Pres. Davis. It includes the basis of a general peace, and a policy of reconstruction. It is sent to the Federal government for their approval or rejection. Apr.19 Funeral ceremonies of President Lincoln, at Washington. Funeral services are held all over the North. The body is carried in state to Springfield, 111., stopping at prominent places on the route; and visited by great numbers of the people. 700,000 were said to- have been in the procession at New York. " 21 Gen. Sherman's arrangement with Johnston disapproved by the government, and he is ordered to resume hostilities. Steamboat Sultana blows up on the Mississippi, and about 1,300 U. S. soldiers returning home were killed. " 24 Gen. Grant visits Sherman. " 25 J. W. Booth, the assassin of the President, taken prisoner near Port Royal, Va. Refusing to surrender, a soldier shot him, con- trary to orders. He died in 4 hours. No assassin ever met with more universal execration than Booth. Its necessary effect was ta render the Reconstruction policy much more stern and painful to the South. " 26 Johnston surrenders to Gen. Sherman all the Confederate troops in his command, on the terms granted Gen. Lee. " 29 Arms and stores of Gen. Johnston's army delivered to TJ. S. author- ities, at Greensboro, N. C. May 2 Reward offered for capture of Jeff. Davis, of $100,000. He was understood to be flying toward Texas. " 3 President Lincoln's remains arrive at Springfield, 111. < 4_9 All the Confederate forces disbanded, or surrendered to U. S. officers, east and west of Mississippi river. " 10 Jeff. Davis captured in Geo., GENERAL DATA. The number of volunteer troops to be mustered out of the Union army,. May 1st, 1865, was 1,034,064. They were mostly discharged and paid in the next three months. The entire enlistments in the Federal army, during the whole war, were 2,688,523. Many were re-enlistments. It is believed that the whole number of individuals forming the armies was only 1,500,000. 75 per cent, were native Americans, 9 per cent. Germans, and 7 per cenL Irish. Various nationalities made up the remaining 9 per cent. Of this million and a half 56,000 were killed in battle, 35,000 died in hospitals of their wounds received in battle, and 184,000 died in hospitals of disease. Many afterwards died, and others were ruined in health for life. It has been stated by the Adjutant General of the Confederate army, since the close of the war, that the available Confederate force during the entirr CONCLUDING CAMPAIGN. (579 war was 600,000, and that they never had more than 300,000 in the field at any one time. This would seem likely to be an underestimate, but is the nearest to official data that we have. He states the entire force opposing the 1,000,000 men in the closing campaign to have been 100,000. There is reason to believe that the Confederates killed, and the wounded and sick who died in hospital, was about 300,000. The entire amount expended by the National government, by States, counties and towns, and contributed in other ways to the comfort or sus- tenance of the army, is computed at $4,000,000,000. The support of the Southern army cannot be ascertained, but it is thought that those expenses and the destruction of property inflicted about an equal loss on them. These losses in life and property are fearful ; but they are the price of Freedom and of Nationality. The general prosperity of the country has made it richer than before, while natural increase and immigration have filled the places vacant by death. The South was hopeless and exhausted at the close of the war. It had been feared that a guerrilla war, the most desolating and bloody of all wars, would follow the defeat of the great armies. It could result only in destruction of what remained to the Southern people, and they submitted quietly to their fate. Various excesses and deeds of blood were indeed committed, but they were not sympathized with by the mass of the people. It was only the desperate and lawless class that came to the surface natu- rally in war. Many of the influential Southern leaders counseled submission to inev- itable necessity, and themselves set the example. The policy of reconstruc- tion adopted by the National government, excluded, at first, all who had taken a part in the rebellion from political influence. The loyal element, small as it was, was alone to restore the Southern States to their place in ihe Union. It was, however, proposed to admit others, both individuals and classes, to participation in political action as they proved themselves trustworthy and loyal to the new order of things. After some years, and when it was felt to be quite safe, these disabilities were nearly all removed. T-he most distasteful act of the General Government, to the people of the rtouth, was clothing the blacks with the rights of citizens. They received the eitctive franchise, and assisted to rule over their former masters. It was considered necessary, since they had now no masters to be interested in them, to give them the power to protect themselves, and to elevate them to something of influence and respectability by force of the ballot. That advantage given them, they must take their chances with others, and win- their own way. They had been loyal to the Union, which strongly recom- mended this policy to the government The Northern people who now settled in the South and the blacks mainly reorganized the State govern- ments. This was the chief punishment inflicted on the Southern people in retaliation for the war they had waged with such fearful energy. It was a clemency quite unexampled in history. No blood was shed after Aey $380 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. laid down their arms. The assassination of the beloved President Lincoln made the North thoroughly angry, but no vengeance was taken except on those believed to be immediately connected with the atrocious deed. The most lively indignation had long been felt at the dreadful treatment expe- rienced by prisoners of war in some of the prisons of the South ; but the government and the people contented themselves with the punishment of the governor of Andersonville prison, on due civil trial and conviction. On the whole, the conduct of the Northern people was extremely mag- nanimous. The dissolution of the Union would have been an irreparable loss to them; they resolved not to suffer it; and, with extraordinary energy, they put in the field more than a million and a half of men, and near 700 vesssls, to subdue it, and suffered no reverses to discourage them until this was done. When resistance ceased and the Union was secure, they exacted only the pledges necessary to keep it safe. Appreciating the unfortunate condition to which nearly all the before prosperous classes of the South were reduced, they aided them in their distress, ceased at once all hostile action, and left them to recover from their disasters under as favorable cir- cumstances as their own conduct warranted. The South naturally felt an affection for her Lost Cause, proportionate to the sacrifices she had made and the suffering she had endured for it. Time, and busy care to devel- op the vast resources that slavery had, in great part, neglected, would gradually restore them to right feeling, and the state of mind fitting them for citizenship. This, in part, has already taken place, and, by and by, the Bonds of the Whole Union will be more firmly cemented than ever before. May it be soon. CHAPTEE XXIX. HISTOEY OF THE U. S. FEOM 1865 TO 18TT. May 13 During the week ending with this day there was subscribed to the U. S. seven-thirty loan $98,000,000. It was an expression of the enthusiastic confidence of the people in the government and its resources. " 23-23 Grand review of Gen. Sherman's army at Washington. There were 200,000 men. " 23 Kirby Smith, the last leader of a Southern military organization, surrendered his command. " 30 The great Sanitary Fair opened at Chicago. " 31 Gen. Hood and his staff surrendered prisoners of war. June 1 A day of fasting and national humiliation for the death of Presi- dent Lincoln. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 681 JulyS The four confederates of Booth, the assassin of President Lincoln, were found guilty. They were hanged on the 6th and 7th. These were Harold, Atzerott, Powell and Mrs. Surratt. " 11 Gen. R. E. Lee appointed president of the Washington College, Va. It was done by Southern people as a mark of respect, ai.d to furnish him a support; he having lost his property in the war. Sept. 20 The marking of the graves of 12,000 of the unfortunate Anderson. ville prisoners completed. " 29 Cession of 1,000,000 acres of land to the government by the Osage Indians, for $300,000. Oct. 20 Champ Ferguson, noted for his crimes in guerilla warfare, hung at Nashville, Tenn. Nov. 10 Henry Wirz, the former keeper of Andersonville prison, hung, after trial and condemation. Dec. 18 Secretary Seward officially announces that the 13th Amendment to the Constitution, abolishing slavery in the United States, has been adopted by three-fourths of the States, and it is now the law of the land. 1866. Jan. 1 Third anniversary of Emancipation celebrated by the colored people. " 2 Funeral of Hon. Henry Winter Davis, M. C., at Baltimore. 44 12 The Kentucky University purchases the homestead of Henry Clay. * 23 The 13th Constitutional Amendment reconsidered by the Legisla- ture of New Jersey and passed. It had been rejected in the pre- vious year. " 25 Kentucky refused to pass the 18th Amendment. " 31 Commissary and quartermaster warehouses burned, at Ft. Riley, Kansas. $1,000,000 lost. Feb. 2 The Civil Rights bill passed the Senate. " 11 The U. S. Sanitary Commission closed with an anniversary meet- ing at Washington. " 12 Memorial services in honor of President Lincoln held in the cap- itol, at Washington ; address delivered by the Hon. Geo. Bancroft, statesman and historian. M 19 President Johnson vetoed the Freedmen's Bureau bill. " 22 The 134th anniversary of Washington's birthday celebrated. " 26 Meeting held at Richmond to ratify President Johnson's policy. Mar. 10 North Carolina passes a Negro Rights bill. " 12 North Carolina passes a Negro Testimony bill. Texas Convention declares their Secession ordinance null and ^W. 41 18 The Civil Rights bill passed the House of Representatives. " 19 The Reciprocity Treaty with Canada expires. 682 HISTORY OF THE ttNITED STATES. " 27 The Civil Rights bill vetoed by President Johnson. April 2 Gen. Hawley elected republican governor of Connecticut. " 4 Gen. Burnside elected governor of Rhode Island. " 6-7 Civil Rights bill passed Congress over the veto. " 30 Two churches of colored people burned by incendiaries in Rich. mond, Va. May 15 The President vetoes the bill admitting Colorado as a State. " 29 Gen. Scott died at West Point, N. Y. June 3 Gen. Meade goes to Buffalo to prevent the Fenians (Irish Patriots) from invading Canada. " 6 President Johnson issues a proclamation forbidding belligerent operations against Canada from the United States. " 8-13 The 14th Constitutional Amendment passed by Congress. July 4 Great fire at Portland, Me. Loss, $15,000,000. The U. 8. govern, ment a heavy loser by this fire. " 23 Tennessee readmitted as a State in the Union, by joint resolution of Congress. This was the first State readmitted after the war. " 25 Lieut. Gen. Grant nominated General the highest grade knowa in our military organization never before occupied. Vice Admiral Farragut nominated Admiral. " 27 Hon. J. H. Harlan, Sec. of the Interior, resigns. O. H. Browning appointed. " 28 The Great Eastern reaches Hearts Content, Newfoundland, with, the Atlantic Telegraphic Cable, which proved successful. It had failed in the previous year. Great rejoicings. It was one of the most important events of this century. " 80 Great riot at New Orleans, in which many were killed. It was thought the result of President Johnson's policy of reconstruc- tion, which was not in harmony with the system adopted by Congress. Aug. 1 Gen. Sherman commissioned as Lieut. General. " 8 Queen Emma, wife of the late King of the Sandwich Islands, arrives at New York, and is received as a National Guest. " 12 Telegraphic communication between New York and Europe com- plete, by the Atlantic Cable. " 31 American and English naval forces unite to break up piracy by Chinese junks in the East Indies. Sept. 6 The monument to S. A. Douglas, at Chicago, inaugurated. Pres- ident Johnson made many speeches on his journey to attend thi& celebration, which were indiscreet, and disrespectful to Congress. It was called his "Swinging around the Circle," in derision; a figure employed in one of his speeches. Oct. 9 Gen. Geary elected governor of Pennsylvania. " 23 Dedication of The Stonewall Jackson Cemetery, at Winchester, Va. Nov. 6 State elections in 12 Btates are held to-day. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 683 " 20 The Grand Army of the Republic, formed of the present and pre- vious officers of the U. S. Army serving in the late war, hold a conventional Indianapolis, Ind. " 22 Raphael Semmes, former Commander of the Confederate war steamer Alabama, appointed Professor of Moral Philosophy in the Louisiana State Seminary. Dec. 7 The Louisiana Legislature rejects the 14th Amendment to the Constitution. " 18 Territorial Legislature of Colorado organized. " 26 The U. S. frigate New Ironsides burned at League Island. " 22 Massacre of nearly a hundred soldiers near Ft. Kearney. " 24 U. S. Minister John A. Dix enters on his duties in France. 1867. Jan. 7 A suffrage bill for the Dist. of Columbia vetoed by President John- son, but passed over the veto by Congress. Congress was laboring to harmonize the laws of the country with the changes produced by the war. President Johnson did his utmost to prevent the suc- cess of this policy. Congress, however, succeeded in carrying its point. This is an important and interesting history, since it shows how the Representatives of the People may check and neutralize the power of a President when his designs conflict with the inter- ests of the country and the purposes of the people. " 8-10 14th Amendment ratified by two States (Missouri and New York) and rejected by another (Virginia). " 28 Nebraska bill vetoed, but passed over the veto. Most of the Northern States ratified the 14th Amendment in this month. Feb. 20 Military government bill passed Congress. Mar. 1 Nebraska proclaimed a State by the President " 2 The President vetoes the Military Government and Civil Tenure of Office Bills. They are passed over his veto. " 4 The 39th Congress ends, and the 40th is organized. " 11 Military governors assigned to various districts in the South. " 80 The President announces the ratification of the treaty with Russia, by which the United States bought all her North American Pos- sessions for $7,200,000. Apr. 8 Gen. Burnside re-elected governor of Rhode Island. May 13 Jeff. Davis admitted to bail in $100,000; Horace Greeley and others furnish the bonds. June 19 The Arch Duke Maximilian, Titular Emperor of Mexico, shot by order of the Mexican Republican government The remonstrances of the U. S. government obliged the French to withdraw their support from Maximilian. July 13 The steamer Dunderberg, bought by France, sailed for Cherbourg. Aug. 1 Gov. Brownlow re-elected governor of Tennessee. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. " 5 The President requires Mr. Stanton, Sec. of War, to resign. He refuses, when the President suspends him and appoints Gen. Grant. " 23 Grand ovation to Admiral Farragut, by Russian officers at Cron- stadt. Sept. 17 The National Cemetery at Antietam dedicated. Dec. 4 The Patrons of Husbandry, or Farmers' Grange, organized, in Washington. " 7 A resolution in the House of Representatives to impeach President Johnson fails by three votes. 1868. Jan. 1 Fifth Emancipation Anniversary celebrated by the colored people in various places. " 6 Censure of the President by Congress for removing Gen. Sheridan from command of the 5th Military District. Feb. 7 The resignation of TJ. S. Minister to England, Hon. C. F. Adams, announced. " 19 Senate refuse his seat to P. F. Thomas, of Maryland, on account of disloyalty. " 20 The Legislature of New Jersey withdraws its. ratification of the 14th Amendment. Ohio and Oregon did the same. This action, considered as absurd as Secession, was not recognized. ** 21 President Johnson expels Mr. Stanton, Sec. of War, and appoints Gen. Thomas. This is done in defiance of the Senate, by whose "advice and consent "the Constitution requires it to be supported. " 24 The House of Representatives adopt articles of impeachment of the President presented by Thaddeus Stephens, of Pa., by a vote of 126 to 57, This was 12 more than the requisite two-thirds. Mar. 5 The Senate is organized as a Court of Impeachment, Chief Justtee Chase presiding. . May 16 The impeachment trial terminated by a vote in the Senate of 35 for, to 19 against. As a two-thirds vote was necessary the impeach, ment failed by three votes. A few Republican Senators incurred great odium by voting for the President's acquittal. " 20 Gen. Grant nominated for President by the Republican Convention at Chicago. *' 22 A Chinese embassy, headed by Hon. Anson Burlingame, who had been U. S. Minister to China and acquired the confidence of the government of China to such an extent as to be chosen by them as the leader of their embassy to this country and the governments of Europe, arrived at New York. " 29 Gen. Schofield appointed Sec. of War. June 5 Mr. Burlingame and the Chinese embassy presented to the Presi- dent. " 6 A Bill for the re-admission of Arkansas passes Congress. HISTOky OF THE UNITED STATES. 685 9 Bills for the re-admission of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Louisiana, Alabama and Florida are passed. " 12 Hon. Reverdy Johnson appointed Minister to England. " 20 Bill for re-admission of Ark. vetoed by the President, but passed over his veto by a two-thirds vote. " 24 The Bill for the admission of the other States being vetoed by the President was likewise passed over his veto. July 4 iloratio Seymour of N. Y. and F. P. Blair of Mo. nominated for President and Vice-President by the Democrats. A political amnesty proclamation issued by the President. " 16 Admiral Farragut received with distinguished honor by the Queen of England. " 20 A Bill to exclude the electoral votes of the Southern States not. re-admitted vetoed by the President and passed by Congress over the veto. " 21 The 14th Amendment declared ratified, and a part of the Consti- tution. " 28 Military government ceases in Arkansas, North and South Caro- lina, Louisiana, Georgia, Florida and Alabama. Aug. 6 Jefferson Davis lands in Liverpool, England. " 13 U. 8. steamers Wateree and Fredonia destroyed during an earth, quake at Lima, Peru ; 40,000 lives were lost in this dreadful catas- trophe. Sept. 7 Negro members of the Georgia Legislature expelled " 18 Battle with the Indians on Republican River. Lt. Beecher and others killed. " 19 Riot at Camilla, Geo., caused by hostility of Southern people to- the political privileges of the blacks. Many negroes killed. " 29 Gen. Reynolds, military governor of Texas, forbids the election ki that State for President, Texas not having been re-admitted This was in accordance with the law of Congress passed the 20th of July. Oct. 17 The Legislature of Oregon withdraws its assent once given to the 14th Amendment. Nov. 3 U. S. Grant and Schuyler Colfax elected President and Vice. President. Popular majority 309,722. Electoral votes for Grant and Colfax, 214; for Seymour and Blair, 80. Virginia, Missis- sippi and Texas did not vote, and Nevada was not counted in. The whole popular vote was 5,722,984. In Florida the electors were chosen by the Legislature. " 27 The Indians defeated by Gen. Custar, on the Washita river. Black Kettle, the chief, and more than a hundred warriors killed. Dec. 1 Ft Lafayette, N. Y., destroyed by fire. 86 HISTOKY OF THE UNITED STATES. 