ATER SUPPLY 
 
 BALFOUR BROW 
 
REESE LIBRARY 
 
 '*'-, 
 
 OF THK ' . 
 
 ' UNIVERSITY OF .CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Received _'_ ^V ^fr?-> , iS & / 
 
 / / 
 
 Accessions No ^^^?J~~ ' Shelf No.. 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 
 
WATER SUPPLY 
 
 BY 
 
 J. H. BALFOUE BROWNE, 
 
 Barrister at Law; Registrar to the Railway Commissioners; Author of "The 
 Compulsory Purchase of Company's "Undertakings by Corporations ; " " Borough 
 Extension ;" " The Law of Rating ;" " The Law of Carriers," &c. 
 
 MACMILLAN AND CO. 
 
 1880. 
 
 TJie RlijUt of Translaticn and Reproduction it Reserved. 
 
x A, 
 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, 
 
 BREAD STREET HILL. 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 IN most cases the first words of an essay are an 
 excuse for its being written ; but we cannot think that 
 an honest endeavour to collect and place on record any 
 facts or important opinions respecting Water Supply 
 can require an apology. The subject is one of para- 
 mount importance. It is one which has not only a 
 close connection with prophylactic medicine, but with 
 sanitary legislation. In its medical aspect it has be- 
 come more important as the science of sanitation has 
 become more certain ; and in these days, when legisla- 
 tion is willing to follow closely on the heels of science, 
 instead of taking its own free and ignorant way, as it 
 used to do, it is every day becoming more vital as a 
 question of practical law-making. Water, which used 
 to be the luxury of the few, has now become the 
 necessity of the many. Its importance as an agent of 
 health has been more thoroughly appreciated in recent 
 years, and uses are made of it to-day which would only 
 have been shuddered at by our less cleanly ancestors. 
 
6 WATEK SUPPLY. 
 
 Formerly men were left to secure water or do without 
 it, as they chose, and no duty was thrown upon any 
 administrative authority to see that those whose interests 
 they had to watch over had a supply. 1 The Public 
 Health Acts of 1848 and 1875, authorised local authori- 
 ties to provide their districts with water in case there 
 was no existing supply in the hands of a Parliamentary 
 company, and still more recently an Act of Parliament 2 
 has made it incumbent upon every Eural Sanitary 
 Authority, " to see that every occupied dwelling-house 
 within their district has within a reasonable distance an 
 available supply of wholesome water sufficient for the 
 consumption and use for domestic purposes of the in- 
 mates of the house." They are, too, to see that no house 
 is built within their district without an available source 
 of supply being secured to it, and the Local Government 
 Board are empowered by Section 11 of that Act, to invest 
 any Urban Sanitary Authority with the powers or duties 
 given to or imposed upon a Eural Sanitary Authority 
 under that Act. 
 
 At the same time that the necessity of a supply of 
 
 1 The amount of benefit which has resulted to public health from 
 the execution in towns of drainage works and works for the supply 
 of water may be seen from an instructive table which is given 
 in one of the Reports of the Medical Officer of the Privy Council. 
 Dr. Buchanan, who seems to have made the investigation, concludes 
 his report by pointing out that the progress made by the inhabitants 
 of most of the towns in decency, cleanliness, self-respect, and morality 
 was at least as striking as the improvement in their health measured 
 by the morality returns, an observation which bears out the view we 
 have long held, that water is a great moral agent as well as a great 
 physician. 
 
 2 Public Health (Water) Act, 1878 (41 & 42 Viet. c. 25, sec. 3). 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 7 
 
 water has become a recognised fact in the public mind, 
 the necessity for the selection of pure sources of supply, 
 and the careful scrutiny of our means of distribution, 
 have become more generally admitted. It has been said 
 that every virtue has its attendant vice, and it would 
 seem that every sanitary boon has its attendant mor- 
 bific influence. A refuse pipe, as generally constructed, 
 while it carries away the filth of a household, makes its 
 bedrooms coterminous with the deadly purlieus of a drain 
 system. A water supply which gives us a beverage 
 which may sparkle on our tables, may be the means of 
 conveying to us the seeds of deadly disease. All these 
 considerations would seem to be sufficient reason for 
 discussing some questions relating to water supply with 
 what care we can bestow, and with the light of such 
 authorities as we may be in a position to command. 
 
 It is scarcely necessary to point out that we have to 
 look to rain for all the water we can utilise for any 
 purpose. The clouds drink from the sea and the moist 
 land, and return their moisture here and there in the 
 form of rain or snow. But without going thus far back 
 into the genealogy of water, we may say that we depend 
 for our supplies upon the water which runs from the 
 surface suddenly after rain has fallen, which we call 
 surface water ; upon rivers, which are fed by this surface 
 water, by water which has been absorbed by the earth 
 and is given out again in the form of springs, and by 
 water which was caught in hollows or spongy places, 
 and which wells out from these slowly; and thirdly, 
 upon springs themselves ; and we may either find these 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 trysting with us at the surface, or may have to go very 
 far into the bowels of the earth to meet them. These 
 three, then, are the sources of all water supplies. 
 
 As to the first, surface water. The question whether 
 surface water is good for a supply, cannot be answered 
 unless there is a knowledge of the surface from which 
 it flows. So far as we know, rain water when it falls is 
 pure water, and although we cannot think that it can 
 pass free of taint through the thick atmospheres of 
 some of our towns, it is certain that when it falls it is 
 free from all. living vegetable or animal matters. We do 
 not propose to consider the question of the collection 
 of surface water in shallow wells. There are few or no 
 apologists for such a supply in these days. Even small 
 towns are discovering the evils of such a system, and 
 in large towns it has happily long been condemned, and 
 is very nearly discarded. Even in the country there 
 are serious objections to the existing shallow-well system 
 of supply. Nearness to the house has been the great 
 object of desire, and in securing a well in close 
 proximity to the back entrance, people have secured to 
 it ready access to all the filth, refuse, and contamination 
 of the household. But the consideration of this matter 
 scarcely falls within the scope of our present purpose. 
 If the rain falls upon a clean gathering ground of moor- 
 land it can safely be used for domestic, and is certain 
 to be used with advantage for manufacturing, purposes. 
 Most of our great supplies are simply surface waters 
 collected in natural or artificial reservoirs from clean 
 gathering grounds. The present supply of Manchester 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 9 
 
 from the Longdendale Valley, and the authorised supply 
 of the same town from Thirlmere, are examples of such 
 sources of supply. But the illustrations of this means 
 of supply are innumerable. Sheffield is supplied from 
 impounding reservoirs on the upper waters of the Don ; 
 Halifax by similar works upon tributaries of the Calder ; 
 Dewsbury from similar reservoirs at Dunford Bridge ; 
 while Glasgow, as is well known, is supplied from 
 that natural reservoir, Loch Katrine. It matters not, 
 it would seem, in a sanitary point of view, how quickly 
 the water may run off the ground as long as the surface 
 is a clean one. Of course the existence of agricultural 
 land highly cultivated and manured, in the catchment 
 area which supplies a reservoir, would be a serious evil 
 when the necessities of a town are had regard to. The 
 best of all gathering grounds is a clean grouse moor 
 upon a high elevation ; for, as it has been said, " it is 
 the hill tops which make the rivers." The existence 
 of lead-mines, too, above the source of supply might be 
 a disadvantage, and may have been one reason why 
 Manchester ultimately determined upon going to Thirl- 
 mere instead of to Ulswater, although we suspect the 
 shortness of the tunnel in the former case as compared 
 with that in the latter, had more to do with the 
 engineer's recommendation. However, the question of 
 the washings of the lead at lead-mines, or " hush," as it 
 is locally called, was much discussed in the Stockton 
 and Middlesborough cases of 1875 and 1876, and is 
 certainly a matter to be had regard to in reference to the 
 selection of a site for supply reservoirs. Of course in 
 
10 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 the selection of a site for such a reservoir the engineer 
 must be guided a good deal, not only by the nature of 
 the gathering ground, but by the way that the contours 
 and the geological formations lend themselves to the 
 construction of such works. In the Wakefield scheme 
 of this session (1880), the engineer could only find one 
 convenient site in the Eishworth Valley, that at Green 
 Withins, and had to carry a large portion of the water 
 forward by means of a conduit to the Eingstone reser- 
 voir, and even then had to forward about 300,000,000 
 gallons to another reservoir close to the district of 
 supply, at Ardsley. Steep gathering grounds are per- 
 haps the best for the water ; for it runs off rapidly 
 without getting stained by peat ; but they often make 
 the construction of reservoirs, without dangerously high 
 embankments, impossible. 
 
 Formerly it was the constant custom for companies 
 to appropriate the river water which was flowing past 
 the towns they desired to supply, and to pump that up 
 into their service reservoirs. More recently, however, the 
 collection of hill-surface waters in impounding reservoirs 
 has been the favourite means of water supply. There is 
 a great deal to be said in favour of such schemes. The 
 sooner the consumers get the water after it has left the 
 clouds, the softer it will be, and most of our large towns, 
 depending much upon their trades, have a paramount 
 interest in securing soft water. When the Wakefield 
 Water Bill of 1876 was before a Committee of the 
 House of Commons, one witness said that if he could 
 use rain water for his worsted manufacture, for dyeing 
 
WATEK SUPPLY. 11 
 
 and scouring, instead of the Wath water, which it was 
 proposed to supply under the Bill, and which was over 
 15 of hardness, he would save 1000 a year, 1 and the 
 action of the town of Wakefield in the matter of its 
 water supply shows the importance, to manufacturing 
 districts, of a few degrees of hardness. In 1880, the 
 Corporation of Wakefield promoted a Bill for the supply 
 of soft water from Kishworth, in the valley of the 
 Eyburn, a scheme which was estimated to cost 276,000 ; 
 having in 1876 purchased the undertaking of the 
 Water Company which had, up till that year, drawn its 
 water for the supply of the town from the Eiver Calder, 
 at Stanley Ferry, and which was in that year autho- 
 rised to take its supply from the Oaks rock at the 
 Wath Main Colliery, in the valley of the Dearn for 
 208,000 ; with the view, as the witnesses for the Bill 
 of 1880 said, of preventing the introduction of a supply 
 of hard water into Wakefield. The water from Eish- 
 worth, on the other hand, which has only 2 of hardness, 
 would, it was said, enable Wakefield to compete with 
 various towns in the industries which are so success- 
 fully carried on in the West Riding of Yorkshire. Two 
 hundred and eight thousand pounds is a considerable 
 sum to pay to get rid of a hard water supply ; but the 
 sacrifices Wakefield was willing to make to secure a 
 soft water, shows the importance of such a supply to 
 manufacturing interests. 
 
 That, then, was one reason why such schemes as those 
 
 1 Wakefield Water, 1876 ; Evidence of Mr. Henry Lee, p. 280, 
 Question 4766. 
 
12 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 we have been referring to were favoured, but there 
 were others. It seems certain that it is better for a 
 river to have moderate floods than to have immoderate 
 floods. As we remarked elsewhere, " For almost all 
 purposes floods are useless. They are useless to the 
 mill-owner, who uses water for power ; they are useless 
 to the steam mill-owner, who only uses small quantities 
 of water for his steam purposes ; they are useless to the 
 sanitary authorities, for while they scour the bed of 
 the river, being beyond bounds they deposit the dtbris 
 upon the banks, where it is slowly and offensively 
 oxidised. Consequently the idea that these floods might 
 be stored in reservoirs in valleys, near the sources of 
 the stream, that their force and damage might be miti- 
 gated by impounding reservoirs, that the mill-owners 
 and steam mill-owners might secure from the water so 
 stored a certain amount when there was little or none 
 in the river, was in accordance with the best economy. 
 Such a proceeding would be a benefaction to every one 
 who was interested in the water of the river, as it would 
 take from them that of which they had no need and 
 which they could not use, and it would supply them 
 with water when it would be most valuable to them, 
 when their need was greatest, and when their wants 
 could not be supplied except by some such expedient." l 
 What every one wants is an equal flow and occasional 
 freshets, rather than a dribble at one period of the 
 year and floods which exceed the minimum flow by 
 
 1 Compulsory Purchase of Companies' Undertakings, p. 24. 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 13 
 
 300 times its volume at another. 1 Now a town or a 
 company which goes to a moorland at the head of a 
 river and places an embankment across the valley and 
 impounds the streams and surface waters, confers this 
 benefit on the inhabitants of the valley below. The 
 high floods are caught in the reservoir, and the storm 
 waters which do run down the valley do less damage. 
 As we have said, it is not only a benefit to the in- 
 habitants, but it is an admitted advantage to the mill- 
 owners on the stream to have the flow of the river 
 equalised. The flow is equalised first by the mitigation 
 of the violence and volume of the floods, and second by 
 the payment to the river, at such hours as may be 
 most convenient to the mill-owner, and as may be agreed 
 upon, of a certain quantity of compensation water. 
 The amount to be given as compensation to the stream 
 is now established by long practice to be one-third of 
 the available rainfall, while in respect of this payment 
 the company or corporation is allowed to take the 
 remaining two-thirds for town supply. Nice questions 
 consequently arise as to the probable rainfall in any 
 particular gathering ground, and in such cases the 
 rainfall statistics of Mr. G. J. Symonds, F.R.S., who 
 has during the last twenty years organised a careful 
 system of observations at more than 2000 stations in 
 the United Kingdom, and who has made most excellent 
 use of the information thus obtained ; and the great 
 
 1 See evidence of Mr. Hawkesley, C.E., in support of the Wakefield 
 Water Bill, 1874 ; Commons, p. 63, Question 1046 ; and in the evidence 
 in the House of Lords. 
 
14 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 experience of Mr. James Glaisher, F.R.S., are in- 
 valuable assistants. It was before these accurate 
 means of determining the probable rainfall were 
 available, that serious mistakes in the adjustment of 
 the proportions to be given to compensation and 
 supply, were made. Thus Manchester and Liverpool, 
 having given a much larger compensation than 
 they could afford, " They were obliged to buy up 
 their own water to a very considerable extent at a 
 very large expense, so as to recover that which 
 ought never to have been given." l A similar error, 
 too, was made in the case of Dewsbury, where a 
 much larger amount had under their Act of 1853 
 to be given in compensation, than could be given 
 consistently with a proper supply to the districts 
 whose wants were the cause of the construction of 
 the works. 2 
 
 An objection which is sometimes urged against works 
 of the kind we are considering, is that a reservoir con- 
 taining three or four hundred millions of gallons of 
 water may burst, as the Dale Dyke reservoir one of 
 the Sheffield reservoirs, did in fact burst, and such an 
 accident would of course be a terrible calamity to the 
 inhabitants of the valley below. But in the first place, 
 it is certain that any competent engineer can avoid the 
 mistakes which led to that catastrophe. There are too, 
 provisions in the Waterworks Clauses Act to ensure 
 
 1 Wakefield Water BUI, 1874 ; Lords, Evidence of Mr. Hawkesley, 
 p. 302, Question 4903. 
 
 3 See Compulsory Purchase of Companies' Undertakings, p. 39. 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 15 
 
 the safety of such works. 1 In the Stockton and Mid- 
 dlesborough Corporations' Water Bill, 1876, in which a 
 question as to the safety or nn safety of the Grassholm 
 reservoir was raised the site of which it was suggested 
 was ill chosen, because the boulder clay in which the 
 puddle trench was to be placed was not continuous 
 down to the limestone, but had between it and the 
 rock a stratum of running sand the experienced en- 
 gineers for the opposition looked upon this ques- 
 tion as one mainly, if not wholly, affecting only the 
 estimates, and not the possibility of making a stable em- 
 bankment. 2 There is thus, we may say, a remarkable 
 preponderance of opinion in favour of the schemes 
 which have for their object the collection and utilisa- 
 tion of the hill surface waters for town purposes. A 
 glance at a " large map " of England will show that 
 very few of the valleys in the " backbone of the 
 country," as the Pennine range has been called, are 
 unappropriated by some town or company, and unoccu- 
 pied by some large reservoir ; and in the inquiry into 
 the Manchester Corporation Water (Thirlmere) Bill, 
 1878, it was proved to the satisfaction of the Select 
 Committee that there was no suitable and unappro- 
 priated gathering ground nearer to Manchester than 
 that afforded by the Lake District, which is over 100 
 miles off by the line of pipes. 
 
 1 Waterworks Clauses Act, 1863 (26 & 27 Viet. c. 93, sections 3-11.) 
 
 2 Stockton and Middlesborough Corporations' Bill, 1876 ; Lords, 
 Evidence of Mr. Hawkesley, p. 597, Question 93. 
 
16 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 ElVEES. 
 
 Passing from that first source of supply, for we need 
 not mention other means of utilising surface water, we 
 may now mention the second source of water supply, 
 viz. rivers. Of course the drawing of water from rivers 
 suggested itself in early times as the cheapest and 
 readiest means of supply. The water was sent to one 
 for one's use, and hence, in very many cases where the 
 question of town supply became one of importance, the 
 rivers which ran close by were chosen as a source of 
 supply, Of course it must be remembered that rivers, 
 or the streams which form the head-waters of rivers, 
 are taken into the impounding reservoirs we have been 
 referring to, just as they fall into the natural reservoirs 
 of Thirlmere or Loch Katrine; but they are rivers 
 which are not used for traffic, they are rivers which 
 have not received the drainage of thousands of acres of 
 cultivated and manured land, they are rivers and this 
 is one of the most important points above the sources 
 of human pollution, rivers to which the great duty of 
 scavengering a country has not been intrusted. When 
 towns first went to the rivers that ran past them for 
 their water supplies, there might be little reason to 
 object to them on sanitary grounds. They ran clear, 
 and fish swam in them. That is the evidence with 
 reference to the Calder, which was adopted as a source 
 of supply by Wakefield in 1839. But now its water is 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 17 
 
 black, and can be used as ink, 1 and it is described by 
 those who know it best as nothing but an open sewer. 2 
 
 So it was with the Tees when the Stockton and 
 Middlesborough Water Company obtained Parliamentary 
 permission to pump water from that river at Tees 
 Cottage, near Darlington, in 1851. And so with the 
 Wear, when the Durham Water Company began, some 
 thirty -two years ago, to pump water from it at Houg- 
 hall. But in a very few years, in an industrial country 
 like ours, rivers change their character, and the rivers 
 referred to above, ceased to be pure water channels, and 
 have become effluents for the solid and liquid refuse of 
 large districts of country. Under these circumstances 
 it cannot be wondered at that there is a tendency to 
 desert rivers into which sewage, in however small 
 quantities, has been allowed to flow. " Pumping 
 Schemes," says Mr. Mansergh, " where large rivers are 
 the source of supply, are year by year falling more 
 and more into disrepute, on account of the suspicion 
 which naturally attaches to the water." 3 
 
 No doubt, there are at the present time, some 
 chemists who hold strong views in favour of river 
 water. Dr. Meymott Tidy is a consistent advocate of 
 the supply of river water to towns. He gave evidence 
 in favour of the Tees as a source of supply for Stockton 
 
 1 In the Third Report of the Rivers Pollution Commissioners, 1871, 
 there is, at p. 12, a fac-simile of a letter written with the water of the 
 River Calder. 
 
 2 Evidence on Wakefield Water Bill, 1880. 
 
 8 The Thirlmere Water Scheme, by James Mansergh, C.E., F.G.S. 
 London, 1878, p. 7. 
 
 B 
 
18 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 and Middlesborough, of the Severn at Tewkesbury as a 
 supply for Cheltenham, and of the Wear as a supply 
 for Durham, and that although in all these cases, the 
 water proposed to be supplied was taken from the 
 rivers at points below that, at which large populations 
 poured in their sewage. Dr. Tidy's views as to the 
 destruction by oxidation of sewage in such cases, will 
 be considered at greater length in a subsequent part 
 of this essay. Dr. Odling, too, is not averse to river 
 water, even although sewage may have got into it. But 
 we cannot think that either of these distinguished 
 chemists, would differ from the opinion expressed by 
 Dr. Frankland in evidence on the Wakefield Water 
 Company's Bill of 1876, when he said, " Of all sources 
 of water supply, springs and deep wells are to be 
 preferred," 1 or from Dr. Voelcker in his evidence on the 
 Durham Water Bill, 1878, when he said, " Eiver water 
 at the best is a poor water, and not to be compared 
 with spring water, which is always refreshing, and 
 which is clear and unquestionable water." 2 But al- 
 though they might not differ from such opinions, they 
 are for the most part entirely opposed to Dr. Frank- 
 land's view, a view which is entertained by very many 
 other competent authorities, that rivers into which 
 sewage has been allowed to flow are not to be had 
 recourse to as a source of water supply, holding that, 
 notwithstanding the superiority of most spring water, 
 river water, even after it has received a large amount 
 
 1 Wakefield Water Bill, 1876 ; Evidence, p. 67, Question 975. 
 
 2 Durham Water Bill, 1878, p. 123, Question 1823. 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 19 
 
 of urban and rural drainage, is a suitable water for the 
 supply of a town. That seems to have been the con- 
 clusion at which the Duke of Eichmond's Commission 
 on Water Supply, which reported in 1869, arrived, and 
 it is a conclusion with which, as we have seen, many 
 competent authorities are in accord. The opinion of 
 that Commission may be taken to have been, that 
 the Thames was not at that time an improper source 
 of supply for London, although it had received, above 
 the water company's intake, the sewage of nearly 
 a million people. 
 
 But although scientific opinions differ thus widely 
 as to the expediency of having recourse to such rivers 
 as a source of supply an aspect of the question which 
 will have to be examined more minutely when we 
 speak of the quality of water public opinion seems to 
 be adverse to the adoption of such sources, if we may 
 infer public opinion from the action of Parliament in 
 several well-known cases. And first we may remark 
 that the very frequency of gravitation schemes 
 schemes for the supply of water from impounding 
 reservoirs in hill countries of well-pumping and 
 collection of spring schemes, gives us a fair means of 
 estimating the direction of engineering opinion in this 
 respect. We have too, referred to the opinion of Mr. 
 Mansergh, an engineer of ability and experience. But, 
 quite apart from that indirect evidence, we would refer 
 briefly to one or two cases which bear out our view 
 on this subject. 
 
 In 1875, the Stockton and Middlesborough Water- 
 
20 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 works Company which had in 1851 been incorporated 
 by Act of Parliament, and been authorised to pump 
 water from the Eiver Tees, but which had in 1864 been 
 restricted as to the amount of water it might so pump, 
 the limit being 60,000,000 gallons a week applied 
 to Parliament to repeal that restriction. The popula- 
 tion of the district of supply had enormously increased. 
 The number of iron works, which were largely de- 
 pendent on the Company for their water supply, had 
 increased in a similar proportion. Indeed no district 
 had been more prosperous, in none had trade advanced 
 with such rapidity. The evidence of the Company in 
 1875, was that they had been pumping more than their 
 maximum, and that if they were not allowed to take 
 more water from the Tees, the trade of that important 
 district must be brought to a standstill. The Bill was 
 opposed, and the objection which was urged by the 
 corporations of these two towns and by persons and 
 public bodies interested in the river, was that the Tees 
 water was not a proper water to be supplied for 
 domestic purposes, that a population of from 10,000 to 
 12,000 was situate in the watershed above the Com- 
 pany's intake, and that the drainage of that population 
 in which the town of Barnard Castle, containing 
 from 4000 to 5000 inhabitants, was included got into 
 the stream. The inquiry was a long and costly one, and 
 the evidence adduced on behalf of the promoters was, 
 that the chemical analysis showed that the water was a 
 wholesome water; that although sewage did in small 
 quantities get into the Tees, chiefly at Barnard Castle, 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 21 
 
 it was entirely got rid of and destroyed before the 
 water reached the Company's intake at Tees Cottage, 
 which was seventeen miles by river from the outfall 
 sewer of that little town. On the other hand, the 
 opponents endeavoured to show that although the 
 sewage might be got rid of by oxidation in a run 
 of that distance, which was extremely improbable, 
 still diseases were carried by means of water which 
 chemical analysis could not ascertain to be unwholesome, 
 and that an epidemic of cholera or typhoid fever might 
 be conveyed by the river, and subsequently by the 
 Company's mains, to the district of supply ; that the 
 germs of disease were not to be got rid of by oxidation 
 in the same way that ordinary sewage was, and that 
 there was reason to believe, that even ordinary sewage 
 would not be destroyed by a run of seventeen miles 
 down such a stream as the Tees. The result of that 
 inquiry was that the Bill was rejected, in other words 
 the Committee would not sanction the repeal of the 
 restriction, because they disapproved of the Tees as a 
 further source of supply to these towns. In that 
 session, the Company had asked for the total repeal of 
 the restriction imposed in 1864, and had not proposed 
 any substituted limit. In 1876 they promoted a Bill 
 authorising them to pump 30,000,000 gallons a week 
 from the Tees, in addition to the 60,000,000 to which 
 they had been limited by the former Act. But in the 
 same Session (1876), the Corporations of Stockton 
 and Middlesborough promoted a Bill for the purpose of 
 purchasing the undertaking of the Water Company 
 
22 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 by compulsion ; and also authorising them to construct 
 gravitation works on the Rivers Lune and Balder, two 
 of the headwaters of the Tees, for the domestic supply 
 of their district. These Bills came before the same 
 Committee of the House of Commons, and after a very 
 long and patient inquiry, which covered all the ground 
 which had been gone over in 1875, the Company's 
 Bill was rejected, and the Corporations' Bill passed 
 through both Houses and became law, notwithstanding 
 the strenuous opposition of the Water Company. The 
 Eiver Tees then, was condemned by this action of 
 Parliament as a source of towns' supply, although 
 several able chemists said its water was perfectly 
 wholesome. 
 
 In 1878, the Cheltenham "Waterworks Company, 
 which was, with its then sources, in a position to 
 supply quite an inadequate quantity of water to the 
 town, promoted a Bill for the purpose of supplying 
 Cheltenham with water from the Severn at Tewkes- 
 bury. The town of Tewkesbury itself, was at the time 
 supplied with the very water which was now proposed 
 for the supply of Cheltenham. The population in the 
 Severn Valley above Tewkesbury is somewhere about 
 276,000, and amongst other towns which throw their 
 sewage into that river is the town of Worcester, which 
 contains some 40,000 inhabitants, and whose outfall 
 sewer is about sixteen miles above the proposed intake 
 of the Cheltenham Water Company. The Corporation 
 of Cheltenham opposed this Bill, and under the advice 
 of Mr. Bateman promoted a Bill by which they sought 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 28 
 
 to purchase by compulsion the Company's undertaking, 
 and also to construct works for the further supply of 
 Cheltenham from springs in the Cotswolds. These Bills 
 were referred to the same Committee of the House of 
 Commons. The evidence was very conflicting. The 
 condition of the Severn at Tewkesbury, was spoken of 
 in very disparaging terms. There was no dispute about 
 the fact that the river was the means of carrying away 
 large quantities of sewage, that there was a very large 
 river population upon the stream, that the tide backed 
 Tip the water at Tewkesbury, and that dead animals, 
 even of a large kind, were often seen in the water. 
 But the chemists were called in and said, Whatever 
 goes in at Worcester, the water is very good water 
 when it arrives at Tewkesbury. Thus Dr. Meymott 
 Tidy, speaking from very careful analysis, says the 
 water is " a perfectly wholesome water." And again, 
 in the next answer he says it is " an excellent water." l 
 Mr. Crookes, too, speaks of the water as "excellent." 2 
 Mr. Hawkesley, too, the eminent engineer, says the 
 water is "an excellent water, good for all purposes." 3 
 On the other hand Dr. Frankland said, " I do not think 
 it is a proper water to be supplied to any town," 4 and 
 Dr. Alfred Hill and Professor W 7 ay, expressed similar 
 opinions. It is unnecessary to dwell longer upon the 
 evidence. The question of oxidation was largely dis- 
 cussed in this case, as in others where the quality of 
 
 1 Cheltenham Water Bill, 1878 ; Evidence, p. 105, Questions 1415, 
 1416. 2 Ibid, Evidence, p 111. Question 1 489. 
 
 3 Ibid, Evidence, p. 90, Ques. 1209. 4 Ibid, Evidence, p. 116, 
 
 Ques. 2864. 
 
24 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 river water was in question. In the end, the Com- 
 mittee came to the conclusion that the Severn was 
 not a proper source of town supply, for they rejected 
 the Company's Bill and postponed their decision upon 
 that promoted by the Corporation, to see if the parties 
 could arrange for the voluntary sale of the Company's 
 undertaking to the municipal authority. In the end 
 that was done by agreement, and the Corporation Bill 
 for purchase and the supply from the springs on the 
 Cotswolds, was passed into law. In that case the Severn 
 was condemned as a source of supply, as the Tees had 
 been two years before. In the same session of Parlia- 
 ment (1878), the Durham Water Company, which had 
 been incorporated, but not under Act of Parliament, 
 about thirty years before, for the purpose of supplying 
 water to the town of Durham, promoted a Bill to put 
 itself under the General Acts, 1 and to obtain that pro- 
 tection which is extended to companies authorised by 
 Parliament to supply water, under the 52nd Section 
 of the Public Health Act, 1875. The Company also 
 desired to raise further capital to provide additional 
 engine-power and filter beds, with the view of supplying 
 the districts surrounding the city. The Company, it 
 appeared, drew its water from the Eiver Wear at Houg- 
 hall, and it was shown that the condition of the river at 
 that point had, owing to the opening up of the Durham 
 coal-field and the consequent increase of population in 
 the valley of the Wear, very much deteriorated since 
 the construction of the Company's works. The water- 
 
 1 The Waterworks Clauses Acts, 1847 and 1863. 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 25 
 
 shed of the river above the point of intake was no 
 doubt a large one, comprising 350 square miles, but 
 the population and other sources of pollution, such as 
 collieries and lead-mines, were also numerous. The 
 population above Houghall was variously estimated at 
 from 130,000 to 200,000, and the town of Bishop Auck- 
 land was only thirteen miles higher up the river. The 
 Corporation of Durham opposed this Bill on the ground 
 that the water of the Wear was unfit for domestic 
 supply, and that Parliament should not give its sanc- 
 tion to such an impure source. They called as wit- 
 nesses Dr. Alfred Hill, Mr. Keats, Dr. Yoelcker, and 
 Mr. Spencer, who supported that view by their opinions. 
 On the other hand, Drs. Odlirig and Tidy and Mr. 
 Crookes, thought the Company's water unimpeachable. 
 There was a good deal of similarity in the evidence 
 given before the Committee on this Bill, and that 
 which had been given before a Committee of the 
 other House upon the Cheltenham Water Bill, earlier 
 in the session. The result too was similar ; the Com- 
 pany's Bill was rejected. The Eiver Wear was con- 
 demned as a source of supply. Another indication of 
 the bent of public opinion is the action which was 
 taken in the same year, 1878, by the Metropolitan 
 Board of Works, as to the supply of water for London. 
 At present, as most people know, London is supplied 
 by eight companies, and seven of them draw their 
 water from the Rivers Thames and Lea. These com- 
 panies, by means of steam-power, force 120 million 
 gallons of water a day, either over stand-pipes or into 
 
26 WA/TER SUPPLY. 
 
 high-service reservoirs, from which it gravitates into 
 the consumers' cisterns. The Thames drains more 
 than two and a half million acres of land, much of 
 which is highly cultivated and loaded with manures 
 it is the receptacle for the sewage of many large and 
 increasing towns, and, after rain, the river conies down 
 for many days together in such a turbid state that 
 even the large subsiding ponds which have been con- 
 structed by the companies, do not always discharge the 
 matter which is held in suspension, or make the water 
 a good colour. These circumstances have led to a 
 somewhat widespread feeling many persons would 
 call it a prejudice that the Thames is not a proper 
 source of supply. 
 
 In 1878, the Metropolitan Board of Works, acting 
 under the advice of three distinguished engineers, Sir 
 Joseph Bazalgette, Mr. Bramwell, and Mr. Easton, pro- 
 moted two Bills, one for the purchase of the existing 
 Water Companies, and the other for the supply of 
 potable water to London from deep wells sunk in the 
 chalk at various points in the neighbourhood of the 
 metropolis, from which it was estimated that about 
 sixteen million gallons a day could be obtained. They 
 proposed that this new supply should be distributed 
 through a separate set of mains and service-pipes from 
 those which at present supply, and were in future to 
 continue to supply the Thames water, and that while 
 the existing supply was to be used for washing and 
 other household purposes, the chalk water so supplied 
 was to be used only for drinking and dietetic purposes. 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 27 
 
 The new supply, being delivered at high pressure, was 
 to be available for the extinction of fires. This 
 scheme, it was estimated, would cost 5,440,000 to 
 carry out. No doubt there were disadvantages con- 
 nected with this proposal. The difficulty of getting 
 consumers to use the respective waters only for the 
 purposes for which they were intended, was obvious. 
 The expense connected with two parallel systems of 
 distribution would have been great, and both the pur- 
 chase and supply schemes were ultimately dropped; 
 not, however, before they had cost the Metropolitan 
 Board somewhere about 15,000. We have referred to 
 these schemes and measures with a view of showing 
 that public opinion is strongly adverse to river waters. 
 We have no doubt that other cases might have been 
 referred to, but with all those to which we have re- 
 ferred, we had opportunities of knowledge from our 
 professional connection with the Bills and proposals 
 for Bills which we have discussed. We may, however, 
 strengthen this view by quoting from Mr. Michael's 
 Address on Health. No one has a more intimate 
 knowledge of the course of Private Bill legislation 
 than he has acquired in his extensive practice, and he 
 says : " Apart from all disputes of a technical charac- 
 ter, it may now fairly be taken for granted, that the 
 Legislature will not authorise the employment of river 
 water receiving sewage above the intake of a water 
 company, as fit to be used for domestic supply." 1 
 
 1 Address on Health, delivered at the Social Science Congress, 
 Cheltenham, 1878. London, 1879, p. 25. 
 
28 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 The Koyal Commission 011 Water Supply, 1869, 
 made two very important recommendations which bear 
 upon the question of supply by gravitation, viz. : 
 (1) " That no town or district should be allowed to 
 appropriate a source of supply which naturally and 
 geographically belongs to a town or district near to 
 such source unless under special circumstances which 
 justify the appropriation ; " and (2) " When any town 
 or district is supplied by a line of conduit from a dis- 
 tance, provision ought to be made for the supply of all 
 places along the line." In reference to the first we 
 may say, that in the Wakefield Water Bill, 1874, a list 
 of twenty-four places drawing their supply from water- 
 sheds not their own was put in, and the list could be 
 lengthened now by others, but certainly by one notable 
 exception to the Commissioners' rule, viz. : Manches- 
 ter, and the supply from Thirlmere. But in that, and 
 we think in most other cases, the second recommenda- 
 tion has been given effect to, and places along the line 
 of the conduit can, in most cases, by petitioning, secure 
 a supply upon equitable terms. 1 
 
 SPRINGS AND DEEP WELLS. 
 
 There are many qualities which recommend spring 
 waters. They are clear, sparkling, and palatable, and 
 as a rule contain a smaller percentage of organic matter 
 
 1 See, for list of towns and companies alluded to, Wakefield "Water 
 Bill, 1874; Commons, Evidence, p. 69, Question 1078; Lords, 
 p. 298. 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 29 
 
 than the waters which are taken even from clean gather- 
 ing grounds. 1 They have, too, this great recommenda- 
 tion, that they are of an equable temperature (about 
 50 Fahr.), while impounded or river waters are warm 
 when one wishes them to be cool, and 'cold when one 
 wishes them to have heat. Besides there is a very 
 important consideration in connection with deep well 
 or spring waters. The natural nitration to which these 
 have been subjected, nitration through rocks, makes 
 the water pure without making it flat; but artificial 
 filtration, to which all river and some hill waters have 
 to be subjected, makes the water flat without making 
 it pure. A very competent authority, speaking of river 
 water, says : " I would not like to depend upon fil- 
 tration. Filtration may do a great deal, but the more 
 you filter the flatter it gets, and the worse water it 
 becomes." 2 It cannot be doubted, that in many cases 
 much too great reliance has been and is placed on the 
 filtration of water. Filters for waterworks are con- 
 structed by forming a vessel or basin, the bottom of 
 which, although nearly level, slopes gently to a centre 
 line, and which is made water-tight by careful puddling. 
 The floor of this basin is then covered with coarse 
 gravel, upon the top of which finer gravel is laid ; then 
 comes a layer of slate chips or sea shells, then coarse 
 sand, and on the top of that fine sand. The fine sand 
 
 1 Wakefield Water Bill, 1876 ; Evidence of Dr. Frankland, p. 67, 
 Question 975. And see Durham Water Bill, 1878 ; Evidence of Dr. 
 Voelcker, p. 123, Question 1823. See also analysis in appendix, p. 100. 
 
 2 Durham Water Bill, 1878 ; Evidence of Dr. Voelcker, p. 123. 
 Question 1832. 
 
30 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 is the filtering medium proper, and varies in depth in 
 different filters, being usually from twelve to thirty 
 i inches in depth, and the top of the sand may be about 
 from four to six feet from the bottom or floor of the 
 filter bed. The water is allowed to flow gently over 
 the sand through which it sinks, leaving its impurities 
 generally in the first three or four inches of the sand, 
 and it is conveyed from the bottom of the filter by 
 tile pipes into the supply pipes or reservoir, as the 
 case may be. Such a filter as we have described is 
 one which filters mechanically ; but in some cases, even 
 in large waterworks, the water is passed through thick 
 layers of bicarbonide of iron, which filter not only 
 mechanically and by the attraction of cohesion, as in 
 the case of sand, but chemically by subjecting the 
 organic matters in the water to a process of oxidation, 
 by which, if the filtration is complete, the decaying 
 organic matter is burnt out of the water and destroyed. 
 But even such filters are not invariably to be depended 
 upon, and in corroboration of Dr. Voelcker's view we 
 may mention that Dr. Holds worth, who gave evidence, 
 in support of the Wakefield Water Bill, 1874, stated 
 that he has frequently discovered by microscopic 
 examination living organisms in the water taken from 
 the tap in his house in Wakefield, 1 and the water 
 
 1 Wakefield Water Bill, 1874 ; Evidence of Dr. Holdsworth ; House 
 of Lords, p. 80, Question 1226, et seq. In one case Dr. Frankland 
 pointed out that the fine granular matters upon which diarrhoeal dis- 
 eases depend for their origin, pass through every filter which has been 
 tried to arrest them. Wakefield Water Bill, 1874 ; Lords, Evidence, 
 p. 177, Question 2785. In another case Dr. Frankland remarked, " I 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 31 
 
 supplied to the consumers had been passed not merely 
 through mechanical filters, but through Spenser's filter 
 of magnetic carbonide of iron, which cost the Company 
 20,000 ; and Dr. Letheby in the same inquiry said 
 tha,t " minute organisms may be found in water after 
 filtration." 1 And in reference to these minute organisms 
 we may quote the words of Dr. Hassall, who says 
 " All living matter contained in water used for drink, 
 since it is in no way necessary to it, and is not present 
 in the purest water, is to be regarded as contamination 
 and impurity, is therefore more or less injurious, and 
 is consequently to be avoided. There is," he adds, " yet 
 another view to be taken of the presence of these 
 creatures in water, viz. that when not injurious them- 
 selves, they are yet to be regarded as tests of the 
 impurity of the water in which they are found." 
 
 There seems then to be good reason to doubt the 
 efficacy of all artificial filtration, and to have recourse, 
 when it is practicable, to water which has been filtered 
 naturally, or, in other words, to springs or deep wells. 
 
 A great many towns depend for their supply upon 
 springs. Cheltenham, as we know, from what has 
 
 do not think it is possible by any practicable means that have been } 
 suggested to purify sewage so as to guarantee its freedom from the 
 elements of disease." Cheltenham Water Bill, 1878 ; Evidence, p. 
 168, Question 2882. 
 
 1 Wakefield Water Bill, 1874 ; House of Lords, p. 180, Question 2821. 
 Dr. Cayley seems to think that irrigation and any ordinary filtration is 
 useless in so far as separating or rendering inert the specific poison of 
 typhoid fever is concerned. Croonian Lecture, 13th March, 1880. 
 Brit. Med. Journ. p. 392. 
 