3 political troubles in Arkansas, in which many murders are com- mitted. 7 Third session of the 40th Congress begins. " 15 A social gathering of the Union soldiers at Chicago. 1869. Jan. 7 John Minor Bolts, a statesman of Va., imprisoned by the Confed- erate government during the war for his Union sentiments, died. Feb. 27 A joint resolution of Congress recommends to the States the adoption of the 15th Amendment to the Constitution. Mar. 4 Gen. Grant inaugurated eighteenth President. First session of the 41st Congress commenced. " 13 James Guthrie, a statesman of Ky., died. " 25 Hon. E. Bates, of Mo., Att'y Gen'l under Lincoln, died. May 15 The Union Pacific Railroad was completed by joiniag the two ends at Ogden, Utah. Distance from Omaha to San Francisco 1904 miles. This completed the line of railroad joining the At- lantic and Pacific. The greatest triumph of engineering yet known was accomplished in the Nevada Mts., by carrying the road to a height of over 7000 feet in 105 miles. July 30 Hon. I. Toucey, of Conn., who had filled many offices in the State and United States government, died. Sept. 8 William B. Fessenden, of Me., a statesman of reputation, died. " 10 John Bell, of Tenn., candidate for the Presidency in 1860, died. " 6 Gen. J. A. Rawlins, Sec. of War, died. He had been Gen. Grant's Chief of Staff during the war. Oct. 8 Franklin Pierce, of N. H., ex-President, died. Nov. 7 Rear Admiral Stewart, of U. S. Navy, died. Dec. 24 Edwin M. Stanton, of Pa., Sec. of War during most of the civil war, died. This year closes a most important era in the history of the United States, and of the world. The account with the civil war was definitely closed, and the final seal set on the policy of reconstruc- tion by the inauguration of Gen. Grant, and the continuance of the Republican party in power by the people, together with the readmission of most of the Southern States and the possibility of the reversal of the decision in regard to slavery done away by the adoption of the fifteen-th Amendment to the Constitution, giving the elective franchise to the Colored population. Much emphasis was given to all these things by the prosperity of the country, and the rapid reduction of the debt, by the generally wise conduct of the Southern people, and the slowly increasing prosperity of that section. These results reacted in other countries to strengthen the tendency to freer and more popular governments, and seem, in some respects to have introduced the Era of Republicanism. HISTORY OK THE UNITED STATES. However slow may be the changes in this direction, they are sure to be made. 1870. .Jan. 1 Ten years ago the cloud of civil war settled densely over the country, and threatened its destruction. To-day that tornado has been passed by nearly six years, and its ruins are almost buried under the new and more thrifty growth of all interests and indus- tries even in the South. 44 30 H. It. Revels, of Miss., is chosen the first colored Senator who ever represented a State in Congress. " 23 The U. S. steamer Oneida sunk by collision with another vessel on the coast of Japan. 176 lives lost. Feb. 22 Hon. Anson Burlingame, head of the Chinese embassy to the powers of Christendom,- died at St. Petersburg, Russia. Mar. 28 Gen. G. H. Thomas dies in San Francisco, Cal. " 80 The Sec. of State proclaims the ratification of the loth Amend- ment to the U. S. Constitution by three-fourths of tfle States. June 15 Death of Jerome Napoleon Bonaparte, at Baltimore, Md. July 12 Death of Admiral Dahlgren, at Washington, D. C. " 20 Death of M. Prevost Paradol, French Minister at Washington. Aug. 14 Death of Admiral Farragut, at Portsmouth, N. H. Sept. 7 Recognition of the French Republic by the U. S. government Oct. 12 Death of Gen. R. E. Lee, formerly of the Confederate army. 1871. Great changes have been taking place in Europe. The Emperor, Napo- leon III. taken prisoner by the Germans, his government was set aside by the people of France who founded a Republic. Jan. 1 At this time the German army, under the lead of the King of Prussia (about this time made Emperor of Germany), is besieging Paris, the capital of France. " 17 The San Domingo Commission sail from New York. " 28 Paris capitulates to the Germans, which ends the Franco-Prussian war, terms of peace being soon arranged. Feb. 12 Alice Carey, the authoress, died at New York. " 16 An important Japanese mission to the U. S. and other governments arrives at San Francisco. Mar. 1 The Germans make a triumphal entry into Paris. " 20 British House of Commons votes $265,000 for the relief of Paris. Apr. 20 A Bill against the Kuklux, a secret organization of the South, was passed in Congress. May 1 The Legal Tender Act declared Constitutional by the U. S. Supreme Court. u 81 The French government does not imitate our clemency to prison, crs taken in rebellion. The soldiers of the Commune are slaugh- tered by thousands, by order of the Court Martial of the govern- went r.nnv. 088 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. June 18 An earthquake on Long and Staten Islands, N. Y. " 2(*-~The first Atlantic Cable of 1865, which soon broke ax toecanu useless, is recovered and worked. July 5 Earthquake at Visalia, Cai. " 12 Irish Catholic riot in New York; 51 killed, 30 wounded. " 30 Steamer Westfield explodes, killing near 100 people. Sept. 17 The Mont Cenis Tunnel, opening a passage for a railroad 7 3-6th miles long through the Alps from France to Italy, inaugurated. It had been many years building. Oct. 2 Brigham Young, the head of the Mormons in Utah, arrested for bigamy. " 8 A fire nearly consumes Chicago, destroying property worth $200,000,000 and many lives. Fires rage in the forests of Wiscon- sin and Michigan. Much property, some towns, and many persona are burned. " 17 South Carolina placed under martial law. $2,059,000 received in aid of the people of Chicago. Nov. 15 Cholera appears on vessels at New York. " 18 The Grand Duke Alexis, of Russia, arrives at New York. H travels through the country for some months. Dec. 9 Commissioners of the English and U. S. government* meet IP Washington to settle the difficulties between the two governments arising from the spoliations of the Alabama. " 16 Catacazy, the Russian Minister, called home at the request of o\ government. " 29 Investigation of abuses in the New York city government coco mences. W. M. Tweed surrenders to the sheriff. ' 1872. Jan. 2 Brigham Young arrested on a charge of murder. Mar. 7 Trial and conviction of Kuklux prisoners in Ala. ; 3 sentenced to imprisonment for 20 years. Apr. 1 The colored people celebrate the adoption of 15th Amendment. May 3 Horace Greeley nominated for President by a convention at Cin- cinnati, O. " 22 The General Amnesty Bill signed by the President. " 30 Graves of the Union soldiers decorated throughout the ccmntry. June 6 Grant and Wilson nominated for President and Vice-President. " 26 Trial of Stokes for the murder of Fisk begun. After several trials he was condemned to imprisonment lor muivler. July 24 Spotted-Tail and other western Indians visit Washington. Aug. 16 Yellow Fever appears at New York. Sept. 2 Father Hyacinthe, a liberal French Catholic priest, marries an American lady. " 14 The arbitrators of the Alabama Claims, to whom the case had been submitted, and who had been two months sitting at Geneva, Swit- HISTORY OF TDK UNITED STATES. (S() zerland, announced their award. The United States was to receive 1 15,500,OC 3 in gold. Oct. 14 Win. H. So ward, one of our most distinguished statesmen, is this day buried at Auburn, N. Y. M 25 About Ui is time the Horse disease commences, and spreads rapidly over the whole country. Nov. 5 In the presidential election on this day President Grant is re- elected. " 9 A great fire in Boston, Mass. Loss $75,000,000 in buildings and merchandise. Insurance $50,000,000. In this month and December following storms of extreme severity caused great loss of life and property. An overflow of the river Po, in Italy, rendered 40,000 persons homeless. In the Baltic Sea 80 vessels were wrecked, some islands were inundated, and all their inhabitants drowned. It was not less severe on the coasts of England and Ireland. * 29 Horace Greeley, recent candidate for President of the U. 8., died, aged 62 years. Dec. 11 The King of the Sandwich Islands, Eamchamcha V., died, leaving no heir. * 44 12 The actor, Edwin Forrest, dtes, at Philadelphia. 14 17 Edward A. Pollard, editor and author, died, Important investigations of abuses in New York city and in the conduct of the Pacific Railway arc made this winter, and many , healthy reforms inaugurated. The order of Patrons of Husbandry becomes popular among agriculturists, and spreads rapidly, through the coming year. 1873. Jan. 7, 8,0 A dreadful snow storm occurs in Minnesota, by which 70 lives are lost " 9 The ex-Emperor Nap'oleon III. dies at Chiselhurst, in England, aged 64 years. 44 81 At Chicago, 111., Joel A. Matteson, ex-governor of Illinois, died. Feb. 1 M. F. Maury, formerly distinguished in the U. 8. Naval service, dies at Lexington, Va. " 9 J. W. Geary, ex-Governor of Penn., died at Harrisburg. 44 15 Steamer Henry A. Jones burned in Galveston Bay, Texas. 21 lives lost Mar. 3 Congress enacted a law increasing their pay, that of the President and various officers of the government It extended over the whole previous term of the 42d Congress, commencing March 4th, 1871. Tins law was very offensive to the mass of the people. 44 4 The wreck of the Alaska mail steamer, Gco. 8. Wright, is reported at Portland, Oregon. All on board, 28 persons, perished. " 16 The Boston steamer, Grace Irving, foundered. 8 lives lot 44 690 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. " IT- -Great fire at Lawrenceburg, Ky. " 1S>- -San Salvador, Central America, destroyed by an earthquake. Property destroyed estimated at from $12,000,000 to $20,000,000; and 500 lives lost. Apr. 1- Steamer Atlantic wrecked near Halifax, N. S. 535 lives lost. May 5-< James Orr, American Minister to Russia, died, at St. Petersburg, aged 51. " 4-^ An iron bridge at Dixon, 111., crowded with people witnessing a baptism, fell, killing and drowning 100 persons. " -fSalmon P. Chase, Chief Justice of the U. S., died in New York, aged 65. " 8 Hon. Oakes Ames, M. C., died at North Easton, Mass., aged 69. John Stuart Mill, a celebrated English philosopher and author, died at Avignon, France. " 30 A second great fire in Boston, Mass. June 28 Hon. Horace F. Clark, prominent in railway enterprises, died in New York. " 27^ -Hiram Powers, the distinguished American sculptor, died in Florence, Italy. " 29~Jesse R. Grant, father of the President, died. July 4 Severe storm, very destructive to crops in Ohio, Indiana, Wiscon- sin and Missouri. 20 persons drowned in Green Lake, Wisconsin. Mg. 2 Great fire at Portland, Oregon. Loss $1,500,000. " 24 A storm of unprecedented severity raged on the coast of British America, and, at the same time, on the coast of Mexico. More than 100 vessels were destroyed in and near the gulf of St. Law- rence. Some populous islands were quite laid waste. 176 sailing vessels and 12 steamers were lost in the Gulf of Mexico. Sept. 15 The propeller Ironsides foundered in take Michigan. 31 lives lost. The Patrons of Husbandry organize about this time at the rate of near 1,000 granges a month. In this month commenced a most serious financial panic at New York, that spread over the whole country. Oct. 26 J. C. Heenan, the prize fighter, died on the Union Pacific R. R. Nov. 6 Gen. Sickles, U. S. Minister to Spain, telegra'phs to Washington the capture of the Virginius by the Cubans. " 8 Stephen R. Mallory, former Sec. of the Confederate Navy, died, aged 63. " 19 John P. Hale, of N. H., a statesman of some celebrity, died. " 22 The steamship Ville du Havre run into and sunk by the Loch Earn in mid ocean. 226 lives lost. " 37 Richard Yates, ex-U. S. Senator and ex-Governor of Illinois, died at St. Louis, aged 55. Dec. 1 The 43rd Congress assembles for its first session. " 14 Louis Agassiz, a disHnguislM:cl naturalist and man of science, died HI .J.unbridge, Mass. HISTORY OF THE UNITED OTATBB. (J91 1874. Jan. The U. S. government narrowly escaped a war with Spain on account of the taking of the Virginius by Cuban authorities. That vessel was sailing under the American flag which was violated by its capture. 54 men were shot as pirates, some of them American citizens. The Spanish government disavowed the act, and gave up the vessel, Dec. 16th, 1873. It was so much damaged as to sink while on the way to the United States. ** 2 A Revolution in Spain overthrows the government of Seflor Castelar. u 5 The President sends a message to Congress concerning the Span- ish difficulty, now substantially settled. " 8 U. S. Senate repeals the bill of March 3rd, 1878, increasing the pay of members of Congress. 44 9 Hon. Caleb Gushing nominated Chief Justice of the U. S. Supreme Court. *' 14 Nomination of Caleb Cushing recalled. " 17 Death of the Siamese twins. " 19 Morrison R. Waite, of Ohio, was nominated by the President as Chief Justice and confirmed afterward by the Senate. u 27 Reliable intelligence of the death of David Livingstone, the African explorer, reaches England. Feb. 4 The seventh annual meeting of the National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry occurs in St. Louis, Mo. 8,000 subordinate granges have been added during the year. The Executive Committee state that farmers had saved $8,000,000 during the year by their co-oper- ative system. M*r. 8 Ex-President Fillmore died, in Buffalo, N. Y. * 11 Death of Hon. Charles Sumner, a distinguished statesman and Senator from Mass., in Washington. He was born in 'Boston, Mass., Jan. 6th, 1811, and was 63 years old. He was of a patriotic race which originated in the county of Kent, England. His grandfather was a Major distinguished for valor in the Revolu- tionary army Charles Sumner graduated from Harvard College in 1830, was admitted to the bar in 1834, and became highly dis- tinguished as a lawyer. He succeeded Daniel Webster in the U. S. Senate in 1851, in which he remained till his death, being always conspicuous as one of the foremost leaders in public affairs. a 24 A bill increasing the currency to 1400,000,000 passed in the U. 8. House of Representatives by 168 to 77. *pr. 1 The U. S. debt officially stated to be 12,152,690,728.62. Decrease of debt during March, 1874, $2,189,338.46. * 14 The Senate bill increasing the currency passes the House of Rep- resentativcs. Many protests from different parts of the country are presented against it as injurious to the credit and interesta f 692 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. the country. The discussion of this measure has occupied mue>? of the time of Congress for some months. Apr.18 The funeral of Livingstone, the lamented African explorer, take* place in London, England, where his remains had arrived. He was interred in Westminster Abbey, as a mark of distinguished honor. * 17 Gov. Wtn. B. Washburn is elected by the Mass. Legislature to represent the State in the U. 8. Senate, made vacant by the d'.'aAh of Charles Sumner. ** 22 President Grant vetoes the Currency Bill increasing the issue? of paper money, which defeats the measure, its friends in Congress not being numerous enough to pass it over the veto. tt 24 The Congressional committee on Transportation, after long and careful investigation, advised government overstyht of Railroads, but against government ownership. u 28 Congress voted $90,000 in aid of sufferers by the inundation of the lower Mississippi. May 7 $100,000 were added to the above sum for the same purpose. " 19 The system of payments to informers in customs revenue cases, repealed. That system appeared to have been very grossly abused. 44 " The conflict in Arkansas ended in the retreat of Brooks and the reinstatement of Gov. Baxter. ** a The New York Legislature passed a Compulsory Education BiH which became a law in that state. June 1 Mr. Richardson, Secretary of the Treasury, resigned. Gen. Benj. II. Bristow of Ky., was appointed to succeed him. " " The number of subordinate Granges of the Patrons of Husbandry is 19,492. The number of Patrons who are voters is estimated at 1,000,000. 44 23 Congress adjourned. The sums appropriated at this session for carrying on the government amounted to $189,784,340.25. The largest item was for the Post Office Department over $41,000,000. 44 24 Postmaster-General, John A. J. Creswell resigned, and Hon. Mar- shall Jewell was appointed in his place 41 25 Telegraphic communication between the United States and Brazil introduced by congratulatory messages between the Emperor of Brazil and the President of the U. S. July 8 Message of Gov. Davis of Minnesota to the Sec. of War, announ- cing the entire destruction of crops in many counties of that state by grasshoppers. , ** 14 Another great fire in Chicago. Loss over $4,000,000. Gen Custer, commanding an exploring expedition in the Black Hills of Dacotah, reported discoveries of ricli gold mines there. ^ 27 An International Congress for mitigating the sufferings of war HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 698 by means of an International Code of Laws, convened at Brussels, in Belgium. Aug.l9->A riot between whites and blacks in Kentucky, resulted in several murders of blacks. The Gov. called out the militia to restore order. Sept 2 400 Mormons sail from England for this country en route to Utah. " 5 Gen. Sherman orders Military head quarters of the U. 8. Army removed from Washington to St. Louis, Mo. " 6 The one hundredth anniversary of the first meeting of the Con- tinental Congress in Philadelphia, celebrated. M 7 Great fire at Meiningen, Germany. Loss in buildings alone, $3,000,000. * 13 Guizot, a celebrated French author and statesman, died, aged 87. * 14 The white League, a secret organization opposed to the enfran- chisement of the colored people, produced a conflict in New Or- leans. 