32 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 already been said, derives its supply from springs in 
 the Cotswolds. Edinburgh derives its supply from 
 springs in the Pentlands, and Lancaster also draws its 
 water from a like source, and so does Bath. Deep 
 well waters in the chalk and red sandstone are also 
 largely resorted to, and until recently, when Dr. Thorne 
 Thome's report to the Local Government Board upon 
 the epidemic of enteric fever at Eedhill and Caterham 
 showed the possibility of dangers from such supplies 
 which had scarcely been anticipated, were thought the 
 safest of all sources. Nottingham draws its supply 
 from deep wells sunk in the red sandstone. Birming- 
 ham gets much of its water, and Liverpool gets some 
 of its water, from wells sunk in the same strata. The 
 Kent Water Company, which supplies a district in 
 London, and concerning the water of which the Eivers 
 Pollution Commissioners say in their Sixth Eeport : 
 " The supply of such water to the metropolis generally 
 would be a priceless boon, and would at once confer 
 upon it an absolute immunity from epidemics of 
 cholera" has its wells in the chalk, like the Cater- 
 ham Company, which supplies Caterham and Kedhill, 
 and an important district in the vicinity of those 
 places. The objection which is most frequently urged 
 against deep-well waters is that they are usually hard, 
 and it cannot be doubted that that is to a large extent 
 true. The important question, however, to be deter- 
 mined in this connection is, whether it is more 
 important to have a water free from organic impurities, 
 or without the saline qualities which make it less 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 33 
 
 desirable as a means of manufacture. The sanitarian 
 would have little difficulty in answering the question. 
 We will deal with the relative merits of hard and soft 
 water hereafter. In this place, however, we may say, 
 that many competent authorities believe that a moder- 
 ately hard water is best for dietetic purposes. 1 The 
 existence of considerable quantities of saline matter 
 in deep-well waters, has often been used as an objection 
 against a supply from such a source. 2 In many cases 
 the saline matter consists of carbonate of soda and 
 chloride of sodium ; but the existence of these sub- 
 stances in the water in considerable quantities, does 
 not take from its excellence. Thus Dr. Frankland 
 mentions the Trafalgar Square water (a deep well 
 water), which is specially supplied to Buckingham 
 Palace for the use of the Queen and her household, 
 to the Houses of Parliament, and to one or two 
 clubs as one of the best waters he is acquainted 
 with. 3 Yet it contains 16*55 parts of chlorine in 
 100,000 parts. But many wholesome supplies contain 
 much larger proportions. Thus the well supplying 
 Braintree in Essex which gives a water quite suit- 
 able for domestic supply, contains 38*8 parts of chlorine. 
 The water which is supplied to Harrow-on-the-Hill 
 is a most excellent water, and contains 16'5. The 
 
 1 Durham Water Bill, 1878 ; Evidence of Mr. Hawkesley, C.E. 
 p 53, Question 876. 
 
 2 Dyspepsia is said to be caused by water containing more than 
 8 grains per gallon of sulphate of lime, chloride of calcium, and the 
 magnesian salts. 
 
 3 Wakefield Water Bill, 1876 ; Evidence, p. 68, Question 985. 
 
 C 
 
34 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 Eoyal Mint well a deep well in the chalk below the 
 London clay contains 13 '9 ; the well at Barclay's 
 Brewery 14; the well at the Albert Hall 151; the 
 well at the Midland Kailway Station at St. Pancras 
 11*12 ; and the well at the waterworks at Witham 
 in Essex contains 12-2. 1 It is to be remembered that 
 chloride of sodium is common salt, that carbonate of 
 soda is used in most London teapots, and that after all 
 38 parts in 100,000, is no very great thing. 
 
 In the inquiry as to the propriety of the Wakefield 
 Water Company taking its water from a deep well in the 
 Oaks Eock a grey porous sandstone, one of the upper 
 coal measures 2 at the Wath Main Colliery in the valley 
 of the Dearn it was suggested, as it contained not 
 only salts of lime, but salts of magnesia, it would be 
 a deleterious water for a town supply. The quantity of 
 magnesia present in the water was very small,, being 
 from 3'23 to 3'37 in 100,000 parts, and it was pointed 
 out that in the unexceptionable water which was at 
 the time being supplied to Sunderland the quantity of 
 magnesia was somewhat greater, being in fact 4 parts 
 in 100,000. 3 
 
 It is not unfrequently the case that deep-well waters 
 have a faint smell of sulphuretted hydrogen when they 
 are first raised from the sinking, which is in part due 
 to a very minute trace of that gas in the water. It is 
 
 1 Wakefield Water Bill, 1876 ; Evidence of Dr. Frankland, p. 69, 
 Question 990. 
 
 2 Jbid. See Evidence of Professor Anstead, p. 134, et seq. 
 
 3 Ibid. See analysis by Professor Way and Mr. Ogston, Appendix, 
 p. 98 ; and evidence of Dr. Frankland, p. 68, Question 989. 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 35 
 
 found, however, usually in a much more intense degree 
 in the Harrogate water, and in the water supplied to 
 Folkestone, which is drawn from the green sand, and 
 is a very pure water. It is discoverable in these in- 
 stances when the water is first exposed to the air, but 
 it disappears almost immediately, so that long before 
 the water has reached the consumer all trace of the 
 sulphuretted hydrogen has passed away. The water 
 drawn from the Oaks Eock at Wath, has most of the 
 bad qualities which we have been enumerating, but 
 Dr. Odling thought it a water of exceedingly good 
 quality, both as regards health and general fitness for 
 supply. 1 Professor Way thought it very good for 
 domestic purposes. 2 Dr. Ogston said it was an ex- 
 ceptionally good w^ater. 3 Dr. Tidy reported that it was 
 " a most excellent water, and admirably suited for a 
 town supply," 4 and Dr. Frankland " knew of scarcely 
 any water in the kingdom he would prefer to it for 
 constant use." 5 It is only fair to add, however, that a 
 good many chemists were called on the other side 
 Dr. Kedwood, Mr. Wanklyn, and Mr. Dugald Camp- 
 bell, and that Mr. Wanklyn expressed his opinion that 
 it was a bad water, both for drinking and for manu- 
 facturing purposes; 6 and again he said, "I object to the 
 
 1 Wakefield Water Bill, 1876 ; Evidence, p. 10, Question 139. 
 
 2 Ibid. Evidence, p. 81, Question 1131. 
 
 3 Ibid. Evidence, p. 103, Question 1403. 
 
 4 Ibid. Evidence, p. 98, Question 1381. 
 
 5 Ibid Evidence, p. 96, Question 996. Dr. Frankland's analysis 
 of this water will be found in the Appendix, p. 99. 
 
 6 Ibid. P. 232, Question 41 29. 
 
 c 2 
 
36 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 water most strongly ; the water is not a drinking, but 
 a mineral water." 1 The Committee of the House of 
 Commons, however, agreed with the first-mentioned 
 chemists, and passed the Bill, authorising the Wake- 
 field Water Company to take water from that source 
 for the supply of the town. As we pointed out 
 above, Wakefield was very unwilling to take a hard 
 water, and very soon after the Bill of 1876 became 
 law, the undertaking of the Company passed into the 
 hands of the Corporation, by agreement, for the sum 
 of 208,000. But the Oaks Eock at the Wath Main 
 is still to be resorted to as a source of supply for an 
 important district of country, a new company, called the 
 Dearn Valley Water Company, having been formed to 
 carry out the undertaking which the Corporation of 
 Wakefield abandoned. The Bill for that purpose was in- 
 troduced into Parliament during the first session of 1880, 
 and has passed unopposed through one of the Houses. 
 
 Before leaving the subject of supply from deep wells, 
 it seems necessary to refer to Dr. Thome Thome's very 
 able report to the Local Government Board on the 
 epidemic of enteric fever at Kedhill and Caterham. 2 
 The epidemic seems to have commenced on January 19, 
 1879, and to have spread very rapidly over the rural 
 sanitary districts of Reigate and Godstone. The num- 
 ber of persons who suffered from the disease was, as far 
 as can be ascertained by most painstaking inquiries, 352. 
 
 1 Wakefield Water BUI, 1876 ; P. 233, Question 4142. 
 
 2 For a copy of this very valuable document I am indebted to the 
 very careful and capable reporter. 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 37 
 
 Dr. Thorne Thome, after a very thorough investigation 
 as to the system of drainage in connection with the 
 residences of the persons affected, as to the possibility 
 of the communication of the infection by means of the 
 milk supply as in the case of the Marylebone epidemic 
 examined and described by the late Dr. Murchison, 
 came to the conclusion that the water supplied by the 
 Caterham Waterworks Company had been the means 
 of propagating the disease. It was no doubt difficult, at 
 first, to believe that water drawn from a very deep well 
 in the chalk which is an admirable filtering and cleans- 
 ing material for water l water which was deservedly 
 held in very high repute in the district, 2 could be 
 the means of spreading this disease. 3 But Dr. Thorne 
 Thome's investigations were most careful, and his 
 conclusions are convincing. The Caterham Waterworks 
 Company were at the end of 1878 and the beginning of 
 1879, sinking a new well about 90 feet from the two 
 then existing wells, and the adit from the old well to 
 the new bore, was at a depth of 455 feet. Men were 
 employed in making this adit, and one of them had, 
 it seems certain, suffered from enteric fever during a 
 portion of the time that he had been employed as " load- 
 ing man " at the foot of the well ; had suffered from 
 constant diarrhoea, and had been compelled, notwith- 
 standing the preparations he had made before descend- 
 
 1 See Sixth Report of the Rivers' Pollution Commissioners. 
 
 2 Dr. Thorne Thome's Report, p. 3. 
 
 8 "The freedom from such diseases as enteric fever and diarrhoea, 
 which had been remarked by competent observers in the district, had 
 been attributed to the wholesome water^swwpty. " -Bspexf, p. 3. 
 
 ; 
 
 OF THE 
 
38 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 ing, to relieve his bowels two or three times during 
 each "shift/' but always, according to his statement, 
 making use of one of the buckets which carried the 
 excavated chalk to the surface. But although the man 
 himself seems to have used due precautions, and the 
 regulations of the Company were prudent and careful, 
 it is evident that there is a strong probability that his 
 evacuations had means of getting into the water. The 
 character of the stools was very watery. The buckets, 
 when drawn up, struck against the sides of the shaft, 
 and the contents were sometimes shaken out and fell 
 over a stage into the workings. It seems certain, then, 
 that the epidemic at Caterham and Eedhill was caused 
 by the supply through the Water Company's pipes, of 
 the water infected by the minute quantities of excre- 
 mentitious matter, passing into the water from this man. 
 Not only does the fact that of ninety-six houses affected 
 in the first fortnight of the epidemic, ninety-one were 
 habitually supplied with water by the Company, show 
 this, but the equally significant fact mentioned by Dr. 
 Thorne Thome, that the village of Warlingham, which 
 also drew its water from the Company's mains, practically 
 escaped the epidemic, the water for the supply of that 
 village, during the time that the Caterham Well water 
 was infected, having been drawn from a supplementary 
 supply at Kinley, points strongly and clearly to the 
 same conclusion. It was necessary to refer to this case, 
 for it suggests the possibility of dangers which seem 
 scarcely to have been contemplated by the advocates 
 of the deep-well system, and the necessity of greater 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 39 
 
 precautions than seem to be taken in relation to such 
 sources. But although Dr. Cayley, in his Croonian 
 Lectures of this year, 1 seems to think that the result 
 of Dr. Thome Thome's investigations may be the 
 foundation of a condemnation of deep-well waters, and 
 of a commendation of river waters, even where these 
 are liable to sewage contamination, we cannot agree 
 with him, we are not sure that he at all times agrees 
 with himself in this conclusion, and we shall have an 
 opportunity of giving the reasons why we dissent from 
 that opinion. Here we would say that regular medical 
 inspection of the workers in wells, which are actually 
 supplying, or shortly about to supply, water to con- 
 sumers, ought in all cases to be insisted upon. Had 
 that precaution been taken at Caterham, we cannot but 
 believe that the illness of J. K. would have been at 
 once discovered by the vigilance of such a medical 
 officer as Mr. Jacob (who assisted Dr. Thorne Thome 
 in his investigation), and an epidemic which is known 
 to have affected 352 persons, and to have ended fatally 
 in 21 cases, would have been prevented. 
 
 MEANS OF SUPPLY. 
 
 We have already had occasion to refer incidentally to 
 the two kinds of works which are used for water- 
 supply. These are, broadly speaking, gravitation and 
 
 1 Published in the British Medical Journal, 13th and 20th March, 
 
 1880. 
 
40 WATER SUPPLY. " 
 
 pumping works; but the two are often combined in 
 a system of supply. There is no good word to be said 
 for a shallow-well system in a town. Even in country 
 places it is wise to be suspicious of shallow wells. In 
 many cases these are fed by percolation from neighbour- 
 ing cesspools, and even where they have been so placed 
 that the refuse of the cesspool, the house, and the farm- 
 yard does not flow directly into them, they not unfre- 
 quently receive the surface-waters of iields which have 
 been highly manured, and they may be accessible to 
 various other means of injury to health and actual con- 
 tagion. In populous places, of course, no shallow well 
 ought to be trusted, and in most towns they are gradually 
 being closed by order of the sanitary authorities. 
 
 Gravitation works have already been sufficiently de- 
 scribed. The water in such cases is impounded in 
 some hill valley, by means either of an embankment of 
 earth with a puddle wall in it, or by an embankment of 
 masonry, at such an elevation above the town or district 
 to be supplied, that the water will reach the tops of 
 the highest houses by natural gravitation. That is not 
 only an important matter in relation to domestic 
 supply, but is all important with a view to the ex- 
 tinguishing of fires. The Manchester Longdendale 
 Works are an excellent example of artificial gravitation 
 works. Loch Katrine is a natural reservoir, and 
 Thirlmere, when the level of the lake is raised fifty 
 feet by Mr. Bateman's embankment, will be a hybrid 
 between a natural and an artificial reservoir. Thirlmere 
 is 533 feet above ordnance datum. Tu most gravitation 
 
WATER SU1TLY. 41 
 
 works the water is conveyed in a cast-iron pipe, which 
 follows the inequalities of the surface of the land, and 
 passes over the valleys in inverted siphons. The Glasgow 
 supply from Loch Katrine is carried four miles in iron 
 pipes across valleys, and the Thirlmere to Manchester 
 will be carried more than five of its hundred miles' 
 course, hy similar means. The reservoirs for the supply 
 of a town by gravitation, ought to be of such a size 
 that they will contain a sufficient quantity of water for 
 the supply during the longest possible drought. It is 
 by the dry weather happening in such years as 1826 
 and 1868, that the capacity of our reservoirs must be 
 tested. It is therefore usual to make them of sufficient 
 capacity to contain certainly not less than five or six 
 months' supply, for the population and trade they are 
 to serve. The amount of water which must be stored 
 for that purpose, can only be determined in relation to 
 the amount which will be consumed per head of the 
 population, a subject concerning which we shall have 
 more to say hereafter ; but here we may remark that the 
 allowance in Glasgow seems to be about fifty gallons 
 a head per day, while in Norwich it is about fifteen ; 
 and the latter figure includes the inevitable waste 
 and the supply for trades. 1 
 
 As to the distribution of water over the supply 
 district, we need say little. There are two methods 
 by which the water is distributed. It is either 
 a constant or an intermittent supply. In case the 
 
 1 Stockton and Middlesbovough Arbitration, January, 1878 ; Evi- 
 dence of Mr. Ayris, C.E., p. 434, Question 4454. 
 
42 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 supply is constant, no cistern is necessary, for the 
 supply pipes are constantly charged, and usually at 
 high pressure, which renders it necessary to have 
 strong house fittings, with water from the service 
 reservoir or nearest break tank. But in case the 
 supply is intermittent, a tank or cistern is necessary 
 in connection with the service-pipe of each house 
 supplied. The water is turned on once a day for a 
 sufficient time to fill these cisterns, but in case the 
 cisterns have not been drawn down the preceding day, 
 the supply pipe is closed by a ball-cock, so that unless 
 the ball-cock is out of order, there is no waste of water 
 from the supply to households of more water than they 
 require. Very few companies or corporations seeking 
 Parliamentary powers in these days, ask to be allowed 
 to adopt the intermittent system, which is in every way- 
 less advantageous to the consumer than a constant 
 supply, and is not found to be so economical of water 
 to the Company as a constant pressure system, guarded 
 by sufficient rules and regulations against waste. One 
 obvious disadvantage of the intermittent system, which is 
 still, unfortunately, the system of supply in London, is 
 that the water is not always ready in the mains and 
 available in cases of fire. The turncock has to be found, 
 and the mains charged, at the very time when the water 
 would, if it had been available, have been of the most use. 
 But there is another important consideration which is not 
 unfrequently lost sight of. There is not only expense 
 connected with the construction and repair of cisterns, 
 there is not only likely to be great carelessness in the 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 43 
 
 keeping of them clean when they are in use, for they 
 are mostly in places it is difficult to get at, but 
 they are very apt to be contaminated by neighbour- 
 ing sources of pollution. Dr. Cayley says that he 
 believes that in the case of two-thirds of the cisterns 
 in London houses., the waste pipe from the supply 
 cistern goes directly into the soil pipe, so that the 
 drinking water is " habitually contaminated with sewer 
 gas." 1 Sewer gas has innumerable ways made for it 
 into a house. Thus in most houses the sinks are 
 untrapped. In almost every house the displaced water 
 from the water-closet forces up the air from the 
 drains. The overflow-pipe from a balcony opening in 
 front of a drawing-room window goes directly into 
 the main sewer, and so on. We are convinced too 
 that in a larger number of instances, not only are 
 the cisterns uncovered, so that they become the invari- 
 able receptacle for dust, the aquaria for various forms 
 of life, and the causes of disease ; but that they are very 
 seldom or never cleaned. Most cisterns, too, are made 
 of lead, a material which is apt to be acted upon by 
 most soft waters but not always in proportion to their 
 softness in such a way that the water when drunk 
 may affect the consumer with all the symptoms of lead 
 poisoning. The waters which are most likely to be 
 contaminated by lead, are very soft lake and river 
 waters. Distilled water has a very intense action upon j 
 
 1 Croonian Lectures for 1880, in British Medical Journal, 20th 
 March, 1880, p. 433. See also Dr. Pridgeon Teal's Dangers to Health 
 in Houses. 
 
44 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 lead. The water of Loch Katrine, too, is known to be 
 intensely affected by lead. Two conditions seem to be 
 necessary to the very intense action we have referred to, 
 viz., that the lead should be bright and polished, and that 
 air should have free access to the lead and the water. 
 It seems, too, that the presence of vegetable matter 
 in the water may heighten the effect. The circumstance 
 that dull lead is not so easily acted upon as bright 
 lead, has always been an excuse, if it has not been a 
 reason for, dirty cisterns. The possibility of poisoning 
 by lead by means of water which has been allowed to 
 remain for some time in contact with lead either in 
 cisterns or in long pipes, was largely dwelt upon, both 
 by Dr. Frankland and Dr. Tidy, in their evidence in 
 the Thirsk Water Provisional Order Bill, 1879, and 
 most chemists now test soft waters to see whether they 
 have much or little action upon lead. 1 Cisterns ought 
 to be made of slate, and covered. A less expensive 
 lining for a cistern has been found in gutta perch a, 
 which is said to be easily fitted and durable. The 
 objection to lead cisterns, which we have been referring 
 to, is sometimes extended to the use of lead pipes, 
 whether employed as distributing mains or distributing 
 service pipes. But the only danger in such a case is 
 where water has been allowed to rest in long pipes for 
 a very long time ; and where the water which has been 
 lying in the pipes is run off and not used, little harm 
 is likely to be done. A royal family is said to have 
 
 1 Wakefield Corporation Water Bill, 1880 ; Evidence of Mr. Dugald 
 Campbell. 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 45 
 
 been poisoned in this way, but the case seems to be but 
 vaguely authenticated. Dr. Frankland, while he was 
 resident in Manchester, had a servant who suffered 
 from lead poisoning ; but whether the water which 
 conveyed the lead was contaminated by the cistern 
 or the pipes, we do not remember. Although Drs. 
 Christison, Taylor, Miller, and Guy have dealt with 
 this subject, the cases in which actual mischief has been 
 done by these means, seem to be very few. Galvanised 
 iron pipes, which are as cheap as lead, can be used 
 instead of them, and the risk of lead poisoning in this 
 way avoided. The question of cisterns, which we have 
 dwelt upon at some length, was introduced by a con- 
 sideration of the intermittent system of supply, which 
 renders the use of cisterns or house-tanks necessary. 
 
 We have said enough of gravitation works and the 
 means of supply from them ; it remains to say some- 
 thing of pumping works. There are, of course, two 
 kinds of pumping works, in the one the water is 
 pumped from rivers, as it is in London, and as it 
 used to be in a great number of other places ; and in 
 the other it is pumped from deep wells, as it is by the 
 Kent Water Company, and by many other companies 
 and corporations. In both these descriptions of pump- 
 ing works, power is necessary to lift and propel the 
 water to the necessary height. As we have seen, the 
 power, in most cases steam, may be used merely to 
 elevate the water to a service reservoir at a high level, 
 from which it can be distributed by gravitation, or it 
 may be used for the purpose of pumping over stand- 
 
46 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 pipes, so as to force the water into the consumers' 
 cisterns. When river water is pumped by those means 
 it is usual to allow the water so raised to pass into 
 subsiding ponds, in order that the matter which it 
 holds in suspension, which is usually in considerable 
 quantity after floods, may be discharged from it by 
 subsidence before it is turned on to the filter beds. 
 In very few cases can river water be fitted for supply 
 without filtration, and in most cases where the sources 
 of rivers are collected from large catchment areas the 
 waters are subjected to mechanical filtration before 
 delivery. The effect of subsidence upon turbid water 
 is seen upon a large scale in rivers which flow through 
 lakes. It is well known that the Rhone enters the 
 Lake of Geneva at the upper end yellow and turbid, 
 and leaves at the lower end as clear as glass. But the 
 same phenomena can be seen in any of our Cumber- 
 land or Highland lakes, which are fed by brown and 
 amber floods, and which send out pure streams. In 
 all subsiding ponds, as in the natural subsiding ponds 
 we have been referring to, the water is run off the top, 
 and in these ponds in waterworks, arrangements are 
 made by which the mud and discharged matter col- 
 lects at one part of the basin, and can, when the 
 whole water is run off, be removed from time to time. 
 Waters of different qualities are said to clear themselves 
 more rapidly by subsidence when mixed, than when 
 separate. 
 