17 were killed and 32 wounded in a street fight, and the State government completely overthrown. * 16 President Grant interfered by proclamation and the government " 18 was surrendered to the regular authorities, under protest Oct 13 Elections held in 6 states returned 12 democratic Congressmen more than the previous number. Nov. 8 Elections in 23 states give a strong democratic gain, indicating a reaction against the government. A sense of the necessity of reform in various ways, and of greater purity and integrity of administration was wide spread. It had caused, in part, the rapid growth of the Patrons of Husbandry, and was again expressed by political reaction. It was a significant rebuke to those in power. A typhoon, or hurricane at Hong Kong, Chin:., Sept. 22-23, de- stroyed 30,000 lives and $50,000,000 of property. Europe is making great political improvements. In France, dur- ing the last three years, out of 184 elections to fill vacancies in the National Assembly, 152 have been republican only 32 mon- archists, and in Russia the government has decided to enforce compulsory education. Dec, 1 The number of Granges in the United States is 21,472. * 7 The last session of the ^forty-third Congress commenced. The President's Message strongly recommends early resumption of specie payments. 12 Kalakaua, King of the Sandwich Islands, reached Washington on a visit. He was received by the President on the 15th and by Congress on the 18th. " 21 Disturbances at Vicksburg, Miss., called out a proclamation from, the President ** 28 Gerrit Smith, a distinguished abolitionist and philanthropist* died in New York, aged 78- 094 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 1875. Jan. 1 Monarchy was restored in Spain. Alphonso XII, son of the ex* queen Isabella, was proclaimed King, and received the support of the army and navy. It was only a few months before that most of the European governments recognized the Spanish Republic. " 4 Gen. Sheridan took command of the Department of the Gulf, at New Orleans. On that day the Legislature of Louisiana was or- ganized, and United States troops, acting under the orders of the speaker and of Gov. Kellogg, ejected several members who, it was alleged, were not entitled to seats. It produced much excitement throughout the country, the opposition denouncing it as an unex- ampled interference of the Federal Executive with State govern- ment. Congress sustained the action of the President, but exerted its influence to quiet the excitement in Louisiana, and a compro- mise was effected under which it gradually ebbed away. ** 13 Toung-tchl, Emperor of China, died, aged 19 years. The emigrants arriving at the port of New York during the year 1874, numbered 149,762; a decided falling off, the arrivals having; for some years, amounted to 250,000. The governments of Ger- many are endeavoring to remove the causes of emigration which threatens to affect their resources seriously. Feb. 3 A proposed reciprocity treaty with Canada, was rejected by the Senate. " 5 The civil rights Bill, adopted by the Senate during the last session,, was amended by an omission relating to schools and adopted by the House. It was accepted by the Senate Feb. 27th, and signed by the President, March 1st. " 35 A Republic was definitely recognized in France. Mar. 2 A Bill increasing the Tariff was passed by the Senate. Gen. Lorenzo Thomas of the U. S. army died, aged 71. " 3 A law admitting Colorado as a state was passed. " 4 A law, passed in haste in the last hours of *he session, restored the Franking Privilege to members of Congress until Dec. 1, and increased the postage on newspapers and packages for the people. The forty -third Congress came to a close. " 5 The Senate convened in extra session in accordance with a call previously made by the President. G. S. Orth was confirmed U. 8. Minister to Austria, and Horace Maynard U. S. Minister ta Turkey. 44 10 A new treaty with Belgium was ratified. 44 18 The Senate ratified the treaty with Hawaii, which renders the interests of the Sandwich Islands substantially identical with those of the United States. 44 30 A destructive tornado in Georgia caused great loss of life and property. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 695 Mar.24 The Senate, after officially approving the action of the President in Louisana, closed its special session. F. E. Spinner, United States Treasurer, resigned, and John C. New, of Ind. was appointed his successor. Apr. 19 The centennial anniversary of the battle of Lexington was cele- brated with great interest. This battle was the first decisive step in the War of Independence. Its scenes and their consequences were dwelt on by some of the most distinguished literary Ameri cans, and honored by the presence of the President of the United States and many of its most eminent authorities. 44 28 Three Steamers burned at New Orleans, in which fifty lives were lost 44 28 A fire at Oshkosh, Wis., destroyed a square mile of the city. Loss in property over $2,000,000. May 7 A Bill for suppressing religious orders introduced into the Ger- man Parliament. It subsequently became a law. The Steamship Schiller was wrecked on the coast of Great Britain. Three hundred and eleven lives were lost. 44 10 Centennial anniversary of the capture of Fort Ticonderoga by Ethan Allen. 44 16 Attorney General Williams resigned and Judge Edwards Pierre- pont was appointed his successor. 17 John C. Breckenridge, formerly Vice President of the United States, and a general in the Confederate army during the Civil War, died, aged 54. 44 18 A fearful earthquake in New Granada, South America,. The city of Cucuta was completely destroyed; between two and three thousand lives were lost and more than $8,000,000 of property destroyed. 44 20 Celebration of the Mecklenburg, N. C., Declaration of Indepen- dence, with great enthusiasm. 44 80 The Steamer Vicksburg, on a voyage from Canada to England, was wrecked in a field of ice. 80 lives were lost. June 17^Centennial anniversary of the battle of Bunker Hill was cele- brated with great eclat. Its most interesting feature was the fra- ternal spirit manifested by the North and South toward each other. Several Southern States were represented by bodies of soldiers. I M 80 Business failures since Jan. 1, of this year reported at 8,377, with liabilities amounting in all to $74,940,869. July 8 Gen. Frank P. Blair, Jun., died in St. Louis, aged 64. 44 18 Lady Franklin, widow of Sir John Franklin, the unfortunate Arctic Explorer, died in England, aged 70. Great loss of life and property has been caused in France by floods. In two cities alone the damage is estimated at $20,000,CfcQ, 696 HISTORY OK THE UNITED STATES. and in the south of France at $75,000,000. Other parts of Europe have suffered heavily from the same cause. " 33 Isaac Merrit Singer, inventor of the Sewing Machine of that name, died in London, England, aged 64. The most prominent political issue of the time is hard money and currency. A Democratic convention in Md., and a Republi- can convention in Minn., each, yesterday and to-day, adopted a hard money platform. Ohio and Pa. democratic conventions afterwards declared for paper money. " 31 Ex-President Andrew Johnson died in Tenn., aged 67. He was recently elected U. S. Sena;or from Tennessee. Aug. The Gov. of Tenn. appointed Hon. D. M. Key, to fill the vacancy in the Senate caused by Andrew Johnson's death. " 4 Republican government in France was strengthened by the pas- sage of a Bill constituting a Senate. The census of population in Louisiana gives 850,390, an increase of over 15 per cent, since 1870. The excess of increase of colored over white population has been 45,668. The census in Wisconsin gives a population of 1,236,090, being an increase of l? 1 ^ per cent, since 1870. " 26 The bank of California suspended payment. It haa long been the leading bank in the Pacific States. " 27 W. C. Ralston, president of the Bank of California, was drowned while bathing. Sept. 1 Violent disturbances in Mississippi between whites and blacks result in many deaths. " 7 The Governor of Miss, called on the President for federal aid to protect citizens and restore order. " 14 The President declined to interfere in the domestic affairs of Mis- sissippi. " 16 A destructive cyclone in the Gulf of Mexico threatened to sub- merge Galveston. Most of the State conventions and elections of this month urged a speedy return to specie payment. " 30 The President makes a speech at the reunion of the Army of the Tennessee, in Desmoines, la., in favor of uneectarian free schools. Hon. Zachariah Chandler, appointed Sec. of the Interior in place of Delano, resigned. Oct. 30 A great fire at Virginia City destroys the business part of the place. Estimated loss $4,000,000. Nov. 2 Elections were held in 9 states resulting in republican majorities in many and republican gains in those giving democratic major- ities. HIBTOBY OF THE UNITED STATES. 697 Nov. J 'Fie Steamship Pacific wrecked on the coast of California. Ner ?DO lives lost u 22- tfcnry Wilson, Vice President of the United States, died in Wash. ington, D. C., aged 68. Dec. ' The forty-fourth Congress commenced its first session. Republi. can majority in the Senate 11 democratic majority in the House of Representatives, 08. * 7 The President's Message nrged the taxation, to some extent, of churcji property now valued at $1,000.000,000. The revenue of the last fiscal year was $388,000,051 the expenses $274,623,892, The army is reduced to 25,000 men. In the navy there :in -?<; iron-clads, 95 steam, and 26 sailing vessels. 15 The House adopted a resolution against a third Presidential term of office. The close of the 99th year of the American Republic, under circumstances so satisfactory in most respects, renders the coming year one of .great interest. 1876. Jan. 5 Congress reassembled after the holidays. " 10 A bill for universal amnesty failed to pass the House, lacking a two-thirds majority. " 14 The Pension Bill, appropriating $29,533,500, was passed. " 25 The Centennial Bill passed by the House appropriating $1,500.000. Feb. 11 The Centennial Bill passed the Senate, and was signed on tht 16th by the President with a quill from the wing of an American Eagle. A postal treaty between the U. S. and Japan has been signed, reducing letter postage to 5 cents. The death penalty hat been abolished by the Legislature of Maine. Mar. 1 A Bill recommends all the counties and towns in the country tc have their histories prepared for July 4th and filed with the county clerks and the Librarian of Congress. " 10 The Senate passed a Bill for the admission of New Mexico as a State. Apr. 13 The President signed the Bill for the substitution of coin foi fractional currency. All efforts for the repeal of the Resumption Acts of last year have failed. May 10 The Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia, Pa., was opened by President Grant in a very appropriate address. The Emperor of Brazil was present and assisted in some of the ctTcmonlea. Most of the high officers of the U. S. Government, the Represen- tatives of foreign Governments, the members of the U. 8. Senate and House of Representatives, officers of the Army and Navy and officials of various State governments took part in the opening exercises. All the various nations of the civilized world had been invited by our Government to a friendly competition with in in a display of the best results of industrial, commercial and 698 HISTOKY OF THE UNITED STATES. artistic skill, in this way associating all other people in our celebration of the one hundredth birthday of the Republic. Very few, out of the large family of nations, failed to respond, and thia was the opening of the International Exposition, or World's Fair. We can compare our progress in a single century with the achievements of older countries. The time and thought of Congress have been largely occupied through the month by the preparations for the impeachment of the late Secretary of War, Belknap, accused of selling lucrative appointments. The Government, Congress and the Press, have vied with each other in searching investigations into all cases of alleged misconduct in office. Although sometimes unreasonable, the general effect has been to improve the efficiency and purity of administration. The Treasury Department, in answer to a call from the U. S. Senate, recently presented a statement showing the losses to the government by theft, fraud and defalcation in. each administration for the last forty years. The number of dollars so lost on each thousand of public treasure in President Jackson's last term, were $11.18; in President Van Buren's term, were $26.19; in President Harrison and Tyler's term, were $14.49; in President Folk's term, were $10.35; in President Taylor and Fillmore's term, were $8.96; in President Pierce's term, were 6.94; in President Buchanan's term, were $8.77; in President Lincoln's first term, were $2.07 ; in President Lincoln and John- son's term, were $1.86; in President Grant's first term, were $1.59; in President Grant's second term to the present, were $1.01. The income of the Government in 1836 was $33,000,000, in 1876 $288,000,000. A much larger number of persons must be em- ployed in handling it, and much larger sums are handled in each branch of the service. While the revenue has increased more than 5 times the losses on equal sums have diminished more than 10 times. We have, then, a more perfect organization and more trusty officials. It is a cheering and hopeful sign for the future. May 30 Abdul-Aziz, the Sultan of Turkey, was deposed, and his nephew, Murad Effendi, was proclaimed Sultan. June 4 The dethroned Sultan committed suicide. " 16 The National Republican Convention, assembled at Cincinnati, O., nominated Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, as its candidate for President of the United States, and Wm. A. Wheeler, of N. Y., for Vice-President. " 17 B. H. Bristow resigned his seat in the cabinet as Secretary of the Treasury. 20 The President announced, by special message to Congress, the termination of the Extradition Treaty with Great Britain, by the refusal of that Government to give up certain criminals claimed under it by the Government of the United States. I1ISTOKY OF THE UNITED STATES. 699 " 25 Gen. Cusler was killed in a buttle with the Sioux Indians on the Little Big Horn river, Idaho, together with his whole command of U S. T:-oi.p>. nearly 300 in number. " 27 The National Democratic Convention assembled in St. Louis, Mo. " 28 Samuel J. Tilden, of N. Y., was nominated as the Democratic candidate for President of the United Stales. " 29 Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana, was nominated as the Demo- cratic candidate for Vice-President. The Centennial year was greeted at midnight, Jan. 1st. with unusual rejoicing and display in most of the cities, and particu- larly at Philadelphia, in and near Independence Hall, where was assembled the Congress of 1776. Local celebrations of important events of that year were held from time to time; but the great event of the year was the celebration of the Declaration July 4 of Independence, July 4th. All part of the country celebrated the memory of the day on which its liberties were officially proclaimed with extreme enthu- siasm. In many eases several days were devoted to these rejoicings. It was designed to be the Great Day of the Inter- national Exhibition, where the progress of the country during its century of existence was shown by the best specimens of its various industries and arts, made more interesting by correspond- ing exhibitions of the skill of other, and, in most cases, older lands. It was a fine picture of great achievement. Illuminations, processions, orations and poems vied with each other in the effort to give full and fitting expression to the exulting pride and patri- otism of the people. The Declaration of Independence, proclaiming the freedom and political equality of all men, was made by a people worthy of freedom. It was then an abstract truth, and was to be an experiment In no great nation had all its citizens ever been free and politically equal. The Independence was secured by a long and bloody war, the Freedom was expressed in the Constitu- tion and Laws of the Land, and has been gradually embodied in the Institutions and habits of the people as the century rolled away. The Idea has been constantly assuming Form and controll- ing Law and Administration ever more perfectly. To be perfectly free men must be completely wise in thought and conduct; but a very" high degree of relative freedom has been reached, and it wii! be comparatively easy to advance. Freedom has advanced during the century by successive steps. The War of the Revolution secured the freedom of the country: the second war with Great Britain and the wnr with Algiers the freedom of the seas ; acquisitions of territory have secured an unembarrnMod development of the whole country; educational f.cili'Jea urr 700 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 4876. begining to be equal to the proper instruction of all the people; and the civil war lias, let us hope, improved the chances of true national harmony. It may now be said truly that we can grow, naturally, out of the wrong into the right in all directions. We have good reason to be cheerfully and proudly patriotic, and what is yet wanting will come without destructive commotion. At least we have fair reason for believing so. The material progress of the country has been very great. Steam, electricity, the invention of labor saving machinery, the prosperity of other nations (giving us profitable markets), the immigration of nearly 8 millions from the Old World (many of them with means, to aid in the development of our wild lands, mines and industries), the rapid progress of science and the improvement of educational facilities for rendering labor intelligent and fruitful all these and many other favorable circumstances have crowned with a grand success the First Century of the experimental Republic, and the doctrine of the Declaration is beginning to be the Faith of the World. July 6 The U. S. Senate unanimously passed a bill granting Capt. Moreno the right to lay and work a sub-marine cable across the Pacific Ocean. There are already in operation more than 50,000 miles of sub-marine telegraphic cable in different parts of the world. " 7 Senator L. M. Morrill, of Maine, took his seat in the Cabinet as Secretary of the Treasury. Jas. G. Blaine was appointed Senator in his place. 44 12 James M. Tyner, of Ind., was confirmed Postmaster-General, in place of Marshall Jewell, resigned. A violent war is raging in European Turkey between that country and some of its Christian provinces which have revolted. There is danger of its involving many other powers in a general war. " 26 A. T. Caperton, U. S. Senator from West Virginia, died. Aug. 1 The President proclaimed Colorado a State in the Union Gen, Belknap, late Secretary of War, impeached by the House of Repre- sentatives, was acquitted by the Senate, 25 voting for non-conviction and 36 for conviction not the necessary two-thirds. Aug. 19 M. C. Kcrr, Speaker of the U. S. House of Representatives, died. " 81 Murad EUendi, Sultan of Turkey, was deposed, and Abdul Hamid, his brother, was proclaimed in his place. There have been three Sultans in as many months. Sept. 3 Braxton F. Bragg, ex-Confederate General, aged 61, died. Oct. 3 State election in Colorado. " 10 State elections in Ohio, Indiana and West Virginia indicate t close presidential contest. 17 President Grant issues a proclamation commanding the rifle com- panics in South Carolina to disperse in three days. Nor. 7 The twenty-third presidential election is held, and the result left doubtful for many months, both parties claiming success. GOT. H1STOBT OF THE UNITED OTATEB. 