 It is well too, that pumping works should not only 
 have a subsiding reservoir, but that they should be 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 47 
 
 provided with a few days' storage at least, in order 
 that they may be able to refrain from pumping from 
 the river when it is at its worst. London Companies 
 provide subsiding reservoirs equal to at least six days' 
 supply, 1 and it is necessary that the area of the filter 
 beds should be in proportion to the amount of the 
 water which has to be passed through them. Thus, 
 before the Committee on the Stockton and Middles- 
 borough Water Bill, 1875, it appeared from the evi- 
 dence of Mr. Hawksley, that in the case of the Tees, 
 six inches in the hour was a proper rate of filtration, or 
 a depth of twelve feet in the twenty-four hours. 2 Arid 
 we may say that as a rule a clean filter ought to pass 
 about that amount of water in that time. Mr. J. F. 
 Bateman said, " A well-constructed filter will filter 
 ordinary water such as would be taken from a river in 
 good condition, or from a reservoir after subsidence, at 
 the rate of about six inches in the hour, that is, seventy- 
 five gallons for every square foot of filter in twenty-four 
 hours." 3 But taking the area of the filter-bed and the 
 amount of water passed through it, it appeared that the 
 rate of filtration must be 50 per cent, quicker than that, 
 or at the rate of nine inches in the hour in depth, 4 and 
 therefore a great deal too fast, so that the water was 
 often delivered in a half- filtered state. 5 
 
 1 Stockton and Middlesborough Water Bill, 1875 ; Evidence of Mr. 
 Mansergli, C.E. p. 380, Question 5629. 
 
 2 Evidence, p. 149, Questions 2277-2279. 
 
 3 Stockton and Middlesborough Water Bill, 1875, p. 402, Ques. 5886. 
 
 4 Stockton and Middlesborough Water Bill, 1875 ; Evidence of 
 Mr. Mansergh, p. 379, Question 5625. 
 
 5 Stockton and Middlesborough Corporations' Water Bill, 1876; 
 
48 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 The water when passed through the filter is supplied 
 to the consumers in the way we have already described. 
 But in speaking of the size of impounding reservoirs for 
 gravitation schemes, and of the size of subsiding ponds 
 and filter beds for pumping schemes, we have seen that 
 their dimensions are only to be determined relatively to 
 the day's supply ; so it comes to be a matter of import- 
 ance to determine what is the proper supply per head 
 per day, and if that can be accurately ascertained the 
 mere multiplication of that figure by the number of 
 the population to be supplied, will give you a basis for 
 your calculations. But no absolute figure applicable 
 to all places can be found ; indeed the amount of water 
 to be allowed per head for a town's supply, varies very 
 greatly in relation to a great number of conditions. 
 We have seen that at Glasgow the consumption is 
 somewhere about fifty gallons a head per day, which 
 is to some extent accounted for by the fact that water- 
 closets are more numerous in that city in proportion 
 to the population than in most other towns, while in 
 Norwich it is only fifteen. In London it is about 
 twenty-six gallons a head, while in Edinburgh it is 
 thirty-four. In each case the proper amount to be 
 supplied per head, can only be determined after a 
 consideration of all the circumstances. 
 
 The most important circumstance to be taken into 
 consideration in such a case, is the existence or non- 
 existence of water-using trades. In Stockton and 
 
 Evidence of Mr. Mansergh, p. 193 (27th March, 1876), Questions 32 
 and 35. 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 49 
 
 Middlesborough, about one-half of the whole water 
 drawn from the river was consumed by the iron trades. 
 In Norwich only three gallons a head per day is used 
 for trade purposes, and in Sheffield only four ; while in 
 many places there are no trades which would make 
 any appreciable difference in the consumption, and in 
 some the manufacturers have other means of supply. 
 The existence or non-existence of water-closets in a 
 town makes a material difference in the amount con- 
 sumed. Then the possibility not only of the careless 
 use of water in the houses of the consumers, but of pre- 
 ventible waste underground, must be contemplated, and 
 can now happily be guarded against by the use of Mr. 
 Deacon's metre. The consumption, too, varies at dif- 
 ferent periods of the year, rising in summer, and in 
 different years as they happen to be wet or dry, for 
 upon these circumstances depends the amount of water 
 which is taken for watering streets and gardens, and 
 the like. Mr. Ayris, C.E., a very great authority upon 
 all questions of consumption, thinks that the summer 
 consumption in a town like Sheffield might be 10 per 
 cent, above the average for the year ; 1 and it was 
 proved before the Select Committee on the Manchester 
 Corporation Water (Thirlmere) Bill, 1878, that the 
 normal rate of increase in consumption in Manchester, 
 which had for some years been such as to make about 
 1,000,000 gallons a day more necessary each successive 
 
 1 Stockton and Middlesborough Arbitration, Jan. 1878, p. 46 
 Question 4830. 
 
 D 
 
50 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 year, had not been maintained during the preceding 
 year, partly owing to the wetness of the weather, and 
 partly, no doubt, to the depression of trade. All these 
 facts show that there may be some difficulty in arriving 
 at the correct amount to be allowed in any particular 
 case, and may account for a good many apparently 
 conflicting views as to what is sufficient. 1 First, the 
 fact seems to be that the actual consumption for 
 domestic use and inevitable waste at Nottingham is 
 fourteen gallons a head per day, and Mr. Ayris is of 
 opinion that that amount could, by means of regulations 
 and rules, which would, he admits, be troublesome and 
 inconvenient to the inhabitants, be reduced to eight or 
 nine gallons a head per day. 2 The actual consumption 
 at Norwich is, as we have said, fifteen gallons a head, 
 and that includes the trade, which, as Mr. Ayris 
 showed, uses at the rate of three gallons a head per 
 day. 3 At Sheffield the consumption used to be forty 
 
 1 An adult man, of about ten stone weight, will use, for food purposes, 
 from seventy to ninety ounces of water in the twenty-four hours, a 
 good deal more than half that amount being taken in a liquid form, 
 while the remainder is taken in solid food. Dr. Parses thinks that 
 four gallons per head daily is the smallest amount which ought to be 
 allowed to secure personal cleanliness, and if baths are taken that 
 amount will be quite inadequate. A shower-bath may require about 
 six gallons, a hip-bath about twelve gallons, and a plunge-bath about 
 fifty gallons. Water-closets, where they are employed for the disposal 
 of sewage, and occasional flushing of the drains, may require about eight 
 or nine gallons per head per day. As to the consequences of an in- 
 sufficient supply of water, see Report of the Health of Towns Com- 
 missioner, 1844 and 1845. 
 
 2 Stockton and Middlesborough Arbitration, Jan. 1878 ; Evidence of 
 Mr. Ayris, p. 433. 3 Ibid p. 434, Question 4454. 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 51 
 
 gallons a head per day, but by the introduction of 
 regulations for checking waste, the consumption has 
 been reduced to eighteen gallons. 1 It is fair to say, 
 that part of this reduction was effected by improvement 
 in house-fittings and in the pipes communicating with 
 the Company's mains. The present consumption of 
 Manchester, including trade, is twenty-five gallons a 
 head, and the calculations as to the consumption in the 
 future were, by the Select Committee which inquired 
 into the Thirlmere scheme in 1878, taken upon the 
 basis of that figure. 2 In Liverpool the consumption 
 for domestic purposes is fifteen gallons a head. 3 The 
 opinions of experts vary considerably as to the quan- 
 tity to be allowed. Mr. Bramwell, C.E., says that 
 fifteen gallons a head to cover domestic supply, small 
 traders, or unpreventable waste, is ample. 4 Mr. Ayris 
 seems to think fourteen gallons a head ample. Mr. 
 Hawkesley says : " In a well-managed waterworks 
 where there is no waste, the gallons per head are about 
 nineteen." 5 Thus both Mr. Bateinan and Mr. Hawkes- 
 ley think that twenty gallons a head per day, is amply 
 
 1 Stockton and Middlesborough Arbitration, Jan. 1878 ; Evidence of 
 Mr. Ayris, p. 466, Question 4461. 
 
 2 See Report of Select Committee on Manchester Corporation Water 
 Bill, 1878. 
 
 3 Cheltenham Water Bill, 1878 ; Evidence of Mr. Hawkesley 
 p. 94, Question 1238. 
 
 4 Stockton and Middlesborough Arbitration, 1878, p. 613, Question 
 5942. 
 
 5 Wakefield Water Bill, 1874 ; Commons, Evidence, p. 73, Ques- 
 tion 1110. 
 
 D 2 
 
52 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 sufficient for such a town as Cheltenham. 1 In the 
 Stockton and Middlesborough Bill, 1875, Mr. Hawkes- 
 ley was asked, "What do you calculate the summer 
 supply per head ? " And he answered, " Twenty-five 
 gallons per head in summer is a very moderate calcula- 
 tion. That includes all the trades except the trades of 
 iron manufactures ; it includes sanitary purposes." 2 
 But when he had another opportunity of explaining 
 his view in the following year he said, "The domes- 
 tic supply at Stockton and Middlesborough is about 
 twenty-five or twenty-six gallons a head per diem ; that 
 is a great deal ; it is just double the quantity which is 
 actually used in all the great towns of the kingdom, 
 where proper rules and regulations with regard to the 
 fittings are in use." 3 
 
 There can be no doubt that the regulations as to 
 fittings, and the careful means now employed for the 
 detection of waste, have a great deal to do with the 
 restriction of the consumption. The limitation of the 
 consumption at Sheffield is an indication of the effici- 
 ency of these means. Another instance is afforded by 
 Liverpool, where the consumption in 1871 was 28*67 
 gallons per head per day, with only a twelve hours' 
 service, while in 1878 the consumption, less manufac- 
 ture, was at the metre 16'57 gallons per head per day, 
 
 1 Cheltenham Water Bill, 1878; Evidence of Mr. Bateman, p. 212, 
 Question 8578 ; Mr. Hawkesley, p. 93, Question 1237. 
 
 3 Stockton and Middlesborough Water Bill, 1875 ; Evidence, p. 106, 
 Question 1762. 
 
 a Stockton and Middlesborough Water Bill, IS 76, p. 280, Ques. 3991. 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 53 
 
 and the service in the latter year was constant. 1 One 
 of the means employed in Liverpool for the detection of 
 leakage is, as we have said, Mr. Deacon's metre. The 
 means by which this is effected are very simple. The 
 metre is attached to a pipe through which the supply 
 to a certain number of houses is conveyed at a time 
 when the consumption ought to be least, as at mid- 
 night, and the then flow of water determined. If the 
 amount seems excessive an inspection of the inlet 
 cocks, which are connected with the service-pipes of 
 each house, is made. By using the spanner which turns 
 the inlet-cock as a stethoscope, you can tell whether 
 the water is running through that cock or not. By 
 shutting off the houses into which water was running, as 
 thus ascertained, and by again measuring the flow at 
 the metre, you can come to a conclusion as to where 
 the real waste of water occurs, and whether the house 
 consumption accounts for the whole flow, or whether 
 there is a leakage in the pipes between the metre and 
 the inlet-cocks. When the occasion of the waste has 
 been discovered and localised, it is easy to remedy 
 the defect. By the adoption of these and other means, 
 such as screw-down taps and the like, what is called 
 consumption, but what is, in fact, preventable waste, 
 is to a large extent restricted. 
 
 1 Stockton and Middlesborough Arbitration, 1878 ; Evidence of Mr. 
 Bramwell, p. 614, Question 5946. 
 
54 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 THE QUALITY OF WATEK. 
 
 "We have now to speak of the quality of water used 
 for towns' supply. One thing, which need not detain 
 us long, is the mineral matter which many waters hold 
 in suspension. These waters, if allowed to rest in 
 subsiding reservoirs, for the most part free themselves 
 from the fine mineral matter which they carry, and if, 
 even after a sufficient time has been allowed to them, 
 they still have some matter in them when they leave 
 the subsiding pond, it will in most cases be removed 
 by filtration. These remarks are not quite true of 
 the particles of clay which seem to be suspended in 
 water by some adhesion between them and the liquid 
 which envelops them, and the particles are so fine 
 that they pass with impunity through the meshes of 
 the finest filter. But mineral matter in water is a 
 matter of comparative unimportance. 1 A much more 
 important question arises in connection with mineral 
 matters in solution. As we have seen, spring, and deep- 
 well, and most river waters, contain considerable 
 amounts of dissolved mineral matters. Spring and 
 deep-well waters are generally free from all organic 
 impurities ; but the natural filtration through various 
 strata, while it takes from the waters all organic 
 impurity, gives to them chemical qualities which are 
 not met with in rain or surface water. Any water 
 
 1 It is said that diarrhoea is caused b} T the use of waters in which 
 much clay is held in suspension, which is the case in the waters of the 
 Ganges and of some of the North American rivers. 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 55 
 
 which is for any length of time in contact with 
 soluble mineral matter, takes up some portion of the 
 matter into itself; and consequently in river water, and 
 waters which have percolated through rocks, we find 
 traces of mineral ingredients. 1 The mineral matter 
 which is usually held in solution in these waters, 
 consists of salts of lime, magnesia, soda, and potash. 
 Lime and magnesia are the salts which cause waters to 
 become hard. The salt of lime, which is most fre- 
 quently found in spring waters, is the bicarbonate. 
 Chalk or limestone, from which many of our excellent 
 waters are drawn, is a carbonate of lime, or, in other 
 words, a compound of lime with one equivalent of 
 carbonic acid. But a carbonate of lime is not soluble 
 in water, and unless the water brings w r ith it a con- 
 tribution of carbonic acid, which is very often the 
 case with spring waters, and converts the carbonate 
 into a bicarbonate, which is soluble in water, there 
 would be no mineral matter in solution in the case 
 of waters flowing through chalk. When, however, 
 the water brings sufficient carbonic acid to change 
 
 1 Good drinking water must, according to the late Dr. Parkes, in 
 his Manual of Practical Hygiene, " be transparent, colourless, without 
 odour, and tasteless; it should be aerated (as it thus appears to be 
 more easily absorbed), cool, aud pleasant to drink ; it must have no 
 deposit ; vegetables should be readily cooked in it ; the total dissolved 
 constituents must be within a certain amount, which, with some limi- 
 tations, may be represented by the following numbers : organic matter 
 should not exceed 1*5 grain per gallon ; carbonate of lime, 16 grains ; 
 sulphate of lime, 3 grains ; carbonate and sulphate of magnesia, 
 3 grains ; chloride of sodium, 10 grains ; carbonate of soda, 20 grains ; 
 sulphate of soda, 6 grains ; and iron, 0*5 of a grain." % 
 
56 WATEK SUPPLY. 
 
 the carbonate into a bicarbonate, then the bicarbonate 
 passes in solution into the water. Sulphate of lime is 
 also often found in water. The bicarbonate can, to some 
 extent, be precipitated by boiling, the sulphate cannot. 
 
 Of course magnesia is a valuable medicine when 
 taken in large doses, and might be present in water 
 in such quantities as to unfit it for a town supply, 
 and make it a medicinal water. Even in the small 
 quantities in which it is found in some of our deep- 
 well waters, it may not be without some effect upon 
 the human organism. 1 The salts of soda and potash 
 found in water, do not affect the hardness of the 
 water, and the principal salt of those substances which 
 have to be dealt with in the water analysis, is chloride 
 of sodium or common salt. Sulphate of sodium 
 (Glauber salts) is sometimes found. We are here deal- 
 ing only with the question of water as fitted for town 
 supply, and have nothing to do with the question of 
 the medicinal waters which are given out by so-called 
 mineral springs. No one could of course recommend 
 such waters for town supplies, although a suggestion 
 was made in one case last year, that the town of Thirsk 
 should collect certain very hard spring waters, one of 
 which was a petrifying spring with, we think, 56 of 
 hardness instead of impounding some very soft (with 
 3'6 of hardness) and excellent hill-water above Boltby. 2 
 But when these salts, or some of them, are present 
 
 1 See note, ante, p. 33. 
 
 2 See Thirsk Water (Provisional Order) Bill, 1879 ; Evidence of 
 Mr. Fairlie ; Commons, p. 33, Question 577. 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 57 
 
 in small quantities, when the hardness is not materi- 
 ally affected, and is not above 16, it seems that the 
 water may be an excellent, palatable, and, as the 
 American called it, a "sprightly water," very well 
 suited for potable purposes, and not ill-adapted for 
 certain kinds of manufactures. They do not by their 
 presence in small quantities take the waters out of 
 the category of ordinary potable waters, as the salts 
 of iron would, which would make the waters chaly- 
 beate, or medicinal waters; and we have thought it 
 best, with the view of showing in what quantities these 
 may exist in water which was pronounced an excellent 
 water for supply by Drs. Frankland, Odling, Tidy, 
 and Ogston, and Professor Way, to give two analyses 
 of the Wath Water in the Appendix to this work. 
 These are the analysis of Dr. Frankland, and the 
 joint analysis of Professor Way and Dr. Ogston, and 
 will be found in the Appendix, pp. 98, 99. It is 
 only fair to say that this is the water of which Mr. 
 Wanklyn said, differing diametrically from all the 
 authorities we have mentioned, that it was "a bad 
 water both for drinking and manufacturing purposes." 1 
 The Committee of the House of Commons, however, 
 agreed with the views of the former. 
 
 The salts of magnesia and lime are principally ob- 
 jected to when present, because of the effect they have 
 upon the hardness of the water, and this leads us to 
 the much disputed question as to whether a hard or a 
 soft water is best for the supply of a town, in so far 
 1 Wakefield Water Bill, 1876, p. 232, Question 4129. 
 
58 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 as dietetic purposes are concerned. We have already 
 pointed cut that for almost all manufacturing pur- 
 poses, but especially for those in which soap is largely 
 employed, soft water is preferable to hard; and we 
 know of no trade that is better carried on by means 
 of hard water than by means of soft, except the 
 brewing of pale ale. Where water is used for steam 
 purposes, the "fur" which is deposited from hard 
 waters upon boilers, is often a very serious disadvan- 
 tage. The disadvantage which arises from the pres- 
 ence of the salts which cause hardness in water, in 
 so far as manufacturing interests are concerned, may 
 be gathered from the fact that every grain of chalk 
 which is contained in water, decomposes ten grains 
 of soap. Faraday used to define a fool as " a man 
 who had never made an experiment." But every one 
 in washing his hands has experimented upon the hard- 
 ness and softness of water it may have been forty 
 years without knowing it, like M. Jourdain in 
 Moliere's play by the ease or difficulty with which 
 he secured a lather. The waste of soap occasioned by 
 hard water is of course very considerable, and be- 
 sides the waste of soap, there is much more tear and 
 wear to the things that have to be cleansed with the 
 hard water, not to speak of the additional labour 
 which such waters necessitate. Hardness is measured 
 by degrees. One grain of chalk in a gallon is the 
 measure of one degree, two grains per gallon of two 
 degrees of hardness, and so on. But the question of 
 the advantages or disadvantages of hard water for 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 59 
 
 manufacturing purposes, such as scouring, dyeing, and 
 steam purposes, is a very different question from that 
 which has been so often proposed and so variously 
 answered. Is soft water better for drinking purposes 
 than hard ? Mr. Hawkesley, who is one of the highest 
 authorities on all questions of water supply, says " a 
 moderately hard water is best for dietetic purposes/' 1 
 and a moderately hard water is, according to Drs. 
 Letheby and Tidy, one of from 10 to 11 degrees. 
 Mr. Bateman, who has, we think, been a consistent 
 advocate of soft water, although certainly no bigot 
 in its favour, in giving evidence before the Duke of 
 Richmond's Commission on Water Supply, thus refers 
 to the evidence which had been given before the 
 Commissioners. " You have had twenty-seven (wit- 
 nesses) who have all expressed an opinion in favour 
 of soft water, some of them very strongly in favour 
 indeed. You have one single gentleman who has ex- 
 pressed a decided opinion in favour of hard water, 
 and you have had one gentleman who has expressed 
 a qualified opinion in favour of hard water. Amongst 
 those who have expressed a very strong opinion in 
 favour of soft water are Mr. Eawlinson, Professor 
 Way, Professor Eamsay, Mr. Duncan, Dr. Lyon Play- 
 fair to whose evidence I must specially draw your 
 attention Mr. Simons, Dr. Farr, who also very 
 specially referred to it, Dr. Parkes, Dr. Frankland, 
 and with him Dr. Odling ; " but notwithstanding this 
 evidence and much valuable testimony contributed by 
 
 1 Durham "Water Bill, 1878 ; Evidence, p. 53, Question 876, 
 
60 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 Mr. Bateman himself, the Commission did not come 
 to the conclusion that London water, which averages 
 15, would be in the least degree prejudicial to health. 
 There is no doubt that soft water saves soap, and is 
 admirably suited to all the industries which our large 
 towns so successfully carry on, and hence it is that 
 Glasgow has sought and procured a water which is 
 only '8 of a degree of hardness, in Loch Katrine ; 
 that Manchester has procured the Longdendale water 
 for its present wants, which is 1*5 of hardness, and 
 Thirlmere for its future requirements, which will 
 afford even a softer water ; that Liverpool is promot- 
 ing a Bill in the present session of Parliament to 
 secure the water of the Vwyrny, which at Pont 
 Hagel is 1*8 degrees of hardness ; and that Bradford, 
 Halifax, Bolton, Oldham, Dewsbury, and now Wake- 
 field, have secured abundant soft water supplies. 
 These facts only show that the interests of trade are 
 of paramount importance in these great centres of 
 commerce and manufacture. But on the other side, 
 let us refer to a table which was put in, in the in- 
 quiry into the Preamble of the Edinburgh and District 
 Water Bill, 1871. That table showed the quality, as 
 far as hardness was concerned, of the various supplies 
 in sixty-five towns and cities in England and Scotland, 
 and gave the various death-rates in each of these 
 towns. We are unable to speak as to the authority 
 of the table, but we append (see Appendix, p. 101) a 
 summary of the table which seems to show, at least, 
 that in the towns with soft water supplies, the death- 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 61 
 
 rate is not lower than in towns with hard. Of course 
 we are aware that there may be innumerable other 
 circumstances to be taken into consideration in every 
 one of the cases referred to in the table, and that 
 the number referred to may be insufficient to secure 
 a truth from the conflicting errors. But we give the 
 summary for what it is worth. 
 