701 Tilden has, evidently, 184 electoral votes 185 being necessary to an election. Gov. Hayes has 178. Florida, with four votes, and Louisiana, with eight, are uncertain. 4 The second session of the forty-fourth Congress is opened. 8. J Randall is chosen Speaker of the House. The Secretary of the Treasury reports the public debt reduced, between August 31st, 1865, and June 30th, 1876, by $656,002.220.44. Exports during the year ending June 80th, 1876, exceeded imports by $70,G84, 181, gold. " 8 Electoral votes are cast in all the electoral colleges. Representative men from each party had been present to see that a fair count was made at the canvass of the returns in Florida and Louisiana by returning boards, organized under the laws of those States. Those boards were Republican, and discredited some of the returns for alleged violence and intimidation, giving those States to Hayes, and securing his election. The Democrats maintained that such a result could only be reached by fraud, and their electors cast the votes of those States for Tilden, making thus two returns from which Congress must choose. 1877. /JR. 1 Queen Victoria is proclaimed Empress of India at Delhi. M 18 Most of the time and thought of Congress has been occupied in- devising means to settle the disputed election. On this day a joint committee reported a compromise bill for securing that end. * SO The compromise law is passed by both Houses 47 yeas to IT nays in the Senate, and 101 yeas to 86 nays in the House. The majority in the Senate was Republican, and in the House Demo- cratic, making a dead lock unavoidable but for a compromise which was secured by the law. It organized an electoral com- mission of five Senators, five Representatives, and five Judges of the Supreme Court, to which the contested points were to be sub- mitted. Their decision was to be final, unless the two Houses agreed to order otherwise. Eight members, when selected, proved to be Republicans, and seven Democrats. The Republican majority of the commission decided that a re-examination of the State- returns by federal authorities would trespass on State independ- ence; the Democratic minority held that elections of the Federal Executive were a proper subject of investigation by the Federal Congress. The decision was made by the commission on party lines, and gave the disputed States to the Republicans by eight votes over seven. The two Houses could not agree to change that decision, and, by the compromise law, it was so recorded, to the dissatisfaction of the Democrats, who believed that investigation would establish the fact of fraudulent or illegal action by the returning boards, and give the presidential office to Uieir candidate. Returns by two electoral colleges were also made from Oregon ana Routh Carolina, on technical grounds, which were decided by th lector*! tribunal i fivor of the l?pp )> ' i ''' <*.|lrire. 702 HISTOKY OF THE UNITED STATES. 1877. Feb. 21 The President proclaims the ratification of an extradition treaty with Spain. Mar. 1 The statement of the public debt made by the Secretary of the Treasury declares that the decrease of the debt since June 30, 1876, had been $10,658,201 ; making the whole decrease since the close of the war $667.650,427. " 2 The count of the electoral vote by the two Houses of Congress is- concluded. Rutherford B. Hayes is found elected President of the United States, and William A. Wheeler Vice-President. " 4 The Forty-fourth Congress comes to a close. " 5 Hayes is quietly inaugurated President in Washington. Thb Democratic party has given proof of moderation and patriotism in submitting to a decision they deemed inconclusive, and which deprived them of victory at the moment of seeming success. *' 22 It is decided, by the new administration, that the Southern States are now so fully reconsiructed that Federal interference is no longer necessary ; that the harmony of the sections, and even the welfare of the Freedmcn will be promoted by confining the action of the General Government to its ordinary sphere. This is called the President's " Southern Policy." South Carolina and Louisiana have each two Governors claiming legal election; the Republican Governors, in each, being upheld in nominal authority by United States troops. At a Cabinet meeting this day, it is decided to invite Governors Hampton (Democrat) and Chamberlain (Repub- lican), of South Carolina, to visit and confer with the Government at Washington. Apr. 10 The result is the withdrawal of the United States troops from the South Carolina State House, the retirement of Chamberlain, and the recognition of Hampton as Governor without disturbance. " 20 A commission, appointed by the President, arranged the contest in Louisiana between two rival Legislatures; the troops which had sustained Packard (Republican) were withdrawn; and the Demo- cratic administration, with Nichols as Governor, was recognized- " 24 Russia declares war against Turkey. May 16 Marshal McMahon, President of France, refuses to permit his government to be controlled in its policy by the majority of the Representatives cf the nation, and reconstructs his cabinet to suit his own views; a month later dissolving the Assembly, by the consent of the Senate, and ordering new elections. June 15 About this time an Indian war commences in Idaho, under the leadership of Chief Joseph, by the massacre of some twenty settlers. Gen. O. O. Howard defeated the Indians in battle, and, after a long chase, captured them, and put an end to the war (September 5th). IIISTOHV OK T;IK rxni.i) BTATU 703 1877. June 22 President Hayes issues a circular to office-holders mult r tin- I" mted States Government, forbidding them to take part in the manage- ment of political organizations, or to make, or pay, assessments for political purposes. The Iowa Republican Convention protests against the President's Southern policy. July 5 On the other hand, proceedings are instituted against the Louisiana Returning Board, which had secured that State for Hayes in the Presidential election. 44 16 A strike of railroad employes commences on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, and soon spreads to nm.it of the roads m the Northern States; the strikers taking energetic measures to inter- rupt railroad traffic till their demands should be complied with. They refused to accept a reduction of wages, generally determined on by most of the railroad companies. *' 19 Troops are called out to suppress the unlawful obstruction of business. Riots in Baltimore and Pittsburgh are especially bloody and destructive to property; and disorders occur at numerous points, the destruction of property being due to the criminal classes rather than railroad employes. The interruption to busi- ness lasted nearly two weeks, and was ended partly by conciliatory measures of railroad officers and. partly by the submission of the strikers. Aug. 29 Brigham Young, the Mormon leader, died at Salt Lake City, Utah, aged seventy-six. Sept. 5 The ex-President of the French Republic, Louis Adolph Thiers, a \vi-e anil eminent statesman, died, aged eighty. " 20 Senator L. V. Bogy, of Missouri, died, aged sixty-four. Oct. 15 An extra session of the Forty-fifth Congress commences The special necessity for it was to make appropriations for the support of the army, which had not been made at the usual time. The elections in France, of the 14th, result against Prc.-idont McMahon, and in favor of parliamentary and popular government Nov. 1 Hon. Oliver P. Morton, a distinguished statesman and United States Senator from Indiana, dies, aged fifty-four. He was born in Wayne County, Indiana, in 1823, graduated at Miami University, and was admitted to the bar in 1847; was elected Circuit Judge in 1852. He took part in organizing the Republican party; lecame Lieutenant Governor of Indiana in 1860; was acting Governor from 1861-4, when returned to t lie office by election; and repre- sented his State in the United States Senate from 1867 to his death. He was a natural leader of men. and respected, even by his opponents, as an able and upright statesman. Dec. 8 The extra session of the- Forty-fifth Congress terminates, and the first regular session commences. 70i HISTOKY OF THE UNITED STATES. 1877. Dec. 10 The Russians capture Plevna an event decisive of the war in their favor. " 13 President McMahon submits to his defeat, ancT forms a cabinet acceptable to the majority of the French Assembly. It is one of the most significant events of the century, as indicating the progress of popular government in Europe. 1878. Jan, 9 Victor Emanuel, King of Italy, during whose reign Italian unity was effected, dies. His sou, Prince Humbert, succeeds him. Feb. 7 Pope Pius IX. dies, aged eighty-five; succeeded February 20th by Cardinal Pecci, styled Leo XIII. " 20 An amendment to a post-office bill revives the franking privilege for members of Congress. " 28 A bill remouetizing silver, making the old silver dollar of 412} grains a legal tender, becomes a law by its passage over the veto of the President in both Houses of Congress. Mar. 3 Peace is signed between Russia and Turkey. " 18 The Louisiana court before which General Anderson, of the Returning Board, was tried, had sentenced him to two j curs in the penitentiary. The Supreme Court of tho State overrules the decision, and orders his release. Apr. 1 Since July, 1877, the public debt has been reduced more than twenty million dollars, in spite of financial trouble. The most no'eworthy fact of the mouth has been the success of the Secretary of the Treasury in preparing for formal resump- tion of specie payments by the Government; the nominal differ- encc between the value of greenbacks and gold, and actual resumption by many banks and business houses. May 1 The national debt was reduced $;),015.865. The International Exposition of France is formally opened by President McManou, a vast concourse of people being present. Sitting Bull, the Sioux chief, proposes to make peace. * * Congress is in session during this month, and produces some im- portant legislation, among which is the repeal of the Bankrupt law, from September 1st, voting the payment to England of tho Halifax Fisheries Award, ($5,500,000,) and measures to prevent further contraction of the currency. Jane 12 William Cullen Bryant, a distinguished American poet, dies, aged 83. " 20 The second session of the Forty-fifth Congress comes to a close. The first session commenced in December, 1877; the second, in March, 1878. July A "heated term " of unusual severity commences, during which hundreds of deaths by sunstroke occur. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 705 Aug. The Yellow Fever commences with great fatal ity in Memphis, New Orleans and other parts of the South, mostly near the Mississippi River, causing a general suspension of business in those regions. All parts of the country, and especially large northern cities, sup- ply the sick and suffering with many hundred thousand dollars in money. Great political activity, and an attempt to build up new political parties, have characterized the spring and summer. Sept. 8 The State election occurs in Vermont, followed " 9 By that of Maine. Oct. 8 Ohio, Indiana, Iowa and West Virginia hold State elections. Nov. 5 Thirty-one States hold elections for State officers and Representa- tives to the Forty-sixth Congress. There is a considerable reaction in favor of the Republicans on the whole, although the Democrats will have a small majority in both Houses of the Forty-sixth Con- gress. New parties show less strength than was expected, owing chiefly to the success of preparations by the U. S. Government to resume specie payments in January coming. Dec. 2 The third session of the Forty-fifth Congress commences. The Public Debt, less cash in the Treasury, Dec. 1st, was $2,027,414,235. " 17 Gold was sold at par in New York for the first time in nearly sev- enteen years. 1879. Jan. 1 Resumption by the U. 8. Treasury becomes an accomplished fact Railways have been built in the last year to the extent of 2,688 miles, making the total miles in the U. S. 81,896. Iron has been produced in the country during the year to the amount of 4,154,000 tons, about one-fourth the production of the world. The mining of precious metals for the year gives a value of about $84,000,000; the crops raised by the farmers were the largest in our history. The export of merchandise for the year was about $100,000,000 more than in the previous, or any other year, in our history. Mar. 4 The Forty-fifth Congress comes to an end with its work incom- plete. The President, by proclamation, culls together the Forty- sixth Congress in extra session for March 18th. " 18 The Forty-sixth Congress met in extra session. The Forty-fifth Congress had expired without having passed the necessary appro- priation bills. Apr. 29 The President vetoed the Army Appropriation Bill, to which Con- gress had attached legislation called " political riders." The bill failed to pass over the veto. May 15 A Congress of Engineers and eminent men met in Paris, France, to consider the project of a ship canal across the Isthmus of Panama. It resulted in an effort to organize a company to com- mence the undertaking. 706 HISTOKY OF THE UNITED STATES May 29 The President vetoed the Legislative Appropriation Bill, on account of objectionable legislation joined to it. June 23 The Judicial Appropriation Bill was vetoed for a similar reason. " 28 The track of the Iron Mountain Railroad, in Missouri, 700 miles long, was changed to standard gauge in one day by 3,000 men. July 1 Congress adjourned, after an extra session of 105 days. All the appropriations necessary for carrying on the Government, except that for the pay of United States Marshals, were finally agreed on by Congress and the President. " 9 The first death this year, from yellow fever, occurred in Memphis, Tenn., and produced wide-spread alarm and obstruction of busi- ness. " 21 The United States Government sent 1,500 tents and rations for 10,000 people to Memphis, for the use of the suffering people. Sept. 20 General U. S. Grant landed at San Francisco, on his return from a two-years' tour around the world. " 26 Dead wood, D. T., had a great fire. Loss, $2,500,000. Two thousand people were made houseless. Oct. 29 Yellow fever was officially declared at an end in Memphis. 1,530 cases were reported, and 470 deaths. In 1878 the number of cases reported in the United States were 65,976, and 14,809 deaths, of which 5,160 were in Memphis. In that year $4,548,672 were con- tributed in aid of the sufferers about $176,000 of it being from foreign countries. Nov. 1 Hon. Z. Chandler, U. S. Senator from Michigan, died, aged 66. " 4 Elections were held in eleven States. Dec. 1 The first regular session of the Forty-sixth Congress commenced. " 31 Hon. George S. Houston, U. S. Senator from Ala., died, aged 68. 1880. Jan. 1 The great national facts of 1879 were the brilliant success of resumption; the refunding, at 4 per cent., of such U. S. bonds, bearing interest at 5 and 6 per cent., as could be legally called in; a great and general revival of business; a still larger volume of agricultural produce than ever before, and an increased balance of trade with Europe in favor of the United States. About 5,000 miles of new railway were built, and 270,0^0 immigrants from other countries settled here. " " The public debt less cash in the Treasury and bonds and interest of Pacific railroads was $2,011,758,504. " " Since the debt reached the highest point, at the close of the civil war, the principal has been reduced by $769,325,030.31 ; and the annual interest is less by $67,847,809.37; while the annual revenue has been reduced, in various ways, by about $200,000,000. Success in finance has been added to our long and brilliant record of HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 707 progress in other lines, and a new decade begins with bright promise of a still more wonderful future. Feb. 1 The public debt decreased during January $11,014,203. A quiet session of Congress leaves the general forces of business and poll- tics to work out their own issues, undisturbed by doubtful legisla- tion. Mar. 1 The decrease of the debt during February was $5,077,019. This leaves the whole, less cash in the Treasury and obligations tempo- rarily assumed for the Pacific railroads, $1,995,112,221. The part of the debt on which interest is to be paid is much less $1,770,- 213,850 the annual interest on this being $82,211,003. Meantime business is so brisk, and so much greater in volume that it is esti- mated that $80,000,000 of the principal may be paid off in 1880, unless taxation is reduced. February, 1880, produced $7,000,000 more revenue to the Treasury than February, 1879. " 2 A new set of Parliamentary Rules were adopted by the U. 8. House of Representatives. They go into operation March 8, 1880. CHAPTER XXX. PARLIAMENTARY RULES. "We give in this chapter the rules for conducting business in the House of Representatives of the United States, as a proper compend of Parlia- mentary rules for the people of the United States. They are naturally a standard of procedure in all public bodies in this country so far as the cir- cumstances are parallel ; they have been carefully compiled and used by our highest popular Legislative Body during the course of more than three-quarters of a century, and may therefore be considered thoroughly well adapted to the genius of our people and the character of our institu- tions; and they were originally based on Jefferson's Manual, compiled by him for the use, and at the request of, the Senate, when, as Vice Presi- dent of the United States, he became its presiding officer, and was digested by him from the usages of the English Parliament and other Legislative bodies in Europe. The value of this manual is attested by its use continued to the present day, so far as it is applicable. The Rules of the House are therefore rep- resentative of the wisdom of the Old World on this point as well as of the usages of the New. They deserve to be carefully studied by American citizens above any other body of parliamentary rules for several reasons besides those men- tioned above. Hardly any other will be likely to contain so many points of adaptation to popular use; every one should be fairly acquainted with the prevailing usages that he may be ready to act his part well if called on to preside in any public meeting; all who read the reports of congressional doings require such acquaintance with parliamentary usage to fully appre- ciate many points in such reports, and these rules are a fine illustration of the spirit of our government and the genius of the American people. The following Rules 'Were adopted March 2, 1880. A committee had been appointed to digest and prepare them during the interval between two sessions of Congress, and they wer carefully examined and discussed by the members of the House at intervals for more than two months during the winter of 1879-80. During the last quarter of a century, and more especially between 1870 and 1880, the United States has grown with bewildering rapidity. The activ- ities and interests of the people have spread over more than twice as much surface as that to which they were chiefly confined twenty-five years ago; the population has doubled; the realized wealth, and the vast resources about to be developed, are probably ten times as great. Production and exchanges have been made with constantly increasing rapidity and mas- (708) PARLIAMENTARY RULES. 