 So far, however, as we have been able to ascertain, 
 altogether apart from that table and summary, it 
 seems certain that from 10 to 15 of hardness is not 
 regarded as a disadvantage in drinking water by most 
 chemists and medical men, and the question whether 
 a soft or a hard water is best for the maintenance of 
 health, must be regarded as quite undecided. There 
 are many advocates, not to say apologists, for London 
 water, which is a hard water. Dr. Frankland, as we 
 have seen, 1 speaks of a great many hard waters as 
 excellent for drinking purposes, and preferred a water 
 of from 157 to 16'3 of hardness, upon the 100,000 
 scale, for the supply of Wakefield, to a soft hill water 
 (1*9) from the Little Don Eiver, w r hich was proposed 
 as a source of supply in 1874. 2 The water of which 
 Dr. Frankland spoke in this way was that which Mr. 
 Wanklyn condemned in the terms we have quoted 
 above, and also in these words at a subsequent ques- 
 tion, " It is an unsuitable water for domestic use, and 
 not a drinking but a mineral water." 3 Dr. Frankland, 
 
 1 Ante, p. 33. 
 
 2 Wakefield Water Bill, 1876 ; Evidence, p. 66, Question 974 ; and 
 Wakefield Water Bill, 1874 ; Evidence, p. 56, Question 978. 
 
 3 Ibid. Evidence, p. 233, Ques. 4140, 4142. 
 
62 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 on the other hand, said the hardness was not ob- 
 jectionable for domestic use, 1 and that he knew of 
 scarcely any water in the kingdom he would prefer 
 for constant use. 2 Under these circumstances we are 
 justified in assuming that the question of hard or soft 
 water, as a sanitary question, cannot be satisfactorily 
 answered one way or other at the present time. 
 
 Hard water, as it is well known, can be very much 
 softened by Dr. Clarke's process, a very beautiful adap- 
 tation of science to the useful arts. This is not a mere 
 laboratory experiment, but has been applied to the 
 softening of many of the waters drawn from the chalk 
 on a large scale, as for instance at Caterham, Tring, 
 and other places. Chalk water can by this means be 
 reduced from 17 of hardness to from 2|- to 4| degrees. 
 
 We come now to another very important question 
 in relation to the quality of water, and that is the 
 question of organic impurity. 3 We have seen how the 
 waters of springs and rivers becctoie charged with 
 mineral matters, but waters have quite as many oppor- 
 tunities of becoming the carriers of various forms of 
 organic matter, as they have of taking up mineral 
 substances. Not only have they natural opportunities 
 if we may speak of them in such a way, which are 
 common to all waters which fall upon the earth, upon 
 whose surface plants and animals grow and decay, and 
 
 1 Wakefield Water Bill, 1876, p. 69, Question 1001. 
 
 2 Ibid. Evidence, p. 69, Question 996. 
 
 3 As to the effects of impure water upon the sanitary condition of 
 towns, the reports of the late Mr. Simon, at one time Medical Officer 
 of Health, to the Privy Council, are most instructive. 
 
WATEK SUPPLY. 63 
 
 plants and animals deposit their refuse but we have 
 given them artificial opportunities by turning all our 
 sewage into rivers, and by making water the carrier of 
 refuse from our houses to the sea, or at least out of our 
 immediate neighbourhood. Somewhat recently, very 
 strenuous efforts have been made to prevent this abuse 
 of our rivers, and to substitute a more sanitary means 
 of disposing of house refuse than that which we have 
 in water-closets connected with a great drainage system, 
 which empties its filth upon a river. At one time it 
 seemed to be thought that if rivers were riot to be 
 trusted, tides were, and outfalls were opened upon 
 ebbing floods. Now, however, the favourite means of 
 disposal of sewage seems to be irrigation. We shall 
 have occasion to speak of this matter hereafter, and to 
 point out that irrigation is not to be relied upon with 
 that confidence as a means to the prevention of any 
 harm from sewage, which some of its advocates seem 
 to have thought. But confidence is always at the 
 service of any new tiling. 
 
 A complete list of all the possible organic impurities 
 which may be found in water, would be as long as it 
 would be misleading, but we may say shortly, that we 
 find all kinds of decaying vegetable fibres, the putrefy- 
 ing products both of plants and animals ; we find starch, 
 urea, and anatomical products, and a great many forms 
 of vegetable and animal life, such as algae, confervi, 
 fungi, belonging to the former, and infusorise, ento- 
 mostraceaa, annellidse, &c., belonging to the latter. 
 We know how favourable a stagnant pool is to those 
 
64 WATEK SUPPLY. 
 
 forms of life which delight in death and decay ; and 
 it is scarcely necessary to say, that the strange 
 brew which ferments in stagnant water, where foul 
 plants afford food for foul animals, is a very unwhole- 
 some article of diet. It is this water which we have all 
 looked at under the microscope with shuddering. But 
 luckily we have not to be dependent upon analysis 
 for the rejection of such water, for the palate knows 
 enough to be disgusted at it, without having to call 
 in the aid either of chemical or histological research. 1 
 Most of our hill waters fall upon, and flow from, 
 surfaces more or less overgrown with peat and the 
 various plants which grow in such high places, and 
 water filtering through peat mosses is apt not only to 
 be tinged with the colour of peat, but to acquire a 
 somewhat bitter taste. These qualities are not to be 
 desired in a water ; they are not, however, found to be 
 consistent with those more disagreeable qualities we 
 have been alluding to, for peat is a strong antiseptic, 
 and does not favour the production of low forms of 
 animal life. In, very many cases where towns or cities 
 have asked the sanction of Parliament to the appropria- 
 tion of hill waters, the objection that the water was 
 
 1 Organic matter, of vegetable origin in water, is of course not 
 nearly so dangerous as that of animal origin, which contains nitrogen. 
 Such matter which gets into water from various sources of pollution, in 
 decomposing produces both nitrous and nitric acid and ammonia, and 
 the nitrites and nitrates thus formed communicate no property to 
 water which can be detected by the palate as distasteful, but rather 
 produce a sparkle in the water which render it acceptable as a beverage. 
 Many of the churchyard waters used to be prized for the very qualities 
 which rendered them most dangerous as potable waters. 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 65 
 
 peaty has been urged against the scheme. In the 
 inquiry as to the Cleveland Water Bill, 1876, this 
 objection was raised, and it was suggested that the 
 presence of peaty matter in any large quantity might 
 cause diarrhoea, but the Committee, notwithstanding the 
 suggestion, passed the Bill. Mr. George Eowbotham in 
 his pamphlet on " The Supply of Water to London," l 
 in which, following Mr. Bateman, he suggested the 
 expediency of going to Central Wales for the supply of 
 London, says, 2 " One strong objection urged to the 
 water from Wales was on account of its colour, it being 
 alleged that it would be ' commonly coloured ' from 
 peat. Similar objections were taken, thirty-four years 
 ago, to the then proposed supply of water to Manchester 
 from Longdendale, and samples of water were gravely 
 produced, in colour as brown as coffee, as the kind of 
 water which would be supplied from the new works. It 
 is true that at certain seasons of the year some of the 
 streams which feed the reservoirs of the Manchester 
 Corporation Water- works are, for a time, deeply stained 
 by peat, but the effect of exposure in the large reservoirs 
 is to remove almost entirely all colour ; and the water 
 as delivered in Manchester and as seen in a tumbler on 
 a dining-table, is certainly as white and bright as the 
 supplies afforded to the inhabitants of London from 
 the present polluted sources. 
 
 " Were no Loch Katrine in existence, and a reservoir 
 had to be made for impounding the waters of the 
 streams which now descend the hills forming the basin 
 
 1 London, July 1879. 2 P. 18. 
 
66 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 of the loch, the same strong objections to a supply of 
 water from that district on account of peat stains, 
 would obtain ; for in rainy weather, which is the time 
 when gravitation waterworks receive their supplies of 
 water, the two principal streams feeding Loch Katrine 
 flow into it as brown as porter, but the effect of ex- 
 posure in the large surface of the lake aerates the water, 
 and is such, that when it is taken from the lake for the 
 supply, to Glasgow, a piece of white porcelain, seen at 
 a depth of five feet, is only changed to a very pale straw 
 colour. In cold weather, and in the depth of winter, 
 the water may be said to be absolutely colourless." 
 
 We will probably hear more of the suggestion to 
 which Mr. Eowbotham alludes, in the coming inquiry 
 as to the Liverpool Corporation Water Bill, which 
 proposes to take the waters of the Ywyrny, which 
 is in a very peaty district, for the supply of the 
 town. It was suggested by the opposition, on behalf 
 of Darlington, to the Stockton and Middlesborough Cor- 
 poration Water Bill, 1876, that the diminution of the 
 flood waters by the impounding works proposed under 
 the Bill, would make the water which Darlington 
 draws from the river more peaty, as the peaty water 
 would be less diluted by the storm waters ; but this 
 argument, whatever its weight, did not prevail. The 
 question how far the bleaching of water stained by 
 peat takes place in large natural or artificial reservoirs, 
 which is referred to by Mr. Eowbotham, who has had 
 exceptional opportunities of becoming acquainted with 
 the results of storage in the Longdendale reservoirs and 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 67 
 
 Loch Katrine, seems still to divide scientific opinion. 
 Before the Thirsk Water Company (Provisional Order) 
 Bill, 1879, some witnesses thought that most of the 
 colour M as discharged by long exposure, while others 
 thought that the effect of such exposure was very 
 small. It seems certain, however, that water without 
 any taint of peat is more palatable than water which is 
 so "seasoned," but it would be difficult to say, that a 
 very slight stain of peat in hill waters renders them 
 unsuitable for a town's supply. 
 
 " The chief condition of danger in potable waters 
 is," as the Elvers' Pollution Commissioners remark, 
 " excremental pollution ; " l and in all questions con- 
 nected with the selection of a water supply, it is im- 
 portant that waters which are free from any suspicion 
 of poisoning from this source, should be primarily 
 sought for. This, however, does not seem to have been 
 a paramount motive in such investigations. People 
 seem to have thought that a small mixture of pollution 
 from the worst sources would do no harm. For many 
 years the London Companies drew their water from the 
 tideway of the Thames, from a part of the river not 
 only affected by the sewage of Oxford, Eeading, and a 
 population of nearly a million people in the Thames 
 valley, but by the refuse and sewage of London itself 
 And when the expediency of compelling the companies 
 to avoid the latter large source of pollution was being 
 discussed, and the expediency of making them draw 
 their water for supply above Teddington lock was 
 
 1 Third Report, vol. i. p. 53. 
 
 E 2 
 
68 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 being investigated, there were many who opposed the 
 imposition even of this reasonable restriction upon the 
 companies, and apparently upon the ground that great 
 dilution of poison gave practical immunity from in- 
 jurious consequences. This theory has been long ago 
 discarded, and the most recent authority upon typhoid 
 fever speaks emphatically in repudiation of such a 
 dangerous doctrine. 1 Let us give another instance of 
 this carelessness to sanitary matters. The town of 
 Wakefield not only took its water from the Calder, the 
 main thoroughfare for the filth of 500,000 people to the 
 sea, but it selected a site for its pumping station three 
 miles below the point at which the town of Wakefield 
 poured its sewage into the river. The carelessness with 
 which companies selected their sources of supply, the 
 little attention which was given to the primary conside- 
 ration of freedom from pollution by sewage, is somewhat 
 extraordinary. However, as we have seen, the tendency 
 of the times is to have recourse either to the unpolluted 
 head waters of rivers, or to deep-seated springs and 
 wells. We have said that in modern times rivers, in- 
 stead of being made the means of carrying away 
 sewage, are more commonly made the means of re- 
 moving merely the effluent waters from lands which 
 have been irrigated by sewage. The schemes for the 
 disposal of sewage by such means are numerous, and 
 the system is much vaunted. Even Mr. Michael 
 seems to think that this will put an end to the evils 
 
 1 See Dr. Cayley's Croonian Lectures, 1880; British Medical 
 Journal, 13th and 20th March, 1880. 
 
WATER SUPPLY 69 
 
 resulting from most systems for the disposal of sewage, 
 for he says, " By chemical decomposition, by irrigation 
 and filtration, we have sure means of so disposing, and 
 subsequently oxidising, the putrescible matter contained 
 in sewage, that the evil results of its presence may be 
 entirely removed." 1 But we would wish to be very 
 cautious with regard to the use of water which had 
 received the effluent waters of such irrigation works, 
 and in confirmation of this caution, we would refer to 
 the cases quoted by Dr. Cayley in his Croonian Lec- 
 tures, cases from which he draws the following im- 
 portant conclusion. " These instances are," he says, 
 " sufficient of themselves to serve as a warning against 
 trusting to irrigation and downward filtration as a 
 means of purifying water, and also against the dictum 
 that water containing less than a certain proportion 
 of organic impurity is practically wholesome and fit 
 for drinking, irrespective of its original source. It 
 ought," he adds, " I think, to be laid down as a rule 
 of hygiene, that human excrements should under no 
 circumstances be mixed with drinking water, however 
 completely they may be subsequently removed by 
 filtration, or rendered innocuous by oxidation." 
 
 But notwithstanding these opinions, it is well to 
 bear in mind that London, although it no longer 
 
 1 Address on Health. London, 1879, p. 24. This view is borne 
 out by the resolution of the Leamington Sewage Congress, 3866, which 
 was, " That the system of irrigation, when carried out in a scientific 
 manner, removes the difficulty which now arises from the present 
 noxious plan of polluting the rivers of England." See a very able 
 lecture by Dr. Alfred Carpenter, on "The First Principles of Sanitary 
 Work." British Medical Journal, October 25th, 1879. 
 
70 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 drinks the water infected by its own sewage, as it did 
 before 1852, still drinks the water of a river into which 
 a population of over 800,000 pour their sewage, and 
 that neither the Select Committee of the House of 
 Commons of 1867, nor the Royal Commission on 
 Water Supply in 1869, which were appointed to in- 
 vestigate the quality of the water supplied to the 
 metropolis, reported unfavourably of the existing 
 supply. The Select Committee reported that they 
 were "satisfied that both the quantity and quality of 
 the water supplied from the Thames are so far satis- 
 factory, that there is no ground for disturbing the 
 arrangements made under the Act of 1852, and that 
 any attempt to do so would end in entailing a waste of 
 capital, and an unnecessary charge upon the owners 
 and occupiers of the metropolis." That, however, does 
 not seem to have been the opinion of the .Metro- 
 politan Board when they promoted their Purchase 
 and Supply Bills of 1878, nor does it seem to have 
 been the view of the late Government, who intro- 
 duced a Bill for the purchase of the Water Companies' 
 undertakings, by agreement, in the first Session of 1880, 
 and who, it is thought, must have contemplated some 
 other measures for the supply of the metropolis than 
 a mere continuance of water from the present sources, 
 which are certainly distasteful to a large number of 
 the consumers. We may not be prepared to go so 
 far as the Rivers' Pollution Commissioners, who in 
 their Sixth Report, in speaking of the water of the 
 Kent Company which is drawn from deep wells in 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 71 
 
 the clialk, said, "The supply of such water to the 
 metropolis generally, would be a priceless boon, and 
 would at once confer upon it absolute immunity from 
 epidemics of cholera," 1 but it is difficult on the other 
 hand to bring ourselves to agree with Dr. Meymott 
 Tidy, who, in his most valuable and interesting work 
 upon the London Water Supply, says, " I venture to 
 state broadly, and the analyses I now place before you 
 justify me in the assertion, that the water supply to 
 London the healthiest city in the world is as excellent 
 in quality as it is liberal in quantity." 2 And again in 
 writing in 1880 on the water supplied during the past 
 year, he says, " 1 again repeat what I have said more 
 than once before, that in my opinion no better sources 
 of water can be found for the metropolis, considering 
 all the facts of the case, than the Eivers Thames and 
 Lea." 3 We need not, we think, go the length of the 
 Kivers' Pollution Commissioners on the one hand, or 
 of Dr. Tidy on the other ; we may admit, as we believe 
 it is a fact, that of late years the water supplied by 
 London Companies has, owing to the increase of the 
 
 1 Sixth Report, p. 275. 
 
 2 The London Water Supply ; being a Report submitted to the Society 
 of Medical Officers of Health on the Quality and Quantity of the Water 
 supplied to the Metropolis during the past ten years. London, 1878, 
 p. 68. 
 
 3 Report for 1880, p. 8. But Mr. Jabez Hogg, in his recent letters 
 to The Times on Mr. Cross's " Water Trust Bill," assures us that the 
 supply of drinking water from the rivers Lea and Thames is not, and 
 cannot be, rendered satisfactorily safe, and he contends that the com- 
 parative purity for which chemistry vouches is shown, not only by the 
 microscope, but by the returns of the Registrar-General, to be mis- 
 leading, for the waters are the camera of the seeds of disease. 
 
I'l WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 storage capacity of their works, and the greater care 
 which has been bestowed upon nitration, been better 
 than it formerly was, and yet we do not feel bound to 
 believe that the Thames water is a good water for a 
 town supply. Indeed we do not believe that the 
 Thames will long be continued as the source from which 
 the metropolis will draw its water. We have seen that 
 in the cases of Stockton, and Middlesborough, of Chel- 
 tenham, and Durham, Parliament has refused to sanction 
 the supply of river water when there was a possibility 
 of procuring other sources, and in each of these cases 
 the towns have had recourse either to springs or the 
 head waters of rivers. We believe that the reason 
 in all these cases for the decision of Parliament was 
 an impression that water was a carrier of disease, and 
 that if sewage was poured into a river, and a water 
 company draws its water from that river, there was a 
 serious risk that disease might be communicated to 
 the consumers of water so drawn. It seems absolutely 
 necessary, for the purpose of understanding these 
 questions aright, to draw a distinction between healthy 
 and unhealthy sewage. Perhaps none of the diarrhceal 
 diseases have been more thoroughly investigated than 
 typhoid fever. Happily the visitations of cholera 
 have been rare of late years, so that the opportunities 
 of investigating the pathology and etiology of that 
 disease have not been numerous ; l but when it is 
 
 1 See, however, as to the investigations of Professors Hal Her and De 
 Bary, as to the cholera-fungus, the results of which are abstracted in 
 Mr. Simon's Ninth Report of the Medical Officer of the Privy Council 
 (published in 1867), pp. 29, 512, 515, 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 73 
 
 remembered that upwards of seventy-three thousand 
 persons have died of enteric fever in England alone 
 during the last nine years, it will be seen that the op- 
 portunities of investigation have been numerous enough ; 
 for, of course, the number of deaths must be taken to 
 be small in proportion to the number of persons affected 
 by the disease, if any estimate of incidence and fatality 
 can be founded on the Caterham and Eedhill epidemic, 
 where 352 persons suffered from the disease, but only 
 twenty-one died of it. For a long time it was a question 
 whether the poison of this disease was generated de 
 novo from decaying organic matter, or whether it could 
 only arise by continuous generation. The former view 
 was held by the late Dr. Murchison, the latter by Dr. 
 Budd, and we see that the most recent authority upon 
 the subject, Dr. Cayley, thinks the weight of argument 
 against the theory of the pythogenic origin of the 
 disease, and believes that the continuous propaga- 
 tion of the disease is now universally admitted. 1 
 We believe that at one time the evils resulting from 
 the infiltration of sewage into wells was doubted, exactly 
 as the evils resulting from a similar contamination of 
 rivers is at the present time. Let us quote some 
 instances of poisoning from the infiltration of un- 
 healthy sewage into well water, cases which bear 
 upon the question of the specificity of the poison of 
 these diseases. It is unnecessary, after the description 
 already given of it, to refer again to Dr. Thome Thome's 
 convincing report as to the Caterham epidemic. 
 
 1 Croonian Lectures for 1880. British Med. Journal, 13th March ; 1880. 
 
74 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 " The water supply pipes of the town (Over Darwen)," 
 says Dr. Cayley, " were leaky, and the soil through 
 which they passed was soaked at one spot by the 
 sewage of a particular house. No harm resulted until 
 a young lady, suffering from typhoid fever, was brought 
 to the house from a distant place ; within three weeks 
 of her arrival the disease broke out, and 1,500 persons 
 were attacked." This case is interesting, as it would 
 have been thought very difficult to infect water in 
 pipes, even although the pipes were leaking at the 
 time. It indicates, however, that persons may go on 
 taking healthy sewage with impunity, and that the 
 real danger occurs when unhealthy sewage has access 
 to the water. Dr. Cayley goes on: "Another well- 
 marked instance occurred at Calne. A laundress 
 occupied the middle one of a row of three houses 
 supplied by one well into which the slops of the 
 laundress's house leaked. She on one occasion received 
 the linen soiled by the discharges of a case of typhoid 
 fever, and after fourteen days cases occurred in all 
 three houses. At Nunney, a number of houses received 
 their water supply from a foul brook contaminated by 
 the leakage of the cesspool of one of the houses, but 
 no fever showed itself, till a man. ill with typhoid fever, 
 came from a distance to these houses. In about four- 
 teen days an outbreak of fever took place in all the 
 houses." There can be no doubt then, that water can 
 be, and very frequently is, the carrier of the causes 
 of intestinal epidemic diseases ; and it would seem that 
 any water, into which sewage infected by the discharges 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 75 
 
 of persons suffering from such diseases, has found 
 its way, might be the means, if it was subsequently 
 consumed in. the course of diet, of propagating these 
 specific diseases. It is upon this ground, as we under- 
 stand it, that Dr. Frankland than whom there is 
 no greater chemical authority on any question affecting 
 water supply is so much opposed to the adoption of 
 any water for supply into which sewage has been 
 poured. It matters not, if we understand him, that 
 chemical analysis cannot show that the water is an 
 unwholesome one. If chemical analysis shows that 
 the water has been previously contaminated by sewage, 
 that is reason enough for rejecting it as a potable 
 water. If there has been sewage in the water, it may 
 have been unhealthy sewage, analysis cannot say it 
 was or was not, and hence the risk. It seems to us, 
 that possibly too great a reliance has been placed by 
 many chemists upon chemical analysis. Common 
 sense is revolted by water which is mixed with sewage, 
 and although common sense is often far behind science, 
 in many cases like children who stray before grown- 
 up people, it runs before. But do not take this estimate 
 of the value of analysis upon our authority. " The 
 chemist cannot point to the specific infecting substance," 
 but " can tell you whether the water is open to sus- 
 picion. Whether it is injurious to health can only 
 be determined by physiological tests." 1 That is the 
 opinion both of Dr. Frankland and of Dr. Alfred Hill. 
 
 1 Cheltenham Water Bill, 1878, p. 167, Question 2872 ; and p. 162, 
 Question 2809. 
 
76 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 It is true that Dr. Tidy says : " All things which it 
 is necessary to consider with respect to the purity of 
 water, are attainable by chemical analysis." 1 But he 
 admitted in another case that, the discharges of a 
 typhoid patient would be more unhealthy than the 
 sewage of a healthy person/ 2 and we do not under- 
 stand him to hold that chemical analysis can distinguish 
 between the excrementitious matter of healthy persons, 
 and persons labouring under diarrhceal diseases. Mr. 
 Crookes, who was called to give evidence in favour 
 of the Wear water in the Durham case, said, " Chemical 
 analysis would not show whether the constituents 
 present were in such a form as to produce disease." 3 
 It is evident, then, that if the view we have alluded 
 to be correct, that it is only the specific excreta of 
 persons suffering from typhoid fever which give the 
 disease, and that these may be conveyed to the indi- 
 vidual in various ways, amongst which water is one 
 of the most common, that nothing but a physiological 
 test can determine whether sewage-infected water is 
 specifically infected or not, for no chemical analysis 
 can, as we said, distinguish healthy from unhealthy 
 sewage. How then can it be that chemistry can, as 
 Dr. Tidy seems to think, give you a sufficient answer 
 as to the wholesomeness or unwholesomeness of water ? 
 We may point out that all the evidence we have quoted 
 from Dr. Cayley's lectures is in entire conformity with 
 
 1 Durham Water Bill, 1878, p. 32, Question 529. 
 
 2 Stockton and Middlesborough Water Bill, 1876, p. 126, Question 
 
 3 Durham Water Bill, 1878, p. 40, Questions 664, 666. 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 77 
 
 the view so often expressed by Dr. Frankland, that 
 " normal sewage may be drunk with impunity/' 1 or 
 as he put it on another occasion, "water mixed with 
 healthy sewage is quite wholesome to drink ; probably 
 half the population of the country are drinking such 
 water." 2 This is, too, the view of many other eminent 
 sanitary authorities, 3 and Dr. Odling, one of them, in 
 the same case said : " Ordinarily speaking, I should 
 have no objection to drinking the water of Darlington, 
 knowing that the sewage of Barnard Castle was poured 
 into it ; but if I heard that there was an outbreak of 
 fever at Barnard Castle I should be shy," and he added, 
 " there is a certain amount of risk which ought to 
 be avoided." 4 The difficulty of course arises as to the 
 physiological tests, which are the only indications of 
 the presence of the specific poison in the water. How- 
 ever, these experiments have been made in the past 
 at frightful cost, in relation to some waters. There 
 is one instance which has been often quoted. We 
 quote the case in the words of Dr. Alfred Hill. " In 
 the cholera visitations of 1849 and 1854, when cer- 
 tain parts of London were supplied with the Thames 
 water, cholera was evidently produced by drinking it. 
 
 1 Cheltenham Water Bill, 1878 ; Evidence, p. 170, Question 2910. 
 
 2 Stockton and Middlesborough Bill, 1876; Commons, Evidence, 
 p. 173, Question 534. See also Cheltenham Water Bill ; Evidence of 
 Dr. Alfred Hill, p. 162, Question 2809. 
 
 3 See Stockton and Middlesborough Water Bill, 1876 ; Commons, 
 Evidence of Dr. Alfred Hill, p. 181, Question 624; Cheltenham 
 Water Bill,! 878 ; Dr. Hill, p. 160, Question 2767. 
 
 4 Stockton andiMiddlesborough Water Bill, 1876, p. 184, Questions 
 668, 669. 
 
78 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 In 1849, when the two companies, for instance the 
 Southwark Company and the Lambeth Compam r , drew 
 the water below Battersea Bridge that is to say within 
 the tidal influence, and therefore within the influence 
 of pollution from the sewers the districts supplied by 
 both those companies suffered very much from cholera, 
 and they suffered equally. Then subsequently in the 
 year 1854, when the Southwark and Lambeth Com- 
 panies drew their supplies from different parts of the 
 river, Southwark out of the sewage pollution of the river, 
 and Lambeth above Teddington above that influence 
 then it was found that there was a very high 
 mortality from the cholera in the district supplied by 
 the Southwark Company while there was a very low 
 mortality from the same disease in the district supplied 
 by the Lambeth Company." l Perhaps another good 
 illustration may be taken from the case of the town 
 of Doncaster. " The Don flows from Sheffield and 
 Eotherham to Doncaster. In 1866, according to Dr. 
 Sieman's report, there was cholera from July to October 
 in Sheffield; the epidemic commenced in July, was 
 very bad in August and September, and ceased about 
 the 10th of November, which was about a fortnight 
 after it had ceased at Sheffield. I think that is a very 
 clear illustration of the effect of the cholera on infected 
 sewage carried down a distance of between fifteen and 
 twenty miles from one town to another and carrying 
 
 1 Cheltenham Water Bill, 1878 ; Evidence, p, 156, Questions 2707, 
 2708. We believe that in the one district the mortality per 10,000 
 was 37, while in the other it was 130, and there were 4,000 deaths 
 in all. 
 
WA.TER SUPPLY. 79 
 
 the disease with it." l Dr. Frankland adds as to this 
 case : " I know the case very well myself. The out- 
 break of cholera occurred a little earlier in Sheffield 
 than it did in Doncaster ; the people of Doncaster 
 drank the sewage of the people of Sheffield, and they 
 got the cholera." 2 Another well-known physiological 
 experiment was made abroad. It has been more than 
 once referred to by Dr. Frankland in evidence, 3 but as 
 his description of it was necessarily short, we give the 
 details of this case from Dr. Cayley's Croonian Lecture. 
 " Lausen is a village through which I have no doubt 
 most of my hearers have passed, as it lies on the 
 railway between Basle and Olten, shortly before coining 
 to the great Hauenstein tunnel. It is situated in the 
 Jura, in the valley of the Ergolz, and consists of 103 
 houses with 819 inhabitants; it was remarkably healthy, 
 and resorted to on that account as a place of summer 
 residence. With the exception of six houses, it is 
 supplied with water by a spring with two heads which 
 rises above the village, at the southern foot of a moun- 
 tain called the Stockhalder, composed of oolite. The 
 water is received into a well-built covered reservoir, 
 and is distributed by wooden pipes to four public foun- 
 tains, whence it is drawn by the inhabitants. Six 
 houses had an independent supply, five from wells, one 
 from the mill dam of a paper factory. On August 7th, 
 1872, ten inhabitants of Lausen, living in different 
 
 1 Cheltenham Water Bill, 1878, p. 156, Question 2710. 
 
 8 Ibid, p. 170, Question 2916. 
 
 3 See Stockton and Midcllesborough Water Bill, 1876 ; Evidence 
 p. 171, Question 491; and Wakefield Water Bill, 1876, p. 74, 
 Question 1079. 
 
80 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 houses, were seized by typhoid fever, and during the 
 next nine days fifty-seven other cases occurred, the 
 only houses escaping being those six which were not 
 supplied by the public fountains. The disease con- 
 tinued to spread, and in all 130 persons were attacked, 
 and several children who had been sent to Lausen for 
 the benefit of the fresh air, fell ill after their return 
 home. A careful investigation was made into the cause 
 of this epidemic, and a complete explanation was given. 
 Separated from the valley of the Ergolz, in which 
 Lausen lies, by the Stockhalder, the mountain at the 
 foot of which the spring supplying Lausen rises, is a 
 side valley called the Furlenthal, traversed by a stream, 
 the Furlenbach, which joins the Ergolz just below 
 Lausen, the Stockhalder occupying the fork of the 
 valleys. The Furlenthal contained six farm-houses, 
 which were supplied with drinking water, not from the 
 Furlenbach, but by a spring rising on the opposite side 
 of the valley to the Stockhalder. Now there was reason 
 to believe, that, under certain circumstances, water 
 from the Furlenbach found its way under the Stock- 
 halder into one of the heads of the fountain supplying 
 Lausen. It was noticed that when the meadows on 
 one side of the Furlenthal were irrigated, which was 
 done periodically, the flow of the water in the Lausen 
 spring was increased, rendering it probable that the 
 irrigation water percolated through the superficial strata 
 and found its way under the Stockhalder by subter- 
 ranean channels in the limestone rock. Moreover, 
 some years before, a hole on one occasion formed close 
 to the Furlenbach by the sinking in of the superficial 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 81 
 
 strata, and the stream became diverted into it and 
 disappeared, while shortly afterwards the spring at Lausen 
 began to flow much more abundantly. The hole was 
 filled up, and the Furlenbach resumed its usual course. 
 The Furlenbach was unquestionably contaminated by 
 the privies of the adjacent farm-houses, the soil pits of 
 which communicated with it. Thus from time im- 
 memorial, whenever the meadows of the Furlenthal 
 were irrigated, the contaminated water of the Furlen- 
 bach, after percolation through the superficial strata, 
 and a long underground course, helped to feed one of 
 the two heads of the fountain supplying Lausen. The 
 natural filtration, however, which it underwent, ren- 
 dered it perfectly bright and clear, and chemical 
 examination showed it to be remarkably free from 
 organic impurities ; and Lausen was extremely healthy 
 and exempt from fever. On June 10th one of the 
 peasants of the Furlenthal fell ill with typhoid fever, 
 the source of which was not clearly made out, and 
 passed through a severe attack with relapses, so that he 
 remained ill all the summer ; and on July 10th a girl 
 in the same house, and in August a boy were attacked. 
 Their dejections were certainly in part thrown into the 
 Furlenbach ; and moreover, the soil-pit of the privy 
 communicated with the brook. In the middle of July 
 the meadows of Furlenthal were irrigated as usual for 
 the second hay crop, and within three weeks this was 
 followed by the outbreak of the epidemic at Lausen. 
 
 " In order to demonstrate the connection between the 
 water supply of Lausen and the Furlenbach, the follow- 
 
82 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 ing experiments were performed. The hole I mentioned 
 above, as having on one occasion diverted the Furlen- 
 "bach into the presumed subterranean channels under 
 the Stockhalder, was cleared out, and 18 cwt. of salt 
 were dissolved in water and poured in, and the stream 
 again diverted into it. The next day salt was found 
 in the spring at Lausen. Fifty pounds of wheat flour 
 were then poured into the hole, and the Furlenbach 
 again diverted into it ; but the spring at Lausen con- 
 tinued quite clear, and no reaction of starch could be 
 obtained, showing that the water must have found its 
 way under the Stockhalder, in part by percolation 
 through the porous strata, and not by distinct channels." 1 
 But although the obvious inferences from these cases 
 are not denied, it is said that all the cases upon record 
 only show that diarrhoea, cholera, and typhoid fever are 
 conveyed by water where it has been delivered through 
 close or confined pipes ; but where the excreta of per- 
 sons suffering from these diseases are passed into open 
 rivers and become mixed with large bodies of running 
 water, where it is freely exposed to the air and the 
 various other oxidising agencies, it is rendered inert, and 
 passes away with the other sewage by oxidation. Dr. 
 Odling described this view very clearly in his evidence 
 upon one occasion. "There are several well-established 
 cases," he said, " in which persons have suffered from 
 cholera or typhoid fever, through drinking water into 
 which the discharges of patients suffering from cholera 
 or typhoid fever have been directly poured ; but there 
 
 1 See British Medical Journal, 13th March, 1880. 
 
WAETR SUPPLY. 83 
 
 is no case within my knowledge, in which an accident 
 of that kind has occurred, where there has been any- 
 thing like a run (down a river) of a dozen or even half 
 a dozen miles." * We confess we cannot quite reconcile 
 this opinion with the evidence he gave in the Stockton 
 and Middlesborough case, which we referred to above, 
 in which he said he would be shy of drinking Dar- 
 lington water if he knew there was fever at Barnard 
 Castle, which was seventeen miles above the Company's 
 intake. However it puts the point clearly, and there 
 can be very little doubt that there is one great diffi- 
 culty in the way of saying that the poison of typhoid 
 fever conveyed through running water, before it is 
 taken into a Company's pipes, is the same thing as 
 the poison of typhoid fever when it has not been 
 exposed to the oxidising agents of a river course and 
 that difficulty is the experience of the health of London. 
 If the poison is not rendered inert, how is it that 
 typhoid fever is sporadic, instead of being constantly 
 epidemic in London, seeing that we are drinking 
 water infected by the sewage of 800,000 people, and 
 that enteric fever is always more or less prevalent 
 somewhere in the Thames Valley above the Companies' 
 intake? This consideration seems to weigh with Dr. 
 Cayley, who apparently agrees with those who think 
 that running water will oxidise all the harm out of the 
 excreta of typhoid patients. 2 We cannot understand 
 why, if such is his view, he should lay it down as a rule 
 
 1 Durham Water Bill, 1878, p. 43, Question 715. 
 
 2 Croonian Lecture, British Medical Journal, 20tli March. 
 
 F 2 
 
84 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 in hygiene, as he does, " that human excrements should 
 under no circumstances be mixed with drinking water, 
 however completely they may be subsequently removed 
 by nitration or rendered innocuous by oxidation," and 
 why he should protest against a dictum " that water 
 containing less than a certain proportion of organic 
 impurity, is practically wholesome and fit for drinking, 
 irrespective of its original source." But we believe 
 that the evidence that oxidation does render the germs 
 of disease inert, is not so conclusive as he seems to 
 think. In the first place we have mentioned the well- 
 authenticated case in which the contagion of cholera 
 was carried by the Eiver Don from Sheffield to 
 Doncaster. 1 But further, does not irrigation perform 
 for sewage exactly the same office that a run down a 
 shallow river would ? Does it not oxidise the sewage 
 matter ? And yet does not Dr. Cayley warn people 
 against " trusting to irrigation and downward filtration 
 as a means of purifying water \ " Besides, in the Lausen 
 case there seems not only to have been artificial irriga- 
 tion of the meadows, but natural filtration through 
 porous strata and percolation through rocks, which 
 would, we know, get rid of the impurities from the 
 farm-house privies in exactly the same way as water 
 flowing down a tumbling stream would, 2 and yet the 
 typhoid poison got through the meadows, the surface 
 strata, and the mountain Stockh alder, and poisoned the 
 
 1 Ante, p. 78. 
 
 2 Stockton and Middlesborough "Water Bill, 1875 ; Evidence of 
 Dr. Letheby, p. 85, Question 1503. 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 85 
 
 people at Lausen. Again, it seems certain, although 
 Mr. Michael in his Address on Health says " that the 
 whole evidence leads to the conclusion that such 
 epidemics [epidemics of cholera and diseases of the 
 like type] have always travelled up stream from the 
 outfall of the river to its source," * that cholera travels 
 as often down stream as up. We have mentioned one 
 case in which it went down, and Dr. Hill, in his Evidence 
 on the Cheltenham Bill, states that it travels up river 
 with the traffic and down the river with the water. 2 
 The difficulty of getting authentic statistics as to the 
 real spread of cholera is very great, but our own 
 impression is that they bear out Dr. Hill's statement. 
 
 But there are other reasons for thinking that the 
 view taken by those who hold that a few miles of 
 running water will get rid of the germs of intestinal 
 epidemic diseases, is scarcely warranted. No doubt 
 there is great weight of opinion on each side. Thus 
 Dr. Meymott Tidy has been a consistent advocate of this 
 view, and upon, the 18th of March he read a paper 
 to the Chemical Society upon the subject. He may 
 have strengthened the evidence for this view in the 
 
 1 Address on Health, 1879, p. 28. 
 
 2 Cheltenham Water Bill, 1878, p. 164, Questions 2841 et seq. It 
 is well known that cholera has a preference for low situations and par- 
 ticularly for the low-lying flats on banks of rivers, especially too 
 where the inhabitants are supplied with, the water from streams, which 
 seem to give a strong reason for supposing that water, even in open 
 river channels, is a carrier of the poison of this disease. In Dr. Snow's 
 work on the Communication of Cholera, 2nd Edition, 1855, and also 
 the Reports of the Registrar-General of England oil Cholera of 1848-9, 
 and his 17th Annual Report for 1854. 
 
86 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 eyes of others, but we do not think he can, by any 
 recent investigations, have increased the tenacity of 
 his own conviction. In giving evidence before the 
 Committee on the Stockton and Middlesborough Bill, 
 1876, he said : " I should say if sewage were mixed 
 with twenty times its bulk of water, and had a run 
 of twenty miles, you would find no sewage, that 
 is to say, the sewage is not to be found by chemical 
 means ; " * and in another place, " I feel perfectly con- 
 vinced that the whole of the sewage of Barnard 
 Castle would be oxidised by such a run, by a very 
 much less run than seventeen miles ; " 2 and in a third 
 place he said, " I have no hesitation in saying that if 
 there was choleraic or typhoid matter entering that 
 water from those people, even supposing there was au 
 epidemic, I should have no hesitation myself in drink- 
 ing the water at a distance of eight or ten miles from 
 the place where it entered." 3 In other cases he ex- 
 pressed equally strong and confident views. 4 In the 
 Cheltenham case Mr. Crookes, who, like Dr. Tidy, 
 admits that such diseases can be propagated by water, 
 took a somewhat similar view as to the effects of a run 
 down stream upon sewage. 5 And Dr. Odling, some- 
 what inconsistently, we venture to think, with the 
 evidence he gave in the Stockton and Middlesborough 
 
 1 Evidence, p. 125, Ques. 1636. 2 Evidence, p. 124, Ques. 1G29. 
 
 3 Evidence, p. 166, Question 1644. 
 
 4 Cheltenham Water Bill, 1878, p. 106, Question 1427 ; p. 108, 
 Question 1464 ; and p. 109, Question 1465 ; Durham Water Bill, 1878, 
 p. 32, Question 528. 
 