709 siveness of volume. Legislation has all these interests to deal with, and its business has become vastly more important and complex. Its methods must be arranged to meet the requirements of a situation so changed. Jefferson's Manual adapted to American needs the parliamentary usages in Europe at the beginning of this century. It is still an accepted authority on points not included in these Rules, whenever applicable. The revision contemplated greater adaptation, clearness, precision, and such an order and regulation of business as should favor attention to sub- jects according to their relative importance, combined with speed and thoroughness very difficult points to achieve where so many general and personal interests are clamoring for attention. Public affairs are very closely criticised in our country, as is right and proper; but critics are apt to forget how difficult it is for a body which has so many subjects claiming its attention and decision to maintain exact impartiality of judgment; nor is it easy to give a suitable proportion of care to all interests where such an ocean of details is to be explored in order to arrive at a conclusion which the future shall approve as wise and just Let us be considerate while we are watchful. " The work approves or condemns the workman," and the history of the Republic up to this time renders a more favorable verdict on past legislation than the critics of the time. Our fathers, guided by a sound instinct, "built wiser than they knew." The " New Rules '' and a rising tide of prosperity seem to indicate that the sons have not degenerated. RULES OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, ADOPTED MARCH 2, 1880. RULE I. DUTIES OP THE SPEAKER. 1. The Speaker shall take the chair on every legislative day precisely at the hour to which the House shall have adjourned at the last sitting, imme- diately call the members to order, and on the appearance of a quorum, cause the journal of the proceedings of the last day's sitting to be read, having previously examined and approved the same. 2. He shall preserve order and decorum, and in case of disturbance or disorderly conduct in the galleries, or in the lobby, may cause the same to be cleared. 8. He shall have general control, except as provided by rule or law, of the hall of the House, and the disposal of the unappropriated rooms ID that part of the Capitol assigned to the use of the House until further order. 4. He shall sign all acts, addresses, joint resolutions, writs, warrants and subpoenas of, or issued by order of the House, and decide all questions of 710 PARLIAMENTARY RULES. order subject to an appeal by any member, on which appeal no member shall speak more than once, unless by permission of the House. 5. He shall rise to put a question, but may state it sitting ; and shall put questions in this form, to-wit: " As many as are in favor (as the question may be) say Ay"; and after the affirmative voice is expressed, "As many as are opposed say No " ; if he doubts, or a division is called for, the House shall divide ; those in the affirmative of the questjon shall first rise from their seats, and then those in the negative ; if he still doubts, or a count is required by at least one-fifth of a quorum, he shall name one from each side of the question, to tell the members in the affirmative and negative; which being reported, he shall rise and state the decision. 6. He shall not be required to vote in ordinary legislative proceedings, except where his vote would be decisive, or where the House is engaged in voting by ballot; and in all cases of a tie vote the question shall be lost. 7. He shall have the right to name any member to perform the duties of the chair, but such substitution shall not extend beyond an adjournment: Provided, however, That in case of his illness he may make such appoint- ment for a period not exceeding ten days, with the approval of the House at the time the same is made; and in his absence and omission to make such appointment, the House shall proceed to elect a Speaker pro tempore, to act during his absence. RULE II. ELECTION OF OFFICERS. There shall be elected by a viva wee vote at the commencement of each Congress, to continue in office until their successors are chosen and quali- fied, a Clerk, Sergeant-at-Arms, Doorkeeper, Postmaster, and Chaplain, each of whom shall take an oath to support the Constitution of the United States, and for the true and faithful discharge of the duties of his office, to the best of his knowledge and ability, and to keep the secrets of the House, and each shall appoint all the employes of his department provided for by law. RULE III. DUTIES OF THE CLERK. 1. The Clerk shall, at the commencement of the first session of each Congress, call the members to order, proceed to call the roll of members by States in alphabetical order, and, pending the election of a Speaker pro tempore, preserve order and decorum, and decide all questions of order, subject to appeal by any member. 2. He shall make, and cause to be printed and delivered to each member, or mailed to his address, at the commencement of every regular session of Congress, a list of the reports which it is the duty of any officer or depart- ment to make to Congress, referring to the act or resolution and page of PARLIAMENTARY RULES. 711 the volume of the laws or journal in which it may be contained, and plac- ing under the name of each officer the list of reports required of him to be made; also make a weekly statement of the resolutions and bills upon the Speaker's table, accompanied with a brief reference to the orders and pro- ceedings of the House upon each, and the dates of such orders and pro- ceedings, which statement shall be printed. 3. He shall note all questions of order, with the decisions thereon, the record of which shall be printed as an appendix to the journal of each session ; and complete, as soon after the close of the session as possible, the printing and distribution to members and delegates of the journal of the House, together with an accurate and complete index; retain in the library at his office, for the use of the members and officers of the House, and not to be withdrawn therefrom, two copies of all the books and printed docu- ments deposited there ; send, at the end of each session, a printed copy of the journal thereof to the executive and to each branch of the legislature of every State and Territory ; preserve for and deliver or mail to each mem- ber and delegate an extra copy, in good binding, of all documents printed by order of either House of the Congress to which he belonged ; attest and affix the seal of the House to all writs, warrants and subpoenas issued by order of the House, certify to the passage of all bills and joint resolutions, make or approve all contracts, bargains or agreements relative to furnish- ing any matter or thing, or for the performance of any labor for the House of Representatives, in pursuance of law or order of the House, keep full and accurate accounts of the disbursements out of the contingent fund of the House, keep the stationery accounts of members and delegates, and pay them as provided by law. RULE IV. DUTIES OF THE SERGE ANT- AT- ARMS. 1. It shall be the duty of the Scrgeant-at-Arms to attend the House during its sittings, to maintain order under the direction of the Speaker, and, pending the election of a Speaker or Speaker pro tempore, under the direction of the Clerk; execute the commands of the House, and all pro- cesses issued by authority thereof, directed to him by the Speaker; keep the accounts for the pay and mileage of members and delegates, and pay them as provided by law. 2. The symbol of his office shall be the mace, which shall be borne by him while enforcing order on the floor. 3. lie shall give bond to the United States, with sureties to be approved by the Speaker, in the sum of fifty thousand dollars, for the faithful dis- bursement of all moneys entrusted to him by virtue of his office and the proper discharge of the duties thereof, and no member of Congress shall be approved as such surety. 712 PARLIAMENTARY KULES. RULE V. DUTIES OP OTHER OPFICEES. 1. The Doorkeeper shall enforce strictly the rules relating to the privi- leges of the hall and be responsible to the House for the official conduct of his employes. 2. At the commencement and close of each sesssion of Congress he shall take an inventory of all the furniture, books, and other public property in the several committee and other rooms under his charge, and report the same to the House, which report shall be referred to the Committee on Accounts to ascertain and determine the amount for which he shall be held liable for missing articles. 3. He shall allow no person to enter the room over the hall of the House during its sittings ; and fifteen minutes before the hour for the meeting of the House each day, he shall see that the floor is cleared of all persons except those privileged to remain. RULE VI. The Postmaster shall superintend the postoffice kept in the Capitol for the accommodation of Representatives, Delegates, and officers of the House, and be held responsible for the prompt and safe delivery of their mail. RULE VII. The Chaplain shall attend at the commencement of each day's sitting of the House and open the same with prayer. RULE VIII. OP THE MEMBERS. 1. Every member shall be present within the hall of the House during its sittings, unless excused or necessarily prevented ; and shall vote on each question put, unless, on motion made before division or the commence- ment of the roll call and decided without debate, he shall be excused, or unless he has a direct personal or pecuniary interest in the event of such question. 2. Pairs shall be announced by the Clerk, after the completion of the second roll call, from a written list furnished him, and signed by the mem- ber making the statement to the Clerk, which list shall be published in the Record as a part of the proceedings, immediately following the names of those not voting ; Provided, pairs shall be announced but once during the same legislative day. RULE IX. QUESTIONS OP PRIVILEGE. Questions of privilege shall be, first, those affecting the rights of the PARLIAMENTARY RULES. 713 House collectively, its safety, dignity, and the integrity of its proceedings; second, the rights, reputation, and conduct of members individually in their representative capacity only; and shall have precedence of all other questions, except motions to fix the day to which the House shall adjourn, to adjourn, and for a recess. RULE X. OF COMMITTEES. 1. Unless otherwise specially ordered by the House, the Speaker shall appoint, at the commencement of each Congress, the following standing committees, viz. : On Elections, to consist of fifteen members. On Ways and Means, to consist of thirteen members. On Appropriations, to consist of fifteen members. On the Judiciary, to consist of fifteen members. On Banking and Currency, to consist of eleven members On Coinage, Weights and Measures, to consist of eleven members. On Commerce, to consist of fifteen members. On Agriculture, to consist of fifteen members. On Foreign Affairs, to consist of eleven members. On Military Affairs, to consist of eleven members. On Naval Affairs, to consist of eleven members. On the Post Office and Post Roads, to consist of eleven members. On the Public Lands, to consist of eleven members. On Indian Affairs, to consist of eleven members. On the Territories, to consist of eleven members. On Railways and Canals, to consist of eleven members. On Manufactures, to consist of eleven members. On Mines and Mining, to consist of eleven members. On Public Buildings and Grounds, to consist of eleven members. On Pacific Railroads, to consist of eleven members. On Levees and Improvement of the Mississippi River, to consist of eleven members. On Education and Labor, to consist of eleven members. On the Militia, to consist of eleven members. On Patents, to consist of eleven members. On Invalid Pensions, to consist of fifteen members. On Pensions, to consist of eleven members. On Claims, to consist of fifteen members. On War Claims, to consist of eleven members. On Private Land Claims, to consist of eleven members. On the District of Columbia, to consist of eleven members. On Revision of the Laws, to consist of eleven members. On Expenditures in the State Department, to consist of seven members. 714 PARLIAMENTARY RULES. On Expenditures in the Treasury Department, to consist of seven members. On Expenditures in the War Department, to consist of seven members. On Expenditures in the Navy Department, to consist of seven members. On Expenditures in the Post Office Department, to consist of seven members. On Expenditures in the Interior Department, to consist of seven members. On Expenditures in the Department of Justice, to consist of seven members. On Expenditures on Public Buildings, to consist of seven members. On Rules, to consist of five members. On Accounts, to consist of seven members. On Mileage, to consist of five members. Also the following joint standing committees, viz.: On the Library, to consist of three members. On Printing, to consist of three members. On Enrolled Bills, to consist of seven members. 2. He shall also appoint all select committees which shall be ordered by the House from time to time ; 3. The first-named member of each committee shall be the chairman ; and in his absence, or being excused by the House, the next named member, and so on, as often as the case shall happen, unless the committee by a majority of its number elect a chairman; 4. The chairman shall appoint the clerk of his committee, subject to its approval, who shall be paid at the public expense, the House having first provided therefor. RULE XI. POWERS AND DUTIES OF COMMITTEES. All proposed legislation shall be referred to the comittees named in the preceding rule, as follows, viz. : Subjects relating, 1. To the election of members: to the Committee on Elections; 2. To the revenue and the bonded debt of the United States : to the Com- mittee on Ways and Means ; 3. To appropriation of the revenue for the support of the government : to the Committee on Appropriations; 4. To judicial proceedings, civil and criminal law. to the Committee on the Judiciary ; 5. To banking and currency : to the Committee on Banking and Cur- rency ; 6. To coinage, weights and measures : to the Committee on Coinage, Weights and Measures; 7. To commerce, life saving service, and light houses, other than appro- priations for life saving service and light houses: to the Committee on PARLIAMENTARY RULES. 715 Commerce, and the Committee on Commerce shall have the same privi- leges in reporting bills making appropriations for the 'improvement of rivers and harbors as is accorded to the Committee on Appropriations in reporting general appropriation bills; 8. To agriculture and forestry: to the Committee on Agriculture, who shall receive the estimates and report the appropriations for the Agricul- tural Department; 9. To the relations of the United States with foreign nations, other than appropriations therefor: to the Committee on Foreign Affairs; 10. To the military establishment and the public defense, other than the appropriations for its support: to the Committee on Military Affairs; 11. To the naval establishment other than the appropriations for its sup- port: to the Committee on Naval Affairs; 12. To the post office and post roadd, other than appropriations for their support: to the Committee on the Post Office and Post Roads; 13. To the lands of the United States: to the Committee on the Public Lands; 14. To the relations of the United Suites with the Indians and the Indian tribes, other than appropriations therefor: to the Committee on Indian Affairs ; 15. To territorial legislation, the revision thereof, and affecting Territo- ries or the admission of States: to the Committee on the Territories; 16. To railways and canals other than Pacific railroads: to the Commit, tee on Railways and Canals; 17. To the manufacturing industries: to the Committee on Manufactures; 18. To the mining interests: to the Committee on Mines and Mining; 19. To the public buildings and occupied or improved grounds of the United States, other than appropriations therefor: to the Committee on Public Buildings and Grounds; 20. To the railroads and telegraphic lines between the Mississippi River and the Pacific coast: to the Committee on Pacific Railroads; 21. To the levees of the Mississippi river: to the Committee on Levees and Improvements of the Mississippi River; 22. To education and labor; to the Committee on Education and Labor; 23. To the militia of the several States: to the Committee on the Militia: 24. To patents, copyrights and trade marks: to the Committee on Patents; 25. To the pensions of the civil war: to the Committee on Invalid Pensions ; 26. To the pensions of all the wars of the United States, other than the civil war: to the Committee on Pensions; 27. To private and domestic claims and demands, other than war claims, against the United States; to the Committee on Claims; 28. To claims arising from any war in which the United States baa been engaged: to the Committee on War Claims; 716 PARLIAMENTARY RULES. 29. To private cjaims to lands : to the Committee on Private Land Claims ; 30. To the District of Columbia, other than appropriations therefor : to the Committee for the District of Columbia ; 31. To the revision and codification of the statutes of the United States : to the Committee on the Revision of the Laws ; 32. The examination of the accounts and expenditures of the several departments of the government and the manner of keeping the same ; the economy, justness, and correctness of such expenditures; their conformity with appropriation laws ; the proper application of public moneys ; the security of the government against unjust and extravagant demands; retrenchment; the enforcement of the payment of moneys due to the United States; the economy and accountability of public officers; the abolishment of useless offices ; the reduction or increase of the pay of officers, shall all be subjects within the jurisdiction of the eight standing committees on the public expenditures in the several departments, as follows : 33. In the Department of State : to the Committee on Expenditures in the State Department; 34. In the Treasury Department : to the Committee on Expenditures in the Treasury Department ; 35. In the War Department : to the Committee on Expenditures in the War Department. 36. In the Navy Department: to the Committee on Expenditures in the Navy Department; 37. In the Post Office Department: to the Committee on Expenditures in the Post Office Department; 38. In the Interior Department: to the Committee on Expenditures in the Interior Department; 39. In the Department of Justice : to the Committee on Expenditures in the Department of Justice ; 40. On public buildings: to the Committee on Expenditures on the Public Buildings; 41. All proposed action touching the rules and joint rules shall be referred to the Committee on Rules; 42. Touching the expenditure of the contingent fund of the House, the auditing and settling all accounts which may be charged therein by order of the House : to the Committee on Accounts ; 43. The ascertainment of the travel of members of the House shall be made by the Committee on Mileage and reported to the Sergeant-at-Arms ; 44. Touching the Library of Congress, statuary and pictures: to the Joint Committee on the Library ; 45. All proposed legislation or orders touching printing shall be referred to the Joint Committee on Printing on the part of the House ; 46. The enrollment of engrossed bills : to the Joint Committee on En- rolled Bills; PARLIAMENTARY RULES. 717 47. The following named committees shall have leave to report at any time on the matters herein stated, viz. : The Committee on Elections, on the right of a member to his seat; the Committee on Ways and Means, on bills raising revenue ; the Committee on Appropriations, the general appro- priation bills; the Committee on Enrolled Bills, enrolled bills; the Com- mittee on Printing, on all matters referred to them of printing for the use of the House or two houses ; and the Committee on Accounts, on all mat- ters of expenditure of the contingent fund of the House; 48. No committee shall sit during the sitting of the House without special leave. RULE XII. DELEGATES. The Speaker shall appoint from among the Delegates one additional member on each of the following committees, viz.: Coinage, Weights and Measures; Agriculture; Military Affairs; Post Offices and Post Roads; Public Lands; Indian Affairs; Territories; and Mines and Mining; and they shall possess in their respective committees the same powers and privileges as in the House, and may make any motion except to reconsider. RULE XIII. CALENDARS. 1. There shall be three calendars of business reported from committees, viz.: First. A calendar of the Committee of the Whole House on the state of the Union, to which shall be referred bills raising revenue, general appro- priation bills, and bills of a public character, directly or indirectly appro- priating money or property. Second. A House calendar, to which shall be referred all bills of a pub- lic character not raising revenue nor directly or indirectly appropriating money or property ; and, Third. A calendar of the Committee of the Whole House, to which shall be referred all bills of a private character. 2. The question of reference of any proposition, other than that reported from a committee, shall be decided without debate, in the following order, viz.: a standing committee, a select committee; but the reference of a proposition reported by a committee, when demanded, shall be decided according to its character, without debate, in the following order, viz.: House Calendar, Committee of the Whole House on the state of the Union, Committee of the Whole House, a standing committee, a select committee. RULE XIV. OF DECORUM AND DEBATE. 1. When any member desires to speak or deliver any matter to the 718 PARLIAMENTARY RULES. House, he shall rise and respectfully address himself to " Mr. Speaker," and, on being recognized, may address the House from any place on the floor or from the Clerk's desk, and shall confine himself to the question under debate, avoiding personality. 2. When two or more members rise at once, the Speaker shall name the member who is first to speak ; and no member shall occupy more than one hour in debate on any question in the House or in committee, except as further provided in this rule. 3. The member reporting the measure under consideration from a com- mittee may open and close, where general debate has been had thereon; and if it shall extend beyond one day, he shall be entitled to one hour to close, notwithstanding he may have used an hour in opening. 4. If any member, in speaking or otherwise, transgress the rules of the House, the Speaker shall, or any member may, call him to order; in which case he shall immediately sit down, unless permitted, on motion of another member, to explain, and the House shall, if appealed to, decide on the case, without debate; if the decision is in favor of the member called to order, he shall be at liberty to proceed, but not otherwise; and, if the case require it, he shall be liable to censure or such punishment as the House may deem proper. 5. If a member is called to order for words spoken in debate, the mem- ber calling him to order shall indicate the words excepted to, and they shall be taken down in writing at the Clerk's desk and read aloud to the House; but he shall not be held to answer, nor be subject to the censure of the House therefor, if further debate or other business has intervened. 6. No member shall speak more than once to the same question without leave of the House, unless he be the mover, proposer, or introducer of the matter pending, in which case he shall be permitted to speak in reply, but not until every member choosing to speak shall have spoken. 7. While the Speaker is putting a question or addressing the House no member shall walk out of or across the hall, nor, when a member is speaking, pass between him and the Chair; and during the session of the House no member shall wear his hat, or remain by the Clerk's desk during the call of the roll or the counting of ballots, or smoke upon the floor of the House ; and the Sergeant-at-Arms and Doorkeeper are charged with the strict enforcement of this clause. RULE XV. ON CALLS OF THE ROLL AND HOUSE. 1. Upon every roll call, the names of the members shall be called alpha- betically by surname, except when two or more have the same surname, then the whole name shall be called ; and after the roll has been once called the Clerk shall call in their alphabetical order the names of those not voting; and thereafter the Speaker shall not entertain a request to record a vote or announce a pair. PARLIAMENTARY RULES. 719 2. In the absence of a quorum, fifteen members, including the Speaker, if there is one, shall be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, and in all calls of the House the names of the members shall be called by the Clerk, and the absentees noted ; the doors shall then be closed, and those for whom no sufficient excuse is made may, by order of a ma- jority of those present, be sent for and arrested, wherever they may be found, by officers to be appointed by the Sergeant-at-Arms for that purpose, and their attendance secured ; and the House shall determine upon what condition they shall be discharged. RULE XVI. ON MOTIONS, THEIR PRECEDENCE, ETC. 1. Every motion made to the House and entertained by the Speaker, sh^ll be reduced to writing on the demand of any member, and shall be entered on the journal with the name of the member making it, unless it is with- drawn the same day. 2. When a motion has been made, the Speaker shall state it, or (if it be in writing; cause it to be read aloud by the Clerk before being debated, and it shall then be in possession of the House, but may be withdrawn at any time before a decision or amendment. 8. When any motion or proposition is made, the question, Will the House now consider it? shall not be put unless demanded by a member. 4. When a question is under debate, no motion shall be received but to fix the day to which the House shall adjourn, to adjourn, to take a recess, to lay on the table, for the previous question (which motions shall be de- cided without debate), to postpone to a day certain, to refer or amend, or to postpone indefinitely, which several motions shall have precedence in the foregoing order; and no motion to postpone to a day certain, to refer, or to postpone indefinitely, being decided, shall be again allowed on the same day at the same stage of the question. 5. A motion to fix the day to which the House shall adjourn, a motion to adjourn, and to take a recess shall always be in order, and the hour at which the House adjourns shall be entered on the journal. 6. On the demand of any member, before the question is put, a question shall be divided if it include propositions so distinct in substance that one being taken away a substantive proposition shall remain. 7. A motion to strike out and insert is indivisible, but a motion to strike out being lost shall neither preclude amendment nor motion to strike out and insert; and no motion or proposition on a subject different from that under consideration shall be admitted under color of amendment 8. Pending a motion to suspend the rules, the Speaker may entertain one motion that the House adjourn ; but after the result thereon is an- nounced he shall not entertain any other dilatory motion till the vote is taken on suspension. 720 PARLIAMENTARY RULES. 9. At any time after the expiration of the morning hour it shall be in order to move that the House resolve itself into the Committee of the Whole House on the state of the Union for the purpose of considering bills rais- ing revenue or general appropriation bills. RULE XVII. PREVIOUS QUESTION. 1. There shall be a motion for the previous question, which, being ordered by a majority of members present, if a quorum, shall have the effect to cut off all debate and bring the House to a direct vote upon the immediate question or questions on which it has been asked and ordered. The previous question may be asked and ordered upon a single motion, a series of motions allowable under the rules, or an amendment or amend- ments, or may be made to embrace all authorized motions or amendments and include the bill to its engrossment and third rending, and then, on renewal and second of said motion, to its passage or rejection. It shall be in order, pending the motion for or after the previous question shall have been ordered on its passage, for the Speaker to entertain and submit a motion to commit, with or without instructions, to a standing or select committee ; and a motion to lay upon the table shall be in order on the second and third reading of a bill. 2. A call of the House shall not be in order after the previous question is ordered, unless it shall appear upon an actual count by the Speaker that a quorum is not present. 3. All incidental questions of order arising after a motion is made for the previous question, and pending such motion, shall be decided, whether on appeal or otherwise, without debate. RULE XVIII. RECONSIDERATION. 1. "When a motion has been made and carried or lost, it shall be in order for any member of the majority, on the same or succeeding day, to move for the reconstruction thereof, and such motion shall take precedence of all other questions except the consideration of a conference report, a mo- tion to fix the day to which the House shall adjourn, to adjourn or to take a recess, and shall not be withdrawn after the said succeeding day without the consent of the House, and therefore any member may call it up for consideration: Provided, That such motion, if made during the last six days of a session, shall be disposed of when made. 2. No bill, petition, memorial, or resolution referred to a committee, or reported therefrom for printing and recommitment, shall be brought back into the House on a motion to reconsider ; and all bills, petitions, memo- rials, or resolutions reported from a committee shall be accompanied Jby reports in writing, which shall be printed. PARLIAMENTARY RULES. 721 RULE XIX OF AMENDMENTS. When a motion or proposition is under consideration, a motion to amend and a motion to amend that amendment shall be in order, and it shall also be in order to offer a further amendment by way of substitute, to which one amendment may be offered, but which shall not be voted on until the original matter is perfected, but either may be withdrawn before amend- ment or decision is had thereon. RULE XX. OF AMENDMENTS OF THE SENATE. Any amendment of the Senate to any House bill shall be subject to the point of order that it shall first be considered in the Committee of the Whole House on the state of the Union if, originating in the House, it would be subject to that point. RULE XXI. ON BILLS. 1. Every bill and joint resolution shall receive three readings before its passage, which shall be as follows: The first and second readings by title on introduction for reference, or, being original bills, on report from com- mittees for commitment, except when the second reading in full shall be demanded by a member: Provided, That original bills on being reported by unanimous consent for present consideration, shall be read the first time in full ; the second and third time by title, unless the third reading in full shall be demanded by a member. 2. Bills and joint resolutions on their passage shall be read the first time by title and the second time in full, when, if the previous question is ordered, the Speaker shall state the question to be: Shall the bill be en- grossed and read a third time? and, if decided in the affirmative, it shall be read the third time by title, unless the reading in full is demanded by a member, and the question shall then be put upon its passage. 8. No appropriation shall be reported in any general appropriation bill, or be in order as an amendment thereto, for any expenditure not previously authorized by law, unless in continuation of appropriations foj such pub- lic works and objects as are already in progress. Nor shall any provision in any such bill or amendment thereto changing existing law be in order, except such as, being germane to the subject-matter of the bill, shall retrench expenditures by the reduction of the number and salary of the officers of the United States, by the reduction of the compensation of any person paid out of the Treasury of the United States, or by the reduction of amounts of money covered by the bill : Provided, That it shall be in 46 722 PARLIAMENTARY RULES. order further to amend such bill upon the report of the committee having jurisdiction of the subject-matter of such amendment, which amendment, being germane to the subject-matter of the bill, shall retrench expend- itures. 4. No bill or resolution shall at any time be amended by annexing thereto or incorporating therewith the substance of any other bill or resolution pending before the House. 5. All bills for improvement of rivers and harbors and for the estab- lishment or change of post routes shall be delivered to the Clerk, as in the case of petitions and memorials, for reference to appropriate committees. 6. Upon all general appropriation and revenue bills, and bills for the improvement of rivers and harbors, the yeas and nays shall be taken on the passage of such bills in the House and entered upon the Journal. RULE XXII. OP PETITIONS AND MEMORIALS. 1. Members having petitions or memorials to present may deliver them to the Clerk, indorsing their names and the reference or disposition to be made thereof; and said petitions and memorials, except such as, in the judgment of the Speaker, are of an obscene or insulting character, shall be entered on the Journal together with the names of the members pre- senting them, and the Clerk shall furnish a transcript thereof to the official reporters of debates for publication in the Record. 2. Any petition or memorial excluded under this rule shall be returned to the member from whom it was received; and petitions which have been inappropriately referred may, by direction of the committee having possession of the same, be properly referred in the manner originally presented. RULE XXIII. OF COMMITTEES OP THE WHOLE HOUSE. 1. In all cases in forming a Committee of the Whole House the Speaker shall leave his chair after appointing a chairman to preside who shall, in case of disturbance or disorderly conduct in the galleries or lobby, have power to cause the same to be cleared. 2. Whenever a Committee of the Whole House finds itself without a quorum, the Chairman shall cause the roll to be called, and thereupon the committee shall rise, and the Chairman shall report the names of the absentees to the House, which shall be entered on the Journal ; but if on such call a quorum shall appear, the committee shall thereupon resume its sitting without further order of the House. 3. All motions or propositions involving a tax or charge upon the people; all proceedings touching appropriations of money, or bills making appropriations of money or property, or requiring such appropriation to be made, or authorizing payments out of appropriations already made, or PARLIAMENTARY RULES. 723 releasing any liability to the United States for money or property, shall be first considered in a Committee of the Whole, and a point of order under tliis rule shall be good at any time before the consideration of a bill has commenced. 4. In Committees of the Whole House, business on their calendars shall be taken up in regular order, except bills for raising revenue, general appropriation bills, and bills for the improvement of rivers and harbors, which shall have precedence, and when objection is made to the considera- tion of any bill or proposition, the committee shall thereupon rise and report such objection to the House, which shall decide, without debate, whether such bill or proposition shall be considered or laid aside for the present; whereupon the committee shall resume its sitting without further order of the House. 5. When general debate is closed by order of the House, any member shall be allowed five minutes to explain any amendment he may offer, after which the member who shall first obtain the floor shall be allowed to speak five minutes in opposition to it, and there shall be no further debate thereon ; but the same privilege of debate shall be allowed in favor of and against any amendment that may be offered to an amendment; and neither an amendment nor an amendment to an amendment shall be with, drawn by the mover thereof unless by the unanimous consent of the committee. 6. The House may, by the vote of a majority of the members present, at any time after the five minutes debate luis begun upon proposed amend- incuts to any section or paragraph to a bill, close all debate upon such sec- tion or paragraph, or, at its election, upon the pending amendments only; but this shall not preclude further amendment, to be decided without debate. 7. A motion to strike out the enacting words of a bill shall have prece- dence of a motion to amend; and, if carried, shall be considered equiva- lent to its rejection. Whenever a bill is reported from a Committee of the Whole with an adverse recommendation, and such recommendation is dis- agreed to by the House, the bill shall stand recommitted to the said com- mittee without further action by the House. But before the question of concurrence is submitted, it is in order to entertain a motion to refer the bill to any committee, with or without instructions, and when the same is again reported to the House, it shall be referred to the Committee of the Whole without debate. 