 6 Cheltenham Water Bill, 1878, p. 113, Question 1531. 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 87 
 
 case, when speaking of the sewage and organic sub- 
 stances, said, " Though noxious when put in at Worces- 
 ter, sixteen miles above, they are innocuous when they 
 arrive at this point" (the Company's intake at 
 Tewkesbury). 1 Mr. Hawkesley, speaking, in the same 
 case, of sewage in small quantity poured into a large 
 body of water, said, " It cannot by any possibility 
 continue to be sewage even a couple of miles. It is 
 utterly impossible. It is all burnt up by the oxygen 
 in the water, and utterly destroyed." 2 
 
 On the other hand, Dr. Hill thought that the facts 
 were against Mr. Hawkesley's statement. 3 The Eivers 
 Pollution Commissioners stated that although oxidation 
 did take place in rivers, there was no river in England 
 long enough to effect the destruction of sewage by 
 this means, and Dr. Frankland repeated that statement 
 in his evidence before the Committee on the Chelten- 
 ham Water Bill, 1878, 4 and in another case, upon being 
 asked, what would be a sufficiently long run for such 
 a purpose, he said, " Not less than 200 miles." 5 That 
 in a run of sixteen miles in the Severn, the sewage 
 of Worcester would not be destroyed, he was certain. 
 He said, " It is a matter of demonstration ; " and he 
 stated that Blackburn puts its sewage into the Darwen, 
 and that he had traced it thirteen miles below that 
 town. Although some oxidation had been effected, 
 
 1 Cheltenham Water Bill, 1878, p. 133, Question 1751. 
 
 2 Ibid, p. 91, Question 1210. 3 Ibid, p. 156, Question 2713. 
 
 4 Evidence, p. 166, Question 2867. 
 
 5 Stockton and Middlesborough Water Bill, 1876 ; Commons, Evi- 
 dence, p. 174, Question 520. 
 
WATEE SUPPLY. 
 
 nearly the whole of the sewage was still in the water. 
 And his experience was the same in the Irwell, below 
 Manchester, in the Mersey, and in the Thames below 
 Beading, his conclusion being that " the oxidation in any 
 moderate flow of fifteen or twenty miles is very slight 
 indeed." 1 It would be easy to accumulate opinions and 
 evidence upon both sides of this disputed question, but 
 we may mention the opinion of Professor Way, who 
 believes in a considerable amount of oxidation in 
 rivers, but points to the difficulty in the way of the 
 confident consumption of water in the manner that 
 Dr. Tidy spoke of, viz., that it is impossible to tell 
 when the oxidation is completed. 2 
 
 But it is unnecessary to go further with our quota- 
 tions, for it seems to us quite possible to suppose 
 that the sewage may have been got rid of by oxidation, 
 and at the same time to hold that the specific poison, 
 which is admitted to be the cause of diarrhceal dis- 
 eases, although it passes into the water with the 
 sewage, is not destroyed at the same time, or by the 
 same means. We cannot help thinking that the fact 
 that decaying vegetable and animal matter is got rid 
 of by a longer or shorter run down a shallow river, 
 will not prove that living matter will be got rid of, 
 or, as Dr. Cayley puts it, be rendered inert by a similar 
 process, There is very strong evidence in favour of 
 the theory that diseases are propagated by specific 
 germs. The ingenious question which is usually put 
 
 1 Cheltenham Water Bill, 1878 ; Evidence, p. 166, Question 2867. 
 
 2 Ibid. p. 185, Question 3119 ; and p. 186, Question 3126. 
 
WATEE SUPPLY. 89 
 
 by counsel to any believer in the germ theory of dis- 
 ease, whether he has ever seen a germ, may seem 
 pertinent, but it really has nothing to do with the 
 subject. There are many things which we believe and 
 know to exist, and which we have not seen. We 
 believe light to be propagated and radiated through 
 and by means of an imponderable ether, and that not 
 because we have seen it, but because all the facts with 
 which we are acquainted can best be explained by the 
 supposition of such a medium. But there are a great 
 many reasons for supposing that, just as wounds used 
 to go wrong in consequence of their non-protection 
 from germs, which are now kept at bay by the anti- 
 septic system of surgery there may be analogous 
 germs which grow and multiply their kind when placed 
 in favourable conditions. But the evidence is not 
 merely that the theory of disease, and all the facts in 
 connection with it, can be better explained by sup- 
 posing the existence of germs than by any other 
 supposition. We must reason in this matter from 
 analogy, and when we find that an analogous disease 
 has been found to depend upon the existence and the 
 communication of a germ, and that that germ has not 
 only been seen, but named ; and that when the 
 Bacillus anthracis is administered to an animal it will 
 infallibly produce splenic fever in it; we have some 
 reason for believing in the existence of germs in 
 the diarrhceal diseases with which we have most to 
 do, in considering questions of water supply. But 
 again it must be remembered that other zymotic dis- 
 eases, such as small-pox, cow-pox, glanders, sheep-pox, 
 
90 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 were found by Chaveau to be due to organised granules 
 or germs, and that this view has been confirmed by Dr. 
 Burdon Sanderson. There seem then to be very strong 
 reasons for supposing that cholera, typhoid, and diar- 
 rhoea, are also due to germs, although up to the present 
 time they have not been seen. 1 Many of Dr. Burdon 
 Sanderson's researches were physiological, and while 
 applicable to the specific diseases of animals, are in- 
 applicable to the diseases of man. And we have to 
 trust to the great vivisectionist, Disease, for the ex- 
 periments which enable us, in such cases, to arrive at 
 a conclusion as to the cause of these ailments. There 
 can then be little question, we think, that water is 
 not an unfavourable condition to the germs of these 
 diarrhceal diseases. This is not only proved by the 
 numerous cases we have referred to, but by a great 
 concurrence of testimony on the point. Indeed we 
 may say, that water seems to be one of the best 
 carriers of these diseases. That air is not unfavourable 
 to the continued activity of the germ is certain from 
 many of the cases referred to by Dr. Cayley, and that 
 even boiling does not destroy them is evident from the 
 three most interesting cases collected and recorded by 
 him of poisoning by cooked meat at Andelfingen 
 in 1839, at Thalweil in 1845, and at Kolten in June, 
 1878. 2 If, then, germs can survive such unfavourable 
 
 1 The germs of relapsing fever, too, were discovered by Dr. Obermeier 
 of Berlin, and the subject has been investigated by Professor Cohn. 
 See Dr. Alfred Carpenter's "Remarks upon the First Principles of 
 Sanitary Work." British Medical Journal, Oct. 25th, 1879, p. 646. 
 
 2 See Croonian Lectures, Lecture I. Published in British Medical 
 Journal, 28th March, 1880. 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 91 
 
 conditions as these, is there any reason to suppose that 
 they would be burnt up by the oxidation in a river 
 in running a few miles ? Then, as we understand 
 it, oxidation does not apply to living matter, and that 
 is the view taken by various authorities. " Living 
 matter," says Dr. Alfred Hill, " does not get oxidised 
 by flowing down a stream any more than a fish," l and 
 again seeing that " it is not decomposing animal matter 
 which is prejudicial, but actually living matter in the 
 water," 2 " mere dilution by water does not deprive it of 
 its dangerous qualities." 3 And Dr. Frankland says, " I 
 do not think it possible by any practicable means that 
 have been suggested, so to purify sewage as to guarantee 
 its freedom from these elements of disease these germs 
 of disease ; " 4 and again, " Twenty or thirty, or even 
 fifty or sixty miles makes very little difference to those 
 specific germs." 5 We cannot, under these circum- 
 stances, wonder at the opinion of these two eminent 
 observers, that if a spoonful of unhealthy sewage is 
 put into the Thames at Oxford it may poison some 
 persons in London ; 6 but, at the same time, we cannot 
 but wonder, that under these circumstances epidemics 
 of typhoid and diarrhoea are not of more frequent, are 
 
 1 Cheltenham Water Bill, 1878, p. 162, Question 2805. 
 
 2 Wakefield Water Bill, 1874, p. 177, Question 2785; Evidence of 
 Dr. Frankland. 
 
 3 Cheltenham Water Bill, 1878 ; Dr. Hill's Evidence, p. 162, 
 Question 2806. 
 
 4 Ibid, p. 168, Question 2882. 
 
 5 lbid t p. 171, Question 2924. 
 
 6 Ibid t Evidence of Dr. Frankland, p. 171, Question 2923; Evidence 
 of Dr. Alfred Hill, p. 160, Question 2772. 
 
92 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 not of constant occurrence in the metropolis. If the 
 chance-spilt excrement of one man in the Caterham 
 well could cause such an epidemic as that to which 
 we have referred, how is it that London is so free from 
 epidemics as it is, seeing that its main supply of water 
 is drawn from the Thames ? Dr. Tidy in one case 
 stated, that the death-rate in the parts of London sup- 
 plied by the deep chalk well waters of the Kent 
 Water Company, is greater than the death-rate of 
 places supplied with the water of the Thames or Lea, 
 and that all the- zymotic diseases, typhoid, and scarlet 
 fever, are also higher in those first-mentioned districts. 1 
 We see, however, that he does not speak thus strongly 
 in his work on The London Water Supply, but says 
 that he "has failed to discover any difference worth 
 noting in death-rates, or any evidence whatsoever that 
 any special class of disease has been prevalent from 
 drinking the water of the Thames or Lea, or absent 
 from the use of the chalk water." 2 And this fact is, 
 it must be confessed, somewhat difficult of explanation. 
 Dr. Cayley seems to attribute most of the sporadic 
 cases of typhoid fever which are to be met with in 
 London, to emanations from the drains and to the in- 
 sanitary conditions which favour the access of the 
 poison in this way to its victims ; but we believe that 
 other observers are of opinion, that a larger proportion 
 of these cases is to be traced to the supply of water 
 than Dr. Cayley seems to think ; and we may say that 
 
 1 Durham Water Bill, 1878, p. 32, Question 532. 
 8 Pages 68, 69. 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 93 
 
 Dr. Cay ley does not give many or any cases of poison- 
 ing by sewer-gas, while lie does give many, of the 
 conveyance of the poison by means of water. Still 
 there are many facts in this relation which seem to be 
 inexplicable upon any established hypothesis, and we 
 must be content to wait for the fuller revelation which 
 may be reached through long bills of mortality in time 
 to come. We would, however, repeat here as all-im- 
 portant, a quotation we have already made from Dr. 
 Cayley's Croonian Lecture, " I think these two instances 
 [the Caterham and Lausen cases] are sufficient of them- 
 selves to serve as a warning against trusting to irri- 
 gation and downward nitration as a means of purifying 
 water, and also against the dictum that water containing 
 less than a certain proportion of organic impurity is 
 practically wholesome and fit for drinking, irrespective 
 of its original source. It ought, I think, to be laid 
 down as a rule of hygiene that human excrements 
 should under no circumstances be mixed with drinking 
 water, however completely they may be subsequently 
 removed by filtration or rendered innocuous by oxida- 
 tion. Of course in the case of London this can only 
 be looked upon as an ideal to be realised in some 
 distant future ; but with less than this we ought not to 
 rest satisfied." 1 
 
 We have not thought it necessary to deal with many 
 questions indirectly connected with our subject, as, for 
 instance, the important question whether waterworks 
 
 1 British Medical Journal, 20th March, 1880. 
 
94 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 and the supply of water should be in the hands of 
 private enterprise or of public sanitary authorities. 
 We have not dealt with that matter here, because we 
 dwelt upon it at some length in another place. 1 The 
 question has also been treated by Mr. Michael in his 
 Address on Health. 2 We may, however, say a word, 
 before concluding, as to the way in which water com- 
 panies, where the supply is in their hands, raise their 
 capital. It is well known that Gas Companies, under 
 an order of the House of Commons which became a 
 Standing Order in 1877, 3 when they seek to increase 
 their capital, are no longer allowed to distribute the 
 new capital amongst their shareholders at par, as they 
 used to do, but must sell the new shares at auction, and 
 any premium realised upon the shares goes into the 
 capital of the undertaking, but does not bear dividend, 
 and consequently inures to the benefit of the con- 
 sumer. With this clause, which is now, unless there 
 are very special circumstances, inserted in all 
 Gas Acts, is usually associated a sliding-scale clause, 
 which enables the Company, if it reduces the price 
 of gas to the consumers under a certain fixed price, 
 called the " standard price," to divide more in- 
 terest, every penny of reduction entitling the Company 
 to divide one-quarter per cent, more of dividend. 4 
 
 1 See The Compulsory Purchase of Companies' Undertakings by 
 Corporations. 
 
 2 See pp. 31, 32. 
 
 3 Standing Order, 188a. 
 
 4 See article on "Auction Clauses and Sliding-Scale," in Railway 
 Times, 21st July, 1877. 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 95 
 
 There may be reasons why these clauses should be 
 imposed upon Gas Companies and not upon Water 
 Companies, but these are not obvious to some persons, 
 and there are cases in which the auction clauses have 
 been inserted in the Water Bills, and cases in which they 
 have been asked for in the interest of the consumers, 
 and refused. This is the experience of the leader of 
 the Parliamentary Bar, Sir Edmund Beckett, Q.C., 
 than whom no one is more familiar with Parliamentary 
 precedent. "In 1854 the Nottingham Waterworks' 
 Company adopted, I do not know under what circum- 
 stances, the auction clauses. In 1874 they desired to 
 raise more money, and the Corporation endeavoured in 
 both Houses to have these clauses applied to that 
 capital, and did not succeed. Not only did the Cor- 
 poration of Nottingham fail, but the Corporation of 
 Sunderland failed a few years ago, the Corporation of 
 Liverpool failed, and the Corporation of Chesterfield 
 also failed ; those are the only cases where the auction 
 clauses once existed, as I told you, for some reasons 
 temporarily or otherwise, and nevertheless when all 
 these companies in one case both gas and water 
 came to Parliament for increase of capital, the Cor- 
 porations failed in persuading Parliament to compel 
 them to sell their shares by auction." l But in that 
 case in connection with which the speech we have 
 quoted from was delivered the Committee of the 
 
 1 Nottingham Water Bill, 1878 ; Speech of Sir Edmund Beckett, 
 Q.C., p. 6. 
 
96 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 House of Commons directed the auction clauses to be 
 inserted in the Bill. 1 
 
 Every reader will remember the story with which 
 Macaulay begins one of his essays, of the pious 
 Brahmin who had made a vow that he would sacri- 
 fice a sheep, and who went forth to buy one, when he 
 was waylaid by a neighbour who had come to know 
 of his purpose, and was in league with other crafty- 
 minded men to deceive the Brahmin, who offered him 
 an ugly cur abhorred as a sacrifice, saying it was the 
 sheep he required. Dispute arose as to whether this 
 mangy animal was a sheep of fine fleece or a mongrel 
 cur, when one of the conspirators came up and swore 
 that the dog was a sheep, and praised the Gods for 
 the lucky chance which had saved him the trouble of 
 going to the sheep-market, whither, it appeared, he 
 was bound to buy a sheep. " When the Brahmin heard 
 this," says Macaulay, "his mind wavered to and fro. 
 ' Sir/ said he to the new-comer, ' take heed what thou 
 doest; this is no sheep, but an unclean cur.' 'Oh 
 Brahmin/ said the other, ' thou art drunk or mad.' 
 And then the third conspirator came up and would 
 have it that the dog was a sheep, so that at last the 
 Brahmin was over-persuaded, purchased the dog, 
 offered it up to the Gods, who, being angry at the 
 unclean sacrifice, smote him with sore disease in all 
 his joints." Macaulay uses the story merely for a 
 literary purpose ; but might it not be used in a sani- 
 tary connection? Have not men been willing to 
 1 Minutes of Proceedings, 22nd March, 1878, p. 113. 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 97 
 
 sacrifice much to have the blessings of health upon 
 their households ; and have they not gone out to in- 
 quire of the College of Physicians what they must 
 do to be saved from disease ; and have not these 
 medical savants told them that they must have a 
 splendid system of drains spreading into every house, 
 and that they must ha,ve water laid on into every 
 cistern ? Have not these physicians, in the wide con- 
 federacy of ignorance, insisted that those poisonous 
 snakes, drains, and those other serpents, water-pipes, 
 were salutary metal serpents, upon which we had 
 only to look favourably and live ; and have not we, 
 believing them, taken these vipers into our house- 
 holds and been smitten with sore diseases in all our 
 joints ? 
 
 We do not exaggerate. Dr. Cayley says that Sir 
 John Harrington, who in the reign of Elizabeth in- 
 vented water-closets, is responsible for most of the 
 typhoid fever we suffer from ; and does he not in the 
 same lecture refer to the waste-pipes from our cisterns, 
 which with open mouths pour the poison of the sewer 
 into our cup ? These considerations seem to be suffi- 
 cient reason for scrupulous care as to the choice and 
 management of our water sources and supply, and must 
 be our excuse for having offered these remarks upon 
 a subject, the importance of which can scarcely be 
 exaggerated. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 WAKEFIELD WATERS. 
 
 WAY AND OGSTON. 
 In 100,000 parts. 
 
 
 Wath Main Collery. 
 
 Town 
 supply. 
 April 9. 
 
 March 30. 
 
 April 16. 
 
 Chlorine 
 
 8'84 
 3-11 
 4-96 
 3-23 
 0-29 
 16-34 
 11-34 
 1-71 
 
 4-79 
 4-10 
 5-60 
 3'37 
 0-39 
 11-74 
 11-16 
 2-86 
 
 2-47 
 9-11 
 5-70 
 2-67 
 0-44 
 
 J7-70 
 
 2-28 
 
 Sulphuric Acid 
 
 Lime 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 Silica, Oxide of Iron, &c 
 Soda 
 Carbonic Acid (as Carbonates) 
 Loss in burning (Organic Matter, &c.) 
 
 Ammonia 
 
 49-82 
 
 44-01 30-37 
 
 009 
 001 
 
 010 
 004 
 
 005 
 006 
 
 Albuminoid Ammonia 
 
 /-Temporary 
 Hardness J 
 ( Permanent 
 
 TOTAL. 
 
 14-0 
 2-1 
 
 13-3 
 
 2-4- 
 
 6-0 
 11-7 
 
 16-1 
 
 157 
 
 17-7 
 
 Carbonate of Soda 
 
 10-63 ! 7-34 
 
 None. 
 
 
102 
 
 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
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BEDFORD STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON, 
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PHYSICAL SCIENCE. 11 
 
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12 SCIENTIFIC CATALOGUE. 
 
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16 SCIENTIFIC CATALOGUE. 
 
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 Engineering, Yedo. With numerous Woodcuts, Numerical Ex- 
 amples, and Exercises. i8mo. 4-r. 6d. 
 
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 Part II., io.y. 6d. 
 
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PHYSICAL SCIENCE. 17 
 
 Rendu. THE THEORY OF THE GLACIERS OF SAVOY. 
 
 By M. LE CHANOINE RENDU. Translated by A. WELLS, Q.C., 
 late President of the Alpine Club. To which are added, the Original 
 Memoir and Supplementary Articles by Professors TAIT and Rus- 
 KIN. Edited with Introductory remarks by GEORGE FORBES, B.A., 
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 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY, INORGANIC 
 AND ORGANIC. With numerous Illustrations and Chromo- 
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 CHEMICAL PROBLEMS, adapted to the above by Professor 
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 PRIMER OF CHEMISTRY. Illustrated. i8mo. is. 
 
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 Vol. II., Part II. Metals. 8vo. i8j. 
 
 " Regarded as a treatise on the Non-metallic Elements, there can be 
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 B 
 
1 8 SCIENTIFIC CA TALOG UE. 
 
 Shann. AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON HEAT, IN 
 
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 By G. SHANN, M. A. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo. ^s. 6d. 
 
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 ciples upon which Genera are founded, and the Systems of Classifi- 
 cation of the principal Authors, with a new General Arrangement, 
 &c. By J. SMITH. A.L.S., ex-Curator of the Royal Botanic 
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 Crown 8vo. 6s. [Vol. II. nearly ready. 
 
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 F.R.S., Dr. SIEMENS, Prof. BARRETT, Dr. BURDEN-SANDER- 
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 Stewart (B.). Works by BALFOUR STEWART, F.R.S.^Professoi 
 
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 LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY PHYSICS. With numerous 
 Illustrations and Chromolithos of the Spectra of the Sun, Stars, 
 and Nebula. New Edition. Fcap. 8vo. 4*. 6d. 
 The Educational Times calls this the beau-ideal of a scientific text- 
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 PRIMER OF PHYSICS. With Illustrations. New Edition, with 
 
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 Stewart and Tait. THE UNSEEN UNIVERSE: or, 
 
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PHYSICAL SCIENCE. 19 
 
 Stone. ELEMENTARY LESSONS ON SOUND. By Dr. 
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 With Illustrations. Fcap. 8vo. 3^. 6d. 
 