8. The rules of proceeding in the House shall be observed in Commit, tees of the Whole House so far as they may be applicable. RULE XXIV. ORDER OF BUSINESS. I. Each Monday morning during a session of Congress, immediately after the Journal of the proceedings of the last day's sitting has been read 724: PARLIAMENTARY RULES. and approved, the Speaker shall call all the States and Territories in alpha- betical order for bills and joint resolutions for printing and reference, on which call, joint and concurrent resolutions and memorials of State and Territorial legislatures may be presented and appropriately referred, and on this call only, resolutions of inquiry directed to the heads of the execu- tive departments shall be in order for reference to appropriate committees, which resolutions shall be reported to the House within one week there- after. 2. On all days other than Monday, as soon as the Journal is read and approved, and on all Mondays (except the first and third in each month) after the call of States and Territories, there shall be a morning hour for reports from committees, which shall be appropriately referred and printed, and a copy thereof mailed by the Public Printer to each member and dele- gate ; and the Speaker shall call upon each standing committee in regular order and then upon the select committees ; and if the whole of the hour is not consumed by this call, then it shall be in order to proceed to the con- sideration of other business ; but if he shall not complete the call within the hour, he shall resume it in the succeeding morning hour where he left off. 3. The morning hour for the call of committees shall not be dispensed with except by a vote of two-thirds of those present and voting thereon. 4. After the hour shall have been devoted to reports from committees, it shall be in order to proceed to the consideration of the unfinished business in which the House may have been engaged at an adjournment, and at the same time each day thereafter, other than the first and third Mondays, until disposed of; and it shall be in order to proceed to the consideration of all other unfinished business whenever the class of business to which it be- longs shall be in order. 5. Unfinished business having been disposed of, it shall be in order to entertain a motion that the House do now proceed to the business on the Speaker's table, which, the motion prevailing, the Speaker shall dispose of in the following order : First. Messages from the President and other executive communications. Second. Messages from the Senate and amendments proposed by the Sen- ate to bills of the House. Third. Bills and resolutions from the Senate on their first and second reading, that they be referred to committees or put on their passage ; and the motions so to refer shall have precedence of all other motions touching their disposition. Fourth. Engrossed bills and bills from the Senate on their third reading. 6. Business on the Speaker's table having been disposed of, it shall then be in order to entertain motions, in the following order, viz.: First. That the House resolve itself into the Committee of the Whole House on the state of the Union to consider, first, bills raising revenue and general appropriation bills, and then other business on its calendar. PARLIAMENTARY RULES. 725 Second. To proceed to the consideration of business on the House cal- endar. Third. On Friday of each week, after the morning hour, it shall be in order to entertain a motion that the House resolve itself into the Com- in i tier of the Whole House to consider business on the private calendar; and, if this motion fail, then public business shall be in order as on other days. RULE XXV. MISCELLANEOUS RULES. PRIORITY OF BUSINESS. All questions relating to the priority of business shall be decided by a majority without debate. 'RULE xxvi. PRIVATE BUSINESS. Friday in every week shall be set apart for the consideration of private business, unless otherwise determined by a two-thirds vote of the members present and voting. RULE XXVII. UNFINISHED BUSINESS OF THE SESSION. After six days from the commencement of a second or subsequent session of any Congress, all bills, resolutions and reports, which originated in the House, and remained undetermined at the close of the last preceding ses- sion, shall be in order for action, and all business before committees of the House at the end of one session shall be resumed at the commencement of the next session of the same Congress in the same manner as as if no adjournment had taken place. RULE XXVIII. CHANGE OR SUSPENSION OF RULES. 1. No standing rule or order of the House shall be rescinded or changed without one day's notice of the motion therefor, and no rule shall be sus- pended except by a vote of two-thirds of the members present, nor shall the Speaker entertain a motion to suspend the rules except on the first and third Mondays of each month after the call of States and Territories shall have been completed, preference being given on the first Monday to indi- viduals and on the third Monday to committees, and during the last six days of a session. 2. All motions to suspend the rules shall, before being submitted to the House, be seconded by a majority by tellers, if demanded. 3. When a motion to suspend the rules has been seconded, it shall be in 726 PARLIAMENTARY RULES. order, before the final vote is takeu thereon, to debate the proposition to be voted upon for thirty minutes, one-half of such time to be given to debate in favor of, and one-half to debate in opposition to, such proposition, and the same right of debate shall be allowed whenever the previous question has been ordered on any proposition on which there has been no debate. RULE XXIX. CONFERENCE REPORTS. The presentation of reports of committees of conference shall always be in order, except when the Journal is being read, while the roll is being called, or the House is dividing on any proposition. And there shall accompany every such report a detailed statement sufficiently explicit to inform the House what effect such amendments or propositions will have upon the measures to which they relate. RULE XXX. SECRET SESSION. Whenever confidential communications are received from the President of the United States, or whenever the Speaker or any member shall inform the House that he has communications which he believes ought to be kept secret for the present, the House shall be cleared of all persons except the members and officers thereof, and so continue during the reading of such communications, the debates and proceedings thereon, unless otherwise ordered by the House. RULE XXXI. READING OF PAPERS. When the reading of a paper other than one upon which the House is called to give a final vote is demanded, and the same is objected to by any member, it shall be determined without debate by a vote of the House. RULE XXXII. DRAWING OF SEATS. 1. At the commencement of each Congress, immediately after the mem- bers and delegates are sworn in, the Clerk shall place in a box, prepared for that purpose,' a number of small balls of marble or other material equal to the number of members and delegates, which balls shall be con- secutively numbered and thoroughly intermingled, and at such hour as shall be fixed by the House for that purpose, by the hands of a page, draw said balls one by one from the box and announce the number as it is drawn, upon which announcement the member or delegate whose name on a numbered alphabetical list shall correspond with the number on the ball, shall advance and choose his seat for the term for which he is elected. PARLIAMENTARY RULK8. 727 2. Before said drawing shall commence, each seat shall be vacated and so remain until selected under this rule, and any seat having been selected shall be deemed forfeited if left unoccupied before the call of the roll is finished, and whenever the seats of members and delegates shall have been drawn, no proposition for a second drawing shall be in order during that Congress. RULE XXXIII. HALL OF THE HOUSE. The hall of the House shall be used only for the legislative business of the House, and for the caucus meetings of its members, except upon occa- sions where the House by resolution agree to take part in any ceremonies to be observed therein ; and the Speaker shall not entertain a motion for the suspension of this rule. RULE XXXIV. OP ADMISSION TO THE FLOOR. The persons hereinafter named, and none other, shall be admitted to the hall of the House or rooms leading thereto, viz. : The President and Vice- president of the United States and their private secretaries, Judges of the Supreme Court, Members of Congress and Members Elect, contestants in election cases during the pendency of their cases in the House, the Secre- tary and Sergeant-at-Arms of the Senate, Heads of Departments, Foreign Ministers, Governors of States, the Architect of the Capitol, the Librarian of Congress and his Assistant in charge of the Law Library, such persons as have, by name, received the thanks of Congress. ex-Members of Con- gress who are not interested in any claim or directly in any bill pending before Congress, and Clerks of committees, when business from their com- mittee is under consideration; and it shall not be in order for the Speaker to entertain a request for the suspension of this rule or to present from the chair the request of any member for unanimous consent. RULE XXXV. OF ADMISSION TO THE GALLERIES. The Speaker shall set aside a portion of the west gallery for the use of the President of the United States, the members of his Cabinet, Justices of the Supreme Court, Foreign Ministers and suites, and the members of their respective families; and shall also set aside another portion of tho aame gallery for the accommodation of persons to be admitted on the card- of members. The southerly half of the east gallery shall be assigned exclusively for the use of the families of members of Congress, in which the Speaker shall control one bench, and on request of a member tho Speaker shall issue a card of admission to his family, which shall Include their visitors, and no other person shall be admitted to this section. 728 PARLIAMENTARY RULES. RULE XXXVI. OFFICIAL AND OTHER REPORTERS. 1. The appointment and removal, for cause, of the official reporters of the House, including stenographers of committees, and the manner of the execution of their duties, shall be vested in the Speaker. 2. Stenographers and reporters, other than the official reporters of the House, wishing to take down the debates and proceedings, may be admitted by the Speaker to the reporters' gallery over the Speaker's chair, under such regulations as he may, from time to time, prescribe ; and he may assign two seats on the floor to Associated Press reporters, and regulate the occu- pation of the same. RULE XXXVII. PAY OF WITNESSES. The rule for paying witnesses subpoenaed to appear before the House, or either of its committees, shall be as follows: Fur each day a witness shall attend, the sum of two dollars; for each mile he shall travel in coming to or going from the place of examination, the sum of five cents each way ; but nothing shall be paid for traveling when the witness has been sum- moned at the place of trial. RULE XXXVIII. PAPERS. The clerks of the several committees of the House shall, within three days after the final adjournment of a Congress, deliver to the clerk of the House all bills, joint resolutions, petitions and other papers referred to the committee, together with all evidence taken by such committee under the order of the House during the said Congress, and not reported to the House; and in the event of the failure or neglect of any clerk of a com- mittee to comply with this rule, the Clerk of the House shall, within three days thereafter, take into his keeping all such papers and testimony. RULE XXXIX. WITHDRAWAL OF PAPERS. No memorial or other paper presented to the House shall be withdrawn from its files without its leave, and if withdrawn therefrom, certified copies thereof shall be left in the office of the Clerk ; but when an act may pass for the settlement of a claim, the Clerk is authorized to transmit to the officer charged with the settlement thereof the papers on file in his office relating to such claim, or may loan temporarily to any officer or bureau of the executive departments any papers on file in his office relating to any matter pending before such officer or bureau, taking proper receipt therefor. PARLIAMENTARY BULKS. 729 RULE XL. BALLOT. In all other cases of ballot than for committees, a majority of the votes given shall be necessary to an election, and where there shall not be such a majority on the first ballot, the ballots shall be repeated until a majority be obtained ; and in all ballotings blanks shall be rejected and not taken into the count in enumeration of votes or reported by the tellers. RULE XLI. MESSAGES. Messages received from the Senate and the President of the United States, giving notice of bills passed or approved, shall be entered in the Journal and published in the Record of that day's proceedings. RULE XLII. EXECUTIVE COMMUNICATION'S. Estimates of appropriations, and all other communications from the executive departments, intended for the consideration of any committees of the House, shall be addressed to the Speaker and by him submitted to the House for reference. RULE XLIII. No person shall be an officer of the House, or continue in its employ- ment, who shall be an agent for the prosecution of any claim against the government, or be interested in such claim otherwise than as an original claimant; and it shall be the duty of the Committee of Accounts to inquire into and report to the House any violation of this rule. RULE XLIV. JEFFERSON'S MANUAL. The rules of parliamentary practice comprised in Jefferson's Manual shall govern the House in all cases to which they are applicable, and in which they are not inconsistent with the standing rules and orders of the House and joint rules of the Senate and House of Representatives. RULE XLV. These rules shall be the rules of the House of Representatives of the present and succeeding Congresses unless otherwise ordered. 730 STATISTICS OF THE WORLD. CHAPTEK XXXI. THE STATISTICS OF THE WOKLD. COUNTRY. Population. Square miles. Title of Ruler Capital. NORTH AMERICA. Arctic Region......... .... 600000 None. Bermuda 12,000 46 Hamilton. Columbia (Brit.) 54,600 230,000 Governor N. Westminster. Costa Rica 150,000 16 250 San Jose. Greenland 10,000 380,000 Inspector Lichtenfels. Guatemala . . 1,180,000 44 778 Guatemala. Honduras 500,000 47,092 President Comayagua. Honduras (Brit.) 25,635 13,500 Lt. Gov Belize. Mexico ...... 8,743,614 773,144 Mexico. Mosquito 16,000 26,000 King Blewflelds. New Britain 200,000 1,800,000 York Factory New Brunswick . 285,777 27,720 Lt. Gov Fredericton. Newfoundland 146,536 40200 Governor St. John's. Nicaragua . ...... 400,000 58,169 President Managua. Nova Scotia . 387,800 19,650 Lt. Gov Halifax. Ontario 1,620,842 180,000 Lt. Gov... Toronto. Prince Edward Island. ...... 93,338 2,173 Lt. Gov Charlotte town. Quebec . 1,190,505 210,000 Lt. Gov Quebec. San Salvador ... 750,000 7,230 President San Salvador. St. Pierre 2,250 120 Com. St. Pierre. United States 40,000,000 3,578,392 President Washington. SOUTH AMERICA. Argentine Confederacy Bolivia . ...... 1,800,000 1,987,352 826,828 535,760 President.. President Buenos Ayres. Brazil 11,780,000 3,231,047 Emperor.. Rio Janeiro. Cayenne .. 27,560 30,000 Governor Chili 2,084,945 139,335 President Santiago. Colombia .. . .... 2,794,470 357,179 President S. Fe de Bogota. Demarara, etc 148,900 76,000 Governor Ecuador 1,040,371 218,984 President Quito. Falkland Islands 686 7,600 Governor Port Louis. Paraguay 1,337,431 126,352 President Asuncion. Patagonia . . '.... 120,000 315,000 Peru ... 3,374,000 510,107 Surinam .. 64,270 38500 Uruguay .. . 387,421 66,716 Monte Video. Venezuela . ........ 1,565,000 426,712 WEST INDIA ISLANDS. Antigua . - 36,412 183 St John's Bahamas 35,287 3.021 Governor . . Nassau. .STATISTICS OF THE WORLD. 731 COCNTBT. Population. Square miles. Title of Ruler Capital. Barbudocs .. 152,127 11,796 30,000 1,800,000 9688 86,671 134,544 r.V-'.uKi 141. -.155 121,146 7,645 UH ti'J I.IK HI 10,000 26,!MO 8,000 1,519 3,500 13,463 81,755 i:i,5(K) 35,000 15,410 84,488 4,372 6,051 12,000 85,677,455 4,984,451 1,606,362 75,901 38,192,064 197,041 IOM79 808,798 806,196 957,479 111,352 31,186 4&B88 560,618 08,770 315,622 24,089,668 43,889 88497 141,426 ItiH.hM 180,385 188,998 2,428,401 75,116 mjsK BMH 1,434,970 4,824,421 565,609 BJ80 1,778,898 81,817,108 84,175 2,300 148,008 1,096,810 166 Governor.. Governor.. Bridgetown. Hamilton. U'iliiaiiiHtuiU. Havana. Rosseau. St. George. Basse Terre. Port au Prince. Spanish Town. Port Royal. Plymouth. Charleetown. San Juan. Gustavia. Basse Terre. Castries. Kingston. San Domingo. Christian stadt. Scarboro. Port Espana. Grand Turk. Road Town. Andorra. Vienna. Brussels. Copenhagen. Paris. Dessau. Bremen. Brunswick. Hamburg. Darmstadt. Detmold. Buckburg. Lubeck. Schwerin. New Strelitz. Oldenburg. Berlin. Greiz. Schleiz. Altenburg. Coburg. Meiningen. Weimar. Dresden. Rudolstadt. Sonderhausen, Corbach. Carlsrnhe. Munich. Darmstadt Lichtensteln. Stnttgardt. London. Gibraltar. Heligoland. M ,.' .1 Athens. Burmudas Curucoa 680 43,383 290 138 634 11,718 6,400 322 47 60 3,895 25 103 72 250 11 87 181 18,000 81 97 1,754 450 57 149 240,381 11,373 14,734 40,986 209,428 1,026 74 1,425 156 1,280 438 171 107 5,190 1,052 2,469 I:;.N, 146 320 610 760 956 1,404 5,779 874 832 483 5,912 88371 1,690 62 7,582 1101,789 9 116 tSJfl Cuba Capt. Gen. Lt. Gov.... Lt. Gov Dominica .... Grenada . Guadaloupe, etc... Hayti President.. Capt. Gen. Jamaica Martinique MontHurrut ... President.. Adminis... Capt. Gen. Nevis Porto Rico St. Bartholomew's St. Christopher, etc Lt. Gov.... St. John's . .. St. Lucia Adminis... Lt. Gov President.. St. Martin's (8.) St. Thomas St. Vincent San Domingo................ Santa Cruz, etc Tobago Lt. Gov.... Governor .. President.. President.. Rep Trinidad Turk's Island . Virgin Islands EUROPE. Andorra .... Austria . . .Emperor... King... Belgium Denmark King Faroe and Iceland President.. Duke France .. Germany ........ Northern Confederation. Anhalt Bremen . Burgom Duke Brunswick Hamburg Burgom G.Duke Prince Prince Burgom G.Duke.... G.Dnke G.Duke King .. Hesse Darmstadt (N.) Lippe Detmold Lippe Bchanmburg Lubeck Mecklenburg Schwerin Mecklenburg Strelitz Oldenburg ....... Prussia .. Renss Greiz ...... Prince Prince Duke Reuse Schleiz Saxe Altenburg Saze Cobnrg Gotha Duke Saxe Meiningen Duke Saxe Weimar ...... G.Duke.... King Saxony Schwarzb. Rndolatadt Swarzb. gondershausen... Waldeck Prince Prince Prince G.Dnke King Southern Confederation. Baden Bavaria Hesse Darmstadt (8.) Lichtengtein G.Duke.... Prince King Wnrtemberg Great Britain Queen Governor .. Governor.. Governor . . King Gibraltar Heligoland .. MalU Greece .. 732 STATISTICS OF THE WORLD. COUNTRIES. Population. Square miles. Title of Ruler Capital. Ionian Islands 251,712 25,766,217 1,887 3,652,070 199,958 3,829,618 363,658 78,400,000 5,770 16,302,625 4,158,757 1,712,628 2,510,494 10,510,000 196,238 3,864,848 1,078,281 9,000,000 4,000,000 25,000,000 192,012,137 4,000,000 2,081,395 477,500,000 35,000,000 14,168,416 11,000,000 6,298,990 7,870,000 16,463,000 3,000,000 2,921,846 566,158 7,465,000 6,939 262,000 110,000 717,500 5,000,000 2,750,000 193,103 41,497 6,444 750,000 2,000,000 380,000 447,620 109,897 176,298 98,455 703,817 21,065 200,000 1,000,000 220,092 2,250,000 ,62.959 15,000 1,006 114,389 15 12,685 991 36,494 1,4&3 7,862,568 22 195,607 128,776 120,295 15,722 131,295 1,709 46,710 21,218 198,043 1,026,040 300,000 1.545,336 190,517 24,454 4,695,334 149,399 51,336 562,344 309,024 640,516 660,870 148,392 259,313 200,610 659,081 21 6,000 9,567 232,315 672,300 16,150 468 47 61,760 50,000 1,600 323,437 678,600 383,328 26,215 86,831 978,000 8,033 275,518 106,261 56,000 7,633 700 King Rome. Hague. Lisbon. St. Petersburgb.. San Marino. Madrid. Stockholm. Berne. Constantinople. Cettinge. Bucharest. Belgrade. Hue. Muscat. Calcutta. Ava. Colombo. Pekin. Yeddo. Batavia. Teheran. Bangkok. Bokhara. Gondar. Algiers. Cape Town. Cairo. Bathurst. Cape C'st Castle. Lagos. Monrovia. Antinarivo. Fez. Port Natal. Freetown. James Town. Tripoli. Tunis. Zanzibar. Sydney. Port Denison. Adelaide. Hob art Town. Melbourne. Auckland. Manilla. Honolulu. Tahiti. Italy Monaco ... Prince Kinc.. Netherlands Luxemburg Kin" Portugal -. Azores and Madeira San Marino... Repub Repub Killer.. Spain ... Sweden ... . Norway . President.. Sultan Prince Prince Prince Emperor... Gov. Gen.. Comm Governor .. Emperor... Mikado Gov. Gen.. Schah Switzerland .... - Turkey . ...... Roumania ..... ASIA. Anam (C. China) British India Burmah .... Ceylon ........... China ... Java .. ... - . Persia ... . Siam Tartary Emperor... Gov. Gen.. Governor.. Viceroy Adminis... Adminis... President.. Queen Sultan Lt. Gov Governor .. Governor .. Bey Turkey in Asia AFRICA. Abyssinia Algeria .- . Cape of Good Hope Eervot Gambia .......... Gold Coast Lagos ... ... Liberia Madagascar Morocco .. .... Natal Sierra Leone St. Helena- Tripoli Tunis Bey Zanzibar .. . ... Sultan Governor .. Capt. Gen.. Governor .. Governor .. Capt. Gen.. Governor . . King AUSTRALIA. New South Wales Queensland South Australia Tasmania Victoria Western Australia........... POLYNESIA. Feejee Islands . ... New Guinea Governor.. King New Zealand . Philippine Islands ...... Sandwich Islands Society Islands ...... Queen CREEDS OF THE WOULD. 733 STATISTICS OF THE RACE. The earth IB inhabited by about 1,380,000,000 of inhabitants, namely: 380,000,000 of the Caucasian race, 200,000,000 of the Ethiopian, 580,000,000 of the Mongolian, 220,000,000 of the Malay races, and 1,000,000 of the American Indian. All these respectively speak 3064 languages, and possess 1,000 different religions. The amount of deaths per annum is 83,333,333, or 91,954 per day, 3730 per hoar, 60 per minntc, or one per second. This loss is compensated by an equal number of births. The average duration of life throughout the globe is thirty-three years. One-fourth of its population dies before the seventh year, and one-half before the seventeenth. Out of 10,000 persons only one reaches his hundredth year; only one in 500 his eightieth ; and only one in 100 his sixty-fifth. Married people live longer than unmarried ones, and a tall man is likely to live longer than a short one. Until the fiftieth year women have a better chance of life than men ; but beyond that period the chances are equal. Sixty-five persons out of one thousand marry. The months of June and December art those in which marriages are most frequent. Children born in spring are generally stronger than those born in other seasons. Births and deaths chiefly occur at night. The number of men able to bear arms is but one-eighth of the population. AFRICANS IN AMERICA. It is estimated that there are some 14,580,000 persons of African descent on this conti- nent. In the United States they number 4,880,000; Brazil 4,200,000; Cuba and Porto Rico 1,500,000; South and Central American Rupublics 1,100,000; Hay ti 1,350,000; British Pos- sessions 800,000; French, 250,000; Dutch and Mexican 400,000. CREEDS OF THE WORLD. The population of the world is religiously distributed very nearly in the following proportions : Christians 388,600,000 Pagans 200,000,000 Buddhists 860,000,000 Mohammedans 165,000,000 Other Asiatic religions... 260,000,000 Jews 7,000,000 In Europe, America, Australia, and many of the Polynesian Islands, Christianity i the prevailing creed of every State. In Africa the only independent Christian States are Abyssinia and Liberia, while Christianity prevails in several European colonies. The largest empire of Asia Russia is also a Christian country. India, the third country in $oint of extent, is under the rule of a Christian government, and so is a large portion of Farther India. The Mohammedan countries in Asia arc Turkey, Persia, Afghanistan, and the Khan- ates of Central Asia; in Africa Morocco, the dependencies of Turkey (Egypt, Tunic, Tripoli) and a number of interior States. Buddhism prevails in India, Farther India, in many part* of China, and in Japan. The governments of Burmah and Slam are Buddhist; the government of China adheres to the religion of Confucius; the religion of Japan is Sintootsm. Judaism is represented throughout the civilized world. The Handbuch der VergleicA- enden Statittik of O. Von Kolb (Leipzig, 1868) gives the following as the number of Jews in the countries named : Germany, 478,500 ; Austria, 1,134,000 ; Great Britain. 40,000 ; France, 80,000 ; European Russia, 2,27?,000 ; Italy, 90,900 ; Switzerland, 4,300 ; Belgium 1,500: Netherlands, 64,000; Luxemburg, 1,500; Denmark, 4,300 ; Sweden, 1,000; Greece, 600; European Turkey, 70,000. The Jews in Portugal are estimated at S.OOO; in Syria and Asiatic Turkey, 52,000 ; in Morocco and North Africa, 610,000 ; in Eastern Asia, 5u),800; In America, 500,000. SUPPLEMENT. BY JUDGKE J. C. POWER OP THE FIRST DISTRICT OF IOWA. FORMS. FORM OP WILL. In the name of God, Amen. I, (give name of testator) of (residence), being of sound wiind and memory, do hereby make, publish, and declare this to be my last "Will and Testament, hereby revoking and making void all former Wills by me at any time heretofore made. first I order and direct my Executors, as soon after my decease as practicable, to pay off and discharge all the debts, dues, and liabilities that may exist against me at the time of my decease. Second I give and bequeath unto my wife (name). (Here state property bequeathed.) Third I give and bequeath unto my son (name). (Here state property bequeathed.) Same form for each legacy. Fourth I hereby nominate and appoint. (Here give name of person or persons selected as Executors.) In Witness Whereof I have hereunto subscribed my name this day of A. D. Name. The above and foregoing instrument was at the date thereof (735) 736 LEGAL FORMS. signed, sealed, published, and declared, by the said (name of testator), as and for his last "Will and Testament, in presence of us, who, at his request, and in his presence, and in the presence of each other, have subscribed our names as witnesses. Name. Eesidence. Name. Residence. Note. Must be signed by the testator before acknowledged by him to be his will and must be signed by testator in pres- ence of witnesses or acknowledged by him in presence of witnesses. Two witnesses are necessary. ARTICLES OP CO-PARTNERSHIP. This agreement, made and entered into this day of , 187 , by and between of , and , of - Witnesseth : that the said parties hereby agree to become partners in the business of at , for the term of years from the date hereof, under the firm name of . Said parties have each contributed the sum of dollars as the capital stock of said firm. Both parties are to devote their entire time and skill for the common benefit. All expenses of the business and all losses are to be borne in common, and the profits are to be equally divided. Books of account are to be kept, in which shall be entered all money received or paid, all purchases and sales of goods, and all matters of account relating to the business of the firm, which shall at all times be accessible to both. No money or other property shall be withdrawn by either partner, or applied to his own use, except with the written consent of the other partner; and in every such case the same shall be charged, and his share of the profits shall be reduced in proportion to the amount withdrawn. LEGAL FORMS. 737 Once in each year a correct account shall be taken and stated on the ledger of all stock property and assets of the firm, and of all debts and liabilities. At the close of the partnership a like account shall be taken and stated, and the stock and property, and the debts, shall be equally divided after payment of the liabilities of the firm. No debt or claim of the firm shall be released or settled with- out payment in full, unless by consent of both partners. Neither partner shall have power to bind the firm as surety in any case; and neither partner shall become surety for another without the written consent of the other partner. Witness our hands and seals this the day and date above Britten. Name [SEAL.] Name [SEAL.] AGREEMENT TO CONTINUE A CO-PARTNERSHIP. As the partnership existing between the undersigned will expire on the day of , 187 , it is hereby agreed that said co-partnership shall continue upon the same terms and conditions as provided in the original articles of co-partnership for the further terra of from the date of the expiration of said co-partnership as fixed by the said articles. Witness our hands (as in articles, giving date). AGREEMENT for DISSOLUTION of CO-PARTNERSHIP. The undersigned hereby agree that the co-partnership exist- ing between them, as is witnessed by the Articles of Co-part- nership signed by us, be, and the same is hereby, dissolved, except for the purpose of final settlement of the business thereof, which may be settled by . And upon such lettlement, then said co-partnership shall be wholly dissolved. Witness, etc. (as above). 738 LEGAL FORMS. POWER OP ATTORNEY. Know all men by these presents, that I- of , hereby make, constitute, and appoint of , my true and lawful Attorney, for me, and in my name, place, and stead, to (here state duty of Attorney) granting unto my said Attorney full power and authority to do and perform each and every thing necessary and proper to be done in the performance of his duty, as fully as I might or could do if personally present, hereby ratifying and confirming all the lawful acts of my said Attorney, done under and by virtue hereof. "Witness my hand and seal this day of A. D. 187. Name [SEAL.] Note. To be signed and acknowledged as a deed for the conveyance of real estate FORM OP SUBMISSION TO ARBITRATION. Know all men by these presents, that whereas a controversy is now existing between (name), of (residence), and (name), of (residence), touching (here state nature of controversy): Now, therefore, we, the said (here give names of parties), do hereby submit said controversy to the decision and arbitration of (here give names of three persons selected as arbitrators), of (here state residences), and do covenant each with the other that we will faithfully keep and abide by the decision and award that they, or any two of them, may make in writing said award to be made and signed on or before (here give date). And it is agreed by the parties hereto, that the party that shall fail to abide by and observe said award, made in accord- ance with the foregoing submission, shall forfeit and pay to the other the sum of (here insert amount). Witness our hands this day of A. D. . -Name. -Name. LEGAL FORMS. AWARD OF ARBITRATORS. The undersigned to whose arbitration was submitted the matters in controversy between (here give names of parties) as more fully appears by their written submission hereto attached, Report that on the day of A. D. 18 , after having been duly sworn according to law, and having given both parties - - day's notice in writing of the time and place of our meeting to consider said matter, we proceeded to the dis- charge of our duty; said (name of party) appearing in person (if by Att'y also so state,) and said (name of party) appearing in person (if by Att'y also so state.) And having heard the allegations and proofs of said parties, and the witnesses intro- duced by them, and having examined the matter in contro- versy submitted by them, do make and declare this as and for our award. Here state findings of Arbitrators. Witness our hands this day of A. D. . -Name. -Name. -Name. GENERAL FORM FOR AGREEMENT. This Agreement made this day of 187 , oy and between of and of . Witnesseth: That the said for the consideration of (here state nature of consideration) to be (if money paid,) (if work or labor or delivery of property) to be performed or delivered as hereafter provided, hereby agrees that (state agreement of this party fully.) And for the consideration above mentioned the said hereby agrees, that (state agreement of this party fully.) In witness whereof, we hereto subscribe our names and affix our seal this day and date first above written. Name [SEAL.] Name [SEAL.] 740 LEGAL FORMS. AGREEMENT FOR SALE OP PERSONAL PROPERTY. This Agreement, made this day of 187 , between of and of . Witnesseth : That the said in consideration of the agreements on the part of hereafter named, agrees to and with the said that on or before the day of , 187 , lie will deliver to the said at (state place of delivery,) the following property (state kind of property). And the said in consideration of the aforesaid agreements and promises on the part of the said , hereby promises and agrees to and with the said . that he will pay to him (state price to be paid) said payments to be made as follows (state how and when.) In witness whereof, we hereto subscribe our names and affix our seals this the day and year first above written. Name [SEAL.] Name -[SEAL.] AGREEMENT FOR THE SALE OF REAL ESTATE. This Agreement, made this day of 187 . by and between of > and of . AVitnesseth : That for and in consideration of the sum of dollars, to be paid by the said to the said as follows (state manner of payment), the said hereby promises and agrees to convey by (state nature of conveyance, whether warranty or quit claim), the following described real estate situate in county, State of . (Give description of land.) And the said hereby promises to pay said the sum of dollars as above provided. And upon the payment in full of said amount, then said conveyance is to be executed and delivered. . In witness whereof, we hereunto subscribe our names ard affix our seals this the day and date above written. Name [SEAL.] Name [SEAL.] LEGAL FORMS. 741 X Note. To be executed and acknowledged as a deed for real estate. FORM OP LEASE. Agreement of Lease, made this day of , between of- and of , Wit- nesseth : That the said agrees to pay to , -dollars per for the rent of the house and prem- ises on (description of land.) The said agrees to use said premises for no other purpose than , and not underlet the same without the written consent of . This lease to commence on the day of 187 , and continue until the day of 18T . The rent to be paid (state how) to the said at . A failure to pay the rent as agreed, or to comply with any of the stipulations of their lease by , shall authorize the said to con- sider the same forfeited ; and he may take possession of the premises without notice and without process of law, or he may bring his action as allowed by law to recover possession. In witness whereof, we hereunto subscribe our names and affix our seals this the day and date first above written. Name [SEAL.] Name [SEAL.] FORM OF DEED. This Deed, made this day of -187, Wit- nesseth: That for the consideration of dollars, we of county, State of , hereby sell and convey unto of county, State of , all the following described real estate, situate in county, State of Iowa. (Here give a description of the land) together with all the estate, title, and interest, dower, and right of dower of the said grantors, or either of them. And we hereby warrant the title to said premises against all persons whomsoever (or if quit claim say), and we hereby quit claim all our right, title and interest in and to said premises to the grantees herein. 742 LEGAL FORMS. Witness our hands and seals this the day and date abovo written. Name [SEAL.] Name [SEAL.] The State of - ) Count} 7 . f Be it Remembered, That on this day of- 187 , before me a within and for said county and State, personally appeared , who personally knowL to me to be the identical person whose name affixed to the foregoing deed as grantor, and she acknowledged the same to be her voluntary act and deed, and the said , having been made acquainted with the contents hereof, and the nature of the above instrument having been fully explained to her, and having been examined by me separate and apart from her husband, acknowledged that she signed and executed the said deed freely and voluntarily, and without compulsion, and that she does not desire to retract the same. In witness whereof, I hereto set my hand and seal this the day and date last above written. Name [SEAL.] Note. It is better in all cases to have two witnesses to the signatures, as the fact that such signatures are witnessed will never invalidate the conveyance; and in some States the instrument is void without such witnesses. MORTGAGE DEED. This Deed, made this day of , 187, Wit- nesseth: That for the consideration of dollars, we of county, State of - , hereby sell and convey unto of all the following described real estate, situate in county, State of to-wit : (Here describe real estate.) And we hereby warrant the title to said premises against all persons whomsoever. This deed to be void, however, on condition pay. nature of indebtedness, time and manner of payment.) LEGAL FORMS. 743 (It homestead say), and the property conveyed being our Homestead, we iiereby expressly waive all benefit of the home- stead and exemption laws, and consent that said property shall be liable for the payment of said indebtedness. Otherwise of force and virtue. Witness our hands and seals this the day and date above written. Name [SEAL.] Name [SEAL.] NEGOTIABLE NOTE. $200 CHICAGO, 111., May 1st, 1873. One year after date, I promise to pay to the order of Felix Welty, two hundred dollars, with ten per cent, interest from date, for value received. Name NON-NEGOTIABLE NOTE. $200 CHICAGO, 111., May 1st., 1873. One year after date. I promise to pay Felix Welty, two hun- dred dollars, with ten per cent, interest from date, for value received. Name NOTE TRANSFERABLE BY DELIVERY. $200 CHICAGO, May 1st, 1873. One year after date, I promise to pay Felix Welty or bearer, two hundred dollars, with ten per cent, interest from date, for value received. Note. If joint note say " we." If joint and several say * we or either of us." Name DUE BILL. Due Felix Welty, two hundred dollars, value received. May 1st, 1873. Name RECEIPT. CHICAGO, 111., May 1st, 1873. Received of Willis Moran one hundred dollars, in full of all 74-4 LEGAL FACTS. claims or demands, of each and every kind held by me against him. Name Note. If in satisfaction or payment of any particular claim, so state. University of California SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90024-1388 Return this material to the library from which it was borrowed. SRLF OCT1 JAI 1 7 200 QUARTER LOAN 1993