 Tait. LECTURES ON SOME RECENT ADVANCES IN 
 PHYSICAL SCIENCE. By P. G. TAIT, M.A., Professor of 
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 revised and enlarged, with the Lecture on Force delivered before 
 the British Association. Crown 8vo. 9*. 
 
 Tanner. FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. By 
 
 HENRY TANNER, F.C.S., Professor of Agricultural Science, 
 University College, Aberystwith, Examiner in the Principles of 
 Agriculture under the Government Department of Science. i8mo. 
 is. 
 
 Taylor. SOUND AND MUSIC : A Non- Mathematical Trea- 
 tise on the Physical Constitution of Musical Sounds and Harmony, 
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 holtz. By SEDLEY TAYLOR, M.A., late Fellow of Trinity Col. 
 ledge, Cambridge. Large crown 8vo. 8s. 6d. 
 " In no previous scientific treatise do we remember so exhaustive and 
 
 so richly illustrated a description of forms of vibration and of 
 
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 THE DEPTHS OF THE SEA : An Account of the General 
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 "Lightning" during the Summers of 1868-69 and 70, under the 
 scientific direction of Dr. Carpenter, F.R.S., J. Gwyn Jeffreys, 
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 Illustrations and 8 coloured Maps and Plans. Second Edition. 
 Royal 8vo. cloth, gilt. i>\s. 6d. 
 
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 who wish to be pleasantly introduced to the subject, and rightly 
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 THE VOYAGE OF THE " CHALLENGER." THE ATLAN- 
 TIC. A Preliminary account of the Exploring Voyages of H.M.S. 
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 of the Author, engraved by C. H. JEENS. 2 Vols. Medium 8vo. 42.?. 
 The Times say s : " // is right that the publi-c should have some 
 authoritative account of the general results of the expedition, and 
 B 2 
 
20 SCIENTIFIC CATALOGUE. 
 
 Thomson continued. 
 
 that as many of the ascertained data as may be accepted with con- 
 fidence should speedily find their place in the general body of 
 scientific knowledge. No one can be more competent than the 
 accomplished scientific chief of the expedition to satisfy the public in 
 this respect. . . . The paper, printing, and especially the numerous 
 illustrations, are of the highest quality. . . . We have rarely, if 
 ever, seen more beautiful specimens of wood engraving than abound 
 in this work. . . . Sir Wyville Thomsons style is partictilarly 
 attractive ; he is easy and graceful, but vigorous and exceedingly 
 happy in the choice of language, and throughout the work there are 
 touches which show that science has not banished sentiment from 
 his bowm" 
 
 Thudichum and Dupre. A TREATISE ON THE 
 ORIGIN, NATURE, AND VARIETIES OF WINE. 
 Being a Complete Manual of Viticulture and GEnology. By J. L. 
 W. THUDICHUM, M.D., and AUGUST DUPRE, Ph.D., Lecturer on 
 Chemistry at Westminster Hospital. Medium 8vo. cloth gilt. 25*. 
 
 ' 1 A treatise almost unique for its usefulness either to the wine-grower, 
 the vendor, or the consumer of wine. The analyses of wine are 
 the most complete we have yet seen, exhibiting at a glance the 
 constituent principles oj nearly all the wines known in this country." 
 Wine Trade Review. 
 
 Wallace (A. R.). Works by ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE. 
 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE THEORY OF NATURAL 
 SELECTION. A Series of Essays. New Edition, with 
 Corrections and Additions. Crown 8vo. Ss. 6d. 
 
 The Saturday Review says : "He has combined an abundance of 
 fresh and original facts with a liveliness and sagacity of reasoning 
 which are not often displayed so effectively on so small a scale" 
 
 THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS, 
 with a study of the Relations of Living and Extinct Faunas as 
 Elucidating the Past Changes of the Earth's Surface. 2 vols. 8vo. 
 with Maps, and numerous Illustrations by Zwecker, 42^. 
 
 The Times says: " Altogether it is a wonderful and fascinating 
 story, whatever objections may be taken to theories founded upon 
 it. Mr. Wallace has not attempted to add to its interest by any 
 adornments oj style ; he has given a simple and clear statement of 
 intrinsically interesting facts, and what he considers to be legiti- 
 mate inductions from them. Naturalists ought to be grateful to 
 him for having undertaken so toilsome a task. The work, indeed, 
 is a credit to all concerned the author, the publishers, the artist 
 unfortunately ncnv no more of the attractive illustrations last 
 but by no means least, Mr. Stanford's map-designer" 
 
PHYSICAL SCIENCE. 2 i 
 
 Wallace (A. R.) continued. 
 
 , TROPICAL NATURE : with other Essays. 8vo. I2j. 
 
 " Ncnvhere amid the many descriptions of the tropics that have been 
 given is to be found a summary of the past history and actual 
 phenomena of the tropics which gives that 'which is distinctive of 
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 sively." Saturday Review. 
 
 Warington. THE WEEK OF CREATION; OR, THE 
 
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 RELATION TO MODERN SCIENCE. By GEORGE WAR- 
 INGTON, Author of "The Historic Character of the Pentateuch 
 Vindicated." Crown 8vo. 4^. 6d. 
 
 Wilson. RELIGIO CHEMICI. By the late GEORGE WILSON, 
 M.D., F.R.S.E., Regius Professor of Technology in the University 
 of Edinburgh. With a Vignette beautifully engraved after a 
 design by Sir NOEL PATON. Crown 8vo. Ss. 6d. 
 
 Wilson (Daniel). CALIBAN: a Critique on Shakespeare's 
 "Tempest" and "Midsummer Night's Dream." By DANIEL 
 WILSON, LL.D., Professor of History and English Literature in 
 University College, Toronto. 8vo. IQJ. 6d. 
 
 ' ' The whole volume is most rich in the eloquence of thought and 
 imagination as well as of words. It is a choice contribution at 
 once to science, theology, religion, and literature." British 
 Quarterly Review. 
 
 Wright. METALS AND THEIR CHIEF INDUSTRIAL 
 APPLICATIONS. By C. ALDER WRIGHT, D.Sc., &c., Lec- 
 turer on Chemistry in St. Mary's Hospital School. Extra fcap. 
 Svo. 3^. 6d. 
 
 Wurtz. A HISTORY OF CHEMICAL THEORY, from the 
 Age of Lavoisier down to the present time. By AD. WURTZ. 
 Translated by HENRY WATTS, F.R.S. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 ' ' The discourse, as a resume of chemical theory and research, unites 
 singular luminousness and grasp. A few Judicious notes are added 
 by the translator." Pall Mall Gazette. " The treatment of the 
 subject is admirable, and the translator has evidently done his duly 
 most efficiently." Westminster Review. 
 
24 SCIENTIFIC CATALOGUE. 
 
 Elementary Science Class-books continued. 
 
 Physics LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY PHYSICS. By 
 BALFOUR STEWART, F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy in 
 Owens College, Manchester. With numerous Illustrations and 
 Chromo-Litho of the Spectra of the Sun, Stars, and Nebulae. New 
 Edition. Fcap. 8vo. 4*. 6d. 
 
 Anatomy LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY ANATOMY. By 
 
 ST. GEORGK MIVART, F. R.S., Lecturer in Comparative Anatomy 
 at St. Mary's Hospital. With upwards of 400 Illustrations. Fcap. 
 8vo. 6s. 6d. 
 
 Mechanics AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE. By A. B. 
 
 W. KENNEDY, C.E , Professor of Applied Mechanics in University 
 College, London. With Illustrations. [Jn preparation. 
 
 Steam. AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE. By JOHN PERRY, 
 
 Professor of Engineering, Imperial College of Engineering, Yedo. 
 With numerous Woodcuts and Numerical Examples and Exercises. 
 i8mo. 4* 1 . 6d. 
 
 Physical Geography. _ ELEMENTARY LESSONS IN 
 PHYSICAL GEOGKAPHY. By A. GEIKIE, F.R.S., Murchi- 
 son Professor of Geology, &c., Edinburgh. With numerous 
 Illustrations. Fcap. iwo. 4^. 6d. 
 QUESTIONS ON THE SAME. is. 6d. 
 
 Geography CLASS-BOOK OF GEOGRAPHY. By C. B. 
 CLARKE, M.A.. F.R.G.S. Fcap. Svo. zs. 6d. 
 
 Natural Philosophy NATURAL PHILOSOPHY FOR 
 BEGINNERS. By I. TODHUNTER, M.A., F.K.S. Part I. 
 The Properties of Solid and Fluid Bodies. imo. 3*. 6d. Part 
 II. Sound, Light, and Heat. iSmo. $s. 6d. 
 
 Sound AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE. By Er. W. H. 
 
 STONE. With Illustrations. iSrao. 3-r. 6d. 
 
 Others in Preparation. 
 
 MANUALS FOR STUDENTS. 
 
 Crown Svo. 
 
 Dyer and Vines THE STRUCTURE OF PLANTS. By 
 
 Professor THISELTON DYER, F.R.S., assisted by SYDNEY 
 VINES, B.Sc., Fellow and Lecturer of Christ's College, Cambridge. 
 With numerous Illustrations. [In preparation. 
 
MANUALS FOR STUDENTS. 25 
 
 Manuals for Students continued. 
 
 Fawcett A MANUAL OF POLITICAL ECONOMY. By 
 
 Professor FAWCETT, M.P. New Edition, revised and enlarged. 
 Crown 8vo. 12s. 6d. 
 
 Fleischer A SYSTEM OF VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS. 
 Translated, with Notes and Additions, from the second German 
 Edition, by M. M. PATTISON Mum, F.R.S.E. With Illustra- 
 tions. Crown 8vo. 7-y. 6d. 
 
 Flower (W. H.) AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OSTE- 
 OLOGY OF THE MAMMALIA. Beins the Substance of the 
 Course of Lectures delivered at the Royal College of Surgeons of 
 England in 1870. By Professor W. H. FLOWER, F.R.S., 
 F.R.C.S. With numerous Illustrations. New Edition, enlarged. 
 Crown 8vo. los. 6d. 
 
 Foster and Balfour __ THE ELEMENTS OF EMBRY- 
 
 OLOGY. By MICHAEL FOSTER, M.D., F.R.S., and F. M. 
 BALFOUR, M.A. Part I. crown 8vo. 7-r. 6J. 
 
 Foster and Langley A COURSE OF ELEMENTARY 
 
 PRACTICAL PHYSIOLOGY. By MICHAEL FOSTER, M.D., 
 F.R.S., andj. N. LANGLEY, B. A. New Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 
 Hooker (Dr.)_ THE STUDENT'S FLORA OF THE BRITISH 
 
 ISLANDS. By Sir J. D. HOOKER, K. C.S.I., C.B., F.R.S., 
 M.D., D.C.L. New Edition, revised. Globe 8vo. los. 6d. 
 
 Huxley PHYSIOGRAPHY. An Introduction to the Study of 
 Nature. By Professor HUXLEY, F.R.S. With numerous 
 Illustrations, and Coloured Plates. New Edition. Crown Svo. 
 
 Huxley and Martin. _A COURSE OF PRACTICAL IN- 
 STRUCTION IN ELEMENTARY BIOLOGY. By Professor 
 HUXLEY, F.R.S., assisted by H. N. MARTIN, M.B., D.Sc. New 
 Edition, revised. Crown Svo. 6s. 
 
 Huxley and Parker __ ELEMENTARY BIOLOGY. PART 
 
 II. By Professor HUXLEY, F.R.S., assisted by PARKER. 
 With Illustrations. {In preparation. 
 
 Jevons __ THE PRINCIPLES OF SCIENCE. A Treatise on 
 Logic and Scientific Method. By Professor W. STANLEY JEVONS, 
 LL.D., F.R.S. , New and Revised Edition. Crown Svo. I2s. 6d. 
 
26 SCIENTIFIC CATALOGUE. 
 
 Manuals for Students continued. 
 
 Oliver (Professor) FIRST BOOK OF INDIAN BOTANY. 
 By Professor DANIEL OLIVER, F.R.S., F.L.S., Keeper of the 
 Herbarium and Library of the Royal Gardens, Kew. With 
 numerous Illustrations. Extra fcap. 8vo. 6s. 6d. 
 
 Parker and Bettany. THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE 
 SKULL. By Professor PARKER and G. T. BETTANY. Illus- 
 trated. Crown 8vo. IQS. 6d. 
 
 Tait. AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON HEAT. By Pro- 
 fessor^TAiT, F.R.S.E. Illustrated. [In the Press. 
 
 Thomson. ZOOLOGY. By Sir C. WYVILLE THOMSON, 
 F.R.S. Illustrated. [In preparation. 
 
 Tylor and Lankester. ANTHROPOLOGY. By E. B. 
 TYLOR, M.A., F.R.S., and Professor E. RAY LANKESTER, M.A., 
 F.R.S. Illustrated. ._ [In preparation. 
 
 Other volumes of these Manuals will follow. 
 
MENTAL AND MORAL PHILOSOPHY, ETC. 2 
 
 WORKS ON MENTAL AND MORAL 
 PHILOSOPHY, AND ALLIED SUBJECTS. 
 
 Aristotle. AN INTRODUCTION TO ARISTOTLE'S 
 
 RHETORIC. With Analysis, Notes, and Appendices. By E. 
 M. COPE, Trinity College, Cambridge. 8vo. 14^. 
 
 ARISTOTLE ON FALLACIES; OR, THE SOPHISTICI 
 ELENCHI. With a Translation and Notes by EDWARD POSTE, 
 M.A., Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford. 8vo. 8j. 6d. 
 
 Balfour. A DEFENCE OF PHILOSOPHIC DOUBT : being 
 
 an Essay on the Foundations of Belief. By A. J. BALFOUR, 
 M.P. 8vo. i2s. 
 
 11 Jiff. Balfoitr 1 s criticism is exceedingly brilliant and suggestive." 
 Pall Mall Gazette. 
 
 "An able and refreshing contribution to one of the burning questions 
 of the age, and deserves to make its mark in the fierce battle now 
 raging between science and theology." Athenaeum. 
 
 Birks. Works by the Rev. T. R. BIRKS, Professor of Moral Philo- 
 sophy, Cambridge : 
 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF MORAL SCIENCE ; or, a First 
 
 Course of Lectures delivered in the University of Cambridge. 
 
 Crown 8vo. 8s. 6d. 
 
 This work treats of three topics all preliminary to the direct exposi- 
 tion of Moral Philosophy. These are the Certainty and Dignity 
 of Moral Science, its Spiritual Geography, or relation to other 
 main subjects of human thought, and its formative Principles, or 
 some elementary truths on which its whole development must 
 depend. 
 
 MODERN UTILITARIANISM; or, The Systems of Paley, 
 Bentham, and Mill, Examined and Compared. Crown 8vo. 6s. 6d. 
 
 MODERN PHYSICAL FATALISM, AND THE DOCTRINE 
 OF EVOLUTION ; including an Examination of Herbert Spen- 
 cer's First Principles. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 
 SUPERNATURAL REVELATION; or, First Principles of 
 Moral Theology. 8vo. 8j. 
 
28 SCIENTIFIC CATALOGUE. 
 
 Boole. AN INVESTIGATION OF THE LAWS OF 
 THOUGHT, ON WHICH ARE FOUNDED THE 
 MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF LOGIC AND PRO- 
 BABILITIES. By GEORGE BOOLE, LL.D., Professor of 
 Mathematics in the Queen's University, Ireland, &c. 8vo. 14^. 
 
 Butler. LECTURES ON THE HISTORY OF ANCIENT 
 PHILOSOPHY. By W. ARCHER BUTLER, late Professor of 
 Moral Philosophy in the University of Dublin. Edited from the 
 Author's MSS., with Notes, by WILLIAM HKPWORTH THOMP- 
 SON, M.A., Master of Trinity College, and Regius Professor of 
 Greek in the University of Cambridge. New and Cheaper Edition, 
 revised by the Editor. 8vo. 12s. 
 
 Caird. A CRITICAL ACCOUNT OF THE PHILOSOPHY 
 OF KANT. With an Historical Introduction. By E. CAIRD, 
 M.A., Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of Glasgow. 
 8vo. iSs. 
 
 Calderwood. Works by the Rev. HENRY CALDERWOOD, M.A., 
 LL.D., Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of Edin- 
 burgh : 
 
 PHILOSOPHY OF THE INFINITE : A Treatise on Man's 
 Knowledge of the Infinite Being, in answer to Sir W. Hamilton 
 and Dr. Mansel. Cheaper Edition. 8vo. 7-y. 6d. 
 "A book of great ability .... written in a clear stle, and may 
 
 be easily understood by even those who are not versed in such 
 
 discussions" British Quarterly Review. 
 
 A HANDBOOK OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. Sixth Edition. 
 Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 " It is, we 'feel convinced, the best handbook on the subject ', intellectually 
 
 and morally, and does infinite credit to its author.'' 1 Standard. 
 
 "A compact and useful work, going over a great deal of ground 
 
 in a manner adapted to suggest and facilitate further study. . . . 
 
 His book will be an assistance to many students outside his own 
 
 University of Edinburgh. Guardian. 
 
 THE RELATIONS OF MIND AND BRAIN. 8vo. 12s. 
 " It should be of real service as a clear exposition and a searching 
 
 criticism of cerebral pyschology." Westminster Review. 
 " Altogether his work is probably tJie best combination to be found 
 
 at present in England of exposition and criticism on the subject 
 
 of physiological psychology" The Academy. 
 
 Clifford. LECTURES AND ESSAYS. By the late Professor 
 W. K. CLIFFORD, F.R.S. Edited by LESLIE STEPHEN and 
 FREDERICK POLLOCK, with Introduction by F. POLLOCK. Two 
 Portraits. 2 v.^K 8vo. 25-r. 
 
MENTAL AND MORAL PHILOSOPII Y, ETC. 29 
 
 Clifford continued. 
 
 imes of October 22nd says : "Many a friend of the author 
 on first taking up these volumes and remembering his versatile 
 genius and his keen enjoyment of all realms of intellectual activity 
 must have trembled, lest they should be found to consist of fragmen- 
 tary pieces of work, too disconnected to do justice to his powers of 
 consecutive reading, and too varied to have any effect as a whole. 
 Fortunately these fears are groundless. . . . // is not only in 
 subject that the various papers are closely related. There is also a. 
 singular consistency of view and of method throughout* . . . It 
 is in the social and metaphysical subjects that the richness of his 
 intellect shouts itself, most forcibly in the rarity and originality of 
 the ideas which he presents to us. To appreciate this variety it is 
 necessary to read the book itself, for it treats in some form or other 
 of all the subjects of deepest interest in this age of questioning." 
 
 Fiske. OUTLINES OF COSMIC PHILOSOPHY, BASED 
 ON THE DOCTRINE OF EVOLUTION, WITH CRITI- 
 CISMS ON THE POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY. By JOHN 
 FISKE, M.A., LL.B., formerly Lecturer on Philosophy at 
 Harvard University. 2 vols. 8vo. 25^. 
 
 " The work constitutes a very effective encyclopedia of the evolution- 
 ary philosophy, and is well worth the study of a/I who wish to see 
 at once the entire scope and piirport of the scientific dogmatism of 
 the dav" Saturday Review. 
 
 Harper. THE METAPHYSICS OF THE SCHOOL. By the 
 
 Rev. THOMAS HARPER (S.J.). In 5 vols. 8vo. 
 
 [ Vol I. in November. 
 
 Herbert. THE REALISTIC ASSUMPTIONS OF MODERN 
 SCIENCE EXAMINED. By T. M. HERBERT, M.A., late 
 Professor of Philosophy, &c., in the Lancashire Independent 
 College, Manchester. 8vo. 14^. 
 
 ' ' Mr. Herbert's ^uork appears to us one of rfal ability and import- 
 ance. The author has shown himself well trained in philosophical 
 literature, and possessed of high critical and speciilative powers." 
 Mind. 
 
 Jardine. THE ELEMENTS OF THE PSYCHOLOGY OF 
 COGNITION. By ROBERT JARDINE, B.D., D.Sc., Principal of 
 the General Assembly's College. Calcutta, and Fellow of the Uni- 
 versity of Calcutta. Crown 8vo. 6s. 6d. 
 
 Jevons. Works by W. STANLEY JEVONS, LL.D., M.A., F.R.S., 
 Professor of Political Economy, University College, London. 
 
30 SCIENTIFIC CATALOGUE. 
 
 J e V O n S continued. 
 
 THE PRINCIPLES OF SCIENCE. A Treatise on Logic and 
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